,richard ,prairie1 ,charles ,franks and the ,online ,distributed ,proofreading ,team ,illustration ,,pathfinder ,,physiology ,no4 #c ,,hygienic ,,physiology ,,with ,,special ,,reference ,,to ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,alcoholic ,,drinks ,,and ,,narcotics ,,being ,a ,,revised ,,edition ,,of ,,the ,,fourteen ,,weeks ,,in ,,human ,,physiology ,,by ,,joel ,,dorman ,,steele1 ,,ph4,d4 ,,enlarged ,,edition ,,with ,,selected ,,readings ,edited for the use of ,schools1 in accordance with the recent ,legislation upon ,temperance ,instruction ,,indorsement4 ,,boston1 ,june #bj1 #ahhi4 ,the ,pathfinder ,series of ,text-books on ,anatomy1 ,physiology1 and ,hygiene consists of the following volumes3 ,i4 ,child's ,health ,primer 7for ,primary ,grades74 ,,ii4 ,hygiene for ,young ,people or1 ,young ,people's ,physiology4 7for ,intermediate ,classes7 ,,iii4 ,hygienic ,physiology 7for ,advanced ,pupils74 ,the above are the series originally prepared 7as their general title indicates7 to supply the demand created by the laws for temperance instruction in public schools in the ,united ,states4 ,they were written by experts under the supervision of the ,scientific ,department of the ,national ,woman's ,christian ,temperance ,union1 published by the instigation of the same1 and have been carefully revised from time to time1 under the same supervision1 to keep them abreast with the latest teachings of science4 ,being both teachable and well adapted to grade1 their educational value1 as proven by schoolroom tests1 is of the highest order4 ,we therefore cordially indorse and highly recommend the ,pathfinder ,series for use in schools4 ,,mary ,h4 ,,hunt1 ,national and ,international ,superintendent of the ,scientific ,dep't of the ,woman's ,christian ,temperance ,union2 ,life ,director of the ,national ,educational ,association4 ,,advisory ,,board3 ,,joseph ,,cook1 ,,william ,e4 ,,sheldon1 ,,albert ,h4 ,,plumb1 ,d4,d41 ,,daniel ,,dorchester1 ,d4,d4 ,,preface ,the term ,physiology1 or the science of the functions of the body1 has come to include ,anatomy1 or the science of its structure1 and ,hygiene1 or the laws of health2 the one being essential to the proper understanding of physiology1 and the other being its practical application to life4 ,the three are intimately blended1 and in treating of the different subjects the author has drawn no line of distinction where nature has made none4 ,this work is not prepared for the use of medical students1 but for the instruction of youth in the principles which underlie the preservation of health and the formation of correct physical habits4 ,all else is made subservient to this practical knowledge4 ,a simple scientific dress is used which1 while conducing to clearness1 also gratifies that general desire of children to know something of the nomenclature of any study they pursue4 ,to the description of each organ is appended an account of its most common diseases1 accidents1 etc41 and1 when practicable1 their mode of treatment4 ,a pupil may thus learn1 for example1 the cause and cure of a cold1 the management of a wound1 or the nature of an inflammation4 ,the ,practical ,questions1 which have been a prominent feature in other books of the series1 will be found1 it is hoped1 equally useful in this work4 ,directions for preparing simple microscopic objects1 and illustrations of the different organs1 are given under each subject4 ,the ,readings1 which represent the ideas but not always the exact phraseology of the author quoted1 have1 in general1 been selected with direct reference to ,practical ,hygiene1 a subject which now largely occupies the public mind4 ,the dangers that lurk in foul air and contaminated water1 in bad drainage1 leaky gas pipes1 and defective plumbing1 in reckless appetites1 and in careless dissemination of contagious diseases1 are here portrayed in such a manner as1 it is trusted1 will assist the pupil to avoid these treacherous quicksands1 and to provide for himself a solid path of health4 ,under the heading of ,health and ,disease will be found ,hints about the sick room1 ,directions for the use of ,disinfectants1 ,suggestions as to what to do ,till the ,doctor comes1 and a list of antidotes for ,poisons4 ,questions for ,class ,use1 a full ,glossary1 and an ample ,index complete the book4 ,believing in a ,divine ,architect of the human form1 the author can not refrain from occasionally pointing out ,his inimitable workmanship1 and impressing the lesson of a ,great ,final ,cause4 ,the author has gleaned from every field1 at home and abroad1 to secure that which would interest and profit his pupils4 ,in general1 ,flint's great work on the ,physiology of ,man1 an undisputed authority on both sides of the ,atlantic1 has been adopted as the standard in digestion1 respiration1 circulation1 and the nervous system4 ,leidy's ,human ,anatomy1 and ,sappey's ,trait d',anatomie have been followed on all anatomical questions1 and have furnished many beautiful drawings4 ,huxley's ,physiology has afforded exceedingly valuable aid4 ,foster's ,text-,book of ,physiology1 ,hinton's ,health and its ,conditions1 ,black's ,ten ,laws of ,health1 ,williams's practical essay on ,our ,eyes and ,how to ,use them1 ,le ,pileur's charming treatise on ,the ,wonders of the ,human ,body1 and that quaint volume1 ,odd ,hours of a ,physician1 have aided the author with facts and fancies4 ,the writings of ,draper1 ,dalton1 ,carpenter1 ,yalentin1 ,mapother1 ,watson1 ,lankester1 ,letheby1 ,hall1 ,hamilton1 ,bell1 ,wilson1 ,bower1 ,cutter1 ,hutchison1 ,wood1 ,bigelow1 ,stille1 ,holmes1 ,beigel1 and others have been freely consulted4 ,,publishers' ,,note4 ,an ,,abridged ,,edition of this work is published1 to afford a cheaper manual --adapted to ,junior ,classes and ,common ,schools4 ,the abridgment contains the essence of this text1 nearly all its illustrations1 and the whole of the ,temperance matter as here presented4 ,,order ,,hygienic ,,physiology1 ,,abridged4 ,,reading ,,references4 ,foster's ,text-,book of ,physiology2 ,leidy's ,human ,anatomy2 ,draper's ,human ,physiology2 ,dalton's ,physiology and ,hygiene2 ,cutter's ,physiology2 ,johnston and ,church's ,chemistry of ,common ,life2 ,letheby's ,food2 ,tyndall ,on ,light1 and ,on ,sound2 ,mint's ,physiology of ,man 2 ,rosenthal's ,physiology of the ,muscles and ,nerves2 ,bernstein's ,five ,senses of ,man2 ,huxley and ,youmans's ,physiology and ,hygiene2 ,sappey's ,trait d',anatomie 2 ,luys's ,brain and its ,functions2 ,smith's ,foods2 ,bain's ,mind and ,body2 ,pettigrew's ,animal ,locomotion2 ,carpenter's ,human ,physiology1 and ,mental ,physiology2 ,wilder and ,gage's ,anatomy2 ,jarvis's ,physiology and ,laws of ,health4 ,hargreaves's ,alcohol and ,science2 ,richardson's ,ten ,lectures on ,alcohol1 and ,diseases of ,modern ,life2 ,brown's ,alcohol2 ,davis's ,intemperance and ,crime2 ,pitman's ,alcohol and the ,state2 ,anti- ,tobacco2 ,howie's ,stimulants and ,narcotics2 ,hunt's ,alcohol as ,food or ,medicine2 ,schtzenberger's ,fermentation2 ,hubbard's ,opium ,habit and ,alcoholism2 ,trouessart's ,microbes1 ,ferments1 and ,molds4 ,,contents ,,introduction ,i4--,,the ,,skeleton ,,the ,,head ,,the ,,trunk ,,the ,,limbs ,,ii4--,,the ,,muscles ,,iii4--,,the ,,skin ,,the ,,hair ,,and ,,the ,,nails ,,the ,,teeth ,,iv4--,,respiration ,,and ,,the ,,voice ,v4--,,the ,,circulation ,,the ,,blood ,,the ,,heart ,,the ,,arteries ,,the ,,veins ,,vi4--,,digestion ,,and ,,food ,,vii4--,,the ,,nervous ,,system ,,the ,,brain ,,the ,,spinal ,,cord ,,and ,,the ,,nerves ,,the ,,sympathetic ,,system ,,viii4--,,the ,,special ,,senses ,,touch ,,taste ,,smell ,,hearing ,,sight ,,ix4--,,health ,,and ,,disease4--,,death ,,and ,,decay #a4 ,,hints ,,about ,,the ,,sick ,,room #b4 ,,disinfectants #c4 ,,what ,,to ,,do ,,till ,,the ,,doctor ,,comes #d4 ,,antidotes ,,to ,,poisons ,x4--,,selected ,,readings ,,xi4--,,appendix ,,questions ,,for ,,class ,,use ,,glossary ,,index ,,suggestions ,to ,teachers ,seeing is believing--more than that1 it is often knowing and remembering4 ,the mere reading of a statement is of little value compared with the observation of a fact4 ,every opportunity should therefore be taken of exhibiting to the pupil the phenomena described1 and thus making them real4 ,a microscope is so essential to the understanding of many subjects1 that it is indispensable to the proper teaching of ,physiology4 ,a suitable instrument and carefully prepared specimens1 showing the structure of the bones1 the skin1 and the blood of various animals1 the pigment cells of the eye1 etc41 may be obtained at a small cost from any good optician4 ,on naming the subject of a paragraph1 the pupil should be prepared to tell all he knows about it4 ,no failure should discourage the teacher in establishing this mode of study and recitation4 ,a little practice will produce the most satisfactory results4 ,the unexpected question and the apt reply develop a certain sharpness and readiness which are worthy of cultivation4 ,the questions for review1 or any others that the wit of the teacher may suggest1 can be effectively used to break the monotony of a topical recitation1 thereby securing the benefits of both systems4 ,the pupil should expect to be questioned each day upon any subject passed over during the term1 and thus the entire knowledge gained will be within his grasp for instant use4 ,while some are reciting to the teacher1 let others write on slates or on the blackboard4 ,at the close of the recitation1 let all criticise the ideas1 the spelling1 the use of capitals1 the pronunciation1 the grammar1 and the mode of expression4 ,greater accuracy and much collateral drill may thus be secured at little expense of valuable school time4 ,the ,introduction is designed merely to furnish suggestive material for the first lesson1 preparatory to beginning the study4 ,other subjects for consideration may be found in the section on ,health and ,disease1 in the ,selected ,readings1 and among the questions given in the ,appendix4 ,where time will allow1 the ,selected ,readings may profitably be used in connection with the topics to which they relate4 ,questions upon them are so incorporated with those upon the text proper that they may be employed or not1 according to the judgment of the teacher4 ,,note4--,interest in the study of ,physiology will be much increased by the use of the microscope and prepared slides4 ,these may be obtained from any good optician4 ,,introduction4 ,physiological study in youth is of inestimable value4 ,precious lives are frequently lost through ignorance4 ,thousands squander in early years the strength which should have been kept for the work of real life4 ,habits are often formed in youth which entail weakness and poverty upon manhood1 and are a cause of lifelong regret4 ,the use of a strained limb may permanently damage it4 ,some silly feat of strength may produce an irreparable injury4 ,a thoughtless hour of reading by twilight may impair the sight for life4 ,a terrible accident may happen1 and a dear friend perish before our eyes1 while we stand by powerless to render the assistance we could so easily give did we only know what to do4 ,the thousand little hints which may save or lengthen life1 may repel or abate disease1 and the simple laws which regulate our bodily vigor1 should be so familiar that we may be quick to apply them in an emergency4 ,the preservation of health is easier than the cure of disease4 ,childhood can not afford to wait for the lesson of experience which is learned only when the penalty of violated law has been already incurred1 and health irrevocably lost4 ,,nature',s ,,laws ,,inviolable4--,in infancy1 we learn how terribly ,nature punishes a violation of certain laws1 and how promptly she applies the penalty4 ,we soon find out the peril of fire1 falls1 edged tools1 and the like4 ,we fail1 however1 to notice the equally sharp and certain punishments which bad habits entail4 ,we are quick to feel the need of food1 but not so ready to perceive the danger of an excess4 ,a lack of air drives us at once to secure a supply2 foul air is as fatal1 but it gives us no warning4 ,nature provides a little training for us at the outset of life1 but leaves the most for us to learn by bitter experience4 ,so in youth we throw away our strength as if it were a burden of which we desire to be rid4 ,we eat anything1 and at any time2 do anything we please1 and sit up any number of nights with little or no sleep4 ,because we feel only a momentary discomfort from these physical sins1 we fondly imagine when that is gone we are all right again4 ,our drafts upon our constitution are promptly paid1 and we expect this will always be the case2 but some day they will come back to us1 protested2 ,nature will refuse to meet our demands1 and we shall find ourselves physical bankrupts4 ,we are furnished in the beginning with a certain vital force upon which we may draw4 ,we can be spendthrifts and waste it in youth1 or be wise and so husband it till manhood4 ,our shortcomings are all charged against this stock4 ,nature's memory never fails2 she keeps her account with perfect exactness4 ,every physical sin subtracts from the sum and strength of our years4 ,we may cure a disease1 but it never leaves us as it found us4 ,we may heal a wound1 but the scar still shows4 ,we reap as we sow1 and we may either gather in the thorns1 one by one1 to torment and destroy1 or we may rejoice in the happy harvest of a hale old age4 ,i4 ,,the ,,skeleton4 ,not in the ,world of ,light alone1 ,where ,god has built ,his blazing throne1 ,nor yet alone on earth below1 ,with belted seas that come and go1 ,and endless isles of sunlit green ,is all thy ,maker's glory seen-- ,look in upon thy wondrous frame1 ,eternal wisdom still the same6 ,,holmes4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,skeleton4 ,,note4--,the following ,table of #bjf bones is exclusive of the #h sesamoid bones which occur in pairs at the roots of the thumb and great toe1 making #bad as given by ,leidy and ,draper4 ,gray omits the bones of the ear1 and names #bjj as the total number4 ,,the ,,skeleton4 ,i4 ,,the ,,head 7#bh bones47 ,frontal ,bone 7forehead74 ,two ,parietal ,bones4 #a4 ,,cranium44444444444444 ,two ,temporal 7temple7 ,bones4 7#h bones47 ,sphenoid ,bone4 ,ethmoid 7sieve-like bone at root of nose74 ,occipital ,bone 7back and base of skull74 ,two ,superior ,maxillary 7upper jaw7 ,bones4 ,inferior ,maxillary 7lower jaw7 ,bone4 ,two ,malar 7cheek7 ,bones4 #b4 ,,face44444444444444444 ,two ,lachrymal ,bones4 7#ad bones47 ,two ,turbinated 7scroll like7 ,bones1 each side of nose4 ,two ,nasal ,bones 7,bridge of nose74 ,vomer 7the bone between the nostrils74 ,two ,palate ,bones4 ,hammer4 #c4 ,,ears44444444444444444 ,anvil4 7#f bones47 ,stirrup4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,trunk 7#ed bones47 ,cervical ,vertebr 7seven vertebr of the neck74 #a4 ,,spinal ,,column44444444 ,dorsal ,vertebr 7twelve vertebr of the back74 ,lumbar ,vertebr 7five vertebr of the loins74 ,true ,ribs4 #b4 ,,ribs44444444444444444,false ,ribs4 #c4 ,,sternum 7breastbone74 #d4 ,,os ,,hyoides 7bone at the root of tongue74 ,two ,innominata4 #e4 ,,pelvis444444444444444 ,sacrum4 ,coccyx4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,limbs 7#abd bones47 ,clavicle4 ,shoulder444,scapula4 #a4 ,,upper ,,limbs4444444444 ,humerus4 7#fd bones47 ,arm44444444,ulna and ,radius4 ,eight ,wrist or ,carpal ,bones4 ,hand4444444 ,five ,metacarpal ,bones4 ,phalanges 7#ad bones74 ,femur4 ,leg44444444 ,patella4 ,tibia and ,fibula4 #b4 ,,lower ,,limbs4444444444 7#fj bones47 ,seven ,tarsal ,bones4 ,foot4444444 ,five ,metatarsal ,bones4 ,phalanges 7#ad bones74 #a4 ,uses4 #b4 ,composition4 #a4 ,,form1 ,,structure1 #c4 ,structure4 ,,etc41 ,,of ,,the ,,bones #d4 ,growth4 #e4 ,repair4 ,,the ,,skeleton #f4 ,the ,joints4 #b4 ,,classification ,,of #a4 ,the ,head4 ,,the ,,bones4 #b4 ,the ,trunk4 #c4 ,the ,limbs4 ,,the ,,skeleton4 ,i4 ,,form1 ,,structure1 ,,etc41 ,,of ,,the ,,bones4 7,see page #bfi47 ,,the ,,skeleton1 or framework of the ,house we live in1 is composed of about #bjj bones4 ,footnote3 ,the precise number varies in different periods of life4 ,several which are separated in youth become united in old age4 ,thus five of the false vertebr at the base of the spine early join in one great bone--the sacrum2 while four tiny ones below it often run into a bony mass--the coccyx 7,fig4 #f72 in the child1 the sternum is composed of eight pieces1 while in the adult it consists of only three4 ,while1 however1 the number of the bones is uncertain1 their relative length is so exact that the length of the entire skeleton1 and thence the height of the man1 can be obtained by measuring a single one of the principal bones4 ,fossil bones and those found at ,pompeii have the same proportion as our own4 ,,uses ,,and ,,forms ,,of ,,the ,,bones4--,they have three principal uses3 #a4 ,to protect the delicate organs2 ,footnote3 ,an organ is a portion of the body designed for a particular use1 called its function4 ,thus the heart circulates the blood2 the liver produces the bile4 #b4 ,to serve as levers on which the muscles may act to produce motion2 and #c4 ,to preserve the shape of the body4 ,bones differ in form according to the uses they subserve4 ,for convenience in walking1 some are long2 for strength and compactness1 some are short and thick2 for covering a cavity1 some are flat2 and for special purposes1 some are irregular4 ,the general form is such as to combine strength and lightness4 ,for example1 all the long bones of the limbs are round and hollow1 thus giving with the same weight a greater strength1 ,footnote3 ,cut a sheet of foolscap in two pieces4 ,roll one half into a compact cylinder1 and fold the other into a close1 flat strip2 support the ends of each and hang weights in the middle until they bend4 ,the superior strength of the roll will astonish one unfamiliar with this mechanical principle4 ,in a rod1 the particles break in succession1 first those on the outside1 and later those in the center4 ,in a tube1 the particles are all arranged where they resist the first strain4 ,iron pillars are therefore cast hollow4 ,stalks of grass and grain are so light as to bend before a breath of wind1 yet are stiff enough to sustain their load of seed4 ,bone has been found by experiment to possess twice the resisting property of solid oak4 and also a larger surface for the attachment of the muscles4 ,the ,composition of the ,bones at maturity is about one part animal to two parts mineral matter4 ,the proportion varies with the age4 ,in youth it is nearly half and half1 while in old age the mineral is greatly in excess4 ,by soaking a bone in weak muriatic acid1 and thus dissolving the mineral matter1 its shape will not change1 but its stiffness will disappear1 leaving a tough1 gristly substance ,footnote3 ,mix a wineglass of muriatic acid with a pint of water1 and place in it a sheep's rib4 ,in a day or two1 the bone will become so soft that it can be tied into a knot4 ,in the same way1 an egg may be made so pliable that it can be crowded into a narrow- necked bottle1 within which it will expand1 and become an object of great curiosity to the uninitiated4 ,by boiling bones at a high temperature1 the animal matter separates in the form of gelatine4 ,dogs and cats extract the animal matter from the bones they eat4 ,fossil bones deposited in the ground during the ,geologic period1 were found by ,cuvier to contain considerable animal matter4 ,gelatine was actually extracted from the ,cambridge mastodon1 and made into glue4 ,a tolerably nutritious food might thus be manufactured from bones older than man himself4 7cartilage7 which can be bent like rubber4 ,if the bone be burned in the fire1 thus consuming the animal matter1 the shape will still be the same1 but it will have lost its tenacity1 and the beautiful1 pure-white residue ,footnote3 ,from bones thus calcined1 the phosphorus of the chemist is made4 ,see ,steele's ,popular ,chemistry1 page #aad4 ,if the animal matter be not consumed1 but only charred1 the bone will be black and brittle4 ,in this way1 the boneblack of commerce is manufactured4 may be crumbled into powder with the fingers4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,the ,thigh ,bone1 or ,femur1 sawed lengthwise4 ,we thus see that a bone receives hardness and rigidity from its mineral1 and tenacity and elasticity from its animal matter4 ,the entire bone is at first composed of cartilage1 which gradually ossifies or turns to bone4 ,footnote3 ,the ossification of the bones on the sides and upper part of the skull1 for example1 begins by a rounded spot in the middle of each one4 ,from this spot the ossification extends outward in every direction1 thus gradually approaching the edges of the bone4 ,when two adjacent bones meet1 there will be a line where their edges are in contact with each other1 but have not yet united2 but when more than two bones meet in this way1 there will be an empty space between them at their point of junction4 ,thus1 if you lay down three coins upon the table with their edges touching one another1 there will be a three-sided space in the middle between them2 if you lay down four coins in the same manner1 the space between them will be four-sided4 ,now at the back part of the head there is a spot where three bones come together in this way1 leaving a small1 three-sided opening between them3 this is called the posterior fontanelle4 ,on the top of the head1 four bones come together1 leaving between them a large1 four-sided opening3 this is called the anterior fontanelle4 ,these openings are termed the fontanelles1 because we can feel the pulsations of the brain through them1 like the bubbling of water in a fountain4 ,they gradually diminish in size1 owing to the growth of the bony parts around them1 and are completely closed at the age of four years after birth4--,,dalton4 ,certain portions near the joints are long delayed in this process1 and by their elasticity assist in breaking the shock of a fall4 ,footnote3 ,frogs and toads1 which move by jumping1 and consequently receive so many jars1 retain these unossified portions 7epiphyses7 nearly through1 life1 while alligators and turtles whose position is sprawling1 and whose motions are measured do not have them at all--,,leidy ,hence the bones of children are tough1 are not readily fractured1 and when broken easily heal again2 ,footnote3 ,this is only one of the many illustrations of the ,infinite care that watches over helpless infancy1 until knowledge and ability are acquired to meet the perils of life4 while those of elderly people are liable to fracture1 and do not quickly unite4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,a thin slice of ,bone1 highly magnified showing the lacun1 the tiny tubes 7canaliculi7 radiating from them1 and four ,haversian canals1 three seen crosswise and one lengthwise4 ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,bones--,when a bone is sawed lengthwise1 it is found to be a compact shell filled with a spongy substance ,this filling increases in quantity1 and becomes more porous at the ends of the bone1 thus giving greater size to form a strong joint1 while the solid portion increases near the middle1 where strength alone is needed4 ,each fiber of this bulky material diminishes the shock of a sudden blow1 and also acts as a beam to brace the exterior wall4 ,the recumbent position of the alligator protects him from falls1 and therefore his bones contain very little spongy substance4 ,in the body1 bones are not the dry1 dead1 blanched things they commonly seem to be1 but are moist1 living1 pinkish structures1 covered with a tough membrane1 called the per-i-os'-te-um ,footnote3 ,the relations of the periosteum to the bone are very interesting4 ,instances are on record where the bone has been removed1 leaving the periosteum1 from which the entire bone was afterward renewed4 7peri1 around1 and osteon1 a bone71 while the hollow is filled with marrow1 rich in fat1 and full of blood vessels4 ,if we examine a thin slice with the microscope1 we shall see black spots with lines running in all directions1 and looking very like minute insects4 ,these are really little cavities1 called la-cu'-n ,footnote3 ,when the bone is dry1 the lacun are filled with air1 which refracts the light1 so that none of it reaches the eye1 and hence the cavities appear black4 from which radiate tiny tubes4 ,the lacun are arranged in circles around larger tubes1 termed from their discoverer1 ,haversian canals1 which serve as passages for the blood vessels that nourish the bone4 ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,bones4--,by means of this system of canals1 the blood circulates as freely through the bones as through any part of the body1 ,the whole structure is constantly but slowly changing1 ,footnote3 ,bone is sometimes produced with surprising rapidity4 ,the great ,irish ,elk is calculated by ,prof4 ,owen to have cast off and renewed1 annually in its antlers eighty pounds of bone4 old material being taken out and new put in4 ,a curious illustration is seen in the fact that if madder be mixed with the food of pigs1 it will tinge their bones red4 ,,repair ,,of ,,the ,,bones4--,when a bone is broken1 the blood at once oozes out of the fractured ends4 ,this soon gives place to a watery fluid1 which in a fortnight thickens to a gristly substance1 strong enough to hold them in place4 ,bone matter is then slowly deposited1 which in five or six weeks will unite the broken parts4 ,nature1 at first1 apparently endeavors to remedy the weakness of the material by excess in the quantity1 and so the new portion is larger than the old4 ,but the extra matter will be gradually absorbed1 sometimes so perfectly as to leave no trace of the injury4 7,see p4 #bga47 ,a broken limb should be held in place by splints1 or a plaster cast1 to enable this process to go on uninterruptedly1 and also lest a sudden jar might rupture the partially mended break4 ,for a long time1 the new portion consists largely of animal matter1 and so is tender and pliable4 ,the utmost care is therefore necessary to prevent a malformation4 ,,the ,,joints are packed with a soft1 smooth cartilage1 or gristle1 which fits so perfectly as to be airtight4 ,upon convex surfaces1 it is thickest at the middle1 and upon concave surfaces1 it is thickest at the edge1 or where the wear is greatest4 ,in addition1 the ends of the bones are covered with a thin membrane1 the synovial 7sun1 with2 ovum1 an egg71 which secretes a viscid fluid1 not unlike the white of an egg4 ,this lubricates the joints1 and prevents the noise and wear of friction4 ,the body is the only machine that oils itself4 ,the bones which form the joint are tied with stout ligaments 7ligo1 ,i bind71 or bands1 of a smooth1 silvery white tissue1 ,footnote3 ,the general term tissue is applied to the various textures of which the organs are composed4 ,for example1 the osseous tissue forms the bones2 the fibrous tissue1 the skin1 tendons1 and ligaments4 so strong that the bones are sometimes broken without injuring the fastenings4 ,,ii4 ,,classification ,,of ,,the ,,bones4 ,for convenience1 the bones of the skeleton are considered in three divisions3 the head1 the trunk1 and the limbs4 #a4 ,,the ,,head4 ,,the ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,skull ,,and ,,the ,,face form a cavity for the protection of the brain and the four organs of sense1 viz43 sight1 smell1 taste1 and hearing4 ,all these bones are immovable except the lower jaw1 which is hinged ,footnote3 ,a ring of cartilage is inserted in its joints1 something after the manner of a washer in machinery4 ,this follows the movements of the jaw1 and admits of freer motion1 while it guards against dislocation4 at the back so as to allow for the opening and shutting of the mouth4 ,,the ,,skull is composed1 in general1 of two compact plates1 with a spongy layer between4 ,these are in several pieces1 the outer ones being joined by notched edges1 sutures 7su'tyurs171 in the way carpenters term dovetailing4 7,see ,fig4 #d47 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,the ,skull4--#a4 frontal bone2 #b1 parietal bone2 #c1 temporal bone2 #d1 the sphenoid bone2 #e1 ethmoid bone2 #f1 superior maxillary 7upper jaw7 bone2 #g1 malar bone2 #h1 lachrymal bone2 #i1 nasal bone2 #aj1 inferior maxillary 7lower jaw7 bone4 ,the peculiar structure and form of the skull afford a perfect shelter for the brain--an organ so delicate that1 if unprotected1 an ordinary blow would destroy it4 ,its oval or egg shape adapts it to resist pressure4 ,the smaller and stronger end is in front1 where the danger is greatest4 ,projections before and behind shield the less protected parts4 ,the hard plates are not easy to penetrate4 ,footnote3 ,instances have been known where bullets1 striking against the skull1 have glanced off1 been flattened1 or even split into halves4 ,in the ,peninsular ,campaign1 the author saw a man who had been struck in the forehead by a bullet which1 instead of penetrating the brain1 had followed the skull around to the back of the head1 and there passed out4 ,the spongy packing deadens every blow4 ,footnote3 ,an experiment resembling the familiar one of the balls in ,natural ,philosophy 7,steele's ,popular ,physics1 ,fig4 #f1 p4 #bf71 beautifully illustrates this point4 ,several balls of ivory are suspended by cords1 as in ,fig4 #e4 ,if ,a be raised and then let fall1 it will transmit the force to ,b1 and that to ,c1 and so on until ,f is reached1 which will fly off with the impulse4 ,if now a ball of spongy bone be substituted for an ivory one anywhere in the line1 the force will be checked1 and the last ball will not stir4 ,the separate pieces with their curious joinings disperse any jar which one may receive1 and also prevent fractures from spreading4 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illustration ,the frequent openings in this strong bone box afford safe avenues for the passage of numerous nerves and vessels which communicate between the brain and the rest of the body4 ,,fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,the ,spine2 the seven vertebr of the neck1 cervical2 the twelve of the back1 dorsal2 the five of the loins1 lumbar2 a1 the sacrum1 and b1 the coccyx1 coming the nine false vertebr4 7p4 #c74 #b ,,the ,,trunk4 ,,the ,,trunk has two important cavities4 ,the upper part1 or chest1 contains the heart and the lungs1 and the lower part1 or abdomen1 holds the stomach1 liver1 kidneys1 and other organs 7,fig4 #ca74 ,the principal bones are those of the spine1 the ribs1 and the hips4 ,,the ,,spine consists of twenty-four bones1 between which are placed pads of cartilage4 ,footnote3 ,these pads vary in thickness from one fourth to one half an inch4 ,they become condensed by the weight they bear during the day1 so that we are somewhat shorter at evening than in the morning4 ,their elasticity causes them to resume their usual size during the night1 or when we lie down for a time4 ,a canal is hollowed out of the column for the safe passage of the spinal cord4 7,see ,fig4 #ej47 ,projections 7processes7 at the back and on either side are abundant for the attachment of the muscles4 ,the packing acts as a cushion to prevent any jar from reaching the brain when we jump or run1 while the double curve of the spine also tends to disperse the force of a fall4 ,thus on every side the utmost caution is taken to guard that precious gem in its casket4 ,,the ,,perfection ,,of ,,the ,,spine surpasses all human contrivances4 ,its various uses seem a bundle of contradictions4 ,a chain of twenty-four bones is made so stiff that it will bear a heavy burden1 and so flexible that it will bend like rubber2 yet1 all the while1 it transmits no shock1 and even hides a delicate nerve within that would thrill with the slightest touch4 ,resting upon it1 the brain is borne without a tremor2 and1 clinging to it1 the vital organs are carried without fear of harm4 ,,fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,b1 the first cervical vertebra1 the atlas2 ,a1 the atlas1 and the second cervical vertebra1 the axis2 e1 the odontoid process2 c1 the foramen4 ,,the ,,skull ,,articulates with 7is jointed to7 the spine in a peculiar manner4 ,on the top of the upper vertebra 7atlas ,footnote3 ,thus called because1 as1 in ancient fable1 the god ,atlas supported the world on his shoulders1 so in the body this bone bears the head47 are two little hollows 7a1 b1 ,fig4 #g71 nicely packed and lined with the synovial membrane1 into which fit the corresponding projections on the lower part of the skull1 and thus the head can rock to and fro4 ,the second vertebra 7axis7 has a peg1 e1 which projects through a hole1 c1 in the first4 ,,fig4 #h4 ,illustration3 ,the ,thorax or ,chest4 a1 the sternum2 b to c1 the true ribs2 d to h1 the false ribs2 g1 h1 the floating ribs2 i1 k1 the dorsal vertebr4 ,the surfaces of both vertebr are so smooth that they easily glide on each other1 and thus1 when we move the head side wise1 the atlas turns around the peg1 e1 of the axis4 ,,the ,,ribs1 also twenty-four in number1 are arranged in pairs on each side of the chest4 ,at the back1 they are all attached to the spine4 ,in front1 the upper seven pairs are tied by cartilages to the breastbone 7sternum72 three are fastened to each other and to the cartilage above1 and two1 the floating ribs1 are loose4 ,the natural form of the chest is that of a cone diminishing upward4 ,but1 owing to the tightness of the clothing commonly worn1 the reverse is often the case4 ,the long1 slender ribs give lightness1 ,footnote3 ,if the chest wall were in one bone thick enough to resist a blow1 it would be unwieldy and heavy ,as it is1 the separate bones bound by cartilages yield gradually1 and diffuse the force among them all1 and so are rarely broken4 the arched form confers strength1 and the cartilages impart elasticity1--properties essential to the protection of the delicate organs within1 and to freedom of motion in respiration4 7,see note1 p4 #hj47 ,,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,the ,pelvis4 a1 the sacrum2 b1 b1 the right and the left innominatum4 ,,the ,,hip ,,bones1 called by anatomists the innominata1 or nameless bones1 form an irregular basin styled the pelvis 7pelvis1 a basin74 ,in the upper part1 is the foot of the spinal column--a wedge-shaped bone termed the sacrum ,footnote3 ,so called because it was anciently offered in sacrifice4 7sacred71 firmly planted here between the widespreading and solid bones of the pelvis1 like the keystone to an arch1 and giving a steady support to the heavy burden above4 #c4 ,,the ,,limbs4 ,,two ,,sets ,,of ,,limbs branch from the trunk1 viz43 the upper1 and the lower4 ,they closely resemble each other4 ,the arm corresponds to the thigh2 the forearm1 to the leg2 the wrist1 to the ankle2 the fingers1 to the toes4 ,the fingers and the toes are so much alike that they receive the same name1 digits1 while the several bones of both have also the common appellation1 phalanges4 ,the differences which exist grow out of their varying uses4 ,the foot is characterized by strength2 the hand1 by mobility4 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,the ,shoulder ,joint4 a1 the clavicle2 b1 the scapula4 #a4 ,,the ,,upper ,,limbs4--,,the ,,shoulder4--,the bones of the shoulder are the collar bone 7clavicle71 and the shoulder blade 7scapula74 ,the clavicle 7clavis1 a key7 is a long1 slender bone1 shaped like the ,italic f4 ,it is fastened at one end to the breastbone and the first rib1 and1 at the other1 to the shoulder blade4 7,see ,fig4 #a47 ,it thus holds the shoulder joint out from the chest1 and gives the arm greater play4 ,if it be removed or broken1 the head of the arm bone will fall1 and the motions of the arm be greatly restricted4 ,footnote3 ,animals which use the forelegs only for support 7as the horse1 ox1 etc471 do not possess this bone4 ,it is found in those that dig1 fly1 climb and seize4 ,,the ,,shoulder ,,blade is a thin1 flat1 triangular bone1 fitted to the top and back of the chest1 and designed to give a foundation for the muscles of the shoulder4 ,,the ,,shoulder ,,joint4--,the arm bone1 or humerus1 articulates with the shoulder blade by a ball-and-socket joint4 ,this consists of a cup-like cavity in the latter bone1 and a rounded head in the former1 to fit it1-- thus affording a free rotary motion4 ,the shallowness of the socket accounts for the frequent dislocation of this joint1 but a deeper one would diminish the easy swing of the arm4 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,illustration3 ,bones of the right ,forearm4 ,h1 the humerus2 ,r1 the radius2 and ,u1 the ulna4 ,,the ,,elbow4--,at the elbow1 the humerus articulates with the ulna--a slender bone on the inner side of the forearm--by a hinge joint which admits of motion in only two directions1 i4 e41 backward and forward4 ,the ulna is small at its lower end2 the radius1 or large bone of the forearm1 on the contrary1 is small at its upper end1 while it is large at its lower end1 where it forms the wrist joint4 ,at the elbow1 the head of the radius is convex and fits into a shallow cavity in the ulna1 while at the wrist the ulna plays in a similar socket in the radius4 ,thus the radius may roll over and even cross the ulna4 ,,the ,,wrist1 or carpus1 consists of two rows of very irregular bones1 one of which articulates with the forearm2 the other1 with the hand4 ,they are placed side to side1 and so firmly fastened as to admit of only a gliding motion4 ,this gives little play1 but great strength1 elasticity1 and power of resisting shocks4 ,,the ,,hand4--,the metacarpal 7meta1 beyond2 karpos1 wrist71 or bones of the palm1 support each a thumb or a finger4 ,each finger has three bones1 while the thumb has only two4 ,the first bone of the thumb1 standing apart from the rest1 enjoys a special freedom of motion1 and adds greatly to the usefulness of the hand4 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,bones of the ,hand and the ,wrist4 ,the first bone 7,figs4 #aa1 #ab7 of each finger is so attached to the corresponding metacarpal bone as to move in several directions upon it1 but the other phalanges form hinge joints4 ,the fingers are named in order3 the thumb1 the index1 the middle1 the ring1 and the little finger4 ,their different lengths cause them to fit the hollow of the hand when it is closed1 and probably enable us more easily to grasp objects of varying size4 ,if the hand clasps a ball1 the tips of the fingers will be in a straight line4 ,the hand in its perfection belongs only to man4 ,its elegance of outline1 delicacy of mold1 and beauty of color have made it the study of artists2 while its exquisite mobility and adaptation as a perfect instrument have led many philosophers to attribute man's superiority even more to the hand than to the mind4 ,footnote3 ,how constantly the hand aids us in explaining or enforcing a thought6 ,we affirm a fact by placing the hand as if we would rest it firmly on a body2 we deny by a gesture putting the false or erroneous proposition away from us2 we express doubt by holding the hand suspended1 as if hesitating whether to take or reject4 ,when we part from dear friends1 or greet them again after long absence1 the hand extends toward them as if to retain1 or to bring them sooner to us4 ,if a recital or a proposition is revolting1 we reject it energetically in gesture as in thought4 ,in a friendly adieu we wave our good wishes to him who is their object2 but when it expresses enmity1 by a brusque movement we sever every tie4 ,the open hand is carried backward to express fear or horror1 as well as to avoid contact2 it goes forward to meet the hand of friendship2 it is raised suppliantly in prayer toward ,him from whom we hope for help2 it caresses lovingly the downy cheek of the infant1 and rests on its head invoking the blessing of ,heaven1--,wonders of the ,human ,body4 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,the ,mechanism of the ,hip ,joint4 #b4 ,,the ,,lower ,,limbs4--,,the ,,hip--,the thigh bone1 or femur1 is the largest and necessarily the strongest in the skeleton1 since at every step it has to bear the weight of the whole body4 ,it articulates with the hip bone by a ball-and-socket joint4 ,unlike the shoulder joint1 the cup here is deep1 thus affording less play1 but greater strength4 ,it fits so tightly that the pressure of the air largely aids in keeping the bones in place4 ,footnote3 ,in order to test this1 a hole was bored through a hip bone1 so as to admit air into the socket1 the thigh bone at once fell out as far as the ligaments would permit4 ,an experiment was also devised whereby a suitably prepared hip joint was placed under the receiver of an air pump4 ,on exhausting the air1 the weight of the femur caused it to drop out of the socket1 while the readmission of the air raised it to its place4 ,without this arrangement1 the adjacent muscles would have been compelled to bear the additional weight of the thighbone every time it was raised4 ,now the pressure of the air rids them of this unnecessary burden1 and hence they are less easily fatigued--,,weber ,indeed1 when the muscles are cut away1 great force is required to detach the limbs4 ,,the ,,knee is strengthened by the patella1 or kneepan 7patella1 little dish71 a chestnut-shaped bone firmly fastened over the joint4 ,the shin bone1 or tibia1 the large1 triangular bone on the inner side of the leg1 articulates both with the femur and the foot by hinge joints4 ,the kneejoint is so made1 however1 as to admit of a slight rotary motion when the limb is not extended4 ,the fibula 7fibula1 a clasp71 the small1 outside bone of the leg1 is firmly bound at each end to the tibia4 7,see ,fig4 #a47 ,it is immovable1 and1 as the tibia bears the principal weight of the body1 the chief use of this second bone seems to be to give more surface to which the muscles may be attached4 ,footnote3 ,a young man in the hospital at ,limoges had lost the middle part of his tibia4 ,the lost bone was not reproduced1 but the fibula1 the naturally weak and slender part of the leg1 became thick and strong enough to support the whole body4--,,stanley',s ,lectures4 ,,the ,,foot4--,the general arrangement of the foot is strikingly like that of the hand 7,fig4 #a74 ,the several parts are the tarsus1 the metatarsus1 and the phalanges4 ,the graceful arch of the foot1 and the numerous bones joined by cartilages1 give an elasticity to the step that could never be attained by a single1 flat bone4 ,footnote3 ,the foot consists of an arch1 the base of which is more extended in front than behind1 and the whole weight of the body is made to fall on this arch by means of a variety of joints4 ,these joints further enable the foot to be applied1 without inconvenience1 to rough and uneven surfaces4--,,hinton4 ,the toes naturally lie straight forward in the line of the foot4 ,few persons in civilized nations1 however1 have naturally formed feet4 ,the big toe is crowded upon the others1 while crossed toes1 nails grown-in1 enormous joints1 corns1 and bunions abound4 ,,the ,,cause ,,of ,,these ,,deformities is found in the shape and size of fashionable boots and shoes4 ,the sole ought to be large enough for full play of motion1 the uppers should not crowd the toes1 and the heels should be low1 flat1 and broad4 ,as it is1 there is a constant warfare between ,nature and our shoemakers1 ,footnote3 ,when we are measured for boots or shoes1 we should stand on a sheet of paper1 and have the shoemaker mark with a pencil the exact outline of our feet as they bear our whole weight4 ,when the shoe is made1 the sole should exactly cover this outline4 and we are the victims4 ,the narrow point in front pinches our toes1 and compels them to override one another2 the narrow sole compresses the arch2 while the high heel1 by throwing all the weight forward on the toes1 strains the ankle1 and1 by sending the pressure where ,nature did not design it to fall1 causes that joint to become enlarged4 ,the body bends forward to meet the demand of this new motion1 and thus loses its uprightness and beauty1 making our gait stiff and ungraceful4 7,see p4 #bga47 ,,diseases1 ,,etc4--l4 ,rickets1 a disease of early life1 is caused by a lack of mineral matter in the bones1 rendering them soft and pliable1 so that they bend under the weight of the body4 ,they thus become permanently distorted1 and of course are weaker than if they were straight1 ,footnote3 ,just here appears an exceedingly beautiful provision4 ,as soon as the disproportion of animal matter ceases1 a larger supply of mineral is sent to the weak points1 and the bones actually become thicker1 denser1 harder1 and consequently stronger at the very concave part where the stress of pressure is greatest4--,,watson',s ,lectures4 ,we shall often have occasion to refer to similar wise and providential arrangements whereby the body is enabled to remedy defects1 and to prepare for accidents4 ,rickets is most common among children who have inherited a feeble constitution and who are ill fed1 or who live in damp1 ill-ventilated houses4 ,rickety children should have plenty of fresh air and sunlight1 nourishing food1 comfortable clothing1 and1 in short1 the best of hygienic care4 #b4 ,a ,felon is a swelling of the finger or thumb1 usually of the last joint4 ,it is marked by an accumulation beneath the periosteum and next the bone4 ,the physician will merely cut through the periosteum1 and let out the effete matter4 #c4 ,bowlegs are caused by children standing on their feet before the bones of the lower limbs are strong enough to bear their weight4 ,the custom of encouraging young children to stand by means of a chair or the support of the hand1 while the bones are yet soft and pliable1 is a cruel one1 and liable to produce permanent deformity4 ,nature will set the child on its feet when the proper time comes4 #d4 ,curvature of the ,spine4--,when the spine is bent1 the packing between the vertebr becomes compressed on one side into a wedge-like shape4 ,after a time1 it will lose its elasticity1 and the spine will become distorted4 ,this often occurs in the case of students who bend forward to bring their eyes nearer their books1 instead of lifting their books nearer their eyes1 or who raise their right shoulder above their left when writing at a desk which is too high4 ,round shoulders1 small1 weak lungs1 and1 frequently1 diseases of the spine are the consequences4 ,an erect posture in reading or writing conduces not alone to beauty of form1 but also to health of body4 ,we shall learn hereafter that the action of the muscles bears an important part in preserving the symmetry of the spine4 ,muscular strength comes from bodily activity2 hence1 one of the best preventives of spinal curvature is daily exercise in the open air4 #e4 ,sprains are produced when the ligaments which bind the bones of a joint are strained1 twisted1 or torn from their attachments4 ,they are quite as serious as a broken bone1 and require careful attention lest they lead to a crippling for life4 ,by premature use a sprained limb may be permanently impaired4 ,hence1 the joint should be kept quiet1 even after the immediate pain is gone4 #f4 ,a ,dislocation is the forcible displacement of a bone from its socket4 ,it is1 generally1 the result of a fall or a violent blow4 ,the tissues of the joint are often ruptured1 while the contraction of the muscles prevents the easy return of the bone to its place4 ,a dislocation should be reduced as soon as possible after the injury1 before inflammation supervenes4 ,,practical ,,questions4 #a4 ,why does not a fall hurt a child as much as it does a grown person8 #b4 ,should a young child ever be urged to stand or walk8 #c4 ,what is meant by breaking one's neck8 #d4 ,should chairs or benches have straight backs8 #e4 ,should a child's feet be allowed to dangle from a high seat8 #f4 ,why can we tell whether a fowl is young by pressing on the point of the breastbone8 #g4 ,what is the use of the marrow in the bones8 #h4 ,why is the shoulder so often put out of joint8 #i4 ,how can you tie a knot in a bone8 #aj4 ,why are high pillows injurious8 #aa4 ,is a stooping posture a healthful position8 #ab4 ,should a boot have a heel piece8 #ac4 ,why should one always sit and walk erect8 #ad4 ,why does a young child creep rather than walk8 #ae4 ,what is the natural direction of the big toe8 #af4 ,what is the difference between a sprain and a fracture8 ,a dislocation8 #ag4 ,does the general health of the system affect the strength of the bones8 #ah4 ,is living bone sensitive8 ,ans4--,scrape a bone1 and its vessels bleed2 cut or bore a bone1 and its granulations sprout up2 break a bone1 and it will heal2 cut a piece away1 and more bone will readily be produced2 hurt it in any way1 and it inflames2 burn it1 and it dies4 ,take any proof of sensibility but the mere feeling of pain1 and it will answer to the proof4--,,bell',s ,anatomy4 ,animal sensibility would be inconvenient2 it is therefore not to be found except in diseased bone1 where it sometimes exhibits itself too acutely4--,,todd',s ,cyclopedia of ,anatomy4 #ai4 ,is the constitution of bone the same in animals as in man8 ,ans4--,the bones of quadrupeds do not differ much from those of man4 ,in general they are of a coarser texture1 and in some1 as in those of the elephant's head1 we find extensive air cells4--,,todd',s ,anatomy4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,muscles4 ,behold the outward moving frame1 ,its living marbles jointed strong ,with glistening band and silvery thong1 ,and link'd to reason's guiding reins ,by myriad rings in trembling chains1 ,each graven with the threaded zone ,which claims it as the ,master's own4 ,,holmes4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,muscles4 #a4 ,the ,use of the ,muscles4 #b4 ,contractility of the ,muscles4 #c4 ,arrangement of the ,muscles4 #a4 ,,the ,,use1 ,,structure #d4 ,the two ,kinds of ,muscles4 ,,and ,,action ,,of ,,the #e4 ,the ,structure of the ,muscles4 ,,muscles4 #f4 ,the ,tendons for ,fastening ,muscles4 #g4 ,the ,muscles and ,bones as ,levers4 #h4 ,the ,effect of ,big ,joints4 #i4 ,action of the ,muscles in ,walking4 #aj4 ,action of the ,muscles in ,walking4 #b4 ,,the ,,muscular ,,sense4 #c4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the #a4 ,necessity of ,exercise4 ,,muscles4 #b4 ,time for ,exercise4 #c4 ,kinds of ,exercise4 #d4 ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,muscles4 #a4 ,st4 ,vitus's ,dance4 #b4 ,convulstions4 #c4 ,locked-jaw4 #e4 ,,diseases4 #d4 ,gout4 #e4 ,rheumatism4 #f4 ,lumbago4 #g4 ,a ,ganglion4 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,illustration ,,the ,,muscles4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,muscles4--,the skeleton is the image of death4 ,its unsightly appearance instinctively repels us4 ,we have seen1 however1 what uses it subserves in the body1 and how the ugly-looking bones abound in nice contrivances and ingenious workmanship4 ,in life1 the framework is hidden by the flesh4 ,this covering is a mass of muscles1 which by their arrangement and their properties not only give form and symmetry to the body1 but also produce its varied movements4 ,in ,fig4 #ad1 we see the large exterior muscles4 ,beneath these are many others2 while deeply hidden within are tiny1 delicate ones1 too small to be seen with the naked eye4 ,there are1 in all1 about five hundred1 each having its special use1 and all working in exquisite harmony and perfection4 ,,contractility4--,the peculiar property of the muscles is their power of contraction1 whereby they decrease in length and increase in thickness4 ,footnote3 ,the maximum force of this contraction has been estimated as high as from eighty-five to one hundred and fourteen pounds per square inch4 ,this may be caused by an effort of the will1 by cold1 by a sharp blow1 etc4 ,it does not cease at death1 but1 in certain cold-blooded animals1 a contraction of the muscles is often noticed long after the head has been cut off4 ,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,muscles4 ,footnote3 ,could we behold properly the muscular fibers in operation1 nothing1 as a mere mechanical exhibition1 can be conceived more superb than the intricate and combined actions that must take place during our most common movements4 ,look at a person running or leaping1 or watch the motions of the eye4 ,how rapid1 how delicate1 how complicated1 and yet how accurate1 are the motions required6 ,think of the endurance of such a muscle as the heart1 that can contract1 with a force equal to sixty pounds1 seventy-five times every minute1 for eighty years together1 without being weary4--,the muscles are nearly all arranged in pairs1 each with its antagonist1 so that1 as they contract and expand alternately1 the bone to which they are attached is moved to and fro4 7,see p4 #bge47 ,if you grasp the arm tightly with your hand just above the elbow joint1 and bend the forearm1 you will feel the muscle on the inside 7biceps1 a1 ,fig4 #ad7 swell1 and become hard and prominent1 while the outside muscle 7triceps1 f7 will be relaxed4 ,now straighten the arm1 and the swelling and hardness of the inside muscle will vanish1 while the outside one will1 in turn1 become rigid4 ,so1 also1 if you clasp the arm just below the elbow1 and then open and shut the fingers1 you can feel the alternate expanding and relaxing of the muscles on opposite sides of the arms4 ,if the muscles on one side of the face become palsied1 those on the other side will draw the mouth that way4 ,squinting is caused by one of the straight muscles of the eye 7,fig4 #ag7 contracting more strongly than its antagonist4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,muscles4--,there are two kinds of muscles1 the voluntary1 which are under the control of our will1 and the involuntary1 which are not4 ,thus our limbs stiffen or relax as we please1 but the heart beats on by day and by night4 ,the eyelid1 however1 is both voluntary and involuntary1 so that while we wink constantly without effort1 we can1 to a certain extent1 restrain or control the motion4 ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,muscles4--,if we take a piece of lean beef and wash out the red color1 we can easily detect the fine fibers of which the meat is composed4 ,in boiling corned beef for the table1 the fibers often separate1 owing to the dissolving of the delicate tissue which bound them together4 ,by means of the microscope1 we find that these fibers are made up of minute filaments 7fibrils71 and that each fibril is composed of a row of small cells arranged like a string of beads4 ,this gives the muscles a peculiar striped 7striated7 appearance4 ,footnote3 ,the involuntary muscles consist generally of smooth1 fibrous tissue1 and form sheets or membranes in the walls of hollow organs4 ,by their contraction they change the size of cavities which they inclose4 ,some functions1 however1 like the action of the heart1 or the movements of deglutition 7swallowing71 require the rapid1 vigorous contraction1 characteristic of the voluntary muscular tissue--,,flint4 7,see p4 #bgf47 ,the cells are filled with a fluid or semifluid mass of living 7protoplasmic7 matter4 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,microscopic view of a ,muscle1 showing1 at one end1 the fibrill2 and1 at the other1 the disks1 or cells1 of the fiber4 ,the binding of so many threads into one bundle ,footnote3 ,we shall learn hereafter how these fibers are firmly tied together by a mesh of fine connective tissue which dissolves in boiling1 as just described confers great strength1 according to a mechanical principle that we see exemplified in suspension bridges1 where the weight is sustained1 not by bars of iron1 but by small wires twisted into massive ropes4 ,,fig4 #af4 ,illustration3 ,tendons of the ,hand4 ,,the ,,tendons4--,the ends of the muscles are generally attached to the bone by strong1 flexible1 but inelastic tendons4 ,footnote3 ,the tendons may be easily seen in the leg of a turkey as it comes on our table2 so we may study ,physiology while we pick the bones4 ,the muscular fibers spring from the sides of the tendon1 so that more of them can act upon the bone than if they went directly to it4 ,besides1 the small1 insensible tendon can better bear the exposure of passing over a joint1 and be more easily lodged in some protecting groove1 than the broad1 sensitive muscle4 ,this mode of attachment gives to the limbs strength1 and elegance of form4 ,thus1 for example1 if the large muscles of the arm extended to the hand1 they would make it bulky and clumsy4 ,the tendons1 however1 reach only to the wrist1 whence fine cords pass to the fingers 7,fig4 #af74 ,here we notice two other admirable arrangements4 #a4 ,if the long tendons at the wrist on contracting should rise1 projections would be made and thus the beauty of the slender joint be marred4 ,to prevent this1 a stout band or bracelet of ligament holds them down to their place4 #b4 ,in order to allow the tendon which moves the last joint of the finger to pass through1 the tendon which moves the second joint divides at its attachment to the bone 7,fig4 #af74 ,this is the most economical mode of packing the muscles1 as any other practicable arrangement would increase the bulk of the slender finger4 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,illustration3 ,muscles of the ,right ,eye3 ,a1 superior straight1 ,b1 superior oblique passing through a pulley1 ,d2 ,g1 inferior oblique1 ,h1 external straight1 and1 back of it1 the internal straight muscle4 ,since the tendon can not always pull in the direction of the desired motion1 some contrivance is necessary to meet the want4 ,the tendon 7,b7 belonging to one of the muscles of the eye1 for example1 passes through a ring of cartilage1 and thus a rotary motion is secured4 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration3 ,the three classes of ,levers1 and also the foot as a ,lever4 ,,the ,,levers ,,of ,,the ,,body4 ,footnote3 ,a lever is a stiff bar resting on a point of support1 called the fulcrum 7,f71 and having connected with it a weight 7,w7 to be lifted1 and a power 7,p7 to move it4 ,there are three classes of levers according to the arrangement of the power1 weight1 and fulcrum4 ,in the first class1 the ,f is between the ,p and ,w2 in the second1 the ,w is between the ,p and ,f2 and in the third1 the ,p is between the ,w and ,f 7,fig4 #ah74 ,a pump handle is an example of the first2 a lemon squeezer1 of the second2 and a pair of fire tongs1 of the third4 ,see ,popular ,physics1 pp4 #ha-hc1 for a full description of this subject1 and for many illustrations4--,in producing the motions of the body1 the muscles use the bones as levers4 ,we see an illustration of the first class of levers in the movements of the head4 ,the back or front of the head is the weight to be lifted1 the backbone is the fulcrum on which the lever turns1 and the muscles at the back or front of the neck exert the power by which we toss or bow the head4 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,illustration3 ,the hand as a ,lever of the third class4 ,when we raise the body on tiptoe1 we have an instance of the second class4 ,here1 our toes resting on the ground form the fulcrum the muscles of the calf 7gas-troc-ne'-mi-us1 j and so-le'-us1 ,fig4 #ad71 acting through the tendon of the heel1 ,footnote3 ,this is called the ,tendon of ,achilles 7k1 ,fig4 #ad7 and is so named because1 as the fable runs1 when ,achilles was an infant his mother held him by the heel while she dipped him in the ,river ,styx1 whose water had the power of rendering one invulnerable to any weapon4 ,his heel1 not being wet1 was his weak point1 to which ,paris directed the fatal arrow--,this tendon1 says ,mapother1 will bear one thousand pounds weight before it will break4 ,the horse is said to be hamstrung1 and is rendered useless1 when the ,tendon of ,achilles is cut4 7see p4 #bhd47 are the power and the weight is borne by the ankle joint4 ,an illustration of the third class is found in lifting the hand from the elbow4 ,the hand is the weight1 the elbow the fulcrum1 and the power is applied by the biceps muscle at its attachment to the radius 7,a1 ,fig4 #ai47 ,in this form of the lever there is great loss of force1 because it is applied at such a distance from the weight1 but there is a gain of velocity1 since the hand moves so far by such a slight contraction of the muscle4 ,the hand is required to perform quick motions1 and therefore this mode of attachment is desirable4 ,the nearer the power is applied to the resistance1 the more easily the work is done4 ,in the lower jaw1 for example1 the jaw is the weight1 the fulcrum is the hinge joint at the back1 and the muscles 7temporal1 d1 and the mas'-se'ter1 e1 ,fig4 #ad7 on each side are the power4 ,footnote3 ,we may feel the contraction of the masseter by placing our hand on the face when we work the jaw1 while the temporal can be readily detected by putting the fingers on the temple while we are chewing4 ,the tendon of the muscle 7digastric7--one of those which open the jaw--passes through a pulley 7c1 ,fig4 #ad7 somewhat like the one in the eye4 ,they act much closer to the resistance than those in the hand1 since here we desire force1 and there1 speed4 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,illustration3 ,the ,kneejoint2 k1 the patella2 f1 the tendon4 ,,the ,,enlargement ,,of ,,the ,,bones ,,at ,,the ,,joints not only affords greater surface for the attachment of the muscles1 as we have seen1 but also enables them to work to better advantage4 ,thus1 in ,fig4 #bj it is evident that a muscle acting in the line f b would not bend the lower limb so easily as if it were acting in the line f k1 since in the former case its force would be about all spent in drawing the bones more closely together1 while in the latter it would pull more nearly at a right angle4 ,thus the tendon f1 by passing over the patella1 which is itself pushed out by the protuberance b of the thigh bone1 pulls at a larger angle1 ,footnote3 ,the chief use of the processes of the spine 7,fig4 #f7 and other bones is1 in the same way1 to throw out the point on which the power acts as far from the fulcrum as possible4 ,the projections of the ulna 7funny bone7 behind the elbow1 and that of the heel bone to which the ,tendon of ,achilles is attached1 are excellent illustrations 7,fig4 #a74 and so the leg is thrown forward with ease in walking and with great force in kicking4 ,,how ,,we ,,stand ,,erect4--,the joints play so easily1 and the center of gravity in the body is so far above the foot1 that the skeleton can not of itself hold our bodies upright4 ,thus it requires the action of many muscles to maintain this position4 ,the head so rests upon the spine as to tend to fall in front1 but the muscles of the neck steady it in its place4 ,footnote3 ,in animals the jaws are so heavy1 and the place where the head and spine join is so far back1 that there can be no balance as there is in man4 ,there are therefore large muscles in their necks4 ,we readily find that we have none if we get on all fours and try to hold up the head4 ,on the other hand1 gorillas and apes can not stand erect like man1 for the reason that their head1 trunk1 legs1 etc41 are not balanced by muscles1 so as to be in line with one another4 ,the hips incline forward1 but are held erect by the strong muscles of the back4 ,the trunk is nicely balanced on the head of the thigh bones4 ,the great muscles of the thigh acting over the kneepan tend to bend the body forward1 but the muscles of the calf neutralize this action4 ,the ankle1 the knee1 and the hip lie in nearly the same line1 and thus the weight of the body rests directly on the keystone of the arch of the foot4 ,so perfectly do these muscles act that we never think of them until science calls our attention to the subject1 and yet to acquire the necessary skill to use them in our infancy needed patient lessons1 much time1 and many hard knocks4 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,illustration3 ,action of the ,muscles which keep the body erect4 ,,how ,,we ,,walk4--,walking is as complex an act as standing4 ,it is really a perilous performance1 which has become safe only because of constant practice4 ,we see how violent it is when we run against a post in the dark1 and find with what headlong force we were hurling ourselves forward4 ,holmes has well defined walking as a perpetual falling with a constant self-recovery4 ,standing on one foot1 we let the body fall forward1 while we swing the other leg ahead like a pendulum4 ,planting that foot on the ground1 to save the body from falling farther1 we then swing the first foot forward again to repeat the same operation4 ,footnote3 ,it is a curious fact that one side of the body tends to outwalk the other2 and so1 when a man is lost in the woods1 he often goes in a circle1 and at last comes round to the spot whence he started4 ,the shorter the pendulum1 the more rapidly it vibrates2 and so short- legged people take quicker and shorter steps than long-legged ones4 ,footnote3 ,in this respect1 ,tom ,thumb was to ,magrath1 whose skeleton1 eight and one half feet high1 is now in the ,dublin ,museum1 what a little fast-ticking1 ,french mantel clock is to a big1 old-fashioned1 upright1 corner timepiece4 ,we are shorter when walking than when standing still1 because of this falling forward to take a step in advance4 ,footnote3 ,women find that a gown that will swing clear of the ground when they are standing still1 will drag the street when they are walking4 ,the length of the step may be increased by muscular effort1 as when a line of soldiers keep step in spite of their having legs of different lengths4 ,such a mode of walking is necessarily fatiguing4 7,see p4 #bhj47 ,in running1 we incline the body more1 and so1 as it were1 fall faster4 ,when we walk1 one foot is on the ground all the time1 and there is an instant when both feet are planted upon it2 but in running there is an interval of time in each step when both feet are off the ground1 and the body is wholly unsupported4 ,as we step alternately with the feet1 we are inclined to turn the body first to one side and then to the other4 ,this movement is sometimes counterbalanced by swinging the hand on the opposite side4 ,footnote3 ,in ordinary walking the speed is nearly four miles an hour1 and can be kept up for a long period4 ,but exercise and a special aptitude for it enable some men to walk great distances in a relatively short space of time4 ,trained walkers have gone seventy-five miles in twenty hours1 and walked the distance of thirty-seven miles at the rate of five miles an hour4 ,the mountaineers of the ,alps are generally good walkers1 and some of them are not less remarkable for endurance than for speed4 ,jacques ,balmat1 who was the first to reach the summit of ,mont ,blanc1 at sixteen years of age could walk from the hamlet of the ,plerins to the mountain of ,la ,cte in two hours1--a distance which the best- trained travelers required from five to six hours to get over4 ,at the time of his last attempt to reach the top of ,mont ,blanc1 this same guide1 then twenty years old1 passed six days and four nights without sleeping or reposing a single moment4 ,one of his sons1 douard ,balmat1 left ,paris to join his regiment at ,genoa2 he reached ,chamouni the fifth day at evening1 having walked three hundred and forty miles4 ,after resting two days1 he set off again for ,genoa1 where he arrived in two days4 ,several years afterward1 this same man left the baths at ,louche at two o'clock in the morning1 and reached ,chamouni at nine in the evening1 having walked a distance equal to about seventy-five miles in nineteen hours4 ,in #ahdd1 an old guide of ,de ,saussure1 eighty years old1 left the hamlet of ,prats1 in the valley of ,chamouni1 in the afternoon1 and reached the ,grand-,mulets at ten in the evening2 then1 after resting some hours1 he climbed the glacier to the vicinity of the ,grand ,plateau1 which has an altitude of about thirteen thousand feet1 and then returned to his village without stopping4--,wonders of the ,body4 ,,the ,,muscular ,,sense4--,when we lift an object1 we feel a sensation of weight1 which we can compare with that experienced in lifting another body4 ,footnote3 ,if a small ivory ball be allowed to roll down the cheek toward the lips1 it will appear to increase in weight4 ,in general1 the more sensitive parts of the body recognize smaller differences in weight1 and the right hand is more accurate than the left4 ,we are very apt1 however1 to judge of the weight of a body from previous conceptions4 ,thus1 shortly after ,sir ,humphrey ,davy discovered the metal potassium1 he placed a piece of it in the hand of ,dr4 ,pierson1 who exclaimed3 ,bless me6 ,how heavy it is6 ,really1 however1 potassium is so light that it will float on water like cork4 ,by balancing it in the hand4 ,the muscular sense is useful to us in many ways4 ,it guides us in standing or moving4 ,we gratify it when we walk erect and with an elastic step1 and by dancing1 jumping1 skating1 and gymnastic exercises4 ,,necessity ,,of ,,exercise4--,the effect of exercise upon a muscle is very marked4 ,footnote3 ,the greater size of the breast 7pectoral muscle7 of a pigeon1 as compared with that of a duck1 shows how muscle increases with use4 ,the breast of a chicken is white because it is not used for flight1 and therefore gets little blood4 ,by use it grows larger1 and becomes hard1 compact1 and darker-colored2 by disuse it decreases in size1 and becomes soft1 flabby1 and pale4 ,violent exercise1 however1 is injurious1 since we then tear down faster than nature can build up4 ,feats of strength are not only hurtful1 but dangerous4 ,often the muscles are strained or ruptured1 and blood vessels burst in the effort to outdo one's companions4 ,footnote3 ,instances have been known of children falling dead from having carried to excess so pleasant and healthful an amusement as jumping the rope1 and of persons rupturing the ,tendon of ,achilles in dancing4 ,the competitive lifting of heavy weights is unwise1 sometimes fatal4 7,see p4 #bgh47 ,two thousand years ago1 ,isocrates1 the ,greek rhetorician1 said3 ,exercise for health1 not for strength4 ,the cultivation of muscle for its own sake is a return to barbarism1 while it enfeebles the mind1 and ultimately the body4 ,the ancient gymnasts are said to have become prematurely old1 and the trained performers of our own day soon suffer from the strain they put upon their muscular system4 ,few men have sufficient vigor to become both athletes and scholars4 ,exercise should1 therefore1 merely supplement the deficiency of our usual employment4 ,a sedentary life needs daily1 moderate exercise1 which always stops short of fatigue4 ,this is a law of health4 7,see p4 #bhj47 ,no education is complete which fails to provide for the development of the muscles4 ,recesses should be as strictly devoted to play as study hours are to work4 ,were gymnastics or calisthenics as regular an exercise as grammar or arithmetic1 fewer pupils would be compelled to leave school on account of ill health2 while spinal curvatures1 weak backs1 and ungraceful gaits would no longer characterize so many of our best institutions4 ,,time ,,for ,,exercise4--,we should not exercise after long abstinence from food1 nor immediately after a meal1 unless the meal or the exercise be very light4 ,there is an old-fashioned prejudice in favor of exercise before breakfast--an hour suited to the strong and healthy1 but entirely unfitted to the weak and delicate4 ,on first rising in the morning1 the pulse is low1 the skin relaxed1 and the system susceptible to cold4 ,feeble persons1 therefore1 need to be braced with food before they brave the outdoor air4 ,,what ,,kind ,,of ,,excercise ,,to ,,take4--,for children1 games are unequaled4 ,walking1 the universal exercise1 ,footnote3 ,the custom of walking1 so prevalent in ,england1 has doubtless much to do with the superior physique of its people4 ,it is considered nothing for a woman to take a walk of eight or ten miles1 and long pedestrian excursions are made to all parts of the country4 ,the benefits which accrue from such an open-air life are sadly needed by the women of our own land4 ,a walk of half a dozen miles should be a pleasant recreation for any healthy person4 is beneficial1 as it takes one into the open air and sunlight4 ,running is better1 since it employs more muscles1 but it must not be pushed to excess1 as it taxes the heart1 and may lead to disease of that organ4 ,rowing is more effectual in its general development of the system4 ,swimming employs the muscles of the whole body1 and is a valuable acquirement1 as it may be the means of saving life4 ,horseback riding is a fine accomplishment1 and refreshes both mind and body4 ,gymnastic or calisthenic exercises bring into play all the muscles of the body1 and when carefully selected1 and not immoderately employed1 are preferable to any other mode of indoor exercise4 ,footnote3 ,the employment of the muscles in exercise not only benefits their especial structure1 but it acts on the whole system4 ,when the muscles are put in action1 the capillary blood vessels with which they are supplied become more rapidly charged with blood1 and active changes take place1 not only in the muscles1 but in all the surrounding tissues4 ,the heart is required to supply more blood1 and accordingly beats more rapidly in order to meet the demand4 ,a larger quantity of blood is sent through the lungs1 and larger supplies of oxygen are taken in and carried to the various tissues4 ,the oxygen1 by combining with the carbon of the blood and the tissues1 engenders a larger quantity of heat1 which produces an action on the skin1 in order that the superfluous warmth may be disposed of4 ,the skin is thus exercised1 as it were1 and the sudoriparous and sebaceous glands are set at work4 ,the lungs and skin are brought into operation1 and the lungs throw off large quantities of carbonic acid1 and the skin large quantities of water1 containing in solution matters which1 if retained1 would produce disease in the body4 ,wherever the blood is sent1 changes of a healthful character occur4 ,the brain and the rest of the nervous system are invigorated1 the stomach has its powers of digestion improved1 and the liver1 pancreas1 and other organs perform their functions with more vigor4 ,by want of exercise1 the constituents of the food which pass into the blood are not oxidized1 and products which produce disease are engendered4 ,the introduction of fresh supplies of oxygen induced by exercise oxidizes these products1 and renders them harmless4 ,as a rule1 those who exercise most in the open air will live the longest4--,,lankester4 7,see p4 #bhj47 ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,muscles4--,the grace1 ease1 and rapidity with which the muscles contract are astonishing4 ,by practice1 they acquire a facility which we call mechanical4 ,the voice may utter one thousand five hundred letters in a minute1 yet each requires a distinct position of the vocal organs4 ,we train the muscles of the fingers till they glide over the keys of the piano1 executing the most exquisite and difficult harmony4 ,in writing1 each letter is formed by its peculiar motions1 yet we make them so unconsciously that a skillful penman will describe beautiful curves while thinking only of the idea that the sentence is to express4 ,the mind of the violinist is upon the music which his right hand is executing1 while his left determines the length of the string and the character of each note so carefully that not a false sound is heard1 although the variation of a hair's breadth would cause a discord4 ,in the arm of a blacksmith1 the biceps muscle may grow into the solidity almost of a club2 the hand of a prize fighter will strike a blow like a sledge hammer2 while the engraver traces lines invisible to the naked eye1 and the fingers of the blind acquire a delicacy that almost supplies the place of the missing sense4 ,,diseases1 ,,etc4--l4 ,st4 ,vitus's ,dance is a disease of the voluntary muscles1 whereby they are in frequent1 irregular1 and spasmodic motion beyond the control of the will4 ,all causes of excitement1 and especially of fear1 should be avoided1 and the general health of the patient invigorated1 as this disease is closely connected with a derangement of the nervous system4 #b4 ,convulsions are an involuntary contraction of the muscles4 ,consciousness is wanting1 while the limbs may be stiff or in spasmodic action4 7,see p4 #bfa47 #c4 ,locked-jaw is a disease in which there are spasms and a contraction of the muscles1 usually beginning in the lower jaw4 ,it is serious1 often fatal1 yet it sometimes follows as trivial an injury as the stroke of a whip lash1 the lodgment of a bone in the throat1 a fishhook in the finger1 or a tack in the sole of the foot4 #d4 ,gout is characterized by an acute pain located chiefly in the small joints of the foot1 especially those of the great toe1 which become swollen and extremely sensitive4 ,it is generally accompanied by an excess of uric acid in the blood1 and a deposit of urate of soda about the affected joint4 ,gout is often the result of high living1 and of too much animal food4 ,it is frequently inherited4 #e4 ,rheumatism affects mainly the connective1 white1 fibrous tissue of the larger joints4 ,while gout is the punishment of the rich who live luxuriously1 rheumatism afflicts alike the poor and the rich4 ,there are two common forms of rheumatism--the inflammatory or acute1 and the chronic4 ,the latter is of long continuance2 the former terminates more speedily4 ,the acute form is probably a disease of the blood1 which carries with it some poisonous matter that is deposited where the fibrous tissue is most abundant4 ,the disease flies capriciously from one joint to another1 and the pain caused by even the slightest motion deprives the sufferer of the use of the disabled part and its muscles4 ,its chief danger lies in the possibility of its affecting the vital organs4 ,chronic rheumatism--the result of repeated attacks of the acute--leads to great suffering1 and oftentimes to disorganization of the joints and an interference with the movements of the heart4 #f4 ,lumbago is an inflammation of the lumbar muscles and fascia4 ,footnote3 ,lumbago is really a form of myalgia1 a disease which1 has its seat in the muscles1 and may thus affect any part of the body4 ,doubtless much of what is commonly called liver or kidney complaint is only1 in one case1 myalgia of the chest or abdominal walls near the liver1 or1 in the other1 of the back and loins near the kidneys4 ,chronic liver disease is comparatively rare in the ,northern ,states1 and pain in the side is not a prominent symptom2 while certain diseases of the kidneys1 which are as surely fatal as pulmonary consumption1 are not attended by pain in the back opposite these organs4--,,wey4 ,it may be so moderate as to produce only a lame back1 or so severe as to disable1 as in the case of what is popularly termed a crick in the back4 ,strong swimmers who sometimes drown without apparent cause are supposed to be seized in this way4 #g4 ,a ,ganglion1 or what is vulgarly called a weak or weeping sinew1 is the swelling of a bursa4 ,footnote3 ,a bursa is a small sack containing a lubricating fluid to prevent friction where tendons play over hard surfaces4 ,there is one shaped like an hourglass on the wrist1 just at the edge of the palm4 ,by pressing back the liquid it contains1 this bursa may be clearly seen4 ,it sometimes becomes so distended by fluid as to be mistaken for bone4 ,if on binding something hard upon it for a few days it does not disappear1 a physician will remove the liquid by means of a hypodermic syringe1 or perhaps cause it to be absorbed by an external application of iodine4 ,,practical ,,questions4 #a4 ,what class of lever is the foot when we lift a weight on the toes8 #b4 ,explain the movement of the body backward and forward1 when resting upon the thigh bone as a fulcrum4 #c4 ,what class of lever do we use when we lift the foot while sitting down8 #d4 ,explain the swing of the arm from the shoulder4 #e4 ,what class of lever is used in bending our fingers8 #f4 ,what class of lever is our foot when we tap the ground with our toes8 #g4 ,what class of lever do we use when we raise ourselves from a stooping position8 #h4 ,what class of lever is the foot when we walk8 #i4 ,why can we raise a heavier weight with our hand when lifting from the elbow than from the shoulder8 #aj4 ,what class of lever do we employ when we are hopping1 the thigh bone being bent up toward the body and not used8 #aa4 ,describe the motions of the bones when we are using a gimlet4 #ab4 ,why do we tire when we stand erect8 #ac4 ,why does it rest us to change our work8 #ad4 ,why and when is dancing a beneficial exercise8 #ae4 ,why can we exert greater force with the back teeth than with the front ones8 #af4 ,why do we lean forward when we wish to rise from a chair8 #ag4 ,why does the projection of the heel bone make walking easier8 #ah4 ,does a horse travel with less fatigue over a flat than a hilly country8 #ai4 ,can you move your upper jaw8 #bj4 ,are people naturally right or left-handed8 #ba4 ,why can so few persons move their ears by the muscles8 #bb4 ,is the blacksmith's right arm healthier than the left8 #bc4 ,boys often1 though foolishly1 thrust a pin into the flesh just above the knee4 ,why is it not painful8 #bd4 ,will ten minutes' practice in a gymnasium answer for a day's exercise8 #be4 ,why would an elastic tendon be unfitted to transmit the motion of a muscle8 #bf4 ,when one is struck violently on the head1 why does he instantly fall8 #bg4 ,what is the cause of the difference between light and dark meat in a fowl8 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,skin4 ,a protection from the outer world1 it is our only means of communicating with it4 ,insensible itself1 it is the organ of touch4 ,it feels the pressure of a hair1 yet bears the weight of the body4 ,it yields to every motion of that which it wraps and holds in place4 ,it hides from view the delicate organs within1 yet the faintest tint of a thought shines through1 while the soul paints upon it1 as on a canvas1 the richest and rarest of colors4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,skin4 #a4 ,the ,cutis2 its ,composition and ,character4 #a4 ,,the ,,structure #b4 ,the ,cuticle2 its ,composition and ,character4 ,,of ,,the ,,skin4 #c4 ,the ,value of the ,cuticle4 #d4 ,the ,complexion4 a4 ,description4 b4 ,method of ,growth4 #a4 ,the ,hair44444 c4 ,as an ,instrument of ,feeling4 #b4 ,,the ,,hair ,,and d4 ,indestructibility of ,,the ,,nails4 the ,hair4 #b4 ,the ,nails4444 a4 ,uses4 b4 ,method of ,growth4 #c4 ,,the ,,mucous #a4 ,the ,structure4 ,,membrane #b4 ,connective ,tissue4 #c4 ,fat4 #a4 ,number and ,kinds of ,teeth4 #a4 ,the ,two ,sets4 #a4 ,the ,milk ,teeth4 #b4 ,the ,permanent ,teeth4 #d4 ,,the ,,teeth4 #b4 ,structure of the ,teeth4 #c4 ,the ,setting of the ,tooth in the ,jaw4 #d4 ,the ,decay of the ,teeth4 #e4 ,the ,preservation of the ,teeth4 #a4 ,the ,two ,kinds4 #a4 ,oil ,glands4 #b4 ,perpiratory ,glands4 #e4 ,,the ,,glands #b4 ,the ,perspiration4 #c4 ,the ,absorbing ,power of the ,skin4 7,see ,lymphatics47 #a4 ,about ,washing and ,bathing4 #b4 ,the ,reaction4 #c4 ,sea ,bathing4 #f4 ,,hygiene a4 ,general ,principles4 b4 ,linen4 c4 ,cotton4 #d4 ,clothing4444444 d4 ,woolen4 e4 ,flannel4 f4 ,color of ,clothing4 g4 ,structure of ,clothing4 h4 ,insufficient ,clothing4 #a4 ,erysipelas4 #b4 ,salt ,rheum4 #g4 ,,diseases4 #c4 ,corns4 #d4 ,ingrowing ,nails4 #e4 ,warts4 #f4 ,chilblains4 ,,the ,,skin4 ,,the ,,skin is a tough1 thin1 close-fitting garment for the protection of the tender flesh4 ,its perfect elasticity beautifully adapts it to every motion of the body4 ,we shall learn hereafter that it is more than a mere covering1 being an active organ1 which does its part in the work of keeping in order the house in which we live4 ,it oils itself to preserve its smoothness and delicacy1 replaces itself as fast as it wears out1 and is at once the perfection of use and beauty4 #a4 ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,skin4 ,,cutis ,,and ,,cuticle4--,what we commonly call the skin--viz41 the part raised by a blister--is only the cuticle ,footnote3 ,cuticula1 little skin4 ,it is often styled the scarfskin1 and also the epidermis 7epi1 upon2 and derma1 skin74 or covering of the cutis or true skin4 ,the latter is full of nerves and blood vessels1 while the former neither bleeds ,footnote3 ,we notice this in shaving2 for if a razor goes below the cuticle1 it is followed by pain and blood4 ,so insensible is this outer layer that we can run a pin through the thick mass at the roots of the nails without discomfort4 nor gives rise to pain1 neither suffers from heat nor feels the cold4 ,the cuticle is composed of small1 flat cells or scales4 ,these are constantly shed from the surface in the form of scurf1 dandruff1 etc41 but are as constantly renewed from the cutis ,footnote3 ,we see how rapidly this change goes on by noticing how soon a stain of any kind disappears from the skin4 ,a snake throws off its cuticle entire1 and at regular intervals4 below4 ,under the microscope1 we can see the round cells of the cuticle1 and how they are flattened and hardened as they are forced to the surface4 ,the immense number of these cells surpasses comprehension4 ,in one square inch of the cuticle1 counting only those in a single layer1 there are over a billion horny scales1 each complete in itself4--,,harting4 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,illustration3 ,a represents a vertical section of the ,cuticle4 ,b1 lateral view of the cells4 ,c1 flat side of scales like d1 magnified #bej diameters1 showing the nucleated cells transformed into broad scales4 ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,cuticle4--,in the palm of the hand1 the sole of the foot1 and other parts especially liable to injury1 the cuticle is very thick4 ,this is a most admirable provision for their protection4 ,footnote3 ,we can hold the hand in strong brine with impunity1 but the smart will quickly tell us when there is even a scratch in the skin4 ,vaccine matter must be inserted beneath the cuticle to take effect4 ,this membrane doubtless prevents many poisonous substances from entering the system4 ,by use1 it becomes callous and horny4 ,the boy who goes out barefoot for the first time1 treading as if on eggs1 can soon run where he pleases among thistles and over stones4 ,the blacksmith handles hot iron without pain1 while the mason lays stones and works in lime1 without scratching or corroding his flesh4 ,,the ,,complexion4--,in the freshly made cells on the lower side of the cuticle1 is a pigment composed of tiny grains4 ,footnote3 ,these grains are about #a_/bjjj of an inch in diameter1 and1 curiously enough1 do not appear opaque1 but transparent and nearly colorless4--,,marshall4 ,in the varying tint of this coloring matter1 lies the difference of hue between the blonde and the brunette1 the ,european and the ,african4 ,in the purest complexion1 there is some of this pigment1 which1 however1 disappears as the fresh1 round1 soft cells next the cutis change into the old1 flat1 horny scales at the surface4 ,scars are white1 because this part of the cuticle is not restored4 ,the sun has a powerful effect upon the coloring matter1 and so we readily tan on exposure to its rays4 ,if the color gathers in spots1 it forms freckles4 ,footnote3 ,this action of the sun on the pigment of the skin is very marked4 ,even among the ,africans1 the skin is observed to lose its intense black color in those who live for many months in the shades of the forest4 ,it is said that ,asiatic and ,african women confined within the walls of the harem1 and thus secluded from the sun1 are as fair as ,europeans4 ,among the ,jews who have settled in ,northern ,europe1 are many of light complexion1 while those who live in ,india are as dark as the ,hindoos4 ,intense heat also increases this coloring matter1 and thus a furnace-man's skin1 even where protected by clothing1 becomes completely bronzed4 ,the black pigment has been known to disappear during severe illness1 and a lighter color to be developed in its place4 ,among the negroes1 are sometimes found people who have no complexion1 i4 e41 there is no coloring matter in their skin1 hair1 or the iris of their eyes4 ,these persons are called ,albinos4 ,,ii4 ,,hair ,,and ,,nails4 ,the ,hair and the ,nails are modified forms of the cuticle4 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,illustration3 ,a ,hair1 magnified #fjj diameters4 ,s1 the sac 7follicle72 ,p1 the papilla1 showing the cells and the blood vessels3 ,v4 ,,the ,,hair is a protection from heat and cold1 and shields the head from blows4 ,it is found on nearly all parts of the body1 except the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet4 ,the outside of a hair is hard and compact1 and consists of a layer of colorless scales1 which overlie one another like the shingles of a house2 the interior is porous1 ,footnote3 ,in order to examine a hair1 it should be put on the slide of the microscope1 and covered with a thin glass1 while a few drops of alcohol are allowed to flow between the cover and the slide4 ,this causes the air1 which fills the hair and prevents our seeing its structure1 to escape4 and probably conveys the liquids by which it is nourished4 ,each hair grows from a tiny bulb 7papilla71 which is an elevation of the cutis at the bottom of a little hollow in the skin4 ,from the surface of this bulb1 the hair is produced1 like the cuticle1 by the constant formation of new cells at the bottom4 ,when the hair is pulled out1 this bulb1 if uninjured1 will produce a new one2 but1 when once destroyed1 it will never grow again4 ,footnote3 ,hair grows at the rate of about five to seven inches in a year4 ,it is said to grow after death4 ,this appearance is due to the fact that by the shrinking of the skin the part below the surface is caused to project1 which is especially noticeable in the beard4 ,the hair has been known to whiten in a single night by fear1 fright1 or nervous excitement4 ,when the color has once changed1 it can not be restored4 ,footnote3 ,hair dyes1 or so-called hair restorers1 are almost invariably deleterious substances1 depending for their coloring properties upon the action of lead or lunar caustic4 ,frequent instances of hair poisoning have occurred1 owing to the common use of such dangerous articles4 ,if the growth of the hair be impaired1 the general constitution or the skin needs treatment4 ,this is the work of a skillful physician1 and not of a patent remedy4 ,dame ,fashion has her repentant freaks as well as her ruinous follies1 and it is a healthful sign that the era of universal hair dyeing has been blotted out from her present calendar1 and the gray hairs of age are now honored with the highest place in style as well as in good sense and cleanliness4 7,see p4 #bhe47 ,wherever hair exists1 tiny muscles are found1 interlaced among the fibers of the skin4 ,these1 when contracting under the influence of cold or electricity1 pucker up the skin1 and cause the hair to stand on end4 ,footnote3 ,in horses and other animals which are able to shake the whole skin1 this muscular tissue is much more fully developed than in man4 ,the hairs themselves are destitute of feeling4 ,nerves1 however1 are found in the hollows in which the hair is rooted1 and so one feels pain when it is pulled4 ,footnote3 ,these nerves are especially abundant in the whiskers of the cat1 which are used as feelers4 ,thus the insensible hairs become wonderfully delicate instruments to convey an impression of even the slightest touch4 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,illustration3 ,a1 a perspiratory tube with its gland2 ,b1 a hair with a muscle and two oil glands2 ,c1 cuticle2 ,d1 the papill2 and ,e1 fat cells4 ,next to the teeth and bones1 the hair is the least destructible part of the body1 and its color is often preserved for many years after the other portions have gone to decay4 ,footnote3 ,fine downy hairs1 such as are general upon the body1 have been detected in the little fragments of skin found beneath the heads of the nails by which1 centuries ago1 certain robbers were fastened to the church doors1 as a punishment for their sacrilege4 ,,the ,,nails protect the ends of the tender finger1 and toe1 and give us power more firmly to grasp and easily to pick up any object we may desire4 ,they enable us to perform a hundred little1 mechanical acts which else were impossible4 ,at the same time1 their delicate color and beautiful outline give a finish of ornament to that exquisite instrument1 the hand4 ,the nail is firmly set in a groove 7matrix7 in the cuticle1 from which it grows at the root in length ,footnote3 ,by making a little mark on the nail near the root we can see1 week by week1 how rapidly this process goes on1 and so form some idea of what a multitude of cells must be transformed into the horny matter of the nail4 and from beneath in thickness4 ,so long as the matrix at the root is uninjured1 the nail will be replaced after any accident4 7,see p4 #bhh47 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,mucous ,,membrane4 ,,structure4--,at the edges of the openings into the body1 the skin seems to stop and give place to a tissue which is redder1 more sensitive1 more liable to bleed1 and is moistened by a fluid1 or mucus1 as it is called4 ,really1 however1 the skin does not cease1 but passes into a more delicate covering of the same general structure1 viz41 an outer1 hard1 bloodless1 insensible layer1 and an inner1 soft1 sanguine1 nervous one4 ,footnote3 ,with a dull knife1 we can scrape from the mucous membrane which lines the mouth some of the cuticle for examination under the microscope4 ,in a similar way1 we can obtain cuticle from the surface of the body for study and comparison4 ,thus every part of the body is wrapped in a kind of double bag1 made of tough skin on the outside1 and tender mucous membrane on the inside4 ,,connective ,,tissue4--,the cutis and the corresponding layer of the mucous membrane consist chiefly of a fibrous substance interlaced1 like felt4 ,it is called connective tissue1 because it connects all the different parts of the body4 ,it spreads from the cutis1 invests muscles1 bones1 and cartilages1 and thence passes into the mucous membrane4 ,so thoroughly does it permeate the body1 that1 if the other tissues were destroyed1 it would give a perfect model of every organ4 ,footnote3 ,it is curious to notice how our body is wrapped in membrane4 ,on the outside1 is the skin protecting from exterior injury1 and1 on the inside1 is the mucous membrane reaching from the lips to the innermost air cell of the lungs4 ,every organ is enveloped in its membrane4 ,every bone has its sheath4 ,every socket is lined4 ,even the separate fibers of muscles have their covering tissue4 ,the brain and the spinal cord are triply wrapped1 while the eye is only a membranous globe filled with fluid4 ,these membranes protect and support the organs they enfold1 but1 with that wise economy so characteristic of nature everywhere1 they have also an important function to perform4 ,they are the filters of the body4 ,through their pores pass alike the elements of growth1 and the returning products of waste4 ,on one side1 bathed by the blood1 they choose from it suitable food for the organ they envelop1 and many of them in their tiny cells1 by some mysterious process1 form new products1--put the finishing touches1 as it were1 upon the material ere it is deposited in the body4 ,it can be seen in a piece of meat as a delicate substance lying between the layers of muscle1 where it serves to bind together the numerous fibers of which they are composed4 ,connective tissue yields gelatine on boiling1 and is the part which tans when hides are manufactured into leather4 ,it is very elastic1 so that when you remove your finger after pressing upon the skin1 no indentation is left4 ,footnote3 ,in dropsy1 this elasticity is lost by distension1 and there is a kind of pitting1 as it is called1 produced by pressure4 ,it varies greatly in character1--from the mucous membrane1 where it is soft and tender1 to the ligaments and tendons which it largely composes1 where it is strong and dense4 ,footnote3 ,the leather made from this tissue varies as greatly1 from the tough1 thick oxhide1 to the soft1 pliable kid and chamois skin4 ,,fat is deposited as an oil in the cells ,footnote3 ,so tiny are these cells1 that there are over sixty-five million in a cubic inch of fat4 ,as they are kept moist1 the liquid does not ooze out1 but1 on drying1 it comes to the surface1 and thus a piece of fat feels oily when exposed to the air4 ,the quantity of fat varies with the state of nutrition4 ,in corpulent persons1 the masses of fat beneath the skin1 in the mesentery1 on the surface of the heart and great vessels1 between the muscles1 and in the neighborhood of the nerves1 are considerably increased4 ,conversely1 in the emaciated we sometimes find beneath the skin nucleated cells1 which contain only one oil drop4 ,many masses of fat which have an important relation to muscular actions--such as the fat of the orbit or the cheek-- do not disappear in the most emaciated object4 ,even in starvation1 the fatty substances of the brain and spinal cord are retained4--,,valentin4 of this tissue1 just beneath the skin 7,fig4 #bd71 giving roundness and plumpness to the body1 and acting as an excellent nonconductor for the retention of heat4 ,it collects as pads in the hollows of the bones1 around the joints1 and between the muscles1 causing them to glide more easily upon each other4 ,as marrow1 it nourishes the skeleton1 and also distributes the shock of any jar the limb may sustain4 ,it is noticeable1 however1 that fat does not gather within the cranium1 the lungs1 or the eyelids1 where its accumulation would clog the organs4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,teeth4 ,,the ,,teeth ,footnote3 ,although the teeth are always found in connection with the skeleton1 and are1 therefore1 figured as a part of it 7,fig4 #a71 yet they do not properly belong to the bones of the body1 and are merely set in the solid jaw to insure solidity4 ,they are hard1 and resemble bony matter1 yet they are neither true bone nor are they formed in the same manner4 ,they are properly appendages of the mucous membrane1 and are developed from it4--,,leidy4 ,they belong to the ,tegumentary ,system1 which1 speaking generally of animals1 includes teeth1 nails1 horns1 scales1 and hairs4--,,marshall4 ,they are therefore classed with the mucous membrane1 as are the nails and hair with the skin4 are thirty-two in all1--there being eight in each half jaw1 similarly shaped and arranged4 ,in each set of eight1 the two nearest the middle of the jaw have wide1 sharp1 chisel-like edges1 fit for cutting1 and hence are called incisors4 ,the next one corresponds to the great tearing or holding tooth of the dog1 and is styled the canine1 or eye-tooth4 ,the next two have broader crowns1 with two points1 or cusps1 and are hence termed the bicuspids4 ,the remaining three are much broader1 and1 as they are used to crush the food1 are called the grinders1 or molars4 ,the incisors and eyeteeth have one fang1 or root2 the others have two or three fangs4 ,,the ,,milk ,,teeth4--,we are provided with two sets of teeth4 ,the first1 or milk teeth1 are small and only twenty in number4 ,in each half jaw there are two incisors1 one canine1 and two molars4 ,the middle incisors are usually cut about the age of seven months1 the others at nine months1 the first molars at twelve months1 the canines at eighteen months1 and the remaining molars at two or three years of age4 ,the lower teeth precede the corresponding upper ones4 ,the time often varies1 but the order seldom4 ,,the ,,permanent ,,teeth4--,at six years1 when the first set is usually still perfect1 the jaws contain the crowns of all the second1 except the wisdom teeth4 ,about this age1 to meet the wants of the growing body1 the crowns of the permanent set begin to press against the roots of the milk teeth1 which1 becoming absorbed1 leave the loosened teeth to drop out1 while the new ones rise and occupy their places4 ,footnote3 ,if the milk teeth1 do not promptly loosen on the appearance of the second set1 the former should be at once removed to permit the permanent teeth to assume their natural places4 ,if any fail to come in regularly1 or if they crowd the others1 a competent dentist should be consulted4 ,,fig4 #be4 ,illustration3 ,the teeth at the age of six and one half years4 ,i1 the incisors2 ,o1 the canine2 ,m1 the molars2 the last molar is the first of the permanent teeth2 ,f1 sacs of the permanent incisors2 ,c1 of the canine2 ,b1 of the bicuspids2 ,n1 of the second molar2 the sac of the third molar is empty4-- ,,marshall4 ,the central incisors appear at about seven years of age2 the others at eight2 the first bicuspids at nine1 the second at ten2 the canines at eleven or twelve2 the second ,footnote3 ,the first molar appears much earlier4 7,see ,fig4 #be47 molars at twelve or thirteen1 and the last1 or wisdom teeth1 are sometimes delayed until the twenty-second year1 or even later4 ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,teeth4--,the interior of the tooth consists principally of dentine1 a dense substance resembling bone4 ,footnote3 ,in the tusk of the elephant this is known as ivory4 ,the crown of the tooth1 which is exposed to wear1 is protected by a sheath of enamel4 ,this is a hard1 glistening1 white substance1 containing only two and a half per cent of animal matter4 ,the fang is covered by a thin layer of true bone 7cement74 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,illustration3 ,vertical section of a ,molar ,tooth1 moderately magnified4 a1 enamel of the crown1 the lines of which indicate the arrangement of its columns2 b1 dentine2 c1 cement2 d1 pulp cavity4 ,at the center of the tooth is a cavity filled with a soft1 reddish-white1 pulpy substance full of blood vessels and nerves4 ,this pulp is very sensitive1 and toothache is caused by its irritation4 ,,the ,,fitting ,,of ,,the ,,tooth ,,into ,,the ,,jaw is a most admirable contrivance4 ,it is not set like a nail in wood1 having the fang in contact with the bone2 but the socket is lined with a membrane which forms a soft cushion4 ,while this is in a healthy state1 it deadens the force of any shock1 but1 when inflamed1 it becomes the seat of excruciating pain4 ,,the ,,decay ,,of ,,the ,,teeth ,footnote3 ,unlike the other portions of the body1 there is no provision made for any change in the permanent teeth4 ,that part1 however1 which is thus during life most liable to change1 after death resists it the longest4 ,in deep-sea dredgings teeth are found when all traces of the frame to which they belonged have disappeared4 ,yet hard and incorruptible as they seem1 their permanence is only relative4 ,exposed to injury and disease1 they break or decay4 ,even if they escape accident1 they yet wear at the crown1 are absorbed at the fang1 and1 in time1 drop out1 thus affording another of the many signs of the limitations ,providence has fixed to the endurance of our bodies and the length of our lives4 is commonly caused 7#a7 by portions of the food which become entangled between them1 and1 on account of the heat and moisture1 quickly decompose2 and 7#b7 by the saliva1 as it evaporates1 leaving on the teeth a sediment1 which we call tartar4 ,this collects organic matter that rapidly changes1 and also affords a soil in which a sort of fungus speedily springs up4 ,from both these causes1 the breath becomes offensive1 and the teeth are injured4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,the ,,teeth4--,children should early be taught to brush their teeth at least every morning with tepid water1 and twice a week with white castile soap and powdered orris root1 or with some dentifrice recommended by a responsible dentist4 ,they should also be instructed to remove the particles of food from between the teeth1 after each meal1 by means of a quill or wooden toothpick4 ,the enamel once injured is never restored1 and the whole interior of the tooth is exposed to decay4 ,we should not1 therefore1 crack hard nuts1 bite thread1 or use metal toothpicks1 gritty tooth powders1 or any acid which sets the teeth on edge1 i4 e44 that acts upon the enamel4 ,it is well also to have the teeth examined yearly by a dentist1 that any small orifice may be filled1 and further decay prevented4 ,v4 ,,the ,,glands ,,of ,,the ,,skin4 #a4 ,,the ,,oil ,,glands are clusters of tiny sacs which secrete an oil that flows along the duct to the root of the hair1 and thence oozes out on the cuticle 7,fig4 #bd74 ,footnote3 ,this secretion is said to vary in different persons1 and on that account the dog is enabled to trace his master by the scent4 ,this is nature's efficient hair-dressing1 and also keeps the skin soft and flexible4 ,these glands are not usually found where there is no hair1 as on the palm of the hand1 and hence at those points only can water readily soak through the skin into the body4 ,they are of considerable size on the face1 especially about the nose4 ,when obstructed1 their contents become hard and dark-colored1 and are vulgarly called worms4 ,footnote3 ,though they are not alive1 yet1 under the microscope1 they are sometimes found to contain a curious parasite1 called the pimple mite1 which is supposed to consume the superabundant secretion4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,perspiratory ,,glands are fine tubes about #a_/cjj of an inch in diameter1 and a quarter of an inch in length1 which run through the cutis1 and then coil up in little balls 7,fig4 #bd74 ,they are found in all parts of the body1 and in almost incredible numbers4 ,in the palm of the hand1 there are about two thousand eight hundred in a single square inch4 ,on the back of the neck and trunk1 where they are fewest1 there are yet four hundred to the square inch4 ,the total number on the body of an adult is estimated at about two and a half million4 ,if they were laid end to end1 they would extend nearly ten miles4 ,footnote3 ,the current statement1 that they would extend twenty-eight miles1 is undoubtedly an exaggeration4 ,krause estimates the total number at #b1cha1bdh1 and the length of each coil1 when unraveled1 at #a_/aj of an inch1 which would make the total length much less than even the statement in the text4 ,seguin states that the proportion of impurities thrown off by the skin and the lungs1 is eleven to seven4 ,the mouths of these glands--pores1 as we commonly call them--may be seen with a pocket lens along the fine ridges which cover the palm of the hand4 ,,the ,,perspiration4--,from these openings1 there constantly passes a vapor1 forming what we call the insensible perspiration4 ,exercise or heat causes it to flow more freely1 when it condenses on the surface in drops4 ,the perspiration consists of about ninety-nine parts water1 and one part solid matter4 ,the amount varies greatly1 but on the average is1 for an adult1 not far from two pounds per day4 ,any suppression of this constant drainage will lead to disagreeable and even dangerous results4 ,if it be entirely and permanently checked1 death will inevitably ensue4 ,footnote3 ,once1 on an occasion of great solemnity at ,rome1 a child was1 it is said1 completely covered with gold leaf1 closely applied to the skin1 so as to represent1 according to the idea of that age1 the golden glory of an angel or seraph4 ,in a few hours1 after contributing to this pageant1 the child died2 the cause being suffocation1 from stopping the exhalation of the skin2 although1 in the ignorance of the common people of those days1 the death was attributed to the anger of the ,deity1 and looked upon as a circumstance of evil omen4 ,,the ,,absorbing ,,power ,,of ,,the ,,skin4--,we have already described two uses of the skin3 7#a7 ,its protective1 7#b7 its exhaling1 and now we come to 7#c7 its absorbing power4 ,this is not so noticeable as the others1 and yet it can be illustrated4 ,persons frequently poison their hands with the common wood ivy4 ,contagious diseases are taken by touching a patient1 or even his clothing1 especially if there be a crack in the cuticle4 ,footnote3 ,if one is called upon to handle a dead body1 it is well1 especially if the person has died of a contagious disease1 to rub the hand with lard or olive oil4 ,poisonous matter has been fatally absorbed through the breaking of the cuticle by a hangnail1 or a simple scratch4 ,there is a story that ,bonaparte1 when a lieutenant of artillery1 in the heat of battle1 seized the rammer and worked the gun of an artilleryman who had fallen4 ,from the wood which the soldier had used1 ,bonaparte absorbed a poison that gave him a skin disease1 by which he was annoyed the remainder of his life4 ,painters absorb so much lead through the pores of their hands that they are attacked with colic4 ,footnote3 ,cosmetics1 hair dyes1 etc41 are exceedingly injurious1 not only because they tend to fill the pores of the skin1 but because they often contain poisonous matters that may be absorbed into the system1 especially if they are in a solution4 ,snuff and lard are frequently rubbed on the chest of a child suffering with the croup1 to produce vomiting4 ,it is said that seamen in want of water drench their clothing in salt spray1 when the skin will absorb enough moisture to quench thirst 7see ,lymphatic ,system74 ,by carefully conducted experiments1 it has been found that the skin acts in the same way as the lungs 7see ,respiration7 in absorbing oxygen from the air1 and giving off carbonic acid to a small but appreciable amount4 ,indeed1 the skin has not inaptly been styled the third lung4 ,hence1 the importance of absolute cleanliness and a frequent ablution of the entire body4 ,,vi4 ,,hygiene4 ,,hints ,,about ,,washing ,,and ,,bathing4--,the moment of rising from bed is the proper time for the full wash or bath with which one should commence the day4 ,the body is then warm1 and can endure moderately cold water better than at any other time2 it is relaxed1 and needs bracing2 and the nerves1 deadened by the night's repose1 require a gentle stimulus4 ,if the system be strong enough to resist the shock1 cold water is the most invigorating2 if not1 a tepid bath will answer4 ,footnote3 ,many persons have not the conveniences for a bath4 ,to them1 the following plan1 which the author has daily employed for years1 is commended4 ,the necessities are3 a basin full of soft water1 a mild soap1 a large sponge or a piece of flannel1 and two towels--one soft1 the other rough4 ,the temperature of the water should vary with the season of the year--cold in summer and tepid in winter4 ,rub quickly the entire body with the wet sponge or flannel4 7,if more agreeable1 wash and wipe only a part at a time1 protecting the rest in cold weather with portions of clothing47 ,dry the skin gently with a soft towel1 and when quite dry1 with the rough towel or flesh brush rub the body briskly four or five minutes till the skin is all aglow4 ,the chest and abdomen need the principal rubbing4 ,the roughness of the towel should be accommodated to the condition of the skin4 ,enough friction1 however1 must be given to produce at least a gentle warmth1 indicative of the reaction necessary to prevent subsequent chill or languor4 ,an invalid will find it exceedingly beneficial if a stout1 vigorous person produce the reaction by rubbing with the hands4 ,before dressing1 the whole body should be thoroughly rubbed with a coarse towel or flesh brush4 ,at first1 the friction may be unpleasant1 but this sensitiveness will soon be overcome1 and the keenest pleasure be felt in the lively glow which follows4 ,a bath should not be taken just before nor immediately after a meal1 as it will interfere with the digestion of the food4 ,soap should be employed occasionally1 but its frequent use tends to make the skin dry and hard4 ,,reaction4--,after taking a cold bath1 there should be a prompt reaction4 ,when the surface is chilled by cold water1 the blood sets to the heart and other vital organs1 exciting them to more vigorous action1 and then1 being thrown back to the surface1 it reddens1 warms1 and stimulates the skin to an unwonted degree4 ,this is called the reaction1 and in it lies the invigorating influence of the cold bath4 ,when1 on the contrary1 the skin is heated by a hot bath1 the blood is drawn to the surface1 less blood goes to the heart1 the circulation decreases1 and languor ensues4 ,a dash of cold water is both necessary and refreshing at the close of a hot bath4 ,footnote3 ,the ,russians are very fond of vapor baths1 taken in the following manner4 ,a large room is heated by stoves4 ,red-hot stones being brought in1 water is thrown upon them1 filling the room with steam4 ,the bathers sit on benches until they perspire profusely1 when they are rubbed with soapsuds and dashed with cold water4 ,sometimes1 while in this state of excessive perspiration1 they run out of doors and leap into snow banks4 ,if1 after a cold bath1 there be felt no glow of warmth1 but only a chilliness and depression1 we are thereby warned that either proper means were not taken to bring on this reaction1 or that the circulation is not vigorous enough to make such a bath beneficial4 ,the general effect of a cool bath is exhilarating1 and that of a warm one depressing4 ,footnote3 ,the sudden plunge into a cold bath is good for the strong and healthy1 but too severe for the delicate4 ,one should always wet first the face1 neck1 and chest4 ,it is extremely injurious to stand in a bath with only the feet and the lower limbs covered by the water1 for the blood is thus sent from the extremities to the heart and internal organs1 and they become so burdened that reaction may be out of their power4 ,a brisk walk1 or a thorough rubbing of the skin1 before a cold bath or swim1 adds greatly to its value and pleasure4 ,hence the latter should not ordinarily be taken oftener than once a week1 while the former may be enjoyed daily4 7,see p4 #bhi47 ,,sea ,,bathing is exceedingly stimulating1 on account of the action of the salt and the exciting surroundings4 ,twenty minutes is the utmost limit for bathing or swimming in salt or fresh water4 ,a chilly sensation should be the signal for instant removal4 ,it is better to leave while the glow and buoyancy which follow the first plunge are still felt4 ,gentle exercise after a bath is beneficial4 ,,clothing in winter1 to keep us warm1 should repel the external cold and retain the heat of the body4 ,in summer1 to keep us cool1 it should not absorb the rays of the sun1 and should permit the passage of the heat of the body4 ,at all seasons1 it should be porous1 to give ready escape to the perspiration1 and a free admission of air to the skin4 ,we can readily apply these essential conditions to the different kinds of clothing4 ,linen is soft to the touch1 and is a good conductor of heat4 ,hence it is pleasant for summer wear1 but1 being apt to chill the surface too rapidly1 it should not be worn next the skin4 ,cotton is a poorer conductor of heat and absorber of moisture1 and is therefore warmer than linen4 ,it is sufficiently cool for summer wear1 and affords better protection against sudden changes4 ,woolen absorbs moisture slowly1 and contains much air in its pores4 ,it is therefore a poor conductor of heat1 and guards the wearer against the vicissitudes of our climate4 ,the outer clothing may be adapted largely to ornament1 and may be varied to suit our fancy and the requirements of society4 ,the underclothing should always be sufficient to keep us warm4 ,woolen should be worn next the skin at all times2 light gossamer garments in the heat of summer1 and warm1 porous flannels in midwinter4 ,light-colored clothing is not only cooler in summer1 but warmer in winter4 ,as the warmth of clothing depends greatly on the amount of air contained in its fibers1 fine1 loose1 porous cloth with a plenty of nap is best for winter wear4 ,firm and heavy goods are not necessarily the warmest4 ,furs are the perfection of winter clothing1 since they combine warmth with lightness4 ,two light woolen garments are warmer than one heavy one1 as there is between them a layer of nonconducting air4 ,all the body except the head should be equally protected by clothing4 ,whatever fashion may dictate1 no part covered to-day can be uncovered tonight or to-morrow1 except at the peril of health4 ,it is a most barbarous and cruel custom to leave the limbs of little children unprotected1 when adults would shiver at the very thought of exposure4 ,equally so is it for children to be thinly clad for the purpose of hardening them4 ,to go shivering with cold is not the way to increase one's power of endurance4 ,the system is made more vigorous by exercise and food2 not by exposure4 ,in winter1 we should wear warm shoes with thick soles1 and rubbers when it is damp4 ,at night1 and after exercise1 we require extra clothing4 7,see p4 #bie47 ,,diseases1 ,,etc4--l4 ,erysipelas is an inflammation 7see ,inflammation7 of the skin1 and often begins in a spot not larger than a pin head1 which spreads with great rapidity4 ,it is very commonly checked by the application of a solution of iodine4 ,the burning and contracting sensation may be relieved by cloths wrung out of hot water4 #b4 ,eczema 7,salt ,rheum1 etc47 is of constitutional origin4 ,it is characterized by an itching1 burning1 reddened eruption1 in which a serous discharge exudes and dries into crusts or scales4 ,the skin thickens in patches1 and painful fissures are formed1 which are irritated by exposure to air or water4 ,eczema denotes debility4 ,it occurs in various forms1 and1 like erysipelas1 should be treated by a physician4 #c4 ,corns are thickened cuticle1 caused by pressure or friction4 ,they most frequently occur on the feet2 but are produced on the shoemaker's knee by constant hammering1 and on the soldier's shoulder by the rubbing of his musket4 ,this hard portion irritates the sensitive cutis beneath1 and so causes pain4 ,a corn will soften in hot water1 when it may be pared with a sharp knife4 ,if the cause be removed1 the corn will not return4 #d4 ,ingrowing ,nails are caused by pressure1 which forces the edge of the toe nail into the flesh4 ,they may be cured by carefully cutting away the part which has mal-grown1 and then scraping the back of the nail till it is thin1 making a small incision in the center1 at the top4 ,the two portions1 uniting1 will draw away the nail from the flesh at the edge4 ,ingrowing nails may be prevented by wearing broad-toed shoes4 #e4 ,warts are overgrown papill 7,fig4 #bd74 ,they may generally be removed by the application of glacial acetic acid1 or a drop of nitric acid1 repeated until the entire structure is softened4 ,care must be taken to keep the acid from touching the neighboring skin4 ,the capricious character of warts has given rise to the popular delusion concerning the influence of charms upon them4 #f4 ,chilblain is a local inflammation affecting generally the feet1 the hands1 or the lobes of the ear4 ,liability to it usually passes away with manhood4 ,it is not caused by freezing the feet1 as many suppose1 though attacks are brought on1 or aggravated1 by exposure to cold1 followed by sudden warming4 ,chilblain is subject to daily congestion 7see ,congestion71 manifested by itching1 soreness1 etc41 commonly occurring at night4 ,the best preventive is a uniform temperature1 and careful protection against the cold by warm clothing1 especially for the feet4 ,,practical ,,questions4 #a4 ,if a hair be plucked out1 will another grow in its place8 #b4 ,what causes the hair to stand on end when we are frightened8 #c4 ,why is the skin roughened by riding in the cold8 #d4 ,why is the back of a washerwoman's hand less water-soaked than the palm8 #e4 ,what would be the length of the perspiratory tubes in a single square inch of the palm1 if placed end to end8 #f4 ,what colored clothing is best adapted to all seasons8 #g4 ,what is the effect of paint and powder on the skin8 #h4 ,is waterproof clothing healthful for constant wear8 #i4 ,why are rubbers cold to the feet8 #aj4 ,why does the heat seem oppressive when the air is moist8 #aa4 ,why is friction of the skin invigorating after a cold bath8 #ab4 ,why does the hair of domestic animals become roughened in winter8 #ac4 ,why do fowls spread their feathers before they perch for the night8 #ad4 ,how can an extensive burn produce congestion of the lungs8 #ae4 ,why do we perspire so profusely after drinking cold water8 #af4 ,how can we best prevent skin diseases1 colds1 and rheumatism8 #ag4 ,what causes the difference between the hard hand of a blacksmith and the soft hand of a woman8 #ah4 ,why should a painter avoid getting paint on the palm of his hand8 #ai4 ,why should we not use the soap or the soiled towel at a hotel8 #bj4 ,which teeth cut like a pair of scissors8 #ba4 ,which teeth cut like a chisel8 #bb4 ,which should be clothed the warmer1 a merchant or a farmer8 #bc4 ,why should we not crack nuts with our teeth8 #bd4 ,do the edges of the upper and the lower teeth meet8 #be4 ,when fatigued1 would you take a cold bath8 #bf4 ,why is the outer surface of a kid glove finer than the inner8 #bg4 ,why will a brunette endure the sun's rays better than a blonde8 #bh4 ,does patent leather form a healthful covering for the feet8 #bi4 ,why are men more frequently bald than women8 #cj4 ,on what part of the head does baldness commonly occur8 ,why8 #ca4 ,what does the combination in our teeth of canines and grinders suggest as to the character of our food8 #cb4 ,is a staid1 formal promenade suitable exercise8 #cc4 ,is there any danger in changing the warm clothing of our daily wear for the thin one of a party8 #cd4 ,should we retain our overcoat1 shawl1 or furs when we come into a warm room8 #ce4 ,which should bathe the oftener1 students or outdoor laborers8 #cf4 ,is abundant perspiration injurious8 #cg4 ,how often should the ablution of the entire body be performed8 #ch4 ,why is cold water better than warm1 for our daily ablution8 #ci4 ,why should our clothing always fit loosely8 #dj4 ,why should we take special pains to avoid clothing that is colored by poisonous dyestuffs8 7,see p4 #bif47 #da4 ,what general principles should guide us as to the length and frequency of baths ,in salt or fresh water8 #db4 ,what is the beneficial effect of exercise upon the functions of the skin8 #dc4 ,how can we best show our admiration and respect for the human body8 #dd4 ,why is the scar of a severe wound upon a negro sometimes white8 ,,iv4 ,,respiration ,,and ,,the ,,voice4 ,the smooth soft air with pulse-like waves ,flows murmuring through its hidden caves1 ,whose streams of brightening purple rush1 ,fired with a new and livelier blush2 ,while all their burden of decay ,the ebbing current steals away4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,respiration ,,and ,,the ,,voice4 #a4 ,the ,larnyx4 #b4 ,the ,vocal ,cords4 #a4 ,,organs ,,of ,,voice44444 #c4 ,different ,tones of ,voice4 #d4 ,speech4 #e4 ,formation of ,vocal ,sounds4 #a4 ,the ,trachea4 #b4 ,the ,bronchial ,tubes4 #b4 ,,organs ,,of ,,respira- #c4 ,the ,cells4 ,,tion444444444 #d4 ,the ,lung ,wrapping4 #e4 ,the ,cilia4 #a4 ,inspiration4 #c4 ,,how ,,we ,,breathe444444#b4 ,expiration4 #a4 ,sighing4 #b4 ,coughing4 #c4 ,sneezing4 #d4 ,,modifications ,,of #d4 ,snoring4 ,,the ,,breath4444444 #e4 ,laughing1 and ,crying4 #f4 ,hiccough4 #g4 ,yawning4 #e4 ,,capacity ,,of ,,the ,,lungs4 #a4 ,the ,need of ,air4 #b4 ,action of ,air in the ,lungs4 #c4 ,tests of the ,breath4 #d4 ,analysis of ,expired ,air4 #e4 ,effect of ,rebreathed ,air4 #f4 ,,hygiene4444444444444 a4 ,the ,sources of ,impurity4 b4 ,the ,sick ,room4 #f4 ,concerning c4 ,the ,sitting ,room4 the ,need of d4 ,the ,bedroom4 ,ventilation4 e4 ,the ,church4 f4 ,the ,schoolroom4 g4 ,how we should ,ventilate4 #g4 ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,respiration4 #a4 ,constriction of the ,lungs4 #b4 ,bronchitis4 #c4 ,pleurisy4 #d4 ,pneumonia4 #h4 ,,diseases444444444444 #e4 ,consumption #f4 ,asphyxia4 #g4 ,diptheria4 #h4 ,croup4 #i4 ,stammering4 ,,respiration ,,and ,,the ,,voice4 ,the ,organs of ,respiration and the ,voice are the larynx1 the trachea1 and the lungs4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,voice4--l4 ,the ,larynx4--,in the neck1 is a prominence sometimes called ,adam's apple4 ,it is the front of the larynx4 ,this is a small triangular1 cartilaginous box1 placed just below the root of the tongue1 and at the top of the windpipe4 ,the opening into it from the throat is called the glottis2 and the cover1 the epiglottis 7epi1 upon2 glotta1 the tongue74 ,the latter is a spoon-shaped lid1 which opens when we breathe1 but1 by a nice arrangement1 shuts when we try to swallow1 and so lets our food slip over it into the sophagus 7e-sof'-a-gus71 the tube leading from the pharynx to the stomach 7,fig4 #bg74 ,if we laugh or talk when we swallow1 our food is apt to go the wrong way1 i4 e41 little particles pass into the larynx1 and the tickling sensation which they produce forces us to cough in order to expel the intruders4 #b4 ,the ,vocal ,cords4--,on each side of the glottis are the so- called vocal cords4 ,they are not really cords1 but merely elastic membranes projecting from the sides of the box across the opening4 ,footnote3 ,the cartilages and vocal cords may be readily seen in the larynx of an ox or sheep4 ,if the flesh be cut off1 the cartilages will dry1 and will keep for years4 ,when not in use1 they spread apart and leave a ,v-shaped orifice 7,fig4 #bh71 through which the air passes to and from the lungs4 ,if the cords are tightened1 the edges approach sometimes within #a_/ajj of an inch of each other1 and1 being thrown into vibration1 cause corresponding vibrations in the current of air4 ,thus sound is produced in the same manner as by the vibrations of the tongues of an accordion1 or the strings of a violin1 only in this case the strings are scarcely an inch long4 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,illustration3 ,passage to the sophagus and ,windpipe4 c1 the tongue2 d1 the soft palate1 ending in g1 the uvula2 h1 the epiglottis2 i1 the glottis2 ,i1 the sophagus2 f1 the pharynx4 ,,different ,,tones ,,of ,,the ,,voice4--,the higher tones of the voice are produced when the cords are short1 tight1 and closely in contact2 the lower1 by the opposite conditions4 ,loudness is regulated by the quantity of air and force of expulsion4 ,a falsetto voice is thought to be the result of a peculiarity in the pharynx 7,fig4 #bg7 at the back part of the nose2 it is more probably produced by some muscular maneuver not yet fully understood4 ,when boys are about fourteen years of age1 the larynx enlarges1 and the cords grow proportionately longer and coarser2 hence1 the voice becomes deeper1 or1 as we say1 changes4 ,the peculiar harshness of the voice at this time seems to be due to a congestion of the mucous membrane of the cords4 ,the change may occur very suddenly1 the voice breaking in a single night4 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,illustration3 e1 e1 the vocal cords2 d1 the epiglottis4 ,speech is voice modulated by the lips1 tongue1 ,footnote3 ,the tongue is styled the unruly member1 and held responsible for all the tattling of the world2 but when the tongue is removed1 the adjacent organs in some way largely supply the deficiency1 so that speech is still possible4 ,huxley describes the conversation of a man who had two and one half inches of his tongue preserved in spirits1 and yet could converse intelligibly4 ,only the two letters t and d were beyond his power2 the articulation of these involves the employment of the tip of the tongue2 hence1 tin he converted into fin1 and dog into thog4 palate1 and teeth4 ,footnote3 ,an artificial larynx may be made by using elastic bands to represent the vocal cords1 and by placing above them chambers which by their resonance will produce the same effect as the cavities lying above the larynx4 ,an artificial speaking machine was constructed by ,kempelen1 which could pronounce such sentences as1 ,i love you with all my heart1 in different languages1 by simply touching the proper keys4 ,speech and voice are commonly associated1 but speech may exist without the voice1 for when we whisper we articulate the words1 although there is no vocalization1 i4 e41 no action of the larynx4 ,footnote3 ,we can observe this by placing the hand on the throat1 and noticing the absence of vibrations when we whisper1 and their presence when we talk4 ,the difference between vocalization and non-vocalization is seen in a sigh and a groan1 the latter being the former vocalized4 ,whistling is a pure mouth sound1 and does not depend on the voice4 ,laughter is vocal1 being the aspirated vowels1 a1 e1 or o1 convulsively repeated4 7,see p4 #big47 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,illustration3 ,the ,lungs1 showing the ,larynx4 ,a1 the windpipe2 ,b1 the bronchial tubes4 ,,formation ,,of ,,vocal ,,sounds4--,the method of modulating voice into speech may be seen by producing the pure vowel sounds a1 e1 etc41 from one expiration1 the mouth being kept open while the form of the aperture is changed for each vowel by the tongue and the lips4 ,h is only an explosion1 or forcible throwing of a vowel sound from the mouth4 ,footnote3 ,when1 in sounding a vowel1 the sound coincides with a sudden change in the position of the vocal cords from one of divergence to one of approximation1 the vowel is pronounced with the spiritus asper4 ,when the vocal cords are brought together before the blast of air begins1 the vowel is pronounced with the spiritus lenis4--,,foster4 ,the consonants1 or short sounds1 may also be made without interrupting the current of air1 by various modifications of the vocal organs4 ,in sounding singly any one of the letters1 we can detect its peculiar requirements4 ,thus m and n can be made only by blocking the air in the mouth and sending it through the nose2 l lets the air escape at the sides of the tongue2 r needs a vibratory movement of the tongue2 b and p stop the breath at the lips2 k and g 7hard71 at the back of the palate4 ,consonants like b and d are abrupt1 or1 like l and s1 continuous4 ,those made by the lips are termed labials2 those by pressing the tongue against the teeth1 dentals2 those by the tongue1 linguals4 ,the child gains speech slowly1 first learning to pronounce the vowel a1 the consonants b1 m1 and p1 and then their unions --ba1 ma1 pa4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,respiration4--,beneath the larynx is the windpipe1 or trachea 7see ,fig4 #bi71 so called because of its roughness4 ,it is strengthened by ,c-shaped cartilages with the openings behind1 where they are attached to the sophagus4 ,at the lower end1 the trachea divides into two branches1 called the right and left bronchi4 ,these subdivide in the small bronchial tubes1 which ramify through the lungs like the branches of a tree1 the tiny twigs of which at last end in clusters of cells so small that there are six hundred million in all4 ,this cellular structure renders the lungs exceedingly soft1 elastic1 and sponge-like4 ,footnote3 ,the lungs of slaughtered animals are vulgarly called lights1 probably on account of their lightness4 ,they are similar in structure to those of man4 ,they will float on water1 and if a small piece be forcibly squeezed between the fingers 7notice the creaking sound it gives71 it will retain sufficient air to make it buoyant4 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,illustration3 ,bronchial ,tubes1 with clusters of cells4 ,the stiff1 cartilaginous rings1 so noticeable in the rough surface of the trachea and the bronchi1 disappear as we reach the smaller bronchial tubes1 so that while the former are kept constantly open for the free admission of air1 the latter are provided with elastic fibers by which they may be almost closed4 ,,wrapping ,,of ,,the ,,lungs4--,the lungs are invested with a double covering--the pleura--one layer being attached to the lungs and the other to the walls of the chest4 ,it secretes a fluid which lubricates it1 so that the layers glide upon each other with perfect ease4 ,footnote3 ,these pleural sacs are distinct and closed2 hence1 when the ribs are raised1 a partial vacuum being formed in the sacs1 air rushes in1 and distends the pulmonary lobules4 ,the lungs are lined with mucous membrane1 exceedingly delicate and sensitive to the presence of anything except pure air4 ,we have all noticed this when we have breathed any thing offensive4 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,illustration3 ,a1 the heart2 ,b1 the lungs drawn aside to show the internal organs2 ,c1 the diaphragm2 ,d1 the liver2 ,e1 the gall cyst2 ,f1 the stomach2 ,g1 the small intestines2 ,h1 the transverse colon4 ,,the ,,cilia4--,along the air passages are minute filaments 7cilia1 ,fig4 #cb71 which are in constant motion1 like a field of grain stirred by a gentle breeze4 ,they serve to fan the air in the lungs1 and produce an outward current1 which is useful in catching dust and fine particles swept inward with the breath4 ,,how ,,we ,,breathe4--,respiration consists of two acts--taking in the air1 or inspiration1 and expelling the air1 or expiration4 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,illustration3 ,b1 a section of the mucous membrane1 showing the cilia rising from the peculiar epithelial cells on the outside of the mucous membrane lining the tubes2 ,a1 a single cell more highly magnified4 #a4 ,inspiration4--,when we draw in a full breath1 we straighten the spine and throw the head and shoulders back1 so as to give the greatest advantage to the muscles4 ,footnote3 ,if we examine the bony cage of the thorax or chest in ,fig4 #h1 we shall see that the position of the ribs may alter its capacity in two ways4 #a4 ,as they run obliquely downward from the spine1 if the sternum or breastbone be lifted in front1 the diameter of the chest will be increased4 #b4 ,the ribs are fastened by elastic cartilages1 which stretch as the muscles that lift the ribs contract1 and so increase the breadth of the chest4 ,at the same time1 the diaphragm ,footnote3 ,the diaphragm is the muscular partition between the chest and the abdomen4 ,it is always convex toward the former1 and concave toward the latter 7,fig4 #ca74 ,long muscular fibers extend from its center toward the ribs in front and the spine at the back4 ,when these contract1 they depress and flatten the diaphragm2 when they relax1 it becomes convex again4 ,in the former case1 the bowels are pressed downward and the abdomen pushed outward2 in the latter1 the bowels spring upward1 and the abdomen is drawn inward4 descends and presses the walls of the abdomen outward4 ,both these processes increase the size of the chest4 ,thereupon1 the elastic lungs expand to occupy the extra space1 while the air1 rushing in through the windpipe1 pours along the bronchial tubes and crowds into every cell4 ,footnote3 ,it is said that in drawing a full breath1 the muscles exert a force equal to raising a weight of seven hundred and fifty pounds4 ,when we are about to make a great effort1 as in striking a heavy blow1 we naturally take a deep inspiration1 and shut the glottis4 ,the confined air makes the chest tense and firm1 and enables us to exert a greater force4 ,as we let slip the blow1 the glottis opens and the air escapes1 often with a curious aspirated sound as is noticeable in workmen4 ,to make a good shot with a rifle1 we should take aim with a full chest and tight breath1 since then the arms will have a steadier support4 #b4 ,expiration4--,when we forcibly expel the air from our lungs1 the operation is reversed4 ,we bend forward1 draw in the walls of the abdomen1 and press the diaphragm upward1 while the ribs are pulled downward1--all together diminishing the size of the chest1 and forcing the air outward4 ,ordinary1 quiet breathing is performed mainly by the diaphragm1--one breath to every four beats of the heart1 or eighteen per minute4 7,see p4 #bii47 ,,modifications ,,of ,,the ,,breath4--,sighing is merely a prolonged inspiration followed by an audible expiration4 ,coughing is a violent expiration in which the air is driven through the mouth4 ,sneezing differs from coughing1 the air being forced through the nose4 ,snoring is produced by the passage of the breath through the pharynx when the tongue and soft palate are in certain positions4 ,footnote3 ,the soft palate must have fallen back in such a manner as nearly or quite to close the entrance to the nasal cavity from the throat1 and the tongue must also be thrown back so far as to leave only a narrow opening between it and the soft palate4 ,the noise is produced by the air being forced either inward or outward through this opening4 ,a snore results also when1 with a closed mouth1 the air is forced between the soft palate and the back wall of the pharynx into the nasal cavity4 ,with deep breathing1 perhaps accompanied by a variation in the position of the soft palate1 a rattling noise may be heard in addition to the snoring1 which is due to a vibration of the soft palate4--,f4 ,a4 ,,fernald1 in ,how we ,sneeze1 ,laugh1 ,stammer1 and ,sigh4--,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,feb41 #ahhd4 ,laughing and crying are very much alike4 ,the expression of the face is necessary to distinguish between them4 ,the sounds are produced by short1 rapid contractions of the diaphragm4 ,hiccough is confined to inspiration4 ,it is caused by a contraction of the diaphragm and a constriction of the glottis2 the current of air just entering1 as it strikes the closed glottis1 gives rise to the well-known sound4 ,yawning1 or gaping1 is like sighing4 ,footnote3 ,the usefulness of a yawn lies in bringing up the arrears1 as it were1 of respiration1 when it has fallen behindhand1 either through fatigue or close attention to other occupation4 ,the stretching of the jaws and limbs may also serve to equalize the nervous influence1 certain muscles having become uneasy on account of being stretched or contracted for a long time4 ,it is distinguished by a wide opening of the mouth and a deep1 profound inspiration4 ,both processes furnish additional air1 and therefore probably meet a demand of the system for more oxygen4 ,frequently1 however1 they are like laughing1 sobbing1 etc41 merely a sort of contagion1 which runs through an audience1 and seems almost irresistible4 ,,the ,,capacity ,,of ,,the ,,lungs4--,if we take a deep inspiration1 and then forcibly exhale all the air we can expel from the lungs1 this amount1 which is termed the breathing capacity1 will bear a very close correspondence to our stature4 ,for a man of medium height 7five feet eight inches7 it will be about two hundred and thirty cubic inches1 ,footnote3 ,of this amount1 one hundred cubic inches can be forced in only by an extra effort1 and is available for emergencies1 or for purposes of training1 as in singing1 climbing1 etc4 ,it is of great importance1 since1 if the capacity of the lungs only equaled our daily wants1 the least obstruction would prove fatal4 or a gallon1 and for each inch of height between five and six feet there will be an increase of eight cubic inches4 ,in addition1 it is found that the lungs contain about one hundred cubic inches which can not be expelled1 thus making their entire contents about three hundred and thirty cubic inches1 or eleven pints4 ,the extra amount always on hand in the lungs is of great value1 since thereby the action of the air goes on continuously1 even during a violent expiration4 ,in ordinary breathing1 only about twenty or thirty cubic inches 7less than a pint7 of air pass in and out4 ,,the ,,need ,,of ,,air4--,the body needs food1 clothing1 sunshine1 bathing1 and4 drink2 but none of these wants is so pressing as that for air4 ,the other demands may be met by occasional supplies1 but air must be furnished every moment or we die4 ,now the vital element of the atmosphere is oxygen gas4 ,footnote3 ,see ,steele's ,popular ,chemistry1 p4 #cj4 ,the atmosphere consists of one fifth oxygen and four fifths nitrogen4 ,the former is the active element2 and the latter1 the passive4 ,oxygen alone would be too stimulating1 and must be restrained by the neutral nitrogen4 ,separately1 either element of the air would kill us4 ,this is a stimulating1 life- giving principle4 ,no tonic will so invigorate as a few full1 deep breaths of cold1 pure air4 ,every organ will glow with the energy of the fiery oxygen4 ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,air ,,in ,,the ,,lungs4--,in the delicate cells of the lungs1 the air gives up its oxygen to the blood1 and receives in turn carbonic-acid ,footnote3 ,more properly ,carbon dioxide4 gas and water1 foul with waste matter which the blood has picked up in its circulation through the body4 ,the blood1 thus purified and laden with the inspiring oxygen1 goes bounding through the system1 while the air we exhale carries off the impurities4 ,in this process1 the blood changes from purple to red4 ,if we examine our breath1 we can readily see what it has removed from the blood4 ,,tests ,,of ,,the ,,breath4--#a4 ,breathe into a jar1 and on lowering into it a lighted candle1 the flame will be instantly extinguished2 thus indicating the presence of carbonic-acid gas4 #b4 ,breathe upon a mirror1 and a film of moisture will show the vapor4 ,footnote3 ,there is a close relation between the functions of the skin1 the lungs1 and the kidneys--the scavengers of the body4 ,they all carry off water from the blood1 and when the function of one of the three is1 in this respect1 interfered with1 the others are called upon to perform its functions4 ,when the function of perspiration is deranged1 the lungs and kidneys are required to perform heavier duty1 and this may lead to disease 7see p4 #fb74 #c4 ,if breath be confined in a bottle1 the animal matter will decompose and give off an offensive odor4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,expired ,,air shows that it has lost about twenty-five per cent of its oxygen1 and gained an equal amount of carbonic-acid gas1 besides moisture1 and organic impurities4 ,our breath1 then1 is air robbed of its vitality1 and containing in its place a gas as fatal to life ,footnote3 ,carbonic-acid gas can not be breathed when undiluted1 as the glottis closes and forbids its passage into the lungs4 ,air containing only three or four per cent acts as a narcotic poison 7,,miller71 and a much smaller proportion will have an injurious effect4 ,the great danger1 however1 lies in the organic particles constantly exhaled from the lungs and the skin1 which1 it is believed1 are often direct and active poisons4 as it is to a flame1 and effete matter which is disagreeable to the smell1 injurious to the health1 and which may contain the germs of serious disease4 ,,the ,,evil ,,effect ,,of ,,rebreathing the air can not be overestimated4 ,we take back into our bodies that which has just been rejected4 ,the blood thereupon leaves the lungs1 bearing1 not the invigorating oxygen1 but refuse matter to obstruct the whole system4 ,we soon feel the effect4 ,the muscles become inactive4 ,the blood stagnates4 ,the heart acts slowly4 ,the food is undigested4 ,the brain is clogged4 ,the head aches4 ,instances of fatal results are only too frequent4 ,footnote3 ,during the ,english war in ,india1 in the eighteenth century1 one hundred and forty-six prisoners were shut up in a room scarcely large enough to hold them4 ,the air could enter only by two narrow windows4 ,at the end of eight hours1 but twenty-three persons remained alive1 and these were in a most deplorable condition4 ,this prison is well called ,the ,black ,hole of ,calcutta4--,percy relates that after the battle of ,austerlitz1 three hundred ,russian prisoners were confined in a cavern1 where two hundred and sixty of them perished in a few hours4--,the stupid captain of the ship ,londonderry1 during a storm at sea1 shut the hatches4 ,there were only seven cubic feet of space left for each person1 and in six hours ninety of the passengers were dead4 ,the constant breathing of even the slightly impure air of our houses can not but tend to undermine the health4 ,the blood is not purified1 and is thus in a condition to receive the seeds of disease at any time4 ,the system uninspired by the energizing oxygen is sensitive to cold4 ,the pale cheek1 the lusterless eye1 the languid step1 speak but too plainly of oxygen starvation4 ,in such a soil1 catarrh1 scrofula1 and kindred diseases run riot4 ,footnote3 ,one not very strong1 or unable powerfully to resist conditions unfavorable to health1 and with a predisposition to lung disease1 will be sure1 sooner or later1 by partial lung starvation and blood poisoning1 to develop pulmonary consumption4 ,the lack of what is so abundant and so cheap--good1 pure air--is unquestionably the one great cause of this terrible disease4--,,black',s ,ten ,laws of ,health4 ,,concerning ,,the ,,need ,,for ,,ventilation4--,the foul air which passes off from the lungs and through the pores of the skin does not fall to the floor1 but diffuses itself through the surrounding atmosphere4 ,a single breath will to a trifling but certain extent taint the air of a whole room4 ,footnote3 ,this grows out of a well-known philosophical principle called the ,diffusion of ,gases1 whereby two gases tend to mix in exact proportions1 no matter what may be the quantity of each4--,,steele',s ,popular ,chemistry1 p4 #hf1 and ,popular ,physics1 p4 #eb4 ,a light will vitiate as much air as a dozen persons4 ,many breaths and lights therefore rapidly unfit the air for our use4 ,the perfection of ventilation is reached when the air of a room is as pure as that out of doors4 ,to accomplish this result1 it is necessary to allow for each person six hundred cubic feet of space1 while ventilation is still going on in the best manner known4 ,in spite of these well-known facts1 scarcely any pains are taken to supply fresh air1 while the doors and windows where the life-giving oxygen might creep in are hermetically stopped4 ,how often is this true of the sick room4 ,yet here the danger of bad air is intensified4 ,the expired breath of the patient is peculiarly threatening to himself as well as to others4 ,nature is seeking to throw off the poison of the disease4 ,the scavengers of the body are all at work4 ,the breath and the insensible perspiration are loaded with impurities4 ,footnote3 ,the floating dust in the air1 revealed to us by the sunbeam shining through a crack in the blinds1 shows the abundance of these impurities1 and also the presence of germs which1 lodging in the lungs1 may implant disease1 unless thrown off by a vigorous constitution4 ,on uncovering a scarlet fever patient1 a cloud of fine dust is seen to rise from the body--contagious dust1 that for days will retain its poisonous properties4--,,youmans4 7,see p4 #cjj47 ,the odor is oftentimes exceedingly offensive4 ,sick and well alike need an abundance of fresh air4 ,but1 too often1 it is the only want not supplied4 ,our sitting rooms1 heated by furnaces or red-hot stoves1 generally have no means of ventilation1 or1 if provided1 they are seldom used4 ,a window is occasionally dropped to give a little relief1 as if pure air were a rarity1 and must be doled out to the suffering lungs in morsels1 instead of full and constant draughts4 ,the inmates are starved by scanty lung food1 and stupefied by foul air4 ,the process goes on year by year4 ,the weakened and poisoned body at last succumbs to disease1 while we1 in our blindness and ignorance1 talk of the mysterious ,providence which thus untimely cuts down the brightest intellects4 ,the truth is1 death is often simply the penalty for violating nature's laws4 ,bad air begets disease2 disease begets death4 ,in our churches1 the foul air left by the congregation on ,sunday is shut up during the week1 and heated for the next ,lord's day1 when the people assemble to rebreathe the polluted atmosphere4 ,they are thus forced1 with every breath they take1 to violate the physical laws of ,him whom they meet to worship1--laws written not three thousand years ago upon ,mount ,sinai on tables of stone1 but to-day engraved in the constitution of their own living1 breathing bodies4 ,on brains benumbed and starving for oxygen1 the purest truth and the highest eloquence fall with little force4 ,we sleep in a small bedroom from which every breath of fresh air is excluded1 because we believe night air to be unhealthy1 ,footnote3 ,there is a singular prejudice against the night air4 ,yet1 as ,florence ,nightingale aptly says1 what other air can we breathe at night8 ,we then have the choice between foul air within and pure air without4 ,for1 in large cities especially1 the night air is far more wholesome than that of the daytime4 ,to secure fresh air at night1 we must open the windows of our bedroom4 and so we breathe its dozen hogsheads of air over and over again1 and then wonder why we awaken in the morning so dull and unrefreshed6 ,return to our room after inhaling the fresh1 morning air1 and the fetid odor we meet on opening the door1 is convincing proof how we have poisoned our lungs during the night4 ,each room should be supplied with two thousand feet of fresh air per hour for every person it contains4 ,our ingenuity ought to find some way of doing this advantageously and pleasantly4 ,a moiety of the care we devote to delicate articles of food1 drink1 and dress would abundantly meet this prime necessity of our bodies4 ,open the windows a little at the top and the bottom4 ,put on plenty of clothing to keep warm by day and by night1 and then let the inspiring oxygen come in as freely as ,god has given it4 ,pure air is the cheapest necessity and luxury of life4 ,let it not be the rarest6 ,,schoolroom ,,ventilation4--,who1 on going from the open air of a clear1 bracing winter's day1 into a crowded schoolroom1 late in the session1 has not noticed the disagreeable odor1 and been for a moment nauseated and half stifled by the oppressive atmosphere6 ,it is not strange4 ,see how many causes here combine to pollute the air4 ,if the room is heated by a stove1 quantities of carbonic-oxide and carbonic-acid gases1 as well as other products of combustion1 driven by downward drafts in the flue1 escape through seams and cracks and the occasionally opened door of the stove4 ,in the case of a furnace1 the same effect is too often experienced1 and the odor of coal gas is a common one1 especially when the fire is replenished4 ,the insensible perspiration is more active in children than in adults2 they1 moreover1 rush in with their clothing saturated with the perspiration induced by their sports2 so that1 on the average1 each pupil1 during school hours1 loads the air with about half a pint of aqueous vapor4 ,the children come1 oftentimes1 from homes that are close1 ill- ventilated1 and uncleanly2 and frequently from sick rooms1 bringing in their clothing the germs of disease4 7,see p4 #cjd47 ,some of the pupils may even bear traces of illness1 or have unsound organs1 and so their breath and exhalations be poisonous4 ,in addition to all this1 the air is filled with dust brought in and kept astir by many busy feet2 with ashes floating from the stove or furnace2 and especially with chalk dust4 ,the modern method of teaching requires a large amount of blackboard work1 and the air of the schoolroom is thus loaded with chalk particles4 ,these collect in the nasal passages1 and the upper part of the larynx1 and irritate the membrane1 perhaps laying the foundation of catarrh4 ,the usual schoolroom atmosphere bears in the pupils the natural fruit of frequent headaches1 inattention1 weariness1 and stupor2 but in the teacher its frightful influence is most apparent4 ,his labor is severe1 his worry of mind is constant1 and1 when he finishes his day's work1 he is generally too tired to take proper physical exercise4 ,he consequently labors on with impaired health1 or is forced to abandon his profession4 ,instead of six hundred feet of space being allowed for each pupil1 as perfect ventilation demands--the lowest estimate being two hundred and fifty feet--often not over one hundred feet are afforded4 ,instead of two thousand cubic feet of fresh air being supplied every hour for each person1 and as much foul air removed1 which1 all physiologists assert1 is needed for perfect health1 perhaps no means of ventilation at all are provided1 and none is secured except what an occasionally opened door1 or the benevolent cracks and chinks in the building furnish the suffering lungs4 ,footnote3 ,imagine fifty pupils put into a class room thirty feet long1 twenty-five feet wide1 and ten feet high4 ,this would generally be considered a very liberal provision4 ,such a room contains seven thousand five hundred cubic feet of air4 ,but it furnishes only one hundred and fifty feet of space for each pupil4 ,allowing ten cubic feet of air per pupil each minute1 in fifteen minutes after assembling1 the entire atmosphere of the room is tainted1 and unfit to be rebreathed4 ,the demand of health is that at least one thousand five hundred cubic feet of pure air should be admitted into this room every minute1 and as much be removed4 ,,how ,,shall ,,we ,,ventilate8--,the usual method of ventilation depends upon the fact that hot air is lighter than cold air1 and so the cold air tends1 by the force of gravity1 to fall and compel the warm air to rise4 ,thus1 if we open the door of a heated room1 and hold a lighted candle first at the top1 and then at the bottom1 we can see1 by the deflection of the flame1 that there is a current of air setting outward at the top1 and another setting inward at the bottom of the opening4 ,a handkerchief held loosely1 or the smoke of a smoldering match1 in front of a fireplace will show a current of air passing up the chimney2 this is caused by the difference of temperature between the air in the room and the outside atmosphere4 ,upon this difference of temperature1 all ordinary ventilation is based4 ,footnote3 ,public buildings are sometimes ventilated by mechanical means1 i4 e41 immense fans which are turned by machinery1 and thus set the air in motion4 ,such methods are1 however1 expensive1 and rarely adopted1 except where power is also used for other purposes4 ,a proper treatment of this subject and its practical applications1 would require a book by itself4 ,there is room here for only a few general statements and suggestions4 #a4 ,two openings are always necessary to produce a thorough change of air4 7,see ,popular ,chemistry1 p4 #gj47 ,put a lighted candle in a bottle4 ,the flame will soon be extinguished4 ,the oxygen of the little air in the bottle is burned out1 and carbonic acid has taken its place4 ,now place over the mouth of the bottle a lamp chimney1 and insert in the chimney a strip of cardboard1 thus dividing the passage4 ,on relighting the candle1 it will burn freely4 ,the smoke of a bit of smoldering paper will show that two opposite currents of air are established1 one setting into the bottle1 the other outward4 #b4 ,in the winter1 when our schoolrooms1 churches1 public halls1 etc41 are heated artificially1 ventilation is comparatively easy if properly arranged4 ,footnote3 ,for the escape of bad air1 ,dr4 ,bell suggests that an efficient foul-air shaft may be fitted to the commonest of stoves by simply inclosing the stovepipe in a jacket--that is1 in a pipe two or three inches greater in diameter4 ,this should be braced round the stovepipe and left open at the end next the stove4 ,at its entrance into the chimney1 a perforated collar should separate it from the stovepipe4 ,the required difference of temperature is kept up with little difficulty4 ,the fresh air admitted to the room should then be heated ,footnote3 ,ventilation is change of air1 and1 unless scientifically arranged1 and especially unless the incoming volume of air be warmed in cold weather1 such change of atmosphere means cold currents1 with their attendant train of catarrhs1 bronchitis1 neuralgia1 rheumatism1 and all the evils that spring from these diseases4 ,the raw1 damp1 frosty air of our ever-changing winter temperature ought not to have uncontrolled and constant ingress to our dwellings4 ,air out of doors is suited to out of door habits4 ,it is healthy and bracing when the body is coated and wrapped1 and prepared to meet it1 and when exercise can be taken to keep up the circulation2 but to live under cover is to live artificially1 and such essential conditions must be observed as suit an abnormal state4 ,all the evils attaching to ventilation1 as it is generally effected1 spring from the neglect of this consistency4--,westminster ,review4 either by a furnace1 or by passing over a stove1 or through a coil of steam pipes4 ,this cold air should always be taken directly from out of doors1 and not from a cellar1 or from under a piazza1 where contamination is possible4 #c4 ,in order to remove the impure air1 there should be ventilators provided at or near the floor1 opening into air shafts1 or pipes leading upward through the roof1 with proper orifices at the top4 ,these ventilating pipes should be heated artificially so as to produce a draught4 ,they may form one of the flues of a chimney in which there is a constant fire2 or be carried upward in a large flue through the center of which runs the smoke pipe of the furnace or stove2 ,footnote3 ,this plan has been adopted in the newer school buildings of ,elmira1 ,n4 ,y4 ,the older buildings were provided with ventilating pipes1 not heated artificially1 and hence of no service4 ,these pipes are rendered effective1 however1 by conducting them into a small room in the garret1 heated by a coal stove4 ,from this room1 a large exit pipe leads to the roof1 where it terminates in an ,emerson's ventilator4 ,so strong a draught is thus established that throughout the building air is taken from the floors1 and consequently the cooler portion of the rooms1 at a velocity of three to five feet per second or one hundred and eighty to three hundred cubic feet per minute for each square foot of flue opening4 ,in perpendicular flues1 heated throughout with a smoke flue from the furnace1 ten feet per second is attained4 or the ventilating pipe be itself conveyed through the center of the larger chimney flue4 ,if the register for hot air be on the floor at one side of the room1 two or more ventilators may be placed near the floor on the opposite side4 ,the warm air will thus make the complete circuit of the room1 and thoroughly warm it before passing out4 ,if the ventilating shaft be not heated artificially2 the ventilator must be placed at the top of the room in order that the hot air may escape through it1 thus producing an upward draught4 ,but the objection to this method is that it allows the warmer air to escape1 while economy requires that the cooler air at the bottom of the room should be removed and the warm air be made to descend1 thus securing uniformity of temperature4 #d4 ,in the summer1 ventilation may be commonly provided for by opening windows at the top and the bottom1 on the sheltered side of the building1 so as to avoid draughts of air injurious to the occupants4 ,on a dull1 still1 hot day1 when there is little difference of temperature between the inner and the outer air1 ventilation can be secured only by having a fire provided in the ventilating shaft2 this1 by exhausting the air from the room1 will cause a fresh current to pour in through the open windows4 ,at recess1 all the children should1 if the weather permit1 be sent out of doors1 to allow their clothing to be exposed to the purifying influence of the open air2 meantime1 the windows should be thrown wide open1 that the room may be thoroughly ventilated during their absence4 ,in bad weather1 rapid marching or calisthenic exercises will furnish exercise1 and also permit the airing of the room4 #e4 ,the school and the church are the centers for spreading contagious diseases4 ,the former offers especially dangerous facilities for scattering disease germs4 ,great pains1 therefore1 should be taken to exclude pupils attacked by or recovering from diphtheria1 scarlet fever1 whooping cough1 etc41 and even those who live in houses where such sickness exists4 #f4 ,in our houses ,footnote3 ,the air of our homes is often contaminated by decaying vegetables and other filth in the cellar2 by bad air drawn up from the soil into the cellar1 by the powerful draughts that our fires create2 by defective gas and waste pipes that let the foul air from cesspool or sewer spread through the house2 and by piles of refuse1 or puddles of slops emptied at the back door4 ,too often1 also1 the water in our wells1 or in the streams that supply our towns and cities1 receives the drainage from outhouses and barnyards1 and so introduces into our systems1 in the liquid--and thus easily assimilated--form1 the most dangerous poisons4 ,the question of sanitary precautions is one that presses upon every observant mind1 and demands constant and thoughtful attention4 7,see p4 #cje47 open fireplaces are efficient ventilators1 and they should never be closed for any cause4 ,fresh air admitted by a hot-air register and impure air passed out by a chimney1 form a simple and thorough system4 ,our sleeping apartments demand especial care4 ,as soon as the occupants leave the room1 the bedclothes should be removed1 and laid on the backs of chairs to air2 the bed be shaken up2 and the windows thrown open4 ,in the summer1 the windows may be closed before the sun is high2 the house is then left filled with the cool morning air4 ,in damp and cold weather1 a fire should be lighted in sleeping apartments1 particularly if used by children ,footnote3 ,in winter1 children should always be given a moderately warm1 well-ventilated bedroom1 with light1 fleecy bed coverings4 ,says a recent ,english writer3 ,the loving care which prescribes for children a cold bedroom and a hot1 sweltering bed is of the nature that kills4 ,buried in blankets1 their delicate skins become overheated and relaxed1 while they are irritated by perspiration2 at the same time1 the most delicate tissues of all1 in the lungs1 are dealing with air abnormally frigid4 ,the poor little victims of combined ignorance and kindness thus toss and dream1 feverish and troubled1 under a mass of bedclothes1 while the well-meaning mother1 soothed by a bedroom fire1 slumbers peacefully through this working out of the sad process of the 'survival of the fittest4' or delicate persons1 to dry the bedclothing1 and also to prevent a chill on the part of the occupants4 ,it is not necessary to go shivering to bed in order to harden one's constitution4 ,,wonders ,,of ,,respiration4--,the perfection of the organs of respiration challenges our admiration4 ,so delicate are they that the least pressure would cause exquisite pain1 yet tons of air surge to and fro through their intricate passages1 and bathe their innermost cells4 ,we yearly perform at least seven million acts of breathing1 inhaling one hundred thousand cubic feet of air1 and purifying over three thousand five hundred tons of blood4 ,this gigantic process goes on constantly1 never wearies or worries us1 and we wonder at it only when science reveals to us its magnitude4 ,in addition1 by a wise economy1 the process of respiration is made to subserve a second use no less important1 and the air we exhale1 passing through the organs of voice1 is transformed into prayers of faith1 songs of hope1 and words of social cheer4 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,illustration3 ,a1 the natural position of the internal organs4 ,b when deformed by tight lacing ,marshall says that the liver and the stomach have1 in this way1 been forced downward almost as low as the pelvis4 ,,diseases1 ,,etc4--#a4 ,constriction of the ,lungs is produced by tight clothing4 ,the ribs are thus forced inward1 the size of the chest is diminished1 and the amount of inhaled air decreased4 ,stiff clothing1 and especially a garment that will not admit of a full breath without inconvenience1 will prevent that free movement of the ribs so essential to health4 ,any infraction of the laws of respiration1 even though it be fashionable1 will result in diminished vitality and vigor1 and will be fearfully punished by sickness and weakness through the whole life4 #b4 ,bronchitis 7bron-ki'-tis7 is an inflammation 7see ,inflammation7 of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes4 ,it is accompanied by an increased secretion of mucus1 and consequent coughing4 #c4 ,pleurisy is an inflammation of the pleura4 ,it is sometimes caused by an injury to the ribs1 and results in a secretion of water within the membrane4 #d4 ,pneumonia 7pneuma1 breath7 is an inflammation of the lungs1 affecting chiefly the air cells4 #e4 ,consumption is a disease which destroys the substance of the lungs4 ,like other lung difficulties1 it is caused largely by a want of pure air1 a liberal supply of which is the best treatment that can be prescribed for it4 ,footnote3 ,if ,i were seriously ill of consumption1 ,i would live outdoors day and night1 except in rainy weather or midwinter2 then ,i would sleep in an unplastered log house4 ,physic has no nutriment1 gaspings for air can not cure you1 monkey capers in a gymnasium can not cure you1 stimulants can not cure you4 ,what consumptives want is pure air1 not physic1 plenty of meat and plenty of bread4--,,dr4 ,,marshall ,,hall4 #f4 ,asphyxia 7as-fix'-i-a74--,when a person is drowned1 strangled1 or choked in any way1 what is called asphyxia occurs4 ,the face turns black2 the veins become turgid2 insensibility and often convulsions ensue4 ,if relief is not secured within a few minutes1 death will be inevitable4 ,footnote3 ,the lack of oxygen1 and the presence of carbonic-acid gas1 are the combined causes4 ,oxygen starvation and carbonic-acid poisoning1 each fatal in itself1 work together to destroy life4 7,see p4 #bfd47 #g4 ,diphtheria 7diphthera1 a membrane7 is characterized by fever1 debility1 and a peculiar sore throat1 in which exuding fibrinous matter forms a grayish white membrane1 which afterward decomposes with a fetid odor4 ,its sudden and insidious approach1 contagious character1 and frequent fatality1 render it an exceedingly dreaded disease4 ,a diphtheritic patient should be quarantined1 and everything connected with the sick room thoroughly disinfected4 #h4 ,croup1 which often attacks young children1 is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the larynx and trachea4 ,it is commonly preceded by a cold4 ,the child sneezes1 coughs1 and is hoarse1 but the attack frequently comes on suddenly1 and usually in the night4 ,it is accompanied by a peculiar brassy1 ringing cough1 which1 once heard1 can never be mistaken4 ,it may prove fatal within a few hours4 7,see p4 #bfj47 #i4 ,stammering depends1 not on defects of the muscles1 but on a want of due control of the mind4 ,when a stammerer is not too conscious of his lack1 and tries to form his words slowly1 he speaks plainly1 and may sing well1 for then his words must follow one another in rhythmic time4 ,many persons who stammer in common conversation can talk with fluency when making a speech4 ,the stammerer should seek to discover the cause of his difficulty1 and to overcome it by vocal and respiratory exercise1 especially by speaking only after a full inspiration1 and during a long1 slow expiration4 ,,practical ,,questions4 #a4 ,what is the philosophy of the change of voice in a boy8 #b4 ,why can we see our breath on a frosty morning8 #c4 ,when a law of health and a law of fashion conflict1 which should we obey8 #d4 ,if we use a bunk bed1 should we pack away the clothes when we first rise in the morning8 #e4 ,why should a clothespress be well ventilated8 #f4 ,should the weight of our clothing hang from the waist1 or the shoulder8 #g4 ,describe the effects of living in an overheated room4 #h4 ,what habits impair the power of the lungs8 #i4 ,for full1 easy breathing in singing1 should we use the diaphragm and lower ribs1 or the upper ribs alone8 #aj4 ,why is it better to breathe through the nose than the mouth8 #aa4 ,why should not a speaker talk while returning home on a cold night after a lecture8 #ab4 ,what part of the body needs the loosest clothing8 #ac4 ,what part needs the warmest8 #ad4 ,why is a spare bed generally unhealthful8 #ae4 ,is there any good in sighing8 #af4 ,should a hat be thoroughly ventilated8 ,how8 #ag4 ,why do the lungs of people who live in cities become of a gray color8 #ah4 ,how would you convince a person that a bedroom should be aired8 ,footnote3 ,if the condensed breath collected on the cool windowpanes of a room where a number of persons have been assembled1 be burned1 a smell as of singed hair will show the presence of organic matter2 and if the condensed breath be allowed to remain on the windows for a few days1 it will be found1 on examination by the microscope1 that it is alive with animalcul4 #ai4 ,what persons are most liable to catarrhs1 consumption1 etc48 #bj4 ,if a person is plunged under water1 will it enter his lungs8 #ba4 ,are bed curtains healthful8 #bb4 ,why do some people take short breaths after a meal8 #bc ,what is the special value of public parks8 #bd4 ,can a person become used to bad air1 so that it will not injure him8 #be4 ,why do we gape when we are sleepy8 #bf4 ,is a fashionable waist a model of art in sculpture or painting8 #bg4 ,should a fireplace be closed8 ,footnote3 ,thousands of lives would be saved if all fireplaces were kept open4 ,if you are so fortunate as to have a fireplace in your room1 paint it when not in use1 put a bouquet of fresh flowers in it every morning1 if you please1 or do anything to make it attractive1 but never close it2 better use the fireboards for kindling wood4 ,it would be scarcely more absurd to take a piece of elegantly-tinted court-plaster and stop up the nose1 trusting to the accidental opening and shutting of the mouth for fresh air1 because you thought it spoiled the looks of your face to have two such great1 ugly holes in it1 than to stop your fireplace with elegantly-tinted paper1 or a ,japanese fan1 because it looks better4--,leeds4 #bh4 ,why does embarrassment or fright cause a stammerer to stutter still more painfully8 #bi4 ,in the organs of voice1 what parts have somewhat the same effect as the case of a violin and the sounding-board of a piano8 #cj4 ,why should we be careful not to take the breath of a sick person8 #ca4 ,what special care should be taken with regard to keeping a cellar clean8 #cb4 ,how is the air strained as it passes into the lungs8 #cc4 ,can one really draw the air into his lungs8 #cd4 ,how often do we breathe8 #ce4 ,describe some approved method of ventilation4 #cf4 ,what is at once the floor of the chest and the roof of the abdomen8 #cg4 ,what would you do in a case of apparent death by drowning1 or by coal gas8 7,see p4 #bfd47 #ch4 ,what would you do in a case of croup1 while the doctor was coming8 7,see p4 #bfj47 #ci4 ,how would you treat a severe burn8 7,see p4 #beg47 #dj4 ,describe the various ways in which the water in a well is liable to become unwholesome4 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,illustration ,v4 ,,the ,,circulation4 ,no rest this throbbing slave may ask1 ,forever quivering o'er his task1 ,while far and wide a crimson jet ,leaps forth to fill the woven net1 ,which in unnumber'd crossing tides ,the flood of burning life divides1 ,then1 kindling each decaying part1 ,creeps back to find the throbbing heart4 ,,holmes4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,circulation #a4 ,its ,composition4 #a4 ,,the ,,blood #b4 ,its ,uses4 #c4 ,transfusion4 #d4 ,coagulation #a4 ,description4 #b4 ,movements4 #c4 ,auricles and ,ventricles4 #a4 ,the a4 ,need of4 ,heart4 b4 ,tricuspid and ,bicuspid4 #d4 ,the c4 ,the ,strengthen- ,valves4 ing of the ,valves4 d4 ,semilunar ,valves4 #b4 ,,organs ,,of ,,the #b4 ,the #a4 ,description4 ,,circulation ,arteries #b4 ,the ,arterial ,system4 #c4 ,the ,pulse4 #c4 ,the #a4 ,general ,description4 ,veins #b4 ,valves4 #d4 ,the #a4 ,description4 ,capilla- #b4 ,use4 ries #c4 ,under the ,microscope4 #a4 ,the ,lesser4 #c4 ,,the ,,circulation4 #b4 ,the ,greater4 #c4 ,the ,velocity of the ,blood4 #d4 ,,the ,,heat ,,of ,,the #a4 ,distribution4 ,,body4 #b4 ,regulation4 #e4 ,,life ,,by ,,death4 #f4 ,,change ,,of ,,our ,,bodies4 #g4 ,,the ,,three ,,vital ,,organs4 #h4 ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,heart4 #a4 ,description #i4 ,,the ,,lymphatic #b4 ,the ,glands4 ,,circulation4 #c4 ,the ,lymph4 #d4 ,the ,office of the ,lymphatics4 #a4 ,congestion4 #b4 ,inflammation4 #c4 ,bleeding4 #aj4 ,,diseases4 #d4 ,scrofula4 #e4 ,a ,cold4 #f4 ,catarrh4 #a4 ,effect of ,alcohol upon the ,circulation4 #aa4 ,,alcoholic #b4 ,effect of ,alcohol upon the ,heart4 ,,drinks ,,and #c4 ,effect of ,alcohol upon the ,membrane4 ,,narcotics4 #d4 ,effect of ,alcohol upon the ,blood4 #e4 ,effect of ,alcohol upon the ,lungs4 ,,the ,,circulation4 ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,circulation are the heart1 the arteries1 the veins1 and the capillaries4 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,illustration3 ,a1 corpuscles of human blood1 highly magnified2 ,b1 corpuscles in the blood of an animal 7a non mammal74 ,,the ,,blood is the liquid by means of which the circulation is effected4 ,it permeates every part of the body1 except the cuticle1 nails1 hair1 etc4 ,the average quantity in each person is about eighteen pounds4 ,footnote3 ,it is difficult to estimate the exact amount1 and therefore authorities disagree4 ,foster places it at about one thirteenth of the body weight4 ,it is composed of a thin1 colorless liquid1 the plasma1 filled with red disks or cells1 ,footnote3 ,there is also one white globular cell to every three or four hundred red ones4 ,the blood is no more red than the water of a stream would be if you were to fill it with little red fishes4 ,suppose the fishes to be very1 very small--as small as a grain of sand-- and closely crowded together through the whole depth of the stream2 the water would look quite red1 would it not8 ,and this is the way in which1 blood looks red--only observe one thing2 a grain of sand is a mountain in comparison with the little red fishes in the blood4 ,if ,i were to tell you they measured about #a_/cejj of an inch in diameter1 you would not be much wiser2 so ,i prefer saying 7by way of giving you a more perfect idea of their minuteness7 that there would be about a million in such a drop of blood as would hang on the point of a needle4 ,i say so on the authority of a scientific microscopist--,m4 ,bouillet4 ,not that he has ever counted them1 as you may suppose1 any more than ,i have done2 but this is as near an approach as can be made by calculation to the size of #a_/cejj part of an inch in diameter4--,,jean ,,mace4 so small that about three thousand five hundred placed side by side would measure only an inch1 and it would take sixteen thousand laid flatwise upon one another to make a column of that height4 ,under the microscope1 they are found to be rounded at the edge and concave on both sides4 ,footnote3 ,by pricking the end of the finger with a needle1 we can obtain a drop for examination4 ,place it on the slide1 cover with a glass1 and put it at once under the microscope4 ,the red disks will be seen to group themselves in rows1 while the white disks will seem to draw apart1 and to be constantly changing their form4 ,after a gradual evaporation1 the crystals 7,fig4 #cf7 may be seen4 ,in animals1 they have various1 though distinctive forms4 ,they have a tendency to collect in piles like rolls of coin4 ,the size and shape vary in the blood of different animals4 ,footnote3 ,authorities differ greatly in their estimate of the size of the disks 7corpuscles7 in human blood4 ,the fact is that the size varies in different persons1 probably also in the same individual4 ,many of the best microscopists therefore hesitate to state whether a particular specimen of blood belonged to a human being or to an animal4 ,others claim that they can distinguish with accuracy4 ,evidently1 the question is one of great uncertainty4 ,the following statement of the size of the cells in different animals is taken from ,gulliver's tables3 ,cat1 #a_/ddjd of an inch in diameter2 whale1 #a_/cajj2 mouse1 #a_/cfad2 hog1 #a_/dbcj2 camel1 #a_/cabc2 sheep1 #a_/cceb2 horse1 #a_/dhjj2 ,virginia deer1 #a_/ejch2 dog- faced baboon1 #a_/dhfa2 brown baboon1 #a_/cdic2 red monkey1 #a_/ccif2 black monkey1 #a_/cecj4 ,disks are continually forming in the blood1 and are constantly dying--twenty million at every breath4--,,draper4 ,the plasma also contains fibrin1 ,footnote3 it is usual to say that fibrin is contained in the blood4 ,it probably does not exist as such1 but there are present in the blood certain substances known as paraglobulin and fibrinogen1 which by the action of a third substance1 fibrin ferment under certain circumstances1 form fibrin and so cause coagulation4 ,the exact nature of the process by which fibrin is produced by these three factors is not understood--,see ,foster's ,text ,book of ,physiology1 p #bb4 albumin--which is found nearly pure in the white of an egg--and various mineral substances1 as iron1 ,footnote3 ,enough iron has been found in the ashes of a burned body to form a mourning ring4 lime1 magnesia1 phosphorus1 potash1 etc4 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,illustration3 ,blood ,crystals ,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,blood4--,the blood has been called liquid flesh2 but it is more than that1 since it contains the materials for making every organ4 ,the plasma is rich in mineral matter for the bones1 and in albumen for the muscles4 ,the red disks are the air cells of the blood4 ,they contain the oxygen so essential to every operation of life4 ,wherever there is work to be done or repairs to be made1 there the oxygen is needed4 ,it stimulates to action1 and tears down all that is worn out4 ,in this process1 it combines with and actually burns out parts of the muscles and other tissues1 as wood is burned in the stove4 ,footnote3 ,for the sake of simplicity1 perhaps to conceal our own ignorance1 we call this process burning4 ,the simile of a fire is good so far as it goes4 ,but as to the real nature of the change which the physiologist briefly terms oxidation1 we know nothing4 ,this much only can be asserted positively4 ,a stream of oxygen is carried by the blood to the muscles 7in fact to every tissue in the body71 while1 from the muscles the blood carries away a stream of carbonic acid and water4 ,but what takes place in the muscles1 when and what chemical change occurs1 no one can tell4 ,we see the first and the last stage4 ,we know that contraction of the muscles somehow comes about1 oxygen disappears1 carbonic acid appears1 energy is released1 and force is exhibited as motion1 heat1 and electricity4 ,but the intermediate step is hidden4 ,there are certain theories advanced1 however1 that are worth considering4 ,some physiologists hold that the muscle has the power of taking up the oxygen from the hemoglobin 7a body that comprises ninety per cent of the red corpuscles when dried1 and is the oxygen carrier of the blood71 and fixing it1 as well as the raw material 7food7 furnished by the blood1 thus forming a true contractile substance4 ,the breaking down or decomposition of this contractile substance in the muscle1 sets free its potential energy4 ,the process is gentle so long as the muscle is at rest1 but becomes excessive and violent when contraction occurs4 7,see ,foster's ,physiology1 p4 #aah47 ,it is also believed by some that the chemical change in the muscle partakes of a fermentive character2 that1 under the influence of the proper ferments1 the substances break up into other and simpler products1 thus setting free heat and force2 and that this chemical change is followed by a secondary oxidation by the oxygen in the arterial blood1 thereby forming carbonic acid and water1 as in all putrefactive processes4 ,but these and other views are not as yet fully understood2 while they utterly fail to tell us how a collection of simple cells1 filled merely with a semifluid mass of matter1 can contract and set free muscular power4 ,the commonness of this act hides from us its wonderful nature4 ,but here1 hidden in the cell--,nature's tiny laboratory--lies the mystery of life4 ,before its closed door we ponder in vain1 confessing the unskillfulness of our labor1 and fearing all the while lest the ,secret of the ,cell will always elude our search4 ,the blood1 now foul with the burned matter1 the refuse of this fire1 is caught up by the circulation1 and whirled back to the lungs1 where it is purified1 and again sent bounding on its way4 ,there are then two different kinds of the blood in the body3 the red or arterial1 and the dark or venous4 ,,transfusion4--,as the blood is really the vital fluid it would seem that feeble persons might be restored to vigor by infusing healthy blood into their veins4 ,this hypothesis1 so valuable in its possible results in prolonging human life1 has been carefully tested4 ,animals which have ceased to breathe have thus had their vitality recalled4 ,in the seventeenth century the theory became a subject of special investigation4 ,a maniac was restored to reason by the blood of a calf1 and the most extravagant hopes were entertained4 ,but many fatal accidents occurring1 experiments upon human beings were forbidden by law1 and transfusion soon fell into disuse4 ,it has1 however1 been successfully practiced in several cases within the last few years1 and is a method still in repute for saving lives4 ,,coagulation4--,when blood is exposed to the air1 it coagulates4 ,this is caused by the solidifying of the fibrin1 which entangling the disks1 forms the clot4 ,the remaining clear1 yellow liquid is the serum4 ,the value of this peculiar property of the blood can hardly be overestimated4 ,the coagulation soon checks all ordinary cases of bleeding4 ,footnote3 ,in the case of the lower animals1 which have no means of stopping hemorrhages as we have1 the coagulation is generally still more rapid4 ,in some species of birds it takes place almost instantaneously4 ,when a wound is made1 and bleeding commences1 the fibrin forms a temporary plug1 as it were1 which is absorbed when the healing process is finished4 ,thus we see how a ,divine foresight has provided not only for the ordinary wants of the body1 but also for the accidents to which it is liable4 ,footnote3 ,the fibrin is not an essential ingredient of the blood4 ,all the functions of life are regularly performed in people whose blood lacks fibrin2 and1 in cases of transfusion1 where blood deprived of its fibrin was used1 the vivifying influence seemed to be the same4 ,its office1 therefore1 must mainly be to stanch any hemorrhage which may occur4--,,flint4 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,illustration3 ,the ,heart4 ,a1 the right ventricle2 ,b1 the left ventricle2 ,c1 the right auricle2 ,d1 the left auricle4 ,,the ,,heart is the engine which propels the blood4 ,it is a hollow1 pear- shaped muscle1 about the size of the fist4 ,it hangs1 point downward1 just to the left of the center of the chest4 7,see ,fig4 #ca47 ,it is inclosed in a loose sac of serous membrane1 ,footnote3 ,the mucous membrane lines the open cavities of the body2 the serous1 the closed4 ,the pericardium is a sac composed of two layers--a fibrous membrane on the outside1 and a serous one on the inside4 ,the latter covers the external surface of the heart1 and is reflected back upon itself in order to form1 like all the membranes of this nature1 a sac without an opening4 ,the heart is thus covered by the pericardial sac1 but not contained inside its cavity4 ,a correct idea may be formed of the disposition of the pericardium around the heart by recalling a very common and very convenient1 though now discarded headdress1 the cotton nightcap4 ,the pericardium incloses the heart exactly as this cap covered the heads of our forefathers4-- ,wonders of the ,human ,body4 called the pericardium 7peri1 about2 and kardia1 the heart74 ,this secretes a lubricating fluid1 and is smooth as satin4 ,,the ,,movements ,,of ,,the ,,heart consist of an alternate contraction and expansion4 ,the former is called the sys'-to-le1 and the latter the di-as'-to-le4 ,during the diastole1 the blood flows into the heart1 to be expelled by the systole4 ,the alternation of these movements constitutes the beating of the heart which we hear so distinctly between the fifth and sixth ribs4 ,footnote3 ,two sounds are heard if we put our ear over the heart1--the first and longer as the blood is leading the organ1 the second as it falls into the pockets of the two arteries1 and the valves then striking together cause it4 ,the first sound is mainly the noise made by the muscular tissue4 ,during the first1 the two ventricles contract2 during the second the two auricles do so4 ,the hand may feel the heart striking the ribs as it contracts1--a feeling called the impulse1 or1 if quicker and stronger than usual1 palpitation4 ,this is not always a sign of disease1 but in hypochondriacs is often an effect of the mind on the nerves of the heart4--,,mapother ,,fig4 #ch4 ,illustration3 ,chambers of the ,heart ,a1 right ventricle2 ,b1 left ventricle1 ,c1 right auricle1 ,d1 left auricle1 ,e1 tricuspid valve1 ,f1 bicuspid valve2 ,g1 semilunar valves1 ,h1 valve of the aorta2 ,i1 inferior vena cava1 ,k1 superior vena cava1 ,l1 ,l1 pulmonary veins4 ,,the ,,auricles ,,and ,,ventricles--,the heart is divided into four chambers4 ,in an adult1 each holds about a wineglassful4 ,the upper ones1 from appendages on the outside resembling the ears of a dog1 are called auricles 7aures1 ears74 are termed ventricles4 ,the auricle and ventricle on each side communicate with each other1 but the right and left halves of the heart are entirely distinct1 and perform different offices4 ,the left side propels the red blood2 and the right1 the dark4 ,the auricles are merely reservoirs to receive the blood 7the left auricle1 as it filters in bright and pure from the lungs2 the right1 as it returns dark and foul from the tour of the body71 and to furnish it to the ventricles as they need4 ,their work being so light1 their walls are comparatively thin and weak4 ,on the other hand1 the ventricles force the blood 7the left1 to all parts of the body2 the right1 to the lungs71 and are1 therefore1 made very strong4 ,as the left ventricle drives the blood so much farther than the right1 it is correspondingly thicker and stronger4 ,,need ,,of ,,valves ,,in ,,the ,,heart4--,as the auricles do not need to contract with much force simply to empty their contents into the ventricles below them1 there is no demand for any special contrivance to prevent the blood from setting back the wrong way4 ,indeed1 it would naturally run down into the ventricle1 which is at that moment open to receive it4 ,but1 when the strong ventricles contract1 especially the left one1 which must drive the blood to the extremities1 some arrangement is necessary to prevent it from returning into the auricle4 ,besides1 when they expand1 the suction power would tend to draw back again from the arteries all the blood just forced out4 ,this difficulty is obviated by means of little doors1 or valves1 which will not let it go the wrong way4 ,footnote3 ,the heart of an ox or a sheep may be used to show the chambers and valves4 ,the aorta should be cut as far as possible from the heart1 and then by pumping in water the perfection of these valves will be finely exhibited4 ,cutting the heart across near the middle will show the greater thickness of the left ventricle4 ,,the ,,tricuspid ,,and ,,bicuspid ,,valves4--,at the opening into the right ventricle1 is a valve consisting of three folds or flaps of membrane1 whence it is called the tricuspid valve 7tri1 three2 and cuspides1 points71 and in the left ventricle1 one containing two flaps1 and named the bicuspid valve4 ,these hang so loosely as to oppose no resistance to the passage of the blood into the ventricles2 but1 if any attempts to go the other way1 it gets between the flaps and the walls of the heart1 and1 driving them outward1 closes the orifice4 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing the peculiar ,fibrous ,structure of the ,heart and the ,shape of the ,valves4 ,a1 tricuspid valve1 ,b1 bicuspid valve2 ,c1 semilunar valves of the aorta2 ,d1 semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery4 ,,these ,,flaps ,,are ,,strengthened like sails by slender cords1 which prevent their being pressed back through the opening4 ,if the cords were attached directly to the walls of the heart1 they would be loosened in the systole1 and so become useless when most needed4 ,they are1 therefore1 fastened to little muscular pillars projecting from the sides of the ventricle2 when that contracts1 the pillars contract also1 and thus the cords are held tight4 ,,the ,,semilunar ,,valves4--,in the passages outward from the ventricles1 are valves1 called from their peculiar half-moon shape semilunar valves 7semi1 half2 ,luna1 ,moon74 ,each consists of three little pocket-shaped folds of membrane1 with their openings in the direction which the blood is to take4 ,when it sets back1 they fill1 and1 swelling out1 close the passage 7,fig4 #dj74 ,,the ,,arteries ,footnote3 ,aer1 air2 and tereo1 ,i contain--so named because after death they contain air only1 and hence the ancients supposed them to be air tubes leading through the body4 are the tube-like canals which convey the blood from the heart4 ,they carry the red blood 7see note1 p4 #aai74 ,they are composed of an elastic tissue1 which yields at every throb of the heart1 and then slowly contracting again1 keeps up the motion of the blood until the next systole4 ,the elasticity of the arteries acts like the air chamber of a fire engine1 which converts the intermittent jerks of the brakes or pump into the steady stream of the hose nozzle4 ,the arteries sometimes communicate by means of branches or by meshes of loops1 so that if the blood be blocked in one1 it can pass round through another1 and so get by the obstacle4 ,footnote3 ,this occurs especially about the joints1 where it serves to maintain the circulation during the bending of a limb1 or when the main artery is obstructed by disease or injury1 or has been tied by the surgeon4 ,in the last case1 the small adjacent arteries gradually enlarge1 and form what is called a collateral circulation4 ,when an artery penetrates a muscle1 it is often protected by a sheath or by fibrous rings1 which prevent its being pulled out of place or compressed by the play of the muscles4 ,the arteries are generally located as far as possible beneath the surface1 out of harm's way1 and hence are found closely hugging the bones or creeping through safe passages provided for them4 ,they are generally nearly straight1 and take the shortest routes to the parts which they are to supply with blood4 ,,the ,,arterial ,,system starts from the left ventricle by a single trunk--the aorta--which1 after giving off branches to the head1 sweeps back of the chest with a bold curve--the arch of the aorta 7c1 ,fig4 #cd7--;and thence runs downward 7f71 dividing and subdividing1 like a tree1 into numberless branches1 which1 at last1 penetrate every nook and corner of the body4 ,,the ,,pulse4--,at the wrist 7k1 radial artery7 and on the temple 7temporal artery7 we can feel the expansion of the artery by each little wave of blood set in motion by the contraction of the heart4 ,in health1 there are about seventy-two ,footnote3 ,this number varies much with age1 sex1 and individuals4 ,napoleon's pulse is said to have been only forty1 while it is not infrequent to find a healthy pulse at one hundred or over4 ,in general1 the pulse is quicker in children and in old people than in the middle-aged2 in short persons than in tall2 in women than in men4 ,shame makes the heart send more blood to the blushing cheek1 and fear almost stops it4 ,the will can not check the heart4 ,there is said1 however1 to have been a notable exception to this in the case of one ,colonel ,townsend1 of ,dublin1 who1 after having succeeded several times in stopping the pulsation1 at last lost his life in the act4 pulsations per minute4 ,they increase with excitement or inflammation1 weaken with loss of vigor1 and are modified by nearly every disease4 ,the physician1 therefore1 finds the pulse a good index of the state of the system and the character of the disorder4 7,see p4 #cad47 ,,the ,,veins are the tube-like canals which convey the blood to the heart4 ,footnote3 ,there is one exception to the general course of the veins4 ,the portal vein carries the blood from the digestive organs to the liver1 where it is acted upon1 thence poured into the ascending vena cava1 and goes back to the heart4 ,they carry the dark or venous blood 7note1 p4 #aai74 ,as they do not receive the direct impulse of the heart1 their walls are made much thinner and less elastic than those of the arteries4 ,at first small1 they increase in size and diminish in number as they gradually pour into one another1 like tiny rills collecting to form two rivers1 the vena cava ascending and the vena cava descending 7l1 m1 ,fig4 #cd71 which empty into the right auricle4 ,some of the veins creep along under the skin1 where they can be seen1 as in the back of the hand2 while others accompany the arteries1 some of which have two or more of these companions4 ,,valves similar in construction to those already described 7the semilunar valves of the heart1 page #aad7 are placed at convenient intervals1 in order to guide the blood in its course1 and prevent its setting backward4 ,footnote3 ,too much standing1 or tight elastics1 often cause the veins in the leg to swell1 so that the valves can not work2 the veins then become varicose1 or permanently enlarged1 and1 if they burst1 the bleeding may be profuse and even dangerous4 ,raising the leg and pressing the finger on the bleeding spot will stay it4 ,walking does not encourage this disease1 for the active muscles force on the venous blood4 ,clerks who are subject to varicose veins should have seats behind the counters where they may rest when not actually employed4 ,a deep breath helps the flow in the veins1 and a wound may suck in air with fatal effect4 ,a maimed horse is most mercifully killed by blowing a bubble of air into the veins of his neck4 ,as the deep-sea pressure would burst valves1 the whale has none2 hence a small wound by the harpoon causes him to bleed to death4-- ,,mapother4 ,we can easily examine the working of these valves4 ,on baring the arm1 blue veins may be seen running along the arm toward the hand4 ,their diameter is tolerably even1 and they gradually decrease in size4 ,if now the finger be pressed on the upper part of one of these veins1 and then passed downward so as to drive its blood backward1 swellings like little knots will make their appearance4 ,each of these marks the location of a valve1 which is closed by the blood we push before our finger4 ,remove the pressure1 and the valve will swing open1 the blood set forward1 and the vein collapse to its former size4 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,illustration3 ,valves of the ,veins4 ,,the ,,capillaries 7capillus1 a hair7 form a fine network of tubes1 connecting the ends of the arteries with the veins4 ,they blend1 however1 with the extremities of these two systems1 so that it is not easy to tell just where an artery ends and a vein begins4 ,so closely are they placed1 that we can not prick the flesh with a needle without injuring1 perhaps1 hundreds of them4 ,the air cells of the blood deposit there their oxygen1 and receive carbonic acid1 while in the delicate capillaries of the lungs ,footnote3 ,the capillary tubes are there so fine that the disks of the blood have to go one by one1 and are sadly squeezed at that4 ,however1 their elasticity enables them to resume their old shape as soon as they have escaped from this labyrinth4 they give up their load of carbonic acid in exchange for oxygen4 ,,fig4 #da4 ,illustration3 ,circulation of the ,blood in the ,web of a ,frog's ,foot1 highly magnified4 ,a1 an artery2 ,b1 capillaries crowded with disks1 owing to a rupture just above1 where the disks are jammed into an adjacent mesh2 ,c1 a deeper vein2 the black spots are pigment cells4 ,if1 by means of a microscope1 we examine the transparent web of a frog's foot1 we can trace the route of the blood4 ,footnote3 ,with small splints and twine1 a frog's foot can be easily stretched and tied so that the transparent web can be placed on the table of the microscope4 ,it is an experiment of wonderful interest4 ,the crimson stream1 propelled by the heart1 rushes through the arteries1 until it reaches the intricate meshes of the capillaries4 ,here it breaks into a thousand tiny rills4 ,we can see the disks winding in single file through the devious passages1 darting hither and thither1 now pausing1 swaying to and fro with an uncertain motion1 and anon dashing ahead1 until1 at last1 gathered in the veins1 the blood sets steadily back on its return to the heart4 ,,the ,,circulation ,footnote3 ,the circulation of the blood was discovered by ,harvey in #afai4 ,for several years1 he did not dare to publish his belief4 ,when it became known1 he was bitterly persecuted1 and his practice as a physician greatly decreased in consequence4 ,he lived1 however1 to see his theory universally adopted1 and his name honored4 ,harvey is said to have declared that no man over forty years of age accepted his views4 consists of two parts--the lesser1 and the greater4 ,,fig4 #db4 ,illustration3 ,diagram illustrating the ,circulation of the ,blood4-- ,,marshall4 ,a1 vena cava descending 7superior72 ,z1 vena cava ascending 7inferior72 ,c1 right auricle2 ,d1 right ventricle2 ,e1 pulmonary artery2 ,f ,p1 lungs and pulmonary veins2 ,g1 left auricle2 ,h1 left ventricle2 ,i1 ,k1 aorta4 #a4 ,the ,lesser ,circulation4--,the dark blood from the veins collects in the right auricle1 and1 going through the tricuspid valve1 empties into the right ventricle4 ,thence it is driven past the semilunar valves1 through the pulmonary artery1 to the lungs4 ,after circulating through the fine capillaries of the air cells contained in the lungs1 it is returned1 bright and red1 through the four pulmonary veins1 ,footnote3 ,it is noticeable that the pulmonary set of veins circulates red blood1 and the pulmonary set of arteries circulates dark blood4 ,both are connected with the lungs4 to the left auricle4 #b4 ,the ,greater ,circulation4--,from the left auricle1 the blood is forced past the bicuspid valve to the left ventricle2 thence it is driven through the semilunar valves into the great aorta1 the main trunk of the arterial system4 ,passing through the arteries1 capillaries1 and veins1 it returns through the ven cav1 ascending and descending1 gathers again in the right auricle1 and so completes the grand round of the body4 ,both these circulations are going on constantly1 as the two auricles contract1 and the two ventricles expand simultaneously1 and vice versa4 ,,the ,,velocity ,,of ,,the ,,blood varies so much in different parts of the body1 and is influenced by so many circumstances1 that it can not be calculated with any degree of accuracy4 ,it has been estimated that a portion of the blood will make the tour of the body in about twenty-three seconds 7,,flint71 and that the entire mass passes through the heart in from one to two minutes4 ,footnote3 ,the total amount of blood in an adult of average weight is about eighteen pounds4 ,dividing this by five ounces1 the quantity discharged by the left ventricle at each systole1 gives fifty- eight pulsations as the number necessary to transmit all the blood in the body4 ,this1 however1 is an extremely unreliable basis of calculation1 as the rapidity of the blood is itself so variable4 ,chauvreau has shown by experiments with his instrument that1 corresponding to the first dilation of the vessels1 the blood moves with immense rapidity2 following this1 the current suddenly becomes nearly arrested2 this is succeeded by a second acceleration in the current1 not quite so rapid as the first2 and after this there is a gradual decline in the rapidity to the time of the next pulsation4 7,see p4 #cad47 ,,distribution ,,and ,,regulation ,,of ,,the ,,heat ,,of ,,the ,,body4--#a4 ,distribution4--,the natural temperature is not far from #ih4 ,footnote3 ,the average temperature is1 however1 easily departed from4 ,through some trivial cause the cooling agencies may be interfered with1 and then1 the heating processes getting the superiority1 a high temperature or fever comes on4 ,or the reverse may ensue4 ,in ,asiatic cholera1 the constitution of the blood is so changed that its disks can no longer carry oxygen into the system1 the heat-making processes are put a stop to1 and1 the temperature declining1 the body becomes of a marble coldness1 characteristic of that terrible disease4--,,draper4 ,this is maintained1 as we have already seen1 by the action of the oxygen within us4 ,each capillary tube is a tiny stove1 where oxygen is combining with the tissues of the body 7see note1 p4 #ajg74 ,every contraction of a muscle develops heat1 the latent heat being set free by the breaking up of the tissue4 ,the warmth so produced is distributed by the circulation of the blood4 ,thus the arteries1 veins1 and capillaries form a series of hot- water pipes1 through which the heated liquid is forced by a pump--the heart--while the heat is kept up1 not by a central furnace and boiler1 but by a multitude of little fires placed here and there along its course4 #b4 ,regulation4--,the temperature of the body is regulated by means of the pores of the skin and the mucous membrane in the air passages4 ,when the system becomes too warm1 the blood vessels on the surface expand1 the blood fills them1 the fluid exudes into the perspiratory glands1 pours out upon the exterior1 and by evaporation cools the body4 ,footnote3 ,just as water sprinkled on the floor cools a room4--,popular ,physics1 p4 #bee4 ,when the temperature of the body is too low1 the vessels contract1 less blood goes to the surface1 the perspiration decreases1 and the loss of heat by evaporation diminishes4 ,footnote3 ,thus one is enabled to go into an oven where bread is baking1 or into the arctic regions where the mountains are snow and the rivers ice4 ,even by these extremes the temperature of the blood will be but slightly affected4 ,in the one case1 the flood gates of perspiration will be opened and the superfluous heat expended in turning the water to vapor2 and1 in the other1 they will be tightly closed and all the heat retained4 ,,life ,,by ,,death4--,the body is being incessantly corroded1 and portions borne away by the tireless oxygen4 ,the scales of the epidermis are constantly falling off and being replaced by secretion from the cutis4 ,the disks of the blood die1 and new ones spring into being4 ,on the continuance of this interchange depend our health and vigor4 ,every act is a destructive one4 ,not a bend of the finger1 not a wink of the eye1 not a thought of the brain but is at some expense of the machine itself4 ,every process of life is thus a process of death4 ,the more rapidly this change goes on1 and fresh1 vigorous tissue takes the place of the old1 the more elasticity and strength we possess4 ,,change ,,of ,,our ,,bodies4--,there is a belief that our bodies change once in seven years4 ,from the nature of the case1 the rate must vary with the labor we perform2 the organs most used altering oftenest4 ,probably the parts of the body in incessant employment are entirely reorganized many times within a single year4 ,footnote3 ,to use a homely simile1 our bodies are like the ,irishman's knife1 which1 after having had several new blades1 and at least one new handle1 was yet the same old knife4 ,,the ,,three ,,vital ,,organs4--,death is produced by the stoppage of the action of any one of the three organs--the heart1 the lungs1 or the brain4 ,they have1 therefore1 been termed the ,tripod of ,life4 ,really1 however1 as ,huxley has remarked1 ,life has but two legs to stand upon4 ,if respiration and circulation be kept up artificially1 the removal of the brain will not produce death4 ,footnote3 ,when death really does take place1 i4 e41 when the vital organs are stopped1 it is noticeable that the tissues do not die for some time thereafter4 ,if suitable stimulants be applied1 as the galvanic battery1 transfusion of blood1 etc41 the muscles may be made to contract1 and many of the phenomena of life be exhibited4 ,dr4 ,brown- ,sequard thus produced muscular action in the hand of a criminal1 fourteen hours after his execution4 ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,heart4--,the ancients thought the heart to be the seat of love4 ,there were located the purity and goodness as well as the evil passions of the soul4 ,footnote3 ,our common words1 hearty1 large-hearted1 courage 7cor1 the heart71 are remains of this fanciful theory4 ,modern science has found the seat of the mental powers to be in the brain4 ,but while it has thus robbed the heart of its romance1 it has revealed wonders which eclipse all the mysteries of the past4 ,this marvelous little engine throbs on continually at the rate of one hundred thousand beats per day1 forty millions per year1 often three billions without a single stop4 ,it is the most powerful of machines4 ,its daily work is equal to one third that of all the muscles4 ,if it should expend its entire force in lifting its own weight vertically1 it would rise twenty thousand feet in an hour4 ,footnote3 ,the greatest exploit ever accomplished by a locomotive1 was to lift itself through less than one eighth of that distance4 ,vast and constant as is this process1 so perfect is the machinery1 that there are persons who do not even know where the heart lies until disease or accident reveals its location4 ,its vitality is amazing4 ,the most tireless of organs while life exists1 it is one of the last to yield when life expires4 ,so long as a flutter lingers at the heart1 we know the spark of being is not quite extinguished1 and there is hope of restoration4 ,during a life such as we sometimes see1 it has propelled half a million tons of blood1 yet repaired itself as it has wasted1 during its patient1 unfaltering labor4 ,the play of its valves and the rhythm of its throb have never failed until1 at the command of the great ,master ,workman1 the wheels of life have stood still4 ,footnote3 ,our brains are seventy-five- year clocks4 ,the ,angel of ,life winds them up once for all1 then closes the case1 and gives the key into the hand of the ,angel of the ,resurrection4 ,ticktack6 ,ticktack6 go the wheels of thought2 our will can not stop them1 they can not stop themselves2 sleep can not stop them2 madness only makes them go faster2 death alone can break into the case1 and1 seizing the ever-swinging pendulum which we call the heart1 silence at last the clicking of the terrible escapement we have carried so long beneath our wrinkled foreheads4--,,holmes4 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,illustration3 ,lymphatics of the ,head and ,neck1 showing the ,glands1 and1 ,b1 the thoracic duct as it empties into the left innominate vein at the junction of the left jugular and subclavian veins4 ,,the ,,lymphatic ,,circulation is intimately connected with that of the blood4 ,it is1 however1 more delicate in its organization1 and less thoroughly understood4 ,nearly every part of the body is permeated by a second series of capillaries1 closely interlaced with the blood capillaries already described1 and termed the ,lymphatic system4 ,the larger number converge into the thoracic duct--a small tube1 about the size of a goose quill1 which empties into the great veins of the neck 7,fig4 #dc74 ,along their course the lymphatics frequently pass through glands1--hard1 pinkish bodies of all sizes1 from that of a hemp seed to an almond4 ,these glands are often enlarged by disease1 and then are easily felt4 ,the ,lymph1 which circulates through the lymphatics like blood through the veins1 is a thin1 colorless liquid1 very like the serum4 ,this fluid1 probably in great measure an overflow from the blood vessels1 is gathered up by the lymphatics1 undergoes in the glands some process of preparation not well understood1 and is then returned to the circulation4 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,illustration3 ,lymphatics in the ,leg1 with ,glands at the ,hip4 ,,office ,,of ,,the ,,lymphatics4--,it is thought that portions of the waste matter of the body capable of further use are thus1 by a wise economy1 retained and elaborated in the system4 ,the lacteals1 a class of lymphatics which will be described under ,digestion 7p4 #aff71 aid in taking up the food2 after a meal they become milk white4 ,in the lungs1 the lymphatics are abundant2 sometimes absorbing the poison of disease1 and diffusing it through the system4 ,footnote3 ,persons have thus been poisoned by tiny particles of arsenic which evaporate from green wall paper1 and float in the air4 ,the lymphatics of the skin we have already spoken of as producing the phenomena of absorption1 ,footnote3 ,pain is often relieved by injecting under the cuticle a solution of morphine1 which is taken up by the absorbents1 and so carried through the system4 ,nature in her effort to heal a cut deposits an excess of matter to fill up the breach4 ,soon1 the lymphatics go to work and remove the surplus material to other parts of the body4 ,animals that hibernate are supported during the winter by the fat which their absorbents carry into the circulation from the extra supply they have laid up during the summer4 ,in famine or in sickness1 a man unconsciously consumes his own flesh4 ,,diseases1 ,,etc4--l4 ,congestion is an unnatural accumulation of blood in any part of the body4 ,the excess is indicated by the redness4 ,if we put our feet in hot water1 the capillaries will expand by the heat1 and the blood will set that way to fill them4 ,the red nose and purplish face of the drunkard show a congestion of the capillaries4 ,those vessels have lost their power of contraction1 and so are permanently increased in size and filled with blood4 ,blushing is a temporary congestion4 ,the capillaries being expanded only for an instant by the nervous excitement1 contract again and expel the blood4 ,footnote3 ,blushing is a purely local modification of the circulation of this kind1 and it will be instructive to consider how a blush is brought about4 ,an emotion--sometimes pleasurable1 sometimes painful--takes possession of the mind2 thereupon a hot flush is felt1 the skin grows red1 and according to the intensity of the emotion these changes are confined to the cheeks only1 or extend to the roots of the hair1 or all over4 ,what is the cause of these changes8 ,the blood is a red and a hot fluid2 the skin reddens and grows hot1 because its vessels contain an increased quantity of this red and hot fluid2 and its vessels contain more1 because the small arteries suddenly dilate1 the natural moderate contraction of their muscles being superseded by a state of relaxation4 ,in other words1 the action of the nerves which cause this muscular contraction is suspended4 ,on the other hand1 in many people1 extreme terror causes the skin to grow cold1 and the face to appear pale and pinched4 ,under these circumstances1 in fact1 the supply of blood to the skin is greatly diminished1 in consequence of an excessive stimulation of the nerves of the small arteries1 which causes them to contract and so to cut off the supply of blood more or less completely4-- ,huxley's ,physiology4 #b4 ,inflammation means simply a burning4 ,if there is irritation or an injury at any spot1 the blood sets thither and reddens it4 ,this extra supply1 both by its presence and the friction of the swiftly moving currents1 produces heat4 ,the pressure of the distended vessels upon the nerves frets them1 and produces pain4 ,the swelling stretches the walls of the blood vessels1 and the serum or lymph oozes through4 ,the four characteristics of an inflammation are redness1 heat1 pain1 and swelling4 #c4 ,bleeding1 if from an artery1 will be of red blood1 and will come in jets2 ,footnote3 ,the elasticity of the arteries 7p4 #aad7 is a physical property1 as may easily be shown by removing one from a dead body4 ,if they were rigid and unyielding1 a considerable portion of the heart's force would be uselessly expended against their walls4 ,their expansion is a passive state1 and depends on the pressure of the blood within them2 but their vital contractility is an active property4--,the intermittent movement of the blood through the arteries is strikingly shown in the manner in which they bleed when wounded4 ,when an artery is cut across1 the blood spurts out with great force to a distance of several feet1 but the flow is not continuous4 ,it escapes in a series of jets1 the long1 slender scarlet stream rising and falling with each beat of the heart1 and this pulsation of the blood stream tells at once that it comes from a wounded artery4 ,but as the blood traverses these elastic tubes1 the abruptness of the heart's stroke becomes gradually broken and the current equalized1 so that the greater the distance from the heart the less obvious is the pulsation1 until at length in the capillaries the rate of the stream becomes uniform4 if from the veins1 it will be of dark blood1 and will flow in a steady stream4 ,if only a small vessel be severed1 it may be checked by a piece of cloth held or bound firmly upon the wound4 ,if a large trunk be cut1 especially in a limb1 make a knot in a handkerchief and tie it loosely about the limb2 then1 placing the knot on the limb1 with a short stick twist the handkerchief tightly enough to stop the flow4 ,if you have a piece of cloth to use as a pad1 the knot will be unnecessary4 ,if it be an artery that is cut1 the pressure should be applied between the wound and the heart2 if a vein1 beyond the wound4 ,if you are alone1 and are severely wounded1 or in an emergency1 like a railroad accident1 use the remedy which has saved many a life upon the battlefield--bind or hold a handful of dry earth upon the wound1 elevate the part1 and await surgical assistance4 #d4 ,scrofula is generally inherited4 ,it is a disease affecting the lymphatic glands1 most commonly those of the neck1 forming kernels1 as they are called4 ,it is1 however1 liable to attack any organ4 ,persons inheriting this disease can hope to ward off its insidious approaches only by the utmost care in diet and exercise2 by the use of pure air and warm clothing1 and by avoiding late hours and undue stimulus of all kinds4 ,probably the most fatal and common excitants of the latent seeds of scrofula are insufficient or improper food1 and want of ventilation4 #e4 ,a ,,cold4--,we put on a thinner dress than usual1 or1 when heated1 sit in a cool place4 ,the skin is chilled1 and the perspiration checked4 ,the blood1 no longer cleansed and reduced in volume by the drainage through the pores1 sets to the lungs for purification4 ,that organ is oppressed1 breathing becomes difficult1 and the extra mucus secreted by the irritated surface of the membrane is thrown off by coughing4 ,the mucous membrane of the nasal chamber sympathizes with the difficulty1 and we have a cold in the head1 or a catarrh4 ,in general1 the excess of blood seeks the weakest point1 and develops there any latent disease ,footnote3 ,a party go out for a walk and are caught in a rain1 or1 coming home heated from some close assembly1 throw off their coats to enjoy the deliciously cool breeze4 ,the next day1 one has a fever1 another a slight headache1 another pleurisy1 another pneumonia1 another rheumatism1 while some of the number escape without any ill feeling whatever4 ,the last had vital force sufficient to withstand the disturbance1 but in the others there were various weak points1 and to these the excess of blood has gone1 producing congestion4 ,where one person has been killed in battle1 thousands have died of colds4 ,to restore the equipoise must be the object of all treatment4 ,we put the feet in hot water and they soon become red and gorged with the blood which is thus called from the congested organs4 ,hot footbaths have saved multitudes of lives4 ,it is well in case of a sudden cold to go immediately to bed1 and with hot drinks and extra clothing open the pores1 and induce free perspiration4 ,this calls the blood to the surface1 and1 by equalizing and diminishing the volume of the circulation1 affords relief4 ,footnote3 ,severe colds may often be relieved in their first stages by using lemons freely during the day1 and taking at night fifteen or twenty grains of sodium bromide4 ,great care1 however1 should be observed in employing the latter remedy1 except under the advice of a physician4 #f4 ,catarrh commonly manifests itself by the symptoms known as those of a cold in the head1 and is produced by the same causes4 ,it is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the nasal and bronchial passages4 ,one going out from the hot dry air of a furnace-heated room into the cold damp atmosphere of our climate can hardly avoid irritating and inflaming this tender membrane4 ,if our rooms were heated less intensely1 and ventilated more thoroughly1 so that we had not the present hothouse sensitiveness to cold air1 this disease would be far less universal1 and perhaps would disappear entirely4 ,footnote3 ,dr4 ,gray gives the following table3 ,rooms ,occupied by ,letter-press ,printers4 ,number ,subject to per cent ,catarrh ,spitting ,blood4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #ajd men having less than #ejj cubic feet of air to breathe #ab4ej #ab4ej #aae men having from #ejj to #fjj cubic feet of air to breathe #d4ce #c4eh #aja men having more than #fjj cubic feet of air to breathe #c4if #a4ih ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- 7,see p4 #cae47 ,,alcoholic ,,drinks ,,and ,,narcotics4 #a4 ,,alcohol4 ,that we may understand fully the effect of alcohol upon the human system1 let us first consider its nature and the process by which harmless fruits and grains are made to produce a substance so unlike themselves in its deleterious effects4 ,,how ,,alcohol ,,is ,,made4--,when any substance containing sugar1 as fruit juice1 is caused to ferment1 the elements of which the sugar is composed1 viz41 hydrogen1 carbon1 and oxygen1 so rearrange themselves as to form carbon dioxide 7carbonic acid71 alcohol1 and certain volatile oils and ethers4 ,footnote3 ,the precise relation between chemical phenomena and the physiological functions of the organic ferment is still to be discovered2 and all that has been said1 written1 and brought forward to decide the question1 need experimental proof4--,,sch,,tzenberger4 ,the carbonic acid partly evaporates and partly remains in the liquor2 the alcohol is the poisonous or intoxicating principle1 while the oils and ethers impart the peculiar flavor and odor4 ,thus wine is fermented grape juice1 and cider is fermented apple juice1 each having its distinctive taste and smell1 and each containing1 as one product of fermentation1 more or less of the inebriating alcohol4 ,wines are also made from other fruits and vegetables1 such as oranges1 currants1 tomatoes1 and rhubarb1 but the alcohol which they contain is of the same nature in all cases1 whether the fermented liquor has been manufactured in great quantities1 by large presses1 or by a simple domestic process for home consumption4 ,it is important to remember this fact1 as many people do not associate alcohol with such beverages as domestic wines and home-brewed ales1 whereas it is always present with the same treacherous qualities which attach to it everywhere4 ,an apple is a wholesome and useful fruit1 and its simple juice1 fragrant and refreshing1 is a delight to the palate2 but apple juice converted into cider and allowed to enter upon alcoholic fermentation1 loses its innocence1 and becomes a dangerous drink1 because it is the nature of the alcohol it now contains to create an appetite for more alcohol4 7,see p4 #ahe47 ,,what ,,is ,a ,,ferment8--,ferments1 of which there are many varieties in nature1 are minute living organisms analogous to the microscopic objects called bacteria or microbes1 ,footnote3 ,there is no well-defined limit between ferments and bacteria1 any more than between ferments and fungi1 or again1 between fungi and bacteria4 ,their smaller size is the principal difference which separates bacteria from ferments1 although there are bacteria of large size1 such as are so frequently found in the mouth of even a healthy man1 and which much resemble in their mode of growth some of the lower fungi4--,trouessart4 of which we have heard much in late years1 especially in connection with the famous researches and experiments of the great ,french investigator1 ,m4 ,pasteur4 ,he tells us that ,every fermentation has its specific ferment4 ,this minute being produces the transformation which constitutes fermentation by breathing the oxygen of the substance to be fermented1 or by appropriating for an instant the whole substance1 then destroying it by what may be termed the secretion of the fermented products4 ,footnote3 ,what we call spontaneous fermentation often occurs1 as when apple juice turns to hard cider by simple exposure to the air4 ,science teaches us1 however1 that this change is always effected by the action of the busy little ferments which1 wandering about1 drop into the liquid1 begin their rapid propagation1 and1 in the act of growing1 evolve the products of the fermentation4 ,if the above liquids be left only in contact with air which has been passed through a red-hot platinum tube1 and thus the living sporules destroyed2 or if the air be simply filtered by passing through cotton wool1 and the sporules prevented from coming into the liquid1 it is found that these fermentable liquids may be preserved for any length of time without undergoing the slightest change4--,roscoe4 ,the effect1 therefore1 of fermentation is to change entirely the character of the substance upon which it acts2 hence it is an error to assume that fermented liquors1 as beer1 wine1 and cider1 are safe drinks because the grains or fruits from which they are produced are healthful foods4 ,,yeast is a ferment which causes alcoholic fermentation4 ,it consists of microscopic plants1 which increase by the formation of multitudes of tiny cells not more than #a_/bdjj of an inch in diameter4 ,in the brewing of beer they grow in great abundance1 making common brewer's yeast4 ,ferments or their spores float in the air ready to enter any fermentable liquid1 and under favorable conditions they multiply with great activity and energy4 ,the favorable conditions include the presence of oxygen or sugar2 ,footnote3 ,yeast1 like ordinary plants1 buds and multiplies even in the absence of fermentable sugar1 when it is furnished with free oxygen4 ,this multiplication1 however1 is favored by the presence of sugar1 which is a more appropriate element than non-fermentable hydrocarbon compounds4 ,yeast is also able to bud and multiply in the absence of free oxygen1 but in this case a fermentable substance is indispensable4--,,sch,,tzenberger',s ,fermentation4 oxygen being1 as we know1 necessary for the development and the reproduction of all cell life 7p4 #ajg71 and ferments having the power to resolve sugar1 which penetrates by endosmose into the interior of the cell1 into alcohol1 carbonic acid1 glycerine1 succinic acid1 and oxygen4 ,,beer4--,the barley used for making beer is first malted1 i4 e41 sprouted1 to turn a part of its starch into sugar4 ,when this process has gone far enough1 it is checked by heating the grain in a kiln until the germ is destroyed4 ,the malt is then crushed1 steeped1 and fermented with hops and yeast4 ,the sugar gradually disappears1 alcohol is formed1 and carbonic acid escapes into the air4 ,the beer is then put into casks1 where it undergoes a second1 slower fermentation1 and the carbonic acid gathers2 when the liquor is drawn1 this gas bubbles to the surface1 giving to the beer its sparkling1 foamy look4 ,,wine is generally made from the juice of the grape4 ,the juice1 or must1 as it is called1 is placed in vats in the cellar1 where the low temperature favors a slow fermentation4 ,if all the sugar be converted into alcohol and carbonic-acid gas1 a dry wine will remain2 if the fermentation be checked1 a sweet wine will result2 and if the wine be bottled while the change is still going on1 a brisk effervescing liquor like champagne1 will be formed4 ,all these are dangerous beverages because of the alcohol they contain4 ,,distillation4--,alcohol is so volatile that1 by the application of heat1 it can be driven off as a vapor from the fermented liquid in which it has been produced4 ,steam and various fragrant substances will accompany it1 and1 if they are collected and condensed in a cool receiver1 a new and stronger liquor will be formed1 having a distinctive odor4 ,in this way whiskey is distilled from fermented corn1 rye1 barley1 or potatoes2 the alcohol of commerce is distilled from whiskey2 brandy1 from wine2 rum1 from fermented molasses2 and gin1 from fermented barley and rye1 afterward distilled with juniper berries4 ,,varieties ,,and ,,properties ,,of ,,alcohol4--,there are several varieties of alcohol produced from distillation of various substances4 ,thus ,methyl ,alcohol is obtained from the decomposition of hard wood when exposed to intense heat with little or no oxygen present4 ,it is a light1 volatile liquid1 which closely resembles ordinary alcohol in all its properties4 ,it is used in the manufacture of aniline dyes1 in making varnishes1 and for burning in spirit lamps4 ,amyl ,alcohol ,footnote3 ,the odor of amylic alcohol is sweet1 nauseous1 and heavy4 ,the sensation of its presence remains long4 ,in taste it is burning and acrid1 and it is itself practically insoluble in water4 ,when it is diluted with common alcohol it dissolves freely in water1 and gives a soft and rather unctuous flavor1 ,i may call it a fruity flavor1 something like that of ripe pears4 ,amyl alcohol1 introduced as an adulterant1 is an extremely dangerous addition to ordinary alcohol1 in whatever form it is presented4 ,from the quantities of it imported into this country1 it is believed to be employed largely in the adulteration of wines and spirits4--,,richardson4 is the chief constituent of fusel oil1 found in whiskey distilled from potatoes4 ,it is often present in common alcohol1 giving a slightly unpleasant odor when it evaporates from the hand4 ,fusel oil is extremely poisonous and lasting in its effects1 so that when contained in liquors it greatly increases their destructive and intoxicating properties4 ,ethyl ,alcohol1 which is that which we have described as obtained from fermentation of fruits and grains1 is the ordinary alcohol of commerce4 ,we have spoken of its volatility4 ,this property permits it to pass into vapor at #ef ,fahr4 ,it boils at #agc ,fahr4 7,water boils at #bab47 ,like ,methyl ,alcohol1 it burns without smoke and with great heat1 ,footnote3 ,pour a little alcohol into a saucer and apply an ignited match4 ,the liquid will suddenly take fire1 burning with intense heat1 but feeble light4 ,in this process1 alcohol takes up oxygen from the air1 forming carbonic-acid gas1 and water4--,hold a red-hot coil of platinum wire in a goblet containing a few drops of alcohol1 and a peculiar odor will be noticed4 ,it denotes the formation of aldehyde--a substance produced in the slow oxidation of alcohol4 ,still further oxidized1 the alcohol would be changed into acetic acid--the sour principle of vinegar4--,put the white of an egg--nearly pure albumen--into a cup1 and pour upon it some alcohol1 or even strong brandy2 the fluid albumen will coagulate1 becoming hard and solid4 ,in this connection1 it is well to remember that albumen is contained in our food1 while the brain is largely an albuminous substance4 and is therefore of much value in the arts4 ,its great solvent power over fats and mixed oils renders it a useful agent in many industrial operations4 ,it is also a powerful antiseptic1 and no one who visits a museum of natural history will be likely to forget the rows of bottles within which float reptilian and batrachian specimens1 preserved in alcohol4 ,to alcohol1 also1 we are indebted for various ansthetic agents1 which1 when not abused 7p4 #cdj71 are of inestimable value4 ,thus1 if certain proportions of alcohol and nitric acid be mixed together and heated1 nitrite of amyl1 so serviceable in relieving the agonizing spasms peculiar to that dread disease1 angina pectoris1 will be obtained4 ,if1 instead of nitric1 we use sulphuric acid1 we shall get ether2 if chlorine be passed through alcohol1 hydrate of chloral is the result2 and1 if chloride of lime and alcohol be treated together1 the outcome is chloroform4 ,one of the most striking properties of alcohol1 and one which we shall hereafter consider in its disastrous effects upon the tissues of our body1 is its affinity for water4 ,footnote3 ,suppose1 then1 a certain measure of alcohol be taken into the stomach1 it will be absorbed there1 but1 previous to absorption1 it will have to undergo a proper degree of dilution with water2 for there is this peculiarity respecting alcohol when it is separated by an animal membrane from a watery fluid like the blood1 that it will not pass through the membrane until it has become charged1 to a given point of dilution1 with water4 ,alcohol is itself1 in fact1 so greedy for water that it will pick it up from watery textures1 and deprive them of it until1 by its saturation1 its power of reception is exhausted1 after which it will diffuse into the current of circulating fluid4 ,to illustrate this fact of dilution ,i perform a simple experiment4 ,into a bladder is placed a mixture consisting of equal parts of alcohol and distilled water4 ,into the neck of the bladder a long glass tube is inserted and firmly tied4 ,then the bladder is immersed in a saline fluid representing an artificial serum of blood4 ,the result is1 that the alcohol in the bladder absorbs water from the surrounding saline solution1 and thereby a column of fluid passes up into the glass tube4 ,a second mixture of alcohol and water1 in the proportion this time of one part of alcohol to two of water1 is put into another bladder immersed in like manner in an artificial serum4 ,in this instance a little fluid also passes from the outside into the bladder1 so that there is a rise of water in the tube1 but less than in the previous instance4 ,a third mixture1 consisting of one part of alcohol with three parts of water1 is placed in another little bladder1 and is also suspended in the artificial serum4 ,in this case there is1 for a time1 a small rise of fluid in the tube connected with the bladder2 but after a while1 owing to the dilution which took place1 a current from within outward sets in1 and the tube becomes empty4 ,thus each bladder charged originally with the same quantity of fluid contains at last a different quantity4 ,the first contains more than it did originally1 the second only a little more1 the third a little less4 ,from the third1 absorption takes place1 and if ,i keep changing and replacing the outer fluid which surrounds the bladder with fresh serum1 ,i can in time1 owing to the double current of water into the bladder through its coats1 and of water and alcohol out of the bladder into the serum1 remove all the alcohol4 ,in this way it is removed from the stomach into the circulating blood after it has been swallowed4 ,when we dilute alcohol with water before drinking it1 we quicken its absorption4 ,if we do not dilute it sufficiently1 it is diluted in the stomach by transudation of water in the stomach1 until the required reduction for its absorption2 the current then sets in toward the blood1 and passes into the circulating canals by the veins4--,,richardson4 ,when strong alcohol is exposed to the air1 it absorbs moisture and becomes diluted2 at the same time1 the spirit itself evaporates4 ,the commercial or proof spirit is about one half water2 the strongest holds five per cent2 and to obtain absolute or waterless alcohol1 requires careful distillation in connection with some substance1 as lime1 that has a still greater affinity for water1 and so can despoil the alcohol4 ,,alcohol ,,in ,,its ,,destructive ,,relation ,,to ,,plant ,,and ,,animal ,,life4--,if we pour a little quantity of strong spirits upon a growing plant in our garden or conservatory1 we shall soon see it shrivel and die4 ,if we apply it to insects or small reptiles which we may have captured for specimens in our cabinet1 the same potent poison will procure for them a speedy death4 ,if we force one of our domestic animals to take habitual doses of it1 the animal will not only strongly protest against the unnatural and nauseous potion1 but it will gradually sicken and lose all power for usefulness4 ,if ,i wished1 says a distinguished ,english physician1 by scientific experiment to spoil for work the most perfect specimen of a working animal1 say a horse1 without inflicting mechanical injury1 ,i could choose no better agent for the purpose of the experiment than alcohol4 ,footnote3 ,the effects produced by alcohol are common1 so far as ,i can discover1 to every animal4 ,alcohol is a universal intoxicant1 and in the higher orders of animals is capable of inducing the most systematic phenomena of disease4 ,but it is reserved for man himself to exhibit these phenomena in their purest form1 and to present1 through them1 in the morbid conditions belonging to his age1 a distinct pathology4 ,bad as this is1 it might be worse2 for if the evils of alcohol were made to extend equally to animals lower than man1 we should soon have none that were tamable1 none that were workable1 and none that were eatable4 ,,alcohol ,,in ,,wine1 ,,beer1 ,,and ,,cider ,,identical ,,with ,,alcohol ,,in ,,ardent ,,spirits4--,in all liquors the active principle is alcohol4 ,it comprises from six to eight per cent of ale and porter1 seven to seventeen per cent of wine1 and forty to fifty per cent of brandy and whiskey4 ,all these may therefore be considered as alcohol more or less diluted with water and flavored with various aromatics4 ,the taste of different liquors--as brandy1 gin1 beer1 cider1 etc4--may vary greatly1 but they all produce certain physiological effects1 due to their common ingredient--alcohol4 ,in whatever form it enters1 says ,dr4 ,richardson1 whether as spirit1 wine1 or ale1 matters little when its specific influence is kept steadily in view4 ,to say this man only drinks ale1 that man only drinks wine1 while a third drinks spirits1 is merely to say1 when the apology is unclothed1 that all drink the same danger4 ,in other words1 the poisonous nature of alcohol1 and the effects which result when it is taken into the stomach1 are definite and immutable facts1 which are not dependent upon any particular name or disguise under which the poison finds entrance4 ,we shall learn1 as we study the influence of alcohol upon the human system1 that one of its most subtle characteristics is the progressive appetite for itself 7p4 #ahe7 which it induces1 an appetite which1 in many cases1 is formed long before its unhappy subject is aware of his danger4 ,the intelligent pupil1 who knows how to reason from cause to effect1 needs hardly to be told1 in view of this physical truth1 of the peril that lies in the first draught of any fermented liquor1 even though it be so seemingly harmless as a glass of home-brewed beer or slightly-beaded cider4 ,few of us really understand our own inherent weakness or the hereditary proclivities 7p4 #ahf7 that may be lurking in our blood1 ready to master us when opportunity invites2 but we may be tolerably certain that if we resolutely refuse to tamper with cider1 beer1 or wine1 we shall not fall into temptation before rum1 gin1 or brandy4 ,since we know that in all fermented beverages there is present the same treacherous element1 alcohol1 we are truly wise only when we decline to measure arms in any way with an enemy so seductive in its advances1 so insidious in its influence1 and so terrible in its triumph4 ,footnote3 ,aside from all considerations of physical1 mental1 and moral injury wrought by the use of alcoholic drinks1 every young man may well take into account the damaging effect of such a dangerous habit upon his business prospects4 ,careful business men are becoming more and more unwilling to take into their employ any person addicted to liquor drinking4 ,within the past few years the officers of several railroads1 having found that a considerable portion of their losses could be directly traced to the drinking habits of some one or more of their employs1 have ordered the dismissal of all persons in their service who were known to use intoxicants1 with the additional provision that persons thus discharged should never be reinstated4 ,many ,eastern manufactories have adopted similar rules4 ,all mercantile agencies now report the habits of business men in this respect1 and some life insurance companies refuse to insure habitual drinkers1 regarding such risks as extra-hazardous4 ,let us now consider the physiological effects of alcohol upon the organs immediately connected with the circulation of the blood4 ,,general ,,effect ,,of ,,alcohol ,,upon ,,the ,,circulation4--,during the experiment described on page #aah1 the influence of alcohol upon the blood may be beautifully tested4 ,place on the web of the frog's foot a drop of dilute spirit4 ,the blood vessels immediately expand--an effect known as ,vascular enlargement4 ,channels before unseen open1 and the blood disks fly along at a brisker rate4 ,next1 touch the membrane with a drop of pure spirit4 ,the blood channels quickly contract2 the cells slacken their speed2 and1 finally1 all motion ceases4 ,the flesh shrivels up and dies4 ,the circulation thus stopped is stopped forever4 ,the part affected will in time slough off4 ,alcohol has killed it4 ,the influence of alcohol upon the human system is very similar4 ,when strong1 as in spirits1 it acts as an irritant1 narcotic poison 7p4 #adb1 note74 ,diluted1 as in fermented liquors1 it dilates the blood vessels1 quickens the circulation1 hastens the heart throbs1 and accelerates the respiration4 ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,alcohol ,,upon ,,the ,,heart4--,what means this rapid flow of the blood8 ,it shows that the heart is overworking4 ,the nerves that lead to the minute capillaries and regulate the passage of the vital current through the extreme parts of the body1 are paralyzed by this active narcotic4 ,the tiny blood vessels at once expand4 ,this ,vascular enlargement removes the resistance to the passage of the blood1 and a rapid beating of the heart results4 ,footnote3 ,dr4 ,b4 ,w4 ,richardson's experiments tend to prove that this apparently stimulating action of alcohol upon the heart is due to the paralysis of the nerves that control the capillaries 7,note1 p4 #bjh71 which ordinarily check the flow of the blood 7p4 #aag74 ,the heart1 like other muscles under the influence of alcohol1 really loses power1 and contracts less vigorously 7p4 #ahc74 ,dr4 ,palmer1 of the ,university of ,michigan1 also claimed that alcohol1 in fact1 diminishes the strength of the heart4 ,prof4 ,martin1 of ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 from a series of carefully conducted experiments upon dogs1 concluded that blood containing one fourth per cent of alcohol almost invariably diminishes within a minute the work done by the heart2 blood containing one half per cent always diminishes it1 and may reduce the amount pumped out by the left ventricle so that it is not sufficient to supply the coronary arteries4 ,one hundred years ago1 alcohol was always spoken of as a stimulant4 ,modern experiment and investigation challenged that definition1 and it is now classified as a narcotic4 ,there are1 however1 able physicians who maintain that1 taken in small doses1 and under certain physical conditions1 it has the effect of a stimulant4 ,all agree that1 when taken in any amount1 it tends to create an appetite for more4 ,careful experiments show that two ounces of alcohol--an amount contained in the daily potations of a very moderate ale or whiskey drinker--increase the heart beats six thousand in twenty-four hours2--a degree of work represented by that of lifting up a weight of seven tons to a height of one foot4 ,reducing this sum to ounces and dividing1 we find that the heart is driven to do extra work equivalent to lifting seven ounces one foot high one thousand four hundred and ninety-three times each hour6 ,no wonder that the drinker feels a reaction1 a physical languor1 after the earliest effects of his indulgence have passed away4 ,the heart flags1 the brain and the muscles feel exhausted1 and rest and sleep are imperatively demanded4 ,during this time of excitement1 the machinery of life has really been running down4 ,it is hard work1 says ,richardson1 to fight against alcohol2 harder than rowing1 walking1 wrestling1 coal heaving1 or the treadmill itself4 ,all this is only the first effect of alcohol upon the heart4 ,long- continued use of this disturbing agent causes a ,degeneration of the muscular fiber1 ,footnote3 ,this ,degeneration of the various tissues of the body1 we shall find1 as we proceed1 is one of the most marked effects of alcoholized blood4 ,the change consists in an excess of liquid1 or1 more commonly1 in a deposit of fat4 ,this fatty matter is not an increase of the organ1 but it takes the place of a part of its fiber1 thus weakening the structure1 and reducing the power of the tissue to perform its function4 ,almost everywhere in the body we thus find cells--muscle cells1 liver cells1 nerve cells1 as the case may be--changing one by one1 under the influence of this potent disorganizer1 into unhealthy fat cells4 ,alcohol has been well termed1 says the ,london ,lancet1 the ',genius of ,degeneration4' ,the cause of this degeneration can be easily explained4 ,the increased activity of the circulation compels a correspondingly increased activity of the cell changes3 but the essential condition of healthful change--the presence of additional oxygen--is wanting 7see p4 #adc71 and the operation is imperfectly performed4--,,brodie4 so that the heart loses its old power to drive the blood1 and1 after a time1 fails to respond even to the spur of the excitant that has urged it to ruin4 ,,influence ,,upon ,,the ,,membranes4--,the flush of the face and the bloodshot eye1 that are such noticeable effects of even a small quantity of liquor1 indicate the condition of all the internal organs4 ,the delicate linings of the stomach1 heart1 brain1 liver1 and lungs are reddened1 and every tiny vein is inflamed1 like the blushing nose itself4 ,if the use of liquor is habitual1 this ,vascular enlargement1 that at first slowly passed away after each indulgence1 becomes permanent1 and now the discolored1 blotched skin reveals the state of the entire mucous membrane4 ,we learned on page #ee what a peculiar office the membrane fills in nourishing the organs it enwraps4 ,anything that disturbs its delicate structure must mar its efficiency4 ,alcohol has a wonderful affinity for water4 ,to satisfy this greed1 it will absorb moisture from the tissues with which it comes in contact1 as well as from their lubricating juices4 ,the enlargement of the blood vessels and their permanent congestion must interfere with the filtering action of the membrane4 ,in time1 all the membranes become dry1 thickened1 and hardened2 they then shrink upon the sensitive nerve1 or stiffen the joint1 or enfeeble the muscle4 ,the function of these membranes being deranged1 they will not furnish the organs with perfected material1 and the clogged pores will no longer filter their natural fluids4 ,every organ in the body will feel this change4 ,,effect ,,upon ,,the ,,blood4 ,footnote3 ,alcohol acts upon the oxygen carrier1 the coloring matter of the red corpuscles1 causing it to settle in one part of the globule1 or even to leave the corpuscle1 and deposit itself in other elements of the blood4 ,thus the red corpuscle may become colorless1 distorted1 shrunken1 and even entirely broken up--,dr4 ,g4 ,b4 ,,harriman4-- ,from the stomach1 alcohol passes directly into the circulation1 and so1 in a few minutes1 is swept through the entire system4 ,if it be present in sufficient amount and strength1 its eager desire for water will lead it to absorb moisture from the red corpuscles1 causing them to shrink1 change their form1 harden1 and lose some of their ability to carry oxygen2 it may even make them adhere in masses1 and so hinder their passage through the tiny capillaries4--,,richardson4 ,with most persons who indulge freely in alcoholic drinks1 the blood is thin1 the avidity of alcohol for water causing the burning thirst so familiar to all drinkers1 and hence the use of enormous quantities of water1 oftener of beer1 which unnaturally dilutes the blood4 ,the blood then easily flows from a wound1 and renders an accident or surgical operation very dangerous4 ,when the blood tends1 as in other cases of an excessive use of spirits1 to coagulate in the capillaries1 ,footnote3 ,the blood is rendered unduly thin1 or is coagulated1 according to the amount of alcohol that is carried into the circulatory system4 ,the spirit may fix the water with the fibrin1 and thus destroy the power of coagulation2 or it may extract the water so determinately as to produce coagulation4 ,this explains why1 in acute cases of poisoning by alcohol1 the blood is sometimes found quite fluid1 at other times firmly coagulated in the vessels4--,b4 ,w4 ,,richardson4 ,reckless persons have sometimes drunk a large quantity of liquor for a wager1 and1 as the result of their folly1 have died instantly4 ,the whole of the blood in the heart having coagulated1 the circulation was stopped1 and death inevitably ensued4 there is a liability of an obstruction to the flow of the vital current through the heart1 liver1 lungs1 etc41 that may cause disease1 and in the brain may lay the foundation of paralysis1 or1 in extreme cases1 of apoplexy4 ,wherever the alcoholized blood goes through the body1 it bathes the delicate cells with an irritating narcotic poison1 instead of a bland1 nutritious substance4 ,,effect ,,upon ,,the ,,lungs4--,here we can see how certainly the presence of alcohol interferes with the red corpuscles in their task of carrying oxygen4 ,even so small a quantity as one part of alcohol to five hundred of the blood will materially check the absorption of oxygen in the lungs4 ,the cells1 unable to take up oxygen1 retain their carbonic-acid gas1 and so return from the lungs1 carrying back1 to poison the system1 the refuse matter the body has sought to throw off4 ,thus the lungs no longer furnish properly oxygenized blood4 ,the rapid stroke of the heart1 already spoken of1 is followed by a corresponding quickening of the respiration4 ,the flush of the cheek is repeated in the reddened mucous membrane lining the lungs4 ,when this ,vascular enlargement becomes permanent1 and the highly albuminous membrane of the air cells is hardened and thickened as well as congested1 the ,osmose of the gases to and fro through its pores can no longer be prompt and free as before4 ,even when the effect passes off in a few days after the occasional indulgence1 there has been1 during that time1 a diminished supply of the life-giving oxygen furnished to the system2 weakness follows1 and1 in the case of hard drinkers1 there is a marked liability to epidemics4 ,footnote3 ,there is no doubt that alcohol alters and impairs tissues so that they are more prone to disease4--,,dr4 ,g4 ,k4 ,,sabine4 ,a volume of statistics could be filled with quotations like the following3 ,mr4 ,huber1 who saw in one town in ,russia two thousand one hundred and sixty persons perish with the cholera in twenty days1 said3 ',it is a most remarkable circumstance that persons given to drink have been swept away like flies4 ,in ,tiflis1 with twenty thousand inhabitants1 every drunkard has fallen1--all are dead1 not one remaining4' ,physicians tell us1 also1 that there is a peculiar form of consumption known as ,alcoholic ,phthisis caused by long-continued and excessive use of liquor4 ,it generally attacks those whose splendid physique has enabled them to drink deep with apparent impunity4 ,this type of consumption appears late in life and is considered incurable4 ,severe cases of pneumonia are also generally fatal with inebriates4 ,footnote3 ,the ,influence of ,alcohol is continued in the chapter on ,digestion4 ,,practical ,,questions4 #a4 ,why does a dry1 cold atmosphere favorably affect catarrh8 #b4 ,why should we put on extra covering when we lie down to sleep8 #c4 ,is it well to throw off our coats or shawls when we come in heated from a long walk8 #d4 ,why are close-fitting collars or neckties injurious8 #e4 ,which side of the heart is the more liable to inflammation8 #f4 ,what gives the toper his red nose8 #g4 ,why does not the arm die when the surgeon ties the principal artery leading to it8 #h4 ,when a fowl is angry1 why does its comb redden8 #i4 ,why does a fat man endure cold better than a lean one8 #aj4 ,why does one become thin1 during a long sickness8 #aa4 ,what would you do if you should come home wet to the skin8 #ab4 ,when the cold air strikes the face1 why does it first blanch and then flush8 #ac4 ,what must be the effect of tight lacing upon the circulation of the blood8 #ad4 ,do you know the position of the large arteries in the limbs1 so that in case of accident you could stop the flow of blood8 #ae4 ,when a person is said to be good-hearted1 is it a physical truth8 #af4 ,why does a hot footbath relieve the headache8 #ag4 ,why does the body of a drowned or strangled person turn blue8 #ah4 ,what are the little kernels in the armpits8 #ai4 ,when we are excessively warm1 would the thermometer show any rise of temperature in the body8 #bj4 ,what forces besides that of the heart aid in propelling the blood8 #ba4 ,why can the pulse be best felt in the wrist8 #bb4 ,why are starving people exceedingly sensitive to any jar8 #bc4 ,why will friction1 an application of horse-radish leaves1 or a blister relieve internal congestion8 #bd4 ,why are students very liable to cold feet8 #be4 ,is the proverb that blood is thicker than water literally true8 #bf4 ,what is the effect upon the circulation of holding the breath8 #bg4 ,which side of the heart is the stronger8 #bh4 ,how is the heart itself nourished8 ,footnote3 ,the coronary artery1 springing from the aorta just after its origin1 carries blood to the muscular walls of the heart2 the venous blood comes back through the coronary veins1 and empties directly into the right auricle4 #bi4 ,does any venous blood reach the heart without coming through the ven cav8 #cj4 ,what would you do1 in the absence of a surgeon1 in the case of a severe wound8 7,see p4 #beh47 #ca4 ,what would you do in the case of a fever8 7,see p4 #bfc47 #cb4 ,what is the most injurious effect of alcohol upon the blood8 #cc4 ,are our bodies the same from day to day8 #cd4 ,show how life comes by death4 #ce4 ,is not the truth just stated as applicable to moral and intellectual1 as to physical life8 #cf4 ,what vein begins and ends with capillaries8 ,ans4 ,the portal vein commences with capillaries in the digestive organs1 and ends with the same kind of vessels in the liver4 7,see p4 #aff47 #cg4 ,by what process is alcohol always formed8 ,does it exist in nature8 #ch4 ,what percentage of alcohol is contained in the different kinds of liquor8 #ci4 ,does cider possess the same intoxicating principle as brandy8 #dj4 ,describe the general properties of alcohol4 #da4 ,show that alcohol is a narcotic poison4 #db4 ,if alcohol is not a stimulant1 how does it cause the heart to overwork8 #dc4 ,why is the skin of a drunkard always red and blotched8 #dd4 ,what danger is there in occasionally using alcoholic drinks8 #de4 ,what is meant by a fatty degeneration of the heart8 #df4 ,what keeps the blood in circulation between the beats of the heart8 #dg4 ,what is the office of the capillaries8 7,see note1 p4 #cgc47 #dh4 ,does alcohol interfere with this function8 #di4 ,how does alcohol interfere with the regular office of the membranes8 #ej4 ,how does it check the process of oxidation8 ,,vi4 ,,digestion ,,and ,,food4 ,a man puts some ashes in a hill of corn and thereby doubles its yield4 ,then he says1 ',my ashes have ,i turned into corn4' ,weak from his labor1 he eats of his corn1 and new life comes to him4 ,again1 he says1 ',i have changed my corn into a man4' ,this also he feels to be the truth4 ,it is the problem of the body1 remember1 that we are discussing4 ,a man is more than the body2 to confound the body and the man is worse than confounding the body and the clothing4--,,john ,,darby4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,digestion ,,and ,,food #a4 ,,why ,,we ,,need ,,food4 #b4 ,,what ,,food ,,does4 #a4 ,nitrogenous4 a4 ,the ,sugars4 #c4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,food4444 #b4 ,carbonaceous4444b4 ,the ,fats4 #c4 ,minerals #d4 ,,one ,,kind is ,,insufficient4 #e4 ,,object ,,of ,,digestion4 --,general ,description #a4 ,mastication and a4 ,the ,saliva4 ,insalvation444444 b4 ,process of ,swallowing4 a4 ,the ,stomach4 #b4 ,gastric b4 ,the ,gastric ,digestion44444444 ,juice4 c4 ,the ,chyme #f4 ,,processes ,,of ,,digestion44444444 --,description a4 ,the ,bile #c4 ,intestional b4 ,the ,pancreatic ,digestion44444444 ,juice4 c4 ,the ,small ,intestine4 a4 ,by the ,veins4 #d4 ,absorption4444444 b4 ,by the ,lacteals4 #g4 ,,complexity ,,of ,,the ,,process ,,of ,,digestion4 #a4 ,length of ,time required4 a4 ,beef4 b4 ,mutton4 c4 ,lamb4 #b4 ,value of dif- d4 ,pork4 ferent kinds e4 ,fish4 of food444444444 f4 ,milk4 g4 ,cheese4 h4 ,eggs1 etc4 #h4 ,,hygiene4444444444 a4 ,coffee4 #c4 ,the ,stimulants444 b4 ,tea4 ,c4 ,chocolate4 #d4 ,cooking of ,food4 #e4 ,rapid ,eating4 #f4 ,quantity and ,quality of ,food4 #g4 ,when ,food should be taken4 #h4 ,how ,food should be taken4 #i4 ,need of a ,variety #i4 ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,digestion4 #a4 ,dyspepsia4 #aj4 ,,diseases44444444#b4 ,the ,mumps4 #a4 ,is ,alcohol a ,food8 #b4 ,effect upon the ,digestion4 #c4 ,effect upon the ,liver4 #aa4 ,,alcoholic #d4 ,effect upon the ,kidneys4 ,,drinks ,,and #e4 ,does ,alcohol impart heat8 ,,narcotics4444444 #f4 ,does ,alcohol impart strength8 #g4 ,the ,effect upon the ,waste of the ,body4 #h4 ,alcohol creates a progressive appetite for itself4 #i4 ,law of ,heredity4 ,,digestion ,,and ,,food4 ,,why ,,we ,,need ,,food4--,we have learned that our bodies are constantly giving off waste matter--the products of the fire1 or oxidation1 as the chemist terms the change going on within us 7,note1 p4 #ajg74 ,a man without food will starve to death in a few days1 i4 e41 the oxygen will have consumed all the available flesh of his body4 ,footnote3 ,the stories current in the newspapers of persons who live for years without food1 are1 of course1 untrue4 ,the case of the ,welsh ,fasting ,girl1 which excited general interest throughout ,great ,britain1 and was extensively copied in our own press1 is in point4 ,she had succeeded in deceiving not only the public1 but1 as some claim1 her own parents4 ,at last a strict watch was set by day and night1 precluding the possibility of her receiving any food except at the hands of the committee1 from whom she steadily refused it4 ,in a few days she died from actual starvation4 ,the youth of the girl1 the apparent honesty of the parents1 and the tragical sequel1 make it one of the most remarkable cases of the kind on record4 ,to replace the daily outgo1 we need about two and a quarter pounds of food1 and three pints of drink4 ,footnote3 ,every cell in the tissues is full of matter ready to set free at call its stored-up energy--derived from the meat1 bread1 and vegetables we have eaten4 ,this energy will pass off quietly when the organs are in comparative rest1 but violently when the muscles contract with force4 ,when we send an order through a nerve to any part of the body1 a series of tiny explosions run the entire length of the nerve1 just as fire runs through a train of gunpowder4 ,the muscle receives the stimulus1 and1 contracting1 liberates its energy4 ,the cells of nerve or muscle1 whose contents have thus exploded1 as it were1 are useless1 and must be carried off by the blood1 just as ashes must be swept from the hearth1 and new fuel be supplied to keep up a fire4 ,including the eight hundred pounds of oxygen taken from the air1 a man uses in a year about a ton and a half of material4 ,footnote3 ,the following is the daily ration of a ,united ,states soldier4 ,it is said to be the most generous in the world3 ,bread or flour 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bb ounces4 ,fresh or salt beef 7or pork or bacon1 #ab oz47 4 #bj ,potatoes 7three times per week7 4 4 4 4 4 #af ,rice 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #a4f ,coffee 7or tea1 #j4bd oz47 4 4 4 4 4 4 #a4f ,sugar 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #b4d ,beans 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #j4fd gill4 ,vinegar 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #j4cb ,salt 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #j4af ,yet during this entire time his weight may have been nearly uniform4 ,footnote3 ,if1 however1 he were kept on the scale pan of a sensitive balance1 he would find that his weight is constantly changing1 increasing with each meal1 and then gradually decreasing4 ,our bodies are but molds1 in which a certain quantity of matter1 checked for a time on its ceaseless round1 receives a definite form4 ,they may be likened1 says ,huxley1 to an eddy in the river1 which retains its shape for a while1 yet every instant each particle of water is changing4 ,,what ,,food ,,does4--,we make no force ourselves4 ,we can only use that which nature provides for us4 ,footnote3 ,we draw from ,nature at once our substance1 and the force by which we operate upon her2 being1 so far1 parts of her great system1 immersed in it for a short time and to a small extent4 ,enfolding us1 as it were1 within her arms1 ,nature lends us her forces to expend2 we receive them1 and pass them on1 giving them the impress of our will1 and bending them to our designs1 for a little while2 and then--,yes2 then it is all one4 ,the great procession pauses not1 nor flags a moment1 for our fall4 ,the powers which ,nature lent to us she resumes to herself1 or lends1 it may be1 to another2 the use which we have made of them1 or might have made and did not1 is written in her book forever4--,health and its ,conditions4 ,all our strength comes from the food we eat4 ,food is force--that is1 it contains a latent power which it gives up when it is decomposed4 ,footnote3 ,this force is chemical affinity4 ,it binds together the molecules which compose the food we eat4 ,when oxygen tears the molecules to pieces and makes them up into smaller ones1 the force is set free4 ,as we shall learn in ,physics1 it can be turned1 into heat1 muscular motion1 electricity1 etc4 ,the principle that the different kinds of force can be changed into one another without loss1 is called the ,conservation of ,energy1 and is one of the grandest discoveries of modern science4--,popular ,physics1 pages #ce1 #ci1 #bgh4 ,oxygen is the magic key which unlocks for our use this hidden store4 ,footnote3 ,we have spoken of the mystery that envelops the process of the conversion of food force into muscular force 7note1 p4 #ajg74 ,all physiologists agree that muscular power has its source in the chemical decomposition of certain substances whereby their potential energy is released4 ,probably some of the food undergoes this chemical change before it passes out of the alimentary canal2 possibly some is broken up by the oxygen while it is being swept along by the blood2 but1 probably by far the largest part is converted into the various tissues of the body1 and finally becomes a waste product only after there takes place in the tissue itself that chemical disorganization that sets free its stored-up power4-- ,,foster',s ,physiology4 ,putting food into our bodies is like placing a tense spring within a watch2 every motion of the body is only a new direction given to this food force1 as every movement of the hand on the dial is but the manifestation of the power of the bent spring in the watch4 ,we use the pent-up energies of meat1 bread1 and vegetables which are placed at our service1 and transfer them to a higher theater of action4 ,footnote3 ,it is a grand thought that we can thus transform what is common and gross into the refined and spiritual2 that out of waving wheat1 wasting flesh1 running water1 and dead minerals1 we can realize the glorious possibilities of human life4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,food ,,needed4--,from what has been said it is clear that1 in order to produce heat and force1 we need something that will burn1 i4 e41 with which oxygen can combine4 ,experiment has proved that to build up every organ1 and keep the body in the best condition1 we require three kinds of food4 #a4 ,nitrogenous ,food4--,as nitrogen is a prominent constituent of the tissues of the body1 food which contains it is therefore necessary to their growth and repair4 ,footnote3 ,since this kind of food closely resembles albumen1 it is sometimes called ,albuminous4 ,the term ,proteid is also used4 ,the most common forms are whites of eggs--which are nearly pure albumen2 casein--the chief constituent of cheese2 lean meat2 and gluten--the viscid substance which gives tenacity to dough4 ,bodies having a great deal of nitrogen readily oxidize4 ,hence the peculiar character of the quick-changing1 force-exciting muscle4 #b4 ,carbonaceous ,food--i4 e41 food containing much carbon-- consists of two kinds1 viz41 the sugars1 and the fats4 7#a7 ,the sugars contain hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion to form water1 and about the same amount of carbon4 ,they may1 therefore1 be considered as water1 with carbon diffused through it4 ,in digestion1 starch and gum are changed to sugar1 and so are ranked with this class4 7#b7 ,the fats are like the sugars in composition1 but contain less oxygen1 and not in the proportion to form water4 ,they combine with more oxygen in burning1 and so give off more heat4 ,the non-nitrogenous elements of the food have1 however1 other uses than to develop heat4 ,footnote3 ,the heat they produce in burning may be turned into motion of the muscles1 according to the principle of the ,conservation of ,energy 7p4 #aec1 note72 while all the structures of the body in their oxidation develop heat4 ,fat is essential to the assimilation of the food1 while sugar and starch aid in digestion and may be converted into fat4 ,footnote3 ,in ,turkey1 the ladies of the harem are fed on honey and thick gruel1 to make flesh1 which is considered to enhance their beauty4 ,the negroes on the sugar plantations of the ,south always grow fat during the sugar-making season4 ,fat and carbonaceous material both enter into the composition of the various tissues1 and when1 by the breaking up of the contractile substance of the muscle1 their latent energy is set free1 they become the source of muscular force1 as well as heat4 ,while the tendency of the albuminous food is to excite chemical action1 and hence the release of energy1 the fats and carbonaceous food may be laid up in the body to serve as a storehouse of energy to supply future needs4 #c4 ,mineral ,matters4--,food should contain water1 and certain common minerals1 such as iron1 ,footnote3 ,while the body can build up a solid from liquid materials on the one hand1 on the other it can pour iron through its veins and reduce the hardest textures to blood4--,,hinton4 sulphur1 magnesia1 phosphorus1 salt1 and potash4 ,about three pints of water are needed daily to dissolve the food and carry it through the circulation1 to float off waste matter1 to lubricate the tissues1 and by evaporation to cool the system 7see p4 #cag74 ,it also enters largely into the composition of the body4 ,a man weighing one hundred and fifty-four pounds contains one hundred pounds of water1 about twelve gallons--enough1 if rightly arranged1 to drown him4 ,footnote3 ,it is said that ,blumenbach had a perfect mummy of an adult ,teneriffian1 which with the viscera weighed only seven and a half pounds4 ,iron goes to the blood disks2 lime combines with phosphoric and carbonic acids to give solidity to the bones and teeth2 phosphorus is essential to the activity of the brain4 ,salt is necessary to the secretion of some of the digestive fluids1 and also to aid in working off from the system its waste products4 ,these various minerals1 except iron--sometimes given as a medicine1 and salt--universally used as a condiment1 ,footnote3 ,animals will travel long distances to obtain salt4 ,men will barter gold for it2 indeed1 among the ,gallas and on the coast of ,sierra ,leone1 brothers will sell their sisters1 husbands their wives1 and parents their children for salt4 ,in the district of ,accra1 on the gold coast of ,africa1 a handful of salt is the most valuable thing upon earth after gold1 and will purchase a slave4 ,mungo ,park tells us that with the ,mandingoes and ,bambaras the use of salt is such a luxury that to say of a man he flavors his food with salt1 it is to imply that he is rich2 and children will suck a piece of rock salt as if it were sugar4 ,no stronger mark of respect or affection can be shown in ,muscovy1 than the sending of salt from the tables of the rich to their poorer friends4 ,in the book of ,leviticus it is expressly commanded as one of the ordinances of ,moses1 that every oblation of meat upon the altar shall be seasoned with salt1 without lacking2 and hence it is called the ,salt of the ,covenant of ,god4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans also used salt in their sacrificial cakes2 and it is still used in the services of the ,latin church--the parva mica or pinch of salt1 being in the ceremony of baptism1 put into the child's mouth1 while the priest says1 ,receive the salt of wisdom1 and may it be a propitiation to thee for eternal life4 ,everywhere and almost always1 indeed1 it has been regarded as emblematical of wisdom1 wit1 and immortality4 ,to taste a man's salt1 was to be bound by the rites of hospitality2 and no oath was more solemn than that which was sworn upon bread and salt4 ,to sprinkle the meat with salt was to drive away the devil1 and to this day1 nothing is more unlucky than to spill the salt4--,,letheby1 ,on ,food4 are contained in small1 but sufficient quantities in meat1 bread1 and vegetables4 ,,one ,,kind ,,of ,,food ,,is ,,insufficient4--,a person fed on starch alone1 would die4 ,it would be a clear case of nitrogen starvation4 ,on the other hand1 as nitrogenous food contains carbon1 the elements of water1 and various mineral matters1 life could be supported on that alone4 ,but such a prodigious quantity of lean meat1 for example1 would be required to furnish the other elements1 that not only would it be very expensive1 but it is likely that after a time the labor of digestion would be too onerous1 and the system would give up the task in despair4 ,the need of a diet containing both nitrogenous and carbonaceous elements is shown in the fact that even in the tropical regions oil is relished as a dressing upon salad4 ,instinct everywhere suggests the blending4 ,butter is used with bread2 rice is boiled with milk2 cheese is eaten with macaroni1 and beans are baked with pork4 ,,fig4 #de4 ,illustration3 ,the ,stomach and ,intestines4 #a1 stomach2 #b1 duodenum2 #c1 small intestine2 #d1 termination of the ileum2 #e1 ccum2 #f1 vermiforn appendix2 #g1 ascending colon2 #h1 transverse colon2 #i1 descending colon2 #aj1 sigmoid flexure of the colon2 #aa1 rectum2 #ab1 spleen--a gland whose action is not understood4--,,leidy',s ,anatomy4 ,,the ,,object ,,of ,,digestion4--,if our food were cast directly into the blood1 it could not be used4 ,for example1 although the chemist can not see wherein the albumen of the egg differs from the albumen of the blood1 yet if it be injected into the veins it is unavailable for the purposes required1 and is thrown out again4 ,in the course of digestion the food is modified in various ways whereby it is fitted for the use of the body1 into which it is finally incorporated4 ,we call this change of food into flesh assimilation1 a name for a work done solely by the vital organs1 and so mysterious in its nature that the wisest physiologist gets only glimpses here and there of its operations4 ,,the ,,general ,,plan ,,of ,,digestion4--,nature has provided for this purpose an entire laboratory1 furnished with a chemist's outfit of knives1 mortars1 baths1 chemicals1 filters1 etc4 ,the food is 7#a7 chewed1 mixed with the saliva in the mouth1 and swallowed2 7#b7 it is acted upon by the gastric juice in the stomach2 7#c7 it is passed into the intestines1 where it receives the bile1 pancreatic juice1 and other liquids which completely dissolve it2 ,footnote3 ,digestion1 says ,berzelius1 is a process of rinsing4 ,the digestive apparatus secretes1 and again absorbs with the food which it has dissolved1 not less than three gallons of liquid per day4-- ,,barnard1 ,,bidder1 ,,schmidt1 and others4 7#d7 the nourishing part is absorbed in the stomach and intestines1 and thence thrown into the blood vessels1 whence it is whirled through the body by the torrent of the circulation4 ,these processes take place within the alimentary canal1 a narrow tortuous tube which commences at the mouth1 and is about thirty feet long4 ,footnote3 ,the digestive apparatus is lined with mucous membrane that possesses functions similar to those of the outer skin4 ,it absorbs certain substances and rejects waste matter4 ,on account of this close connection between the inner and the outer skin1 it is not surprising to find that in the lowest animals digestion is performed by means of the external skin4 ,the amba1 which is merely a gelatinous mass1 when it takes its food1 extemporizes a stomach for the occasion4 ,it simply wraps itself around the morsel1 and1 like an animated apple dumpling with the apple for food and the crust for animal1 goes on with the process until the operation is completed1 when it unrolls itself again and lets the indigestible residue escape4 ,the common hydra of our brooks can live when turned inside out1 like a glove2 either side serving for skin or stomach1 as necessity requires4 ,,fig4 #df4 ,illustration3 ,the ,parotid--one of the salivary glands4 ,i4 ,,mastication ,,and ,,insalivation4--l4 ,the ,saliva4--,the food while being cut and ground by the teeth is mixed with the saliva4 ,this is a thin1 colorless1 frothy1 slightly alkaline liquid1 secreted ,footnote3 ,by secretion is meant merely a separation or picking out from the blood4 by the mucous membrane lining the mouth1 and by three pairs of salivary glands 7parotid1 submaxillary1 and sublingual7 opening into the mouth through ducts1 or tubes4 ,the amount varies1 but on the average is about three pounds per day1 and in health is always sufficient to keep the mouth moist4 ,footnote3 ,the presence and often the thought of food will make one's mouth water4 ,fear checks the flow of saliva1 and hence the ,east ,indians sometimes attempt to detect theft by making those who are suspected chew rice4 ,the person from whom it comes out driest is adjudged the thief4 ,it softens and dissolves the food1 and thus enables us to get the flavor or taste of what we eat4 ,it contains a peculiar organic principle called ptyalin1 ,footnote3 ,one part of ptyalin will convert eight thousand parts of starch into sugar4--,,mialee4 ,the saliva has no chemical action on the fats or the albuminous bodies4 ,its frothiness enables it to carry oxygen into the stomach1 and this is thought to be of service4 ,the action of the ptyalin commences with great promptness1 and sugar has been detected1 it is said1 within half a minute after the starch was placed in the mouth4 ,the process1 however1 is not finished there1 but continues after reaching the stomach4--,,valentin4 ,the saliva thus prepares a small portion of food for absorption at once1 and so insures at the very beginning of the operation of digestion a supply of force-producing material for the immediate use of the system4 which1 acting upon the starch of the food1 changes it into glucose or grape sugar4 #b4 ,the ,process of ,swallowing4--,the food thus finely pulverized1 softened1 and so lubricated by the viscid saliva as to prevent friction as it passes over the delicate membranes1 is conveyed by the tongue and cheek to the back of the mouth4 ,the soft palate lifts to close the nasal opening2 the epiglottis shuts down1 and along this bridge the food is borne1 without danger of falling into the windpipe or escaping into the nose4 ,the muscular bands of the throat now seize it and take it beyond our control4 ,the fibers of the sophagus contract above1 while they are lax below1 and convey the food by a worm-like motion into the stomach4 ,footnote3 ,we can observe the peculiar motion of the sophagus by watching a horse's neck when he is drinking4 ,,ii4 ,,gastric ,,digestion4--#a4 ,the ,stomach is an irregular expansion of the digestive tube4 ,its shape has been compared to that of a bagpipe4 ,it holds about three pints1 though it is susceptible of some distension4 ,it is composed of an inner1 mucous membrane1 which secretes the digestive fluids2 an outer1 smooth1 well-lubricated serous one1 which prevents friction1 and between them a stout1 muscular coat4 ,the last consists of two principal layers of longitudinal and circular fibers4 ,when these contract1 they produce a peculiar churning motion1 called the peristaltic 7peri1 round2 stallein1 to arrange7 movement1 which thoroughly mixes the contents of the stomach4 ,at the farther end1 the muscular fibers contract and form a gateway1 the pylorus 7a gate71 as it is called1 which carefully guards the exit1 and allows no food to pass from the stomach until properly prepared4 ,footnote3 ,with a wise discretion1 however1 it opens for buttons1 coins1 etc41 swallowed by accident2 and when we overload the stomach1 it seems to become weary of constantly denying egress1 and1 finally1 giving up in despair1 lets everything through4 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,illustration3 ,diagram of the ,digestion of the ,food4 ,notice how the food is submitted to the action of alkaline1 acid1 and then alkaline fluids4 7,see note1 p4 #afe47 #b4 ,the ,gastric ,juice4--,the lining of the stomach is soft1 velvety1 and of a pinkish hue2 but1 as soon as food is admitted1 the blood vessels fill1 the surface becomes of a bright red1 and soon there exudes from the gastric glands a thin1 colorless fluid--the gastric juice4 7,see p4 #cai47 ,this is secreted to the amount of twelve pounds per day4 ,footnote3 ,the amount secreted by a healthy adult is variously estimated from five to thirty-seven pounds4 ,as it is reabsorbed by the blood1 there is no loss4 ,its acidity is probably due to muriatic or lactic acid--the acid of sour milk4 ,it contains a peculiar organic principle called pepsin ,footnote3 ,pepsin is prepared and sold as an article of commerce4 ,the best is said to be made from the stomachs of young1 healthy pigs1 which1 just before being killed1 are excited with savory food that they are not allowed to eat4 ,one grain is sufficient to dissolve eight hundred grains of coagulated white of egg4 ,a temperature of #acj renders pepsin inert4 7peptein1 to digest71 which acts as a ferment to produce changes in the food1 without being itself modified4 ,the flow of gastric juice is influenced by various circumstances4 ,cold water checks it for a time1 and ice for a longer period4 ,anger1 fatigue1 and anxiety delay and even suspend the secretion4 ,the gastric juice has no effect on the fats or the sugars of the food2 its influence being mainly confined to the albuminous bodies1 which it so changes that they become soluble in water4 ,footnote3 ,the question is often asked why the stomach itself is not digested by the gastric juice1 since it belongs to the albuminous substances4 ,some have assigned as the probable reason that life protects that organ1 and assert that living tissues can not be digested2 but the fallacy of this has been clearly shown by experiments that have been made with living tissues in the course of scientific research4 ,the latest opinion is that the blood which circulates so freely through the vessels of the lining of the stomach1 being alkaline1 protects the tissue against the acidity of the gastric juice4 ,the food1 reduced by the action of the gastric juice to a grayish1 soupy mass1 called chyme 7kime71 escapes through that jealously guarded door1 the pylorus4 ,fig4 #dh4 ,illustration3 ,a vertical ,section of the ,duodenum1 highly magnified4 #a1 a fold-like villus2 #b1 epithelium1 or cuticle2 #c1 orifices of intestinal glands2 #e1 orifice of duodenal glands2 #d1 #g1 more highly magnified sections of the cells of a duodenal gland4 ,,iii4 ,,intestinal ,,digestion--,the structure of the intestines is like that of the stomach4 ,there is the same outer1 smooth1 serous membrane 7peritoneum7 to prevent friction1 the lining of mucous membrane to secrete the digestive fluids1 and the muscular coating to push the food forward4 ,the intestines are divided into the small and the large4 ,the first part of the former opens out of the stomach1 and is called the du-o-de'-num1 as its length is equal to the breadth of twelve fingers4 ,here the chyme is acted upon by the bile1 and the pancreatic juice4 ,,fig4 #di4 ,illustration3 ,the ,mucous ,membrane of the ,ilium1 highly magnified4 #a1 cellular structure of the epithelium1 or outer layer2 #b1 a vein2 #c1 fibrous layer2 #d1 villi covered with epithelium2 #e1 a villus in section1 showing its lining of epithelium1 with its blood vessels and lymphatics2 #f1 a villus partially uncovered2 #g1 a villus stripped of its epithelium2 #h1 lymphatics or lacteals2 #i1 orifices of the glands opening between the villi2 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 glands2 #ac1 capillaries surrounding the orifices of the gland4 #a4 ,the ,bile is secreted by the liver4 ,this gland weighs about four pounds1 and is the largest in the body4 ,it is located on the right side1 below the diaphragm4 ,the bile is of a dark1 golden color1 and bitter taste4 ,about three pounds are secreted per day4 ,when not needed for digestion1 it is stored in the gall cyst4 ,footnote3 ,a gall bladder can be obtained from a butcher1 and the contents kept in a bottle for examination4 ,its action on the food1 though not fully understood1 is necessary to life4 ,footnote3 ,the bile is produced1 unlike all the other animal secretions1 from venous blood2 that is1 the already contaminated blood of the portal vein4 ,its complete suppression produces symptoms of poisoning analogous to those which follow the stoppage of respiration1 and the patient dies1 usually in a comatose condition1 at the end of ten or twelve days4--,,dalton4 ,the alkaline bile neutralizes the acid contents of the stomach as they flow into the duodenum1 and thus prepares the way for the pancreatic juice4 ,it has also a slight emulsifying power 7note1 p4 #afg74 #b4 ,the ,pancreatic ,juice is a secretion of the pancreas1 or sweetbread--a gland nearly as large as the hand1 lying behind the stomach4 ,it is alkaline1 and contains a ferment called trypsin4 ,this juice has the power of changing starch to sugar4 ,its main work1 however1 is in breaking up the globules of fat into myriads of minute particles1 that mix freely with water1 and remain suspended in it like butter in new milk4 ,the whole mass now assumes a milky look1 whence it is termed chyle 7kile7 and passes on to the small intestine4 ,footnote3 ,it is curious to observe that while the gastric juice is decidedly acid1 the fluids with which the food next comes into contact are alkaline4 ,it is thus submitted to the operation alternately of alkaline1 acid1 and again of alkaline secretions4 ,in the herbivora there is also a second acid juice4 ,the reason of these alternations is not known1 but it can hardly be doubted that they serve to make the digestion of the food more perfect4 ,and although the solvent power of the gastric juice is placed in abeyance when its acidity is neutralized by the alkaline fluids1 yet it appears to be the case here1 as in respect to the saliva1 that effects are produced by the mixture of the various secretions which are poured together into the digestive tube1 that would not result from either alone4--,,hinton4 #c4 ,the ,small ,intestine is an intricately folded tube1 about twenty feet long1 and from an inch to an inch and one half in diameter4 ,as the chyle passes through this tortuous channel1 it receives along the entire route secretions which seem to combine the action of all the previous ones--starch1 fat1 and albumen being equally affected4 ,,iv4 ,,absorption is performed in two ways1 by the veins1 and the lacteals4 7#a47 ,the veins in the stomach ,footnote3 ,the veins and the lacteals are separated from the food by a thin1 moist membrane1 through the pores of which the fluid food rapidly passes1 in accordance with a beautiful law 7,popular ,physics1 p4 #ec7 called the ,osmose of liquids4 ,if two liquids of different densities are separated by an animal membrane1 they will mix with considerable force4 ,there is a similar law regulating the interchange of gases through a porous partition1 in obedience to which the carbonic acid of the blood1 and the oxygen of the lungs1 are exchanged through the thin membrane of the air cells4 immediately begin to take up the water1 salt1 grape sugar1 and other substances that need no special preparation4 ,the starch and the albuminous bodies are also absorbed as they are properly digested1 and this process continues along the whole length of the alimentary canal4 ,in the small intestine1 there is a multitude of tiny projections 7villi7 from the folds of the mucous membrane1 more than seven thousand to the square inch1 giving it a soft1 velvety look4 ,these little rootlets1 reaching out into the milky fluid1 drink into their minute blood vessels the nutritious part of every sort of food4 7#b47,the lacteals ,footnote3 ,from lac1 milk1 because of the milky look given to their contents by the chyle4 7p4 #abf71 a set of vessels starting in the villi side by side with the veins1 absorb the principal part of the fat4 ,they convey the chyle through the lymphatics and the thoracic duct 7,fig4 #dc7 to the veins1 and so within the sweep of the circulation4 ,the ,portal ,vein ,footnote3 ,so named because it enters the liver by a sort of gateway4 carries to the liver the food absorbed by the veins of the stomach and the villi of the intestines4 ,on the way1 it is greatly modified by the action of the blood itself4 ,in the cells of the liver1 it undergoes as mysterious a process as that performed by the lymphatic glands1 and is then cast into the circulation4 ,footnote3 ,in these cells1 the sugar is changed into a kind of starch called glycogen4 ,this is insoluble1 and so is stored up in the liver1 and even in the substance of the muscles1 until it is needed by the body1 when it is once more converted into soluble sugar and taken up by the circulation4 ,the liver also changes the waste and surplus albuminous matter into bile1 and into urea and uric acid--the forms in which nitrogenized waste is excreted by the kidneys4 ,the food1 potent with force1 is now buried in that river of life from which the body springs momentarily afresh4 ,,the ,,complexity of the process of digestion1 as compared with the simplicity of respiration and circulation1 is very marked4 ,the mechanical operation of mastication2 the lubrication of the food by mucus2 the provision for the security of the respiratory organs2 the grasping by the muscles of the throat2 the churning movement of the stomach2 the guardianship of the pylorus2 the timely introduction by safe and protected channels of the saliva1 the gastric juice1 the bile1 the pancreatic juice1 and the intestinal fluids1 each with its special adaptation2 the curious peristaltic motion of the intestines2 the twofold absorption by the veins and the lacteals2 the final transformation in the lymphatics1 the portal vein1 and the liver1--all these present a complexity of detail1 the necessity of which can be explained only when we reflect upon the variety of the substances we use for food1 and the importance of its thorough preparation before it is allowed to enter the blood4 ,,the ,,length ,,of ,,time ,,required for digesting a full meal is from two to four hours4 ,it varies with the kind of food1 state of the system1 perfection of mastication1 etc4 ,in the celebrated observations made upon ,alexis ,st4 ,martin ,footnote3 ,in #ahbb1 ,alexis ,st4 ,martin1 a ,canadian in the employ of the ,american ,fur ,company1 was accidentally shot in the left side4 ,two years after1 the wound was entirely healed1 leaving1 however1 an opening about two and a half inches in circumference into the stomach4 ,through this the mucous membrane protruded1 forming a kind of valve which prevented the discharge of food1 but could be readily depressed by the finger1 thus exposing the interior4 ,for several years he was under the care of ,dr4 ,beaumont1 a skillful physician1 who experimented upon him by giving various kinds of food1 and watching their digestion through this opening4 ,by means of these observations1 and others performed on ,katherine ,kutt1 a woman who had a similar aperture in the stomach1 we have very important information as to the digestibility of different kinds of food4 by ,dr4 ,beaumont1 his stomach was found empty in two and a half hours after a meal of roast turkey1 potatoes1 and bread4 ,pigs' feet and boiled rice were disposed of in an hour4 ,fresh1 sweet apples took one and a half hours2 boiled milk1 two hours2 and unboiled1 a quarter of an hour longer4 ,in eggs1 which occupied the same time1 the case was reversed1--raw ones being digested sooner than cooked4 ,roast beef and mutton required three and three and a quarter hours respectively2 veal1 salt beef1 and broiled chicken remained for four hours2 and roast pork enjoyed the bad preeminence of needing five and a quarter hours4 ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,food4--,beef and ,mutton possess the greatest nutritive value of any of the meats4 ,lamb is less strengthening1 but more delicate4 ,like the young of all animals1 it should be thoroughly cooked1 and at a high temperature1 properly to develop its delicious flavor4 ,pork has much carbon4 ,it sometimes contains a parasite called trichina1 which may be transferred to the human system1 producing disease and often death4 ,the only preventive is thorough cooking4 ,fish is more watery than flesh1 and many find it difficult of digestion4 ,like meat1 it loses its mineral constituents and natural juices when salted1 and is much less nourishing4 ,oysters are highly nutritious1 but are more easily assimilated when raw than when cooked4 ,milk is a model food1 as it contains albumen1 starch1 fat1 and mineral matter4 ,no other single substance can sustain life for so long a time4 ,cheese is very nourishing--one pound being equal in value to two of meat1 but it is not adapted to a weak stomach4 7,see p4 #cbb47 ,eggs are most easily digested when the white is barely coagulated and the yolk is unchanged4 ,bread ,footnote3 ,very fresh bread1 warm biscuit1 etc41 are condensed by mastication into a pasty mass that is not easily penetrated by the gastric juice1 and hence they are not healthful4 ,in ,germany bread is not allowed to be sold at the baker's till it is twenty-four hours old--a wise provision for those who have not strength to resist temptation4 ,this rule of eating may well be adopted by every one who cares more for his health than for a gratification of his appetite4 should be made of unbolted flour4 ,the bran of wheat furnishes the mineral matter we need in our bones and teeth1 gives the bulk so essential to the proper distension of the organs1 and by its roughness gently stimulates them to action4 ,corn is rich in fat4 ,it contains1 however1 more indigestible matter than any other grain1 except oats1 and is less nutritious than wheat4 ,footnote3 ,persons unaccustomed to the use of corn find it liable to produce derangement of the digestive organs4 ,this was made fearfully apparent in the prisons of ,andersonville during the late civil war4 ,the vegetable food of the ,federal prisoners had hitherto been chiefly wheat bread and potatoes--the corn bread so extensively used at the ,south being quite new to most of them as a constant article of diet4 ,it soon became not only loathsome1 but productive of serious diseases4 ,on the other hand1 it was the principal article in the rations of the ,confederate soldiers1 to whom habit made it a nutritious and wholesome form of food1 as was shown by their endurance4--,,flint1 ,physiology of ,man1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 page #da4 ,the ,potato is two thirds water1--the rest being mainly starch4 ,ripe ,fruits1 and those vegetables usually eaten raw1 dilute the more concentrated food1 and also supply the blood with acids1 which are cooling in summer1 and useful1 perhaps1 in assimilation4 ,,the ,,stimulants4--,coffee is about half nitrogen1 and the rest fatty1 saccharine1 and mineral substances4 ,it is1 therefore1 of much nutritive value1 especially when taken with milk and sugar4 ,its peculiar stimulating property is due to a principle called caffeine4 ,its aroma is developed by browning1 but destroyed by burning4 ,no other substance so soon relieves the sense of fatigue4 ,footnote3 ,in the late civil war1 the first desire of the soldiers upon halting after a wearisome march1 was to make a cup of coffee4 ,this was taken without milk1 and often without sugar1 yet was always welcome4 ,taken in moderation1 it clears the intellect1 tranquilizes the nerves1 and usually leaves no unpleasant reaction4 ,it serves also as a kind of negative food1 since it retards the process of waste4 ,in some cases1 however1 it produces a rush of blood to the head1 and should be at once discarded4 ,at the close of a full meal it hinders digestion1 and at night produces wakefulness4 ,in youth1 when the vital powers are strong1 and the functions of nature prompt in rallying from fatigue1 it is not needed1 and may be injurious in stimulating a sensitive organization4 ,tea possesses an active principle called theine4 ,when used moderately1 its effects are similar to those of coffee1 except that it exerts an astringent action4 ,it contains tannin1 which1 if the tea is strong1 coagulates the albumen of the food--tans it--and thus delays digestion4 ,in excess1 tea causes nervous tremor1 disturbed sleep1 palpitation of the heart1 and indigestion4 ,footnote3 ,tea and coffee should be made with1 boiling water1 but should not be boiled afterward4 ,during the steeping process1 so customary in this country1 the volatile aroma is lost and a bitter principle extracted4 ,in both ,england and ,china it is usual to infuse tea directly in the urn from which it is to be drawn4 ,the tannin in tea is shown when a drop falls on a knife blade4 ,the black spot is a tannate of iron--a compound of the acid in the tea and the metal4 7,see p4 #cbb47 ,chocolate contains much fat1 and also nitrogenous matter resembling albumen4 ,its active principle1 theobromine1 ,footnote3 ,it is said that ,linnus1 the great botanist1 was so fond of chocolate that he named the cocoa tree ,theobroma1 the food of the gods4 has some of the properties of caffeine and theine4 ,,the ,,cooking ,,of ,,food breaks the little cells1 and softens the fibers of which it is composed4 ,in broiling or roasting meat1 it should be exposed to a strong heat at once1 in order to coagulate the albumen upon the outside1 and thus prevent the escape of the nutritious juices4 ,the cooking may then be finished at a lower temperature4 ,the same principle applies to boiling meat4 ,in making soups1 on the contrary1 the heat should be applied slowly1 and should reach the boiling point for only a few moments at the close4 ,this prevents the coagulation of the albumen4 ,frying is an unhealthful mode of cooking food1 as thereby the fat becomes partially disorganized4 ,,rapid ,,eating produces many evil results4 #a4 ,there is not enough saliva mixed with the food2 #b4 ,the coarse pieces resist the action of the digestive fluids2 #c4 ,the food is washed down with drinks that dilute the gastric juice1 and hinder its work2 #d4 ,we do not appreciate the quantity we eat until the stomach is overloaded2 #e4 ,failing to get the taste of our food1 we think it insipid1 and hence use condiments that overstimulate the digestive organs4 ,in these various ways the appetite becomes depraved1 the stomach vexed1 the system overworked1 and the foundation of dyspepsia is laid4 ,footnote3 ,when one is compelled to eat in a hurry1 as at a railway station1 he would do well to confine himself principally to meat2 and to dilute this concentrated food with fruit1 crackers1 etc41 taken afterward more leisurely4 7,see p4 #cbd47 ,,the ,,quantity ,,and ,,quality ,,of ,,food required vary with the age and habits of each individual4 ,the diet of a child ,footnote3 ,in youth1 repair exceeds waste2 hence the body grows rapidly1 and the form is plump4 ,in middle life1 repair and waste equal each other1 and growth ceases4 ,in old age1 waste exceeds repair2 hence the powers are enfeebled and the skin lies in wrinkles on the shrunken form4 should be largely vegetable1 and more abundant than that of an aged person4 ,a sedentary occupation necessitates less food than an outdoor life4 ,one accustomed to manual labor1 on entering school1 should practice self-denial until his system becomes fitted to the new order of things4 ,he should not1 however1 fall into the opposite error4 ,we read of great men who have lived on bread and water1 and the conscientious student sometimes thinks that1 to be great1 he1 too1 must starve himself4 ,footnote3 ,as ,dr4 ,holland well remarks1 the dispensation of sawdust has passed away4 ,if we desire a horse to win the race1 we must give him plenty of oats4 ,on the contrary1 many of the greatest workers are the greatest eaters4 ,a powerful engine needs a corresponding furnace4 ,only1 we should be careful not to use more fuel than is needed to run the machine4 7,see p4 #cbe47 ,the season should modify our diet4 ,in winter1 we need highly carbonaceous food1 plenty of meat1 fat1 etc42 but in summer we should temper the heat in our corporeal stoves with fruits and vegetables4 ,the climate also has its necessities4 ,the inhabitants of the frigid north have an almost insatiable longing for fat4 ,footnote3 ,dr4 ,hayes1 the arctic explorer1 says1 that the daily ration of the ,esquimaux was from twelve to fifteen pounds of meat1 one third being fat4 ,on one occasion1 he saw a man eat ten pounds of walrus flesh and blubber at a single meal4 ,the low temperature had a remarkable effect on the members of his own party1 and some of them were in the habit of drinking the contents of the oil kettle with evident relish4 ,other travelers narrate the most incredible stories of the voracity of the inhabitants of arctic regions4 ,saritcheff1 a ,russian admiral1 tells of a man who in his presence ate1 at a meal1 a mess of twenty-eight pounds of boiled rice and butter1 although he had already partaken of his breakfast4 ,captain ,cochrane further adds1 in narrating this statement1 that he has himself seen three of the savages consume a reindeer at a sitting4 ,thus1 in #ahab1 when the ,allies entered ,paris1 the ,cossacks drank all the oil from the lamps1 and left the streets in darkness4 ,in tropical regions1 a low1 unstimulating diet of fruits forms the chief dependence4 ,footnote3 ,a natural appetite for a particular kind of food is an expression not only of desire1 but of fitness4 ,thus the craving of childhood for sugar indicates a need of the system4 ,it is questionable how far it is proper to force or persuade one to eat that which he disrelishes1 or his stomach loathes4 ,life within is linked with life without4 ,each organ requires its peculiar nutriment1 and there is often a peculiar influence demanded of which we can have no notice except by natural instinct4 ,yet1 as we are creatures of habit and impulse1 we need common sense and good judgment to correct the too often wayward promptings of an artificial craving4 ,,when ,,food ,,should ,,be ,,taken4--,on taking food1 the blood sets at once to the alimentary canal1 and the energies are fixed upon the proper performance of this work4 ,we should not1 therefore1 undertake hard study1 labor1 or exercise directly after a hearty meal4 ,we should give the stomach at least half an hour4 ,he who toils with brain or muscle1 and thus centers the blood in any particular organ1 before eating should allow time for the circulation to become equalized4 ,there should be an interval of four to five hours between our regular meals1 and there should be no lunching between times4 ,with young children1 where the vital processes are more rapid1 less time may intervene4 ,as a general rule1 nothing should be eaten within two or three hours of retiring4 7,see p #ccf47 ,,how ,,food ,,should ,,be ,,taken4--,a good laugh is the best of sauces4 ,the mealtime should be the happiest hour of the day4 ,care and grief are the bitter foes of digestion4 ,a cheerful face and a light heart are friends to long life1 and nowhere do they serve us better than at the table4 ,god designed that we should enjoy eating1 and that1 having stopped before satiety was reached1 we should have the satisfaction always attendant on a good work well done4 ,,need ,,of ,,variety4--,careful investigations have shown that any one kind of food1 however nutritious in itself1 fails after a time to preserve the highest working power of the body4 ,our appetite palls when we confine our diet to a regular routine4 ,nature demands variety1 and she has furnished the means of gratifying it4 ,footnote3 ,she opens her hand1 and pours forth to man the treasures of every land and every sea1 because she would give to him a wide and vigorous life1 participant of all variety4 ,for him the cornfields wave their golden grain--wheat1 rye1 oats1 maize1 or rice1 each different1 but alike sufficing4 ,freely for him the palm1 the date1 the banana1 the breadfruit tree1 the pine1 spread out a harvest on the air2 and pleasant apple1 plum1 or peach solicit his ready hand4 ,beneath his foot lie stored the starch of the potato1 the gluten of the turnip1 the sugar of the beet2 while all the intermediate space is rich with juicy herbs4 ,nature bids him eat and be merry2 adding to his feast the solid flesh of bird1 and beast1 and fish1 prepared as victims for the sacrifice3 firm muscle to make strong the arm of toil1 in the industrious temperate zone2 and massive ribs of fat to kindle inward fires for the sad dwellers under arctic skies4--,health and its ,conditions4--,,hinton4 ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,digestion4--,we can understand much of the process of digestion4 ,we can look into the stomach and trace its various steps4 ,indeed1 the chemist can reproduce in his laboratory many of the operations2 a step further1 as ,fontenelle has said1 and he would surprise nature in the very act4 ,just here1 when he seems so successful1 he is compelled to pause4 ,at the threshold of life the wisest physiologist reverently admires1 wonders1 and worships4 ,how strange is this transformation of food to flesh6 ,we make a meal of meat1 vegetables1 and drink4 ,ground by the teeth1 mixed by the stomach1 dissolved by the digestive fluids1 it is swept through the body4 ,each organ1 as it passes1 snatches its particular food4 ,within the cells of the tissues ,footnote3 ,as the body is composed of individual organs1 and each organ of separate tissues1 so each tissue is made up of minute cells4 ,each cell is a little world by itself1 too small to be seen by the naked eye1 but open to the microscope4 ,it has its own form and constitution as much as a special organ in the body4 ,it absorbs from the blood such food as suits its purposes4 ,moreover1 the number of cells in an organ is as constant as the number of organs4 ,as the organs expand with the growth of the body1 so the cells of each tissue enlarge1 but shrink again with age and the decline of life4 ,life begins and ends in a cell4--,see ,appletons' ,cyclopedia1 ,art4 ,absorption4 it is transformed into the soft1 sensitive brain1 or the hard1 callous bone2 into briny tears1 or bland saliva1 or acrid perspiration2 bile for digestion1 oil for the hair1 nails for the fingers1 and flesh for the cheek4 ,within us is an ,almighty ,architect1 who superintends a thousand builders1 which make in a way past all human comprehension1 here a fiber of a muscle1 there a filament of a nerve2 here constructing a bone1 there uniting a tendon1--fashioning each with scrupulous care and unerring nicety4 ,footnote3 ,see ,,cooke',s ,religion and ,chemistry1 page #bcf4 ,so1 without sound of builder or stroke of hammer1 goes up1 day by day1 the body--the glorious temple of the soul4 ,,diseases ,,etc4--#a4 ,dyspepsia1 or indigestion of food1 is generally caused by an overtaxing of the digestive organs4 ,too much food is used1 and the entire system is burdened by the excess4 ,meals are taken at irregular hours1 when the fluids are not ready4 ,a hearty supper is eaten when the body1 wearied with the day's labor1 demands rest4 ,the appetite craves no food when the digestion is enfeebled1 but stimulants and condiments excite it1 and the unwilling organs are oppressed by that which they can not properly manage4 ,strong tea1 alcoholic drinks1 and tobacco derange the alimentary function4 ,too great variety of dishes1 rich food1 tempting flavors1--all lead to an overloading of the stomach4 ,this patient1 long-suffering member at last wears out4 ,pain1 discomfort1 diseases of the digestive organs1 and insufficient nutrition are the penalties of violated laws4 7,see p4 #cbh47 #b4 ,the ,mumps are an inflammation of the parotid and submaxillary glands 7see p4 #aei74 ,the disease is generally epidemic1 and is believed to be contagious2 the patient should therefore be carefully secluded for the sake of others as well as himself4 ,the swelling may be allowed to take its course4 ,relief from pain is often experienced by applying flannels wrung out of hot water4 ,great care should be used not to check the inflammation1 and1 on first going out after recovery1 not to take cold4 ,,alcoholic ,,drinks ,,and ,,narcotics4 #a4 ,,alcohol 7,continued from p4 #adg74 ,,relation ,,of ,,alcohol ,,to ,,the ,,digestive ,,organs4--,is ,alcohol a ,food8 ,to answer this question1 let us make a comparison4 ,if you receive into your stomach a piece of bread or beef1 ,nature welcomes its presence4 ,the juices of the system at once take hold of it1 dissolve it1 and transform it for the uses of the body4 ,a million tiny fingers 7lacteals and veins7 reach out to grasp it1 work it over1 and carry it into the circulation4 ,the blood bears it onward wherever it is needed to mend or to build ,the house you live in4 ,soon1 it is no longer bread or beef2 it is flesh on your arm2 its chemical energy is imparted to you1 and it becomes your strength4 ,if1 on the other hand1 you take into your stomach a little alcohol1 it receives no such welcome4 ,nature treats it as a poison1 and seeks to rid herself of the intruder as soon as possible4 ,footnote3 ,food is digested1 alcohol is not4 ,food warms the blood1 directly or indirectly2 alcohol lowers the temperature4 ,food nourishes the body1 in the sense of assimilating itself to the tissues2 alcohol does not4 ,food makes blood2 alcohol never does anything more innocent than mixing with it4 ,food feeds the blood cells2 alcohol destroys them4 ,food excites1 in health1 to normal action only2 alcohol tends to inflammation and disease4 ,food gives force to the body2 alcohol excites reaction and wastes force1 in the first place1 and in the second1 as a true narcotic1 represses vital action and corresponding nutrition4--,if alcohol does not act like food1 neither does it behave like water4 ,water is the subtle but innocent vehicle of circulation1 which dissolves the solid food1 holds in play the chemical and vital reactions of the tissues1 conveys the nutritive solutions from cell to cell1 from tube to tube1 and carries off and expels the effete matter4 ,water neither irritates tissue1 wastes force1 nor suppresses vital action3 whereas alcohol does all three4 ,alcohol hardens solid tissue1 thickens the blood1 narcotizes the nerves1 and in every conceivable direction antagonizes the operation and function of water--,,lees4 ,the juices of the system will flow from every pore to dilute and weaken it1 and to prevent its shriveling up the delicate membranes with which it comes in contact4 ,the veins will take it up and bear it rapidly through the system4 ,every organ of elimination1 all the scavengers of the body-- the lungs1 the kidneys1 the perspiration glands1 at once set to work to throw off the enemy4 ,so surely is this the case1 that the breath of a person who has drunk only a single glass of the lightest beer will betray the fact4 ,the alcohol thus eliminated is entirely unchanged4 ,nature apparently makes no effort to appropriate it4 ,footnote3 ,it was formerly a question considerably discussed1 whether alcohol exists in the brain1 or in the fluid found in the ventricles1 in intoxicated persons4 ,this was settled by ,percy1 who found alcohol in the brain and liver of dogs poisoned with alcohol1 and of men who had died after excessive drinking4 ,in these experiments1 the presence of alcohol was determined by distillation1 and the distilled substance burned with a blue flame1 and dissolved camphor4-- ,,flint',s ,physiology of ,man4 ,it courses everywhere through the circulation1 and into the great organs1 with all its properties unmodified4 ,alcohol1 then1 is not1 like bread or beef1 taken hold of1 broken up by the mysterious process of digestion1 and used by the body4 ,footnote3 ,because of the difficulties of such an experiment1 we have not yet been able to account satisfactorily by the excretions for all the alcohol taken into the stomach4 ,this remains as yet one of the unsolved problems of physiological chemistry4 ,to collect the whole of the insensible perspiration1 for example1 is well-nigh impossible4 ,it was supposed at one time that a part of the alcohol is oxidized--i4 e41 burned1 in the system4 ,but such a process would impart heat1 and it is now proved that alcohol cools1 instead of warms1 the blood4 ,moreover1 the closest analysis fails to detect in the circulation any trace of the products of alcoholic combustion1 such as aldehyde and acetic acid4 ,the fact1 says ,flint1 that alcohol is always eliminated1 even when drunk in minute quantity1 and that its elimination continues for a considerable time1 gradually diminishing1 renders it probable that all that is taken into the body is removed4 ,it can not therefore be regarded as an aliment1 or food4-- ,,flint4 ,beer1 wine1 and spirits1 says ,liebig1 contain no element capable of entering into the composition of the blood or the muscular fiber4 ,footnote3 ,the small amount of nutritive substance1 chiefly sugar derived from the grain or fruit used in the manufacture of beer or wine1 can not1 of course1 be compared with that contained in bread or beef at the same cost4 ,liebig says1 in his ,letters on ,chemistry1 ,we can prove1 with mathematical certainty1 that as much flour as can lie on the point of a table knife is more nutritious than eight quarts of the best ,bavarian beer4 ,that alcohol is incapable of forming any part of the body1 remarks ,cameron1 is admitted by all physiologists4 ,it can not be converted into brain1 nerve1 muscle1 or blood4 ,,effect ,,upon ,,the ,,digestion4 ,footnote3 ,the medical value of alcohol in its relations to digestion is not discussed in this book4 ,the experiments of ,dr4 ,henry ,munroe1 of ,hull1 published in the ,london ,medical ,journal1 are here summarized as showing that the tendency to retard digestion is common to all forms of alcoholic drinks4 ,finely ,minced ,beef #b;d ,hour #dth ,hour #fth ,hour ,i4 ,digesting ,gastric ,juice ,beef and ,beef much and water4 opaque4 separating4 loosened4 ,slightly ,slight ,,ii4 ,no alteration opaque1 but coating on ,gastric ,juice perceptible4 beef beef4 with alcohol4 unchanged4 ,,iii4 ,cloudy1 beef ,gastric ,juice ,no change4 with fur partly and pale ale4 on beef4 loosened4 ,finely ,minced ,beef #hth ,hour #ajth ,hour ,i4 ,gastric ,juice ,beef ,broken up and water4 opaque4 into shreds4 ,solid on ,,ii4 ,no visible cooling ,gastric ,juice change4 ,pepsin with alcohol4 precipitated4 ,,iii4 ,no digestion ,gastric ,juice ,no further ,pepsin and pale ale4 change4 precipitated4 --,experiments tend to prove that alcohol coagulates and precipitates the pepsin from the gastric juice1 and so puts a stop to its great work in the process of digestion4 ,the greed of alcohol for water causes it to imbibe moisture from the tissues and juices1 and to inflame the delicate mucous membrane4 ,it shows the power of ,nature to adapt herself to circumstances1 that the soft1 velvety lining of the throat and stomach should come at length to endure the presence of a fiery liquid which1 undiluted1 would soon shrivel and destroy it4 ,in self-defense1 the juices pour in to weaken the alcohol1 and it is soon hurried into the circulation4 ,before this can be done1 it must absorb about three times its bulk of water2 hence1 very strong liquor may be retained in the stomach long enough to interfere seriously with the digestion1 and to injure the lining coat4 ,habitual use of alcohol permanently dilates the blood vessels2 thickens and hardens the membranes2 in some cases1 ulcerates the surface2 and1 finally1 so weakens the assimilation that the proper supply of food can not be appropriated4 --,,flint4 ,footnote3 ,the case of ,st4 ,martin 7p4 #afh7 gave an excellent opportunity to watch the action of alcohol upon the stomach4 ,dr4 ,beaumont summarized his experiments thus3 ,the free1 ordinary use of any intoxicating liquor1 when continued for some days1 invariably produced inflammation1 ulcerous patches1 and1 finally1 a discharge of morbid matter tinged with blood4 ,yet ,st4 ,martin never complained of pain in his stomach1 the narcotic influence of the alcohol preventing the signal of danger that ,nature ordinarily gives4 ,,effect ,,upon ,,the ,,liver4--,alcohol is carried by the portal vein directly to the liver4 ,this organ1 after the brain1 holds the largest share4 ,the influence of the poison is here easily traced4 ,the color of the bile is soon changed from yellow to green1 and even to black2 the connective tissue between the lobules becomes inflamed2 and1 in the case of a confirmed drunkard1 hardened and shrunk1 the surface often assuming a nodulated appearance known as the hobnailed liver4 ,morbid matter is sometimes deposited1 causing what is called ,fatty degeneration1 so that the liver is increased to twice or thrice its natural size4 ,,effect ,,upon ,,the ,,kidneys4--,the kidneys1 like the liver1 are liable in time to undergo1 through the influence of alcohol1 a ,fatty degeneration1 in which the cells become filled with particles of fat2 ,footnote3 ,disabled by the fatty deposits1 the kidneys are unable to separate the waste matter coming to them for elimination from the system4 ,the poisonous material is poured back into the circulation1 and often delirium ensues4--,,hubbard4 ,richardson states that his experience is to the effect that seven out of every eight instances of kidney disease are attributable to alcohol4 the vessels lose their contractility2 and1 worst of all1 the membranes may be so modified as to allow the albuminous part of the blood to filter through them1 and so to rob the body of one of its most valuable constituents4 ,footnote3 ,this deterioration of structure frequently gives rise to what is known as ,bright's ,disease4--,,richardson4 ,,does ,,alcohol ,,impart ,,heat8--,during the first flush after drinking wine1 for example1 a sense of warmth is felt4 ,this is due to the tides of warm blood that are being sent to the surface of the body1 owing to the vascular enlargement and to the rapid pumping of the heart4 ,there is1 however1 no fresh heat developed4 ,on the contrary1 the bringing the blood to the surface causes it to cool faster1 reaction sets in1 a chilliness is experienced as one becomes sober1 and a delicate thermometer placed under the tongue of the inebriate may show a fall of even two degrees below the standard temperature of the body4 ,several hours are required to restore the usual heat4 ,as early as #ahej1 ,dr4 ,n4 ,s4 ,davis1 of ,chicago1 ex-,president of the ,american ,medical ,association1 instituted an extensive series of experiments to determine the effect of the different articles of food and drinks on the temperature of the system4 ,he conclusively proved that1 during the digestion of all kinds of food1 the temperature of the body is increased1 but when alcohol is taken1 either in the form of fermented or distilled beverages1 the temperature begins to fall within a half hour1 and continues to decrease for two or three hours1 and that the reduction of temperature1 in extent as well as in duration1 is in exact proportion to the amount of alcohol taken4 ,it naturally follows that1 contrary to the accepted opinion1 liquor does not fortify against cold4 ,the experience of travelers at the ,north coincides with that of ,dr4 ,hayes1 the ,arctic explorer1 who says3 ,while fat is absolutely essential to the inhabitants and travelers in arctic countries1 alcohol is1 in almost any shape1 not only completely useless1 but positively injurious4 ,i have known strong1 able-bodied men to become utterly incapable of resisting cold in consequence of the long-continued use of alcoholic drink4 ,,does ,,alcohol ,,impart ,,strength8--,experience shows that alcohol weakens the power of undergoing severe bodily exertion4 ,footnote3 ,dr4 ,mc,rae1 in speaking of ,arctic exploration1 at the meeting of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 held at ,montreal in #ahef1 said3 ,the moment that a man had swallowed a drink of spirits1 it was certain that his day's work was nearly at an end4 ,it was absolutely necessary that the rule of total abstinence be rigidly enforced1 if we would accomplish our day's task4 ,the use of liquor as a beverage when we had work on hand1 in that terrific cold1 was out of the question4 ,men who are in training for running1 rowing1 and other contests where great strength is required1 deny themselves all liquors1 even when they are ordinarily accustomed to their use4 ,dr4 ,richardson made some interesting experiments to show the influence of alcohol upon muscular contraction4 ,he carefully weighted the hind leg of a frog1 and1 by means of electricity1 stimulating the muscle to its utmost power of contraction1 he found out how much the frog could lift4 ,then administering alcohol1 he discovered that the response of the muscle to the electrical current became feebler and feebler1 as the narcotic began to take effect1 until1 at last1 the animal could raise less than half the amount it lifted by the natural contraction when uninfluenced by alcohol4 ,,effect ,,upon ,,the ,,waste ,,of ,,the ,,body4--,the tendency of alcohol is to cause a formation of an unstable substance resembling fat1 ,footnote3 ,the molecular deposits equalizing the waste of the system do not go on regularly under the influence of alcohol2 the tissues are not kept up to their standard2 and1 in time1 their composition is changed by a deposit of an amorphous matter resembling fat4 ,this is an unstable substance1 and the functions of animal life all retrograde4--,,hubbard1 ,the ,opium ,habit and ,alcoholism4 and so the use of liquor for even a short time will increase the weight4 ,but a more marked influence is to check the ordinary waste of the system1 so that the amount of carbonic acid exhaled from the lungs may be reduced as much as thirty to fifty per cent4--,,hinton4 ,the life process is one of incessant change4 ,its rapidity is essential to vigor and strength4 ,when the functions are in full play1 each organ is being constantly torn down1 and as constantly rebuilt with the materials furnished from our food4 ,anything that checks this oxidation of the tissues1 or hinders the deposition of new matter1 disturbs the vital functions4 ,both these results are the inevitable effects of alcohol2 for1 since the blood contains less oxygen and more carbonic acid1 and the power of assimilating the food is decreased1 it follows that every process of waste and repair must be correspondingly weakened4 ,the person using liquor consequently needs less bread and beef1 and so alcohol seems to him a food--a radical error1 as we have shown4 ,,alcohol ,,creates ,a ,,progressive ,,appetite ,,for ,,itself4--,when liquor is taken1 even in the most moderate quantity1 it soon becomes necessary1 and then arises a craving demand for an increased amount to produce the original effect4 ,no food creates this constantly augmenting want4 ,a cup of milk drank at dinner does not lead one to go on1 day by day1 drinking more and more milk1 until to get milk becomes the one great longing of the whole being4 ,yet this is the almost universal effect of alcohol4 ,hunger is satisfied by any nutritious food3 the dram-drinker's thirst demands alcohol4 ,the common experience of mankind teaches us the imminent peril that attends the formation of this progressive poison habit4 ,a single glass taken as a tonic may lead to the drunkard's grave4 ,worse than this1 the alcoholic craving may be transmitted from father to son1 and young persons often find themselves cursed with a terrible disease known as alcoholism--a keen1 morbid appetite for liquor that demands gratification at any cost--stamped upon their very being through the reckless indulgence of this habit on the part of some one of their ancestors4 ,footnote3 ,the ,american ,medical ,association1 at their meeting in ,st4 ,paul1 ,minnesota 7#ahhc71 restated in a series of resolutions their conviction1 that alcohol should be classed with other powerful drugs2 that when prescribed medically1 it should be done with conscientious caution and a sense of great responsibility2 that used as a beverage it is productive of a large amount of physical and mental disease2 that it entails diseased and enfeebled constitutions upon offspring1 and that it is the cause of a large percentage of the crime and pauperism of our large cities and country4 ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,heredity is1 in this connection1 well worth consideration4 ,the world is beginning to perceive1 says ,francis ,galton1 that the life of each individual is1 in some real sense1 a continuation of the lives of his ancestors4 ,each of us is the footing up of a double column of figures that goes back to the first pair4 ,we are omnibuses1 remarks ,holmes1 in which all our ancestors ride4 ,we inherit from our parents our features1 our physical vigor1 our mental faculties1 and even much of our moral character4 ,often1 when one generation is skipped1 the qualities will reappear in the following one4 ,the virtues1 as well as the vices1 of our forefathers1 have added to1 or subtracted from1 the strength of our brain and muscle4 ,the evil tendencies of our natures1 which it is the struggle of our lives to resist1 constitute a part of our heirlooms from the past4 ,our descendants1 in turn1 will have reason to bless us only if we hand down to them a pure healthy physical1 mental1 and moral being4 ,there is a marked tendency in nature to transmit all diseased conditions4 ,thus1 the children of consumptive parents are apt to be consumptives4 ,but of all agents1 alcohol is the most potent in establishing a heredity that exhibits itself in the destruction of mind and body4 ,footnote3 ,nearly all the diseases springing from indulgence in distilled and fermented liquors are liable to become hereditary1 and to descend to at least three or four generations1 unless starved out by uncompromising abstinence4 ,but the distressing aspect of the heredity of alcohol is the transmitted drink- crave4 ,this is no dream of an enthusiast1 but the result of a natural law4 ,men and women upon whom this dread inheritance has been forced are everywhere around us1 bravely struggling to lead a sober life4--,,dr4 ,,norman ,,kerr4 ,its malign influence was observed by the ancients long before the production of whiskey or brandy1 or other distilled liquors1 and when fermented liquors or wines only were known4 ,aristotle says1 ',drunken women have children like unto themselves1' and ,plutarch remarks1 ',one drunkard is the father of another4' ,the drunkard by inheritance is a more helpless slave than his progenitor1 and his children are more helpless still1 unless on the mother's side there is an untainted blood4 ,for there is not only a propensity transmitted1 but an actual disease of the nervous system4--,,dr4 ,,willard ,,parker4 ,footnote3 ,the subject of alcohol is continued in the chapter on the ,nervous ,system4 ,,practical ,,questions4 #a4 ,how do clothing and shelter economize food8 #b4 ,is it well to take a long walk before breakfast8 #c4 ,why is warm food easier to digest than cold8 #d4 ,why is salt beef less nutritious than fresh8 ,footnote3 ,the ,french ,academicians found that flesh soaked in water so as to deprive it of its mineral matter and juices1 lost its nutritive value1 and that animals fed on it soon died4 ,indeed1 for all purposes of nutrition1 ,liebig said it was no better than stones1 and the utmost torments of hunger were hardly sufficient to induce them to continue the diet4 ,there was plenty of nutritive food1 but there was no medium for its solution and absorption1 and hence it was useless4 #e4 ,what should be the food of a man recovering from a fever8 #f4 ,is a cup of black coffee a healthful close to a hearty dinner8 #g4 ,should iced water be used at a meal8 #h4 ,why is strong tea or coffee injurious8 #i4 ,should food or drink be taken hot8 #aj4 ,are fruitcakes1 rich pastry1 and puddings wholesome8 #aa4 ,why are warm biscuit and bread hard of digestion8 #ab4 ,should any stimulants be used in youth8 #ac4 ,why should bread be made spongy8 #ad4 ,which should remain longer in the mouth1 bread or meat8 #ae4 ,why should cold water be used in making soup1 and hot water in boiling meat8 #af4 ,name the injurious effects of overeating4 #ag4 ,why do not buckwheat cakes1 with syrup and butter1 taste as well in ,july as in ,january8 #ah4 ,why is a late supper injurious8 #ai4 ,what makes a man bilious8 #bj4 ,what is the best remedy8 ,ans4 ,diet to give the organs rest1 and active exercise to arouse the secretions and the circulation4 #ba4 ,what is the practical use of hunger8 #bb4 ,how can jugglers drink when standing on their heads8 #bc4 ,why do we relish butter on bread8 #bd4 ,what would you do if you had taken arsenic by mistake8 7,see ,appendix47 #be4 ,why should ham and sausage be thoroughly cooked8 #bf4 ,why do we wish butter on fish1 eggs with tapioca1 oil on salad1 and milk with rice8 #bg4 ,explain the relation of food to exercise4 #bh4 ,how do you explain the difference in the manner of eating between carnivorous and herbivorous animals8 #bi4 ,why is a child's face plump and an old man's wrinkled8 #cj4 ,show how life depends on repair and waste4 #ca4 ,what is the difference between the decay of the teeth and the constant decay of the body8 #cb4 ,should biscuit and cake containing yellow spots of soda be eaten8 #cc4 ,tell how the body is composed of organs1 how organs are made up of tissues1 and how tissues consist of cells4 #cd4 ,why do we not need to drink three pints of water per day8 #ce4 ,why1 during a pestilence1 are those who use liquors as a beverage the first1 and often the only victims8 #cf4 ,what two secretions seem to have the same general use8 #cg4 ,how may the digestive organs be strengthened8 #ch4 ,is the old rule1 after dinner sit awhile1 a good one8 #ci4 ,what would you do if you had taken laudanum by mistake8 ,paris ,green8 ,sugar of lead8 ,oxalic acid8 ,phosphorus from matches8 ,ammonia8 ,corrosive sublimate8 7,see p4 #bfe47 #dj4 ,what is the simplest way to produce vomiting1 so essential in case of accidental poisoning8 #da4 ,in what way does alcohol interfere with the digestion8 #db4 ,is alcohol assimilated8 #dc4 ,what is the effect of alcohol on the albuminous substances8 #dd4 ,is there any nourishment in beer8 #de4 ,show how the excessive use of alcohol may first increase1 and1 afterward1 decrease1 the size of the liver4 #df4 ,will liquor help one to endure cold and exposure8 #dg4 ,what is a fatty degeneration of the kidneys8 #dh4 ,contrast the action of alcohol and water in the body4 #di4 ,is alcohol1 in any proper sense of the term1 a food8 #ej4 ,does liquor strengthen the muscles of a working man8 #ea4 ,is liquor a wholesome tonic8 #eb4 ,is it a good plan to take a glass of liquor before dinner8 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,nervous ,,system4 ,mark then the cloven sphere that holds ,all thoughts in its mysterious folds1 ,that feels sensation's faintest thrill1 ,and flashes forth the sovereign will2 ,think on the stormy world that dwells ,lock'd in its dim and clustering cells2 ,the lightning gleams of power it sheds ,along its hollow1 glassy threads6 ,as a king sits high above his subjects upon his throne1 and from it speaks behests that all obey1 so from the throne of the brain cells is all the kingdom of a man directed1 controlled1 and influenced4 ,for this occupant1 the eyes watch1 the ears hear1 the tongue tastes1 the nostrils smell1 the skin feels4 ,for it1 language is exhausted of its treasures1 and life of its experience2 locomotion is accomplished1 and quiet insured4 ,when it wills1 body and spirit are goaded like overdriven horses4 ,when it allows1 rest and sleep may come for recuperation4 ,in short1 the slightest penetration may not fail to perceive that all other parts obey this part1 and are but ministers to its necessities4--,odd ,hours of a ,physician4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,nervous ,,system4 #a4 ,,the ,,structure #a4 ,description4 #a4 ,the ,brain44444444 #b4 ,the ,cerebrum4 #c4 ,the ,cerebellum4 #b4 ,the ,spinal ,cord44 #a4 ,its ,composition4 #b4 ,medulla ,oblongata4 #b4 ,,organs ,,of #a4 ,description4 ,,the ,,nerv- #b4 ,motory and ,sensory4 ,,ous ,,system44 #c4 ,transfer of ,pain4 #d4 ,the ,spinal ,nerves-- #ca ,pairs4 #c4 ,the ,nerves4444444 #e4 ,the ,cranial ,nerves-- #ab ,pairs4 #f4 ,sympathetic ,system4 #g4 ,crossing of ,cords4 #h4 ,reflex ,action4 #i4 ,uses of ,reflex ,action #a4 ,brain ,exercise4 #b4 ,connection between ,brain ,growth and ,body ,growth4 #c4 ,,hygiene44444 #c4 ,sleep4 #d4 ,effect of ,sleeping ,draughts4 #e4 ,sunlight4 #d4 ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,brain4 #a4 ,alcohol 7,con'd47 #a4 ,stage of ,excitement4 #b4 ,stage of ,muscular ,weakness4 #a4 ,effect of ,alco- #c4 ,stage of ,mental hol upon the ,weakness4 ,nervous ,system #d4 ,stage of ,unconscious- ness4 #b4 ,effect upon the ,brain #c4 ,effect upon the ,mental and ,moral ,powers4 #b4 ,tobacco4 #a4 ,constituents of ,tobacco4 #e4 ,,alcoholic #b4 ,physiological ,effects4 ,,drinks ,,and #c4 ,possible ,disturbances produced by ,smoking4 ,,narcotics4 #d4 ,influence upon the ,nervous ,system4 #e4 ,is ,tobacco a ,food8 #f4 ,influence of ,tobacco on ,youth4 #a4 ,description4 #c4 ,opium444444444444 #b4 ,physiological ,effects4 #d4 ,chloral ,hydrate4 #e4 ,chloroform4 #f4 ,cocaine4 ,,the ,,nervous ,,system4 ,footnote3 ,the organs of circulation1 respiration1 and digestion1 of which we have already spoken1 are often called the vegetative functions1 because they belong also to the vegetable kingdom4 ,plants have a circulation of sap through their cells corresponding to that of the blood through the capillaries4 ,they breathe the air through their leaves1 which act the part of lungs1 and they take in food which they change into their own structure by a process which answers to that of digestion4 ,the plant1 however1 is a mere collection of parts incapable of any combined action4 ,on the other hand1 the animal has a nervous system which binds all the organs together4 ,,structure4--,the nervous system includes the brain1 the spinal cord1 and the nerves4 ,it is composed of two kinds of matter-- the white1 and the gray4 ,the former consists of minute1 milk-white1 glistening fibers1 sometimes as small as #a_/bejjj of an inch in diameter2 the latter is made up of small1 ashen-colored cells1 forming a pulp-like substance of the consistency of blancmange4 ,footnote3 ,in addition to the cells1 the gray substance contains also nerve fibers continuous with the white fibers1 but generally much smaller4 ,these form half the bulk of the gray substance of the spinal cord1 and a large part of the deeper layer of the gray matter in the brain4--,,leidy',s ,anatomy1 p4 #ejg4 ,this is often gathered in little masses1 termed ganglions 7ganglion1 a knot71 because1 when a nerve passes through a group of the cells1 they give it the appearance of a knot4 ,the nerve fibers are conductors1 while the gray cells are generators1 of nervous force4 ,footnote3 ,what this force is we do not know4 ,in some respects it is like electricity1 but1 in others1 it differs materially4 ,its velocity is about thirty three meters per second4--,popular ,physics1 p4 #bdd1 ,note4 ,the ganglia1 or nervous centers1 answer to the stations along a telegraphic line1 where messages are received and transmitted1 and the fibers correspond to the wires that communicate between different parts4 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,illustration3 ,the ,nervous ,system4 ,a1 cerebrum2 ,b1 cerebellum4 ,the ,,brain is the seat of the mind4 ,footnote3 ,in proportion to the rest of the nervous matter in the body1 it is larger in man than in any of the lower animals4 ,it is the function which the brain performs that distinguishes man from all other animals1 and it is by the action of his brain that he becomes a conscious1 intelligent1 and responsible being4 ,the brain is the seat of that knowledge which we express when we say ,i4 ,i know it1 ,i feel it1 ,i saw it1 are expressions of our individual consciousness1 the seat of which is the brain4 ,it is when the brain is at rest in sleep that there is least consciousness4 ,the brain may be put under the influence of poisons1 such as alcohol and chloroform1 and then the body is without consciousness4 ,from these and other facts the brain is regarded as the seat of consciousness4--,,lankester4 ,its average weight is about fifty ounces4 ,footnote3 ,cuvier's brain weighed #fd #a_/b ounces2 ,webster's1 #ec #a_/b ounces2 ,james ,fisk's1 #eh ounces2 ,ruloff's1 #ei ounces2 an idiot's1 #ai ounces4 ,see ,table in ,,flint',s ,nervous ,system4 ,it is egg-shaped1 and1 soft and yielding1 fills closely the cavity of the skull4 ,it reposes securely on a water bed1 being surrounded by a double membrane 7arachnoid71 delicate as a spider's web1 which forms a closed sac filled1 like the spaces in the brain itself1 with a liquid resembling water4 ,within this1 and closely investing the brain1 is a fine tissue 7pia mater71 with a mesh of blood vessels which dips down into the hollows1 and bathes them so copiously that it uses one fifth of the entire circulation of the body4 ,around the whole is wrapped a tough membrane 7dura mater71 which lines the bony box of the skull1 and separates the various parts of the organ by strong partitions4 ,the brain consists of two parts--the cerebrum1 and the cerebellum4 ,the ,,cerebrum fills the front and upper part of the skull1 and comprises about seven eighths of the entire weight of the brain4 ,as animals rise in the scale of life1 this higher part makes its appearance4 ,it is a mass of white fibers1 with cells of gray matter sprinkled on the outside1 or lodged here and there in ganglia4 ,it is so curiously wrinkled and folded as strikingly to resemble the meat of an ,english walnut4 ,this structure gives a large surface for the gray matter1--sometimes as much as six hundred and seventy square inches4 ,the convolutions are not noticeable in an infant1 but increase with the growth of the mind1 their depth and intricacy being characteristic of high mental power4 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,illustration3 ,surface of the ,cerebrum4 ,the cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres1 connected beneath by fibers of white matter4 ,thus we have two brains1 ,footnote3 ,this doubleness has given rise to some curious speculations4 ,in the case of the hand1 eye1 etc1 we know that the sensation is made more sure4 ,thus we can see with one eye1 but not so well as with both4 ,it is perhaps the same with the brain4 ,we may sometimes carry on a train of thought1 build an air castle with one half of our brain1 while the other half looks on and watches the operation2 or1 we may read and at the same time think of something else4 ,so in delirium1 a patient often imagines himself two persons1 thus showing a want of harmony between the two halves4--,,draper1 ,human ,physiology1 p4 #cbj4 as well as two hands and two eyes4 ,this provides us with a surplus of brains1 as it were1 which can be drawn upon in an emergency4 ,a large part of one hemisphere has been destroyed without particularly injuring the mental powers1 ,footnote3 ,a pointed iron bar1 three and a half feet long and one inch and a quarter in diameter1 was driven by the premature blasting of a rock completely through the side of the head of a man who was present4 ,it entered below the temple1 and made its exit at the top of the forehead1 just about the middle line4 ,the man was at first stunned1 and lay in a delirious1 semistupefied state for about three weeks4 ,at the end of sixteen months1 however1 he was in perfect health1 with wounds healed and mental and bodily functions unimpaired1 except that sight was lost in the eye of the injured side4-- ,,dalton4 ,it is noticeable1 however1 that the man became changed in disposition1 fickle1 impatient of restraint1 and profane1 which he was not before4 ,he died epileptic1 nearly thirteen years after the injury4 ,the tamping iron and the skull are preserved in the ,warren ,anatomical ,museum1 ,boston4--just as a person has been blind in one eye for a long time without having discovered his loss4 ,the cerebrum is the center of intelligence and thought4 ,footnote3 ,in man1 the cerebrum presents an immense preponderance in weight over other portions of the brain2 in some of the lower animals1 the cerebrum is even less in weight than the cerebellum4 ,another interesting point is the development of cerebral convolutions in certain animals1 by which the relative amount of gray matter is increased4 ,in fishes1 reptiles1 and birds1 the surface of the hemispheres is smooth2 but1 in many mammalia1 especially in those remarkable for intelligence1 the cerebrum presents a greater or less number of convolutions1 as it does in the human subject4--,,flint4 ,the average weight of the human brain in proportion to the entire body is about #a to #cf4 ,the average of mammalia is #a to #ahf2 of birds1 #a to #bab2 of reptiles1 #a to #a1cba2 and of fishes1 #a to #e1ffh4 ,there are some animals in which the weight of the brain bears a higher proportion to the body than it does in man2 thus in the blue-headed tit1 the proportion is as #a to #ab2 in the goldfinch1 as #a to #bd2 and in the field mouse1 as #a to #ca4 ,it does not hence follow1 however1 that the cerebrum is larger in proportion2 in fact1 it is probably not nearly so large2 for in birds and rodent animals the sensory ganglia form a very considerable portion of the entire brain4 ,m4 ,baillarger has shown that the surface and the bulk of the cerebral hemispheres are so far from bearing any constant proportion to each other in different animals that1 notwithstanding the depth of the convolutions in the human cerebrum1 its bulk is two and a half times as great in proportion to its surface as it is in the rabbit1 the surface of whose cerebrum is smooth4 ,the size of the cerebrum1 considered alone1 is not1 however1 a fair test of its intellectual power4 ,this depends upon the quantity of vesicular matter which it contains1 as evinced not only by superficial area1 but by the number and depth of the convolutions and by the thickness of the cortical layer4--,,carpenter4 ,persons in whom it is seriously injured or diseased often become unable to converse intelligently1 both from inability to remember words and from loss of power to articulate them4 ,,the ,,cerebellum lies below the cerebrum1 and in the back part of the head 7,fig4 #ej74 ,it is about the size of a small fist4 ,its structure is similar to that of the brain proper1 but instead of convolutions it has parallel ridges1 which1 letting the gray matter down deeply into the white matter within1 give it a peculiar appearance1 called the arbor vit1 or tree of life 7,fig4 #ee74 ,this part of the brain is the center for the control of the voluntary muscles1 ,footnote3 ,the exact nature of the functions of the cerebellum is one of those problems concerning which there is no unanimity of opinion amongst physiologists4 ,it may be premised1 however1 that the knowledge we at present possess does enable us to come to one very important conclusion with respect to the functions of the cerebellum1--it enables us to say that this organ has no independent function either in the province of mind or in the province of motility4 ,and we may perhaps safely affirm still further1 that the cerebellum is much more intimately concerned with the production of bodily movements than with the evolution of mental phenomena4 ,the anatomical distinctness of the cerebellum from the larger brain and other parts of the nervous system is more apparent than real4444,that there is an habitual community of action between the cerebellum and the spinal cord is1 ,i believe1 doubted by none1 and the fact that an intimate functional relationship exists between the cerebrum and the cerebellum is shown by the circumstance that atrophy of one cerebral hemisphere entails a corresponding atrophy of the opposite half of the cerebellum4 ,the subordinate or supplementary nature of the cerebellar function1 however1 in this latter relation seems equally well shown by the fact that atrophy of one side of the cerebellum 7when it occurs as the primary event7 does not entail any appreciable wasting in the opposite half of the cerebrum4 ,what other conclusion can be drawn8 ,if the cutting off of certain cerebral stimuli leads to a wasting of the opposite half of the cerebellum1 this would seem to show that each half of the cerebellum is naturally called into activity in response to1 or conjointly with1 the opposite cerebral hemisphere4 ,whilst conversely1 if atrophy of one half of the cerebellum does not entail a relative diminution in the opposite cerebral hemisphere1 this would go to show that the cerebral hemispheres do not act in response to cerebellar stimuli1 since their nutrition does not suffer when such stimuli are certainly absent4 ,the action of the cerebrum is therefore shown to be primary1 whilst that of the cerebellum is secondary or subordinate in the performance of those functions in which they are both concerned4--,h4 ,,charlton ,,bastian1 ,paralysis from ,brain ,disease4 particularly those of locomotion4 ,persons in whom it is injured or diseased walk with tottering and uncertain movements as if intoxicated1 and can not perform any orderly work4 ,,the ,,spinal ,,cord occupies the cavity of the backbone4 ,it is protected by the same membranes as the brain1 but1 unlike it1 the white matter is on the outside1 and the gray matter is within4 ,deep fissures separate it into halves 7,fig4 #ej71 which are1 however1 joined by a bridge of the same substance4 ,just as it starts from the brain1 there is an expansion called the medulla oblongata 7,fig4 #ee74 ,,the ,,nerves are glistening1 silvery threads1 composed1 like the spinal cord1 of white matter without and gray within4 ,they ramify to all parts of the body4 ,often they are very near each other1 yet are perfectly distinct1 each conveying its own impression4 ,footnote3 ,press two fingers together1 and1 closing the eyes1 let some one pass the point of a pin lightly from one to the other2 you will be able to tell which is touched1 yet if the nerves came in contact with each other anywhere in their long route to the brain1 you could not thus distinguish4 ,those which carry the orders of the mind to the different organs are called the motory nerves2 while those which bring back impressions which they receive are styled sensory nerves4 ,if the sensory nerve leading to any part be cut1 all sensation in that spot will be lost1 while motion will remain2 if the motory nerve be cut1 all motion will be destroyed1 while sensation will exist as before4 ,,transfer ,,of ,,pain4--,strictly speaking1 pain is not in any organ1 but in the mind1 since only that can feel4 ,when any nerve brings news to the brain of an injury1 the mind refers the pain to the end of the nerve4 ,a familiar illustration is seen in the funny bone behind the elbow4 ,here the nerve 7ulnar7 gives sensation to the third and fourth fingers1 in which1 if this bone be struck1 the pain will seem to be4 ,long after a limb has been amputated1 pain will be felt in it1 as if it still formed a part of the body--any injury in the stump being referred to the point to which the nerve formerly led4 ,footnote3 ,only about five per cent4 of those who suffer amputation lose the feeling of the part taken away4 ,there is something tragical1 almost ghastly1 in the idea of a spirit limb haunting a man through his life1 and betraying him in unguarded moments into some effort1 the failure of which suddenly reminds him of his loss4 ,a gallant fellow1 who had left an arm at ,shiloh1 once1 when riding1 attempted to use his lost hand to grasp the reins while with the other he struck his horse4 ,a terrible fall was the result of his mistake4 ,when the current of a battery is applied to the nerves of an arm stump1 the irritation is carried to the brain1 and referred to all the regions of the lost limb4 ,on one occasion a man's shoulder was thus electrized three inches above the point where the limb was cut off4 ,for two years he had ceased to be conscious of his limb4 ,as the electric current passed through1 the man1 who had been profoundly ignorant of its possible effects1 started up1 crying1 ,oh1 the hand6 the hand6 and tried to seize it with the living grasp of the sound fingers4 ,no resurrection of the dead could have been more startling4--,,dr4 ,,mitchell on ,phantom ,limbs in ,lippincott's ,magazine4 ,the nerves are divided into three general classes--the spinal1 the cranial1 and the sympathetic4 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,illustration3 ,p1 posterior root of a spinal nerve2 ,g1 ganglion2 ,a1 anterior root2 ,s1 spinal nerve4 ,the white portions of the figure represent the white fibers2 and the dark1 the gray4 ,,the ,,spinal ,,nerves1 of which there are thirty-one pairs1 issue from the spinal cord through apertures provided for them in the backbone4 ,each nerve arises by two roots2 the anterior is the motory1 and the posterior the sensory one4 ,the posterior alone connects directly with the gray matter of the cord1 and has a small ganglion of gray matter of its own at a little distance from its origin4 ,these roots soon unite1 i4 e41 are bound up in one sheath1 though they preserve their special functions4 ,when the posterior root of a nerve is cut1 the animal loses the power of feeling1 and when the anterior root is cut1 that of motion4 ,,the ,,cranial ,,nerves1 twelve pairs in number1 spring from the lower part of the brain and the medulla oblongata4 #a4 ,the olfactory1 or first pair of nerves1 ramify through the nostrils1 and are the nerves of smell4 #b4 ,the optic1 or second pair of nerves1 pass to the eyeballs1 and are the nerves of vision4 #c1 #d1 #f4 ,the motores oculi 7eye movers7 are three pairs of nerves used to move the eyes4 #e4 ,the trifacial1 or fifth pair of nerves1 divide each into three branches--hence the name--the first to the upper part of the face1 eyes1 and nose2 the second to the upper jaw and teeth2 the third to the lower jaw and the mouth1 where it forms the nerve of taste4 ,these nerves are implicated when we have the toothache or neuralgia4 #g4 ,the facial1 or seventh pair of nerves1 are distributed over the face1 and give it expression4 ,footnote3 ,if it is palsied1 on one side there will be a blank1 while the other side will laugh or cry1 and the whole face will look funny indeed4 ,there were some cruel people in the middle ages who used to cut the nerve and deform children's faces in this way1 for the purpose of making money of them at shows4 ,when this nerve was wrongly supposed to be the seat of neuralgia1 or tic douloureux1 it was often cut by surgeons4 ,the patient suffered many dangers1 and no relief of pain was gained4--,,mapother4 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,illustration3 ,the ,brain and the origin of the twelve pairs of ,cranial ,nerves4 ,f1 ,e1 the cerebrum2 ,d1 the cerebellum1 showing the arbor vit2 ,g1 the eye2 ,h1 the medulla oblongata2 ,a1 the spinal cord2 ,c and ,b1 the first two pairs of spinal nerves4 #h4 ,the auditory1 or eighth pair of nerves1 go to the ears1 and are the nerves of hearing4 #i4 ,the glos-so-pha-ryn'-ge-al1 or ninth pair of nerves1 are distributed over the mucous membrane of the pharynx1 tonsils1 etc4 #aj4 ,the pneu-mo-gas'-tric1 or tenth pair of nerves1 preside over the larynx1 lungs1 liver1 stomach1 and one branch extends to the heart4 ,this is the only nerve which goes so far from the head4 #aa4 ,the accessory1 or eleventh pair of nerves1 rise from the spinal cord1 run up to the medulla oblongata1 and thence leave the skull at the same opening with the ninth and tenth pairs4 ,they regulate the vocal movements of the larynx4 #ab4 ,the hyp-o-glos'-sal1 or twelfth pair of nerves1 give motion to the tongue4 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,illustration3 ,spinal ,nerve1 ,sympathetic ,cord1 and the ,network of ,sympathetic ,nerves around the ,internal ,organs4 ,k1 aorta2 ,a1 ophagus2 ,b1 diaphragm2 ,c1 stomach4 ,,the ,,sympathetic ,,system contains the nerves of organic life4 ,it consists of a double chain of ganglia on either side of the backbone1 extending into the chest and abdomen4 ,from1 these1 delicate nerves1 generally soft and of a grayish color1 run to the organs on which life depends--the heart1 lungs1 stomach1 etc4--to the blood vessels1 and to the spinal and cranial nerves over the body4 ,thus the entire system is bound together with cords of sympathy1 so that1 if one member suffers1 all the members suffer with it4 ,here lies the secret of the control exercised by the brain over all the vital operations4 ,every organ responds to its changing moods1 especially those of respiration1 circulation1 digestion1 and secretion1--processes intimately linked with this system1 and controlled by it4 7,see p4 #ccj47 ,,crossing ,,of ,,cords4--,each half of the body is presided over1 not by its own half of the brain1 but that of the opposite side4 ,the motory nerves1 as they descend from the brain1 in the medulla oblongata1 cross each other to the opposite side of the spinal cord4 ,so the motor nerves of the right side of the body are connected with the left side of the brain1 and vice versa4 ,thus a derangement in one half of the brain may paralyze the opposite half of the body4 ,the nerves going to the face do not thus cross1 and therefore the face may be motionless on one side1 and the limbs on the other4 ,each of the sensory fibers of the spinal nerves crosses over to the opposite side of the spinal cord1 and so ascends to the brain2 an injury to the spinal cord may1 therefore1 cause a loss of motion in one leg and of feeling in the other4 ,,reflex ,,action4--,since the gray matter generates the nervous force1 a ganglion is capable of receiving an impression1 and of sending back or reflecting it so as to excite the muscles to action4 ,this is done without the consciousness of the mind4 ,footnote3 ,instances of an unconscious working of the mind are abundant4 ,an illustration1 often quoted1 is given1 as follows1 by ,dr4 ,abercrombie1 in his ,intellectual ,powers3 ,a lawyer had been excessively perplexed about a very complicated question4 ,an opinion was required from him1 but the question was one of such difficulty that he felt very uncertain how he should render it4 ,the decision had to be given at a certain time1 and he awoke in the morning of that day with a feeling of great distress4 ,he said to his wife1 ',i had a dream1 and the whole thing was clearly arranged before my mind1 and ,i would give anything to recover the train of thought4' ,his wife said to him1 ',go and look on your table4' ,she had seen him get up in the night and go to his table and sit down and write4 ,he did so1 and found there the opinion which he had been most earnestly endeavoring to recover1 lying in his own handwriting4 ,there was no doubt about it whatever4 ,in this case the action of the brain was clearly automatic1 i4 e41 reflex4 ,the lawyer had worried his brain by his anxiety1 and thus prevented his mind from doing its best4 ,but it had received an impulse in a certain direction1 and when left to itself1 worked out the result4 7,see ,appendix for other illustrations47 ,thus we wink involuntarily at a flash of light or a threatened blow4 ,footnote3 ,a very eminent chemist a few years ago was making an experiment upon some extremely explosive compound which he had discovered4 ,he had a small quantity of this compound in a bottle1 and was holding it up to the light1 looking at it intently2 and whether it was a shake of the bottle or the warmth of his hand1 ,i do not know1 but it exploded in his hand1 and the bottle was shivered into a million of minute fragments1 which were driven in every direction4 ,his first impression was that they had penetrated his eyes1 but to his intense relief he found presently that they had only struck the outside of his eyelids4 ,you may conceive how infinitesimally short the interval was between the explosion of the bottle and the particles reaching his eyes2 and yet in that interval the impression had been made upon his sight1 the mandate of the reflex action1 so to speak1 had gone forth1 the muscles of his eyelids had been called into action1 and he had closed his eyelids before the particles had reached them1 and in this manner his eyes were saved4 ,you see what a wonderful proof this is of the way in which the automatic action of our nervous apparatus enters into the sustenance of our lives1 and the protection of our most important organs from injury4-- ,,dr4 ,,carpenter4 ,we start at a sudden sound4 ,we jump back from a precipice before the mind has time to reason upon the danger4 ,the spinal cord conducts certain impressions to the brain1 but responds to others without troubling that organ4 ,footnote3 ,there is a story told of a man1 who1 having injured his spinal cord1 had lost feeling and motion in his lower extremities4 ,dr4 ,john ,hunter experimented upon him4 ,tickling his feet1 he asked him if he felt it2 the man1 pointing to his limbs1 which were kicking vigorously about1 answered1 ,no1 but you see my legs do4 ,illustrations of this independent action of the spinal cord are common in animals4 ,a headless wasp will ply its sting energetically4 ,a fowl1 after its head is cut off1 will flap its wings and jump about as if in pain1 although1 of course1 all sensation has ceased4 ,a water beetle1 having had its head removed1 remained motionless as long as it rested on a dry surface1 but when cast into water1 it executed the usual swimming motions with great energy and rapidity1 striking all its comrades to one side by its violence1 and persisting in these for more than half an hour4 ,the medulla oblongata carries on the process of respiration4 ,the great sympathetic system binds together all the organs of the body4 ,,uses ,,of ,,reflex ,,action4--,we breathe eighteen times every minute2 we stand erect without a consciousness of effort2 ,footnote3 ,in this way we account for the perilous feats performed by the somnambulist4 ,he is not conscious1 as his operations are not directed by the cerebrum1 but by the other nervous centers4 ,were he to attempt their repetition when awake1 the emotion of fear might render it impossible4 we walk1 eat1 digest1 and at the same time carry on a train of thought4 ,our brain is thus emancipated from the petty detail of life4 ,if we were obliged to attend to every breath1 every pulsation of the heart1 every wink of the eye1 our time would be wasted in keeping alive4 ,mere standing would require our entire attention4 ,besides1 an act which at first demands all our thought soon requires less1 and at last becomes mechanical1 ,footnote3 ,as every one knows1 says ,huxley1 it takes a soldier a long time to learn his drill-- for instance1 to put himself into the attitude of 'attention' at the instant the word of command is heard4 ,but1 after a time1 the sound of the word gives rise to the act1 whether the soldier be thinking of it or not4 ,there is a story1 which is credible enough1 though it may not be true1 of a practical joker1 who1 seeing a discharged veteran carrying home his dinner1 suddenly called out ',attention6' whereupon the man instantly brought his hands down and lost his mutton and potatoes in the gutter4 ,the drill had been thorough1 and its effects had become embodied in the man's nervous structure4 as we say1 i4 e41 reflex4 ,thus we play a familiar tune upon an instrument and carry on a conversation at the same time4 ,all the possibilities of an education and the power of forming habits are based upon this principle4 ,no act we perform ends with itself4 ,it leaves behind it in the nervous centers a tendency to do the same thing again4 ,our physical being thus conspires to fix upon us the habits of a good or an evil life4 ,our very thoughts are written in our muscles1 so that the expression of our face and even our features grow into harmony with the life we live4 ,,brain ,,exercise4--,the nervous system demands its life and activity4 ,the mind grows by what it feeds on4 ,one who reads mainly light literature1 who lolls on the sofa or worries through the platitudes of an idle or fashionable life1 decays mentally2 his system loses tone1 and physical weakness follows mental poverty4 ,on the other hand1 an excessive use of the mind withdraws force from the body1 whose weakness1 reacting on the brain1 produces gradual decay and serious diseases4 7,see p4 #cca47 ,the brain grows by the growth of the body4 ,the body grows through good food1 fresh air1 and work and rest in suitable proportion4 ,for the full development and perfect use of a strong mind1 a strong body is essential4 ,hence1 in seeking to expand and store the intellect1 we should be equally thoughtful of the growth and health of the body4 ,,sleep ,footnote3 ,sleep procured by medicine is rarely as beneficial as that secured naturally4 ,the disturbance to the nervous system is often sufficient to counterbalance all the good results4 ,the habit of seeking sleep in this way1 without the advice of a physician1 is to be most earnestly deprecated4 ,the dose must be constantly increased to produce the effect1 and thus great injury may be caused4 ,often1 too1 where laudanum or morphine is used1 the person unconsciously comes into a terrible and fatal bondage4 7,see p4 #cdb47 ,especially should infants never be dosed with cordials1 as is a common family practice4 ,the damage done to helpless childhood by the ignorant and reckless use of soothing syrups is frightful to contemplate4 ,all the ordinary sleeping draughts have life-destroying properties1 as is proved by the fatal effects of an overdose4 ,at the best1 they paralyze the nerve centers1 disorder the digestion1 and poison the blood4 ,their promiscuous use is therefore full of danger4 is as essential as food4 ,during the day1 the process of tearing down goes on2 during the night1 the work of building up should make good the loss4 ,in youth more sleep is needed than in old age1 when nature makes few permanent repairs1 and is content with temporary expedients4 ,the number of hours required for sleep must be decided by each person4 ,napoleon took only five hours1 but most people need from six to eight hours1--brain workers even more4 ,in general1 one should sleep until he naturally wakes4 ,if one's rest be broken1 it should be made up as soon as possible4 7,see p4 #ccd47 ,,sunlight4--,the influence of the sun's rays upon the nervous system is very marked4 ,footnote3 ,the necessity of light for young children is not half appreciated4 ,many of their diseases1 and nearly all the cadaverous looks of those brought up in great cities1 are ascribable to the deficiency of light and air4 ,when we see the glass room of the photographers in every street1 in the topmost story1 we grudge them their application to what is often a mere personal vanity4 ,why should not a nursery be constructed in the same manner8 ,if parents knew the value of light to the skin1 especially to children of a scrofulous tendency1 we should have plenty of these glass house nurseries1 where children might run about in a proper temperature1 free from much of that clothing which at present seals up the skin--that great supplementary lung--against sunlight and oxygen4 ,they would save many a weakly child who now perishes from lack of these necessaries of infant life4--,,dr4 ,,winter4 ,it is said also to have the effect of developing red disks in the blood4 ,all vigor and activity come from the sun4 ,vegetables grown in subdued light have a bleached and faded look4 ,an infant kept in absolute darkness would grow into a shapeless idiot4 ,that room is the healthiest to which the sun has the freest access4 ,epidemics frequently attack the inhabitants of the shady side of a street1 and exempt those on the sunny side4 ,if1 on a slight indisposition1 we should go out into the open air and bright sunlight1 instead of shutting ourselves up in a close1 dark chamber1 we might often avoid a serious illness4 ,the sun bath is doubtless a most efficient remedy for many diseases4 ,our window blinds and curtains should be thrown back and open1 and we should let the blessed air and sun stream in to invigorate and cheer4 ,no house buried in shade1 and no room with darkened windows1 is fit for human habitation4 ,in damp and darkness1 lies in wait almost every disease to which flesh is heir4 ,the sun is their only successful foe4 7,see p4 #ccf47 ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,brain4--,after having seen the beautiful contrivances and the exquisite delicacy of the lower organs1 it is natural to suppose that when we come to the brain we should find the most elaborate machinery4 ,how surprising1 then1 it is to have revealed to us only cells and fibers6 ,the brain is the least solid and most unsubstantial looking organ in the body4 ,eighty per cent of water1 seven of albumen1 some fat1 and a few minor substances constitute the instrument which rules the world4 ,strangest of all1 the brain1 which is the seat of sensation1 is itself without sensation4 ,every nerve1 every part of the spinal cord1 is keenly alive to the slightest touch1 yet the brain may be cut1 burned1 or electrified without producing pain4 ,,alcoholic ,,drinks ,,and ,,narcotics4 ,,alcohol 7,continued from p4 #ahg74 ,,effect ,,upon ,,the ,,nervous ,,system4--,in the progressive influence of alcohol upon the nervous system1 there are1 according to the researches of ,dr4 ,richardson1 four successive stages4 #a4 ,,the ,,stage ,,of ,,excitement4 ,footnote3 ,the pupil should be careful to note here that alcohol does not act upon the heart directly1 and cause it to contract with more force4 ,the idea that alcohol gives energy and activity to the muscles is entirely false4 ,it really1 as we have seen 7p4 #ahc71 weakens muscular contraction4 ,the enfeeblement begins in the first stage1 and continues in the other stages with increased effect4 ,the heart beats quickly merely because the resistance of the minute controlling vessels is taken off1 and it works without being under proper regulation4 ,what is called a stimulation or excitement is1 in absolute fact1 a relaxation1 a partial paralysis of one of the most important mechanisms in the animal body4 ,alcohol should be ranked among the narcotics4--,,richardson4-- ,the first effect of alcohol1 as we have already described on page #add1 is to paralyze the nerves that lead to the extreme and minute blood vessels1 and so regulate the passage of the blood through the capillary system4 ,the vital force1 thus drawn into the nervous centers1 drives the machinery of life with tremendous energy4 ,the heart jumps like the mainspring of a watch when the resistance of the wheels is removed4 ,the blood surges through the body with increased force4 ,every capillary tube in the system is swollen and flushed1 like the reddened nose and cheek4 ,in all this there is exhilaration1 but no nourishment2 there is animation1 but no permanent power conferred on brain or muscle4 ,alcohol may cheer for the moment4 ,it may set the sluggish blood in motion1 start the flow of thought1 and excite a temporary gayety4 ,it may enable a wearied or feeble organism to do brisk work for a short time4 ,it may make the brain briefly brilliant4 ,it may excite muscle to quick action1 but it does nothing at its own cost1 fills up nothing it has destroyed1 and itself leads to destruction4 ,even the mental activity it has excited is an unsafe state of mind1 for that just poise of the faculties so essential to good judgment is disturbed by the presence of the intruder4 ,johnson well remarked1 ,wine improves conversation by taking the edge off the understanding4 #b4 ,,the ,,stage ,,of ,,muscular ,,weakness4--,if the action of the alcohol be still continued1 the spinal cord is next affected by this powerful narcotic4 ,the control of some of the muscles is lost4 ,those of the lower lip usually fail first1 then those of the lower limbs1 and the staggering1 uncertain steps betray the result4 ,the muscles themselves1 also1 become feebler as the power of contraction diminishes4 ,the temperature1 which1 for a time1 was slightly increased1 soon begins to fall as the heat is radiated2 the body is cooled1 and the well-known alcoholic chill is felt4 #c4 ,,the ,,stage ,,of ,,mental ,,weakness4--,the cerebrum is now implicated4 ,the ideal and emotional faculties are quickened1 while the will is weakened4 ,the center of thought being overpowered1 the mind is a chaos4 ,ideas flock in thick and fast4 ,the tongue is loosened4 ,the judgment loses its hold on the acts4 ,the reason giving way1 the animal instincts generally assume the mastery of the man4 ,the hidden nature comes to the surface4 ,all the gloss of education and social restraint falls off1 and the lower nature stands revealed4 ,the coward shows himself more craven1 the braggart more boastful1 the bold more daring1 and the cruel more brutal4 ,the inebriate is liable to become the perpetrator of any outrage that the slightest provocation may suggest4 #d4 ,,the ,,stage ,,of ,,unconsciousness4--,at last1 prostration ensues1 and the wild1 mad revel of the drunkard ends with utter senselessness4 ,in common speech1 the man is dead drunk4 ,brain and spinal cord are both benumbed4 ,fortunately1 the two nervous centers which supply the heart and the diaphragm are the slowest to be influenced4 ,so1 even in this final stage1 the breathing and the circulation still go on1 though the other organs have stopped4 ,were it not for this1 every person thoroughly intoxicated would die4 ,footnote3 ,cold has a wonderful influence in hastening this stage1 so that a person1 previously only in the first stage of excitement1 on going outdoors on a winter night1 may rapidly sink into a lethargy 7become comatose71 fall1 and die4 ,he is then commonly said to have perished with cold4 ,the signs of this coma are of great practical importance1 since so many persons die in police stations and elsewhere who are really comatose1 when they are supposed to be only sound asleep4 ,the pulse is slow1 and almost imperceptible4 ,the face is pale1 and the skin cold4 ,if the arm be pinched1 it is not moved2 if the eyeballs are touched1 the lids will not sink4 ,the respiration becomes slower and slower1 and1 if the person dies1 it is because liquid collects in the bronchial tubes1 and stops the passage of the air4 ,the man then actually drowns in his own secretions4 ,,effect ,,upon ,,the ,,brain4--,alcohol seems to have a special affinity for the brain4 ,this organ absorbs more than any other1 and its delicate structure is correspondingly affected4 ,the ,vascular enlargement here reaches its height4 ,the tiny vessels become clogged with blood that is unfitted to nourish1 because loaded with carbonic acid1 and deprived of the usual quantity of the life-giving oxygen4--,,hinton4 ,the brain is1 in the language of the physiologist1 malfunctioned4 ,the mind but slowly rallies from the stupor of the fourth stage1 and a sense of dullness and depression remains to show with what difficulty the fatigued organ recovers its normal condition4 ,so marked is the effect of the narcotic poison1 that some authorities hold that a once thoroughly intoxicated brain never fully becomes what it was before4 ,in time1 the free use of liquor hardens and thickens the membrane enveloping the nervous matter2 the nerve corpuscles undergo a ,fatty degeneration2 the blood vessels lose their elasticity2 and the vital fluid1 flowing less freely through the obstructed channels1 fails to afford the old-time nourishment4 ,the consequent deterioration of the nervous substance--the organ of thought--shows itself in the weakened mind ,footnote3 ,the habitual use of fermented liquors1 even to an extent far short of what is necessary to produce intoxication1 injures the body1 and diminishes the mental power4--,sir ,henry ,thompson4 that we so often notice in a person accustomed to drink1 and at last lays the foundation of various nervous disorders--epilepsy1 paralysis1 and insanity4 ,footnote3 ,casper1 the great statistician of ,berlin1 says3 ,so far as that city is concerned1 one third of the insane coming from the poorer classes1 were made so by spirit drinking4 ,the law of heredity here again asserts itself1 and the inebriate's children often inherit the disease which he has escaped4 ,chief among the consequences of this perverted and imperfect nutrition of the brain is that intermediate state between intoxication and insanity1 well known as ,delirium ,tremens4 ,it is characterized by a low1 restless activity of the cerebrum1 manifesting itself in muttering delirium1 with occasional paroxysms of greater violence4 ,the victim almost always apprehends some direful calamity2 he imagines his bed to be covered with loathsome reptiles2 he sees the walls of his apartment crowded with foul specters2 and he imagines his friends and attendants to be fiends come to drag him down to a fiery abyss beneath4--,,carpenter4 7,see p4 #bhg47 ,,influence ,,upon ,,the ,,mental ,,and ,,moral ,,powers4--,so intimate is the relation between the body and the mind1 that an injury to one harms the other4 ,the effect of alcoholized blood is to weaken the will4 ,the one habitually under its influence often shocks us by his indecision and his readiness to break a promise to reform4 ,the truth is1 he has lost1 in a measure1 his power of self-control4 ,at last1 he becomes physically unable to resist the craving demand of his morbid appetite4 ,other faculties share in this mental wreck4 ,the intellectual vision becomes less penetrating1 the decisions of the mind less reliable1 and the grasp of thought less vigorous4 ,the logic grows muddy4 ,a thriftless1 reckless feeling is developed4 ,ere long1 self-respect is lost1 and then ambition ceases to allure1 and the high spirit sinks4 ,along with this mental deterioration comes also a failure of the moral sense4 ,the fine fiber of character undergoes a degeneration as certain as that of the muscles themselves4 ,broken promises tell of a lowered standard of veracity1 and a dulled sense of honor1 quite as much as of an impaired will4 ,under the subtle influence of the ever-present poison1 signs of spiritual weakness multiply fast4 ,conscience is lulled to rest4 ,reason is enfeebled4 ,customary restraints are easily thrown off4 ,the sensibilities are blunted4 ,there is less ability to appreciate nice shades of right and wrong4 ,great moral principles and motives lose their power to influence4 ,the judgment fools with duty4 ,the future no longer reaches back its hand to guide the present4 ,the better nature has lost its supremacy4 ,the wretched victim of appetite will now gratify his tyrannical passion for drink at any expense of deceit or crime4 ,he becomes the blind instrument of his insane impulses1 and commits acts from which he would once have shrunk with horror4 ,footnote3 ,richardson sums up the various diseases caused by alcohol1 as follows3 7a74 ,diseases of the brain and nervous system1 indicated by such names as apoplexy1 epilepsy1 paralysis1 vertigo1 softening of the brain1 delirium tremens1 dipsomania or inordinate craving for drink1 loss of memory1 and that general failure of the mental power1 called dementia4 7b74 ,diseases of the lungs3 one form of consumption1 congestion1 and subsequent bronchitis4 7c74 ,diseases of the heart3 irregular beat1 feebleness of the muscular walls1 dilatation1 disease of the valves4 7d74 ,diseases of the blood3 scurvy1 excess of water or dropsy1 separation of fibrin4 7e74 ,diseases of the stomach3 feebleness of the stomach1 indigestion1 flatulency1 irritation1 and sometimes inflammation4 7f74 ,diseases of the bowels3 relaxation or purging1 irritation4 7g74 ,diseases of the liver3 congestion1 hardening and shrinking1 cirrhosis4 7h74 ,diseases of the kidneys3 change of structure into fatty or waxy-like condition and other results leading to dropsy1 or sometimes to fatal sleep4 7i74 ,diseases of the muscles3 fatty change in the muscles1 by which they lose their power for proper active contraction4 7j74 ,diseases of the membranes of the body3 thickening and loss of elasticity1 by which the parts wrapped up in the membrane are impaired for use1 and premature decay is induced4 ,sometimes he even takes a malignant pleasure in injuring those whom ,nature has ordained he should protect4 ,footnote3 ,it has been argued that a man should not be punished for any crime he may commit during intoxication1 but rather for knowingly giving up the reins of reason and conscience1 and thus subjecting himself to the rule of his evil passions4 ,voluntarily to stimulate the mind and put it into a condition where it may drive one to ruin1 is very like the act of an engineer who should get up steam in his engine1 and then1 having opened the valves1 desert his post1 and let the monster go thundering down the track to sure destruction4 ,certain persons are thrown into the stage of mental weakness by a single glass of liquor4 ,how can they be excused when the fact of their peculiar liability lends additional force to the argument of abstemiousness1 and they know that their only safety lies in total abstinence8--,,carpenter',s ,physiology4 #b4 ,,tobacco4 ,the ,constituents of ,tobacco ,smoke are numerous1 but the prominent ones are carbonic-acid1 carbonic-oxide1 and ammonia gases2 carbon1 or soot2 and nicotine4 ,the proportion of these substances varies with different kinds of tobacco1 the pipe used1 and the rapidity of the combustion4 ,carbonic acid tends to produce sleepiness and headache4 ,carbonic oxide1 in addition1 causes a tremulous movement of the muscles1 and so of the heart4 ,ammonia bites the tongue of the smoker1 excites the salivary glands1 and causes dryness of the mouth and throat4 ,nicotine is a powerful poison4 ,the amount contained in one or two strong cigars1 if thrown directly into the blood1 would cause death4 ,nicotine itself is complex1 yielding a volatile substance that gives the odor to the breath and clothing2 and also a bitter extract which produces the sickening taste of an old pipe4 ,in smoking1 some of the nicotine is decomposed1 forming pyridine1 picoline1 and other poisonous alkaloids4 ,footnote3 ,the analysis of tobacco as given by different authorities varies greatly4 ,the one stated in the text suffices for the purposes of this chapter4 ,von ,eulenberg names several other products of the combustion4 ,one hundred pounds of the dry leaf may yield as high as seven pounds of nicotine4 ,havana tobacco contains about two per cent1 and ,virginia about six per cent4--,see ,,johnston ,,church',s ,chemistry of ,common ,life1 and ,,miller',s ,organic ,chemistry4 ,,physiological ,,effects4--,the poison of tobacco1 set free by the process either of chewing or smoking1 when for the first time it is swept through the system by the blood1 powerfully affects the body4 ,nausea is felt1 and the stomach seeks to throw off the offending substance4 ,the brain is inflamed1 and headache follows4 ,the motor nerves becoming irritated1 giddiness ensues4 ,thus ,nature earnestly protests against the formation of this habit4 ,but1 after repeated trials1 the system adjusts itself to the new conditions4 ,a tolerance of the poison is finally established1 and smoking causes none of the former symptoms4 ,such powerful substances can not1 however1 be constantly inhaled without producing marked changes4 ,the three great eliminating organs--the lungs1 the skin1 and the kidneys-- throw off a large part of the products1 but much remains in the system4 ,when the presence of the poison is constant1 and especially when the smoking or chewing is excessive1 the disturbance that at first is merely functional1 must necessarily1 in many cases at least1 lead to a chronic derangement4 ,probably in this1 as in the case of other deleterious articles of diet1 the strong and healthy will seem to escape entirely1 while the weak and those predisposed to disease will be injured in direct proportion to the extent of the indulgence4 ,those whose employment leads to active1 outdoor work1 will show no sign of nicotine poisoning1 while the man of sedentary habits will sooner or later be the victim of dyspepsia1 sleeplessness1 nervousness1 paralysis1 or other organic difficulties4 ,even where the user of tobacco himself escapes harm1 the law of heredity asserts itself1 and the innocent offspring only too often inherit an impaired constitution1 and a tendency to nervous complaints4 ,,the ,,various ,,disturbances produced in different individuals and constitutions by smoking have been summed up by ,dr4 ,richardson as follows3 7a7 ,in the blood1 it causes undue fluidity1 and change in the red corpuscles2 7b7 in the stomach1 it gives rise to debility1 nausea1 and vomiting2 7c7 in the mucous membrane of the mouth1 it produces enlargement and soreness of the tonsils--smoker's sore throat--redness1 dryness1 and occasional peeling of the membrane1 and either unnatural firmness and contraction1 or sponginess of the gums2 and1 where the pipe rests on the lips1 oftentimes 'epithelial cancer'2 7d7 in the heart1 it causes debility of the organ1 and irregular action2 7e7 in the bronchial surface of the lungs1 when that is already irritable1 it sustains irritation1 and increases the cough2 7f7 in the organs of sense1 it produces dilation of the pupils of the eye1 confusion of vision1 bright lines1 luminous or cobweb specks1 and long retention of images on the retina1 with analogous symptoms affecting the ear1 viz41 inability to define sounds clearly1 and the occurrence of a sharp1 ringing noise like a whistle2 7g7 in the brain1 it impairs the activity of the organ1 oppressing it if it be nourished1 but soothing it if it be exhausted2 7h7 it leads to paralysis in the motor and sympathetic nerves1 and to over-secretion from the glands which the sympathetic nerves control4 ,,is ,,tobacco ,a ,,food8--,here1 as in the case of alcohol1 the reply is a negative one4 ,tobacco manifests no characteristic of a food4 ,it can not impart to the blood an atom of nutritive matter for building up the body4 ,it does not add to1 but rather subtracts from1 the total vital force4 ,it confers no potential power upon muscle or brain4 ,it stimulates by cutting off the nervous supply from the extremities and concentrating it upon the centers4 ,but stimulation is not nourishment2 it is only a rapid spending of the capital stock4 ,there is no greater error than to mistake the exciting of an organ for its strengthening4 ,,the ,,influence ,,upon ,,youth4--,here1 too1 science utters no doubtful voice4 ,experience asserts only one conviction4 ,tobacco retards the development of mind and body4 ,footnote3 ,cigarettes are especially injurious from the irritating smoke of the paper covering1 taken into the lungs1 and also because the poison fumes of the tobacco are more directly inhaled4 ,in case of the cheap cigarettes often smoked by boys the ingredients used are harmful1 while one revolts at the thought of the filthy materials1 refuse cigar stumps1 etc41 employed in their manufacture4 ,the law of nature is that of steady growth4 ,it can not admit of a daily1 even though it be merely a functional1 disturbance that weakens the digestion1 that causes the heart to labor excessively1 that prevents the perfect oxidation of the blood1 that interferes with the assimilation1 and that deranges the nervous system4 ,footnote3 ,there is one influence of tobacco that every young man should understand4 ,in many cases1 like alcohol1 it seems to blunt the sensibilities1 and to make its user careless of the rights and feelings of others4 ,this is often noticed in common life4 ,we meet everywhere devotees of the weed1 who1 ignoring the fact that tobacco is disagreeable to many persons1 think only of the gratification of their selfish appetite4 ,they smoke or chew in any place or company4 ,they permit the cigar fumes to blow into the faces of passers-by4 ,they sit where the wind carries the smoke of their pipes so that others must inhale it4 ,they expectorate upon the floor of cars1 hotels1 and even private homes4 ,they take no pains to remove the odor that lingers about their person and clothing4 ,they force all who happen to be near1 their companions1 their fellow-travelers1 to inhale the nauseating odor of tobacco4 ,everything must be sacrificed to the one primal necessity of such persons--a smoke4 ,now1 a young man just beginning life1 with his fortune to make1 and his success to achieve1 can not afford to burden himself with a habit that is costly1 that will make his presence offensive to many persons1 and that may perhaps render him less sensitive to the best influences and perceptions of manhood4 ,no one has a right thus to check and disturb continually the regular processes of his physical and mental progress4 ,hence1 the young man 7especially if he be of a nervous1 sensitive organization7 who uses tobacco deliberately diminishes the possible energy with which he might commence the work of life2 ,footnote3 ,in the ,polytechnic ,school at ,paris1 the pupils were divided into two classes--the smokers1 and the non-smokers4 ,the latter not only excelled on the entrance examinations1 but during the entire course of study4 ,dr4 ,decaisne examined thirty-eight boys who smoked1 and found twenty-seven of them diseased from nicotine poisoning4 ,so long ago as #ahfh1 in consequence of these results1 the ,minister of ,public ,instruction forbade the use of tobacco by the pupils4 ,dr4 ,gihon1 medical director of the ,naval ,academy at ,annapolis1 in his report for #ahha1 says3 ,the most important matter in the health history of the students is that relating to tobacco1 and its interdiction is absolutely essential to their future health and usefulness4 ,in this view ,i have been sustained by my colleagues1 and by all sanitarians in civil and military life whose views ,i have been able to obtain4 while he comes under the bondage of a habit that may become stronger than his will1 and under the influence of a narcotic that may beguile his faculties and palsy his strength at the very moment when every power should be awake4 ,another peril still lies in the wake of this masterful poison habit4 ,tobacco causes thirst and depression that only too often and naturally lead to the use of liquor4 7,see p4 #cch47 #c4 ,,opium4 ,opium is the dried juice of the poppy4 ,in ,eastern countries1 this flower is cultivated in immense fields for the sake of this product4 ,when a cut is made in the poppy head1 a tiny tear of milky juice exudes1 and hardens4 ,these little drops are gathered and prepared for the market1 an acre yielding1 it is said1 about twenty-five pounds4 ,throughout the ,east1 opium is generally smoked2 but in ,western countries laudanum and paregoric 7tinctures of opium71 and morphine--a powerful alkaloid contained in opium1 are generally used4 ,the drug itself is also eaten4 ,,physiological ,,effect4--,opium1 in its various forms1 acts directly upon the nerves1 a small dose quieting pain1 and a larger one soothing to sleep4 ,it arouses the brain1 and fires the imagination to a wonderful pitch4 ,footnote3 ,so far as its effects are concerned1 it matters little in what form opium is taken1 whether solid as in pills1 liquid as in laudanum1 or vaporized1 as when inhaled from a pipe4 ,the opium slave is characterized by trembling steps1 a curved spine1 sunken glassy eyes1 sallow withered features1 and often by contraction of the muscles of the neck and fingers4 ,in the ,east1 when the drug ceases its influence1 the opium eater renews it with corrosive sublimate till1 finally1 this also fails of effect1 and he gradually sinks into the grave4 ,the reaction from this unnatural excitant is correspondingly depressing2 and the melancholy1 the overwhelming horror that ensues1 calls for a renewal of the stimulus4 ,the dose must be gradually increased to produce the original exhilaration4 ,footnote3 ,the victim of opium is bound to a drug from which he derives no benefits1 but which slowly deprives him of health and happiness1 finally to end in idiocy or premature death4 ,whatever the victim's condition or surroundings may be1 the opium must be taken at certain times with inexorable regularity4 ,the liquor or tobacco user can1 for a time1 go without the use of these agents1 and no regular hours are necessary4 ,during sickness1 and more especially during the eruptive fevers1 he does not desire tobacco or liquor4 ,the opium eater has no such reprieves2 his dose must be taken1 and1 in painful complications affecting the stomach1 a large increase is demanded to sustain the system4 ,if1 in forming the habit1 two doses are taken each day1 the victim is obliged to maintain that number4 ,it is the unceasing1 everlasting slavery of regularity that humiliates opium eaters by a sense of their own weakness4--,,hubbard on ,the ,opium ,habit and ,alcoholism4 ,the seductive nature of the drug leads the unfortunate victim on step by step until he finds himself fast bound in the fetters of one of the most tyrannical habits known to man4 ,to go on is to wreck all one's powers--physical and mental4 ,to throw off the habit1 requires a determination that but few possess4 ,yet even when the custom is broken1 the system is long in recovering from the shock4 ,there seems to be a failure of every organ4 ,the digestion is weakened1 food is no longer relished1 the muscles waste1 the skin shrivels1 the nervous centers are paralyzed1 and a premature old age comes on apace4 ,de ,quincey1 four months after he had cast away the opium bonds1 wrote1 ,think of me as one still agitated1 writhing1 throbbing1 palpitating1 shattered4 ,no person can be too careful in the use of laudanum1 paregoric1 and morphine4 ,they may be taken on a physician's prescription as a sedative from racking pain1 ,footnote3 ,many persons learn to inject morphine beneath the skin by means of a hypodermic syringe4 ,the operation is painless1 and seems an innocent one4 ,it throws the narcotic directly into the circulation1 and relief from pain is often almost instantaneous4 ,but the danger of forming the opium habit is not lessened1 and the effect of using the drug in this form for a long time is just as injurious as opium smoking itself4 ,opium in one of its forms enters largely into the composition of many of the painkillers and patent medicines so freely advertised for domestic use in the present day1 and for this reason the greatest care is needed in having recourse to any of them4 ,taken1 perhaps1 in the first instance1 to alleviate the torments of neuralgia or toothache1 what proves to be a remedy soon becomes a source of gratification1 which the wretchedness that follows on abstinence renders increasingly difficult to lay aside4 ,the same must be said of bromide of potassium and hydrate of chloral1 frequently resorted to as a remedy for sleeplessness3 the system quickly becomes habituated to their use1 and they can then be relinquished only at the cost of much suffering4 ,indeed1 the last mentioned of these two drugs obtains over the mind a power which may be compared to that of opium1 and is1 moreover1 liable to occasion the disease known as chloralism1 by which the system ultimately becomes a complete wreck4 ,looking at the whole question of the medicinal use of narcotics1 it is perhaps not too much to say that they should never be employed except with the authority of a competent medical adviser4-- ,chambers's ,journal4 but if followed up for any length of time1 the powerful habit may be formed ere one is aware4 ,then comes the opium eater's grave1 or the opium eater's struggle for life6 #d4 ,,chloral ,,hydrate4 ,,chloral ,,hydrate is a drug frequently used to cause sleep4 ,it leaves behind no headache or lassitude1 as is often the case with morphine4 ,it is1 however1 a treacherous remedy4 ,it is cumulative in its effects1 i4 e41 even a small and harmless dose1 persisted in for a long period1 may produce a gradual accumulation of evil results that in the end will prove fatal4 ,,the ,,physiological ,,effect of its prolonged use is very marked4 ,the appetite becomes capricious4 ,the secretions are unnatural4 ,nausea and flatulency often ensue4 ,then the nervous system is involved4 ,the heart is affected4 ,sleep1 instead of responding to the drug1 as at first1 is broken and disturbed4 ,the eyesight fails4 ,the circulation is enfeebled1 and the pulse becomes weak1 rapid1 and irregular4 ,there is a tendency to fainting and to difficult respiration4 ,sometimes the impoverished blood induces a disease resembling scurvy1 the ends of the fingers ulcerate1 and the face is disfigured by blotches4 ,an excessive dose may result in death4 ,prolonged habitual use of chloral hydrate tends to debase the mind and morals of the subject in the same manner as indulgence in alcohol1 ether1 or chloroform4 #e4 ,,chloroform4 ,,chloroform is an artificial product generally obtained1 by distillation1 from a mixture of chloride of lime1 water1 and alcohol4 ,it was discovered in #ahca by ,samuel ,guthrie1 of ,sackett's ,harbor1 ,new ,york4 ,it is a colorless1 transparent volatile liquid1 with a strong ethereal odor4 ,,physiological ,,effect4--,chloroform is a powerful ansthetic1 which1 when inhaled1 causes a temporary paralysis of the nervous system1 and thus a complete insensibility to pain4 ,there is great peril attending its use1 even in the hands of the most skillful and experienced practitioners4 ,it is sometimes prescribed by a physician1 and afterward 7as in the case of laudanum1 morphine1 and chloral7 the sufferer1 charmed with the release from pain and the peaceful slumber secured1 buys the ,lethean liquid for himself4 ,its use soon becomes an apparent necessity4 ,the craving for the narcotic at a stated time is almost irresistible4 ,the patient1 compelled to give up the use of chloroform1 will demand1 entreat1 pray for another dose1 in a heartrending manner1 never to be forgotten4 ,paleness and debility1 the earliest symptoms1 are followed by mental prostration4 ,familiarity with this dangerous drug begets carelessness1 and its victims are frequently found dead in their beds1 with the handkerchief from which they inhaled the volatile poison clutched in their lifeless hands4 #f4 ,,cocaine4 ,cocaine is an alkaloid prepared from the erythroxylon coca1 a shrub1 five or six feet high1 found wild in the mountainous regions of ,ecuador and ,peru1 where it is also cultivated by the natives4 ,the ,south ,american ,indians1 for centuries1 have chewed coca leaves as a stimulant1 but the highly poisonous principle1 now called cocaine1 to which the plant owes its peculiar effects1 was not discovered till #ahei4 ,within a few years this drug has come into favor as an agent to produce local ansthesia1 and has proved exceedingly valuable in surgical operations upon the eye and other sensitive organs4 ,it has already1 however1 been diverted from its legitimate use as a benefaction1 and to the other evils of the day is now added the cocaine habit1 which is1 perhaps1 even more dangerous and difficult to abandon than either the alcohol or the opium habit4 ,,physiological ,,effect4--,applied locally1 cocaine greatly lessens and even annihilates pain4 ,taken internally1 it acts as a powerful stimulant to the nervous system1 its physiological action being similar to that of theine 7p4 #agj71 caffeine1 and theobromine4 ,used hypodermically1 its immediate effect1 says one to whom it was thus administered1 is to cause great pallor of countenance1 profuse frontal perspiration1 sunken eyes1 enlarged pupils1 lessened sensitiveness of the cornea and conjunctiva1 lowered arterial tension1 and a feeble pulse and heart beat4 ,under its influence ,i could not reason4 ,everything seemed to run through my brain1 and in vain ,i summoned all my will power to overcome an overwhelming sleepiness4 ,a few doses of this drug will in some persons produce temporary insanity4 ,used to excess1 it leads to permanent madness or idiocy4 ,cocaine1 says a writer in the ,medical ,review1 is a dangerous therapeutic toy not to be used as a sensational plaything4 ,if it should come into as general use as the other intoxicants of its class1 it will help to fill the asylums1 inebriate and insane4 ,,practical ,,questions4 #a4 ,why is the pain of incipient hip disease frequently felt in the knee8 #b4 ,why does a child require more sleep than an aged person8 #c4 ,when you put your finger in the palm of a sleeping child1 why will he grasp it8 #d4 ,how may we strengthen the brain8 #e4 ,what is the object of pain8 #f4 ,why will a blow on the stomach sometimes stop the heart8 #g4 ,how long will it take for the brain of a man six feet high to receive news of an injury to his foot1 and to reply8 #h4 ,how can we grow beautiful8 #i4 ,why do intestinal worms sometimes affect a child's sight8 #aj4 ,is there any indication of character in physiognomy8 #aa4 ,when one's finger is burned1 where is the ache8 #ab4 ,is a generally closed parlor a healthful room8 #ac4 ,why can an idle scholar read his lesson and at the same time count the marbles in his pocket8 #ad4 ,in amputating a limb1 what part1 when divided1 will cause the keenest pain8 #ae4 ,what is the effect of bad air on nervous people8 #af4 ,is there any truth in the proverb that he who sleeps dines8 #ag4 ,what does a high1 wide forehead indicate8 #ah4 ,how does indigestion frequently cause a headache8 #ai4 ,what is the cause of one's foot being asleep8 ,footnote3 ,here the nervous force is prevented from passing by compression4 ,just how this is done1 or what is kept from passing1 we can not tell4 ,if a current of electricity were moving through a rubber tube full of mercury1 a slight squeeze would interrupt it4 ,these cases may depend on the same general principle1 but we can not assert it4--,,huxley4 ,the tingling sensation caused by the compression is transferred to the foot1 whence the nerve starts4 #bj4 ,when an injury to the nose has been remedied by transplanting skin from the forehead1 why is a touch to the former felt in the latter8 #ba4 ,are closely curtained windows healthful8 #bb4 ,why1 in falling from a height1 do the limbs instinctively take a position to defend the important organs8 #bc4 ,what causes the pylorus to open and close at the right time8 #bd4 ,why is pleasant exercise most beneficial8 #be4 ,why does grief cause one to lose his appetite8 #bf4 ,why should we never study directly after dinner8 #bg4 ,what produces the peristaltic movement of the stomach8 #bh4 ,why is a healthy child so restless and full of mischief8 #bi4 ,why is a slight blow on the back of a rabbit's neck fatal8 #cj4 ,why can one walk and carry on a conversation at the same time8 #ca4 ,what are the dangers of overstudy8 #cb4 ,what is the influence of idleness upon the brain8 #cc4 ,state the close relation which exists between physical and mental health and disease4 #cd4 ,in what consists the value of the power of habit8 #ce4 ,how many pairs of nerves supply the eye8 #cf4 ,describe the reflex actions in reading aloud4 #cg4 ,under what circumstances does paralysis occur8 #ch4 ,if the eyelids of a profound sleeper were raised1 and a candle brought near1 would the iris contract8 #ci4 ,how does one cough in his sleep8 #dj4 ,give illustrations of the unconscious action of the brain4 #da4 ,is chewing tobacco more injurious than smoking8 #db4 ,ought a man to retire from business while his faculties are still unimpaired8 #dc4 ,which is the more exhaustive to the brain1 worry or severe mental application8 #dd4 ,is it a blessing to be placed beyond the necessity for work8 #de4 ,show how anger1 hate1 and the other degrading passions are destructive to the brain4 ,footnote3 ,one of the surest means for keeping the body and mind in perfect health consists in learning to hold the passions in subservience to the reasoning faculties4 ,this rule applies to every passion4 ,man1 distinguished from all other animals by the peculiarity that his reason is placed above his passions to be the director of his will1 can protect himself from every mere animal degradation resulting from passionate excitement4 ,the education of the man should be directed not to suppress such passions as are ennobling1 but to bring all under governance1 and specially to subdue those most destructive passions1 anger1 hate1 and fear4 #df4 ,are not amusements1 to repair the waste of the nervous energy1 especially needed by persons whose life is one of care and toil8 #dg4 ,is not severe mental labor incompatible with a rapidly growing body8 #dh4 ,how shall we induce the system to perform all its functions regularly #di4 ,how does alcohol interfere with the action of the nerves8 #ej4 ,what is the general effect of alcohol upon the character8 #ea4 ,does alcohol tend to produce clearness and vigor of thought8 #eb4 ,what is the general effect of alcohol on the muscles8 #ec4 ,does alcohol have any effect on the bones8 ,the skin8 #ed4 ,what is the cause of the alcoholic chill8 #ee4 ,show how alcohol tends to develop man's lower1 rather than his higher1 nature4 #ef4 ,when we wish really to strengthen the brain1 should we use alcohol8 #eg4 ,why is alcohol used to preserve anatomical specimens8 #eh4 ,what is meant by an inherited taste for liquor8 #ei4 ,ought a person to be punished for a crime committed during intoxication8 #fj4 ,should a boy ever smoke8 #fa4 ,to what extent are we responsible for the health of our body8 #fb4 ,why does alcohol tend to collect in the brain8 #fc4 ,does the use of alcohol tend to increase crime and poverty8 ,,viii4 ,,the ,,special ,,senses4 ,see how yon beam of seeming white ,is braided1 out of seven-hued light2 ,yet in those lucid globes no ray ,by any chance shall break astray4 ,hark1 how the rolling surge of sound1 ,arches and spirals circling round1 ,wakes the hush'd spirit through thine ear ,with music it is heaven to hear4 ,,holmes4 ,let us remember that if we get a glimpse of the details of natural phenomena1 and of those movements which constitute life1 it is not in considering them as a whole1 but in analyzing them as far as our limited means will permit4 ,in the vibrations of the globe of air which surrounds our planet1 as in the undulations of the ether which fills the immensity of space1 it is always by molecules which are intangible for us1 put in motion by nature1 always by the infinitely little1 that she acts in exciting the organs of sense1 and she has modeled these organs in a proportion which enables them to partake in the movement which she impresses upon the universe4 ,she can paint with equal facility on a fraction of a line of space on the retina1 the grandest landscape or the nervelets of a rose leaf2 the celestial vault on which ,sirius is but a luminous point1 or the sparkling dust of a butterfly's wing2 the roar of the tempest1 the roll of thunder1 the echo of an avalanche1 find equal place in the labyrinth whose almost imperceptible cavities seem destined to receive only the most delicate sounds4 #a4 ,,the ,,touch444 #a4 ,description of the ,organ4 #b4 ,its ,uses4 #b4 ,,the ,,taste444 #a4 ,description of the ,organ4 #b4 ,its ,uses4 #c4 ,,the ,,smell444 #a4 ,description of the ,organ4 #b4 ,its ,uses4 #a4 ,description of the a4 ,external ,ear4 ,organ444444444444444 b4 ,middle ,ear4 #d4 ,,the ,,hearing4 c4 ,internal ,ear4 #b4 ,how we ,hear #c4 ,hygiene of the ,ear4 #a4 ,description of the ,organ4 #b4 ,eyelids1 and ,tears4 #c4 ,structure of the ,retina4 #e4 ,,the ,,sight444 #d4 ,how we see4 #e4 ,the ,use of the ,crystalline ,lens4 #f4 ,near and ,far ,sight4 #g4 ,color ,blindness4 #h4 ,hygiene of the ,eyes4 ,,the ,,special ,,senses #a4 ,,touch4 ,,description4--,touch is sometimes called the common sense1 since its nerves are spread over the whole body4 ,it is most delicate1 however1 in the point of the tongue and the tips of the fingers4 ,the surface of the cutis is covered with minute1 conical projections called papill 7,fig4 #bd74 ,footnote3 ,in the palm of the hand1 where there are at least twelve thousand in a square inch1 we can see the fine ridges along which they are arranged4 ,each one of these papill contains its tiny nerve twigs1 which receive the impression and transmit it to the brain1 where the perception is produced4 ,,uses4--,touch is the first of the senses used by a child4 ,by it we obtain our idea of solidity1 and throughout life rectify all other sensations4 ,thus1 when we see anything curious1 our first desire is to handle it4 ,the sensation of touch is generally relied upon1 yet1 if we hold a marble in the manner shown in ,fig4 #eg1 it will seem like two marbles2 and if we touch the fingers thus crossed to our tongue1 we shall seem to feel two tongues4 ,again1 if we close our eyes and let another person move one of our fingers over a plane surface1 first lightly1 then with greater pressure1 and then lightly again1 we shall think the surface concave4 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,illustration3 ,this organ is capable of wonderful cultivation4 ,the physician acquires by practice the tactus eruditus1 or learned touch1 which is often of great service1 while the delicacy of touch possessed by the blind almost compensates the loss of the absent sense4 ,footnote3 ,the sympathy between the different organs shows how they all combine to make a home for the mind4 ,when one sense fails1 the others endeavor to remedy the defect4 ,it is touching to see how the blind man gets along without eyes1 and the deaf without ears4 ,cuthbert1 though blind1 was the most efficient polisher of telescopic mirrors in ,london4 ,saunderson1 the successor of ,newton as professor of mathematics at ,cambridge1 could distinguish between real and spurious medals4 ,there is an instance recorded of a blind man who could recognize colors4 ,the author knew one who could tell when he was approaching a tree1 by what he described as the different feeling of the air4 7,see p4 #cdf47 #b4 ,,taste4 ,,description4--,this sense is located in the papill of the tongue and palate4 ,these papilla start up when tasting1 as you can see by placing a drop of vinegar on another person's tongue1 or your own before a mirror4 ,the velvety look of this organ is given by hair-like projections of the cuticle upon some of the papill4 ,they absorb the liquid to be tasted1 and convey it to the nerves4 ,footnote3 ,an insoluble substance is therefore tasteless4 ,the back of the tongue is most sensitive to salt and bitter substances1 and1 as this part is supplied by the ninth pair of nerves 7,fig4 #ef71 in sympathy with the stomach1 such flavors1 by sympathy1 often produce vomiting4 ,the edges of the tongue are most sensitive to sweet and sour substances1 and as this part is supplied by the fifth pair of nerves1 which also goes to the face1 an acid1 by sympathy1 distorts the countenance4 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,illustration3 ,the ,tongue1 showing the several kinds of ,papill--the conical 7,d7 the whip like 7,k1 ,i71 the circumvallate or entrenched 7,h1 ,l72 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 nerves2 ,c1 glottis4--,,lankester4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,taste was originally to guide in the selection of food2 but this sense has become so depraved by condiments and the force of habit that it would be a difficult task to tell what are one's natural tastes4 #c4 ,,smell4 ,footnote3 ,the sense of smell is so intimately connected with that of taste that we often fail to distinguish between them4 ,garlic1 vanilla1 coffee and various spices1 which seem to have such distinct taste1 have really a powerful odor1 but a feeble flavor4 ,,description4--,the nose1 the seat of the sense of smell1 is composed of cartilage covered with muscles and skin1 and joined to the skull by small bones4 ,the nostrils open at the back into the pharynx1 and are lined by a continuation of the mucous membrane of the throat4 ,the olfactory nerves 7first pair1 ,fig4 #ee7 enter through a sieve-like1 bony plate at the roof of the nose1 and are distributed over the inner surface of the two olfactory chambers4 7,see p4 #cdf47 ,the object to be smelled need not touch the nose1 but tiny particles borne on the air enter the nasal passages4 ,footnote3 ,three quarters of a grain of musk placed in a room will cause a powerful smell for a considerable length of time without any sensible diminution in weight1 and the box in which musk has been placed retains the perfume for almost an indefinite period4 ,haller relates that some papers which had been perfumed by a grain of ambergris1 were still very odoriferous after a lapse of forty years4 ,odors are transported by the air to a considerable distance4 ,a dog recognizes his master's approach by smell even when he is far away2 and we are assured by navigators that the winds bring the delicious odors of the balmy forests of ,ceylon to a distance of ten leagues from the coast4 ,even after making due allowance for the effects of the imagination1 it is certain that odors act as an excitant on the brain1 which may be dangerous when long continued4 ,they are especially dreaded by the ,roman women4 ,it is well known that in ancient times the women of ,rome indulged in a most immoderate use of baths and perfumes2 but those of our times have nothing in common with them in this respect2 and the words of a lady are quoted1 who said on admiring an artificial rose1 ,it is all the more beautiful that it has no smell4 ,we are warned by the proverb not to discuss colors or tastes1 and we may add odors also4 ,men and nations differ singularly in this respect4 ,the ,laplander and the ,esquimaux find the smell of fish oil delicious4 ,wrangel says his compatriots1 the ,russians1 are very fond of the odor of pickled cabbage1 which forms an important part of their food2 and asaftida1 it is said1 is used as a condiment in ,persia1 and1 in spite of its name1 there are persons who do not find its odor disagreeable any more than that of valerian4--,wonders of the ,human body4 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,illustration3 ,a1 b1 c1 d1 interior of the nose1 which is lined by a mucous membrane2 n1 the nose2 e1 the wing of the nose2 q1 the nose bones2 o1 the upper lip2 g1 section of the upper jaw-bone2 h1 the upper part of the mouth1 or hard palate2 m1 frontal bone of the skull2 k1 the ganglion or bulb of the olfactory nerve in the skull1 from which are seen the branches of the nerve passing in all directions4 ,,the ,,uses of the sense of smell are to guide us in the choice of our food1 and to warn us against bad air1 and unhealthy localities4 7,see p4 #cdh47 #d4 ,,hearing4 ,,description4--,the ear is divided into the external1 middle1 and internal ear4 #a4 ,the ,external ,ear is a sheet of cartilage curiously folded for catching sound4 ,the auditory canal1 ,b1 or tube of this ear trumpet1 is about an inch long4 ,across the lower end is stretched the membrane of the tympanum or drum1 which is kept soft by a fluid wax4 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,illustration3 ,the ,ear4 #b4 ,the ,middle ,ear is a cavity1 at the bottom of which is the ,eustachian tube1 ,g1 leading to the mouth4 ,across this chamber hangs a chain of three singular little bones1 ,c1 named from their shape the hammer1 the anvil1 and the stirrup4 ,all together these tiny bones weigh only a few grains1 yet they are covered by a periosteum1 are supplied with blood vessels1 and they articulate with perfect joints 7one a ball-and-socket1 the other a hinge71 having synovial membranes1 cartilages1 ligaments1 and muscles4 #c4 ,the ,internal ,ear1 or labyrinth1 as it is sometimes called from its complex character1 is hollowed out of the solid bone4 ,in front1 is the vestibule or antechamber1 ,a1 about as large as a grain of wheat2 from it open three semicircular canals1 ,d1 and the winding stair of the cochlea1 or snail shell1 ,e4 ,here expand the delicate fibrils of the auditory nerve4 ,floating in the liquid which fills the labyrinth is a little bag containing hair-like bristles1 fine sand1 and two ear stones 7otoliths74 ,all these knocking against the ends of the nerves1 serve to increase any impulse given to the liquid in which they lie4 ,finally1 to complete this delicate apparatus1 in the cochlea are minute tendrils1 named the fibers of ,corti1 from their discoverer4 ,these are regularly arranged1--the longest at the bottom1 and the shortest at the top4 ,could this spiral plate1 which coils two and a half times around1 be unrolled and made to stand upright1 it would form a beautiful microscopic harp of three thousand strings4 ,if it were possible to strike these cords as one can the keyboard of a piano1 he could produce in the mind of the person experimented upon every variety of tone which the ear can distinguish4 ,,how ,,we ,,hear4--,whenever one body strikes another in the air1 waves are produced1 just as when we throw a stone into the water a series of concentric circles surrounds the spot where it sinks4 ,these waves of air strike upon the membrane4 ,this vibrates1 and sends the motion along the chain of bones in the middle ear to the fluids of the labyrinth4 ,here bristles1 sand1 and stones pound away1 and the wondrous harp of the cochlea1 catching up the pulsations1 ,footnote3 ,the original motion is constantly modified by the medium through which it passes4 ,the bristles1 otoliths1 and ,cortian fibers of the ear1 and the rods and cones of the eye 7p4 #bci7 serve to convert the vibrations into pulsations which act as stimuli of the appropriate nerve4 ,the molecular change thus produced in the nerve fibers is propagated to the brain4--,see ,popluar ,physics1 p4 #ahb4 carries them to the fibers of the auditory nerve1 which conveys them to the brain1 and gives to the mind the idea of sound4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,ear4--,the delicacy of the ear is such that it needs the greatest care4 ,cold water should not be allowed to enter the auditory canal4 ,if the wax accumulate1 never remove it with a hard instrument1 lest the delicate membrane be injured1 but with a little warm water1 after which turn the head to let the water run out1 and wipe the ear dry4 ,the hair around the ears should never be left wet1 as it may chill this sensitive organ4 ,if an insect get in the external ear1 pour in a little oil to kill it1 and then remove with tepid water4 ,the object of the ,eustachian tube is to admit air into the ear1 and thus equalize the pressure on the membrane4 ,if it become closed by a cold1 or if1 from any cause1 the pressure be made unequal1 so as to produce an unpleasant feeling in the ear1 relief may often be obtained by grasping the nose and forcibly swallowing4 7,see p4 #cej47 #e4 ,,sight4 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,illustration3 ,the ,eye4 ,,description4--,the eye is lodged in a bony cavity1 protected by the overhanging brow4 ,it is a globe1 about an inch in diameter4 ,the ball is covered by three coats--7l7 the sclerotic1 d1 a tough1 horny casing1 which gives shape to the eye1 the convex1 transparent part in front forming a window1 the cornea1 d2 7#b7 the choroid1 e1 a black lining1 to absorb the superfluous light ,footnote3 ,neither white rabbits nor albinos have this black lining1 and hence their sight is confused4 and 7#c7 the retina1 b1 a membrane in which expand fibers of the optic nerve1 o4 ,the crystalline lens1 a1 brings the rays of light to a focus on the retina4 ,the lens is kept in place by the ciliary processes1 g1 arranged like the rays in the disk of a passion flower4 ,between the cornea and the crystalline lens is a limpid fluid termed the aqueous humor2 while the vitreous humor--a transparent1 jelly-like liquid fills the space 7h7 back of the crystalline lens4 ,the pupil1 k1 is a hole in the colored1 muscular curtain1 i1 the iris 7rainbow74 7,see p4 #ceb47 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,illustration3 ,the ,eyelashes and the ,tear ,glands4 ,,eyelids ,,and ,,tears4--,the eyelids are close-fitting shutters to screen the eye4 ,the inner side is lined with a mucous membrane that is exceedingly sensitive1 and thus aids in protecting the eye from any irritating substance4 ,the looseness of the skin favors swelling from inflammation or the effusion of blood1 as in a black eye4 ,the eyelashes serve as a kind of sieve to exclude the dust1 and1 with the lids1 to shield against a blinding light4 ,just within the lashes are oil glands1 which lubricate the edges of the lids1 and prevent them from adhering to each other4 ,the tear or lachrymal gland1 ,g1 is an oblong body lodged in the bony wall of the orbit4 ,it empties by several ducts upon the inner surface1 at the outer edge of the upper eyelid4 ,thence the tears1 washing the eye1 run into the lachrymal lake1 ,d1 a little basin with a rounded border fitted for their reception4 ,on each side of this lake two canals1 ,c1 ,c1 drain off the overplus through the duct1 ,b1 into the nose4 ,in old age and in disease1 these canals fail to conduct the tears away1 and hence the lachrymal lake overflows upon the face4 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,illustration3 ,structure of the ,retina4 ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,retina4--,in ,fig4 #fc is shown a section of the retina1 greatly magnified1 since this membrane never exceeds #a_/hj an inch in thickness4 ,on the inner surface next to the vitreous humor1 is a lining membrane not shown in the cut4 ,next to the choroid and comprising about #a_/d the entire thickness of the retina1 is a multitude of transparent1 colorless1 microscopic rods1 a1 evenly arranged and packed side by side1 like the seeds on the disk of a sunflower4 ,among them1 at regular intervals1 are interspersed the cones1 b4 ,delicate nerve fibers pass from the ends of the rods and cones1 each expanding into a granular body1 c1 thence weaving a mesh1 d1 and again expanding into the granules1 f4 ,last is a layer of fine nerve fibers1 g1 and gray1 ganglionic cells1 h1 like the gray matter of the brain1 whence filaments extend into i1 the fibers of the optic nerve4 7,see p4 #ced47 ,the layer of rods and cones is to the eye what the bristles1 otoliths1 and ,cortian fibers are to the ear4 ,indeed1 the nerve itself is insensible to light4 ,at the point where it enters the eye1 there are no rods and cones1 and this is called the blind spot4 ,a simple experiment will illustrate the fact4 ,hold this book directly before the face1 and1 closing the left eye1 look steadily with the right at the left-hand circle in ,fig4 #fd4 ,move the book back and forth1 and a point will be found where the right-hand circle vanishes from sight4 ,at that moment its light falls upon the spot where the rods and cones are lacking4 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,we ,,see4--,there is believed to be a kind of universal atmosphere1 termed ether1 filling all space4 ,this substance is infinitely more subtle than the air1 and occupies its pores1 as well as those of all other substances4 ,as sound is caused by waves in the atmosphere1 so light is produced by waves in the ether4 ,a lamplight1 for example1 sets in motion waves of ether1 which pass in through the pupil of the eye1 to the retina1 where the rods and cones transmit the vibration through the optic nerve to the brain1 and then the mind perceives the light4 7,note1 p4 #bcf47 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,crystalline ,,lens4 ,footnote3 ,the uses of the eye and ear are dependent upon the principles of ,optics and ,acoustics4 ,they are therefore best treated in ,physics4--,a convex lens1 as a common burning glass1 bends the rays of light which pass through it1 so that they meet at a point called the focus4 ,the crystalline lens converges the rays of light which enter the eye1 and brings them to a focus on the retina4 ,footnote3 ,the cornea and the humors of the eye act in the same manner as the crystalline lens1 but not so powerfully4 ,the healthy lens has a power of changing its convexity so as to adapt ,footnote3 ,the simplest way of experimenting on the adjustment of the eye is to stick two stout needles upright into a straight piece of wood1--not exactly1 but nearly in the same straight line1 so that1 on applying the eye to one end of the piece of wood1 one needle 7,a7 shall be seen about six inches off1 and the other 7,b7 just on one side of it1 at twelve inches distance4 ,if the observer looks at the needle ,b he will find that he sees it very distinctly1 and without the least sense of effort2 but the image of ,a is blurred1 and more or less double4 ,now1 let him try to make this blurred image of the needle ,a distinct4 ,he will find he can do so readily enough1 but that the act is accompanied by a sense of fatigue4 ,and in proportion as ,a becomes distinct1 ,b will become blurred4 ,nor will any effort enable him to see ,a and ,b distinctly at the same time4--,,huxley4 itself to near and to distant objects4 7,see ,fig4 #ff47 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing how an image of an object is formed upon the ,retina by the ,crystalline ,lens4 ,,near ,,and ,,far ,,sight4--,if the lens be too convex1 it will bring the rays to a focus before they reach the retina2 if too flat1 they will reach the retina before coming to a focus4 ,in either case1 the sight will be indistinct4 ,a more common defect1 however1 is in the shape of the globe of the eye1 which is either flattened or elongated4 ,in the former case 7see ,g1 ,fig4 #fg71 objects at a distance can be seen most distinctly-- hence that is called farsightedness4 ,footnote3 ,this should not be confounded with the long sight of old people1 which is caused by the stiffness of the ciliary muscles1 whereby the lens can not adapt itself to the varying distances of objects4 ,in the latter1 objects near by are clearer1 and hence this is termed nearsightedness4 ,farsightedness is remedied by convex glasses2 nearsightedness1 by concave4 ,when glasses will improve the sight they should be worn2 ,footnote3 ,dr4 ,henry ,w4 ,williams1 the celebrated ophthalmologist1 says that1 in some cases1 glasses are more necessary at six or eight years of age than to the majority of healthy eyes at sixty4 ,sometimes children find accidentally that they can see better through grandmother's spectacles4 ,they should then be supplied with their own4 any delay will be liable to injure the eyes1 by straining their already impaired power4 ,cataract is a disease in which there is an opacity of the crystalline lens or its capsules1 which obscures the vision4 ,the lens may be caused to be absorbed1 or may be removed by a skillful surgeon and the defect remedied by wearing convex glasses4 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,illustration3 ,adjustment of the ,crystalline ,lens4--,a1 for far objects1 and ,b1 for near4 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,illustration3 ,diagram illustrating the position of the ,retina4--,b1 in natural sight2 ,g1 in far sight2 and ,c1 in near sight4 ,,color-,,blind ,,persons receive only two of the three elementary color sensations 7green1 red1 violet74 ,the spectrum appears to them to consist of two decidedly different colors1 with a band of neutral tint between4 ,the extreme red end is invisible1 and a bright scarlet and a deep green appear alike4 ,they are unable to distinguish between the leaves of a cherry tree and its fruit by the color of the two1 and see no difference between blue and yellow cloth4 ,whittier1 the poet1 it is said1 could not tell red from green unless in direct sunlight4 ,once he patched some damaged wall paper in his library by matching a green vine in the pattern with one of a bright autumnal crimson4 ,this defect in the eye is often unnoticed1 and many railway accidents have doubtless happened through an inability to detect the color of signal lights4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,eyes4--,the shape of the eye can not be changed by rubbing and pressing it1 as many suppose1 but the sight may thus be fatally injured4 ,children troubled by nearsightedness should not lean forward at their work1 as thereby the vessels of the eye become overcharged with blood4 ,they should avoid fine print1 and try1 in every possible way1 to spare their eyes4 ,if middle age be reached without especial difficulty of sight1 the person is comparatively safe4 ,most cases of squinting are caused by longsightedness1 the muscles being strained in the effort to obtain distinct vision4 ,in childhood1 it may be cured by a competent surgeon1 who will generally cut the muscle that draws the eye out of place4 ,after any severe illness1 especially after measles1 scarlatina1 or typhoid fever1 the eyes should be used with extreme caution1 since they share in the general debility of the body1 and recover their strength slowly4 ,healthy eyes even should never be used to read fine print or by a dim light4 ,serious injury may be caused by an imprudence of this kind4 ,reading upon the cars is also a fruitful source of harm4 ,the lens1 striving to adapt itself to the incessantly varying distance of the page1 soon becomes wearied4 ,whenever the eyes begin to ache1 it is a warning that they are being overtaxed and need rest4 ,objects that get into the eye should be removed before they cause inflammation2 rubbing in the meantime only irritates and increases the sensitiveness4 ,if the eye be shut for a few moments1 so as to let the tears accumulate1 and the upper lid be then lifted by taking hold of it at the center1 the cinder or dust is often washed away at once4 ,trifling objects can be removed by simply drawing the upper lid as far as possible over the lower one2 when the lid flies back to its place1 the friction will detach any light substance4 ,if it becomes necessary1 turn the upper lid over a pencil1 and the intruder may then be wiped off with a handkerchief4 ,eye-stones are a popular delusion4 ,when they seem to take out a cinder1 it is only because they raise the eyelid1 and allow the tears to wash it out4 ,no one should ever use an eyewash1 except by medical advice4 ,the eye is too delicate an organ to be trifled with1 and when any disease is suspected1 a reliable physician should be consulted4 ,this is especially necessary1 since1 when one eye is injured1 the other1 by sympathy1 is liable to become inflamed1 and perhaps be destroyed4 ,when reading or working1 the light should be at the left side1 or at the rear2 never in front4 ,the constant increase of defective eyesight among the pupils in our schools is an alarming fact4 ,dr4 ,agnew considers that our schoolrooms are fast making us a spectacle-using people4 ,nearsightedness seems to increase from class to class1 until in the upper departments1 there are sometimes as high as fifty per cent of the pupils thus afflicted4 ,the causes are 7#a71 desks so placed as to make the light from the windows shine directly into the eyes of the scholars2 7#b71 cross lights from opposite windows2 7#c71 insufficient light2 7#d71 small type that strains the eyes2 and 7#e71 the position of the pupil as he bends over his desk or slate1 causing the blood to settle in his eyes4 ,all these causes can be remedied2 the position of the desks can be changed2 windows can be shaded1 or new ones inserted2 books and newspapers that try the eyes can be rejected2 and every pupil can be taught how to sit at study4 ,,practical ,,questions4 #a4 ,why does a laundress test the temperature of her flatiron by holding it near her cheek8 #b4 ,when we are cold1 why do we spread the palms of our hands before the fire8 #c4 ,what is meant by a furred tongue8 #d4 ,why has sand or sulphur no taste8 #e4 ,what was the origin of the word palatable8 #f4 ,why does a cold in the head injure the flavor of our coffee8 #g4 ,name some so-called flavors that are really sensations of touch4 #h4 ,what is the object of the hairs in the nostrils8 #i4 ,what use does the nose subserve in the process of respiration8 #aj4 ,why do we sometimes hold the nose when we take unpleasant medicine8 #aa4 ,why was the nose placed over the mouth8 #ab4 ,describe how the hand is adapted to be the instrument of touch4 #ac4 ,besides being the organ of taste1 what use does the tongue subserve8 #ad4 ,why is not the act of tasting complete until we swallow8 #ae4 ,why do all things have the same flavor when one's tongue is furred by fever8 #af4 ,which sense is the more useful--hearing or sight8 #ag4 ,which coat is the white of the eye8 #ah4 ,what makes the difference in the color of eyes8 #ai4 ,why do we snuff the air when we wish to obtain a distinct smell8 #bj4 ,why do red-hot iron and frozen mercury 7-#dj7 produce the same sensation8 #ba4 ,why can an elderly person drink tea which to a child would be unbearably hot8 #bb4 ,why does an old man hold his paper so far from his eyes8 #bc4 ,would you rather be punished on the tips of your fingers than on the palm of your hand8 #bd4 ,what is the object of the eyelashes8 ,are the hairs straight8 #be4 ,what is the use of winking8 #bf4 ,when you wink1 do the eyelids touch at once along their whole length8 ,why8 #bg4 ,how many rows of hairs are there in the eyelashes8 #bh4 ,do all nations have eyes of the same shape8 #bi4 ,why does snuff taking cause a flow of tears8 #cj4 ,why does a fall cause one to see stars8 #ca4 ,why can we not see with the nose1 or smell with the eyes8 #cb4 ,what causes the roughness of a cat's tongue8 #cc4 ,is the cuticle essential to touch8 #cd4 ,can one tickle himself8 #ce4 ,why does a bitter taste often produce vomiting8 #cf4 ,is there any danger in looking crosseyed for fun8 #cg4 ,should schoolroom desks face a window8 #ch4 ,why do we look at a person to whom we are listening attentively8 #ci4 ,do we really feel with our fingers8 #dj4 ,is the eye a perfect sphere8 7,see ,fig4 #fa47 #da4 ,how often do we wink8 #db4 ,why is the interior of a telescope or microscope often painted black8 #dc4 ,what is the apple of the eye8 #dd4 ,what form of glasses do old people require8 #de4 ,should we ever wash our ears with cold water8 #df4 ,what is the object of the winding passages in the nose8 #dg4 ,can a smoker tell in the dark1 whether or not his cigar is lighted8 #dh4 ,will a nerve reunite after it has been cut8 #di4 ,will the sight give us an idea of solidity8 ,footnote3 ,a case occurred a few years ago1 in ,london1 where a friend of my own performed an operation upon a young woman who had been born blind1 and1 though an attempt had been made in early years to cure her1 it had failed4 ,she was able just to distinguish large objects1 the general shadow1 as it were1 without any distinct perception of form1 and to distinguish light from darkness4 ,she could work well with her needle by the touch1 and could use her scissors and bodkin and other implements by the training of her hand1 so to speak1 alone ,well1 my friend happened to see her1 and he examined her eyes1 and told her that he thought he could get her sight restored2 at any rate1 it was worth a trial4 ,the operation succeeded2 and1 being a man of intelligence and quite aware of the interest of such a case1 he carefully studied and observed it2 and he completely confirmed all that had been previously laid down by the experience of similar cases4 ,there was one little incident which will give you an idea of the education which is required for what you would suppose is a thing perfectly simple and obvious4 ,she could not distinguish by sight the things that she was perfectly familiar with by the touch1 at least when they were first presented to her eyes4 ,she could not recognize even a pair of scissors4 ,now1 you would have supposed that a pair of scissors1 of all things in the world1 having been continually used by her1 and their form having become perfectly familiar to her hands1 would have been most readily recognized by her sight2 and yet she did not know what they were2 she had not an idea until she was told1 and then she laughed1 as she said1 at her own stupidity4 ,no stupidity at all2 she had never learned it1 and it was one of those things which she could not know without learning4 ,one of the earliest cases of this kind was related by the celebrated ,cheselden1 a surgeon of the early part of last century4 ,cheselden relates how a youth just in this condition had been accustomed to play with a cat and a dog2 but for some time after he attained his sight he never could tell which was which1 and used to be continually making mistakes4 ,one day1 being rather ashamed of himself for having called the cat the dog1 he took up the cat in his arms and looked at her very attentively for some time stroking her all the while2 and in this way he associated the impression derived from the touch1 and made himself master 7so to speak7 of the whole idea of the animal4 ,he then put the cat down1 saying3 ,now1 puss1 ,i shall know you another time4--,,carpenter4 #ej4 ,why can a skillful surgeon determinate the condition of the brain and other internal organs by examining the interior of the eye8 ,footnote3 ,this is done by means of an instrument called the ophthalmoscope4 ,light is thrown into the eye with a concave mirror1 and the interior of the organ examined with a lens4 #ea4 ,is there any truth in the idea that the image of the murderer can be seen in the eye of the dead victim8 #eb4 ,what is the length of the optic nerve8 ,ans4 ,about three fourths of an inch4 #ec4 ,why does an injury to one eye generally affect the other eye8 ,ans4 ,the optic nerves give off no branches in passing from their origin in two ganglia situated between the cerebrum and the cerebellum1 and their termination in the eyeballs2 but1 in the middle of their course1 they decussate1 or unite in one mass4 ,the fibers of the two nerves here pass from side to side1 and intermingle4 ,the two ganglia are also united directly by fibers4 ,thus the eyes are not really separate organs of sight1 but a kind of double organ to perform1 a single function4 ,,ix4 ,,health ,,and ,,disease4--,,death ,,and ,,decay4 ,health is the vital principle of bliss4 ,,thomson4 ,there are three wicks to the lamp of a man's life3 brain1 blood1 and breath4 ,press the brain a little1 its light goes out1 followed by both the others4 ,stop the heart a minute1 and out go all three of the wicks4 ,choke the air out of the lungs1 and presently the fluid ceases to supply the other centers of flame1 and all is soon stagnation1 cold1 and darkness4 ,o4 ,w4 ,,holmes4 ,calmly he looked on either ,life1 and here ,saw nothing to regret1 or there to fear2 ,from ,nature's temp'rate feast rose satisfy'd1 ,thank'd ,heaven that he had lived1 and that he died4 ,,pope4 ,,health ,,and ,,disease4--,,death ,,and ,,decay4 ,,value ,,of ,,health4--,the body is the instrument which the mind uses4 ,if it be dulled or nicked1 the effect of the best labor will be impaired4 ,the grandest gifts of mind or fortune are comparatively valueless unless there be a healthy body to use and enjoy them4 ,the beggar1 sturdy and brave with his outdoor life1 is really happier than the rich man in his palace with the gout to twinge him amid his pleasures4 ,the day has gone by when delicacy is considered an element of beauty4 ,weakness is timid and irresolute2 strength is full of force and energy4 ,weakness walks or creeps2 strength speeds the race1 wins the goal1 and rejoices in the victory4 ,,false ,,ideas ,,of ,,disease4--,it was formerly supposed that diseases were caused by evil spirits1 who entered the body1 and deranged its action4 ,incantations1 spells1 etc41 were resorted to in order to drive them out4 ,by others1 disease was thought to come arbitrarily1 or as a special visitation of an overruling power4 ,hence1 it was to be removed by fasting and prayer4 ,modern science teaches us that disease is not a thing1 but a state4 ,when our food is properly assimilated1 the waste matter promptly excreted1 and all the organs work in harmony1 we are well2 when any derangement of these functions occurs1 we are sick4 ,sickness is discord1 as health is concord4 ,if we abuse or misuse any instrument1 we impair its ability to produce a perfect harmony4 ,a suffering body is simply the penalty of violated law4 ,,prevention ,,of ,,disease4--,doubtless a large proportion of the ills which now afflict and rob us of so much time and pleasure might easily be avoided4 ,a proper knowledge and observance of hygienic laws would greatly lessen the number of such diseases as consumption1 catarrh1 gout1 rheumatism1 dyspepsia1 etc4 ,there are parts of ,england where one half the children die before they are five years old4 ,every physiologist knows that at least nine tenths of these lives could be saved by an observance of the simple laws of health4 ,professor ,bennet1 in a lecture at ,edinburgh1 estimated that one hundred thousand persons die annually in ,great ,britain from causes easily preventable4 ,with the advance of science1 the causes of many diseases have been determined4 ,vaccination has been found to prevent or mitigate the ravages of smallpox4 ,scurvy1 formerly so fatal among sailors that it was deemed a mysterious infliction of ,divine ,justice against which man strives in vain1 is now entirely avoided by the use of vegetables or lime juice4 ,cholera1 whose approach still strikes dread1 and for which there is no known specific1 is but the penalty for filthy streets1 bad drainage1 and overcrowded tenements1 and may be controlled1 if not prevented1 by suitable sanitary measures4 ,it was1 no doubt1 the intention that we should wear out by the general decay of all the organs1 ,footnote3 ,so long as the phenomena of waste and repair are in harmony--so long1 in other words1 as the builder follows the scavenger--so long man exists in integrity and repair--just1 indeed1 as houses exist4 ,derange nutrition1 and at once degeneration1 or rather let us say1 alteration begins4 ,alas6 that we are so ignorant that there are many things about our house1 which1 seeing them1 weaken1 we know not how to strengthen4 ,about the brick and the mortar1 the frame and the rafters1 we are not unlearned2 but within are many complexities1 many chinks and crannies1 full in themselves of secondary chinks and crannies1 and these so small1 so deep1 so recessed1 that it happens every day that the destroyer settles himself in some place so obscure1 that1 while he kills1 he laughs at defiance4 ,you or ,i meet with an accident in our watch4 ,we consult the watchmaker1 and he repairs the injury4 ,if we were all that watchmakers1 like ourselves1 should be1 a man could be made to keep time until he died from old age or annihilating accident4 ,this ,i firmly and fully believe4--,odd ,hours of a ,physician4 rather than by the giving out of any single part1 and that all should work together harmoniously until the vital force is exhausted4 ,,cure ,,of ,,disease4--,the first step in the cure of any disease is to obey the law of health which has been violated4 ,if medicine be taken1 it is not to destroy the disease1 since that is not a thing to be destroyed1 but to hold the deranged action in check while nature repairs the injury1 and again brings the system into harmonious movement4 ,this tendency of nature is our chief reliance4 ,the best physicians are coming to have diminished confidence in medicine itself1 and to place greater dependence upon sanitary and hygienic measures1 and upon the efforts which nature always makes to repair injuries and soothe disordered action4 ,they endeavor only to give to nature a fair chance1 and sometimes to assist her by the intelligent employment of proper medicines4 ,the indiscriminate use of patent nostrums and sovereign remedies of whose constituents we know nothing1 and by which powerful drugs are imbibed at haphazard1 can not be too greatly deprecated4 ,when one needs medicine1 he needs also a competent physician to advise its use4 ,,death ,,and ,,decay4--,by a mystery we can not understand1 life is linked with death1 and out of the decay of our bodies they1 day by day1 spring afresh4 ,at last the vital force which has held death and decay in bondage1 and compelled them to minister to our growth1 and to serve the needs of our life1 faints and yields the struggle4 ,these powers which have so long time been our servants1 gather about our dying couch1 and their last offices usher us into the new life and the grander possibilities of the world to come4 ,this last birth1 we who see the fading1 not the dawning1 life1 call death4 ,o ,father6 grant ,thy love divine1 ,to make these mystic temples ,thine1 ,when wasting age and wearying strife ,have sapp'd the leaning walls of life2 ,when darkness gathers over all1 ,and the last tottering pillars fall1 ,take the poor dust ,thy mercy warms1 ,and mold it into heavenly forms4 ,,holmes4 ,,hints ,,about ,,the ,,sick ,,room ,a ,,sick ,,room should be the lightest and cheeriest in the house4 ,a small1 close1 dark bedroom or a recess is bad enough for one in health1 but unendurable for a sick person4 ,in a case of fever1 and in many acute diseases1 it should be remote from the noise of the family2 but when one is recovering from an accident1 and in all attacks where quiet is not needed1 the patient may be where he can amuse himself by watching the movements of the household1 or looking out upon the street4 ,the ventilation must be thorough4 ,bad air will poison both the sick and the well4 ,a fireplace is1 therefore1 desirable4 ,windows should open easily4 ,by carefully protecting the patient with extra blankets1 the room may be frequently aired4 ,if there be no direct draught1 much may be done to change the air1 by simply swinging an outer door to and fro many times4 ,a bare floor1 with strips of carpet here and there to deaden noise1 is cleanest1 and keeps the air freest from dust4 ,cane-bottomed chairs are preferable to upholstered ones4 ,all unnecessary furniture should be removed out of the way4 ,a straw bed or a mattress is better than feathers4 ,the bed hangings1 lace curtains1 etc41 should be taken down4 ,creaking hinges should be oiled4 ,sperm candles are better than kerosene lamps4 ,never whisper in a sick room4 ,all necessary conversation should be carried on in the usual tone of voice4 ,do not call a physician unnecessarily1 but if one be employed1 obey his directions implicitly4 ,never give nostrums overofficious friends may suggest4 ,do not allow visitors to see the patient1 except it be necessary4 ,never bustle about the room1 nor go on tiptoe1 but move in a quiet1 ordinary way4 ,do not keep the bottles in the continued sight of the sick person4 ,never let drinking water stand in the room4 ,do not raise the patient's head to drink1 but have a cup with a long spout1 or use a bent tube1 or even a straw4 ,do not tempt the appetite when it craves no food4 ,bathe frequently1 but let the physician prescribe the method4 ,give written directions to the watchers4 ,have all medicines carefully marked4 ,remove all soiled clothing1 etc41 at once from the room4 ,change the linen much oftener than in health4 ,when you wish to change the sheets1 and the patient is unable to rise1 roll the under sheet tightly lengthwise to the middle of the bed2 put on the clean sheet1 with half its width folded up1 closely to the other roll2 lift the patient on to the newly-made part1 remove the soiled sheet1 and then spread oat the clean one4 ,,disinfectants4 ,remember1 first1 that deodorizers and disinfectants are not the same4 ,a bad smell1 for instance1 may be smothered by some more powerful odor1 while its cause remains uninfluenced4 ,bear also in mind the fact that no deodorizer and no disinfectant can take the place of perfect cleanliness and thorough ventilation4 ,no purifyer can rival the oxygen contained in strong and continued currents of fresh1 cold air1 and every disinfectant finds an indispensable ally in floods of scalding water4 ,an excellent disinfectant may be made by dissolving in a pail of water either of the following3 7#a71 a quarter of a pound of sulphate of zinc and two ounces of common salt for each gallon of water2 7#b71 a pound and a half of copperas1 for each gallon of water4 ,towels1 bed linen1 handkerchiefs1 etc41 should be soaked at least an hour1 in a solution of the first kind1 and then be boiled1 before washing4 ,footnote3 ,it is best to burn all articles which have been in contact with persons sick with contagious or infectious diseases4 ,in using the zinc solution1 place the articles in it as soon as they are removed from the patient1 and before they are taken from the room2 if practicable1 have the solution boiling hot at the time4 ,in fumigating apartments1 all the openings should be made as nearly air-tight as possible4 ,the articles to be included in the fumigation should be so exposed and spread out that the sulphurous vapor may penetrate every portion of them4 ,for a room about ten feet square1 at least two pounds of sulphur should be used2 for larger rooms1 proportionally increased quantities4 ,put the sulphur in iron pans supported upon bricks placed in washtubs containing a little water1 set it on fire by hot coals or with the aid of a spoonful of alcohol1 or by a long fuse set on train as the last opening to the room is closed4 ,allow the apartment to remain sealed for twenty-four hours4 ,great care should be taken not to inhale the poisonous fumes in firing the sulphur4 ,after the fumigation1 allow free currents of air to pass through the apartment2 expose all movable articles for as long time as may be to the sun and the wind out of doors2 beat and shake the carpets1 hangings1 pillows1 etc4 ,the disinfectants and the instructions for using them1 as given above1 are mainly those recommended by the ,national ,board of ,health4 ,vaults1 drains1 vessels used in the sick room1 etc41 should be disinfected by a solution of the second kind2 chloride of lime may also be used for the same purpose4 ,rooms1 furniture1 and articles that can not be treated with the solution of the first kind1 should be thoroughly fumigated with burning sulphur4 ,where walls are unpapered1 re-whitewash with pure1 freshly slacked quicklime1 adding one pint of the best fluid carbolic acid to every gallon of the fluid whitewash4 ,powdered stone lime sprinkled on foul1 wet places1 or placed in pans in damp rooms1 will absorb the moisture2 and dry1 fresh charcoal powder may be combined with it to absorb noxious gases4 ,,what ,,to ,,do ,,till ,,the ,,doctor ,,comes4 ,the following instructions are intended simply to aid in an emergency4 ,when accidents or a sudden severe illness occur1 there is necessarily1 in most cases1 a longer or shorter interval before a physician can arrive4 ,these moments are often very precious1 and life may depend upon a little knowledge and much self-possession4 ,the instructions are therefore given as briefly as possible1 that they may be easily carried in the memory4 ,a few suggestions in regard to common ailments are included4 ,,burns4--,when a person's clothes catch fire1 quickly lay him on the ground1 wrap him in a coat1 mat1 shawl1 carpet1 or in his own garments1 as best you can to extinguish the flame4 ,pour on plenty of water till the half- burned clothing is cooled4 ,then carry the sufferer to a warm room1 lay him on a table or a carpeted floor1 and with a sharp knife or scissors remove his clothing4 ,the treatment of a burn consists in protecting from the air4 ,footnote3 ,it is a great mistake to suppose that salves will draw out the fire of a burn1 or heal a bruise or cut4 ,the vital force must unite the divided tissue by the deposit of material and the formation of new cells4 ,an excellent remedy is to apply soft cloths kept wet with sweet oil1 or with tepid water which contains all the cooking soda that it will dissolve4 ,afterward dress the wound with carbolic acid salve4 ,wrap a dry bandage upon the outside4 ,then remove the patient to a bed and cover warmly4 ,footnote3 ,in case of a large burn1 lose no delay in bringing a physician4 ,if a burn be near a joint or on the face1 even if small1 let a doctor see it1 and do not be in any hurry about having it healed4 ,remember that with all the care and skill which can be used1 contractions will sometimes take place4 ,the danger to life from a burn or scald is not in proportion to its severity1 but to its extent--that is1 a small part1 such as a hand or a foot1 may be burned so deeply as to cripple it for life1 and yet not much endanger the general health2 but a slight amount of burning1 a mere scorching1 over two thirds of the body1 may prove fatal4-- ,,hope4 ,apply cool water to a small burn till the smart ceases1 and then cover with ointment4 ,do not remove the dressings until they become stiff and irritating2 then take them from a part at a time2 dress and cover again quickly4 ,,cuts1 ,,wounds1 ,,etc4--,the method of stopping the bleeding has been described on page #abh4 ,if an artery is severed1 a physician should be called at once4 ,if the bleeding is not profuse1 apply cold water until it ceases1 dry the skin1 draw the edges of the wound together1 and secure them by strips of adhesive plaster4 ,protect with an outer bandage4 ,this dressing should remain for several days4 ,in the meantime wet it frequently with cool water to subdue inflammation4 ,when suppuration begins1 wash occasionally with tepid water and ,castile soap4 ,dr4 ,woodbridge1 of ,new ,york1 in a recent address1 gave the following directions as to ,what to do in case of a sudden wound when the surgeon is not at hand4 ,an experienced person would naturally close the lips of the wound as quickly as possible1 and apply a bandage4 ,if the wound is bleeding freely1 but no artery is spouting blood1 the first thing to be done is to wash it with water at an ordinary temperature4 ,to every pint of water add either five grains of corrosive sublimate1 or two and a half teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid4 ,if the acid is used1 add two tablespoonfuls of glycerine1 to prevent its irritating the wound4 ,if there is neither of these articles in the house1 add four tablespoonfuls of borax to the water4 ,wash the wound1 close it1 and apply a compress of a folded square of cotton or linen4 ,wet it in the solution used for washing the wound and bandage quickly and firmly4 ,if the bleeding is profuse1 a sponge dipped in very hot water and wrung out in a dry cloth should be applied as quickly as possible4 ,if this is not available1 use ice1 or cloths wrung out in ice water4 ,if a large vein or artery is spouting1 it must be stopped at once by compression4 ,this may be done by a rubber tube wound around the arm tightly above the elbow or above the knee1 where the pulse is felt to beat2 or an improvised 'tourniquet' may be used4 ,a hard apple or a stone is placed in a folded handkerchief1 and rolled firmly in place4 ,this bandage is applied so that the hard object rests on the point where the artery beats1 and is then tied loosely around the arm4 ,a stick is thrust through the loose bandage and turned till the flow of blood ceases4 ,,bleeding ,,from ,,the ,,nose is rarely dangerous1 and often beneficial4 ,when it becomes necessary to stop it1 sit upright and compress the nostrils between the thumb and forefinger1 or with the thumb press upward upon the upper lip4 ,a piece of ice1 a snowball1 or a compress wet with cold water may be applied to the back of the neck4 ,a ,,sprain ,footnote3 ,a sprain1 says ,dr4 ,hope1 in that admirable little book entitled ,till the ,doctor comes and ,how to help ,him1 is a very painful and very serious thing4 ,when you consider that from the tips of the fingers to the wrist1 or from the ends of the toes to the leg1 there are not less than thirty separate bones1 all tied together with straps1 cords1 and elastic bands1 and about twenty hinges1 all to be kept in good working order1 you will not wonder at sprains being frequent and sometimes serious4 is often more painful and dangerous than a dislocation4 ,wrap the injured part in flannels wrung out of hot water1 and cover with a dry bandage1 or1 better1 with oiled silk4 ,liniments and stimulating applications are injurious in the first stages1 but useful when the inflammation is subdued4 ,do not let the limb hang down1 keep the joint still4 ,without attention to these points1 no remedies are likely to be of much service4 ,a sprained limb must be kept quiet1 even after all pain has ceased4 ,if used too soon1 dangerous consequences may ensue4 ,many instances have been known in which1 from premature use of an injured limb1 the inflammation has been renewed and made chronic1 the bones at the joint have become permanently diseased1 and amputation has been necessitated4 ,,diarrhea1 ,,cholera ,,morbus1 ,,etc41 are often caused by eating indigestible or tainted food1 such as unripe or decaying fruit1 or stale vegetables2 or by drinking impure water or poisoned milk 7see p4 #cba74 ,sometimes the disturbance may be traced to a checking of the perspiration2 but more frequently to peculiar conditions of the atmosphere1 especially in large cities4 ,such diseases are most prevalent in humid weather1 when the days are hot and the nights cold and moist4 ,especial attention should at such times be paid to the diet4 ,if an attack comes on1 ascertain1 if possible1 its cause4 ,you can thereby aid your physician1 and1 if the cause be removable1 can protect the rest of the household4 ,if the limbs are cold1 take a hot bath1 followed by a thorough rubbing4 ,then go to bed and lie quietly on the back4 ,in ordinary cases1 rest is better than medicine4 ,if there be pain1 have flannels wrung out of hot water applied to the abdomen4 ,footnote3 ,if it be difficult to manage the foments1 lay a hot plate over the flannels and cover with some protection4 ,by having a change of hot plates1 the foments can be kept at a uniform high temperature4 ,this plan will be found useful in all cases where foments are needed4 ,a mustard poultice will serve the same purpose if more convenient4 ,eat no fruit1 vegetables1 pastry1 or pork4 ,use water sparingly4 ,if much thirst exist1 give small pieces of ice1 or limited quantities of cold tea or toast water4 ,take particular pains with the diet for some days after the bowel irritation has ceased4 ,,croup4--,there are two kinds of croup--true and false4 ,true croup comes on gradually1 and is less likely to excite alarm than false croup1 which comes on suddenly4 ,true croup is attended with fever and false membrane in the throat2 false croup is not attended with fever or false membrane4 ,true croup is almost always fatal in four or five days2 false croup recovers1 but is liable to come on again4 ,the great majority of cases of the so- called croup are simply cases of spasm of the glottis4 ,croupy children are those who are liable to these attacks of false croup1 which are most frequent during the period of teething4--,,dr4 ,,geo4 ,m4 ,,beard4 ,croup occurs commonly in children between the ages of two and seven years4 ,at this period1 if a child has a hollow cough1 with more or less fever1 flushed face1 red watery eyes1 and especially if it have a hoarse voice1 and show signs of uneasiness about the throat1 send at once for a doctor4 ,induce mild vomiting by doses of syrup of ipecac4 ,put the feet in a hot mustard-and-water bath4 ,apply hot fomentations1 rapidly renewed1 to the chest and throat4 ,a croupy child should be carefully shielded from all physical excitation1 sudden waking from sleep1 and any punishment that tends to awaken intense fear or terror4 ,irritation of the air passages through faulty swallowing in drinking hastily1 should be guarded against4 ,good pure air1 warm clothing1 and a nourishing diet are indispensable4 ,,common ,,sore ,,throat4--,wrap the neck in a wet bandage1 and cover with flannel or a clean woolen stocking4 ,gargle the throat frequently with a solution of a teaspoonful of salt in a pint of water1 or thirty grains of chlorate of potash in a wineglass of water4 ,,fits1 ,,apoplexy1 ,,epilepsy1 ,,etc4--,these call for immediate action and prompt medical attendance4 ,children who are teething1 or troubled with intestinal worms1 or from various causes1 are sometimes suddenly seized with convulsions4 ,apply cloths wet in cold water--or1 better still1 ice wrapped in oiled silk--to the head1 and especially to the back of the neck1 taking care1 however1 that the ice or wet cloths do not remain too long4 ,apply mustard plasters to the stomach and legs4 ,a full hot bath is excellent if the cold applications fail4 ,endeavor to induce vomiting4 ,seek to determine the cause1 and consult with your physician for further guidance4 ,apoplexy may be distinguished from a fainting fit by the red face1 hot skin1 and labored breathing2 whereas1 in a faint1 the face and lips lose color1 and the skin becomes cold4 ,in many cases1 death follows so quickly upon an apoplectic seizure1 that little effectual service can be given4 ,call the nearest physician1 loosen the clothing1 and raise the head and shoulders1 taking care not to bend the head forward on the neck4 ,keep the head cool4 ,do not move the patient unnecessarily4 ,in a common fainting fit1 give the patient as much air as possible4 ,lay him flat upon the floor or ground1 and keep the crowd away4 ,all that can be done in a fit of epilepsy is to prevent the patient from injuring himself2 especially put something in his mouth to keep him from biting his tongue4 ,a cork1 a piece of ,india rubber1 or even a tightly- rolled handkerchief1 placed between the teeth will answer this purpose4 ,give the sufferer fresh air2 loosen his clothing1 and place him in a comfortable position4 ,epilepsy may be due to various causes1--improper diet1 overexcitement1 etc4 ,consult with a physician1 and study to avoid the occasion4 ,,concussion ,,of ,,the ,,brain generally arises from some contusion of the head1 from violent blows1 or from a shock received by the whole body in consequence of falling from a height4 ,in any case of injury to the head where insensibility ensues1 a doctor should be called at once4 ,remove the patient to a quiet room2 loosen his clothing2 strive to restore circulation by gentle friction1 using the hand or a cloth for this purpose2 apply cold water to the head1 and1 if the patient's body be cold and his skin clammy1 put hot bottles at his feet4 ,ammonia may be cautiously held to the nose4 ,beyond this1 it is not safe for a non- professional to go1 in case of a severe injury to the head4 ,concussion is more or less serious1 according to the injury which the brain has sustained2 but even in slight cases1 when a temporary dizziness appears to be the only result1 careful treatment should be observed both at the time of the injury and afterward4 ,cases of head injury are often more grave in their consequences than in their immediate symptoms4 ,sometimes the patient appears to be getting better when really he is worse4 ,rest and quiet should be observed for several weeks after an accident which has in any way affected the brain4 ,,toothache ,,and ,,earache4--,insert in the hollow tooth cotton wet with laudanum1 spirits of camphor1 or chloroform4 ,when the nerve is exposed1 wet it with creosote or carbolic acid4 ,hot cloths or a hot brick wrapped in cloth and held to the face will often relieve the toothache4 ,in a similar manner treat the ear1 wetting the cloth in hot water1 and letting the vapor pass into the ear4 ,,choking4--,ordinarily a smart blow between the shoulders1 causing a compression of the chest and a sudden expulsion of the air from the lungs1 will throw out the offending substance4 ,if the person can swallow1 and the object be small1 give plenty of bread or potato1 and water to wash it down4 ,press upon the tongue with a spoon1 when1 perhaps1 you may see the object1 and draw it out with your thumb and finger1 or a blunt pair of scissors4 ,if neither of these remedies avail1 give an emetic of syrup of ipecac or mustard and warm water4 ,,frostbites are frequently so sudden that one is not aware when they occur4 ,in ,canada it is not uncommon for persons meeting in the street to say1 ,mind1 sir1 your nose looks whitish4 ,the blood cools and runs slowly1 and the blood vessels become choked and swollen4 ,keep from the heat4 ,rub the part quickly with snow1 if necessary for hours1 till the natural color is restored4 ,if one is benumbed with cold1 take him into a cold room1 remove the wet clothes1 rub the body dry1 cover with blankets1 and give a little warm tea or other suitable drink4 ,on recovering1 let him be brought to a fire gradually4 ,footnote3 ,if you are caught in a snowstorm1 look for a snow bank in the lee of a hill1 or a wood out of the wind1 or a hollow in the plain filled with snow4 ,scrape out a hole big enough to creep into1 and the drifting snow will keep you warm4 ,men and animals have been preserved after days of such imprisonment4 ,remember that if you give way to sleep in the open field1 you will never awake4 ,,fevers1 and many acute diseases1 are often preceded by a loss of appetite1 headache1 shivering1 pains in the bones1 indisposition to work1 etc4 ,in such cases1 sponge with tepid water1 and rub the body till all aglow4 ,go to bed1 place hot bricks to the feet1 take nothing but a little gruel or beef tea1 and drink moderately of warm1 cream-of-tartar water4 ,if you do not feel better the next morning1 call a physician4 ,if that be impossible1 take a dose of castor oil or ,epsom salts4 ,,sunstroke is a sudden prostration caused by intense heat4 ,the same effect is produced by the burning rays of the sun and the fierce fire of a furnace4 ,when a person falls under such circumstance1 place your hand on his chest4 ,if the skin be cool and moist1 it is not a sunstroke2 but if it be dry and biting hot1 there can be no mistake4 ,time is now precious4 ,at once carry the sufferer to the nearest pump or hydrant1 and dash cold water on the head and chest until consciousness is restored4--,,dr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,,wood4 ,to prevent sunstroke1 wear a porous hat1 and in the top of it place a wet handkerchief2 also drink freely of water1 not ice cold1 to induce abundant perspiration4 ,,asphyxia1 or apparent death1 whether produced by drowning1 suffocation1 bad air1 or coal gas1 requires very similar treatment4 ,send immediately for blankets1 dry clothing1 and a physician4 ,treat upon the spot1 if the weather be not too unfavorable4 #a4 ,loosen the clothing about the neck and chest1 separate the jaws1 and place between them a cork or bit of wood4 #b4 ,turn the patient on his face1 place his arm under his forehead to raise the head1 and press heavily with both hands upon the ribs to squeeze out the water4 #c4 ,place the patient on his back1 wipe out the mouth and nostrils1 and secure the tongue from falling backward over the throat4 ,kneel at his head1 grasp his arms firmly above the elbows1 and pull them gently upward until they meet over the head1 in order to draw air into the lungs2 reverse this movement to expel the air4 ,repeat the process about fifteen times per minute4 ,alternate pressure upon the chest1 and blowing air into the mouth through a quill or with a pair of bellows1 may aid your efforts4 ,use snuff or smelling salts1 or pass hartshorn under the nose4 ,do not lose hope quickly4 ,life has been restored after five hours of suspended animation4 ,footnote3 ,another simple method of artificial respiration is described in the ,british ,medical ,journal4 ,the body of the patient is laid on the back1 with clothes loosened1 and the mouth and nose wiped2 two bystanders pass their right hands under the body at the level of the waist1 and grasp each other's hand1 then raise the body until the tips of the fingers and the toes of the subject alone touch the ground2 count fifteen rapidly2 then lower the body flat to the ground1 and press the elbows to the side hard2 count fifteen again2 then raise the body again for the same length of time2 and so on1 alternately raising and lowering4 ,the head1 arms1 and legs are to be allowed to dangle down freely when the body is raised4 #d4 ,when respiration is established1 wrap the patient in dry1 warm clothes1 and rub the limbs under the blankets or over the dry clothing energetically toward the heart4 ,apply heated flannels1 bottles of hot water1 etc41 to the limbs1 and mustard plasters ,footnote3 ,the best mustard poultice is the paper plaster now sold by every druggist4 ,it is always ready1 and can be carried by a traveler4 ,it has only to be dipped in water1 and applied at once4 to the chest4 ,,foreign ,,bodies ,,in ,,the ,,ear4--,insects may be killed by dropping a little sweet oil into the ear4 ,beans peas1 etc41 may generally be removed by so holding the head that the affected ear will be toward the ground1 and then cautiously syringing tepid water into it from below4 ,do not use much force lest the tympanum be injured4 ,if this fail1 dry the ear1 stick the end of a little linen swab into thick glue1 let the patient lie on one side1 put this into the ear until it touches the substance1 keep it there three quarters of an hour while it hardens1 and then draw them all out together4 ,be careful that the glue does not touch the skin at any point1 and that you are at work upon the right ear4 ,children often deceive one as to the ear which is affected4 ,,foreign ,,bodies ,,in ,,the ,,nose1 such as beans1 cherry pits1 etc41 may frequently be removed by closing the opposite nostril1 and then blowing into the child's mouth forcibly4 ,the air1 unable to escape except through the affected nostril1 will sweep the obstruction before it4 ,,antidotes ,,to ,,poisons4 ,,acids3 ,nitric 7aqua fortis71 hydrochloric 7muriatic71 sulphuric 7oil of vitriol71 oxalic1 etc4--,drink a little water to weaken the acid1 or1 still better1 take strong soapsuds4 ,stir some magnesia in water1 and drink freely4 ,if the magnesia be not at hand1 use chalk1 soda1 lime1 whiting1 soap1 or even knock a piece of plaster from the wall1 and scraping off the white outside coat pound it fine1 mix with milk or water1 and drink at once4 ,follow with warm water1 or flaxseed tea4 ,,alkalies3 ,potash1 soda1 lye1 ammonia 7hartshorn74--,drink weak vinegar or lemon juice4 ,follow with castor or linseed oil1 or thick cream4 ,,antimony3 ,antimonial wine1 tartar emetic1 etc4--,drink strong1 green tea1 and in the meantime chew the dry leaves4 ,the direct antidote is a solution of nutgall or oak bark4 ,,arsenic3 ,cobalt1 ,scheele's green1 fly powder1 ratsbane1 etc4--,give plenty of milk1 whites of eggs1 or induce vomiting by mustard and warm water2 ,footnote3 ,see that the mustard is well mixed with the water1 in the proportion of about half an ounce of the former to a pint of the latter4 or even soapsuds4 ,,bite ,,of ,a ,,snake ,,or ,a ,,mad ,,dog4--,tie a bandage above the wound1 if on a limb4 ,wash the bite thoroughly1 and1 if possible1 let the person suck it strongly4 ,rub some lunar caustic or potash in the wound1 or heat the point of a small poker or a steel sharpener white hot1 and press it into the bite for a moment4 ,it will scarcely cause pain1 and will be effectual in arresting the absorption of the poison1 unless a vein has been struck4 ,,copper3 ,sulphate of copper 7blue vitriol71 acetate of copper 7verdigris74--,take whites of eggs or soda4 ,use milk freely4 ,,laudanum3 ,opium1 paregoric1 soothing cordial1 soothing syrup1 etc4 --,give an emetic at once of syrup of ipecac1 or mustard and warm water1 etc4 ,after vomiting1 use strong coffee freely4 ,keep the patient awake by pinching1 pulling the hair1 walking about1 dashing water in the face1 and any expedient possible4 ,,lead3 ,white lead1 acetate of lead 7sugar of lead71 red lead4--,give an emetic of syrup of ipecac1 or mustard and warm water1 or salt and water4 ,follow with a dose of ,epsom salts4 ,,matches3 ,phosphorus4--,give magnesia1 chalk1 whiting1 or even flour in water1 and follow with mucilaginous drinks4 ,,mercury3 ,calomel1 chloride of mercury 7corrosive sublimate1 bug poison71 red precipitate4--,drink milk copiously4 ,take the whites of eggs1 or stir flour in water1 and use freely4 ,,nitrate ,,of ,,silver 7lunar caustic74--,give salt and water1 and follow with castor oil4 ,,nitrate ,,of ,,potash 7saltpeter1 niter74--,give mustard and warm water1 or syrup of ipecac4 ,follow with flour and water1 and cream or sweet oil4 ,,prussic ,,acid 7oil of bitter almonds71 cyanide of potassium4--,take a teaspoonful of hartshorn in a pint of water4 ,apply smelling salts to the nose1 and dash cold water in the face4 ,,sting ,,of ,,an ,,insect4--,apply a little hartshorn or spirits of camphor1 or soda moistened with water1 or a paste of clean earth and saliva4 ,,sulphate ,,of ,,iron 7green vitriol74--,give syrup of ipecac1 or mustard and warm water1 or any convenient emetic2 then magnesia and water4 ,x4 ,,selected ,,readings ,,to ,,illustrate ,,and ,,supplement ,,the ,,text4 ,arranged in order of the subjects to which they refer4 ,read not to contradict and confute1 nor to believe and take for granted1 nor to find talk and discourse1 but to weigh1 and consider4 ,,lord ,,bacon4 ,he who learns the rules of wisdom without conforming to them in his life1 is like a man who labored in his fields but did not sow4 ,,saadi4 ,,selected ,,readings4 ,the figures indicate the pages in the text upon which the corresponding subjects will be found4 ,,the ,,skeleton4 ,,man1 ,,as ,,compared ,,with ,,other ,,vertebrate ,,animals 7p4 #c74--,man1 the lord of the animal kingdom1 is constructed after the same type as the cat that purrs at his feet1 the ox that he eats1 the horse that bears his burden1 the bird that sings in his cage1 the snake that crawls across his pathway1 the toad that hides in his garden1 and the fish that swims in his aquarium4 ,all these are but modifications of one creative thought1 showing how the ,almighty ,worker delights in repeating the same chord1 with infinite variations4 ,there are marked physical peculiarities1 however1 which distinguish man from the other mammals4 ,thus1 the position of the spinal opening in the middle third of the base of the skull1 thereby balancing the head and admitting an upright posture2 the sigmoid ,s-curve of the vertebral column2 the ability of opposing the well-developed thumb to the fingers2 the shortened foot1 the sole resting flat on the ground2 the size and position of the great toe2 the length of the arms1 reaching halfway from the hip to the knees2 the relatively great development of the brain2 the freedom of the anterior extremities from use in locomotion1 and the consequent erect and biped position4 ,in addition1 man is the only mammal that truly walks2 that is endowed with the power of speech2 and that is cosmopolitan1 readily adapting himself to extremes of heat and cold1 and making his home in all parts of the globe4--,,steele',s ,popular ,zoology4 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,illustration3 ,skeleton of ,orang1 ,chimpanzee1 and ,man4 ,,union ,,of ,,fractures 7p4 #h74--;,in the course of a week after a fracture1 there is a soft yet firm substance1 something between ligament and cartilage in consistence1 which surrounds the broken extremities of the bone1 and adheres to it above and below4 ,the neighboring muscles and tendons are closely attached to its surface1 and the fractured extremities of the bone lie1 as it were1 loose in a cavity in the center1 with a small quantity of vascular albumen1 resembling a semitransparent jelly4 ,here1 then1 is a kind of splint which nature contrives1 and which is nearly completed within a week from the date of the accident4 ,we call this new formation the callus4 ,this process goes on1 the surrounding substance becoming thicker and of still firmer consistence4 ,in the course of a few days more1 the thin jelly which lay in contact with the broken ends of the bone has disappeared1 and its place is supplied by a callus continuous with that which formed the original capsule4 ,this is the termination of the first stage of curative progress4 ,the broken ends of the bones are now completely imbedded in a mass of vascular organized substance or callus1 something between gristle and cartilage in consistence2 and as yet there are no traces of bony matter in it4 ,at this time1 if you remove the adventitious substance1 you will find the broken ends of bone retaining exactly their original figure and presenting the same appearance as immediately after the fracture took place4 ,at the end of about three weeks1 if you make a section of the callus1 minute specks of earthy matter are visible1 deposited in it here and there1 and at the same time some of the callus1 appears to disappear on the outside1 so that the neighboring muscles and tendons no longer adhere to it4 ,the specks of bone become larger and more numerous until they extend into each other2 and thus by degrees the whole of the callus is converted into bone4 ,even at this period1 however1 there is not absolute bony union1 for although the whole of the callus has become bone1 it is not yet identified with the old bone1 and you might still pick it off with a penknife1 leaving the broken extremities not materially altered from what they were immediately after the injury4 ,this may be regarded as the end of the second stage of the process by which a fracture is repaired4 ,now a third series of changes begins to take place4 ,the broken extremities of the bones become intimately united by bony matter passing from one to the other4 ,the mass of new bone on the outside1 formed by the ossification of the callus1 being no longer wanted1 is absorbed2 by degrees the whole of it disappears1 and the bone is left having the same dimensions which it had before the occurrence of the accident4 ,the process of union is completed in young persons sooner than in those advanced in life2 in the upper extremities sooner than in the lower2 and in smaller animals more speedily than in man4 ,in human subjects a broken arm or forearm will be healed in from six to eight weeks1 while a leg or thigh will occupy nine or ten weeks4--,,sir ,b4 ,c4 ,,brodie4 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 a4 ,monkey's ,hand and ,foot4 b4 ,human ,hand and ,foot4 ,,the ,,hand ,,and ,,the ,,foot 7p4 #bl74--,man ,compared with the ,ape4-- ,the peculiar prehensible power possessed by the hand of man is chiefly dependent upon the size and power of the thumb1 which is more developed in him than it is in the highest apes4 ,the thumb of the human hand can be brought into exact opposition to the extremities of all the fingers1 whether singly or in combination2 while in those quadrumana which most nearly approach man1 the thumb is so short1 and the fingers so much elongated1 that their tips can scarcely be brought into opposition2 and the thumb and the fingers are so weak that they can never be opposed to each other with any degree of force4 ,hence1 though well suited to cling round bodies of a certain size1 such as the small branches of trees1 the anterior extremities of the quadrumana can neither seize very minute objects with such precision nor support large ones with such firmness as are essential to the dexterous performance of a variety of operations for which the hand of man is admirably adapted4 ,the human foot is1 in proportion to the size of the whole body1 larger1 broader1 and stronger than that of any other mammal1 save the kangaroo4 ,the surface of the astragalus 7ankle bone7 which articulates with the tibia1 looks almost vertically upward1 and hardly at all inward1 when the sole is flat upon the ground2 and the lateral facets are more nearly at right angles to this surface than in any ape4 ,the plane of the foot is directed at right angles to that of the leg2 and its sole is concave1 so that the weight of the body falls on the summit of an arch1 of which the os calcis 7heel bone7 and the metatarsal bones form the two points of support4 ,this arched form of the foot1 and the contact of the whole plantar surface with the ground1 are particularly noticeable in man1 most of the apes having the os calcis small1 straight1 and more or less raised from the ground1 while they touch1 when standing erect1 with the outer side only of the foot4 ,the function of the hallux1 or great toe1 moreover1 is strikingly contrasted in man and the ape2 for1 while in the latter it is nearly as opposable as the thumb1 and can be used to almost the same extent as an instrument of prehension1 it chiefly serves in the former to extend the basis of support1 and to advance the body in progression4--,,dr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,carpenter4 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,illustration3 ,the ,leg in standing4 ,the ,natural ,flexibility of the ,toes1 and ,how it is ,destroyed4--,we often admire the suppleness of the fingers by means of which we can perform such a variety of acts with swiftness and delicacy4 ,did it ever occur to you that the toes1 which in most feet seem incapable of a free and graceful motion1 even when they are not stiffened and absolutely deformed by the compression of the modern shoe1 are also provided by ,nature with a considerable degree of flexibility8 ,the phalanges of the toes1 though more feebly developed1 have really the same movements among themselves as those of the fingers1 and1 in case of necessity1 their powers can be strengthened and educated to a surprising degree4 ,there are well-known instances of persons who1 born without hands1 or having lost them by accident1 have successfully supplied the deficiency by a cultivated use of their feet4 ,some of these have distinguished themselves in the world of art4 ,who that has been so fortunate as to visit the ,picture ,gallery in ,antwerp on some fine morning when the armless artist1 ,m4 ,felu1 was working at his easel1 can forget the wonderful dexterity with which he wielded his brushes1 mixed the oils on his palette1 and shaded the colors on his canvas1 all with his agile feet8 ,the writer well remembers the ease and grace with which1 at the close of a pleasant interview1 this cultured man put the tip of his foot into his coat pocket1 drew out a visiting card1 wrote his name and address upon it1 and presented it to her between his toes6 ,contrast this intelligent adaptation of a delicate physical mechanism with the barbarous treatment it too commonly receives4 ,the ,chinese are at least consistent4 ,they cripple and distort the feet of their highborn daughters until they crush out all the power and gracefulness of nature in the artificial formation of what they term a golden lily2 but they never expect these golden-lilied women to make their withered feet useful4 ,with us1 on the contrary1 every girl would like to walk well1 to display in her general movements something of the poetry of motion2 yet the absurd and arbitrary fashion of our foot gear not only makes an elastic step one of the rarest of accomplishments1 but renders oftentimes the simple act of walking a painful burden4 ,the calluses1 corns1 bunions1 ingrowing nails1 and repulsive deformities that are caused by and hidden under the narrow- toed1 high-heeled instruments of torture we often wear for fashion's sake are uncomfortable suggestions that our practices are not greatly in advance of those of our ,celestial sisters4 ,dowie1 a sensible ,scotch shoemaker1 satirizes the shape of a fashionable boot as suited only to the foot of a goose with the great toe in the middle4 ,the error which may have led to the adoption of this conventional shape appears to lie in a misconception of the natural formation of the foot1 and of the relation of the two feet to each other4 ,it is true1 that when the toes are covered with their soft parts1 the second toe appears a little longer than the first1 and this appearance1 emphasized and exaggerated1 is perhaps responsible for a practical assumption that ,nature intended an even-sided1 tapering foot4 ,on the contrary1 the natural foot gradually expands in breadth from the instep to the toes and1 in the skeleton itself1 the great toe is the longest4 ,there is no law of beauty1 says ,dr4 ,ellis1 which makes it necessary to reduce the foot to even-sided symmetry4 ,an architect required to provide more space on one than on the other side of a building would not seek to conceal or even to minimize the difference2 he would seek rather to accentuate it1 and give the two sides of the structure distinctive features4444,moreover1 the sense of symmetry is1 or ought to be1 satisfied by the exact correspondence of the two feet1 which1 taken jointly1 may be described as the two halves of an unequally expanded dome4--,e4 ,b4 ,s4 ,,the ,,muscles4 ,,attachment ,,of ,,the ,,muscles ,,to ,,the ,,bones 7p4 #cj74--,one of the two bones to which a muscle is attached is usually less mobile than the other1 so that when the muscle shortens1 the latter is drawn down against the former4 ,in such a case1 the point of attachment of the muscle to the less mobile bone is called its origin1 while the point to which it is fixed on the more mobile bone is called its attachment4444,a muscle is not always extended between two contiguous bones4 ,occasionally1 passing over one bone it attaches itself to the next4 ,this is the case with several muscles which1 originating from the pelvic bone1 pass across the upper thigh bone1 and attach themselves to the lower thigh bone4 ,in such cases the muscle is capable of two different movements3 it can either stretch the knee1 previously bent1 so that the upper and the lower thigh bones are in a straight line2 or it can raise the whole extended leg yet higher1 and bring it nearer to the pelvis4 ,but the points of origin and of attachment of muscles may exchange offices4 ,when both legs stand firmly on the ground1 the above-mentioned muscles are unable to raise the thigh2 instead1 on shortening1 they draw down the pelvis1 which now presents the more mobile point1 and thus bend forward the whole upper part of the body4 ,one important consequence of the attachment of the muscles to the bones is the extension thus effected4 ,if the limb of a dead body is placed in the position which it ordinarily occupied during life1 and if one end of a muscle is then separated from its point of attachment1 it draws itself back1 and becomes shorter4 ,the same thing happens during life1 as is observable in the operation of cutting the tendons1 as practiced by surgeons to cure curvatures4 ,the result being the same during life and after death this phenomenon is evidently due to the action of elasticity4 ,it thus appears that the muscles are stretched by reason of their attachment to the skeleton1 and that1 on account of their elasticity1 they are continually striving to shorten4 ,now1 when several muscles are attached to one bone in such a way that they pull in opposite directions1 the bone must assume a position in which the tension of all the muscles is balanced1 and all these tensions must combine to press together the socketed parts with a certain force1 thus evidently contributing to the strength of the socket connection4444,this balanced position of all the limbs1 which thus depends on the elasticity of the muscles1 may be observed during sleep1 for then all active muscular action ceases4 ,it will be observed that the limbs are then generally slightly bent1 so that they form very obtuse angles to each other4 ,not all muscles are1 however1 extended between bones4 ,the tendons of some pass into soft structures1 such as the muscles of the face4 ,in this case1 also1 the different muscles exercise a mutual power of extension1 though it is but slight1 and they thus effect a definite balanced position of the soft parts1 as may be observed in the position of the mouth opening in the face4--,,rosenthal1 ,muscles and ,nerves4 ,,muscular ,,fibers 7p4 #cl74--,the anatomical composition of flesh is very similar in every kind of creature1 whether it be the muscle of the ox or of the fly2 that is to say1 there are certain tubes which are filled with minute parts or elements1 and the adhesion of the tubes together makes up the substance of the flesh4 ,these tubes may be represented grossly by imagining the finger of a glove1 to be called the sarcolemma1 or muscle- fiber pouch1 and this to be so small as not to be apparent to the naked eye1 but filled with nuclei and the juices peculiar to each animal4 ,hundreds of such fingers attached together would represent a bundle of muscular fibers4 ,the tubes are of fine tissue1 but are tolerably permanent2 whilst the contents are in direct communication with the circulating blood and pursue an incessant course of chemical change and physical renewal4--,,edward ,,smith1 ,foods4 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,illustration3 ,smooth ,muscle ,fibers 7#cjj times enlarged74 ,,the ,,smooth ,,muscle ,,fibers consist of long1 spindle-shaped cells1 the ends of which are frequently spirally twisted1 and in the center of which exists a long1 rod-shaped kernel or nucleus4 ,unlike striated muscle1 they do not form separate muscular masses1 but occur scattered1 or arranged in more or less dense layers or strata1 in almost all organs4 ,footnote3 ,an instance of a considerable accumulation of smooth1 muscle fibers is afforded by the muscle pouch of birds1 which1 with the exception of the outer and inner skin coverings1 consists solely of these fibers collected in extensive layers4 ,arranged in regular order1 they very frequently form widely extending membranes1 especially in such tube-shaped structures as the blood vessels1 the intestine1 etc41 the walls of which are composed of these smooth muscle fibers4 ,in such cases they are usually arranged in two layers1 one of which consists of ring-shaped fibers surrounding the tube1 while the other consists of fibers arranged parallel to the tube4 ,when1 therefore1 these muscle fibers contract1 they are able both to reduce the circumference and to shorten the length of the walls of the tube in which they occur4 ,this is of great importance in the case of the smaller arteries1 in which the smooth muscle fibers1 arranged in the form of a ring1 are able greatly to contract1 or even entirely to close the vessels1 thus regulating the current of blood through the capillaries4 ,in other cases1 as in the intestine1 they serve to set the contents of the tubes in motion4 ,in the latter cases the contraction does not take place simultaneously throughout the length of the tube2 but1 commencing at one point1 it continually propagates itself along fresh lengths of the tube1 so that the contents are slowly driven forward4 ,as a rule1 such parts as are provided only with smooth muscle fibers are not voluntarily movable1 while striated muscle fibers are subject to the will4 ,the latter have1 therefore1 been also distinguished as voluntary1 the former as involuntary muscles4 ,the heart1 however1 exhibits an exception1 for1 though it is provided with striated muscle fibers1 the will has no direct influence upon it1 its motions being exerted and regulated independently of the will4 ,moreover1 the muscle fibers of the heart are peculiar in that they are destitute of sarcolemma1 the naked muscle fibers directly touching each other4 ,this is so far interesting that direct irritations1 if applied to some point of the heart1 are transferred to all the other muscle fibers4 ,in addition to this1 the muscle fibers of the heart are branched1 but such branched fibers occur also in other places2 for example1 in the tongue of the frog1 where they are branched like a tree4 ,smooth muscle fibers being1 therefore1 not subject to the will1 are caused to contract1 either by local irritation1 such as the pressure of the matter contained within the tubes1 or by the nervous system4 ,the contractions of striated muscle fibers are effected1 in the natural course of organic life1 only by the influence of the nerves4--,,rosenthal4 ,,overexertion ,,and ,,personal ,,imprudence 7p4 #dj74--;,among children there is little danger of overexertion4 ,when a little child reaches the point of healthy fatigue1 he usually collapses into rest and sleep4 ,but with youth comes the spirit of ambition and emulation4 ,a lad1 for instance1 is determined to win a race1 to throw his opponent in a football scramble1 to lift a heavier weight than his strength will warrant2 or a girl is stimulated by the passion she may possess for piano playing1 painting1 dancing1 or tennis4 ,the moment of exhaustion comes1 but the end is not accomplished1 and the will goads on the weary muscles1 perhaps to one supreme effort which terminates in a sharp and sudden illness1 perhaps to days and weeks of continued and incessant application1 during which the whole system is undermined4 ,thus is laid the foundation for a feeble and suffering maturity4 ,to elderly people1 overexertion has peculiar dangers1 dependent largely upon the changes which gradually take place in the tissues of the body4 ,the walls of the blood vessels become less and less elastic1 and more and more brittle1 as life advances1 until at last they are ready to give way from any severe or unusual pressure4 ,we constantly see old people hastening their death by personal imprudence4 ,an old gentleman running to catch the morning train2 an old farmer hastening to turn the strayed sheep out of a cornfield2 the old sportsman having a last run with the hounds2 the last pull at the oars2 the last attempt of old age to play at vigorous manhood4 ,a prominent ,american physician has said that between the ages of forty and fifty every wise man will have ceased to run to catch trains or street cars2 and that between fifty and sixty he will have permanently discarded haste of all kinds4 ,equal precautions should be observed by both young and old1 but especially by those advanced in life1 in regard to extremes of heat1 cold1 or storm4 ,william ,cullen ,bryant1 by exposing himself to a scorching sun and refusing to permit a friend to protect him with an umbrella while delivering an address in ,central ,park1 received injuries to his system that carried him to his grave4 ,ralph ,waldo ,emerson1 by standing in a chilling wind1 contracted a cold and died4 ,george ,dawson1 by going thoughtlessly into a freezing atmosphere from the sweltering rooms of a crowded reception1 took cold which resulted in pneumonia and death4 ,matthew ,arnold1 for years a sufferer from heart difficulty1 in a single instance neglected the advice of his physician not to indulge in any violent exercise1 made repeated attempts and finally succeeded in jumping a fence1 and in a few hours was a dead man4 ,roscoe ,conkling braved the most terrible blizzard ever known in the east and sacrificed his life4 ,and yet1 these were all men of exceptional prudence4 ,probably no other five persons in the world of like surroundings and vocations were more careful of their health4 ,in an unguarded moment their prudence left them1 and they paid the terrible penalty4--,compiled4 ,,effects ,,of ,,insufficient ,,outdoor ,,exercise ,,upon ,,the ,,young 7p4 #da74--;,children deprived of adequate outdoor exercise are always delicate1 pale1 and tender2 or1 in a figurative sense1 they are like the sprig of vegetation in a dark1 dank hole1--bleached and spindling4444,an inactive indoor life is one of the most effectual ways of weakening the young body4 ,it renders the growth unnaturally soft and tender1 and thus susceptible to harm from the slightest causes4 ,it hinders the garnering of strength necessary for a long life1 and gives to the germs of disease a resistless power over an organization so weak and deficient4444,measles1 scarlet fever1 and diphtheria find among such a congenial soil1 and run riot among the elements of the body held together by so frail a thread4444,such children are always at the mercy of the weather4 ,colds and coughs are standard disorders in winter1 headaches and habitual languor in summer4444,the scapegoat for this result is the climate3 if that was only better1 mothers are sure their children's health would also be better4 ,no1 it would not be better3 no earthly climate is good enough to preserve health and strength under such unnatural training4444,children of the laboring classes1 often dirty and imperfectly clad1 seldom have colds1 simply for the reason that1 for the greater part of the day1 they have the freedom of the streets4 ,it is not the dirt1 it is not the rags1 but the life-giving force of an active outdoor life that renders such children so strong and healthy4 --,,black1 ,ten ,laws of ,health4 ,,popular ,,modes ,,of ,,outdoor ,,exercise 7p4 #db74--,walking4--,every person has his own particular step1 caused by the conformity1 shape1 and length of his bones1 and the height of his body4 ,such a thing1 then1 as a regulation step is unnatural1 and any attempt at equalizing the step of individuals of different heights must result in a loss of power4 ,the moment1 also1 that walking comes to be uphill1 fatigue is sensibly increased4 ,the center of gravity of the body is changed1 and the muscular force necessary to provide for the change causes the fixing of the diaphragm1 and a rigid condition of many muscles4 ,respiration is interfered with1 owing to the fixing of the diaphragm1 and the heart becomes affected thereby4 ,a person with a sensitive or diseased heart can1 during a walk1 tell when the slightest rise in the ground occurs4 ,we make climbing more exhausting from the habit we have of suspending the breath4 ,let the reader hold his breath and run up twenty-four steps of a stair1 and then perform the same act breathing freely and deeply4 ,it will be found that by the first act marked breathlessness will be induced1 whereas by the latter the effect is much less4 ,this management of the breath constitutes the difference between the beginner and the experienced athlete4 ,the enormous increase of the quantity of air consumed during exercise will at once bring home a number of lessons4 ,one is1 that exercise is best taken in the open air1 and not in gymnasia2 another1 that free play to act for the regions of the chest and abdomen must be given4 ,on no account must a tight belt be worn around the soft-walled abdomen4 ,if a belt is preferred to braces1 let it be applied below the top of the haunch bone1 where the bones can resist the pressure4 ,whatever may be the pastimes indulged in by young men1 walking should never be neglected4 ,the oarsman will become stale unless the method of exercise is varied2 the gymnast will develop the upper part of his body1 while his lower extremities will remain spindleshanks4 ,so with all other forms of exercise2 success1 in any form of game1 sport1 or gymnastic training1 can not be attained unless walking be freely taken4 ,skating is simply an exaggerated swinging walk1 with this difference1 that the foot on which one rests is not stationary1 but moves along at a rapid rate4 ,the benefit to the circulation1 respiration1 and digestion is even greater in skating than in walking4 ,the dangers from skating are3 #a4 ,the giving way of the ice4 ,great caution should be used in regard to the safety of a frozen pond or river4 #b4 ,taking cold from becoming overheated1 and from subsequent inactive exposure4 ,physiological knowledge will teach people that1 when they begin to skate1 outer wraps should be laid aside1 and again put on when skating is finished4 #c4 ,sprains1 especially of the ankle1 and other minor accidents arising from falls4 ,ankle boots with strong uppers should be worn during skating4 ,those who have weak ankles ought to wear skates with ankle straps and buckles1 acme skates being relegated to those who are not afraid of going over their foot4 ,rowing4--,the muscles employed in rowing may be summed up under two heads--those that are used in the forward swing1 and those used in the backward4 ,in the forward swing all the joints of the lower extremity1 the hip1 knee1 and ankle1 are flexed2 the shoulder is brought forward2 the elbow is straightened2 and the wrist is first extended and then flexed1 in feathering the oar4 ,the body is bent forward by the muscles in front of the abdomen and spinal column4 ,in the backward movement the reverse takes place2 the lower extremity1 the hip1 knee1 and ankle are straightened2 the shoulder is pulled back2 the elbow is flexed2 and the wrist is held straight4 ,the body is bent backward by the muscles at the lower part of the back1 and by those of the spine in general4 ,it will be seen that the enormous number of joints put into use1 and the varying positions employed1 call into play nearly every muscle of the limbs and trunk4 ,rowing gives more work to the muscles of the back than any other kind of exercise4 ,this is of the first importance to both men and women1 but especially to women4 ,the chief work of the muscles of the back is to support the body in the erect position1 and the better they are developed the better will the carriage be1 and the less likelihood of stooping shoulders1 contracted chests1 and the like4 ,now1 the work of the muscles in supporting the body is largely relegated in women to the stays1 and1 in consequence1 the muscles undergo wasting and fatty degeneration1 in fact1 atrophy2 so that when the stays are left off1 the muscles are unfit to support the body4 ,rowing exercises these muscles condemned to waste1 and imparts a natural carriage to the girl's frame4 ,in rowing1 as in horseback riding1 the clothing should be loose1 stays left off1 and flannels worn next the skin4 ,the dress itself should be of woolen1 and there should always be in the boat a large wrap to use when one stops rowing4 ,the following practical rules should be observed by rowers3 #a4 ,never row after a full meal4 #b4 ,stop when fatigue comes on4 #c4 ,allow the breath to escape while the oar is in the water4 ,a novice usually holds his breath at each stroke1 and pulls so rapidly that in a few minutes he becomes breathless1 and is forced to stop4 ,not only is this uncomfortable1 but it is dangerous4 ,in the case of both young and old1 it may give rise to an abdominal rupture 7hernia71 dilation of the cavities of the heart1 rupture of a heart valve1 varicose veins1 etc4 ,instead of fixing the diaphragm and holding the breath during the time of pulling1 as novices are apt to do1 do exactly the opposite4 ,let the diaphragm go loose1 and allow the breath to escape4 #d4 ,change the clothing from the skin outward as soon as the day's rowing is finished4 #e4 ,before retiring for the night1 have a warm bath1 temperature #ib ,fahr4 ,this is a specific against the aches and muscular stiffness which often follow a long pull on the water4 ,swimming4--,a word of warning is necessary in regard to those learning to swim in rivers4 ,boys at school1 when they take to river bathing1 often carry it to a dangerous extent4 ,they get into the water1 and now in1 now out on the bank1 sometimes remain for hours4 ,this may take place day after day1 and if the weather continues warm and the holidays last long enough1 the boy may reduce himself to the lowest ebb of feebleness1 and possibly develop the seeds of latent disease4 ,he may even die from the effects of this prolonged immersion and madcap exposure4 ,the muscular exertion undergone during swimming1 especially by those who swim only occasionally1 is very great4 ,the experienced swimmer conserves his strength1 as do proficients at all feats1 but the occasional swimmer1 like the occasional rower1 puts forth treble the energy required1 and soon becomes exhausted4 ,in the first place1 it is a new act for the muscles to perform2 they are taken off from the beaten tracks1 and are grouped together in new associations2 hence they lack adjustment and adaptation4 ,again1 as in other feats for which one is untrained1 the heart and lungs do not work in time4 ,ease and speed in swimming depend upon the attainment of harmony in the working of the muscles1 heart1 and lungs4 ,diving is an accomplishment attached to swimming1 which involves many dangers1 and is well-nigh useless4 ,the customary dive off a springboard into the shallow water of a swimming bath is dangerous in the extreme4 ,the only place where diving should be attempted is into deep water1 at least fifteen or twenty feet1 where there is no danger of striking the bottom4 ,lawn ,tennis4--,of all modern inventions in the way of games1 lawn tennis is the best4 ,the dangers attendant on lawn tennis are3-- #a4 ,overexertion1 causing rupture and deranged circulation1 especially in the case of those with weak hearts1 or those who1 being out of condition1 or too fat1 suddenly engage in the game too long or too violently4 #b4 ,rupture of the tendon of ,achilles1 from taking a sudden bound4 ,in such an accident the subject falls down1 with a sensation as if struck with a club on the leg4 #c4 ,rupture of one of the heads of the biceps in the arm4 ,here the arm drops helplessly1 and a muscular knob rises up on the inner and upper part of the arm4 #d4 ,the tennis arm4 ,this trouble arises from the method of manipulating the bat4 ,the pain is felt over the upper end of the radius4 ,many of the strains1 ruptured tendons1 and torn muscles in tennis players are caused by the want of heels to tennis shoes4 ,as1 ordinarily1 we walk on heels which vary from half an inch to an inch1 there must be a considerable extra strain thrown on the muscles of the calf of the leg1 when the heels are left off4 ,especially during a sudden spring is this apparent1 when to rise from off the heels on to the toes requires a greatly increased force4 ,tennis shoes should therefore have fairly deep1 broad heels4 ,horseback ,riding is a mixed exercise1 partly active and partly passive1 the lower parts of the body being in some measure employed1 while the upper parts in easy cantering are almost wholly relaxed4 ,it is peculiarly suited to dyspeptics1 from its direct action upon the abdominal viscera1 the contents of which are stimulated by the continued agitation and succussion1 consequent on the motion in riding4 ,bicycling and ,tricycling4--,while strongly recommending bicycling and tricycling to both men and women in health1 those suffering from heart or lung affections1 ruptures1 scrofula1 joint disease1 or like maladies1 should not indulge in them without medical sanction4 ,for abdominal complaints1 such as dyspepsia1 congestion of the liver1 constipation1 and the like1 the exercise is excellent4 ,baseball is an essentially ,american game1 which brings into play nearly all the muscles of the body4 ,its chief danger lies in being hit by the hard1 forcibly pitched ball1 and1 for weak persons1 in the violence of the exercise4 ,football is a rough-and-tumble game1 suited only to that class of boys and men1 who1 brimming over with animal life1 take small heed of the accidents liable to occur4 ,light and ,heavy ,gymnastics4--,for wet weather1 and when outdoor exercise is not practicable1 gymnastics are most advisable4 ,boys and girls1 at the age of fifteen or sixteen1 often shoot up and become tall and lanky2 they want filling out1 and are troubled with growing pains4 ,even men1 when tall and thin1 are seldom very erect1 their muscles are too weak2 and there is only one way of overcoming this weakness--by exercising them4 ,nothing more is wanted than a pair of very light ,indian clubs1 a pair of light wooden dumb bells1 a long wooden rod1 and a pair of wooden rings1--the last for combined exercises4 ,indeed1 a systematic motion of the body itself1 without any extra artificial resistance1 is quite sufficient for the purposes of physical education4 ,in nearly all our large cities are found gymnasia1 provided with competent instructors1 and every facility for both light and heavy gymnastics4 ,exercise in a gymnasium is open to the objection of being too brief and too severe1 and of simply causing an increase of muscular development4 ,besides1 it is generally unequal in its results1 being better adapted to the cultivation of strength in the upper extremities and portion of the body than in the lower4 ,nevertheless1 during inclement weather1 or with persons in whom the muscles of the arms and chest are defective1 moderate gymnastic exercise is far better than no exercise4--,compiled4 7,mostly from ,the ,influence of ,exercise in ,the ,book of ,health47 ,,the ,,skin4 ,,the ,,hair 7p4 #eb74--;,baldness1 and its ,causes4--,various reasons are assigned for the baldness which is so prevalent among comparatively young men in our country4 ,one writer says3 ,the premature baldness and grayness of the ,americans as a people is in great measure owing to the nonobservance of hygienic rules1 and to excess of mental and physical labor in a climate foreign to the race4 ,others attribute it to the close unventilated hats commonly worn by men4 ,dr4 ,nichols1 in the ,popular ,science ,news1 gives his opinion thus3 ,in our view1 it is largely due to modern methods of treatment of the hair and scalp4 ,the erroneous idea prevails1 that the skin which holds the hair follicles and the delicate secretory organs of the scalp must be kept as 'clean1' so to speak1 as the face or hands2 consequently young men patronize barbers or hairdressers1 and once or twice a week they have what is called a 'shampoo' operation performed4 ,this consists in a thorough scouring of the hair and scalp with dilute ammonia1 water1 and soap1 so that a heavy 'lather' is produced1 and the glandular secretions1 which are the natural protection of the hair1 and promotive of its growth1 are saponified and removed4 ,no act could be more directly destructive of a healthy growth of hair than this4444,women do not shampoo or wash the hair as often as the other sex1 and consequently they are in a large degree exempt from baldness in middle life4 ,it is true1 however1 that many women in cities make frequent visits to the hairdressers1 and subject their tresses to the 'scouring' process4 ,if this becomes common1 it will not be long before baldness will overtake the young mothers as well as the fathers1 and the time will be hastened when even children will have no hair to destroy with ammonia or other caustic cosmetics4 ,the advice we have to offer to young men and maidens is1--let your hair alone2 keep at a safe distance from hair-dressing rooms and drug shops1 where are sold oils1 alkaline substances1 alcoholic mixtures1 etc41 for use upon the hair4 ,they are all pernicious1 and will do you harm4 ,the head and hair may be washed occasionally with soft1 tepid water1 without soap of any kind4 ,as a rule1 the only appliances needed in the care of the hair are good combs and brushes3 and they should not be used harshly1 so as to wound the scalp4 ,avoid all 'electric' and wire-made brushes4 ,no electricity can be stored in a hairbrush3 if it could be1 it is not needed4 ,sudden ,blanching of the ,hair from ,violent ,emotions4--,the color of the hair depends mainly upon the presence of pigment granules1 which range in tint from a light yellow to an intense black4 ,a recent investigator has succeeded in extracting the coloring matter of the hair1 and has found that all the different shades are produced by the mixture of three primary colors--red1 yellow1 and black4 ,in the pure golden yellow hair there is only the yellow pigment2 in red hair the red pigment is mixed with more or less yellow1 producing the various shades of red and orange2 in dark hair the black is always mixed with yellow and red1 but the latter are overpowered by the black2 and it seems that even the blackest hair1 such as that of the negro1 contains as much red pigment as the very reddest hair4 ,hence1 if in the negro the black pigment had not been developed1 the hair of all negroes would be a fiery red4--,,dr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,,leonard4 ,the ,hair3 ,its ,diseases and ,treatment4 ,the gradual disappearance of this pigment causes the gray or white hair of old age4 ,this natural change in color does not necessarily denote loss of vitality in the hair1 as it often continues to grow as vigorously as before it began to whiten4 ,cases of sudden blanching of the hair from extreme grief or terror are often quoted1--those of ,sir ,thomas ,more and of ,marie ,antoinette being well-known instances in point4 ,an interesting circumstance has been discovered with regard to such cases1 namely1 that the change of color is not dependent upon the disappearance of the pigment of the hair1 which always takes place slowly1 but upon the sudden development in its interior of a number of air bubbles1 that hide and destroy the effect of the pigment1 which itself remains unaltered4 ,dr4 ,landois mentions the case of a ,german printer whom he attended1 at a hospital1 in the summer of #ahfe4 ,this man had long been intemperate in his habits1 in consequence of which he was seized with delirium tremens4 ,the delirium1 as is usual in such cases1 was of an extremely terrifying nature1 and lasted four days4 ,on the evening of the fourth day the hair was unaltered1 but on the morning of the fifth the delirium had disappeared1 and his hair1 which previously was fair1 had become gray4 ,it was examined with the microscope1 when it was found that the pigment was still present1 but that the central streak of each was filled with air bubbles4 ,how this superabundance of air finds its way into the hair in these cases of sudden blanching1 physiologists have not yet been able satisfactorily to explain4--,in this connection1 however1 it may be observed that air bubbles exist1 more or less1 in all hair1 mingled with the pigment granules4 ,the feathers of birds owe their bright colors to an oily secretion corresponding to the pigment in hair1 and microscopical observation has revealed the fact that when these colors fade the oily secretion disappears1 and is replaced by air4 ,that extreme terror may blanch feathers as well as hair is shown in the case of a poor little starling1 which upon being rescued from the claws of a cat became suddenly white4 ,,the ,,nails 7p4 #ed74--,the nails are mere modifications of the scarfskin1 their horny appearance and feeling being due to the fact that the scales or plates of which they are composed are much harder and more closely packed4 ,the root of the nail lies embedded1 to the extent of about the twelfth part of an inch1 in a fold of the sensitive skin1 and1 as may be observed from an inspection of the part1 the scarfskin is not exactly continuous with the nail1 but projects a little above it1 forming a narrow margin4 ,the nail1 like the scarfskin1 rests upon1 and is intimately connected with1 a structure almost identical with the sensitive skin2 this is1 however1 thrown into ridges1 which run parallel to one another1 except at the back part1 where they radiate from the center of the root4 ,on examining the surface of the nail1 a semicircular whitish portion is detected near its root2 its color is dependent upon the fact that the ridges there contain fewer blood vessels1 and therefore less blood1 and on account of its half-moon shape it is called the lunula4 ,the nail is constantly increasing in length1 owing to the formation of new cells at the root1 which push it forward1 while the increase in its thickness is due to the secretion of new cells from the sensitive layer beneath1 so that the farther the nail grows from the root1 the thicker it becomes4 ,its nutrition1 and consequently its growth1 suffers in disease1 the portion growing during disease being thinner than that growing in health2 and accordingly a transverse groove is seen upon the nail1 corresponding to the time of an illness4 ,it will thus be seen that by a mere examination of the nail we can astonish our friends by telling them when they have been ill2 and it has been estimated that the nail of the thumb grows from its root to its free extremity in five months1 that of the great toe in twenty months1 so that a transverse groove in the middle of the former indicates an illness about two and a half months before1 and in the middle of the latter1 about ten months4 ,the culture of the nails1 which when perfect constitute so great a beauty1 is of much importance2 but the tendency is to injure them by too much attention4 ,the scissors should never be used except to pare the free edges when they have become ragged or too long1 and the folds of scarfskin which overlap the roots should not1 as a rule1 be touched1 unless they be frayed1 when the torn edges may be snipped off1 so as to prevent their being torn further1 which may cause much pain1 and even inflammation4 ,the upper surfaces of the nails should on no account be touched with the knife1 as is so often done1 the nailbrush being amply sufficient to keep them clean1 without impairing their smooth and polished surfaces4--,,hinton4 ,,baths ,,and ,,bathing 7p4 #fe74--,physical ,cleanliness ,promotes ,moral ,purity4--,the old adage that cleanliness is next to godliness1 must have had its origin in the feeling of moral elevation which generally accompanies scrupulous bodily purity4 ,frequent bathing promotes purity of mind and morals4 ,the man who is accustomed to be physically clean shrinks instinctively from contact with all uncleanliness4 ,personal neatness1 when grown into a habit1 draws after it so many excellences1 that it may well be called a social virtue4 ,without it1 refined intercourse would be impossible2 for its neglect not only indicates a want of proper self- respect1 but a disrespect of the feelings of others which argues a low tone of the moral sense4 ,all nations1 as they advance in civilization and refinement of manners1 pay increased attention to the purity of the person4 ,what1 then1 shall we say of people who1 after all that has been said and written upon the subject1 seldom or never bathe1 who allow the pores of the skin to get blocked up with a combination of dust and perspired matter1 which is as effectual in its way as plaster to the walls of a building8 ,could they but once be tempted to taste the delights which arise from a perfectly clean and well-acting skin3 the cheerfulness1 nay1 the feeling of moral as well as physical elevation1 which accompanies the sense of that cleanliness1 they would soon esteem the little time and trouble spent in the bath1 and in the proper care of the surface of the body1 as time and labor very well spent--,,dr4 ,,strange4 ,the feet1 particularly1 should receive daily attention1 if it be no more than a vigorous rubbing with a wet cloth1 followed by a dry one4 ,after a long walk1 also1 nothing is more refreshing1 especially in summer1 than a generous footbath in cool or tepid water1 followed by an entire change in shoes and stockings4 ,this is really a necessary precaution1 if the feet have become wet from the dampness of the ground2 and if the walk has heated the body so that the stockings are moist with perspiration1 it is not only an act of prudence1 but an instinct of personal neatness4 ,ancient ,greek and ,roman ,baths4--,from the earliest historic times the necessity for frequent and thorough ablution has been recognized by artificial provisions for this purpose4 ,the ,greeks had steaming baths and fragrant anointing oils1 as far back as ,homer's time1 a thousand years before ,christ1 but the ,romans surpassed all preceding and subsequent nations by their magnificent and luxuriously equipped ,therm1 in which a bath cost less than a cent1 and was often free4 ,a full ,roman bath included hot air1 dry rubbing1 hot1 tepid1 and cold water immersions1 scraping with bronze instruments1 and anointing with precious perfumes4 ,the ,modern ,russian and ,turkish baths are the nearest approaches we have to the ,roman bath4 ,these are found in nearly all our larger cities4 ,the ,turkish ,bath is conducted in a modified form in this country1 generally with hot air instead of steam4 ,its frequent use not only tends to keep the body in a state of perfect cleanliness1 but it imparts a clear1 fresh color to the complexion which is hardly attained by other means4 ,its most important effect1 says a writer in the ,popular ,science ,monthly1 is the stimulation of the emunctory action of the skin4 ,by this means we are enabled to wash as it were the solid and fluid tissues1 and especially the blood and skin1 by passing water through them from within outward to the surface of the body4 ,hence1 in practice1 one of the most essential requisites is copious draughts of water during the sweating4 ,during the operation of a ,turkish bath1 the novice is often astonished at the amount of effete matter eliminated from the pores of the skin4 ,a surprising quantity of scarfskin1 which no washing could remove1 peels off1 especially if a glove of camel's-hair or goat's-hair be used1 as they are in the ,east1 where also the soles of the feet are scraped with pumice4 ,the deposit of this skin of only a week's date1 when collected1 is often as large as one's fist4 ,much more solid matter is contained in the perspiration of those who take the bath for the first time1 or after a long interval4 ,nothing escapes through the skin1 save what is noxious if retained4 ,this bath should never be used in case of advanced lung diseases1 great debility1 acute inflammations1 or persons who labor under any form of heart disease2 but ,i think its influence is directly curative in rheumatic1 gouty1 and scrofulous affections1 some skin diseases1 and the earlier stages of feverish colds and ague4 ,it is said to have calming effects in the treatment of insanity1 and the use of it was suggested from the heavy smell the skin of persons thus afflicted often has4--,,mapother',s ,lectures on ,public ,health4 ,a somewhat heroic bath1 used in ,siberia to drive away a threatened fever1 consists of a thorough parboiling1 within an inch or two of a steaming furnace1 after which the subject is drubbed and flogged for about half an hour with a bundle of birch twigs1 leaf and all4 ,a douche of cold water is then dashed over the exhausted bather1 when he is ready to be put into bed4 ,sea ,bathing4--,before the age of seven years1 and after fifty-five1 sea baths should be used with the greatest caution4 ,all persons unaccustomed to sea bathing should begin with a warm or tepid bath1 in doors1 proceeding by degrees to the cold indoor bath1 and then to the open sea4 ,the sea bath should be taken1 if possible1 when the sun is shining1 when the water has been warmed by contact with the heated sands1 and never during the digestion of the principal meal1 or late in the evening4 ,immediately on plunging into the water1 which need not1 except in persons of full habit1 cover the head1 brisk motion of some kind should be used4 ,those who can swim should do so2 those who can not1 should make as much exertion of the limbs as possible1 or rub the body with their hands4 ,the delicate1 and particularly those who are recovering from illness1 should remove from the bath as soon as the glow arrives2 or1 if that be not felt at all1 then after one plunge4 ,danger in ,bathing when ,overheated4--,it is unwise to bathe when copious perspiration has continued for an hour or more1 unless the heat of the weather be excessive1 or the sweating has been induced by loading with clothes1 rather than by exertion4 ,when much perspiration has been produced by muscular exercise1 it is unsafe to bathe1 because the body is so fatigued and exhausted1 that the reaction can not be insured1 and the effect may be to congest the internal organs1 and notably the nerve centers4 ,the latter gives cramp4 ,if the weather be chilly1 or there be a cold wind1 so that the body may be rapidly cooled at the surface while undressing1 it is not safe to bathe4 ,under such conditions1 the further chill of immersion in cold water will take place at the precise moment at which the reaction consequent upon the chill of exposure by undressing ought to take place1 and this second chill will not only delay or altogether prevent the reaction1 but will convert the bath from a mere stimulant to a depressant1 ending in the abstraction of a large amount of animal heat and congestion of the internal organs and nerve centers4 ,the aim must be to avoid two chills1 and to make sure that the body is in such a condition as to secure a quick reaction on emerging from the water1 without relying too much on the possible effect of friction by rubbing4 ,the actual temperature of the water does not affect the question so much as its relative temperature in comparison with that of the surrounding air4 ,it ought to be much lower than that of the air4 ,these maxims receive a striking reenforcement from the case of a young soldier who a few days ago plunged into the river near ,manchester1 ,england1 after having heated himself by rowing4 ,he was immediately taken with cramps1 and was drowned4 ,when taken out1 his body was found twisted1 and the vessels of his head showed every evidence of congestion4--,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,september1 #ahhc4 ,bather's ,cramp4--,cramp is a painful and tonic muscular spasm4 ,it may occur in any part of the body1 but it is especially apt to take place in the lower extremities1 and in its milder forms it is limited to a single muscle4 ,the pain is severe1 and the contracted muscles are hard and exquisitely tender4 ,in a few minutes the spasm and pain cease1 leaving a local sensation of fatigue and soreness4 ,when cramp affects only one extremity1 no swimmer or bather endowed with average presence of mind need drown2 but when cramp seizes the whole of the voluntary muscular system1 as it probably does in the worst cases1 nothing in the absence of prompt and efficient extraneous assistance can save the individual from drowning4 ,footnote3 ,even this is often unavailable1 as in the case of the ,cornell ,university postgraduate drowned in ,hall ,creek1 ,ithaca1 ,june #aj1 #ahhh4 ,in this instance the day was hot and oppressive1 and the victim sank soon after entering the water4 ,his companions at once hastened to his relief1 and recovered his body in a few minutes4 ,professor ,wilder1 of the ,university1 was hurriedly summoned1 and every possible method was resorted to in order to induce respiration1 but the vital spark had fled4 ,an attack of cramps is supposed to have been the cause of drowning4 ,prolongation of muscular exertion1 as in continued swimming1 and forcible and sudden muscular exertion1 as in swimming with very vigorous and rapid strokes1 are efficient and frequent causes of cramp4 ,these muscular conditions1 however1 usually give rise only to the slighter and more localized forms4 ,serious cramp is a peril which menaces most persons with highly developed muscles4 ,its most powerful and most avoidable cause is the sudden immersion of the body1 when its surface is highly heated1 in water of a relatively low temperature4--,popular ,science ,news4 ,protection of the ,ear in ,sea ,bathing4--,special attention should be paid by bathers to the exclusion of salt water from the mouth and ears4 ,many cases of inflammation of the ear1 followed by severe and lasting trouble1 even to deafness1 are chargeable to the neglect of this precaution4 ,incoming waves should never be received in the face or the ears1 and the sea water which enters the ears when floating or diving should be wiped out by soft cotton2 indeed1 the best plan is to plug the openings of the ears with cotton1 which is to be kept there during the bath4--,science4 ,how one who ,knows not how to ,swim can ,escape ,drowning4--,it is well for every one to learn the art of swimming1 yet it is a knowledge possessed by comparatively few people4 ,mr4 ,henry ,mac,cormac1 a writer in ,nature1 gives some common sense instructions that1 if heeded1 may be of great service to those persons who1 not knowing how to swim1 may find themselves accidentally precipitated into the water4 ,we condense from his article1 adding some directions1 as follows3 ,in order to escape drowning1 it is necessary only to do as the brute does1 namely1 to walk or tread the water4 ,the brute has no advantage over man in regard to his relative weight1 and yet the man perishes while the brute survives4 ,the ignorance of so simple a possibility as that of treading water strikes me as one of the most singular things in the history of man4 ,perhaps something is to be ascribed to the vague meaning which is attached to the word ,swim4 ,the dog is wholly incapable of swimming as a man swims1 but nothing is more certain than that a man1 without previous training or instruction1 can swim just as a dog swims1 and that by so doing without fear or hesitancy1 he will be just as safe as is the dog4 ,the brute thus circumstanced continues to go on all fours1 as if he were on land1 keeping his head well out of the water4 ,so with the man who wishes to save his life and can not otherwise swim4 ,he must strike alternately1 with hand and foot1--one1 two1 one1 two1--without hurry or precipitation1 exactly as the brute does4 ,whether he be provided with paw or hoof1 the beast swims with perfect ease and buoyancy4 ,so1 too1 can the human being1 if he will1 with the further immense advantage of having a paddle-formed hand1 and of being able1 when tired1 to rest himself by floating1 an act of which the animal has no conception4 ,the printed direction should be pasted up in all boathouses1 on every boat1 at every bathing place1 and in every school3 ,tread water when you find yourself out of your depth4 ,this is all that need be said1 unless1 indeed1 we add3 ,float when you are tired4 ,to float1 one needs only to turn upon his back1 keeping--as always when in the water--the mouth and chin well up and the lungs full of air4--,every one of us1 of whatever age and however encumbered with clothing1 may tread water1 even in a breaking sea1 with as much facility as a fourfooted animal4 ,the position of the water treader is1 really1 very much safer and better than the sprawling attitude of the ordinary swimmer4 ,but the chief advantage lies in the fact that we can tread water without preliminary teaching1 whereas1 though we recommend all to learn how to swim1 it involves time and pains1 entails considerable fatigue1 and is1 after all1 very seldom adequately acquired4 ,,hints ,,on ,,clothing 7p4 #fg74--;,advantages of ,woolen ,fabrics4--,wool is more irritating than cotton1 on account of the stiffness of the hairs with which it bristles2 but the excitation it produces becomes a therapeutic means whenever the skin needs a stimulant4 ,the use of wool is particularly desirable in some countries and under some conditions of life4 ,professor ,brocchi1 a writer well known for his investigations in malaria1 attributes the good health and vigor of the ancient ,romans to their habit of wearing coarse woolen clothes2 when they began to disuse them1 and to wear lighter goods and silks1 they became less vigorous and less able to resist the morbid influence of bad air4 ,it was at about the time the women began to dress in notably fine tissues that the insalubrity of the ,roman air began first to be complained of4 ,in the ,english army and navy1 says ,dr4 ,balestra1 the soldiers of garrisons in unhealthy places are obliged constantly to wear wool next to the skin1 and to cover themselves with sufficient clothing1 for protection against paludine fevers1 dysentery1 cholera1 and other diseases4 ,according to ,patissier1 similar measures have been found effectual in preserving the health of workmen employed on dikes1 canals1 and ditches1 in marshy lands2 while1 previous to the employment of these precautions1 mortality from fevers was considerable among them4 ,dr4 ,balestra has proved by direct experiments in marshy regions that thick and hairy woolen garments arrest in their down a portion of the germs borne in by the air1 which thus reaches the skin filtered and purified4 ,the ancient ,romans wore ample over-garments over their tunics1 and never put them away4 ,it is no less important to be well covered during the night2 and precautions of this kind should be recommended to all who live in a swampy country4 ,we are sometimes astonished when we see the natives of particularly warm countries enveloped in woolen1 as the ,arab in his burnoose1 or the ,spanish peasant in his tobacco-colored cloak4 ,such materials protect both against the rays of the sun and against the coolness of the night1 and are excellent regulators of heat4 ,it is dangerously imprudent to travel in southern countries without provision of warm clothing4--,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 ,weight is not ,warmth4--,while speaking of the warmth of clothing for inclement weather1 it would be incorrect not to speak of weight in relation to warmth4 ,many persons mistake weight for warmth1 and thus feeble people are actually borne down and weakened by the excess of heavy clothing which is piled on them4 ,good woolen or fur fabrics retain the heat1 and yet are light4 ,when fabrics intended for sustaining warmth are made up of cotton1 the mistake of accepting weight for warmth is made4 ,the same errors are often made in respect to bed coverings1 and with the same results4 ,poisonously ,dyed ,clothing4--,the introduction of wearing apparel1 socks1 stockings1 and flannels which have been made1 by new processes of dyeing1 to assume a rich red or yellow color1 has led to a local disease of the skin1 attended1 in rare cases1 with slight constitutional symptoms4 ,this disease is due to the dyestuffs4 ,the chief poisonous dyes are the red and yellow coralline1 substances derived from that series of chemical bodies which have been obtained of late years from coal tar1 and commonly known as the aniline series4 ,the coloring principle is extremely active as a local poison4 ,it induces on the skin a reddish1 slightly raised eruption of minute round pimples which stud the reddened surface1 and which1 if the irritation be severe and long-continued1 pass into vesicles discharging a thin watery ichor and producing a superficial sore4 ,the disease is readily curable if the cause of it be removed1 and1 as a general rule1 it is purely local in character4 ,i have1 however1 once seen it pass beyond the local stage4 ,a young gentleman consulted me for what he considered was a rapidly developed attack of erysipelas on the chest and back4 ,he was1 indeed1 covered with an intensely red rash1 and he was affected with nervous symptoms1 with faintness and depression of pulse1 of a singular and severe kind4 ,i traced both the local eruption and the general malady to the effect of the organic dye in a red woolen chest and back comforter4 ,on removing the comforter all the symptoms ceased4 ,similar and even fatal cases have been known from the wearing of highly colored hose4 ,uncleanliness of ,dress4--,uncleanly attire creates conditions favorable to disease4 ,clothing worn too long at a time becomes saturated with the excretions and exhalations of the body1 and1 by preventing the free transpiration from the surface of the skin1 induces oppression of the physical powers and mental inactivity4 ,this observation will be accepted by most persons as true in respect to underclothing2 it is equally true in regard to those outer garments which are often worn1 unremittingly1 until the linings1 torn and soiled1 are unfit altogether for contact with the cleaner garments beneath them4 ,health will not be clothed in dirty raiment4 ,they who wear such raiment suffer from trains of minor complaints2 from oppression1 dullness1 headache1 nausea1 which1 though trifling in themselves1 taken one by one1 when put together greatly reduce that standard of perfect health by which the value of life is correctly and effectively maintained4--,,richardson4 ,,respiration4 ,,the ,,vocal ,,organs4--,musical ,tones in ,speaking 7p4 #gf74--,voice is divided into singing and speaking voice4 ,one differs from the other almost as much as noises do from musical sounds4 ,in speaking1 the sounds are too short to be easily appreciable1 and are not separated by fixed and regular intervals1 like those of singing2 they are linked together1 generally by insensible transitions2 they are not united by the fixed relations of the gamut1 and can only be noted with difficulty4 ,that it is the short duration of speaking sounds which distinguished them from those of singing1 is proved by this1 that if we prolong the intonation of a syllable1 or utter it like a note1 the musical sound becomes evident4 ,so1 if we pronounce all the syllables of a phrase in the same tone1 the speaking voice closely resembles psalm singing4 ,every one must have noticed this in hearing schoolboys recite or read in a monotone1 and the analogy is complete when the last two or three syllables are pronounced in a different tone4 ,spoken voice is1 moreover1 always a chant more or less marked1 according to the individual and the sentiment which the words express4444,it is related of ,gretry1 that he amused himself by noting as exactly as possible the ,bonjour1 monsieur6 7,good day1 sir67 of the persons who visited him2 and these words expressed by their intonation1 in fact1 the most opposite sentiments1 in spite of the constant identity of the literal sense4 ,speech without a ,tongue4--,de ,jussieu relates that he saw a girl fifteen years old1 in ,lisbon1 who was born without a tongue1 and yet who spoke so distinctly as not to excite in the minds of those who listened to her the least suspicion of the absence of that organ4 ,the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,london 7#agdb7 contain an account of a woman who had not the slightest vestige of a tongue1 but who could1 notwithstanding1 drink1 eat1 and speak as well and as distinctly as any one1 and even articulate the words in singing4 ,other instances have been known where individuals1 after losing a portion of the tongue by accident or disease1 have again been able to speak after a longer or shorter period4--,,le ,,pileur4 ,stimulants and the ,voice4--,the ,drinker's ,throat is a recognized pathological condition1 and the ,germans have a popular phrase1 ,he drinks his throat away4 ,isambert has pointed out the directly local irritant effect of both alcohol and tobacco on the throat1 and also the mode by which these agents1 on absorption into the system1 re-manifest their presence by predisposing to local pharyngeal inflammations4 ,dr4 ,krishaber affirms3 ,it is generally admitted that alcoholic beverages and tobacco irritate the mucous membrane of the throat1 directly affect the voice1 and leave on it ineffaceable traces4 ,we hold with equal certainty that tea and coffee1 although not directly affecting the voice1 do so indirectly by acting on the nervous system1 and through it the vocal organs1 as well as by1 some general nervous derangement not very pronounced1 but great enough to deprive the singer of the full powers and capabilities of his voice4 ,dr4 ,mackenzie says3 ,the influence of the general health upon the voice is very marked4 ,alcohol and tobacco should never be used4 ,the hoarse tones of the confirmed votary of ,bacchus are due to chronic inflammation of the lining membrane of the larynx2 the originally smooth surface being roughened and thickened by the irritation of alcohol1 the vocal cords have less freedom of movement1 and their vibrations are blurred1 or rather muffled1 by the unevenness of their contiguous edges4 ,a young ,american lady of marked musical gifts once asked ,adelina ,patti's advice upon preparing for the stage4 ,she found the great singer wrapped in furs1 although the weather was not severe4 ,after hearing her visitor1 ,patti replied3 ,are you willing to give up everything for your art8 ,if you wish to succeed1 you must learn to eat moderately1 take no stimulants--not even tea or coffee--keep as regular hours as possible consistent with your public appearance1 and even deny yourself the luxury of friends4 ,when you hear of a great vocalist giving extravagant wine suppers1 you may be sure that the singer herself takes nothing4 ,to be a successful artiste you must be married1 soul and body1 to your art4 ,like the young man to whom ,christ spake1 the young woman went away sorrowful1 and1 balancing the terms1 concluded to forego the contest4 ,,abdominal ,,respiration 7p4 #hl74--,it has often been stated that the respiration of woman differs from that of man1 in being limited almost entirely to the chest4 ,in order to investigate this subject scientifically1 ,dr4 ,mays1 of ,philadelphia1 devised an ingenious instrument for examining the respiration of the native ,indian girls in the ,lincoln ,institution4 ,the girls had not yet been subjected to the restrictions of civilized dress4 ,he says3 ,in all1 ,i examined the movements of eighty-two chests1 and in each case took an abdominal and a costal tracing4 ,the girls were partly pure and partly mixed with white blood1 and their ages ranged from between ten and twenty years4 ,thus there were thirty-three full-blooded ,indians1 five one fourth1 thirty-five one half1 and two three fourths white4 ,seventy- five showed a decided abdominal type of breathing1 three a costal type1 and three in which both were about even4 ,those who showed the costal type1 or a divergence from the abdominal type1 came from the more civilized tribes1 like the ,mohawks and ,chippewas1 and were either one half or three fourths white2 while in no single instance did a full-blooded ,indian girl possess this type of breathing4 ,from these observations it obviously follows that1 so far as the ,indian is concerned1 the abdominal is the original type of respiration in both male and female1 and that the costal type in the civilized female is developed through the constricting influence of dress around the abdomen4 ,while these tracings were taken an incident occurred which demonstrated that abdominal constriction could modify the movements of the thorax during respiration4 ,at my first visit to the institution ,i obtained an exceptional costal type of respiration from a full-blooded ,indian girl4 ,at my next visit ,i concluded to repeat this observation1 and found that1 contrary to my instructions concerning loose clothing1 etc41 this girl at my first visit had worn three tight belts around her abdomen4 ,after these were removed she gave the abdominal type of breathing1 which is characteristic of nearly all the ,indian girls4 ,to us these facts are invaluable4 ,it shows the faulty construction of modern female dress1 which restricts the motion of abdominal respiration4 ,it explains why1 as experience has taught us1 it is necessary to restore this abdominal rhythm1 by proper movements1 in order permanently to cure the affections of the lower portion of the trunk4 ,it demonstrates conclusively that woman's dress1 to be injurious1 needs only to interfere with the proper motion of respiration1 even though it exercises not the slightest compression4--,health ,record4 ,,the ,,germ ,,theory ,,of ,,disease 7p4 #hf74--,what are ,disease ,germs8-- ,microscopical investigation has revealed throughout ,nature1 in the air1 in water--especially when it contains organic matter1 and even within the bodies of persons and animals1 myriads of infinitesimal active organisms which live1 multiply1 and die in endless succession4 ,these have been named bacteria 7bacterium1 a rod1 so called from the general rod shape first observed71 and also microbes 7microbe1 a small living object74 ,some investigators apply the latter term as a general one1 limiting the former to such microbes as are believed to be special disease producers4 ,the ,germ ,theory teaches that the seeds or spores of bacteria1 floating in the air we breathe or in the water we drink1 are taken into our bodies where1 under conditions favorable to their growth1 they develop1 multiply1 and1 each after its own species1 produce distinctive evil results4--,thus1 according to this theory1 there are special varieties of microbes that cause1 respectively1 diphtheria1 erysipelas1 scarlatina1 cholera1 etc4--,one of the most common microbes in nature is the bacterium of putrefaction1 found everywhere in decaying organic matter4 ,footnote3 ,this is the microbe found in impure water4 ,if we take half a glass of spring or river water1 and leave it uncovered for a few days1 we shall observe upon it a thin coating of what appears to be a fine dust4 ,place1 now1 a drop of this dusty water under a cover glass1 and examine it under a microscope with a magnifying power of about five hundred diameters4 ,the revelation is astonishing4 ,the whole field of the microscope is in motion2 hundreds of bacteria1 resembling minute transparent worms1 are swimming in every direction with an undulatory motion like that of an eel or snake4 ,some are detached1 others united in pairs1 others in chains or chaplets or cylindrical rods4444,all these forms represent the different transformations of ,bacterium termo1 or the microbe of putrefaction4 ,those which are dead appear as small1 rigid1 and immovable rods4--,,trouessart4 ,by the species of microbes called ferments all fermented liquors are artificially produced 7see p4 #acb72 these also cause the rising of bread4--,these wonderful little existences are thus made to perform an important part in the economy of ,nature4 ,nourished at the expense of putrefying organic matter1 they reduce its complex constituents into soluble mineral substances1 which they return to the soil to serve afresh for the nourishment of similar plants4 ,thus they clear the surface of the earth from dead bodies and fecal matter1 and from all the useless substances which are the refuse of life2 and thus they unite animals and plants in an endless chain4--,,trouessart4 ,how ,disease ,germs ,grow4--,experiments having shown that no life is known to spring from inanimate matter1 we may reasonably suppose that just as wheat does not grow except from seed1 so no disease occurs without some disease germ to produce it4 ,then1 again1 we may logically assume that each disease is due to the development of a particular kind of germ4 ,if we plant smallpox germs1 we do not reap a crop of scarlatina or measles2 but1 just as wheat springs from wheat1 each disease has its own distinctive germs4 ,each comes from a parent stock1 and has existed somewhere previously4444,under ordinary circumstances1 these germs1 though nearly always present1 are comparatively few in number1 and in an extremely dry and indurated state4 ,hence1 they may frequently enter our bodies without meeting with the conditions essential to their growth2 for experiments have shown that it is very difficult to moisten them1 and till they are moistened1 they do not begin to develop4 ,in a healthy system they remain inactive4 ,but anything tending to weaken or impair the bodily organs1 furnishes favorable conditions1 and thus epidemics almost always originate and are most fatal in those quarters of our great cities where dirt1 squalor1 and foul air render sound health almost an impossibility4444 ,having once got a beginning1 epidemics rapidly spread4 ,the germs are then sent into the air in great numbers1 and in a moist state2 and the probabilities of their entering1 and of their establishing themselves even in healthy bodies1 are vastly increased4444,climate and the weather have also much influence on the vitality of these germs4 ,cold is a preventive against some diseases1 heat against others4 ,tyndall found that sunlight greatly retarded and sometimes entirely prevented putrefaction2 while dirt is always favorable to the growth and development of germs4 ,sunshine and cleanliness are undoubtedly the best and cheapest preventives against disease4--,disease ,germs ,chambers's ,journal4 ,you know the exquisitely truthful figures employed in the ,new ,testament regarding leaven4 ,a particle hid in three measures of meal leavens it all4 ,a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump4 ,in a similar manner a particle of contagium spreads through the human body1 and may be so multiplied as to strike down whole populations4 ,consider the effect produced upon the system by a microscopic quantity of the virus of smallpox4 ,that virus is to all intents and purposes a seed4 ,it is sown as leaven is sown1 it grows and multiplies as leaven grows and multiplies1 and it always reproduces itself4444,contagia are living things1 which demand certain elements of life1 just as inexorably as trees1 or wheat1 or barley2 and it is not difficult to see that a crop of a given parasite may so far use up a constituent existing in small quantities in the body1 but essential in the growth of the parasite1 as to render the body unfit for the production of a second crop4 ,the soil is exhausted2 and until the lost constituent is restored1 the body is protected from any further attack from the same disorder4 ,to exhaust a soil1 however1 a parasite less vigorous and destructive than the really virulent one may suffice2 and if1 after having1 by means of a feebler organism1 exhausted the soil without fatal result1 the most highly virulent parasite be introduced into the system1 it will prove powerless4 ,this1 in the language of the germ theory1 is the whole secret of vaccination4--,,tyndall4 ,disease ,germs ,contained in ,atmospheric ,dust4--,take the extracted juice of beef or mutton1 so prepared as to be perfectly transparent1 and entirely free from the living germs of bacteria4 ,into the clear liquid let fall the tiniest drop of an infusion charged with the bacteria of putrefaction4 ,twenty-four hours subsequently1 the clear extract will be found muddy throughout1 the turbidity being due to swarms of bacteria generated by the drop with which the infusion was inoculated4 ,at the same time the infusion will have passed from a state of sweetness to a state of putridity4 ,let a drop similar to that which has produced this effect fall into an open wound3 the juices of the living body nourish the bacteria as the beef or mutton juice nourished them1 and you have putrefaction produced within the system4 ,the air1 as ,i have said1 is laden with floating matter which1 when it falls upon the wound1 acts substantially like the drop4444,a few years ago ,i was bathing in an ,alpine stream1 and1 returning to my clothes from the cascade which had been my shower bath1 ,i slipped upon a block of granite1 the sharp crystals of which stamped themselves into my naked shin4 ,the wound was an awkward one1 but1 being in vigorous health at the time1 ,i hoped for a speedy recovery4 ,dipping a clean pocket handkerchief into the stream1 ,i wrapped it round the wound1 limped home1 and remained for four or five days quietly in bed4 ,there was no pain1 and at the end of this time ,i thought myself quite fit to quit my room4 ,the wound1 when uncovered1 was found perfectly clean1 uninflamed1 and entirely free from pus4 ,placing over it a bit of gold beater's skin1 ,i walked about all day4 ,toward evening1 itching and heat were felt2 a large accumulation of pus followed1 and ,i was forced to go to bed again4 ,the water bandage was restored1 but it was powerless to check the action now set up2 arnica was applied1 but it made matters worse4 ,the inflammation increased alarmingly1 until finally ,i was ignobly carried on men's shoulders down the mountain1 and transported to ,geneva1 where1 thanks to the kindness of friends1 ,i was immediately placed in the best medical hands4 ,on the morning after my arrival in ,geneva1 ,dr4 ,gautier discovered an abscess in my instep1 at a distance of five inches from the wound4 ,the two were connected by a channel1 or sinus1 as it is technically called1 through which he was able to empty the abscess without the application of the lance4 ,by what agency was that channel formed--what was it that thus tore asunder the sound tissue of my instep1 and kept me for six weeks a prisoner in bed8 ,in the very room where the water dressing had been removed from my wound and the gold beater's skin applied to it1 ,i opened this year a number of tubes1 containing perfectly clear and sweet infusions of fish1 flesh1 and vegetable4 ,these hermetically sealed infusions had been exposed for weeks1 both to the sun of the ,alps and to the warmth of a kitchen1 without showing the slightest turbidity or signs of life4 ,but two days after they were opened1 the greater number of them swarmed with the bacteria of putrefaction1 the germs of which had been contracted from the dust-laden air of the room4 ,and1 had the pus from my abscess been examined1 my memory of its appearance leads me to infer that it would have been found equally swarming with these bacteria--that it was their germs which got into my incautiously opened wound4 ,they were the subtile workers that burrowed down my shin1 dug the abscess in my instep1 and produced effects which might well have proved fatal to me4--,,tyndall4 ,disease ,germs ,carried in ,soiled ,clothing 7p4 #hi74--,the conveyance of cholera germs by bodies of men moving along the lines of human communication1 without necessarily affecting the individuals who transport them1 is now easy to understand2 for it is well established that clothes or linen soiled by cholera patients may not only impart the germs with which they are contaminated to those who handle them when fresh1 but that1 after having been dried and packed1 they may infect persons at any distance who incautiously unfold them4 ,thus1 while the nurses of cholera patients may1 with proper precautions1 enjoy an absolute immunity from attack1 the disease germs may be introduced into new localities without any ostensible indication of their presence4 ,it is obvious that the only security against such introduction consists in the destruction or thorough disinfection of every scrap of clothing or linen which has been about the person of a cholera patient4--,,dr4 ,,carpenter4 ,i have known scarlet fever to be carried by the clothing of a nurse into a healthy family1 and communicate the disease to every member of the family4 ,i have known cholera to be communicated by the clothes of the affected person to the women engaged in washing the clothes4 ,i have known smallpox conveyed by clothes that had been made in a room where the tailor had by his side sufferers from the terrible malady4 ,i have seen the new cloth1 out of which was to come the riding habit for some innocent child to rejoice in as she first wore it1 undergo the preliminary duty of forming part of the bed clothing of another child stricken down with fever4 ,lastly1 ,i have known scarlet fever1 smallpox1 typhus1 and cholera1 communicated by clothing contaminated in the laundry4--,,dr4 ,,richardson4 ,,the ,,sanitary ,,home 7see p4 #id74--a4 ,the ,site4--,first and foremost of all the things you are to consider1 is the healthfulness of a situation4 ,the brightest house and cheeriest outlook in nature will be made somber by the constant presence of a doctor1 and the wandering around of an unseen1 but ever felt1 specter in the shape of miasm4444,malaria-malus1 bad2 aria1 air--means1 in its common definition1 simply bad air4 ,miasma is its synonym1--infecting effluvia floating in the air4 ,because1 as everybody knows1 certain places have always chills and fever associated with them1 and other places have not1 it follows that between such places there is some fact of difference2 this fact is the presence of miasm1 a cause of disease1 having a signification associative with the locality4444 ,vegetation1 heat1 and moisture3 these are the three active agents in the production of miasma1 to which a fourth is to be added1 in the influence of non-drainage1 either by the way of the atmosphere or running water4 ,the strongest example of a malarious locality one might make would be in suggesting a marshy valley in a tropical climate1 so overrun with fixed water as to destroy a prolific vegetation1 yet not covering it enough to protect the garbage from the putrefying influences of the sun2 this valley1 in turn1 so environed with hills as to shut off a circulation of air4444,ground newly broken is not unapt to generate miasm4 ,this results from the sudden exposure of long-buried vegetable matter to the influences of moisture and heat4444,it may readily be conceived that malarious situations exist where the miasm is not sufficient in quantity to produce the effects of intermittent or bilious fever1 yet where there is quite enough of it to keep a man feeling good for nothing1--he is not sick1 but he is never well4 ,i know of one country seat of this kind1 where forty thousand dollars would not pay for the improvements put upon it1 and where1 ,i am free to declare1 ,i would not think of living1 even if1 as an inducement1 a free gift were made to me of the place4444,besides miasm1 there are other atmospheric associations to be considered4 ,i recall this moment a distillery1 where attempt was made to get clear of the mash by throwing it into a running stream1 with the anticipation of its being carried to the river1 but where1 on the contrary1 it became a stagnant putrescent mass1 impregnating the air for miles with its unendurable odor1 and inducing such a typhoid tendency that half the countryside were down with fever4444,there are1 again1 situations where the filth and debris of sewage exercise a poisoning influence on the surrounding atmosphere4 ,this has its principal application to the neighborhood of cities and towns drained into adjoining streams4 ,london and the ,thames furnish a notable illustration4 ,a cove1 attractive as it is1 may prove a receptacle for the accumulation of dead fish and other offal1 which shall make untenable the charming cottage upon the bank4 ,a deep cove has rarely healthy surroundings1 the circulation of its water being too sluggish to insure freshness and vitality4 ,water1 like blood1 to be healthy1 must be in a state of continuous movement4 ,a nonobservant man1 purchasing a beautiful stream1 may be completely disappointed by finding that the opacity of its water depends upon a factory1 of which he had never so much as heard2 he may not let his children bathe in it1 for he may well fear for them the fate of the fish he so plentifully finds lying dead upon the shore4 ,a poisoned rural stream is as sad a sight as it has grown to be a common one4 ,always1 before buying water1 know what there is up stream1 or what there is likely to be4 ,never buy a country house without seeing to it that the foundation stands upon a higher level than some channel which may drain it1 and this1 by the way1 is not to consider alone the dry summer day on which you go first to visit the place2 you are to think of the winter and spring4 ,look to it that no excess of water shall be able to drown you out2 some places1 which in dry weather are glorious1 are1 in winter and spring1 ankle deep in slush and mire1 and everything about them is as wet as a soaked board4 ,open the front door of such a house1 and a chill strikes you instantly4 ,a fire must be kept the year round1 or otherwise you live in the moisture of a vault4 ,places there are of this class where the question of the water from the kitchen pump comes to absorb the attention of the whole household4 ,no shade is an abomination4 ,a bilious fever fattens in the sun as does miasm in a marshy valley4 ,too much shade1 on the contrary1 and too near the house1 is equally of ill import2 it keeps things damp1 and dampness is a breeder of pestilence4 ,an atmosphere confined about a house by too dense foliage is1 like the air of an unventilated room1 not fit for practical purposes4 ,the sporadic poisons have an intimate relationship with dampness2 miasm lives in it as does a snail in his shell4 ,besides this1 it shuts out the cool breath of the summer nights1 and makes restless swelterers where even a blanket might be enjoyed4--,,dr4 ,,john ,,darby1 ,odd ,hours of a ,physician4 #b4 ,the ,house4--,so construct the dwelling from foundation to roof that no dampness can result4 ,give to the cellar dry walls1 a cement floor1 and windows enough to insure constant currents of air4 ,insist upon such a system of immediate and perfect sewerage as shall render contamination impossible4 ,if modern improvements are afforded1 see that the plumbing embraces the latest and most scientific sanitary inventions4 ,do not economize on this point2 health1 perhaps life1 depends upon the perfect working of the various traps4 ,having employed the most skilled and intelligent plumbers1 overlook their work so that you may fully understand the principle applied4 ,provide for ample ventilation in every apartment1 above and below4 ,let the sleeping rooms be above stairs1 and furnished with appliances for moderate warmth in winter4 ,treat yourself and your family to as many fireplaces as possible4 ,indulge in a spacious piazza1 so placed that it will not cut off the light from the family sitting room1 and1 if you can1 include a balcony or two1 large enough to hold a chair and a table1 or a workbasket4 ,remember that a house is for convenience and protection only when you can not be in the open air4 #c4 ,the kitchen and the ,dust ,heap4--,removal of ,household ,refuse4--,it has to be assumed1 especially where servants are not carefully overlooked1 that the dust heap of most houses will contain more or less decomposing organic matter1 such as bits of meat1 scales and refuse of fish1 tea and coffee grounds1 and the peelings of vegetables1 which1 though quite out of place in the ash heap1 are apt surreptitiously to be thrown upon it4 ,such matter soon becomes offensive and even dangerous1 and a few days' retention of it in warm weather constitutes a legal nuisance4 ,household refuse should be carted away as often as once in two days2 in extreme hot weather1 daily4 ,where it is inexpedient to remove it frequently1 it should be kept covered to the depth of two or three inches with a layer of powdered charcoal1 or freshly burnt lime1 or1 at least1 of clear dry earth4 ,all soil which has become foul by the soakage of decaying or vegetable matter should be similarly treated4 ,the refuse heap should be protected from rain1 and liquids should never be thrown upon it4 ,where obnoxious matter has been allowed to accumulate1 its disturbance for removal should be conducted with special precaution1 both on account of its temporary offensiveness of odor and the more serious results which may follow4 ,it can not be too distinctly understood that cleanliness1 ventilation1 and dryness are the best of all deodorizers4 ,one of the first of household regulations should be to see that no unsanitary rubbish remains in or about the dwelling4 ,keep the dust heap itself at the farthest practicable remove from the house4 ,sow grass seed plentifully upon the back premises1 and induce tidiness in the domestics by having the kitchen door open upon a well-kept lawn4 ,burning of ,garbage4--,the easiest1 quickest1 and most sanitary method of disposing of household garbage is to burn it ,this plan has been officially recommended by the ,boards of ,health in various cities4 ,many housekeepers have adopted it1 and find it so practicable that in ,new ,york ,city there has become a marked decrease in the amount of household refuse collected by the scavengers4 ,if1 after every meal1 the draughts of the range be opened1 and all waste matter be deposited within1 a few moments1 or at most1 a half hour1 will effectually dispose of it1 and prevent all the dangers that arise from its retention and accumulation4 ,in the country1 where there is plenty of ground1 nearly all rubbish can be destroyed in this way and by outside fires1 with the additional advantage that the--,e4 ,r4 ,s4 #d4 ,the ,sewers and ,drains4--,how to ,keep out ,sewer ,air4--,the most perfectly flushed sewers that are made1 under the latest and fullest sanitary light1 must1 owing to the constant entrance of greasy and other adhesive material1 contain more or less of particles that stick1 and also more or less of fungi and mold2 so that here1 shut away from light and air1 goes on the peculiar fermentation that fits it for the soil or habitat of the malarial germ4 ,these germs1 the soil once ready1 take possession and multiply1 whether that soil be a sewer or the blood of a person who sits calmly unconscious in a gorgeous chamber above1 with a small continuation of the sewer extending untrapped up to his washbowl4-- ,,dr4 ,,derby4 ,keep constant watch of your traps and drains4 ,cultivate the faculty of detecting sewer gas in the house4 ,always fear a smell2 trace it to its source and provide a remedy4 ,at the same time1 bear in mind that it is not always the foul smell that is most dangerous4 ,there is a close1 sweet odor often present in bathrooms1 and about drains1 that is deadly as the ,upas tree4 ,bad air from neglected drains causes not only fevers1 dysentery1 and diphtheria1 but asthma and other chronic disorders4 ,illuminating gas1 escaping from pipes and prevented from exuding by frozen earth1 has been known to pass sidewise for some distance into houses4 ,thus also the air from cesspools and porous or broken drains finds its way1 when an examination of the household entrance to the drain fails to reveal the cause of an existing effluvia4 ,but1 however bad the drain may be outside the house1 there is little to fear provided the gas can escape externally4 ,every main drain should have a ventilating pipe carried from it directly outside the house to the top of the highest chimney4 ,the soil pipe inside the house should be carried up through the roof and be open at the top4 ,digging for drains or other purposes should not be allowed when the mercury stands above #fj2 but if1 as in repairs of pipes1 it becomes necessary to dig about the house in hot weather1 let it be done in the middle of the day1 and replace the turf as speedily as possible4 ,if the soil be damp1 or the district malarious1 sprinkle quicklime upon the earth as fast as it is turned4 ,how to ,clear ,waste ,pipes4--,the sewer gas1 about which so much has been written1 and which is so justly dreaded1 is not1 as many suppose1 the exclusive product of the sewer4 ,indeed1 the foul and dangerous gases are not only found in the sewers themselves1 but in the unventilated waste pipes1 and those which are in process of being clogged by the foul matter passing through them4 ,any obstruction in the soil or waste pipes is therefore doubly dangerous1 because it may produce an inflow of foul gas into the pipe1 even though the entrance to the sewer itself has been entirely cut off4 ,in pipes leading from the house to the cesspool1 there is a constant accumulation of grease4 ,this enters as a liquid1 but hardens as the water cools1 and is deposited on the bottom and sides of the pipes4 ,as these accumulations increase1 the water way is gradually contracted1 till the pipe is closed4 ,when the pipe is entirely stopped1 or allows the water to fall away by drops only1 proceed thus3 ,empty the pipe down to the trap1 as far as practicable1 by mopping up with a cloth4 ,if the water flows very slowly1 begin when the pipe has at last emptied itself4 ,fill the pipe up with potash1 crowding it with a stick4 ,then allow hot water to trickle upon the potash1 or pour the hot water upon it in a small stream1 stopping as soon as the pipe appears to be filled4 ,as the potash dissolves and disappears1 add more water4 ,at night a little heap of potash may be placed over the hole1 and water enough poured on so that a supply of strong lye will flow into the pipe during the night4 ,pipes that have been stopped for months may be cleaned out by this method1 though it may call for three or four pounds of potash4 ,the crudest kind1 however1 appears to act as well as the best4 ,if the pipe is partially obstructed1 a lump of crude potash should be placed where water will drip slowly upon it1 and so reach the pipe4 ,as water comes in contact with the potash1 it becomes hot1 thus aiding in dissolving the grease4 ,potash1 in combination with grease1 forms a soft or liquid soap1 which easily flows away4 ,it is also destructive to all animal and most mineral matters4 ,some of the most dangerous gases come from wash-basin pipes1 being1 perhaps1 the result of the decay of the soap and the animal matter washed from the skin4 ,when a pipe is once fairly cleaned out1 the potash should be used from time to time1 in order to dissolve the greasy deposits as they form1 and carry them forward to the cesspool or sewer4--,artisan4 ,what ,came from a ,neighbor's ,cesspool4--,keep watch not only of your own premises1 but stand on guard against those of your neighbors4 ,dr4 ,carpenter cites a case wherein four members of a certain household were attacked with typhoid fever1 one of whom narrowly escaped with her life4 ,the circumstances left no doubt in the mind of the attending physician that the malady originated in the opening of an old cesspool belonging to a neighboring house1 then in course of demolition4 ,the house in which the outbreak took place is large and airy1 and stands by itself in a most salubrious situation4 ,the most careful examination failed to disclose any defect either in its drainage or its water supply2 there was no typhoid in the neighborhood2 and the milk supply was unexceptional4 ,but the neighboring house being old1 and having been occupied by a school1 its removal had been determined on to make way for a house of higher class2 and as the offensive odor emanating from the uncovered cesspool was at once perceived in the next garden1 and the outbreak of typhoid followed at the usual interval1 the case seems one which admits of no reasonable question4 #e4 ,the ,cellar4--,a ,typical ,bad ,cellar4--,did the reader ever1 when a child1 see the cellar afloat at some old home in the country8 ,you creep part way down the cellar stairs with only the light of a single tallow candle1 and behold by its dim glimmer an expanse of dark water1 boundless as the sea4 ,on its surface1 in dire confusion1 float barrels and boxes1 butter firkins and washtubs1 boards1 planks1 hoops1 and staves without number1 interspersed with apples1 turnips1 and cabbages1 while half-drowned rats and mice1 scrambling up the stairway for dear life1 drive you affrighted back to the kitchen4444,now consider the case of one of these old farmhouse cellars that has been in use fifty years or more4 ,in it have been stored all the potatoes1 turnips1 cabbages1 onions1 and other vegetables for family food4 ,the milk and cream1 the pork and beef1 and cider and vinegar1 have all met with various accidents1 and from time to time have had their juices1 in various stages of decay1 absorbed by the soil of the cellar bottom4 ,the cats have slept there to fight the rats and the mice1 who have had their little homes behind the walls for half a century2 and the sink spouts have for the same term poured into the soil close by1 their fragrant fluids4 ,the water rushes upward and sideways into the cellar1 forming1 with the savory ingredients at which we have delicately hinted1 a sort of broth1 quite thin and watery at first1 but growing thicker as the water slowly subsides and leaves its grosser parts pervading the surface of the earth1 walls1 and partitions4 ,all this time the air rushes in at the openings of the cellar1 and presses constantly upward1 often lifting the carpets from the floors1 and is breathed day and night by all who dwell in the house4 ,does it require learned doctors or boards of health to inform any rational person that these conditions are unfavorable to health8--,,mrs4 ,,plunkett1 ,women1 ,plumbers1 and ,doctors4 ,what ,came from a ,crack in a ,cellar ,wall4--,a few years ago a ,boston gentleman inherited a house1 situated on one of the most desirable streets of the city4 ,resolving to make a healthy as well as a beautiful home1 he4 spent a large sum1 and gave personal supervision to all the details of an elaborate system of plumbing4 ,he moved in4 ,imagine his grief and disappointment when member after member of his family succumbed to diphtheria1 and an infant and a grown daughter died4 ,though so deeply smitten1 he did not lose his belief in the connection between cause and effect4 ,he ordered a minute investigation of the premises by experts4 ,a slight crack1 so small as to have escaped ordinary observation1 was found in the cellar wall4 ,investigation of the premises next door--the inmates of which were also suffering from diphtheria--showed a choked-up drain1 which ought to have connected with the sewer1 but did not4 ,the filthy ooze from this was pouring out1 just where its effluvium and its disease germs could pass without any hindrance through the crack4 ,now that it is shown that gases pass through bricks and many kinds of stone1 it is easy to see that the sanitary welfare of one is the sanitary welfare of all4--,,mrs4 ,,plunkett4 #f4 ,the ,bedroom4--,the ,bed a ,night ,garment4--,there is still one of our garments to be considered1 which generally is not regarded as such4 ,i mean the bed--that piece of clothing in which we spend such a great part of our time4 ,the bed is not only a place of rest2 it is especially our sleeping garment1 and has often to make up for privations endured during the day and the day's work1 and to give us strength for to-morrow4 ,like our day garments1 the bed covering must be airy and warm at the same time4 ,we warm the bed by our body1 just as we warm our clothes1 and the bed warms the air which is continually flowing through it from below1 upward4 ,the regulating strata must be more powerful in their action than in our day clothes1 because during rest and sleep the metamorphosis of our tissues and the resulting heat become less2 and because in a horizontal position we lose more heat by an ascending current of air than in a vertical position1 where the warm ascending current is in more complete and longer contact with our upright body4 ,the warmth of the bed sustains the circulation in our surface to a certain degree for the benefit of our internal organs at a time when our production of heat is at its lowest ebb4 ,hence the importance of the bed for our heat and blood economy4 ,several days without rest in a bed not only make us sensible of a deficiency in the recruiting of our strength1 but very often produce quite noticeable perturbations in our bodily economy1 from which the bed would have protected us4--,,dr4 ,,max ,,von ,,pettenkoffer4 ,bed ,ventilation4--,it often happens that the desire of the energetic housekeeper to have her work done at an early hour in the morning1 causes her to leave one of the most important items of neatness undone4 ,the most effectual purifying of bed and bedclothes can not take place1 if the proper time is not allowed1 for the free circulation of pure air1 to remove all human impurities which have collected during the hours of slumber4 ,at least two or three hours should be allowed for the complete removal of atoms of insensible perspiration which are absorbed by the bed4 ,every day the airing should be done2 and1 occasionally1 bedding constantly used should be carried into the open air1 and left exposed to the sun and wind for half a day4--,home and ,health4 ,,circulation4 ,,the ,,pulse 7p4 #aaf74--,the pulse which is felt by the finger does not correspond precisely with the beat of the heart1 but takes place a little after it1 and the interval is longer1 the greater the distance of the artery from the heart4 ,the beat of the artery on the inner side of the ankle1 for example1 is a little later than the beat of the artery in the temple4--,,huxley4 ,the pulse is increased by exertion1 and thus is more rapid in a standing than in a sitting1 and in a sitting than in a lying posture4 ,it is quickened by meals1 and while varying thus from time to time during the day1 is on the whole quicker in the evening than in early morning4 ,it is said to be quicker in summer than in winter4 ,even independently of muscular exertion1 it seems to be quickened by great altitude4 ,its rate is also profoundly influenced by mental conditions4--,,foster4 ,,circulation ,,of ,,the ,,blood ,,in ,,the ,,brain 7p4 l#bj74--,signer ,mosso1 who has been engaged on the subject for six years1 has published some new observations on the different conditions of the circulation of the blood in the brain4 ,he has had the privilege of observing three patients who had holes in their skulls1 permitting the examination of the encephalic movements and circulation4 ,no part of the body exhibits a pulsation so varied in its form as the brain4 ,the pulsation may be described as tricuspid2 that is1 it consists of a strong beat1 preceded and followed by lesser beats4 ,it gathers strength when the brain is at work1 corresponding with the more rapid flow of blood to the organ4 ,the increase in the volume of the brain does not depend upon any change in the respiratory rhythm2 for1 if we take the pulse of the forearm simultaneously with that of the brain1 we can not perceive that the cerebral labor exercises any influence upon the forearm1 although the pulsation in the brain may be considerably modified4 ,the emotions have a similar effect upon the circulation of the brain to that of cerebral labor4 ,signor ,mosso has also observed and registered graphically the variations of the cerebral pulse during sleep4 ,generally the pulses of the wrist and the brain vary oppositely4 ,at the moment of waking1 the pulse of the wrist diminishes1 while that of the brain increases4 ,the cerebral pulsations diminish as sleep grows deeper1 and at last become very weak4 ,outward excitations determine the same modifications during sleep as in the waking state1 without waking the sleeper4 ,a deep inspiration always produces a diminution in the volume of the brain1 in consequence1 probably1 of the increased flow of blood into the veins of the thoracic cavity2 the increase of volume in the brain1 when it takes place1 is1 on the contrary1 due to a more abundant flow of arterial blood to the encephalus4--,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,march1 #ahhb4 ,,catarrhal ,,colds 7p4 l#cj74--;,i maintain that it can be proved1 with as absolute certainty as any physiological fact admits of being proved1 that warm1 vitiated indoor air is the cause1 and cold outdoor air the best cure1 of catarrh4444,fresh cold air is a tonic that invigorates the respiratory organs when all other stimulants fail1 and1 combined with arm exercise and certain dietetic alternatives1 it is the best remedy for all disorders of the lungs and upper air passages4444,a combination of the three specifics1--exercise1 abstinence1 and fresh air1--will cure the most obstinate cold4444,frost is such a powerful disinfectant1 that in very cold nights the lung-poisoning atmosphere of few houses can resist its purifying influence2 in spite of padded doors1 in spite of weatherstrips and double windows1 it reduces the indoor temperature enough to paralyze the floating disease germs4 ,the penetrative force of a polar night frost exercises that function with such resistless vigor that it defies the preventive measures of human skill2 and all ,arctic travelers agree that among the natives of ,iceland1 ,greenland1 and ,labrador pulmonary diseases are actually unknown4 ,protracted cold weather thus prevents epidemic catarrhs1 but during the first thaw ,nature succumbs to art3 smoldering stove fires add their fumes to the effluvia of the dormitory1 tight- fitting doors and windows exclude the means of salvation2 superstition triumphs2 the lung poison operates1 and the next morning a snuffling1 coughing1 and red-nosed family discuss the cause of their affliction4444,it is a mistake to suppose that colds can be propagated only by direct transmission or the breathing of recently ,vitiated air4 ,catarrh germs1 floating in the atmosphere of an ill-ventilated bedroom1 may preserve their vitality for weeks after the house has been abandoned2 and the next renter of such a place should not move in till wide-open windows and doors and a thorough draught of several days have removed every trace of a musty smell4--,,dr4 ,,felix ,l4 ,,oswald1 ,remedies of ,nature1 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,march1 #ahhd4 ,,catching ,,cold4--,the phrase to catch cold1 so often in the mouths of physicians and patients1 is a curious solecism4 ,it implies that the term cold denotes something positive--a sort of demon which does not catch1 but is caught by the unfortunate victims4444,if most persons outside of the medical profession were to be asked what they consider as chiefly to be avoided in the management of sick people1 the answer would probably be catching cold4 ,i suspect that this question would be answered in the same way by not a few physicians4 ,hence it is that sick rooms are poorly ventilated1 and patients are oppressed by a superabundance of garments and bedclothes4 ,the air which patients are made to breathe1 having been already breathed and rebreathed1 is loaded with pulmonary exhalations4 ,cutaneous emanations are allowed to remain in contact with the body1 as well as to pervade the atmosphere4 ,patients not confined to the bed1 especially those affected with pulmonary disease1 are overloaded with clothing1 which becomes saturated with perspiration1 and is seldom changed1 for fear of the dreaded cold4444 ,a reform is greatly needed in respect to catching cold4 ,few diseases are referable to the agency of cold1 and even the affection commonly called a cold is generally caused by other agencies1 or1 perhaps1 by a special agent1 which may prove to be a microbe4 ,let the axiom1 ,a fever patient never catches cold1 be reiterated until it becomes a household phrase4 ,let the restorative influence of cool1 fresh1 pure atmosphere be inculcated4 ,let it be understood that in therapeutics1 as in hygiene1 the single word comfort embodies the principles which should regulate coverings and clothing4--,,austin ,,flint1 ,m4,d41 in a ,lecture printed in ,the ,new ,york ,medical ,journal4 ,,digestion ,,and ,,food4 ,,the ,,water ,,we ,,drink 7p4 l#ee74--,qualities of ,pure ,water4--,a good drinking water1 says ,dr4 ,simpson 7in ,the ,water ,we ,drink71 should possess the following physical characters3 it should be entirely free from color1 taste1 or odor2 it should1 moreover1 be cool1 well aerated1 soft1 bright1 and entirely free from all deposit4 ,but it should be remembered that a water having all these characteristics may yet be more or less polluted by organic matter1 owing to the proximity of drains and sewers4444,disease has frequently been traced to the use of perfectly bright and clear water1 where there was no sediment1 and where the animal organic matter was held in a state of solution4 ,in the case of diseases1 such as typhoid1 which attack the stomach1 disease germs are removed along with the excreta2 and if1 as is often the case1 the drainage of an infected town flows into a river1 and that river is used in some after portion of its course as a water supply1 there is great danger of such diseases being communicated4 ,for1 however well the water may be purified and filtered1 we have no guarantee that it will not contain some of these disease germs1 which are so small that they pass through the finest filters4 ,it is in this way that almost all the great cholera and typhoid epidemics have spread4--,chambers's ,journal4 ,well ,water ,often ,dangerous4--,a densely crowded population soon impregnates the soil to some depth with filth1 which drains into the water course below1 especially if such water is near the surface4 ,this surface water easily penetrates a loosely walled well4 ,every well1 therefore1 should not only be widely separated from barnyards1 cesspools1 pens1 sinks1 and similar places1 but should be made water-tight with cement1 so that nothing can reach its interior except water that has been filtered through dense beds of unpolluted ground below4 ,if these precautions are neglected1 the best and deepest well may become continually contaminated by infiltration from the surrounding surface4 ,this impure water1 even when not used for family drinking1 is sometimes supplied to cows1 or used for washing dairy pans1 or employed in diluting milk for the market1 and there are many known cases in which disease has thus been disseminated4 ,thus1 an epidemic of typhoid fever in ,cambridge1 ,mass41 was definitely traced to a dairy which supplied the victims with milk4 ,upon investigation it was found that a short time before there had been a typhoid patient in the farmhouse1 and that the well from which water was taken to wash the milk pans had become contaminated with the specific poison brought into it from the surrounding drainage4 ,all suspected water should be thoroughly boiled before using it to drink4 ,some physicians insist that the boiling should continue for one or two hours in order entirely to destroy the bacterial germs4 ,the heaviness and insipidity incident to boiled water may be somewhat relieved by afterward filtering it4 ,filtering1 of itself1 however1 will do little toward ridding the water of microbes1 which are much too minute to be arrested by the ordinary apparatus4--,when journeying1 where one must often take a hasty meal at a railway station1 drink hot water in preference to cold4 ,a convenient portable filter may be arranged with a bottle of powdered charcoal1 and a piece of filtering paper4 ,a traveler by briskly stirring a tablespoonful of the charcoal into a pint of water1 allowing it to stand five or ten minutes1 and then filtering it through the paper1 may venture to relieve his thirst in almost any part of the country4 ,water an ,absorbent of ,foul ,gases4--,if a pitcher of water be left uncovered in an occupied apartment for only a few hours1 it will become foul from the absorption of the respired and perspired gases in the room4 ,the colder the water1 the greater the capacity to contain these gases4 ,water kept in a room over night is therefore unfit for drinking1 and should not be used even to brush the teeth or to gargle in the throat4 ,impure ,ice1 a ,breeder of ,disease4--,we generally take the purity of our ice for granted1 and1 like the alligator in the bayou1 close our mouths and swallow it4 ,in the country1 ,i have seen during the ice- harvesting season1 wagon after wagon passing me on the road1 laden with ice that had been collected from canals1 rivers1 and streams receiving sewerage1 and from ponds that are in the summer time reeking with slime1 and often offensive from the quantity of decomposed vegetable and animal matter brought in by the washing from the meadow4 ,these streams would be shunned as a source of water supply4 ,should you interview a native regarding the slimy mud puddle before you1 called ,mr4 ,so-and-so's private ice pond1 he would say that in winter it is much better1 and when frozen1 you know1 it makes fine ice1 presenting that popular though ignorant belief that while in the act of crystallizing1 water rids itself of all its injurious qualities1 however offensive it may be in its liquid state4 ,unfortunately1 there is enough truth in the current idea of the elimination of noxious and foreign matter during the process of freezing to give color to the popular belief1 but not enough to make it a safe reliance2 therefore all means should be used to enlighten the public regarding this subject4 ,experiment has shown that freezing produces little change or effect in overcoming the poisonous influences1 and ice has often served as a vehicle to convey the germs of typhoid and other low forms of fever4 ,pure ice can be procured only from water free from impurities1 and ice for domestic or surgical purposes should never be collected from ponds or streams which contain animal or vegetable refuse1 or stagnant and muddy material4--,journal of ,reconstructives1 ,oct41 #ahhg4 ,,the ,,glandular ,,coat ,,of ,,the ,,stomach1 ,,and ,,how ,,it ,,weeps 7p4 l#fb74--,while the food is thus being continually moved about1 it is at the same time subjected to the action of the chemical sac4 ,this is1 as we have said1 a glandular sac4 ,it is of some thickness1 and is made of little glands bound up together with that stringy fibrous packing material which anatomists call connective tissue4 ,if we were to imagine many gross of small ,india-rubber vials all placed side by side1 and bound together with hay or straw into a great mat1 and the mat rolled up into a sac1 with all the mouths of the vials turned inward1 we should have a large and coarse1 but tolerably fair image of the glandular coat of the stomach4 ,each vial would then represent one of the glands of this coat1 one of the gastric or peptic glands1 as they are called4 ,each gland1 however1 is not always a simple tube1 but is often branched at the bottom end1 and all of them are lined1 except just at their mouths1 with large rounded bodies1 which not unfrequently almost choke up their cavity4 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,illustration3 ,,branched ,,gastric ,,gland a4 ,the peptic cells4 b4 ,the inert cells4 ,the rounded masses1 or cells1 as they are called1 in the interior of each gland1 form the really active part of the apparatus4 ,each cell is a little laboratory1 which concocts out of the material brought to it or near it by the blood a certain potent1 biting fluid1 and is hence called a peptic or digestive cell4 ,each cell is born at the bottom of the tube1 and in process of time travels upward toward the mouth4 ,when it reaches the mouth1 it bursts1 and pours into the stomach the fluid it has elaborated1 or perhaps may give it out without bursting1 while it is still within its tube4 ,in those cases in which it has been possible to look in upon the stomach while at work 7as in the famous case of ,alexis ,st4 ,martin71 and where the orifices of the tiny glands 7for though we have compared them to bottles1 they are exceedingly small7 appear like little dots1 tears were seen to start at the mouths of the glands1 gather into drops1 and finally trickle down into the lowest part of the stomach4 ,the stomach1 as it were1 weeps1 and indeed the weeping of tears is just such another effect of glandular activity--only ordinary tears form a mild and1 chemically speaking1 impotent fluid2 while the fluid which the tears of the stomach weep--the gastric juice--is a sharp1 piercing water of excessive chemical power4--,hinton4 ,,poisonous ,,milk1 ,,cheese1 ,,and ,,ice ,,cream 7p4 l#fi74--;,in late years there have been many cases of poisoning by ice cream1 cheese1 and milk4 ,the poisonous principle sometimes developed in these articles of food has been made a subject of special investigation1 and it has been found to be due to natural causes4 ,dr4 ,vaughan1 of ,michigan1 after spending several months in experimenting upon samples of twelve different cheeses1 which had caused three hundred cases of poisoning1 finally succeeded in isolating certain poison crystals1 which he calls ,tyrotoxicon4 ,he says3 ,a few drops of an aqueous solution of these crystals placed upon the tongue produces all the symptoms observed in those who had been made sick by eating of the cheese4 ,this was tried repeatedly upon myself1 and upon some of my students who kindly offered themselves for experimentation4 ,dr4 ,vaughan afterward procured the poison crystals from milk which had stood some months in a closed bottle1 and also from a sample of ice cream by which eighteen persons had been made ill4 ,it was learned in the latter case that the custard1 of which the ice cream was made1 had been allowed to stand in a foul atmosphere for two hours before it was frozen4 ,by placing small bits of this poisonous cream in good milk1 and allowing it to stand twenty-four hours1 the whole became vitiated4 ,this proved that the poison is due to the growth of some ferment4 ,in the autumn of #ahhf1 many persons in different hotels at ,long ,branch were poisoned by milk obtained from a certain milkman4 ,in this case it was found that the cows were milked at noon1 the warm milk being immediately placed in cans and carted eight miles during the warmest part of the day1 in a very hot month4 ,in ,june1 #ahhg1 nineteen persons in ,new ,york city were similarly poisoned by milk which also came from one dairy4 ,many of these persons had narrow escapes from death4 ,these1 and many other like instances1 teach us the importance of the greatest care in every detail of milk handling4 ,a little dried milk formed along the seam of a tin pail1 or any similar lodging place1 may be the starting point of poison generation4 ,a month after his first experiments with the ice cream mentioned above1 ,dr4 ,vaughan put small pieces of the dried custard in pans of milk1 and afterward made custard from this milk4 ,this yielded tyrotoxicon as before1 showing the tenacious vitality of the poison1 and also explaining the fact that the precise cause of poisoning is in many cases so difficult to trace4 ,,fish ,,as ,,food 7p4 #afi74--;,it is not desirable that fish should be the sole kind of nitrogenous food eaten by any nation2 and even if milk and eggs be added thereto1 the vigor of such a people will not be equal to that of flesh-eating nations4 ,at the same time1 the value of fish as a part of a dietary is indicated by the larger proportion of phosphorus which it contains1 and which renders it especially fitted for the use of those who perform much brain work1 or who are the victims of much anxiety and distress4--,,edward ,,smith1 in ,foods4 ,for the mentally exhausted1 the worried1 the nervous1 and the distressed in mind1 fish is not simply a food2 it acts as physic4 ,the brain is nourished by it1 the nerves--to use the term in its popular sense--are quieted2 the mind grows stronger1 the temper less irritable1 and the whole being healthier and happier when fish is substituted for butcher's meat4444,i find persons who are greatly excited1 even to the extent of seeking to do violence to themselves or to those around them1 who can not sleep1 and who are in an agony of irritability1 become composed and contented when fed almost exclusively on fish4 ,in such cases ,i have withdrawn butter1 milk1 eggs1 and all the varieties of warm-blooded animal food2 and1 carefully noting the weight and strength1 ,i find no diminution of either1 while fish is supplied in such quantities as fully to satisfy the appetite4--,j4 ,,mortimer ,,granville1 ,m4,d41 ,fish as ,food and ,physic4 ,,coffee ,,and ,,tea 7p4 #agj74--;,besides the alkaloid ,caffeine which coffee contains1 it also develops1 in roasting1 a volatile oil called ,caffeone1 to which is due its characteristic aroma4 ,the main effects of coffee are due to both the caffeine and the caffeone1 which are antagonistic1 though not contemporaneous1 in action4 ,the volatile oil reduces arterial tension1 allows a brisker flow of blood1 and so increases the rapidity of the heart's action4 ,it also acts upon the brain1 and intellectual faculties in general2 keeps one awake1 and his mind clear4 ,caffeine1 on the other hand1 like digitalis1 produces a high arterial tension1 and slows the heart beat4 ,it exerts its chief effect upon the spinal cord1 to which1 like strychnia1 it is an excitant4 ,the shaking hand of the inveterate coffee drinker is caused by caffeine4 ,thus a cup of coffee produces on the drinker a double effect1--of the oil and the alkaloid2 the former sooner and transient1 the latter later and lasting4444,coffee is not in itself nutritious to any marked degree2 but it saves food1 and also maintains life1 by its exhilarating effect upon the nervous system4 ,it is an excellent antidote to opium1 producing the wakefulness that antagonizes the narcotic sleep of the drug2 is now and then curative of sick headache1 and is one of the standard remedies for certain forms of nausea4 ,to the chemist1 ,tea is much the same thing as coffee4 ,it contains considerably more tannin1 a volatile oil1 and an alkaloid 7theine7 indistinguishable from caffeine4 ,that the injurious effects of overdoses are due as much to the volatile oil as to the alkaloid1 is shown by the fact that tea packers are made ill by long breathing of air filled with it1 and that tea tasters in ,china1 who avoid swallowing the infusion1 can endure their trade but a few years1 and leave the country with shattered nerves4 ,probably every one numbers among his friends women who are actual slaves of the tea habit1 and who would find tea as hard to forsake as men find tobacco4 ,it is not unlikely that the functional cardiac disorder1 often spoken of as the tobacco heart1 due to nervous derangement1 and accompanied by palpitation and pain in the cardiac region1 is more often due to tea than tobacco4 ,in fact1 the disorders induced by excessive tea drinking have been grasped as a special disease1 to which has been given the name of ,theism4 ,this includes a train of symptoms1 usually progressive1 loss of appetite1 pain after meals1 headache1 constipation1 palpitation1 cardiac distress1 hysterical manifestations1 dizziness1 and paresis4--,,dr4 ,,maurice ,d4 ,,clarke1 ,popular ,science ,news4 ,tea drinkers1 as a rule1 express doubts as regards the correctness of alleged poisonous properties of tea4 ,numerous instances of individuals of this class have been noticed who were themselves suffering from tea poisoning4 ,their nerves were in a deplorably abnormal condition1 the heart and brain were functionally disturbed1 and the sleep less in quantity and less refreshing than it should be4444,one's opinion of the physical disturbances which may be caused by rum1 tobacco1 or tea1 are not worth much1 when the opinion comes from a victim of the excessive use of these agents4 ,the tannin found in tea does not differ from that found in oak and other barks which the tanners use to convert the raw hides of animals into leather4 ,it is a powerful astringent1 which accounts for some of the peculiar physical evils to which confirmed tea drinkers are subject4 ,theine does not differ essentially from ,cocaine 7see p4 #bbc74 ,they both produce exaltation of the nervous system and increased powers of physical endurance4 ,the brain is largely influenced in its functions1 and long periods of wakefulness are induced4 ,continued use of strong infusions of either coca or tea result in great disturbance of nervous centers and functional offices1 and either will produce fatal results by persistent use of inordinate quantities4 ,a cup of tea as served at tea tables contains usually only a trace of the alkaloidal principle1 but infinitesimal quantities are capable of exerting baneful effects upon some tea drinkers4444,poisons act in a variety of ways1 some slowly1 and without producing pain2 others act violently1 and with speedy1 fatal results4 ,inasmuch as we do not observe a very large number of clearly proved cases of acute poisoning by tea1 we must conclude that it is characteristically a slow poison1 and also that its influence is unlike in different individuals4444,four or six cups of tea1 however1 taken during each twenty-four hours1 will in time produce tea poisoning1 and greater or less evil effects4 ,tea is well enough1 when its use is kept under absolute1 intelligent control2 but if it becomes master in any case1 then it must be promptly abandoned1 for danger attends the intemperate tea drinker every hour of his life4 ,those advanced in life crave its stimulating effects1 and it is well for them to use it in moderation2 but the young should abstain from it entirely4--,abridged from ,tea ,poisoning1 by ,,dr4 ,,nichols1 in ,popular ,science ,news1 ,december1 #ahhg4 ,,causes ,,and ,,effects ,,of ,,indigestion 7p4 l#gb74--,when a light breakfast is eaten1 a solid meal is requisite in the middle of the day4 ,if the digestive organs are left too long unemployed1 they secrete an excess of mucus1 which greatly interferes with their normal functions4 ,one meal has a direct influence on the next2 and a poor breakfast leaves the stomach over-active for dinner4 ,this is the secret of much excess in eating4 ,the point to bear in mind is that not to eat a sufficiency at one meal makes you too hungry for the next2 and that when you are too hungry1 you are apt to overload the stomach1 and to give the gastric juices more to do than they have the power to perform4 ,to eat too often1 and to eat irregularly1 are other sources of indigestion4 ,people who dine at uncertain hours1 and eat one meal too quickly on the last1 must expect the stomach to retaliate in the long run4 ,a very fruitful cause of dyspepsia is imperfect mastication4 ,we remember one old gentleman who used always to warn young people on this point by saying3 ,remember you have no teeth in your stomach4 ,nervous people nearly always eat fast1 and as nearly always are the victims of nervous irritability1 produced by dyspepsia4444,to sit much in a stooping posture interferes with the stomach's action4 ,well-marked dyspepsia has been traced to sitting immediately after dinner in a low armchair1 so that the body was curved forward1 and the stomach compressed4444 ,the skin1 core1 and kernels of fruit should be avoided4 ,some people are not able to digest raw apples2 and dyspepsia has been sometimes greatly aggravated by eating pears4 ,the latter fruit1 in its ripest state1 contains an abundance of gritty material1 which1 as it can not be separated in the mouth1 on being swallowed irritates the mucous membrane4444 ,of food itself1 bear in mind that hot meat is more digestible than cold2 the flesh of full-grown animals than that of young ones2 that land birds are more digestible than waterfowl2 wild animals than domestic ones2 and that in game1 newly killed birds are easier of digestion than those which have been kept a long time4--,hints to ,dyspeptics1 ,chambers's ,journal4 ,,how ,,food ,,develops ,,energy 7p4 #agc74--;,it may appear strange that the small amount of food we eat should suffice to carry our large and bulky bodies through all the varied movement of the day4 ,but this difficulty disappears at once1 when we recollect how large an amount of dormant energy can be laid by in a very small piece of matter4 ,a lump of coal no bigger than one's fist1 if judiciously employed1 will suffice to keep a small toy engine at work for a considerable time4 ,now1 our food is matter containing large amounts of dormant energy1 and our bodies are engines so constructed as to utilize all the energy to the best advantage4 ,a single gramme of beef fat if completely burned 7that is1 if every atom unites with oxygen71 is capable of developing more than #i1jjj heat units2 and each heat unit1 if employed to perform mechanical work1 is capable of lifting a weight of one gramme to a height of #dbd meters2 or1 what comes to the same thing1 #dbd grammes to a height of one meter4 ,accordingly1 the energy contained in one gramme of beef1 and the oxygen with which it unites1 would be sufficient to raise the little bit of fat itself to a height of #c1haf kilometers1 or almost as high as the distance from ,london to ,new ,york4-- ,,grant ,,allen in ,why do we ,eat our ,dinner8 ,danger of ,too ,high ,pressure4--,a prudent fire engineer1 when his water hose is old and weak1 would not try to force as much water as he could into it4 ,no2 to prevent a rupture he would work it at a low pressure4 ,but men seldom think of carrying out the same simple mechanical principle when there is reason to believe that the vessels of the brain are getting weak and brittle4 ,they eat and drink just as much as they feel inclined to1 and sometimes a little more4 ,with a good digestion1 nearly all they consume is converted into blood1 to the yet further distention of vessels already over-distended4 ,this high-pressure style of living produces high-pressure results4 ,its effects were painfully illustrated by the death of ,charles ,dickens4 ,the brain work he performed was immense2 he lived generously1 taking his wine as he did his meat1 with a liberal hand4 ,he disregarded the signs of structural decay1 forcing his reluctant brain to do what it had once done with spontaneous ease1 until all at once1 under a greater tension than ordinary1 a weak vessel gave way1 flooding the brain with blood4--,j4 ,r4 ,,black1 ,m4,d41 in ,apoplexy1 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,april1 #ahge4 ,evils of ,gluttony4--,is it not strange1 says ,dr4 ,hunt1 how people1 even the most considerate1 will trifle with their stomachs8 ,many a person seems to prefer taking medicine to avoiding it by a proper regulation of the appetite4 ,you may stuff the stomach to the full1 year after year1 but as sure as effects follow causes1 so sure will you reap the accumulating penalty4 ,a physician of extensive practice declares that he has never lived through a ,christmas or ,thanksgiving without frequently being consulted for ailments produced by excessive eating4 ,he says3 ,it would seem as if multitudes thought they had a gluttonous license once a year1 and that the most appropriate method of expressing gratitude1 was by stuffing the stomach4 ,excessive eating produces scrofula4 ,surfeiting among children results in mental stupidity and unmanageable temper4444,i am acquainted with a family1 in which about the average amount of stuffing is indulged4 ,to my expostulations1 the mother has replied3 ,i may not be able to give my children as much education as some folks1 and ,i may not be able to give them any property1 but as long as we can get it1 they shall have what they want to eat4 ,i have spoken of their black teeth1 bad breath1 eruptions1 and frequent sickness4 ,yes1 she has replied1 ,i know all that1 but would you have me stop them before their appetites are half satisfied1 and tell them1 'there1 that is all you can have'8 ,no2 as long as ,i can get it1 my children shall have enough to eat2 it never shall be said that ,i have starved them4 ,this indulgence of children to the full extent of their undiscriminating appetites is extreme folly and genuine unkindness4 ,pampered with a variety of dishes1 they eat enormously1 which engenders a craving for another large meal1 and so on--their youthful and elastic constitutions enabling them to bear the excess without immediate serious injury4 ,let them be confined to one or two plain dishes at a meal1 and the quantity be determined for them2 it will then be found that a growing child does not need to be stuffed1 and that his appetite will soon become reasonable2 and if the food be plain1 and mostly or entirely vegetable1 it will soon be observed that the child's teeth are whiter1 its breath sweeter1 its skin clearer1 its tongue cleaner1 its eyes brighter1 its sleep quieter1 its brains sharper1 and its temper more amiable4 ,there are few changes in the management of children which would prove so beneficial as that from the present mode of cramming with a multitude of rich foods1 to a plain vegetable diet1 eaten in regular and moderate quantities4--,,dio ,,lewis1 in ,weak ,lungs1 and ,how to ,make them ,strong4 ,,regular ,,physical ,,habits 7p4 #agg74--;,constipation lies at the root of a host of chronic ailments1 which seem especially to beset ,american women4 ,impaired blood1 nervous excitability1 sick headaches1 mental depression1 sleeplessness1 and a long train of untold sufferings may be directly traced to this physical sin4 ,we say sin1 for in the large majority of instances this habit may be prevented2 or1 if already formed1 may1 by proper attention1 be cured4 ,the principal causes which lead to this deplorable state of the system are3 #a4 ,errors in ,food4 #b4 ,errors in ,exercise4 #c4 ,inattention to ,nature's laws4 ,errors in ,food have much to do with the evil in question4 ,our diet is1 in general1 too concentrated4 ,we indulge ourselves with animal food two or three times a day1 accompanying it with spices1 condiments1 greasy gravies1 fine wheat bread1 and a sparse amount of vegetables4 ,we wind up our dinners with rich and heavy pastry1 and our luncheons or our suppers with sugared sweetmeats and that indigestible compound often offered under the name of cake4 ,a few cups of strong tea intensify the error4 ,coffee has a less astringent effect1 and therefore can not be so severely arraigned for this particular consequence4 ,when we think what delicious meals can be enjoyed from any of the cereals1 well cooked1 and taken with milk or cream1 bread from unbolted flour1 plenty of unsugared fruit1 and pure rain or spring water1 filtered and cooled or taken hot1 with or without milk1 we wonder that so many people consent day after day to use greasy pork1 fried steaks1 fried potatoes1 hot biscuit1 and in many cases poorly made coffee and tea4 ,these are the people who make up the grand army of sallow- faced sufferers upon which the venders of patent pills and nauseous compounds thrive4 ,a wise mother will not allow mere culinary convenience to take precedence of the requirements of health4 ,she will study the peculiar physical needs of each one of her children1 that she may provide for each the food best suited to his or her constitution4 ,this is not a difficult matter4 ,water1 not only by itself1 but in some of its combinations1 says ,dr4 ,oswald1 is an effective aperient2 in watermelons1 and whey1 for instance1 but still more in conjunction with a dish of peas1 or beans4 ,no constipation can long withstand the suasion of a dose of pea soup1 or baked beans1 flavored with a modicum of brown butter1 and glorified with a cup of cold spring water4 ,moreover1 the aperient effect thus produced is not followed by an astringent reaction1 as in the case of drugs1--the cure1 once effected1 is permanent4 ,errors in ,exercise may lie in two directions1 and overexertion1 viz41 exercise carried to the point of nervous exhaustion1 is as mischievous in its effect as is the other extreme4 ,a too long walk1 for instance1 may cause the very evil it is intended to cure4 ,as a rule1 however1 sedentary habits are chargeable with the greater share of influence in this unhappy state of the system4 ,light gymnastics within doors1 a brisk walk or horseback ride without1 both taken in garments suspended from the shoulders1 and devoid of all constriction so that the abdominal viscera can partake in the general movement of the body1 are advisable4 ,for invalids or those incapacitated for active exercise1 friction or massage treatment daily1 including a vigorous kneading of the abdomen1 or a relaxation of the entire muscles of the body with especial thought directed to the desired result1 are often of great service4 ,inattention to ,physical ,laws is perhaps the prime culprit4 ,nature always inclines to regularity1 and when we do not respect her dictates1 we invite the retribution which1 sooner or later1 she invariably inflicts4 ,the elimination of waste from the system is an imperative necessity1 and whenever it is thwarted1 evil must and will follow4 ,aside from the avoidance of positive discomforts1 suffering1 and disease1 there is the not unimportant consideration of bodily elasticity and a fine complexion4 ,let every young woman who would possess and retain a fair1 delicate complexion1 remember that the most important factor in its formation and retention is a clean system4 ,proper diet1 plenty of fruits1 plenty of wholesome drink1 enough exercise to send the blood pleasurably bounding through the veins1 followed up and enforced by prompt recognition of the immutable laws of ,health in this as well as all other organic functions1 will soon work a reform that could not be so successfully effected by all the drugs in ,christendom4--,e4 ,b4 ,s4 ,,the ,,nervous ,,system4 ,,effect ,,of ,,violent ,,passions ,,upon ,,health 7p4 #bjb74--,the man who is given to outbursts of anger is sure to experience a rapid change of the physical organs1 in case he does not die in a fit of rage4 ,death under such circumstances is of frequent occurrence4 ,sylla1 ,valentinian1 ,nerva1 ,wenceslas1 and ,isabeau of ,bavaria1 all died in consequence of an access of passion4 ,the medical annals of our own time recount many instances of fatal effects following the violent brain disturbance caused by anger4 ,the symptoms usually are pulmonary and cerebral congestions4 ,still such fatal accidents as these are exceptional2 as a rule1 the passions of hate and anger deteriorate the constitution by slow1 but sure degrees4 ,how1 then1 do we explain those morbid phenomena which have their origin in misplaced affection1 in disappointed ambition1 in hatred1 or in anger1 and which culminate either in serious chronic maladies1 or in death or suicide8 ,they all seem to start from an impairment of the cerebro-spinal centers4 ,the continual excitation of these by ever-present emotions determines a paralysis of the central nerve substance1 and thus affects its connections with the nerves extending out to the various organs4 ,these nerves next degenerate by degrees1 and soon the great functions are compromised4 ,the heart and the lungs cease to act with their normal rhythm1 the circulation grows irregular and languishing4 ,appetite disappears1 the amount of carbonic acid exhaled decreases1 and the hair grows white1 owing to the interruption of the pigmentary secretion4 ,this general disturbance in nutrition and secretion is attended with a fall of the body's temperature and anmia4 ,the flesh dries up and the organism becomes less and less capable of resisting morbific influences4 ,at the same time1 in consequence of the reaction of all these disturbances on the brain1 the psychic faculties become dull or perverted1 and the patient falls into a decline more or less complicated and aggravated by grave symptoms4 ,under these conditions he dies or makes away with himself4 ,two organs1 the stomach and the liver1 are often affected in a peculiar and characteristic way in the course of this pathological evolution4 ,the modifications produced in the innervation1 under the influence of cephalic excitement1 cause a disturbance of the blood circulation in the liver4 ,this disturbance is of such a nature that the bile1 now secreted in larger quantity1 is resorbed into the blood instead of passing into the biliary vesicle4 ,then appears what we call jaundice4 ,the skin becomes pale1 then yellow1 owing to the presence in the blood of the coloring matter of the bile4 ,this change in the liver is usually developed slowly3 sometimes1 however1 jaundice makes its appearance suddenly4 ,villeneuve mentions the case of two youths who brought a discussion to an end by grasping their swords2 suddenly one of them turned yellow1 and the other1 alarmed at this transformation1 dropped his weapon4 ,the same author speaks of a priest who became jaundiced on seeing a mad dog jump at him4 ,whatever may be said of these cases1 we must reckon painful affections of the soul among the efficient causes of chronic diseases of the liver4 ,the digestion1 says the author of a work published some years ago1 is completely subjected to the influence of the moral and intellectual state4 ,when the brain is wearied by the passions1 appetite and digestion are almost gone4444,there is nowhere perfect health1 save when the passions are well regulated1 harmonized1 and equipoised4 ,moral temperance is as indispensable to a calm and tranquil life as physiological temperance4444,if it is your desire that your circulatory1 respiratory1 and digestive functions should be discharged properly1 normally1 if you want your appetite to be good1 your sleep sound1 your humor equable1 avoid all emotions that are overstrong1 all pleasures that are too intense1 and meet the inevitable sorrows and the cruel agonies of life with a firm and resigned soul4 ,ever have some occupation to employ and divert your mind1 and to make it proof against the temptations of want or of desire4 ,thus will you attain the term of life without overmuch disquiet and affliction4--,,fernand ,,papillon1 in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 ,,brain ,,work1 ,,overwork1 ,,and ,,worry 7p4 #bje74--,overstimulation of the ,brain in ,childhood4--,most civilized communities have enacted laws against the employment of children in severe physical labor4 ,this is well enough1 for the muscles of young persons are tender and weak1 and not1 therefore1 adapted to the work to which cupidity or ignorance would otherwise subject them4 ,but no such fostering care does the ,state take of the brains of the young4 ,there are no laws to prevent the undeveloped nervous system being overtasked and brought to disease1 or even absolute destruction4 ,every physician sees cases of the kind1 and wonders how parents of intelligence can be so blind to the welfare of their offspring as to force1 or even to allow1 their brains to be worked to a degree that1 in many cases1 results in idiocy or death4 ,only a few months ago ,i saw for the first time a boy of five years of age1 with a large head1 a prominent forehead1 and all the other signs of mental precocity4 ,he had read the first volume of ,bryant's ,history of the ,united ,states1 and was preparing to tackle the other volumes6 ,he read the magazines of the day with as much interest as did his father1 and conversed with equal facility on the politics of the period4 ,but a few weeks before ,i saw him he had begun to walk in his sleep1 then chorea had made its appearance1 and on the day before he was brought to me he had had a well-marked epileptic paroxysm4 ,already his mind is weakened --perhaps permanently so4 ,such cases are not isolated ones4 ,they are continually occurring4 ,the period of early childhood--say up to seven or eight years of age--is that during which the brain and other parts of the nervous system are most actively developing1 in order to fit them for the great work before them4 ,it is safe to say that the only instruction given during this time should be that which consists in teaching children how to observe4 ,the perceptive faculties alone should be made the subjects of systematic attempts at development4 ,the child should be taught how to use his senses1 and especially how to see1 hear1 and touch4 ,in this manner1 knowledge would be acquired in the way that is preeminently the natural way1 and ample food would be furnished for the child's reflective powers4--,,dk4 ,,wm4 ,a4 ,,hammond1 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,november1 #ahhd4 ,reserve ,force4--,the part which a stock of energy plays in brain work can scarcely be exaggerated4 ,reserves are of high moment everywhere in the animal economy1 and the reserve of mental force is in a practical sense more important than any other4444,without this reserve1 healthy brain work is impossible4 ,pain1 hunger1 anxiety1 and a sense of mind weariness1 are warning tokens of exhaustion4 ,when the laborious worker1 overcome with fatigue1 rouses himself with alcohol1 coffee1 tea1 or any other agent which may chance to suit him1 he does not add a unit of force to his stock of energy2 he simply narcotizes the sense of weariness1 and1 the guard being drugged1 he appropriates the reserve4444,meanwhile1 the effort to work becomes daily more laborious1 the task of fixing the attention grows increasingly difficult1 thoughts wander1 memory fails1 the reasoning power is enfeebled2 physical nerve or brain disturbance may supervene1 and the crash will then come suddenly1 unexpected by on-lookers1 perhaps unperceived by the sufferer himself4 ,overwork and ,worry4--,the miseries of overwork1 pure and simple1 are few and comparatively insignificant4444,the natural safeguards are so well fitted for their task that neither body nor mind is exposed to the peril of serious exhaustion so long as their functions are duly performed4 ,overwork is impossible so long as the effort made is natural4444,there is then no excuse for idleness in the pretense of possible injury4 ,if insane asylums were searched for the victims of overwork1 they would nearly all be found to have fallen a prey to worry1 or to the degeneracy which results from lack of purpose in life1 and of steady employment 4444,the cause or condition which most commonly exposes the reserve of mental energy to loss and injury is worry4 ,when a strong and active mind breaks down suddenly in the midst of business1 it is usually worn out by this cause rather than by the other4444,work in the teeth of worry is fraught with peril4 ,the unhappy victim is ever on the verge of a catastrophe2 if he escape1 the marvel is not at his strength of intellect so much as at his good fortune4 ,worry is disorder1 however induced1 and disorderly work is abhorred by the laws of nature1 which leave it wholly without remedy4 ,the pernicious system of ,cram slays its thousands1 because uneducated1 undeveloped1 inelastic intellects are burdened and strained with information adroitly deposited in the memory1--as an expert valet packs a portmanteau1 with the articles likely to be first wanted on the top4 ,desultory occupation1 mere play with objects of which the true interest is not appreciated1 ruins a still larger number4 ,but worry1 that bane of brain work and mental energy1 counts its victims by tens of thousands4--,,dr4 ,j4 ,,mortimer ,,granville1 in ,worry1 ,nineteenth ,century4 ,,sleep 7p4 #bjf74--,some ,curiosities of ,sleep4--,one of the most refined and exquisite methods of torture is long continued deprivation of sleep4 ,the demand for unconscious rest is so imperious that nature will accommodate itself to the most unfavorable surrounding conditions4 ,thus1 in forced marches1 regiments have been known to sleep while walking2 men have slept soundly in the saddle2 and persons will sometimes sleep during the din of battle4 ,it is remarkable how noises to which we have been accustomed will fail to disturb our natural rest4 ,those who have been long habituated to the endless noise of a crowded city frequently find difficulty in sleeping in the oppressive stillness of the country4 ,prolonged exposure to intense cold induces excessive somnolence1 and if this be induced1 the sleep passes into stupor1 the power of resistance to cold becomes rapidly diminished1 and death is the inevitable result4 ,intense heat often produces drowsiness1 but1 as is well known1 is not favorable to natural sleep4444,it is difficult to determine with exactness the phenomena of sleep that are absolutely physiological1 and to separate those that are slightly abnormal4 ,we can not assert1 for example1 that a dreamless sleep is the only normal condition of repose of the system2 nor can we determine what dreams are due to previous trains of thought1 or to such impressions from the external world received during sleep as are purely physiological1 and what are due to abnormal nervous influence1 disordered digestion1 etc4 ,the most remarkable experiments upon the production of dreams of a definite character1 by subjecting a person during sleep to peculiar influences1 are those of ,maury4 ,the hallucinations produced in this way are called hypnagogic 7from its derivation this term is properly applied only to phenomena observed at the instant when we fall asleep1 or when we are imperfectly awakened1 and not to the period of most perfect repose71 and they occur when the subject is not in a condition favorable to sound sleep4 ,the experiments made by ,maury upon himself are so curious and interesting that we quote the most striking of them in full4 ,first ,observation4--,i am tickled with a feather successively on the lips and inside of the nostrils4 ,i dream that ,i am subjected to a horrible punishment1 that a mask of pitch is applied to my face1 and then roughly torn off1 tearing the skin of the lip1 the nose1 and the face4 ,second ,observation4--,a pair of pincers is held at a little distance from my ear1 and rubbed with steel scissors4 ,i dream that ,i hear the ringing of bells2 this soon becomes a tocsin1 and ,i imagine myself in the days of ,june1 #ahdh4 7,the time of the ,french ,revolution47 ,third ,observation4--,i am caused to inhale ,cologne water4 ,i dream ,i am in a perfumer's shop2 the idea of perfumes doubtless awakens the idea of the ,east2 ,i am in ,cairo1 in the shop of ,jean ,farina4444 ,fifth ,observation4--,i am slightly pinched on the nape of the neck4 ,i dream that a blister is applied1 which recalls to my mind a physician who had treated me in infancy4 ,seventh ,observation4444,the words ,azar1 ,castor1 ,leonore1 were pronounced in my ear2 on awaking ,i recollected that ,i had heard the last two words1 which ,i attributed to one of the persons who had conversed with me in my dream4--,,flint',s ,physiology of ,man4 ,the transition stage between the dream simple and the dream acted is witnessed in the spasmodic movements which a vivid dream produces in the limbs or person of the sleeper4 ,the dreamer engages in a fierce struggle1 and twitchings of his legs and arms indicate the feeble response of body to the promptings of mind removed from its wonted power over the frame4 ,even the dog1 as he sleeps1 apparently dreams of the chase1 and gives vent to his sensations by the short1 sharp bark1 or sniffs the air1 and starts in his slumber as if in response to the activity with which1 in his dreaming1 he is hurrying along after the object of pursuit4444,persons have been known to swim for a considerable time in the somnambulistic state without waking at the termination of their journey2 others have safely descended the shaft of a mine1 while some have ascended steep cliffs1 and have returned home in safety during a prolonged sleep vigil4 7,see p4 #bjd47--;,,dr4 ,,andrew ,,wilson1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,what ,dreams are ,made of4 ,sleep and ,conscience4--,edward ,everett ,hale says3 ,never go to bed in any danger of being hungry4 ,people are kept awake by hunger quite as much as by a bad conscience4 ,remembering that sleep is the essential force which starts the whole system1 decline tea or coffee within the last six hours before going to bed4 ,avoid all mathematics or intricate study of any sort in the last six hours4 ,this is the stuff dreams are made of1 and hot heads1 and the nuisances of waking hours4 ,keep your conscience clear4 ,remember that because the work of life is infinite1 you can not do the whole of it in any limited period of time1 and that therefore you may just as well leave off in one place as another4 ,the ,art of ,rising ,early4--,the proper time to rise is when sleep ends4 ,dozing should not be allowed4 ,true sleep is the aggregate of sleeps1 or is a state consisting in the sleeping or rest of all the several parts of the organism4 ,sometimes one and at other times another part of the body1 as a whole1 may be the least fatigued1 and so the first to awake2 or the most exhausted1 and therefore the most difficult to arouse4 ,the secret of good sleep is1 the physiological conditions of rest being established1 so to work and weary the several parts of the organism as to give them a proportionately equal need of rest at the same moment4 ,to wake early1 and feel ready to rise1 a fair and equal start of the sleepers should be secured2 and the wise self-manager should not allow a drowsy feeling of unconsciousness1 or weary senses1 or an exhausted muscular system1 to beguile him into the folly of going to sleep again when once he has been aroused4 ,after a few days of self-discipline1 the man who resolves not to doze1 that is1 not to allow some sleepy part of his body to keep him in bed after his brain has once awakened1 will find himself1 without knowing why1 an early riser4 ,,influence ,,of ,,sunlight 7p4 #bjg74--,light is an essential element in producing the grand phenomena of life1 though its action is ill understood4 ,where there is light there is life1 and any deprivation of this principle is rapidly followed by disease of the animal frame1 and the destruction of the mental faculties4 ,we have proof of this in the squalor of those whose necessities compel them to labor in places to which the blessings of sunshine never penetrate1 as in our coal mines1 where men having everything necessary for health1 except light1 exhibit a singularly unhealthy appearance4 ,the state of fatuity and wretchedness to which those individuals have been reduced1 who have been subjected for years to incarceration in dark dungeons1 may be referred to the same deprivation4-- ,,robert ,,hunt1 ,poetry of ,science4 ,effect of ,dungeon ,life4--,you can not imagine1 ,mr4 ,kennan1 said a condemned revolutionist to me in ,siberia1 the misery of prolonged confinement in a casemate of the fortress under what are known as dungeon conditions4 ,my casemate was sometimes cold1 generally damp1 and always gloomy4 ,day after day1 week after week1 month after month1 ,i lay there in solitude1 hearing no sound save that of the high-pitched1 melancholy bells of the fortress cathedral1 which slowly chimed the quarter hours1 and which always seemed to say3 ',here thou liest--lie here still4' ,i had absolutely nothing to do except to pace my cell from corner to corner1 and think4 ,for a long time ,i used to talk to myself in a whisper2 to repeat softly everything in the shape of literature that ,i could remember1 and to compose speeches which1 under certain imagined conditions1 ,i would deliver2 but ,i finally ceased to have energy enough to do even this1 and used to sit for hours in a sort of stupor1 in which1 so far as ,i can now remember1 ,i was not conscious of thinking at all4 ,before the end of the first year1 ,i grew so weak1 mentally and physically1 that ,i began to forget words4 ,i knew what ideas ,i desired to express1 but some of the words that ,i needed had gone from me1 and it was with the greatest difficulty that ,i could recover them4 ,it seemed sometimes as if my own language were a strange one to me1 or one which1 from long disuse1 ,i had forgotten4 ,i greatly feared insanity1 and my apprehension was increased by the fact that two or three of my comrades in cells on the same corridor were either insane or subject to hallucinations2 and ,i was often roused at night and thrown into a violent chill of nervous excitement by their hysterical weeping1 their cries to the guard to come and take away somebody1 or something which they imagined they saw1 or their groans and entreaties when1 in cases of violent delirium1 they were strapped to their beds by the gendarmes4--,,george ,,kennan1 in ,russian ,state ,prisoners1 ,the ,century1 ,march1 #ahhh4 ,,the ,,growth ,,and ,,power ,,of ,,poison ,,habits 7p4 #bah74--;,in order to distinguish a poison stimulant from a harmless and nutritive substance1 ,nature has furnished us three infallible tests3 #a4 ,the first taste of every poison is either insipid or repulsive4 #b4 ,the persistent obtrusion of the noxious substance changes that aversion into a specific craving4 #c4 ,the more or less pleasurable excitement produced by a gratification of that craving is always followed by a depressing reaction4444 ,one radical fallacy identifies the stimulant habit in all its disguises3 its victims mistake a process of irritation for one of invigoration4444 ,sooner or later the tonic is sure to pall while the morbid craving remains1 and forces its victims either to increase the quantity of the wonted stimulant1 or else to resort to a stronger poison4 ,a boy begins with ginger beer and ends in ginger rum2 the medical tonic delusion progresses from malt extract to ,mumford's ,elixir2 and the nicotine habit once introduced1 the alcohol habit often follows4 ,the tendency of every stimulant habit is toward a stronger tonic4444,we have found that the road to the rum shop is paved with mild stimulants1 and that every bottle of medical bitters is apt to get the vender a permanent customer4 ,we have found that cider and mild ale lead to strong ale1 to lager beer1 and finally to rum1 and the truth at last dawns upon us that the only safe1 consistent1 and effective plan is ,total ,abstinence from all ,poisons4 444,more than the hunger after bread1 more than the frenzy of love or hatred1 the poison hunger overpowers every other instinct1 even the fear of death4 ,dr4 ,isaac ,jennings has illustrated this by the following example3 ,a clergyman of his acquaintance attempted to dissuade a young man of great promise from habits of intemperance4 ,hear me first a few words1 said the young man1 and then you may proceed4 ,i am sensible that an indulgence in this habit will lead to the loss of property1 the loss of reputation and domestic happiness1 to premature death1 and to the irretrievable loss of my immortal soul2 and now1 with all this conviction resting firmly on my mind and flashing over my conscience like lightning1 if ,i still continue to drink1 do you suppose anything you can say will deter me from the practice8 444,ignorance is a chief cause of intemperance4 ,the seductions of vice would not mislead so many of our young men if they could realize the significance of their mistake4 ,there is still a lingering belief that1 with due precaution against excess and adulteration1 a dram drinker might get ahead of ,nature1 and1 as it were1 trick her out of some extra enjoyment4 ,there is no hope of a radical reform till intelligent people have realized the fact that this trick is in every instance a losing game1 entailing penalties which far outweigh the pleasures that the novice may mistake for enjoyments4 ,for the depression of the vital energy increases with every repetition of the stimulating process1 and in a year after the first dose all the grateful and exhilarating tonics of our professional poison venders can not restore the vigor1 the courage1 and the cheerfulness which the mere consciousness of perfect health imparts to the total abstainer4 ,a great plurality of all beginners underrate the difficulty of controlling the cravings of a morbid appetite4 ,they remember that their natural inclinations at first opposed1 rather than encouraged1 the indulgence2 and they feel that at the present stage of its development they could abjure the passion without difficulty4 ,but they overlook the fact that the moral power of resistance decreases with each repetition of the dose1 and that the time will come when only the practical impossibility of procuring their wonted tipple will enable them to keep their pledge of total abstinence4 ,it is true that1 by the exercise of a constant self-restraint1 a person of great will force may resist the progressive tendency of the poison habit and confine himself for years to a single cigar or a single bottle of wine per day4444,but the attempt to resist that bias will overtask the strength of most individuals4 ,according to the allegory of the ,grecian myth1 the car of ,bacchus was drawn by tigers2 and it is a significant circumstance that war1 famine1 and pestilence have so often been the forerunners of veritable alcohol epidemics4444,the explanation is that1 after the stimulant habit has once been initiated1 every unusual depression of mental or physical vigor calls for an increased application of the accustomed method of relief4444,nations who are addicted to the worship of a poison god will use his temple as a place of refuge from every calamity2 and children whose petty ailments have been palliated with narcotics1 wine1 and cordials1 will afterward be tempted to drown their greater sorrows in deeper draughts of the same nepenthe4--,,felix ,l4 ,,oswald1 ,m4,d41 ,remedies of ,nature1 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,october and ,november1 #ahhc4 ,,dangers ,,from ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,narcotics4--,it may seem a paradox1 it is a truism1 to say that in the value of narcotics lies their peril4 ,because they have such power for good1 because the suffering which they alleviate is in its lighter forms so common1 because neuralgia and sleeplessness are ailments as familiar to the present generation as gout1 rheumatism1 and catarrh were to our grandfathers1 therefore the medicines which immediately relieve sleeplessness and neuralgic pain are among the most dangerous possessions1 the most subtle temptations of civilized life4 ,every one of these drugs has1 besides its instant and beneficial effect1 other and injurious tendencies4 ,the relief which it gives is purchased at a certain price2 for1 at each repetition of the dose1 the immediate relief is lessened or rendered uncertain1 while the mischievous influence is enhanced and aggravated2 till1 when the drug has become a necessity of life it has lost the greater part1 if not the whole1 of its value1 and serves only to satisfy the need which itself alone has created4444,we read weekly of men and women poisoned by an overdose of some favorite sedative1 burned to death or otherwise fatally injured1 while insensible from self- administered ether or chloroform4444,the narcotist keeps chloroform or chloral always at hand1 forgetful or ignorant that one sure effect of the first dose is to produce a semistupor more dangerous than actual somnolence4 ,in that semistupor the patient is aware1 or fancies1 that the dose has failed4 ,the pain that has induced a lady to hold a chloroformed handkerchief under her nostrils returns while her will and her judgment are half paralyzed4 ,she takes the bottle from the table beside her bed1 intending to pour an additional supply upon her handkerchief4 ,the unsteady hand perhaps spills a quantity on the sheet1 perhaps sinks with the unstoppered bottle under her nostrils1 and in a few moments she has inhaled enough utterly to stupefy1 if not to kill4 ,the sleepless brain worker also feels that his usual dose of chloral has failed to bring sleep2 he is not aware how completely it has stupefied the brain1 to which it has not given rest4 ,his judgment is gone1 so is his steadiness of hand2 and he pours out a second and too often a fatal dose4444,but the cases that end in a death terrible to the family1 though probably involving little or no suffering to the victim himself1 are by no means the worst4 ,a life poisoned1 paralyzed1 rendered worthless for all the uses of intellectual1 rational1 we might almost say of human existence1 is worse for the sufferer himself and for all around him than a quick and painless death2 and for one such death there must be twenty1 if not a hundred1 instances of this worst death in life4444,the demoralization of the narcotist is not1 like that of the drunkard1 rapid1 violent1 and palpable2 but gradual1 insidious1 perceptible at first only to close observers and intimate friends4 ,here and there we find a constitution upon which opium exerts few or none of its characteristic effects4 ,such cases are1 of course1 wholly exceptional2 but their very existence is a danger to others1 misleading them into the idea that they may dally with the tempter without falling under its yoke1 or may fall under that yoke and find it a light one4 ,i doubt1 however1 whether the most fortunate of its victims would encourage the latter idea2 whether there be an opium eater who would not give a limb never to have known what opium slavery means4444,besides1 no one can be sure1 or indeed reasonably hope1 that the mischief will be confined to the individual victim4 ,that the children of drunkards are often predisposed to insanity is notorious2 that the children of habitual opium eaters inherit an unmistakable taint1 whether in a diseased brain1 in morbid cravings1 or simply in a will too weak to resist temptation1 is less notorious1 but equally certain4--,,percy ,,greg1 ,narcotics and ,stimulants1 ,contemporary ,review4 ,thus also in ,america scarcely a week passes but we see announced in the public prints deaths or suicides resulting from the use of narcotics4 ,now1 it is from tobacco3 ,a ,yale ,college student dies from excessive smoking2 another student in the same college1 and as a result of the same habit1 commits suicide2 a third young man is found dead in his bed in ,new ,york1 from heart disease induced by cigarettes2 and so1 month by month1 and year by year1 grows in rapid increase the list of tobacco deaths4--,or1 again1 it is from opium4 ,a ,harvard student with two of his college companions in search of a new sensation1 tries opium smoking one fatal night and dies before morning2 a woman in ,ohio1 belonging to a prominent family1 dies at the age of thirty-three years1 from an overdose of morphine1 her body covered with hypodermic scars2 another1 once the respected wife of a ,baptist clergyman1 becomes a morphine drunkard1 drifts1 step by step1 into a ,central ,new ,york ,almshouse1 and there hangs herself2 a third1 young1 accomplished1 and wealthy1 falls first a victim to the morphine habit1 then to opium smoking1 finally becomes the frequenter of a ,new ,york opium joint1 and so is lost forever to home1 friends1 and respectability4-- ,occasionally it is cocaine1 as in the case of the ,chicago physician1 who1 for the purposes of investigation1 experiments with this new drug upon himself1 his wife1 and finally upon his innocent children2 the entire family being found unconscious from the effects of the subtle narcotic4 ,these are but solitary instances in an appallingly long list of similar cases1 most of which have occurred within the last two years 7#ahhg-'hh74 ,cigarette ,smoking is chargeable with a growing demoralization and mortality among boys and young men4 ,it is no uncommon sight to see lads of ten years old and under1 with the irresponsibility of ignorant childhood1 puffing the dangerous cigarette1 and thus undermining health and intellect at the very outset of useful existence4 ,even when told of the near and remote perils thus incurred1 they scarcely listen1 for do not they see their elders smoke and prosper8--,most of them do not understand that there is more danger to the young than to the old in the tobacco habit1 more danger to some constitutions than to others1 and more danger in the cigarette than even in the pipe or the cigar4 ,pause a moment to consider it1 boys1 when you are tempted to light the clean-looking1 paper-covered roll and place it in your mouth4 ,think of the heated smoke irritating the delicate membrane in your throat1 dulling your brain1 and vitiating the blood which should be bounding fresh and pure through your veins4 ,think of the many filthy and diseased mouths from which have been cast away the tobacco refuse1 picked up in streets and public places to reappear in the ,cheap and ,popular ,brand which looks to you so innocent and so attractive4 ,it is astonishing1 indeed1 how an otherwise cleanly boy will consent to defile himself with these vile abominations4 ,and yet1 ,i have known lads who--not always with perfect politeness--would fastidiously refuse hash at their mother's breakfast table1 but who would shortly afterward serenely place one of these unknowable compounds between their lips and walk away with the air of superior manhood6 ,of ,chloral ,hydrate1 ,dr4 ,fothergill remarks3 ,when this was announced with a flourish of trumpets as a perfectly innocuous narcotic1 the sleepless folk hailed its advent with eager acclamation4 ,but a little experience soon demonstrated that the innocuous1 harmless drug was far from the boon it was proclaimed4 ,in fact1 the impression of its harmlessness was the outcome of ignorance of its properties4 ,death after death1 even among medical men themselves1 as well as nonprofessional persons1 have already resulted from the use1 or rather misuse1 of this narcotic agent4 ,the ,bromides 7of ,soda or ,potash71 also1 should be used with caution1 and only on the prescription of a conscientious physician4 ,the bromide of potash1 says ,percy ,greg1 is claimed not to produce sleep by stupefaction1 like chloral or opium1 but1 at least in small doses1 to allay the nervous irritability which is often the sole cause of sleeplessness4 ,but in larger quantities and in its ultimate effects1 it is scarcely less to be dreaded than chloral4 ,overdoses of the bromides will produce among other evil effects a peculiar eruption upon the face1 which1 though generally temporary1 is liable to reappear from time to time under certain conditions of the system1 and especially upon a subsequent dose1 however dilute4 ,absinthe is a compound of absinthium 7the essence of wormwood71 various aromatic oils1 and alcohol4 ,absinthium1 taken in small doses1 induces trembling1 stupor1 and insensibility2 in larger doses1 epilepsy4 ,when1 therefore1 this dangerous essence is added to alcohol1 it strengthens its influence to specific disease4 ,absinthe drinking is recognized in ,france as such a serious vice that it has been officially prohibited in the army and navy4 ,hasheesh is a syrup prepared from the leaves and flowers of ,indian ,hemp4 ,though its use in this country is comparatively small1 instances are not unknown in which reckless or curious persons have fatally experimented with it4 ,as a medicine1 it is in limited use1 and with results not always satisfactory4 ,it acts in a peculiar manner upon the nervous centers1 occasioning that strange condition of the nervous system called catalepsy1 in which the limbs of the unconscious patient remain stationary in whatever position they may be placed4 ,after an average dose of hasheesh1 the subject becomes the helpless victim of rapidly shifting ideas1 a prominent characteristic of which is an entire loss of judgment as to time and place4 ,a larger dose produces hallucinations and delirium1 with that distressing sensation of falling through endless space which is induced in some people by opium4 ,footnote3 ,in an article entitled ,an ,overdose of ,hasheesh 7,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,february1 #ahhd71 ,miss ,,mary ,a4 ,,hungerford gives a vivid description of a painful experience with this drug1 some portion of which is as follows3 ,being one of the grand army of sufferers from headache1 ,i took1 last summer1 by order of my physician1 three small daily doses of hasheesh in the hope of holding my intimate enemy in check4444,i grew to regard the drug as a harmless medicine1 and one day1 when ,i was assured by some familiar symptoms that my headache was about to assume an aggravated form1 ,i took a larger quantity than had been prescribed4 ,twenty minutes later ,i was seized with a strange sinking or faintness which gave my family so much alarm that they telephoned at once for the doctor4 444,one terrible reality--,i can hardly term it a fancy even now--that came to me again and again1 was so painful that it must1 ,i fear1 always be a vividly remembered agony4444,i died1 as ,i believed1 although by a strange double consciousness ,i knew that ,i should again reanimate the body ,i had left4 ,in leaving it ,i did not soar away1 as one delights to think of the freed spirits soaring4444,i sank1 an intangible1 impalpable shape1 through the bed1 the floors1 the cellar1 the earth1 down1 down1 down6 ,like a fragment of glass dropping through the ocean1 ,i dropped uninterruptedly through the earth and its atmosphere1 and then fell on and on forever4444,as time went on1 and my dropping through space continued1 ,i became filled with the most profound loneliness1 and a desperate fear took hold of me that ,i should be thus alone for evermore1 and fall and fall eternally4444,there was1 it seemed to me1 a forgotten text which1 if remembered1 would be the spell to stop my fatal falling4 ,i sought in my memory for it1 ,i prayed to recall it1 ,i fought for it madly1 wrestling against the terrible fate which seemed to withhold it4 ,single words of it came to me in disconnected mockery1 but erased themselves instantaneously4 ,mentally1 ,i writhed in such hopeless agony that1 in thinking of it1 ,i wonder ,i could have borne such excess of emotion and lived4444,i began1 then1 without having reached any goal1 to ascend4 ,as ,i rose1 a great and terrible voice from a vast distance pronounced my doom3 ',fall1 fall1 fall1 to rise again in hopeless misery1 and sink again in lonely agony forever4' 444,then ensued a wild and terrible commingling of unsyllabled sounds1 so unearthly that it is not in the power of language to fitly describe them4 ,it was something like a mighty ,niagara of shrieks and groans1 combined with the fearful din and crash of thousands of battles and the thunderous roar of a stormy sea4444,i fought my upward way in an agony which resembled nothing so much as the terrible moment when1 from strangling or suffocation1 all the forces of life struggle against death1 and wrestle madly for another breath4 ,in place of the woeful sounds now reigned a deadly stillness1 broken only at long but regular intervals by a loud report1 as if a cannon1 louder than any ,i ever heard on earth1 were discharged at my side1 almost shot into me1 ,i might say1 for the sound appeared to rend me from head to foot1 and then to die away into the dark chaos about me in strange1 shuddering reverberations4 ,even in the misery of my ascending ,i was filled with a dread expectancy of the cruel sound4 ,it gave me a feeling of acute physical torture1 with a lingering intensity that bodily suffering could not have4 ,it was repeated an incredible number of times1 and always with the same suffering and shock to me4 ,at last the sound came oftener1 but with less force1 and ,i seemed again nearing the shores of time4 ,dimly in the far distance ,i saw the room ,i had left1 myself lying still and deathlike upon the bed1 and the friends watching me4444,then1 silently and invisibly ,i floated into the room1 and was one with myself again4 444',she is conscious now1' ,i heard one of the doctors say1 and he gently lifted the lids of my eyes and looked into them4 ,i tried my best to throw all the intelligence ,i could into them1 and returned his look with one of recognition4 ,but1 even with my eyes fixed on his1 ,i felt myself going again in spite of my craving to stay4 ,i longed to implore the doctor to save me1 to keep me from the unutterable anguish of falling into the vastness and vagueness of that shadowy sea of nothingness again4 ,i clasped my hands in wild entreaty2 ,i was shaken by horrible convulsions--so1 at least1 it seemed to me at the time--but1 beyond a slight quivering of the fingers1 no movement was discernible by the others4444,for five hours ,i remained in the same condition--short intervals of half-consciousness and then long lapses into the agonizing experiences ,i have described4444,coming out of the last trance1 ,i discovered that the measured rending report like the discharge of a cannon1 which attended my upward way1 was the throbbing of my own heart4 ,concerning all these and other narcotics1 it should never be forgotten that they are true poisons1 sold with the mark of skull and crossbones1 useful1 like strychnine and henbane1 in the hands of a skillful physician1 but fraught with deadly danger when otherwise employed4 ,their private use is never safe4 ,the weak and nervous invalid1 who can not by hygienic means build up new strength1 need never hope to gain it by surreptitiously indulging in popular narcotics4 ,instead1 he will soon discover that he has but added to his list of ills a new and fatal one4--,e4 ,b4 ,s4 ,,the ,,special ,,senses4 ,,an ,,educated ,,sense ,,of ,,touch 7p4 #bcj74--,laura ,dewey ,bridgman1 teacher in the ,perkins ,institute for the ,blind1 ,south ,boston1 lost her sight1 hearing1 and sense of smell1 when she was two years of age4 ,at the age of eight years she was taken to the institution where she yet remains4 ,at this time1 by following her mother around the house she had become familiar with home appointments1 and by feeling her mother's hands and arms had also learned to sew and knit4 ,when she first became an inmate of the ,perkins ,institute1 she was bewildered by her strange surroundings1 but after she had become used to place and people1 through her one and only sense1 her education was carefully begun4 ,through indomitable effort on the part of her preceptor1 she was taught to write1 read1 and spell1 by means of her fingers1 and thus to exchange sentiments with her teachers and with others skilled in the mysterious language of the blind and the mute4 ,she is now as proficient in the ordinary branches of learning as is the average person1 possessed of all the senses4 ,her studies include geography1 arithmetic1 algebra1 geometry1 history1 and philosophy4 ,she makes her own clothing1 can run a sewing machine1 and observes great neatness in her dress and the arrangements of her room4 ,her character is religious1 and she has great success as a teacher4 ,not long since1 she celebrated1 on the same day1 her fifty-eighth birthday and the fiftieth anniversary of her entrance to the ,perkins ,institute4 ,during her earlier years1 it was her practice to keep a journal1 and she now has about forty manuscript books of her own making4 ,she has also written three autobiographical sketches1 several poems1 and is an accomplished correspondent4 ,when ,miss ,bridgman expresses pleasure1 she clasps her hands and smiles4 ,so keen and refined are her sensibilities1 that it is said she can1 in a small way1 appreciate the beauty of music by means of the sound vibrations on the floor4--,,mrs4 ,,george ,,archibald4 7,laura ,d4 ,bridgman died in #ahhi47 ,,the ,,nose 7p4 #bcb74--,the ,anatomy of the ,nose4--,probably most of us look upon the nose as a double hole in the head1 by which we get1 with more or less acuteness1 a sense of smell1 and through which we occasionally breathe4 ,the intricate mechanism1 and the skillful adaptation of means to end1 which1 in common with the other organs of special sense1 it exhibits1 naturally do not reveal themselves to any but the students of anatomy and physiology4 ,its fourteen bones are probably better hidden than any other fourteen bones of the body1 and assist in converting what would otherwise be a mere channel of communication1 into a series of cavities designed and adapted for particular purposes4 ,the arch of four bones which forms the bridge of the nose1 and which is of such strength as to enable the gymnast of the circus to perform the feat of supporting with it a man on a ladder1 is pieced on with cartilage to form the nostrils1 through which the nose communicates with the outer air4 ,similar openings behind connect it with the upper and posterior parts of the mouth4 ,the space between these anterior and posterior openings makes a large chamber1 divided by a vertical wall into halves1 each of which is still further separated into three irregular cavities by three bones1 called spongy1 from the porosity and delicacy of their texture4 ,the ceiling of these chambers is formed by a bone of the thinness of paper1 upon which lies the front part of the brain1--a fact the ,egyptians made use of in embalming their corpses1 easily crushing this bone1 and extracting the brain through the nostrils4 ,this bone is called cribriform 7sieve-like71 because it is perforated by many minute holes1 through which1 from the olfactory bulbs 7specialized parts of the brain in which is resident the capacity of smell7 that rest on its upper surface1 issue the delicate filaments of the olfactory nerves1 to spread themselves over the lining membrane of the two upper spongy bones4 ,it is in the upper chambers of the nose1 therefore1 that the function of smell is performed2 the nerves that supply the lower spongy bone being entirely unconnected with the organs of smell4 ,over these latter1 however1 sweep in and out the currents of air when the act of respiration is properly carried out1 and it is these that are especially concerned in its abnormal performance4 ,usually but a very little of the volume of air that traverses the lower chamber of the nose has any influence upon its upper regions2 and therefore1 when our attention is attracted by an odor1 we sniff1 in order to bring a larger quantity of air into contact with the higher parts of the nose1 or olfactory cavities1 where odors are perceived4 ,but the half has not been told of the anatomical and physiological arrangements of the nose4 ,by minute openings its chambers have communication with many other parts of the head1--with the hollow that forms the greater part of the cheek bone2 with the eye by a minute spout that carries off the lachrymal secretion1 unless the tears are so abundant as to roll down the cheeks2 with the front of the roof of the mouth2 with the abundant cells of the bone that makes the forehead1 and the congestion of whose lining membrane probably accounts for the severe headache that so often accompanies and aggravates a cold in the head4 ,the gateway to the inner air passages1 its abundant surfaces raise the air inspired to the temperature of the body1 supply it with the moisture it lacks1 and sift from it more or less of the mechanical impurities with which the atmosphere of our houses and shops is laden4--,,maurice ,d4 ,,clarke1 ,m4,d41 ,popular ,science ,news1 ,april1 #ahhh4 ,smell ,necessary to ,taste4--,what we are in the habit of calling a taste1 is in most cases a compound of smell1 taste1 temperature1 and touch--these four sensations ranking in gastronomic importance in the order in which they are here named4444,amusing experiments may be made1 showing that without the sense of smell it is commonly quite impossible to distinguish between different articles of food and drink4 ,blindfold a person and make him clasp his nose tightly1 then put successively into his mouth small pieces of beef1 mutton1 veal1 and pork1 and it is safe to predict that he will not be able to tell one morsel from another4 ,the same result will be obtained with chicken1 turkey1 and duck2 with pieces of almond1 walnut1 and hazel-nut2 with slices of apple1 peach1 and pear2 or with different kinds of cheese1 if care be taken that such kinds are chosen as do not1 by their peculiar composition1 betray their identity through the nerves of touch in the mouth4 ,to hold an article of food under the nose at table would be justly considered a breach of etiquette4 ,but there is a second way of smelling1 of which most people are quite unconscious1 viz41 by exhaling through the nose while eating and drinking4444,it is well known that only a small portion of the mucous membrane which lines the nostrils is the seat of the endings of the nerves of smell4 ,in ordinary expiration1 the air does not touch this olfactory region1 but by a special effort it can be turned into that direction4444,instinct teaches most persons while eating to guide the air1 impregnated with the fragrance of the food1 to a part of the nostrils different from that used during ordinary exhalation2 but1 being unaccustomed to psychologic analysis of their sensations1 they remain quite unconscious of this proceeding1 and are1 indeed1 in the habit of confusing their sensations of taste1 smell1 touch1 and temperature in a most absurd manner4444 ,in trying to ascertain by experiment how far smell1 touch1 and temperature enter into this compound sensation1 popularly known as taste1 it is best to make use of the pungent condiments4 ,mustard and horse-radish1 for example1 have little or no taste1 but reserve their pungent effect for the mucous membrane of the nose during expiration4 ,it is an advantage to know this1 for if care is taken to breathe only through the mouth1 we need no longer prepare to shed tears every time we help ourselves to the mustard4 ,the pungent quality of mustard1 the fiery quality of ginger1 and the cool sensation in the mouth after eating peppermint1 are due to the nerves of touch and temperature1 which are commonly classed as one sense1 though they are quite as distinct sensations as sight and hearing1 or taste and smell4444 ,there are two ways in which the effort to extract all its fragrance from a morsel of food confers a benefit4 7#a47 ,it is necessary to keep the morsel in the mouth as long as possible4 ,now the habit thus formed of eating very slowly is of the utmost importance1 for if farinaceous articles of food are swallowed before the saliva has had time to act on them1 they are little better than so much waste material taken into the system2 and if meat is not thoroughly masticated1 the stomach is overloaded with work which should have been done by the teeth2 the result1 in either case1 is dyspepsia4 ,it has been suggested that ,mr4 ,gladstone owes his remarkable physical vigor to certain rules for chewing food1 which he adopted in #ahdh1 and to which he has adhered ever since4 ,he had always1 we are told1 paid great attention to the requirements of ,nature1 but he then laid down as a rule for his children that thirty-two bites should be given to each mouthful of meat1 and a somewhat lesser number to bread1 fish1 etc4 7#b47 ,besides this indirect advantage resulting from the effort to get at the fragrant odors of food1 there is a still more remarkable direct advantage4 ,it is one of the most curious psychologic facts that odors exert a strong influence on our system1 either exhilarating or depressing4 ,while an unpleasant odor may cause a person to faint1 the fumes of the smelling bottle will restore him to consciousness4 ,the magic and value of gastronomic odors lies in this1 that they stimulate the flow of saliva and other alimentary juices1 thus making sure that the food eaten will be thoroughly utilized in renovating the system4--,,henry ,t4 ,,finck1 in ,the ,gastronomic ,value of ,odors4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,ear 7p4 #bcf74--,never ,box a ,child's ,ear4--,children and grown persons alike may be entirely deafened by falls or heavy blows upon the head4 ,boxing the ears produces a similar effect1 though more slowly and in less degree1 and tends to dull the sensibility of the nerve1 even if it does not hurt the membrane4 ,i knew a youth who died from a terrible disease of the ear4 ,there had been a discharge from it since he was a child4 ,of course his hearing had been dull2 and his father had often boxed his ear for inattention6 ,most likely that boxing on the ear1 diseased as it was1 had much to do with his death4 ,and this brings me to the second point4 ,children should never be blamed for being inattentive1 until it has been found out whether they are not a little deaf4 ,this is easily done by placing them at a few yards' distance1 and trying whether they can understand what is said to them in a rather low tone of voice4 ,each ear should be tried1 while the other is stopped by the finger4 ,three things should be remembered here3 #a4 ,that slight degrees of deafness1 often lasting only for a time1 are very common among children1 especially during or after colds4 #b4 ,that a slight deafness1 which does not prevent a person from hearing when he is expecting to be spoken to1 will make him very dull to what he is not expecting4 #c4 ,that there is a kind of deafness in which a person can hear pretty well while listening1 but is really very hard of hearing when not listening4 ,avoid ,direct ,draughts in the ,ear4--,there are some exposures especially to be guarded against4 ,one is sitting or driving with the ear exposed to a side wind4 ,deafness has also been known to come from letting rain or sleet drive into the ear4 ,do not ,remove the ,earwax4--,it ought to be understood that the passage of the ear does not require cleaning by us4 ,nature undertakes that task1 and1 in the healthy state1 fulfills it perfectly4 ,her means for cleansing the ear is the wax4 ,perhaps the reader has never wondered what becomes of the earwax4 ,i will tell him4 ,it dries up into thin fine scales1 and these peel off1 one by one1 from the surface of the passage1 and fall out imperceptibly1 leaving behind them a perfectly clean1 smooth surface4 ,in health the passage of the ear is never dirty2 but1 if we attempt to clean it1 we infallibly make it so4 ,washing the ear out frequently with soap and water keeps the wax moist when it ought to become dry and scaly1 increases its quantity unduly1 and makes it absorb the dust with which the air always abounds4 ,but the most hurtful thing is introducing the corner of the towel1 screwed up1 and twisting it round4 ,this does more harm to ears than all other mistakes together4 ,it drives down the wax upon the membrane1 much more than it gets it out4 ,but this plan does much more mischief than merely pressing down the wax4 ,it irritates the passage1 and makes it cast off small flakes of skin1 which dry up1 and become extremely hard1 and these also are pressed down upon the membrane4 ,often it is not only deafness which ensues1 but pain and inflammation1 and then matter is formed which the hard mass prevents from escaping1 and the membrane becomes permanently diseased4 ,the ,eustachian ,tube4--,the use of this tube is twofold4 ,first1 it supplies the drum with air1 and keeps the membrane exactly balanced1 and free to move1 with equal air pressure on each side2 and1 secondly1 it carries off any fluid which may be in the drum1 and prevents it from being choked by its own moisture4 ,it is not always open1 however1 but is opened during the act of swallowing1 by a little muscle which is attached to it just as it reaches the throat4 ,most persons can distinctly feel that this is the case1 by gently closing the nose and swallowing1 when a distinct sensation is felt in the ears4 ,this sensation is due to a little air being drawn out of the ears through the open tube during swallowing2 and it lasts for a few minutes1 unless the air is again restored by swallowing with the nose unclosed1 which allows for the moment a free communication between the ear and the throat4 ,we thus see a reason for the tube being closed4 ,if it were always open1 all the sounds produced in the throat would pass directly into the drum of the ear1 and totally confuse us4 ,we should hear every breath1 and live in a constant bewilderment of internal sounds4 ,at the same time the closure1 being but a light contact of the walls of the tube1 easily allows a slight escape of air from the drum1 and thus not only facilitates and regulates the oscillations of the air before the vibrating membrane1 but provides a safety valve1 to a certain extent1 against the injurious influence of loud sounds4 ,the chief use of the ,eustachian tube is to allow a free interchange of air between the ear and the throat1 and it is very important that its use in this respect should be understood4 ,persons who go down in diving bells soon begin to feel a great pressure in the ears1 and1 if the depth is great1 the feeling becomes extremely painful4 ,this arises from the fact that in the diving bell the pressure of the air is very much increased1 in order to balance the weight of the water above2 and thus it presses with great force upon the membrane of the drum1 which1 if the ,eustachian tube has been kept closed1 has only the ordinary uncompressed air on the inner side to sustain it4 ,it is therefore forced inward and put upon the stretch1 and might be even broken4 ,many cases1 indeed1 have occurred of injury to the ear1 producing permanent deafness1 from descents in diving bells1 undertaken by persons ignorant of the way in which the ear is made2 though the simple precaution of frequent swallowing suffices to ward off all mischief4 ,for1 if the ,eustachian tube is thus opened1 again and again1 as the pressure of the outside air increases1 the same compressed air that exists outside passes also into the inside of the drum1 and the membrane is equally pressed upon from both sides by the air1 and so is free from strain4 ,the same precaution is necessary in ascending lofty mountains4-- ,,dr4 ,,james ,,hinton4 ,,the ,,colored ,,curtain ,,in ,,the ,,eye 7p4 #bch74--,this ring-like curtain in the eye1 of gray1 green1 bluish-green1 brown1 and other colors1 is one among the very many remarkable contrivances of the organic world4 ,the eye can not bear the entrance of too much light1 and the colored curtain so regulates its own movements as to serve this requirement4 ,the dark circular aperture in the center1 known as the pupil1 is consequently forever altering in size2 on a bright1 sunshiny day1 out in the open1 it may be only the size of a pin's head1 but at night1 when there is no light stronger than starlight1 it is even bigger than a pea4 ,the eye curtain is fixed at its outer edge1 leaving the inner edge to contract or expand1 which it does automatically and quite independent of the will1 ever preserving its circular outline4 ,its movements may be watched in a variety of ways1 some of which we shall describe4 ,the common way of watching the movements of the iris is to regard it closely in a looking-glass while the amount of light entering the eyes is varied4 ,place yourself before a looking-glass and with your face to the window4 ,probably the iris will be expanded1 and there will only be a very small opening or pupil in the center4 ,now shut one eye suddenly1 while narrowly watching the other in the glass all the time4 ,at the moment the light is cut off from one eye1 the iris of the other contracts or is drawn up so as to enlarge the pupil4 ,this shows that there is a remarkable interdependence between the curtains of the two eyes1 as well as that they are affected by variations in the quantity of light falling on them4 ,perhaps one of the most interesting ways of watching the movements of these sympathetic eye curtains is one which may be followed while you are out walking on the street some dark winter night4 ,a gas lamp seen at a distance is1 comparatively speaking1 a point of light1 with bars of light emanating from it in many directions4 ,these bars1 which give the peculiar spoked appearance to a star1 are probably formed by optical defects of the lens within the eye1 or by the tear fluid on the exterior surface of the eye1 or by a combination of all these causes4 ,be that as it may1 the lengths of the spokes of light are limited by the inner margin of the eye curtain2 if the curtain be drawn up1 then the spokes are long2 if the curtain be let down1 or1 in other words1 if the pupil be very small and contracted1 then one can not see any spokes at all4 ,hence1 as ,i look at a distant gaslight1 with its radiating golden spokes1 ,i am looking at something which will give me a sure indication of any movements of the eye curtains4 ,i strike a match and allow its light to fall into the eyes2 the spokes of the distant gas lamp have retreated into the point of flame as if by magic2 as ,i take the burning match away from before my eyes1 the spokes of the gas-lamp venture forth again4 ,the experiment may be utilized to see how much light is required to move the window curtains of the eyes4 ,suppose you are walking toward two gas lamps1 ,a and ,b2 ,b about fifty yards behind ,a4 ,if you steadfastly look at ,b and at the golden spokes apparently issuing from it1 you may make these spokes a test of how soon the light of ,a will move your iris4 ,as you gradually approach ,a1 you come at last to a position where its light is strong enough to make the spokes of ,b begin to shorten2 a little nearer still and they vanish altogether4 ,i have found that about a third of the light which is competent to contract the pupil very markedly will serve to commence its movement4--,,william ,,ackroyd4 ,,purkinje',s ,,figures 7p4 #bbb74--,stand in a dark room with a lighted candle in hand4 ,shutting the left1 hold the candle very near the right eye1 within three or four inches1 obliquely outward and forward1 so that the light shall strongly illuminate the retina4 ,now move the light about gently1 upward1 downward1 back and forth1 while you gaze intently on the wall opposite4 ,presently the field of view becomes dark from the intense impression of the light1 and then1 as you move the light about1 there appears projected on the wall and covering its whole surface1 a shadowy1 ghost-like image1 like a branching1 leafless tree1 or like a great bodiless spider with many branching legs4 ,what is it8 ,it is an exact but enlarged image of the blood vessels of the retina4 ,these come in at the entrance of the optic nerve1 ramify in the middle layer1 and therefore in the strong light cast their shadows on the bacillary layer of the retina4 ,the impression of these shadows is projected outward into the field of view1 and seen there as an enlarged shadowy image4 ,these have been called ,purkinje's ,figures1 from the discoverer4--,,prof4 ,,joseph ,,le ,,conte1 in ,sight4 ,,xi4 ,,appendix4 ,,questions ,,for ,,class ,,use4 ,the questions include the ,notes and the ,selected ,readings4 ,the figures refer to the pages4 ,,introduction4 ,illustrate the value of physiological knowledge4 ,why should physiology be studied in youth8 ,when are our habits formed8 ,how do habits help us8 ,why should children prize the lessons of experience8 ,how does ,nature punish a violation of her laws8 ,name some of ,nature's laws4 ,what is the penalty of their violation8 ,name some bad habits and their punishments4 ,some good habits and their rewards4 ,how do the young ruin their health8 ,compare one's constitution with a deposit in the bank4 ,can one in youth lay up health as he can money for middle or old age8 ,is not the preservation of one's health a moral duty8 ,what is suicide8 ,,the ,,skeleton4 #c4 ,how many bones are there in the body8 ,is the number fixed8 ,is the length of the different bones proportional8 ,what is an organ8 ,a function8 ,name the three uses of the bones4 ,why do the bones have such different shapes8 #d4 ,why are certain bones hollow8 ,round8 ,illustrate4 ,compare the resisting property of bone with that of solid oak4 ,what is the composition of bone8 ,how does it vary8 ,how can you remove the mineral matter8 ,the animal matter8 ,why is a burned bone white and porous8 ,what food do dogs find in bones8 #e4 ,what is the use of each of the constituents of a bone8 ,what is boneblack8 ,what is ossification8 ,why are not the bones of children as easily broken as those of aged persons8 ,why do they unite so much quicker8 ,what are the fontanelles8 #f4 ,describe the structure of a bone4 ,what is the object of the filling8 ,why does the amount vary in different parts of a bone8 ,what is the appearance of a bone seen through a microscope8 #g4 ,what is the periosteum8 ,is a bone once removed ever restored8 ,what are the lacun8 ,the ,haversian canals8 ,why so called8 ,ans4 ,from their discoverer1 ,havers4 ,define a bone4 ,footnote3 ,bone structure may be summarized as follows3 ,a bone is a collection of ,haversian elements1 or rods4 ,an ,haversian element consists of a tube surrounded by lamell1 which contain lacun1 connected by canaliculi4--,,dr4 ,t4 ,b4 ,,stowell4 ,what occupies the lacun8 ,ans4 ,the bone cells 7osteoblasts74 ,how do bones grow8 #h4 ,illustrate4 ,how does a broken bone heal8 ,how rapidly is bone produced8 ,illustrate4 ,objects of splints8 ,describe how a joint is packed4 ,lubricated4 #i4 ,how are the bones tied together8 ,what is a tissue8 ,illustrate4 ,name the three general divisions of the bones4 ,what is the object of the skull8 ,which bone is movable8 ,how is the lower jaw hinged8 ,describe the construction of the skull4 ,what is a suture8 #aj4 ,tell how the peculiar form and structure of the skull adapt it for its use4 ,illustrate the impenetrability of the skull4 #aa4 ,describe the experiment of the balls4 ,what does it show8 ,what two cavities are in the trunk8 ,name its principal bones4 ,describe the spine4 #ab4 ,what is the object of the processes8 ,of the pads8 ,why is a man shorter at night than in the morning8 ,describe the perfection of the spine4 #ac4 ,describe the articulation of the skull with the spine4 ,why is the atlas so called8 #ad4 ,describe the ribs4 ,what is the natural form of the chest8 ,why is it made in separate pieces8 ,how does the oblique position of the ribs aid in respiration8 7,see note1 p4 #hj47 #ae4 ,how do the hipbones give solidity8 ,what two sets of limbs branch from the trunk8 ,state their mutual resemblance4 ,name the bones of the shoulder4 ,describe the collar bone4 #af4 ,describe the shoulder blade4 ,can you describe the indirect articulation of the shoulder blade with the trunk8 ,name the bones of the arm4 ,describe the shoulder joint4 ,the elbow-joint4 #ag4 ,describe the wrist4 ,name the bones of the hand4 ,how many bones in the fingers8 ,the thumb8 ,what gives the thumb its freedom of motion8 #ah1 #ai4 ,name and describe the fingers4 ,in what lies the perfection of the hand8 ,how do the gestures of the hand enforce our ideas and feelings8 ,describe the hip joint4 ,what gives the upper limbs more freedom of motion than the lower8 ,how does the pressure of the air aid us in walking8 ,illustrate4 #bj4 ,name the bones of the lower limbs4 ,describe the knee joint4 ,the patella4 ,what is the use of the fibula8 ,can you show how the lower extremity of the fibula1 below its juncture with the tibia1 is prolonged to form a part of the ankle joint8 ,name the bones of the foot4 ,what is the use of the arch of the foot8 ,what makes the step elastic8 ,describe the action of the foot as we step4 #ba4 ,in graceful walking1 should the toes or the heel touch the ground first8 ,what are the causes of deformed feet8 ,what is the natural position of the big toe8 ,did you ever see a big toe lying in a straight line with the foot1 as shown in statuary and paintings8 ,how should we have our boots and shoes made8 ,what are the effects of high heels8 ,of narrow heels8 ,of narrow toes8 ,of tight-laced boots8 ,of thin soles8 ,what are the rickets8 ,cause of this disease8 ,cure8 ,is there any provision for remedying defects in the body8 ,name one4 #bb1 #bc4 ,what is a felon8 ,cure8 ,cause of bowlegs8 ,how can they be prevented8 ,causes of spinal curvature8 ,cure8 ,what is the correct position in sitting at one's desk8 ,is there any necessity for walking and sitting erect8 ,any advantage aside from health8 ,describe the bad effects of a stooping position4 ,what is a sprain8 ,why does it need special care8 ,what is a dislocation8 ,how is it generally caused8 ,how soon should it be treated8 #bfi4 ,what relation does man1 in his general structure1 bear to other vertebrates8 ,mention some marked physical peculiarities which distinguish him from the lower mammals4 #bgj1 #bga4 ,describe the state of a fracture a week after its occurrence4 ,what is this new formation called8 ,what marks the termination of the first stage of curative progress8 ,how do the broken ends of the bone now appear8 ,what is the state of the fracture at the end of the second stage8 ,what is the condition of the callus at this time8 ,describe the third and last series of changes4 ,is the process of union completed sooner in old people or in young8 ,in the upper or lower extremities8 ,in smaller animals or man8 ,what length of time is required to heal a broken arm8 ,a broken leg8 #bgb4 ,what gives the human hand its peculiar prehensile power8 ,what advantage has the human thumb over that of the ape8 ,compare the foot of man with that of the ape4 ,what peculiarity of the foot is particularly noticeable in man8 ,contrast the function of the great toe in man and in the ape4 #bgc4 ,are the toes naturally flexible8 ,how are their powers crippled8 ,give an instance in which the toes were trained to do the work of the fingers4 #bgd4 ,why are an elastic step and a graceful carriage such rare accomplishments8 ,what is the natural shape of the foot8 ,which is the longer1 the great toe or the second toe8 ,is an even-sided symmetry necessary to the beauty of a boot8 ,,the ,,muscles4 #bi4 ,what relations do the skeleton and the muscles bear to each other8 ,how is the skeleton concealed8 ,why is it the image of death8 ,what are the muscles8 ,how many are there8 ,what peculiar property have they8 ,name other properties of muscles4 ,ans4 ,tonicity1 elasticity4 #cj4 ,how are they arranged8 ,where is the biceps8 ,the triceps8 ,how do the muscles move the limbs8 ,illustrate4 ,what is the cause of squinting8 ,cure8 7,see p4 #bdd47 #ca4 ,name and define the two kinds of muscles4 ,illustrate each4 ,what is the structure of a muscle8 ,of what is a fibril itself composed8 ,how does the peculiar construction of the muscle confer strength8 #cb4 ,describe the tendons4 ,what is their use8 ,illustrate the advantages of this mode of attachment4 #cc4 ,what two special arrangements of the tendons in the hand8 ,their use8 ,how is the rotary motion of the eye obtained8 #cd1 #ce4 ,what is a lever8 ,describe the three classes of levers4 ,illustrate each4 ,describe the head as a lever4 ,what parts of the body illustrate the three kinds of levers8 ,give an illustration of the second class of levers4 ,the third class4 ,why is the ,tendon of ,achilles so named8 ,what is the advantage of the third class of levers8 ,why desirable in the hand8 ,what class of lever is the lower jaw8 #cf4 ,what advantages are gained by the enlargement of the bones at the joints8 ,illustrate4 ,how do we stand erect8 ,is it an involuntary act8 #cg4 ,why can not a child walk at once1 as many young animals do8 ,why can we not hold up the head easily when we walk on all fours8 ,why can not an animal stand erect as man does8 #ch4 ,describe the process of walking4 ,show that walking is a process of falling4 ,describe the process of running4 ,what causes the swinging of the hand in walking8 ,why are we shorter when walking8 ,footnote3 ,stand a boy erect against a wall4 ,mark his height with a stick4 ,now have him step off a part of a pace1 and then several whole paces4 ,next1 let him close his eyes1 and walk to the wall again4 ,he will be perceptibly lower than the stick1 until he straightens up once more from a walking position4 ,why does a person when lost often go in a circle8 ,in which direction does one always turn in that case8 ,footnote3 ,take several boys into a smooth grass lot4 ,set up a stick at a distance for them to walk toward4 ,test the boys1 to find which are left-handed1 or right-handed2 which left-legged or right-legged4 ,then blindfold the boys and let them walk1 as they think1 toward the mark4 ,see who varies toward the right1 and who turns to the left4 #ci4 ,what is the muscular sense8 ,value of educating it8 ,how do we gratify it8 #dj4 ,what effect has exercise upon a muscle8 ,is there any danger in violent exercise8 ,for what purpose should we exercise8 ,should exercise be in the open air8 ,what is the rule for exercise8 ,is a young person excusable1 who leads a sedentary life1 and yet takes no daily outdoor exercise8 ,what will be ,nature's penalty for such a violation of her law8 ,will a postponement of the penalty show that we have escaped it8 #da4 ,ought a scholar to study during the time of recess8 ,will a promenade in the vitiated air of the schoolroom furnish suitable exercise8 ,what is the best time for taking exercise8 ,what class of persons can safely exercise before breakfast8 #db4 ,what are the advantages of the different kinds of exercise8 ,should we not walk more8 ,what is the general influence upon the body of vigorous exercise8 #dc4 ,state some of the wonders of the muscles4 ,what is the ,st4 ,vitus's ,dance8 ,cure8 #dd4 ,what are convulsions8 ,what is the locked-jaw8 ,causes8 ,the gout8 ,cause8 ,cure8 ,the rheumatism8 ,its two forms8 ,peculiarity of the acute8 #de4 ,danger in acute rheumatism8 ,in what does chronic rheumatism often result8 ,what is lumbago8 ,give instances4 ,what is a ganglion8 ,its cure8 ,a bursa8 #bge4 ,what is meant by the origin of a muscle8 ,the attachment8 ,is a muscle always extended between two contiguous bones8 ,give an illustration4 ,can the points of origin and of attachment change offices8 ,illustrate4 ,what is an important consequence of the attachment of the muscles to the bones8 ,if1 in the limb of a dead body1 one end of a muscle is separated from its point of attachment1 what occurs8 ,would the result be the same during life8 ,to what is this phenomenon due8 #bgf4 ,why are the muscles continually striving to shorten8 ,describe the effect when several opposing muscles are attached to one bone4 ,when is the balanced position of the limbs best observed8 ,are the muscles always attached to bones8 ,give example4 ,how does the flesh of man differ from that of an ox8 ,how may the structure of muscular fibers be rudely illustrated8 ,describe smooth muscle fibers4 ,how do they differ from striated muscle fibers8 #bgg4 ,in what form do smooth muscle fibers frequently occur8 ,in such cases1 how are they usually arranged8 ,what is the effect of their contraction8 ,of what especial use is this power in case of the smaller arteries8 ,in case of the intestine8 #bgh4 ,in the latter instance1 how does the contraction take place8 ,are the striated muscle fibers voluntary or involuntary8 ,name an exception to this rule4 ,give other peculiarities of the muscle fibers of the heart4 ,what causes the contraction of smooth muscle fibers8 ,of striated muscle fibers8 ,why do little children seldom injure themselves by overexertion8 ,how is the danger increased in youth8 #bgi4 ,what class of people are in most peril from violent or excessive exercise8 ,why8 ,at what age should one cease from haste of all kinds8 ,give instances of valuable lives lost from personal imprudence4 #bhj4 ,what are the effects of insufficient exercise upon the young8 ,how does it predispose to disease8 ,what makes the children of the laboring classes so hardy8 ,is a regulation step desirable in walking8 ,why not8 ,why is it more fatiguing to walk uphill than on level ground8 #bha4 ,how does the management of the breath affect this fatigue8 ,how should a belt be worn1 if used during exercise8 ,can other forms of exercise be successfully substituted for walking8 ,why not8 ,what is the difference in movement between walking and skating8 ,which is the better exercise8 ,what are the dangers from skating8 ,what precaution should be used by those who have weak ankles8 #bhb4 ,name the different action of the muscles in the forward and backward movements in rowing4 ,what is the comparative value of rowing as an exercise8 ,why is it especially desirable for women8 ,how should women dress when rowing1 horseback riding1 tennis playing1 etc48 ,what rules should be observed by rowers8 ,why should the breath be allowed to escape while the oar is in the water8 #bhc4 ,what sanitary measures should be observed after a row8 ,what effect has too frequent and too prolonged immersion on young swimmers8 ,does swimming require much muscular exertion8 ,why8 ,why does an occasional swimmer become exhausted sooner than an experienced one8 ,on what do ease and speed in swimming depend8 ,is the habit of diving desirable8 ,should diving ever be practiced in shallow water8 #bhd4 ,why is lawn tennis the most desirable of outdoor games8 ,ans4 ,not only because nearly every muscle of the body is brought into exercise1 but because it is one of the few field sports in which women can gracefully join4 ,in this it shares the honor with croquet4 ,what are the dangers attendant on lawn tennis8 ,from what do many of them arise8 ,why should tennis shoes have heels8 ,to what class of people is horseback riding particularly suited8 ,what class of invalids should not indulge in bicycling and tricycling8 ,to what class is it peculiarly beneficial8 #bhe4 ,what are the dangers attendant on baseball games8 ,football8 ,when may light and heavy gymnastics be profitably employed8 ,name a sufficient apparatus4 ,what are the objections to gymnasium exercise8 ,its advantages8 ,,the ,,skin4 #di4 ,what are the uses of the skin8 ,describe its adaptation to its place4 ,what is its function as an organ8 ,describe the structure of the skin4 ,the sensitiveness of the cutis4 ,the insensitiveness of the cuticle4 #ej4 ,how is the skin constantly changing8 ,the shape and number of the cells8 ,value of the cuticle8 ,how is the cuticle formed8 ,ans4 ,by secretion from the cutis4 #ea4 ,what is the complexion8 ,its cause8 ,why is a scar white8 ,what is the cause of tanning8 ,what are freckles8 ,albinos8 ,describe the action of the sun on the skin4 #eb4 ,why are the hairs and the nails spoken of under the title of the skin8 ,uses of the hair8 ,its structure8 ,how can it be examined8 ,what is the hair bulb8 ,what is it called8 ,how does a hair grow8 ,at what rate8 ,when can it be restored1 if destroyed8 ,does hair grow after death8 #ec4 ,when hair has become gray1 can its original color be naturally restored8 ,what is the danger of hair dyes8 ,are they of any real value8 ,how can the hair stand on end8 ,how do horses move their skin8 ,is there any feeling in a hair8 #ed4 ,illustrate the indestructibility of the hair4 ,what are the uses of the nails8 ,how do the nails grow8 ,what is the mucous membrane8 #ee4 ,its composition8 ,the connective tissue8 ,why so called8 ,what uses does it subserve8 #ef4 ,what is its character8 ,how does the fat exist in the body8 ,its uses8 ,state the various uses of membrane in the body4 ,where is there no fat8 ,where is there always fat8 #eg4 ,why are the teeth spoken of in connection with the mucous membrane8 ,name and describe the four kinds of teeth4 ,what are the milk teeth8 ,describe them4 ,what teeth appear first8 #eh4 ,give the order and age at which they appear4 ,when do the permanent teeth appear8 ,describe their growth4 ,which one comes first8 ,last8 #ei4 ,describe the structure of the teeth4 ,how are the teeth fitted in the jaw8 #fj4 ,why do the teeth decay8 ,what care should be taken of the teeth8 ,what caution should be observed8 ,what are the oil glands8 #fa4 ,use of this secretion8 ,what are the perspiratory glands8 ,state their number4 ,their total length4 ,what are the pores of the skin8 #fb1 #fc4 ,what is the perspiration8 ,what is the constitution of the perspiration8 ,illustrate its value4 ,name the three uses of the skin4 ,illustrate the absorbing power of the skin4 ,what precaution should be observed in handling a dead body8 ,why are cosmetics and hair dyes injurious8 ,what relation exists between the skin and the lungs8 ,what lesson does this teach8 ,when is the best time for a bath8 ,why8 #fd1 #fe4 ,what is the value of friction8 ,why should not a bath be taken just before or after a meal8 ,is an excess of soap beneficial8 ,what is the reaction8 ,explain its invigorating influence4 ,how is it secured8 ,general effect of a cold bath8 ,of a warm bath8 ,if we feel chilly and depressed after a bath1 what is the teaching8 ,describe the ,russian vapor bath4 ,why is the sea bath so stimulating8 #ff4 ,how long should one remain in any bath8 ,how does clothing keep us warm8 ,explain the use of linen as an article of clothing4 ,cotton4 ,wool4 ,flannel4 ,how can we best protect ourselves against the changes of our climate8 #fg4 ,what colored clothing is best adapted for all seasons8 ,value of the nap8 ,furs8 ,thick vs4 thin clothing8 ,should we wear thick clothing during the day1 and in the evening put on thin clothing8 ,can children endure exposure better than grown persons8 ,what is the erysipelas8 ,how relieved8 #fh1 #fi4 ,eczema8 ,what do its various forms denote8 ,corns8 ,cause8 ,cure8 ,ingrowing nails8 ,cure8 ,warts8 ,cure8 ,chilblain8 ,cause8 ,preventive8 #bhf4 ,name some causes of baldness4 ,give ,dr4 ,nichols's opinion4 ,why is frequent shampooing inadvisable8 ,one probable reason why women are less frequently bald than men8 ,what is the best general treatment for the hair and scalp8 ,upon what does the color of the hair mainly depend8 #bhg4 ,in cases of sudden blanching of the hair what is the effect upon the pigment8 ,give an illustration4 ,how do the extra air bubbles find their way into the hair8 ,does air naturally exist in the hair8 ,what relation do the nails bear to the scarfskin8 #bhh4 ,what causes the horny appearance of the nails8 ,describe the root of the nail in its relation to the sensitive and the scarfskin4 ,upon what does the nail rest8 ,what is its appearance8 ,what is the lunula8 ,why is it lighter than the rest of the nail8 ,how does the nail increase in length8 ,in thickness8 ,where is the greatest thickness8 ,how does the growth of the nail during disease compare with its growth in health8 #bhi4 ,how long does it take the thumb nail to grow from its root to its free extremity8 ,the great toe8 ,give general rules for the care of the nails4 ,how does physical cleanliness promote moral purity8 ,what does its neglect indicate8 #bij4 ,what especial care should be taken in regard to the feet8 ,why8 ,are baths a modern refinement8 ,what can you say about the ancient ,greek and ,roman baths8 ,what constitutes the value of the ,turkish bath8 #bia4 ,what class of people should never use this bath8 ,to what class of invalids is it particularly beneficial8 ,is sea bathing advisable for persons of all ages8 ,how should an inexperienced sea bather begin8 ,when should the sea bath be taken8 #bib4 ,how long should a delicate person remain in the water8 ,state the danger of bathing when overheated4 ,under what conditions of body and of temperature should sea or river bathing be avoided8 ,why8 ,give illustration of the ,english soldier4 ,how should the temperature of the water1 in bathing1 compare with that of the air8 ,of the body8 #bic4 ,describe the bathers' cramp4 ,what are its causes8 ,what precaution should be used by bathers in regard to the mouth and ears8 ,why8 #bid4 ,how can a person who does not know how to swim1 save himself from drowning8 #bie4 ,what are the advantages of woolen clothing8 ,why is it particularly desirable in malarial countries8 ,what double purpose does woolen clothing serve in semitropical climates8 #bif4 ,does the warmth of clothing depend on its weight8 ,what errors are often made and with what effect8 ,state what is said in regard to poisonous dyes in wearing apparel4 ,give illustration4 #big4 ,what effect has uncleanly attire on the health8 ,does this apply to outer as well as under garments8 ,,respiration ,,and ,,the ,,voice4 #gc4 ,name the organs of respiration and the voice4 ,describe the larynx4 ,the epiglottis4 ,the sophagus4 ,what is meant by food going the wrong way8 #gd4 ,describe the vocal cords4 ,their use4 ,how is sound produced8 #ge4 ,how are the higher tones of the voice produced8 ,the lower8 ,upon what does loudness depend8 ,a falsetto voice8 ,what is the cause of the voice changing8 ,what is speech8 ,is the tongue necessary to speech8 ,illustrate4 7,see also page #bih47 #gf4 ,what is vocalization8 ,how are talking machines made8 #gg4 ,how is a formed by the voice8 ,what is h8 ,difference between a sigh and a groan8 ,what vowel sounds are made in laughing8 ,does whistling depend on the voice8 ,tell how the various consonants are formed4 ,what are the labials8 ,the dentals8 ,the linguals8 ,what vowels does a child pronounce first8 #gh4 ,describe the windpipe4 ,the bronchi4 ,the bronchial tubes4 ,why is the trachea so called8 ,describe the structure of the lungs4 ,what are the lungs of slaughtered animals called8 ,why will a piece of the lungs float on water8 #gi4 ,name the wrappings of the lungs4 ,describe the pleura4 ,how is friction prevented8 ,what are the cilia8 ,their use8 #hj4 ,what two acts constitute respiration8 ,in what two ways may the position of the ribs change the capacity of the chest8 ,describe the process of inspiration4 ,describe the diaphragm4 #ha4 ,what is the process of expiration8 ,how often do we breathe8 ,what is sighing8 ,coughing8 ,sneezing8 ,snoring8 ,laughing8 ,crying8 #hb4 ,describe hiccough4 ,yawning4 ,its value8 ,what is meant by the breathing capacity8 ,how does it vary8 ,how much1 in addition1 can the lungs expel forcibly8 ,how much of the breathing capacity is available only through practice8 ,value of this extra supply8 ,can we expel all the air from our lungs8 ,value of this constant supply8 #hc4 ,how constant is the need of air8 ,what is the vital element of the air8 ,describe the action of the oxygen in our lungs4 ,what does the blood give up8 ,gain8 ,what are the constituents of the air8 ,what are the peculiar properties and uses of each8 #hd4 ,how can we test the air we exhale8 ,what does its analysis reveal8 ,which is the most dangerous constituent8 ,what occurs when we rebreathe exhaled air8 #he4 ,describe its evil effects4 ,what is denoted by the ,black ,hole of ,calcutta8 ,give other illustrations of the dangers of bad air4 ,describe the need of ventilation4 ,will a single breath pollute the air8 #hf-ie4 ,how can we detect the floating impurities in the air8 ,what is the influence of a fire or a light8 ,of a hot stove8 ,when is the ventilation perfect8 ,what diseases are largely owing to bad air8 ,should the windows and doors be tightly closed1 if we have no other means of ventilation8 ,is not a draught of air dangerous8 ,how can we prevent this1 and yet secure fresh air8 ,what is the general principle of ventilation8 ,must pure air necessarily be cold air8 ,are schoolrooms always properly ventilated8 ,what is the effect8 ,are churches8 ,are our bedrooms8 ,should children or delicate people sleep in cold rooms8 ,can we1 at night1 breathe anything but night air8 ,is the night air out of doors ever injurious8 ,ans4 ,in times and places of malaria1 and also in very damp weather1 it should be avoided1 even at the risk of bad air in doors4 ,describe some of the wonders of respiration4 #if4 ,how is constriction of the lungs produced8 ,when may clothing be considered tight8 ,what are the dangers of tight lacing8 ,which would make the stronger1 more vigorous1 and longer-lived person1 the form shown in ,a or ,b1 ,fig4 #cc8 ,is it safe to run any risk in this dangerous direction8 #ig4 ,what is ,bronchitis8 ,pleurisy8 ,pneumonia8 ,consumption8 ,what is one great cause of ,consumption8 ,how may a constitutional tendency to this disease be warded off in youth8 ,ans4 ,besides plenty of fresh air and exercise1 care should be taken in the diet4 ,rich pastry1 unripe fruit1 salted meat1 and acid drinks should be avoided1 and a certain quantity of fat should be eaten at each meal4--,,bennett4 ,what is asphyxia8 ,describe the process for restoring such a person4 7,see p4 #bfd47 #ih4 ,what is diphtheria8 ,its peculiarities8 ,danger8 ,the croup8 ,its characteristics8 ,remedy8 7,see p4 #bfj47 ,causes of stammering8 ,how cured8 #big4 ,how does the singing voice differ from the speaking voice8 ,how can you prove the effect of duration of sound in speaking and singing8 ,how do the intonations of the voice affect the meaning of words8 #bih4 ,give illustrations of speech in persons without a tongue4 ,what is the effect of alcohol and tobacco on the throat8 ,do they have an influence on the voice8 ,does the excessive use of tea and coffee ever affect the voice8 ,how8 ,to what is the hoarse tone of an inebriate due8 #bii1 #cjj4 ,what was ,adelina ,patti's advice with regard to stimulants and late hours8 ,does the respiration of woman differ from that of man8 ,give experiments with ,indian women4 ,what lessons do we draw from these facts8 ,what rule should be observed in regard to the size of a bodice8 ,what are bacteria or microbes8 ,how is their existence revealed8 ,what does the ,germ ,theory of ,disease teach in regard to microbes8 #cja4 ,what can you say about the microbe of putrefaction8 ,how can you obtain it for examination8 ,what office in ,nature do bacteria seem to serve8 ,give the theory in regard to propagation of special disease germs4 ,do they always cause disease when taken into the body8 ,footnote3 ,of the immense number and variety of microorganisms found in ,nature1 only very few are disease producing4 ,dr4 ,austin ,flint says in ,the ,forum1 for ,december1 #ahhh3 ,it is probable that future investigations into the physiology of digestion1 will show that bacteria play an important part in this function4 ,pasteur has recently isolated no less than seventeen different microorganisms in the mouth1 which were not destroyed by the gastric juice4 ,some of these dissolved albumen1 gluten1 and caseine1 and some transformed starch into sugar4 ,bacteria normally exist in great number and variety in the intestines1 although the part which they take in intestinal digestion has not been accurately determined4--,the number of spores introduced into the human system by respiration1 when the health is perfectly sound1 has been estimated at three hundred thousand a day4 #cjb4 ,state some conditions which favor the growth of disease germs4 ,which prevent or retard their growth4 ,relate the effect of vaccination1 according to the germ theory4 #cjc4 #cjd4 ,if a drop of an infusion charged with bacteria be put in the extract of beef or mutton1 what is the result8 ,what would be the effect upon an open wound8 ,give ,dr4 ,tyndall's personal experience4 ,name some efficient antidote against the bacteria of putrefaction4 ,ans4 ,carbolic acid solution is extensively used for this purpose4 ,how are disease germs often disseminated8 ,state the necessity of disinfection in regard to soiled clothing4 #cje4 ,illustrate how disease has been communicated by clothing4 ,what is the first necessary condition to a sanitary home8 ,what is the meaning of the word malaria8 ,what are three active agents in the production of malaria8 ,a fourth8 ,describe a typical malarious locality4 ,how does newly broken ground induce malaria8 #cjf4 ,state the different ways in which running water can be contaminated4 ,what care should be taken in regard to the level of building site8 #cjg4 ,give some of the results of a wet foundation4 ,what rules should be observed in regard to shade8 ,what is the effect of too dense foliage about a dwelling8 ,in building a house1 what precautions should be taken against dampness8 ,what about the cellar8 ,sewerage8 ,plumbing8 ,ventilation8 ,fireplaces8 ,piazzas and balconies8 ,sleeping rooms8 #cjh4 ,what general purpose does a house serve8 ,what care should be taken in regard to the dust or ash heap8 ,what is the effect if liquids or table refuse be thrown upon it8 ,where should it be situated8 ,how often should refuse be carted away8 ,if its frequent removal be inexpedient1 what precaution should be used8 ,what are the best of all deodorizers8 ,how should the back premises be cared for8 ,what is the best way to dispose of household garbage8 #cji4 ,how can this be done8 ,with what additional advantage8 ,give ,dr4 ,derby's remarks in regard to sewers1 their condition1 and the results4 ,how should traps and drains be cared for8 ,how should bad smells be treated8 ,is a foul smell always the most dangerous8 ,how do poisonous gases often find entrance to a house8 ,what rule should be observed in regard to ventilating and soil pipes8 #caj4 ,what precautions should be observed in digging about a dwelling8 ,how do waste pipes often become closed8 ,how may they be cleared8 ,what dangers arise from unventilated waste pipes8 ,how are washbasin pipes contaminated8 ,tell what came from a neighbor's cesspool4 ,can you name similar instances which have come under your own observation8 #caa1 #cab4 ,describe the condition and effects of a neglected cellar4 ,tell what came from a crack in a cellar wall4 #cac4 ,what effect have brick and mortar in keeping out gases8 ,how do bed coverings take the place of day garments8 ,what kind of bed covering is desirable8 ,is a comfortable bed necessary to perfect health8 ,how often and for how long time should a bed be ventilated8 ,,the ,,circulation4 #aje4 ,name the organs of the circulation4 ,does the blood permeate all parts of the body8 ,what is the average amount in each person8 ,its composition8 ,the plasma8 ,the red corpuscles8 ,the white8 #ajf4 ,what is the size of a red cell8 ,are the shape and size uniform8 ,value of this8 ,illustrate4 ,are the disks permanent8 ,what substances are contained in the plasma8 ,what is fibrin8 #ajg4 ,in what sense is the blood liquid flesh8 ,what is the use of the red disks8 ,what is the office of the oxygen in the body8 ,where is the blood purified8 #ajh4 ,what is transfusion8 ,is it of value8 #aji4 ,give some illustrations4 ,what is the cause of coagulation of the blood8 ,value of this property8 ,has the fibrin any other use8 #aaj4 ,what organ propels the blood8 ,what is the location of the heart8 ,how large is it8 ,put your hand over it4 ,what is the pericardium8 ,describe the systole4 #aaa4 ,the diastole4 ,how many chambers in the heart8 ,what is their average size8 ,what is meant by the right and left heart8 ,what are the auricles8 ,why so called8 ,the ventricles8 #aab4 ,what is the use of the auricles8 ,the ventricles8 ,which are made the stronger8 ,show the need of valves in the ventricles4 ,why are there no valves in the auricles8 ,draw on the board the form of the valves4 ,name them4 #aac4 ,describe the tricuspid valve4 ,the bicuspid4 ,how are these valves strengthened8 #aad4 ,what peculiarity in the attachment of these cords8 ,describe the semilunar valves4 ,what are the arteries8 ,why so named8 ,what is their use8 ,their structure8 ,how does their elasticity act8 ,what is meant by a collateral circulation8 #aae4 ,how are the arteries protected8 ,where are they located8 ,give a general description of the arterial system4 ,what is the aorta8 ,what is the pulse8 ,on which arteries can we best feel it8 ,what is the average number of beats per minute8 ,how and why does this vary8 #aaf4 ,why does a physician feel a patient's pulse8 ,what are the veins8 ,what blood do they carry8 ,describe the venous system4 ,what vein does not lead toward the heart8 ,describe the valves of the veins4 ,what valves of the heart do they resemble8 ,what are varicose veins8 #aag4 ,where and how can we see the operation of these valves8 ,what are the capillaries8 ,what is the function of the capillaries8 ,footnote3 ,the distinctive function of the capillaries is to offer peripheral resistance to the circulation of the blood4 ,this insures blood pressure1 a condition indispensable to the heart beat1 and also causes leakage 7transudation74 ,this leakage brings the nutriment in contact with the tissue cells1 whereby they are renewed4 ,in the same way the air passes from the blood to the cells4 ,what changes take place in this system8 #aah4 ,describe the circulation of the blood as seen in the web of a frog's foot4 #aai4 ,who discovered the circulation of the blood8 ,how was the discovery received8 ,what remark did ,harvey make8 ,what does that show8 ,name the two divisions of the circulation4 ,describe the route of the blood by the diagram4 #a4 ,the lesser circulation4 #b4 ,the greater circulation4 #abj4 ,what is the velocity of the blood8 ,how long does it require for all the blood to pass through the heart8 ,how long does it take the blood to make the tour of the body8 ,what is the average temperature of the body8 ,how much does this vary in health8 ,ans4 ,not more than #b1 even in the greatest extremes of temperature4--,,flint4 #aba4 ,how and where is the heat of the body generated8 ,how is it distributed8 ,in what diseases is the variation of temperature marked8 ,how is the temperature of the body regulated8 #abb4 ,in what way does life exist through death8 ,is not this as true in the moral as in the physical world8 ,what does it teach8 ,how rapidly do our bodies change8 ,what are the three vital organs8 #abc4 ,name some of the wonders of the heart4 #abd-abf4 ,what is the lymphatic circulation8 ,what is the thoracic duct8 ,the lymph8 ,the glands8 ,what is the office of the lymphatics8 ,what are the lacteals8 ,give some illustrations of the action of the lymphatics of the different organs4 ,should we use care in selecting wall paper8 ,what is meant by the subcutaneous insertion of morphine8 ,how do hibernating animals live during the winter8 ,what is a congestion8 ,its cause8 #abg4 ,what is blushing8 ,why does terror cause one to grow cold and pale8 ,how is an inflammation caused8 ,name its four characteristics4 #abh4 ,how may severe bleeding be stopped8 ,how can you tell whether the blood comes from an artery or a vein8 ,why should you know this8 ,what is the scrofula8 ,what are kernels8 #abi1 #acj4 ,how may a scrofulous tendency of the system be counteracted8 ,what kinds of food stimulate this disease8 ,what is the cause of a cold8 ,why does exposure sometimes cause a cold in the head1 sometimes on the lungs1 and at others bring on a rheumatic attack8 ,why is a cold dangerous8 ,ans4 ,it weakens the system and paves the way for other diseases4 ,what is the theory of treating a cold8 ,describe the method4 ,what is catarrh8 ,cause8 #aca1 #acb4 ,how is alcohol produced8 ,is alcohol present in domestic wines and home-brewed ales8 ,are they1 then1 harmless drinks8 ,what is a ferment8 7,see also pp4 #cjj1 #cja47 ,what is the difference between ferments1 bacteria1 microbes1 and fungi8 ,ans4 ,a few investigators still look upon the microorganisms known as bacteria and microbes as animal existences1 but the larger part now concede them to be vegetable4 #acc4 ,what is the effect of fermentation8 ,what can you say concerning yeast8 #acd4 ,explain the process of making beer4 ,wine4 ,what is distillation8 #ace1 #acf4 ,is there more than one kind of alcohol8 ,what can you say of methyl alcohol8 ,amyl8 ,ethyl8 ,which is the ordinary alcohol of commerce8 ,what is the peculiar effect of fusel oil8 ,is it often found in wines and spirits8 ,has alcohol any beneficial properties8 #acg1 #ach4 ,describe one of the striking effects of alcohol4 ,what is the effect of alcohol on plant and animal life8 #aci1 #adj4 ,what is the difference between the alcohol present in beer and cider1 and that in gin and whiskey8 ,name another dangerous effect of alcoholic drinks4 ,what business consideration should deter young men from liquor drinking8 #ada-adc4 ,illustrate the general effect of alcohol upon the circulation4 ,upon the heart4 ,is alcohol a stimulant or a narcotic8 ,describe how alcohol becomes the ,genius of ,degeneration4 ,explain what is meant by ,vascular ,enlargement4 #add1 #ade4 ,describe the effect of alcohol upon the membranes4 ,upon the blood4 ,does it render the blood thin or heavy8 ,what is the difference between pure and alcoholized blood8 #ade-adg4 ,describe the effect of alcohol upon the lungs4 ,what form of consumption does it induce8 ,are liquor drinkers more or less liable to epidemic diseases8 #cad4 ,how does the pulse felt by the finger correspond with the beat of the heart8 ,name some agencies that influence the pulse beat8 ,which part of the body has the most varied form of pulsation8 #cae4 ,compare the pulses of the wrist and brain in the sleeping and the waking states4 ,how do catarrhal colds generally arise8 ,how are they best cured8 #caf4 ,what is said of the vitality of catarrh germs8 ,what is a popular fallacy with regard to the care of sick rooms8 ,give ,dr4 ,austin ,flint's remarks in this connection4 ,,digestion ,,and ,,food4 #aea4 ,why do we need food8 ,why will a person starve without food8 ,are the current stories of people who live without food to be relied upon8 ,how much food is needed per day by an adult in active exercise8 #aeb4 ,how much in a year8 ,how does this amount vary8 ,describe the body as a mold4 ,as an eddy4 ,what does food do for us8 ,what does food contain8 #aec4 ,how is this force set free8 ,what force is this8 ,how can it be turned into muscular motion1 mental vigor1 etc48 ,do we then draw all our power from nature8 ,what becomes of these forces when we are done with them8 ,do we destroy the force we use8 ,ans4 ,no matter has been destroyed1 so far as we know1 since the creation1 and force is equally indestructible4 ,compare our food to a tense spring4 #aed4 ,what three kinds of food do we need8 ,what is nitrogenous food8 ,name the common forms4 ,what is the characteristic of nitrogenous food8 ,why called albuminous8 ,what is carbonaceous food8 ,its two kinds8 ,constituents of sugar8 ,where are starch and gum ranked8 ,why8 ,use of carbonaceous food8 ,what becomes of this heat8 ,composition of fat8 ,how does fat compare with sugar in producing heat8 #aee4 ,name the other uses of carbonaceous food4 ,from what kind of food does the body derive the greatest strength8 ,name the mineral matters which should be contained in our food4 ,what can you say of the abundance and necessity of water8 ,ought we not to exercise great care in selecting the water we drink8 ,footnote3 ,water which has passed through lead pipes is apt to contain salts of that metal1 and is therefore open to suspicion4 ,metallic lined ice pitchers1 galvanized-iron reservoirs1 and many soda- water fountains1 are liable to the same objection4 7,see pp4 #cag1 #cah47 ,does the character of our food influence the quantity of water we need8 #aef4 ,what are the uses of the different minerals contained in food8 ,illustrate the importance of salt4 ,could a person live on one kind of food alone8 ,illustrate4 #aeg4 ,describe the effect of living on lean meat4 ,show the necessity of a mixed diet4 ,illustrate4 ,show the need of digestion4 ,illustrate4 #aeh4 ,what is assimilation8 ,describe the general plan of digestion4 ,what did ,berzelius call digestion8 ,why8 ,what amount of liquid is daily secreted by the alimentary canal8 ,what is the alimentary canal8 ,how is it lined8 ,how does the amba digest its food8 #aei4 ,the hydra8 ,define secretion4 ,describe the saliva4 ,how is it secreted8 ,what is the amount8 ,its organic principle8 ,its use8 ,how soon does it act8 ,how long8 ,what tends to check or increase the flow of saliva8 #afj4 ,describe the process of swallowing4 ,the stomach4 ,its size4 ,its construction4 ,what is the peristaltic movement8 #afb4 ,what is the pylorus8 ,for what does this open8 ,what is the gastric juice8 ,how abundant is it8 ,to what is its acidity due8 ,what organic principle does it contain8 ,how is pepsin prepared8 ,how is the flow of gastric juice influenced8 #afc4 ,what is its use8 ,appearance of the food as it passes through the pylorus8 ,why is not the stomach itself digested8 ,what is the construction of the intestines8 ,how are the intestines divided8 ,what is the duodenum8 ,why so called8 ,what juices are secreted here8 #afd4 ,what is the bile8 ,describe the liver4 ,what is its weight8 ,its construction8 ,ans4 ,it consists of a mass of polyhedral cells only #a_/ajj to #a_/bjjj of an inch in diameter1 filling a mesh of capillaries4 ,the capillaries carry the blood to and fro1 and the cells secrete the bile4 ,what is the cyst8 ,what does the liver secrete from the blood besides the bile8 ,is the bile necessary to life8 ,illustrate4 ,what is its use8 #afe4 ,what is the pancreatic juice8 ,its organic principle8 ,its use8 ,appearance of the food when it leaves the duodenum8 ,describe the small intestine4 ,what is absorption8 ,in what two ways is the food absorbed8 #aff4 ,where does the process commence8 ,how long does it last8 ,describe the lacteals4 ,of what general system do they form a part8 ,what do the veins absorb8 ,where do they carry the food8 ,how is it modified8 #afg4 ,what is glycogen8 ,describe the complexity of the process of digestion4 ,what length of time is required for digestion in the stomach8 #afh4 ,may not food which requires little time in the stomach need more in the other organs1 and vice versa8 ,tell the story of ,alexis ,st4 ,martin4 ,what time was required to digest an ordinary meal8 ,apples8 ,eggs1 raw and cooked8 ,roast beef8 ,pork8 ,which is the king of the meats8 ,what is the nutritive value of mutton8 ,lamb8 ,how should it be cooked8 ,objection to pork8 ,what is the trichina8 #afi4 ,should ham ever be eaten raw8 ,value of fish8 ,oysters8 ,milk8 ,cheese8 ,eggs8 ,bread8 ,brown bread8 ,are warm biscuit and bread healthful8 ,nutritive value of corn8 #agj4 ,of the potato8 ,of ripe fruits8 ,of coffee8 ,to what is its stimulating property due8 ,its influence on the system8 ,when should it be discarded8 ,should children use any stimulants8 #aga4 ,effects of tea8 ,influence of strong tea8 ,what is the active principle of tea8 ,nutritive value of chocolate8 ,what is its active principle8 ,story of ,linnus8 ,how should tea be made8 ,what is the effect of cooking food8 ,what precaution in boiling meat8 ,in roasting8 ,object of this high temperature8 ,what precaution in making soup8 ,why is frying an unhealthful mode of cooking8 #agb4 ,state the five evil results of rapid eating4 ,what disease grows out of it8 ,if one is compelled to eat a meal rapidly1 as at a railroad station1 what should he take8 ,why8 ,why does a child need more food proportionately than an old person8 ,state the relation of waste to repair in youth1 in middle1 and in old age4 ,what kind and quantity of food does a sedentary occupation require8 ,what caution should students who have been accustomed to manual labor observe8 ,must a student starve himself8 #agc4 ,is there not danger of overeating8 ,would not an occasional abstinence from a meal be beneficial8 ,do not most people eat more than is for their good8 ,how should the season regulate our diet8 ,the climate8 ,illustrate4 ,what does a natural appetite indicate8 ,how are we to judge between a natural and an artificial longing8 ,what does the craving of childhood for sugar indicate8 ,footnote3 ,it does not follow from this1 however1 that the free use of sugar in its separate form is desirable4 ,the ordinary articles of vegetable food contain sugar 7or starch1 which in the body is converted into sugar71 in large proportion2 and there is good reason to believe that in its naturally combined form it is both more easily digested1 and more available for the purposes of nutrition1 than when crystallized4 ,the ordinary sugar of commerce1 moreover1 derived from the sugar cane1 is not capable of being directly applied to physiological purposes4 ,cane sugar is converted within the body into another kind of sugar1 identical with that derived from the grape1 before it can enter into the circuit of the vital changes4 #agd4 ,what is the effect upon the circulation of taking food8 ,should we labor or study just before or after a meal8 ,why not8 ,what time should intervene between our meals8 ,is lunching a healthful practice8 ,eating heartily just before retiring8 ,is it never wise to eat at this time8 7,see p4 #ccg47 ,why should care be banished from the table8 ,will a regular routine of food be beneficial8 #age1 #agf4 ,describe some of the wonders of digestion4 ,what are the principal causes of dyspepsia8 ,how may we avoid that disease8 #agg4 ,what are the mumps8 ,what care should be taken8 ,is alcohol a food8 ,illustrate4 #agh-ahg4 ,compare the action of alcohol with that of water4 ,is the alcohol taken into the stomach eliminated unchanged8 ,does alcohol contain any element needed by the body8 ,what is the effect of alcohol upon the digestion8 ,will pepsin act in the presence of alcohol8 ,what is the effect of alcohol upon the liver8 ,what is ,fatty ,degeneration8 ,what is the effect of alcohol upon the kidneys8 ,does alcohol impart heat to the body8 ,does it confer strength8 ,what does ,dr4 ,kane say8 ,describe ,richardson's experiments4 ,tell what peculiar influence alcohol exerts4 ,what is alcoholism8 ,what is heredity8 #cag4 ,what characteristics should good drinking water possess8 ,are these always proof of its purity8 ,will filters remove all danger of contamination8 ,how may a river infect the entire population of a town8 ,state how well water may become a dangerous drink4 #cah4 ,relate how cases of fever have been caused by carelessness in dairies4 ,how should suspected water be treated8 ,describe a convenient portable filter4 ,tell how water is affected by foul air4 #cai4 ,tell how ice may breed disease4 ,what caution should be observed in engaging ice for our summer supply8 ,illustrate the structure of the glandular coat of the stomach4 #cbj4 ,what is the office of the cells8 ,describe the life history of a cell4 ,how does the stomach weep1 and what is the character of its tears8 #cba4 ,what is tyrotoxicon8 ,give ,dr4 ,vaughan's experiments with cheese1 milk1 and ice cream4 ,tell how milk may be poisoned4 #cbb4 ,compare the vigor of exclusively fish-eating with flesh-eating people4 ,what is the peculiar value of fish as a diet8 ,to what class of people is it best suited8 ,name examples4 ,describe the principles contained in coffee4 ,what is the effect of caffeone8 ,of caffeine8 ,give some of the specific effects of coffee4 ,how does tea differ from coffee8 ,describe the injurious effects of excessive tea drinking4 #cbd4 ,compare theine and cocaine4 ,should children drink tea and coffee8 #cbe4 ,give some causes of indigestion4 ,why are nervous people prone to dyspepsia8 ,give the comparative digestibility of various meats4 #cbf4 ,describe how our food sustains our bodies4 ,illustrate the energy contained in one gramme of beef fat4 ,why is there danger in a high- pressure style of living8 ,illustrate4 #cbg4 ,state the effects of gluttony4 ,why is it unkindness to indulge inordinate appetites in children8 ,what should be the rule in regard to their food8 ,what effects would follow its observance8 ,,the ,,nervous ,,system4 #aia4 ,what are the organs of the nervous system8 ,what is the general use of this system8 ,how does it distinguish animals from plants8 ,what are the vegetative functions8 ,what is the gray matter8 ,its use8 ,the white matter8 ,its use8 #aic4 ,describe the brain4 ,what is its office8 ,its size8 ,how does it vary8 ,illustrate4 ,name its two divisions4 #aid1 #aie4 ,describe the cerebrum4 ,the convolutions4 ,the membranes which bind the brain together4 ,what can you say of the quantity of blood which goes to the brain8 ,what does it show8 ,what do the convolutions indicate8 ,what is the use of the two halves of the brain8 ,what theories have been advanced concerning it8 ,is every injury to the brain fatal8 ,illustrate4 ,compare the human brain with the brains of some animals4 #aif4 ,what is the effect of removing the cerebrum8 ,describe the cerebellum4 ,what is the arbor vit8 ,what does this part of the brain control8 ,what are the peculiar functions of the cerebellum8 ,give ,dr4 ,bastian's remarks4 #aig4 ,what is the effect of an injury to the cerebellum8 ,describe the spinal cord4 ,what is the medulla oblongata8 ,describe the nerves4 ,is each part of the body supplied with its own nerve8 ,prove it4 #aih4 ,what are the motory nerves8 ,the sensory8 ,when will motion be lost and feeling remain1 and vice versa8 ,what is meant by a transfer of pain8 ,illustrate4 #aii4 ,name the three classes of nerves4 ,what are the spinal nerves8 ,describe the origin of the spinal nerve4 #aii-bja4 ,what are the cranial nerves8 ,how many pairs are there8 ,describe them4 #bja1 #bjb4 ,describe the sympathetic system4 ,what is its use8 ,how does the brain control all the vital processes8 ,what is meant by the crossing of the cords8 ,what is the effect8 ,what exception in the seventh pair of cranial nerves8 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,what is reflex action8 ,give illustrations4 ,give instances of the unconscious action of the brain4 ,footnote3 ,the cerebellum has its unconscious action in the processes of respiration and in the involuntary movements which are made in response to the senses1 as in winking1 starting back at a sound1 etc4 ,the cerebrum acts automatically in oases familiar to all4 ,a large part of our mental activity consists of this unconscious brain work4 ,there are many cases in which the mind has obviously reasoned more clearly and more successfully in this automatic condition1 when left entirely to itself1 than when we have been cudgeling our brains1 so to speak1 to get the solution4 ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes has aptly expressed this fact4 ,we wish1 he says1 to remember something in the course of conversation4 ,no effort of the will can reach it2 but we say1 ',wait a minute1 and it will come to me1' and we go on talking4 ,some minutes later1 the idea we are in search of comes all at once into the mind1 delivered like a prepaid parcel1 or like a foundling in a basket1 laid at the door of consciousness4 ,how it came there1 we know not4 ,the mind must have been at work1 groping and feeling for it in the dark2 it can not have come of itself4 ,yet1 all the while1 our consciousness1 so far as we are conscious of our consciousness1 was busy with other thoughts4 ,some interesting personal experiences upon this point are given in an article entitled ,the ,antechamber of ,consciousness1 by ,francis ,speir1 ,jr41 in the ,popular ,science ,monthly for ,march1 #ahhh4 ,can there be feeling or motion in the lower limbs when the spinal cord is destroyed8 ,what does the story told by ,dr4 ,john ,hunter show8 ,give illustrations of the independent action of the spinal cord in animals4 ,what are the uses of reflex action8 #bje4 ,state its value in the formation of habits4 ,how does the brain grow8 ,what laws govern it8 ,what must be the effect of constant light reading8 ,of overstudy or mental labor8 #bjf4 ,state the relation of sleep to repair and waste4 ,how many hours does each person need8 ,what kind of work requires most sleep8 #bjf-bjh4 ,what is the influence of sunlight on the body8 ,illustrate4 ,name some of the wonders of the brain4 #bjh-bac4 ,what four stages are there in the effect of alcohol on the nervous system8 ,describe each4 ,does alcohol confer any permanent strength8 ,what is the physiological effect of alcohol on the brain8 ,on the mental and moral powers8 ,what is the ,delirium ,tremens8 ,should a man be punished for a crime he commits while drunk8 #bad-bah4 ,what are the principal constituents of tobacco8 ,what are its physiological effects8 ,who are most likely to escape injury8 ,is tobacco a food8 ,what is its influence upon youth8 ,why are cigarettes specially injurious8 ,what effect does tobacco have on the sensibilities8 ,name illustrations of the injurious effect of tobacco on young men4 #bai-bba4 ,how is opium obtained8 ,what is its physiological effect8 ,which form of using it is most injurious8 ,can one give up the use of opium when he pleases8 ,how do people sometimes take opium without knowing it8 #bba4 ,what is the harmful influence of chloral hydrate8 ,describe its different physiological effects4 #bbb4 ,compare its influence with that of alcohol4 ,how is chloroform obtained8 ,does its use require great caution8 ,illustrate its effects4 #bbc1 #bbd4 ,what is cocaine8 ,what is its value8 ,its physiological effect8 ,its dangers8 #cca-ccc4 ,what is the effect of extreme anger8 ,give the physiological explanation of this deterioration4 ,what two organs particularly suffer8 ,illustrate4 ,to what cause are many suicides referable8 ,how can one secure a calm and tranquil life8 ,what is the effect of forcing the brain in childhood8 #ccd4 ,illustrate4 ,how should a child be taught8 #ccd1 #cce4 ,why should we not exhaust our energies to the last degree8 ,what warnings does ,nature give us8 ,do stimulants supply force8 ,what is the effect of mental exhaustion8 ,which is the most common1 overwork or worry8 ,most dangerous8 ,what is worry8 ,its effect8 ,what other causes often induce insanity8 #ccf-cch4 ,state some curiosities of sleep4 ,some conditions necessary to sound and healthful slumber4 ,how may we acquire the habit of early rising8 #cch1 #cci4 ,give some of the results of dungeon life4 #cci-cdg4 ,what can you say of the growth and power of poison habits8 ,illustrate4 ,how does physiological ignorance often cause intemperance8 ,what is the usual result of a stimulant habit8 ,in what virtue lies the peril of narcotics8 ,balance the good and the evil in their use4 ,illustrate how death often results from chloroform and chloral4 ,what common result is worse than death8 ,compare the demoralization in the cases of the opium user and the alcohol drinker4 ,what principle of heredity attaches to the use of opium8 ,give instances of deaths from tobacco1 opium1 etc4 ,what can you say of cigarette smoking8 ,chloral hydrate8 ,the bromides8 ,absinthe8 ,hasheesh8 ,,the ,,special ,,senses4 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,what is a sense8 ,name the five senses4 ,to what organ do all the senses minister8 ,if the nerve leading to any organ of sense be cut1 what would be the effect8 ,footnote3 ,each1 organ is adapted to receive a peculiar kind of impression4 ,hence we can not smell with1 the eyes nor see with the nose4 ,thus1 if the nerve communicating between the brain and any organ be destroyed1 that means of knowledge is cut off4 ,sometimes persons lose feeling in a limb1 but retain motion2 why is this8 ,what is the sense of touch sometimes called8 ,describe the organ of touch4 ,what are the papill8 ,where are they most abundant8 ,footnote3 ,if we apply the points of a compass blunted with cork to different parts of the body1 we can distinguish the two points at one twenty-fourth of an inch apart on the tongue1 one sixteenth1 of an inch on the lips1 one twelfth of an inch on the tips of the fingers1 and one half inch on the great toe2 while1 if they are one inch on the cheek1 and two inches on the back1 they will scarcely produce a separate sensation4--,,huxley4 ,what are the uses of this sense8 ,what special knowledge do we obtain by it8 ,why do we always desire to handle any curious object8 ,can the sense of touch always be relied upon8 ,illustrate4 ,what is the tactus eruditus8 ,tell how one sense can take the place of another4 ,give illustrations of the delicacy of touch possessed by the blind4 #bcj-bcb4 ,describe the sense of taste4 ,how can you see the papill of taste8 ,what causes the velvety look of the tongue8 ,why do salt and bitter flavors induce vomiting8 ,why does an acid pucker the face8 ,what substances are tasteless8 ,illustrate4 ,has sulphur any taste8 ,chalk8 ,sand8 ,what is the use of this sense8 ,does it not also add to the pleasures of life8 ,why are the acts of eating1 drinking1 etc41 thus made sources of happiness8 #bcb1 #bcc4 ,describe the organ of smell4 ,state the intimate relation which exists between the senses of smell and taste4 ,name some common mistakes which occur in consequence4 ,must the object to be smelled touch the nose8 ,what is the theory of smell8 ,how do you account for the statement made in the note concerning musk and ambergris8 ,what are the uses of this sense8 ,are agreeable odors healthful1 and disagreeable ones unhealthful8 #bcd-bcf4 ,describe the organ of hearing4 ,describe the external ear4 ,what is the tympanum or drum of the ear8 ,describe the middle ear4 ,name the bones of the ear4 ,describe their structure4 ,describe the internal ear4 ,by what other name is it known8 ,what substances float in the liquid which fills the labyrinth8 ,what is their use8 ,describe the fibers of ,corti4 ,what do they form8 ,use of this microscopic harp8 ,give the theory of sound4 ,where is the sound1 in the external object or in the mind8 ,can there be any sound1 then1 where there is no mind8 ,what advice is given concerning the care of the ear8 ,how can insects be removed8 ,which sense would you rather lose1 hearing or sight8 ,does not a blind person always excite more sympathy than a deaf one8 ,how does the sight assist the hearing8 ,footnote3 ,in hearing1 the attention is more or less characteristic4 ,if we wish to distinguish a distant noise1 or perceive a sound1 the head inclines and turns in such a manner as to present the external ear in the direction of the sound1 at the same time the eyes are fixed and partially closed4 ,the movement of the lips of his interlocutor is the usual means by which the deaf man supplies the want of hearing2 the eyes and the entire head1 from its position1 having a peculiar and painful expression of attention4 ,in looking at the portrait of ,la ,condamine1 it was easily recognized as that of a deaf person4 ,even when hearing is perfect1 the eyes act sometimes as auxiliaries to it4 ,in order to understand an orator perfectly1 it seems necessary to see him--the gestures and the expression of the face seeming to add to the clearness of the words4 ,the lesson of a teacher can not be well understood if any obstacle is interposed between him and the eyes of the listening pupil4 ,so that if a pupil's eyes wander1 we know that he is not attentive4-- ,wonders of the ,human ,body4 #bcf1 #bcg4 ,describe the eye4 ,name the three coats of which it is composed4 ,is it a perfect sphere8 ,ans4 ,the cornea projects in front1 and the optic nerve at the back sticks out like a handle1 while the ball itself has its longest diameter from side to side4 ,how is the interior divided8 ,object of the crystalline lens8 ,how is the crystalline lens kept in place8 ,describe the liquids which fill the eye4 #bch4 ,what is the pupil8 ,describe the eyelids4 ,why is the inner side of the eyelid so sensitive8 ,what is the cause of a black eye8 ,use of the eyelashes8 ,where are the oil glands located8 ,what is their use8 ,describe the lachrymal gland4 ,the lachrymal lake4 ,what causes the overflow in old age8 #bci4 ,explain the structure of the retina4 ,use of the rods and cones4 ,what is the blind spot8 #bdj4 ,illustrate4 ,what is the theory of sight8 ,illustrate4 #bda1 #bdb4 ,state the action of the crystalline lens4 ,its power of adaptation4 ,do children ever need spectacles8 #bdc4 ,what is the cataract8 ,how cured8 ,what is color blindness8 ,illustrate4 ,what care should be taken of the eyes8 ,should one constantly lean forward over his book or work8 ,what special care should nearsighted children take8 ,by what carelessness may we impair our sight8 #bdd4 ,how is squinting caused8 ,cured8 ,what care should be used after an illness8 ,should we ever read or write at twilight8 ,danger of reading upon the ears8 ,what course should we take when objects get into the eye8 ,how may they be removed8 #bde4 ,are eyestones useful8 ,why should we never use eyewashes except upon the advice of a competent physician8 ,what rule should be observed with regard to the direction of the light when we are at work8 ,name some causes of near-sightedness4 ,remedies4 #cdf4 ,give the account of ,laura ,bridgman4 #cdg-cej4 ,describe the anatomy of the nose4 ,in what part of the nose is the function of smell performed8 ,why do we sniff when our attention is attracted by an odor8 ,give some experiments which illustrate the connection between smell1 taste1 and touch4 ,why should we retain our food in the mouth as long as possible8 ,of what use are gastronomic odors8 #cej4 ,why should a child's ear never be boxed8 ,illustrate4 ,how can we detect inattention from deafness in a child8 ,what should we consider in this respect8 #cea4 ,why should we avoid direct draughts in the ear8 ,explain the use of earwax4 ,what common habit is very injurious8 ,why8 #ceb1 #cec4 ,what is the office of the ,eustachian tube8 ,illustrate4 #cec1 #ced4 ,describe the action of the eye curtain4 ,give experiments4 ,what are ,purkinje's ,figures8 ,describe experiment4 ,,health ,,and ,,disease4 #bea-bed4 ,state some of the benefits of health4 ,contrast it with sickness4 ,how were diseases formerly supposed to be caused8 ,what remedies were used8 ,what does modern science teach us to be the nature of disease8 ,give some illustrations showing how diseases may be prevented4 ,is it probable that the body was intended to give out in any one of its organs8 ,what is the first step to be taken in the cure of a disease8 ,what should be the object of medicine8 ,what is now the chief dependence of the best physicians8 ,what do you think concerning the common use of patent nostrums8 ,ought we not to use the greatest care in the selection of our physician8 ,,glossary4 ,ab do' men 7abdo1 ,i conceal74 ,the largest cavity in the body1 in which are hidden the intestines1 stomach1 etc4 ,ab sorb' ent 7ab1 from sorbeo1 ,i suck up74 ,ac' e tab' u lum 7acetum1 vinegar74 ,the socket for holding the head of the thigh bone1 shaped like an ancient vinegar vessel4 ,a ce' tic 7acetum1 vinegar74 ,ad' i pose4 ,fatty4 ,al bu' men 7albus1 white74 ,a substance resembling the white of egg4 ,al bu' mi nous substances contain much albumen4 ,al' i men' ta ry4 ,pertaining to food4 ,al' ka line 7-lin7 substances neutralize acids4 ,an' s thet' ic4 ,a substance that destroys the feeling of pain4 ,a or' ta4 ,the largest artery of the body4 ,ap' o plex y 7pleks y74 ,a disease marked by loss of sensation and voluntary motion4 ,a' que ous 7a'-kwe-us74 ,watery4 ,a rach' noid 7arachne1 a spider2 eidos1 form74 ,a membrane like a spider's web covering the brain4 ,ar' bor vi't means the tree of life4 ,ar' tery 7aer1 air2 tereo1 ,i contain74 ,so named because after death the arteries contain air only1 and hence the ancients supposed them to be air tubes leading through the body4 ,ar tic' u late 7articulo1 ,i form a joint74 ,ar tic' u la tion4 ,a joint4 ,as phyx' ia 7-fix-i-a74 ,literally1 no pulse2 apparent death4 ,as sim' i la' tion is the process of changing food into flesh1 etc4 ,at' las4 ,so called because1 as in ancient fable the god ,atlas supported the globe on his shoulders1 so in the body this bone bears the head4 ,au' di to ry ,nerve4 ,the nerve of hearing4 ,au' ri cle 7-kl7 7auris1 ear7 of the heart4 ,so named from its shape4 ,bi' ceps4 ,a muscle with two heads1 or origins4 ,bi cus' pid4 ,tooth with two points2 also a valve of the heart4 ,bron' chi 7-ki74 ,the two branches of the windpipe4 ,bron' chi al ,tubes4 ,subdivisions of bronchi4 ,bur sa 7a purse74 ,small sac containing fluid near a joint4 ,ca nine' 7canis1 a dog7 teeth are like dog's teeth4 ,cap' il la ries 7capillus1 a hair74 ,a system of tiny blood vessels4 ,car' bon4 ,pure charcoal4 ,car bon' ic ,acid4 ,a deadly gas given off by the lungs and by fires4 ,ca rot' ids 7karos1 lethargy74 ,arteries of the neck1 so named because the ancients supposed them to be the seat of sleep4 ,car' pus4 ,the wrist4 ,car' ti lage4 ,gristle4 ,cell4 ,a minute sac1 usually with soft walls and fluid contents4 ,cel' lu lar 7cellula1 a little cell74 ,full of cells4 ,cer' e bel' lum4 ,the little brain4 ,cer' e brum4 ,a ,latin word meaning brain4 ,cer' vi cal4 ,relating to the neck4 ,chlo' ral 7klo7 ,hy' drate4 ,a drug used to induce sleep4 ,cho' roid4 ,the second coat of the eye4 ,chyle 7kile74 ,a milky juice formed in digestion4 ,chyme 7kime74 ,from chumos1 juice4 ,cir' cu la' tion4 ,the course of the blood through the body4 ,cil' i a 7the plural of cilium1 an eyelash74 ,hair-like projections in the air passages4 ,clav' i cle 7klav'-i-kl74 ,from clavis1 a key4 ,co ag' u la'tion4 ,a clotting of blood4 ,coc' cyx 7a cuckoo74 ,a bony mass below the sacrum4 ,coch' le a4 ,a ,latin word meaning snail shell4 ,see ,ear ,com' pound4 ,a substance composed of two or more elements4 ,con ta' gious diseases are those caught by contact1 the breath1 etc4 ,con' trac til' i ty 7con1 together2 traho1 ,i draw74 ,con' vo lu' tion 7con1 together2 volvo1 ,i roll74 ,cor' ne a 7cornu1 a horn74 ,a transparent1 horn-like window in the eye4 ,cor' pus cle 7kor'-pus-l74 ,from a ,latin word meaning a little body4 ,it is applied to the disks of the blood4 ,cra' ni al4 ,relating to the skull4 ,crys'tal line 7crystallum1 a crystal74 ,cu ta' ne ous 7cutis1 skin74 ,pertaining to the skin4 ,cu' ti cle 7ku'-ti-kl74 ,from a ,latin word meaning little skin4 ,cu' tis1 the true skin4 ,den' tal 7dens1 dentis1 a tooth74 ,di' a phragm 7-fram74 ,the muscle dividing the abdomen from the chest4 ,di as' to le 7diastello1 ,i put asunder74 ,dilation of the heart4 ,dis' lo ca' tion4 ,a putting out of joint4 ,dor' sal 7dorsum1 the back74 ,duct4 ,a small tube4 ,du o de' num 7duodeni1 twelve each74 ,du' ra ,ma' ter 7durus1 hard2 mater1 mother74 ,the outer membrane of the brain4 ,dys pep' si a is a difficulty of digestion ,e lim' i nate4 ,to expel4 ,ep' idem' ic4 ,a disease affecting a great number of persons at once4 ,ep' i der' mis4 ,the cuticle4 ,ep' i glot' tis 7epi1 upon2 glottis1 the tongue74 ,the lid of the windpipe4 ,ep' i the' li um4 ,the outer surface of mucous or serous membranes4 ,eu sta' chi an 7u-sta'-ki-an7 ,tube4 ,so named from its discoverer1 an ,italian physician4 ,ex cre' tion4 ,waste particles thrown off by the excretory organs4 ,fer' men ta' tion4 ,the process by which sugar is turned into alcohol4 ,fi' brin 7fibra1 a fiber74 ,fil' a ment 7filum1 a thread74 ,func' tion4 ,see ,organ4 ,gan' gli on 7gang'-gli-on74 ,from ganglion1 a knot2 plu4 ganglia4 ,gas' tric 7gaster1 stomach74 ,glands 7glandz74 ,from glans1 a ,latin word meaning acorn4 ,their object1 is to secrete in their cells some liquid from the blood4 ,glot' tis4 ,the opening at the top of the larynx4 ,hu' me rus4 ,the arm bone4 ,hu' mor4 ,a ,latin word meaning moisture4 ,hy' dro gen4 ,the lightest gas known1 and one of the elements of water4 ,hy' gi ene4 ,from a ,greek word meaning health4 ,hyp' o glos' sal4 ,literally under the tongue2 a nerve of the tongue4 ,in ci' sor 7incido1 ,i cut7 teeth are cutting teeth4 ,in' spi ra' tion 7in and spiro1 ,i breathe in74 ,in tes' tine 7-tin74 ,from intus1 within4 ,lach' ry mal 7lachryma1 a tear74 ,pertaining to tears4 ,lac' te al 7lac1 lactis1 milk74 ,so called from the milky look of the chyle during digestion4 ,la cu' na1 plu4 lacun 7lakos1 a hole74 ,cavities in the bone structure4 ,lar' ynx 7lar'-inx74 ,the upper part of the windpipe4 ,lig' a ments 7ligo1 ,i bind7 tie bones together4 ,lu' bri cate4 ,to oil in order to prevent friction4 ,lum' bar 7lumbus1 a loin74 ,pertaining to the loins4 ,lymph 7limf74 ,from lympha1 pure water4 ,lym phat' ic 7lim-fat-ik74 ,mas' ti ca' tion4 ,the act of chewing4 ,me dul' la ,ob lon ga' ta4 ,the upper part of the spinal cord4 ,mam' brane4 ,a thin skin1 or tissue4 ,mes' en tery4 ,the membrane by which the intestines are fastened to the spine4 ,met' a car' pal 7meta1 after2 karpos1 wrist74 ,met' a tar' sal 7meta1 after2 tarsos1 the instep74 ,mi' cro scope 7mikros1 small2 skopeo1 ,i see74 ,mo'lar 7mola1 a mill7 teeth are the grinders4 ,morp' hine 7,morpheus1 the ,greek god of sleep74 ,mo' tor4 ,giving motion4 ,mu' cous 7-kus7 ,membrane4 ,a thin tissue1 or skin1 covering the open cavities of the body4 ,see ,serous4 ,mu' cous4 ,a fluid secreted by a membrane and serving to lubricate it4 ,mus' cle 7mus-l74 ,a bundle of fibers covered by a membrane4 ,my o' pi a 7muo1 ,i contract2 ops1 the eye74 ,nar cot' ic4 ,a drug producing sleep4 ,na' sal 7na'-zal74 ,from nasus1 the nose4 ,nerve 7neuron1 a cord74 ,ni' tro gen ,gas is the passive element of the air4 ,ni trog' e nous4 ,containing nitrogen4 ,nu tri' tion4 ,the process by which the body is nourished4 soph' agus 7e-sof'-a-gus74 ,the gullet2 literally1 a food-carrier4 ,ol fac' to ry4 ,pertaining to the smell4 ,or' gan4 ,an organ is a portion of the body designed for a particular use1 which is called its function2 thus the heart circulates the blood4 ,os' se ous4 ,bone-like4 ,os' si fy 7ossa1 bones2 facio1 ,i make74 ,ox i da' tion4 ,the process of combining with oxygen4 ,ox' y gen4 ,the active element of the air4 ,pal' ate 7palatum1 the palate74 ,roof of the mouth4 ,pan' cre as 7pas1 all2 kreas1 flesh74 ,an organ of digestion4 ,pa pil' la1 plu4 papill4 ,tiny cone-like projections4 ,pa ral' y sis4 ,a disease in which one loses sensation1 or the power of motion1 or both4 ,pa rot' id 7para1 near2 ous1 otos1 ear74 ,one of the salivary glands4 ,pa tel' la 7a little dish74 ,the kneepan4 ,pec' to ral4 ,pertaining to the chest4 ,pep' sin 7pepto1 ,i digest74 ,the chief constituent of the gastric juice4 ,per' i car' di um 7peri1 around2 kardia1 the heart74 ,the membrane wrapping the heart4 ,per' i os' te um 7peri1 around2 osteon1 bone74 ,the membrane around the bone4 ,per' i stal' tic 7peri1 round2 stallein1 to arrange74 ,applied to the worm-like movement of the alimentary canal4 ,phar' ynx 7far'-inx74 ,from pharugx1 the throat4 ,pi' a ,ma' ter 7tender mother74 ,see ,brain4 ,pig' ment4 ,a paint4 ,plas' ma 7plaz'-ma74 ,the nutritious fluid of the blood4 ,pleu' ra 7plu'-ra74 ,from pleuar1 a rib4 ,the membrane that lines the chest and wraps the lungs4 ,pres by o' pi a 7presbus1 old2 ops1 the eye74 ,a defect in the eye common to old age4 ,proc' ess4 ,a projection4 ,sometimes it retains its ordinary meaning of operation4 ,py lo' rus 7a gate74 ,the doorway through which the food passes from the stomach4 ,pul' mo na ry 7pulmo1 the lungs74 ,pertaining to the lungs4 ,ra' di us4 ,a ,latin word meaning the spoke of a wheel1 a ray1 etc4 ,ram' i fy4 ,to spread like the branches of a tree4 ,res' pi ra tion 7re1 again2 spiro1 ,i breathe74 ,act of breathing4 ,ret' i na 7rete1 a net74 ,the expansion of the optic nerve in the eye4 ,sa' crum 7sacred74 ,so named1 it is said1 because this bone of the pelvis was anciently offered in sacrifice4 ,sa li' va4 ,a ,latin word meaning spittle2 the fluid secreted by the salivary glands4 ,scap' u la4 ,the shoulder blade4 ,scav' en ger4 ,a street sweeper4 ,sele rot' ic 7skie-rot'-ic74 ,the outer coat of the eye4 ,se cre' tion 7secretum1 to separate74 ,sed' en ta ry persons are those who sit much4 ,sen' so ry ,nerves4 ,the nerves of feeling4 ,se' rous ,membrane4 ,a thin tissue1 or skin1 covering the cavities of the body that are not open to the external air4 ,se' rum4 ,the thin part of the blood4 ,sub cla' vi an4 ,located under the clavicle4 ,sub lin' gual 7sub1 under3 lingua1 the tongue74 ,the salivary gland located under the tongue4 ,sub max' il la ry 7sub1 under2 maxilla1 jawbone74 ,the salivary gland located under the jaw4 ,syn o' vi a 7sun1 with2 oon1 egg74 ,a fluid that lubricates the joints4 ,syn o' vi al ,membrane packs the joints4 ,sys' to le 7sustello1 ,i contract74 ,contraction of the heart4 ,tem' po ral4 ,an artery on the temple 7tempus1 time71 so called because1 as is said1 the hair whitens first at that point4 ,ten' dons 7tendo1 ,i stretch74 ,the cords conveying motion from the muscle to the bone4 ,tho' rax 7a breastplate74 ,the cavity containing the lungs1 etc4 ,tib' ia4 ,the shin-bone4 ,tis' sue4 ,a general term applied to the textures of which the different organs are composed2 osseous tissue forms bones4 ,tra' che a 7tra'-ke-a74 ,means rough1 alluding to the roughened surface of the windpipe4 ,tri' ceps4 ,a muscle with three heads1 or origins4 ,tri' cus' pid 7tres1 three2 cuspis1 point74 ,a valve of the heart4 ,tym' pa num 7a drum7 of the ear4 ,vas' cu lar 7vasculum1 little vessel74 ,full of small blood vessels4 ,ven' tri cle 7-kl74 ,a cavity of the heart4 ,ver' te bra1 plu4 vertebr 7verto1 ,i turn74 ,a term applied to each one of the bones of the spine4 ,vil' lus 7villus1 tuft of hair71 plu4 villi4 ,vi' ti ate4 ,to taint4 ,to spoil4 ,vit' re ous 7vitrium1 glass74 ,glassy4 ,vo' mer 7plowshare74 ,a bone of the nose4