,transcriber's ,notes ,italic text displayed as3 italic ,bold text displayed as3 bold ,,your ,,vote ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,it ,illustration3 decoration ,,your ,,vote and ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,it ,,by ,,mrs4 ,,raymond ,,brown ,chairman of ,organization of the ,new ,york ,state ,woman ,suffrage ,party ,with a ,foreword by ,,mrs4 ,,carrie ,,chapman ,,catt ,president of the ,national ,american ,woman ,suffrage ,association ,illustration3 decoration ,,harper ,,brothers ,,publishers ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,london ,,your ,,vote ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,it ,copyright1 #aiah1 by ,harper ,brothers ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america ,published ,february1 #aiah ,to the ,many ,good ,citizens who have helped and advised in the preparation of this book it is gratefully dedicated ,,this ,,book ,,is ,,officially ,,endorsed ,,by ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,state ,,woman ,,suffrage ,,party ,,contents ,,page ,,foreword xv ,,preface xvii ,,chapter ,i4 ,,politics ,,and ,,woman',s ,,interests #a ,the ,duties of ,government--,the ,relation of ,government to the ,home--,duties and ,obligations of ,citizenship4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,town ,,and ,,county ,,government #h ,the ,town ,meeting--,officials1 ,duties1 the ,kind of ,men ,needed--,when and ,how ,elected--,political ,honesty--,the ,relation of ,country to ,city1 ,state1 and ,nation4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,incorporated ,,village ,,and ,,city ,,government #bd ,classes1 ,charters--,officials1 ,duties--,when ,elected--,wards and ,election ,districts--,franchise ,rights--,commission ,form of ,government--,city ,manager4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,greater ,,new ,,york #cg ,mayor1 ,comptroller1 ,president of the ,board of ,aldermen1 ,presidents of the ,boroughs--,the ,board of ,aldermen--,the ,board of ,estimate and ,apportionment--,corporation ,counsel--,city ,chamberlain--,taxes and ,assessments--,board of ,education--,board of ,elections--,local ,improvement ,boards--,county ,government--,courts--,charities--,civil ,service--,the ,budget4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,state ,,government #ej ,the ,constitution1 ,constitutional ,amendments--,the ,legislature1 ,senate and ,assembly--,how to ,get a ,law ,passed--,the ,governor and ,other ,officials--,appointive ,offices--,public ,service1 ,health1 ,excise1 ,conservation1 ,civil ,service1 and ,other ,commissions--,state ,employees4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,national ,,government #fb ,the ,national ,constitution--,congress1 ,its ,powers--,how ,constituted--,sessions of ,congress--,congressional ,committees--,the ,president1 ,how ,elected1 ,his ,powers--,the ,cabinet--,centralized ,government4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,who ,,can ,,vote #gb ,citizens--,aliens--,how an ,alien ,may ,become a ,citizen--,naturalization ,laws--,a ,married ,woman1 an ,unmarried ,woman--,qualifications for ,voting--,who ,may ,not ,vote--,the #adth and #aeth ,amendments--,the ,woman ,suffrage ,amendment4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,political ,,parties #hj ,republican1 ,democratic1 ,progressive1 ,prohibition1 and ,socialist ,platforms--,party ,organization1 ,national1 ,state1 ,county1 and ,city ,committees1 ,election ,district ,captains--,party ,funds--,the ,use and ,abuse of ,party--,the ,independent ,vote4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,how ,,candidates ,,are ,,nominated #ia ,president and ,vice-,president--,enrolment of ,voters--,direct ,primaries--,objections to ,direct ,primaries--,nomination by ,party ,convention--,objections to the ,party ,convention--,importance of the ,primary--,nomination by ,petition4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,elections #ih ,registration of ,voters--,time of ,elections--,election ,officials--,how to ,mark the ,ballot--,how ,ballots ,are ,counted--,the ,australian ,ballot--,the ,short ,ballot--,corrupt ,practices ,act--,voting-machines--,school-houses for ,polling-places--,cost of ,elections4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,taxation #ajh ,direct and ,indirect--,village and ,school ,taxes--,town1 ,county1 ,city1 and ,state ,taxes--,tax ,districts--,how ,taxes ,are ,assessed--,county ,board of ,equalization--,the ,collection of ,taxes--,state ,taxes3 ,corporation ,tax1 ,inheritance ,tax1 ,other ,state ,taxes--,state ,board of ,equalization--,federal ,taxes3 ,custom ,duties1 ,internal ,revenue and ,excise ,taxes1 the ,income ,tax--,public ,debt1 ,bonds--,sinking ,funds--,the ,budget--,the ,pork-barrel4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,public ,,highways #aba ,state ,roads1 ,their ,cost and ,maintenance--,town and ,county ,highways--,bond ,issues--,city ,streets--,street ,cleaning--,parks--,city ,planning--,the ,value of ,beauty4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,courts #acj ,criminal and ,civil ,cases--,justices' ,courts--,police and ,magistrates' ,courts--,county ,courts--,surrogates' ,courts--,court of ,claims--,supreme ,courts1 ,appellate ,divisions--,court of ,appeals--,courts of ,record--,federal ,courts3 ,united ,states ,district ,courts1 ,united ,states ,court of ,claims1 ,united ,states ,circuit ,court of ,appeals1 ,united ,states ,supreme ,court--,constitutionality of ,laws--,injunctions4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,punishment ,,of ,,crime #ada ,the ,grand ,jury--,trial by ,jury--,jury ,service--,women ,jurors--,the ,police--,prison ,reform3--,the ,indeterminate ,sentence1 ,probation--,jails and ,prisons--,city ,farms--,the ,prevention of ,crime4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,women ,,offenders ,,and ,,the ,,law #aej ,drunkenness--,prostitution--,night ,courts--,fines--,delinquent ,girls--,girl ,victims--,houses of ,detention--,women ,judges--,policewomen4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,public ,,education #afa ,the ,school ,district--,the ,township ,board of ,education--,the ,annual ,school ,meeting--,the ,school ,budget--,the ,supervisory ,district--,the ,district ,superintendent--,the ,union ,free ,school ,district--,physical ,training--,school ,money--,normal ,schools--,university of the ,state of ,new ,york--,board of ,regents--,national ,commissioner of ,education--,agricultural ,colleges--,farmers' ,institutes--,vocational ,training--,state ,scholarships--,domestic ,training--,schools as ,community ,centers--,health--,co-operation4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,health ,,and ,,recreation #agd ,housing--,tenement ,house ,inspection--,dance-halls--,playgrounds- -,vacation ,schools--,recreation ,centers--,municipal ,dance-halls--,municipal ,bathing ,beaches--,the ,movies--,causes of ,juvenile ,crime--,rural ,needs4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,care ,,of ,,dependent ,,and ,,delinquent ,,children #ahe ,by ,county1 ,city1 and ,state--,institutional versus ,family ,care--,lack of ,definite ,authority--,boarding ,out--,boards of ,child ,welfare--,widowed ,mothers' ,pensions--,the ,delinquent ,child--,children's ,courts--,feeble-minded ,children4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,child ,,wage-,,earners #aig ,the ,federal ,child ,labor ,law--,new ,york ,state ,child ,labor ,laws--,child ,workers and ,delinquency--,street ,trades--,night-messenger ,service--,rural ,child ,workers--,war and ,children4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,public ,,charities #bji ,state and ,private ,control of ,charitable ,institutions--,state ,board of ,charities1 ,duties1 ,powers--,proposed ,changes in the ,reorganization of the ,board--,county and ,city ,institutions--,department of ,state and ,alien ,poor--,local ,boards of ,managers--,state ,department of ,inspection--,provision for the ,feeble-minded--,recommendations of the ,state ,board--,state ,commission in ,lunacy--,state ,prison ,commission4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,protection ,,of ,,working-,,women #bba ,conditions ,before the ,war--,number of ,women ,wage-earners--,clothing ,manufacturers1 ,laundries1 ,restaurant ,workers1 ,textile ,operators--,war and ,woman's ,work--,the ,eight-hour ,day1 ,new ,occupations1 ,messenger ,service1 ,wages--,minimum ,wage--,protection ,needed4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,americanization #bcb ,the ,need of a ,united ,country--,the ,immigrant a ,national ,asset--,housing ,conditions--,a ,common ,language--,night ,schools--,neighborhood ,classes for ,women--,home ,teaching of ,women--,naturalization--,uniform ,laws for ,naturalization--,ignorance of ,laws--,the ,study of ,citizenship4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,patriotism ,,and ,,citizenship #bdc ,,appendix #bec ,some ,definitions3 ,habeas ,corpus--,the ,initiative and ,referendum--,the ,recall--,injunction and ,abatement ,act--,the ,tin ,plate ,ordinance--,prohibition1 ,high ,license1 ,local ,option1 the ,guttenburg ,method of ,controlling the ,liquor ,traffic--,the ,single ,tax--,the ,house of ,governors--,proportional ,representation--,workmen's ,compensation ,laws4 ,,chart ,,of ,,officials ,,for ,,whom ,,you ,,can ,,vote #bfa ,when ,elections ,are ,held4 ,,foreword ,it is one thing for women to win the vote and a totally different one for them to know how to use that vote so that it will count to the greatest good of the state4 ,the keynote of woman's long struggle for the ballot has been her ardent desire for service4 ,now that she has been given the vote1 she is eager to learn how she can best render that service4 ,citizenship has been very lightly regarded by our country in the past4 ,it has been given to the immigrant without any ceremony1 in the midst of the sordid surroundings of a local court-room2 it has come to the boy of twenty-one without any special preparation on his part2 it has often been bought and sold4 ,it remains now for women to treat it with a new dignity and to give it the importance it deserves4 ,civics should be taught in every school in the land4 ,the ballot should be regarded as a sacred trust4 ,every man and woman who grows up under the protection of our flag should feel the obligation to give of his and her best to make our democracy a better expression of our ideals4 ,i hope that this book will help to start some new citizens in the right way4 ,,carrie ,,chapman ,,catt4 ,,preface ,there never seems to be just the right book on a topic that one has very much at heart4 ,when the vote for ,new ,york women was an accomplished fact there came a sudden and pressing need for a book on government that would give the busy housewife or the overworked woman in the factory the simple outline of her government and the officials for whom she was going to vote1 with the duties and requirements of their positions2 but that was not all4 ,there are certain problems of government to-day and certain departments of politics which have to do with things which are of special interest to women4 ,the protection and care of human life has always been woman's great business in life4 ,so a book on civics for women must include an outline of what the state is doing for its children1 for its poor1 for working-women1 for public health and recreation2 in short1 for the same things in government with which she is concerned in her individual capacity as a woman4 ,these are also the departments of government which seem to need her attention the most4 ,it is natural that men should have given the greater care in government to business and material affairs4 ,to counterbalance this1 woman's work and votes are needed for the human side4 ,to be an intelligent voter some knowledge of the structure of government is needed4 ,also one must know the duties of an office in order to judge of the qualifications of would-be candidates1 so ,chapters ,,ii to ,,vii give an outline of the different divisions of government1 beginning with the local offices1 for which women will cast their first votes1 and going through the ,state to the ,national ,government4 ,chapters ,,vii to ,x1 inclusive1 deal with the actual casting of the ballot in the elections1 the organization of political parties1 and the management of elections4 ,the major part of the book is then given to those departments of political affairs in which women are undoubtedly most deeply concerned4 ,the substance of some of these chapters has been used as a correspondence course in citizenship by the ,new ,york ,state ,woman ,suffrage ,party1 and is published by special arrangement with them4 ,through four years of continuous intensive educational work in the ,state the ,woman ,suffrage ,party has come closely in touch with many thousands of women2 it has learned to know their idealism1 their fervent belief in democracy1 and their desire to make democracy more effective4 ,it knows also that there are many other women who have never thought about voting1 but who are equally conscientious and are now eager to learn4 ,it knows the problems of women as does probably no other organization of women4 ,it also has a deep feeling of responsibility4 ,it feels its obligation to furnish all the help possible to the new women voters to meet their new duties wisely4 ,it hopes to bring home to women the human side of government1 to arouse a desire for further study1 and especially to encourage them to regard their vote as a trust to be used not to advance partisan politics1 but to further human welfare4 ,this is a book for amateur citizens written by an amateur citizen4 ,it may be found to differ from the others in that it deals with the subject of civics from the standpoint of the woman voter4 ,,gertrude ,,foster ,,brown4 ,,your ,,vote ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,it ,,your ,,vote ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,it ,i ,,politics ,,and ,,woman',s ,,interests ,the average woman has never thought of politics as having an intimate relation to her daily life4 ,she has not realized that government has a direct effect on the comfort and happiness of the family in the home1 on the successful upbringing of children1 and on the health and safety of men and women workers4 ,she has known vaguely that government controls the fundamental question of war or peace2 that it has to do with taxation2 that it handles the mail1 but that it also plays a large part in domestic and social life is a fact that she has only recently been learning4 ,with the rapid extension of the vote to women1 especially the recent granting of suffrage to the women of ,new ,york ,state1 there is a new and wide-spread interest in how government works1 and a realization of the importance of good government and the dire peril of bad government4 ,women are conscientious2 they are accepting their new responsibilities with much seriousness4 ,they are eager to learn how to be good citizens4 ,the war also has made everybody think4 ,it has made government seem a more personal affair4 ,,what ,,is ,,government8 ,government is the management of those common affairs of a people which can be handled in a more effective and more economical way by a community acting together than by each individual acting for himself4 ,in a sparsely settled community government is less apparent than in a city4 ,its functions are simple4 ,sometimes it does not seem very important4 ,but as people congregate closer together it becomes more complicated and comes in closer and closer touch with the individual and family life4 ,for example1 a man living in the country may rely on himself to protect his home and property2 but in the city life and property are better protected by a police force than if each individual citizen had to provide his own protection4 ,a woman in a pioneer country may bring up her child as she pleases4 ,she may teach him when and how she chooses4 ,but as population increases and government is established1 a large part of the child's training is dictated by it4 ,he must go to school at a certain age2 he must stay there so many hours a day2 he must study certain things in a certain way4 ,he cannot be put to work until he has reached a certain age4 ,if he contracts a contagious disease the city takes control of the case4 ,directly and indirectly the government in a city affects a woman's life and interests in innumerable ways4 ,she is dependent on it for the light and sunshine that comes into her home4 ,laws concerning housing and building and tenement departments of government are very important to the health1 comfort1 and even decency of the family4 ,she is dependent on government for the safety of the milk she has to feed her baby4 ,the health of the family depends as much on the city department of health as on the mother's care4 ,it is of the utmost importance to the city mother that the streets be kept clean1 because they are usually the only place that her children have in which to play4 ,the street cleaning department1 therefore1 touches her closely4 ,it is of vital moment to her that the streets be kept free of criminal influence1 therefore the management of the police department is of great importance to her4 ,if the town is run 8wide open0 it may mean that her husband's wages may be dissipated4 ,the way in which the excise law and the laws against gambling are enforced is a matter which deeply concerns her4 ,if she lives in the country the relation of government to her life is not so varied1 but she is still dependent on it for the education of her child1 for the socializing influences of the community1 and for much of the business prosperity of the farm4 ,are telephone connections cheap1 are the roads passable at all seasons1 are good market facilities provided8 ,these are all questions that greatly affect her welfare1 and they depend largely on the government4 ,it is the business of government to maintain peace and to provide for the common defense4 ,this is a function of government so fundamental as to need little comment4 ,it is the first essential to the safe existence of the home4 ,it is the business of government to assure justice and equality of treatment to all citizens4 ,this becomes more difficult as population increases and life grows more complicated4 ,nearly every human being to-day is dependent on the work of other people for most of the necessities1 as well as the comforts and conveniences1 of life4 ,the food that we eat1 the cotton and wool in the garments we wear1 the coal that heats our houses1 we owe to the toil of other people who in return may be dependent on us for something that they use4 ,it is a matter that concerns every one of us that in producing these things that we use human life shall be safeguarded1 that living wages shall be paid1 and that standards of civilization shall be maintained and advanced4 ,as individuals we cannot control conditions even for ourselves1 as individuals we cannot control them for other people2 but all of us working together in government can secure these fundamental necessities for every one of us4 ,since government in a democracy is made by the people themselves1 it is a responsibility that every one should share to help secure these common needs4 ,it is also a function of modern government to raise the standard of health1 education1 and living4 ,plato said1 8,only that state is healthy and can thrive which unceasingly endeavors to improve the individuals who constitute it40 ,society must be protected from vicious and destructive influence2 the intelligence and knowledge of all the people are needed for the common good4 ,as human beings have become dependent on one another1 the well-being or the degradation of one individual or family does not stop there4 ,it strongly influences the welfare of other individuals and families4 ,for their own protection people have not only the right1 but the obligation to make a government that shall foster and advance the common welfare4 ,the basis of good government is the golden rule4 ,to help secure for others the protection that you demand for yourself is part of the obligation of good citizenship4 ,the honesty and efficiency of government in a republic like the ,united ,states depend on the voters2 on their sense of responsibility1 and on the intelligence with which they use their power4 ,the feeling of responsibility of each individual1 for the public welfare1 cannot be too highly developed4 ,democracy can only be a success in the degree that the people who make that democracy are determined that it shall deal with justice1 and that it shall offer opportunity to every one within its borders4 ,they must also be vigilant to see that it shall deal wisely with their common problems as they develop4 ,to be a citizen of such a democracy and to have the power to help it grow along these lines1 to be able to serve one's country loyally in the full efficiency of citizenship1 are great privileges4 ,,ii ,,town ,,and ,,county ,,government ,the ,united ,states is both a ,democracy and a ,republic4 ,a ,democracy means1 literally1 a government by the people4 ,a ,republic is a democracy in which the people elect representatives to carry on the government for them4 ,the ,united ,states is a federation of forty-eight ,states4 ,for convenience of government each ,state is subdivided into smaller units4 ,in every political division of the ,state there are three distinct departments3 ,the ,legislative1 the part that makes the law4 ,the ,administrative1 the part that administers the law4 ,the ,judicial1 the part that interprets the law4 ,even in a sparsely settled community people have certain interests in common4 ,roads have to be made1 schools established1 the poor cared for1 and taxes levied4 ,who does these things8 ,if a cow breaks into a neighbor's cornfield1 or if there is an epidemic1 whose business is it to look after it8 ,,the ,,town ,,government ,with the exception of the school district1 which has to do only with the public schools1 the town#a or township is the smallest division of the ,state for purposes of government4 ,the government of the town is the nearest approach we have to a direct government by the people themselves4 ,the ,town ,meeting brings people together to discuss their local affairs1 to elect officers1 and to appropriate the money necessary to carry out their plans4 ,it is held in ,new ,york ,state every other year1 some time between ,february #ast and ,may #ast4 ,the business of the town meeting includes the disposal of town property1 the care of bridges and roads1 the care of the poor1 the number of constables1 matters concerning public health1 and the care of stray animals4 ,any citizen has a right to bring up any suggestion he pleases for the people to consider and debate in open meeting1 and then to take whatever action they choose4 ,in a matter of taxation or incurring a town debt1 only taxpaying citizens can vote4 ,where it exists at its best1 the town meeting has an admirable effect in stimulating interest in local affairs and in developing public spirit4 ,a special town meeting can be called by a petition of twenty-five taxpayers1 or at the request of certain officials4 ,the town meeting is a form of government particularly adapted to a small community4 ,with the increase in population it has been given up in many counties1 and the election of town officers now usually takes place at the regular fall election4 ,town ,officers3 ,the ,supervisor is the chief executive officer of the town1 and is elected for two years4 ,he receives and pays out all money except that raised for public roads and the care of the town poor4 ,if the town roads are in bad condition or if the poor are not properly cared for1 he is responsible4 ,the honesty and efficiency of the administration of town affairs are in his hands4 ,he represents the town on the county board of supervisors4 ,the ,town ,board consists of the supervisor1 town clerk1 and at least two justices of the peace4 ,it meets regularly twice a year4 ,it is the business of the board to receive the accounts of the town officers and examine them1 to hear and decide claims against the town4 ,an appeal may be taken from their decision to the county board of supervisors4 ,they may also frame propositions to be submitted to the voters1 and may borrow money to meet appropriations made at the town meeting4 ,they may appoint a physician to aid as health officer for the town4 ,the ,town ,clerk is the general secretary and bookkeeper for the town4 ,he records births1 marriages1 and deaths1 chattel mortgages and property notes4 ,he keeps the records of the town meetings4 ,he posts election notices4 ,he issues marriage licenses1 permissions for burial1 hunting licenses1 etc4 ,the ,superintendent of ,roads has charge of building and maintaining the town highways1 bridges1 and culverts outside of the incorporated villages4 ,he is paid by the day1 and may hire machines and horses or purchase tools and material for road making4 ,the opportunities for dishonest money in this office have sometimes made it sought after4 ,a contract may contain a 8rake-off10 bills may be padded1 and materials accepted which are different from specifications4 ,three ,assessors and a ,collector3 ,the assessors determine the value of taxable property in the town1 and divide the amount of taxes to be raised among the owners of the property4 ,if a property-owner is dissatisfied with his assessment he may appear in ,august before the assessors and 8swear off0 what he considers an exorbitant amount4 ,assessment rolls are made out1 and it is the duty of the collector to collect the money4 ,town collectors are paid #a per cent4 on taxes collected within thirty days after due1 with increasing fees for collecting taxes after that time4 ,this is an encouragement to the collector to be dilatory in his collections1 and is a disadvantage to the town4 ,it has been suggested that penalties for delinquent taxes should go to the town and not to the collector4 ,the ,town ,constables have the duty of keeping the peace and carrying out the orders of the justice of the peace4 ,they may arrest people accused or suspected of crime4 ,there may not be more than five in a town4 ,the ,overseers of the ,poor are charged with the duty of looking after persons who are destitute and have no relative to support them4 ,they may assist such persons in their own homes or send them to the county poorhouse4 ,this office often conflicts with that of county superintendent of the poor1 and it has been recommended that it be abolished4 ,the ,justice of the ,peace is the judicial officer of the town4 ,each town has four such officers1 each elected for four years4 ,the justice of the peace may hear civil cases where the sum involved is not over two hundred dollars4 ,he may try petty offenses of all kinds1 breaches of the peace1 drunkenness1 and petty larceny4 ,he may issue warrants and may hold persons suspected of serious crime to await action by the grand jury4 ,terms of ,town ,officials3 ,each official is elected for two years1 except the justices of the peace and sometimes one or two assessors1 who are elected for four years4 ,pay of ,town ,officials3 ,most of these officers are paid from two to four dollars for every day of actual service4 ,the town clerk1 justices of the peace1 and constables are paid certain fees4 ,,the ,,county ,the county comprises a number of townships4 ,it is a political division created by the ,state to administer certain local affairs1 to act as agent for the ,state1 to collect ,state taxes1 and to enforce ,state law4 ,the county owns the court-house and jail2 it can sue or be sued4 ,in most of ,new ,york ,state the county has become more important in administering local affairs than the town4 ,new ,york ,state has sixty-two counties1 of which five are in ,greater ,new ,york4 ,they vary in size from ,richmond ,county 7,staten ,island71 which has only #ei square miles1 to ,st4 ,lawrence ,county1 which has #b1hhj square miles4 ,they vary also in population from ,hamilton ,county1 with #b1jjj people1 to ,new ,york ,county with two million4 ,elected ,officials3 ,the ,board of ,supervisors is the legislative body of the county4 ,this board is composed of the supervisors elected by each township1 and also one member from each ward of a city in the county4 ,they elect their own chairman4 ,the board of supervisors have the custody and control of the court-house1 jail1 poorhouse1 and all county property2 they receive and decide claims against the county2 they direct the raising of money by taxation to meet the expenses of the county and the county's share in ,state taxes2 they fix salaries for county officials2 borrow money for county needs2 they regulate laws for the protection of fish and game2 they open county highways1 erect bridges1 and may provide hospitals for tuberculosis4 ,they also act as a board of canvassers to canvass the returns after an election4 ,the ,sheriff1 the executive officer of the county1 is elected to enforce the law4 ,on him rests the security of life and property4 ,he must preserve the peace1 arrest offenders against the law1 and hold them in custody4 ,he must not allow fear or sympathy to interfere with his enforcement of the law4 ,he summons jurors and witnesses for county lawsuits and executes the orders of the court4 ,until recently the fees which he received made the sheriff's office one much sought after4 ,these now go to the treasurer in many counties1 and the sheriff is paid a salary4 ,he cannot serve two consecutive terms4 ,he may appoint an under-sheriff and deputy sheriffs4 ,the ,district ,attorney is the public prosecutor for the county1 and brings suit 8in the name of the people of the ,state40 ,he is also the legal adviser for county affairs4 ,it is his business to protect the public against crime of all kinds4 ,if corruption exists in any department1 it is his duty to bring it to light4 ,the good order of the community and the efficiency of government in the county depend much on him4 ,he determines what cases shall come before the grand jury4 ,the ,county ,clerk keeps all the important records for the county1 including deeds1 mortgages1 and maps1 and makes out the election certificates4 ,public documents must always be open for public inspection4 ,in some counties there is a recorder of deeds4 ,the clerk also acts as clerk of the county court4 ,his office has an income from fees which used to go to the clerk and made this office very lucrative4 ,in most counties the fees now go to the county treasurer1 and the clerk is paid a salary4 ,the ,county ,treasurer receives and disburses all public moneys for the county4 ,he receives money from the town supervisor1 collected for county and ,state taxes1 the latter of which he pays to the ,state treasurer4 ,he receives from the ,state money for the public schools1 which he in turn passes on to the towns4 ,he must give a bond for the safe-keeping of these public funds4 ,he also chooses the bank in which public funds are kept1 and ought to give a careful accounting of the interest which must go into the county treasury4 ,the ,superintendent of the ,poor disburses the money raised to care for the poor of the county4 ,the superintendents of all the public charities in the county make their reports to him1 and he is responsible for them to the board of supervisors4 ,he also makes an annual report to the ,state ,board of ,charities4 ,coroners3 ,from one to four coroners may be elected in each county1 except those in ,greater ,new ,york4 ,their duty is to investigate sudden and suspicious deaths1 and sometimes the cause of a suspicious fire4 ,they are often practising physicians or they may employ physicians to conduct inquests or autopsies4 ,the ,county ,superintendent of ,highways is appointed by the board of supervisors for four years4 ,the ,county ,judge presides over the county court4 ,his salary varies and is fixed by ,state law1 although paid by the county4 ,this office should be most carefully filled4 ,the county judge is not only important because of his decisions1 but he is one of the most powerful men politically in the county4 ,only a man of strict probity should be elected to this office4 ,the ,surrogate administers estates of persons deceased1 controls the probate of wills1 and appoints guardians for the property of minors4 ,his term is six years4 ,in counties with small populations the county judge acts as surrogate4 ,the term of office for county officials is three years1 except that of the supervisors elected by the towns for two years1 and the judges elected for six years4 ,political ,honesty3 ,the question is often asked1 are these local offices honestly managed8 ,are there possible loopholes for corruption8 ,the following answer to these questions was given recently by one in a position to know3 8,the impelling motive of most politicians is the enjoyment of a sense of power and influence4 ,the day laborer who loafs through his political job and the salaried higher officer who neglects his work and engages in private business are examples of the most usual and formidable class of political grafters4 ,the heads of departments and higher elected officers are apt to do their work as well as they can1 in order to qualify themselves for re-election4 ,the days when a man could dishonestly make a fortune in one political term are past in this country1 and waste1 favoritism1 and stupidity are the only dangerous elements which we must look for4 8,the greatest waste in expenditure of moneys by boards of supervisors is usually on county roads and highways1 where in some years hundreds of thousands of dollars are lost by unscientific building and upkeep4 ,this also is an easy way for a dishonest supervisor to reward political supporters by paying them for work on the road which they do not do4 ,the same things obtain in the matter of purchase of supplies and the county printing4 ,the cure for this is to have all expenditures beyond a nominal amount made on public bids4 8,another opportunity of abuse is the payment of supervisors in fees4 ,many counties still adhere to the old rule of fees3 #d per day for attending board meetings2 #h cents per mile for going and returning2 #d per day while actually engaged in any investigation or any other lawful duty4 ,for copying the assessment roll and extending taxes on the tax roll supervisors receive commissions which1 in some counties1 run into thousands of dollars4 ,the remedy for the numberless evils which accompany the fee system is to put the supervisors on a salary basis4 8,the sheriff has charge of the prisoners in the jail4 ,therein lies his opportunity for dishonesty and extortion4 ,sheriffs should receive salaries and not fees1 and every county should have a well-organized board of women visitors to inspect the jails and lockups at least every two weeks4 8,the district attorney has an opportunity for dishonesty in the expenditure of the contingent fund1 which is always provided for him1 and which he can pay out with little or no check4 ,fortunately1 however1 most men elected to the office of district attorney are of high enough caliber to make the percentage of dishonesty almost nil4 8,if the county clerk is paid by fees it is difficult to expect an absolute1 ethical fulfilment of his duty1 and probable that he will be working for himself rather than the county4 8,the duties of the county superintendent of the poor are in continual conflict with those of the overseers of the poor4 ,the opportunity to waste and misappropriate county funds without detection is not as great as it used to be1 because of the close supervision of the ,state ,board of ,charities2 but the county superintendent has wide discretion in giving alms and caring for the county poor1 and the office is1 therefore1 usually sought by a minor political leader1 who1 by virtue of his office1 can provide for his dependent supporters1 which he usually does in the sincere belief that he is properly dispensing charity4 ,in no case1 however1 is any great amount wasted1 and on the whole the work is fairly well done4 8,justices of the peace and constables and town clerks usually receive fees4 ,they should be put on a salary basis4 8,overseers of the poor have opportunities for fees and misappropriation of small amounts because they are allowed liberal discretion in selecting objects of the town's bounty4 ,the office should be wiped out1 the distinction between town and county poor abolished2 all the work should be done through the county superintendent of the poor1 who should be responsible to the ,state ,board of ,charities40 ,the ,relation of ,country to ,city1 ,state1 and ,nation3 ,while the problems of government in rural districts are simple and few1 the close relations of city and country have made the wise management of country affairs of great importance to those who live in cities4 ,on the other hand1 the handling of the more complex and difficult city problems are of equally grave importance to country dwellers4 ,comfortable1 prosperous life in a rural community is dependent not only on local conditions1 but also on ,state and ,national government4 ,good roads are equally important to city and country1 and they depend largely on the ,state4 ,the kind of education that the village or country school gives will determine the intelligence and earning capacity of many of the coming generations of city dwellers1 and this instruction is determined both by the ,state and by the local school boards4 ,low telephone rates and good interurban car lines will put the woman on the farm in close touch with her neighbors1 and so will stimulate her interest in outside affairs4 ,healthy community life and rural amusements will keep the young people content at home and help prevent the drift toward the city4 ,the farmer's produce is handled by city shops and markets1 and the manufactured articles of city factories go into the homes of every rural district4 ,not only are city and country dependent on each other1 but also one part of the country is dependent on some other part1 far distant1 for some of the necessities of life4 ,our cotton comes from the ,south1 wheat comes from the ,west1 sugar may come from ,colorado or ,cuba4 ,the whole country is linked together in trade relationship1 and freight rates and interstate commerce are controlled by the ,federal government4 ,the good citizen1 then1 has a vital interest not only in his supervisor and local affairs1 but in both ,state and ,national government4 ,when he realizes that the size of his income1 the comfort of his family life1 the welfare of his children1 and their getting on in life1 depend to an appreciable degree on government1 he and she will begin to take a livelier interest in politics4 ,the discussion of these affairs in the home will serve to stimulate the interest of the entire family in what is1 after all1 an important part of their business4 ,a small community has one problem all its own4 ,if there is some offense against the public welfare1 no one wants to complain4 ,it may be something merely disagreeable1 or it may be a serious menace to public health2 but every one is slow to make a fuss about it because he cannot hide his identity1 and he is afraid he might become unpopular4 ,this fear is usually groundless because it is likely that most of his neighbors agree with him in wanting to have the condition changed4 ,a country community needs fearless1 public-spirited citizens4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the word town as used in ,new ,york does not mean a village or city1 but a political division4 ,,iii ,,the ,,incorporated ,,village ,,and ,,city ,,government ,as population grows government needs increase4 ,when people establish their homes close together and form a populous community within a limited area1 it becomes necessary to have streets opened up1 sidewalks made1 the streets lighted1 protection from fire1 and other things that the township does not provide4 ,a territory of not over one square mile1 having a population of at least two hundred people1 may be incorporated as a village4 ,on a petition of the taxpayers they may vote on the proposition1 whether or not they shall become an incorporated village1 and have a government of their own distinct from that of the town4 ,even if they incorporate they still remain a part of the town1 and take the same part in town government as before4 ,there ,are ,four ,classes of ,villages3 ,first class1 those with a population of #e1jjj or over2 second class1 with a population between #c1jjj and #e1jjj2 third class1 with a population of between #a1jjj and #c1jjj2 fourth class1 with a population of less than #a1jjj4 ,in many ,western ,states a village of one or two thousand inhabitants usually becomes a city4 ,in ,new ,york ,state there are villages of more than #ae1jjj population4 ,the ,village ,president1 who serves one year1 is the chief executive1 and serves without pay4 ,he is the head of the village board of trustees1 and in small villages is the head of the police4 ,local order1 peace1 health1 and sanitation depend on him4 ,the ,board of ,trustees consists of from two to four men in villages of the third and fourth class2 from two to six men in villages of the second class1 and from two to eight men in villages of the first class1 elected for two years1 half of them elected each year4 ,they serve without pay4 ,they make ordinances for the government of the village and administer its affairs4 ,they decide where sidewalks shall be built1 whether streets shall be paved1 how garbage shall be handled2 they provide light and a water-supply2 they provide for the raising of money by taxes2 if a sewerage system is needed it must be done under the supervision of the ,state ,board of ,health4 ,propositions relating to the large expenditure of funds must be submitted to the taxpayers4 ,questions of police1 water-supply1 fire protection1 lights1 sewers1 are sometimes handled by the board of trustees1 or if the village is large enough there may be separate boards or commissioners established for some of these things4 ,a ,fire ,department1 with fire house1 hose and wagon1 exists in most villages1 voluntary in small places1 and a paid force in the larger villages4 ,the fire company is a popular department of public service1 because of the social pleasure involved and because firemen are exempt from jury duty4 ,a ,treasurer1 ,assessors1 a ,collector1 and a ,village ,clerk1 are usually elected and sometimes a ,street ,commissioner4 ,not infrequently the latter office is considered a sinecure1 and streets littered with waste paper and other refuse are common in the average village4 ,the commissioner should be held up to his duty by all the voters4 ,a ,board of ,health of from three to seven members must be appointed by the trustees to work in connection with the ,state ,board of ,health4 ,this board elects a health officer1 who must be a physician4 ,the business of the board is to watch over drains1 cesspools1 to prevent nuisances and contagion from disease4 ,health officers should be vigilant and morally courageous1 otherwise the community will pay in illness4 ,a ,police ,justice1 elected for four years1 handles cases involving violations of village ordinances4 ,the board of trustees may appoint a village attorney to represent them in case of lawsuits4 ,the ,annual ,village ,election usually takes place the third ,tuesday in ,march4 ,a special village election1 similar to a town meeting1 may be called for taxpaying citizens to vote on special questions1 such as the removal of garbage at public expense1 or the purchase of water or lighting plants4 ,a water-supply is usually furnished by a village of any size4 ,an abundant supply is necessary1 not only for homes1 but for fire protection and for any sewerage system4 ,new ,york villages and cities are very well lighted4 ,whether there should be public or private ownership of public utilities is a question which is much discussed4 ,while the water-supply is usually owned by the municipality1 the lighting system more often belongs to a private company4 ,sewage disposal is a matter which has to be taken up sooner or later by a village as it grows in population4 ,for too long our villages have polluted the convenient stream4 ,they have been slow to study the question1 and to dispose of sewage and garbage in a way that is both satisfactory and economical4 ,foreign cities often make a profit out of the disposal of their refuse1 whereas it usually costs us money4 ,these questions need more intelligent consideration than is usually given them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as a community grows larger it outgrows the simple form of village government and needs one more adapted to its complex and growing needs4 ,the growth of cities in the past hundred years is phenomenal4 ,in #ahbj1 #hc per cent4 of the people of the ,united ,states lived on farms2 in #aiaj only #cb per cent4 ,the problems that a city government has to meet are many and difficult1 especially in the cities of ,new ,york ,state1 where a large proportion of the people are foreign-born1 and where there is often a large floating population without civic pride or interest4 ,in smaller communities1 where every one is known1 the fear of public opinion acts as a restraining influence which is not felt in a city where the individual identity is often submerged4 ,a ,,city ,,government works under a charter granted by the ,state1 which limits its powers4 ,these charters used to be made out separately for each city1 and the legislature interfered with the management of the local affairs of a city in a way that caused a demand for 8,home rule0 for cities4 ,this has been partially granted1 and cities in ,new ,york ,state now have large power to provide public works and to control public education1 health1 safety1 recreation1 and charities1 although they are still occasionally interfered with by the ,state legislature4 ,the city is a direct agent of the ,state1 and does not work as the village does1 through the town and county4 ,three ,classes of ,cities3 ,first-class cities have a population of #age1jjj or over4 ,second-class cities have a population of #ej1jjj to #age1jjj2 third-class cities are all those with a population of less than #ej1jjj4 ,the object of this division is to enable the ,state to legislate for the needs of groups of cities instead of individual ones4 ,the mayor of a city may veto a measure passed by the legislature1 but if approved by the legislature and signed by the governor1 it may become law in spite of his veto4 ,the needs of government in a city are those of the village multiplied in size2 they include police protection1 care of the public health1 a pure water-supply1 inspection of food-supplies1 supervision of weights and measures1 adequate housing inspection1 economic and satisfactory garbage and sewage disposal1 fire protection1 gas and electric lighting1 good paving1 clean streets1 the care of dependents1 maintenance of hospitals and libraries1 good educational facilities1 transportation1 and many other activities4 ,the general plan of government for cities is the same in all the classes4 ,cities of the first class are ,new ,york ,city1 ,buffalo1 and ,rochester 7see ,greater ,new ,york74 ,cities of the ,second ,class3 ,the ,mayor1 who is elected for two years1 is the chief executive officer4 ,he has as important and responsible a position as any man at the head of a big corporation4 ,the management of the city is in his hands4 ,the health and welfare of its dwellers depend on him4 ,while the city council legislates for the city1 it is his business to see that laws and ordinances are enforced4 ,he may veto an ordinance passed by the city council1 although they may pass it over his veto by a two-thirds vote4 ,the mayor has the power of appointing the heads of most of the important departments of the city's business4 ,sometimes the city council has to confirm an appointment1 and an official can only be removed for good cause1 and he must be given a hearing and an opportunity to answer charges4 ,to elect to the position of mayor and to put the entire responsibility of all the complex problems of city government on a man of no training or fitness for the position1 is to invite extravagance1 incompetence1 and corruption4 ,for purposes of convenience in government a city is divided into subdivisions called wards1 and for elections1 into certain voting precincts called election districts4 ,the ,board of ,aldermen or ,the ,common ,council consists of one alderman chosen from each ward and a president of the board4 ,they are elected for two years1 and are to the city about the same that the board of trustees are to the village4 ,their powers are limited by the city charter4 ,in general1 they may pass ordinances relating to streets1 sewers1 parks1 public buildings1 amusements1 grant franchises1 regulate traffic1 levy taxes1 and borrow money under certain restrictions for the use of the city4 ,an alderman has power over many local interests in his district4 ,it is an important position which in the main has been disregarded2 it should be filled by a man chosen for fitness as a local representative and not as a reward for party service4 ,no man should be elected to this board whom you would not trust as the custodian of your own property or the guardian of your children1 because in a public sense that is what he is4 ,the ,board of ,estimate and ,apportionment is one of the most important departments of city government4 ,it has large control over the city's finances1 and determines its policies in all financial matters1 franchises1 privileges and permits1 and makes the city budget4 ,it consists of the mayor1 comptroller1 corporation counsel1 president of the common council1 and the city engineer4 ,the ,department of ,contract and ,supply lets contracts for material and work required by the city4 ,with the constant growth of city departments and city business1 in which supplies and materials of many kinds are needed1 this is also an important committee4 ,other elected officers are comptroller1 treasurer1 president of the common council1 and assessors4 ,the department of finance is managed by the comptroller and the treasurer4 ,the department of assessment and taxation1 which makes the assessment rolls1 consists of four assessors1 elected two at a time1 for four years each4 ,the department of law is presided over by a corporation counsel1 appointed by the mayor4 ,the mayor also appoints the city engineer and the heads of the following departments3 ,the department of public works1 which controls the water-supply1 streets1 sewers1 buildings1 and public markets2 the department of public safety1 which includes the bureaus of gas and electricity2 departments of police1 health1 charities and correction1 and the board of education4 ,cities of the third class are not uniform in their government1 but the general outline is the same as for cities of the second class4 ,city ,elections are held in the odd-numbered years4 ,state officials are elected in the even-numbered years4 ,the purpose of setting a different time for these elections is to keep city politics independent of ,state political machines4 ,party issues have little to do with the problems of a city4 ,it is evident that the government of a large city is a very important and complicated business4 ,there are several offices which demand as great executive ability as would be required of a man at the head of a large business corporation4 ,but city offices are usually given to men not for fitness1 but because of party affiliation4 ,public sentiment is beginning to ask why high standards of competence and efficiency should not be as much demanded in public as in private business4 ,the ,budget3 ,the heads of the various departments decide how much money will be required to run each department for the ensuing year4 ,the ,board of ,estimate and ,apportionment considers these requests and fixes the tax-rate necessary to raise the money needed 7see ,chapters ,,iv and ,,xi74 ,franchise ,rights3 ,a city has many sources of revenue of its own4 ,public utilities which furnish such necessities as transportation1 water1 gas1 and electric light1 earn enormous profits4 ,in some places some of these things are owned by the city and the revenues go to the city4 ,in others1 the right to build and operate such a public business is given to a private corporation through a franchise4 ,it is evident that these franchise rights are extremely valuable and should not be given away without adequate compensation to the city1 as well as the insuring of good service4 ,the rates that are charged1 and the service rendered1 are matters of vast importance to the people of a city4 ,municipal ownership of such utilities has never been as extensive in this country as abroad1 but the sentiment in favor of it is growing4 ,franchise rights used to be given for long terms1 even in perpetuity1 but public sentiment now demands that they be subject to revision at reasonable intervals4 ,most cities to-day own their own water-supply1 and some of them have their own lighting plants4 ,commission ,form of ,government3 ,so many officials are needed to manage the complex affairs of a city that even if well qualified men are put up for office1 with so many candidates to be elected1 it is impossible for the voters to know the merit of them all4 ,city government has been the weakest spot in our political life4 ,in an effort to meet its defects1 a number of cities have adopted the policy of doing away entirely with the form of government as outlined1 and electing on a non-partisan ticket several commissioners 7sometimes headed by a mayor71 each one of whom is put in charge of a division of the city's administration1 and made responsible for the work of this department4 ,the fact is being recognized that skill and expert training are needed in public officials2 that the power should be given to a few men1 and that they should be held responsible for the success of their work4 ,buffalo now has a commission form of government4 ,the ,city ,manager ,plan gives the management of a city to one man1 who is engaged by the city1 and held responsible for the conduct of city affairs1 in the same way that a large business enterprise would engage a manager4 ,a city manager should be a man who has made a study and profession of city government4 ,,iv ,,greater ,,new ,,york ,the city of ,new ,york includes five counties3 ,new ,york1 ,kings1 ,queens1 ,bronx1 and ,richmond4 ,in one hundred years1 the population of ,new ,york ,city grew from #ej1jjj to #d1jjj1jjj people4 ,it now has a population of nearly #f1jjj1jjj1 which is about one-half the population of the ,state1 and it is the second city in size in the world4 ,the government of the city is strictly prescribed by its charter2 for any improvement that it desires outside of the provisions of that charter1 the city must go for permission to the ,state ,legislature4 ,for convenience in government the city is divided into five boroughs3 ,manhattan1 ,bronx1 ,brooklyn1 ,queens1 and ,richmond 7,staten ,island74 ,the ,mayor is the chief executive of the city4 ,he is elected for four years and has a salary of #ae1jjj4 ,he has powers of appointment and removal over a vast number of important positions1 including the heads of the big city departments4 ,like the ,governor of the ,state and the ,president of the ,united ,states1 he initiates legislation by sending once a year a message to the ,board of ,aldermen containing a general statement of the government and financial condition of the city1 and recommending such measures as he deems advisable4 ,he may ask for special legislation at any time4 ,all ordinances and by-laws passed by the ,board of ,aldermen go to the ,mayor for approval4 ,if he vetoes a measure1 the ,board of ,aldermen may pass it over his veto by a two-thirds or three-fourths vote1 with the exception of the granting of franchise rights1 where his veto is absolute4 ,the ,comptroller is at the head of the financial affairs of the city4 ,his term of office is four years1 and salary #ae1jjj4 ,he may appoint three deputies at #g1ejj each1 an assistant deputy at #c1jjj1 besides other heads of the various divisions of the finance department2 but the minor positions are under the ,civil ,service4 ,the ,president of the ,board of ,aldermen is elected for the same term as the ,mayor1 and receives a salary of #g1ejj4 ,he takes the ,mayor's place in case of absence or death4 ,the ,presidents of ,manhattan1 ,bronx1 and ,brooklyn ,boroughs receive #g1ejj a year2 of ,queens and ,richmond ,boroughs1 #e1jjj4 ,they are elected for four years1 and each president has general oversight over streets1 bridges1 sewers1 and buildings in his borough4 ,he may appoint a commissioner of public works1 and a superintendent of buildings for his borough1 and local school boards4 ,in ,queens and ,richmond the borough presidents have charge of street-cleaning4 ,the ,board of ,aldermen is the legislative body of the city4 ,it consists of seventy-three men elected from ,aldermanic districts4 ,they serve for a term of two years1 and receive a salary of #b1jjj each4 ,this board makes the ordinances for the government of the city4 ,it makes and enforces police1 fire1 building1 health1 and park regulations2 it makes by-laws for the regulation of public markets1 streets1 public buildings1 docks2 for inspection of weights and measures2 regulating places of amusement1 height of buildings2 licensing cabs1 truckmen1 and pawnbrokers1 and regulations for the suppression of vice4 ,a city clerk and a clerk of the board at a #g1jjj salary each1 are appointed by the board4 ,the ,board of ,estimate and ,apportionment is the most important of the city boards4 ,it frames the city budget1 which has to be adopted by the ,board of ,aldermen4 ,it also passes on bills granting franchise rights4 ,it represents the whole city1 and consists of the ,mayor1 ,comptroller1 ,president of the ,board of ,aldermen1 each with three votes2 ,presidents of ,manhattan and ,brooklyn ,boroughs1 with two votes each2 and ,presidents of ,bronx1 ,richmond1 and ,queens ,boroughs1 with one vote each4 ,among the important appointive positions of the city which are in the hands of the ,mayor are the following3 ,the ,corporation ,counsel1 with a salary of #ae1jjj a year1 is the head of the law department of the city1 and is the city's legal adviser4 ,he has over fifty assistant counsels to appoint1 with salaries ranging from #c1jjj to #aj1jjj a year1 and a host of deputy and junior assistants4 ,the ,city ,chamberlain receives and pays out all moneys for the city--salary #ab1jjj4 ,he may appoint a deputy at #e1jjj a year4 ,the abolishment of the office of ,chamberlain as being unnecessary was recommended by a recent incumbent2 but it is too large a plum to be lightly discarded4 ,the ,president of the ,department of ,taxes and ,assessments receives #h1jjj a year4 ,six other tax commissioners are appointed with salaries of #g1jjj each1 two of whom must be of the opposing party4 ,the ,commissioners of ,accounts1 of ,correction1 of ,docks and ,ferries1 and of ,health1 the ,fire ,commissioner1 ,police ,commissioner1 ,commissioner of ,licenses1 of ,plants and ,structures1 of ,public ,charities1 the ,street-cleaning and ,tenement ,house ,commissioners1 ,commissioner of ,water ,supply1 ,gas and ,electricity1 and the chairman of the ,parole ,commission1 all receive #g1ejj a year2 the ,commissioner of ,weights and ,measures1 #e1jjj a year4 ,there is a new ,commissioner of ,public ,markets1 and a ,supervisor of the ,city ,record1 a city publication which must print all ordinances which involve the spending of city money1 granting a franchise1 or making a specific improvement1 before they are passed by the ,board of ,aldermen4 ,there are many other less important offices to be filled1 and the ,borough ,presidents have still further appointments4 ,the ,board of ,education has been reduced from forty-six to seven members1 of whom two are now women4 ,in addition there are forty-six local school boards in the various school districts1 each consisting of five members appointed by the ,borough ,president and the ,district ,superintendent of the local school district4 ,these have now been divided among the seven members of the new ,school ,board4 ,the ,board of ,elections consists of four commissioners1 two ,republicans and two ,democrats1 appointed by the ,board of ,aldermen for two years1 with a salary of #e1jjj each4 ,this board determines the election-district boundaries1 chooses about #b1jjj polling-places1 and appoints about #ag1jjj election officials4 ,since #aiae the city has allowed school-houses and other public buildings to be used as polling-places1 and at the last election nearly #a1jjj districts were supplied in this way4 ,local ,improvement ,boards3 ,the city is divided into twenty-five districts1 in each of which there is a ,local ,improvement ,board1 consisting of the ,borough ,president and the ,aldermen of the ,aldermanic districts included in the local improvement district4 ,county ,government ,within the ,city3 ,each county included in the city of ,new ,york has a separate county government1 independent of the city1 with its sheriff1 county clerk1 district attorney1 and its county court in every county but ,new ,york4 ,the office of ,sheriff in ,new ,york ,county has been one of the highest paid offices in the ,state1 because of its fees4 ,these have amounted to from #hj1jjj to #ajj1jjj or more a year1 and the county and ,sheriff have divided them4 ,the county now receives all the fees1 and the ,sheriff a salary of #ab1jjj a year2 but he cannot be re-elected1 and the term of office has been increased from two to four years4 ,courts--,supreme ,courts3 ,the first judicial department1 and the first judicial district of the ,state are formed by ,new ,york and ,bronx ,counties4 ,brooklyn1 ,queens1 and ,richmond form the second4 ,the ,special and ,trial terms of the ,supreme ,court try both criminal and civil cases with and without a jury1 as in other counties4 ,county ,courts are held in ,kings1 ,queens1 ,bronx1 and ,richmond ,counties1 and each of them except ,richmond has a ,surrogate's ,court4 ,new ,york ,county elects two ,surrogates1 for a term of fourteen years each1 at a salary of #ae1jjj a year4 ,in place of the ,county ,court1 ,new ,york ,county has a ,city ,court1 which tries civil suits and is a naturalization court1 and a ,court of ,general ,sessions1 which tries criminal cases4 ,the ,court of ,special ,sessions1 with a chief justice and fifteen assistant justices appointed by the ,mayor1 tries cases of misdemeanors1 and offenders sent to them by the ,city ,magistrates4 ,one division of this court is the ,children's ,court1 with one presiding justice and five associate justices1 with a court in each borough4 ,these justices hold office for a term of ten years4 ,magistrates' ,courts are held by a large number of magistrates1 appointed by the ,mayor1 and a chief magistrate who has general supervision of them4 ,municipal ,courts are held in various parts of the city to try small civil suits4 ,there are forty-five ,municipal ,court districts1 in each of which there is a judge elected by the people of the district for a term of ten years4 ,there are separate ,night ,courts for both men and women1 a ,domestic ,relations ,court1 which deals with cases of non-support of wives and children1 and poor relations1 and a ,traffic ,court1 which deals solely with violations of the traffic laws4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to even mention the various institutions in the city of ,new ,york which are engaged in improving the health and social welfare of the people would take many pages4 ,there is great need among them of a more clean-cut division of activities1 and less overlapping of authority4 ,the ,commissioner of ,public ,charities1 appointed by the ,mayor1 is responsible for the care of the city's dependents4 ,in #aiae1 #cej1cfb free lodgings were given to dispossessed families and needy men and women4 ,there are #cbi institutions receiving money from the city for the care of dependent children1 and #bb1gec children were in their charge on ,january #a1 #aiaf4 ,the care which these children have received has been severely criticized4 ,the conflicting authority of the ,state ,board of ,charities and the ,city ,board of ,inspection of ,charitable ,institutions1 is said to be responsible for this4 ,in the future1 the city is to conduct its own inspections4 ,widows' pensions are administered for all of ,greater ,new ,york by one ,child ,welfare ,board of nine members appointed by the ,mayor1 of whom two must be women4 ,they serve for a term of eight years without salary4 ,the ,tenement ,house ,department looks after the #ajc1hhb tenement buildings of the city1 and has a force of #aic inspectors1 of whom eight are women4 ,there are still about #i1jjj dark rooms in the old tenements1 built before the law was passed requiring a certain amount of light and air1 which have not been made over to meet the new requirements4 ,the ,street-cleaning ,department employs regularly about #e1djj men at salaries ranging from #gbj to #hfj a year4 ,the ,board of ,inebriety was organized to take charge of persons who are chronic addicts to alcohol or drugs1 to treat them as victims of disease1 and send them to a farm where treatment looking toward a cure is combined with farm work1 truck gardening1 etc4 ,the great needs of this work cannot be met until further accommodations are made for patients4 ,the ,municipal ,civil ,service ,commission1 consisting of three members appointed by the ,mayor1 maintains a regular staff of examiners of applicants for city positions4 ,the regular payroll of the city includes nearly #he1jjj persons1 of whom about #cj1jjj are not under the jurisdiction of the ,civil ,service4 ,there are also about #bj1jjj others who are employed part of the time4 ,there is a free public employment bureau which is growing steadily and is placing over two thousand applicants a month1 and a ,commissioner of ,weights and ,measures4 ,the management of each one of the large departments of city government requires special and technical training4 ,a corporation manager would search the country for the best man to be found for each particular department4 ,school-teachers and school superintendents are chosen because of their training and experience4 ,minor city employees are appointed from ,civil ,service lists2 but the custom of ,american cities is to appoint men at the heads of city departments who have distinguished themselves for party service4 ,the ,budget for ,greater ,new ,york is made up1 beginning in ,june1 and being adopted ,november #ast4 ,estimates of the needs of each department for the coming year are submitted to the ,board of ,estimate and ,apportionment1 and are studied by sub-committees who conduct public hearings1 when the representatives of each department and the official examiners report on their estimates and each item may be examined and discussed4 ,a tentative budget is printed for public use and the last week in ,october public hearings are held4 ,by ,november #ast the budget must be adopted by the ,board of ,estimate and ,apportionment and sent to the ,board of ,aldermen for their approval4 8,pay as you go0 was a financial policy adopted in #aiad to relieve the tremendous piling up of future indebtedness of the city for permanent improvements of the non-revenue producing class4 ,during the years #aiad-aiah an annually increasing proportion of the cost of these improvements was to be included in the tax budget1 and by #aiah the entire cost was to be met by taxation1 and thereafter no bonds were to be issued for this class of improvement4 ,every dollar borrowed at #d per cent4 interest on a fifty-year bond costs #a4fi in interest charges4 ,while taxes are higher for a time under the pay-as-you-go plan1 the actual cost of improvements to the city is much less4 ,the ,mayor of ,new ,york ,city is the head of a corporation whose budget of expenditure1 in #aiaf1 was #bab1jjj1jjj4 ,before the war the general expenses of the ,united ,states ,steel ,corporation were about #cd1jjj1jjj a year4 ,the salary of the president of the ,steel ,corporation1 or of any one of the largest business corporations of the country1 would be from #ej1jjj to #ajj1jjj a year4 ,the ,mayor of ,new ,york ,city receives #ae1jjj a year4 ,but a business corporation would insist on having for president a man whose training and business experience had made him peculiarly fitted for the job1 while our practice in choosing a man for mayor is to give little consideration to special training and experience in the work of city administration4 ,v ,,state ,,government ,the ,state has such large powers over its people1 and over all political divisions within it1 that it is often called the 8,sovereign ,state40 ,the ,state regulates the ownership and transfer of property2 it punishes murder and other crimes2 it regulates business relations2 it prescribes the form of marriage and the reasons for divorce2 it authorizes the levying of taxes2 it makes its own election laws and provides for education2 until recently it has controlled railroads operating within its borders4 ,the ,state ,constitution1 adopted by a majority of the voters of the ,state1 is the fundamental law of the ,state4 ,it can only be changed by a constitutional convention or by the adoption of a constitutional amendment1 which is done with considerable difficulty4 ,a constitutional convention is an assemblage of men chosen by the voters to revise the constitution4 ,the result of their deliberation is then submitted to the voters1 who can accept or reject it4 ,the last revision took place in #aiae and was overwhelmingly defeated at the polls4 ,the law now provides for a revision every twenty years if the voters desire it4 ,an amendment to the constitution can be proposed in the ,legislature4 ,it has to pass both houses of the ,legislature during two different but successive sessions 7a new session of the ,legislature comes only every other year1 when a new ,senate is elected71 and must then be submitted to the voters of the ,state for their approval4 ,a majority vote makes it a law4 ,the ,legislature has authority under the ,state constitution to make laws for the ,state4 ,it meets every year on the first ,wednesday in ,january at the ,capitol in ,albany1 and remains in session until its business is completed1 usually about ,april #ast4 ,it is composed of two divisions or 8houses10 the ,assembly and the ,senate4 ,every ten years1 in a year ending with the figure five1 a census is taken of the people of the ,state1 and on this basis there is a new apportionment of ,senators and ,assemblymen4 ,the ,senate at present is composed of fifty-two members1 elected from certain divisions of the ,state known as ,senatorial ,districts4 ,in general1 each fiftieth of the population of the ,state is entitled to one ,senator4 7,this rule is not followed mathematically1 for a county may not be divided except to form two or more districts within it2 no one county may have more than one-third of all the ,senators1 and no two counties may have more than one-half of the total number4 ,this is intended as a check to a congested district having an undue representation47 ,if a county which already has three or more ,senators shows a sufficient increase in population to entitle it to another one1 the additional ,senator adds one more to the fifty ,senators already provided for4 ,the ,assembly is composed of one hundred and fifty members1 and1 roughly speaking1 every one hundred and fiftieth part of the population of the ,state is entitled to one ,assemblyman4 ,in practice the rural county of small or medium size which does not contain a large city is one ,assembly ,district4 ,chautauqua1 ,dutchess1 ,schenectady1 ,niagara1 ,orange1 ,rensselaer1 ,st4 ,lawrence1 ,steuben1 ,richmond1 ,suffolk1 and ,broome have each two ,assembly ,districts4 ,albany1 ,oneida1 and ,onondaga have three each2 ,queens has six2 ,westchester and ,monroe1 five2 ,bronx and ,erie1 eight2 ,kings and ,new ,york1 twenty-three each2 ,hamilton and ,fulton counties have only one between them4 ,nassau ,county has recently been divided into two ,assembly ,districts4 ,this division is made by the ,county ,board of ,supervisors4 ,the presiding officer of the ,senate is the ,lieutenant ,governor4 ,the presiding officer of the ,assembly is elected by its members1 and is called the ,speaker4 ,he appoints the standing committees1 and has much control over legislation4 ,he usually belongs to the political party which is in the majority in the ,assembly4 ,this party also elects a majority leader to control legislation on the floor4 ,the choice of the other party is called the leader of the minority1 and he is recognized as the leader of this party in the ,legislature4 ,the ,senate also has majority and minority leaders4 ,assemblymen are elected for one year1 and ,senators for two years4 ,both receive #a1ejj salary and an allowance of ten cents a mile traveling expenses once during the session4 ,how to ,get a ,law ,passed by the ,legislature3 ,a bill may be introduced by any member1 beginning1 8,the ,people of the ,state of ,new ,york1 represented in ,senate and ,assembly1 do enact10 etc4 ,it may be introduced into either the ,senate or the ,assembly1 or it can be introduced in both houses simultaneously4 ,it has a first reading and is referred to a committee4 ,the committee may pigeonhole it and never report1 or it may report it too late in the session for action by the ,legislature1 or it may report it favorably1 or with a recommendation that it be rejected4 ,if it is reported favorably it is put on the calendar to await its turn for consideration4 ,it then comes up for a second reading1 when it may be amended and sent back to the committee2 after a third reading a vote is taken4 ,if it is passed in one house it then goes to the other house1 where it goes through the same procedure4 ,if it is passed by the second house1 it then goes to the ,governor for his signature4 ,if it is a bill concerning the government of a city it goes to the mayor of the city for his approval4 ,if either house changes the bill it has to go back to the first house for action in its amended form4 ,the ,governor has the power to veto a bill1 but it can be repassed over his veto by a two-thirds vote4 ,the ,governor is the chief executive officer of the ,state4 ,it is his business to enforce the laws1 through his appointive officers4 ,he has control of the military forces of the ,state1 which must consist of not less than twenty thousand men1 of whom two thousand must be a naval militia4 ,he has the power to grant pardons4 ,he is elected for two years1 and receives a salary of #aj1jjj and the use of the ,executive ,mansion4 ,he may also initiate legislation4 ,at every regular session of the ,legislature his duty is to send a 8message10 telling the ,legislature about the condition of public affairs and recommending measures for their consideration4 ,he may also1 at any time1 ask for special legislation1 and may call the ,legislature together in an extra session4 ,he has the power of many important appointments to ,state positions1 but subject to the approval of the ,senate4 ,the ,lieutenant ,governor1 with a salary of #e1jjj a year1 takes the ,governor's place in case of need4 ,he presides over the ,senate4 ,the ,secretary of ,state has charge of all public documents and records4 ,he grants certificates of incorporation1 and has charge of elections and the taking of the census4 ,his salary is #f1jjj a year4 ,the ,comptroller must sign every warrant for payment of ,state funds4 ,he acts as auditor for the ,state1 reports to the ,legislature concerning ,state funds1 and superintends the collection of ,state taxes4 ,he designates the banks in which ,state money shall be deposited4 ,his salary is #h1jjj a year4 ,the ,state ,treasurer is the custodian of ,state funds1 and pays them out only on order of the ,comptroller4 ,his salary is #f1jjj a year4 ,the ,attorney-,general is the general legal adviser of the ,state4 ,he prosecutes and defends all actions in which the ,state is interested4 ,his salary is #aj1jjj4 ,the ,state ,engineer and ,surveyor must be a practical engineer4 ,he has charge of the canals1 and the surveying and mapping of all the public lands of the ,state4 ,appointive ,offices3 ,among these are two ,public ,service ,commissions1 each with five members4 ,the first has jurisdiction over ,greater ,new ,york1 and the second over the rest of the ,state4 ,in general1 they have power to regulate railroads and street-cars1 to establish rates1 and to compel adequate service4 ,they also control express companies1 gas and electrical companies1 telephone and telegraph lines4 ,no company can raise its rates without their consent4 ,their business is to see that the needs of the public are adequately served1 and also to protect the companies from unjust treatment4 ,these commissions are considered so important that the salary of each commissioner was made #ae1jjj a year4 ,the ,state ,tax ,commissioners have general supervision of the methods of raising taxes throughout the ,state4 ,there are three of them appointed for three years1 and they must visit every county in the ,state at least once in two years4 ,their salary is #f1jjj a year each4 ,the ,state ,board of ,equalization1 which consists of the tax commissioners and commissioners of the land office1 has to equalize the assessments in each county1 and fix the amount on which the ,state tax is to be levied4 ,the ,superintendent of ,banks controls the banks1 trust companies1 building and loan associations1 which make reports to him quarterly1 from which he in turn makes a report to the ,legislature annually4 ,his salary is #aj1jjj1 and his term three years4 ,the ,superintendent of ,insurance has control over all the insurance companies and reports annually to the ,legislature4 ,his salary is #aj1jjj1 and term three years4 ,the ,commissioner of ,health must be a physician4 ,he has general oversight of the health of the ,state1 and supervises the registration of births1 marriages1 and deaths in the towns and cities4 ,his salary is #h1jjj1 and he has a four-year term4 ,the ,commissioner of ,excise issues tax certificates for the sale of liquor and collects the excise tax1 of which the ,state gets one-half1 and the city or town in which the liquor is sold gets one-half4 ,his salary is #g1jjj1 term five years4 ,the ,commissioner of ,agriculture appoints the directors of farmers' institutes1 watches over the sale of food products that might be injurious to health1 and has general care of the agricultural needs of the ,state4 ,his salary is #h1jjj1 term three years4 ,the ,commissioner of ,highways1 who is in charge of ,state roads and improvements1 serves for two years with a salary of #ab1jjj a year4 ,the ,department of ,labor1 which is a very important branch of the ,state government1 works to improve the conditions of labor4 ,there are five commissioners who serve six years1 each with a salary of #h1jjj4 ,in this department are several bureaus3 viz41 ,inspection1 ,employment1 ,workmen's ,compensation1 ,mediation and ,arbitration1 ,statistics and ,information1 ,industries1 and ,immigration4 ,the ,conservation ,commissioner controls departments for preserving and propagating fish and game1 for protecting lands and forests1 and the control of inland waters4 ,he appoints a head for each division4 7,forests owned by the ,state must be kept wild4 ,they may not be loaned1 sold1 or exchanged1 and no wood may be cut47 ,he serves six years1 with a salary of #h1jjj a year4 ,the ,civil ,service ,commission consists of three commissioners who have the duty of determining the rules with which to test the fitness of applicants for employment under the civil service laws4 ,the civil service is intended to prevent the appointment of men to government positions through partisan politics or personal 8pull40 ,positions are classified1 competitive examinations are held1 and appointments made in order of merit4 ,the custom has usually been to have separate lists made out of men and women1 and it has been complained that preference has been given to the men's lists4 ,there is a ,superintendent of ,public ,works1 with a salary of #h1jjj2 a ,superintendent of ,prisons1 salary of #f1jjj1 and a ,state ,commission of ,prisons of seven members who get #aj a day each for each day of service2 a ,state ,board of ,charities2 a ,state ,hospital ,commission in ,lunacy of three members1 the president of which is paid #g1jjj1 and other members #e1jjj4 ,there is also a ,state ,food ,commission of three members who serve without pay1 appointed only for the period of the war1 and a recently created ,farms and ,markets ,council4 ,while most of the heads of the administrative departments of the ,state government are appointed by the ,governor1 the terms of office of many of them are longer than the term of the ,governor who appoints them4 ,as a consequence1 a ,governor may be in office1 and important departments like the ,excise ,commission1 the ,public ,health and ,public ,service1 and ,industrial ,commissions1 may be in the hands of appointees of a preceding ,governor4 ,they can be removed from office only by preferring charges and after a hearing4 ,also certain other important ,state officials1 including the ,comptroller and the ,secretary of ,state1 are elected by the people1 and may differ radically from the ,governor on questions of public policy4 ,they may even belong to a different political party4 ,it is by some considered a weakness in the management of the affairs of the ,state1 that the conduct of some of the most important departments of an administration may be out of the control of the ,governor who is responsible for them4 ,the business of the ,state requires about #ag1ejj regular employees1 and the payroll is about #bb1bej1jjj4 ,it is probable that some of these public officials in the service of the ,state might be dispensed with if they were required to work as many hours a day and as many days a year as they would be obliged to do in any private business4 ,,vi ,,national ,,government ,the sovereign power of the ,united ,states is vested in the ,national government1 the federal union of all the ,states1 each self-governing1 but all uniting for certain purposes4 ,the ,constitution of the ,united ,states is the supreme law of the land4 ,the ,national government1 like that of the ,state and municipality1 has three distinct divisions3 the legislative1 the executive1 and the judicial4 ,the legislative power rests with ,congress1 which is composed of the ,house of ,representatives and the ,senate4 ,the ,house of ,representatives is elected every two years by the voters of the ,states4 ,after the census1 which is taken every ten years1 ,congress determines what the total number of ,representatives shall be4 ,these are then apportioned among the ,states according to population4 ,after the census of #aiaj the ,house of ,representatives was increased to #dce members1 which gave one member for every #baa1hgg inhabitants4 ,new ,york has #dc ,representatives1 the largest number from any ,state in the ,union4 ,every ,state is entitled to at least one ,representative1 although it may not have the requisite population4 ,the ,congressional ,district from which a member is elected is determined by the ,state ,legislature4 ,greater ,new ,york has #bc ,congressmen4 ,qualifications for ,representatives to ,congress3 ,a man must be twenty-five years old and have been a citizen of the ,united ,states for at least seven years1 and be a resident of the ,state from which he is chosen4 ,the salary is #g1ejj a year1 with an allowance for a clerk1 for stationery1 and for traveling expenses4 ,the ,senate is composed of ninety-six members1 two members from every ,state in the ,union1 elected for a term of six years4 ,in order that there shall always be experienced men in the ,senate1 only one-third of that body is elected at a time4 ,the ,senate is divided into three classes1 and the men belonging to one of the three classes are elected every two years4 ,a ,senator may be re-elected as many times as a ,state chooses1 and many ,senators have served twenty years or more4 ,this makes the ,upper ,house of ,congress a very conservative1 stable body of men4 ,senators1 as well as ,representatives1 receive a salary of #g1ejj a year4 ,the ,vice-,president of the ,united ,states is the presiding officer of the ,senate4 ,the election of ,senators was formerly a prerogative of the ,state ,legislature4 ,the ,seventeenth ,amendment to the ,national ,constitution1 passed in #aiac1 provides that they shall be elected by direct voice of the voters of the ,states4 ,qualifications of ,senators3 ,a candidate for the ,senate must be thirty years old and have been a citizen for at least nine years4 ,sessions of ,congress3 ,a new ,congress comes into existence on the fourth day of ,march every odd year1 although it does not meet in regular session until the following winter4 ,the long session begins the first ,monday in ,december in the odd-numbered year1 and usually lasts until spring or summer4 ,the short session begins the same time in the even-numbered year and lasts until the following ,march #dth1 when the new ,congress1 elected the previous ,november1 comes into existence1 although it does not meet until the following ,december1 unless the ,president calls an extraordinary session4 ,a ,congressman1 therefore1 is elected more than a year before he takes his seat4 ,the ,sixty-fifth ,congress will end ,march #d1 #aiai4 ,the members of the ,lower ,house of the ,sixty-sixth ,congress will be elected in ,november1 #aiah4 ,congressional ,committees3 ,the work of ,congress is largely done through committees4 ,the ,house of ,representatives1 as constituted to-day1 is an unwieldy body4 ,it is obvious that four hundred and thirty-five men is too large a number to work effectively as a whole4 ,every bill1 even a recommendation from the ,president1 is referred to an appropriate committee4 ,it is only because of these many committees that it is possible to transact the very large amount of business that comes before ,congress every year4 ,how a ,bill ,is ,passed3 ,the procedure in ,congress is similar to that in the ,state ,legislature4 ,a bill may be introduced by any member in either house1 and must pass through both houses4 ,powers of ,congress3 ,congress has absolute power to levy and collect taxes4 ,revenue bills must originate in the ,house of ,representatives4 ,congress has the exclusive power to declare war1 to raise and support an army and navy1 and to regulate commerce4 ,it controls naturalization laws and immigration2 it establishes post-offices2 grants patents and copyrights4 ,it has the power to coin and to borrow money4 ,it also governs the ,district of ,columbia and the ,territories4 ,an ,amendment to the ,constitution of the ,united ,states must be passed by a majority of two-thirds of the votes cast in both houses of ,congress4 ,it is then submitted to the ,states for ratification by the ,state ,legislatures4 ,when the ,legislatures of three-fourths of the forty-eight ,states have ratified such an amendment by a majority vote of their members it becomes law4 ,the ,executive3 ,the ,president of the ,united ,states has greater powers than have the heads of many other nations4 ,he is the ,commander-in-chief of the ,army and ,navy2 he conducts official business with foreign nations and makes treaties with them1 subject to the approval of the ,senate2 he appoints1 with the consent of the ,senate1 ambassadors1 ministers1 high officials of ,army and ,navy1 justices of the ,supreme ,court1 and a vast number of other officers4 ,he may veto measures passed by ,congress1 but they can be passed over his veto by a two-thirds vote4 ,the ,president has power to initiate legislation by sending a message to ,congress1 giving them information about important affairs and recommending legislative measures for their consideration4 ,the degree to which he can force legislation through ,congress depends both on the strength of the party in ,congress to which he belongs1 and on the personal power and prestige of the ,president himself4 ,president ,wilson is the first ,president1 for more than a century1 to appear in person before a joint session of ,congress and read his message4 ,election of the ,president3 ,the ,president is chosen by presidential electors1 elected by the voters of the various ,states1 the number of electors for each ,state being the same as the total number of ,representatives and ,senators in ,congress from that ,state4 ,the electors of a ,state meet at the ,state ,capitol on the second ,monday of ,january following the election1 to cast their votes for ,president4 ,the electors are merely machines to register the vote of the ,state1 and usually the entire electoral vote of a ,state goes to one candidate1 although the majority of the popular vote for him may have been small4 ,this system makes the presidential election virtually an election by ,states4 ,a ,state 8goes0 ,republican or ,democratic4 ,the struggle is concentrated in a few doubtful ,states4 ,to win or lose them may mean to win or lose the election4 ,it has happened that one candidate has actually received a larger popular vote than his opponent1 and yet has not been elected1 because the number of votes in the electoral college from the ,states that gave him a majority was smaller than the number of electoral votes from the other ,states4 ,there is a movement toward the abolition of the electoral college and direct nomination and direct election of the ,president by the voters4 ,the ,vice-,president must be eligible to the office of ,president4 ,he is elected for the same term1 and his salary is #ab1jjj a year4 ,his only duty is to preside over the ,senate and to succeed the ,president in case of need4 ,the ,cabinet consists of ten officials appointed by the ,president with the consent of the ,senate to conduct for him certain departments of public business4 ,the salary of a ,cabinet member is #ab1jjj4 ,cabinet members have no vote in either ,house of ,congress1 and are not responsible to it in any way4 ,like the ,president himself1 they may belong to the party which is in the minority in ,congress4 ,the ,cabinet is an advisory body to the ,president1 but its members have no legal standing in that way1 and he may ignore them if he chooses4 ,each ,cabinet officer is the administrative head of his department4 ,the ,secretary of ,state heads the ,department of ,state1 and is responsible for all official negotiations and relations with foreign governments4 ,he is the medium of communication between the ,president and the ,governors of the ,states4 ,the ,secretary of the ,treasury manages national finances1 administers revenue1 currency1 and national banking laws4 ,the ,secretary of ,war has charge of all matters of national defense1 river and harbor improvements1 and is responsible for the maintenance of the ,army4 ,the ,attorney-,general is the legal adviser of the ,president and the ,national government4 ,the ,postmaster-,general conducts the affairs of the ,united ,states ,post-,office ,department and the transportation of the mail4 ,the ,secretary of the ,navy has charge of the ,navy and its equipment1 yards1 and docks4 ,the ,secretary of the ,interior and his department have charge of public lands and ,indian affairs4 ,he has the granting of pensions and patents4 ,the ,secretary of ,agriculture has for his business the improvement of agriculture in the ,united ,states4 ,he also has charge of the ,weather ,bureau1 animal and plant industry1 and the forest service4 ,the ,secretary of ,commerce must aid and develop the commercial interests of the country1 including mining and transportation4 ,he takes the census every ten years4 ,the ,secretary of ,labor and the ,department of ,labor are designed to protect the welfare of the wage earners4 ,to this department belong the ,bureau of ,immigration and the ,children's ,bureau4 ,the tendency of the past few years has been to enlarge the powers of the ,national government4 ,with the rapid increase of means of transportation distant parts of the country have been brought close together4 ,sectionalism is diminishing4 ,to 8,states' rights0 is being added a national pride4 ,in the administration of the business of the nation1 ,state boundaries can often no longer be considered without a distinct loss of economy and efficiency4 ,to give one example3 the ,state control of railroads resulted in obstructive and entirely different requirements being made by neighboring ,states1 on the same railroad passing through several of them4 ,the power of separate ,states to control1 independent of each other1 such things as marriage and divorce laws1 has resulted in the deplorable situation that a couple may be legally married in one ,state and the marriage may not be recognized in another4 ,it is evident that with the growth in influence and importance of the ,united ,states1 the ,national government is gradually assuming many functions which formerly were left to the separate ,states4 ,,vii ,,who ,,can ,,vote ,there is one way in which the government of a republic like the ,united ,states differs from other forms of government--viz41 in a republic the source of all power rests with the people4 ,they choose the men to whom they give the right to speak for them and to represent them4 ,the right to vote for the man who is to represent you1 who is to make the law for you and to enforce that law1 is the most sacred right of a free country4 ,the success or failure of government in the ,united ,states1 and in every political division of the ,state1 rests with the men and women who have the power of the vote4 ,one of the great dangers of a democracy is the carelessness and indifference of the voter4 ,if a government 8by the people0 is to be a success1 the people themselves must see to it that honest1 responsible1 and efficient officials are chosen4 ,every ,person in the ,state ,is ,either a ,citizen or an ,alien4 ,citizenship ,is ,conferred by the ,national ,government and the ,state ,has ,no ,power to ,confer or ,withhold ,it4 ,a ,citizen is defined in the ,constitution of the ,united ,states3 8,all persons born or naturalized in the ,united ,states and subject to the jurisdiction thereof1 are citizens of the ,united ,states and of the ,state in which they reside40 ,native-born ,indians who have had land allotted them and have given up their tribal life are citizens4 ,all persons born out of the country of citizen parents are also citizens1 except where the father has never resided in the ,united ,states4 ,naturalization3 ,congress makes uniform laws of naturalization for all the ,states4 ,an ,alien is a person born in a foreign country who lives here but is still a subject of some other country4 ,an ,alien ,may ,become a ,citizen of the ,united ,states1 and thus of ,new ,york ,state1 after he has lived in the country five years continuously1 and in the ,state one year4 ,he must be able to write his own language1 to read and speak ,english1 and be of moral character4 ,his first step is to go to a ,federal court1 or a court of record1 and swear that it is his intention to become a citizen and renounce his allegiance to any foreign power4 ,he is then given his 8first papers40 ,not less than two years1 or more than seven years later1 he must appear again with two witnesses to swear to his good character and loyalty1 and file a petition4 ,after ninety days his application is heard by the court and he is examined by the judge and renews his oath of allegiance4 ,if the judge is satisfied he is given his certificate of naturalization which makes him a citizen4 ,fees amounting to five dollars are now charged4 ,only ,white ,persons and ,negroes ,may ,become ,naturalized3 ,chinese1 ,japanese and ,east ,indians cannot become citizens unless born in the ,united ,states4 ,polygamists are excluded4 ,an ,unmarried ,woman can take out papers of naturalization and become a citizen in the same way as does a man4 ,a ,married ,woman is only a citizen if her husband is a citizen4 ,under the present law1 she cannot become naturalized by herself4 ,also1 under a strict interpretation of the law1 she has the residence of her husband and must vote from the same place4 ,a ,woman ,born in the ,united ,states who marries an alien1 although she may never leave her own country1 ceases to be an ,american citizen and becomes a subject of the country to which her husband belongs4 ,therefore1 the wife of a man not a citizen of the ,united ,states cannot vote in this country4#b ,if a resident of the ,united ,states1 she resumes her citizenship at the death of her husband1 or if she is divorced4 ,a foreign-born woman who marries a citizen becomes a citizen4 ,children under age become citizens with their parents4 ,an ,american-born man may live abroad many years and not lose his citizenship4 ,a naturalized citizen is considered as losing his citizenship if he returns to his native country and resides there two years4 ,a citizen has the right to withdraw from the ,united ,states1 renounce his allegiance1 and acquire citizenship in another country4 ,an alien enjoys the same protection of the law as does the citizen4 ,the government extends its protection to the native-born and the naturalized citizen alike4 ,a naturalized citizen is protected while abroad1 even in his native country1 by our government in exactly the same degree as a native-born citizen would be4 ,a naturalized citizen may fill any office in the land with the exception of that of ,president4 ,a ,citizen ,is ,not ,always a ,voter3 ,women were citizens of ,new ,york ,state before they were given the right to vote1 if 7#a7 they were born in the ,united ,states1 7#b7 were married to citizens1 or 7#c7 if1 unmarried1 they had taken out their own naturalization papers4 ,the ,state ,confers the ,right to ,vote and ,fixes the ,qualifications for ,voters4 ,who ,may ,vote3 8,every citizen of the age of twenty-one years who shall have been a citizen for ninety days1 an inhabitant of the ,state for one year1 and a resident of the county for four months1 and a resident of the election district for thirty days1 has a right to vote0 7,act ,,ii1 ,sec4 ,i1 ,constitution of ,new ,york ,state74 ,foreign-born women whose husbands are citizens must live in the country five years before they can vote4 ,in time of war soldiers and sailors may vote wherever they are1 and their ballots are counted in their home districts4 ,it is reasonable that a certain length of residence should be required before a person is permitted to vote1 in order that he may have a chance to become familiar with the interests of a community1 and acquainted with the qualifications of the candidates4 ,who ,may ,not ,vote3 ,a naturalized citizen who has not been naturalized for at least ninety days before election2 a person whose name and address is not registered with election officials at least ten days before an election2 a person convicted of bribery or an infamous crime2 a deserter from the ,army or ,navy4 ,a person who bets on an election is disqualified for voting at that election4 ,the ,governor may restore citizenship to a person who has lost it4 ,the ,state ,cannot ,interfere with the ,rights of ,citizens3 ,while the ,state prescribes the qualifications for suffrage for its own citizens1 by the ,fourteenth and ,fifteenth ,amendments to the ,national ,constitution1 the ,federal government prohibits any ,state from abridging the privileges and immunities of citizens of the ,united ,states1 and declares that the ,state in making the qualifications for the suffrage cannot discriminate because of color or race4 ,the ,fourteenth ,amendment further provides that when the right to vote is denied to any of the male citizens of a ,state1 its basis of representation shall be reduced in proportion4 ,several of the ,southern ,states have restricted the suffrage by educational and property qualifications1 but have excluded from these qualifications those who were voters in #ahfg 7before the negroes were enfranchised7 and their descendants4 ,this discrimination of the so-called 8grandfather0 clause was held unconstitutional by the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states in #aiae1 but the reduction in representation has never been enforced4 ,massachusetts has an educational qualification and ,pennsylvania a tax qualification1 which also exclude many male citizens2 but the ,fourteenth ,amendment has never been seriously enforced in either case4 ,the ,national ,amendment for ,woman ,suffrage3 ,an amendment to the ,federal ,constitution is pending which provides that the right to vote shall not be denied on account of sex4 ,while ,new ,york ,state has given the vote to its women1 this permission does not extend beyond its borders4 ,new ,york women lose their vote if they go to ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,jersey1 or any adjoining ,state4 ,twelve ,states have given women full suffrage1 and nineteen ,states have given them the right to vote for ,president4 ,the ,woman ,suffrage ,amendment1 when passed by ,congress and ratified by three-fourths of all the ,states1 will secure the right to vote to all the women of the ,united ,states4 ,,footnotes3 #b ,a bill is now before ,congress to change this law and make it possible for a married woman to choose her country for herself1 as a man does1 and to require that she be obliged to go through the same process of naturalization that a man does1 including the oath of allegiance4 ,it is only through a ,federal law that this change can be made4 ,,viii ,,political ,,parties ,a political party is a group of voters organized for the purpose of putting certain policies into effect1 to elect certain men to office1 and to control the machinery of government4 ,under a popular government1 where public officials are chosen by the people and political policies are formulated by them1 political parties have seemed the most expedient device as yet discovered to accomplish these ends4 ,the political party was not originally a part of the government2 but as the country developed and government needs and opportunities multiplied1 party machinery grew more complex1 and its powers increased to such a dangerous degree that for the sake of its own integrity1 the ,state was forced to regulate it4 ,party conventions1 primaries1 and much of the party machinery are now controlled by law4 ,two ,parties3 ,the ,united ,states has always had two principal parties4 ,they have had different names1 and under the same name they have advocated different principles4 ,the first parties were the ,federalists1 who believed in a strong central government that should exercise all the powers that the ,constitution could be interpreted to permit1 and the ,anti-,federalists1 who believed in limiting the functions of the ,federal government and reserving as much power as possible to the ,states4 ,the ,republican and ,democratic ,parties3 ,it is difficult to define the difference between the present principal parties4 ,the ,republican party is the successor of the ,federalists4 ,it was formed shortly before the ,civil ,war to prevent the extension of slavery4 ,in general it has believed in a liberal interpretation of the ,federal ,constitution1 and has wished to see the powers of the ,national government extended4 ,the ,democratic party has advocated 8,states' rights10 the right of the individual ,states to settle their own affairs4 ,it has held to a strict interpretation of the ,constitution1 and has believed in limiting the power of the ,national government4 ,besides the doctrine of ,states' rights1 the principal difference between the ,republican and ,democratic parties has been the tariff4 ,the ,republican party has advocated a high tariff1 and the ,democratic party a tariff 8for revenue only40 ,while these have been the two issues most discussed between the two parties1 even on these questions the lines have often been confused4 ,democratic members of ,congress have advocated measures which distinctly contradicted the principles of ,states' rights1 and the ,republican party as often has adopted them for its own purposes4 ,the ,democratic party has not always stood on its low-tariff platform1 and ,republicans have often been against protection4 ,even before the present war old party lines had begun to fade4 ,with the dangers threatening the country1 which war has brought1 these lines have been almost obliterated4 ,what they will be when the war is over no one can predict with certainty4 ,the ,republican party came into power in #ahfj1 when it elected ,abraham ,lincoln ,president1 and until #aiac it controlled the ,national government1 except for two terms of four years each when ,grover ,cleveland was ,president4 ,in general the ,southern ,states are ,democratic1 preserving a 8solid ,south40 ,the ,northern ,states are apt to be ,republican4 ,the ,progressive ,party was organized in #aiab as the result of a split in the ,republican ranks1 by men who wanted more progressive measures than those advocated by either the ,republican or ,democratic party4 ,it advocated public ownership of mines1 forests1 and water power2 a larger measure of justice for the working-classes and suffrage for women4 ,it has disintegrated1 but it had a large effect in liberalizing both the older parties1 and many of its policies have been adopted by them4 ,the ,prohibition ,party was organized in #ahgb to bring about complete prohibition of alcoholic drinks4 ,it has elected candidates to the ,legislature and has secured an ever larger measure of local option and even ,state-wide prohibition4 ,the ,socialist ,party1 organized in #aijj1 advocates government ownership of land1 railroads1 telegraph and telephones1 mines1 and all vital industries4 ,it has become largely the party of the industrial workers4 ,minor parties have come and gone1 but they have usually left a lasting effect on the dominant parties4 ,in ,new ,york ,state1 any organization is considered 8a party0 which polled at least #aj1jjj votes for ,governor at the last election4 ,party ,organization3 ,the individual voter1 or group of voters1 is helpless to change conditions or to elect a man4 ,it is only through the organization of many men who want the same thing that they become effective4 ,political parties are organized for ,national1 ,state1 and local campaigns4 ,the great work of the political parties is the nomination and election of a ,president every four years4 ,for this purpose there must be a national party organization4 ,the ,national ,committee of each party is composed of one member from each ,state4 ,it organizes the ,national ,convention of the party1 which is held early in the summer before the presidential election1 and at which party policies are formulated1 and candidates for ,president and ,vice-,president are nominated4 ,in the spring the chairman of the ,national ,committee calls a meeting of this committee to decide where and when the convention shall meet4 ,besides nominating candidates for ,president and ,vice-,president1 the convention adopts a 8platform0 in which is set forth the principles which the party holds and its attitude on important public questions4 ,a new ,national ,committee is appointed to carry on the campaign and to act until the next convention4 ,the platform adopted by the party at its ,national convention is an expression of the principles for which the party stands4 ,a 8plank0 may be put in simply to catch votes2 on some question the plank may not be explicit1 but may 8straddle0 the issue4 ,while in the main the ,national platform sets forth the principles to which the party is committed and its proposals for future action1 the speech or letter of acceptance of the candidate for the presidency usually contains a more reliable statement of the policies which he would advocate if elected4 ,the ,state ,committee is the party organization in control of the party in the ,state4 ,it is composed of one man from each of the one hundred and fifty ,assembly ,districts in the ,state1 who are elected by the enrolled members of the party in each district4 ,the chairman is elected by the committee to serve for two years4 ,party members are all those who at the last registration1 or last general election1 enrolled in the party4 ,state platforms count for little4 ,they usually 8point with pride0 to things the party has done1 and denounce the acts of the opposing party4 ,most voters pay little attention to them4 ,the ,county ,committee consists of one man from every election district in the county2 the ,city ,committee1 one from each ward or election district in the city4 7,new ,york ,county has its own organization1 different from the others47 ,the chairman of each of these committees is elected at the party primaries4 ,he is usually an experienced politician1 and each committee is the party authority locally4 ,the ,election ,district3 ,the election district captain1 or county committeeman1 is the man who comes in direct personal touch with the voter4 ,his business is to deliver the vote of his election district to his party4 ,he must know every voter in his district1 find out how each one is going to vote1 and keep track of new voters1 especially the first voter who has yet to choose his party4 ,he is an inspector at elections2 he selects poll clerks and watchers1 and handles the money sent by his party to his district4 ,the ,assembly ,district leader or ,county ,chairman distributes the patronage and the election district captain may recommend men to him4 ,the more offices that can be filled1 and the greater the number of 8the faithful0 who can be provided for1 the stronger the party at the next election4 ,the one quality necessary for the election district captain is complete loyalty to his chairman and party4 ,if ordinary party members pay no attention to the organization locally it is bound to fall into the hands of those who make their living out of politics4 ,party ,funds are contributed by members of the party1 subscriptions from interested men1 from party candidates and interests which expect to be benefited if a certain party comes into power4 ,it is a crime to levy on the salary of any public official for campaign expenses1 but such contributions are often still expected4 ,if a party elects its candidate1 he has many officials to appoint1 and these offices are often unfortunately regarded as rewards for party loyalty and work4 ,the civil service was created to take offices away from party control and prevent the 8spoils system40 ,the ,use and ,abuse of ,party3 ,the political party has a very definite place in popular government4 ,in the conduct of a campaign organization is indispensable4 ,the danger lies in the difficulty of sufficiently safeguarding the interests of the public from the spoilsmen of either party4 ,it is through the party that citizens must work for political measures1 but it is also through the party machine that anti-social forces are able to successfully carry out their plans4 ,there is tremendous power for a party in its control of the government of a city or a ,state4 ,a multitude of offices have to be filled1 franchises to be granted1 valuable contracts let1 and there are a thousand opportunities for public plunder and private enrichment4 ,the party in power nationally1 has untold possibilities in the control of the fabulous resources of the country4 ,in order that a party may come into power in the ,national government1 it is necessary for it to be in control in the ,state1 and to control the ,state it tries to hold minor political divisions4 ,to gain control locally it partitions out the offices where they will do the most good2 it gains support from every quarter through any means2 it seeks to have men in positions of authority who can be so controlled that they will subordinate everything to the party welfare4 ,the average voter not infrequently supports his party at all elections1 without regard for the merits of the candidates4 ,he is often a ,republican or a ,democrat1 without any clear idea of the different principles of the two parties4 ,or he may have become a ,republican or a ,democrat because he agreed with the party in regard to some ,national question4 ,so he follows it blindly in ,state and city elections1 which have nothing to do with ,national questions4 ,it is seldom that important issues of party principles are involved in a local election2 but the tradition of party support is strong and the temptation to hold party allegiance even at the expense of the public is almost irresistible4 ,the ,independent ,voter3 ,undoubtedly the number of independent voters is growing4 ,whenever for any reason a group of non-partisan voters abstain from party allegiance1 are alert to the sincerity of party promises1 and are watchful of the qualifications of candidates1 both parties begin to clean house and put up as candidates the best men available1 in order to bid for the independent vote4 ,such a body of non-partisan voters may be the decisive factor in an election1 especially if the two parties are about evenly divided4 ,the independent voter is not popular with the machine politician4 ,the larger the number of non-partisan voters the more difficult it is for him to perform his duties1 and to control and deliver the vote4 ,in city and village elections1 party issues have no place1 and there is a growing feeling that qualification for office should be the only consideration4 ,it all comes back to the voting citizen4 ,politics and political parties are what the people make them4 ,,ix ,,how ,,candidates ,,are ,,nominated ,while any man's name can be put in nomination for any office1 he has little chance of being elected in most elections without being the candidate of a political party4 ,for a long time parties were allowed to nominate candidates as they chose1 and party bosses dictated nominations without regard for the wishes of the rest of the party or for the interests of the public4 ,for some time past the ,state has regulated the methods of nominations4 ,candidates for all offices are nominated in one of three ways3 7#a7 ,at a party convention2 7#b7 by direct primaries2 7#c7 by petition4 ,candidates for ,president and ,vice-,president are nominated at ,national conventions1 which are the most spectacular events of our political life4 ,delegates to the ,national convention are elected at special party primaries held the first ,tuesday in ,april of the presidential year4 ,every ,state is allowed double as many delegates as it has ,senators and ,representatives in ,congress4 ,the four men corresponding to the representation of the ,state in the ,senate are delegates-at-large2 the others are district delegates4 ,the ,national convention is1 therefore1 composed of about one thousand delegates1 and its meetings draw other thousands of spectators4 ,there are few auditoriums in the country big enough to house the convention4 ,there are usually several candidates1 each one of whom is the choice of a group of men in the party4 ,the name of each candidate is presented to the convention by a carefully selected orator1 under circumstances planned to arouse enthusiasm1 and1 if possible1 to stampede the convention4 ,a majority vote is sufficient to nominate the candidate in the ,republican convention1 but the ,democratic party requires a two-thirds vote4 ,sometimes not one of the candidates presented is able to secure a majority4 ,days may be consumed in discussion and bargaining1 and in the end an unexpected candidate1 a 8dark horse10 may be nominated4 ,the members of the ,national ,committee who are to serve during the next four years are elected in the convention1 one member from each ,state4 ,how ,candidates for ,office in ,new ,york ,state ,are ,nominated3 ,the direct primary is the method now used in ,new ,york ,state by which candidates for all offices except those in towns and villages are nominated1 and the conduct of these 8official primaries10 as they are called to distinguish them from the unofficial primaries of the party1 is carefully prescribed by ,state law4 ,a primary election is held thirty days before the general election1 and is conducted on the same plan and in the same general way as the election4 ,candidates of each party for all the elected offices are nominated by the enrolled party members4 ,at the same time leaders for the district of each political party are elected4 ,the ballots for each party are printed by the ,state and differ in color4 ,the candidates whose names are printed on the primary ballot are designated by party committees1 and other persons may have their names added by petition4 ,who ,may ,vote at the ,official ,primaries--,enrolment of ,voters3 ,only those who have enrolled themselves as members of the party are permitted to vote at the official primaries4 ,at the time of the registration of voters in the cities1 or at the last general election in the country1 voters are given a party enrolment blank to fill out4 ,these enrolments are placed in sealed envelopes and opened a week after the regular election1 when enrolment lists of each party are made out4 ,such enrolment is not compulsory1 but unless a voter enrolls he is not able to take part in the nomination of candidates4 ,by enrolling he does not pledge himself to vote the party ticket at the election 7except in the case of the ,socialist party72 but he is allowed to vote at the primary for candidates of the party in which he enrolls4 ,objections to ,direct ,primaries are made that few voters take the trouble to vote at them1 and that the choice of candidates is very limited and is still controlled by party leaders4 ,they are also very expensive for a candidate1 especially if he is not backed by these leaders4 ,to stand any chance of nomination a candidate has to canvass the voters and make himself known to them4 ,a poor man cannot afford to enter a contest in a direct primary unless funds are supplied him or unless he expects to recoup himself later at the public expense4 ,also1 as that candidate wins the primary election who receives the largest number of votes1 the successful candidate may be one who has had the votes of only a small proportion of the party which is expected to support him later at the polls4 ,so far in ,new ,york ,state the primaries1 even in city elections1 are largely party affairs4 ,the suggestion has been advanced that city primaries should be strictly non-partisan1 and that party emblems should be eliminated from the primary ballots4 ,nomination by a ,convention is a method still used in some ,states1 and until it was superseded by the direct primary it used to be the manner of nominating candidates in ,new ,york4 ,an official party convention is made up of delegates elected by members of the party from the different parts of the ,state4 ,names of possible candidates are presented to the members in open convention1 who express their choice by ballot4 ,objections to the ,convention ,system are based on the fact that the regular party convention is usually controlled by a few leaders who decide beforehand every detail of the business of the convention and make up the slate4 ,they may trade with another group and concede part of the ticket to them in return for certain concessions which they may obtain for themselves4 ,the delegates are often there simply to follow orders and to nominate the men agreed upon by the party bosses4 ,the 8slate0 is the list of candidates for the various offices to be filled4 ,nominations for these positions are usually influenced not so much by the qualifications of the men proposed for office1 as by the ability of the proposed candidates to get out the vote and to add strength to the ticket1 also by geographical considerations1 that each part of the ,state or district may be represented on the ticket4 ,unofficial ,state conventions are still held by the leading parties in ,new ,york4 ,their principal business is to frame a platform4 ,this convention also appoints the central committee4 ,the ,primary ,is ,important to ,every ,voter because it is there that policies are determined and party leaders elected1 as well as candidates nominated for offices4 ,unless the members of the party take the trouble to vote at the primary1 the choice of candidates is left to the few leaders who make a business of politics4 ,this leaves the field clear for 8the boss0 to put up candidates whom he can control after election4 ,the vote at the primary election is always small4 ,the proportion of voters who vote for the nomination of candidates is often as low as #ah or #bj per cent4 of the vote cast at the election4 ,the reason for this is not difficult to understand4 ,the primary election comes at a time when little public interest has yet been aroused in the coming election4 ,by election-time the voters have been circularized and canvassed and the newspapers have devoted much space to the subject4 ,also much more effort is made by the party to get out the vote at election-time than at the primary4 ,party leaders can count on the faithful coming to the primary election without urging1 and they are the ones who often choose the candidates4 ,nomination by ,petition3 ,most candidates on the ballot are nominated by a party1 but a man may also be nominated by a petition of independent voters4 ,the petition must contain the title of the office to be filled1 the name and address of the candidate1 and be signed by a certain number of voters4 ,x ,,elections ,laws concerning the holding of elections have grown much more stringent in the last few years4 ,every detail of the casting of a ballot is now prescribed by law and every precaution taken to insure honesty of elections4 ,the precautions apply more to cities than to rural communities1 with the result that more corruption may sometimes be found to-day in country elections than in those in cities4 ,registration of ,voters3 ,in large places or densely populated districts it is impossible for the election officials to know every voter1 therefore the law requires that in cities and villages of over five thousand inhabitants every voter shall appear every year before the board of registration and have his name put on the registration list4 ,he is required to answer certain questions as to his age1 his exact residence1 his business1 and where his last vote was cast1 and to sign his own name for purposes of identification and to prevent fraud4 ,in smaller places and in rural districts1 the signature is not required1 and after a man's name is once registered it remains on the book as long as the voter remains in the district4 ,in practice it remains on the book until some one takes it off2 and the names of men who have died or moved away are frequently found in a rural registration book4 ,time of ,elections3 ,the general elections take place in the fall1 on the first ,tuesday after the first ,monday in ,november4 ,national elections for ,president and ,vice-,president take place every four years1 in the year that ends with the figure four or its multiple4 ,elections for representatives to ,congress and ,state elections are held the same day every two years1 in the even-numbered years4 ,city elections are held the same day in the odd-numbered years4 ,city elections are held separate from ,state elections in order to keep ,national and ,state issues from intruding in the election of municipal officers4 ,local elections usually take place the same day1 with the exception of the spring village election and town meeting4 ,the ,election ,district3 ,for convenience every county or city is divided into election districts1 each with one polling-place4 ,the average number of voters to an election district in ,new ,york ,state is from two hundred and fifty to four hundred4 ,when a district grows to five hundred voters it is usually divided4 ,in ,chicago1 since women were given the vote1 an election district contains from five to six hundred voters4 ,it has been found that the women vote at the hours when men are busy1 and that the same election officials can handle many more votes than is customary in ,new ,york4 ,election ,officers3 ,boards of elections1 appointed by the county board of supervisors1 are in general charge of the elections in the county1 and there is a ,state ,superintendent of ,elections appointed by the ,governor4 ,at each polling-place on ,election ,day there is an election board consisting of four election inspectors1 two ballot clerks1 and two poll clerks4 ,the law provides that election boards and boards of registration shall consist of equal representatives from the two political parties that cast the highest number of votes at the last election4 ,this does not apply to town and village elections4 ,each party also is allowed two watchers4 ,a railing shuts in the voting-booths and tables1 and no one but the election board and the official watchers is allowed under the law to be inside this railing4 ,the polls are open from six o'clock in the morning until five o'clock in the afternoon4 ,before voting begins the ballot-boxes are opened and inspected to see that they are empty4 ,the official watchers have a right to see everything that is done4 ,electioneering is forbidden within one hundred feet of the polls4 ,the voting-booths are constructed so as to insure privacy while the voter is marking his ballot1 and the ballot is folded so that no one but the voter himself knows how he has voted4 ,the ,election3 ,when the voter appears to cast his ballot1 he gives his name and address1 and the registration book is consulted to see that he is registered1 the number of the ballot given to him is called out by the ballot clerk1 and his name and the number of his ballot are entered in the poll-book4 ,official ballots are provided for every polling-place1 twice as many as there are registered voters in the district4 ,all the candidates for one office are grouped together on the ballot1 each name with a blank square beside it4 ,to vote for a candidate the voter must make a cross with a lead-pencil 7not ink7 inside of the box beside the name of the candidate3 ,illustration3 ,x in box4 ,if the cross extends beyond the box1 or if the word 8yes0 is written1 if the ballot is erased or in any way defaced1 it will be thrown out at the count as void4 ,if a voter spoils a ballot he should ask for another one4 ,an illiterate person is allowed assistance in marking his ballot4 ,when the voter comes out of the booth1 where he has marked his ballot in secret and folded it so it cannot be read1 he gives the ballot to an election official1 who announces the name of the voter and the number of his ballot1 tears off the stub1 and drops the ballot unopened into the box4 ,a person's vote may be challenged by an inspector or watcher1 or at the written request of any voter4 ,if1 under oath1 he is questioned and swears that he is eligible1 his vote is recorded1 but is marked challenged4 ,the ,count3 ,at five o'clock the polls are closed and the ballots are counted4 ,they must not be handled by any one but the election officials1 although the watchers may see every ballot and watch the count4 ,the count for each office to be filled is made separately1 and if there are many candidates it may take many hours to complete the count and know the result4 ,official tally sheets are provided4 ,the result is filed with the ,county ,clerk4 ,the board of supervisors meet as a board of canvassers to canvass the result1 and the returns are sent to the ,state board of canvassers4 ,the ,australian ,ballot is the only one used in ,new ,york ,state elections4 ,it has on one ballot the names of all candidates of all parties for all the offices to be voted for4 ,the names are grouped by offices1 and the first name in each group is the candidate of the party that cast the largest vote at the last election4 ,the only ballots shown before ,election ,day are sample ballots printed on pink paper1 while the ballots used at the election are white4 ,they are all numbered1 and every one must be accounted for4 ,until recently the ballot was printed with a column for each party1 so that the easiest thing the voter could do was to put a cross within a circle at the head of the column1 and thus vote for every candidate of that party--what is called a 8straight ticket40 ,the ballot used at present requires a separate cross for every separate candidate1 and so encourages independence and intelligence on the part of the voter4 ,there are blank places so the voter may write in any name he wishes for any office4 ,short ,ballot3 ,it is evident from the brief outline of the structure of government contained in the earlier chapters1 that there are a great many officers to be elected4 ,it is impossible for even the most intelligent and most interested voter to know the merits of as many candidates as often appear on one ballot4 ,in some elections ballots are used which can be measured only in feet1 and sometimes even in yards4 ,to remedy this evil there is a strong movement toward a short ballot4 ,this would mean cutting down the number of elective offices4 ,the tendency of government to-day is to concentrate the responsibility on one man or a few men1 to let them make appointments1 and to hold them accountable for results4 ,corrupt ,practices ,act3 ,the cost of campaigns and elections to the political parties and to many candidates is great4 ,while there are many legitimate expenses connected with an election1 the uncontrolled use of large funds leads to grave corruption and has brought about careful regulation by the ,state of money used at election-time4 ,contributions from corporations are prohibited4 ,a public statement of campaign funds must be made by every candidate and every organization taking part in a campaign1 of all money received for campaign purposes and how it has been expended4 ,this statement must be filed with the ,secretary of ,state within twenty days after the election1 and be open to public inspection4 ,even these precautions1 while more severe than those found in most ,states1 have not succeeded in putting an end to the corrupt use of money in elections4 ,it has been proposed recently that an addition to the ,corrupt ,practices ,act should be made to require all candidates and campaign managers to file1 five days before election1 instead of twenty days after1 a list of receipts and expenditures1 so that voters might know before the election the sources of political contributions and the use to which the money is put4 ,a second proposal has been made in regard to the personnel of the election officers1 that instead of these boards being party appointees they should be appointed from the civil service lists4 ,it is argued that with civil service appointees handling the count of ballots there would be less likelihood of mistakes or deliberate fraud4 ,oregon has adopted the plan of having a pamphlet printed by the ,state for both the primaries and the elections1 in which is set forth the claims of candidates of all parties1 and both sides of all public questions to be voted on4 ,this pamphlet is sent at public expense to every voter in that ,state4 ,voting-machines are expensive1 but they do away with the necessity for voting-booths1 and require fewer election officials4 ,perhaps that is one reason they have not been more popular4 ,they register the number of votes cast for each candidate1 and the result of the election is known as soon as the polls are closed1 and does not have to await the long1 tedious1 and often incorrect count by hand4 ,the ,use of ,school-houses and other public buildings for registration- and polling-places is growing more common4 ,it not only saves the large rent usually charged for the use of other buildings for polling-places1 but it also gives more room and more convenient surroundings than are afforded by the kind of place often rented for use on ,election ,day4 ,unless provision is made by a city charter or some special permission school-houses may be used in this way only by a vote of the people of the district4 ,the ,cost of ,elections in proportion to other expenses of government is small4 ,in the budget for ,new ,york ,city it figures less than #a per cent4 of the total budget4 ,at the same time it could undoubtedly be lowered by economy4 ,high rent is paid for polling-places1 double the number of ballots necessary and liberal supplies are given to each district4 ,it was found in ,chicago1 when women became voters1 that the cost of elections was increased very little4 ,the supplies furnished1 and the same number of election officials1 were found to be able to care for a large increase in the number of voters4 ,,xi ,,taxation ,it is evident that to carry on the necessary business of a city1 a county1 the ,state1 or the nation requires money4 ,also1 since everybody shares in the benefits of government1 every one should help pay the bill4 ,one of the most difficult problems of government is to devise a system of taxation that cannot be evaded1 that will raise sufficient money for expenses1 and that will treat every one with equal justice4 ,taxation may be divided into two general classes1 direct and indirect4 ,direct taxes are those imposed directly upon property or persons2 such as taxes imposed upon land1 personal property1 or income4 ,the term indirect tax is applied to taxes upon activities such as carrying on some business or upon buying1 selling1 manufacturing1 or importing certain articles4 ,a direct tax1 as a rule1 cannot be evaded or shifted to some other person4 ,indirect taxes can be evaded by abstaining from the activity that is taxed4 ,they can usually also be shifted to others1 and are generally paid by the consumer1 or user of the article that is taxed4 ,in general1 direct taxes are levied by the ,state and municipal governments1 while the ,national government derives its revenue 7with the exception of the income tax7 mainly from indirect taxes4 ,taxes for local purposes are levied largely on houses and land1 on what is called real property4 ,personal property1 which is movable property1 such as mortgages1 live stock1 furniture1 etc41 is also subject to taxation1 but it is assessed only upon the balance of its value in excess of the indebtedness of the person taxed4 ,it is a more difficult tax to collect than the tax on real property1 and is evaded to such a large extent that many economists believe that it should be abolished1 and some tax substituted more possible to impose equally and to collect4 ,village and school taxes are usually collected independently by village and school officials4,a ,town1 county1 ,state1 and city taxes are assessed and collected at the same time4 ,tax ,districts3 ,the ,state is divided into tax districts which have usually the boundaries of the township or city1 and there are three tax assessors in each tax district elected by the people in the town1 and usually appointed in the city4 ,how ,taxes ,are ,assessed3 ,the ,state ,legislature decides the amount needed for carrying on the government of the ,state4 ,the largest part of these expenses are met by special indirect ,state taxes4 ,the remainder of the amount to be raised is apportioned among the counties according to the value of taxable property in each 7see ,state ,board of ,equalization74 ,the county board of supervisors decides how much is needed for county affairs4 ,the town meetings1 or the town boards and the voters through voting on propositions submitted by the town boards1 decide how much money is needed for the business of the towns4 ,this sum is added to the total amount of taxes necessary for the county government1 and to the county's share of taxes for the ,state government1 and the combined sum is the amount that must be levied on the property in that county4 ,the amount needed to carry on the government of a city in the county is reported to the county board of supervisors and to this sum is added in the same way the proportion of county and ,state taxes which the city must pay4 ,assessing the amount each taxpayer shall pay is the duty of the assessors4 ,they make up an ,assessment roll which must contain the name of every person in the district who owns property1 and the assessed value of his property4 ,the way the assessors do this work varies largely4 ,the policy governing assessments in rural districts is to place as low a valuation on property as possible1 in order that the total assessed valuation for the county shall be kept down1 so that the apportionment given to the county for ,state taxes shall be low1 and the larger burden of taxation shall fall on the cities4 ,when the assessment roll is completed the assessors notify the public that it is open for inspection1 and a time and place are fixed for a hearing1 when any one who thinks he has been unfairly treated may complain4 ,if such a person is not satisfied with the decision of the local assessors he may appear before the ,county ,board of ,equalization with his complaint4 ,the ,county ,board of ,equalization is the county board of supervisors4 ,they have power to equalize the assessed value of the real property in any tax district in the county4 ,they apportion the amount of ,state and county tax due from each town or city1 add the town or city tax1 then ascertain the amount each person shall pay according to the assessed valuation of his property4 ,this sum is noted on the assessment roll opposite each person's name and the roll then becomes the tax roll of the district4 ,a practical example3 ,suppose ,x owns a house and lot which the assessors value at #e1jjj4 ,the county board of equalization finds that the city where ,x lives must raise #ajj1jjj in taxes2 #ij1jjj is required for the city government2 #i1jjj is the sum the city is required to contribute to the expenses of the county1 and #a1jjj is the share the city has to pay toward the government of the ,state4 ,the value of taxable property in the city is #e1jjj1jjj4 ,every dollar of assessed property in the city must therefore pay two cents in taxes1 and ,x's taxes will be #ajj1 of which #ij will go to the city1 #i to the county1 and #a to the ,state4 ,a mortgage on the property does not decrease the amount to be paid4 ,collecting ,taxes3#c ,if a person fails to pay his real-estate taxes the county treasurer is authorized to sell his property for the unpaid taxes4 ,the property may be redeemed by the former owner on payment of back taxes with interest due and the cost and expenses of the tax sale4 ,public buildings1 religious and charitable institutions1 are usually free from taxation2 they are for the benefit of the entire community4 ,state ,taxes3 ,the ordinary expenses of the ,state government are met by revenues derived from special indirect ,state taxes1 so that for years there was no direct ,state tax4 ,state revenues are provided through taxes on stock transfers1 mortgage taxes1 inheritance taxes1 excise1 franchise1 and corporation taxes4 ,one-half the amount derived from the excise tax goes to the ,state and one-half to the community from which it comes4 ,every stock company incorporated under any law of the ,state must pay a tax upon the amount of its capital stock and upon any subsequent increase4 ,the earnings of corporations doing business in the ,state are also taxed4 ,an ,inheritance ,tax is a tax imposed on the transfer of property at death by will1 or by operation of law in case of intestacy4 ,the rate of this tax varies according to the value of the property or share of the recipient and his kinship to decedent4 ,a higher rate is levied on a large bequest or share than on a small one1 and a larger percentage is levied when the bequest or share goes to distant kin or to a stranger than when it goes to a close relative4 ,the direct property tax is now used to pay off the interest and gradually the principal of the ,state debt4 ,the estimated resources and revenues1 not including the direct tax1 for the ,state for #aiah are3 ,cash balance1 ,july #ast #aa1jhd1dbc ,stenographers' tax #dca1fjg ,excise tax #e1gej1jjj ,corporation tax #bj1jjj1jjj ,incorporation tax #a1djj1jjj ,inheritance tax #ad1jjj1jjj ,stock transfer tax #f1ajj1jjj ,investment tax #b1ejj1jjj ,mortgage tax #a1ahj1jjj ,motor ,vehicle tax #b1cge1jjj ,canal maintenance receipts #aej1jjj ,other revenues #d1eed1aej ---------------------- ,total #fi1ebe1ahj ,the ,board of ,equalization meets in ,albany once a year to examine the reports from the different counties of the value of their taxable property1 and to equalize the amount of their taxation4 ,the ,state tax commissioners1 who must personally visit the counties and examine the local rolls1 and the land office commissioners form this board4 ,federal ,taxes3 ,the ,united ,states government even before the war required an enormous amount of money with which to conduct its business4 ,in the past its chief sources of revenue have been custom duties and internal-revenue taxes4 ,custom ,duties are taxes levied on the importation of articles into the ,united ,states from foreign countries4 ,the tariff1 which fixes the rates of the impost taxes1 has been a constant subject for dispute between the major political parties4 ,whether the tariff should be imposed 8for revenue only10 or whether it should be 8a protective tariff0 to protect ,american industries and ,american labor from the cheap labor of other countries1 has been the chief point of difference between ,republicans and ,democrats at ,national elections4 ,impost taxes are indirect taxes which eventually come out of the pockets of the people in increased prices of the articles imported1 and incidentally they raise the prices of similar articles of domestic manufacture4 ,internal ,revenue or ,excise ,taxes are taxes imposed on business or on the manufacture and sale of articles in the ,united ,states4 ,the most important taxes of this character are those on the manufacture and sale of liquor and tobacco4 ,the manufacture and sale of cosmetics1 perfumes1 oleomargarine1 and playing-cards are also subject to internal-revenue taxes4 ,in many cases these taxes are paid by the sale of stamps to the manufacturer1 who has to affix them to the article before it is sold4 ,as with many other kinds of taxation1 the public1 the ultimate consumer1 pays this tax4 ,the ,income ,tax is a tax on the income of a person4 ,many who do not own land or other tangible property enjoy an income4 ,as a farmer has to pay a tax on his farm1 so a lawyer who has a lucrative practice1 but does not own land or stocks1 and the man who has an income from investments1 are all required to pay their share of government expenses4 ,the income-tax law of #aiaf taxes all incomes of married couples in excess of #d1jjj1 and all incomes of unmarried persons in excess of #c1jjj4 ,to provide further war revenue1 an additional tax was imposed in #aiag on the income of every unmarried person in excess of #a1jjj a year1 and of every married couple in excess of #b1jjj a year4 ,the rate of these taxes increases with the size of the income4 ,the combined income taxes may amount to as much as #fg per cent4 in case of the largest incomes4 ,public ,debt2 ,bonds3 ,if the government needs more money than it wishes to raise by taxation1 it can borrow it by issuing bonds4 ,a bond is a promise to pay a certain definite sum of money at a certain time with a fixed rate of interest4 ,united ,states government bonds are the safest investment in the world4 ,the ,state and municipalities may also issue bonds1 although the amount a city may borrow may be limited by the value of its assessed property4 ,the interest on bonds and the payment of the principal must be met by taxation4 ,bonds should not be issued to pay for the running expenses of government1 because that is putting on future generations the unjust burden of paying for something for which they receive no return4 ,their legitimate use is to meet the cost of some improvement which will continue to benefit those who go on paying for it4 ,when bonds are issued provision should be made for the redemption of their principal4 ,this is done in ,new ,york ,state by raising annually by direct taxation a fixed sum to be invested and kept as a separate fund called a 8sinking fund10 to be used only for this purpose4 ,a sinking fund for the payment of the interest and for the redemption of the debt of the ,state is required by the ,state constitution4 ,the ,budget3 ,before undertaking an enterprise a wise man considers how much it is going to cost1 and where the money is coming from4 ,a budget is a summary of the estimated expenses for the following year of the different departments of the government4 ,it is a business-like method of determining the amount of money which should be raised by a ,state or municipality to meet its necessary expenses4 ,the budget for ,new ,york ,state is made by the ,legislature from an estimate furnished by each of the administrative departments of the ,state4 ,it includes in detail the amount of salaries1 traveling expenses1 and maintenance of each department4 ,the making of a budget for a city is of the greatest importance to the taxpayers4 ,public hearings are held on it1 when taxpayers may be heard for or against the use of the money in the designated way1 and when they may ask for additional appropriations for some city activity4 ,public servants in this1 as in every other department of service1 work best under supervision4 ,the taxpayer owes it to himself to maintain adequate representation at these hearings4 ,it is on the basis of the budget as finally adopted that taxes are adjusted for the following year4 7,see ,chapter ,,iv on ,greater ,new ,york47 ,the ,national government has not yet adopted the budget plan1 and the ,president has not the power to veto any item of an appropriation bill unless he vetoes the entire measure4 ,this is a limitation which is greatly deplored1 as it prevents him from cutting out any provision in the bill which he may think unwarranted or extravagant1 or which has come out of the 8pork-barrel40 ,this is a term applied to appropriations given by ,congress to certain local communities for some ,federal building or for the development of some local resource which is not of advantage to the ,national government1 and which is given not because there is any need for it1 but because the representative from that district in ,congress wants to make himself popular with his constituents by getting for them some public plunder4 ,every ,dollar ,that ,is ,spent in ,any ,department of ,government ,comes ,out of the ,pockets of the ,people3 ,it is not easy for the public to realize this4 ,the ,congressman who gets an extra appropriation for a post-office or other public building that is not needed1 in order to please his home people1 may get more votes1 but he is adding to the public burden4 ,in return for a vote for his post-office he may have to give his vote to a fellow-,congressman for an unnecessary expenditure in another ,state4 ,the chain so formed is practically endless1 and its inevitable effect is to raise the cost of government unwarrantably4 ,every such expenditure1 every unnecessary public salary1 every dishonest public official1 every tax-dodger1 every incompetent piece of public work1 adds to the burden of taxation which the people have to pay4 ,,footnotes3 #c ,in some counties local arrangements make it difficult for absent owners of property to know when and where taxes are due4 ,every tax-collector should be obliged to follow the usage of any good business house and mail a bill for taxes4 ,,xii ,,public ,,highways ,road-making has been a function of government since the early ages4 ,the old ,roman roads still exist as evidence of the labor and care that were put into them4 ,ease of communication1 which permits people to journey from home and see what the rest of the world is doing1 is a great factor in binding people together1 and tends to promote progress4 ,good roads are important to every citizen1 not only because of the increased use of the automobile1 but because they are a vital part of the business life of the country4 ,the farmer needs them to move his crops to market4 ,without them he may be unable to sell his produce at the time it is most needed and when he could get the best prices for it4 ,the merchant needs them to receive supplies and make deliveries2 the manufacturer needs them for the moving of his raw material2 the city-dweller needs them so that food may come into city markets4 ,public highways are the connecting arteries between city and country4 ,new ,york ,state has recognized the need of good roads1 and has spent an immense amount of money to secure them4 ,some years ago a bond issue of #ej1jjj1jjj was authorized in the belief that such a large sum of money would put the roads in a condition to meet all requirements for many years4 ,in #aijg the ,legislature approved contracts for #h1cjj miles of county highways1 believing that the money available would be sufficient4 ,the following year it approved contracts for #c1fjj miles of ,state highways and another bond issue of #ej1jjj1jjj was found necessary4 ,not only had the cost of labor and material greatly increased1 but in addition the use of motor-trucks and motor-buses was beginning to put a strain on roads and road-beds which had not been anticipated4 ,old roads began to go to pieces rapidly and needed constant repair and often replacing4 ,even the new roads1 where the road-beds were of stone only six inches deep1 soon spread and disintegrated under trucks weighing from one to fifteen tons4 ,this use of motor-trucks is increasing1 and is necessary for the traffic requirements of the ,state1 but highways are being subject to a strain hitherto unknown1 and this strain will increase in both quantity and severity4 ,how to meet the requirements and maintain and repair roads built for light traffic which are giving way under the new demands1 and how to build new roads strong enough to stand up under the strain1 are problems the ,state finds it difficult to meet4 ,new road-beds are now required of stone from nine to twelve inches deep4 ,some roads are built by the ,state1 some by the county1 and some by the town4 ,in many cases the cost of the work is divided between county and town1 or between county and ,state4 ,the ,state may help a town build a road1 but it can only contribute the same amount or less than the town appropriates4 ,all material that is used in road-building must be tested in the laboratories maintained by the ,state ,highway ,department1 and constant experiments are being made to test materials and specifications to find out what will stand the hardest wear4 ,all roads must be built and repaired under the direction of the ,state ,highway ,commissioner1 but whether these instructions are carried out often depends on local officials4 ,the public believes that there has been no part of government in ,new ,york ,state more honeycombed with fraud than the one of road-building and maintaining2 that specifications have been skimped or ignored1 different materials have been substituted from those prescribed1 cheaper construction of every kind passed by inspectors1 and that the result has been that many roads of the ,state have cost vast sums of money for which the ,state is in debt and have not lasted even a few years4 ,in #aiaf the ,state had a total of #d1jbg miles of macadam roads and #e1hcf miles of gravel town roads1 and more than half of all the improved roads in the ,state had been constructed within five years4 ,there were #gbh patrolmen employed looking after repairs4 ,the entire cost of bridges is met by the towns with occasional aid from the county4 ,if a ,state road goes through a village1 the same amount is allowed as for the rest of the construction1 and if the village wants another kind of a paving or a wider road it must pay the difference in cost4 ,the ,state ,highway ,department gives as averages of cost3 for macadam roads #aj1jjj a mile2 first-class concrete1 #ae1jjj a mile2 and brick paving1 #be1jjj a mile4 ,the ,state highway law provides that all construction must be done by contract4 ,prison labor is not employed on ,state and county roads as in some ,states1 but it has been used on roads built by towns4 ,in spite of the huge appropriations1 the ,state roads are far from complete as planned4 ,nearly #gej1jjj will be available in #aiah from the ,national government as part of ,new ,york ,state's share in the ,federal appropriation for roads4 8,working out0 a road tax was never a method which contributed to good roads4 ,the earth roads on which the taxpayer puts his unskilled labor are usually impassable many months of the year4 ,city ,streets3 ,the local government decides where a road or street is needed1 and with the consent of a sufficient proportion of the property-owners may purchase or condemn the necessary property4 ,if the owner is not satisfied with the payment offered1 appraisers must be appointed to decide the amount that should be paid4 ,city streets must be maintained by the city government4 ,if a person is injured by the failure of the government to keep sidewalks in repair he has a right to sue the government for damages4 ,the municipal government1 on the other hand1 may require property-owners to keep their sidewalks in good condition4 ,street-cleaning3 ,since many thousands of children have no playground but the street1 the condition in which city streets are kept is of great importance to their health and general welfare4 ,disease germs are heavy and are most numerous near the ground4 ,if playgrounds could be arranged on the roofs of high buildings the children would be the gainers from the pure air4 ,unfortunately1 the streets in which they play are not usually the ones which are cleaned most frequently by the street-cleaning department4 ,old and young are disorderly--newspapers1 cigarette-butts1 and fruit-skins are thrown down anywhere4 ,streets littered with papers1 with dust-laden pieces blowing back and forth1 increase the dangers from disease4 ,carelessness on the part of the public in throwing things into the streets adds many thousands of dollars to the cost of street-cleaning departments4 ,every time that a person throws a paper or any object into the street eventually some one else must be paid to pick it up4 ,most municipalities have ordinances against littering the streets1 but they are often dead letters4 ,the cleanliness and good order of city streets pay in dollars and cents1 in public comfort and convenience1 and in a lowered death-rate4 ,parks3 ,with the congestion of population that is not confined to ,new ,york ,city or any one part of the ,state1 parks large and small have become a necessity not only for pleasure and beauty1 but for the health of the community4 ,in the country people can be out of doors as much as they please1 but when families are obliged to live close together1 8breathing-places0 are of actual physical benefit1 especially if they can be green with grass and trees4 ,communities often awaken to the need of parks too late1 after all available places are occupied1 when in order to provide the necessary oasis property has to be condemned and often enormous sums of money paid for it4 ,city ,planning3 ,most of our cities have grown up haphazard without any definite plan of development4 ,as new industries have come in they have brought in large numbers of employees1 who have had to be provided with living-places1 and a new section of the city has been started4 ,or a real-estate boom1 fostered by some private enterprise1 will develop another quarter without consideration for the welfare of the incoming population4 ,as land values advance1 in order to squeeze all the profit possible out of this increase1 high crowded buildings spring up1 planned to house as many people as possible in a restricted area4 ,new ,york ,city and many other places are continuing to create new tenement districts in outlying quarters of the city where land is still plentiful4 ,it is not easy to change congested areas built up in the past1 but it is a wrong to coming generations to continue to allow considerations of health and decency to be ignored in the future growth of cities4 ,haphazard growth has cost the public dearly in actual money values4 ,unrestricted crowded living conditions have cost still more dearly in the moral and physical vitality of the people who have had to put up with them4 ,these mistakes of the past cannot be remedied1 but cities and villages are still growing1 and the wise community is now developing a plan in advance for its future growth1 which will safeguard public health and welfare1 and the convenience as well as the beauty of the city4 ,the ,value of ,beauty3 ,streets and roads do not need to be bare and ugly4 ,some attention paid to appearance costs very little and is a distinct benefit to the public4 ,weeds are usually cut down along the roadside1 but so1 too often1 are the trees4 ,when one thinks of the many years it takes for a tree to attain a fine growth1 one wonders at the carelessness with which they are sacrificed4 ,a well-shaded road bordered by trees1 or a shaded city street1 testifies to the intelligence and thrift of the people responsible for them4 ,such care is apt to be repaid by increased property values4 ,,xiii ,,courts ,in the ,united ,states there are two classes of courts--,state courts and ,united ,states or ,federal courts4 ,the ,state courts of each ,state derive their jurisdiction and powers from the constitution and laws of the ,state4 ,the ,united ,states courts derive their jurisdiction and powers from the ,constitution and laws of the ,united ,states4 ,the functions of the courts are to hear and decide criminal and civil cases4 ,criminal ,cases are prosecutions or proceedings by the ,state or ,federal government to enforce the laws made for the preservation of peace1 law1 and order in the community1 by the imposition of fines1 or imprisonment1 or the punishment of death1 in case of their violation4 ,civil ,cases are suits or proceedings brought for the enforcement or protection of personal or property rights2 as1 for example1 suits to recover compensation or damages for personal injuries1 or the destruction of property1 or for breaches of contract1 or to recover property wrongfully taken1 or to restrain by injunction threatened wrongful acts for which a suit for money damages would not be an adequate remedy4 ,at the trial of a criminal or civil case1 the judge supervises and directs the proceedings1 and decides any question of law which may arise4 ,questions of fact1 arising in criminal cases1 and in most civil cases1 are decided by a jury of twelve qualified citizens drawn from a panel or list2 but in certain classes of civil cases the judge decides questions of fact as well as questions of law4 ,civil as well as criminal cases must be commenced and carried on in a manner prescribed by law or by rules of the courts4 ,in ,new ,york the laws of procedure are commonly believed to be unnecessarily complicated and technical4 ,innumerable controversies have arisen as to their meaning and effect4 ,they have been amended and supplemented by many statutes1 and there is a strong movement among lawyers to secure the adoption of a simpler and more workable system of procedure4 ,in ,new ,york ,state the courts are of the following classes3 ,justices of the ,peace1 or ,justices' ,courts1 try petty criminal cases involving small thefts1 drunkenness1 disorderly conduct1 and breach of the peace1 and certain ordinary civil suits involving sums of not over #bjj4 ,a person accused of serious crime before a justice of the peace may be held to await action of a grand jury4 ,in ,new ,york ,city1 and in various other cities of the ,state1 the functions of the justices' courts are performed by courts called ,municipal ,courts1 ,city ,courts1 ,magistrates or ,police ,courts1 the latter having jurisdiction only over petty criminal cases4 ,the powers and duties1 as well as the names of these lower courts1 vary in the different cities4 ,it is most important that honest1 sympathetic men should preside over these lower courts1 for in them are tried the small offenses which may be due to ignorance of law1 and a large number of people come in contact with government in no other way4 ,most arrests are for minor offenses such as drunkenness1 disorderly conduct1 etc4 ,they are tried here1 and many of them bring first offenders into court1 where the treatment received by the person accused may determine whether he will become a habitual offender or whether he will be set straight4 ,many foreigners come into these courts1 and receive in them their first impression of justice as administered in this country4 ,oftentimes the offense is committed through ignorance or stupidity4 ,a kind word or a helping hand may make all the difference between a future good citizen or a crook4 ,in these courts1 as in the justices courts of the town or village1 there is great need of a careful choice of magistrates4 ,county ,courts3 ,in every county except ,new ,york there is a county court presided over by the elected county judge4 ,in these county courts may be tried civil suits in which the sum involved is not over #b1jjj and all crimes except those punishable by death4 ,they also hear appeals from the justices' courts4 ,the county courts in ,queens1 ,bronx1 ,richmond1 ,kings1 ,ulster1 and ,albany counties may try cases involving the death penalty4 ,surrogates' ,courts3 ,in each county there is a surrogate court1 held by a judge called 8the ,surrogate10 who is elected by the voters of the county for a term of six years 7except in the county of ,new ,york74 ,in this court wills are probated1 the estates of persons deceased are settled1 and guardians for minors and executors or administrators for estates of decedents are appointed4 ,it is evident that a county surrogate should be a man of strictest probity as well as good business sense4 ,court of ,claims3 ,any one who has a claim against the ,state may take it to the ,court of ,claims1 which consists of three judges appointed by the governor with the approval of the ,senate4 ,appeals from its decisions may be taken to the ,appellate ,division of the ,supreme ,court4 ,the ,supreme ,court3 ,above the county courts are the ,supreme ,courts1 which1 however1 are not really supreme1 as their decisions are subject to review1 and may be reversed upon appeal by the ,appellate ,division or the ,court of ,appeals4 ,the ,supreme ,courts may try any civil or criminal cases1 including prosecutions for murder4 ,there are more than one hundred ,supreme ,court justices in the ,state1 elected by the voters of the various districts1 and the entire ,state is divided into nine judicial districts1 in which certain of these ,supreme ,court justices sit4 ,in every county1 at a certain time1 a ,supreme ,court justice holds a trial court1 where both civil and criminal cases are heard before a trial jury4 ,he also holds a special term1 where he hears and decides motions and civil cases in which no jury trial is required4 ,appellate ,divisions of the ,supreme ,court3 ,as judges are human and may make mistakes1 the law provides a right of appeal from the court in which a case is tried4 ,the whole ,state is divided into four judicial departments1 in each of which there is an ,appellate ,division of the ,supreme ,court4 ,from the ,supreme ,court justices the governor chooses the justices for the ,appellate ,divisions4 ,these ,appellate ,divisions hear appeals from decisions of the county courts and of the ,supreme ,courts1 and they may sit wherever the public interest demands4 ,they do not try cases originally1 but only hear appeals4 ,the ,court of ,appeals is composed of a chief judge and nine associate judges1 but only seven judges sit at one time4 ,this court is the ,state court of last resort1 and it may reverse a decision of an ,appellate ,division of the ,supreme ,court4 ,in most cases no appeal lies to the ,court of ,appeals from a decision of a question of fact by a lower court1 but only questions of law can be reviewed2 but in criminal cases where the sentence is death the entire case may be reviewed4 ,courts of ,record are those courts that have an official seal and keep an official record of all proceedings4 ,the ,surrogate's ,court1 the ,county ,court1 the ,supreme ,court and its appellate divisions1 and the ,court of ,appeals are courts of record4 ,justices' ,courts and ,magistrates' ,courts are not courts of record4 ,federal ,courts3 ,the jurisdiction of the ,united ,states or ,federal courts extends to all cases in law and equity arising under the ,constitution and laws of the ,united ,states1 to all cases affecting ambassadors and other public ministers and consuls1 to admiralty and maritime cases1 and to controversies between ,states or between citizens of different ,states4 ,federal courts are organized in a similar way to ,state courts4 ,the ,united ,states ,district ,courts hear1 in the first instance1 all classes of cases over which the ,united ,states courts have jurisdiction1 except the cases mentioned below4 ,the entire country is divided into ninety judicial districts1 and each ,state has at least one district4 ,the ,united ,states ,court of ,claims1 which is located in ,washington1 has jurisdiction over claims against the ,united ,states government4 ,the ,circuit ,court of ,appeals is an appellate court by which decisions of the ,united ,states district courts may be reviewed4 ,the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court is the highest tribunal in the land4 ,in cases affecting ambassadors and consuls1 and those to which the ,state is a party1 the ,supreme ,court has original jurisdiction4 ,other cases can come before it only upon an appeal1 or writ of error1 to review a decision of a lower ,united ,states court or a decision of the highest ,state court involving a question of ,federal law4 ,there is a chief justice and eight associate justices of the ,supreme ,court1 who are appointed for life4 ,to be a justice of the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states is considered one of the highest honors in the land4 ,the judges of all the ,federal courts are appointed by the ,president with the consent of the ,senate4 ,constitutionality of the ,law3 ,one important power which the courts have is to interpret the meaning of the ,constitution and laws1 but they have no power to do so except so far as necessary to the disposal of cases before them4 ,the constitution of the ,state is its fundamental law1 as that of the ,united ,states 7together with the laws made by ,congress under it and treaties made by the ,united ,states7 is the supreme law of the entire ,united ,states4 ,a question may arise as to the precise meaning and scope of a constitutional provision4 ,in this case the court may interpret its meaning1 and may declare void a law because in violation of the constitution4 ,an ,injunction is an order or decree issued by a court1 restraining some person or persons or corporation from performing certain acts1 on the ground that such acts would cause an injury or loss1 for which a suit to recover money damages would not furnish adequate redress4 ,a temporary injunction1 or restraining order1 may be issued upon affidavits1 in advance of the final trial of a case1 when it may either be dissolved or be made permanent4 ,an injunction may also command the performance of some act4 ,in such cases it is called a mandatory injunction4 ,if an injunction is violated1 the person disobeying can be arrested and sent to jail or fined 8for contempt of court0 without trial by jury4 ,many efforts have been made to limit this power of the courts4 ,in ,oklahoma1 the law provides for jury trial in case of contempt of court for violation of an injunction4 ,judges are elected for a longer term of years than are other public officials4 ,county judges have a six-year term4 ,supreme ,court justices and judges of the ,court of ,appeals are elected for a term of fourteen years4 ,the reason for the longer term of service is that the increased experience is supposed to make a judge more valuable to the ,state2 also1 on account of the long term1 he is supposed to be less affected by political considerations4 ,whether judges should be appointed or elected has been a matter of considerable controversy4 ,it is argued that if they are appointed1 the appointment may be a reward for political service instead of because of fitness for the position4 ,on the other hand1 if judges are elected1 it is objected that they must take part in political contests1 and are apt to give decisions more with regard to popular favor than to actual justice4 ,many persons think that in practice better judges are obtained by appointment than by popular election4 ,state judges are usually elected1 but the ,federal judges are appointed4 ,the election of proper men for the position of judge is one of the most important duties of an electorate4 ,whether the process of the law insures justice and increases public security depends often more on the judge than on the letter of the law4 ,decisions involving the happiness1 rights1 and lives of countless people go through the courts of the ,state4 ,these decisions should not be in the hands of men to whom the office has been given as a reward for party service1 or who have been put in the position by prejudiced interests4 ,a wise1 intelligent1 public-spirited judge has enormous opportunity to add to the sum of public welfare4 ,,xiv ,,the ,,punishment ,,of ,,crime ,a crime is an offense against the people of the ,state4 ,also every action that is brought before a court costs the ,state money and adds to the burden of taxation borne by the people4 ,a free government carefully guards the rights of an accused person4 ,he must be told of the charges against him and be given every chance to answer them4 ,he is presumed by the law to be innocent until he is proved guilty1 and is not obliged to answer any questions that may incriminate himself4 ,he may be examined at once by a magistrate1 or1 if he prefers1 may be committed to jail to await a future examination4 ,if held for any except the most serious crime he may be allowed his liberty by some one 8giving bail0--that is1 giving a pledge of money or property to insure his appearance in court at a certain date4 ,if he 8jumps his bail0 the money is forfeited to the ,state1 although that does not protect him if he can be found4 ,if the charge of which he is accused is a serious one1 it must come before a grand jury4 ,the ,grand ,jury is a body of men chosen from the taxpayers of a county to inquire into alleged crimes during a particular term of court4 ,the supervisors or the commissioner of jurors makes out a list of three hundred names of men of integrity and sound judgment1 from which the names of twenty-four men are drawn by lot4,b ,from sixteen to twenty-three of these men sit in secret session1 and hear the presentment of a case1 and decide by a vote of at least twelve members whether the evidence is sufficient to warrant holding the accused for trial4 ,the necessity of a case coming before the grand jury often causes much delay in a trial1 as the jury can only be called when court is in session1 and there are often long periods of time between courts4 ,on the other hand1 the fact that the grand jury is made up of a man's neighbors and friends1 who would be disposed to give him fair treatment1 is a safeguard to his interests4 ,if 8a true bill0 is found1 the accused person comes before the court and the charge against him is read to him4 ,if he pleads guilty the judge imposes a sentence4 ,if he pleads 8not guilty0 the trial proceeds4 ,if the accused has no lawyer1 the court must appoint one for him4 ,while a man so appointed must defend the case1 the best lawyers are not secured in this way4 ,there has been considerable demand for the creation of the office of public defender for accused persons4 ,the ,state employs public prosecutors1 and it is argued that it should be as much interested in proving a man's innocence as in proving his guilt4 ,trial by ,jury is a right guaranteed by the constitutions of both the ,state and the nation4 ,a trial jury is composed of twelve men chosen from a list of qualified men in the county where the crime is committed1 or is being tried4 ,after the evidence in the case has been presented and the judge makes his charge as to the law applicable to the case1 the jury retires to a secret session1 where they are kept in confinement until they reach a unanimous verdict4 ,in ,england it requires only a majority of the jury to render a verdict4 ,jury ,service is one of the important duties of a citizen4 ,it is not required of certain classes of men--viz41 clergymen1 physicians1 druggists1 lawyers1 and newspaper-men1 among others--and judges have the power to excuse men on whom jury service would entail special hardship4 ,jurors are paid a small sum by the day1 and to many men jury service means serious inconvenience and financial loss4 ,but to leave the settlement of cases which involve the serious welfare of both individuals and the public1 to professional jurors1 the hangers-on of a court-room1 is a great wrong to the community4 ,women ,jurors,c have not yet been permitted in ,new ,york ,state1 although in some ,western ,states they have served with much success4 ,there are certain cases involving young girls and children where it would seem that only women should be allowed on the jury4 ,cases of murder committed by a woman might be treated with more impartial justice if women served on such juries4 ,sentimental considerations would not influence them as they do some men in such cases4 ,the ,police3 ,much of the public welfare and safety of a city depends on its police force4 ,a modern police is organized on a military basis4 ,the men hold their positions for life or during good behavior4 ,promotions are based on merit1 and pensions are paid men who have served a certain term of years4 ,this plan has improved conditions by taking the police out of politics to a large degree4 ,the policy of the head of the department is of the greatest importance to the public4 ,the temptations for graft and corruption in a police department are enormous1 but the assurance of a square deal all up and down the line1 strict orders to uphold the law1 and a well-defined policy against graft of every description1 will do wonders to keep a department honest and efficient4 ,in recent years the plan has been developed of making the police helpful in many ways in the life of the city4 ,the uniformed officer has many opportunities to help and direct children1 especially the boys on the streets1 to prevent violations of the city's ordinances1 the littering of the streets1 and in many ways to prevent before the act1 rather than to arrest after it has been committed4 ,this helpful spirit has been adopted by the police of ,new ,york ,city1 to the great good of the city4 ,it is exemplified in the ,christmas trees in the station-houses for the poorer children of a neighborhood at ,christmas-time4 ,prison ,reform3 ,modern government is learning not to avenge itself on a criminal1 but to impose a sentence which will tend to reform him4 ,instead of sentencing a person to a definite term of imprisonment1 an indeterminate sentence may be given him1 the length of which will be determined by his behavior1 and by the promise he may show of leading a better life if set free4 ,if he is released he may be put on probation4 ,this means that he is required to report at regular intervals to the court1 or to a probation officer1 to show that his conduct is law-abiding4 ,if he goes wrong again1 he is remanded to serve out his sentence4 ,men and women1 wherever confined1 must be given employment4 ,idleness is bad for even an educated person4 ,imposed on one who has no resources within himself1 it becomes a source of demoralization scarcely to be measured4 ,the old custom was to hire prisoners out to contractors at low wages4 ,this brought goods manufactured by prison labor into unfair competition with honest labor4 ,the modern idea is to teach the prisoner a useful occupation and to pay the wages to his family4 ,it is not common-sense to support a man in prison at the expense of the ,state1 and to allow his family to suffer from having his support taken away from them4 ,probation3 ,first offenders1 or persons committing minor offenses1 are often put at once on probation1 with the sentence suspended during good behavior4 ,this has proved of great value in saving many from a criminal career4 ,it is far less costly to the ,state than keeping them in prison1 and often leads to the establishment of an honest life4#d ,jails and ,prisons3 ,every community has some kind of jail for the detention of offenders4 ,those who come in contact with the law are often the poor and the friendless who cannot get bail4 ,even innocent persons may be held some time awaiting trial1 or the action of the grand jury4 ,young girls are often detained1 sometimes as witnesses1 sometimes pending investigation of their own cases1 sometimes as runaways from home4 ,in such a case there is no place of detention but the local jail4 ,these jails are often filthy and unsanitary1 unfit for human habitation4 ,their surroundings1 and the character of the sheriff or constable1 and jail officials1 must inevitably have an effect on the prisoners1 especially on the younger women4 ,it is most important to the community that a woman shall not be sent out from jail a more hardened criminal because of her confinement there4 ,it is a wrong1 the responsibility for which every woman in the neighborhood must share1 that there is no better place of detention for young girls4 ,women matrons in all prisons where women are held and women probation officers are now recognized as essential4 ,it is unintelligent to allow a man to leave jail penniless far from his home and friends1 to become a tramp or to be tempted to a new offense to get money4 ,the modern ideal of criminology is that his stay in prison should teach a man an honest way of earning his living2 also that he should be given some supervision after he has left the prison doors1 to help him to lead an honest life4 ,city ,farms for the detention of offenders are a great improvement on indoor prisons1 and the open-air occupation both saves the ,state money and is beneficial to the prisoner4 ,the ,prevention of ,crime3 ,if as much money and organized effort could be put on the prevention of crime as is given to its punishment1 the need of jails and prisons would be greatly lessened4 ,the chief causes of crime are drunkenness1 feeble-mindedness1 overcrowded living conditions1 low wages1 and insufficient education and recreation4 ,drunkenness is now known to be a disease2 feeble-minded persons should not be allowed freedom of action2 the ,state may prevent congested living1 it may establish a living wage1 and it has the power to provide proper vocational training and sufficient facilities for healthful recreation4 ,it tries to separate the young offenders from the older ones1 and the first offenders from the hardened ones4 ,it has not succeeded very well in preventing inequalities before the law4 ,the rich man has the advantage of being able to employ the most skilful lawyers and to appeal his case to court after court and drag it out over a number of years4 ,when a fine is imposed he can pay it and so sometimes escape punishment4 ,the poor man may have to go to jail because he cannot pay his fine and he is often unable to fight a suit4 ,to lessen the hardships and secure equality of treatment for all alike should be the endeavor of the ,state4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,the last report of the ,new ,york ,state ,probation ,commission shows that on ,september #cj1 #aiaf1 there were #ac1dcc persons on probation1 and that the number of inmates of the penal and reformatory institutions in the ,state was decreasing4 ,probation officers had themselves collected #aci1jjj for cases of non-support1 and had caused to be paid another sum of #bjf1jjj for these cases4 ,they had assisted men to pay1 in instalments1 fines amounting to #cj1jjj1 which meant that these men were kept out of jail and at work1 and had helped men who had stolen something or had done material damage to some one to repay those they had injured the sum of #ci1jjj4 ,it is evident that there is a saving of hard cash to the ,state in this work as well as much of social value4 ,,xv ,,women ,,offenders ,,and ,,the ,,law ,the ,constitution of the ,united ,states guarantees to a person accused of crime a trial by an impartial jury1 or by a jury of one's peers4 ,the handling of cases against women offenders has little regard for that guarantee4 ,discriminations against women who have come in contact with the law are the custom4 ,if any one is inclined to doubt this1 let him imagine the case reversed and applied to himself4 ,suppose a man accused of an offense against the law should be accused by a woman1 arrested by a woman1 held in jail by a woman1 tried in a court-room filled with women1 before a jury composed only of women1 and sentenced by a woman judge4 ,would such a man feel that he was getting impartial justice given him by his peers8 ,also in the treatment of cases involving sex1 the penalty of the law rests heavily on the woman and the man usually goes free4 ,sex immorality is a crime for a woman1 but the man1 the partner in the crime1 is rarely touched by the law4 ,until recently in ,new ,york ,state1 even pandering1 or living off the earnings of a prostitute1 was classed1 as it still is in some other ,states1 as disorderly conduct1 in the same class of offenses as selling a street-car transfer4 ,in some ,states adultery is still a misdemeanor4 ,it did not become a criminal offense in ,new ,york until #aijg1 and it is still almost impossible to obtain a conviction unless there are some unusually revolting circumstances4 ,many cases have come into the courts of the ,state where women have been arrested in a raid on a disorderly house1 and where the men found with them have been released1 and the women held4 ,the large majority of the arrests of women are for the two offenses of intoxication1 and prostitution or street-walking4 ,the usual sentence for both of these offenses is commitment to the workhouse for from eleven to sixty days4 ,nearly half the cases of intoxication are of old offenders who are sentenced over and over again4 ,some years ago the ,legislature passed a measure making provision for a ,state farm where these women could be sent for care and treatment1 and where they could have useful occupation2 but it has not yet been established4 ,prostitution3 ,the same sentence to the workhouse for varying periods of from five to ninety days1 or even six months1 is the common one for prostitution4 ,it is doubtful if a sentence of this kind has ever been of the slightest benefit to any woman so sentenced4 ,the usual court procedure is a mill through which this class of unhappy beings goes1 without either their reformation being accomplished1 or their danger being lessened to the community4 ,when it is realized also1 that a considerable percentage of these women are feeble-minded or at least sub-normal1 the necessity of facilities for examination and classification and proper segregation are apparent4 ,the entire process of dealing with the problem of public prostitution in ,new ,york ,city is one that is revolting from a woman's viewpoint4 ,to rid the streets of street-walkers and to keep them 8clean10 a force of police in plain clothes patrols the streets4 ,these police are usually the new men on the force selected for their youth and good looks4 ,promotion often rests on the number of arrests that they make4 ,a smile or a nod1 and a girl may respond4 ,if she speaks1 an arrest can and often does follow4 ,this kind of training for the young men of the police force is degrading to them4 ,also1 the fact that arrests in nine cases out of ten are those of women of the street1 does not preclude the possibility of the arrest of a silly1 ignorant1 but innocent girl4 ,brought into court1 the presumption is that she is guilty4 ,there is always a first arrest for any offender against the law4 ,the records of the magistrates' courts show that nearly one-third of the women's cases brought into court are first offenders4 ,called for the first time before a judge in an open court-room1 incoherent with fright1 the girl is often unable to say a word for herself4 ,if she is fined1 or sentenced to the workhouse1 or held in detention pending investigation1 and is kept in association with other women of degraded lives1 the chances of her being reclaimed are practically gone4 ,the law holds an accused person innocent until proved guilty1 but a woman accused of a crime against morality has to prove that she is innocent4 ,under the usual court procedure1 a prostitute is outside the protection of the law and her word has no value in the court4 ,night ,courts have been established in order that offenders arrested at night1 after the day courts have closed1 may come immediately before a magistrate1 without having to spend the night in jail awaiting trial4 ,there are separate night courts for women in ,new ,york ,city1 and all arrests for prostitution or loitering are tried in these courts4 ,the motive behind the establishment of the ,women's ,night ,court is humanitarian1 but it is there that one sees the discrimination against women as the fundamental of the proceedings4 ,women are sentenced to terms in prison for offenses far less serious than those for which men are discharged4 ,the discrimination against women1 and in favor of men1 even extends to the cadet1 who pursues the most shameful business in the world1 that of exploiting unfortunate women4 ,until a few years ago the maximum penalty for such a man was six months in the workhouse4 ,the law now permits a sentence of from two to twenty years1 but convictions are rare4 ,nearly every prostitute is exploited by some man who takes her earnings1 and on whom she relies to protect her from the police4 ,if these cadets and procurers could be eliminated it would greatly diminish professional prostitution1 but they are most difficult to reach4 ,the women they exploit will often perjure themselves to save these men from the vengeance of the law4 ,also1 the fact that no conviction can be had on the testimony of the woman unless supported by corroborative evidence1 makes her afraid to testify against one of them4 ,the ,penalty of ,fines3 ,imposing a fine as a punishment for prostitution should be absolutely prohibited4 ,it does not act as a restraint1 and simply means that the woman must go out on the street to earn her fine1 and it makes the ,state a partner to her crime4 ,it has been abolished in practice by some judges2 but it is still the custom in some courts in ,new ,york ,state1 and is even imposed by some judges in ,new ,york ,city4 ,a bill to abolish fines throughout the ,state was introduced in the ,legislature of #aiaf1 but failed to pass4 ,young ,girls3 ,girls between the ages of sixteen and eighteen are in the most dangerous period of life4 ,figures show that the great majority of girls who become prostitutes are ruined before they reach seventeen years of age4 ,a girl of sixteen in ,new ,york ,state is too old for the ,children's ,court4 ,she may therefore be held in jail with the hardened street-walker and the habitual drinker4 ,if she is without the protection of home or family1 she may be left alone1 for the ,state makes no provision for a guardian for her unless she has property1 when the ,state is required to provide one for her4 ,delinquency1 thefts1 and misdemeanors on the part of young girls are often the results of natural instincts gone wrong4 ,love of pleasure1 a desire for pretty things1 and a wish to be attractive is common to all girls4 ,a false step1 a yielding to temptation1 followed by an arrest and a trial in an open court-room1 often mean an ordeal which leaves an indelible mark on the girl's soul1 and a disgrace which it is almost impossible for her to live down4 ,girl ,victims3 ,the most pitiful cases are those of very young girls brought into court as the victims of crime4 ,it is difficult to get conviction in these cases1 as corroborative evidence is necessary4 ,the shock to the sensibilities of such a girl at having to tell her story to men and having to answer questions in an open court-room can scarcely be exaggerated4 ,the need of women in places of authority1 to help in cases of such crimes1 is great4 ,women probation officers are only the first step in the right direction1 but there are too few of them1 and whenever a movement is made toward economy1 they are the first to be dismissed4 ,houses of ,detention3 ,a great need of ,new ,york ,city1 and a need shared by every city in the ,state1 is a proper place of detention for women4 ,as delinquent children are now separated from older offenders1 so delinquent girls1 first offenders and old offenders1 and other classes of women who are held awaiting trial1 or for investigation1 or as witnesses1 should not be obliged to associate indiscriminately with one another while awaiting the disposition of their cases4 ,the need of a building large enough to provide for the separate detention of the various classes of women who are in the care of the court has been recognized1 but so far little provision has been made to meet it4 ,in other places in the ,state1 wherever there is a court1 there is need of a place of detention for women where they will be safe from degrading influences1 and where they will be under the care of other women4 ,women ,judges or ,judges' ,assistants3 ,the system which has been instituted in ,chicago since women were given the vote1 of a quiet talk with a woman assistant in the ,court of ,special ,sessions1 in her own private office1 instead of an open trial1 has resulted in saving many a girl who otherwise would have become an outcast4 ,in certain intimate matters it is a woman's task to question girls4 ,contrast the picture of an open court-room3 the judge on the bench1 the jury1 if there is one1 composed of men1 the room filled with men of all descriptions1 and the frightened1 trembling child1 with this private room with the young offender telling her story alone to an experienced woman4 ,which offers the best chance for saving the girl from a ruined life8 ,frequently the girl comes from a family where crowded living conditions make decent living almost impossible4 ,instead of her first offense coming up for inevitable punishment1 it is treated with the sole object of prevention and cure4 ,judges in ,new ,york ,state cannot appoint women assistants without authority from the ,legislature1 and that authority the ,legislature has always refused to give4 ,policewomen1 or ,women ,protective ,officers1 are now recognized as a necessary part of the correctional work of a city4 ,the work of the woman protective officer is very different from that of the policeman4 ,the policewoman protects and controls1 rather than arrests4 ,in protecting children1 in caring for lost children1 in acting as mother to the motherless1 in watching over young girls1 in getting evidence against cadets1 she does an invaluable work4 ,the disorderly saloon1 the dance-hall1 and the moving-picture theater are all hunting-grounds for the white-slaver4 ,in getting evidence in this sort of crime she is more effective than the policeman4 ,there are policewomen now in fifty cities of the ,united ,states4 99 99 99 99 99 ,that the whole subject of prostitution and the law is a most difficult one to deal with1 there can be no question4 ,it needs the combined intelligence of both men and women engaged not only in theorizing over the problem1 but in actual efforts to grapple with it4 ,until public opinion supports the single standard of morality1 the courts will continue to discriminate against women4 ,unfortunately1 women of all ages1 even very young girls1 are arrested4 ,sometimes they are guilty1 sometimes innocent1 sometimes sinned against1 sometimes only the victims of circumstances1 but always unfortunate4 ,their misfortune and its results on their lives are more terrible than they need be1 because they are usually deprived of the help of women in places of authority4 ,in the ,chicago ,court of ,morals women are welcome1 and there are women court officers1 women police1 and women probation officers who create an atmosphere entirely different from the usual court-room4 ,there is also no division of sex2 when it is a question of morality1 the man and woman are both held4 ,a physical examination is made by a woman physician4 ,when a woman is found to be diseased she is sent to a hospital to be cured4 ,some of the most progressive magistrates and judges are endeavoring to improve the methods of handling cases of women offenders1 but it would seem that wherever the welfare and disposition of women are involved other women should be part of the machinery which deals with them4 ,this is not so much because of sentimental considerations1 for in some cases women would be less influenced by sentiment than men1 but there are certain peculiarities1 tendencies1 and experiences common to each sex which only those of that sex can understand4 ,in all cases of women offenders against the law other women must be concerned1 and should be equally responsible with men for their handling and disposition4 ,,xvi ,,public ,,education ,the best foundation for a democracy rests on free educational facilities for all the people4 ,an ideal school system is one that reaches out to every child and prepares him for a useful occupation1 that is also available for the further development of every member of the ,state1 and that will give every individual the knowledge necessary for him to do his part in government4 ,a self-governing people cannot afford a class too ignorant to vote4 ,in ,new ,york ,state1 school attendance is compulsory for children between the ages of seven and sixteen years4 ,an exception is made of children between fourteen and sixteen1 who have completed the first six years of school1 and have been to school #acj days since their fourteenth birthday4 ,such children may be employed if they have a duly signed work certificate4 ,in cities of the first and second classes1 boys between fourteen and sixteen who are employed during the day1 who do not hold certain certificates1 must attend night school sixteen weeks in the year4 ,truant officers must be appointed in every city1 town1 and village to enforce the law4 ,parents who fail to send their children to school are guilty of a misdemeanor4 ,the ,school ,district is the smallest division of the ,state1 and must maintain a free common school at least thirty-six weeks in the year4 ,in #aiag1 an amendment to the school law was passed which abolished the old school-district system1 that dated from #agie1 and which makes it possible for the children of the rural districts to have some of the facilities for modern education which have heretofore been confined to larger communities4 ,in place of the former school trustees for the separate school districts1 there is now one board of education for each town1 and this board has charge of all the schools in the town4 ,there are #d1jjj schools in the ,state which have less than ten pupils each4 ,the value of taxable property in many of these school districts is very small4 ,the school tax has been the only ,state tax which has been assessed in such small units4 ,the needs of each school district had to be met by the taxation of that one district4 ,for all other ,state expenses the county is the unit of taxation and taxes are assessed equally all over the county1 and the apportionment made according to the needs of each district4 ,under the present law1 by treating the town as a unit for school taxes1 all property in the town is assessed equally1 and the money raised is used for the benefit of all the town4 ,in this way the rich and poor districts share more equally in school facilities4 ,the initial expenses of making the change have increased school taxes in some places for the first year1 but the change will undoubtedly work to the great benefit of the children of the ,state1 and is along the lines adopted some years ago by most of the other ,states4 ,villages of over #a1ejj people are outside the provision of the new town law4 ,if the people of two or more school districts wish to combine1 they may vote to consolidate and establish a central school4,d ,the ,town ,board of ,education consists of from three to five members who are elected for a term of three years each and who appoint their own clerk and treasurer4 ,they have larger power than was given to the former school trustee4 ,they have charge of all school property2 they determine the kind of schools that are needed2 they may establish high schools1 vocational1 industrial1 agricultural1 and night schools2 they determine the number of teachers to be employed1 and their salaries2 they may employ medical inspectors and nurses1 and may provide transportation for children attending school4 ,the ,annual ,school ,meeting to elect the ,board of ,education is held the first ,tuesday in ,may4 ,qualifications for ,voters3 ,at this meeting any one living in the district can vote who is a citizen twenty-one years old1 a resident in the district for thirty days1 who owns or rents or has under contract of purchase taxable property in the district2 or has had a child1 either his own or residing with him1 in school for at least eight weeks during the year preceding2 or who owns personal property exceeding #ej which was assessed on the last assessment roll4 ,candidates for the board of education may be nominated on petition of twenty-five voters4 ,men and women who are duly qualified electors are eligible to the board4 ,annual ,school ,budget3 ,the board of education must prepare an itemized budget of the amount necessary to be raised for school purposes1 and must publish it in ,july for public consideration4 ,additional money may only be raised by a vote of the school district indorsed by the district superintendent4 ,the building of a school1 or repairs costing over #e1jjj1 must be submitted to a vote of the school electors4 ,a board of school directors is elected in each town1 consisting of two men1 each with a term of five years1 but elected in different years4 ,the ,supervisory ,district3 ,each county1 except those in ,greater ,new ,york1 is divided into from one to eight supervisory districts4 7,villages and cities of over #e1jjj people are not included1 as they make their own provisions4 ,each of these has a board of education47 ,the ,district ,superintendent is the director of a supervisory district4 ,he is chosen by the board of school directors and is engaged for a term of five years and paid #a1bjj a year by the ,state1 with an additional allowance of #cjj for traveling expenses4 ,the supervisors of the towns in his district may vote to increase his salary1 the increase to come out of the taxes raised in the towns in the district4 ,a man or a woman twenty-one years of age1 and a citizen and resident of the ,state1 is eligible for the office1 provided he or she has a ,state teacher's certificate and can pass an examination in the teaching of agriculture4 ,the ,district ,superintendent has the general supervision of the schools in his district4 ,he is responsible for the instruction given in them and the discipline that is maintained4 ,he examines candidates for teachers' positions1 under the direction of the ,state ,commissioner of ,education4 ,union ,free ,school ,districts have been permitted under ,state law for many years in cities and villages4 ,some years ago this law was extended to include rural districts1 and during the past few years about #ejj rural school districts have been discontinued and consolidated with adjoining districts4 ,many of the discontinued schools had only a handful of pupils1 the buildings and equipment were primitive and inadequate1 and the small amount of money available made it impossible for the school to offer any advantages4 ,the union of school districts has given better educational facilities to the rural districts4 ,the children have been taken to school by wagons provided for their transportation1 and have had the advantages of a larger school1 a higher grade of teachers1 and better facilities of all kinds for modern education4 ,the new educational law provides still greater development in this direction4 ,physical ,training is compulsory in all schools1 public and private1 for children over eight years of age for at least twenty minutes a day4 ,the ,state gives financial aid in the training4 ,military training is compulsory for boys between the ages of sixteen and nineteen in public and private secondary schools and colleges4 ,the name 8military0 is misleading1 for the law provides that the development of 8correct bearing1 mental and physical alertness1 disciplined initiative1 sense of duty1 self-control1 and a spirit of co-operation under leadership0 is to be given special attention4 ,school ,money3 ,for many years it has been recognized that sufficient educational facilities could not be provided for every part of the ,state through local taxation4 ,besides the money raised by the school districts1 the ,state contributes large sums of money for the support of public schools4 ,part of this money is the income from certain educational funds belonging to the ,state which cannot be used for any other purpose1 and part is money appropriated by the ,state ,legislature4 ,this money is distributed by the ,state ,commissioner of ,education according to the needs of the school districts4 ,city schools are subject to the same general supervision of the ,state ,commissioner of ,education1 but are under the direction of local boards of education1 and local superintendents of schools4 ,normal ,schools for training teachers are maintained by the ,state out of school funds1 and teachers' meetings are held in the supervisory districts to help and improve teachers4 ,the ,university of the ,state of ,new ,york1 which is at the head of the entire educational system of the ,state1 is not a university in the ordinary sense of the word4 ,it is a combination of all of the colleges and secondary schools of the ,state4 ,it is governed by a ,board of ,regents1 twelve men elected by the ,state ,legislature for twelve years each1 but whose terms begin in different years1 who have large powers of control over all the higher institutions in the ,state1 universities1 colleges1 technical and professional schools4 ,they have the management of the ,state ,library and ,museum4 ,they prepare ,regents' examinations and grant ,regents' certificates1 and supervise the granting of degrees4 ,the president of the ,university of the ,state of ,new ,york is elected by the ,regents4 ,he is also the ,state ,commissioner of ,education1 and as such is the head of the ,state ,department of ,education which supervises the free public schools and normal schools of the ,state and apportions the ,state school funds4 ,the ,national ,commissioner of ,education is at the head of the ,national ,bureau of ,education in ,washington4 ,the work of this bureau is largely to collect and publish information about educational conditions and progress in the ,united ,states4 ,agricultural ,help3 ,there are four free agricultural schools besides the ,state ,college of ,agriculture in ,ithaca4 ,much assistance is given by the government to the agricultural needs of the ,state4 ,special courses are provided at many colleges for the various departments of agricultural work4 ,short courses are arranged for those who can only attend a few weeks1 and at times in the year when farm work is slack4 ,farmers' ,institutes are organized1 at which experts discuss the best way of doing the varied work of the farm1 especially how to increase production and to make the farm more profitable4 ,vocational ,training3#e ,if the public school is going to prepare young people for their work in the world1 some guidance in the selection of an occupation1 and some practical training in a trade or profession1 must be included in their school work4 ,the great majority of children leave school at an early age to go to work4 ,without specialized training they have little chance for advancement1 but fill the ranks of untrained labor1 to the great loss of the world and their own disadvantage4 ,state ,scholarships3 ,each of the #aej ,assembly districts of the ,state has five free scholarships valued at #djj each4 ,the scholarships are awarded by the ,commissioner of ,education and the holder may attend any college in the ,state1 and receive #ajj for each of the four years he or she attends4 ,domestic ,training3 ,the majority of girls1 even though they are wage-earners for a time1 sooner or later marry1 and have children and a household to take care of4 ,in the olden days1 when the home was a workshop1 girls were taught cooking at home2 they learned to care for babies through taking care of the little ones in the family4 ,now they often leave school to go to the factory1 and only leave the factory when they marry4 ,they have no knowledge of cooking1 housekeeping1 or the care of children4 ,unless domestic economy of the most practical kind is taught in the school-room1 there is no way they can be prepared for the important business of housekeeper and mother4 ,if every girl were taught to cook and were trained in the proper care of an infant1 it would add immeasurably to the sum total of the comfort and health of family life4 ,it would be an advantage to every boy1 likewise1 if he were taught to use his hands in carpentering or other manual work4 ,whatever comes in later life1 hands that have been trained to be useful are a great asset to any man or woman4 ,schools as ,community ,centers3 ,education does not stop at any age4 ,public free lectures1 mothers' meetings1 and the use of schools for community recreation are helping to make the school-house #ajj per cent4 efficient as an educational center4 ,the school plant that is closed when school is not in session is an extravagance which no community can afford4 ,the demand for the use of the school-house for political meetings1 and as polling-places at election-time1 is growing4 ,outside of ,new ,york ,city school-buildings may only be so used by special permission of the voters4 ,since one of the purposes of education is to train people in citizenship1 the use of the school-house as the center of everything that pertains to the people's part in government seems legitimate4 ,health3 ,compulsory education is futile unless at the same time the health of children is maintained4 ,it is as much the duty of government to watch over the proper development of the body as of the mind1 yet more attention is often given to decoration of schoolrooms than to matters of health4 ,an appallingly large number of children have defective teeth1 poor eyes1 or obstructed breathing4 ,neglected teeth mean an undernourished body and are a common source of disease4 ,periodic medical examinations are required by ,state law1 and school nurses may be engaged as part of the regular school force4 ,the value of the law depends on the way it is enforced by local school authorities1 and this is often far from satisfactory4 ,these provisions are found to repay their cost in the added strength and productive powers that they give to the community4 ,co-operation3 ,the greatest of all needs in connection with our schools is a lively interest in them on the part of women4 ,the woman who cares about the future of her child must be interested in school meetings and the election of school-boards1 who should be carefully chosen4 ,frequent visits to the school in city and country are a help and inspiration to both teachers and parents4 ,,footnotes3 #e ,under a provision of a recent ,federal law1 a certain sum of money is available for use in any ,state for the teaching of home economics1 industrial training1 or for any vocational work1 provided that the ,state appropriates an equal amount for the purpose1 which ,new ,york ,state has done4 ,,xvii ,,health ,,and ,,recreation ,the great majority of men and women1 and even many children1 have to work for a living4 ,to keep healthy they need time and opportunity for wholesome recreation4 ,recreation is as much a necessary part of normal life as food or drink2 a fact that has been partially lost sight of in this economic age1 but throughout the world's history there have been frequent examples of governments which made careful provision to supply necessary amusements for their citizens4 ,in ,greece great stadiums were erected for games and contests2 in medieval times the knights held tournaments1 even the churches celebrated their saints' days with gay street processions4 ,the need for recreation is particularly great to-day because the congestion of population of our cities has left few open spaces for leisure time1 and crowded living and small1 dark rooms where all the work of the household must be done1 preclude any social life in the homes of many families4 ,many young girls who crave companionship and social intercourse with friends have to go outside their homes to find it4 ,crowded tenements without light or air1 dirty streets with no provision for wholesome recreation1 are proofs of poor government and inefficient democracy1 no matter how prosperous and contented a city may look in its richer quarters4 ,people who are obliged to live in the crowded districts have a lowered vitality and a lessened value to the world2 and the same natural impulses which1 rightly directed1 lead to an orderly1 useful1 contented life1 may be the causes of delinquency if stunted or misdirected4 ,the slum is an economic crime1 condoned by a public which pays the penalty in contamination and contagion thrust back upon itself4 ,housing3 ,air and sunshine are the first requisites of healthy life4 ,the government recognizes a certain responsibility in insuring these necessities1 and prescribes by law regulations for the construction and inspection of living accommodations4 ,many families cannot choose their homes1 but are obliged to live in the kind of buildings that are to be found near their work4 ,inside rooms without windows1 rooms into which a ray of sunshine has never penetrated1 are common in every city in the ,state4 ,the law prohibits1 in cities of the first class1 the building of new tenements with inside rooms without windows1 but many old ones are in existence1 and two-family houses may still be built with inside rooms4 ,in other cities there are practically no restrictions1 except by occasional ineffectual city ordinances4 ,sanitary arrangements1 and the water-supply in many tenement-houses1 are insufficient for health or even decency4 ,tenement-house inspection is a part of city government in which women are particularly fitted to serve4 ,in ,new ,york ,city1 there are #ajc1fhh tenement-houses and #aic inspectors4 ,only eight of these are women4 ,the war has greatly intensified the housing problem4 ,with the tremendous increase in certain industries which has brought thousands of people to work in new factories1 there is a corresponding demand for living accommodations near their work4 ,these factories may not be permanent1 and so private capital hesitates to build houses near them4 ,the result is a terrible crowding of people in unsanitary and unfit buildings4 ,the consequences of such overcrowding is seen in the increase of child delinquency1 immorality and disease1 an increased death-rate1 and the inevitable unrest from such unhappiness which results in strikes and labor troubles4 ,recreation3 ,the modern city so far has made little provision for the natural irresistible desire of youth for play4 ,this is all the more dangerous because young men and women are being drawn in great numbers from the protection of the home1 for work in factories and shops4 ,they have a freedom from restraint such as they have never had before4 ,they have money which they have earned2 they are eager for amusement4 ,when they come to the end of a day of exhausting work their love of pleasure will not be denied4 ,if they are not given the right kind of amusement1 they will take the wrong kind4 ,instead of recognizing this natural instinct for play1 and providing safe channels for its expression1 all provisions for recreation are usually left to commercial interests1 to be used for their own gain1 without supervision or control4 ,vice is often deliberately disguised as pleasure1 and the most normal and healthy impulses of young men and women1 that1 properly directed1 lead to happy married life1 are frequently used as a means to their downfall4 ,loneliness also plays a part4 ,many a young man or girl comes to the city to find work4 ,where can they find the social intercourse and companionship necessary to normal life8 ,the homeless boy often stands around the edge of the dance-hall1 vainly hoping to make the acquaintance of some 8nice girl40 ,the lonely girl1 living in a cheerless hall bedroom1 turns to the dance-hall as a place to find companionship4 ,proper provision for public recreation1 well supervised1 would help to bring this boy and girl together in decent1 wholesome surroundings4 ,the ,dance3 ,in young girls1 the social instinct1 the desire to meet and know other people1 and especially those of the opposite sex1 becomes a dominant factor between the ages of fifteen and twenty4 ,the most natural expression of youthful spirits is the dance4 ,to allow it to become a snare to spoil the lives of young people is one of the great deficiencies of city life4 ,in every city dance-halls1 ranging from the back room of a saloon to the casino or 8gin-palace10 hold out temptations to young people4 ,in ,new ,york ,city there are over five hundred licensed dance-halls4 ,this means1 at a moderate estimate1 one-quarter of a million young people every night in these public dance-halls1 most of which are run in connection with the liquor trade4 ,the obligation to regulate places of public amusement1 and to provide good amusement in place of bad1 rests with the community4 ,the minute you begin to regulate the dance-hall you are interfering with many kinds of business2 first and foremost the liquor trade and all the interests it involves2 then1 with the business of those whose livelihood depends upon the vile trade that is stimulated by the usual dance-hall2 and behind these groups1 an unknown number of perfectly respectable businesses whose trade is increased by the conditions which characterize a 8wide open0 town4 ,all these manifold interests are rooted deep in the fabric of the government of most of our ,american cities1 and1 because their connections are in so many instances seemingly innocent1 are all the more difficult to defeat and dislodge4 ,playgrounds3 ,the need of organized recreation facilities for children has become pressing1 as congestion of population has left no place1 not even the streets1 in which they can play4 ,there are many blocks in ,new ,york ,city where the population is greater than in any other place of like area in the world4 ,where can the great throng of children go to find innocent amusement8 ,where shall they go out of school hours8 ,in #aiae it was estimated that there were #gcd1jjj children between five and fourteen years of age who had to play away from home4 ,to provide for them1 the city furnished school and park playgrounds for from #ajj1jjj to #ahe1jjj1 leaving at least half a million children with no provision of any kind for play1 except the already crowded city streets4 ,vacation ,schools3 ,keeping the schools and playgrounds open during the summer months takes the children away from the hot1 crowded streets1 at least part of the time4 ,like public playgrounds1 the number of vacation schools is always dependent on appropriations4 ,the makers of the city budget find a greater pressure exerted from the multitude of business interests that want consideration1 than they do in support of appropriations for public health and comfort4 ,it will be necessary for women to be as alive in supporting such measures1 as men are in demanding that their interests shall be considered4 ,also facts must be given to prove that the cost of such appropriations is saved in the increased productive powers of a healthier people4 ,it has been stated that a healthy laborer increases the wealth of the country by some #cj1jjj during a normal lifetime4 ,if this is true1 it should be merely intelligent business on the part of the commonwealth to expend a reasonable pro rata of this sum1 when necessary1 to insure that a child when full grown is healthy4 ,recreation ,centers have been established in some of the ,western cities4 ,chicago has a series of small parks in various parts of the city1 with outdoor playgrounds1 and in each one a large building where there is a gymnasium1 swimming-pool1 and assembly-rooms1 large and small4 ,on a ,saturday or ,sunday afternoon1 these places show many happy pictures of thousands of families1 with both the old and young spending their leisure in a way that increases their own happiness1 and their value to the world4 ,municipal ,dance-halls have also been tried4 ,in the recreation centers of ,chicago there are dance-halls under careful supervision4 ,but whether the city provides municipal dance-halls or not1 public dance-halls should be divorced from the liquor business1 and there should be careful policing and supervision of private halls1 and for this work women police officials are necessary4 ,municipal ,bathing ,beaches are also possible for any community with a water-front4 ,they are one of the great attractions of ,chicago1 where a large part of the lakefront draws hundreds of thousands of men1 women1 and children1 who may easily reach these public beaches from any part of the city4 ,the ,new ,york ,state law makes the construction of free baths obligatory in cities of #ej1jjj or more population4 ,the 8,movies03 ,millions of children attend moving-picture theaters every day of the year4 ,in ,new ,york ,city alone1 the daily attendance of children is estimated at #bjj1jjj4 ,the pictures impress the minds of children like scenes in real life4 ,for good or for evil1 moving pictures are the great teachers of the youth of to-day4 ,many of the lessons taught on the screen are not suitable for children4 ,they give intimate views of the underworld1 of assault and infidelity1 and barroom brawls4 ,they show fair heroines and gallant heroes committing crimes1 and being pardoned and living happily ever after4 ,they show picture after picture that tends to destroy moral standards that home and school have tried to teach4 ,causes for ,juvenile ,crime3 ,the natural craving for excitement and love of adventure1 with no provision for its legitimate expression1 is responsible for much of the crime of our cities4 ,some years ago1 it was estimated that of the #ae1jjj young people under twenty years of age who were arrested in ,chicago during a year1 most of them had broken the law in their blundering efforts to find adventure4 ,it is said that the machinery of the grand juries and criminal courts is maintained1 in a large measure1 for the benefit of youths between the ages of thirteen and twenty-five4 ,the so-called 8gangs0 of our cities are an expression of the recklessness and bravado1 common to boys1 which1 well-directed1 is of great service to the world1 and1 misdirected1 is responsible for much misery4 ,the ,use of ,school-buildings as ,social ,centers meets a very real problem4 ,halls for dancing and for entertainments1 lectures and debates1 rooms for games1 even gymnasiums1 could easily be brought within the reach of most of the people4 ,grown-ups1 as well as young people1 would find them of value4 ,this use of the schools1 outside of the regular school hours1 has greatly increased in the ,west1 and the school plant has become an increased factor for good in the life of the community4 ,rural ,needs3 ,some of our indifference in regard to proper provisions for recreation may be due to the fact that we were so long a rural nation4 ,the boy who lived on a farm or in a village1 who had the swimming-hole in summer1 the farm with its hay-loft1 and in winter sledding and skating1 was able to satisfy his love of adventure4 ,to-day1 even rural conditions have changed1 and there is as much need of decent and wholesome recreation in the country and small villages as in cities4 ,churches are open only on ,sunday1 schools are closed two days in the week1 the only meeting-place is the corner store1 or the saloons1 and the streets4 ,the use of the school-building and grounds when school is not in session and on ,saturdays and ,sundays1 would take many boys off the streets4 ,,xviii ,,the ,,care ,,of ,,dependent ,,and ,,delinquent ,,children ,the ,state of ,new ,york has the largest actual number of dependent children1 and the largest number in proportion to population1 of any ,state in the ,union4 ,in the early days it was the women who cared for the neglected children of a neighborhood1 and children left homeless were usually taken into some one's home4 ,this care has gradually gone into the hands of the town1 the county1 or the ,state1 and has become a department of government4 ,there are two ways of caring for homeless children3 one is to place them in institutions1 the other is to place them in private families4 ,in both cases the ,state usually has to pay for their support4 ,if the right kind of a home can be found for a child it seems to have a much better chance for a healthy1 happy childhood1 and for a useful future when placed with a family1 than when placed in an institution4 ,the custom in ,new ,york ,state has been to place children in institutions4 ,it is the business of each local official1 town overseer of the poor1 county superintendent of the poor1 and city commissioner of charities1 to provide for destitute children4 ,in the early days he used to provide for them by giving what was called 8outdoor relief0 to the parent1 if either parent was living2 if the child was homeless it was sent to the almshouse4 ,for many years past1 children between the ages of three and sixteen have not been allowed in almshouses1 but have been committed to institutions4 ,besides this public care1 private charitable agencies began to establish orphan asylums1 and homes for friendless children4 ,these institutions often developed from small beginnings into large establishments1 and began to draw on the public funds for at least a part of the maintenance of their inmates1 and sometimes for their entire support4 ,it was argued that if the ,state did not pay for the support of the children in the orphan asylum it would have to take care of them elsewhere4 ,no ,definite ,authority3 ,for many years the authority between ,state and local governing boards has been divided4 ,as a consequence1 inspection of children's institutions has amounted to very little1 or has been1 at least1 ineffectual4 ,this inadequate inspection1 in addition to divided authority1 encouraged neglect and abuse4 ,the report of conditions in private institutions in ,new ,york ,city1 made in #aiaf as the result of an official investigation1 showed that dirt1 insufficient food1 vermin1 disease1 and lack of common sanitary precautions were common4 ,education was so much below the standard of the public school1 with little or no vocational training1 that children were discharged with no preparation for earning a living4 ,there was not only an utter absence of home atmosphere1 but methods and restrictions were used like a prison or reformatory4 ,so little care was given when the children left the institution1 that they often went out entirely friendless1 with no one to call upon for council or advice1 and utterly unprepared for independent life4 ,these conditions were allowed to exist1 partly because of the divided authority and responsibility1 largely because those in authority were not deeply interested4 ,as the report said1 8the committing authorities have not looked upon the problem as of sufficient moment to make it any part of their business to formulate and promulgate any competent standard to govern the service maintained in children's institutions40 ,new ,york ,city has tried the experiment of 8boarding out0 all dependent children between two and seven years of age1 taking care to place ,catholic children in ,catholic homes1 ,jewish children in ,jewish homes1 and so forth4 ,in some respects1 this is a better method than committing children to institutions1 but it is only successful if the child is carefully placed1 and its welfare watched by appointed visitors4 ,in ,new ,york ,state1 #aijj-aiac1 the average infant mortality-rate of children under two years of age was #hf4d per #a1jjj1 while the death-rate in eleven large infant asylums was #dbb4e per #a1jjj4 ,that is1 under the care of the mother1 even including the ignorant mother1 only one-fifth as many babies died as when the children were cared for by the ,state4 ,experience shows that children are not only safer and healthier with their own mothers than in institutions1 but that they have a better chance with foster mothers than in asylums4 ,in #aiad1 the ,new ,york ,city ,health ,department1 as an experiment1 placed seventy-five infants to board with foster mothers1 with the result that the infant death-rate dropped forty-eight per cent4 ,boards of ,child ,welfare3 ,in #aiae1 the ,legislature authorized the appointment of boards of child welfare in each county4 ,these boards were to investigate needy cases and had the power to grant an allowance to a destitute mother for the care of her children4#f ,this work is dependent on the appropriations granted by the county4 ,county authorities are slow to act in matters that require appropriations4 ,at the end of the first year1 fifty-seven counties had organized boards1 but only thirty-four had made appropriations2 #f1jad children had been kept from asylums and #a1ifi homes had been saved from being broken up4 ,in ,new ,york ,city1 the number of children in institutions has decreased #c1jjj since the ,child ,welfare ,board began its work4 ,in #aiag ,new ,york ,city appropriated #a1bej1jjj for widowed mothers4 ,the average monthly allowance1 the first year of the ,welfare ,board's work1 for each child under sixteen1 was #g4ii1 which is #c less than it would have cost to keep the child in an institution4 ,it is now admitted that everything possible should be done to prevent a home from being broken up by poverty2 that if the mother is living1 and is a fit person to bring up her children1 it should be made possible for her to keep them4 ,that the mother is usually a fit person to bring up her child1 is proved by the experience of the ,board of ,child ,welfare of ,new ,york ,city1 which examined four thousand cases of mothers who applied for pensions1 and found only in fourteen cases that the mother was not to be so trusted4 ,in many of the ,western ,states the widowed mothers' compensation1 or pension laws1 have been extended to cover children of delinquent1 injured1 or crippled fathers1 and sometimes even of fathers imprisoned in penal institutions4 ,some ,states also have other provisions which reduce the number of dependent children4 ,in ,washington a man who deserts his family is put to work and his wages are paid to his wife and children4 ,this seems more sensible than the law which imprisons the man1 and lets the ,state support him1 while his wife has to support herself and children4 ,in ,kansas1 the wages of a prisoner are given to his family4 ,in ,california and ,illinois1 the father must help support the illegitimate child4 ,the care of dependent children is work for which women are especially fitted by both training and inclination4 ,in ,colorado1 the ,state ,home for ,dependent ,children must have two women on its board of five members4 ,in the ,state ,industrial ,home for ,girls1 three of the five members of the board must be women4 ,the ,problem of the ,delinquent ,child is one that needs the greatest care and expert attention4 ,if the dependent child is an appealing figure1 the delinquent child is an indictment of a community4 ,he is usually the product of neglect1 of overcrowding1 of bad living conditions1 and of defects in the educational system4 ,to treat the child offender as if he were grown up and responsible1 and to punish him in the same way as an adult1 is to make a criminal of him4 ,the manner in which his first offense against the law is handled1 often determines the future of such a child4 ,children's ,courts3 ,it used to be common for children of all ages to be detained with older1 hardened criminals indiscriminately1 exposed to contamination and disease1 and to try them in an open court-room with all other cases4 ,the modern policy is to try all cases against children1 with the exception of murder1 in special courts4 ,the entire policy of a children's court is based on prevention instead of punishment1 to make friends with a delinquent child1 to show him the danger ahead of him1 to watch over him like an older1 wiser friend1 and to help him to keep straight4 ,the terror and disgrace of an open court-room are replaced by a quiet1 friendly talk in the judge's room4 ,a large number of all children who are arrested are ungovernable or disorderly1 children who have run away from home1 or who are associating with dissolute or vicious persons4 ,another large class comes into the courts because of improper guardianship2 neglected children1 or those exposed to physical or moral danger4 ,these cases are not classed technically as delinquents1 but are tried by what are known as special proceedings4 ,the total number of children arraigned in the children's courts of ,new ,york ,city in #aiaf for delinquency was3 boys1 #e1ibi2 girls1 #aej2 in special proceedings1 boys1 #c1hic2 girls1 #b1igb1 a total of #ab1idd4 ,the largest percentage of cases for any offense for boys was petty larceny1 and for girls was sex offenses and incorrigibility4 ,in #aiaf the ,police ,department of ,new ,york ,city made in its report an analysis of juvenile arrests1 showing the nature of the offense1 the age1 sex1 nativity1 occupation1 and employment of the child4 ,the largest number of arrests were for offenses against property4 ,practically half of all the delinquents were native-born children of foreign-born parents4 ,the attitude of the police force of ,new ,york ,city during the last few years has been helpful in handling the problem of juvenile delinquency4 ,the police are now instructed to try to prevent small infringements of the law by children1 and many trivial offenses are adjusted out of court4 ,a considerable proportion of the children who come repeatedly into the children's courts are feeble-minded4 ,during #aiag1 the children's court of ,new ,york ,city1 for the first time1 had a clinic attached to the court1 where children suspected of being mentally deficient could be examined4 ,there is still1 however1 no place where they can be committed temporarily for observation1 and there is great need of a graded institution that will provide for the treatment and care of the different classes of mentally deficient children4 ,the system of probation for child offenders is of the greatest possible assistance in reclaiming the child2 it also decreases the number of children who are committed to institutions1 thus saving the ,state money4 ,to make probation effective1 children must be visited frequently in their homes1 and be kept on probation long enough to make probable a complete reformation4 ,women1 and not men1 should be appointed as probation officers for delinquent girls1 but1 as the appointments are often political1 men are given the preference1 and are even put in charge of girls4 ,the present ,children's ,court in ,greater ,new ,york dates from #aiae1 and under the presiding justice of the court has been brought to a high state of intelligent and sympathetic handling4 ,the city of ,buffalo also makes special provision for delinquent children4 ,in most of the cities of the ,state1 the judges of the court of special sessions set certain days for children's cases4 ,among the improvements needed in the ,new ,york ,state law is a provision to give the children's court jurisdiction over children of sixteen and seventeen years of age4 ,this is especially needed in cases of wayward girls4 ,in ,colorado the juvenile court handles cases of offenders under eighteen4 ,also1 it is a criminal offense in ,colorado to contribute to the delinquency of a child1 and the children's court has jurisdiction over adults contributing to such delinquency4 ,this is a provision needed in the ,new ,york ,state law4 ,colorado also has a law prohibiting the publication of the name or picture of a girl under eighteen in a case of delinquency4 ,this is important1 as procurers and other men who have been the cause of a girl's delinquency often go free1 because the girl and her family wish to avoid publicity4 ,the children's courts in ,new ,york ,state should also have the power to appoint legal guardians for children in case of need4 ,to be a judge of a juvenile court requires exceptional qualifications3 quick sympathy1 and intelligent understanding of the many causes which contribute to child delinquency4 ,a large part of the problem comes back to the environment of the child1 to crowded living conditions1 deficient education1 lack of vocational training1 and absence of opportunities for recreation4 ,the pitiful striving of children for pleasure and play1 and the inadequate provisions of our cities to meet this need1 are often responsible for the first delinquent step4 ,many improvements in this direction1 as well as improvements in the law1 are needed to bring the protection that ,new ,york ,state gives its children up to the level of the best found in other ,states4 ,,footnotes3 #f ,unfortunately1 the law expressly excludes in its provisions for relief families with alien fathers4 ,,xix ,,child ,,wage-,,earners ,children are the most important assets of a nation4 ,while every one1 individually1 would admit this statement1 it is not easy to persuade the government that the protection and development of child life cannot be left safely to private initiative1 any more than can animal or plant life2 that1 in addition to the protection of the individual family1 children need the fostering care of the organized government4 ,for many years1 the government1 both ,state and ,national1 has dealt generously with the agricultural interests of the country4 ,when disease has broken out among either animals or plants1 it has had its experts ready to send out at a moment's notice to any part of the country4 ,it has spent vast sums of money to investigate and eradicate boll-weevil in cotton1 and hoof-and-mouth disease among cattle1 and to develop a better strain in many animals and plants1 but it is only very recently that it has been willing to investigate the needs of the children of the nation4 ,the appropriations of the ,federal government for animal life1 in #aiae1 were over #e1jjj1jjj2 for child life1 #afd1jjj4 ,in #aiag1 an additional appropriation of #aej1jjj was made for the enforcement of the ,federal ,child ,labor ,law4 ,federal ,child ,labor ,law3 ,for fourteen years1 the ,national ,child ,labor ,committee has tried to get laws passed which would limit the hours of work for children1 the kind of work they might do1 and the age at which they might be put to work4 ,discouraged by the ,state by ,state method1 the committee inaugurated a campaign for a ,federal child labor law1 and after three years of effort succeeded in getting it passed4 ,men have an eight-hour day in many ,states4 ,women have an eight-hour day in a few ,states4 ,until the ,federal bill was passed1 children of tender years in a number of ,states could be employed almost unlimited hours and all night4 ,at the time the bill was passed three ,states permitted children under fourteen to work ten and eleven hours a day1 and two ,states permitted them to work at night4 ,nineteen mining ,states permitted children under sixteen to work in mines4 ,nine ,states permitted children under sixteen to do night work4 ,in three ,southern ,states1 one-fifth of all the cotton-mill workers1 in #aiac1 were children less than sixteen years of age4 ,the ,federal ,child ,labor ,bill1 which went into effect ,september #a1 #aiag1 was declared unconstitutional by a ,united ,states ,district ,court in ,north ,carolina1 and is now before the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states4 ,this law prohibits the interstate commerce of articles which children have helped to make4 ,it does not control the labor of children in local occupations4 ,street trades1 messenger service1 agricultural work1 and housework are not touched by it4 ,this law is a great step in advance for the protection of children1 but there are still #a1hei1jjj children1 from ten to sixteen years old1 at work in the ,united ,states whom the ,federal law does not touch4 ,new ,york ,state ,laws3 ,for many years ,new ,york ,state has been building up a code of protection for the children of the ,state4 ,children under sixteen years of age are not permitted to work unless they have a special permit1 and they must have completed the sixth grade in school4 ,a physical examination of the child is required to see that he is able to stand the strain of the industry in which he is about to engage1 and proof of age is required4 ,to sell newspapers1 boys from twelve to fourteen must have a permit and a badge4 ,boys of fourteen and fifteen are required to have badges if they have a prescribed route for the delivery of newspapers1 but not if they are selling for themselves4 ,children under sixteen are not allowed to work more than eight hours a day4 ,to enforce these laws adequately1 many inspectors are needed and unceasing vigilance on the part of the public4 ,while the provisions of the law concerning newsboys are very clear1 and are generally obeyed in ,new ,york ,city1 they are seldom enforced elsewhere in the ,state4 ,to allow children to enter the industrial world at an early age1 without preparation1 and with no guidance as to the sort of work for which they are best fitted1 is unfair to them4 ,the boy or girl who gets a job at fourteen1 without any vocational training1 is apt to remain an unskilled worker all his or her life4 ,the range of occupations open to such children is small4 ,the largest number of boys who go to work at an early age become delivery boys1 errand or wagon boys1 or newsboys4 ,there is little chance among these employments for real training or for any future advancement4 ,a careful study1 by the ,national ,child ,labor ,committee1 of certain cases brought into the ,children's ,court1 has established the fact that a large proportion of the boys and girls who come into the court come from the ranks of child workers4 ,this investigation has also proved the need of adequate vocational guidance4 ,the present school course gives little help in this direction to children who are leaving school at fourteen or fifteen1 and parents are often as ignorant of industrial conditions as the children4 ,after a few years in an occupation that offers no opportunity for development1 the boy or girl who went to work so young is often left stranded1 not only untrained1 but demoralized4 ,there is need also of making parents understand that better opportunities are open to children who have had education beyond the elementary grades4 ,street ,trades of all kinds are regarded by social experts as unsafe for children4 ,some authorities recommend the absolute prohibition of all street trading for boys under seventeen4 ,these trades1 including selling newspapers1 appeal to boys because they like the excitement of street life1 and the spending-money which they give them4 ,a judge of the ,detroit ,juvenile ,court says1 8,at least fifty per cent4 of the boys brought into the juvenile court are newsboys40 ,an old newsboy1 when asked what night work on the streets had done for him1 said3 8,when ,i was a kid1 it wasn't like it is now4 ,they didn't have no midnight edition--,i always had to be home by eight o'clock4 ,when ,i got to selling at night ,i started in high school1 but when it came time for the first examination1 ,i said1 #8,oh1 ,i'll just quit4 ,i'd rather be out on the streets1 anyway4'0 ,in ,baltimore it is estimated that #de per cent4 of all the children in the near-by reform school have been street workers4 ,investigations have proved the theory is false that a child is usually put to work 8to support a widowed mother40 ,more often the child in a street trade is found to come from a home where there is no need of his work1 and in these trades the earnings of children are very small4 ,in a recent investigation1 in ,seattle1 the earnings of newsboys were found in #df per cent4 of the cases of the elementary school paper-sellers to be less than #e a month4 ,the night messenger service is known to be a demoralizing occupation1 unfit for any small boy1 and in ,new ,york it is prohibited to all boys under twenty-one4 ,the same protection of the law is now needed for girls4 ,many parents do not realize the serious results of letting their children go to work too young1 or the bad effects of over-work on them4 ,the tendency of over-fatigue is to break down the moral resistance4 ,the release from supervision which is brought about by their wage-earning1 and the danger of their having money of their own to spend1 added to the interruption of their education1 cannot help but have a demoralizing effect on them4 ,rural ,child ,workers are quite as common as city workers1 but they are not so often wage-earners4 ,their labor is usually taken by parents as a matter of course1 and they are not paid4 ,farming and housework are two occupations which engage many children1 and there is almost a complete absence of laws regulating them4 ,a distinction should be made between the farmer lad who does 8chores0 night and morning1 and the boy who is kept out of school most of the year to be a farm-hand2 and between the girl who helps her mother out of school hours1 and the girl who is kept at work in a canning-factory1 and goes from one to another as fruits and vegetables ripen2 but neither the chores nor the housework should be allowed to interfere with the regularity of school attendance4 ,the boy who is kept at farm labor1 without education1 and the girl who is kept at work in the canning industry at the expense of her schooling1 are as much in the ranks of child laborers as the cotton-mill workers1 and they suffer in the same way from lack of training for a useful future4 ,experiments have been made in combining the work that the boy does night and morning on the farm1 with the school work4 ,under proper guidance1 the chores that the boy has to do at home can be made a means of education4 ,for example3 a pupil who assists at home in the milking might be required to keep a daily record of each cow1 with the fluctuations in the yield of milk1 due to weather and food4 ,this combining of the necessary home work with the instruction of the school has been made a success in some of the ,western ,states1 where county superintendents supervise the home-school work and make it of the greatest possible educational value4 ,rural school terms are usually shorter than city terms1 and irregular attendance is more frequent4 ,only #fh per cent4 of the pupils enrolled in rural schools attend daily1 while in cities the percentage is #hj4 ,the absences of girls are caused largely by housework4 ,the results of child labor in the country are seen in the high percentage of rejections from military service on account of physical defects in men from rural districts1 and the larger percentage of illiteracy in country communities compared with that in cities4 ,better and more adequate education for the thousands of children on the farms of the ,state is one of our immediate needs4 ,it is the right of every child to be given enough education to give him a good start in life4 ,the child-labor problem is largely a school problem4 ,keep the children in school1 and there will be no child labor4 ,war and ,children3 ,the war has brought a new demand for the labor of children1 and new evidence of the serious consequences of using this labor4 ,in ,england and ,france1 juvenile delinquency due to the breaking down of educational facilities1 and the exploitation of children in shops and factories1 has increased to a point where both nations are aroused by a new national danger4 ,to meet the sudden great need for munitions1 and the speeding up of all industry1 children of all ages1 and women of all classes1 went into the factories4 ,in ,england1 it is estimated that #bjj1jjj children from eleven to thirteen years of age left school to go to work4 ,abnormally high wages were paid them4 ,with fathers at the front and mothers away from home in munition factories1 these children roamed the streets after their work was done1 with pockets filled with money to spend1 and no one to exercise a restraining hand4 ,streets are unlighted1 the police force has been decreased1 churches1 schools1 and settlement work are interrupted4 ,is it any wonder that since the war began juvenile delinquency has increased #df per cent4 in ,edinburgh1 #ef per cent4 in ,manchester1 and thefts #ej per cent48 ,the same demand for child labor has begun to be manifest in this country4 ,the ,united ,states is being called on to feed the world1 and to make supplies of all kinds for our allies1 besides the tremendous need of supplies for our own armies4 ,millions of men are being drawn from the ranks of producers1 and have become consumers4 ,the world is consuming and destroying on a scale never known before in history4 ,the demand for more and more labor is becoming ever more insistent4 ,in spite of the warnings which have come to us from ,england and ,france1 of the necessity of guarding against the exploitation of our children during the war1 ,new ,york ,state was one of the first to try to break down the restrictions built up during many years of the past with such infinite labor4 ,the ,brown bills1 which passed the ,legislature last winter1 were a frank attempt to utilize the labor of children4 ,they made it possible1 at the discretion of the ,state ,labor ,commission1 to abrogate every law that has been passed in ,new ,york ,state to safeguard its children4 ,one bill would have made it possible to utilize the labor of children unlimited hours1 seven days in the week1 including night labor4 ,this was vetoed by the ,governor4 ,the other1 which makes possible the suspension of the compulsory education law1 in order that children may work on the farms1 has become a law4 ,other attempts will undoubtedly be made to exploit children4 ,it will require unceasing vigilance on the part of the people of the ,state to see that measures detrimental to children shall not be successful4 ,attempts are being made to remove the limit of hours1 and to abolish the requirement that children between fourteen and sixteen shall have working papers4 ,such measures mean that the physical examination now required would not be made1 and that the necessity of furnishing proof of the age of the applicant would be eliminated4 ,the first would permit weak1 sickly children to go to work in the factories1 and the second would encourage the employment of children under fourteen4 ,the need for increased labor is a real one1 and as long as the war lasts it will continue to grow4 ,but the nation that exploits its children while at war is bleeding at both ends4 ,it is the province of women to watch over and guard all children4 ,now that they have the vote1 the responsibility has been put directly on them1 and they have the power to meet it4 ,because of the tremendous cost of war in human life itself1 it becomes doubly important to safeguard human life at its source1 and that is our job4 ,,note4--,the material used in this chapter is largely taken from publications of the ,national ,child ,labor ,committee4 ,,xx ,,public ,,charities ,the public institutions of the ,state are grouped under three heads3 the ,state ,commission in ,lunacy1 the ,prison ,commission1 and the ,state ,board of ,charities4 ,the ,state ,board of ,charities1 which has general supervision of the charitable institutions of the ,state1 consists of twelve members1 of whom nine must be appointed as commissioners from the nine judicial districts of the ,state1 and three from ,new ,york ,city4 ,the law prescribes otherwise no qualifications for membership on this board4 7,a recent innovation has been made in the appointment of a woman on the board47 ,the commissioners serve without salary1 but each one is paid his expenses and #aj for each day's attendance at meetings1 not to exceed #ejj a year4 ,partly ,state1 ,partly ,private3 ,some charitable institutions in the ,state are wholly controlled by the ,state or one of its subdivisions2 others are controlled by private corporations1 but are maintained either wholly1 or in part1 by ,state funds4 ,there are over six hundred and forty charitable institutions which receive money from the ,state4 ,there are still other institutions which are entirely supported by private funds4 ,the ,state ,board of ,charities has not the authority at present to inspect organized charities which do not receive public money1 so there are many institutions which are without the protection of ,state inspection1 and the total amount of dependency in the ,state is not known officially4 ,duties of the ,board3 ,besides its duties of inspection and general supervision of charitable institutions1 the board has the control of the incorporation of charitable institutions1 and must approve of an application for a certificate of incorporation before it can be granted4 ,it also issues licenses for medical dispensaries1 and makes rules and regulations under which they must work4 ,the ,powers of the ,board ,are ,limited1 as the carrying out of its recommendations often depends on action by the ,state ,legislature1 and especially on the amount of the appropriations granted for the work4 ,the powers originally given the board have also been greatly impaired by the action of the ,legislature from time to time in creating other agencies1 which have resulted in a duplication of work and an overlapping of authority4 ,there is much complaint of institutions being overrun by official visitors1 and inspectors with conflicting authority1 who are said to interfere with the work of the institutions without accomplishing adequate results4 ,the powers of the board have been especially curtailed since the office of ,fiscal ,supervisor of ,state ,charities was created in #aijb4 ,when decisions are to be made concerning appropriations for ,state charities1 in making up the legislative budget1 the ,fiscal ,supervisor is consulted to the exclusion of the ,state ,board4 ,in reality the ,fiscal ,supervisor has far greater powers than the ,state ,board of ,charities1 as no appropriations can be made unless approved by him4 ,his effort is to keep down appropriations wherever possible1 and he does not come in direct personal touch with the needs of the work4 ,the power to fix salaries and establish positions has been given to the ,salary ,classification ,commission1 and to locate new buildings to the ,commission on ,sites1 ,grounds1 and ,buildings4 ,the general dissatisfaction with the confused and conflicting authority1 which had come with different legislative enactments1 led to the appointment in #aiaf1 of a commissioner to investigate ,state charities and to report to the ,governor1 with recommendations of changes he deemed advisable4 ,among the changes recommended were3 7#a7 ,that instead of an unpaid board of twelve members1 appointed from the judicial districts1 there should be a board of nine1 of whom one should be a woman2 three members should be paid and should give all their time to the work1 one of the three to be president of the board1 one the chairman of a bureau for mental deficiency1 and the third1 chairman of a bureau for dependent children2 the six unpaid members were to be specialists in the special classes of work which is supervised by the board4 ,the present ,state ,board of ,charities objects to this change on the ground that a board so organized would become political4 ,they also feel that the appointments should continue to be made from the judicial districts1 in order that every part of the ,state should have a resident member of the ,state ,board4 ,the report further recommended3 7#b7 ,prompt provision for defective delinquents2 7#c7 a careful revision of the ,state charities and poor law2 7#d7 that power should be given the ,state ,board to inspect private charitable institutions2 7#e7 the creation of a new bureau for dependent children2 7#f7 the abolition of the office of ,fiscal ,supervisor of ,charities1 in order that recommendations for appropriations should come directly from the ,state ,board of ,charities2 7#g7 the abolition of other conflicting authorities1 and restoring the authority of the ,state ,board4 ,none of these recommendations have been acted upon as yet4 ,the ,state institutions that are under the ,state are the following3 ,state ,agricultural and ,industrial ,school1 ,industry2 ,syracuse ,state ,institution for ,feeble-minded ,children1 ,syracuse2 ,new ,york ,state ,school for the ,blind1 ,batavia2 ,thomas ,indian ,school1 ,iroquois2 ,state ,custodial ,asylum for ,feeble-minded ,women1 ,newark2 ,new ,york ,state ,soldiers' and ,sailors' ,home1 ,bath2 ,new ,york ,state ,training ,school for ,girls1 ,hudson2 ,western ,house of ,refuge for ,women1 ,albion2 ,new ,york ,state ,reformatory for ,women1 ,bedford ,hills2 ,rome ,custodial ,state ,asylum1 ,rome2 ,craig ,colony for ,epileptics1 ,sonyea2 ,new ,york ,state ,woman's ,relief ,corps ,home1 ,oxford2 ,new ,york ,state ,hospital for the ,care of ,crippled and ,deformed ,children1 ,west ,haverstraw2 ,new ,york ,state ,hospital for the ,treatment of ,incipient ,pulmonary ,tuberculosis1 ,raybrook2 ,new ,york ,state ,training ,school for ,boys1 established by law in #aijd1 not yet ready to receive inmates2 ,letchworth ,village for ,feeble-minded1 ,rockland ,county2 and authorized in #aiaa-ab1 but not yet open3 ,the ,state ,industrial ,farm ,colony1 ,green ,haven2 and the ,state ,reformatory for ,misdemeanants4 ,private institutions supported mainly by ,state appropriations are3 ,new ,york ,institution for the ,instruction of ,deaf and ,dumb2 ,new ,york ,society for the ,reformation of ,juvenile ,delinquents in the ,city of ,new ,york2 ,new ,york ,institute for the ,education of the ,blind2 ,institutions for ,deaf ,mutes in ,new ,york ,city1 ,buffalo1 ,westchester1 ,rome1 ,rochester2 ,malone and ,albany ,home ,schools for the ,oral ,instruction of the ,deaf4 ,county and ,city ,institutions3 ,county and city almshouses are under the supervision of the ,state ,board of ,charities1 and also the recently established county sanatoria for tuberculosis1 of which there are about thirty4 ,the small number of patients in these county hospitals for tuberculosis makes it impossible for some of them to give as expert and efficient care as a larger and better equipped hospital might offer4#g ,the ,department of ,state and ,alien ,poor1 of the ,state ,board of ,charities1 has the supervision of the ,state poor1 and of alien and ,indian dependents4 ,it also has the power to transfer aliens1 or non-residents1 who have become public charges1 to their home county or ,state1 or1 in co-operation with the ,united ,states ,immigration authorities1 to return them to their home countries4 ,this department has saved the ,state large sums of money4 ,in #aiaf1 #haj persons were returned to their homes in other ,states or countries1 by this department1 of whom #bej were alien poor4 ,local ,boards of ,managers3 ,each ,state charitable and reformatory institution is administered and controlled by a board of local managers1 appointed by the ,governor and confirmed by the ,senate4 ,these boards usually consist of seven persons who serve without pay1 for their expenses only4 ,there are some women on these local boards1 but not nearly as many as there might be1 considering the number of institutions which have women in their charge4 ,the superintendents of ,state institutions are all carefully selected from the civil service lists4 ,the employees of these institutions form a difficult problem4 ,the old conception of an attendant for a public institution was exceedingly low2 the standard is still far from good4 ,the salaries paid are insufficient to attract intelligent service4 ,the ,department of ,inspection3 ,there are over six hundred institutions in the ,state which come under the ,department of ,inspection4 ,to handle them there are eight inspectors1 and one superintendent of inspection4 ,almshouses are inspected and graded in three classes4 ,of the counties that were reported in #aiag as first class in both administration and plant are3 ,allegany1 ,chautauqua1 ,genesee1 ,jefferson1 ,lewis1 ,monroe1 ,niagara1 ,saratoga1 ,schenectady1 and ,wayne counties4 ,those second class in both administration and plant were3 ,dutchess1 ,herkimer1 ,madison1 ,rockland1 ,schoharie1 and ,ulster counties4 ,the only one third class in both plant and administration was in ,sullivan ,county4 ,provision for the ,feeble-minded is the greatest present need of the charities of the ,state4 ,mental defectives are at large all over the ,state1 and they are found in all institutions4 ,they are a source of trouble in the public schools1 and are a constant danger to the ,state4 ,it is estimated that there are not less than #cj1jjj of these unfortunates4 ,the ,state institutions have room for about #e1gjj1 but they are actually caring for #f1gjj4 ,for years efforts have been made to get the ,legislature to make adequate provision for their segregation4 ,the report of one institution for feeble-minded women says1 8nine of the women admitted were married and had given birth to thirty-seven children2 twenty-six of those admitted had borne forty-three illegitimate children2 making a total of eighty children born to those unfortunate women40 ,letchworth ,village1 in ,rockland ,county1 a plot of #b1jjj acres1 was planned to provide for #b1ejj to #c1jjj feeble-minded4 ,it was established in #aijg1 and in #aiaf still had a capacity of only #ccj4 ,the failure of the ,state to complete a project it had undertaken is shown also in the ,new ,york ,state ,training ,school for ,boys at ,yorktown ,heights4 ,this was planned to be a reformatory of the modern cottage type to take the place of the very old one on ,randall's ,island1 and was greatly needed for delinquent boys4 ,after twelve years of delay1 and after #hjj1jjj had been appropriated by the ,state and most of it expended1 this project has been abandoned4 ,the reason given for the final decision to abandon the site1 was the possible contamination of the ,croton water supply by the institution4 ,with modern methods of sewage disposal it seems as if it would have been possible to guard against this danger4 ,it would have been easier to insure proper treatment of the sewage from such an institution than from the towns and villages which exist in the ,croton watershed4 ,the ,state ,board of ,charities recommends now an appropriation of #aej1jjj for a new site and plans4 ,recommendations of the ,state ,board3 ,intelligent handling of the problem of dependency must deal with causes4 ,probably the major part could be done away with if the ,state would adopt adequate preventive measures4 ,the board recommends as an aid to this end3 7#a7 ,industrial insurance2 7#b7 better housing1 including the destruction of the worst congested areas in cities1 and the prevention of further congestion2 7#c7 vocational training for children2 7#d7 improved labor laws1 restricting the hours of labor1 and compensation for accidents to employees2 7#e7 adequate pensions to widowed mothers4 ,they also recommend3 ,that further provision be made for tuberculosis1 which the records of the ,state ,health ,department show is increasing2 that the office of ,county ,superintendent of the ,poor should be appointive and be included in the ,civil ,service4 ,the frequent changing of poor-law officials1 and their lack of knowledge of the subject1 are drawbacks in the discharge of their duties4 ,the ,state ,commission in ,lunacy has charge of the hospitals for the insane4 ,all the insane come under the direct charge of the ,state4 ,this is a salaried commission consisting of three members4 ,there are local boards of managers for these insane asylums as for the other charitable institutions1 and a majority of the members of these local boards are required to visit the hospitals at least once a month for inspection4#h ,the ,state ,prison ,commission1 like the ,state ,board of ,charities1 is an unpaid board1 but the ,superintendent of ,prisons is a ,state official with a salary4 ,there has been for years a provision of the ,state law which gives one scale of salaries for men employed in these institutions and a lower one for women4 ,pay of ,stenographers 7male7 #gj-hj a month 0 0 7female7 #ej-fh 0 ,chief ,supervisors 7male7 #ee-fh 0 0 0 7female7 #ej-fb 0 ,since women have been given the vote1 it is probable that this law will be changed and equal pay given for equal work4 ,,footnotes3 #g ,it is hoped that when the ,boards of ,managers for these county tuberculosis hospitals are appointed1 local women will be placed on them4 #h ,the number of insane in the ,state is increasing far more rapidly than the provision which is being made for them4 ,the last report of the ,state ,hospital ,commission shows that in hospitals for the insane1 planned to accommodate #bg1hij patients1 there were in ,june1 #aiaf1 #cc1hgc patients1 an overcrowding of #ba4e per cent4 ,the ,state ,hospital ,commission urgently requests a bond issue to provide immediately for the construction of new buildings4 ,,xxi ,,the ,,protection ,,of ,,working-,,women ,the war has brought a revolution in woman's work4 ,because of the increased demand for labor1 trades and all kinds of employment that have been considered exclusively the province of men1 have been opened to women4 ,the universal verdict is that they have everywhere made good4 ,work that demands the greatest exactness and care1 specialized technical operations that have been supposed to require a man's brain1 have been done by them quite as well as by men4 ,but their employment in many of the new industries has brought new industrial problems1 and they have gone into many new occupations which are not included in the protection extended by existing labor laws4 ,even before the war ,new ,york ,state was the greatest industrial ,state in the ,union4 ,more women were at work here than in any other ,state1 and more women were at work in ,new ,york ,city than in any entire ,state except ,pennsylvania4 ,there were #bdh separate manufacturing industries in this ,state1 and women worked in all trades in which over #a1jjj workers were employed1 except in the manufacture of bricks1 tiles1 fertilizers1 and ice4 ,they were doing everything1 from making cores in foundries1 sausages in packing-houses1 pickles and candies1 to working in human hair1 chemicals1 and rags4 ,women have always done their share of the world's work1 but in the past their labor was in the home4 ,during the early years of our nation there were very few women who did not work or supervise work1 but they did this in their homes for their homes1 and they were not paid in money4 ,when the cotton-gin was invented and the use of steam was discovered1 it was the dream of the inventors that their machines should be really labor-saving1 and that people would have leisure for the development of the wider and deeper things of life4 ,this became true for some people1 and to-day there are many women of comparative leisure who can do as they please with their time4 ,but on the other hand1 undreamed-of evils and dangers have come to women who toil1 and necessity compels women by the millions to seek work in the industrial world4 ,in spite of the fact that the wages of women have been appallingly low1 the woman who must earn money in order to live has had to find work outside of her own home4 ,number of ,women ,wage-earners3 ,in #aiaj1 according to the census1 there were in ,new ,york ,state #c1bia1gad women over fifteen years of age2 only #a1gic1eeh were married1 and #a1dih1aef were unmarried or widowed2 #ihc1fhf of these had to work in order to live1 or to support some members of their families4 ,this number did not include the great mass of women who work in their homes4 ,clothing ,manufacturers3 ,before the ,united ,states entered the war1 #ahd1fia women were working in ,new ,york ,state making every conceivable garment for people to wear4 ,the work is subdivided so that one worker does one thing all day long4 ,there are sixty-five operations in the making of trousers4 ,twenty to sixty different operations take place in the making of men's shirts4 ,women tuck or hem materials for women's wear hour by hour1 driven by the juggernaut electric machine which knows no fatigue and needs no rest4 ,laundries3 ,ten thousand women worked in laundries in this ,state1 where the washing and ironing are done usually by machines4 ,they stand and push down a treadle of the ironing-machine with their feet1 making as many as sixty-three to eighty-one foot pressures a minute4 ,in this action a bad twist of the body is necessary1 which may result in permanent injury4 ,clouds of steam rise from the mangles1 and when no exhaust hoods are used1 the room is filled with steam4 ,tuberculosis is a common disease among laundry workers4 ,unprotected machinery is a constant danger4 ,restaurant ,workers3 ,there were fifteen thousand restaurant workers1 waitresses1 cooks1 kitchen girls1 and pantry hands4 ,until #aiag1 they were without any protection by law4 ,they worked any number of hours1 and seven days a week4 ,they now come under the fifty-four-hour law1 in first and second class cities1 but the law is difficult to enforce4 ,they often walk five miles a day carrying heavy trays2 and varicose veins1 flat feet1 and pelvic disorders are common4 ,textile ,operators3 ,in ,new ,york ,state #ce1afh women worked in textile-mills making silks1 woolens1 cottons1 carpets1 knit underwear1 etc4 ,the din of machinery is deafening in many of these factories1 and often the machinery is so closely placed that there is difficulty in passing without danger of skirts catching4 ,the whole development of machinery in industry has been worked out for the purpose of extending trade and output1 without consideration of the human factor involved4 ,machines have been watched so they did not wear out or break1 and they have been carefully repaired4 ,girls and women1 the human factor1 have been discarded if they wore out2 they are of less worth to the employer and can be easily replaced without cost to him4 ,but the cost to the ,state has been heavy in the toll of hospitals1 insane asylums1 and homes for destitutes and delinquents4 ,there is hardly a trade which has not some elements of danger or unhealthfulness in it4 ,women working in meat-packing plants in sausage-making rooms stand all day at their work on water- and slime-soaked floors4 ,women work in industries where industrial poisons are used or where they are generated in the process of manufacturing4 ,the pressure of piece-work1 the monotony of one single operation1 are nerve-racking and nerve-exhausting4 ,the health of women who spend hours a day in factories depends largely upon factory laws and sanitary codes4 ,light1 air1 sanitation1 overcrowding in factories1 mills1 and shops1 all vitally affect the health of the workers4 ,no one can measure the cost of industry in the life of women4 ,the strength and vitality taken from them will show in the lowered vitality of their children4 ,a low birth-rate1 a high death-rate1 and an impaired second generation are the inevitable results4 ,infant mortality where the mothers work in factories is notoriously high4#i ,war and ,woman's ,work3 ,with the insistent demand for increased production occasioned by the war1 women have been brought into many new positions formerly held only by men4 ,they have gone into the steel-mills2 they are employed in large numbers in the munition-factories2 they are working on the railroads1 in railroad yards1 and inspecting tracks1 as well as in the ticket-offices and baggage-rooms4 ,the ,pennsylvania ,railroad has #b1cjj women employed as car-cleaners1 track-walkers1 upholsterers1 locomotive despatchers1 and machine-hands4 ,some are operating trains4 ,they are engaged as conductors on street-cars and subways1 and as elevator operators4 ,these new industries are not included in the provisions for women of the ,state labor laws4 ,new ,york ,state has a nine-hour day for women working in factories and mercantile occupations1 and night work is prohibited in these industries2 but this protection does not extend into other occupations4 ,an eight-hour working-day has been given to men in many ,states and in many occupations1 but in only a few of the ,western ,states has it been given to women4 ,after three or four years in most industries1 young women begin to wear out1 the speeding up and the strain put on their youth begin to tell1 their capacity lessens1 and their output diminishes4 ,although the effect of long hours and monotonous occupation is harder on them than it is on men1 the protection of the law has been extended to them to a far less extent4 ,in these new industries there is none4 ,women may work in them twelve hours a day and all night4 ,the demand of some of the street railways is for a twelve-hour night for women conductors 7with two hours off for supper74 ,elevator operators work twelve hours a day1 in day and night shifts1 and girls employed all night are subject to insult if not actual danger4 ,since boys have been difficult to get1 girls1 including some under sixteen1 have been delivering letters and packages in messenger service4 ,the ,state law prohibits boys under twenty-one being employed as messengers at night1 because of the dangers of contamination from the night life of a city4 ,under present conditions a girl employed as messenger has no protection1 and may even be sent to houses of doubtful character4 ,the new industries for women also include manual work that has heretofore been considered too heavy for them4 ,the high wages paid them1 while lower than would have to be paid now to men for the same work1 are still high enough to attract women from other occupations where wages have not had the same advance4 ,while there is an increasing demand that women shall be paid the same wages as a man would be paid for exactly the same work1 the idea still prevails that it is only fair to pay men more than women because they have families to support1 while women support only themselves4 ,this is not true4 ,on the backs of many women rests the sole support of aged parents1 or of younger brothers and sisters4 ,a large proportion of them give up all their earnings to the family needs4 ,it is no longer a question of the ability of women to do many kinds of work formerly held to be the exclusive province of men2 but of the effect of her so doing on the future health and welfare of the race4 ,women1 like men1 must work in order to live1 but society and the ,state owe it to themselves1 as a vital matter of self-protection1 to safeguard that work1 so that future generations shall not suffer from its effects4 ,the whir of machinery1 the noise1 the constant standing or the close bending over work1 the meager wages1 have been the conditions woman has had to meet for years in her struggle for a livelihood2 to them are now added the dangers and excessive hours of these new occupations1 with their further call on her strength and endurance4 ,these new industries for women should be included in the laws regulating the hours and condition of women's work4 ,public messenger service is too dangerous for young girls to be employed in it4 ,if the eight-hour working-day is right for men1 it is even more needed by women4 ,laws regulating factory conditions are of little value unless there is sufficient inspection to enforce them1 and the number of inspectors employed is always inadequate4 ,women inspectors are needed for factories in which women are employed2 but there are only four women factory inspectors in the entire ,state4 ,several years ago the ,new ,york ,state ,factory ,investigating ,commission made an exhaustive investigation of women's wages1 and found that women and girls were so underpaid as to endanger their health and productiveness4 ,since then the cost of living has advanced prodigiously1 with no corresponding increase in wages1 especially among young unorganized women4 ,a minimum wage bill1 similar to the one in force in ,oregon1 which has been declared constitutional by the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court1 is now before the ,legislature1 drawn on the recommendation of the ,state ,factory ,investigating ,commission4 ,if the war continues1 the demand1 not for more protection1 but for the suspension of existing labor laws1 will become more insistent4 ,the needs of the country for increased production will be irresistible and will not be satisfied for many years4 ,the test which the government should insist shall be applied to every occupation in which women engage is this3 ,what effect will it have on the one business in life which is especially theirs1 the production and conservation of human life8 ,how can it be safeguarded so it shall not exact too great a toll from their health and vitality8 ,every consideration that individuals and the ,state can give must be engaged in the study of this question4 ,with the vote in her hands1 the woman in industry will be able to protect herself better than before1 but the responsibility for her welfare rests not on herself alone1 but on other women1 especially on those who are free from the grinding struggle themselves1 and can do as they choose with their time4 ,it is part of their responsibility to see that the most conscientious and careful consideration be given to this question4 ,,footnotes3 #i ,thanks are due ,miss ,mary ,dreier1 a member of the recent ,new ,york ,state ,factory ,investigating ,commission1 for this picture of the work which women are doing4 ,,xxii ,,americanization ,the ,united ,states is still a medley of foreign nationalities1 representing all the races of the world1 with their social characteristics1 customs1 prejudices1 and even language unchanged4 ,no one need be disconcerted by this fact1 for the people who came over in the ,mayflower were foreign-born1 the founders of the city of ,new ,york were of foreign birth1 and so were the first families of ,virginia4 ,in ,new ,york ,state only #ce per cent4 of the population is of native birth and descent4 ,almost one-third is foreign-born2 one-third of the children born here have one or both parents of foreign birth4 ,even with all the resources at our command it would have been a giant task to have assimilated such huge numbers of such divergent races4 ,the ,united ,states was established as a nation where justice1 freedom1 and opportunity were to be assured to all the people4 ,for over a century it has been a refuge for men and women of foreign lands1 who have been oppressed and have longed for freedom1 and who have sought wider opportunity for themselves and their children4 ,native-born ,americans have accepted their privileges as a matter of course1 and without feeling the obligations they imply4 ,they have demanded justice and opportunity for themselves1 but they have not felt the responsibility of seeing that it was extended in equal measure to those who come to our shores4 ,they have not realized that it is the obligation of every one enjoying the privileges and benefits of a democracy to see that these are shared and safeguarded by all the people4 ,the war has brought home to the nation the stern necessity of a united country4 ,for the safety of the nation our ideals of freedom1 justice1 and opportunity must be put into practice for all the people of the nation4 ,the 8square deal0 that we stand for must be given at home1 the opportunity for better living and the development of character must not be denied any of our people4 ,only in this way shall we have loyal ,american citizens who value their allegiance and who feel the obligation to uphold our national ideals4 ,the ,immigrant ,is a ,great ,national ,asset3 ,the country has been built up largely by his work4 ,the railroads1 the mines1 the great buildings1 the subways1 waterworks1 steel-mills1 sugar-refining1 clothes1 cigars1 furniture1 most of the products of our factories1 are made by immigrants4 ,the great industries of the country would stop without the millions of hands that they supply4 ,the immigrant often comes here with high hopes of improving his condition1 and he finds himself looked down on with contempt by the native ,american1 exploited at every turn1 and every advantage taken of his ignorance4 ,after an alien is once admitted1 there has been relatively little attempt made to protect him1 to see that he is helped to settle where his skill can best be utilized1 or even to aid him in learning our language and customs4 ,many foreigners were skilled farmers before they came to this country1 but although there is great need for such labor on the farms here1 little provision is made to use their skill in that way4 ,the immigrant often has to pay to get a chance to earn his living4 ,when he gets a job his labor is exploited2 he has to accept lower wages than an ,american would take2 the living-quarters provided for him may not be fit for human habitation4 ,here is a recent picture of a suburb of ,new ,york ,city1 a community of #af1jjj foreign-born workers3 ,the married workman pays from fifteen to twenty dollars a month rent for a three- or four-room flat1 the rooms about ten feet square1 with no light but kerosene-lamps4 ,the average family has four children1 and each family takes from two to six boarders to help pay the rent4 ,the only running water is on the first floor1 and there is one out-of-door toilet4 ,is it any wonder that the children1 the younger generation1 are both sickly and lawless8 ,the factory buildings are large and well lighted1 but in many communities of foreign-born unskilled workmen the housing provisions allow for no privacy and are a detriment to family life and morality4 ,such conditions are particularly bad for the immigrant woman whose work confines her indoors4 ,it is natural that the foreigner should settle with others of his own nationality1 so almost every city and village in the ,state has a colony 8across the track40 ,in the native section there will be police protection1 paved streets1 running water1 sewage and garbage disposal1 but this protection often does not extend 8across the track40 ,there1 disorder and filth abound and the death-rate is much higher4 ,every injustice to the immigrant reacts on us as a people4 ,he must be given a square deal before he can be made into a loyal ,american4 ,a common language is the first essential of a united nation4 ,there are solid blocks in ,new ,york and other cities where not a word of ,english is spoken or understood4 ,it is hopeless to try to make ,americans of persons who do not understand our language4 ,speaking ,english is the first step in citizenship1 and the public schools are the logical centers in which to make loyal ,americans of our alien population4 ,night ,schools are sometimes provided1 but there are many localities still without them2 and1 after all1 it is difficult for a man who has been at manual labor all day to study at night4 ,they are most successful when they are made interesting with stories and games4 ,experiments have been made with classes held from five to seven o'clock in the afternoon in the factory buildings1 and employers often welcome them4 ,neighborhood ,classes for ,women are being held in the afternoon in some localities4 ,in this case the babies must be included4 ,provision is made for them in a separate room with a nurse or kindergartner to take charge of them4 ,the best lessons for the mothers are not found in books1 but are based on the interests connected with their daily lives and their domestic duties4 ,paper patterns and a lesson in how to make garments for her baby will chain her attention1 and the ,english names of articles used will be learned unconsciously4 8,playing store0 with the articles she depends on to feed her family will fascinate her and teach her more practical ,english4 ,the immigrant woman is often keen to learn ,american ways and customs4 ,she is eager to know how to take better care of her family4 ,when the public schools of ,new ,york ,city give away pamphlets about economical cooking1 the call for them from the mothers of the pupils is so great that the supply is soon exhausted4 ,the need for some special help for the foreign woman was never as great as it is to-day4 ,there are about four hundred thousand of them in ,new ,york ,state who have become citizens because their husbands are citizens4 ,they are going to vote4 ,many of them cannot speak ,english4 ,in the course of time the law providing that a woman shall take the citizenship of her husband without qualifying for it herself1 may be changed1 but meanwhile these women are voters4 ,they need help and education1 and for the protection of the ,state the community must give it to them4 ,home ,teaching of women in the tenements as part of the regular school system is being tried in ,california4 ,teachers are sent into the homes to show by practical demonstration economical cooking1 how to improve sanitary conditions1 and to teach the mother how to care for her children4 ,naturalization would do more to arouse a sense of responsibility in the alien if it were conferred with a ceremony which would appeal to the imagination4 ,many of the people who come to our shores come from countries where beauty and ceremonial are part of the national life4 ,the process of naturalization1 as conducted in many courts1 is usually perfunctory and often sordid4 ,if the courts are crowded1 an applicant may have to come six or eight times with his witnesses1 losing not only time1 but being in danger of losing his job4 ,he is often ignorant of the whole subject of government2 he may know nothing of the questions involved in an election1 but there is rarely an effort made to teach him anything of ,american ideals4 ,the political club that wants his vote is the only thing connected with government that pays any attention to him1 or offers him help4 ,often he finds that his vote has a market value4 ,so the ballot1 the symbol of freedom and self-government1 becomes to him only a bit of graft4 ,definite standards of citizenship that apply to all alike1 better tests of their knowledge of ,english and of our government1 would help to impress on aliens the meaning of the oath of allegiance4 ,uniform ,naturalization ,laws3 ,in ,new ,york ,state an alien has to wait five years to become a citizen with a vote4 ,in ,nebraska1 a ,turk or a ,greek or an ,armenian who landed six months before1 if he has taken out his citizenship papers1 is permitted to vote1 although he may have no educational qualifications of any kind1 and know no ,english nor anything about our government4 ,in seven other ,states a man can vote simply by declaring his intention of becoming a citizen4 ,ignorance of ,laws3 ,besides the lack of provision for learning the duties of citizenship1 there is little opportunity for the immigrant either to become familiar with our laws or to learn respect for the law4 ,he gets his knowledge of the vote from the ward boss1 and he learns contempt for the law when he sees the curtains of the saloons pulled down in front1 and the back door open4 ,as he sees the constant disregard for law all around him1 liberty becomes license in his mind4 ,then as he prospers and grows well-to-do1 building laws1 factory inspection1 fire protection1 and other attempts at government regulations1 often seem to him restrictions which are to be evaded as much as possible4 ,sweatshops and the padrone system are to his mind part of the ,american system for getting rich4 ,in taking advantage of them for his own profit he feels that he is only following the custom of the country4 ,a contempt for law and opposition to any attempt of the law to interfere with what he considers his rights are the natural results4 ,the study of civics#aj in the public schools should begin not in the high schools and colleges1 but in the lower grades4 ,a majority of children leave school before they reach the grammar school4 ,a practical course in government may be made simple and interesting even for them4 ,the idea has been seriously advanced that the oath of allegiance1 accompanied by a dignified and beautiful ceremony1 might be administered to groups of boys and girls as they reach twenty-one years of age1 in a manner to impress on the public mind the value of citizenship4 ,the 8citizen receptions0 which have been given monthly in ,cleveland and ,los ,angeles1 to the new citizens of that period1 have done this4 ,after a patriotic program1 with the judge of the court presiding1 each successful applicant is very proud when he receives his naturalization papers like a diploma1 awarded before his family and friends4 ,such a ceremonial cannot fail to carry home the conviction of the value of the citizenship so conferred1 and the importance of living up to the responsibility imposed by it4 ,,footnotes3 #aj ,the study of citizenship in the public schools may be made a vigorous aid to ,americanization4 ,many foreign parents depend on their children for their knowledge of the customs of the new country4 ,what the children learn in the public schools has its influence on the life of the family at home4 ,if the children are taught orderliness1 consideration for others1 and respect for authority1 they carry those qualities home4 ,if they are undisciplined1 they take home disregard for parental authority1 and a lack of consideration for the rights of others1 that will stand in the way of their comprehending the first principles of good citizenship4 ,,xxiii ,,patriotism ,,and ,,citizenship ,from the beginning of history there have always been individuals who have chosen death rather than slavery4 ,as intelligence has grown and has displaced ignorance1 their number has increased1 but it is only within the last century and a half that people have demanded liberty in sufficient numbers to make it the fundamental principle in the forming of great nations4 ,we1 in the ,united ,states1 are the inheritors of the most courageous and forward thinking of the men and women of all nations who cared enough for human liberty to break all ties of home and country in order that they might 8establish justice1 insure domestic tranquillity1 provide for the common defense1 and secure the blessings of liberty0 for themselves and for us4 ,these phrases from the ,constitution of the ,united ,states have usually been only words to us4 ,we have been safe1 our homes have been secure1 our loved ones have been protected4 ,most of us have not personally been conscious of any overwhelming injustices1 and those that we have heard of have been far enough away not to be disturbing4 ,we have come and gone as we chose2 we have thought and spoken as we pleased2 we have worshiped as we would2 our property has been safe2 we have damned the government or any man in any public office without thought of danger to ourselves2 we have feared no man4 ,why should we have talked about liberty or human freedom--it has been secure enough4 ,so the call to defend liberty to some has fallen on dull ears1 and the demand for an awakened patriotism in some places has gone unheeded4 ,as a people1 we have forgotten about the long centuries of fighting for freedom1 the tremendous cost that has been paid1 and the blood that has been shed4 ,think what those words1 8safety1 defense1 tranquillity1 justice10 must have meant throughout the centuries when no man's life was safe1 when not only his welfare1 but that of his family1 was subject to the whim of the government1 when he could be thrown into prison without knowing the reason why1 when the honor of his wife or daughter could be taken without his being able to protest4 ,read your history again1 of the middle ages1 of ,england in the seventeenth century1 of ,france before the ,revolution1 of ,germany in the eighteenth century4 ,then read of the early struggles in ,america4 ,it was nature and the ,indians that man was fighting then4 ,for personal safety he fought to make war and raiding unprofitable2 he had to meet brute force with brute force1 to prove his mastery over nature and savagery1 and to gain peace and safety for himself and his home4 ,it is the untold sacrifices of countless men and women that have made liberty possible4 ,that it shall be maintained1 and that the world shall not be allowed to slip back1 is a debt that every man and woman owes to the past4 ,those who inherit the fruits of this age-long struggle must be ready to pay their part1 for themselves and for the sake of those they love1 for the sake of those who won it for them1 and for those who shall come after them4 ,the duty which rests on them is as great as the duty that was on the men of the ,revolution1 and on those who won the ,magna ,charta4 ,if they do not1 they are weakening the forces of civilization4 ,for liberty is not yet complete4 ,there may be as great a struggle ahead of the world as lies in the past4 ,before the tremendous upheaval of the war1 we took it for granted that the liberties we possess were common1 more or less1 in most of the civilized world4 ,since then the horrors1 the unbelievable human suffering1 the suspension of all human rights1 in the region of the great struggle1 we have laid to the war1 and have not realized that in many parts of civilized ,europe1 before the war1 human freedom as we know it did not exist1 and that the denial of certain rights which we claim as fundamental1 was common4 ,at the foundation of our national existence has been that belief in the principles of liberty1 justice1 and opportunity which the ,constitution expresses4 ,the rights given us by the founders of our nation have been the ideals which other democratic governments have sought to follow4 ,they have been sufficiently elastic to meet the growth of the world's belief in democracy1 and to provide for all new developments in the ideals of human liberty4 ,if these ideals have been denied to any of our people1 it has been the fault of us as citizens4 ,the degree in which they are maintained depends on us4 ,instead of denying the liberties that we actually enjoy1 would we not do better to advance them and add to them8 ,in place of tearing down the great structure already erected1 is it not wiser to help to correct its imperfections and to continue to build on it8 ,there is an intelligent part of the public that desires good government and will help to maintain our ideals of justice1 but they are in the minority4 ,there is also a part that sees in government only their own selfish profit1 but they are also a minority4 ,the great mass of people are indifferent until something arouses them4 ,they would rather be left alone by bad government than be bothered by good government4 ,that is the great problem of democracy--to arouse all the people to a realization of the necessity of their active interest in and support of that democracy1 to increase their sense of individual responsibility2 and that is the reason for universal suffrage--to put yeast into a people and to ferment their dormant interest4 ,democracy is not static4 ,it exists only as it is upheld4 ,we hear about the denials of justice and the failures of democracy more than we do about its blessings4 ,our sense of perspective is often wrong4 ,we talk about an act of lawlessness in the ,united ,states1 even if it is being prosecuted with energy by the government1 and class it with a deliberate attempt by a government to crush a people4 ,we make no distinction between a ,state with deficient labor laws and a country where the laboring classes have no right to make themselves heard4 ,we see no difference between a suppression of disloyal utterances in time of war and a people that is never allowed to speak freely1 or a censoring of papers in war-time and a press that never prints anything but what it is told to print4 ,we are apt to magnify the evils of democracy at home1 and to forget the magnificent heritage of liberty that belongs to us4 ,what are the special privileges which we enjoy8 ,first4--,personal ,security1 the right to live our daily lives without fear of personal danger1 the right of being secure from unwarrantable seizure of person4 ,this right has been ours so long that we do not know how precious a right it is4 ,it is difficult even to conjure up in imagination an idea of what it would mean to be in daily fear of one's safety4 ,second4--,personal ,liberty3 ,freedom of ,thought and ,speech4 ,life would be unthinkable to us without this liberty4 ,to stifle one's thought1 to be afraid to let a suspicion of it leak out would mean to make life unbearable4 ,freedom of the ,press is a right that we enjoy more than any other nation4 ,freedom of ,worship has so long been unquestioned that we forget that it has been little more than a short century since it was established4 ,freedom of ,assembly is a right which we accept without question4 ,the ,right of ,petition was won by a bitter struggle4 ,we can scarcely imagine that there was ever a time when it was denied4 ,third4--,equality before the ,law is a right that is guaranteed by the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 the right to a fair trial by jury1 of habeas corpus1 and due process of the law4 ,fourth4--,security of ,property is guaranteed by our ,constitution4 ,private property may not be taken even by the government without a fair price being paid for it4 ,fifth4--,political ,rights are guaranteed to our people1 universal suffrage1 complete political liberty4 ,this is the most valuable of all rights1 because it is the right that secures all other rights4#aa ,these rights are not absolute2 they are dependent on public opinion as well as on the law4 ,they are imperfectly administered4 ,to the extent that they are denied1 we must each one of us accept part of the blame1 because liberty of action is ours4 ,in time of war public safety may demand their suspension1 and the people may give permission that this may be done temporarily4 ,the privilege of citizenship brings with it the obligation to defend the government of which that citizenship is a part4 ,the right to vote is a right which might well be dependent on the loyalty of the citizen1 and on his willingness to defend and maintain his country4 ,men say even to-day that the vote has no value1 that they do not care about it4 ,let them live for a time in a country where they would not be allowed to vote1 where the people are governed by an autocratic power1 and how long before they would be willing to sacrifice anything1 even life itself1 for political liberty8 ,the citizen of a democracy has not only the duty to defend his country1 but is bound to transmit to future generations something better than he inherited from the past4 ,as it is his part in time of war to defend the liberties that he enjoys1 so it is his duty in time of peace to do his best to develop and strengthen liberty and justice4 ,that is a task even more difficult than to fight in time of war4 ,the discouragements1 the disappointments1 are many4 ,women are bound to meet these disappointments4 ,the vote for which they have worked so hard and so long will not accomplish what they wish4 ,often it will seem to accomplish very little4 ,the machinery of democracy is cumbersome and very imperfect4 ,it is often heartbreaking to try to move it4 ,it does not easily register the popular will4 ,but in spite of the imperfections1 and the discouragements1 and the downright corruption1 the foundation on which it is built is the best that the world has yet found4 ,there are many labor-saving devices still to be invented for the bettering of the machinery of government--protective measures to be found against political corruption and to safeguard the interests of the people4 ,side by side with the improvement in the mechanism of government must come a quickening of the public conscience4 ,the yeast of universal suffrage is already working toward that end4 ,the golden rule as the standard of action in government will make few mistakes4 ,the prospect for an improved democracy in ,new ,york ,state is bright4 ,the war has swept away many prejudices and has clarified many problems4 ,men and women are working together as never before1 whole-heartedly1 for the benefit of the ,state4 ,to adapt the words of ,president ,wilson1 8the climax of the culminating and final war for human liberty has come1 and we must be ready to put our own strength1 our own highest purpose1 our own integrity and devotion to the test10 and we must do this not only now in time of war1 but also after peace has come1 in the dedication of ourselves to the service of justice1 freedom1 and opportunity for all in our nation4 ,,footnotes3 #aa ,universal suffrage has meant in the past only manhood suffrage4 ,with the ratification of the woman suffrage amendment to the ,national ,constitution1 universal suffrage will become for the first time a fact4 ,,appendix ,,some ,,definitions ,habeas ,corpus3 ,both the ,federal and ,state constitutions guarantee to the people the right to the writ of habeas corpus1 8unless where in cases of rebellion or invasion1 public safety may require its suspension40 ,this is an order that may be obtained from a certain judge commanding that a prisoner shall be brought into court without delay4 ,this writ secures to any person imprisoned for any cause the right to be heard immediately1 in order that the purpose of his detention may be made known1 the facts be examined1 and the prisoner either released or remanded for trial4 ,this is one of our most highly prized rights1 and is based on a promise contained in the ,magna ,charta4 ,the ,initiative and ,referendum give to the voters the power to initiate legislation1 and the right to compel a referendum on any legislative act4 ,the ,initiative enables the people to enact some measure that they may desire1 when it has been ignored1 or defeated1 or amended out of shape by the ,legislature4 ,the initiative may be used to pass a new law1 or to amend or repeal existing laws4 ,if a group of citizens can get a certain percentage of the voters to sign the requisite petition to a measure1 it then goes to the ,legislature1 and if it is not adopted by that body1 the measure must be given to the people for their decision by popular vote4 ,if a majority of the voters indorse the measure it becomes a law without waiting for action by the ,legislature4 ,in ,oregon1 initiative measures go directly to the people without being submitted to the ,legislature4 ,the ,referendum provides that a certain percentage of voters may demand that any statute passed by the ,legislature must be submitted to the voters1 and approved by them before it becomes a law4 ,the existence of a provision for the initiative and referendum is said to reduce the need of interference with the work of the ,legislature1 and the actual number of measures coming to a popular vote is very small4 ,the ,recall provides that the voters who put an official into office may vote to remove him before his term of office is over4 ,if people are dissatisfied with the conduct of a public official1 on petition of a certain number of voters1 he may be compelled to submit to a new election so that the voters may pass judgment on his conduct of his office4 ,the ,red-light ,injunction and ,abatement ,act is recognized as the most effective way yet found of minimizing the social evil4 ,the usual method of handling such offenses is to arrest the woman and fine her4 ,the injunction and abatement act puts the responsibility on the owner of the property used for this business4 ,if it can be proved that it is used for immoral purposes1 the house is closed1 and the owner fined and put under heavy bond to insure its not being used again in this way4 ,property used for this purpose brings much higher rent than when used for legitimate business1 so that this procedure strikes at one root of the evil4 ,new ,york ,state has an abatement act1 but it is not well enforced4 ,it is not easy in many cases to find the owner of a piece of property4 ,the ,tin ,plate ,ordinance puts the name of the owner of a building on a plate outside the building1 and thus prevents the concealment of his or her identity4 ,it was first put into operation in ,portland1 ,oregon4 ,prohibition1 ,high ,license1 ,local ,option1 and the ,guttenburg ,system are all ways of dealing with the liquor traffic4 ,prohibition has been of many different degrees in various places in the ,united ,states4 ,a complete ,national prohibition measure has now been passed by ,congress1 and is before the ,states for ratification4 ,high ,license is intended to decrease the number of places where liquor is sold by placing a tax on them so large that it will be impossible for many of them to pay it4 ,local ,option1 which allows communities of various sizes to decide for themselves whether the sale of liquor shall be licensed or not1 has been fought step by step by the liquor trade4 ,the ,scandinavian or ,guttenburg ,system of controlling the liquor business1 in general1 provides for eliminating all private profit from the business1 but there are many variations of details in different places in carrying out the system4 ,the ,scandinavian idea is that if the money profit is done away with the business will take care of itself4 ,a few licenses are given for short periods to companies formed for manufacturing wines and liquors1 and #e per cent4 interest is allowed on the capital invested4 ,all remaining profits go to the ,state4 ,the government has the right to withdraw the license without compensation4 ,retail shops are open only from eight in the morning until seven-thirty in the evening2 they are closed on holidays1 and from one on ,saturday until eight ,a4,m4 on ,monday4 ,bartenders are under the civil service and are given bonuses for selling soft drinks4 ,the ,single ,tax is a proposal to place the entire burden of taxation on land alone1 without regard for the value of its improvements4 ,land which is not improved1 and is entirely non-productive1 often increases in value with the growth of population and the improvements made on neighboring property1 without any effort on the part of the owner1 or any service rendered by him in return4 ,improvements on property increase the taxes on that property1 while the owner of the unimproved property escapes the same increase as long as his land remains unimproved4 ,in other words1 the improvements which add to public prosperity are made to pay an increase which the stagnant property escapes4 ,the proposal of the single-taxers is that the 8unearned increment0 on such land should go into the public treasury4 ,the ,house of ,governors originated when ,president ,roosevelt1 in #aijh1 invited the ,governors of all the ,states to meet in ,washington to confer over important matters4 ,several times since then this 8,house of ,governors0 has met together to discuss questions of mutual interest which are important to the welfare of the several ,states4 ,proportional ,representation would give representation in ,congress to each party1 in proportion to its membership in the ,state4 ,at present the representation of each party is based on its comparative strength in each congressional district4 ,the division of the ,state into congressional districts is made by the ,state ,legislature4 ,the political party in control of the ,legislature may divide the ,state in such a way that it may be able to elect an unfair number of representatives4 ,it may put counties1 or assembly districts which have a large majority of voters belonging to the opposite party1 in one congressional district1 and economize its own voting strength by spreading it over as many congressional districts as possible1 where it can be sure of electing its candidates by small majorities4 ,this is known as 8gerrymandering40 ,in ,new ,york ,state1 instead of the division of the ,state into congressional districts being based fairly on population1 districts have been created by the party in control of the ,legislature which contain more than twice as many voters as some other districts4#ab ,it is said that proportional representation would also tend to make ,congressmen so elected work for the service of the ,state as a whole instead of for one local district4 ,workmen's ,compensation ,laws are designed to provide for the compensation of employees when they are injured at their work4 ,more working-men are injured in the industries of the ,united ,states1 in proportion to the number employed1 than in any other country in the world4 ,to let the working-man and his family alone bear the burden of injury or death is recognized as an injustice4 ,for such an injured person1 or his family1 to be obliged to sue through the courts is usually a long and expensive process4 ,years may be consumed in such litigation1 and meanwhile the family may be without the support of the breadwinner4 ,compensation laws require employers1 regardless of fault1 to pay injured workmen certain amounts for injuries resulting from accidents1 without the workmen being obliged to go to court and sue for damages4 ,the ,state ,federation of ,labor is working to have all compensation insurance placed in the ,state fund1 to eliminate direct settlement of damages between the workers and the employer1 and to have all occupational diseases included in the provision of the law4 ,,additional ,,notes ,page #aji3 ,school taxes under the new ,township law are collected by ,town authorities4 ,page #adb3 ,in ,new ,york ,county the ,grand ,jury is composed of thirty-six men4 ,page #add3 ,a bill to make women eligible for jury service is before the ,legislature of ,new ,york ,state4 ,page #afc3 ,efforts are being made to repeal the ,township school law and to go back to the ,school ,district system of #agie4 ,,footnotes3 #ab ,also under our present system a large minority of voters may be without representation4 ,a third party in the ,state may have a considerable membership1 but its numbers may not be large enough in any one district to elect a representative over either of the other parties4 ,,chart ,,of ,,officials ,,for ,,whom ,,you ,,can ,,vote ,,elections ,,when ,,held ,,term ,,salary ,school ,elections4 ,school-meeting annually first ,tuesday in ,may4 ,board of ,education1 0 0 #c years4 #c-e in each town4 ,school directors1 0 0 #e 0 #b in each town4 ,village ,elections4 ,annually1 usually in the spring1 the third ,tuesday in ,march4 ,president4 0 0 #a 0 ,trustees 7#b to #h74 0 0 #b 0 ,clerk 7sometimes #a year4 varies4 appointed74 ,treasurer4 0 0 #a 0 0 ,assessors4 0 0 #a 0 0 ,collector4 0 0 #a 0 percentage4 ,police justice4 0 0 #d years4 varies4 ,special elections may be called to decide special questions4 ,town ,elections4 ,biennially1 either in the spring or at the general election in ,november4 ,supervisor4 0 0 #b years4 by the day or salary4 ,town clerk4 0 0 #b 0 fees4 ,assessors4 0 0 #b 0 by the day4 ,collector4 0 0 #b 0 percentage4 ,overseer of the ,poor4 0 0 #b 0 by the day4 ,supt4 of ,highways4 0 0 #b 0 0 0 ,constables4 0 0 #b 0 fees4 ,just4 of the ,peace4 0 0 #d 0 0 ,county ,elections4 ,at the general election in ,november4 ,sheriff4 0 0 #c 0 fees or sal'y4 ,county clerk4 0 0 #c 0 0 0 ,treasurer4 0 0 #c 0 fixed by b'rd of supervisors4 ,district attorney4 ,at the general election #c years4 sal'y varies4 in ,november4 ,supt4 of the poor4 0 0 #c 0 by the day or salary4 ,county judge4 0 0 #f 0 sal'y varies4 ,surrogate4 0 0 #f 0 0 0 ,coroners4 0 0 #c 0 fees or sal'y4 ,city ,elections4 ,cities of the first and second class and usually those of the third class hold elections biennially1 in the odd-numbered years4 ,new ,york ,city4 ,mayor4 ,elected every four years #d years4 #ae1jjj at the general election in ,november4 ,next mayor elected in #aiba4 ,comptroller4 0 0 #d 0 #ae1jjj ,borough presidents4 ,elected by the people of #d 0 #g1ejj each borough4 to #e1jjj ,aldermen4 ,in odd-numbered years4 #b 0 #b1jjj ,judges1 ,city ,courts4 ,at any general election4 #aj 0 #ab1jjj ,judges1 ,muni4 ,courts4 0 0 #aj 0 #g1jjj to #h1jjj ,new ,york ,county4 ,at the general election4 ,sheriff4 #d 0 #ab1jjj ,district attorney4 #d 0 #ae1jjj ,county clerk4 #d 0 #ae1jjj ,register4 #b 0 #ab1jjj ,judges of the ,court of ,general ,sessions4 #ad 0 #ag1ejj ,surrogates 7#b74 #ad 0 #ae1jjj ,bronx ,county4 ,at the general election4 ,sheriff4 #d 0 #aj1jjj ,district attorney4 #d 0 #aj1jjj ,county clerk4 #d 0 #aj1jjj ,register4 #d 0 #aj1jjj ,county judge4 #f 0 #aj1jjj ,surrogate4 #f 0 #aj1jjj ,kings ,county4 ,at the general election4 ,sheriff4 #b 0 #ae1jjj ,district attorney4 #c 0 #aj1jjj ,county clerk4 #d 0 #ab1jjj ,register4 #b 0 #ab1jjj ,county judges 7#e74 #f 0 #ab1ejj ,surrogate4 #f 0 #ae1jjj ,queens ,county4 ,at the general election4 ,sheriff4 #c 0 #aj1jjj ,district attorney4 #c 0 #h1jjj ,county clerk4 #c 0 #h1jjj ,county judge4 #f 0 #ab1ejj ,surrogate4 #f 0 #aj1jjj ,richmond ,county4 ,at the general election4 ,sheriff4 #c years4 #f1jjj ,district attorney4 #c 0 #e1jjj ,county clerk4 #c 0 #e1jjj ,county judge and surrogate4 #f 0 #aj1jjj ,state ,elections4 ,biennially1 at the general election in even-numbered years4 ,governor4 #b 0 #aj1jjj ,lieutenant-,governor4 #b 0 #e1jjj ,secretary of ,state4 #b 0 #f1jjj ,comptroller4 #b 0 #h1jjj ,treasurer4 #b 0 #f1jjj ,attorney-,general4 #b 0 #aj1jjj ,state ,engineer4 #b 0 #h1jjj ,state ,senators4 #b 0 #a1ejj ,assemblymen4 #a year4 #a1ejj ,judges of the ,court of ,appeals4 #ad years4 #ac1gjj to #ad1bjj ,judges of the ,supreme ,court4 #ad 0 #aj1jjj to #ag1ejj ,national ,elections4 ,at the general election4 ,president4 ,elected by presidential #d 0 #ge1jjj electors who are elected by the people every four years4 ,vice-,president4 0 0 #d 0 #ab1jjj ,u4 ,s4 ,senators4 ,at different general elec4 #f 0 #g1ejj ,representatives in ,biennially1 in even-numbered #b 0 #g1ejj ,congress4 years4 ,,the ,,end ,transcriber's ,notes pg #bjd ,added space between3 acanning-factory in3 who is kept at work in acanning-factory1 pg #bei ,removed repeated word to from3 workmen being obliged to to go to court pg #bei ,changed ,a bill to make women elegible to3 eligible pg #bfb ,added period after3 fees or sal'y - for ,coroners line pg #bfb ,added period after3 ,city ,elections pg #bfb ,added period after3 in the odd-numbered years pg #bfb ,added period after3 ,at any general election 7#b locations7 ,many hyphenated and non-hyphenated word combinations left as written4