,transcriber's ,notes ,texts printed in italics and blackletter have been transcribed between underscores and tildes respectively4 ,small capitals have been replaced with ,,all ,,capitals4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,entered at ,stationer's ,hall4 ,,zetetic ,,astronomy4 ,,earth ,,not ,a ,,globe6 ,,an ,,experimental ,,inquiry ,,into ,,the ,,true ,,figure ,,of ,,the ,,earth3 ,,proving ,,it ,a ,,plane1 ,,without ,,axial ,,or ,,orbital ,,motion2 ,,and ,,the ,,only ,,material ,,world ,,in ,,the ,,universe6 ,,by 8,,parallax40 ,london3 ,,simpkin1 ,,marshall1 ,,and ,,co41 ,,stationers' ,,hall ,,court4 ,bath3 ,s4 ,,hayward1 ,,green ,,street4 #ahfe4 ,the ,right of ,translation is ,reserved by the ,author4 ,,bath3 ,,printed ,,by ,s4 ,,hayward1 ,,green ,,street4 ,,general ,,contents4 ,,section ,i4 ,introduction--,experiments proving the ,earth to be a ,plane4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,the ,earth no ,axial or ,orbital ,motion4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,the true distance of the ,sun and ,stars4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,the ,sun moves in a ,circle over the ,earth1 concentric with the ,north ,pole4 ,,section ,v4 ,diameter of ,sun's path constantly changing4 ,,section ,,vi4 ,cause of ,day and ,night1 ,seasons1 c4 ,,section ,,vii4 ,cause of 8,sun rise0 and 8,sun set40 ,,section ,,viii4 ,cause of ,sun appearing larger when 8,arising0 and 8,setting0 than when on the ,meridian4 ,,section ,,ix4 ,cause of ,solar and ,lunar ,eclipses4 ,,section ,x4 ,cause of ,tides4 ,,section ,,xi4 ,constitution1 ,condition1 and ultimate ,destruction of the ,earth by ,fire4 ,,section ,,xii4 ,miscellanea--,moon's ,phases--,moon's appearance--,planet ,neptune-- ,pendulum ,experiments as ,proofs of ,earth's motion4 ,,section ,,xiii4 ,perspective on the ,sea4 ,,section ,,xiv4 ,general ,summary--,application--8,,cui ,,bono40 ,,zetetic ,,astronomy4 ,the term 8zetetic0 is derived from the ,greek verb zeteo2 which means to search or examine--to proceed only by inquiry4 ,none can doubt that by making special experiments and collecting manifest and undeniable facts1 arranging them in logical order1 and observing what is naturally and fairly deducible1 the result will be far more consistent and satisfactory than by framing a theory or system and assuming the existence of causes for which there is no direct evidence1 and which can only be admitted 8for the sake of argument40 ,all theories are of this character--8supposing instead of inquiring1 imagining systems instead of learning from observation and experience the true constitution of things4 ,speculative men1 by the force of genius may invent systems that will perhaps be greatly admired for a time2 these1 however1 are phantoms which the force of truth will sooner or later dispel2 and while we are pleased with the deceit1 true philosophy1 with all the arts and improvements that depend upon it1 suffers4 ,the real state of things escapes our observation2 or1 if it presents itself to us1 we are apt either to reject it wholly as fiction1 or1 by new efforts of a vain ingenuity to interweave it with our own conceits1 and labour to make it tally with our favourite schemes4 ,thus1 by blending together parts so ill-suited1 the whole comes forth an absurd composition of truth and error4 99 99 ,these have not done near so much harm as that pride and ambition which has led philosophers to think it beneath them to offer anything less to the world than a complete and finished system of nature2 and1 in order to obtain this at once1 to take the liberty of inventing certain principles and hypotheses1 from which they pretend to explain all her mysteries40#a #a 8,an ,account of ,sir ,isaac ,newton's ,discoveries40 ,by ,professor ,maclaurin1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 of the ,chair of ,mathematics in the ,university of ,edinburgh4 ,copernicus admitted1 8,it is not necessary that hypotheses should be true1 or even probable2 it is sufficient that they lead to results of calculation which agree with calculations4 99 99 ,neither let any one1 so far as hypotheses are concerned1 expect anything certain from astronomy2 since that science can afford nothing of the kind2 lest1 in case he should adopt for truth things feigned for another purpose1 he should leave this study more foolish than he came4 99 99 ,the hypothesis of the terrestrial motion was nothing but an hypothesis1 valuable only so far as it explained phenomena1 and not considered with reference to absolute truth or falsehood40 ,the ,newtonian and all other 8systems of nature0 are little better than the 8hypothesis of the terrestrial motion0 of ,copernicus4 ,the foundations or premises are always unproved2 no proof is ever attempted2 the necessity for it is denied2 it is considered sufficient that the assumptions shall seem to explain the phenomena selected4 ,in this way it is that one theory supplants another2 that system gives way to system as one failure after another compels opinions to change4 ,this will ever be so2 there will always exist in the mind a degree of uncertainty2 a disposition to look upon philosophy as a vain pretension2 a something almost antagonistic to the highest aspirations in which humanity can indulge1 unless the practice of theorising be given up1 and the method of simple inquiry1 the 8zetetic0 process be adopted4 8,nature speaks to us in a peculiar language2 in the language of phenomena1 she answers at all times the questions which are put to her2 and such questions are experiments40#b ,not experiments only which corroborate what has previously been assumed to be true2 but experiments in every form bearing on the subject of inquiry1 before a conclusion is drawn or premises affirmed4 #b 8,liebig's ,agricultural ,chemistry10 p4 #ci4 ,we have an excellent example of zetetic reasoning in an arithmetical operation2 more especially so in what is called the 8,golden ,rule10 or the 8,rule-of-,three40 ,if one hundred weight of any article is worth a given sum1 what will some other weight of that article be worth8 ,the separate figures may be considered as the elements or facts of the inquiry2 the placing and working of these as the logical arrangement2 and the quotient or answer as the fair and natural deduction4 ,hence1 in every zetetic process1 the conclusion arrived at is essentially a quotient1 which1 if the details be correct1 must1 of necessity1 be true beyond the reach or power of contradiction4 ,in our courts of ,justice we have also an example of the zetetic process4 ,a prisoner is placed at the bar2 evidence for and against him is advanced2 it is carefully arranged and patiently considered2 and only such a verdict given as could not in justice be avoided4 ,society would not tolerate any other procedure2 it would brand with infamy whoever should assume a prisoner to be guilty1 and prohibit all evidence but such as would corroborate the assumption4 ,yet such is the character of theoretical philosophy6 ,the zetetic process is also the natural method of investigation2 nature herself teaches it4 ,children invariably seek information by asking questions--by earnestly inquiring from those around them4 ,question after question in rapid and exciting succession will often proceed from a child1 until the most profound in learning and philosophy will feel puzzled to reply4 ,if then both nature and justice1 as well as the common sense and practical experience of mankind demand1 and will not be content with less or other than the zetetic process1 why should it be ignored and violated by the learned in philosophy8 ,let the practice of theorising be cast aside as one fatal to the full development of truth2 oppressive to the reasoning power2 and in every sense inimical to the progress and permanent improvement of the human race4 ,if then we adopt the zetetic process to ascertain the true figure and condition of the ,earth1 we shall find that instead of its being a globe1 and moving in space1 it is the directly contrary--,a ,,plane2 without motion1 and unaccompanied by anything in the ,firmament analogous to itself4 ,if the ,earth is a globe1 and #be1jjj miles in circumference1 the surface of all standing water must have a certain degree of convexity--every part must be an arc of a circle1 curvating from the summit at the rate of #h inches per mile multiplied by the square of the distance4 ,that this may be sufficiently understood1 the following quotation is given from the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 art4 8,levelling40 8,if a line which crosses the plumb-line at right angles be continued for any considerable length it will rise above the ,earth's surface 7the ,earth being globular72 and this rising will be as the square of the distance to which the said right line is produced2 that is to say1 it is raised eight inches very nearly above the ,earth's surface at one mile's distance2 four times as much1 or #cb inches1 at the distance of two miles2 nine times as much1 or #gb inches1 at the distance of three miles4 ,this is owing to the globular figure of the ,earth1 and this rising is the difference between the true and apparent levels2 the curve of the ,earth being the true level1 and the tangent to it the apparent level4 ,so soon does the difference between the true and apparent levels become perceptible that it is necessary to make an allowance for it if the distance betwixt the two stations exceeds two chains4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,let ,b4 ,d4 be a small portion of the ,earth's circumference1 whose centre of curvature is ,a4 and consequently all the points of this arc will be on a level4 ,but a tangent ,b4 ,c4 meeting the vertical line ,a4 ,d4 in ,c4 will be the apparent level at the point ,b4 and therefore ,d4 ,c4 is the difference between the apparent and the true level at the point ,b4 ,the distance ,c4 ,d4 must be deducted from the observed height to have the true difference of level2 or the differences between the distances of two points from the surface of the ,earth or from the centre of curvature ,a4 ,but we shall afterwards see how this correction may be avoided altogether in certain cases4 ,to find an expression for ,c4 ,d4 we have ,euclid1 third book1 #cf prop4 which proves that ,b4 ,c ,c4 ,d4 7#b ,a ,d ,c ,d72 but since in all cases of levelling ,c4 ,d4 is exceedingly small compared with #b ,a4 ,d41 we may safely neglect ,c4 ,d and then ,b ,c #b ,a4 ,d ,c4 ,d4 or ,b4 ,c ,c4 ,d ------4 #b ,a4 ,d ,hence the depression of the true level is equal to the square of the distance divided by twice the radius of the curvature of the ,earth4 ,for example1 taking a distance of four miles1 the square of #d #af1 and putting down twice the radius of the ,earth's curvature as in round figures about #hjjj miles1 we make the depression on four miles #af #af #agfj #agf #ebh ---- of a mile --------- yards --- yards --- feet1 #hjjj #hjjj #ej #ej or rather better than #aj feet4 ,or1 if we take the mean radius of the ,earth as the mean radius of its curvature1 and consequently #b ,a4 ,d #g1iab miles1 then #e1bhj feet being #a mile1 we shall have ,c4 ,d4 the depression in inches #ebhj #ab ,b ,c ---------------- #hjjh ,b4 ,c inches4 #giab ,the preceding remarks suppose the visual ray ,c4 ,b4 to be a straight line1 whereas on account of the unequal densities of the air at different distances from the ,earth1 the rays of light are incurvated by refraction4 ,the effect of this is to lessen the difference between the true and apparent levels1 but in such an extremely variable and uncertain manner that if any constant or fixed allowance is made for it in formul or tables1 it will often lead to a greater error than what it was intended to obviate4 ,for though the refraction may at a mean compensate for about a seventh of the curvature of the earth1 it sometimes exceeds a fifth1 and at other times does not amount to a fifteenth4 ,we have1 therefore1 made no allowance for refraction in the foregone formul40 ,if the ,earth is a globe1 there cannot be a question that1 however irregular the land may be in form1 the water must have a convex surface4 ,and as the difference between the true and apparent level1 or the degree of curvature would be #h inches in one mile1 and in every succeeding mile #h inches multiplied by the square of the distance1 there can be no difficulty in detecting either its actual existence or proportion4 ,experiments made upon the sea have been objected to on account of its constantly-changing altitude2 and the existence of banks and channels which produce a 8a crowding0 of the waters1 currents1 and other irregularities4 ,standing water has therefore been selected1 and many important experiments have been made1 the most simple of which is the following3--,in the county of ,cambridge there is an artificial river or canal1 called the 8,old ,bedford40 ,it is upwards of twenty miles long1 and passes in a straight line through that part of the fens called the 8,bedford level0 ,the water is nearly stationery--often entirely so1 and throughout its entire length has no interruption from locks or water-gates2 so that it is in every respect well adapted for ascertaining whether any and what amount of convexity really exists4 ,a boat with a flag standing three feet above the water1 was directed to sail from a place called 8,welney ,bridge10 to another place called 8,welche's ,dam40 ,these two points are six statute miles apart4 ,the observer1 with a good telescope1 was seated in the water as a bather 7it being the summer season71 with the eye not exceeding eight inches above the surface4 ,the flag and the boat down to the water's edge were clearly visible throughout the whole distance6 ,from this observation it was concluded that the water did not decline to any degree from the line of sight2 whereas the water would be #f feet higher in the centre of the arc of #f miles extent than at the two places ,welney ,bridge and ,welche's ,dam2 but as the eye of the observer was only eight inches above the water1 the highest point of the surface would be at one mile from the place of observation2 below which point the surface of the water at the end of the remaining five miles would be #af feet #h inches 7#e #h #bjj inches74 ,this will be rendered clear by the following diagram3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,let ,a ,b represent the arc of water from ,welney ,bridge to ,welche's ,dam1 six miles in length2 and ,a ,l the line of sight1 which is now a tangent to the arc ,a ,b2 the point of contact1 ,t1 is #a mile from the eye of the observer at ,a2 and from ,t to the boat at ,b is #e miles2 the square of #e miles multiplied by #h inches is #bjj inches1 or1 in other words1 that the boat at ,b would have been #bjj inches or above #af feet below the surface of the water at ,t2 and the flag on the boat1 which was #c feet high1 would have been #ac feet below the line-of-sight1 ,a ,t ,l66 ,from this experiment it follows that the surface of standing water is not convex1 and therefore that the ,earth ,,is ,,not ,a ,,globe6 ,on the ,contrary1 this simple experiment is all-sufficient to prove that the surface of the water is parallel to the line-of-sight1 and is therefore horizontal1 and that the ,earth cannot be other than ,a ,,plane6 ,in diagram ,figure #c this is perfectly illustrated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,a ,b is the line-of-sight1 and ,c ,d the surface of the water equidistant from or parallel to it throughout the whole distance observed4 ,although1 on account of the variable state of the water1 objections have been raised to experiments made upon the sea-shore to test the convexity of the flood or ebb-tide level1 none can be urged against observations made from higher altitudes4 ,for example1--the distance across the ,irish ,sea between ,douglas ,harbour1 in the ,isle of ,man1 and the ,great ,orm's ,head in ,north ,wales is #fj miles4 ,if the earth is a globe1 the surface of the water would form an arc #fj miles in length1 the centre of which would be #a1idd feet higher than the coast line at either end1 so that an observer would be obliged to attain this altitude before he could see the ,welsh coast from the ,isle of ,man3 as shown in the diagram1 ,figure #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,it is well known1 however1 that from an altitude not exceeding #ajj feet the ,great ,orm's ,head is visible in clear weather from ,douglas ,harbour4 ,the altitude of #ajj feet could cause the line of sight to touch the horizon at the distance of nearly #ac miles2 and from the horizon to ,orm's ,head being #dg miles1 the square of this number multiplied by #h inches gives #adgb feet as the distance which the ,welsh coast line would be below the line of sight ,b ,c4--,a representing the ,great ,orm's ,head1 which1 being #fjj feet high1 its summit would be #hgb feet below the horizon4 ,many similar experiments have been made across ,st4 ,george's ,channel1 between points near ,dublin and ,holyhead1 and always with results entirely incompatible with the doctrine of rotundity4 ,again1 it is known that the horizon at sea1 whatever distance it may extend to the right and left of the observer on land1 always appears as a straight line4 ,the following experiment has been tried in various parts of the country4 ,at ,brighton1 on a rising ground near the race course1 two poles were fixed in the earth six yards apart1 and directly opposite the sea4 ,between these poles a line was tightly stretched parallel to the distant horizon4 ,from the centre of the line the view embraced not less than #bj miles on each side1 making a distance of #dj miles4 ,a vessel was observed sailing directly westwards2 the line cut the rigging a little above the bulwarks1 which it did for several hours or until the vessel had sailed the whole distance of #dj miles4 ,this will be understood by reference to the diagram1 ,figure #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,if the ,earth were a globe1 the appearance would be as represented in ,figure #f4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,the ship coming into view from the east would have to ascend an inclined plane for #bj miles until it arrived at the centre of the arc ,a ,b1 whence it would have to descend for the same distance4 ,the square of #bj miles multiplied by #h inches gives #bff feet as the amount the vessel would be below the line ,c ,d at the beginning and at the end of the #dj miles4 ,if we stand upon the deck of a ship1 or mount to the mast head2 or go to the top of a mountain1 or ascend above the ,earth in a balloon1 and look over the sea1 the surface appears as a vast inclined plane rising up until in the distance it intercepts the line of sight4 ,if a good mirror be held in the opposite direction1 the horizon will be reflected as a well-defined mark or line across the centre1 as represented in diagram1 ,figure #g4 ,ascending or descending1 the distant horizon does the same4 ,it rises and falls with the observer1 and is always on a level with his eye4 ,if he takes a position where the water surrounds him--as at the mast-head of a ship out of sight of land1 or on the summit of a small island far from the mainland1 the surface of the sea appears to rise up on all sides equally and to surround him like the walls of an immense amphitheatre4 ,he seems to be in the centre of a large concavity1 the edges of which expand or contract as he takes a higher or lower position4 ,this appearance is so well known to sea-going travellers that nothing more need be said in its support4 ,but the appearance from a balloon is familiar only to a small number of observers1 and therefore it will be useful to quote from those who have written upon the subject4 8,the ,apparent ,concavity of the ,earth as seen from a ,balloon4--,a perfectly-formed circle encompassed the visible planisphere beneath1 or rather the concavo-sphere it might now be called1 for ,i had attained a height from which the surface of the ,earth assumed a regularly hollowed or concave appearance--an optical illusion which increases as you recede from it4 ,at the greatest elevation ,i attained1 which was about a mile-and-a-half1 the appearance of the ,world around me assumed a shape or form like that which is made by placing two watch-glasses together by their edges1 the balloon apparently in the central cavity all the time of its flight at that elevation40--,wise's ,aeronautics4 8,another curious effect of the aerial ascent was1 that the ,earth1 when we were at our greatest altitude1 positively appeared concave1 looking like a huge dark bowl1 rather than the convex sphere such as we naturally expect to see it4 99 99 99 ,the horizon always appears to be on a level with our eye1 and seems to rise as we rise1 until at length the elevation of the circular boundary line of the sight becomes so marked that the ,earth assumes the anomalous appearance as we have said of a concave rather than a convex body40--,mayhew's ,great ,world of ,london4 ,mr4 ,elliott1 an ,american ronaut1 in a letter giving an account of his ascension from ,baltimore1 thus speaks of the appearance of the ,earth from a balloon3-- 8,i don't know that ,i ever hinted heretofore that the ronaut may well be the most sceptical man about the rotundity of the ,earth4 ,philosophy imposes the truth upon us2 but the view of the ,earth from the elevation of a balloon is that of an immense terrestrial basin1 the deeper part of which is that directly under one's feet4 ,as we ascend1 the ,earth beneath us seems to recede--actually to sink away--while the horizon gradually and gracefully lifts a diversified slope stretching away farther and farther to a line that1 at the highest elevation1 seems to close with the sky4 ,thus upon a clear day1 the ronaut feels as if suspended at about an equal distance between the vast blue oceanic concave above1 and the equally expanded terrestrial basin below40 8,the chief peculiarity of the view from a balloon1 at a considerable elevation1 was the altitude of the horizon1 which remained practically on a level with the eye at an elevation of two miles1 causing the surface of the ,earth to appear concave instead of convex1 and to recede during the rapid ascent1 whilst the horizon and the balloon seemed to be stationary40--,london ,journal1 ,july #ah1 #aheg4 ,during the important balloon ascents recently made for scientific purposes by ,mr4 ,coxwell and ,mr4 ,glaisher1 of the ,royal ,greenwich ,observatory1 the same phenomenon was observed-- 8,the horizon always appeared on a level with the car40--,vide 8,glaisher's ,report40 ,the following diagram represents this appearance3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,the surface of the earth ,c ,d appears to rise to the line-of-sight from the balloon1 and 8seems to close with the sky0 at the points ,h ,h in the same manner that the ceiling and the floor of a long room1 or the top and bottom of a tunnel appear to approach each other1 and from the same cause1 viz43 that they are parallel to the line-of-sight1 and therefore horizontal4 ,if the ,earth's surface were convex the observer1 looking from a balloon1 instead of seeing it gradually ascend to the level of the eye1 would have to look downwards to the horizon ,h ,h1 as represented in figure #i1 and the amount of dip in the line-of-sight ,c ,h would be the greatest at the highest elevation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,many more experiments have been made than are here described1 but the selection now given is amply sufficient to prove that the surface of water is horizontal1 and that the ,earth1 taken as a whole1 its land and water together1 is not a globe1 has really no degree of sphericity2 but is 8to all intents and purposes0 ,a ,,plane6 ,if we now consider the fact that when we travel by land or sea1 and from any part of the known world1 in a direction towards the ,north polar star1 we shall arrive at one and the same point1 we are forced to the conclusion that what has hitherto been called the ,north ,polar region1 is really ,,the ,,centre ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,that from this northern centre the land diverges and stretches out1 of necessity1 towards a circumference1 which must now be called ,,the ,,southern ,,region3 which is a vast circle1 and not a pole or centre4 ,that there is ,,one ,,centre--,,the ,,north1 and ,,one ,,circumference--,,the ,,south4 ,this language will be better understood by reference to the diagram ,figure #aj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,n represents the northern centre2 and ,s ,s ,s the southern circumference--both icy or frozen regions4 ,that the south is an immense ring1 or glacial boundary1 is evident from the fact1 that within the antarctic circle the most experienced1 scientific1 and daring navigators have failed in their attempts to sail1 in a direct manner1 completely round it4 ,lieut4 ,wilkes1 of the ,american ,navy1 after great and prolonged efforts1 and much confusion in his reckoning1 and seeing no prospect of success1 was obliged to give up his attempt and return to the north4 ,this he acknowledged in a letter to ,captain ,sir ,james ,clarke ,ross1 with whose intention to explore the south seas he had become acquainted1 in which the following words occur3 8,i hope you intend to circumnavigate the antarctic circle4 ,i made #gj degrees of it40 ,captain ,ross1 however1 was himself greatly confused in his attempts to navigate the southern region4 ,in his account of the voyage he says1 at page #if--8,we found ourselves every day from #ab to #af miles by observation in advance of our reckoning40 8,by our observations we found ourselves #eh miles to the eastward of our reckoning in two days40 ,and in this and other ways all the great navigators have been frustrated in their efforts1 and have been more or less confounded in their attempts to sail round the ,earth upon or beyond the antarctic circle4 ,but if the southern region is a pole or centre1 like the north1 there would be little difficulty in circumnavigating it1 for the distance round would be comparatively small4 ,when it is seen that the ,earth is not a sphere1 but a plane1 having only one centre1 the north2 and that the south is the vast icy boundary of the world1 the difficulties experienced by circumnavigators can be easily understood4 ,having given a surface or bird's-eye view of the ,earth1 the following sectional representation will aid in completing the description4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,e ,e represents the ,earth2 ,w ,w the 8great deep10 or the waters which surround the land2 ,n the northern centre2 and ,s ,s sections of the southern ice4 ,as the present description is purely zetetic1 and as every fact must therefore have its fullest value assigned to it1 and its consequences represented1 a peculiarity must be pointed out in the foregoing diagram4 ,it will be observed that from about the points ,e ,e the surface of the water rises towards the south ,s ,s4 ,it is clearly ascertained that the altitude of the water in various parts of the world is much influenced by the pressure of the atmosphere--however this pressure is caused--and it is well known that the atmospheric pressure in the south is constantly less than it is in the north1 and therefore the water in the southern region must always be considerably higher than it is in the northern4 ,hence the peculiarity referred to in the diagram4 ,the following quotation from ,sir ,james ,ross's voyages1 p4 #dhc1 will corroborate the above statements3--8,our barometrical experiments appear to prove that a gradual diminution of atmospheric pressure occurs as we proceed southwards from the tropic of ,capricorn4 99 99 99 ,it has hitherto been considered that the mean pressure of the atmosphere at the level of the sea was nearly the same in all parts of the world1 as no material difference occurs between the equator and the highest northern latitudes4 99 99 99 ,the causes of the atmospheric pressure being so very much less in the southern than in the northern hemispheres remains to be determined40 ,thus1 putting all theories aside1 we have seen that direct experiment demonstrates the important truth1 that the ,earth is an extended ,plane4 ,literally1 8,stretched out upon the waters20 8,founded on the seas and established on the floods20 8,standing in the water and out of the water40 ,how far the southern icy region extends horizontally1 or how deep the waters upon and in which the earth stands or is supported are questions which cannot yet be answered4 ,in ,zetetic philosophy the foundation must be well secured1 progress must be made step by step1 making good the ground as we proceed2 and whenever a difficulty presents itself1 or evidence fails to carry us farther1 we must promptly and candidly acknowledge it1 and prepare for future investigation2 but never fill up the inquiry by theory and assumption4 ,in the present instance there is no practical evidence as to the extent of the southern ice and the 8great deep40 ,who shall say whether the depth and extent of the 8mighty waters0 have a limit1 or constitute the 8,world without end80 ,having advanced direct and special evidence that the surface of the earth is not convex1 but1 on the contrary1 a vast and irregular plane1 it now becomes important that the leading phenomena upon which the doctrine of rotundity has been founded should be carefully examined4 ,first1 it is contended that because the hull of an outward-bound vessel disappears before the mast head1 the water is convex1 and therefore the ,earth is a globe4 ,in this conclusion1 however1 there is an assumption involved1 viz41 that such a phenomenon can only result from a convex surface4 ,inquiry will show that this is erroneous4 ,if we select for observation a few miles of straight and level railway1 we shall find that the rails1 which are parallel1 appear in the distance to approach each other4 ,but the two rails which are nearest together do so more rapidly than those which are farthest asunder1 as shown in the following diagram1 ,figure #ab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,let the observer stand at the point ,a1 looking in the direction of the arrows2 and the rails #a4b4c4d4 will appear to join at the point ,b1 but the rail #e4f will appear to have converged only as far as ,c towards ,b4 ,again1 let a train be watched from the point ,a in ,figure #ac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,the observer looking from ,a1 with his eye midway between the bottom of the carriage and the rail1 will see the diameter of the wheels gradually diminish as they recede4 ,the lines #a4b and #a4d will appear to approach each other until at the point ,b they will come together1 and the space1 including the wheels1 between the bottom of the carriage and the rail will there disappear4 ,the floor of the carriage will seem to be sliding without wheels upon the rail #a4b2 but the lines #e4f and #g4h will yet have converged only to ,c and ,d4 ,the same phenomenon may be observed with a long row of lamps1 where the ground is a straight line throughout its entire length as represented in ,figure #ad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,the lines #a4b and ,a ,d will converge at the point ,d and the pedestal of the lamp at ,d will seem to have disappeared1 but the line #c4d1 which represents the true altitude of the lamps1 will only have converged to the point ,c4 ,a narrow bank running along the side of a straight portion of railway1 upon which poles are placed for supporting the wires of the electric telegraph will produce the same appearance1 as shown in ,figure #ae4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,the bank having the altitude #a4c and #b4d will1 in the distance of two or three miles 7according to its depth7 disappear to the eye of an observer placed at ,figure #a2 and the telegraph pole at ,figure #b will seem not to stand upon a bank at all1 but upon the actual railway4 ,the line #c4d will merge into the line #a4b at the point ,b1 while the line #e4f will only have descended to the position ,c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,many other familiar instances could be given to show the true law of perspective2 which is1 that parallel lines appear in the distance to converge to one and the same datum line1 but to reach it at different distances if themselves dissimilarly distant4 ,this law being remembered1 it is easy to understand how the hull of an outward-bound ship1 although sailing upon a plane surface disappears before the mast-head4 ,in ,figure #af1 let ,a ,b represent the surface of the water2 ,c ,h the line of sight2 and ,e ,d the altitude of the mast-head4 ,then1 as ,a ,b and ,c ,h are nearer to each other than ,a ,b and ,e ,d1 they will converge and appear to meet at the point ,h1 which is the practical1 or1 as it would be better to call it1 the optical horizon4 ,the hull of the vessel being contained within the lines ,a ,b and ,c ,h1 must gradually diminish as these converge1 until at ,h1 or the horizon1 it enters the vanishing point and disappears2 but the mast-head represented by the line ,e ,d is still above the horizon at ,h1 and will require to sail more or less1 according to its altitude1 beyond the point ,h before it sinks to the line ,c ,h1 or1 in other words1 before the lines ,a ,b and ,e ,d form the same angle as ,a ,b and ,c ,h4 ,it will be evident also that should the elevation of the observer be greater than at ,c1 the horizon or vanishing point would not be formed at ,h1 but at a greater distance2 and therefore the hull of the vessel would be longer visible4 ,or1 if1 when the hull has disappeared at ,h1 the observer ascends from the elevation at ,c to a higher position nearer to ,e1 it will again be seen4 ,thus all these phenomena which have so long been considered as proofs of the ,earth's rotundity are really optical sequences of the contrary doctrine4 ,to argue that because the lower part of an outward-bound ship disappears before the highest the water must be round1 is to assume that a round surface only can produce this effect6 ,but it is now shown that a plane surface necessarily produces this effect2 and therefore the assumption is not required1 and the argument involved is fallacious6 ,it may here be observed that no help can be given to this doctrine of rotundity by quoting the prevailing theory of perspective4 ,the law represented in the foregoing diagrams is the 8law of nature40 ,it may be seen in every layer of a long wall1 in every hedge and bank of the roadside1 and indeed in every direction where lines and objects run parallel to each other2 but no illustration of the contrary perspective is ever to be seen6 except in the distorted pictures1 otherwise cleverly and beautifully drawn as they are1 which abound in our public and private collections4 ,the theory which affirms that parallel lines converge only to one and the same point upon the eye-line is an error4 ,it is true only of lines equidistant from the eye-line4 ,it is true that parallel lines converge to one and the same eye-line1 but meet it at different distances when more or less apart from each other4 ,this is the true law of perspective as shown by ,nature herself2 any other idea is fallacious and will deceive whoever may hold and apply it to practice4 ,as it is of great importance that the difference should be clearly understood1 the following diagram is given4 ,let ,e ,l 7,figure #ag7 represent the eye-line and ,c the vanishing point of the lines1 #a ,c #b ,c2 then the lines #c4d4e4f1 although converging somewhere to the line ,e ,l1 will not do so to the point ,c1 but #c and #d will proceed to ,d and #e and #f to ,h4 ,it is repeated1 that lines equidistant from the datum will converge on the same point and at the same distance2 but lines not equidistant will converge on the same datum but at different distances6 ,a very good illustration of the difference is given in ,figure #ah4 ,theoretic perspective would bring the lines #a1 #b1 and #c to the same datum line ,e ,l and to the same point ,a4 ,but the true or natural law would bring the lines #b and #c to the point ,a because equidistant from the eye-line ,e ,l2 but the line #a being farther from ,e ,l than either #b or #c1 would be taken beyond the point ,a on towards ,c1 until it formed the same angle upon the line ,e ,l as #b and #c form at the point ,a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,the subject of perspective will not be rendered sufficiently clear unless an explanation be given of the cause and character of what is technically called the 8vanishing point40 ,why do objects1 even when raised above the earth1 vanish at a given distance8 ,it is known1 and can easily be proved by experiment1 that 8the range of the eye1 or diameter of the field of vision is #aaj2 consequently this is the largest angle under which an object can be seen4 ,the range of vision is from #aaj to #a4 99 99 ,the smallest angle under which an object can be seen is upon an average for different sights the #fjth part of a degree1 or one minute in space2 so that when an object is removed from the eye #cjjj times its own diameter1 it will only just be distinguishable2 consequently1 the greatest distance at which we can behold an object1 like a shilling1 of an inch in diameter is #cjjj inches or #bej feet40#c ,it may1 therefore1 be very easily understood that a line passing over the hull of a ship1 and continuing parallel to the surface of the water1 must converge to the vanishing point at the distance of about #cjjj times its own elevation2 in other words1 if the surface of the hull be #aj feet above the water it will vanish at #c1jjj times #aj feet2 or nearly six statute miles2 but if the mast-head be #cj feet above the water1 it will be visible for #ij1jjj feet or over #ag miles2 so that it could be seen upon the horizon for a distance of eleven miles after the hull had entered the vanishing point6 ,hence the phenomenon of a receding ship's hull being the first to disappear1 which has been so universally quoted and relied upon as proving the rotundity of the ,earth is fairly and logically a proof of the very contrary6 ,it has been misapplied in consequence of an erroneous view of the law of perspective1 and the desire to support a theory4 ,that it is valueless for such a purpose has already been shown2 and that1 even if there were no question of the ,earth's form involved1 it could not arise from the convexity of the water1 is proved by the following experiment3--,let an observer stand upon the sea-shore with the eye at an elevation of about six feet above the water1 and watch a vessel until it is just 8hull down40 ,if now a good telescope be applied the hull will be distinctly restored to sight6 ,from which it must be concluded that it had disappeared through the influence of perspective1 and not from having sunk behind the summit of a convex surface6 ,had it done so it would follow that the telescope had either carried the line-of-sight through the mass of water1 or over its surface and down the other side6 ,but the power of 8looking round a corner0 or penetrating a dense and extensive medium has never yet been attributed to such an instrument6 ,if the elevation of the observer be much greater than six feet the distance at which the vanishing point is formed will be so great that the telescope may not have power enough to magnify or enlarge the angle constituting it2 when the experiment would appear to fail4 ,but the failure would only be apparent1 for a telescope of sufficient power to magnify at the horizon or vanishing point would certainly restore the hull at the greater distance4 #c 8,wonders of ,science10 by ,mayhew1 p4 #ceg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,an illustration or proof of the ,earth's rotundity is also supposed to be found in the fact that navigators by sailing due east or west return in the opposite direction4 ,here1 again1 a supposition is involved1 viz41 that upon a globe only could this occur4 ,but it is easy to prove that it could take place as perfectly upon a circular plane as upon a sphere4 ,let it first be clearly understood what is really meant by sailing due east and west4 ,practically it is sailing at right angles to north and south3 this is determined ordinarily by the mariners' compass1 but more accurately by the meridian lines which converge to the northern centre of the ,earth4 ,bearing this in mind1 let ,n in ,figure #ai represent the northern centre2 and the lines ,n4 ,s4 the directions north and south4 ,then let the small arrow1 ,figure #a1 represent a vessel on the meridian of ,greenwich1 with its head ,w4 at right angles1 or due west2 and the stern ,e due east4 ,it is evident that in passing to the position of the arrow1 ,figure #b1 which is still due west or square to the meridian1 the arc #a4b must be described2 and in sailing still farther under the same condition1 the arcs #b4c1 #c4d1 and #d4a will be successively passed over until the meridian of ,greenwich1 ,figure #a1 is arrived at1 which was the point of departure4 ,thus a mariner1 by keeping the head of his vessel due west1 or at right angles to the north and south1 practically circumnavigates a plane surface2 or1 in other words1 he describes a circle upon a plane1 at a greater or lesser distance from the centre ,n1 and being at all times square to the radii north and south1 he is compelled to do so--because the earth is a plane1 having a central region1 towards which the compass and the meridian lines which guide him1 converge4 ,so far1 then1 from the fact of a vessel sailing due west coming home from the east1 and vice versa1 being a proof of the earth's rotundity1 it is simply a phenomenon1 consistent with and dependent upon its being a plane6 ,the subject may be perfectly illustrated by the following simple experiment3--,take a round table1 fix a pin in the centre2 to this attach a thread1 and extend it to the edge4 ,call the centre the north and the circumference the south2 then1 at any distance between the centre and the circumference1 a direction at right angles to the thread will be due east and west2 and a small object1 as a pencil1 placed across or square to the thread1 to represent a ship1 may be carried completely round the table without its right-angled position being altered2 or1 the right-angled position firmly maintained1 the vessel must of necessity describe a circle on being moved from right to left or left to right4 ,referring again to the diagram1 ,figure #ai1 the vessel may sail from the north towards the south1 upon the meridian ,figure #a1 and there turning due west1 may pass ,cape ,horn1 represented by ,d1 and continue its westerly course until it passes the point ,c1 or the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and again reaches the meridian1 ,figure #a1 upon which it may return to the north4 ,those1 then1 who hold that the earth is a globe because it can be circumnavigated1 have an argument which is logically incomplete and fallacious4 ,this will be seen at once by putting it in the syllogistic form3-- ,a globe only can be circumnavigated3 ,the ,earth has been circumnavigated3 ,therefore the ,earth is a globe4 ,it has been shown that a plane can be circumnavigated1 and therefore the first or major proposition is false2 and1 being so1 the conclusion is false4 ,this portion of the subject furnishes a striking instance of the necessity of1 at all times1 proving a proposition by direct and immediate evidence1 instead of quoting a natural phenomenon as a proof of what has previously been assumed4 ,but a theory will not admit of this method1 and therefore the zetetic process1 or inquiry before conclusion1 entirely eschewing assumption1 is the only course which can lead to simple and unalterable truth4 ,whoever creates or upholds a theory1 adopts a monster which will sooner or later betray and enslave him1 or make him ridiculous in the eyes of practical observers4 ,closely following the subject of circumnavigation1 the gain and loss of time discovered on sailing east and west is referred to as another proof of rotundity4 ,but this illustration is equally fallacious with the last1 and from the same cause1 viz41 the assumption that a globe only could produce the effect observed4 ,it will be seen1 by reference to diagram1 ,figure #ai1 that the effect must take place equally upon a plane as upon a globe4 ,let the ship1 ,w ,e1 upon the meridian1 ,figure #a1 at #ab at noon1 begin to sail towards the position1 ,figure #b1 which it will reach the next day at #ab1 or in #bd hours3 the sun during the same #bd hours will have returned only to ,figure #a1 and will require to move for another hour or more until it reaches the ship at ,figure #b1 making #be hours instead of #bd1 in which the sun would have returned to the ship1 if it had remained at ,figure #a4 ,in this way1 the sun is more and more behind the meridian time of the ship1 as it proceeds day after day upon its westerly course1 so that on completing the circumnavigation the ship's time is a day later than the solar time1 reckoning to and from the meridian of ,greenwich4 ,but the contrary follows if the ship sails from ,figure #a towards ,figure #d1 or the east1 because it will meet the sun one hour earlier than the #bd hours which would be required for it to pass on to ,figure #a4 ,hence1 on completing the circle #a4d4c4b4a1 the time at the ship would be one day in advance of the time at ,greenwich1 or the position ,figure #a4 ,captain ,sir ,j4 ,c4 ,ross1 at page #acb1 vol4 #b1 says--8,november #be1 having by sailing to the eastward gained #ab hours1 it became necessary1 on crossing the #ahjth degree and entering upon west longitude1 in order to have our time correspond with that of ,england1 to have two days following of the same date1 and by this means lose the time we had gained1 and still were gaining1 as we sailed to the eastward40 ,in further illustration of this matter1 and to impress the mind of the readers with its importance as an evidence in support of the theory of the earth's sphericity1 several authors have given the following story3--,two brothers1 twins1 born within a few minutes of each other1 and therefore of the same age1 on growing to manhood went to sea4 ,they both circumnavigated the earth1 but in opposite directions2 and when they again met1 one was a day older than the other6 ,whatever truth there may be in this account1 it is here shown to be no more favourable to the idea of rotundity than it is to the opposite fact that the earth is a plane2 as both forms will permit of the same effect4 ,another phenomenon supposed to prove rotundity1 is found in the fact that ,polaris1 or the north polar star1 gradually sinks to the horizon as the mariner approaches the equator1 on passing which it becomes invisible4 ,first1 it is an ordinary effect of perspective for an object to appear lower and lower as the observer recedes4 ,let any one try the experiment of looking at a lighthouse1 church spire1 monument1 gas-lamp1 or other elevated object1 from the distance of a few yards1 and notice the angle at which it is observed3 on going farther away1 the angle will diminish and the object appear lower1 until1 if the distance be sufficiently great1 the line-of-sight to the object1 and the apparently ascending surface of the ,earth upon which it stands will converge to the angle which constitutes the vanishing point2 at a single yard beyond which it will be invisible4 ,this1 then1 is the necessary result of the everywhere visible law of perspective operating between the eye-line and the plane surface upon which the object stands2 and has no relation whatever to rotundity4 ,it is not denied that a similar depression of a distant object would take place upon a globe2 it is simply contended that it would not occur upon a globe exclusively4 ,but if the ,earth is a sphere and the pole star hangs over the northern axis1 it would be impossible to see it for a single degree beyond the equator1 or #ij degrees from the pole4 ,the line-of-sight would become a tangent to the sphere1 and consequently several thousand miles out of and divergent from the direction of the pole-star4 ,many cases1 however1 are on record of the north polar star being visible far beyond the equator1 as far even as the tropic of ,capricorn4 ,in the ,times newspaper of ,may #ac1 #ahfb1 under the head of 8,naval and ,military ,intelligence10 it is stated that ,captain ,wilkins distinctly saw the ,southern ,cross and the polar star at midnight in #bcec degrees of latitude1 and longitude #cedf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,this would be utterly impossible if the ,earth were a globe1 as shown in the diagram1 ,figure #bj4 ,let ,n represent the north pole1 ,e ,e the equator1 ,c ,c the tropic of ,capricorn1 and ,p the polar star4 ,it will be evident that the line-of-sight ,c ,d being a tangent to the ,earth beyond the equator ,e must diverge from the axis ,n and could not by any known possibility cause the star ,p to be visible to an observer at ,c4 ,no matter how distant the star ,p1 the line ,c ,d being divergent from the direction ,n ,p could never come in contact with it4 ,the fact1 then1 that the polar star has often been seen from many degrees beyond the equator1 is really an important argument against the doctrine of the ,earth's rotundity4 ,it has been thought that because a pendulum vibrates more rapidly in the northern region than at the equator1 the ,earth is thereby proved to be a globe2 and because the variation in the velocity is not exactly as it should be if all the surface of the ,earth were equidistant from the centre1 it has been concluded that the ,earth is an oblate spheroid1 or that its diameter is rather less through the poles than it is through the equator4 ,the difference was calculated by ,newton to be the #bceth part of the whole diameter2 or that the polar was to the equatorial diameter as #fhi to #fib4 ,huygens gave the proportion as #egg to #hge or a difference of about one-third of the whole diameter4 ,others have given still different proportions2 but recently the difference of opinion has become so great that many have concluded that the ,earth is really instead of oblate an oblong spheroid4 ,it is certain that the question when attempted to be answered by measuring arcs of the meridian1 is less satisfactory than was expected4 ,this will be evident from the following quotation from the account of the ordnance survey of ,great ,britain1 which was conducted by the ,duke of ,richmond1 ,col4 ,mudge1 ,general ,roy1 ,mr4 ,dalby1 and others1 who measured base lines on ,hounslow ,heath and ,salisbury ,plain with glass rods and steel chains3 8when these were connected by a chain of triangles and the length computed the result did not differ more than one inch from the actual measurements--a convincing proof of the accuracy with which all the operations had been conducted4 ,the two stations1 of ,beachy ,head in ,sussex and ,dunnose in the ,isle of ,wight1 are visible from each other1 and more than #fd miles asunder1 nearly in a direction from east to west2 their exact distance was found by the geodetical operations to be #cci1cig feet 7#fd miles and #adgg feet74 ,the azimuth1 or bearing of the line between them with respect to the meridian1 and also the latitude of ,beachy ,head1 were determined by astronomical observations4 ,from these data the length of a degree perpendicular to the meridian was computed2 and this1 compared with the length of a meridional degree in the same latitude1 gave the proportion of the polar to the equatorial axis4 ,the result thus obtained1 however1 differed considerably from that obtained by meridional degrees4 ,it has been found impossible to explain the want of agreement in a satisfactory way4 99 99 ,by comparing the celestial with the terrestrial arcs1 the length of degrees in various parallels was determined as in the following table3-- ,latitude of middle point4 ,fathoms4 ,arbury ,hill and ,clifton #eb #ej #bih #fj1gff ,blenheim and ,clifton #eb #ch #efa #fj1gfi ,greenwich and ,clifton #eb #bh #eg #fj1gid ,dunnose and ,clifton #eb #b #aih #fj1hbj ,arbury ,hill and ,greenwich #ea #ea #da #fj1hdi ,dunnose and ,arbury ,hill #ea #ce #ahb #fj1hfd ,blenheim and ,dunnose #ea #ac #ahb #fj1hij ,dunnose and ,greenwich #ea #b #edb #fj1hhd ,this table presents a singular deviation from the common rule2 for instead of the degrees increasing as we proceed from north to south1 they appear to decrease1 as if the ,earth were an oblong instead of an oblate spheroid4 99 99 ,the measurements of small arcs of the meridian in other countries have presented similar instances40#d #d ,encyclopedia of ,geography1 by ,hugh ,murray and several ,professors in the ,university of ,edinburgh4 ,a number of ,french ,academicians who measured above three degrees of the meridian in ,peru1 gave as the result of their labours the first degree of the meridian from the equator as #ef1fec toises2 whilst another company of ,academicians1 who proceeded to ,bothnia in ,lapland1 gave as the result of their calculation #eg1dbb toises for the length of a degree cutting the polar circle4 ,but a more recent measurement made by the ,swedish ,astronomers in ,bothnia shows the ,french to have been incorrect1 having given the degree there #aif toises more than the true length4 ,other observations have been made1 but as no two sets of experiments agree in result1 it would be very unsatisfactory to conclude from them that the ,earth is an oblate spheroid4 ,returning to the pendulum1 it will be found to be equally unsatisfactory as a proof of this peculiar rotundity of the ,earth4 ,it is argued that as the length of a seconds pendulum at the equator is #ci1jbg inches1 and #ci1aig inches at the north pole1 that the ,earth must be a globe1 having a less diameter through its axis than through its equator4 ,but this proceeds upon the assumption that the ,earth is a globe having a 8centre of attraction of gravitation10 towards which all bodies gravitate or fall2 and as the pendulum is a falling body under certain restraint1 the fact that it oscillates or falls more rapidly at the north than it does at the equator1 is a proof that the north is nearer to the centre of attraction1 or the centre of the ,earth1 than is the equatorial region2 and1 of course1 if nearer1 the radius must be shorter2 and therefore the 8,earth is a spheroid flattened at the poles40 ,this is very ingenious and very plausible1 but1 unfortunately for its character as an argument1 the essential evidence is wanting that the ,earth is a globe at all6 whether oblate or oblong1 or truly spherical1 are questions logically misplaced4 ,it should also be first proved that no other cause could operate besides greater proximity to the centre of gravity1 to produce the variable oscillations of a pendulum4 ,this not being attempted1 the whole subject must be condemned as logically insufficient1 irregular1 and worthless for its intended purpose4 ,many philosophers have ascribed the alterations in the oscillations of a pendulum to the diminished temperature of the northern centre4 ,that the heat gradually and almost uniformly diminishes on passing from the equator to the north is well ascertained4 8,the mean annual temperature of the whole ,earth at the level of the sea is #ej ,fah4 ,for different latitudes it is as under3-- ,degrees4 ,inches4 ,latitude 7,equator7 #j #hdb ,length of ,pendulum #ci1jbg #aj #hbf #bj #gha #cj #gaa #dj #fbf 7,london7 #ej #ecf #ci1aci #fj #dej #gj #cha #hj #ccf 7,pole7 #ij #jjj #ci1aige0 #e 8,million of ,facts10 by ,sir ,richard ,phillips1 p4 #dge4 8,all the solid bodies with which we are surrounded are constantly undergoing changes of bulk corresponding to the variations of temperature4 99 99 ,the expansion and contraction of metals by heat and cold form subjects of serious and careful attention to chronometer makers1 as will appear by the following statements3--,the length of the pendulum vibrating seconds1 in vacuo1 in the latitude of ,london 7#ea #ca #h north71 at the level of the sea1 and at the temperature of #fb1 has been ascertained with the greatest precision to be #ciacibi inches3 now1 as the metal of which it is composed is constantly subject to variation of temperature1 it cannot but happen that its length is constantly varying2 and when it is further stated that if the 8bob0 be let down th of an inch1 the clock will lose #aj seconds in #bd hours2 that the elongation of th of an inch will cause it to lose one second per day2 and that a change of temperature equal to #cj ,fah4 will alter its length th part and occasion an error in the rate of going of #h seconds per day1 it will appear evident that some plan must be devised for obviating so serious an inconvenience40#f #f 8,noad's ,lectures on ,chemistry10 p4 #da4 ,from these data it is readily seen that the variations in the rate of a pendulum as it is carried from the equator towards the north are sufficiently explained1 without supposing that they arise from a peculiar spheroidal form of the ,earth4 ,others have attributed the variable motions of the pendulum to increased density of the air on going northwards4 ,that the condition of the air must have some influence in this respect will be seen from the following extract from experiments on pendulums by ,dr4 ,derham1 recorded in numbers #bid and #dhj of the ,philosophical ,transactions3--8,the arches of vibration in vacuo were larger than in the open air1 or in the receiver before it was exhausted2 the enlargement or diminution of the arches of vibration were constantly proportional to the quantity of air1 or rarity1 or density of it1 which was left in the receiver of the air-pump4 ,and as the vibrations were longer or shorter1 so the times were accordingly1 viz41 two seconds in an hour when the vibrations were longest1 and less and less as the air was re-admitted1 and the vibrations shortened40 ,thus there are two distinct and tangible causes which necessarily operate to produce the variable oscillations of a pendulum1 without supposing any distortion in the supposed rotundity of the ,earth4 ,first1 if the pendulum vibrates in the air1 which is colder and therefore denser in the north than at the equator1 it must be more or less resisted in its passage through it2 and1 secondly1 if it vibrates in vacuo1 the temperature being less1 the length must be less1 the arcs of vibration less1 and the velocity greater4 ,in going towards the equator1 the temperature increases1 the length becomes greater1 the arcs increase1 and the times of vibration diminish4 ,another argument for the globular form of the ,earth is the following3--,the degrees of longitude radiating from the north pole gradually increase in extent as they approach the equator2 beyond which they again converge towards the south4 ,to this it is replied that no actual measurement of a degree of longitude has ever been made south of the equator6 ,if it be said that mariners have sailed round the world in the southern region and have computed the length of the degrees1 it is again replied that such evidence is unfavourable to the doctrine of rotundity4 ,it will be seen from the following table of what the degrees of longitude would be if the earth were a globe of #be1jjj miles circumference1 and comparing these with the results of practical navigation1 that the diminution of degrees of longitude beyond the equator is purely imaginary4 ,latitudes at different longitudes3-- ,latitude #a #eiii nautical miles4 #aj #eiji #bj #efch #cj #eaif #cd #digd 7,cape ,town7 #dj #deif #de #dbde 7,port ,jackson1 ,sydney7 #ej #cheg #ef #ccee 7,cape ,horn7 #fj #cjjj #fe #becf #gj #bjeb #ge #aeec #hj #ajdb #he #eec #hf #dai #hg #cad #hh #bji #hi #aje #ij #jjj ,according to the above table 7which is copied from a large ,mercator's chart in the library of the ,mechanics' ,institute1 ,royal ,hill1 ,greenwich71 the distance round the ,earth at the ,antarctic circle would only be about #i1jjj miles4 ,but practical navigators give the distance from the ,cape of ,good ,hope to ,port ,jackson as #h1jjj miles2 from ,port ,jackson to ,cape ,horn as #h1jjj miles2 and from ,cape ,horn to the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 #f1jjj miles1 making together #bb1jjj miles4 ,the average longitude of these places is #de1 at which parallel the circuit of the ,earth1 if it be a globe1 should only be #ad1bhb miles4 ,here1 then1 is an error between the theory of rotundity and practical sailing of #g1gah miles4 ,but there are several statements made by ,sir ,james ,clarke ,ross which tend to make the disparity even greater3 at page #bcf1 vol4 #b1 of 8,south ,sea ,voyages10 it is said 8,from near ,cape ,horn to ,port ,philip 7in ,melbourne1 ,australia7 the distance is #i1jjj miles40 ,these two places are #adc degrees of longitude from each other4 ,therefore the whole extent of the ,earth's circumference is a mere arithmetical question4 ,if #adc degrees make #i1jjj miles1 what will be the distance made by the whole #cfj degrees into which the surface is divided8 ,the answer is1 #bb1feg miles2 or1 #h1ceg miles more than the theory of rotundity would permit4 ,it must be borne in mind1 however1 that the above distances are nautical measure1 which1 reduced to statute miles1 gives the actual distance round the ,southern region at a given latitude as #bf1dcc statute miles2 or nearly #a1ejj miles more than the largest circumference ever assigned to the ,earth at the equator4 ,but actual measurement of a degree of longitude in ,australia or some other land far south of the equator can alone place this matter beyond dispute4 ,the problem to be solved might be given as the following3--,a degree of longitude in ,england at the latitude of #ej ,n4 is #cheg nautical or #de statute miles2 at the latitude of ,port ,jackson in ,australia1 which is #de ,s41 a degree of longitude1 if the ,earth is a globe1 should be #dbde nautical or #dieb statute miles4 ,but if the ,earth is a plane1 and the distances above referred to as given by nautical men are correct1 a degree of longitude on the parallel of ,port ,jackson will be #fidd statute miles1 being a difference of #aiib or nearly #bj statute miles4 ,in other words1 a degree of longitude along the southern part of ,australia ought to be1 if the ,earth is a plane1 nearly #bj miles greater than a degree of longitude on the southern coast of ,england4 ,this is the point which has yet to be settled4 ,the day is surely not far distant when the scientific world will demand that the question be decided by proper geodetical operations6 ,and this not altogether for the sake of determining the true figure of the ,earth1 but also for the purpose of ascertaining1 if possible1 the cause of the many anomalies observed in navigating the southern region4 ,these anomalies have led to the loss of many vessels and the sacrifice of a fearful amount of life and property4 8,in the southern hemisphere1 navigators to ,india have often fancied themselves east of the ,cape when still ,west1 and have been driven ashore on the ,african coast1 which according to their reckoning lay behind them4 ,this misfortune happened to a fine frigate1 the 8,challenger10 in #ahde40g 8,assuredly there are many shipwrecks from alleged errors in reckoning which may arise from a somewhat false idea of the general form and measurement of the ,earth's surface4 ,such a subject1 therefore1 ought to be candidly and boldly discussed40#h #g 8,tour through ,creation10 by the ,rev4 ,thomas ,milner1 ,m4,a4 #h 8,the ,builder10 ,sept4 #bj1 #ahfb1 in a 8review0 of a recently-published work on ,astronomy4 ,it is commonly believed that surveyors when laying out railways and canals1 are obliged to allow #h inches per mile for the ,earth's curvature2 and that if this were not done in the latter case the water would not be stationary1 but would flow on until at the end of one mile in each direction1 although the canal should have the same depth throughout1 the surface would stand #h inches higher in the middle than at the ends4 ,in other words1 that the bottom of a canal in which the allowance of #h inches per mile had not been made1 would be a chord to the surface of the contained water1 which would be an arc of a circle4 ,to this it is replied1 that both in regard to railways and canals1 wherever an allowance has been attempted the work has not been satisfactory2 and so irregular were the results in the earlier days of railway1 canal1 and other surveying1 that1 the most eminent engineers abandoned the practice of the old 8forward levelling0 and allowing for convexity2 and adopted what is now called the 8double sight0 or 8back-and-fore sight0 method4 ,it was considered that whether the surface were convex or horizontal1 or whether the convexity were more or less than the supposed degree1 would be of no consequence in practice if the spirit level or theodolite were employed to read both backwards and forwards2 for whatever degree of convexity existed1 one 8sight0 would compensate for the other2 and if the surface were horizontal1 the same mode of levelling would apply4 ,so important did the ordnance department of the ,government consider this matter1 that it was deemed necessary to make the abandonment of all ideas of rotundity compulsory1 and in a standing order 7,no4 #f7 of the ,house of ,lords as to the preparation of sections for railways1 c41 the following language is used1 8,that the section be drawn to the same horizontal scale as the plan2 and to a vertical scale of not less than one inch to every one hundred feet2 and shall show the surface of the ground marked on the plan1 the intended level of the proposed work1 the height of every embankment1 and the depth of every cutting2 and a datum ,,horizontal ,,line1 which shall be the same throughout the whole length of the work1 or any branch thereof respectively2 and shall be referred to some fixed point stated in writing on the section1 near some portion of such work2 and in the case of a canal1 cut1 navigation1 turnpike1 or other carriage road1 or railway1 near either of the termini40 ,no4 #dd of the standing orders of the ,house of ,commons is similar to the above order 7,no4 #f7 of the ,house of ,lords4 ,thus it is evident that the doctrine of the ,earth's rotundity cannot be mixed up with the practical operations of civil engineers and surveyors1 and to prevent the waste of time and the destruction of property which necessarily followed the doings of some who were determined to involve the convexity of the ,earth's surface in their calculations1 the very ,government of the country has been obliged to interfere6 ,every survey of this and other countries1 whether ordnance or otherwise1 is now carried out in connection with a horizontal datum1 and therefore1 as no other method proves satisfactory1 it is virtually an admission by all the most practical scientific men of the day that the ,earth cannot be other than a plane6 ,an argument for the ,earth's convexity is thought by many to be found in the following facts3--8,fluid or semi-fluid substances in a state of motion invariably assume the globular form1 as rain1 hail1 dew1 mercury1 and melted lead1 which1 poured from a great height becomes divided into spherical masses1 as in the manufacture of small shot1 c40 8,there is abundant evidence from geology that the ,earth has been a fluid or semi-fluid mass1 and it could not1 therefore1 continue in a state of motion through space without becoming spherical40 ,without denying that the ,earth has been1 at some former period1 in a pulpy or semi-fluid state1 it is requisite to prove beyond all doubt that it has a motion upon axes and through space1 or the conclusion that it is therefore spherical is premature and illogical4 ,it will be shown in a subsequent part of this work1 that such axial and orbital motion does not exist1 and therefore any argument founded upon and including it as a fact is necessarily fallacious4 ,in addition to this1 it may be remarked that the tendency in falling fluids to become globular is owing to what has been called 8attraction of cohesion0 7not 8attraction of gravitation071 which is very limited in its operation4 ,it is confined to small quantities of matter4 ,if1 in the manufacture of small shot1 the melted metal is allowed to fall in masses of several ounces or pounds1 instead of being divided into particles weighing only a few grains1 it will never take a spherical form1 and shot of an inch in diameter could not be made by this process4 ,bullets of even half-an-inch diameter can only be made by casting the metal into spherical moulds4 ,in tropical countries1 the rain instead of falling in drops or small globules1 often comes down in large irregular masses1 which have no approximation whatever to sphericity4 ,so that it is manifestly unjust to affirm of large masses of matter like the ,earth that which only belongs to minute portions or a few grains in weight4 ,the whole matter taken together entirely fails as an argument for the ,earth's rotundity4 ,those who hold that the ,earth is a globe will often affirm1 with visible enthusiasm1 that in an eclipse of the ,moon there is proof positive of rotundity4 ,that the shadow of the ,earth upon the ,moon is always round2 and that nothing but a globe could1 in all positions1 cast a circular shadow4 ,here again the essential requirements of an argument are wanting4 ,it is not proved that the ,moon is eclipsed by a shadow4 ,it is not proved that the ,earth moves in an orbit1 and therefore takes different positions4 ,it is not proved that the ,moon receives her light from the ,sun1 and that therefore her surface is darkened by the ,earth intercepting the ,sun's light4 ,it will be shown in the proper place that the ,earth has no motion in space or on axes2 that it is not a shadow which eclipses the ,moon2 that the ,moon is not a reflector of the ,sun's light1 but is self-luminous2 and therefore could not possibly be obscured by a shadow from any object whatever4 ,the subject is only introduced here because it forms one of the category of supposed evidences of the ,earth's rotundity4 ,but to call that an argument where every necessary proposition is assumed1 is to stultify both the judgment and the reasoning powers6 ,many place great reliance upon what is called the 8spherical excess0 observed in levelling1 as a proof of the ,earth's rotundity4 ,in ,castle's ,treatise on ,levelling it is stated that 8the angles taken between any three points on the surface of the ,earth by the theodolite1 are1 strictly speaking1 spherical angles1 and their sum must exceed #ahj degrees2 and the lines bounding them are not the chords as they should be1 but the tangents to the ,earth4 ,this excess is inappreciable in common cases1 but in the larger triangles it becomes necessary to allow for it1 and to diminish each of the angles of the observed triangle by one-third of the spherical excess4 ,to calculate this excess1 divide the area of the triangle in feet by the radius of the ,earth in seconds and the quotient is the excess40 ,the following observation as made by surveyors1 also bears upon the subject3--,if a spirit-level or theodolite be 8levelled10 and a given point be read upon a graduated staff at the distance of about or more than #ajj chains1 this point will have an altitude slightly in excess of the altitude of the cross-hair of the theodolite2 and if the theodolite be removed to the position of the graduated staff and again levelled1 and a backward sight taken to the distance of #ajj chains1 another excess of altitude will be observed2 and this excess will go on increasing as often as the experiment or backward and forward observation is repeated4 ,from this it is argued that the line of sight from the spirit-level or theodolite is a tangent1 and that the surface of the ,earth is therefore spherical4 ,of a similar character is the following observation3--,if a theodolite or spirit-level be placed upon the sea-shore1 and 8levelled10 and directed towards the sea1 the line of the horizon will be observed to be a given amount below the cross-hair of the instrument1 to which a certain dip1 or inclination from the level will have to be given to bring the cross-hair and the sea horizon together4 ,it is concluded that as the sea horizon is always observed to be below the cross-hair of the 8levelled0 theodolite1 the line of sight is a tangent1 the surface of the water convex1 and therefore the ,earth is a globe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,the conclusion derived from the last three observations is exceedingly plausible1 and would completely satisfy the minds of scientific men as to the ,earth's sphericity if a perfect explanation could not be given4 ,the whole matter has been specially and carefully examined2 and one very simple experiment will show that the effects observed do not arise from rotundity in the ,earth's surface1 but from a certain peculiarity in the instruments employed4 ,take a convex lens or a magnifying glass and hold it over a straight line drawn across a sheet of paper4 ,if the glass be so held that a part of the straight line can be seen through it1 and another part seen outside it1 a difference in the direction of the line will be observed1 as shown in the diagram ,figure #ba4 ,let ,a ,b ,c represent a straight line4 ,if a lens is now held an inch1 or more1 according to its focal length1 over the part of the line ,a ,b1 and the slightest amount out of its centre1 that part of the line ,a ,b which passes under the lens will be seen in the direction of the figures #a4b2 but if the lens be now moved a little out of its central position in the opposite direction1 the line ,b ,c will be observed at #c4d1 or below ,b ,c4 ,a lens is a magnifying glass because it dilates or spreads out from its centre the objects observed through it ,therefore whatever is magnified by it is seen a little out of its axis or centre4 ,this is again necessitated by the fact that the axis or actual centre is always occupied by the cross-hair4 ,thus the line-of-sight in the theodolite or spirit-level not being axial or absolutely central1 reads upon a graduated staff a position which is necessarily slightly divergent from the axis of vision2 and this is the source of that 8spherical excess0 which has so long been considered by surveyors as an important proof of the ,earth's rotundity4 ,in this instance1 as1 indeed1 in all the others given as evidence that the ,earth is a globe1 the premises do not fully warrant the conclusion--which is premature1--drawn before the whole subject is fairly examined2 and when other causes are amply sufficient to explain the effects observed4 ,,section #b4 ,,the ,,earth ,,no ,,axial ,,or ,,orbital ,,motion4 ,if a ball be allowed to drop from the mast-head of a ship at rest1 it will strike the deck at the foot of the mast4 ,if the same experiment be tried with a ship in motion1 the same result will be observed4 ,because1 in the latter case1 the ball is acted upon simultaneously by two forces at right angles to each other--one1 the momentum given to it by the moving ship in the direction of its own motion1 and the other the force of gravity1 the direction of which is square to that of the momentum4 ,the ball being acted upon by the two forces together will not go in the direction of either1 but will take a diagonal course1 as shown in the following diagram1 ,figure #bb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,the ball passing from ,a to ,c by the force of gravity1 and having at the moment of its liberation received a momentum from the ship in the direction ,a ,b1 will by the conjoint action of the two forces1 take the direction ,a ,d1 falling at ,d1 just as it would have fallen at ,c had the vessel remained at rest4 ,in this way1 it is contended by those who hold that the ,earth is a moving sphere1 a ball allowed to fall from the mouth of a deep mine reaches the bottom in an apparently vertical direction1 the same as it would if the ,earth were motionless4 ,so far1 there need be no discussion--the explanation is granted4 ,but now let the experiment be modified in the following way3--,let the ball be thrown upwards from the mast-head of a moving vessel2 it will partake as before of two motions1 the upward and the horizontal1 and will take a diagonal course upwards and with the vessel until the two forces expend themselves1 when it will begin to fall by the force of gravity only1 and drop into the water far behind the ship1 which is still moving horizontally4 ,diagram ,figure #bc will illustrate this effect4 ,the ball being thrown upwards in the direction ,a ,c1 and the vessel moving from ,a to ,b1 will cause it to pass in the direction ,a ,d1 arriving at ,d when the vessel reaches ,b2 the two forces having expended themselves when the ball arrives at ,d1 it will begin to descend by the force of gravity in the direction ,d ,b ,h1 but during its fall the vessel will have reached the position ,s1 so that the ball will drop far behind it at the point ,h4 ,to bring the ball from ,d to ,s two forces would be required1 as ,d ,h and ,d ,w2 but as ,d ,w does not exist1 the force of gravity operates alone1 and the ball necessarily falls behind the vessel at a distance proportionate to the altitude attained at ,d1 and the time occupied in falling from ,d to ,h4 ,the same result will be observed on throwing a ball directly upwards from a railway carriage when in rapid motion1 as shown in the following ,figure #bd4 ,while the carriage or tender passes from ,a to ,b1 the ball thrown from ,a to ,c will reach the position ,d1 but while the ball then comes down by the force of gravity1 operating alone1 to the point ,h1 the carriage will have advanced to ,w1 so that the ball will always drop more or less behind the carriage1 according to the force first given to it in the direction ,a ,c and the time occupied in ascending to ,d1 and thence descending to ,h4 ,it is therefore demanded that if the ,earth had a motion upon axes from west to east1 and a ball1 instead of being dropped down a mine or allowed to fall from the mast head of a ship1 be shot upwards into the air2 from the moment of its beginning to descend the surface of the ,earth would turn from under its direction1 and it would fall behind or to the west of its line of descent4 ,on making the experiment no such effect is observed1 and therefore the conclusion is unavoidable1 that the ,earth ,,does ,,not ,,move ,,upon ,,axes6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,the following experiment has been tried1 with the object of obtaining definite results4 ,if the ,earth is a globe1 having a circumference of #be1jjj miles at the equator1 the circumference at the latitude of ,london 7#ea7 will be about #af1jjj statute miles2 so that the motion of the ,earth's surface1 if #be1jjj miles in #bd hours at the equator1 in ,england would be more than #gjj feet per second4 ,an air-gun was firmly fixed to a strong post1 as shown at ,a in ,figure #be1 and carefully adjusted by a plumb-line1 so that it was perfectly vertical4 ,on discharging the gun1 the ball ascended in the direction ,a ,c1 and invariably 7during several trials7 descended within a few inches of the gun at ,a2 twice it fell back upon the very mouth of the barrel4 ,the average time that the ball was in the atmosphere was #af seconds2 and1 as half the time would be required for the ascent and half for the descent1 it is evident that if the ,earth had a motion once round its axis in #bd hours1 the ball would have passed in #h seconds to the point ,d1 while the air-gun would have reached the position ,b ,h4 ,the ball then commencing its descent1 requiring also #h seconds1 would in that time have fallen to the point ,h1 while the ,earth and the gun would have advanced as far as ,w4 ,the time occupied being #h seconds1 and the ,earth's velocity being #gjj feet per second1 the progress of the ,earth and the air-gun to ,w1 in advance of the ball at ,h1 would be #e1fjj feet6 ,in other words1 in these experiments1 the ball1 which always fell back to the place of its detachment1 should have fallen #e1fjj feet1 or considerably more than one statute mile to the west of the air-gun6 ,proving beyond all doubt that the supposed axial motion of the ,earth ,,does ,,not ,,exist6 ,the same experiment ought to suffice as evidence against the assumed motion of the ,earth in an orbit2 for it is difficult1 if not impossible1 to understand how the behaviour of the ball thrown from a vertical air-gun should be other in relation to the ,earth's forward motion in space than it is in regard to its motion upon axes4 ,besides1 if it is proved not to move upon axes1 the assumption that it moves in an orbit round the ,sun is useless for theoretical purposes1 and there is no necessity for either denying or in any way giving it farther consideration4 ,but that no point may be taken without direct evidence1 let the following experiment be tried3--,take two carefully-bored iron tubes1 about two yards in length1 and place them1 one yard asunder1 on the opposite sides of a wooden frame1 or a solid block of wood or masonry2 so adjust them that their axes of vision shall be perfectly parallel to each other1 and direct them to the plane of some notable fixed star1 a few seconds previous to its meridian time4 ,let an observer be stationed at each tube2 and the moment the star appears in the first tube1 let a knock or other signal be given1 to be repeated by the observer at the second tube when he first sees the star4 ,a distinct period of time will elapse between the signals given1 showing that the same star is not visible at the same moment by two lines of sight parallel to each other and only one yard asunder4 ,a slight inclination of the second tube towards the first would be required for the star to be seen at the same moment4 ,if now the tubes be left in their position for six months1 the same star will be visible at the same meridian time1 without the slightest alteration being required in the direction of the tubes4 ,from which result it is concluded that if the ,earth had moved a single yard in an orbit through space there would at least be the difference of time indicated by the signals1 and the slight inclination of the tube which the difference in position of one yard required4 ,but as no such difference in the direction of the tube is required1 the conclusion is unavoidable that in six months a given meridian upon the ,earth has not moved a single yard1 and that therefore the ,earth has not the slightest degree of orbital motion--or motion at right angles to the meridian of a given star6 ,it will be useless to say in explanation that the stars are so infinitely distant that a difference in the angle of inclination of the tube in six months could not be expected1 as it will be proved in a subsequent section that all the stars are within a few thousand miles from the ,earth's surface6 ,,section #c4 ,,the ,,true ,,distance ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,and ,,stars4 ,as it is now demonstrated that the ,earth is a plane1 the distance of the ,sun and ,stars may readily be measured by plane trigonometry4 ,the base line in any operation being horizontal and always a carefully measured one1 the process becomes exceedingly simple4 ,let the altitude of the ,sun be taken on a given day at #ab o'clock at the high-water mark on the sea shore at ,brighton1 in ,sussex2 and at the same hour at the high-water mark of the ,river ,thames1 near ,london ,bridge2 the difference in the ,sun's altitude taken simultaneously from two stations upon the same meridian1 and the distance between the stations1 or the length of the base line ascertained1 are all the elements required for calculating the exact distance of the ,sun from ,london or ,brighton2 but as this distance is the hypothenuse of a triangle1 whose base is the ,earth's surface1 and vertical side the zenith distance of the ,sun1 it follows that the distance of the ,sun from that part of ,earth to which it is vertical is less than the distance from ,london4 ,in the ,diagram1 ,figure #bf1 let ,l ,b represent the base line from ,london to ,brighton1 a distance of #ea statute miles4 ,the altitude at ,l and at ,b taken at the same moment of time will give the distance ,l ,s or ,b ,s4 ,the angle of altitude at ,l or ,b1 with the length of ,l ,s or ,b ,s1 will then give the vertical distance of the ,sun ,s from ,e1 or the place which is immediately underneath it4 ,this distance will be thus found to be considerably less than #d1jjj miles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,the following are the particulars of an observation made1 a few years ago1 by the officers engaged in the ,ordnance survey4 ,altitude of the ,sun at ,london #ee #ac2 altitude taken at the same time1 on the grounds of a public school1 at ,ackworth1 in ,yorkshire1 #ec #b2 the distance between the two places in a direct line1 as measured by triangulation1 is #aea statute miles4 ,from these elements the true distance of the ,sun may be readily computed2 and proved to be under #d1jjj miles6 ,since the above was written1 an officer of the ,royal ,engineers1 in the head-quarters of the ,ordnance ,survey1 at ,southampton1 has furnished the following elements of observations recently made3-- ,southern ,station1 ,sun's altitude1 #de ,northern ditto1 #ch ,distance between the two stations1 #hjj statute miles4 ,the calculation made from these elements gives the same result1 viz41 that the actual distance of the ,sun from the ,earth is less than #d1jjj miles4 ,the same method of measuring distances applies equally to the ,stars2 and it is easy to demonstrate1 beyond the possibility of doubt1 so long as assumed premises are excluded1 that all the visible objects in the firmament are contained within the distance of #f1jjj miles6 ,from these demonstrable distances it follows unavoidably that the magnitude of the ,sun1 ,moon1 ,stars1 c41 is very small--much smaller than the ,earth from which they are measured2 and to which therefore they cannot possibly be other than secondary1 and subservient4 ,,section #d4 ,,the ,,sun ,,moves ,,in ,a ,,circle ,,over ,,the ,,earth1 ,,concentric ,,with ,,the ,,north ,,pole4 ,as the ,earth has been shown to be fixed1 the motion of the ,sun is a visible reality2 and if it be observed from any northern latitude1 and for any period before and after the time of southing1 or passing the meridian1 it will be seen to describe an arc of a circle2 an object moving in an arc cannot return to the centre of such arc without having completed a circle4 ,this the ,sun does visibly and daily4 ,to place the matter beyond doubt1 the observation of the ,arctic navigators may be referred to4 ,captain ,parry1 and several of his officers1 on ascending high land in the vicinity of the north pole1 repeatedly saw1 for #bd hours together1 the sun describing a circle upon the southern horizon4 ,,section #e4 ,,the ,,diameter ,,of ,,the ,,sun',s ,,path ,,is ,,constantly ,,changing--,,diminishing ,,from ,,december #ba,,st ,,to ,,june #ae,,th1 ,,and ,,enlarging ,,from ,,june ,,to ,,december4 ,this is a matter of absolute certainty1 proved by what is called1 in technical language1 the northern and southern declination1 which is simply saying that the ,sun's path is nearest the north pole in summer1 and farthest away from it in winter4 ,this difference in position gives rise to the difference of altitude1 as observed at various periods of the year1 and which is shewn in the following table1 given in 8,the ,illustrated ,london ,almanack10 for #ahdh1 by ,mr4 ,glaisher1 of the ,royal ,observatory1 ,greenwich4 8,sun's altitude at the time of ,southing1 or being on the meridian3-- ,sun's ,time of ,southing4 altitude4 ,m4 ,s4 7,common clock1 or ,london mean time47 ,june #ae #fb #j #d before noon4 #cj #fa #c #ah afternoon4 ,july #ae #ei #e #ch #ca #ef #f #d ,aug4 #ae #eb #j #aa #ca #dg #j #e ,sep4 #ae #ch #d #eh before noon4 #cj #ce #aj #f ,oct4 #ca #bd #af #ad ,nov4 #cj #ag #aj #eh ,dec4 #ba #ab #j #bg #ca #ae #c #bi afternoon4 ,jan4 #a #ae #c #cf #ae #ag #i #cc #ca #ba #ac #da ,feb4 #ae #be #ad #bh #bi #cj #ab #dc ,march #ae ,on the ,equator #cf #i #b at #f a4m4 #ch #j #j #ba #db #d #aj before noon4 ,april #ae #dh #j #h #cj #ec #b #eh ,may #ae #eg #c #ed #ca #fj #b #cg ,in the following diagram 7,fig4 #bg7 ,a ,a ,a represent the ,sun's daily path on ,december #bast1 and ,b ,b ,b the same on ,june #aeth4 ,n the ,north ,pole1 ,s the ,sun1 ,e ,great ,britain4 ,the figures #a #b #c the ,arctic ,circle1 and #d #e #f the extent of sunlight4 ,the arrows show the direction of the ,sun's motion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,,section #f4 ,,cause ,,of ,,day ,,and ,,night1 ,,seasons1 c4 ,the ,sun ,s describes the circle ,a ,a ,a on the #bast ,december once in #bd hours2 hence in that period day and night occur to every part of the ,earth1 except within the ,arctic circle4 ,the light of the ,sun gradually diminishing from ,s1 to the ,arctic circle #a #b #c1 where it becomes twilight1 does so according to the well-known law of radiation1 equally in all directions--hence1 the circle #d #e #f represents the whole extent of the ,sun's light at any given time4 ,the arc #d ,e is the advancing or morning twilight1 and #f ,e the receding or evening twilight2 to every place underneath a line drawn across the circle through ,s to ,n it is noonday4 ,it will now be easily understood that as the ,sun ,s moves in the direction of the arrows or from right to left1 and completes the circle ,a ,a ,a in #bd hours1 it will produce in that period morning1 noon1 evening1 and night to all parts of the ,earth in succession4 ,on referring to the diagram1 it will be seen that to ,england1 ,e1 the length of the day at this time of the year is the shortest1 the amount of light being represented by the arc ,e ,e ,e2 and also that the northern centre ,n remains in darkness during the whole daily revolution of the ,sun1 the light of which terminates at the ,arctic circle #a #b #c4 ,thus1 morning1 noon1 evening1 midnight1 the shortest days1 or the ,winter season1 and the constant or six months' darkness at the pole are all a part of one general phenomenon4 ,as the ,sun's path begins now to diminish every day until in six months1 or on the #aeth of ,june1 it describes the circle ,b ,b ,b1 it is evident that the same extent of sunlight will reach over or beyond the pole ,n1 as shown in the following diagram 7,fig4 #bh71 when morning1 noon1 evening1 and night will again occur as before2 but the amount of light passing over ,england1 represented by the arc ,e ,e ,e1 is now much larger than when the ,sun was upon the circle ,a ,a ,a1 and represents the longest days1 or the ,summer season1 and the constant1 or six months' light at the pole4 ,thus1 day and night1 long and short days1 ,winter and ,summer1 the long periods of alternate light and darkness at the pole1 arise simply from the ,sun's position in relation to the north pole4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,if the ,earth is a globe1 it is evident that ,winter and ,summer1 and long and short days1 will be of the same character and duration in corresponding latitudes1 in the southern as in the northern hemisphere4 ,but we find that in many respects there is a marked difference2 for instance1 in ,new ,zealand1 where the latitude is about the same as in ,england1 a remarkable difference exists in the length of day and night4 ,in the ,cook's ,strait ,almanack1 for #ahdh1 it is stated1 8,at ,wellington1 ,new ,zealand1 ,december #ba1 ,sun rises #d;h4 #cam41 and sets at #g;h4 #bim41 the day being #ad hours #eh minutes4 ,june #bast1 ,sun rises at #g;h4 #bim41 and sets at #d;h4 #cam41 the day being #i hours and #b minutes4 ,in ,england the longest day is #af;h4 #cdm41 and the shortest day is #g;h4 #dem4 ,thus the longest day in ,new ,zealand is #a hour and #cf minutes shorter than the longest day in ,england2 and the shortest day in ,new ,zealand is #a hour and #ag minutes longer than the shortest day in ,england40 ,in a recently published pamphlet1 by ,w4 ,swainson1 ,esq41 ,attorney ,general1 the following passage occurs3--8,compared with an ,english summer1 that of ,auckland is but little warmer1 though much longer2 but the nights in ,new ,zealand are always cool and refreshing4444 ,the days are one hour shorter in the summer1 and one hour longer in the winter than in ,england6 of twilight there is little or none40 ,from a work1 also recently published1 on ,new ,zealand1 by ,arthur ,s4 ,thompson1 ,m4,d41 the following sentences are quoted3--8,the summer mornings1 even in the warmest parts of the colony are sufficiently fresh to exhilarate without chilling2 and the seasons glide imperceptibly into each other4 ,the days are an hour shorter at each end of the day in summer1 and an hour longer in winter than in ,england40 ,a letter from a correspondent in ,new ,zealand1 dated ,nelson1 ,september #ae1 #aheg1 contains the subjoined passages3--8,even in summer people here have no notion of going without fires in the evening2 but then1 though the days are very warm and sunny1 the nights are always cold4 ,for seven months last summer we had not one day that the ,sun did not shine as brilliantly as it does in ,england in the finest day in ,june2 and though it has more power here1 the heat is not nearly so oppressive4444 ,but then there is not the twilight which you get in ,england4 ,here it is light till about eight o'clock2 then1 in a few minutes1 it becomes too dark to see anything1 and the change comes over in almost no time40 8,twilight lasts but a short time in so low a latitude as #bh degrees1 and no sooner does the ,sun peep above the horizon1 than all the gorgeous parade by which he is preceded is shaken off1 and he comes in upon us in the most abrupt and unceremonious way imaginable40#i ,these various peculiarities could not exist in the southern region if the ,earth were spherical and moved upon axes1 and in an orbit round the ,sun4 ,if the ,sun is fixed1 and the ,earth revolves underneath it1 the same phenomena should exist at the same distance on each side of the ,equator4 ,but such is not the case6 ,what can operate to cause the twilight in ,new ,zealand to be so much more sudden than it is in ,england8 ,the southern 8hemisphere0 cannot revolve more rapidly than the northern6 ,the distance round a globe would be the same at #ej south as at #ej north1 and as the whole globe would revolve once in #bd hours1 the surface at the two places would move underneath the ,sun with the same velocity1 and the light would approach in the morning and recede in the evening in exactly the same manner2 yet the very contrary is the fact6 ,the twilight in ,england in summer is slow and gradual1 but in ,new ,zealand it is rapid and abrupt2 a difference which is altogether incompatible with the doctrine of the ,earth's rotundity4 ,but1 the ,earth a plane1 and it is a simple 8matter of course40 ,let ,e1 in ,figure #bh1 represent ,england1 and ,w ,new ,zealand2 the radius ,n ,e and the consequent circle round ,n is much less than the radius ,n ,w and its consequent circle round the same point4 ,but as the larger circle1 radius ,n ,w is passed over by the sunlight in the same time 7#bd hours7 as the smaller circle1 radius ,n ,e1 the velocity is proportionately greater4 ,the velocity is the space passed over multiplied by the time in passing1 and as the space over ,new ,zealand is much greater than the space over ,england1 the velocity of the ,sun-light must be much greater1 and its morning and evening twilight necessarily more 8abrupt and unceremonious20 and therefore1 it might be said with strictly logical accuracy1 the ,earth is a ,plane1 and cannot possibly be a ,globe6 #i ,captain ,basil ,hall1 ,r4,n41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,section #g4 ,,cause ,,of 8,,sunrise0 ,,and 8,,sunset40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,although the ,sun is at all times above and parallel to the ,earth's surface1 he appears to ascend the firmament from morning until noon1 and to descend and sink below the horizon at evening4 ,this arises from a simple and everywhere visible law of perspective4 ,a flock of birds1 when passing over a flat or marshy country1 always appears to descend as it recedes2 and if the flock is extensive1 the first bird appears lower1 or nearer to the horizon than the last4 ,when a balloon sails from an observer without increasing or decreasing its altitude1 it appears gradually to approach the horizon4 ,the farthest light in a row of lamps appears the lowest1 although each one has the same altitude4 ,bearing these phenomena in mind1 it will easily be seen how the ,sun1 although always parallel to the surface of the ,earth1 must appear to ascend when approaching1 and descend after leaving the meridian or noon-day position4 ,let the line ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #bi1 represent a portion of the ,earth's surface2 ,c ,d of the ,sun's path1 and ,h ,h1 the line of sight4 ,the surface of the ,earth1 ,a ,b1 will appear to ascend from ,b to ,h1 forming the horizon4 ,when the ,sun is traversing the line ,c ,d1 in the direction of the arrows1 he will appear to emerge from the horizon ,h1 and to gradually ascend the line ,h ,d4 ,when in the position #a1 he will appear to be at the point #b2 and when at #c1 the apparent position will be at #d2 but when he arrives upon the meridian ,d1 his apparent and actual1 or noon-day position1 will be the same4 ,but now1 from the point ,d1 the ,sun will appear to descend1 as in ,fig4 #cj1 and when he has passed from ,d to #a1 he will appear at #b1 and when really at #c will appear at #d2 and thus continuing his course in the direction ,d ,c1 he will reach the horizon at ,h1 and disappear or 8set0 to the observer at ,h ,a4 ,thus 8,sunrise0 and 8,sunset0 are phenomena dependent entirely upon the fact that horizontal lines parallel to each other appear to approach or converge in the distance1 the surface of the ,earth being horizontal1 and the line-of-sight of the observer and the ,sun's path being parallel with it1 necessarily produce the observed phenomena4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,,section #h4 ,,cause ,,of ,,sun ,,appearing ,,larger ,,when ,,rising ,,and ,,setting ,,than ,,when ,,on ,,the ,,meridian4 ,it is well known that when a light of any kind shines through a dense medium it will appear larger than when seen through a lighter medium4 ,this will be more remarkable when the medium holds aqueous particles in solution1--as in a damp or foggy atmosphere the light of a gas-lamp will seem greater at a given distance than it will under ordinary circumstances4 ,in the diagram1 ,figure #cj1 it is evident that ,h ,d is less than ,h #a1 ,h #c1 or ,h #e4 ,the latter 7,h #e7 represents the greater amount of atmosphere which the ,sun has to shine through when approaching the horizon2 and as the air near the ,earth is both more dense and more damp1 or holds more watery particles in solution1 the light of the ,sun must be dilated or enlarged as well as modified in colour4 ,but the enlarged appearance of the ,sun when rising and setting is only an optical impression1 as proved by actual measurement4 8,if the angle of the ,sun or ,moon be taken either with a tube or micrometer when they appear so large to the eye in the horizon1 the measure is identical when they are in the meridian and appear to the eye and mind but half the size4 ,the apparent distance of the horizon is three or four times greater than the zenith4 ,hence the mental mistake of horizontal size1 for the angular dimensions are equal2 the first #e is apparently to the eye equal to #aj or #ae at #ej or #fj of elevation2 and the first #ae fill a space to the eye equal to a third of the quadrant4 ,this is evidently owing to the #8habit of sight1' for with an accurate instrument the measure of #e near the horizon is equal to #e in the zenith40#aj #aj 8,million of ,facts10 by ,sir ,richard ,philips1 p4 #ecg4 ,,section #i4 ,,cause ,,of ,,solar ,,and ,,lunar ,,eclipses4 ,an ,eclipse of the ,sun is caused simply by the ,moon passing before it1 or between it and the observer on the ,earth4 ,of this no question has been raised4 ,but that an ,eclipse of the ,moon arises from a shadow of the ,earth is in every respect unsatisfactory4 ,the ,earth has been proved to have no motion1 either upon axes or in an orbit round the ,sun1 and therefore it could never come between the ,sun and the ,moon4 ,the ,earth is proved to be a ,plane1 always underneath the ,sun and ,moon1 and therefore to speak of its intercepting the light of the ,sun and thus casting its own shadow upon the ,moon1 is to say that which is impossible4 ,besides this1 cases are on record of the ,sun and ,eclipsed ,moon being above the horizon together4 8,the full ,moon has sometimes been seen above the horizon before the ,sun was set4 ,a remarkable instance of this kind was observed at ,paris on the #aith of ,july1 #agej1 when the ,moon appeared visibly ,eclipsed while the ,sun was distinctly to be seen above the horizon40#aa 8,on the #bjth of ,april1 #ahcg1 the ,moon appeared to rise ,eclipsed before the ,sun had set4 ,the same phenomenon was observed on the #bjth of ,september1 #agag40ab 8,in the lunar ,eclipses of ,july #ag1 #aeij2 ,nov4 #c1 #afdh2 ,june #af1 #afff2 and ,may #bf1 #affh1 the ,moon rose ,eclipsed whilst the ,sun was still apparently above the horizon4 ,those horizontal ,eclipses were noticed as early as the time of ,pliny40#ac ,the ,moon's entire surface1 or that portion presented to the ,earth has also been distinctly seen during the whole time of a total ,eclipse1 a phenomenon utterly incompatible with the doctrine that the ,earth's shadow is the cause of it4 8,the ,moon has sometimes shown during a total ,eclispe with an almost unaccountable distinctness4 ,on ,dec4 #bb1 #agjc1 the ,moon1 when totally immersed in the ,earth's shadow1 was visible at ,avignon by a ruddy light of such brilliancy that one might have imagined her body to be transparent1 and to be enlightened from behind2 and on ,march #aith1 #ahdh1 it is stated that so bright was the ,moon's surface during its total immersion1 that many persons could not be persuaded that it was eclipsed4 ,mr4 ,forster1 of ,bruges1 states1 in an account of that eclipse1 that the light and dark places on the moon's surface could be almost as well made out as in an ordinary dull moonlight night4 #aa 8,astronomy and ,astronomical ,instruments10 p4 #aje1 by ,geo4 ,g4 ,carey4 #ab 8,mc,culloch's ,geography10 p4 #he4 #ac 8,illustrated ,london ,almanack for #ahfd10 the astronomical part in which is by ,james ,glaisher1 ,esq41 of the ,greenwich ,observatory4 8,sometimes1 in a total lunar eclipse1 the moon will appear quite obscure in some parts of its surface1 and in other parts will exhibit a high degree of illumination4 99 99 99 ,to a certain extent ,i witnessed some of these phenomena during the merely partial eclipse of ,february #gth1 #ahfj4 99 99 99 ,i prepared1 during the afternoon of ,february #fth for witnessing the eclipse1 without any distinct expectation of seeing much worthy of note4 ,i knew1 however1 that upwards of eight-tenths of the disc would be covered1 and ,i was anxious to observe with what degree of distinctness the eclipsed portion could be viewed1 partly as an interesting fact1 and partly with a view of verifying or discovering the weak points of an engraving 7in which ,i am concerned7 of a lunar eclipse4 8,after seeing the increasing darkness of the penumbra softly merging into the true shadow at the commencement of the eclipse 7about #a o'clock a4m41 ,greenwich time7 ,i proceeded with pencil and paper1 dimly lighted by a distant lamp1 to note by name the different lunar mountains and plains 7the so-called seas7 over which the shadow passed4 99 99 99 ,during the first hour and ten minutes ,i had seen nothing unexpected4 99 99 99 ,i had repeatedly written down my observations of the remarkable clearness with which the moon's eclipsed outline could be seen1 both with the naked eye1 and with the telescope2 at #a hour #eh minutes1 however1 ,i suddenly noted the ruddy colour of a portion of the moon4 ,i may as well give my notes in the original words1 as copied next day in a more connected form3--#a;h4 #ehm41 ,greenwich time4 ,i am suddenly struck by the fact that the whole of the western seas of the moon are showing through the shadow with singular sharpness1 and that the whole region where they lie has assumed a decidedly reddish tinge1 attaining its greatest brightness at a sort of temporary polar region1 having #8,endymion' about the position of its imaginary pole4 ,i particularly notice that the #8,lake of ,sleep' has disappeared in this brightness1 instead of standing out in a darker shade3 and ,i notice that this so-called polar region is not parallel with the rim of the shadow1 but rather west of it4--#b;h4 #aem4 ,some clouds1 though very thin and transparent1 now intervene4--#b;h4 #bjm4 ,the sky is now cleared1 ,how extraordinary is the appearance of the ,moon ,reddish is not the word to express it2 it is red--red hot6 ,i endeavour to think of various red objects with which to compare it1 and nothing seems so like as a red-hot penny--a red-hot penny with a little white-hot piece at its lower edge1 standing out against a dark-blue back ground2 only it is evidently not a mere disc1 but beautifully rounded by shading4 8,such is its appearance with the naked eye3 with the telescope its surface varies more in tint than with the naked eye1 and is not of quite so bright a red as when thus viewed4 ,the redness continues to be most perceptible at a distance from the shadow's southern edge1 and to be greatest about the region of #8,endymion4' ,the ,hercynian mountains 7north of ,grimaldus7 are1 however1 of rather a bright red1 and ,grimaldus shows well4 ,mare ,crisium and the western seas are wonderfully distinct4 ,not a trace to be seen of ,aristarchus or ,plato4--#b;h4 #bgm4 ,it is now nearly the middle of the eclipse4 ,the red colour is very brilliant to the naked eye4 99 99 99 ,after this1 ,i noticed a progressive change of tint in the ,moon4--#b;h4 #ejm4 ,the ,moon does not seem to the naked eye of so bright a red as before2 and again ,i am reminded by its tint of red-hot copper1 or rather copper which has begun to cool4 ,the whole of ,grimaldi is now uncovered4 ,through the telescope ,i notice a decided grey shade at the lower part of the eclipsed portion1 and the various small craters give it a stippled effect1 like the old aqua-tint engravings4 ,the upper part is reddish1 but two graceful bluish curves1 like horns1 mark the form of the ,hercynian mountains1 and the bright region on the other limb of the ,moon4 ,these are visible also to the naked eye4 8,at #c;h4 #em4 the redness had almost disappeared2 a very few minutes afterwards1 no trace of it remained1 and ere long clouds came on4 ,i watched the ,moon1 however1 occasionally gaining a glimpse of its disc1 till a quarter to four o'clock1 when1 for the last time on that occasion1 ,i saw it faintly appearing through the clouds1 nearly a full ,moon again2 and then ,i took leave of it1 feeling amply repaid for my vigil by the beautiful spectacle which ,i had seen40#ad #ad ,the ,hon4 ,mrs4 ,ward1 ,trimleston ,house1 near ,dublin1 in 8,recreative ,science10 p4 #bha4 ,mr ,walkey1 who observed the lunar eclipse of ,march #aith1 #ahdh1 near ,collumpton1 says--8,the appearances were as usual till #bj minutes past #i2 at that period1 and for the space of the next hour1 instead of an eclipse1 or the shadow 7umbra7 of the ,earth being the cause of the total obscurity of the ,moon1 the whole phase of that body became very quickly and most beautifully illuminated2 and assumed the appearance of the glowing heat of fire from the furnace1 rather tinged with a deep red4 99 99 99 ,the whole disc of the ,moon being as perfect with light as if there had been no eclipse whatever6 99 99 99 ,the ,moon positively gave good light from its disc during the total eclipse60#ae #ae 8,philosophical ,magazine10 ,no4 #bbj1 for ,august1 #ahdh4 ,in the astronomical portion of the 8,illustrated ,london ,almanack for #ahfd10 by ,mr4 ,glaisher1 a beautiful tinted engraving is given representing the appearance of the ,moon during the total eclipse of ,june #a1 #ahfc1 when all the light and dark places--the so-called mountains1 seas1 c41 were plainly visible4 ,in the accompanying descriptive chapter1 the following sentences occur3--8,at the time of totality the ,moon presented a soft woolly appearance1 apparently more globular in form than when fully illuminated4 ,traces of the larger and brighter mountains were visible at the time of totality1 and particularly the bright rays proceeding from ,tycho1 ,kepler1 and ,aristarchus4 99 99 99 ,at first1 when the obscured part was of small dimensions1 it was of an iron grey tint1 but as it approached totality1 the reddish light became so apparent that it was remarked that the ,moon #8seemed to be on fire2' and when the totality had commenced1 it certainly looked like a fire smouldering in its ashes1 and almost going out40 ,if then1 the ,sun and ,moon have many times been seen above the horizon when the latter was eclipsed1 how can it be said that the ,earth's shadow was the cause of a lunar eclipse1 when the ,earth was not between or in a line with the ,sun and ,moon8 ,and how can the ,moon's non-luminous surface be distinctly visible and illuminated during the very totality of an eclipse1 if all the light of the ,sun is intercepted by the ,earth8 ,again1 if the ,moon is a sphere1 which it is declared to be1 how can its surface reflect the light of the ,sun8 ,if her surface was a mass of polished silver1 it could not reflect from more than a mere point6 ,let a silvered glass ball or globe of considerable size be held before a lamp or fire of any magnitude1 and it will be seen that instead of the whole surface reflecting light1 there will be a very small portion only illuminated4 ,but the ,moon's whole surface is brilliantly illuminated6 a condition or effect utterly impossible if it be spherical4 ,the surface might be illuminated from the ,sun1 or any other source if opaque1 instead of polished1 like an ordinary silvered mirror1 but it could not shine intensely from every part1 and brightly illuminate the objects before it1 as the ,moon does so beautifully when full and in a clear firmament4 ,if the ,earth were admitted to be globular1 and to move1 and to be capable of throwing a shadow by intercepting the light of the ,sun1 it would be impossible for a lunar eclipse to occur thereby1 unless at the same time the ,moon be proved to be non-luminous1 and to shine only by reflection4 ,but this is not proved2 it is only assumed as an essential part of a theory4 ,the contrary is capable of proof1 and proof beyond the power of doubt1 viz41 that the ,moon is self-luminous1 or shines with a light peculiar to herself1 and therefore independently of the ,sun4 ,a reflector necessarily gives off what it receives4 ,if a mass of red-hot metal be placed before a plane or concave surface1 heat will be reflected4 ,if snow or ice be similarly placed1 cold will be reflected4 ,if light1 ordinary or coloured1 be presented1 the same will be reflected4 ,if sound of a given pitch be produced1 the same pitch will be reflected4 ,if the note ,a be sounded upon a musical instrument1 a reflector would not return the note ,b or ,c1 but the same note1 altered only in degree or intensity1 but not in 8pitch40 ,a reflector receiving a red light would not return a blue or yellow light4 ,a reflector collecting the cold from a mass of ice1 would not throw off heat2 nor the contrary4 ,nor could the ,moon1 if a reflector1 radiate or throw down upon the ,earth any other light than such as she receives from the ,sun4 ,no difference could exist in the quality or character of the light1 and it could differ in no respect but the quantity or intensity4 ,the light of the ,sun and of the ,moon are different in their general appearance--in the colour and action upon the eye4 ,the ,sun's light is drying and preservative1 or antiseptic4 ,the ,moon's light is damp and putrefactive4 ,the ,sun's rays will put out a common fire2 the ,moon's light will increase the combustion4 ,the light of the ,sun falling upon certain chemical substances1 produces a change of colour1 as in photographic and other processes4 ,the light of the ,moon fails to produce the same effect4 ,dr4 ,lardner1 at page #aba of his excellent work1 8,the ,museum of ,science10 says--8,the most striking instance of the effect of certain rays of solar light in blackening a light-colored substance1 is afforded by chloride of silver1 which is a white substance1 but which immediately becomes black when acted upon by the rays near the violet extremity of the spectrum4 ,this substance1 however1 highly susceptible as it is of having its colour affected by light1 is1 nevertheless1 found not to be changed in any sensible degree when exposed to the light of the ,moon1 even when that light is condensed by the most powerful burning lenses40 ,the ,sun's light when concentrated by a number of mirrors1 or a large burning lens1 produces a focus which is entirely non-luminous1 but in which the heat is so great that metallic and alkaline substances are quickly fused2 earthy and mineral compounds almost immediately vitrified2 and all animal and vegetable structures in a few seconds burned up and destroyed4 ,but the ,moon's light so concentrated produces a brilliant focus1 so luminous that it is difficult to look upon it2 and yet there is no increase of temperature6 8,if the most delicate thermometer be exposed to the full light of the ,moon1 shining with its greatest lustre1 the mercury is not elevated a hair's breadth1 neither would it be if exposed in the focus of her rays concentrated by the most powerful lenses4 ,this has been proved by actual experiment40#af 8,this question has been submitted to the test of direct experiment4 99 99 99 ,the bulb of a thermometer sufficiently sensitive to render apparent a change of temperature amounting to the thousandth part of a degree1 was placed in the focus of a concave reflector of vast dimensions1 which1 being directed to the ,moon1 the lunar rays were collected with great power upon it4 ,not the slightest change1 however1 was produced in the thermometric column1 proving that a concentration of rays sufficient to fuse gold1 if they proceeded from the ,sun1 does not produce a change of temperature so great as the thousandth part of a degree1 when they proceed from the ,moon40#ag #af 8,all the ,year ,round10 by ,dickens4 #ag ,dr4 ,lardner's ,museum of ,science1 p4 #aae4 8,the light of the ,moon though concentrated by the most powerful burning glass1 is incapable of raising the temperature of the most delicate thermometer4 ,m4 ,de ,la ,hire collected the rays of the full ,moon when on the meridian1 by means of a burning glass thirty-five inches in diameter1 and made them fall on the bulb of a delicate air-thermometer4 ,no effect was produced1 though the lunar rays by this glass were concentrated #cjj times40 8,professor ,forbes concentrated the ,moon's light by a lens thirty inches in diameter1 its focal distance being about forty-one inches1 and having a power of concentration exceeding #f1jjj times4 ,the image of the ,moon which was only eighteen hours past full1 and less than two hours from the meridian1 was brilliantly thrown by this lens on the extremity of a commodious thermo-pile4 ,although the observations were made in the most unexceptional manner1 and 7supposing that half the rays were reflected1 dispersed1 and absorbed7 though the light of the ,moon was concentrated #cjjj times1 not the slightest thermo-effect was produced6#ah ,in the 8,lancet0 7medical journal7 for ,march #adth1 #ahef1 particulars are given of several experiments1 which proved that the ,moon's rays when concentrated actually reduced the temperature upon a thermometer more than #h degrees6 #ah ,dr4 ,noad's ,lectures on ,chemistry1 p4 #ccd4 8,the cold chaste ,moon1 the ,queen ,of ,heaven's bright ,isles2 ,who makes all beautiful ,on which she smiles3 ,that wandering shrine of soft ,yet icy flame1 ,which ever is transformed ,yet still the same2 ,and warms not but illumes40 --,,shelley4 ,the 8pale cold ,moon0 is an expression not only beautiful poetically but evidently true philosophically4 ,if1 as we have now seen1 the very nature of a reflector demands certain conditions and the ,moon does not manifest these conditions1 it must of necessity be concluded that the ,moon is not a reflector1 but a self-luminous body4 ,if self-luminous her surface could not be darkened or eclipsed by a shadow of the ,earth--supposing such were thrown upon it4 ,the luminosity instead of being diminished would be greater in proportion to the greater density or darkness of the shadow4 ,as the light in a lantern shines most brightly in the darkest places1 so would the ,moon's self-luminous surface be most intense in the deepest part of the ,earth's shadow4 ,it is thus rendered undeniable that a ,lunar ,eclipse does not and could not arise from a shadow of the ,earth6 ,as a ,solar ,eclipse occurs from the ,moon passing over the ,sun2 so from the evidence it is clear that a ,lunar ,eclipse can only arise from a similar cause--a body semi-transparent and well-defined passing before the ,moon1 or between her surface and the observer on the surface of the ,earth4 ,that such a body exists is admitted by several distinguished astronomers4 ,in the report of the ,council of the ,royal ,astronomical ,society for ,june1 #ahej1 it is stated1 8,we may well doubt whether that body which we call the ,moon is the only satellite of the ,earth40 ,in the report of the ,academy of ,sciences for ,october #ab1 #ahdf1 and again for ,august1 #ahdg1 the ,director of one of the ,french ,observatories gives a number of observations and calculations which have led him to conclude that 8there is at least one non-luminous body of considerable magnitude which is attached as a satellite to this ,earth40#ai #ai ,referred to in ,lardner's 8,museum of ,science10 p4 #aei4 ,persons who are unacquainted with the methods of calculating ,eclipses and other astronomical phenomena1 are prone to look upon the correctness of these calculations as powerful arguments in favour of the doctrine of the ,earth's rotundity and the ,newtonian philosophy generally4 ,but this is erroneous4 ,whatever theory is adopted1 or if all theories are discarded1 the same results may follow1 because the necessary data may be tabulated and employed independently of all theory1 or may be mixed up with any1 even the most opposite doctrines1 or kept distinct from every system1 just as the operator may decide4 ,the tables of the ,moon's relative positions for almost any second of time are purely practical1 the result of long continued observation1 and may or may not be mixed up with hypothesis4 ,in ,smith's 8,rise and progress of ,astronomy10 speaking of ,ptolemy1 who lived in the #bnd century of the ,christian ,era1 it is said1 8,the 7considered7 defects of his system did not prevent him from calculating all the ,eclipses that were to happen for #fjj years to come40 ,professor ,partington1 at page #cgj of his ,lectures on ,natural ,philosophy1 says1 8,the most ancient observations of which we are in possession1 that are sufficiently accurate to be employed in astronomical calculations1 are those made at ,babylon about #gai before the ,christian ,era1 of three ,eclipses of the ,moon4 ,ptolemy1 who has transmitted them to us1 employed them for determining the period of the ,moon's mean motion2 and therefore had probably none more ancient on which he could depend4 ,the ,chaldeans1 however1 must have made a long series of observations before they could discover their 8,saros0 or lunar period of #f1ehe days1 or about #ah years2 at which time1 as they had learnt1 the place of the ,moon1 her node and apogee return nearly to the same situation with respect to the ,earth and the ,sun1 and1 of course1 a series of nearly similar ,eclipses occur40 ,sir ,richard ,phillips1 in his 8,million of ,facts10 at page #chh1 says3--8,the precision of astronomy arises1 not from theories1 but from prolonged observations1 and the regularity of the motions1 or the ascertained uniformity of their irregularities4 ,ephemerides of the planets' places1 of ,eclipses1 c41 have been published for above #cjj years1 and were nearly as precise as at present40 8,no particular theory is required to calculate ,eclipses2 and the calculations may be made with equal accuracy independent of every theory40#bj #bj ,somerville's ,physical ,sciences1 p4 #df4 ,,section #aj4 ,,cause ,,of ,,tides4 ,the doctrine of the ,earth's rotundity being fallacious1 all ideas of 8centre of attraction of gravitation10 8mutual attraction of ,earth and ,moon10 c41 c41 must be given up2 and the cause of tides in the ocean must be sought for in another direction4 ,it is certain that there is a constant pressure of the atmosphere upon the surface of the ,earth and ocean4 ,this is proved by ordinary barometrical observations1 many ,pneumatic experiments1 and by the fact that during the most fearful storms at sea the surface only is disturbed2 at the depth of a hundred feet the water is always calm--except in the path of well-marked currents and local submarine phenomena4 ,the following quotations gathered from casual reading fully corroborate this statement4 8,it is amazing how superficial is the most terrible tempest4 ,divers assure us that in the greatest storms calm water is found at the depth of #ij feet40#ba #ba ,chambers's ,journal1 ,no4 #ajj1 p4 #cgi4 8,this motion of the surface of the sea is not perceptible to a great depth4 ,in the strongest gale it is supposed not to extend beyond #gb feet below the surface2 and at the depth of #ij feet the sea is perfectly still40#bb #bb ,penny ,cyclopdia1 ,article ,sea4 8,the people are under a great mistake who believe that the substance of the water moves to any considerable depth in a storm at sea4 ,it is only the form or shadow which hurries along like a spirit1 or like a thought over the countenance of the #8great deep1' at the rate of some forty miles an hour4 ,even when the #8,flying ,dutchman' is abroad the great mass of water continues undisturbed and nearly motionless a few feet below the surface40#bc #bc ,london ,saturday ,journal1 ,august #h1 #ahdj1 p4 #ga4 8,the unabraded appearance of the shells brought up from great depths1 and the almost total absence of the mixture of any detritus from the sea1 or foreign matter1 suggest most forcibly the idea of perfect repose at the bottom of the deep sea40#bd #bd ,physical ,geography of the ,sea1 by ,lieut4 ,maury1 p4 #bfe4 ,bearing this fact in mind1 that there exists a continual pressure of the atmosphere upon the ,earth1 and associating it with the fact that the ,earth is a vast plane 8stretched out upon the waters10 and it will be seen that it must of necessity slightly fluctuate1 or slowly rise and fall in the water4 ,as by the action of the atmosphere the ,earth is slowly depressed1 the water moves towards the receding shores and produces the flood tide2 and when by the reaction of the resisting oceanic medium the ,earth gradually ascends the waters recede1 and the ebb tide is produced4 ,this is the general cause of tides4 ,whatever peculiarities are observable they may be traced to the reaction of channels1 bays1 headlands1 and other local causes4 ,if a raft1 or a ship1 or any other structure floating upon water be carefully observed1 it will be seen to have a gentle fluctuating motion4 ,however calm the water and the atmosphere may be1 this gradual rising and falling of the floating mass is always more or less observable4 ,if vessels of different sizes are floating near each other they will be seen to fluctuate with different velocities1 the largest and heaviest will move the least rapidly4 ,this motion will be observable whether the vessels be held by their anchors1 or moored to buoys1 or freely floating in still water4 ,a large and heavily laden vessel will make several fluctuations in a minute of time2 the ,earth once only in about twelve hours1 because it is proportionately larger4 ,to this simple condition of the ,earth1--the action or pressure upon it of the atmosphere1 and the reaction or resistance to it of the water1 may be traced all the leading peculiarities of the tides4 ,the simultaneous ebb and flow upon meridians #ahj apart4 ,the absence of high and low water in large inland seas and lakes2 which being contained within and fluctuating with the ,earth cannot therefore show a relative change in the altitude of the surface4 ,the flux and reflux observed in several inland wells and basins though far from the sea1 but being connected with it by subterranean passages1 necessarily show a relative difference in the surface levels of the earth and water4 ,and the regular ebb and flood of the water in the great ,polar sea recently discovered by ,dr4 ,kane1 although it is separated from the great tidal current of the ,atlantic ,ocean by deep barriers of ice--as will be seen by the following quotation3--8,dr4 ,kane reported an open sea north of the parallel of #hb4 ,to reach it his party crossed a barrier of ice #hj or #ajj miles broad4 ,before gaining this open water he found the thermometer to show the extreme temperature of -#fj4 ,passing this ice-bound region by travelling ,north1 he stood on the shores of an iceless sea extending in an unbroken sheet of water as far as the eye could reach towards the pole4 ,its waves were dashing on the beach with the swell of a boundless ocean4 ,the tides ebbed and flowed in it1 and ,i apprehend that the tidal wave from the ,atlantic can no more pass under this icy barrier to be propagated in seas beyond than the vibrations of a musical string can pass with its notes a #8fret' upon which the musician has placed his finger4 99 99 99 ,these tides therefore must have been born in that cold sea1 having their cradle about the ,north ,pole2 and we infer that most1 if not all1 the unexplored regions about the ,pole are covered with deep water2 for1 were this unexpected area mostly land1 or shallow water1 it could not give birth to regular tides40#be #be ,physical ,geography of the ,sea1 by ,lieut4 ,maury1 p4 #agf4 ,that the ,earth has a vibratory or tremulous motion1 such as must necessarily belong to a floating and fluctuating structure1 is abundantly proved by the experience of astronomers and surveyors4 ,if a delicate spirit-level be firmly placed upon a rock or upon the most solid foundation which it is possible to construct1 the very curious phenomenon will be observed of constant change in the position of the air-bubble4 ,however carefully the 8level0 may be adjusted1 and the instrument protected from the atmosphere1 the 8bubble0 will not maintain its position many seconds together4 ,a somewhat similar influence has been noticed in astronomical observatories1 where instruments of the best construction and placed in the most approved positions cannot always be relied upon without occasional re-adjustment4 ,,section #aa4 ,,constitution1 ,,condition1 ,,and ,,ultimate ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,by ,,fire4 ,chemical analysis proves to us the important fact that the great bulk of the ,earth--meaning thereby the land as distinct from the waters--is composed of metallic oxides or metals in combination with oxygen4 ,when means are adopted to remove the oxygen it is found that most of these metallic bases are highly combustible4 ,the different degrees of affinity existing among the elements of the ,earth1 give rise to all the rocks1 minerals1 ores1 deposits1 and strata which constitute the material habitable world4 ,the different specific gravities or relative densities which these substances are found to possess1 and the numerous evidences which exist of their former plastic or semi-fluid condition1 afford positive proof that from a once commingled or chaotic state regular but rapid precipitation1 stratification1 crystallization1 and concretion successively occurred2 and that in some way not yet clear to us sufficient chemical action was produced to ignite a great portion of the ,earth1 and to reduce it to a molten incandescent state1 the volatile products of which being forcibly eliminated have broken up the stratified formations1 and produced the irregular confused condition which we now observe4 ,that such an incandescent molten state of a great portion of the lower parts of the ,earth still exists is a matter of certainty2 and there is evidence that the heat thus internally generated is gradually increasing4 8,the uppermost strata of the soil share in all the variations of temperature which depend upon the seasons2 and this influence is exerted to a depth which1 although it varies with the latitude1 is never very great4 ,beyond this point the temperature rises in proportion as we descend to greater depths1 and it has been shown1 by numerous and often-repeated experiments1 that the increase of temperature is on average one degree 7,fahrenheit7 for about every #ede feet4 ,hence it results that at a depth of about twelve miles from the surface1 we should be on the verge of an incandescent mass40#bf #bf ,rambles of a ,naturalist1 by ,m4 de ,quatrefages4 8,so great is the heat within the ,earth1 that in ,switzerland1 and other countries where the springs of water are very deep1 they bring to the surface the warm mineral waters so much used for baths and medicine for the sick2 and it is said1 that if you were to dig very deep down into the ,earth1 the temperature would increase at the rate of one degree of the thermometer for every #ajj feet2 so that1 at the depth of #gjjj feet1 or one mile and a half1 all the water that you found would be boiling2 and at the depth of about ten miles all the rocks would be melted4 99 99 99 ,a day will yet come when this earth will be burned up by the fire4 ,there is fire1 as you have heard1 within it1 ready to burst forth at any moment40#bg 8,this earth1 although covered all round with a solid crust1 is all on fire within4 ,its interior is supposed to be a burning mass of melted1 glowing metals1 fiery gas1 and boiling lava4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the solid crust which covers this inward fire is supposed not to be much more than from #i to #ab miles in thickness4 ,whenever this crust breaks open1 or is cleft in any place1 there rush out lava1 fire1 melted rocks1 fiery gases1 and ashes1 sometimes in such floods as to bury whole cities4 ,from time to time we read of the earth quaking1 trembling1 and sometimes opening1 and of mountains and small islands 7which are mountains in the sea7 being thrown up in a day40#bh #bg 8,the ,world's ,birthday10 by ,professor ,gaussen1 ,geneva1 p4 #dc4 #bh 8,the ,world's ,birthday10 by ,professor ,gaussen1 ,geneva1 p4 #db4 ,in a periodical called 8,recreative ,science10 at the end of an interesting article on volcanoes1 c41 the following sentence occurs3--8,the conclusion is therefore inevitable1 that the general distribution all over the earth of volcanic vents1 their similarity of action and products1 their enormous power and seeming inexhaustibility1 their extensiveness of action in their respective sites1 the continuance of their energies during countless years1 and the incessant burning day and night1 from year to year1 of such craters as ,stromboli2 and lastly1 the apparent inefficiency of external circumstances in controlling their operations1 eruptions happening beneath the sea as beneath the land1 in the frigid as in the torrid zone1 for these and many less striking phenomena1 we must seek for some great and general cause1 such only as the central heat of the earth affords us40 ,sir ,richard ,phillips says1 8at the depth of #ej feet 7from the sea level7 the temperature of the earth is the same winter and summer40 99 99 99 8,the deepest coal mine in ,england is at ,killingworth1 near ,newcastle-upon-,tyne1 and the mean annual temperature at #djj yards below the surface is #gg2 and at #cjj yards1 #gj2 while at the surface it is but #dh1 being about one degree of increase for every #ae yards4 ,hence1 at #c1cjj yards1 the heat would be equal to boiling water1 taking #bj yards to a degree4 ,this explains the origin of hot springs4 ,the heat of the ,bath waters is #aaf1 hence they would appear to rise from a depth of #a1cbj yards4 ,by experiments made at the ,observatory of ,paris for ascertaining the increase of temperature from the surface of the earth towards the interior1 #ea feet1 or #ag yards1 corresponds to the increase of one degree ,fahrenheit's thermometer4 ,hence1 the temperature of boiling water would be at #h1bab feet1 or about #a ,english miles under ,paris40 ,professor ,silliman1 of ,america1 states 8that in boring the ,artesian wells in ,paris1 the temperature increased at the rate of #a degree for every #ej feet downwards2 and1 reasoning from causes known to exist1 the whole of the interior part of the earth1 or1 at least1 a great part of it1 is an ocean of melted rock agitated by violent winds40 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 in his address to the ,british ,association1 assembled at ,bath1 ,september1 #ahfd1 speaking of hot springs generally1 said 8,an increase of heat is always experienced as we descend into the interior of the earth4 99 99 99 ,the estimate deduced by ,mr4 ,hopkins1 from an accurate series of observations made in the ,monkwearmouth shaft1 near ,durham1 and in the ,dukenfield shaft1 near ,manchester1 each of them #b1jjj feet in depth4 ,in these shafts the temperature was found to rise at the rate of #a ,fah4 for every increase of depth of from #fe to #gj feet40 8,the observations made by ,m4 ,arago1 in #ahba1 that the deepest ,artesian wells are the warmest1 threw great light on the origin of thermal springs1 and on the establishment of the law1 that terrestrial heat increases with increasing depth4 ,it is a remarkable fact1 which has but recently been noticed1 that at the close of the third century ,st ,patricius1 probably ,bishop of ,partusa1 was led to adopt very correct views regarding the phenomenon of the hot springs at ,carthage4 ,on being asked what was the cause of boiling water bursting from the earth1 he replied1 #8,fire is nourished in the clouds1 and in the interior of the earth1 as ,etna and other mountains near ,naples may teach you4 ,the subterranean waters rise as if through siphons4 ,the cause of hot springs is this3 waters which are more remote from the subterranean fire are colder1 whilst those which rise nearer the fire1 are heated by it1 and bring with them to the surface which we inhabit1 an insupportable degree of heat4'0#bi #bi 8,humboldt's ,cosmos10 p4 #bbj4 ,the investigations which have been made1 and the evidence which has been brought together1 render it undeniable that the lower parts of the earth are on fire4 ,of the intensity of the combustion1 no practical idea can be formed4 ,it is fearful beyond comparison4 ,the lava thrown out from a volcano in ,mexico1 8was so hot that it continued to smoke for twenty years2 and after three years and a half1 a piece of wood took fire in it1 at a distance of five miles from the crater40 ,in various parts of the world1 large islands have been thrown up from the sea1 in a red-hot glowing condition1 and so intensely heated1 that after being forced through many fathoms of salt water1 and standing in the midst of it1 exposed to wind and rain for several months1 they were not sufficiently cooled for persons to approach and stand upon them4 8,a notable fact is the force exerted in volcanic action1 ,cotopaxi1 in #agch1 threw its fiery rockets #c1jjj feet above its crater1 while in #agdd the blazing mass1 struggling for an outlet1 roared like a furnace1 so that its awful voice was heard at a distance of more than six hundred miles4 ,in #agig1 the crater of ,tunguragua1 one of the great peaks of the ,andes1 flung out torrents of mud1 which dammed up rivers1 opened new lakes1 and in valleys of a thousand feet wide made deposits six hundred feet deep4 ,the stream from ,vesuvius which1 in #agcg1 passed through ,torre del ,greco1 contained thirty-three million cubic feet of solid matter2 and1 in #agid1 when ,torre del ,greco was destroyed a second time1 the mass of lava amounted to forty-five million cubic feet4 ,in #affi ,etna poured forth a flood which covered #hd square miles of surface1 and measured nearly #ajj1jjj1jjj cubic feet4 ,on this occasion the sand and scori formed the ,monte ,rossi1 near ,nicolosi1 a cone two miles in circumference1 and four hundred and fifty feet high4 ,the stream thrown out by ,etna1 in #ahai1 was in motion1 at the rate of a yard per day1 for nine months after the eruption2 and it is on record that the lavas of the same mountain1 after a terrible eruption1 were not thoroughly cooled and consolidated ten years after the event4 ,in the eruption of ,vesuvius1 ,a4,d4 #gi1 the scori and ashes vomited forth far exceeded the entire bulk of the mountain2 while1 in #affj1 ,etna disgorged more than twenty times its own mass4 99 99 99 ,vesuvius has thrown its ashes as far as ,constantinople1 ,syria1 and ,egypt2 it hurled stones eight pounds in weight to ,pompeii1 a distance of six miles2 while similar masses were tossed up #b1jjj feet above its summit4 ,cotopaxi has projected a block one hundred cubic yards in volume a distance of nine miles1 while ,sumbawa1 in #ahae1 during the most terrible eruption on record1 sent its ashes as far as ,java1 a distance of three hundred miles4 99 99 99 ,in viewing these evidences of enormous power1 we are forcibly struck with the similarity of action with which they have been associated2 and1 carrying our investigation a step further1 the same similarity of the producing power is hinted at in the identity of the materials ejected4 ,thus1 if we classify the characteristics of all recorded eruptions1 we shall find that the phenomena are all reducible to upheavals of the earth1 rumblings and explosions1 ejections of carbonic acid1 fiery torrents of lava1 cinders1 and mud1 with accompanying thunder and lightning4 ,the last-named phenomena are extrajudicial in character2 they are merely the result of the atmospheric disturbance consequent on the escape of great heat from the earth1 just as the burning of an ,american forest causes thunder and rain4 ,the connection that apparently exists1 too1 between neighbouring craters is strongly confirmed by the fact that in every distinct volcanic locus but one crater is usually active at a time4 ,since ,vesuvius has resumed his activity1 the numerous volcanic vents on the other side of the bay have sunk into comparative inactivity2 for ancient writers1 who are silent respecting the former1 speak of the mephitic vapours of the ,lake ,avernus as destructive to animal existence1 and in earlier days than these ,homer pictures the ,phlegrean ,fields as the entrance to the infernal regions1 placed at the limits of the habitable world1 unenlightened by rising or setting sun1 and enveloped in eternal gloom4 99 99 99 99 ,the earth contains within it a mass of heated material2 nay1 it is a heated and incandescent body1 habitable only because surrounded with a cool crust--the crust being to it a mere shell1 within which the vast internal fires are securely inclosed3 and yet not securely1 perhaps1 unless such vents existed as those to which we apply the term volcano4 99 99 99 99 ,every volcano is a safety-valve1 ready to relieve the pressure from within when that pressure rises to a certain degree of intensity2 or permanently serving for the escape of conflagrations1 which1 if not so provided with escape1 might rend the habitable crust to pieces40#cj #cj ,recreative ,science1 p4p4 #beg to #bfj4 ,thus it is certain1 from the phenomena of earthquakes1 submarine and inland volcanoes which exist in every part of the earth from the frozen to the tropical regions1 hot and boiling springs1 fountains of mud and steam1 lakes of burning sulphur1 jets and blasts of destructive gases1 and the choke and fire damps of our coal mines1 that at a few miles only below the surface of the earth there exists a vast region of combustion1 the intensity and power of which are indescribable1 and cannot be compared with anything within the range of human experience4 ,as the earth is an extended plane resting in and upon the waters of the 8great deep0 it may fitly be compared to a large vessel or ship floating at anchor1 with her 8,hold0 or lower compartments beneath the water-line filled with burning materials2 and1 from our knowledge of the nature and action of fire1 it is difficult to understand in what way the combustion can be prevented from extending1 when it is known to be surrounded with highly inflammable substances4 ,wherever a fire is surrounded with heterogeneous materials--some highly combustible and others partially and indirectly combustible--it is not possible for it to remain continually in the same condition nor to diminish in extent and intensity1 it must increase and extend itself4 ,that the fire in the earth is so surrounded with inflammable materials is matter of certainty2 the millions of tons of coals1 peat1 turf1 mineral oils1 rock tar1 pitch1 asphalte1 bitumen1 petroleum1 mineral naphtha1 and numerous other hydro-carbons which exist in various parts of the earth1 and much of these far down below the surface1 prove this condition to exist4 ,the products of volcanic action being chiefly carbon in combination with hydrogen and oxygen1 prove also that these carbon compounds already exist in a state of combustion1 and that as such immense quantities of the same fuel still exist1 it is quite within the range of possibility that some of the lower strata of combustible matter may take fire and the action rapidly extend itself through the various and innumerable veins which ramify in every direction throughout the whole earth4 ,should such an action commence1 knowing1 as we do1 that the rocks and minerals of the earth are but oxides of inflammable bases1 and that the affinities of these bases are greatly weakened and almost suspended in the presence of highly heated carbon1 we see clearly that such chemical action or fire would quickly extend and increase in intensity until the whole earth with everything entering into its composition1 would rapidly decompose1 volatilise1 and burst into one vast indescribable1 annihilating conflagration6 ,,section #ab4 ,,miscellanea4 ,,moon',s ,,phases4--,it has been shown that the ,moon is not a reflector of the ,sun's light1 but is self-luminous4 ,that the luminosity is confined to one-half its surface is sufficiently shown by the fact that at 8,new ,moon0 the whole circle or outline of the ,moon is often distinctly visible2 but the darker outline is less1 or the circle is smaller than the segment which is illuminated4 ,from this it is easily seen that 8,new ,moon10 8,full ,moon10 and 8,gibbous ,moon0 are but the different proportions of the illuminated surface which are presented to the observer on earth4 ,,moon',s ,,appearance4--,astronomers have indulged their imagination to such a degree that the ,moon has been considered to be a solid1 opaque1 spherical world1 having mountains1 valleys1 lakes1 volcanic craters1 and other conditions analogous to the surface of the earth4 ,so far has this fancy been carried1 that the whole visible disc has been mapped out1 and special names given to its various peculiarities1 as though they had been carefully observed and measured by a party of terrestrial ordnance surveyors4 ,all this has been done in direct opposition to the fact that whoever looks1 without previous bias1 through a powerful telescope at the ,moon's surface1 will be puzzled to say what it is really like1 or how to compare it with anything known4 ,the comparison which may be made1 will depend greatly upon the state of mind of the observer4 ,it is well known that persons looking at the rough bark of a tree1 or at the irregular lines or veins in certain kinds of marble and stone1 or gazing at the red embers in a dull fire1 will1 according to the degree of activity of the imagination1 be able to see different forms1 even the outlines of animals and human faces4 ,it is in this way that persons may fancy that the ,moon's surface is broken up into hills and valleys and other arrangements such as are found on earth4 ,but that anything really similar to the surface of our own world is anywhere visible upon the ,moon is altogether fallacious4 ,this is admitted by some of those who have written upon the subject 8,some persons when they look into a telescope for the first time1 having heard that mountains are to be seen1 and discovering nothing but these 7previously described7 unmeaning figures1 break off in disappointment1 and have their faith in these things rather diminished than increased4 ,i would advise1 therefore1 before the student takes even his first view of the ,moon through a telescope1 to form as clear an idea as he can how mountains1 and valleys1 and caverns situated at such a distance ought to look1 and by what marks they may be recognised4 ,let him seize1 if possible1 the most favourable periods 7about the time of the first quarter71 and previously learn from drawings and explanations how to interpret everything he sees40#ca 8,whenever we exhibit celestial objects to inexperienced observers it is usual to precede the view with good drawings of the objects1 accompanied by an explanation of what each appearance exhibited in the telescope indicates4 ,the novice is told that mountains and valleys can be seen in the ,moon by the aid of the telescope2 but on looking he sees a confused mass of light and shade1 and nothing which looks to him like either mountains or valleys6 ,had his attention been previously directed to a plain drawing of the ,moon1 and each particular appearance interpreted to him1 he would then have looked through the telescope with intelligence and satisfaction60#cb ,thus it is admitted by those who teach that the ,moon is a spherical world1 having hills and dales like the earth1 can only see such things in imagination4 8,nothing but unmeaning figures0 are really visible1 and 8the students break off in disappointment1 and have their faith in such things rather diminished than increased10 8until they previously learn from drawings and explanations how to interpret everything seen40 ,but who first made the drawings8 ,who first interpreted the 8unmeaning figures0 and the 8confused mass of light and shade80 ,who first declared them to indicate mountains and valleys1 and ventured to make drawings and give explanations and interpretations for the purpose of biasing the minds1 and fixing or guiding the imaginations of subsequent observers8 ,whoever they were1 they at least had 8given the reins to ,fancy10 and afterwards took upon themselves to dogmatise and teach their crude and unwarranted imaginings to succeeding investigators4 ,and this is the kind of evidence and 8reasoning0 which is obtruded in our seats of learning1 and spread out in the numerous works which are published for the edification of society6 #ca 8,mechanism of the ,heavens10 by ,denison ,olmsted1 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,natural ,philosophy and ,astronomy in ,gale ,college1 ,u4,s4 #cb ,mitchell's 8,orbs of ,heaven10 p4 #bcb4 ,,the ,,planet ,,neptune4--,for some years the advocates of the earth's rotundity1 and of the ,newtonian philosophy generally1 were accustomed to refer with an air of pride and triumph to the discovery of a new planet1 which was called ,neptune1 as an undeniable evidence of the truth of their system or theory4 ,the existence of this luminary was said to have been predicated from calculation only1 and for a considerable period before it had been seen by the telescope4 ,it was urged that therefore the system which would permit of such a discovery must be true4 ,but the whole matter subsequently proved to be unsatisfactory4 ,that a proper conception may be formed of the actual value of the calculations and their supposed verification1 the following account will be useful4 8,in the year #agha1 on ,march #ac1 ,uranus was discovered by ,sir ,william ,herschel1 who was examining some small stars near the feet of ,gemini2 and he observed one of them to have a sensible amount of diameter and less brightness than the others1 and it was soon found to be a planet4 ,it1 however1 had been seen before--first1 by ,flamstead1 on ,december #bcrd1 #afij2 and between this time and #agha it had been observed #af times by ,flamstead1 ,bradley1 ,mayer1 and ,lemonnier2 these astronomers had classed it as a star of the sixth magnitude4 ,between #agha and #ahbj it was of course very frequently observed2 and it was hoped that at the latter time sufficient data existed to construct accurate tables of its motions4 ,this task was undertaken by ,m4 ,bouvard1 ,member de ,l',academie des ,sciences1 but he met with unforeseen difficulties4 ,it was found utterly impossible to construct tables which would represent the #ag ancient observations1 and at the same time the more numerous modern ones2 and it was finally concluded that the ancient observations were erroneous1 or that some strange and unknown action disturbed1 or had disturbed1 the planet2 consequently ,m4 ,bouvard discarded entirely the old observations1 and used only those taken between #agha and #ahbj1 in constructing the tables of ,uranus4 ,for some years past it has been found that the tables thus constructed do not agree any better with modern observations1 than they do with the ancient observations2 consequently it was evident that the planet was under the influence of some unknown cause4 ,several hypotheses have been suggested as to the nature of this cause2 some persons talked of a resisting medium2 others of a great satellite which might accompany ,uranus2 some even went so far as to suppose that the vast distance ,uranus is from the ,sun caused the law of gravitation to lose some of its force2 others thought that the rapid flight of a comet had disturbed its regular movements2 others thought of the existence of a planet beyond ,uranus1 whose disturbing force caused the anomalous motions of the planet2 but no one did otherwise than follow the bent of his inclination1 and did not support his assertion by any positive considerations4 8,thus was the theory of ,uranus surrounded with difficulties1 when ,m4 ,le ,verrier1 an eminent ,french mathematician1 undertook to investigate the irregularities in its motions4 ,his first paper appeared on the #ajth ,november1 #ahde1 and his second on ,june #a1 #ahdf 7published in the ,comptes ,rends74 ,in this second paper1 after a most elaborate and careful investigation1 he proves the utter incompatibility of any of the preceding hypotheses to account for the planet's motions1 except only that of the last one1 viz41 that of a new planet4 ,he then successively proves that this planet cannot be situated either between the ,sun and ,saturn1 or between ,saturn and ,uranus2 but that it must be beyond ,uranus4 ,and in this paper he asks the following questions3--#8,is it possible that the irregularities of ,uranus can be owing to the action of a planet situated in the ecliptic1 at a distance of twice the mean distance of ,uranus from the ,sun8 ,if so1 where is it actually situated8 ,what is its mass8 ,what are the elements of the orbit it describes80 ,this was the problem he set himself to work upon1 by the means of solving the inverse problem of the perturbations2 for instead of having to measure the action of a determined planet1 he had to deduce the elements of the orbit of the disturbing planet1 and its place in the heavens from the recognised inequalities of ,uranus4 ,and this problem ,m4 ,le ,verrier has successfully solved4 ,in his second paper he deduces the place in the heavens that the body must be as #cbe of helio-centric longitude4 ,on the #cast ,august last he published his third paper4 ,in this he has calculated that the period of the planet is #bag years2 and that it moves in an orbit at the distance of more than #c1jjj millions of miles from the ,sun2 that its mean longitude on ,january #ast1 #ahdg1 will be #cah #ag2 its true longitude #cbf #cb2 and that the longitude of its perihelion will be #bhd #de2 that it will appear to have a diameter of #c seconds of arc as seen from the earth2 and that it is now about #e ,e4 of ,delta ,capricorni4 8,these remarkable calculations have pointed out a position which has very nearly proved to be the true one4 8,on ,september #bc1 ,dr4 ,galle at ,berlin discovered a star of the eighth magnitude1 which has proved to be the planet4 ,its place at the time was five degrees from ,delta ,capricorni4 ,it was found to have a disc of #c seconds as predicted2 and its longitude at the time differs less than a degree from the longitude computed from the above elements4 ,its daily motion1 too1 is found to agree very closely with the predicted2 and1 judging from this last circumstance1 the planet's distance1 as stated above1 must be nearly the truth4 8,thus the result of these calculations was the discovery of a new planet in the place assigned to it by theory1 whose mass1 distance1 position in the heavens1 and orbit it describes round the ,sun1 were all approximately determined before the planet had ever been seen2 and all agrees with observations1 so far as can at present be determined4 ,it is found to have a disc1 and its diameter cannot be much less than #dj1jjj miles1 and may be more2 its motions are very slow2 it is at present in the constellation of ,aquarius as indicated by theory2 and it will be in the constellation of ,capricornus all the year #ahdg4 ,it may be readily seen in a telescope of moderate power4 8,whatever view we take of this noble discovery it is most gratifying1 whether at the addition of another planet to our list2 whether at the proving the correctness of the theory of universal gravitation2 or in what view soever1 it must be considered as a splendid discovery1 and the merit is chiefly due to theoretical astronomy4 ,this discovery is perhaps the greatest triumph of astronomical science that has ever been recorded40#cc #cc 8,illustrated ,london ,almanack for #ahdg40 ,if such things as criticism1 experience1 and comparative observation did not exist1 the tone of exultation in which the above article indulges might be properly shared in by the astronomical student2 but let the following extracts be carefully read1 and it will be seen that such a tone was premature and unwarranted4 8,paris1 ,sept4 #ae1 #ahdh4 ,the only sittings of the ,academy of late in which there was anything worth recording1 and even this was not of a practical character1 were those of the #bith ult4 and the #aath inst4 ,on the former day ,m4 ,babinet made a communication respecting the planet ,neptune1 which has been generally called ,m4 ,le ,verrier's planet1 the discovery of it having1 as it was said1 been made by him from theoretical deductions1 which astonished and delighted the scientific public4 ,what ,m4 ,le ,verrier had inferred from the action on other planets of some body which ought to exist was verified1 at least so it was thought at the time1 by actual vision4 ,neptune was actually seen by other astronomers1 and the honour of the theorist obtained additional luster4 ,but it appears from a communication of ,m4 ,babinet that this is not the planet of ,m4 ,le ,verrier4 ,he had placed his planet at a distance from the ,sun equal to thirty-six times the limit of the terrestrial orbit2 ,neptune revolves at a distance equal to thirty times of these limits1 which makes a difference of nearly two hundred millions of leagues6 ,m4 ,le ,verrier had assigned to his planet a body equal to thirty-eight times that of the earth2 ,neptune has only one third of this volume6 ,m4 ,le ,verrier had stated the revolutions of his planet round the ,sun to take place in two hundred and seventeen years2 ,neptune performs its revolutions in one hundred and sixty-six years6 ,thus then ,neptune is not ,m4 ,le ,verrier's planet2 and all his theory as regards that planet falls to the ground6 ,m4 ,le ,verrier may find another planet1 but it will not answer the calculations which he had made for ,neptune4 ,in the sitting of the #adth1 ,m4 ,le ,verrier noticed the communication of ,m4 ,babinet1 and to a great extent admitted his own error6 ,he complained indeed that much of what he said was taken in too absolute a sense2 but he evinces much more candour than might have been expected from a disappointed explorer4 ,m4 ,le ,verrier may console himself with the reflection that if he has not been so successful as he thought he had been1 others might have been equally unsuccessful1 and as he has still before him an immense field for the exercise of observation and calculation1 we may hope that he will soon make some discovery which will remove the vexation of his present disappointment40#cd #cd 8,times0 ,newspaper1 ,monday1 ,sept4 #ah1 #ahdh4 8,as the data of ,le ,verrier and ,adams stand at present there is a discrepancy between the predicted and the true distance2 and in some other elements of the planet4 ,it remains1 therefore1 for these or future astronomers to reconcile theory with fact2 or1 perhaps1 as in the case of ,uranus1 to make the new planet the means of leading to yet greater discoveries4 ,it would appear1 from the most recent observations1 that the mass of ,neptune1 instead of being as at first stated one nine thousand three hundredth is only one twenty three thousandth that of the ,sun2 whilst its periodic time is now given with a greater probability at #aff years2 and its mean distance from the ,sun nearly thirty4 ,le ,verrier gave the mean distance from the ,sun thirty-six times that of the ,earth2 and the period of revolution #bag years4#ce #ce 8,cosmos10 by ,humboldt1 p4 #ge4 8,may #ad1 #ahdg4 ,a ,paper was read before the ,royal ,astronomical ,society1 by ,professor ,schumacher1 #8on the identity of the planet ,neptune 7,m4 ,le ,verrier's7 with a star observed by ,m4 ,lalande in ,may1 #agie4'0cf #cf 8,report of ,royal ,astronomical ,society10 for ,feb4 #aa1 #ahdh1 ,no4 #d1 vol4 #h4 ,such mistakes as the above ought at least to make the advocates of the ,newtonian theory less positive1 and more ready to acknowledge that at best their system is but hypothetical and must sooner or later give place to a philosophy the premises of which are demonstrable1 and which is in all its details sequent and consistent4 ,,pendulum ,,experiments ,,as ,,proofs ,,of ,,earth',s ,,motion4 ,in the early part of the year #ahea1 the scientific journals and nearly all the newspapers published in ,great ,britain and on the ,continents of ,europe and ,america were occupied in recording and discussing certain experiments with the pendulum1 first made by ,m4 ,foucault1 of ,paris2 and the public were startled by the announcement that the results furnished a practical proof of the ,earth's rotation4 ,the subject was referred to in the ,literary ,gazette1 in the following words3--8,everybody knows what is meant by a pendulum in its simplest form1 a weight hanging by a thread to a fixed point4 ,such was the pendulum experimented upon long ago by ,galileo1 who discovered the well-known law of isochronous vibrations1 applicable to the same4 ,the subject has since received a thorough examination1 as well theoretical as practical1 from mathematicians and mechanicians2 and yet1 strange to say1 the most remarkable feature of the phenomenon has remained unobserved and wholly unsuspected until within the last few weeks1 when a young and promising ,french physicist1 ,m4 ,foucault1 who was induced by certain reflections to repeat ,galileo's experiments in the cellar of his mother's house at ,paris1 succeeded in establishing the existence of a fact connected with it which gives an immediate and visible demonstration of the ,earth's rotation4 ,suppose the pendulum already described to be set moving in a vertical plane from north to south1 the plane in which it vibrates1 to ordinary observation1 would appear to be stationary4 ,m4 ,foucault1 however1 has succeeded in showing that this is not the case1 but that the plane is itself slowly moving round the fixed point as a centre in a direction contrary to the ,earth's rotation1 i4e41 with the apparent heavens1 from east to west4 ,his experiments have since been repeated in the hall of the observatory1 under the superintendence of ,m4 ,arago1 and fully confirmed4 ,if a pointer be attached to the weight of a pendulum suspended by a long and fine wire1 capable of turning round in all directions1 and nearly in contact with the floor of a room1 the line which this pointer appears to trace on the ground1 and which may easily be followed by a chalk mark1 will be found to be slowly1 but visibly1 and constantly moving round1 like the hand of a watch dial2 and the least consideration will show that this ought to be the case1 and will excite astonishment that so simple a consequence as this is1 of the most elementary laws of ,geometry and ,mechanics1 should so long have remained unobserved4 99 99 99 ,the subject has created a great sensation in the mathematical and physical circles of ,paris4 ,it is proposed to obtain permission from the ,government to carry on further observations by means of a pendulum suspended from the dome of the ,pantheon1 length of suspension being a desideratum in order to make the result visible on a larger scale1 and secure greater constancy and duration in the experiment4 ,the time required for the performance of a complete revolution of the plane of vibration would be about #cb hours #h minutes for the parallel of ,paris2 #cj hours #dj minutes for that of ,london2 and at #cj degrees from the equator exactly #dh hours4 ,certainly any one who should have proposed not many weeks back to prove the rotation of the ,earth upon which we stand by means of direct experiment made upon its surface would have run the risk1 with the mob of gentlemen who write upon mechanics1 of being thought as mad as if he were to have proposed reviving ,bishop ,wilkins's notable plan for going to the ,north ,american colonies in a few hours1 by rising in a balloon from the ,earth and gently floating in the air until the ,earth1 in its diurnal rotation1 have turned the desired quarter towards the suspended ronaut1 whereupon as gently to descend2 so necessary and wholesome is it occasionally to reconsider the apparently simplest and best established conclusions of science40 ,the following is from the ,scotsman1 which has always been distinguished for the accuracy of its scientific papers4 ,the article bears the initials 8,c4 ,m410 which will at once be recognised as those of ,mr4 ,charles ,maclaren1 for many years the accomplished editor of that journal3--8,the beautiful experiment contrived by ,m4 ,foucault to demonstrate the rotation of the globe1 has deservedly excited universal interest4 99 99 99 ,a desire has always been felt that some method could be devised of rendering this rotation palpable to the senses4 ,even the illustrious ,laplace participated in this feeling and has left it on record4 #8,although1' he says1 #8the rotation of the ,earth is now established with all the certainty which the physical sciences require1 still a direct proof of that phenomenon ought to interest both geometricians and astronomers4' ,no man ever knew the laws of the planetary motions better than ,laplace1 and before penning such a sentence1 it is probable that he had turned the subject in his mind1 and without discovering any process by which the object could be attained2 but it does not follow that if he had applied the whole force of his genius to the task1 he would not have succeeded4 ,be this as it may1 here we have the problem solved by a man not probably possessing a tithe of his science or talent2 and1 what is very remarkable1 after the discovery was made1 it was found to be legitimately deducible from mathematical principles4 99 99 99 ,in this1 as in many other cases1 the fact comes first1 and takes us by surprise2 after which we find that we had long been in possession of the principles from which it flowed1 and that1 with the clue we had in our hands1 theory should have revealed the fact to us long before4 ,m4 ,foucault's communication describing his experiments is in the ,comptes ,rendus of the ,academy of ,sciences1 for #crd ,february1 #ahea4 ,his first experiments were made with a pendulum only two metres 7#f;ft4 #f;in47 in length1 consisting of a steel wire from ths to ths of a millimetre in diameter 7the millimetre is the #beth part of an inch72 to the lower end of which was attached a polished brass ball1 weighing #e kilogrammes1 or #aa ,english pounds4 99 99 99 ,a metallic point projecting below the ball1 and so directed as if it formed a continuation of the suspension wire1 served as an index to mark the change of position more precisely4 ,the pendulum hung from a steel plate in such a manner as to move freely in any vertical plane4 ,to start the oscillatory movement without giving the ball any bias1 it was drawn to one side with a cord1 which held the ball by a loop2 the cord was then burned1 after which the loop fell off1 and the vibrations 7generally limited to an arc of #ae or #bj degrees7 commenced4 ,in one minute the ball had sensibly deviated from the original plane of vibration towards the observer's left4 ,afterwards he experimented at the ,observatory with a pendulum #aa metres 7#cj feet7 long1 and latterly at the ,pantheon with one still longer4 ,the advantage of a large pendulum1 as compared with a small one1 is1 that a longer time elapses before it comes to a state of rest2 for machinery cannot be employed here1 as in a clock1 to continue the motion4 ,the pendulum is suspended over the centre of a circular table1 whose circumference is divided into degrees and minutes4 ,the vibrations are begun in the manner above described1 and in a short time it is observed that the pendulum1 instead of returning to the same point of the circle from which it started1 has shifted to the left4 ,if narrowly observed1 the change in the plane of vibration 7says ,m4 ,foucault7 is perceptible in one minute1 and in half an hour1 8,il saute aux yeux10 it is quite palpable4 ,at ,paris the change exceeds #aa degrees in an hour4 ,thus1 supposing the oscillations to commence in a plane directed south and north1 in two hours the oscillations will point ,,ssw4 and ,,nne42 in four hours they will point ,,sw4 and ,,ne42 and in eight hours the oscillations will point due east and west1 or at right angles to their original direction4 ,to a spectator the change seems to be in the pendulum1 which1 without any visible cause1 has shifted round a quarter of a circle2 but the real change is in the table1 which1 resting on the ,earth1 and accompanying it in its rotation1 has performed a fourth 7and something more7 of its diurnal revolution4 ,no one anticipated such a result2 and the experiment has been received by some with incredulity1 by all with wonderment2 and one source of the incredulity arises from the difficulty of conceiving how1 amidst the ten thousand experiments of which the pendulum has been the subject1 so remarkable a fact could have escaped notice so long4 ,fully admitting that these experiments have generally been conducted with pendulums which had little freedom of motion horizontally1 we still think odd that somebody did not stumble upon the curious fact4 ,though all the parts of the ,earth complete their revolution in the same space of time1 it is found that the rate of horizontal motion in ,foucault's pendulum varies with the latitude of the place where the experiment is made4 ,at the pole1 the pendulum would pass over #ae degrees in an hour1 like the ,earth itself1 and complete its circuit in #bd hours4 ,at ,edinburgh1 the pendulum would pass over #ab degrees in an hour1 and would complete its revolution in #bi hours #g minutes4 ,at ,paris1 the rate of motion is #aa degrees and #bj minutes per hour1 and the revolution should be completed in #cb hours4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,let the above figure represent a portion of the ,earth's surface near the north pole ,n4 ,suppose the pendulum to be set in motion at m1 so as to vibrate in the direction x y1 which coincides with that of the meridian m ,n or m r4 ,the ,earth in the meantime is pursuing its easterly course1 and the meridian line m ,n has come in six hours into the position n ,n4 ,it has been hitherto supposed that the pendulum would now vibrate in the new direction n ,n1 assumed by the meridian1 but thanks to ,m4 ,foucault1 we now know that this is a mistake4 ,the pendulum will vibrate in a plane x n y1 parallel to its original plane at m1 as will be manifest if the plane of vibration points to some object in absolute space1 such as a star4 ,while the meridian line m ,n will in the course of #bd hours range round the whole circle of the heavens1 and point successively in the direction n ,n1 o ,n1 p ,n1 r ,n1 s ,n1 t ,n1 and u ,n1 the pendulum's plane of vibration x y1 whether at m1 at n1 at o1 at p1 at r1 at s1 at t1 or at u1 will always be parallel to itself1 pointing invariably to the same star1 and were a circular table placed under the pendulum1 its plane of vibration1 while really stationary1 would appear to perform a complete revolution4 ,this stationary position of the plane of vibration at the pole seems to present little difficulty4 ,we impress a peculiar motion on the pendulum in setting it a going4 ,the ,earth is at the same time carrying the pendulum eastward1 but at the pole the one motion will not interfere with the other4 ,the only action of the ,earth on the pendulum there is that of attracting it towards its own 7the ,earth's7 centre4 ,but this attraction is exactly in the plane of vibration and merely tends to continue the oscillatory motion without disturbing it4 ,it is otherwise if the experiment is made at some other point1 say #bj degrees distant from the pole4 ,supposing the vibrations to commence in the plane of the meridian1 then as the tendency of the pendulum is to continue its vibrations in planes absolutely parallel to the original plane1 it will be seen1 if we trace both motions1 that1 while it is carried eastward with the ,earth along a parallel of latitude1 this tendency will operate to draw the plane of vibration away from a #8great circle' into a #8small circle' 7that is1 from a circle dividing the globe into two equal parts1 into one dividing it into two unequal parts74 ,but the pendulum must necessarily move in a #8great circle1' and hence to counteract its tendency to deviate into a #8small circle1' a correctory movement is constantly going on1 to which the lengthening of the period necessary to complete a revolution must be ascribed4 ,at ,edinburgh the period is about #bi hours1 at ,paris #cb1 at ,cairo #dh1 at ,calcutta #fc4 ,at the ,equator1 the period stretches out to infinity4 ,m4 ,foucault's rule is1 that the angular space passed over by the pendulum at any latitude in a given time1 is equal to the angular motion of the ,earth in the period1 multiplied by the sine of the latitude4 ,the angular motion of the ,earth is #ae degrees per hour2 and at the latitude of #cj1 for example1 the sine being to radius as #ejj to #ajjj1 the angular motion of the pendulum will consequently be #g degrees per hour4 ,it is1 therefore1 easily found4 ,it follows that the motions of the pendulum may be employed in a rough way to indicate the latitude of a place40#cg #cg ,supplement of the ,manchester ,examiner1 of ,may #bd1 #ahea4 ,notwithstanding the apparent certainty of these pendulum experiments1 and the supposed exactitude of the conclusions deducible therefrom1 many of the same school of philosophy differed with each other1 remained dissatisfied1 and raised very serious objections both to the value of the experiments themselves1 and to the supposed proof which they furnished of the ,earth's rotation4 ,one writer in the ,times newspaper of the period1 who signs himself 8,b4 ,a4 ,c410 says1 8,i have read the accounts of the ,parisian experiment as they have appeared in many of our papers1 and must confess that ,i still remain unconvinced of the reality of the phenomenon4 ,it appears to me that1 except at the pole where the point of suspension is immovable1 no result can be obtained4 ,in other cases the shifting of the direction of passage through the lowest point that takes place during an excursion of the pendulum1 from that point in one direction and its return to it again1 will be exactly compensated by the corresponding shifting in the contrary direction during the pendulum's excursion on the opposite side4 ,take a particular case4 ,suppose the pendulum in any latitude to be set oscillating in the meridian plane1 and to be started from the vertical towards the south4 ,it is obvious that the wire by which it is suspended does not continue to describe a plane1 but a species of conoidal surface2 that when the pendulum has reached its extreme point its direction is to the south-west1 and that as the tangent plane to the described surface through the point of suspension necessarily contains the normal to the ,earth at the same point1 the pendulum on its return passes through the same point in the direction north-east4 ,now1 starting again from this point1 we have exactly the circumstances of the last case1 the primary plane being shifted slightly out of the meridian2 when1 therefore1 the pendulum has reached its extreme point of excursion the direction of the wire is to the west of this plane1 and when it returns to the vertical the direction of passage through the lowest point is as much to the west of this plane as it was in the former case to the west of the meridian plane2 but since it is now moving from north to south instead of from south to north1 as in the former case1 its former deviation receives complete compensation1 and the primary plane returns again to the meridian1 when the whole process recurs40 ,in the ,liverpool ,mercury of ,may #bc1 #ahea1 the following letter appeared3--8,the supposed manifestation of the ,rotation of the ,earth4--,the ,french1 ,english1 and ,european continental journals have given publicity to an experiment made in ,paris with a pendulum2 which experiment is said to have had the same results when made elsewhere4 ,to the facts set forth no contradiction has been given1 and it is therefore to be hoped that they are true4 ,the correctness of the inferences drawn from the facts is another matter4 ,the first position of these theorists is1 that in a complete vacuum beyond the sphere of the ,earth's atmosphere1 a pendulum will continue to oscillate in one and the same original plane4 ,on that supposition their whole theory is founded4 ,in making this supposition the fact is overlooked that there is no vibratory motion unless through atmospheric resistance1 or by force opposing impulse4 ,perpetual progress in rectilinear motion may be imagined1 as in the corpuscular theory of light2 circular motion may also be found in the planetary systems2 and parabolic and hyperbolic motions in those of comets2 but vibration is artificial and of limited duration4 ,no body in nature returns the same road it went1 unless artificially constrained to do so4 ,the supposition of a permanent vibratory motion such as is presumed in the theory advanced1 is unfounded in fact1 and absurd in idea2 and the whole affair of this proclaimed discovery falls to the ground4 ,it is what the ,french call a #8mystification'--anglice a #8humbug4' ,liverpool1 #bbnd ,may1 #ahea40 8,t40 ,another writer declared that he and others had made many experiments and had discovered that the plane of vibration had nothing whatever to do with the meridian longitude nor with the ,earth's motion1 but followed the plane of the magnetic meridian4 8,a scientific gentleman in ,dundee recently tried the pendulum experiment1 and he says--#8that the pendulum is capable of showing the ,earth's motion ,i regard as a gross delusion2 but that it tends to the magnetic meridian ,i have found to be a fact4'0#ch #ch ,liverpool ,journal1 ,may #ag1 #ahea4 ,in many cases the experiments have not shown a change at all in the plane of oscillation of the pendulum2 in others the alteration in the plane of vibration has been in the wrong direction2 and very often the rate of variation has been altogether different to that which theory indicated4 ,the following is a case in illustration3--8,on ,wednesday evening the ,rev4 ,h4 ,h4 ,jones1 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 exhibited the apparatus of ,foucault to illustrate the diurnal rotation of the ,earth1 in the ,library ,hall of the ,manchester ,athenum4 ,the preparations were simple4 ,a circle of chalk was drawn in the centre of the floor1 immediately under the arched skylight4 ,the circle was exactly #cfj inches in its circumference1 every inch being intended to represent one degree4 ,according to a calculation ,mr4 ,jones had made1 and which he produced at the ,philosophical ,society six weeks ago1 the plane of oscillation of the pendulum would1 at ,manchester1 diverge about one degree in five minutes1 or perhaps a very little less4 ,he therefore drew this circle exactly #cfj inches round1 and marked the inches on its circumference4 ,the pendulum was hung from the skylight immediately over the centre of the circle1 the point of suspension being #be feet high4 ,at that length of wire1 it should require #b seconds to make each oscillation across the circle4 ,the brazen ball1 which at the end of a fine wire constituted the pendulum1 was furnished with a point1 to enable the spectator to observe the more easily its course4 ,a long line was drawn through the diameter of the circle1 due north and south1 and the pendulum started so as to swing exactly along this line2 to the westward of which1 at intervals of three inches at the circumference1 two other lines were drawn1 passing through the centre4 ,according to the theory1 the pendulum should diverge from its original line towards the west1 at the rate of one inch or degree in five minutes4 ,this1 however1 ,mr4 ,jones explained1 was a perfection of accuracy only attainable in a vacuum1 and rarely could be approached where the pendulum had to pass through an atmosphere subject to disturbances2 besides1 it was difficult to avoid giving it some slight lateral bias at starting4 ,in order to obviate this as much as possible1 the steel wire was as fine as would bear the weight1 th of an inch thick2 and the point of suspension was adjusted with delicate nicety4 ,an iron bolt was screwed into the frame-work of the skylight2 into it a brass nut was inserted--the wire passed through the nut 7the hollow sides of which were bell-shaped1 in order to give it fair play71 and at the top the wire ended in a globular piece1 there being also a fine screw to keep it from slipping4 99 99 99 ,the pendulum was gently drawn up to one side1 at the southern end of the diametrical line1 and attached by a thread to something near4 ,when it hung quite still the thread was burnt asunder1 and the pendulum began to oscillate to and fro across the circle4 99 99 99 ,before it had been going on quite seven minutes1 it had reached nearly the third degree towards the west1 whereas it ought to have occupied a quarter of an hour in getting thus far from its starting line1 even making no allowance for the resistance of the atmosphere40#ci #ci 8,manchester ,examiner0 7,supplement71 ,may #bd1 #ahea4 ,besides the irregularities so often observed in the time and direction of the pendulum vibrations1 and which are quite sufficient to render them worthless as evidence of the ,earth's motion1 the use which the ,newtonian astronomers made of the general fact that the plane of oscillation is variable1 was most unfair and illogical4 ,it was proclaimed to the world as a visible proof of the ,earth's diurnal motion2 but the motion was assumed to exist1 and then employed to explain the cause of the fact which was first called a proof of the thing assumed6 ,a greater violation of the laws of investigation was never perpetrated6 ,the whole subject as developed and applied by the theoretical philosophers is to the fullest degree unreasonable and absurd--not a 8jot or tittle0 better than the reasoning contained in the following letter3--8,sir1--,allow me to call your serious and polite attention to the extraordinary phenomenon1 demonstrating the rotation of the ,earth1 which ,i at this present moment experience1 and you yourself or anybody else1 ,i have not the slightest doubt1 would be satisfied of1 under similar circumstances4 ,some sceptical and obstinate individuals may doubt that the ,earth's motion is visible1 but ,i say from personal observation its a positive fact4 ,i don't care about latitude or longitude1 or a vibratory pendulum revolving round the sine of a tangent on a spherical surface1 nor axes1 nor apsides1 nor anything of the sort4 ,that is all rubbish4 ,all ,i know is1 ,i see the ceiling of this coffee-room going round4 ,i perceive this distinctly with the naked eye--only my sight has been sharpened by a slight stimulant4 ,i write after my sixth go of brandy-and-water1 whereof witness my hand10--8,swiggins0--,goose and ,gridiron1 ,may #e1 #ahea4--8,p4,s4 ,why do two waiters come when ,i only call one80#dj #dj 8,punch10 ,may #aj1 #ahea4 ,the whole matter as handled by the astronomical theorists is fully deserving of the ridicule implied in the above quotation from ,punch2 but because great ingenuity has been shewn1 and much thought and devotion manifested in connection with it1 and the general public thereby greatly deceived1 it is necessary that the subject should be fairly and seriously examined4 ,what are the facts8 ,first4--,when a pendulum1 constructed according to the plan of ,m4 ,foucault1 is allowed to vibrate1 its plane of vibration is often variable--not always4 ,the variation when it does occur1 is not uniform--is not always the same in the same place2 nor always the same either in its rate or velocity1 or in its direction4 ,it cannot therefore be taken as evidence2 for that which is inconstant cannot be used in favour of or against any given proposition4 ,it therefore is not evidence and proves nothing6 ,secondly4--,if the plane of vibration is observed to change1 where is the connection between such change and the supposed motion of the ,earth8 ,what principle of reasoning guides the experimenter to the conclusion that it is the ,earth which moves underneath the pendulum1 and not the pendulum which moves over the ,earth8 ,what logical right or necessity forces one conclusion in preference to the other8 ,thirdly4--,why was not the peculiar arrangement of the point of suspension of the pendulum specially considered1 in regard to its possible influence upon the plane of oscillation8 ,was it not known1 or was it overlooked1 or was it1 in the climax of theoretical revelry1 ignored that a 8ball-and-socket0 joint is one which facilitates circular motion more readily than any other8 and that a pendulum so suspended 7as was ,m4 ,foucault's71 could not1 after passing over one arc of vibration1 return through the same arc without there being many chances to one that its globular point of suspension would slightly turn or twist in its bed1 and therefore give to the return or backward oscillation a slight change of direction8 ,let the immediate cause of the pendulum's liability to change its plane of vibration be traced2 and it will be found not to have the slightest connection with the motion or non-motion of the surface over which it vibrates4 ,at a recent meeting of the ,french ,academy of sciences1 8,m4 ,dehaut sent in a note1 stating that ,m4 ,foucault 7whose experiments on the pendulum effected a few years ago at the ,pantheon1 are of ,european notoriety7 is not the first discoverer of the fact that the plane of oscillation of the free pendulum is invariable2 but that the honour of the discovery is due to ,poinsinet de ,sivry1 who1 in #aghb1 stated1 in a note to his translation of #8,pliny1' that a mariner's compass might be constructed without a magnet1 by making a pendulum and setting it in motion in a given direction2 because1 provided the motion were continually kept up1 the pendulum would continue to oscillate in the same direction1 no matter by how many points1 or how often the ship might happen to change her course40 ,,section #ac4 ,,perspective ,,on ,,the ,,sea4 ,it has been shown 7at pages #be to #cd7 that the law of perspective1 as commonly taught in our ,schools of ,art1 is fallacious and contrary to everything seen in nature4 ,if an object be held up in the air1 and gradually carried away from an observer who maintains his position1 it is true that all its parts will converge to one and the same point2 but if the same object be placed upon the ground and similarly moved away from a fixed observer1 the same predicate is false4 ,in the first case the centre of the object is the datum to which every point of the exterior converges2 but in the second case the ground becomes the datum1 in and towards which every part of the object converges in succession1 beginning with the lowest1 or that nearest to it4 ,instances3--,a man with light trousers and black boots walking along a level path1 will appear at a certain distance as though the boots had been removed1 and the trousers brought in contact with the ground4 ,a young girl1 with short garments terminating ten or twelve inches above the feet1 will1 in walking forward1 appear to sink towards the ,earth1 the space between which and the bottom of the clothes will appear to gradually diminish1 and in the distance of half-a-mile the limbs1 which were first seen for ten or twelve inches1 will be invisible--the bottom of the garment will seem to touch the ground4 ,a small dog running along will appear to gradually shorten by the legs1 which1 in less than half a mile1 will be invisible1 and the body appear to glide upon the earth4 ,horses and cattle moving away from a given point will seem to have lost their hoofs1 and to be walking upon the outer bones of the limbs4 ,carriages similarly receding will seem to lose that portion of the rim of the wheels which touches the ,earth2 the axles will seem to get lower2 and at the distance of a few miles1 the body will appear to drag along in contact with the ground4 ,this is very remarkable in the case of a railway carriage when moving away upon a straight and level portion of line several miles in length4 ,these instances1 which are but a few of what might be quoted1 will be sufficient to prove1 beyond the power of doubt or the necessity for controversy1 that upon a plane or horizontal surface1 the lowest part of bodies receding from a given point of observation will disappear before the higher4 ,this is precisely what is observed in the case of a ship at sea1 when outward bound--the lowest part--the hull1 disappearing before the higher parts--the sails and mast head4 ,abstractedly1 when the lowest part of a receding object thus disappears by entering the 8vanishing point10 it could be seen again to any and every extent by a telescope1 if the power were sufficient to magnify at the distance observed4 ,this is to a great extent practicable upon smooth horizontal surfaces1 as upon frozen lakes or canals2 and upon long straight lines of railway4 ,but the power of restoring such objects is greatly modified and diminished where the surface is undulating or otherwise moveable1 as in large and level meadows1 and pasture lands generally2 in the vast prairies and grassy plains of ,america2 and especially so upon the ocean1 where the surface is always more or less in an undulating condition4 ,in ,holland and other level countries1 persons have been seen in winter1 skating upon the ice1 at distances varying from ten to twenty miles4 ,on some of the straight and 8level0 lines of railway which cross the prairies of ,america1 the trains have been observed for more than twenty miles2 but upon the sea the conditions are altered1 and the hull of a receding vessel can only be seen for a few miles1 and this will depend very greatly--the altitude of the observer being the same1 upon the state of the water4 ,when the surface is calm1 the hull may be seen much farther than when it is rough and stormy2 but under ordinary circumstances1 when to the naked eye the hull has just become invisible1 or is doubtfully visible1 it may be seen again distinctly by the aid of a powerful telescope4 ,although abstractedly or mathematically there should be no limit to this power of restoring by a telescope a lost object upon a smooth horizontal surface1 upon the sea this limit is soon observed2 the water being variable in its degree of agitation1 the limit of sight over its surface is equally variable1 as shown by the following experiments3--,in ,may1 #ahfd1 on several occasions when the water was unusually calm1 from the landing stairs of the ,victoria pier at ,portsmouth1 and from an elevation of #b ft4 #h in4 above the water1 the greater part of the hull of the ,nab ,light-ship was1 through a good telescope1 distinctly visible2 but on other experiments being made1 when the water was less calm1 no portion of it could be seen from the same elevation1 notwithstanding that the most powerful telescopes were employed4 ,at other times half the hull1 and sometimes only the upper part of the bulwarks1 were visible4 ,if the hull had been invisible from the rotundity of the ,earth1 the following calculation will show that it should at all times have been #bd feet below the horizon3--,the distance of the light-ship from the pier is #h statute miles4 ,the elevation of the observer being #cb inches above the water1 would require #b miles to be deducted as the distance of the supposed convex horizon2 for the square of #b multiplied by #h inches 7the fall in the first mile of the ,earth's curvation7 equals #cb inches4 ,this deducted from the #h miles1 will leave #f miles as the distance from the horizon to the light ship4 ,hence #f #h in4 #bhh inches1 or #bd feet4 ,the top of the bulwarks1 it was said1 rose about #aj ft4 above the water line2 hence1 deducting #aj from #bd feet1 under all circumstances1 even had the water been perfectly smooth and stationary1 the top of the hull should have been #ad feet below the summit of the arc of water1 or beneath the line of sight6 ,this one fact is entirely fatal to the doctrine of the ,earth's rotundity4 ,but such facts have been observed in various other places--the north-west light-ship in ,liverpool ,bay1 and the light vessels of many other channels near the southern1 eastern1 and western shores of ,great ,britain4 ,from the beach of ,southsea ,common1 near ,portsmouth1 the observer lying down near the water1 above the surface of which the eye was #b feet1 and with a telescope looking across ,spithead to the quarantine ship lying in the 8,roads10 between ,ryde and ,cowes1 in the ,isle of ,wight1 a distance of #g miles1 the copper sheathing of that vessel was distinctly seen1 the depth of which was about #b feet4 ,making the usual calculation in accordance with the doctrine of the ,earth's convexity1 it will be seen that an arc of water ought to have existed between the two points1 the summit of which arc should have been #af feet above the copper sheathing of the vessel6 ,from an elevation of #b feet above the water opposite the ,royal ,yacht ,club ,house1 in ,west ,cowes1 ,isle of ,wight1 the pile work and promenade of the pier at ,stake's ,bay1 near ,gosport1 and nearly opposite ,osborne ,house1 were easily distinguished through various telescopes3 the distance is #g miles1 the altitude of the promenade #aj feet1 and the usual calculation will show that this pier ought to have been many feet below the horizon6 ,it is a well-known fact that the light of the ,eddystone lighthouse is often plainly visible from the beach in ,plymouth ,sound2 and sometimes1 when the sea is very calm1 persons can see it distinctly when sitting in ordinary rowing boats in that part of the ,sound which will allow the line of sight to pass between ,drake's ,island and the western end of the ,breakwater4 ,the distance is #ad statute miles4 ,in a list of lighthouses in a work called 8,the ,lighthouses of the ,world10 by ,a4 ,g4 ,findlay1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 published in #ahfb1 by ,richard ,h4 ,lawrie1 #ec1 ,fleet ,street1 ,london1 it is said1 at page #bh3--8;,in the ,tables the height of the flame above the highest tide high water level is given1 so that it is the minimum range of the light2 to this elevation #aj feet is added for the height of the deck of the ship above the sea4 ,besides the increased distance to which low water will cause the light to be seen1 the effect of refraction will also sometimes increase their range40 ,in the 8,tables0 above referred to1 at page #cf the ,eddystone light is said to be visible #ac miles4 ,but these #ac miles are nautical measure2 and as #c nautical miles equal #c statute miles1 the distance at which the ,eddystone light is visible is over #ae statute miles4 ,notwithstanding that the ,eddystone light is actually visible at a distance of #ae statute miles1 and admitted to be so both by the ,admiralty authorities and by calculation according to the doctrine of rotundity1 very often at the same distance1 the lantern is not visible at an elevation of #d feet from the water2 showing that the law of perspective1 previously referred to1 is greatly influenced by the state of the surface of the water over which the line of sight is directed4 ,a remarkable illustration of this influence is given in the ,western ,daily ,mercury1 published in ,plymouth1 of ,october #be1 #ahfd4 ,several discussions had previously taken place at the ,plymouth ,athenum and the ,devonport ,mechanics' ,institute1 on the true figure of the ,earth2 subsequent to which a committee was formed for the purpose of making experiments bearing on the question at issue4 ,the names of the gentlemen as given in the above-named journal were 8,parallax0 7the author of this work71 8,theta0 7,mr4 ,henry1 a teacher in ,her ,majesty's ,dock-yard1 ,devonport71 and ,messrs4 ,osborne1 ,richards1 ,rickard1 ,mogg1 ,evers1 and ,pearce1 all of ,plymouth4 ,from the report published as above stated1 the following quotation is made3--,observation #fth3 8,on the beach1 at #e feet from the water level1 the ,eddystone was entirely out of sight40 ,the matter may be summarized as follows3--,at any time when the sea is calm and the weather clear1 the ,light of the ,eddystone1 which is #hi feet above the foundation on the rock1 may be distinctly seen from an elevation of #e feet above the water level2 according to the ,admiralty directions1 it 8may be seen #ac nautical 7or #ae statute7 miles10#da or one mile still farther away than the position of the observers on the above-named occasion2 and yet on that occasion1 and at a distance of only #ad statute miles1 notwithstanding that it was a very fine autumn day1 and a clear back ground existed1 not only was the lantern1 which is #hi feet high1 not visible1 but the top of the vane1 which is #ajj feet above the foundation was1 as stated in the report1 8entirely out of sight40 #da 8,lighthouses of the ,world10 p4 #cf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,that vessels and lighthouses are sometimes more distinctly seen than at others2 and that the lower parts of such objects are sooner lost sight of when the sea is rough than when it is calm1 are items in the experience of seafaring people as common as their knowledge of the changes in the weather2 and prominence is only given here to the above case because it was verified by persons of different opinions upon the subject of the ,earth's form1 and in the presence of several hundreds of the most learned and respectable inhabitants of ,plymouth and the neighbourhood4 ,the conclusion which such observations necessitate and force upon us is1 that the law of perspective which is everywhere visible on land1 is modified when observed in connection with objects upon or near the sea4 ,but how modified8 ,if the water of the ocean were frozen and at perfect rest1 any object upon its surface would be seen as far as telescopic or magnifying power could be brought to bear upon it4 ,but because this is not the case--because the water is always more or less in motion1 not only of progression but of fluctuation1 the swells and waves1 into which the surface is broken operate to prevent the line of sight from passing parallel to the horizontal surface of the water4 ,it has been shown at pages #af to #bj1 and also at #be to #cc1 that the surface of the ,earth and ,sea appears to rise up to the level1 or altitude of the eye2 and that at a certain distance the line of sight and the surface which is parallel to it appear to converge to a 8vanishing point20 which point is 8the horizon40 ,if this horizon1 or vanishing point1 were formed by the apparent junction of two perfectly stationary parallel lines1 it could be penetrated by a telescope of sufficient power to magnify at the distance2 but because upon the sea the surface of the water is not stationary1 the line of sight at the vanishing point becomes angular instead of parallel1 and telescopic power is of little avail in restoring objects beyond this point4 ,the following diagram will render this clear3--,the horizontal line ,c ,d ,e and the line of sight ,a ,b are parallel to each other1 and appear to meet at the vanishing point ,b4 ,but at and about this point the line ,a ,b is intercepted by the undulating1 or fluctuating surface of the water2 the degree of which is variable1 being sometimes very great and at others inconsiderable1 and having to pass over the crest of the waves1 as at ,h1 is obliged to become ,a ,h1 instead of ,a ,b1 and will therefore fall upon a ship1 lighthouse1 or other object at the point ,s1 or higher or lower as such objects are more or less beyond the point ,h4 ,it is worthy of note that the waves at the point ,h1 whatever their real magnitude may be1 are magnified and rendered more obstructive by the very instrument--the telescope--which is employed to make the objects beyond more plainly visible3 and thus the phenomenon is often very strikingly observed--that while a powerful telescope will render the sails and rigging of a ship when beyond the point ,h1 or the optical horizon1 so distinct that the very ropes are easily distinguished1 not the slightest portion of the hull can be seen4 ,the 8crested waters0 form a barrier to the horizontal line-of-sight1 as substantial as would the summit of an intervening rock or island4 ,in the report which appeared in the ,western ,daily ,mercury1 of ,oct4 #be1 #ahfd1 the following observations were also recorded3--8,on the sea-front of the ,camera house1 and at an elevation of #aaj feet from the mean level of the sea1 a plane mirror was fixed1 by the aid of a plumb-line1 in a true vertical position4 ,in this mirror the distant horizon was distinctly visible on a level with the eye of the observer4 ,this was the simple fact1 as observed by the several members of the committee which had been appointed4 ,but some of the observers remarked that the line of the horizon in the mirror rose and fell with the eye1 as also did every thing else which was reflected1 and that this ought to be recorded as an addendum--granted4 ,the surface of the sea appeared to regularly ascend from the base of the ,hoe to the distant horizon4 ,the horizon from the extreme east to the west1 as far as the eye could see1 was parallel to a horizontal line40 ,the following version was recorded in the same journal1 of the same date1 and was furnished by one of the committee who had manifested a very marked aversion to the doctrine that the surface of all water is horizontal3--8,a vertical looking-glass was suspended from the ,camera and the horizon seen in it1 as well as various other objects reflected1 rising and falling with the eye4 ,the water was seen in the glass to ascend from the base of the ,hoe to the horizon4 ,the horizon appeared parallel to a horizontal line40 ,it will be observed that the two reports are substantially the same1 and very strongly corroborate the remarks made at pages #ae1 #af1 and #ag of this work4 ,indeed no other report could have been given without the author's becoming subject to the charge of glaring1 obstinate1 and wilful misrepresentation4 ,what then has again been demonstrated8 ,that the surface of all water is horizontal1 and that1 therefore1 the ,earth cannot possibly be anything other than a ,plane4 ,all appearances to the contrary have been shown to be purely optical and adventitious4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,another proof that the surface of all water is horizontal and that therefore the ,earth cannot be a globe is furnished by the following experiment1 which was made in ,may1 #ahfd1 on the new pier at ,southsea1 near ,portsmouth3--,a telescope was fixed upon a stand and directed across the water at ,spithead to the pier head at ,ryde1 in the ,isle of ,wight1 as shown in the subjoined diagram4 ,the line of sight crossed a certain part of the funnel of one of the regular steamers trading between ,portsmouth and the ,isle of ,wight2 and it was observed to cut or fall upon the same part during the whole of the passage to ,ryde ,pier1 thus proving that the water between the two piers is horizontal1 because it was parallel to the line of sight from the telescope fixed at ,southsea4 ,if the ,earth were a globe the channel between ,ryde and ,southsea would be an arc of a circle1 and as the distance across is #d statute miles the centre of the arc would be #dj inches higher than the two sides2 and the steamer would have ascended an inclined plane for #b miles1 or to the centre of the channel1 and afterwards descended for the same distance towards ,ryde4 ,this ascent and descent would have been marked by the line of sight falling #dj inches nearer to the deck of the steamer when on the centre of the arc of water1 as represented in the following diagram2 but as the line of sight did not cut the steamer lower down when in the centre of the channel1 and no such ascent and descent was observed1 it follows necessarily that the surface of the water between ,southsea and the ,isle of ,wight is not convex1 and therefore the ,earth as a whole is not a globe4 ,the evidence against the doctrine of the ,earth's rotundity is so clear and perfect1 and so completely fulfils the conditions required in special and independent investigations1 that it is impossible for any person who can put aside the bias of previous education to avoid the opposite conclusion that the ,earth is a plane4 ,this conclusion is greatly confirmed by the experience of mariners in regard to certain lighthouses4 ,where the light is fixed and very brilliant it can be seen at a distance1 which the present doctrine of the ,earth's rotundity would render altogether impossible4 ,for instance1 at page #ce of 8,lighthouses of the ,world10 the ,ryde ,pier ,light1 erected in #aheb1 is described as a bright fixed light1 #ba feet above high water1 and visible from an altitude of #aj feet at the distance of #ab nautical or #ad statute miles4 ,the altitude of #aj feet would place the horizon at the distance of #d statute miles from the observer4 ,the square of the remaining #aj statute miles multiplied by #h inches will give a fall or curvature downwards from the horizon of #ff feet4 ,deduct from this #ba feet1 the altitude of the light1 and we have #de feet as the amount which the light ought to be below the horizon6 ,by the same authority1 at page #ci1 the ,bidston ,hill ,lighthouse1 near ,liverpool1 is #bbh feet above high water1 one bright fixed light1 visible #bc nautical or very nearly #bg statute miles4 ,deducting #d miles for the height of the observer1 squaring the remaining #bc miles and multiplying that product by #h inches we have a downward curvature of #ceb feet2 from this deduct the altitude of the light1 #bbh feet1 and there remains #abd feet as the distance which the light should be below the horizon6 ,again1 at page #dj3--8,the lower light on the #8,calf of ,man' is #bhb feet above high water1 and is visible #bc nautical miles40 ,the usual calculation will show that it ought to be #gj feet below the horizon6 ,at page #da the ,cromer light is described as having an altitude of #bgd feet above high water1 and is visible #bc nautical miles1 whereas it ought to be at that distance #gh feet below the horizon6 ,at page #i it is said3--8,the coal fire 7which was once used7 on the ,spurn ,point ,lighthouse1 at the mouth of the ,humber1 which was constructed on a good principle for burning1 has been seen #cj miles off40 ,if the miles here given are nautical measure they would be equal to #ce statute miles4 ,deducting #d miles as the usual amount for the distance of the horizon1 there will remain #ca miles1 which squared and multiplied by #h inches will give #fdj feet as the declination of the water from the horizon to the base of the ,lighthouse1 the altitude of which is given at page #db as #ic feet above high water4 ,this amount deducted from the above #fdj feet will leave #edg feet as the distance which the ,spurn ,light ought to have been below the horizon6 ,the two ,high ,whitby ,lights are #bdj feet above high water 7see page #db71 and are visible #bc nautical miles at sea4 ,the proper calculation will be #ajb feet below the horizon6 ,at page #dc1 it is said that the ,lower ,farne ,island ,light is visible for #ab nautical or #ad statute miles1 and the height above high water is #de feet4 ,the usual calculation will show that this light ought to be #fg feet below the horizon6 ,the ,hekkengen ,light1 on the west coast of ,norway 7see page #ed71 is #ff feet above high water1 and visible #af statute miles4 ,it ought to be sunk beneath the horizon #cj feet6 ,the ,trondhjem ,light 7see p4 #ee71 on the ,ringholm ,rock1 west coast of ,norway1 is #ea feet high1 and is visible #af statute miles2 but ought to be #de feet below the horizon6 ,the ,rond ,light1 also on the west coast of ,norway 7see p4 #ee71 is #afa feet high1 and is visible for #be statute miles2 the proper calculation will prove that it ought to be above #acj feet below the horizon6 ,the ,eger ,light1 on west point of ,island1 south coast of ,norway 7see p4 #ef71 and which is fitted up with the first order of the dioptric lights1 is visible for #bh statute miles1 and the altitude above high water is #aed feet2 making the usual calculation we find this light ought to be depressed1 or sunk1 below the horizon #bcj feet6 ,the ,dunkerque ,light1 on the north coast of ,france 7see p4 #ga71 is #aid feet high1 and visible #bh statute miles4 ,the ordinary calculation will show that it ought to be #aij feet below the horizon6 ,the ,goulfar ,bay ,light1 on the west coast of ,france1 is said at page #gg1 to be visible #ca statute miles1 and to have an altitude at high water of #bgf feet1 at the distance given it ought to be #baj feet below the horizon6 ,at page #gh1 the ,cordonan ,light1 on the ,river ,gironde1 west coast of ,france1 is given as being visible #ca statute miles1 and its altitude #bjg feet1 which would give its depression below the horizon as nearly #bhj feet6 ,the ,light at ,madras 7p4 #ajd71 on the ,esplanade1 is #acb feet high1 and visible #bh statute miles1 whereas at that distance it ought to be beneath the horizon above #bej feet6 ,the ,port ,nicholson ,light1 in ,new ,zealand1 erected in #ahei 7p4 #aaj71 is visible #ce statute miles1 the altitude is #dbj feet above high water1 and ought1 if the water is convex1 to be #bbj feet below the horizon6 ,the ,light on ,cape ,bonavista1 ,newfoundland1 is #aej feet above high water1 and is visible #ce statute miles 7p4 #aaa71 this will give on calculation for the ,earth's rotundity1 #dia feet that the ,light should be below the horizon6 ,many other cases could be given from the same work1 shewing that the practical observations of mariners1 engineers1 and surveyors1 entirely ignore the doctrine that the ,earth is a globe4 ,the following cases taken from miscellaneous sources will be interesting as bearing upon and leading to the same conclusion4 ,in the ,illustrated ,london ,news of ,oct4 #bj1 #ahdi1 an engraving is given of a new ,lighthouse erected on the ,irish coast1 ,the accompanying descriptive matter contains the following sentence3--8,ballycotton ,island rises #agj feet above the level of the sea2 the height of the ,lighthouse is #fj feet including the ,lantern2 giving the light an elevation of #bcj feet1 which is visible upwards of #ce miles to sea40 ,if the #ce miles are nautical measure the distance in statute measure would be over #dj miles2 and allowing the usual distance for the horizon1 there would be #cf miles from thence to the ,lighthouse4 ,the square of #cf multiplied by #h inches amounts to #hfd feet2 deduct the total altitude of the ,lantern1 #bcj feet1 and the remainder1 #fcd feet1 is the distance which the ,light of ,ballycotton ought to be below the horizon6 ,in the ,times newspaper of ,monday1 ,oct4 #af1 #ahed1 in an account of her ,majesty's visit to ,great ,grimsby from ,hull1 the following paragraph occurs3--8,their attention was first naturally directed to a gigantic tower which rises from the centre pier to the height of #cjj feet1 and can be seen #fj miles out at sea40 ,the #fj miles if nautical1 and this is always understood when referring to distances at sea1 would make #gj statute miles1 to which the fall of #h inches belongs1 and as all observations at sea are considered to be made at an elevation of #aj feet above the water1 for which four miles must be deducted from the whole distance1 #ff statute miles will remain1 the square of which multiplied by #h inches1 gives a declination towards the tower of #b1ijd feet2 deducting from this the altitude of the tower1 #cjj feet1 we obtain the startling conclusion that the tower should be at the distance at which it is visible1 7#fj nautical miles17 more than #b1fjj feet below the horizon6 ,the only modification which can be made or allowed in the preceding calculations is that for refraction1 which is considered by surveyors generally to amount to about th of the altitude of the object observed4 ,if we make this allowance it will reduce the various quotients by th1 which is so little that the whole will be substantially the same4 ,take the last quotation as an instance--#b1fjj feet divided by #ab gives #bjf1 which deducted from #b1fjj leaves #b1chd as the corrected amount for refraction4 ,,section #ad4 ,,general ,,summary--,,application--,,cui ,,bono8 ,in the preceding sections it has been shown that the ,copernican1 or ,newtonian theory of ,astronomy is 8an absurd composition of truth and error20 and1 as admitted by its founder1 8not necessarily true or even probable10 and that instead of its being a general conclusion derived from known and admitted facts1 it is a heterogeneous compound of assumed premises1 isolated truths1 and variable appearances in nature4 ,its advocates are challenged to show a single instance wherein a phenomenon is explained1 a calculation made1 or a conclusion advanced without the aid of an avowed or implied assumption6 ,the very construction of a theory at all1 and especially such as the ,copernican1 is a complete violation of that natural and legitimate mode of investigation to which the term zetetic has been applied4 ,the doctrine of the universality of gravitation is an assumption1 made only in accordance with that 8pride and ambition which has led philosophers to think it beneath them to offer anything less to the world than a complete and finished system of nature40 ,it was said1 in effect1 by ,newton1 and has ever since been insisted upon by his disciples--8,allow us1 without proof1 the existence of two universal forces--centrifugal and centripetal1 or attraction and repulsion1 and we will construct a system which shall explain all the leading mysteries of nature4 ,an apple falling from a tree1 or a stone rolling downwards1 and a pail of water tied to a string set in rapid motion were assumed to be types of the relations existing among all the bodies in the universe4 ,the moon was assumed to have a tendency to fall towards the ,earth1 and the ,earth and ,moon together towards the ,sun4 ,the same relation was assumed to exist between all the smaller and larger luminaries in the firmament2 and it soon became necessary to extend this assumption to infinity4 ,the universe was parcelled out into systems--co-existent and illimitable4 ,suns1 ,planets1 ,satellites1 and ,comets were assumed to exist1 infinite in number and boundless in extent2 and to enable the theorists to explain the alternating and constantly recurring phenomena which were everywhere observable1 these numberless and for-ever-extending objects were assumed to be spheres4 ,the ,earth we inhabit was called a planet2 and because it was thought to be reasonable that the luminous objects in the firmament which were called planets were spherical and had motion1 so it was only reasonable to suppose that as the ,earth was a planet it must also be spherical and have motion--ergo1 the ,earth is a globe1 and moves upon axes and in an orbit round the ,sun6 ,and as the ,earth is a globe1 and is inhabited1 so again it is only reasonable to conclude that the planets are worlds like the ,earth1 and are inhabited by sentient beings6 ,what reasoning6 ,assumption upon assumption1 and the conclusion derived therefrom called a thing proved1 to be employed as a truth to substantiate the first assumption6 ,such a 8juggle and jumble0 of fancies and falsehoods1 extended and intensified as it is in theoretical astronomy1 is calculated to make the unprejudiced inquirer revolt in horror from the terrible conjuration which has been practised upon him2 to sternly resolve to resist its further progress2 to endeavour to overthrow the entire edifice1 and to bury in its ruins the false honours which have been associated with its fabricators1 and which still attach to its devotees4 ,for the learning1 the patience1 the perseverance1 and devotion for which they have ever been examples1 honour and applause need not be withheld2 but their false reasoning1 the advantages they have taken of the general ignorance of mankind in respect to astronomical subjects1 and the unfounded theories they have advanced and defended1 cannot but be regretted1 and ought to be resisted4 ,it has become a duty1 paramount and imperative1 to meet them in open1 avowed1 and unyielding rebellion2 to declare that their unopposed reign of error and confusion is over2 and that henceforth1 like a falling dynasty1 they must shrink and disappear1 leaving the throne and the kingdom to those awakening intellects whose numbers are constantly increasing1 and whose march is rapid and irresistible4 ,the soldiers of truth and reason have drawn the sword1 and ere another generation has been educated1 will have forced the usurper to abdicate4 ,the axe is lifted--it is falling1 and in a very few years will have 8cut the cumberer down40 ,the ,earth a ,globe1 and it is necessarily demanded that it has a diurnal and an annual and various other motions2 for a globular world without motion would be useless--day and night1 winter and summer1 the half year's light and darkness at the 8,north ,pole10 and other phenomena could not be explained by the supposition of rotundity without the assumption also of rapid and constant motion4 ,hence it is assumed that the ,earth and ,moon1 and all the ,planets and their ,satellites move in relation to each other1 and that the whole move together in different planes round the ,sun4 ,the ,sun and its 8system0 of revolving bodies are now assumed to have a general and all-inclusive motion1 in common with an endless series of other ,suns and systems1 around some other and 8central ,sun0 which has been assumed to be the true axis and centre of the ,universe6 ,these assumed general motions with the particular and peculiar motions which are assigned to the various bodies in detail1 together constitute a system so confused and complicated that it is almost impossible and always difficult of comprehension by the most active and devoted minds4 ,the most simple and direct experiments1 however1 may be shown to prove that the ,earth has no progressive motion whatever2 and here again the advocates of this interminable and entangling arrangement are challenged to produce a single instance of so called proofs of these motions which does not involve an assumption--often a glaring falsehood--but always a point which is not1 or cannot be demonstrated4 ,the magnitudes1 distances1 velocities1 and periodic times which these assumed motions eliminate1 are all glaringly fictitious1 because they are only such as a false theory creates a necessity for4 ,it is geometrically demonstrable that all the visible luminaries in the firmament are within a distance of a few thousand miles1 not more than the space which stretches between the ,north ,pole and the ,cape of ,good ,hope2 and the principle of measurement--that of plane triangulation--which demonstrates this important fact1 is one which no mathematician1 demanding to be considered a master in the science1 dare for a moment deny4 ,all these luminaries then1 and the ,sun itself1 being so near to us1 cannot be other than very small as compared with the ,earth we inhabit4 ,they are all in motion over the ,earth1 which is alone immoveable1 and therefore they cannot be anything more than secondary and subservient structures1 ministering to this fixed material world1 and to its inhabitants4 ,this is a plain1 simple1 and in every respect demonstrable philosophy1 agreeing with the evidence of our senses1 borne out by every fairly instituted experiment1 and never requiring a violation of those principles of investigation which the human mind has ever recognized1 and depended upon in its every day life4 ,the modern1 or ,newtonian ,astronomy1 has none of these characteristics4 ,the whole system taken together constitutes a most monstrous absurdity4 ,it is false in its foundation2 irregular1 unfair1 and illogical in its details2 and in its conclusions inconsistent and contradictory4 ,worse than all1 it is a prolific source of irreligion and of atheism1 of which its advocates are1 practically1 supporters6 ,by defending a system which is directly opposite to that which is taught in connection with all religions1 they lead the more critical and daring intellects to reject the scriptures altogether1 to ignore the worship1 and doubt and deny the existence of a ,supreme ,ruler of the world4 ,many of the primest minds are thus irreparably injured1 robbed of those present pleasures1 and that cheering hope of the future which the earnest christian devotee holds as of far greater value than all earthly wealth and grandeur2 or than the mastery of all the philosophical complications which the human mind ever invented4 ,the doctrine of the ,earth's rotundity and motion is now shown to be unconditionally false2 and therefore the scriptures which assert the contrary1 are1 in their philosophical teachings at least1 literally true4 ,in practical science therefore1 atheism and denial of scriptural authority have no foundation4 ,if human theories are cast aside1 and the facts of nature1 and legitimate reasoning alone depended upon1 it will be seen that religion and true philosophy are not antagonistic1 and that the hopes which both encourage may be fully relied upon4 ,to the religious mind this matter is most important1 it is indeed no less than a sacred question1 for it renders complete the evidence that the ,jewish and ,christian scriptures are true1 and must have been communicated to mankind by an anterior and supernal ,being4 ,for if after so many ages of mental struggling1 of speculation and trial1 and change and counterchange1 we have at length discovered that all astronomical theories are false1 that the ,earth is a plane1 and motionless1 and that the various luminaries above it are lights only and not worlds2 and that these very doctrines have been taught and recorded in a work which has been handed down to us from the earliest times2 from a time1 in fact1 when mankind could not have had sufficient experience to enable them to criticise and doubt1 much less to invent1 it follows that whoever dictated and caused such doctrines to be recorded and preserved to all future generations1 must have been superhuman1 omniscient1 and1 to the ,earth and its inhabitants pre-existent4 ,to the dogged ,atheist1 whose 8mind is made up0 not to enter into any further investigation1 and not to admit of possible error in his past conclusions1 this question is of no more account than it is to an ,ox4 ,he who cares not to re-examine from time to time his state of mind1 and the result of his accumulated experience is in no single respect better than the lowest animal in creation4 ,he may see nothing higher1 more noble1 more intelligent or beautiful than himself2 and in this his pride1 conceit1 and vanity find an incarnation4 ,to such a creature there is no ,god1 for he is himself an equal with the highest being he has ever recognised6 ,such ,atheism exists to an alarming extent among the philosophers of ,europe and ,america2 and it has been mainly fostered by the astronomical and geological theories of the day4 ,besides which1 in consequence of the differences between the language of ,scripture and the teachings of modern ,astronomy1 there is to be found in the very hearts of ,christian and ,jewish congregations a sort of 8smouldering scepticism20 kind of faint suspicion which causes great numbers to manifest a cold and visible indifference to religious requirements4 ,it is this which has led thousands to desert the cause of earnest1 active ,christianity1 and which has forced the majority of those who still remain in the ranks of religion to declare 8that the ,scriptures were not intended to teach correctly other than moral and religious doctrines2 that the references so often made to the physical world1 and to natural phenomena generally1 are given in language to suit the prevailing notions and the ignorance of the people40 ,a ,christian philosopher who wrote almost a century ago in reference to remarks similar to the above1 says1 8,why should we suspect that ,moses1 ,joshua1 ,david1 ,solomon1 and the later prophets and inspired writers have counterfeited their sentiments concerning the order of the universe1 from pure complaisance1 or being in any way obliged to dissemble with a view to gratify the prepossessions of the populace8 ,these eminent men being kings1 lawgivers1 and generals themselves1 or always privileged with access to the courts of sovereign princes1 besides the reverence and awful dignity which the power of divination and working of miracles procured to them1 had great worldly and spiritual authority4444 ,they had often in charge to command1 suspend1 revert1 and otherwise interfere with the course and laws of nature1 and were never daunted to speak out the truth before the most mighty potentates on earth1 much less would they be overawed by the vox populi40 ,to say that the ,scriptures were not intended to teach science truthfully1 is in substance to declare that ,god himself has stated1 and commissioned ,his prophets to teach things which are utterly false6 ,those ,newtonian philosophers who still hold that the sacred volume is the ,word of ,god1 are thus placed in a fearful dilemma4 ,how can the two systems1 so directly opposite in character1 be reconciled8 ,oil and water alone will not combine--mix them by violence as we may1 they will again separate when allowed to rest4 ,call oil oil1 and water water1 and acknowledge them to be distinct in nature and value2 but let no 8hodge-podge0 be attempted1 and passed off as a genuine compound of oil and water4 ,call ,scripture the ,word of ,god--the ,creator and ,ruler of all things1 and the ,fountain of all ,truth2 and call the ,newtonian or ,copernican ,astronomy the word and work of man1 of man1 too1 in his vainest mood--so vain and conceited as not to be content with the direct and simple teachings of his ,maker1 but who must rise up in rebellion and conjure into existence a fanciful complicated fabric1 which being insisted upon as true1 creates and necessitates the dark and horrible interrogatives--,is ,god a deceiver8 ,has ,he spoken direct and unequivocal falsehood8 ,can we no longer indulge in the beautiful and consoling thought that ,god's justice1 and love1 and truth are unchanging and reliable for ever8 ,let ,christians--for ,sceptics and ,atheists may be left out of the question--to whatever division of the ,church they belong1 look at this matter calmly and earnestly4 ,let them determine to uproot the deception which has led them to think that they can altogether ignore the plainest astronomical teaching of ,scripture1 and endorse a system to which it is in every sense opposed4 ,the following language is quoted as an instance of the manner in which the doctrine of the ,earth's rotundity and the plurality of worlds interferes with ,scriptural teachings3--8,the theory of original sin is confuted 7by our astronomical and geological knowledge71 and ,i cannot permit the belief1 when ,i know that our world is but a mere speck1 a perishable atom in the vast space of creation1 that ,god should just select this little spot to descend upon and assume our form1 and clothe ,himself in our flesh1 to become visible to human eyes1 to the tiny beings of this comparatively insignificant world4444 ,thus millions of distant worlds1 with the beings allotted to them1 were to be extirpated and destroyed in consequence of the original sin of ,adam4 ,no sentiment of the human mind can surely be more derogatory to the ,divine attributes of the ,creator1 nor more repugnant to the known economy of the celestial bodies4 ,for in the first place1 who is to say1 among the infinity of worlds1 whether ,adam was the only creature who was tempted by ,satan and fell1 and by his fall involved all the other worlds in his guilt40#db #db ,encyclopdia ,londenensis1 p4 #deg1 vol4 #b4 ,the difficulty experienced by the author of the above remarks is clearly one which can no longer exist1 when it is seen that the doctrine of a plurality of worlds is an impossibility4 ,that it is an impossibility is shown by the fact that the ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,stars are very small bodies1 and very near to the earth2 this fact is proved by actual non-theoretical measurement2 this measurement is made on the principle of plane trigonometry3 this principle of plane trigonometry is adopted because the ,earth is a ,plane2 and all the base lines employed in the triangulation are horizontal4 ,by the same practical method of reasoning1 all the difficulties which1 upon geological and astronomical grounds1 have been raised to the literal teachings of the scriptures1 may be completely destroyed4 ,instances3--,the scriptures repeatedly declare that the ,sun moves over the ,earth--8,his going forth is from the end of the heaven1 and his circuit unto the ends of it40 8,he ariseth and goeth down1 and hasteth to his place whence he arose40 8,the sun stood still in the midst of heaven40 8,great is the ,earth1 high is the heaven1 swift is the ,sun in his course40 ,in the religious poems of all ages the same fact is presented4 ,christians especially1 of every denomination1 are familiar with1 and often read and sing with delight such poetry as the following3-- 8,my ,god who makes the ,sun to know ,his proper hour to rise1 ,and to give light to all below ,doth send him round the skies40 8,when from the chambers of the east ,his morning race begins1 ,he never tires nor stops to rest1 ,but round the world he shines40 8,god of the morning1 at whose voice1 ,the cheerful sun makes haste to rise1 ,and1 like a giant1 doth rejoice1 ,to run his journey through the skies40 8,he sends the sun his circuit round1 ,to cheer the fruits and warm the ground40 8,how fair has the day been6 ,how bright was the ,sun6 ,how lovely and joyful ,the course that he run40 ,all the expressions of scripture are consistent with the fact of the ,sun's motion4 ,they never declare anything to the contrary4 ,whenever they speak of the subject it is in the same manner4 ,the direct evidence of our senses confirms it2 and actual and special observations1 as well as the most practical scientific experiments1 declare the same thing4 ,the progressive and concentric motion of the ,sun over the ,earth is in every sense demonstrable2 yet the ,newtonian astronomers insist upon it that the ,sun does not really move1 that it only appears to move1 and that this appearance arises from the motion of the ,earth2 that when1 as the scriptures affirm1 the 8,sun stood still in the midst of heaven10 it was the ,earth which stood still and not the ,sun6 that the scriptures therefore speak falsely1 and the experiments of science1 and the observations and applications of our senses are never to be relied upon4 ,whence comes this bold and arrogant denial of the value of our senses and judgement1 and the authority of scripture8 ,the ,earth or the ,sun moves4 ,our senses tell us1 and the scriptures declare that the ,earth is fixed and that it is the ,sun which moves above and around it2 but a theory1 which is absolutely false in its groundwork1 and ridiculously illogical in its details1 demands that the ,earth is round and moves upon axes1 and in several other and various directions2 and that these motions are sufficient to account for certain phenomena without supposing that the ,sun moves1 therefore the ,sun is a fixed body1 and his motion is only apparent6 ,such reasoning is a disgrace to philosophy1 and fearfully dangerous to the religious interests of humanity6 ,christian ministers and commentators find it a most unwelcome task when called upon to reconcile the plain and simple philosophy of the scriptures with the monstrous teachings of theoretical astronomy4 ,dr4 ,adam ,clark1 in a letter to the ,rev4 ,thomas ,roberts1 of ,bath1#dc speaking of the progress of his commentary1 and of his endeavours to reconcile the statements of scripture with the modern astronomy1 says3 8,joshua's ,sun and ,moon standing still1 have kept me going for nearly three weeks6 ,that one chapter has afforded me more vexation than anything ,i have ever met with2 and even now ,i am but about half satisfied with my own solution of all the difficulties1 though ,i am confident that ,i have removed mountains that were never touched before2 shall ,i say that ,i am heartily weary of my work1 so weary that ,i have a thousand times wished ,i had never written one page of it1 and am repeatedly purposing to give it up40 #dc ,life of ,adam ,clark1 #hvo ,edition4 ,the ,rev4 ,john ,wesley1 in his journal1 writes as follows3--8,the more ,i consider them the more ,i doubt of all systems of astronomy4 ,i doubt whether we can with certainty know either the distance or magnitude of any star in the firmament2 else why do astronomers so immensely differ1 even with regard to the distance of the ,sun from the ,earth8 ,some affirming it to be only three and others ninety millions of miles40#dd #dd ,extracts from works of ,rev4 ,j4 ,wesley1 #crd ,edition1 #ahbi4 ,published by ,mason1 ,london1 p4 #cib1 vol4 #b4 ,in vol4 #c1 page #bjc1 the following entry occurs3--8,january #ast1 #agfe4--,this week ,i wrote an answer to a warm letter published in the ,london ,magazine1 the author whereof is much displeased that ,i presume to doubt of the #8modern astronomy4' ,i cannot help it4 ,nay1 the more ,i consider the more my doubts increase2 so that at present ,i doubt whether any man on earth knows either the distance or magnitude1 ,i will not say of a fixed ,star1 but ,saturn or ,jupiter--yea of the ,sun or ,moon40 ,in vol4 #ac1 page #cei1 he says3--8,and so the whole hypothesis of innumerable ,suns and worlds moving round them vanishes into air40 ,and again at page #dcj of same volume1 the following words occur3--8,the planets revolutions we are acquainted with1 but who is able to this day1 regularly to demonstrate either their magnitude or their distance8 ,unless he will prove1 as is the usual way1 the magnitude from the distance1 and the distance from the magnitude4 99 99 99 ,dr4 ,rogers has evidently demonstrated that no conjunction of the centrifugal and centripetal forces can possibly account for this1 or even cause any body to move in an ellipsis40 ,there are several other incidental remarks to be found in his writings which shew that the ,rev4 ,john ,wesley was well acquainted with the then modern astronomy2 and that he saw clearly both its self-contradictory and its anti-scriptural character4 ,it is a very popular idea among modern astronomers that the stellar universe is an endless congeries of systems1 of ,suns and attendant worlds peopled with sentient beings analogous in the purpose and destiny of their existence to the inhabitants of this earth4 ,this doctrine of a plurality of worlds1 although it conveys the most magnificent ideas of the universe1 is purely fanciful1 and may be compared to the 8dreams of the alchemists0 who laboured with unheard of enthusiasm to discover the 8philosopher's stone10 the elixir vit1 and the 8universal solvent40 ,however grand the first two projects might have been in their realisation1 it is known that they were never developed in a practical sense1 and the latter idea of a solvent which would dissolve everything was suddenly and unexpectedly destroyed by the few remarks of a simple but critical observer1 who demanded to know what service a substance would be to them which would dissolve all things8 ,what could they keep it in8 for it would dissolve every vessel wherein they sought to preserve it6 ,this idea of a plurality of worlds is but a natural and reasonable conclusion drawn from the doctrine of the ,earth's rotundity4 ,but this doctrine being false its off shoot is equally so4 ,the supposition that the heavenly bodies are ,suns and inhabited worlds is demonstrably impossible in nature1 and has no foundation whatever in ,scripture4 8,in the beginning ,god created the ,heaven and the ,earth40 ,one ,earth only is created2 and the fact is more especially described in ,genesis1 ch4 i41 v4 #aj4 ,where1 instead of the word 8,earth0 meaning both land and water as together forming a globe1 as it does in the ,newtonian astronomy1 only the dry land was called earth10 and 8the gathering together of the waters called ,he seas40 ,the ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,stars are described as lights only and not worlds4 ,a great number of passages might be quoted which prove that no other material world is ever in the slightest manner referred to by the sacred writers4 ,the creation of the world2 the origin of evil1 and the fall of man2 the plan of redemption by the death of ,christ2 the day of judgement1 and the final consummation of all things are invariably associated with this ,earth alone4 ,the expression in ,hebrews1 ch4 i41 v4 #b1 8by whom also he made the worlds10 and in ,heb41 ch4 ii41 v4 #c1 8through faith we understand that the worlds were framed10 are known to be a comparatively recent rendering from the original ,greek documents4 ,the word which has been translated worlds is fully as capable of being rendered in the singular number as the plural2 and previous to the introduction of the ,copernican ,astronomy was always translated 8the world40 ,the ,roman ,catholic and the ,french ,protestant ,bibles still contain the singular number2 and in a copy of an ,english ,protestant ,bible printed in the year #afjh1 the following translation is given3--8,through faith we understand that the world was ordained40 ,so that either the plural expression 8worlds0 was used in later translations to accord with the astronomical notions then recently introduced1 or it was meant to include the ,earth and the spiritual world1 as referred to in3-- ,hebrews ii41 #e--8;,for unto angels hath he not put into subjection the world to come40 ,ephesians i41 #ba--8;,far above all principality and power1 and might1 and dominion1 and every name that is named not only in this world1 but also in that which is to come40 ,luke xviii41 #bi1 #cj--8,there is no man that hath left house1 or parents1 or brethren1 or wife1 or children1 for the kingdom of ,god's sake1 who shall not receive manifold more in this present time1 and in the world to come life everlasting40 ,matthew xii41 #cb--8,whosoever speaketh against the ,holy ,ghost1 it shall not be forgiven him1 neither in this world neither in the world to come40 ,the ,scriptures teach that in the day of the ,lord 8the ,heavens shall pass away with a great noise1 and the elements shall melt with fervent heat10 and the 8stars of ,heaven fall unto the ,earth even as a fig tree casteth her untimely figs when shaken of a mighty wind40 ,the ,newtonian system of astronomy declares that the stars and planets are mighty worlds--nearly all of them much larger than this ,earth4 ,the fixed stars are considered to be suns1 equal to if not greater than our own sun1 which is said to be above #hjj1jjj miles in diameter4 ,all this is proveably false1 but to those who have been led to believe it1 the difficult question arises1--8,how can thousands of stars fall upon the ,earth1 which is many times less than any one of them80 ,how can the ,earth with a supposed diameter of #hjjj miles receive the numerous suns of the firmament many of which are said to be a million miles in diameter8 ,these stars are assumed to have positions so far from the ,earth that the distance is almost inexpressible2 figures indeed may be arranged on paper but in reading them no practical idea is conveyed to the mind4 ,many of them are said to be so distant that should they fall with the velocity of light or above one hundred and sixty thousand miles in a second1 or six hundred millions of miles per hour1 they would require nearly two millions of years to reach the ,earth6 ,sir ,william ,herschel in a paper on 8,the power of telescopes to penetrate into space10 published in the ,philosophical ,transactions for the year #ahjj1 affirms1 that with his powerful instruments he discovered brilliant luminaries so far from the ,earth that the light from them 8could not have been less than one million nine hundred thousand years in its progress40 ,again the difficulty presents itself--8,if the stars of ,heaven begin to fall to-day1 and with the greatest imaginable velocity1 millions of years must elapse before they reach the ,earth60 ,but the ,scriptures declare that these changes shall occur suddenly--shall come1 indeed1 8as a thief in the night40 ,the same theory1 with its false and inconceivable distances and magnitudes1 operates to destroy all the ordinary1 common sense1 and scripturally authorised chronology4 ,christian and ,jewish commentators1 unless astronomically educated1 hold and teach that the ,earth1 as well as the ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,stars1 were created about #d1jjj years before the birth of ,christ1 or less than #f1jjj years before the present time4 ,but if many of these luminaries are so distant that their light would require above a million of years to reach us2 and if1 as we are taught1 bodies are visible to us because of the light which they reflect or radiate1 then their light has reached us1 because we have been able to see them1 and therefore they must have been shining1 and must have been created at least one million nine hundred thousand years ago6 ,the chronology of the bible indicates that a period of six thousand years has not yet elapsed since 8the ,heavens and the ,earth were finished1 and all the ,host of them40 ,in the modern astronomy1 ,continents1 ,oceans1 ,seas1 and ,islands1 are considered as together forming one vast ,globe of #be1jjj miles in circumference4 ,this has been shown to be fallacious1 and it is clearly contrary to the plain1 literal teaching of the scriptures4 ,in the first chapter of ,genesis1 we find the following language3 8and ,god said let the waters under the heaven be gathered unto one place1 and let the dry land appear2 and it was so4 ,and ,god called the dry land ,earth1 and the gathering together of the waters called ,he ,seas40 ,here the ,earth and ,seas--,earth and the great body of waters1 are described as two distinct and independent regions1 and not as together forming one ,globe which astronomers call 8the ,earth40 ,this description is confirmed by several other passages of scripture4 #b ,peter1 iii41 #e--8;,for this they willingly are ignorant of1 that by the ,word of ,god the ,heavens were of old1 and the ,earth standing out of the waters and in the waters40 ,psalms cxxxvi41 #f--8,o give thanks to the ,lord of ,lords1 that by wisdom made the heavens1 and that stretchet out the earth above the waters40 ,psalms xxiv41 #a1 #b--8,the earth is the ,lord's and the fulness thereof2 the world and they that dwell therein3 for he hath founded it upon the seas1 and established it upon the floods40 ,hermes 7,new ,testament ,apocrypha7--8,who with the word of his strength fixed the heaven2 and founded the earth upon the waters40 ,job xxvi41 #g--8;,he stretcheth out the north over the empty place1 and hangeth the ,earth upon nothing40 ,some think that the latter part of this verse1 8hangeth the ,earth upon nothing10 favours the idea that the ,earth is a globe revolving in space without visible support2 but ,dr4 ,adam ,clark1 although himself a ,newtonian philosopher1 says1 in his commentary upon this passage in ,job1 the literal translation is1 8on the hollow or empty waste10 and he quotes a ,chaldee version of the passage which runs as follows3 8,he layeth the ,earth upon the waters nothing sustaining it40 ,it is not that ,he 8hangeth the ,earth upon nothing10 but 8hangeth or layeth it upon the waters0 which were empty or waste1 and where before there was nothing4 ,this is in strict accordance with the other expressions1 that 8the ,earth was founded upon the waters10 c41 and also with the expression in ,genesis1 8that the face of the deep was covered only with darkness40 ,if the ,earth were a globe1 it is evident that everywhere the water of its surface1 the seas1 lakes1 oceans1 and rivers1 must be sustained the land1 the ,earth must be under the water2 but if the land and the waters are distinct1 and the ,earth is 8founded upon the seas10 then everywhere the sea must sustain the land as it does a ship or any other floating mass1 and there is water below the earth4 ,in this particular as in all the others1 the scriptures are beautifully sequential and consistent3-- ,exodus xx1 #d--8,thou shalt not make unto thee any likeness of anything in heaven above or in the ,earth beneath1 or in the waters under the ,earth40 ,genesis xliv1 #be--8,the ,almighty shall bless thee with the blessings of heaven above1 and blessings of the deep that lieth under40 ,deut4 xxxiii1 #ac--8;,blessed be his land1 for the precious things of heaven2 for the dew2 and for the deep which couched beneath40 ,deut4 iv1 #ah--8,take ye therefore good heed unto yourselves1 and make no similitude of anything on the ,earth1 or the likeness of anything that is in the waters beneath the ,earth40 ,the same idea prevailed among the ancients generally4 ,in ,ovid's ,metamorphoses1 ,jupiter1 in an assembly of the gods1 is made to say1 8,i swear by the infernal waves which glide under the ,earth40 ,if the earth is a distinct structure standing in and upon the waters of the 8great deep10 it follows that1 unless it can be shown that something else sustains the waters1 that the depth is fathomless4 ,as there is no evidence whatever of anything existing underneath the 8great deep10 and as in many parts of the ,atlantic and ,pacific ,oceans no bottom has been found by the most scientific and efficient means which human ingenuity could invent1 we are forced to the conclusion that the depth is boundless4 ,this conclusion is again confirmed by the scriptures4 ,jeremiah xxxi1 #cg--8,thus saith the ,lord1 which giveth the sun for a light by day1 and the ordinances of the moon and of the stars for a light by night1 which divideth the sea when the waves thereof roar1 the ,lord of ,hosts is ,his name4 ,if these ordinances depart from before me1 saith the ,lord1 then the seed of ,israel also shall cease from being a nation before me for ever4 ,thus saith the ,lord3 if heaven above can be measured1 and the foundations of the ,earth searched out beneath1 ,i will also cast off all the seed of ,israel40 ,from the above it will be seen that ,god's promises to his people could no more be broken than could the height of heaven1 or the depths of the ,earth's foundations be searched out4 ,the fathomless deep beneath--upon which the ,earth is founded1 and the infinitude of heaven above1 are here given as emblems of the boundlessness of ,god's power1 and of the certainty that all his ordinances will be fulfilled4 ,when ,god's power can be limited1 heaven above will no longer be infinite2 and the mighty waters1 the foundations of the earth may be fathomed4 ,but the scriptures plainly teach us that the power and wisdom of ,god1 the heights of ,heaven1 and the depths of the waters under the ,earth are alike unfathomable2 and no true philosophy ever avers1 nor ever did nor ever can aver1 a single fact to the contrary4 ,in all the religions of the ,earth the words 8up0 and 8above0 are associated with a region of peace and happiness4 ,heaven is always spoken of as above the ,earth4 ,the scriptures invariable convey the same idea3-- ,deut4 xxvi41 #ae--8,look down from ,thy holy habitation1 from ,heaven1 and bless ,thy people ,israel40 ,exodus xix41 #bj--8;,and the ,lord came down upon ,mount ,sinai40 ,psalm cii41 #ai--8;,for he hath looked down from the height of his sanctuary3 from ,heaven did the ,lord behold the ,earth40 ,isaiah lxiii41 #ae--8,look down from ,heaven1 and behold from the habitation of ,thy holiness and of ,thy glory40 ,psalm ciii41 #aa--8;,for as the ,heaven is high above the ,earth40 #b ,kings ii41 #aa--8;,and ,elijah went up by a whirlwind into ,heaven40 ,mark xvi41 #aj--8,so then after the ,lord had spoken unto them he was received up into ,heaven40 ,luke xxiv41 #ea--8;,and it came to pass1 while ,he blessed them1 ,he was parted from them1 and carried up into ,heaven40 ,if the ,earth is a globe revolving at the rate of above a thousand miles an hour all this language of scripture is necessarily fallacious4 ,the terms 8up0 and 8down10 and 8above0 and 8below10 are words without meaning1 at best are merely relative--indicative of no absolute or certain direction4 ,that which is 8up0 at noon-day1 is directly 8down0 at midnight4 ,heaven can only be spoken of as 8above10 and the scriptures can only be read correctly for a single moment out of the twenty-four hours2 for before the sentence 8,heaven is high above the ,earth0 could be uttered1 the speaker would be descending from the meridian where ,heaven was above him1 and his eye although unmoved would be fixed upon a point millions of miles away from his first position4 ,hence in all the ceremonials of religion1 where the hands and eyes are raised upwards to ,heaven1 nay when ,christ himself 8lifted up his eyes to ,heaven and said1 ,father1 the hour is come10 his gaze would be sweeping along the firmament at rapidly varying angles1 and with such incomprehensible velocity that a fixed point of observation1 and a definite position1 as indicating the seat or throne of 8,him that sitteth in the ,heavens0 would be an impossibility4 ,again3 the religious world have always believed and meditated upon the word 8,heaven0 as representing an infinite region of joy and safety1 of rest and happiness unspeakable2 as 8the place of ,god's residence1 the dwelling place of angels and the blessed2 the true palace of ,god1 entirely separated from the impurities and imperfections1 the alterations and changes of the lower world2 where ,he reigns in eternal peace4 99 99 ,it is the sacred mansion of light1 and joy1 and glory4#de0 ,but if there is a plurality of worlds1 millions upon millions1 nay1 an 8infinity of worlds10 if the universe is filled with innumerable systems of burning suns1 and rapidly revolving planets1 intermingled with rushing comets and whirling satellites1 all dashing and sweeping through space in directions1 and with velocities surpassing all human comprehension1 and terrible even to contemplate1 where is the place of rest and safety8 ,where is the true and unchangeable 8palace of ,god80 ,in what direction is ,heaven to be found8 ,where is the liberated human soul to find its home--its refuge from change and motion1 from uncertainty and danger8 ,is it to wander for ever in a labyrinth of rolling worlds8 ,to struggle for ever in a never ending maze of revolving suns and systems8 ,to be never at rest1 but for ever seeking to avoid some vortex of attraction--some whirlpool of gravitation8 ,the belief in the existence of ,heaven1 as a region of peace and harmony 8extending 7above the ,earth7 through all extent10 and beyond the influence of natural laws and restless elements1 is jeopardised1 if not destroyed1 by a false and usurping astronomy1 which has no better foundation than human conceit and presumption4 ,if this ill-founded1 unsupported philosophy is admitted by the religious mind1 it can no longer say that-- 8,far above the sun1 and stars1 and skies1 ,in realms of endless light and love1 ,my ,father's mansion lies40 #de ,cruden's ,concordance1 article 8,heaven40 ,the modern theoretical astronomy affirms that the ,moon is a solid opaque1 non-luminous body2 that it is1 in fact1 nothing less than a material world4 ,it has even been mapped out into continents1 islands1 seas1 lakes1 volcanoes1 c41 c4 ,the nature of its atmosphere and character of its productions and possible inhabitants have been discussed with as much freedom as though our philosophers were quite as familiar with it as they are with the different objects and localities upon ,earth4 ,the light1 too1 with which the ,moon so beautifully illuminates the firmament is declared to be only borrowed--to be only the light of the ,sun intercepted and reflected upon the ,earth4 ,these doctrines are not only opposed by a formidable array of well-ascertained facts 7as given in previous sections71 but they are totally denied by the scriptures4 ,the ,sun and ,moon and ,stars are never referred to as worlds1 but simply as lights to rule alternately in the firmament4 ,genesis i41 #ad1 #af--8;,and ,god said let there be lights in the firmament of the ,heaven to divide the day from the night4 99 99 99 ,and ,god made two great lights--the greater light to rule the day1 and the lesser light to rule the night40 ,psalm cxxxvi41 #g1 #i--8,o give thanks to ,him that made great lights3 the ,sun to rule by day1 the ,moon and ,stars to rule by night40 ,jeremiah1 xxxi41 #ce--8,the ,sun is given for a light by day1 and the ordinances of the ,moon and of the ,stars for a light by night40 ,ezekiel1 xxxii41 #g1 #h--8;,i will cover the ,sun with a cloud2 and the ,moon shall not give her light40 8,all the bright lights of ,heaven will ,i make dark over thee40 ,psalm cxlviii41 #c--8,praise him ,sun and ,moon1 praise him all ye ,stars of light40 ,isaiah xiii41 #aj--8,the ,sun shall be darkened in his going forth1 and the ,moon shall not cause her light to shine40 ,matthew xxiv41 #bi--8;,immediately after the tribulation of those days shall the ,sun be darkened1 and the ,moon shall not give her light40 ,isaiah ix41 #ai1 #bj--8,the ,sun shall be no more thy light by day2 neither for brightness shall the ,moon give light unto thee4 99 99 ,thy ,sun shall no more go down2 neither shall thy ,moon withdraw itself40 ,psalm cxxxvi41 #g to #i--8,to him that made great lights1 the ,sun to rule by day1 the ,moon and ,stars to rule by night40 ,job xxv41 #e--8;,behold even to the ,moon1 and it shineth not40 ,ecclesiastes xii41 #b--8,while the ,sun1 or the light1 or the ,moon1 or the ,stars be not darkened40 ,isaiah xxx41 #bf--8,the light of the ,moon shall be as the light of the ,sun2 and the light of the ,sun shall be sevenfold40 ,deuteronomy xxxiii41 #ad--8;,and for the precious fruits brought forth by the ,sun1 and for the precious things put forth by the ,moon40 ,in the very first of the passages above quoted the doctrine is enunciated that various distinct and independent lights were created4 ,but that two great lights were specially called into existence for the purpose of ruling the day and the night4 ,the ,sun and the ,moon are declared to be these great and alternately ruling lights4 ,nothing is here said1 nor is it in any other part of scripture said1 that the ,sun is a great light1 and that the ,moon shines only by reflection4 ,the ,sun is called the 8greater light to rule the day10 and the ,moon the 8lesser light to rule the night40 ,although of these two 8great lights0 one is less than the other1 each is declared to shine with its own light4 ,hence in ,deuteronomy1 c4 #cc1 v4 #ad1 it is affirmed that certain fruits are specially brought forth by the influence of the ,sun's light1 and that certain other productions are 8put forth by the ,moon40 ,that the light of the sun is influential in encouraging the growth of certain natural products2 and that the light of the ,moon has a distinct influence in promoting the increase of certain other natural substances1 is a matter well known to those who are familiar with horticultural and agricultural phenomena2 and it is abundantly proved by chemical evidence that the two lights are distinct in character and in action upon various elements4 ,this distinction is beautifully preserved throughout the sacred scriptures4 ,in no single instance are the two lights confounded4 ,on the contrary1 in the ,new ,testament1 ,st4 ,paul affirms with authority1 that 8there is one glory of the ,sun1 and another glory of the ,moon1 and another glory of the ,stars40 ,the same fact of the difference in the two lights1 and their independence of each other is maintained in the scriptures to the last4 8,the ,sun became black as sackcloth of hair1 and the ,moon became as blood40 ,if the ,moon is only a reflector1 the moment the ,sun becomes black her surface will be blackened also1 and not remain as blood1 while the ,sun is dark and black as sackcloth of hair6 ,again3 the modern system of astronomy teaches that this earth cannot possibly receive light from the ,stars1 because of their supposed great distance from it3 that the fixed ,stars are only burning spheres1 or ,sun's to their own systems of planets and satellites3 and that their light terminates1 or no longer produces an active luminosity at the distance of nearly two thousand millions of miles4 ,here again the scriptures affirm the contrary doctrine4 ,genesis i41 #af-ag--8;,he made the ,stars also2 and ,god set them in the firmament to give light upon the earth40 ,isaiah xiii41 #aj--8;,for the ,stars of ,heaven and the constellations thereof shall not give their light40 ,ezekiel xxxii41 #g--8;,i will cover the ,heaven1 and make the ,stars thereof dark40 ,joel ii41 #aj--8,the ,sun and the ,moon shall be dark1 and the ,stars shall withdraw their shining40 ,psalm cxlviii41 #c--8,praise him ,sun and ,moon3 promise him all ye ,stars of ,light40 ,jeremiah xxxi41 #ce--8,thus saith the ,lord1 which giveth the ,sun for a light by day2 and the ordinances of the ,moon and of the ,stars for a light by night40 ,daniel xii41 #c--8,they that turn many to righteousness shall shine as the ,stars for ever and ever40 ,these quotations place it beyond doubt that the ,stars were made expressly to shine in the firmament1 and 8to give light upon the ,earth40 ,in addition to this language of scripture1 we have the evidence of our own eyes that the ,stars give abundant light4 8,what beautiful star-light60 is a common expression3 and we all remember the difference between a dark and starless night1 and one when the firmament is as it were studded with brilliant luminaries4 ,travellers inform us that in many parts of the world1 where the sky is clear and free from clouds and vapours for weeks together1 the ,stars appear both larger and brighter than they do in ,england2 and that their light is sufficiently intense to enable them to read and write1 and to travel with safety through the most dangerous places4 ,if it be true that the ,stars and the ,planets are not simply lights1 as the scriptures affirm them to be1 but magnificent worlds1 for the most part much larger than this earth1 then it is a very proper question to ask--8are they inhabited80 ,if the answer be in the affirmative1 it is equally proper to inquire 8have the first parents in each world been tempted80 ,if so1 8have they fallen80 if so1 8,have they required redemption80 ,and 8have they been redeemed80 8,has each world had a separate ,redeemer8 or has ,christ been the ,redeemer for every world in the universe80 ,and if so1 8did ,his suffering and crucifixion on this ,earth suffice for the redemption of the fallen inhabitants of all other worlds8 ,or had ,he to suffer and die in each world successively8 ,did the fall of ,adam in this world involve in his guilt the inhabitants of all other worlds8 ,or was the baneful influence of ,satan confined to the first parents of this ,earth8 ,if so1 why so8 and if not1 why not8 ,but1 and if1 and why1 and again--but it is useless thus to ponder6 ,the ,christian philosopher must be confounded6 ,if his religion be to him a living reality1 he will turn with loathing or spurn with indignation and disgust1 as he would a poisonous reptile1 a system of astronomy which creates in his mind so much confusion and uncertainty6 ,but as the system which necessitates such doubts and difficulties has been shown to be purely theoretical2 and to have not the slightest foundation in fact1 the religious mind has really no cause for apprehension4 ,not a shadow of doubt remains that this ,world is the only one created2 that the sacred ,scriptures contain1 in addition to religious and moral doctrines1 a true and consistent philosophy2 that they were written for the good of mankind1 at the direct instigation of ,god himself2 and that all their teachings and promises are truthful1 consistent1 and reliable4 ,whoever holds the contrary conclusion is the victim of an arrogant false astronomy1 of an equally false and presumptuous geology1 or a suicidal method of reasoning--a logic which never demands a proof of its premises1 and which therefore leads to conclusions which are contrary to nature1 to human experience1 and to the direct teaching of ,god's word1 and therefore contrary to the deepest and most lasting interests of humanity4 8,god has spoken to man in two voices1 the voice of inspiration and the voice of nature4 ,by man's ignorance they have been made to disagree2 but the time will come1 and cannot be far distant1 when these two languages will strictly accord2 when the science of nature will no longer contradict the science of scripture40#df #df ,professor ,hunt4 ,,cui ,,bono4--8,of all terrors to the generous soul1 that ,cui bono is the one to be the most zealously avoided4 ,whether it be proposed to find the magnetic point1 or a passage impossible to be utilised if discovered1 or a race of men of no good to any human institution extant1 and of no good to themselves2 or to seek the ,unicorn in ,madagascar1 and when we had found him not to be able to make use of him2 or the great central plateau of ,australia1 where no one could live for centuries to come2 or the great ,african lake1 which1 for all the good it would do us ,english folk might as well be in the ,moon2 or the source of the ,nile1 the triumphant discovery of which would neither lower the rents nor take off the taxes anywhere--whatever it is1 the ,cui bono is always a weak and cowardly argument3 essentially short-sighted too1 seeing that1 according to the law of the past1 by which we may always safely predicate the future1 so much falls into the hands of the seeker1 for which he was not looking1 and of which he never even knew the existence4 ,the area of the possible is very wide still1 and very insignificant and minute1 the angle we have staked out and marked impossible4 ,what do we know of the powers which nature has yet in reserve1 of the secrets she has still untold1 the wealth still concealed8 ,every day sees new discoveries in the sciences we can investigate at home4 ,what1 then1 may not lie waiting for the explorers abroad8 ,weak and short-sighted commercially1 the cui bono is worse than both1 morally4 ,when we remember the powerful manhood1 the patience1 unselfishness1 courage1 devotion1 and nobleness of aim which must accompany a perilous enterprise1 and which form so great an example1 and so heart-stirring to the young and to the wavering1 it is no return to barbaric indifference to life to say1 better indeed a few deaths for even a commercially useless enterprise--better a few hearths made desolate1 and a few wives and mothers left to bear their stately sorrow to the end of time1 that the future may rejoice and be strong3 better a thousand failures1 and a thousand useless undertakings1 than the loss of national manhood or the weakening of the national fibre4 ,quixotism is a folly when the energy which might have achieved conquests over misery and wrong1 if rightfully applied1 is wasted in fighting windmills2 but to forego any great enterprise for fear of the dangers attending1 or to check a grand endeavour by the cui bono of ignorance and moral scepticism1 is worse than a folly--it is baseness1 and a cowardice4#dg0 #dg ,daily ,news of ,april #e1 #ahfe4 ,the above quotation is an excellent general answer to all those who may1 in reference to the subject of this work1 or to anything which is not of immediate worldly interest1 obtrude the cui bono8 ,but as a special reply it may be claimed for the subject of these pages-- ,first1--,it is more edifying1 more satisfactory1 and in every sense far better that we should know the true and detect the false4 ,thereby the mind becomes fixed1 established upon an eternal foundation1 and no longer subject to those waverings and changes1 those oscillations and fluctuations which are ever the result of falsehood4 ,to know the truth and to embody it in our lives and purposes our progress must be safe and rapid1 and almost unlimited in extent4 ,none can say to what it may lead or where it may culminate4 ,who shall dare to set bounds to the capabilities of the mind1 or to fix a limit to human progress8 ,whatever may be the destiny of the human race truth alone will help and secure its realisation4 ,second1--,having detected the fundamental falsehoods of modern astronomy1 and discovered that the ,earth is a plane1 and motionless1 and the only material world in existence1 we are able to demonstrate the actual character of the ,universe4 ,in doing this we are enabled to prove that all the so-called arguments with which so many scientific but irreligious men have assailed the scriptures1 are absolutely false2 have no foundation except in their own astronomical and geological theories1 which being demonstrably fallacious1 they fall to the ground as valueless4 ,they can no longer be wielded as weapons against religion4 ,if used at all it can only be that their weakness and utter worthlessness will be exposed4 ,atheism and every other form of ,infidelity are thus rendered helpless4 ,their sting is cut away1 and their poison dissipated4 ,the irreligious philosopher can no longer obtrude his theories as things proved wherewith to test the teachings of scripture4 ,he must now himself be tested4 ,he must be forced to demonstrate his premises1 a thing which he has never yet attempted2 and if he fails in this respect his impious vanity1 self-conceit and utter disregard of justice1 will become so clearly apparent that his presence in the ranks of science will no longer be tolerated4 ,all theory must be put aside1 and the questions at issue must be decided by independent and practical evidence4 ,this has been done4 ,the process--the modus operandi1 and the conclusions derived therefrom have been given in the early sections of this work4 ,they are entirely consonant with the teachings of scripture4 ,the scriptures are therefore literally true1 and must henceforth either alone or in conjunction with practical science be used as a standard by which to test the truth or falsehood of every system which does or may hereafter exist4 ,philosophy is no longer to be employed as a test of scriptural truth1 but the scriptures may and ought to be the test of all philosophy4 ,not that they are to be used as a test of philosophy simply because they are thought or believed to be the word of ,god1 but because their literal teachings in regard to science and natural phenomena1 are demonstrably correct4 ,it is quite as faulty and unjust for the religious devotee to urge the scriptures against the theories of the philosopher simply because he believes them to be true1 as it is for the philosopher to urge his theories against the scriptures only because he disbelieves the one and believes the other4 ,the whole matter must be taken out of the region of belief and disbelief4 ,the ,christian will be strengthened and his mind more completely satisfied by having it in his power to demonstrate that the scriptures are philosophically true1 than he could possibly be by the simple belief in their validity1 unsupported by practical evidence4 ,on the other hand the ,atheist who is met by the ,christian upon purely scientific grounds1 and who is not belaboured with enunciations of what his antagonist believes1 will be led to listen and to pay more regard and respect to the reasons advanced than he could possibly concede to the purely religious argument1 or to an argument founded upon faith alone4 ,if it can be shown to the atheistical philosopher that his astronomical and geological theories are fallacious1 and that all the expressions in the scriptures which have reference to natural phenomena are literally true1 he will of necessity be led to admit that1 apart from all other considerations1 if the philosophy of the scriptures is demonstrably correct1 then possibly their spiritual and moral teachings may also be true2 and if so1 they may and indeed must have had a divine origin2 and if so they are truly the 8word of ,god10 and after all1 religion is a grand reality2 and the theories which speculative adventurous philosophers have advanced are nothing better than treacherous quicksands into which many of the deepest thinkers have been engulphed and lost4 ,by this process many highly intelligent minds have been led to desert the ranks of ,atheism and to rejoin the army of ,christian soldiers and devotees4 ,many have rejoiced almost beyond expression that the subject of the ,earth's true form and position in the universe had ever been brought under their notice2 and doubtless great numbers will yet be induced to return to that allegiance which plain demonstrable truth demands and deserves4 ,to induce numbers of earnest thinking human beings to leave the rebellious cause of ,atheism and false philosophy2 to return to a full recognition of the beauty and truthfulness of the scriptures1 and to a participation in the joy and satisfaction which religion can alone supply1 is a grand and cheering result1 and one which furnishes the noblest possible answer to the ever ready 8,,cui ,,bono40 ,in addition to the numerous quotations which have been given from sacred scriptures1 and proved to be true and consistent1 it may be useful briefly to refer to the following difficulties which have been raised by the scientific objectors to scriptural authority3--8,as the earth is a globe1 and as all its vast collections of water--its oceans1 lakes1 c41 are sustained by the earthy crust beneath them1 and as beneath this #8crust of the earth' everything is in a red-hot molten condition to what place could the excess of waters retire which are said in the scriptures to have overwhelmed the whole world8 ,it could not sink into the centre of the earth1 for the fire is there so intense that the whole would be rapidly volatilised1 and driven away as vapour4 ,it could not evaporate1 for when the atmosphere is charged with watery vapour beyond a certain degree it begins to condense and throw back the water in the form of rain2 so that the waters of the flood could not sink from the earth's surface1 nor remain in the atmosphere2 therefore if the earth had ever been deluged at all1 it would have remained so to this day4 ,but as it is not universally flooded so it never could have been1 and the account given in the scriptures is false40 ,all this specious reasoning is founded upon the assumption that the earth is a globe3 this doctrine1 however1 being false1 all the difficulties quickly vanish4 ,the earth being 8founded on the seas0 would be as readily cleared of its superfluous water as would the deck of a ship on emerging from a storm4 ,or as a rock in the ocean would be cleared after the raging waves which for a time overwhelmed it had subsided4 8,thou coveredst the ,earth with the deep as with a garment2 the waters stood above the mountains4 ,at thy rebuke they fled2 and at the voice of thy thunder they hasted away 444 down by the valleys unto the place which thou hast founded for them40#dh #dh ,psalm civ4 8,thou didst cleave the ,earth with rivers2 and the overflowing of the waters passed by2 and the deep uttered his voice and lifted up his hands on high40#di #di ,hab4 iii4 #i-aj4 ,the surface of the ,earth standing above the level of the surrounding seas1 the waters of the flood would simply and naturally run down by the valleys and rivers into the 8great deep10--into which 8the waters returned from off the earth continually 444 until the tenth month1 and on the first day of the month were the tops of the mountains seen40#ej #ej ,gen4 viii4 #b-e4 ,again2 as the ,earth is a ,globe and in continual motion1 how could ,jesus on being 8taken up into an exceedingly high mountain see all the kingdoms of the world1 in a moment of time80 ,or1 when 8,he cometh with clouds and every eye shall see him10 how could it be possible1 seeing that at least twenty-four hours would elapse before every part of the ,earth would be turned to the same point8 ,but it has been demonstrated that the ,earth is a ,plane and motionless1 and that from a great eminence every part of its surface could be seen at once2 and1 at once--at the same moment1 could every eye behold ,him1 when 8coming in a cloud with power and great glory40 ,,finis4 ,s4 ,,hayward1 ,,printer1 ,,green ,,street1 ,,bath4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,inconsistent and unusual spelling1 punctuation etc4 have been retained2 accents on 7,french7 words have not been corrected4 ,the inconsistent nesting and pairing of quote marks often makes it difficult to determine where a quote starts or ends4 ,page #bj3 444 as represented in figure #aj 444 changed to 444 as represented in figure #i 4444 ,page #ac1 ,a ,b is the line-of-sight1 and ,c ,d the surface of the water 4443 ,c nor ,d are depicted in the illustration4 ,page #bg1 ,fig4 #ae and accompanying text3 the number #d in the illustration appears to be misplaced4 ,page #gg1 8,sun's altitude at the time of ,southing 4443 there is no closing quote mark4 ,page #adb1 #adc and ,fig4 #ca3 the lower case reference letters are present as upper case letters in the illustration4 ,page #aic1 444 only the dry land was called earth10 4443 the opening quote marks are missing4 ,page #aih1 444 stretchet out the earth above the waters 4443 as printed in the source document2 both stretched and stretcheth appear in other sources4 ,page #baa1 444 8did ,his suffering and crucifixion 4443 the closing quote mark is lacking4 ,changes made3 ,footnotes and illustrations have been moved out of text paragraphs4 ,some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently4 ,terrestial has been changed to terrestrial 7#cx71 trignometry to trigonometry 7#bx71 incondescent to incandescent 7#cx74 ,illustration captions for ,figs4 #bg1 #bh and #ca-cd have been added4 ,page #aj3 444 to lesson the difference 444 changed to 444 to lessen the difference 4444 ,page #ea3 444 from ,port ,jackson to ,cape ,horn as #h4jjj miles 444 changed to 444 from ,port ,jackson to ,cape ,horn as #h1jjj miles 4444 ,page #fd-fe3 replicated text deleted4 ,page #acc3 exclamation mark inserted after ,neptune has only one third of this volume 7as in surrounding text74 ,page #acd3 ,professer ,schumacher changed to ,professor ,schumacher4 ,page #aci3 ,m4 ,foucalt's communication describing his experiments 444 changed to ,m4 ,foucault's communication describing his experiments 4444 ,page #ada3 ,ille sante aux yeux 444 changed to ,il saute aux yeux 4444 ,page #aga3 444 south cost of ,norway 444 changed to 444 south coast of ,norway 4442 ,the ,troudhjem ,light 444 changed to ,the ,trondhjem ,light 4442 ,lower ,farn ,island ,light changed to ,lower ,farne ,island ,light4 ,page #aic3 444 the heavenly bodies are ,sun's 444 changed to 444 the heavenly bodies are ,suns 4444