,,the                                   
,,boy',s ,,book ,,of ,,trades           
,,and ,,the                             
,,tools ,,used ,,in ,,them4             
,,by                 ,,one ,,of ,,the   
,,authors ,,of 8,,england',s            
,,workshops40                           
,,comprising                            
,,brickmaker4                           
,,mason4                                
,,bricklayer4                           
,,plasterer1 c4                         
,,carpenter4                            
,,painter1 c4                           
,,plumber4                              
,,manufacture ,,of ,,gas4               
,,iron ,,founder4                       
,,blacksmith4                           
,,brassfounder4                         
,,gilder4                               
,,cabinet ,,maker4                      
,,floor-,,cloth ,,ditto4                
,,paper ,,stainer4                      
,,calico ,,printer4                     
,,tinman4                               

,,farrier4                              
,,needle ,,maker4                       
,,hotpresser4                           
,,cutler4                               
,,cotton ,,manufacturer4                
,,tailor4                               
,,tanner4                               
,,shoemaker4                            
,,saddler1 c4                           
,,hatter4                               
,,miller4                               
,,baker4                                
,,sugar ,,refiner4                      
,,dyer ,,and ,,scourer4                 
,,coppersmith4                          
,,gun ,,maker4                          
,,london3                               
,,george ,,routledge ,,and ,,sons1      
,,broadway1 ,,ludgate ,,hill4           
#ahff4                                  
,,london                     ,r4 ,,clay1
 ,,son1 ,,and ,,taylor1 ,,printers1     
,,bread ,,street ,,hill                 
,,preface4      ,every human being born 
into the world will find that happiness 

mainly  depends upon the work that he   
does and the manner in which it is done4
    ,those who imagine that the         
necessity for labour is only an evil    
must be  either grossly ignorant or     
wilfully wicked4    ,whoever wastes his 
life in idleness1 either because he need
 not work in  order to live1 or because 
he will not live to work1 will be a     
wretched  creature1 and at the close of 
a listless existence will regret the    
loss  of precious gifts and the neglect 
of great opportunities4    ,our daily   
work1 however common or humble it may   
seem1 is our daily duty1  and by doing  
it well we may even make it a part of   
our daily worship4    ,for these reasons
 the choice of a trade is a most        
important event in  every boy's life1   
and it is no less difficult than        
important1 because  when a boy has just 
left school he seldom knows much about  
the operations  of any trade1 and cannot
 be expected to express any preference  
for  one more than another4 ,whether    

this book will be of any use in this    
respect1 by directing attention to some 
of the principal industries of  the     
country in which we live1 must after all
 depend upon the tastes of  each        
particular reader2 but it may at all    
events claim to be useful in  making    
known what are the operations necessary 
to some of our great  manufactures1 and 
in explaining the method of using the   
tools employed by  those engaged in     
them4    ,a volume like the present can 
scarcely be said to have an ,author1    
since  much of its contents must        
necessarily be the work of the compiler1
 who  condenses the valuable material   
supplied by other writers1 and adapts   
it to his purpose4 ,it is impossible    
that any great part of the matter  can  
be original2 and in some parts of the   
following pages the writer has  found it
 altogether inexpedient to change even  
the manner of those who  are regarded as
 the principal authorities on scientific
 subjects4 ,he  believes1 however1 that 

even where he has borrowed1 he has      
borrowed with  some discretion4 ,whether
 he has succeeded in explaining and     
simplifying  the reader will be able to 
judge4          ,,the ,,brickmaker4     
,illustration3 ,,brickfield1 ,,shed1    
,,kiln1 ,c4      ,it would be very      
difficult1 and perhaps impossible1 to   
discover at  what time in the history of
 the world the art of brickmaking was   
first  practised4 ,in the earliest      
records of the human race the making of 
bricks  is mentioned2 this was part of  
the labour imposed upon the children of 
,israel1 when they were in captivity in 
,egypt1 and bricks of excellent  quality
 are found in some of the most ancient  
buildings1 the remains of  which have   
been discovered4 ,though uncivilized    
nations1 and even some  which had made  
great progress in civilization1 but     
lived in very warm  or exceedingly cold 
climates1 frequently built dwellings of 
wood1 of  wattles or strips of trees and
 branches covered with clay and lime1   

and  of rough stone and earth2 and      
though whole tribes lived and still live
  under tents1 or in mere log huts and  
wigwams1 or lodges made of the skins  of
 animals1 the manufacture of bricks     
formed of clay1 and either burnt  with  
fire or dried in the sun1 is amongst the
 oldest of all known trades4  ,in our   
own day it has arrived at such          
perfection and the varieties of  bricks 
and tiles are so great in order to      
provide for the great diversity  in     
buildings1 that it is one of the most   
important branches of ,english          
industry4    ,we learn from the ,bible  
that burnt bricks were used in building 
the ,tower  of ,babel1 and from early   
historians1 as well as from recent      
discoveries1  we know that they were    
also made for the walls of ,babylon4    
,the bricks of  the ancient ,egyptians  
were made of clay tempered with water   
and mixed  with chopped straw1 and      
afterwards dried in the sun1 and the    
labour of  the ,israelites was made more

 severe by their being compelled to find
  straw for themselves4 ,in ,rome both  
burnt or kiln-dried bricks and those    
dried in the sun were employed1 and     
though at a later date the art of       
brickmaking seems to have fallen into   
disuse1 it was revived again in  ,italy 
after some hundreds of years4 ,the trade
 seems to have been brought  to ,england
 by the ,romans1 and many of the most   
ancient buildings in  this country are  
made of very fine brickwork1 though1    
till the reign of  ,elizabeth1 only     
large mansions were so built1 the common
 houses being  formed of frame-works of 
timber filled in with coarse plaster    
supported  by laths of wood4    ,there  
are few more interesting sights than a  
brick-field in full work  with its great
 sheds1 its horses going slowly round   
and round in the  mills1 grinding the   
clay which has been dug out of the deep 
pits2 its  great stacks covered with    
hurdles and screens made of reeds and   
its  immense kilns1 so cleverly and     

evenly built1 where the smoke rises     
lazily  from the dull fires by which the
 drying or burning is completed4        
,illustration3 ,clay ,mill4    ,the     
methods of brickmaking differ           
considerably in various parts of        
,england1 but that which we most        
commonly see in practice near ,london   
will very well represent them all1 and  
it is this which will now be  described4
 ,the earth used for making bricks is   
found after digging till  the labourers 
reach the loamy soil lying just above   
that blue clay which  is known as       
,london clay2 and this earth is known as
 strong clay1 mild  clay1 and malm1 and 
this earth requires preparation by      
mixing with them  chalk and the dust of 
burnt ashes from the dust bins4 ,these  
burnt ashes  the brickmakers call       
8breeze40    ,the chalk mill and the    
clay mill are placed close together on  
large  mounds1 high enough to allow the 
8malm0 7which is a mixture of chalk and 
clay ground to a thin paste7 to run down

 to the brick earth4 ,the chalk  mill is
 a round trough where the chalk is      
ground by heavy wheels fitted  with     
spikes on their tires or hoops1 and     
turned by one or two horses4  ,the      
trough is supplied with water from a    
pump1 and the chalk1 as it is  ground1  
runs off by a wooden gutter into the    
clay mill1 where it is again  stirred   
and ground till it mixes with the clay2 
the mixture then runs  through a grating
 and through other gutters to the brick 
earth1 which has  been placed in heaps  
to receive it4    ,illustration3 ,hack  
,barrow4 ,barrow4    ,when the earth is 
mixed in this way1 it becomes           
brick-clay1 and is taken  in barrows up 
a sloping board1 to the pug mill4 ,the  
pug mill is a great  tub1 the top of    
which is larger than the bottom1 and in 
the centre of it  there revolves an     
upright iron shaft fitted with knives4  
,these knives cut  and break the clay as
 it passes through the mill1 and they   
also force it  downwards till it reaches

 the bottom1 where it passes through a  
hole on  to a machine called the        
,cuckhold1 which is a sort of table     
containing a  trough where the clay is  
cut into lumps ready for the moulder4   
,illustration3 ,pug ,mill4              
,illustration3 ,barrow for carrying     
baked ,bricks4    ,illustration3 ,kick  
and ,stockboard4 ,mould4 ,board for     
,moulding4 ,strike4  ,brick-mould4      
,the moulder who shapes the clay into   
bricks uses moulding sand1--a  peculiar 
sort of sand brought from the bed of the
 river1 and spread out  in the sun1     
where it is turned over and over till it
 is quite dry4 ,it  prevents the clay   
from shrinking1 gives a harder surface  
to the bricks1  and prevents them from  
sticking to the mould1 or to each other2
 it also  gives the ,london bricks their
 grey colour4 ,the moulder stands at the
  moulding stool1 which has a rim at    
each end to keep the moulding sand  from
 falling off1 and has a stockboard1     
which forms the bottom of the           

brick-mould1 and a page1 or two iron    
rods nailed at each end to wooden       
rails1 used to slide the raw bricks from
 the moulder to the place from  which   
the 8taking-off boy0 takes them to place
 on the 8hack barrow10 by  which they   
are carried away4 ,the moulder is served
 with the lumps of  clay by the 8clot   
moulder40 ,the 8brick-mould0 is a kind  
of box without  top or bottom1 and the  
moulder dashes the tempered clay into   
the mould  with sufficient force to make
 the clay completely fill it2 after     
which  the superfluous clay is removed  
from the surface of the mould with the  
strike4 ,the brick is then turned out on
 to a pallet or board1 on which it  is  
wheeled by the boy to the 8hack ground10
 where the bricks are built up  to dry  
in low walls called 8hacks40 ,the brick 
moulds are made of brass  or iron1 and  
often of wood4 ,sometimes the bricks are
 dried on a floor  under a shed1 but    
often in the open air1 where they are   
covered with  straw1 reed-flats1 or     

canvas and tarpauline screens1 to       
protect them from  wet1 frost1 or       
excessive heat4 ,the bricks are         
afterwards burnt either in  8clamps0 or 
in 8kilns40 ,in clamp burning the bricks
 are built up close  together1 and the  
bottom ones only are heated with burning
 breeze or  cinders1 the heat spreading 
to those at the top4 ,a kiln is a sort  
of  large chamber in which the bricks   
are loosely stacked with spaces between 
them for the heat to pass through1 and  
they are baked by fires placed  either  
in arched furnaces under the floors of  
the kiln1 or in fire holes  made in the 
side walls4 ,the kilns are built of     
various shapes1 and one of  the         
principal arts in the trade of the      
,brickmaker is to construct them  that  
the heat may be properly distributed1   
and the bricks equally and  thoroughly  
baked4    ,illustration3 ,shovel4 ,pick4
 ,reed ,flats4          ,,the ,,mason4  
,illustration3 ,,masons ,,at ,,work4    
,having already given a description of  

the way in which bricks are made1  we   
come to the work of the ,mason1 whose   
duty it is to prepare the stone  work   
used in building and for other purposes4
 ,in the mason's trade great  skill is  
required1 as well as some hard manual   
labour1 since he has to  cut the stones 
for arches1 windows1 columns1 cornices1 
and porches1 into  various shapes2 and  
to fit the separate pieces with perfect 
accuracy1  that the ,builder or the     
,architect may be able at once to set   
them in  their proper places4 ,the      
business of the monumental mason1 who   
erects  pedestals for statues1 tombs1   
and ornamental structures in parks and  
gardens1 is generally distinct from that
 of the builder or architectural  mason1
 although many of the same tools are    
used in both trades4    ,the stone used 
by the mason is of various kinds1 and is
 brought from  different parts of the   
world2 but our own country contains     
stone of  nearly every sort which can be
 well employed in ordinary building4    

,granite comes principally from         
,scotland1 though a smaller quantity is 
brought from ,ireland2 red and white    
sandstone is plentiful in ,yorkshire1   
,lancashire1 and ,derbyshire1 as well as
 in ,scotland and ,ireland2 a sort of   
slate stone is found in ,wales2 and the 
most common building stone1 which  is   
called limestone1 or free-stone1 is     
brought from several counties in        
,england1 where it is constantly worked4
 ,the stone is generally found  under   
the surface of the earth1 and the places
 from which it is dug are  called       
quarries2 the business of quarrying     
being to extract from the  ground1 or   
from the sides of rocks1 large masses of
 stone or marble4    ,when these lie    
directly under the ground1 the earth at 
the top is  removed1 and the stone is   
afterwards separated into blocks and    
lifted  out by machinery2 but it is     
sometimes necessary to mine for the     
stone  by making galleries underground1 
and leaving pillars to support the      

earth above them4 ,in large quarries1   
the earth at top is first removed1  and 
the first layer of stone1 which is      
generally of a common sort1 is  broken  
or blasted with gunpowder1 and          
afterwards taken away4 ,the lower       
layers of stone are then divided by     
wedges driven into them1 until they     
split in the required direction2 the    
blocks are afterwards made of a  regular
 square1 by a tool called a kevel1      
pointed at one end and flat  at the     
other1 and are then lifted by cranes on 
to low waggons1 upon  which they are    
drawn away4 ,it is the business of the  
mason to work these  stones1 which are  
to be used in building1 into their      
required shape2  but before the mason   
receives them the stone cutter hews and 
cuts the  large blocks roughly into the 
form in which they are wanted2 and when 
the block is to form top of a doorway1  
part of a cornice1 or any other  portion
 of a building where ornament is        
necessary1 the carver executes  these   

ornaments1 and cuts the stone into a    
pattern of fruit1 flowers1 or  figures4 
,illustration3 ,peck or ,point4 ,stone  
,axe4    ,when the stone is valuable it 
is sent from the quarry to the mason's  
yard1 or to the building where it is to 
be used in large blocks1 and  there cut 
into slabs or thin pieces called        
8scantlings10 of the required  size1    
with a stone mason's saw 7see large     
cut74 ,this saw differs from  those used
 in other trades because it has no      
teeth4 ,it is a long thin  plate of     
steel slightly jagged on the bottom     
edge1 and fixed in a frame2  and being  
drawn backwards and forwards in a       
horizontal position1 cuts  the stone by 
its own weight4 ,to make this the       
easier1 a heap of sharp  sand is placed 
on a sloping board over the stone1 and  
water trickling  upon it from a barrel  
washes it into the cut made by the saw4 
,in large  establishments the sawing of 
the stone is often effected by steam    
machinery4 ,some of the freestones are  

so soft as easily to be cut with a      
toothed saw1 worked backwards and       
forwards by two persons4 ,the tools used
  by the mason are the peck or point for
 chipping the surface of the stone1  the
 stone axe for breaking the irregular   
portions from the block1 the  iron      
mallet and beetle1 for breaking pieces  
from the edge of the slab or  driving in
 wedges4    ,illustration3 ,wooden      
,beetle4 ,wedge4 ,iron ,mallet4         
,illustration3 ,rubber4 ,mallet4 ,brush4
 ,chisels4    ,the tools used for       
cutting stone are the mallet and chisels
 of various  sizes4 ,the mason's mallet 
differs from that used by other workmen1
 being  of a sort of half pear shape1   
and with a short handle only just long  
enough to allow it to be firmly grasped 
in the hand4 ,the rubber is used  for   
smoothing the surface of the stone1     
after it has been worked by the  tools2 
sand and water are placed on the stone1 
and the rubber is pushed  backwards and 
forwards for the purpose of grinding the

 face of the slab  to a smooth surface2 
another block of stone is sometimes     
applied to the  same purpose4 ,in       
,london the tools used to work the faces
 of the stone  are--the point1 a very   
small chisel only about a quarter of an 
inch  broad at the cutting edge2 the    
inch tool1 which is a broader chisel2   
the  booster1 broader still2 and the    
broad tool1 which is three inches and  a
 half wide3 beside these1 there are     
tools of the same kind for working      
mouldings and carvings4                 
,illustration3 ,square4 ,bevel ,square4 
,straight ,edge4 ,trowel4 ,point4       
,besides these cutting tools1 the mason 
uses a banker or bench1 on which  he    
places his stone for convenience of     
working1 and straight edges1  squares1  
and bevels1 for marking the shapes into 
which the blocks are to  be cut1 and    
seeing that his edges and surfaces are  
even by trying them as  the work        
proceeds4    ,the bevel square is a     
square the stock1 or lower part1 of     

which is  moveable1 so that it may be   
set to any angle or level as required4  
,sometimes a pattern called a templet is
 used for cutting a block to any        
particular shape1 and when the work is  
moulded1 the templet is called a  mould4
 ,moulds are commonly made of sheet     
zinc1 carefully cut to the  profile of  
the mouldings with shears and files4    
,it often happens that the mason has not
 only to prepare the stone1 but  to set 
it in its place in the building1 and    
this is properly part of  his work4 ,he 
then uses the trowel1 for applying the  
composition for  cementing the stones   
together2 lines and pins to show whether
 his edges  are straight and square1 the
 square and level for a similar purpose2
 and  various rules for adjusting the   
stone faces of upright walls4           
,illustration          ,,the            
,,bricklayer4    ,illustration3 ,,the   
,,bricklayer4      ,the ,bricklayer has 
so much to do with the erection of      
buildings that  the ,master ,bricklayer 

is generally a ,builder2 that is1 he    
understands  not only brickwork and the 
building of walls1 but also the other   
trades  necessary for completing a      
house1 and can superintend the ,mason's1
  ,carpenters'1 and ,plumbers' work4    
,of course1 the first consideration in  
building a house is the  preparation of 
the foundations1 which are formed in    
various ways1  according to the nature  
of the soil on which they are laid2     
unless the  ground itself is firm enough
 to receive the walls1 sometimes thick  
layers  of concrete 7a sort of mortar7  
is used1 sometimes layers of planking   
are  put down1 or even cross beams of   
timber1 and in some cases1 where the    
earth is very loose and damp1 timber    
piles are driven into it on which  to   
lay the foundation4 ,the foundation once
 laid1 the vaults or cellars  are built 
either in the ordinary way1 or in a     
series of arches of various  forms2 then
 follow the abutments1 the wing-walls1  
the main-walls1 with  iron 8,bressumers0

 for supporting those parts of the walls
 which are  above large openings like   
great doors or shop fronts4 ,the        
partitions1 or  interior walls1 may be  
either solid brick or stone1 or may be  
constructed  entirely of timber1 or they
 may be frames of timber filled in with 
masonry or brickwork4 ,then come the    
floors1 the roofs and roof-coverings1   
and finally the ceilings and the doors  
and windows4 ,the materials used  in    
building are principally timber1 stone1 
slate1 bricks1 tiles1 mortar1  lime1    
cement1 iron1 glass1 lead1 zinc1 colours
 and varnishes4 ,those with  which the  
working bricklayer has most to do are   
bricks1 slates1 tiles1  stonework1      
cement1 and mortar1 for these are       
principally used in making  walls and   
roofs1 which is the greater part of his 
trade4 ,the stone and  slate come from  
the quarries1 and we have already seen  
how bricks are  made4 ,mortar is made in
 the following way4    #ast4 ,the soft  
chalky stone known as limestone1 is     

calcined or burnt1 by  exposure to      
strong heat in a lime kiln2 the heat    
drives off a gas which  is contained in 
it 7called carbonic acid gas71 and      
leaves it in a state  in which it is    
known as quick-lime4    #b;d4 ,the      
quick-lime is 8slaked10 by pouring water
 upon it1 when it swells  and becomes   
very hot1 afterwards falling into a fine
 powder4    #c;d4 ,this powder is mixed 
into a rather stiff paste1 more water is
 added1  and when a certain quantity of 
sand is added becomes mortar1 and may be
  used for cementing bricks together4   
,concrete is made by mixing gravel1     
sand1 and ground unslaked lime  together
 with water2 it is used for foundations1
 and filling in apertures  requiring    
strength and firmness4    ,iron is used 
by the builder in two different states1 
as cast iron and  wrought iron2 the     
girders for supporting roofs and walls  
are mostly  cast in moulds 7see ,iron   
,founder71 though both these and other  
parts of  the ironwork used in building1

 are frequently of iron wrought by hand4
    ,lead is used by the mason for      
securing and coating the iron clamps    
which  hold the blocks of stone         
together2 it is also used in the        
plumbers' work  of a house 7see         
,plumber74    ,zinc is used in the      
manufacture of gutters1 pipes1 and      
portions of roofs4    ,illustration3    
,trowel4    ,the excavator having dug   
out the space where the foundation of   
the house  is to be laid1 the work of   
the bricklayer begins1 and his tools are
 the  trowel1 to take up and spread the 
mortar1 and cut bricks by a sharp  blow 
to the requisite length2 then there are 
the brick axe or hammer1  for shaping   
the bricks to a level2 the tin saw for  
making an incision  on bricks to be cut 
with the axe2 the rubbing stone on which
 to rub the  bricks smooth in the parts 
where they have been cut1 and the mortar
 rake  and shovel1 for mixing the mortar
 and cement4    ,illustration3 ,mortar  
,rake4 ,crowbar4 ,shovel4 ,brick        

,hammer4 ,pickaxe4    ,the crowbar and  
pick-axe are the tools used for         
demolishing old brickwork  or clearing  
out rubbish2 the sieve 7see large cut7  
for sifting the lime  of which the      
mortar is made1 and the rammer for      
hardening the ground to  render the     
foundation firm4 ,the raker is used for 
raking out the mortar  from the joints  
of old brickwork which requires         
re-pointing1 or the  joints refilled    
with mortar4    ,to 8set out0 the work1 
which means to measure the spaces1 and  
to keep  the lines1 curves1 and angles1 
straight and true1 the bricklayer uses  
the square1 the level1 the plumb-rule2  
the square shows whether  the proper    
angle has been preserved2 the plumb-rule
 is an upright rule1  with a string at  
one end1 to which is attached a leaden  
ball4 ,if the  work is straight on its  
perpendicular lines1 and the plumb-rule 
be  applied to it1 this leaden ball will
 hang exactly in the centre1 and  swing 
through a hole in the rule1 while1 if   

the work be crooked1 it will  swing to  
one side4 ,the level is a rule on the   
same principle1 but for  testing        
horizontal lines1 such as a cornice on  
the top of a wall4 ,the  good bricklayer
 will frequently test his work by these 
tools1 and will  also use a line        
stretched to two pins1 to guide him as  
he builds up his  courses of bricks4    
,the bricks and mortar are supplied to  
him by a labourer1 who carries  them in 
a hod4 ,the labourer also makes the     
mortar1 and builds up and  takes down   
the scaffolding 7see large cut74 ,the   
scaffolding1 or that  frame of poles and
 planks erected in front of the building
 as it is in  progress1 is constructed  
of standards1 ledgers1 and putlogs4     
,the standards are poles made of fir    
trees1 from forty to fifty feet long1   
and six or seven inches thick at the    
butt ends1 which are firmly fixed in    
the ground4 ,when one pole is not long  
enough1 two are lashed together1  the   
rope lashings being tightened by wedges 

driven in between the coils  in a       
peculiar way4 ,the ledgers are          
horizontal poles placed parallel to  the
 walls and lashed to the standards2     
these support the putlogs1 or  cross    
pieces1 which are about six feet long1  
one end of them resting in  the wall1   
the other on the ledgers4 ,on these     
putlogs are fastened the  scaffold      
boards1 which are stout boards with     
pieces of iron hoop placed  round the   
ends1 to keep them from splitting4      
,illustration3 ,level4 ,cutting ,chisel4
 ,square4 ,line and ,plumb4 ,hod4    ,a 
bricklayer and his labourer will lay    
about a thousand bricks1 or two  cubic  
yards of brickwork1 in a day4    ,the   
tools used for tiling1 or placing the   
tiles on a roof1 are the  lathing       
hammer1 the iron lathing staff to clinch
 the nails1 the trowel1  which is longer
 and narrower than that used for        
brickwork1 the bosse1  for holding      
mortar and tiles1 with an iron hook to  
hang it to the laths  or to a ladder1   

and the striker a piece of lath about   
ten inches long  for clearing off the   
superfluous mortar at the feet of the   
tiles4    ,illustration          ,,the  
,,plasterer ,,and ,,whitewasher4        
,illustration3 ,,whitewasher ,,and      
,,plasterer4      ,when the walls1 or   
what is called the carcase of the house1
 have been  built1 the roof made1 the   
inner walls and partitions set up1 and  
the  joists and woodwork of the floors  
laid down1 the work of the ,plasterer   
begins4 ,he covers the brickwork and    
bare timbers of walls1 ceilings1 and    
partitions with plaster1 to prepare them
 for painting or papering3 he  also     
forms the cornices for ceilings1 and the
 mouldings and decorations1  which are  
usually made in plaster or cement4      
,the materials which the ,plasterer uses
 for these purposes are3--#ast4  ,coarse
 stuff1 or a paste made with lime1 much 
in the same way as  common mortar1 and  
afterwards mixed with hair1 which is    
obtained from  the tanner's yard1 after 

it has been removed from the skins1     
which are  there made into leather4     
,this hair is raked together1 and mixed 
with the  mortar1 with the hair hook1   
and a sort of three pronged rake called 
the  drag4    ,illustration3 ,hair      
,hook4 ,fine ,sieve4    #b;d4 ,fine     
stuff is made from pure lime1 slaked    
with a small quantity of  water1 after  
which enough water is added to bring it 
to a state in which  it resembles cream2
 it is then left to settle1 the         
superfluous water is  poured off1 and   
the mixture is left in a tub1 till still
 more of the  water has evaporated1 and 
it is thick enough to use4 ,this stuff  
is  often used for ceilings1 and then a 
small quantity of white hair is mixed   
with it1 to help to make it firmer and  
more binding4 ,for these finer  kinds of
 plaster it is necessary to use the fine
 sieve1 in order to  sift the lime and  
other ingredients1 that only the portion
 which has been  reduced to powder may  
be retained4    #c;d4 ,stucco1 which is 

made by mixing fine stuff with          
cleaned-washed  sand4 ,stucco is used   
for house fronts1 or other finishing    
work1 which is  intended to be painted4 
#dth4 ,gauged stuff is used for forming 
cornices1 which run round a  ceiling1   
and for mouldings2 it is made by mixing 
fine stuff with plaster  of ,paris1     
which is a fine white powder easily made
 into a paste1 and  drying very quickly4
    ,these are only the ordinary        
materials used by the ,plasterer for his
 work1  but there are a great number of 
cements1 which are also applied in the  
course of his trade2 such as ,roman and 
,portland cements1 and mixtures  made   
and sold for special purposes of        
decoration1 and the manufacture of      
ornaments4    ,these ornaments1 such as 
centre pieces for ceilings1 flowers     
drooping  from cornices1 bosses or      
groups on walls1 c4 are first modelled  
in clay1  and are afterwards cast in    
plaster of ,paris1 placed in moulds made
 of  wax or plaster4 ,in this trade1 as 

in that of the picture frame maker1     
ornaments are frequently made of papier 
mach1 or the pulp of paper  7literally  
smashed paper71 which is a very light1  
hard1 and durable  substance for the    
purpose4 ,the moulds for cornices are   
made of sheet  copper1 and are fixed in 
a wooden frame4    ,illustration3       
,gauging ,trowel4 ,hammer4 ,salve4      
,plasterer's ,hawk4 ,check  ,line and   
,reel4    ,the various tools used by the
 ,plasterer are shown in the engravings1
  and the manner in which some of them  
are used may be seen by the large  cut  
at the commencement of this description 
of the ,plasterer's trade4  ,the        
peculiar hammer1 with one edge like an  
axe1 is used for breaking  down old     
plaster1 and clearing away the mortar   
from walls and ceilings  previous to    
plastering them afresh2 the hawk is a   
flat board with a  handle in the centre1
 used for holding the plaster or cement1
 which is  being laid on with the       
trowel4 ,the gauging trowel is the long 

narrow  trowel1 used for taking up the  
fine stuff for cornices and mouldings2  
these trowels are of various lengths1   
from three to seven inches4 ,the  salve 
is a sort of small spade1 on which the  
plasterer's boy lifts the  mortar or    
cement1 and places it on the hawk1 which
 the workman holds in  his hand2 as the 
salve has a long handle1 the plaster can
 be conveyed  to the hawk even when the 
man is at work on a ladder4 ,the square 
is  similar to that used by the         
bricklayer1 and shows that the corners  
of  the work are straight and even2 the 
compasses are used for measuring        
distances2 the check line for marking   
out the spaces of the work to  be done1 
and the joint rules for measuring the   
parts where different  portions of the  
work come together1 either at the       
corners1 or in making  the mouldings4   
,the set square is also used1 for       
showing that the  surface or the line of
 the work is straight and even4         
,illustration3 ,joint ,rule4 ,joint     

,rule4 ,compasses4 ,set ,square4        
,when the ,plasterer has to cover a     
ceiling or a partition1 he commences by 
lathing4 ,this is nailing laths over the
 whole space which is to receive  the   
plaster4 ,laths are long narrow strips  
of either oak or fir wood1 of  various  
thicknesses2 the thicker being used for 
ceilings1 where they have  to bear a    
greater strain than in upright walls4   
,the next operation is pricking up1 or  
placing the first coat of coarse  stuff 
upon the laths2 this is called pricking 
up1 because when the  plaster is laid1  
its whole surface is pricked and        
scratched with the end  of a lath1 that 
it may be rough enough for the next     
coat4 ,the laying  on of this second    
coat of plaster is called floating1 and 
is performed  in the following way4 ,the
 surface is surrounded with narrow      
strips of  plastering1 called screeds1  
held fast by lines of nails1 and these  
are  made perfectly level1 by means of  
the plumb rule 7see ,builder's tools71  

and the use of the hand float4 ,the     
spaces within these lines of plaster    
work are then filled with coarse stuff1 
till the whole forms a flat  surface1   
which is made perfectly level1 or       
8floated0 with the floating  rule4      
,other screeds are then formed and      
filled up in the same way1 until  the   
whole ceiling1 or wall1 forms one flat  
surface4 ,the operations are  the same  
for ceilings and walls1 except that the 
plumb rule is used for  adjusting the   
level of walls1 and the level for that  
of ceilings4    ,illustration3 ,square4 
,modelling ,tools4 ,brush4 ,floating    
,rule4    ,after the work has been      
brought to an even surface with the     
floating  rule1 the ,plasterer goes over
 it again with the hand float1 using a  
little soft stuff to make good any      
deficiencies4    ,illustration3 ,hand   
,float4    ,when the floating is about  
half dry1 the setting or finishing coat 
of  fine stuff is laid on1 and is first 
wetted with a brush1 and then  worked   

over with a smoothing tool until a fine 
surface is obtained4    ,stucco is laid 
on with the largest trowel1 and worked  
over with the hand  float--being at the 
same time sprinkled with water--until it
 becomes hard  and solid2 after which it
 is rubbed over with a dry brush4 ,the  
water has  the effect of hardening the  
face of the stucco2 which1 after several
  sprinklings and trowellings1 becomes  
very hard1 and as smooth as glass4      
,illustration3 ,setting ,trowels4       
,the commonest kind of ,plasterer's work
 is laying on one coat of stuff3  when  
this is done on brickwork it is called  
rendering1 and when on  laths it is     
called laying4 ,when there is a second  
coat it is called  render set1 or       
lath-lay and set3 and when it is        
three-coat work it is  called render1   
float1 and set1 or1 lath-lay1 float1 and
 set2 this is  done in ceilings and     
partitions with fine stuff mixed with   
hair2 or1 when  the walls are to be     
papered1 with fine stuff and sand4      

,rough stucco is used for finishing     
staircases and passages in imitation  of
 stone4 ,it is mixed with a great deal  
of coarse sand1 and is not  smoothed1   
the hand float being covered with a     
piece of felt1 so that  when it is      
applied to the stucco the grit of the   
sand sticks to it and is  drawn to the  
surface1 giving the plaster the         
appearance of rough stone4    ,rough    
casting is used for outside walls1 and  
is done by throwing  a layer of gravel1 
mixed with lime and water1 over the     
second coat  of plaster while it is     
quite wet4 ,in some counties of         
,england1 and  especially near          
,nottingham1 the plasterers use reeds   
instead of laths2  and even floors are  
often made by laying down a quantity of 
coarse stuff  upon a foundation of      
reeds4    ,these floors are almost as   
hard as stone1 and possess the good     
quality of  being almost always         
fireproof4    ,illustration             
,,the ,,carpenter4    ,illustration3    

,,the ,,carpenter',s ,,shop4      ,an   
account of the tools and implements used
 for working in wood would  scarcely be 
complete without some remarks upon wood 
itself1 and you can  have no better     
information on this subject than that   
which has been  written by a gentleman#a
 who is thoroughly acquainted with the  
different  kinds of timber1 and with all
 the materials used in building4        
#a ,mr4 ,e4 ,,dobson1 ,assoc4 ,inst4 ,c4
 ,e4    ,if we examine a transverse     
section of the stem of a tree1 we       
perceive  it to consist of three        
distinct parts2 the bark1 the wood1 and 
the  pith4 ,the wood appears disposed in
 rings round the pith1 the outer  rings 
being softer1 and containing more sap1  
than those immediately round  the pith1 
which form what is called the           
heart-wood4    ,these rings are also    
traversed by rays extending from the    
centre of the  stem to the bark1 called 
medullary rays4    ,the whole structure 
of a tree consists of minute vessels and

 cells1 the  former conveying the sap   
through the wood in its ascent1 and     
through  the bark to the leaves in its  
descent2 and the latter performing the  
functions of secretion and nutrition    
during the life of the tree4 ,the  solid
 parts of a tree consist almost entirely
 of the fibrous parts  composing the    
sides of the vessels and cells4    ,by  
numerous experiments it has been        
ascertained that the sap begins to      
ascend in the spring of the year1       
through the minute vessels in the wood1 
and descends through the bark to the    
leaves1 and1 after passing through      
them1 is deposited in an altered state  
between the bark and the last  year's   
wood1 forming a new layer of bark and   
sap-wood1 the old bark being  pushed    
forward4    ,as the annual layers       
increase in number1 the sap-wood ceases 
to perform  its original functions2 the 
fluid parts are evaporated or absorbed  
by the  new wood1 and1 the sides of the 
vessels being pressed together by the   

growth of the latter1 the sap-wood      
becomes heart-wood or perfect wood1  and
 until this change takes place it is    
unfit for the purposes of the  builder4 
,the vessels in each layer of wood are  
largest on the side nearest the  centre 
of the stem1 and smallest at the        
outside4 ,this arises from the  first   
being formed in the spring1 when        
vegetation is most active4 ,the  oblong 
cells which surround the vessels are    
filled with fluids in the  early growth2
 but1 as the tree increases in size1    
these become evaporated  and absorbed2  
and the cells become partly filled with 
depositions of  woody matter and        
indurated secretions1 depending on the  
nature of the  soil1 and affecting the  
quality of the timber4 ,thus ,honduras  
mahogany  is full of black specks1 while
 the ,spanish is full of minute white   
particles1 giving the wood the          
appearance of having been rubbed over   
with  chalk4    ,the best time for      
felling trees is either in mid-winter1  

when the sap has  ceased to flow1 or in 
midsummer1 when the sap is temporarily  
expended in  the production of leaves4  
,an excellent plan is1 to bark the      
timber in the  spring and fell it in    
winter1 by which means the sap-wood is  
dried up and  hardened2 but as the bark 
of most trees is valueless1 the oak tree
 7whose  bark is used in tanning7 is    
almost the only one that will pay for   
being  thus treated4    ,the seasoning  
of timber consists in the extraction or 
evaporation of the  fluid parts1 which  
are liable to decomposition on the      
cessation of the  growth of the tree4   
,this is usually effected by steeping   
the green timber  in water1 to dilute   
and wash out the sap as much as         
possible1 and then  drying it thoroughly
 by exposure to the air in an airy      
situation4 ,the  time required to season
 timber thoroughly in this manner will  
of course  much depend on the sizes of  
the pieces to be seasoned2 but for      
general  purposes of carpentry1 two     

years is the least that can be allowed1 
and1  in seasoning timber for the use of
 the ,joiner1 a much longer time is     
usually required4    ,properly seasoned 
timber1 placed in a dry situation with a
 free  circulation of air round it1 is  
very durable1 and has been known to last
  for several hundred years without     
apparent deterioration4 ,this is not1   
however1 the case when exposed to       
moisture1 which is always more or less  
prejudicial to its durability4    ,when 
timber is constantly under water1 the   
action of the water dissolves  a portion
 of its substance1 which is made        
apparent by its becoming  covered with a
 coat of slime4 ,if it be exposed to    
alternations of dryness  and moisture1  
as in the case of piles in tidal waters1
 the dissolved  parts being continually 
removed by evaporation and the action of
 the  water1 new surfaces are exposed1  
and the wood rapidly decays4    ,where  
timber is exposed to heat and moisture1 
the albumen or gelatinous  matter in the

 sap-wood speedily putrefies and        
decomposes1 causing what  is called rot4
 ,the rot in timber is commonly divided 
into two kinds1  the wet and the dry1   
but the chief difference between them   
is1 that  where the timber is exposed to
 the air1 the gaseous products are      
freely  evaporated2 whilst1 in a        
confined situation1 they combine in a   
new  form1 viz4 the dry-rot fungus1     
which1 deriving its nourishment from the
  decaying timber1 often grows to a     
length of many feet1 spreading in every 
direction1 and insinuating its delicate 
fibres even through the joints of  brick
 walls4    ,in addition to the sources  
of decay above mentioned1 timber placed 
in  sea water is very liable to be      
completely destroyed by the perforations
  of the worm1 unless protected by      
copper sheathing1 the expense of which  
causes it to be seldom used for this    
purpose4    ,in modern houses the       
labours of the ,builder1 the ,mason1 and
 the  ,plasterer1 would be of little use

 unless they were accompanied by that of
  the ,carpenter1 since a very large    
proportion of every building consists   
of the woodwork of which its interior   
structure is greatly composed4    ,as it
 is one of the most useful1 so the      
,carpenter's may be considered  the most
 ancient of trades1 for nearly all other
 handicrafts require the  preparation or
 manufacture of the materials1 but the  
,carpenter originally  found his        
materials in the forest1 and at once set
 to work to construct  various articles 
from the trunks and stems of the trees  
best suited  for the purpose4 ,we can   
only imagine one trade older than that  
of the  ,carpenter1 and that is the     
,tool ,maker1 and as the earliest tools1
 or at  all events some portion of them1
 were probably made of hard wood1 the   
,tool ,maker may in some sense be said  
to have been a ,carpenter also4         
,illustration3 ,axe4 ,adze4             
,illustration3 ,saw4 ,compasses4 ,plumb 
,rule4 ,hammer4 ,square4 ,mallet4       

,strictly speaking1 the business of the 
,carpenter is only with the larger      
portions of buildings and the rough     
timber frameworks which support them1   
and his principal tools are the axe and 
the adze1 for chopping and  roughly     
smoothing timbers2 the saw1 for sawing  
beams and planks2 the  chisel1 for      
making mortis holes for joining beams   
together1 and for  cutting and paring   
wood2 the chalk line1 a line rubbed with
 chalk1 and  used to make a straight    
line upon a board or beam1 to mark the  
direction  in which it is to be sawn2   
the plumb rule1 already described       
amongst  the ,builder's tools2 the      
level2 the square2 the compasses2 all of
  which have been described in previous 
trades2 the hammer2 the mallet1  and    
various sorts of nails4 ,the other tools
 represented in the engravings  belong  
more properly to the ,joiner1 but as the
 trades of the ,carpenter  and the      
,joiner are almost always united1 we    
will speak of all the tools  as         

belonging to one business4 ,carpenter's 
work1 then1 consists of the  framing    
roofs1 partitions1 and floors1 in making
 the various joints used  in beams1     
ties1 rafters1 and joists for supporting
 floors1 and the proper  way of         
supporting buildings by posts and       
girders4 ,the ,carpenter requires  to be
 strong and active1 that he may properly
 handle the heavy timbers  on which he  
has to work2 he should have a knowledge 
of the science of  mechanics1 that he   
may be able to provide for the strains  
and thrusts to  which the different     
parts of his work are exposed1 and      
supply the proper  means of resisting   
them2 and he should also be able to     
understand how  to make what are called 
8working drawings10 that he may 8set    
out10 or  properly draw a plan of the   
work he has to do1 from the designs of  
the  ,architect4    ,the ,carpenter     
being concerned with the portions of a  
building which are  made of timber1 you 
will be better able to understand his   

trade by a  short description of what   
these are2 and we will then speak a     
little  of the ,joiner1 whose trade is  
generally confounded with that of the   
,carpenter4    ,first3 ,partitions1 or  
inner divisions of a building1 may be   
either of  brick1 stone1 or wood2 and1  
in the latter case1 they are generally  
8framed10 or supported in a more solid  
framework1 which should form a  portion 
of the main building1 that is1 of the   
outer wall2 and should  be quite        
independent of the floors1 which should 
not support1 but be  supported by them4 
,second3 ,flooring is formed by joists  
or strong beams of timber reaching  from
 wall to wall1 where they rest upon     
other beams1 called wall plates1  which 
are built into the walls themselves4    
,the floor boards are nailed  over the  
upper edges of the joists1 and the lower
 edges receive the  laths and plaster1  
which form the ceilings of the rooms    
beneath4 ,large  buildings are sometimes
 fitted with double framed floors1 with 

two sets  of joists1 and building joists
 resting on girders2 and in superior    
houses1 the wall plates are often       
supported by 8corbels10 or1 portions  of
 the timber projecting from the inside  
of the wall1 which prevents the         
necessity of opening the wall to admit  
the ends of the joists4    ,third3      
,roofing consists of the roof covering1 
which is laid upon rafters  or slender  
beams1 which are supported by stronger  
horizontal beams called  purlins2 and   
these1 again1 rest on upright trusses1  
or strong frames  of timber1 placed on  
the walls at regular distances from each
 other4  ,upon the strength and firmness
 of these trusses1 and the skill of the 
carpenter's work1 depends the entire    
safety of the roof4    ,large roofs are 
supported by cross beams1 called        
collars1 or tie  beams2 and they are    
further strengthened by an upright      
pillar in the  centre1 called a ,king   
post1 from which slanting beams1 called 
8struts10  support the rafters4    ,we  

have now only spoken of common roofs1   
but there are many roofs of open        
timber-work in churches and other public
 buildings1 which are wonderful         
specimens of the skill of the ,carpenter
 and the ,joiner4 ,one of these1        
perhaps the grandest as well as the most
 ancient1 is that of ,westminster       
,hall2 but there is one also in the     
,great ,hall1 at ,hampton ,court        
,palace2  and others may be seen in     
,churches and ,halls in various parts of
 ,england4    ,the ,joiner1 as his name 
implies1 frames and joins together the  
wooden  finishings and decorations of   
buildings1 such as floors1 staircases1  
skirtings1 door and window frames1      
sashes1 or1 the sliding parts of        
windows that contain the glass1         
shutters1 doors1 chimney-pieces1 c4     
,this  work requires much greater nicety
 and finish than that of the ,carpenter1
  and is brought to a smooth surface    
with the plane wherever it is likely  to
 be seen1 while the carpenter's work is 

left rough as it comes from the  saw4   
,the principal cutting tools used by the
 ,joiner are1 saws1 planes1 and         
chisels4    ,the saws are of various    
sizes1 and are called rippers1 half     
rippers1  hand saws1 and panel saws1    
according to their shape1 and the number
 of  teeth to each inch4                
,illustration3 ,chisel4 ,gouge4 ,screw  
,driver4 ,screw4 ,tenon ,saw4 ,narrow   
,saw4    ,the tenon saw is used for     
cutting tenons1 or flat slices from the 
ends  of beams1 that other beams cut in 
the same way may rest upon them and yet 
leave a flat surface4 ,the thick back of
 the tenon saw keeps the blade  from    
8buckling10 or twisting2 as it would be 
very likely to do while  sawing in a    
horizontal direction4    ,the dove-tail 
saw is similar to the tenon saw1 but    
smaller1 and with  a brass back instead 
of an iron one4 ,it is used for         
dove-tailing1 or  cutting notches in a  
board or beam1 into which projections in
 another  board or beam are fitted1 in  

order that the two may be held together1
 as  we see the sides of a box are      
fitted to the back and front4 ,then     
there is  the compass saw1 for circular 
work1 and the keyhole1 or narrow saw1   
for cutting out holes4    ,the planes   
are used for bringing the edges and     
sides of beams1 boards1 or  other wooden
 fitting1 to a perfectly smooth surface3
 the first of these1  used upon the     
rough wood1 is called the jack plane2   
another is called  the trying or trueing
 plane2 and a third1 the smoothing      
plane4    ,illustration3 ,trying ,plane4
 ,smoothing ,plane4 #b-;foot ,rule4     
,glue ,pot4    ,the plane1 as you will  
see1 is a solid piece of hard smooth    
wood1 with a  hole in the centre        
containing the cutting tool1 or1 as it  
is called1 the  plane iron1 which is    
firmly fixed with a wedge1 so that its  
sharp cutting  edge only slightly       
projects at the bottom4    ,the wood    
which is to be smoothed is fixed on the 
joiner's bench by means  of a screwed   

board1 called a shooting board1 and1 by 
means of the handle  at the top1 the    
plane is made to slide swiftly along its
 surface1 so that  the edge of the tool 
cuts off a thin shaving4    ,there are  
various sorts of planes besides these1  
used for cutting various  parts of the  
work1 but they are most of them of      
similar construction4    ,chisels are   
either for paring the wood1 and are used
 with the hand2 or  are intended to cut 
into the thickness of the wood1 and are 
then struck  with a large wooden hammer1
 called the mallet4 ,the gouge is a     
curved  chisel1 used for cutting        
mouldings or making round edges4        
,illustration3 ,clout ,nail4 ,cut ,clasp
 ,nail4 ,brad4 ,spike ,nail4 ,bradawl4  
,chisel4 ,gimlet4    ,the boring tools  
are the bradawl1 the gimlet1 and the    
stock and bit4    ,the bradawl is a     
small sharp wire fixed in a handle1 and 
used for  making holes to receive large 
nails1 which1 if driven in at once by   
the hammer1 would split the wood4 ,nails

 are of various kinds1 the  difference  
in which may be seen in the engraving4  
,the best kinds of  nails are made from 
thin bar iron1 pointed1 cut off to the  
proper length1  and the head formed by  
stamping4    ,the gimlet is a hollow    
blade with a screw at the end1 and fixed
 to a  cross handle4 ,it is used for    
boring a larger and rougher hole than   
the  bradawl1 for receiving screws1     
which are screwed into their place by   
the screw driver1 a sort of chisel1 the 
edge or point of which enters  the notch
 in the head of the screw1 so that the  
workman may turn it round4    ,the bit  
is a tool not unlike a large bradawl1   
which fits into a stock  or handle4 ,the
 bits are of various sizes1 and are used
 for boring large  holes4               
,illustration3 ,centre ,bit4    ,the    
brace and bit1 or centre bit1 is a tool 
with a centre and two  sharp points1 one
 on each side2 it is placed in a        
bow-shaped stock with a  round loose    
end4 ,this loose end the workman holds  

firmly1 while he places  the point of   
the tool against the wood required to be
 bored2 he then  turns the bow briskly  
round1 and the two points revolving     
rapidly1 cut  out a circular piece4     
,the pincers are used for removing nails
 from wood1 and it is easy to  see how  
they are applied4 ,there are some other 
tools which belong to the  trade of the 
,joiner1 but they are used less         
frequently1 and a description  of them  
will be given when we have to say       
something of the trade of the  ,cabinet 
,maker1 whose work resembles the finer  
part of that which the  ,joiner does at 
his own workshop4    ,the bench 7see    
large cut7 is the great table of thick  
planks supported  on a timber frame1 at 
which the ,joiner works2 it is furnished
 with a  8side-board0 perforated with   
holes to receive a pin1 against which   
one  end of the wood on which he is     
operating rests1 the other being firmly 
fixed in the bench screw4               
,illustration3 ,pincers4                

,illustration          ,,the ,,house    
,,painter ,,and ,,glazier4              
,illustration3 ,,house-,,painting ,,and 
,,glazing4      ,although we have spoken
 of the trade of the ,plumber           
separately1 and have  placed the        
,painter and ,glazier together1 it      
generally happens that the  three trades
 are carried on by the same persons1 and
 you will often have  noticed 8,plumber1
 ,painter1 and ,glazier0 over the fronts
 of shops1 where  leaden pipes and taps1
 casements1 and squares of coloured     
glass1 and  specimens of 8graining10 or 
imitations of various woods in painting1
 are  placed for show in the windows1 to
 represent the different businesses     
carried on4    ,it is the duty of the   
,house ,painter to cover with his       
colours such  portions of the ,joiner's1
 ,smith's1 or ,plasterer's work as      
require to be  protected from the action
 of the air1 which would cause them to  
rust or  decay4 ,he has also to choose  
the colours which will be best suited   

for  decorating walls and cornices1 and 
generally to apply the proper shades    
for all the ornaments of the house1 and 
this part of the business1 which  is    
called 8decorative painting10 requires a
 great degree of skill and  taste in the
 workman1 who may properly be called an 
artist4    ,the materials used by the   
,painter are principally white lead1    
linseed  oil1 spirits of turpentine1    
8dryers10 and putty4 ,white lead1 which 
forms  the basis of almost all the      
colours used in house painting1 is      
prepared  by exposing strips of lead to 
the action of acid2 but the ,painter    
buys it  ready made1 in the form of     
small cakes1 or lumps4 ,this white lead 
is used  in all the under coats of      
paint1 and generally makes the body of  
most of  the colours which are          
afterwards applied4 ,unfortunately1     
while it is in  the half-fluid state1   
when it is used by ,painters1 it is very
 poisonous  and unwholesome1 and many   
workmen suffer severely in their health 

from  its use2 but it will be found that
 this is often caused by their own      
carelessness in working1 and by the want
 of personal cleanliness4 ,the  ,painter
 should not only thoroughly wash his    
hands before every meal1 but  as soon as
 his work is done should entirely change
 his clothes1 and wash  hands and face  
thoroughly1 or even take a bath4 ,beside
 this1 he should  wear1 over his working
 clothes1 a coarse linen frock or       
blouse1 which  will protect him from the
 spots of paint1 and may be frequently  
washed4    ,linseed oil and spirits of  
turpentine are used for mixing and      
thinning  the colours2 linseed oil is   
obtained from the seeds of the flax     
plant1  which are heated1 beaten1 and   
pressed by machinery1 until the greater 
part of the oil is extracted2 the seeds 
crushed into cakes are then used  as    
food for cattle4 ,nut oil1 or the oil   
pressed from various kinds of  nuts1    
such as walnuts1 hazel and beech nuts1  
is also frequently used for  mixing     

colours where they are likely to be     
exposed to the weather1 but  linseed oil
 is cheaper and is most generally       
adapted to the purpose4    ,oil of      
turpentine1 which the ,painter calls    
8turps10 is the oil obtained  by        
distilling crude turpentine2 and is used
 by the ,house ,painter to make  his    
colours work more smoothly and freely in
 the brush1 to cause them to  dry more  
quickly1 and to take away that shiny    
unpleasant glare that would  otherwise  
be seen on the surface of paint mixed   
with linseed oil alone4    ,it is       
necessary1 too1 to take some means to   
make the linseed oil dry more  rapidly  
than it would in its raw state2 or the  
paint would remain moist  and greasy    
upon the walls for a very long time4    
,for this purpose the  oil is boiled1   
and is then known as 8boiled oil10 this 
is bought ready  prepared1 the ,painter 
having by him preparations of lead or   
vitriol1  called 8dryers10 which he     
mixes with his colours1 after they are  

made1 in  order to increase the rapidity
 with which they set upon the places    
where  they are applied4    ,the        
,painter has only a few tools1 and these
 are very simple2 they consist          
principally of the grinding stone1 or   
slab and muller1 for grinding  his      
colours2 earthen pots for holding the   
paints2 cans for oil and  turps2 a few  
tin pots1 or open cans and kettles1 for 
colour to be applied  to outside places 
or walls where he has to work on        
ladders2 a palette  knife1 for spreading
 the white lead on the stone1 or        
removing the paint  to the palette1 for 
fine work1 or to the paint pot2 and     
brushes of  different sizes4            
,illustration3 ,slab and ,muller4 ,paint
 ,pot4 ,palette ,knife4 ,oil ,can4      
,paint  ,pot4 ,paint ,kettle4    ,the   
various colours1 which are mostly made  
from earths and minerals1 are  purchased
 by the ,painter in powder or small dry 
lumps1 and have to be  brought to a fine
 state1 and made quite free from grit1  

before they can  be used4    ,the slab1 
or grindstone1 is generally of marble or
 porphyry1 and must  have a perfectly   
smooth surface2 and the muller is a     
large oval or  egg-shaped pebble1 with  
one end broken off1 and the surface made
 as  smooth as that of the slab4 ,a     
small quantity of the colour which      
requires  grinding is placed on the     
stone1 and moistened with a little oil2 
and  the muller is then worked over it1 
by a circular movement1 until it is     
gradually driven to the edge of the     
stone4 ,the colour is then removed by   
the spatula1 or palette knife1 and      
placed in the paint pot4                
,illustration3 ,paint ,brushes4    ,in  
this state1 however1 the colour is too  
thick to use1 and of course  requires to
 be thinned by adding the oil until it  
is sufficiently fluid4    ,in painting  
woodwork1 the first business is called  
8knotting10 that  is1 removing the      
turpentine from the knots1 which would  
otherwise ooze  and spoil the paint4    

,they are first covered with fresh      
slaked lime1  which dries up and burns  
out the turpentine2 this is afterwards  
scraped  off1 and the knots painted with
 a mixture of red and white lead mixed  
with glue size1 and afterwards with     
white lead and linseed oil4 ,when  dry1 
they must be rubbed smooth with a piece 
of pumice stone4 ,the next  operation is
 to put on the 8priming10 which is the  
first coat of paint1  composed of red   
and white lead and linseed oil4 ,the    
nail-holes1 and other  imperfections1   
are then stopped up with putty 7a       
mixture of linseed oil  and whiting1    
made into a paste71 applied with the    
stopping knife2 and  then the other     
coats of paint are laid on2 three coats 
being generally  considered sufficient2 
and the last being of the required      
colour4    ,illustration3 ,stopping     
,knife4    ,the brushes used by the     
,painter1 are either round or flat1 the 
latter  being used in varnishing or     
graining2 they are made of hog's        

bristles4  ,the smaller kinds of brushes
 are called tools or fitches1 and are   
used for small surfaces1 such as        
ornaments and mouldings round panels1   
when the colour is generally taken from 
a palette--a round slab of wood1  with a
 hole through which the thumb of the    
left hand passes in order to  hold it4  
,the brushes must never be allowed to   
get dry1 but when not in  use must be   
kept in water3 it is always best to keep
 a brush for each  colour4 ,another part
 of the ,painter's business which       
requires more skill1  is graining and   
marbling2 or the imitation in colours of
 the marks and  grains of various kinds 
of wood1 and the veins and spots in     
marbles4 ,this  is of course a part of  
the trade which requires a knowledge of 
the thing  to be imitated1 and great    
care and taste in doing it well4        
,graining is generally done with        
8distemper colour10 that is a kind of   
paint in which whiting and size are used
 instead of white lead and oil1  for the

 basis of the colour2 but the colours   
depend on the sort of grain  to be      
imitated1 and they are applied in       
various ways and with different  sorts  
of brushes1 some of the colour being    
occasionally removed with a  piece of   
wash leather1 in order to give the      
appearance of the light marks  seen in  
the 8heart0 of the wood4 ,the appearance
 of the 8grain0 of the  wood is effected
 by the graining comb1 a comb with short
 thick straight  teeth1 which is drawn  
along the paint in a wavy line4         
,illustration3 ,graining ,comb4         
,painter's ,brush4    ,marbles are      
imitated in oil if it is outside work   
and exposed to the  weather1 but for    
inside work distemper colour is         
frequently used4    ,occasionally walls 
are coloured in distemper1 and it then  
frequently  happens that a pattern or   
some ornamental design is painted in the
  centres of the panels1 or round the   
mouldings4 ,this is a part of the       
,painter's trade which requires much    

skill1 and a knowledge of artistic      
drawing and design4    ,varnishing is an
 operation requiring great care to      
perform it properly1  since it is       
necessary not only to choose the right  
kind of varnish1 but  also to apply it  
to the surface of the paint with a light
 but firm hand4  ,varnishes are made of 
gums or resins melted1 spirits of wine1 
oil of  turpentine1 or strong white     
drying oil4 ,the hard varnishes dry     
rapidly1  and are made of the harder    
kinds of gums1 such as copal1 mastic1   
c41 and  the soft of ,canada balsam1    
elemi1 turpentine1 c4 ,the most useful  
for the  ,house ,painter are those of   
copal1 linseed oil1 and turpentine4     
,the brushes used in varnishing are     
generally flat1 so as to enable the     
workman to lay an even surface on the   
work4 ,varnishes are usually kept  in   
wide-mouthed bottles2 from which they   
are poured into little tin pans  with a 
false bottom above the real bottom1 the 
space between the two  being filled with

 sand4 ,the use of this is that when the
 pan is placed  over the fire1 the sand 
becomes heated1 and the varnish is kept 
a long  time from becoming chilled4     
,illustration3 ,,the ,,glazier4         
,illustration3 ,glazing ,knife4 ,hacking
 ,knife4 ,chisel ,knife4 ,clicker's     
,knife4    ,the trade of the ,glazier1  
though now very important1 was unknown  
in  this country till the eleventh      
century1 and even long afterwards the   
use of glass for windows was extremely  
rare2 pieces of horn1 and oiled  paper1 
supplying its place in almost every     
building except palaces and  churches4  
,as we have here to do with the         
,glazier1 and not with the  manufacturer
 of glass1 we need say little about the 
method of making the  materials used2 so
 that it will suffice to know that the  
8crown glass10  mostly sold for windows 
of houses1 is composed principally of   
white sand1  pearlash1 and saltpetre4   
,this glass the ,glazier purchases in   
sheets of a  circular form1 each of     

which is called a table1 since the mode 
in which  it is made renders such a     
shape necessary2 and the first thing he 
has to  learn1 is how to cut out square 
pieces of the proper size without       
wasting  much of the round edge4 ,the   
glass when cut is fixed either into lead
 work  or sashes2 the former of these is
 the oldest description of glazing2 and 
in the common kind the leaden frames are
 soldered together1 so as to  form      
squares or diamonds2 the sides of the   
grooves in which the glass  is placed   
being soft enough to bend back to       
receive the panes1 and then  bend back  
again to hold them firmly4 ,in wooden   
sashes1 such as are now  commonly used1 
the space or frame for each pane of     
glass is 8rebated10  that is1 it has    
outside a small groove all round to     
receive the pane1 and  a ledge against  
which it rests4 ,in this 8rebate0 each  
square of glass is  placed1 and then    
firmly bedded and fastened smoothly with
 a rim of putty  filling up the groove4 

,illustration3 ,rule4 ,square4 #b-;foot 
,rule4 ,tilter4    ,the ,glazier uses a 
hacking knife for cutting out old putty 
from broken  squares2 and the stopping  
knife1 or glazing knife1 for laying and 
smoothing the putty4    ,for setting    
glass into lead work1 the setting knife1
 or chisel knife1  and the broad-bladed 
knife is used4    ,as much of the       
,glazier's work is done outside the     
house1 he is sometimes  compelled to use
 a board which is fastened with screws1 
and projects from  the window so that he
 may sit astride on the outside4 ,no one
 should ever  attempt this where the    
sash can be easily taken out and the    
work done  inside4    ,illustration3    
,diamond4 ,pincers4    ,the rest of the 
,glazier's tools are a square1 and a    
straight edge  rule for cutting against1
 a two-foot rule1 and compasses for     
measuring2 pincers for breaking off the 
edges of glass that have been  partially
 cut through2 and the diamond1 which is 
used for cutting1 and  is his principal 

tool4 ,this is made of a small          
unpolished diamond fixed  in lead1 and  
fastened to a handle of hard wood4      
,,the ,,plumber4    ,illustration3      
,casting ,lead4      ,in trades         
connected with building1 the work of the
 ,plumber is of so much  importance that
 it must come next to that of the       
,bricklayer1 and the  ,carpenter4 ,at   
one time the ,plumber 7who takes his    
name from the ,latin  word for lead#b7  
was principally employed in making      
leaden roofs of  churches or large      
public buildings and in forming         
casements for windows2  window frames   
being then made of strips of lead       
soldered or riveted  together and       
holding the little diamond-shaped panes 
of glass between  their edges4 ,in those
 days all the water used in the house   
was carried  from the well or from the  
conduit in the main street1 or was      
brought in  casks set upon wheels from  
the nearest running stream3 while       
rain-water  for washing was collected in

 tubs or vats as it ran off the roofs4  
,not  much more than a century ago the  
poets wrote of the misery of the streets
  of ,london on a wet night1 when there 
were no waste pipes to carry off the    
rain from the overcharged gutters on the
 tiles1 and nobody could venture  out of
 doors without being half drowned by the
 sudden discharge of a  shower bath from
 some overhanging gable4 ,then1 as there
 was no proper  system of pipes for     
carrying off the wet1 there was very    
little drainage  except by means of open
 gutters1 and the bye-ways1 as well as  
some of the  principal thoroughfares and
 large houses1 were extremely unhealthy4
        #b ,plumbum4    ,we are not     
quite perfect even yet in these         
respects1 and there are  still          
neighbourhoods in ,london where a few   
,plumbers might be able to  make vast   
improvements2 but we are a great deal   
better off than our  great grandfathers 
were4 ,the ,plumbers do not make quite  
so many leaden  casements as they made  

in the olden time1 but they are well    
employed in  constructing roofs2        
carrying water into houses by means of  
leaden pipes2  making cisterns to       
contain a good supply of it1 and        
providing other  pipes and gutters for  
conveying all the dirty water and       
drainage into  the sewers that are under
 the roadway1 where it runs quite away  
from the  streets1 and 7in ,london at   
least7 goes into the sea from near the  
mouth  of the ,thames at ,erith4        
,illustration3 ,ladle4 ,grate4          
,soldering ,iron4    ,now as the        
,plumber has to do a great deal of his  
work in roofs and other  places where he
 is liable to fall1 he should be        
clear-headed1 and able to  go up a      
ladder or look over a ledge at a height 
from the ground without  being afraid1  
and this is all the more necessary      
because he has to handle  tools1 and    
sometimes to pour melted solder out of a
 hot iron ladle  while he is at his work
 on these places4 ,for the purpose of   

melting  the solder he has to carry his 
fire grate and melting pot with him  to 
some place near where he is at work1    
since unless the solder can be  used    
rapidly it cools1 and will not make a   
sound joint4 ,the rest of the           
,plumber's tools are the pouring stick  
for applying the melted solder  in the  
places where it is required1 the        
soldering iron which is made  red-hot1  
and passed over the soldered joints to  
smooth them and make them  all firm and 
sound2 the chisel1 shave hooks1 drawing 
knife1 and  chipping knife1 for cutting 
the lead and scraping it on the surface1
  or at the edges that are to be        
fastened together2 the hammers and      
mallets for beating the lead into shape 
and flattening the ridges1 the  bossing 
mallet and dresser for bringing the     
sheet of lead to a proper  shape1 and   
forming it over the ridge of a roof1 the
 chased wedge1 the  screw-driver1 the   
dunring and the turnpin for various uses
 in making  roofs1 laying down leaden   

pipes and fixing taps1 and the sucker   
hook  used in repairing or fixing pumps 
when the part of the pump called the    
sucker requires to be rectified4        
,illustration3 ,pouring ,stick4         
,chipping ,knife4 ,dunring4 ,drawing    
,knife4  ,chased ,wedge4 ,shave ,hook4  
,turnpin4 ,shave ,hook4    ,there are   
other tools beside these1 such as planes
 for making the surface  of the lead    
smooth and even1 gouges and centre-bits 
for circular openings  in the lead to   
receive nails or clamps1 measuring rules
 and compasses1  and pads of carpet or  
cloth to hold under a pipe when it is   
being  soldered1 that the solder may be 
pressed round the joint before it cools1
  and without its dropping on the       
ground4    ,illustration3 ,mallet4      
,hammer4    ,plumbers now buy their     
sheet lead as well as their leaden pipe 
at the  warehouses1 but those in a large
 way of business formerly cast the lead 
themselves4 ,for this purpose they used 
a casting table1 which is a great       

wooden bench about six yards long and   
two yards wide1 made of smooth  planks1 
and with a raised wooden frame round the
 edge4 ,on this table the  ,plumber     
spreads a layer of finely-sifted sand1  
which was made level by  a strike--a    
flat piece of wood with two             
handles--drawn from end to end of  the  
table2 after this the surface was made  
still more smooth by a planer1  which   
was a flat plate of copper fastened to a
 handle4    ,illustration3 ,sucker      
,hook4 ,screwdriver4 ,dresser4 ,bossing 
,mallet4 ,chisel4    ,a trough called   
the pan ran along the whole length of   
the table1 and into  this the melted    
lead was poured from the melting pot4   
,there were two ways  of making the     
sheet lead3 one of them was to tilt the 
trough up1 and  pour out the lead on to 
the table1 two men immediately passing a
 wooden  strike over it so as to spread 
it evenly over the whole surface4 ,in   
this  case the thickness of the sheet of
 lead depended on the distance between  

the edge of the 8strike0 and the surface
 of the sand4 ,another way was  to have 
a narrow opening all along the bottom of
 the trough1 the trough  itself moving  
from end to end of the table as the lead
 flowed out4 ,when  this method was used
 the thickness of the sheet depended on 
the size of  the opening1 and the       
rapidity with which the trough was moved
 along the  table4 ,neither of these    
methods are now used1 the lead being    
rolled into  sheets by machinery4       
,water-pipes are made by lead being cast
 in moulds with a steel rod  passing    
through their middles1 according to the 
size required4 ,the lead  is poured into
 the space between the rod and the      
mould4 ,after it is  cool the rod is    
drawn out by machinery1 and the mould   
which is made in  halves is opened and  
the pipe taken out4 ,the pipe is then   
much thicker  and shorter than is       
required for use1 but it is afterwards  
drawn between  powerful iron rollers    
with grooves cut in their surfaces1 an  

iron rod  being again placed inside it4 
,as these grooves gradually decrease in 
size1 and the pipe is drawn through     
several1 it is very considerably        
lengthened1 and at the same time        
diminished1 in thickness1 by the time   
the operation is finished4 ,another     
method of making lead pipes is by the   
use of the forcing pump1 which pumps the
 melted metal out of the boiler  into a 
mould containing a 8mandril10 or pipe of
 the required size4 ,pipes  made in this
 way do not require to be rolled4       
,illustration3 ,forcing ,pump4    ,the  
work which the ,plumber is called upon  
to do on the roofs of houses  requires  
experience before it can be properly    
performed4 ,the foundation  of the roof 
which is to be covered with lead is made
 either of boards or  plaster1 so that  
the surface may be even1 and if it be of
 boards they  must be thick and well    
seasoned to prevent their warping4 ,the 
foundation  slopes a little in order to 
carry off the rain towards one end4     

,when the  roof is so large that it     
needs two widths of lead1 there are     
three ways  of joining the edges of the 
lead together3 one is by fastening to   
the  roof long slips of wood 7flat at   
bottom and round at top7 at the places  
where the lead will be joined4 ,over    
these strips the edge of the first      
sheet of lead is folded and hammered    
down quite close1 then the edge of  the 
second sheet is folded and hammered over
 that1 so that water cannot  get between
 them4 ,this is called 8rolling40       
,another method is to bring the two     
edges up just as though they were  to be
 sewn together1 then to fold them       
tightly one over the other1 and  hammer 
them down3 this is called 8overlapping10
 but it is not so good as  rolling for  
keeping out the rain4    ,the third way 
is to solder the edges together3 the    
solder1 which is in  constant use by the
 ,plumber1 being a metal made by mixing 
lead and tin  together4 ,these two      
metals when mixed adhere very strongly  

to the lead  that they are meant to     
join1 and the surface to which they are 
applied  is made hot enough to unite    
with the solder by means of the         
soldering  iron1 while very often a     
little resin1 borax1 or tallow is placed
 on the  surface of the lead to cause it
 to combine more rapidly with the molten
  metal4    ,besides the fixing of roofs
 the ,plumber makes leaden cisterns1    
fixes  rain-water gutters1 and waste    
pipes1 and arranges taps and drains2 and
  in some of these operations he will   
use zinc instead of lead4 ,not the      
least important part of his business1   
however1 is the construction and        
arrangement of pumps1 and for this      
purpose it is necessary that he  should 
study mechanics1 and those branches of  
science which refer to the  properties  
of water1 and to the laws which govern  
the air and other  fluids4 ,he is always
 the best workman who goes to his       
business with a  knowledge of the       
natural laws and scientific facts       

connected with it1 and  a very little   
study will save a world of blundering2  
during which the  ignorant man will     
remain a labourer1 because it takes him 
half a lifetime  to learn his business4 
,illustration          ,,the            
,,gasfitter4    ,illustration3          
,,gasfitters ,,at ,,work4      ,as there
 are now few large houses which are not 
lighted by gas1 the  trade of the       
,gasfitter is one of considerable       
importance2 and though the  materials   
used are generally bought ready made    
from the ,brassfounders1  the           
glass-works1 the ,ironfounders1 or the  
lead warehouse1 considerable  skill is  
required1 as well as some taste in      
properly adapting the  chandeliers and  
burners1 and skilfully adjusting the    
tubes and pipes  so that they may easily
 be repaired1 or any escape of gas      
quickly  detected4 ,the various tools   
used by the ,gasfitter are simple       
enough1 but  careful practice is        
necessary for their proper use2 and1 as 

any flaw or  imperfection in the work   
may lead to very dangerous consequences1
 all the  operations should be          
thoroughly tested1 and every joint and  
fitting in  the various parts made sound
 and strong4    ,before the gas is taken
 into a house1 or as it is called in the
 trade  8laid on0 in the house1 it is of
 course necessary to obtain the         
permission of the ,company to whom the  
works where the gas is made belong1  and
 to agree to pay for the quantity that  
is burnt1 which is charged by  the      
thousand cubic feet1 and varies in price
 according to the cost of the  coal from
 which it is made1 and the difficulty of
 conveying this coal to  the works4     
,illustration3 ,spade4 ,crowbar4        
,rammer4    ,the first operation is to  
take up the roadway in front of the     
house1 in  order to connect the pipe    
which is to convey the gas to the meter 
with  that which conducts it from the   
works to the different streets of the   
neighbourhood4 ,for this purpose the    

spade and crowbar are necessary1  while 
sometimes the pickaxe also has to be    
used2 and the rammer serves  to beat the
 earth down more closely after the pipe 
is laid4    ,illustration3 ,brick ,bit4 
,brick ,auger4    ,the pipe which is    
joined to the larger pipe1 or main1 is  
generally of  iron1 and is made with a  
screw and socket1 that it may not be    
easily  displaced by the pressure of the
 roadway or footpath1 and this1 passing 
into the basement of the house1 supplies
 the gas to the meter4 ,the  meter is a 
mechanical contrivance1 which is so     
constructed that the  quantity of gas   
passing through it is registered by a   
plate something  like a clock face1 with
 a hand to point to the figures which   
represent  the number of cubic feet     
consumed4 ,there are different kinds of 
meters1  and the construction of them   
varies very considerably1 but they all  
answer this purpose3 so that when the   
inspector visits the house once a       
quarter he may directly see what        

quantity is to be charged for4 ,the pipe
  leading from the meter is fitted with 
a strong tap1 by turning which1 all  the
 gas may be shut off from the tubes that
 convey it to the different  burners in 
the house1 and from this pipe the       
smaller pipes 7made of a  sort of solder
 or of lead7 are taken to the various   
rooms4 ,in order to  carry the tubes    
through a wall1 it is necessary to use  
the brick bit  and the brick auger for  
boring a hole to receive it1 while to   
support  it against a wall or along the 
top of a ceiling the ,gasfitter uses    
wall hooks1 the hammer and the tongs for
 holding and bending the  pipe to its   
proper direction4 ,in kitchens and      
basement rooms the pipe is  generally   
carried from the meter up the wall and  
along the ceiling to the  place where   
the burner is to be fixed3 but in upper 
rooms the pipe is  taken up the house   
wall1 and carried under the flooring of 
the room above  to the centre of the    
middle joist1 where a hole is bored     

quite through  the ceiling of the room  
below4 ,for this purpose the twisted    
auger is  generally used2 and for the   
preliminary work of taking up the floor 
and  cutting a groove in the joist to   
receive the pipe1 that it may not be    
injured by the pressure of the boards   
above1 the saw and the hammer  are      
required4    ,illustration3 ,wall       
,hooks4 ,nuts4 ,grease ,pot4 ,hammer4   
,illustration3 ,twisted ,auger4 ,saw4   
,blowpipe4 ,tongs4    ,illustration3    
,waxed ,rushes4 ,rasp4    ,of course one
 length of pipe is not sufficient to go 
to any great  distance1 and a joint has 
frequently to be made1 the solder used  
for  this purpose being so easily melted
 and so readily combining with the  pipe
 itself1 which is of almost the same    
material1 that the flame from  prepared 
tow blown to an intense heat by the blow
 pipe is sufficient  for the purpose4   
,the rasp is used for filing the surface
 at the ends of  the pipes where they   
are to be joined1 and the waxed rushes  

to try the  joints in order to see that 
there is no escape of gas through some  
small  hole4 ,when the pipes are all    
laid and brought to their proper        
positions  the fittings are fixed4      
,those which descend from the centres of
 ceilings  are generally called         
chandeliers1 and consist of a tube of   
metal fastened  to the gas pipe1 the end
 of which coming through the ceiling is 
furnished  with an iron screw to fit the
 end of the tube4 ,this tube is placed  
within  a larger tube1 from the bottom  
of which a still smaller one passes     
within  the first4 ,the gas therefore   
descends the tube from the ceiling1 and 
enters the smallest tube1 which         
communicates with the burners that      
spring from the largest4 ,the larger    
tube is intended to receive water1  in  
which the end of the first tube rests1  
so that the gas is prevented  from      
escaping1 while by a nice adjustment of 
weights running over pulleys  attached  
to the larger1 the burners can be raised

 or lowered1 as one tube  slides within 
the other 7see large cut74 ,the taps are
 placed at the  burners to turn on or   
turn off the gas as it is required1 and 
in order  to fix and screw these1 as    
well as to fasten joints in the fittings
 by  means of screw nuts1 the pliers and
 the wrench are used4    ,illustration3 
,wrench4 ,tow4 ,tap4 ,rimmer4 ,clamps4  
,pliers4 ,drill ,stock4    ,the clamps  
are a sort of vice with grooved holes1  
for holding the taps  and metal joints  
firmly while they are filed or otherwise
 prepared2 the  drill stock is used for 
boring small pipes in order to make a   
branch to  some other direction1 and the
 drill brace is intended for boring the 
main pipes1 under which the large hooks 
are placed while a stock and bit        
attached to the upper screw makes the   
hole2 the ordinary braces are  fitted to
 a ratchet or cog wheel at one end1 and 
are also used for  making incisions by  
being worked backwards and forwards4    
,illustration3 ,drill ,brace4 ,braces4  

,stocks and ,dies4    ,the several kinds
 of burners are pierced or cut in such a
 way as to  make the flame from the gas 
of different shapes1 such as fish tail1 
cock spur1 star1 or argand1 the names of
 which tell pretty well  in what shape  
they appear4 ,small rooms are sometimes 
fitted with  8telescopes0 instead of    
chandeliers1 the telescope being one    
tube sliding  within another1 and the   
space carefully filled with a properly  
adjusted  cork or some other flexible   
and impervious substance4 ,bedrooms1 and
  apartments where light is required at 
the walls or chimney pieces1 are        
furnished with brackets1 which either   
simply project from the wall1 or  are   
made with an arm moving on a ball and   
socket joint4 ,the manufacture  of the  
various portions of the apparatus used  
in gas fitting will be  mostly found    
described under the trade of the        
,brassfounder4    ,illustration         
,,manufacture ,,of ,,gas4               
,illustration3 ,,gasometers4      ,very 

few of the readers of this book will    
remember the appearance  presented by   
,london streets before the introduction 
of gas2 when all  the thoroughfares were
 darker than even the commonest streets 
are now1  and the only light emanated   
either from the shop windows or from dim
  oil lamps1 which the rain or the wind 
would frequently put out1 even  when    
they did not burn out of themselves for 
want of being trimmed and  replenished4 
,a century ago these oil lamps were     
quite insufficient  to light even the   
main streets1 and people who walked out 
at night  generally hired a 8link boy0  
to light them as they went1 with a great
  flambeau of hemp and pitch1 which     
smoked and smelt insufferably4 ,the     
nobility and gentlefolks who rode in    
carriages were also attended by  footmen
 with flambeaux of a better sort1 and   
outside the doors of some  of the oldest
 houses in ,london there may still be   
seen the great iron  extinguishers      
attached to the railings1 where the     

torch-bearers put out  their lights till
 it was time to escort their masters and
 mistresses  home4 ,the poet ,gay1 who  
wrote the celebrated fables1 describes  
the link  boys1 and gives them rather a 
bad character for so often being        
connected  with the bands of thieves and
 footpads which infested ,london        
streets1 and  robbed people with        
impunity in the dark4 ,he says3--       
8,though thou art tempted by the link   
man's call1      ,yet trust him not     
along the lonely wall2      ,in the     
midway he'll quench the flaming brand1  
,and share the booty with the pilfering 
band4      ,still keep the public       
streets1 where oily rays1      ,shot    
from the crystal lamp1 o'erspread thy   
ways40    ,long before this1 however1   
the inflammable nature of the vapour    
which  streamed from burning coal had   
been observed by scientific men1 and it 
was thought by many people that some    
method might be invented for making     
this gas useful for the purpose of      

lighting streets or houses4 ,it had     
also been observed that the air suddenly
 escaping from the shafts of coal  mines
 was often highly inflammable1 and some 
experiments were made in the            
distillation of coal as early as #agbf4 
,in #agfe ,lord ,lonsdale proposed to   
the magistrates of ,whitehaven to convey
 the gas from the neighbouring  mines   
through pipes for lighting the town4    
,a number of eminent men afterwards made
 experiments with gas1 but no  decided  
practical result followed until a ,mr4  
,murdock1 of ,cornwall1  began to       
manufacture gas for lighting his house  
and offices at ,redruth4  ,in #agih the 
same gentleman used gas for lighting the
 ,soho ,foundry1 where  four years      
afterwards a public exhibition of the   
new invention was made  by means of an  
illumination to celebrate the           
proclamation of peace4    ,in #ahjc a   
gentleman named ,winsor first publicly  
showed at the ,lyceum  ,theatre1 in     
,london1 a system of illumination by    

gas1 which was the  commencement of our 
present method of lighting our streets  
and houses2  and after great            
difficulties and various experiments1 a 
company was  formed for the purpose of  
carrying out the undertaking of         
superseding the  old oil lamps and      
making use of the new invention4 ,the   
premises of the  company and their      
factory were situated in ,pall ,mall1   
where the ,carlton  ,club now stands1   
and the lights first appeared from the  
corner of ,st4  ,james's ,street to the 
,haymarket1 while several jets were     
placed in front  of ,carlton ,house1 the
 residence of the ,prince ,regent1      
afterwards ,george  the ,fourth4    ,by 
slow degrees1 and by the assistance of  
,mr4 ,clegg1 an eminent engineer1  the  
manufacture of gas improved1 and in     
#ahad1 when the allied sovereigns       
visited this country1 and a general     
illumination was ordered1 a  magnificent
 pagoda in ,st4 ,james's ,park was      
erected for the exhibition of  the new  

light4 ,the following year ,guildhall   
was fitted with gas burners2  and1      
although it had been predicted that the 
new invention would ruin  the navy by   
superseding the use of the oil brought  
by the whalers1 and  though some people 
declared that it was only a scheme for  
blowing up  ,london1 the success of     
these experiments led to its rapid      
adoption in  most of the large towns of 
,europe4    ,it will now be necessary to
 say something of coal1 of which more   
than  #djj1jjj tons are used every year 
for the manufacture of gas in ,london   
alone4    ,the name coal was originally 
given to any substance used for fuel1   
and  the use of mineral coal1 or1 as it 
was formerly termed1 sea-coal1 from  the
 fact of its being brought by sea1 has  
not prevailed for longer than  #bjj     
years4 ,coal is found in this country in
 extensive deposits called  coal-fields1
 the most important of which are3--#a4  
,those of the great  northern district1 
including the coal-fields north of the  

river ,trent4  #b4 ,those of the central
 district1 including the ,leicester1    
,warwick1  ,stafford1 and ,shropshire   
coal-fields4 #c4 ,those of the western  
districts  in ,north ,wales1 ,south     
,wales1 and ,gloucester4 ,the coal      
occurs in a  number of layers1 or beds1 
termed seams1 and these are separated   
from  each other by layers of slatey    
clay1 called shale1 and coarse1 hard    
sandstone1 known as grit4    ,the seams 
of coal are mostly comparatively thin1  
but varying from a few  inches to six or
 eight feet in thickness1 and underneath
 the layers  is usually found a bed of  
mountain limestone extending beyond the 
coal-field1 and rising to the surface of
 the ground around it4    ,the first    
process for finding coal is to bore with
 iron tools a  perpendicular hole in the
 ground2 then if coal is discovered1 a  
shaft1  or pit1 from ten to fifteen feet
 in diameter1 is sunk1 and lined with   
brick1 cast iron1 or wood1 to prevent   
the admission of water and the  falling 

in of the sides4 ,when the shaft reaches
 a seam of coal1 passages  are made1    
twelve to fourteen feet wide1 and       
varying in height with the  coal2 from  
these proceed smaller ones1 which are   
again crossed by large  ones1 enormous  
blocks of coal being left to support the
 earth above4 ,as  the mine becomes     
larger1 a second shaft is sunk at some  
distance from  the first1 in order that 
air may be supplied to the mine1 and    
that the  gas that escapes from the coal
 may be carried away4 ,a current of air 
is  caused by burning a large fire in   
one shaft1 and the draught is directed  
to the part of the mine where it is     
required1 by doors1 which close up  some
 of the passages and leave others open4 
,there are several varieties of coal    
found in this country4 ,the most        
important are3 the common1 or bituminous
 coal1 which soils the fingers on       
handling2 the cannel1 or candle coal1   
which burns with a bright flame1  but   
does not soil2 the anthracite1 or culm  

coal1 which burns without  flame1 does  
not form cinder when half consumed1 and 
is most useful for  furnaces1 in        
consequence of its intense heat and the 
absence of smoke4  ,although often      
classed amongst the minerals1 coal is   
evidently of  vegetable origin2 many    
sorts of it being distinctly fibrous1   
and showing  the grain of the wood from 
which it is composed4 ,upon examination 
with  the microscope1 coal shows        
vegetable remains2 and these are        
frequently  so perfect that they prove  
its formation from such plants as ferns 
and  fir-trees1 of a kind somewhat      
different from those which now exist4   
,the value of coal depends entirely upon
 its inflammable and combustible        
properties4 ,it is used as the source of
 artificial warmth in our  dwellings1   
and our manufactures are mainly         
dependent on it4 ,without coal  there   
would scarcely be any working in iron1  
copper1 lead1 or other  metals1 as in   
populous countries the supply of wood is

 soon exhausted4  ,our potteries and our
 glass works are also carried on by its 
use1 and  the power of steam which moves
 all our great engines and machines is  
dependent on coal for its existence4    
,great ,britain produces more than      
one-half the coal that is consumed in   
the world1 and about #ahj1jjj persons   
are employed in obtaining it in our     
collieries4    ,the first process in the
 manufacture of gas is to subject the   
coal to a  great heat1 by which it is   
carbonised1 or burnt until only the     
cinder1  or coke1 remains after the gas 
has flown off4 ,this is done by placing 
the coal in retorts of fire-clay or     
iron1 which are previously heated4      
,these retorts1 which occupy a building 
called the retort house1 having  been   
charged with coal1 are perfectly closed1
 and the door luted1 or  stopped1 with a
 sort of cement1 so that the gas can    
only escape up the  ascension pipe1 the 
coke being left in the retort4          
,illustration3 ,retort ,house4    ,the  

gas from the coal then passes through   
the ascension pipe by what is  called   
the dip pipe1 into a main1 a large      
horizontal tube extending  along the    
length of the furnaces4 ,this main is   
about half filled with  water or tar1 in
 which the ends of the dip pipes are    
immersed1 so  that as the gas runs in1  
it ascends through the liquid into the  
space  above1 but cannot flow back again
 into the dip pipes4 ,in this way it  is
 all collected in the upper part of the 
main pipe1 and is ready for             
purification4    ,where double retorts  
are used1 each end is worked with at    
least three  stokers1 and an extra man  
for preparing the lids of the           
mouth-pieces4  ,others are required for 
extinguishing the coke1 wheeling the    
coal into  the retort house1 clinkering 
furnaces1 and attending to fires4 ,three
  stokers1 assisted by a man to         
extinguish the coke1 will perform all   
the  work of taking off the lids1 raking
 out the coke1 extinguishing and        

wheeling it away from a bench of seven  
retorts1 in twelve or thirteen  minutes2
 they will then put the proper charge   
for each retort in the  scoop1 deliver  
its contents1 and be ready for charging 
another bench  in a further space of    
seven minutes1 while a fourth workman   
will in the  meantime have put on the   
lids1 so that the whole work of         
discharging and  charging the seven     
retorts will occupy barely twenty       
minutes4    ,this extreme dexterity is  
of course only acquired by long         
practice1 and  it must be admitted the  
labour is very severe2 but this is      
moderated by  the time the men have for 
repose between the charges4 ,the first  
process  in discharging or drawing is   
for one or two of the men to relieve the
  screws of the mouth-pieces of the     
retorts about to be discharged1 by      
giving three or four rapid turns2       
another man instantly gives a knock to  
each of the cross bars to disengage them
 from the ears of the lid1 and  at the  

same time strikes the lid a blow with a 
piece of iron or hammer1  in order to   
break the luting1 and a light is        
immediately applied to  prevent         
explosion1 which would be likely to     
crack the retort if of clay4  ,for want 
of this precaution1 many lamentable     
accidents have happened  through the gas
 exploding when combined with           
atmospheric air4 ,the men  then lift off
 the cross bar and screw of each retort1
 placing them on the  ground1 and then  
each seizes hold of a lid in both hands1
 lifting it by  the projecting ears1 and
 placing it aside to cool1 ready for    
luting for  another charge4             
,illustration3 ,fender4 ,wheelbarrow4   
,bus4    ,three of the stokers then take
 up their iron rakes1 which are simply  
rods of -inch iron1 about #ab feet long1
 having a handle at one end2 the  other 
end being turned at right angles is     
flat1 about #f inches long1 #b  inches  
wide1 and -inch thick4 ,these are       
inserted in the retort1 and the  red-hot

 coke drawn to the mouth1 whence it     
drops into the coke vault1  where there 
is a man ready to extinguish by throwing
 water on it2 or when  there is no vault
 the coke drops into iron barrows placed
 ready to  receive it1 and wheeled      
rapidly away when the charge is         
withdrawn4 ,if the  coke were not       
immediately extinguished it would       
smoulder1 and the surface  become       
covered with earthy ash1 and detract    
from its appearance and value4          
,illustration3 ,rake4 ,clinkering ,spud4
 ,scoop4 ,fire ,shovel4 ,key4 ,auger4   
,formerly1 in charging retorts1 the     
operation being comparatively very      
protracted1 there was a considerable    
loss of gas1 in addition to the time    
and extra fatigue to the men4 ,in order 
to remedy these inconveniences1  a      
method has been contrived for depositing
 the whole charge in the  retort at     
once2 for this purpose an iron scoop is 
used1 this being a  semi-cylinder of    
sheet iron1 from #h to #aj feet long and

 #aj or #ab inches  diameter1 with a    
cross handle at the end to assist in    
lifting and turning  it round to empty  
the coals in the retort4                
,illustration3 ,shovel4 ,clinking ,bat4 
,the charge of coal is placed in the    
scoop while it rests on the ground1     
having a bent rod underneath for the    
purpose of lifting it3 one man takes    
hold of the cross handle1 and two others
 lift the other end by the bent  rod1   
and introduce it into the mouth of the  
retort4 ,the scoop with its  contents is
 then pushed forward to the further end1
 turned completely  over1 and           
immediately withdrawn1 leaving the coal 
in the retort1 which  is raked into a   
layer of uniform thickness1 when the    
lid1 previously  luted and ready1 is    
placed in its position and screwed up as
 quickly as  possible4 ,the operation of
 charging a retort with the scoop does  
not  occupy more than thirty or forty   
seconds1 so that very little escape of  
gas can take place4 ,the shovel is used 

for lifting the coal to the  scoop1 the 
clinking bat for breaking or removing   
the coke in the vault1  the spud for a  
similar purpose4    ,the gas in the     
hydraulic main is of course very impure1
 having undergone  no alteration since  
it came from the coal in the retort4 ,it
 contains  a quantity of tar and        
ammoniacal liquor in vapour1 and these  
have  to be separated from it and this  
can be effected by what is called       
condensation1 the instrument used being 
known as a condenser4 ,there  are two or
 three forms of condensers in use1 but a
 common one1 which is  represented in   
the engraving1 is called the horizontal 
condenser1 and  is a rectangular box or 
chest formed of cast iron plates1 put   
together  with flanges1 and perfectly   
tight joints4 ,its interior is provided 
with a  series of iron trays1 containing
 each about two inches in depth of      
water1  and so arranged that the gas1   
entering at the bottom of the chest1    
passes  in succession over the surface  

of the water in each tray1 and          
traversing  the whole length of trough  
ten or twelve times1 passes off at the  
upper  side4 ,in the mean time a        
continuous stream of water enters at the
 top1  and in its descent absorbs a     
portion of the ammonia1 at the same time
  cooling and condensing the vapours in 
combination with the gas4               
,illustration3 ,condensers4             
,horizontal condensers are sometimes    
composed of a series of pipes placed  in
 a horizontal position1 and immersed in 
water4    ,illustration3 ,wet ,purifier4
    ,the other form of condenser1 which 
is very generally employed1 consists  of
 a series of vertical pipes1 connected  
in pairs by semicircular bends  at top1 
and attached to a cast-iron box or chest
 at bottom4 ,this chest  has a series of
 divisions1 the ends of which are sealed
 by liquid  placed therein1 so that the 
gas in its passage has to pass through  
the  whole series of pipes4 ,the pipes  
by their contact with the atmosphere    

radiate the heat acquired from the gas  
in its passage1 and it being in         
consequence cooled1 deposits the vapours
 as liquid in the form of tar1  and     
water saturated with ammonia1 generally 
called ammoniacal liquor4  ,this        
condenser is sometimes used with an     
application of cold water on its        
exterior1 in order to increase the      
cooling effect4    ,the other part of   
the purification is by a chemical       
process1 in which a  solution of lime is
 used to remove other impurities in the 
gas4 ,this is  called wet lime          
purification1 or when the lime is only  
slackened 7or  moistened7 it is called  
dry lime purification1 and the process  
takes  the sulphuretted hydrogen1 the   
carbonic acid1 and other matters from   
the  gas before it is stored for use4   
,illustration3 ,dry ,purifier4    ,the  
wet lime purifier consists of a         
cast-iron cylinder entirely closed  at  
top and bottom1 except where the inlet  
and outlet pipes join it1 and  where an 

opening is required for charging it with
 lime-water1 which same  opening is also
 used for drawing off the charge4 ,to   
the inside of the  cover of this outer  
cylinder is bolted an inlet cylinder    
usually made  of wrought-iron plate4    
,this inlet cylinder is open at the     
lower part1  and reaches to within a    
foot from the bottom of the outer       
cylinder1 but  has bolted to its lower  
flange a wide ring or dash plate of     
sheet iron1  the outer diameter being   
only #h or #i inches less than that of  
the outer  cylinder1 so that a space of 
about #d or #e inches is left between   
the  outside of the ring and the        
interior of the large cylinder4    ,the 
gas passes down through the inlet       
cylinder1 and by its pressure  forces   
its way up through the fluid lime1 the  
surface of which is #h or #i  inches    
above the dash plate4    ,the wet lime  
purifiers are variously worked2 when    
four are used1 two  vessels are employed
 at one time1 and when the lime in the  

first is  incapable of absorbing the    
impurity1 that purifier is put out of   
action1  and the second and third are   
worked1 and so on in succession4        
,when quick lime is slackened1 reduced  
to powder1 and slightly moistened  with 
water1 chemically this is called the    
hydrate of lime1 and is often  employed 
to absorb the sulphuretted hydrogen and 
carbonic acid from the  gas4 ,the       
process is termed dry lime purification4
    ,dry lime purifiers are generally   
rectangular cast-iron vessels1 varying  
from #c feet to #cj feet square1 and    
from #c feet to #d feet #f inches deep4 
,sometimes in small works they are made 
circular2 this1 however1 is not  very   
frequent1 and is done for convenience or
 economy in construction4  ,each        
purifier contains a series of perforated
 shelves1 trays1 or sieves1  supported  
by suitable bearers of wrought or cast  
iron1 the ends of which  are attached to
 8snuggs0 cast on the purifier4 ,in     
large apparatus there  are also pillars 

placed at intermediate distances to     
carry the weight of  the sieves and     
purifying material4    ,the upper part  
of the purifier is surrounded by a      
cistern or reservoir  of from #f inches 
to #bd inches deep1 and from #c inches  
to #f inches wide1  which is often cast 
with the purifier1 and forms part of it1
 or at other  times is attached thereto 
by bolts and cement1 and is for the     
purpose  of containing water to seal the
 cover4 ,the cover of the purifier is of
  boiler plate or cast iron1 the latter 
being preferable on account of its      
durability2 but the increased weight is 
an impediment to its adoption4  ,the rim
 or border of the cover is rather deeper
 than the cistern into  which it is     
placed1 and is effectually sealed by the
 water1 so preventing  the gas escaping 
from that point4    ,often the purifier 
is divided into two compartments1 so    
that the gas  ascends through a set of  
sieves on the one side1 and descends    
through  another set on the other side1 

answering the purpose of two sets of    
apparatus4 ,in all establishments1      
however small they may be1 two distinct 
purifiers at least are necessary1 to    
enable the impure lime to be removed    
from the one whilst the gas is being    
purified by the other4    ,the next     
subject for consideration is that of the
 gasholders1 or  vessels in which the   
gas is stored ready for delivery into   
the mains1  which distribute it         
throughout the districts to be lighted4 
,these  vessels were originally termed  
gasometers1 which name is sometimes     
even now applied to them2 but as they   
have nothing whatever to do with  the   
measurement of gas1 but are mere vessels
 of capacity or stores1 the  simple name
 of gasholder is more expressive and    
appropriate4    ,the gasholder is       
composed of two distinct parts1 one of  
which contains  water1 and is called the
 tank1 the other is the vessel which    
contains  the gas1 being really the     
gasholder4 ,on the ,continent the former

 is very  generally termed the          
8cistern10 and the latter the 8bell40   
,the tank is a large cylindrical vessel1
 constructed usually1 for the sake  of  
economy1 of brickwork or masonry1 but   
when the ground is marshy1 or  when     
water exists abundantly a short distance
 below the surface of the  earth1 which 
would prevent the construction in       
masonry at a moderate  price1 these     
tanks are made in cast-iron1 and1       
indeed1 in small works1  are often of   
wrought iron4 ,in the interior of the   
tank there are two  vertical pipes for  
the admission and egress of the gas1    
called the inlet  and outlet pipes2 the 
former being in direct communication    
with the  manufacturing apparatus1 the  
latter with the mains which convey the  
gas  to the town4 ,these pipes rise a   
few inches above the level of the top   
of the tank1 so that the water cannot   
overflow into them4 ,a series of        
columns1 generally of cast-iron1 but    
sometimes of wood1 or brick piers1  are 

placed at equal distances around the    
tank for the purpose of guiding  the    
holder4    ,the holder is a cylindrical 
vessel closed at the top1 which is      
termed the  roof1 and open at the       
bottom1 made of sheet iron1 varying in  
thickness  according to the dimensions  
of the apparatus1 the smaller sizes     
being  constructed of thin material in  
order to avoid an excess of pressure1   
whilst those of very large dimensions   
are made of stout plates for the        
purpose of obtaining sufficient pressure
 to expel the gas to the burners4  ,the 
holder is somewhat less in diameter1 but
 of the same depth as the  tank in which
 it is placed1 sometimes being partially
 suspended by chains  which pass over   
grooved pulleys and counter-balance     
weights1 but more  frequently only      
guided by rollers attached around its   
lower and upper  edges1 which work      
against suitable guides in the tank and 
on the columns  in such a manner as to  
permit the holder to ascend and descend 

in the  tank with the greatest freedom4 
,the action of the gasholder is very    
simple4 ,the tank being filled with     
water1 and the holder immersed therein  
ready for use1 there is a space  between
 the surface of the water and the roof  
of the holder2 the gas  enters by the   
inlet pipe into this space1 and with the
 force it acquires  in being expelled   
from the coal1 pressing on the surface  
of the water and  underneath the roof1  
and over the whole area of both1 causes 
the holder  to rise4 ,thus1 by its own  
force or pressure1 the gas provides room
 for  itself1 and in proportion to the  
quantity entering so does the holder    
rise out of the water4 ,for instance1 a 
holder having #ajj feet area1 or  about 
#aa feet #d inches diameter1 in rising  
#aj feet will receive #a1jjj  cubic feet
 of gas1 and in descending1 the same    
quantity would be expelled4             
,gasholders1 though often suspended1 are
 never entirely counter-balanced1       
having always sufficient weight to give 

the necessary pressure for  forcing the 
gas through the mains and smaller pipes 
to the burners1 all  through the        
neighbourhood which is supplied from it4
 ,the gasholder should  be so           
constructed that1 when it is full or at 
its greatest height1 its  lower edge    
will be so far under water as to prevent
 the gas from escaping4    ,the water in
 the tank serves three purposes2 it is  
the means of  resistance for the gas to 
lift the holder1 it prevents the gas    
escaping  or mixing with the atmosphere2
 and it is the means of expelling or    
forcing out the gas as the holder       
descends4          ,,the ,,ironfounder4 
,illustration3 ,,foundry4      ,having  
already described the various operations
 of the trades employed in  building and
 fitting a house1 we will say something 
of the manufacture  of those cast iron  
columns1 girders1 gratings1 balconies1  
pipes1 gutters1  air traps1 coal plates1
 stoves1 and other articles which are so
 necessary  to the ,builder before his  

work can be completed4 ,all these1 as   
well as a  great variety of other goods 
made in black or bronze iron1 such as   
gates1  bridges1 pieces of furniture    
7like umbrella stands71 iron taps1 and  
even  pots and frying pans1 are made at 
the ,iron ,foundry4    ,iron is a metal 
of a bluish gray colour2 but in its pure
 state it looks  almost white when      
polished1 and has a brilliant lustre1   
while when it  is broken the broken     
portion looks dull and fibrous4 ,it is  
the hardest  of all the malleable and   
ductile metals1 and the most tenacious  
of all  metals1 an iron wire of th of an
 inch in diameter bearing a weight of   
#fj pounds4    ,in the pure state it    
requires the strongest heat of what is  
called a wind  furnace to melt it4      
,iron may be called the most precious of
 all metals2 it is certainly the  most  
beneficial to man1 and its uses are     
innumerable2 indeed1 there is  not a    
branch of human industry that could well
 afford to dispense with  its aid and   

services2 nearly all the tools1         
implements1 instruments1 and  engines   
used by man are wholly or partly made of
 it1 and we could better  afford to give
 up all the other metals than to part   
with this1 which is  the most useful4   
,iron is used in two different states1  
as cast iron and wrought iron1  the     
differences between them depending on   
the proportion of carbon  combined with 
the metal1 cast iron containing the most
 and wrought iron  the least4    ,for   
the production of wrought iron in the   
ordinary way1 two distinct sets  of     
processes are required2 first the       
extraction of the metal from the  8ore0 
that is brought up from the mine1 which 
metal is cast iron2 and  secondly the   
conversion of this cast iron into       
malleable or bar iron1 by  remelting1   
puddling1 and forging4 ,bar iron is     
turned into steel by  placing it in     
contact with charcoal in a peculiar kind
 of furnace4    ,when the ore is taken  
from the mine it is first burnt or      

calcined1 and  then removed to a blast  
furnace to be smelted4 ,these blast     
furnaces are  generally built of brick1 
and look like small towers4 ,the ore is 
mixed  with limestone1 which causes it  
to melt more easily1 and the fire is    
lighted with pit coal or coke4 ,the     
melted metal sinks to the bottom of  the
 furnace in consequence of its weight1  
while the limestone and dross  float on 
the top1 and are allowed to run off when
 they cool into a mass  of what is      
called 8slag40    ,the melted metal is  
run off from the bottom of the furnace1 
either into  moulds for some sort of    
castings1 or into a large furrow made in
 a bed of  sand4 ,this large furrow has 
several smaller furrows on each side of 
it1  and has received the name of the   
8sow20 the smaller furrows being called 
8pigs20--and the iron when it is formed 
in this shape to be afterwards  made    
malleable is called 8pig iron40    ,the 
pig iron is taken to other and smaller  
furnaces called puddling  furnaces1 the 

bottoms of which are lined with clay    
mixed with the  slag just mentioned1 and
 forming a substance which the puddlers 
call  8bull-dog10 though it would be    
difficult to discover why it received   
that  name4    ,about four hundred      
weight of the pigs is placed in the     
furnace1 and as  it melts the puddler   
stands at the furnace mouth with a long 
iron rod  bent at the end1 and stirs it 
about1 until it comes to resemble       
several  great balls of iron paste4     
,these balls are removed1 and fall into 
iron  trucks pushed along a small       
railway by boys1 who wheel them at once 
to  the 8shingling hammer10 an immensely
 powerful hammer worked by steam1 and   
this beats the iron into small square   
bars called 8blooms40    ,the blooms are
 next carried to the rolling mill1 which
 is a pair of great  rollers cut into   
grooves of various sizes1 and between   
these grooves the  bars are squeezed1 as
 the rollers turn round1 until they     
become much  longer and narrower1 when  

they are known as 8forged bars40        
,some of the rolling mills1 however1 are
 plain cylinders without grooves1  and  
when a slab of white-hot iron is placed 
between these it comes out  from the    
pressure in a great broad sheet of      
metal4    ,these operations require     
great bodily strength as well as        
considerable  skill on the part of the  
workmen1 who are obliged to seize the   
heated  metal with long tongs1 and to   
catch it in the same way as it comes out
  from the mill4    ,illustration3      
,casting ,ladle4    ,the iron which is  
intended for castings is melted in a    
8cupola furnace10  so called on account 
of the dome-like shape in which it is   
built1 which  has something to do with  
the more perfect heating of the metal4  
,when the  iron is completely melted so 
that it will run freely1 the lower      
portion  of the furnace is opened1 and  
the white-hot stream is received in the 
casting ladle1 or1 where it has to be   
carried for some distance1 and  the     

casting is large1 in great iron pails   
carried in a sort of frame by  two men4 
,from the casting ladle it is at once   
poured into the mould4    ,illustration3
 ,mould4 ,small ,casting ,ladle4    ,the
 mould is a sort of iron box filled with
 a peculiar sort of sand1 into  which a 
wooden pattern of the intended casting  
is pressed1 and the sand  firmly rammed 
down and made solid4 ,there are1 in     
fact1 two boxes of sand1  each of which 
is impressed with one half of the       
thickness of the required  casting1 so  
that when they are brought together1 and
 firmly fastened with  the pins1 as     
shown in the picture1 the patterns which
 have been taken  out have left a half  
of the impression in each box1 each     
corresponding  exactly to the other4 ,a 
hole in the box receives the melted     
metal1 for  which a channel has been    
left in the sand1 that it may freely run
 into  the hollows left by the pattern1 
and completely fill them2 then1 when  it
 has sufficiently cooled1 the casting is

 removed1 and when the rough  edges have
 been removed1 and the irregularities   
trimmed off1 it is ready  for use1 and  
may be fitted to its other parts1 which 
have perhaps been  separately cast1 as  
in the case of garden seats1 fenders1   
chandeliers1  umbrella stands1 or       
ornamental girders and columns4         
,illustration3 ,furnace ,iron4 ,brush4  
,trowel4 ,bellows4 ,foot ,rule4 ,level4 
,shovel4 ,spatera4 ,hammer4 ,mould      
,weight4 ,rammer4    ,we have only      
described solid castings1 but as        
ornamental iron work is  generally made 
hollow1 this has to be cast in rather a 
different way1  though the only         
difference is that what are called      
8cores0 are used4  ,these cores are in  
fact solid metal patterns made a little 
smaller than  the hollow left by the    
real pattern1 and allowed to remain in  
the mould4  ,the melted iron then flows 
between the surface of the core and the 
surface of the mould1 and the casting is
 hollow1 so that when the core is       

removed the metal is only the thickness 
of the space left between the two       
surfaces4 ,you will see what is meant by
 placing a small teacup inside a  larger
 one1 and then pouring water between    
them4    ,the tools used by the         
,ironfounder are not very numerous3 the 
casting  ladles and mould have already  
been mentioned2 the uses of the shovel  
and the mould weight1 the rammer1 and   
the furnace iron need no  description4  
,the designers1 and pattern makers1 and 
the mould maker have the most  important
 duties1 and the latter will have to use
 a small trowel and  a spatera for      
arranging his sand and loam1 a level    
that it may be  perfectly true1 and a   
brush and a pair of bellows for removing
 any  particles of grit from the surface
 of the channels where the pattern has  
been impressed4    ,almost all irons are
 improved by admixture with others1 and1
 therefore1  when superior castings are 
required they should not be run direct  
from  the smelting furnace1 but the     

metal should be remelted in a cupola    
furnace1 which gives the opportunity of 
suiting the quality of the iron  to its 
intended use4 ,thus1 for delicate       
ornamental work1 a soft and very  fluid 
iron will be required1 whilst for       
girders and castings exposed to  cross  
strain the metal will require to be     
harder and more tenacious4 ,for         
bed-plates and castings which have      
merely to sustain a compressing force1  
the chief point to be attended to is the
 hardness of the metal4    ,castings    
should be allowed to remain in the sand 
until cool1 as the  quality of the metal
 is greatly injured by the rapid and    
irregular  cooling which takes place    
from exposure to air if removed from the
  moulds in a red hot state1 which is   
sometimes done in small foundries to    
economise room4    ,illustration        
,,the ,,blacksmith4    ,illustration3   
,,forge4      ,in the building and      
fitting of the house a large portion of 
the iron work  will have to be furnished

 by the ,smith1 and as we have already  
given some  description of iron         
founding1 it will be necessary to say   
something about  the ,blacksmith1 or the
 worker in iron or black metal1 whose   
business is  different from that of the 
whitesmith1 which has to do more        
particularly  with white or yellow      
metal4    ,the way in which malleable   
iron1 that is1 iron fit for the hammer1 
is  produced has been mentioned in      
connexion with the trade of the iron    
founder1 who in fact supplies the       
,blacksmith with the raw material4 ,it  
is not very easy to tell you much about 
the way in which the ,blacksmith  makes 
the great variety of articles which his 
trade furnishes1 for there  is no       
business the success of which depends   
more upon personal skill4 ,as  the trade
 of the ,smith1 or at all events the    
worker in metal1 is one of  the most    
ancient1 and existed in times when there
 were few tools1--as1 in  fact1 it is   
the ,smith who has to make tools1--so at

 the present day1 he  has to depend     
chiefly on his own ability in the use of
 the hammer and a  few other simple     
instruments to fashion the articles that
 come out of his  workshop4    ,it is he
 who supplies the various articles of   
wrought iron work used in  a building2  
as pileshoes1 straps1 screw bolts1      
dog-irons1 chimney-bars1  gratings1 and 
wrought-iron railings and balustrades   
for staircases4  ,wrought iron was      
formerly much used for many purposes for
 which cast iron  is now generally      
employed2 the improvements made in      
casting during the  present century     
having caused a great alteration in this
 respect4 ,it is  not only for building 
purposes that the ,blacksmith is        
employed1 however1  since there is      
scarcely anything constructed of iron in
 which his aid  is not required1 from   
important portions of machinery to the  
rough  horse-shoes which have to be     
finished and fitted by the farrier4 ,in 
the  forge1 where the great bellows     

suspended to the ceiling make the       
furnace  roar1 and the sparks fly1 the  
clinking of hammers is heard all day    
long4    ,illustration3 ,hammer4 ,sledge
 ,hammer4 ,set ,hammers4 ,vice4 ,anvil4 
,tongs4  ,file4    ,the anvil1 on which 
the iron is beaten into shape1 the      
bench1 fitted  with a vice for holding  
such portions of the work as require the
  file1 the tongs1 with which the red   
hot metal is held1 the sledge  hammer1  
and the set hammers1 are the principal  
tools4    ,illustration3 ,callipers4    
,compasses4 ,heading ,tools4 ,gauges4   
,square4  ,bottom ,tool4    ,the sledge 
hammer is used for beating the metal    
until it is tempered and  easily formed 
into shape1 and it is in the tempering  
of the metal by  beating that the great 
skill of the ,smith is often displayed4 
,the set  hammers are used for setting  
out the work1 and have heads of         
different  shapes1 according to the form
 which the metal is required to assume4 
,the various gauges are placed upon the 

anvil for the similar purpose  of       
shaping the work1 and the callipers1    
compasses1 and square1  measuring and   
adjusting it4 ,the heading tools consist
 of cutting1  punching1 and stamping    
instruments1 and are probably so called1
 because  they are furnished with heads 
to receive the blows of the heavy       
hammer1  by which they are forced into  
the hot metal on the anvil4             
,illustration3 ,double ,hooks4 ,punch4  
,slice4 ,fire ,irons4    ,these heading 
tools are held1 not by handles of their 
own1 which would  break off with the    
concussion of the hammer1 but by a sort 
of withe of  birch1 or some other tree  
fastened loosely round them at their    
heads1  and bound by a ring to keep them
 from parting4 ,the punch is used in    
making bolts or rivets1 the slice and   
fire irons for arranging the  fuel in   
the furnace1 and removing small articles
 after they are heated1  the double     
hooks for removing or suspending bars1  
and for some other  purposes4           

,,the ,,brassfounder4    ,illustration3 
,casting4      ,next to iron1 perhaps   
brass is the metal chiefly employed in  
the  manufacture of articles of daily   
use1 and the trade of the ,brassfounder 
is therefore of very great importance1  
especially in connexion with the  small 
metal fittings1 such as catches1 locks1 
bolts1 hooks1 screws1 and  other objects
 used in completing and furnishing the  
house4    ,brass is not a pure metal1   
but is what is called an alloy1 that is1
 a  mixture of various metals4 ,it is   
composed of copper and zinc in such     
proportions as may be necessary to      
obtain various degrees of hardness  and 
colour1 according to the use for which  
the compound is to be  employed4 ,the   
best proportions for common brass are   
about two parts of  copper to one part  
of zinc4 ,formerly brass was made by    
heating copper  with calamine 7which is 
the ore of zinc7 and charcoal1 but it is
 now  formed from melting the two metals
 together4 ,it is then cast into plates1

  which are either broken up for        
recasting into any required form1 or    
rolled into sheets4 ,common brass is    
very malleable1 is more easily melted   
than copper1 and may be cast into any   
form4 ,it will take a very high  polish1
 does not rust or tarnish by exposure to
 the air1 and1 although  it is durable  
in wear1 is sufficiently soft to yield  
readily to the file  and other tools    
used by the workmen4 ,these properties  
make it useful for  a great variety of  
purposes where steel or iron could not  
be so well  employed4    ,illustration3 
,crucible4 ,magnet4    ,the smelting or 
mixing houses where the brass is made   
are fitted with air  furnaces1 and in   
some of the best workshops the crucibles
 or melting  pots are made of plumbago  
or pure blacklead1 which1 although it is
 more  expensive1 is much more durable  
than the ,stourbridge clay1 of which the
  commoner crucibles are formed4    ,a  
very fine quality of brass for best     
castings consists of three parts  of    

best selected copper1 and two of        
spelter1 with some best scrap  brass and
 a little tin2 while a second quality is
 formed of two parts  of ordinary copper
 and one part of spelter1 melted into   
ingots with a  proportion of scrap brass
 and brass filings4 ,before the latter  
are used  the iron filings are separated
 from them by a magnet1 or by a series  
of  magnets fastened to a revolving     
chain frame4    ,the sheet brass is     
procured from the mills where it is     
rolled1 and the  brass wire is also     
supplied from the special manufactories 
where it is  drawn ready for use4       
,illustration3 ,making ,moulds4    ,the 
method of making moulds for casting iron
 has already been  mentioned1 and those 
employed by the ,brassfounder are quite 
similar1 the  tools used by the mould   
maker being the trowel1 mallet1 rule1   
and  sand hook1 the shovel for removing 
the sand1 the brush for sweeping  the   
surface1 the bellows for blowing off the
 dust1 and the compasses  for measuring 

accurately4    ,illustration3 ,brush4   
,sand ,hook4 ,compasses4 ,bellows4      
,shovel4 ,rule4  ,trowel4 ,mallet4      
,the principal materials for making     
foundry moulds for brass castings are   
fine sand and loam mixed in various     
proportions1 according to the nature  of
 the work4 ,new sand is used for fine   
castings1 old sand for ordinary  work4  
,the requisite external support is given
 by a couple of shallow  rectangular    
iron frames without tops or bottoms1    
called flasks or  casting boxes4    ,the
 two halves constituting a casting box  
carry ears corresponding  exactly with  
one another1 one set pierced with holes1
 the other furnished  with points       
entering truly into these holes1 and    
which may be made fast  in them by      
cross-pins or wedges4 ,one of the flasks
 is laid face downward  on a board      
longer and wider than it1 and is then   
rammed full of moulding  sand2 the      
surface is struck off level with a      
straight metal bar or  scraper1 a little

 loose sand is sprinkled upon it1 and   
another board  of proper size placed    
over it and rubbed down close4 ,the two 
boards  and the flask contained between 
them are turned over and the top board  
is taken off2 the clean surface of moist
 sand now exposed is dusted  over with  
perfectly dry fine parting sand1 or very
 fine red brickdust4  ,the patterns or  
models are now properly arranged on the 
surface of the  same1 the cylindrical or
 thick parts being partly sunk in the   
latter1  and care being also taken to   
leave sufficient space between the      
several  patterns to prevent one part   
breaking into the other1 and also       
passages  or ingates1 by which to pour  
in the metal and allow the air to       
escape4  ,the patterns are arranged on  
both sides a central passage or runner1 
technically called a ridge1 from which  
again small lateral passages  are made1 
leading into every section of the mould4
 ,the general surface  is then properly 
arranged with the aid of small trowels1 

and a little  fine parting sand or      
brickdust is shaken over it4 ,when this 
has been  accomplished1 the upper part  
of the flask is fitted to the lower by  
the  pins1 and then also rammed full of 
mould sand4 ,the fine dry parting sand  
or brickdust serves to prevent the two  
halves from sticking together4 ,a  board
 is now placed on the top of the upper  
half1 and struck smartly in  different  
places with a mallet1 after which the   
upper half and its board  are lifted up 
very gently and quite level1 and then   
turned over1 so that  the upper half    
rests inverted on its board4 ,the models
 are next removed1  and channels scooped
 out from the cavities left by them to  
the hollows  or pouring holes 7ingates7 
at the end of the flask4 ,solid cores of
  sand or metal are adjusted in the     
proper places when the article is       
required to be cast hollow 7brass cocks1
 for instance71 and also iron  rails    
intended to have brass heads cast on    
them1 or such other articles  of iron as

 are required to be solidly united with 
the brass4 ,the faces of  both halves   
are now finally dusted with waste flour 
or meal dust2 the two  halves are then  
replaced upon each other1 and the box is
 fixed together  by screw clamps4 ,the  
moulds for fine castings 7articles with 
ornamental  surfaces1 as screens1       
sconces1 bell-levers1 c47 are faced with
 various  fine substances1 such as      
charcoal1 loamstone1 rottenstone1 c4    
that  they may retain a sharp           
impression2 after which they are most   
carefully  dried4 ,for ordinary work it 
is generally considered better that the 
sand  should retain a little moisture1  
though great care must be taken in this 
respect1 to guard against the danger of 
explosion4    ,illustration3 ,braces4   
,set ,moulds4 ,cores4    ,the mould then
 is a square frame1 mostly of iron1     
filled with peculiar  dark red sand1    
which is pressed into a firm mass1 in   
which the patterns  of the casting are  
imbedded and their perfect shape        

impressed4 ,the  casters work at a large
 trough filled with the sand1 and the   
workshop1  with its forge1 has some     
resemblance to a bakehouse where black  
bread  is being kneaded into loaves4    
,the first mould is made for what is    
called  the 8odd side0 of the           
pattern--that is to say 7in solid       
castings71 the  lower1 or inferior      
side--and this serves as a sort of      
pattern to which  the moulder refers in 
fine castings4 ,the pattern being lifted
 off or  out as soon as the sand-mould  
is sufficiently solid1 the whole        
surface1  in which the chasing of the   
pattern is clearly defined1 is dusted   
with  bean-floor or pounded 8pot0 first1
 and afterwards with loam1 sand1        
charcoal1 or coal-dust4 ,this has the   
effect of making a smooth surface1  and 
effectually filling the interstices in  
the sand1 so as to prevent any          
raggedness in the casting4 ,each mould1 
or rather the two sides of the  mould1  
are then placed near the surface and    

slightly baked1 a channel  having been  
made in the edge of each for conducting 
the melted metal  to the pattern4 ,the  
two sides are then placed together and  
held firmly  by their pins and sockets1 
and the mould is ready for the casting4 
,the  8pots10 or crucibles of greyish   
clay1 which turn red by the action of   
the fire1 are in the furnaces like so   
many tall flower-pots4 ,the dirty       
yellowish brass ingots1 made on the     
premises at a large mixing furnace1     
having been first placed across the tops
 of the pots1 that they may  expand     
before being melted1 are about twenty   
minutes afterwards reduced  to a molten 
mass1 above which hovers a light        
sea-green flame mingled with  streaks of
 brilliant colour1 like the water from a
 dyehouse2 meanwhile  the moulds have   
been placed in a slanting position1 with
 the opening in  the side upwards1      
against a bank of sand or brickwork1 and
 everything is  prepared for pouring4 ,a
 man1 who should be strong in the wrist1

 stands  on the furnace1 which has the  
openings at the top1 like a ,french     
cooking-stove1 and taking off the brick 
covers from the square aperture1  whence
 rushes out a tongue of green flame1    
lifts out the pot with a  pair of tongs1
 and after the dross is removed by the  
skimmer or  grunter1 hands it to the    
pourer1 who fills each mould in         
succession4  ,the fumes which rise from 
the midst of the coloured fire are      
peculiar  and penetrating1 and the zinc 
eliminated from the molten brass falls  
in  a metallic snowstorm1 its flaky     
particles adhering to everything with   
which they come in contact1 while the   
resistance of the sand to the metal     
causes a series of reports like muffled 
pistol-shots4    ,illustration3 ,large  
,tongs4 ,small ,tongs4 ,pot ,holes4     
,skimmer4 ,grunter4    ,the brass cocks 
and plugs used in gas-fittings are all  
cast in one  central stem1 like cherries
 on a stick1 their hollow forms being   
secured  by means of cores made of      

hardened sand placed in the shape       
impressed  in the mould4 ,these are     
broken off the central stem with a pair 
of  pincers immediately after casting4  
,the ornamental 8vases0 and larger      
ornaments which form the body of        
ordinary gas chandeliers and lamps are  
formed out of thin metal by a  process  
called 8stamping out10 the plates of    
metal being placed on a  hollow die1    
upon which a heavy hammer1 or rather    
weight1 is brought  down1 being released
 from a latch and worked by the foot4   
,the depth of  the casting would make so
 heavy a blow necessary that there would
 be  danger of splitting the metal1 an  
accident which is prevented by the      
introduction of a leaden shape and a    
layer of clay1 which is decreased  after
 each blow of the hammer until the      
proper depth is gradually secured       
without injury4    ,the process called  
8reversing0 is an operation which       
secures a hollow  casting1 the inner or 
hollow side being called the 8reverse40 

,for this  purpose a mould is made from 
one in wax1 and the impression in the   
mould  hardened1 so that another model  
can be taken from it4 ,this enables the 
moulder to secure a core which fits the 
impression in the mould1 as  one cup    
would stand inside another2 and between 
the mould containing  the sunk pattern  
and that with the projecting core there 
are placed  strips of black clay1 to    
secure sufficient thickness of metal1 by
 not  allowing the hollow to be too     
accurately filled4 ,the pattern when    
cast  is 8laid out0 on a hollow         
hemisphere of iron filled with pitch1   
and the  irregularities of the casting  
removed by hand tools1 files1 rasps1    
and knives4 ,in the case of figures1    
such as cupids1 c4 forming  ornaments   
for candelabra1 the various limbs have  
often to be modelled  in separate       
8cores10 which are afterwards baked     
hard1 and put together  like a          
puzzle-map1 imbedded in the sand of the 
mould previous to casting4  ,this       

requires great skill to effect          
successfully1 and an experienced        
8reverser0 is a man of mark in the      
factory4    ,illustration3 ,fork4 ,vent 
,wire4 ,sleeking ,tool4 ,rasp4 ,file4   
,vice4 ,pincers4  ,hammer4              
,double-headed ,knife4 ,saw4 ,drawing   
,knife4 ,knife4    ,the completed       
castings are now removed to the         
chasing-room1 where we may  watch the   
gradual process of beautifying to which 
they are subjected1 and  the sharpening 
of the ornamental details by means of   
tool and graver1  in a similar way to   
the first rough 8laying-out10 which     
removes the  irregularities of the      
pattern4 ,the arms and branches which   
form a part of  the gas chandelier work1
 as well as many of the scroll-work     
ornaments1  are cast in halves1 which   
are taken to the soldering-room1 where a
  workman1 seated at a forge-like       
furnace1 heats them in the burning      
embers1 and applies to the edges the    
solder1 with which is mingled a  flux of

 borax and water to secure its melting4 
,the heat is increased by  a blowpipe1  
which is in reality a double or jacketed
 tube1 the inner  one supplying gas1 and
 the outer being connected with a large 
pair of  bellows1 and mixing atmospheric
 air with the lighted gas at the point  
of  combustion4    ,the pickling room is
 a large shed-like place filled with    
tubs1 troughs1  and earthen pans4 ,into 
one of these1 containing diluted        
aqua-fortis1 the  metal is plunged for  
the purpose of removing the scale       
produced on the  surface by the action  
of the fire2 from this it is dipped in a
 stronger  solution1 to undergo the     
process called 8fizzing10 and its final 
baptism  in pure acid restores the      
beautiful primrose colour which properly
  belongs to it4 ,it is still dull1     
however1 and goes to be 8scratched10 an 
operation effected by means of a        
revolving wire-brush1 turned by a wheel 
and treadle1 and kept continually wet   
with water4    ,the ornamental processes

 have next to be considered1 and these  
are  many4 ,previous to burnishing1 the 
work is dipped in argot or tartar  7the 
lees of wine-casks steeped in water71 so
 that it may be subject to  a strong    
antioxyde4 ,the burnishing itself       
produces those bright veins  and        
ornamental surfaces so often seen in    
brass work1 and is effected by  fixing  
the work in a vice1 and rubbing the     
parts of the pattern which are  to be   
brightened with a steel tool having a   
smooth bevel edge4 ,after  being treated
 with ox-gall1 bean flour1 and acid1 to 
remove any still  adhering grease1 the  
work is dried1 by being first dipped in 
hot water  and afterwards buried in a   
pan of warm sawdust4 ,then there is     
lacquering1  both black and white1 a    
simple process enough1 since the lacquer
 is laid  on with a brush1 and the work 
dried on a warm plate4 ,much of the work
 of  the ,brassfounder1 as far as       
regards these latter operations1 is of  
course  effected by machinery1 but the  

casting itself is entirely completed by 
the skill of the workmen4               
,illustration          ,,the ,,gilder4  
,illustration3 ,a ,gilder's ,workshop4  
,when once the house is built and the   
work of bricklayer1 carpenter1  plumber1
 painter1 glazier1 and mason is         
finished1 it is necessary to set  about 
those decorations which accompany the   
furnishing2 and one of the  first of the
 trades needed for this purpose is that 
of the ,gilder1 who  has to do not only 
with cornices1 mouldings and other      
ornaments1 but  also with the frames of 
pictures and looking-glasses that adorn 
the walls  and chimney-pieces4    ,these
 frames1 however1 have first to be made 
by the joiner1 and then  receive the    
work of the carver1 or the ornament     
maker4 ,the joiner does  little more    
than put the plain groundwork of the    
frame together2 but the  duty of the    
carver is of a very artistic            
description2 and to be a good  carver in
 wood requires an education and a taste 

very nearly equal to  that of the       
sculptor1 with whom the artists in wood 
formerly held a high  rank4    ,most of 
the ornaments now used for frames1      
however1 are less expensive  than those 
formerly produced by the carver who     
added a fresh value to  the painting or 
the looking-glass by exercising his     
skill upon the  costly settings in which
 they appeared4 ,composition ornaments  
are now  in general demand for all but  
the most expensive frames1 and as this  
composition--which is formed of glue1   
water1 linseed oil1 resin1 and          
whiting--is pressed into moulds when it 
is of about the consistence  of dough1  
it is evident that the mould maker has  
partially taken  the carver's place4 ,a 
new substance1 however1 has to a great  
extent  superseded the old composition1 
and this is papier-mch1 or the pulp  of 
paper 7literally1 mashed or beaten      
paper71 which1 from its lightness1  its 
greater strength and durability1 and the
 thinness to which ornaments  made of it

 can be reduced1 is preferable for all  
large decorations4    ,whatever may be  
the size or pattern of the frame1       
however1 we will  suppose that the      
ornament maker received it from the     
joiner1 who puts it  together after it  
has been covered with coatings of hot   
size and whiting2  the size being made  
from parchment cuttings or kid leather  
parings  boiled to a sort of jelly4 ,the
 nail or screw holes are then filled up 
with putty by the help of the putty     
knife1 and the surface of the frame     
smoothed with pieces of pumice stone4   
,the ornament maker next fixes on  the  
decorations and hands it to the ,gilder1
 whose first business is to  wash the   
ornaments carefully in order to remove  
any oil that may have  remained on their
 surface from the inside of the cast4   
,illustration3 ,size4 ,whiting4 ,putty  
,knife4 ,badger ,tool4 ,duster4 ,gold   
,leaf  ,knife4 ,cushion4 ,tip4    ,the  
principal tools required by the ,gilder 
are1 first3 the cushion1  which is a    

flat board covered with several layers  
of woollen or flannel  and afterwards   
with a piece of leather1 which is       
stretched tightly over  it and nailed   
down to the edges1 thus forming a firm  
but soft and  elastic bed4 ,a rim of    
parchment carried round one end of the  
cushion  serves to hold the gold leaf4  
,second3 a gold leaf knife--which is a  
straight smooth-edged instrument1 not   
very sharp1 but carefully pointed  at   
the end4 ,third3 the tip--a tool        
generally made of two pieces of  card or
 very thin board glued together and     
holding between them a row  of camel's  
hairs4 ,it is also necessary to have a  
badger tool and a  duster2 the first for
 removing the loose edges and flying    
scraps of  gold leaf1 after the gilding 
is completed1 and the latter for        
brushing  away dust from the frame4     
,illustration3 ,miniature ,burnisher4   
,burnisher4 ,no4 #a4 ,burnisher4 ,no4   
#b4  ,burnisher4 ,no4 #c4 ,chisel4      
,putter-down4 ,gold ,leaf ,box4    ,the 

burnishers are pieces of smooth stone   
7flint or agate7 set in  handles1 and   
are used for rubbing some parts of the  
gold1 when it is  set on the frame1     
until it attains a brilliant polish and 
smoothness of  surface3 the bright gold 
portions of a frame being known as      
burnish1  and the dull parts or 8dead   
gold0 as matt4    ,a chisel and knife   
are necessary for removing any          
inequalities or  overflowings of size   
from the edge of the frame2 the feather 
duster is  used to dust the new gilding 
before it is sent home2 the size pot is 
the vessel in which the size is melted1 
and the pan receives it before  it is   
laid on4 ,the putter-down is a large    
soft brush used for pressing  down the  
gold into the ornaments1 and removing   
the ragged edges of the  gold-leaf from 
those parts of the frame where it is    
most difficult to  place it smoothly4   
,illustration3 ,feather ,duster4 ,size  
,pot4 ,pan4 ,gold ,book4    ,the gold   
box is of course a receptacle for the   

gold leaf1 and as the  leaf is sent from
 the gold beaters in sheets placed      
between leaves of  paper sewn together  
like a volume1 this is naturally called 
the gold  book4    ,having received his 
frame1 then1 the ,gilder first gives it 
two or three  coatings of 8thin white10 
which is the name by which the size and 
whiting  is known in the trade4 ,if any 
part of the frame is to be burnished1 it
  afterwards receives a coat or two of  
rather thicker size4    ,when these are 
dry1 strong warm size is laid on with a 
brush2 this  is called clear cole1 and  
produces a smooth glossy surface1 which 
prevents the oil gold size from sinking 
through4 ,oil gold size is the  next    
coating given to the frame1 and it is   
made of ochre and boiled  linseed oil1  
ground up together into a smooth creamy 
liquid1 which is  thinned with more     
boiled linseed oil1 and put on very     
carefully with  a soft brush4 ,in a few 
hours1 after the oil gold size is put   
on1 it  is sufficiently dry to receive  

the gold leaf2 the surface being then   
slightly sticky1 so that it will hold it
 firmly and without its own  surface    
being disturbed4    ,illustration3      
,pipkin4 ,rule4 ,gold ,size ,pot4       
,the ,gilder now commences the most     
important part of his work by taking    
the cushion on his left hand1 with his  
thumb through a loop which is  attached 
to the bottom of the leather2 between   
the fingers of the same  hand he places 
the tools that he will have to          
use1--namely1 the tip1 the  gold knife1 
and the camel-hair pencil4 ,he then     
takes a gold book and  carefully blows  
out a leaf at a time on to the cushion1 
until he has  eight or ten leaves all   
heaped together within the rim of       
parchment which  holds them from flying 
away4 ,this is a very delicate          
operation1 since if  he should blow too 
hard the leaves would be carried all    
over the room4  ,he next separates one  
of the leaves from the rest with his    
knife1 and  without cutting or tearing  

it lays it down smoothly upon the front 
part  of the cushion1 partly by a gentle
 use of the knife itself1 and partly  by
 skilfully blowing upon it4 ,then taking
 the tip in his right-hand he  carefully
 presses it on the leaf1 to which it    
adheres1 and by this means  transfers it
 to that part of the frame where he is  
at work4 ,where the  ornaments are very 
deep1 the same part is gilt three or    
four times over1  and the gold is       
sometimes pressed in with a wad of      
cotton4    ,illustration3 ,skewing      
,brush4 ,small ,pencil4    ,after the   
whole surface is carefully skewed1 or   
gone over with the  brush which removes 
the ragged edges and still further      
presses the gold  into the ornaments1   
the frame is well dusted with another   
soft brush1 and  then sized with clear  
size1 after which the work is complete4 
,supposing however that any part of the 
frame is to be of burnished gilt1  the  
clear cole and the oil gold size must   
not be suffered to touch that           

portion1--burnish gold size1 a substance
 made of grease1 clay1 black lead1  red 
chalk1 and bullock's blood1 is used     
instead of the oil gold size4  ,several 
coats of this are laid on the part to be
 burnished1 each being  allowed to dry1 
and perfectly smoothed1 before the other
 is applied4 ,the  surface is then      
washed with a sponge and clean water1   
another coating of  gold size is laid   
on1 the gold leaf is applied1 and the   
burnishing tools  used to impart the    
required lustre4          ,,the         
,,cabinet ,,maker ,,and ,,upholsterer4  
,illustration3 ,,cabinet ,,maker',s     
,,shop4      ,the trades of the         
,carpenter and the ,joiner having been  
considered1 we may  now turn to that of 
the ,cabinet ,maker1 who1 though he     
makes the furniture  of the house1 and  
seldom has anything to do with building 
or fitting the  house itself1 uses many 
of the same tools as the joiner4        
,illustration3 ,panel ,plane4 ,veneer   
,plane4 ,smoothing ,plane4 ,floats4     

,rebate  ,plane4 ,hand ,saw4 ,rebate    
,plane4    ,as the ,cabinet ,maker      
mostly works in more costly woods1 and  
the  operations of his trade have to be 
performed with greater nicety1 his      
implements are generally of rather a    
better sort2 while he has to fashion    
the articles in which he deals in so    
many different shapes that some of  his 
tools1 such as planes and gouges1 are   
constructed especially for  him1 like   
the panel plane1 used as its name       
implies in smoothing and  forming the   
edges of panels for wardrobes1          
chiffoniers1 and other pieces  of       
furniture before they are placed in     
their frames1 and the veneer  plane1    
intended for putting on veneers1 or the 
thin slabs of costly  wood with which   
more common woods are frequently        
covered4 ,the smoothing  plane and the  
rebate plane1 as well as the hand saw1  
the tenon  saw1 the gimlet1 and the rule
 and square1 have already been          
mentioned in connexion with the joiner's

 business4    ,then there are moulding  
planes1 with their blades shaped hollow 
so that  they will cut a strip of wood  
into a rounded form1 or shaped round so 
as  to cut a hollow groove4             
,illustration3 ,square4 ,hand ,saw4     
,gimlet4 ,rule4    ,sometimes boards are
 joined at the edges by a process called
 match  boarding3 a groove being made   
along the edge of one board while the   
edge  of another is cut with a tongue   
along the middle to fit accurately into 
the groove4 ,for this purpose a pair of 
match planes are used1 one of  which    
makes the groove and the other the      
tongue exactly of the proper  size to   
fit perfectly4 ,this kind of joint is   
used for common doors1 which  it is not 
worth while to frame together in panels4
 ,the boards after being  matched are   
nailed close together to strong         
cross-pieces4    ,the operations of     
mortising and dovetailing have been     
described in the  description of        
joiner's work4 ,the various fittings and

 joints used  in making chairs1 couches1
 tables1 cabinets1 side-boards1 and     
other  furniture are adaptations of the 
same kind1 or differ only according to  
the shape and position of the various   
parts4 ,in ornamental cabinet work  the 
separate parts1 such as pillars1 legs1  
arms1 and other pieces1 are  often      
supplied by the turner and the wood     
carver1 who sometimes carry out  their  
designs under the direction of the      
,cabinet ,maker4    ,mahogany and many  
other of the harder woods are difficult 
to work1 as the  grain does not all run 
the same way1 so that in planing them   
the wood is  likely to split or chip    
where it should be shaved off smoothly4 
,to remedy  this inconvenience1 the     
,cabinet ,maker's planes are furnished  
with double  irons1 that is1 an iron    
with a flat dull edge is screwed on to  
the face  of the cutting iron1 so as to 
prevent the shavings chipping against   
the  grain4 ,the more cross-grained the 
wood is the closer the workman brings   

down the dull iron towards the edge of  
the sharp one1 and his shavings  are    
consequently finer4    ,the veneering   
plane is about the same size as the     
smoothing plane1  but the iron instead  
of having a smooth edge is toothed like 
a fine saw1  so that1 instead of taking 
off shavings1 it makes scratches all    
along the  grain of the wood4 ,this is  
applied to the veneer as well as to the 
wood  to which the veneer is to be      
glued1 so that the glue may easily hold 
the  two rough surfaces together4       
,illustration3 ,tool ,chest4            
,previous to the veneer being put on1   
the work is well warmed before a  fire1 
and the glue brush worked freely over   
both the veneer and wood  to which it is
 to be applied4 ,when the veneer is put 
on1 it is rubbed  backward and forward1 
at the same time being pressed down with
 the hands  until it sticks in the right
 place4 ,there are often lumps here and 
there  where there is too much glue1 and
 these are remedied by the veneering    

hammer1 the head of which is made of    
wood furnished with a strip of iron     
plate4 ,this strip is laid flat on the  
veneer1 and the head of the hammer      
pressed with the hand while it is worked
 about by the handle1 pressing  out the 
glue as it moves towards the edge4 ,when
 a piece of furniture is  too large to  
be covered with one veneer1 these thin  
slabs of wood are  laid on in several   
pieces1 the edges being first planed    
quite straight  and made to meet with   
the greatest accuracy4 ,the whole       
surface is  afterwards worked with the  
toothing plane1 and then scraped with a 
flat  square piece of steel1 which takes
 off a wonderfully fine thin shaving    
and leaves the surface perfectly smooth4
 ,it is afterwards finished with        
sandpaper4 ,it is then ,french polished 
with a liquid composed mostly  of       
rectified spirits of wine1 gum1 shellac1
 gum seed lac1 and ,venice  turpentine1 
the furniture being previously well     
oiled that it may better  receive this  

sort of varnish4    ,clamps are a sort  
of screw vice for holding the various   
parts of the  work4 ,the bow saw is a   
small fine blade of steel notched like a
 saw1  and fixed to a short handle1 from
 which a wooden or metal bow extends  to
 the other end of the blade4 ,the bow   
keeps the saw from buckling or          
breaking1 and the tool is used for small
 work1 like the fretwork in front  of   
pianos1 where a corner has to be turned 
and the piece sawn out4 ,the  screws    
seen in the larger picture hanging above
 the ,cabinet ,maker's  bench are used  
for holding pieces together after being 
glued1 or on other  occasions4          
,illustration3 ,bow ,saw4 ,clamps4      
,it is supposed that there are about    
#ej1jjj workers in wood in ,london1 and 
#cej1jjj in all ,england4 ,about        
#afj1jjj timber trees of average size   
are  required to make the furniture for 
the new houses built every year in      
,england and ,wales4 ,in cabinet making 
there are many departments1 such as  the

 chair maker1 the bedstead maker1 the   
carver1 the general manufacturer  of    
tables1 drawers1 side-boards1 wardrobes1
 c4 and the fancy ,cabinet  ,maker1 who 
uses costly woods and makes workboxes1  
desks1 dressing-cases1  and similar     
articles4    ,a good set of ,cabinet    
,maker's tools is worth from #cj to #dj4
    ,the ,upholsterer1 whose trade is   
generally joined to that of the master  
,cabinet ,maker1 does what is called the
 8soft work10 that is1 he  undertakes   
the curtains1 hangings1 cushions1       
carpets1 beds1 and the  stuffing of the 
seats of chairs4 ,for these operations  
he requires but few  tools4             
,illustration3 ,upholsterer's ,shop4    
,illustration3 ,devil4 ,strainer4 ,web  
,strainer4 ,bench ,screw4 ,square4      
,the devil is the ugly and very absurd  
name given to a machine  consisting of a
 box1 inside which a spiked wheel turns2
 the use of this  implement is to       
separate and tear to pieces such woven  
substances  as1 when reduced to shreds1 

serve for the stuffing of furniture1 as 
also to soften and make finer hemp or   
tow for the same purpose1 when          
horsehair1 which is the best and most   
expensive material1 is not used4        
,cocoa-nut fibre is now sometimes       
applied for this purpose2 and in the    
commonest furniture hay is frequently   
placed as a foundation1 with a  small   
quantity of horsehair on the top4 ,the  
bench screw is a kind of  vice which    
will hold a very thick substance1 like  
the seat of a chair  or sofa1 without   
injuring the woodwork2 the web strainer 
is used for  stretching strong          
cross-pieces of webbing across the      
bottom of the seats  of chairs or       
couches1 to make a firm foundation for  
the stuffing to rest  upon1 and with the
 ordinary strainer to bring the canvas  
cover that  confines the stuffing       
tightly and firmly to its place1 an     
operation which  requires great care1   
especially when metal springs are placed
 beneath the  horsehair to make the seat

 more elastic4 ,the ,upholsterer's      
hammer is  of such a shape that it will 
drive a small nail deeply down in a     
space  when it is hidden by the damask  
or leather covering of the furniture4   
,the punches are for a similar purpose2 
while the needle and the  regulator are 
used in stuffing the seats and properly 
adjusting the  hair or other material4  
,illustration3 ,upholsterer's ,hammers4 
,punches4 ,float4 ,screwdriver4         
,needle4 ,regulator4 ,bradawl4          
,,floor-,,cloth ,,manufacturer4         
,illustration3 ,,drying ,,warehouse4    
,the trade of manufacturing floor-cloth 
may be said to be connected with  the   
furnishing of the house1 since this very
 useful covering for the  floors of     
halls and passages is now in almost     
universal use4 ,floor-cloth  is         
generally made in large factories built 
for the purpose1 since  considerable    
space is required1 not only for         
preparing1 painting1 and  putting the   
pattern upon the cloth1 but also for    

drying it when it is  finished1 the     
great lengths in which it is made       
rendering it necessary to  hang it from 
a great height1 in order that it may dry
 without the paint  being damaged 7see  
drying warehouse74 ,the smell of the    
paint and other  substances also makes  
it desirable to have the factory well   
ventilated1  and situated at some       
distance from dwelling-houses4    ,the  
cloth is made partly of hemp and partly 
of flax1 the former being  the cheaper  
of the two1 but the latter being fitted 
to retain the oil  and paint on the     
surface without allowing it so easily to
 sink or soak  through4 ,in order to    
avoid the necessity for seams or        
joinings in the  cloth1 looms are       
constructed expressly for weaving canvas
 of the greatest  width likely to be    
required4 ,when the pieces of cloth are 
taken to the  floor-cloth factories1    
they are generally either #ajj yards    
long and #f  yards wide1 #ajh yards long
 and #g yards wide1 or #aac yards long  

and #h  yards wide4 ,the flax and hemp  
are spun and the canvas woven           
principally  in ,scotland1 in the town  
of ,dundee4    ,illustration3 ,shears4  
,cutting ,knife4    ,the canvas is cut  
into pieces 7see cutting knife and      
shears71 varying  from #fj to #ajj feet 
long1 and each of these pieces is       
stretched over a  frame in a vertical   
position1 most factories having a large 
number of  such frames1 some often #ajj 
feet long by #ah or #bj feet high1 and  
others  of smaller dimensions4 ,a wash  
of melted size is applied by means of a 
brush to each surface2 and while this is
 wet the surface is well rubbed  with a 
flat piece of pumice stone1 by which the
 little irregularities of  the canvas   
are worn down1 and a foundation is laid 
for the oil and colour  afterwards to be
 applied4    ,the preparation of        
japanned cottons1 which are used for    
table covers1 or  what is known as      
8oil-cloth10 is very similar4    ,the   
paint employed for floor-cloth consists 

of the same mineral colours  as that    
used in house painting1 and is mixed    
with linseed oil in the same  way2 but  
it is very much thicker and stiffer in  
consistence1 and has  very little       
turpentine added to it4 ,the canvas     
receives several coatings  on the back  
as well as on the front1 and is well    
dried and smoothed at  intervals4       
,illustration3 ,blocks4 ,the finished   
,pattern4 ,pattern for ,floor ,cloth4   
,back of ,printing ,block4              
,illustration3 ,preparing ,japanned     
,cottons4    ,the pattern is placed on  
by means of wooden blocks1 on the first 
of  which the rudiments1 or ground work1
 of the design is cut1 and on the  rest 
other portions of the pattern1 so that1 
as they are covered with  paint and     
applied to the cloth by the workman1 the
 pattern is gradually  printed1 and     
appears in the different colours which  
are successively  applied to each block4
    ,illustration3 ,printing ,floor     
,cloth4    ,the blocks are made of      

pear-tree wood on one side and of deal  
on the  other1 the pear-tree wood being 
more easily engraved with the pattern4  
,the blocks 7which we will suppose to be
 four for one pattern--red1 yellow1     
blue1 and green7 being ready1 and the   
prepared canvas spread out on a  flat   
table1 the printing commences4    ,the  
paint 7say red7 is applied with a brush 
to the surface of a pad or  cushion     
formed of flannel covered with floor    
cloth2 the block held by  a handle at   
the back is placed face downwards on    
this cushion1 and the  layer of paint   
thus obtained on the surface of the     
block is printed on  the canvas by      
pressing the block smartly down upon the
 surface of the  latter4 ,a second      
impression is made in the same way1 by  
the side of and  close to the first1    
until the whole surface of the canvas is
 printed over  with the pattern of this 
first block1 which is generally about   
#ae inches  square4 ,then the second    
block is applied1 and adds a little more

 to the  pattern in another colour2 the 
third follows1 adding still more2 and   
then  the fourth1 which completes the   
printing4    ,illustration3 ,trowel4    
,claw4 ,scrubbing ,brush4 ,palette      
,knife4 ,paint  ,brushes4 ,roughing     
,comb4 ,hammer4    ,the trowel and      
palette knife spreading and mixing the  
paint1 the  roughing comb for patterns  
where the grain of wood is imitated1 and
 the  pots1 cans1 and jars1 for the     
colours1 are the principal tools besides
  those already described4              
,,the ,,paper ,,stainer4                
,illustration3 ,,printing ,,press4      
,the trade of the ,paper ,stainer has   
grown to be one of considerable         
importance1 and this is not to be       
wondered at when we consider how much   
the art of paper staining has increased 
the means of decorating our  houses1 by 
hanging the walls with elegant patterns 
printed in beautiful  colours1 instead  
of leaving them of one dull uniform hue1
 or a bare  surface of wood and plaster4

    ,in old times the walls of rooms    
were either of panelled wood1 sometimes 
carved and polished1 or were hung with  
tapestry made with the needle1 or  with 
woven silk1 cotton1 or linen1 but the   
former was extremely costly1  and the   
latter neither cleanly nor healthy4 ,the
 trade of the ,paper  ,stainer has to a 
great extent superseded both1 and the   
interior walls of  houses are now seldom
 formed entirely of wood1 since they are
 intended to  be covered with various   
qualities of paper hangings4            
,illustration3 ,front of ,printing      
,block4 ,back of ,wooden ,block for     
,printing4    ,the mode of printing or  
painting a pattern on large sheets of   
paper  has now been in use for nearly   
two hundred years1 although1 of course1 
improved methods are at present         
employed4    ,there are three modes of  
producing the pattern on paper hangings4
 #ast4  ,wooden blocks are carved with  
the outlines of the figures only in     
relief2  with these the paper is        

printed1 and the pattern is afterwards  
finished  by hand painting with a       
pencil4 ,this mode is slow and too      
expensive for  ordinary use4 #b;dly4 ,a 
sheet of leather1 tin1 or copper1 is cut
 with holes  in the required pattern1   
and a brush dipped in colour is worked  
over the  sheet after it is laid upon   
the paper1 so that the paint goes       
through the  holes1 and leaves the      
pattern in colour4 ,this is called      
stencilling1 and  is only employed for  
very common hangings4 ,the third process
 consists of  carving a wood block for  
each of the colours used in the pattern1
 and  printing the paper by almost      
exactly the same method as that employed
 for  printing floor-cloth1 an operation
 which has already been described4      
,illustration3 ,crutch4 ,ladle4 ,hand   
,brush4 ,spat4 ,paint ,brushes4    ,the 
paper is printed in pieces twelve yards 
long4 ,a piece is laid out  on a long   
bench and the ground colour applied1    
consisting of whiting  tinted with some 

sort of pigment and liquefied with      
melted size4 ,this is  laid on with     
large brushes4 ,when the paper is dry it
 is ready to receive  the print at the  
printing press1 where the blocks are    
pressed upon it  by a sort of weighted  
arm which comes down from above the     
centre of the  bench4 ,there must       
generally be as many blocks as there are
 colours in the  pattern4               
,illustration3 ,colour ,sieve4 ,paint   
,pot4 ,colour ,drum4 ,size ,can4        
,some paper hangings have a glossy or   
satin ground4 ,to produce this a  ground
 of satin white1 properly tinted1 is    
laid on2 this ground is then  rubbed    
with powdered ,french chalk1 and worked 
with a brush till a gloss  is produced4 
,sometimes these papers are passed      
between heated rollers  which have been 
engraved with a sort of pattern1 and    
this produces a  pattern without any    
additional colour1 like that of figured 
or watered  silk4    ,flock papers are  
those in which part of the pattern      

resembles cloth4 ,to  produce this the  
pattern is printed1 not in paint1 but in
 size1 and then  the paper being passed 
through the flock drum1 the flock 7which
 is  composed of fragments of woollen   
cloth7 adheres to the pattern4          
,illustration3 ,drum for laying on      
,flock4    ,striped hangings are        
sometimes produced by the paper being   
quickly passed  on a roller beneath a   
trough1 the colour in which flows       
through a number  of parallel slits in  
the bottom2 and occasionally various    
coloured  stripes are obtained by       
dividing the trough into cells1 with one
 cell  and one slit for each colour4    
,some papers1 in order to bear washing  
or  cleaning1 are printed with colours  
mixed with oil or varnish instead of    
size4    ,illustration3 ,paper ,staining
 ,machine4          ,,the ,,calico      
,,printer4    ,illustration3 ,,cylinder 
,,printing ,,machine4      ,the trade of
 the ,calico ,printer may be said to be 
one of the most  important in this      

country1 since we export such immense   
quantities of  cotton prints to our     
various colonies1 as well as to other   
countries in  the world1 that this      
business forms a very considerable part 
of ,british  commerce4    ,calicoes1    
muslins1 c4 intended for printing must  
first have the fibres  removed from     
their surface by the operation of the   
singeing machine2  which consists of a  
half-cylinder of iron or copper laid    
horizontally1  and kept at a bright heat
 by a range of gas-flames or a furnace2 
over  this half-cylinder the length of  
cloth is drawn with a steady motion till
  the down or fibre is singed off4      
,illustration3 ,bowking ,kiers4    ,the 
next process is that of bleaching1      
because the whiter the cotton  cloth    
becomes1 the more light it will reflect 
from the surface1 and the  more         
brilliant the colour of the dyes will   
appear4    ,the principal chemical      
substance used for bleaching cotton is  
chloride of  lime1 which is known as    

bleaching powder2 but there are several 
processes  employed in its application1 
as well as various methods which are    
adopted by different manufacturers to   
increase its effects by mechanical      
contrivances1 the application of heat1  
or otherwise4    ,illustration3 ,dash   
,wheel4    ,the first operation of      
bleaching1 however1 and that which      
immediately  follows singeing1 is       
boiling the cloth in an alkaline bath   
consisting  of a solution of soda4 ,for 
this purpose a bowking apparatus is     
used4  ,this machine 7see cut7 is1 in   
fact1 a large cauldron1 with a flat     
false  bottom to protect the cloth from 
being scorched by the fire beneath4     
,through the centre of this false bottom
 a vertical pipe rises from near  the   
real bottom to a height above the top of
 the cauldron1 and carries a  conical   
cap like an umbrella above its open end 
at top4 ,when the liquid  in the        
cauldron begins to boil thoroughly the  
steam forces a constant  stream of      

liquid up the pipe1 which stream is     
scattered by forcing  against the       
umbrella-shaped cap1 and so falls with  
some force back on to  the cotton in the
 cauldron4 ,when this process has       
continued long enough1  the liquor is   
allowed to cool1 and the cotton is taken
 to be rinsed at  the dash wheel1 where 
it is subjected to the free action of   
water1 or  to a rinsing machine1 so     
constructed that the web travels on     
rollers1 and  is thoroughly washed      
during its course4    ,illustration3    
,wringing ,machine4    ,the simplest and
 earliest method of imprinting figures  
upon calico is  by means of a wooden    
block1 upon the face of which the design
 is cut in  relief1 as in an ordinary   
wood-cut4 ,the block is of sycamore1    
holly1 or  pear-tree wood1 or more      
commonly of deal1 faced with one of     
these woods4  ,the block varies in size 
from nine to twelve inches long1 and    
from four  to seven inches broad1 and it
 is furnished on the back with a strong 

handle4 ,when the design is complicated1
 and a very distinct impression is      
required1 the figure is sometimes formed
 by the insertion of narrow slips  of   
flattened copper wire1 the space between
 being filled with felt4                
,illustration3 ,face of ,block for      
,calico ,printing4 ,back of ,calico     
,block4    ,the printing block1 which is
 worked by hand1 is charged with colour 
by  pressing it gently upon a piece of  
superfine woollen cloth called the      
sieve1 stretched tightly over a wooden  
drum1 which floats in a tub full  of    
size or thick varnish to give it        
elasticity1 so that every part of the   
raised device may acquire a sufficient  
coating of colour4 ,the sieve is  kept  
uniformly covered with the colouring    
matter by a boy or girl called  the     
tearer1 who takes up with a brush a     
small quantity of the colour  contained 
in a small pot1 and distributes it      
uniformly over the surface2  for if this
 were not done1 the block would take up 

the colour unequally4    ,the printing  
shop is a long well-lighted apartment1  
the air of which  is kept warm for the  
purpose of drying the cloth as it is    
printed2 to  insure which it is passed  
over hanging rollers1 so as to expose a 
large  surface to the air4 ,the printing
 table1 which is about six feet long1 is
  made of some well seasoned hard wood1 
such as mahogany1 or of marble1 or      
flag-stone1 the object being to present 
a perfectly flat hard surface4  ,this   
table is covered with a blanket1 upon   
which the calico is extended1  and the  
block1 being charged with colour1 is    
applied to its surface1 a  blow being   
given with a wooden mallet to transfer  
the impression fully  to the cloth4 ,it 
is necessary1 of course1 to join the    
different parts  of the design with     
precision1 and in doing so the printer  
is guided by  small pins at the corners 
of the block4 ,thus1 by repeated        
applications of  the block to the       
woollen cloth and to the calico         

alternately1 the whole  length of calico
 is printed4    ,illustration3 ,drying  
,room4    ,by this method1 a single     
block prints only one colour1 so that1  
if  the design contain three or more    
colours1 three or more blocks will be   
required1 all of equal size1 the raised 
parts in each corresponding  with the   
depressed parts in all the others2 in   
order1 therefore1 to  print a piece of  
cloth twenty-eight yards long1 and      
thirty inches broad1  with three blocks1
 each measuring nine inches by five1 no 
less than  #fgb applications of each1 or
 #b1jaf applications of the three       
blocks1  are necessary4 ,thus it will be
 seen that printing by hand is a tedious
  operation1 requiring more diligence   
than skill4    ,illustration3 ,brush4   
,when the design1 however1 consists of  
straight parallel stripes of  different 
colours1 they may be applied by one     
block at a single  impression4 ,for this
 purpose the colours are contained in as
 many small  tin troughs as there are   

colours to be printed4 ,these troughs   
are  arranged in a line1 and a small    
portion of each colour is transferred   
from them to the woollen cloth by a kind
 of wire-brush4 ,the colour is          
distributed evenly in stripes over the  
surface of the sieve by a wooden  roller
 covered with woollen cloth4 ,for the   
rainbow style1 as a peculiar  pattern is
 called1 the colours are blended into   
one another at their  edges by a brush  
or rubber4    ,an important improvement 
has been made in the construction of    
hand-blocks1 by the application of a    
stereotype plate as the printing        
surface4 ,a small mould is produced from
 a model of the pattern1 and the        
stereotype copies are then made by      
pouring mixed metal into it4 ,a number  
of the stereotype plates are then formed
 into a printing block1 by being        
arranged in a stout piece of wood4      
,illustration3 ,one of the ,cylinders of
 the ,machine1 showing the way by  which
 it is coloured4    ,the greatest       

mechanical improvement in the art of    
calico printing was the  invention of   
the cylinder or roller printing at the  
end of the last  century4 ,this style of
 printing has been generally adopted in 
,lancashire1  and is the cause of the   
success of the ,english over the        
continental  printers4 ,one cylinder    
machine1 attended by one man to regulate
 the  rollers1 is capable of printing as
 many pieces as one hundred men and  one
 hundred girls could print with hand    
blocks in the same time4 ,a mile  length
 of calico can be printed off with four 
different colours in a  single hour4    
,this cylinder machine consists of a    
hollow cylinder or roller of copper1    
about three feet long and three or four 
inches in diameter1 the pattern  on     
which has been produced by the pressure 
of a mill1 on which the design  has been
 originally stamped by the pressure of a
 hard steel roller which  has been      
engraved4    ,the copper cylinders are  
mounted on a strong iron shaft with a   

toothed  wheel at its end1 in order to  
put it in train with the rotatory       
printing  machine for one1 two1 or more 
colours4 ,on a roller at the upper part 
of  this apparatus are wound the calico 
webs stitched together1 the end of      
which is brought between the engraved   
copper cylinder and a large centre      
roller covered with blankets1 against   
which it is made to bear with a  regular
 pressure4    ,the engraved cylinder    
turns on the top of another cylinder    
covered with  woollen cloth1 which      
revolves at the same time as the former1
 while its  under part dips in an oblong
 trough containing the dyeing matter1   
which  is of a pasty consistence4 ,the  
engraved cylinder is in this way        
supplied  with plenty of printing       
colour1 and is cleared from the         
superfluity by  the thin edge of a blade
 made of bronze1 called the doctor1     
which is  applied to it as it turns1 and
 gently scrapes the surface4 ,after this
  the cylinder acts upon the calico1    

which receives the impression of the    
pattern in colour1 and rolls onward at a
 great rate of speed4    ,there are     
various kinds of colours or dye stuffs  
used in calico printing1  some of which 
impart fast colours by themselves1 and  
others which require  the web to be     
first prepared in order that they may   
become fixed4    ,in almost all the     
modes of calico printing the processes  
are very  numerous to ensure the beauty 
and permanence of the colours4 ,in what 
is called the steam colour printing1 the
 agency of steam is applied  to aid in  
fixing the colours to the cloth4 ,the   
cloth is first steeped  in a mordant or 
fixing liquor1 then printed by the      
cylinder in various  colours1 called    
steam colours4 ,it is then hung up to   
dry1 and is  afterwards exposed to the  
action of steam by means of various     
apparatus1  which are adapted to the    
particular effect intended1 to be       
produced in  fixing the dye4    ,the    
designs for calico printing are very    

expensive1 and such a constant          
succession of new patterns are demanded1
 that some of the ,lancashire  printers 
expend several thousands a year on      
designing and engraving alone4          
,illustration          ,,the ,,tinman4  
,illustration3 ,,workshop4      ,tin is 
never found existing in an uncombined or
 native state4 ,tin ore  occurs most    
abundantly in ,cornwall and ,devon1 the 
mines of these counties  having been    
celebrated for this metal from very     
ancient times4 ,the  district in        
,cornwall where tin mines are most      
abundant is termed the  8,stannaries40  
,the ,prince of ,wales for the time     
being derives a large  income from the  
mines1 and is termed ,lord ,warden of   
the ,stannaries4 ,the  word             
8,stannaries0 is derived from the ,latin
 stannum1 tin4 ,the amount  of tin ore  
annually obtained from the ,cornwall and
 ,devon mines amounts  to #aa1jjj tons1 
which1 at the average value of #fc per  
ton1 is worth  #fic1jjj4 ,this ore      

yields about #g1jjj tons of the metal1  
having an  average value of #aai per    
ton4 ,about four-fifths of all the tin  
raised in  the world is produced in     
these mines4 ,the ore is a heavy1 hard1 
brittle1  and usually dark brown        
mineral1 which occurs chiefly in        
granular masses  of various sizes4      
,these grains are obtained in mines1    
where they occur in  veins mixed with   
other minerals1 and also from the beds  
of streams1 where  they have been washed
 out of the soil by the action of       
running water4 ,in  the former case they
 are termed tin stone2 in the latter    
stream-tin4    ,tin is obtained from the
 ore by first breaking up the latter1   
whilst a  current of water flows over it
 and carries off the impurities1 which  
are  lighter1 and therefore more readily
 borne away than the heavier tin ore4   
,after being thus freed from the        
admixture of other minerals1 the ore is 
usually roasted or burned1 to drive off 
any traces of sulphur it may  contain2  

it is afterwards heated to redness with 
blind coal or culm1 and  a small portion
 of lime1 when the melted metal         
separates from the dross1  and runs into
 cavities prepared for its reception4   
,it is afterwards  refined by being     
remelted1 and other impurities          
separated1 which either  sink or float  
on the surface4 ,the purest metal is    
yielded by the ore  called stream-tin1  
which is smelted with charcoal instead  
of coal4 ,if  a block of tin thus       
obtained is heated slightly1 and then   
allowed to  fall from a height1 it      
separates into a number of prisms which 
adhere  together in pyramidal masses4   
,in this state it is termed grain-tin4  
,tin  is a silvery-white metal possessed
 of a high degree of metallic lustre4   
,it is sufficiently soft to be cut with 
a knife1 and may be readily bent1  when 
it gives out a peculiar crackling noise2
 if repeatedly bent and  straightened1  
it becomes hot from the friction of its 
particles with one  another1 and        

ultimately breaks4 ,it is inelastic and 
moderately ductile1  but very malleable1
 the thickness of tin-foil being about  
one thousandth  part of an inch4 ,it has
 but little tenacity1 a wire of         
one-tenth of an  inch in diameter not   
being able to support a heavier weight  
than #di lbs4    ,tin is the most easily
 melted of all the common metals1 and it
  possesses the valuable property of not
 rusting when exposed at ordinary       
temperatures to the conjoined action of 
air and water1 or even to weak          
vegetable acids4 ,tin1 in a pure state1 
is seldom employed2 but in  combination 
with other metals it is a substance of  
great value4 ,its most  important uses  
depend on its power of resisting the    
action of air and  moisture2 it is      
therefore largely employed for          
protecting the surfaces of  copper and  
iron1 that rust so readily4    ,tin     
plate1 or more properly tinned plate1   
which is so largely employed in  the    
manufacture of saucepans1 coffee-pots1  

tea-kettles1 c4 by the tinman  is not1  
as its ordinary name seems to imply1    
made of tin1 but is formed  of the best 
sheet iron1 rolled out to the required  
thickness1 and coated  on each side with
 a layer of tin4 ,copper vessels ought  
to be invariably  tinned inside1 to     
prevent the rusting of the copper by the
 action of  acids4 ,tinfoil is largely  
employed for the purpose of preserving  
moist  articles from becoming dry1 and  
is used instead of paper for enclosing  
fancy soap1 chocolate1 and other        
substances of a similar nature4 ,it is  
also extensively used in the manufacture
 of looking-glasses1 and is  sometimes  
placed behind paper-hangings to exclude 
the damp of the walls4  ,the most       
important alloys into the composition of
 which tin enters are  bronze1 pewter1  
bell-metal1 and solder4 ,tin dissolved  
in acids is largely  employed by dyers  
in fixing or rendering permanent various
 colours used  in dyeing4 ,the          
preparation termed putty powder is a    

rust of tin1 obtained  by exposing the  
melted metal to the air2 it is employed 
in polishing  metals and other articles4
    ,illustration3 ,mallet4 ,soldering  
,iron4 ,hammer4 ,block ,hammer4    ,the 
tinning of the inner surfaces of cooking
 utensils and other vessels  of capacity
 is effected by scouring the surface    
until it is perfectly  bright and clean2
 then heating the vessel1 pouring in    
some melted tin  and rolling it about1  
and rubbing the tin all over the surface
 with a  piece of cloth or a handful of 
tow2 powdered rosin is used to prevent  
the formation of oxide4 ,bridle bits1   
stirrups1 and many other small          
articles1 are tinned by immersing them  
in fluid tin4 ,tin-plate working1  or   
the forming sheets of tinned iron into a
 variety of useful vessels and          
utensils1 is carried on by means of     
bench and hand shears1 mallets1  and    
hammers1 steel heads and wooden blocks1 
soldering irons and  swages4 ,in the    
formation of a vessel1 the first        

operation is to cut the  plate to the   
proper size and form with shears1 and1  
when the dimensions  of the article     
require it1 to join them together1 which
 is done either  by simply laying the   
edge of one plate over that of the      
other1 and then  soldering them         
together1 or by folding the edges       
together with laps and  then soldering  
them4 ,similar joints are required when 
gores or other  pieces are to be        
inserted1 and also at the junction by   
which a cylinder  is closed in4 ,the    
usual method of forming laps1 bends1 or 
folds1 for this  or other purposes1 is  
to lay the plate over the edge of the   
bench and to  bend it by repeated       
strokes with a hammer2 but a machine is 
sometimes  used for this purpose4       
,illustration3 ,straight ,snips4 ,scotch
 ,snips4 ,large ,shears4 ,bent ,snips4  
,after a tin vessel has been rounded    
upon a block or mandril by striking  it 
with a wooden mallet1 and the seams     
finished1 all its exterior edges  are   

strengthened by bending a thick iron    
wire into the proper form1  applying it 
to what would otherwise be the raw edges
 of the metal1 and  dexterously folding 
them over it with a hammer4             
,illustration3 ,two-handed ,wrench4     
,soldering ,pile4 ,pudding ,stake4      
,punches4  ,hatchet ,stake4 ,tongs4     
,a superior kind of tin ware1 commonly  
known as block tin ware1 is  carefully  
finished by beating or planishing with a
 polished steel  hammer upon a metal    
stake4 ,the process of swaging is       
resorted to as a  ready means of        
producing grooved or ridged borders1 or 
other embossed  ornaments4 ,this process
 consists in striking the metal between 
two steel  dies or swages1 the faces of 
which bear the desired pattern1 and are 
made counterparts of each other4 ,many  
ornamental articles are produced  by    
embossing or stamping tin plate1 in the 
same manner as other metallic  sheets1  
with a fly-press or other machinery4    
,cheap coffin-plates are  manufactured  

at ,birmingham in this way2 and these   
and similar articles  are sometimes     
lacquered1 painted1 or japanned4 ,tin   
forms the principal  ingredients in     
various kinds of pewter and other       
white-metal alloys1  which are          
manufactured into domestic utensils by  
casting1 stamping1 and  other processes4
    ,illustration3 ,chisels4 ,charcoal  
,stove4 ,polishing ,anvil4    ,britannia
 metal is a mixture of tin1 antimony1   
copper1 and brass1 which  is melted1    
cast into slabs1 and rolled into sheets4
 ,the principal use  of this metal is   
for candlesticks1 teapots1              
coffee-biggins1 and other  vessels for  
containing liquids4 ,the feet of        
candlesticks1 the bodies  of teapots1   
and other articles containing embossed  
work1 are stamped  between dies2 while  
articles of a more globular shape are   
stamped in two  or more pieces1 and     
afterwards soldered together4 ,the sheet
 metal has  a ductility which enables it
 to be bent into various curved forms by

  pressure on a model or core3 this     
process is called spinning4             
,illustration3 ,funnel ,stake4 ,punches4
 ,horse4 ,punches4 ,bick ,irons4 ,crease
  ,iron4    ,many small vessels1 spoons1
 and other articles1 are cast in an     
alloy  somewhat harder than that which  
is rolled into sheets4 ,most of the     
tools  employed by the ,tinman are the  
irons1 stakes1 and bickers1 on which    
the tin is hammered into proper shape1  
with shears for cutting1 the  punches   
for piercing holes1 and the soldering   
iron and charcoal  stove for making     
joints4    ,illustration          ,,the 
,,farrier4    ,illustration3            
,,farrier',s ,,shed4      ,when we      
remember how usefully horses are        
employed for our advantage1 how         
generously and willingly they work1 and 
how docile and obedient they  are when  
properly treated1 we shall begin to see 
that the trade of the  ,farrier is one  
which should be studied very carefully1 
and that nobody  should follow the      

business who has not become tolerably   
skilful4 ,the  ,farrier who shoes the   
horses1 is very often consulted when    
those animals  are ill1 so that he      
should have some knowledge of simple    
remedies in  cases when the veterinary  
surgeon lives at a distance1 or is out  
of the  way4 ,especially the ,farrier   
should thoroughly understand the        
construction  of the horse's hoof1      
which1 hard and simple as it may look1  
is very  delicate1 and is composed of   
several important parts4    ,one thing  
should never be forgotten in shoeing a  
horse1--first that1  although the hoof  
is a hard horny covering1 it has an     
inside portion  which is very tender and
 liable to be hurt2 and secondly1 that  
the hoof  itself expands as the weight  
of the horse presses upon it4           
,illustration3 ,anvil4 ,stool4 ,staple4 
,pointing ,stake4 ,punch4 ,shoe4        
,illustration3 ,nippers4 ,drawing       
,knife4 ,rasp4 ,buffer4    ,the         
,farrier's shed is fitted with a forge1 

or furnace where the iron is  heated1   
and in which the fire is blown to great 
heat by the huge bellows  fastened above
 it2 it also contains an anvil1 on which
 the horseshoes  are made or shaped1 a  
stool on which the ,farrier sometimes   
sits to  examine a horse's hoof1 and    
staples and rings1 to which the horses' 
heads are fastened by halters during the
 process of shoeing4 ,when a horse  is  
taken to be shod1 the ,farrier should   
begin by taking off one of the  old     
shoes4 ,he first raises the clenches    
with a tool called the buffer  and if   
the shoe does not then come off easily1 
loosens some of the nails  with the     
punch1 till it can be gently removed4   
,when the shoe is off he  rasps the edge
 of the hoof all round1 and with the    
nippers or pincers  takes out any stubs 
that may be left in the hoof4 ,he then  
pares the hard  portions of the foot1   
and this is an operation which requires 
great care  and skill as well as a good 
deal of practice in the use of the      

drawing  knife4 ,the ,farrier must      
always remember the state of the roads  
when he  is paring the horse's feet1 for
 if the roads are dry and stony he must 
take off very little of the horn1 or the
 foot will be bruised4    ,illustration3
 ,fulter4 ,damper4 ,slice4 ,pretchel4   
,swage4 ,tongs4 ,turning  ,hammer4      
,the horseshoes are frequently purchased
 by the ,farrier of the ,blacksmith  who
 makes them1 but some ,farriers are also
 ,smiths1 and both make and fit  the    
horseshoes4 ,in either case the ,farrier
 keeps a stock of rough shoes  which he 
alters at the time that they are wanted1
 so that they may fit  the horse1 and   
one of the first things to be done is to
 make the groove  all round the shoe1   
and drill the holes in it for the nails4
 ,this groove1  in which the heads of   
the nails sink1 is called the 8fuller10 
and the  tool with which it is made is  
also called the 8fuller10 or 8fulter40  
,having cut off the ends or heels of the
 shoe1 made the fuller1 and  opened the 

nail holes1 the ,farrier next makes what
 is called the 8clip10  which means     
turning up the toe of the shoe1 to      
prevent its being forced  back on the   
hoof4 ,in these parts of his work he has
 probably used the  chisel1 turning     
hammer1 swage and pretchel1 while for   
the work  at the forge he has had to    
employ the poker1 the tongs for holding 
the shoe on the anvil1 the slice for    
taking small things from the  fire1 and 
the damper1 which is a wisp of wet straw
 held by wooden tongs  for lessening the
 heat of the shoe during hammering4 ,he 
next begins to  fit the shoe1 the horse 
being tied up to the staple in the wall 
of the  shed4 ,the fitting of the shoe  
is an operation requiring the greatest  
care  and attention1 and the good       
,farrier will spare no pains to do his  
work  perfectly1 as many a valuable     
horse has been ruined by an ill-fitting 
shoe4 ,when the shoe is fitted it is    
8filed up10 by which all roughness is   
removed from the edges of the nail      

holes1 and the sharp edges of the shoe  
itself are taken off4    ,illustration3 
,nail4 ,nail ,bag4 ,shoeing ,hammer4    
,the ,farrier generally makes his own   
nails since they are of a peculiar      
shape1 and the heads should completely  
fill the nail holes1 that they  may not 
allow the shoe to shift on the horse's  
hoof4 ,they are made from  long rods of 
iron called nail rods1 and when finished
 are spread about  the smithy to cool1  
because when they are allowed to cool   
gradually they  become harder1 and less 
liable to break4    ,if the nails are of
 a proper shape1 the holes straight     
through the shoe1  and the shoe fits the
 foot1 very little skill is required to 
nail it on1  and clench the ends of the 
nails to the hoof4 ,before the shoe is  
nailed  on1 however1 it is usual1 when  
the horse has tender feet1 to cover the 
sole of the foot with leather1          
gutta-percha1 or felt made waterproof1  
8felt0 being made of woollen cloth torn 
to shreds which are then pressed        

together and formed into sheets4 ,in any
 case the ,farrier is expected to  8stop
 the foot10 that is1 to fill the hollow 
and tender portion of the  foot within  
the shoe1 with tow or oakum dipped in   
tar4    ,illustration3 ,fleam4 ,stamp4  
,scissors4 ,ladle and ,spatula4 ,brush4 
,poker4  ,reaching ,iron4    ,the shoe  
is now nailed on1 and a good ,farrier   
will often be able to  secure it with   
only five nails4    ,the hind shoes are 
of course different in shape to those   
which are placed  on the fore feet1 and 
it is generally necessary to use seven  
nails to fix  them on to the hoofs1     
since the hind foot expands less than   
the fore1 and  there is more drag upon  
it when the horse is in motion1 so that 
the shoe  is more easily shifted4       
,the time at which a horse's shoes want 
removing depends on several  causes4 ,if
 a horse wear out his shoes in less than
 a month they had  better not be        
removed1 but whether the shoes are worn 
or not the horse's  hoofs should be     

looked to by the ,farrier1 every three  
or four weeks1 as  the hoofs sometimes  
outgrow the shoes1 and the shoes require
 refitting4    ,from what has been said 
about the ,farrier's business it will be
 seen that  it is a most important one1 
but besides the knowledge and experience
  required for the more mechanical part 
of his work1 he should also know        
something of the diseases and ailments  
of horses1 and be able to apply  the    
proper remedies4    ,it is true that    
this part of the business belongs       
properly to the  veterinary surgeon1 but
 the ,farrier should at all events      
understand what  is proper to be done in
 any ordinary disorder or in cases of   
emergency4  ,he will of course know how 
to use the fleam when the animals       
require  bleeding1 as they frequently   
do4 ,this instrument is a sort of knife1
  the sharp part of which is the small  
spade-shaped pieces at the ends of  the 
blades4 ,the ladle for melting the      
ingredients of ointment1 for  sprains or

 swellings1 and the spatula for mixing  
it1 or for spreading  and mixing the    
drugs for boluses or the large pills    
frequently given to  horses1 are some of
 the instruments used in this part of   
the ,farrier's  business4          ,,the
 ,,needle ,,maker4    ,illustration3    
,,grinding ,,needle ,,points4           
,there is perhaps no implement of       
greater importance than that smallest   
of all tools1 the needle1 and in all    
civilized countries the number of       
needles consumed is so great1 and such  
an enormous supply is required for  the 
sewing of the clothes of mankind1 that  
the manufacture is one of the  most     
remarkable in this country1 whence by   
far the greater part of the  whole      
supply is derived4    ,it will only be  
proper in this place for the author to  
acknowledge his  obligations to ,mr4 ,w4
 ,b4 ,tegetmeier1 whose most useful     
little work on  8,common ,objects0      
affords brief and reliable information  
on this as well  as on many other       

interesting subjects4    ,the material  
from which needles are made is soft     
steel wire of the  requisite degree of  
fineness4 ,this is obtained from the    
manufacturer in  large coils1 each      
containing sufficient wire to form      
several thousand  needles4 ,these coils 
are first cut up into pieces of the     
length required  to make two needles1   
usually about three inches1 large shears
 being  used1 capable of cutting a coil 
of one hundred wires4    ,illustration3 
,shears4 ,needles placed in iron rings4 
,soft ,straight ,liner4  ,trowel for    
hardening4    ,five or six thousands of 
these lengths are made into a bundle    
kept  together by a ring of steel at    
each end4 ,they are then heated to      
redness  in a furnace1 and afterwards   
laid upon a flat iron plate1 and rubbed 
backwards and forwards with a steel bar 
until each wire is perfectly  straight4 
,the next stage is to grind a point at  
each end of the wire4 ,this is done  by 
the aid of grindstones about eighteen   

inches in diameter and four  inches     
thick2 they are made to revolve so      
rapidly that they are liable to  fly    
into pieces1 and are therefore partially
 enclosed in iron plates to  avoid      
injury to the grinder1 should such an   
accident occur4 ,the grinder  takes from
 fifty to sixty wires between the thumb 
and forefinger of his  right hand2 and  
as he presses them against the stone1 he
 causes all the  wires to roll round1   
and thus each is ground to a point4 ,so 
expert do the  grinders become by       
practice1 that they point a handful of  
these wires1  usually about sixty1 in   
half a minute1 or about seven thousand  
in an  hour4 ,during the grinding every 
wire gives out a stream of sparks1 and  
these together form a bright glare of   
light4    ,illustration3 ,rubbing4      
,pointing these wires is the most       
unhealthy part of the manufacture2 the  
fine dust is carried into the lungs of  
the workmen1 and destroys them  in a few
 years1 very few living beyond the age  

of forty4 ,wet grindstones  cannot be   
used1 as the points of the needles would
 be rapidly rusted4    ,illustration3   
,drill for making the ,eyes4 ,smooth    
,file for rubbing4  ,hammer4 ,cullender4
 ,packet of ,needles4 ,flat ,file4      
,the wires thus pointed at each end are 
stamped by a heavy hammer1 raised  by a 
lever moved by the workman's foot4 ,the 
under surface of this hammer  is so     
formed1 that when it falls on the wire  
midway between the two  ends it stamps  
on one side the gutters1 or grooves1 in 
which the eye is  afterwards made2 and  
the anvil on which the wire rests when  
the hammer  strikes it forms the two    
grooves on the opposite side4 ,this     
stamping  also makes a slight depression
 or pit on each side at the spot        
intended  for the eye4 ,the wires are   
then passed to a boy1 who takes a number
 of  them in his left hand1 whilst with 
his right he works a press1 moving  two 
hard steel points or piercers4 ,these   
come down upon the wire as it  is placed

 beneath them1 and pierce the eyes for  
the two needles4 ,each  wire now        
resembles two rough unpolished needles  
united together by their  heads2 and as 
it would require much trouble to divide 
them separately  into two needles1 a    
number are threaded upon two very thin  
wires1 and are  separated by filing and 
bending4    ,illustration3 ,hand ,press 
for piercing the ,eyes4 ,stamping4      
,any needles which may have been bent in
 the several processes are  straightened
 by rolling under a steel bar1 and are  
hardened by heating  in a furnace1 and  
suddenly cooled in cold water or oil4   
,after hardening  they are tempered by  
being slightly heated1 and if any are   
bent during  hardening1 they are        
straightened by being hammered on anvils
 with small  hammers2 finally1 the whole
 are polished by laying twenty or thirty
  thousand side by side upon a piece of 
thick canvas1 smearing them with  oil   
and emery1 rolling up the canvas1 and   
rubbing them under a press for  several 

hours or even days4    ,illustration3   
,soft ,straightening4 ,needles placed   
ready to be filed4  ,needles in         
different ,stages of ,manufacture4      
,drilled-eyed needles undergo another   
operation--a fine drill is made  to     
revolve rapidly in the eye of each1 to  
take off the rough edge and  to prevent 
their cutting the thread when used2     
finally1 the points are  finished on a  
revolving stone1 and polished on a wheel
 covered with  leather1 and enclosed in 
a paper for sale4    ,simple as the     
construction of a needle may appear1 it 
has to pass through  the hands of #abj  
workmen1 from the time it leaves the    
iron mine until the  manufacture is     
completed4    ,the chief seat of the    
needle manufacture in this country is   
,redditch1  in ,worcestershire1 where   
upwards of seventy millions are made    
weekly4  ,english needles are far       
superior to those of foreign            
manufacture4    ,illustration           
,,the ,,calenderer ,,and ,,hotpresser4  

,illustration3 ,,mill4      ,the        
business of the ,calenderer and         
,hotpresser in so many respects         
resembles part of that already described
 as preceding the printing of  calico1  
that only a brief notice of it will be  
necessary4 ,the singeing  and bleaching 
of the cotton has been explained1 and   
calendering is the  name generally      
applied in the manufacturing districts  
to the processes  of smoothing1         
dressing1 and glazing cotton and linen  
goods2 the object  being either to      
prepare them for the operations of the  
calico printer1  or to impart the last  
finish to the goods before they are     
folded and  packed for the market4 ,the 
earlier calenders1 or calendering       
machines1  closely resembled a common   
mangle in their action1 but were very   
large  and heavy1 and worked by a       
horse-wheel or other sufficient power1  
but the  process was greatly improved by
 the invention of a machine in which the
  pressure is produced between rollers1 

instead of between rollers and flat     
surfaces1 and in which consequently the 
alternating movement is got rid  of1 and
 also it is easier to give a uniform and
 equal pressure4    ,illustration3      
,singeing ,cotton ,goods before         
,calendering4 ,iron ,plate4  ,roller4   
,windlass4 ,scissors4 ,tongs4           
,illustration3 ,embossed ,roller for    
,machine ,printing4 ,presses4    ,the   
rollers or cylinders were formerly made 
of wood2 they are now  usually of paper 
or cast iron4 ,the paper cylinders are  
formed by packing  a great number of    
circular pieces of stout pasteboard upon
 an iron  axis1 and compressing them    
very tightly by means of iron bolts     
passed  through them1 acting upon       
circular end-plates of cast iron4 ,the  
surface  is brought to a perfectly even 
and polished state by turning in a      
lathe4 ,iron rollers are made hollow and
 when necessary heated from the  inside4
 ,when a glazed or polished surface is  
required on the goods to  be calendered1

 mechanism is employed to cause two     
adjacent rollers to  revolve with       
different velocities1 so as to produce a
 rubbing action4    ,illustration3      
,printing ,press4 ,chair with ,rollers4 
,tin ,block4    ,the furnace for heating
 the rollers1 the chair with rollers1   
the  presses and tin blocks for         
hotpressing1 and the windlass for       
turning1 are easily understood in       
relation to this trade4 ,the printing   
press and embossed cylinder have been   
mentioned in the trade of calico        
printing4 ,the mill1 turned by a horse1 
is used where steam power is not        
employed to put the machinery in motion4
    ,illustration3 ,furnace4            
,,the ,,cutler ,,and ,,file-,,cutter4   
,illustration3 ,,grinding4      ,amongst
 all the trades that occupy the         
attention of mankind1 that of the       
,cutler1 which also includes the tool   
maker1 is certainly one of the most     
essential1 since without tools no other 
manufactures could be carried on4       

,cutting instruments of various kinds   
have been in use from the earliest      
ages1 if for no other purposes1 for     
cutting food1 slaughtering animals1  and
 making war upon each other4 ,in ancient
 times1 as well as amongst some         
barbarous tribes at the present day1    
these implements were frequently  made  
of shells1 edged flints1 or hardened    
wood1 fashioned into sharp  weapons2 at 
a late period1 cutting as well as       
warlike instruments were  formed of     
brass or bronze2 but at the present     
time1 in all civilized  nations they are
 formed exclusively of steel or iron4   
,steel is formed from the purest bar    
iron--that which comes from the         
,swedish mines being preferred4 ,this is
 buried in powdered charcoal and  heated
 to whiteness for several days1 without 
exposure to the air2 during  this time  
the metal becomes much harder1 whiter in
 colour1 crystalline in  texture1 and   
blistered on the surface4 ,the blistered
 steel so produced is  prepared for use1

 either by binding several bars together
 and hammering  them into one1 or by    
melting them in earthenware pots1 called
 crucibles1  and pouring the melted     
metal into moulds of the size required4 
,in the  latter state it is called cast 
steel4    ,cutlery is generally         
understood to comprise all kinds of     
knives1 razors1  lancets1 and edge      
tools1 including scythes1 saws1         
scissors1 shears1  spades1 and many     
others2 and the manufacture of forks1   
files1 and some  other instruments not  
possessing cutting edges1 is frequently 
included in  the business4 ,it will be  
impossible to give a detailed           
description of how  all these are made1 
so only two or three must be selected4  
,in a ,cutler's  factory knife blades   
are forged from steel bars in a number  
of small  rooms1 each containing a      
fireplace or hearth1 a trough to hold   
water1 and  another trough for coke1    
which is specially prepared for this    
kind of  work2 there are also an anvil1 

hammers1 and some other tools4          
,illustration3 ,cutler's ,hammers4      
,anvil4    ,two persons are engaged in  
each room1 one being called the maker or
  forger1 the other the striker4 ,the   
forger buries the end of the steel  bar 
in the fire to the extent required2 and 
to determine when it should  be removed 
requires some judgment1 since if it be  
overheated or 8burnt10  it will be quite
 unfit for cutting purposes4 ,on the    
other hand1 it must  be sufficiently    
heated to acquire the proper degree of  
softness for the  operation of shaping  
the blade from it4 ,when the end of the 
bar has been  properly heated it is     
brought to the anvil1 where it is       
fashioned by the  striker into the      
required shape by means of a few blows  
of the hammer4  ,this roughly shaped    
blade is then cut off from the end of   
the bar1 which  is again heated for     
forming the next shape1 and so on to the
 end4    ,the cutting part of the blade 
thus rudely formed is next welded to a  

piece of iron1 which forms the bolster1 
or shoulder1 that is1 the  part that    
rises round the handle of the knife4 ,to
 make the shoulder of  the size and     
shape required1 and to give it neatness 
and finish1 it is  introduced into a die
 by the side of the anvil1 and a swage  
7see  ,blacksmith7 placed upon it1 to   
which a few smart blows in the proper   
direction are given by the striker4     
,illustration3 ,shoulder-iron4    ,the  
die and swage are called prints by the  
workpeople4 ,besides the  bolster1 the  
part which fastens into the handle1     
technically termed  the tang1 is also   
shaped from the piece of iron welded on 
to the  cutting part of the blade4      
,after the bolster and tang have been   
properly  finished1 the blade is heated 
again1 and then well hammered on the    
anvil4  ,this operation1 which is termed
 smithing1 requires particular care and 
attention4 ,it is intended to           
consolidate the steel1 and to render it 
brighter4 ,the next process the blade   

has to undergo is that of marking4      
,this is done with a broad punch made of
 the very best and hardest steel1  and  
having the name and corporate or trade  
mark of the firm carved on  the bottom  
end or point4 ,the blade is heated to a 
dull red 7worm-red1  as it is termed by 
the workmen71 and the mark cut in on one
 side of  the blade with the punch by a 
single blow of the hammer4 ,now comes   
the  most important process of all1 viz4
 the hardening and tempering of the     
blades4 ,upon the effectual performance 
of these operations depends the         
practical value of the articles4 ,the   
,sheffield workmen have justly and      
deservedly acquired the very highest    
reputation for peculiar skill in  this  
most difficult department of the cutlery
 business4 ,the hardening of  the blade 
is effected by heating it to bright     
redness1 then plunging it               
perpendicularly into cold water1 which  
operation renders it extremely  hard1   
but at the same time very brittle1 which

 is an inconvenience1  of course1       
requiring to be remedied4 ,this is done 
by the process of  tempering4 ,to this  
end1 the hardened blades are first      
rubbed with finely  powdered sand1 to   
remove scales1 c4 from the surface2 they
 are then  placed on an oblong tray made
 of steel1 and on this exposed to the   
fire  until they acquire a bright blue  
tint4 ,the workman judges of the proper 
degree of tempering entirely by the     
colour1 and the utmost attention is     
bestowed upon this point to ensure the  
most perfect unanimity in this  respect4
 ,the hardened and tempered blades are  
then submitted to the  manager's        
inspection1 who applies various tests to
 them1 and rejects any  that may turn   
out imperfect in any one point4    ,the 
blades that have been examined and      
passed by the manager are next  taken to
 the grinding mill1 or1 as it is        
technically termed1 the wheel4  ,each   
separate shop in the building in which  
the grinders work is called  a hull4    

,the grinding is done on stones of      
various qualities and sizes1  according 
to the kind of articles to be ground4   
,the rough grit stones  come mostly from
 ,wickersley1 near ,rotherham2 the finer
 and smoother  grained stones1 and the  
so-called whitning stones1 come mostly  
from the  more immediate neighbourhood  
of ,sheffield4 ,the blades of           
table-knives  are ground on wet stones1 
the grinding stone being suspended1 for 
that  purpose1 in an iron trough filled 
with water to a sufficient height  to   
make the surface of the fluid just touch
 the face of the stone4 ,the  grinding  
stones1 as well as the glazers and      
polishers1 are turned by  machinery     
worked by steam power4 ,a flat stick is 
used by the grinder  to keep the blade  
pressed to the surface of the stone4    
,the ground blades  are then glazed1    
which simply means that a higher degree 
of lustre and  smoothness is given them 
by grinding on a tool termed a glazer4  
,this  consists of a wheel made of a    

number of pieces of wood1 put together  
in such a manner that the edge or face  
always presents the end way of  the     
wood1 which is done to preserve the     
circular shape by preventing            
contraction of the parts4 ,the grinding 
face of the wheel is covered with       
so-called emery cake1 which consists of 
a composition of beeswax1 tallow1  and  
emery4 ,the glazing wheels have a       
diameter of four feet4 ,the tang of  the
 blade is stuck into a temporary handle 
to facilitate the operation4            
,illustration3 ,grindstones4 ,chisel4   
,buskin4 ,flat ,file or ,rasp4 ,gauge4  
,the last process to which the blades of
 table-knives are subjected in the      
grinding mill is that of polishing2 this
 is done on circular pieces of  wood    
covered with buff leather1 with a coat  
of finer emery 7flour emery7            
composition upon it1 which are made to  
revolve with much less velocity  than   
the grinding stones and the glazers4    
,the ground blades are again  taken to  

the manager1 who applies several very   
severe tests to them1 to  try their     
temper and edge4    ,illustration3      
,shears4 ,flat ,stick4 ,haft ,moulds4   
,knife-handles are made of horn1 ivory1 
ebony1 silver1 ,german silver1  mother  
of pearl1 c4 ,two sorts of ivory are    
principally used1 the  ,egyptian and the
 ,african2 the latter is the more       
beautiful and  transparent of the two1  
the ,egyptian looking more like horn4   
,the tusks  are sawn in appropriate     
lengths1 which are then cut by a small  
circular  saw into handles of the       
required size4 ,the handles are properly
 filed1  and occasionally also carved or
 fluted in different patterns4 ,a       
variety  of files are used for these    
purposes1 such as flat files1 threading 
files1 hollow files1 half round files1  
c4 ,the handle is then bored to  receive
 the tang4 ,the bolster of the blade    
having been properly filed1  the tang is
 inserted into the bore1 and fixed in by
 cement in the usual  way4 ,it is       

afterwards farther secured by a ,german 
silver pin passing  through the handle  
and tang4    ,the silver and ,german    
silver handles are stamped in dies4 ,the
 mother of  pearl handles are carved or 
fluted in different patterns4           
,illustration3 ,fire-irons4 ,crooked    
,tongs4 ,tongs4 ,dies4    ,the knives   
thus finished by the hafter are now     
taken once more to the  manager1 to     
undergo a final examination preparatory 
to their removal to  the warehouse4     
,the forging of razors is performed by a
 foreman and striker in the same  manner
 as in making the blades of             
table-knives4 ,the bars or rods as they 
come from the tilt and rolling mill are 
about half an inch broad1 and  no       
thicker than is sufficient for the back 
of the razor4 ,the anvil on  which the  
razor-blades are forged is rounded at   
the sides2 by dexterously  working the  
blade on the rounded edge of the anvil1 
a concave surface is  given to the      
sides1 and the edge part thus made      

thinner1 which saves the  grinder a deal
 of labour4 ,the blade having been cut  
off the bar1 the tang  is formed by     
drawing out the steel4 ,the blade is    
then properly hardened  and tempered4   
,the last and most important process    
which the razor-blade  has to undergo is
 that of grinding4    ,the difference in
 the prices of blades1 make all of them 
of the same  material1 is owing entirely
 to the circumstance that stones of much
  smaller diameter are used for grinding
 the higher priced blades1 and much     
more time and labour are given to the   
operation than is the case with the     
cheaper sorts4    ,in making a fork1 the
 end of a steel bar is first made       
red-hot2 it is  hammered so as to give a
 rough approximation to the shape of the
 shank  or tang2 it is again heated1 and
 a blow from a die or stamp gives the   
proper contour2 the prongs are cut out  
by a powerful blow from a stamp of      
peculiar form1 and the fork is finally  
annealed1 hardened1 ground1 and         

polished4 ,it is this process of fork   
grinding which has so often been  made a
 subject for comment2 the fork is ground
 dry upon a stone wheel1  and the       
particles of steel and grit are         
constantly entering the lungs of  the   
workmen1 thereby ruining the health and 
shortening the duration of  life4       
,many contrivances have been devised for
 obviating this evil1 but the           
fork-grinders have not seconded these   
efforts so zealously as might have  been
 expected4    ,in making pen and        
pocket-knives1 a slender rod of steel is
 heated at the  end1 hammered to the    
form of a blade1 and carried through    
many subsequent  processes4 ,but the    
putting together of these hinged knives 
requires more  time than the making of  
the blades1 and affords a curious       
example of  minute detail4 ,when the    
pieces of bone1 ivory1 pearl1           
tortoise-shell1  horn1 or other         
substances1 which are to form the outer 
surface of the  handle1 are roughly cut 

to shape2 when the blade has been forged
 and  ground1 and when the steel for the
 spring is procured1 the whole are      
placed in the hand of a workman1 who    
proceeds to build up a clasp-knife  from
 the little fragments placed at his     
disposal4 ,so many are the details  to  
be attended to1 that a common two-bladed
 knife has to pass through his  hands   
seventy or eighty times before it is    
finished4    ,a file1 as every one      
knows1 is a steel instrument1 having    
flat or curved  surfaces so notched or  
serrated as to produce a series of fine 
teeth or  cutting edges1 which are      
employed for the abrasion of metal1     
ivory1 wood1  c4    ,steel for making   
files being required to be of unusual   
hardness1 is more  highly converted than
 for other purposes1 and is sometimes   
said to be  double converted4 ,small    
files are mostly made of cast steel4    
,the very  large files called smiths'   
rubbers are generally forged immediately
  from the converted bars4 ,smaller     

files are forged from bars which are    
wrought to the required form and size by
 the action of tilt-hammers1  either    
from blistered bars or from ingots of   
cast steel4 ,these bars are  cut into   
pieces suitable for making one file     
each1 which are heated in  a forge-fire1
 and then wrought to the required shape 
on an anvil by two  men1 one of whom    
superintends the work while the other   
acts as general  assistant4    ,the next
 operation upon the blanks which are to 
be converted into files  is that of     
softening or lightening1 to render the  
steel capable of  being cut with the    
toothing instruments4 ,this is effected 
by a gradual  heating and a gradual     
cooling4 ,the surface is then rendered  
smooth1  either by filing or grinding4  
,illustration3 ,file ,cutting4 ,file    
,cutting4    ,the cutting of the teeth  
is usually performed by workmen sitting 
astride  upon a board or saddle-shaped  
seat in front of a bench1 upon which is 
fixed a kind of small anvil4 ,laying the

 blank file across the anvil1 the       
,cutler secures it from moving by a     
strap which passes over each end and    
under his feet1 like the stirrup of the 
shoemaker4 ,he then takes in his  left  
hand a very carefully ground chisel made
 of the best steel1 and in  his right a 
peculiarly shaped hammer4 ,if the file  
be flat1 or have one  or more flat      
surfaces1 the operator places the steel 
chisel upon it at a  particular angle or
 inclination1 and with one blow of the  
hammer cuts an  indentation or furrow   
completely across its face from side to 
side1 and  then moves the chisel to the 
requisite positions for making similar  
and  parallel cuts4 ,if it be a half    
round file1 as a straight-edged chisel  
is used1 a number of small cuts are     
necessary to extend across the file     
from edge to edge4 ,so minute are these 
cuts in some kinds of files1 that  in   
one specimen about ten inches long1 flat
 on one side and round on the  other1   
there are more than #bj1jjj cuts1 each  

made with a separate blow  from the     
hammer1 and the cutting tool being      
shifted after each blow4 ,the  range of 
manufactures afford few more striking   
examples of the peculiar  manual skill  
acquired by long practice4    ,several  
highly ingenious machines have been     
contrived for superseding  the tedious  
operation of file cutting by hand2 but  
suited as the process  may appear to be 
for the use of machinery1 it has been   
found to present  such great            
difficulties1 that we believe no        
file-cutting engine has been  brought   
successfully or extensively into        
operation4 ,one very serious  difficulty
 arises from the fact that1 if one part 
of the file be either  a little softer  
than the adjacent parts1 or a little    
narrower1 so as to  present less        
resistance to the blow of the hammer1 a 
machine would1 owing  to the perfect    
uniformity of its stroke1 make a deeper 
cut there than  elsewhere4    ,after the
 files have been cut1 the steel is      

brought to a state of great  hardness2  
this is effected in various ways1       
according to the purpose to  which the  
file is to be applied2 they are         
generally coated with a sort of         
temporary varnish1 then heated in a     
stove1 and then suddenly quenched4      
,after hardening1 the files are scoured1
 washed1 dried1 and tested4    ,it will 
be seen that the tools employed by the  
,cutler are few1 and  consist mostly of 
the hammers1 moulds1 dies1 anvils1      
grinding stones1 and  others already    
mentioned4    ,illustration             
,,cotton ,,manufacturer4                
,illustration3 ,,carding4      ,the     
extremely valuable substance1 called    
,cotton1 which is now raised  in such   
abundance as to furnish the cheapest and
 most extensively-used  clothing1 is    
produced in the seed vessels of the     
cotton plant1 of which  there are many  
varieties2 some are herbaceous annual   
plants1 growing from  eighteen to       
twenty-four inches high2 others1 shrubs 

about the size of our  currant bushes1  
and of from two to ten years' duration2 
whilst a third  kind attain the growth  
of small trees1 with a height of from   
twelve to  twenty feet4    ,the leaves  
of the cotton plant are of a bright dark
 green colour1 deeply  divided into five
 lobes2 the flowers are large and showy1
 of a bright  sulphur or lemon colour1  
and closely resemble in appearance and  
botanical  structure those of the single
 hollyhock2 each flower is succeeded by 
a triangular three-celled seed vessel1  
which attains the size of a  small      
walnut1 and when ripe bursts open from  
the swelling of the cotton  contained in
 the three cells2 the seeds1 which are  
rather larger than  those of grapes1 are
 inclosed in the cotton wool1 which     
adheres very  firmly to them4 ,one      
variety of cotton1 cultivated in ,china1
 and some  parts of ,america1 has a     
yellow tint2 this tint it preserves when
 woven  into the fabric called          
8nankeen40    ,illustration3 ,cotton    

,plant4 ,bale of ,cotton4    ,the cotton
 plant is largely cultivated in ,india1 
,china1 ,united ,states1  ,west ,indies1
 on the shores of the ,mediterranean1   
and1 in short1 in almost  all the warmer
 parts of the world2 it flourishes      
readily in soils too  poor for the      
growth of grain1 and other crops1 and   
succeeds perfectly  well in dry seasons4
    ,the cotton1 when perfectly ripe1 is
 gathered by women and children1 the    
seeds and wool being picked out of the  
pod2 it is dried in the sun1 and  is    
then ready for the removal of the seeds4
 ,in ,india this operation is  performed
 by means of two parallel rollers1 which
 are fixed in a frame at  a small       
distance apart1 so that when they are   
turned round the cotton is  drawn       
through whilst the seeds1 which from    
their size are unable to pass1  are torn
 off and separated4 ,with this simple   
machine a man can separate  the seeds   
from about fifty pounds of cotton in a  
day4    ,in ,america a still more rapid 

process is adopted3 the cotton is placed
  in a box1 one side of which is formed 
of stout parallel wires1 placed  about  
one-eighth of an inch apart2 by the side
 of this box is a roller1  carrying a   
number of circular saws with curved     
teeth1 which project  through the wires 
into the box4 ,on the roller being made 
to revolve1 the  teeth of the saws drag 
the cotton through the wires1 the seeds 
remaining  behind2 after being thus     
separated1 the cotton is powerfully     
compressed  into bags1 and is ready for 
transport to this and other             
manufacturing  countries4    ,the cotton
 is seldom unpacked until it arrives at 
the mill1 the purchases  being all      
managed by samples4 ,when it is         
unpacked1 the first thing to  be done is
 the sorting1 and in this much care and 
skill are required2  for the different  
bags furnish different qualities of     
cotton1 and it is  necessary to produce 
yarn of uniform quality at the cheapest 
rate4    ,in order1 therefore1 to       

equalize the different qualities1 the   
contents  of all the bags are mixed     
together in the following manner4 ,a    
space  being cleared and marked out on  
the floor1 the cotton contained in the  
first bag is scattered over this space1 
so as exactly to cover it2 the  contents
 of the second bag are in like manner   
spread over the first1 and  the cotton  
in all the other bags is disposed in a  
similar manner2 men and  boys tread down
 the heap1 which is called a bing or    
bunker1 until at  length it rises up in 
shape and dimensions very much like a   
haystack4  ,whenever a supply of cotton 
is taken from the bing it is torn down  
with  a rake from top to bottom1 by     
which means it is evident the contents  
of  the different bags are collected    
together in a mass of uniform quality   
and colour4 ,in mixing different        
qualities of cotton it is usual to bring
  together such only as have a similar  
length of staple4 ,a portion of the     
waste cotton of the mill is also mixed  

in the bing1 for making the lower       
qualities of yarn4 ,for higher numbers1 
as well as for warps1 a finer  quality  
of cotton must be selected2 and thus it 
will be seen that the  formation of a   
bing is an important operation1 the     
quality of the goods  produced depending
 upon it4    ,in this state the cotton  
contains sand1 dirt1 and other          
impurities1 and  the fibres are matted  
together by the pressure they were      
subjected to  in packing4 ,to open the  
fibres and get rid of the sand1 c4 the  
cotton  is put into a machine called a  
willow4 ,this consists of a box or      
case1 containing a conical wooden beam1 
studded over with iron spikes2  this    
beam is made to turn round five or six  
hundred times a minute4  ,the cotton1 as
 it is torn down from the bing1 is put  
in at one end of  the machine1 where it 
is caught by the spikes1 tossed about   
with great  violence1 and gradually     
driven forward to the other end4 ,the   
sand and  other impurities fall out of  

the machine through an open grating at  
the  bottom2 the dust and lighter matter
 pass off through a series of wire      
openings1 and the cleaned cotton is sent
 down a shoot into the room below4      
,if the cotton is of fine quality it is 
beaten1 or batted1 with hazel  or holly 
twigs4 ,for this purpose1 it is spread  
on a frame1 the upper  part of which is 
made of cords and is quite elastic4 ,a  
woman1 with a rod  about three or four  
feet long in each hand1 beats the cotton
 with great  violence1 and so entirely  
separates the fibre4 ,any loose         
impurities which  remain fall out       
between the cords2 seeds and fragments  
of seed-pods1  which adhere to the      
cotton somewhat firmly1 are picked out  
by hand4  ,by this method the cotton is 
thoroughly opened1 and made quite clean1
  without injuring the staple4          
,illustration3 ,opening the ,cotton4    
,the coarser qualities are passed at    
once from the willow to the  scutching  
or blowing machine1 which does the work 

of batting1 only in  a more violent     
manner1 and is therefore not adapted for
 fine qualities2  but in coarser        
spinning is in general use1 to prepare  
the cotton for the  carding engine4     
,the cotton1 which is still in a        
confused and tangled state1 has now to  
be carded1 upon the regularity and      
perfection of which process depends     
much of the success of spinning1 and    
also the durability and beauty of  the  
stuff to be woven4 ,a cotton card is a  
sort of brush1 containing wires  instead
 of bristles4 ,the cards are made of    
bands or fillets of leather1  or are    
formed of alternate layers of cotton1   
linen1 and india-rubber  pierced with   
numerous holes1 in which are fixed bent 
pieces of iron wire1  called dents or   
teeth4    ,the fibres of the cotton are 
not yet sufficiently level to be twisted
  into yarn2 and it often happens that  
the teeth of the card lay hold of  a    
fibre by the middle and thus double it  
together1 in which state it is  unfit   

for spinning4    ,the cardings are      
therefore doubled and drawn out by a    
machine called a  drawing frame1 the    
principle of which depends upon         
different pairs  of rollers revolving   
with different degrees of rapidity4 ,if1
 however1  the riband1 as it leaves the 
carding-engine1 were simply extended in 
length by drawing it out1 it would be   
liable to tear across1 or to be of  a   
different thickness at different parts  
of its length4 ,to prevent the  tearing 
and to equalize the thickness1 a number 
of cardings are joined  together and    
drawn out to a length equal to the sum  
of the length of all  the separate      
cardings4    ,the effect produced is the
 same as taking a piece of cotton wool  
between  the finger and thumb and       
drawing it out many times1 laying the   
drawn  filaments over each other1 before
 each drawing4 ,if the cotton be then   
examined it will be found that all the  
fibres are parallel and of equal        
length4 ,this effect is accomplished    

very perfectly in the drawing frame1    
which consists of a number of rollers   
arranged in what are called  heads1 each
 head consisting of three pairs of      
rollers1 of which the  second pair moves
 with greater speed than the first1 and 
the third moves  quicker than the       
second4    ,illustration3 ,drawing4     
,thread ,frame4    ,by the process of   
doubling and drawing1 the cotton is     
formed into a  loose porous cord1 the   
fibres of which are arranged side by    
side4 ,this  cord is still too thick for
 yarn1 but it cannot be reduced in size 
by  drawing merely1 for if this were    
attempted it would break2 a slight twist
  is therefore given1 which by          
condensing the fibres allows the drawing
  to proceed4 ,this is the commencement 
of the spinning process 7which is1  in  
fact1 little more than a combination of 
drawing and twisting7 and is  called    
roving4    ,illustration3 ,cotton       
,bobbins4 ,buffaloes with ,bobbins4     
,roving4    ,the bobbin-and-fly frame is

 an exceedingly complicated machine1    
although  the objects to be accomplished
 by it are sufficiently simple2 namely1 
to  give the roving a slight twist1 and 
then to wind it on the bobbin4 ,the     
first is easily done by the revolutions 
of the spindle2 the second is  more     
difficult4 ,it is scarcely necessary to 
explain that the bobbins now  under     
notice differ in no way from the reels  
in common use1 except in  being of very 
large size4 ,the spindle which holds the
 bobbin is a round  steel rod1 driven by
 a small cog-wheel1 fastened on the     
lower part of  the spindle4 ,the bobbin 
is slid upon the spindle1 and the small 
bed or  platform on which it rests is   
made to revolve by another series of    
small  wheels4 ,the spindle has two     
arms1 called the fly or flyer4 ,this fly
  is fixed on the top of the spindle in 
such a way that it can be taken off  in 
an instant1 for the purpose of putting  
on or taking off the bobbin4  ,one arm  
of the fly is hollow1 the other solid1  

and all this serves to  balance the     
machinery4 ,one machine contains from   
thirty to a hundred and  twenty         
spindles1 which1 for economy of space1  
are placed in two rows1  each spindle in
 the back row standing opposite the     
space left between two  spindles of the 
front row4 ,the action of the machine is
 this3--,the sliver  having been drawn  
by the rollers1 is twisted by the rapid 
revolutions  of the spindle into a soft 
cord or roving2 this enters a hole in   
the top  of the spindle1 and passes down
 the hollow arm of the fly2 it is then  
twisted round a steel finger1 which     
winds it on the bobbin with a certain   
pressure4    ,illustration3 ,throstle4  
,flyer4    ,the throstle machine is     
usually made double1 a row of bobbins1  
spindles1 c4 occupying each side of the 
frame4 ,the bobbins filled with  rovings
 from the bobbin-and-fly frame1 are     
mounted at the upper part of  the frame 
in two ranges4 ,the roving from each    
bobbin passes through three  pairs of   

drawing rollers1 where it is stretched  
out to the requisite  fineness4 ,on     
quitting the last pair of rollers1 each 
thread is guided by  a little ring or a 
notch of smooth glass1 let into the     
frame1 towards the  spindles1 which     
revolve with great rapidity1 producing  
by the motion of  their flyers through  
the air a low musical hum1 which is     
supposed to have  given the name of     
throstle to this machine4 ,the roving1  
which may now be  called yarn1 passing  
through an eyelet formed at the end of  
one of the  arms of the flyer1 proceeds 
at once to other bobbins4    ,the yarn  
is wound upon the bobbins by a curious  
contrivance4 ,the bobbin  fits very     
loosely upon the spindle1 and rests on  
its end upon a kind of  platform4 ,the  
bobbin is not connected with the        
spindle1 except by the  thread of yarn1 
which has to be wound2 therefore1 as    
soon as the flyer  is set spinning1 the 
thread drags the bobbin after it1 and   
makes it  follow the motion of the      

spindle and fly2 but the weight of the  
bobbin1  and its friction on the        
platform1 which is promoted by covering 
the end  with coarse cloth1 causes it to
 hang back1 and thus the double purpose 
is  served1 of keeping the thread       
stretched and winding it on the bobbin  
much  more slowly than the flyer        
revolves4 ,the yarn is equally          
distributed on  the bobbin by a slow    
up-and-down movement of the platform4   
,illustration3 ,mule4    ,these effects 
are the same as were produced by the    
bobbin and fly-frame1  but in the       
throstle they are attained by simpler   
means4 ,in the former  machine a        
distinct movement caused the bobbin to  
revolve quicker than the  spindle4 ,in  
the throstle the bobbin is made to      
revolve by the pull of the  yarn1 which 
is now sufficiently strong for the      
purpose2 but the roving  in the         
bobbin-and-fly frame would not bear the 
strain4 ,the throstle is  not often     
employed for very fine spinning1 because

 fine yarn would not  bear the drag of  
the bobbin2 but in mule-spinning the    
yarn is wound at  once upon the spindles
 without any strain4 ,in the mule the   
rolling  is first drawn by the usual    
system of rollers1 and then stretched by
 a  moveable carriage4 ,the effect of   
first drawing and then stretching is to 
make the yarn finer and more uniform1 as
 will be explained presently4  ,the     
spinning mule is the most interesting   
and impressive spectacle in a  large    
cotton mill--on account of its vast     
extent1 the great quantity of  work     
performed by it1 and the wonderful      
complication and ingenuity of its       
parts4    ,the spinning-mule consists of
 two principal portions3 the first1     
which  is fixed1 contains the bobbins of
 rovings and the drawing rollers2 the   
second is a sort of carriage1 moving    
upon an iron railroad1 and capable  of  
being drawn out to a distance of about  
five feet from the fixed frame4  ,this  
carriage carries the spindles1 the      

number of which is half that  of the    
bobbins of rovings4 ,motion is given to 
the spindles by means of  vertical      
drums1 round which are passed slender   
cords1 communicating with  the spindles4
 ,there is one drum to every twenty-four
 spindles4    ,the carriage being run up
 to the point from which it starts in   
spinning1  the spindles are near to the 
roller-beam2 the rollers now begin to   
turn1  and to give out yarn1 which is   
immediately twisted by the revolution of
  the spindles2 the carriage then moves 
away from the roller-beam1 somewhat     
quicker than the threads are delivered1 
so that they receive a certain  amount  
of stretching1 which gives value to this
 machine4 ,the beneficial  effect is    
produced in this way1--when the thread  
leaves the rollers1 it  is thicker in   
some parts than in others1 and those    
thicker parts not  being so much twisted
 as the thinner ones are softer1 and    
yield to the  stretching power of the   
mule1 so that the twist is equalised    

throughout1  and the yarn becomes more  
uniform4 ,when the carriage has         
completed a  stretch1 or is drawn out   
from about fifty-four to sixty-four     
inches  from the roller-beam1 the       
drawing rollers cease to give out yarn1 
but  the spindles continue to whirl     
until the threads are properly twisted4 
,in spinning the finer yarns1 the       
carriage sometimes makes what is called 
a second stretch1 during which the      
spindles are made to revolve much  more 
rapidly than before4 ,the drawing1      
stretching1 and twisting1 of a  length  
of thread being thus completed1 the mule
 disengages itself from  the parts of   
the machinery by which it has hitherto  
been driven1 and the  spinner then      
pushes the carriage with his knee back  
to the roller-beam1  turning at the same
 time with his right hand a fly wheel1  
which gives  motion to the spindles4 ,at
 the same time a copping wire1 as it is 
called1  is pressed upon the threads by 
the spinners' left hand1 and they are   

thus  made to traverse the whole length 
of the spindle1 upon which they are     
then wound or built in a conical form1  
which is called a cop4 ,these  cops are 
used for placing in the shuttle in      
weaving1 and form the weft  or short    
cross threads of the cloth4             
,illustration3 ,machinery for moving    
,shuttle4 ,shuttle for ,power ,loom4    
,the yarn is now disposed of in various 
ways1 according to the use for  which it
 is intended2 but it is often found     
convenient to make it up into  hanks4   
,when the yarn is completed it is       
usually sent to the doubling  and       
twisting mill1 for the purpose of being 
converted into what is now  properly    
called thread4 ,although we are         
accustomed to apply the word  thread to 
a thin narrow line of any fibrous       
material1 the manufacturer  limits the  
term to that compound cord produced by  
doubling or twisting  two or more single
 lines4 ,the single line he calls yarn1 
two or more  single lines1 laid parallel

 and twisted together1 he calls thread2 
and  of this there are many varieties1  
such as bobbin-net-lace-thread1         
stocking-thread1 sewing-thread1 c4      
,illustration3 ,gassing4    ,in fine    
spinning1 the yarn1 when doubled1 is for
 some purposes singed  or gassed1 in    
order to get rid of the loose fibres1   
and to make it  more level and compact4 
,the process of singeing yarn strikes a 
stranger  as being more remarkable than 
anything else in the mill4 ,in a long   
room  in the upper part of the mill1 or 
in a shed attached to it1 are several   
tables1 lighted up with a large number  
of jets of flame1 about twelve  inches  
apart1 producing a singular but pleasing
 effect4 ,above each flame  is a little 
hood or chimney4 ,on entering this room 
the smell of burnt  cotton is           
immediately perceived1 and on           
approaching the table1 one is  surprised
 to see a fine delicate thread crossing 
each flame in two or  three directions1 
and apparently at rest2 but on following

 the course of  this thread1 it is found
 to proceed from one bobbin1 which is   
rapidly  spinning round1 and to pass    
through the flame to another bobbin1    
which  is also in rapid motion4 ,it is  
then seen that the thread is also moving
  at a rapid rate1 by which means alone 
does it escape being consumed4 ,the     
thread is led over pulleys1 so as to    
pass two or three times through the     
flame1 which singes off the loose       
fibres1 converting them into a reddish  
powder or dust1 which1 if blown about   
and inhaled1 would do great injury  to  
the lungs2 this is why the gassing-room 
is in a remote or retired part  of the  
building1 to prevent the air being      
disturbed by the bustle of the  heavier 
parts4    ,illustration3 ,warping       
,machines4    ,when cotton is intended  
to be woven into a fabric1 such as      
calico1 c4  the first operation consists
 in laying the requisite number of      
threads  together to form the width of  
the cloth2 this is called warping4      

,supposing there to be #a1jjj threads in
 the width of a piece of cloth1  then   
the yarn1 wound on the bobbins as it    
leaves the hands of the  spinner1 must  
be so unwound and laid out as to form   
#a1jjj lengths1  constituting1 when laid
 parallel1 the warp of the intended     
cloth4 ,the  ancient method was to draw 
out the warp from the bobbins at full   
length  on an open field 7and this is   
still practised in ,india and ,china71  
but  the warping-frame is now employed1 
in which the threads are arranged1  by  
means of a frame turning on an upright  
centre4 ,when the warp is  arranged     
round this machine1 the warper takes it 
off and winds it on a  stick into a     
ball1 preparatory to the process of     
beaming or winding it  on the beam of   
the loom4 ,the threads in this latter   
process are wound  as evenly as possible
 on the beam2 a separator1 ravel1 or    
comb being  used to lay them parallel1  
and to spread them out to about the     
intended  width of the cloth4           

,arrangements are then made for drawing 
or attaching  the warp-threads          
individually to certain mechanism of the
 loom4 ,in this  process all the threads
 are attached to stays fixed to two     
frames1 called  treadles1 in such a     
manner that all the alternate threads   
7#ast1 #c;d1  #eth17 can be drawn up or 
down by one heddle1 and all the rest    
7#b;d1 #dth1  #fth1 c47 by the other4   
,there are three movements attending    
every thread of weft which the weaver   
throws across the warp4 ,in the first   
place he presses down one of the  two   
treadles1 by which one of the two       
heddles is depressed1 thereby  forming a
 kind of opening called the shed4 ,into 
this shed1 at the  second movement1 he  
throws the shuttle1 containing the      
weft-thread1 with  sufficient force to  
drive it across the whole web4 ,then at 
the third  movement he grasps the       
batten1 which is a kind of frame1       
carrying at  its lower edge a comb-like 
piece1 having as many teeth as there are

  threads in the warp1 and with this he 
drives up the thread of weft close  to  
those previously thrown4 ,one thread of 
weft is thus completed1 and  the weaver 
proceeds to throw another in a similar  
way1 but in a reverse  order1 that is1  
by depressing the left treadle instead  
of the right1  and by throwing the      
shuttle from left to right1 instead of  
from right  to left4 ,in the commonest  
mode of weaving the shuttle is thrown by
 both  hands alternately2 but1 about a  
century ago1 ,john ,kay invented the    
fly-shuttle1 in which a string and      
handle are so placed that the weaver    
can work the shuttle both ways with one 
hand4    ,illustration3 ,weaving by     
hand4    ,in #afgh ,m4 de ,gennes       
invented a rude kind of weaving-machine1
 intended  to increase the power of the 
common loom2 and other looms were       
invented1  which were to be worked by a 
winch1 by water power1 or by some       
contrivance more expeditious than common
 hand-weaving2 but a greater step  in   

advance was made by the invention of    
,dr4 ,cartwright's power-loom  in #aghe4
 ,one cause which delayed the adoption  
of power-looms was the  necessity for   
stopping the machine frequently1 in     
order to dress the warp  with paste or  
size as it unrolled from the beam1 which
 operation required  a person to be     
employed for each loom1 so that there   
was no saving of  expense4 ,but the     
successive inventions of ,radcliffe1    
,horrocks1 ,marsland1  ,roberts1 and    
others1 have since brought the          
dressing-machine and the  power-loom to 
a high state of efficiency4             
,illustration3 ,power ,loom4    ,taking 
a piece of calico as the representative 
of plain fabrics  generally1 the mode of
 proceeding in power-loom factories may 
be shortly  sketched as follows4 ,the   
warping-frame is so arranged as to be   
worked  by steam-power1 and to bring the
 yarns into a parallel layer1 which  is 
transferred to the dressing-machine4    
,this latter is a large piece  of       

mechanism1 in which the threads dip into
 paste on their way to the  warp-beam3  
undergoing a process of brushing after  
the dipping4 ,after this  dressing the  
drawing and mounting for the loom are   
attended to4 ,when the  warp is properly
 arranged in the loom1 steam-power does 
all the rest2  it forms the shed or     
division of the warp into two parts1 it 
throws the  shuttle1 it drives up the   
weft with the batten1 it unwinds the    
warp from  the warp-roller1 and winds   
the woven material on the cloth-roller4 
,illustration3 ,spinning by hand4       
,,the ,,tailor4    ,illustration3       
,,workshop4      ,it would perhaps be   
too much to say that the more civilized 
a nation  becomes1 the greater is the   
attention bestowed upon dress2 since it 
has  happened that in countries not very
 far removed from barbarism1 vast       
importance has been given to external   
display1 and robes and trappings  have  
been used to cover the savagery which   
had only just learned to  delight in the

 pomp and magnificence of costly        
ornaments4 ,it is certain1  however1    
that in all civilized nations dress is  
more than mere clothing1  and has a     
significance beyond the mere utility of 
protecting the body  from cold or heat1 
and adding to our physical comfort4 ,it 
is an old  saying that some people may  
be clothed1 but that they are never     
dressed2  and the meaning of this is1   
that dress is frequently an expression  
of  character1 and will even make known 
the disposition of the wearer4 ,in the  
same way a change of fashion is often an
 indication of an alteration in  the    
manners and way of living of a whole    
nation4    ,it is the business of the   
,tailor1 then1 not only to make         
garments1 but to  study the prevailing  
fashion1 and1 indeed1 to advise what    
alterations or  slight differences in   
the cut and colour of clothes will be   
best suited  to different people1 since 
on the way in which our clothes are made
 our  personal appearance will very     

greatly depend1 and personal appearance 
is  of no little importance1 since there
 are few people who are not strongly    
influenced by it4    ,the trade of the  
,tailor is one of which very little can 
be said in the  way of explanation1     
since it mainly consists in cutting out 
cloth to the  shapes necessary to be    
applied to each other in order to make  
the various  garments2 and as this      
cannot be described without numerous    
diagrams1  and even with them could not 
easily be understood1 we must be        
satisfied  to quote the instructions of 
a practical ,tailor on the subject of   
sewing4#c        #c ,from the           
,industrial ,library4    ,and1 first as 
to the different sorts of stitches1     
which are3--the  basting-stitch1 the    
back and fore-stitch1 the back-stitch1  
the  side-stitch1 and the fore-stitch2  
also the back pricking-stitch1 the  fore
 pricking-stitch1 the serging-stitch1   
the cross-stitch1 and the               
button-hole-stitch2 besides which there 

is a distinct kind of stitch  for       
hemming1 filling1 stotting1 rantering1  
fine-drawing1 prick-drawing1            
over-casting1 and also for making what  
are called covered buttons4    ,the     
basting-stitch is a long and slight     
stitch1 intended to be merely           
temporary1 or to fasten together some of
 the inner and concealed parts of  the  
garment4 ,it is commonly used to keep   
the work in its proper position  while  
being sewed4    ,illustration3 ,sleeve  
,board4    ,the back and fore-stitch is 
made1 as the name implies1 by the union 
of  back stitching and fore stitching2  
in this stitch the needle is first  put 
through the cloth1 and turned up in as  
short a space as is possible1  so as to 
make a neat and strong stitch when      
completed2 it is then put  through the  
cloth again in the same place as at     
first1 and again turned  up1 taking care
 that it passes through the cloth as    
nearly as possible  within the same     
space as before4 ,this being done1 the  

first back-stitch  is completed4 ,the   
second stitch is made by passing the    
needle forward  upon the surface of the 
cloth1 but without taking hold of it1   
over a  space equal to the length of the
 first stitch2 the needle is again put  
through the cloth1 turned up1 and       
brought back to the place where it was  
last put through1 so as to form another 
back-stitch2 which is followed  by      
another putting of the needle forward1  
or1 in plainer terms1 another           
fore-stitch1 and so on in the same      
order1 until the seam is finished4      
,this kind of stitch is used for sewing 
linings1 pockets1 flannel  garments1 and
 other thin fabrics4 ,there is no need  
to say much respecting  the back-stitch1
 as this may be understood from what is 
said above  respecting the first stitch 
in back and fore-stitching4 ,this stitch
 is  used for seams where strength is   
required2 it is also used for ornament  
instead of the side-stitch1 but in this 
case it must be very neatly and         

regularly made4    ,illustration3       
,goose4 ,flat ,iron4 ,french ,chalk4    
,thimble4 ,measure ,book4  ,rule4       
,the side-stitch is used for the edges  
of garments1 to keep them from  rolling 
over1 or from being drawn out of shape4 
,it is always intended  for ornament as 
well as use1 and requires a very quick  
eye and a careful  hand to do it well4  
,in this stitch the needle is put       
through the cloth  a little above or    
below the place from which it came out  
in the former  stitch1 but it must be at
 a very little distance from this place1
 or  the sewing-silk will be visible on 
the surface of the cloth1 which is a    
great blemish1 and yet it must be far   
enough away from where it came out  to  
prevent its breaking through1 in which  
case the stitch is lost both  as to use 
and ornament4 ,care must also be taken  
that the stitches are at  regular       
distances from each other1 and that the 
whole of them are placed  at the same   
distance from the edge of the cloth4 ,in

 the fore-stitch1 as  has been already  
hinted1 the needle1 when drawn out from 
the seam1 is  always put forward1 so    
that an equal quantity of thread1 or a  
stitch of  the same length1 is visible  
on each side of the cloth4              
,serge-stitching is done by passing the 
needle through the cloth from  the under
 to the upper piece1 throwing the thread
 over the edges of the  cloth1 so as to 
keep them closely together4 ,it is also 
used to join  selvages together1 as also
 to prevent taking up more space for    
seams than  can be spared1 when the     
pieces are barely large enough for the  
required  purpose4 ,it is not1 however1 
much used by tailors1 except when no    
great  degree of strength is required4  
,the cross-stitch is formed by two      
parallel rows of stitches1 so placed as 
that the stitch in the upper row is     
opposite to the vacant space in the     
lower one1 the thread passing from one  
stitch to the other in diagonal  lines4 
,it is used for keeping open the seams  

of such garments as require  washing1   
and also for securing the edges from    
ravelling out in such  fabrics as are   
too loosely made to allow of their edges
 being fastened  down by the            
filling-stitch4    ,in the              
button-hole-stitch the needle is first  
put through the cloth from  the inner to
 the outer surface1 and before it is    
drawn out the twist is  passed round the
 point of the needle1 and kept in that  
position till the  needle be drawn out  
to the full length of the twist2 this   
forms a kind of  loop1 called by        
,tailors the 8purl10 at the top or edge 
of the opening1  and when regularly made
 is both ornamental and useful4 ,to     
increase the  strength of this stitch1  
and also to aid in making it true or    
exact1 a  8bar0 is formed on each side  
of the opening before the hole is begun 
to  be worked4 ,this 8bar10 as it is    
called1 is made by passing the needle   
from one end of the opening to the other
 7twice or three times71 so that  there 

is a layer1 if it may be so called1 of  
twist stretching along  its whole length
 7and on each side7 upon which the whole
 is worked1  the workman taking care to 
keep the 8bar0 as near to the edge of   
the  opening as possible1 without       
allowing it to come over1 in which case 
the  button-hole would be neither strong
 nor neat4    ,illustration3 ,trousers  
,pattern ,book4    ,the filling stitch  
is similar to that used in hemming2 the 
chief  difference being in the direction
 given to the needle4 ,in hemming1 its  
point is directed outwards1 or from the 
workman1 but in filling it is  directed 
inwards1 or towards him1 and in each    
should be a little1 but  only a little1 
slanted1 in order to give the sewing a  
neat appearance4  ,this stitch is used  
for sewing on facings1 and when made    
with neatness1  and without showing     
itself much on the outer side of the    
cloth1 is  considered to be ornamental1 
as well as useful4    ,illustration3    
,whisk4 ,measure4 ,hard ,brush4 ,reel4  

,iron ,holder4    ,stotting 7pronounced 
stoating7 is the stitch used for joining
 pieces  of cloth so neatly that the    
join shall be but little visible1 and   
yet  so strongly as to prevent the      
pieces from being easily parted4 ,in    
this  kind of seam the pieces of cloth  
are not laid the one upon the other1  as
 in back-stitching1 but are placed side 
by side1 the edges being  carefully     
fitted1 so as to prevent any            
irregularity or roughness in the  work4 
,they are then sewn together by passing 
the needle half through the  thickness  
of the cloth4 ,care must be taken to    
keep the stitches as near  to each edge 
of the cloth as can be done without     
incurring the danger of  its breaking   
through4 ,the needle is put in on the   
nearest edge of the  two1 and must not  
be slanted in the direction given to it1
 but put as  straight forward as        
possible4 ,the stitch should be drawn   
close enough  home to prevent the silk  
thread from showing itself on the right 

side of  the cloth1 but yet not so close
 as to draw the edges into a ridge4 ,if 
the join be as neatly made as it may be1
 it will1 when properly pressed1  be    
barely perceptible4 ,this stitch is used
 for joining the pieces of  cloth of    
which facings1 collar-linings1 and other
 fillings-up of the  inner sides of     
garments1 are made1 and also in other   
cases to prevent the  taking up too much
 of the cloth by making a back-stitched 
seam4    ,illustration3 ,shears4 ,coat  
,pattern ,book4 ,wax4 ,goose ,stand4    
,needle and  ,thread4    ,rantering1    
like stotting1 is intended to conceal a 
join in the cloth4  ,here1 however1 it  
is requisite to make a strong as well as
 a neat  joining2 and therefore a seam  
is first sewn with a fore-stitch1 and   
then the rantering-stitch is worked upon
 or over this seam4 ,it should  be      
worked with a very fine silk thread1 or 
with twist that has had one  of the     
strands taken out4 ,the needle should be
 both long and slender1  and must be    

passed forwards and backwards over the  
seam1 so as to catch  hold of its two   
sides1 and draw them closely together4  
,but in doing this  care must be taken  
not to take a deep hold of the cloth3   
the nap or wool  is all that should be  
taken hold of1 and this must be done    
with a light  hand1 while the stitches  
must be placed close to each other1 so  
that the  seam may be well covered with 
wool2 when this is done1 the seam has to
  be 8rubbed up10 that is to say1 it    
must be held between the fore-finger    
and thumb of each hand1 these being     
placed upon the fore-stitching1 and  its
 two edges brought as closely together  
as possible4 ,the rantering must  then  
be slightly carded or scratched         
backwards and forwards with the  point  
of a needle1 in order to bring the wool 
out again where it has been  drawn in   
with the stitch2 the seam is then ready 
for pressing1 and1 if  this operation be
 properly performed1 will be as much    
concealed as may  be necessary2 while it

 will be much stronger than if it had   
been merely  back-stitched4    ,in      
fine-drawing1 the stitch is formed in   
the same manner as in rantering1  but   
there is a difference in the way of     
placing the pieces that are to  be      
joined1 i4e4 if they be separate pieces1
 for this stitch is mostly  used to     
close up places that have been          
accidentally cut1 or torn2 the  two     
edges of the place requiring to be      
fine-drawn are first trimmed by  cutting
 away the loose threads or ends of the  
cloth which may be upon  them2 they are 
then placed and kept in as level or flat
 a position as  is possible1 either with
 the fingers1 or by fastening them to a 
piece  of stiff paper4 ,the needle      
should be both very small and long1 and 
the  thread used1 whether it be of silk 
or twist1 should be very slender4       
,greater care is here necessary than in 
rantering1 to avoid taking a deep  hold 
of the cloth2 the needle should be      
passed forwards and backwards1  over the

 opening1 and the thread should be drawn
 no closer or tighter  than is quite    
needful in order to hide it in the wool4
 ,the stitches must  be placed as near  
to each other as is possible1 so as to  
prevent the  edges of the cloth from    
being visible between them2 if it be    
needful  to make a strong as well as a  
neat joining1 the fine-drawing should be
  repeated on the under side of the     
cloth1 but here it will not be needful  
to put the stitches so close together4  
,when the fine-drawing is done it  must 
be pressed1 but with as light a hand and
 in as short a time as is  practicable1 
otherwise the sewing1 however neatly    
done1 will be visible1  and so far as it
 is so1 the design of the fine-drawing  
stitch will not be  answered4    ,the   
stitch called prick-drawing is now but  
seldom used1 yet it may be  proper to   
notice it briefly4 ,when this stitch is 
intended to be employed1  the edges of  
the cloth are first stotted together1   
after which the needle  is passed       

backwards and forwards in diagonal      
lines1 under the stotting1  so as to    
make the join more strong and durable   
than it can be made by  merely stotting 
the pieces together4    ,this stitch is 
used where the cloth is very thick1 or  
hard and  unyielding1 and1 consequently1
 where the stotting-stitch would quickly
  give way without this support4 ,it is 
also better than a back-stitch seam  for
 cloths of this description1 inasmuch as
 it can be made to lie more  flat1 and  
thus to be more neat in its appearance1 
than a common seam4    ,overcasting is  
used merely to secure the edges of thin 
and loose fabrics  from 8ravelling out40
 ,in using it1 the edges of the cloth1  
whether it be  woollen1 linen1 or       
cotton1 are first trimmed clear of the  
loose threads2  the needle is then      
passed through the cloth in a forward   
direction1 at  about the distance of    
one-eighth part of an inch from the edge
 of the  cloth1 and when drawn out it is
 carried 7from the left to the right1   

and  not1 as in other stitches1 from the
 right to the left7 about a quarter of  
an inch2 it is then again put through1  
and on being drawn out it is made  to   
pass over the thread leading from the   
preceding stitch1 so as to form  a kind 
of loop on the edge2 which loop secures 
the edge from becoming too  much frayed1
 or ravelled4    ,all the tools that the
 apprentice or even the journeyman      
requires may  be bought for a few       
shillings4 ,a yard of linen for a       
lap-cloth2 two  pairs of scissors1 one  
pair moderately large1 for common use1  
and the  other small1 for button-holes2 
a thimble2 a small piece of bees-wax2   
and threepennyworth of needles1 are all 
that he will have occasion to  buy so   
long as he is not a master1 or a        
journeyman working at home1 when  he    
must procure a sleeve-board and an iron4
 ,the more expensive part  of even these
 few implements1 viz4 the scissors1     
will1 with tolerable  care1 last for a  
number of years with only the trifling  

expense of being  occasionally sharpened
 by the cutler4    ,all the implements  
used by the ,tailor are so well known as
 to need no  particular description2 the
 sleeve-board is used to place in the   
sleeve of a coat while the seams are    
pressed with the heated iron  or the    
goose4 ,in the measure book the         
dimensions are written when  measurement
 of a customer is made1 and the ,french 
chalk marks the  direction in which the 
cloth is cut to the pattern of the      
various shapes1  which are afterwards   
sewn together to make complete garments4
          ,,the ,,tanner4               
,illustration3 ,,the ,,pits4            
,leather is a substance universally used
 amongst civilized and very  generally  
amongst barbarous nations2 it is made   
from the skins of  animals1 which are   
tanned1 or prepared with some substance1
 having the  power of converting the    
perishable skin1 that decays readily    
when wet or  moist1 into a lasting and  
comparatively imperishable leather4     

,the preparation of skins by tanning or 
other similar processes has  been       
practised from the earliest times2 and  
although it has engaged  the attention  
of several scientific men1 and has been 
the subject  of many curious            
experiments1 it has received less       
alteration from  recent improvements in 
chemical science than many other        
manufacturing  processes4 ,several      
plans1 which have been suggested with a 
view to  expediting the process1 which  
on the old system is a very tedious one1
  have been found to injure the quality 
of the leather1 and have therefore  been
 wholly or partially abandoned2 and     
others1 which appear to be more         
successful1 are as yet adopted by a few 
manufacturers only4    ,the larger and  
heavier skins operated upon by the      
,tanner1 as those of  bulls1 buffaloes1 
oxen1 and cows1 are technically         
distinguished as  hides1 while the name 
skins is applied to those of smaller    
animals1  as calves1 sheep1 and goats4  

,the process necessary to convert hides 
into  the thick hard leather used for   
the soles of boots and shoes1 and for   
similar purposes will first be noticed4 
,the hides are brought to the  ,tanner  
either in a fresh state1 when from      
animals recently slaughtered1  or1 when 
imported from other countries1 dried or 
salted1 and sometimes  both1 for the    
sake of preserving them from            
decomposition4 ,in the former  case the 
horns are removed1 and the hide is      
scraped to cleanse it from  any small   
portions of flesh or fatty matter that  
may adhere to the inner  skin2 but in   
the latter it is necessary to soften the
 hides1 and bring  them as nearly as    
possible to the fresh state1 by steeping
 them in  water1 and repeated rubbing or
 beating4 ,after this the hair is       
removed1  sometimes by steeping the     
hides for several days in a solution of 
lime  and water1 which has the effect of
 loosening the hair and epidermis1 or   
outer skin2 and sometimes by suspending 

them in a close chamber called  a       
smoke-house1 heated a little above the  
ordinary temperature of the  atmosphere 
by means of a smouldering fire1 in which
 case the epidermis is  loosened by a   
very slight putrefaction4 ,in either    
case1 when the hair and  epidermis1 or  
cuticle1 are sufficiently loosened1 they
 are removed by  scraping with a curved 
knife1 the hide being laid upon a convex
 bench or  beam4    ,illustration3      
,unhairing the ,hides4 ,striking the    
,hides4    ,the hides are prepared for  
the actual tanning1 or immersion in a   
solution  of bark1 by steeping them for 
a few days in a pit containing a sour   
solution of rye or barley flour1 or in a
 very weak menstruum1 consisting  of one
 part of sulphuric acid mixed with from 
five hundred to a thousand  parts of    
water4 ,by this process1 which is called
 8raising10 the pores of  the hides are 
distended and rendered more susceptible 
of the action of  the tan4    ,oak-bark 
is the substance most commonly used to  

supply the astringent  principle1 and it
 is crushed or ground to powder in a    
bark-mill4 ,in  the old method of       
tanning1 which is not yet entirely      
abandoned1 the hides  and powdered bark 
were laid in alternate layers in the tan
 pit1 which  was then filled with water 
to the brim4 ,after some months the pit 
was  emptied1 and refilled with fresh   
bark and water2 and this process was    
repeated whenever the strength of the   
bark was exhausted4 ,in this way1  the  
time required for impregnating the hides
 varied1 according to their  thickness  
and other circumstances1 from one to    
four years4 ,the process  has been      
greatly expedited by the improvement1   
introduced in consequence  of the       
experiments of ,m4 ,seguin1 a ,french   
chemist1 of tanning with  concentrated  
solutions of bark1 formed by passing    
water through a mass  of powdered bark1 
until1 by successive filtrations1 it is 
completely  deprived of its soluble     
tanning principle4    ,illustration3    

,bark ,box4 ,barrow4    ,the variations 
of practice among different ,tanners    
extend to the  substance used as an     
astringent1 as well as to the manner of 
applying  it4 ,ground oak-bark1 which   
was formerly the only material in common
 use1  and is still the most general1   
produces good leather of a light fawn   
colour4 ,valonia1 of which considerable 
quantities are imported for the  use of 
,tanners1 produces leather of great     
solidity and weight1 the colour  of     
which is inclined to grey1 and which is 
more impervious to water than  that made
 with oak-bark4 ,valonia consists of the
 acorns of the ,quercus  gilops1 and is 
brought from the ,levant and the ,morea4
 ,catechu1 or terra  japonica1 the      
extract of the ,acacia ,catechu1        
produces leather of a dark  reddish fawn
 colour1 which is light1 spongy1 and    
very pervious to water4                 
,illustration3 ,fleshing ,knife1 and    
,section4 ,shaving ,knife1 and ,section4
  ,striking ,pin1 and ,section4         

,unhairing ,knife1 and ,section4        
,when the process is complete1 the hides
 are hung up in a shed and allowed  to  
dry slowly2 and while they are drying   
they are compressed by beating1  or     
rubbing1 or by passing them between     
rollers1 to give them firmness and      
density4 ,a yellow deposit is now found 
upon the surface of the leather1  to    
which the name of 8bloom0 or 8pitching0 
is technically given4    ,we have       
hitherto alluded chiefly to the         
preparation of the thick hides  used for
 sole leather1 among which several      
varieties may be found1 each            
distinguished by a different technical  
name1 by which its thickness1  quality1 
or mode of preparation is known2 but the
 thinnest and weakest  hides1 as well as
 the skins of calves and other animals1 
are also  prepared for use as upper     
leathers1 in which case it is necessary 
to  reduce their thickness by shaving or
 paring them down upon the flesh  or    
inner side1 before they are subjected to

 the action of the tanning  infusions4  
,such hides or skins also require1 after
 leaving the hands of  the ,tanner1 to  
be rubbed1 softened1 and dressed by the 
currier1 in order  to bring them to the 
necessary degree of flexibility and     
smoothness4  ,the currier also has      
recourse to shaving or paring with a    
peculiarly  formed knife1 to bring the  
skin to the requisite tenuity2 and it is
 his  office to blacken the surface1    
which1 for common shoe leather1 is done 
on the flesh side1 although for some    
purposes leather is blackened on  the   
outer or grain side4 ,horse-hides1 which
 are comparatively weak and  thin1 are  
sometimes dressed in the latter way1    
under the name of ,cordovan  hides1 from
 the circumstance of such leather having
 been formerly made  at ,cordova1 in    
,spain4 ,calf-skins supply the quality  
of leather most  generally preferred for
 the upper part of boots and shoes4     
,of the thin skins prepared for         
ornamental purposes1 many are tanned    

with  a substance called sumach1        
prepared from a plant of the same name4 
,the  tanning is performed by sewing up 
each skin into the form of a bag1 with  
the grain or hair side outwards1 and    
nearly filling it with a strong         
solution of sumach in water4 ,the bag is
 then fully distended by blowing  into  
it1 and the aperture is tied up2 after  
which it is thrown into a  large shallow
 vessel filled with hot water containing
 a little sumach4  ,the distended bags  
float in this vessel1 and are           
occasionally moved  about with a wooden 
instrument until the solution which they
 contain  has thoroughly penetrated     
their substance4 ,owing to the thinness 
of the  skins and the heat to which they
 are exposed1 this operation is         
performed  in a few hours4 ,the process 
is expedited by taking the bags out of  
the  solution1 and piling them upon a   
perforated bench or rack at the side of 
the tub1 so that their own weight may   
force the confined liquid through  the  

pores4    ,illustration3 ,apron4        
,gloves4 ,whetter4 ,roller4 ,leoline4   
,when the tanning is completed1 the bags
 are opened to remove the sediment  of  
the sumach2 the skins are washed1 rubbed
 on a board1 and dried2 after  which    
they are ready for dyeing and finishing 
with a ridged instrument1  which imparts
 to the surface that peculiar grain by  
which morocco leather  is distinguished4
 ,an inferior kind of leather1 known as 
8imitation  morocco10 is prepared in a  
similar manner from sheepskins4         
,illustration3 ,plungers4 ,tongs4 ,jet4 
,hook4    8,tawing0 is the name applied 
to the process by which the skins of    
lambs  and kids are converted into soft 
leather by the action of alum4 ,of this 
kind of leather gloves are usually made4
    ,the jet and plungers used for      
immersing the hides in the tan1 the     
tongs and hook for removing them1 and   
the other implements1 are  easily       
understood as applied to the various    
processes here mentioned4               

,illustration          ,,the            
,,shoemaker4    ,illustration3          
,,workshop4      ,the trade of the      
,shoemaker naturally follows that of the
 tanner1 since  leather is the material 
principally employed in making coverings
 for  the feet2 the tough hides of      
animals being used for the same purpose 
in  countries where the art of tanning  
is either unknown or not practised4     
,scarcely any handicraft employment     
engages the attention of so many        
persons in this country as boot and shoe
 making4 ,from the fashionable          
bootmaker to the poor cobbler1 who      
crouches in a stall under a house in    
some narrow street1 is a wide interval1 
and this interval is filled up by       
numerous grades4 ,at ,northampton boots 
and shoes are made on a very large      
scale for the ,london markets2 they     
include chiefly the cheap varieties1    
but at some of the recent exhibitions of
 manufactures the ,northampton          
bootmakers have exhibited specimens of  

workmanship which are considered  to be 
quite equal to those of ,london or      
,paris4 ,at ,edenbridge1 in ,kent1  and 
at other places1 the strong coarse      
8hob-nailed0 shoes are made1 which  are 
so much worn by waggoners and others4   
,the ,london makers import from ,paris  
very large quantities of boot  fronts1  
which1 when combined with other parts of
 ,english manufacture1  constitute many 
of the 8,french boots0 which now glisten
 in the windows4  ,notwithstanding the  
large number of persons employed in     
these avocations  in ,england1 and the  
abundant supply of leather1 there is    
still a  considerable import of boots   
and shoes from abroad1 chiefly ,france4 
,in the old statutes a ,shoemaker is    
called a cordwainer1 apparently  a      
corruption of the ,french cordonnier1   
which means a worker of  ,cordova       
leather4 ,the companies of ,shoemakers  
in our ancient towns were  incorporated 
under this name2 and where some of these
 companies now  exist1 they are known by

 the same name4 ,as a legal term1       
cordwainer is  still used4    ,the      
trade1 as now followed in ,london and   
other principal places1 is  subdivided  
into about twenty branches4 ,the        
following may be set down  as the chief3
 the shoeman1 or maker of the sole part 
of the shoe2 the  bootman1 or maker of  
the sole part of the boot2 and the boot 
closer1 or  joiner together of the leg1 
vamp1 c4 ,the labour of these is        
especially  directed to what is called  
the men's line2 whilst others make the  
ladies'  shoes or boots4 ,there are many
 women1 too1 who get a livelihood by    
closing the shoe1 while others again    
follow the various sorts of binding4    
,the mechanical processes1 after marking
 and cutting out the leather1  consist  
chiefly in various kinds of strong      
needlework1 such as the  lasting or     
tacking of the upper leather to the     
in-sole1 the sewing in of  the welt1 the
 stitching to this welt of the out or   
top sole1 the building  and sewing down 

of the heel1 and the sewing or closing  
of boot legs4 ,the  boot closer is the  
most skilful of the persons employed1   
and receives the  highest wages4    ,the
 materials with which the ,shoemaker    
works are generally called the          
grindery1--they are so called at least  
through ,england and ,scotland1  though 
in ,dublin it is called finding4        
8,the cause of this technicality10 says 
,mr4 ,james ,devlin1 in his most        
interesting description of the trade of 
the ,shoemaker in the ,industrial       
,library1 8is now1 ,i believe1 scarcely 
known to any one in the trade4  ,the    
relation to whom ,i was apprenticed1 a  
man of a very active and  inquisitive   
turn of mind1 told me its history1 which
 it may be worth  while here to relate4 
8,formerly1 before hemp1 flax1 wax1     
hairs1 or any description of tools1     
were sold1 as now1 in shops set apart to
 this particular business1 the          
shoemaker1 not using the peculiar sort  
of stone rubber or the emery            

composition which he now uses to sharpen
 his knives upon1 was in the  habit     
occasionally of taking his knives to be 
ground 7as the ,french  shoemaker does  
at the present day7 to some of the      
common knife-grinders  of the           
neighbourhood4 ,the knife-grinder having
 thus the ,shoemaker for  a regular     
customer1 began in time to add to his   
usual business that of  selling hemp1   
c42 hence his little shop being termed  
the grindery1  every thing he sold      
became known under this name1 and is    
still continued40    ,the tools of the  
,shoemaker are in their collective form 
denominated his  kit4 ,anciently1 and in
 the old songs of the trade1 they were  
called  8,st4 ,hugh's bones10 from a now
 almost forgotten1 though somewhat      
pleasant  tradition4 ,in ,stow1 and in  
,randle ,holme's 8,academie of          
,armorie10 #afhh1  we find this term2   
as1 also1 in the still older romance of 
8,crispin and  ,crispianus20 and in two 
plays1 8,the ,shoemaker is a            

,gentleman10 and the  8,shoemaker's     
,holiday10 of the beginning of the      
seventeenth century4    ,the kit of the 
,shoemaker is1 however1 no longer now1  
as formerly1 made up  of 8bones0--saint 
or infidel1 human or brute1--but        
principally of good and  kindly steel2  
purchased ready-made at the grinder's1  
or the grindery  establishments before  
spoken of1 and kept afterwards 7in this 
country1  at least1 and in ,america7 in 
repair and proper order by the ingenuity
  and care of the workman himself2      
though in ,france1 and generally on  the
 continent1 much of this is done by     
another person1 to whom such  occupation
 is the sole means of livelihood4       
,under the general term kit is          
comprehended the pincers1 nippers1      
hammer1 the various descriptions of     
awls1 of setting irons1 and  many other 
articles4    ,it has often been a matter
 for great surprise that the ,shoemaker 
should  sit in such a cramped and       
unhealthy position at his work1 crouched

 over  his clamps as he holds the       
leather in them between his knees while 
engaged in sewing1 or over the block1   
which he holds fast to his thigh  with  
the stirrup that passes underneath his  
foot4    ,illustration3 ,nippers4 ,awl4 
,stirrup4 ,lapstone4 ,hammer4 ,clamps4  
,many inventions and improvements have  
been made for enabling the  ,shoemaker  
to stand during a great part of his     
time1 and some of these  seem well      
adapted to supersede the old position1  
but at present they have  been only     
partially adopted4    ,the ,shoemaker's 
thread being tipped with bristles1 no   
needle is required  for sewing2 but the 
thread itself is passed through the hole
 made with  the awl4 ,quickly goes in   
the awl1 and as quickly is out again1   
but not  before the hair from the       
fingers of the left hand has found the  
passage1  without being at all directed 
by the sight1 but literally in the dark2
  and hence the term blind stabbing1 the
 right hand hair immediately  following 

in the opposite course1 the closed thumb
 and fore-finger  of either hand nipping
 at the moment the hairs from these     
different  directions1 and drawing the  
same as instantly out1 at once          
completing the  stitch4    ,a proficient
 closer1 or closer's boy--for here1 in  
general1 the boy is  even more expert   
than the man--will in the space of half 
an hour stab the  four side rows and the
 two back rows of the counter of a boot1
 each inch  of stitching taking about   
twenty stitches1 and the entire work    
averaging  about fifteen inches1 three  
hundred stitches being thus put in in   
thirty  minutes1 or fifty every five    
minutes1 each stitch requiring in itself
  six distinct operations--the skill of 
sight or distance1 the putting in  of   
the awl1 and again its withdrawal1 the  
putting in the left-hand hair1  and     
again of the right1 and lastly1 the     
careful though rapid drawing1 or  rather
 twitching1 out of the thread itself4   
,the closer needs little kit3 a slip of 

board to fit or prepare the work  upon2 
a pair of clamps2 a block2 a knife2     
about three awls1 two  differently-sized
 closing awls1 and one stabbing awl2 two
 seam-sets1  or it may be three--one for
 the stabbed sides2 a stirrup2 a case of
  needles 7short blunts71 and a thimble4
    ,illustration3 ,fore-part ,iron4    
,seat ,iron4 ,seat ,file4 ,gigger ,iron4
 ,jim  ,crow4 ,breaker4 ,glazing ,iron4 
,bevel ,iron4    ,the lining in all     
shoes1 at least1 but those of the very  
strongest  kind1 is entirely the work of
 the woman1 being done with the needle1 
and elegantly it often is done4 ,after  
the lining1 the upper has to  be set2 a 
matter soon effected2 the flat-seam-set1
 or1 if stabbed1  the stabbing-side-set1
 being heated at a candle 7though this  
is not  necessary1 and might from the   
danger of the practice be well dispensed
  with7 and a little dissolved gum being
 rubbed on the seam1 the set is         
immediately to be somewhat forcibly and 
briskly pressed along the line  of      

stitching1 which thus takes an almost   
instant polish1 and being also          
hardened1 the upper becomes ready for   
shop2 that is1 to be sent to the  maker1
 or shoeman1 to finish by putting in the
 welt1 soles1 and other  parts of the   
shoe2 the 8stitching0 being effected    
with a square awl4    ,illustration3    
,knife4 ,last4 ,paste ,horn4    ,the    
number of tools used by the ,boot and   
,shoemaker who combines all the         
branches of the trade is very great1    
although few of them are remarkably     
expensive1 except some of the patent    
metal or hardwood lasts1 on which  the  
shoes or boots are placed4 ,the lapstone
 on which the leather is  hammered after
 being damped2 and the various kinds of 
irons used for  rubbing1 paring1 or     
shaping the soles and other parts of the
 shoe1 are  the principal implements1   
beside the awls1 knives1 hammers1 and   
rasp4    ,the glazing iron is used for  
burnishing the heel of the boot or shoe2
  the paste horn for containing the     

paste used in the inside lining of  the 
shoe or boot2 the irons for setting up  
the leather beside the  stitching1 and  
the ,jim-crow1 which is a small toothed 
wheel running in  a handle for the same 
purpose4 ,the long stick is used for    
8sleeking10  or smoothing and softening 
the upper part of the boot or shoe1     
after it  has been made and placed on   
the block1 in order to take out any     
wrinkles  that may remain4              
,illustration3 ,long ,stick4 ,rasp4     
,it would be impossible to give any     
clear description of all the  operations
 of the trade of the ,shoemaker in the  
space devoted here to  this particular  
business1 and even were it attempted1 no
 very clear  idea could be conveyed of  
the various portions of his work2 since1
 like  the tailor1 he has first to cut  
out the leather to the proper shape for 
making the various parts1 which have    
afterwards to be put together4  ,indeed1
 beyond mentioning the uses of the      
various tools1 most of which  are simple

 enough1 little can be said to explain  
the operation of the  ,shoemaker that   
would not require actual inspection of  
the different  processes2 although many 
of them may be understood by looking at 
a shoe1  after having observed the      
accompanying pictures and having read   
what has  been said about the tools     
employed4          ,,the ,,saddler ,,and
 ,,harness ,,maker4    ,illustration3   
,,workshop4      ,the manufacture of    
saddles and harness for horses is one   
requiring very  considerable skill and  
no little patience1 since on the ability
 of the  ,saddler depends not only the  
health and comfort of the horse1 but the
  safety of the rider4 ,the beauty and  
finish of the harness and its           
appurtenances are so essential to the   
proper appearance presented by the      
whole equipage1 that a very great deal  
of attention is now given even to  the  
smallest details1 such as buckles1      
mounts and ornamental sewing on  straps 
and traces4    ,illustration3           

,spokeshave4 ,cutting ,gauge4 ,dead     
,punch4 ,compasses4 ,mallet4  ,hand     
,iron4    ,the operations in the trade  
of the ,saddler are so similar to those 
of the  shoemaker1 as far as the        
stitching and cutting of leather are    
concerned1  that they require very      
little description4 ,the most difficult 
part of  his business is the skilful    
making of saddles4 ,to fit the pigskin  
over  the iron shape1 and skilfully to  
arrange the padding1 is often a very    
troublesome task1 where a horse requires
 some peculiarity of make before  he can
 be well fitted2 and to ensure a perfect
 smoothness and finish  a skilful use of
 the hand iron and the spokeshave is    
necessary4  ,similar care has to be     
taken in forming the collars to which   
the harness  is attached2 and indeed no 
part of the ,saddler's work can be      
carelessly  performed without serious   
risk either to the horse or its owner4  
,illustration3 ,needle and ,thread4     
,clamps4 ,lead ,piece4 ,hand ,knife4    

,punch4  ,round ,knife4 ,pricking ,iron4
 ,hand ,knife4 ,hammer4    ,as a great  
part of the ,saddlers' work consists of 
sewing1 he uses the  clamps to hold the 
leather between his knees1 in the same  
way as they  are used by the shoemaker2 
but although he employs the sewing awl  
for  drilling holes1 or1 at all events1 
the pricking iron1 the sewing is  done  
with needles and strongly waxed thread4 
,the various kinds of  knives are used  
for cutting and paring the leather2 the 
cutting gauge  and compasses for        
regulating the cutting1 the hammer for  
driving  the small nails used in the    
work1 and the mallet for striking the   
pricking iron or punches4 ,the punch is 
used for making the holes  in the straps
 to receive the tongue of the buckle1   
and is therefore a  hollow tube with a  
sharp cutting edge1 so that it will cut 
out a little  round piece of the        
leather4 ,the dead punch is made solid1 
and is not  intended for cutting4 ,the  
leather1 when it has to be cut with the 

punch1  is placed on the lead piece1 a  
small square block of lead1 which being 
soft allows a slight yielding of the    
leather1 and at the same time does  not 
blunt the edge of the punch when it has 
passed through the hole4                
,illustration3 ,edging ,iron4 ,seat     
,awl4 ,packing ,awl4 ,sewing ,awl4      
,double  ,crease4 ,single ,crease4 ,nail
 ,claw4    ,the seat awl and packing awl
 are used in the padding and making of  
saddles and collars2 the nail claw for  
removing nails by which the  leather has
 been fastened down4    ,the various    
kinds of creases are for the purpose of 
making channels in  the leather along   
the edges which have to be sewn1 so that
 the stitches  are sunk below the       
surface1 and the thread will not so     
easily wear out4  ,the edging iron is   
for a similar purpose4 ,in common       
saddlery some of  the comparatively     
unimportant straps1 or the smaller gear1
 are not sewn  at the edges1 and indeed 
do not require it1 although a great deal

 of the  ,saddler's sewing is for       
ornamental purposes4 ,in order to make  
the whole  look uniform1 however1 these 
straps are not left plain1 but are      
creased  at the edges1 and the channels 
thus made are marked with the pricking  
iron1 to give them the appearance of    
having been stitched4 ,the ,saddler  is 
better off than the shoemaker1 inasmuch 
as he generally sits to work  at a      
bench1 and need not occupy such a       
constrained and unhealthy position4     
,some account has already been given of 
the preparation of leather1 but it  will
 be desirable here to mention other     
sorts1 some of which particularly       
belong to the business of harness       
making4    ,illustration3 ,screw        
,crease4 ,varnish ,pot4 ,sponge4        
,sheep-skins1 when simply tanned1 are   
employed for inferior bookbinding1  for 
leathering bellows1 and for various     
other purposes for which a cheap        
leather is required4 ,all the           
whit-leather1 as it is termed1 which is 

used for whip-lashes1 bags1 aprons1 c4  
is of sheep-skin2 as are also the       
cheaper kinds of wash-leather1 of which 
gloves1 under-waistcoats1 and  other    
articles of dress1 are made4 ,mock1 or  
imitation morocco1 and most  of the     
other coloured and dyed leathers used   
for women's and children's  shoes1      
carriage-linings1 and the covering of   
stools1 chairs1 sofas1  writing-tables1 
c4 are also made of sheep-skin4         
,lamb-skins are mostly dressed white or 
coloured for gloves2 and those of  goats
 and kids supply the best qualities of  
light leather1 the former  being the    
material of the best morocco1 while kid 
leather affords the  finest material for
 gloves and ladies' shoes4 ,leather from
 goat-skins1  ornamented and sometimes  
gilt1 was formerly used as a hanging or 
covering  for walls4    ,illustration3  
,harness4    ,deer and antelope skins1  
dressed in oil1 are used chiefly for    
riding  breeches4 ,horse-hides1 which1  
considering their size1 are thin1 are   

tanned and curried1 and are used by the 
,harness ,maker1 especially for         
collars1 and occasionally1 when pared   
thin1 for the upper leathers of  ladies'
 walking shoes4 ,dog-skins are thick and
 rough1 and make excellent  leather4    
,seal-skins produce a leather similar   
but inferior to that  supplied by       
dog-skins2 and hog-skins afford a thin  
but dense leather1  which is used mostly
 for covering the seats of saddles4     
,currying is the general name given to  
the various operations of  dressing     
leather after the tanning is completed1 
by which the requisite  smoothness1     
lustre1 colour1 and suppleness1 are     
imparted4 ,the processes  of the        
,currier are various4 ,the first is     
styled 8dipping0 the leather4  ,it      
consists in moistening with water1 and  
beating upon a trellis-work of  wooden  
spars with a mallet or mace4 ,after this
 beating1 by which the  stiffness of the
 hide or skin is destroyed1 it is laid  
over an inclined  board1 and scraped and

 cleaned1 and1 wherever it is too thick1
 pared  or shaved down on the flesh side
 by the careful application of various  
two-handled knives1 and then thrown     
again into water1 and well scoured  by  
rubbing the grain or hair side with     
pumice-stone1 or with a piece of  slatey
 grit1 by which means the bloom1 a      
whitish matter which is found  upon the 
surface in tanning1 is removed4         
,illustration3 ,rule4 ,pincers4 ,file4  
,pliers4    ,the leather is then rubbed 
with the pommel1 a rectangular piece of 
hard wood1 about twelve inches long by  
five broad1 grooved on the under        
surface1 and fastened to the hand4 ,the 
,currier uses several of these          
instruments1 with grooves of various    
degrees of fineness1 and also1 for  some
 purposes1 pommels of cork1 which are   
not grooved at all4 ,the object  of this
 rubbing is to give grain and pliancy to
 the leather4 ,the leather  is then     
scraped with tools applied nearly       
perpendicular to its surface1  and      

worked forcibly with both hands1 to     
reduce such parts as may yet be  left   
too thick1 to a uniform substance4      
,after this it is dressed with  the     
round knife1 a singular instrument which
 pares off the coarser  fleshy parts of 
the skin4 ,in addition to these         
operations1 the ,currier  uses          
occasionally polishers of smooth wood or
 glass1 for rubbing the  surface of the 
leather2 and when the leather is        
intended for the use of  the shoemaker1 
he applies to it some kind of greasy    
composition called  dubbing or stuffing4
    ,leather is occasionally dressed    
8black on the grain10 or having the     
grain  side instead of the flesh        
coloured4 ,the currying operations in   
such a  case are similar to those above 
described1 but the finishing processes  
are rather different4 ,the leather is   
rubbed with a grit-stone1 to remove  any
 wrinkles and smooth down the coarse    
grain4 ,the grain is finally  raised by 
repeatedly rubbing over the surface1 in 

different directions1  with the pommel  
or graining board4    ,japanned leather 
of various kinds is used in coach       
making1 harness  making1 and for various
 other purposes4 ,patent leather is     
covered with  a coat of elastic japan1  
which gives a surface like polished     
glass1  impermeable to water2 and hides 
prepared in a more perfectly elastic    
mode  of japanning1 which will permit   
folding without cracking the surface1   
are  called enamelled leather4 ,such    
leather has the japan annealed1         
something  in the same mode as glass2   
the hides are laid between blankets1 and
  subjected to the heat of an oven at a 
peculiar temperature during several     
hours4          ,,the ,,hatter4         
,illustration3 ,,cutting ,,machine4     
,the trade of the ,hatter is confined to
 a few countries of ,europe2 but1  as   
the fashion of hats is at present mostly
 restricted1 both here and in  most     
parts of the ,continent1 to those black 
stiff cylindrical coverings  of silk    

which custom has ordained we shall wear1
 greatly to our own  discomfort1 and at 
a great expense1 the business is of     
considerable  importance1 and the making
 of hats has grown into a large branch  
of  industry4 ,before the introduction  
of that kind of silk which bears a  long
 pile1 like velvet1 and is known as     
plush1 beaver was the material          
principally used for hat making2 but    
beaver hats are much more expensive1    
though they are now seldom made of the  
skin or fur of the beaver1 which  has   
grown remarkably scarce1 in consequence 
of the land which the animals  formerly 
occupied having become inhabited4       
,illustration3 ,cutting out4 ,bowing4   
,beaver hats of the finest quality are  
made with lamb's wool and the fur  of   
,english rabbits4 ,to form the body of  
the hat1 the wool and rabbit's  fur are 
separately bowed by bringing a set of   
strings attached to a bow  in contact   
with a heap of the material1 and then   
striking the strings1 so  as to cause   

violent vibrations1 and thus separate   
the filaments4 ,the two  substances are 
next bowed together until they are      
intimately mixed2 after  which the mass 
is spread evenly1 covered with an       
oil-cloth1 and pressed  to the state of 
an imperfectly tangled felt4 ,the next  
process is to cover  the felt with a    
triangular piece of damp brown paper1   
and then to fold it  in a damp cloth1   
and work it well with the hand1 pressing
 and bending1  rolling and unrolling it1
 until the interlacing or felting is    
much more  perfect1 and the mass is     
compact4 ,the felt thus prepared is next
 taken to  the wide brim of a boiler    
charged with hot water and beer grounds1
 and a  small quantity of sulphuric     
acid2 it is well rubbed and rolled until
 it  no longer contracts4 ,the felt is  
next stiffened with shellac1 a solution 
of which is applied by means of a brush 
to both sides of the felt2 after  which 
it is heated in a stove1 and by this    
means the whole substance  becomes duly 

impregnated with the resin2 this renders
 the hat nearly  waterproof4            
,illustration3 ,bow for ,beaver4    ,to 
form the nap of a hat1 one half or      
three-fourths of an ounce  of beaver1   
and some other less costly fur1 are     
bowed together and  imperfectly felted  
in the manner already described1 and    
shaped the same  as the body to which it
 is to be applied2 that body is then    
softened by  immersing it in the boiler1
 when the nap is applied and worked as  
in  felting1 until the required union is
 effected between the two bodies4       
,the felt thus covered is brought to the
 proper shape by working it on a  wooden
 block1 and is then dyed black4 ,the hat
 is softened by steam1 the  crown is    
strengthened by placing in it a disc of 
scaleboard1 and linen is  pasted over   
this4    ,the nap is raised and a       
uniform direction given to its fibres by
 means of  warm irons and hair brushes4 
,the last processes are lining and      
binding1  when the hat is ready to be   

worn4 ,in the low-priced hats of the    
present  day1 commoner wool and fur1 and
 smaller quantities of each1 are used4  
,illustration3 ,lathe4 ,finishing4      
,silk hats consist of a cover or        
exterior part made of silk plush1 which 
is laid upon a foundation of chip1      
stiffened linen1 or some other light    
material1 previously blocked into shape4
 ,the so-called velvet and satin  hats  
deserve those titles only so far as the 
plush resemble those  materials4 ,the   
plush is mostly woven in the north of   
,england4 ,paris hats  are for the most 
part made in ,england1 the silk plush   
being imported from  ,france4           
,illustration3 ,rounding ,card1 ,no4 #a4
 ,rounding ,card1 ,no4 #b4 ,finishing   
,iron4 ,brow-piece4 ,blistering ,iron4  
,card4 ,polishing ,block4 ,multer4      
,brush4    ,the various tools employed  
are mostly used for shaping the         
different  parts of the hat4 ,the       
cutting machine1 for dividing and       
preparing the  felt and other materials2

 the block1 on which the body of the hat
 is  formed previous to its being placed
 in the lathe1 where it is made         
perfectly round2 the brow-piece1 for    
shaping the hat where it fits  the head2
 the card1 a sort of wire brush for     
scratching up or carding  the fibre of  
the silk or beaver after the hat is     
made2 the rounding  cards1 for pressing 
and completing the hat near the brim2   
the curler1  for turning up and shaping 
the brim2 the multer1 finishing iron1   
and  blistering iron1 are used for      
shaping and smoothing2 the polishing    
block holds the hat while it receives   
the final process of brushing and       
smoothing with a pad of velvet called   
the veleure4    ,illustration3 ,curler4 
,block4 ,veleure4          ,,the        
,,miller4    ,illustration3             
,,water-,,mill4      ,there is scarcely 
a boy to be found who1 when he has been 
into the  country and seen the wheel of 
the old water mill going round1 or the  
fans  of the windmill slowly revolving  

in the air1 has not thought that it     
would be pleasant to follow the business
 of a ,miller4    ,millers are          
proverbially jolly fellows1 and their   
houses and the mills  themselves are    
generally very picturesque1 and stand in
 pleasant country  places2 then1 again1 
what wonderful fat perch and chub and   
pike can be  caught in the weir or the  
mill stream1 and what a quiet sleepy    
occupation  it must be to lie on the    
grass or in some great room in the mill1
  watching the fans1 or listening to the
 summer breeze wafting through the      
sails6    ,if anybody should think1     
however1 that the ,miller's life is a   
lazy one  he had better alter his       
opinion2 for1 unless he wishes to starve
 amidst  plenty1 the ,miller must be up 
betimes1 and1 besides working himself1  
keeping a good look-out amongst his men1
 lest both he and his customers  should 
suffer by their negligence4    ,the     
mortar would seem to be the earliest    
machine used for the purpose  of        

bruising or reducing grain to a powder1 
or into a state fit for the  making of  
bread4 ,by means of the handle the      
pestle would with tolerable  facility be
 driven round the mortar1 and the grain 
reduced to a powder1  as is done with   
certain drugs by the pestle of the      
apothecary of the  present day4    ,in  
process of time1 shafts were added to   
these machines2 and in the  opinion of  
,beckmann1 the oldest cattle mills      
resembled those described in            
,sonnerat's ,voyage to the ,east        
,indies1 in which the pestle of a       
mortar1  fastened to a stake driven into
 the earth1 is affixed to a shaft1 to   
which two oxen are yoked4 ,these oxen   
are driven by a man1 while another  is  
employed in dropping the grain into the 
mortar and placing it under  the pestle4
    ,we have good reason for knowing    
that the ,romans1 for a long time1 used 
no  other instrument than the pestle and
 mortar4    ,pounding continued in use  
among the ,romans so late as after the  

era of  ,vespasian4 ,this fact clearly  
proves that the ,romans were many ages  
behind  the ,eastern world in the arts  
of civilization1 for grinding of corn   
into  flour was practised1 we know1 in  
the times of the patriarchs1 and was    
probably the invention of the           
antediluvian world4    ,the             
subject-,britons universally adopted the
 ,roman name1 but applied it1  as we    
their successors apply it at present1   
only to the ,roman mill2  still         
distinguishing their own original mill  
as we distinguish it1 by  its own       
original denomination of a quern4 ,a    
,roman or water mill was  probably      
erected at every stationary town in the 
kingdom1 and it is quite  certain that  
one was erected at ,mancunium           
7,manchester71 serving equally  the     
purposes of the town and the uses of the
 garrison4 ,one alone would  be         
sufficient1 as the use of hand-mills was
 at that time very common  in both1 many
 such having been found about the site  

of the station  particularly1 and the   
use of them generally having being      
retained among  us very nearly to the   
present period4 ,such mills it would be 
particularly  necessary to have in the  
station1 that the garrison might be     
prudently  provided against a siege4    
,the ancient ,asiatic hand-mill consists
 of two flat round stones1 about  twenty
 inches or two feet in diameter1 kept   
rolling one on the other by  means of a 
stick1 which does the office of a       
handle4 ,the corn falls down  on the    
undermost stone1 through a hole in the  
middle of the uppermost1  which by its  
circular motion spreads it on the       
undermost1 where it is  bruised and     
reduced to flour2 this flour1 working   
out at the rim of the  millstones1      
lights on a board set on purpose to     
receive it4 ,the bread  made of it is   
said to be better tasted than that made 
by either wind or  water mills3 these   
hand-mills cost only a few shillings of 
,english money4    ,this description of 

mill is frequently alluded to in the    
,scriptures1  and it was the practice   
for the women to grind corn every       
morning by  means of hand-mills2 and in 
the ,east1 or at least in many parts of 
it1 it  continues to be the practice to 
this day4    ,water wheels1 as far as   
the figure and construction are         
concerned1 may be  reduced to three     
kinds1 and they are usually known by the
 names--overshot  wheel1 balance wheel1 
breast wheel1 and undershot wheel4      
,illustration3 ,mill4    ,in an overshot
 wheel1 the water is conducted over the 
top of the wheel1  and acts first by its
 momentum or mere movement1 or motion1  
and then by  its weight--the weight     
being its principal power in impelling  
the wheel  round1 the mere movement or  
motion of the water producing in this   
case  little effect4 ,the water is      
received into buckets placed all around 
the  circle of the wheel4 ,it first     
strikes the wheel at the top1 and       
filling  the first bucket1 by its       

momentum or moving power1 and more      
particularly  by its weight1 it sets the
 wheel in motion1 and consequently makes
 that  side heavier2 and as fresh       
buckets rise to receive the water1 while
 those  below have emptied themselves1 a
 constant tendency to motion is created1
  and rotation is produced4    ,in a    
balance wheel1 the water strikes the    
wheel not at the top1 but  always more  
or less above its centre1 or axle4 ,this
 wheel differs in no  respect from the  
overshot wheel in its construction4 ,it 
is employed where  there is not a       
sufficient fall for an overshot wheel1  
which requires less  water in           
consequence of its commanding a much    
greater leverage4    ,in an undershot   
wheel the water acts only by its        
momentum1 or moving  power4 ,the        
circumference of the wheel1 instead of  
being supplied with  buckets1 as in the 
overshot1 and breast or balance wheels1 
is furnished  with floats1 or float     
boards1 as they are called1 and1 being  

exposed  to the action of a running     
stream1 generally1 if not always1       
increased  in rapidity by making an     
artificial fall1 is thus driven round1  
and  in flour-mills its force is        
communicated by cog-wheels to the stones
  employed in reducing corn to meal4    
,in a breast wheel1 the water has no    
previous fall1 and therefore does  not  
strike the floats at the bottom of the  
wheels1 as in the undershot  wheel1 with
 an increased velocity4 ,the breast     
wheel is therefore fixed  in what is    
called a race1 formed of stone or brick 
work1 agreeing with  the curvature of   
the wheel1 and being thus let on from   
its own level1  acts both by its weight 
and momentum1 or movement4 ,this wheel  
is unlike  the undershot wheel1 being   
close boarded round its circumference1  
like  an overshot or balance wheel1 the 
undershot wheel being always open2  in  
short1 it is a sort of bucket wheel2 the
 buckets1 however1 being  constructed   
differently from those of the overshot  

and balance wheels4    ,a tide-mill1 as 
the name imports1 is worked by the      
ebbing and flowing of  the tide4 ,of    
these mills there are various kinds2    
first1 those in which  the water wheel  
turns one way when the tide is rising1  
and the other when  it is falling2      
secondly1 those in which the wheel turns
 the same way  whether it is rising or  
falling2 thirdly1 those in which the    
wheel itself  rises or falls as the tide
 flows or ebbs2 and fourthly1 those in  
which  the axle of the water wheel is so
 fixed1 that it shall neither rise nor  
fall2 the rotary motion being still     
given to the wheel1 whether it be       
partially or wholly immersed in the     
water4    ,all the machines for grinding
 corn and seeds are mills1 whatever may 
be  their particular application4 ,one  
very common form is that of an iron     
machine1 supported on four legs1 having 
a winch handle on one side1 a fly  wheel
 on another1 a hopper at the top1 and a 
crushing apparatus in the  centre4 ,the 

grain or seed is put into the hopper1   
the winch handle is  turned1 the grain  
becomes crushed to powder1 and falls out
 at the bottom  of the apparatus4       
,sometimes the mill is made chiefly of  
wood1 but with  iron wheel and crushing 
apparatus4 ,one kind of wheat mill1 in  
addition  to the usual mill apparatus1  
has a chest which acts as a             
flour-dressing  machine4 ,some mills are
 adapted for crushing beans rather than 
seeds4    ,the crushing apparatus in    
mills is of two kinds1 either one stone 
working  round in contact with another1 
or two metallic surfaces1 between which 
the substance is forced1 but between    
which it cannot pass except in a  fine  
state4    ,the millstones employed in   
grinding corn require to be made of a   
peculiar kind of stone4 ,the greater    
proportion of our millstones are        
procured from a particular spot in      
,western ,germany4 ,at about ten miles  
from ,coblentz is a small town called   
,andernach1 the chief trade of which  is

 in millstones1 procured from the       
neighbouring quarries of ,nieder        
,mendig4 ,there are several quarries1   
averaging about fifty feet in depth1    
each quarry shaped like an inverted     
cone1 down the sides of which the       
quarrymen descend by a spiral path4 ,the
 quarrymen have to cut away  through a  
superincumbent layer of soft porous     
stone1 till they come to  a layer of    
hard1 blackish1 heavy stone1 regularly  
porous1 and yielding  sparks when struck
 with iron4 ,this is the millstone1 and 
requires good  and well-prepared tools  
to work it2 it is supposed to be a      
compact  lava from some extinct volcano2
 and as there are fissures or gaps at   
intervals1 these facilitate the         
separation of the stone into blocks     
suitable for millstones4 ,all round the 
bottom of the conical cavities1  the    
stone has been excavated in galleries or
 horizontal passages4 ,the  stones are  
brought to shape by means of hammers and
 chisels4 ,a deep  socket is cut through

 the middle of such stones as are       
intended for  runners1 or upper stones4 
,the furrows on the surfaces of the     
stones are  produced by means of a      
double-edged hammer1 about #ad lbs4     
weight4    ,windmills are of two kinds2 
in one the wind is made to act upon     
vanes  or sails1 generally four1 which  
are disposed so as to revolve by that   
action in a plane which is nearly       
vertical2 and in the other1 the axis  of
 revolution being precisely vertical1   
any point on the surface of a  vane     
revolves in a horizontal plane4 ,the    
former is called a vertical  windmill1  
and the latter a horizontal windmill4   
,the building for a vertical windmill is
 generally a wall of timber or          
brickwork1 in the form of a frustrum of 
a cone1 and terminated above by a       
wooden dome1 which is capable of        
revolving horizontally upon it4 ,a ring 
of wood1 forming the lower part of the  
dome1 rests upon a ring of the  same    
material at the top of the wall1 and the

 surfaces in contact being  made very   
smooth1 the dome may easily be turned   
round upon the wall2  and is prevented  
from sliding off by a rim which projects
 from it1 and  descends over the        
interior circumference of the lower     
ring4 ,the dome in  turning carries with
 it the windsails and their axle2 and   
thus the wind  sails may be adjusted to 
agree with the direction of the wind1 or
 the  plane in which the radii of the   
sails turn may be made perpendicular to 
that direction4 ,the revolution is      
sometimes accomplished by the force of  
a man applied to a winch near the       
ground1 but in general the wind itself  
is made to turn the dome or the mill by 
means of a set of small vanes1  which   
are situated at the extremity of a long 
horizontal arm projecting  from the     
dome1 in a plane passing through the    
vertical shaft of the mill1  and on the 
side opposite to the great sails4    ,a 
horizontal windmill is a great          
cylindrical frame of timber1 which is   

made to revolve about an upright centre1
 and its convex surface is formed  of   
boards attached in vertical positions to
 the upper and lower parts  of the      
frame4 ,the whole is enclosed in a fixed
 cylinder having the same  upright      
centre as the other2 this consists of a 
revolving screen or a  number of boards1
 which are so disposed that in whatever 
direction the  wind may blow1 it may    
enter between them on one side only of a
 vertical  plane1 passing through the   
axis1 and thus give motion to the       
interior  cylinder4 ,the effective power
 of the vertical windmill is1 however1  
so  much greater than that of the       
horizontal windmill1 that the latter is 
now  seldom constructed4                
,illustration3 ,dressing ,machine or    
,bolter4 ,jack4    ,the dressing machine
 consists of a hollow cylinder1 or      
frame1 covered  with wire cloth of      
different degrees of fineness1 the      
finest being at the  elevated1 or upper 
end of the cylinder1 which is inclined  

in the same way  as the bolting mill4   
,within the cylinder1 which may be made 
of pieces  of wood rendered circular1   
and1 like the ribs of an animal1 placed 
at  certain distances from each other1 a
 reel is placed with its axle in the    
centre of the cylinder1 which is fixed1 
or stationary4 ,to the rails of  this   
reel are attached hair brushes1 which1  
when made to revolve1 or turn  round1   
brush against the interior cloth wire   
surface of the cylinder4  ,the machine  
is provided with a shoe or jigger1 very 
similar to that of  the millstones1 to  
cause a regular supply of flour or meal 
in the same  state in which it came from
 the millstones through a spout from the
 floor  above1 to which it is elevated  
by the sack tackle1 or elevator1 after  
being ground4 ,the meal by this means   
being gradually let1 or fed into  the   
cylinder1 is1 by the motion of the      
brushes of the reel1 sifted or  rubbed  
through the cloth wire with which the   
cylinder is covered4 ,the  finest of the

 flour will go through the upper end1   
where the finest wire  cloth is placed2 
the next finest through the next        
division of the wire  cloth1 which is   
coarser1 the middlings through the      
following division1  the pollard1 or    
sharps1 through the last1 and the bran1 
not being able  to get through the wire 
cloth at all1 on account of its         
coarseness1 is  thrown out at the end of
 the cylinder4 ,the cylinder is enclosed
 in a  large and close box1 to prevent  
the waste of flour by its going off in  
dust4 ,this box is divided into several 
compartments1 or partitions1 by  means  
of moveable boards4 ,some millers have  
more partitions than others1  and indeed
 they all vary the number to suit the   
nature or sort of flour  which they are 
manufacturing4 ,in a dressing machine of
 three divisions1  the flour deposited  
in the first is called household1 or    
seconds1 that in  the second middlings1 
and in the third pollard1 which is not  
flour1 but a  fine description of bran4 

,illustration3 ,revolving ,screen4      
,jacob's ,ladder4    ,when wheat arrives
 at a mill to be ground the sacks are   
received in the  lower part of the mill1
 and hoisted by means of the sack tackle
 to the  upper storeys1 generally the   
uppermost4 ,the mode of this operation  
is  as follows1 and it is performed with
 little bodily labour4 ,the rope or     
chain of the sack tackle is firmly      
fastened round the mouth of the sack  by
 the man below1 who by means of a rope  
attached to a lever throws the  tackle  
into gear4 ,the sack then immediately   
ascends1 without any further  aid from  
the man1 through the different trap     
doors1 till it has arrived  at the place
 of its destination4 ,there another man 
is ready to receive  it1 who1 as soon as
 he has landed it by pulling it on one  
side1 throws  the tackle out of gear1   
and returns the rope or chain to the man
 below4  ,the wheat is then shot into a 
garner or bin1 and thus the same process
  goes on till the whole load or cargo  

is safely deposited in the bin or       
garner4 ,the wheat remains there till it
 is wanted to be ground1 when1 by  means
 of a spout1 it is conveyed to the      
hoppers below1 and from thence  runs in 
between the stones4 ,in its progress to 
the stones1 it may1 or  may not1 be     
subjected to a cleansing process4 ,the  
wheat being reduced  to a flour1 escapes
 through an aperture of the floor into a
 spout1 by  which it is conveyed to the 
trough4 ,it is then either put into     
sacks1  and drawn up again into one of  
the higher storeys1 and deposited in    
bins  over the dressing machines1 or    
this is effected by a machine called  an
 elevator1 which performs the operation 
without the assistance of  manual       
labour4 ,in this bin the flour should be
 left till1 at any rate1  it is         
perfectly cold1 but is will be all the  
better if it remain for  three or four  
weeks1 provided it be occasionally      
turned4 ,from this bin  it is passed1 by
 means of a spout1 to the hopper of the 

bolting mill or  dressing machine1 by   
which it is separated from the bran or  
pollard1 and  is then fit for use4      
,illustration3 ,smutter4 ,scoop4 ,claw4 
,the screening machine consists of a    
roller-shaped sieve1 so divided1  that  
the corn which is placed at one end     
passes over a large surface of  wire as 
the sieve revolves1 and this operation  
removes from it external  impurities1   
such as sand and dirt4 ,when it arrives 
at the end of the  screw the wheat falls
 into a hopper1 by which it is conveyed 
by spouts  into small hoppers1 placed   
over one side of each pair of           
millstones4 ,from  these hoppers there  
are spouts placed in nearly a horizontal
 line1 which  spouts conduct the corn   
from the hoppers to the eye of the      
millstone4  ,they are attached to the   
hopper1 so as to admit of a horizontal  
motion1  which is effected by a         
projecting part of the axle or spindle  
of the  stone1 called a damsel4 ,it is  
shaped like a cross1 so that1 by the    

revolution of the millstone1 it keeps   
tapping the end of the spout1 and  gives
 a rapid vibratory motion to it1 which  
causes a regular supply of  corn to     
enter the eye of the stone2 by the      
action of the stones the corn  is       
reduced to flour1 which passes1 by means
 of spouts1 into the troughs  on the    
ground floor4    ,illustration3 ,scales 
and ,weights4 ,troughs4    ,the troughs 
in which the flour is kept2 the scoop   
and scales for  weighing small          
quantities2 the claw for moving and the 
steelyard for  weighing sacks1 are the  
other principal objects seen in a mill4 
,jacob's  ladder is the name given to a 
revolving band fitted with a number of  
leathern cups4 ,these revolve with the  
band through the flour and serve to     
carry it up a shaft from one floor to   
another4    ,illustration3 ,steelyard4  
,,the ,,baker4    ,illustration3        
,,baking ,,oven ,,and ,,kneading        
,,trough4      ,of all the trades that  
are carried on in large towns there is  

none more  important than that of the   
,baker4 ,in some parts of the country1  
where  people make their own bread at   
home1 or at all events have all the     
materials for making it1 and know how to
 mix the different ingredients1  it is  
of less consequence2 but only imagine   
what would be our dismay  in ,london1 if
 we got up some morning and heard that  
all the bakers had  agreed not to send  
in the rolls for breakfast1 and that we 
must be  satisfied to live upon puddings
 and vegetables until they set to work  
again to make bread4    ,and yet1 in the
 early part of their history1 several   
nations of which  we read at school had 
no knowledge of the trade of a ,baker4  
,until they  discovered the art of      
making proper bread1 and somebody showed
 them the  use of an oven1 the ,romans  
made their meal into a sort of porridge1
 or  knew no better than to mix it into 
flat cakes1 which they cooked on hot    
stones or in the wood ashes of their    
fires4 ,the ,anglo-,saxons were a       

little better off1 for they mixed leaven
 with their dough1 to make the  cakes   
lighter and better2 but you will        
remember--by the story of ,king         
,alfred1 who when he was in disguise and
 going to watch the ,danish camp1  was  
left in the neatherd's hut to watch the 
cooking of the cakes--that  they were   
baked in the embers of burnt wood upon  
the hearth4    ,in many parts of ,europe
 they still use a sort of cake-bread or 
rolls  instead of loaves2 and in some   
parts of northern ,germany and ,russia  
the  bread of the peasants is nearly    
black1 and is so coarse and sour that   
few  ,english people could eat it1      
especially as it is kept till it grows  
quite  hard1 and sometimes has to be cut
 with a saw4    ,the ,eastern nations   
understood the use of ovens1 however1   
and the ,jews  especially were very good
 ,bakers1 as were probably the          
,egyptians1 for we  read of ,pharaoh's  
,baker1 whose dream ,joseph interpreted4
 ,the trade of  baking was held in very 

high esteem amongst the nations of      
antiquity1 and  included not only the   
making of bread1 but of those cakes and 
sweetmeats  of which all ,oriental      
people1 and some ,european people too1  
are so  fond4 ,by reading the history of
 the ,jews and the ,egyptians we learn  
that  fermented or leavened bread was in
 common use amongst them1 at a very     
early period of their history1 so that  
the pulse-eating people1 or the  people 
of ,europe who could only eat grain made
 into porridge1 or simply  cooked1 were 
for a long time behind the ,orientals in
 this respect4 ,it  was not till #fjj   
years after the establishment of the    
,roman state that  a public bakery was  
opened in ,rome itself1 and before this 
time1 which  was about #afg years before
 the birth of ,christ1 all the baking   
and bread  making was done1 amongst the 
rest of the family cooking1 in the      
kitchens  of private houses4    ,when   
the public bakeries were established1   
however1 those who followed  the trade  

were held in great respect1 and a code  
of laws was made to  regulate the manner
 in which their business should be      
conducted4 ,the  same importance was    
given to the trade in ,england1 when    
,bakers first set  up business in the   
large towns1 and people began to buy    
their loaves  instead of making them at 
home4 ,the early statutes and laws place
 ,bakers  above mere handicraftsmen1 and
 ranked them with gentlemen1 and very   
severe punishments were inflicted on    
fraudulent ,bakers1 who neglected  to   
mark their loaves so that 8wheaten0     
bread might be distinguished  from      
8household20 the same laws condemned    
that ,baker to the pillory who  gave    
short weight1 even by so much as the    
fraction of an ounce1 and the           
bakehouses were placed under the control
 of the magistrates4    ,there are many 
people who think that some such         
stringent laws might be  usefully       
employed now1 and there can be no doubt 
that the ,baker has too  many           

opportunities of adulterating his bread1
 or sending short weight3  the first    
seriously injuring the health1 and the  
second the pockets1  of his customers4  
,one of the worst features of the       
,baker's trade in our  time1 however1 is
 the dirty condition of the bakehouses  
and places where  bread is made1 the    
filthy habits which such places give    
rise to1 and the  very long hours during
 which journeymen ,bakers are at work4  
,all these  matters have lately been    
made the subject of inquiry1 and it may 
be hoped  that they will be greatly     
improved4    ,illustration3 ,egg ,whisk4
 ,flour ,basket and ,scoop4 ,egg ,brush4
    ,illustration3 ,sieve4 ,brush4      
,rasp4 ,cleaning ,net4 ,paste ,cutter4  
,biscuit  ,marker4 ,knife4 ,iron ,peel4 
,wooden ,peel4    ,the tools that are   
used in most bakeries are1 beside the   
oven1 where  the bread is baked1 and the
 kneading trough1 in which the dough is 
mixed3 a seasoning tub for mixing other 
ingredients to be mingled with  the     

dough1 a wire sieve for sifting the     
flour1 and a seasoning sieve  made of   
tin pierced with small holes2 a flour   
basket lined with tin1  and a flour     
scoop1 a pail1 a bowl1 a salt-bin1 which
 should be  near the oven1 a yeast tub1 
a dough knife1 scales and weights  for  
weighing the dough before it is moulded 
into a loaf1 a scraper for  removing the
 dough from the trough and the board    
where the loaves are  shaped1 wooden and
 iron peels1 a sort of shovels with long
 handles1  for placing the bread in the 
oven or removing loaves1 dishes and     
cakes1  after they are baked1 a rasp1   
like a coarse broad file with a bent    
handle1 for rasping off any portion of  
burnt crust2 a dusting brush for        
sweeping away refuse of flour or dust   
from the boards where the loaves  are   
made or placed after baking1 an egg     
whisk for beating eggs used in  pastry1 
and an egg brush for putting a glazing  
of egg on the outside of  buns or cakes1
 differently shaped tins or moulds for  

rolls or other  articles of fancy       
bakery1 coarse squares of baize or      
flannel for  covering the dough or the  
newly-made bread1 and a scuttle1        
swabber1  or cleaning net1 made of a    
quantity of rough netting fastened on   
the  end of a pole1 and which1 after    
being wetted1 is used for the final     
removal of all dirt from the oven just  
before 8setting the batch10 or  placing 
the loaves for baking4 ,beside these    
there are in most bakehouses  set ups1  
or oblong pieces of beech wood1 to be   
placed in the oven for  the purpose of  
keeping the loaves in their places4     
,illustration3 ,tin for ,french ,rolls4 
,tin for ,sponge ,cakes4                
,illustration3 ,scales and ,weights4    
,it would be impossible to give         
instructions here how to make the       
various  sorts of bread1 but the        
ordinary kind sold by ,london ,bakers is
 made much  in the following way3--     
,suppose that the ,baker desires to make
 up a sack of flour2 he empties it  into

 the kneading trough1 and then proceeds 
to sift it1 in order to make  it lie    
more lightly and to break up any lumps4 
,he then takes from eight to ten pounds 
of potatoes and boils them1  without    
removing the skins1 afterwards mashing  
them in the seasoning tub1  with about  
half the quantity of flour1 and adding a
 couple of pails of  water4 ,to this    
mixture he pours about two quarts of    
yeast1 made from the  liquor of boiled  
hops1 malt1 and patent yeast already    
made and sold for  the purpose4 ,this is
 the leaven1 which makes the difference 
between bread  and meal-cake1 or the    
,english loaf and the ,australian       
8damper10 which  is made only of flour  
and water1 and baked at a bush fire2 the
 yeast or  leaven is1 in fact1 meal in  
its early state of decomposition4       
,this mixture then is left in the       
seasoning tub1 covered with a sack for  
several hours1 and allowed to ferment4  
,then the ,baker separates about  a     
quarter of the flour in the trough by   

means of a board1 and piles it  up at   
one end apart from the larger quantity1 
and it is upon this that  he pours the  
contents of the seasoning tub1 taking   
care that it passes  through a sieve    
placed on a couple of sticks across the 
trough4    ,this portion upon which the 
liquor has been poured is called the    
sponge1 and he proceeds to 8set it0 by  
thoroughly mixing1 and finally  giving  
it a dust of flour at the top1 after    
which it is kept for five or  six hours1
 or until it has twice 8risen10 or      
puffed out by means of the  fermenting  
liquor within it4    ,just as it has    
risen a second time1 and air bubbles are
 breaking through  it to the surface1   
about three more pailfuls of water are  
poured upon  it1 and in this water about
 three pounds of salt have been         
dissolved2  this is well mixed with the 
sponge1 and then1 the board being       
removed1  the sponge and the rest of the
 flour is worked into one mass4 ,it is  
this  kneading and breaking up the      

sponge which is the hard labour of the  
,baker1 and that it is hard labour may  
be known from the fact that he  works   
nearly naked1 and that1 as he lifts and 
pummels the tenacious mass1  he heaves  
great sighs and groans like those with  
which paviors ram down  the stones in   
the roads4 ,in many of the best         
bakehouses now a machine is  used1 which
 supersedes this manual labour2 the mass
 of dough being placed  in a cylinder1  
within which an axle fitted with bent   
blades1 or arms of  iron1 revolves1     
passing through and through the dough as
 it moves from  end to end4    ,by      
another system 7that of ,dr4 ,dauglish7 
the use of yeast is dispensed  with1 and
 the bread1 made by machinery1 is       
leavened by carbonic acid  gas1 which is
 forced into the cylinder after the     
atmospheric air is  pumped out1 and so  
goes through the dough and produces the 
results of  fermentation4    ,the dough 
having been thoroughly mixed in the     
trough1 is left for an hour  or two to  

8prove10 and then1 after being sprinkled
 with flour to prevent  its sticking1 is
 thrown out upon a board1 or the lid of 
the next trough1  and cut into pieces   
which are weighed1 and afterwards       
moulded into  loaves4 ,the moulding is  
only learnt by practice4 ,the piece of  
dough is  cut in half and shaped        
according to the kind of loaf required1 
one piece  forming the top of the loaf1 
being laid in a hollow of that which is 
to  be the bottom1 and the joint made by
 a skilful turn of the knuckles4  ,the  
loaves are placed in the oven by means  
of the peel1 and are packed  at the back
 and sides as closely as possible1 the  
cottage bread only  being separate1 that
 it may be crusted all round4 ,the batch
 takes about  two hours to bake4        
,biscuits are now mostly made by        
machinery1 which in  large              
establishments turns them out ready for 
the oven2 but when they are  wholly or  
partially made by hand1 the dough is    
prepared and afterwards  moulded into   

shapes1 and each shape pricked with the 
docker1 before  being placed in the     
oven4    ,illustration3 ,cornfield4     
,,the ,,sugar ,,refiner4                
,illustration3 ,,boiling ,,house4       
,although sugar was known from very     
early times1 it was used only in        
medicine1 and was supposed to be a sort 
of honey found upon canes in  ,india and
 ,arabia4 ,it is frequently mentioned by
 the very early writers4  ,the culture  
of the canes seems to have been confined
 to the islands  of the ,indian         
,archipelago1 and the kingdoms of       
,bengal1 ,siam1 c4 ,the  traffic in     
sugar was so lucrative that the ,indians
 concealed the mode  of preparing it1   
stating to the merchants of ,ormus1 who 
imported it  with gums and spices1 that 
it was extracted from a reed1 whereupon 
many  unsuccessful attempts were made to
 find it in the reed-like plants of     
,arabia4 ,in #abej the great discoverer1
 ,marco ,polo1 visited the country of   
the sugar cane1 and the merchants       

afterwards sent to the place of its     
growth1 instead of buying it at ,ormus4 
,for a long period the use of sugar  in 
,england was confined to medicines1 or  
to preparing choice dishes at  feasts2  
and this continued till #aehj1 when it  
was brought from ,brazil to  ,portugal1 
and thence to our country4              
,cultivators distinguish three great    
varieties of canes--the ,creole1 the    
,batavian1 and the ,otaheite4 ,the      
,creole cane is indigenous to ,india1   
and  was transplanted thence to ,sicily1
 the ,canary ,isles1 the ,antilles1     
,south  ,america1 and to the ,west      
,indies4 ,it has dark green leaves1 and 
a thin  but very knotty stem4 ,the      
,batavian or striped cane1 which has a  
dense  foliage1 and is covered with     
purpled stripes1 is a native of ,java1  
where  it is chiefly cultivated for the 
manufacture of rum2 it is also met  with
 in some parts of the ,new ,world and   
the ,west ,indies4 ,the ,otaheite       
variety grows most luxuriantly1 is the  

most juicy1 and yields the largest      
product4 ,it is cultivated chiefly in   
the ,west ,indies and ,south ,america2  
it ripens in ten months1 and is hardier 
than the other varieties4    ,the sugar 
cane1 being originally a bog-plant      
requires a moist1 nutritive  soil1 and a
 hot tropical or sub-tropical climate4  
,it is propagated by  slips or pieces of
 the stem1 with buds on them1 and about 
two feet long4  ,it arrives at maturity 
in twelve or sixteen months1 according  
to the  temperature2 the leaves fall off
 towards the following season1 and the  
stem acquires a straw-yellow colour4    
,the cane is cut by some planters       
before the flowering season1 but it is  
more usual to cut it some weeks  after4 
,the plantations are so arranged that   
the various divisions of  the fields may
 ripen in succession4 ,the land should  
be supplied with  manure rich in        
nitrogen1 but not containing much saline
 matter4 ,after the  harvest the roots  
strike again1 and produce a fresh crop  

of canes2 but in  about six years they  
require to be removed4    ,the time for 
cutting the canes varies with the soil  
and season1 and the  different varieties
 of cane4 ,in a state of maturity the   
canes are from  six feet to fifteen feet
 in length1 and from one and a half inch
 to  two inches in diameter4 ,the usual 
signs of maturity are a dry1 smooth1    
brittle skin1 a heavy cane1 a grey pith1
 and sweet and glutinous juice4  ,canes 
should be cut in dry weather1 or the    
juice will be found diluted  with an    
excess of water4 ,when cut they are tied
 up in bundles1 and  conveyed to the    
crushing mill1 particular attention     
being paid that  the supply should not  
exceed the demand1 otherwise the cut    
canes would  ferment and spoil4    ,the 
sugar cane grows from pieces or slips of
 itself1 containing germs1  and these   
develop rootlets at the joints1 which   
draw sustenance to  the young shoot as  
it increases4 ,in the course of time the
 buds in  the radicle1 or root-joints of

 the first cane1 throw out roots1 and   
form a radicle for a second stem2 and in
 this way1 under favourable             
circumstances1 several canes are        
produced from the parent stock for  a   
period of about six years1 and sometimes
 for several more4 ,they1  however1     
diminish every year in length of joint  
and circumference1 and  are inferior in 
appearance to the original plant2 but   
they yield richer  juice1 and produce   
finer sugar4    ,illustration3          
,filtering ,bag4    ,the sugar exists in
 the cells of the cane in a state of    
solution1 and  is extracted therefrom by
 pressure4 ,with this1 as with other    
branches  of industry1 science has of   
late years stepped in1 and has greatly  
facilitated the process of extraction   
and manufacture4 ,it may be as well  to 
give here a summary of the processes    
employed in the preparation of  raw     
sugar3 ,the canes are passed through the
 mill1 and the juice thus  extracted    
from them runs from the mill into a     

tank1 whence it is pumped  to cisterns  
for supplying the clarifiers1 heated by 
steam1 where it  is purified4 ,from     
thence it is run into bag filters1 by   
which the  mechanical impurities are    
removed4 ,it is then run into charcoal  
filters  to remove the colouring matter 
of the juice4 ,the filtered juice is    
then  run off into tanks and is drawn   
thence by vacuum into the vacuum pan1   
where it is granulated1 and from whence 
it is finally discharged for  packing4  
,when the steam clarifiers are not      
employed the cane juice is run  into a  
series of pans or teaches over open     
fires4 ,this apparatus is  also known as
 a 8battery10 and forms another method  
of purification4    ,illustration3      
,stirring ,rod4 ,ladle4 ,scraper4       
,crowbar ,wrench4    ,the original      
crushing apparatus of ,india was a kind 
of squeezing mortar1  made out of the   
hollow trunk of a tamarind tree1 and    
worked by a yoke of  oxen1 the pestle or
 stamper being a strong beam eighteen   

feet long1 and  rounded at the bottom so
 as to squeeze or crush the canes in the
 mortar4  ,mills similar to those used  
for crushing oil seeds were used--as    
were also  several other forms of       
apparatus--before rollers were          
introduced4 ,stone  and iron rollers    
were first used1 with the axes in a     
vertical position1  but the horizontal  
was soon found to be the more convenient
 and  economical4 ,the importance of a  
systematic mechanical arrangement       
appears  to have awakened attention     
during the reign of ,charles the        
,second1 for  in #affc1 ,lord           
,willoughby and ,lawrence ,hyde 7second 
son of ,edward1 ,earl  of ,clarendon1   
,high ,chancellor of ,england7          
associated themselves with  one ,david  
de ,marcato1 an inventor1 and obtained a
 patent for twenty-one  years for making
 and framing sugar mills4 ,in #afia1    
,john ,tizack patented  an engine for   
milling sugar canes1 c42 but in this1 as
 in the previous  case1 it is not       

specified how the mill should be made4  
,later on in #agba1  ,william ,harding1 
a smith1 of ,london1 who had been many  
years in ,jamaica1  and was skilled in  
the manufacture of sugar mills1 having  
observed their  imperfections1 how that 
they were chiefly made with large wooden
 cogs  cased with iron1 endeavoured     
while abroad to improve their           
construction1  but failed for want of   
competent workmen4 ,on his return to    
,london he  made models of sugar mills  
which were approved by the ,royal       
,society4  ,these mills were fitted with
 cast iron rollers and cog wheel        
gearing1  and were worked by water      
power2 from description they appear to  
be the  type of mills of the present    
day4 ,some forty-five years later1      
,yonge and  ,barclay1 ironfounders1 of  
,allhallowslane1 ,city1 applied friction
 wheels  to sugar mills4 ,in #aggc1     
,john ,fleming1 a mill carpenter1       
proposed an  arrangement of windmill    
sails which turned a vertical timber    

shaft shod  with iron1 and which gave   
motion to two hard wooden rollers1      
between  which the cane was guided and  
squeezed4 ,in #ahjg1 ,h4 ,c4 ,newman1 of
 ,st4  ,christopher1 ,west ,indies1     
designed a mill to be worked by horse   
power4 ,he  used cog and crown wheels to
 give motion to three upright rollers1  
and  the arrangement was considered one 
which greatly augmented the power  and  
execution of this class of machinery4   
,in #ahba1 ,john ,collinge1 of          
,lambeth1 improved cast iron sugar mills
 by casting the rollers on wrought  iron
 shafts1 instead of keying them on1 as  
previously done4 ,in #ahdj1  ,james     
,robinson patented improvements in sugar
 mills1 which consisted in  using four  
rollers1 one large one and three smaller
 ones beneath1 placed  horizontally1 and
 gearing by cogs into each other4 ,up to
 that time three  rollers only appear to
 have been used4 ,he also proposed to   
use six  rollers1 which are fed from an 
endless band passing over the rollers4  

,he  cast the rollers and shafts in one 
piece1 cored out to admit steam to      
facilitate the extraction of the juice  
from the cane during crushing4  ,he also
 proposed to tin the interior of vacuum 
pans1 c4 ,various other  arrangements   
have been patented1 but it is           
unnecessary here to enumerate1  much    
less to describe1 them4 ,the foregoing  
examples give an idea of the  progress  
of the subject during nearly two hundred
 years4 ,the last ten  years have seen  
rapid strides made in improving the make
 of mills1 and  the general arrangement 
of sugar works4    ,illustration3       
,sparla4 ,trowel4 ,chisel4 ,hammer4     
,loosening ,stove4 ,crowbar  ,hammer4   
,scoop for filling ,moulds4    ,cane    
juice1 as expressed by the mill1 is an  
opaque1 slightly viscid  fluid1 of a    
dull grey1 olive1 or olive green colour1
 and of a sweet balmy  taste4 ,the juice
 is so exceedingly fermentable that1 in 
the climate of  the ,west ,indies1 it   
would often run into the acetous        

fermentation in  twenty minutes after   
leaving the mill1 if the process of     
clarifying were  not immediately        
commenced4    ,the processes followed in
 the ,west ,indies for separating the   
sugar  from the juice are as follows3   
,the juice is conducted by channels from
  the mill to large flat-bottomed       
clarifiers1 which contain from three    
hundred to a thousand gallons each4     
,when the clarifier is filled with      
juice1 a little slaked lime is added to 
it2 and when the liquor in  the         
clarifier becomes hot by a fire         
underneath1 the solid portions of  the  
cane juice coagulate1 and are thrown up 
in the form of scum4 ,the  clarified    
juice1 which is bright1 clear1 and of a 
yellow wine colour1 is  transferred to  
the largest of a series of evaporating  
coppers or pans1  three or more in      
number1 in which it is reduced in bulk  
by boiling2 it  is transferred from one 
pan to another1 and heated until the    
sugar is  brought to the state of a soft

 mass of crystals imbedded in           
molasses--a  thick1 viscid1 and         
uncrystallizable fluid4 ,the soft       
concrete sugar is  removed from the     
coolers into a range of casks1 in which 
the molasses  gradually drains from the 
crystalline portion1 percolating through
 spongy  plantain stalks placed in a    
hole at the bottom of each cask1 which  
act  as so many drains to convey the    
liquid to a large cistern beneath4 ,with
  sugar of average quality1 three or    
four weeks is sufficient for this       
purpose4 ,the liquid portion constitutes
 molasses1 which is employed to  make   
rum4 ,the crystallized portion is packed
 in hogsheads for shipment as  raw1     
brown1 or muscovado sugar2 and in this  
state it is commonly exported  from our 
,west ,indian colonies4                 
,illustration3 ,besom4 ,lump ,mould4    
,loaf ,mould4    ,the refining of sugar 
is mainly a bleaching process1 conducted
 on a large  scale in ,england4 ,there  
are two varieties produced by this      

bleaching1  viz4 clayed and loaf sugar4 
,for clayed sugar1 the sugar is removed 
from  the coolers into conical earthen  
moulds called formes1 each of which has 
a small hole at the apex4 ,these holes  
being stopped up1 the forms are  placed 
apex downwards in other earthen vessels4
 ,the syrup1 after being  stirred round1
 is left for from fifteen to twenty     
hours to crystallize4  ,the plugs are   
then withdrawn1 to let out the          
uncrystallized syrup2 and  the base of  
the crystallized loaf being removed1 the
 forme is filled up  with pulverized    
white sugar4    ,this is well pressed   
down1 and then a quantity of clay mixed 
with water  is placed upon the sugar1   
the formes being put into fresh empty   
pots4    ,the moisture from the clay1   
filtering through the sugar1 carries    
with  it a portion of the colouring     
matter1 which is more soluble than the  
crystals themselves4 ,by a repetition of
 this process1 the sugar attains  nearly
 a white colour1 and is then dried and  

crushed for sale4    ,but loaf sugar is 
the kind most usually produced by the   
refining  processes4 ,the brown sugar is
 dissolved with hot water1 and then     
filtered  through canvas bags1 from     
which it exudes as a clear1 transparent1
 though  reddish syrup4 ,the removal of 
this red tinge is effected by filtering 
the  syrup through a mass of powdered   
charcoal1 and we have then a perfectly  
transparent colourless liquid4    ,in   
the evaporation or concentration of the 
clarified syrup1 which forms  the next  
part of the refining process1 the       
boiling is effected 7under the          
admirable system introduced by ,mr4     
,howard7 in a vacuum1 at a temperature  
of about #adj ,fahrenheit4 ,the sugar   
pan is a large copper vessel1 with      
arrangements for extracting the air1    
admitting the syrup1 admitting  steam   
pipes1 and draining off the sugar when  
concentrated4 ,in using the  pan a      
quantity of syrup is admitted1 and an   
air pump is set to work to  extract all 

the air from the pan1 in order that the 
contents may boil  at a low temperature4
 ,the evaporation proceeds1 and when    
completed the  evaporated syrup flows   
out of the pan through a pipe into an   
open vessel  beneath1 called the        
granulating vessel1 around which steam  
circulates1  and within which the syrup 
is brought to a partially crystallized  
state4  ,from the granulators the syrup 
or sugar is transferred into moulds of a
  conical form1 which were formerly made
 of coarse pottery1 but are now  usually
 of iron4 ,in these moulds the sugar    
whitens and crystallizes1 the  remaining
 uncrystallized syrup flowing out at an 
opening at the bottom  of the moulds4   
,this syrup is reboiled with raw sugar1 
so as to yield an  inferior quality of  
sugar2 and1 when all the crystallizable 
matter has  been extracted from it1 the 
remainder is sold as treacle4 ,the      
loaves of  sugar1 after a few finishing 
processes1 are ready for sale4          
,,the ,,dyer ,,and ,,scourer4           

,illustration3 ,,dyers ,,at ,,work4     
,the trade of the ,dyer may be placed   
amongst the most ancient of the arts1   
and the tools that are used in it are so
 few that they need scarcely any        
description1 since almost all the       
apparatus required are the various      
coppers1 vats1 and other vessels used   
for boiling the fabrics to be dyed1  and
 immersing them completely in the       
liquors which have been prepared  from  
the dye stuffs1 the proper use of which 
is the principal secret  in the         
business4 ,with regard to the scouring  
or cleaning of fabrics1  whether made   
into garments or not1 the operation     
consists in applying  detergents1 or    
substances like soap and turpentine1 for
 removing grease  and dirt1 or other    
liquids which have a detergent property 
but will not  injure the colours2 the   
use of these1 with a sponge and a hard  
brush1  is nearly all that is required2 
the garment sent to be cleaned being    
stretched on a frame and dried1 either  

in the dyer's drying room1  or in some  
open situation1 where they are least    
likely to be soiled or  spotted4        
,illustration3 ,drying ,room4 ,sponge4  
,hard ,brush4    ,the art of dyeing was 
practised to a very great extent by the 
ancient  ,egyptians1 ,phnicians1        
,greeks1 and ,romans2 and the island of 
,tyre was1  in very early times1        
celebrated for a purple dye which was1  
perhaps from  its costliness1 used for  
colouring the robes of kings and        
emperors1 from  which practice purple   
became the imperial colour4             
,illustration3 ,garment ,frame4    ,the 
art of modern dyeing very greatly       
consists in the proper use of what  are 
called mordants1 that is1 substances    
which1 although they do not  of         
themselves produce colour1 so act upon  
the dyes as to cause them to  give an   
intenser hue to the fabric1 and also    
serve to make the colour  permanent4    
,the modern dyers have obtained several 
dye drugs unknown to  the ancients1 such

 as cochineal1 quercitron1 ,brazil and  
logwood1 arnotts1  and indigo1 which was
 only known to the ,romans as a paint2  
but the vast  superiority of our dyes   
must be principally ascribed to the     
employment of  alum and solution of tin 
mixed with other substances as mordants1
 which  give depth1 durability1 and     
lustre to the colours4 ,another         
improvement in  dyeing is the           
application of metallic compounds1 such 
as ,prussian blue1  chrome yellow1 and  
manganese brown1 to textile or woven    
fabrics4    ,our readers will see from  
what has been said of mordants how what 
are  called fast colours are obtained1  
fast colours meaning colours which  will
 not be affected even by the liquor of  
the dye bath4 ,another very  necessary  
subject of information in relation to   
dyeing is the fact that  different      
substances1 such as silk and wool1 will 
not be equally affected  by the dye in  
which they are placed1 since the        
particles contained in the  composition 

of these substances have different      
degrees of what is called  affinity1    
that is1 they combine in a greater or   
less degree with the  component matter  
of the dye stuff4    ,illustration3     
,vats and ,copper ,pan4 ,wringing       
,machine4    ,we have already said      
something of the preparation of cotton4 
,the  operations to which silk and wool 
are subjected before being dyed are     
intended to separate superfluous        
substances from the animal fibre1 and   
to make that fibre more easily unite    
with the colouring particles4    ,silk  
is scoured by means of being boiled in  
water and soap1 whereby  the animal     
varnish is removed from the surface2 if 
intended to be very  white1 it is       
bleached by humid sulphurous acid4 ,wool
 is first washed in  running water to   
separate its coarse impurities1 and is  
then freed from  the greasy animal      
matter secreted from the skin of the    
sheep by means of  ammoniacal liquor1   
soap and water1 or a solution of soda4  

,it is finally  bleached by the fumes of
 burning sulphur1 or by aqueous         
sulphuric acid4    ,illustration3       
,dipping ,copper1 ,winch1 ,punching1 c4 
,what are called tinctorial colours1 as 
distinguished from mordants1 are  either
 simple or compound4 ,the simple are    
black1 brown or dun1 blue1  yellow1 and 
red2 the compounds are grey1 purple1    
green1 orange1 and  others4    ,gall    
nuts1 pyrolignite of iron1 logwood1     
copperas1 and verdigris1 are the  chief 
materials for producing black4 ,walnuts1
 sumach1 madder1 cochineal1  cudbear1   
acetate of iron1 catechu1 ,brazil wood1 
arnotts1 are all employed  in producing 
brown4 ,indigo1 ,prussian blue1 and woad
 for blue4 ,fustic1  ,persian berries1  
quercitron1 turmeric1 and weld for      
yellow4 ,cudbear1  ,brazil wood1        
cochineal1 kermes1 lac1 logwood1 madder1
 safflower1 for red2  and various       
compounds for purple1 green1 orange1 c4 
,illustration3 ,carboy for ,spirits4    
,syphon4 ,puncheon4 ,pole for ,stirring4

    ,the dye materials imported from    
foreign countries are principally       
cochineal1 fustic1 gum arabic1 gum      
senegal1 gum animi1 gum copal1 gum      
tragacanth1 indigo1 lac dye1 shellac1   
logwood1 madder1 smalts1 valonia1       
yellow berries1 and zaffre4 ,the tools  
shown in the engravings explain         
themselves1 and1 as has been already    
said1 principally consist of the        
various coppers and vats1 the syphons or
 tubes by which liquor will  flow from  
one vessel to another1 and the          
puncheons1 for stirring and  thoroughly 
immersing the articles in the dye stuff4
    ,illustration3 ,rail4 ,thermometer  
and ,measure4 ,measure4          ,,the  
,,coppersmith4    ,illustration3        
,,workshop4      ,the very great variety
 of purposes for which the metal called 
copper is  used1 renders it one of the  
most valuable productions of this       
country1  and several very important    
manufactures would be incomplete without
  it1 since it is the principal material

 of which many large vessels are        
formed1 and is also largely employed as 
an alloy for other metals4  ,although   
the metal is sometimes found in a pure  
or native state1 its most  abundant ore 
is that known as copper pyrites1 of     
which there are many  kinds4 ,the most  
common yellow copper ore is a very      
abundant mineral1  found in large       
quantities in ,cornwall1 ,devon1 and the
 ,isle of ,anglesea1  and is a compound 
of about equal parts of copper1 iron1   
and sulphur4 ,the  mines of ,devon and  
,cornwall yield more than three-fourths 
of the copper  obtained in ,england1 or 
about #aij1jjj tons of ore in a year1   
the value of  which is above a million  
sterling4 ,the amount of copper annually
 obtained  in the ,united ,kingdom is   
about #ae1jjj tons1 worth more than a   
million and  a half of money4 ,about the
 same quantity is imported into this    
country  from ,chili and ,cuba1 and a   
very valuable copper ore is also found  
at the  ,burra ,burra mines in          

,australia4    ,the copper ores of      
,cornwall and other parts of the country
 are generally  shipped to ,swansea1    
where coal is abundant1 in order to be  
separated from  the metal4 ,for this    
purpose the ore is heated to redness1 or
 roasted in  an open furnace1 in order  
to burn away the sulphur1 and the fumes 
given  out by this process are most     
pernicious4 ,the ore is afterwards      
melted  several times to separate the   
other impurities1 which1 when fused1    
float  like scum on the surface of the  
liquid metal1 and are then easily       
removed4    ,copper has a peculiar      
reddish colour1 and will bear a         
brilliant polish2  its smell and taste  
are both disagreeable4 ,it is one of the
 most  malleable of metals1 and can be  
so readily worked by the hammer that it 
is beaten out into thin leaves1 which1  
under the name of 8,dutch metal10  are  
employed in ornamenting toys1 c4 in     
imitation of gilding4    ,it is also so 
ductile that it can be drawn out into   

finer wires than any  ordinary metal1   
except gold1 silver1 and iron1 and its  
tenacity is so  great that a wire       
one-tenth of an inch in diameter will   
bear a weight  of #age lbs4 ,this wire  
is very flexible1 and not very elastic1 
but when  rolled into sheets copper is  
one of the most elastic1 and when struck
  one of the most vibratory and loud    
sounding metals4    ,if taken into the  
animal system all preparations of copper
 are violent  poisons2 and1 as this     
metal is directly acted upon by vinegar 
and other  acids1 it should not be      
employed for making vessels used in     
cooking or  preparing food4    ,the easy
 malleability of copper allows it to be 
rolled into thin sheets1  which can     
easily be hammered into any form that   
may be desired1 and it is  this         
operation which belongs to the trade of 
the ,coppersmith4    ,sheet copper is   
employed in covering the bottoms of     
ships1 to protect  them from the attacks
 of marine animals2 it is also used for 

coins1 which  are punched out of the    
sheet of metal and stamped with dies1   
and for  plates on which pictures are   
engraved2 the metal being soft enough to
  yield to the tool of the engraver1 but
 yet sufficiently hard to resist  the   
pressure necessary to print the picture4
    ,as an ingredient in alloys copper  
is most valuable1 especially in bell    
metal1 which is composed of three parts 
of copper and one part of tin2  in      
bronze1 which is nine-tenths copper and 
one-tenth tin2 and in ,german  silver1  
argentine1 nickel silver1 and other     
alloys used for making forks1  spoons1  
dishes1 c4 which are composed of copper1
 zinc1 and nickel4 ,these  are very     
beautiful alloys1 closely resembling    
silver2 but the copper they  contain is 
liable to be partially dissolved by any 
long exposure to the  action of acids4  
,copper is used in small quantities as  
an alloy for gold and silver both  in   
coinage and in plate1 to give the       
requisite degree of hardness4 ,gold     

used for coins1 or what is called       
standard gold1 is formed of eleven      
parts of pure gold and one part of      
copper4 ,being a better conductor  of   
electricity than any other metal1 it is 
largely employed in the  formation of   
telegraphic wires2 and1 as it is not    
hard enough to strike  fire with flint  
or grit1 it is used in gunpowder mills  
and magazines  instead of iron4    ,the 
processes of casting and rolling copper 
into sheets are so much like  those     
already described in the manufacture of 
iron that they need not be  repeated1   
but the trade of the ,coppersmith is    
distinct from those of the  workers in  
other metals1 though they mostly consist
 in forming the sheet  copper into      
various shapes and utensils by means of 
hammers1 of which  the smoothing hammer1
 the set hammer1 and the riveting       
hammer1  explain their own uses by their
 names4    ,illustration3 ,copper ,bit4 
,oval ,wedge4 ,riveting ,hammer4        
,smoothing ,hammer4  ,cob ,hammer4 ,set 

,hammer4    ,in manufacturing the large 
vessels with circular bottoms which are 
so  frequently made of copper1 the metal
 is first cast in a shape resembling  a 
round spectacle glass1 that is to say1 a
 flat cake1 thick in the middle  and    
gradually diminishing in thickness      
towards the edge4 ,it is then  subjected
 to the powerful blows of a tilt hammer1
 the beating being  principally confined
 to the centre4 ,the effect of this is  
not only to  reduce the thickness of the
 copper1 but to cause the disc to turn  
up at  the edges and assume the form of 
a hollow dish4    ,illustration3        
,punches4 ,hand ,vice4 ,cutting ,punch4 
,spanner4 ,anvil4 ,shears  for ,sheet   
,copper4 ,hand ,shears4    ,another     
operation of the ,coppersmith is called 
planishing1 or hammering  the metal     
until it becomes more dense1 firm1 and  
tough2 any one who  looks at the surface
 of a large copper vessel will see the  
marks of the  hammer by which it has    
been planished4    ,it is by the        

combined operation of casting1 rolling1 
hammering1 and  planishing1 as well as  
by the processes of fastening1 either   
with  rivets or with solder1 that nearly
 all copper articles are made4          
,illustration3 ,plumber's ,iron4 ,iron  
,horse4 ,pouncing ,block and ,hammer4   
,of the tools used by the ,coppersmith1 
beside those already mentioned1  the    
principal are punches for cutting or    
piercing holes1 shears for  cutting the 
sheets of metal1 the spanner for turning
 heads of screws or  nuts1 the anvil1   
the blocks and horses for receiving the 
work in  such a position as to operate  
on any part where the hammer or the     
punch  is required1 and the iron for    
soldering4 ,there are five different    
modes  of forming copper piping out of  
sheet metal2 in the first the edges of  
the sheet1 which is curved round a      
mandril1 are made to meet without       
overlapping1 and are joined with hard   
solder2 in the second they overlap  and 
are united by soft solder2 in the third 

they overlap and are secured  by rivets2
 in the fourth the edges are folded one 
over the other1 and are  made close and 
firm by hammering2 and in the fifth both
 edges of the pipe  are turned back and 
covered with a strip of sheet metal1 the
 two edges of  which are turned in and  
hammered down4    ,illustration3 ,wood  
,horse4          ,,the ,,gun            
,,manufacturer4    ,illustration3 ,,the 
,,proof ,,house4      ,by guns1 only    
muskets1 rifles1 and fowling-pieces are 
here meant1 since  the manufacture of   
cannons1 to which the term guns is now  
commonly  applied1 is an entirely       
different business to that of making    
what are  called 8small arms20 the      
latter including1 in fact1 swords1      
pistols1  bayonets1 muskets1 rifles1 and
 some other implements of war4 ,there   
are  so many varieties of fire arms1 and
 they are sold at prices varying  so    
greatly1 that it would be almost        
impossible to give any detailed         
description of each kind of piece4 ,the 

finely-finished rifle or sporting  gun1 
fitted with the last improvements1      
breech-loading or otherwise1 and        
finished with marvellous perfection and 
accuracy1 is worth four times as  many  
pounds as the common muskets1 made for  
exportation to ,africa for  the use of  
the natives1 are worth shillings4 ,we   
may1 therefore1 describe  some of the   
ordinary processes of the gunmaker's    
trade1 and the various  improvements    
will then be better understood when the 
reader has an  opportunity of seeing    
finished guns1 in which such            
improvements may be  pointed out to him4
    ,the barrels of guns are either     
plain or twisted2 twisted barrels are   
made  of long and very narrow strips of 
iron1 one of which1 being moderately    
heated to increase pliancy1 is wrapped  
spirally round a cylindrical  mandril in
 such a way as to form a tube1 which may
 be slipped off the  mandril at         
pleasure4 ,as the rods are not usually  
made of sufficient  length for one to   

form a barrel1 several are usually      
joined end to end1  those which form the
 breech being thicker than those at the 
muzzle end4  ,by heating and hammering  
these pieces are welded into a          
continuous and  very strong and tough   
tube4    ,partially worn iron1 called   
8scrap iron10 is best for these         
purposes4  ,the twisted barrels which   
are known as 8wire twist0 are formed of 
narrow  rods of iron and steel forged   
together1 and then rolled out to the    
proper  thinness4    ,damascus barrels  
are composed of similar metal1 but the  
rods are twisted  on their own centres  
until the fibres which they contain have
 from twelve  to fourteen turns in an   
inch by which the rods are doubled in   
thickness  and proportionately reduced  
in length4 ,two such rods are welded    
together  side by side1 their respective
 twists being reversed4 ,there are many 
modes of making twisted barrels1 but    
these are the most common4    ,after    
being welded1 the barrels are carefully 

examined1 and1 if needful1  straightened
 by a few blows of the hammer4 ,they are
 then bored in a  machine with an       
angular plug of tempered steel1 which is
 caused to  revolve rapidly within the  
barrel1 while a stream of water is      
directed  upon the outside to check the 
heat caused by the tremendous friction4 
,the outside is brought to a smooth     
surface either by grinding on a large   
grindstone1 or turning in a lathe4 ,the 
breech end of the barrel is bored  with 
a screw-thread1 to receive the breech   
plug1 which closes it at that  end4     
,illustration3 ,mandril1 with ,damascus 
,barrel in progress4 ,tool for boring   
,barrel4 ,testing ,barrel4    ,the      
barrels are then proved by being fired  
at the proof-house1 a  large building   
where they are loaded with a charge five
 times as great  as they will have to   
bear when in use4 ,a great number of    
barrels are  fired at once by laying    
them upon a strong framework of wood    
with their  touch-holes downwards1 and  

connected with a train of gunpowder     
which  is ignited outside the building4 
,a heap of sand is piled inside the     
building1 opposite the muzzles of the   
barrels to receive the bullets4  ,those 
which bear this test without injury are 
marked as perfect4    ,guns used in     
field sports are often made with two    
barrels fixed side by  side upon one    
stock4 ,the barrels are made separately1
 and each with one  flat side1 that they
 may lie close together4 ,they are      
secured together by  ribs running       
between them from end to end4    ,the   
wooden stock upon which the barrel is   
fixed is generally made of  walnut-tree 
wood4 ,it is first shaped1 and          
afterwards shod with brass or  steel2   
the trigger guard and other fittings are
 let into the wood1 and  every part is  
furnished with the proper screws and    
fastenings4    ,with regard to the      
manufacture of rifles and other small   
arms in general1  the author of the     
present work some time ago wrote a      

description of a  visit to the factory  
at ,birmingham known as the ,toledo     
,works1 and it may  be useful to give an
 extract from that account of what he   
saw there4    ,the steel from which the 
swords are made is supplied in long     
pieces  somewhat tapering at the ends1  
and having a square portion in the      
middle1 which1 being cut through1 leaves
 material for two blades1 the  bisection
 of the square leaving a shoulder at one
 end to receive the  iron 8tang0 by     
which the blade is afterwards fixed into
 the handle4 ,the  manufacture of these 
blades is almost entirely effected by   
the forgers1  who hammer them into the  
required shape upon the anvil1 a mould  
running  down the centre of which       
secures the hollow which in swords      
extends for  about two-thirds of the    
length from hilt to point4 ,in a little 
street  of smithies the musical clink is
 being sounded by a score of stalwart   
arms1 either forging the rough steel    
into form1 or hammering the formed      

blade into perfect shape and symmetry1  
an operation which requires it to  be   
kept at a certain heat1 lest the embryo 
blade should be injured in  the process4
 ,once perfected as to proportion1 the  
hardening commences1  and the blade is  
thrust backwards and forwards into the  
furnace until  it has acquired a proper 
and uniform heat1 at which point it is  
removed  and instantly plunged into cold
 water4 ,this process1 which has        
obviously  suggested the ,turkish bath1 
renders it hard indeed1 but at the same 
time so extremely brittle that we       
whisperingly suggest the propriety  of  
contracting to supply our enemies with  
weapons1 and neglecting to  carry them  
beyond that particular stage of         
preparation1 when they may  be snapped  
with the fingers4 ,carefully supported1 
however1 the blade is  again subjected  
to the fiery ordeal until it attains a  
slaty blue colour1  and a beautiful and 
elastic temper1 which has been partially
 secured by  the previous hammering4 ,by

 the process of forging it has become   
about  six inches longer than the       
pristine steel shape1 and by the        
tempering it  has attained a springy    
strength which enables it to be bent in 
a curve  sufficient to bring the hand   
five inches nearer to the point than    
when  the blade is straight4    ,many of
 the best bayonets are forged in the    
same way as the sword-blades1  and1 as  
in almost every manufacturing process1  
human intelligence has  an unmistakable 
advantage over mere mechanical force1   
these possess  some superior qualities4 
,the greater number of bayonets1        
however1  are made from a square bar of 
drawn steel1 five inches and a half     
long by nine-sixteenths square4 ,this   
bar is passed between a series  of about
 sixteen pairs of rollers1 which are    
worked by steam power1  and so grooved  
as gradually to mould the blade to the  
required shape4  ,sixteen times the     
short steel bar undergoes the merciless 
pressure of a  progressively-increased  

power1 until its length is increased    
from five  and a half to twenty-six     
inches1 when some portion is cut off    
from the  point to leave it the         
regulation length4    ,the matchets1    
which are made from bevel-edged steel1  
passed twice through  the rollers1 are  
cut into the requisite shape by means of
 powerful shears4    ,illustration3     
,steam ,hammer4    ,these operations are
 conducted in a large shed1 where the   
rollers stand  like awful combinations  
of infernal machines and patent mangles2
 where  a boding and vengeful           
tilt-hammer1 worked by steam1 is tended 
by a man1  who sits like a calm fate    
beside its crushing bulk1 and supplies  
it with  fresh victims2 where the awful 
boom seems to shatter the very          
atmosphere1  and deafness reigns        
triumphant4 ,in obedience to a signal1  
however1 the  monster is suddenly       
stopped1 and we are enabled to hear that
 the great  two-pot furnace on our left 
is used for making the steel from those 

long  laths of bevel-edged iron stacked 
against the wall2 that the furnace is   
constructed with wide flues on each side
 and under the bottom1 while  the       
fire-grate occupies the centre between  
the two pots2 that the pots  themselves 
are some four feet deep1 and two feet   
and a half wide1 are  airtight1 contain 
layers of charcoal and iron covered with
 loam sand1  will remain seven days and 
nights in the furnace1 until their      
contents  are white hot1 and that at the
 end of that time the iron will have    
been  converted into steel of a         
slaty-blue colour4 ,the inexorable      
hammer  resuming its work at this point1
 we follow the bayonet to its           
completion1  and once more visit the    
forges1 to witness the 8shutting on0 or 
welding  the blade to a piece of iron1  
which ultimately forms the socket by    
which  the bayonet itself is fixed on to
 the barrel of the rifle or musket4     
,there is yet another operation before  
the blades are taken to the  finishing  

shop1 one of the most important1 too1   
since it is no other than  grinding1 a  
process which secures an exact and      
uniform thickness and  increases their  
elasticity4    ,we are standing at the  
open end of a long1 vast1 and gloomy    
shed-like  building1 supported by iron  
pillars4 ,on each side through the      
entire  length a series of enormous     
grindstones spin round amidst sand and  
water1  and the mud from both4 ,seated  
astride the bodies of wooden horses1    
whose  heads seem to have been          
transformed into these wheels1 the      
grinders  seize upon the blades1 and    
each fearless rider rising in his       
stirrups1  or1 what looks much the same1
 standing tiptoe till he no longer      
touches  his saddle1 throws himself     
forward1 and presses the sword1 matchet1
 or  bayonet on the wheel1 at the same  
time guiding it deftly with its left    
hand1 till its whole surface has been   
smoothly ground4    ,along the whole    
line of whirling stones fly the lurid   

red sparks1 and the  grinders1 with     
squared elbows1 seem to curb the        
struggling and impetuous  wheels4       
,after polishing1 which is completed by 
wooden wheels bearing a coating  of     
leather covered with emery1 the swords  
and matchets go to receive  handles1 and
 the bayonets locking rings4 ,the       
handles of swords are made  of          
walnut-wood covered with the skin of the
 dogfish1 while the hilt and  guard are 
formed from a plain flat sheet of steel1
 in shape not unlike  one side of a pair
 of bellows4    ,the solid socket of the
 bayonet is hammered into form1 and     
afterwards  stamped into shape with the 
rim complete1 from which process it is  
conveyed to a shop where it is drilled  
by steam power4 ,it then only  remains  
to secure a smooth surface1 by means of 
a revolving barrel1  containing an      
instrument with a number of flanged     
blades1 against which  the socket of the
 bayonet is pressed4 ,it is not a little
 remarkable to  see the solid steel     

pared and shaved like wax1 and no less  
wonderful to  notice the simple         
machinery by which it is accomplished4  
,the locking  rings are stamped out by a
 lever and die1 pierced by a punch1 and 
afterwards 8bored10 8faced10 and their  
shapes secured by a triple  circular    
saw1 worked by a lathe4                 
,illustration3 ,mandril1 with ,common   
,musket ,barrel in progress4 ,welding by
  ,hand4 ,forging ,hammer4    ,the most 
important manufacture in the ,toledo    
,works1 however1 is assuredly  rifles1  
and1 with the intention of following it 
through its principal  processes1 we    
return to the vicinity of the still     
inveterate hammer1  where we are shown a
 rudimentary barrel in the shape of a   
slab of best  wrought iron1 twelve      
inches long1 and weighing nine pounds   
and a quarter4  ,this uninviting slab is
 heated in a furnace1 and roughly bent  
into the  tubular shape by means of our 
enemy the tilt-hammer1 after which it is
  once more placed in a furnace of an   

enormously high temperature1 with a     
small trap-opening4 ,when sufficiently  
heated1 the short rudimentary tube  is  
taken out on a long round iron rod1     
fitted with a hand-guard1 and  looking  
like a huge burlesque rapier4 ,this rod 
approximates to the size  of the        
intended bore of the barrel1 and is     
inserted1 with the rough tube  upon it1 
between two steam rollers1 each of which
 is furnished with a  series of         
corresponding grooves or cuts4 ,the     
barrel1 which is taken up  at one end by
 a rod1 is placed between the first pair
 of grooves1 and1  as the rollers       
revolve1 is drawn out at the other side1
 a long1 hollow1  welded tube4 ,this    
much more graceful and better formed    
tube is then  consigned to another rod  
of smaller diameter1 and to a           
corresponding pair  of grooves2 until1  
after the eighth repetition of the same 
process1 the  barrel has attained its   
proper dimensions4 ,the next operation1 
which is  called 8lumping10 consists of 

welding a piece of wrought iron on to   
the  breech end of the barrel1 for the  
purpose of forming the percussion-lump1 
and is succeeded by 8rough-boring40     
,this is accomplished by a long1        
sharp-ended bit1 which1 being placed in 
the end of the barrel1 revolves  at the 
rate of1 perhaps1 a thousand turns a    
minute by means of a pulley  and        
fly-wheel1 while the barrel is pushed on
 by a lever1 and kept cool by  means of 
water thrown upon its surface4    ,the  
8setting0 of the barrel is next effected
 by means of hammer and  anvil1 the     
setting meaning simply rectifying any   
bend which it may have  received during 
the previous operation4 ,we are not a   
little interested in  the setting1 since
 the first intimation of it on entering 
the shop is the  sudden discovery of a  
number of workmen gazing resolutely at  
an opposite  window1 through what look  
like attenuated telescopes4 ,they are   
engaged1  however1 in one of the        
processes which require the greatest    

experience1  as each of them is expected
 to detect the most trifling bias in the
  barrel4 ,the 8spilling-up10 or cutting
 the inside of the barrel to the  proper
 bore1 is similar to the rough-boring1  
except that only one edge  of the bit is
 allowed to operate1 the others being   
sheathed by a half  cylinder of wood1   
called a spill2 this ensures a smooth   
surface1 and  prepares for the          
8fine-boring10 which is six times       
repeated1 the final  surface being      
insured by keeping one edge of the bit  
perfectly smooth1  by which means the   
particles of steel drop in a fine and   
almost soft  powder4    ,the outside of 
the barrel is next turned in a long     
lathe1 which not only  reduces the      
roughness1 but1 by a beautiful          
arrangement of cutting tools1  gives it 
the required substance or 8pattern10 for
 a light or heavy rifle4    ,the        
grinding of the barrels is effected by  
means of stones1 larger  than those used
 for the sword blades1 but in a similar 

manner1 and is  preliminary to 8filing10
 which carries the barrel to the shop1  
where it  is prepared for the lock4     
,illustration3 ,grinding ,gun ,barrels4 
,these preparations consist of          
8chambering10 or making the chamber     
which holds the pin2 8breeching10 or    
cutting the worm intended for the       
breech-pin1 that helps to hold the      
barrel to the stock by means of a       
breech-nail2 cutting out the little     
slice into which the 8sight0 is to  be  
dovetailed2 machining the lump2 filing  
the tail-pin1 and making the  square    
lump the proper shape for receiving the 
lock and stock4    ,we are not a little 
surprised to learn that every part of   
the lock is  finished by hand1 the cock 
being cut with a die worked by a heavy  
weight1  and the smaller pieces being   
wrought with forge1 hammer1 and file4   
,illustration3 ,section of ,breech4     
,section of ,lock1 c4 ,bullet ,mould4   
,nipple ,key4    ,the great art in      
lock-making is to obtain a perfect      

spring1 and those  properly tempered are
 so elastic that1 although when fitted  
in the lock1  the two sides are so close
 as almost to touch1 they will1 when    
released1  spread to two inches below   
the edge of the lock-plate4 ,the lock   
and  barrel are now ready for the stock1
 which awaits them in another shop1     
where it has been sawn out of walnut    
wood1 and finished by carpenters'       
tools4 ,the barrel let into its groove1 
and the lock properly in its  place1 the
 stock is more perfectly shaped and     
rounded before 8screwing  together10 or 
the addition of the different parts of  
the 8furniture10  heel-plate1           
trigger-plate and guard1 trigger1       
nose-cap1 rod1 and bayonet4    ,we are  
now told that the rifle is 8finished10  
by which1 understanding  completion1 we 
are not quite prepared to learn that it 
is to be taken  to pieces4    ,we       
suddenly remember1 however1 that it is  
not yet a rifle at all1  inasmuch as it 
has not been rifled4 ,everything is made

 perfect before  this delicate operation
 is attempted1 in order that no injury  
may be  sustained by the barrel when the
 complete rifle is again put together4  
,the process of rifling is similar to   
that of boring1 except that a spiral    
cutter is substituted for the bit4      
,previous to the reunion of the barrel1 
the whole work is polished1 and the     
stock stained and finished ready for    
completion4    ,illustration3           
8,finishing40    ,the pistol barrels    
undergo the same processes as that of   
the rifle1  except that1 after being    
drilled1 they are planed1 by machines   
which  carry them along a sort of bed   
under tools that cut them perfectly     
smooth1 and accurately shape the        
octagonal barrels4 ,these chisels move  
by means of screws over the entire      
surface as it is drawn backwards and    
forwards on the slide4    ,the revolver 
chambers are drilled out of solid iron1 
by a drilling  machine or lathe1 with a 
centrebit and an eccentric motion1 which

 causes  each barrel of the chamber-nest
 to become the centre in succession2    
while1 by means of a slide1 the motion  
can be made to suit either a large  or  
small chamber4 ,the recesses            
communicating with the lock and trigger 
are cut by reversing the chamber in the 
eccentric 8chuck10 and using a          
different cutting-tool1 while another   
alteration effects the drilling of  the 
nipple holes4      ,,the ,,end    ,r4   
,,clay1 ,,son1 ,,and ,,taylor1          
,,printers1 ,,bread ,,street