,my ,experiments ,with ,volcanoes ,illustration3 ,,thomas ,a4 ,,jaggar ,january #bd1 #ahga--;,january #ag1 #aiec ,my ,experiments ,with ,volcanoes ,,thomas ,a4 ,,jaggar 8,through faith we understand ,that the worlds were formed ,by the word of ,god1 ,so that things which are seen ,were not made of things which do appear40 ,,mcmlvi ,,hawaiian ,,volcano ,,research ,,association ,,honolulu ,copyright1 #aief1 by the ,hawaiian ,volcano ,research ,association ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america ,,by ,,the ,,commercial ,,printing ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,advertiser ,,publishing ,,co41 ,,ltd41 ,,honolulu ,thomas ,augustus ,jaggar1 ,jr4 ,january #bd1 #ahga ,january #ag1 #aiec ,it is the wish of the members of the ,hawaiian ,volcano ,research ,association to share with others the experiences they have enjoyed in their association with a truly great man4 ,on ,october #e1 #aiaa1 through the efforts of ,thomas ,augustus ,jaggar1 ,jr41 the ,hawaiian ,volcano ,research ,association was organized to assist in the support of the newly created ,hawaiian ,volcano ,observatory at ,kilauea1 ,hawaii4 ,accepting ,dr4 ,jaggar's sincere belief that a systematic and continuous study of volcanoes would result in the protection of life and property1 the motto the ,hawaiian ,volcano ,research ,association adopted was 8,ne plus haustae aut obrutae urbes40 ,dr4 ,jaggar arrived in ,hawaii to take up his work at the ,observatory on ,january #ag1 #aiab--;exactly forty-one years before the day of his death on ,january #ag1 #aiec4 ,dr4 ,jaggar spent the last years of his life writing the history of his sixty years of intensive1 rugged1 and hazardous scientific achievements4 ,during many of these years1 and up to the completion of his life's history1 it has been well stated that one of his most valuable co-workers was his wife1 ,isabel1 who shared with him the disappointments1 the joys of discovery1 and much of the physical work4 ,it is the privilege of the officers1 directors and members of the ,hawaiian ,volcano ,research ,association to present in book form this story of ,dr4 ,jaggar's life4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,young ,,scientist #c ,,ii4 ,,imitating ,,ripplemarks #cb ,,iii4 ,,expedition ,,decade #ee ,,iv4 ,,living ,,with ,,volcanoes #he ,v4 ,,expansion ,,decade #aad ,,vi4 ,,prophecy ,,and ,,hope #aea ,,vii4 ,,envoi #agg ,,illustrations ,,facing ,,page ,thomas ,a4 ,jaggar ,frontis #a4 ,experimental ,geology ,laboratory1 ,harvard ,university1 #aijj #dj #b4 ,fountain at edge of lava lake1 ,may #ag1 #aiag #da #c4 ,explosion cloud rising from ,halemaumau1 ,may #ac1 #aibd #ef #d4 ,crag in lava lake1 ,january #bc1 #aiah #eg #e4 ,scientists of ,technical ,expedition to ,aleutians1 #aijg #gb #f4 ,captain ,george ,seeley of the ,lydia1 #aijg #gc #g4 ,volcano ,house from ,observatory1 #aiac #hh #h4 ,island in ,halemaumau lava lake1 #aiaa #hh #i4 ,hawaiian ,volcano ,observatory1 #aiab #hi #aj4 ,jaggar in seismograph vault beneath ,observatory1 #aiaf #hi #aa4 ,lava lake1 showing bench1 ,march #cj1 #aiag #ib #ab4 ,halemaumau1 showing lava lake and crags1 ,december #h1 #aiaf #ib #ac4 ,jaggar holding pipe for sounding lava lake1 #aiag #ic #ad4 ,river of ,alika flow1 ,mauna ,loa1 ,october #f1 #aiag #ajj #ae4 ,lava streaming into a sinkhole in ,halemaumau lava lake1 ,july #g1 #aiag #ajj #af4 ,sakurajima ,volcano1 ,japan1 #aiad #aja #ag4 ,fountain in lava lake1 ,march #ai1 #aiba #aja #ah4 ,isabel and ,tom ,jaggar in woods on ,kilauea ,volcano1 #aibc #abj #ai4 ,lava lake1 fountains1 and crags1 ,march #bj1 #aiba #aba #bj4 ,footprints in ash west of ,mauna ,iki #aba #ba4 ,the ,honukai on ,alaska beach1 #aibh #acf #bb4 ,the ,ohiki1 first amphibian truck1 #aibh #acf #bc4 ,lava flow entering village of ,hoopuloa1 #aibf #acg #bd4 ,lava flow of #aibf ,mauna ,loa eruption approaching ,hoopuloa #acg #be4 ,jaggar in office of ,observatory in 8,tin ,house10 #aicg #aeb #bf4 ,bomb bursting on lava flow1 ,december #bg1 #aice #aec #bg4 ,fountain in ,halemaumau lava lake1 ,may #bc1 #aiag #afh #bh4 ,rare dome fountain1 ,kilauea ,crater1 ,march #bj1 #aiba #afi #bi4 ,lava stream near rim of ,halemaumau1 ,february #i1 #aiba #afi ,,charts ,fluctuations of ,halemaumau #aac ,diagram of hypothetical globe section #agi ,,preface ,this1 my latest book1 is another experiment4 ,after sixty years of volcanoes ,i have learned reversal of preconceived notions4 ,gradually ,i have learned a totally different approach4 ,shaler of ,harvard was my inspirer1 worker in the wonders of swamp and ice and sea beaches4 ,he set me to work and turned me loose2 among books and storm waves and men2 especially among men1 young men1 ever reaping something new4 ,when ,i chose volcanoes for my field ,shaler said1 8,you have certainly selected the hardest40 ,it was a missionary field1 for in it people were being killed4 ,but the products of internal earth fluids1 lava sea bottom1 and vast ,canadian ancient meltings1 seemed to promise real natural history4 ,volcanoes squirt up the very ancient stuff of the solar system4 ,therein1 ,i knew1 must be something for future discovery4 ,the investigation of it was a clear field1 if action was the goal4 ,my field education in geology was by ,hague1 the friend of ,archibald ,geikie4 ,by ,emmons1 skilled in ore deposits1 and like ,hague1 trained by ,clarence ,king4 ,by ,bailey ,willis1 son of a poet1 a superlative draftsman and field man1 and a brilliant experimenter4 ,i went into the ,american ,west with these men4 ,but this story of a volcano experimenter's life would have reached nowhere without ,frank ,alvord ,perret1 whom ,i first met on the slope of ,vesuvius in #aijf4 ,i knew at once that he was the world's greatest volcanologist4 ,his skill was taking pictures4 ,mine was making experiments4 ,we agreed that these two skills in action would accomplish what theories never could approach4 ,perret was an inventor4 ,he was an artist4 ,he was a poet4 ,he was a lover of little children1 and a worshiper of the music of the stars4 ,always in delicate health1 he circled the world4 ,i was with him on ,sakurajima1 on ,kilauea1 and on ,montserrat4 ,we did not agree4 ,he had a vast love of the romantic and bizarre4 ,i was always a sceptic4 ,but ,i thank ,heaven that his posthumous and nobly illustrated book reached magnificent publication4 ,his other books set a standard for all time for what the field science of volcanoes shall be4 ,perret and his camera were my models4 ,he gave me all of his pictures to use as ,i chose1 and he and ,tempest ,anderson taught me volcano photography4 ,the latter1 a ,yorkshireman1 was a ,british geographer and we met on many volcanoes4 ,the purpose of this book is to tell what one man saw4 ,i was actuated by the will to learn4 ,i wanted to copy ripplemarks on the bottom of the sea1 to understand what force pushed up ,harney ,peak as coarse granite in the ,black ,hills1 and to imitate ,yellowstone geysers spouting rhythmically4 ,i wanted to know how cracks made the ,cascade ,mountains pile up in a line4 ,finally1 ,i studied the ,san ,francisco earthquake rift1 sliding open parallel to the shore for hundreds of miles4 ,how thick was the crust of the globe8 ,then ,i was called to ,hawaii1 islands on a ridge #a1gjj miles long with volcanoes at one end1 coral atolls at the other4 ,and ,i started a volcano experiment station at a very lucky time4 ,volcanoes proved surprisingly amenable to experiment4 ,forty years of this lead far away from ,lyell's geology--the geology of uniform processes past and present--and from brachiopods and trilobites4 ,it lead to the ancestor of volcanoes4 ,it lead to ancestral gas4 ,it lead back #aj billion years4 ,a lava splash might be a live souvenir of that age4 ,more than anything else1 this belief pointed our instruments down1 to the inside of the globe4 ,six decades of a man's life4 ,decades of geology1 exploration1 foundation1 outspreading1 prediction1 and fruition4 ,the fact of fruition makes the telling worth while4 ,geological education was unbelief4 ,fruition was belief1 verified by growth of unified science4 ,culmination was not geology but science4 ,uniformity1 evolution1 and symmetry are in nature4 ,value and number are human4 ,i have been called geologist and seismologist1 volcanologist and geophysicist4 ,i am none of these4 ,i am interested in the evolution of what ,hoyle calls 8,this quite incredible universe40 ,i am just as interested in ,bergson's 8,creative evolution0 as in ,hoyle and ,lyttleton's 8,new cosmology40 ,and more interested in life than in either4 ,the elements of fruition are a thick earth crust1 a comparable pattern for earth and moon1 and a mechanism for earth core4 ,this is the story of sixty years of volcaneering4 ,my ,experiments ,with ,volcanoes ,,chapter ,i ,young ,scientist 8,the gold of that land is good3 there is bdellium and the onyx stone40 ,it was the training of my youth under a father who loved ,god's out-of-doors that led me to ,audubon's birds2 to tramping miles over carries in ,maine1 ,labrador1 and ,nova ,scotia2 and to fishing with another eight year old1 named ,willie ,grant4 ,when ,i was fourteen my father the ,reverend ,thomas ,augustus ,jaggar1 took our family to ,europe1 where botany and bird life were as much a part of my education as geography1 ,french1 and ,italian4 ,and it was during our visit in ,italy that ,i made my first trip up ,vesuvius4 ,all of these early interests convinced me that ,i wanted to be a naturalist4 ,it was ,nathaniel ,shaler at ,harvard who told me to go and study the beaches at ,lynn and ,nahant4 ,so ,i walked and photographed1 and measured ripplemarks4 ,i found a headland and a longshore accumulation with scallops dwindling regularly along the high-tide level4 ,i found swash marks a foot across forming as the tide went out4 ,on the dunes were other sand waves beautifully regular4 ,try it4 ,lie on your stomach and watch them4 ,they are at right angles to the wind4 ,smooth them out and see what the wind does4 ,it piles little flocculent heaps of course grains1 each with an eddy downwind4 ,the fine stuff migrates up the slopes forward with the wind1 backward on the leeward side4 ,the powder streams meet and lengthen the hills right and left4 ,i watched the swash marks4 ,the swash of the surf full of sand rushed up the beach1 cleared suddenly1 and retreated1 leaving a ridge along the beach4 ,this elevation became the tide limit1 and a new series started lower down4 ,the swashes couldn't climb over the ridge because the tide was going out4 ,and so for hours ridge after ridge was built4 ,i watched high-tide scallops1 six feet apart1 forming heaps at the top of the beach4 ,the swash waves ran into the bays between the heaps during the flood hours1 making a rush up and a suck down4 ,the rush up was muddy1 the suck down was clear4 ,pebbles and sand were building up on the sides of the small promontories4 ,each heap was horseshoe-shaped1 with the toe seaward4 ,forty or fifty crescents got smaller and more sandy toward the middle of the beach4 ,here was rhythmic force making repetition4 ,the ripples and swash marks were repeated seaward4 ,clearly the headland of rock was making pebbles and sand1 sending pulsations along the beach1 instead of across it4 ,the ripplemarks were packed sand of the low-tide flat1 formed totally under water parallel to the waves4 ,the back-and-forth motion of waves made a pattern of sweep and eddy on the bottom4 ,were beaches1 then1 things of habit like birds8 ,here were four kinds of sand waves1 all on one beach1 all of them complicated by wind and water and tide2 big and little2 shapely and regular4 ,the beach was alive4 ,it was building from the end1 it was rippling under wave action4 ,it fed the wind as it dried1 and the wind made an exquisite dune pattern of the grains4 ,perhaps beaches might be natural history1 just as much as the birds that inspired my interest in nature when ,i was eight years old4 ,the mystery of the beaches drove me to a new discovery2 to the university library1 where ,i found ,french and ,english references to ripplemarks4 ,i found experiments1 soundings1 fossil sandstone ripples4 ,i learned that such great authors as the botanist ,de ,candolle and ,sir ,george ,darwin had interested themselves profoundly in what happened to the sand grains4 ,from the library ,i went to mud puddles in a tank and to experimentation4 ,thus ,i found my way from beach to books and from books to the making of baby beaches4 ,later1 at ,harvard1 zoology and botany were all cells and embryos and the microscope4 ,the habits of animals scarcely entered into our studies4 ,the natural history of ,audubon and my boyhood had vanished4 ,the new words were phylogeny and cytology1 development of the individual1 and cell development4 ,so in mineralogy the microscope and the tiny crystal governed2 the molecules of the crystal1 and the chemical atoms of the molecule4 ,science was headed toward the infinitely little1 though later1 by way of the spectroscope1 it was to leap to the infinitely big of the heavens4 ,i never learned to think the universe finite4 ,professor ,shaler wrote in #ahic1 8,in the next century there will be a state of science in which the unknown will be conceived as peopled with powers whose existence is justly and necessarily inferred from the knowledge which has been obtained from their manifestations4 ,in other words1 it seems to me that the naturalist is most likely to approach the position of the philosophical theologian by paths which at first seemed to lie far apart from his domain40 ,just this has happened in the world of galaxies and electrons1 producing ,einstein and ,planck1 ,jeans and ,eddington1 ,hubble and ,hoyle4 ,and ,i suspect that sea bottoms and volcanoes are 8peopled with powers0 yet to be inferred4 ,through ,josiah ,cooke and his wonders of projection apparatus2 through ,cook's nephew ,oliver ,huntington and his mineral crystals2 through ,john ,eliot ,wolff1 whose assistant in optical microscopy ,i became2 through ,robert ,jackson with his museum collection technique and the hexagon plates on fossil sea urchins2 through all these ,i was introduced to the laboratory collections and instruments4 ,i found a fascinating world4 ,the theater1 too1 furthered my education4 ,like many ,harvard students1 ,i 8suped0 for several great actors and actresses1 among them ,julia ,marlowe and ,sarah ,bernhardt4 ,and in one play ,i even had a speaking part3 8,my lord1 ,posthumus is without40 ,i also practiced legerdemain as amateur assistant to ,kellar and ,hermann1 who called me out of the audience and pulled rabbits out of my coat and eggs out of my mouth4 ,thus ,i learned of the psychology of audiences1 how to experiment in public1 and how easily deluded is the average mind4 ,just so nature may delude1 if the scientist doesn't keep his wits about him4 ,but ,i also learned the value of vivid demonstration before students4 ,a great exponent of this method of teaching is ,professor ,hubert ,alyea of ,princeton4 ,his chemical experimentation is marvellous4 ,his chemistry textbook is modern physical chemistry at its best4 ,he demonstrates that the art of the magician has come down to the twentieth century and that even mathematical science may pass over to the layman4 ,i suspect that geophysics does not need to be buried under differential equations as it is today4 ,certainly experimental volcanology made exciting at the lecture table could work wonders in getting the globe explored4 ,at ,harvard we were taught that geology was a detective history4 ,vaguely1 the same fossils were the same age4 ,vaguely1 man had come from a fish which climbed up on the land4 ,it was much later that radio activity of rocks was accepted as setting ages in millions of years4 ,king and ,kelvin taught us that the age of the earth was #bd million years and the sun was dying4 ,a half century later1 #b1jjj million years was the figure and the sun was heating up4 ,now cosmogonists talk easily of #aj1jjj million years as an item in star history4 ,i have learned that one can have any theory he chooses1 and that some new discovery will probably reverse it4 ,a discovery is the uncovering of an appealing1 bright idea4 ,the idea of geology as history based on ,darwin's evolution never took root in my consciousness4 ,geology to me is the science of the globe4 ,science studies how things work1 how things change1 how they accomplish what they do1 how they grow1 and how they compare4 ,it does not study the 8why10 or the necessity for an origin of anything4 ,originating is eternally in progress4 ,astronomy today is giving up origins4 ,history based on a few relics seems futile4 ,relics1 or specimens1 must be compared with action4 ,guessing that we must have come from a fish1 with no evolution sequence in successive strata and no mammals whatever in very ancient strata and no preservation of soft creatures possible1 seems a contradiction of ,darwin's own testimony4 ,he insisted on 8the imperfection of the geological record40 ,but he had no conception that the ,cambrian was #ejj million years ,b4,c41 nor that the fiery ,keewatin of ,lake ,superior was #a1hjj million years ,b4,c4 ,darwin knew that the bivalve brachiopod ,lingula1 now alive in quiet seas1 is exactly the same today as it was then4 ,lingula is found fossilized in the intermediate geologic eras4 ,we have no proof that intelligent beings in ships from unknown lands did not dredge him up in ,cambrian time4 ,five hundred million years is so absurdly long that there may have been at least twenty different flowerings of intelligence on the earth1 having no relation to us4 ,continents are places of catastrophe4 ,sea bottoms are places of constancy4 ,man lives on continents1 and his fossilized bones are short-lived4 ,if each ,adam preceded a new humankind of #ajj1jjj years1 the time since the ,cambrian allows for #e1jjj deluges1 or eruptive conflagrations4 ,each one would exterminate that particular ,adam's descendants4 ,if glacial periods are deluges1 we know their scratched boulders back to #djj million years before ,lingula4 ,these older ice sheets were in ,canada4 ,but we know fiery floods of lava #a1cjj million years before ,lingula1 on the north shore of ,lake ,superior4 ,we have not one particle of evidence that before the race was killed off primordial volcanologists1 who were very queer looking chaps1 might have studied those eruptions with expensive instruments4 ,certainly they had a lot of copper at their disposal4 ,perhaps the great lakes were a continental sea1 and some ancestor of ,lingula was scooped up for food by those doomed beings4 ,but geology at ,harvard was not all history4 ,when ,r4 ,a4 ,daly and ,i were graduate students1 we worked on ,ascutney ,mountain1 studying ancient fire-made granites4 ,the hills were lumps of the ancient pastes crystallized4 ,the crystals were feldspars1 mica1 quartz1 and iron oxides4 ,oldest prisms were lime phosphate1 the mineral apatite containing imprisoned brown glass4 ,how did the several kinds of red hot paste invade the altered sedimentary slates8 ,was brown glass the ancestor8 ,lava is brown glass4 ,some of the phosphate crystals contain gas bubbles and liquids4 ,daly1 who published the work1 found that ancient lava pushed up while deep in the claystones1 and shattered a hole by heat and cracking4 ,the pieces sank and the paste or gas foam was injected in successive lumps4 ,each new lump had more silica4 ,apparently the fragments melted--some of the old sediments of ,lower ,silurian age were silica--and the invading magma was contaminated with more and more molten sand4 ,so basalt turned into granite4 ,thus ,ascutney ,mountain in ,vermont became a classic place for hot fluids squirting up and recrystallizing the under rock of ,new ,england4 ,it made eventually1 by erosion1 the ,connecticut ,river landscape4 ,daly became a specialist on granites1 ,i became a specialist on lavas4 ,we became professors at ,harvard and ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology4 ,something new came into world geology when ,wheeler1 ,hayden1 ,king1 ,powell1 ,gilbert1 and ,dutton surveyed the ,utah block fault mountains and the ,rockies4 ,they revealed the globe with a crust of gigantic cracked deep prisms1 and an eroding surface4 ,davis of ,harvard1 the physical geographer1 was at his zenith1 and from ,powell's and ,gilbert's example came his classified river valleys4 ,he devised systems of splendid topographic maps and models1 and demonstrations of glacier steam beds and deltas4 ,he made surface wear and dumping debris a living thing1 and the land forms a record of it4 ,thus ,i was overjoyed when1 in #ahic1 ,i received the summons to go with ,arnold ,hague to the land of geysers1 colorful canyon1 old volcanoes1 and the source rivers of the ,mississippi4 ,my job was to take pictures with a huge camera1 but ,i posed as microscope man1 too4 ,i climbed the highest peaks of the ,absaroka ,range1 and ,i traveled with ,hague and a mule packtrain back and forth across the range1 collecting specimens4 ,hague had been with ,clarence ,king during the #djth ,parallel ,survey for the ,union ,pacific railroads4 ,hague's field method was to climb a peak1 study the view1 and ponder the visible strata1 dikes1 valleys1 escarpments1 and pinnacles for miles around1 thus formulating each problem4 ,then we moved camp to a new place to solve the problem4 ,we sought the ancient craters4 ,the volcanic tuffs and agglomerates covered thousands of square miles1 dating from #cj million years ago and continuing outpourings until #b million years ago1 and there were lava flows1 ropy or bouldery4 ,here were petrified trees2 there could be found fossil leaves4 ,the tree species told the formation ages of ,tertiary time4 ,many peaks appeared but no volcano cones4 ,the craters had been over what now were eroded dikes1 or fissure fillings of lava1 which stood out in crisscrossing walls4 ,where they clustered1 ores were found3 the ,sunlight1 ,crandall ,creek1 and ,stinking ,water mining claims4 ,these were the roots of lost volcanoes1 lost by decay1 tumble1 rainfall1 glaciers1 and rivers4 ,underneath the mountainous lavas1 appeared white marine limestone cliffs1 and still lower appeared ancient granite gneiss4 ,the geology of ancient seabeds1 fossils1 eruptions1 and glaciers was painted on a whole panorama of mountains and river basins4 ,from a mountain top silently gazing through field glasses--which he was always losing and recovering--,hague would look around for hours4 8,that ledge is the ,madison limestone1 those are the ,red ,beds1 those pink1 rounded hills are ,archean granites40 ,after a day of packtrain travel ,i was free to fish or hunt4 ,it was a privilege to hunt with ,anderson1 the old negro cook1 whose gray beard and bushy white wool belied his keen eyes4 ,he had been a slave1 later a soldier in ,general ,custer's ,big ,horn expedition1 and a pioneer and hunter4 ,his father had been massacred by ,indians1 and ,anderson swore he would kill any ,indian on sight4 ,one of our hunting trips near ,crandall ,creek was especially memorable4 8,mr4 ,jaggar1 ,i smell sheep up on that shelf601 said ,anderson4 ,and he climbed up a pine tree growing at the bottom against the limestone cliff4 ,he laid his ,winchester rifle on top of the steep slide rock slope at the foot of the tree1 muzzle upward1 butt end downhill4 8,you mind my gun1 ,i'll climb out on a limb against the cliff and get on the shelf1 and yo' all hand the gun up to me40 ,he reached the shelf1 made of ,cambrian limestone of trilobite fame1 and sitting over on it immediately knocked down slabs of rock4 ,they fell on the gun which started to slide down the slope4 ,i grabbed for the muzzle pointed toward my throat1 the stock wiggling right and left4 ,the gun went off and ,i felt a nick in my ankle4 ,anderson had left a cartridge in the barrel with the hammer resting on it1 but my nick was made by a pebble ploughed up by the bullet4 ,so the trilobites took a shot at me4 8,well1 this is natural history10 ,i murmured4 ,old ,anderson was less philosophical4 ,he cussed me for letting the rifle kick itself far down among the trees4 ,elk1 grouse1 blacktail deer1 antelope1 rattlesnakes1 prairie dogs1 skunks1 badgers1 owls1 whistling martens1 wild sheep1 and the grizzlies we never saw alive were all part of the great ,west4 ,so were the bucking cayuses and kicking mules with which we lived1 numerous ranchers1 prospectors1 soldiers1 sportsmen1 and guides4 ,once we were joined by a sheriff looking for an escaped desperado from ,red ,lodge ,prison4 ,just before ,i left the ,yellowstone1 ,i visited the hot springs and geysers4 ,with more than #d1jjj vents1 the geyser basins are steaming areas in the forest4 ,at ,mammoth1 the carbonate terraces show exquisite ripples and sculptured cups in steps4 ,one hotter group of waters1 through the igneous lavas and granites1 becomes full of silica and deposits sinter4 ,the other1 through limestones1 deposits travertine4 ,the alkaline siliceous waters deposit such strong silica edifices as to hold the explosive steam boilers of the geysers4 ,both silica and lime deposits are led to gorgeous sculpturing and to brilliant colors at their borders caused by the blue-green algae1 which live at temperatures up to #aej ,fahrenheit4 ,the boiling waters have been superheated volcanically since ,tertiary volcano times1 when first dark magnesian1 and afterwards siliceous1 lavas were ejected4 ,here is the same order ,daly and ,i found in ,vermont2 the dark rocks first1 rifting through slate1 the granites last1 with quartz cutting the dark rocks4 ,the cavities among the ,yellowstone geysers show quartz4 ,the surprise to me was that the geyser basins were eternally breaking down1 cracking1 dissolving1 making new geysers in the forest4 ,instead of being chiefly deposition1 the hot spring action is chiefly erosion4 ,it is a vast cycle of hot magma gases and rainwaters from ,tertiary times to now2 from #bj million years ago to now4 ,a long time4 ,remember that the last retreat of the glacier-period ice was only #bj1jjj years ago4 ,that ice found the geyser basins in full swing4 ,a thousand times farther back were the ,yellowstone volcanoes in full activity1 and they kept going while the continent lifted and pushed the ,gulf of ,mexico from the ,great ,plains to where it is now4 ,and yet that #bj million years was only a twenty-fifth of the time back to the trilobites1 and a ,yellowstone seabottom bed of that age is under all the lavas4 ,our schoolbook history is pretty small4 ,in all directions the ground of ,norris ,geyser ,basin is cracking and changing4 ,the geysers are utterly unreliable1 here today and mere hot springs or empty cracks tomorrow4 ,old ,faithful intervals range from thirty-eight to eighty-one minutes1 quite irregular4 ,the ,new ,crater was a squirting1 scalding jet which killed the trees and vegetation all about4 ,its seemingly regular1 twenty-five foot jets shot up at forty-five degrees inclination about every three minutes4 ,later1 in #aibb1 ,i was to find this geyser totally different4 ,careful studies have shown that water of this elevation boils at #aii ,fahrenheit2 one geyser gave off #bec ,fahrenheit1 or fifty-four degrees of superheat1 seventy-two feet down its shaft4 ,this is the only place of superheated waters known on earth4 ,the roaring steam of the ,black ,growler has eighty-one degrees of superheat4 ,the quantity of carbon1 sulfur1 and chlorine in the waters is so excessive1 though it is very small in the rock1 that a source of heat from volcanic gas is certain4 ,the net result is thousands of boiling springs of rainwater1 soaking a sponge of rhyolite rock over hundreds of square miles1 erupting over a remnant volcanic furnace beneath1 and eroding and dissolving out basins at the headwaters of the ,mississippi4 ,here is an object lesson in volcanic erosion4 ,here is a perpetual eruption of volcanic gases which has dwindled after millions of years of melting siliceous and carbonaceous rocks4 ,it recrystallizes them as andesites1 rhyolites1 and obsidians1 and mixes deep steam with rainwater to do the work of erosion and water solution and of deposits1 over a vent at the heart of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,as usual1 this vent has cluttered itself from age to age with the melt of the deep earth crust1 namely basalt1 which ,yellowstone's lavas show repeatedly from bottom to top of its accumulations4 ,and as usual1 the vents themselves are hard to recognize1 buried as they are under heapings4 ,in #ahig ,i returned to the ,yellowstone1 where ,i visited ,death ,gulch1 a dismal solfataric gully with a trickle of cold1 acid water near ,cache ,creek4 ,accompanied by ,dr4 ,f4 ,p4 ,king1 ,i climbed up this gorge1 where there was a bad smell and burning oppression of the lungs from hydrogen sulfide4 ,it was a ,v-shaped trench #ej feet deep in volcanic puddingstones1 whitened with alum and epsom salts4 ,bubbles rose through the water in many places4 ,the remains of eight big bears were found in the gorge1 clustered in one place4 ,the latest victim was a young grizzly with a clot of blood staining his nostrils from his last hemorrhage4 ,poison gas had killed him4 ,earlier visitors had found squirrels1 hares1 and butterflies and other insects killed by gas4 ,probably both sulfuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid gas do murder in still weather4 ,however1 we had the wind blowing up the gulch4 ,we lit matches in hollows and carbon dioxide did not extinguish them4 ,the same thing had happened when ,mr4 ,weed in #ahhh tested for carbon dioxide at ,death ,gulch4 ,now1 knowing the case of ,mr4 ,clive1 the ,englishman1 and his guide1 ,wylie1 who were overwhelmed by hydrogen sulfide while photographing ,boiling ,lake on ,december #aj1 #aija1 it looks to me as though the rotten-egg smell may play a large part in the killings at ,death ,gulch1 as well as in some poison tragedies of ,java4 ,boiling ,lake is at the south end of ,dominica ,island north of ,martinique4 ,there are four solfataras and the scalding lake1 the latter near the interior village of ,laudat1 at the head of a volcanic valley1 and four miles on horseback from ,roseau1 a shore town southwest4 ,when ,mr4 ,clive1 ,wylie1 and ,matson--another native guide--looked down at the hot pool1 ,matson noticed it boiling without vapor1 and called attention to the danger4 ,however1 they went on to the lake4 ,matson later reported1 8,i inhaled something offensive and felt as if ,i was dying4 ,i ran1 and lost consciousness4 ,i came to in a ravine and found ,wylie lying where ,i had left him40 ,clive1 refusing to leave ,wylie1 sent ,matson for help1 but when rescue parties arrived1 both men were dead4 ,at ,boiling ,lake there was no eruption1 no vapor1 only the very bad smell4 ,all the symptoms indicated a sudden change in the pool from steam to excessive hydrogen sulfide4 ,and five months later1 at ,pele across the channel from ,dominica1 excessive hydrogen sulfide set off the great explosions4 ,in view of these phenomena it seems likely that ,death ,gulch in the ,yellowstone also kills with sulfur gas1 the odor of which is so strong there4 ,day and ,allen associate hydrogen sulfide with the limited ,yellowstone sulfate areas1 of small water discharged1 and such is ,death ,gulch4 ,one part hydrogen sulfide in #bjj parts of air is fatal to mammals1 and it may come up in gushes4 ,carbonic acid asphyxiates1 but it is not a poison and when it is free is so heavy as to mix with air very little4 ,death ,gulch is not a place of lime deposition like ,mammoth ,hot ,springs1 where carbonated water decomposes underlying limestone4 ,europe was to be the next step in my education4 ,as assistant in petrography and graduate student at ,harvard1 ,i was encouraged by ,wolff to plan for ,heidelberg4 ,there ,i was to find ,h4 ,rosenbusch1 who had put system into the infinite series of minerals in rocks4 ,but my journey to ,heidelberg began with a geography congress in ,london and a geology congress in ,zurich4 ,these meetings were with such bigwigs as ,lord ,curzon1 ,henry ,m4 ,stanley1 and famous arctic explorers1 and ,i was surprised to find that all these ,,vip's looked like ordinary men4 ,unfortunately for me1 this realization came a little late4 ,looking for a luncheon beer garden in ,zurich1 ,i picked up a small side-whiskered ,englishman1 and suggested we join a group of foreign geologists in a buffet4 8,oh no10 he replied1 8no beer4 ,i only want a cup of tea and a biscuit40 ,so ,i left him and crudely and youthfully joined the younger men in the beer parlor for sauerkraut and wienies and ,munich beer4 ,later at the opening meeting1 the ,geological ,congress was addressed in ,french by the famous ,sir ,archibald ,geikie1 ,director ,general of the ,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 and the author of 8,the textbook of geology10 the greatest of geology manuals4 ,he was my pickup1 whom ,i had deserted at lunch time4 ,i had lost the opportunity of a lifetime1 for a tte-a-tte with the world's most famous geologist4 ,before going to ,munich1 ,harry ,gummer of ,haverford and ,i trekked through ,denmark in a third class carriage amid peasants smoking fearful-smelling tobacco in long china-bowl pipes4 ,then we crossed to ,christiansand in ,norway4 ,we traversed the fjords north to ,trondhjem by rowboat1 in 8stoolcars0 with little girl drivers4 ,then we traveled on foot1 and everywhere in rain4 ,waterfalls were so numerous we never wanted to hear of another one4 ,we climbed up to ,stalheim from ,bergen1 saw the ,jordalsknut1 a magnificent half dome in a vast granite canyon like ,yosemite4 ,we rowed around the ,kaiser's yacht in the ,nordfjord1 and tried to pick him out on deck4 ,we got soaked with days of rain in a backcountry village1 and went to the inn1 got into bed1 and sent our clothing to dry in the kitchen4 ,the local ,norwegian bank looked at our ,brown ,brothers letter of credit and said1 8,nothing doing10 which inspired us to compose a poem3 ,we're so happy we don't know what to do4 ,we haven't any clothes to wear1 ,we're wet all through and through4 ,we haven't any money and we ought to feel quite blue ,but we don't1 we feel so happy1 we don't know what to do4 ,fortunately1 the innkeeper was amused by our poem and sympathetic toward our plight4 ,he took our ,,iou's and told us we could have all the money we wanted and to send it back when we reached ,trondhjem4 ,from ,trondhjem we crossed ,scandinavia by rail to ,stockholm1 like ,venice a city of canals4 ,delightful maiden ladies kept the breakfast place and served us with many queer breads1 goats'-milk cheese1 and sublime cleanliness4 ,the canal boat took us across ,sweden to ,gteborg4 ,it was a little steamer1 from the porthole of which we saw a cow comfortably grazing a few feet away4 ,and we saw and were impressed by the superb landscaping of lawns1 by tree horticulture1 and by lock masonry4 ,in both ,norway and ,sweden the people talked ,english1 the national costumes were delightful1 the girls were pretty1 and everybody was clean and democratic4 ,the winter semester of #ahid-ahie was spent in ,munich1 where ,groth's mineral and crystal collections were the main attraction1 and where ,i heard the lectures of ,sir ,doktor ,privy-,councillor ,knight ,karl ,a4 von ,zittel1 author of six huge volumes on fossil shells1 fossil horses1 fossil dragons1 and fossil trees1 and a history of geology4 ,we once saw him rigged out in gold braid and an admiral's fore-and-aft cocked hat for some imperial function4 ,he was a forceful lecturer4 ,the assistant arranged diagrams on the rack1 the students gathered1 and then his majesty entered4 ,everyone rose and ,zittel held forth with a rattan pointer3 8,es gibt1 meine ,herren1 ein ganze anzahl von ausgezeichnete beobachten ber0 and so forth4 ,then he whacked the drawings1 and made graceful allusion to ,american investigators as he explained a giant stegosaurus4 ,in the 8,heidelberger ,geologischer ,panoptikum10 as an attic room on the ,neckar was called1 ,i afterwards posted a ditty based on 8,ole ,uncle ,ned03 ,there was an ,orthopod ,stegosaurus ,marshii ,laid him down on his ,jurassic bed4 ,he had a row of shovels down the middle of his back ,but he didn't have a very big head4 ,chorus3 ,hammer1 hammer1 hammer on the stone ,chisel1 chisel1 chisel on the bone ,there's no more rest for poor old ,steg ,for ,zittel couldn't leave him alone4 ,heidelberg days were memorable for the lectures of ,rosenbusch1 ,goldschmidt1 and ,osann2 for laboratory system2 and for long collection trips4 ,with specimen bag and hammer1 we went to ,saxony1 ,bohemia and the ,vosges ,mountains1 the ,black ,forest1 and the ,oberwald4 ,i had a large1 pointed hammer named ,umslopagaas1 after ,rider ,haggard's hero who wielded such a weapon4 ,when ,palache and ,brock and ,i were in a quarry and an unwieldy boulder had to be broken1 the yell arose1 8,umslopagaas come quick60 ,the collection of rock specimens at 8classical0 localities1 meant the textbook rocks of ,rosenbusch1 or of ,zirkel of ,leipzig4 ,every student dreamed of having a private collection4 ,after the ,ascutney experience1 ,i was impressed by ,schneeberg granite in ,saxony4 ,at the border of the granite are slates1 baked in zones back from the granite edge3 hard horn rock1 spotted rock1 mica rock1 then claystone4 ,the colored geological map of ,saxony was superb4 ,this includes the mining district of the birthplace of geology in ,europe1 where in ,freiberg1 ,a4 ,g4 ,werner had founded an arbitrary science in the eighteenth century1 imagining granites to be crystallized from a world-wide ocean4 ,in one place ,i found a hand specimen with tiny granite tongues which had split their way1 as liquid as alcohol1 between the blackened folia of slate4 ,the granite itself was all crystals1 but here was proof of a fluid when the granite penetrated4 ,what was it1 how hot was it1 a gas1 a foam1 a paste1 or a liquid8 ,the time this occurred was millions of years before ,kaiser ,wilhelm4 ,i had found something similar in the ,yellowstone1 the little dikes of sylvan intrusives in ,absaroka ,mountains4 ,the smallest tongues showed the most perfect granite in the microscope1 of ,tertiary intrusive stocks4 ,it was as though in these siliceous invasions of basaltic agglomerate1 nature made its best experimental granitization on a very small scale4 ,we soaked up the surprises of ,european scholarship4 ,we pored over books in the bookshops1 loaded ourselves with microscopes1 goniometers1 and four-volume textbooks4 ,we found all the science of ,europe in attractive unbound form and had it bound in half morocco4 ,mineral dealers were everywhere1 offering beautifully labeled specimens4 ,all things in ,europe seemed inexpensive4 ,rosenbusch1 who had big brown eyes and a gray beard1 came to look over my work on feldspar1 in his laboratory4 ,when ,i asked enthusiastically what make and model of ,german microscope ,i ought to buy1 he turned me around and looked deep into my eyes3 8,herr ,jaggar10 he said1 8,es is nicht das ,mikroskop1 es ist der ,mensch40 ,another time he produced a dense black rock and said to ,matteucci of ,vesuvius1 to ,palache1 and to me1 8,you are geologists4 ,what for a rock is that80 ,we1 of course1 got it wrong1 thinking it must be a lava4 ,it turned out to be a black limestone1 easily identified1 had we scratched it instead of putting our lenses on it4 ,he chuckled at the gullibility of geologists4 ,osann gave a course on petrographic chemistry which met at #g ,a4,m46 ,we usually got there1 but once or twice the teacher himself was late4 ,we would gather around ,osann1 who was fat and genial1 and say 8,herr ,professor1 how about some sausages and beer and a little breakfast80 ,he always replied 8,why not8 ,there is plenty of time10 and we sought the nearest cafe4 ,some professors got up at two o'clock in the morning and wrote1 taking advantage of the quiet hours4 ,rosenbusch had a high desk and wrote standing up4 ,their objectives were to produce enormous tomes listing all crystals and all rocks and all publications1 in all languages4 ,this is ,german science4 ,its password is 8thoroughness40 ,the net effect of ,german scholarship on me was a feeling of irksomeness and resentment1 but what ,i learned of thoroughness and of mechanisms ,i value extremely4 ,i honor the memory of those teachers1 and ,i honor their pupils1 who by specialism have penetrated deeper and deeper into the smaller and smaller things of matter4 ,the ultimate is the background material between the galaxies of the universe and the unknown background particles of life4 ,but for me1 the middle field--the development of mountains1 rivers and sea bottoms1 continents and volcanoes1 earthquakes and depressions of land1 the sky1 clouds1 and waters--all the outside world1 needed experimental engineers4 ,intermediate bigger things like the crust of the earth and moon1 within the time that is measured in human years1 seemed to be neglected by science1 and yet to be accessible to the giant power of engineering4 ,rosenbusch set me at one feldspar specimen for an entire summer4 ,i wanted things moving1 changing1 and evolving4 ,i wanted a narrative of that tabular feldspar crystallizing1 or better1 a dish wherein to watch it crystallize4 ,to me it seemed that ,faraday or ,pasteur would have described the quality of a moving feldspar medium in pressure1 heat1 gas1 liquid1 or changing particles4 ,the qualitative investigator would have a furnace and make many trials and produce synthetic feldspar1 and he would write a narrative approximating what the under earth must do4 ,he would make melt or froth conditions successful in imitating such rocks as basalt or granite1 using hot gases4 ,the problem of basalt and granite began to be recognized in the eighteenth century4 ,werner guessed1 and taught his pupils1 that these rocks were sea bottom deposits4 ,a few determined ,europeans in the nineteenth century--,fouqu and ,michel-,lvy1 ,doelter1 and ,morozewicz--melted mineral mixtures and made igneous rocks by cooling them4 ,the motive was approximation2 the result was good and useful4 ,no one reached melting by hot gases and absorption of hot gases4 ,no one made granite4 ,volcanic rocks were imitated approximately as to crystals1 but not as to gases4 ,and the whole of volcanism was later proved to be gases1 as is the whole of physics and astronomy and biology4 ,man is largely a puff of hydrogen4 ,these visions were what ,i brought back from ,europe1 along with much pondering of such experimenters as ,daubre1 ,lacroix1 ,stanislas ,meunier1 ,reyer1 and my teacher ,goldschmidt1 all brilliant imitators of the earth4 ,goldschmidt gave a course in blowpipe analysis which was completely original4 ,his methods went far beyond those of his predecessors4 ,meanwhile1 ,w4 ,m4 ,davis had written me to come home to ,harvard and give the course in field geological surveying4 ,this was in #ahie-ahif4 ,my teaching was devised to cut up the map of ,boston4 ,i pasted the pieces in notebooks and sent out students in pairs1 equipped with map books4 ,they were to keep pencils sharp1 use a uniform system1 and hammer off specimens from ledges4 ,they were to examine the rock under a magnifying glass1 then name it2 but ,i cautioned them1 8,if you don't know the rock1 call it #8,,frdk1 funny rock don't know4'0 ,students marked the page opposite each map with symbols for the rocks on that map4 ,then they came together in seminar1 and we made a colored map of the geology of ,boston4 ,laurence ,la ,forge1 now professor at ,tufts ,college1 was my student and later my assistant4 ,he published the results of our work many years after the study was made4 ,when teaching was extended into experimental geology and geology of the ,united ,states1 laboratories were set up in the basement of ,agassiz ,museum and ,i was given carte blanche to furnish them4 ,i equipped them with a water tank1 a gas furnace for melting and recrystallizing minerals1 pressure machines1 an air compressor1 and motors4 ,students were assigned experiments with wax1 plaster1 cement1 sands1 coal dust1 and marble dust4 ,they imitated strata1 rivers1 deltas1 intrusions1 and mountain folds1 and familiarized themselves with the way solids break4 ,each man took a special arbeit for his final thesis1 and worked by himself with clock or metronome1 thermometer or pressure gauge1 spring balance or centimeter scale1 and he reviewed the experiments of the past4 ,prominent among my students were ,ralph ,stone1 afterwards state geologist for ,pennsylvania2 ,vernon ,marsters of ,indiana2 ,julius ,eggleston of ,riverside1 ,california2 and ,ernest ,howe of ,yale4 ,in the course on ,united ,states geology were such students as ,amadeus ,grabau who became leading paleontologist of ,china2 ,stefansson the arctic explorer2 ,ellsworth ,huntington1 afterwards the distinguished ,yale author and geographer2 and ,franklin ,delano ,roosevelt4 ,with so many ,roosevelts at ,harvard1 ,i quite forgot my famous student until his first visit to ,hawaii1 in #aicd4 ,mr4 ,roosevelt had remembered his geology professor1 though1 and an aide phoned the ,volcano headquarters to request that ,i be at ,hilo when the ,president's ship arrived4 ,the ,united ,states geology course was the product of my two seasons in the ,yellowstone and my interest in the great ,hayden1 ,king1 and ,powell surveys4 ,the youthful geologists needed to know the continent and its details4 ,the big ,washington monographs and folios have made a gallery of underground pictures of one of the greatest continents1 and these are supplemented by the work of the ,canadian geologists4 ,america shows ,appalachian folds and thrusts1 fault blocks of the ,utah plateaus1 and eruptives of the ,rockies4 ,it contains the amazing metamorphism of very recently upheaved sea beds along the ,pacific shore4 ,it records the remnant sea bottoms and dust-storm deposits of the vast plains1 bearing beside the obvious buffalo skulls1 the old bones of whales1 reptiles1 and rhinos4 ,superposed on all this is so-called physiography1 the science of falling materials and water1 the rotting of the lands1 and the accumulation of debris4 ,a net of rivers over ground and under ground is what stands out1 and the living river pattern has changed incessantly through the ages4 ,but through and over it is a moving process of the ages1 kinetic1 alive with glaciers1 hot springs1 underground heat or surface cold1 soaking rains and rushing storms1 earthquake and uplift1 fault motions and sinkings4 ,everything is in motion to one who senses slow motion1 occasionally breaking down resistance and charging ahead4 ,and geology is a sense of slow motion and its jumps for #e million years1 with this human year1 here and now1 of great importance4 ,geology1 like humanity1 is not just history4 ,under all are gas and heat2 ,saratoga ,springs1 ,yellowstone1 the ,comstock ,lode1 and ,mount ,shasta4 ,the series gets hotter from ,new ,york to ,california4 ,and out at sea the refuse of the continent is dumping all day long4 ,and science is anxiously waiting to learn how hot sea bottom is4 ,in addition to laboratory work1 ,i wanted to conduct cross-country hikes for such subjects as botany1 geology1 and zoology in the forests and swamps and hills of ,massachusetts4 ,and it was in connection with these plans that ,i learned a lesson in simplicity4 ,i went to ,president ,eliot1 remembering the high sounding 8,pierian ,sodality0 name for the college orchestra1 to get a classical calendar name for my cross-country tramps4 ,he said1 8,what1 in brief1 is your idea80 ,i replied1 8,in ordinary language they will be natural history walks40 ,he took a pen and said1 8,why not this for a name80 ,on the paper was written 8,natural ,history ,walks40 ,an important part of our curriculum was the ,tuesday evening geological conference1 during which any graduate worker could give a paper4 ,to these conferences came1 at different times1 ,brooks1 ,spurr1 ,schrader1 ,goodrich1 ,mendenhall1 ,p4 ,s4 ,smith1 ,mansfield1 ,matthes1 ,lane1 ,crosby1 ,barton1 ,douglas ,johnson1 ,daly1 and all the ,harvard staff4 ,the men got confidence in public speaking and exhibiting1 and the professors commented in kindly fashion4 ,topics ranged from summer work in the far west and current studies in meteorology under ,ward to petrographic or experimental work with projection apparatus under ,wolff and me4 ,jackson and ,hyatt brought in fossils1 and the ,geological ,survey was always in evidence as a goal for young men1 or a subject for review4 ,shaler's comments were accompanied by a string of good stories4 ,the conferences taught students how to teach by making them speak in public4 ,it was one of ,shaler's most productive inventions1 and has been copied far and wide4 ,walcott in the ,survey looked to ,harvard to produce field mappers of rocks4 ,graduate students had the choice between process and history1 geography linked to school teaching1 microscopical petrography and crystallography linked to the minerals and rock collections1 or evolution linked to museums and fossils4 ,beecher of ,yale had found hairs on the legs of fossil trilobites4 ,someone else had found fossil bacteria4 ,a group of petrographers got together and founded an artificial classification of fire-made rocks based on chemistry--no use at all to the field man with a rock specimen4 ,agassiz had built a magnificent museum4 ,the research motive was based on collections2 the public exhibit motive was based on evolution and big1 rare things4 ,the publication motive imitated ,europe2 8be as technical as possible1 detest reporters and newspapers1 and never be popular40 ,in #ahig ,harvard ,university gave me a ,ph4,d4 degree1 after a double thesis and an oral examination4 ,i passed the examination very awkwardly1 as my capacity for remembering text book information is nil4 ,my theses were 7#a7 on an invention1 a mineral hardness instrument2 and 7#b7 on the included fragments found in ,boston dikes4 ,the microsclerometer1 as the instrument was called 7that is1 a microscope scratcher71 was designed to diamond drill a mineral to a fixed depth4 ,the hardness was measured by the time consumed1 on the theory that the energy required for the standard hole varied with the time1 and the time with the hardness4 ,the number of rotations with a constant speed motor is a measure of the time4 ,the paper was published in ,america and ,germany1 and elaborately reviewed by a microscopical society in ,england4 ,the instrument was borrowed by ,h4 ,c4 ,boynton1 a graduate student in metallurgy1 and he got good results on the microscopic crystals that constitute steel4 ,the inventing and constructing with the aid of ,sven ,nelson1 a ,swedish mechanician of ability1 were to me an education in themselves4 ,for one thing1 ,i learned how enthusiastically science feeds on ultra-little things4 ,my petrography of included quartz fragments in basalt dikes was partly published1 but made no hit at all4 ,it was outdoor work1 it concerned the granite problem1 it revealed the 8fluid0 of granite minerals as 8waters or vapors0 having no effect on augite1 the green fusible mineral of basalt4 ,but the same fluid was revealed as corroding quartz inclusions1 harder and supposedly more infusible4 ,if temperature had anything to do with it1 the granite fluid could melt holes in quartz inclusions1 but the mantle of augite dark crystals which the basalt had plastered on the outside of the quartz fragments remained unmelted4 ,this was my first adventure with the ancient problem of fusion1 or melting4 ,i became convinced that granite fluids1 like the makers of gold quartz veins1 are low temperature vapors or gasses4 ,this agrees with what is now well known1 that silica has a low melting point4 ,but melting and temperature are not the whole story4 ,to me1 the spreading of one's fame by scientific papers was commercialization4 8,you must make your name known0 and 8what have you published80 rang through the scientific halls of learning4 ,no suggestion of art1 literature1 drama1 beauty1 or philosophy ever came to me from my scientific colleagues4 ,some literary friends1 like ,william ,garrott ,brown and my classmate ,william ,vaughn ,moody1 thought readability important4 ,brown warned me against the dullness of small papers in scientific writing4 ,agassiz warned me against exactly the opposite1 namely1 against popularizing or being interesting4 ,this antithesis between science journals and art probably never comes into the field of vision of many young scientific writers4 ,they see only 8,write for your scientific peers and for no one else1 that is your world40 ,all my life ,i have been plagued by 8be as technical as possible0 versus 8tell the public what it all means40 ,i suspect that our system is producing diagrams and statistics in geology 7and perhaps in science generally7 and no longer produces works of art4 ,i know few geologists who are fine draftsmen4 ,they accept photography instead4 ,i know none who is a literary stylist4 ,they write for ultra conciseness and tabulations4 ,the nineteenth century taught classical ,english and drawing4 ,geology is a science of the dreamland of the earth's interior and of millennia of the ages and of the overwhelming expanse of rich1 productive1 unknown ores under ocean bottoms4 ,it is a field for men of letters1 and for new ,magellans1 ,humboldts1 and ,darwins bursting with imagination and the will to explore4 ,this seeming digression is really germane to the purport of this book4 ,it is one man's review of a half century of evolving discovery4 ,also a half century of evolving error and departure from the ways of the leaders4 ,the leaders1 from ,william ,smith's thoroughness with strata in ,england1 to ,clarence ,king's summary of a thousand miles across the ,cordillera1 explored upward and outward4 ,it persuaded governments4 ,persuasion before the court of public opinion no longer uses and employs explorer men of letters4 ,the ,united ,nations is not employing ,clarence ,kings on the world geology of the remaining three quarters of the earth4 ,the confusion1 the secrecy1 and the loss of art are occasioned by vulgarization4 ,in #ahge real men of distinction explored the earth4 ,now that is left to incorporated establishments1 teaching trusts1 and calculating machines4 ,clarence ,king was a linguist and was the son of a trader in ,china4 ,his ,yale training under ,dana and ,brush gave him real culture4 ,his founding of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey was the evolution of a genius who disliked politics and whose friends rejoiced with him in great prose1 good pictures1 and fine sculpture4 ,then he was wrecked by a false ambition and the decadence of the very thing which made him great1 the simplicity of high thinking1 noble writing1 and cultivated friends4 ,lacking today are cultivated boys with an ambition to explore the globe1 both under the sea and in the wilderness4 ,geology in #ahig was a jigsaw puzzle1 with a choice between the museum and the field1 between the easy thing of collections1 fine microscopes1 and the scientific societies1 and the hard thing of exploring the globe4 ,collections and instruments were an overpowering attraction1 particularly when photography and experiment were involved4 ,but roughing it in the wilderness has made some of the finest characters ,i ever knew4 ,geological surveys of the west continued to occupy me during the summers4 ,i worked in the ,black ,hills of ,south ,dakota under ,samuel ,franklin ,emmons1 and my associates included ,john ,mason ,boutwell1 ,john ,duer ,irving1 ,philip ,sidney ,smith1 ,bailey ,willis1 and ,n4 ,h4 ,darton4 ,boutwell was to become a copper geologist and copper magnate in the mines of ,utah2 ,irving1 ,professor of ,economic ,geology at ,lehigh and ,yale2 and ,smith1 head of the ,alaskan branch of the ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey4 ,being with ,emmons1 ,willis1 and ,darton in the ,black ,hills field was to learn variously how geologists work in the field and how their minds work4 ,emmons was of the ,boston ,brahmins1 a ,harvard man1 mining geology his specialty1 with the ,clarence ,king tradition of the ,great ,west1 the #djth ,parallel ,survey4 ,bailey ,willis as ,chief ,geologist spent a week with us in camp1 and ,i saw his genius for drawing in line1 and he explained the four-step pacing method4 ,willis mapped distances by pacing across mountains1 counting in his head1 while talking at the same time4 ,he compiled in color a geologic map of the ,united ,states4 ,his marvellous experiments on mountain folding1 his explorations in all the continents and his poetic faith in hydrogen and crystallization as internal forces made his name immortal4 ,n4 ,h4 ,darton mapped the ,great ,plains2 and his genius was for hard work1 long field hours1 color photography at its very beginning1 and an extraordinary eye for detail in the field4 ,darton showed me how to find the ,chadron ,formation on the divides1 white clays easily overlooked4 ,darton's many years1 traversing the entire ,west1 and publishing superb monographs of artesian waters and of immense fossil sea bottoms1 summarizing the geology of whole states from ,texas to ,canada1 ranks him among the great geologists4 ,i learned from him detail of infinite discovery possible in every rock ledge4 ,he found tiny fossil shells everyone else had missed4 ,powell and ,king had painted impressionistic geology4 ,darton followed and painted thousands of miniatures1 but also combined these into large books4 ,charles ,doolittle ,walcott was ,director of the ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey at that time1 and no greater geologist ever lived4 ,his ,cambrian fossils1 those of the first great fossil-making 8,mediterranean ,sea0 of ,north ,america1 lay buried in the ,united ,states from shore to shore4 ,unswervingly he followed every inland sea of #eca million years ago and thereafter1 through advances three times across the continent4 ,lands were of moderate relief and climates were mild4 ,marine animals and sea weeds1 large and small1 were abundant for #hj million years4 ,and remember that a million years is a thousand times the interval since ,william the ,conqueror4 ,the continent ,walcott mapped of that ancient time was the ,north ,america of today1 with sags that let in shallow sea strips and pools where the ,cambrian shales and limestones now lie4 ,he wrote a description of that vast history1 and all his later summers were spent in the ,canadian ,rockies1 where fossil-bearing strata make the most startling mountain peaks on earth4 ,my ,black ,hills surveys of #ahih and #ahii were near ,deadwood and ,spearfish and ,mato ,tepee1 the ,devil's ,tower ,national ,monument4 ,in those badlands with weird desert gorges1 appear the bones of ancient rhinoceroses and many grotesque animals1 huge and tiny1 of #dj to #fj million years ago4 ,we found little bones in white earth on the divides still preserved against erosion4 ,our big job was to map the laccoliths near ,deadwood4 ,a laccolith1 or rock cistern1 is a lava body which in very ancient times squirted into the cracks of the strata4 ,the lava had penetrated between the strata of the northern cover of the ,black ,hills1 swelled to lenses between the strata2 and1 particularly1 it selected and penetrated the soft shale beds which grow thicker and more numerous upward among the formations4 ,thus after erosion of the present landscape1 both large and small lava lenses were revealed as resistant hills1 the largest toward the bottom of the pile of strata and the smallest and steepest toward the top in thick1 black ancient mud deposits4 ,mostly1 the laccoliths were injections of volcanic fluid up a crack1 which met a hard bed and bent to squeeze the paste or lava into a soft layer4 ,the result was an underground lava flow which ruptured the beds4 ,apparently the first rush brought up fragments of the rocks below4 ,this fragmentary stuff of mud and gravel was overridden by the lava1 until the latter penetrated horizontally a mile or two between strata1 arched the layers above1 and solidified at the ,devil's ,tower with vertical columns like the ,giant's ,causeway in ,ireland4 ,this group of subterranean volcanic eruptions between strata probably came under sea bottom at the same time that the ,yellowstone upland began its open-air outpourings farther west4 ,but in the ,black ,hills there is no sign the laccolith lavas ever broke up to the top country4 ,the ,black ,hills1 like the ,rocky ,mountains1 were a long time rising in waves of action1 whereas the lava intrusion was a relatively short episode of one of the latest of these spasms4 ,however1 that episode entails a long story of numerous injections4 ,it takes us down into crust and along through the millennia4 ,always think in millions of years4 ,it is wise also to think in millions of miles and to remember that the sun and the ,milky ,way are parts of the same system as the earth4 ,and remember that a ledge or a boulder doesn't worry about living #bj million or #ajj million years4 ,a skull is a boulder4 ,that old brontotherium rhinoceros with a forked horn1 standing eight feet high and fifteen feet long1 lived in the upper ,oligocene1 when clay and volcanic ash were being deposited in the ,bad ,lands of ,south ,dakota4 ,probably vast flood plains of rivers were his habitat1 swamp reeds and leaves were his food1 and floods washed his bones and buried his skull where we find them today4 ,the country of open glades was probably like the safari land of central ,africa4 ,brontotherium's skull in ,chicago ,natural ,history ,museum dates from about #cj million years ago4 ,the bones are scattered1 and few complete skeletons have been found4 ,man's ancestor may have started #aj million years ago1 but the nearest approach to an ape who lived in the trees of old ,bronto's forests was an opossum4 ,furthermore1 nothing like flint tools have been found in the rhino strata4 ,the apes started in ,europe and ,asia in the next geologic period1 and some fossilized monkeys have been found in ,south ,america4 ,but men and monkeys are too soft4 ,they don't make good fossils4 ,the bones we found were of turtles1 in clays upheaved on the top of the ,black ,hills uplift4 ,these clays were afterwards eroded into the present valleys1 and probably were contemporaneous with the riverbed silts1 where the rhinoceros skulls were found4 ,so our turtles and rhinos were no doubt neighbors in #bi1iih1jjj ,b4,c4 ,our sojourn in the ,black ,hills was not without adventure4 ,one evening when ,boutwell and ,i were riding home to ,deadwood1 ,i dismounted and jumped into the shrubs of a gully to knock a rock specimen off a ledge4 ,from beneath my feet came a buz-z-z like a swarm of bees4 ,i had jumped right on a rattlesnake and could feel his coils against my ankle1 and no leggings that day4 ,boutwell called out1 8,oh let me see him6 ,i've never seen a rattlesnake40 ,i made a suitable reply and1 somehow1 leapt clear before the snake had a chance to strike4 ,another adventure concerned my gold watch1 a gift from my dad on my twenty-first birthday4 ,i lost it from a chain which broke against the saddle pommel at some dismounting point4 ,i advertised for it by placards at railway stations and1 amazingly1 it was returned4 ,a ,salvation ,army man found the watch1 badly trampled by my horse1 at a back country place1 brought it to me in ,deadwood1 and received the reward4 ,i took it to the maker in ,waltham1 where it was restored2 and ,i am wearing it fifty-four years later1 converted from a hunting case to a stemwinder4 ,john ,irving of ,yale1 whose father had been a mining geologist in the ,great ,lakes district1 was one of the most lovable companions ,i ever camped and tramped with4 ,we were together in the ,black ,hills1 where we hired a wagon outfit to cross the ,hills to the ,devil's ,tower4 ,the personnel was a masterpiece of improvisation4 ,the cook was a fat boy who told marvellous tales of adventures4 ,among other things1 he had been a human ostrich in the circus1 and he assured us that chewing up glass and swallowing it did no harm if you knew how4 ,so elaborate was his cooking that again and again we ran out of grub4 ,furthermore1 meals were generally late1 but we knew better than to hurry the supper and his finishing touches4 ,when finally a meal was ready1 he advanced to our tent1 bowed1 and called out1 8,gentlemen1 you will now proceed to sagastuate40 ,johnston the teamster was an ambitious ,south ,dakota high school graduate and farm boy who wanted to learn all he could from geological surveyors4 ,a few years ago1 in the nineteen forties1 ,i received a letter from him in southwest ,africa saying that he had been successful in placer mining for gold and diamonds and that he was writing a book about it4 ,arizona was my fourth field of fire-made irruptions2 after ,new ,england1 the ,black ,hills1 and the ,yellowstone 7old1 middle-aged1 and young74 ,to the ,bradshaw ,mountains between ,prescott and ,phoenix and lying south of the ,grand ,canyon1 ,i was sent with ,palache to make the ,bradshaw ,mountains folio4 ,at ,prescott we had the rare privilege of talks with ,clarence ,king4 ,an aged bachelor dying of tuberculosis1 he was living in a cottage with an old negro servant4 ,king was a fascinating talker and writer4 ,he had been the first director of the ,geological ,survey and was the author of 8,mountaineering in the ,sierra ,nevada40 ,his great summary volume of the #djth ,parallel1 the survey along the ,union ,pacific1 is one of the classics in literature and in geology4 ,his model1 unhappily for him1 was ,alexander ,agassiz1 who made a great fortune out of ,calumet and ,hecla copper4 ,when ,king went into mining to make a fortune he contracted tuberculosis4 ,he died soon after we saw him4 ,the problem of what makes granite was never better illustrated than in the ,bradshaws4 ,one formation1 in upright bands for miles across country1 showed dark schist1 diorite1 granite1 diabase1 granite1 light schist1 quartzite1 granite1 gabbro1 and schist again1 like a succession of dikes1 slabs1 and veins side by side4 ,a mountain spur1 like a bookshelf with colored books on edge1 is called ,crooks ,complex1 and was named after ,crooks ,canyon4 ,the trend was with the pinched strata but the stuff was mostly igneous4 ,it was as though a mechanism of melting-up was mixed with intrusion of fluid1 but what fluid8 ,a glass8 or a gas8 ,there was no smearing1 but clean-cut dikes and schist slabs on edge4 ,in the big granite hills there were contact breakups with fragments of schist imprisoned in granite1 but not smeared or streaked4 ,the impression was of millions of years and thousands of episodes1 all dike-making and guided by the upright lamination or vertical structure of the ancient altered tightly folded clay and sand strata1 squeezed together by horizontal pressure4 ,since learning of the million-year periods taught by radioactivity1 and of the many million years within a single era of geology1 ,i have begun to wonder whether these very old formations may represent hundreds of millennia1 with granitization happening over and over again1 in each geological revolution of upheaval and mountain building above4 ,granitization1 then1 is a process of heat pressure1 gases1 melting1 and crystal making1 of which the ancient words magma or emulsion or paste give no conception4 ,and volcanism1 up through the deep crust1 is the mystery devil4 ,may it not be nucleonics and melting of deep crust1 rather than chemistry8 ,and is not the mystery devil always hydrogen gas8 ,at the beginning of the twentieth century ,i visited two places which are close together and related to the ,bradshaw ,mountains4 ,one was ,searchlight in the southern tip of ,nevada1 the other was the ,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado ,river4 ,i shall never forget my arrival in ,searchlight4 ,a strike of miners was going on1 and ,stanford geology students had been sent in as strike breakers4 ,big ,bill1 the sheriff1 brought the boys across the desert from the railway4 ,his buckboard was in front and the ,stanforders followed in a wagon4 ,the strikers lined the road out from ,searchlight1 intent on loosing the horses4 ,but when they saw ,bill's star and his notched six-shooter1 they dropped their hands to their sides and stood like a row of tin soldiers1 while ,big ,bill led the way through at a gallop1 cursing them roundly4 ,when ,i got off the train at ,ivanpah1 a small place with only a few houses1 ,i spoke to a young station agent where the ancient ,wells ,fargo sign hung4 ,he told me that the ,quartette ,mine team would meet me soon1 and shortly a cloud of dust on the desert proclaimed the vehicle which came dashing up1 a phaeton rig with two big horses4 ,the five men inside were armed1 with rifles and pump shotguns protruding4 ,one man pulled out a heavy leathern pouch1 and another stood over it with his rifle4 8,come on1 ,jack1 lets go over to ,wolf ,saloon40 8,no10 said ,jack1 8not till ,i get my receipt40 ,the mild station man yanked out a receipt book1 filled the blank acknowledging #bj1jjj in bullion from the mine1 threw the pouch into an open safe1 and ,jack with his receipt departed1 leaving the gold brick to the mystic protection of that sign1 8,wells ,fargo and ,co40 ,two ablebodied bandits could easily have held up the whole rail terminus4 ,when ,i started for the mine1 accompanied by detectives and guards1 we all carried pistols in holsters strapped under our arms4 ,en route1 we spent ,christmas amid the smell of sagebrush and the glorious sunset lights of a purple desert4 ,once more ,i murmured1 8,so this is natural history40 ,i was employed to examine the ,quartette ,gold ,mine1 and the geologic mystery of the origin of a million dollars in dirt between a level #bjj feet down and another at a depth of #ejj feet4 ,the million dollars was along a crushed1 slipped1 so-called vein1 where a fault followed the upright bedding of just such gneisses1 granite dikes1 and schists as had made ,crooks ,complex in the ,bradshaws4 ,where gold was richest1 minerals were richest--beautiful orange-colored wulfenite1 green chrysocolla1 blue azurite1 onyx1 quartz1 and calcite4 ,everywhere were quantities of gouge1 or crushed clays1 from grinding walls4 ,native gold particles were distributed through all this4 ,the schists were filled with lava fissure fillings1 and the mine was where this pattern of bands was interrupted by a very ancient greenstone or basalt body4 ,hot fluids of the volcanic period1 deep underground1 had accompanied fault slipping or fracture where the ore was1 the vertical fault parallel to the upright layers and across the greenstone contact4 ,ore and gold particles were directly related to fracture1 to the fault slipping on an upright crack of one mountain block against another1 to the hot vapors depositing the mineral collection1 and to renewed crushing and sliding on the mountain blocks4 ,this was during or following some part of the volcanic period when all the cracks were injected with andesite lavas1 or what the miners call porphyry4 ,the origin of the minerals was in lead and copper sulfides which lie deeper down4 ,a hundred miles to the northeast is the ,grand ,canyon1 and all around are granite mountains1 just as in ,arizona4 ,these ,searchlight schists are the same ,algonkian ancient strata1 recrystallized and granitized1 that make the inner gorge of the canyon1 and are traversed up cracks by volcano-making lavas1 such as dot the north bank of the canyon with crater cones4 ,above in the canyon are the horizontal strata from ,cambrian up to the ,coal ,measures and beyond4 ,the vast maze of castles and turrets is a net of branch valleys of the ,colorado1 trenching through these old seabed deposits4 ,including ,searchlight ore1 the whole history going backward is top country desert1 deep trench1 strata piled in rivers and sea bottoms for #ejj million years1 and lastly faulting and cracking that squirted steam and made gold minerals over and over again during the last #ajj million years4 ,there were at least a dozen revolutions that lifted and lowered mountain ranges and continents for #b1jjj million years1 and the remains of iron-eating bacteria and of seaweeds and other living things that go back for #a1ejj million years4 ,through it all are granite injections as a process1 as a mystery1 going over the whole range of years in different ages1 and meaning what8 ,one of the puzzles of ,grand ,canyon1 ,bradshaw ,mountains1 and ,searchlight--if not also of ,new ,england1 the ,black ,hills1 and the ,yellowstone--is faulting4 ,a fault is what a geologist means by a crack down deep where the country rock has dropped down on one side so as to make a discordance across country4 ,earthquake faults make a visible bank or step or sidewise slip1 changing the surface after an earthquake4 ,the northwestern states are partly mapped as fault block mountains4 ,the island of ,hawaii has a series of fault step blocks southeast1 slipping toward the ocean4 ,the steep east face of the ,sierra ,nevada is a fault fracture4 ,professor ,shaler once stopped me on the street and said of my field work1 8,jaggar1 you don't teach faulting enough40 ,faults were shown along straight lines on the color maps of formation in the old ,boston books1 and were located by guesswork if glacier deposits covered up the ledges4 ,it seemed to me that faults ought to be proved or else omitted from the maps4 ,probably ,i too was wrong1 for faults or cracks completely concealed by soil and strata are tremendous unknown lines on the globe4 ,the ,searchlight ore body is certainly a fault fracture1 and so are those of ,tonopah and hundreds of mines4 ,it was digging that proved it4 ,the cracking and slipping and steaming and mud-making on the fissure are what brought up the minerals4 ,a question arises as to how much the ,grand ,canyon itself and its tributaries are guided by fault fractures under valleys4 ,my impression was in #aija1 and it still is1 that 8,jaggar ought to teach faulting0 more than he then did4 ,the primitive ocean blocks of earth crust sank1 while continents remained high1 leaving the earth crust a mosaic of blocks large and small1 high and low4 ,between the blocks spout the volcanoes4 ,i have never agreed with ,c4 ,e4 ,dutton that volcanic heat energy could come from shallow pockets under those fault blocks4 ,even he acknowledged the weakness of the argument4 ,if the earth crust broke up and the blocks variously sank in the core matter1 leaving continents as a complex of high blocks1 then the blocks are deep and are still moving4 ,the movements are in years1 year-thousands and year-millions4 ,volcanism up the cracks releases core energy4 ,so does much of fault movement1 namely earthquakes4 ,and these facts geologists do not appreciate4 ,so we get faulted river courses and fault cracks up which came fluids that transformed sediments of rivers1 lakes1 deserts1 and seas into granite1 felsite1 and greenstone4 ,these are the ancient names4 ,there are hundreds of other1 geology names4 ,but geology produced no ,faraday4 ,i disliked geology in #aijb4 ,and ,i disliked mining because of its secrecy and its devotion to profits4 ,geology failed to tell businessmen the mystery of granite1 of felsite1 and of greenstone4 ,astronomers told the same men of mysteries1 and they were fascinated4 ,physiology led them to cells1 plants1 animals1 and chemicals in the blood1 solving mystery after mystery4 ,men1 money1 inventions1 engineers1 buildings1 and staffs grew by leaps and bounds in those sciences4 ,the best geology could do was guesswork--a mastodon1 a big reptile skeleton1 a guesswork color map--while seventy percent of the earth was seabottom rock1 unmapped1 and twenty percent more consisted of fractures covered with soil4 ,seeing the ,carnegie and ,rockefeller laboratories and observatories1 ,i grieved for field geology4 ,the public did not even know that granite1 the mystery1 is the commonest rock and that quartz1 the gold maker1 is the commonest mineral4 ,nor did they know that both are almost absent from the whole ,pacific4 ,nor that geology is almost ignorant of their origin and injection1 if it is injection4 ,here was the globe1 the end product of astronomy1 the most fascinating research in the whole range of science4 ,the source of all raw materials of commerce1 yet its fire-made rocks and its seabottom rocks remained a mystery4 ,before leaving the ,grand ,canyon1 let me record my impressions of the erosion4 ,it is a gorge a mile deep usually described as 8cut0 by the ,colorado ,river4 ,as ,i shall show in discussion of experiments with the ,grand ,canyon model1 it is possible1 in stratified layers yielding grit to flowing rainwater1 to cut a deep canyon by surface runoff4 ,it is possible for underground water and tributaries from side rainfalls to increase the volume of such a stream greatly in a hundred miles4 ,but ,dutton's showing of upheaved and downdropped big blocks of broken mountains1 and such obvious breaks as the ,tonto and ,bright ,angel faults shown to tourists as traced out by ,bright ,angel ,canyon1 prove that the earth crust is broken4 ,and ,searchlight showed a fault to be a water supply4 ,the enormous canyon appeared to me to be a million-year break system of earth-crust rotting4 ,the water is a giant modern grinding mill of rainfall1 underground accumulation1 and transport4 ,but with five great erosion surfaces shown in the discordances1 from #b1jjj million years ago to the present day2 and with upheaval of the high plateaus in block faults1 and bent strata age after age2 and farther north with recent volcanoes that spouted up the cracks1 it seems more vivid to think the valleys at least partly water-filled cracks and chasms4 ,volcanoes cannot be shallow4 ,the canyons and the great bend are different from the ,green ,river source1 because of upward push in waves4 ,the up-push of the ,uinta ,mountains is well known to have been slow4 ,it kept pace with the ruptures followed by the river4 ,going back to ,daubre1 rivers follow cracks much more than do the textbooks4 ,in #ahii two things happened which affected the rest of my life4 ,first1 ,director ,walcott asked me to furnish estimates for a ,hawaii geologic survey1 a request which eventually led me to ,hawaii4 ,second1 the ,yakutat ,bay earthquake snapped on an astonished world1 though most of the world didn't know it4 ,the ,yakutat ,bay earthquakes in ,alaska1 in ,september #ahii1 were accompanied by the pushing up of the bedrock shoreline by forty-seven feet4 ,lowered beneath the sea were whole forests1 on glacial deposits pulled down by submarine landslips4 ,it was an uninhabited region at the foot of ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 along a fjord penetrating far into the mountains4 ,it came in line with the ,aleutian trench1 under the ,pacific1 #d1jjj fathoms deep4 ,the earthquakes lasted two weeks4 ,this colossal movement of blocks of the earth's crust hundreds of miles across gave one the impression that we knew little of what was going on4 ,remembering that seventy-two percent of the earth's surface is covered by oceans and that less than ten percent is really inhabited1 ,i awoke to how much there was to learn4 ,if whole forests and their roots could float away into the ,pacific currents1 with all their plants and animals and seeds and bacteria1 what might not have occurred in past ages1 when such jostling of crust blocks was common4 ,but before ,i was to experiment with live volcanoes came a decade of laboratory experiment4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,imitating ,ripplemarks 8,the ,constitution is an experiment1 as all life is an experiment40 ,at the end of the century my experiments with the sclerometer1 and with the class in experimental geology1 steered me for years into laboratory experiment4 ,europe was headed toward geophysics and geochemistry1 meaning chiefly mathematical and statistical analysis4 ,my vision was nonmathematical1 though ,i used pressures1 temperatures1 clocks1 and yardsticks to measure erosion1 sediment1 warping of strata1 and melting4 ,this took me away from petrography1 for the polarizing microscope was dealing with infinite series of minerals and molecules4 ,i could see nothing but infinite penetration into the smaller and smaller4 ,clarence ,king and ,frank ,perret had been on the way to infinite journeying outward to the bigger and bigger4 ,the guiding formula was 8erosion1 sedimentation1 deformation1 and eruption40 ,measure these on the globe1 imitate them with mud pies in the laboratory4 ,compare the global examples with the mud pies4 ,try to get the mud pies to illuminate the gigantic stream systems1 flood plains1 sea bottoms1 folded mountains1 intrusions1 and lavas of the earth4 ,then try to measure in the field those processes with observatories4 ,so1 to me1 came the transition from collections to experiments4 ,the machinery of nature1 whether with sand heaps or sand grains or coral pebbles1 is the same4 ,it is impelled by currents flowing over loose materials which make eddies in the lee of lumps4 ,the eddies are either billows or cyclones4 ,at the middle they are billows2 at the ends they are cyclones4 ,the billow eddies obstruct the heaping4 ,the cyclone eddies lengthen the heaps right and left of the current direction4 ,george ,darwin studied the eddies by means of a drop of thick ink in a glass tank on top of a ripple ridgelet4 ,the ink migrated to form underwater billows and cyclones1 or vortexes4 ,he used a dropper to place the ink globule1 and then watched the vortexes form as he oscillated the tank4 ,low parts travel fastest1 namely the points4 ,high parts build on the upstream side1 and travel slowest1 and the stuff tumbles over the crest line and is corniced by the eddy4 ,snow does it1 pebbles under sea do it1 and marine life adapts itself to it1 wherever the food supply is best4 ,in the study of ripplemarks1 ,harry ,gummer1 a graduate in astronomy1 was my collaborator4 ,ripplemarks are made by back-and-forth eddies on the bottom1 while big waves oscillate the water4 ,we moved the bottom instead of making waves in the water4 ,a glass plate sprinkled with sand under water in a tank was oscillated back and forth horizontally4 ,it was clamped under a carriage which oscillated on wire tracks stretched across the tank4 ,a string pulled the carriage against an elastic on the other side4 ,a wooden wheel and crank1 set upright edgeways1 had holes and pegs to pull on the string1 and the crank turns were timed with a metronome4 ,the holes in the flat wheel were a centimeter apart1 so that a revolution of the wheel pulled the string for every two centimeters of travel of the carriage4 ,thus the sand-covered plate was jerked back and forth under water two centimeters1 four centimeters1 six centimeters1 and so forth2 once a second1 or two seconds1 or three seconds1 and so forth1 by beats of the metronome4 ,the result was beautiful ripplemarks on a glass which could be lifted out of the water1 dried1 and placed over blueprint paper to preserve the record4 ,the sizes of ridge to ridge ripples were from a fraction of an inch to two or more inches4 ,the little ones diminished to zero when the jerking was small1 the big ones washed out when the jerking was too big4 ,the blueprints showed that both length and speed of strokes 7amplitude and acceleration of motion7 made the ripples increase in size1 and somewhere between the largest and smallest sand ripples was the optimum perfection of ripple form4 ,the blueprints look like mackerel skies4 ,and mackerel-sky clouds are billows of condensation between an upper cold stream of air and a lower moist one4 ,in between are the same back-and-forth billows of vortex as in our sand4 ,at a geological conference at ,harvard ,i showed blueprints made directly from glass plates covered with artificial ripplemarks4 ,at the same time ,i exhibited rock slabs of fossil ripplemarks and photographs of others shaped like horseshoes4 ,these were variants of the rippledrift process seen on sandy beds of running streams4 ,i also showed photographs of swash marks running along the upper steep slopes of beaches4 ,and of the wind-formed rippledrift of dry sand dunes4 ,from the deserts of ,peru come photographs of medaos1 or crescent dunes1 hills of sand tapering to curved points at both ends4 ,the points are downwind1 the high horseshoe toe of the hill is upwind1 and like a coral atoll the edifice is current-formed4 ,ripplemarks can form in hundreds of fathoms of ocean water if the storm waves on the surface of the sea are big enough4 ,a particle of water on the crest of a wave is lifted up and down in a long vertical ellipse4 ,a particle deep down under the wave is lifted fore and aft in a long horizontal ellipse4 ,under a three-hundred-foot length of wave in the ,english ,channel in deep water the bottom particles of water are shoving sand back and forth1 and making packed ripplemarks4 ,a big sand grain becomes a lump for small sand grains to bump against4 ,they make a heap which piles up and lengthens out4 ,the heaps merge and we get a tightly packed and ridged sandy bottom4 ,each ridge has an eddy first on one side1 then on the other1 as the water particles reverse in direction4 ,oscillation builds first flocculence1 then alignment1 then even spacing4 ,the opposite sides of a ridge have equal slopes4 ,rippledrift is made by a current in one direction4 ,it is usually not so regular or in such straight ridges as ripplemarks4 ,if a stream of water is jetted over sand round and round in a ringshaped tank1 ridges will migrate along the bottom1 but they are smeary4 ,the regular ripples in dry sand on dunes have flatter slopes upwind1 steep scarps downwind4 ,they are regular1 probably because wind blowing is intermittent and back currents occur4 ,so they become more like ripplemarks4 ,on the bottoms of water streams1 the horseshoe rippledrift requires a nice adjustment of lumps and side points migrating downstream4 ,all rippling requires a sand of mixed sizes of grains4 ,if they were all alike they would not ripple1 for the larger grains have to obstruct the smaller ones in order to produce the ripple pattern4 ,rippledrifting as a whole is a building mechanism4 ,mixed with wave currents which move beaches along1 including beach pebbles1 it can be compounded into building oceanic islands4 ,the crescent dunes of the desert are dependent on the prevailing winds being loaded with a sand supply at a windward erosion source4 ,oceanic currents depend on the winds1 like the trades in the tropics1 and an obstructing bank or shoal adds surf action to the streaming4 ,if corallines and ,tridacna clams and crabs add organic cements1 a horseshoe hill is built on the sea bottom4 ,big eddies will do the same kind of work as little eddies4 ,this phenomenon extends all the way from the galaxies of stars with their beautiful spirals1 to the spiral eddies in molten lava rushing down a pit crater1 or to the streaming of protoplasm in a plant4 ,de ,candolle1 the great botanist1 studied rippledrift in order to try to solve the most abstruse problem in all biology1 the unsolved mystery of cell division4 ,at some critical point a budding cell decides to form a partition and divide in two4 ,why or how8 ,de ,candolle thought that the protoplasm granules circulating around the cell walls might start regular lumps on those walls1 and so build rippledrifts and make eddies4 ,thus a current and an eddy and mathematics might start many of the doubles1 triples1 hexagons1 and stars of the world of shells and living tissues4 ,and the cells could pile up in symmetry in the submicroscopic world4 ,the erosion of the earth's surface reveals symmetries4 ,river maps look like trees with branches and with rivulets as twigs4 ,other symmetry is in the horizontal plane of the ocean1 where headland furnishes pebbles and the sand sweeps into pure curves of beach and bar and cusp4 ,so a delta builds into a lake of leaf shape and annual layers are added as the flood seasons come4 ,some of the fingerlike drainage of erosion cuts into plowed lands during a rainy spell4 ,this suggests what might be done with a spray1 a mud bank1 and a tank1 to see how the finger valleys form4 ,this erosion of the runoff of water was imitated in the ,harvard laboratory4 ,a beautiful river pattern on a slope1 like the trickle of raindrops on a windshield1 was made by tipping up a rectangular glass plate covered with very liquid clay4 ,a portion clung to the glass1 and exquisite fernlike streams formed on the upper half of the plate1 with a bank of distributaries of ,v-shape on the lower slope4 ,this glass plate was used for a surface of stamp mill slimes1 of thicker beds1 and was eroded with an atomizer and water by means of a barbershop air compressor4 ,the slimes are very fine pounded sands with angular fragments4 ,to get a stream pattern1 this is necessary1 so as to have fine grit to cut down the rivulets between the coarse grit remnants4 ,this resembles the requirements for ripples4 ,the spray was kept going for hours4 ,meanwhile the river pattern at the steep sides of the sloping plate ate into the bank of sediment1 robbing the streams of the main slope1 because the side streams were oblique cascades4 ,they dug deep1 took off the water1 and left the main slope streams without their headwater drainage4 ,the pattern of the main slope became the headwater branches of the side streams1 the streams which in plan drained over the edge of the uplifted plate right and left4 ,this was somewhat like stream robbery4 ,for example1 the ,lewis ,river at the south end of ,yellowstone ,park once drained ,yellowstone ,lake1 including the ,lamar ,river1 which is now the headwaters of ,yellowstone ,river4 ,the ,yellowstone plateau formerly drained south into the ,snake ,river and the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the ,yellowstone ,river headwaters suddenly tapped the system1 thanks to geyser erosion and acid corrosion1 and the ,yellowstone ,canyon cut down rapidly1 reversing to the north the outlet of ,yellowstone ,lake4 ,thereafter the lake flowed into the ,mississippi and the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,at some critical time about the glacial period the continental divide made a leap of thirty miles from the present head of the ,canyon to the neighborhood of ,lewis ,lake1 or from one end of ,yellowstone ,lake to the other4 ,this is stream robbery4 ,spray and runoff and rainfall and wash did not alone cut down the ,yellowstone ,canyon4 ,the essentials were the rotting of rock and the pull of gravitation on the fragments4 ,the ,yellowstone rotted away on the north side1 but it was hard granite and mountain-built quartzites on the south1 toward the ,tetons4 ,hot spring rotting1 geyser erosion1 acid waters1 and sulfur decomposed the north country4 ,the underground water head followed the easiest channels1 and the canyon was the result4 ,the canyon line encircles ,mount ,washburn1 the old volcano1 and conceivably is over an old crack concentric to the dome4 ,water is a transporter1 and cracking opens ways to the rotting agents4 ,only in rivulets and floods does water actually corrade1 or grind1 the bottoms of streams4 ,in our spray and fern patterns there is analogy to rainfall springs on flat strata1 but nine-tenths of the elements of erosion are left out3 jointing1 weathering1 ice1 faulting1 gravitation1 rotting down1 quaking1 solution1 sliding1 and last1 spring water4 ,erosion by sliding continues by wind action in desert mountains1 and on volcanic cones under bombardment1 and by rocks snapping under chill and sunshine on the moon4 ,creep of loose stuff is the greatest eroder on earth4 ,rainfall cloudbursts certainly help1 especially where soil is not held together by a mat of roots4 ,the process of erosion is supposedly slow1 as all geological processes are slow1 if we neglect the possibility of such submarine landslips or supramarine upheavals as occurred at ,yakutat in #ahii4 ,but even ,new ,england has floods1 hurricanes1 landslides1 forest fires1 and cloudbursts which are exclamation points on an otherwise sleepy history4 ,and in the past it has had ice sheets1 and subsidences beneath the sea4 ,in other words1 the making of valleys and stream patterns for the map is accented occasionally1 and the occasions may come in climatal waves unknown to us4 ,the stream patterns in the ,bad ,lands1 ,tennessee1 ,pennsylvania1 the ,grand ,canyon1 and ,new ,england make very different maps4 ,the rotting of the rock1 limestone caverns1 rainfall1 faults1 and sloping underground strata bearing spring water all influence these maps4 ,what is erosion and what index is written on the land to say the ,grand ,canyon and tributaries are being carved downward faster than the ,mystic ,river in ,boston8 ,ralph ,stone tackled the ,mystic ,river1 and marked ledges and set stakes opposite the flood plain meanders4 ,the idea was that ledges split by winter freezes1 and that the meanders of a stream build on one side and cut on the other4 ,maps were made repeatedly1 and the ledge cracks were measured in millimeters4 ,some movement was found1 but a college year was not enough time4 ,if we could combine as a motion picture1 photographs from the air taken once a year for many years1 doubtless the film would show that the stream meander pattern is migrating toward the sea like a wiggling snake4 ,stone next made a model three inches thick in a tank of water1 by sedimenting sixty-one very thin layers of marble dust1 coal dust1 clay1 red lead1 and sand4 ,he tipped it up as an island and sprayed it in periods which lasted one to ninety-two hours1 up to a total of #gai hours4 ,a forking stream and its delta were formed in the lagoon of the tank4 ,the stream cut a canyon with waterfalls1 treelike branches1 esplanades1 and a flood plain4 ,there were three principal hard white multiple strata layers in the model1 separated by sand4 ,the white layers made waterfalls and were eaten back to form the canyons4 ,when the cross section of the delta was sliced with a knife1 it showed three white layers foreset at thirty degrees under the tank pool and separated by more sandy strata4 ,the bottommost of these was the sediment of the top thick marble dust layer of the model as first eroded by the spray1 and the top frontal layer of the leaf-shaped delta was the product of the erosion of the canyon bottom on the lowest of the white layers4 ,this must happen in nature where one formation in reverse order is derived by river erosion undermining a stratified older pile of sediments4 ,we called this the ,grand ,canyon model1 and it showed many features similar to those of ,south ,dakota ,bad ,lands and the ,colorado ,river drainage4 ,it was strictly rainfall erosion and stratification soakage and seepage4 ,the model surface sloped ten degrees1 the high divide at the top had a backslope of forty-five degrees1 and everything was sprayed for two months with special hose nozzles1 making during part of each day a mistlike rainfall4 ,the steep backslope did not trench itself at all despite its steepness4 ,this slope1 on the contrary1 absorbed moisture and carried the rainfall underground down the dip of the strata to add spring water to the main streams4 ,the backslope was a 8steep escarpment10 supposed in physical geography to migrate by trenching backward1 but the rills never gained volume enough to cut into it4 ,all the water volume acquired its grit for cutting from the large surfaces1 which were gradually tilted in the direction of the rivers4 ,when the complete series of experiments on erosion and sediment was published1 it showed that the treelike branching of rivers is dependent on underground water surfaces2 that meanders on a flood plain are partly a bubbling-up process of flood-plain soakage2 that when side tributaries form by undermining1 the upstream branches cut off underground water from the downstream branches2 and that when a country is tilted in one direction1 there is a tendency to parallel streams1 separated by intervals controlled by underground water areas reached by the undermining tracery of headwater springs4 ,this arborescence in a spray model is a regular and delicate adjustment1 where a bunch of tributaries is not mere catchment of rainfall1 but is the product of sheet flood in belts of underground water related to the tilt of the country4 ,arborescence of river drainage on a surface of flat strata1 like the coastal plain of the southeastern ,united ,states1 is a rhythmical pattern of exquisite design capable of reproduction and study in the laboratory4 ,it is a mathematical forking and headward development dependent on volume of water1 undermining impermeable strata along permeable ones4 ,and after the 8tree0 map is formed1 the bulb of branches and twigs and underground leaves of spring water holds all the downslope country in its 8shadow10 so that no new rivers can form there4 ,this is what makes our great maps of river systems4 ,it is not haphazard4 ,it is a vast ocean of underground water1 with mountains of water and valleys of water4 ,a great lake marks an underground soakage water level4 ,a riverbed marks an underground seepage topography4 ,the sea of water inside a continent is just as much a map of hills and dales of water as the land is a map of the hills and valleys of geography4 ,the water is dynamic1 it is flowing4 ,the land surface is dynamic and rain fed2 it is creeping soils4 ,together1 groundwater and rivers are melting down the landscape as a living thing4 ,man dams the water and uses the power of the erosion melting down the land4 ,when we went to ,haystack ,basin north of the ,yellowstone ,park1 we found that all of the mountains surrounding it were audibly crumbling4 ,ultimately1 the continent is all one thing3 a falling body of rotten rock1 ice1 water1 sand1 boulders1 and soils1 self carved into valleys and mountains1 always tumbling4 ,and down below are the fault blocks1 prisms of earth shell over the white hot core4 ,and that also is eternally in motion1 irrupting1 earthquaking1 lifting1 falling1 scraping1 heating1 cooling in waves through the ages4 ,man is very tiny1 but if he listens he can hear the earth's heartbeats4 ,at hot springs the water mantle meets the hot earth shell4 ,so the geyser basins of ,yellowstone1 ,california1 ,new ,zealand1 and ,iceland are a hot part of the great erosion system of groundwater4 ,this brings us to the next group of experiments1 the making of artificial geysers4 ,geysers as eroders show that the under earth is hot and is invaded by rainwater4 ,in exceptional volcanic places the water is boiling hot4 ,the ,firehole ,river of the ,yellowstone is carving down basins of solution faster than the regular geysers are building up siliceous sinter4 ,here is boiling-spring erosion by solution4 ,it may be called the extreme thermal aspect of ordinary spring-water erosion4 ,how does spring water erode8 ,by bubbling up under the beds of rivers4 ,the bubbling out of springs starts rivers1 and flood rainfall starts soil gullies2 land sculpture is the result4 ,we introduce geyser experiments here because boiling springs make drama out of ordinary springs1 just as active volcanoes make drama out of buried volcanoes4 ,ordinary springs and buried lavas intruding invisibly are much more important and extensive than geysers and volcanoes4 ,most people never think of a spring as one of millions bubbling up the beds of brooks and rivers and sea bottoms4 ,most people never think of volcanoes erupting--properly speaking1 irrupting or inrupting--under ,kansas or ,brazil4 ,nobody denies those places are hot underground1 but it all seems remote4 ,yet every spring is thermal if there is heat escaping through the rocks around it4 ,geyser basins lower the country around them and leave hills in relief4 ,the proportions of basins and hills depend upon the runoff of rotting and dissolving rock4 ,the shape of a hill standing high1 what ,davis called a monadnock in ,new ,england1 depends on its whole history1 not on its hardness4 ,ascutney ,mountain stands high as a lump because surrounding slates have rotted down4 ,mount ,monadnock may stand high because the springs under the river pattern of cracks neglected it in the rotting and crunching of a continent4 ,dynamic weight eternally falling makes low places4 ,hardness against weathering makes a mountain high only as a relic or residual4 ,it is a node in the gigantic process of gravitation rotting and the spring squirting of groundwater4 ,the water heats1 rises1 dissolves1 siphons1 springs up1 and transports dirt4 ,underneath is a definitely heated earth crust4 ,accordance of summit levels of mountains and hills as one looks across country does not have to represent an upraised plane surface4 ,there is more undermining where the spring squirting is most voluminous4 ,when spring squirting is equal1 the opposed slopes of a valley adjust themselves4 ,the tree line1 the snow line1 the rain line1 and the wind line are definite levels of erosion4 ,under it all the rotting rock is falling toward the earth's center1 slowly1 creakingly4 ,the everlasting hills are not everlasting1 they are everfalling2 rocks1 boulders1 slopes1 waters1 gravels1 sands1 and muds4 ,and adjustment to the atmosphere and groundwater surface is irresistible4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,experimental ,geology ,laboratory1 ,harvard ,university1 #aijj ,illustration3 #b4 ,fountain at edge of lava lake1 ,may #ag1 #aiag ,the notion of erosion pulling down hills to a flat plane near sea level is fascinating to geometry-minded people1 but not to the mechanically minded4 ,a flat plane near sea level in the ,mississippi delta is where the river has swung right and left against valley walls1 over its own flood plain4 ,a flat plain1 secured by ice sheets or planed off by encroaching wave action as land sinks is mechanically probable4 ,in these circumstances we look for river or ice or wave-beach deposits4 ,but an 8almost plane0 occasioned by the multiple action called erosion down to base level is to me the delightful dream of map students4 ,if a landscape has been planed off1 a machine router or planer did it4 ,the great rivers of ,china have had a long time to bang back and forth against their confining boxes of rock and on top of their own mud4 ,to return to geyser-spring experiments1 ,i built a simple quart flask surmounted by a four-foot glass tube4 ,at the top the tube rose through a cork in the bottom of a two-foot pan4 ,in the side of the cork of the flask was a second tube with a hose leading up to a reservoir bottle of water4 ,the reservoir bottle could be raised or lowered4 ,if the water in it was level with the pan1 there was hydrostatic equilibrium3 the pan a pool1 the bottle a source1 the flask and tube full4 ,when we applied heat to the bottom of the flask1 the water boiled1 the pan overflowed1 and some cold water from the bottle chilled the flask4 ,the pan had become a boiling spring4 ,next we lowered the reservoir bottle4 ,the reduced head of water permitted no overflow at the pan1 and steam bubbles accumulated in the four-foot upright tube4 ,the boiling point was controlled by four feet of water pressure4 ,if the bubble lift reduced this to three feet1 there was a lower boiling point1 the pressure was reduced by overflow above1 and the whole flaskful boiled4 ,the geyser tube became a regular geyser at intervals of a minute and a half1 with eruptions enduring twenty seconds4 ,this was a miniature of ,old ,faithful in the ,yellowstone4 ,old ,faithful is bigger1 its intervals average sixty-five minutes1 and they range from thirty-one to eighty-one minutes4 ,it jets up #aej feet for a period of four minutes4 ,it throws out #c1jjj barrels of water at each eruption4 ,our little machine threw up about a pint to a height of four feet4 ,we hear much about soaping geysers as an artificial stimulus4 ,the apparatus in our laboratory showed the effect of soap right away4 ,when some soap was put in the pan1 the intervals of a minute and a half shortened to one minute4 ,soapsuds accumulated in the tube and depressed the water to the neck of the flask4 ,the multiple bubbles1 film against film1 made the water system viscous4 ,the myriads of tiny steam bubbles formed so fast that they shortened the lifting time for the column4 ,if the height of the reservoir bottle was so adjusted that the geyser didn't quite know whether it was a geyser or a boiling spring1 the soap made the decision1 and the thing went off with a bang4 ,this simple group of experiments makes springs very real4 ,the ,yellowstone explosive springs differ from other springs in having superheated steam from live lavas to heat them4 ,the rock is cracked and the water is doing a job of solution and deposition4 ,it deposits stout tough silica around some openings and builds them up against the head of groundwater1 and they become geysers4 ,it deposits lime dissolved off underlying limestone at ,mammoth1 and this makes sculptured terraces but not explosive springs because the temperatures are not so hot4 ,in both lime and silica regions1 blue-green algae1 which love hot water1 decoratively sculpture the pools4 ,like a magician ,i exhibited the artificial geysers before ,new ,york and ,boston science academies1 and gave the summaries of the results of our geyser experiments1 as follows3 7#a7 ,boiling springs are like other springs1 controlled by the head or pressure of underground water in the hills4 7#b7 ,upstreaming of heated water and building up of silica 7convection is the scientific jargon7 may push the vent of a boiling spring even higher than its source 7reversed head74 7#c7 ,in this delicate condition1 even rainfall or sinter building up or outburst at a lower level or clogging of a pipe may change spring to geyser or geyser to spring4 ,there are many more boiling springs than there are geysers1 and many more hot springs than there are boiling springs1 and the word cold means nothing at all4 ,there may be boiling springs under ,new ,york ,city if you go deep enough4 ,that is why the riot of geyser apparatus is worth thinking about4 7#d7 ,irregular geysers overflow continually1 regular geysers discharge their waters only during eruptions4 ,both are methods of feeding rivers1 just like any other springs4 ,but there is a lot of volcanic heat underground4 ,this brings up the question of how much a volcanic eruption is like a geyser4 ,geologists apply a glib word1 phreatic1 to ,japan's ,bandai ,volcano1 which blew steam and rocks out of the side of a mountain and dammed a river4 ,hawaiian volcanoes squirt liquid basalt up a crack with flames and red fume and sulfur gas1 and almost no steam at all4 ,the answer seems to be that the ,palisades of the ,hudson may once have been ,hawaiian lava eruptions and1 further1 that lava is still erupting there if you go down deep enough4 ,new ,york doesn't know about it1 but it sensed it in #ahhf1 when it felt the ,charleston earthquake4 ,all that ,catskill water supply of the great city is in cracks above the level of the deep lava1 and extends out under ,long ,island ,sound4 ,if the ,hudson fault fissure wiggled a little more than usual1 and if the deep lava lowered and pulled down some of the ,atlantic water1 an eruption like ,bandai is not impossible in the ,watchung ,ridge of ,new ,jersey4 ,this is not likely2 but the globe has been through revolutions and cataclysms1 and the ,watchung explosions might start a new geyser basin4 ,something like that happened in northwest ,wyoming in the ,pliocene age1 during #aa million years1 next preceding the ice ages that began #b million years ago4 ,and the ,yellowstone was the result4 ,we shall see more volcano geysers4 ,next1 the making of deltas became a hobby in our laboratory1 in connection with the old leaf deltas scattered on the ,new ,england landscape1 partly covered with trees within the grounds of the country villas about ,boston4 ,delta deposits extend upstream1 within the mould of the cavern within ice of the glacial period4 ,thus the map shows a snake-like ridge of gravel1 ending in a maple-leaf flat1 with lobate frontal slopes4 ,these slopes were much steeper where the dump of the stream on the delta fell over the beach line at the lagoon or lake level in which the delta was built4 ,this was like the delta shown in ,stone's erosion model4 ,stone prospected the idea of torrential deltas in a tank1 while ,e4 ,w4 ,dorsey and ,i started a tank imitation of the glacial sand delta4 ,in the glacier1 the ice tunnel had been supplied with water by melting through the ice crevasses1 just like tunnels seen in ,switzerland1 floored with sand ground up by the ice4 ,there was thus a torrent pouring along inside an arched tunnel1 the mouth of which emerged on a delta in a pool1 with water surface either at the tunnel level or above it against the rounded front of the ice mass4 ,in imitation of a rounded bank of ice with a pool of water in front and with a subglacial meandering cave fed with sands and a torrent1 an apparatus was built and supplied by a hose4 ,a sheet of lead was bent in the form of the glacier surface1 with an arched opening1 and set in our tank4 ,this fitted over a tunnel of sheet iron1 soldered so as to meander in plan1 and fitted at its upper end with pipe and hose connection4 ,a sheet-iron funnel rose from the upper end of this artificial cavern1 wherewith to supply different colored sands to the model subglacial river1 represented by the hose jet and iron tunnel4 ,the iron tunnel ended flush with the leaden arch4 ,the object of the experiments was1 first1 to set the leaden glacier in a pool of water in the laboratory tank4 ,next1 to jet water through the tunnel1 supply sediment in successive colors through the funnel1 and let that accumulate on the bottom of the tunnel and in a delta in front of the artificial leaden glacier4 ,the deltas and their sliced cross sections in different experiments represented the noted difference of kinds of sand supply or difference in water level of the pool4 ,in one case the water level was below the ceiling of the tunnel where it emerged from the arch entrance4 ,in another1 it was above the cavern mouth1 so that water of the cavern stream1 debouching from the submerged cavern mouth in the lagoon1 spurted up with its mud and made a half crater against the glacier front4 ,these experiments illuminate the gravel-quarry sections of ,massachusetts4 ,in those cuts in eskers 7serpent ridges7 and sand plains 7glacial delta fans7 were seen topset beds1 or flood wash1 or foreset beds at forty-five degrees which are the sublagoon frontal wash1 and occasionally backset beds where cavern wash gushed upward4 ,so our cross sections1 cut with a knife in the delta1 and the winding cake extending upstream in the cavern showed topset1 foreset1 and backset strata after draining the tank and lifting out the apparatus4 ,from the embryo delta the flood-plain beds overlap the earlier frontal1 or foreset1 beds4 ,the frontal beds are always under the lagoon4 ,the flood-plain beds 7topset7 were made by a meandering river course under the air4 ,always this plain is built at beach level as a wash fan shaped like a leaf1 with the cavern stream bottom as the stem of the leaf4 ,new ,england has been covered with mountainous ice1 miles high4 ,subglacial streams and subglacial clear ice caverns are abundantly found at the lower ends of all glaciers in the world4 ,they merely represent the melting snow and ice in pulses of sunshine1 snow at the source1 ice in the course1 crevasses and gravitation making water seep through4 ,this water shapes a channel for itself and erodes a sewer system of scouring along the bottom of the subglacial valley4 ,this grinds and melts the bottom ice into arched caverns2 and the sediment builds up on the stream bottoms1 eventually carving the roofs of the caverns into high arches or arcades4 ,the subglacial caverns are self constructed drainage pipes4 ,the glacial stream is really a river flood cutting its valley4 ,the ice river grinds and scrapes1 and the water under the ice pipes and drains the melting4 ,the ice carries chisels of broken rock4 ,the enormous weight1 in gliding plane layers of ice1 flows in accordance with the crystal laws of snowflakes and ice crystals4 ,the moraines1 or debris fields1 at the sides and on top and underneath the eroding ice jumble yield mud and sand and boulders4 ,the torrent underneath removes the rubbish4 ,the delta in front follows laws of sedimentation4 ,if there is no lake in front1 the delta is a flat wash fan1 or valley flood plain4 ,all these things become clear to the student who makes a baby glacier out of tinware1 sand1 a tank1 a hose1 and a faucet4 ,i have spoken of cataclysms1 or what early geologists called catastrophe1 happening occasionally in the world of erosion and subterranean geysers4 ,such were the ,yakutat crash and the ,bandaisan explosion4 ,but each glacier-period field1 like an ice mountain over ,europe and ,america1 constituted a cataclysm lasting #ejj1jjj years1 and this happened four times even in the centuries of early man4 ,the ,mediterranean and the ,great ,lakes are offspring of such cataclysms4 ,but ,lyell carried the doctrine of uniformity to extremes2 he thought that what man sees is what always happens4 ,i do not believe ,lyell ever realized that earth or sun might conceivably explode in a month of our time4 ,again1 this is not likely4 ,the opposite of uniformitarianism is occasional catastrophic trigger4 ,the process of erosion pulls the trigger for sudden deformation4 ,slow deformation pulls a trigger for eruption4 ,eruption triggers internal intrusions4 ,the ,frank ,landslip2 the ,charleston1 ,san ,francisco1 and ,napier earthquakes2 the ,pele eruption2 and the ,yakutat upheaval all created terrific surprises for geologists4 ,the gigantic intrusions through millions of years from the core of the earth1 made of white hot star matter1 percolating to surface volcano belts up #a1hjj miles of permanent1 primitive cracks1 are mostly balanced by the crustal weight4 ,this is the adjusting globe4 ,but the intrusive mechanism1 under tides in the rock and in the oceans1 always in motion1 pulls the trigger for the big geologic revolutions4 ,the very deep broken earth blocks shift1 volcanism between them heats the surface1 floods the surface with gas foam1 and lifts areas of surface by heat swellings2 and on the surface1 what was a glacial period gives place to a volcanic period4 ,the last of these was the ,miocene ,tertiary1 with large-scale volcanic eruptions all over the world4 ,comparing ,boston with the ,black ,hills showed underground eruptions in the latter1 for which a warping uplift pulled the trigger4 ,these were the rock cisterns or lenses of porphyry injected among the strata4 ,the time of this was ,miocene or ,eocene ,tertiary1 probably later than most of the volcanoes of the ,yellowstone1 farther west4 ,boston1 on the other hand1 was making black basaltic dikes1 probably identical with the volcanoes of the ,berkshire ,hills and ,new ,haven1 of the age of the big reptiles1 #aej million years before the ,black ,hills injections4 ,the trigger which pulled off the ,boston eruptions was the ,appalachian warping4 ,that which fired off the ,black ,hills was the ,laramie revolution that pushed up the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the injection of lava lenses in the ,black ,hills was a form of deformation of strata which we experimented with in the laboratory4 ,the layers of sandstone1 limestone1 and old ocean muds covering over the arch of these hills were injected by dikes or fissure fillings from below4 ,how would injections behave8 ,with ,ernest ,howe as my associate1 ,i arranged a square tank for sedimenting sand1 plaster powder1 coal dust1 or marble dust in layers under water4 ,under it was an iron cylinder in which wax could be melted4 ,a screw piston pushed the molten wax up to inclined or upright slots in the middle of the tank box4 ,the water was drained off1 and the hot wax was injected up into the strata4 ,the tank sides were taken down1 and hardened lenses of wax were sliced vertically with a hot knife to show what had happened to the strata by the process of wax intrusion4 ,in some of the experiments #cjj pounds of shot were piled over a cloth layer on top of the strata to imitate the weight of natural sediments4 ,this was before injection of the hot wax1 and the result was a neat dome of deformed layers at the surface1 a domical hill over a lens of wax inside4 ,this hill was eroded with a spray of water to show what kind of radial valleys would form4 ,such radial streams were found in ,south ,dakota1 with infacing escarpments1 around some of the dome hills made by laccoliths4 ,from the beginning it appeared that a lens of injection would form1 that the strata would arch over a dome of wax4 ,the arched strata stretched on the crest and the breaks gaped upward1 while the side bends cracked gaping downward4 ,it was there that the wax could break its way upward and make a volcano4 ,some nice little experimental volcanoes of wax-built cones and craters formed on top of the model4 ,as with all folded strata arched downward under weight1 the cracks on the bend of a downward arch1 or syncline1 admit lava from below1 whereas the cracks on the upward arch1 or anticline1 are held tight1 closed by the weight of strata above4 ,thus an intrusive dome will not erupt through its crest1 but through its sides4 ,the results of all these tests showed that rigid beds carried the arching force and that soft beds were most invaded and pushed aside by the wax4 ,the steepness of curvature of arch varied with the load4 ,an inclined pipe formed an irregular lens thickest away from the incline4 ,in a hard bed ruptured on a downbend1 concentric fractures around a dome let the lava up to higher strata4 ,on the crest of a hard bed the fractures are like the spokes of a wheel1 but they do not make dikes2 they yawn open upward4 ,liquid wax tended to spread as a thin sheet in soft layers of strata1 stiffer wax tended to arch up in a steeper dome4 ,rapid injection made a higher and smaller dome than slow injection4 ,compared with the arching up the whole long mountain oval of the entire ,black ,hills dome1 with granite on the crest1 this intrusion of wax only imitates the small domes of lava intrusion or injection1 where the injection carries the energy or stress4 ,indeed1 in nature1 even the lava lenses are influenced by the buckling that is going on in the strata under stresses of crust warping4 ,for the warping crust of the earth is always pulling the trigger and straining the strata4 ,the lava rising from below seeks out the weak places and assists the buckling1 as well as following the most incoherent mud or shale beds4 ,when it comes to the big oval of the whole ,black ,hills uplift--swollen up like the ,rocky ,mountains during millions of years and within which the lava injections were only an item--we are dealing with a push from below or an expansion that swelled up the pre-,cambrian ancient rocks as well as the later granites4 ,such swellings were doubtless made again and again in ,massachusetts4 ,there1 also1 we find lavas and granites and ,red ,beds and glacial boulders1 older than the ,appalachian ,mountains1 as well as younger4 ,the younger ,triassic lavas are definitely erupted between fault blocks4 ,all that our experiments showed was what melted stuff will do in strata under weight1 when the force of melted stuff overcomes that pressure to find a place for itself1 although the weight may be more or less lifted by big arching that is taking place on a big scale4 ,the arching is bigger than the hydraulic or gas pressure squirting4 ,there is another possibility besides buckling4 ,this is faulting1 or movement of deep crust blocks the boundaries of which do not appear4 ,the deep crust is a movable mosaic above the core1 and this movement renews itself1 now here1 now there4 ,dutton shows that we may think of the ,rocky ,mountains this way all the way out to the ,pacific coast4 ,we may have the core fluids sucking down the blocks1 the volcanic fluids pushing up the local strata4 ,and the volcanic fluids in cracks are the degenerate gassy top remnants of the core fluids which man has never seen and which are #a1hjj miles down4 ,the boundaries of the crust blocks do not appear because the whole first shell of the globe is buried under lavas and intrusions and crystals and mud1 meaning by mud1 countless dumpings of lakes and rivers and seas through #c1jjj million years4 ,such is the kind of thinking started by making wax injections4 ,it will be seen from the experiments that whether we are imitating underground heat with a ,bunsen burner to start a geyser1 or overground cold with delta apparatus to simulate a glacier1 we are dealing with erosion of the earth's surface4 ,erosion started with the first attack on lava by the atmosphere or by sea water4 ,never was the pristine lava anything like the magma inside the globe2 it snapped and chilled and oxidized4 ,whether we call it basalt or obsidian1 it degenerated4 ,moreover1 it degenerated in the outer crust when it loosed its gases1 heated itself and the rock wall1 found groundwater and free air1 and started oxidation new to it4 ,thermal action is just as much concerned with erosion as is rainfall or snow4 ,therefore1 whether injecting wax and swelling strata or imitating geysers and ripplemarks1 we were experimenting with volcanoes1 for the crust of the earth is fundamentally volcanic4 ,for the purposes of this book these facts demand reiteration4 ,in what are called geosynclines1 or earth sags1 the great beds of strata are accumulated4 ,they are the dirt washed from highlands into midland seas4 ,they are strata of sandstone1 mudstone1 or limestone2 thin films in comparison with the fire-made earth crust4 ,it was the wrinkling of basin fills by expansion or end push that built ,himalaya and ,appalachia4 ,the mountains are etched out of foldings and overthrusts and faults by rotting and water transport4 ,pressing the strata endways to wrinkle them is called mountain building1 much better named strata wrinkling4 ,the thickest of them reached twelve miles vertically1 but what is that to the earth's crust of #a1hjj miles8 ,the crust lifts and lowers fault blocks4 ,the little strata basins expand with heat on their bottoms and get pulled and pushed by underground lava intrusions4 ,also they get squeezed by global contraction between crust blocks1 and shoved up and down by the agelong wobbles4 ,the biggest wobble was the downdrop of the great oceans over fault blocks when the crust first cracked and settled over the core4 ,those oceans have shifted and adjusted in waves of global action ever since4 ,the crust has kept the earth a sphere while lavas erupted and weighted down the blocks4 ,this block wobble extends into the innermost continents4 ,eruptions up the cracks migrated from the continental seas to the shores of the present oceans4 ,they changed composition as they did so1 because they changed from under-air eruptions to under-sea eruptions1 fifteen pounds pressure to #fjj atmospheres pressure4 ,from erosion eruptions with enormous heat1 to deep sea eruptions with enormous chilling and pressure4 ,and the latter are the volcanoes of the present day1 mostly concealed except for the islands and sea borders4 ,meantime1 the crust blocks continue to wobble up and down1 and quakes continue to creak under the rock tides of sun and moon pulls4 ,the creaks and wobbles are our big earthquakes1 tidal waves1 and eruptions4 ,such big accumulations of eruptions as the ,cordillera or the ,hawaiian ,ridge is a terrific weight in a few million years4 ,both heaps have been at it since ,miocene time1 or for about #ah million years1 banging down through the crust blocks on top of the core4 ,whether such balancing of heavy weights on top of the crust blocks is due to change of lava weights or sediment basins1 six to twelve miles of rock vertically1 the down squeeze and underflow is called by the ,greek word isostasy4 ,it means standing level and is a poor word because the earth's crust never stands still4 ,the blocks are eternally adjusting and creaking over a fluid core1 the globe is whirling1 the sun and moon are pulling1 the volcanoes are erupting1 and the solar system is shooting through space4 ,terra firma is never static4 ,and our little atmospheric lives on top of it never stand still4 ,we are hot1 and we ourselves do a great deal of eroding4 ,this oration is introduction to the next series of ,harvard experiments1 which dealt with squeezing and wrinkling strata in imitation of the folds and faults of the ,appalachian ,mountains4 ,bailey ,willis1 at the ,geological ,survey1 made a press of wax models of strata4 ,a heavy oak piston was advanced by a screw crank4 ,the models were waxes mixed with plaster for hard strata and waxes mixed with ,venice turpentine for soft strata4 ,they were cast to imitate actual successions of hard1 thick limestones2 less hard sandstones2 soft mudstones2 or slates4 ,the piston advanced at a measured rate against one end of the model1 the other end being a fixed box1 the strata lying horizontally4 ,the elongate ,appalachian basin had a continent 7the piston7 to the east2 a wide flat fill of limestones or sea bottom to the west 7the box72 and the deepest trough of pebbles1 sands1 and muds on the east1 toward the rivers of the eroding continent of that ancient time4 ,the heavy limestone tapered from the west into these thinner beds and made a stiff rib in their midst4 ,the final result of their wrinkling was linear folds with axes north and south parallel to the trough1 and close set at the east4 ,the folds overturned toward the west1 the overturns developing into overthrust fractures westward when the beds ruptured4 ,also1 the folds became bigger1 flatter1 and wider apart westward under the deeper sea1 the famous one being the ,cincinnati arch4 ,the evidence in the middle eastern states is that the trough bottom sank as the heavy shore sediments were dumped by rivers into the sea4 ,the west-central states received a wide flat of limestone4 ,uplift of the continent shallowed the ocean and pushed it1 narrower1 over to the great plains4 ,so there were left a deep trough of weak beds1 a massive limestone1 and an overlap of continental wash across the uplifted later continent of the present time4 ,the problems to be studied in ,willis' models were how folding would affect such a pile1 what transmitted the wrinkling force1 what started a single fold1 and how soft and hard strata behaved under horizontal pressure4 ,he found that hard1 thick layers of limestone transmitted the push farthest4 ,that soft beds piled up on each other near the piston4 ,that these beds showed beautiful overthrust faults inclined away from the piston4 ,and that the start of individual folds was favored by very small initial bends in a transmitting layer4 ,these downbends away from the continent would be made as the trough bottom sank through the ages4 ,the nature of this sinking in upright slices of the bottom rock is probably downfaulting4 ,each vertical slice would make a step-bend as it sank4 ,the bottom of ,willis' box did not admit of down motion by underflow1 nor did the piston pressure create an opposed horizontal force that might have come from the ocean area4 ,in restraining up motion over the folds that formed1 ,willis piled bags of shot on top of the model to represent downweighting4 ,the folding in the ,appalachians was down at the bottom of the heap where things were hot and compressed1 and heat could extend individual strata4 ,in our pressure chest we extended the ,willis conception4 ,we made two pistons at opposite ends of an oaken box1 with thick plate glass panes at one side1 so as to watch the folding4 ,the two pistons would distribute the end pressure better and admit the possibility that all the pressure did not come from the continent4 ,the bottom under the model was an inner box that could move down1 hung on heavy spring balances4 ,these could be screwed up to a pressure upward to compensate the load of shot4 ,thus the first fold could arch downward as well as upward4 ,this imitated a possible lowered trough bottom4 ,the piston rate of advance was controlled by metronome1 one man at each screw4 ,for examples1 models ,e1 ,f1 and ,g had four white and four black layers1 all alike in substance1 at fast1 medium1 and slow rates4 ,the quickest was shortened one inch in five minutes4 ,the slowest was one inch in an hour and three-quarters4 ,the quick-squeeze model flexed smoothly1 all folds seemed to flow1 and the model held together compactly4 ,the slow-squeeze model shortened the same amount1 cracked in many places1 was brittle1 and did not hold together compactly4 ,this appeared to prove that slow motion will fracture where quicker motion will hold strata intact1 under otherwise identical conditions of substance1 of folding and shortening1 and of vertical confinement4 ,we verified ,willis' conclusions that stiff and thick beds transmit the pressure farthest and that overthrust tends to form in soft beds1 which thicken near a piston4 ,in one model we got overthrusts in opposite directions on opposite sides of the model along a single-fold axis1 with a twist in between4 ,while an experiment was in progress1 the chest creaked occasionally1 the equivalent of an earthquake4 ,one model was cast to represent overlap of strata near shore1 like a coastal plain4 ,when squeezed1 it made a group of overthrusts away from the piston acting as shore rock4 ,in burial of strata there is a possibility whereby they wrinkle1 and wrinkle most in one direction1 which piston pressure does not imitate4 ,that is the heating by burial and expansion or lengthening of controlling layers4 ,in a long basin like the ,appalachians1 the wrinkling under expansion across the greatest length is easiest1 because the axis of stiffness is parallel to the long trough4 ,transitions off the coastal line from one sediment to the next--sand to mud1 mud to lime--will be weaknesses to start bends when expansion pressure takes place under burial along the layers separately heated4 ,these bends develop into wrinkles and the wrinkles1 into propagated folds1 with the axis parallel to the initial change of weaknesses4 ,expansion lengthwise on folds1 once begun1 may make long flat arches pitching in one direction4 ,this heating by burial distributes the folding better and farther than pushing abutments1 and makes initial bends4 ,all bottom strata heat and expand in all directions4 ,the direction of easiest yielding to a folding impulse is across the weak transition belts4 ,after that the motion is taken up by linear folds and fractures in one direction4 ,the models1 after continuous or intermittent squeezing1 were removed from the chest and sliced with a hot wire for sectioning and photographing4 ,in one1 brittle1 broken series of folds in a hard layer1 the model was taken apart on that layer and the surface photographed4 ,the crest of the folds showed jointing or regular cracks4 ,one set paralleled the fold axes as would be expected2 the other set crossed the slopes diagonally and in curves4 ,these last indicated the strains of a twisting nature on a single layer between a downfold and an upfold4 ,what makes the end thrust1 or piston push1 in nature8 ,according to the old idea1 it was contraction of the inner earth by loss of heat4 ,willis wrote that the basin sank1 isostasy or deep flow was at right angles to the length of the basin1 and general contraction took effect by reason of the deep flow4 ,the deep flow was toward the lighter continent1 from which the sands were originally lost4 ,the recent notion that radioactivity heat is in the outer shell denies contraction of the inner earth4 ,furthermore1 ,i do not believe in a shallow underlayer of lava fifty or less miles down and capable of flowing horizontally under shifting weight4 ,i do believe in a deep underlayer of fluid #a1hjj miles down1 under a block-faulted crust4 ,this fluid core adjusted itself to the ocean-bottom blocks originally1 making the upright slices moving-down controllers of the ,appalachian basin4 ,there is no proof that sediment weight did it4 ,it is more likely that igneous1 or fire-made1 lava1 as the thick outer armor plate of the globe erupted in acts of intrusion1 lubricated the vertical slices4 ,intrusions are under every sedimentary mountain range on earth4 ,it is more likely that an agelong up of ridge fault blocks and a down of the basin fault blocks decided where the central continental basin should be1 all of it well within the permanent side ridges of ,north ,america4 ,for this was a continental mediterranean sea1 and the warping of its highland of ,philadelphia and its basin of ,cincinnati was a mere episode in the #b1jjj million year history of ,atlantic and ,pacific borders of the continent4 ,the sinking of the intracontinental sea1 relative to the staying up of the highlands1 was a wave in the history of globe and core4 ,erosion and deposition were results1 not causes4 ,they were results of the volcanic history of the ever moving active mosaic of the globe4 ,the permanent ,north ,america remained high1 relative to ,atlantic and ,pacific deeps4 ,the folding of the sediments merges into intrusions of magma in the southern ,appalachians4 ,here arose the granite problem on a tremendous scale1 which is repeated in our ,ascutney ,mountain in ,vermont4 ,what it was doing under the bottom of those vast fields of limestone from ,ohio to ,illinois we have no idea4 ,no more do we know what is doing under the vast fields of lime and red ooze at the present bottoms of the deep oceans4 ,but we do know that fire-made rock squirts up under all sea-laid sediments which anyone has ever studied on islands or continents4 ,this fire-made rock1 solidified1 has thickness and a bottom4 ,we do not know its thickness nor its bottom4 ,we do know that under it are big cracks #b1jjj miles long rupturing it into volcano systems4 ,the conclusion is that the globe is mantled by a layer of igneous matter which has spouted up cracks since more than #c1jjj million years ago4 ,how did this matter migrate by new intrusions1 to pull1 push1 heat1 and wrinkle through #ejj million years the dirt accumulated in shallow ,appalachian trenches from ,alabama to ,indiana8 ,we do not know4 ,the last of the ,harvard experiments that ,i took part in concerned melting up powders of basaltic minerals and rocks1 letting them cool down gradually1 and then sectioning them for the polarizing microscope to see how they resembled lavas4 ,v4 ,f4 ,marsters of the ,university of ,indiana helped me4 ,based on the ,european work of ,doelter1 ,fouqu1 ,michel-,lvy1 and others1 we used a ,french furnace with gas flame blast and small crucibles of diatomaceous earth mixed with clay4 ,the specimen powders of crushed natural basalts1 or mixtures of pyroxene1 feldspar and olivine1 were kept glowing for forty to #aej hours1 and cooled either rapidly or slowly4 ,the belief in those days was that slow cooling was the main control of coarse crystallization4 ,quick or slow cooling certainly does produce these effects in lava flows4 ,from quick cooling1 we generally got radial bunches of crystals or spherulites1 in a glassy groundmass4 ,from slow cooling1 we got diabase structure or coarser crystallization1 with some openwork hollow crystals4 ,and there were little grains of magnetite and spinel4 ,much time was wasted on furnace safety and methods1 and on fire-punctured crucibles of platinum1 carbon1 and graphite4 ,nothing had been learned in #aijj about stirring1 nor about gas as an ingredient in basalt4 ,it was not until years later1 at the ,hawaiian ,volcano ,observatory1 that ,emerson proved that aa lava was made by stirring a crucible4 ,aa is crystalline4 ,emerson got glassy lava by quiet melting4 ,no one has yet subjected lava to hydrogen blasts like those of a ,bessemer furnace1 nor to other gases4 ,there is a big field here for imitating ,mauna ,loa and ,etna fountains1 and for critical petrography of artificial basalts4 ,modern work has been concerned with physical chemistry of limited mineral systems4 ,so far as ,i know1 no one has mathematically synthesized natural rocks as an object in natural history since the work of ,carl ,barus for the ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey in the nineties4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,expedition ,decade 8,the voice of thy thunder was in the whirlwind40 ,whereas small scale experiments in the laboratory helped me to think about the details of nature's experiments1 there remained the need to measure nature itself4 ,the deep lavas of ,south ,dakota1 squeezing among shale beds1 posed many questions4 ,what penetrating of strata goes on under ,vesuvius8 ,does lava inrush tilt or lift the ground8 ,does this measure up to eruptions in or from craters8 ,cannot experiments with craters themselves be made by dwelling there8 ,certainly the progress of lavas can be measured as they flow forth4 ,the decade following my mud-pie experiments saw me assistant professor at ,harvard and head professor of the geological department at ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology4 ,these appointments were under ,presidents ,eliot1 ,pritchett1 and ,maclaurin4 ,from #aija to #aiaj ,i continued to serve the ,geological ,survey1 writing up back reports4 ,then nature took a hand4 ,along came earthquakes and eruptions in ,guatemala1 a terrific disaster in the ,west ,indies1 expeditions to the ,caribbees1 ,italy1 the ,aleutian ,islands1 ,japan1 ,hawaii1 and ,central ,america1 another in north ,japan1 and disastrous earthquakes at ,san ,francisco1 ,valparaiso1 ,messina1 and ,costa ,rica4 ,the destruction of ,st4 ,pierre in ,martinique set the stage for field work on volcanoes and earthquakes1 work which ,i was to continue for a half century4 ,when the evening papers of ,may #h1 #aijb1 announced the sudden annihilation of #bf1jjj people that morning at #h o'clock at ,st4 ,pierre1 ,martinique1 ,i went immediately to ,president ,eliot4 ,knowing that ,i had been urging field study of volcanoes1 he agreed that ,i ought to go to ,st4 ,pierre and wired ,secretary of the ,navy1 ,william ,h4 ,moody1 to arrange for transportation4 ,immediate financial support came to me from ,alexander ,agassiz1 the ,national ,geographic ,society1 and numerous friends2 and my ,harvard colleagues agreed to give my lectures4 ,i reported to the training ship ,dixie in ,brooklyn1 where ,i found ,captain ,robert ,berry1 a stalwart ,virginian1 in command of a cadet crew4 ,on board were ,i4 ,c4 ,russell of ,michigan1 author of 8,volcanoes of ,north ,america02 ,e4 ,o4 ,hovey of the ,american ,museum2 ,curtis1 the maker of topographic models2 ,r4 ,t4 ,hill of the ,geological ,survey1 and expert on ,caribbean lands2 and numerous other scientists1 and newspaper correspondents4 ,the voyage to the ,west ,indies was unique4 ,on the navy cruiser were stores of food1 tents1 clothing1 and medical supplies for the refugees and an oddly assorted passenger list2 all assembled because of warfare against mankind by two utterly unknown volcanoes1 ,soufrire on the ,british island of ,st4 ,vincent1 and ,pele at the north end of the ,french colony of ,martinique4 ,geologists gave lectures to the crew on deck2 and in turn1 we learned about naval discipline and efficiency4 ,when we arrived at ,fort de ,france1 thirteen days after the terrific disaster1 we were transported at once to ,st4 ,pierre on the naval tug ,potomac4 ,we landed and walked through the ruined sugar city1 the streets puddled with molasses and rum4 ,thousands of dead were buried underfoot amid the rubble1 for the day before our visit1 there had been a second blast from ,pele1 the #d1jjj foot volcano smoking four miles away4 ,this had thrown down what roofs remained after the first explosion4 ,we arrived opposite ,st4 ,pierre ,may #ba1 #aijb1 and saw a smoking1 dusty line of ruins along the shore4 ,before we landed we were warned that if the tug's whistle should blow we were to make for the boats4 ,the dusty hill lay on our left like a gray snow landscape1 not at all like a cone4 ,the crater was a gorge in an ordinary mountain under clouds4 ,we wandered through the dreary ruin and found masonry completely destroyed and no visible large volcanic fragments4 ,the streets were full of rubble1 and everything was coated with green-gray powder4 ,roofs were gone1 an occasional timber was burning1 and bodies were still numerous in the shells of houses4 ,we saw a baby in an iron cradle1 a man face down in a tank1 and a big man on his back in a deep baker's oven4 ,his flesh was shriveled and drawn away from his joints by heat4 ,elsewhere eight or ten bodies were crowded at the foot of a cliff4 ,illustration3 #c4 ,explosion cloud rising from ,halemaumau during explosive eruption1 ,may #ac1 #aibd ,illustration3 #d4 ,crag in lava lake1 ,january #bc1 #aiah ,the end of the town toward the volcano1 all backed by cliffs1 was deeply buried under gravel1 but the southern end had a covering of only a foot or two of sand4 ,the second explosion was greater than the first one1 demolishing third storeys and the second belfry of the cathedral4 ,the beautiful bells 8whose soft liquid notes used to ring across the bay with touching cadence at the ,angelus hour0 lay tumbled in rubbish1 splinters1 and steaming vapors2 their ancient embossed inscriptions half buried in dust4 ,the bodies were mostly shriveled to a crisp from the second eruption1 for earlier the bodies had not been much altered4 ,the odor was a haunting one that returned in dreams--of foundry1 steam1 sulfur matches1 and burnt stuff1 and every now and then a whiff of roast1 decayed flesh that was horrible4 ,it was impossible to realize that this ,pompeii had been a thriving ,french town two weeks before4 ,not a roof was left1 and scarcely a timber2 steam came through little holes in the wet brown sand1 and a sickening whiff showed whence it came4 ,it was hard to distinguish where streets had been4 ,everything was buried under fallen walls of cobblestone and pink plaster and tiles1 including #bj1jjj bodies4 ,a ,new ,england town would have blown away as white ashes before the giant blowpipe acting on the flame of burning rum4 ,i looked toward the gray old volcano1 with shrouded summit4 ,the landscape was dusty1 like old statuary4 ,mountain slope and cliff were denuded of trees4 ,an overturned factory boiler had holes punctured by flying stones4 ,a circular marble fountain basin was chipped away on the volcano side by bombardment4 ,old cannon used as mooring posts at the quay had been uprooted violently4 ,the green landscape ended abruptly at the city along a sharp line1 with coconut palms half green1 half brown4 ,there was no motion except steam jets on ,pele's slopes4 ,suddenly ,i wondered what those steam vents were doing4 ,at first there had been one or two along the sea front2 but now there were eight1 ten1 twenty1 spurting high and scattered all over the volcano4 ,a physician1 ,dr4 ,church1 was standing near me1 and we agreed that we disliked the outlook4 ,now there were forty jets1 like so many ghostly locomotives run out from the ,pele roundhouse4 ,meanwhile1 white-coated officers and scientists were scattered about in groups under the cliffs1 some out of sight of ,mount ,pele4 ,we looked toward the ,,uss ,potomac2 she had seen the steam1 and her own white steam presaged quick1 repeated toots of her fog horn4 ,pellmell the passengers came tumbling to the landing4 ,the sailors had no sooner started the boats than two more white-coated figures appeared1 and we had to put back for them4 ,the mountain looked as though it were rifting in a hundred places preparatory to an outburst1 and there were many stories of new craters forming4 ,what we saw was actually the product of a smart rain shower1 falling on red hot dry gravel2 but we were to learn later about rain rill explosion4 ,wherever a stream rill runs down to such contact1 a jet of steam forms at once4 ,the main water gorge of the ,pele crater was blown clear of clouds as we steamed past1 and we saw a cup under the summit amphitheater where a lake had been1 with a pile of scaly looking hot boulders in its midst steaming violently4 ,this crater extended into a deep gulch to the ocean1 whence had come a disastrous mud flood on ,may #e which buried a sugar mill4 ,this had happened three days before the destruction of ,st4 ,pierre4 ,water preceded steam4 ,the cracks under the gulch undoubtedly dipped away from the city1 and from an unknown chasm athwart the gulch line ejected water and superheated steam toward the city1 like a jet from a hose4 ,this happened on ,may #h4 ,the ejected material had been in dry steam1 and red hot1 accounting for early reports of lava at night4 ,i saw molten rock five weeks after the ,potomac trip1 when the crater cone was above the rim of the gorge1 apparently large fragments of brown angular material resting on finer gravel4 ,cauliflower clouds of reddish dust spurted up the bed of the gulch below every half hour1 and migrated down the gulch4 ,this was followed by a low growl1 perhaps from avalanches4 ,the basin widened during the month1 and the dome gained in height and breadth4 ,a bright incandescent crack at night was seen to cross the heap obliquely4 ,a sudden increase of glow was followed by a rumbling1 as though the dome were heaving4 ,breadcrust bombs of andesite1 cracked on their surface in deep gashes1 and picked up on the mountain at both ,pele and ,soufrire were pieces of the internal lava4 ,a chance clearing of the whole dome came two months after the obliteration of ,st4 ,pierre4 ,this we photographed1 when brown dust was rising1 and steam jets appeared southeast on the dome and in the gulch4 ,on top was an extraordinary spine1 shaped like a shark fin1 with steep escarpment to the east1 curved and smooth and scraped to the west1 pushed up and out of a central rupture of the dome4 ,it was like paste from a tube1 a hard central pencil of lava that had been shoved up by the expansive force within4 ,jagged surfaces of breaking showed on the vertical east cliff and long1 smooth1 arched striations of scrape appeared on the rounded west profile of the protuberance4 ,other hornlike projections showed on the dome4 ,the summit spine was #bjj feet above the surface of the heap4 ,on ,july #f1 #aijb1 came the first report of the famous ,pele spine4 ,it crumbled in ,august1 and a year later a new spine1 facing in the opposite direction1 reached a height of #a1jjj feet4 ,it was a central tongue of the semisolid lava of the dome1 sufficiently plastic to be urged out by forces within4 ,otherwise the dome was a nearly solid extrusion covered with fallen bombs4 ,this was the magma1 or lava1 of the ,pele-,soufrire eruptions4 ,dike ribs extended radially from the spine athwart the dome4 ,i published an erroneous explanation that the dome of boulders consisted of old fragments melted by a superblast and was not true lava4 ,i was so far right1 however1 as to anticipate the gas-heat theory and melting of all volcanism4 ,the direct crisis of these ,carib islands in #aijb was introduced by ,soufrire ,volcano on ,st4 ,vincent1 #ajj miles south of ,martinique1 at #a p4m4 on ,may #g1 nineteen hours before the ,st4 ,pierre disaster4 ,soufrire exploded1 as the common saying is1 through a crater lake pit southwest of its #d1jjj-;foot summit1 the crater edge being #c1ejj feet high4 ,it is notable how many volcanoes are #d1jjj feet high1 and how many have crater pits1 not at the top1 but along a rift below the peak4 ,just this was the case of ,pele1 just this characterizes the calderas of ,kilauea and ,mauna ,loa4 ,a dozen other volcanoes could be named where the vents are through the flank of the heap4 ,hovey1 ,curtis1 and ,i were taken by the ,dixie to ,st4 ,vincent1 where the hospitable ,english colonists provided us with houses at the base of ,soufrire1 and with servants and horses2 and the ,government supply steamer took us around the island4 ,we made the ascent of ,soufrire to the edge of the great crater and looked down at boiling waters far below1 green and muddy1 and sending up a column of steam on one wall4 ,we three ,americans guided by ,t4 ,m4 ,mac,donald1 a ,scottish planter1 made the first ascent after the fearful eruptions of ,may #g and #ah4 ,leaving our quarters at ,chateau ,belair1 we climbed on foot from the southwest base1 with six stalwart negroes carrying instruments1 water1 and food4 ,in the ruins of ,wallibu sugar mill we encountered a wild-eyed ,east ,indian coolie and his helpers looting sugar4 ,the ,wallibu ,river received the brunt of the heavy1 dry1 red hot1 gravel of the eruptions1 drifted like snow and crusted with wet mud4 ,water supplied by the river broke its way into the eighty feet of incandescent fill of the valley4 ,instantly a steam explosion was hurled up in white volutes1 and the river dammed its own channel with the stone shower from upblasts4 ,this forced its own waters into fresh hot cinder and so maintained explosive action4 ,one such exploding river sent up a column three quarters of a mile high1 indescribably majestic1 causing the natives to report new craters4 ,a shower of mud and sand fell on our party4 ,the old road crossing ,soufrire mountain was destroyed1 the river flats were deeply trenched1 and difficult ridges and hollows were encountered at every step4 ,the gulches were deepened into gorges1 the slopes above furrowed with a feathery rill drainage pattern4 ,each spur between gulches was like a very steep roof1 with a smooth pathway uphill along the watershed4 ,this made progress easier4 ,big tree stumps of ,ficus jutted ragged through the hardened mud1 the branches charred and sharpened by sand blast4 ,a whirl of volcanic sand made an unpleasant stinging shower of dust1 and sulfuretted hydrogen smelled of rotten eggs4 ,but near the summit the air was fresh and the sunshine bright4 ,a rain would have made the mud slippery and perilous1 for the gulch slopes were practically cliffs4 ,finally we did come to mud clots1 resembling a cattle wallow1 knee deep and sticky4 ,large blocks of rock two feet across lay on the surface1 flung-out pieces of the old crater walls2 and there were some bombs of new lava4 ,after three hours we assembled at the rim of the old crater1 which before the outbreak had been full of a high crater lake4 ,suddenly we came to an immense chasm almost circular1 then the profile of a black precipice falling away #b1jjj feet2 and up its face we saw a silent steam column purling away in billows4 ,the bottom was a green pool of boiling water1 muddied by springs from the wall2 and a hundred tails of white steam joined the column on the wall4 ,the inner walls showed horizontal bands of old lava1 and intrusions both in lens shape and as dikes4 ,there were red brown puddingstones made up of fragments4 ,a funnel-shaped intrusion looked like the diagram cross section of a volcano1 making a perfect ,t of gray lava1 like a mushroom4 ,a large fissure1 filling west1 rose from bottom to top4 ,a northern rocky horseshoe rim1 or somma1 at the top made the peak of ,st4 ,vincent4 ,the crater lip was a mile wide and the interior a half mile deep2 and the green puddle at the bottom was #a1bjj feet across4 ,the base of the wall column sputtered fiercely and sent up spurts of black mud and rock fragments4 ,the lake level was #a1ajj feet above the ocean1 #hjj feet lower than before the eruption2 and the pool was shallow1 with mud flats and islets4 ,we operated cameras1 compass1 and sketch books2 paced off a base line2 and noted that the northwest corner of the crater had been blown away to leave a big notch4 ,when we returned to ,chateau ,belair1 the negro peasant women brought out their children to gaze at us1 the godlike men who had dared the crater4 ,mr4 ,mac,donald had to steer us through the crowd1 and we felt like the twelve apostles after a miracle4 ,the ,soufrire eruption during the first week of ,may was more voluminous and violent than that of ,pele1 for ,pele was concentrated on one target4 ,soufrire wrought havoc east and west1 whereas ,pele was in a sector southwest of the mountain4 ,they were equally devastating1 however1 and both made downblasts of superheated steam and gravels4 ,scalding dust killed people1 but so did water waves1 conflagration1 steam1 stones1 drowning1 and burial4 ,soufrire's dust fall was reported all the way to ,trinidad and ,barbados2 and from ships east and southeast1 directly against the trade winds1 from #ajj to #ijj miles away4 ,the dust column penetrated the antitrades of the upper atmosphere4 ,sounds were loud #aej miles away1 but not heard close to the mountains4 ,in the red hot gravel were innumerable landslides1 river waters rushed into the gravel and made false eruptions1 and shore cliffs collapsed4 ,no lava1 except as fragments1 appeared in ,st4 ,vincent1 whereas it rose as a crateral heap in ,pele4 ,floods of rivers radial to the volcanoes appeared both before and after the first eruptions1 and scientists erroneously attributed them to cloudburst rains4 ,later1 exact descriptions by natives showed that the sources were hot waters gushing out in places where there was no rain4 ,a succession of eruptions at increasing intervals from ,may to ,december actuated both volcanoes4 ,in succeeding years1 explosions dwindled2 but over ,pele's crater rose a mighty dome and spine of stiff quartz-basalt lava1 like ointment from a tube4 ,there was1 on ,pele1 a splitting of the bottom of the long crater gulch4 ,cauliflower steam volutes charged with dust gushed up the cracks1 hard-edged in profile down near the shore1 soft and diffuse near the crater4 ,scalding waters in the gulch bottom carried mud4 ,the mountain was cracking open along radial gulches1 and squirting up steam and geysers1 but this all concealed itself with sediment4 ,nobody ever saw the cracks open4 ,the migrating steam clouds charged with gravel were called glow clouds and were believed to 8flow0 as gas fluids from the crater4 ,an elucidation of all this mystery came many years later1 after a thorough study of all reports4 ,the glow clouds1 which were at first confused with the gigantic blasts that had destroyed the city1 were gradually explained4 ,it became apparent that radial cracks are ancient characters of lava domes1 and that lava domes lie under heaps of agglomerate4 ,pele and ,soufrire are heaps of agglomerate4 ,kilauea and ,mauna ,loa are lava domes4 ,vesuvius is an intermediate type of volcano4 ,i remained in the field from ,may to ,july1 returned to ,mount ,pele1 cruised through the northern ,caribbee ,islands1 and went to the bottom of the deep crater of ,mount ,misery1 on ,st4 ,kitts4 ,my guides on ,st4 ,kitts were two colored men1 ,johnny ,eddy and ,samuel ,jim4 ,in the crater we found steam and sulfur and a rotten-egg smell1 on the bank of a cold crater lake4 ,we descended by seemingly vertical cliffs covered with roots4 ,this was a typical fumarole1 or solfatara1 one of the unsatisfactory characteristics of craters4 ,we collected specimens and took snapshots1 wondered how often such places change suddenly1 and knew hydrogen sulfide gas only by the smell4 ,it all jibed with what ,i was later to discover in ,hawaii2 that the only way to know a crater is to live with it1 and that gases can melt lava4 ,as ,i look back on the ,martinique expedition1 ,i know what a crucial point in my life it was and that it was the human contacts1 not field adventures1 which inspired me4 ,gradually ,i realized that the killing of thousands of persons by subterranean machinery totally unknown to geologists and then unexplainable was worthy of a life work4 ,the story of ,rita ,stokes made a tremendous impression on me4 ,in ,barbados hospital ,i talked with this young white girl and her colored nurse1 ,clara ,king1 who had been passengers on the ,,ss ,roraima which was at ,st4 ,pierre when the city was destroyed4 ,when ,i saw them they were swathed in bandages4 ,clara's burns were severe on knee1 arm1 and hand4 ,rita's were on her head1 hands1 and arms1 and one seriously disfigured ear4 ,both were somewhat injured for life4 ,mrs4 ,stokes1 a boy1 and a baby girl in the cabin with them had been killed4 ,all saw the adjacent mountain sending up puffs1 as the ship lay at anchor off the ,st4 ,pierre waterfront on the morning of ,may #h1 but they were reassured by the ship's officers4 ,suddenly the steward rushed by shouting1 8,close the cabin door1 the volcano is coming60 ,mrs4 ,stokes slammed the door just before a terrific explosion came which nearly burst the ear drums4 ,the vessel was lifted high and sank down1 and all were thrown off their feet by the shock1 and huddled crouching in one corner of the little cabin4 ,scalding moist ashes poured in through a broken skylight in inky darkness4 ,next came suffocation1 relieved by the door bursting open and air rushing in4 ,when a little daylight came back1 ,mrs4 ,stokes and the little boy were plastered black with hot mud1 the baby girl was dying1 and the nurse and ,rita were in great agony4 ,a heap of scorching mud had collected on one corner of the floor1 and as the young girl put her hand down to raise herself1 her arm plunged to the elbow in scalding sand4 ,they were all taken out to the deck where mother1 boy1 and baby died4 ,the ship was on fire1 and the nearby city was a mass of roaring flames4 ,more ashes fell and scalded the victims4 ,curiously1 third degree burns were left on flesh1 through underclothing not burned at all4 ,clara said that the mountain appeared gray with smoke rolling west1 that the weather was very calm1 and that the dust smelled like gunpowder4 ,she saw no flames during the blast and did not know what set fire to the steamer4 ,the fires probably came from the city4 ,ashes came in sputtering splashes like 8moist marl40 ,no rocks fell and the grit in cabin and on burns was wet sand4 ,before the blast there had been falling dust but1 according to ,clara1 no difficulty in breathing4 ,the sun was brownish red4 ,the bow of the ship was pointed seaward1 and the vessel heeled over left1 then right4 ,the stern1 toward the conflagration1 caught fire first1 the bow later4 ,there was no rumbling1 only shock and rattling thunder all at once1 no noise before or after4 ,the only people ,clara ,king saw toward the shore were some men on a raft4 ,i wrote ,president ,eliot and the ,american ,relief ,committee about the case of ,rita ,stokes1 half ,american and the only white woman saved in ,st4 ,pierre4 ,and ,i rejoiced to learn from her guardian and uncle1 ,j4 ,e4 ,croney of ,barbados1 that she was provided for4 ,the sum of #dej was sent to the committee1 and #f1jjj in trust was set aside for her4 ,she was never separated from her devoted nurse1 ,clara ,king4 ,apart from the experiences of the wounded1 ,i found much to contemplate in the findings of numerous geologists2 in the accounts of doctors1 sailors1 naval officers1 resident government men1 the local newspapers1 and photographers2 in the specimens we collected2 and in the work of great newspaper and magazine correspondents4 ,the facts and photographs we collected were baffling4 ,they did not correspond with the text books4 ,two volcanoes a hundred miles apart suddenly spouted death downward4 ,obviously they were connected along the island chain1 with ocean to the east and ocean to the west4 ,telegraph cables were broken4 ,why8 ,that which lay under the ocean was totally unknown1 both events and topography4 ,the biggest part of these volcanoes was submarine4 ,earthquakes at ,pele were relatively small but often continuous4 ,tidal waves were local and accompanied by downblasts of steam4 ,the downblasts were at first supposed to be due to fallen avalanches from the upblasts4 ,then it appeared they were really sloping jets from concealed holes or cracks in the gulches1 with inclined orifices amid the blocks of a cracked-up mountain4 ,for at ,pele the blast that destroyed ,st4 ,pierre shot from the crater gulch in cascades of water and steam1 while observers on high ground saw the horizon1 or clear sky1 over the crater4 ,the speed of the blast was six miles in two minutes1 or #ahj miles per hour4 ,this was different from the glow clouds in the later months1 migrating slowly along cracks in the gulch bottom4 ,man's perception of speed relative to himself has nothing to do with actual speeds4 ,it may be argued that a miniature volcano erupts faster than a big volcanic system1 but not if the whole terrestrial plexus of systems is taken into account4 ,an eruption of ,mauna ,loa is a very slow affair1 in comparison with the #aj1jjj underground squirtings of lava in cracks totally unperceived1 except as tremors on seismograph4 ,pele's eruption was like turning on a hose4 ,a structural valve or orifice1 suddenly opened by underground heaving of the mountain block and letting out steam and mud1 appears to be the only reasonable explanation of what happened4 ,and the only agents possible were glowing stiff lava heating boiling water underground4 ,both of these were later identified4 ,grove ,karl ,gilbert of the ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey1 who had criticized favorably my manuscript on the ,black ,hills intrusive lavas1 wrote me not to drop the enigma of ,mount ,pele1 because he found the published reports unsatisfying4 ,in #aidi1 forty-seven years after the disaster1 ,i published 8,steam blast eruptions10 dealing with ,pele4 ,in the interim ,i studied many volcanoes4 ,alexander ,agassiz1 who had been urging me to do a memoir on volcanoes1 financed a trip to ,vesuvius when it exploded and poured out lava in #aijf4 ,ottajano northeast of ,vesuvius was demolished by jets of gravel and stones2 and ,boscotrecase at the south was invaded by black streams of heavy1 sprouting1 bouldery slag4 ,here was a change of habit1 from heaping up lavas for thirty-four years1 to collapse1 internal avalanching1 and pure steam explosion accompanied by remnants of stirred lava flow4 ,why thirty-four years8 ,a third of a century8 ,three times the sunspot interval8 ,the previous steamblast explosion of ,vesuvius before #aijf had been in #ahgb4 ,in the case of ,mount ,pele and ,soufrire the intervals since past explosions had been fifty-one years and ninety years4 ,but it should be pointed out that the ,carib volcanoes had two years of terrifying rumblings1 odors1 and quakes just before #aijb4 ,groundwater exists in large volume under all three volcanoes4 ,soufrire1 ,pele and ,vesuvius all began the steamblasts with collapsing craters1 that is1 with internal lava going down into the bowels of the earth4 ,the lava usually showed in ,vesuvius1 whereas at ,pele and ,soufrire it merely made fumaroles1 or gas vents4 ,man1 a mere microbe1 could make nothing of hot sulfurous cracks4 ,on ,april #be the electric train slowly pushed us up as far as the observatory station1 beyond which all was destroyed4 ,outside ,naples the fields were covered with two inches of gray-green dust1 and pines and palms were loaded with a two or three foot drift of sand4 ,near the observatory a heavy six-inch mantle of sand and dust buried the lava fields4 ,the ,vesuvian cone was covered with straight sand slides1 whitish gray1 which occasionally slipped downward4 ,the landscape was shrouded in drifts of white ashes revealing obscurely the slaggy contortions of lava beneath4 ,pure white steam boiled up from the cavity in the peak1 surrounded by an older rain cloud1 like a hat on the volcano's crown4 ,my companions--,dr4 ,tempest ,anderson and ,messrs4 ,yeld and ,brigg--were all from ,yorkshire4 ,we started the ascent of the twenty-nine degree slope in a strong west wind4 ,the steam settled down on the summit1 than alternated with clear spells4 ,we followed the west profile of the cone straight up1 noting how the funicular rails were twisted by landslides4 ,everything was covered with pebbles1 sand1 and dust1 with here and there large fragments up to five feet across4 ,we found solid footing on the radial elevations of either scoured old lava or packed fragments4 ,the gullies were filled with deep sand4 ,the rim we could see ahead was the edge of the crater itself4 ,the abruptness of the fall off1 when we finally came to it1 was startling in the extreme4 ,the wind was pelting our necks with stinging sand grains which1 incidentally1 were ruinous to my new ,kodak4 ,only occasionally did sunshine sift through the mixture of sand1 steam1 and cloud4 ,we could make out an inward slope of thirty-five degrees1 terminated #ajj feet below by a jutting1 fuming precipice4 ,the circular curvature of the crater was embayed4 ,the only noise was the howling wind4 ,we could not see the opposite side of the collapsed cauldron a half mile across4 ,the summit was #d1jjj feet above sea level by aneroid measure1 #cej feet lower than before the eruption4 ,there was a great notch northeast toward ,ottajano where thousands of tons of gravel were hurled clear over the top of ,monte ,somma1 the encircling old ridge4 ,the east-west diameter was left much greater than that of the north-south4 ,the radial ridges and gullies were like a corrugated roof1 and sand made a flattened angle of scree at the base of the scoured cone4 ,the corrugations were not rain erosion1 but were made by backfallen debris sliding4 ,i got some photographs and ,mr4 ,perret gave me others4 ,the big thing was the line of mountain blocks of earth crust4 ,in ,italy it is made up of ,ischia1 ,pozzuoli1 ,vesuvius1 ,lipari1 and ,etna1 whereas the ,carribbee line is made up of ,mount ,misery1 ,montserrat1 ,guadeloupe1 ,dominica1 ,martinique1 and ,st4 ,vincent4 ,such a line of broken earth blocks is a volcanic system4 ,hundreds of miles long1 it is never quiet4 ,a single place seems quiet because superficially we are totally unconscious of the other places4 ,a microbe on the scalp knows nothing of the skin of the toes4 ,men are mere microbes on the skin of shore1 sea1 and island4 ,and they are remote from any consciousness of sea bottom4 ,vast distances and long intervals are writing records1 but man does not measure them4 ,he measures civilization1 wars1 and dynasties1 not the adventures of the ground he dwells upon4 ,ground he considers static4 ,actually it is intensely dynamic4 ,occasionally it explodes and man is destroyed4 ,earth history and volcanic systems make wars look very small4 ,the tremendous accumulations of broken rocks over lava beds on the cone of ,vesuvius1 and on all the ,caribbee ,islands1 recall the breccias1 or volcanic conglomerates1 of the ,yellowstone and of the ,high ,plateaus of ,utah4 ,floods of basalt alternate with vast falls or outwashes of volcanic gravel4 ,avalanches1 landslides1 torrents1 floods--call them what you will--cover immense areas of the ,cordillera4 ,vesuvius and ,pele pile up cones1 but the ,caribbees and ,italy are also heaped with agglomerates4 ,erosion destroys cones1 but erosion makes agglomerations or valley fills of rocks and mud4 ,this is the history of every volcanic system on the globe4 ,stbel discovered smooth basalt domes like ,mauna ,loa under every volcanic system4 ,in #aijd ,vesuvius had vented a lava flow which stopped in ,september1 and its cone was sharp1 with only a little crater and inner conelet on top4 ,in #aije lava had flowed from a northwest split4 ,on ,april #d1 #aijf1 a splendid black cauliflower cloud arose4 ,the northwest flow stopped and a southern radial rift made lava mouths progress #ejj1 #a1hjj1 and #b1djj feet below the top1 more than halfway down the mountain4 ,from the lower mouth came glassy pahoehoe1 or smooth destructive streams intensely incandescent and liquid1 quickly cooling to aa1 or sprouting rough fudge1 black crusts1 and clinker4 ,the molten porridge flowed as a snaky avalanche into the masonry village of ,boscotrecase4 ,on ,april #g1 at the crater1 a column of boulder-laden steam shot up four miles1 snapping with lightning4 ,new lava mouths sent forking snakes crushing and swallowing parts of the village4 ,a graveyard was neatly filled within its masonry wall1 showing that internally the rocky torrent was a liquid4 ,meantime trajectories like those of a hose sent falls of gravel for miles1 to ,ottajano on the opposite side of the mountain4 ,these also came from the central crater4 ,on the west flank1 at the observatory1 the house was rocking1 and heavy stones forced its occupants to retreat4 ,matteucci and his staff went halfway down the cone1 to return next day4 ,explosions dwindled during the next fortnight1 though one day an adverse wind from the crater carried carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide almost asphyxiating some persons4 ,thereafter cauliflower clouds of white steam arose and the noise of big avalanches was heard4 ,the clinker field that invaded ,boscatrecase was #af feet thick1 and houses were cut in two by a slaggy torrent4 ,in ,ottajano1 on the opposite side of the mountain1 flat tile roofs collapsed1 buried under three feet of heavy gravel1 some of it the size of an apple4 ,nearer the crater1 boulders five feet in diameter were thrown a mile4 ,the volcano was probably blocked inside by welling lava on the ,boscotrecase side1 which caused it to vomit steam and earthy avalanche material obliquely outward on the opposite1 ,ottajano1 side4 ,the ,italians have a word1 sprofondimento1 which means to make profound by insucking1 that expresses what happened4 ,this plexus of uprush of slag and inrush of avalanche1 against a water-steam geyser1 both happening at once1 was very different from the quiet outpouring of lava during the preceding years4 ,it definitely meant rupture of earth blocks1 deep escape of that lava probably at the underocean part of the radial cracks1 and deep entrance of spring water into incandescent vacated chambers4 ,it meant a rupture crisis1 collapsing the peak1 and a new geyser quite unrecognized4 ,the eruption ended when the slag pressure was relieved1 the mountain blocks had settled1 and the frozen slag had shut off groundwater4 ,the remaining lava entered into decades of deep accumulation and gas bubbling1 the solfataric phase4 ,that which ended the thirty-year upbuilding was probably downward pressure due to weight of surface heaping of the cone4 ,cracking released water inward4 ,the next thirty-eight years were to culminate in a similar crisis for ,vesuvius which lasted ten days1 and again its peak collapsed4 ,this was in ,march #aidd1 when our ,american troops entered ,naples4 ,it is interesting that these culminations have been from a third to a half century apart1 but the meaning of intervals can only be really understood when volcanoes like ,etna1 ,stromboli1 and ,vesuvius are grouped together4 ,the same thing is true of ,kilauea and ,mauna ,loa1 and of ,pele and ,st4 ,vincent4 ,ponte reports the eruptions of ,etna as ten years apart1 similar to the sunspot interval2 and ,perret notes a ten-year interval for the smaller eruptions of ,vesuvius4 ,we measured an eleven-year interval for ,hawaii1 with culminations close to the minimum of sunspots4 ,a culmination is when lava goes down and keeps quiet1 or when sunspot numbers go down and remain few4 ,no one knows why1 or of any connecting cause4 ,three eleven-year culminations make a third of a century1 when at ,kilauea and ,vesuvius1 something bigger happens4 ,sunspots have numbered a suspiciously similar curve at corresponding dates4 ,photographs of ,vesuvius taken just before the #aidd collapse showed the #aijf crater hole completely filled and overflowing4 ,there was an inner flat floor1 a conelet standing in the middle4 ,the #aidd eruption collapsed the conelet1 split the big outer cone1 and sent flows to destroy ,san ,sebastiano and several villages4 ,the torrents of ash killed people and the electric station of the funicular railroad was destroyed1 as usual4 ,the mountain split in several directions4 ,just as in #aijf1 the stages of the #aidd outbreak were lava flows1 mixed lava gushing intensely liquid1 crateral caving in1 tremendous gas emission1 black ash changing to vapor and white ash as the emission increased1 and ultimately white steam4 ,the black ash was the contemporaneous lava with dark augite2 the snowlike white ash was ground up old lavas1 containing the white crystals1 leucite4 ,the liquid phase took an unusual fountain form1 resembling that of ,mauna ,loa in ,hawaii1 and nine spells of bright incandescent explosive fountaining occurred4 ,the collapse began on ,march #ac2 the fountaining occurred during ,march #bj to #bb1 with jets of bright liquid lava and flames1 #a1jjj to #c1jjj feet high2 and the crater became a lava lake4 ,the flames were occasioned by hydrogen within the lava itself1 and perhaps some carbon gases4 ,this liquid fountaining phase was the culmination of explosions1 making pumice1 with water vapor the gaseous product4 ,ash fell four feet deep three miles away1 and some fell on the ,adriatic coast4 ,both white steam clouds and black ash clouds arose with the fountains1 white and black side by side4 ,the net effect was to leave a bowl #a1ejj feet in diameter and #hjj feet deep1 floored with avalanche gravel4 ,this reconstructed the funnel of #aijf1 and as in #aijf1 the height of the rim was #d1ajj feet after eruption4 ,in other words1 the thirty-eight years had filled the vast crater1 only to have #aidd engulf and eject the contents1 and strew them down the slopes1 adding an immense weight to the outer shell of the cone4 ,a hundred million cubic yards of lava was poured out1 and #ej million cubic yards of ash now lie on the volcano4 ,three times as much was carried far away1 and the volume of gases was ten times as great4 ,the rock fragments1 probably #bjj times as great1 were engulfed by avalanches4 ,the big achievement of an eruption is to wedge open a mountain1 let the internal lava effervesce and go down1 admit ground water1 and make spectacular fireworks of burning gas and meltings4 ,release of pressure by splitting open the crust permits a great show of fiery foaming1 but no geologist sees the profound accomplishment of lava sinking and flowing away by underground channels4 ,it may flow out along the ,mediterranean ,sea bottom4 ,at ,vesuvius1 it may slip through deep cracks in the direction of ,sicily4 ,certainly a periodic adjustment of the big system 7,vesuvius-,stromboli-,etna7 has taken place deep down in the earth1 and the thirty-eight years of accumulation mean a stress by weighting down4 ,the pressure of #ajj million tons of stored lava inside a weak cone mountain and ready to effervesce with heat and give up its hydrogen is what science too often forgets4 ,the continental crack system between crust blocks and full of rain water is waiting to assist the crisis1 while the blocks are poised over uprising gases of the ages4 ,the gases of the ages1 reaching to the core of the globe1 are eternally melting the walls with white-hot core matter1 walls of siliceous rock blocks #a1hjj miles deep4 ,in this system1 ,vesuvius is a tiny pimple4 ,incidentally1 the #aidd earthquakes were recorded in largest number during the period when the liquid pumice fountains were in action in the nine different spells between ,march #bj and ,march #bc4 ,this means that the maxima of engulfing crater1 seething slag1 outrushing gas1 crunching mountain weight1 and avalanching inner walls were all happening together4 ,the clogging of vents forced the ground water steam into pulsations4 ,this could not last2 the mountain blocks settled and resumed pressure1 deep lava drained off1 heat dwindled1 and gas was relieved4 ,the bigger volcanic system asserted its downward weight of the adjusted globe4 ,by making much of pulsations and thirty-three year intervals1 we are dreaming of an ideal volcano such as might be constructed as was our geyser apparatus4 ,but there is no question of the reality of tides in rock1 as well as in ocean2 of day and night2 cold and sunshine2 year and century4 ,continent and ocean are positive1 globe and solar system are positive4 ,the ideal volcano is part of a tidal system and is limited in size4 ,therefore science has a right to inquire how it happens that through centuries most volcanoes stay #d1jjj feet high4 ,it has a right to look for averages and periodicities1 just as a doctor looks for respiration1 temperature1 and heartbeats4 ,like men1 volcanoes are not all alike1 but both men and volcanoes are orderly organisms4 ,the object of volcanology is to find order and relate the small orderliness to the big regularity of globe and solar tides4 ,my #aijf visit at the end of the ,vesuvian eruption crystallized my lifework idea1 begun at ,pele2 but my accomplishment was dwarfed to triviality by that of ,perret1 whom ,i first met while he was assisting the ,italian volcano observatory4 ,he was a photographer and observer of rare merit4 ,he had been living in ,naples and photographing all the ,italian volcanoes1 and he had worked out a solar control diagram for predicting volcano tides4 ,italy had made a volcanologist out of a physicist-engineer4 ,discovery of ,perret meant to me much more than any phenomenon of geology4 ,frank ,alvord ,perret was an electrical engineer from ,brooklyn1 and a genius with an ordinary ,kodak4 ,he took at ,vesuvius1 by sheer daring1 the most remarkable photographs ever made of an active volcano4 ,his knowledge of astronomy1 meteorology1 and physics made him see in a volcano something to study close at hand1 as ,benjamin ,franklin studied a thunderstorm4 ,he developed and printed his photographs himself1 and colored his lantern slides4 ,he helped ,matteucci1 the observatory director on ,vesuvius1 and was decorated as ,chevalier by the ,king of ,italy4 ,he tramped close to lava vents and explosion clouds1 and took hundreds of pictures4 ,perret and ,i had exactly the same conception of a volcano4 ,we thought of it as a living organism to record1 just as rainfall is recorded by the weather man4 ,for our recording1 we had to invent volcano instruments4 ,though the camera was ,perret's supreme instrument1 he had been an electrical inventor all his life4 ,businessmen in ,springfield1 ,massachusetts1 financed his work in ,italy2 and ,i went to ,springfield to lecture and encourage their research association1 the predecessor of our ,hawaiian association4 ,perret photographed ,etna1 ,stromboli1 ,teneriffe1 ,sakurajima1 ,kilauea1 the ,carib cones and other volcanoes1 and performed heroic work at the ,messina earthquake of #aijh4 ,when1 in #aibi1 ,pele entered into another of its periods of exploding and heaving it was studied critically by ,perret who had established a museum and observatory at ,martinique4 ,he finally settled down at his museum in ,st4 ,pierre1 and was of great service at the ,montserrat earthquake crisis of #aicc and thereafter4 ,he was not physically strong and the volcanic dust gave him pneumonia1 but several times he recovered from attacks4 ,he died in ,new ,york1 having been forced north by the second ,world ,war4 ,i also met the ,yorkshire oculist1 geologist1 and photographer1 ,dr4 ,tempest ,anderson1 on ,vesuvius in #aijf4 ,this was another happy meeting4 ,he too was a skilled volcano photographer1 and had taken pictures in ,new ,zealand and ,iceland with his privately built cameras1 using methods of extreme originality4 ,he afterwards made for me a camera with small glass plates1 dark chamber1 arm sleeves1 no plate-holder1 alpenstock tripod1 bottle strip-testing developer1 self-drying metal case1 and great perfection of rigidity and focus4 ,we were to meet again and again in different parts of the world4 ,he became one of the ,british experts sent to ,soufrire by the ,royal ,society4 ,he died of typhoid on a volcano voyage to the ,philippines4 ,shortly after my ,vesuvius expedition ,i moved from ,harvard to become head of geology at ,massachusetts ,tech4 ,my teaching overlapped that of ,professors ,w4 ,niles and ,w4 ,o4 ,crosby at ,tech and ,wellesley1 while for a time ,i continued my ,harvard work4 ,it was at this time that ,i began to think of possible ways of financing an expedition to the ,aleutian ,islands and their forty active volcanoes4 ,the year #aijf-aijg was a time of financial boom1 so ,i went to ,calumet and ,hecla1 the great copper company of which ,agassiz was president4 ,to my astonishment they subscribed #a1jjj to start the ,technology ,expedition4 ,state ,street and ,wall ,street raised this to #ac1jjj in ten days1 and ,i learned much about the availability of money during a boom of the stock market4 ,president ,pritchett of ,harvard approved the expedition1 and ,i organized it for a sailing schooner from ,seattle1 with nine in the crew and seven scientists4 ,illustration3 #e4 ,scientists of ,technical ,expedition to ,aleutians1 #aijg2 left to right3 ,jaggar1 ,gummere1 ,vandyke1 ,eakle1 ,sweeney1 and ,myers ,illustration3 #f4 ,captain ,george ,seeley of the ,lydia1 ,technical ,expedition to ,aleutians1 #aijg ,we set sail in the spring of #aijg and spent four months in that ocean of gales1 fogs1 rain1 and cold between ,dutch ,harbor and ,atka--the eastern half of the ,aleutians4 ,one man1 ,colby1 was a bear hunter who explored the ,alaskan ,peninsula and reported on coal and gold4 ,the scientists were two geologists1 two mining students1 a physician who was also botanist and entomologist1 and an astronomer4 ,they were ,eakle1 ,myers1 ,sweeny1 ,vandyke1 and ,gummer4 ,the sailing master and mate were uncle and nephew1 both ,nova ,scotians named ,seeley4 ,the following poem by the master tells the story better than ,i could4 ,,an ,,alaskan ,,idyll ,an ,eastern ,college of renown ,had purchased in ,seattle town ,the schooner ,lydia of ill fame ,and ,seeley was the ,captain's name4 ,the ,scientist they numbered seven ,their subjects ranged from ,h----l to ,heaven ,one on volcano's one on stars ,botany1 bugs1 short cuts to ,mars4 ,like knights of old were they prepared to shoot ,the mighty whale1 ferocious malamoot4 ,good fellows all4 ,i hope they'll lenient be ,to him who writes this verse upon the sea ,prof4 ,jaggar1 man of earthquake lore4 ,to climb mountain peaks and them explore ,by delving mid their bowels1 ,pray dont scoff4 ,could tell you how it was1 the cussed thing went off ,at other times on many a foreign shore ,had studied deep in seismologic lore ,by looking down their throats and note the smell4 ,could tell exactly just how far we were from ,h----l4 ,prof4 ,gummere of the ,drexel ,institute ,on mighty ,mount ,makushin burnt his boot ,the crater sure was hot but when we did inquire ,found it was done while drying them to near the fire ,angles and dips of the magnetic kind ,dry bulbs and wet were ever on his mind ,strong in debate on theories scientific ,passed many a weary hour on the ,pacific ,dr4 ,vandyke the foothills oft would skirt ,oe'r turning stones and delving in the dirt ,beetles and bugs1 all things that fly and crawl ,were his delight1 and well he knew them all ,if one were ill1 or hovering near the ,brink ,he'd bring you back with ointment made of ,zinc ,fauna and ,flora that is bugs and flowers ,were his delight4 ,on them he'd talk for hours ,of stature slight by nature energetic ,the way he'd chase those bugs was quite pathetic ,colby and ,cody hunters of renown4 ,whose specialty was bears1 white1 black1 or brown ,the ,aleutian ,is'ds yield but fox and rat ,but little did these ,nimrods care for that ,blood was their hobby they but lived for gore ,and ,colby's stomach ever called for more4 ,they left us early much to our dismay ,to hunt the grizzly down in ,bristol ,bay4 ,with grape nuts1 flour1 bacon in galore ,they chase the caribou1 what could they ask for more ,next is little ,dr4 ,eakle with the twinkle in his eye ,who could cook a flapjack1 pound up rocks4 ,or climb the mountains high ,i'll bet when he gets home again on ,california's shore ,he will never travel the ,bering ,sea in a ,sch'r any more ,he left us at ,dutch ,harbor and took another way ,to ,berkeley's ,alma ,mater on ,san ,francisco's ,bay4 ,messrs4 ,sweeney next and ,myers1 young men of good repute ,the latter on his bugle would oft delight to toot ,at any hour at any time either by night or day ,reveille1 ,mess call1 any old thing ,he'd lug her out and play4 ,he left with ,eakle much to our regret ,and in my dreams ,i hear reveille yet4 ,now ,i've roasted and ,i've toasted these fellows good and true ,just incline your ear and listen ,while ,i whisper unto you ,with a better lot of shipmates have ,i never yet set sail ,mid the light ,pacific breezes or the wild ,aleutian gale ,i'll remember each and all of them ,and ,i hope they'll think of me ,and the trip they made in the ,lydia bold4 ,to the darned old ,bering ,sea4 ,george ,seeley ,sailing ,master of the ,technology ,expedition #aijg ,uncorrected from the original manuscript ,we collected specimens and made notes on geology1 magnetism1 topography1 weather1 photography1 ethnology1 plants1 insects1 birds1 ores1 shipping1 volcanoes and navigation--materials for years of laboratory study4 ,the journal of the expedition1 thirty-seven pages long with photographs1 was published by the ,technology ,review4 ,like every such volcano expedition1 we were hampered by the necessity of using a sailing vessel1 by bad weather1 by rain which interfered with photography1 by long spells on the open sea in fog1 and by inaccessible craters amid the ice of mountain tops4 ,from the administrative viewpoint1 two things stood out3 the need for an amphibian boat1 independent of harbors1 and the need for a land station more or less permanent1 wherefrom an amphibian boat could operate to reach and land on determinate beaches4 ,a permanent station could work on specimens in bad weather4 ,these discoveries determined the policy that was to eventuate in the ,hawaiian ,volcano ,observatory1 to the building of amphibian boats1 and to five other ,aleutian journeys by #aicb4 ,i might describe sliding down the slippery grass of ,unalaska1 on the steep slopes peculiar to the ,aleutians2 exploring ice craters on top of ,makushin in ,unalaska2 or getting storm bound for five days trying to reach ,atka's ,korovinski ,volcano on foot4 ,but these tales have been published elsewhere4 ,the most exciting of the ,aleutian volcanoes is ,bogoslof1 a peak submerged north of ,umnak1 with its crater1 a line of erupting crags1 just at sea level4 ,we had good luck with weather and landed on ,bogoslof in the forenoon of ,august #g1 #aijg4 ,hundreds of sea lions1 bellowing close to the dories1 would pop up and stare at us and then plunge frantically beneath the waves4 ,on the beach we found one bull asleep1 but he awoke and awkwardly floundered to the sea4 ,the islet was then four peaks with sand flats between1 the central one a steaming mass of lava protuberances shaped like potatoes4 ,next to it was a half cone broken in two1 with a horned spine like a shark fin2 ,pele all over again4 ,it was also similar to ,new ,zealand's ,white ,island4 ,at the two ends of the island were older1 peaked lava rocks4 ,the active heap was #dej feet high with bright yellow coatings1 and a ring pool of hot salt water around it1 yellow with iron-stained mud4 ,the rocky cliffs were covered with thousands of murres1 their chicks1 and eggs2 and the birds darkened the sky in flight4 ,the stench from offal and rotten eggs was intense4 ,the sea was full of fish1 the beaches were full of sea lions1 the hot lava and air were full of birds4 ,thus life and deadly volcanism lived together4 ,the active rock was refractory basalt1 semisolid1 crusting and breaking into blocks as it rose from a submerged crater4 ,on ,september #a after we left1 the crater exploded1 throwing sand and dust a distance of #ajj miles to the east4 ,the middle heap was engulfed1 leaving only a lagoon2 and the remaining peaks were shrouded in a heavy mantle of debris4 ,such a history of building and bursting and spreading out as a shoal has gone on for more than #aaa years4 ,bogoslof is the peak of a submarine ,pele1 several thousand feet above sea bottom4 ,it is always active1 the index volcano of the ,aleutians4 ,it was about this time that the need for observatories began to be recognized4 ,something new and of grave menace had come into geology1 terrible steam blasts capable of shooting out horizontally and explosively4 ,and even as ,i write in #aieb these have been taking human lives at ,mount ,lamington in ,papua and ,mount ,hibokhibok on ,camiguin ,island of the ,philippines4 ,at ,vesuvius1 under ,palmieri1 an observatory had been established about #ahei4 ,the director was interested in meteorology as affected by ,vesuvius1 and annual reports were published irregularly4 ,successive directors became interested in making instruments for volcano science and ,mercalli1 the director in #aijg1 published a book in ,italian on the active volcanoes of the world4 ,when ,i went to ,mount ,pele ,i was mindful of the venture at ,vesuvius2 and ,professor ,lacroix of ,paris established artillery officers near ,st4 ,pierre ruins after the disaster1 to watch and report as a volcano observatory4 ,they furnished details and photographs of the many eruptions and the growth of the lava dome and spine4 ,doctors ,hovey1 ,flett1 ,anderson1 ,lacroix1 and ,heilprin returned to ,mount ,pele and added much to the observational and photographic record1 and ,dr4 ,stbel published a special book inspired by critical study of the ,caribbees1 in comparison with ,andean volcanoes4 ,hovey and ,i put through a resolution in #aijg at the meeting of the ,geological ,society of ,america1 8strongly recommending the establishment of volcano and earthquake observatories40 ,perret and ,i were both inventors of instruments1 both experimenters1 and both convinced that the expedition method alone would never solve the volcano problem4 ,the brothers ,friedlaender of ,zurich were establishing a 8,zeitschrift fr ,vulkanologie10 in ,naples1 and a laboratory with ,german1 ,swiss1 and ,italian assistants4 ,the ,carnegie ,institution established in ,washington a geophysical laboratory devoted to high temperature physical chemistry4 ,we others were influenced by field ambition1 and since #ahii ,i had fought for a ,hawaii geological survey1 for ,i was convinced that ,kilauea ,volcano there must have an ,american volcano observatory4 ,my experiments on erosion1 sedimentation1 deformation1 and eruption convinced me that a field experimental science was bound to grow up in each of those parts of dynamical geology4 ,all of these needed field observatories to determine index of erosion1 index of sedimentation1 index of ground movement and earthquake1 index of volcanism2 these indices to be quantitative just as the thermometer and barometer and wind gauge made climatology a quantitative science of the air4 ,i found almost nothing being accomplished in these new field sciences4 ,no one dreamt of attacking the ,mississippi as a field of pure science of erosionology1 compared to the ,amazon4 ,it was felt that these things could be left to commerce and the engineers4 ,by index of eruption ,i mean the geographical peculiarity of ,vesuvius1 for example1 as an eruption center4 ,perret tried to reduce this to diagram form4 ,i published1 in ,washington1 a plea for geophysical observatories4 ,an earthquake in #aijh1 predicted and photographed by ,perret1 had killed #abe1jjj people in ,italy at ,messina1 near ,mount ,etna4 ,hence ,i felt more strongly than ever that something must be done4 ,so it was that in #aiji1 at my own expense1 ,i made a journey to ,hawaii and ,japan with my family4 ,everything within me converged on making a life work of the results of my ,pacific journey4 ,in ,honolulu ,i was invited to show my colored lantern slides of the ,mount ,pele disaster and to describe ,massachusetts ,tech's plan for a seismograph station on ,blue ,hill near ,boston4 ,when the ,honorable ,l4 ,a4 ,thurston of the ,pacific ,commercial ,advertiser interviewed me after the lecture1 and asked whether ,kilauea ,volcano on the island of ,hawaii would not be better than ,blue ,hill1 ,i replied that it certainly would have many more earthquakes and1 in addition1 would offer volcano lavas to observe in action4 ,thurston asked1 8,is it then a question of money80 ,i replied that it was1 largely1 but that it also entailed persuading ,tech authorities that ,i was right4 ,after visiting ,kilauea1 where ,i stayed at the ,volcano ,house and saw ,halemaumau lava pit in action1 ,i went on to ,japan4 ,there ,i visited the seismograph stations of ,professor ,omori and traveled to active ,tarumai ,volcano in ,hokkaido4 ,tarumai1 which was undergoing an interesting eruption at that time1 is a #d1jjj foot cone in pine forests on the north island of ,japan4 7,notice the usual #d1jjj feet47 ,it had broken out explosively1 sent up a great spiral of cauliflower clouds of steam and ash thousands of feet1 and followed this by piling up a lava dome in its summit crater1 the dome lifting the crater floor and protruding above the top of the mountain4 ,this was an extrusion of andesite1 more refractory and giving hotter steam than ,kilauea vents1 as measured with an electric thermometer4 ,we got #dej ,centigrade with ,bristol thermocouple in sulfur-covered cracks hissing on the actual face of the lava dome4 ,kilauea had given #cjj ,centigrade in the famous 8postal card crack0 where visitors browned their cards4 ,the stiff rising lava dome of ,tarumai was a duplicate of the lavas of ,bogoslof and ,pele1 but ,bogoslof was a crater at sea level1 and ,pele's big dome and spine above the mountain top developed in the second year of eruptions4 ,i found further inspiration in a visit to ,asama volcano in central ,japan4 ,here1 just as at ,tarumai1 the hard lava lay in a rigid swirl1 hissing and steaming at the bottom of the summit crater after the crater had announced eruption by 8cauliflower0 uprushes4 ,it was evident that hard lava push-ups from the bottom of craters were characteristic of the ,pacific and ,carib shores1 in contrast to ,hawaiian and ,italian flow-downs4 ,the pressure upward breaks a mountain1 the slag and boiling groundwater inside churns up avalanche gravel and dust1 columns of dust-laden steam rush out1 the break-up lets up lava1 and according to its frothing gas and heat and the air temperature1 it is capable physically of either foaming out liquid through radial cracks or pushing up semisolid and piling as an aa heap4 ,the net effect is flat lava shields for ,hawaii1 with flows into and under the ocean1 and shapely high cones for the ,andes and ,japan1 with ,italy somewhere in between4 ,the difference in the lavas is a matter of internal meltability1 due to chemistry and gases4 ,in the first decade of the twentieth century this was new to me as a geologist1 for the books did not explain internal gas in lava4 ,geography understood nothing of the relation of a volcano to lines of cracking earth crust and depth of crust1 and gigantic explosions dominated history as exceptions4 ,refractory slags were then believed to be stiff by reason of chemical fusibility1 and gas in solution in a melt is not understood even today4 ,the ,japan journey explained the textbook contrast between oceanic ,hawaii and continental ,ecuador1 both volcanic1 and the further contrast with ,yellowstone agglomerates1 and intrusions of the ,black ,hills of ,south ,dakota4 ,clearly ,hawaii must be studied1 and experimental geology extended to the globe as a laboratory4 ,on my return to ,honolulu1 ,professor ,ralph ,hosmer1 forester1 met me and reported that ,honolulu money was available1 if ,massachusetts ,tech would send me to ,hawaii to found a volcano experiment station4 ,then and there the ,hawaiian ,volcano ,research ,association formed by business leaders in ,honolulu became a reality1 to crystallize later into an educational corporation4 ,in #aiaj1 while ,i was still a professor at ,massachusetts ,tech1 the ,united ,fruit ,company invited me to go in one of their ships to study the earthquake destruction of ,cartago1 ,costa ,rica4 ,i saw an opportunity to study seismology in the field1 as ,i had studied volcanology in ,martinique4 ,the ,united ,fruit ,company owned the railroad and much of the national debt of ,costa ,rica4 ,f4 ,r4 ,hart1 treasurer of ,m4 ,i4 ,t4 and director of the fruit company told me to make my own plans and the company would pay all expenses4 ,knowing that engineering is of first importance in earthquake disaster1 ,i invited ,professor ,charles ,spofford1 head of our ,civil ,engineering ,department1 to go with me1 and he promptly accepted4 ,our journey was from ,new ,orleans1 in one of the splendid snow-white steamers of the fruit company4 ,this ship1 going by ,belize in ,british ,honduras1 took us to ,limon on the ,caribbean side of ,costa ,rica1 a place of banana plantations and ,jamaica-negro labor4 ,from ,limon we took a mountain-climbing1 narrow-gauge railroad1 to the high and healthful capital1 ,san ,jose4 ,we passed the ruins of the city of ,cartago1 with its earthquake tumbled churches and wrecked lower buildings1 all covered with heavy roofs of red tiles4 ,don ,anastasio ,alfaro1 government scientist1 showed us seismographs and maps1 and we called on ,president ,jimenez1 who owned a dairy farm on the high slopes of ,irazu ,volcano directly above ,cartago4 ,i arranged with the ,president to have the government make an official inquiry all over the ,republic1 suggesting a study of ten grades of earthquake damage1 adapted to ,central ,american habits4 ,these grades1 from mere alarm up to wrecked churches1 were to apply to what had happened in each place4 ,according to the answers1 we would make for each place a numerical value of intensity and plot these on the map4 ,we visited the wreckage of ,cartago1 where the quake had come like the crack of a whip on ,may #d1 #aiaj1 just at the supper hour4 ,an ,american railway conductor and his family were seated at table and with the first jarrings1 they all pitched forward under the dining room table4 ,when the low adobe house fell on top of them1 the table saved their lives4 ,a pathetic object was the hollow square of the ,carnegie ,palace1 designed by a ,costa ,rican architect to promote ,central ,american peace4 ,it was improperly braced1 and everything came down1 including the ornate stone wall around the grounds2 and a cracked gate post held a melancholy buzzard in the hideous ruin4 ,this and several of the big churches1 cracked and disrupted1 gave ,spofford food for his architectural notes4 ,the ,president's farm on ,irazu was a lovely place of green glades1 fat cattle1 and attractive ,spanish dairymaids1 at an altitude of more than #i1jjj feet4 ,the crater of ,irazu at #aj1cjj feet was a tumbled depression on the top of the mountain with a steaming solfatara on one side1 and a lot of circular holes inside1 within a rim more or less circular4 ,poas crater was very different1 with a crater lake of boiling water surrounded by bright-colored horizontal layers of ash4 ,we found buried bombs from a recent eruption which had punctured the soil with holes one or two feet across4 ,there was wild adventure for me in being given a horse at #d ,a4,m41 equipped with a rotten saddle1 which slipped when ,i mounted him4 ,the horse resented me in the early morning darkness1 having just left his grain1 and immediately bucked off both me and the saddle4 ,more adventure followed4 ,on the ride up the mountain and in the midst of the forest we encountered a jaguar trap which had recently caught two big cats4 ,it was a pen1 roofed with logs baited with a fowl1 and disguised with brush2 a shutter fell and closed the opening when the bait was touched4 ,on the way down we had a terrific tropical thunder storm1 with sheets of cold rain1 and ,i got chilled to the bone and was sick with dysentery for two or three days4 ,there are a dozen volcanoes like these two on the backbone of the ,costa ,rica rocky mountains4 ,they trend in a ragged line from the ,panama boundary on the southeast1 to ,nicaragua on the northwest4 ,all have records of explosive activity1 but lava flows are rare4 ,beginning at ,nicaragua the line of the ,cordillera1 capped with volcanoes1 continues through ,salvador1 ,honduras1 and ,guatemala2 and some of the lower ones have lava flows4 ,cosequina is famous among them2 and conspicuous as a frequently active volcano is ,santa ,ana in ,salvador1 one peak of which is ,izalco1 the index volcano of ,central ,america1 erupting frequently4 ,other index volcanoes are ,kilauea for ,hawaii1 ,stromboli for ,italy1 and ,bogoslof for the ,aleutians4 ,the next line of volcanoes1 also trending northwest1 extends from ,guatemala into southern ,mexico4 ,the ,costa ,rica line overlaps the northeast side of the ,nicaragua-,salvador line1 and this in turn overlaps the ,guatemala line1 and so on4 ,the chains of volcanoes are over an echelon of cracks1 surmounted by heaped-up lava peaks on the continental divide4 ,from the point of view of experimenting with volcanoes1 the exploration of the ,cartago earthquake and ,poas and ,irazu craters and a study of their relations typified the unsatisfactory combination of upheaved mountains of strata and of volcanic eruptions and underground friction4 ,this extends all the way along the ,cordillera from ,patagonia to ,alaska4 ,i say unsatisfactory because from the science standpoint1 the action of eruption or earthquake is far scattered in time and place1 and only local observatory geophysics and traveling scientists will do the work4 ,cartago is directly at the foot of ,irazu ,volcano1 but the volcano did not erupt simultaneously with the earthquake4 ,in the same way ,messina is at the foot of ,etna1 and ,tokyo is at the foot of ,fujiyama2 and the great earthquakes do not accord with eruptions4 ,sakurajima in #aiad was an exception1 it had a quake after outbreak4 ,the direct outcome of my study1 on the map of ,costa ,rica1 of lines of equal earthquake effects1 showed the maximum of the #aiaj quake on the continental backbone1 and the lines were crowded together along the western mountains4 ,however1 they spread out wider and wider along the ,caribbean coastal plain1 which is an elevated sea bottom on the northeast side of the country4 ,in other words the terrific jolt was a deep slipping or scraping under the volcano line1 and the elastic waves of like strong effects were close together in the mountains on the ,pacific side1 opposed by hard rock4 ,on the other hand these waves1 much feebler1 widened out their lines in going through flat1 soft strata on the ,caribbean side4 ,the answer seems to be that along the jagged rupture which underlies the volcanoes there is continuous upward pressure of lava1 which occasionally is accelerated into a big bump or slip1 now here1 now there1 as the whole great mountain range volcanically heaves through the ages4 ,our next journey was from ,barrios across to ,guatemala ,city1 where we had distant views of such volcanoes as the pure cone of ,agua and the sharp peak of ,santa ,maria1 which in ,october of #aijb had blown out its flank and left a vast hole4 ,the ,guatemalan plateau of rich soil and abundant market products rises gradually from the wet banana lands on the ,caribbean side to a height of #d1hgj feet at ,guatemala ,city4 ,this is on the line of volcano cracks4 ,then the land plunges abruptly in a precipitous down-faulted slope1 to a low flat shelf along the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,this shelf is covered with the merging of many deltas formed by the streams and torrents which drain the well-watered plateau4 ,along this line at the top of the precipice is the chain of volcanoes1 with rich coffee lands at their feet on the upper slopes4 ,coffee plantations were destroyed by steam1 mud flood1 and ash blasts in #aijb1 and similar destruction was destined to begin again in #aibc4 ,a large model of ,central ,america has been built in a park in the open air in ,guatemala ,city1 showing magnificently the upland plateau and its mountains1 the flat slope to the east1 and the long straight steep plunge to the ,pacific coastal shelf4 ,this is one of the best illustrations of the block faulting of a continent1 lifted like a huge flat slab along a crack1 and tilted away from the ,pacific4 ,the ,pacific block dropped down4 ,the same structure is true1 on a larger scale1 of the line of the ,andes1 lifted as a volcano-covered slab1 down-faulted along the ,chilean coastal plain4 ,the upland slopes away to the basin of the ,amazon4 ,in these studies we are experimenting with volcanoes on the scale of geography1 but the principles involved apply to ,mexico and to the ,cascade ,range in ,oregon4 ,they probably apply also to the ,aleutian1 the ,kamchatkan1 and the western ,pacific arcs1 considered as upheaved and eroded ridges4 ,they are arcs because they are ancient calderas4 ,we traveled by steamer along the ,pacific coast to ,panama1 where the canal was being finished4 ,we were impressed by ,general ,goethals and his associate engineers1 and with the marvellous organization of big engineering as the ,united ,states could administer it4 ,yellow fever had been conquered1 ships constantly brought dairy products from ,new ,york to canal employees1 houses were screened and unglazed1 and the jungle was cut back to limits of safety from the mosquitoes4 ,we found lively young ,american college graduates1 both men and women1 playing tennis in the deep tropics1 where earlier hundreds had died of fever4 ,we arrived just at the time when sides of the ,culebra ,cut were continuously sliding inward like a glacier1 to close up the ditch4 ,the ground under a village at the top of the bank was cracking in long crevasses1 and habitations had to be abandoned4 ,the only answer was to dig away the hill with hundreds of dump cars1 until the slope was flat enough to stop sliding4 ,an amusing episode occurred at the ,pacific end of the canal1 where giant monitors1 or hose nozzles1 were being used to cut away the banks4 ,engineer ,williamson had conceived the idea of mounting these monitors on concrete barges made on the spot4 ,he covered the frames with steel mesh1 and sprayed concrete against the mesh until a water-tight hull was produced4 ,fellow engineers jeered at ,williamson and said that a boat made of rock would surely sink4 ,someone asked ,williamson1 when his first barge bore up the heavy monitors and was successful1 what he was going to name it4 ,he painted the name in large letters on the barge 8,ivory ,soap1 it floats40 ,we met in ,costa ,rica and ,panama ,arthur ,herschel1 city engineer of ,kingston1 ,jamaica1 who was responsible for the reconstruction of that city after the terrific earthquake of #aijg4 ,herschel invited ,spofford and me to stay with him on our way home1 stopping off when we passed ,jamaica4 ,we did so1 were delightfully entertained1 and learned about engineering and rehabilitation after the most intense earthquake of all history4 ,the momentary intensity of the quake had been utterly without warning1 as though two mountains had collided1 and the masonry of the business section of ,kingston crumbled almost instantaneously4 ,a ,british major was walking along the main thoroughfare1 carrying a heavy walking stick1 when at the other end of the street1 he noticed a commotion and thought it was a negro riot4 ,the disturbance came toward him with a roar1 and he saw clouds of dust rise from the street like a tornado and approach him4 ,he felt the ground jolting1 raised his stick1 and decided to stand and fight it4 ,the buildings right and left simply exploded1 and he was fending off bricks and stones and timbers4 ,his feet were half buried in rubble1 and he sat down on a steel girder which had lunged out into the street behind him4 ,the dust was suffocating1 the noise was a traveling roar which went past him and on down the street behind him4 ,he called to a black man to dig out his feet1 but the man rushed by with staring1 crazy eyes4 ,he heard screams and saw women running4 ,it was some time before ,red ,cross stations were established and the army men rescued him4 ,the lesson taught by this earthquake1 more intense than the one at ,cartago1 was that the wooden bungalows of the hilly suburbs on rocky ground stood the disaster better than even reinforced concrete in the congested waterfront district4 ,the better built government buildings were preserved in part4 ,the ,jamaica law of #aijg had established definite boundaries for wooden construction1 limited to the suburbs1 and made new and wider streets in the business district4 ,it had also established rigorous fire insurance laws1 and a city building code requiring specified construction for all masonry4 ,the result was a marked ring of parkway separating the commercial center from the dwellings in the suburbs4 ,the trouble with such legislation1 the effect of which ,i saw in ,kingston twenty-six years later1 is that earthquakes are hopelessly discontinuous4 ,with no more big earthquakes as testers1 such laws become dead letter1 a new generation remembers nothing1 and an irresponsible and ignorant native population poses new problems of poverty and vice4 ,earthquake construction reform becomes an impractical dream4 ,this is part of the unsatisfactory quality of earthquake science1 where assistance to humanity is concerned4 ,so ends my expedition decade1 #aija to #aiaj1 after a succession of studies in the field1 which may be called ,operation ,pele-,soufrire1 ,operation ,vesuvius1 ,operation ,aleutians1 ,operation ,kilauea-,tarumai1 and finally ,operation ,cartago4 ,i did not think of these at the time as the strategic work of warring with a task force in geographical volcanology2 but now as ,i look back on it1 ,i can see in each expedition the organization of an institution and men1 and progress of volcanic geology4 ,the ,martinique event was destined1 through many explorers1 to reform geophysics4 ,vesuvius introduced me to the importance of superb photography as represented by ,perret and ,anderson4 ,the ,aleutian ,islands introduced the question of nautical exploration and the importance of a field base laboratory for work in a land of adverse weather4 ,the ,japan-,hawaii expedition showed me the national seismometric work of ,dr4 ,omori in the field1 and laid the foundation for the ,hawaiian ,volcano ,observatory4 ,finally1 the ,costa ,rica expedition introduced me to the complexity of seismological field work in a land of volcanoes1 with the problems of engineering ably investigated1 and afterwards published by ,spofford4 ,this decade thus logically leads into a totally different one1 field experiment in geography and founding a volcano observatory in and on the most active volcano in the world1 with a permanent dwelling on a crater4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,living with ,volcanoes 8,he took his journey into a far country40 ,the next decade began true experiments with volcanoes1 when two organizations some #e1jjj miles apart combined their resources4 ,the ,whitney ,foundation created at ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology an endowment of #be1jjj for geophysical work on earthquakes and volcanoes1 expressing a preference for work in ,hawaii2 and a group of businessmen in ,honolulu1 the ,volcano ,research ,association1 offered to pay my salary for five years4 ,when ,president ,maclaurin and a group of professors at ,m4 ,i4 ,t4 gave me a dinner at the ,university ,club in ,boston to celebrate my departure for ,honolulu1 the dinner table conversation turned to the terrors of the deep sea1 the dangers of volcanoes1 the awfulness of leprosy in ,hawaii1 and the heroism of giving up a secure teaching job in ,boston4 ,i replied that their pessimism reminded me of the last words of ,daniel ,webster1 as quoted by a ,new ,england farmer1 who said 8,dan'l opened his eyes1 took one look at the glass of whiskey on the table at his bedside1 another at the pretty nurse1 and said #8,i ain't dead yet4'0 ,i had organized the funds available so that a pair of ,bosch-,omori seismographs were shipped from ,strassburg1 and other seismographs were ordered from ,omori's instrument maker in ,tokyo4 ,i collected experimental instruments such as high temperature thermometers and chronographs1 of the type used in experimental physiology4 ,vaguely1 ,i was going to take the blood pressure and pulse of the globe4 ,also ,i obtained a full set of weather bureau instruments for temperature1 rainfall1 barometric pressure1 and humidity1 together with the electric pyrometers1 range finders1 and photographic apparatus used in my previous expeditions4 ,and ,i had some small ,japanese transits1 as well as plane tables and alidades for topographic experiments4 ,i was unable to go to ,hawaii until #aiab1 so ,i was delighted when ,perret consented to go to ,kilauea ,volcano in company with ,e4 ,s4 ,shepherd1 gas chemist of the ,carnegie ,geophysical ,laboratory of ,washington1 in the summer of #aiaa4 ,dr4 ,a4 ,l4 ,day1 director of the ,carnegie laboratory1 kindly supplied at our expense two ,leeds and ,northrop resistance pyrometers and the accompanying ,wheatstone bridge1 as well as thermocouples loaned from his equipment4 ,perret and ,shepherd went to ,kilauea ,volcano ,house2 and ,perret built a hut at the edge of ,halemaumau pit1 where an inner lava lake was bubbling and maintaining an island some #bjj feet below the rim4 ,kilauea is the big cauldron1 ,halemaumau is the firepit in its floor4 8,kilauea0 activity generally means ,halemaumau4 ,they have separate cliff margins4 ,l4 ,a4 ,thurston1 leading journalist and publicist of ,hawaii and keen promoter of a proposed ,hawaii ,national ,park1 did everything possible to help the scientists4 ,perret wrote weekly reports on the condition of ,halemaumau lava1 and sent in photographs to ,mr4 ,thurston's newspaper1 the ,pacific ,commercial ,advertiser4 ,living and camping at the fire pit1 ,perret inaugurated something new for ,hawaii1 and set a standard for the ,volcano ,observatory4 ,these continuous reports had been my dream for such volcanoes as ,vesuvius1 where publication had usually been in delayed annuals and gave no current news of what the volcano was doing4 ,furthermore1 the ,vesuvius observatory was at the foot of the peak4 ,i had ordered from the ,lidgerwood ,company an equipment of cables1 including some containing electric wires4 ,these were to span the #a1ejj feet and to lower a thermometer into the pit of ,halemaumau4 ,assisted by ,alex ,lancaster1 the active little half-breed guide from ,virginia1 and by numerous laborers from the plantations1 whose managers1 spurred on by ,thurston1 took a great interest in the project1 ,perret and ,shepherd erected two high ,a-frames on opposite sides of the fire pit and built a trolley on the cable stretched between them4 ,perret kept constant angular measurement of the changing height of the liquid lava1 as the glowing slaggy pool rose and fell overflowing its banks4 ,at one side of a triangular island was a point of ebullition called 8,old ,faithful0 where gas bubbles burst in a fiery dome1 irregularly1 but approximately once a minute4 ,the objective was to find the temperature of the liquid lava in the vicinity of the bubbling4 ,this was achieved by actually dipping the electric pyrometers into the molten slag1 then observing the precise temperature at the recording box1 which was in the hands of ,dr4 ,shepherd1 who remained on the pit rim at the upper end of the connecting wires4 ,finally the day came1 after numerous rehearsals1 when the long steel tube1 or terminal1 on the end of the movable cable could be moved out by the trolley to a middle point over the pit1 where it would make contact with bubbling liquid lava when lowered4 ,this was an extremely ticklish procedure1 for the lava was a heavy mat of self-crusting liquid rock with the crust forming hard slabs2 few places kept up an appearance of bubbling porridge4 ,no one had ever made contact before with the liquid of a fountain like 8,old ,faithful40 ,it was fortunate that the apparatus1 which was expensive1 consisting of platinum wires imbedded in silica glass1 was made in duplicate so that we had two of everything4 ,the splashing liquid of 8,old ,faithful0 looked as harmless as a kettle of boiling soup1 but ,perret and ,shepherd were in for a surprise4 ,when ,shepherd lowered the terminal directly into the liquid1 8,old ,faithful0 exploded1 for the molten slag proved to be a suction whirlpool which threw tentacles of lava over the steel pipe4 ,the apparatus went down to destruction 8like a bass under a log10 and the cable was bitten off like a piece of line4 ,the entire terminal vanished into the vortex1 leaving only a corroded wire4 ,to shorten a long story1 the second terminal was lowered into a seemingly safer liquid place4 ,a wave of the melt slapped and strained the pipe1 and though it was recovered1 no electric resistance reading was obtained at any time with the box at the rim of the pit4 ,close to #a1jjj in equipment was lost4 ,the resistance pyrometer is a sensitive tool in the laboratory1 for giving precise degrees of temperature in the region of #abjj ,centigrade1 supposedly the melting point of basalt4 ,but it was unsuited for the rugged bubbling of basalt slag1 where flaming gases and chilling air play more important parts than mere melting4 ,fortunately ,shepherd and ,perret were not at the end of their resources4 ,there still remained the thermocouple1 a simpler pair of wires of platinum and iridium encased in a steel tube4 ,the connectors from these go to a simple galvanometer in the hands of the operator4 ,the trolley could still be used1 and the thermocouple pipe had no glass inside it to be shattered4 ,a temperature of #ajjj ,centigrade was recorded in a bubbling area1 and this was considered good enough for an approximation4 ,another experiment was to lower an iron bucket into the liquid1 and pull it up full and dripping with black lava glass4 ,this was sent off to ,washington for analysis4 ,afterwards the lava lake went down1 no more experiments that year were possible1 and ,perret began the plotting of a curve of high and low in the rise and fall at the bottom of the pit4 ,it may seem extravagant to waste valuable apparatus on such seemingly small results2 but as a matter of fact1 the ,shepherd-,perret journal of the summer of #aiaa was epoch-making in the history of volcanology and in the work of the ,hawaiian ,volcano ,observatory4 ,it proved that skilled observers could dwell inside an active crater and there apply their skills in photography1 chemistry1 note-taking1 and continuous publication4 ,the substance of active lava lakes was proved to have viscosities and solidifications quite different from those implied by gases1 and it was shown that different types of thermometers gave negative or positive results useful for the future4 ,above all1 the notes on volcano chemistry by ,shepherd and ,perret demonstrated that engineering apparatus could be applied to the hottest and most continuously active pit in the world4 ,their success was at the relatively small expense of a journey and a few machines4 ,brun of ,geneva had set an example of similar work1 but ,perret's curve of rise and fall added a more detailed record of the ,kilauea pit from day to day than had ever been made before4 ,an observatory is a place of observation and measurement1 whether the things observed are glaciers1 rivers1 stars1 the weather1 or volcanoes4 ,the motive of observation in modern science is either the quality of what happens or the quantity expressed in lengths and degrees and rates of speed4 ,remembering the precedent of ,vesuvius1 ,i was confronted in ,hawaii with the necessity of determining how a volcano should be observed1 the need to measure changes in a single volcano1 and the need for permanent records of what those changes are4 ,we chose measuring instruments1 photographic equipment1 and thermometers1 and ,i invented a note-taking system which was compiled into a single record book1 from field notes taken uniformly by many different assistants4 ,illustration3 #g4 ,volcano ,house from ,observatory1 #aiac ,illustration3 #h4 ,island in ,halemaumau lava lake1 #aiaa4 ,photo by ,perret ,illustration3 #i4 ,hawaiian ,volcano ,observatory1 #aiab ,illustration3 #aj4 ,jaggar in seismograph vault beneath ,volcano ,observatory1 #aiaf ,the textbook needs for volcanology are records of the shape1 height1 number1 distribution1 temperature1 and differences among volcanoes4 ,how gaseous is lava8 how radioactive is it8 how often does it erupt8 and how dangerous is it for human beings8 ,with reference to the source1 crack or crater1 we need knowledge of how the earth crust is ruptured1 how deep are the fractures1 and how much accompanied by earthquake is the wedging upward of lava in those cracks4 ,my first job on arriving in ,hawaii was to make contact with ,mr4 ,thurston and his associates4 ,the next was to get a good map made of ,kilauea ,volcano as a basis for measurement of changes in the fire pit4 ,governor ,walter ,f4 ,frear came to my rescue and immediately sent ,colonel ,claude ,birdseye and ,captain ,albert ,burkland to make a topographic map of the proposed ,hawaii ,national ,park4 ,these engineers brought into the field the topographic camp of the ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey1 and they were extremely sympathetic with my project1 furnishing me with surveying monuments1 and sketching out methods wherewith to make an accurate base line for measurement of changes inside the pit4 ,a laboratory on the northeast edge of ,kilauea ,crater was quickly provided through the energy of the brilliant ,demosthenes ,lycurgus1 hospitable ,greek manager of the ,volcano ,house1 the hotel where ,i stayed4 ,all the merchants of ,hilo1 thirty miles away1 contributed funds and in a few weeks carpenters were at work1 on land belonging to the ,bishop ,estate and sublet by the ,volcano ,house4 ,furniture was paid for by the ,whitney ,fund4 ,a cellar for seismographs was blasted by ,territorial prisoners in the hot rock under the laboratory1 at the actual northeast edge of the greater crater of ,kilauea4 ,the lava pit ,halemaumau1 always smoking1 was in full view two miles away4 ,the cellar lined with concrete1 which shut off the steam cracks1 became a warm1 dry place for instruments at a constant temperature of about #hj ,fahrenheit4 ,concrete tables on the floor of the cellar held the pair of east-west and north-south horizontal pendulums1 recording with delicate pens on smoked paper1 stretched over a chronograph drum4 ,these paper records1 removed every day and fixed with shellac varnish1 became the seismograms of the permanent files4 ,long belts of wavy lines on each paper exhibited seconds1 minutes1 and hours2 and when a sharp zigzag in one of the lines occurred1 it was evidence of either a local or a distant earthquake4 ,h4 ,o4 ,wood1 who had been my assistant in field geology at ,harvard and had had experience with ,omori seismographs at the ,university of ,california1 was summoned to the ,observatory as seismologist4 ,thus in the first six months of #aiab ,i became a resident of a volcano in ,hawaii and had an adequate laboratory of eight rooms1 and suitable porches1 a darkroom for photography1 and the beginnings of seismograph records in the basement4 ,horses and saddles were purchased1 the necessary outer houses were built1 and ,alec ,lancaster was employed as janitor and field man4 ,francis ,dodge1 athletic young ,honoluluan and son of a government surveyor1 was appointed topographic assistant4 ,he was a hardy cowboy1 with some experience as rodman for the ,geological ,survey4 ,from the moment of my arrival ,i adopted uniform pocket scratch pads with detachable sheets for the use of all employees1 insisting that anyone who went to the lava pit should write notes1 inscribe the date and hour1 tell what he saw1 and hand the notes to me4 ,even ,alec ,lancaster1 whose father was a ,cherokee ,indian carpenter and whose mother was a mulatto1 took notes and learned about the points of the compass and the names of the coves and blowholes of the lava lake in the bottom of the pit4 ,some of ,alec's notes were very amusing1 as when he wrote1 8#i3cj ,a4,m4 ,april #c1 ,old ,faithful is on her job right sturdy40 ,however1 he quickly learned the correct technical expressions for surface streaming of the lava1 brightness of the fountains at night1 numbers of the bubble fountains1 and places of smoke on the bottom of the pit4 ,at all times ,alec was a useful camp man1 a good cook1 and a fearless climber of cliffs4 ,when it came to making and using rope ladders with hickory rungs for descent down a #bjj-;foot cliff to the edge of the lava1 ,alec was the first to volunteer4 ,he drove spikes into cracks in the rock and tested out the ladders1 surrounded by smoke4 ,this was done in ,june and ,december of #aiab1 when the gas chemists of the ,carnegie ,institution were conducted to the bottom to collect gases1 by pumps and vacuum tubes1 from flaming spatter cones4 ,i hope this introduction gives some idea of what the first year of the ,observatory accomplished4 ,meanwhile problems of policy and of the publishing of results crowded upon me thick and fast4 ,the notes of all employees had to be compiled2 critical scientific visitors had to be convinced of the usefulness of the new effort2 the ,massachusetts ,tech and ,honolulu sponsors had to be given suitable reports2 a permanent record book1 reproducing surveys1 notes1 and photographs1 had to be devised2 and ,i had to make occasional journeys to ,california1 ,boston1 and ,washington for contact with the ,government1 with scientific societies1 and with scientific magazines4 ,it was necessary to keep track of improvements in photographic plates1 for the fire pit with its dark red heat and dark red rocks was a difficult subject for photography4 ,fortunately1 the panchromatic plate had recently been invented by ,dr4 ,c4 ,e4 ,k4 ,mees1 and was a godsend for experiments in recording liquid lava splashing at night4 ,dr4 ,mees1 chief of research at ,eastman ,kodak ,company in ,rochester1 has since been a visitor and good friend of the ,observatory4 ,both surveying and photographing were difficult during #aiab because the inner pit sent up a dense column of fume which diminished only at those times when the liquid lava became hotter and developed fountaining4 ,there was such smokeless development with hundreds of roaring fountains of liquid lava in ,january and ,july4 ,the intervening period showed a great deal of smoke1 and in ,august there was a dense column of silently rising gray fume the full width of the pit1 so that nothing of the bottom could be seen4 ,to determine the height of the bottom lava it was necessary to work from a fixed station with a transit1 using a flashlight at night1 and waiting for a view of a glowing spot or fountain4 ,this involved reading vertical and horizontal angles1 dependent on difficult determination from two stations1 of the distance to the glow spot measured4 ,often in daytime one had to wait hours in order to get a view of the bottom through the fumes1 from stations at the ends of a base line on the edge of the pit4 ,at no time later1 fortunately1 were the fume conditions so bad as during #aiab4 ,a procedure was adopted of making a daily photograph of the smoke of the distant pit from the window of the observatory1 and this proved of value when the inner lava lakes and crags rose to view in #aiag4 ,like ,perret1 ,i made reports to the newspapers in ,honolulu2 and gradually these reports took the form of a monthly bulletin1 edited in ,honolulu by ,dr4 ,howard ,ballou1 who was the secretary of the ,hawaiian ,volcano ,research ,association4 ,this association had occasional ,directors' meetings1 which ,i attended and before which ,i made reports and gave lectures4 ,the report of the complete work done during the first few months of the year #aiab was published in ,boston by ,massachusetts ,tech4 ,the earlier history of ,hawaiian volcanoes had been recorded in excellent books by such travelers as the ,misses ,gordon-,cumming and ,isabella ,bird1 ,william ,lowthian ,green1 and ,drs4 ,c4 ,h4 ,hitchcock and ,w4 ,t4 ,brigham1 and ,professor ,james ,d4 ,dana of ,yale4 ,dana had been furnished with data from #ahdj to #ahij by a ,hilo missionary1 ,titus ,coan4 ,when ,i arrived in ,hawaii1 two books on ,kilauea's activity in #aiji had just been published1 and a big monograph by ,brun of ,geneva who had determined that ,kilauea lava was free from water vapor and was the hottest lava in the world4 ,furthermore1 ,r4 ,a4 ,daly of ,harvard had published his 8,nature of volcanic action0 on the basis of his summer at ,kilauea in #aiji4 ,there was strong controversy against ,brun on the water question1 but the experts1 including ,day and ,shepherd1 came to the conclusion that lava eruption of the ,kilauea type was actuated by such flaming gases as hydrogen1 carbon monoxide1 and sulfur2 that these gases were in solution in some elemental form deep down in the earth2 and that the chemistry of their emission heated the lava on its way up4 ,the lava lakes were hotter at the top than at the bottom4 ,we shall see that all lava partly solidifies at its own bottom and stays liquid above4 ,the items of activity at ,kilauea ,volcano during the decade from #aiaa to #aibj were marked fluctuation up and down in #aiab-aiac1 with a notable low level in #aiac1 culminating in a strong earthquake in ,october4 ,in #aiad the liquid lava came back into the bottom of ,halemaumau pit1 and in ,december ,mauna ,loa erupted in a fountain at its summit crater4 ,the lava lakes of ,kilauea grew bigger in #aiae1 and a triangular island appeared1 lifting itself up from a shallow flat and even rotating or hinging horizontally4 ,its uplift was as a peaked escarpment of lava layers tilted in one direction1 something very like ,perret's island of #aiaa4 ,an affinity between ,kilauea and ,mauna ,loa was obvious4 ,in #aiaf ,mauna ,loa completed its summit gushing by splitting open the mountain's southwest rift and making a lava flow into ranch and forest lands of ,south ,kona4 ,but just as ,mauna ,loa activity ended1 the entire ,halemaumau bottom thirty miles away lowered dramatically during one day1 leaving a deep seething puddle of melt1 surrounded by roaring red hot avalanches4 ,the coincidence1 along with appropriate earthquakes1 was unmistakable4 ,immediately after the lowering1 the liquid lava of ,halemaumau welled up border wall cracks and cascaded through the talus to form an oval pool in the bottom funnel of broken rock4 ,the lava column rose #fjj feet in the next six months and a lobate lake developed1 its coves separated by sectors of overflow lava which lifted slowly into crags in the center4 ,in #aiag the lakes and crags inside ,halemaumau were less than #ajj feet down1 the lake shores became accessible for experiments with iron pipes1 and the crags came into view from the ,observatory1 fully justifying the daily photograph for comparing changes of the distant pit4 ,illustration3 #aa4 ,lava lake1 showing bench1 ,march #cj1 #aiag ,illustration3 #ab4 ,halemaumau1 showing lava lake and crags1 ,december #h1 #aiaf ,illustration3 #ac4 ,jaggar holding pipe for sounding lava lake1 #aiag4 ,cylinder on end of pipe holds ,seger cones for measuring lava temperature ,by #aiah and #aiai the pit was full and overflowing the ,kilauea floor4 ,during the whole of #aiai ,halemaumau1 as a pit1 was obliterated by its dome of fill4 ,in autumn the south flank of ,mauna ,loa broke out again1 into a flood of lava that reached the sea in ,south ,kona4 ,remembering #aiaf1 we predicted that1 even though ,halemaumau was full to the brim1 the sinking away of ,mauna ,loa lava would pull down ,kilauea lava suddenly1 like a siphon4 ,exactly this happened on ,november #bh1 #aiai4 ,during the night the crags1 the clover-leaf lake1 and the bulging dome of the lava fill above ,halemaumau's edge went down as a cylinder to a depth of #djj feet in two or three hours leaving incandescent avalanching walls1 a gratifying confirmation of theory4 ,as in #aiaf1 the ,halemaumau lava immediately returned to the bottom of the pit1 and lifted itself thirty feet a day for three weeks1 so that in ,december it was a violently boiling ringshaped puddle1 surrounding a horseshoe of crags with a quiet inner lagoon and resembling a coral atoll4 ,the ,kilauea floor1 which is dome-shaped outside of ,halemaumau1 split open radially to the south1 made floods of lava into the ,kilauea ,crater wall valley1 and even escaped out into the ,kau ,desert4 ,this was extended into a mountain crack1 making flank lava flows of ,kilauea ,mountain1 nine miles away to the southwest1 something which had not happened since #ahbc and #ahfh4 ,concentric craters like ,kilauea caldera and ,halemaumau pit are thus ring-in-ring1 or cup-in-cup1 structures by means of slag heapings over a deep fracture in the rock crust1 the circularity determined by occasional central sinking4 ,this circularity has sometimes reached perfection4 ,in #ahid and #aiji the liquid pool inside ,halemaumau1 by steady welling up about a central hole1 became perfectly circular within a circumferential rampart of overflow4 ,this is a rare condition dependent on steadiness of upwelling1 temperature1 and viscosity4 ,it is important because it shows how the perfect circles1 and rampart cauldrons1 were made on the moon1 where there are also angular calderas of subsidence like ,kilauea ,crater4 ,evidently gas heating and liquidity changed on the moon1 just as it has done in ,hawaii4 ,the sources there are over cracks1 as in ,hawaii4 ,the analogies are so complete in these and many other ways that ,i completely disbelieve in meteor impact for the moon craters4 ,the moon awaits a complete comparison with active terrestrial basaltic lavas1 by a modern volcanologist4 ,this is only a thumbnail sketch of the astonishing luck which met the photographers and note takers of the ,hawaiian ,volcano ,observatory in its first decade4 ,there were similar decades in the nineteenth century1 and there were similar jagged crags rising as islands and shorelines around clover-leaf lakes in #ahgi and at other times4 ,there were undoubtedly earlier similar sympathetic movements whereby ,kilauea had lowered following the end of ,mauna ,loa outbreaks4 ,but none of this had ever before been measured from day to day4 ,our staff from #aiab on occupied the trig stations1 every day or night when the weather permitted1 in order to measure within one foot the level of the live lava up or down4 ,the lava was like the mercury in a barometer and needed incessant watching4 ,this was done with a telescope1 by people who dwelt on the edge of the vertical pipe4 ,after #aiac the measurements clearly showed that sinkings were just as important as risings4 ,they proved that the solid overflow matter and slide-rock slopes around the edges of lava lakes and coves measurably were a paste4 ,this containing bank rose and fell at a different rate from that of the gassy liquid which streamed and fountained inside4 ,the compiled results showed that the source of the liquid streaming was always at the west side of the pit bottom and that the streaming was toward fountaining grottos at the east4 ,the liquid might at any time overflow its banks or sink down leaving inner cliffs1 by failure of full supply up the west wall crack4 ,all of this may sound highly technical2 but notes1 photographs1 seismograms1 records of weather1 and unceasing press releases and reports to the sponsors1 while difficult for literary description1 created a new technique4 ,science1 when one is devising a new approach1 consists of observation first1 of experiment second1 and of explanation or theory third4 ,something of that order has to be followed in the record of a scientist's life4 ,the surprising sympathetic lowering of ,kilauea following the end of ,mauna ,loa eruptions was only one of numerous surprises during the first decade of the ,observatory4 ,for instance1 the temperatures of hot cracks were repeatedly and systematically measured1 and nothing sympathetic with lava motion was found4 ,the same may be said about the weather4 ,at the beginning it was supposed that rainfall1 air temperature1 barometric pressure1 and possibly fluctuation of the trade wind1 would affect the volcano4 ,however1 the only quickly evident effect was the visible vaporing of many cracks on the ,kilauea floor which dried up and diminished when the sunshine appeared1 becoming dense and increasing in cold or wet weather4 ,this obviously meant that the moisture content of the vaporing cracks1 some steam1 but mostly moist hot air came from shallow rain water a short distance underground4 ,an effect that was more volcanic1 but similar in principle1 was the visible vapor inside of ,halemaumau1 close to the lava lakes1 which always increased when the lava lowered and let the groundwater seep inward4 ,these visible vapors dwindled when the hot slag bubbled and rose1 and acquired a brighter glow4 ,no steam vapor rose from the glowing lakes4 ,there was drying up of groundwater by increased volcanic heat1 just as the cracks of the bigger crater had their moisture dried by the action of sunshine4 ,i shall have more to say on the subject of the seasons1 the calendar effects on the plat of rising and falling lava1 and especially the solar equinoxes and solstices4 ,there appeared the hint of a daily tide-like rise and fall of the lava in the pit4 ,finally1 there arose the question of counting earthquakes1 measuring their spacing in time and place1 and seeing which belonged to ,mauna ,loa and which to ,kilauea fault rifts4 ,we had to plot earthquake frequency and size in relation to lowering lava1 to day and night or to the seasons4 ,the study of rhythmic swelling and creaking inside the great pasty mountains became an exciting quest4 ,it gave promise of cycles from the hours of the day to the decades of the century4 ,we also discovered1 by measuring vertical angles1 that the inner floors rose and fell differently from the liquid lakes1 hence the floors could be called the bench magma1 as distinct from the liquid magma4 ,this led to a bold experiment in #aiag when the liquid lava lakes became accessible1 after a casual visitor1 ,mr4 ,walter ,spalding of ,honolulu1 discovered an easy path down to the overflow floors at the edge of the north lake4 ,here the streaming slag rushed toward a glowing grotto1 built up by spatter of a border fountain into a huge half-dome containing a glowing cavern hung with stalactites on the shore of the lake4 ,the platform outside of the grotto was overflowed1 and built up as the liquid lake rose1 the platforms of overflow sloping away to the wall valley under the pit cliff4 ,thus the lake was at the top of an inner dome a thousand feet across1 just as ,halemaumau pit rim was at the top of an inner dome of ,kilauea floor three miles across4 ,the outer edge of ,kilauea ,crater is a big oval at the top of the outward sloping greater dome of ,kilauea ,mountain forty or fifty miles across4 ,when a little conelet formed on the northern or western floor platform inside ,halemaumau1 its slope around a splashing and fountaining crack would make a fourth innermost dome a few feet across in the series of progressively smaller cone-in-cone structures from the outer rim of the big mountain inward to the ,halemaumau centers of eruption4 ,we saw such a conelet cave in just where ,i had stood and tested a flame the day before4 ,quietly the cone collapsed into a fountaining well of boiling lava beneath4 ,the ring-in-ring conception must be held in mind with regard to any volcano1 for one thing which we discovered is that cones are not only built up and collapsed but they are also swollen up by internal percolation of cracks and expansion of the hot stuff4 ,this tumefying1 or swelling1 is concerned with the experiment now to be described4 ,even after ,perret described his 8floating island0 of #aiaa and ,i saw the triangular islands appearing like shoals in a mud flat and gradually rising into crags in #aiaf and #aiag1 ,i remained incredulous of the possibility of a basaltic island floating4 ,when solid lava cracked off in pieces from inner cliffs around the lava lakes1 the fragments immediately sank4 ,furthermore1 when solid crusts formed on top of the foaming and streaming slag1 the shells1 when they got thick enough1 cracked up1 tilted up1 and slid down and foundered in the melt beneath4 ,it was obvious that lava rock is heavier than lava foam4 ,hence as an island is a rock1 it would not float4 ,this raised several questions4 ,where was the bottom of the lava lake on which it rested8 ,did the lava lake have a bottom1 and if so how far down was the bottom when the same lake rose #fjj feet in ,halemaumau pit between ,june and ,december of #aiaf8 ,in other words1 was the lake #fjj feet deep in ,december8 ,what would be the answer at any time if a stiff iron pipe were thrust down vertically into the liquid lake as a sounding rod8 ,no one had ever raised the question4 ,cross-section drawings had always depicted the liquid as extending downward indefinitely within a vertical tube4 ,when the lake became accessible in #aiag1 it seemed to me that a long steel pipe might be shoved over the border rampart1 end on1 and allowed to bend and sink1 or to strike bottom4 ,if the pipe could be recovered by dragging it back1 fusible samples of known melting point might show the temperature of the depths4 ,for the experiment1 #bjj feet of one-inch iron pipe1 which was screwed together in a single long piece1 was laid across the north floor of ,halemaumau4 ,ten assistants were distributed along the pipe twenty feet apart1 and ,i stood on the rampart with ,alec at the edge of the central portion of the lava lake4 ,this was a high bank ten feet or more above the streaming liquid lava4 ,the men were instructed to lift the entire long tube and walk forward with it1 so that it would plunge into the liquid lengthwise1 arching down toward the center of the lake as it came past me4 ,alec helped guide the pipe over the bank1 and the men came forward with it at a steady walk4 ,the end of the pipe1 covered with a screw cap1 was plunged into the liquid lava1 traveling toward the bottom at a good speed4 ,the strong current toward the left dragged it somewhat1 but not enough to prevent its sinking4 ,after two and a half #bj-;foot joints of the pipe had plunged into the liquid at a slope of about fifty degrees1 ,i could feel the pipe encountering the increasing resistance of a pasty bottom4 ,continued forward progress of the pipe caused it to stop and arch up1 while the surface lava streamed past it1 and its lower end was definitely stuck in the bottom substance of the lake4 ,i then gave the signal to the carriers to try to walk back to the place where they had started1 with a view to pulling the pipe up and recovering the terminal length4 ,the pipe trailed upward out of the lava lake like a red hot rope1 then stuck and refused to come out4 ,it came close against the bank where it was frozen solid in the stiff blankets of pahoehoe crust1 which gripped it like hot iron4 ,the terminal length had been equipped internally with a spiral of spring steel1 containing ,seger cones which are used in the porcelain industry and which bear numbers indicating they melt at graded temperatures4 ,this first thermometer by meltability was never recovered4 ,the free lengths of pipe had to be unscrewed close to the bank1 and four twenty-foot lengths were lost4 ,in later tests we learned to keep the pipe oscillating back and forth so it would not freeze4 ,the epoch-making significance of this experiment was not understood until later4 ,calculation of the angle of slope of the pipe1 where it went down into the liquid and hit on the bottom1 showed that vertically the liquid was about fifty feet deep4 ,with the aid of soldiers from the ,kilauea ,military ,camp1 this experiment was repeated several times2 and each time the lake was found to be the same depth4 ,this conclusion was later verified by sudden subsidences of the liquid lava until the cliffs bordering the liquid were fifty feet high4 ,the eastern grottos turned into cascades1 with the liquid pouring down a well4 ,the liquid lake had become a river pouring over a ledge of its own bottom1 across from the western source wells to the eastern sinkholes4 ,these latter were fountaining grottos when the lakes were full1 but they exhibited internal rectangular upright sinkholes when the lake level was down4 ,this was verified repeatedly1 and the phenomena of source wells at the west and cascading sinkholes at the east were confirmed and photographed4 ,it thus became evident that the lava lakes were nothing more than convectional lava flows over pasty solidified substance of their own bottom sediment4 ,convection means rising foam1 loss of gas1 and sinking gas-free heavier liquid4 ,in other words1 the bench magma capped with overflows on the marginal platforms was a paste1 cooled from the top and bottom and sides and making the saucer of streaming liquid4 ,it was this paste which constituted the swelling heart of the bench magma4 ,the fountaining of gas bubbles escaping from solution robbed the lava of heat and caused it partially to solidify1 always at a depth of about fifty feet4 ,thus there were necessarily three substances3 ,the deep lava fizzing with self-heating gases 7later proved to be inflammable hydrogen1 carbon monoxide1 sulfur1 and inert nitrogen and argon71 the streaming foam into which the deep lava expanded1 and the semi-solidified refuse of the foam created at the bottoms and banks of the liquid lava when it cooled from bright yellow heat 7about #aaej ,centigrade7 to a dark-red heat 7about #ijj ,centigrade74 ,the streaming across the bottom from west to east meant that during six months of rising lava1 some #fjj feet in the last half of #aiaf1 the lava column was a cylinder of semicooled lava1 maintained by upward pressure of the deep lava bubbling up in the western crack between the cylinder and ,halemaumau wall4 ,meanwhile1 at all times1 the lakes were nothing more than streams of foam fifty feet deep and skinned over on top1 congealing on their bottoms and shores and cascading down sinkholes in the eastern wall cracks of the cylinder4 ,a convectional circulation was what maintained the rising1 foaming1 heating1 and cooling and the changes in density of the liquid as it lost its gas4 ,thus the entire fountaining phenomenon of the lava lakes was due to the self-heating of what is known as exothermic reaction of gas escaping from solution in molten basalt4 ,much of this is actually the burning of hydrogen in air1 creating a convectional circulation wherever the deep lava can find an outlet4 ,ordinarily these outlets are along cracks or rifts in the slope of the mountain1 where they are seen to break out in gassy fountains #ejj feet high1 and often to flow along the crack to a cavity where they cascade downward when less foamy and heavier4 ,a lava flow is always solving a problem of foaming and liquefying1 just as does champagne or beer4 ,there still remains the unsolved problems of how much of the deep lava is gas and whether it is mere pressure which holds the gases in solution1 as in soda water4 ,the alternative is for the deeper magma to be entirely gas1 oozing up cracks in the globe1 and reacting with oxygen from the air and solid rock1 percolating from the core of the earth upward1 and melting its walls4 ,in a sense1 the entire decade to #aibj was an experiment4 ,the results of that decade showed that the mountain swells and shrinks in tides with the passages of the sun and moon1 but that ,kilauea ,mountain and ,mauna ,loa ,mountain are all parts of what might be called ,hawaii ,island ,mountain4 ,the island of ,hawaii is above an old ocean bottom #ah1jjj feet deep and is only the end of a ridge #a1gjj miles long1 which even at its lowest end1 ,midway and ,ocean ,islands1 is still #ab1jjj feet high above the smooth mud-over-rock ball of the ,pacific ,ocean bottom4 ,all the evidence shows the ridge to be a pile of lava flows over a crack1 with a veneer of coral4 ,if1 then1 the relatively small ,kilauea dome is swelling and shrinking in sympathy with the sun1 the long ,hawaiian ridge is doing the same thing to a much greater degree4 ,michelson has shown that the solid rock of the globe rises and falls in a tide about one foot every half day4 ,as ,i have said1 our daily measurements in #aiab showed that the lava in ,halemaumau had a daily tide and that the larger movements reached maxima in ,june and ,december and minima in the intervening months1 which proved it must be a solar effect4 ,this was very exciting information and suggested a long train of experiments1 which were to be successful in the next decade1 based on the idea that the whole mountain swells as shown by leveling4 ,this extends out to a radius of twenty miles from ,kilauea ,crater1 and probably extends all the way to the seashore4 ,the actual measurement of a lava tide in ,halemaumau was done during ,july and ,august #aiai4 ,r4 ,h4 ,finch had just come from ,washington to be my assistant4 ,oliver ,emerson of ,honolulu was another assistant1 and two ,harvard youths1 ,sumner ,roberts and ,charles ,thorndike1 who had been on war missions in submarine chasers1 sent word through their parents that they were anxious to do something dangerous around an active volcano4 ,i jumped at the chance to employ them to help me measure the lava tide4 ,the north lake in ,halemaumau was quite accessible1 and we organized night and day shifts for surveying measurements from a canvas shelter on the actual bench lava near the lake4 ,for twenty-minute periods1 each observer critically measured a number of monuments on the bench magma and glowing places of the lake edge4 ,then a new measurement was started by leveling the transit4 ,this sequence was kept up night and day for a lunar month1 namely twenty-eight days4 ,one of the monuments was a fixed ,halemaumau benchmark1 equipped at night with a lantern and used as a datum for the fluctuating lake points4 ,a second tent back from the ,halemaumau rim was a camping base4 ,ford cars were kept running from the ,volcano ,house for the changing of crew1 ,mrs4 ,jaggar looked out for the food1 and ,i directed repeated surveys of the position of monuments and of the observation shelter4 ,meantime the lava steadily rose during ,july1 and at one time split open the ,kilauea floor making an outflow back of the shelter4 ,the vertical angles kept track of the movements of both the liquid and the semisolid lava4 ,the instrument was planted on the lava column itself4 ,on one occasion1 ,mrs4 ,jaggar's glove fell into a floor crack inside the shelter and burst into flame4 ,in all1 there were more than #bj1jjj observations recorded4 ,these were plotted on coordinate paper1 and results were reduced to a smooth curve by overlapping averages4 ,the actual curve of measurements was subjected to harmonic analysis at ,yale ,university by ,professor ,e4 ,w4 ,brown1 mathematician and specialist on motion of the moon and on lunar tides4 ,the results showed a definite daily tide in both liquid lava and semisolid lava2 of a few inches for the lunar tide1 and of larger amounts for the solar effect4 ,the curve plotted reached its greatest perfection of daily up-and-down waves during ,july at periods when the lava was steady4 ,this became interrupted and ragged when accidents of drainage out on ,kilauea floor pulled the liquid lava down4 ,illustration3 #ad4 ,river of ,alika flow1 ,mauna ,loa1 ,october #f1 #aiag ,illustration3 #ae4 ,lava streaming into a sinkhole in ,halemaumau lava lake1 ,july #g1 #aiag ,illustration3 #af4 ,sakurajima ,volcano1 ,japan1 #aiad ,illustration3 #ag4 ,fountain in lava lake1 ,march #ai1 #aiba ,h4 ,o4 ,wood1 seismologist at the ,volcano ,observatory1 was skilled in compiling the volcano's historical heights and depths of the nineteenth century and in plotting our curve of surveys of the liquid lava4 ,he published a commentary on such plots for #aiab-aiac in relation to solar curves of solstice and equinox1 and to the oscillations of the global axis4 ,he demonstrated a definite correlation between seasonal fluctuation of sun and moon and the seasonal rise and fall of the lava1 presenting an extensive analysis of the rock tide in the globe and its application to ,hawaiian volcanoes for a century4 ,perret had made a similar analysis for earthquakes and volcanoes in ,italy4 ,these curves applied to the seasons1 if compared with our lava tide applied to the hours of the day1 left me with the conviction that the cyclical variations are a fact4 ,they show correspondence between the swelling and shrinking of the globe and the movements of lava1 when those movements are free and subject to surveying measurements4 ,for few volcanoes are surveys possible1 and our measurements were the first in the world of any continuity4 ,earthquakes1 too1 were studied4 ,dr4 ,arnold ,romberg of the ,university of ,texas--who has become a distinguished inventor in the world of seismology1 magnetism1 gravity1 and oil prospecting--was ,professor of ,physics at the ,university of ,hawaii about #aiah and for several summers came to the ,hawaiian ,observatory to assist me in experimental seismology4 ,from #aiag to #aibj ,i took the records of earthquakes and other seismic movements1 as recorded by our ,omori instruments1 and ,romberg remodelled these instruments4 ,with his knowledge of the fundamental mathematics of pendulums1 for at ,harvard he had experimented with sensitive galvanometers1 his facility for making instruments out of nothing but wire1 solder1 and old clockworks was wonderful and inspiring4 ,i spent many months measuring our smoked-paper seismograms of #aiac through #aiah1 with the assistance of ,mrs4 ,jaggar1 to whom ,i dictated4 ,i measured types of local earthquakes1 of volcanic tremors 7some of which definitely accompany lava fountaining71 and tilting of the ground1 publishing the results in #aibj4 ,tilt upswelling is shown in amount and direction by gradual change of the writing seismograph pens1 and this is correlated with the recorded rise and fall of the lava4 ,in the course of three years1 with ,romberg's valuable advice1 we changed the seismographs to record with little mirrors supported on silken fibers and with beams of light projected on photographic paper4 ,and ,romberg invented an ingenious improvement with a vane and a bath of oil1 whereby a tilt-free seismograph for earthquakes only would keep the spacing of its lines uniform4 ,ground tilt crowds the lines4 ,we also experimented with a heavy cylinder which hung as a normal pendulum and which was capable of swinging in any direction1 so that it threw a beam of light vertically upward to a chronograph covered with bromide paper4 ,the chronograph was capable of being revolved and stopped1 until the mocroseisms and microtremors reached their maximum of amplitude1 for any given period of recording4 ,the permanent waviness of ground motion1 the tremors with periods of about two-tenths of a second1 and the microseisms with periods of about five seconds showed their maxima of back-and-forth movement when the chronograph was revolved to a position where the pendulum swung northeast-southwest4 ,this northeast-southwest tendency was found to be a characteristic of the seismograph cellar for many seismic measurements1 including local earthquakes4 ,this was the direction at right angles to the edge of the cliff on which the ,observatory stood4 ,we concluded that this motion was characteristic of the upright flat slabs1 with cracks behind them1 which constitute the face of the crater cliff1 and decided that any motion communicated to these slabs would tend to be a swaying toward the crater1 rather than in the direction of stiffness parallel to the crater's edge4 ,omori has found a similar permanent tendency for ,tokyo city1 where the directions are northwest and southeast for maximum amplitude4 ,this means that any spot on earth oscillates easiest in one direction4 ,these first ten years of the ,observatory answered many questions and pointed the way for future experiment and study4 ,it now appears that liquid lava is a gas froth1 that ,kilauea and ,mauna ,loa are all one system1 that hydrogen is the most elemental gas in eruption1 that a gas-free paste is the residue of flowing foam both in pits and lava flows1 that earthquakes and vibrations are a function of this paste wedging up cracks and sinking back underground1 and that the rise and fall is in tides and cycles1 short and long4 ,these things are not guesses1 but measurements4 ,the earthquake problem at volcanoes is misunderstood in geology4 ,the superstition that volcanic quakes are small is wrong4 8,volcanic0 in volcanology is not limited to volcanoes4 ,los ,angeles1 ,charleston1 ,lisbon1 and the deep ocean bottom are all volcanic1 are all tremulous2 and all have 8lava0 underneath4 ,kilauea and ,midway ,island are one1 ,rome and ,etna are one1 ,iceland and ,st4 ,helena are one1 ,redlands and ,mount ,rainier are one1 and the paste is underneath4 ,these facts concern the globe1 not a little bundle of wrinkles like the ,alps4 ,we do not know what an earthquake is or what lava is4 ,however1 8lava0 falling suddenly and rising slowly with big and few earthquakes accompanying fall1 and little and many earthquakes appearing with rise1 are facts observed at ,kilauea4 ,at ,tokyo in #aibc the greatest quake in history centered at lowered lava and lowered sea-bottom next to ,oshima ,volcano island4 ,the ,messina quake in #aijh made a hissing noise1 and nearby ,etna lava was low4 ,there are long cracks in the earth shell somewhere deep down1 and we know little about them except that volcanoes and faults are in lines4 ,so long as the three-quarters of the globe under oceans are unexplored by man1 with no rock specimens or even decent maps1 and so long as there are no instruments planted on sea bottoms1 we cannot use the term volcanic intelligently4 ,most volcanoes of the earth are undiscovered4 ,kilauea measurements whet the appetite for a new scientific frontier1 the prospecting for ores1 volcanoes1 and mountains under the sea4 ,the absence of core drilling and rock sampling over three-quarters of the earth is a disgrace to the oil-drilling and quarrying sciences of mankind4 ,the founding decade of the ,hawaiian ,observatory produced two effective expeditions1 one to ,japan and one to ,new ,zealand4 ,the ,research ,association voted to send me to ,kagoshima in ,kyushu1 the south island of ,japan1 where the volcano ,sakurajima made earthquakes1 explosions1 and lava flows in ,january of #aiad4 ,about the same time ,perret was sent to ,sakurajima by ,friedlaender of ,naples1 so we met in ,japan4 ,sakurajima1 or ,cherry ,island1 is a #d1jjj-;foot cone in ,kagoshima ,sound1 a deep inlet at the southernmost end of ,kyushu4 ,the volcano threatened #bb1jjj persons in villages on ,sakurajima ,island itself1 and #gj1jjj in ,kagoshima4 ,it is a land of orange groves1 fisherfolk1 ,satsuma porcelain1 and maritime commerce1 situated at the north end of the ,okinawa-,ryukyu islands1 a volcano chain extending north to ,nagasaki4 ,authorities in ,kagoshima knew all about ,pele2 and the army1 navy1 and governor wasted no time4 ,professor ,omori1 who had a seismograph at the weather station of ,kagoshima1 went at once to the volcano1 and profiting from the lesson of ,pele1 guided the lives of #ij1jjj persons4 ,the ,sakurajima eruption began on a ,saturday and ,sunday with hundreds of earthquakes locally identified as coming from the volcano4 ,public and private vessels were called into service to move all the people of the island over to ,kagoshima and beyond4 ,with a general of the army in command1 this was accomplished in two days4 ,on ,monday at ten o'clock the great1 picturesque peak1 quite like ,pele or ,vesuvius1 suddenly ejected vertically and quietly1 from a crack in its flank1 a column of 8smoke0 #cj1jjj feet high4 ,this was answered by another1 similar column on the opposite side of the mountain2 and the two columns joined above into a colossal arch of cauliflower clouds consisting of sand1 dust1 and boulders4 ,the crack in the mountain which gave vent to all this opened with slight rumble and behaved like two radial ruptures meeting toward the peak1 extending southwest and southeast4 ,the sector of the mountain between them appeared to have been lifted like a piece of pie shoved up in the center4 ,but the summit craters played no appreciable part in the eruption1 unless it was a gush of steam on ,sunday evening4 ,the line of craterlets along the cracks and only half way up the mountain quickly developed lava flows1 and these poured down1 the one toward ,kagoshima ,strait1 the other toward the narrow ,osumi ,strait1 which separated the volcano from the wilder eastern mainland4 ,this strait was filled up with heavy block lava1 or aa1 converting the island into a peninsula4 ,a similar aa lava flow1 fifty feet high in front1 swept down to the beach on the ,kagoshima side1 with boulders as big as a house tumbling over its andesite front4 ,tidal waves made by these two lava flows entering the sea were small but perceptible4 ,the principal effect was thousands of white steam jets where the red hot blocks entered the ocean4 ,culmination of glowing heat came the second night1 ,tuesday4 ,the flows continued for months1 but the maximum of seismic effect had happened at six o'clock in the evening of the first day1 ,monday4 ,this was a really big earthquake damaging masonry and causing landslips from the cliff next to ,kagoshima city and killing a number of people4 ,the flux of refugees from the volcano villages on ,monday was a dramatic event4 ,when the lava outbreak occurred in the forenoon1 the schools sent the children home4 ,on their way1 the children gazed entranced toward the terrific arch of cloud over the mountain1 vomiting trajectories of stones4 ,shops closed1 and the city was quiet while everybody sized up the crisis4 ,as a schoolboy in ,english class wrote1 8,monster rocks went horizontally from the down to the up1 with smokes on their behind40 ,after the evening earthquake1 however1 when many buildings had shaken down1 all except public officials were ordered to leave for the back country4 ,young men's clubs organized to receive the refugees along the roads which led into the interior of ,satsuma province1 while temples and schoolhouses were impressed into service to house them4 ,the migration of more than #ej1jjj people with packs on their backs and with handcarts bearing household goods1 demonstrated how easily the ,japanese people took to a nomad existence4 ,this hegira came to an end on ,wednesday1 when ,dr4 ,omori arrived from ,tokyo1 sized up the seismic record and the fiery crisis of ,tuesday night1 and took the grave responsibility of announcing that the population of ,kagoshima might safely return4 ,this was done1 he was right1 and no further damage beset the city4 ,through all of this eruption1 so different from ,pele in administrative control1 no one was killed by the volcano1 though one or two old people died of shock4 ,one old lady who refused to leave her home on the island survived4 ,village roofs were bent down1 crushed1 and half buried under a heavy snowfall of ash1 and it was notable that flat-roofed cottages were crushed1 whereas those with steeper roofs were less damaged4 ,orange orchards were hopelessly destroyed4 ,at the west shore of ,sakurajima in a place called ,hakamagoshi1 a fiery blast rushed down to the sea from the rift4 ,trees were stripped of limbs and bark1 saplings were bent away from the volcano1 and wood fiber on stumps was shredded by flying rocks4 ,this blast was very short lived and never reached across to the city4 ,it bore the marks of being similar to the downblasts of ,mount ,pele4 ,the lava flows kept on for a year and built new shore islands4 ,i had the remarkable experience of being rowed in a skiff over the submerged tongue of an eastern flow1 trailing a thermometer in the increasingly boiling water4 ,when the steaming water about us reached scalding temperature1 we had the unpleasant thought that if we should capsize we would be cooked4 ,we found boiled horses and cattle along the beaches1 and thousands of dead fish4 ,a climb near the eastern flank vent showed a portion of the moving lava flow pouring down the slope into a glowing cavern under a shell of its own bouldery texture4 ,the thousands of dollars of relief which came to ,japan from ,america and elsewhere were handled with scrupulous honesty1 and the inhabitants of the island were rehabilitated on ,tanegashima1 another island of the ,ryukyu ,archipelago4 ,scientific investigations showed by leveling that the mountain had been lifted a few feet by the internal penetration of the lava1 and reexamination of the benchmarks along roads extending out radially indicated that the north end of the bay bottom and shore had definitely sunk1 as though underground lava had been withdrawn from that region1 to push up1 swell1 and overflow the mountain4 ,this effect of subsidence outside was traced and shown to gradually lessen for a hundred miles from the place of greatest sinking4 ,investigation carried out by the geologist colleagues of ,omori culminated in a monumental publication which demonstrates the solidarity of the ,japanese methods of science4 ,and both ,omori and ,professor ,koto published books on ,sakurajima in ,english1 with maps1 photographs1 curves1 and seismograms4 ,omori1 in #aiaj1 had anticipated movement of the earth about a volcanic center as swelling up one place and sinking down in another while eruption was going on4 ,at that time1 he described ,usu ,volcano at the opposite end of ,japan1 where leveling instruments showed graded changes in height made by the ,usu eruption4 ,a remarkable physiographic character of ,usu ,mountain1 and of the adjacent basin of ,lake ,toya1 is that basin and dome appear complementary1 just as ,kagoshima ,bay was compensated by ,sakurajima4 ,this same pairing of lake with volcano has been noted in other parts of ,japan1 as though tumefaction by lava penetration and lava eruption had robbed the underpinning of an adjacent piece of ground1 which lowered and became a lake by filling up with groundwater4 ,from ,sakurajima ,i went to ,bandaisan1 or ,kobandai1 a famous volcano in central ,japan northwest of ,tokyo and on the shore of a beautiful lake4 ,it looks like an ordinary rocky peak1 but its fame was made by a steam explosion from its flank which blew out the side of the mountain and left avast sulfurous quarry with numerous solfataras and hot springs4 ,bandai was known by geologists to be one of a chain of volcanoes1 but prior to #ahhe its activity was in question4 ,one morning the sky was darkened by the overwhelming explosion1 and vast volumes of rock from the outbreak poured down as a landslide and completely dammed a river system4 ,it left extraordinary little heaps in the new dammed up lake4 ,these appeared to be individual blocks of rock against which heaps of debris were piled so as to leave pyramidal humps scattered over the surface of the impounded water near the volcano4 ,an excellent report in ,english on this eruption was published at the time1 and the eruption became the type of what geologists call a phreatic explosion1 meaning pure steam4 ,there was doubt as to whether any fragments of new lava were thrown up4 ,i took with me to ,bandaisan a photographer-guide4 ,we camped in a mountain inn with thatched roof1 visited a hot spring resort1 and hiked to the crater where we measured temperatures and took photographs4 ,it was a vast flat-floored shelf1 dug out of the side of the mountain1 with steam jets and puddles of boiling water at the back4 ,looking out at the new water-filled valley with its many islands at the base of the slope below the crater1 we could see shoreline levels higher than the present beach1 where the damming had produced the highest stand of the water4 ,the eruption and landslide overwhelmed villages and killed many people1 though it lasted only a few days4 ,it was on the side of the mountain remote from the older lake4 ,in clambering over the broken debris1 which looked more like glacial deposits than volcanic agglomerate1 ,i picked up some pieces of vesicular basalt that were definitely lava4 ,wada1 a ,japanese geologist1 had found the same thing1 and we both concluded that these were an internal live basalt blown to fragments in the ,bandaisan eruption1 but that most of the material was from the shattered old mountain4 ,my interpretation of ,bandaisan is that it is an old volcano in the line of ,asama and other volcanoes of central ,japan1 and that the line is a deep crack always full of lava in the depths1 which is selective of outlet1 depending upon what part of the crack opens as the path of least resistance4 ,eruption may be occasioned by lava wedging upward at one volcano1 or by lava sinking downward at another volcano1 according to the way the medial rift of continental ,honshu is warped and stressed by the earthquake forces4 ,one part of a volcano chain is always sinking1 with lava withdrawn4 ,another part is always swelling up1 with lava penetrating the cracks under active crater pits1 like that of ,asama4 ,asama is the ,vesuvius of central ,japan near the village of ,karuizawa1 famous as the resort of ,american missionaries4 ,bandaisan is one of a line of volcanic peaks north of ,asama1 all of which have hot springs and solfataras4 ,the explosion of ,bandaisan1 where the big natural lake represents the groundwater level of abundant rainfall1 occurred when the underground lava column suddenly sank rapidly by the gaping open of the deep rift4 ,the water poured into red hot cavities1 while the lava was rising and erupting by frothing up in the depths of one of the other volcanoes4 ,the results of ,bandai's explosion were first1 earthquake collapse1 which was assisted by vast outjets of boiling steam from groundwater1 and then the blowing out of the mountainside4 ,of special interest is the spacing1 twenty to forty miles1 between volcanoes along such a system as ,asama-,bandai4 ,the underlying cracks must be in echelon arrangement1 and the spacing is a function of the thickness of the upper earth crust and its capacity through the ages of producing spaced-out widenings or bends in the crack1 above whatever shell confines the lava4 ,the same spacing of the new and old volcanoes is true in the ,caribbees and in the ,costa ,rica-,mexico line4 ,there an old peak might make a ,bandaisan by unforeseen breakage and steam development4 ,this applies also to the ,ryukyu-,sakurajima line4 ,i visited ,kaimon at the extreme south end of ,kyushu1 a steep dome blocked on top by a lava plug4 ,south of here to ,suwanose ,island1 an active volcano1 the spacing of islands is similar to the northward spacing of ,sakurajima1 ,kirishima1 and ,asosan1 following the same law of selected vents and offset cracks4 ,kirishima thirty miles north of ,sakurajima is a treacherous and dangerous volcano that made a bad explosion just prior to the ,sakurajima eruption4 ,i saw on the rim of its summit cavity a breadcrust bomb1 a triangular block of rock eight feet long1 with its surface beautifully tessellated with gaping cracks4 ,this breadcrust fracture indicates that the fragment of glowing andesite was thrown up while pasty1 then congealed on its surface to smooth glass and continued to swell evenly with internal gas1 so as to rupture the glassy surface as expanding dough4 ,at ,aso ,volcano farther north ,i entered a natural gateway into a cauldron nine miles across1 surrounded by a wall1 and with a hilly country inside1 from which a river escaped through the gateway4 ,the summit peak in this landscape proved to contain an active pit on top4 ,the pit was steaming and the source of the steam was boiling puddles of mud at the bottom4 ,this was the 8,halemaumau0 of ,asosan1 which has had a record of many eruptions near the city of ,kumamoto4 ,the chain of ,kyushu volcanoes ends1 after the usual spacing1 with a volcano at ,nagasaki4 ,from ,shimonoseki ,strait1 going northeastward1 new belts of volcanic fissures have built the mountains of central ,japan1 cut across northwest of ,tokyo by what ,naumann called the fossa magna or big trench4 ,this is famous in the history of ,japanese geology1 for which this ,german geologist laid the foundations4 ,the fossa magna extends northwest and southeast1 through ,fujiyama and ,oshima ,volcanoes to the ,ogasawara ,islands and the ,bonin ,islands1 scene of volcanoes making and disappearing1 from craters under the ocean4 ,omori had discovered historical similarities between the eruptions of this chain and those of the ,ryukyu chain4 ,this is significant1 because as we go from the small spacing of the individual volcanoes1 we come to some deeper and larger fracturing of the whole crust of the earth that determines a spacing of hundreds of miles between such larger arcs of rupture as those of ,kyushu and the ,bonin ,islands4 ,as all are volcanic and have been so since the birth of the globe1 it is unthinkable to me that they are anything but deep fractures which go down to the earth's core4 ,the surface geology of marine strata is a mere veneer compared with the deep and ancient igneous rocks4 ,i went to ,new ,zealand in #aibj1 taking with me in manuscript form the ,hawaiian ,observatory results of the past decade4 ,notable among geologists there was ,dr4 ,allan ,thomson1 director of the ,dominion ,museum in ,wellington4 ,dr4 ,thomson and his distinguished father1 the ,honorable ,william ,thomson1 guided ,mrs4 ,jaggar and me all the way from ,auckland to ,dunedin4 ,it was my task to give lectures on volcano research1 to show lantern slides of ,mount ,pele and ,kilauea1 to tell about seismographs and cycles1 and to urge upon ,new ,zealand science the importance of establishing a volcano observatory system in the ,taupo ,belt of volcanoes4 ,here1 in #ahhf1 had occurred the terrific eruption of ,tarawera4 ,here are spaced out volcanoes extending north into the islands of ,tonga4 ,here1 possibly1 along the ,cook ,channel between the ,north and the ,south ,islands1 is a transition from volcanoes to earthquakes1 and quite possibly another fossa magna worthy of comparison with ,japan4 ,off to the east lies the profound linear ,tonga ,deep1 compensating the ,new ,zealand volcanic uplift4 ,this is analogous to the ,tuscarora ,deep east of ,japan4 ,we were fortunate to procure accommodations in ,rotorua1 the boiling geyser district1 at the time of the visit of the ,prince of ,wales1 later ,king ,edward ,,viii1 and to see the hakas1 or dances1 of an encampment of #e1jjj ,maoris1 gathered to honor ,british royalty4 ,i was interested in the relics of liquid basalt collected on the lip of the great rift through ,tarawera ,mountain4 ,the rupture extends the length of ,rotomahana ,lake1 which sank away as a groundwater phenomenon in #ahhf4 ,this1 like ,bandaisan1 was one of the great steamblast eruptions of history4 ,it was right on the line of volcano spacing extending from ,white ,island in the ,bay of ,plenty1 to ,ngauruhoe and ,ruapehu ,volcanoes1 beyond ,lake ,taupo at the south4 ,here was a land of echelons of deep cracks1 building up along scores of miles from submarine eruptions such as ,falcon ,island in the ,tonga group4 ,farther south is the dangerous looking ,white ,island close to the ,new ,zealand shoreline1 resembling ,bogoslof1 and so on to the lava volcanoes at the south4 ,big earthquakes have been characteristic1 along with uplift1 of both shorelines of ,cook ,strait4 ,this kind of gradation is certainly like the transitions from submarine eruption to continental uplift1 crowned with volcanoes1 so characteristic of ,japan1 the ,aleutians1 ,california1 and ,italy4 ,it is impossible to think of it1 when we consider water depths of #d1jjj fathoms1 and a step upward to such altitudes as the ,new ,zealand alps1 all linear for a distance of several hundred miles1 except in terms of the faulted deep earth crust4 ,and seismologists tell us that that crust is #a1hjj miles deep4 ,the associations made on this trip were destined to have far-reaching effect in meetings with ,new ,zealand scientists at later dates4 ,i met ,professor ,bartrum of ,auckland2 the officials of the ,new ,zealand ,geological ,survey2 ,dr4 ,ernest ,marsden1 distinguished physicist who had worked with ,rutherford in ,england2 and ,dr4 ,c4 ,a4 ,cotton1 physical geographer and author4 ,cotton showed us the elevated shorelines of ,wellington associated with the big earthquakes of #ahea4 ,other personages were ,professor ,speight1 geologist of ,christchurch ,college1 and in ,dunedin1 ,professor ,r4 ,l4 ,jack1 physicist of ,otago ,university and our host4 ,dr4 ,c4 ,e4 ,adams1 government astronomer of ,wellington1 we were to meet again on ,tin ,can ,island in #aicj1 during the ,united ,states ,eclipse ,expedition4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,mac,millan-,brown1 chancellor of the ,university of ,new ,zealand1 and his daughter entertained us in ,christchurch2 and he later visited us several times in ,hawaii in the course of his extensive travels4 ,i was glad to stimulate volcanology in ,new ,zealand and pleased when there eventually appeared the splendid work of ,dr4 ,l4 ,i4 ,grange1 on the 8,rotorua ,district10 with a project for geophysical surveys made imperative by the ,napier earthquake disaster4 ,before this chapter is closed1 some personalities of the first decade of the ,observatory should be mentioned4 ,foremost was ,l4 ,a4 ,thurston1 founder of the ,volcano ,research ,association and its president for many years4 ,it was his interest and enthusiasm coupled with that of the other members of the ,association that made the ,observatory possible4 ,prominent among those members was ,l4 ,w4 de ,vis-,norton1 for many years secretary of the ,association and a devoted apostle of volcanology4 ,mrs4 ,isabel ,jaggar1 from #aiag1 was my helper not only as wife and amanuensis1 but as general assistant at the ,observatory4 ,she could operate instruments1 take notes at the pit1 keep the record books1 and act as buffer against an overinquisitive public4 ,there was ,demosthenes ,lycurgus1 genial ,greek host of the ,volcano ,house1 who did all in his power to help us1 by grants of lands1 raising money1 and personally promoting science with all the vigor of his wonderful personality4 ,he went home to ,greece to be married1 and alas1 died during his honeymoon4 ,later came my good friend ,george ,lycurgus1 who still operates the ,volcano ,house4 ,colleagues of the founding decade included ,h4 ,o4 ,wood1 who came from ,berkeley in #aiab1 acted as seismologist and geological assistant1 and established a seismological bulletin4 ,he left to enter the army in #aiag4 ,in years to come ,wood established in ,pasadena under the ,carnegie ,institution one of the great seismographic laboratories of the world1 and his name became coupled with a ,california ,institute of ,technology physicist to name the ,wood-,anderson seismograph4 ,later came ,r4 ,h4 ,finch who had worked with ,dr4 ,humphreys of the ,weather ,bureau in ,washington and had been a flight meteorologist in ,ireland during the first ,world ,war4 ,he was assigned by ,marvin to me as assistant in #aiai1 when the ,congress took over our work for the ,u4,s4 ,weather ,bureau4 ,finally1 ,i should like to name the numerous workers of the ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey in topography and geology1 notably ,birdseye1 ,burkland1 ,stearns1 ,wilson1 ,clark1 ,meinzer1 and ,macdonald4 ,these men brought to reality my ,geological ,survey estimate of #ahii1 when ,i recommended to ,walcott a survey of the ,hawaiian ,islands4 ,the ,hawaii geologic survey included investigations of water1 highways1 and minerals1 and was to map lavas1 volcanic processes1 and island growth4 ,the annual cost of the work had been estimated at #bb1jjj1 including #f1cjj for salaries in geology and #aj1jjj for the total cost of topography study1 or #ij1jjj for five years4 ,the project was begun in #aiji in cooperation with the ,territory of ,hawaii4 ,in #aiea the mapping was completed and the cost had been many times the original estimate4 ,among visitors who contributed to the ,observatory work were ,sidney ,powers1 a voluntary observer who had been one of my students in ,boston4 ,he explored and published on many volcanoes around the world and followed me in ,sakurajima and the ,aleutian ,islands4 ,he later became an outstanding petroleum geologist of the ,amerada ,company in ,tulsa4 ,arthur ,hannon1 an architect from ,cleveland1 acted as a volunteer mapper1 and for months aided with sketches of the changes in ,halemaumau4 ,william ,twigg-,smith1 an artist from ,new ,zealand1 joined us in the lava-sounding experiment and made numerous sketches and paintings4 ,he later became the illustrator and photographer for the ,hawaiian ,sugar ,planters' ,association4 ,dr4 ,a4 ,l4 ,day of the ,geophysical ,laboratory visited us repeatedly1 in association with gas chemist ,e4 ,s4 ,shepherd4 ,he wrote important monographs1 along with ,e4 ,h4 ,allen the chemist for the ,carnegie ,institution1 on the ,yellowstone and ,lassen ,national ,parks1 and on ,geyserville4 ,allen came to the ,observatory for critical analysis of the steam of ,sulphur ,bank4 ,among other visitors were geologists1 geodesists1 and biologists of the ,pacific ,science ,congress1 held in the spring of #aibj4 ,these included ,h4 ,e4 ,gregory1 ,griffith ,taylor1 ,frederick ,wood-,jones1 ,william ,bowie1 ,t4 ,w4 ,vaughan1 ,e4 ,o4 ,hovey1 ,e4 ,c4 ,andrews1 ,f4 ,omori1 ,h4 ,s4 ,washington1 and ,dr4 ,chilton of ,christchurch1 who had been one of our inspirers in the ,new ,zealand trip4 ,this ,honolulu world congress assigned one meeting to ,kilauea ,volcano1 which enabled me to summarize results before a cosmopolitan group of scientists4 ,the ,washington executives who at this time promoted the ,observatory were ,secretary of ,agriculture ,david ,f4 ,houston1 ,director ,george ,otis ,smith of ,geological ,survey1 ,chief ,charles ,marvin of the ,weather ,bureau1 and ,charles ,d4 ,walcott1 ,secretary of the ,smithsonian4 ,later came ,w4 ,c4 ,mendenhall1 firm friend of the ,observatory1 and ,director of the ,survey4 ,it was my good fortune that between #aiad and #aiai ,mauna ,loa and ,kilauea were building up lava toward a fiery crisis1 and that the sugar business of ,hawaii boomed at the same time4 ,when the #aibj science congress convened there was much fresh lava to be seen1 and our ,research ,association was so prosperous that ,m4 ,i4 ,t4 in ,boston kept up its financial interest4 ,the ,american ,journal of ,science under ,edward ,dana of ,yale published our results4 ,this was fitting1 as ,dana's father1 ,j4 ,d4 ,dana1 had published much about ,hawaiian volcanoes4 ,consequently the end of the foundation decade made easier the financing of the next five years4 ,just at this time the ,geological ,survey spurted ahead1 the ,national ,park was opened1 the ,army built a recreation camp and a trail up ,mauna ,loa1 the ,inter-island ,steamship ,company took over the ,volcano ,house1 and a ,promotion ,committee was bringing many tourists4 ,illustration3 ,fluctuations of ,halemaumau lava from #agij to #aieb1 the verticals indicating maximum lowering preceding repose periods2 minor fluctuations not shown4 ,,chapter ,v ,expansion ,decade 8,there shall be famines and earthquakes in divers places40 ,the decade from #aiba through #aicj was a period of tremendous events and of experimentation at ,kilauea and ,mauna ,loa4 ,it was also an expansion decade for the ,observatory1 and for me4 ,additional funds made possible new buildings and equipment on ,hawaii2 observatory activity was established at ,lassen ,volcano in ,california2 and expeditionary work included a study of the #aibc ,tokyo earthquakes1 explorations on ,alaska volcanoes in #aibg1 and a visit to ,niuafoou in ,tonga1 part of the great ,new ,zealand-,tonga volcanic chain4 ,increased government aid was largely due to the help of the ,honorable ,louis ,c4 ,cramton of ,michigan1 ,republican floor leader of ,congress1 who took great interest in extending activities within national parks4 ,after we moved from ,weather ,bureau control to ,geological ,survey in #aibd1 ,cramton visited our ,observatory1 concluded that it was an orphan child of the government1 and asked me what ,i wanted4 ,i told him that ,i needed men and machines1 and ,i suggested expanding our studies to ,california and the ,aleutians4 ,meantime1 the ,research ,association was persuaded that we needed a fire-resistant iron building to house library accumulation1 record books1 and photographic negatives1 as well as seismograms and lava specimens4 ,these were precious relics of the very active overflows and experiments of the #aiab-aiba period4 ,with the advice of ,walter ,f4 ,dillingham and ,engineer ,john ,mason ,young of the ,university of ,hawaii1 ,i built a sheet-iron house with concrete floor and wire-glass skylights1 and installed steel furniture4 ,this became an invaluable office1 drafting room1 and workroom1 as well as a place for files4 ,the ,volcano ,research ,association1 in cooperation with ,hawaii ,national ,park1 built a trail side museum and lecture hall atop the high western bluff of ,kilauea ,crater4 ,later1 when the drive was extended completely around the greater crater1 the museum was on the road to ,halemaumau4 ,this museum had a plate glass front1 concrete floor1 skylight illumination1 and an esplanade looking down on the caldera and across the vast panorama of ,mauna ,loa1 ,mauna ,kea1 and the ,kau ,desert4 ,the building protected the lookout platform from the trade winds4 ,we housed in the museum a gleaming1 nickel-plated seismograph from ,japan1 suitable photographs1 and the best of our specimens for visitors to see4 ,this combined with the magnificent views to instruct the public in volcanology as nothing else could have done4 ,at the same time1 ,i equipped machine shops and added a first class mechanic to the staff4 ,it was during this decade and after my ,new ,zealand trip that such persons as ,omori and ,nakamura1 in ,japan1 and geologists in ,seattle1 ,berkeley1 and ,pasadena began to take an interest in the volcano problem as dominant in the study of earthquakes4 ,there were conflicting theories about the earth crust4 ,earlier1 in ,hawaii1 ,wood was a disciple of the tectonic or contracting theories of the earth1 whereas ,i increasingly believed volcanism to be profound1 crustal1 oceanic1 and ancient4 ,it is more fundamental than the strata and mountain folds of continents4 ,this conflict extended to the water question in volcanology4 ,i was inclined to believe the waters of eruption to be oxidized hydrogen1 whereas such physical chemists as ,day1 ,shepherd1 and ,allen believed water vapor1 like carbon dioxide1 to be fundamental in magma4 ,the whole question of the origin of oxygen--the most abundant element of the rocks1 air1 and water--is a matter of startling doubt in geology4 ,where oxides are known to exist in lava1 flames of oxidation make the gaseous fires2 and underground water full of oxygen plays a part in steamblast eruption4 ,all the waters of glaciers and oceans are oxides1 and prove that the volcanic oxidation of hydrogen was the most primitive of the volcanic processes4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,h4 ,allen found water vapor dominant in the ,sulphur ,bank gas at ,kilauea1 whereas ,day and ,shepherd1 who opposed ,brun1 thought water dominant in the gases of live lava4 ,its great preponderance in geological theory for such eruptions as ,vesuvius led ,allen to review theories and publish a long paper designed to refute my notion that oxidizing hydrogen is the primary volcanic ingredient4 ,as to earthquakes and so-called tectonic faults1 the whole of geology has its thinking so warped by continents1 the dwelling place of mankind1 and so diverted from the great linear trenches and the ridges of the ocean crowned with volcanoes parallel to the deeps1 that ,i became incredulous1 along with ,willis and ,oldham1 about the textbook cause of earthquakes4 ,the fascination offered by fossils1 by ages of shellfish and reptiles1 and by mountains of folded strata like the ,alps and the ,himalaya makes the votaries of evolutionary science neglect the mud-covered rocks and oceanic mountain ranges of almost three-quarters of the surface of the globe4 ,this seventy-two percent they have never seen1 nor collected hard rock specimens from1 nor even mapped topographically4 ,they are not acquainted with it by exploration1 and their theories about it are a blank1 except that gravity pendulums indicate it to be basalt4 ,the so-called geosyncline1 or continental basin of sediments1 filled with shells and strata as is the ,mediterranean1 is at the heart of all the theories of continents and mountains2 and geology expressly excludes the geosyncline and its strata from the probabilities of deep ocean valleys4 ,the most interesting subjects of continental geology are simply banished from conjecture4 ,interest in deep-ocean geology is lacking because science has made no field effort to bore or blast into it1 and so extend engineering science to the deep ocean bottoms4 ,earthquakes made a theme wherein ,i instinctively distrusted the word 8tectonic40 ,for generations the geological mind thought the earth losing heat1 contracting internally1 and wrinkling a crust in bumps1 with vast overthrusts of broken strata1 thus folding the ,appalachians and the ,andes4 ,all sorts of accommodations to a thin crust thirty miles deep were invented2 by ,dana and ,geikie1 by ,suess and ,wiechert1 and finally by one who should have been the foremost block faulting expert1 ,dutton4 ,hawaii convinced him that volcanoes are only skin deep and that the thin crust is so sensitive that a shift of the weight of river muds and sands is enough to push down the great valley of ,california1 while an underflow pushes up the ,sierra ,nevada4 ,this is the doctrine of 8isostasy40 ,it agrees with the ,stbel idea of shallow remnant reservoirs for the lava of volcanoes4 ,isostasy was devised by ,dutton and pounced upon by the mathematicians1 until they had gravity proving the whole world thin-crusted over an understratum of plastic lava4 ,the seismologists on continents agreed1 finding a density change1 but with no evidence of fluidity4 ,the world became1 mathematically and petrologically1 a sphere built of layers all the way down to the heavy fluid hot core1 which was conveniently imagined to consist of iron and nickel1 because some bolides of the solar system made of those metals occasionally fall on the earth4 ,all my experience of volcanoes and of deep oceans militated against a thin crust1 a shallow underlayer of basalt to feed volcanoes1 and a nickel iron core4 ,the core is heavy1 and sixty-two elements are heavier than iron4 ,all reason seemed against the notion that the vast volcanic sea bottoms are a thin crust wrinkling under contraction4 ,reason found every evidence on both earth and moon for a thick peridotite or olivine crust1 broken into ancient blocks1 bounded by long lines of fracture1 the blocks variously settling and scraping against each other from time immemorial1 actuated by volcanic forces from the core4 ,the whole of volcanology points toward sinking and down-faulted ocean basins1 alongside the remnant upstanding continents which are the minor feature of the primitive earth surface4 ,water condensed and filled hollows4 ,the processes of the core that made all this were volcanism--mother of air1 ocean1 seabottom1 land1 and life4 ,the crust was thick enough to make cracks #b1jjj miles long on a globe #h1jjj miles in diameter4 ,if there was a balancing of weights as in 8isostasy10 it was between high silica in continental lava and low silica basalt that spread under the oceans4 ,this is not static1 but is a continuing process of a kinetic1 or changing1 earth4 ,this excursion into theory is intentional1 so that in the middle of this book the geologically trained reader will understand that experience of volcanoes in ,hawaii1 the ,caribbean1 ,new ,zealand1 ,alaska1 ,italy1 and ,japan had made me a rebel against conventional geology4 ,the reason is that the great submerged mountain range of the long ,hawaiian ,archipelago is different from the mountain ranges of ,europe and ,asia and must be accounted for in global history4 ,how would the three decades #aiba to #aiej confirm expectation that the deep ocean bottom is the most important and volcanic thing in geology1 just as it is the biggest thing8 ,routine observation and photography at ,halemaumau pit reached a climax of recording brilliant fiery events in ,march #aiba1 and it changed to the recording of explosive steam in ,may #aibd4 ,the first of these fireworks1 after lava flows from a rift in the ,kau ,desert1 draining the pit and fluctuating with the ups and downs of the pit lava1 occurred in #aiai-aibj4 ,this was a return to ,halemaumau of effervescence in frothy volumes1 so that the pit was overflowing on five sides4 ,on ,march #bj1 #aiba1 occurred the most intense display of brilliancy1 culminating the gradual rising of the lava column to outflow following #aiah4 ,then came1 in the later months of #aiba1 a sinking away and recovery of the lava4 ,in #aibb came a sinking again1 with the lava breaking out in the ,chain of ,craters of the eastern rift1 as though it had been blocked by freezing in the southwest rift and was forced over to split open the old cracks of the mountain to the east4 ,this was confirmed in #aibc by another outbreak in the forest adjacent to the sixth crater1 ,makaopuhi1 which with ,napau pit beyond1 had been the scene of the #aibb outflows4 ,this action was all extended in ,april #aibd to the shoreline end of the eastern rift1 thirty miles away from ,halemaumau1 when the ,kapoho country cracked open with many earthquakes1 and a block of the mountain settled beneath sea level4 ,coconut palms at the beach were left in a lagoon of sea water eight feet deep4 ,seventy-five earthquakes in a day frightened away ,filipino plantation laborers2 railway and roads were ruptured1 with new cliffs forming nine feet high2 and all of this followed a monumental sinking of ,halemaumau bottom1 from a vast sea of lava to a tumble of debris in two months4 ,it was evident that between #aibj and #aibd the fracture of the long curved rift athwart ,kilauea cauldron from the ,kau ,desert to the east point of the island was draining the lava out under the ocean to the east4 ,forty miles from the shore1 the submarine slope is covered by #ah1jjj feet of water4 ,what is the result8 ,the whole of ,kilauea ,mountain is charged with groundwater1 which trickles warm through the beach at ,pohoiki and partly warms ponds near ,kapoho4 ,obviously this groundwater of the southeastern lobe of the island mountain surrounds the shaft of ,halemaumau at some undefined depth1 and the rising and falling glassy lava in the shaft ordinarily glazes itself with a water-tight skin1 and may be thought of as a crusted tube4 ,about this tube the groundwater shows only as the lazy steam of the little vents of the pit margins4 ,on ,may #aj1 #aibd1 came the collapse of the ,halemaumau pit walls1 introducing an explosive steam eruption such as had not been seen by five generations of ,hawaiians4 ,the adventures of this period were glorious ones for the scientists4 ,first should be mentioned the amazing subsidence which occurred suddenly at #b ,a4,m4 ,november #bh1 #aiai1 just as ,mrs4 ,jaggar looked across ,kilauea ,crater at the outline of crags and lava lakes making a glowing dome where ,halemaumau pit should have been4 ,we felt a lot of little earthquakes and saw the dome of lava heapings1 with glowing lakes on top1 sink slowly and majestically and leave the old familiar glowing pit4 ,for almost the whole of #aiai this had been a dome1 with overflows1 now here1 now there4 ,at ten o'clock only the evening before1 old ,alec had conducted tourists to the top of the dome1 where they looked down at the clover-leaf lakes4 ,if it had started to go down while they were there--and any of us might have been there--it is awesome to think of the inevitable fiery engulfment4 ,after watching the sinking1 which was followed by puffs of dust and smoke and some avalanche noise1 we took a car to the pit at once4 ,and when we got there in the early morning hours we found the pit enlarged to #b1jjj feet across1 with the pattern of the lava lakes still apparent at the bottom1 indicating that the entire cylinder had lowered as a unit to a depth of about #gjj feet4 ,red hot avalanches were tumbling inward with a roar1 from the veneer of lava plastered on the wall4 ,by the forenoon of that day the liquid lava started to pour up and inward as a ring of bubbling fountains all around the edges4 ,what this ring represented was the wall crack between the subsided cylinder of semisolid lava1 now pushing upward1 and the funnel of rock wall outside4 ,this ,v-shaped filling grew wider as the uprising progressed1 and so the ring lake became wider1 while the top of the harder column became a ring of crags and the space inside became a quiet lava puddle supplied by inflow from the ring lake4 ,the whole column of ring crags with the lagoon inside and the brilliantly fountaining lake outside rose with unheard of rapidity during the next three weeks4 ,in mid-,december1 ,i took ,mrs4 ,jaggar and a woman friend down to inspect this amazing corolla1 or lily1 of hard crags which had blossomed up in less than a month1 so that the outer ring of boiling fluid was less than a hundred feet below us4 ,we stood at the rift in the ,kilauea floor which heads toward the southwest cliff1 and suddenly we felt slight earthquakes and saw the face of that cliff crumbling in a visible tumble of rocks4 ,the mountain was quietly breaking open athwart the ,kilauea caldera floor1 and while we watched we saw forty or fifty low lava fountains in a straight line burst up along a floor crack between us and the cliff4 ,remember that this crack traversed the downslope between ,halemaumau edge and ,kilauea wall4 ,looking back at the ring lake1 we saw it beginning to lower and leave a shoreline of black plastering spatter4 ,when we looked into the rift crack at our feet1 only one or two feet gaping open1 the liquid lava showed about twenty feet down4 ,we were standing on the side of the crack away from the motor car terminus1 and floods of lava on the ,kilauea floor were spreading right and left from the straight line of vents between us and ,kilauea wall4 ,we had to get away from there pronto1 as no one could tell what ground might erupt between us and our car4 ,i carefully instructed our friend to be deliberate and step across the fissure2 but the girl felt sure that crossing a red hot crack called for a leap4 ,she stepped on a loose slab at the edge of the narrow chasm and slipped into the crack1 where she was wedged until we pulled her out4 ,we then stepped across the fissure1 for the live lava was far below1 and made our way back to the car without further trouble4 ,the lake lowered only apportionately to the slowing black outflow on the south floor1 which was short-lived4 ,this was the beginning of a splitting open of the main ,kilauea ,mountain flank southwest and outside the crater which continued for months4 ,another adventure1 and an important one1 happened with the outflooding of lava in the ,kau ,desert1 where terrace upon terrace of pahoehoe lava was building up4 ,this finally became a hill over the rift1 two miles long and #bjj feet high1 which we called ,mauna ,iki1 or little ,mauna ,loa4 ,the exploration1 day after day1 of the extending quiet lava outwelling along this rift made it necessary to find new trails from the ,pahala roadway and across the desert to the lengthening hillock4 ,following the new ,mauna ,iki trail1 ,mr4 ,finch noticed that the ancient ash beds1 two or three feet thick1 had surfaces as hard as ,portland cement4 ,and on one of these he1 like ,robinson ,crusoe1 found the print of a naked foot1 made when the old ash was a mud4 ,on the trail across these old surfaces many more hardened1 ancient footprints were found1 of men1 women1 children1 and pigs headed both up and down the mountain4 ,illustration3 #ah4 ,isabel and ,tom ,jaggar in woods on ,kilauea ,volcano on their return from viewing #aibc eruption in ,napau ,crater ,illustration3 #ai4 ,lava lake1 fountains1 and crags1 ,march #bj1 #aiba ,illustration3 #bj4 ,footprints in ash west of ,mauna ,iki1 said to have been made by ,keoua's army during ,halemaumau eruption of #agij ,these prints recalled the story of ,keoua's army when there was a big explosive eruption of ,halemaumau in #agij and the mud rains of the period were from ash which had been baked by the volcanic fires4 ,if roasted and moistened1 the chemical composition of powdered basalt is that of weak cement1 and these surfaces were in hollows which had resisted erosion wash for #acj years4 ,part of the slopes closer to ,halemaumau had been eroded bare1 but they also showed footprints4 ,later the trail was followed up the mountain close to ,kilauea ,crater and down toward ,pahala1 and the ash of #agij was found to be made up of pisolites1 or fossil raindrops1 in many places4 ,evidently the eruption had been accompanied by torrential thunder storms1 and the natives had walked through the deposits of mud1 which had in a century been dried by the sun into a resistant surface4 ,these fossil footprints were to become one of the attractions of a tourist trail in the ,national ,park4 ,one night in #aibb1 after some earthquakes of the evening1 we were awakened by friends who told us that a glow like a forest fire could be seen from the high cliffs of ,kilauea in the easterly direction of ,makaopuhi4 ,this big crater had a platform at one end and a pit at the other4 ,we aroused ,mr4 ,finch1 then traveled by car as far as we could go on the truck trail1 got lost1 and with flashlights made our way on foot toward the glow and fume in a rugged wilderness1 over cracked ground and old aa lava and obstructing vegetation4 ,we were chilled by a cold drizzle and not at all sure where we would emerge4 ,fortunately1 the country is sufficiently open so that we could see the 8pillar of fire by night40 ,it turned out that the new fire was in the deep end of ,makaopuhi itself4 ,from the western edge of ,makaopuhi pit we looked down on ten or fifteen ribbons of lava1 made by a line of spouting fountains at the top of the talus heap1 and pouring from the top of the big slide-rock slope4 ,we spent the night on the edge in much discomfort1 and watched the puddle of accumulation in the bottom of the funnel and the glowing streaks which fed it4 ,it was evident that the eastern rift of ,kilauea ,mountain had opened1 and the lava outflow was found to extend to ,napau ,crater1 a shallow saucer pit farther east4 ,at the same time the lava in ,halemaumau went down1 enlarging the pit1 and cauliflower dust clouds arose from much internal avalanching4 ,this anticipated and resembled the avalanche steam blasts of #aibd4 ,the adventures of the #aibd explosive eruption were too numerous and complicated to elaborate here4 ,however1 it was a tremendous event in the history of ,hawaii and was totally unforeseeable on the basis of earlier experience4 ,mrs4 ,jaggar and ,i were in ,new ,york writing magazine articles and ,i was giving lectures1 when word came from ,finch and the newspapers that ,halemaumau was caving in and throwing up rocks4 ,we traveled with all haste to ,honolulu1 where the ,navy agreed to send me by plane to ,hilo1 though they refused to take ,mrs4 ,jaggar4 ,the ,admiral's car took us to ,pearl ,harbor1 where a seaplane was ready and ,mr4 ,thurston was waiting to see me off1 accompanied by a motion picture cameraman4 ,then pilot ,chourr took me into the sky over ,diamond ,head on my first flight4 ,a companion plane was piloted by ,lieutenant ,sinton1 who had radio communication with ,pearl ,harbor4 ,crossing high above the ,molokai ,channel1 ,i looked down at the beautiful pattern of trade-wind formed whitecaps1 and was surprised after a half hour to observe that the wave crests were farther apart4 ,i was even more surprised to see ,sinton's plane far above us4 ,the mechanic in the forward cockpit had been putting up his fingers repeatedly during our flight1 to indicate1 ,i later learned1 how many cylinders were missing in the ,liberty engine supported above us4 ,our plane was getting closer and closer to the waves and flying fish raced beside us4 ,finally we felt the bump of wave after wave on the bottoms of the pontoons1 and the pilot brought the seaplane to a squelching stop1 close to the surf of the ,molokai reef4 ,we found ourselves in fifteen feet of water1 the coral reef visible below4 ,i was deputed to throw out an anchor and make the line fast to a cleat1 while pilot and mechanic climbed up to the engine1 which had been losing compression and could not keep up the requisite speed4 ,lieutenant ,sinton's pilot plane came down and circled above us until he saw we were safe1 then went on to ,maui4 ,meanwhile1 ,i watched the water with great interest1 for sharks4 ,when our boys got the engine going with a roar1 ,i pulled up the anchor and we took off against wind and wave1 with the pontoons going bang1 bang1 bang1 against the tops of the waves4 ,but finally we were airborne and out above the blue water4 ,then the engine gave out again and we came down4 ,this time the men rigged a sea anchor made of buckets with a line attached to the bow1 to hold the ship's nose up to the wind1 and battened the hatches with canvas covers4 ,we clambered up on top of the upper wing to wait for rescue4 ,the wind was blowing a gale1 the whitecaps hissed by us1 and we lay on our bellies4 ,the aviators told me that this was the first forced landing they had had4 ,the word landing seemed to me inapplicable4 ,we drifted for five hours1 moving slowly down the wind1 before a white motor boat appeared1 coming from ,molokai4 ,at the same time smoke showed from two rescue vessels in the ,pearl ,harbor and ,maui directions respectively4 ,sinton1 who had radioed for help1 flew back and circled above us1 reminding me of the goonies soaring over a wounded bird on a fish line which ,i had seen in ,alaskan waters4 ,the ,molokai boat reached us first1 picked up our sea anchor and towed us into ,kaunakakai4 ,we pitched so and took such a pounding from the gigantic trade-wind waves that it didn't seem possible that the mahogany hull and the two lateral pontoons could hold together4 ,however1 we made the harbor and tied up to the buoy4 ,i hoped and prayed that the commercial packet1 the ,mauna ,kea1 might take me to ,hilo4 ,but no1 the navy tug ,navaho came from ,lahaina1 and ,captain ,green put up his megaphone and announced that the ,admiral's instructions were that he was to take ,dr4 ,jaggar to ,hawaii4 ,my heart sank because ,i knew what a seaway would be running against that little tub4 ,the second rescue ship proved to be the ,pelican equipped with a crane to swing the plane on board and take it back to ,pearl ,harbor4 ,on board the ,navaho ,i was assigned a canvas camp cot in the lower1 circular wheelhouse at the bow2 and all night long waves broke over the bow and a foot of water sloshed back and forth under my cot4 ,the pitching was so heavy and our speed so reduced that it took us all night to get across the ,hawaii ,channel1 and we didn't make ,hilo until #b ,p4,m4 the second day4 ,after that wet and seasick night1 ,i found wry humor in our reception at ,hilo ,wharf1 where we were met by ,frank ,cody with his motion picture camera and a bunch of hula girls and leis4 ,instead of five hours1 the journey took thirty and quite failed to make me air-minded4 ,furthermore1 ,i arrived at ,kilauea ,volcano in time for only the final stages of the explosive eruption4 ,finch had organized volunteers1 including ,oliver ,emerson as photographer1 and even our collie dog1 ,teddy1 who could hear and feel an explosion coming before we had any other warning4 ,all observers wrote notes and fondled the seismographs during the three weeks of steam blast and cavings in of the pit1 which had enlarged itself by collapse #gjj feet outward radially in all directions4 ,when ,i got there it was #c1ejj by #c1jjj feet in diameters and #a1cjj feet deep1 the bottom a funnel of converging taluses1 made of avalanches from the pit walls4 ,the taluses were wet and steaming vigorously in vertical lines1 and at night showed red hot avalanches from the north and west walls1 where two intrusive bodies of hard rock were red hot inside4 ,the talus below stayed hot1 and slides occurred for only a few seconds4 ,the incandescent matter was not flowing in any sense1 but was1 rather1 the peeling of a rocky boss of reddish color at the west and a canoe-shaped ledge at the north about #fjj feet below the rim4 ,this showed the cross section of old screes1 revealed above it1 and horizontal basalt flows overlapping above that4 ,it was a beautiful section of an ancient pit1 of the same quality as ,halemaumau itself1 and the incandescent canoe sill at the bottom appeared to be an intrusion of fine-grained gabbro1 which had pushed its way in under an older talus funnel1 similar to the present talus cup of ,halemaumau1 the bottom of which was #gjj feet lower4 ,on the opposite wall of the pit the ,kau ,desert rift was displayed as a vertical cavern or arcade1 merging into a group of dikes higher up and tapering to zero thinness at the top4 ,these same dikes1 less conspicuous1 cut the canoe sill on the northeast wall1 to indicate that the ring of the pit was fractured vertically from below4 ,this fracture is the main deep rift of the mountain which crosses under ,kilauea1 bending in the direction of ,kilauea ,iki1 and this it was which had opened as a curved chasm to let the lava down4 ,lava had gone down in a succession of flank outflows1 with intervening rises1 from the ,kau ,desert in #aibj to the final drainage under the sea at the east4 ,this drainage had let in the groundwater1 made a steam boiler1 and so caused the explosive eruption and engulfment of ,halemaumau walls as the mountain yawned open4 ,a4 ,l4 ,day made one of his return excursions to ,kilauea at this time and thus saw the extraordinary phenomenon of the hard basaltic intrusive bodies half way down the walls1 caving to a red hot talus4 ,the explosions1 which started with two-hour intervals1 gradually decreased1 coming at four hours and eight hours2 and on ,may #ah came the culminating cauliflower clouds with torrents downward of broken rock1 some of it showing low red heat4 ,at all times the motive power was steam jets #aj to #ae thousand feet high1 which plastered the pahoehoe of the pit edge with broken wall rock fragments of every size4 ,there was no sign of pasty lava or glassy bombs in the ejecta1 and the red incandescence seen at night in some of the explosions was the avalanche material of the western boss and the canoe sill4 ,it took the pit less than two months1 to mid-,july1 to recover its liquid lava1 which poured through the talus and made aa puddles1 to form a new pattern of cone source and short-lived flows4 ,then everything came to rest1 and lava activity was not resumed there until the summer of #aibg4 ,however1 in #aibf ,mauna ,loa went into action on its southwestern rift1 and sent an aa flow into the sea at ,south ,kona1 destroying the village of ,hoopuloa4 ,here was history in the island lava column of majestic decline and recovery from #aiad onward4 ,outflow in ,mauna ,loa crater at #ac1jjj feet in #aiad extended to outflow from the southwest rift in #aiaf and #aiai at #h1jjj feet4 ,next1 in #aibj1 came outflow in the ,kau ,desert from ,kilauea1 at #c1jjj feet4 ,there were alternating spurts upward within ,halemaumau pit1 acting as a crater similar to ,mauna ,loa's at the lower ,kilauea level of #c1gjj feet4 ,then this whole progress downward moved over to the ,chain of ,craters at #b1ejj feet1 and finally to the ruptured earthquake rift of ,kapoho on the east point of ,hawaii and at beach level4 ,some miles farther east1 on the same rift beneath the sea1 the gigantic submarine mountain of ,hawaii drained the last lava from ,halemaumau pit and let in groundwater which caused steam explosions4 ,july #aibd saw the deep lava recovering in the crack and sealing off the water1 so as to bubble up in the bottom debris of ,halemaumau and push its way upward into the crevices of the island4 ,it reached the top of ,mauna ,loa in #aibf and reactuated outflow at the center of the island4 ,this migration of vents from top to bottom and back again took twelve years of fracturing1 and it relieved from lava this big piece of the ,hawaiian ridge4 ,in reaching the groundwater and steamblast phase1 it accomplished something which had not happened since #agij1 making a supercycle of #acd years4 ,the decade after explosion at ,halemaumau was marked by small lava gushes in the bottom of the pit1 bringing the depth from #a1cjj feet in #aibd to #gej feet in #aicd4 ,the layers were something less than #ajj feet each1 and they were fed by pahoehoe conelets at the slide-rock margin4 ,as usual1 the lava was gushing up the western wall crack along the margin of the bottom magma cylinder4 ,there was no trace of recurrence of steam blasts4 ,despite the excitement of actual events1 experimentation continued2 and ,i continued working on inventions for the experiments4 ,two approaches to our problems concerned seismic recorders which could be put in the hands of amateurs1 and range finders for improving pit surveys4 ,i had been convinced for many years that the three-component seismograph was too elaborate to be operated by volunteer school teachers or telephone operators who have other things to do4 ,such a seismograph records with photographic paper the north-south1 east-west1 and up-down motion of the ground1 on a chronograph which keeps accurate time and registers a wavy line every second1 so that the recording paper has to be changed and developed every day4 ,moreover1 these instruments are for measuring distance to earthquake origins by physics of wave motion1 and they have become hopelessly mathematical4 ,such mathematics makes for assumptions of uniformity about a rock crust which is not uniform4 ,qualitative science wants to know what happens at a specific rock location and wants the motion recorded by the simplest possible mechanical device4 ,it also wants a value in number at each location1 for size and direction of the first motion4 ,this is for an earthquake1 identified as one incident1 over such an island as ,hawaii1 where the rock units are many and different4 ,this is especially true of long periods of time when there may be no earthquakes to record4 ,i devised a simple shock recorder1 consisting of a horizontal boom of very light wood attached to a hinged weight which swung like a door1 so that the boom scratched a line on a circular card which was rotated and moved along by a common alarm clock4 ,the result was a spiral mark on the card1 such that an earthquake interposed would write a zigzag opposite a place on the clock face appropriate to the time of day4 ,all that was necessary was to remove and date the card1 wind the clock once a day1 and measure the zigzag4 ,mr4 ,ingalls of ,scientific ,american read an article by me in which ,i described my shock recorder and thought it would lead amateur machinists to devise their own machines and to record the vibrations about them4 ,numerous amateurs did send in designs for instruments1 and ,ingalls believed that the seismograph hobby would become as popular as the amateur astronomical telescope hobby4 ,but it failed because the amateurs were waiting for earthquakes1 which didn't happen4 ,they were not content with vibrations from trucks1 railroad trains1 waterfalls1 surf on rocks1 artillery practice1 or wind storms4 ,my improved shock recorder gained some use later in ,new ,zealand and ,montserrat1 after big earthquakes in those places stirred the authorities to build simple instruments4 ,however1 popular seismoscope simply doesn't exist4 ,the range finder ,i had been working on since my teaching days in ,massachusetts ,tech1 where ,i had made an optical device with a traveling index mirror which moved along an upright scale of centimeters1 and a sextant telescope4 ,the idea was a transit1 with self-contained base line close to the operator4 ,my theory was that in such measurements of distance as we had to use--to about a thousand feet or less1 to the lava fountains in the bottom of ,halemaumau pit--we might read off the vertical distance from a single station1 when all other stations were enclosed in smoke4 ,in the ,aleutian ,islands and elsewhere ,i experimented with a ,zeiss stereoscopic rangefinder designed for artillery ranges1 but it was not accurate enough for short distances4 ,everything in my instrument depended on moving a telescope parallel to itself with superlative precision1 on a scale within the instrument4 ,i finally hit upon using a track of taut piano wire1 probably the straightest line in all mechanics4 ,if one first looked at an object twenty miles away 7infinite distance71 the telescope could be moved along right and left and the image would remain immovable on a vertical hair4 ,if it were now focussed on an object #a1jjj feet away1 the displacement of the telescope on the centimeter scale would measure the distance with a high degree of accuracy4 ,this was the stadia principle inverted to contain the rod at the observing position4 ,i also made several graphic devices for surveying ,halemaumau daily from the rim benchmarks4 ,however1 when lava overtopped the rim and destroyed the datum posts1 mapping became difficult4 ,drilling temperature wells into the floor and rim of ,kilauea ,crater was a project ,i had anticipated when ,mr4 ,john ,brooks ,henderson of ,washington came to ,hawaii and offered to help finance it4 ,we had taken the temperature of hot cracks in many places1 and found them to range from #cbj ,centigrade at the ,postal ,card ,crack close to ,halemaumau1 down to #if ,centigrade at ,sulphur ,bank1 and then on to lower temperatures at many cracks which yielded visible vapor in damp weather but no vapor at all in sunshine4 ,a spectacle for tourists was a crack on the ,sulphur ,bank flat1 where a cigar to windward or the exhaust gas of a car would nucleate the invisible vapor and cause a big puff of white 8steam0 to show4 ,this phenomenon1 which depends on smoke particles condensing invisible water vapor1 is well known at ,solfatara near ,naples4 ,the experimental approach to finding out what the temperature of the ground really is1 is to drill a hole and keep the temperature measured repeatedly with a thermometer1 and to find out the thermal gradient change vertically if possible4 ,this means to measure how much the temperature changes with depth4 ,the whole problem concerns how much unusual heat energy is released at a place like ,kilauea ,crater4 ,with the aid of ,hobart1 a drilling engineer1 ,i started at ,sulphur ,bank with a churn drill4 ,we quickly discovered that we were going through intensely hard basalt1 containing metallic sulfide which appeared to be pyrite but turned out to be marcasite4 ,after drilling for several years--with four holes at ,sulphur ,bank1 one sixty-foot hole under the observatory shop1 and about twenty-five holes in the eastern part of the ,kilauea floor over a surveyed map pattern--we changed to a rotary core drill using steel shot1 and then changed again to a percussion drill actuated by compressed air1 for shallow holes to show cross-country temperatures4 ,unfortunately core drilling requires large quantities of water1 which we did not have1 for the ,hawaii ,national ,park depends upon rainwater collected from roofs in redwood tanks4 ,without water cooling1 rotary bits heat and expand in hot rock1 stick1 and are often lost4 ,two seventy-foot holes1 one at ,sulphur ,bank and the other in the middle of ,kilauea floor1 showed no definite thermal gradient2 and in general it turned out that drill holes were dependent on steam in the cracks for their temperatures4 ,heat was brought up by vapor1 and in a number of ten-foot holes scattered over the ,kilauea floor1 the hottest were at the edge of the floor4 ,the ,postal ,card ,crack1 near the edge of ,halemaumau and #fjj feet above red hot intrusives1 was exceptionally hot1 and it is not at all clear how the water made contact with the hot intrusive rock underneath4 ,this place completely caved in and was lost forever within the enlarged pit of #aibd4 ,sulphur ,bank itself is at the edge of an old ,kilauea floor on a shelf at a high level4 ,the extra heat at floor edges means a wall crack between the crater fill and the confining funnel1 so that hot gas comes up from intrusive lava somewhere deep down toward the center4 ,thus when a mercurial thermometer was lowered1 ten-foot holes would show a hot place half way down and cold rock at the bottom4 ,some holes had no heat at all1 which meant that an inclined steam crack was cut across by the hole or that no steam crack was present4 ,the heat supply was dependent upon vapor channels from heated rainwater1 but we were never able1 owing to lack of funds1 to drill a hole deep enough to find the water supply which made the steam4 ,it is a remarkable fact that the casings on three wells at ,sulphur ,bank emit continuously a column of steam exactly at the theoretical boiling point for this altitude1 as though the groundwater were boiling only a short distance below4 ,dr4 ,allen by his analyses proved that ,sulphur ,bank vapor was ninety-nine percent steam and that the remainder contained fractions of a percent of sulfur and carbon dioxide1 but this sulfur was enough in the course of months to coat the interior of our casings with yellow crystals over black iron sulfide4 ,it coated the ,sulphur ,bank with yellow crystals of sulfur and soaked the rock below to generate brassy iron sulfide4 ,the result of these experiments was to exhibit the complexity of any solfatara in its relation to underground lava1 and to the soakage of a volcanic country by rainfall4 ,this is especially important for ,martinique and ,montserrat4 ,another experiment was conducted by ,emerson1 who was equipped by the ,observatory with chemical apparatus to make qualitative analyses of numerous ,kilauea products1 and he also did critical photographic work1 including some photography in the infra-red4 ,in one valuable experiment1 he melted ,kilauea lava in a refractory crucible at a temperature of about #abjj ,centigrade until it was as fluid as honey4 ,allowed to chill and harden naturally1 it was shiny glass like pahoehoe lava4 ,if stirred with an iron rod1 it made sprouted black needles1 crystallized all through1 like aa lava4 ,thus he proved that stirring made ,hawaiian lava crystallize and sprout like fudge1 or like the solidification of such metals as silver and bismuth4 ,sudden outbreak and stirring anywhere will convert pahoehoe to aa2 but never does aa become converted physically to pahoehoe1 unless flame melts it4 ,the standing pinnacles in the midst of an aa flow1 which breaks up into boulders1 give evidence of the stirring process4 ,when ,emerson's discovery is applied to basaltic lava flows1 it appears that the glassy lava of a source1 when stirred by gas fountaining or by flowing1 will change from its glassy condition to a sprouting and crystallizing condition4 ,all flows are glassy pahoehoe pumice fountains at source vents1 and a quarter of a mile away they become aa4 ,later the source pahoehoe preserves itself within a glassy skin and pours forward under glassy shells and frontal toes4 ,r4 ,m4 ,wilson's work supplied proof of a swelling mountain4 ,wilson was one of the three leading members of the topographic party of the ,geological ,survey4 ,the other two were ,c4 ,birdseye and ,a4 ,burkland4 ,wilson1 whom ,i had known as a student in ,m4 ,i4 ,t41 was a product of ,spofford's ,civil ,engineering department and was to become the chief computer of the ,survey in ,washington4 ,as levelman in ,birdseye's organization1 he became topographic engineer of the ,observatory1 and produced by precise leveling and triangulation the brilliant experiment which showed the swelling and shrinking of the mountain during fifteen years4 ,by close cooperation with the ,u4,s4 ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey we placed a tide gauge at ,hilo1 both for a sea level base and to record tidal waves4 ,wilson also1 in #aiba1 ran a level line from ,hilo to the ,volcano ,house benchmark1 where the ,geological ,survey had run levels in #aiaa4 ,the county roadway was marked with bronze plates inscribed with leveling heights1 and ,wilson's results showed the edge of ,kilauea ,crater to be three feet higher in #aiba than it had been in #aiaa4 ,wilson's determination of heights above sea level certified that the whole mountain swelled up during the ten years prior to #aiba4 ,about #aiah1 lava and seismographs had proved rising overflow at the center1 while the edge of ,kilauea ,crater was being tilted away from the center4 ,this went on during the massive rising of the interior lava of ,halemaumau into a dome where the pit had been1 and it proved that ,kilauea ,mountain was being injected along cracks1 not only under the pit1 but along the rifts1 as indicated by outflow on the southwest and east in the years #aibj and #aibd4 ,but this was not all of ,wilson's work4 ,he revisited all surveying stations after the big collapse of ,halemaumau that accompanied the explosive eruption of ,may #aibd1 and found that the ,volcano ,house benchmark lowered a little more than three feet during ,may #aibd and that places close to ,halemaumau dropped nearly fifteen feet4 ,this lowering of the mountain was graduated outward twenty miles from the center at trig stations1 or concrete posts1 in the ,kau ,desert and at stations along the road to ,hilo4 ,these stations changed altitude to show that the big mountain tumefied or swelled up to that distance of twenty miles during the big intrusion of cracks at the overflowing time1 as though the mountain dome were a tumor forty miles in diameter with ,halemaumau at the center4 ,of course there is no certainty that the shore line in ,puna1 or even the ,hilo tide gauge itself1 did not go down with the slumping of the mountain1 for the thing called sea level is nothing but an average of tide gauge readings at a fixed wharf4 ,remember that the east point of ,hawaii sank eight feet on the ,kilauea rift during the ,april crisis4 ,wilson also surveyed by horizontal triangulation in #aiba1 determining that stations around ,halemaumau had moved inward toward the center1 by a specified number of feet1 different at each station1 and that other stations outside of ,kilauea ,crater had changed position horizontally on the map1 as though the mountain were shrinking4 ,this entire series of measurements of change between #aiaa and #aibf jibed with the seismograph's measurements of the tilting of the ground4 ,the seismograph picked out #aiah1 when ,halemaumau overflowed1 as the swelling year4 ,in #aibd the tilt reversed itself1 turning inward toward ,halemaumau1 and became tremendous when the pit collapsed and exploded4 ,it is impossible to accent sufficiently the importance of the discovery of a measured swelling and slumping of a volcano throughout a lava crisis occupying fifteen years4 ,it was so tremendous that critical engineers in ,washington refused to believe ,wilson's results4 ,however1 his findings were verified by the contemporaneous lava measurement results1 earthquake enumerations1 and tilt meter results4 ,these showed that earthquake frequency increased when ,kilauea slumped and that a lava mountain had swelled until it was three feet higher at the summit in ten years and had contracted by a larger amount during the years of an explosive eruption period immediately thereafter4 ,this all agrees with the excellent results in ,omori's volcanic and seismic events1 obtained by ,japanese army and navy engineers at several volcanoes and earthquakes4 ,it also agrees with the positive facts of ,vesuvius and the ,canary ,islands1 starting with the controversy about 8elevation craters0 started by ,leopold von ,buch in the first half of the nineteenth century and carried forward by ,mercalli on ,vesuvius in #ahid when a lava hill was seen to swell up4 ,there1 too1 others would not believe4 ,the opposition always insisted that a volcano was built by heaped material1 that it could not possibly swell4 ,wilson's results are far-reaching1 for the whole of geology depends on uplift of continents and downsinking of sedimentary basins4 ,most geologists account for these things by the theory of weighting and underflow at a thin crust 7isostasy71 refusing to grant that volcanic heat and tumefaction yield intrusive power everywhere through cracks in the deeper crust4 ,i wish that ,i could describe adequately the high adventure of this fruitful time4 ,we built a vehicle from a model ,t ,ford with a ,ruckstell axle1 stripped of mudguards and equipped with balloon tires doubled at the rear1 so as to travel and carry loads over the smooth pahoehoe of the ,kilauea floor4 ,we found that a powerful light rig of this type1 with excessively low gear1 could climb up on lava lobes one to two feet high4 ,but this called for experienced driving and special methods4 ,sending a man on foot ahead to pick a way and to drag a crowbar which scratched a track1 we could drive anywhere on the lava4 ,and we used this rig to haul drums of water and drill apparatus4 ,i once drove artillery officers out over the rough floor of the crater1 and afterwards saw similar cars used by the army in the first ,world ,war as cross-country transportation for the doctors and wounded in ,no ,man's ,land4 ,before a roadway encircled ,kilauea ,crater1 ,mr4 ,finch and ,i1 carrying two-inch planks for bridging cracks1 made the complete circuit of the crater by way of the rifted ,kau ,desert in our special vehicle1 which has now been succeeded by the jeep1 the most universal vehicle of ,world ,war ,,ii4 ,volcanology prospected the field of war in more ways than one1 so ,i named my popular book 8,volcanoes declare war40 ,inventions led to expeditions both in ,hawaii and in distant lands during the decade of the twenties1 some by invitation1 some to offer assistance at disasters1 and some for the natural extension of my own work4 ,on ,september #a1 #aibc1 came the big earthquake at ,tokyo4 ,with ,mrs4 ,jaggar1 ,i was permitted to land in ,japan and make a study of the effects of the disaster4 ,the destruction of ,tokyo and ,yokohama was a final1 sad tragedy for ,omori1 who for years had worked to protect the ,emperor and ,japan by studying earthquake forecasts for ,tokyo and by conducting research in earthquake-proof engineering4 ,it was a cruel commentary that the disaster came while he was attending a science congress in ,australia1 particularly as the great destruction of life was occasioned by fire and typhoon winds4 ,but ,omori's organization handled the seismic event admirably4 ,omori returned at once1 but almost immediately died4 ,we steamed into ,yokohama harbor1 were welcomed by ,captain ,gatesford ,lincoln ,u4 ,s4 ,n4 and his destroyer flotilla4 ,we went on board his flagship1 and were sent in his launch to the broken jetties of ,yokohama1 where we found no custom house or police4 ,we walked up to the camp of ,united ,states marines1 amid the wreckage of the ,united ,states ,consulate1 where the ,consul had been killed4 ,yokohama1 which ,i had known well in #aiji and #aiad1 was a tumble of ruins2 and the long ,bund with its splendid waterfront structures1 including the ,grand ,hotel1 was a heap of rubble4 ,my classmate ,purington1 a mining geologist who had been staying at the ,grand with his family escaped with one child and went back to rescue his wife4 ,a second shock brought down more masonry and crushed him4 ,we were given a tent and allowed to mess with the marines1 and next day we crowded into a train for ,tokyo4 ,it was packed to the doors and had people seated on the roof4 ,we were warned by ,americans to dress as roughly as possible1 as the populace was on edge1 and foreigners must not appear to be tourists4 ,by great good luck we got into the ,imperial ,hotel which had withstood the shake and fire1 though it was considerably damaged4 ,we visited the ,honjo district of the river bottom1 where the damage was at maximum1 and we saw the remains of a pile of corpses1 clothes1 and household goods in one small yard where #cj1jjj people had been incinerated4 ,fire had closed in from all sides1 and the shrieking mob of men1 women1 and children piled up on top of each other1 amid handcarts and clothing bundles--kindling which added fuel to the horror4 ,the mayor of ,tokyo sent us in a small steamer to the island of ,oshima1 on which is the volcano ,mihara1 close to the earthquake center4 ,we climbed up and looked down into a glowing pit which was making no lava outflow at the time1 though ,mihara is famous for basalt flows4 ,water soundings showed #ijj feet of subsidence in ,sagami ,bay opposite ,oshima1 and there were changed depths elsewhere1 some of them shallowing by underwater land slips4 ,we went to the ,boshu ,peninsula east of ,tokyo1 where the beach had been rising for many years1 and where the earthquake rising left wharves high and dry4 ,the principal effect of the earthquake1 occurring at noon just when all charcoal braziers were lighted for luncheon in the flimsy ,japanese houses of wood and paper1 was to set fires in an area of hundreds of square miles and a score of towns4 ,water reservoirs were destroyed1 there was no adequate fire department to care for a conflagration1 and a high wind was blowing in the bright sunshine4 ,a characteristic of ,japanese cities was the absence of open parkways for refugees1 hence the crushing1 burning1 drowning1 suffocation1 and annihilation of hundreds of thousands of people and the destruction of factories1 railroad trains1 water supplies1 power plants1 and every essential utility in a great metropolitan area with a population of many millions4 ,the horizontal movement of the ground in the shock was about eight inches1 and aftershocks kept on for many months4 ,we explored ,yokohama1 clambering up to the ,bluff where everything was wrecked and where land slips had tumbled down the precipice4 ,we visited what remained of a beautiful ,english type villa with a slate roof1 which had been occupied by two missionary ladies and their numerous parrots4 ,these people were encamped1 along with their parrots1 in a shack built by their yardman1 for the residence had tumbled down like a house of cards4 ,one woman had been imprisoned between her bed and the wall1 and was quite uninjured when the gardener dug her out through cracks of the roof4 ,scientifically1 what happened to the ground in this earthquake was not explained by any single fault4 ,whatever happened to the bottom of ,sagami ,bay was not communicated across the beach to the coast as any great rift4 ,small faults were identified in a number of places1 the shoreline in one place lifted a few feet and lowered in another2 but no such movement as the big subsidence of the bottom of the bay crossed the contact of sea and land4 ,it appeared as though the margin of the bay itself outlined an area of sudden slumping1 somehow related to ,mihara ,volcano on ,oshima2 but the shoreline of that island was not seriously affected4 ,the great mountains of the foothills of ,fujiyama1 and the ,hakone district1 were shaken to a hash of broken railway tunnels and land slips1 but the topography was not altered4 ,a resurvey of trig stations west of ,tokyo revealed movements that indicated the country had been spirally twisted4 ,however1 it has always seemed a mystery to me that all the motion on land was so small1 when change on the bottom of the bay was so great4 ,there was a local tidal wave at the bay shore of ,kamakura1 but no great tidal wave from the deep ocean came to ,tokyo4 ,some volcanic effort of deep lava had wedged open and jolted the sea bottom1 but how it acted is entirely obscure4 ,it was quite different from the ,san ,francisco quake1 with its side slip of twenty-one feet and a crack #djj miles long4 ,when we returned to ,japan in #aibf with the ,pacific ,science ,congress1 the restoration of ,tokyo was practically complete and a magnificent greater city had been built with wide and large parkways4 ,the government was lavish in its entertainment of the scientists attending the congress4 ,dr4 ,lacroix and ,i were sent to ,osaka to lecture1 and to show lantern slides of ,mount ,pele2 and expeditions all over ,japan were arranged for the visitors4 ,i had an opportunity to see for the first time the large basaltic lava fields of the lake district at the base of ,fujiyama1 and ,i was astonished at the similarity of the basaltic pahoehoe to our ,hawaiian outflows and the freshness of the lavas and the lava caverns4 ,i had never thought of ,fujiyama as a 8lava flow0 volcano4 ,my next expedition was in the autumn of #aibd1 when ,i was invited by ,h4 ,e4 ,gregory1 ,director of ,bishop ,museum1 to go on an expedition on the ,,uss ,whippoorwill1 ,commander ,samuel ,king1 to ,howland and ,baker ,islands4 ,others on the expedition were ,c4 ,montague ,cooke 7malacologist71 ,george ,munro 7ornithologist71 ,erling ,christophersen 7botanist71 ,ted ,dranga 7marine shell collector71 ,george ,collins 7,museum ,trustee71 and ,bruce ,cartwright 7naturalist74 ,these men were invited to make up one of several ,bishop ,museum parties which were sent out to south sea islands for collection and report4 ,as geologist1 my job was to carry a portable seismograph and record earthquakes or microseisms and to take photographs4 ,we had made up at the ,observatory a one-component horizontal pendulum1 in which the chronograph drum used smoked paper4 ,in camp ,i lowered the box containing the seismograph into a hole in the sand under my cot1 with a view to finding out what tremors occurred on these flat coral islands4 ,however1 no movements were detected during the period of our stay1 within the sensitivity limit of the small seismograph4 ,howland and ,baker are coral islets1 not atolls1 close to the equator1 with no lagoons and with deep water all around them4 ,howland later became famous in the tragedy of ,amelia ,earhart1 for whom the ,coast ,guard prepared an airfield on the island4 ,these islands had been guano diggings for parties from ,honolulu fifty years earlier1 and we found old cisterns and tracks4 ,the islands were inhabited by thousands of goonies 7gannets71 man-of-war birds1 and terns4 ,in some places they covered the ground with their nests1 eggs1 and young1 rising noisily in terrifying swarms as we walked among them4 ,the land was perfectly flat brown guano and red weeds1 with beaches of coral boulders and ,tridacna1 or giant clams1 the highest bit ridges on the windward side4 ,the easterly trade winds blew a powerful gale most of the time1 and our ship had to land us on the leeward beaches1 where we made our camp in a line of tents4 ,the staff was divided into pairs for each tent1 and ,filipino mess boys did the cooking4 ,landing was arduous1 for there was heavy surf1 even on the leeward side1 and it was necessary to have a man swim in with a line in his teeth4 ,the swimmer1 ,ted ,dranga1 made the line fast between a buoy and the shore1 then built a signal fire while the ship stood off4 ,men and baggage were loaded into a skiff and hauled ashore by the sailor in the bow1 who pulled1 hand over hand1 on the rope from the buoy1 when the waves were favorable4 ,the ship had to drift away each night and come back1 as there was no anchorage4 ,a few stunted kou trees still survived from guano-digging days1 and numerous grasses and fleshy-leaved salt weeds grew4 ,the beaches were covered with rats1 hermit crabs1 and some white ghost crabs4 ,the ghost crabs were seen at night flittering down into the water when a flashlight was turned on the waves4 ,the hermit crabs1 with borrowed shells1 came clanking over the canvas floor under our cots at night2 and as one walked along the beach with a flashlight1 ,polynesian rats pattered away in all directions4 ,they had been brought by the guano schooners and doubtless lived on shellfish1 birds1 eggs1 and fledglings4 ,the principal products of this expedition were notes1 pictures1 maps1 and collections4 ,within the next few years we were to combine expeditions with experimentation in the organization of new observatories in ,california and ,alaska4 ,california volcanoes as a field of observatory study were an obvious choice when ,judge ,cramton proposed enlargement of the volcano enterprise4 ,he succeeded in getting me a ,section of ,volcanology in the ,geological ,survey1 and ,i sent ,r4 ,h4 ,finch to ,lassen ,volcanic ,national ,park1 where he made his headquarters at ,mineral4 ,lassen had made steamblast explosions in #aiab through #aiad which had rushed down into the forest with such horizontal destruction as occurred at ,mount ,pele4 ,it was not realized that this blast was terrible1 for it was in the backwoods on top of the ,sierra ,nevada and little known4 ,the national park there was created later4 ,it is an area with a recent 7#ahga87 cinder cone and rocky lava flow1 boiling lakes and mud pots1 numerous solfataras and hot springs1 and a lava cavern much like those on ,hawaii4 ,illustration3 #ba4 ,the ,honukai on ,alaska beach1 #aibh4 ,jaggar on the right ,illustration3 #bb4 ,the ,ohiki1 first amphibian truck1 with passengers ,isabel ,jaggar1 ,tahara1 ,l4 ,a4 ,thurston1 ,jaggar1 and ,ted ,dranga1 #aibh ,illustration3 #bc4 ,lava flow entering village of ,hoopuloa1 #aibf ,illustration3 #bd4 ,lava flow of #aibf ,mauna ,loa eruption approaching ,hoopuloa ,village1 which was destroyed4 ,photo section ,u4,s4 ,army ,air ,force ,lassen ,peak is the southernmost volcano on the line where the ,cascade ,range merges with the ,sierra ,nevada4 ,the line of volcanoes extends beyond ,mount ,baker into ,canada4 ,north of ,lassen is the ,glass ,mountain region where there are obsidian lava flows4 ,like ,mount ,shasta1 ,lassen is a volcano of very few recent eruptions1 but there were at least two outbreaks in the nineteenth century4 ,these two volcanoes resemble ,pele and ,soufrire4 ,their linear quality implies a long ragged rift in the earth's crust1 and south of ,lassen there is suggested an offset rift at ,mount ,st4 ,helena1 near the famous superheated steam of ,geyserville4 ,this is near the northern end of the great ,san ,andreas rift1 which extends many hundreds of miles southeast of ,san ,francisco4 ,the rift shifted in a north-south direction during the earthquake of #aijf1 and is one of the many evidences that the north-south faults of ,california are all a part of the faulting up1 over lava1 of the ,cordillera1 relative to downsunken ,pacific ,ocean slabs4 ,i put ,finch in charge of ,aleutian ,islands seismographs1 as well as the one he was to establish at ,mineral4 ,with ,wilson as seismologist and instrument designer in ,hawaii1 we started constructing horizontal pendulums1 like those used in ,hawaii1 making the weights out of large iron pipes1 to be filled with sand at the place of operation4 ,these were two-component seismographs1 recording on a single chronograph drum4 ,we sent one to the ,coast ,survey station at ,sitka and built two more for ,kodiak and ,unalaska4 ,finch built and set up his own seismograph at ,mineral4 ,he started systematic surveys of the temperatures of hot springs and steam jets in different parts of ,lassen ,park and kept close contact with the ,geological ,department of the ,university of ,california at ,berkeley4 ,lassen was the subject of geological surveys by ,anderson and ,finch1 and later the park area was studied by ,howel ,williams4 ,i went to ,washington to see government authorities1 particularly ,professor ,charles ,f4 ,marvin1 ,chief of the ,weather ,bureau1 and ,dr4 ,g4 ,o4 ,smith1 ,director of the ,geological ,survey4 ,i can never express my indebtedness to ,marvin1 a good designer who built an inverted pendulum seismograph in ,washington4 ,finch had worked with ,marvin when he was weather observer in airplanes based on ,ireland during the first ,world ,war4 ,hence methods of government contact and reports1 in the early days of our ,observatory1 were kindly guided by ,marvin4 ,the ,weather ,bureau was a place of self-recording instruments1 something new for geology1 and much needed for volcano observation4 ,for weather is a matter of present changes1 whereas geology had long been a matter of ancient specimens4 ,director ,smith was instrumental in calling a meeting in ,washington1 of scientists of all bureaus interested in the ,aleutian ,islands4 ,i was selected to lead the symposium1 which included representatives of climatology1 biology and fisheries1 geology and geochemistry1 oceanography and geodesy1 hydrographic charting1 gravity1 and magnetism4 ,there proved to be great interest in the ,alaskan ,peninsula and the islands1 and the ,survey published a special bulletin on the symposium4 ,w4 ,c4 ,mendenhall1 who had written a monograph on the volcano of ,mount ,wrangell in the great bend of the continent around the ,gulf of ,alaska1 became director of the ,geological ,survey and one of my best friends4 ,in #aibg ,i was ready with cross-country cars and a seismograph to explore once more the volcanoes of ,alaska4 ,organizing an expensive expedition which called for a special ship was obviously out1 but in the years after the ,technology ,expedition of #aijg ,i had learned many economies which ,i wanted to try out4 ,also ,i had two experimental and mechanical tests to make4 ,the first was to set up in ,alaska a seismograph1 the second was to test ,alaskan beaches with a cross-country car1 with a view to building an amphibian boat4 ,i had read in several languages on the subject of motor vehicles with boat bodies1 and my #aijg experience of finding no anchorage on ,umnak ,island had convinced me of the need for a vessel on wheels which could climb up an ,alaskan beach and be converted into a camp4 ,so ,i started from ,seattle with a low gear ,ford runabout4 ,i unloaded it first in ,kodiak village1 where there were only one or two cars1 and made tests of driving it along beaches4 ,at ,kodiak the ,agricultural ,experiment ,station allowed me to set up the seismograph in a vacant basement1 and ,i arranged with a local housewife to operate the instrument4 ,aided by a sheet of instructions1 she made tests1 changed the smoked papers1 varnished them1 mailing them to ,hawaii1 and kept notes on earthquakes which were felt4 ,the roadster and ,i then traveled by the local mailboat steamer ,starr1 ,captain ,johanssen1 and sailed along the south shore of the ,alaskan ,peninsula to ,king ,cove1 visiting ,bradford on the way4 ,disembarking at ,king ,cove1 ,i made runs on the beach with the car4 ,with the aid of the cannery mechanic1 ,i tried attaching winch spools to drive wheels1 in order to haul the car up to grassy land behind the beach4 ,no car had ever landed at the cannery1 there were no roads1 and the problem of getting from the wharf to the tundra1 and from the tundra to the beach and back again1 posed practical mechanical problems1 the solution of which was to be useful later4 ,we ran along the beach as far as a rocky headland1 until we needed an amphibian boat in which to round the point and rejoin the stony beach at some place beyond4 ,how that boat body should be constructed was planned from this experience4 ,the superintendent1 the physician1 and the boatbuilders of the large ,king ,cove cannery planned an exploration for me1 with ,john ,gardner as boatman and ,peter ,yatchmeneff as his mate4 ,these two were on their way to hunt bears for an eastern museum and were going to ,pavlof ,volcano1 the ,vesuvius of the ,alaskan ,peninsula4 ,i transferred my baggage to their motor sloop1 the ,plug ,ugly1 and we headed for ,pavlof ,bay4 ,at ,volcano ,bay we landed for a bear hunt1 which was very exciting for me4 ,when we found bear tracks in an amphitheater under big mountains1 we climbed toward the divide at the head2 but we could find no pass over it4 ,from the high ground we looked across the river at clumps of alders4 ,john borrowed my field glass1 handed it back1 and pointed out a black spot far away under the bushes4 8,i just saw it move10 he said1 8that spot is a big brown bear where he has been holed up40 ,i remained watching while ,john and ,pete1 with their #be-;caliber ,savage carbines1 crept across the valley bottom1 keeping down the wind from the bear in the shelter of bushes4 ,i saw that they were getting very close to the game1 lost sight of them for a few minutes1 then heard two sharp cracks and saw the bear in violent motion1 thrashing around and tearing up the ground1 then quickly subsiding4 ,i made my way across the valley and found they had neatly shot a year old ,alaskan brown bear4 ,the rest of the day was given to skinning it1 and we sank the skull1 tied to a fish line from the sloop1 to the bottom of the bay where marine organisms would eat away remaining flesh and leave the bone clean4 ,next we sailed up to the head of ,pavlof ,bay and camped at a barabara1 or sod hut1 preparatory to a trek to a small volcano that lies near a shallow lake on the north side of the magnificent pair of snowy volcano cones known as ,pavlof and ,pavlof ,sister4 ,we were early in the season and could see a glacier extending down from ,pavlof ,crater1 which is a cup containing a conelet at the side of the summit4 ,the crater is like a collar1 the conelet like the knot of a necktie1 while the glacier is the ribbon of the necktie1 itself1 extending down to a jumble of snowy hills with rocky moraines at the edge of the lake4 ,we made camp and ran into some adverse weather1 and also into a party of mainland sportsmen4 ,we gave up further hunting and returned to ,king ,cove1 for ,john had his bear and that was enough4 ,the curved beauty of the ,pavlof cones1 with a sweep of lava flows to the west of them1 heavily mantled with snow1 was exquisite and a knowledge of the cones was useful when plans were made for a later expedition4 ,mrs4 ,jaggar1 after a trip by way of the ,yukon into the interior of ,alaska waited for me at ,kodiak while ,i took ,captain ,johanssen's ,,ss ,starr to ,unalaska where ,i saw my friends of the ,coast ,guard and received an invitation to go later on the ,unalga to ,attu4 ,i stayed on the ,starr to ,bristol ,bay on the ,bering ,sea side1 in order to see the ,alaskan ,peninsula from the north4 ,a rewarding view showed me the almost inaccessible ,aghileen ,pinnacles1 a marvelous mountain west of ,pavlof1 consisting of dozens of upright spires1 all covered with ice1 and looking like a cluster of cathedrals in a snow storm4 ,at the head of ,bristol ,bay ,i saw one of the government ,indian schools1 met some of the teachers1 and met trappers who came on board with interesting collections of fox furs4 ,they told me about ,naknek ,lake1 which gives access to ,katmai from that side by dog sled in winter4 ,the necessary husky dogs were tied out in the fields around a mission station4 ,a rumpus on deck between a storekeeper of the district and the ,united ,states ,marshall arose over a feud between two villages which were quarreling about the placing of a ,united ,states post office4 ,there was no shooting1 though it looked bad for a few minutes1 and ,i realized the far north was a replica of the far west4 ,on my return to ,unalaska1 ,coast ,guard officers and ,i were invited to a dinner on board the ,german cruiser and training ship ,emden4 ,i had nothing to wear but a hunting coat1 whereas the others were in dress uniforms1 but the ,germans didn't mind4 ,i greatly enjoyed the ,emden's officers1 whom ,i heard from later1 including ,captain ,foerster1 an acquaintance of my son in ,seattle4 ,on board the ,unalga ,i was given the ,captain's cabin1 for he was absent on sick leave4 ,executive ,officer ,perkins1 who acted as skipper1 preferred to live in his own quarters4 ,another guest on the trip to ,attu was ,jack ,mc,cord1 whose interests were sheep herding and whaling1 two industries which were making experimental progress in the islands4 ,we saw a sheep ranch in the western part of ,unalaska ,island and learned that a recent landing on ,bogoslof had found the conditions much like those ,i had seen in #aijg when ,i noted the smoking cone1 the millions of murres1 the three islands1 the connecting beaches1 the warm lagoon1 and the dozens of sea lions4 ,at ,nikolski on the west end of ,umnak ,island1 a flat land where sedimentary rocks appeared1 we had to mine and blow up a schooner recently sunk in the harbor4 ,going westward1 we passed cones in groups or on individual islands1 and we met the usual fogs and gales4 ,the officers were interested in ,adak ,harbor1 but our plan to enter it was defeated by storms4 ,we anchored off ,chugul1 where two ,aleutian men and a boy had been marooned for months by the non-return of the wrecked schooner4 ,a trader had leased the island and left them to collect blue foxes for him4 ,when their supplies gave out1 they lived on fish1 vegetation1 eggs1 and sea birds4 ,they had matches left but no ammunition1 so they had loaded cartridges by assembling match ends4 ,however1 they were sheltered in a sod hut at one side of the grassy volcano1 and were living proof that an ,aleut cannot starve4 ,they were fat and healthy and had a good load of furs4 ,when we transported them to the village on ,attu1 the first thing one of these men did was to marry an ,attu girl1 with the aid of the local priest4 ,chugul was the last of the shapely volcanic cones4 ,attu geology was different1 with old metamorphic and sedimentary rocks and ancient lavas1 but without any sign of fresh volcanoes4 ,it is a mountainous island with deep fjords1 and we crossed a divide in order to look down on ,sarana ,bay1 made famous by ,world ,war ,,ii4 ,mc,cord and ,i walked out on the peninsula west of the village of ,chernofski1 and saw snowy ranges beyond the next bay to the west4 ,the ,aleutian uplands are covered with luxurious grasses1 many flowers1 and much mossy swamp2 and there are signs of terracing in places1 as though made by old elevated beaches4 ,the country is too wet and stormy to be attractive for raising livestock4 ,however1 when we landed on ,amchitka ,island on the south side of the chain1 we found it drier with fine grassy uplands4 ,we found also the usual shore cliffs and foxes4 ,we returned to ,unalaska1 where ,i was attracted by the empty hotel building and wharves at ,dutch ,harbor1 deserted by the ,alaska ,commercial ,company after the booming maritime trade of the ,cape ,nome gold days4 ,i talked to ,company officers about using the buildings as a scientific station4 ,an old powder house would be suitable for a seismograph cellar2 the wireless station was nearby2 and there was water1 lumber1 and housing for every possible purpose4 ,it was ideal for an ,aleutian geophysical station1 if financing and collaboration could be had4 ,later1 in ,seattle1 ,i addressed the ,chamber of ,commerce and published in our ,bulletin a proposal for an ,aleutian ,geographical ,observatory1 but nothing came of it at that time4 ,the ,aleutian ,islands became a center for landing craft1 airfields1 and defense forces during ,world ,war ,,ii1 and eventually our men ,howard ,powers and ,austin ,jones were employed there4 ,in #aibh1 ,gilbert ,grosvenor of the ,national ,geographic ,society1 in cooperation with the ,geological ,survey1 equipped me with an expedition to map1 photograph1 and survey #b1ejj square miles in the vicinity of ,pavlof ,volcano4 ,again ,i had ,john ,gardner and ,pete as camp men4 ,mc,kinley1 our topographer1 brought pack animals and ,alex ,bradford transported us to our base camp in ,canoe ,bay4 ,i slept during summer in the ,honukai1 a twin-screw steel amphibian boat1 which was manufactured in ,chicago1 after a preliminary vessel made of wood and impelled by paddle wheels had been constructed at our ,hawaiian ,observatory shop and tried out over a #djj-mile course along the shores of ,hawaii4 ,the trial of the preliminary vessel1 which we called ,ohiki1 ,hawaiian for ghost crab1 took place during the spring of #aibh4 ,the entire staff of our ,observatory were engaged in it1 with ,mrs4 ,jaggar as stewardess1 as usual4 ,mr4 ,thurston went along as a passenger and publicity man on the trip up the west coast of ,hawaii1 where ,i tested out ,kona beaches and checked on the craft's seaworthiness4 ,we had misadventure at the start1 in that the driving wheels tended to dig in on soft beaches2 and we found it necessary to build washboards to raise the gunwhale amidships to avoid shipping water in choppy seas4 ,in the cross country trek from ,kilauea1 using the boat as a truck1 ,mr4 ,thurston was overwhelmed with admiration for the twenty-one foot work skiff1 thundering down the steep hills of ,kona on wheels1 controlled by the low gears of a ,ford4 ,its boat body excited all the roadside kids to wild antics of delight4 ,my excellent truck builder1 ,boyrie1 used the same ,ford which had run along the beaches in ,alaska1 reconstructing it in the observatory machine shop4 ,wilson's photograph of the ,ohiki1 with ,mr4 ,thurston on board1 became the frontispiece of a top secret publication on amphibians of ,world ,war ,,ii's joint army staffs in ,london4 ,the amphibian war of the ,pacific ,ocean and ,normandy was to develop dozens of different designs of landing craft1 but war use was unforeseen by me at the time of our experiments4 ,with a crew of four we cruised from ,kailua to ,kawaihae along the west coast of ,hawaii1 landing on beaches and lava flows1 and camping at ,makalawena1 ,kiholo1 and ,puako4 ,we encountered real grief at ,kawaihae against the front of a soft submerged bank in shallow water1 where the front wheels made too much resistance and the rear wheels dug into a mud bottom4 ,we needed front wheel pull1 but we finally got the craft up the beach by power hauling with gypsy and cable and a tree4 ,more grief developed on our way up to ,waimea when we fractured wooden rear axle attachments4 ,we went gratefully into the ,parker ,ranch shop for some days1 until we were able to return to ,hilo and the volcano1 completing the circuit of the island4 ,the ,national ,geographic vessel was built by ,george ,powell who advertised a ,ford 8mobileboat10 designed for the use of fishermen to enter midcontinent lakes4 ,he had started on a larger model1 which ,grosvenor accepted for the ,national ,geographic ,expedition4 ,powell and ,i tried it out on ,bellingham roads and lakes and on beaches of ,puget ,sound4 ,we provided everything extra1 for ,alaska had no roadside filling stations4 ,a wheeled vehicle on the peninsula was unheard of4 ,we had elongate steel mats to give traction across the upper sands of a beach1 and this plus bow winch1 levers1 and manpower enabled us to abandon beaches and enter the tundra4 ,our planning paid off1 for in the #djj miles along the coast of ,alaska from ,shumagin ,islands to ,king ,cove1 over water1 beaches1 and tundra1 we did not even have to pump up the tires4 ,the ,honukai's numerous excessively low gears even enabled us to drive to the snowline and bring out the heavy fur and bones of a bear that ,i had shot on a snowy volcano1 ,mount ,dana4 ,the expedition was very productive4 ,mc,kinley made an excellent topographic map2 we corrected errors in old maps2 we obtained many photographs through ,richard ,stewart1 who carried still1 color1 and movie cameras2 and we obtained minerals1 fossils1 geologic notes1 and many plants which ,i collected4 ,mc,kinley used a panorama camera for his topographic work and his wide photographs were invaluable as a record of the country4 ,meanwhile1 ,i kept in tough with the seismograph station at ,kodiak4 ,the steamers of the ,pacific ,commercial ,company1 which owned several of the canneries and had headquarters in ,bellingham1 transported us from ,puget ,sound to ,king ,cove1 and the many tugs for the canneries' salmon traps enabled me to make local explorations along the southern coast4 ,at one trap the fishermen had a tame baby seal1 who would eat nothing but little trout caught for him from the brook4 ,he lived in a box1 and went off to sea by himself at night2 but he always came home next morning4 ,in #aibi ,finch sent ,austin ,jones1 a seismologist1 to construct and establish a hut at the ,dutch ,harbor radio station for a second ,alaskan seismograph1 of the ,hawaiian type designed by ,r4 ,m4 ,wilson4 ,jones taught the wife of a radio operator to manipulate the station and transmit the seismograms4 ,the women in charge of the two stations at ,kodiak and ,dutch ,harbor kept their work up for several years1 and kept in constant correspondence with me4 ,though in the winter time they had to dig the stations out of snowdrifts1 and to cope with all kinds of damage from rain and storm1 they courageously and faithfully visited the instruments4 ,it is a hellish country for weather4 ,although both stations were within fifty miles of active volcanoes1 earthquakes were not numerous1 and the story was very different from that told by our records made at the edge of ,kilauea caldera1 only two miles from an active lava center4 ,thus we have demonstrated that the only way to study an active volcano is to live close to the crater itself1 even if a shelter has to be built underground4 ,in concluding this story of our ,alaskan expeditions of the twenties1 in contrast to my windjamming experience of #aijg1 ,i must underscore the importance of water transportation and credit those who have provided it4 ,in fact1 all transportation was by water until aircraft became supplemental4 ,i feel that the ,u4,s4 ,coast ,guard1 which takes care of the ,pribilof ,island seals1 is the supreme achievement of our government in policing these stormy waters4 ,their #fj-;foot motor cruiser1 equipped with sails has come to be standard for such government bureaus as the ,biological ,survey and has replaced the earlier1 #hj-;foot sealing schooner among the traders4 ,the canneries maintain big boatbuilding yards and operate large and powerful tugs for visiting the salmon traps4 ,the traps are heavy weirs made of northwest pine logs1 which are battered to pieces by the winter storms and must be rebuilt with pile drivers every spring4 ,thus a by product of cannery activities1 and a godsend for trappers1 fishermen1 ,aleuts1 and campers is the pine lumber distributed all along the beaches from the annual wreckage of salmon traps4 ,it is the only firewood and construction material of the country to be found anywhere west of ,kodiak1 for the land has no forests4 ,our contribution to the boating problem was the exhibition of what an amphibian landing truck will do on ,alaskan beaches and its usefulness along those beaches where a boat may be in difficulties from stormy weather4 ,i returned to my ,hawaii headquarters in the fall of #aibh4 ,the year #aibi was marked by an earthquake crisis which began in mid-,september with an unusual number of shocks in the vicinity of ,hualalai ,volcano1 a place hitherto notably free from earthquakes4 ,this was of interest because events on ,mauna ,loa had shown higher and higher lava sources and quake centers for the south rift4 ,the #aibf outflow had begun by splitting northward across the summit crater1 and there making a considerable flow eastward toward ,wood ,valley while ,wingate and his topographic party were in camp close to the summit4 ,therefore1 when the #aibi quakes began near ,puuwaawaa1 it looked as though ,mauna ,loa eruptions might begin again at the northwest4 ,a very strong quake of ,september #be was felt all over the island1 and in our seismograph cellar was a peculiar swaying movement that set all the instruments jiggling1 dismantled recording pens1 and produced a queer feeling that the building was floating like a boat in a whirlpool4 ,immediately came word that ,north ,kona had suffered heavily1 particularly at ,puuwaawaa ,ranch near the cone of that name1 where the #ahei ,mauna ,loa flow had swept past4 ,i motored at once with ,mrs4 ,jaggar to ,puuwaawaa1 where we were hospitably entertained by the family of ,mrs4 ,robert ,hind4 ,the damage all about was fantastic1 with houses pulled apart1 stone walls flung down in a seaward direction1 redwood water tanks wrecked1 and shops on the lower side of the highway moved toward the sea leaving a chasm between them and the road4 ,resting in our bedroom1 we could hear the window frames ticking like clocks for long periods of time1 then coming to a sudden wrench which felt as though a lifting wave had passed through the mountain under us4 ,i returned to the ,observatory to get a shock recorder for use at the ranch porch to count these strong motion shocks4 ,meanwhile residents in ,kona jotted down times of the shocks1 which were coming by hundreds4 ,on ,october #e at about #f ,p4,m41 as ,i was returning through ,north ,kona in my car1 ,i noticed a little unexplained excitement among people by the roadside4 ,i stopped at the residence of ,frank ,greenwell1 whose wife was a faithful counter of quakes1 to find ,mrs4 ,greenwell and her daughter on the veranda in tears4 ,they had just been through fearful earthquakes1 which in a moving car ,i had not felt4 ,flower vases were overturned1 furniture was disarranged1 dishes were flung off the dining room table1 and kitchen utensils and milk were in a jumble4 ,it was hard to believe that anything so terrific could have happened without my feeling it4 ,i found even more dire catastrophe at ,puuwaawaa4 ,the stone chimney was overturned1 breakage of china and of glass in the preserve closet in the basement was severe1 a stone bench was flung down and broken on the lawn1 and one side of the cellar was caved in4 ,we took to living in automobiles1 for there had been land slips on the mountain4 ,this earthquake had been worse than that of ,september #be4 ,even hillside cottages were split apart4 ,i set up the shock recorder1 which registered about #c1jjj earthquakes during the next three months1 until mid-,december4 ,the intensity and frequency of these quakes declined1 as is usual with aftershocks of a big earthquake1 recalling #ahfh and the south end of the island4 ,at that time both ,mauna ,loa and ,kilauea had had rift outflows1 and as the seismographic center of the new earthquakes was close to the #ahjj and #ahei flows from ,hualalai and ,mauna ,loa1 everybody expected a lava flow2 but none came4 ,armine von ,tempski who was a visitor during this period was inspired to write 8,lava40 ,she added a ,hualalai lava flow using material that ,i gave her to describe it4 ,her description is magnificent although she1 herself1 had never seen a lava flow4 ,the ,october #e shock was bad on the west flank of ,mauna ,kea1 where water tanks were overturned and the high wireless station was damaged1 and at ,kamuela1 where plumbing pipes were fractured4 ,parker ,ranch was damaged1 and the constant racking along the entire length of the ,kona settlements caused land slips and broken masonry in many places1 always damaging north-south stone fences more than those at right angles to the seashore4 ,this three months of northwest earthquakes1 a condition unknown since #ahja1 the year when ,hualalai lava flowed into the sea1 indicated that lava was coming north of ,mauna ,loa4 ,this had not happened since #ahii1 for the flows on the southwest rift1 always beginning near the summit crater1 had been during #aijc1 #aijg1 #aiad1 #aiaf1 #aiai1 and #aibf4 ,belief was that the southwestern rift of the mountain was filling progressively higher with solidified redhot cement1 not brittle enough to fracture open easily1 whereas the northern rifts--such as the sources of #ahei1 #ahha1 and #ahii--were now hard and brittle and ready for fracture4 ,the fracturing took the form of northwest cracking and this was lava wedging1 confirmed by the summit and northern outflows which were to come in #aicc and #aice4 ,july of #aibi produced a new influx of lava into ,halemaumau1 nineteen degrees north of the equator4 ,and a curiously simultaneous event occurred on nearly the same date #b1jjj miles away at ,tin ,can ,island 7,niuafoou7 in ,tonga where the influx broke into basaltic eruption fifteen degrees south of the equator4 ,apparently a stress lagging behind the solstice time had acted on the equatorial protuberance to release the wedging open of lava fractures on both sides of the equator4 ,i was pleased when the ,u4,s4 ,naval ,observatory invited me to go to ,niuafoou in #aicj as the geologist on an expedition going to study the total eclipse of the sun4 ,the expedition1 under ,captain ,c4 ,h4 ,c4 ,keppler1 used the ,naval ,station at ,samoa as a base4 ,mrs4 ,jaggar accompanied me as far as ,pago ,pago and made trips to ,western ,samoa1 ,fiji1 and the ,tonga ,islands4 ,with other wives of expedition members1 she was allowed to make a short visit to ,tin ,can ,island at the time of the eclipse in ,october4 ,spending some time in ,samoa1 she listened to the ,congressional hearings under ,senator ,hiram ,bingham1 which were to investigate civil versus naval government4 ,we were delighted to find our old friend ,captain ,lincoln1 of ,tokyo earthquake relief1 in command of the ,navy at ,samoa1 and ,i also renewed acquaintance with the pilot of my companion plane in the ,molokai forced landing of #aibd1 ,lieutenant ,bill ,sinton1 and his family1 whom we were to meet again in ,honolulu4 ,prominent on ,captain ,keppler's staff was ,lieutenant-,commander ,kellers1 physician and naturalist1 whose enterprise on the ,niuafoou expedition1 like mine1 dealt with sciences other than astronomy4 ,from the sea1 ,niuafoou looks like a hat in shape4 ,it is about five miles in diameter with eleven villages1 mostly along the eastern shores1 and at that time had a population of about a thousand people4 ,in the center is a circular lake1 bordered by cliffs1 and much like ,crater ,lake in ,oregon4 ,standing about seventy feet above sea level and #bej feet deep1 it has slightly brackish water4 ,the naval camp was established at ,angaha on the north side of the island1 and here a new village housed the refugees from ,futu to the northwest1 destroyed in #aibi by an aa lava flow4 ,this flow came from erupting cracks trending north and south1 along the west side of the ring ridge around the crater lake4 ,these lava flows had been liquid pahoehoe at the source2 had poured into the sea in many places2 and had made striking tree molds around coconut palms1 which were left as stone trees when the wood burned and the liquid lava lowered4 ,the western source crack extends to the south end of the island and has accounted for most of the earlier eruptions known to history4 ,futu had been the only western settlement left4 ,angaha came nearest to being a harbor1 but was really on an open roadstead1 with a rocky boat landing and copra chute below the village which stood on a cliff above4 ,copra1 the only commercial product1 is bought and warehoused by two ,australian firms4 ,the two grown sons of the manager of one assisted me in tramping and photographing all over the island4 ,the landing at ,angaha brought about the name ,tin ,can ,island1 for the visiting steamers stopped a mile off shore and incoming mail1 soldered into large biscuit tins by the steamship engineer1 was lowered into the sea1 tied together4 ,the tins were towed in by the village policeman4 ,outgoing mail was carried out in paper packages tied on top of sticks and held aloft by hardy swimmers with hau wood poles1 which they held under their arms as floats4 ,a short time after our trip a shark got a swimmer1 and canoes were adopted4 ,thanks to the infrequent visits of vessels1 the natives were unspoiled1 splendid specimens of the ,polynesian race4 ,the laws of ,tonga required every youth to cultivate an area of coconut trees and vegetables1 and the island was traversed by lovely trails4 ,the houses and churches were exquisite arched structures with thatched roofs1 the beams tied with coconut-fiber cords4 ,there were native ministers1 and the choirs were superb4 ,services often started at #d ,a4,m4 ,my jobs were to take photographs with three cameras and make a geological map4 ,northeast of the crater lake is a cluster of sand hills1 relics of an unusual explosive eruption in #ahgh1 another ,hawaiian eruption date4 ,this eruption was confined to one side of the crater and came up the wall crack1 between the encircling cliff and the top of the lava plug under the lake4 ,its description is very reminiscent of the ,kilauea steamblasts of #aibd4 ,we found a remarkable inhabitant of the sand in the malau bird1 a small partridge with big feet1 with which it dug a deep hole in the sand for its large egg which was then covered up4 ,the sun's heat did the rest1 with the warm sand acting as incubator4 ,the young bird scratched its way to freedom and flight without aid from its mother4 ,another item of ,dr4 ,kellers' natural history was the flying fox1 a giant bat with a high singing note and odoriferous rookeries in the tops of trees4 ,it had a heavy flight like an eagle's4 ,a third item was the tiny black crab1 the size of a ten-cent piece1 which lived in the midst of limey flats at one side of the lake1 where there were crusts that suggested calcareous algae4 ,the little black crabs1 which lived by thousands in the midst of the crust1 resembled compact spiders4 ,an artificial feature of great convenience was a trail following the top of the ring ridge1 all around the crater4 ,the ,quensell boys had a rowboat on the lake1 and ,dr4 ,kellers and ,i were guided by them to all parts of the island1 making the acquaintance of the people in the villages along the eastern trade-wind shore4 ,just as in ,hawaii1 the trade wind is a controlling feature2 and the surf erodes cliffs on the east1 whereas beaches are more common along the lava flows of the western strand line4 ,these are sheltered from wind but are remote from habitations4 ,the entire island is made of lava and ash deposits1 and is evidently the top of a volcano cone extending far below sea level4 ,the lava activity1 as shown by the arrangement of the old and new source cracks1 depends on concentric cracking around the caldera1 which makes concentric rifts1 rather than the long radial ones found in ,hawaii4 ,the crack along the west side--which had vented the succession of flows from south to north1 ending with the ,futu flow of #aibi--;indicated that the next flow might threaten ,angaha4 ,this is just what happened during the next decade1 forcing the island population to be evacuated4 ,my geology photographs and pictures of people1 ships1 and dwellings were developed in a darkroom tent1 which ,i set up in a copra shed1 so as to keep the development of negatives abreast of the exposures4 ,copra bugs crawling over me in the dark and getting into developer added excitement1 and the eternal smell of copra began to tinge my dreams4 ,the routine of our work was broken by two good fights1 a fist fight between a ,filipino steward and a sailor1 and a knock-down and drag-out between two native women of ,angaha4 ,the real fun was the row between the two women4 ,a younger woman who was a loose1 shrill character1 disliked by the villagers and the sailors1 attempted to attack an older woman who was a big husky dame4 ,there was screaming and hair pulling and fisticuffs1 while the ,navy men stood around and cheered them on4 ,the younger woman made most of the noise1 while the older woman laughed and ripped off the other's clothes4 ,finally the young woman1 in tears and with clothing in tatters1 retreated and disappeared4 ,but to get back to the eclipse1 telescope lenses were mounted on high scaffolds1 the ladies arrived in ,october1 and the total eclipse of the sun happened and was photographed at the time anticipated4 ,when the time came for us to return to ,samoa1 some of us were fortunate enough to get a place on the ,flood ,brothers' copra ship ,carisso1 out of ,san ,francisco4 ,along with the family of a ,navy officer1 we went ashore at ,niuatoputapu 7,keppel ,island7 after climbing down a rope ladder to a bobbing whale boat4 ,we found beautiful mats1 which are the wealth of the people throughout ,tonga4 ,the village men and women who had mats to sell were not so much interested in coins or trinkets and merchandise as they were in the clothing we wore4 ,i literally divested myself of a shirt and a suit for a beautiful fringed mat ornamented with clusters of shells1 made to be given to ,queen ,charlotte on her next visit4 ,we were fortunate in reaching ,samoa in good weather1 but a big storm after we got there wrought havoc with the ,tanager carrying astronomical photo plates and bundles of ,polynesian mats which were much damaged by sea water4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,prophecy and ,hope 8,for we know in part1 and we prophesy in part40 ,the fifth decade of my sixty years of geology1 #aica through #aidj1 was a time of culmination at ,kilauea2 the ending of an eleven-year cycle on ,mauna ,loa2 and the introduction1 in #aidj1 of a new ,mauna ,loa cycle4 ,this new cycle resembled strikingly the one which followed #ahdc because of the similarity of places--notably the north side of ,mauna ,loa toward ,humuula1 followed by the northeast side toward ,hilo--and the intervals of eruption4 ,kilauea behaved differently in the nineteenth century1 because in #ahdj it rent open the east flank to make a flood of lava into the ocean1 though afterwards it restored its lava to ,halemaumau4 ,in #aicd1 on the other hand1 ,halemaumau went to sleep1 after adding one more extra thick filling in the bottom of ,halemaumau pit in ,september1 when it gushed up behind wall slabs #cjj feet high1 cascading down the talus in twenty-five ribbons of lava4 ,this proved that effervescence in a small crack can rise far above the level of the lava lake in the pit4 ,it made a marvelous display in early morning darkness1 and the new lava lake rose rapidly within the flatly funneling talus4 ,this lay at thirty degrees1 so that the outward spread enlarged the lake and reached beyond the foot of the talus4 ,the slide-rock slope that was conspicuous had been fed by avalanches1 and it rested against the half-circle of wall slab1 behind which had risen the cascades4 ,this source migrated around the slab to the north and developed the biggest fountaining jets there4 ,by the outward and upward spread of the new lake these jets became lake fountains1 while the cascading ribbons at the slope stopped4 ,the lake rose and crusted over4 ,the northern fountains became a small oval pond and center of accumulation and upward doming1 while pahoehoe lava radiated down a slope to the edges of the floor heap1 south and east4 ,surveys at this time placed the northern lava pond definitely at the top of an inner heap4 ,the fountains in the pond changed to conelets with their own craterlets4 ,these1 after a month1 developed gas explosions1 flinging up lava shreds to #hjj feet and sometimes higher than the edge of the pit4 ,this started a slumping of the exploding cones4 ,the explosions were a symptom of increasing viscosity of lava under the bottom heap1 and the viscosity was revealed in stiff lava welling up around the edges of the floor4 ,this filled up the wall valley1 and so compensated the slump that the bottom became level4 ,then the activity ceased4 ,it all demonstrated how an inner dome in ,halemaumau could become filled with an intrusive lens1 which by welling out around the edges1 could restore the dome to horizontality4 ,it was like the 8laccoliths0 of the ,black ,hills4 ,after the #aicd eruption1 ,kilauea simply went out of business for eighteen years4 ,halemaumau lava returned in #aieb4 ,mauna ,loa activity was renewed meanwhile1 with summit crater inflows in #aicc and with intense seismic activity under the northeast rift4 ,depths of seismic centers were at first seventeen miles down1 and thereafter five miles down1 as reported by seismologist ,hugh ,waesche4 ,he worked with the formulae of distance1 direction1 and depth established by ,austin ,jones1 using preliminary tremor1 comparative excursions of lines1 and a model of the island4 ,these had become precise by mathematical triangulation of the island of ,hawaii1 with seismograph records from ,kilauea1 ,hilo1 and ,kona stations4 ,the distance from each station was interpreted from the duration of the preliminary tremor2 and the meeting point of the several distances within the island model located the seismic focus inside ,mauna ,loa ,mountain where the lava was splitting it open4 ,the epicenter1 or point over the focus1 when the lava in ,mauna ,loa's summit crater was stiffening1 lay on the northeast rift in #aicc4 ,therefore the eruption was expected at an old cone1 whence had come the first outbreak of #ahdc4 ,this came to pass in #aice4 ,e4 ,g4 ,wingate1 who had become superintendent of ,hawaii ,national ,park1 agreed with my dictum1 made on the basis of seismograms and history1 that the next outflow would come at the north within two years and would endanger ,hilo4 ,this ,i discussed at a public meeting of the ,hilo ,chamber of ,commerce in ,january #aicd1 and the report was published under the title 8,the coming lava flow40 ,the prediction was fulfilled in ,december #aice1 when the flow came as it had in #ahdc4 ,the eruption broke out on top and traveled down to ,humuula1 the saddle between ,mauna ,loa and ,mauna ,kea1 then pooled in the saddle and turned toward ,hilo4 ,illustration3 #be4 ,jaggar in office of ,observatory in 8,tin ,house10 #aicg ,illustration3 #bf4 ,bomb bursting on lava flow1 ,december #bg1 #aice4 ,photo by ,eleventh ,photo ,section1 ,a4,c41 ,wheeler ,field1 ,t4,h4 ,the #ahdc flow had reached the saddle and turned toward ,kona1 and the solid remnant of that lava bank deflected the #aice puddle to the east4 ,it was traveling toward ,hilo at the rate of a mile a day4 ,this was the signal to try stopping it by bombing from airplanes1 a procedure which had been proposed from experience with flows in tunnels of their own crust1 where a person on the ,kilauea floor could look through a caved-in hole in the roof and see the glowing river inside4 ,thurston and ,i had discussed blasting such a roof to cool off the lava and pile it up1 thus forcing it to a new outlet and stopping the frontal flow4 ,it was ,guido ,giacometti of ,olaa who suggested bombing rather than dynamiting4 ,i called on the ,army ,air ,force1 and a conference was held in ,hilo4 ,with ,colonel ,delos ,c4 ,emmons1 ,wing ,commander1 ,i flew over the source tunnel4 ,this was at #i1jjj feet on the north side of ,mauna ,loa1 where a gleaming silvery ribbon of pahoehoe emerged from a hole in the north slope4 ,this was a crusted lava river1 and the fliers were instructed to smash it with #fjj-pound demolition bombs of ,,tnt4 ,the forenoon of ,december #bg was fixed for the bombing2 and by invitation of ,herbert ,shipman1 ,mrs4 ,jaggar and ,i went to ,puu ,oo ,ranch on ,mauna ,kea to watch what happened4 ,the day was clear1 and ,i saw one explosion send up a column of incandescent liquid lava hundreds of feet high1 looking like a geyser of blood4 ,in the foreground was the front of the flow1 which we watched as it moved toward ,hilo4 ,at the same time we were receiving reports from cowboys on its rapidly diminishing speed4 ,for about a week the liquid lava remaining in the tunnels kept spilling forward1 and then it stopped4 ,the front was in the headwaters of the ,wailuku ,river1 ,hilo's water supply4 ,we afterwards visited the bomb craters in the source region1 to find that there had been numerous hits on the lava tunnel and that the cooling off had solidified the source lava back into the mountain rift4 ,the remainder of the eruption expended itself with internal fountaining in the summit wells at the top end of the flank rift4 ,from the coincidence of the times of bombing and the slowing down of frontal flow1 there appeared no question that the smashing of the source tunnel was effective and had saved ,hilo4 ,we had not anticipated that active fountaining would be forced back to the summit well from the #i1jjj-;foot craterlet1 but summit smoke continuing for two months verified that this had happened4 ,this showed the physical chemistry of bubbling slag to be in delicate adjustment and a lava eruption once started to be more sensitive to shock than anyone had dreamed4 ,this conclusion was reconfirmed by the bombing of the #aidb flow4 ,during this period1 changes in ,observatory personnel led to new researches4 ,wingate1 who succeeded ,wilson as engineer1 set up triangulation monuments in ,puna to test further motion on the ,kapoho rift of #aibd4 ,he also devised and set up three tilt instruments in three cellars which were blasted out of the lava around ,halemaumau pit4 ,howard ,powers came from ,harvard as petrologist and collected and mapped many rock specimens in ,kona1 on ,hualalai1 and in ,olaa4 ,he also made curves of the tilt records for the first twenty years of the ,observatory4 ,hugh ,waesche was transferred from the ,park ,service to the position of geologist at the ,observatory4 ,a skilled radio amateur1 he took over seismological work4 ,in #aich he dealt with an important group of earthquakes along the ,chain of ,craters east of ,kilauea4 ,these were accompanied by faulting1 which made cracks1 chasms1 and humps in the road1 and some new hot places4 ,this indicated a reaction underground1 back toward ,halemaumau from the submarine outflow of ,april #aibd4 ,finch from his headquarters at ,lassen reported regularly in the ,volcano ,letter1 on hot spring temperatures and earthquakes4 ,he conducted two expeditions to ,alaska1 inspecting the seismographs and making volcano explorations and maps on ,akutan ,island4 ,another expedition was to ,shishaldin ,volcano1 at the west end of the big ,aleutian island of ,unimak during one of its eruptive spells4 ,throughout this time and earlier ,h4 ,t4 ,stearns represented the ,geological ,survey and the ,territory of ,hawaii in publications on geology and water supply on all the islands4 ,the island of ,hawaii was made the subject of a splendid geological map in color by ,stearns and ,gordon ,macdonald1 petrographer1 with a book on the geological history of ,hawaii1 profusely illustrated with photographs and diagrams4 ,their book is practically a modern textbook on the geology of active lava volcanoes4 ,richmond ,hodges1 sent by the ,geological ,survey from ,washington1 was trained in the technique of government filing and relieved me of work with correspondence and routine4 ,he also took over the editing of the ,volcano ,letter and assisted ,mr4 ,wilson with the writing of articles when ,i was away in ,alaska4 ,my secretaries after ,hodges were ,ruth ,baker and ,sutejiro ,sato1 and ,miss ,baker's work extended into the #aidj's4 ,tilt studies made at the three cellars around the rim of ,halemaumau did not produce the anticipated results1 but they answered our questions4 ,the three cellars were placed at #abj degrees to each other1 with reference to a meridian crossing the pit1 one at the north1 one east-southeast and one west-southwest4 ,it was thought1 when these tiltoscopes were set up1 that the ,kilauea floor would swell or shrink as an inner dome1 with the pit at its center4 ,but nothing of the kind was revealed4 ,the tilting was found to be more or less at right angles to the long western wall of ,kilauea ,crater1 itself an extension from the southwestern rift of ,kilauea ,mountain4 ,the rift extends under ,halemaumau pit1 as was proved in #aibj1 when the ,kau ,desert outflows from the rift cracks kept pace with the lowering of ,halemaumau lava4 ,this means that the ring of ,halemaumau's rock wall is in two pieces1 divided by the rift dikes trending northeast-southwest1 and that the tilting over upward pressure from below is not radial but is northwest and southeast4 ,wilson's leveling results that showed the whole mountain swelling up were based on isolated benchmarks relative to sea level1 and this swelling was probably unsymmetrical1 just as the southwest rift and the eastern rift of the ,chain of ,craters make a bend in plan and are unsymmetrical4 ,the mountain is not a uniform elliptical dome4 ,i have said that the decade of the #aicj's was a time of culmination for ,kilauea4 ,it was also a period of financial depression and stress for all of us4 ,the ,volcano ,house burned down1 the new hotel was placed on the ,observatory site1 and the ,observatory administration barely survived4 ,the ,hawaiian ,volcano ,research ,association did much to keep the ,observatory alive1 but one year we all went on half pay4 ,by dint of this half-pay episode and because everybody insisted that volcano records must not be permitted to lapse1 the ,secretary of the ,interior transferred the ,observatory in #aice to the better financed ,national ,park ,service4 ,with ,wingate as superintendent of ,hawaii ,national ,park1 we were assured of loyal support and were able to combine scientific aims with ,national ,park activities4 ,thus1 the ,volcano ,observatory regained its status4 ,we were also assisted by the publication of the economic success of the ,mauna ,loa bombing1 in face of the threat to ,hilo which involved some #ea million dollars of buildings and harbor4 ,this threat ,wingate and ,i studied carefully in the light of history1 and we succeeded in getting #aj1jjj from ,congress for an investigation by ,u4,s4 ,engineers of the possibility of a construction to protect ,hilo from a disastrous lava flow4 ,colonel ,bermel appointed civil engineer ,belcher to ,hilo1 and ,belcher worked for a year in #aich on my design of a lava diversion channel and earthworks1 to extend for seven miles from the ,wailuku ,river gorge above ,hilo to the airport4 ,this was to take care of another such lava flow as that of #ahha by deflecting it with the natural valleys southward from the congested district4 ,a critical design was made of the channel1 the height of the obstruction1 and the openings needed for waterways and public roads4 ,the plan was not to block the passage of lava1 but merely to deflect it by means of an artificial barrier to channel it downhill4 ,this would send it along the natural grades1 diagonally forcing a lava stream away from the business district1 the harbor1 the factories1 and the airport4 ,the design was approved by a reviewing board in ,washington as effective for the purpose intended4 ,however1 with this project went a redesign of ,hilo breakwater and a plan for dredging the harbor which took into consideration the possibility of a severe tidal wave4 ,unfortunately the appropriation estimate was considered too large and was turned down in ,washington4 ,when the great tidal wave came in #aidf it proved that such an extended breakwater attached to the northern shore of ,hilo harbor would have lessened the terrible destruction and loss of life4 ,a diversion in the lives of ,mrs4 ,jaggar and myself was an invitation in #aicf from the ,royal ,society of ,london1 to go to ,montserrat in the ,west ,indies where for three years they had been having bad earthquakes4 ,sir ,gerald ,lenox-,conyngham1 whom we had met at the ,japan congress1 wrote me asking for my help because ,montserrat's dormant hot volcano was making excessive hydrogen sulfide gas at its two solfataras4 ,the smell sickened and alarmed the inhabitants of the port of ,plymouth1 and the gas was blackening the paint of white steamships4 ,the earthquakes had come in spasms culminating in big damage to masonry from #aicd onward4 ,perret had flown over from ,martinique and tried to help by applying sound theories to prediction of seasonal tidal controls of the volcano1 but he was scoffed at as a voodoo soothsayer by a ,british ,navy captain4 ,the scientific commission appointed was ,dr4 ,c4 ,f4 ,powell of ,bristol1 now ,nobel ,prize physicist1 and ,dr4 ,a4 ,g4 ,mac,gregor of the ,geological ,survey1 besides ,dr4 ,lenox-,conyngham1 formerly ,director of the ,geodetic ,survey of ,india4 ,dr4 ,powell used adaptations of my shock recorder1 both horizontal and vertical1 built by the ,kew ,observatory4 ,designs had been obtained from instruments ,i sent to ,dr4 ,marsden in ,new ,zealand1 after the ,napier earthquake4 ,when ,i received the invitation to go to ,montserrat1 ,i packed up such instruments as ,i could find1 and telephoned ,mrs4 ,jaggar in ,honolulu to be ready to go with me to ,los ,angeles the following ,saturday4 ,she was always ready to act as secretary on a new adventure1 and with much bustle and scramble we packed her things4 ,later ,i joined her at the steamer1 a ,danish freighter which was to take us through the ,canal to the ,caribbean4 ,boarding as we did on such short notice1 we were given a steward's room in the bowels of the ship2 but we had the run of the first cabin4 ,it was a delightful trip through ,panama and ,jamaica1 both of which ,i was happy to see again1 twenty-six years after my #aiaj experience with the canal engineers4 ,great changes had been wrought1 and it was a thrill to see the ship pulled through step-up after step-up of canal locks1 by the 8iron mules0 of that marvelous machinery4 ,we left the delightful freighter people at ,charlotte ,amalie in the ,virgin ,islands where we stayed at ,blue ,beard's ,castle4 ,after a wait of some days1 we got a small ,dutch island freighter to go to ,montserrat4 ,we stopped at ,st4 ,martin1 an astonishing place1 ,french at one end and ,dutch at the other1 with practically no custom house to mark the boundary1 though the wines and the language changed in the middle of the island4 ,saba is a startling extinct volcano rising as a steep rocky cone directly from the water1 with no harbor but a stop opposite a gully that leads up to the crater4 ,after landing in small boats1 we climbed up the gulch to the settlement1 a picturesque place1 with masonry houses and many flowers1 where the government is ,dutch but all talk ,english1 and its history goes back to the buccaneers4 ,the village is on a flat in the lowest part of a cup crater1 the top of our climb1 but the name of the settlement is ,the ,bottoms4 ,our little ship joined the main line of the leeward volcanoes at ,st4 ,kitts1 where we made connections for ,antigua and ,montserrat4 ,in ,montserrat we stayed with ,miss ,gillie at the ,rainbow ,house and joined the ,englishman ,powell and the ,scot ,mac,gregor4 ,i met ,perret at ,antigua1 and we compared notes on the similarity of the earthquakes and the rotten-egg smell 7sulfuretted hydrogen7 at ,montserrat to the eruptions of ,pele in ,martinique1 where these phenomena were followed by explosions and lava4 ,the ,montserrat authorities justly feared what was coming4 ,perret had for two years kept track of events at ,montserrat in relation to equinox and solstice4 ,he had built a hut there at the dangerous solfatara near town1 had made an instrument shelter with a thermograph1 and on a pedestal close to a nearby residence had set up an ingenious earthquake accumulator1 which had recorded at the end of twenty-four hours the total expenditure of seismic energy in each direction4 ,as there were hundreds of strong shocks1 the instruments recorded total seismic energy per day and its dominant direction4 ,i found that ,powell had set up my shock recorders among volunteers on the island1 and a seismograph at the agricultural station4 ,a new form of the ,jaggar shock recorder had the weight attached to horizontal flat springs so as to oscillate up and down4 ,i was especially pleased with the earthquake records kept by a ,mr4 ,english living in the countryside4 ,assisted by his wife1 he had carefully listed the times and intensities of hundreds of shocks1 with notes on important events4 ,much help was furnished by the ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 which provided an assistant to take us to many geologic places and to the second solfatara1 consisting of hot springs and sulfur in a southern valley of the volcano4 ,the volcano of ,montserrat is at the south end of the island1 while the northern part consists of older hills4 ,the summit crater is a remote and inaccessible forested area among peaks4 ,the volcano is much like ,pele in size and appearance4 ,we were allowed to take a steamer to ,st4 ,vincent and ,barbados1 stopping at ,dominica4 ,there the ,governor kindly entertained us for a few hours1 sending the government launch and driving us up the valley on a fte day when the negro women were all in picturesque costume4 ,we saw his summer place with lovely gardens4 ,we had tea with his wife1 and ,i discussed with him the earthquake problem4 ,on the drive we saw a remarkable cliff of hexagonal columns1 some of them curved like a fan1 representing the old lavas of ,dominica4 ,the administrative problems of the ,british islands involved not only hurricanes and earthquakes1 but tactful handling of the dominant negro1 ,carib ,indian1 and mulatto population1 which is very ticklish1 for there have been riots and labor troubles4 ,i was astonished in several of the islands to learn that distinguished ,englishmen in government and planter classes were partly colored4 ,in the society club of ,montserrat we met a leading lawyer who was coal black1 and we saw ,london-educated negroes dancing with ,english girls4 ,we found the same customs in ,st4 ,vincent1 and to a much lesser extent1 in ,barbados4 ,in ,st4 ,vincent ,mr4 ,abbot1 ,mac,donald's secretary1 took us to see my old friend ,t4 ,m4 ,mac,donald the planter1 at ,chateau ,belair on the west side of ,soufrire1 where ,hovey1 ,curtis1 and ,i had climbed in #aijb4 ,we traveled up the west coast by automobile1 and saw one of the primitive sugar mills1 where the juice is boiled down to a syrup to be shipped to lumber mills in ,canada4 ,nothing could be in greater contrast to the modern sugar factories in ,hawaii1 and the negro labor gives the industry an entirely different aspect4 ,to get to ,chateau ,belair we had to motor up a canyon far into the interior1 around hairpin turns over vertical cliffs and along a narrow ridge1 and then return to shore on the other side of the valley4 ,we rode along the beach under the volcano1 and saw the rehabilitated ,richmond plantation1 with the west flank of ,soufrire ,volcano under heavy clouds4 ,owing to torrents of rain1 we had to make part of the return to ,kingstown in a rowboat4 ,later we drove over an excellent road up the east shore to ,georgetown1 and beyond that on the foot of the volcano slope1 where a group of plantations had been purchased after the eruption of #aijb by ,mr4 ,barnard1 who with his charming wife1 entertained us4 ,hundreds of acres of coconut trees1 arrowroot1 and sugar cane had replaced the utter devastation of #aijb4 ,barnard showed us a modern still for making rum from sugar cane1 and ,i was astonished to see that the product is just as clear as alcohol1 the rum color being artificial4 ,we rode horseback most of the way to the crater of ,soufrire1 over a trail through forests and across streams1 very different from hiking in horrible desolation and fog up bare ridges covered with volcanic bombs1 such as ,hovey and ,curtis and ,i had encountered on this same slope at the time of the eruptions4 ,the trail still followed knife-edge divides with perilous slopes on both sides of the path1 but now concealed with mountain growth4 ,we rode nearly to the edge of the crater1 now a very different picture1 with a large lake only a few hundred feet below1 as it had been before the eruption of #aijb4 ,two sturdy native women coming from ,chateau ,belair appeared with baskets of fruit on their heads1 tramping a #c1jjj foot height to deliver their goods to ,georgetown on the east side of the island4 ,this is an old story for these straight-backed natives1 and these treks across mountains were equally characteristic of the creoles in ,martinique and the northern islands4 ,these people would spend the night near their market on the opposite side of the islands4 ,in ,kingstown we were shown the elaborate process by which arrowroot is made into edible starch1 the powdery product being critically graded by delicate shades of color4 ,this corm1 which makes inconspicuous fields of low growing pointed ,canna leaves and small white flowers1 is quite different from the cassava1 or manioc1 which ,i had known on my first visits to the ,west ,indies4 ,arrowroot has been developed by the agricultural experiment stations of the ,british1 who for many years searched for a new commercial product4 ,the ,st4 ,vincent arrowroot is now a major industry which has spread to the other islands and is cultivated by small planters4 ,in the volcano islands ,i interviewed government people to call attention to the crisis in ,montserrat1 using it as an illustration of the need at the numerous vents for the development of observatory methods1 particularly in geology1 chemistry1 oceanography1 and seismology1 including measurements of ground surface movements and tilt4 ,i had recommended this for ,martinique and ,st4 ,vincent in #aijb2 and ,perret1 with some support by the ,french government1 had gone to live in ,st4 ,pierre and make a museum1 stimulated by the ,pele outbreak of #aibi4 ,so far as geophysics is concerned1 the governments of ,st4 ,vincent and ,jamaica have gone to sleep since the volcano disaster of #aijb and the earthquake building reforms of #aijg4 ,it is discouraging to a scientist to know that the science of economic geophysics and geography in such a magnificent field as the ,west ,indian volcanoes has to be awakened by such disasters as were now occurring in ,montserrat1 with no forecasting at all4 ,the whole ,montserrat episode was like our unforeseen ,hualalai earthquakes of #aibi1 and in both places my shock recorder was called in to help4 ,we went on to ,barbados1 a flat non-seismic land1 where in #aijb ,i had interviewed the ,roraima victims4 ,we returned by way of ,st4 ,lucia1 where we drove to the solfatara1 which as usual is in a valley with sulfur and hot springs1 near sea level1 and not in a crater4 ,we returned to ,montserrat1 where the earthquakes and bad gases had died down after #aicf4 ,the investigations of the ,commission 7,lenox-,conyngham made his visit after ,i left71 came to publication in ,powell and ,mac,gregor's reports on the seismic analysis and the geology4 ,i sent in a report with photographs and charts on the whole chain of volcanoes1 in relation to the ,montserrat crisis1 by comparison with other volcanoes4 ,lenox-,conyngham wrote an article for ,nature4 ,mac,gregor later published a critical analysis of modern data on the probabilities of eruption in all of the ,west ,indian volcanoes4 ,perret published a large monograph on ,montserrat1 illustrated with his beautiful photographs4 ,we passed ,martinique by sea1 and ,i saw the huge pile of lava the #aibi eruption had added1 to make an entirely new summit to ,mount ,pele4 ,vegetation and habitation had reappeared at ,st4 ,pierre1 but the mountain was bare4 ,we returned to ,hawaii by way of ,bermuda1 ,boston1 and ,washington1 where the temperature was hotter than we had felt in the tropics4 ,reviewing the journey1 ,i was encouraged to perceive that geology had changed a great deal since the struggle that ,hovey and ,i1 after our experience at ,mount ,pele1 had had to make geological societies realize that changes in the field must be constantly measured4 ,the real obstacles to getting field measurements permanently manned as pure science are lack of money and the fashions of education4 ,perret and ,i have been two isolated enthusiasts crying in the wilderness4 ,any young scientist with photographic skill who will give his life to living with and reporting upon a single volcano group can make a great contribution to science4 ,he must have suitable financial backers and a publication agency and instruments not dependent upon frequent eruptions4 ,what volcano science needs most is permanent dwellers1 using all the resources of sensitive geophysics and chemistry and dwelling close to craters or solfataras4 ,such lands as the ,taupo ,district of ,new ,zealand are ideal1 but not when observed at a distance4 ,wairaki is now under investigation for commercial power4 ,hilo is being critically examined for a lava diversion scheme4 ,but these projects are not what ,i mean1 and are not pure science4 ,the personal devotion of a lifetime1 as in the cases of ,pasteur or ,schweitzer1 is what produces the emergent evolution of true science4 ,i have called this chapter ,prophecy and ,hope because of six fruitful prognostications and hope for the future of volcanology4 ,of the prognostications1 one was the threat to ,hilo which came true in #aicd4 ,two1 the forecast to the effect that bombing would stop a lava flow came true4 ,three1 the belief that a volcano observatory would be productive of instruments came true4 ,four1 the prediction of danger to ,hilo produced definite defensive plans by ,u4,s4 ,engineers4 ,five1 predictions of time and place of ,mauna ,loa outbreaks1 seismically and historically proved practical4 ,six1 the prediction of ,kilauea sinking lava1 based on sinking at ,mauna ,loa1 had repeatedly been fulfilled4 ,when my government service as ,volcanologist ended in #aidj and ,r4 ,h4 ,finch had been appointed my successor1 substantial recognition of the ,observatory had come from ,washington1 ,new ,zealand1 and ,great ,britain4 ,great help had come from ,presidents ,arthur ,l4 ,dean and ,david ,l4 ,crawford of the ,university of ,hawaii in ,honolulu1 and new assistance came from ,president ,gregg ,m4 ,sinclair4 ,this was to lead to my employment by the ,university as ,research ,associate in #aidj4 ,thus ,i was to continue1 during the next decade1 the publishing of ,volcano ,observatory results4 ,over and over again ,hawaiian volcanology demonstrated the need of advertisement1 occasionally reaching such men as ,everett ,morss1 ,m4,i4,t4 trustee in ,boston2 ,lorin ,thurston1 business leader in ,honolulu2 ,henderson1 ,washington financier1 for our borings2 and ,cramton1 leader of ,congress4 ,the ,volcano ,research ,association in ,honolulu is a devoted group of businessmen keeping up a small fund of #f1jjj per annum1 trivial compared to the big laboratories of commerce and astronomy4 ,a pure science of volcanology1 with world-wide laboratories is now needed to catch the eye and ear of imaginative men of business4 ,friedlaender in ,naples1 ,perret on ,mount ,pele1 and ,omori in ,tokyo almost created enough imaginative stimulus to real exploration of volcanoes and of the inner earth4 ,they were battered down by natural catastrophe and by wars4 ,the #aidj's were enriched by three good friends ,vern ,hinkley1 ,stanley ,porteus1 and ,frank ,rieber2 respectively journalist1 psychologist1 and physicist-inventor4 ,they all took a keen interest in my writing and mechanical inventions1 and ,hinkley assisted in the ,observatory work during the explosive eruption and wrote 8that was the top experience of my newspaper career40 ,hinkley1 who had edited the ,hilo ,tribune ,herald1 became managing editor of the ,honolulu ,star-,bulletin and published a series of my radio addresses on ,kilauea4 ,he also sent his photographer to photograph our laboratories1 thereby keeping the public informed about volcano study4 ,and he worked up a history of my navy monographs and hardness testing instruments4 ,he was a lovable fellow whose publicity instinct was a great asset to volcano science4 ,he did not think of a volcano as something sensational1 but remained moderate about it and informed his public accurately4 ,through him1 the ,volcano ,observatory reports came to be accepted as desirable routine1 and he was elected a director of the ,volcano ,research ,association4 ,his many friends were desolated by his early and sudden death4 ,porteus is an ,australian man of science who conducted expeditions among the ,australian blacks and the primitive ,africans of ,kalihari and specialized in the mental outlook of primitive peoples4 ,he devised a famous maze for intelligence tests4 ,he has published numerous books about ,hawaii and several novels1 including 8,restless voyage10 the life of ,archibald ,campbell1 who lived with ,kamehameha the great and survived amputation of both legs4 ,with ,guido ,giacometti1 who suggested airplane bombing of the volcano lava flows1 ,porteus and ,i foregathered at the crater frequently to discuss the constitution of earth interior4 ,porteus differed with my belief on the evolution of mind as a mutation of evolution4 ,like ,hinkley he became a member of the ,board of ,directors of our ,research ,association4 ,he is a judge of the juvenile court1 skilled in curing delinquency4 ,porteus is a world thinker1 who agrees with me in thinking of altruism as a form of energy4 ,porteus invented the title of this present book4 ,rieber started from the ,university of ,california where he became interested in making an echo from underground strata to locate oil4 ,he moved to ,los ,angeles1 where his father was a professor of classical languages and a college dean4 ,frank invented a complex recording seismograph carried on a motor truck1 wherewith he set off explosive bombs and registered echo earthquakes from every important underground layer4 ,these layers identified oil-bearing strata1 so that the marks on a revolving drum practically mapped a section underground for a guide to oil drilling4 ,he moved to ,new ,york and established war inventions1 among them phonograph disks for repeating whole conferences of many talkers4 ,he founded ,geovision ,ltd41 a company which greatly abbreviated the scanning of echoes for subterranean mapping4 ,then he died suddenly1 like ,hinkley1 in the full flower of a brilliant mind4 ,rieber and ,i corresponded for years on invention gadgets1 comparing notes by letters1 and meeting all too rarely4 ,to me he was one of our most productive physicists1 always inspiring4 ,he was convinced that discovery of petroleum will endlessly increase and will become automatic4 ,he and ,i looked downward into the shell of the globe4 ,this decade ,i devoted primarily to writing and publication1 some of the writing voluminous and still unpublished4 ,in #aida ,i moved into an office in ,hawaii ,hall of the ,university of ,hawaii in ,honolulu4 ,my paper work consisted primarily in completing1 revising1 and illustrating a memoir on 8,origin and development of craters10 in cooperation with the ,geological ,society of ,america4 ,the censor chosen by the ,society was ,dr4 ,howel ,williams of the ,university of ,california1 who cordially endorsed the book4 ,the ,society subscribed #cej from its ,penrose ,fund to assist with drafting and clerical work on the substantial results of our observations of ,hawaiian craters in the twentieth century4 ,the groundwork had long been laid1 for beginning under ,alexander ,agassiz at the ,museum of ,comparative ,zoology in ,cambridge and during my visit to ,vesuvius in #aijf1 ,i planned a book on volcanology4 ,later1 in #aiaj after careful study of the work of ,dana1 ,hitchcock1 and ,brigham on ,hawaiian volcanoes1 ,i started analysis of ,kilauea ,volcano in the nineteenth century4 ,thus this one large volume with photogravures1 maps1 and diagrams covers the history of observations and conclusions from ,hawaiian ,volcano ,observatory work for thirty years4 ,my thesis is that there must be some order in time and space for what is obviously #a1gjj miles of submarine volcanic upbuilding in the ,hawaiian chain4 ,active volcanoes are hot and erupting in ,hawaii2 sunken ones are covered with coral at ,midway ,island2 and intermediate ones1 half coral and half lava1 are in the middle of the chain4 ,disregarding the ocean water1 all of these are gigantic mountains below sea level4 ,on the island of ,hawaii ,i found symmetry1 which ,i called 8,the cross of ,hawaii0 in an address to the ,honolulu ,chamber of ,commerce in #aiab4 ,i noted that ,mauna ,kea forms the top of a cross on the map2 the upright extends along the southwest rift of ,mauna ,loa1 and two symmetrical curved arms extend to ,hualalai summit and ,kilauea summit4 ,the lava flows from ,mauna ,loa north and south arrange themselves symmetrically about this design1 with every evidence that ,mauna ,loa dome was piled up in a spoon underlaid by ,hualalai1 ,mauna ,kea1 and ,kilauea4 ,it is obvious on the map that ,mauna ,loa upbuilding was obstructed by grandpa ,mauna ,kea and that it has been forced off to the southwest by the two daughters1 to build the elongate point of the island4 ,kilauea is old on the ,haleakala1 ,kohala1 ,kea line2 and ,hualalai is old on a right angle line at ,kea4 ,from my training in physiography under ,w4 ,m4 ,davis of ,harvard1 ,i was convinced when ,i first saw ,hawaii and studied the books about it that downward faulting toward the sea bottom1 of sliding island blocks1 is conspicuous4 ,it shows in the ,v-shaped fracture of ,haleakala ,crater1 a broken sector1 and in the straight fracture of the north half of ,molokai volcano1 leaving the mighty cliffs there4 ,it shows in the eastern half of ,kohala volcano leaving the fault facets and hanging valleys of ,waimanu1 and in the ,mohokea embayment of the southeast end of ,mauna ,loa4 ,the embayment shows evidence of the breakdown of an ancient crater as described by ,hitchcock4 ,moreover1 ,kilauea1 ,wood ,valley1 ,mohokea1 and ,waiohinu amphitheater are four old calderas of faulting in a line4 ,this seemed to me confirmed by the down-faulted steps of the southeast side of ,kilauea ,mountain1 and the observed down-breaking there of the shoreline during earthquakes4 ,this1 in #ahfh1 drowned coconut trees below the sea and caused big earthquakes on a submerged fault in #ahfh and #aieb4 ,such action was further confirmed by our experience of a down-faulted block during earthquakes at ,kapoho in ,april #aibd1 before ,halemaumau exploded1 confirming the view that the active volcanoes break downward in slices along shorelines1 even when they swell upward around craters4 ,harold ,stearns always combatted the idea of faulting and made ,mohokea1 ,haleakala1 and ,waipio erosion forms2 but this ,i cannot accept4 ,the logic to the effect that in the long and large the old volcanoes from ,hawaii to ,midway have been on slices of the earth's crust faulted downward below sea level through the ages seems incontrovertible4 ,the fault planes are diagonals across the main volcanic rift trend and make the channels between the islands at an angle in plan to the trend of the island chain4 ,these channels are very deep4 ,all of this philosophy developed in my mind before ,i came to ,hawaii4 ,also ,i thought that the origin of life might have been from volcanic gas1 owing to the prominence of carbon dioxide1 water vapor1 hydrogen1 sulfur1 and nitrogen1 all ingredients of both protein and volcanoes4 ,i put this up to ,r4 ,t4 ,jackson1 who taught me phylogeny when ,i was studying fossils and he was studying genetics4 ,knowing the sulfurous quality of an egg yolk1 ,i asked him if it wasn't possible that as evolution goes back behind the embryo1 we should find volcanic traces chemically4 ,phylogeny means that the history of the embryo reenacts the history of the race1 and ,i merely extended this back to the inorganic4 ,i was laughed at for carrying biological origin back to gases of volcanoes2 but ,shepherd and ,i collected gases from flaming ,kilauea lava1 and found the five elemental constituents3 carbon1 oxygen1 nitrogen1 hydrogen1 and sulfur4 ,these also make up the aminoacids of protein1 so my philosophy of origin still seemed to me to be reasonable4 ,volcanoes erupted through the ocean1 and life came out of the unexplored deeps of the sea4 ,thus in #aiaj ,i began a book on craters which came to fruition in a ,memoir of the ,geological ,society4 ,this was not published until #aidg1 but ,i was working on it1 drawing the diagrams1 dictating the typescript to ,sato1 and selecting for illustration the best of our photographs during the thirties4 ,one of the diagrams shows eleven-year cycles1 beginning with #agij and ending with #aice4 ,i adopted this after finding in ,hitchcock a tabulation for ,halemaumau1 indicating big lowerings of lava in #agij1 #ahbc1 #ahee1 and #ahia1 to which we added #aibd from our own experience4 ,these were approximately thirty-three years apart1 as ,i found when ,i plotted the data on a curve of ,hitchcock's table4 ,taking other major sinkings as punctuation points--such as the outflows and collapse of ,halemaumau in #ahcb1 #ahdj1 #ahfh1 and #aica--there developed a correspondence in the subsidence times treated as repose periods1 with the years having the least numbers of sunspots at average intervals of #aa4a years4 ,the intervening times of maxima of sunspots all occurred in the intermediate times of rising lava4 ,the curve as a whole from #ahbc to #aibd shows a notable crest from #ahee to #ahij1 and a crest of the greatest volume of ,mauna ,loa gushing occurred between #ahee and #ahgg4 ,stearns and ,macdonald object to this diagram as not showing all the little intermediate events1 but what ,i have taken are the actual peaks and depressions above sea level and those which correspond to the sunspot interval of #aa4a years4 ,this is an average even for sunspots1 which had long intervals at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 a time when no reports were made for ,kilauea4 ,i have guessed a drop of ,kilauea lava as dating from about ,a4 ,d4 #ahjj1 corresponding to the notable expulsion of ,mauna ,loa lava through ,hualalai1 and an imaginary unreported lowering eleven years thereafter1 as it is improbable the island was wholly dead in the first twenty years of the century4 ,the explosive eruptions of #agij certainly produced a big collapse at ,kilauea4 ,my faith in this diagram is based on the fact that our own eruption sinkings at eleven year intervals 7#aijb1 #aiac1 #aibd1 and #aice7 agree so well with an eleven-year theory that we are justified in looking backward for eleven year averages4 ,perret has found intervals of about a decade for ,vesuvius4 ,all my experience of ,hawaiian lava leads to the belief1 shown by our lava tides and several short-term diagrams1 that rhythmic periods of a volcanic system are related to gravitational control of the sun and moon4 ,there are rhythmic controls of the globe by the gravitational control of the sun and moon4 ,there are rhythmic controls of the globe by the sun1 and rhythmic controls of very deep volcanic cracks by the globe1 and rhythmic controls of individual groups of volcanoes by the long volcanic chains over cracks4 ,our experimental data are limited by the little groups of volcanoes1 and so the big rhythmic movements seem inaccessible to science1 mostly because we have no record of relationships of single volcanoes #ejj miles apart in such a place as ,alaska4 ,we raise no question about night and day or about the oceanic tides or about the moon's phases4 ,we know there is a rock tide in the earth1 that there is a hot earth core of about #bbjj ,centigrade which appears to seismology to be a very massive liquid #a1hjj miles down4 ,gravitation is the controlling force of the solar system1 the galaxy and the universe1 and it works by rhythms1 from the orbits of the planets in years1 to the outermost spiral nebulae in millions of centuries4 ,we are ourselves controlled by it in locomotion and in the circulation of the blood4 ,therefore to think of volcanoes as anything but periodic and gravitational in their relation to the globe would1 to me1 make the science of volcanoes entirely uninteresting4 ,all science lives on rhythmic action4 ,a second manuscript entitled 8,steamblast eruptions10 was based on ,mount ,pele in ,martinique and a comparison with the #aibd steamblast of ,kilauea4 ,this last had conclusively shown outflow under the sea1 and inflow of groundwater1 to change lava surging to blasts from a steam boiler4 ,a paper published in #aidj was a study of the gas collections from flaming basalt on ,kilauea and ,mauna ,loa1 made by ,e4 ,s4 ,shepherd and me4 ,in this ,i plotted curves of relative excellence of collection in relation to the amount of the volcanic gases1 in contrast to the non-volcanic aqueous and oceanic gases4 ,these latter1 notably water vapor1 decreased in proportion to the manipulative excellence of the handling of vacuum tubes2 and the volcanic gases increased1 notably hydrogen and the carbon gases4 ,this convinced me that the deep gas of volcanoes is hydrogen1 associated with carbon dioxide and nitrogen4 ,in this decade1 too1 war brought new demands on my time and experience and had its effect on the ,kilauea ,observatory4 ,major ,james ,snedeker of the ,marine ,corps1 legal officer for the ,commanding ,general in ,honolulu1 having heard of our experience with motorcar amphibians1 told me that the ,pacific ,ocean war would depend on amphibian landing craft4 ,and a letter from ,admiral ,bloch urged me to send to the ,navy details of our experience with amphibians4 ,as this involved geology of beaches around the ,pacific ,ocean1 ,i set to work on twelve monographs for the ,navy dealing with the mechanism of amphibians and the problems they posed on beaches in ,hawaii1 ,puget ,sound1 and ,alaska4 ,other subjects about which ,i supplied information were the inflammability of ,japanese buildings in the ,tokyo earthquake1 the handling of earthquake and volcano catastrophes and our material from journals on many places of volcanic danger in the ,pacific4 ,then ,w4 ,h4 ,hammond1 physicist in charge of a testing laboratory at ,pearl ,harbor1 suggested that ,i revive my #ahig-aijh testing of steel for abrasion hardness1 later continued by ,boynton1 for his laboratory of the ,navy4 ,thus ,i started hardness testing at the ,university and carried it on for ten years4 ,i used diamond and other abrasives in instruments to show directly on a dial the rate of wear of metals or minerals under standardized conditions1 with a constant and reproducible motor tool4 ,abrasion hardness turned out to be as tricky a problem as my range finders and shock recorders4 ,this activity brought together in the ,university laboratory and in the laboratory at ,hawaii ,national ,park many records1 manuscripts1 and specimens4 ,ruth ,baker1 who succeeded ,sato as secretary1 did valiant work sorting out materials from many expeditions which had been dumped in disorder because of war and fire at the ,kilauea ,observatory4 ,though the ,park had built a new house for naturalists1 and for the seismographs1 shops1 and records1 it was taken over by the ,commanding ,general on ,hawaii1 imposing considerable hardship on ,finch and his assistants4 ,one assistant was ,burton ,loucks1 instrument maker1 who married ,miss ,baker4 ,another1 ,austin ,jones the seismologist1 was transferred to care for seismographs set up to measure faulting and tilt around ,boulder ,dam4 ,dr4 ,howard ,powers1 after work for the ,geological ,survey and the ,territory on the island of ,maui1 joined ,jones eventually to enter into a new section of volcanology1 established in ,denver under the ,geological ,survey1 especially to assist the ,army and ,navy studies of ,aleutian volcanic eruptions1 wherefrom harbors and airfields were sometimes endangered4 ,illustration3 #bg4 ,fountain in ,halemaumau lava lake1 ,may #bc1 #aiag ,illustration3 #bh4 ,rare dome fountain during eruption of ,kilauea ,crater1 ,march #bj1 #aiba ,illustration3 #bi4 ,lava stream issuing from a spatter cone near rim of ,halemaumau1 ,february #i1 #aiba ,three events of volcanic and seismic importance to ,hawaii during the #aidj's were the eruptions of ,mauna ,loa in #aidj and #aidb and the #aidf tidal wave caused by a submarine earthquake south of ,unalaska4 ,the wave engulfed the wharves and shorefronts of ,hilo and eastern ,maui and caused considerable damage elsewhere4 ,we were familiar with the recording by our seismographs of earthquake centers under the sea of ,alaska and ,japan1 and with the interval of hours that followed before dangerous water waves reached ,hawaiian shores4 ,we had also had a bad tidal wave in ,kona1 originating off ,japan2 and two or three such waves which damaged ,kahului and ,hilo had originated in big submarine earthquakes off the ,alaskan ,peninsula4 ,the ,japanese fishermen1 from our published warnings1 always took their sampans to deep water1 and the ,navy had instructed me to let them know right away if the seismographs recorded a distant earthquake capable of making a tidal wave4 ,i earlier had had one unhappy experience with warning the ,navy1 when we registered a seismogram of a big earthquake in ,alaska1 which if submarine1 would send us a tidal wave4 ,i notified ,pearl ,harbor of the probable time of arrival of the wave1 should the quake be submarine4 ,it happened a big ,army and ,navy dinner party at ,waikiki was set for just that time1 but orders went out calling officers back to their posts and the party was disrupted4 ,no tidal wave came1 as the earthquake proved to be on the mainland of ,alaska4 ,the newspapers unmercifully jeered at me1 but the ,commanding ,admiral told me not to change my policy4 ,the #aidf wave was very large and the water rose in pulsations until it swept away the railroad bridge and washed out the whole waterfront of ,hilo4 ,the earthquake seismogram came at #b ,a4,m4 when no one was watching1 and the water wave at #h ,a4,m4 came just when the ,observatory workers went on duty4 ,when the flood of ocean destroyed the ,hilo breakwater and leaped over it to damage the principal wharves1 many people were drowned4 ,considerable damage was done on ,oahu and ,maui4 ,the disaster came when ,dr4 ,f4 ,p4 ,shepard1 oceanographer of ,la ,jolla1 was occupying a summer cottage on the north shore of ,oahu2 and he was delighted to experience a big tidal wave4 ,collaborating with geologists in ,hawaii1 ,shepard compiled a most thorough report on height of waves in all bays of the ,territory4 ,seismographs and tide gauges got to work all around the ,pacific ,ocean1 the place on the sea bottom which had jolted was exactly located1 and the ,coast ,survey and ,navy started far-reaching precautions for predicting against future combinations of earthquake and water4 ,this included seismographs that ring alarm bells at night4 ,the object of science is always prediction and assisting humanity2 and the need is always for more men4 ,another significant event of #aidg was the visit of ,hans ,pettersson of the ,oceanographic ,institute of ,sweden who was conducting an expedition which followed the path of the ,challenger4 ,the object of the project was to study the oceanography of the sea bottom around the equator4 ,thus ,pettersson was enthusiastic about my paper in ,natural ,history and its emphasis on studying sea bottoms4 ,with him was inventor ,kullenberg who had made a device for boring into the mud of the sea bottom and taking longer cores than had been dug previously4 ,his apparatus consisted of a core barrel1 tripped with valves close to the sea bottom under a heavy weight1 which would allow it to sink sixty feet in suitable bottom ooze while the core rose inside the pipe without being compressed4 ,pettersson had a skilled staff consisting of biologist1 physicist1 chemist1 and geologist2 and they had laboratories on board the ,albatross for study of the collected bottom materials4 ,they also took echo data of explosions near sea bottom1 giving depths of soft materials over hard rock4 ,this place of transition was found to be shallower under the ,pacific ,ocean than under the ,atlantic4 ,they discovered hard lava flows in many places between ,tahiti and ,hawaii and under the ,indian ,ocean1 indicating extensive submarine volcanic eruption4 ,an attempt was made to measure the temperature of a core1 and this suggested that the bottom of the boring was warmer than the top1 meaning a thermal gradient of sea bottom4 ,a core of volcanic agglomerate was obtained in the deep trench opposite the ,east ,indies4 ,it was during this period that ,president ,gregg ,sinclair of the ,university of ,hawaii urged a plan for geophysics of the ,pacific1 and ,professor ,r4 ,w4 ,hiatt of that institution succeeded in advancing interest in organic oceanography4 ,i wrote an appeal1 based on such work as that of ,pettersson1 ,perret1 and others urging the ,regents of the ,university to plan a large geophysical institute in ,hawaii1 to make a science of the rock bottom of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,thousands of soundings made in the ,gulf of ,alaska and in the central ,pacific had shown seamounts1 or guyots1 shaped like high volcanoes on the sea floor1 some of them with flat tops1 but having characteristics of ancient isolated volcanoes4 ,new soundings revealed mountain ranges on the sea floor1 probably volcanic1 one of them right across the middle of the ,hawaiian chain4 ,no one had yet discovered fiery eruption in deep water1 but oceanographers were beginning to use boring machines1 cameras1 electric lights1 and devices for determining radioactivity of the muds4 ,as sea bottom occupies three-quarters of the globe1 it is inconceivable1 when compared with the continents1 that it has no hot solfataras1 hot springs1 and hot volcanoes4 ,in fact1 we know some of the latter in shallow water4 ,it is only a question of scientific organization to locate the sources of ,pettersson's submarine lava flows4 ,president ,sinclair took to the chiefs of the ,rockefeller and ,carnegie ,foundations a proposal for a five million dollar ,geophysical ,institute at the ,university of ,hawaii1 to utilize the advantages of its central ,pacific position4 ,as for my own experiments1 my ,department of ,volcanology at the ,university was moved into a concrete basement room a thousand square feet in area in the ,home ,economics building1 and the expense was shared with the ,hawaiian ,volcano ,research ,association4 ,here ,i had office and shop and collections of the ,research ,association1 and the assistance of a secretary and a junior researcher who is an instrument maker4 ,thus were assembled in a fire resistant location my petrographic and mineral collections from ,europe1 the ,caribbean1 ,central ,america1 and the ,pacific lands1 together with manuscripts from my days of ,harvard and ,massachusetts ,tech to the middle of the century and classified accumulations of my ,navy monographs1 lantern slides1 negatives1 photographs1 maps1 drawings1 correspondence1 and instruments1 including material obtained by the ,research ,association for experiments still continuing on the hardness of minerals4 ,one objective of this hardness measurement was an instrument for machine shops which would give in half a minute the length of a standard scratch made by a standard dental disk of silicon carbide4 ,i called this the 8,jaggar ,scratch ,tester0 and ,mr4 ,paul ,rushforth1 a ,honolulu optician1 made improved models of the instrument4 ,when a book was published on the experiments with some three hundred woods1 minerals1 metals1 and plastics1 ,dr4 ,grodzinski of the commercial diamond establishments in ,london became interested and reproduced the paper in a review dealing with industrial diamonds1 which have become of great importance in the world of grinding machinery4 ,this made a new contact with ,england1 similar to that made by ,boynton with my microsclerometer in #aijh1 when he applied it to the microscopic constituents of steel under the ,british ,iron and ,steel ,institute4 ,i sent a copy of my new report to the ,pearl ,harbor industrial laboratory1 along with one of the instruments4 ,endorsers of this report were ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,hammond and ,dr4 ,earl ,ingerson1 director of the mineral laboratories of the ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey4 ,a result of the experiments on hardness is the knowledge that the important quality is softness1 or abradability1 and speed of removal of material in any uniform mechanical cutting process4 ,it was formerly thought that the big intervals in values were between the hard substances4 ,it turns out that the biggest gaps in value are in soft substances like coals and clays and plasters4 ,hardness is purely a negative quality of resistance1 and measurements are of yielding1 not of resisting4 ,other experiments on which ,i worked dealt with location of the ,zenith in the sky for quick determination of latitude and longitude from stars and telescopic studies of the moon1 an old hobby of my master1 ,shaler4 ,i have long been convinced that ,kilauea lava resembles moon lava in the craters it builds1 and my special interest is that ,mauna ,loa and ,kilauea build structures of basalt1 small and large1 which are earth experiments imitating the moon on a smaller scale4 ,the astronomers say their field is the stars1 the geologists must explain the moon4 ,as a matter of fact1 one geologist has made a start4 ,my classmate ,j4 ,e4 ,spurr1 who after retirement to ,florida from work as ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey geologist among the faults and lavas of the far ,west1 published books on the comparison of the moon with geology4 ,in view of increasing attempts to explain moon craters by impact 7,baldwin71 ,i feel that experienced volcanologists should also take a hand in moon science4 ,larger arcs of circles on the globe1 the ,aleutian ,islands for instance1 resemble moon features and are deeply volcanic4 ,furthermore1 magnificent detailed photographs of the moon from modern telescopes are available to volcanology4 ,i spent my summers at ,hawaii ,national ,park1 becoming consulting geophysicist4 ,dr4 ,chester ,k4 ,wentworth of the ,board of ,water ,supply became geologist4 ,the laboratories were extended to a seismograph station seven miles up the northeast flank of ,mauna ,loa1 but operation of the original cellar adjacent to the ,volcano ,house was continued4 ,a basement under the ,natural ,history building of the ,park held seismographs1 ,finch's office and library1 and ,loucks' shop4 ,in #aidh ,observatory work was returned to the administration of the ,geological ,survey1 and a volcanologic branch in ,denver took over ,dr4 ,powers to make airplane studies of the ,aleutian ,islands4 ,this was under ,mr4 ,walter ,frederick ,hunt1 in charge of geology1 ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey4 ,when ,hawaii ,national ,park was reorganized1 ,frank ,oberhansley1 superintendent1 the ,natural ,history building was adopted as ,park ,headquarters1 and the ,uwekahuna buildings1 with their magnificent view in all directions1 were reconstructed as the ,hawaiian ,volcano ,observatory4 ,a new seismograph cellar was dug1 away from disturbances of ,uwekahuna cliff1 and modern instruments were installed4 ,mr4 ,john ,forbes became assistant machinist2 and on ,mr4 ,finch's retirement in #aiea1 ,dr4 ,gordon ,macdonald became volcanologist in charge4 ,c4 ,k4 ,wentworth moved from ,honolulu to the ,national ,park region and took charge of magnetic measurement1 which had been established at numerous stations by physicists of the ,geological ,survey4 ,during past decades physicists and chemists had visited the ,observatory1 among them ,dr4 ,stanley ,ballard1 who equipped the laboratories with a ,gaertner spectrograph2 ,dr4 ,harvey ,white of ,berkeley1 who found no radioactivity in ,hawaiian lavas2 and ,dr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,naughton1 who found a critical isotope of carbon in the emanations of ,sulphur ,bank4 ,modern chemistry was beginning to be applied to volcanology in the field1 and this was what ,hovey1 ,perret1 and ,i hoped for fifty years ago4 ,so much for dry facts of organization4 ,in #aidi the summit crater of ,mauna ,loa erupted1 with fracture and outflow of its south end toward ,kona4 ,this was followed in #aiej by lengthy rupture of the southwest rift with the most voluminous and rapid outflows of history1 three of them going into the ocean and wreaking destruction in ,south ,kona4 ,the sequence of these outflows was from high sources first1 with others opening farther south1 and the most conspicuous flows following the steep ,kona slope into the ocean1 beginning at ,hookena4 ,macdonald and ,national ,park naturalists photographed and recorded everything4 ,the old ,hookena post office on the upper road at the home of the veteran ,mr4 ,lincoln was carried away1 and this occasioned much drama1 for the old man didn't wish to leave his home4 ,the next house destroyed1 an old landmark1 was the ,magoon ,ranch4 ,the third was the attractive and modern ,ohia ,lodge1 a resort built of native logs in the wilderness4 ,a separate large flow forked away from the rift1 to the eastern side of the mountain1 reaching the lowest landward elevation in the forest of ,kahuku1 and short flows spilled over the southwest rift on the east side4 ,several persons approached the flows in ,south ,kona from the ocean4 ,the early photographs of the first flows1 where the hard sprouts and boulders of stiff aa partially cooled entered the ocean1 showed big columns of vapor from contact with sea water4 ,not so with the third flow farthest south1 explored from a canoe by ,jack ,matsumoto and a companion1 equipped with motion picture cameras4 ,the pictures were good color photographs1 and the torrent of lava flowed down a steep bank of its own substance1 hemmed in by hardened ridges at the sides1 the stream intensely liquid and flowing directly into the ocean4 ,the result was most remarkable4 ,the yellow liquid lava went into the salt water without making any column of steam at all2 the sea bottom simply received it with its rush downward1 the water boiling superhot1 and the lava taking the water vapor into itself4 ,the phenomenon was not due to the rising of dry steam1 for there was no condensation cloud above4 ,scientists explained it by assuming a shell of lava making a tunnel under the ocean1 with the crust ending just at sea level4 ,such a submarine arch was definitely not present1 for the waves surged back and forth and1 ,matsumoto states1 there was no sign of a submerged reef4 ,the motion picture bears this out4 ,what was probably going on is what happens to slag in a patented process of the steel mills1 where the glow liquid is flowed over a perforated surface emitting hundreds of water jets1 and the melt at #acjj ,centigrade absorbs the water without making visible steam4 ,the slag turns into a myriad of microscopic glassy spheres1 becoming a kind of pumice4 ,a peculiarity of this substance is that if it is cooled at #gjj ,centigrade it will pass a critical point and give up the absorbed water with explosive effects4 ,it seems likely that ,matsumoto's golden torrent sweeping into the ocean was so excessively hot that it took up the water and continued to flow down the sea bottom as a water-charged product4 ,the snapping and crackling effects1 and the submarine earthquakes1 making localized tidal waves such as those noted in #aiai when such a torrent entered the sea1 may be due to the explosive cooling when the slag gives up its water4 ,the use of color motion pictures is one of the many improvements owed to modern science1 and the mapping of lava flows by airplane photography4 ,this gave ,macdonald a new weapon for surveying the volume accumulation at the time of the #aiej outflows1 for from air photographs he got exact outlines of the flows4 ,these1 checked against calculated thicknesses1 gave him volumes which could be compared with volumes of older flows proportionate to areas4 ,these calculations showed that nothing since #ahfh has yielded such large volumes of lava1 per days of outflow4 ,mrs4 ,jaggar and ,i were returning to ,hawaii from a trip to ,nova ,scotia1 and the ,matson steamer ,lurline took us to the ,kona coast toward the end of the #aiej eruption1 for inspection of the glowing flows late at night4 ,they looked like hot coals extending far up the mountainside under the clouds1 with occasional bright flares where trees burst into flame4 ,visible motion there was none1 as we were too late for the rapid flowing and too far away to see detailed motion4 ,this eruption resembled the voluminous flow of ,mauna ,loa in #ahfh1 from a low vent at the south end of the mountain1 and lasted only a short time after preliminary summit outbursts4 ,the similarity was a big earthquake series1 and this was to happen again in ,kona in #aiea4 ,the cataclysmal opening of the southwest rift in the nineteenth century eruption followed a quarter century of northern outflows1 those from #ahdc to #ahei4 ,next came those from #aibi to #aieb in the twentieth century4 ,the #aibi earthquakes subterraneously began the northern series4 ,the same argument applies to the twenty-six years of summit and southern outflows1 from #aijc to #aibi1 which followed a quarter century of alternations north and south4 ,none of this takes account of all the summit crater outbreaks1 the hinge line between the jostlings of the north and south rift sectors4 ,roughly the whole argument centers about a supposed rocking of the ,mauna ,loa mountain sectors1 northward and southward from the crater4 ,the two rifts become stiff and seal up for twenty-five years1 and then break open for a new period of looseness4 ,the summit well is somehow full always4 ,a remarkable event1 namely repose of ,kilauea for eighteen years after #aicd1 may be another reaction4 ,the previous excitement was the buildup1 collapse1 and recovery of the mountain for the quarter century preceding #aicd1 with its culmination the steam blast in #aibd of underground water1 the dormancy of ,kilauea beginning ten years later4 ,kilauea in #agij had a bigger explosive eruption1 and was in repose for eighteen years beginning ten years thereafter1 namely in #ahjj4 ,thus it seems likely that ,kilauea executes quarter centuries of crisis in its own right4 ,these times are not exact1 but are approximations of scientific search for order in a big machine1 the ,hawaiian volcanic system1 where rhythmic pulsations exist wherever gravity operates4 ,a third of a century may prove more exact than the estimate of a quarter century4 ,the end of this #aidj decade completes a half century of my experience of volcanoes and earthquakes1 dwelling with a single crater1 and learning that volcanoes and earthquakes are tied together4 ,they appear tied to deep ruptures #b1jjj miles long1 in the thick shell of the earth over a white hot liquid core4 ,i have recently started an experiment with a thick globe of cement1 made with a shell1 proportional in thickness to the earth's crust1 which is #a1hjj miles deep1 as all seismologists agree4 ,striking this shell with a sledge hammer1 ,i find it breaks in straight lines at right angles to each other4 ,theory is bound to be influenced by the observational answers derived from watching lava emerging from the mountain rifts1 at the end of the long straight belt of rifts of the whole ,hawaiian chain4 ,i continually review my own geological muddles1 the controversies over steam1 flames1 volcano swelling1 explosion craters1 layers in the crust1 weighting and underflowing1 continental uplift1 the globe's armor plate1 contraction wrinkling of basins of sediment1 submarine volcanoes1 linear chains of volcanoes1 siliceous shell1 blocks lifted or sunk1 planets solar or from the sun's binary twin1 original heat or radioactive heat1 thick crust or thin shell1 lava reservoirs or lava core1 pregeology ancestors of volcanoes1 and craters on the moon4 ,the only way to calculate from observations on ,hawaiian volcanoes is to copy the mathematicians2 namely1 to guess at the answers4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,envoi 8,tho' world on world in myriad myriads roll round us ,each with different powers and other forms of life than ours40 ,i have spent sixty years in qualitative experiments in geology4 ,i began with old volcanoes and geysers in the ,yellowstone and the far west1 and ended with experiments on the active ,hawaiian volcano1 ,kilauea4 ,based on these experiments1 ,i have written books about evolution of craters1 and about distinct peculiarities of explosive eruptions from underground water4 ,the accusation that ,i am not orthodox in professional geology is false4 ,professional geology is largely continental because its field work has been on continents4 ,my work has been oceanic2 my field1 seventy percent of the earth's surface1 extending over a thick crust down to the earth core4 ,the earth core is fluid and massive and hot1 as all geology agrees4 ,isostasy1 which postulates a thin flexible shell1 is violated by the ocean deeps and the volcanic ridges4 ,volcanic rift echelons like the ,cordillera and the ,hawaiian ridge are too long to be generated as the fracture of a crust fifty miles deep4 ,the circularity and graduated size in linear stretches of the ,pacific arcs are functions of a fractured thick-shell sphere4 ,similar gradation of arcs is on the lunar surface4 ,arguments1 based on the knowledge of meteors1 for an iron core and for large lunar craters are without analogy4 ,substratum theories1 from ,stbel to ,daly1 do not agree with oceanic volcanism4 ,gravitational crust balance applies better to a primitive thick fault block crust than to a thin shell4 ,earth lavas1 as natural experimental models1 imitate lunar features on small and large scales4 ,both make consistent history for two similar globes4 ,volcanology has to stand as global and ancient1 and any geologist may accept the reasonings here enumerated without being unorthodox4 ,the unquestioned certainties of modern seismology1 the transmission of elastic waves through the globe to sensitive recording pendulums1 are that the crust is #a1hjj miles thick1 that the core is a heavy ball of white hot fluid1 and that its temperature at crustal contact has been estimated by ,verhoogen at #bbjj ,centigrade4 ,the deep crust is less dense than the core1 and is commonly conceded to be basic heavy rock not unlike stony meteorites4 ,the outside shell under oceans1 and over three-quarters of the earth1 is covered by basaltic lava1 and wherever igneous rock has been formed by volcanic action1 intrusive or extrusive black basic lava recurs as dikes and outflows4 ,illustration3 ,,armor ,,plate ,,at ,,oceans ,,armor ,,plate ,,at ,,continents ,,exterior ,,of ,,fundamental ,,globe ,,to ,,which ,,adjustment ,,tends ,,core ,,limit ,,to ,,which ,,adjustment ,,tends ,,volc4 ,,ocean ,,chains ,,of ,,ocean ,,volcanoes ,,volc4 ,,cont4 ,,chains ,,of ,,continental ,,border ,,volcanoes ,,on ,,the ,,page ,,opposite is a diagram of a hypothetical globe section near the equator1 showing oceans and continents in true surface ratio2 fault block segments of rigid crust isostatically supported on a liquid core2 sixteen volcanic partitions1 oceanic and continental2 and ,stbel's 8armorplate0 from pristine volcanic eruption4 ,possibly the profile is tetrahedral4 ,my argument for this globe section is based on the following3 ,a globe of core1 siliceous shell1 and armorplate was formed by primitive volcanic eruptions4 ,the shell resulted from external aggregation of solids and gases and internal segregation about a molten core4 ,the fault blocks came from shrinkage of the shell over a liquid core1 adjusted by luni-solar gravitation and rotation through the pre-geologic ages4 ,the continental and oceanic boundaries of the fault blocks were determined by elevated and sunken blocks with core volcanism of escaping gas melting walls and laying down an exterior siliceous armorplate on the earliest solidified globe4 ,this in continents is the seismologists' lighter exterior layer underlaid by denser rock at the armorplate bottom4 ,continental volcanism 7,,volc4-,,cont47 became differentiated from oceanic volcanism1 by light atmospheric pressure over the raised blocks and much greater water pressure over three-quarters of the earth1 the sunken blocks4 ,the subdivision is represented in the diagrammatic section on the globe by three-quarters of the section being ocean1 namely twelve-sixteenths4 ,the section shows twelve-sixteenths as sunken blocks1 four-sixteenths as raised blocks4 ,the four sixteenths by the tetrahedral hypothesis of ,lowthian ,green and ,michel-,lvy make the four continental protuberances4 ,twelve-sixteenths of the surface is broken by fundamental rifts of irregular shapes1 some of them north-south1 controlled by centrifugal stresses and corresponding to the north-south deeps and heaps and known rifts4 ,these have persisted since the first volcanism of primitive time4 ,circum-continental volcanism is represented on the diagram by ,,volc4-,,cont41 oceanic volcanism is represented by ,,volc4-,,ocean4 ,both are shown as interblock rifts1 adjusted through the ages 7exaggerated on the drawing7 and always tensional over expansional core pressure1 with exothermal heating agencies4 ,the sixteen fundamental block boundaries correspond approximately to sixteen fundamental volcanic fault blocks known vaguely on the globe4 ,something similar is known on the moon4 ,the rifts are the boundaries of sixteen blocks1 some polyhedral1 some elongate4 ,some are oceanic like ,new ,zealand-,tonga1 some are ancient and continental like ,arabia4 ,the imperfectly mapped ocean deeps are boundary lines4 ,the rifts of ,africa and ,chile-,patagonia are boundary lines4 ,the great arcs of ,himalaya1 ,java-,sumatra1 and ,aleutian ridges are boundary lines of circular blocks4 ,possibly they were circular calderas of engulfment on the primitive spheroid4 ,the edge of ,mare ,imbrium on the moon shows fault rifts4 ,the straight alignment of lunar calderas hints at moon rifts under an unmapped mosaic4 ,the blocks of the theory of continental drift1 are guesses at a mosaic of crust blocks4 ,but the possibility drift theory omitted is that the blocks are deep4 ,except for the ,lowthian ,green1 ,wegener1 ,holmes1 and ,daly speculations1 based on thin crust blocks of continents1 no mapping of the shell mosaic exists4 ,it is not feasible until we map the detail of ocean bottoms4 ,primitive blocks require acceptance of a thick crust and justify new speculation4 ,the cracks between blocks are the volcanic partitions of the earth1 which ,i call ignisepts4 ,there are many points for speculation1 some of them subject to mathematical inquiry4 ,does surface water penetrate the partitions8 ,is it high pressure and saline under oceans8 ,how do deep earthquakes stem from friction #cjj miles down under the ,cordillera and the west ,pacific8 ,do earth and moon spheres as rounded tetrahedra crack similarly8 ,because of rotation are north-south cracks dominant8 ,are the core fluids changing volcanism through the ages8 ,the twenty-eight percent of earth surface which lies above the sea in continents is made up of siliceous sediments of shallow water basins1 with quartz as the dominant mineral1 their strata wrinkled1 and eroded into mountain ranges4 ,desert and lake or river bottoms make up most of the remainder4 ,this material1 when ancient1 was changed by heat and infiltration into what are called gneisses1 schists1 and granites2 and the process of granitization is among the metamorphic processes4 ,it is a process of deep burial1 heat1 gases1 and water which has always been a puzzle1 and may affect ancient volcanic lavas wherever they have covered the land4 ,it is a process of solution of silica1 and its deposition is by steam and other vapors4 ,in the same way volcanic action by the outpouring of lava through cracks is a process of solution of the deeper crust of the earth by hot gases1 largely burning hydrogen4 ,lavas emerging from ,etna or ,mauna ,loa are melted earth crust1 dissolved and brought up by this same hydrogen and by other gases from the walls of profound cracks leading down to the earth core4 ,volcanism and metamorphism are thus the same process1 namely the action of gases up cracks through deep earth crust4 ,but metamorphism acts on continental sediments1 whereas modern volcano eruption acts through sea bottom and sea shore faulting1 very ancient features of the earth and distinct from continents4 ,in ,hawaii no metamorphic rock fragments have been found4 ,such primitive oceanic fault fissures extend under continents remnant from the time of evolution of continents4 ,they bring up the metamorphic hot gases1 which in siliceous sediments1 make granites and gneisses and schists with the aid of groundwater4 ,geology has no knowledge whatever of whether this metamorphic process affects the hard rock under the oceanic muds1 because geology has never collected a piece of that rock4 ,geology however knows inclusions and explosive fragments from oceanic volcanoes1 and it does not find there granite and gneiss and schist4 ,however1 generalization does not apply to continental volcanoes like those of ,italy and ,africa4 ,the beginning of fossils on continents is commonly considered to have been #ejj million years ago1 and this may be extended another #a1ejj million years for the most ancient identifiable continental rocks1 and an estimated total thickness of #abj1jjj feet to the bottom of the most ancient sediments on earth4 ,we know nothing of thickness of most ancient volcanic deposits under the oceanic mud4 ,this brings us to the great ,german explorer ,stbel1 who mapped volcanoes of the ,andes1 founded a museum of his work in ,leipzig1 and published monographs on the ,andes4 ,he wrote a final book1 including material on ,mount ,pele1 on the 8genetic differences of volcanic mountains40 ,but such modern continentalists as ,daly and ,bucher in ,america have disregarded ,stbel4 ,daly is the authority on a shallow earth shell and substratum of basalt1 and ,bucher of ,columbia ,university is a specialist on continental sediments and granitization4 ,the point is that ,stbel made a profound generalization which nobody has proved wrong4 ,the earth is at least #c1jjj million years old1 and when oceanic fault blocks sank and received condensing atmospheric water and continental fault blocks remained high and became eroded1 there was already a thick shell of volcanic lavas4 ,for volcanism was the most ancient process on the earth's surface4 ,it had always brought gases up cracks from the core1 making atmosphere1 water1 and extrusions4 ,stbel1 called the extrusive shell on the outside of the primitive crust the globe's armorplate4 ,the primal gas escape1 whatever the ancestral turbulence inside1 had to come up cracks and make volcanic deposits4 ,it is commonly presumed that the very thick inside crust formed rapidly by cooling and solidifying from outside the core inward1 and from inside the atmosphere outward4 ,the latter surface was eventually under water cooling over most of the earth and under air cooling over the small continental area1 a marked difference of temperature and pressure for the two areas4 ,seismometry teaches that most of the crust is of fairly uniform density4 ,therefore1 presumably1 a thick crust was arrived at early4 ,there was obviously a time of conflict between the weighting of the crust by its heavier accumulations next to the core1 by its lighter accumulations exteriorly under water and air1 and finally by its external armor plate of unknown comparative weight1 made of volcanic lava4 ,for all we know1 this might have been volcanic pumice4 ,rapidity of crust thickening is speculative4 ,right here there is an element of mystery in speculation as to which has to accommodate comparison with the moon1 the merging of atmospheric condensation with volcanism1 and the merging of suboceanic condensation of lava with pristine eruption4 ,this is too hard a nut to crack1 in our current ignorance of rock under sea bottom muds4 ,but ,stbel's insistence on a coating of lava armor plate over both continents and sea bottoms as the earlier volcanism1 and an external veneer on the earth1 is unavoidable4 ,if it were all basalt like the present oceanic volcanoes1 we should find basalt in continents underneath the granites4 ,we do not do so4 ,if it were all light weight granitizing by segregation of silica1 we should find commonly granite and obsidian fragments within oceanic lavas4 ,we do not do so4 ,we have to conclude then that our sections1 topographic and geologic1 do not go deep enough4 ,and as for the ocean bottoms1 we have no sections at all4 ,but ,stbel was right4 ,an unknown volcanic eruption period had to precede geologic volcanoes4 ,the question of ancient greenstones in ,africa1 ,scandinavia1 and ,canada is much discussed1 for there were old volcanic lavas in many places2 mixed with gneisses1 schists1 and granites4 ,they were not a deep layer1 but presumed to be ancient remnants of interspersed lavas among sediments4 ,they are one more evidence that volcanic eruption goes back to the time of the most ancient rocks on continents and that its lavas were affected by metamorphism4 ,but no continuous deep stratum of greenstones is known4 ,at depths of fifty miles1 under continents only1 is the ,mohorovicic change to denser rock4 ,this is an echo surface in earthquake waves1 but it is absent over the whole ,pacific4 ,it may be the top of the armor plate4 ,justice ,holmes wrote that the ,constitution of the ,united ,states was an experiment4 ,that all law of the nation works salvation by prophecy based on experiment4 ,the experiments were extended to the ,bill of ,rights and all the amendments to the ,constitution4 ,i feel that geology--in view of its extreme ignorance of submarine rocks1 ores1 metals1 oils1 spring waters1 temperatures1 magnetism1 gravity1 and gases for most of the earth--needs a bill of rights and numerous amendments to its constitution4 ,its salvation by prophecy needs to be based on experiments with instruments1 drill rigs1 and anchored laboratories in this vast area4 ,these experiments1 superficially1 have been conducted by oceanographic sampling of bottom materials1 by gravity pendulums operated in submarines1 by cameras on sea bottoms1 and collections of bottom waters1 by tests of radioactivity of bottom materials1 by echo sounding to determine thickness of muds1 by volcanology on oceanic islands1 by topographic surveying of the bottom1 and by all the excellent work of the oceanographic and geologic stations and their seismographs1 with some studies of marine chemistry1 physics1 and biology4 ,the conclusions in this book amount to only one small prophecy based on experiments with volcanoes4 ,but the rock under deep ocean mud is still uncollected4 ,my volcano experiments are not influenced by any consensus of text books4 ,i was educated on textbook opinions and found geologic science deficient in experimental measurement of the field progress of erosion1 sedimentation1 deformation1 and eruption4 ,i expended most of my teaching in a plea for field observatories of time measurement of these four processes4 ,the plea has done some good1 and in this century we have seen grow up the ,international ,geophysical ,union4 ,experiment stations have multiplied1 to make geophysics and geochemistry pure quantitative sciences4 ,but they are generally commercial and have not extended to deep boring under oceans4 ,while working from volcano observatories for the extension of geology in ,alaska1 ,japan1 ,hawaii1 ,tonga1 the ,caribbean and ,italy1 and on the mainland of ,california1 ,central ,america1 and ,new ,zealand1 ,i have found myself on the outskirts of vast oceans1 engaged in a science almost as unsatisfactory as the textbook science of historical and continental geology4 ,it is always a compromise1 for we are up against a crying need for maps of the bedrock under the muds of the vast oceans4 ,volcanism cries out for a knowledge of the globe1 and it is helped by such work as that of ,gutenberg and ,richter4 ,these men compiled critical maps of earthquakes1 measured by elastic theory the world over4 ,their work necessarily made many contacts with volcanoes4 ,the same may be said of the geophysical summaries of gravity1 magnetism1 climatology1 hydrology1 and oceanography4 ,but all our sciences stop at the immense sea bottoms1 and need salvation through experiment4 ,science is not doing all it can4 ,finances and engineering are competent to contact sea bottom directly with expensive machines not yet invented and to create oceanic rock science4 ,offshore boring for oil is not enough4 ,pure science needs an example by financiers like ,carnegie and ,rockefeller who are not seeking profit4 ,engineering advice positively can reach under the few hundred feet of mud1 find the rock1 and bore into it in #b1jjj fathoms4 ,the first man who does it will open a new frontier4 ,all honor to ,shepard1 ,ewing1 ,piggot1 ,pettersson1 and ,kullenberg1 men who have barely broken ground in this science4 ,the whole of volcanology depends on collecting the crustal rock under the mud4 ,hoyle's book 8,the ,nature of the ,universe0 takes us one step farther4 ,it shows that all science is essentially cosmology1 and science deals with the origin and progress of all nature4 ,i would go farther than the universe4 ,i would include the science of life and of our brains4 ,we need an imaginative picture starting with the outer universe4 ,we end on the earth with volcanoes and the birth of life4 ,hoyle and ,lyttleton of ,cambridge have presented a condensation of current astrophysics1 which includes earth1 moon1 and planets2 sun and stars2 origin and future of stars2 and origin of solar systems4 ,a most gratifying conclusion is that the background material of space creates hydrogen4 ,this is proved by precise mathematical equations4 ,this accounts for the expanding universe under the pressure of such creation4 ,the outermost nebulae continually pass beyond the speed of light4 ,the galaxies move out into infinite space endlessly4 ,they are renovated endlessly by gravitation from hydrogen eternally created4 ,the sun1 by knowledge built up from the days of ,jeans and ,eddington1 contains more than ninety percent of hydrogen1 and the small remainder is helium1 oxygen1 nitrogen1 carbon1 and iron4 ,it maintains its surface temperature by nuclear reactions from within outward1 at a rate suitable to make helium out of hydrogen1 so as to compensate for the energy which the sun radiates4 ,this dominance of hydrogen inside the solar star makes it impossible that the earth should be solar4 ,rather1 it was a product of a companion star1 a supernova which exploded and1 with excessive heat1 created elements atomically4 ,the sun was a binary pair of stars1 and the companion occupied the place of the four greater planets4 ,the remnant body1 after explosion1 moved away4 ,a gaseous ring formed around the sun condensing from many molecules to rotating superplanets4 ,these broke up many hundred million years ago into ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 and ,neptune4 ,small blobs escaped to become the inner planets including the earth4 ,the earth captured small solids and acquired the moon as a satellite4 ,it got radioactive matter exteriorly1 plus nitrogen1 water1 oxygen1 and carbon dioxide4 ,there is a hundred times more hydrogen per unit of mass in the sun than in the planets4 ,its supply will last for #ej1jjj million years4 ,the solar system is tunneling through variable interstellar gas4 ,it picks up more or less material1 and so changes climates occasionally4 ,this makes such episodes as the ice ages on earth4 ,lyttleton estimates that the dust clouds encountered form bundles of particles captured by the sun to make comets4 ,the mathematics of the interior of the sun1 applied by ,bethe to the use of carbon and nitrogen as catalysts and changing hydrogen to helium1 is a model of experimentation4 ,it should be imitated to explain ,hawaiian basalt4 ,the core of the earth produces gas reactions up cracks4 ,the gases act on deep crust4 ,the surface product is olivine basalt4 ,what are the reactions between gas and crust to make ,mauna ,loa foam fountains8 ,this problem has not been tackled4 ,geologists have clung to a theory of shallow reservoirs4 ,the astronomers of ,cambridge1 successors of the ,american experimenter ,george ,ellery ,hale and of ,eddington and ,jeans1 are not the final word in cosmology4 ,there will be a final word4 ,the picture created from background material to gas1 from gas to galaxies1 and from galaxies to solar systems ends for us in our planet with a white hot liquid core4 ,nuclear reactions created this from the superheat of an exploding supernova4 ,our erupting volcanoes are the end product4 ,we can sit beside erupting lava fountains and watch hydrogen flames1 the same gas that was made of the background material in the universe4 ,all this is outcome of gravitation4 ,it extends from the first eddies of hydrogen in outer space to the final rotation of the earth4 ,the final hydrogen1 with carbon1 made life on the earth4 ,the five elements of volcanic gas are identical with the five elements of organic chemistry4 ,dr4 ,hoyle mistakenly concludes that we have no clue to our own fate4 ,but he points out that the universe is continuous creation4 ,our picture is one instant of time in an everlasting now4 ,mind is an everlasting unit beyond which we cannot go4 ,it is illogical to pay any attention to existence after death unless we pay equal attention to existence before birth4 ,all is continuous creation4 ,the making of hydrogen is just as true within the creation of life as within the universe4 ,life is under gravitation4 ,gravitation controls the instantaneous moving picture1 even the emergence of life from volcanic gases under enormous water pressure at sea bottom4 ,it is just as much subject to experiment as the outer boundary of the universe4 ,life is an end product2 and it thinks1 worships1 and experiments4 ,treating life and volcanoes as end products of ,hoyle's universe makes science fundamentally cosmology4 ,one final comment1 after looking at sea bottom eruptions through all the ages4 ,continental life came out of the sea1 and original life comes continually from the earth core4 ,this gives new dignity to the future search for global action on the sea bottom4 ,the 8emergent evolution0 of ,lloyd ,morgan makes much of mutation as accounting for progress from unconscious life to consciousness1 consciousness to memory1 memory to reasoning1 and reasoning to spirituality4 ,each one of these is a new mutation1 in the same sense as a new fruit by ,burbank4 ,the first unconscious life may be considered a mutation from the inorganic of the globe4 ,the totally unknown pressure-temperature conditions of volcanic eruption through the cracking earth of ocean bottom1 and the ground waters under the ocean1 lend a final dignity to exploration of that frontier4 ,hoyle writes that the ultimate goal of the ,new ,cosmology is continuous creation in outer space4 ,the ultimate goal of the ,new ,volcanology is continuous creation in oceanic depths4 ,,index ,a aa1 #ed1 #fg1 #gh1 #ajd1 #aba1 #abd1 #abe1 #abi1 #adh1 #agd ,abbot1 #aei ,absaroka ,range1 #h ,adak ,harbor1 #ada ,adams1 ,c4 ,e41 #aaj ,africa1 #aha1 #ahb ,agassiz1 ,alexander1 #bj1 #be1 #ee1 #fe1 #gb1 #afd ,agassiz ,museum1 #ag1 #ai ,aghileen ,pinnacles1 #adj ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 ,kodiak1 #ach ,agua cone1 #ha ,akutan ,island1 #aed ,alaska1 #cj-ca1 #ee1 #gb-ge1 #ha1 #hb1 #hd1 #aaj1 #aad1 #aag1 #abg1 #acg-ade1 #aed1 #afi1 #agb1 #agc1 #ahc -- expeditions to1 #ee1 #gb-ge1 #hd1 #ach ,alaska ,commercial ,company1 #ada ,albatross 7ship71 #agj ,aleutian arc1 #hb ,aleutian eruptions1 #afi ,aleutian ,geographical ,observatory1 #adb ,aleutian ,islands1 #ee1 #ge1 #hd1 #aaj1 #aad1 #abg1 #acg-ade1 #aed1 #agb1 #agc -- expeditions to1 #ee1 #gb-ge1 #hd1 #ach ,aleutian trench1 #ca ,alfaro1 ,anastasio1 #gi ,algonkian1 #bh ,allen1 ,e4 ,h41 #ab1 #aab1 #aae1 #abi ,alps1 the1 #ajc1 #aaf ,alyea1 ,hubert1 #e ,amazon ,river1 #hb ,amchitka ,island1 #ada ,amerada ,company1 #aab ,american ,journal of ,science1 #aac ,american ,museum1 #ef ,american ,relief ,committee1 #fc amphibian vehicles1 #gd1 #ach1 #adb-adc1 #afh ,anderson1 ,c4 ,a41 #acg ,anderson1 ,j41 #aaa ,anderson1 ,tempest1 xii1 #fe1 #ga1 #gf1 #hd ,anderson1 the cook1 #h ,andes1 the1 #gh1 #hb1 #aaf1 #aha ,andrews1 ,e4 ,c41 #aab ,angaha1 #adg-adi ,antigua1 #aeg ,appalachian basin1 #ej1 #eb ,appalachian ,mountains1 #ah1 #df-di1 #ea-eb1 #aaf ,archean granites1 #h ,arizona1 #be-bh arrowroot1 #afj ,asama ,volcano1 #gh1 #ajg-ajh ,asama-,bandai system1 #ajh ,ascutney ,mountain1 #g1 #dj1 #ec ,asia1 mountain ranges of1 #aag ,aso ,volcano1 #ajh astronomy1 #f1 #cj1 #adg-aej1 #agb-agc1 #ahd-ahe ,atka1 #gb1 #ge ,atlantic ,ocean1 #ec1 #agj -- deeps of1 #ec ,attu1 #adj-ada ,auckland1 #aji-aaj ,audubon1 ,j4 ,j41 #c1 #d ,australia1 #acb1 #afc -- science congress in1 #acb ,b ,bad ,lands of ,south ,dakota1 #bc1 #bd1 #cg-ch ,baker1 ,ruth1 #aee1 #afh1 #afi ,baker ,island1 #ace-acf ,baldwin1 ,r4 ,g41 #agb ,ballard1 ,stanley ,s41 #agc ,ballou1 ,howard ,m41 #ia ,bandai ,volcano1 #db-dc1 #de1 #ajf-ajh1 #aaj ,barbados1 #fa-fb1 #aeh1 #afj ,barnard1 ,mr4 and ,mrs41 #aei ,barrios1 #ha ,barton1 ,g41 #ah ,bartrum1 ,j4 ,a41 #aaj ,barus1 ,carl1 #ed bat1 giant1 #adi ,bay of ,plenty1 #aaj bear hunts1 #gb1 #aci-adj1 #adc ,beecher1 ,c41 #ai ,belcher1 44441 #aef ,belize1 #gi ,bellingham1 ,wash41 #adc-add ,bergen1 #ab ,bergson1 ,h41 xii ,bering ,sea1 #gd1 #adj ,berkshire ,hills1 #df ,bermel1 ,colonel1 #aef ,bermuda1 #afa ,bernhardt1 ,sarah1 #e ,berry1 ,robert1 #ef ,bethe1 ,h4 ,a41 #ahe ,big ,horn expedition1 #h ,bingham1 ,hiram1 #adg ,bird1 ,isabella1 #ia birds1 #ace1 #ada1 #adh-adi -- gannets1 #ace -- goonies1 #ace -- malau1 #adh-adi -- man-of-war1 #ace -- murres1 #ada -- terns1 #ace ,birdseye1 ,claude ,h41 #hi1 #aaa1 #abi-acj ,bishop ,estate1 #hi ,bishop ,museum1 #ace ,black ,forest1 #ad ,black ,growler1 #aj ,black ,hills1 xii1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc-be1 #bh1 #df-dg1 #gh -- surveys of 7#ahih1 #ahii71 #bc-be ,bloch1 ,c4 ,c41 #afh ,blue ,beard's ,castle1 #aeg ,blue ,hill1 ,mass41 #gg ,bluff1 the1 #acd ,bogoslof1 #gd1 #ge1 #gh1 #aaj1 #adj-ada -- eruption of #aijg1 #ge1 #ada ,bohemia1 #ad ,boiling ,lake1 #aa boiling lake1 #hj boiling springs1 #dj1 #db bombing of ,mauna ,loa1 #aec-aed1 #afa ,bonin ,islands1 #aji ,boscotrecase1 #fe-fh ,boshu ,peninsula1 #acc ,boston1 #af-ag1 #ai1 #cg1 #dc1 #ef1 #gg1 #he1 #ia1 #afa -- mapping of1 #af-ag ,bottoms1 the1 #aeg ,boulder ,dam1 #afi ,boutwell1 ,john ,mason1 #ba-bb1 #bd ,bowie1 ,william1 #aab ,boynton1 ,h4 ,c41 #ai1 #afh1 #agb ,boyrie1 ,w41 #adb ,bradford1 ,alex1 #ach1 #adb ,bradshaw ,mountains1 #be-bh ,brazil1 #dj ,brigg1 ,j4 ,j41 #fe ,brigham1 ,w4 ,t41 #ia1 #afd ,bright ,angel fault1 #cj ,bristol ,bay1 #adj ,brock1 ,r4 ,w41 #ad ,brontotherium1 #bd ,brooklyn1 #ef ,brooks1 ,alfred1 #ah ,brown1 ,e4 ,w41 #ajj ,brown1 ,william ,garrott1 #bj ,brun1 ,albert1 #hh1 #ib ,brush1 ,g4 ,j41 #ba ,bucher1 ,w41 #aha ,bund1 ,yokohama1 #acb ,burkland1 ,albert1 #hi1 #aaa1 #abi ,c ,cache ,creek1 #aa ,california1 #ci1 #hi1 #ajc1 #aaj1 #aaa-aac1 #aad-aaf1 #acf-acg1 #aed -- ,university of1 #hi1 #acg -- volcanoes1 #acf ,california ,institute of ,technology1 #aaa ,calumet and ,hecla1 copper company1 #gb ,camiquin ,island1 #gf ,cambrian1 #f1 #i1 #bb1 #bc1 #bh -- fossils1 #bb -- shales and limestones1 #bc ,cambridge1 ,mass41 #afd ,campbell1 ,archibald1 #afc ,canada1 #f1 #acf1 #ahb ,canadian ,rockies1 #bc ,canary ,islands1 #aca ,canna 7arrowroot71 #afj ,canoe ,bay1 #adb ,cape ,nome1 #ada ,carib cones1 #ga ,caribbean ,sea1 #gi1 #aag1 #aeg1 #ahc -- expeditions to1 #ee -- islands of1 #ee-fe1 #fg1 #gf1 #ajh ,carribee line1 #ff ,carisso 7ship71 #aej ,carnegie1 ,andrew1 #ahd ,carnegie ,institution1 #gh1 #hf1 #ij1 #aaa1 #aab -- ,geophysical ,laboratory of1 #gf1 #hf1 #aaa ,carnegie ,palace1 ,costa ,rica1 #gi ,cartago earthquake of #aiaj1 #gh-hd ,cartago expedition1 #hd ,cartwright1 ,bruce1 #ace ,cascade ,mountains1 xii1 #hb1 #acf catastrophes1 #ee-hd1 #ajc-ajf1 #acb-acd1 #aef ,catskills1 #dc ,central ,america1 #ee1 #gh-hd -- expedition to1 #ee ,chadron ,formation1 #bb ,chain of ,craters1 #aah1 #abe1 #aed-aee ,challenger 7ship71 #agj ,charleston1 #dc1 #de1 #ajc -- earthquake1 #dc1 #de ,charlotte ,amalie1 #aeg ,chateau ,belair1 ,w4 ,i41 #ei1 #fa1 #aei ,chernofski village1 #ada ,cherry ,island1 #ajc ,chicago1 #gb ,chicago ,natural ,history ,museum1 #bd ,chilean coastal plain1 #hb ,chilton1 ,c41 #aab ,china1 rivers of1 #da ,chourr1 44441 #abb ,christchurch ,college1 #aaj ,christiansand1 ,norway1 #ab ,christophersen1 ,erling1 #ace ,chugul1 #ada ,church1 ,dr41 #eg ,cincinnati1 #ec ,cincinnati arch1 #ej clams1 #ace ,clark1 ,w4 ,o41 #aaa ,clive1 44441 #aa ,coal ,measures1 #bh ,coan1 ,titus1 #ia ,coast ,survey1 #acg1 #agj -- station at ,sitka1 #acg ,cody1 ,frank1 #gc1 #abc ,colby1 ,f4 ,t41 #gb-gc ,collins1 ,george1 #ace ,colorado1 #bh1 #afi1 #agc ,colorado ,river1 #bf1 #ch ,comstock ,lode1 #ah ,congresses1 #ab1 #aab1 #acb1 #acd -- ,australia ,science1 #acb -- ,hawaii1 #aab -- ,japan1 #acd -- ,london ,geography1 #ab -- ,pacific ,science1 #aab1 #acd -- ,zurich ,geological1 #ab ,connecticut ,river1 #g ,constitution1 ,u4 ,s41 #ahb continental divide1 #cf continental mediterranean sea1 #bb1 #ec continental volcanoes1 #aha ,cook ,channel1 #aji ,cook ,strait1 #aaj ,cooke1 ,c4 ,montague1 #ace ,cooke1 ,joshiah1 #e copra1 #adh-adi coral islets1 #ace ,cordillera1 #ba1 #di1 #fg1 #gh-hd1 #acg1 #agg ,cosequina1 #hj cosmology1 #ahe-ahf ,costa ,rica1 #ee1 #gi1 #hj1 #ajh -- earthquake1 #ee -- rocky mountains of1 #ee ,costa ,rica-,mexico line1 #ajh ,cotton1 ,c4 ,a41 #aaj crabs1 #adi ,cramton1 ,louis ,c41 #aad1 #acf1 #afb ,crandall ,creek mining claim1 #h crater lake1 #hj ,crawford1 ,david ,l41 #afb ,croney1 ,j4 ,e41 #fc ,crooks ,canyon1 #bf ,crooks ,complex1 #bf-bg ,crosby1 ,w4 ,o41 #ah1 #gb cross-country cars1 #aca-acb1 #ach ,crusoe1 ,robinson1 #abj ,culebra ,cut1 #hb ,curtis1 ,g4 ,c41 #ef1 #ei1 #aei ,curzon1 ,g4 ,n41 #ab ,custer1 ,g4 ,a41 #h ,d ,daly1 ,r4 ,a41 #g1 #i1 #ah1 #ib1 #agg-aha ,dana1 ,edward1 #aac ,dana1 ,james ,d41 #ba1 #ia1 #aac1 #aaf1 #afd ,darton1 ,n4 ,h41 #ba1 #bb ,darwin1 ,c4 ,r41 #f ,darwin1 ,george1 #d1 #cb ,daubre1 ,a41 #af1 #cj ,davis1 ,w4 ,m41 #g1 #af1 #dj1 #afe ,day1 ,a4 ,l41 #ab1 #hf1 #ib1 #aab1 #aae1 #abd ,de ,candolle1 ,c41 #d1 #ce de ,vis-,norton1 ,l4 ,w41 #aaa ,deadwood1 #bc-be ,dean1 ,arthur ,l41 #afb ,death ,gulch1 #aa-ab deformation1 #cb1 #gf deltas1 leaf1 #dc ,denmark1 #ab ,denver1 #afi1 #agc ,devil's ,tower1 #bc1 #be ,diamond ,head1 #abb ,dillingham1 ,walter ,f41 #aad disasters1 #ee-hd1 #ajc-ajf1 #aaa1 #acb-acd1 #aef ,dixie 7ship71 #ef-ei ,dodge1 ,francis1 #ij ,doelter1 ,c41 #af1 #ec ,dominica1 #aa1 #ff1 #aeh ,dominion ,museum1 #aji ,dorsey1 ,e4 ,w41 #dc ,dranga1 ,ted1 #ace-acf ,drexel ,institute1 #gc ,dunedin1 #aji-aaj ,dutch ,harbor1 #gb1 #gd1 #ada1 #add ,dutton1 ,c4 ,e41 #g1 #bi-cj1 #dh1 #aaf ,e ,eakle1 ,a4 ,s41 #gb-gd ,earhart1 ,amelia1 #abe earth core1 #ahe earth crust theory1 #aae-aag earthquake centers1 #afi earthquake frequency1 #aca earthquakes1 #cj-ca1 #de1 #ee-hd1 #ib1 #ajc-ajf1 #aaa1 #aad1 #acb-acd1 #acg1 #ade-adg1 #aed-afe1 #afh-afi -- ,cartago1 #hj -- ,charleston1 #dc1 #de -- ,costa ,rica1 #ee -- ,hawaii1 #ade-adg -- ,kapoho1 #aed1 #afe -- ,kingston1 #hc-hd -- ,messina1 #ee1 #ga -- ,montserrat1 #aef-afa -- ,napier1 #de1 #aaa -- ,sakurajima1 #ajc-ajf -- ,san ,francisco1 xii1 #de1 #ee1 #acd1 #acg -- ,tokyo1 #ajc1 #aad1 #acb-acd1 #afh -- ,valparaiso1 #ee -- ,yakutat ,bay1 #cj-ca1 #cg1 #de ,east ,indies1 #agj ,eastman ,kodak ,company1 #ia eclipse of sun1 #adg-aej ,ecuador1 #gh ,eddington1 ,a4 ,a41 #e1 #ahd-ahe ,eddy1 ,johnny1 #fb ,eggleston1 ,julius ,w41 #ag ,einstein1 ,albert1 #e 8elevation craters01 #aca ,eliot1 ,c4 ,w41 #ah1 #ee1 #fc ,emden 7ship71 #adj ,emerson1 ,oliver1 #ed1 #ajj1 #abc1 #abi ,emmons1 ,delos ,c41 #aec ,emmons1 ,samuel ,franklin1 xi1 #ba1 #bb ,english1 ,t4 ,s41 #aeh ,english ,channel1 #cd ,english strata1 #ba ,eocene ,tertiary1 #df erosion1 #aj1 #cj1 #cb1 #ch1 #dc1 #dh1 #gf -- model1 #dc eruption cycles1 #aff-afg eruption index1 #gg eruptions1 #cb1 #de1 #ee-hd1 #abj-abe1 #acj-aca1 #afi1 #agc-agf -- ,alaska1 #ge1 #ada1 #afi -- ,halemaumau1 #abj-abd1 #acj-aca -- ,irazu1 #gi-hj -- ,mauna ,loa1 #abe1 #agc-agf -- ,lassen1 #acf -- ,pele1 #de1 #ef-fe1 #ga -- ,tarumai1 #gg-gh -- ,vesuvius1 #fe-gb ,europe1 mountain ranges of1 #aag ,europe1 study in1 #ab-af evolution1 #f1 #aaf1 #ahf -- theory of1 #f ,ewing1 ,m41 #ahd expeditions1 #ee-hd1 #ajc-aaa1 #aad1 #acb-aej1 #aed-afa -- ,alaska1 #ee1 #gb-ge1 #hd1 #aad1 #ach1 #adc1 #aed -- ,cartago1 #hd -- ,howland and ,baker1 #ace-acf -- ,japan1 #ee1 #gg-gh1 #hd1 #ajd-aji1 #aad1 #acb-acd -- ,kilauea-,tarumai1 #hd -- ,martinique1 #ee-fe1 #aef-afa -- ,montserrat1 #afa -- ,new ,zealand1 #ajc1 #aji-aaa -- ,niuafoou1 #aad1 #adg-aej -- ,pele-,soufrire1 #ee-fe1 #hd1 #aef-afa -- ,tokyo1 #aad -- ,vesuvius1 #ee1 #fe-gb1 #hd experiments1 #d-e1 #ag1 #cb-ed1 #gf1 #gh1 #he-aac1 #abe-acb1 #ach1 #adb-adc1 #aed-aef1 #afh1 #aga-agc1 #agf-agg1 #ahb-ahf -- field1 #gf1 #he-aac -- laboratory1 #d-e1 #cb-ed1 #afh1 #aga-agb ,f ,falcon ,island1 #aaj ,faraday1 ,m41 #af1 #bi faulting1 #bh-bi ,ficus1 #fj field experiments1 #gf1 #he-aac field work1 #g-ab1 #ba-ca1 #ee-hd1 #ach1 #adb-adc1 #agg ,fiji1 #adg ,finch1 ,r4 ,h41 #ii1 #abj-aba1 #acb1 #acf-acg1 #add1 #aed1 #afb1 #afh1 #agc ,firehole ,river1 #ci ,flett1 ,j4 ,s41 #gf 8floating islands01 #ib1 #if flying fox1 #adi ,foerster1 ,captain1 #adj folding1 model of1 #ej-eb foot prints in lava1 #abj ,forbes1 ,john1 #agc ,fort de ,france1 #ef ,fortieth ,parallel ,survey1 #h1 #bb1 #be fossa magna1 #aji fossils1 #aha ,fouqu1 ,f41 #af1 #ec ,frank ,landslip1 the1 #de ,franklin1 ,benjamin1 #ga ,frear1 ,walter ,f41 #hi ,freiberg1 #ad ,friedlaender1 ,i41 #gf1 #ajc1 #afb ,fujiyama1 #ha1 #aji1 #acd-ace fumaroles1 #aa-ab1 #fb1 #fe1 #fh1 #hj1 #ajh1 #abi1 #aef1 #aeh1 #afj ,futu1 #adg1 #adi ,g gannets1 #ace ,gardner1 ,john1 #aci-adb gas-heat theory1 #ei ,geikie1 ,archibald1 xi1 #ab1 #aaf ,geodetic ,survey of ,india1 #aeg ,geological ,congress1 ,zurich1 #ab ,geological ,society of ,america1 #gf1 #afd1 #aff ,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 #ab ,geological ,survey1 ,u4 ,s41 #ag-bb1 #ej1 #ed-ef1 #fd1 #hi-ij1 #aaa-aad1 #abi-aca1 #acf-ach1 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printers'1 punctuation and spelling errors have been corrected silently4 #b4 ,hyphenation has been rationalised4 ,inconsistent spelling 7including accents7 has been retained4