,,novum ,,organon ,,r5ovatum4 ,,by ,,william ,,:ewell1 ,d4,d41 ,,ma/] ,,( ,,tr9ity ,,college1 ,,cambridge1 ,,& ,,correspond+ ,,memb] ,,( ,,! ,,in/itute ,,( ,,france4 ,,be+ ,,! ,,second ,,"p ,,( ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,inductive ,,sci5ces4 ,,! ,,?ird ,,edition1 ,,) ,,l>ge ,,additions4 ,i ,i,i ,i ,,london3 ,,john ,w4 ,,p>k] ,,& ,,son1 ,,we/ ,,/r&4 #aheh4 ,,x is to our immortal c\ntryman2 ,bacon1 t we owe ! broad ann\ncem5t ( ?is gr& & f]tile pr9ciple2 & ! developem5t ( ! idea1 t ! :ole ( natural philosophy consi/s entirely ( a s]ies ( inductive g5]alizations1 comm5c+ ) ! mo/ circum/antially /at$ p>ticul>s1 & c>ri$ up to univ]sal laws1 or axioms1 :i* compreh5d 9 _! /atem5ts e subord9ate degree ( g5]ality2 & ( a correspond+ s]ies ( inv]t$ reason+ f g5]als to p>ticul>s1 by :i* ^! axioms are trac$ back into _! remote/ consequ5ces1 & all p>ticul> propositions d$uc$ f !m2 z well ^? by ^: imm$iate consid]ations we rose to _! discov]y1 z ^? ( :i* we _h no previ\s k4 ,,h]s*el1 ,disc\rse on ,natural ,philosophy1 ,art4 #if4 ,,cambridge3 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,c4 ,j4 ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press4 iii ,,preface4 ,,ev5 if ,bacon's ,novum ,organon _h possess$ ! "* to :i* x aspir$ z completely z 0 possible 9 its own day1 x w\ld at pres5t ne$ r5ovation3 & ev5 if no su* book _h ev] be5 writt51 x w\ld be a wor?y und]tak+ to det]m9e ! ma*9]y1 intellectual1 social & mat]ial1 by :i* human k c be/ be augm5t$4 ,bacon c\ld only div9e h[ sci5ces might be con/ruct$2 we c trace1 9 _! hi/ory1 h[ _! con/ruction has tak5 place4 ,h[ev] sagaci\s 7 8 conjectures1 ! facts :i* h really occurr$ mu/ give additional in/ruction3 h[ev] l>ge 7 8 anticipations1 ! actual progress ( sci5ce s9ce 8 "t has illu/rat$ !m 9 all _! ext5t4 ,& z to ! /ructure & op]ation ( ! ,organ by :i* tru? is to be collect$ f nature1--t is1 ! ,me?ods by :i* sci5ce is to be promot$--we "k t1 ?\gh ,bacon's g5]al maxims are sagaci\s & animat+1 8 p>ticul> precepts fail$ 9 8 h&s1 & are n[ practically useless4 ,?is1 p]haps1 0 n wond]ful1 see+ t !y 71 z ,i h said1 ma9ly d]iv$ f conjectures respect+ k & ! progress ( k2 b at iv ! pres5t day1 :51 9 sev]al prov9ces ( k1 we h a l>ge actual progress ( solid tru? to look back ^u1 we may make ! l attempt ) ! prospect ( bett] success1 at lea/ on t gr\nd4 ,x may be a task1 n hopeless1 to extract f ! pa/ progress ( sci5ce ! elem5ts ( an effectual & sub/antial me?od ( ,sci5tific ,discov]y4 ,! advances :i* h1 dur+ ! la/ ?ree c5turies1 be5 made 9 ! physical sci5ces2--9 ,a/ronomy1 9 ,physics1 9 ,*emi/ry1 9 ,natural ,hi/ory1 9 ,physiology2--^! are all[$ by all to be real1 to be great1 to be /rik+2 may x n be t ! /eps ( progress 9 ^! diff]5t cases h 9 !m some?+ alike8 ,may x n be t 9 ea* advanc+ movem5t ( su* k !re is "s common pr9ciple1 "s common process8 ,may x n be t discov]ies are made by an ,organ :i* has some?+ uni=m 9 its work+8 ,if we c %ew t ?is is s1 we %all h ! ,new ,organ1 :i* ,bacon aspir$ to con/ruct1 r5ovat$ accord+ to our advanc$ intellectual position & (fice4 ,x 0 ) ! view ( op5+ ! way to su* an attempt t ,i und]took t survey ( ! pa/ progress ( physical k1 ( :i* ,i h giv5 ! results 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ces1 & ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas#a,p2 ! =m] conta9+ ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ces1 s f> z x dep5ds on v obs]v$ ,facts2 ! latt] conta9+ ! hi/ory ( ^? ,ideas by :i* su* ,facts are b\nd into ,!ories4 ,note #a,p3 ,publi%$ 9 two =m] editions z "p ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces 7b4 i--x474 ,x c h>dly happ5 t a "w :i* treats ( ,me?ods ( ,sci5tific ,discov]y1 %all n seem to fail 9 ! positive results :i* x (f]s4 ,= an ,art ( ,discov]y is n possible4 ,at ea* /ep ( ! inve/igation are ne$$ ,inv5tion1 ,sagacity1 ,g5ius1--elem5ts :i* no art c give4 ,we may hope 9 va91 z ,bacon hop$1 = an ,organ :i* %all enable all m5 to con/ruct ,sci5tific ,tru?s1 z a pair ( compasses enables all m5 to con/ruct exact circles#b,p4 ,?is _c be4 ,! practical results ( ! ,philosophy ( ,sci5ce mu/ be r classification & analysis ( :at has be5 done1 ?an precept & me?od = future do+4 ,yet ,i ?9k t ! me?ods ( discov]y :i* ,i h to recomm5d1 ?\gh ga!r$ f a wid] survey ( sci5tific hi/ory1 bo? z to subjects & z to "t1 ?an 7s f> z ,i am aw>e7 has be5 else:]e attempt$1 are q z def9ite & practical z any o!rs :i* h be5 propos$2 ) ! great additional advantage ( be+ ! me?ods by :i* all great discov]ies 9 sci5ce h really be5 made4 ,?is may be said1 = in/ance1 ( ! ,me?od ( ,gradation & ! ,me?od ( ,natural ,classification1 spok5 ( b4 iii4 c4 viii2 & 9 a n>r[] s5se1 ( ! ,me?od ( ,curves1 ! ,me?od ( vi ,means1 ! ,me?od ( ,lea/ ,squ>es & ! ,me?od ( ,residues1 spok5 ( 9 *ap4 vii4 ( ! same ,book4 ,also ! ,rem>ks on ! ,use ( ,hypo!ses & on ! ,te/s ( ,hypo!ses 7b4 ii4 c4 v47 po9t out features :i* m>k ! usual c\rse ( discov]y4 ,note #b,p3 ,nov4 ,org4 lib4 i4 aph4 #fa4 ,b "o ( ! pr9cipal lessons result+ f our views is und\bt$ly ?is3--t diff]5t sci5ces may be expect$ to advance by diff]5t modes ( proc$ure1 accord+ to _! pres5t condition2 & t 9 _m ( ^! sci5ces1 an ,induction p]=m$ by any ( ! me?ods :i* h j be5 ref]r$ to is n ! next /ep :i* we may expect to see made4 ,sev]al ( ! sci5ces may n be 9 a condition :i* fits !m = su* a ,colligation ( ,facts2 7to use ! phraseology to :i* ! succe$+ analysis has l$ me74 ,! ,facts may1 at ! pres5t "t1 require to be m fully obs]v$1 or ! ,idea by :i* !y are to be colligat$ may require to be m fully unfold$4 ,b 9 ?is po9t also1 our speculations are f> f be+ b>r5 ( practical results4 ,! exam9ation to :i* we h subject$ ea* sci5ce1 gives u ! means ( disc]n+ :e!r :at is ne$$ = ! fur!r progress ( ! sci5ce1 has its place 9 ! ,obs]vations1 or 9 ! ,ideas1 or 9 ! union ( ! two4 ,if obs]vations be want$1 ! ,me?ods ( ,obs]vation1 giv5 9 b4 iii4 c4 ii4 may be ref]r$ to4 ,if ^? :o are to make ! next discov]ies ne$1 = t purpose1 a developem5t ( _! ,ideas1 ! modes 9 :i* su* a developem5t has usually tak5 vii place are treat$ ( 9 ,*apt]s iii4 & iv4 ( t ,book4 ,no "o :o has well /udi$ ! hi/ory ( sci5ce c fail to see h[ important a "p ( t hi/ory is ! explication1 or z ,i might call x1 ! cl>ification ( m5's ,ideas4 ,?is1 ! metaphysical aspect ( ea* ( ! physical sci5ces1 is v f> f be+1 z "s h tri$ to tea*1 an aspect :i* x passes ?r\gh at an e>ly p]iod ( progress1 & previ\sly to ! /age ( positive k4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! metaphysical movem5t is a necess>y "p ( ! inductive movem5t4 ,?is1 :i* is evid5tly s by ! nature ( ! case1 0 prov$ by a copi\s collection ( hi/orical evid5ces1 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas4 ,! t5 ,books ( t ,hi/ory conta9 an acc\nt ( ! pr9cipal philosophical controv]sies :i* h tak5 place 9 all ! physical sci5ces1 f ,ma!matics to ,physiology4 ,^! controv]sies1 :i* mu/ be call$ metaphysical if any?+ be s call$1 h be5 conduct$ by ! greate/ discov]]s 9 ea* sci5ce1 & h be5 an ess5tial "p ( ! discov]ies made4 ,physical discov]]s h diff]$ f b>r5 speculators1 n by hav+ no metaphysics 9 _! heads1 b by hav+ good metaphysics 9 _! heads :ile _! adv]s>ies _h bad2 & by b9d+ _! metaphysics to _! physics1 in/ead ( keep+ ! two asund]4 ,i tru/ t ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas is ( "s value1 ev5 z a record ( a numb] ( rem>kable controv]sies2 b ,i conceive t x also conta9s an indisputable pro( t !re viii is1 9 progressive sci5ce1 a metaphysical z well z a physical elem5t2--ideas z well z facts2--?\ghts z well z ?+s4 ,metaphysics is ! process ( asc]ta9+ t ?\ght is consi/5t ) itself3 & if x be n s1 our suppos$ k is n k4 ,9 ,*apt] vi4 ( ! ,second ,book1 ,i h spok5 ( ! ,logic ( ,induction4 ,sev]al writ]s#c,p h quot$ v emphatically my ass]tion t ! ,logic ( ,induction does n exi/ 9 previ\s writ]s3 us+ x z an introduction to ,logical ,s*emes ( _! own4 ,!y seem to h ov]look$ ! fact t at ! same "t t ,i not$ ! defici5cy1 ,i (f]$ a s*eme :i* ,i ?9k fitt$ to supply ?is want4 ,& ,i am oblig$ to say t ,i d n reg>d ! s*emes propos$ by any ( ^? g5tlem5 z at all satisfactory = ! purpose4 ,b ,i mu/ def] to a future occasion any criticism ( au?ors :o h writt5 on ! subjects "h treat$4 ,a critical notice ( su* au?ors =m$ ! ,twelf? ,book ( ! =m] edition ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,sci5ces4 ,i h !re exam9$ ! op9ions conc]n+ ! ,nature ( ,real ,k & ! mode ( acquir+ x1 :i* h be5 promulgat$ 9 all ages1 f ,plato & ,ari/otle1 to ,rog] ,bacon1 to ,francis ,bacon1 to ,newton1 to ,h]s*el4 ,su* a survey1 ) ! additions :i* ,i %\ld n[ h to make to x1 may h]eaft] be put =? z a sep>ate book3 b ,i ix h endeav\r$ to conf9e ! pres5t volume to su* positive tea*+ reg>d+ ,k & ,sci5ce z results f ! inve/igations pursu$ 9 ! o!r works ( ?is s]ies4 ,b ) reg>d to ?is matt]1 ( ! ,logic ( ,induction1 ,i may v5ture to say1 t we %all n f9d any?+ des]v+ ! "n expla9$ 9 ! common writ]s on ,logic1 or exhibit$ "u ! ord9>y ,logical ,=ms4 ,t 9 previ\s writ]s :i* comes ! ne>e/ to ! notice ( su* a ,logic z ! hi/ory ( sci5ce has sugge/$ & v]ifi$1 is ! /rik+ decl>ation ( ,bacon 9 two ( 8 ,aphorisms 7b4 i4 aph4 civ4 cv474 ,note #c,p3 ,apelt ,die ,!orie d] ,induction3 ,gratry ,logique4 ,!re w be good hopes = ! ,sci5ces !n1 & n till !n1 :5 by a true ,,scale or ,ladd]1 & by successive /eps1 foll[+ cont9u\sly )\t gaps or breaks1 m5 %all asc5d f p>ticul>s to ! n>r[] ,propositions1 f ^? to int]m$iate ones1 ris+ 9 ord] "o above ano!r1 & at la/ to ! mo/ g5]al4 ,b 9 e/abli%+ su* propositions1 we mu/ devise "s o!r ,,=m ,,( ,,induction ?an has hi!rto be5 9 use2 & ?is mu/ be "o :i* s]ves n only to prove & discov] ,pr9ciples1 7z v g5]al ,propositions are call$17 b also ! n>r[] & ! int]m$iate1 & 9 %ort1 all true ,propositions4 ,& he else:]e speaks ( successive ,,floors ( ,induction4 ,all ! tru?s ( an ext5sive sci5ce =m a ,s]ies ( su* ,floors1 connect$ by su* ,scales or ,ladd]s2 & a "p ( ! ,logic ( ,induction consi/s1 z ,i x conceive1 9 ! con/ruction ( a ,s*eme ( su* ,floors4 ,conv]g+ f a wide basis ( v>i\s classes ( p>ticul>s1 at la/ to "o or a few g5]al tru?s1 ^! s*emes necess>ily take ! %ape ( a ,pyramid4 ,i h con/ruct$ su* ,pyramids = ,a/ronomy & = ,optics#d,p2 & ! illu/ri\s ,von ,humboldt 9 speak+ ( ! =m] subject1 does me ! hon\r to say t my attempt 9 t dep>tm5t is p]fectly successful#e,p4 ,! ,logic ( ,induction conta9s o!r portions1 :i* may be se5 9 ! foll[+ "w1 b4 ii4 c4 vi4 ,note #d,p3 ,see ! ,tables at ! end ( book ii4 ,note #e,p3 ,cosmos1 vol4 ii4 n4 #ce4 ,i h made l>ge additions to ! pres5t edition1 especially 9 :at reg>ds ! ,application ( ,sci5ce1 7b4 iii4 c4 ix47 & ! ,language ( ,sci5ce4 ,! =m] subject ,i am aw>e t ,i h treat$ v imp]fectly4 ,x w\ld inde$1 ( itself1 furni% mat]ial = a l>ge "w2 & w\ld require an acqua9tance ) practical arts & manufactures ( ! mo/ exact & ext5sive k9d4 ,b ev5 a g5]al obs]v] may see h[ mu* m close ! union ( ,art ) ,sci5ce is n[ ?an x ev] 0 be=e2 & :at l>ge & animat+ hopes ?is union inspires1 bo? = ! progress ( ,art & ( ,sci5ce4 ,on ano!r subject also ,i might h dilat$ to a great ext5t1--:at ,i may call 7z ,i h j n[ call$ x7 ! social ma*9]y = ! advancem5t ( sci5ce4 ,!re c be no d\bt t at c]ta9 /ages ( sci5ces1 xi ,societies & ,associations may d mu* to promote _! fur!r progress2 by comb9+ _! obs]vations1 comp>+ _! views1 contribut+ to provide mat]ial means ( obs]vation & calculation1 & divid+ ! (fices ( obs]v] & g5]aliz]4 ,we h _h 9 ,europe 9 g5]al1 & especially 9 ?is c\ntry1 v enc\rag+ examples ( :at may be done by su* ,associations4 ,= ! pres5t ,i h only v5tur$ to prop\nd "o ,aphorism on ! subject1 namely ?is2 7,aph4 ,,lv47 ,t x is wor? consid]+ :e!r a cont9u$ & connect$ sy/em ( obs]vation & calculation1 l t ( ,a/ronomy1 might n be employ$ 9 improv+ our k ( o!r subjects2 z ,tides1 ,curr5ts1 ,w9ds1 ,cl\ds1 ,ra91 ,t]re/rial ,magnetism1 ,aurora ,borealis1 composition ( cry/als1 & ! l4 ,9 say+ ?is1 ,i h m5tion$ ^? subjects :i* are1 z appe>s to me1 mo/ likely to pr(it by cont9u$ & connect$ obs]vations4 ,i h ?r[n ! sub/ance ( my results into ,aphorisms1 z ,bacon _h done 9 8 ,novum ,organum4 ,?is ,i h done1 n 9 ! way ( deliv]+ dogmatic ass]tions or oracul> s5t5ces2 = ! ,aphorisms are all support$ by reason+1 & 71 9 fact1 writt5 aft] ! reason+1 & extract$ f x4 ,i h adopt$ ?is mode ( ga!r+ results into compact s5t5ces1 because x seems to convey lessons ) additional cle>ness & emphasis4 ,i h only to repeat :at ,i h already said2 t ?is task ( adapt+ ! ,novum ,organum to ! xii pres5t /ate ( ,physical ,sci5ce1 & ( con/ruct+ a ,new] ,organ :i* may answ] ! purposes at :i* ,bacon aim$1 seems to belong to ! pres5t g5]ation2 & be+ "h f\nd$ ^u a survey ( ! pa/ hi/ory & pres5t condition ( ! ,physical ,sci5ces1 w ,i hope1 n be deem$ presumptu\s4 ,,tr9ity ,,lodge1 #a ,novemb]1 #aheh4 xiii ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts4 ,,page ,,preface 9999iii ,,book ,i4 ,,aphorisms ,,conc]n+ ,,ideas4 ,,aphorisms ,i4--,,xviii4 ,ideas 9 g5]al #e--g ,,xix4--,,xliv4 ,ideas 9 ! ,pure ,sci5ces #h--ab ,,xlv4--,,lv4 ,ideas 9 ! ,me*anical ,sci5ces #ac--ae ,,lvi4--,,lxxi4 ,ideas 9 ! ,second>y ,me*anical ,sci5ces4 #ae--ah ,,lxxii4--9999,,lxxiii4 ,ideas 9 ! ,me*anico-*emical ,sci5ces #ah ,,lxxiv4--,,lxxix4 ,ideas 9 ,*emi/ry #ah ,,lxxx4--,,lxxxi4 ,ideas 9 ,morphology #ai 9999,,lxxxii4--,c4 ,ideas 9 ,classificatory ,sci5ce #bj--bc ,,ci4--,,cvi4 ,ideas 9 ,biology #bc--bd ,,cvii4--,,cxvii4 ,ideas 9 ,palontology #bd--bf ,,book ,,ii4 ,,( ,,k4 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,,( ,,two ,,pr9cipal ,,processes ,,by ,,:i* ,,sci5ce ,,is ,,con/ruct$ #bg ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,,( ,,! ,,explication ,,( ,,conceptions #cj ,sect4 ,i4 ,! ,hi/orical ,progress4 ,art4 #a4 ,! ,explication ( ,conceptions1 #b4 ,has tak5 place hi/orically by discussions4 xiv ,art4 #c4 ,false ,doctr9es :5 expos$ appe> impossible3 #d4 ,b 7 plausible be=e #e4 ,m5's ,m9ds gradually cle>$4 ,sect4 ,,ii4 ,use ( def9itions4 ,art4 #f4 ,controv]sies ab\t ,def9itions4 #g4 ,n arbitr>y ,def9itions4 #h4 ,att5tion to ,facts requisite4 #i4 ,def9ition is n ess5tial4 #aj4 ,! omission ( ,def9ition n always blameable4 ,sect4 ,,iii4 ,use ( ,axioms4 ,art4 #aa4 ,axioms s]ve to express ,ideas4 ,sect4 ,,iv4 ,cle> & appropriate ,ideas4 ,art4 #ab4 ,we mu/ see ! ,axioms cle>ly4 #ac4 ,inappropriate ,ideas _c lead to ,tru?4 #ad4 ,! fault is 9 ! ,conceptions4 #ae4 ,rules _c tea* ,discov]y2 #af4 ,b are n useless4 #ag4 ,discussion z well z ,facts ne$$4 ,sect4 ,v4 ,accid5tal ,discov]ies4 ,art4 #ah4 ,no ,sci5tific ,discov]y is accid5tal4 #ai4 ,su* accid5ts d n happ5 to common ,m54 #bj4 ,examples4 #ba4 ,s f> ,explication ( ,conceptions4 ,,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,,( ,,facts ,,z ,,! ,,mat]ials ,,( ,,sci5ce #ej ,art4 #a4 ,facts mu/ be true4 #b4 ,facts n sep>able f ,ideas4 #c4 ,! ,ideas mu/ be di/9ct4 #d4 ,conceptions ( ! ,intellect only to be admitt$4 #e4 ,facts are to be obs]v$ ) ref]5ce to ,space & ,"t3 #f4 ,& also to o!r ,ideas4 #g4 ,! ,decomposition ( ,facts4 xv ,art4 #h4 ,?is /ep is n suffici5t4 #i4 ,x introduces ,te*nical ,t]ms1 #aj4 ,& ,classification4 #aa4 ,! mat]ials ( ,sci5ce4 ,,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,colligation ,,( ,,facts #ei ,art4 #a4 ,facts are colligat$ by ,conceptions4 #b4 ,sci5ce beg9s ) common ,obs]vation4 #c4 ,facts mu/ be decompos$4 #d4 ,:at ,ideas fir/ give ,sci5ces4 #e4 ,facts mu/ be ref]r$ to ,ideas4 #f4 ,sagacity ne$$4 #g4 ,discov]y made by ,guesses4 #h4 ,false ,hypo!ses prelud+ to true ones4 #i4 ,new ,hypo!ses n m]e modifications ( old ones4 #aj4 ,hypo!ses may h sup]flu\s p>ts4 #aa4 ,hypo!ses to be comp>$ ) ,facts4 #ab4 ,second>y ,/eps4 ,,*ap4 ,v4 ,,( ,,c]ta9 ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,induction #gj ,sect4 ,i4 ,inv5tion a "p ( ,induction4 ,art4 #a4 ,induction ! s\rce ( ,k4 #b4 ,induction involves a ,new ,elem5t4 #c4 ,mean+ ( ,induction4 #d4 ,! ,new ,elem5t is soon =gott54 #e4 ,induction includes a ,def9ition & a ,proposition4 ,sect4 ,,ii4 ,use ( ,hypo!ses4 ,art4 #f4 ,discov]ies made by ,guesses1 #g4 ,:i* mu/ be comp>$ ) ,facts4 #h4 ,hypo!ses are suspect$4 #i4 ,hypo!ses may be useful ?\gh inaccurate4 ,sect4 ,,iii4 ,te/s ( ,hypo!ses4 ,art4 #aj4 ,true ,hypo!ses =etel ,ph5om5a1 #aa4 ,ev5 ( diff]5t k9ds4--,consili5ce ( ,inductions4 xvi ,art4 #ab4 ,true ,!ories t5d to ,simplicity4 #ac4 ,connexion ( ! la/ ,te/s4 ,,*ap4 ,,vi4 ,,( ,,! ,,logic ,,( ,,induction #ig ,art4 #a4 ,/eps ( ,g5]alization1 #b4 ,may be express$ by ,tables4 #c4 ,:i* exhibit ,inductive ,/eps2 #d4 ,& ! ,consili5ce ( ,inductions2 #e4 ,& ! t5d5cy to ,simplicity2 #f4 ,& ! names ( ,discov]]s2 #g4 ,& ! ,v]ifications ( ,!ory2 #h4 ,by means ( sev]al easy /eps4 #i4 ,?is resembles ,book-keep+4 #aj4 ,! ,logic ( ,induction4 #aa4 ,att5tion at ea* /ep requir$4 #ab4 ,g5]al ,tru?s are n m]e additions ( p>ticul>s3 #ac4 ,b a new view is introduc$4 #ad4 ,=mula ( ,inductive ,logic3 #ae4 ,may ref] to ,def9ition4 #af4 ,=mula inadequate4 #ag4 ,d$uctive ,connexion ( ,/eps4 #ah4 ,relation ( ,d$uctive & ,inductive ,reason+4 #ai4 ,! ,crit]ion ( ,tru?4 #bj4 ,!ory & ,fact4 #ba4 ,high] & ,l[] ,g5]alizations4 ,,*ap4 ,,vii4 ,,( ,,laws ,,( ,,ph5om5a ,,& ,,( ,,causes #aah ,art4 #a4 ,k ( ,laws ( ,ph5om5a4 #b4 ,=mal & ,physical ,sci5ces4 #c4 ,causes 9 ,a/ronomy4 #d4 ,diff]5t ,me*anical ,causes 9 o!r ,sci5ces4 #e4 ,*emical & ,vital ,=ces z ,causes4 #f4 ,diff]5ce ( ^! k9ds ( ,=ce4 #g4 ,difficulty ( conceiv+ new ,causes4 #h4 ,m5 will+ly take old ,causes4 #i4 ,is ! ,magnetic ,fluid real8 #aj4 ,are ,causes to be s\ght8 7,comte's ,doctr9e47 #aa4 ,bo? ,laws & ,causes to be /udi$4 xvii ,,*ap4 ,,viii4 ,,( ,,art ,,& ,,sci5ce #abi ,art4 #a4 ,art prec$es ,sci5ce4 #b4 ,contra/ ( ,art & ,sci5ce4 #c4 ,in/9ct & ,insight4 #d4 ,diff]5ce ( ,art & ,in/9ct4 #e4 ,does ,art involve ,sci5ce8 #f4 ,sci5ce unfolds ,pr9ciples4 #g4 ,sci5ce may improve ,art4 #h4 ,arts n classifi$ ) ,sci5ces4 ,,*ap4 ,,ix4 ,,( ,,! ,,classification ,,( ,,sci5ces #acf ,art4 #a4 ,use & ,limits ( su* ,classification4 #b4 ,classification dep5ds on ! ,ideas4 #c4 ,?is po9ts out ,transitions4 #d4 ,! ,classification4 ,,inductive ,,table ,,( ,,a/ronomy #adj ,,inductive ,,table ,,( ,,optics #adj ,,book ,,iii4 ,,( ,,me?ods ,,employ$ ,,9 ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,,introduction #ada ,art4 #a4 ,object ( ?is ,book4 #b4 ,an ,art ( ,discov]y n possible4 #c4 ,use ( ,me?ods4 #d4 ,s]ies ( ,six ,processes4 #e4 ,me?ods ( ,obs]vation & ,induction4 ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,,( ,,me?ods ,,( ,,obs]vation #ade ,art4 #a4 ,ref]r+ to ,numb]1 ,space1 & ,"t4 #b4 ,obs]vations are nev] p]fect4 #c4 7,i47 ,numb] is naturally exact4 #d4 7,,ii47 ,measurem5t ( ,space4 #e4 ,in/rum5ts ,inv5t$ 9 ,a/ronomy1 #f4 ,& improv$4 xviii ,art4 #g4 ,goniomet]4 #h4 ,/&>d ( ,l5g?4 #aj4 7,,iii47 ,measurem5t ( ,"t4 #aa4 ,unit ( ,"t4 #ab4 ,transit ,in/rum5t4 #ac4 ,*ronomet]s4 #ad4 7,,iv47 ,conv]sion ( ,space & ,"t4 #ae4 ,space may ,measure ,"t4 #af4 ,"t may ,measure ,space4 #ag4 7,v47 ,! ,me?od ( ,repetition4 #ah4 ,! ,me?od ( ,co9cid5ces4 #ai4 ,appli$ to ,p5dulums4 #bj4 7,,vi47 ,measurem5t ( ,weight4 #ba4 ,/&>d ( ,weight4 #bb4 7,,vii47 ,measurem5t ( ,second>y ,qualities4 #bc4 ,! ,h[l 9 ,h>monics4 #bd4 7,,viii47 ,manipulation4 #be4 ,examples 9 ,optics4 #bf4 7,,ix47 ,! ,education ( ! ,s5ses1 #bg4 ,by ! ,/udy ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 #bh4 ,prep>ation = ,ideas4 ,,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,,( ,,me?ods ,,( ,,acquir+ ,,cle> ,,sci5tific ,,ideas2 & fir/ ,,( ,,intellectual ,,education #afd ,art4 #a4 7,i47 ,idea ( ,space4 #b4 ,education by ,geometry4 #c4 7,,ii47 ,idea ( ,numb]4 #d4 ,effect ( ! usual ,education4 #e4 7,,iii47 ,idea ( ,=ce4 #f4 ,/udy ( ,me*anics ne$$1 #g4 ,to make ,newton intelligible4 #h4 ,no ,popul> ,road4 #i4 7,,iv47 ,*emical ,ideas4 #aj4 7,v47 ,natural ,hi/ory ,ideas4 #aa4 ,natural ,classes to be taught4 #ab4 ,ma!matical ,prejudices1 #ac4 ,to be correct$ by ,natural ,hi/ory4 #ad4 ,me?od ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 #ae4 ,resembles common language4 xix ,art4 #af4 ,its ,lessons4 #ag4 7,,vi47 ,well-e/abli%$ ,ideas alone to be us$4 #ah4 ,h[ are ,ideas cle>$8 ,,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,,( ,,me?ods ,,( ,,acquir+ ,,cle> ,,sci5tific ,,ideas1 cont9u$4--,,( ,,! ,,discussion ,,( ,,ideas #ahj ,art4 #a4 ,successive ,cle>ness1 #b4 ,produc$ by ,discussion4 #c4 ,examples4 #d4 ,disputes n useless1 #e4 ,al?\gh metaphysical4 #f4 ,connect$ ) ,facts4 ,,*ap4 ,v4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,! ,,process ,,( ,,induction #ahf ,sect4 ,i4 ,! ,?ree ,/eps ( ,induction4 ,art4 #a4 ,me?ods may be useful4 #b4 ,! ?ree ,/eps4 #c4 ,examples4 #d4 ,ma!matical names ( ! ,/eps4 ,sect4 ,,ii4 ,( ! ,selection ( ! ,fundam5tal ,idea4 ,art4 #e4 ,examples4 #f4 ,! ,idea to be f\nd by try+1 #g4 ,till ! ,discov]y is made2 #h4 ,prelud$ by ,guesses4 #i4 ,idea & ,facts homog5e\s4 #aj4 ,idea te/$ by ! ,facts4 ,,*ap4 ,,vi4 ,,g5]al ,,rules ,,= ,,! ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,! ,,conception #aie ,art4 #a4 ,fir/3 = ,quantity4 #b4 ,=mula & ,coeffici5ts f\nd toge!r4 #c4 ,example4 ,law ( ,cool+4 #d4 ,det]m9$ by ,exp]im5t4 #e4 ,progressive ,s]ies ( ,numb]s4 #f4 ,recurr5t ,s]ies4 #g4 ,use ( ,hypo!ses4 #h4 ,ev5 ) ?is !re are difficulties4 xv ,,*ap4 ,,vii4 ,,special ,,me?ods ,,( ,,induction ,,applicable ,,to ,,quantity #bjb ,sect4 ,i4 ,! ,me?od ( ,curves4 ,art4 #a4 ,its ,process4 #b4 ,its ,use4 #c4 ,) imp]fect ,obs]vations4 #d4 ,x corrects ,obs]vations4 #e4 ,ob/acles4 7,i47 ,ignorance ( ! argum5t4 #f4 7,,ii47 ,comb9ation ( ,laws4 ,sect4 ,,ii4 ,! ,me?od ( ,means4 ,art4 #g4 ,its ,relation to ! ,me?od ( ,curves4 #h4 ,its process4 #i4 ,argum5t requir$ to be kn[n4 #aj4 ,use ( ! ,me?od4 #aa4 ,l>ge masses ( ,obs]vations us$4 #ab4 ,pro( ( ! ,use ( ! ,me?od4 ,sect4 ,,iii4 ,! ,me?od ( ,lea/ ,squ>es4 ,art4 #ac4 ,is a ,me?od ( ,means4 #ad4 ,example4 ,sect4 ,,iv4 ,! ,me?od ( ,residues4 ,art4 #ae4 ,occasion = its ,use4 #af4 ,its ,process4 #ag4 ,examples4 #ah4 ,its ,relation to ! ,me?od ( ,means4 #ai4 ,example4 #bj4 ,residual ,ph5om5a4 ,,*ap4 ,,viii4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,induction ,,dep5d+ ,,on ,,resemblance #bbj ,sect4 ,i4 ,! ,law ( ,cont9uity4 ,art4 #a4 ,its ,nature & ,application1 #b4 ,to ,fall+ ,bodies1 #c4 ,to ,h>d ,bodies1 #d4 ,to ,gravitation4 #e4 ,! ,evid5ce4 xxi ,sect4 ,,ii4 ,! ,me?od ( ,gradation4 ,art4 #f4 ,occasions ( its ,use4 #g4 ,examples4 #h4 ,n enjo9$ by ,bacon4 #i4 ,o!r ,examples4 #aj4 ,its ,value 9 ,geology4 #aa4 ,limit$ ,results4 ,sect4 ,,iii4 ,! ,me?od ( ,natural ,classification4 ,art4 #ab4 ,examples ( its ,use4 #ac4 ,its ,process4 #ad4 ,negative ,results4 #ae4 ,is oppos$ to ,arbitr>y ,def9itions4 #af4 ,propositions & ,def9itions correlative4 #ag4 ,def9itions only provisional4 ,,*ap4 ,,ix4 ,,( ,,! ,,application ,,( ,,inductive ,,tru?s #bcc ,art4 #a4 ,?is =ms ! ,sequel ( ,discov]y4 #b4 ,sy/ematic ,v]ification ( ,discov]ies4 #c4 ,correction ( ,coeffici5ts4 #d4 ,a/ronomy a ,model4 #e4 ,v]ification by new cases4 #f4 ,(t5 requires fre% calculation4 #g4 ,cause ( ,dew4 #h4 ,useful ,applications4 ,,*ap4 ,x4 ,,( ,,! ,,induction ,,( ,,causes #bdg ,art4 #a4 ,is to be pursu$4 #b4 ,induction ( ,sub/ance4 #c4 ,induction ( ,=ce4 #d4 ,induction ( ,pol>ity4 #e4 ,is ,gravity ,pol>8 #f4 ,induction ( ,ult]ior ,causes4 #g4 ,( ! ,supreme ,cause4 xxii ,,book ,,iv1 ,,( ,,! ,,language ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,,introduction #beg ,,aphorisms ,,conc]n+ ,,! ,,language ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,aphorism ,i4 ,relative to ! ,anci5t ,p]iod #beh ,art4 #a4 ,common ,words4 #b4 ,descriptive ,t]ms4 #c4 ,!oretical ,t]ms4 ,aphorism ,,ii4 ,relative to ! ,mod]n ,p]iod #bfi ,art4 #a4 ,sy/ematic ,nom5clature4 #b4 ,sy/ematic ,t]m9ology4 #c4 ,sy/ematic ,modification4 ,aphorisms 7,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,v4 ,,vi4 ,,vii7 relative to ! ,application ( ,common ,words #bgh ,aphorisms 7,,viii4 ,,ix4 ,x4 ,,xi4 ,,xii4 ,,xiii47 relative to ! ,con/ruction ( ,new ,t]ms #bhe ,aphorism ,,xiv4 ,b9>y ,nom5clature #cjg ,,xv4 ,l9nan ,maxims #cjh ,,xvi4 ,num]ical ,names #cji ,,xvii4 ,names ( m ?an two ,/eps #caj ,,xviii4 ,no arbitr>y ,t]ms #caa ,,xix4 ,=ms fix$ by ,conv5tion #cad ,,xx4 ,=m ( ,t]ms #cah ,art4 #a4 ,t]ms d]iv$ f ,lat9 & ,greek4 #b4 ,g]man ,t]ms4 #c4 ,descriptive ,t]ms4 #d4 ,nom5clature4 ,zoology4 #e4 ------------- ,m9]alogy4 #f4 ------------- ,botany4 #g4 ------------- ,*emi/ry4 #h4 ------------- ,cry/allography4 xxiii ,aphorism ,,xxi4 ,philological ,rules #cbh ,art4 #a4 ,hybrids4 #b4 ,t]m9ations ( ,sub/antives4 #c4 ,=mations ( ,sub/antives 7names ( ?+s74 #d4 ,ab/ract ,sub/antives4 #e4 ,rules ( d]ivation f ,greek & ,lat94 #f4 ,modification ( ,t]m9ations4 ,aphorism ,,xxii4 ,introduction ( ,*anges #cda ,,fur!r ,,illu/rations ,,( ,,! ,,aphorisms ,,on ,,sci5tific ,,language1 ,,f ,,! ,,rec5t ,,c\rse ,,( ,,sci5ces4 #a4 ,,botany4 ,aphorism ,,xxiii4 ,multiplication ( ,g5]a #cdf #b4 ,,comp>ative ,,anatomy4 ,aphorism ,,xxiv4 ,s+le ,names to be us$ #cec ,,xxv4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5ce is ! ,hi/ory ( its ,language #cee ,,xxvi4 ,algebraical ,symbols #ceg ,,xxvii4 ,algebraical ,analogies #cfd ,,xxviii4 ,caprici\s ,d]ivations #cfe ,,xxix4 ,inductions are our ,def9itions #cfh #a ,,novum ,,organon ,,r5ovatum4 ,,de ,sci5tiis tum demum b5e sp]&um e/1 qu&o p] ,,scalam v]am et p] gradus cont9uos1 et non int]missos aut hiulcos1 a p>ticul>ibus asc5detur ad ,axiomata m9ora1 et de9de ad m$ia1 alia aliis sup]iora1 et po/remo demum ad g5]alissima4 ,9 con/itu5do autem ,axiomate1 ,=ma ,,inductionis alia quam adhuc 9 usu fuit1 excogit&a e/2 et qu non ad ,pr9cipia tantum 7qu vocant7 prob&a et inv5i5da1 s$ etiam ad ,axiomata m9ora1 et m$ia1 d5ique omnia4 ,,bacon1 ,nov4 ,org41 ,aph4 civ4 cv4 #c ,,novum ,,organon ,,r5ovatum4 ,,! "n ,organon 0 appli$ to ! works ( ,ari/otle :i* treat$ ( ,logic1 t is1 ( ! me?od ( e/abli%+ & prov+ k1 & ( refut+ err\r1 by means ( ,syllogisms4 ,francis ,bacon1 hold+ t ?is me?od 0 insuffici5t & futile = ! augm5tation ( real & useful k1 publi%$ 8 ,novum ,organon1 9 :i* he propos$ = t purpose me?ods f :i* he promis$ a bett] success4 ,s9ce 8 "t real & useful k has made great progress1 & _m ,sci5ces h be5 greatly ext5d$ or newly con/ruct$2 s t ev5 if ,bacon's me?od _h be5 ! "r "o1 & _h be5 complete z f> z ! progress ( ,sci5ce up to 8 "t c\ld direct x1 !re w\ld be room = ! revision & improvem5t ( ! me?ods ( arriv+ at sci5tific k4 ,inasmu* z we h gone ?r\gh ! ,hi/ories ( ! pr9cipal ,sci5ces1 f ! e>lie/ up to ! pres5t "t1 9 a previ\s "w1 & h also trac$ ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas 9 ano!r "w1 x may p]haps be reg>d$ z n too presumptu\s if we attempt ?is revision & improvem5t ( ! me?ods by :i* ,sci5ces mu/ rise & gr[4 ,?is #d is our task 9 ! pres5t volume2 & to m>k ! ref]5ce ( ?is und]tak+ to ! "w ( ,bacon1 we "n our book ,novum ,organon ,r5ovatum4 ,bacon has deliv]$ 8 precepts 9 ,aphorisms1 "s ( !m /at$ nak$ly1 o!rs exp&$ into diss]tations4 ,! g5]al results at :i* we h arriv$ by trac+ ! hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas are ! gr\ndwork ( su* ,precepts z we h to give3 & ,i %all !re=e beg9 by summ+ up ^! results 9 ,aphorisms1 ref]r+ to ! =m] "w = ! hi/orical pro( t ^! ,aphorisms are true4 #e ,,novum ,,organon ,,r5ovatum4 ,,book ,i4 ,,aphorisms ,,conc]n+ ,,ideas ,,d]iv$ ,,f ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,ideas4 ,i4 ,,man is ! ,int]pret] ( ,nature1 ,sci5ce ! "r int]pretation4 7,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas3 ,book ,i4 ,*apt] #a47 ,,ii4 ,! ,s5ses place be=e u ! ,*>act]s ( ! ,book ( ,nature2 b ^! convey no k to u1 till we h discov]$ ! ,alphabet by :i* !y are to be read4 7,ibid4 ,i4 #b47 ,,iii4 ,! ,alphabet1 by means ( :i* we int]pret ,ph5om5a1 consi/s ( ! ,ideas exi/+ 9 our own m9ds2 = ^! give to ! ph5om5a t coh]5ce & significance :i* is n an object ( s5se4 7,i4 #b47 ,,iv4 ,! anti!sis ( ,s5se & ,ideas is ! f\ndation ( ! ,philosophy ( ,sci5ce4 ,no k c exi/ )\t ! union1 no philosophy )\t ! sep>ation1 ( ^! two elem5ts4 7,i4 #b47 #f ,v4 ,fact & ,!ory correspond to ,s5se on ! "o h&1 & to ,ideas on ! o!r1 s f> z we are consci\s ( our ,ideas3 b all facts involve ideas unconsci\sly2 & ?us ! di/9ction ( ,facts & ,!ories is n t5able1 z t ( ,s5se & ,ideas is4 7,i4 #b47 ,,vi4 ,s5sations & ,ideas 9 our k are l ,matt] & ,=m 9 bodies4 ,matt] _c exi/ )\t ,=m1 nor ,=m )\t ,matt]3 yet ! two are altoge!r di/9ct & opposite4 ,!re is no possibility ei!r ( sep>at+1 or ( conf\nd+ !m4 ,! same is ! case ) ,s5sations & ,ideas4 7,i4 #b47 ,,vii4 ,ideas are n trans=m$1 b 9=m$ ,s5sations2 = )\t ideas1 s5sations h no =m4 7,i4 #b47 ,,viii4 ,! ,s5sations are ! ,objective1 ! ,ideas ! ,subjective "p ( e act ( p]ception or k4 7,i4 #b47 ,,ix4 ,g5]al ,t]ms d5ote ,ideal ,conceptions1 z a circle1 an orbit1 a rose4 ,^! are n ,images ( real ?+s1 z 0 held by ! ,reali/s1 b ,conceptions3 yet !y are conceptions1 n b\nd toge!r by m]e ,"n1 z ! ,nom9ali/s held1 b by an ,idea4 7,i4 #b47 ,x4 ,x has be5 said by "s1 t all ,conceptions are m]ely /ates or feel+s ( ! m9d1 b ?is ass]tion only t5ds to conf\nd :at x is our bus9ess to di/+ui%4 7,i4 #b47 ,,xi4 ,obs]v$ ,facts are connect$ s z to produce new tru?s1 by sup]9duc+ ^u !m an ,idea3 & su* tru?s are obta9$ by ,induction4 7,i4 #b47 #g ,,xii4 ,tru?s once obta9$ by legitimate ,induction are ,facts3 ^! ,facts may be aga9 connect$1 s z to produce high] tru?s3 & ?us we advance to ,successive ,g5]alizations4 7,i4 #b47 ,,xiii4 ,tru?s obta9$ by ,induction are made compact & p]man5t by be+ express$ 9 ,te*nical ,t]ms4 7,i4 #c47 ,,xiv4 ,exp]i5ce _c conduct u to univ]sal & necess>y tru?s3--,n to univ]sal1 because %e has n tri$ all cases3--,n to necess>y1 because necessity is n a matt] to :i* exp]i5ce c te/ify4 7,i4 #e47 ,,xv4 ,necess>y tru?s d]ive _! necessity f ! ,ideas :i* !y involve2 & ! exi/5ce ( necess>y tru?s proves ! exi/5ce ( ,ideas n g5]at$ by exp]i5ce4 7,i4 #e47 ,,xvi4 ,9 ,d$uctive ,reason+1 we _c h any tru? 9 ! conclusion :i* is n virtually conta9$ 9 ! premises4 7,i4 #f47 ,,xvii4 ,9 ord] to acquire any exact & solid k1 ! /ud5t mu/ possess ) p]fect precision ! ideas appropriate to t "p ( k3 & ?is precision is te/$ by ! /ud5t's p]ceiv+ ! axiomatic evid5ce ( ! axioms belong+ to ea* ,fundam5tal ,idea4 7,i4 #f47 ,,xviii4 ,! ,fundam5tal ,ideas :i* x is mo/ important to consid]1 z be+ ! ,bases ( ! ,mat]ial ,sci5ces1 are ! ,ideas ( ,space1 ,"t 7includ+ ,numb]71 ,cause 7includ+ ,=ce & ,matt]71 ,outness ( ,objects1 & ,m$ia ( ,p]ception ( ,second>y ,qualities1 ,pol>ity 7,contr>iety71 #h ,*emical ,composition & ,aff9ity1 ,sub/ance1 ,lik5ess & ,natural ,aff9ity1 ,means & ,ends 7:5ce ! ,notion ( ,organization71 ,symmetry1 & ! ,ideas ( ,vital ,p[]s4 7,i4 #h47 ,,xix4 ,! ,sci5ces :i* dep5d ^u ! ,ideas ( ,space & ,numb] are ,pure ,sci5ces1 n ,inductive ,sci5ces3 !y d n inf] special ,!ories f ,facts1 b d$uce ! conditions ( all !ory f ,ideas4 ,! ,elem5t>y ,pure ,sci5ces1 or ,elem5t>y ,ma!matics1 are ,geometry1 ,!oretical ,ari?metic & ,algebra4 7,,ii4 #a47 ,,xx4 ,! ,ideas on :i* ! ,pure ,sci5ces dep5d1 are ^? ( ,space & ,numb]2 b ,numb] is a modification ( ! conception ( ,repetition1 :i* belongs to ! ,idea ( ,"t4 7,,ii4 #a47 ,,xxi4 ,! ,idea ( ,space is n d]iv$ f exp]i5ce1 = exp]i5ce ( ext]nal objects presupposes bodies to exi/ 9 ,space1 ,space is a condition "u :i* ! m9d receives ! impressions ( s5se1 & !re=e ! relations ( space are necess>ily & univ]sally true ( all p]ceiv$ objects4 ,space is a =m ( our p]ceptions1 & regulates !m1 :atev] ! matt] ( !m may be4 7,,ii4 #b47 ,,xxii4 ,space is n a ,g5]al ,notion collect$ by ab/raction f p>ticul> cases2 = we d n speak ( ,spaces 9 g5]al1 b ( univ]sal or absolute ,space4 ,absolute ,space is inf9ite4 ,all special spaces are 9 absolute space1 & are p>ts ( x4 7,,ii4 #c47 ,,xxiii4 ,space is n a real object or ?+1 di/9ct f ! objects :i* exi/ 9 x2 b x is a real condition ( ! exi/5ce ( ext]nal objects4 7,,ii4 #c47 #i ,,xxiv4 ,we h an ,intuition ( objects 9 space2 t is1 we contemplate objects z made up ( spatial p>ts1 & appreh5d _! spatial relations by ! same act by :i* we appreh5d ! objects !mselves4 7,,ii4 #c47 ,,xxv4 ,=m or ,figure is space limit$ by b\nd>ies4 ,space has necess>ily ?ree dim5sions1 l5g?1 bread?1 dep?2 & no o!rs :i* _c be resolv$ into ^!4 7,,ii4 #c47 ,,xxvi4 ,! ,idea ( ,space is exhibit$ = sci5tific purposes1 by ! ,def9itions & ,axioms ( ,geometry2 su*1 = in/ance1 z ^!3--! ,def9ition ( a ,"r ,angle1 & ( a ,circle2--! ,def9ition ( ,p>allel ,l9es1 & ! ,axiom conc]n+ !m2--! ,axiom t two /raight l9es _c inclose a space4 ,^! ,def9itions are necess>y1 n arbitr>y2 & ! ,axioms are ne$$ z well z ! ,def9itions1 9 ord] to express ! necess>y conditions :i* ! ,idea ( ,space imposes4 7,,ii4 #d47 ,,xxvii4 ,! ,def9itions & ,axioms ( ,elem5t>y ,geometry d n completely exhibit ! ,idea ( ,space4 ,9 proce$+ to ! ,high] ,geometry1 we may introduce o!r additional & indep5d5t ,axioms2 su* z t ( ,ar*im$es1 t a curve l9e :i* jo9s two po9ts is less ?an any brok5 l9e jo9+ ! same po9ts & includ+ ! curve l9e4 7,,ii4 #d47 ,,xxviii4 ,! p]ception ( a solid object by sight requires t act ( m9d by :i*1 f figure & %ade1 we inf] di/ance & position 9 space4 ,! p]ception ( figure by sight requires t act ( m9d by :i* we give an outl9e to ea* object4 7,,ii4 #f47 #aj ,,xxix4 ,! p]ception ( ,=m by t\* is n an impression on ! passive s5se1 b requires an act ( our muscul> frame by :i* we become aw>e ( ! position ( our own limbs4 ,! p]ceptive faculty involv$ 9 ?is act has be5 call$ ! muscul> s5se4 7,,ii4 #f47 ,,xxx4 ,! ,idea ( ,"t is n d]iv$ f exp]i5ce1 = exp]i5ce ( *anges presupposes occurr5ces to take place 9 ,"t4 ,"t is a condition "u :i* ! m9d receives ! impressions ( s5se1 & !re=e ! relations ( "t are necess>ily & univ]sally true ( all p]ceiv$ occurr5ces4 ,"t is a =m ( our p]ceptions1 & regulates !m1 :atev] ! matt] ( !m may be4 7,,ii4 #g47 ,,xxxi4 ,"t is n a ,g5]al ,notion collect$ by ab/raction f p>ticul> cases4 ,= we d n speak ( p>ticul> ,times z examples ( "t 9 g5]al1 b z p>ts ( a s+le & inf9ite ,"t4 7,,ii4 #h47 ,,xxxii4 ,"t1 l ,space1 is a =m1 n only ( p]ception1 b ( ,intuition4 ,we consid] ! :ole ( any "t z equal to ! sum ( ! p>ts2 & an occurr5ce z co9cid+ ) ! portion ( "t :i* x occupies4 7,,ii4 #h47 ,,xxxiii4 ,"t is analog\s to ,space ( "o dim5sion3 portions ( bo? h a beg9n+ & an end1 are long or %ort4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ,"t :i* is analog\s to ,space ( two1 or ( ?ree1 dim5sions1 & ?us no?+ :i* corresponds to ,figure4 7,,ii4 #h47 ,,xxxiv4 ,! ,repetition ( a set ( occurr5ces1 z1 = example1 /rong & weak1 or long & %ort s\nds1 accord+ to a #aa /eadfa/ ord]1 produces ,rhy?m1 :i* is a conception peculi> to ,"t1 z ,figure is to ,space4 7,,ii4 #h47 ,,xxxv4 ,! simple/ =m ( ,repetition is t 9 :i* !re is no v>iety1 & ?us gives rise to ! conception ( ,numb]4 7,,ii4 #h47 ,,xxxvi4 ,! simple/ num]ical tru?s are se5 by ,intuition2 :5 we endeav\r to d$uce ! m complex f ^! simple/1 we employ su* maxims z ^!3--,if equals be add$ to equals ! :oles are equal3--,if equals be subtract$ f equals ! rema9d]s are equal3--,! :ole is equal to ! sum ( all its p>ts4 7,,ii4 #i47 ,,xxxvii4 ,! ,p]ception ( ,"t involves a con/ant & lat5t k9d ( memory1 :i* may be t]m$ a ,s5se ( ,succession4 ,! ,p]ception ( ,numb] also involves ?is ,s5se ( ,succession1 al?\gh 9 small numb]s we appe> to appreh5d ! units simultane\sly & n successively4 7,,ii4 #aj47 ,,xxxviii4 ,! ,p]ception ( ,rhy?m is n an impression on ! passive s5se1 b requires an act ( ?\ght by :i* we connect & gr\p ! /rokes :i* =m ! ,rhy?m4 7,,ii4 #aj47 ,,xxxix4 ,intuitive is oppos$ to ,discursive reason4 ,9 intuition1 we obta9 our conclusions by dwell+ ^u "o aspect ( ! fundam5tal ,idea2 9 discursive reason+1 we comb9e sev]al aspects ( ! ,idea1 7t is1 sev]al axioms17 & reason f ! comb9ation4 7,,ii4 #aa47 ,,xl4 ,geometrical d$uction 7& d$uction 9 g5]al7 is call$ ,syn!sis1 because we introduce1 at successive /eps1 ! #ab results ( new pr9ciples4 ,b 9 reason+ on ! relations ( space1 we sometimes g on sep>at+ tru?s into _! compon5t tru?s1 & ^! into o!r compon5t tru?s2 & s on3 & ?is is geometrical ,analysis4 7,,ii4 #aa47 ,,xli4 ,among ! f\ndations ( ! ,high] ,ma!matics1 is ! ,idea ( ,symbols consid]$ z g5]al ,signs ( ,quantity4 ,?is idea ( a ,sign is di/9ct f1 & indep5d5t ( o!r ideas4 ,! ,axiom to :i* we ref] 9 reason+ by means ( ,symbols ( quantity is ?is3--,! int]pretation ( su* symbols mu/ be p]fectly g5]al4 ,?is ,idea 9999& ,axiom are ! bases ( ,algebra 9 its mo/ g5]al =m4 7,,ii4 #ab47 ,,xlii4 ,among ! f\ndations ( ! ,high] ,ma!matics is also ! ,idea ( a ,limit4 ,! ,idea ( a ,limit _c be sup]s$$ by any o!r def9itions or ,hypo!ses1 ,! ,axiom :i* we employ 9 introduc+ ?is ,idea into our reason+ is ?is3--,:at is true up to ! ,limit is true at ! ,limit4 ,?is ,idea & ,axiom are ! bases ( all ,me?ods ( ,limits1 ,fluxions1 ,diff]5tials1 ,v>iations1 & ! l4 7,,ii4 #ab47 ,,xliii4 ,!re is a pure ,sci5ce ( ,motion1 :i* does n dep5d ^u obs]v$ facts1 b ^u ! ,idea ( motion4 ,x may also be t]m$ ,pure ,me*anism1 9 opposition to ,me*anics ,prop]1 or ,ma*9]y1 :i* involves ! me*anical conceptions ( =ce & matt]4 ,x has be5 propos$ to "n ?is ,pure ,sci5ce ( ,motion1 ,k9ematics4 7,,ii4 #ac47 ,,xliv4 ,! pure ,ma!matical ,sci5ces mu/ be successfully cultivat$1 9 ord] t ! progress ( ! pr9cipal ,inductive ,sci5ces may take place4 ,?is appe>s 9 ! case ( ,a/ronomy1 9 :i* ,sci5ce1 bo? 9 anci5t & 9 mod]n times1 ea* advance ( ! !ory has dep5d$ ^u ! #ac previ\s solution ( problems 9 pure ma!matics4 ,x appe>s also inv]sely 9 ! ,sci5ce ( ! ,tides1 9 :i*1 at pres5t1 we _c advance 9 ! !ory1 because we _c solve ! requisite problems 9 ! ,integral ,calculus4 7,,ii4 #ad47 ,,xlv4 ,! ,idea ( ,cause1 modifi$ into ! conceptions ( me*anical cause1 or ,=ce1 & resi/ance to =ce1 or ,matt]1 is ! f\ndation ( ! ,me*anical ,sci5ces2 t is1 ,me*anics1 7includ+ ,/atics & ,dynamics17 ,hydro/atics1 & ,physical ,a/ronomy4 7,,iii4 #a47 ,,xlvi4 ,! ,idea ( ,cause is n d]iv$ f exp]i5ce2 = 9 judg+ ( occurr5ces :i* we contemplate1 we consid] !m z be+1 univ]sally & necess>ily1 ,causes & ,effects1 :i* a f9ite exp]i5ce c\ld n au?orize u to d4 ,! ,axiom1 t e ev5t mu/ h a cause1 is true indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce1 & beyond ! limits ( exp]i5ce4 7,,iii4 #b47 ,,xlvii4 ,! ,idea ( ,cause is express$ = purposes ( sci5ce by ^! ?ree ,axioms3--,e ,ev5t mu/ h a ,cause3--,causes are measur$ by _! ,effects3--,reaction is equal & opposite to ,action4 7,,iii4 #d47 ,,xlviii4 ,! ,conception ( ,=ce involves ! ,idea ( ,cause1 z appli$ to ! motion & re/ ( bodies4 ,! conception ( =ce is sugge/$ by muscul> action ex]t$3 ! conception ( matt] arises f muscul> action resi/$4 ,we necess>ily ascribe to all bodies solidity & in]tia1 s9ce we conceive ,matt] z t :i* _c be compress$ or mov$ )\t resi/ance4 7,,iii4 #e47 ,,xlix4 ,me*anical ,sci5ce dep5ds on ! ,conception ( ,=ce2 & is divid$ into ,/atics1 ! doctr9e ( ,=ce prev5t+ #ad motion1 & ,dynamics1 ! doctr9e ( ,=ce produc+ motion4 7,,iii4 #f47 ,l4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,/atics dep5ds ^u ! ,axiom1 t ,action & ,reaction are equal1 :i* 9 ,/atics assumes ?is =m3--,:5 two equal weights are support$ on ! middle po9t betwe5 !m1 ! pressure on ! fulcrum is equal to ! sum ( ! weights4 7,,iii4 #f47 ,,li4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,hydro/atics dep5ds ^u ! ,fundam5tal ,pr9ciple t fluids press equally 9 all directions4 ,?is pr9ciple necess>ily results f ! conception ( a ,fluid1 z a body ( :i* ! p>ts are p]fectly moveable 9 all directions4 ,= s9ce ! ,fluid is a body1 x c transmit pressure2 & ! transmitt$ pressure is equal to ! orig9al pressure1 9 virtue ( ! ,axiom t ,reaction is equal to ,action4 ,t ! ,fundam5tal ,pr9ciple is n d]iv$ f exp]i5ce1 is pla9 bo? f its evid5ce & f its hi/ory4 7,,iii4 #f47 ,,lii4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,dynamics dep5ds ^u ! ?ree ,axioms above /at$ respect+ ,cause4 ,! ,fir/ ,axiom1--t e *ange mu/ h a ,cause1--gives rise to ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion1--t a body n act$ ^u by a =ce w move ) a uni=m velocity 9 a /raight l9e4 ,! ,second ,axiom1--t ,causes are measur$ by _! ,effects1--gives rise to ! ,second ,law ( ,motion1--t :5 a =ce acts ^u a body 9 motion1 ! effect ( ! =ce is comp\nd$ ) ! previ\sly exi/+ motion4 ,! ,?ird ,axiom1--t ,reaction is equal & opposite to ,action1--gives rise to ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion1 :i* is express$ 9 ! same t]ms z ! ,axiom2 ,action & ,reaction be+ und]/ood to signify mom5tum ga9$ & lo/4 7,,iii4 #g47 #ae ,,liii4 ,! above ,laws ( ,motion1 hi/orically speak+1 7 e/abli%$ by means ( exp]im5t3 b s9ce !y h be5 discov]$ & r$uc$ to _! simple/ =m1 !y h be5 consid]$ by _m philosoph]s z self-evid5t4 ,?is result is pr9cipally due to ! introduction & e/abli%m5t ( t]ms & def9itions1 :i* enable u to express ! ,laws 9 a v simple mann]4 7,,iii4 #g47 ,,liv4 ,9 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,laws ( ,motion1 x happ5$1 9 sev]al in/ances1 t ,pr9ciples 7 assum$ z self-evid5t :i* d n n[ appe> evid5t1 b :i* h s9ce be5 demon/rat$ f ! simple/ & mo/ evid5t pr9ciples4 ,?us x 0 assum$ t a p]petual motion is impossible2--t ! velocities ( bodies acquir$ by fall+ d[n planes or curves ( ! same v]tical height are equal2--t ! actual desc5t ( ! c5t] ( gravity is equal to its pot5tial asc5t4 ,b we are n h5ce to suppose t ^! assumptions 7 made )\t gr\nd3 = s9ce !y really foll[ f ! laws ( motion1 !y 7 probably1 9 ! m9ds ( ! discov]]s1 ! results ( undevelop$ demon/rations :i* _! sagacity l$ !m to div9e4 7,,iii4 #g47 ,,lv4 ,x is a ,p>adox t ,exp]i5ce %\ld lead u to tru?s confess$ly univ]sal1 & app>5tly necess>y1 su* z ! ,laws ( ,motion are4 ,! ,solution ( ?is p>adox is1 t ^! laws are int]pretations ( ! ,axioms ( ,causation4 ,! axioms are univ]sally & necess>ily true1 b ! "r int]pretation ( ! t]ms :i* !y involve1 is le>nt by exp]i5ce4 ,our ,idea ( ,cause supplies ! ,=m1 ,exp]i5ce1 ! ,matt]1 ( ^! ,laws4 7,,iii4 #h47 ,,lvi4 ,prim>y ,qualities ( ,bodies are ^? :i* we c conceive z directly p]ceiv$2 ,second>y ,qualities are ^? #af :i* we conceive z p]ceiv$ by means ( a ,m$ium4 7,,iv4 #a47 ,,lvii4 ,we necess>ily p]ceive bodies z )\t u2 ! ,idea ( ,ext]nality is "o ( ! conditions ( p]ception4 7,,iv4 #a47 ,,lviii4 ,we necess>ily assume a ,m$ium = ! p]ceptions ( ,light1 ,col\r1 ,s\nd1 ,heat1 ,od\rs1 ,ta/es2 & ?is ,m$ium mu/ convey impressions by means ( its me*anical attributes4 7,,iv4 #a47 ,,lix4 ,second>y ,qualities are n ext5d$ b int5sive3 _! effects are n augm5t$ by addition ( p>ts1 b by increas$ op]ation ( ! m$ium4 ,h5ce !y are n measur$ directly1 b by scales2 n by units1 b by degrees4 7,,iv4 #d47 ,,lx4 ,9 ! ,scales ( ,second>y ,qualities1 x is a condition 79 ord] t ! scale may be complete17 t e example ( ! quality mu/ ei!r agree ) "o ( ! degrees ( ! ,scale1 or lie betwe5 two contigu\s degrees4 7,,iv4 #d47 ,,lxi4 ,we p]ceive by means ( a m$ium & by means ( impressions on ! n]ves3 b we d n 7by our s5ses7 p]ceive ei!r ! m$ium or ! impressions on ! n]ves4 7,,iv4 #a47 ,,lxii4 ,! ,pr]ogatives ( ! ,sight are1 t by ?is s5se we necess>ily & imm$iately appreh5d ! position ( its objects3 & t f visible circum/ances1 we inf] ! di/ance ( objects f u1 s readily t we seem to p]ceive & n to inf]4 7,,iv4 #b47 #ag ,,lxiii4 ,! ,pr]ogatives ( ! ,he>+ are1 t by ?is s5se we p]ceive relations p]fectly precise & def9ite betwe5 two notes1 namely1 ,musical ,int]vals 7z an ,octave1 a ,fif?72 & t :5 two notes are p]ceiv$ toge!r1 !y are compreh5d$ z di/9ct1 7a ,*ord17 & z hav+ a c]ta9 relation1 7,concord or ,discord47 7,,iv4 #b47 ,,lxiv4 ,! ,sight _c decompose a comp\nd col\r into simple col\rs1 or di/+ui% a comp\nd f a simple col\r4 ,! ,he>+ _c directly p]ceive ! place1 /ill less ! di/ance1 ( its objects3 we inf] ^! obscurely & vaguely f audible circum/ances4 7,,iv4 #b47 ,,lxv4 ,! ,fir/ ,p>adox ( ,vision is1 t we see objects upright1 ?\gh ! images on ! ret9a are inv]t$4 ,! solution is1 t we d n see ! image on ! ret9a at all1 we only see by means ( x4 7,,iv4 #b47 ,,lxvi4 ,! ,second ,p>adox ( ,vision is1 t we see objects s+le1 ?\gh !re are two images on ! ret9as1 "o 9 ea* eye4 ,! explanation is1 t x is a ,law ( ,vision t we see 7small or di/ant7 objects s+le1 :5 _! images fall on correspond+ po9ts ( ! two ret9as4 7,,iv4 #b47 ,,lxvii4 ,! law ( s+le vision = ne> objects is ?is3--,:5 ! two images 9 ! two eyes are situat$1 "p = "p1 ne>ly b n exactly1 ^u correspond+ po9ts1 ! object is appreh5d$ z s+le & solid if ! two objects are su* z w\ld be produc$ by a s+le solid object se5 by ! eyes sep>ately4 7,,iv4 #b47 ,,lxviii4 ,! ultimate object ( ea* ( ! ,second>y ,me*anical ,sci5ces is1 to det]m9e ! nature & laws ( ! processes #ah by :i* ! impression ( ! ,second>y ,quality treat$ ( is convey$3 b be=e we discov] ! cause1 x may be necess>y to det]m9e ! laws ( ! ph5om5a2 & = ?is purpose a ,measure or ,scale ( ea* quality is necess>y4 7,,iv4 #d47 ,,lxix4 ,second>y qualities are measur$ by means ( su* effects z c be e/imat$ 9 numb] or space4 7,,iv4 #d47 ,,lxx4 ,! ,measure ( ,s\nds1 z high or l[1 is ! ,musical ,scale1 or ,h>monic ,canon4 7,,iv4 #d47 ,,lxxi4 ,! ,measures ( ,pure ,col\rs are ! ,prismatic ,scale2 ! same1 includ+ ,fraunh(]'s ,l9es2 & ,newton's ,scale ( ,col\rs4 ,! pr9cipal ,scales ( ,impure ,col\rs are ,w]n]'s ,nom5clature ( ,col\rs1 & ,m]ime's ,nom5clature ( ,col\rs4 7,,iv4 #d47 ,,lxxii4 ,! ,idea ( ,pol>ity involves ! conception ( contr>y prop]ties 9 contr>y directions3--! prop]ties be+1 = example1 attraction & repulsion1 d>kness & light1 syn!sis & analysis2 & ! contr>y directions be+ ^? :i* are directly opposite1 or1 9 "s cases1 ^? :i* are at "r angles4 7,v4 #a47 ,,lxxiii4 7,d\btful47 ,coexi/5t pol>ities are fundam5tally id5tical4 7,v4 #b47 ,,lxxiv4 ,! ,idea ( ,*emical ,aff9ity1 z impli$ 9 ,elem5t>y ,composition1 involves peculi> conceptions4 ,x is n prop]ly express$ by assum+ ! qualities ( bodies to resemble ^? ( ! elem5ts1 or to dep5d on ! figure ( ! elem5ts1 or on _! attractions4 7,,vi4 #a47 #ai ,,lxxv4 ,attractions take place betwe5 bodies1 ,aff9ities betwe5 ! p>ticles ( a body4 ,! =m] may be comp>$ to ! alliances ( /ates1 ! latt] to ! ties ( family4 7,,vi4 #b47 ,,lxxvi4 ,! gov]n+ pr9ciples ( ,*emical ,aff9ity are1 t x is elective2 t x is def9ite2 t x det]m9es ! prop]ties ( ! comp\nd2 & t analysis is possible4 7,,vi4 #b47 ,,lxxvii4 ,we h an idea ( ,sub/ance3 & an axiom involv$ 9 ?is ,idea is1 t ! weight ( a body is ! sum ( ! weights ( all its elem5ts4 7,,vi4 #c47 ,,lxxviii4 ,h5ce ,impond]able ,fluids are n to be admitt$ z *emical elem5ts4 7,,vi4 #d47 ,,lxxix4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,atoms is admissible z a mode ( express+ & calculat+ laws ( nature2 b is n prov$ by any fact1 *emical or physical1 z a philosophical tru?4 7,,vi4 #e47 ,,lxxx4 ,we h an ,idea ( ,symmetry2 & an axiom involv$ 9 ?is ,idea is1 t 9 a symmetrical natural body1 if !re be a t5d5cy to modify any memb] 9 any mann]1 !re is a t5d5cy to modify all ! correspond+ memb]s 9 ! same mann]4 7,,vii4 #a47 ,,lxxxi4 ,all hypo!ses respect+ ! mann] 9 :i* ! elem5ts ( inorganic bodies are arrang$ 9 space1 mu/ be con/ruct$ ) reg>d to ! g5]al facts ( cry/allization4 7,,vii4 #c47 #bj ,,lxxxii4 ,:5 we consid] any object z ,"o1 we give unity to x by an act ( ?\ght4 ,! condition :i* det]m9es :at ?is unity %all include1 & :at x %all exclude1 is ?is2--t ass]tions conc]n+ ! "o ?+ %all be possible4 7,,viii4 #a47 ,,lxxxiii4 ,we collect individuals into ,k9ds by apply+ to !m ! ,idea ( ,lik5ess4 ,k9ds ( ?+s are n det]m9$ by def9itions1 b by ?is condition3--t g5]al ass]tions conc]n+ su* k9ds ( ?+s %all be possible4 7,,viii4 #a47 ,,lxxxiv4 ,! ,names ( k9ds ( ?+s are gov]n$ by _! use2 & t may be a "r "n 9 "o use :i* is n s 9 ano!r4 ,a :ale is n a fi% 9 natural hi/ory1 b x is a fi% 9 comm]ce & law4 7,,viii4 #a47 ,,lxxxv4 ,we take = grant$ t ea* k9d ( ?+s has a special "* :i* may be express$ by a ,def9ition4 ,! gr\nd ( our assumption is ?is2--t reason+ mu/ be possible4 7,,viii4 #a47 ,,lxxxvi4 ,! ,five ,words1 ,g5us1 ,species1 ,diff]5ce1 ,prop]ty1 ,accid5t1 7 us$ by ! ,ari/otelians1 9 ord] to express ! subord9ation ( ,k9ds1 & to describe ! nature ( ,def9itions & ,propositions4 ,9 mod]n times1 ^! te*nical expressions h be5 m ref]r$ to by ,natural ,hi/orians ?an by ,metaphysicians4 7,,viii4 #a47 ,,lxxxvii4 ,! con/ruction ( a ,classificatory ,sci5ce includes ,t]m9ology1 ! =mation ( a descriptive language2--,diataxis1 ! ,plan ( ! ,sy/em ( ,classification1 call$ #ba also ! ,sy/ematick2--,diagnosis1 ! ,s*eme ( ! ,*>act]s by :i* ! diff]5t ,classes are kn[n1 call$ also ! ,*>act]i/ick4 ,physiography is ! k :i* ! ,sy/em is employ$ to convey4 ,diataxis includes ,nom5clature4 7,,viii4 #b47 ,,lxxxviii4 ,t]m9ology mu/ be conv5tional1 precise1 con/ant2 copi\s 9 words1 & m9ute 9 di/9ctions1 accord+ to ! ne$s ( ! sci5ce4 ,! /ud5t mu/ und]/& ! t]ms1 directly accord+ to ! conv5tion1 n ?r\gh ! m$ium ( explanation or comp>ison4 7,,viii4 #b47 ,,lxxxix4 ,! ,diataxis1 or ,plan ( ! ,sy/em1 may aim at a ,natural or at an ,artificial ,sy/em4 ,b no classes c be absolutely artificial1 = if !y 71 no ass]tions c\ld be made conc]n+ !m4 7,,viii4 #b47 ,,xc4 ,an ,artificial ,sy/em is "o 9 :i* ! small] gr\ps 7! ,g5]a7 are natural2 & 9 :i* ! wid] divisions 7,classes1 ,ord]s7 are con/ruct$ by ! p]emptory application ( select$ ,*>act]s2 7select$1 h[ev]1 s z n to break up ! small] gr\ps47 7,,viii4 #b47 ,,xci4 ,a ,natural ,sy/em is "o :i* attempts to make all ! divisions natural1 ! wide/ z well z ! n>r[e/2 & !re=e applies no *>act]s p]emptorily4 7,,viii4 #b47 ,,xcii4 ,natural ,gr\ps are be/ describ$1 n by any ,def9ition :i* m>ks _! b\nd>ies1 b by a ,type :i* m>ks _! c5t]4 ,! ,type ( any natural gr\p is an example :i* possesses 9 a m>k$ degree all ! lead+ *>act]s ( ! class4 7,,viii4 #b47 #bb ,,xciii4 ,a ,natural ,gr\p is /eadily fix$1 ?\gh n precisely limit$2 x is giv5 9 position1 ?\gh n circumscrib$2 x is det]m9$1 n by a b\nd>y )\t1 b by a c5tral po9t )92--n by :at x /rictly excludes1 b by :at x em95tly includes2--by a ,type1 n by a ,def9ition4 7,,viii4 #b47 ,,xciv4 ,! preval5ce ( ,ma!matics z an elem5t ( education has made u ?9k ,def9ition ! philosophical mode ( fix+ ! mean+ ( a ^w3 if 7,sci5tific7 ,natural ,hi/ory 7 introduc$ into education1 m5 might become famili> ) ! fixation ( ! signification ( words by ,types2 & ?is process agrees m ne>ly ) ! common processes by :i* words acquire _! significations4 7,,viii4 #b47 ,,xcv4 ,! attempts at ,natural ,classification are ( ?ree sorts2 accord+ z !y are made by ! process ( bl9d trial1 ( g5]al comp>ison1 or ( subord9ation ( *>act]s4 ,! process ( ,bl9d ,trial pr(esses to make its classes by att5tion to all ! *>act]s1 b )\t proce$+ me?odically4 ,! process ( ,g5]al ,comp>ison pr(esses to enum]ate all ! *>act]s1 & =ms its classes by ! majority4 ,nei!r ( ^! me?ods c really be c>ri$ into effect4 ,! me?od ( ,subord9ation ( ,*>act]s consid]s "s *>act]s z m important ?an o!rs2 & ?is me?od gives m consi/5t results ?an ! o!rs4 ,?is me?od1 h[ev]1 does n dep5d ^u ! ,idea ( ,lik5ess only1 b introduces ! ,idea ( ,organization or ,function4 7,,viii4 #b47 ,,xcvi4 ,a ,species is a collection ( individuals1 :i* are desc5d$ f a common /ock1 or :i* resemble su* a collection z mu* z ^! resemble ea* o!r3 ! resemblance be+ oppos$ to a def9ite diff]5ce4 7,,viii4 #b47 #bc ,,xcvii4 ,a ,g5us is a collection ( species :i* resemble ea* o!r m ?an !y resemble o!r species3 ! resemblance be+ oppos$ to a def9ite diff]5ce4 7,,viii4 #b47 ,,xcviii4 ,! ,nom5clature ( a ,classificatory ,sci5ce is ! collection ( ! names ( ! ,species1 ,g5]a1 & o!r divisions4 ,! b9>y nom5clature1 :i* d5otes a species by ! g5]ic & specific "n1 is n[ commonly adopt$ 9 ,natural ,hi/ory4 7,,viii4 #b47 ,,xcix4 ,! ,diagnosis1 or ,s*eme ( ! ,*>act]s1 comes1 9 ! ord] ( philosophy1 aft] ! ,classification4 ,! *>act]s d n make ! classes1 !y only enable u to recognize !m4 ,! ,diagnosis is an ,artificial ,key to a ,natural ,sy/em4 7,,viii4 #b47 ,c4 ,! basis ( all ,natural ,sy/ems ( ,classification is ! ,idea ( ,natural ,aff9ity4 ,! ,pr9ciple :i* ?is ,idea involves is ?is3--,natural arrangem5ts1 obta9$ f diff]5t sets ( *>act]s1 mu/ co9cide ) ea* o!r4 7,,viii4 #d47 ,,ci4 ,9 ord] to obta9 a ,sci5ce ( ,biology1 we mu/ analyse ! ,idea ( ,life4 ,x has be5 prov$ by ! biological speculations ( pa/ "t1 t ,organic ,life _c rightly be solv$ into ,me*anical or ,*emical ,=ces1 or ! op]ation ( a ,vital ,fluid1 or ( a ,s\l4 7,,ix4 #b47 ,,cii4 ,life is a ,sy/em ( ,vital ,=ces2 & ! conception ( su* ,=ces involves a peculi> ,fundam5tal ,idea4 7,,ix4 #c47 #bd ,,ciii4 ,me*anical1 *emical1 & vital ,=ces =m an asc5d+ progression1 ea* includ+ ! prec$+4 ,*emical ,aff9ity includes 9 its nature ,me*anical ,=ce1 & may (t5 be practically resolv$ into ,me*anical ,=ce4 7,?us ! +r$i5ts ( gunp[d]1 lib]at$ f _! *emical union1 ex]t great me*anical ,=ce3 a galvanic batt]y act+ by *emical process does ! l47 ,vital ,=ces include 9 _! nature bo? *emical ,aff9ities & me*anical ,=ces3 = ,vital ,p[]s produce bo? *emical *anges1 7z dige/ion17 & motions :i* imply consid]able me*anical =ce1 7z ! motion ( ! sap & ( ! blood47 7,,ix4 #d47 ,,civ4 ,9 volunt>y motions1 ,s5sations produce ,actions1 & ! connexion is made by means ( ,ideas3 9 reflect$ motions1 ! connexion nei!r seems to be nor is made by means ( ,ideas3 9 in/9ctive motions1 ! connexion is su* z requires ,ideas1 b we _c believe ! ,ideas to exi/4 7,,ix4 #e47 ,,cv4 ,! ,assumption ( a ,f9al ,cause 9 ! /ructure ( ea* "p ( animals & plants is z inevitable z ! assumption ( an ,effici5t ,cause = e ev5t4 ,! maxim t 9 organiz$ bodies no?+ is 9 va91 is z necess>ily true z ! maxim t no?+ happ5s by *ance4 7,,ix4 #f47 ,,cvi4 ,! ,idea ( liv+ be+s z subject to disease includes a recognition ( a ,f9al ,cause 9 organization2 = disease is a /ate 9 :i* ! vital =ces d n atta9 _! prop] ends4 7,,ix4 #g47 ,,cvii4 ,! ,paltiological ,sci5ces dep5d ^u ! ,idea ( ,cause3 b ! lead+ conception :i* !y involve is t ( hi/orical cause1 n me*anical cause4 7,x4 #a47 #be ,,cviii4 ,ea* ,paltiological ,sci5ce1 :5 complete1 mu/ possess ?ree memb]s3 ! ,ph5om5ology1 ! tiology1 & ! ,!ory4 7,x4 #b47 ,,cix4 ,!re are1 9 ! ,paltiological ,sci5ces1 two antagoni/ doctr9es3 ,cata/rophes & ,uni=mity4 ,! doctr9e ( a uni=m c\rse ( nature is t5able only :5 we ext5d ! nation ( ,uni=mity s f> t x %all include ,cata/rophes4 7,x4 #c47 ,,cx4 ,! ,cata/rophi/ con/ructs ,!ories1 ! ,uni=mit>ian demoli%es !m4 ,! =m] adduces evid5ce ( an ,orig91 ! latt] expla9s ! evid5ce away4 ,! ,cata/rophi/'s dogmatism is und]m9$ by ! ,uni=mit>ian's skeptical hypo!ses4 ,b :5 ^! hypo!ses are ass]t$ dogmatically !y cease to be consi/5t ) ! doctr9e ( ,uni=mity4 7,x4 #c47 ,,cxi4 ,9 ea* ( ! ,paltiological ,sci5ces1 we c asc5d to remote p]iods by a *a9 ( causes1 b 9 none c we asc5d to a beg9n+ ( ! *a94 7,x4 #c47 ,,cxii4 ,s9ce ! ,paltiological sci5ces deal ) ! conceptions ( hi/orical cause1 ,hi/ory1 includ+ ,tradition1 is an important s\rce ( mat]ials = su* sci5ces4 7,x4 #d47 ,,cxiii4 ,! hi/ory & tradition :i* pres5t to u ! provid5tial c\rse ( ! _w =m a ,sacr$ ,n>rative2 & 9 reconcil+ ! ,sacr$ ,n>rative ) ! results ( sci5ce1 arise inevitable difficulties :i* di/urb ! m9ds ( ^? :o rev]5ce ! ,sacr$ ,n>rative4 7,x4 #d47 #bf ,,cxiv4 ,! di/urbance ( rev]5t m9ds1 aris+ f sci5tific views1 ceases :5 su* views become famili>1 ! ,sacr$ ,n>rative be+ !n int]pret$ anew 9 accordance ) su* views4 7,x4 #d47 ,,cxv4 ,a new int]pretation ( ! ,sacr$ ,n>rative1 made = ! purpose ( reconcil+ x ) doctr9es ( sci5ce1 %\ld n be insi/$ on till su* doctr9es are cle>ly prov$2 & :5 !y are s prov$1 %\ld be frankly accept$1 9 ! confid5ce t a rev]5ce = ! ,sacr$ ,n>rative is consi/5t ) a rev]5ce = ! ,tru?4 7,x4 #d47 ,,cxvi4 ,9 contemplat+ ! s]ies ( causes & effects :i* con/itutes ! _w1 we necess>ily assume a ,fir/ ,cause ( ! :ole s]ies4 7,x4 #e47 ,,cxvii4 ,! ,paltiological ,sci5ces po9t backw>ds ) l9es :i* are brok51 b :i* all conv]ge to ! same invisible po9t3 & ?is po9t is ! ,orig9 ( ! ,moral & ,spiritual1 z well z ( ! ,natural ,_w4 7,x4 #e47 ,,novum ,,organon ,,r5ovatum4 #bg ,,book ,,ii4 ,,( ,,! ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,( ,,two ,,pr9cipal ,,processes ,,by ,,:i* ,,sci5ce ,,is ,,con/ruct$4 ,,aphorism ,i4 ,,! two processes by :i* ,sci5ce is con/ruct$ are ! ,explication ( ,conceptions1 & ! ,colligation ( ,facts4 ,,to ! subject ( ! pres5t & next ,book all t has prec$$ is subord9ate & prep>atory4 ,9 =m] works we h treat$ ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,discov]ies & ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas4 ,we h n[ to attempt to describe ! mann] 9 :i* discov]ies are made1 & 9 :i* ,ideas give rise to k4 ,x has already be5 /at$ t ,k requires u to possess bo? ,facts & ,ideas2--t e /ep 9 our k consi/s 9 apply+ ! ,ideas & ,conceptions furni%$ by our m9ds to ! ,facts :i* obs]vation & exp]im5t (f] to u4 ,:5 our ,conceptions are cle> & di/9ct1 :5 our ,facts are c]ta9 & suffici5tly num]\s1 & :5 ! ,conceptions1 be+ suit$ to ! nature ( ! #bh ,facts1 are appli$ to !m s z to produce an exact & univ]sal accordance1 we atta9 k ( a precise & compreh5sive k9d1 :i* we may t]m ,sci5ce4 ,& we apply ?is t]m to our k /ill m decid$ly :51 ,facts be+ ?us includ$ 9 exact & g5]al ,propositions1 su* ,propositions are1 9 ! same mann]1 includ$ ) equal rig\r 9 ,propositions ( a high] degree ( ,g5]ality2 & ^! aga9 9 o!rs ( a /ill wid] nature1 s z to =m a l>ge & sy/ematic :ole4 ,b aft] ?us /at+1 9 a g5]al way1 ! nature ( sci5ce1 & ! elem5ts ( :i* x consi/s1 we h be5 exam9+ ) a m close & ext5sive scrut9y1 "s ( ^? elem5ts2 & we mu/ n[ return to our ma9 subject1 & apply to x ! results ( our long inve/igation4 ,we h be5 explor+ ! realm ( ,ideas2 we h be5 pass+ 9 review ! difficulties 9 :i* ! work+s ( our own m9ds involve u :5 we w\ld make our conceptions consi/5t ) !mselves3 & we h endeav\r$ to get a sight ( ! true solutions ( ^! difficulties4 ,we h n[ to inquire h[ ! results ( ^! long & labori\s ef=ts ( ?\ght f9d _! due place 9 ! =mation ( our ,k4 ,:at d we ga9 by ^! attempts to make our notions di/9ct & consi/5t2 & 9 :at mann] is ! ga9 ( :i* we ?us become possess$1 c>ri$ to ! g5]al treasure-h\se ( our p]man5t & inde/ructible k8 ,aft] all ?is battl+ 9 ! _w ( ideas1 all ?is /ruggl+ ) ! %ad[y & *ang+ =ms ( intellectual p]plexity1 h[ d we secure to ourselves ! fruits ( our w>f>e1 & assure ourselves t we h really pu%$ =w>ds ! fronti] ( ! empire ( ,sci5ce8 ,x is by su* an appropriation1 t ! task :i* we h _h 9 our h&s dur+ ! two previ\s works1 7! ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces & ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas17 mu/ acquire its real value & true place 9 our design4 ,9 ord] to d ?is1 we mu/ reconsid]1 9 a m def9ite & precise %ape1 ! doctr9e :i* has already be5 laid d[n2--t our ,k consi/s #bi 9 apply+ ,ideas to ,facts2 & t ! conditions ( real k are t ! ideas be di/9ct & appropriate1 & exactly appli$ to cle> & c]ta9 facts4 ,! /eps by :i* our k is advanc$ are ^? by :i* "o or ! o!r ( ^! two processes is r5d]$ m complete2--by :i* ,conceptions are made m cle> 9 !mselves1 or by :i* ! ,conceptions m /rictly b9d toge!r ! ,facts4 ,^! two processes may be consid]$ z toge!r con/itut+ ! :ole =mation ( our k2 & ! pr9ciples :i* h be5 e/abli%$ 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas be> pr9cipally ^u ! =m] ( ^! two op]ations2--^u ! bus9ess ( elevat+ our conceptions to ! highe/ possible po9t ( precision & g5]ality4 ,b ^! two portions ( ! progress ( k are s cle>ly connect$ ) ea* o!r1 t we %all deal ) !m 9 imm$iate succession4 ,& hav+ n[ to consid] ^! op]ations 9 a m exact & =mal mann] ?an x 0 be=e possible to d1 we %all designate !m by c]ta9 con/ant & te*nical phrases4 ,we %all speak ( ! two processes by :i* we arrive at sci5ce1 z ! ,explication ( ,conceptions & ! ,colligation ( ,facts3 we %all %[ h[ ! discussions 9 :i* we h be5 engag$ h be5 necess>y 9 ord] to promote ! =m] ( ^! (fices2 & we %all endeav\r to po9t out modes1 maxims1 & pr9ciples by :i* ! second ( ! two tasks may also be fur!r$4 #cj ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,! ,,explication ,,( ,,conceptions4 ,,aphorism ,,ii4 ,! ,explication ( ,conceptions1 z requisite = ! progress ( sci5ce1 has be5 effect$ by means ( discussions & controv]sies among sci5ti/s2 (t5 by debates conc]n+ def9itions2 ^! controv]sies h frequ5tly l$ to ! e/abli%m5t ( a ,def9ition2 b along ) ! ,def9ition1 a correspond+ ,proposition has always be5 express$ or impli$4 ,! ess5tial requisite = ! advance ( sci5ce is ! cle>ness ( ! ,conception1 n ! e/abli%m5t ( a ,def9ition4 ,! con/ruction ( an exact ,def9ition is (t5 v difficult4 ,! requisite conditions ( cle> ,conceptions may (t5 be express$ by ,axioms z well z by ,def9itions4 ,,aphorism ,,iii4 ,conceptions1 = purposes ( sci5ce1 mu/ be appropriate z well z cle>3 t is1 !y mu/ be modifications ( t ,fundam5tal ,idea1 by :i* ! ph5om5a c really be int]pret$4 ,?is maxim may w>n u f err\r1 ?\gh x may n lead to discov]y4 ,discov]y dep5ds ^u ! previ\s cultivation or natural cle>ness ( ! appropriate ,idea1 & !re=e no discov]y is ! "w ( accid5t4 ,,sect4 ,i4--,hi/orical ,progress ( ! ,explication ( ,conceptions4 #a4 ,,we h giv5 ! appellation ( ,ideas to c]ta9 compreh5sive =ms ( ?\ght1--z space1 numb]1 cause1 composition1 resemblance1--:i* we apply to ! ph5om5a :i* we contemplate4 ,b ! special modifications ( ^! ideas :i* are #ca exemplifi$ 9 p>ticul> facts1 we h t]m$ ,conceptions2 z a circle1 a squ>e numb]1 an accel]at+ =ce1 a neutral comb9ation ( elem5ts1 a g5us4 ,su* ,conceptions involve 9 !mselves c]ta9 necess>y & univ]sal relations d]iv$ f ! ,ideas j enum]at$2 & ^! relations are an indisp5sable portion ( ! texture ( our k4 ,b to det]m9e ! cont5ts & limits ( ?is portion ( our k1 requires an exam9ation ( ! ,ideas & ,conceptions f :i* x proce$s4 ,! ,conceptions mu/ be1 z x 71 c>efully unfold$1 s z to br+ into cle> view ! elem5ts ( tru? ) :i* !y are m>k$ f _! ideal orig94 ,?is is "o ( ! processes by :i* our k is ext5d$ & made m exact2 & ?is ,i %all describe z ! ,explication ( ,conceptions4 ,9 ! sev]al ,books ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,ideas we h discuss$ a great _m ( ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas ( ! mo/ important exi/+ sci5ces4 ,we h1 9 ^? ,books1 abundant exemplifications ( ! process n[ "u our consid]ation4 ,we %all "h add a few g5]al rem>ks1 sugge/$ by ! survey :i* we h ?us made4 #b4 ,su* discussions z ^? 9 :i* we h be5 engag$ conc]n+ our fundam5tal ,ideas1 h be5 ! c\rse by :i*1 hi/orically speak+1 ^? ,conceptions :i* ! exi/+ sci5ces involve h be5 r5d]$ s cle> z to be fit elem5ts ( exact k4 ,?us1 ! disputes conc]n+ ! v>i\s k9ds & measures ( ,=ce 7 an important "p ( ! progress ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics4 ,! /ruggles by :i* philosoph]s atta9$ a "r g5]al conception ( plane1 ( circul>1 ( elliptical ,pol>ization1 7 "s ( ! mo/ difficult /eps 9 ! mod]n discov]ies ( ,optics4 ,a ,conception ( ! ,atomic ,con/itution ( bodies1 su* z %all include :at we "k1 & assume no?+ m1 is ev5 n[ a matt] ( conflict among ,*emi/s4 ,! debates by :i*1 9 rec5t times1 ! ,conceptions ( ,species & ,g5]a h be5 r5d]$ m exact1 h improv$ ! sci5ce ( ,botany3 ! imp]fection ( ! sci5ce ( #cb ,m9]alogy arises 9 a great measure f ! circum/ance1 t 9 t subject1 ! ,conception ( a ,species is n yet fix$4 ,9 ,physiology1 :at a va/ advance w\ld t philosoph] make1 :o %\ld e/abli% a precise1 t5able1 & consi/5t ,conception ( ,life6 ,?us discussions & speculations conc]n+ ! import ( v ab/ract & g5]al t]ms & notions1 may be1 & 9 reality h be51 f> f useless & b>r54 ,su* discussions arose f ! desire ( m5 to impress _! op9ions on o!rs1 b !y _h ! effect ( mak+ ! op9ions mu* m cle> & di/9ct4 ,9 try+ to make o!rs und]/& !m1 !y le>nt to und]/& !mselves4 ,_! speculations 7 begun 9 twilight1 & end$ 9 ! full brilliance ( day4 ,x 0 n easily & at once1 )\t exp5diture ( lab\r or "t1 t m5 arriv$ at ^? notions :i* n[ =m ! elem5ts ( our k2 on ! contr>y1 we h1 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 se5 h[ h>d1 discov]]s1 & ! =]unn]s ( discov]]s1 h _h to /ruggle ) ! indi/9ctness & obscurity ( ! intellect1 be=e !y c\ld advance to ! critical po9t at :i* tru? became cle>ly visible4 ,& s long z1 9 ?is advance1 "s speculators 7 m =w>d ?an o!rs1 !re 0 a natural & inevitable gr\nd ( diff]5ce ( op9ion1 ( argum5tation1 ( wrangl+4 ,b ! t5d5cy ( all su* controv]sy is to diffuse tru? & to dispel err\r4 ,tru? is consi/5t1 & c be> ! tug ( w>2 ,err\r is incoh]5t1 & falls to pieces 9 ! /ruggle4 ,true ,conceptions c endure ! sun1 & become cle>] z a full] light is obta9$2 confus$ & inconsi/5t notions vani% l vision>y spectres at ! break ( a bright] day4 ,& ?us all ! controv]sies conc]n+ su* ,conceptions z sci5ce involves1 h ev] end$ 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! side on :i* ! tru? 0 f\nd4 #c4 ,inde$1 s complete has be5 ! victory ( tru? 9 mo/ ( ^! in/ances1 t at pres5t we c h>dly imag9e ! /ruggle to h be5 necess>y4 ,! v ess5ce ( ^! triumphs is t !y lead u to reg>d ! views we reject z n only false1 #cc b inconceivable4 ,& h5ce we are l$ r to look back ^u ! vanqui%$ ) contempt ?an ^u ! victors ) gratitude4 ,we n[ despise ^? :o1 9 ! ,cop]nican controv]sy1 c\ld n conceive ! app>5t motion ( ! sun on ! helioc5tric hypo!sis2--or ^? :o1 9 opposition to ,galileo1 ?\ght t a uni=m =ce might be t :i* g5]at$ a velocity proportional to ! space2--or ^? :o held !re 0 some?+ absurd 9 ,newton's doctr9e ( ! diff]5t refrangibility ( diff]5tly col\r$ rays2--or ^? :o imag9$ t :5 elem5ts comb9e1 _! s5sible qualities mu/ be manife/ 9 ! comp\nd2--or ^? :o 7 reluctant to give up ! di/9ction ( vegetables into h]bs1 %rubs1 & trees4 ,we _c help ?9k+ t m5 mu/ h be5 s+ul>ly dull ( compreh5sion1 to f9d a difficulty 9 admitt+ :at is to u s pla9 & simple4 ,we h a lat5t p]suasion t we 9 _! place %\ld h be5 wis] & m cle>-sight$2--t we %\ld h tak5 ! "r side1 & giv5 our ass5t at once to ! tru?4 #d4 ,yet 9 reality1 su* a p]suasion is a m]e delusion4 ,! p]sons :o1 9 su* in/ances z ! above1 7 on ! los+ side1 7 v f>1 9 mo/ cases1 f be+ p]sons m prejudic$1 or /upid1 or n>r[-m9d$1 ?an ! great] "p ( mank9d n[ are2 & ! cause = :i* !y f\ght 0 f> f be+ a manife/ly bad "o1 till x _h be5 s decid$ by ! result ( ! w>4 ,x is ! peculi> "* ( sci5tific conte/s1 t :at is only an epigram ) reg>d to o!r w>f>e is a tru? 9 ?is2--,!y :o are defeat$ are really 9 ! wrong4 ,b !y may1 nev]!less1 be m5 ( great subtilty1 sagacity1 & g5ius2 & we n\ri% a v fooli% self-complac5cy :5 we suppose t we are _! sup]iors4 ,t ?is is s1 is prov$ by recollect+ t _m ( ^? :o h made v great discov]ies h lab\r$ "u ! imp]fection ( ?\ght :i* 0 ! ob/acle to ! next /ep 9 k4 ,?\gh ,kepl] detect$ ) great acut5ess ! ,num]ical ,laws ( ! sol> sy/em1 he lab\r$ 9 #cd va9 to conceive ! v simple/ ( ! ,laws ( ,motion by :i* ! pa?s ( ! planets are gov]n$4 ,?\gh ,prie/ley made "s important /eps 9 *emi/ry1 he c\ld n br+ 8 m9d to admit ! doctr9e ( a g5]al ,pr9ciple ( ,oxidation4 ,h[ _m +5i\s m5 9 ! la/ c5tury reject$ ! ,newtonian ,attraction z an impossible *im]a6 ,h[ _m m1 equally intellig5t1 h1 9 ! same mann]1 9 our own "t1 reject$1 ,i d n n[ mean z false1 b z inconceivable1 ! doctr9e ( ,lum9if]\s ,undulations6 ,to err 9 ?is way is ! lot1 n only ( m5 9 g5]al1 b ( m5 ( great end[m5ts1 & v s9c]e love ( tru?4 #e4 ,& ^? :o lib]ate !mselves f su* p]plexities1 & :o ?us g on 9 advance ( _! age 9 su* matt]s1 owe _! sup]iority 9 no small degree to su* discussions & controv]sies z ^? to :i* we n[ ref]4 ,9 su* controv]sies1 ! ,conceptions 9 "q are turn$ 9 all directions1 exam9$ on all sides2 ! /r5g? & ! weakness ( ! maxims :i* m5 apply to !m are fully te/$2 ! light ( ! brighte/ m9ds is diffus$ to o!r m9ds4 ,inconsi/5cy is unfold$ into self-contradiction2 axioms are built up into a sy/em ( necess>y tru?s2 & ready exemplifications are accumulat$ ( t :i* is to be prov$ or disprov$1 conc]n+ ! ideas :i* are ! basis ( ! controv]sy4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,me*anics f ! "t ( ,kepl] to t ( ,lagrange1 is p]haps ! be/ exemplification ( ! mode 9 :i* ! progress ( a sci5ce dep5ds ^u su* disputes & speculations z give cle>ness & g5]ality to its elem5t>y conceptions4 ,?is1 x is to be recollect$1 is ! k9d ( progress ( :i* we are n[ speak+2 & ?is is ! pr9cipal feature 9 ! portion ( sci5tific hi/ory :i* we h m5tion$4 ,= almo/ all t 0 to be done by ref]5ce to obs]vation1 0 execut$ by ,galileo & 8 disciples4 ,:at rema9$ 0 ! task ( g5]alization & simplification4 ,& ?is 0 promot$ 9 no small degree by ! v>i\s controv]sies :i* took place )9 t p]iod conc]n+ #ce me*anical conceptions3--z1 = example1 ! "q conc]n+ ! measure ( ! ,=ce ( ,p]cussion2--! w> ( ! ,vis ,viva2--! controv]sy ( ! ,c5t] ( ,oscillation2--( ! indep5d5ce ( ,/atics & ,dynamics2--( ! pr9ciple ( ,lea/ ,action2--( ! evid5ce ( ! ,laws ( ,motion2--& ( ! numb] ( ,laws really di/9ct4 ,none ( ^! discussions 0 )\t its influ5ce 9 giv+ g5]ality & cle>ness to ! me*anical ideas ( ma!maticians3 & !re=e1 ?\gh remote f g5]al appreh5sion1 & deal+ ) v ab/ract notions1 !y 7 ( em95t use 9 ! p]fect+ ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics4 ,simil> controv]sies conc]n+ fundam5tal notions1 ^?1 = example1 :i* ,galileo himself _h to ma9ta91 7 no less useful 9 ! =mation ( ! sci5ce ( ,hydro/atics4 ,& ! l /ruggles & conflicts1 :e!r !y take ! =m ( controv]sies betwe5 sev]al p]sons1 or only op]ate 9 ! ef=ts & fluctuations ( ! discov]]'s m9d1 are always requisite1 be=e ! conceptions acquire t cle>ness :i* makes !m flt to appe> 9 ! enunciation ( sci5tific tru?4 ,?is1 !n1 0 "o object ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,ideas2--to br+ "u ! read]'s notice ! ma9 elem5ts ( ! controv]sies :i* h ?us _h s important a %>e 9 ! =mation ( ! exi/+ body ( sci5ce1 & ! decisions on ! controv]t$ po9ts to :i* ! mature exam9ation ( ! subject has l$2 & ?us to give an abundant exhibition ( t /ep :i* we t]m ! ,explication ( ,conceptions4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,use ( ,def9itions4 #f4 ,! result ( su* controv]sies z we h be5 speak+ (1 (t5 appe>s to be summ$ up 9 a ,def9ition2 & ! controv]sy itself has (t5 assum$ ! =m ( a battle ( def9itions4 ,= example1 ! inquiry conc]n+ ! ,laws ( ,fall+ ,bodies l$ to ! "q :e!r ! prop] ,def9ition ( a uni=m =ce is1 t x g5]ates a velocity proportional to ! space f re/1 or to ! "t4 ,! controv]sy ( ! ,vis ,viva 01 :at 0 ! #cf prop] ,def9ition ( ! measure ( =ce4 ,a pr9cipal "q 9 ! classification ( m9]als is1 :at is ! ,def9ition ( a m9]al species4 ,physiologi/s h endeav\r$ to ?r[ light on _! subject1 by ,def9+ organization1 or "s simil> t]m4 #g4 ,x is v important = u to obs]ve1 t ^! controv]sies h nev] be5 que/ions ( insulat$ & arbitr>y ,def9itions1 z m5 seem (t5 tempt$ to suppose !m to h be54 ,9 all cases !re is a tacit assumption ( "s ,proposition :i* is to be express$ by means ( ! ,def9ition1 & :i* gives x its importance4 ,! dispute conc]n+ ! ,def9ition ?us acquires a real value1 & becomes a "q conc]n+ true & false4 ,?us 9 ! discussion ( ! "q1 ,:at is a ,uni=m ,=ce8 x 0 tak5 = grant$ t 'gravity is a uni=m =ce3'--9 ! debate ( ! ,vis ,viva1 x 0 assum$ t '9 ! mutual action ( bodies ! :ole effect ( ! =ce is un*ang$3'--9 ! zoological def9ition ( ,species1 7t x consi/s ( individuals :i* h1 or may h1 sprung f ! same p>5ts17 x is presum$ t 'individuals s relat$ resemble ea* o!r m ?an ^? :i* are exclud$ by su* a def9ition2' or p]haps1 t 'species s def9$ h p]man5t & def9ite diff]5ces4' ,a def9ition ( ,organization1 or ( any o!r t]m1 :i* 0 n employ$ to express "s pr9ciple1 w\ld be ( no value4 ,! e/abli%m5t1 !re=e1 ( a "r ,def9ition ( a ,t]m may be a useful /ep 9 ! ,explication ( our ,conceptions2 b ?is w be ! case !n only :5 we h "u our consid]ation "s ,proposition 9 :i* ! ,t]m is employ$4 ,= !n ! "q really is1 h[ ! ,conception %all be und]/ood & def9$ 9 ord] t ! ,proposition may be true4 #h4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( a ,proposition requires an att5tion to obs]v$ ,facts1 & c nev] be rightly d]iv$ f our ,conceptions alone4 ,we mu/ h]eaft] consid] ! necessity :i* exi/s t ! ,facts %\ld be rightly b\nd toge!r1 z well z t our ,conceptions %\ld be cle>ly employ$1 9 ord] to #cg lead u to real k4 ,b we may obs]ve "h t1 9 su* cases at lea/ z we are n[ consid]+1 ! two processes are co-ord9ate4 ,to unfold our ,conceptions by ! means ( ,def9itions1 has nev] be5 s]viceable to sci5ce1 except :5 x has be5 associat$ ) an imm$iate use ( ! ,def9itions4 ,! endeav\r to def9e a uni=m ,=ce 0 comb9$ ) ! ass]tion t 'gravity is a uni=m =ce3' ! attempt to def9e ,accel]at+ ,=ce 0 imm$iately foll[$ by ! doctr9e t 'accel]at+ =ces may be comp\nd$3' ! process ( def9+ ,mom5tum 0 connect$ ) ! pr9ciple t 'mom5ta ga9$ & lo/ are equal3' naturali/s w\ld h giv5 9 va9 ! ,def9ition ( ,species :i* we h quot$1 if !y _h n also giv5 ! '*>act]s' ( species s sep>at$4 ,def9ition & ,proposition are ! two h&les ( ! in/rum5t by :i* we appreh5d tru?2 ! =m] is ( no use )\t ! latt]4 ,def9ition may be ! be/ mode ( expla9+ our ,conception1 b t :i* alone makes x wor? :ile to expla9 x 9 any mode1 is ! opportunity ( us+ x 9 ! expression ( ,tru?4 ,:5 a ,def9ition is prop\nd$ to u z a useful /ep 9 k1 we are always entitl$ to ask :at ,pr9ciple x s]ves to enunciate4 ,if !re be no answ] to ?is inquiry1 we def9e & give cle>ness to our conceptions 9 va94 ,:ile we lab\r at su* a task1 we d b light up a vacant room2--we %>p5 a knife ) :i* we h no?+ to cut2--we take exact aim1 :ile we load our artill]y ) blank c>tridge2--we apply /rict rules ( gramm> to s5t5ces :i* h no mean+4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we h "u our consid]ation a proposition probably e/abli%$1 e /ep :i* we c make 9 giv+ di/9ctness & exactness to ! ,t]ms :i* ?is proposition involves1 is an important /ep t[>ds sci5tific tru?4 ,9 su* cases1 any improvem5t 9 our ,def9ition is a real advance 9 ! explication ( our ,conception4 ,! cle>ness ( our impressions ca/s a light ^u ! ,ideas :i* we contemplate & convey to o!rs4 #ch #i4 ,b ?\gh ,def9ition may be subs]vi5t to a "r explication ( our conceptions1 x is n ess5tial to t process4 ,x is absolutely necess>y to e advance 9 our k1 t ^? by :om su* advances are made %\ld possess cle>ly ! conceptions :i* !y employ3 b x is by no means necess>y t !y %\ld unfold ^! conceptions 9 ! words ( a =mal ,def9ition4 ,x is easily se51 by exam9+ ! c\rse ( ,galileo's discov]ies1 t he _h a di/9ct conception ( ! ,mov+ ,=ce :i* urges bodies d[nw>ds ^u an incl9$ plane1 :ile he /ill hesitat$ :e!r to call x ,mom5tum1 ,en]gy1 ,impetus1 or ,=ce1 & did n v5ture to (f] a ,def9ition ( ! ?+ :i* 0 ! subject ( 8 ?\ghts4 ,! ,conception ( ,pol>ization 0 cle> 9 ! m9ds ( _m optical speculators1 f ! "t ( ,huygh5s & ,newton to t ( ,"y & ,fresnel4 ,?is ,conception we h def9$ to be ',opposite prop]ties dep5d+ ^u opposite positions2' b ?is notion 01 by ! discov]]s1 ?\gh con/antly assum$ & express$ by means ( sup]flu\s hypo!ses1 nev] clo!d 9 def9ite language4 ,& 9 ! mean "t1 x 0 ! cu/om1 among subord9ate writ]s on ! same subjects1 to say1 t ! t]m ,pol>ization _h no def9ite mean+1 & 0 m]ely an expression ( our ignorance4 ,! ,def9ition :i* 0 (f]$ by ,hay & o!rs ( a ,m9]alogical ,species2--',! same elem5ts comb9$ 9 ! same proportions1 ) ! same fundam5tal =m2'--0 false1 inasmu* z x 0 incapable ( be+ rigor\sly appli$ to any "o case2 b ?is defect did n prev5t ! philosoph]s :o prop\nd$ su* a ,def9ition f mak+ _m valuable additions to m9]alogical k1 9 ! way ( id5tify+ "s species & di/+ui%+ o!rs4 ,! "r ,conception :i* !y possess$ 9 _! m9ds prev5t$ _! be+ misl$ by _! own v errone\s ,def9ition4 ,! want ( any precise ,def9itions ( ,/rata1 & ,=mations1 & ,epo*s1 among geologi/s1 has n prev5t$ ! discussions :i* !y h c>ri$ on ^u su* subjects f be+ highly s]viceable #ci 9 ! promotion ( geological k4 ,= h[ev] mu* ! app>5t vagu5ess ( ^! t]ms might leave _! argum5ts op5 to cavil1 !re 0 a g5]al und]/&+ preval5t among ! mo/ intellig5t cultivators ( ! sci5ce1 z to :at 0 meant 9 su* expressions2 & ?is common und]/&+ suffic$ to det]m9e :at evid5ce %\ld be consid]$ conclusive & :at inconclusive1 9 ^! inquiries4 ,& ?us ! di/9ctness ( ,conception1 :i* is a real requisite ( sci5tific progress1 exi/$ 9 ! m9ds ( ! inquir]s1 al?\gh ,def9itions1 :i* are a p>tial & accid5tal evid5ce ( ?is di/9ctness1 _h n yet be5 hit ^u4 ,! ,idea _h be5 develop$ 9 m5's m9ds1 al?\gh a clo?+ ( words _h n be5 contriv$ = x1 nor1 p]haps1 ! necessity ( su* a vehicle felt3 & ?us t ess5tial condition ( ! progress ( k1 ( :i* we are "h speak+1 exi/$2 :ile x 0 left to ! succe$+ speculators to put ?is unwritt5 ,rule 9 ! =m ( a v]bal ,/atute4 #aj4 ,m5 are (t5 prone to consid] x z a ?\ghtless omission ( an ess5tial circum/ance1 & z a neglect :i* involves "s blame1 :5 k ?us assumes a =m 9 :i* ,def9itions1 or r ,conceptions1 are impli$ b are n express$4 ,b 9 su* a judgm5t1 !y assume t to be a matt] ( *oice requir+ att5tion only1 :i* is 9 fact z difficult & prec>i\s z any o!r portion ( ! task ( discov]y4 ,to def9e1 s t our ,def9ition %all h any sci5tific value1 requires no small portion ( t sagacity by :i* tru? is detect$4 ,z we h already said1 ,def9itions & ,propositions are co-ord9ate 9 _! use & 9 _! orig94 ,9 _m cases1 p]haps 9 mo/1 ! ,proposition :i* conta9s a sci5tific tru?1 is appreh5d$ ) confid5ce1 b ) "s vagu5ess & vacillation1 be=e x is put 9 a positive1 di/9ct1 & def9ite =m4--,x is ?us kn[n to be true1 be=e x c be enunciat$ 9 t]ms ea* ( :i* is rigor\sly def9$4 ,! bus9ess ( ,def9ition is "p ( ! bus9ess ( discov]y4 ,:5 x has be5 cle>ly se5 :at ought to be our ,def9ition1 x #dj mu/ be pretty well kn[n :at tru? we h to /ate4 ,! ,def9ition1 z well z ! discov]y1 supposes a decid$ /ep 9 our k to h be5 made4 ,! writ]s on ,logic 9 ! middle ages1 made ,def9ition ! la/ /age 9 ! progress ( k2 & 9 ?is arrangem5t at lea/1 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 & ! philosophy d]iv$ f ! hi/ory1 confirm _! speculative views4 ,if ! ,explication ( our ,conceptions ev] assume ! =m ( a ,def9ition1 ?is w come to pass1 n z an arbitr>y process1 or z a matt] ( c\rse1 b z ! m>k ( "o ( ^? happy ef=ts ( sagacity to :i* all ! successive advances ( our k are ow+4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,use ( ,axioms4 #aa4 ,our ,conceptions1 !n1 ev5 :5 !y become s cle> z ! progress ( k requires1 are n adequately express$1 or necess>ily express$ at all1 by means ( ,def9itions4 ,we may ask1 !n1 :e!r !re is any o!r mode ( expression 9 :i* we may look = ! evid5ce & exposition ( t peculi> exactness ( ?\ght :i* ! =mation ( ,sci5ce dem&s4 ,& 9 answ] to ?is inquiry1 we may ref] to ! discussions respect+ _m ( ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas ( ! sci5ces conta9$ 9 our ,hi/ory ( su* ,ideas4 ,x has !re be5 se5 t ^! ,ideas involve _m elem5t>y tru?s :i* ent] into ! texture ( our k1 introduc+ into x connexions & relations ( ! mo/ important k9d1 al?\gh ^! elem5t>y tru?s _c be d$uc$ f any v]bal def9ition ( ! idea4 ,x has be5 se5 t ^! elem5t>y tru?s may (t5 be enunciat$ by means ( ,axioms1 /at$ 9 addition to1 or 9 pref]5ce to1 ,def9itions4 ,= example1 ! ,idea ( ,cause1 :i* =ms ! basis ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics1 makes its appe>ance 9 our elem5t>y me*anical reason+s1 n z a ,def9ition1 b by means ( ! ,axioms t ',causes are measur$ by _! effects1' & t ',reaction is equal & opposite to action4' ,su* axioms1 tacitly assum$ or #da occasionally /at$1 z maxims ( ackn[l$g$ validity1 belong to all ! ,ideas :i* =m ! f\ndations ( ! sci5ces1 & are con/antly employ$ 9 ! reason+ & speculations ( ^? :o ?9k cle>ly on su* subjects4 ,x may (t5 be a task ( "s difficulty to detect & enunciate 9 words ! ,pr9ciples :i* are ?us1 p]haps sil5tly & unconsci\sly1 tak5 = grant$ by ^? :o h a %>e 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( sci5tific tru?3 b inasmu* z ^! ,pr9ciples are an ess5tial elem5t 9 our k1 x is v important to our pres5t purpose to sep>ate !m f ! associat$ mat]ials1 & to trace !m to _! orig94 ,?is accord+ly ,i attempt$ to d1 ) reg>d to a consid]able numb] ( ! mo/ prom95t ( su* ,ideas1 9 ! ,hi/ory4 ,! read] w !re f9d _m ( ^! ,ideas resolv$ into ,axioms & ,pr9ciples by means ( :i* _! effect ^u ! elem5t>y reason+s ( ! v>i\s sci5ces may be express$4 ,t ,"w is int5d$ to =m1 9 "s measure1 a repres5tation ( ! ,ideal ,side ( our physical k2--a ,table ( ^? cont5ts ( our ,conceptions :i* are n receiv$ directly f facts2--an exhibition ( ,rules to :i* we "k t tru? mu/ con=m4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,cle> & appropriate ,ideas4 #ab4 ,9 ord]1 h[ev]1 t we may see ! necess>y cog5cy ( ^! rules1 we mu/ possess1 cle>ly & /eadily1 ! ,ideas f :i* ! rules fl[4 ,9 ord] to p]ceive ! necess>y relations ( ! ,circles ( ! ,sph]e1 we mu/ possess cle>ly ! ,idea ( ,solid ,space3--9 ord] t we may see ! demon/ration ( ! composition ( =ces1 we mu/ h ! ,idea ( ,cause m\ld$ into a di/9ct ,conception ( ,/atical ,=ce4 ,?is is t ,cle>ness ( ,ideas :i* we /ipulate = 9 any "o's m9d1 z ! fir/ ess5tial condition ( 8 mak+ any new /ep 9 ! discov]y ( tru?4 ,& we n[ see :at answ] we are able to give1 if we are ask$ = a ,crit]ion ( ?is ,cle>ness ( #db ,idea4 ,! ,crit]ion is1 t ! p]son %all see ! necessity ( ! ,axioms belong+ to ea* ,idea2--%all accept !m 9 su* a mann] z to p]ceive ! cog5cy ( ! reason+s f\nd$ ^u !m4 ,?us1 a p]son has a cle> ,idea ( ,space :o foll[s ! reason+s ( geometry & fully appreh5ds _! conclusiv5ess4 ,! ,explication ( ,conceptions1 :i* we are speak+ ( z an ess5tial "p ( real k1 is ! process by :i* we br+ ! ,cle>ness ( our ,ideas to be> ^u ! ,=mation ( our k4 ,& ?is is done1 z we h n[ se51 n always1 nor g5]ally1 nor pr9cipally1 by lay+ d[n a ,def9ition ( ! ,conception2 b by acquir+ su* a possession ( x 9 our m9ds z enables1 inde$ compels u1 to admit1 along ) ! ,conception1 all ! ,axioms & ,pr9ciples :i* x necess>ily implies1 & by :i* x produces its effect ^u our reason+s4 #ac4 ,b 9 ord] t we may make any real advance 9 ! discov]y ( tru?1 our ,ideas mu/ n only be cle>1 !y mu/ also be appropriate4 ,ea* sci5ce has = its basis a diff]5t class ( ,ideas2 & ! /eps :i* con/itute ! progress ( "o sci5ce c nev] be made by employ+ ! ,ideas ( ano!r k9d ( sci5ce4 ,no g5u9e advance c\ld ev] be obta9$ 9 ,me*anics by apply+ to ! subject ! ,ideas ( ,space & ,"t m]ely3--no advance 9 ,*emi/ry1 by ! use ( m]e ,me*anical ,conceptions3--no discov]y 9 ,physiology1 by ref]r+ facts to m]e ,*emical & ,me*anical ,pr9ciples4 ,me*anics mu/ involve ! ,conception ( ,=ce2--,*emi/ry1 ! ,conception ( ,elem5t>y ,composition2--,physiology1 ! ,conception ( ,vital ,p[]s4 ,ea* sci5ce mu/ advance by means ( its appropriate ,conceptions4 ,ea* has its own field1 :i* ext5ds z f> z its pr9ciples c be appli$4 ,i h already not$ ! sep>ation ( sev]al ( ^! fields by ! divisions ( ! ,books ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,ideas4 ,! ,me*anical1 ! ,second>y ,me*anical1 ! ,*emical1 ! ,classificatory1 ! ,biological ,sci5ces =m s _m great ,prov9ces 9 ! ,k+dom ( k1 ea* 9 a great measure possess+ its own peculi> fundam5tal pr9ciples4 ,e attempt to build up a #dc new sci5ce by ! application ( pr9ciples :i* belong to an old "o1 w lead to frivol\s & b>r5 speculations4 ,?is tru? has be5 exemplifi$ 9 all ! in/ances 9 :i* subtle speculative m5 h fail$ 9 _! attempts to frame new sci5ces1 & especially 9 ! essays ( ! anci5t s*ools ( philosophy 9 ,greece1 z has already be5 /at$ 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5ce4 ,ari/otle & 8 foll[]s endeav\r$ 9 va9 to acc\nt = ! me*anical relation ( =ces 9 ! lev] by apply+ ! inappropriate geometrical conceptions ( ! prop]ties ( ! circle3--!y speculat$ to no purpose ab\t ! elem5t>y composition ( bodies1 because !y assum$ ! inappropriate conception ( lik5ess betwe5 ! elem5ts & ! comp\nd1 in/ead ( ! g5u9e notion ( elem5ts m]ely det]m9+ ! qualities ( ! comp\nd4 ,& 9 l mann]1 9 mod]n times1 we h se51 9 ! hi/ory ( ! fundam5tal ideas ( ! physiological sci5ces1 h[ all ! inappropriate me*anical & *emical & o!r ideas :i* 7 appli$ 9 succession to ! subject fail$ 9 br++ into view any g5u9e physiological tru?4 #ad4 ,t ! real cause ( ! failure 9 ! in/ances above m5tion$ lay 9 ! ,conceptions1 is pla94 ,x 0 n ignorance ( ! facts :i* 9 ^! cases prev5t$ ! discov]y ( ! tru?4 ,ari/otle 0 z well acqua9t$ ) ! fact ( ! proportion ( ! weights :i* balance on a ,lev] z ,ar*im$es 01 al?\gh ,ar*im$es alone gave ! true me*anical reason = ! proportion4 ,) reg>d to ! doctr9e ( ! ,f\r ,elem5ts inde$1 ! inapplicability ( ! conception ( composition ( qualities1 requir$1 p]haps1 to be prov$ by "s ref]5ce to facts4 ,b ?is conception 0 devis$ at fir/1 & accept$ by succe$+ times1 9 a bl9d & gratuit\s mann]1 :i* c\ld h>dly h happ5$ if m5 _h be5 awake to ! necess>y condition ( our k2--t ! conceptions :i* we introduce into our doctr9es are n arbitr>y or accid5tal notions1 b c]ta9 peculi> modes ( #dd appreh5sion /rictly det]m9$ by ! subject ( our speculations4 #ae4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be said t ?is injunction t we are to employ appropriate ,conceptions only 9 ! =mation ( our k1 _c be ( practical use1 because we c only det]m9e :at ,ideas are appropriate1 by f9d+ t !y truly comb9e ! facts4 ,& ?is is to a c]ta9 ext5t true4 ,sci5tific discov]y mu/ ev] dep5d ^u "s happy ?\ght1 ( :i* we _c trace ! orig92--"s =tunate ca/ ( intellect1 ris+ above all rules4 ,no maxims c be giv5 :i* inevitably lead to discov]y4 ,no precepts w elevate a man ( ord9>y end[m5ts to ! level ( a man ( g5ius3 nor w an inquir] ( truly inv5tive m9d ne$ to come to ! tea*] ( inductive philosophy to le>n h[ to ex]cise ! faculties :i* nature has giv5 him4 ,su* p]sons z ,kepl] or ,fresnel1 or ,brew/]1 w h _! p[]s ( discov]+ tru? little augm5t$ by any injunctions respect+ ,di/9ct & ,appropriate ,ideas2 & su* m5 may v naturally "q ! utility ( rules altoge!r4 #af4 ,b yet ! op9ions :i* su* p]sons may ent]ta91 w n lead u to d\bt conc]n+ ! value ( ! attempts to analyse & me?odize ! process ( discov]y4 ,:o w\ld att5d to ,kepl] if he _h ma9ta9$ t ! speculations ( ,francis ,bacon 7 wor?less8 ,not)/&+ :at has be5 said1 we may v5ture to ass]t t ! ,maxim :i* po9ts out ! necessity ( ,ideas appropriate z well z cle>1 = ! purpose ( discov]+ tru?1 is n )\t its use4 ,x may1 at lea/1 h a value z a caution or prohibition1 & may ?us turn u away f lab\rs c]ta9 to be fruitless4 ,we h already se51 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,ideas1 t ?is maxim1 if duly att5d$ to1 w\ld h at once condemn$1 z wrongly direct$1 ! speculations ( physiologi/s ( ! ma!matical1 me*anical1 *emical1 & vital-fluid s*ools2 s9ce ! ,ideas :i* ! tea*]s ( ^! s*ools introduce1 _c suffice = ! purposes ( physiology1 :i* seeks tru?s respect+ ! vital p[]s4 ,aga91 #de x is cle> f simil> consid]ations t no def9ition ( a m9]alogical species by *emical *>act]s alone c answ] ! end ( sci5ce1 s9ce we seek to make m9]alogy1 n an analytical b a classificatory sci5ce#ab4 ,ev5 be=e ! appropriate conception is matur$ 9 m5's m9ds s t !y see cle>ly :at x is1 !y may /ill h light en\gh to see :at x is n4 ,note #ab3 ,?is agrees ) :at ,m4 ,neck] has well obs]v$ 9 8 ,rgne ,m9]al1 t ^? :o h treat$ m9]alogy z a m]ely *emical sci5ce1 h sub/itut$ ! analysis ( sub/ances = ! classification ( individuals4 ,see ,hi/ory ( ,ideas1 b4 viii4 *ap4 iii4 #ag4 ,ano!r result ( ?is view ( ! necessity ( appropriate ,ideas1 comb9$ ) a survey ( ! hi/ory ( sci5ce is1 t ?\gh = ! mo/ "p1 z we %all see1 ! progress ( sci5ce consi/s 9 accumulat+ & comb9+ ,facts r ?an 9 debat+ conc]n+ ,def9itions2 !re are /ill c]ta9 p]iods :5 ! discussion ( ,def9itions may be ! mo/ useful mode ( cultivat+ "s special bran* ( sci5ce4 ,?is discussion is ( c\rse always to be conduct$ by ! light ( facts2 &1 z has already be5 said1 along ) ! settlem5t ( e good ,def9ition w occur ! correspond+ e/abli%m5t ( "s ,proposition4 ,b /ill at p>ticul> p]iods1 ! want ( a ,def9ition1 or ( ! cle> conceptions :i* ,def9ition supposes1 may be peculi>ly felt4 ,a good & t5able ,def9ition ( ,species 9 ,m9]alogy w\ld at pres5t be p]haps ! mo/ important /ep :i* ! sci5ce c\ld make4 ,a j conception ( ! nature ( ,life1 7& if express$ by means ( a ,def9ition1 s mu* ! bett]17 c h>dly fail to give its possessor an imm5se advantage 9 ! speculations :i* n[ come "u ! consid]ations ( physiologi/s4 ,& controv]sies respect+ ,def9itions1 9 ^! cases1 & su* z ^!1 may be v f> f idle & unpr(itable4 ,?us ! k t ,cle> & ,appropriate ,ideas are requisite = discov]y1 al?\gh x does n lead to any v precise precepts1 or sup]s$e ! value ( natural sagacity & inv5tiv5ess1 may /ill #df be ( use to u 9 our pursuit aft] tru?4 ,x may %[ u :at c\rse ( rese>* is1 9 ea* /age ( sci5ce1 recomm5d$ by ! g5]al analogy ( ! hi/ory ( k2 & x may bo? save u f hopeless & b>r5 pa?s ( speculation1 & make u advance ) m c\rage & confid5ce1 to "k t we are look+ = discov]ies 9 ! mann] 9 :i* !y h always hi!rto be5 made4 ,,sect4 ,v4--,accid5tal ,discov]ies4 #ah4 ,ano!r consequ5ce foll[s f ! views pres5t$ 9 ?is ,*apt]1 & x is ! la/ ,i %all at pres5t m5tion4 ,no sci5tific discov]y c1 ) any ju/ice1 be consid]$ due to accid5t4 ,9 :atev] mann] facts may be pres5t$ to ! notice ( a discov]]1 !y c nev] become ! mat]ials ( exact k1 except !y f9d 8 m9d already provid$ ) precise & suitable conceptions by :i* !y may be analys$ & connect$4 ,inde$1 z we h already se51 facts _c be obs]v$ z ,facts1 except 9 virtue ( ! ,conceptions :i* ! obs]v]#bb himself unconsci\sly supplies2 & !y are n ,facts ( ,obs]vation = any purpose ( ,discov]y1 except ^! famili> & unconsci\s acts ( ?\ght be !mselves ( a j & precise k9d4 ,b suppos+ ! ,facts to be adequately obs]v$1 !y c nev] be comb9$ into any new ,tru?1 except by means ( "s new ,conceptions1 cle> & appropriate1 su* z ,i h endeav\r$ to *>act]ize4 ,:5 ! obs]v]'s m9d is prep>$ ) su* in/rum5ts1 a v few facts1 or x may be a s+le "o1 may br+ ! process ( discov]y into action4 ,b 9 su* cases1 ?is previ\s condition ( ! intellect1 & n ! s+le fact1 is really ! ma9 & peculi> cause ( ! success4 ,! fact is m]ely ! occasion by :i* ! eng9e ( discov]y is br\ght into play soon] or lat]4 ,x is1 z ,i h else:]e said1 only ! sp>k :i* dis*>ges a gun already load$ & po9t$2 & !re #dg is little propriety 9 speak+ ( su* an accid5t z ! cause :y ! bullet hits ! m>k4 ,if x 7 true t ! fall ( an apple 0 ! occasion ( ,newton's pursu+ ! tra9 ( ?\ght :i* l$ to ! doctr9e ( univ]sal gravitation1 ! habits & con/itution ( ,newton's intellect1 & n ! apple1 7 ! real s\rce ( ?is great ev5t 9 ! progress ( k4 ,! common love ( ! m>vell\s1 & ! vulg> desire to br+ d[n ! greate/ a*ievem5ts ( g5ius to our own level1 may lead m5 to ascribe su* results to any casual circum/ances :i* accompany !m2 b no "o :o fairly consid]s ! real nature ( great discov]ies1 & ! intellectual processes :i* !y involve1 c s]i\sly hold ! op9ion ( _! be+ ! effect ( accid5t4 ,note #bb3 ,b4 i4 ( ?is vol4 ,aphorism ,,iii4 #ai4 ,su* accid5ts nev] happ5 to common m54 ,?\s&s ( m51 ev5 ( ! mo/ inquir+ & speculative m51 _h se5 bodies fall2 b :o1 except ,newton1 ev] foll[$ ! accid5t to su* consequ5ces8 ,& 9 fact1 h[ little ( 8 tra9 ( ?\ght 0 conta9$ 91 or ev5 directly sugge/$ by1 ! fall ( ! apple6 ,if ! apple fall1 said ! discov]]1 ':y %\ld n ! moon1 ! planets1 ! satellites1 fall8' ,b h[ mu* previ\s ?\ght1--:at a /eady conception ( ! univ]sality ( ! laws ( motion ga!r$ f o!r s\rces1--7 requisite1 t ! inquir] %\ld see any connexion 9 ^! cases6 ,0 x by accid5t t he saw 9 ! apple an image ( ! moon1 & ( e body 9 ! sol> sy/em8 #bj4 ,! same obs]vations may be made ) reg>d to ! o!r cases :i* are sometimes adduc$ z examples ( accid5tal discov]y4 ,x has be5 said1 ',by ! accid5tal plac+ ( a rhomb ( calc>e\s sp> ^u a book or l9e ,b>?ol9us discov]$ ! prop]ty ( ! ,d\ble ,refraction ( light4' ,b ,b>?ol9us c\ld h se5 no su* consequ5ce 9 ! accid5t if he _h n previ\sly _h a cle> conception ( s+le refraction4 ,a lady1 9 describ+ an optical exp]im5t :i* _h be5 %[n h]1 said ( h] tea*]1 ',he told me to increase & dim9i% #dh ! angle ( refraction1 & at la/ ,i f\nd t he only meant me to move my head up & d[n4' ,at any rate1 till ! lady _h acquir$ ! notions :i* ! te*nical t]ms convey1 %e c\ld n h made ,b>?ol9us's discov]y by means ( 8 accid5t4 ',by accid5tally comb9+ two rhombs 9 diff]5t positions1' x is add$1 ',huygh5s discov]$ ! ,pol>ization ( ,light4' ,suppos+ t ?is exp]im5t _h be5 made )\t design1 :at ,huygh5s really obs]v$ 01 t ! images appe>$ & disappe>$ alt]nately z he turn$ "o ( ! rhombs r\nd4 ,b 0 x an easy or an obvi\s bus9ess to analyze ?is curi\s alt]nation into ! circum/ances ( ! rays ( light hav+ sides1 z ,newton express$ x1 & into ! additional hypo!ses :i* are impli$ 9 ! t]m 'pol>ization'8 ,^? w be able to answ] ?is "q1 :o h f\nd h[ f> f easy x is to und]/& cle>ly :at is meant by 'pol>ization' 9 ?is case1 n[ t ! prop]ty is fully e/abli%$4 ,huygh5s's success dep5d$ on 8 cle>ness ( ?\ght1 = ?is enabl$ him to p]=m ! intellectual analysis1 :i* nev] w\ld h occurr$ to mo/ m51 h[ev] (t5 !y _h 'accid5tally comb9$ two rhombs 9 diff]5t positions4' ',by accid5tally look+ ?r\gh a prism ( ! same sub/ance1 & turn+ x r\nd1 ,malus discov]$ ! pol>ization ( light by reflection4' ,malus saw t1 9 "s positions ( ! prism1 ! light reflect$ f ! w9d[s ( ! ,l\vre ?us se5 ?r\gh ! prism1 became dim4 ,a common man w\ld h suppos$ ?is dimness ! result ( accid5t2 b ,malus's m9d 0 diff]5tly con/itut$ & discipl9$4 ,he consid]$ ! position ( ! w9d[1 & ( ! prism2 repeat$ ! exp]im5t ov] & ov]2 & 9 virtue ( ! em95tly di/9ct conceptions ( space :i* he possess$1 resolv$ ! ph5om5a into its geometrical conditions4 ,a believ] 9 accid5t w\ld n h s\ght !m2 a p]son ( less cle> ideas w\ld n h f\nd !m4 ,a p]son mu/ h a /range confid5ce 9 ! virtue ( *ance1 & ! wor?lessness ( intellect1 :o c say t #di '9 all ^! fundam5tal discov]ies appropriate ideas _h no %>e1' & t ! discov]ies 'might h be5 made by ! mo/ ord9>y obs]v]s4' #ba4 ,i h n[1 ,i tru/1 %[n 9 v>i\s ways1 h[ ! ,explication ( ,conceptions1 includ+ 9 ?is t]m _! cle> developm5t f ,fundam5tal ,ideas 9 ! discov]]'s m9d1 z well z _! precise expression 9 ! =m ( ,def9itions or ,axioms1 :5 t c be done1 is an ess5tial "p 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( all exact & g5]al physical tru?s4 ,9 do+ ?is1 ,i h endeav\r$ to expla9 9 :at s5se ! possession ( cle> & appropriate ideas is a ma9 requisite = e /ep 9 sci5tific discov]y4 ,t x is f> f be+ ! only /ep1 ,i %all soon h to %[2 & if any obscurity rema9 on ! subject treat$ ( 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 x w1 ,i hope1 be remov$ :5 we h exam9$ ! o!r elem5ts :i* ent] into ! con/itution ( our k4 #ej ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,( ,,facts ,,z ,,! ,,mat]ials ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,,aphorism ,,iv4 ,facts are ! mat]ials ( sci5ce1 b all ,facts involve ,ideas4 ,s9ce 9 obs]v+ ,facts1 we _c exclude ,ideas1 we mu/1 = ! purposes ( sci5ce1 take c>e t ! ,ideas are cle> & rigor\sly appli$4 ,,aphorism ,v4 ,! la/ ,aphorism leads to su* ,rules z ! foll[+3--,t ,facts1 = ! purposes ( mat]ial sci5ce1 mu/ involve ,conceptions ( ! ,intellect only1 & n ,emotions3--,t ,facts mu/ be obs]v$ ) ref]5ce to our mo/ exact conceptions1 ,numb]1 ,place1 ,figure1 ,motion3--,t !y mu/ also be obs]v$ ) ref]5ce to any o!r exact conceptions :i* ! ph5om5a sugge/1 z ,=ce1 9 me*anical ph5om5a1 ,concord1 9 musical4 ,,aphorism ,,vi4 ,! resolution ( complex ,facts into precise & measur$ p>tial ,facts1 we call ! ,decomposition ( ,facts4 ,?is process is requisite = ! progress ( sci5ce1 b does n necess>ily lead to progress4 #a4 ,,we h n[ to exam9e h[ ,sci5ce is built up by ! comb9ation ( ,facts4 ,9 do+ ?is1 we suppose t we h already atta9$ a supply ( def9ite & c]ta9 ,facts1 free f obscurity & d\bt4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 fir/ consid] "u :at conditions ,facts c assume ?is "*4 ,:5 we inquire :at ,facts are to be made ! mat]ials ( ,sci5ce1 p]haps ! answ] :i* we #ea %\ld mo/ commonly receive w\ld be1 t !y mu/ be ,true ,facts1 z di/+ui%$ f any m]e inf]5ces or op9ions ( our own4 ,we %\ld probably be told t we mu/ be c>eful 9 su* a case to consid] z ,facts1 only :at we really obs]ve2--t we mu/ ass]t only :at we see2 & believe no?+ except ^u ! te/imony ( our s5ses4 ,b su* maxims are f> f be+ easy to apply1 z a little exam9ation w conv9ce u4 #b4 ,x has be5 expla9$1 9 prec$+ works1 t all p]ception ( ext]nal objects & occurr5ces involves an active z well z a passive process ( ! m9d2--includes n only ,s5sations1 b also ,ideas by :i* ,s5sations are b\nd toge!r1 & h a unity giv5 to !m4 ,f ?is x foll[s1 t !re is a difficulty 9 sep>at+ 9 our p]ceptions :at we receive f )\t1 & :at we ourselves contribute f )92--:at we p]ceive1 & :at we inf]4 ,9 _m cases1 ?is difficulty is obvi\s to all3 z1 = example1 :5 we witness ! p]=mances ( a juggl] or a v5triloqui/4 ,9 ^! in/ances1 we imag9e ourselves to see & to he> :at c]ta9ly we d n see & he>4 ,! p]=m] takes advantage ( ! habits by :i* our m9ds supply int]ruptions & inf] connexions2 & by giv+ u fallaci\s indications1 he leads u to p]ceive z an actual fact1 :at does n happ5 at all4 ,9 ^! cases1 x is evid5t t we ourselves assi/ 9 mak+ ! fact2 = we make "o :i* does n really exi/4 ,9 o!r cases1 ?\gh ! fact :i* we p]ceive be true1 we c easily see t a l>ge portion ( ! p]ception is our own act2 z :51 f ! sight ( a bird ( prey we inf] a c>case1 or :5 we read a half-oblit]at$ inscription4 ,9 ! latt] case1 ! m9d supplies ! mean+1 & p]haps half ! lett]s2 yet we d n hesitate to say t we actually read ! inscription4 ,?us1 9 _m cases1 our own inf]5ces & int]pretations ent] into our facts4 ,b ?is happ5s 9 _m in/ances 9 :i* x is at fir/ sight less obvi\s4 ,:5 any "o has se5 an oak-tree bl[n d[n by a /rong gu/ ( w9d1 he does n ?9k ( ! occurr5ce #eb any o!rwise ?an z a ,fact ( :i* he is assur$ by 8 s5ses4 ,yet by :at s5se does he p]ceive ! ,=ce :i* he ?us supposes ! w9d to ex]t8 ,by :at s5se does he di/+ui% an ,oak-tree f all o!r trees8 ,x is cle> ^u reflexion1 t 9 su* a case1 8 own m9d supplies ! conception ( extrane\s impulse & pressure1 by :i* he ?us int]prets ! motions obs]v$1 & ! di/9ction ( diff]5t k9ds ( trees1 accord+ to :i* he ?us names ! "o "u 8 notice4 ,! ,idea ( ,=ce1 & ! idea ( def9ite ,resemblances & ,diff]5ces1 are ?us comb9$ ) ! impressions on our s5ses1 & =m an undi/+ui%$ portion ( t :i* we consid] z ! ,fact4 ,& x is evid5t t we c 9 no o!r way p]ceive ,=ce1 ?an by see+ motion2 & _c give a ,"n to any object1 )\t n only see+ a diff]5ce ( s+le objects1 b suppos+ a diff]5ce ( classes ( objects4 ,:5 we speak z if we saw impulse & attraction1 ?+s & classes1 we really see only objects ( v>i\s =ms & col\rs1 m or less num]\s1 v>i\sly comb9$4 ,b d we really p]ceive s mu* z ?is8 ,:5 we see ! =m1 ! size1 ! numb]1 ! motion ( objects1 are ^! really m]e impressions on our s5ses1 unmodifi$ by any contribution or op]ation ( ! m9d itself8 ,a v little att5tion w suffice to conv9ce u t ?is is n ! case4 ,:5 we see a w9dmill turn+1 x may happ51 z we h else:]e notic$#cb1 t we mi/ake ! direction 9 :i* ! sails turn3 :5 we look at c]ta9 diagrams1 !y may appe> ei!r convex or concave3 :5 we see ! moon fir/ 9 ! horizon & aft]w>ds high up 9 ! sky1 we judge h] to be mu* l>g] 9 ! =m] ?an 9 ! latt] position1 al?\gh to ! eye %e subt5ds ! same angle4 ,& 9 ^! cases & ! l1 x has be5 se5 t ! err\r & confusion :i* we ?us incur arise f ! mixture ( acts ( ! m9d itself ) impressions on ! s5ses4 ,b su* acts are1 z we h also se51 insep>able portions ( ! process #ec ( p]ception4 ,a c]ta9 activity ( ! m9d is involv$1 n only 9 see+ objects errone\sly1 b 9 see+ !m at all4 ,) reg>d to solid objects1 ?is is g5]ally ackn[l$g$4 ,:5 we seem to see an edifice occupy+ space 9 all dim5sions1 we really see only a repres5tation ( x z x appe>s ref]r$ by p]spective to a surface4 ,! inf]5ce ( ! solid =m is an op]ation ( our own1 alike :5 we look at a reality & :5 we look at a picture4 ,b we may g fur!r4 ,is plane ,figure really a m]e ,s5sation8 ,if we look at a decagon1 d we see at once t x has t5 sides1 or is x n necess>y = u to c\nt !m3 & is n c\nt+ an act ( ! m9d8 ,all objects are se5 9 space2 all objects are se5 z "o or _m3 b are n ! ,idea ( ,space & ! ,idea ( ,numb] requisite 9 ord] t we may ?us appreh5d :at we see8 ,t ^! ,ideas ( ,space & ,numb] involve a connexion d]iv$ f ! m9d1 & n f ! s5ses1 appe>s1 z we h already se51 f ?is1 t ^? ,ideas af=d u ! mat]ials ( univ]sal & necess>y tru?s3--su* tru?s z ! s5ses _c possibly supply4 ,& ?us1 ev5 ! p]ception ( su* facts z ! size1 %ape1 & numb] ( objects1 _c be said to be impressions ( s5se1 di/9ct f all acts ( m9d1 & _c be expect$ to be free f err\r on ! gr\nd ( _! be+ m]e obs]v$ ,facts4 ,note #cb3 ,hi/ory ( ,ideas1 ,b4 ii4 c4 vi4 s4 #f4 ,?us ! difficulty :i* we h be5 illu/rat+1 ( di/+ui%+ ,facts f inf]5ces & f int]pretations ( facts1 is n only great1 b am\nts to an impossibility4 ,! sep>ation at :i* we aim$ 9 ! outset ( ?is discussion1 & :i* 0 suppos$ to be necess>y 9 ord] to obta9 a firm gr\ndwork = sci5ce1 is f\nd to be unatta9able4 ,we _c obta9 a sure basis ( ,facts1 by reject+ all inf]5ces & judgm5ts ( our own1 = su* inf]5ces & judgm5ts =m an unavoidable elem5t 9 all ,facts4 ,we _c exclude our ,ideas f our ,p]ceptions1 = our ,p]ceptions involve our ,ideas4 #c4 ,b /ill1 x _c be d\bt$ t 9 select+ ! ,facts :i* are to =m ! f\ndation ( ,sci5ce1 #ed we mu/ r$uce !m to _! mo/ simple & c]ta9 =m2 & mu/ reject ev]y?+ f :i* d\bt or err\r may arise4 ,n[ s9ce ?is1 x appe>s1 _c be done1 by reject+ ! ,ideas :i* all ,facts involve1 9 :at mann] are we to con=m to ! obvi\s maxim1 t ! ,facts :i* =m ! basis ( ,sci5ce mu/ be p]fectly def9ite & c]ta98 ,! analysis ( facts into ,ideas & ,s5sations1 :i* we h s (t5 ref]r$ to1 sugge/s ! answ] to ?is inquiry4 ,we are n able1 nor ne$ we endeav\r1 to exclude ,ideas f our ,facts2 b we may be able to disc]n1 ) p]fect di/9ctness1 ! ,ideas :i* we include4 ,we _c obs]ve any ph5om5a )\t apply+ to !m su* ,ideas z ,space & ,numb]1 ,cause & ,resemblance1 & usually1 sev]al o!rs2 b we may avoid apply+ ^! ,ideas 9 a wav]+ or obscure mann]1 & conf\nd+ ,ideas ) "o ano!r4 ,we _c read any ( ! inscriptions :i* nature pres5ts to u1 )\t int]pret+ !m by means ( "s language :i* we ourselves are accu/om$ to speak2 b we may make x our bus9ess to acqua9t ourselves p]fectly ) ! language :i* we ?us employ1 & to int]pret x accord+ to ! rigor\s rules ( gramm> & analogy4 ,?is maxim1 t :5 ,facts are employ$ z ! basis ( ,sci5ce1 we mu/ di/+ui% cle>ly ! ,ideas :i* !y involve1 & mu/ apply ^! 9 a di/9ct & rigor\s mann]1 w be f\nd to be a m precise guide ?an we might p]haps at fir/ expect4 ,we may notice "o or two ,rules :i* fl[ f x4 #d4 ,9 ! fir/ place4 ,facts1 :5 us$ z ! mat]ials ( physical ,sci5ce1 mu/ be ref]r$ to ,conceptions ( ! ,intellect only1 all emotions ( fe>1 admiration1 & ! l1 be+ reject$ or subdu$4 ,?us1 ! obs]vations ( ph5om5a :i* are relat$ z port5ts & prodigies1 /rik+ t]r\r & bod+ evil1 are ( no value = purposes ( sci5ce4 ,! tales ( armies se5 w>r+ 9 ! sky1 ! s\nd ( arms he>d f ! cl\ds1 fi]y dragons1 *>iots1 swords se5 9 ! air1 may ref] to meteorological ph5om5a2 b ! records ( ph5om5a obs]v$ 9 ! #ee /ate ( m9d :i* ^! descriptions imply c be ( no sci5tific value4 ,we _c make ! poets our obs]v]s4 ,armorum sonitum toto ,g]mania clo ,audiit2 insolitis tremu]unt motibus ,alpes4 ,vox quoque p] lucos vulgo exaudita sil5tes ,+5s2 et simulacra modis pall5tia miris ,visa sub obscurum noctis3 pecudesque locut4 ,! mixture ( fancy & emotion ) ! obs]vation ( facts has (t5 disfigur$ !m to an ext5t :i* is too famili> to all to ne$ illu/ration4 ,we h an example ( ?is result1 9 ! mann] 9 :i* ,comets are describ$ 9 ! treatises ( ! middle ages4 ,9 su* works1 ^! bodies are regul>ly di/ribut$ into sev]al classes1 accord+ly z !y assume ! =m ( a sword1 ( a spe>1 ( a cross1 & s on4 ,:5 su* resemblances _h become matt]s ( int]e/1 ! impressions ( ! s5ses 7 gov]n$1 n by ! rigor\s conceptions ( =m & col\r1 b by ^! assum$ images2 & "u ^! circum/ances1 we c atta* little value to ! /atem5t ( :at 0 se54 ,9 all su* ph5om5a1 ! ref]5ce ( ! objects to ! exact ,ideas ( ,space1 ,numb]1 ,position1 ,motion1 & ! l1 is ! fir/ /ep ( ,sci5ce3 & accord+ly1 ?is ref]5ce 0 e/abli%$ at an e>ly p]iod 9 ^? sci5ces :i* made an e>ly progress1 z1 = in/ance1 ,a/ronomy4 ,yet ev5 9 a/ronomy !re appe>s to h be5 a p]iod :5 ! pr$om9ant conceptions ( m5 9 reg>d+ ! heav5s & ! />s po9t$ to my?ical /ory & sup]natural influ5ce1 r ?an to m]e relations ( space1 "t1 & motion3 & ( ?is primeval condition ( ^? :o gaz$ at ! />s1 we seem to h remnants 9 ! ,con/ellations1 9 ! my?ological ,names ( ! ,planets1 & 9 ! e>ly preval5ce ( ,a/rology4 ,x 0 only at a lat] p]iod1 :5 m5 _h begun to measure ! places1 or at lea/ to c\nt ! revolutions ( ! />s1 t ,a/ronomy _h its bir?4 #e4 ,& ?us we are l$ to ano!r ,rule3--t 9 collect+ ,facts :i* are to be made ! basis ( #ef ,sci5ce1 ! ,facts are to be obs]v$1 z f> z possible1 ) ref]5ce to place1 figure1 numb]1 motion1 & ! l ,conceptions2 :i*1 dep5d+ ^u ! ,ideas ( ,space & ,"t1 are ! mo/ univ]sal1 exact1 & simple ( our conceptions4 ,x 0 by e>ly att5tion to ^! relations 9 ! case ( ! heav5ly bodies1 t ! anci5ts =m$ ! sci5ce ( ,a/ronomy3 x 0 by n mak+ precise obs]vations ( ?is k9d 9 ! case ( t]re/rial bodies1 t !y fail$ 9 fram+ a sci5ce ( ! ,me*anics ( ,motion4 ,!y succe$$ 9 ,optics z f> z !y made obs]vations ( ?is nature2 b :5 !y ceas$ to trace ! geometrical pa?s ( rays 9 ! actual exp]im5t1 !y ceas$ to g =w>ds 9 ! k ( ?is subject4 #f4 ,b we may /ate a fur!r ,rule3--t ?\gh ^! relations ( ,"t & ,space are highly important 9 almo/ all ,facts1 we are n to conf9e ourselves to ^!3 b are to consid] ! ph5om5a ) ref]5ce to o!r ,conceptions also3 x be+ always und]/ood t ^! conceptions are to be made z exact & rigor\s z ^? ( geometry & numb]4 ,?us ! sci5ce ( ,h>monics arose f consid]+ s\nds ) ref]5ce to ,concords & ,discords2 ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics arose f n only obs]v+ motions z !y take place 9 ,"t & ,space1 b fur!r1 ref]r+ !m to ,=ce z _! ,cause4 ,& 9 l mann]1 o!r sci5ces dep5d ^u o!r ,ideas1 :i*1 z ,i h endeav\r$ to %[1 are n less fundam5tal ?an ^? ( ,"t & ,space2 & l !m1 capable ( lead+ to rigor\s consequ5ces4 #g4 ,?us ! ,facts :i* we assume z ! basis ( ,sci5ce are to be fre$ f all ! mi/s :i* imag9ation & passion ?r[ r\nd !m2 & to be sep>at$ into ^? elem5t>y ,facts :i* exhibit simple & evid5t relations ( ,"t1 or ,space1 or ,cause1 or "s o!r ,ideas equally cle>4 ,we resolve ! complex appe>ances :i* nature (f]s to u1 & ! mix$ & manifold modes ( look+ at ^! appe>ances :i* rise 9 our ?\ghts1 into limit$1 def9ite1 & cle>ly-und]/ood portions4 ,?is process we may t]m ! ,decomposition ( ,facts4 ,x is ! #eg beg9n+ ( exact k1--! fir/ /ep 9 ! =mation ( all ,sci5ce4 ,?is ,decomposition ( ,facts into ,elem5t>y ,facts1 cle>ly und]/ood & surely asc]ta9$1 mu/ prec$e all discov]y ( ! laws ( nature4 #h4 ,b ?\gh ?is /ep is necess>y1 x is n infallibly suffici5t4 ,x by no means foll[s t :5 we h ?us decompos$ ,facts into ,elem5t>y ,tru?s ( obs]vation1 we %all soon be able to comb9e ^!1 s z to obta9 ,tru?s ( a high] & m speculative k9d4 ,we h examples :i* %[ u h[ f> ?is is f be+ a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! =m] /ep4 ,obs]vations ( ! wea!r1 made & record$ = _m ye>s1 h n l$ to any g5]al tru?s1 =m+ a sci5ce ( ,meteorology3 & al?\gh great num]ical precision has be5 giv5 to su* obs]vations by means ( b>omet]s1 !rmomet]s1 & o!r in/rum5ts1 /ill1 no g5]al laws regulat+ ! cycles ( *ange ( su* ph5om5a h yet be5 discov]$4 ,9 l mann] ! faces ( cry/als1 & ! sides ( ! polygons :i* ^! cry/als =m1 7 c\nt$1 & ?us num]ical facts 7 obta9$1 p]fectly true & def9ite1 b /ill ( no value = purposes ( sci5ce4 ,& :5 x 0 discov]$ :at ,elem5t ( ! =m ( cry/als x 0 important to obs]ve & measure1 namely1 ! ,angle made by two faces ) ea* o!r1 ?is discov]y 0 a /ep ( a high] ord]1 & did n belong to t dep>tm5t1 ( m]e exact obs]vation ( manife/ ,facts1 ) :i* we are "h conc]n$4 #i4 ,:5 ! ,complex ,facts :i* nature (f]s to u are ?us decompos$ into ,simple ,facts1 ! decomposition1 9 g5]al1 leads to ! introduction ( ,t]ms & ,phrases1 m or less te*nical1 by :i* ^! ,simple ,facts are describ$4 ,:5 ,a/ronomy 0 ?us made a sci5ce ( measurem5t1 ! ?+s measur$ 7 soon describ$ z ,h\rs1 & ,days1 & ,cycles1 ,altitude & ,decl9ation1 ,phases & ,aspects4 ,9 ! same mann]1 9 ,music1 ! concords _h names assign$ !m1 z ,diap5te1 ,diatess>on1 ,diapason2 9 /udy+ ,optics1 ! ,rays ( light 7 spok5 ( z #eh hav+ _! c\rse alt]$ by ,reflexion & ,refraction2 & :5 useful obs]vations began to be made 9 ,me*anics1 ! obs]v]s spoke ( ,=ce1 ,pressure1 ,mom5tum1 ,in]tia1 & ! l4 #aj4 ,:5 we take ph5om5a 9 :i* ! lead+ ,idea is ,resemblance1 & resolve !m into precise compon5t ,facts1 we obta9 "s k9d ( ,classification2 z1 = in/ance1 :5 we lay d[n c]ta9 ,rules by :i* p>ticul> trees1 or p>ticul> animals are to be kn[n4 ,?is is ! e>lie/ =m ( ,natural ,hi/ory2 & ! ,classification :i* x involves is t :i* corresponds1 ne>ly or exactly1 ) ! usual ,names ( ! objects ?us classifi$4 #aa4 ,?us ! fir/ attempts to r5d] obs]vation c]ta9 & exact1 lead to a decomposition ( ! obvi\s facts into ,elem5t>y ,facts1 connect$ by ! ,ideas ( ,space1 ,"t1 ,numb]1 ,cause1 ,lik5ess1 & o!rs3 & into a ,classification ( ! ,simple ,facts2 a classification m or less j1 & m>k$ by ,names ei!r common or te*nical4 ,elem5t>y ,facts1 & ,individual ,objects1 ?us obs]v$ & classifi$1 =m ! mat]ials ( ,sci5ce2 & any improvem5t 9 ,classification or ,nom5clature1 or any discov]y ( a ,connexion among ! mat]ials ?us accumulat$1 leads u fairly )9 ! prec9cts ( ,sci5ce4 ,we mu/ n[1 !re=e1 consid] ! mann] 9 :i* ,sci5ce is built up ( su* mat]ials2--! process by :i* !y are br\ght into _! places1 & ! texture ( ! bond :i* unites & cem5ts !m4 #ei ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,colligation ,,( ,,facts4 ,,aphorism ,,vii4 ,sci5ce beg9s ) common obs]vation ( facts2 b ev5 at ?is /age1 requires t ! obs]vations be precise4 ,h5ce ! sci5ces :i* dep5d ^u space & numb] 7 ! e>lie/ =m$4 ,aft] common obs]vation1 come ,sci5tific ,obs]vation & ,exp]im5t4 ,,aphorism ,,viii4 ,! ,conceptions by :i* ,facts are b\nd toge!r1 are sugge/$ by ! sagacity ( discov]]s4 ,?is sagacity _c be taught4 ,x commonly succe$s by guess+2 & ?is success seems to consi/ 9 fram+ sev]al t5tative hypo!ses & select+ ! "r "o4 ,b a supply ( appropriate hypo!ses _c be con/ruct$ by rule1 nor )\t inv5tive tal5t4 ,,aphorism ,,ix4 ,! tru? ( t5tative hypo!ses mu/ be te/$ by _! application to facts4 ,! discov]] mu/ be ready1 c>efully to try 8 hypo!ses 9 ?is mann]1 & to reject !m if !y w n be> ! te/1 9 spite ( indol5ce & vanity4 #a4 ,,facts su* z ! la/ ,*apt] speaks ( are1 by means ( su* ,conceptions z are describ$ 9 ! prec$+ ,*apt]1 b\nd toge!r s z to give rise to ^? g5]al ,propositions ( :i* ,sci5ce consi/s4 ,?us ! ,facts t ! planets revolve #fj ab\t ! sun 9 c]ta9 p]iodic times & at c]ta9 di/ances1 are includ$ & connect$ 9 ,kepl]'s ,law1 by means ( su* ,conceptions z ! squ>es ( numb]s1 ! cubes ( di/ances1 & ! proportionality ( ^! quantities4 ,aga9 ! exi/5ce ( ?is proportion 9 ! motions ( any two planets1 =ms a set ( ,facts :i* may all be comb9$ by means ( ! ,conception ( a c]ta9 c5tral accel]at+ =ce1 z 0 prov$ by ,newton4 ,! :ole ( our physical k consi/s 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( su* propositions2 & 9 all su* cases1 ,facts are b\nd toge!r by ! aid ( suitable ,conceptions4 ,?is "p ( ! =mation ( our k ,i h call$ ! ,colligation ( ,facts3 & we may apply ?is t]m to e case 9 :i*1 by an act ( ! intellect1 we e/abli% a precise connexion among ! ph5om5a :i* are pres5t$ to our s5ses4 ,! k ( su* connexions1 accumulat$ & sy/ematiz$1 is ,sci5ce4 ,on ! /eps by :i* sci5ce is ?us collect$ f ph5om5a we %all proce$ n[ to make a few rem>ks4 #b4 ,sci5ce beg9s ) ,common ,obs]vation ( facts1 9 :i* we are n consci\s ( any peculi> discipl9e or habit ( ?\ght ex]cis$ 9 obs]v+4 ,?us ! common p]ceptions ( ! appe>ances & recurr5ces ( ! cele/ial lum9>ies1 7 ! fir/ /eps ( ,a/ronomy3 ! obvi\s cases 9 :i* bodies fall or are support$1 7 ! beg9n+ ( ,me*anics2 ! famili> aspects ( visible ?+s1 7 ! orig9 ( ,optics2 ! usual di/9ctions ( well-kn[n plants1 fir/ gave rise to ,botany4 ,facts belong+ to su* p>ts ( our k are notic$ by u1 & accumulat$ 9 our memories1 9 ! common c\rse ( our habits1 almo/ )\t our be+ aw>e t we are obs]v+ & collect+ facts4 ,yet su* facts may lead to _m sci5tific tru?s2 = in/ance1 9 ! fir/ /ages ( ,a/ronomy 7z we h %[n 9 ! ,hi/ory7 su* facts l$ to ,me?ods ( ,int]calation & ,rules ( ! ,recurr5ce ( ,eclipses4 ,9 succe$+ /ages ( sci5ce1 m especial att5tion & prep>ation on ! "p ( ! obs]v]1 & a selection ( c]ta9 #fa k9ds ( facts1 becomes necess>y2 b !re is an e>ly p]iod 9 ! progress ( k at :i* man is a physical philosoph]1 )\t seek+ to be s1 or be+ aw>e t he is s4 #c4 ,b 9 all /ages ( ! progress1 ev5 9 t e>ly "o ( :i* we h j spok51 x is necess>y1 9 ord] t ! facts may be fit mat]ials ( any k1 t !y %\ld be decompos$ into ,elem5t>y ,facts1 & t ^! %\ld be obs]v$ ) precision4 ,?us1 9 ! fir/ infancy ( a/ronomy1 ! recurr5ce ( phases ( ! moon1 ( places ( ! sun's ris+ & sett+1 ( planets1 ( eclipses1 0 obs]v$ to take place at int]vals ( c]ta9 def9ite numb]s ( days1 & 9 a c]ta9 exact ord]2 & ?us x 01 t ! obs]vations became portions ( a/ronomical sci5ce4 ,9 o!r cases1 al?\gh ! facts 7 equally num]\s1 & _! g5]al aspect equally famili>1 !y l$ to no sci5ce1 because _! exact circum/ances 7 n appreh5d$4 ,a vague & loose mode ( look+ at facts v easily obs]vable1 left m5 = a long "t "u ! belief t a body1 t5 times z heavy z ano!r1 falls t5 times z fa/2--t objects imm]s$ 9 wat] are always magnifi$1 )\t reg>d to ! =m ( ! surface2--t ! magnet ex]ts an irresi/ible =ce2--t cry/al is always f\nd associat$ ) ice2--& ! l4 ,^! & _m o!rs are examples h[ bl9d & c>eless m5 c be1 ev5 9 obs]vation ( ! pla9e/ & commone/ appe>ances2 & !y %[ u t ! m]e faculties ( p]ception1 al?\gh con/antly ex]cis$ ^u innum]able objects1 may long fail 9 lead+ to any exact k4 #d4 ,if we fur!r inquire :at 0 ! fav\rable condition ?r\gh :i* "s special classes ( facts 71 f ! fir/1 fitt$ to become portions ( sci5ce1 we %all f9d x to h be5 pr9cipally ?is2--t ^! facts 7 consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ! ,ideas ( ,"t1 ,numb]1 & ,space1 :i* are ,ideas possess+ peculi> def9it5ess & precision2 s t ) reg>d to !m1 confusion & indi/9ctness are h>dly possible4 ,! int]val f new moon to new #fb moon 0 always a p>ticul> numb] ( days3 ! sun 9 8 ye>ly c\rse rose & set ne> to a kn[n succession ( di/ant objects3 ! moon's pa? pass$ among ! />s 9 a c]ta9 ord]3--^! are obs]vations 9 :i* mi/ake & obscurity are n likely to occur1 if ! smalle/ degree ( att5tion is be/[$ ^u ! task4 ,to c\nt a numb] is1 f ! fir/ op5+ ( man's m5tal faculties1 an op]ation :i* no sci5ce c r5d] m precise4 ,! relations ( space are ne>e/ to ^? ( numb] 9 obvi\s & univ]sal evid5ce4 ,sci5ces dep5d+ ^u ^! ,ideas arise ) ! fir/ dawn ( intellectual civilization4 ,b few ( ! o!r ,ideas :i* man employs 9 ! acquisition ( k possess ?is cle>ness 9 _! common use4 ,! ,idea ( ,resemblance may be notic$1 z com+ next to ^? ( ,space & ,numb] 9 orig9al precision2 & ! ,idea ( ,cause1 9 a c]ta9 vague & g5]al mode ( application1 suffici5t = ! purposes ( common life1 b n = ! ends ( sci5ce1 ex]cises a v ext5sive influ5ce ov] m5's ?\ghts4 ,b ! o!r ,ideas on :i* sci5ce dep5ds1 ) ! ,conceptions :i* arise out ( !m1 are n unfold$ till a mu* lat] p]iod ( intellectual progress2 & !re=e1 except 9 su* limit$ cases z ,i h notic$1 ! obs]vations ( common spectators & uncultivat$ nations1 h[ev] num]\s or v>i$1 are ( little or no effect 9 giv+ rise to ,sci5ce4 #e4 ,let u n[ suppose t1 besides common ev]yday p]ception ( facts1 we turn our att5tion to "s o!r occurr5ces & appe>ances1 ) a design ( obta9+ f !m speculative k4 ,?is process is m peculi>ly call$ ,obs]vation1 or1 :5 we ourselves occasion ! facts1 ,exp]im5t4 ,b ! same rem>k :i* we h already made1 /ill holds good "h4 ,^! facts c be ( no value1 except !y are resolv$ into ^? exact ,conceptions :i* conta9 ! ess5tial circum/ances ( ! case4 ,!y mu/ be det]m9$1 n inde$ necess>ily1 z has sometimes be5 said1 'accord+ to ,numb]1 ,weight1 & ,measure2' =1 z we h endeav\r$ to %[ #fc 9 ! prec$+ ,books#db1 !re are _m o!r ,conceptions to :i* ph5om5a may be subord9at$1 q diff]5t f ^!1 & yet n at all less def9ite & precise4 ,b 9 ord] t ! facts obta9$ by obs]vation & exp]im5t may be capable ( be+ us$ 9 fur!rance ( our exact & solid k1 !y mu/ be appreh5d$ & analys$ accord+ to "s ,conceptions :i*1 appli$ = ?is purpose1 give di/9ct & def9ite results1 su* z c be /eadily tak5 hold ( & reason$ f2 t is1 ! facts mu/ be ref]r$ to ,cle> & ,appropriate ,ideas1 accord+ to ! mann] 9 :i* we h already expla9$ ?is condition ( ! d]ivation ( our k4 ,! ph5om5a ( light1 :5 !y are su* z to indicate sides 9 ! ray1 mu/ be ref]r$ to ! ,conception ( pol>ization2 ! ph5om5a ( mixture1 :5 !re is an alt]ation ( qualities z well z quantities1 mu/ be comb9$ by a ,conception ( elem5t>y composition4 ,& ?us1 :5 m]e position1 & numb]1 & resemblance1 w no long] answ] ! purpose ( enabl+ u to connect ! facts1 we call 9 o!r ,ideas1 9 su* cases m efficaci\s1 ?\gh less obvi\s4 ,note #db3 ,hi/4 ( ,sci4 ,id4 ,bs4 v4 vi4 vii4 viii4 ix4 x4 #f4 ,b h[ are we1 9 ^! cases1 to discov] su* ,ideas1 & to judge :i* w be efficaci\s1 9 lead+ to a sci5tific comb9ation ( our exp]im5tal data8 ,to ?is "q1 we mu/ 9 ! fir/ place answ]1 t ! fir/ & great in/rum5t by :i* facts1 s obs]v$ ) a view to ! =mation ( exact k1 are comb9$ into important & p]man5t tru?s1 is t peculi> ,sagacity :i* belongs to ! g5ius ( a ,discov]]2 & :i*1 :ile x supplies ^? di/9ct & appropriate ,conceptions :i* lead to its success1 _c be limit$ by rules1 or express$ 9 def9itions4 ,x w\ld be difficult or impossible to describe 9 words ! habits ( ?\ght :i* l$ ,ar*im$es to ref] ! conditions ( equilibrium on ! ,lev] to ! ,conception ( pressure1 :ile ,ari/otle c\ld n see 9 !m any?+ m ?an ! results #fd ( ! /rang5ess ( ! prop]ties ( ! circle2--or :i* impell$ ,pascal to expla9 by means ( ! ,conception ( ! weight ( air1 ! facts :i* 8 pr$ecessors _h connect$ by ! notion ( nature's horr\r ( a vacuum2--or :i* caus$ ,vitello & ,rog] ,bacon to ref] ! magnify+ p[] ( a convex l5s to ! b5d+ ( ! rays ( light t[>ds ! p]p5dicul> by refraction1 :ile o!rs conceiv$ ! effect to result f ! matt] ( m$ium1 ) no consid]ation ( its =m4 ,^! are :at are commonly spok5 ( z felicit\s & inexplicable /rokes ( inv5tive tal5t2 & su*1 no d\bt1 !y are4 ,no rules c ensure to u simil> success 9 new cases2 or c enable m5 :o d n possess simil> end[m5ts1 to make l advances 9 k4 #g4 ,yet /ill1 we may d some?+ 9 trac+ ! process by :i* su* discov]ies are made2 & ?is x is "h our bus9ess to d4 ,we may obs]ve t ^!1 & ! l discov]ies1 are n improp]ly describ$ z happy ,guesses2 & t ,guesses1 9 ^! z 9 o!r in/ances1 imply v>i\s suppositions made1 ( :i* "s "o turns out to be ! "r "o4 ,we may1 9 su* cases1 conceive ! discov]] z inv5t+ & try+ _m conjectures1 till he f9ds "o :i* answ]s ! purpose ( comb9+ ! scatt]$ facts into a s+le rule4 ,! discov]y ( g5]al tru?s f special facts is p]=m$1 commonly at lea/1 & m commonly ?an at fir/ appe>s1 by ! use ( a s]ies ( ,suppositions1 or ,hypo!ses1 :i* are look$ at 9 quick succession1 & ( :i* ! "o :i* really leads to tru? is rapidly detect$1 & :5 caught sight (1 firmly held1 v]ifi$1 & foll[$ to its consequ5ces4 ,9 ! m9ds ( mo/ discov]]s1 ?is process ( inv5tion1 trial1 & acceptance or rejection ( ! hypo!sis1 goes on s rapidly t we _c trace x 9 its successive /eps4 ,b 9 "s in/ances1 we c d s2 & we c also see t ! o!r examples ( discov]y d n diff] ess5tially f ^!4 ,! same intellectual op]ations take place 9 o!r cases1 al?\gh ?is (t5 happ5s s in/antane\sly t we lose ! trace ( ! #fe progression4 ,9 ! discov]ies made by ,kepl]1 we h a curi\s & memorable exhibition ( ?is process 9 its details4 ,?anks to 8 communicative disposition1 we "k t he made n9ete5 hypo!ses ) reg>d to ! motion ( ,m>s1 & calculat$ ! results ( ea*1 be=e he e/abli%$ ! true doctr9e1 t ! planet's pa? is an ellipse4 ,we "k1 9 l mann]1 t ,galileo made wrong suppositions respect+ ! laws ( fall+ bodies1 & ,m>iotte1 conc]n+ ! motion ( wat] 9 a siphon1 be=e !y hit ^u ! correct view ( ^! cases4 #h4 ,b x has v (t5 happ5$ 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 t ! errone\s hypo!ses :i* prec$$ ! discov]y ( ! tru? h be5 made1 n by ! discov]] himself1 b by 8 precursors2 to :om he ?us ow$ ! s]vice1 (t5 an important "o 9 su* cases1 ( exhau/+ ! mo/ tempt+ =ms ( err\r4 ,?us ! v>i\s fruitless suppositions by :i* ,kepl] endeav\r$ to discov] ! law ( reflection1 l$ ! way to its real detection by ,snell2 ,kepl]'s num]\s imag9ations conc]n+ ! =ces by :i* ! cele/ial motions are produc$1--8 'physical reason+s' z he t]m$ !m1--7 a natural prelude to ! tru] physical reason+s ( ,newton4 ,! v>i\s hypo!ses by :i* ! susp5sion ( vap\r 9 air _h be5 expla9$1 & _! failure1 left ! field op5 = ,dalton ) 8 doctr9e ( ! me*anical mixture ( gases4 ,9 mo/ cases1 if we c\ld truly analyze ! op]ation ( ! ?\ghts ( ^? :o make1 or :o endeav\r to make discov]ies 9 sci5ce1 we %\ld f9d t _m m suppositions pass ?r\gh _! m9ds ?an ^? :i* are express$ 9 words2 _m a possible comb9ation ( conceptions is =m$ & soon reject$4 ,!re is a con/ant inv5tion & activity1 a p]petual creat+ & select+ p[] at "w1 ( :i* ! la/ results only are exhibit$ to u4 ,tra9s ( hypo!ses are call$ up & pass rapidly 9 review2 & ! judgm5t makes its *oice f ! v>i$ gr\p4 #i4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be a great mi/ake to suppose t ! hypo!ses1 among :i* our *oice ?us #ff lies1 are con/ruct$ by an enum]ation ( obvi\s cases1 or by a wanton alt]ation ( relations :i* occur 9 "s fir/ hypo!sis4 ,x may1 inde$1 sometimes happ5 t ! proposition :i* is f9ally e/abli%$ is su* z may be =m$1 by "s slight alt]ation1 f ^? :i* are ju/ly reject$4 ,?us ,kepl]'s elliptical !ory ( ,m>s's motions1 involv$ relations ( l9es & angles mu* ( ! same nature z 8 previ\s false suppositions3 & ! true law ( refraction s mu* resembles ^? errone\s ones :i* ,kepl] tri$1 t we _c help wond]+ h[ he *anc$ to miss x4 ,b x m frequ5tly happ5s t new tru?s are br\ght into view by ! application ( new ,ideas1 n by new modifications ( old ones4 ,! cause ( ! prop]ties ( ! ,lev] 0 le>nt1 n by introduc+ any new geometrical comb9ation ( l9es & circles1 b by ref]r+ ! prop]ties to g5u9e me*anical ,conceptions4 ,:5 ! ,motions ( ! ,planets 7 to be expla9$1 ?is 0 done1 n by m]ely improv+ ! previ\s notions1 ( cycles ( "t1 b by introduc+ ! new conception ( epicycles 9 space4 ,! doctr9e ( ! ,f\r ,simple ,elem5ts 0 expell$1 n by =m+ any new s*eme ( elem5ts :i* %\ld imp>t1 accord+ to new rules1 _! s5sible qualities to _! comp\nds1 b by consid]+ ! elem5ts ( bodies z neutraliz+ ea* o!r4 ,! ,fr+es ( ,%ad[s c\ld n be expla9$ by ascrib+ new prop]ties to ! s+le rays ( light1 b 7 r$uc$ to law by ref]r+ !m to ! int]f]5ce ( sev]al rays4 ,s9ce ! true supposition is ?us v frequ5tly some?+ altoge!r div]se f all ! obvi\s conjectures & comb9ations1 we see "h h[ f> we are f be+ able to r$uce discov]y to rule1 or to give any precepts by :i* ! want ( real inv5tion & sagacity %all be suppli$4 ,we may w>n & enc\rage ^! faculties :5 !y exi/1 b we _c create !m1 or make great discov]ies :5 !y are abs5t4 #aj4 ,! ,conceptions :i* a true !ory requires are v (t5 clo!d 9 a ,hypo!sis :i* connects #fg ) !m sev]al sup]flu\s & irrelevant circum/ances4 ,?us ! ,conception ( ! ,pol>ization ( ,light 0 orig9ally repres5t$ "u ! image ( p>ticles ( light hav+ _! poles all turn$ 9 ! same direction4 ,! ,laws ( ,heat may be made out p]haps mo/ conv5i5tly by conceiv+ ,heat to be a ,fluid4 ,! ,attraction ( ,gravitation might h be5 successfully appli$ to ! explanation ( facts1 if ,newton _h ?r\gh\t treat$ ,attraction z ! result ( an ,e!r diffus$ ?r\gh space2 a supposition :i* he has notic$ z a possibility4 ,! doctr9e ( ,def9ite & ,multiple ,proportions may be conv5i5tly express$ by ! hypo!sis ( ,atoms4 ,9 su* cases1 ! ,hypo!sis may s]ve at fir/ to facilitate ! introduction ( a new ,conception4 ,?us a p]vad+ ,e!r might = a "t remove a difficulty1 :i* "s p]sons f9d consid]able1 ( imag9+ a body to ex]t =ce at a di/ance4 ,a ,p>ticle ) ,poles is m easily conceiv$ ?an ,pol>ization 9 ! ab/ract4 ,& if hypo!ses ?us employ$ w really expla9 ! facts by means ( a few simple assumptions1 ! laws s obta9$ may aft]w>ds be r$uc$ to a simpl] =m ?an t 9 :i* !y 7 fir/ sugge/$4 ,! g5]al laws ( ,heat1 ( ,attraction1 ( ,pol>ization1 ( ,multiple ,proportions1 are n[ c]ta91 :atev] image we may =m to ourselves ( _! ultimate causes4 #aa4 ,9 ord]1 !n1 to discov] sci5tific tru?s1 suppositions consi/+ ei!r ( new ,conceptions1 or ( new ,comb9ations ( old ones1 are to be made1 till we f9d "o supposition :i* succe$s 9 b9d+ toge!r ! ,facts4 ,b h[ are we to f9d ?is8 ,h[ is ! trial to be made8 ,:at is meant by 'success' 9 ^! cases8 ,to ?is we reply1 t our inquiry mu/ be1 :e!r ! ,facts h ! same relation 9 ! ,hypo!sis :i* !y h 9 reality2--:e!r ! results ( our suppositions agree ) ! ph5om5a :i* nature pres5ts to u4 ,= ?is purpose1 we mu/ bo? c>efully obs]ve ! ph5om5a1 & /eadily trace ! consequ5ces ( our assumptions1 till we c #fh br+ ! two into comp>ison4 ,! ,conceptions :i* our hypo!ses involve1 be+ d]iv$ f c]ta9 ,fundam5tal ,ideas1 af=d a basis ( rigor\s reason+1 z we h %[n 9 ! ,books ( ! ,hi/ory ( ^? ,ideas4 ,& ! results to :i* ?is reason+ leads1 w be susceptible ( be+ v]ifi$ or contradict$ by obs]vation ( ! facts4 ,?us ! ,epicyclical ,!ory ( ! ,moon1 once assum$1 det]m9$ :at ! moon's place among ! />s ought to be at any giv5 "t1 & c\ld !re=e be te/$ by actually obs]v+ ! moon's places4 ,! doctr9e t musical /r+s ( ! same l5g?1 /ret*$ ) weights ( #a1 #d1 #i1 #af1 w\ld give ! musical int]vals ( an octave1 a fif?1 a f\r?1 9 succession1 c\ld be put to ! trial by any "o ^: e> 0 capable ( appreciat+ ^? int]vals3 & ! inf]5ce :i* foll[s f ?is doctr9e by num]ical reason+1--t !re mu/ be c]ta9 imp]fections 9 ! concords ( e musical scale1--c\ld 9 l mann] be confirm$ by try+ v>i\s modes ( ,temp]am5t4 ,9 l mann] all receiv$ !ories 9 sci5ce1 up to ! pres5t "t1 h be5 e/abli%$ by tak+ up "s supposition1 & comp>+ x1 directly or by means ( its remot] consequ5ces1 ) ! facts x 0 int5d$ to embrace4 ,its agreem5t1 "u c]ta9 cautions & conditions1 ( :i* we may h]eaft] speak1 is held to be ! evid5ce ( its tru?4 ,x answ]s its g5u9e purpose1 ! ,colligation ( ,facts4 #ab4 ,:5 we h1 9 any subject1 succe$$ 9 "o attempt ( ?is k9d1 & obta9$ "s true ,bond ( ,unity by :i* ! ph5om5a are held toge!r1 ! subject is op5 to fur!r prosecution2 :i* ult]ior process may1 = ! mo/ "p1 be conduct$ 9 a m =mal & te*nical mann]4 ,! fir/ great outl9e ( ! subject is drawn2 & ! f9i%+ ( ! resemblance ( nature dem&s a m m9ute p5cill+1 b p]haps requires less ( g5ius 9 ! ma/]4 ,9 ! pursuance ( ?is task1 rules & precepts may be giv51 & features & lead+ circum/ances po9t$ out1 ( :i* x may (t5 be useful to ! inquir] to be aw>e4 #fi ,be=e proce$+ fur!r1 ,i %all speak ( "s *>act]i/ic m>ks :i* belong to su* sci5tific processes z are n[ ! subject ( our consid]ation1 & :i* may sometimes aid u 9 det]m9+ :5 ! task has be5 rightly execut$4 #gj ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,( ,,c]ta9 ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,induction4 ,,aphorism ,x4 ,! process ( sci5tific discov]y is cauti\s & rigor\s1 n by ab/a9+ f hypo!ses1 b by rigor\sly comp>+ hypo!ses ) facts1 & by resolutely reject+ all :i* ! comp>ison does n confirm4 ,,aphorism ,,xi4 ,hypo!ses may be useful1 ?\gh involv+ mu* t is sup]flu\s1 & ev5 errone\s3 = !y may supply ! true bond ( connexion ( ! facts2 & ! sup]fluity & err\r may aft]w>ds be p>$ away4 ,,aphorism ,,xii4 ,x is a te/ ( true !ories n only to acc\nt =1 b to pr$ict ph5om5a4 ,,aphorism ,,xiii4 ,induction is a t]m appli$ to describe ! process ( a true ,colligation ( ,facts by means ( an exact & appropriate ,conception4 ,an ,induction is also employ$ to d5ote ! proposition :i* results f ?is process4 ,,aphorism ,,xiv4 ,! ,consili5ce ( ,inductions takes place :5 an ,induction1 obta9$ f "o class ( facts1 co9cides ) an ,induction1 obta9$ f ano!r diff]5t class4 ,?is #ga ,consili5ce is a te/ ( ! tru? ( ! ,!ory 9 :i* x occurs4 ,,aphorism ,,xv4 ,an ,induction is n ! m]e sum ( ! ,facts :i* are colligat$4 ,! ,facts are n only br\ght toge!r1 b se5 9 a new po9t ( view4 ,a new m5tal ,elem5t is sup]9duc$2 & a peculi> con/itution & discipl9e ( m9d are requisite 9 ord] to make ?is ,induction4 ,,aphorism ,,xvi4 ,al?\gh 9 ,e ,induction a new conception is sup]9duc$ ^u ! ,facts2 yet ?is once effectually done1 ! novelty ( ! conception is ov]look$1 & ! conception is consid]$ z a "p ( ! fact4 ,,sect4 ,i4--,inv5tion a "p ( ,induction4 #a4 ,,! two op]ations spok5 ( 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1--! ,explication ( ! ,conceptions ( our own m9ds1 & ! ,colligation ( obs]v$ ,facts by ! aid ( su* ,conceptions1--are1 z we h j said1 insep>ably connect$ ) ea* o!r4 ,:5 unit$1 & employ$ 9 collect+ k f ! ph5om5a :i* ! _w pres5ts to u1 !y con/itute ! m5tal process ( ,induction2 :i* is usually & ju/ly spok5 ( z ! g5u9e s\rce ( all our real g5]al k respect+ ! ext]nal _w4 ,& we see1 f ! prec$+ analysis ( ?is process into its two con/itu5ts1 f :at orig9 x d]ives ea* ( its *>act]s4 ,x is real1 because x arises f ! comb9ation ( ,real ,facts1 b x is g5]al1 because x implies ! possession ( ,g5]al ,ideas4 ,)\t ! =m]1 x w\ld n be k ( ! ,ext]nal ,_w2 )\t ! latt]1 x w\ld n be ,k at all4 ,:5 ,ideas & ,facts are sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 ! neglect ( ,facts gives rise to empty speculations1 idle subtleties1 vision>y inv5tions1 false op9ions conc]n+ ! laws ( ph5om5a1 disreg>d ( ! true aspect ( nature3 #gb :ile ! want ( ,ideas leaves ! m9d ov]:elm$1 bewild]$1 & /upifi$ by p>ticul> s5sations1 ) no means ( connect+ ! pa/ ) ! future1 ! abs5t ) ! pres5t1 ! example ) ! rule2 op5 to ! impression ( all appe>ances1 b capable ( appropriat+ none4 ,ideas are ! ,=m1 facts ! ,mat]ial1 ( our /ructure4 ,k does n consi/ 9 ! empty m\ld1 or 9 ! brute mass ( matt]1 b 9 ! rightly-m\ld$ sub/ance4 ,induction ga!rs g5]al tru?s f p>ticul> facts2--& 9 h] h>ve/1 ! corn & ! reap]1 ! solid e>s & ! b9d+ b&1 are alike requisite4 ,all our k ( nature is obta9$ by ,induction2 ! t]m be+ und]/ood accord+ to ! explanation we h n[ giv54 ,& our k is !n mo/ complete1 !n mo/ truly des]ves ! "n ( ,sci5ce1 :5 bo? its elem5ts are mo/ p]fect2--:5 ! ,ideas :i* h be5 conc]n$ 9 its =mation h1 at e /ep1 be5 cle> & consi/5t2 & :5 !y h1 at e /ep also1 be5 employ$ 9 b9d+ toge!r real & c]ta9 ,facts4 ,( su* ,induction1 ,i h already giv5 s _m examples & illu/rations 9 ! two prec$+ *apt]s1 t ,i ne$ n n[ dwell fur!r ^u ! subject4 #b4 ,induction is famili>ly spok5 ( z ! process by :i* we collect a ,g5]al ,proposition f a numb] ( ,p>ticul> ,cases3 & x appe>s to be frequ5tly imag9$ t ! g5]al proposition results f a m]e juxta-position ( ! cases1 or at mo/1 f m]ely conjo9+ & ext5d+ !m4 ,b if we consid] ! process m closely1 z exhibit$ 9 ! cases lately spok5 (1 we %all p]ceive t ?is is an inadequate acc\nt ( ! matt]4 ,! p>ticul> facts are n m]ely br\ght toge!r1 b !re is a ,new ,elem5t add$ to ! comb9ation by ! v act ( ?\ght by :i* !y are comb9$4 ,!re is a ,conception ( ! m9d introduc$ 9 ! g5]al proposition1 :i* did n exi/ 9 any ( ! obs]v$ facts4 ,:5 ! ,greeks1 aft] long obs]v+ ! motions ( ! planets1 saw t ^! motions might be rightly consid]$ z produc$ by ! motion ( "o #gc :eel revolv+ 9 ! inside ( ano!r :eel1 ^! ,:eels 7 ,creations ( _! m9ds1 add$ to ! ,facts :i* !y p]ceiv$ by s5se4 ,& ev5 if ! :eels 7 no long] suppos$ to be mat]ial1 b 7 r$uc$ to m]e geometrical sph]es or circles1 !y 7 n ! less products ( ! m9d alone1--some?+ additional to ! facts obs]v$4 ,! same is ! case 9 all o!r discov]ies4 ,! facts are kn[n1 b !y are insulat$ & unconnect$1 till ! discov]] supplies f 8 own /ores a ,pr9ciple ( ,connexion4 ,! pe>ls are !re1 b !y w n hang toge!r till "s "o provides ! ,/r+4 ,! di/ances & p]iods ( ! planets 7 all s _m sep>ate facts2 by ,kepl]'s ,?ird ,law !y are connect$ into a s+le tru?3 b ! ,conceptions :i* ?is law involves 7 suppli$ by ,kepl]'s m9d1 & )\t ^!1 ! facts 7 ( no avail4 ,! planets describ$ ellipses r\nd ! sun1 9 ! contemplation ( o!rs z well z ( ,newton2 b ,newton conceiv$ ! deflection f ! tang5t 9 ^! elliptical motions 9 a new light1--z ! effect ( a ,c5tral ,=ce foll[+ a c]ta9 law2 & !n x 01 t su* a =ce 0 discov]$ truly to exi/4 ,?us#eb 9 ea* inf]5ce made by ,induction1 !re is introduc$ "s ,g5]al ,conception1 :i* is giv51 n by ! ph5om5a1 b by ! m9d4 ,! conclusion is n conta9$ 9 ! premises1 b includes !m by ! introduction ( a ,new ,g5]ality4 ,9 ord] to obta9 our inf]5ce1 we travel beyond ! cases :i* we h be=e u2 we consid] !m z m]e exemplifications ( "s ,ideal ,case 9 :i* ! relations are complete & intelligible4 ,we take a ,/&>d1 & measure ! facts by x2 & ?is ,/&>d is con/ruct$ by u1 n (f]$ by ,nature4 ,we ass]t1 = example1 t a body left to itself w move on ) unalt]$ velocity2 n because our s5ses ev] disclos$ to u a body do+ ?is1 b because 7tak+ ?is z our ,ideal ,case7 we f9d t all #gd actual cases are intelligible & explicable by means ( ! ,conception ( ,=ces1 caus+ *ange & motion1 & ex]t$ by surr\nd+ bodies4 ,9 l mann]1 we see bodies /rik+ ea* o!r1 & ?us mov+ & /opp+1 accel]at+ & ret>d+ ea* o!r3 b 9 all ?is1 we d n p]ceive by our s5ses t ab/ract quantity1 ,mom5tum1 :i* is always lo/ by "o body z x is ga9$ by ano!r4 ,?is ,mom5tum is a creation ( ! m9d1 br\ght 9 among ! facts1 9 ord] to conv]t _! app>5t confusion into ord]1 _! seem+ *ance into c]ta9ty1 _! p]plex+ v>iety into simplicity4 ,?is ! ,conception ( ,mom5tum ga9$ & lo/ does3 & 9 l mann]1 9 any o!r case 9 :i* a tru? is e/abli%$ by ,induction1 "s ,conception is introduc$1 "s ,idea is appli$1 z ! means ( b9d+ toge!r ! facts1 & ?us produc+ ! tru?4 ,note #eb3 ,i repeat "h rem>ks made at ! end ( ! ,me*anical ,euclid1 p4 #agh4 #c4 ,h5ce 9 e inf]5ce by ,induction1 !re is "s ,conception sup]9duc$ ^u ! ,facts3 & we may h5ce=? conceive ?is to be ! peculi> import ( ! t]m ,induction4 ,i am n to be und]/ood z ass]t+ t ! t]m 0 orig9ally or anci5tly employ$ ) ?is notion ( its mean+2 = ! peculi> feature j po9t$ out 9 ,induction has g5]ally be5 ov]look$4 ,?is appe>s by ! acc\nts g5]ally giv5 ( ,induction4 ',induction1' says ,ari/otle#fb1 'is :5 by means ( "o extreme t]m#gb we inf] ! o!r extreme t]m to be true ( ! middle t]m4' ,?us1 7to take su* exemplifications z belong to our subject17 f kn[+ t ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,m>s1 describe ellipses ab\t ! ,sun1 we inf] t all ,planets describe ellipses ab\t ! ,sun4 ,9 mak+ ?is inf]5ce syllogi/ically1 we assume t ! evid5t proposition1 ',m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,m>s1 d :at all ,planets d1' may be tak5 conv]sely1 ',all #ge ,planets d :at ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,m>s1 d4' ,b we may rem>k t1 9 ?is passage1 ,ari/otle 7z 0 natural 9 8 l9e ( discussion7 turns 8 att5tion entirely to ! evid5ce ( ! inf]5ce2 & ov]looks a /ep :i* is ( f> m importance to our k1 namely1 ! inv5tion ( ! second extreme t]m4 ,9 ! above in/ance1 ! p>ticul> lum9>ies1 ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,m>s1 are "o logical ,extreme2 ! g5]al designation ,planets is ! ,middle ,t]m2 b hav+ ^! be=e u1 h[ d we come to ?9k ( description ( ellipses1 :i* is ! o!r ,extreme ( ! syllogism8 ,:5 we h once inv5t$ ?is 'second ,extreme ,t]m1' we may1 or may n1 be satisfi$ ) ! evid5ce ( ! syllogism2 we may1 or may n1 be conv9c$ t1 s f> z ?is prop]ty goes1 ! extremes are co-ext5sive ) ! middle t]m#hb2 b ! /atem5t ( ! syllogism is ! important /ep 9 sci5ce4 ,we "k h[ long ,kepl] lab\r$1 h[ h>d he f\ght1 h[ _m devices he tri$1 be=e he hit ^u ?is ,t]m1 ! ,elliptical ,motion4 ,he reject$1 z we "k1 _m o!r 'second extreme ,t]ms1' = example1 v>i\s comb9ations ( epicyclical con/ructions1 because !y did n repres5t ) suffici5t accuracy ! special facts ( obs]vation4 ,:5 he _h e/abli%$ 8 premiss1 t ',m>s does describe an ,ellipse ab\t ! ,sun1' he does n hesitate to guess at lea/ t1 9 ?is respect1 he might conv]t ! o!r premiss1 & ass]t t ',all ! ,planets d :at ,m>s does4' ,b ! ma9 bus9ess 01 ! inv5t+ & v]ify+ ! proposition respect+ ! ,ellipse4 ,! ,inv5tion ( ! ,conception 0 ! great /ep 9 ! discov]y2 ! ,v]ification ( ! ,proposition 0 ! great /ep 9 ! pro( ( ! discov]y4 ,if ,logic consi/s 9 po9t+ out ! conditions ( pro(1 ! ,logic ( ,induction mu/ consi/ 9 %[+ :at are ! conditions ( pro(1 9 su* inf]5ces z ?is3 b ?is subject mu/ be pursu$ 9 ! next *apt]2 ,i n[ speak pr9cipally ( ! act ( #gf ,inv5tion1 :i* is requisite 9 e inductive inf]5ce4 ,note #fb3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 lib4 ii4 c4 xxiii4 4 ,note #gb3 ,! syllogism "h allud$ to w\ld be ?is3-- ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,m>s1 describe ellipses ab\t ! ,sun2 ,all ,planets d :at ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,m>s1 d2 ,!re=e all ,planets describe ellipses ab\t ! ,sun4 ,note #hb3 4--,ari/ot4 ,ibid4 #d4 ,al?\gh 9 e inductive inf]5ce1 an act ( inv5tion is requisite1 ! act soon slips out ( notice4 ,al?\gh we b9d toge!r facts by sup]9duc+ ^u !m a new ,conception1 ?is ,conception1 once introduc$ & appli$1 is look$ ^u z insep>ably connect$ ) ! facts1 & necess>ily impli$ 9 !m4 ,hav+ once _h ! ph5om5a b\nd toge!r 9 _! m9ds 9 virtue ( ! ,conception1 m5 c no long] easily re/ore !m back to ! deta*$ & incoh]5t condition 9 :i* !y 7 be=e !y 7 ?us comb9$4 ,! pe>ls once /rung1 !y seem to =m a *a9 by _! nature4 ,induction has giv5 !m a unity :i* x is s f> f co/+ u an ef=t to pres]ve1 t x requires an ef=t to imag9e x dissolv$4 ,= in/ance1 we usually repres5t to ourselves ! ,e>? z r\nd1 ! ,e>? & ! ,planets z revolv+ ab\t ! ,sun1 & z drawn to ! ,sun by a ,c5tral ,=ce2 we c h>dly und]/& h[ x c\ld co/ ! ,greeks1 & ,cop]nicus1 & ,newton1 s mu* pa9s & tr\ble to arrive at a view :i* to u is s famili>4 ,^! are no long] to u ,conceptions caught hold ( & kept hold ( by a sev]e /ruggle2 !y are ! simple/ modes ( conceiv+ ! facts3 !y are really ,facts4 ,we are will+ to own our obligation to ^? discov]]s1 b we h>dly feel x3 = 9 :at o!r mann] 7we ask 9 our ?\ghts7 c\ld we repres5t ! facts to ourselves8 ,?us we see :y x is t ?is /ep ( :i* we n[ speak1 ! ,inv5tion ( a new ,conception 9 e inductive inf]5ce1 is s g5]ally ov]look$ t x has h>dly be5 notic$ by prec$+ philosoph]s4 ,:5 once p]=m$ by ! discov]]1 x takes a fix$ & p]man5t place 9 ! und]/&+ ( e "o4 ,x is a ?\ght :i*1 once brea!d =?1 p]meates all m5's m9ds4 ,all fancy !y ne>ly or q knew x be=e4 ,x (t 0 ?\ght1 or almo/ ?\ght1 ?\gh nev] till n[ express$4 ,m5 accept x & reta9 x1 & "k x _c be tak5 #gg f !m1 & look ^u x z _! own4 ,!y w n & _c "p ) x1 ev5 ?\gh !y may deem x trivial & obvi\s4 ,x is a secret1 :i* once utt]$1 _c be recall$1 ev5 ?\gh x be despis$ by ^? to :om x is imp>t$4 ,z soon z ! lead+ t]m ( a new !ory has be5 pron\nc$ & und]/ood1 all ! ph5om5a *ange _! aspect4 ,!re is a /&>d to :i* we _c help ref]r+ !m4 ,we _c fall back into ! helpless & bewild]$ /ate 9 :i* we gaz$ at !m :5 we possess$ no pr9ciple :i* gave !m unity4 ,eclipses arrive 9 my/]i\s confusion3 ! notion ( a ,cycle dispels ! my/]y4 ,! ,planets p]=m a tangl$ & mazy dance2 b ,epicycles r$uce ! maze to ord]4 ,! ,epicycles !mselves run into confusion2 ! conception ( an ,ellipse makes all cle> & simple4 ,& ?us f /age to /age1 new elem5ts ( intelligible ord] are introduc$4 ,b ?is intelligible ord] is s completely adopt$ by ! human und]/&+1 z to seem "p ( its texture4 ,m5 ask ,:e!r ,eclipses foll[ a ,cycle2 ,:e!r ! ,planets describe ,ellipses2 & !y imag9e t s long z !y d n answ] su* que/ions ra%ly1 !y take no?+ = grant$4 ,!y d n recollect h[ mu* !y assume 9 ask+ ! "q3--h[ f> ! conceptions ( ,cycles & ( ,ellipses are beyond ! visible surface ( ! cele/ial ph5om5a3--h[ _m ages elaps$1 h[ mu* ?\ght1 h[ mu* obs]vation1 7 ne$$1 be=e m5's ?\ghts 7 fa%ion$ into ! words :i* !y n[ s famili>ly use4 ,& ?us !y treat ! subject1 z we h se5 ,ari/otle treat+ x2 z if x 7 a "q1 n ( inv5tion1 b ( pro(2 n ( sub/ance1 b ( =m3 z if ! ma9 ?+ 7 n :at we ass]t1 b h[ we ass]t x4 ,b = our purpose1 x is requisite to be> 9 m9d ! feature :i* we h ?us attempt$ to m>k2 & to recollect t1 9 e inf]5ce by induction1 !re is a ,conception suppli$ by ! m9d & sup]9duc$ ^u ! ,facts4 #e4 ,9 collect+ sci5tific tru?s by ,induction1 we (t5 f9d 7z has already be5 obs]v$7 a ,def9ition #gh & a ,proposition e/abli%$ at ! same "t1--introduc$ toge!r1 & mutually dep5d5t on ea* o!r4 ,! comb9ation ( ! two con/itutes ! ,inductive act2 & we may consid] ! ,def9ition z repres5t+ ! sup]9duc$ ,conception1 & ! ,proposition z exhibit+ ! ,colligation ( ,facts4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,use ( ,hypo!ses4 #f4 ,to discov] a ,conception ( ! m9d :i* w ju/ly repres5t a tra9 ( obs]v$ facts is1 9 "s measure1 a process ( conjecture1 z ,i h /at$ already2 & z ,i !n obs]v$1 ! bus9ess ( conjecture is commonly conduct$ by call+ up be=e our m9ds sev]al suppositions1 & select+ t "o :i* mo/ agrees ) :at we "k ( ! obs]v$ facts4 ,h5ce he :o has to discov] ! laws ( nature may h to inv5t _m suppositions be=e he hits ^u ! "r "o2 & among ! end[m5ts :i* lead to 8 success1 we mu/ reckon t f]tility ( inv5tion :i* m9i/]s to him su* imag9>y s*emes1 till at la/ he f9ds ! "o :i* con=ms to ! true ord] ( nature4 ,a facility 9 devis+ hypo!ses1 !re=e1 is s f> f be+ a fault 9 ! intellectual "* ( a discov]]1 t x is1 9 tru?1 a faculty indisp5sable to 8 task4 ,x is1 = 8 purposes1 mu* bett] t he %\ld be too ready 9 contriv+1 too eag] 9 pursu+ sy/ems :i* promise to introduce law & ord] among a mass ( un>rang$ facts1 ?an t he %\ld be b>r5 ( su* inv5tions & hopeless ( su* success4 ,accord+ly1 z we h already notic$1 great discov]]s h (t5 inv5t$ hypo!ses :i* w\ld n answ] to all ! facts1 z well z ^? :i* w\ld2 & h fanci$ !mselves to h discov]$ laws1 :i* a m c>eful exam9ation ( ! facts ov]turn$4 ,! t5d5cies ( our speculative nature#ib1 c>ry+ #gi u onw>ds 9 pursuit ( symmetry & rule1 & ?us produc+ all true !ories1 p]petually %[ _! vig\r by ov]%oot+ ! m>k4 ,!y obta9 some?+1 by aim+ at mu* m4 ,!y detect ! ord] & connexion :i* exi/1 by conceiv+ imag9>y relations ( ord] & connexion :i* h no exi/5ce4 ,real discov]ies are ?us mix$ ) baseless assumptions2 pr(\nd sagacity is comb9$ ) fanciful conjecture2 n r>ely1 or 9 peculi> in/ances1 b commonly1 & 9 mo/ cases2 probably 9 all1 if we c\ld read ! ?\ghts ( discov]]s z we read ! books ( ,kepl]4 ,to try wrong guesses is1 ) mo/ p]sons1 ! only way to hit ^u "r ones4 ,! "* ( ! true philosoph] is1 n t he nev] conjectures haz>d\sly1 b t 8 conjectures are cle>ly conceiv$1 & br\ght into rigid contact ) facts4 ,he sees & comp>es di/9ctly ! ,ideas & ! ,?+s2--! relations ( 8 notions to ea* o!r & to ph5om5a4 ,"u ^! conditions1 x is n only excusable1 b necess>y = him1 to snat* at e semblance ( g5]al rule1--to try all promis+ =ms ( simplicity & symmetry4 ,note #ib3 ,i "h take ! lib]ty ( *>act]iz+ inv5tive m9ds 9 g5]al 9 ! same phraseology :i*1 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5ce1 ,i h employ$ 9 ref]5ce to p>ticul> examples4 ,^! expressions are :at ,i h us$ 9 speak+ ( ! discov]ies ( ,cop]nicus4--,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 v4 c4 ii4 ,h5ce advances 9 k#ajb are n commonly made )\t ! previ\s ex]cise ( "s boldness & lic5se 9 guess+4 ,! discov]y ( new tru?s requires1 und\bt$ly1 m9ds c>eful & scrupul\s 9 exam9+ :at is sugge/$2 b x requires1 no less1 su* z are quick & f]tile 9 sugge/+4 ,:at is ,inv5tion1 except ! tal5t ( rapidly call+ be=e u ! _m possibilities1 & select+ ! appropriate "o8 ,x is true1 t :5 we h reject$ all ! inadmissible suppositions1 !y are (t5 quickly =gott52 & few ?9k x necess>y to dwell on ^! disc>d$ hypo!ses1 & on ! process by :i* !y 7 condemn$4 ,b all :o discov] tru?s1 mu/ h reason$ ^u _m err\rs to obta9 ea* tru?2 #hj e accept$ doctr9e mu/ h be5 "o *os5 out ( _m c&idates4 ,if _m ( ! guesses ( philosoph]s ( bygone times n[ appe> fanciful & absurd1 because "t & obs]vation h refut$ !m1 o!rs1 :i* 7 at ! "t equally gratuit\s1 h be5 con=m$ 9 a mann] :i* makes !m appe> m>vell\sly sagaci\s4 ,to =m hypo!ses1 & !n to employ mu* lab\r & skill 9 refut+ !m1 if !y d n succe$ 9 e/abli%+ !m1 is a "p ( ! usual process ( inv5tive m9ds4 ,su* a proce$+ belongs to ! rule ( ! g5ius ( discov]y1 r ?an 7z has (t5 be5 taught 9 mod]n times7 to ! exception4 ,note #ajb3 ,^! obs]vations are made on occasion ( ,kepl]'s speculations1 & are illu/rat$ by ref]5ce to 8 discov]ies4--,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 v4 c4 iv4 sect4 #a4 #g4 ,b if x be an advantage = ! discov]] ( tru? t he be +5i\s & f]tile 9 inv5t+ hypo!ses :i* may connect ! ph5om5a ( nature1 x is indisp5sably requisite t he be dilig5t & c>eful 9 comp>+ 8 hypo!ses ) ! facts1 & ready to ab&on 8 inv5tion z soon z x appe>s t x does n agree ) ! c\rse ( actual occurr5ces4 ,?is con/ant comp>ison ( 8 own conceptions & supposition ) obs]v$ facts "u all aspects1 =ms ! lead+ employm5t ( ! discov]]3 ?is c&id & simple love ( tru?1 :i* makes him will+ to suppress ! mo/ fav\rite production ( 8 own +5uity z soon z x appe>s to be at v>iance ) realities1 con/itutes ! fir/ *>act]i/ic ( 8 temp]4 ,he mu/ h nei!r ! bl9dness :i* _c1 nor ! ob/9acy :i* w n1 p]ceive ! discrepancy ( 8 fancies & 8 facts4 ,he mu/ all[ no indol5ce1 or p>tial views1 or self-complac5cy1 or delight 9 seem+ demon/ration1 to make him t5aci\s ( ! s*emes :i* he devises1 any fur!r ?an !y are confirm$ by _! accordance ) nature4 ,! fram+ ( hypo!ses is1 = ! inquir] aft] tru?1 n ! end1 b ! beg9n+ ( 8 "w4 ,ea* ( 8 sy/ems is inv5t$1 n t he may admire x & foll[ x into all its consi/5t consequ5ces1 b t he may make x ! occasion ( a c\rse ( active exp]im5t & obs]vation4 ,& if ! results ( ?is process #ha contradict 8 fundam5tal assumptions1 h[ev] +5i\s1 h[ev] symmetrical1 h[ev] elegant 8 sy/em may be1 he rejects x )\t hesitation4 ,he all[s no natural ye>n+ = ! (fspr+ ( 8 own m9d to draw him aside f ! high] duty ( loyalty to 8 sov]eign1 ,tru?3 to h] he n only gives 8 affections & 8 wi%es1 b /r5u\s lab\r & scrupul\s m9ut5ess ( att5tion4 ,we may ref] to :at we h said ( ,kepl]1 ,newton1 & o!r em95t philosoph]s1 = illu/rations ( ?is "*4 ,9 ,kepl] we h rem>k$#aab ! c\rage & p]sev]ance ) :i* he und]took & execut$ ! task ( comput+ 8 own hypo!ses3 &1 z a /ill m admirable *>act]i/ic1 t he nev] all[$ ! lab\r he _h sp5t ^u any conjecture to produce any reluctance 9 ab&on+ ! hypo!sis1 z soon z he _h evid5ce ( its inaccuracy4 ,& 9 ! hi/ory ( ,newton's discov]y t ! moon is reta9$ 9 h] orbit by ! =ce ( gravity1 we h notic$ ! same mod]ation 9 ma9ta9+ ! hypo!sis1 aft] x _h once occurr$ to ! au?or's m9d4 ,! hypo!sis requir$ t ! moon %\ld fall f ! tang5t ( h] orbit e second ?r\gh a space ( sixte5 feet2 b accord+ to 8 fir/ calculations x appe>$ t 9 fact %e only fell ?r\gh a space ( ?irte5 feet 9 t "t4 ,! diff]5ce seems small1 ! approximation enc\rag+1 ! !ory plausible2 a man 9 love ) 8 own fancies w\ld readily h discov]$ or inv5t$ "s probable cause ( ! diff]5ce4 ,b ,newton acquiesc$ 9 x z a dispro( ( 8 conjecture1 & 'laid aside at t "t any fur!r ?\ghts ( ?is matt]#abb4' ,note #aab3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 v4 c4 iv4 sect4 #a4 ,note #abb3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 vii4 c4 ii4 sect4 #c4 #h4 ,x has (t5 happ5$ t ^? :o h und]tak5 to in/ruct mank9d h n possess$ ?is pure love ( tru? & comp>ative indiff]5ce to ! ma9t5ance ( _! own inv5tions4 ,m5 h frequ5tly adh]$ ) great t5acity & vehem5ce to ! hypo!ses :i* !y h once fram$2 & 9 _! #hb affection = ^!1 h be5 prone to ov]look1 to di/ort1 & to mis9t]pret facts4 ,9 ?is mann]1 ,hypo!ses h s (t5 be5 prejudicial to ! g5u9e pursuit ( tru?1 t !y h fall5 into a k9d ( obloquy2 & h be5 consid]$ z dang]\s temptations & fallaci\s guides4 ,_m w>n+s h be5 utt]$ aga9/ ! fabrication ( hypo!ses1 by ^? :o pr(ess to tea* philosophy2 _m disclaim]s ( su* a c\rse by ^? :o cultivate sci5ce4 ,?us we %all f9d ,bacon frequ5tly discomm5d+ ?is habit1 "u ! "n ( 'anticipation ( ! m9d1' & ,newton ?9ks x necess>y to say emphatically 'hypo!ses non f+o4' ,x has be5 con/antly urg$ t ! inductions by :i* sci5ces are =m$ mu/ be cauti\s & rigor\s2 & ! v>i\s imag9ations :i* pass$ ?r\gh ,kepl]'s bra91 & to :i* he has giv5 utt]ance1 h be5 blam$ or piti$1 z lam5table in/ances ( an unphilosophical frame ( m9d4 ,yet x has appe>$ 9 ! prec$+ rem>ks t hypo!ses rightly us$ are among ! helps1 f> m ?an ! dang]s1 ( sci5ce2--t sci5tific induction is n a 'cauti\s' or a 'rigor\s' process 9 ! s5se ( ab/a9+ f su* suppositions1 b 9 n adh]+ to !m till !y are confirm$ by fact1 & 9 c>efully seek+ f facts confirmation or refutation4 ,kepl]'s di/9ctive "* 01 n t he 0 peculi>ly giv5 to ! con/ruction ( hypo!ses1 b t he n>rat$ ) extraord9>y copi\sness & c&\r ! c\rse ( 8 ?\ghts1 8 lab\rs1 & 8 feel+s4 ,9 ! m9ds ( mo/ p]sons1 z we h said1 ! inadmissible suppositions1 :5 reject$1 are soon =gott53 & ?us ! trace ( !m vani%es f ! ?\ghts1 & ! successful hypo!sis alone holds its place 9 our memory4 ,b 9 reality1 _m o!r transi5t suppositions mu/ h be5 made by all discov]]s2--hypo!ses :i* are n aft]w>ds ass]t$ z true sy/ems1 b ent]ta9$ = an in/ant2--'t5tative hypo!ses1' z !y h be5 call$4 ,ea* ( ^! hypo!ses is foll[$ by its correspond+ tra9 ( obs]vations1 f :i* x d]ives its p[] ( lead+ to tru?4 ,! hypo!sis is #hc l ! capta91 & ! obs]vations l ! soldi]s ( an army3 :ile he appe>s to comm& !m1 & 9 ?is way to "w 8 own w1 he does 9 fact d]ive all 8 p[] ( conque/ f _! ob$i5ce1 & becomes helpless & useless if !y mut9y4 ,s9ce ! discov]] has ?us con/antly to "w 8 way onw>ds by means ( hypo!ses1 false & true1 x is highly important = him to possess tal5ts & means = rapidly te/+ ea* supposition z x (f]s itself4 ,9 ?is z 9 o!r p>ts ( ! "w ( discov]y1 success has 9 g5]al be5 ma9ly ow+ to ! native +5uity & sagacity ( ! discov]]'s m9d4 ,yet "s ,rules t5d+ to fur!r ?is object h be5 deliv]$ by em95t philosoph]s1 & "s o!rs may p]haps be sugge/$4 ,( ^! we %all "h notice only "s ( ! mo/ g5]al1 leav+ = a future *apt] ! consid]ation ( "s m limit$ & detail$ processes by :i*1 9 c]ta9 cases1 ! discov]y ( ! laws ( nature may be mat]ially assi/$4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,te/s ( ,hypo!ses4 #i4 ,a maxim :i* x may be useful to recollect is ?is2--t hypo!ses may (t5 be ( s]vice to sci5ce1 :5 !y involve a c]ta9 portion ( incomplet5ess1 & ev5 ( err\r4 ,! object ( su* inv5tions is to b9d toge!r facts :i* )\t !m are loose & deta*$2 & if !y d ?is1 !y may lead ! way to a p]ception ( ! true rule by :i* ! ph5om5a are associat$ toge!r1 ev5 if !y !mselves some:at mis/ate ! matt]4 ,! imag9$ arrangem5t enables u to contemplate1 z a :ole1 a collection ( special cases :i* p]plex & ov]load our m9ds :5 !y are consid]$ 9 succession2 & if our s*eme has s mu* ( tru? 9 x z to conjo9 :at is really connect$1 we may aft]w>ds duly correct or limit ! me*anism ( ?is connexion4 ,if our hypo!sis r5d]s a reason = ! agreem5t ( cases really simil>1 we may aft]w>ds f9d ?is reason to be #hd false1 b we %all be able to translate x into ! language ( tru?4 ,a conspicu\s example ( su* an hypo!sis1--"o :i* 0 ( ! highe/ value to sci5ce1 ?\gh v incomplete1 & z a repres5tation ( nature altoge!r false1--is se5 9 ! ,doctr9e ( epicycles by :i* ! anci5t a/ronom]s expla9$ ! motions ( ! sun1 moon1 & planets4 ,?is doctr9e connect$ ! places & velocities ( ^! bodies at p>ticul> times 9 a mann] :i* 01 9 its g5]al features1 agreeable to nature4 ,yet ?is doctr9e 0 errone\s 9 its ass]tion ( ! circul> nature ( all ! cele/ial motions1 & 9 mak+ ! heav5ly bodies revolve r\nd ! e>?4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 ( imm5se value to ! progress ( a/ronomical sci5ce2 = x enabl$ m5 to express & reason ^u _m important tru?s :i* !y discov]$ respect+ ! motion ( ! />s1 up to ! "t ( ,kepl]4 ,inde$ we c h>dly imag9e t a/ronomy c\ld1 9 its outset1 h made s great a progress "u any o!r =m1 z x did 9 consequ5ce ( be+ cultivat$ 9 ?is %ape ( ! incomplete & false epicyclical hypo!sis4 ,we may notice ano!r in/ance ( an explod$ hypo!sis1 :i* is g5]ally m5tion$ only to be ridicul$1 & :i* und\bt$ly is bo? false 9 ! ext5t ( its ass]tion1 & unphilosophical 9 its expression2 b :i* /ill1 9 its day1 0 n )\t m]it4 ,i mean ! doctr9e ( ,nature's horr\r ( a vacuum 7fuga vacui71 by :i* ! action ( siphons & pumps & _m o!r ph5om5a 7 expla9$1 till ,m]s5ne & ,pascal taught a tru] doctr9e4 ,?is hypo!sis 0 ( real s]vice2 = x br\ght toge!r _m facts :i* really belong to ! same class1 al?\gh !y are v diff]5t 9 _! fir/ aspect4 ,a sci5tific writ] ( mod]n times#acb appe>s to wond] t m5 did n at once div9e ! weight ( ! air1 f :i* ! ph5om5a =m]ly ascrib$ to ! fuga vacui really result4 ',load$1 #he compress$ by ! atmosph]e1' he says1 '!y did n recognize its action4 ,9 va9 all nature te/ifi$ t air 0 ela/ic & heavy2 !y %ut _! eyes to h] te/imony4 ,! wat] rose 9 pumps & fl[$ 9 siphons at t "t1 z x does at ?is day4 ,!y c\ld n sep>ate ! bo>ds ( a pair ( bell[s ( :i* ! holes 7 /opp$2 & !y c\ld n br+ toge!r ! same bo>ds )\t difficulty1 if !y 7 at fir/ sep>at$4 ,infants suck$ ! milk ( _! mo!rs2 air ent]$ rapidly into ! lungs ( animals at e inspiration2 cupp+-glasses produc$ tum\rs on ! sk92 & 9 spite ( all ^! /rik+ pro(s ( ! weight & ela/icity ( ! air1 ! anci5t philosoph]s ma9ta9$ resolutely t air 0 light1 & expla9$ all ^! ph5om5a by ! horr\r :i* !y said nature _h = a vacuum4' ,x is curi\s t x %\ld n h occurr$ to ! au?or :ile writ+ ?is1 t if ^! facts1 s num]\s & v>i\s1 c all be acc\nt$ = by "o pr9ciple1 !re is a /rong presumption t ! pr9ciple is n altoge!r baseless4 ,& 9 reality is x n true t nature does abhor a vacuum1 & does all %e c to avoid x8 ,no d\bt ?is p[] is n unlimit$2 & moreov] we c trace x to a me*anical cause1 ! pressure ( ! circumambi5t air4 ,b ! t5d5cy1 aris+ f ?is pressure1 :i* ! bodies surr\nd+ a space void ( air h to ru% into x1 may be express$1 9 no extravagant or un9telligible mann]1 by say+ t nature has a repugnance to a vacuum4 ,note #acb3 ,deluc1 ,modifications de l',atmosphre1 ,p>tie #a4 ,t imp]fect & false hypo!ses1 ?\gh !y may ?us expla9 "s ph5om5a1 & may be useful 9 ! progress ( sci5ce1 _c expla9 all ph5om5a2--& t we are nev] to re/ 9 our lab\rs or acquiesce 9 our results1 till we h f\nd "s view ( ! subject :i* is consi/5t ) all ! obs]v$ facts2--w ( c\rse be und]/ood4 ,we %all aft]w>ds h to speak ( ! o!r /eps ( su* a progress4 #aj4 ,?us ! hypo!ses :i* we accept ought to expla9 ph5om5a :i* we h obs]v$4 ,b !y #hf ought to d m ?an ?is3 our hypo!ses ought to =etel ph5om5a :i* h n yet be5 obs]v$2 at lea/ all ph5om5a ( ! same k9d z ^? :i* ! hypo!sis 0 inv5t$ to expla94 ,= our ass5t to ! hypo!sis implies t x is held to be true ( all p>ticul> in/ances4 ,t ^! cases belong to pa/ or to future times1 t !y h or h n already occurr$1 makes no diff]5ce 9 ! applicability ( ! rule to !m4 ,because ! rule prevails1 x includes all cases2 & w det]m9e !m all1 if we c only calculate its real consequ5ces4 ,h5ce x w pr$ict ! results ( new comb9ations1 z well z expla9 ! appe>ances :i* h occurr$ 9 old ones4 ,& t x does ?is ) c]ta9ty & correctness1 is "o mode 9 :i* ! hypo!sis is to be v]ifi$ z "r & useful4 ,! sci5tific doctr9es :i* h at v>i\s p]iods be5 e/abli%$ h be5 v]ifi$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,= example1 ! ,epicyclical ,!ory ( ! heav5s 0 confirm$ by its pr$ict+ truly eclipses ( ! sun & moon1 configurations ( ! planets1 & o!r cele/ial ph5om5a2 & by its lead+ to ! con/ruction ( ,tables by :i* ! places ( ! heav5ly bodies 7 giv5 at e mom5t ( "t4 ,! tru? & accuracy ( ^! pr$ictions 7 a pro( t ! hypo!sis 0 valuable1 &1 at lea/ to a great ext5t1 true2 al?\gh1 z 0 aft]w>ds f\nd1 x involv$ a false repres5tation ( ! /ructure ( ! heav5s4 ,9 l mann]1 ! discov]y ( ! ,laws ( ,refraction enabl$ ma!maticians to pr$ict1 by calculation1 :at w\ld be ! effect ( any new =m or comb9ation ( transp>5t l5ses4 ,newton's hypo!sis ( ,fits ( ,easy ,transmission & ,easy ,reflection 9 ! p>ticles ( light1 al?\gh n confirm$ by o!r k9ds ( facts1 involv$ a true /atem5t ( ! law ( ! ph5om5a :i* x 0 fram$ to include1 & s]v$ to pr$ict ! =ms & col\rs ( ?9 plates = a wide range ( giv5 cases4 ,! hypo!sis t ,light op]ates by ,undulations & ,int]f]5ces1 af=d$ ! means ( pr$ict+ results "u a /ill l>g] ext5t ( conditions4 ,9 l mann] 9 ! #hg progress ( *emical k1 ! doctr9e ( ,phlogi/on suppli$ ! means ( =esee+ ! consequ5ce ( _m comb9ations ( elem5ts1 ev5 be=e !y 7 tri$2 b ! ,oxyg5 ,!ory1 besides af=d+ pr$ictions1 at lea/ equally exact1 ) reg>d to ! g5]al results ( *emical op]ations1 includ$ all ! facts conc]n+ ! relations ( weight ( ! elem5ts & _! comp\nds1 & enabl$ *emi/s to =esee su* facts 9 untri$ cases4 ,& ! ,!ory ( ,electromagnetic ,=ces1 z soon z x 0 rightly und]/ood1 enabl$ ^? :o _h ma/]$ x to pr$ict motions su* z _h n be5 be=e obs]v$1 :i* 7 accord+ly f\nd to take place4 ,m5 _c help believ+ t ! laws laid d[n by discov]]s mu/ be 9 a great measure id5tical ) ! real laws ( nature1 :5 ! discov]]s ?us det]m9e effects be=eh& 9 ! same mann] 9 :i* nature h]self det]m9es !m :5 ! occasion occurs4 ,^? :o c d ?is1 mu/1 to a consid]able ext5t1 h detect$ nature's secret2--mu/ h fix$ ^u ! conditions to :i* %e att5ds1 & mu/ h seiz$ ! rules by :i* %e applies !m4 ,su* a co9cid5ce ( untri$ facts ) speculative ass]tions _c be ! "w ( *ance1 b implies "s l>ge portion ( tru? 9 ! pr9ciples on :i* ! reason+ is f\nd$4 ,to trace ord] & law 9 t :i* has be5 obs]v$1 may be consid]$ z int]pret+ :at nature has writt5 d[n = u1 & w commonly prove t we und]/& h] alphabet4 ,b to pr$ict :at has n be5 obs]v$1 is to attempt ourselves to use ! legislative phrases ( nature2 & :5 %e responds pla9ly & precisely to t :i* we ?us utt]1 we _c b suppose t we h 9 a great measure made ourselves ma/]s ( ! mean+ & /ructure ( h] language4 ,! pr$iction ( results1 ev5 ( ! same k9d z ^? :i* h be5 obs]v$1 9 new cases1 is a pro( ( real success 9 our inductive processes4 #aa4 ,we h "h spok5 ( ! pr$iction ( facts ( ! same k9d z ^? f :i* our rule 0 collect$4 ,b ! evid5ce 9 fav\r ( our #hh induction is ( a mu* high] & m =cible "* :5 x enables u to expla9 & det]m9e cases ( a k9d diff]5t f ^? :i* 7 contemplat$ 9 ! =mation ( our hypo!sis4 ,! in/ances 9 :i* ?is has occurr$1 inde$1 impress u ) a conviction t ! tru? ( our hypo!sis is c]ta94 ,no accid5t c\ld give rise to su* an extraord9>y co9cid5ce4 ,no false supposition c\ld1 aft] be+ adju/$ to "o class ( ph5om5a1 exactly repres5t a diff]5t class1 :]e ! agreem5t 0 un=ese5 & uncontemplat$4 ,t rules spr++ f remote & unconnect$ qu>t]s %\ld ?us leap to ! same po9t1 c only arise f t be+ ! po9t :]e tru? resides4 ,accord+ly ! cases 9 :i* inductions f classes ( facts altoge!r diff]5t h ?us jump$ toge!r1 belong only to ! be/ e/abli%$ !ories :i* ! hi/ory ( sci5ce conta9s4 ,& z ,i %all h occasion to ref] to ?is peculi> feature 9 _! evid5ce1 ,i w take ! lib]ty ( describ+ x by a p>ticul> phrase2 & w t]m x ! ,consili5ce ( ,inductions4 ,x is exemplifi$ pr9cipally 9 "s ( ! greate/ discov]ies4 ,?us x 0 f\nd by ,newton t ! doctr9e ( ! ,attraction ( ! ,sun v>y+ accord+ to ! ,inv]se ,squ>e ( ?is di/ance1 :i* expla9$ ,kepl]'s ,?ird ,law1 ( ! proportionality ( ! cubes ( ! di/ances to ! squ>es ( ! p]iodic times ( ! planets1 expla9$ also 8 ,fir/ & ,second ,laws1 ( ! elliptical motion ( ea* planet2 al?\gh no connexion ( ^! laws _h be5 visible be=e4 ,aga91 x appe>$ t ! =ce ( univ]sal ,gravitation1 :i* _h be5 inf]r$ f ! ,p]turbations ( ! moon & planets by ! sun & by ea* o!r1 also acc\nt$ = ! fact1 app>5tly altoge!r dissimil> & remote1 ( ! ,precession ( ! equ9oxes4 ,"h 0 a mo/ /rik+ & surpris+ co9cid5ce1 :i* gave to ! !ory a /amp ( tru? beyond ! p[] ( +5uity to c\nt]feit4 ,9 l mann] 9 ,optics2 ! hypo!sis ( alt]nate ,fits ( easy ,transmission & ,reflection w\ld expla9 #hi ! col\rs ( ?9 plates1 & inde$ 0 devis$ & adju/$ = t v purpose2 b x c\ld give no acc\nt ( ! ph5om5a ( ! fr+es ( %ad[s4 ,b ! doctr9e ( ,int]f]5ces1 con/ruct$ at fir/ ) ref]5ce to ph5om5a ( ! nature ( ! ,fr+es1 expla9$ also ! ,col\rs ( ?9 plates bett] ?an ! supposition ( ! ,fits inv5t$ = t v purpose4 ,& we h 9 ,physical ,optics ano!r example ( ! same k9d1 :i* is q z /rik+ z ! explanation ( ,precession by inf]5ces f ! facts ( ,p]turbation4 ,! doctr9e ( ,undulations propagat$ 9 a ,sph]oidal ,=m 0 contriv$ at fir/ by ,huygh5s1 ) a view to expla9 ! laws ( ,d\ble ,refraction 9 calc-sp>2 & 0 pursu$ ) ! same view by ,fresnel4 ,b 9 ! c\rse ( ! inve/igation x appe>$1 9 a mo/ unexpect$ & wond]ful mann]1 t ?is same doctr9e ( sph]oidal undulations1 :5 x 0 s modifi$ z to acc\nt = ! directions ( ! two refract$ rays1 acc\nt$ also = ! positions ( _! ,planes ( ,pol>ization#adb1 a ph5om5on :i*1 tak5 by itself1 x _h p]plex$ previ\s ma!maticians1 ev5 to repres5t4 ,note #adb3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 ix4 c4 xi4 sect4 #d4 ,! ,!ory ( ,univ]sal ,gravitation1 & ( ! ,undulatory ,!ory ( ,light1 are1 inde$1 full ( examples ( ?is ,consili5ce ( ,inductions4 ,) reg>d to ! latt]1 x has be5 ju/ly ass]t$ by ,h]s*el1 t ! hi/ory ( ! undulatory !ory 0 a succession ( felicities#aeb4 ,& x is precisely ! unexpect$ co9cid5ces ( results drawn f di/ant p>ts ( ! subject :i* are prop]ly ?us describ$4 ,?us ! ,laws ( ! ,modification ( pol>ization to :i* ,fresnel 0 l$ by 8 g5]al views1 acc\nt$ = ! ,rule respect+ ! ,angle at :i* light is pol>iz$1 discov]$ by ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]#afb4 ,! conceptions ( ! !ory po9t$ out peculi> ,modifications ( ! ph5om5a :5 ,newton's r+s 7 produc$ by pol>is$ light1 :i* modifications 7 #ij asc]ta9$ to take place 9 fact1 by ,arago & ,airy#agb4 ,:5 ! beautiful ph5om5a ( ,dipol>iz$ light 7 discov]$ by ,arago & ,biot1 ,"y 0 able to decl>e t !y 7 r$ucible to ! g5]al laws ( ,int]f]5ce :i* he _h already e/abli%$#ahb4 ,& :at 0 no less /rik+ a confirmation ( ! tru? ( ! !ory1 ,measures ( ! same elem5t d$uc$ f v>i\s classes ( facts 7 f\nd to co9cide4 ,?us ! ,l5g? ( a lum9if]\s undulation1 calculat$ by ,"y f ! measurem5t ( ,fr+es ( %ad[s1 0 f\nd to agree v ne>ly ) ! previ\s calculation f ! col\rs ( ,?9 plates#aib4 ,note #aeb3 ,see ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 ix4 c4 xii4 ,note #afb3 ,ib4 c4 xi4 sect4 #d4 ,note #agb3 ,see ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 ix4 c4 xiii4 sect4 #f4 ,note #ahb3 ,ib4 c4 xi4 sect4 #e4 ,note #aib3 ,ib4 c4 xi4 sect4 #b4 ,no example c be po9t$ out1 9 ! :ole hi/ory ( sci5ce1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 9 :i* ?is ,consili5ce ( ,inductions has giv5 te/imony 9 fav\r ( an hypo!sis aft]w>ds discov]$ to be false4 ,if we take "o class ( facts only1 kn[+ ! law :i* !y foll[1 we may con/ruct an hypo!sis1 or p]haps sev]al1 :i* may repres5t !m3 & z new circum/ances are discov]$1 we may (t5 adju/ ! hypo!sis s z to correspond to ^! also4 ,b :5 ! hypo!sis1 ( itself & )\t adju/m5t = ! purpose1 gives u ! rule & reason ( a class ( facts n contemplat$ 9 its con/ruction1 we h a crit]ion ( its reality1 :i* has nev] yet be5 produc$ 9 fav\r ( falsehood4 #ab4 ,9 ! prec$+ ,article ,i h spok5 ( ! hypo!sis ) :i* we comp>e our facts z be+ fram$ all at once1 ea* ( its p>ts be+ includ$ 9 ! orig9al s*eme4 ,9 reality1 h[ev]1 x (t5 happ5s t ! v>i\s suppositions :i* our sy/em conta9s are add$ ^u occasion ( diff]5t rese>*es4 ,?us 9 ! ,ptolemaic doctr9e ( ! heav5s1 new epicycles & ecc5trics 7 add$ z new inequalities ( ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies 7 discov]$2 & 9 ! ,newtonian doctr9e ( mat]ial rays ( light1 ! supposition t ^! rays _h #ia 'fits1' 0 add$ to expla9 ! col\rs ( ?9 plates2 & ! supposition t !y _h 'sides' 0 introduc$ on occasion ( ! ph5om5a ( pol>ization4 ,9 l mann] o!r !ories h be5 built up ( p>ts devis$ at diff]5t times4 ,?is be+ ! mode 9 :i* !ories are (t5 fram$1 we h to notice a di/9ction :i* is f\nd to prevail 9 ! progress ( true & false !ories4 ,9 ! =m] class all ! additional suppositions t5d to simplicity & h>mony2 ! new suppositions resolve !mselves into ! old ones1 or at lea/ require only "s easy modification ( ! hypo!sis fir/ assum$3 ! sy/em becomes m coh]5t z x is fur!r ext5d$4 ,! elem5ts :i* we require = expla9+ a new class ( facts are already conta9$ 9 our sy/em4 ,diff]5t memb]s ( ! !ory run toge!r1 & we h ?us a con/ant conv]g5ce to unity4 ,9 false !ories1 ! contr>y is ! case4 ,! new suppositions are some?+ altoge!r additional2--n sugge/$ by ! orig9al s*eme2 p]haps difficult to reconcile ) x4 ,e su* addition adds to ! complexity ( ! hypo!tical sy/em1 :i* at la/ becomes unmanageable1 & is compell$ to surr5d] its place to "s simpl] explanation4 ,su* a false !ory1 = example1 0 ! anci5t doctr9e ( ecc5trics & epicycles4 ,x expla9$ ! g5]al succession ( ! ,places ( ! ,sun1 ,moon1 & ,planets2 x w\ld n h expla9$ ! proportion ( _! ,magnitudes at diff]5t times1 if ^! c\ld h be5 accurately obs]v$2 b ?is ! anci5t a/ronom]s 7 unable to d4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ,ty*o & o!r a/ronom]s came to be able to obs]ve ! planets accurately 9 all positions1 x 0 f\nd t no comb9ation ( equable circul> motions w\ld exactly repres5t all ! obs]vations4 ,we may see1 9 ,kepl]'s works1 ! _m new modifications ( ! epicyclical hypo!sis :i* (f]$ !mselves to him2 "s ( :i* w\ld h agre$ ) ! ph5om5a ) a c]ta9 degree ( accuracy1 b n ) s great a degree z ,kepl]1 =tunately = ! progress ( sci5ce1 insi/$ ^u obta9+4 ,aft] ^! #ib epicycles _h be5 ?us accumulat$1 !y all disappe>$ & gave way to ! simpl] conception ( an elliptical motion4 ,9 l mann]1 ! discov]y ( new inequalities 9 ! ,moon's motions encumb]$ h] sy/em m & m ) new ma*9]y1 :i* 0 at la/ reject$ all at once 9 fav\r ( ! elliptical !ory4 ,a/ronom]s c\ld n b suppose !mselves 9 a wrong pa?1 :5 ! prospect grew d>k] & m entangl$ at e /ep4 ,aga92 ! ,c>tesian sy/em ( ,vortices might be said to expla9 ! prim>y ph5om5a ( ! revolutions ( planets ab\t ! sun1 & satellites ab\t planets4 ,b ! elliptical =m ( ! orbits requir$ new suppositions4 ,b]n\lli ascrib$ ?is curve to ! %ape ( ! planet1 op]at+ on ! /ream ( ! vortex 9 a mann] simil> to ! rudd] ( a boat4 ,b !n ! motions ( ! aphelia1 & ( ! nodes1--! p]turbations1--ev5 ! action ( gravity t[>ds ! e>?1--c\ld n be acc\nt$ = )\t new & indep5d5t suppositions4 ,"h 0 none ( ! simplicity ( tru?4 ,! !ory ( ,gravitation1 on ! o!r h&1 became m simple z ! facts to be expla9$ became m num]\s4 ,! attraction ( ! sun acc\nt$ = ! motions ( ! planets2 ! attraction ( ! planets 0 ! cause ( ! motion ( ! satellites4 ,b ?is be+ assum$1 ! p]turbations1 & ! motions ( ! nodes & aphelia1 only made x requisite to ext5d ! attraction ( ! sun to ! satellites1 & t ( ! planets to ea* o!r3--! tides1 ! sph]oidal =m ( ! e>?1 ! precession1 /ill requir$ no?+ m ?an t ! moon & sun %\ld attract ! p>ts ( ! e>?1 & t ^! %\ld attract ea* o!r2--s t all ! suppositions resolv$ !mselves into ! s+le "o1 ( ! univ]sal gravitation ( all matt]4 ,x is difficult to imag9e a m conv9c+ manife/ation ( simplicity & unity4 ,aga91 to take an example f ano!r sci5ce2--! doctr9e ( ,phlogi/on br\ght toge!r _m facts 9 a v plausible mann]1--combu/ion1 acidification1 & o!rs1--& v naturally prevail$ = a :ile4 #ic ,b ! balance came to be us$ 9 *emical op]ations1 & ! facts ( weight z well z ( comb9ation 7 to be acc\nt$ =4 ,on ! phlogi/ic !ory1 x appe>$ t ?is c\ld n be done )\t a new supposition1 & t1 a v /range "o2--t phlogi/on 0 an elem5t n only n heavy1 b absolutely light1 s t x dim9i%$ ! weight ( ! comp\nds into :i* x ent]$4 ,"s *emi/s = a "t adopt$ ?is extravagant view1 b ! wis] ( !m saw1 9 ! necessity ( su* a supposition to ! def5ce ( ! !ory1 an evid5ce t ! hypo!sis ( an elem5t phlogi/on 0 errone\s4 ,& ! opposite hypo!sis1 :i* taught t oxyg5 0 subtract$1 & n phlogi/on add$1 0 accept$ because x requir$ no su* novel & inadmissible assumption4 ,aga91 we f9d ! same evid5ce ( tru? 9 ! progress ( ! ,undulatory ,!ory ( light1 9 ! c\rse ( its application f "o class ( facts to ano!r4 ,?us we expla9 ,reflection & ,refraction by undulations2 :5 we come to ,?9 ,plates1 ! requisite 'fits' are already involv$ 9 our fundam5tal hypo!sis1 = !y are ! l5g? ( an undulation3 ! ph5om5a ( ,diffraction also require su* int]vals2 & ! int]vals ?us requir$ agree exactly ) ! o!rs 9 magnitude1 s t no new prop]ty is ne$$4 ,pol>ization = a mom5t appe>s to require "s new hypo!sis2 yet ?is is h>dly ! case2 = ! direction ( our vibrations is hi!rto arbitr>y3--we all[ pol>ization to decide x1 & we suppose ! undulations to be transv]se4 ,hav+ done ?is = ! sake ( ,pol>ization1 we turn to ! ph5om5a ( ,d\ble ,refraction1 & inquire :at new hypo!sis !y require4 ,b ! answ] is1 t !y require none3 ! supposition ( transv]se vibrations1 :i* we h made 9 ord] to expla9 ,pol>ization1 gives u also ! law ( ,d\ble ,refraction4 ,tru? may give rise to su* a co9cid5ce2 falsehood _c4 ,aga91 ! facts ( ,dipol>ization come into view4 ,b !y h>dly require any new assumption2 = ! diff]5ce ( optical ela/icity ( cry/als 9 diff]5t directions1 #id :i* is already assum$ 9 uniaxal cry/als#bjb1 is ext5d$ to biaxal exactly accord+ to ! law ( symmetry2 & ?is be+ done1 ! laws ( ! ph5om5a1 curi\s & complex z !y are1 are fully expla9$4 ,! ph5om5a ( ,circul> ,pol>ization by int]nal reflection1 in/ead ( requir+ a new hypo!sis1 are f\nd to be giv5 by an int]pretation ( an app>5tly inexplicable result ( an old hypo!sis4 ,! ,circul> ,pol>ization ( ,qu>tz & ! ,d\ble ,refraction does inde$ appe> to require a new assumption1 b /ill n "o :i* at all di/urbs ! =m ( ! !ory2 & 9 %ort1 ! :ole hi/ory ( ?is !ory is a progress1 con/ant & /eady1 (t5 /rik+ & />tl+1 f "o degree ( evid5ce & consi/5ce to ano!r ( a high] ord]4 ,note #bjb3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 ix4 c4 xi4 sect4 #e4 ,9 ! ,emission ,!ory1 on ! o!r h&1 z 9 ! !ory ( solid epicycles1 we see :at we may consid] z ! natural c\rse ( ?+s 9 ! c>e] ( a false !ory4 ,su* a !ory may1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 expla9 ! ph5om5a :i* x 0 at fir/ contriv$ to meet2 b e new class ( facts requires a new supposition--an addition to ! ma*9]y3 & z obs]vation goes on1 ^! incoh]5t app5dages accumulate1 till !y ov]:elm & upset ! orig9al frame-"w4 ,su* has be5 ! hypo!sis ( ! ,mat]ial ,emission ( light4 ,9 its orig9al =m1 x expla9$ ,reflection & ,refraction3 b ! col\rs ( ,?9 ,plates add$ to x ! ,fits ( easy ,transmission & ,reflection2 ! ph5om5a ( ,diffraction fur!r inve/$ ! emitt$ p>ticles ) complex laws ( ,attraction & ,repulsion2 ,pol>ization gave !m ,sides3 ,d\ble ,refraction subject$ !m to peculi> ,=ces emanat+ f ! axes ( ! cry/al3 ,f9ally1 ,dipol>ization load$ !m ) ! complex & unconnect$ contrivance ( ,moveable ,pol>ization3 & ev5 :5 all ?is _h be5 done1 additional me*anism 0 want+4 ,!re is "h no unexpect$ success1 no happy co9cid5ce1 no conv]g5ce ( pr9ciples f remote qu>t]s4 ,! philosoph] builds #ie ! ma*9e1 b its p>ts d n fit4 ,!y hold toge!r only :ile he presses !m4 ,?is is n ! "* ( tru?4 ,z ano!r example ( ! application ( ! ,maxim n[ "u consid]ation1 ,i may p]haps be all[$ to ref] to ! judgm5t :i*1 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,!rmotics1 ,i h v5tur$ to give respect+ ,laplace's ,!ory ( ,gases4 ,i h /at$#bab1 t we _c help =m+ an unfav\rable judgm5t ( ?is !ory1 by look+ = t great *>act]i/ic ( true !ory2 namely1 t ! hypo!ses :i* 7 assum$ to acc\nt = "o class ( facts are f\nd to expla9 ano!r class ( a diff]5t nature4 ,?us ,laplace's fir/ suppositions expla9 ! connexion ( ,compression ) ,d5sity1 7! law ( ,boyle & ,m>iotte17 & ! connexion ( ,ela/icity ) ,heat1 7! law ( ,dalton & ,gay ,lussac74 ,b ! !ory requires o!r assumptions :5 we come to ,lat5t ,heat2 & yet ^! new assumptions produce no effect ^u ! calculations 9 any application ( ! !ory4 ,:5 ! hypo!sis1 con/ruct$ ) ref]5ce to ! ,ela/icity & ,temp]ature1 is appli$ to ano!r class ( facts1 ^? ( ,lat5t ,heat1 we h no ,simplification ( ! ,hypo!sis1 & !re=e no evid5ce ( ! tru? ( ! !ory4 ,note #bab3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 x4 c4 iv4 #ac4 ,! la/ two sections ( ?is *apt] direct our att5tion to two circum/ances1 :i* t5d to prove1 9 a mann] :i* we may t]m irresi/ible1 ! tru? ( ! !ories :i* !y *>act]ize3--! ,consili5ce ( ,inductions f diff]5t & sep>ate classes ( facts2--& ! progressive ,simplification ( ! ,!ory z x is ext5d$ to new cases4 ,^! two ,*>act]s are1 9 fact1 h>dly diff]5t2 !y are exemplifi$ by ! same cases4 ,= if ^! ,inductions1 collect$ f "o class ( facts1 supply an unexpect$ explanation ( a new class1 :i* is ! case fir/ spok5 (1 !re w be no ne$ = new ma*9]y 9 ! hypo!sis to apply x to ! newly-contemplat$ facts2 & ?us1 we h a case 9 :i* ! sy/em does n become #if m complex :5 its application is ext5d$ to a wid] field1 :i* 0 ! "* ( true !ory 9 its second aspect4 ,! ,consili5ces ( our ,inductions give rise to a con/ant ,conv]g5ce ( our ,!ory t[>ds ,simplicity & ,unity4 ,b1 moreov]1 bo? ^! cases ( ! ext5sion ( ! !ory1 )\t difficulty or new suppositions1 to a wid] range & to new classes ( ph5om5a1 may be conv5i5tly consid]$ 9 yet ano!r po9t ( view2 namely1 z successive /eps by :i* we gradually asc5d 9 our speculative views to a high] & high] po9t ( g5]ality4 ,= :5 ! !ory1 ei!r by ! concurr5ce ( two indications1 or by an ext5sion )\t complication1 has includ$ a new range ( ph5om5a1 we h1 9 fact1 a new induction ( a m g5]al k9d1 to :i* ! inductions =m]ly obta9$ are subord9ate1 z p>ticul> cases to a g5]al proposition4 ,we h 9 su* examples1 9 %ort1 an in/ance ( successive g5]alization4 ,?is is a subject ( great importance1 & des]v+ ( be+ well illu/rat$2 x w come "u our notice 9 ! next *apt]4 #ig ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,( ,,! ,,logic ,,( ,,induction4 ,,aphorism ,,xvii4 ,! ,logic ( ,induction consi/s 9 /at+ ! ,facts & ! ,inf]5ce 9 su* a mann]1 t ! ,evid5ce ( ! ,inf]5ce is manife/3 j z ! ,logic ( ,d$uction consi/s 9 /at+ ! ,premises & ! ,conclusion 9 su* a mann] t ! ,evid5ce ( ! ,conclusion is manife/4 ,,aphorism ,,xviii4 ,! ,logic ( ,d$uction is exhibit$ by means ( a c]ta9 ,=mula2 namely1 a ,syllogism2 & e tra9 ( d$uctive reason+1 to be demon/rative1 mu/ be capable ( resolution into a s]ies ( su* ,=mul legitimately con/ruct$4 ,9 l mann]1 ! ,logic ( ,induction may be exhibit$ by means ( c]ta9 ,=mul2 & e tra9 ( inductive inf]5ce to be s\nd1 mu/ be capable ( resolution into a s*eme ( su* ,=mul1 legitimately con/ruct$4 ,,aphorism ,,xix4 ,! inductive act ( ?\ght by :i* sev]al ,facts are colligat$ into "o ,proposition1 may be express$ by say+3 ,! sev]al ,facts are exactly express$ z "o ,fact1 if1 & only if1 we adopt ! ,conceptions & ! ,ass]tion ( ! ,proposition4 ,,aphorism ,,xx4 ,! ,"o ,fact1 ?us inductively obta9$ f sev]al ,facts1 may be comb9$ ) o!r ,facts1 & colligat$ ) !m by a new act ( ,induction4 ,?is process may be #ih indef9itely repeat$3 & ^! successive processes are ! ,/eps ( ,induction1 or ( ,g5]alization1 f ! l[e/ to ! highe/4 ,,aphorism ,,xxi4 ,! relation ( ! successive ,/eps ( ,induction may be exhibit$ by means ( an ,inductive ,table1 9 :i* ! sev]al ,facts are indicat$1 & ti$ toge!r by a ,bracket1 & ! ,inductive ,inf]5ce plac$ on ! o!r side ( ! ,bracket2 & ?is arrangem5t repeat$1 s z to =m a g5ealogical ,table ( ea* ,induction1 f ! l[e/ to ! highe/4 ,,aphorism ,,xxii4 ,! ,logic ( ,induction is ! ,crit]ion ( ,tru? inf]r$ f ,facts1 z ! ,logic ( ,d$uction is ! ,crit]ion ( ,tru? d$uc$ f necess>y ,pr9ciples4 ,! ,inductive ,table enables u to apply su* a ,crit]ion2 = we c det]m9e :e!r ea* ,induction is v]ifi$ & ju/ifi$ by ! ,facts :i* its ,bracket includes2 & if ea* induction 9 p>ticul> be s\nd1 ! highe/1 :i* m]ely comb9es !m all1 mu/ necess>ily be s\nd also4 ,,aphorism ,,xxiii4 ,! di/9ction ( ,fact & ,!ory is only relative4 ,ev5ts & ph5om5a1 consid]$ z ,p>ticul>s :i* may be colligat$ by ,induction1 are ,facts2 consid]$ z ,g5]alities already obta9$ by colligation ( o!r ,facts1 !y are ,!ories4 ,! same ev5t or ph5om5on is a ,fact or a ,!ory1 accord+ z x is consid]$ z /&+ on "o side or ! o!r ( ! ,inductive ,bracket4 #a4 ,,! subject to :i* ! pres5t *apt] ref]s is describ$ by phrases :i* are at ! pres5t day famili>ly us$ 9 speak+ ( ! progress ( k4 ,we he> v frequ5t m5tion ( asc5d+ f p>ticul> to g5]al propositions1 & f ^! to propositions /ill m g5]al2--( #ii tru?s includ$ 9 o!r tru?s ( a high] degree ( g5]ality2--( diff]5t /ages ( g5]alization2--& ( ! highe/ /ep ( ! process ( discov]y1 to :i* all o!rs are subord9ate & prep>atory4 ,z ^! expressions1 s famili> to our e>s1 especially s9ce ! "t ( ,francis ,bacon1 d5ote1 v significantly1 processes & relations :i* are ( great importance 9 ! =mation ( sci5ce1 x is necess>y = u to give a cle> acc\nt ( !m1 illu/rat$ ) g5]al exemplifications2 & ?is we %all endeav\r to d4 ,we h1 inde$1 already expla9$ t sci5ce consi/s ( ,propositions :i* include ! ,facts f :i* !y 7 collect$2 & o!r wid] ,propositions1 collect$ 9 l mann] f ! =m]1 & includ+ !m4 ,?us1 t ! />s1 ! moon1 ! sun1 rise1 culm9ate1 & set1 are facts includ$ 9 ! proposition t ! heav5s1 c>ry+ ) !m all ! cele/ial bodies1 h a diurnal revolution ab\t ! axis ( ! e>?4 ,aga91 ! obs]v$ mon?ly motions ( ! moon1 & ! annual motions ( ! sun1 are includ$ 9 c]ta9 propositions conc]n+ ! movem5ts ( ^? lum9>ies ) respect to ! />s4 ,b all ^! propositions are really includ$ 9 ! doctr9e t ! e>?1 revolv+ on its axis1 moves r\nd ! sun1 & ! moon r\nd ! e>?4 ,^! movem5ts1 aga91 consid]$ z facts1 are expla9$ & includ$ 9 ! /atem5t ( ! =ces :i* ! e>? ex]ts ^u ! moon1 & ! sun ^u ! e>?4 ,aga91 ?is doctr9e ( ! =ces ( ^! ?ree bodies is includ$ 9 ! ass]tion1 t all ! bodies ( ! sol> sy/em1 & all p>ts ( matt]1 ex]t =ces1 ea* ^u ea*4 ,& we might easily %[ t all ! lead+ facts 9 a/ronomy are compreh5d$ 9 ! same g5]alization4 ,9 l mann] ) reg>d to any o!r sci5ce1 s f> z its tru?s h be5 well e/abli%$ & fully develop$1 we might %[ t x consi/s ( a gradation ( propositions1 proce$+ f ! mo/ special facts to ! mo/ g5]al !oretical ass]tions4 ,we %all exhibit ?is gradation 9 "s ( ! pr9cipal bran*es ( sci5ce4 #ajj #b4 ,?is gradation ( tru?s1 successively includ$ 9 o!r tru?s1 may be conv5i5tly repres5t$ by ,tables resembl+ ! g5ealogical tables by :i* ! d]ivation ( desc5dants f a common ance/or is exhibit$2 except t x is prop] 9 ?is case to inv]t ! =m ( ! ,table1 & to make x conv]ge to unity d[nw>ds in/ead ( upw>ds1 s9ce x has = its purpose to express1 n ! d]ivation ( _m f "o1 b ! collection ( "o tru? f _m ?+s4 ,two or m co-ord9ate facts or propositions may be rang$ side by side1 & jo9$ by "s m>k ( connexion1 7a bracket1 z or 17 b5ea? :i* may be plac$ ! m g5]al proposition :i* is collect$ by induction f ! =m]4 ,aga91 propositions co-ord9ate ) ?is m g5]al "o may be plac$ on a level ) x2 & ! comb9ation ( ^!1 & ! result ( ! comb9ation1 may be indicat$ by brackets 9 ! same mann]2 & s on1 ?r\gh any numb] ( gradations4 ,by ?is means ! /reams ( k f v>i\s classes ( facts w con/antly run toge!r into a small] & small] numb] ( *annels2 l ! conflu5t rivulets ( a great riv]1 com+ toge!r f _m s\rces1 unit+ _! ramifications s z to =m l>g] bran*es1 ^! aga9 unit+ 9 a s+le trunk4 ,! g5ealogical tree ( ea* great portion ( sci5ce1 ?us =m$1 w conta9 all ! lead+ tru?s ( ! sci5ce arrang$ 9 _! due co-ord9ation & subord9ation4 ,su* ,tables1 con/ruct$ = ! sci5ces ( ,a/ronomy & ( ,optics1 w be giv5 at ! end ( ?is *apt]4 #c4 ,! union ( co-ord9ate propositions into a proposition ( a high] ord]1 :i* occurs 9 ?is ,tree ( ,sci5ce :]ev] two twigs unite 9 "o bran*1 is1 9 ea* case1 an example ( ,induction4 ,! s+le proposition is collect$ by ! process ( induction f its sev]al memb]s4 ,b "h we may obs]ve1 t ! image ( a m]e union ( ! p>ts at ea* ( ^! po9ts1 :i* ! figure ( a tree or a riv] pres5ts1 is v inadequate to convey ! true /ate ( ! case2 = 9 ,induction1 z we h se51 besides m]e collection ( p>ticul>s1 !re is always a new conception1 a #aja pr9ciple ( connexion & unity1 suppli$ by ! m9d1 & sup]9duc$ ^u ! p>ticul>s4 ,!re is n m]ely a juxta-position ( mat]ials1 by :i* ! new proposition conta9s all t its compon5t p>ts conta9$2 b also a =mative act ex]t$ by ! und]/&+1 s t ^! mat]ials are conta9$ 9 a new %ape4 ,we mu/ rememb]1 !re=e1 t our ,inductive ,tables1 al?\gh !y repres5t ! elem5ts & ! ord] ( ^! inductive /eps1 d n fully repres5t ! :ole signification ( ! process 9 ea* case4 #d4 ,! pr9cipal features ( ! progress ( sci5ce spok5 ( 9 ! la/ *apt] are cle>ly exhibit$ 9 ^! ,tables2 namely1 ! ,consili5ce ( ,inductions & ! con/ant ,t5d5cy to ,simplicity obs]vable 9 true !ories4 ,inde$ 9 all cases 9 :i*1 f propositions ( consid]able g5]ality1 propositions ( a /ill high] degree are obta9$1 !re is a conv]g5ce ( inductions2 & if 9 "o ( ! l9es :i* ?us conv]ge1 ! /eps be rapidly & sudd5ly made 9 ord] to meet ! o!r l9e1 we may consid] t we h an example ( ,consili5ce4 ,?us :5 ,newton _h collect$1 f ,kepl]'s ,laws1 ! ,c5tral ,=ce ( ! sun1 & f ^!1 comb9$ ) o!r facts1 ! ,univ]sal ,=ce ( all ! heav5ly bodies1 he sudd5ly turn$ r\nd to include 9 8 g5]alization ! ,precession ( ! ,equ9oxes1 :i* he decl>$ to arise f ! attraction ( ! sun & moon ^u ! protub]ant "p ( ! t]re/rial sph]oid4 ,! app>5t remot5ess ( ?is fact1 9 its nature1 f ! o!r facts ) :i* he ?us associat$ x1 causes ?is "p ( 8 reason+ to /rike u z a rem>kable example ( ,consili5ce4 ,accord+ly1 9 ! ,table ( ,a/ronomy we f9d t ! columns :i* conta9 ! facts & !ories relative to ! sun & planets1 aft] exhibit+ sev]al /ages ( induction )9 !mselves1 are at l5g? sudd5ly connect$ ) a column till !n q di/9ct1 conta9+ ! precession ( ! equ9oxes4 ,9 l mann]1 9 ! ,table ( ,optics1 ! columns :i* conta9 ! facts & !ories relative to d\ble refraction1 & ^? :i* #ajb include pol>ization by cry/als1 ea* g sep>ately ?r\gh sev]al /ages ( induction2 & !n ^! two sets ( columns are sudd5ly connect$ by ,fresnel's ma!matical induction1 t d\ble refraction & pol>ization arise f ! same cause3 ?us exhibit+ a rem>kable ,consili5ce4 #e4 ,! con/ant ,t5d5cy to ,simplicity 9 ! sci5ces ( :i* ! progress is ?us repres5t$1 appe>s f ! =m ( ! ,table itself2 = ! s+le trunk into :i* all ! bran*es conv]ge1 conta9s 9 itself ! sub/ance ( all ! propositions by means ( :i* ?is la/ g5]alization 0 arriv$ at4 ,x is true1 t ?is ultimate result is sometimes n s simple z 9 ! ,table x appe>s3 = in/ance1 ! ultimate g5]alization ( ! ,table exhibit+ ! progress ( ,physical ,optics1--namely1 t ,light consi/s 9 ,undulations1--mu/ be und]/ood z includ+ "s o!r hypo!ses2 z1 t ! undulations are transv]se1 t ! e!r ?r\gh :i* !y are propagat$ has its ela/icity 9 cry/als & o!r transp>5t bodies regulat$ by c]ta9 laws2 & ! l4 ,yet /ill1 ev5 ackn[l$g+ all ! complication ?us impli$1 ! ,table 9 "q evid5ces cle>ly en\gh ! con/ant advance t[>ds unity1 consi/5cy1 & simplicity1 :i* h m>k$ ! progress ( ?is ,!ory4 ,! same is ! case 9 ! ,inductive ,table ( ,a/ronomy 9 a /ill great] degree4 #f4 ,^! ,tables naturally af=d ! opportunity ( assign+ to ea* ( ! di/9ct /eps ( :i* ! progress ( sci5ce consi/s1 ! "n ( ! ,discov]] to :om x is due4 ,e "o ( ! inductive processes :i* ! brackets ( our ,tables m>k1 directs our att5tion to "s p]son by :om ! induction 0 fir/ di/9ctly made4 ,^! names ,i h endeav\r$ to put 9 _! due places 9 ! ,tables2 & ! ,inductive ,tree ( our k 9 ea* sci5ce becomes1 9 ?is way1 an exhibition ( ! claims ( ea* discov]] to di/9ction1 &1 z x 71 a ,g5ealogical ,tree ( sci5tific nobility4 ,x is by no means pret5d$ t su* a tree includes ! #ajc names ( all ! m]itori\s lab\r]s 9 ea* dep>tm5t ( sci5ce4 ,_m p]sons are mo/ usefully employ$ 9 collect+ & v]ify+ tru?s1 :o d n advance to any new tru?s4 ,! lab\rs ( a numb] ( su* are includ$ 9 ea* /age ( our asc5t4 ,b su* ,tables z we h n[ be=e u w pres5t to u ! names ( all ! mo/ em95t discov]]s3 = ! ma9 /eps ( :i* ! progress ( sci5ce consi/s1 are transitions f m p>ticul> to m g5]al tru?s1 & mu/ !re=e be rightly giv5 by ^! ,tables2 & ^? mu/ be ! greate/ names 9 sci5ce to :om ! pr9cipal ev5ts ( its advance are ?us due4 #g4 ,! ,tables1 z we h pres5t$ !m1 exhibit ! c\rse by :i* we pass f ,p>ticul> to ,g5]al ?r\gh v>i\s gradations1 & s to ! mo/ g5]al4 ,!y display ! ord] ( discov]y4 ,b by read+ !m 9 an inv]t$ mann]1 beg9n+ at ! s+le compreh5sive tru?s ) :i* ! ,tables end1 & trac+ ^! back into ! m p>tial tru?s1 & ^! aga9 into special facts1 !y answ] ano!r purpose2--!y exhibit ! process ( v]ification ( discov]ies once made4 ,= ea* ( our g5]al propositions is true 9 virtue ( ! tru? ( ! n>r[] propositions :i* x involves2 & we _c satisfy ourselves ( its tru? 9 any o!r way ?an by asc]ta9+ t ^! its con/itu5t elem5ts are true4 ,to assure ourselves t ! sun attracts ! planets ) =ces v>y+ inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance1 we mu/ analyse by geometry ! motion ( a body 9 an ellipse ab\t ! focus1 s z to see t su* a motion does imply su* a =ce4 ,we mu/ also v]ify ^? calculations by :i* ! obs]v$ places ( ea* planet are /at$ to be includ$ 9 an ellipse4 ,^! calculations involve assumptions respect+ ! pa? :i* ! e>? describes ab\t ! sun1 :i* assumptions mu/ aga9 be v]ifi$ by ref]5ce to obs]vation4 ,& ?us1 proce$+ f /ep to /ep1 we resolve ! mo/ g5]al tru?s into _! con/itu5t p>ts2 & ^! aga9 into _! p>ts2 & by te/+1 at ea* /ep1 bo? ! reality ( ! ass]t$ +r$i5ts & ! propriety #ajd ( ! conjunction1 we e/abli% ! :ole sy/em ( tru?s1 h[ev] wide & v>i\s x may be4 #h4 ,x is a v great advantage1 9 su* a mode ( exhibit+ sci5tific tru?s1 t x resolves ! v]ification ( ! mo/ complex & compreh5sive !ories1 into a numb] ( small /eps1 ( :i* almo/ any "o falls )9 ! rea* ( common tal5ts & indu/ry4 ,t if ! p>ticul>s ( any "o /ep be true1 ! g5]alization also is true1 any p]son ) a m9d prop]ly discipl9$ may satisfy himself by a little /udy4 ,t ea* ( ^! p>ticul> propositions is true1 may be asc]ta9$1 by ! same k9d ( att5tion1 :5 ?is proposition is resolv$ into its con/itu5t & m special propositions4 ,& ?us we may proce$1 till ! mo/ g5]al tru? is brok5 up into small & manageable portions4 ,( ^! portions1 ea* may appe> by itself n>r[ & easy2 & yet !y are s wov5 toge!r1 by hypo!sis & conjunction1 t ! tru? ( ! p>ts necess>ily assures u ( ! tru? ( ! :ole4 ,! v]ification is ( ! same nature z ! v]ification ( a l>ge & complex /atem5t ( great sums receiv$ by a m]cantile (fice on v>i\s acc\nts f _m qu>t]s4 ,! /atem5t is sep>at$ into c]ta9 compreh5sive heads1 & ^! into o!rs less ext5sive2 & ^! aga9 into small] collections ( sep>ate articles1 ea* ( :i* c be inquir$ into & report$ on by sep>ate p]sons4 ,& ?us at la/1 ! m]e addition ( numb]s p]=m$ by ^! v>i\s p]sons1 & ! summation ( ! results :i* !y obta91 execut$ by o!r acc\ntants1 is a complete & entire security t !re is no err\r 9 ! :ole ( ! process4 #i4 ,?is comp>ison ( ! process by :i* we v]ify sci5tific tru? to ! process ( ,book-keep+ 9 a l>ge comm]cial e/abli%m5t1 may appe> to "s p]sons n suffici5tly dignifi$ = ! subject4 ,b1 9 fact1 ! possibility ( giv+ ?is =mal & bus9ess-l aspect to ! evid5ce ( sci5ce1 z involv$ 9 ! process ( successive g5]alization1 is an ine/imable advantage4 ,= if no "o c\ld pron\nce conc]n+ a wide & pr(\nd !ory except he :o #aje c\ld at once embrace 9 8 m9d ! :ole range ( inf]5ce1 ext5d+ f ! special facts up to ! mo/ g5]al pr9ciples1 none b ! greate/ g5iuses w\ld be entitl$ to judge conc]n+ ! tru? or err\r ( sci5tific discov]ies4 ,b1 9 reality1 we seldom ne$ to v]ify m ?an "o or two /eps ( su* discov]ies at "o "t2 & ?is may commonly be done 7:5 ! discov]ies h be5 fully e/abli%$ & develop$17 by any "o :o br+s to ! task cle> conceptions & /eady att5tion4 ,! progress ( sci5ce is gradual3 ! discov]ies :i* are successively made1 are also v]ifi$ successively4 ,we h nev] any v l>ge collections ( !m on our h&s at once4 ,! d\bts & unc]ta9ties ( any "o :o has /udi$ sci5ce ) c>e & p]sev]ance are g5]ally conf9$ to a few po9ts4 ,if he c satisfy himself ^u ^!1 he has no misgiv+s respect+ ! re/ ( ! /ructure2 :i* has inde$ be5 repeat$ly v]ifi$ by o!r p]sons 9 l mann]4 ,! fact t sci5ce is capable ( be+ resolv$ into sep>ate processes ( v]ification1 is t :i* r5d]s x possible to =m a great body ( sci5tific tru?1 by add+ toge!r a va/ numb] ( tru?s1 ( :i* _m m51 at v>i\s times & by multipli$ ef=ts1 h satisfi$ !mselves4 ,! treasury ( ,sci5ce is con/antly ri* & abundant1 because x accumulates ! weal? :i* is ?us ga!r$ by s _m1 & reckon$ ov] by s _m m3 & ! dignity ( ,k is no m l[]$ by ! multiplicity ( ! tasks on :i* h] s]vants are employ$1 & ! n>r[ field ( lab\r to :i* "s conf9e !mselves1 ?an ! ri* m]*ant is degrad$ by ! numb] ( (fices :i* x is necess>y = him to ma9ta91 & ! m9ute articles ( :i* he requires an exact /atem5t f 8 acc\ntants4 #aj4 ,! analysis ( doctr9es inductively obta9$1 into _! con/itu5t facts1 & ! arrangem5t ( !m 9 su* a =m t ! conclusiv5ess ( ! induction may be di/9ctly se51 may be t]m$ ! ,logic ( ,induction4 ,by ,logic has g5]ally be5 meant a sy/em :i* tea*es u s to arrange our #ajf reason+s t _! tru? or falsehood %all be evid5t 9 _! =m4 ,9 d$uctive reason+s1 9 :i* ! g5]al pr9ciples are assum$1 & ! "q is conc]n+ _! application & comb9ation 9 p>ticul> cases1 ! device :i* ?us enables u to judge :e!r our reason+s are conclusive is ! ,syllogism2 & ?is =m1 along ) ! rules :i* belong to x1 does 9 fact supply u ) a crit]ion ( d$uctive or demon/rative reason+4 ,! ,inductive ,table1 su* z x is pres5t$ 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 9 l mann] supplies ! means ( asc]ta9+ ! tru? ( our inductive inf]5ces1 s f> z ! =m 9 :i* our reason+ may be /at$ c af=d su* a crit]ion4 ,( c\rse "s c>e is requisite 9 ord] to r$uce a tra9 ( demon/ration into ! =m ( a s]ies ( syllogisms2 & c]ta9ly n less ?\ght & att5tion are requir$ = resolv+ all ! ma9 doctr9es ( any great dep>tm5t ( sci5ce into a graduat$ table ( co-ord9ate & subord9ate inductions4 ,b 9 ea* case1 :5 ?is task is once execut$1 ! evid5ce or want ( evid5ce ( our conclusions appe>s imm$iately 9 a mo/ lum9\s mann]4 ,9 ea* /ep ( induction1 our ,table enum]ates ! p>ticul> facts1 & /ates ! g5]al !oretical tru? :i* includes ^! & :i* ^! con/itute4 ,! special act ( att5tion by :i* we satisfy ourselves t ! facts are s includ$1--t ! g5]al tru? is s con/itut$1--!n af=ds little room = err\r1 ) mod]ate att5tion & cle>ness ( ?\ght4 #aa4 ,we may f9d an example ( ?is act ( att5tion ?us requir$1 at any "o ( ! /eps ( induction 9 our ,tables2 = in/ance1 at ! /ep 9 ! e>ly progress ( a/ronomy at :i* x 0 inf]r$1 t ! e>? is a globe1 & t ! sph]e ( ! heav5s 7relatively7 p]=ms a diurnal revolution r\nd ?is globe ( ! e>?4 ,h[ 0 ?is e/abli%$ 9 ! belief ( ! ,greeks1 & h[ is x fix$ 9 our conviction8 ,z to ! globul> =m1 we f9d t z we travel to ! nor?1 ! app>5t pole ( ! heav5ly motions1 & ! con/ellations :i* are ne> x1 seem to m\nt high]1 & z we proce$ s\?w>ds !y desc5d4 #ajg ,aga91 if we proce$ f two diff]5t po9ts consid]ably to ! ea/ & we/ ( ea* o!r1 & travel directly nor?w>ds f ea*1 z f ! s\? ( ,spa9 to ! nor? ( ,scotl&1 & f ,greece to ,sc&9avia1 ^! two nor? & s\? l9es w be mu* ne>] to ea* o!r 9 _! nor!rn ?an 9 _! s\!rn p>ts4 ,^! & simil> facts1 z soon z !y are cle>ly e/imat$ & connect$ 9 ! m9d1 are se5 to be consi/5t ) a convex surface ( ! e>?1 & ) no o!r3 & ?is notion is fur!r confirm$ by obs]v+ t ! b\nd>y ( ! e>?'s %ad[ ^u ! moon is always circul>2 x be+ suppos$ to be already e/abli%$ t ! moon receives h] light f ! sun1 & t lun> eclipses are caus$ by ! int]position ( ! e>?4 ,z = ! ass]tion ( ! 7relative7 diurnal revolution ( ! />ry sph]e1 x is m]ely putt+ ! visible ph5om5a 9 an exact geometrical =m3 & ?us we e/abli% & v]ify ! doctr9e ( ! revolution ( ! sph]e ( ! heav5s ab\t ! globe ( ! e>?1 by contemplat+ x s z to see t x does really & exactly include ! p>ticul> facts f :i* x is collect$4 ,we may1 9 l mann]1 illu/rate ?is mode ( v]ification by any ( ! o!r /eps ( ! same ,table4 ,?us if we take ! great ,induction ( ,cop]nicus1 ! helioc5tric s*eme ( ! sol> sy/em1 we f9d x 9 ! ,table exhibit$ z includ+ & expla9+1 fir/1 ! diurnal revolution j spok5 (2 second1 ! motions ( ! moon among ! fix$ />s2 ?ird1 ! motions ( ! planets ) ref]5ce to ! fix$ />s & ! sun2 f\r?1 ! motion ( ! sun 9 ! ecliptic4 ,& ! s*eme be+ cle>ly conceiv$1 we see t all ! p>ticul> facts are fai?fully repres5t$ by x2 & ?is agreem5t1 along ) ! simplicity ( ! s*eme1 9 :i* respect x is s f> sup]ior to any o!r conception ( ! sol> sy/em1 p]suade u t x is really ! plan ( nature4 ,9 exactly ! same way1 if we att5d to any ( ! sev]al rem>kable discov]ies ( ,newton1 :i* =m ! pr9cipal /eps 9 ! latt] "p ( ! ,table1 z = in/ance1 ! proposition t ! sun attracts all #ajh ! planets ) a =ce :i* v>ies inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance1 we f9d x prov$ by its includ+ ?ree o!r propositions previ\sly e/abli%$2--fir/1 t ! sun's mean =ce on diff]5t planets foll[s ! specifi$ v>iation 7:i* is prov$ f ,kepl]'s ?ird law72 second1 t ! =ce by :i* ea* planet is act$ ^u 9 diff]5t p>ts ( its orbit t5ds to ! sun 7:i* is prov$ by ! equable description ( areas72 ?ird1 t ?is =ce 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! same orbit is also inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance 7:i* is prov$ f ! elliptical =m ( ! orbit74 ,& ! ,newtonian g5]alization1 :5 its consequ5ces are ma!matically trac$1 is se5 to agree ) ea* ( ^! p>ticul> propositions1 & ?us is fully e/abli%$4 #ab4 ,b :5 we say t ! m g5]al proposition includes ! sev]al m p>ticul> ones1 we mu/ recollect :at has be=e be5 said1 t ^! p>ticul>s =m ! g5]al tru?1 n by be+ m]ely enum]at$ & add$ toge!r1 b by be+ se5 9 a new light4 ,no m]e v]bal recitation ( ! p>ticul>s c decide :e!r ! g5]al proposition is true2 a special act ( ?\ght is requisite 9 ord] to det]m9e h[ truly ea* is includ$ 9 ! suppos$ induction4 ,9 ?is respect ! ,inductive ,table is n l a m]e s*$ule ( acc\nts1 :]e ! rightness ( ea* "p ( ! reckon+ is te/$ by m]e addition ( ! p>ticul>s4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! ,inductive tru? is nev] ! m]e sum ( ! facts4 ,x is made into some?+ m by ! introduction ( a new m5tal elem5t2 & ! m9d1 9 ord] to be able to supply ?is elem5t1 mu/ h peculi> end[m5ts & discipl9e4 ,?us look+ back at ! in/ances notic$ 9 ! la/ article1 h[ are we to see t a convex surface ( ! e>? is necess>ily impli$ by ! conv]g5ce ( m]idians t[>ds ! nor?1 or by ! visible desc5t ( ! nor? pole ( ! heav5s z we travel s\?8 ,manife/ly ! /ud5t1 9 ord] to see ?is1 mu/ h cle> conceptions ( ! relations ( space1 ei!r naturally inh]5t 9 8 m9d1 or e/abli%$ !re by geometrical cultivation1--by #aji /udy+ ! prop]ties ( circles & sph]es4 ,:5 he is s prep>$1 he w feel ! =ce ( ! expressions we h us$1 t ! facts j m5tion$ are se5 to be consi/5t ) a globul> =m ( ! e>?2 b )\t su* aptitude he w n see ?is consi/5cy3 & if ?is be s1 ! m]e ass]tion ( x 9 words w n avail him 9 satisfy+ himself ( ! tru? ( ! proposition4 ,9 l mann]1 9 ord] to p]ceive ! =ce ( ! ,cop]nican induction1 ! /ud5t mu/ h 8 m9d s discipl9$ by geometrical /udies1 or o!rwise1 t he sees cle>ly h[ absolute motion & relative motion w\ld alike produce app>5t motion4 ,he mu/ h le>nt to ca/ away all prejudices aris+ f ! seem+ fixity ( ! e>?2 & !n he w see t !re is no?+ :i* /&s 9 ! way ( ! induction1 :ile !re is mu* :i* is on its side4 ,& 9 ! same mann] ! ,newtonian induction ( ! law ( ! sun's =ce f ! elliptical =m ( ! orbit1 w be evid5tly satisfactory to him only :o has su* an insight into ,me*anics z to see t a curvil9e> pa? mu/ arise f a con/antly deflect+ =ce2 & :o is able to foll[ ! /eps ( geometrical reason+ by :i*1 f ! prop]ties ( ! ellipse1 ,newton proves ?is deflection to be 9 ! proportion 9 :i* he ass]ts ! =ce to be4 ,& ?us 9 all cases ! inductive tru? mu/ inde$ be v]ifi$ by comp>+ x ) ! p>ticul> facts2 b !n ?is comp>ison is possible = him only ^: m9d is prop]ly discipl9$ & prep>$ 9 ! use ( ^? conceptions1 :i*1 9 addition to ! facts1 ! act ( induction requires4 #ac4 ,9 ! ,tables "s indication is giv51 at sev]al ( ! /eps1 ( ! act :i* ! m9d mu/ ?us p]=m1 besides ! m]e conjunction ( facts1 9 ord] to atta9 to ! inductive tru?4 ,?us 9 ! cases ( ! ,newtonian inductions j spok5 (1 ! inf]5ces are /at$ to be made ',by ,me*anics2' & 9 ! case ( ! ,cop]nican induction1 x is said t1 ',by ! nature ( motion1 ! app>5t motion is ! same1 :e!r ! heav5s or ! e>? h a #aaj diurnal motion2 & ! latt] is m simple4' ,b ^! v]bal /atem5ts are to be und]/ood z m]e h9ts#bbb3 !y _c sup]s$e ! necessity ( ! /ud5t's contemplat+ = himself ! me*anical pr9ciples & ! nature ( motion ?us ref]r$ to4 ,note #bbb3 ,9 ! ,inductive ,tables !y are m>k$ by an a/]isk4 #ad4 ,9 ! common or ,syllogi/ic ,logic1 a c]ta9 ,=mula ( language is us$ 9 /at+ ! reason+1 & is useful 9 enabl+ u m readily to apply ! ,crit]ion ( ,=m to alleg$ demon/rations4 ,?is =mula is ! usual ,syllogism2 ) its memb]s1 ,major ,premiss1 ,m9or ,premiss1 & ,conclusion4 ,x may naturally be ask$ :e!r 9 ,inductive ,logic !re is any su* ,=mula8 :e!r !re is any /&>d =m ( words 9 :i* we may mo/ prop]ly express ! inf]5ce ( a g5]al tru? f p>ticul> facts8 ,at fir/ x might be suppos$ t ! =mula ( ,inductive ,logic ne$ only be ( ?is k9d3 ',^! p>ticul>s1 & all kn[n p>ticul>s ( ! same k9d1 are exactly includ$ 9 ! foll[+ g5]al proposition4' ,b a mom5t's reflection on :at has j be5 said w %[ u t ?is is n suffici5t3 = ! p>ticul>s are n m]ely includ$ 9 ! g5]al proposition4 ,x is n en\gh t !y app]ta9 to x by enum]ation4 ,x is1 = in/ance1 no adequate example ( ,induction to say1 ',m]cury describes an elliptical pa?1 s does ,v5us1 s d ! ,e>?1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 ,saturn1 ,uranus2 !re=e all ! ,planets describe elliptical pa?s4' ,?is is1 z we h se51 ! mode ( /at+ ! evid5ce :5 ! proposition is once sugge/$2 b ! ,inductive /ep consi/s 9 ! sugge/ion ( a conception n be=e app>5t4 ,:5 ,kepl]1 aft] try+ to connect ! obs]v$ places ( ! planet ,m>s 9 _m o!r ways1 f\nd at la/ t ! conception ( an ellipse w\ld include !m all1 he obta9$ a tru? by induction3 = ?is conclusion 0 n obvi\sly includ$ 9 ! ph5om5a1 & _h n be5 appli$ to ^! #aaa facts previ\sly4 ,?us 9 our ,=mula1 besides /at+ t ! p>ticul>s are includ$ 9 ! g5]al proposition1 we mu/ also imply t ! g5]ality is con/itut$ by a new ,conception1--new at lea/ 9 its application4 ,h5ce our ,inductive ,=mula might be some?+ l ! foll[+3 ',^! p>ticul>s1 & all kn[n p>ticul>s ( ! same k9d1 are exactly express$ by adopt+ ! ,conceptions & ,/atem5t ( ! foll[+ ,proposition4' ,x is ( c\rse requisite t ! ,conceptions %\ld be p]fectly cle>1 & %\ld precisely embrace ! facts1 accord+ to ! explanation we h already giv5 ( ^? conditions4 #ae4 ,x may happ51 z we h already /at$1 t ! ,explication ( a ,conception1 by :i* x acquires its due di/9ctness1 leads to a ,def9ition1 :i* ,def9ition may be tak5 z ! summ>y & total result ( ! intellectual ef=ts to :i* ?is di/9ctness is due4 ,9 su* cases1 ! ,=mula ( ,induction may be modifi$ accord+ to ?is condition2 & we may /ate ! inf]5ce by say+1 aft] an enum]ation & analysis ( ! appropriate facts1 ',^! facts are completely & di/9ctly express$ by adopt+ ! foll[+ ,def9ition & ,proposition4' ,?is ,=mula has be5 adopt$ 9 /at+ ! ,inductive ,propositions :i* con/itute ! basis ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics1 9 a "w intitl$ ,! ,me*anical ,euclid4 ,! fundam5tal tru?s ( ! subject are express$ 9 ,inductive ,pairs ( ,ass]tions1 consi/+ ea* ( a ,def9ition & a ,proposition1 su* z ! foll[+3 ,,def4--,a ,uni=m ,=ce is t :i* act+ 9 ! direction ( ! body's motion1 adds or subtracts equal velocities 9 equal times4 ,,prop4--,gravity is a ,uni=m ,=ce4 ,aga91 ,,def4--,two ,motions are comp\nd$ :5 ea* produces its sep>ate effect 9 a direction p>allel to itself4 ,,prop4--,:5 any ,=ce acts ^u a body 9 motion1 ! motion :i* ! ,=ce w\ld produce 9 ! #aab body at re/ is comp\nd$ ) ! previ\s motion ( ! body4 ,& 9 l mann] 9 o!r cases4 ,9 ^! cases ! proposition is1 ( c\rse1 e/abli%$1 & ! def9ition realiz$1 by an enum]ation ( ! facts4 ,& 9 ! case ( inf]5ces made 9 su* a =m1 ! ,def9ition ( ! ,conception & ! ,ass]tion ( ! ,tru? are bo? requisite & are correlative to "o ano!r4 ,ea* ( ! two /eps conta9s ! v]ification & ju/ification ( ! o!r4 ,! ,proposition d]ives its mean+ f ! ,def9ition2 ! ,def9ition d]ives its reality f ! ,proposition4 ,if !y are sep>at$1 ! ,def9ition is arbitr>y or empty1 ! ,proposition vague or ambigu\s4 #af4 ,b x mu/ be obs]v$ t nei!r ( ! prec$+ ,=mul expresses ! full cog5cy ( ! inductive pro(4 ,!y decl>e only t ! results c be cle>ly expla9$ & rigor\sly d$uc$ by ! employm5t ( a c]ta9 ,def9ition & a c]ta9 ,proposition4 ,b 9 ord] to make ! conclusion demon/rative1 :i* 9 p]fect examples ( ,induction x is1 we ought to be able to decl>e t ! results c be cle>ly expla9$ & rigor\sly decl>$ only by ! ,def9ition & ,proposition :i* we adopt4 ,& 9 reality1 ! conviction ( ! s\nd inductive reason] does rea* to ?is po9t4 ,! ,ma!matician ass]ts ! ,laws ( ,motion1 see+ cle>ly t !y 7or laws equival5t to !m7 af=d ! only means ( cle>ly express+ & d$uc+ ! actual facts4 ,b ?is conviction1 t ! inductive inf]5ce is n only consi/5t ) ! facts1 b necess>y1 f9ds its place 9 ! m9d gradually1 z ! contemplation ( ! consequ5ces ( ! proposition1 & ! v>i\s relations ( ! facts1 becomes /eady & famili>4 ,x is sc>cely possible = ! /ud5t at once to satisfy himself t ! inf]5ce is ?us inevitable4 ,& :5 he arrives at ?is conviction1 he sees also1 9 _m cases at lea/1 t !re may be o!r ways ( express+ ! sub/ance ( ! tru? e/abli%$1 besides t special ,proposition :i* he has "u 8 notice4 #aac ,we may1 !re=e1 )\t impropriety1 r5\nce ! und]tak+ ( convey+ 9 our =mula ?is f9al conviction ( ! necess>y tru? ( our inf]5ce4 ,we may leave x to be ?\ght1 )\t insi/+ ^u say+ x1 t 9 su* cases :at c be true1 is true4 ,b if we wi% to express ! ultimate significance ( ! ,inductive ,act ( ?\ght1 we may take z our ,=mula = ! ,colligation ( ,facts by ,induction1 ?is3--',! sev]al ,facts are exactly express$ z "o ,fact if1 & only if1 we adopt ! ,conception & ! ,ass]tion' ( ! inductive inf]5ce4 #ag4 ,i h said t ! m9d mu/ be prop]ly discipl9$ 9 ord] t x may see ! necess>y connexion betwe5 ! facts & ! g5]al proposition 9 :i* !y are includ$4 ,& ! p]ception ( ?is connexion1 ?\gh treat$ z "o /ep 9 our inductive inf]5ce1 may imply _m /eps ( demon/rative pro(4 ,! connexion is ?is1 t ! p>ticul> case is includ$ 9 ! g5]al "o1 t is1 may be d$uc$ f x3 b ?is d$uction may (t5 require _m l9ks ( reason+4 ,?us 9 ! case ( ! inf]5ce ( ! law ( ! =ce f ! elliptical =m ( ! orbit by ,newton1 ! pro( t 9 ! ellipse ! deflection f ! tang5t is inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance f ! focus ( ! ellipse1 is a ratioc9ation consi/+ ( sev]al /eps1 & involv+ sev]al prop]ties ( ,conic ,sections2 ^! prop]ties be+ suppos$ to be previ\sly e/abli%$ by a geometrical sy/em ( demon/ration on ! special subject ( ! ,conic ,sections4 ,9 ?is & simil> cases ! ,induction involves _m /eps ( ,d$uction4 ,& 9 su* cases1 al?\gh ! ,inductive ,/ep1 ! ,inv5tion ( ! ,conception1 is really ! mo/ important1 yet s9ce1 :5 once made1 x occupies a famili> place 9 m5's m9ds2 & s9ce ! ,d$uctive ,demon/ration is ( consid]able l5g? & requires intellectual ef=t to foll[ x at e /ep2 m5 (t5 admire ! d$uctive "p ( ! proposition1 ! geometrical or algebraical demon/ration1 f> m ?an t "p 9 :i* ! philosophical m]it really resides4 #aad #ah4 ,d$uctive reason+ is virtually a collection ( syllogisms1 z has already be5 /at$3 & 9 su* reason+1 ! g5]al pr9ciples1 ! ,def9itions & ,axioms1 necess>ily /& at ! beg9n+ ( ! demon/ration4 ,9 an inductive inf]5ce1 ! ,def9itions & ,pr9ciples are ! f9al result ( ! reason+1 ! ultimate effect ( ! pro(4 ,h5ce :5 an ,inductive ,proposition is to be e/abli%$ by a pro( involv+ sev]al /eps ( demon/rative reason+1 ! enunciation ( ! ,proposition w conta91 explicitly or implicitly1 pr9ciples :i* ! demon/ration proce$s ^u z axioms1 b :i* are really inductive inf]5ces4 ,?us 9 ord] to prove t ! =ce :i* reta9s a planet 9 an ellipse v>ies inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance1 x is tak5 = grant$ t ! ,laws ( ,motion are true1 & t !y apply to ! planets4 ,yet ! doctr9e t ?is is s1 z well z ! law ( ! =ce1 7 e/abli%$ only by ?is & ! l demon/rations4 ,! doctr9e :i* is ! hypo!sis ( ! d$uctive reason+1 is ! inf]5ce ( ! inductive process4 ,! special facts :i* are ! basis ( ! inductive inf]5ce1 are ! conclusion ( ! tra9 ( d$uction4 ,& 9 ?is mann] ! d$uction e/abli%es ! induction4 ,! pr9ciple :i* we ga!r f ! facts is true1 because ! facts c be d]iv$ f x by rigor\s demon/ration4 ,induction moves upw>ds1 & d$uction d[nw>ds1 on ! same /air4 ,b /ill !re is a great diff]5ce 9 ! "* ( _! movem5ts4 ,d$uction desc5ds /eadily & me?odically1 /ep by /ep3 ,induction m\nts by a leap :i* is out ( ! rea* ( me?od4 ,%e b\nds to ! top ( ! /air at once2 & !n x is ! bus9ess ( ,d$uction1 by try+ ea* /ep 9 ord]1 to e/abli% ! solidity ( h] companion's foot+4 ,yet ^! mu/ be processes ( ! same m9d4 ,! ,inductive ,intellect makes an ass]tion :i* is subsequ5tly ju/ifi$ by demon/ration2 & x %[s its sagacity1 its peculi> "*1 by enunciat+ ! proposition :5 z yet ! demon/ration does n #aae exi/3 b !n x %[s t x is sagacity1 by also produc+ ! demon/ration4 ,x has be5 said t inductive & d$uctive reason+ are contr>y 9 _! s*eme2 t 9 ,d$uction we inf] p>ticul> f g5]al tru?s2 :ile 9 ,induction we inf] g5]al f p>ticul>3 t ,d$uction consi/s ( _m /eps1 9 ea* ( :i* we apply kn[n g5]al propositions 9 p>ticul> cases2 :ile 9 ,induction we h a s+le /ep1 9 :i* we pass f _m p>ticul> tru?s to "o g5]al proposition4 ,& ?is is truly said2 b ?\gh contr>y 9 _! motions1 ! two are ! op]ation ( ! same m9d travell+ ov] ! same gr\nd4 ,d$uction is a necess>y "p ( ,induction4 ,d$uction ju/ifies by calculation :at ,induction _h happily guess$4 ,induction recognizes ! ore ( tru? by its weight2 ,d$uction confirms ! recognition by *emical analysis4 ,e /ep ( ,induction mu/ be confirm$ by rigor\s d$uctive reason+1 foll[$ into su* detail z ! nature & complexity ( ! relations 7:e!r ( quantity or any o!r7 r5d] requisite4 ,if n s ju/ifi$ by ! suppos$ discov]]1 x is n ,induction4 #ai4 ,su* ,tabul> arrangem5ts ( propositions z we h con/ruct$ may be consid]$ z ! ,crit]ion ( ,tru? = ! doctr9es :i* !y include4 ,!y are ! ,crit]ion ( ,inductive ,tru?1 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* ,syllogi/ic ,demon/ration is ! ,crit]ion ( ,necess>y ,tru?1--( ! c]ta9ty ( conclusions1 dep5d+ ^u evid5t ,fir/ ,pr9ciples4 ,& t su* ,tables are really a ,crit]ion ( ! tru? ( ! propositions :i* !y conta91 w be pla9 by exam9+ _! /ructure4 ,= if ! connexion :i* ! inductive process assumes be asc]ta9$ to be 9 ea* case real & true1 ! ass]tion ( ! g5]al proposition m]ely collects toge!r asc]ta9$ tru?s2 & 9 l mann] ea* ( ^? m p>ticul> propositions is true1 because x m]ely expresses collectively m special facts3 s t ! mo/ g5]al !ory is only ! ass]tion ( a great body ( facts1 duly classifi$ & subord9at$4 ,:5 we #aaf ass]t ! tru? ( ! ,cop]nican !ory ( ! motions ( ! sol> sy/em1 or ( ! ,newtonian !ory ( ! =ces by :i* !y are caus$1 we m]ely ass]t ! gr\ps ( propositions :i*1 9 ! ,table ( ,a/ronomical ,induction1 are includ$ 9 ^! doctr9es2 & ultimately1 we may consid] ourselves z m]ely ass]t+ at once s _m ,facts1 & !re=e1 ( c\rse1 express+ an indisputable tru?4 #bj4 ,at any "o ( ^! /eps ( ,induction 9 ! ,table1 ! inductive proposition is a ,!ory ) reg>d to ! ,facts :i* x includes1 :ile x is to be look$ ^u z a ,fact ) respect to ! high] g5]alizations 9 :i* x is includ$4 ,9 any o!r s5se1 z 0 =m]ly %[n1 ! opposition ( ,fact & ,!ory is unt5able1 & leads to endless p]plexity & debate4 ,is x a ,fact or a ,!ory t ! planet ,m>s revolves 9 an ,ellipse ab\t ! ,sun8 ,to ,kepl]1 employ$ 9 endeav\r+ to comb9e ! sep>ate obs]vations by ! ,conception ( an ,ellipse1 x is a ,!ory2 to ,newton1 engag$ 9 inf]r+ ! law ( =ce f a k ( ! elliptical motion1 x is a ,fact4 ,!re are1 z we h already se51 no special attributes ( ,!ory & ,fact :i* di/+ui% !m f "o ano!r4 ,facts are ph5om5a appreh5d$ by ! aid ( conceptions & m5tal acts1 z ,!ories also are4 ,we commonly call our obs]vations ,facts1 :5 we apply1 )\t ef=t or consci\sness1 conceptions p]fectly famili> to u3 :ile we speak ( ,!ories1 :5 we h previ\sly contemplat$ ! ,facts & ! connect+ ,conception sep>ately1 & h made ! connexion by a consci\s m5tal act4 ,! real diff]5ce is a diff]5ce ( relation2 z ! same proposition 9 a demon/ration is ! premiss ( "o syllogism & ! conclusion 9 ano!r2--z ! same p]son is a fa!r & a son4 ,propositions are ,facts & ,!ories1 accord+ z !y /& above or bel[ ! ,inductive ,brackets ( our ,tables4 #ba4 ,to obviate mi/akes ,i may rem>k t ! t]ms high] & l[]1 :5 us$ ( g5]alizations1 are unavoidably repres5t$ by _! opposites 9 our ,inductive ,tables4 ,! highe/ g5]alization is t #aag :i* includes all o!rs2 & ?is /&s ! l[e/ on our page1 because1 read+ d[nw>ds1 t is ! place :i* we la/ rea*4 ,!re is a di/9ction ( ! k acquir$ by ,sci5tific ,induction into two k9ds1 :i* is s important t we %all consid] x 9 ! succe$+ *apt]4 #aah ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,( ,,laws ,,( ,,ph5om5a ,,& ,,( ,,causes4 ,,aphorism ,,xxiv4 ,inductive tru?s are ( two k9ds1 ,laws ( ,ph5om5a1 & ,!ories ( ,causes4 ,x is necess>y to beg9 9 e sci5ce ) ! ,laws ( ,ph5om5a2 b x is impossible t we %\ld be satisfi$ to /op %ort ( a ,!ory ( ,causes4 ,9 ,physical ,a/ronomy1 ,physical ,optics1 ,geology1 & o!r sci5ces1 we h in/ances %[+ t we c make a great advance 9 inquiries aft] true ,!ories ( ,causes4 #a4 ,,9 ! fir/ attempts at acquir+ an exact & connect$ k ( ! appe>ances & op]ations :i* nature pres5ts1 m5 w5t no fur!r ?an to le>n :at takes place1 n :y x occurs4 ,!y discov]$ an ,ord] :i* ! ph5om5a foll[1 ,rules :i* !y obey2 b !y did n come 9 sight ( ! ,p[]s by :i* ^! rules are det]m9$1 ! ,causes ( :i* ?is ord] is ! effect4 ,?us1 = example1 !y f\nd t _m ( ! cele/ial motions took place z if ! sun & />s 7 c>ri$ r\nd by ! revolutions ( c]ta9 cele/ial sph]es2 b :at causes kept ^! sph]es 9 con/ant motion1 !y 7 nev] able to expla94 ,9 l mann] 9 mod]n times1 ,kepl] discov]$ t ! planets describe ellipses1 be=e ,newton expla9$ :y !y select ?is p>ticul> curve1 & describe x 9 a p>ticul> mann]4 ,! laws ( reflection1 refraction1 disp]sion1 & o!r prop]ties ( light h long be5 kn[n2 ! causes ( ^! laws are at pres5t "u discussion4 ,& ! same might be #aai said ( _m o!r sci5ces4 ,! discov]y ( ! ,laws ( ,ph5om5a is1 9 all cases1 ! fir/ /ep 9 exact k2 ^! ,laws may (t5 = a long p]iod con/itute ! :ole ( our sci5ce2 & x is always a matt] requir+ great tal5ts & great ef=ts1 to advance to a k ( ! ,causes ( ! ph5om5a4 ,h5ce ! l>g] "p ( our k ( nature1 at lea/ ( ! c]ta9 portion ( x1 consi/s ( ! k ( ! ,laws ( ,ph5om5a4 ,9 ,a/ronomy inde$1 besides kn[+ ! rules :i* guide ! appe>ances1 & resolv+ !m into ! real motions f :i* !y arise1 we c ref] ^! motions to ! =ces :i* produce !m4 ,9 ,optics1 we h become acqua9t$ ) a va/ numb] ( laws by :i* v>i$ & beautiful ph5om5a are gov]n$2 & p]haps we may assume1 s9ce ! evid5ce ( ! ,undulatory ,!ory has be5 s fully develop$1 t we "k also ! ,causes ( ! ,ph5om5a4 ,b 9 a l>ge class ( sci5ces1 :ile we h le>nt _m ,laws ( ,ph5om5a1 ! causes by :i* ^! are produc$ are /ill unkn[n or disput$4 ,are we to ascribe to ! op]ation ( a fluid or fluids1 & if s1 9 :at mann]1 ! facts ( heat1 magnetism1 electricity1 galvanism8 ,:at are ! =ces by :i* ! elem5ts ( *emical comp\nds are held toge!r8 ,:at are ! =ces1 ( a high] ord]1 z we _c help believ+1 by :i* ! c\rse ( vital action 9 organiz$ bodies is kept up8 ,9 ^! & o!r cases1 we h ext5sive dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce2 b we are z yet unable to trace ! effects to _! causes2 & our sci5ce1 s f> z x is positive & c]ta91 consi/s entirely ( ! laws ( ph5om5a4 #b4 ,9 ^? cases 9 :i* we h a division ( ! sci5ce :i* tea*es u ! doctr9e ( ! causes1 z well z "o :i* /ates ! rules :i* ! effects foll[1 ,i h1 9 ! ,hi/ory1 di/+ui%$ ! two portions ( ! sci5ce by c]ta9 t]ms4 ,i h ?us spok5 ( ,=mal ,a/ronomy & ,physical ,a/ronomy4 ,! latt] phrase has long be5 commonly employ$ to describe t dep>tm5t ( ,a/ronomy :i* deals ) #abj ^? =ces by :i* ! heav5ly bodies are guid$ 9 _! motions2 ! =m] adjective appe>s well suit$ to describe a collection ( rules dep5d+ on ^? ideas ( space1 "t1 position1 numb]1 :i* are1 z we h already said1 ! =ms ( our appreh5sion ( ph5om5a4 ,! laws ( ph5om5a may be consid]$ z =mul1 express+ results 9 t]ms ( ^? ideas4 ,9 l mann]1 ,i h spok5 ( ,=mal ,optics & ,physical ,optics2 ! latt] division includ+ all speculations conc]n+ ! ma*9]y by :i* ! effects are produc$4 ,=mal ,ac\/ics & ,physical ,ac\/ics may be di/+ui%$ 9 l mann]1 al?\gh ^! two portions ( sci5ce h be5 a good deal mix$ toge!r by mo/ ( ^? :o h treat$ ( !m4 ,=mal ,!rmotics1 ! k ( ! laws ( ! ph5om5a ( heat1 ought 9 l mann] to lead to ,physical ,!rmotics1 or ! ,!ory ( ,heat ) ref]5ce to ! cause by :i* its effects are produc$2--a bran* ( sci5ce :i* z yet c h>dly be said to exi/4 #c4 ,:at k9ds ( cause are we to admit 9 sci5ce8 ,?is is an important1 & by no means an easy "q4 ,9 ord] to answ] x1 we mu/ consid] 9 :at mann] our progress 9 ! k ( causes has hi!rto be5 made4 ,by f> ! mo/ conspicu\s in/ance ( success 9 su* rese>*es1 is ! discov]y ( ! causes ( ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,9 ?is case1 aft] ! =mal laws ( ! motions1--_! conditions z to space & "t1--_h become kn[n1 m5 7 enabl$ to g a /ep fur!r2 to r$uce !m to ! famili> & g5]al cause ( motion--me*anical =ce2 & to det]m9e ! laws :i* ?is =ce foll[s4 ,t ?is 0 a /ep 9 addition to ! k previ\sly possess$1 & t x 0 a real & peculi> tru?1 w n be conte/$4 ,& a /ep 9 any o!r subject :i* %\ld be analog\s to ?is 9 a/ronomy2--a discov]y ( causes & =ces z c]ta9 & cle> z ! discov]y ( univ]sal gravitation2--w\ld und\bt$ly be a va/ advance ^u a body ( sci5ce consi/+ only ( ! laws ( ph5om5a4 #aba #d4 ,b al?\gh physical a/ronomy may well be tak5 z a /&>d 9 e/imat+ ! value & magnitude ( ! advance f ! k ( ph5om5a to ! k ( causes2 ! peculi> features ( ! transition f =mal to physical sci5ce 9 t subject mu/ n be all[$ to limit too n>r[ly our views ( ! nature ( ?is transition 9 o!r cases4 ,we are n1 = example1 to consid] t ! /ep :i* leads u to ! k ( causes 9 any prov9ce ( nature mu/ necess>ily consi/ 9 ! discov]y ( c5t]s ( =ces1 & collections ( su* c5t]s1 by :i* ! effects are produc$4 ,! discov]y ( ! causes ( ph5om5a may imply ! detection ( a fluid by ^: undulations1 or o!r op]ations1 ! results are occasion$4 ,! ph5om5a ( ac\/ics are1 we "k1 produc$ 9 ?is mann] by ! air2 & 9 ! cases ( light1 heat1 magnetism1 & o!rs1 ev5 if we reject all ! !ories ( su* fluids :i* h hi!rto be5 propos$1 we /ill _c d5y t su* !ories are intelligible & possible1 z ! discussions conc]n+ !m h %[n4 ,nor c x be d\bt$ t if ! assumption ( su* a fluid1 9 any case1 7 z well evid5c$ z ! doctr9e ( univ]sal gravitation is1 x mu/ be consid]$ z a highly valuable !ory4 #e4 ,b aga92 n only mu/ we1 9 aim+ at ! =mation ( a ,causal ,section 9 ea* ,sci5ce ( ,ph5om5a1 consid] ,fluids & _! v>i\s modes ( op]ation admissible1 z well z c5t]s ( me*anical =ce2 b we mu/ be prep>$1 if x be necess>y1 to consid] ! =ces1 or p[]s to :i* we ref] ! ph5om5a1 "u /ill m g5]al aspects1 & inve/$ ) *>act]s diff]5t f m]e me*anical =ce4 ,= example2 ! =ces by :i* ! *emical elem5ts ( bodies are b\nd toge!r1 & f :i* arise1 bo? _! s5sible texture1 _! cry/all9e =m1 & _! *emical composition1 are c]ta9ly =ces ( a v diff]5t nature f ! m]e attraction ( matt] accord+ to its mass4 ,! p[]s ( assimilation & reproduction 9 plants & animals are obvi\sly /ill m remov$ f m]e me*anism2 yet #abb ^! p[]s are n on t acc\nt less real1 nor a less fit & wor?y subject ( sci5tific inquiry4 #f4 ,9 fact1 ^! =ces--me*anical1 *emical & vital1--z we advance f "o to ! o!r1 ea* br+ into our consid]ation new *>act]s2 & :at ^! *>act]s are1 has appe>$ 9 ! hi/orical survey :i* we made ( ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas ( ! v>i\s sci5ces4 ,x 0 !n %[n t ! =ces by :i* *emical effects are produc$ necess>ily involve ! ,idea ( ,pol>ity1--!y are pol> =ces2 ! p>ticles t5d toge!r 9 virtue ( opposite prop]ties :i* 9 ! comb9ation neutralize ea* o!r4 ,h5ce1 9 attempt+ to advance to a !ory ( ,causes 9 *emi/ry1 our task is by no means to inv5t laws ( me*anical =ce1 & collections ( =ces1 by :i* ! effects may be produc$4 ,we "k be=eh& t no su* attempt c succe$4 ,our aim mu/ be to conceive su* new k9ds ( =ce1 includ+ ,pol>ity among _! *>act]s1 z may be/ r5d] ! results intelligible4 #g4 ,?us 9 advanc+ to a ,sci5ce ( ,cause 9 any subject1 ! lab\r & ! /ruggle is1 n to analyse ! ph5om5a accord+ to any preconceiv$ & already famili> ideas1 b to =m di/9ctly new conceptions1 su* z d really c>ry u to a m intimate view ( ! processes ( nature4 ,?us 9 ! case ( a/ronomy1 ! ob/acle :i* def]r$ ! discov]y ( ! true causes f ! "t ( ,kepl] to t ( ,newton1 0 ! difficulty ( tak+ hold ( me*anical conceptions & axioms ) suffici5t cle>ness & /ead9ess2 :i*1 dur+ ! :ole ( t int]val1 ma!maticians 7 le>n+ to d4 ,9 ! "q ( causation :i* n[ lies mo/ imm$iately 9 ! pa? ( sci5ce1 t ( ! causes ( electrical & *emical ph5om5a1 ! bus9ess ( rightly fix+ & limit+ ! conception ( pol>ity1 is ! prop] object ( ! ef=ts ( discov]]s4 ,accord+ly a l>ge portion ( ,mr ,f>aday's rec5t lab\rs#bcb is direct$1 n to #abc ! attempt at discov]+ new laws ( ph5om5a1 b to ! task ( ?r[+ light ^u ! conception ( pol>ity1 & ( %[+ h[ x mu/ be und]/ood1 s t x %all include electrical induction & o!r ph5om5a1 :i* h commonly be5 ascrib$ to =ces act+ me*anically at a di/ance4 ,he is by no means cont5t1 nor w\ld x answ] ! ends ( sci5ce t he %\ld be1 ) /at+ ! results ( 8 exp]im5ts2 he is con/antly1 9 e page1 po9t+ out ! int]pretation ( 8 exp]im5ts1 & %[+ h[ ! conception ( ,pol> ,=ces ent]s into ?is int]pretation4 ',i %all1' he says#bdb1 'use e opportunity :i* pres5ts itself ( return+ to t /rong te/ ( tru?1 exp]im5t2 b1' he adds1 ',i %all necess>ily h occasion to speak !oretically1 & ev5 hypo!tically4' ,8 hypo!sis t electrical inductive action always takes place by means ( a cont9u\s l9e ( pol>iz$ p>ticles1 & n by attraction & repulsion at a di/ance1 if e/abli%$1 _c fail to be a great /ep on our way t[>ds a k ( causes1 z well z ph5om5a1 9 ! subjects "u 8 consid]ation4 ,note #bcb3 ,elev5?1 ,twelf?1 & ,?irte5? ,s]ies ( ,rese>*es1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcg & #h4 ,note #bdb3 ,art4 #acah4 #h4 ,! process ( obta9+ new conceptions is1 to mo/ m9ds1 f> m unwelcome ?an any lab\r 9 employ+ old ideas4 ,! ef=t is inde$ pa9ful & oppressive2 x is feel+ 9 ! d>k = an object :i* we _c f9d4 ,h5ce x is n surpris+ t we %\ld f> m will+ly proce$ to seek = new causes by apply+ conceptions borr[$ f old ones4 ,m5 7 famili> ) solid frames1 & ) :irlpools ( fluid1 :5 !y _h n le>nt to =m any cle> conception ( attraction at a di/ance4 ,h5ce !y at fir/ imag9$ ! heav5ly motions to be caus$ by ,cry/all9e ,sph]es1 & by ,vortices4 ,at l5g? !y 7 taught to conceive ,c5tral ,=ces1 & !n !y r$uc$ ! sol> sy/em to ^!4 ,b hav+ done ?is1 !y fanci$ t all ! re/ ( ! ma*9]y ( nature mu/ be c5tral =ces4 ,we f9d ,newton #abd express+ ?is conviction#beb1 & ! ma!maticians ( ! la/ c5tury act$ ^u x v ext5sively4 ,we may especially rem>k ,laplace's lab\rs 9 ?is field4 ,hav+ expla9$1 by su* =ces1 ! ph5om5a ( capill>y attraction1 he attempt$ to apply ! same k9d ( explanation to ! reflection1 refraction1 & d\ble refraction ( light2--to ! con/itution ( gases2--to ! op]ation ( heat4 ,x 0 soon se5 t ! explanation ( refraction 0 arbitr>y1 & t ( d\ble refraction illusory2 :ile pol>ization entirely elud$ ! grasp ( ?is ma*9]y4 ,c5t]s ( =ce w\ld no long] repres5t ! modes ( causation :i* belong$ to ! ph5om5a4 ,pol>ization requir$ "s o!r contrivance1 su* z ! undulatory !ory suppli$4 ,no !ory ( light c be ( any avail 9 :i* ! fundam5tal idea ( ,pol>ity is n cle>ly exhibit$4 ,note #beb3 ,multa me mov5t1 c41--,pref4 to ! ,pr9cipia1 already quot$ 9 ! ,hi/ory4 #i4 ,! sci5ces ( magnetism & electricity h giv5 rise to !ories 9 :i* ?is relation ( pol>ity is exhibit$ by means ( two opposite fluids#bfb2--;a positive & a negative fluid1 or a vitre\s & a res9\s1 = electricity1 & a boreal & an au/ral fluid = magnetism4 ,! hypo!sis ( su* fluids gives results agree+ 9 a rem>kable mann] ) ! facts & _! measures1 z ,c\lomb & o!rs h %[n4 ,x may be ask$ h[ f> we may1 9 su* a case1 suppose t we h discov]$ ! true cause ( ! ph5om5a1 & :e!r x is suffici5tly prov$ t ^! fluids really exi/4 ,! "r answ] seems to be1 t ! hypo!sis c]ta9ly repres5ts ! tru? s f> z reg>ds ! pol> relation ( ! two en]gies1 & ! laws ( ! attractive & repulsive =ces ( ! p>ticles 9 :i* ^! en]gies reside2 b t we are n entitl$ to assume t ! vehicles ( ^! en]gies possess o!r attributes ( mat]ial fluids1 or t ! =ces ?us ascrib$ to ! p>ticles are ! prim>y elem5t>y =ces f :i* #abe ! action orig9ates4 ,we are ! m b\nd to place ?is cauti\s limit to our acceptance ( ! ,c\lombian !ory1 s9ce 9 electricity ,f>aday has 9 va9 endeav\r$ to br+ into view "o ( ! pol> fluids )\t ! o!r3 :]eas su* a result ought to be possible if !re 7 two sep>able fluids4 ,! impossibility ( ?is sep>ate exhibition ( "o fluid appe>s to %[ t ! fluids are real only s f> z !y are pol>4 ,& ,f>aday's view above m5tion$1 accord+ to :i* ! attractions at a di/ance are resolv$ into ! action ( l9es ( pol>iz$ p>ticles ( air1 appe>s /ill fur!r to %[ t ! conceptions hi!rto ent]ta9$ ( electrical =ces1 accord+ to ! ,c\lombian !ory1 d n p5etrate to ! real & intimate nature ( ! causation belong+ to ?is case4 ,note #bfb3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xi4 c4 ii4 #aj4 ,s9ce x is ?us difficult to "k :5 we h seiz$ ! true cause ( ! ph5om5a 9 any dep>tm5t ( sci5ce1 x may appe> to "s p]sons t physical inquir]s are imprud5t & unphilosophical 9 und]tak+ ?is ,rese>* ( ,causes2 & t x w\ld be saf] & wis] to conf9e ourselves to ! inve/igation ( ! laws ( ph5om5a1 9 :i* field ! k :i* we obta9 is def9ite & c]ta94 ,h5ce !re h n be5 want+ ^? :o h laid x d[n z a maxim t 'sci5ce mu/ /udy only ! laws ( ph5om5a1 & nev] ! mode ( production#bgb4' ,b x is easy to see t su* a maxim w\ld conf9e ! bread? & dep? ( sci5tific inquiries to a mo/ scanty & mis]able limit4 ,inde$1 su* a rule w\ld defeat its own object2 = ! laws ( ph5om5a1 9 _m cases1 _c be ev5 express$ or und]/ood )\t "s hypo!sis respect+ _! mode ( production4 ,h[ c\ld ! ph5om5a ( pol>ization h be5 conceiv$ or reason$ ^u1 except by imag9+ a pol> arrangem5t ( p>ticles1 or transv]se vibrations1 or "s equival5t hypo!sis8 ,! doctr9es ( fits ( easy transmission1 ! doctr9e ( moveable pol>ization1 & ! l1 ev5 :5 #abf errone\s z repres5t+ ! :ole ( ! ph5om5a1 7 /ill useful 9 comb9+ "s ( !m into laws2 & )\t "s su* hypo!ses ! facts c\ld n h be5 foll[$ out4 ,! doctr9e ( a fluid caloric may be false2 b )\t imag9+ su* a fluid1 h[ c\ld ! movem5t ( heat f "o "p ( a body to ano!r be conceiv$8 ,x may be repli$ t ,f\ri]1 ,laplace1 ,poisson1 :o h pr9cipally cultivat$ ! ,!ory ( ,heat1 h n conceiv$ x z a fluid1 b h ref]r$ conduction to ! radiation ( ! molecules ( bodies1 :i* !y suppose to be sep>ate po9ts4 ,b ?is molecul> con/itution ( bodies is itself an assumption ( ! mode 9 :i* ! ph5om5a are produc$2 & ! radiation ( heat sugge/s inquiries conc]n+ a fluid emanation1 no less ?an its conduction does4 ,9 l mann]1 ! attempts to connect ! laws ( ph5om5a ( heat & ( gases1 h l$ to hypo!ses respect+ ! con/itution ( gases1 & ! comb9ation ( _! p>ticles ) ^? ( caloric1 :i* hypo!ses may be false1 b are probably ! be/ means ( discov]+ ! tru?4 ,note #bgb3 ,comte1 ,philosophie ,positive4 ,to deb> sci5ce f inquiries l ^!1 on ! gr\nd t x is h] bus9ess to inquire into facts1 & n to speculate ab\t causes1 is a curi\s example ( t b>r5 caution :i* hopes = tru? )\t d>+ to v5ture ^u ! que/ ( x4 ,?is temp] w\ld h /opp$ ) ,kepl]'s discov]ies1 & w\ld h refus$ to g on ) ,newton to inquire into ! mode 9 :i* ! ph5om5a are produc$4 ,x w\ld h /opp$ ) ,newton's optical facts1 & w\ld h refus$ to g on ) him & 8 successors to inquire into ! mode 9 :i* ^! ph5om5a are produc$4 ,&1 z we h abundantly %[n1 x w\ld1 on t v acc\nt1 h fail$ 9 see+ :at ! ph5om5a really are4 ,9 _m subjects ! attempt to /udy ! laws ( ph5om5a1 indep5d5tly ( any speculations respect+ ! causes :i* h produc$ !m1 is nei!r possible = human intellig5ce nor = human temp]4 ,m5 _c contemplate ! ph5om5a )\t clo?+ !m 9 t]ms ( "s hypo!sis1 & w #abg n be s*ool$ to suppress ! que/ion+s :i* at e mom5t rise up )9 !m conc]n+ ! causes ( ! ph5om5a4 ,:o c att5d to ! appe>ances :i* come "u ! notice ( ! geologi/2--/rata regul>ly b$d$1 full ( ! rema9s ( animals su* z n[ live 9 ! dep?s ( ! ocean1 rais$ to ! tops ( m\nta9s1 brok51 contort$1 mix$ ) rocks su* z /ill fl[ f ! m\?s ( volcanos1--:o c see ph5om5a l ^!1 & imag9e t he be/ promotes ! progress ( our k ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 by not+ d[n ! facts1 & ab/a9+ f all inquiry :e!r ^! are really pro( ( pa/ /ates ( ! e>? & ( subt]rane\s =ces1 or m]ely an accid5tal imitation ( ! effects ( su* causes8 ,9 ?is & simil> cases1 to proscribe ! inquiry into causes w\ld be to annihilate ! sci5ce4 ,f9ally1 ?is caution does n ev5 ga9 its own s+le end1 ! escape f hypo!ses4 ,=1 z we h said1 ^? :o w n seek = new & appropriate causes ( newly-/udi$ ph5om5a1 are almo/ inevitably l$ to ascribe ! facts to modifications ( causes already famili>4 ,!y may decl>e t !y w n he> ( su* causes z vital p[]s1 elective aff9ities1 electric1 or calorific1 or lum9if]\s e!rs or fluids2 b !y w n ! less on t acc\nt assume hypo!ses equally unau?oriz$2--= in/ance--univ]sal me*anical =ces2 a molecul> con/itution ( bodies2 solid1 h>d1 in]t matt]2--& w apply ^! hypo!ses 9 a mann] :i* is arbitr>y 9 itself z well z q insuffici5t = its purpose4 #aa4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 to be requir$1 bo? by ! analogy ( ! mo/ successful ef=ts ( sci5ce 9 pa/ times & by ! irrepressible speculative p[]s ( ! human m9d1 t we %\ld attempt to discov] bo? ! laws ( ph5om5a1 & _! causes4 ,9 e dep>tm5t ( sci5ce1 :5 prosecut$ f> en\gh1 ^! two great /eps ( inve/igation mu/ succe$ ea* o!r4 ,! laws ( ph5om5a mu/ be kn[n be=e we c speculate conc]n+ causes2 ! causes mu/ be inquir$ into :5 ! ph5om5a h be5 #abh r$uc$ to rule4 ,9 bo? ^! speculations ! suppositions & conceptions :i* occur mu/ be con/antly te/$ by ref]5ce to obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,9 bo? we mu/1 z f> z possible1 devise hypo!ses :i*1 :5 we ?us te/ !m1 display ^? *>act]s ( tru? ( :i* we h already spok52--an agreem5t ) facts su* z w /& ! mo/ pati5t & rigid inquiry2 a provision = pr$ict+ truly ! results ( untri$ cases2 a consili5ce ( inductions f v>i\s classes ( facts2 & a progressive t5d5cy ( ! s*eme to simplicity & unity4 ,we %all attempt h]eaft] to give sev]al rules ( a m precise & detail$ k9d = ! discov]y ( ! causes1 & /ill m1 ( ! laws ( ph5om5a4 ,b x w be useful 9 ! fir/ place to po9t out ! ,classification ( ! ,sci5ces :i* results f ! pr9ciples already e/abli%$ 9 ?is 9999"w4 ,& = ?is purpose we mu/ previ\sly decide ! "q1 :e!r ! practical ,arts1 z ,m$ic9e & ,eng9e]+1 mu/ be includ$ 9 our li/ ( ,sci5ces4 #abi ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,( ,,art ,,& ,,sci5ce4 ,,aphorism ,,xxv4 ,art & ,sci5ce diff]4 ,! object ( ,sci5ce is ,k2 ! objects ( ,art1 are ,works4 ,9 ,art1 tru? is a means to an end2 9 ,sci5ce1 x is ! only end4 ,h5ce ! ,practical ,arts are n to be class$ among ! ,sci5ces4 ,,aphorism ,,xxvi4 ,practical ,k1 su* z ,art implies1 is n ,k su* z ,sci5ce includes4 ,brute animals h a practical k ( relations ( space & =ce2 b !y h no k ( ,geometry or ,me*anics4 #a4 ,,! di/9ction ( ,arts & ,sci5ces v mat]ially affects all classifications ( ! dep>tm5ts ( ,human ,k4 ,x is (t5 ma9ta9$1 expressly or tacitly1 t ! ,arts are a "p ( our k1 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* ! ,sci5ces are s2 & t ,art is ! application ( ,sci5ce to ! purposes ( practical life4 ,x w be f\nd t ^! views require "s correction1 :5 we und]/& ,sci5ce 9 ! exact s5se 9 :i* we h ?r\gh\t endeav\r$ to contemplate x1 & 9 :i* alone our exam9ation ( its nature c in/ruct u 9 ! true f\ndations ( our k4 ,:5 we ca/ our eyes ^u ! e>ly /ages ( ! hi/ories ( nations1 we _c fail to be /ruck ) ! consid]ation1 t 9 _m c\ntries ! ,arts ( life already appe>1 at lea/ 9 "s rude =m or o!r1 :51 z yet1 no?+ ( sci5ce exi/s4 ,a #acj practical k ( ,a/ronomy1 su* z enables !m to reckon mon?s & ye>s1 is f\nd among all nations except ! m]e savages4 ,a practical k ( ,me*anics mu/ h exi/$ 9 ^? nations :i* h left u ! gigantic monum5ts ( e>ly ar*itecture4 ,! pyramids & temples ( ,egypt & ,nubia1 ! ,cyclopean walls ( ,italy & ,greece1 ! temples ( ,magna ,grcia & ,sicily1 ! obelisks & edifices ( ,india1 ! cromle*s & ,druidical circles ( c\ntries =m]ly ,celtic1--mu/ h dem&$ no small practical me*anical skill & p[]4 ,yet ^? modes ( reckon+ "t mu/ h prec$$ ! rise ( speculative ,a/ronomy2 ^! /ructures mu/ h be5 erect$ be=e ! !ory ( ,me*anics 0 kn[n4 ,to suppose1 z "s h done1 a great body ( sci5ce1 n[ lo/1 to h exi/$ 9 ! remote ages to :i* ^! rema9s belong1 is n only q gratuit\s1 & contr>y to all analogy1 b is a supposition :i* _c be ext5d$ s f> z to expla9 all su* cases4 ,= x is impossible to imag9e t e art has be5 prec$$ by ! sci5ce :i* r5d]s a reason = its processes4 ,c]ta9ly m5 =m$ w9e f ! grape1 be=e !y possess$ a ,sci5ce ( ,f]m5tation2 ! fir/ in/ructor ( e artific] 9 brass & iron c h>dly be suppos$ to h taught ! ,*emi/ry ( metals z a ,sci5ce2 ! inv5tor ( ! squ>e & ! compasses _h probably no m k ( demon/rat$ ,geometry ?an h ! artisans :o n[ use ^? implem5ts2 & f9ally1 ! use ( spee*1 ! employm5t ( ! inflections & comb9ations ( words1 mu/ ne$s be assum$ z hav+ be5 prior to any g5]al view ( ! nature & analogy ( ,language4 ,ev5 at ?is mom5t1 ! great] "p ( ! arts :i* exi/ 9 ! _w are n accompani$ by ! sci5ces on :i* !y !oretically dep5d4 ,:o %all /ate to u ! g5]al *emical tru?s to :i* ! manufactures ( glass1 & porcela91 & iron1 & brass1 owe _! exi/5ce8 ,d n almo/ all artisans practise _m successful artifices long be=e sci5ce expla9s ! gr\nd ( ! process8 ,d n arts at ?is day exi/1 9 a high /ate #aca ( p]fection1 9 c\ntries 9 :i* !re is no sci5ce1 z ,*9a & ,india8 ,^! c\ntries & _m o!rs h no !ories ( me*anics1 ( optics1 ( *emi/ry1 ( physiology2 yet !y con/ruct & use me*anical & optical in/rum5ts1 make *emical comb9ations1 take advantage ( physiological laws4 ,x is too evid5t to ne$ fur!r illu/ration t ,art may exi/ )\t ,sci5ce2--t ! =m] has usually be5 ant]ior to ! latt]1 & ev5 n[ commonly advances indep5d5tly1 leav+ sci5ce to foll[ z x c4 #b4 ,we "h mean by ,sci5ce1 t exact1 g5]al1 speculative k1 ( :i* we h1 ?r\gh\t ?is "w1 be5 endeav\r+ to exhibit ! nature & rules4 ,betwe5 su* ,sci5ce & ! practical ,arts ( life1 ! po9ts ( diff]5ce are suffici5tly manife/4 ,! object ( ,sci5ce is ,k2 ! object ( ,art are ,works4 ,! latt] is satisfi$ ) produc+ its mat]ial results2 to ! =m]1 ! op]ations ( matt]1 :e!r natural or artificial1 are int]e/+ only s f> z !y c be embrac$ by intelligible pr9ciples4 ,! ,end ( ,art is ! ,beg9n+ ( ,sci5ce2 = :5 x is se5 :at is done1 !n comes ! "q :y x is done4 ,art may h fix$ g5]al rules1 /at$ 9 words2 b %e has ^! m]ely z means to an end3 to ,sci5ce1 ! propositions :i* %e obta9s are ea*1 9 itself1 a suffici5t end ( ! ef=t by :i* x is acquir$4 ,:5 ,art has br\ght =? h] product1 h] task is f9i%$2 ,sci5ce is con/antly l$ by "o /ep ( h] pa? to ano!r3 ea* proposition :i* %e obta9s impels h] to g onw>ds to o!r propositions m g5]al1 m pr(\nd1 m simple4 ,art puts elem5ts toge!r1 )\t c>+ to "k :at !y are1 or :y !y coalesce4 ,sci5ce analyses ! comp\nd1 & at e su* /ep /rives n only to p]=m1 b to und]/& ! analysis4 ,art advances 9 proportion z %e becomes able to br+ =? products m multipli$1 m complex1 m v>i\s2 b ,sci5ce1 /ra9+ h] eyes to p5etrate m & m deeply into ! nature ( ?+s1 reckons h] success 9 proportion z %e sees1 9 all ! ph5om5a1 h[ev] #acb multipli$2 complex1 & v>i$1 ! results ( "o or two simple & g5]al laws4 #c4 ,!re are _m acts :i* man1 z well z animals1 p]=ms by ! guidance ( nature1 )\t see+ or seek+ ! reason :y he does s2 z1 ! acts by :i* he balances himself 9 /&+ or mov+1 & ^? by :i* he judges ( ! =m & position ( ! objects ar\nd him4 ,^! actions h _! reason 9 ! pr9ciples ( geometry & me*anics2 b ( su* reasons he :o ?us acts is unaw>e3 he works bl9dly1 "u ! impulse ( an unkn[n pr9ciple :i* we call ,in/9ct4 ,:5 man's speculative nature seeks & f9ds ! reasons :y he %\ld act ?us or ?us2--:y he %\ld /ret* out 8 arm to prev5t 8 fall+1 or assign a c]ta9 position to an object 9 consequ5ce ( ! angles "u :i* x is se52--he may p]=m ! same actions z be=e1 b !y are !n done by ! aid ( a diff]5t faculty1 :i*1 = ! sake ( di/9ction1 we may call ,insight4 ,in/9ct is a purely active pr9ciple2 x is se5 9 de$s alone2 x has no p[] ( look+ inw>ds2 x asks no que/ions2 x has no t5d5cy to discov] reasons or rules2 x is ! opposite ( ,insight4 #d4 ,art is n id5tical ) ,in/9ct3 on ! contr>y1 !re are broad diff]5ces4 ,in/9ct is /ation>y2 ,art is progressive4 ,in/9ct is mute2 x acts1 b gives no rules = act+3 ,art c speak2 %e c lay d[n rules4 ,b ?\gh ,art is ?us sep>ate f ,in/9ct1 %e is n ess5tially comb9$ ) ,insight4 ,%e c see :at to d1 b %e ne$s n to see :y x is done4 ,%e may lay d[n ,rules1 b x is n h] bus9ess to give ,reasons4 ,:5 man makes t 8 employm5t1 he ent]s ^u ! doma9 ( ,sci5ce4 ,art takes ! ph5om5a & laws ( nature z %e f9ds !m3 t !y are multipli$1 complex1 caprici\s1 incoh]5t1 di/urbs h] n4 ,%e is cont5t t ! rules ( nature's op]ations %\ld be p]fectly arbitr>y & un9telligible1 provid$ !y are con/ant1 s t %e c dep5d ^u _! effects4 ,b ,sci5ce is impati5t ( all appe>ance ( caprice1 #acc inconsi/5cy1 irregul>ity1 9 nature4 ,%e w n believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( su* *>act]s4 ,%e resolves "o app>5t anomaly aft] ano!r2 h] task is n end$ till e ?+ is s pla9 & simple1 t %e is tempt$ to believe t %e sees t x c\ld by no possibility h be5 o!rwise ?an x is4 #e4 ,x may be said t1 aft] all1 ,art does really involve ! k :i* ,sci5ce deliv]s2--t ! artisan :o raises l>ge weights1 practically kn[s ! prop]ties ( ! me*anical p[]s2--t he :o manufactures *emical comp\nds is virtually acqua9t$ ) ! laws ( *emical comb9ation4 ,to ?is we reply1 t x might on ! same gr\nds be ass]t$1 t he :o acts ^u ! pr9ciple t two sides ( a triangle are great] ?an ! ?ird is really acqua9t$ ) geometry2 & t he :o balances himself on "o foot kn[s ! prop]ties ( ! c5t] ( gravity4 ,b ?is is an acqua9tance ) geometry & me*anics :i* ev5 brute animals possess4 ,x is evid5t t x is n ( su* k z ?is t we h "h to treat4 ,x is pla9 t ?is mode ( possess+ pr9ciples is altoge!r diff]5t f t contemplation ( !m on :i* sci5ce is f\nd$4 ,we neglect ! mo/ ess5tial & manife/ diff]5ces1 if we conf\nd our unconsci\s assumptions ) our demon/rative reason+s4 #f4 ,! real /ate ( ! case is1 t ! pr9ciples :i* ,art involves1 ,sci5ce alone evolves4 ,! tru?s on :i* ! success ( ,art dep5ds1 lurk 9 ! arti/'s m9d 9 an undevelop$ /ate2 guid+ 8 h&1 /imulat+ 8 inv5tion1 balanc+ 8 judgm5t2 b n appe>+ 9 ! =m ( enunciat$ ,propositions4 ,pr9ciples are n to him direct objects ( m$itation3 !y are secret ,p[]s ( ,nature1 to :i* ! =ms :i* t5ant ! _w owe _! con/ancy1 _! movem5ts1 _! *anges1 _! luxuriant & v>i$ gr[?1 b :i* he c n[h]e directly contemplate4 ,t ! creative & directive ,pr9ciples :i* h _! lodgm5t 9 ! arti/'s m9d1 :5 unfold$ by our speculative p[]s into #acd sy/ematic %ape1 become ,sci5ce1 is true2 b x is precisely ?is process ( developm5t :i* gives to !m _! "* ( ,sci5ce4 ,9 practical ,art1 pr9ciples are unse5 guides1 lead+ u by invisible /r+s ?r\gh pa?s :]e ! end alone is look$ at3 x is = ,sci5ce to direct & purge our vision s t ^! airy ties1 ^! pr9ciples & laws1 g5]alizations & !ories1 become di/9ct objects ( vision4 ,_m may feel ! intellectual monitor1 b x is only to h] fav\rite h]oes t ! ,goddess ( ,wisdom visibly reveals h]self4 #g4 ,?us ,art1 9 its e>li] /ages at lea/1 is widely diff]5t f ,sci5ce1 is indep5d5t ( x1 & is ant]ior to x4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 no d\bt1 ,art may borr[ aid f ,sci5ce2 & ! discov]ies ( ! philosoph] may be ( great value to ! manufactur] & ! arti/4 ,b ev5 !n1 ?is application =ms no ess5tial "p ( ! sci5ce3 ! int]e/ :i* belongs to x is n an intellectual int]e/4 ,! augm5tation ( human p[] & conv5i5ce may impel or rew>d ! physical philosoph]2 b ! processes by :i* man's repa/s are r5d]$ m delici\s1 8 j\rneys m rapid1 8 weapons m t]rible1 are n1 !re=e1 ,sci5ce4 ,!y may involve pr9ciples :i* are ( ! highe/ int]e/ to sci5ce2 b z ! advantage is n practically m preci\s because x results f a beautiful !ory1 s ! !oretical pr9ciple has no m conspicu\s place 9 sci5ce because x leads to conv5i5t practical consequ5ces4 ,! nature ( ,sci5ce is purely intellectual2 ,k alone1--exact g5]al ,tru?1--is h] object2 & we _c mix ) su* mat]ial1 z matt]s ( ! same k9d1 ! m]ely ,empirical maxims ( ,art1 )\t introduc+ endless confusion into ! subject1 & mak+ x impossible to atta9 any solid foot+ 9 our philosophy4 #h4 ,i %all !re=e n place1 9 our ,classification ( ! ,sci5ces1 ! ,arts1 z has g5]ally be5 done2 nor %all ,i notice ! applications ( sci5ces to art1 z =m+ any sep>ate portion ( ea* sci5ce4 ,! sci5ces1 consid]$ z bodies ( g5]al speculative #ace tru?s1 are :at we are "h conc]n$ )2 & applications ( su* tru?s1 :e!r useful or useless1 are important to u only z illu/rations & examples4 ,:atev] place 9 human k ! ,practical ,arts may hold1 !y are n ,sci5ces4 ,& x is only by ?is rigor\s sep>ation ( ! ,practical f ! ,!oretical1 t we c arrive at any solid conclusions respect+ ! nature ( ,tru?1 & ! mode ( arriv+ at x1 su* z x is our object to atta94 #acf ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,( ,,! ,,classification ,,( ,,sci5ces4 #a4 ,,! ,classification ( ,sci5ces has its *ief use 9 po9t+ out to u ! ext5t ( our p[]s ( arriv+ at tru?1 & ! analogies :i* may obta9 betwe5 ^? c]ta9 & lucid portions ( k ) :i* we are "h conc]n$1 & ^? o!r portions1 ( a v diff]5t int]e/ & evid5ce1 :i* we "h purposely ab/a9 to t\* ^u4 ,! classification ( human k w1 !re=e1 h a m peculi> importance :5 we c include 9 x ! moral1 political1 & metaphysical1 z well z ! physical portions ( our k4 ,b su* a survey does n belong to our pres5t und]tak+3 & a g5]al view ( ! connexion & ord] ( ! bran*es ( sci5ces :i* our review has hi!rto includ$1 w ev5 n[ possess "s int]e/2 & may s]ve h]eaft] z an introduction to a m complete s*eme ( ! g5]al body ( human k4 #b4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 any o!r case1 a s\nd classification mu/ be ! result1 n ( any assum$ pr9ciples imp]atively appli$ to ! subject1 b ( an exam9ation ( ! objects to be classifi$2--( an analysis ( !m into ! pr9ciples 9 :i* !y agree & diff]4 ,! ,classification ( ,sci5ces mu/ result f ! consid]ation ( _! nature & cont5ts4 ,accord+ly1 t review ( ! ,sci5ces 9 :i* ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ces engag$ u1 l$ to a ,classification1 ( :i* ! ma9 features are indicat$ 9 t "w4 ,! ,classification ?us obta9$1 dep5ds nei!r ^u ! faculties ( ! m9d to :i* ! sep>ate p>ts ( our k owe _! orig91 nor ^u ! objects :i* ea* sci5ce contemplates2 b ^u a m #acg natural & fundam5tal elem5t2--namely1 ! ,ideas :i* ea* sci5ce involves4 ,! ,ideas regulate & connect ! facts1 & are ! f\ndations ( ! reason+1 9 ea* sci5ce3 & hav+ 9 ano!r "w m fully exam9$ ^! ,ideas1 we are n[ prep>$ to /ate "h ! classification to :i* !y lead4 ,if we h rightly trac$ ea* sci5ce to ! ,conceptions :i* are really fundam5tal ) reg>d to x1 & :i* give rise to ! fir/ pr9ciples on :i* x dep5ds1 x is n necess>y = our purpose t we %\ld decide :e!r ^! ,conceptions are absolutely ultimate pr9ciples ( ?\ght1 or :e!r1 on ! contr>y1 !y c be fur!r resolv$ into o!r ,fundam5tal ,ideas4 ,we ne$ n n[ suppose x det]m9$ :e!r or n ,numb] is a m]e modification ( ! ,idea ( ,"t1 & ,=ce a m]e modification ( ! ,idea ( ,cause3 = h[ev] ?is may be1 our ,conception ( ,numb] is ! f\ndation ( ,ari?metic1 & our ,conception ( ,=ce is ! f\ndation ( ,me*anics4 ,x is to be obs]v$ also t 9 our classification1 ea* ,sci5ce may involve1 n only ! ,ideas or ,conceptions :i* are plac$ opposite to x 9 ! li/1 b also all :i* prec$e x4 ,?us ,=mal ,a/ronomy involves n only ! ,conception ( ,motion1 b also ^? :i* are ! f\ndation ( ,ari?metic & ,geometry4 ,9 l mann]4 ,physical ,a/ronomy employs ! ,sci5ces ( ,/atics & ,dynamics1 & ?us1 re/s on _! f\ndations2 & !y1 9 turn1 dep5d ^u ! ,ideas ( ,space & ( ,"t1 z well z ( ,cause4 #c4 ,we may fur!r obs]ve1 t ?is arrangem5t ( ,sci5ces accord+ to ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas :i* !y involve1 po9ts out ! transition f ^? p>ts ( human k :i* h be5 includ$ 9 our ,hi/ory & ,philosophy1 to o!r regions ( speculation into :i* we h n ent]$4 ,we h repeat$ly f\nd ourselves ^u ! bord]s ( inquiries ( a psy*ological1 or moral1 or !ological nature4 ,?us ! ,hi/ory ( ,physiology#bhb l$ u to ! consid]ation #ach ( ,life1 ,s5sation1 & ,volition2 & at ^! ,ideas we /opp$1 t we might n transgress ! b\nd>ies ( our subject z !n pr$et]m9$4 ,x is pla9 t ! pursuit ( su* conceptions & _! consequ5ces1 w\ld lead u to ! sci5ces 7if we are all[$ to call !m sci5ces7 :i* contemplate n only animal1 b human pr9ciples ( action1 to ,an?ropology1 & ,psy*ology4 ,9 o!r ways1 too1 ! ,ideas :i* we h>e exam9$1 al?\gh manife/ly ! f\ndations ( sci5ces su* z we h "h treat$ ( also pla9ly po9t$ to speculations ( a diff]5t ord]2 ?us ! ,idea ( a ,f9al ,cause is an indisp5sable guide 9 ,biology1 z we h se52 b ! conception ( ,design z direct+ ! ord] ( nature1 once admitt$1 soon c>ries u to high] contemplations4 ,aga91 ! ,class ( ,paltiological ,sci5ces :i* we 7 9 ! ,hi/ory l$ to con/ruct1 al?\gh we !re admitt$ only "o example ( ! ,class1 namely ,geology1 does 9 reality include _m va/ l9es ( rese>*2 z ! hi/ory & causes ( ! division ( plants & animals1 ! hi/ory ( languages1 arts1 & consequ5tly ( civilization4 ,along ) ^! rese>*es1 comes ! "q h[ f> ^! hi/ories po9t backw>ds to a natural or a sup]natural orig92 & ! ,idea ( a ,fir/ ,cause is ?us br\ght "u our consid]ation4 ,f9ally1 x is n difficult to see t z ! ,physical ,sci5ces h _! peculi> gov]n+ ,ideas1 :i* support & %ape !m1 s ! ,moral & ,political ,sci5ces also mu/ simil>ly h _! fundam5tal & =mative ,ideas1 ! s\rce ( univ]sal & c]ta9 tru?s1 ea* ( _! prop] k9d4 ,b to foll[ out ! traces ( ?is analogy1 & to v]ify ! exi/5ce ( ^? ,fundam5tal ,ideas 9 ,morals & ,politics1 is a task q out ( ! sph]e ( ! "w 9 :i* we are "h engag$4 ,note #bhb3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xvii4 c4 v4 sect4 #b4 #d4 ,we may n[ place be=e ! read] our ,classification ( ! ,sci5ces4 ,i h add$ to ! li/ ( ,sci5ces1 a few n belong+ to our pres5t subject1 t ! nature ( ! transition by :i* we are to ext5d our philosophy into a wid] & high] region may be 9 "s measure p]ceiv$4 #aci ,! ,classification ( ! ,sci5ces is giv5 ov] leaf4 ,a few rem>ks ^u x (f] !mselves4 ,! ,pure ,ma!matical ,sci5ces c h>dly be call$ ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,_! pr9ciples are n obta9$ by ,induction f ,facts1 b are necess>ily assum$ 9 reason+ ^u ! subject matt] :i* ^? sci5ces involve4 ,! ,a/ronomy ( ! ,anci5ts aim$ only at expla9+ ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 z a me*anism4 ,mod]n ,a/ronomy1 expla9s ^! motions on ! pr9ciples ( ,me*anics4 ,! t]m ,physics1 :5 conf9$ to a peculi> class ( ,sci5ces1 is usually und]/ood to exclude ! ,me*anical ,sci5ces on ! "o side1 & ,*emi/ry on ! o!r2 & ?us embraces ! ,second>y ,me*anical & ,analytico-,me*anical ,sci5ces4 ,b ! adjective ,physical appli$ to any sci5ce & oppos$ to ,=mal1 z 9 ,a/ronomy & ,optics1 implies ^? speculations 9 :i* we consid] n only ! ,laws ( ,ph5om5a b _! ,causes2 & g5]ally1 z 9 ^? cases1 _! ,me*anical ,causes4 ,! t]m ,metaphysics is appli$ to subjects 9 :i* ! ,facts exam9$ are emotions1 ?\ghts & m5tal conditions2 subjects n includ$ 9 our pres5t survey4 #adj ,fundam5tal ,ideas or ,sci5ces4 ,classification4 ,conceptions4 ,space ,geometry 7 ,"t 7 ,pure ,ma!matical ,numb] ,ari?metic ,sign ,algebra 7 ,sci5ces4 ,limit ,diff]5tials 7 ,motion ,pure ,me*anism ,pure ,motional ,=mal ,a/ronomy ,sci5ces4 ,cause ,=ce ,/atics 7 ,matt] ,dynamics 7 ,me*anical ,in]tia ,hydro/atics ,fluid ,pressure ,hydrodynamics 7 ,sci5ces4 ,physical ,a/ronomy 7 ,outness ,m$ium ( ,s5sation ,ac\/ics 7 ,int5sity ( ,qualities ,=mal ,optics 7 ,second>y ,scales ( ,qualities ,physical ,optics ,me*anical ,!rmotics 7 ,sci5ces4 ,atmology 7 7,physics47 ,pol>ity ,electricity 7 ,analytico-,me*a- ,magnetism nical ,sci5ces4 ,galvanism 7 7,physics47 ,elem5t 7,composition7 ,*emical ,aff9ity ,sub/ance 7,atoms7 ,*emi/ry ,analytical ,sci5ce4 ,symmetry ,cry/allography ,analytico-,classifi- ,lik5ess ,sy/ematic ,m9]alogy catory ,sci5ces4 ,degrees ( ,lik5ess ,sy/ematic ,botany 7 ,sy/ematic ,zoology ,classificatory ,natural ,aff9ity ,comp>ative ,anatomy 7 ,sci5ces4 7,vital ,p[]s7 ,assimilation ,irritability 7,organization7 ,biology ,organical ,sci5ces4 ,f9al ,cause ,in/9ct ,emotion ,psy*ology 7,metaphysics47 ,?\ght ,hi/orical ,causation ,geology 7 ,di/ribution ( 7 ,paltiological ,plants & ,animals ,sci5ces4 ,glossology 7 ,e?nography 7 ,fir/ ,cause ,natural ,!ology4 99,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,! two foll[+ tables 7 ins]t$ on sep>ate %eets at ?is po9t4 ,!y 7 /ructur$ z trees1 b h "h be5 conv]t$ into a diagram to be read f left to "r1 & an associat$ key4 ,arr[s h replac$ ! brackets ,:ewell us$4 ,9 ! orig9al1 ! names ( discov]]s & comm5ts ab\t inadequate explanations 7 pr9t$ 9 r$4 ,,inductive ,,table ,,( ,,a/ronomy a r 7 7 7 7 b j s 7 ,j 7 7 z 7 c k 7 7 7 7 d l t 7 7 7 e m 7 7 b#a c#a m#a 7 u 7 ,a ,e ,h 7 ,m ,n ,q ,w 7 f n 7 7 b#a d#a n#a 7 7 7 7 7 7 ,r ,x b#a e#a 7 7 7 g o v ,b ,f ,i ,k 7 7 7 7 7 ,o ,s ,y b#a f#a 7 o#a 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 ,s ,z b#a g#a 7 7 7 u#a h p w ,c ,g ,l 7 7 t#a 7 ,p ,t b#a h#a p#a 7 7 7 7 q x ,d b#a i#a q#a 7 7 7 7 i y b#a j#a r#a 7 7 7 7 ,u a#a b#a k#a s#a 7 7 7 7 ,v b#a l#a 7 7 a ,,! ,,e>? appe>s to be immovable4 b ,,! ,,/>s keep _! relative places 9 ! vault ( ! sky1 & ) ! ,sun & ,moon1 rise1 move1 & set4 c ,,! ,,moon',s bright "p is ( ! %ape ( a ball enlight5$ by ! ,sun4 d ,,! ,,moon',s ,,eclipses occur :5 %e is full4 e ,,eclipses ,,( ,,! ,,sun ,,& ,,moon (t5 occur4 f ,,! ,,moon rises & sets at diff]5t times & places4 ,h] c\rse among ! ,/>s v>ies4 g ,,! ,,planets are morn+ & ev5+ ,/>s3 are direct1 /ation>y1 & retrograde4 h ,,! ,,sun rises1 culm9ates1 & sets 9 diff]5t times & places at diff]5t seasons3 diff]5t ,,con/ellations are visible at night4 i ,,! ,,tides ebb & fl[4 j ,*aldns4 ,! ,sph]e ( ! ,heav5s appe>s to make a ,diurnal ,revolution4 k ,greeks4 ,! ,moon receives h] light f ! ,sun4 l ,greeks4 ,! ,moon's ,eclipses are caus$ by ! ,e>?'s %ad[4 m ,*aldns4 ,! ,moon's ,eclipses foll[ c]ta9 cycles4 n ,greeks4 ,! ,moon appe>s to revolve mon?ly 9 an oblique orbit1 :i* has ,nodes & an ,apogee4 o ,*aldeans4 ,! ,planets h prop] motions & c]ta9 ,cycles4 p ,py?agoras4 ,! ,sun appe>s to move annually 9 an ,ecliptic oblique to ! diurnal motion4 q ,! places ( ,/>s are det]m9$ by _! ,longitude measur$ f ! ,equ9ox4 r ,! =ms & di/s ( kn[n p>ts ( ! e>? are su* z fit a convex surface4 s ,! visible ,pole ( ! ,heav5s rises or drops z we travel ,n4 or ,s4 t ,! b\nd>y ( ! ,e>?'s %ad[ is always circul>4 u ,by obs]vations ( ,eclipses1 ! ,moon's ,nodes & ,apogee revolve1 & h] motion is unequal accord+ to c]ta9 laws4 v ,by obs]vations ( ! ,planets1 _! progressions1 /ations1 & retrogradations4 w ,by obs]vations ( ! ,sun1 8 motion is unequal accord+ to c]ta9 laws4 x ,by obs]vations1 ,longitudes ( ,/>s increase4 y ,by obs]vations1 ! ,tides dep5d on ! ,moon & ,sun4 z ,ari/otle8 ,! ,e>? is a ,globe1 ab\t :i* ! ,sph]e ( ! ,heav5s p]=ms a ,diurnal ,revolution4 ,a ,hipp>*us4 ,! ,moon appe>s to move 9 an ,epicycle c>ri$ by a ,def]5t3 ! ,velocity ( ,apogee & ,nodes det]m9$4 ,b ,eudoxus4 ,! ,planets appe> to move 9 ,epicycles c>ri$ by ,def]5ts4 ,c ,hipp>*us4 ,! ,sun appe>s to move 9 an ,ecc5tric1 8 ,apogee be+ fix$4 ,d ,hipp>4 ,!re is a ,precession ( ! ,equ9oxes4 ,e ,by additional obs]vations1 ! ,moon's motion has ano!r inequality4 ,evection4 ,f ,by additional obs]vations1 ! ,planets' motions 9 _! ,epicycles are unequal accord+ to c]ta9 laws4 ,g ,by additional obs]vations1 ! ,sun's ,apogee moves4 ,albategnius4 ,h ,ptolemy4 ,! ,moon appe>s to move 9 an ,epicycle c>ri$ by an ,ecc5tric4 ,i ,ptolemy4 ,! ,planets appe> to move 9 ,epicycles c>ri$ by ,ecc5trics4 ,j 99 ,by ! nature ( motion1 ! app>5t motion is ! same :e!r ! ,heav5s or ! ,e>? h a diurnal revolution3 ! latt] is simpl]4 ,k 99 ,by ! nature ( motion1 ! app>5t motion is ! same if ! ,planets revolve ab\t ! ,sun3 ?is is simpl]4 ,l 99 ,by ! nature ( motion1 ! app>5t motion ( ! ,sun is ! same if ! ,e>? revolve r\nd ! ,sun3 ?is is simpl]4 ,m 99 ,cop]nicus4 ,! ,e>? & ,planets revolve ab\t ! ,sun z a c5t] 9 ,orbits ne>ly circul>4 ,! ,e>? revolves ab\t its axis incl9$ to ! ,ecliptic 9 a con/ant position1 & ! ,moon revolves ab\t ! ,e>?4 ,! ,helioc5tric ,!ory gov]ns subsequ5t speculations4 ,n ,reta9+ ,moon's ,ecc5tric & ,epicycle2 ,by additional obs]vations1 ! ,moon's motion has o!r inequalities4 ,o ,reta9+ b ref]r+ to ! ,sun z c5t] ! ,planets' ,epicycles & ,ecc5trics & ! annual ,orbit2 ,p ,reta9+ obsns4 ,e>?'s ,aphelion revolves4 ,q ,ty*o4 ,moon's ,v>iation2 ,unequal ,motion ( ,node2 ,*ange ( ,incl9ation4 ,r ,by calcns4 ( ! p]iodic times & di/ances4 ,s ,by additional obs]vations & calculations4 ,t ,planets' ,aphelia revolve4 ,jupit] & ,saturn's motions h an inequality depg4 on _! mutual positions4 ,u ,,! ,,weight ( bodies dim9s 9 go+ t[>ds ! ,equator4 ,v ,,! ,,satellites ( ,jupit] & ,saturn revolve accord+ to ,kepl]'s ,laws4 ,w ,horrox4 ,halley4 ,! ,moon moves 9 an ,ellipse ) v>iable axis & ecc5tricity4 ,x ,kepl]4 ,di/ances cub$ are z times squ>$4 ,y ,kepl]4 ,areas z describ$ by ,planets are z times4 ,z ,kepl]4 ,curves describ$ by ,planets are z ellipses4 a#a ,newton4 ,e>? is oblate4 b#a 99 ,by ,me*anics4 c#a 99 ,newton4 ,moon is attract$ by ! ,e>?4 ,fall ( heavy bodies4 d#a 99 ,newton4 ,moon's inequalities produc$ by attraction ( ,sun4 e#a 99 ,newton4 ,wr54 ,hooke4 ,sun's =ce on diff]5t ,planets is inv]s4 z squ>e ( di/ance4 f#a 99 ,newton4 ,planets are attract$ by ! ,sun4 g#a 99 ,newton4 ,sun attracts ,planets inv]s4 z squ>e ( di/ance4 h#a 99 ,newton4 ,^! inequalities are produc$ by mutual attraction ( ! ,planets4 i#a ,precession ( ,equ9oxes is produc$ by attraction ( ,moon & ,sun on oblate ,e>?4 j#a ,tides are produc$ by attraction ( ,moon & ,sun on ,sea4 ,explanation imp]fect4 k#a ,dim9ution ( gravity & oblat5ess ( ,e>? arise f attractions ( p>ts4 l#a 99 ,newton4 ,jupit] & ,saturn attract _! ,satellites inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance1 & ! ,sun attracts ,planets & ,satellites alike4 m#a ,newton4 ,e>? attracts ,moon inv]s4 z squ>e ( di/ance4 n#a ,newton4 ,sun attracts ,moon4 o#a ,newton4 ,sun attracts ,planets inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance4 p#a ,newton4 ,planets attract ea* o!r4 q#a 99 ,newton4 ,moon & ,sun attract p>ts ( ! ,e>?4 r#a 99 ,newton4 ,moon & ,sun attract ! ,ocean4 s#a 99 ,newton4 ,p>ts ( ! ,e>? attract ea* o!r4 t#a ,newton4 ,all p>ts ( ! ,e>?1 ,sun1 ,moon4 & ,planets attract ea* o!r ) ,=ces inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance4 u#a ,newton4 ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,univ]sal ,,gravitation4 7,all bodies attract ea* o!r ) a ,=ce ( ,gravity :i* is inv]sely z ! squ>es ( ! di/ances47 ,,inductive ,,table ,,( ,,optics ,fir/ ,facts4 ,! common & obvi\s ,phnom5a ( ,light & ,vision4 ,by ! ,idea ( a ,m$ium ,light & ,vision take place by means ( some?+ int]m$iate4 ,fir/ ,law ( ,phnom5a4 ,! effects take place 9 /raight l9es d5ot$ by ! ,t]m ,rays4 ,facts ( a m h#a 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 b n 7 7 i#a 7 7 7 7 7 r 7 7 7 ,c#a 7 7 c o 7 7 ,k 7 7 7 7 ,f#a 7 7 7 j#a 7 x#a 7 7 7 d p 7 ,l ,s 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 e s ,m 7 ,t h#a 7 ,d#a 7 7 7 ,h#a 7 7 7 7 7 7 f t 7 ,u k#a 7 7 7 ,g#a 7 7 7 ,e#a 7 7 7 g 7 7 u ,w l#a 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 v ,x l#a 7 y#a 7 7 7 q 7 7 7 7 7 7 w ,y j#a 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 x ,z 7 7 7 7 7 7 m#a 7 7 7 7 y a#a 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 ,i#a 7 7 z n#a 7 z#a 7 7 7 7 7 7 ,k#a 7 ,a ,n b#a o#a 7 7 7 q 7 7 7 7 7 ,b ,o p#a 7 7 7 7 7 7 ,c 7 c#a q#a 7 7 7 7 7 ,v 7 7 7 7 ,d 7 d#a q#a 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 ,e j#a 7 ,a#a 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 ,f ,p e#a 7 7 7 7 7 7 r#a 7 7 7 7 ,g f#a 7 7 7 7 7 7 ,j#a 7 7 ,h ,q s#a 7 7 h 7 ,r g#a t#a 7 7 7 7 7 i 7 ,i u#a 7 7 7 7 7 j 7 v#a 7 ,b#a 7 7 7 k 7 w#a 7 7 7 ,j 7 7 l 7 w#a 7 7 a ,rays fall+ on wat]1 specula1 c4 b ,rays pass+ ?r\gh wat]1 glass1 c4 ,measures4 ,ptolemy4 c ,col\rs se5 by prisms1 9 ra9b[1 c4 d ,col\rs 9 diff4 transp4 ,sub/ances4 ,optical in/rumts4 e ,two ,images 9 ,rhomb4 ( ,calcsp>4 f ,two ,images 9 o!r cry/als4 g ,two ,rhombs ( ,calcsp> make #d images alt]nately appe> & disappe>4 h ,fr+es ( %ad[s4 ,grimaldi4 ,hook4 ,newton4 i ,spectra ( grat+s4 ,fraunh(]4 j ,col\rs ( /riat$ surfaces4 ,cov5try's ,micrometr4 ,b>ton's ,buttons4 ,"y4 k ,col\rs ( ?ick ,plates4 ,newton4 l ,col\rs ( ?9 ,plates4 ,hook4 ,newton4 m ,euclid4 ,ang4 ,inc4 equals ,ang4 ,reflection4 n ,snell4 ,s94 ,refr4 to ,s94 ,inc4 9 giv4 ,ratio 9 same m$4 o ,by measures ( ,refraction4 p ,disp]sion ( col\rs is same :5 ,refr4 is diff4 ,measures4 ,dollond4 q ,huygh5s4 ,rays ( light h f\r ,sides ) reg>d to :i* _! prop]ties alt]nate4 ,newton4 ,idea ( ,pol>ization introduc$1 :i* gov]ns subsequ5t obs]vations4 ,dipol>ization ) ,col\rs4 r ,newt4 ,refr4 ,ro4 is diff4 = diff4 col\rs1 b 9 same m$4 is con/4 = ea* col\r4 s ,measures4 ,huygh5s4 t ,d\ble ,refr4 9 biaxal cry/als4 ,brew/]4 u ,rays are pol>iz$ by ,calcsp>1 ,qu>tz1 c4 v ,rays are pol>iz$ by biaxal cry/als4 w ,rays are pol>iz$ by ,t\rmal9e1 ,agate1 c4 x ,rays are pol>is$ by ,refl4 at glass4 y ,rays are pol>iz$ by transmission ?r\gh glass4 z ,v>iable qy4 ( pol4 refl4 light p>al4 plane ( ,refl4 ,arago4 ,a ,v>iable qy4 ( pol4 refl4 light p]p4 plane ( ,refl4 ,b ,:ole light reflect$ by int]nal ,refl4 ,c ,pol4 ,rays ?r\gh uniaxal cry/als give col\rs4 ,r+s4 ,wolla/on4 ,d ,pol4 ,rays ?r\gh biaxal cry/als give col\rs4 ,arago4 ,e ,pol4 ,rays4 ?r\gh imp]f4 cry/alliz$ bodies give col\rs4 7,glass /ra9$1 jellies pre/47 ,brew/]4 ,f ,pol4 ,rays 9 axis ( ,qu>tz give a peculi> set ( col\rs4 ,plane ( ,poln twi/$ diffly4 = diff4 col\rs4 ,biot4 ,arago4 ,g ,pol4 ,rays oblique 9 ,qu>tz give peculi> r+s1 c4 ,h ,pol4 ,rays ?r\gh c]ta9 liquids give a peculi> set ( col\rs4 ,i ,! ,laws ( ^! ,phnom5a 7 nev] discov]$ till ,!ory _h indicat$ !m4 ,j ,newton's ,scale ( ,col\rs4 ,fits ( ,rays4 ,newton4 ,k ,dollond4 ,l ,propn ( ,ref4 ,rs is diff4 9 diff4 m$4 ,a*romatism4 ,m ,huyghs4 ,law ( ,d\ble ,ref4 exp4 by a sph]oid4 ,n ,*ange ( plane ( pol4 by ,refl4 ,arago ,o ,light is circul>ly pol4 by #b ,refl4 9 ,fresnel's ,rhomb4 ,fresnel4 ,p 9 dirn ( plagih$ral faces4 ,j4 ,h]s*el4 ,q ,plane ( ,poln4 twi/$4 ,biot ,r ,fr+es oblit]at$ by /opp+ light f "o edge or int]pos+ a glass4 ,"y4 ,arago4 ,s ,ratios n reconcilable4 ,irrationality4 ,blair4 ,t ,fresnel4 ,u ,law exp4 by surface ( #d dims4 ,v ,optical classification ( cry/als4 ,brew/]4 ,w ,newt4 ,malus4 ,ray pol4 9 pr9cipal plane ( ,rhomb42 & p]p4 to x4 ,x ,brews4 ,biot4 ,ray pol4 9 plane bisect+ ang4 at axis2 & p]p4 to x4 ,y ,brews4 ,ray pol4 p>al4 to axis4 ,z ,malus4 ,ray pol4 9 plane ( ,refl4 = giv5 angle4 a#a ,malus4 ,ray p>tially pol4 9 plane p]p4 to plane ( ,reflection4 b#a ,none ,refld4 if tan4 ang4 equal ,refr4 ,ro4 ,brew/]4 c#a ,t9t is z sq4 ( s94 ,biot4 d#a ,t9t is z s94 s94 4 ,brew/]4 ,biot4 ,lemniscates4 ,j4 ,h]s*el4 e#a 99 ,by int]f4 ( resolv$ undulns4 ( #b rays circul>ly pold4 9 opp4 directions4 99 ,fresnel4 f#a 99 ,by int]f4 ( resolv$ undulns4 ( #b rays elliptically pold4 9 opp4 directions4 99 ,airy4 g#a 99 ,by int]f4 ( rays f edges4 ,"y4 h#a 99 ,refl4 produc$ by sph]ical undulns4 i#a 99 ,refr4 produc$ by sph]ical undulns4 ( diff4 vel4 = diff4 col\r4 j#a ,explanation imp]fect4 k#a 99 ,refr4 produc$ by curv$ surf4 undulns4 l#a 99 ,poln4 be+ prod4 by resolution ( transve undulns4 m#a 99 ,pol>ization be+ produc$ by resolution ( transv]se undulations4 n#a 99 ,undulns4 be+ comd4 acc4 to laws ( ela/ic bodies4 o#a 99 ,undulns4 be+ comd4 acc4 to a c]ta9 hypo!sis4 p#a 99 ,impossible =mul be+ int]pret$ by analogy4 q#a 99 ,by int]f4 ( resolv$ p>ts ( transv]se undulns4 r#a 99 ,same hypo!sis expla9s sep>ation ( rays 9 axis & oblique4 ,explanation imp]fect4 99 ,maccullagh4 s#a ,explan4 want+4 t#a 99 ,by int]f4 ( rays f all p>ts4 99 ,"y4 99 ,fresnel4 u#a 99 ,by int]f4 ( undulns4 f all p>ts4 99 ,fraunh(]4 v#a 99 ,by int]f4 ( rays f /ri4 99 ,"y4 w#a 99 ,by int]f4 ( undulns4 f two surfaces4 99 ,"y4 x#a 99 ,huygh5s4 ,reflection & ,refraction are propagation ( undulations4 y#a 99 ,"y4 99 ,fresnel4 ,pol>ization 9 cry/als is transv]se undulations4 z#a 99 ,fresnel4 ,pol>ization 9 ,reflection & ,refraction is transv]se undulations4 ,a#a 99 ,fresnel4 99 ,arago4 ,dipol>iz$ ,col\rs are produc$ by int]f]5ce ( ,rays pol>iz$ 9 same plane2 l5g? ( undulation be+ diff]5t = diff]5t col\rs4 ,b#a 99 ,"y4 99 ,fresnel4 ,col\rs ( ,fr+es1 ,grat+s1 ,/ri1 ?ick ,plates1 ?9 ,plates c4 are produc$ by int]f]5ce ( undulations2 l5g? ( undulation be+ diff]5t = diff]5t col\rs4 ,c#a 99 ,undulations be+ propagat$ by ! uni=m ela/icity ( ea* m$ium4 ,d#a 99 ,undulns4 prop4 by ely4 ( m$ium diff4 9 #b diff4 dirns1 7axis ( cry/al47 ,e#a 99 ,undulns4 be+ prop4 by ela/icity ( m$4 diff4 9 #c diff4 directions 7axes74 ,f#a ,"y4 ,reflection & d\ble ,refraction are propagation ( undulations by cry/all9e ela/icity4 ,g#a 99 ,fresnel4 ,d\ble ,refr4 & ,pol4 arise f same cause4 ,h#a ,"y4 ,fresnel4 ,light is transv]se undulations propagat$ 9 m$ia by ela/icity dep5d5t on axis1 :5 cry/all9e4 ,i#a ,fresnel4 ,light is transv]se undulns4 transmitt$ f "o m$4 to ano!r accord+ to probable hypo!ses4 ,j#a ,"y4 ,fresnel4 ,col\rs result f int]f]5ces1 ! l5g?s ( undulation be+ diff]5t = diff]5t col\rs4 ,k#a ,,! ,,undulatory ,,!ory ,,( ,,light4 #ada ,,novum ,,organon ,,r5ovatum4 ,,book ,,iii4 ,,( ,,me?ods ,,employ$ ,,9 ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,,aphorism ,,xxvii4 ,! ,me?ods by :i* ! con/ruction ( ,sci5ce is promot$ are1 ,me?ods ( ,obs]vation1 ,me?ods ( obta9+ cle> ,ideas1 & ,me?ods ( ,induction4 #a4 ,,9 ! prec$+ ,book1 we po9t$ out c]ta9 g5]al ,*>act]s ( sci5tific k :i* may (t5 s]ve to di/+ui% x f op9ions ( a loos] or vagu] k9d4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! progress ( k f ! e>lie/ to ! pres5t "t1 m5 h be5 l$ to a p]ception1 m or less cle>1 ( ^! *>act]i/ics4 ,v>i\s philosoph]s1 f ,plato & ,ari/otle 9 ! anci5t _w1 to ,ri*>d de ,sa9t ,victor & ,rog] ,bacon 9 ! middle ages1 ,galileo & ,gilb]t1 ,francis ,bacon & ,isaac ,newton1 9 mod]n times1 7 l$ to (f] precepts & maxims1 z fitt$ to guide u to a real & fundam5tal k ( nature4 ,x may on ano!r occasion be our bus9ess to e/imate ! value ( ^! precepts & maxims4 ,& o!r contributions ( ! same k9d to ! philosophy ( sci5ce might be notic$1 & "s :i* #adb conta9 /ill m valuable sugge/ions1 & indicate a m practical acqua9tance ) ! subject4 ,among ^!1 ,i mu/ especially di/+ui% ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's ,disc\rse on ! ,/udy ( ,natural ,philosophy4 ,b my object at pres5t is n to relate ! hi/ory1 b to pres5t ! really valuable results ( prec$+ lab\rs3 & ,i %all endeav\r to collect1 bo? f !m & f my own rese>*es & reflections1 su* views & su* rules z seem be/ adapt$ to assi/ u 9 ! discov]y & recognition ( sci5tific tru?2 or1 at lea/1 su* z may enable u to und]/& ! process by :i* ?is tru? is obta9$4 ,i w\ld pres5t to ! read] ! ,philosophy &1 if possible1 ! ,art ( ,discov]y4 #b4 ,b1 9 tru?1 we mu/ ackn[l$ge1 be=e we proce$ ) ?is subject1 t1 speak+ ) /rictness1 an ,art ( ,discov]y is n possible2--t we c give no ,rules = ! pursuit ( tru? :i* %all be univ]sally & p]emptorily applicable2--& t ! helps :i* we c (f] to ! inquir] 9 su* cases are limit$ & prec>i\s4 ,/ill1 we tru/ x w be f\nd t aids may be po9t$ out :i* are nei!r wor?less nor un9/ructive4 ,! m]e classification ( examples ( successful inquiry1 to :i* our rules give occasion1 is full ( int]e/ = ! philosophical speculator4 ,& if our maxims direct ! discov]] to no op]ations :i* might n h occurr$ to 8 m9d ( !mselves1 !y may /ill conc5trate our att5tion on t :i* is mo/ important & *>act]i/ic 9 ^! op]ations1 & may direct u to ! be/ mode ( insur+ _! success4 ,i %all1 !re=e1 attempt to resolve ! ,process ( ,discov]y into its p>ts1 & to give an acc\nt z di/9ct z may be ( ,rules & ,me?ods :i* belong to ea* portion ( ! process4 #c4 ,9 ,book ,,ii4 we consid]$ ! ?ree ma9 p>ts ( ! process by :i* sci5ce is con/ruct$3 namely1 ! ,decomposition & ,obs]vation ( ,complex ,facts2 ! ,explication ( our ,ideal ,conceptions2 & ! ,colligation ( ,elem5t>y ,facts by means ( ^? ,conceptions4 ,! fir/ & la/ ( #adc ^! ?ree /eps are capable ( receiv+ additional accuracy by peculi> processes4 ,!y may fur!r ! advance ( sci5ce 9 a m effectual mann]1 :5 direct$ by special te*nical ,me?ods1 ( :i* 9 ! pres5t ,book we mu/ give a brief view4 ,9 ?is m te*nical =m1 ! obs]vation ( facts involves ! ,measurem5t ( ,ph5om5a2 & ! ,colligation ( ,facts includes all arts & rules by :i* ! process ( ,induction c be assi/$4 ,h5ce we %all h "h to consid] ,me?ods ( ,obs]vation1 & ,me?ods ( ,induction1 us+ ^! phrases 9 ! wide/ s5se4 ,! second ( ! ?ree /eps above m5tion$1 ! ,explication ( our ,conceptions1 does n admit ( be+ mu* assi/$ by me?ods1 al?\gh some?+ may be done by ,education & ,discussion4 #d4 ,! ,me?ods ( ,induction1 ( :i* we h to speak1 apply only to ! fir/ /ep 9 our asc5t f ph5om5a to laws ( nature2--! discov]y ( ,laws ( ,ph5om5a4 ,a high] & ult]ior /ep rema9s beh9d1 & foll[s 9 natural ord] ! discov]y ( ,laws ( ,ph5om5a2 namely1 ! ,discov]y ( ,causes2 & ?is mu/ be /at$ z a di/9ct & ess5tial process 9 a complete view ( ! c\rse ( sci5ce4 ,aga91 :5 we h ?us asc5d$ to ! causes ( ph5om5a & ( _! laws1 we c (t5 reason d[nw>ds f ! cause s discov]$2 & we are ?us l$ to sugge/ions ( new ph5om5a1 or to new explanations ( ph5om5a already kn[n4 ,su* proce$+s may be t]m$ ,applications ( our ,discov]ies2 includ+ 9 ! phrase1 ,v]ifications ( our ,doctr9es by su* an application ( !m to obs]v$ facts4 ,h5ce we h ! foll[+ s]ies ( processes conc]n$ 9 ! =mation ( sci5ce4 7#a47 ,decomposition ( ,facts2 7#b47 ,measurem5t ( ,ph5om5a2 7#c47 ,explication ( ,conceptions2 7#d47 ,induction ( ,laws ( ,ph5om5a2 7#e47 ,induction ( ,causes2 7#f47 ,application ( ,inductive ,discov]ies4 #e4 ,( ^! six processes1 ! me?ods by :i* ! second & f\r? may be assi/$ are "h our #add peculi> object ( att5tion4 ,! treatm5t ( ^! subjects 9 ! pres5t "w mu/ necess>ily be scanty & imp]fect1 al?\gh we may p]haps be able to add some?+ to :at has hi!rto be5 sy/ematically taught on ^! heads4 ,me?ods ( ,obs]vation & ( ,induction might ( !mselves =m an abundant subject = a treatise1 & h]eaft] probably w d s1 9 ! h&s ( future writ]s4 ,a few rem>ks1 (f]$ z contributions to ?is subject1 may s]ve to %[ h[ ext5sive x is1 & h[ mu* m ready x n[ is ?an x ev] be=e 01 = a sy/ematic discussion4 ,( ! above /eps ( ! =mation ( sci5ce1 ! fir/1 ! ,decomposition ( ,facts1 has already be5 suffici5tly expla9$ 9 ! la/ ,book3 = if we pursue x into fur!r detail & exactitude1 we f9d t we gradually tr5* ^u "s ( ! succe$+ p>ts4 ,i1 !re=e1 proce$ to treat ( ! second /ep1 ! ,measurem5t ( ,ph5om5a2--( ,me?ods by :i* ?is "w1 9 its wide/ s5se1 is execut$1 & ^! ,i %all t]m ,me?ods ( ,obs]vation4 #ade ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,me?ods ,,( ,,obs]vation4 ,,aphorism ,,xxviii4 ,! ,me?ods ( ,obs]vation ( ,quantity 9 g5]al are1 ,num]ation1 :i* is precise by ! nature ( ,numb]2 ! ,measurem5t ( ,space & ( ,"t1 :i* are easily made precise2 ! ,conv]sion ( ,space & ,"t1 by :i* ea* aids ! measurem5t ( ! o!r2 ! ,me?od ( ,repetition2 ! ,me?od ( ,co9cid5ces or ,int]f]5ces4 ,! measurem5t ( ,weight is made precise by ! ,me?od ( ,d\ble-weigh+4 ,second>y ,qualities are measur$ by means ( ,scales ( ,degrees2 b 9 ord] to apply ^! ,scales1 ! /ud5t requires ! ,education ( ! ,s5ses4 ,! ,education ( ! ,s5ses is =w>d$ by ! practical /udy ( ,descriptive ,natural ,hi/ory1 ,*emical ,manipulation1 & ,a/ronomical ,obs]vation4 #a4 ,i ,,%all speak1 9 ?is *apt]1 ( ,me?ods ( exact & sy/ematic obs]vation1 by :i* su* facts are collect$ z =m ! mat]ials ( precise sci5tific propositions4 ,^! ,me?ods are v v>i\s1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! subject inquir$ into1 & o!r circum/ances3 b a great portion ( !m agree 9 be+ processes ( measurem5t4 ,^! ,i %all peculi>ly consid]3 & 9 ! fir/ place ^? ref]r+ to ,numb]1 ,space1 & ,"t1 :i* are at ! same "t objects & in/rum5ts ( measurem5t4 #b4 ,b ?\gh we h to expla9 h[ obs]vations may be made z p]fect z possible1 we mu/ n =get t 9 mo/ cases complete p]fection is unatta9able4 ,obs]vations are nev] p]fect4 ,= we #adf obs]ve ph5om5a by our s5ses1 & measure _! relations 9 "t & space2 b our s5ses & our measures are all1 f v>i\s causes1 inaccurate4 ,if we h to obs]ve ! exact place ( ! moon among ! />s1 h[ mu* ( in/rum5tal app>atus is necess>y6 ,?is app>atus has be5 improv$ by _m successive g5]ations ( a/ronom]s1 yet x is /ill f> f be+ p]fect4 ,& ! s5ses ( man1 z well z 8 implem5ts1 are limit$ 9 _! exactness4 ,two diff]5t obs]v]s d n obta9 precisely ! same measures ( ! "t & place ( a ph5om5on2 z1 = in/ance1 ( ! mom5t at :i* ! moon occults a />1 & ! po9t ( h] limb at :i* ! occultation takes place4 ,"h1 !n1 is a s\rce ( inaccuracy & err\r1 ev5 9 a/ronomy1 :]e ! means ( exact obs]vation are incomp>ably m complete ?an !y are 9 any o!r dep>tm5t ( human rese>*4 ,9 o!r cases1 ! task ( obta9+ accurate measures is f> m difficult4 ,if we h to obs]ve ! tides ( ! ocean :5 rippl$ ) waves1 we c see ! av]age level ( ! wat] fir/ rise & !n fall2 b h[ h>d is x to select ! exact mom5t :5 x is at its greate/ height1 or ! exact highe/ po9t :i* x rea*es6 ,x is v easy1 9 su* a case1 to err by _m m9utes 9 "t1 & by sev]al in*es 9 space4 ,/ill1 9 _m cases1 good ,me?ods c remove v mu* ( ?is inaccuracy1 & to ^! we n[ proce$4 #c4 7,i47 ,numb]4--,numb] is ! fir/ /ep ( measurem5t1 s9ce x measures itself1 & does n1 l space & "t1 require an arbitr>y /&>d4 ,h5ce ! fir/ exact obs]vations1 & ! fir/ advances ( rigor\s k1 appe> to h be5 made by means ( numb]2 z = example1--! numb] ( days 9 a mon? & 9 a ye>2--! cycles accord+ to :i* eclipses occur2--! numb] ( days 9 ! revolutions ( ! planets2 & ! l4 ,all ^! discov]ies1 z we h se5 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy1 g back to ! e>lie/ p]iod ( ! sci5ce1 ant]ior to any di/9ct tradition2 & ^! discov]ies presuppose a s]ies1 probably a v long s]ies1 ( obs]vations1 made #adg pr9cipally by means ( numb]4 ,nations s rude z to h no o!r means ( exact measurem5t1 h /ill sy/ems ( num]ation by :i* !y c reckon to a consid]able ext5t4 ,v (t51 su* nations h v complex sy/ems1 :i* are capable ( express+ numb]s ( great magnitude4 ,numb] supplies ! means ( measur+ o!r quantities1 by ! assumption ( a unit ( measure ( ! appropriate k9d3 b :]e nature supplies ! unit1 numb] is applicable directly & imm$iately4 ,numb] is an important elem5t 9 ! ,classificatory z well z 9 ! ,ma!matical ,sci5ces4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ^? ,sci5ces %[s h[ ! =mation ( botanical sy/ems 0 effect$ by ! adoption ( numb] z a lead+ elem5t1 by ,csalp9us2 & h[ aft]w>ds ! ,re=m ( ,l9nu 9 classification dep5d$ 9 a great degree on 8 f9d+1 9 ! pi/ils & /am5s1 a bett] num]ical basis ?an ^? be=e employ$4 ,9 l mann]1 ! numb] ( rays 9 ! membrane ( ! gills#ac1 & ! numb] ( rays 9 ! f9s ( fi%1 7 f\nd to be important elem5ts 9 i*?yological classification by ,art$i & ,l9nu4 ,!re are innum]able in/ances1 9 all p>ts ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 ( ! importance ( ! obs]vation ( numb]4 ,& 9 ?is obs]vation1 no in/rum5t1 scale or /&>d is ne$$1 or c be appli$2 except ! scale ( natural numb]s1 express$ ei!r 9 words or 9 figures1 c be consid]$ z an in/rum5t4 ,note #ac3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xvi4 c4 vii4 #d4 7,,ii47 ,measurem5t ( ,space4--,( quantities admitt+ ( cont9u\s increase & decrease1 7= numb] is discont9u\s17 space is ! mo/ simple 9 its mode ( measurem5t1 & requires mo/ frequ5tly to be measur$4 ,! obvi\s mode ( measur+ space is by ! repeat$ application ( a mat]ial measure1 z :5 we take a foot-rule & measure ! l5g? ( a room4 ,& 9 ?is case ! foot-rule is ! unit ( space1 & ! l5g? ( ! room is express$ by ! numb] ( su* units :i* x conta9s3 or1 z x may n conta9 an exact numb]1 by a numb] ) a fraction4 ,b besides ?is measurem5t ( l9e> space1 #adh !re is ano!r k9d ( space :i*1 = purposes ( sci5ce1 x is /ill m important to measure1 namely1 angul> space4 ,! visible heav5s be+ consid]$ z a sph]e1 ! portions & pa?s ( ! heav5ly bodies are det]m9$ by draw+ circles on ! surface ( ?is sph]e1 & are express$ by means ( ! p>ts ( ^! circles ?us int]cept$3 by su* measures ! doctr9es ( a/ronomy 7 obta9$ 9 ! v beg9n+ ( ! sci5ce4 ,! arcs ( circles ?us measur$1 are n l l9e> spaces1 reckon$ by means ( an arbitr>y unit1 = !re is a natural unit1 ! total circumf]5ce1 to :i* all arcs may be ref]r$4 ,= ! sake ( conv5i5ce1 ! :ole circumf]5ce is divid$ into #cfj p>ts or degrees2 & by means ( ^! degrees & _! p>ts1 all arcs are express$4 ,! arcs are ! measures ( ! angles at ! c5t]1 & ! degrees may be consid]$ indiff]5tly z measur+ ! "o or ! o!r ( ^! quantities4 #e4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy#bc1 ,i h describ$ ! me?od ( obs]vation ( cele/ial angles employ$ by ! ,greeks4 ,!y det]m9$ ! l9es 9 :i* ! heav5ly bodies 7 se51 by means ei!r ( ,%ad[s1 or ( ,sights2 & measur$ ! angles betwe5 su* l9es by arcs or rules prop]ly appli$ to !m4 ,! ,armill1 ,a/rolabe1 ,dioptra1 & ,p>allactic ,in/rum5t ( ! anci5ts1 7 "s ( ! in/rum5ts ?us con/ruct$4 ,ty*o ,brahe greatly improv$ ! me?ods ( a/ronomical obs]vation by giv+ /ead9ess to ! frame ( 8 in/rum5ts1 7:i* 7 l>ge quadrants17 & accuracy to ! divisions ( ! limb#cc4 ,b ! application ( ! telescope to ! a/ronomical quadrant & ! fixation ( ! c5t] ( ! field by a cross ( f9e wires plac$ 9 ! focus1 0 an imm5se improvem5t ( ! in/rum5t1 s9ce x sub/itut$ a precise visual ray1 po9t+ to ! />1 in/ead ( ! co>se co9cid5ce ( ,sights4 ,! accuracy ( obs]vation 0 /ill fur!r increas$ #adi by apply+ to ! telescope a micromet] :i* might subdivide ! small] divisions ( ! arc4 ,note #bc3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 iii4 c4 iv4 sect4 #c4 ,note #cc3 ,ib4 b4 vii4 c4 vi4 sect4 #a4 #f4 ,by ?is means1 ! precision ( a/ronomical obs]vation 0 made s great1 t v m9ute angul> spaces c\ld be measur$3 & x !n became a "q :e!r discrepancies :i* appe>$ at fir/ z defects 9 ! !ory1 might n arise sometimes f a b5d+ or %ak+ ( ! in/rum5t1 & f ! degrees m>k$ on ! limb be+ really some:at unequal1 in/ead ( be+ rigor\sly equal4 ,accord+ly1 ! fram+ & balanc+ ( ! in/rum5t1 s z to avoid all possible tremor or flexure1 & ! exact division ( an arc into equal p>ts1 became great objects ( ^? :o wi%$ to improve a/ronomical obs]vations4 ,! obs]v] no long] gaz$ at ! />s f a l(ty t[]1 b plac$ 8 telescope on ! solid gr\nd1--& brac$ & balanc$ x ) v>i\s contrivances4 ,in/ead ( a quadrant1 an entire circle 0 introduc$ 7by ,ramsd527 & v>i\s processes 7 inv5t$ = ! divid+ ( in/rum5ts4 ,among ^! we may notice ,tr\ghton's me?od ( divid+2 9 :i* ! visual ray ( a microscope 0 sub/itut$ = ! po9ts ( a pair ( compasses1 &1 by /epp+ r\nd ! circle1 ! p>tial arcs 7 made to be> _! exact relation to ! :ole circumf]5ce4 #g4 ,a/ronomy is n ! only sci5ce :i* dep5ds on ! measurem5t ( angles4 ,cry/allography also requires exact measures ( ?is k9d2 & ! goniomet]1 especially t devis$ by ,wolla/on1 supplies ! means ( obta9+ su* measures4 ,! sci5ce ( ,optics also1 9 _m cases1 requires ! measurem5t ( angles4 #h4 ,9 ! measurem5t ( l9e> space1 !re is no natural /&>d :i* (f]s itself4 ,mo/ ( ! common measures appe> to be tak5 f "s "p ( ! human body2 z a foot1 a cubit1 a fa?om2 b su* measures _c possess any precision1 & are alt]$ by conv5tion3 ?us !re 7 9 anci5t times _m k9ds ( cubits2 & 9 mod]n ,europe1 !re are a great numb] ( diff]5t /&>ds ( ! foot1 z ! ,rh5i% foot1 ! ,p>is foot1 ! ,engli% foot4 ,x is #aej v desirable t1 if possible1 "s p]man5t /&>d1 f\nd$ 9 nature1 %\ld be adopt$2 = ! conv5tional measures are lo/ 9 ! c\rse ( ages2 & ?us1 dim5sions express$ by means ( !m become un9telligible4 ,two diff]5t natural /&>ds h be5 employ$ 9 mod]n times3 ! ,fr5* h ref]r$ _! measures ( l5g? to ! total circumf]5ce ( a m]idian ( ! e>?2 a quadrant ( ?is m]idian consi/s ( t5 million units or metres4 ,! ,engli% h fix$ _! l9e> measure by ref]5ce to ! l5g? ( a p5dulum :i* employs an exact second ( "t 9 its small oscillation4 ,bo? ^! me?ods occasion consid]able difficulties 9 c>ry+ !m into effect2 & are to be consid]$ ma9ly z means ( recov]+ ! /&>d if x %\ld ev] be lo/4 ,= common purposes1 "s mat]ial /&>d is adopt$ z au?ority = ! "t3 = example1 ! /&>d :i* 9 ,engl& possess$ legal au?ority up to ! ye> #ahce 0 pres]v$ 9 ! ,h\se ( ,p>liam5t2 & 0 lo/ 9 ! conflagration :i* de/roy$ t edifice4 ,! /&>d ( l5g? n[ g5]ally ref]r$ to by m5 ( sci5ce 9 ,engl& is t :i* is 9 ! possession ( ! ,a/ronomical ,society ( ,london4 #i4 ,a /&>d ( l5g? be+ e/abli%$1 ! artifices = apply+ x1 & = subdivid+ x 9 ! mo/ accurate mann]1 are ne>ly ! same z 9 ! case ( measures ( arcs3 z = in/ance1 ! employm5t ( ! visual rays ( microscopes in/ead ( ! legs ( compasses & ! edges ( rules2 ! use ( micromet]s = m9ute measurem5ts2 & ! l4 ,_m diff]5t modes ( avoid+ err\r 9 su* measurem5ts h be5 devis$ by v>i\s obs]v]s1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! cases ) :i* !y _h to deal#dc4 ,note #dc3 ,on ! precautions employ$ 9 a/ronomical in/rum5ts = ! measure ( space1 see ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el's ,a/ronomy 79 ! ,cab9et ,cyclopdia17 ,arts4 #ajc-aaj4 #aj4 7,,iii47 ,measurem5t ( ,"t4--,! me?ods ( measur+ ,"t are n s obvi\s z ! me?ods ( #aea measur+ space2 = we _c apply "o portion ( "t to ano!r1 s z to te/ _! equality4 ,we are oblig$ to beg9 by assum+ "s *ange z ! measure ( "t4 ,?us ! motion ( ! sun 9 ! sky1 or ! l5g? & position ( ! %ad[s ( objects1 7 ! fir/ modes ( measur+ ! p>ts ( ! day4 ,b :at assurance _h m51 or :at assurance c\ld !y h1 t ! motion ( ! sun or ( ! %ad[ 0 uni=m8 ,!y c\ld h no su* assurance1 till !y _h adopt$ "s measure ( small] times2 :i* small] times1 mak+ up l>g] times by repetition1 !y took z ! /&>d ( uni=mity2--= example1 an h\r-glass1 or a clepsydra :i* answ]$ ! same purpose among ! anci5ts4 ,!re is no app>5t reason :y ! successive p]iods measur$ by ! empty+ ( ! h\r-glass %\ld be unequal2 !y are implicitly accept$ z equal2 & by ref]5ce to ^!1 ! uni=mity ( ! sun's motion may be v]ifi$4 ,b ! great improvem5t 9 ! measurem5t ( "t 0 ! use ( a p5dulum = ! purpose by ,galileo1 & ! application ( ?is device to clocks by ,huygh5s 9 #afef4 ,= ! successive oscillations ( a p5dulum are rigor\sly equal1 & a clock is only a tra9 ( ma*9]y employ$ = ! purpose ( c\nt+ ^! oscillations4 ,by means ( ?is inv5tion1 ! measure ( "t 9 a/ronomical obs]vations became z accurate z ! measure ( space4 #aa4 ,:at is ! natural unit ( "t8 ,x 0 assum$ f ! fir/ by ! ,greek a/ronom]s1 t ! sid]eal days1 measur$ by ! revolution ( a /> f any m]idian to ! same m]idian aga91 are exactly equal2 & all improvem5ts 9 ! measure ( "t t5d$ to confirm ?is assumption4 ,! sid]eal day is !re=e ! natural /&>d ( "t4 ,b ! sol> day1 det]m9$ by ! diurnal revolution ( ! sun1 al?\gh n rigor\sly inv>iable1 z ! sid]eal day is1 und]goes sc>cely any p]ceptible v>iation2 & s9ce ! c\rse ( daily occurr5ces is regulat$ by ! sun1 x is f> m conv5i5t to seek ! basis ( our unit ( "t 9 8 motions4 ,accord+ly ! sol> day 7! mean sol> day7 is divid$ into #bd h\rs1 #aeb & ^!1 into m9utes & seconds2 & ?is is our scale ( "t4 ,( su* "t1 ! sid]eal day has #bc h\rs #ef m9utes #dji seconds4 ,& x is pla9 t by su* a /atem5t ! l5g? ( ! h\r is fix$1 ) ref]5ce to a sid]eal day4 ,! /&>d ( "t 7& ! /&>d ( space 9 l mann]7 equally answ]s its purpose1 :e!r or n x co9cides ) any :ole numb] ( units4 #ab4 ,s9ce ! sid]eal day is ?us ! /&>d ( our measures ( "t1 x becomes desirable to ref] to x1 con/antly & exactly1 ! in/rum5ts by :i* "t is measur$1 9 ord] t we may secure ourselves aga9/ err\r4 ,= ?is purpose1 9 a/ronomical obs]vatories1 obs]vations are con/antly made ( ! transit ( />s across ! m]idian2 ! transit in/rum5t ) :i* ?is is done be+ adju/$ ) all imag9able reg>d to accuracy#ec4 ,note #ec3 ,on ! precautions employ$ 9 ! measure ( "t by a/ronom]s1 see ,h]s*el's ,a/ronomy1 ,art4 #aae-abg4 #ac4 ,:5 exact measures ( "t are requir$ 9 o!r ?an a/ronomical obs]vations1 ! same in/rum5ts are /ill us$1 namely1 clocks & *ronomet]s4 ,9 *ronomet]s1 ! regulat+ "p is an oscillat+ body2 n1 z 9 clocks1 a p5dulum oscillat+ by ! =ce ( gravity1 b a :eel sw++ to & fro on its c5t]1 9 consequ5ce ( ! vibrations ( a sl5d] coil ( ela/ic wire4 ,to divide "t into /ill small] portions ?an ^! vibrations1 o!r artifices are us$2 "s ( :i* w be m5tion$ "u ! next head4 #ad4 7,,iv47 ,conv]sion ( ,space & ,"t4--,space & "t agree 9 be+ ext5d$ quantities1 :i* are made up & measur$ by ! repetition ( homog5e\s p>ts4 ,if a body move uni=mly1 :e!r 9 ! way ( revolv+ or o!rwise1 ! space :i* any po9t describes1 is proportional to ! "t ( its motion2 & ! space & ! "t may ea* be tak5 z a measure ( ! o!r4 ,h5ce 9 su* cases1 by tak+ space in/ead ( "t1 or "t in/ead ( #aec space1 we may (t5 obta9 m conv5i5t & precise measures1 ?an we c by measur+ directly ! elem5t ) :i* we are conc]n$4 ,! mo/ prom95t example ( su* a conv]sion1 is ! measurem5t ( ! ,"r ,asc5sion ( />s1 7t is1 _! angul> di/ance f a /&>d m]idian#fc on ! cele/ial sph]e17 by means ( ! "t employ$ 9 _! com+ to ! m]idian ( ! place ( obs]vation4 ,s9ce1 z we h already /at$1 ! visible cele/ial sph]e1 c>ry+ ! fix$ />s1 revolves ) p]fect uni=mity ab\t ! pole2 if we obs]ve ! />s z !y come 9 succession to a fix$ circle pass+ ?r\gh ! poles1 ! int]vals ( "t betwe5 ^! obs]vations w be proportional to ! angles :i* ! m]idian circles pass+ ?r\gh ^! />s make at ! poles :]e !y meet2 & h5ce1 if we h ! means ( measur+ "t ) great accuracy1 we c1 by wat*+ ! times ( ! transits ( successive />s across "s visible m>k 9 our own m]idian1 det]m9e ! angul> di/ances ( ! m]idian circles ( all ! />s f "o ano!r4 ,note #fc3 ,a m]idian is a circle pass+ ?r\gh ! poles ab\t :i* ! cele/ial sph]e revolves4 ,! m]idian ( any place on ! e>? is t m]idian :i* is exactly ov] ! place4 ,accord+ly1 n[ t ! p5dulum clock af=ds a/ronom]s ! means ( det]m9+ "t exactly1 a measurem5t ( ! ,"r ,asc5sions ( heav5ly bodies by means ( a clock & a transit in/rum5t1 is a "p ( ! regul> bus9ess ( an obs]vatory4 ,if ! sid]eal clock be s adju/$ t x m>ks ! beg9n+ ( its scale ( "t :5 ! fir/ po9t ( ,"r ,asc5sion is ^u ! visible m]idian ( our obs]vatory1 ! po9t ( ! scale at :i* ! clock po9ts :5 any o!r /> is 9 our m]idian1 w truly repres5t ! ,"r ,asc5sion ( ! />4 ,?us z ! motion ( ! />s is our measure ( "t1 we employ "t1 conv]sely1 z our measure ( ! places ( ! />s4 ,! cele/ial ma*9e & our t]re/rial ma*9es correspond to ea* o!r 9 _! movem5ts2 & ! /> /eals sil5tly & /eadily #aed across our m]idian l9e1 j z ! po9t] ( ! clock /eals pa/ ! m>k ( ! h\r4 ,we may judge ( ! scale ( ?is motion by consid]+ t ! full moon employs ab\t two m9utes ( "t 9 sail+ across any fix$ l9e se5 aga9/ ! sky1 transv]se to h] pa?3 & all ! cele/ial bodies1 c>ri$ along by ! revolv+ sph]e1 travel at ! same rate4 #ae4 ,9 ?is case1 up to a c]ta9 degree1 we r5d] our measures ( a/ronomical angles m exact & conv5i5t by sub/itut+ "t = space2 b :51 9 ! v same k9d ( obs]vation1 we wi% to proce$ to a great] degree ( accuracy1 we f9d t x is be/ done by sub/itut+ space = "t4 ,9 obs]v+ ! transit ( a /> across ! m]idian1 if we h ! clock )9 he>+1 we c c\nt ! beats ( ! p5dulum by ! noise :i* !y make1 & tell exactly at :i* second ( "t ! passage ( ! /> across ! visible ?read takes place2 & ?us we measure ,"r ,asc5sion by means ( "t4 ,b our p]ception ( "t does n all[ u to divide a second into t5 p>ts1 & to pron\nce :e!r ! transit takes place ?ree-t5?s1 six-t5?s1 or sev5-t5?s ( a second aft] ! prec$+ beat ( ! clock4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c be done by ! usual mode ( obs]v+ ! transit ( a />4 ,! obs]v]1 li/5+ to ! beat ( 8 clock1 fa/5s 8 att5tion ^u ! /> at ea* beat1 & especially at ! "o imm$iately be=e & ! "o imm$iately aft] ! passage ( ! ?read3 & by ?is means he has ^! two positions & ! position ( ! ?read s f> pres5t to 8 intuition at once1 t he c judge 9 :at proportion ! ?read is ne>] to "o position ?an ! o!r1 & c ?us divide ! int]v5+ second 9 its due proportion4 ,?us if he obs]ve t at ! beg9n+ ( ! second ! /> is on "o side ( ! ?read1 & at ! end ( ! second on ! o!r side2 & t ! two di/ances f ! ?read are z two to ?ree1 he kn[s t ! transit took place at two-fif?s 7or f\r-t5?s7 ( a second aft] ! =m] beat4 ,9 ?is way a second ( "t 9 a/ronomical obs]vations may1 by a skilful obs]v]1 be divid$ into t5 equal #aee p>ts2 al?\gh :5 "t is obs]v$ z "t1 a t5? ( a second appe>s almo/ to escape our s5ses4 ,f ! above explanation1 x w be se5 t ! reason :y ! subdivision is possible 9 ! way ?us describ$1 is ?is3--t ! mom5t ( "t ?us to be divid$ is s small1 t ! eye & ! m9d c reta91 to ! end ( ?is mom5t1 ! impression ( position :i* x receiv$ at ! beg9n+4 ,?\gh ! two positions ( ! />1 & ! int]m$iate ?read1 are se5 successively1 !y c be contemplat$ by ! m9d z if !y 7 se5 simultane\sly3 & ?us x is precisely ! smallness ( ?is portion ( "t :i* enables u to subdivide x by means ( space4 #af4 ,!re is ano!r case1 ( some:at a diff]5t k9d1 9 :i* "t is employ$ 9 measur+ space2 namely1 :5 space1 or ! /&>d ( space1 is def9$ by ! l5g? ( a p5dulum oscillat+ 9 a giv5 "t4 ,we might 9 ?is way def9e any space by ! "t :i* a p5dulum ( su* a l5g? w\ld take 9 oscillat+2 & ?us we might speak1 z 0 obs]v$ by ^? :o sugge/$ ?is device1 ( five m9utes ( clo?1 or a rope half an h\r long4 ,we may obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t 9 ?is case1 ! space is n proportional to ! "t4 ,& we may add1 t ?\gh we ?us appe> to avoid ! arbitr>y /&>d ( space 7= z we h se51 ! /&>d ( measures ( "t is a natural "o17 we d n d s 9 fact3 = we assume ! inv>iabl5ess ( gravity1 :i* really v>ies 7?\gh v slightly17 f place to place4 #ag4 7,v47 ,! ,me?od ( ,repetition 9 ,measurem5t4--,9 _m cases we c give great additional accuracy to our measurem5ts by repeat$ly add+ to itself ! quantity :i* we wi% to measure4 ,?us if we wi%$ to asc]ta9 ! exact bread? ( a ?read1 x might n be easy to det]m9e :e!r x 0 "o-n9etie?1 or "o-n9ety-fif?1 or "o-hundr$? "p ( an in*2 b if we f9d t n9ety-six su* ?reads plac$ side by side occupy exactly an in*1 we h ! precise measure ( ! bread? ( ! ?read4 ,9 #aef ! same mann]1 if two clocks are go+ ne>ly at ! same rate1 we may n be able to di/+ui% ! excess ( an oscillation ( "o ( ! p5dulums ov] an oscillation ( ! o!r3 b :5 ! two clocks h gone = an h\r1 "o ( !m may h ga9$ t5 seconds ^u ! o!r2 ?us %[+ t ! proportion ( _! times ( oscillation is #cfaj to #cfjj4 ,9 ! latt] ( ^! in/ances1 we h ! pr9ciple ( repetition truly exemplifi$1 because 7z has be5 ju/ly obs]v$ by ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el#gc17 !re is !n 'a juxtaposition ( units )\t err\r1'--'"o vibration comm5ces exactly :]e ! la/ t]m9ates1 no "p ( "t be+ lo/ or ga9$ 9 ! addition ( ! units s c\nt$4' ,9 space1 ?is juxtaposition ( units )\t err\r _c be rigor\sly accompli%$1 s9ce ! units mu/ be add$ toge!r by mat]ial contact 7z 9 ! above case ( ! ?reads17 or 9 "s equival5t mann]4 ,yet ! pr9ciple ( repetition has be5 appli$ to angul> measurem5t ) consid]able success 9 ,borda's ,repeat+ ,circle4 ,9 ?is in/rum5t1 ! angle betwe5 two objects :i* we h to obs]ve1 is repeat$ along ! graduat$ limb ( ! circle by turn+ ! telescope f "o object to ! o!r1 alt]nately fa/5$ to ! circle 7by its clamp7 & loose f x 7by unclamp+74 ,9 ?is mann] ! err\rs ( graduation may 7!oretically7 be entirely got rid (3 = if an angle repeat$ n9e times be f\nd to g twice r\nd ! circle1 x mu/ be exactly eighty degrees3 & :]e ! repetition does n give an exact numb] ( circumf]5ces1 x may /ill be made to subdivide ! err\r to any requir$ ext5t4 ,note #gc3 ,disc4 ,nat4 ,phil4 art4 #aba4 #ah4 ,connect$ ) ! pr9ciple ( repetition1 is ! ,me?od ( co9cid5ces or int]f]5ces4 ,if we h two ,scales1 on "o ( :i* an in* is divid$ into #aj1 & on ! o!r into #aa equal p>ts2 & if1 ^! ,scales be+ plac$ side by side1 x appe> t ! beg9n+ ( ! latt] ,scale is betwe5 ! #bnd & #crd division ( ! =m]1 x may n be app>5t #aeg :at fraction add$ to #b det]m9es ! place ( beg9n+ ( ! second ,scale z measur$ on ! fir/4 ,b if x appe> also t ! #crd division ( ! second ,scale co9cides ) a c]ta9 division ( ! fir/1 7! #e?17 x is c]ta9 t #b & ?ree-t5?s is ! exact place ( ! beg9n+ ( ! second ,scale1 measur$ on ! fir/ ,scale4 ,! #crd division ( ! #aa ,scale w co9cide 7or int]f]e )7 a division ( ! #aj ,scale1 :5 ! beg9n+ or z]o ( ! #aa divisions is ?ree-t5?s ( a division beyond ! prec$+ l9e ( ! #aj ,scale2 z w be pla9 on a little consid]ation4 ,& if we h two ,scales ( equal units1 9 :i* ea* unit is divid$ into ne>ly1 b n q1 ! same numb] ( equal p>ts 7z #aj & #aa1 #ai & #bj1 #bi & #cj17 & "o slid+ on ! o!r1 x w always happ5 t "s "o or o!r ( ! division l9es w co9cide1 or v ne>ly co9cide2 & ?us ! exact position ( ! beg9n+ ( "o unit1 measur$ on ! o!r scale1 is det]m9$4 ,a slid+ scale1 ?us divid$ = ! purpose ( subdivid+ ! units ( t on :i* x slides1 is call$ a ,v]ni]1 f ! "n ( its inv5tor4 #ai4 ,! same ,pr9ciple ( ,co9cid5ce or ,int]f]5ce is appli$ to ! exact measurem5t ( ! l5g? ( "t occupi$ 9 ! oscillation ( a p5dulum4 ,if a deta*$ p5dulum1 ( su* a l5g? z to sw+ 9 little less ?an a second1 be plac$ be=e ! seconds' p5dulum ( a clock1 & if ! two p5dulums beg9 to move toge!r1 ! =m] w ga9 ^u ! latt]1 & 9 a little :ile _! motions w be q discordant4 ,b if we g on wat*+1 we %all f9d !m1 aft] a "t1 to agree aga9 exactly2 namely1 :5 ! deta*$ p5dulum has ga9$ "o complete oscillation 7back & =w>ds17 ^u ! clock p5dulum1 & aga9 co9cides ) x 9 its motion4 ,if ?is happ5 aft] #e m9utes1 we "k t ! times ( oscillation ( ! two p5dulums are 9 ! proportion ( #cjj to #cjb1 & !re=e ! deta*$ p5dulum oscillates 9 #aej_/aea ( a second4 ,! accuracy :i* c be obta9$ 9 ! measure ( an oscillation by ?is means is great2 = ! clock c be comp>$ 7by #aeh obs]v+ transits ( ! />s or o!rwise7 ) ! natural /&>d ( "t1 ! sid]eal day4 ,& ! mom5t ( co9cid5ce ( ! two p5dulums may1 by prop] arrangem5ts1 be v exactly det]m9$4 ,we h hi!rto spok5 ( me?ods ( measur+ "t & space1 b o!r elem5ts also may be v precisely measur$ by v>i\s means4 #bj4 7,,vi47 ,measurem5t ( ,weight4--,weight1 l space & "t1 is a quantity made up by addition ( p>ts1 & may be measur$ by simil> me?ods4 ,! pr9ciple ( repetition is applicable to ! measurem5t ( weight2 = if two bodies be simultane\sly put 9 ! same pan ( a balance1 & if !y balance pieces 9 ! o!r pan1 _! weights are exactly add$4 ,!re may be difficulties ( practic$ workman%ip 9 c>ry+ into effect ! ma!matical conditions ( a p]fect balance2 = example1 9 secur+ an exact equality ( ! effective arms ( ! beam 9 all positions4 ,^! difficulties are evad$ by ! ,me?od ( d\ble weigh+2 accord+ to :i* ! /&>d weights1 & ! body :i* is to be weigh$1 are successively put 9 ! same pan1 & made to balance by a ?ird body 9 ! opposite scale4 ,by ?is means ! diff]5t l5g?s ( ! arms ( ! beam1 & o!r imp]fections ( ! balance1 become ( no consequ5ce#hc4 ,note #hc3 ,= o!r me?ods ( measur+ weights accurately1 see ,f>aday's ,*emical ,manipulation1 p4 #be4 #ba4 ,!re is no natural ,/&>d ( weight4 ,! conv5tional weight tak5 z ! /&>d1 is ! weight ( a giv5 bulk ( "s kn[n sub/ance2 = in/ance1 a cubic foot ( wat]4 ,b 9 ord] t ?is may be def9ite1 ! wat] mu/ n conta9 any portion ( het]og5e\s sub/ance3 h5ce x is requir$ t ! wat] be di/ill$ wat]4 #bb4 7,,vii47 ,measurem5t ( ,second>y ,qualities4--,we h already se5#ic t second>y qualities are e/imat$ by means ( conv5tional ,scales1 :i* ref] #aei !m to space1 numb]1 or "s o!r def9ite expression4 ,?us ! ,!rmomet] measures heat2 ! ,musical ,scale1 ) or )\t ! aid ( numb]1 expresses ! pit* ( a note2 & we may h an exact & complete ,scale ( ,col\rs1 pure & impure4 ,we may rem>k1 h[ev]1 t ) reg>d to s\nd & col\r1 ! e/imates ( ! e> & ! eye are n sup]s$$1 b only assi/$3 = if we det]m9e :at a note is1 by comp>+ x ) an in/rum5t kn[n to be 9 tune1 we /ill leave ! e> to decide :5 ! note is 9 unison ) "o ( ! notes ( ! in/rum5t4 ,& :5 we comp>e a col\r ) our *romatomet]1 we judge by ! eye :i* division ( ! *romatomet] x mat*es4 ,col\r & s\nd h _! ,natural ,scales1 :i* ! eye & e> habitually apply2 :at sci5ce requires is1 t ^? scales %\ld be sy/ematiz$4 ,we h se5 t sev]al conditions are requisite 9 su* scales ( qualities3 ! obs]v]'s skill & +5uity are ma9ly %[n 9 devis+ su* scales & me?ods ( apply+ !m4 ,note #ic3 ,b4 iii4 c4 ii4 ,( ! ,measure ( ,second>y ,qualities4 #bc4 ,! ,me?od ( ,co9cid5ces is employ$ 9 h>monics3 = if two notes are ne>ly1 b n q1 9 unison1 ! co9cid5ces ( ! vibrations produce an audible undulation 9 ! note1 :i* is call$ ! h[l2 & ! exactness ( ! unison is kn[n by ?is h[l vani%+4 #bd4 7,,viii47 ,manipulation4--,! process ( apply+ practically me?ods ( exp]im5t & obs]vation1 is t]m$ ,manipulation2 & ! value ( obs]vations dep5ds mu* ^u ! pr(ici5cy ( ! obs]v] 9 ?is art4 ,?is skill appe>s1 z we h said1 n only 9 devis+ means & modes 9 measur+ results1 b also 9 inv5t+ & execut+ arrangem5ts by :i* elem5ts are subject$ to su* conditions z ! inve/igation requires3 9 f9d+ & us+ "s mat]ial comb9ation by :i* nature %all be ask$ ! "q :i* we h 9 our m9ds4 ,to d ?is 9 any subject may be consid]$ z a peculi> ,art1 b especially 9 ,*emi/ry2 :]e '_m exp]im5ts1 & ev5 :ole tra9s ( rese>*1 are #afj ess5tially dep5d5t = success on m]e manipulation#ajc4' ,! *anges :i* ! *emi/ has to /udy1--compositions1 decompositions1 & mutual actions1 affect+ ! int]nal /ructure r ?an ! ext]nal =m & motion ( bodies1--are n famili>ly recogniz$ by common obs]v]s1 z ^? actions are :i* op]ate ^u ! total mass ( a body3 & h5ce x is only :5 ! *emi/ has become1 to a c]ta9 degree1 famili> ) 8 sci5ce1 t he has ! p[] ( obs]v+4 ,he mu/ le>n to int]pret ! effects ( mixture1 heat1 & o!r ,*emical ag5cies1 s z to see 9 !m ^? facts :i* *emi/ry makes ! basis ( h] doctr9es4 ,& 9 le>n+ to int]pret ?is language1 he mu/ also le>n to call x =?2--to place bodies "u ! requisite conditions1 by ! app>atus ( 8 own laboratory & ! op]ations ( 8 own f+]s4 ,to d ?is ) read9ess & precision1 is1 z we h said1 an ,art1 bo? ( ! m9d & ( ! h&1 9 no small degree recondite & difficult4 ,a p]son may be well acqua9t$ ) all ! doctr9es ( *emi/ry1 & may yet fail 9 ! simple/ exp]im5t4 ,h[ _m precautions & obs]vances1 :at res\rce & inv5tion1 :at delicacy & vigilance1 are requisite 9 ,*emical ,manipulation1 may be se5 by ref]5ce to ,dr4 ,f>aday's "w on t subject4 ,note #ajc3 ,f>aday's ,*emical ,manipulation1 p4 #c4 #be4 ,! same qualities 9 ! obs]v] are requisite 9 "s o!r dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce2 = example1 9 ! rese>*es ( ,optics3 = 9 ^!1 aft] ! fir/ broad facts h be5 notic$1 ! rema9+ features ( ! ph5om5a are bo? v complex & v m9ute2 & require bo? +5uity 9 ! inv5tion ( exp]im5ts1 & a ke5 scrut9y ( _! results4 ,we h in/ances ( ! application ( ^! qualities 9 mo/ ( ! optical exp]im5t]s ( rec5t times1 & c]ta9ly 9 no "o m ?an ,sir ,david ,brew/]4 ,omitt+ "h all notice ( 8 succe$+ lab\rs1 8 ,treatise on ,new ,philosophical ,in/rum5ts1 publi%$ 9 #ahac1 is an excell5t model ( ! k9d ( res\rce #afa & skill ( :i* we n[ speak4 ,i may m5tion z an example ( ?is skill1 8 mode ( det]m9+ ! refractive p[] ( an irregul> fragm5t ( any transp>5t sub/ance4 ,at fir/ ?is might appe> an impossible problem2 = x w\ld seem t a regul> & smoo? surface are requisite1 9 ord] t we may h any measurable refraction4 ,b ,sir ,david ,brew/] ov]came ! difficulty by imm]s+ ! fragm5t 9 a comb9ation ( fluids1 s mix$1 t !y _h ! same refractive p[] z ! specim54 ,! "q1 :5 !y _h ?is p[]1 0 answ]$ by notic+ :5 ! fragm5t became s transp>5t t its surface c\ld h>dly be se52 = ?is happ5$ :51 ! refractive p[] )9 & )\t ! fragm5t be+ ! same1 !re 0 no refraction at ! surface4 ,& ?is condition be+ obta9$1 ! refractive p[] ( ! fluid1 & !re=e ( ! fragm5t1 0 easily asc]ta9$4 #bf4 7,,ix47 ,! ,education ( ! ,s5ses4--,col\r & ,musical ,tone are1 z we h se51 det]m9$ by means ( ! ,s5ses1 :e!r or n ,sy/ematical ,scales are us$ 9 express+ ! obs]v$ fact4 ,sy/ematical ,scales ( s5sible qualities1 h[ev]1 n only give precision to ! record1 b to ! obs]vation4 ,b = ?is purpose su* an ,education ( ! ,s5ses is requisite z may enable u to apply ! scale imm$iately4 ,! memory mu/ reta9 ! s5sation or p]ception to :i* ! te*nical t]m or degree ( ! scale ref]s4 ,?us ) reg>d to col\r1 z we h said already#aac1 :5 we f9d su* t]ms z t9-:ite or p9*beck-br[n1 ! metallic col\r s d5ot$ ought to occur at once to our recollection )\t delay or se>*4 ,! obs]v]'s s5ses1 !re=e1 mu/ be educat$1 at fir/ by an actual exhibition ( ! /&>d1 & aft]w>ds by a famili> use ( x1 to und]/& readily & cle>ly ea* phrase & degree ( ! scales :i* 9 8 obs]vations he has to apply4 ,?is is n only ! be/1 b 9 _m cases ! only way 9 :i* ! obs]vation c be express$4 ,?us glassy lu/re1 fatty lu/re1 adamant9e lu/re1 d5ote c]ta9 k9ds ( #afb %9+ 9 m9]als1 :i* appe>ances we %\ld endeav\r 9 va9 to describe by p]iphrasis2 & :i* ! t]ms1 if consid]$ z t]ms 9 common language1 w\ld by no means cle>ly discrim9ate3 = :o1 9 common language1 w\ld say t coal has a fatty lu/re8 ,b ^! t]ms1 9 _! conv5tional s5se1 are p]fectly def9ite2 & :5 ! eye is once famili>iz$ ) ?is application ( !m1 are easily & cle>ly intelligible4 ,note #aac3 ,b4 viii4 c4 iii4 ,t]m9ology4 #bg4 ,! education ( ! s5ses1 :i* is ?us requisite 9 ord] to und]/& well ! t]m9ology ( any sci5ce1 mu/ be acquir$ by an inspection ( ! objects :i* ! sci5ce deals )2 & is1 p]haps1 be/ promot$ by ! practical /udy ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,9 ! diff]5t dep>tm5ts ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 ! descriptions ( species are giv5 by means ( an ext5sive te*nical t]m9ology3 & t education ( :i* we n[ speak1 ought to produce ! effect ( mak+ ! obs]v] z famili> ) ea* ( ! t]ms ( ?is t]m9ology z we are ) ! words ( our common language4 ,! te*nical t]ms h a mu* m precise mean+ ?an o!r t]ms1 s9ce !y are def9$ by express conv5tion1 & n le>nt by common usage m]ely4 ,yet ?\gh !y are ?us def9$1 n ! def9ition1 b ! p]ception itself1 is t :i* ! t]m sugge/s to ! pr(ici5t4 ,9 ord] to use ! t]m9ology to any good purpose1 ! /ud5t mu/ possess x1 n z a diction>y1 b z a language4 ,! t]m9ology ( 8 sci5ces mu/ be ! natural hi/orian's mo/ famili> tongue4 ,he mu/ le>n to ?9k 9 su* language4 ,& :5 ?is is a*iev$1 ! t]m9ology1 z ,i h else:]e said1 ?\gh to an un$ucat$ eye cumbr\s & p$antical1 is felt to be a useful implem5t1 n an oppressive burd5#abc4 ,! impati5t s*oolboy looks ^u 8 gramm> & vocabul>y z irksome & burd5some2 b ! accompli%$ /ud5t :o has le>nt ! language by means ( !m1 kn[s t !y h giv5 him ! means ( express+ :at he ?9ks1 & #afc ev5 ( ?9k+ m precisely4 ,& z ! /udy ( language ?us gives precision to ! ?\ghts1 ! /udy ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 & especially ( ! descriptive "p ( x1 gives precision to ! s5ses4 ,note #abc3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xvi4 c4 iv4 sect4 #b4 ,! ,education ( ! ,s5ses is also greatly promot$ by ! practical pursuit ( any sci5ce ( exp]im5t & obs]vation1 z *emi/ry or a/ronomy4 ,! me?ods ( manipulat+1 ( :i* we h j spok51 9 *emi/ry1 & ! me?ods ( measur+ extremely m9ute portions ( space & "t :i* are employ$ 9 a/ronomy1 & :i* are describ$ 9 ! =m] "p ( ?is *apt]1 are among ! be/ modes ( educat+ ! s5ses = purposes ( sci5tific obs]vation4 #bh4 ,by ! v>i\s ,me?ods ( precise obs]vation :i* we h ?us v briefly describ$1 facts are collect$1 ( an exact & def9ite k9d2 !y are !n b\nd toge!r 9 g5]al laws1 by ! aid ( g5]al ideas & ( su* me?ods z we h n[ to consid]4 ,x is true1 t ! ideas :i* enable u to comb9e facts into g5]al propositions1 d commonly op]ate 9 our m9ds :ile we are /ill engag$ 9 ! (fice ( obs]v+4 ,ideas ( "o k9d or o!r are requisite to connect our ph5om5a into facts1 & to give mean+ to ! t]ms ( our descriptions3 & x frequ5tly happ5s1 t long be=e we h collect$ all ! facts :i* induction requires1 ! m9d cat*es ! sugge/ion :i* "s ( ^! ideas (f]1 & leaps =w>ds to a conjectural law :ile ! lab\r ( obs]vation is yet unf9i%$4 ,b ?\gh ?is actually occurs1 x is easy to see t ! process ( comb9+ & g5]aliz+ facts is1 9 ! ord] ( nature1 po/]ior to1 & di/9ct f1 ! process ( obs]v+ facts4 ,n only is ?is s1 b !re is an int]m$iate /ep :i*1 ?\gh insep>able f all successful g5]alization1 may be di/+ui%$ f x 9 our survey2 & may1 9 "s degree1 be assi/$ by peculi> me?ods4 ,to ! consid]ation ( su* me?ods we n[ proce$4 #afd ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,( ,,me?ods ,,( ,,acquir+ ,,cle> ,,sci5tific ,,ideas2 & fir/ ,,( ,,intellectual ,,education4 ,,aphorism ,,xxix4 ,! ,me?ods by :i* ! acquisition ( cle> ,sci5tific ,ideas is promot$1 are ma9ly two2 ,intellectual ,education & ,discussion ( ,ideas4 ,,aphorism ,,xxx4 ,! ,idea ( ,space becomes m cle> by /udy+ ,geometry2 ! ,idea ( ,=ce1 by /udy+ ,me*anics2 ! ,ideas ( ,lik5ess1 ( ,k9d1 ( ,subord9ation ( ,classes1 by /udy+ ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,,aphorism ,,xxxi4 ,elem5t>y ,me*anics %\ld n[ =m a "p ( intellectual education1 9 ord] t ! /ud5t may und]/& ! ,!ory ( ,univ]sal ,gravitation3 = an intellectual education %\ld cultivate su* ideas z enable ! /ud5t to und]/& ! mo/ complete & admirable portions ( ! k :i* ! human race has atta9$ to4 ,,aphorism ,,xxxii4 ,natural ,hi/ory ought to =m a "p ( intellectual education1 9 ord] to correct c]ta9 prejudices :i* arise f cultivat+ ! intellect by means ( ma!matics alone2 & 9 ord] to lead ! /ud5t to see t ! division ( ?+s into ,k9ds1 & ! attribution & use ( ,names1 are processes susceptible ( great precision4 #afe ,,! ways 9 :i* m5 become ma/]s ( ^? cle> & yet compreh5sive conceptions :i* ! =mation & reception ( sci5ce require1 are ma9ly two2 :i*1 al?\gh we _c r$uce !m to any exact s*eme1 we may /ill1 9 a loose use ( ! t]m1 call ,me?ods ( acquir+ cle> ,ideas4 ,^! two ways are ,education & ,discussion4 #a4 7,i47 ,idea ( ,space4--,x is easily se5 t ,education may d at lea/ some?+ to r5d] our ideas di/9ct & precise4 ,to le>n ,geometry 9 y\?1 t5ds1 manife/ly1 to r5d] our idea ( space cle> & exact4 ,by su* an education1 all ! relations1 & all ! consequ5ces ( ?is idea1 come to be readily & /eadily appreh5d$2 & ?us x becomes easy = u to und]/& portions ( sci5ce :i* o!rwise we %\ld by no means be able to compreh5d4 ,! conception ( simil> triangles 0 to be ma/]$1 be=e ! disciples ( ,?ales c\ld see ! validity ( 8 me?od ( det]m9+ ! height ( l(ty objects by ! l5g? ( _! %ad[s4 ,! conception ( ! sph]e ) its circles _h to become famili>1 be=e ! annual motion ( ! sun & its influ5ce ^u ! l5g?s ( days c\ld be rightly trac$4 ,! prop]ties ( circles1 comb9$ ) ! pure#acc doctr9e ( motion1 7 requir$ z an introduction to ! !ory ( ,epicycles3 ! prop]ties ( conic sections 7 ne$$1 z a prep>ation = ! discov]ies ( ,kepl]4 ,& n only 0 x necess>y t m5 %\ld possess a k ( c]ta9 figures & _! prop]ties2 b x 0 equally necess>y t !y %\ld h ! habit ( reason+ ) p]fect /ead9ess1 precision1 & conclusiv5ess conc]n+ ! relations ( space4 ,no small discipl9e ( ! m9d is requisite1 9 mo/ cases1 to accu/om x to g1 ) complete insight & security1 ?r\gh ! demon/rations respect+ int]sect+ planes & l9es1 dih$ral & trih$ral angles1 :i* occur 9 solid geometry4 ,yet h[ absolutely necess>y is a p]fect ma/]y ( su* reason+s1 to him :o is to expla9 ! motions ( ! moon 9 #aff latitude & longitude6 ,h[ necess>y1 aga91 is ! same faculty to ! /ud5t ( cry/allography6 ,)\t ma!matical habits ( conception & ( ?9k+1 ^! portions ( sci5ce are p]fectly inaccessible4 ,b ! e>ly /udy ( plane & solid geometry gives to all tol]ably gift$ p]sons1 ! habits :i* are ?us ne$$4 ,! discipl9e ( foll[+ ! reason+s ( didactic works on ?is subject1 till we are q famili> ) !m1 & ( devis+ = ourselves reason+s ( ! same k9d1 7z1 = in/ance1 ! solutions ( problems propos$17 soon gives ! m9d ! p[] ( disc\rs+ ) p]fect facility conc]n+ ! mo/ complex & multipli$ relations ( space1 & enables u to ref] to ! prop]ties ( all plane & solid figures z surely z to ! visible =ms ( objects4 ,?us we h "h a signal in/ance ( ! efficacy ( education 9 giv+ to our ,conceptions t cle>ness1 :i* ! =mation & exi/5ce ( sci5ce indisp5sably require4 ,note #acc3 ,see ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,ideas1 b4 ii4 c4 xiii4 #b4 ,x is n my int5tion "h to ent] into ! details ( ! =m :i* %\ld be giv5 to education1 9 ord] t x may answ] ! purposes n[ contemplat$4 ,b ,i may make a rem>k1 :i* ! above examples naturally sugge/1 t 9 a ma!matical education1 consid]$ z a prep>ation = fur!r+ or und]/&+ physical sci5ce1 ,geometry is to be cultivat$1 f> r ?an ,algebra3--! prop]ties ( space are to be /udi$ & reason$ ^u z !y are 9 !mselves1 n z !y are replac$ & disguis$ by symbolical repres5tations4 ,x is true1 t :5 ! /ud5t is become q famili> ) elem5t>y geometry1 he may (t5 enable himself to deal 9 a m rapid & compreh5sive mann] ) ! relations ( space1 by us+ ! language ( symbols & ! pr9ciples ( symbolical calculation3 b ?is is an ult]ior /ep1 :i* may be add$ to1 b c nev] be sub/itut$ =1 ! direct cultivation ( geometry4 ,! me?od ( symbolical reason+ employ$ ^u subjects ( geometry & me*anics1 has c]ta9ly a*iev$ "s rem>kable triumphs 9 ! treatm5t ( ! !ory ( ! univ]se4 ,^! successful #afg applications ( symbols 9 ! highe/ problems ( physical a/ronomy appe> to h made "s tea*]s ( ma!matics imag9e t x is be/ to beg9 ! pupil's c\rse ) su* symbolical g5]alities4 ,b ?is mode ( proce$+ w be s f> f giv+ ! /ud5t cle> ideas ( ma!matical relations1 t x w involve him 9 utt] confusion1 & probably prev5t 8 ev] obta9+ a firm foot+ 9 geometry4 ,to comm5ce ma!matics 9 su* a way1 w\ld be mu* z if we %\ld beg9 ! /udy ( a language by read+ ! highe/ /ra9s ( its lyrical poetry4 #c4 7,,ii47 ,idea ( ,numb]1 c4--,! /udy ( ma!matics1 z ,i ne$ h>dly obs]ve1 developes & r5d]s exact1 our conceptions ( ! relations ( numb]1 z well z ( space4 ,& al?\gh1 z we h already notic$1 ev5 9 _! orig9al =m ! conceptions ( numb] are = ! mo/ "p v di/9ct1 !y may be /ill fur!r improv$ by su* discipl9e4 ,9 complex cases1 a me?odical cultivation ( ! m9d 9 su* subjects is ne$$3 = in/ance1 que/ions conc]n+ ,cycles1 & ,int]calations1 & ,epacts1 & ! l1 require v great /ead9ess ( ari?metical appreh5sion 9 ord] t ! reason] may deal ) !m rightly4 ,9 ! same mann]1 a ma/]y ( problems belong+ to ! sci5ce ( ,pure ,motion1 or1 z ,i h t]m$ x1 ,me*anism1 requires ei!r great natural aptitude 9 ! /ud5t1 or a m9d prop]ly discipl9$ by suitable bran*es ( ma!matical /udy4 #d4 ,ari?metic & ,geometry h long be5 /&>d portions ( ! education ( cultur$ p]sons ?r\gh\t ! civiliz$ _w2 & h5ce all su* p]sons h be5 able to accept & compreh5d ^? portions ( sci5ce :i* dep5d ^u ! idea ( space3 = in/ance1 ! doctr9e ( ! globul> =m ( ! e>?1 ) its consequ5ces1 su* z ! measures ( latitude & longitude2--! helioc5tric sy/em ( ! univ]se 9 mod]n1 or ! geoc5tric 9 anci5t times2--! explanation ( ! ra9b[2 & ! l4 ,9 nations :]e !re is no su* education1 ^! portions ( sci5ce _c exi/ z a "p ( ! g5]al /ock ( ! k ( society1 h[ev] intellig5tly !y #afh may be pursu$ by s+le philosoph]s disp]s$ "h & !re 9 ! community4 #e4 7,,iii47 ,idea ( ,=ce4--,z ! idea ( ,space is br\ght out 9 its full evid5ce by ! /udy ( ,geometry1 s ! idea ( ,=ce is call$ up & develop$ by ! /udy ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics4 ,x has already be5 %[n1 9 our scrut9y ( ! ,ideas ( ! ,me*anical ,sci5ces1 t ,=ce1 ! ,cause ( motion or ( equilibrium1 involves an indep5d5t ,fundam5tal ,idea1 & is q incapable ( be+ resolv$ into any m]e modification ( our conceptions ( space1 "t1 & motion4 ,& 9 ord] t ! /ud5t may possess ?is idea 9 a precise & manife/ %ape1 he mu/ pursue ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics 9 ! mode :i* ?is view ( its nature dem&s2--t is1 he mu/ /udy x z an indep5d5t sci5ce1 re/+ on solid elem5t>y pr9ciples ( its own1 & n built ^u "s o!r unme*anical sci5ce z its sub/ructure4 ,he mu/ trace ! tru?s ( ,me*anics f _! own axioms & def9itions2 ^! axioms & def9itions be+ consid]$ z m]ely means ( br++ into play ! ,idea on :i* ! sci5ce dep5ds4 ,! conceptions ( =ce & matt]1 ( action & reaction1 ( mom5tum & in]tia1 ) ! reason+s 9 :i* !y are involv$1 _c be evad$ by any sub/itution ( l9es or symbols = ! conceptions4 ,any attempts at su* sub/itution w\ld r5d] ! /udy ( ,me*anics useless z a prep>ation ( ! m9d = physical sci5ce2 & w\ld1 inde$1 except c\nt]act$ by great natural cle>ness ( ?\ght on su* subjects1 fill ! m9d ) confus$ & vague notions1 q unavail+ = any purposes ( s\nd reason+4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! /udy ( ,me*anics1 9 its g5u9e =m1 z a bran* ( education1 is fitt$ to give a mo/ useful & valuable precision ( ?\ght on su* subjects2 & is ! m to be recomm5d$1 s9ce1 9 ! g5]al habits ( mo/ m5's m9ds1 ! me*anical conceptions are ta9t$ ) f> great] obscurity & p]plexity ?an belongs to ! conceptions ( numb]1 space1 & motion4 #f4 ,z habitually di/9ct conceptions ( space & #afi motion 7 requisite = ! reception ( ! doctr9es ( =mal a/ronomy1 7! ,ptolemaic & ,cop]nican sy/em17 s a cle> & /eady conception ( =ce is indisp5sably necess>y = und]/&+ ! ,newtonian sy/em ( physical a/ronomy4 ,x may be object$ t ! /udy ( ,me*anics z a sci5ce has n commonly =m$ "p ( a lib]al education 9 ,europe1 & yet t educat$ p]sons h commonly accept$ ! ,newtonian sy/em4 ,b to ?is we reply1 t al?\gh mo/ p]sons ( good intellectual culture h pr(ess$ to ass5t to ! ,newtonian sy/em ( ! univ]se1 yet !y h1 9 fact1 ent]ta9$ x 9 s vague & p]plex$ a mann] z to %[ v cle>ly t a bett] m5tal prep>ation ?an ! usual "o is necess>y1 9 ord] t su* p]sons may really und]/& ! doctr9e ( univ]sal attraction4 ,i h else:]e spok5 ( ! preval5t indi/9ctness ( me*anical conceptions#adc2 & ne$ n "h dwell ^u ! indications1 con/antly occurr+ 9 conv]sation & 9 lit]ature1 ( ! utt] inaccuracy ( ?\ght on su* subjects :i* may (t5 be detect$2 = in/ance1 9 ! mode 9 :i* _m m5 speak ( c5trifugal & c5tripetal =ces2--( projectile & c5tral =ces2--( ! effect ( ! moon ^u ! wat]s ( ! ocean2 & ! l4 ,! incoh]5ce ( ideas :i* we frequ5tly witness on su* po9ts1 %[s u cle>ly t1 9 ! m9ds ( a great numb] ( m51 well educat$ accord+ to ! pres5t /&>d1 ! acceptance ( ! doctr9e ( ,univ]sal ,gravitation is a result ( traditional prejudice1 n ( rational conviction4 ,& ^? :o are ,newtonians on su* gr\nds1 are n at all m intellectually advanc$ by be+ ,newtonians 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ?an !y w\ld h be5 by be+ ,ptolemaics 9 ! fifte5?4 ,note #adc3 ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,ideas1 b4 iii4 c4 x4 #g4 ,x is und\bt$ly 9 ! highe/ degree desirable t all great advances 9 sci5ce %\ld become ! common prop]ty ( all cultivat$ m54 ,& ?is c only be done by introduc+ into ! c\rse ( a lib]al education su* /udies z unfold & fix 9 m5's m9ds #agj ! fundam5tal ideas ^u :i* ! new-discov]$ tru?s re/4 ,! progress made by ! anci5ts 9 geography1 a/ronomy1 & o!r sci5ces1 l$ !m to assign1 wisely & well1 a place to ari?metic & geometry among ! /eps ( an +5u\s education4 ,! discov]ies ( mod]n times h r5d]$ ^! /eps /ill m indisp5sable2 = we _c consid] a man z cultivat$ up to ! /&>d ( 8 times1 if he is n only ignorant (1 b incapable ( compreh5d+1 ! greate/ a*ievem5ts ( ! human intellect4 ,& z innum]able discov]ies ( all ages h ?us secur$ to ,geometry h] place z a "p ( good education1 s ! great discov]ies ( ,newton make x prop] to introduce ,elem5t>y ,me*anics z a "p ( ! same c\rse4 ,if ! education des]ve to be call$ good1 ! pupil w n rema9 ignorant ( ^? discov]ies1 ! mo/ rem>kable ext5sions ( ! field ( human k :i* h ev] occurr$4 ,yet he _c by possibility compreh5d !m1 except 8 m9d be previ\sly discipl9$ by me*anical /udies4 ,! p]iod appe>s n[ to be arriv$ :5 we may v5ture1 or r :5 we are b\nd to endeav\r1 to include a new class ( ,fundam5tal ,ideas 9 ! elem5t>y discipl9e ( ! human intellect4 ,?is is indisp5sable1 if we wi% to educe ! p[]s :i* we "k t x possesses1 & to enri* x ) ! weal? :i* lies )9 its rea*#aec4 ,note #aec3 ,! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge has1 by a rec5t law1 made an exam9ation 9 ,elem5t>y ,me*anics requisite = ! ,degree ( ,b4,a4 #h4 ,by ! view :i* is ?us pres5t$ to u ( ! nature & objects ( intellectual education1 we are l$ to consid] ! m9d ( man z und]go+ a progress f age to age4 ,by ! discov]ies :i* are made1 & by ! cle>ness & evid5ce :i*1 aft] a "t1 7n sudd5ly nor soon17 ! tru?s ?us discov]$ acquire1 "o portion ( k aft] ano!r becomes elem5t>y2 & if we w\ld really secure ?is progress1 & make m5 %>e 9 x1 ^! new portions mu/ be treat$ z elem5t>y 9 ! con/itution ( a #aga lib]al education4 ,ev5 9 ! rude/ =ms ( intellig5ce1 man is immeasurably elevat$ above ! unprogressive brute1 = ! idea ( numb] is s f> develop$ t he c c\nt 8 flock or 8 arr[s4 ,b :5 numb] is contemplat$ 9 a speculative =m1 he has made a va/ additional progress2 :5 he /eadily appreh5ds ! relations ( space1 he has aga9 advanc$2 :5 9 ?\ght he c>ries ^! relations into ! vault ( ! sky1 into ! expanse ( ! univ]se1 he rea*es a high] intellectual position4 ,& :5 he c>ries into ^! wide regions1 n only ! relations ( space & "t1 b ( cause & effect1 ( =ce & reaction1 he has aga9 made an intellectual advance2 :i*1 wide z x is at fir/1 is accessible to all2 & ) :i* all %\ld acqua9t !mselves1 if !y really desire to prosecute ) en]gy ! asc5d+ pa? ( tru? & k :i* lies be=e !m4 ,?is %\ld be an object ( ex]tion to all +5u\s & hopeful m9ds4 ,=1 t ex]tion is necess>y1--t aft] all possible facilities h be5 af=d$1 x is /ill a matt] ( toil & /ruggle to appropriate to ourselves ! acquisitions ( great discov]]s1 is n to be d5i$4 ,elem5t>y me*anics1 l elem5t>y geometry1 is a /udy accessible to all3 b l t too1 or p]haps m ?an t1 x is a /udy :i* requires ef=t & cont5tion ( m9d1--a =c$ /ead9ess ( ?\ght4 ,x is long s9ce "o compla9$ ( ?is lab\r 9 geometry2 & 0 answ]$ t 9 t region !re is no ,royal ,road4 ,! same is true ( ,me*anics1 & mu/ be true ( all bran*es ( solid education4 ,b we %\ld express ! tru? m appropriately 9 our days by say+ t !re is no ,popul> ,road to ^! sci5ces4 ,9 ! m9d1 z 9 ! body1 /r5u\s ex]cise alone c give /r5g? & activity4 ,! art ( exact ?\ght c be acquir$ only by ! lab\r ( close ?9k+4 #i4 7,,iv47 ,*emical ,ideas4--,we appe> !n to h arriv$ at a po9t ( human progress 9 :i* a lib]al education ( ! sci5tific intellect %\ld include1 besides ari?metic1 elem5t>y geometry & me*anics4 #agb ,! "q !n occurs to u1 :e!r !re are any o!r ,fundam5tal ,ideas1 among ^? belong+ to o!r sci5ces1 :i* ought also to be made "p ( su* an education2--:e!r1 = example1 we %\ld /rive to develope 9 ! m9ds ( all cultur$ m5 ! ideas ( pol>ity1 me*anical & *emical1 ( :i* we spoke 9 a =m] "p ( ?is "w4 ,! views to :i* we h be5 conduct$ by ! previ\s inquiry lead u to reply t x w\ld n be well at pres5t to make *emical ,pol>ities1 at any rate1 a subject ( elem5t>y in/ruction4 ,= ev5 ! mo/ pr(\nd & acute philosoph]s :o h speculat$ ^u ?is subject1--!y :o are lead+ ! van 9 ! m>* ( discov]y1--d n seem yet to h r$uc$ _! ?\ghts on ?is subject to a consi/5cy1 or to h tak5 hold ( ?is idea ( ,pol>ity 9 a mann] q satisfactory to _! own m9ds4 ,?is "p ( ! subject is1 !re=e1 by no means ready to be introduc$ into a c\rse ( g5]al elem5t>y education2 =1 ) a view to su* a purpose1 no?+ less ?an ! mo/ ?or\ghly lum9\s & transp>5t condition ( ! idea w suffice4 ,its :ole efficacy1 z a means & object ( discipl9al /udy1 dep5ds ^u !re be+ no obscurity1 p]plexity1 or indef9it5ess ) reg>d to x1 beyond t transi5t defici5cy :i* at fir/ exi/s 9 ! le>n]'s m9d1 & is to be remov$ by 8 /udies4 ,! idea ( *emical ,pol>ity is n yet 9 ?is condition2 & !re=e is n yet fit = a place 9 education4 ,yet s9ce ?is idea ( ,pol>ity is ! mo/ g5]al idea :i* ent]s into *emi/ry1 & appe>s to be t :i* includes almo/ all ! o!rs1 x w\ld be unphilosophical1 & inconsi/5t ) all s\nd views ( sci5ce1 to introduce into education "s *emical conceptions1 & to omit ^? :i* dep5d ^u ?is idea3 inde$ su* a p>tial adoption ( ! sci5ce c\ld h>dly take place )\t n only omitt+1 b misrepres5t+1 a great "p ( our *emical k4 ,! conclusion to :i* we are necess>ily l$1 !re=e1 is ?is3--t at pres5t *emi/ry #agc _c ) any advantage1 =m a portion ( ! g5]al intellectual education#afc4 ,note #afc3 ,i d n "h /op to prove t an education 7if x be s call$7 9 :i* ! memory only reta9s ! v]bal expression ( results1 :ile ! m9d does n appreh5d ! pr9ciples ( ! subject1 & !re=e _c ev5 und]/& ! words 9 :i* its doctr9es are express$1 is ( no value :atev] to ! intellect1 b r1 is highly hurtful to ! habits ( ?9k+ & reason+4 #aj4 7,v47 ,natural-,hi/ory ,ideas4--,b !re rema9s /ill ano!r class ( ,ideas1 ) reg>d to :i* we may v prop]ly ask :e!r !y may n advantage\sly =m a portion ( a lib]al education3 ,i mean ! ,ideas ( def9ite ,resemblance & ,diff]5ce1 & ( "o set ( resemblances subord9ate to ano!r1 :i* =m ! bases ( ! classificatory sci5ces4 ,^! ,ideas are develop$ by ! /udy ( ! v>i\s bran*es ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 z ,botany1 & ,zoology2 & beyond all d\bt1 ^? pursuits1 if assidu\sly foll[$1 v mat]ially affect ! m5tal habits4 ,!re is ?is obvi\s advantage to be look$ = f ! /udy ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 consid]$ z a means ( intellectual discipl9e3--t x gives u1 9 a precise & sci5tific =m1 examples ( ! class+ & nam+ ( objects2 :i* op]ations ! use ( common language leads u con/antly to p]=m 9 a loose & inexact way4 ,9 ! usual habits ( our m9ds & tongues1 ?+s are di/+ui%$ or br\ght toge!r1 & names are appli$1 9 a mann] v indef9ite1 vacillat+1 & seem+ly caprici\s3 & we may naturally be l$ to d\bt :e!r su* defects c be avoid$2--:e!r exact di/9ctions ( ?+s1 & rigor\s use ( words be possible4 ,n[ ^u ?is po9t we may receive ! in/ruction ( ,natural ,hi/ory2 :i* proves to u1 by ! actual p]=mance ( ! task1 t a precise classification & nom5clature are atta9able1 at lea/ = a mass ( objects all ( ! same k9d4 ,fur!r1 we also le>n f ?is /udy1 t !re may exi/1 n only an exact di/9ction ( k9ds ( ?+s1 b a s]ies ( di/9ctions1 "o set subord9ate to ano!r1 & ! m g5]al includ+ #agd ! m special1 s z to =m a sy/em ( classification4 ,all ^! are valuable lessons4 ,if by ! /udy ( ,natural ,hi/ory we evolve1 9 a cle> & well def9$ =m1 ! conceptions ( g5us1 species1 & ( high] & l[] /eps ( classification1 we communicate precision1 cle>ness1 & me?od to ! intellect1 ?r\gh a great range ( its op]ations4 #aa4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$1 t 9 ord] to atta9 ! discipl9al b5efit :i* ! /udy ( ,natural ,hi/ory is fitt$ to be/[1 we mu/ tea* ! natural n ! artificial classifications2 or at lea/ ! natural z well z ! artificial4 ,= x is important = ! /ud5t to p]ceive t !re are classifications1 n m]ely arbitr>y1 f\nd$ ^u "s assum$ "*1 b natural1 recogniz$ by "s discov]$ "*3 he ought to see t our classes be+ collect$ accord+ to "o m>k1 are confirm$ by _m m>ks n orig9ally /at$ 9 our s*eme2 & are ?us f\nd to be gr\p$ toge!r1 n by a s+le resemblance1 b by a mass ( resemblances1 indicat+ a natural aff9ity4 ,t objects may be collect$ into su* gr\ps1 is a highly important lesson1 :i* ,natural ,hi/ory alone1 pursu$ z ! sci5ce ( natural classes1 c tea*4 #ab4 ,natural ,hi/ory has n unfrequ5tly be5 made a portion ( education3 & has 9 "s degree produc$ su* effects z we h po9t$ out4 ,x w\ld appe>1 h[ev]1 t its lessons h1 = ! mo/ "p1 be5 v imp]fectly le>nt or und]/ood by p]sons ( ord9>y education3 & t !re are p]v]se intellectual habits v commonly preval5t 9 ! cultivat$ classes1 :i* ought ere n[ to h be5 correct$ by ! g5]al tea*+ ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,we may detect among speculative m5 _m prejudices respect+ ! nature & rules ( reason+1 :i* arise f pure ma!matics hav+ be5 s long & s univ]sally ! in/rum5t ( intellectual cultivation4 ,pure ,ma!matics reasons f def9itions3 :atev] t]m is introduc$ into h] pages1 z a circle1 or a squ>e1 its def9ition comes along ) x3 & ?is def9ition is suppos$ to supply all t ! reason] ne$s to "k1 respect+ ! t]m4 #age ,if !re be any d\bt conc]n+ ! validity ( ! conclusion1 ! d\bt is resolv$ by recurr+ to ! def9itions4 ,h5ce x has come to pass t 9 o!r subjects also1 m5 seek = & dem& def9itions z ! mo/ secure f\ndation ( reason+4 ,! def9ition & ! t]m def9$ are conceiv$ to be s f> id5tical1 t 9 all cases ! "o may be sub/itut$ = ! o!r2 & su* a sub/itution is held to be ! be/ mode ( detect+ fallacies4 #ac4 ,x has already be5 %[n t ev5 geometry is n f\nd$ ^u def9itions alone3 & we %all n "h aga9 analyse ! fallacy ( ?is belief 9 ! supreme value ( def9itions4 ,b we may rem>k t ! /udy ( ,natural ,hi/ory appe>s to be ! prop] rem$y = ?is errone\s habit ( ?\ght4 ,= 9 e dep>tm5t ( ,natural ,hi/ory ! object ( our /udy is k9ds ( ?+s1 n "o ( :i* k9ds c be rigor\sly def9$1 yet all ( !m are suffici5tly def9ite4 ,9 ^! cases we may inde$ give a specific description ( "o ( ! k9ds1 & may call x a def9ition2 b x is cle> t su* a def9ition does n conta9 ! ess5ce ( ! ?+4 ,we say#agc t ! ,rose ,tribe are ',polypetal\s dicotyl$ons1 ) lat]al /yles1 sup]ior simple ov>ia1 regul> p]igyn\s /am5s1 exalbum9\s def9ite se$s1 & alt]nate /ipulate leaves4' ,b no "o w\ld say t ?is 0 our ess5tial conception ( a rose1 to be sub/itut$ = x 9 all cases ( d\bt or obscurity1 by way ( mak+ our reason+s p]fectly cle>4 ,n only s2 b z we h already se5#ahc1 ! def9ition does n ev5 apply to all ! tribe4 ,= ! /ipul are abs5t 9 ,l[ea3 ! album5 is pres5t 9 ,neillia3 ! fruit ( ,spira sorbifolia is capsul>4 ,if1 !n1 we c possess any c]ta9 k 9 ,natural ,hi/ory1 7:i* no cultivator ( ! subject w d\bt17 x is evid5t t our k _c dep5d on ! possibility ( lay+ d[n exact def9itions & reason+ f !m4 ,note #agc3 ,l9dley's ,nat4 ,sy/4 ,bot4 p4 #ha4 ,note #ahc3 ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,ideas1 b4 viii4 c4 ii4 sect4 #c4 #ad4 ,b x may be ask$1 if we _c def9e a #agf ^w1 or a class ( ?+s :i* a ^w d5otes1 h[ c we di/+ui% :at x does mean f :at x does n mean8 ,h[ c we say t x signifies "o ?+ r ?an ano!r1 except we decl>e :at is its signification8 ,! answ] to ?is "q involves ! g5]al pr9ciple ( a natural me?od ( classification1 :i* has already be5 /at$#aic & ne$ n "h be aga9 dwelt on4 ,x has be5 %[n t names ( k9ds ( ?+s 7g5]a7 associate !m accord+ to total resemblances1 n p>tial *>act]s4 ,! pr9ciple :i* connects a gr\p ( objects 9 natural hi/ory is n a def9ition1 b a type4 ,?us we take z ! type ( ! ,rose family1 x may be1 ! common wild rose2 all species :i* resemble ?is fl[] m ?an !y resemble any o!r gr\p ( species are also roses1 & =m "o g5us4 ,all g5]a :i* resemble ,roses m ?an !y resemble any o!r gr\p ( g5]a are ( ! same family4 ,& ?us ! ,rose family is collect$ ab\t "s "o species1 :i* is ! type or c5tral po9t ( ! gr\p4 ,note #aic3 ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,ideas1 b4 viii4 c4 ii4 sect4 #c4 ,9 su* an arrangem5t1 x may readily be conceiv$ t ?\gh ! nucleus ( ea* gr\p may coh]e firmly toge!r1 ! outskirts ( contigu\s gr\ps may approa*1 & may ev5 be int]m+l$1 s t "s species may d\btfully adh]e to "o gr\p or ano!r4 ,yet ?is unc]ta9ty does n at all affect ! tru?s :i* we f9d ourselves enabl$ to ass]t ) reg>d to ! g5]al mass ( ea* gr\p4 ,& ?us we are taught t !re may be v important diff]5ces betwe5 two gr\ps ( objects1 al?\gh we are unable to tell :]e ! "o gr\p ends & :]e ! o!r beg9s2 & t !re may be propositions ( indisputable tru?1 9 :i* x is impossible to give unexceptionable def9itions ( ! t]ms employ$4 #ae4 ,^! lessons are ( ! highe/ value ) reg>d to all employm5ts ( ! human m9d2 = ! mode 9 :i* words 9 common use acquire _! mean+1 approa*es f> m ne>ly to ! ,me?od ( #agg ,type ?an to ! me?od ( def9ition4 ,! t]ms :i* belong to our practical conc]ns1 or to our spontane\s & unsci5tific speculations1 are r>ely capable ( exact def9ition4 ,!y h be5 devis$ 9 ord] to express ass]tions1 (t5 v important1 yet v vaguely conceiv$3 & ! signification ( ! ^w is ext5d$1 z f> z ! ass]tion convey$ by x c be ext5d$1 by app>5t connexion or by analogy4 ,& ?us1 9 all ! attempts ( man to grasp at k1 we h an exemplification ( t :i* we h /at$ z ! rule ( induction1 t ,def9ition & ,proposition are mutually dep5d5t1 ea* adju/$ s z to give value & mean+ to ! o!r3 & ?is is s1 ev5 :5 bo? ! elem5ts ( tru? are defective 9 precision3 ! ,def9ition be+ replac$ by an incomplete description or a loose ref]5ce to a ,type2 & ! ,proposition be+ 9 a correspond+ degree insecure4 #af4 ,?us ! /udy ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 z a corrective ( ! belief t def9itions are ess5tial to sub/antial tru?1 might be ( great use2 & ! advantage :i* might ?us be obta9$ is su* z well entitles ?is /udy to a place 9 a lib]al education4 ,we may fur!r obs]ve1 t 9 ord] t ,natural ,hi/ory may produce su* an effect1 x mu/ be /udi$ by inspection ( ! objects !mselves1 & n by ! read+ ( books only4 ,its lesson is1 t we mu/ 9 all cases ( d\bt or obscurity ref]1 n to words or def9itions1 b to ?+s4 ,! ,book ( ,nature is its diction>y3 x is !re t ! natural hi/orian looks1 to f9d ! mean+ ( ! words :i* he uses#bjc4 ,s #agh long z a plant1 9 its mo/ ess5tial p>ts1 is m l a rose ?an any ?+ else1 x is a rose4 ,he kn[s no o!r def9ition4 ,note #bjc3 ,x is a curi\s example ( ! influ5ce ( ! belief 9 def9itions1 t elem5t>y books h be5 writt5 9 :i* ,natural ,hi/ory is taught 9 ! way ( "q & answ]1 & consequ5tly by means ( words alone4 ,9 su* a s*eme1 ( c\rse all objects are def9$3 & we may easily anticipate ! value ( ! k ?us convey$4 ,?us1 ',iron is a well-kn[n h>d metal1 ( a d>ki% gray col\r1 & v ela/ic3' ',copp] is an orange-col\r$ metal1 m sonor\s ?an any o!r1 & ! mo/ ela/ic ( any except iron4' ,?is is to p]v]t ! mean+ ( education1 & to make x a bus9ess ( m]e words4 #ag4 7,,vi47 ,well-e/abli%$ ,ideas alone to be us$4--,we may ass]t 9 g5]al :at we h else:]e1 z above1 /at$ specially ) ref]5ce to ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( *emi/ry3--no ,ideas are suit$ to become ! elem5ts ( elem5t>y education1 till !y h n only become p]fectly di/9ct & fix$ 9 ! m9ds ( ! lead+ cultivators ( ! sci5ce to :i* !y belong2 b till !y h be5 s = "s consid]able p]iod4 ,! entire cle>ness & /ead9ess ( view :i* is ess5tial to s\nd sci5ce1 mu/ h "t to ext5d itself to a wide circle ( disciples4 ,! views & pr9ciples :i* are detect$ by ! mo/ pr(\nd & acute philosoph]s1 are soon appropriat$ by all ! mo/ intellig5t & active m9ds ( _! own & ( ! foll[+ g5]ations2 & :5 ?is has tak5 place1 7& n till !n17 x is "r1 by a prop] con/itution ( our lib]al education1 to ext5d a g5]al k ( su* pr9ciples to all cultivat$ p]sons4 ,& x foll[s1 f ?is view ( ! matt]1 t we are by no means to be 9 ha/e to adopt1 into our c\rse ( education1 all new discov]ies z soon z !y are made4 ,!y require "s "t1 9 ord] to settle into _! prop] place & position 9 m5's m9ds1 & to %[ !mselves "u _! true aspects2 & till ?is is done1 we confuse & di/urb1 r ?an enlight5 & unfold1 ! ideas ( le>n]s1 by introduc+ ! discov]ies into our elem5t>y in/ruction4 ,h5ce x 0 p]haps reasonable t a c5tury %\ld elapse f ! "t ( ,galileo1 be=e ! rigor\s tea*+ ( ,me*anics became a g5]al elem5t ( intellectual tra9+2 & ! doctr9e ( ,univ]sal ,gravitation 0 h>dly ripe = su* an employm5t till ! end ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,we mu/ n direct ! un=m$ y\?ful m9d to laun* its little b>k ^u ! wat]s ( speculation1 till all ! agitation ( discov]y1 ) its consequ5t fluctuation & controv]sy1 has well subsid$4 #ah4 ,b x may be ask$1 ,h[ is x t "t #agi op]ates to give di/9ctness & evid5ce to sci5tific ideas8 ,9 :at way does x happ5 t views & pr9ciples1 obscure & wav]+ at fir/1 aft] a :ile become lum9\s & /eady8 ,c we po9t out any process1 any int]m$iate /eps1 by :i* ?is result is produc$8 ,if we c1 ?is process mu/ be an important portion ( ! subject n[ "u our consid]ation4 ,to ?is we reply1 t ! transition f ! hesitation & contradiction ) :i* true ideas are fir/ receiv$1 to ! g5]al ass5t & cle> appreh5sion :i* !y aft]w>ds obta91 takes place ?r\gh ! circulation ( v>i\s argum5ts = & aga9/ !m1 & v>i\s modes ( pres5t+ & te/+ !m1 all :i* we may include "u ! t]m ,discussion1 :i* we h already m5tion$ z ! second ( ! two ways by :i* sci5tific views are develop$ into full maturity4 #ahj ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,me?ods ,,( ,,acquir+ ,,cle> ,,sci5tific ,,ideas1 cont9u$4--,,( ,,! ,,discussion ,,( ,,ideas4 ,,aphorism ,,xxxiii4 ,! conception involv$ 9 sci5tific tru?s h atta9$ ! requisite degree ( cle>ness by means ( ! ,discussions respect+ ideas :i* h tak5 place among discov]]s & _! foll[]s4 ,su* discussions are v f> f be+ unpr(itable to sci5ce4 ,!y are metaphysical1 & mu/ be s3 ! diff]5ce betwe5 discov]]s & b>r5 reason]s is1 t ! =m] employ good1 & ! latt] bad metaphysics4 #a4 ,,x is easily se5 t 9 e "p ( sci5ce1 ! e/abli%m5t ( a new set ( ideas has be5 accompani$ ) mu* ( d\bt & diss5t4 ,& by means ( discussions s occasion$1 ! new conceptions1 & ! op9ions :i* involve !m1 h gradually become def9ite & cle>4 ,! au?ors & ass]t]s ( ! new op9ions1 9 ord] to make !m def5sible1 h be5 compell$ to make !m consi/5t3 9 ord] to recomm5d !m to o!rs1 !y h be5 oblig$ to make !m m entirely intelligible to !mselves4 ,& ?us ! ,t]ms :i* =m$ ! ma9 po9ts ( ! controv]sy1 al?\gh appli$ 9 a loose & vacillat+ mann] at fir/1 h 9 ! end become p]fectly def9ite & exact4 ,! op9ions discuss$ h be51 9 _! ma9 features1 ! same ?r\gh\t ! debate2 b !y h at fir/ be5 dimly1 & at la/ cle>ly appreh5d$3 l ! objects ( a l&scape1 at :i* we look ?r\gh a telescope ill adju/$1 till1 by slid+ ! tube backw>ds & #aha =w>ds1 we at la/ br+ x into focus1 & p]ceive e feature ( ! prospect %>p & bright4 #b4 ,we h 9 ! la/ ,book#bac fully exemplifi$ ?is gradual progress ( conceptions f obscurity to cle>ness by means ( ,discussion4 ,we h se51 too1 t ?is mode ( treat+ ! subject has nev] be5 successful1 except :5 x has be5 associat$ ) an appeal to facts z well z to reason+s4 ,a comb9ation ( exp]im5t ) argum5t1 ( obs]vation ) demon/ration1 has always be5 f\nd requisite 9 ord] t m5 %\ld arrive at ^? di/9ct conceptions :i* give !m sub/antial tru?s4 ,! argum5ts us$ l$ to ! rejection ( undef9$1 ambigu\s1 self-contradictory notions2 b ! ref]5ce to facts l$ to ! selection1 or at lea/ to ! ret5tion1 ( ! conceptions :i* 7 bo? true & useful4 ,! two correlative processes1 def9ition & true ass]tion1 ! =mation ( cle> ideas & ! induction ( laws1 w5t on toge!r4 ,note #bac3 ,b4 9999ii4 c4 ii4 ,( ! ,explication ( ,conceptions4 ,?us ^? discussions by :i* sci5tific conceptions are r5d]$ ultimately q di/9ct & fix$1 include bo? reason+s f ,pr9ciples & illu/rations f ,facts4 ,at pres5t we turn our att5tion m peculi>ly to ! =m] "p ( ! process2 accord+ to ! di/9ction already drawn1 betwe5 ! ,explication ( ,conceptions & ! ,colligation ( ,facts4 ,! ,discussions ( :i* we "h speak1 are ! ,me?od 7if !y may be call$ a me?od7 by :i* ! ,explication ( ,conceptions is c>ri$ to ! requisite po9t among philosoph]s4 #c4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas ( ! ,sci5ces :i* =ms ! ,prelude to ?is "w1 & 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 ,i h1 9 sev]al in/ances1 trac$ ! /eps by :i*1 hi/orically speak+1 ^! ,ideas h obta9$ _! ultimate & p]man5t place 9 ! m9ds ( speculative m54 ,i h ?us exemplifi$ ! reason+s & controv]sies :i* con/itute su* ,discussion z we n[ speak (4 ,i h /at$1 at consid]able l5g?1 ! #ahb v>i\s attempts1 failures1 & advances1 by :i* ! ideas :i* ent] into ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics 7 evolv$ into _! pres5t evid5ce4 ,9 l mann] we h se5 ! conception ( refract$ rays ( light1 obscure & confus$ 9 ,s5eca1 gr[+ cle>] 9 ,rog] ,bacon1 m def9ite 9 ,desc>tes1 p]fectly di/9ct 9 ,newton4 ,! pol>ity ( light1 at fir/ contemplat$ ) "s p]plexity1 became v di/9ct to ,malus1 ,"y1 & ,fresnel2 yet ! ph5om5a ( circul> pol>ization1 & /ill m1 ! circul> pol>ization ( fluids1 leave u1 ev5 at pres5t1 "s difficulty 9 fully ma/]+ ?is conception4 ,! relat$ pol>ities ( electricity & magnetism are n yet fully compreh5d$1 ev5 by our greate/ philosoph]s4 ,"o ( ,mr4 ,f>aday's late pap]s 7! ,f\rte5? ,s]ies ( 8 ,rese>*es7 is employ$ 9 an exp]im5tal discussion ( ?is subject1 :i* leads to no satisfactory result4 ,! controv]sy betwe5 ,,mm4 ,biot & ,ampre#bbc1 on ! nature ( ! ,elem5t>y ,=ces 9 electro-dynamic action1 is ano!r evid5ce t ! discussion ( ?is subject has n yet rea*$ its t]m9ation4 ,) reg>d to *emical pol>ity1 ,i h already /at$ t ?is idea is z yet v f> f be+ br\ght to an ultimate condition ( def9it5ess2 & ! subject ( ,*emical ,=ces1 7= t :ole subject mu/ be includ$ 9 ?is idea ( pol>ity17 :i* has already occasion$ mu* p]plexity & controv]sy1 may easily occasion mu* m1 be=e x is settl$ to ! satisfaction ( ! philosophical _w4 ,! ideas ( ! classificatory sci5ces also h ( late be5 und]go+ mu*1 & v in/ructive discussion1 9 ! controv]sies respect+ ! relations & (fices ( ! natural & artificial me?ods4 ,& ) reg>d to physiological ideas1 x w\ld h>dly be too mu* to say1 t ! :ole hi/ory ( physiology up to ! pres5t "t has consi/$ ( ! discussion ( ! fundam5tal ideas ( ! sci5ce1 su* z ,vital ,=ces1 ,nutrition1 ,reproduction1 & ! l4 ,we _h be=e u at "s l5g?1 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas1 a review #ahc ( ! opposite op9ions :i* h be5 advanc$ on ?is subject2 & we attempt$ 9 "s degree to e/imate ! direction 9 :i* ^! ideas are p]man5tly settl+4 ,b )\t atta*+ any importance to ?is attempt1 ! acc\nt !re giv5 may at lea/ s]ve to %[1 h[ important a %>e 9 ! pa/ progress ( ?is subject ! discussion ( its ,fundam5tal ,ideas has hi!rto _h4 ,note #bbc3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xiii4 c4 #f4 #d4 ,!re is "o reflexion :i* is v po9t$ly sugge/$ by :at has be5 said4 ,! mann] 9 :i* our sci5tific ideas acquire _! di/9ct & ultimate =m be+ su* z has be5 describ$1--always involv+ mu* ab/ract reason+ & analysis ( our conceptions1 (t5 mu* opposite argum5tation & debate2--h[ unphilosophical is x to speak ( ab/raction & analysis1 ( dispute & controv]sy1 z frivol\s & unpr(itable processes1 by :i* true sci5ce c nev] be b5efitt$2 & h[ errone\s to put su* employm5ts 9 anti!sis ) ! /udy ( facts6 ,yet "s writ]s are accu/om$ to talk ) contempt ( all pa/ controv]sies1 & to wond] at ! bl9dness ( ^? :o did n at fir/ take ! view :i* 0 e/abli%$ at la/4 ,su* p]sons =get t x 0 precisely ! controv]sy1 :i* e/abli%$ among speculative m5 t f9al doctr9e :i* !y !mselves h quietly accept$4 ,x is true1 !y h _h no difficulty 9 ?or\ghly adopt+ ! tru?2 b t has occurr$ because all diss5ti5t doctr9es h be5 suppress$ & =gott52 & because sy/ems1 & books1 & language itself1 h be5 accommodat$ peculi>ly to ! expression ( ! accept$ tru?4 ,to despise ^? :o h1 by _! m5tal /ruggles & conflicts1 br\ght ! subject into a condition 9 :i* err\r is almo/ out ( our rea*1 is to be ungrateful exactly 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( ! b5efit receiv$4 ,x is z if a *ild1 :5 its tea*] _h ) _m trials & mu* tr\ble prep>$ a telescope s t ! vision ?r\gh x 0 di/9ct1 %\ld wond] at 8 /upidity 9 pu%+ ! tube ( ! eye-glass out & 9 s (t54 #ahd #e4 ,aga91 "s p]sons condemn all t we h "h spok5 ( z ! discussion ( ideas1 t]m+ x metaphysical3 & 9 ?is _s1 "o writ]#bcc has spok5 ( ! 'metaphysical p]iod' ( ea* sci5ce1 z prec$+ ! p]iod ( 'positive k4' ,b z we h se51 t process :i* is "h t]m$ 'metaphysical1'--! analysis ( our conceptions & ! exposure ( _! inconsi/5cies1--7accompani$ ) ! /udy ( facts17--has always gone on mo/ actively 9 ! mo/ prosp]\s p]iods ( ea* sci5ce4 ,!re is1 9 ,galileo1 ,kepl]1 ,gass5di1 & ! o!r fa!rs ( me*anical philosophy1 z mu* ( metaphysics z 9 _! adv]s>ies4 ,! ma9 diff]5ce is1 t ! metaphysics is ( a bett] k9d2 x is m con=mable to metaphysical tru?4 ,& ! same is ! case 9 o!r sci5ces4 ,nor c x be o!rwise4 ,= all tru?1 be=e x c be consi/5t ) facts1 mu/ be consi/5t ) itself3 & al?\gh ?is rule is ( und5iable au?ority1 its application is (t5 f> f easy4 ,! p]plexities & ambiguities :i* arise f our hav+ ! same idea pres5t$ to u "u diff]5t aspects1 are (t5 difficult to dis5tangle3 & no common acut5ess & /ead9ess ( ?\ght mu/ be exp5d$ on ! task4 ,x w\ld be easy to adduce1 f ! works ( all great discov]]s1 passages m pr(\ndly metaphysical ?an any :i* are to be f\nd 9 ! pages ( b>r5 priori reason]s4 ,note #bcc3 ,m4 ,augu/e ,comte1 ,c\rs de ,philosophie ,positive4 #f4 ,z we h said1 ^! metaphysical discussions are n to be put 9 opposition to ! /udy ( facts2 b are to be /imulat$1 n\ri%$ & direct$ by a con/ant rec\rse to exp]im5t & obs]vation4 ,! cultivation ( ideas is to be conduct$ z hav+ = its object ! connexion ( facts2 nev] to be pursu$ z a m]e ex]cise ( ! subtilty ( ! m9d1 /riv+ to build up a _w ( its own1 & neglect+ t :i* exi/s ab\t u4 ,= al?\gh man may 9 ?is way please himself1 & admire ! creations ( 8 own bra91 he c nev]1 by ?is c\rse1 hit ^u ! #ahe real s*eme ( nature4 ,) 8 ideas unfold$ by education1 %>p5$ by controv]sy1 rectifi$ by metaphysics1 he may und]/& ! natural _w1 b he _c inv5t x4 ,at e /ep1 he mu/ try ! value ( ! advances he has made 9 ?\ght1 by apply+ 8 ?\ghts to ?+s4 ,! ,explication ( ,conceptions mu/ be c>ri$ on ) a p]petual ref]5ce to ! ,colligation ( ,facts4 ,hav+ "h treat$ ( ,education & ,discussion z ! me?ods by :i* ! =m] ( ^! two processes is to be promot$1 we h n[ to expla9 ! me?ods :i* sci5ce employs 9 ord] mo/ successfully to execute ! latt]4 ,b ! ,colligation ( ,facts1 z already /at$1 may (f] to u two /eps ( a v diff]5t k9d1--! laws ( ,ph5om5a1 & _! ,causes4 ,we %all fir/ describe "s ( ! me?ods employ$ 9 obta9+ tru?s ( ! =m] ( ^! two k9ds4 #ahf ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,! ,,process ,,( ,,induction4 ,,aphorism ,,xxxiv4 ,! ,process ( ,induction may be resolv$ into ?ree /eps2 ! ,selection ( ! ,idea1 ! ,con/ruction ( ! ,conception1 & ! ,det]m9ation ( ! ,magnitudes4 ,,aphorism ,,xxxv4 ,^! ?ree /eps correspond to ! det]m9ation ( ! ,indep5d5t ,v>iable1 ! ,=mula1 & ! ,coeffici5ts1 9 ma!matical inve/igations2 or to ! ,argum5t1 ! ,law1 & ! ,num]ical ,data1 9 a ,table ( an a/ronomical or o!r ,inequality4 ,,aphorism ,,xxxvi4 ,! ,selection ( ! ,idea dep5ds ma9ly ^u inv5tive sagacity3 :i* op]ates by sugge/+ & try+ v>i\s hypo!ses4 ,"s inquir]s try errone\s hypo!ses2 & ?us1 exhau/+ ! =ms ( err\r1 =m ! ,prelude to ,discov]y4 ,,aphorism ,,xxxvii4 ,! foll[+ ,rules may be giv51 9 ord] to ! selection ( ! ,idea = purposes ( ,induction3--! ,idea & ! ,facts mu/ be homog5e\s2 & ! ,rule mu/ be te/$ by ! ,facts4 ,,sect4 ,i4--,! ,?ree ,/eps ( ,induction4 #a4 ,,:5 facts h be5 decompos$ & ph5om5a measur$1 ! philosoph] endeav\rs to comb9e !m into g5]al laws1 by ! aid ( #ahg ,ideas & ,conceptions2 ^! be+ illu/rat$ & regulat$ by su* means z we h spok5 ( 9 ! la/ two *apt]s4 ,9 ?is task1 ( ga!r+ laws ( nature f obs]v$ facts1 z we h already said#bdc1 ! natural sagacity ( gift$ m9ds is ! p[] by :i* ! great] "p ( ! successful results h be5 obta9$2 & ?is p[] w probably always be m efficaci\s ?an any ,me?od c be4 ,/ill !re are c]ta9 me?ods ( proc$ure :i* may1 9 su* inve/igations1 give u no inconsid]able aid1 & ^! ,i %all endeav\r to exp\nd4 ,note #bdc3 ,b4 ii4 c4 vi4 #b4 ,= ?is purpose1 ,i rem>k t ! ,colligation ( asc]ta9$ ,facts into g5]al ,propositions may be consid]$ z conta9+ ?ree /eps1 :i* ,i %all t]m ! ,selection ( ! ,idea1 ! ,con/ruction ( ! ,conception1 & ! ,det]m9ation ( ! ,magnitudes4 ,x w be recollect$ t by ! ^w ,idea1 7or ,fundam5tal ,idea17 us$ 9 a peculi> s5se1 ,i mean c]ta9 wide & g5]al fields ( intelligible relation1 su* z ,space1 ,numb]1 ,cause1 ,lik5ess2 :ile by ,conception ,i d5ote m special modifications ( ^! ideas1 z a circle1 a squ>e numb]1 a uni=m =ce1 a l =m ( fl[]4 ,n[ 9 ord] to e/abli% any law by ref]5ce to facts1 we mu/ select ! true ,idea & ! true ,conception4 ,= example2 :5 ,hipp>*us f\nd#bec t ! di/ance ( ! bright /> ,spica ,virg9is f ! equ9oxial po9t _h increas$ by two degrees 9 ab\t two hundr$ ye>s1 & desir$ to r$uce ?is *ange to a law1 he _h fir/ to assign1 if possible1 ! idea on :i* x dep5d$2--:e!r x 0 regulat$ = in/ance1 by space1 or by "t2 :e!r x 0 det]m9$ by ! positions ( o!r />s at ea* mom5t1 or w5t on progressively ) ! lapse ( ages4 ,& :5 !re 0 f\nd reason to select "t z ! regulative idea ( ?is *ange1 x 0 !n to be det]m9$ h[ ! *ange w5t on ) ! "t2--:e!r uni=mly1 or 9 "s o!r mann]3 ! conception1 or ! rule ( ! progression1 0 to be #ahh rightly con/ruct$4 ,f9ally1 x be+ asc]ta9$ t ! *ange did g on uni=mly1 ! "q !n occurr$ :at 0 its am\nt3--:e!r exactly a degree 9 a c5tury1 or m1 or less1 & h[ mu*3 & ?us ! det]m9ation ( ! magnitude complet$ ! discov]y ( ! law ( ph5om5a respect+ ?is />4 ,note #bec3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 iii4 c4 iv4 sect4 #c4 #c4 ,/eps simil> to ^! ?ree may be disc]n$ 9 all o!r discov]ies ( laws ( nature4 ,?us1 9 inve/igat+ ! laws ( ! motions ( ! sun1 moon or planets1 we f9d t ^! motions may be resolv$1 besides a uni=m motion1 into a s]ies ( p>tial motions1 or ,inequalities2 & = ea* ( ^! ,inequalities1 we h to le>n ^u :at x directly dep5ds1 :e!r ^u ! progress ( "t only1 or ^u "s configuration ( ! heav5ly bodies 9 space2 !n1 we h to asc]ta9 its law2 & f9ally1 we h to det]m9e :at is its am\nt4 ,9 ! case ( su* ,inequalities1 ! fundam5tal elem5t on :i* ! ,inequality dep5ds1 is call$ by ma!maticians ! ,argum5t4 ,& :5 ! ,inequality has be5 fully r$uc$ to kn[n rules1 & express$ 9 ! =m ( a ,table1 ! ,argum5t is ! fundam5tal ,s]ies ( ,numb]s :i* /&s 9 ! m>g9 ( ! ,table1 & by means ( :i* we ref] to ! o!r ,numb]s :i* express ! ,inequality4 ,?us1 9 ord] to obta9 f a ,sol> ,table ! ,inequality ( ! sun's annual motion1 ! ,argum5t is ! ,numb] :i* expresses ! day ( ! ye>2 ! ,inequalities = ea* day be+ 79 ! ,table7 rang$ 9 a l9e correspond+ to ! days4 ,moreov]1 ! ,argum5t ( an ,inequality be+ assum$ to be kn[n1 we mu/1 9 ord] to calculate ! ,table1 t is1 9 ord] to exhibit ! law ( nature1 "k also ! ,law ( ! ,inequality1 & its ,am\nt4 ,& ! inve/igation ( ^! ?ree ?+s1 ! ,argum5t1 ! ,law1 & ! ,am\nt ( ! ,inequality1 repres5ts ! ?ree /eps above describ$1 ! ,selection ( ! ,idea1 ! ,con/ruction ( ! ,conception1 & ! ,det]m9ation ( ! ,magnitude4 #d4 ,9 a great body ( cases1 ma!matical language & calculation are us$ to express ! connexion #ahi betwe5 ! g5]al law & ! special facts4 ,& :5 ?is is done1 ! ?ree /eps above describ$ may be spok5 ( z ! ,selection ( ! ,indep5d5t ,v>iable1 ! ,con/ruction ( ! ,=mula1 & ! ,det]m9ation ( ! ,coeffici5ts4 ,x may be wor? our :ile to att5d to an exemplification ( ?is4 ,suppose !n1 t1 9 su* obs]vations z we h j spok5 (1 namely1 ! %ift+ ( a /> f its place 9 ! heav5s by an unkn[n law1 a/ronom]s _h1 at ! end ( ?ree successive ye>s1 f\nd t ! /> _h remov$ by #c1 by #h1 & by #ae m9utes f its orig9al place4 ,suppose x to be asc]ta9$ also1 by me?ods ( :i* we %all h]eaft] treat1 t ?is *ange dep5ds ^u ! "t2 we mu/ !n take ! "t1 7:i* we may d5ote by ! symbol t17 = ! indep5d5t v>iable4 ,b ?\gh ! /> *anges its place ) ! "t1 ! *ange is n proportional to ! "t2 = its motion :i* is only #c m9utes 9 ! fir/ ye>1 is #e m9utes 9 ! second ye>1 & #g 9 ! ?ird4 ,b x is n difficult = a p]son a little v]s$ 9 ma!matics to p]ceive t ! s]ies #c1 #h1 #ae1 may be obta9$ by means ( two t]ms1 "o ( :i* is proportional to ! "t1 & ! o!r to ! squ>e ( ! "t2 t is1 x is express$ by ! =mula at btt4 ,! "q !n occurs1 :at are ! values ( ! coeffici5ts a & b2 & a little exam9ation ( ! case %[s u t a mu/ be #b1 & b1 #a3 s t ! =mula is #bt tt4 ,inde$ if we add toge!r ! s]ies #b1 #d1 #f1 :i* expresses a *ange proportional to ! "t1 & #a1 #d1 #i1 :i* is proportional to ! squ>e ( ! "t1 we obta9 ! s]ies #c1 #h1 #ae1 :i* is ! s]ies ( numb]s giv5 by obs]vation4 ,& ?us ! ?ree /eps :i* give u ! ,idea1 ! ,conception1 & ! ,magnitudes2 or ! ,argum5t1 ! ,law1 & ! ,am\nt1 ( ! *ange2 give u ! ,indep5d5t ,v>iable1 ! ,=mula1 & ! ,coeffici5ts1 respectively4 ,we n[ proce$ to (f] "s sugge/ions ( me?ods by :i* ea* ( ^! /eps may be 9 "s degree promot$4 #aij ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,( ! ,selection ( ! ,fundam5tal ,idea4 #e4 ,:5 we turn our ?\ghts ^u any assemblage ( facts1 ) a view ( collect+ f !m "s connexion or law1 ! mo/ important /ep1 & at ! same "t t 9 :i* rules c lea/ aid u1 is ! ,selection ( ! ,idea by :i* !y are to be collect$4 ,s long z ?is idea has n be5 detect$1 all seems to be hopeless confusion or insulat$ facts2 :5 ! connect+ idea has be5 caught sight (1 we con/antly reg>d ! facts ) ref]5ce to _! connexion1 & wond] t x %\ld be possible = any "o to consid] !m 9 any o!r po9t ( view4 ,?us ! diff]5t seasons1 & ! v>i\s aspects ( ! heav5ly bodies1 might at fir/ appe> to be direct manife/ations f "s sup]ior p[]1 :i* man c\ld n ev5 und]/&3 b x 0 soon f\nd t ! ideas ( "t & space1 ( motion & recurr5ce1 w\ld give coh]5cy to _m ( ! ph5om5a4 ,yet ?is took place by successive /eps4 ,eclipses1 = a long p]iod1 seem$ to foll[ no law2 & be+ v rem>kable ev5ts1 cont9u$ to be deem$ ! indications ( a sup]natural w1 aft] ! common motions ( ! heav5s 7 se5 to be gov]n$ by relations ( "t & space4 ,at l5g?1 h[ev]1 ! ,*aldeans discov]$ t1 aft] a p]iod ( eighte5 ye>s1 simil> sets ( eclipses recur2 &1 ?us select+ ! idea ( "t1 simply1 z t to :i* ^! ev5ts 7 to be ref]r$1 !y 7 able to r$uce !m to rule2 & f t "t1 eclipses 7 recogniz$ z p>ts ( a regul> ord] ( ?+s4 ,we may1 9 ! same mann]1 consid] any o!r c\rse ( ev5ts1 & may enquire by :at idea !y are b\nd toge!r4 ,= example1 if we take ! wea!r1 ye>s peculi>ly wet or dry1 hot & cold1 productive & unproductive1 foll[ ea* o!r 9 a mann] :i*1 at fir/ sight at lea/1 seems utt]ly lawless & irregul>4 ,n[ c we 9 any way discov] "s rule & ord] 9 ^! occurr5ces8 ,is !re1 = example1 9 ^! ev5ts1 z 9 eclipses1 a c]ta9 cycle ( ye>s1 aft] :i* l #aia seasons come r\nd aga98 or does ! wea!r dep5d ^u ! =ce ( "s extrane\s body--= in/ance1 ! moon--& foll[ 9 "s way h] aspects8 or w\ld ! mo/ prop] way ( inve/igat+ ?is subject be to consid] ! effect ( ! moi/ure & heat ( v>i\s tracts ( ! e>?'s surface ^u ! ambi5t air8 ,x is at our *oice to try ^! & o!r modes ( obta9+ a sci5ce ( ! wea!r3 t is1 we may ref] ! ph5om5a to ! idea ( "t1 introduc+ ! conception ( a cycle2--or to ! idea ( ext]nal =ce1 by ! conception ( ! moon's action2--or to ! idea ( mutual action1 introduc+ ! conceptions ( !rmotical & atmological ag5cies1 op]at+ betwe5 diff]5t regions ( e>?1 wat]1 & air4 #f4 ,x may be ask$1 ,h[ are we to decide 9 su* alt]natives8 ,h[ are we to select ! "o "r idea out ( sev]al conceivable ones8 ,to :i* we c only reply1 t ?is mu/ be done by try+ :i* w succe$4 ,if !re really exi/ a cycle ( ! wea!r1 z well z ( eclipses1 ?is mu/ be e/abli%$ by comp>+ ! ass]t$ cycle ) a good regi/] ( ! seasons1 ( suffici5t ext5t4 ,or if ! moon really influ5ce ! meteorological conditions ( ! air1 ! ass]t$ influ5ce mu/ be comp>$ ) ! obs]v$ facts1 & s accept$ or reject$4 ,:5 ,hipp>*us _h obs]v$ ! increase ( longitude ( ! />s1 ! idea ( a motion ( ! cele/ial sph]e sugge/$ itself z ! explanation ( ! *ange2 b ?is ?\ght 0 v]ifi$ only by obs]v+ sev]al />s4 ,x 0 conceivable t ea* /> %\ld h an indep5d5t motion1 gov]n$ by "t only1 or by o!r circum/ances1 in/ead ( be+ regulat$ by its place 9 ! sph]e2 & ?is possibility c\ld be reject$ by trial alone4 ,9 l mann]1 ! orig9al op9ion ( ! composition ( bodies suppos$ ! comp\nds to d]ive _! prop]ties f ! elem5ts accord+ to ! law ( lik5ess2 b ?is op9ion 0 ov]turn$ by a ?\s& facts2 & ?us ! really applicable ,idea ( ,*emical ,composition 0 introduc$ 9 mod]n times4 ,9 :at has already be5 said on ! ,hi/ory ( ,ideas1 we h se5 h[ ea* sci5ce 0 9 a /ate #aib ( confusion & d>kness till ! "r idea 0 introduc$4 #g4 ,no g5]al me?od ( evolv+ su* ideas c be giv54 ,su* ev5ts appe> to result f a peculi> sagacity & felicity ( m9d2--nev] )\t lab\r1 nev] )\t prep>ation2--yet ) no con/ant dep5d5ce ^u prep>ation1 or ^u lab\r1 or ev5 entirely ^u p]sonal end[m5ts4 ,newton expla9$ ! col\rs :i* refraction produces1 by ref]r+ ea* col\r to a peculi> angle ( refraction1 ?us introduc+ ! "r idea4 ,b :5 ! same philosoph] tri$ to expla9 ! col\rs produc$ by diffraction1 he err$1 by attempt+ to apply ! same idea1 7! c\rse ( a s+le ray17 in/ead ( apply+ ! tru] idea1 ( ! int]f]5ce ( two rays4 ,newton gave a wrong rule = ! d\ble refraction ( ,icel& sp>1 by mak+ ! refraction dep5d on ! edges ( ! rhomboh$ron3 ,huygh5s1 m happy1 introduc$ ! idea ( ! axis ( symmetry ( ! solid1 & ?us 0 able to give ! true law ( ! ph5om5a4 #h4 ,al?\gh ! select$ idea is prov$ to be ! "r "o1 only :5 ! true law ( nature is e/abli%$ by means ( x1 yet x (t5 happ5s t !re prevails a settl$ conviction respect+ ! relation :i* mu/ af=d ! key to ! ph5om5a1 be=e ! selection has be5 confirm$ by ! laws to :i* x leads4 ,ev5 be=e ! empirical laws ( ! tides 7 made out1 x 0 n d\btful t ^! laws dep5d$ ^u ! places & motions ( ! sun & moon4 ,we "k t ! cry/all9e =m ( a body mu/ dep5d ^u its *emical composition1 ?\gh we are z yet unable to assign ! law ( ?is dep5d5ce4 ,inde$ 9 mo/ cases ( great discov]ies1 ! "r idea to :i* ! facts 7 to be ref]r$1 0 select$ by _m philosoph]s1 be=e ! decisive demon/ration t x 0 ! "r idea1 0 giv5 by ! discov]]4 ,?us ,newton %[$ t ! motions ( ! planets might be expla9$ by means ( a c5tral =ce 9 ! sun3 b ?\gh he e/abli%$1 he did n fir/ select ! idea involv$ 9 ! conception ( a #aic c5tral =ce4 ,! idea _h already be5 suffici5tly po9t$ out1 dimly by ,kepl]1 m cle>ly by ,borelli1 ,huygh5s1 ,wr51 & ,hooke4 ,inde$ ?is anticipation ( ! true idea is always a pr9cipal "p ( t :i*1 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ces1 we h t]m$ ! ,prelude ( a ,discov]y4 ,! two /eps ( propos+ a philosophical problem1 & ( solv+ x1 are1 z we h else:]e said1 bo? important1 & are (t5 p]=m$ by diff]5t p]sons4 ,! =m] /ep is1 9 fact1 ! ,selection ( ! ,idea4 ,9 expla9+ any *ange1 we h to discov] fir/ ! ,argum5t1 & !n ! ,law ( ! *ange4 ,! selection ( ! ,argum5t is ! /ep ( :i* we "h speak2 & is t 9 :i* inv5tiv5ess ( m9d & ju/ness ( ?\ght are ma9ly %[n4 #i4 ,al?\gh1 z we h said1 we c give few precise directions = ?is c>d9al process1 ! ,selection ( ! ,idea1 9 speculat+ on ph5om5a1 yet !re is "o ,rule :i* may h its use3 x is ?is3--,! idea & ! facts mu/ be homog5e\s3 ! elem5t>y ,conceptions1 into :i* ! facts h be5 decompos$1 mu/ be ( ! same nature z ! ,idea by :i* we attempt to collect !m into laws4 ,?us1 if facts h be5 obs]v$ & measur$ by ref]5ce to space1 !y mu/ be b\nd toge!r by ! idea ( space3 if we w\ld obta9 a k ( me*anical =ces 9 ! sol> sy/em1 we mu/ obs]ve me*anical ph5om5a4 ,kepl] err$ aga9/ ?is rule 9 8 attempts at obta9+ physical laws ( ! sy/em2 = ! facts :i* he took 7 ! velocities1 n ! *anges ( velocity1 :i* are really ! me*anical facts4 ,aga91 !re has be5 a transgression ( ?is ,rule committ$ by all *emical philosoph]s :o h attempt$ to assign ! relative position ( ! elem5t>y p>ticles ( bodies 9 _! compon5t molecules4 ,= _! purpose has be5 to discov] ! relations ( ! p>ticles 9 space2 & yet !y h neglect$ ! only facts 9 ! con/itution ( bodies :i* h a ref]5ce to space--namely1 cry/all9e =m1 & optical prop]ties4 ,no progress c be made 9 ! !ory ( ! elem5t>y /ructure ( bodies1 #aid )\t mak+ ^! classes ( facts ! ma9 basis ( our speculations4 #aj4 ,! only o!r ,rule :i* ,i h to (f] on ?is subject1 is t :i* ,i h already giv53--! ,idea mu/ be te/$ by ! facts4 ,x mu/ be tri$ by apply+ to ! facts ! conceptions :i* are d]iv$ f ! idea1 & n accept$ till "s ( ^! succe$ 9 giv+ ! law ( ! ph5om5a4 ,! ju/ice ( ! sugge/ion _c be kn[n o!rwise ?an by mak+ ! trial4 ,if we c discov] a true law by employ+ any conceptions1 ! idea f :i* ^! conceptions are d]iv$ is ! "r "o2 nor c !re be any pro( ( its rightness s complete & satisfactory1 z t we are by x l$ to a solid & p]man5t tru?4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c h>dly be t]m$ a ,rule2 = :5 we w\ld "k1 to conjecture & to try ! tru? ( our conjecture by a comp>ison ) ! facts1 is ! natural & obvi\s dictate ( common s5se4 ,suppos+ ! ,idea :i* we adopt1 or :i* we w\ld try1 to be n[ fix$ ^u1 we /ill h be=e u ! range ( _m ,conceptions d]iv$ f x2 _m ,=mul may be devis$ dep5d+ on ! same ,indep5d5t ,v>iable1 & we mu/ n[ consid] h[ our selection among ^! is to be made4 #aie ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,g5]al ,,rules ,,= ,,! ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,! ,,conception4 ,,aphorism ,,xxxviii4 ,! ,con/ruction ( ! ,conception v (t5 includes1 9 a great measure1 ! ,det]m9ation ( ! ,magnitudes4 ,,aphorism ,,xxxix4 ,:5 a s]ies ( progressive numb]s is giv5 z ! result ( obs]vation1 x may g5]ally be r$uc$ to law by comb9ations ( ari?metical & geometrical progressions4 ,,aphorism ,,xl4 ,a true =mula = a progressive s]ies ( numb]s _c commonly be obta9$ f a n>r[ range ( obs]vations4 ,,aphorism ,,xli4 ,recurr5t s]ies ( numb]s mu/1 9 mo/ cases1 be express$ by circul> =mul4 ,,aphorism ,,xlii4 ,! true con/ruction ( ! conception is frequ5tly sugge/$ by "s hypo!sis2 & 9 ^! cases1 ! hypo!sis may be useful1 ?\gh conta9+ sup]flu\s p>ts4 ,i4 ,,9 speak+ ( ! discov]y ( laws ( nature1 ^? :i* dep5d ^u quantity1 z numb]1 space1 & ! l1 are mo/ prom95t & mo/ easily conceiv$1 & !re=e 9 speak+ ( su* rese>*es1 we %all (t5 use language :i* applies peculi>ly to #aif ! cases 9 :i* quantities num]ically measurable are conc]n$1 leav+ x = a subsequ5t task to ext5d our pr9ciples to ideas ( o!r k9ds4 ,h5ce we may at pres5t consid] ! ,con/ruction ( a ,conception :i* %all include & connect ! facts1 z be+ ! con/ruction ( a ,ma!matical ,=mula1 co9cid+ ) ! num]ical expression ( ! facts2 & we h to consid] h[ ?is process c be facilitat$1 x be+ suppos$ t we h already be=e u ! num]ical measures giv5 by obs]vation4 #b4 ,we may rem>k1 h[ev]1 t ! con/ruction ( ! "r ,=mula = any su* case1 & ! det]m9ation ( ! ,coeffici5ts ( su* =mula1 :i* we h spok5 ( z two sep>ate /eps1 are 9 practice almo/ necess>ily simultane\s2 = ! ne> co9cid5ce ( ! results ( ! !oretical rule ) ! obs]v$ facts confirms at ! same "t ! ,=mula & its ,coeffici5ts4 ,9 ?is case also1 ! mode ( arriv+ at tru? is to try v>i\s hypo!ses2--to modify ! hypo!ses s z to approximate to ! facts1 & to multiply ! facts s z to te/ ! hypo!ses4 ,! ,indep5d5t ,v>iable1 & ! ,=mula :i* we w\ld try1 be+ once select$1 ma!maticians h devis$ c]ta9 special & te*nical processes by :i* ! value ( ! coeffici5ts may be det]m9$4 ,^! we %all treat ( 9 ! next ,*apt]2 b 9 ! mean "t we may note1 9 a m g5]al mann]1 ! mode 9 :i*1 9 physical rese>*es1 ! prop] =mula may be obta9$4 #c4 ,a p]son some:at v]s$ 9 ma!matics1 hav+ be=e him a s]ies ( numb]s1 w g5]ally be able to devise a =mula :i* approa*es ne> to ^? numb]s4 ,if1 = in/ance1 ! s]ies is con/antly progressive1 he w be able to see :e!r x m ne>ly resembles an ari?metical or a geometrical progression4 ,= example1 ,,mm4 ,dulong & ,petit1 9 _! inve/igation ( ! law ( cool+ ( bodies1 obta9$ ! foll[+ s]ies ( measures4 ,a !rmomet]1 made hot1 0 plac$ 9 an enclosure ( :i* ! temp]ature 0 #j degrees1 & ! rapidity ( #aig cool+ ( ! !rmomet] 0 not$ = _m temp]atures4 ,x 0 f\nd t ,= ! temp]ature #bdj ! rapidity ( cool+ 0 #ajfi #bbj #hha #bjj #gdj #ahj #faj #afj #dhi #adj #chh & s on4 ,n[ ?is s]ies ( numb]s manife/ly increases ) great] rapidity z we proce$ f ! l[] to ! high] p>ts ( ! scale4 ,! numb]s d n1 h[ev]1 =m a geometrical s]ies1 z we may easily asc]ta94 ,b if we 7 to take ! diff]5ces ( ! successive t]ms we %\ld f9d !m to be-- #ahh1 #ada1 #acj1 #aba1 #aja1 c4 & ^! numb]s are v ne>ly ! t]ms ( a geometric s]ies4 ,= if we divide ea* t]m by ! succe$+ "o1 we f9d ^! numb]s1 #acc1 #aji1 #ajg1 #abj1 #abg1 9 :i* !re does n appe> to be any con/ant t5d5cy to dim9i% or increase4 ,& we %all f9d t a geometrical s]ies 9 :i* ! ratio is #aafe1 may be made to approa* v ne> to ?is s]ies1 ! deviations f x be+ only su* z may be acc\nt$ = by conceiv+ !m z err\rs ( obs]vation4 ,9 ?is mann] a c]ta9 =mula#bfc is obta9$1 giv+ results #aih :i* v ne>ly co9cide ) ! obs]v$ facts1 z may be se5 9 ! m>g94 ,note #bfc3 ,! =mula is v #bjcg7;at - #a7 :]e v is ! velocity ( cool+1 t ! temp]ature ( ! !rmomet] express$ 9 degrees1 & a is ! quantity1 #ajjgg4 ,! degree ( co9cid5ce is z foll[s3-- ,excess ( temp]ature ( ,obs]v$ ,calculat$ ! !rmomet]1 or values values values ( t4 ( v4 ( v4 #bdj #ajfi #ajfh #bbj #hha #hhi #bjj #gdj #gcd #ahj #faj #fjc #afj #dhi #dhg #adj #chh #chi #abj #cjb #cje #ajj #bcj #bcc #hj #agd #agb ,! physical law express$ by ! =mula j spok5 ( is ?is3--t :5 a body is cool+ 9 an empty inclosure :i* is kept at a con/ant temp]ature1 ! quickness ( ! cool+1 = excesses ( temp]ature 9 ari?metical progression1 increases z ! t]ms ( a geometrical progression1 dim9i%$ by a con/ant numb]4 #d4 ,9 ! actual inve/igation ( ,dulong & ,petit1 h[ev]1 ! =mula 0 n obta9$ 9 precisely ! mann] j describ$4 ,= ! quickness ( cool+ dep5ds ^u two elem5ts1 ! temp]ature ( ! hot body & ! temp]ature ( ! inclosure2 n m]ely ^u ! excess ( "o ( ^! ov] ! o!r4 ,& x 0 f\nd mo/ conv5i5t1 fir/1 to make su* exp]im5ts z %\ld exhibit ! dep5d5ce ( ! velocity ( cool+ ^u ! temp]ature ( ! enclosure2 :i* dep5d5ce is conta9$ 9 ! foll[+ law3--,! quickness ( cool+ ( a !rmomet] 9 vacuo = a con/ant excess ( temp]ature1 increases 9 geometric progression1 :5 ! temp]ature ( ! inclosure increases 9 ari?metic progression4 ,f ?is law ! prec$+ "o foll[s by necess>y consequ5ce#bgc4 ,note #bgc3 ,= if be ! temp]ature ( ! inclosure1 & t ! excess ( temp]ature ( ! hot body1 x appe>s1 by ?is law1 t ! radiation ( heat is z a4 ,& h5ce ! quickness ( cool+1 :i* is z ! excess ( radiation1 is z at - a2 t is1 z a7at - #a7 :i* agrees ) ! =mula giv5 9 ! la/ note4 ,! :ole ( ?is s]ies ( rese>*es ( ,dulong & ,petit is full ( ! mo/ beautiful & in/ructive artifices = ! con/ruction ( ! prop] =mul 9 physical rese>*4 ,?is example may s]ve to %[ ! nature ( ! artifices :i* may be us$ = ! con/ruction ( =mul1 :5 we h a con/antly progressive s]ies ( numb]s to repres5t4 ,we mu/ n only endeav\r by trial to contrive a =mula :i* w answ] ! conditions1 b we mu/ v>y our exp]im5ts s z to det]m9e1 fir/ "o factor or portion ( ! =mula1 & !n ! o!r2 & we mu/ use ! mo/ #aii probable hypo!sis z means ( sugge/ion = our =mul4 #e4 ,9 a progressive s]ies ( numb]s1 unless ! =mula :i* we adopt be really t :i* expresses ! law ( nature1 ! deviations ( ! =mula f ! facts w g5]ally become enorm\s1 :5 ! exp]im5ts are ext5d$ into new p>ts ( ! scale4 ,true =mul = a progressive s]ies ( results c h>dly ev] be obta9$ f a v limit$ range ( exp]im5ts3 j z ! attempt to guess ! g5]al c\rse ( a road or a riv]1 by kn[+ two or ?ree po9ts ( x 9 ! neighb\rhood ( "o ano!r1 w\ld g5]ally fail4 ,9 ! inve/igation respect+ ! laws ( ! cool+ ( bodies j notic$1 "o great advantage ( ! c\rse pursu$ by ! exp]im5t]s 01 t _! exp]im5ts includ$ s great a range ( temp]atures4 ,! attempts to assign ! law ( ela/icity ( /eam d$uc$ f exp]im5ts made ) mod]ate temp]atures1 7 f\nd to be enorm\sly wrong1 :5 v high temp]atures 7 made ! subject ( exp]im5t4 ,x is easy to see t ?is mu/ be s3 an ari?metical & a geometrical s]ies may ne>ly co9cide = a few t]ms mod]ately ne> ea* o!r3 b if we take remote correspond+ t]ms 9 ! two s]ies1 "o ( ^! w be v _m times ! o!r4 ,& h5ce1 f a n>r[ range ( exp]im5ts1 we may inf] "o ( ^! s]ies :5 we ought to inf] ! o!r2 & ?us obta9 a law :i* is widely errone\s4 #f4 ,9 ,a/ronomy1 ! s]ies ( obs]vations :i* we h to /udy are1 = ! mo/ "p1 n progressive1 b recurr5t4 ,! numb]s obs]v$ d n g on con/antly increas+2 b aft] increas+ up to a c]ta9 am\nt !y dim9i%2 !n1 aft] a c]ta9 space1 increase aga92 & s on1 *ang+ con/antly ?r\gh c]ta9 cycles4 ,9 cases 9 :i* ! obs]v$ numb]s are ( ?is k9d1 ! =mula :i* expresses !m mu/ be a circul> function1 ( "s sort or o!r2 involv+1 = in/ance1 s9es1 tang5ts1 & o!r =ms ( calculation1 :i* h recurr+ values :5 ! angle on :i* !y dep5d goes on con/antly #bjj increas+4 ,! ma9 bus9ess ( =mal a/ronomy consi/s 9 resolv+ ! cele/ial ph5om5a into a s]ies ( t]ms ( ?is k9d1 9 detect+ _! argum5ts1 & 9 det]m9+ _! coeffici5ts4 #g4 ,9 con/ruct+ ! =mul by :i* laws ( nature are express$1 al?\gh ! fir/ object is to assign ! ,law ( ! ,ph5om5a1 philosoph]s h1 9 almo/ all cases1 n proce$$ 9 a purely empirical mann]1 to connect ! obs]v$ numb]s by "s expression ( calculation1 b h be5 guid$1 9 ! selection ( _! =mula1 by "s ,hypo!sis respect+ ! mode ( connexion ( ! facts4 ,?us ! =mula ( ,dulong & ,petit above giv5 0 sugge/$ by ! ,!ory ( ,ex*anges2 ! fir/ attempts at ! resolution ( ! heav5ly motions into circul> functions 7 clo!d 9 ! hypo!sis ( ,epicycles4 ,& ?is 0 almo/ inevitable4 ',we mu/ confess1' says ,cop]nicus#bhc1 't ! cele/ial motions are circul>1 or comp\nd$ ( sev]al circles1 s9ce _! inequalities obs]ve a fix$ law1 & recur 9 value at c]ta9 int]vals1 :i* c\ld n be except !y 7 circul>3 = a circle alone c make t quantity :i* has occurr$ recur aga94' ,9 l mann] ! fir/ publication ( ! ,law ( ! ,s9es1 ! true =mula ( optical refraction1 0 accompani$ by ,desc>tes ) an hypo!sis1 9 :i* an explanation ( ! law 0 pret5d$4 ,9 su* cases1 ! m]e comp>ison ( obs]vations may long fail 9 sugge/+ ! true =mul4 ,! fr+es ( %ad[s & o!r diffract$ col\rs 7 /udi$ 9 va9 by ,newton1 ,grimaldi1 ,comp>etti1 ! eld] ,h]s*el1 & ,mr4 ,br\gham1 s long z ^! inquir]s attempt$ m]ely to trace ! laws ( ! facts z !y appe>$ 9 !mselves2 :ile ,"y1 ,fresnel1 ,fraunh(]1 ,s*w]dt1 & o!rs1 det]m9$ ^! laws 9 ! mo/ rigor\s mann]1 :5 !y appli$ to ! obs]vations ! ,hypo!sis ( ,int]f]5ces4 ,note #bhc3 ,de ,rev4 l4 i4 c4 iv4 #h4 ,b ) all ! aid t ,hypo!ses & ,calculation c af=d1 ! con/ruction ( true =mul1 9 #bja ^? c>d9al discov]ies by :i* ! progress ( sci5ce has ma9ly be5 caus$1 has be5 a matt] ( great lab\r & difficulty1 & ( good =tune add$ to sagacity4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5ce1 we h se5 h[ long & h[ h>d ,kepl] lab\r$1 be=e he conv]t$ ! =mula = ! planet>y motions1 f an epicyclical comb9ation1 to a simple ellipse4 ,! same philosoph]1 lab\r+ ) equal zeal & p]sev]ance to discov] ! =mula ( optical refraction1 :i* n[ appe>s to u s simple1 0 utt]ly foil$4 ,malus s\ght 9 va9 ! =mula det]m9+ ! ,angle at :i* a transp>5t surface pol>izes light3 ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]#bic1 ) a happy sagacity1 discov]$ ! =mula to be simply ?is1 t ! index ( refraction is ! tang5t ( ! angle ( pol>ization4 ,note #bic3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 ix4 c4 vi4 ,?\gh we _c give rules :i* w be ( mu* s]vice :5 we h ?us to div9e ! g5]al =m ( ! relation by :i* ph5om5a are connect$1 !re are c]ta9 me?ods by :i*1 9 a n>r[] field1 our inve/igations may be mat]ially promot$2--c]ta9 special me?ods ( obta9+ laws f ,obs]vations4 ,( ^! we %all n[ proce$ to treat4 #bjb ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,special ,,me?ods ,,( ,,induction ,,applicable ,,to ,,quantity4 ,,aphorism ,,xliii4 ,!re are special ,me?ods ( ,induction applicable to ,quantity2 ( :i* ! pr9cipal are1 ! ,me?od ( ,curves1 ! ,me?od ( ,means1 ! ,me?od ( ,lea/ ,squ>es1 & ! ,me?od ( ,residues4 ,,aphorism ,,xliv4 ,! ,me?od ( ,curves consi/s 9 draw+ a curve ( :i* ! obs]v$ quantities are ! ,ord9ates1 ! quantity on :i* ! *ange ( ^! quantities dep5ds be+ ! ,abscissa4 ,! efficacy ( ?is ,me?od dep5ds ^u ! faculty :i* ! eye possesses1 ( readily detect+ regul>ity & irregul>ity 9 =ms4 ,! ,me?od may be us$ to detect ! ,laws :i* ! obs]v$ quantities foll[3 & also1 :5 ! ,obs]vations are inexact1 x may be us$ to correct ^! ,obs]vations1 s z to obta9 data m true ?an ! obs]v$ facts !mselves4 ,,aphorism ,,xlv4 ,! ,me?od ( ,means gets rid ( irregul>ities by tak+ ! ari?metical mean ( a great numb] ( obs]v$ quantities4 ,its efficacy dep5ds ^u ?is2 t 9 cases 9 :i* obs]v$ quantities are affect$ by o!r inequalities1 besides t ( :i* we wi% to det]m9e ! law1 ! excesses above & defects bel[ ! quantities :i* ! law 9 "q w\ld produce1 w1 9 a collection ( _m obs]vations1 balance ea* o!r4 #bjc ,,aphorism ,,xlvi4 ,! ,me?od ( ,lea/ ,squ>es is a ,me?od ( ,means1 9 :i* ! mean is tak5 accord+ to ! condition1 t ! sum ( ! squ>es ( ! err\rs ( obs]vation %all be ! lea/ possible :i* ! law ( ! facts all[s4 ,x appe>s1 by ! ,doctr9e ( ,*ances1 t ?is is ! mo/ probable mean4 ,,aphorism ,,xlvii4 ,! ,me?od ( ,residues consi/s 9 subtract+1 f ! quantities giv5 by ,obs]vation1 ! quantity giv5 by any ,law already discov]$2 & !n exam9+ ! rema9d]1 or ,residue1 9 ord] to discov] ! lead+ ,law :i* x foll[s4 ,:5 ?is second ,law has be5 discov]$1 ! quantity giv5 by x may be subtract$ f ! fir/ ,residue2 ?us giv+ a ,second ,residue1 :i* may be exam9$ 9 ! same mann]2 & s on4 ,! efficacy ( ?is me?od dep5ds pr9cipally ^u ! circum/ance ( ! ,laws ( v>iation be+ successively small] & small] 9 am\nt 7or at lea/ 9 _! mean effect72 s t ! ult]ior undiscov]$ ,laws d n prev5t ! ,law 9 "q f be+ prom95t 9 ! obs]vations4 ,,aphorism ,,xlviii4 ,! ,me?od ( ,means & ! ,me?od ( ,lea/ ,squ>es _c be appli$ )\t our kn[+ ! ,argum5ts ( ! ,inequalities :i* we seek4 ,! ,me?od ( ,curves & ! ,me?od ( ,residues1 :5 ! ,argum5ts ( ! pr9cipal ,inequalities are kn[n1 (t5 make x easy to f9d ! o!rs4 ,,9 cases :]e ! ph5om5a admit ( num]ical measurem5t & expression1 c]ta9 ma!matical me?ods may be employ$ to facilitate & give accuracy to ! det]m9ation ( ! =mula by :i* ! obs]vations are connect$ into laws4 ,among ! mo/ usual & important ( ^! ,me?ods are ! foll[+3--#bjd ,i4 ,! ,me?od ( ,curves4 ,,ii4 ,! ,me?od ( ,means4 ,,iii4 ,! ,me?od ( ,lea/ ,squ>es4 ,,iv4 ,! ,me?od ( ,residues4 ,,sect4 ,i4--,! ,me?od ( ,curves4 #a4 ,,! ,me?od ( ,curves proce$s ^u ?is basis2 t :5 "o quantity und]goes a s]ies ( *anges dep5d+ on ! progress ( ano!r quantity1 7z1 = in/ance1 ! ,deviation ( ! ,moon f h] equable place dep5ds ^u ! progress ( ,"t17 ?is dep5d5ce may be express$ by means ( a curve4 ,9 ! language ( ma!maticians1 ! v>iable quantity1 ^: *anges we w\ld consid]1 is made ! ord9ate ( ! curve1 & ! quantity on :i* ! *anges dep5d is made ! abscissa4 ,9 ?is mann]1 ! curve w exhibit 9 its =m a s]ies ( undulations1 ris+ & fall+ s z to correspond ) ! alt]nate ,increase & ,dim9ution ( ! quantity repres5t$1 at int]vals ( ,space :i* correspond to ! int]vals ( ,"t1 or o!r quantity by :i* ! *anges are regulat$4 ,?us1 to take ano!r example1 if we set up1 at equal int]vals1 a s]ies ( ord9ates repres5t+ ! ,height ( all ! successive ,high ,wat]s br\ght by ! tides at a giv5 place1 = a ye>1 ! curve :i* connects ! summits ( all ^! ord9ates w exhibit a s]ies ( undulations1 asc5d+ & desc5d+ once 9 ab\t ea* ,=tnight2 s9ce1 9 t int]val1 we h1 9 succession1 ! high spr+ tides & ! l[ neap tides4 ,! curve ?us drawn (f]s to ! eye a picture ( ! ord] & magnitude ( ! *anges to :i* ! quantity "u contemplation1 7! height ( high wat]17 is subject4 #b4 ,n[ ! peculi> facility & efficacy ( ! ,me?od ( ,curves dep5ds ^u ?is circum/ance2--t ord] & regul>ity are m readily & cle>ly recogniz$1 :5 ?us exhibit$ to ! eye 9 a picture1 ?an !y are :5 pres5t$ to ! m9d 9 any o!r mann]4 ,to detect ! relations ( ,numb] consid]$ directly z ,numb]1 is n easy3 & we might #bje contemplate = a long "t a ,table ( record$ ,numb]s )\t p]ceiv+ ! ord] ( _! increase & dim9ution1 ev5 if ! law 7 mod]ately simple2 z any "o may satisfy himself by look+ at a ,tide ,table4 ,b if ^! ,numb]s are express$ by ! magnitude ( ,l9es1 & if ^! ,l9es are arrang$ 9 regul> ord]1 ! eye readily discov]s ! rule ( _! *anges3 x foll[s ! curve :i* runs along _! extremities1 & takes note ( ! ord] 9 :i* its convexities & concavities succe$ ea* o!r1 if any ord] be readily discov]able4 ,! sep>ate obs]vations are 9 ?is mann] comp>$ & g5]aliz$ & r$uc$ to rule by ! eye alone4 ,& ! eye1 s employ$1 detects relations ( ord] & succession ) a peculi> cel]ity & evid5ce4 ,if1 = example1 we ?us arrive z ord9ates ! prices ( corn 9 ea* ye> = a s]ies ( ye>s1 we %all see ! ord]1 rapidity1 & am\nt ( ! increase & decrease ( price1 f> m cle>ly ?an 9 any o!r mann]4 ,& if !re 7 any recurr5ce ( increase & decrease at /at$ int]vals ( ye>s1 we %\ld 9 ?is mann] p]ceive x4 ,! eye1 con/antly active & busy1 & employ$ 9 mak+ into %apes ! h9ts & traces ( =m :i* x contemplates1 runs along ! curve ?us (f]$ to x2 & z x travels backw>ds & =w>ds1 is ev] on ! wat* to detect "s resemblance or contra/ betwe5 "o "p & ano!r4 ,& ^! resemblances & contra/s1 :5 discov]$1 are ! images ( ,laws ( ,ph5om5a2 :i* are made manife/ at once by ?is artifice1 al?\gh ! m9d c\ld n easily cat* ! indications ( _! exi/5ce1 if !y 7 n ?us reflect$ to h] 9 ! cle> mirror ( ,space4 ,?us :5 we h a s]ies ( good ,obs]vations1 & "k ! argum5t ^u :i* _! *ange ( magnitude dep5ds1 ! ,me?od ( ,curves enables u to asc]ta91 almo/ at a glance1 ! law ( ! *ange2 & by fur!r att5tion1 may be made to give u a =mula ) great accuracy4 ,! ,me?od enables u to p]ceive1 among our obs]vations1 an ord]1 :i* )\t ! me?od1 is conceal$ 9 obscurity & p]plexity4 #bjf #c4 ,b ! ,me?od ( ,curves n only enables u to obta9 laws ( nature f good ,obs]vations1 b also1 9 a great degree1 f obs]vations :i* are v imp]fect4 ,= ! imp]fection ( obs]vations may 9 "p be correct$ by ?is consid]ation2--t ?\gh !y may appe> irregul>1 ! correct facts :i* !y imp]fectly repres5t1 are really regul>4 ,& ! ,me?od ( ,curves enables u to rem$y ?is app>5t irregul>ity1 at lea/ 9 "p4 ,= :5 ,obs]vations ?us imp]fect are laid d[n z ,ord9ates1 & _! extremities connect$ by a l9e1 we obta91 n a smoo? & fl[+ curve1 su* z we %\ld h if ! obs]vations conta9$ only ! rigor\s results ( regul> laws2 b a brok5 & irregul> l9e1 full ( sudd5 & caprici\s twi/+s1 & be>+ on its face m>ks ( irregul>ities dep5d5t1 n ^u law1 b ^u *ance4 ,yet ^! irregul> & abrupt deviations 9 ! curve are1 9 mo/ cases1 b small 9 ext5t1 :5 comp>$ ) ^? b5d+s :i* d5ote ! effects ( regul> law4 ,& ?is circum/ance is "o ( ! great gr\nds ( advantage 9 ! ,me?od ( ,curves4 ,= :5 ! obs]vations ?us laid d[n pres5t to ! eye su* a brok5 & irregul> l9e1 we c /ill see1 (t5 ) great ease & c]ta9ty1 :at twi/+s ( ! l9e are probably due to ! irregul> err\rs ( obs]vation2 & c at once reject ^!1 by draw+ a m regul> curve1 cutt+ (f all su* small & irregul> s9uosities1 leav+ "s to ! "r & "s to ! left2 & !n proce$+ z if ?is regul> curve1 & n ! irregul> "o1 express$ ! obs]vations4 ,9 ?is mann]1 we suppose ! err\rs ( obs]vation to balance ea* o!r2 "s ( our correct$ measures be+ too great & o!rs too small1 b ) no great prepond]ance ei!r way4 ,we draw our ma9 regul> curve1 n ?r\gh ! po9ts giv5 by our obs]vations1 b among !m3 draw+ x1 z has be5 said by "o ( ! philosoph]s#cjc :o fir/ sy/ematically us$ ?is me?od1 ') a bold b c>eful h&4' #bjg ,! regul> curve :i* we ?us obta91 ?us fre$ f ! casual err\rs ( obs]vation1 is t 9 :i* we endeav\r to discov] ! laws ( *ange & succession4 ,note #cjc3 ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el1 ,a/4 ,soc4 ,trans4 vol4 v4 p4 #a4 #d4 ,by ?is me?od1 ?us gett+ rid at once1 9 a great measure1 ( err\rs ( obs]vation1 we obta9 data :i* are m true ?an ! individual facts !mselves4 ,! philosoph]'s bus9ess is to comp>e 8 hypo!ses ) facts1 z we h (t5 said4 ,b if we make ! comp>ison ) sep>ate special facts1 we are liable to be p]plex$ or misl$1 to an unkn[n am\nt1 by ! err\rs ( obs]vation2 :i* may cause ! hypo!tical & ! obs]v$ result to agree1 or to disagree1 :5 o!rwise !y w\ld n d s4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we ?us take ! :ole mass ( ! facts1 & remove ! err\rs ( actual obs]vation#cac1 by mak+ ! curve :i* expresses ! suppos$ obs]vation regul> & smoo?1 we h ! sep>ate facts correct$ by _! g5]al t5d5cy4 ,we are put 9 possession1 z we h said1 ( some?+ m true ?an any fact by itself is4 ,note #cac3 ,ib4 vol4 v4 p4 #d4 ,"o ( ! mo/ admirable examples ( ! use ( ?is ,me?od ( ,curves is f\nd 9 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's ,inve/igation ( ! ,orbits ( ,d\ble ,/>s#cbc4 ,! au?or !re %[s h[ f> inf]ior ! direct obs]vations ( ! angle ( position are1 to ! obs]vations correct$ by a curve 9 ! mann] above /at$4 ',?is curve once drawn1' he says1 'mu/ repres5t1 x is evid5t1 ! law ( v>iation ( ! angle ( position1 ) ! "t1 n only = in/ants int]m$iate betwe5 ! dates ( obs]vations1 b ev5 at ! mom5ts ( obs]vation !mselves1 mu* bett] ?an ! individual raw obs]vations c possibly 7on an av]age7 d4 ,x is only requisite to try a case or two1 to be satisfi$ t by sub/itut+ ! curve = ! po9ts1 we h made a ne>] approa* to nature1 & 9 a great measure elim9at$ err\rs ( obs]vation4' ',9 foll[+ ! graphical process1' he adds1 'we h a conviction almo/ approa*+ to moral c]ta9ty t #bjh we _c be greatly misl$4' ,aga91 hav+ ?us correct$ ! raw obs]vations1 he makes ano!r use ( ! graphical me?od1 by try+ :e!r an ellipse c be drawn 'if n ?r\gh1 at lea/ among ! po9ts1 s z to approa* tol]ably ne> !m all2 & ?us approa*+ to ! orbit :i* is ! subject ( inve/igation4' ,note #cbc3 ,ib4 #e4 ,! ,ob/acles :i* pr9cipally imp$e ! application ( ! ,me?od ( ,curves are 7,i47 our ignorance ( ! argum5ts ( ! *anges1 & 7,,ii47 ! complication ( sev]al laws ) "o ano!r4 7,i47 ,if we d n "k on :at quantity ^? *anges dep5d :i* we are /udy+1 we may fail entirely 9 detect+ ! law ( ! *anges1 al?\gh we ?r[ ! obs]vations into curves4 ,= ! true argum5t ( ! *ange %\ld1 9 fact1 be made ! abscissa ( ! curve4 ,if we 7 to express1 by a s]ies ( ord9ates1 ! h\r ( high wat] on successive days1 we %\ld n obta91 or %\ld obta9 v imp]fectly1 ! law :i* ^! times foll[2 = ! real argum5t ( ?is *ange is n ! sol> h\r1 b ! h\r at :i* ! moon passes ! m]idian4 ,b if we are suppos$ to be aw>e t ?is is ! argum5t1 7:i* !ory sugge/s & trial in/antly confirms7 we !n d imm$iately obta9 ! prim>y ,rules ( ! ,"t ( ,high ,wat]1 by ?r[+ a s]ies ( obs]vations into a ,curve1 ) ! ,h\r ( ! ,moon's ,transit = ! abscissa4 ,9 l mann]1 :5 we h obta9$ ! fir/ great or ,semi-m5sual ,inequality ( ! tides1 if we endeav\r to discov] ! laws ( o!r ,inequalities by means ( curves1 we mu/ take f !ory ! sugge/ion t ! ,argum5ts ( su* inequalities w probably be ! p>allax & ! decl9ation ( ! moon4 ,?is sugge/ion aga9 is confirm$ by trial2 b if we 7 suppos$ to be entirely ignorant ( ! dep5d5ce ( ! *anges ( ! tide on ! ,di/ance & ,decl9ation ( ! moon1 ! curves w\ld exhibit un9telligible & seem+ly caprici\s *anges4 ,= by ! effect ( ! ,inequality aris+ f ! ,p>allax1 ! convexities ( ! curves :i* belong to ! #bji spr+ tides1 are 9 "s ye>s made alt]nately great] & less all ! ye> ?r\gh2 :ile 9 o!r ye>s !y are made all ne>ly equal4 ,?is diff]5ce does n betray its orig91 till we ref] x to ! ,p>allax2 & ! same difficulty 9 proce$+ w\ld arise if we 7 ignorant t ! moon's ,decl9ation is "o ( ! ,argum5ts ( tidal *anges4 ,9 l mann]1 if we try to r$uce to law any meteorological *anges1 ^? ( ! ,height ( ! ,b>omet] = in/ance1 we f9d t we c make little progress 9 ! inve/igation1 precisely because we d n "k ! ,argum5t on :i* ^! *anges dep5d4 ,t !re is a c]ta9 regul> diurnal *ange ( small am\nt1 we "k2 b :5 we h ab/ract$ ?is ,inequality1 7( :i* ! ,argum5t is ! "t ( day17 we f9d f> great] ,*anges left beh9d1 f day to day & f h\r to h\r2 & we express ^! 9 curves1 b we _c r$uce !m to ,rule1 because we _c discov] on :at num]ical quantity !y dep5d4 ,! assidu\s /udy ( b>ometrical obs]vations1 ?r[n into curves1 may p]haps h]eaft] po9t out to u :at are ! relations ( "t & space by :i* ^! v>iations are det]m9$2 b 9 ! mean "t1 ?is subject exemplifies to u our rem>k1 t ! me?od ( curves is ( comp>atively small use1 s long z we are 9 ignorance ( ! real ,argum5ts ( ! ,inequalities4 #f4 7,,ii47 ,9 ! next place1 ,i rem>k t a difficulty is ?r[n 9 ! way ( ! ,me?od ( ,curves by ! ,comb9ation ( sev]al laws "o ) ano!r4 ,x w readily be se5 t su* a cause w produce a complexity 9 ! curves :i* exhibit ! succession ( facts4 ,if1 = example1 we take ! case ( ! ,tides1 ! ,height ( high wat] increases & dim9i%es ) ! ,approa* ( ! sun to1 & its ,recess f1 ! syzygies ( ! moon4 ,aga91 ?is ,height increases & dim9i%es z ! moon's ,p>allax increases & dim9i%es2 & aga91 ! ,height dim9i%es :5 ! ,decl9ation increases1 & vice v]sa2 & all ^! ,argum5ts ( *ange1 ! ,di/ance f ,syzygy1 ! ,p>allax1 ! ,decl9ation1 complete _! circuit & #baj return into !mselves 9 diff]5t p]iods4 ,h5ce ! curve :i* repres5ts ! ,height ( high wat] has n any p]iodical int]val 9 :i* x completes its *anges & comm5ces a new cycle4 ,! s9uosity :i* w\ld arise f ea* ,inequality sep>ately consid]$1 int]f]es )1 disguises1 & conceals ! o!rs2 & :5 we fir/ ca/ our eyes on ! curve ( obs]vation1 x is v f> f (f]+ any obvi\s regul>ity 9 its =m4 ,& x is to be obs]v$ t we h n yet enum]at$ all ! elem5ts ( ?is complexity3 = !re are *anges ( ! tide dep5d+ ^u ! ,p>allax & ,decl9ation ( ! ,sun z well z ( ! ,moon4 ,aga92 besides ^! *anges1 ( :i* ! ,argum5ts are obvi\s1 !re are o!rs1 z ^? dep5d+ ^u ! ,b>omet] & ! ,w9d1 :i* foll[ no kn[n regul> law1 & :i* con/antly affect & di/urb ! results produc$ by o!r laws4 ,9 ! ,tides1 & 9 l mann] 9 ! motions ( ! ,moon1 we h v em95t examples ( ! way 9 :i* ! discov]y ( laws may be r5d]$ difficult by ! numb] ( laws :i* op]ate to affect ! same quantity4 ,9 su* cases1 ! ,inequalities are g5]ally pick$ out 9 succession1 ne>ly 9 ! ord] ( _! magnitudes4 ,9 ?is way !re 7 successively collect$1 f ! /udy ( ! ,moon's motions by a s]ies ( a/ronom]s1 ^? ,inequalities :i* we t]m ! ,equation ( ! ,c5t]1 ! ,evection1 ! ,v>iation1 & ! ,annual ,equation4 ,^! ,inequalities 7 n1 9 fact1 obta9$ by ! application ( ! ,me?od ( ,curves2 b ! ,me?od ( ,curves might h be5 appli$ to su* a case ) great advantage4 ,! ,me?od has be5 appli$ ) great indu/ry & ) rem>kable success to ! inve/igation ( ! laws ( ! ,tides2 & by ! use ( x1 a s]ies ( ,inequalities bo? ( ! ,times & ( ! ,heights ( high wat] has be5 detect$1 :i* expla9 all ! ma9 features ( ! obs]v$ facts4 #baa ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,! ,me?od ( ,means4 #g4 ,! ,me?od ( ,curves1 z we h endeav\r$ to expla9 above1 frees u f ! casual & extrane\s irregul>ities :i* arise f ! imp]fection ( obs]vation2 & ?us lays b>e ! results ( ! laws :i* really op]ate1 & enables u to proce$ 9 se>* ( ^? laws4 ,b ! ,me?od ( ,curves is n ! only "o :i* effects su* a purpose4 ,! err\rs aris+ f deta*$ obs]vations may be got rid (1 & ! additional accuracy :i* multipli$ obs]vations give may be obta9$1 by op]ations ^u ! obs]v$ numb]s1 )\t express+ !m by spaces4 ,! process ( curves assumes t ! err\rs ( obs]vation balance ea* o!r2--t ! accid5tal excesses & defects are ne>ly equal 9 am\nt2--t ! true quantities :i* w\ld h be5 obs]v$ if all accid5tal causes ( irregul>ity 7 remov$1 are obta9$1 exactly or ne>ly1 by select+ quantities1 ^u ! :ole1 equally di/ant f ! extremes ( great & small1 :i* our imp]fect obs]vations (f] to u4 ,b :51 among a numb] ( unequal quantities1 we take a quantity equally di/ant f ! great] & ! small]1 ?is quantity is t]m$ ! ,mean ( ! unequal quantities4 ,h5ce ! correction ( our obs]vations by ! me?od ( curves consi/s 9 tak+ ! ,mean ( ! obs]vations4 #h4 ,n[ )\t employ+ curves1 we may proce$ ari?metically to take ! ,mean ( all ! obs]v$ numb]s ( ea* class4 ,?us1 if we wi%$ to "k ! ,height ( ! spr+ tide at a giv5 place1 & if we f\nd t f\r diff]5t spr+ tides 7 measur$ z be+ ( ! height ( t51 ?irte51 elev51 & f\rte5 feet1 we %\ld conclude t ! true height ( ! tide 0 ! ,mean ( ^! numb]s1--namely1 twelve feet2 & we %\ld suppose t ! deviation f ?is height1 9 ! individual cases1 arose f ! accid5ts ( wea!r1 ! imp]fections ( obs]vation1 or ! op]ation ( o!r laws1 besides ! alt]nation ( spr+ & neap tides4 #bab ,?is process ( f9d+ ! ,mean ( an assemblage ( obs]v$ numb]s is mu* practis$ 9 discov]+1 & /ill m 9 confirm+ & correct+1 laws ( ph5om5a4 ,we %all notice a few ( its peculi>ities4 #i4 ,! ,me?od ( ,means requires a k ( ! ,argum5t ( ! *anges :i* we w\ld /udy2 = ! numb]s mu/ be arrang$ 9 c]ta9 ,classes1 be=e we f9d ! ,mean ( ea* ,class2 & ! pr9ciple on :i* ?is arrangem5t dep5ds is ! ,argum5t4 ,?is k ( ! ,argum5t is m indisp5sably necess>y 9 ! ,me?od ( ,means ?an 9 ! ,me?od ( ,curves2 = :5 ,curves are drawn1 ! eye (t5 spontane\sly detects ! law ( recurr5ce 9 _! s9uosities2 b :5 we h collections ( ,numb]s1 we mu/ divide !m into classes by a selection ( our own4 ,?us1 9 ord] to discov] ! law :i* ! heights ( ! tide foll[1 9 ! progress f spr+ to neap1 we arrange ! obs]v$ tides accord+ to ! day ( ! moon's age2 & we !n take ! mean ( all ^? :i* ?us happ5 at ! same p]iod ( ! ,moon's ,revolution4 ,9 ?is mann] we obta9 ! law :i* we seek2 & ! process is v ne>ly ! same 9 all o!r applications ( ?is ,me?od ( ,means4 ,9 all cases1 we beg9 by assum+ ! ,classes ( measures :i* we wi% to comp>e1 ! ,law :i* we c\ld confirm or correct1 ! ,=mula ( :i* we w\ld det]m9e ! coeffici5ts4 #aj4 ,! ,argum5t be+ ?us assum$1 ! ,me?od ( ,means is v efficaci\s 9 ridd+ our inquiry ( err\rs & irregul>ities :i* w\ld imp$e & p]plex x4 ,irregul>ities :i* are altoge!r accid5tal1 or at lea/ accid5tal ) ref]5ce to "s law :i* we h "u consid]ation1 comp5sate ea* o!r 9 a v rem>kable way1 :5 we take ! ,means ( _m obs]vations4 ,if we h be=e u a collection ( obs]v$ tides1 "s ( !m may be elevat$1 "s depress$ by ! w9d1 "s not$ too high & "s too l[ by ! obs]v]1 "s augm5t$ & "s dim9i%$ by uncontemplat$ *anges 9 ! moon's di/ance or motion3 b 9 ! c\rse ( a ye> or two at ! longe/1 all ^! causes ( irregul>ity balance #bac ea* o!r2 & ! law ( succession1 :i* runs ?r\gh ! obs]vations1 comes out z precisely z if ^? di/urb+ influ5ces did n exi/4 ,9 any p>ticul> case1 !re appe>s to be no possible reason :y ! deviation %\ld be 9 "o way1 or ( "o mod]ate am\nt1 r ?an ano!r4 ,b tak+ ! mass ( obs]vations toge!r1 ! deviations 9 opposite ways w be ( equal am\nt1 ) a degree ( exactness v /rik+4 ,?is is f\nd to be ! case 9 all inquiries :]e we h to deal ) obs]v$ numb]s ^u a l>ge scale4 ,9 ! progress ( ! population ( a c\ntry1 = in/ance1 :at c appe> m incon/ant1 9 detail1 ?an ! causes :i* produce bir?s & dea?s8 yet 9 ea* c\ntry1 & ev5 9 ea* prov9ce ( a c\ntry1 ! proportions ( ! :ole numb]s ( bir?s & dea?s rema9 ne>ly con/ant4 ,:at c be m seem+ly beyond ! rea* ( rule ?an ! occasions :i* produce lett]s t _c f9d _! de/9ation8 yet x appe>s t ! numb] ( 'dead lett]s' is ne>ly ! same f ye> to ye>4 ,& ! same is ! result :5 ! deviations arise1 n f m]e accid5t1 b f laws p]fectly regul>1 ?\gh n contemplat$ 9 our inve/igation#ccc4 ,?us ! effects ( ! ,moon's ,p>allax ^u ! ,tides1 sometimes op]at+ "o way & sometimes ano!r1 accord+ to c]ta9 rules1 are q elim9at$ by tak+ ! ,means ( a long s]ies ( obs]vations2 ! excesses & defects neutraliz+ ea* o!r1 s f> z conc]ns ! effect ^u any law ( ! tides :i* we w\ld inve/igate4 ,note #ccc3 ,provid$ ! argum5t ( ! law :i* we neglect h no co9cid5ce ) ! argum5t ( ! law :i* we w\ld det]m9e4 #aa4 ,9 ord] to obta9 v great accuracy1 v l>ge masses ( obs]vations are (t5 employ$ by philosoph]s1 & ! accuracy ( ! result increases ) ! multitude ( obs]vations4 ,! imm5se collections ( a/ronomical obs]vations :i* h 9 ?is mann] be5 employ$ 9 ord] to =m & correct ! ,tables ( ! cele/ial motions are p]haps ! mo/ signal in/ances ( ! attempts to obta9 #bad accuracy by ?is accumulation ( obs]vations4 ,delambre's ,tables ( ! ,sun are f\nd$ ^u ne>ly #cjjj obs]vations2 ,burg's ,tables ( ! ,moon ^u above #djjj4 ,b !re are o!r in/ances h>dly less rem>kable4 ,mr4 ,lubbock's fir/ inve/igations ( ! laws ( ! tides ( ,london#cdc1 includ$ above #ac1jjj obs]vations1 ext5d+ ?r\gh n9ete5 ye>s2 x be+ consid]$ t ?is l>ge numb] 0 necess>y to remove ! effects ( accid5tal causes#cec4 ,& ! attempts to discov] ! laws ( *ange 9 ! b>omet] h l$ to ! p]=mance ( lab\rs ( equal am\nt3 ,laplace & ,b\v>d exam9$ ?is "q by means ( obs]vations made at ! ,obs]vatory ( ,p>is1 f\r times e day = eight ye>s4 ,note #cdc3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahca4 ,note #cec3 ,?is p]iod ( n9ete5 ye>s 0 also select$ = a reason :i* is allud$ to 9 a =m] note4 ,x 0 ?\ght t ?is p]iod secur$ ! inquir] f ! err\rs :i* might be produc$ by ! p>tial co9cid5ce ( ! ,argum5ts ( diff]5t irregul>ities2 = example1 ^? due to ! moon's ,p>allax & to ! moon's ,decl9ation4 ,x has s9ce be5 f\nd 7,phil4 ,tr4 #ahch4 ,on ! ,det]m9ation ( ! ,laws ( ! ,tides f ,%ort ,s]ies ( ,obs]vations71 t ) reg>d to ,p>allax at lea/1 ! ,means ( "o ye> give suffici5t accuracy4 #ab4 ,we may rem>k "o /rik+ evid5ce ( ! accuracy ?us obta9$ by employ+ l>ge masses ( obs]vations4 ,9 ?is way we may (t5 detect inequalities mu* small] ?an ! err\rs by :i* !y are encumb]$ & conceal$4 ,?us ! ,diurnal ,oscillations ( ! ,b>omet] 7 discov]$ by ! comp>ison ( obs]vations ( _m days1 classifi$ accord+ to ! h\rs ( ! day2 & ! result 0 a cle> & inconte/able pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( su* oscillations al?\gh ! diff]5ces :i* ^! oscillations produce at diff]5t h\rs ( ! day are f> small] ?an ! casual *anges1 hi!rto r$uc$ to no law1 :i* g on f h\r to h\r & f day to day4 ,! effect ( law1 op]at+ incessantly & /eadily1 makes itself m & m felt z we give x a long] range2 :ile ! effect ( accid5t1 foll[$ out 9 ! #bae same mann]1 is to annihilate itself1 & to disappe> altoge!r f ! result4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,! ,me?od ( ,lea/ ,squ>es4 #ac4 ,! ,me?od ( ,lea/ ,squ>es is 9 fact a me?od ( means1 b ) "s peculi> *>act]s4 ,its object is to det]m9e ! be/ ,mean ( a numb] ( obs]v$ quantities2 or ! mo/ probable ,law d]iv$ f a numb] ( obs]vations1 ( :i* "s1 or all1 are all[$ to be m or less imp]fect4 ,& ! me?od proce$s ^u ?is supposition2--t all err\rs are n equally probable1 b t small err\rs are m probable ?an l>ge ones4 ,by reason+ ma!matically ^u ?is gr\nd1 we f9d t ! be/ result is obta9$ 7s9ce we _c obta9 a result 9 :i* ! err\rs vani%7 by mak+1 n ! ,err\rs !mselves1 b ! ,sum ( _! ,squ>es1 ( ! smalle/ possible am\nt4 #ad4 ,an example may illu/rate ?is4 ,let a quantity :i* is kn[n to increase uni=mly1 7z ! di/ance ( a /> f ! m]idian at successive in/ants17 be measur$ at equal int]vals ( "t1 & be f\nd to be successively #d1 #ab1 #ad4 ,x is pla91 ^u ! face ( ^! obs]vations1 t !y are errone\s2 = !y ought to =m an ari?metical progression1 b !y deviate widely f su* a progression4 ,b ! "q !n occurs1 :at ari?metical progression d !y mo/ probably repres5t3 = we may assume sev]al ari?metical progressions :i* m or less approa* ! obs]v$ s]ies2 z = in/ance1 ^! ?ree2 #d1 #i1 #ad2 #f1 #aj1 #ad2 #e1 #aj1 #ae4 ,n[ 9 ord] to see ! claims ( ea* ( ^! to ! tru?1 we may tabulate !m ?us4 ,sums ( ,sums ( ,squ>es ,obs]vation #d1 #ab1 #ad ,err\rs ,err\rs4 ( ,err\rs4 ,s]ies 7#a7 #d1 #i1 #ad #j1 #c1 #j #c #i 7#b7 #f1 #aj1 #ad #b1 #b1 #j #d #h 7#c7 #e1 #aj1 #ae #a1 #b1 #a #d #f ,"h1 al?\gh ! fir/ s]ies gives ! sum ( ! #baf err\rs less ?an ! o!rs1 ! ?ird s]ies gives ! sum ( ! squ>es ( ! err\rs lea/2 & is !re=e1 by ! proposition on :i* ?is ,me?od dep5ds1 ! mo/ probable s]ies ( ! ?ree4 ,?is ,me?od1 9 m ext5sive & complex cases1 is a great aid to ! calculator 9 8 inf]5ces f facts1 & removes mu* t is arbitr>y 9 ! ,me?od ( ,means4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,! ,me?od ( ,residues4 #ae4 ,by ei!r ( ! prec$+ ,me?ods we obta91 f obs]v$ facts1 su* ,laws z readily (f] !mselves2 & by ! ,laws ?us discov]$1 ! mo/ prom95t *anges ( ! obs]v$ quantities are acc\nt$ =4 ,b 9 _m cases we h1 z we h notic$ already1 sev]al ,laws ( nature op]at+ at ! same "t1 & comb9+ _! influ5ces to modify ^? quantities :i* are ! subjects ( obs]vation4 ,9 ^! cases we may1 by successive applications ( ! ,me?ods already po9t$ out1 detect su* ,laws "o aft] ano!r3 b ?is successive process1 ?\gh only a repetition ( :at we h already describ$1 (f]s "s peculi> features :i* make x conv5i5t to consid] x 9 a sep>ate ,section1 z ! ,me?od ( ,residues4 #af4 ,:5 we h1 9 a s]ies ( *anges ( a v>iable quantity1 discov]$ "o ,law :i* ! *anges foll[1 detect$ its ,argum5t1 & det]m9$ its ,magnitude1 s z to expla9 mo/ cle>ly ! c\rse ( obs]v$ facts1 we may /ill f9d t ! obs]v$ *anges are n fully acc\nt$ =4 ,:5 we comp>e ! results ( our ,law ) ! obs]vations1 !re may be a diff]5ce1 or z we may t]m x1 a ,residue1 /ill unexpla9$4 ,b ?is ,residue be+ ?us deta*$ f ! re/1 may be exam9$ & scrut9iz$ 9 ! same mann] z ! :ole obs]v$ quantity 0 treat$ at fir/3 & we may 9 ?is way detect 9 x also a ,law ( *ange4 ,if we c d ?is1 we mu/ accommodate ?is new f\nd ,law z ne>ly z possible to ! ,residue to :i* x belongs2 & #bag ?is be+ done1 ! diff]5ce ( our ,rule & ( ! ,residue itself1 =ms a ,second ,residue4 ,?is ,second ,residue we may aga9 br+ "u our consid]ation2 & may p]haps 9 x also discov] "s ,law ( *ange by :i* its alt]ations may be 9 "s measure acc\nt$ =4 ,if ?is c be done1 s z to acc\nt = a l>ge portion ( ?is ,residue1 ! rema9+ unexpla9$ "p =ms a ,?ird ,residue2 & s on4 #ag4 ,?is c\rse has really be5 foll[$ 9 v>i\s inquiries1 especially 9 ^? ( ,a/ronomy & ,tidology4 ,! ,equation ( ! ,c5t]1 = ! ,moon1 0 obta9$ out ( ! ,residue ( ! ,longitude1 :i* rema9$ :5 ! ,mean ,anomaly 0 tak5 away4 ,?is ,equation be+ appli$ & dispos$ (1 ! ,second ,residue ?us obta9$1 gave to ,ptolemy ! ,evection4 ,! ,?ird ,residue1 left by ! ,equation ( ! ,c5t] & ! ,evection1 suppli$ to ,ty*o ! ,v>iation & ! ,annual ,equation4 ,& ! ,residue1 rema9+ f ^!1 has be5 exhau/$ by o!r ,equations1 ( v>i\s argum5ts1 sugge/$ by !ory or by obs]vation4 ,9 ?is case1 ! successive g5]ations ( a/ronom]s h gone on1 ea* 9 its turn execut+ "s /ep 9 ?is ,me?od ( ,residues4 ,9 ! exam9ation ( ! ,tides1 on ! o!r h&1 ?is me?od has be5 appli$ sy/ematically & at once4 ,! obs]vations readily gave ! ,semim5sual ,inequality2 ! ,residue ( ?is suppli$ ! corrections due to ! ,moon's ,p>allax & ,decl9ation2 & :5 ^! 7 det]m9$1 ! rema9+ ,residue 0 explor$ = ! law ( ! ,sol> ,correction4 #ah4 ,9 a c]ta9 degree1 ! ,me?od ( ,residues & ! ,me?od ( ,means are opposite to ea* o!r4 ,= ! ,me?od ( ,residues extricates ,laws f _! comb9ation1 br++ !m into view 9 succession2 :ile ! ,me?od ( ,means discov]s ea* ,law1 n by br++ ! o!rs into view1 b by de/roy+ _! effect ?r\gh an accumulation ( obs]vations4 ,by ! ,me?od ( ,residues we %\ld fir/ extract ! ,law ( ! ,p>allax ,correction ( ! ,tides1 & !n1 f ! ,residue left by ?is1 obta9 ! ,decl9ation ,correction4 ,b we might at once employ ! ,me?od #bah ( ,means1 & put toge!r all ! cases 9 :i* ! ,decl9ation 0 ! same2 n all[+ = ! ,p>allax 9 ea* case1 b tak+ = grant$ t ! ,p>allaxes belong+ to ! same ,decl9ation w\ld neutralize ea* o!r2 z _m fall+ above z bel[ ! mean ,p>allax4 ,9 cases l ?is1 :]e ! ,me?od ( ,means is n imp$$ by a p>tial co9cid5ce ( ! ,argum5ts ( diff]5t unkn[n ,inequalities1 x may be employ$ ) almo/ z mu* success z ! ,me?od ( ,residues4 ,b /ill1 :5 ! ,argum5ts ( ! ,laws are cle>ly kn[n1 z 9 ?is in/ance1 ! ,me?od ( ,residues is m cle> & direct1 & is ! r to be recomm5d$4 #ai4 ,if = example1 we wi% to le>n :e!r ! ,height ( ! ,b>omet] ex]ts any s5sible influ5ce on ! ,height ( ! ,sea's ,surface1 x w\ld appe> t ! mo/ satisfactory mode ( proce$+1 mu/ be to subtract1 9 ! fir/ place1 :at we "k to be ! effects ( ! ,moon's ,age1 ,p>allax & ,decl9ation1 & o!r asc]ta9$ causes ( *ange2 & to se>* 9 ! unexpla9$ ,residue = ! effects ( b>ometrical pressure4 ,! contr>y c\rse has1 h[ev]1 be5 adopt$1 & ! effect ( ! ,b>omet] on ! ocean has be5 inve/igat$ by ! direct application ( ! ,me?od ( ,means1 class+ ! obs]v$ heights ( ! wat] accord+ to ! correspond+ heights ( ! ,b>omet] )\t any previ\s r$uction4 ,9 ?is mann]1 ! suspicion t ! tide ( ! sea is affect$ by ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 has be5 confirm$4 ,?is inve/igation mu/ be look$ ^u z a rem>kable in/ance ( ! efficacy ( ! ,me?od ( ,means1 s9ce ! am\nt ( ! b>ometrical effect is mu* small] ?an ! o!r *anges f among :i* x 0 by ?is process extricat$4 ,b an application ( ! ,me?od ( ,residues w\ld /ill be desirable on a subject ( su* ext5t & difficulty4 #bj4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 9 8 ,disc\rse on ! ,/udy ( ,natural ,philosophy 7,articles #aeh-afa71 has po9t$ out ! mode ( mak+ discov]ies by /udy+ ,residual ,ph5om5a2 & has giv5 sev]al illu/rations ( ! process4 ,9 "s ( ^!1 he has also #bai consid]$ ?is me?od 9 a wid] s5se ?an we h done2 treat+ x z n applicable to quantity only1 b to prop]ties & relations ( diff]5t k9ds4 ,we likewise %all proce$ to (f] a few rem>ks on ,me?ods ( ,induction applicable to o!r relations ?an ^? ( quantity4 #bbj ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,induction ,,dep5d+ ,,on ,,resemblance4 ,,aphorism ,,xlix4 ,! ,law ( ,cont9uity is ?is3--t a quantity _c pass f "o am\nt to ano!r by any *ange ( conditions1 )\t pass+ ?r\gh all int]m$iate magnitudes accord+ to ! int]m$iate conditions4 ,?is ,law may (t5 be employ$ to disprove di/9ctions :i* h no real f\ndation4 ,,aphorism ,l4 ,! ,me?od ( ,gradation consi/s 9 tak+ a numb] ( /ages ( a prop]ty 9 "q1 int]m$iate betwe5 two extreme cases :i* appe> to be diff]5t4 ,?is ,me?od is employ$ to det]m9e :e!r ! extreme cases are really di/9ct or n4 ,,aphorism ,,li4 ,! ,me?od ( ,gradation1 appli$ to decide ! "q1 :e!r ! exi/+ geological ph5om5a arise f exi/+ causes1 leads to ?is result3--,t ! ph5om5a d appe> to arise f ,exi/+ ,causes1 b t ! action ( exi/+ causes may1 9 pa/ times1 h transgress$1 to any ext5t1 _! record$ limits ( int5sity4 ,,aphorism ,,lii4 ,! ,me?od ( ,natural ,classification consi/s 9 class+ cases1 n accord+ to any assum$ ,def9ition1 b accord+ to ! connexion ( ! facts !mselves1 s z to make !m ! means ( ass]t+ g5]al tru?s4 #bba ,,sect4 ,i4--,! ,law ( ,cont9uity4 #a4 ,,! ,law ( ,cont9uity is applicable to quantity prim>ily1 & !re=e might be associat$ ) ! me?ods treat$ ( 9 ! la/ *apt]3 b inasmu* z its inf]5ces are made by a transition f "o degree to ano!r among contigu\s cases1 x w be f\nd to belong m prop]ly to ! ,me?ods ( ,induction ( :i* we h n[ to speak4 ,! ,law ( ,cont9uity consi/s 9 ?is proposition1--,t a quantity _c pass f "o am\nt to ano!r by any *ange ( conditions1 )\t pass+ ?r\gh all int]m$iate degrees ( magnitude accord+ to ! int]m$iate conditions4 ,& ?is law may (t5 be employ$ to correct inaccurate inductions1 & to reject di/9ctions :i* h no real f\ndation 9 nature4 ,= example1 ! ,ari/otelians made a di/9ction betwe5 motions accord+ to nature1 7z t ( a body fall+ v]tically d[nw>ds17 & motions contr>y to nature1 7z t ( a body mov+ along a horizontal plane37 ! =m]1 !y held1 became naturally quick] & quick]1 ! latt] naturally sl[] & sl[]4 ,b to ?is x might be repli$1 t a horizontal l9e may pass1 by gradual motion1 ?r\gh v>i\s incl9$ positions1 to a v]tical position3 & ?us ! ret>d$ motion may pass into ! accel]at$2 & h5ce !re mu/ be "s incl9$ plane on :i* ! motion d[nw>ds is naturally uni=m3 :i* is false1 & !re=e ! di/9ction ( su* k9ds ( motion is unf\nd$4 ,aga91 ! pro( ( ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion dep5ds ^u ! ,law ( ,cont9uity3 = s9ce1 by dim9i%+ ! resi/ance to a body mov+ on a horizontal plane1 we dim9i% ! ret>dation1 & ?is )\t limit1 ! law ( cont9uity w br+ u at ! same "t to ! case ( no resi/ance & to ! case ( no ret>dation4 #b4 ,! ,law ( ,cont9uity is ass]t$ by ,galileo 9 a p>ticul> application2 & ! ass]tion :i* x #bbb sugge/s is by him ref]r$ to ,plato2--namely#cfc t a moveable body _c pass f re/ to a det]m9ate degree ( velocity )\t pass+ ?r\gh all small] degrees ( velocity4 ,?is law1 h[ev]1 0 fir/ ass]t$ 9 a m g5]al & ab/ract =m by ,leibnitz#cgc3 & 0 employ$ by him to %[ t ! laws ( motion prop\nd$ by ,desc>tes mu/ be false4 ,! ,?ird ,c>tesian ,law ( ,motion 0 ?is#chc3 t :5 "o mov+ body meets ano!r1 if ! fir/ body h a less mom5tum ?an ! second1 x w be reflect$ ) its :ole motion3 b if ! fir/ h a great] mom5tum ?an ! second1 x w lose a "p ( its motion1 :i* x w transf] to ! second4 ,n[ ea* ( ^! cases leads1 by ! ,law ( ,cont9uity1 to ! case 9 :i* ! two bodies h equal mom5tums3 b 9 ?is case1 by ! fir/ "p ( ! law ! body w\ld reta9 all its motion2 & by ! second "p ( ! law x w\ld lose a portion ( x3 h5ce ! ,c>tesian ,law is false4 ,note #cfc3 ,dialog4 iii4 #aej4 iv4 #cb4 ,note #cgc3 ,op]a1 i4 #cff4 ,note #chc3 ,c>tes1 ,pr94 p4 #ce4 #c4 ,i %all take ano!r example ( ! application ( ?is ,law f ,pr(essor ,playfair's ,diss]tation on ! ,hi/ory ( ,ma!matical & ,physical ,sci5ce#cic4 ',! ,academy ( ,sci5ces at ,p>is hav+ 79 #agbd7 propos$1 z a ,prize ,"q1 ! ,inve/igation ( ! ,laws ( ! ,communication ( ,motion1 ,john ,b]n\lli pres5t$ an ,essay on ! subject v +5i\s & pr(\nd2 9 :i*1 h[ev]1 he d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( h>d bodies1 because 9 ! collision ( su* bodies1 a f9ite *ange ( motion mu/ take place 9 an in/ant3 an ev5t :i*1 on ! pr9ciple j expla9$1 he ma9ta9$ to be impossible4' ,& ?is reason+ 0 ju/ifiable3 = we c =m a cont9u\s transition f cases 9 :i* ! impact manife/ly occupies a f9ite "t1 7z :5 we /rike a l>ge s(t body7 to cases 9 :i* x is app>5tly in/antane\s4 ,maclaur9 & o!rs are dispos$1 9 ord] to avoid ! conclusion ( ,b]n\lli1 to reject ! ,law ( #bbc ,cont9uity4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld n only be1 z ,playfair says1 to deprive ourselves ( an auxili>y1 commonly useful ?\gh sometimes deceptive2 b :at is mu* worse1 to acquiesce 9 false propositions1 f ! want ( cle> & pati5t ?9k+4 ,= ! ,law ( ,cont9uity1 :5 rightly int]pret$1 is nev] violat$ 9 actual fact4 ,!re are n really any su* bodies z h be5 t]m$ p]fectly h>d3 & if we approa* t[>ds su* cases1 we mu/ le>n ! laws ( motion :i* rule !m by att5d+ to ! ,law ( ,cont9uity1 n by reject+ x4 ,note #cic3 ,9 ! ,encyc4 ,brit4 p4 #ecg4 #d4 ,newton us$ ! ,law ( ,cont9uity to sugge/1 b n to prove1 ! doctr9e ( univ]sal gravitation4 ,let1 he said1 a t]re/rial body be c>ri$ z high z ! moon3 w x n /ill fall to ! e>?8 & does n ! moon fall by ! same =ce#djc8 ,aga93 if any "o says t !re is a mat]ial e!r :i* does n gravitate#dac1 ?is k9d ( matt]1 by cond5sation1 may be gradually transmut$ to ! d5sity ( ! mo/ int5sely gravitat+ bodies3 & ^! gravitat+ bodies1 by tak+ ! int]nal texture ( ! cond5s$ e!r1 may cease to gravitate2 & ?us ! weight ( bodies dep5ds1 n on _! quantity ( matt]1 b on _! texture2 :i* doctr9e ,newton conceiv$ he _h disprov$ by exp]im5t4 ,note #djc3 ,pr9cipia1 lib4 iii4 prop4 #f4 ,note #dac3 ,ib4 cor4 #b4 #e4 ,! evid5ce ( ! ,law ( ,cont9uity resides 9 ! univ]sality ( ^? ,ideas1 :i* ent] into our appreh5sion ( ,laws ( ,nature4 ,:51 ( two quantities1 "o dep5ds ^u ! o!r1 ! ,law ( ,cont9uity necess>ily gov]ns ?is dep5d5ce4 ,e philosoph] has ! p[] ( apply+ ?is law1 9 proportion z he has ! faculty ( appreh5d+ ! ,ideas :i* he employs 9 8 induction1 ) ! same cle>ness & /ead9ess :i* belong to ! fundam5tal ideas ( ,quantity1 ,space & ,numb]4 ,to ^? :o possess ?is faculty1 ! ,law is a ,rule ( v wide & decisive application4 ,its use1 z has appe>$ 9 ! above examples1 is se5 r 9 ! dispro( ( errone\s views1 & 9 ! correction ( false propositions1 #bbd ?an 9 ! inv5tion ( new tru?s4 ,x is a te/ ( tru?1 r ?an an in/rum5t ( discov]y4 ,me?ods1 h[ev]1 approa*+ v ne> to ! ,law ( ,cont9uity may be employ$ z positive means ( obta9+ new tru?s2 & ^! ,i %all n[ describe4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,! ,me?od ( ,gradation4 #f4 ,to ga!r toge!r ! cases :i* resemble ea* o!r1 & to sep>ate ^? :i* are ess5tially di/9ct1 has (t5 be5 describ$ z ! ma9 bus9ess ( sci5ce2 & may1 9 a c]ta9 loose & vague mann] ( speak+1 pass = a description ( "s ( ! lead+ proc$ures 9 ! acquirem5t ( k4 ,! selection ( in/ances :i* agree1 & ( in/ances :i* diff]1 9 "s prom95t po9t or prop]ty1 are important /eps 9 ! =mation ( sci5ce4 ,b :5 classes ( ?+s & prop]ties h be5 e/abli%$ 9 virtue ( su* comp>isons1 x may /ill be d\btful :e!r ^! classes are sep>at$ by di/9ctions ( opposites1 or by diff]5ces ( degree4 ,& to settle su* que/ions1 ! ,me?od ( ,gradation is employ$2 :i* consi/s 9 tak+ int]m$iate /ages ( ! prop]ties 9 "q1 s z to asc]ta9 by exp]im5t :e!r1 9 ! transition f "o class to ano!r1 we h to leap ov] a manife/ gap1 or to foll[ a cont9u\s road4 #g4 ,?us = in/ance1 "o ( ! e>ly ,divisions e/abli%$ by electrical philosoph]s 0 t ( ,electrics & ,conductors4 ,b ?is division ,dr4 ,f>aday has ov]turn$ z an ess5tial opposition4 ,he takes#dbc a ,gradation :i* c>ries him f ,conductors to ,non-conductors4 ,sulphur1 or ,lac1 he says1 are held to be non-conductors1 b are n rigor\sly s4 ,sp]maceti is a bad conductor3 ice or wat] bett] ?an sp]maceti3 metals s mu* bett] t !y are put 9 a diff]5t class4 ,b ev5 9 metals ! transit ( ! electricity is n in/antane\s3 we h 9 !m pro( ( a ret>dation ( ! electric curr5t3 '& :at #bbe reason1 ,mr4 ,f>aday asks1 :y ?is ret>dation %\ld n be ( ! same k9d z t 9 sp]maceti1 or 9 lac1 or sulphur8 ,b z1 9 !m1 ret>dation is insulation1 & insulation is induction#dcc :y %\ld we refuse ! same relation to ! same exhibitions ( =ce 9 ! metals8 ,note #dbc3 ,rese>*es1 #ab? s]ies1 art4 #acbh4 ,note #dcc3 ,^! words ref] to ano!r proposition1 also e/abli%$ by ! ,me?od ( ,gradation4 ,! process employ$ by ! same sagaci\s philosoph] to %[ ! id5tity ( ,voltaic & ,frankl9ic electricity1 is ano!r example ( ! same k9d#ddc4 ,ma*9e ,frankl9ic electricity 0 made to exhibit ! same ph5om5a z ,voltaic electricity1 by caus+ ! dis*>ge to pass ?r\gh a bad conductor1 into a v ext5sive dis*>g+ tra93 & ?us x 0 cle>ly %[n t ,frankl9ic electricity1 n s conduct$1 diff]s f ! o!r k9ds1 only 9 be+ 9 a /ate ( successive t5sion & explosion in/ead ( a /ate ( cont9u$ curr5t4 ,note #ddc3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xiv4 c4 ix4 sect4 #b4 ,aga92 to %[ t ! decomposition ( bodies 9 ! ,voltaic circuit 0 n due to ! ,attraction ( ! ,poles#dec1 ,mr4 ,f>aday devis$ a beautiful s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 9 :i* ^! suppos$ ,poles 7 made to assume all possible electrical conditions3--9 "s cases ! decomposition took place aga9/ air1 :i* accord+ to common language is n a conductor1 nor is decompos$2--9 o!rs1 aga9/ ! metallic poles1 :i* are excell5t conductors b undecomposable2--& s on3 & h5ce he inf]s t ! decomposition _c ju/ly be consid]$ z due to ! ,attraction1 or ,attractive ,p[]s1 ( ! ,poles4 ,note #dec3 ,ibid4 ,rese>*es1 art4 #dig4 #h4 ,! read] ( ! ,novum ,organon may p]haps1 9 look+ at su* examples ( ! ,rule1 be rem9d$ ( "s ( ,bacon's ,classes ( ,in/ances1 z 8 in/anti abs5ti 9 proximo1 & 8 in/anti migrantes4 ,b we may rem>k t ,in/ances class$ & treat$ z ,bacon recomm5ds 9 ^? p>ts ( 8 "w1 c\ld h>dly lead to sci5tific tru?4 ,8 #bbf processes are vitiat$ by 8 propos+ to himself ! =m or cause ( ! prop]ty be=e him1 z ! object ( 8 inquiry2 in/ead ( be+ cont5t to obta91 9 ! fir/ place1 ! law ( ph5om5a4 ,?us 8 example#dfc ( a ,migrat+ ,in/ance is ?us giv54 ,let ! ,nature inquir$ into be t ( ,:it5ess2 an ,in/ance ,migrat+ to ! production ( ?is prop]ty is glass1 fir/ :ole1 & !n pulv]iz$2 or pla9 wat]1 & wat] agitat$ into a foam2 = glass & wat] are transp>5t1 & n :ite2 b glass p[d] & foam are :ite1 & n transp>5t4 ,h5ce we mu/ inquire :at has happ5$ to ! glass or wat] 9 t ,migration4 ,= x is pla9 t ! ,=m ( ,:it5ess is convey$ & induc$ by ! cru%+ ( ! glass & %ak+ ( ! wat]4 ,no real k has result$ f ?is l9e ( reason+3--f tak+ ! ,natures & ,=ms ( ?+s & ( _! qualities = ! prim>y subject ( our rese>*es4 ,note #dfc3 ,nov4 ,org4 lib4 ii4 ,aph4 #bh4 #i4 ,we may easily give examples f o!r subjects 9 :i* ! ,me?od ( ,gradation has be5 us$ to e/abli%1 or to endeav\r to e/abli%1 v ext5sive propositions4 ,?us ,laplace's ,nebul> ,hypo!sis1--t sy/ems l our sol> sy/em are =m$ by gradual cond5sation f diffus$ masses1 su* z ! nebul among ! />s1--is f\nd$ by him ^u an application ( ?is ,me?od ( ,gradation4 ,we see1 he conceives1 among ^! nebul1 in/ances ( all degrees ( cond5sation1 f ! mo/ loosely diffus$ fluid1 to t sep>ation & solidification ( p>ts by :i* suns1 & satellites1 & planets are =m$3 & ?us we h be=e u in/ances ( sy/ems 9 all _! /ages2 z 9 a =e/ we see trees 9 e p]iod ( gr[?4 ,h[ f> ! examples 9 ?is case satisfy ! dem&s ( ! ,me?od ( ,gradation1 x rema9s = a/ronom]s & philosoph]s to exam9e4 ,aga92 ?is me?od 0 us$ ) great success by ,maccullo* & o!rs to refute ! op9ion1 put 9 curr5cy by ! ,w]n]ian s*ool ( geologi/s1 t #bbg ! rocks call$ trap rocks mu/ be class$ ) ^? to :i* a s$im5t>y orig9 is ascrib$4 ,= x 0 %[n t a gradual transition might be trac$ f ^? examples 9 :i* trap rocks mo/ resembl$ /ratifi$ rocks1 to ! lavas :i* h be5 rec5tly eject$ f volcanoes3 & t x 0 impossible to assign a diff]5t orig9 to "o portion1 & to ! o!r1 ( ?is k9d ( m9]al masses2 & z ! volcanic rocks 7 c]ta9ly n s$im5t>y1 x foll[$1 t ! trap rocks 7 n ( t nature4 ,aga92 we h an attempt ( a /ill l>g] k9d made by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell1 to apply ?is ,me?od ( ,gradation s z to disprove all di/9ction betwe5 ! causes by :i* geological ph5om5a h be5 produc$1 & ! causes :i* are n[ act+ at ! e>?'s surface4 ,he has collect$ a v rem>kable s]ies ( *anges :i* h tak5 place1 & are /ill tak+ place1 by ! action ( wat]1 volcanoes1 e>?quakes1 & o!r t]re/rial op]ations2 & he conceives he has %[n 9 ^! a gradation :i* leads1 ) no wide *asm or viol5t leap1 to ! /ate ( ?+s ( :i* geological rese>*es h suppli$ ! evid5ce4 #aj4 ,( ! value ( ?is ,me?od 9 geological speculations1 no d\bt c be ent]ta9$4 ,yet x mu/ /ill require a grave & pr(\nd consid]ation1 9 s va/ an application ( ! ,me?od z t attempt$ by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell1 to det]m9e :at ext5t we may all[ to ! /eps ( our gradation2 & to decide h[ f> ! *anges :i* h tak5 place 9 di/ant p>ts ( ! s]ies may exce$ ^? ( :i* we h hi/orical k1 )\t ceas+ to be ( ! same k9d4 ,^? :o1 dwell+ 9 a city1 see1 f "t to "t1 "o h\se built & ano!r pull$ d[n1 may say t su* exi/+ causes1 op]at+ ?r\gh pa/ "t1 suffici5tly expla9 ! exi/+ condition ( ! city4 ,yet we arrive at important political & hi/orical tru?s1 by consid]+ ! orig9 ( a city z an ev5t ( a diff]5t ord] f ^? daily *anges4 ,! causes :i* are n[ work+ to produce geological results1 may be suppos$ to h be51 at "s =m] epo*1 s f> exagg]at$ 9 _! op]ation1 t ! *anges #bbh %\ld be p>oxysms1 n degrees2--t !y %\ld violate1 n cont9ue1 ! gradual s]ies4 ,& we h no k9d ( evid5ce :e!r ! duration ( our hi/orical times is suffici5t to give u a j measure ( ! limits ( su* degrees2--:e!r ! t]ms :i* we h "u our notice enable u to asc]ta9 ! av]age rate ( progression4 #aa4 ,! result ( su* consid]ations seems to be ?is3--t we may apply ! ,me?od ( ,gradation 9 ! inve/igation ( geological causes1 provid$ we leave ! ,limits ( ! ,gradation undef9$4 ,b1 !n1 ?is is equival5t to ! admission ( ! opposite hypo!sis3 = a cont9uity ( :i* ! successive int]vals are n limit$1 is n di/+ui%able f discont9uity4 ,! geological sects ( rec5t times h be5 di/+ui%$ z uni=mit>ians & cata/rophi/s3 ! ,me?od ( ,gradation seems to prove ! doctr9e ( ! uni=mit>ians2 b !n1 at ! same "t t x does ?is1 x breaks d[n ! di/9ction betwe5 !m & ! cata/rophi/s4 ,!re are o!r exemplifications ( ! use ( gradations 9 ,sci5ce :i* well des]ve notice3 b "s ( !m are ( a k9d some:at diff]5t1 & may be consid]$ "u a sep>ate head4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4 ,! ,me?od ( ,natural ,classification4 #ab4 ,! ,me?od ( ,natural ,classification consi/s1 z we h se51 9 gr\p+ toge!r objects1 n accord+ to any select$ prop]ties1 b accord+ to _! mo/ important resemblances2 & 9 comb9+ su* gr\p+ ) ! assignation ( c]ta9 m>ks ( ! classes ?us =m$4 ,! examples ( ! successful application ( ?is me?od are to be f\nd 9 ! ,classificatory ,sci5ces ?r\gh _! :ole ext5t2 z1 = example1 9 fram+ ! ,g5]a ( plants & animals4 ,! same me?od1 h[ev]1 may (t5 be ext5d$ to o!r sci5ces4 ,?us ! classification ( ,cry/all9e ,=ms1 accord+ to _! ,degree ( ,symmetry1 7:i* is really an important di/9ction17 z introduc$ by ,mohs & ,weiss1 0 a great improvem5t #bbi ^u ,hay's arbitr>y division accord+ to c]ta9 assum$ prim>y =ms4 ,sir ,david ,brew/] 0 l$ to ! same di/9ction ( cry/als by ! /udy ( _! optical prop]ties2 & ! sci5tific value ( ! classification 0 ?us /rongly exhibit$4 ,mr4 ,h[>d's classification ( ,cl\ds appe>s to be f\nd$ 9 _! real nature1 s9ce x enables him to express ! laws ( _! *anges & successions4 ,z we h else:]e said1 ! crit]ion ( a true classification is1 t x makes g5]al propositions possible4 ,"o ( ! mo/ prom95t examples ( ! b5eficial influ5ce ( a "r classification1 is to be se5 9 ! impulse giv5 to geology by ! di/9ction ( /rata accord+ to ! organic fossils :i* !y conta9#dgc3 :i*1 ev] s9ce its g5]al adoption1 has be5 a lead+ pr9ciple 9 ! speculations ( geologi/s4 ,note #dgc3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xviii4 c4 ii4 sect4 #c4 #ac4 ,! mode 9 :i*1 9 ?is & 9 o!r cases1 ! ,me?od ( ,natural ,classification directs ! rese>*es ( ! philosoph]1 is ?is3--8 arrangem5t be+ adopt$1 at lea/ z an in/rum5t ( inquiry & trial1 he foll[s ! c\rse ( ! diff]5t memb]s ( ! classification1 accord+ to ! guidance :i* ,nature h]self (f]s2 n prescrib+ be=eh& ! m>ks ( ea* "p1 b di/ribut+ ! facts accord+ to ! total resemblances1 or accord+ to ^? resemblances :i* he f9ds to be mo/ important4 ,?us1 9 trac+ ! c\rse ( a s]ies ( /rata f place to place1 we id5tify ea* /ratum1 n by any s+le "*1 b by all tak5 toge!r2--texture1 col\r1 fossils1 position1 & any o!r circum/ances :i* (f] !mselves4 ,& if1 by ?is means1 we come to ambigu\s cases1 :]e diff]5t indications appe> to po9t diff]5t ways1 we decide s z be/ to pres]ve undamag$ ^? g5]al relations & tru?s :i* con/itute ! value ( our sy/em4 ,?us al?\gh we consid] ! organic fossils 9 ea* /ratum z its mo/ important *>act]i/ic1 we are n prev5t$1 by ! disappe>ance ( "s fossils1 or ! addition ( o!rs1 or by ! total abs5ce ( fossils1 #bcj f id5tify+ /rata 9 di/ant c\ntries1 if ! position & o!r circum/ances au?orize u to d s4 ,& by ?is ,me?od ( ,classification1 ! doctr9e ( ,geological ,equival5ts#dhc has be5 appli$ to a great "p ( ,europe4 ,note #dhc3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xviii4 c4 iii4 sect4 #d4 #ad4 ,we may fur!r obs]ve1 t ! same me?od ( natural classification :i* ?us enables u to id5tify /rata 9 remote situations1 not)/&+ t !re may be great diff]5ces 9 _! mat]ial & cont5ts1 also =bids u to assume ! id5tity ( ! s]ies ( rocks :i* occur 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 :5 ?is id5tity has n be5 v]ifi$ by su* a cont9u\s exploration ( ! compon5t memb]s ( ! s]ies4 ,x w\ld be 9 ! highe/ degree unphilosophical to apply ! special names ( ! ,engli% or ,g]man /rata to ! rocks ( ,india1 or ,am]ica1 or ev5 ( s\!rn ,europe1 till x has appe>$ t 9 ^? c\ntries ! geological s]ies ( nor!rn ,europe really exi/s4 ,9 ea* sep>ate c\ntry1 ! divisions ( ! =mations :i* compose ! cru/ ( ! e>? mu/ be made out1 by apply+ ! ,me?od ( ,natural ,arrangem5t to t p>ticul> case1 & n by arbitr>ily ext5d+ to x ! nom5clature belong+ to ano!r case4 ,x is only by su* precautions1 t we c ev] succe$ 9 obta9+ geological propositions1 at ! same "t true & compreh5sive2 or c obta9 any s\nd g5]al views respect+ ! physical hi/ory ( ! e>?4 #ae4 ,! ,me?od ( ,natural ,classification1 :i* we ?us recomm5d1 falls 9 ) ^? m5tal habits :i* we =m]ly describ$ z result+ f ! /udy ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,! me?od 0 !n t]m$ ! ,me?od ( ,type1 & 0 put 9 opposition to ! ,me?od ( ,def9ition4 ,! ,me?od ( ,natural ,classification is directly oppos$ to ! process 9 :i* we assume & apply arbitr>y def9itions2 = 9 ! =m] ,me?od1 we f9d our classes 9 nature1 & d n make !m by m>ks ( our own imposition4 ,nor c any advantage #bca to ! progress ( k be procur$1 by lay+ d[n our *>act]s :5 our arrangem5ts are z yet q loose & un=m$4 ,no?+ 0 ga9$ by ! attempts to def9e ,metals by _! weight1 _! h>dness1 _! ductility1 _! col\r2 = to all ^! m>ks1 z fa/ z !y 7 propos$1 exceptions 7 f\nd1 among bodies :i* /ill c\ld n be exclud$ f ! li/ ( ,metals4 ,x 0 only :5 elem5t>y sub/ances 7 divid$ into ,natural ,classes1 ( :i* classes ,metals 7 "o1 t a true view ( _! di/9ctive *>act]s 0 obta9$4 ,def9itions 9 ! outset ( our exam9ation ( nature are almo/ always1 n only useless1 b prejudicial4 #af4 ,:5 we obta9 a ,law ( ,nature by induction f ph5om5a1 x commonly happ5s1 z we h already se51 t we introduce1 at ! same "t1 a ,proposition & a ,def9ition4 ,9 ?is case1 ! two are correlative1 ea* giv+ a real value to ! o!r4 ,9 su* cases1 also1 ! ,def9ition1 z well z ! ,proposition1 may become ! basis ( rigor\s reason+1 & may lead to a s]ies ( d$uctive tru?s4 ,we h examples ( su* ,def9itions & ,propositions 9 ! ,laws ( ,motion1 & 9 _m o!r cases4 #ag4 ,:5 we h e/abli%$ ,natural ,classes ( objects1 we seek = ,*>act]s ( our classes2 & ^! ,*>act]s may1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 be call$ ! ,def9itions ( our classes4 ,?is is to be und]/ood1 h[ev]1 only 9 a limit$ s5se3 = ^! ,def9itions are n absolute & p]man5t4 ,!y are liable to be modifi$ & sup]s$$4 ,if we f9d a case :i* manife/ly belongs to our ,natural ,class1 ?\gh violat+ our ,def9ition1 we d n %ut out ! case1 b alt] our def9ition4 ,?us1 :5 we h made x "p ( our ,def9ition ( ! ,rose family1 t !y h alt]nate /ipulate leaves1 we d n1 !re=e1 exclude f ! family ! g5us ,l[a1 :i* has no /ipul4 ,9 ,natural ,classifications1 our ,def9itions are to be consid]$ z tempor>y & provisional only4 ,:5 ,sir ,c4 ,lyell e/abli%$ ! di/9ctions ( ! t]ti>y /rata1 :i* he t]m$ ,eoc5e1 ,mioc5e1 & ,plioc5e1 he took a num]ical crit]ion #bcb 7! proportion ( rec5t species ( %ells conta9$ 9 ^? /rata7 z ! basis ( 8 division4 ,b n[ t ^? k9ds ( /rata h become1 by _! application to a great v>iety ( cases1 a s]ies ( ,natural ,classes1 we mu/1 9 our rese>*es1 keep 9 view ! natural connexion ( ! =mations !mselves 9 diff]5t places2 & mu/ by no means all[ ourselves to be gov]n$ by ! num]ical proportions :i* 7 orig9ally contemplat$2 or ev5 by any am5d$ num]ical crit]ion equally arbitr>y2 = h[ev] am5d$1 ,def9itions 9 natural hi/ory are nev] immortal4 ,! etymologies ( ,plioc5e & ,mioc5e may1 h]eaft]1 come to h m]ely an hi/orical int]e/2 & su* a /ate ( ?+s w be no m inconv5i5t1 provid$ ! natural connexions ( ea* class are reta9$1 ?an x is to call a rock oolite or porphyry1 :5 x has no roelike /ructure & no fi]y spots4 ,! ,me?ods ( ,induction :i* are treat$ ( 9 ?is & ! prec$+ *apt]1 & :i* are specially applicable to causes gov]n$ by relations ( ,quantity or ( ,resemblance1 commonly lead u to ,laws ( ,ph5om5a only4 ,inductions f\nd$ ^u o!r ideas1 ^? ( ,sub/ance & ,cause = example1 appe> to conduct u some:at fur!r into a k ( ! ess5tial nature & real connexions ( ?+s4 ,b be=e we speak ( ^!1 we %all say a few words respect+ ! way 9 :i* inductive propositions1 once obta9$1 may be v]ifi$ & c>ri$ into effect by _! application4 #bcc ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,( ,,! ,,application ,,( ,,inductive ,,tru?s4 ,,aphorism ,,liii4 ,:5 ! !ory ( any subject is e/abli%$1 ! obs]vations & exp]im5ts :i* are made 9 apply+ ! sci5ce to use & to in/ruction1 supply a p]petual v]ification ( ! !ory4 ,,aphorism ,,liv4 ,su* obs]vations & exp]im5ts1 :5 num]\s & accurate1 supply also corrections ( ! con/ants involv$ 9 ! !ory2 & sometimes1 7by ! ,me?od ( ,residues17 additions to ! !ory4 ,,aphorism ,,lv4 ,x is wor? consid]+1 :e!r a cont9u$ & connect$ sy/em ( obs]vation & calculation1 l t ( a/ronomy1 might n be employ$ ) advantage 9 improv+ our k ( o!r subjects2 z ,tides1 ,curr5ts1 ,w9ds1 ,cl\ds1 ,ra91 ,t]re/rial ,magnetism1 ,aurora ,borealis1 ,composition ( ,cry/als1 & _m o!r subjects4 ,,aphorism ,,lvi4 ,an ext5sion ( a well-e/abli%$ !ory to ! explanation ( new facts excites admiration z a discov]y2 b x is a discov]y ( a l[] ord] ?an ! !ory itself4 ,,aphorism ,,lvii4 ,! practical inv5tions :i* are mo/ important 9 ,art may be ei!r unimportant p>ts ( ,sci5ce1 or results n expla9$ by ,sci5ce4 #bcd ,,aphorism ,,lviii4 ,9 mod]n times1 9 _m dep>tm5ts4 ,art is con/antly guid$1 gov]n$ & advanc$ by ,sci5ce4 ,,aphorism ,,lix4 ,rec5tly sev]al ,new ,arts h be5 inv5t$1 :i* may be reg>d$ z notable v]ifications ( ! anticipations ( mat]ial b5efits to be d]iv$ to man f ! progress ( ,sci5ce4 #a4 ,,by ! application ( inductive tru?s1 we "h mean1 accord+ to ! arrangem5t giv5 9 *ap4 ,i4 ( ?is book1 ^? /eps1 :i* 9 ! natural ord] ( sci5ce1 foll[ ! discov]y ( ea* tru?4 ,^! /eps are1 ! v]ification ( ! discov]y by additional exp]im5ts & reason+s1 & its ext5sion to new cases1 n contemplat$ by ! orig9al discov]]4 ,^! processes occupy t p]iod1 :i*1 9 ! hi/ory ( ea* great discov]y1 we h t]m$ ! ,sequel ( ! epo*2 z ! collection ( facts1 & ! elucidation ( conceptions1 =m its ,prelude4 #b4 ,x is n necess>y to dwell at l5g? on ! processes ( ! ,v]ification ( ,discov]ies4 ,:5 ! ,law ( ,nature is once /at$1 x is f> easi] to devise & execute exp]im5ts :i* prove x1 ?an x 0 to disc]n ! evid5ce be=e4 ,! tru? becomes "o ( ! /&>d doctr9es ( ! sci5ce to :i* x belongs1 & is v]ifi$ by all :o /udy or :o tea* ! sci5ce exp]im5tally4 ,! lead+ doctr9es ( ,*emi/ry are con/antly exemplifi$ by ea* *emi/ 9 8 ,laboratory2 & an am\nt ( v]ification is ?us obta9$ ( :i* books give no adequate conception4 ,9 ,a/ronomy1 we h a /ill /rong] example ( ! process ( v]ify+ discov]ies4 ,ev] s9ce ! sci5ce assum$ a sy/ematic =m1 !re h be5 ,obs]vatories1 9 :i* ! consequ5ces ( ! !ory 7 habitually comp>$ ) ! results ( obs]vation4 ,& to facilitate ?is comp>ison1 ,tables ( great ext5t h be5 calculat$1 ) imm5se lab\r1 f ea* !ory1 %[+ ! place :i* ! #bce !ory assign$ to ! heav5ly bodies at successive times2 & ?us1 z x 71 *all5g+ nature to d5y ! tru? ( ! discov]y4 ,9 ?is way1 z ,i h else:]e /at$1 ! cont9u$ preval5ce ( an err\r 9 ! sy/ematic p>ts ( a/ronomy is impossible#dic4 ,an err\r1 if x arise1 makes its way into ! tables1 into ! ephem]is1 into ! obs]v]'s nightly li/1 or 8 %eet ( r$uctions2 ! evid5ce ( s5se flies 9 its face 9 a ?\s& ,obs]vatories2 ! discrepancy is trac$ to its s\rce1 & soon disappe>s = ev]4 ,note #dic3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 vii4 c4 vi4 sect4 #f4 #c4 ,9 ^! la/ expressions1 we suppose ! !ory1 n only to be te/$1 b also to be correct$ :5 x is f\nd to be imp]fect4 ,& ?is also is "p ( ! bus9ess ( ! obs]v+ a/ronom]4 ,f 8 accumulat$ obs]vations1 he d$uces m exact values ?an _h previ\sly be5 obta9$1 ( ! ,con/ants or ,coeffici5ts ( ^! ,inequalities ( :i* ! ,argum5t is already kn[n4 ,?is he is enabl$ to d by ! me?ods expla9$ 9 ! fif? *apt] ( ?is book2 ! ,me?od ( ,means1 & especially ! ,me?od ( ,lea/ ,squ>es4 ,9 o!r cases1 he f9ds1 by ! ,me?od ( ,residues1 "s new ,inequality2 = if no *ange ( ! ,coeffici5ts w br+ ! ,tables & ! obs]vation to a co9cid5ce1 he kn[s t a new ,t]m is want+ 9 8 =mula4 ,he obta9s1 z f> z he c1 ! law ( ?is unkn[n ,t]m2 & :5 its exi/5ce & its law h be5 fully e/abli%$1 !re rema9s ! task ( trac+ x to its cause4 #d4 ,! condition ( ! sci5ce ( ,a/ronomy1 ) reg>d to its security & prospect ( progress1 is "o ( s+ul> felicity4 ,x is a "q well wor? our consid]ation1 z reg>d+ ! int]e/s ( sci5ce1 :e!r1 9 o!r bran*es ( k also1 a cont9u$ & correct$ sy/em1 ( obs]vation & calculation1 imitat+ ! sy/em employ$ by a/ronom]s1 might n be adopt$4 ,b ! discussion ( ?is "q w\ld involve u 9 a digression too wide = ! pres5t occasion4 #bcf #e4 ,!re is ano!r mode ( application ( true !ories aft] _! discov]y1 ( :i* we mu/ also speak2 ,i mean ! process ( %[+ t facts1 n includ$ 9 ! orig9al induction1 & app>5tly ( a diff]5t k9d1 are expla9$ by reason+s f\nd$ ^u ! !ory3--ext5sions ( ! !ory z we may call !m4 ,! hi/ory ( physical a/ronomy is full ( su* ev5ts4 ,?us aft] ,bradley & ,w>g5t9 _h obs]v$ a c]ta9 cycle among ! p]turbations ( ,jupit]'s satellites1 ,laplace expla9$ ?is cycle by ! doctr9e ( univ]sal gravitation#ejc4 ,! long inequality ( ,jupit] & ,saturn1 ! dim9ution ( ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic1 ! accel]ation ( ! moon's mean motion1 7 9 l mann] acc\nt$ = by ,laplace4 ,! co9cid5ce ( ! nodes ( ! moon's equator ) ^? ( h] orbit 0 prov$ to result f me*anical pr9ciples by ,lagrange4 ,! motions ( ! rec5tly-discov]$ planets1 & ( comets1 %[n by v>i\s ma!maticians to be 9 exact accordance ) ! !ory1 are ,v]ifications & ,ext5sions /ill m obvi\s4 ,note #ejc3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 vii4 c4 iv4 sect4 #c4 #f4 ,9 _m ( ! cases j notic$1 ! consi/5cy betwe5 ! !ory1 & ! consequ5ces ?us prov$ to result f x1 is s f> f be+ evid5t1 t ! mo/ consummate comm& ( all ! p[]s & aids ( ma!matical reason+ is ne$$1 to enable ! philosoph] to arrive at ! result4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is circum/ance1 ! lab\rs j ref]r$ to1 ( ,laplace1 ,lagrange1 & o!rs1 h be5 ! object ( v great & v j admiration4 ,moreov]1 ! necess>y connexion ( new facts1 at fir/ deem$ inexplicable1 ) pr9ciples already kn[n to be true2--a connexion utt]ly invisible at ! outset1 & yet at la/ e/abli%$ ) ! c]ta9ty ( demon/ration2--/rikes u ) ! delight ( a new discov]y2 & at fir/ sight appe>s no less admirable ?an an orig9al induction4 ,accord+ly1 m5 sometimes appe> tempt$ to consid] ,laplace & o!r great ma!maticians z p]sons ( a k9dr$ g5ius to ,newton4 ,we mu/ n #bcg =get1 h[ev]1 t !re is a great & ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 inductive & d$uctive processes ( ! m9d4 ,! discov]y ( a new !ory1 :i* is true1 is a /ep widely di/9ct f any m]e developm5t ( ! consequ5ces ( a !ory already inv5t$ & e/abli%$4 #g4 ,9 ! o!r sci5ces also1 :i* h be5 fram$ by a /udy ( natural ph5om5a1 we may f9d examples ( ! explanation ( new ph5om5a by apply+ ! pr9ciples ( ! sci5ce :5 once e/abli%$4 ,?us1 :5 ! laws ( ! reflection & refraction ( light _h be5 e/abli%$1 a new & poignant exemplification ( !m 0 f\nd 9 ! explanation ( ! ,ra9b[ by ! reflection & refraction ( light 9 ! sph]ical drops ( a %[]2 & aga91 ano!r1 no less /rik+1 :5 ! int]sect+ ,lum9\s ,circles & ,mock ,suns1 :i* are se5 9 cold seasons1 7 completely expla9$ by ! hexagonal cry/als ( ice :i* float 9 ! upp] regions ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! ,d>kness ( ! space betwe5 ! prim>y & second>y ra9b[ is ano!r appe>ance :i* optical !ory completely expla9s4 ,& :5 we fur!r include 9 our optical !ory ! doctr9e ( int]f]5ces1 we f9d ! explanation ( o!r ph5om5a2 = in/ance1 ! ,sup]num]>y ,ra9b[s :i* accompany ! prim>y ra9b[ on its inn] side1 & ! small ,halos :i* (t5 surr\nd ! sun & moon4 ,& :5 we come to optical exp]im5ts1 we f9d _m in/ances 9 :i* ! doctr9e ( int]f]5ces & ( undulations h be5 appli$ to expla9 ! ph5om5a by calculations almo/ z complex z ^? :i* we h m5tion$ 9 speak+ ( a/ronomy3 ) results z little =ese5 at fir/ & z entirely satisfactory 9 ! end4 ,su* are ,s*w]dt's explanation ( ! diffract$ images ( a triangul> ap]ture by ! doctr9e ( int]f]5ces1 & ! explanation ( ! col\r$ ,lemniscates se5 by pol>iz$ light 9 biaxal cry/als1 giv5 by ,"y & by ,h]s*el3 & /ill m m>k$ is ano!r case1 9 :i* ! curves are unsymmetrical1 namely1 ! curves se5 by pass+ pol>iz$ #bch light ?r\gh plates ( qu>tz1 :i* agree 9 a wond]ful mann] ) ! calculations ( ,airy4 ,to ^! we may add ! curi\s ph5om5a1 & equally curi\s ma!matical explanation1 ( ,conical ,refraction1 z br\ght to view by ,pr(essor ,lloyd & ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton4 ,inde$1 ! :ole hi/ory bo? ( ,physical ,optics & ( ,physical ,a/ronomy is a s]ies ( felicities ( ?is k9d1 z we h else:]e obs]v$4 ,su* applications ( !ory1 & un=ese5 explanations ( new facts by complicat$ tra9s ( reason+ necess>ily fl[+ f ! !ory1 are /rong pro( ( ! tru? ( ! !ory1 :ile x is 9 ! c\rse ( be+ e/abli%$2 b we are "h r speak+ ( !m z applications ( ! !ory aft] x has be5 e/abli%$4 ,^? :o ?us apply pr9ciples already discov]$ are n to be rank$ 9 _! intellectual a*ievem5ts ) ^? :o discov] new pr9ciples2 b /ill1 :5 su* applications are mask$ by ! complex relations ( space & numb]1 x is impossible n to reg>d ) admiration ! cle>ness & activity ( intellect :i* ?us disc]ns 9 a remote region ! rays ( a c5tral tru? already unveil$ by "s great discov]]4 #h4 ,z examples 9 o!r fields ( ! application ( a sci5tific discov]y to ! explanation ( natural ph5om5a1 we may take ! id5tification ( ,lightn+ ) electricity by ,frankl91 & ! explanation ( ,dew by ,wells4 ,= ,wells's ,inquiry into ! ,cause ( ,dew1 ?\gh x has sometimes be5 prais$ z an orig9al discov]y1 01 9 fact1 only resolv+ ! ph5om5on into pr9ciples already discov]$4 ,! atmologi/s ( ! la/ c5tury 7 aw>e#eac t ! vap\r :i* exi/s 9 air 9 an invisible /ate may be cond5s$ into wat] by cold2 & !y _h notic$ t !re is always a c]ta9 temp]ature1 l[] ?an t ( ! atmosph]e1 to :i* if we depress bodies1 wat] =ms ^u !m 9 f9e drops4 ,?is temp]ature is ! limit ( t :i* is #bci necess>y to con/itute vap\r1 & is h5ce call$ ! con/itu5t temp]ature4 ,b ^! pr9ciples 7 n g5]ally famili> 9 ,engl& till ,dr4 ,wells introduc$ !m into 8 ,essay on ,dew1 publi%$ 9 #ahad2 hav+ inde$ be5 9 a great measure l$ to !m by 8 own exp]im5ts & reason+s4 ,8 explanation ( ,dew1--t x arises f ! coldness ( ! bodies on :i* x settles1--0 e/abli%$ ) great +5uity2 & is a v elegant confirmation ( ! ,!ory ( ,con/itu5t ,temp]ature4 ,note #eac3;,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 x4 c4 iii4 sect4 #e4 #i4 ,z o!r examples ( su* explanations ( new ph5om5a by a !ory1 we may po9t out ,ampre's ,!ory t ,magnetism is transv]se voltaic curr5ts1 appli$ to expla9 ! rotation ( a voltaic wire r\nd a magnet1 & ( a magnet r\nd a voltaic wire4 ,& aga91 9 ! same subject1 :5 x _h be5 prov$ t electricity might be conv]t$ into magnetism1 x seem$ c]ta9 t magnetism might be conv]t$ into electricity2 & accord+ly ,f>aday f\nd "u :at conditions ?is may be done2 ?\gh inde$ "h1 ! !ory r sugge/$ ! exp]im5t ?an expla9$ x :5 x _h be5 indep5d5tly obs]v$4 ,! production ( an electric sp>k by a magnet 0 a v /rik+ exemplification ( ! !ory ( ! id5tity ( ^! diff]5t pol> ag5cies4 #aj4 ,9 ,*emi/ry su* applications ( ! pr9ciples ( ! sci5ce are v frequ5t2 = x is ! *emi/'s bus9ess to acc\nt = ! innum]able *anges :i* take place 9 mat]ial sub/ances by ! effects ( mixture1 heat1 & ! l4 ,z a m>k$ in/ance ( su* an application ( ! sci5ce1 we may take ! explanation ( ! explosive =ce ( gunp[d]#ebc1 f ! conv]sion ( its mat]ials into gases4 ,9 ,m9]alogy also we h to apply ! #bdj pr9ciples ( ,*emi/ry to ! analysis ( bodies3 & ,i may m5tion1 z a case :i* at ! "t excit$ mu* notice1 ! analysis ( a m9]al call$ ,heavy ,sp>4 ,x 0 f\nd t diff]5t specim5s ( ?is m9]al diff]$ 9 _! cry/all9e angles ab\t ?ree degrees & a half2 a diff]5ce :i* 0 at v>iance ) ! m9]alogical discov]y !n rec5tly made1 ( ! con/ancy ( ! angle ( ! same sub/ance4 ,vauquel9 solv$ ?is difficulty by discov]+ t ! cry/als ) ! diff]5t angles 7 really m9]als *emically diff]5t2 ! "o k9d be+ sulphate ( b>ytes1 & ! o!r1 sulphate ( /rontian4 ,note #ebc3 ,! explanation is1 t ! =ce is due to ! sudd5 developm5t ( a l>ge volume ( nitrog5 & c>bonic acid gases1 :i* at ! ord9>y temp]ature ( ! air w\ld occupy a space equal to ab\t #cjj times ! bulk ( ! p[d] us$1 b f ! int5se heat develop$ at ! mom5t ( ! explosion1 ! dilatation am\nts to at lea/ #aejj times ! volume ( ! gunp[d] employ$4 #aa4 ,9 ?is way a sci5tific !ory1 :5 once e/abli%$1 is p]petually f9d+ new applications 9 ! ph5om5a ( nature2 & ^? :o make su* applications1 ?\gh1 z we h said1 !y c>e n to be rank$ ) ! great discov]]s :o e/abli% !ories new & true1 (t5 receive a m prompt & g5]al applause ?an great discov]]s d2 because !y h n to /ruggle ) ! p]plexity & av]s5ess :i* (t5 enc\nt] ! promulgation ( new tru?s4 #ab4 ,along ) ! v]ification & ext5sion ( sci5tific tru?s1 we are naturally l$ to consid] ! useful application ( !m4 ,! example ( all ! be/ writ]s :o h previ\sly treat$ ( ! philosophy ( sci5ces1 f ,bacon to ,h]s*el1 draws our att5tion to ^? in/ances ( ! application ( sci5tific tru?s1 :i* are subs]vi5t to ! uses ( practical life2 to ! support1 ! safety1 ! pleasure ( man4 ,x is well kn[n 9 h[ l>ge a degree ! fur!rance ( ^! objects con/itut$ ! m]it ( ! ,novum ,organon 9 ! eyes ( its au?or2 & ! en?usiasm ) :i* m5 reg>d ^! visible & tangible manife/ations ( ! p[] & advantage :i* k may br+1 has gone on increas+ up to our own day4 ,& und\bt$ly su* applications ( ! discov]ies ( sci5ce to promote ! pres]vation1 com=t1 p[] & dignity ( man1 mu/ always be objects ( great philosophical z well z practical int]e/4 ,yet we may obs]ve t ^? #bda practical inv5tions :i* are ( mo/ importance 9 ! ,arts1 h n commonly1 9 ! pa/ ages ( ! _w1 be5 ! results ( !oretical k1 nor h !y t5d$ v greatly to ! promotion ( su* k4 ,! use ( bread & ( w9e has exi/$ f ! fir/ beg9n+ ( man's social hi/ory2 yet m5 h n _h--we may "q :e!r !y yet h--a satisfactory !ory ( ! con/itution & fabrication ( bread & ( w9e4 ,f a v e>ly p]iod !re h be5 work]s 9 metal3 yet :o c\ld tell ^u :at pr9ciples dep5d$ ! purify+ ( gold & silv] by ! fire1 or ! diff]5ce betwe5 iron & /eel8 ,9 "s cases1 z 9 ! /ory ( ! brass produc$ by ! ,cor9?ian conflagration1 "s p>ticul> /ep 9 art is ascrib$ to a special accid5t2 b h>dly ev] to ! ?\ghtful activity ( a sci5tific speculator4 ,! ,dye+ ( clo?s1 ! fabrication & col\r+ ( e>!nw>e & glass vessels 0 c>ri$ to a v high degree ( complet5ess2 yet :o _h any s\nd !oretical k respect+ ^! processes8 ,are n all ^! arts /ill practis$ ) a degree ( skill :i* we c h>dly or n at all surpass1 by nations :i* h1 prop]ly speak+1 no sci5ce8 ,till lately1 at lea/1 if ev5 n[ ! case be diff]5t1 ! op]ations by :i* man's com=ts1 luxuries1 & in/rum5ts 7 produc$1 7 ei!r m]e practical processes1 :i* ! arti/ practises1 b :i* ! sci5ti/ _c acc\nt =2 or1 z 9 a/ronomy & optics1 !y dep5d$ ^u a small portion only ( ! !oretical sci5ces1 & did n t5d to illu/rate1 or lead to1 any l>g] tru?s4 ,bacon m5tions z rec5t discov]ies1 :i* gave him c\rage & hope ) reg>d to ! future progress ( human k1 ! inv5tion ( gunp[d]1 glass1 & pr9t+1 ! introduction ( silk1 & ! discov]y ( ,am]ica4 ,yet :i* ( ^! c be said to h be5 ! results ( a !oretical enl>gem5t ( human k8 except p]haps ! discov]y ( ! ,new ,_w1 :i* 0 9 "s degree ! result ( ,columbus's conviction ( ! globul> =m ( ! e>?4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 0 n a rec5t1 b a v anci5t #bdb doctr9e ( all s\nd a/ronom]s4 ,& :i* ( ^! discov]ies has be5 ! cause ( a great enl>gem5t ( our !oretical k8--except any "o claims su* a m]it = ! discov]y ( pr9t+2 9 :i* s5se ! result is br\ght ab\t 9 a v indirect mann]1 9 ! same way 9 :i* ! progress ( fre$om & ( religion may be ascrib$ z consequ5ces to ! same discov]y4 ,h[ev] great or /rik+1 !n1 su* discov]ies h be51 !y h n1 g5]ally speak+1 produc$ any m>k$ advance ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we "h speak ( !m4 ,!y h increas$ man's p[]1 x may be3 t is1 8 p[] ( add+ to 8 com=ts & communicat+ ) 8 fell[-m54 ,b !y h n necess>ily or g5]ally increas$ 8 !oretical k4 ,&1 !re=e1 ) :atev] admiration we may look ^u su* discov]ies z ^!1 we are n to admire !m z /eps 9 ,inductive ,sci5ce4 ,& on ! o!r h&1 we are n to ask ( ,inductive ,sci5ce1 z a necess>y result ( h] progress1 su* additions z ^! to man's means ( enjoym5t & action4 ,x is said1 ) a feel+ ( triumph1 t ,k is ,p[]3 b 9 :atev] s5se ?is may truly be said1 we value ,k1 n because x is ,p[] b because x is ,k2 & we e/imate wrongly bo? ! nature & ! dignity ( t k9d ( sci5ce ) :i* we are "h conc]n$1 if we expect t e new advance 9 !ory w =?) h a m>ket value3--t sci5ce w m>k ! bir? ( a new ,tru? ) "s new bir?day pres5t1 su* z a s(t] /uff to wrap our limbs1 a bright] vessel to grace our table1 a new mode ( communication ) our fri5ds & ! _w1 a new in/rum5t = ! de/ruction ( our enemies1 or a new region :i* may be ! s\rce ( weal? & int]e/4 #ac4 ,yet ?\gh1 z we h said1 _m ( ! mo/ rem>kable processes :i* we reckon z ! triumphs ( ,art did n result f a previ\s progress ( ,sci5ce1 we h1 at _m po9ts ( ! hi/ory ( ,sci5ce1 applications ( new views1 to enable man to d z well #bdc z to see4 ,:5 ,ar*im$es _h obta9$ cle> views ( ! !ory ( ma*9es1 he =?) express$ !m 9 8 bold practical boa/2 ',give me :]eon to /&1 & ,i w move ! e>?4' ,& 8 ma*9es ) :i* he is said to h h&l$ ! ,roman %ips l toys1 & 8 burn+ mirrors ) :i* he is report$ to h set !m on fire1 are at lea/ possible applications ( !oretical pr9ciples4 ,:5 he saw ! wat]s ris+ 9 ! ba? z 8 body desc5d$1 & ru%$ out cry+1 ',i h f\nd ! way2' :at he _h f\nd 0 ! solution ( ! practical "q ( ! quantity ( silv] mix$ ) ! gold ( ,hi]o's cr[n4 ,b ! me*anical inv5tions ( ,h]o ( ,alex&ria1 :i* mov$ by ! =ce ( air or ( /eam1 probably involv$ no exact !oretical notions ( ! prop]ties ( air or ( /eam4 ,he devis$ a toy :i* revolv$ by ! action ( /eam2 b by ! =ce ( /eam ex]t$ 9 issu+ f an orifice1 n by its pressure or cond5sation4 ,& ! ,romans _h no arts d]iv$ f sci5ce 9 addition to ^? :i* !y inh]it$ f ! ,greeks4 ,!y built aqu$ucts1 n inde$ ?r\gh ignorance ( ! pr9ciples ( hydro/atics1 z has sometimes be5 said2 = we1 :o "k our hydro/atics1 build aqu$ucts /ill2 b _! practice exemplifi$ only ,ar*im$ean hydro/atics4 ,_! clepsydras or wat]-clocks 7 adju/$ by trial only4 ,!y us$ ar*es & vaults m copi\sly ?an ! ,greeks _h done1 b ! pr9ciple ( ! ar* appe>s1 by ! mo/ rec5t rese>*es1 to h be5 kn[n to ! ,greeks4 ,domes & gro9$ ar*es1 su* z we h 9 ! ,pan!on & 9 ! ,ba?s ( ,c>acalla1 p]haps !y inv5t$2 c]ta9ly !y practis$ !m on a noble scale4 ,yet ?is 0 r practical skill ?an !oretical k2 & x 0 pursu$ by _! successors 9 ! middle ages 9 ! same mann]1 z practical skill r ?an !oretical k4 ,?us 7 produc$ fly+ buttresses1 int]sect+ po9t$ vaults1 & ! o!r wond]s ( m$ival ar*itecture4 ,! eng9e]s ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 z ,leon>do da ,v9ci1 began to conv]t _! practical into !oretical k ( ,me*anics2 b /ill #bdd clocks & wat*es1 fly+ ma*9es & pr9t+ presses involv$ no new me*anical pr9ciple4 #ad4 ,b f ?is "t ! advances 9 ,sci5ce g5]ally produc$1 z _! result1 new inv5tions ( a practical k9d4 ,?us ! doctr9e ( ! weight ( air l$ to su* inv5tions z ! b>omet] us$ z a ,wea!r-glass1 ! ,air-pump ) its tra9 ( curi\s exp]im5ts1 ! ,div+-,bell1 ! ,balloon4 ,! telescope 0 p]haps 9 "s degree a discov]y due to accid5t1 b its pr9ciples _h be5 taught by ,rog] ,bacon1 & /ill m cle>ly by ,desc>tes4 ,newton inv5t$ a /eady !rmomet] by att5d+ to /eady laws ( nature4 ,& 9 ! case ( ! improvem5ts ( ! /eam eng9e made by ,watt1 we h an admirable example h[ sup]ior ! me?od ( improv+ ,art by ,sci5ce is1 to ! bl9d grop+s ( m]e practical habit4 ,( ?is tru?1 ! hi/ory ( mo/ ( ! useful arts 9 our "t (f]s abundant pro(s & illu/rations4 ,all improvem5ts & applications ( ! =ces & ag5cies :i* man employs = 8 purposes are n[ commonly made1 n by bl9d trial b ) ! cle>e/ !oretical z well z practical insight :i* he c obta91 into ! prop]ties ( ! ag5ts :i* he employs4 ,9 ?is way he has con/ruct$1 7us+ !ory & calculation at e /ep ( 8 con/ruction17 /eam eng9es1 /eam boats1 screw-propell]s1 locomotive eng9es1 railroads & bridges & /ructures ( all k9ds4 ,lightn+-conductors h be5 improv$ & appli$ to ! pres]vation ( build+s1 & especially ( %ips1 ) admirable effect1 by ,sir ,wm4 ,sn[ ,h>ris1 an exp]im5t] :o has /udi$ ) great c>e ! !ory ( electricity4 ,! measurem5t ( ! quantity ( oxyg51 t is1 ( vital p[]1 9 air1 has be5 taught by ,cav5di%1 & by ,dr ,ure a skilful *emi/ ( our "t4 ,me?ods = measur+ ! blea*+ p[] ( a sub/ance h be5 devis$ by em95t *emical philosoph]s1 ,gay ,lussac & ,mr ,graham4 ,davy us$ 8 discov]ies conc]n+ ! laws ( flame 9 ord] to con/ruct 8 ,safety ,lamp3--8 discov]ies conc]n+ ! galvanic #bde batt]y 9 ord] to protect %ips' bottoms f corrosion4 ,! skill$ geologi/ has repeat$ly giv5 to ^? :o 7 ab\t to dig = coal :]e x c\ld h no geological place1 advice :i* has sav$ !m f ru9\s exp5ce4 ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison1 f geological evid5ce1 decl>$ ! likelihood ( gold be+ f\nd abundantly 9 ,au/ralia1 _m ye>s be=e ! digg+s began4 ,ev5 ! subtle prop]ties ( light z %ewn 9 ! rec5t discov]ies ( its int]f]5ce & pol>ization1 h be5 appli$ to useful purposes4 ,"y inv5t$ an ,eriomet]1 an in/rum5t :i* %\ld measure ! f95ess ( ! ?reads ( wool by ! col\r$ fr+es :i* !y produce2 & sub/ances :i* x is important to di/+ui% 9 ! manufacture ( sug>1 are discrim9at$ by _! effect 9 rotat+ ! plane ( pol>ization ( light4 ,"o sub/ance has be5 t]m$ ,dextr91 f its impress+ a "r-h&$ rotation on ! plane ( pol>ization4 ,& 9 a great numb] ( ,arts & ,manufactures1 ! necessity ( a k ( !ory to ! "r conduct ( practice is famili>ly ackn[l$g$ & assum$4 ,9 ! te/+ & smelt+ ( metals1 9 ! fabrication ( soap1 ( c&les1 ( sug>2 9 ! dye+ & pr9t+ ( wooll51 l951 cotton & silk5 /uffs2 ! ma/] manufactur] has always ! sci5tific *emi/ at 8 elb[2--ei!r a 'consult+ *emi/' to :om he may apply on a special occasion1 7= su* is n[ a regul> pr(ession27 or a *emi/ :o day by day sup]9t5ds1 controls1 & improves ! processes :i* 8 workm5 daily c>ry on4 ,9 ^! cases1 ?\gh ,art long prec$$ ,sci5ce1 ,sci5ce n[ guides1 gov]ns & advances ,art4 #ae4 ,o!r ,arts & manufactures :i* h aris5 9 mod]n times h be5 new creations produc$ by ,sci5ce1 & requir+ a complete acqua9tance ) sci5tific processes to conduct !m effectually & securely4 ,su* are ! photographic ,arts1 n[ s v>i\s 9 _! =m2 beg9n+ ) ^? :i*1 f _! au?ors1 are call$ ,dagu]rotype & ,talbotype4 ,su* are ! ,arts ( ,electrotype modell+ #bdf & ,electrotype plat+4 ,su* are ! ,arts ( prep>+ fulm9at+ sub/ances2 gun-cotton2 fulm9ate ( silv]1 & ( m]cury2 & ! application ( ^? ,arts to use1 9 ! fabrication ( p]cussion-caps = guns4 ,su* is ! ,art ( ,electric ,telegraphy1 f its fir/ beg9n+ to its la/ great attempt1 ! electric cord :i* connects ,engl& & ,am]ica4 ,su* is ! ,art ( imitat+ by ! *emi/ry ( ! laboratory ! vegetable *emi/ry ( nature1 & ?us produc+ ! flav\r ( ! pe>1 ! apple1 ! p9e-apple1 ! melon1 ! qu9ce4 ,su* is ! ,art ( produc+ 9 man a tempor>y ins5sibility to pa91 :i* 0 effect$ fir/ ?r\gh ! means ( sulphuric e!r by ,dr ,jackson ( ,am]ica1 & aft]w>ds ?r\gh ! use ( *lor(orm by ,dr ,simpson ( ,ed9burgh4 ,9 ^! cases & _m o!rs ,sci5ce has end[$ man ) ,new ,arts4 ,& ?\gh ev5 9 ^! ,arts1 :i* are ?us ! la/ results ( ,sci5ce1 !re is mu* :i* ,sci5ce _c fully und]/& & expla92 /ill1 su* cases _c b be look$ ^u z notable v]ifications ( ! anticipations ( ^? :o ,9 =m] times expect$ f ! progress ( ,sci5ce a h>ve/ ( mat]ial advantages to man4 ,we mu/ n[ conclude our task by a few words on ! subject ( inductions involv+ ,ideas ult]ior to ^? already consid]$4 #bdg ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,( ,,! ,,induction ,,( ,,causes4 ,,aphorism ,,lx4 ,9 ! ,induction ( ,causes ! pr9cipal ,maxim is1 t we mu/ be c>eful to possess1 & to apply1 ) p]fect cle>ness1 ! ,fundam5tal ,idea on :i* ! ,induction dep5ds4 ,,aphorism ,,lxi4 ,! ,induction ( ,sub/ance1 ( ,=ce1 ( ,pol>ity1 g beyond m]e laws ( ph5om5a1 & may be consid]$ z ! ,induction ( ,causes4 ,,aphorism ,,lxii4 ,! ,cause ( c]ta9 ph5om5a be+ inf]r$1 we are l$ to inquire into ! ,cause ( ?is ,cause1 :i* inquiry mu/ be conduct$ 9 ! same mann] z ! previ\s "o2 & ?us we h ! ,induction ( ,ult]ior ,causes4 ,,aphorism ,,lxiii4 ,9 contemplat+ ! s]ies ( ,causes :i* are !mselves ! effects ( o!r causes1 we are necess>ily l$ to assume a ,supreme ,cause 9 ! ,ord] ( ,causation1 z we assume a ,fir/ ,cause 9 ,ord] ( ,succession4 #a4 ,,we =m]ly#ecc /at$ ! objects ( ! rese>*es ( ,sci5ce to be ,laws ( ,ph5om5a & ,causes2 & %[$ ! propriety & ! necessity ( n re/+ 9 ! =m] object1 b ext5d+ our #bdh inquiries to ! latt] also4 ,inductions1 9 :i* ph5om5a are connect$ by relations ( ,space1 ,"t1 ,numb] & ,resemblance1 belong to ! =m] class2 & ( ! ,me?ods applicable to su* ,inductions we h treat$ already4 ,9 proce$+ to ,inductions gov]n$ by any ult]ior ,ideas1 we c no long] lay d[n any ,special ,me?ods by :i* our proc$ure may be direct$4 ,a few g5]al rem>ks are all t we %all (f]4 ,note #ecc3 ,b4 ii4 c4 vii4 ,! pr9cipal ,maxim 9 su* cases ( ,induction is ! obvi\s "o3--t we mu/ be c>eful to possess & to apply1 ) p]fect cle>ness & precision1 ! ,fundam5tal ,idea on :i* ! ,induction dep5ds4 ,we may illu/rate ?is 9 a few cases4 #b4 ,induction ( ,sub/ance4--,! ,idea ( ,sub/ance#edc involves ?is axiom1 t ! weight ( ! :ole comp\nd mu/ be equal to ! weights ( ! sep>ate elem5ts1 :atev] *anges ! composition or sep>ation ( ! elem5ts may h occasion$4 ,! application ( ?is ,maxim we may t]m ! ,me?od ( ! ,balance4 ,we h se5#eec else:]e h[ ! memorable revolution 9 ,*emi/ry1 ! ov]?r[ ( ,phlogi/on1 & ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,oxyg5 ,!ory1 0 produc$ by ! application ( ?is ,me?od4 ,we h se5 too#efc t ! same ,idea leads u to ?is ,maxim2--t ,impond]able ,fluids are n to be admitt$ z *emical elem5ts ( bodies4 ,note #edc3 ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,ideas1 ,book vi4 c4 iii4 ,note #eec3 ,ibid4 b4 vi4 c4 iv4 ,note #efc3 ,ibid4 ,:e!r ^? :i* h be5 t]m$ ,impond]able ,fluids1--! suppos$ fluids :i* produce ! ph5om5a ( ,light1 ,heat1 ,electricity1 ,galvanism1 ,magnetism1--really exi/ or no1 is a "q1 n m]ely ( ! ,laws1 b ( ! ,causes ( ,ph5om5a4 ,x is1 z has already be5 %[n1 a "q :i* we _c help discuss+1 b :i* is at pres5t involv$ 9 great obscurity4 ,nor does x appe> at all likely t we %all obta9 a true view ( ! cause ( ,light1 ,heat1 & ,electricity1 till we h discov]$ precise & g5]al laws connect+ optical1 !rmotical1 & #bdi electrical ph5om5a ) ^? *emical doctr9es to :i* ! ,idea ( ,sub/ance is necess>ily appli$4 #c4 ,induction ( ,=ce4--,! inf]5ce ( ,me*anical ,=ces f ph5om5a has be5 s abundantly practis$1 t x is p]fectly famili> among sci5tific inquir]s4 ,f ! "t ( ,newton1 x has be5 ! mo/ common aim ( ma!maticians2 & a p]suasion has gr[n up among !m1 t me*anical =ces1--attraction & repulsion1--are ! only modes ( action ( ! p>ticles ( bodies :i* we %all ultimately h to consid]4 ,i h attempt$ to %[ t ?is mode ( conception is inadequate to ! purposes ( s\nd philosophy2--t ! ,p>ticles ( cry/als1 & ! ,elem5ts ( *emical comp\nds1 mu/ be suppos$ to be comb9$ 9 "s o!r way ?an by m]e me*anical attraction & repulsion4 ,dr4 ,f>aday has gone fur!r 9 %ak+ ! usual conceptions ( ! =ce ex]t$1 9 well-kn[n cases4 ,among ! mo/ not$ & conspicu\s in/ances ( attraction & repulsion ex]t$ at a di/ance1 7 ^? :i* take place betwe5 electriz$ bodies4 ,b ! em95t electrician j m5tion$ has endeav\r$ to e/abli%1 by exp]im5ts ( :i* x is v difficult to elude ! weight1 t ! action 9 ^! cases does n take place at a di/ance1 b is ! result ( a *a9 ( int]m$iate p>ticles connect$ at e po9t by =ces ( ano!r k9d4 #d4 ,induction ( ,pol>ity4--,! =ces to :i* ,dr4 ,f>aday ascribes ! action 9 ^! cases are ,pol> ,=ces#egc4 ,we h already endeav\r$ to expla9 ! ,idea ( ,pol> ,=ces2 :i* implies#ehc t at e po9t =ces exactly equal act 9 opposite directions2 & ?us1 9 ! great] "p ( _! c\rse1 neutralize & conceal ea* o!r2 :ile at ! extremities ( ! l9e1 be+ by "s cause lib]at$1 !y are manife/$1 /ill equal & opposite4 ,& ! crit]ion by :i* ?is pol> "* ( =ces is recogniz$1 is impli$ 9 ! reason+ ( ,f>aday1 on ! "q ( "o or two electricities1 ( :i* we #bej =m]ly spoke#eic4 ,! maxim is ?is3--t 9 ! action ( pol> =ces1 along ) e manife/ation ( =ce or prop]ty1 !re exi/s a correspond+ & simultane\s manife/ation ( an equal & opposite =ce or prop]ty4 ,note #egc3 ,rese>*es1 #ab? s]ies4 ,note #ehc3 ,b4 v4 c4 i4 ,note #eic3 ,book v4 c4 i4 #e4 ,z x 0 ! habit ( ! la/ age to r$uce all action to me*anical =ces1 ! pres5t race ( physical speculators appe>s incl9$ to r$uce all =ces to pol> =ces4 ,mosotti has endeav\r$ to %[ t ! positive & negative electricities p]vade all bodies1 & t gravity is only an app>5t excess ( "o ( ! k9ds ov] ! o!r4 ,z we h se51 ,f>aday has giv5 /rong exp]im5tal gr\nds = believ+ t ! suppos$ remote actions ( electriz$ bodies are really ! effects ( pol> =ces among contigu\s p>ticles4 ,if ?is doctr9e 7 e/abli%$ ) reg>d to all electrical1 magnetical1 & *emical =ces1 we might ask1 :e!r1 :ile all o!r =ces are pol>1 gravity really af=ds a s+le exception to ! univ]sal rule8 ,is n ! univ]se p]vad$ by an omnipres5t antagonism1 a fundam5tal conjunction ( contr>ies1 ev]y:]e opposite1 n[h]e indep5d5t8 ,we are1 z yet1 f> f ! position 9 :i* ,inductive ,sci5ce c enable u to answ] su* inquiries4 #f4 ,induction ( ,ult]ior ,causes4--,! fir/ ,induction ( a ,cause does n close ! bus9ess ( sci5tific inquiry4 ,beh9d proximate causes1 !re are ult]ior causes1 p]haps a succession ( su*4 ,gravity is ! cause ( ! motions ( ! planets2 b :at is ! cause ( gravity8 ,?is is a "q :i* has occupi$ m5's m9ds f ! "t ( ,newton to ! pres5t day4 ,e>?quakes & volcanoes are ! causes ( _m geological ph5om5a2 b :at is ! cause ( ^? subt]rane\s op]ations8 ,?is inquiry aft] ult]ior causes is an inevitable result f ! intellectual con/itution ( man4 ,he discov]s me*anical causes1 b he _c re/ 9 !m4 ,he mu/ ne$s ask1 :5ce x is t matt] has its univ]sal p[] ( attract+ matt]4 ,he discov]s pol> =ces3 b ev5 #bea if ^! be univ]sal1 he /ill desires a fur!r insight into ! cause ( ?is pol>ity4 ,he sees1 9 organic /ructures1 conv9c+ m>ks ( adaptation to an end3 :5ce1 he asks1 is ?is adaptation8 ,he traces 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>? a *a9 ( causes & effects op]at+ ?r\gh "t3 b :at1 he inquires1 is ! p[] :i* holds ! end ( ?is *a98 ,?us we are ref]r$ back f /ep to /ep 9 ! ord] ( causation1 9 ! same1 mann] z1 9 ! paltiological sci5ces1 we 7 ref]r$ back 9 ! ord] ( "t4 ,we make discov]y aft] discov]y 9 ! v>i\s regions ( sci5ce2 ea*1 x may be1 satisfactory1 & 9 itself complete1 b none f9al4 ,some?+ always rema9s undone4 ,! la/ "q answ]$1 ! answ] sugge/s /ill ano!r "q4 ,! /ra9 ( music f ! lyre ( ,sci5ce fl[s on1 ri* & sweet1 full & h>moni\s1 b nev] rea*es a close3 no cad5ce is he>d ) :i* ! intellectual e> c feel satisfi$4 ,( ! ,supreme ,cause4--,9 ! utt]ance ( ,sci5ce1 no cad5ce is he>d ) :i* ! human m9d c feel satisfi$4 ,yet we _c b g on li/5+ = & expect+ a satisfactory close4 ,! notion ( a cad5ce appe>s to be ess5tial to our reli% ( ! music4 ,! idea ( "s clos+ /ra9 seems to lurk among our own ?\ghts1 wait+ to be articulat$ 9 ! notes :i* fl[ f ! k ( ext]nal nature4 ,! idea ( some?+ ultimate 9 our philosophical rese>*es1 some?+ 9 :i* ! m9d c acquiesce1 & :i* w leave u no fur!r que/ions to ask1 ( :5ce1 & :y1 & by :at p[]1 seems z if x belongs to u3--z if we c\ld n h x )held f u by any imp]fection or incomplet5ess 9 ! actual p]=mances ( sci5ce4 ,:at is ! mean+ ( ?is conviction8 ,:at is ! reality ?us anticipat$8 ,:i!r does ! developem5t ( ?is ,idea conduct u8 ,we h already se5 t a difficulty ( ! same k9d1 :i* arises 9 ! contemplation ( causes & effects consid]$ z =m+ an hi/orical s]ies1 drives u to ! assumption ( a ,fir/ ,cause1 z an ,axiom #beb to :i* our ,idea ( ,causation 9 "t necess>ily leads4 ,& z we 7 ?us guid$ to a ,fir/ ,cause1 9 ord] ( ,succession1 ! same k9d ( necessity directs u to a ,supreme ,cause 9 ord] ( ,causation4 ,on ?is mo/ weighty subject x is difficult to speak fitly2 & ! pres5t is n ! prop] occasion1 ev5 = mo/ ( t :i* may be said4 ,b !re are "o or two rem>ks :i* fl[ f ! g5]al tra9 ( ! contemplations we h be5 engag$ 91 & ) :i* ?is ,"w mu/ conclude4 ,we h se5 h[ diff]5t are ! k9ds ( cause to :i* we are l$ by sci5tific rese>*es4 ,me*anical ,=ces are insuffici5t )\t ,*emical ,aff9ities2 ,*emical ,ag5cies fail u1 & we are compell$ to h rec\rse to ,vital ,p[]s2 ,vital ,p[]s _c be m]ely physical1 & we mu/ believe 9 some?+ hyp]physical1 some?+ ( ! nature ( a ,s\l4 ,n only d biological inquiries lead u to assume an animal s\l1 b !y drive u mu* fur!r2 !y br+ be=e u ,p]ception1 & ,w evok$ by ,p]ception4 ,/ill m1 ^! inquiries disclose to u ,ideas z ! necess>y =ms ( ,p]ception1 9 ! actions ( :i* we ourselves are consci\s4 ,we are aw>e1 we _c help be+ aw>e1 ( our ,ideas & our ,volitions z belong+ to u1 & ?us we pass f ?+s to p]sons2 we h ! idea ( ,p]sonality awak5$4 ,& ! idea ( ,design & ,purpose1 ( :i* we are consci\s 9 our own m9ds1 we f9d reflect$ back to u1 ) a di/9ctness :i* we _c ov]look1 9 all ! arrangem5ts :i* con/itute ! frame ( organiz$ be+s4 ,we _c b reflect h[ widely div]se are ! k9ds ( pr9ciples ?us set be=e u2--by :at va/ /rides we m\nt f ! l[] to ! high]1 z we proce$ ?r\gh t s]ies ( causes :i* ! range ( ! sci5ces ?us br+s "u our notice4 ,yet we "k h[ n>r[ is ! range ( ^! sci5ces :5 comp>$ ) ! :ole ext5t ( human k4 ,we _c d\bt t on _m o!r subjects1 besides ^? includ$ 9 physical speculation1 man has made out solid & satisfactory tra9s ( #bec connexion2--has discov]$ cle> & indisputable evid5ce ( causation4 ,x is manife/1 !re=e1 t1 if we are to attempt to asc5d to ! ,supreme ,cause--if we are to try to frame an idea ( ! ,cause ( all ^! subord9ate causes2--we mu/ conceive x z m diff]5t f any ( !m1 ?an ! mo/ div]se are f ea* o!r2--m elevat$ above ! highe/1 ?an ! highe/ is above ! l[e/4 ,b fur!r2--?\gh ! ,supreme ,cause mu/ ?us be inconceivably diff]5t f all subord9ate causes1 & immeasurably elevat$ above !m all1 x mu/ /ill include 9 itself all t is ess5tial to ea* ( !m1 by virtue ( t v circum/ance t x is ! ,cause ( _! ,causality4 ,"t & ,space1--,inf9ite ,"t & ,inf9ite ,space1--mu/ be among its attributes2 = we _c b conceive ,inf9ite ,"t & ,space z attributes ( ! ,inf9ite ,cause ( ! univ]se4 ,=ce & ,matt] mu/ dep5d ^u x = _! efficacy2 = we _c conceive ! activity ( ,=ce1 or ! resi/ance ( ,matt]1 to be indep5d5t p[]s4 ,b ^! are its l[] attributes4 ,! ,vital ,p[]s1 ! ,animal ,s\l1 :i* are ! ,causes ( ! actions ( liv+ ?+s1 are only ! ,effects ( ! ,supreme ,cause ( ,life4 ,& ?is ,cause1 ev5 9 ! l[e/ =ms ( organiz$ bodies1 & /ill m 9 ^? :i* /& high] 9 ! scale1 involves a ref]5ce to ,ends & ,purposes1 9 %ort1 to manife/ ,f9al ,causes4 ,s9ce ?is is s1 & s9ce1 ev5 :5 we contemplate ourselves 9 a view /udi\sly n>r[$1 we /ill f9d t we h ,ideas1 & ,w & ,p]sonality1 x w\ld r5d] our philosophy utt]ly incoh]5t & inconsi/5t ) itself1 to suppose t ,p]sonality1 & ,ideas1 & ,w1 & ,purpose1 d n belong to ! ,supreme ,cause f :i* we d]ive all t we h & all t we are4 ,b we may g a /ep fur!r2--?\gh1 9 our pres5t field ( speculation1 we conf9e ourselves to k f\nd$ on ! facts :i* ! ext]nal _w pres5ts to u1 we _c =get1 9 speak+ ( su* a !me z t to :i* we h ?us be5 l$1 t ^! are b a small1 & ! lea/ significant #bed portion ( ! facts :i* be> ^u x4 ,we _c fail to recollect t !re are facts belong+ to ! _w )9 u1 :i* m readily & /rongly direct our ?\ghts to ! ,supreme ,cause ( all ?+s4 ,we c pla9ly disc]n t we h ,ideas elevat$ above ! region ( me*anical causation1 ( animal exi/5ce1 ev5 ( m]e *oice & w1 :i* /ill h a cle> & def9ite significance1 a p]man5t & inde/ructible validity4 ,we p]ceive z a fact1 t we h a ,consci5ce1 judg+ ( ,"r & ,wrong2 t we h ,ideas ( ,moral ,good & ,evil1 t we are compell$ to conceive ! organization ( ! moral _w1 z well z ( ! vital frame1 to be direct$ to an end & gov]n$ by a purpose4 ,& s9ce ! ,supreme ,cause is ! cause ( ^! facts1 ! ,orig9 ( ^! ,ideas1 we _c refuse to recognize ,him z n only ! ,mak]1 b ! ,gov]nor ( ! ,_w2 z n only a ,creative1 b a ,provid5tial ,p[]2 z n only a ,univ]sal ,fa!r1 b an ,ultimate ,judge4 ,we h already pass$ beyond ! b\nd>y ( ^? speculations :i* we propos$ to ourselves z ! basis ( our conclusions4 ,yet we may be all[$ to add "o o!r reflection4 ,if we f9d 9 ourselves ,ideas ( ,good & ,evil1 manife/ly be/[$ ^u u to be ! guides ( our conduct1 :i* guides we yet f9d x impossible consi/5tly to obey2--if we f9d ourselves direct$1 ev5 by our natural light1 to aim at a p]fection ( our moral nature f :i* we are con/antly deviat+ ?r\gh weakness & p]v]s5ess2 if1 :5 we ?us lapse & err1 we c f9d1 9 ! region ( human philosophy1 no p[] :i* c efface our ab]rations1 or reconcile our actual ) our ideal be+1 or give u any /eady hope & tru/ ) reg>d to our actions1 aft] we h ?us discov]$ _! incongruity ) _! g5u9e /&>d2--if we disc]n t ?is is our condition1 h[ c we fail to see t x is 9 ! highe/ degree consi/5t ) all ! indications suppli$ by su* a philosophy z t ( :i* we h be5 attempt+ to lay ! f\ndations1 t ! ,supreme ,cause1 ?r\gh :om man exi/s z #bee a moral be+ ( va/ capacities & inf9ite ,hopes1 %\ld h ,himself provid$ a tea*+ = our ignorance1 a propitiation = our s91 a support = our weakness1 a purification & sanctification ( our nature8 ,& ?us1 9 conclud+ our long survey ( ! gr\nds & /ructure ( sci5ce1 & ( ! lessons :i* ! /udy ( x tea*es u1 we f9d ourselves br\ght to a po9t ( view 9 :i* we c cordially sympa?ize1 & m ?an sympa?ize1 ) all ! l(tie/ expressions ( admiration & rev]5ce & hope & tru/1 :i* h be5 utt]$ by ^? :o 9 =m] times h spok5 ( ! elevat$ ?\ghts to :i* ! contemplation ( ! nature & progress ( human k gives rise4 ,we c n only hold ) ,gal51 & ,h>vey1 & all ! great physiologi/s1 t ! organs ( animals give evid5ce ( a purpose2--n only ass]t ) ,cuvi] t ?is conviction ( a purpose c alone enable u to und]/& e "p ( e liv+ ?+2--n only say ) ,newton t 'e true /ep made 9 philosophy br+s u ne>] to ! ,fir/ ,cause1 & is on t acc\nt highly to be valu$2'--& t '! bus9ess ( natural philosophy is to d$uce causes f effects1 till we come to ! v ,fir/ ,cause1 :i* c]ta9ly is n me*anical2'--b we c g mu* f>!r1 & decl>e1 /ill ) ,newton1 t '?is beautiful sy/em c\ld h its orig9 no o!r way ?an by ! purpose & comm& ( an intellig5t & p[]ful ,be+1 :o gov]ns all ?+s1 n z ! s\l ( ! _w1 b z ! ,"l ( ! ,univ]se2 :o is n only ,god1 b ,"l & ,gov]nor4' ,:5 we h advanc$ s f>1 !re yet rema9s "o /ep4 ,we may recollect ! pray] ( "o1 ! ma/] 9 ?is s*ool ( ! philosophy ( sci5ce3 ',?is also we humbly & e>ne/ly beg2--t human ?+s may n prejudice su* z are div9e2--nei!r t f ! unlock+ ( ! gates ( s5se1 & ! k9dl+ ( a great] natural light1 any?+ may arise ( incr$ulity or intellectual night t[>ds div9e my/]ies2 b r t by our m9ds ?or\ghly #bef purg$ & cleans$ f fancy & vanity1 & yet subject & p]fectly giv5 up to ! div9e oracles1 !re may be giv5 unto fai? ! ?+s t are fai?'s4' ,:5 we are ?us prep>$ = a high] tea*+1 we may be ready to li/5 to a great] ?an ,bacon1 :5 he says to ^? :o h s\ght _! ,god 9 ! mat]ial univ]se1 ',:om ye ignorantly wor%ip1 him decl>e ,i unto y4' ,& :5 we recollect h[ utt]ly inadequate all human language has be5 %[n to be1 to express ! nature ( t ,supreme ,cause ( ! ,natural1 & ,rational1 & ,moral1 & ,spiritual _w1 to :i* our ,philosophy po9ts ) trembl+ f+] & %ad$ eyes1 we may receive1 ) ! less wond] b ) ! m rev]5ce1 ! decl>ation :i* has be5 v\*saf$ to u3 ,a 1 ,i 1 ,i 4 #beg ,,novum ,,organon ,,r5ovatum4 ,,book ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,language ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,,introduction4 ,,x has be5 %[n 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ces1 & has fur!r appe>$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,ideas1 t almo/ e /ep 9 ! progress ( sci5ce is m>k$ by ! =mation or appropriation ( a te*nical t]m4 ,common language has1 9 mo/ cases1 a c]ta9 degree ( loos5ess & ambiguity2 z common k has usually some?+ ( vagu5ess & indi/9ctness4 ,9 common cases too1 k usually does n occupy ! intellect alone1 b m or less int]e/s "s affection1 or puts 9 action ! fancy2 & common language1 accommodat+ itself to ! (fice ( express+ su* k1 conta9s1 9 e s5t5ce1 a t+e ( emotion or ( imag9ation4 ,b :5 our k becomes p]fectly exact & purely intellectual1 we require a language :i* %all also be exact & intellectual2--:i* %all exclude alike vagu5ess & fancy1 imp]fection & sup]fluity2--9 :i* ea* t]m %all convey a mean+ /eadily fix$ & rigor\sly limit$4 ,su* a language t ( sci5ce becomes1 ?r\gh ! use ( ,te*nical ,t]ms4 ,& we mu/ n[ endeav\r to lay d[n "s maxims & sugge/ions1 by att5tion to :i* ,te*nical ,t]ms may be bett] fitt$ to answ] _! purpose4 ,9 ord] to d ?is1 we %all 9 #beh ! fir/ place take a rapid survey ( ! mann] 9 :i* ,te*nical ,t]ms h be5 employ$ f ! e>lie/ p]iods ( sci5tific hi/ory4 ,! progress ( ! use ( te*nical sci5tific language (f]s to our notice two diff]5t & successive p]iods2 9 ! fir/ ( :i*1 te*nical t]ms 7 =m$ casually1 z conv5i5ce 9 ea* case prompt$2 :ile 9 ! second p]iod1 te*nical language 0 con/ruct$ int5tionally1 ) set purpose1 ) a reg>d to its connexion1 & ) a view ( con/ruct+ a sy/em4 ,?\gh ! casual & ! sy/ematic =mation ( te*nical t]ms _c be sep>at$ by any precise date ( "t1 7= at all p]iods "s t]ms 9 "s sci5ces h be5 fram$ unsy/ematically17 we may1 z a g5]al description1 call ! =m] ! ,anci5t & ! latt] ! ,mod]n ,p]iod4 ,9 illu/rat+ ! two foll[+ ,aphorisms1 ,i w give examples ( ! c\rse foll[$ 9 ea* ( ^! p]iods4 ,,aphorism ,i4 ,9 ! ,anci5t ,p]iod ( ,sci5ces1 ,te*nical ,t]ms 7 =m$ 9 ?ree diff]5t ways3--by appropriat+ common words & fix+ _! mean+2--by con/ruct+ t]ms conta9+ a description2--by con/ruct+ t]ms conta9+ ref]5ce to a !ory4 ,,! e>lie/ sci5ces (f] ! e>lie/ examples ( te*nical t]ms4 ,^! are ,geometry1 ,ari?metic1 & ,a/ronomy2 to :i* we h soon aft] to add ,h>monics1 ,me*anics1 & ,optics4 ,9 ^! sci5ces1 we may notice ! above-m5tion$ ?ree diff]5t modes 9 :i* te*nical t]ms 7 =m$4 ,i4 ,! simple/ & fir/ mode ( acquir+ te*nical t]ms1 is to take words curr5t 9 common usage1 & by rigor\sly def9+ or o!rwise fix+ _! mean+1 to fit !m = ! expression ( sci5tific tru?s4 ,9 ?is mann] almo/ all ! fundam5tal te*nical t]ms ( ,geometry 7 =m$4 ,a sph]e1 a cone1 a cyl9d]1 _h among ! ,greeks1 at fir/1 #bei mean+s less precise ?an ^? :i* geomet]s gave to ^! words1 & besides ! m]e designation ( =m1 impli$ "s use or application4 ,a sph]e 77 0 a h&-ball us$ 9 games2 a cone 77 0 a boy's sp9n+-top1 or ! cre/ ( a helmet2 a cyl9d] 77 0 a roll]2 a cube 77 0 a die3 till ^! words 7 adopt$ by ! geomet]s1 & made to signify among !m pure modifications ( space4 ,s an angle 77 0 only a corn]2 a po9t 77 0 a signal2 a l9e 77 0 a m>k2 a /raight l9e 77 0 m>k$ by an adjective :i* at fir/ meant only direct4 ,a plane 77 is ! neut] =m ( an adjective1 :i* by its d]ivation means on ! gr\nd1 & h5ce flat4 ,9 all ^! cases1 ! ^w adopt$ z a t]m ( sci5ce has its s5se rigor\sly fix$2 & :]e ! common use ( ! t]m is 9 any degree vague1 its mean+ may be modifi$ at ! same "t t x is ?us limit$4 ,?us a rhombus 77 by its d]ivation1 might mean any figure :i* is twi/$ out ( a regul> =m2 b x is conf9$ by geomet]s to t figure :i* has f\r equal sides1 its angles be+ oblique4 ,9 l mann]1 a trapezium 77 orig9ally signifies a table1 & ?us might d5ote any =m2 b z ! tables ( ! ,greeks _h "o side %ort] ?an ! opposite "o1 su* a figure 0 at fir/ call$ a trapezium4 ,aft]w>ds ! t]m 0 made to signify any figure ) f\r unequal sides2 a "n be+ m ne$ful 9 geometry = ?is k9d ( figure ?an = ! orig9al =m4 ,?is class ( te*nical t]ms1 namely1 words adopt$ f common language1 b r5d]$ precise & det]m9ate = purposes ( sci5ce1 may also be exemplifi$ 9 o!r sci5ces4 ,?us1 z 0 obs]v$ 9 ! e>ly portion ( ! hi/ory ( a/ronomy#ad1 a day1 a mon?1 a ye>1 describ$ at fir/ portions ( "t m>k$ by famili> *anges1 b aft]w>ds portions det]m9$ by rigor\s ma!matical def9itions4 ,! conception ( ! heav5s z a revolv+ sph]e1 is s obvi\s1 #bfj t we may consid] ! t]ms :i* involve ?is conception z p>ts ( common language2 z ! pole 772 ! arctic circle1 :i* includes ! />s t nev] set#bd2 ! horizon 77 a b\nd>y1 appli$ te*nically to ! circle b\nd+ ! visible e>? & sky4 ,! turn+s ( ! sun 7 71 :i* are m5tion$ by ,hesiod1 gave occasion to ! t]m tropics1 ! circles at :i* ! sun 9 8 annual motion turns back f 8 nor?w>d or s\?w>d advance4 ,! zones ( ! e>?1 7! torrid1 temp]ate1 & frigid27 ! gnomon ( a dial2 ! limb 7or bord]7 ( ! moon1 or ( a circul> in/rum5t1 are t]ms ( ! same class4 ,an eclipse 77 is orig9ally a defici5cy or disappe>ance1 & jo9$ ) ! "n ( ! lum9>y1 an eclipse ( ! sun or ( ! moon1 describ$ ! ph5om5on2 b :5 ! t]m became te*nical1 x suffic$1 )\t addition1 to designate ! ph5om5on4 ,note #ad3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sci4 b4 iii4 c4 i4 ,note #bd3 ,hi/4 ,a/4 b4 iii4 c4 i4 sect4 #h4 ,9 ,me*anics1 ! ,greeks gave a sci5tific precision to v few words3 we may m5tion weights 771 ! arms ( a lev] 771 its fulcrum 771 & ! v]b to balance 774 ,o!r t]ms :i* !y us$1 z mom5tum 77 & =ce 771 did n acquire a di/9ct & def9ite mean+ till ! "t ( ,galileo1 or lat]4 ,we may obs]ve t all ab/ract t]ms1 ?\gh 9 _! sci5tific application express+ m]e conceptions1 7 probably at fir/ d]iv$ f "s ^w describ+ ext]nal objects4 ,?us ! ,lat9 ^w = =ce1 vis1 seems to be connect$ ) a ,greek ^w1 1 or 1 :i* (t5 has ne>ly ! same mean+2 b orig9ally1 z x w\ld seem1 signifi$ a s9ew or muscle1 ! obvi\s seat ( animal /r5g?4 ,9 lat] times1 ! limitation impos$ ^u a ^w by its appropriation to sci5tific purposes1 is (t5 m m>k$ ?an 9 ! cases above describ$4 ,?us ! v>iation is made to mean1 9 a/ronomy1 ! second inequality ( ! moon's motion2 9 magnetism1 ! v>iation signifies ! angul> deviation ( ! #bfa compass-ne$le f ! nor?2 9 pure ma!matics1 ! v>iation ( a quantity is ! =mula :i* expresses ! result ( any small *ange ( ! mo/ g5]al k9d4 ,9 l mann]1 p>allax 77 d5otes a *ange 9 g5]al1 b is us$ by a/ronom]s to signify ! *ange produc$ by ! spectator's be+ remov$ f ! c5t] ( ! e>?1 8 !oretical place1 to ! surface4 ,alkali at fir/ d5ot$ ! a%es ( a p>ticul> plant1 b aft]w>ds1 all bodies hav+ a c]ta9 class ( *emical prop]ties2 &1 9 l mann]1 acid1 ! class oppos$ to alkali1 0 modifi$ 9 signification by *emi/s1 s z to ref] no long] to ! ta/e4 ,words ?us borr[$ f common language1 & conv]t$ by sci5tific writ]s into te*nical t]ms1 h "s advantages & "s disadvantages4 ,!y possess ?is great conv5i5ce1 t !y are und]/ood aft] a v %ort explanation1 & reta9$ 9 ! memory )\t ef=t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !y lead to "s inconv5i5ce2 = s9ce !y h a mean+ 9 common language1 a c>eless read] is prone to disreg>d ! te*nical limitation ( ?is mean+1 & to attempt to collect _! import 9 sci5tific books1 9 ! same vague & conjectural mann] 9 :i* he collects ! purpose ( words 9 common cases4 ,h5ce ! language ( sci5ce1 :5 ?us resembl+ common language1 is liable to be employ$ ) an abs5ce ( t sci5tific precision :i* alone gives x value4 ,popul> writ]s & talk]s1 :5 !y speak ( =ce1 mom5tum1 action & reaction1 & ! l1 (t5 af=d examples ( ! inaccuracy ?us aris+ f ! sci5tific appropriation ( common t]ms4 ,,ii4 ,ano!r class ( te*nical t]ms1 :i* we f9d occurr+ z soon z speculative sci5ce assumes a di/9ct %ape1 consi/s ( ^? :i* are int5tionally con/ruct$ by speculators1 & :i* conta9 "s description or indication di/9ctive ( ! conception to :i* !y are appli$4 ,su* are a p>allelogram 771 :i* d5otes a plane figure b\nd$ by two pairs ( p>allel l9es2 a p>allelopip$ #bfb 771 :i* signifies a solid figure b\nd$ by ?ree pairs ( p>allel planes4 ,a triangle 71 trigon7 & a quadrangle 71 tetragon7 7 p]haps words inv5t$ indep5d5tly ( ! ma!maticians3 b su* words ext5d$ to o!r cases1 p5tagon1 decagon1 heccdecagon1 polygon1 are inv5tions ( sci5tific m54 ,su* also are tetrah$ron1 hexah$ron1 dodecah$ron1 tess]acontaoctoh$ron1 polyh$ron1 & ! l4 ,^! words be+ con/ruct$ by speculative writ]s1 expla9 !mselves1 or at lea/ require only "s conv5tional limitation1 easily adopt$4 ,?us p>allelogram1 might mean a figure b\nd$ by any numb] ( sets ( p>allel l9es1 b x is conv5tionally re/rict$ to a figure ( f\r sides4 ,s a great circle 9 a sph]e means "o :i* passes ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ! sph]e2 & a small circle is any o!r4 ,s 9 trigonometry1 we h ! hypot5use 771 or subt5d+ l9e1 to designate ! l9e subt5d+ an angle1 & especially a "r angle4 ,9 ?is bran* ( ma!matics we h _m inv5t$ te*nical t]ms2 z complem5t1 supplem5t1 cos9e1 cotang5t1 a sph]ical angle1 ! pole ( a circle1 or ( a sph]e4 ,! ^w s9e itself appe>s to belong to ! class ( t]ms already describ$ z sci5tific appropriations ( common t]ms1 al?\gh its orig9 is some:at obscure4 ,ma!maticians 7 naturally l$ to con/ruct ^! & _m o!r t]ms by ! progress ( _! speculations4 ,9 l mann]1 :5 a/ronomy took ! =m ( a speculative sci5ce1 words 7 inv5t$ to d5ote di/9ctly ! conceptions ?us introduc$4 ,?us ! sun's annual pa? among ! />s1 9 :i* n only sol>1 b also all lun> eclipses occur1 0 t]m$ ! ecliptic4 ,! circle :i* ! sun describes 9 8 diurnal motion1 :5 ! days & nights are equal1 ! ,greeks call$ ! equidiurnal 717 ! ,lat9 a/ronom]s ! equ9octial1 & ! correspond+ circle on ! e>? 0 ! equator4 ,! ecliptic int]sect$ ! equ9octial 9 ! equ9octial po9ts4 ,! sol/ices 79 ,greek1 7 7 ! times :5 ! sun arre/$ 8 motion nor?w>ds or #bfc s\?w>ds2 & ! sol/itial po9ts 7 7 7 ! places1 9 ! ecliptic :]e he !n 04 ,! "n ( m]idians 0 giv5 to circles pass+ ?r\gh ! poles ( ! equator2 ! sol/itial colure 71 curtail$71 0 "o ( ^! circles1 :i* passes ?r\gh ! sol/itial po9ts1 & is int]cept$ by ! horizon4 ,we h borr[$ f ! ,arabians v>i\s a/ronomical t]ms1 z ,z5i?1 ,nadir1 ,azimu?1 ,almacant>4 ,& ^! words1 :i* among ! ,arabians probably belong$ to ! fir/ class1 ( appropriat$ sci5tific t]ms1 are = u examples ( ! second class1 inv5t$ sci5tific t]ms2 al?\gh !y diff] f mo/ t we h m5tion$1 9 n conta9+ an etymology correspond+ to _! mean+ 9 any language ) :i* ,european cultivators ( sci5ce are g5]ally famili>4 ,inde$1 ! di/9ction ( our two classes1 ?\gh conv5i5t1 is 9 a great measure1 casual4 ,?us mo/ ( ! words we =m]ly m5tion$1 z p>allax1 horizon1 eclipse1 ?\gh appropriat$ te*nical t]ms among ! ,greeks1 are to u inv5t$ te*nical t]ms4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( su* t]ms z we are n[ consid]+1 ^? languages h a great advantage :i* possess a p[] ( =m+ words by composition4 ,?is 0 em95tly ! case ) ! ,greek language2 & h5ce mo/ ( ! anci5t t]ms ( sci5ce 9 t language1 :5 _! orig9 is once expla9$1 are cle>ly und]/ood & easily reta9$4 ,( mod]n ,european languages1 ! ,g]man possesses ! greate/ facility ( composition2 & h5ce sci5tific au?ors 9 t language are able to inv5t t]ms :i* x is impossible to imitate 9 ! o!r languages ( ,europe4 ,?us ,weiss di/+ui%es 8 v>i\s sy/ems ( cry/als z zwei-und-zwei-gli$rig1 e9-und-zwei-gli$rig1 drey-und-drey-gli$rig1 c41 7two-&-two-memb]$1 "o-&-two-memb]$1 c47 ,& ,hessel1 also a writ] on cry/allography1 speaks ( d\bly-"o-memb]$ edges1 f\r-&-?ree spac$ rays1 & ! l4 ,h[ f> ! composition ( words1 9 su* cases1 may be practis$ 9 ! ,engli% language1 & ! g5]al "q1 :at are ! be/ rules & artifices #bfd 9 su* cases1 ,i %all aft]w>ds consid]4 ,9 ! mean "t1 ,i may obs]ve t ?is li/ ( inv5t$ te*nical t]ms might easily be mu* enl>g$4 ,?us 9 h>monics we h ! v>i\s int]vals1 z a ,f\r?1 a ,fif?1 an ,octave1 7,diatess>on1 ,diap5te1 ,diapason17 a ,comma1 :i* is ! diff]5ce ( a ,major & ,m9or ,tone2 we h ! v>i\s ,moods or ,keys1 & ! notes ( v>i\s l5g?s1 z ,m9ims1 ,breves1 ,semibreves1 ,quav]s4 ,9 *emi/ry1 ,gas 0 at fir/ a te*nical t]m inv5t$ by ,van ,helmont1 ?\gh x has n[ be5 almo/ adopt$ into common language4 ,i omit _m words :i* w p]haps sugge/ !mselves to ! read]1 because !y belong r to ! next class1 :i* ,i n[ proce$ to notice4 ,,iii4 ,! ?ird class ( te*nical t]ms consi/s ( su* z are con/ruct$ by m5 ( sci5ce1 & involve "s !oretical idea 9 ! mean+ :i* _! d]ivation implies4 ,!y d n m]ely describe1 l ! class la/ spok5 (1 b describe ) ref]5ce to "s doctr9e or hypo!sis :i* is accept$ z a portion ( sci5ce4 ,?us latitude & longitude1 accord+ to _! orig91 signify bread? & l5g?2 !y are us$1 h[ev]1 to d5ote measures ( ! di/ance ( a place on ! e>?'s surface f ! equator1 & f ! fir/ m]idian1 ( :i* di/ances1 "o _c be call$ l5g? m prop]ly ?an ! o!r4 ,b ?is appropriation ( ^! words may be expla9$ by recollect+ t ! e>?1 z kn[n to ! anci5t geograph]s1 0 mu* fur!r ext5d$ f ea/ to we/ ?an f nor? to s\?4 ,! ,precession ( ! equ9oxes is a t]m :i* implies t ! />s are fix$1 :ile ! po9t :i* is ! orig9 ( ! measure ( cele/ial longitude moves backw>d4 ,! ,"r ,asc5sion ( a /> is a measure ( its position correspond+ to t]re/rial longitude2 ?is quantity is id5tical ) ! angul> asc5t ( ! equ9octial po9t1 :5 ! /> is 9 ! horizon 9 a "r sph]e2 t is1 a sph]e :i* supposes ! spectator to be at ! equator4 ,! ,oblique ,asc5sion 7a t]m n[ little us$71 is d]iv$ 9 l mann] f an oblique sph]e4 ,! motion ( a planet is direct or retrograde1 9 #bfe consequ5tia 7signa71 or 9 antec$5tia1 9 ref]5ce to a c]ta9 assum$ /&>d direction = cele/ial motions1 namely1 ! direction opposite to t ( ! sun's daily motion1 & agree+ ) 8 annual motion among ! />s2 or ) :at is mu* m evid5t1 ! moon's mon?ly motion4 ,! equation ( "t is ! quantity :i* mu/ be add$ to or subtract$ f ! "t m>k$ by ! sun1 9 ord] to r$uce x to a !oretical condition ( equable progress4 ,9 l mann] ! equation ( ! c5t] ( ! sun or ( ! moon is ! angle :i* mu/ be add$ to1 or subtract$ f1 ! actual advance ( ! lum9>y 9 ! heav5s1 9 ord] to make its motion equable4 ,besides ! equation ( ! c5t] ( ! moon1 :i* repres5ts ! fir/ & greate/ ( h] deviations f equable motion1 !re are _m o!r equations1 by ! application ( :i* h] motion is br\ght ne>] & ne>] to p]fect uni=mity4 ,! second ( ^! equations is call$ ! evection1 ! ?ird ! v>iation1 ! f\r? ! annual equation1 ,! motion ( ! sun z affect$ by its inequalities is call$ 8 anomaly1 :i* t]m d5otes inequality4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy1 we f9d t ! inequable motions ( ! sun1 moon1 & planets 71 9 a great measure1 r$uc$ to rule & sy/em by ! ,greeks1 by ! aid ( an hypo!sis ( circles1 revolv+1 & c>ry+ 9 _! motion o!r circles :i* also revolv$4 ,?is hypo!sis introduc$ _m te*nical t]ms1 z def]5t1 epicycle1 ecc5tric4 ,9 l mann]1 ! !ories :i* h m rec5tly tak5 ! place ( ! !ory ( epicycles h introduc$ o!r te*nical t]ms1 z ! elliptical orbit1 ! radius vector1 & ! equable description ( areas by ?is radius1 :i* phrases express ! true laws ( ! planet>y motions4 ,!re is no subject on :i* !oretical views h be5 s long & s ext5sively preval5t z a/ronomy1 & !re=e no o!r sci5ce 9 :i* !re are s _m te*nical t]ms ( ! k9d we are n[ consid]+4 ,b 9 o!r subjects also1 s f> z !ories h be5 e/abli%$1 !y h be5 accompani$ by ! introduction or fixation ( te*nical t]ms4 ,?us1 z #bff we h se5 9 ! exam9ation ( ! f\ndations ( me*anics1 ! t]ms =ce & in]tia d]ive _! precise mean+ f a recognition ( ! fir/ law ( motion2 accel]at+ =ce & composition ( motion involve ! second law2 mov+ =ce1 mom5tum1 action & reaction1 are expressions :i* imply ! ?ird law4 ,! t]m vis viva 0 introduc$ to express a g5]al prop]ty ( mov+ bodies2 & o!r t]ms h be5 introduc$ = l purposes1 z impetus by ,smeaton1 & "w done1 by o!r eng9e]s4 ,9 ! rec5t writ+s ( sev]al ,fr5* eng9e]s1 ! t]m travail is mu* employ$1 to express ! "w done & ! =ce :i* does x3 ?is t]m has be5 r5d]$ by lab\r+ =ce4 ,! proposition :i* 0 t]m$ ! hydro/atic p>adox _h ?is "n 9 ref]5ce to its violat+ a suppos$ law ( ! action ( =ces4 ,! v]b to gravitate1 & ! ab/ract t]m gravitation1 seal$ ! e/abli%m5t ( ,newton's !ory ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,9 "s ( ! sci5ces1 op9ions1 ei!r false1 or disguis$ 9 v fanta/ical imag]y1 h prevail$2 & ! t]ms :i* h be5 introduc$ dur+ ! reign ( su* op9ions1 be> ! impress ( ! "t4 ,?us 9 ! days ( al*emy1 ! sub/ances ) :i* ! op]ator dealt 7 p]sonifi$2 & a metal :5 exhibit$ pure & free f all admixture 0 consid]$ z a little k+1 & 0 h5ce call$ a regulus1 a t]m n yet q obsolete4 ,9 l mann]1 a sub/ance f :i* no?+ m ( any value c\ld be extract$1 0 dead1 & 0 call$ a caput mortuum4 ,quick silv]1 t is1 live silv] 7arg5tum vivum71 0 kill$ by c]ta9 admixtures1 & 0 reviv$ :5 re/or$ to its pure /ate4 ,we f9d a great numb] ( m$ical t]ms :i* be> ! m>k ( op9ions =m]ly preval5t among physicians2 & ?\gh ^! op9ions h>dly =m a "p ( ! progress ( sci5ce1 & 7 n pres5t$ 9 our ,hi/ory1 we may notice "s ( ^! t]ms z examples ( ! mode 9 :i* words involve 9 _! d]ivation obsolete op9ions4 ,su* words z hy/]ics1 hypo*ondriac1 melan*oly1 *ol]a1 colic1 qu9sey #bfg 7squ9antia1 1 a suffocation71 megrim1 migrane 7hemicranium1 ! middle ( ! skull71 rickets1 7ra*itis1 f 1 ! backbone71 palsy1 7p>alysis1 17 apoplexy 71 a /roke71 emrods1 71 hemorrhoids1 a flux ( blood71 impo/hume1 7corrupt$ f apo/eme1 1 an abscess71 ph?isis 71 consumption71 tympanum 71 swell+71 dropsy 7hydropsy1 17 sciatica1 isciatica 71 f 1 ! hip71 cat>rh 71 a fl[+ d[n71 di>rha 71 a fl[+ ?r\gh71 diabetes 71 a pass+ ?r\gh71 dys5t]y 71 a disord] ( ! entrails71 ar?ritic pa9s 7f 1 ! jo9ts71 are names d]iv$ f ! suppos$ or real seat & circum/ances ( ! diseases4 ,! ^w f :i* ! fir/ ( ! above names is d]iv$ 71 ! la/ place17 signifies ! womb1 accord+ to its ord] 9 a c]ta9 sy/ematic enum]ation ( p>ts4 ,! second ^w1 hypo*ondriac1 means some?+ affect+ ! visc]a bel[ ! c>tilage ( ! brea/bone1 :i* c>tilage is call$ 2 melan*oly & *ol]a d]ive _! names f suppos$ affections ( 1 ! bile4 ,colic is t :i* affects ! colon 771 ! l>ge/ memb] ( ! b[els4 ,a disord] ( ! eye is call$ gutta s]5a 7! 'drop s]5e' ( ,milton71 9 contradi/9ction to gutta turbida1 9 :i* ! imp$im5t to vision is p]ceptibly opake4 ,o!r t]ms also record ! op9ions ( ! anci5t anatomi/s1 z duod5um1 a c]ta9 portion ( ! inte/9es1 :i* !y e/imat$ z twelve in*es long4 ,we might add o!r allusions1 z ! t5don ( ,a*illes4 ,a/rology also suppli$ a numb] ( words f\nd$ ^u fanciful op9ions2 b ?is /udy hav+ be5 expell$ f ! li/ ( sci5ces1 su* words n[ survive1 only s f> z !y h f\nd a place 9 common language4 ,?us m5 7 t]m$ m]curial1 m>tial1 jovial1 or saturn9e1 accord+ly z _! *>act]s 7 suppos$ to be det]m9$ by ! influ5ce ( ! planets1 ,m]cury1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 or ,saturn4 ,o!r expressions1 su* z disa/r\s1 ill-/>r$1 exorbitant1 "l ( ! asc5dant1 & h5ce asc5dancy1 influ5ce1 #bfh a sph]e ( action1 & ! l1 may s]ve to %[ h[ ext5sively a/rological op9ions h affect$ language1 ?\gh ! doctr9e is no long] a recogniz$ sci5ce4 ,! prec$+ examples w make x manife/ t op9ions1 ev5 ( a recondite & complex k9d1 are (t5 impli$ 9 ! d]ivation ( words2 & ?us w %[ h[ sci5tific t]ms1 fram$ by ! cultivators ( sci5ce1 may involve receiv$ hypo!ses & !ories4 ,:5 t]ms are ?us con/ruct$1 !y s]ve n only to convey ) ease1 b to pres]ve /eadily & to diffuse widely1 ! op9ions :i* !y ?us assume4 ,moreov]1 !y enable ! speculator to employ ^! complex conceptions1 ! creations ( sci5ce1 & ! results ( mu* lab\r & ?\ght1 z readily & famili>ly z if !y 7 convictions borr[$ at once f ! s5ses4 ,!y are ?us p[]ful in/rum5ts 9 enabl+ philosoph]s to asc5d f "o /ep ( induction & g5]alization to ano!r2 & h]eby contribute p[]fully to ! advance ( k & tru?4 ,x %\ld be notic$1 be=e we proce$1 t ! names ( natural objects1 :5 !y come to be consid]$ z ! objects ( a sci5ce1 are select$ accord+ to ! processes already enum]at$4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 ! natural hi/orian adopts ! common names ( animals1 plants1 m9]als1 gems1 & ! l1 & only endeav\rs to secure _! /eady & consi/5t application4 ,b _m ( ^! names imply "s peculi>1 (t5 fanciful1 belief respect+ ! object4 ,v>i\s plants d]ive _! names f _! suppos$ virtues1 z h]ni>ia1 rupture-wort2 or f leg5ds1 z h]ba ,sancti ,johannis1 ,/4 ,john's wort4 ,! same is ! case ) m9]als3 ?us ! topaz 0 ass]t$ to come f an isl& s %r\d$ 9 mi/s t navigators c\ld only conjecture 77 :]e x 04 ,9 ^! latt] cases1 h[ev]1 ! leg5d is (t5 n ! true orig9 ( ! "n1 b is sugge/$ by x4 ,! privilege ( con/ruct+ names :]e !y are want$1 belongs to natural hi/orians no less ?an to #bfi ! cultivators ( physical sci5ce2 yet 9 ! anci5t _w1 writ]s ( ! =m] class appe> r>ely to h ex]cis$ ?is privilege1 ev5 :5 !y felt ! imp]fections ( ! curr5t language4 ,?us ,ari/otle repeat$ly m5tions classes ( animals :i* h no "n1 z co-ord9ate ) classes t h names2 b he h>dly v5tures to propose names :i* may supply ^! defects#cd4 ,! va/ importance ( nom5clature 9 natural hi/ory 0 n recogniz$ till ! mod]n p]iod4 ,note #cd3 ,9 8 ,hi/ory ( ,animals1 7b4 i4 c4 vi471 he says1 t ! great classes ( animals are ,quadrup$s1 ,birds1 ,fi%es1 ,:ales 7,cetaceans71 ,oy/]s 7,te/aceans71 animals l crabs :i* h no g5]al "n 7,cru/aceans71 s(t animals 7,mollusks & ,insects74 ,he does1 h[ev]1 call ! ,cru/aces by a "n 7,malaco/raca1 s(t-%ell$7 :i* has s9ce be5 adopt$ by ,naturali/s4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 hi!rto consid]$ only ! =mation or appropriation ( s+le t]ms 9 sci5ce2 except s f> z sev]al t]ms may 9 "s in/ances be connect$ by ref]5ce to a common !ory4 ,b :5 ! value ( te*nical t]ms began to be fully appreciat$1 philosoph]s proce$$ to introduce !m into _! sci5ces m copi\sly & 9 a m sy/ematic mann]4 ,9 ?is way1 ! mod]n hi/ory ( te*nical language has "s features ( a diff]5t aspect f ! anci5t2 & mu/ give rise to a sep>ate ,aphorism4 ,,aphorism ,,ii4 ,9 ! ,mod]n ,p]iod ( ,sci5ce1 besides ! ?ree processes anci5tly employ$ 9 ! =mation ( te*nical t]ms1 !re h be5 introduc$ ,sy/ematic ,nom5clature1 ,sy/ematic ,t]m9ology1 & ! ,sy/ematic ,modification ( ,t]ms to express !oretical relations#dd4 ,note #dd3 ,on ! subject ( ,t]m9ology & ,nom5clature1 see also ,aphorisms ,,lxxxviii & ,,xcviii conc]n+ ,ideas1 & b4 viii4 c4 ii4 ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas4 ,9 ^? places ,i h spok5 ( ! di/9ction ( ,t]m9ology & ,nom5clature4 ,,writ]s ^u sci5ce h gone on up to mod]n times =m+ su* te*nical t]ms z !y _h occasion =1 by ! ?ree processes above #bgj describ$2--namely1 appropriat+ & limit+ words 9 common use2--con/ruct+ = !mselves words descriptive ( ! conception :i* !y wi%$ to convey2--or fram+ t]ms :i* by _! signification imply ! adoption ( a !ory4 ,?us among ! t]ms introduc$ by ! /udy ( ! connexion betwe5 magnetism & electricity1 ! ^w pole is an example ( ! fir/ k9d2 ! "n ( ! subject1 electro-magnetism1 ( ! second2 & ! t]m curr5t1 involv+ an hypo!sis ( ! motion ( a fluid1 is an in/ance ( ! ?ird class4 ,9 *emi/ry1 ! t]m salt 0 adopt$ f common language1 & its mean+ ext5d$ to d5ote any comp\nd ( a c]ta9 k9d2 ! t]m neutral salt impli$ ! notion ( a balanc$ opposition 9 ! two elem5ts ( ! comp\nd2 & su* words z subacid & sup]acid1 inv5t$ on purpose1 7 introduc$ to indicate ! cases 9 :i* ?is balance 0 n atta9$4 ,aga91 :5 ! phlogi/ic !ory ( *emi/ry 0 e/abli%$1 ! t]m phlogi/on 0 introduc$ to express ! !ory1 & f ?is su* t]ms z phlogi/icat$ & dephlogi/icat$ 7 d]iv$1 exclusively words ( sci5ce4 ,b 9 su* in/ances z h j be5 giv51 we approa* t[>ds a sy/ematic modification ( t]ms1 :i* is a peculi> process ( mod]n times4 ,( ?is1 mod]n *emi/ry =ms a prom95t example1 :i* we %all soon consid]1 b we %all fir/ notice ! o!r processes m5tion$ 9 ! ,aphorism4 ,i4 ,9 anci5t times1 no attempt 0 made to inv5t or select a ,nom5clature ( ! objects ( ,natural ,hi/ory :i* %\ld be precise & p]man5t4 ,! omission ( ?is /ep by ! anci5t naturali/s gave rise to enorm\s difficulty & loss ( "t :5 ! sci5ces resum$ _! activity4 ,we h se5 9 ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ces ( classification1 & ( botany 9 especial#ed1 t ! e>ly cultivators ( t /udy 9 mod]n times endeav\r$ to id5tify all ! plants describ$ by ,greek & ,roman writ]s ) ^? :i* gr[ 9 ! nor? ( ,europe2 & 7 involv$ #bga 9 endless confusion#fd1 by ! multiplication ( names ( plants1 at ! same "t sup]flu\s & ambigu\s4 ,! ,synonymies :i* botani/s 7,bauh9 & o!rs7 f\nd x necess>y to publi%1 7 ! evid5ces ( ^! inconv5i5ces4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! defectiv5ess ( ! anci5t botanical nom5clature1 we are ev5 yet unc]ta9 ) respect to ! id5tification ( "s ( ! mo/ common trees m5tion$ by classical writ]s#gd4 ,! ignorance ( botani/s respect+ ! importance ( nom5clature op]at$ 9 ano!r mann] to imp$e ! progress ( sci5ce4 ,z a good nom5clature presupposes a good sy/em ( classification1 s1 on ! o!r h&1 a sy/em ( classification _c become p]man5t )\t a correspond+ nom5clature4 ,csalp9us1 9 ! sixte5? c5tury#hd1 publi%$ an excell5t sy/em ( arrangem5t = plants2 b ?is1 n be+ connect$ ) any sy/em ( names1 0 nev] ext5sively accept$1 & soon fell into oblivion4 ,! bus9ess ( fram+ a sci5tific botanical classification 0 9 ?is way delay$ = ab\t a c5tury4 ,9 ! same mann]1 ,will\ghby's classification ( fi%es1 ?\gh1 z ,cuvi] says1 f> bett] ?an any :i* prec$$ x1 0 nev] ext5sively adopt$1 9 consequ5ce ( hav+ no nom5clature connect$ ) x4 ,note #ed3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xvi4 c4 ii4 ,note #fd3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xvi4 c4 iii4 sect4 #c4 ,note #gd3 ,= in/ance1 :e!r ! fagus ( ! ,lat9s be ! bee* or ! *e/nut4 ,note #hd3 ,ib4 b4 xvi4 c4 iii4 sect4 #b4 ,,ii4 ,probably "o ma9 cause :i* s long ret>d$ ! "w ( fix+ at ! same "t ! arrangem5t & ! names ( plants1 0 ! great numb] ( m9ute & div]sifi$ p>ticul>s 9 ! /ructure ( ea* plant :i* su* a process impli$4 ,! /alks1 leaves1 fl[]s1 & fruits ( vegetables1 ) _! app5dages1 may v>y 9 s _m ways1 t common language is q insuffici5t to express cle>ly & precisely _! resemblances & diff]5ces4 ,h5ce botany requir$ n only a fix$ sy/em ( names ( plants1 b also an artificial sy/em ( phrases fitt$ to describe _! p>ts3 n only a ,nom5clature1 b also #bgb a ,t]m9ology4 ,! ,t]m9ology 01 9 fact1 an in/rum5t indisp5sably requisite 9 giv+ fixity to ! ,nom5clature4 ,! recognition ( ! k9ds ( plants mu/ dep5d ^u ! exact comp>ison ( _! resemblances & diff]5ces2 & to become a "p ( p]man5t sci5ce1 ?is comp>ison mu/ be record$ 9 words4 ,! =mation ( an exact descriptive language = botany 0 ?us ! fir/ /ep 9 t sy/ematic con/ruction ( ! te*nical language ( sci5ce1 :i* is "o ( ! ma9 features 9 ! intellectual hi/ory ( mod]n times4 ,! anci5t botani/s1 z ,de ,c&olle#id says1 did n make any attempt to select t]ms ( :i* ! s5se 0 rigor\sly det]m9$2 & ea* ( !m employ$ 9 8 descriptions ! words1 metaphors1 or p]iphrases :i* 8 own g5ius sugge/$4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,botany#ajd1 ,i h notic$ "s ( ! p]sons :o contribut$ to ?is improvem5t4 ',clusius1' x is !re /at$1 'fir/ taught botani/s to describe well4 ,he introduc$ exactitude1 precision1 neatness1 elegance1 me?od3 he says no?+ sup]flu\s2 he omits no?+ necess>y4' ,?is task 0 fur!r c>ri$ on by ,jung & ,ray#aad4 ,9 ^! au?ors we see ! importance :i* began to be atta*$ to ! exact def9ition ( descriptive t]ms2 = example1 ,ray quotes ,jung's def9ition ( ,caulis1 a /alk4 ,note #id3 ,!or4 ,elem4 de ,bot4 p4 #cbg4 ,note #ajd3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xvi4 c4 iii4 sect4 #c4 ,note #aad3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xvi4 c4 iii4 sect4 #c 7ab\t ,a4,d4 #affj74 ,! improvem5t ( descriptive language1 & ! =mation ( s*emes ( classification ( plants1 w5t on gradually = "s "t1 & 0 mu* advanc$ by ,t\rne=t4 ,b at la/ ,l9nu embodi$ & foll[$ out ! convictions :i* _h gradually be5 accumulat+ 9 ! brea/s ( botani/s2 & by remodell+ ?r\gh\t bo? ! t]m9ology & ! nom5clature ( botany1 produc$ "o ( ! greate/ re=ms :i* ev] took place 9 any sci5ce4 ,he ?us suppli$ a conspicu\s example ( su* a re=m1 & a mo/ admirable model ( a language1 f :i* #bgc o!r sci5ces may ga!r great in/ruction4 ,i %all n "h give any acc\nt ( ! t]ms & words introduc$ by ,l9nu4 ,!y h be5 exemplifi$ 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5ce#abd2 & ! pr9ciples :i* !y involve ,i %all consid] sep>ately h]eaft]4 ,i w only rem9d ! read] t ! great simplification 9 nom5clature :i* 0 ! result ( 8 lab\rs1 consi/$ 9 designat+ ea* k9d ( plant by a b9>y t]m consi/+ ( ! "n ( ! g5us comb9$ ) t ( ! species3 an artifice seem+ly obvi\s1 b m conv5i5t 9 its results ?an c\ld possibly h be5 anticipat$4 ,note #abd3 ,ib4 c4 iv4 sect4 #a-c4 ,s9ce ,l9nu1 ! progress ( ,botanical ,anatomy & ( ,descriptive ,botany h l$ to ! rejection ( sev]al inexact expressions1 & to ! adoption ( sev]al new t]ms1 especially 9 describ+ ! /ructure ( ! fruit & ! p>ts ( cryptogam\s plants4 ,h$wig1 ,m$ikus1 ,neck]1 ,desvaux1 ,mirbel1 & especially ,grtn]1 ,l9k1 & ,ri*>d1 h propos$ sev]al useful innovations1 9 ^! z 9 o!r p>ts ( ! subject2 b ! g5]al mass ( ! words n[ curr5t consi/s /ill1 & w probably cont9ue to consi/1 ( ! t]ms e/abli%$ by ! ,sw$i% ,botani/#acd4 ,note #acd3 ,de ,c&olle1 ,?4 ,elem4 p4 #cjg4 ,:5 x 0 se5 t botany d]iv$ s great advantages f a sy/ematic improvem5t ( its language1 x 0 natural t o!r sci5ces1 & especially classificatory sci5ces1 %\ld endeav\r to foll[ its example4 ,?is attempt 0 made 9 ,m9]alogy by ,w]n]1 & aft]w>ds fur!r pursu$ by ,mohs4 ,w]n]'s innovations 9 ! descriptive language ( ,m9]alogy 7 ! result ( great acut5ess1 an intimate acqua9tance ) m9]als1 & a mo/ me?odical _s3 & 7 9 mo/ respects great improvem5ts ^u previ\s practices4 ,yet ! introduction ( !m into ,m9]alogy 0 f> f reg5]at+ t sci5ce1 z ,botany _h be5 reg5]at$ by ! ,l9nan re=m4 ,x w\ld seem t ! p]petual #bgd scrupul\s att5tion to mo/ m9ute diff]5ces1 7z ( lu/re1 col\r1 fracture17 ! great] "p ( :i* are n really important1 fett]s ! m9d1 r ?an discipl9es x or arms x = g5]alization4 ,cuvi] has rem>k$#add t ,w]n]1 aft] 8 fir/ ,essay on ! ,*>act]s ( ,m9]als1 wrote little2 z if he _h be5 afraid ( us+ ! sy/em :i* he _h creat$1 & desir\s ( escap+ f ! *a9s :i* he _h impos$ ^u o!rs4 ,& he ju/ly adds1 t ,w]n] dwelt lea/1 9 8 descriptions1 ^u t :i* is really ! mo/ important feature ( all1 ! cry/all9e /ructure4 ,?is1 :i* is truly a def9ite "*1 l ^? ( ,botany1 does1 :5 x c be cle>ly disc]n$1 det]m9e ! place ( ! m9]al 9 a sy/em4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is ! "* :i*1 ( all o!rs1 ought to be mo/ c>efully express$ by an appropriate language4 ,?is task1 h>dly begun by ,w]n]1 has s9ce be5 fully execut$ by o!rs1 especially by ,rom de l',isle1 ,hay1 & ,mohs4 ,all ! =ms ( cry/als c be describ$ 9 ! mo/ precise mann] by ! aid ( ! lab\rs ( ^! writ]s & _! successors4 ,b !re is "o circum/ance well wor?y our notice 9 ^! descriptions4 ,x is f\nd t ! language 9 :i* !y c be/ be convey$ is n t ( words1 b ( symbols4 ,! relations ( space :i* are involv$ 9 ! =ms ( cry/all9e bodies1 ?\gh p]fectly def9ite1 are s complex & num]\s1 t !y _c be express$1 except 9 ! language ( ma!matics3 & ?us we h an ext5sive & recondite bran* ( ma!matical sci5ce1 :i* is1 9 fact1 only a "p ( ! ,t]m9ology ( ! m9]alogi/4 ,note #add3 loges1 ii4 #acd4 ,! ,t]m9ology ( ,m9]alogy be+ ?us re=m$1 an attempt 0 made to improve its ,nom5clature also1 by foll[+ ! example ( ,botany4 ,pr(essor ,mohs 0 ! propos] ( ?is innovation4 ,! names fram$ by him 71 h[ev]1 n compos$ ( two b ( ?ree elem5ts1 designat+ respectively ! ,species1 ! ,g5us1 & ! ,ord]#aed3 ?us he has su* species z #bge ,rhomboh$ral ,lime ,haloide1 ,octah$ral ,fluor ,haloide1 ,prismatic ,hal ,b>yte4 ,^! names h n be5 g5]ally adopt$2 nor is x likely t any names con/ruct$ on su* a s*eme w f9d acceptance among m9]alogi/s1 till ! high] divisions ( ! sy/em are f\nd to h "s def9ite "*4 ,we see no real m9]alogical significance 9 ,mohs's ,g5]a & ,ord]s1 & h5ce we d n expect !m to reta9 a p]man5t place 9 ! sci5ce4 ,note #aed3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xv4 c4 ix4 ,! only sy/ematic names :i* h hi!rto be5 g5]ally admitt$ 9 ,m9]alogy1 are ^? express+ ! *emical con/itution ( ! sub/ance2 & ^! belong to a sy/em ( te*nical t]ms diff]5t f any we h yet spok5 (1 namely to t]ms =m$ by sy/ematic modification4 ,,iii4 ,! language ( ,*emi/ry 0 already1 z we h se51 t5d+ to assume a sy/ematic "*1 ev5 "u ! reign ( ! phlogi/on !ory4 ,b :5 oxyg5 succe$$ to ! ?rone1 x v =tunately happ5$ t its support]s _h ! c\rage & ! =esight to und]take a completely new & sy/ematic reco9age ( ! t]ms belong+ to ! sci5ce4 ,! new nom5clature 0 con/ruct$ ^u a pr9ciple hi!rto h>dly appli$ 9 sci5ce1 b em95tly commodi\s & f]tile2 namely1 ! pr9ciple ( indicat+ a modification ( relations ( elem5ts1 by a *ange 9 ! t]m9ation ( ! ^w4 ,?us ! new *emical s*ool spoke ( sulphuric & sulphur\s acids2 ( sulphates & sulphites ( bases2 & ( sulphurets ( metals2 & 9 l mann]1 ( phosphoric & phosphor\s acids1 ( phosphates1 phosphites1 phosphurets4 ,9 ?is mann] a nom5clature 0 produc$1 9 :i* ! v "n ( a sub/ance indicat$ at once its con/itution & place 9 ! sy/em4 ,! introduction ( ?is *emical language c nev] cease to be consid]$ "o ( ! mo/ important /eps ev] made 9 ! improvem5t ( te*nical t]ms2 & z a signal in/ance ( ! advantages :i* may result f artifices app>5tly trivial1 if employ$ 9 a mann] con=mable to ! laws ( ph5om5a1 & sy/ematically pursu$4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 prov$ t #bgf ?is language1 ) all its m]its1 _h "s defects4 ,! relations ( elem5ts 9 composition 7 discov]$ to be m num]\s ?an ! modes ( expression :i* ! t]m9ations suppli$4 ,besides ! sulphur\s & sulphuric acids1 x appe>$ !re 7 o!rs2 ^! 7 call$ ! hyposulphur\s & hyposulphuric3 b ^! names1 ?\gh conv5i5t1 no long] impli$1 by _! =m1 any def9ite relation4 ,! comp\nds ( ,nitrog5 & ,oxyg5 are1 9 ord]1 ! ,protoxide1 ! ,deutoxide or ,b9oxide2 ,hyponitr\s ,acid1 ,nitr\s ,acid1 & ,nitric ,acid4 ,! nom5clature "h ceases to be sy/ematic4 ,we h ?ree oxides ( ,iron1 ( :i* we may call ! fir/ ! ,protoxide1 b we _c call ! o!rs ! ,deutoxide & ,trioxide1 = by do+ s we %\ld convey a p]fectly errone\s notion ( ! proportions ( ! elem5ts4 ,!y are call$ ! ,protoxide1 ! ,black ,oxide1 & ! ,p]oxide4 ,we are "h ?r[n back ^u t]ms q unconnect$ ) ! sy/em4 ,o!r defects 9 ! nom5clature arose f err\rs 9 ! !ory2 z = example ! names ( ! muriatic1 oxymuriatic1 & hyp]oxymuriatic acids2 :i*1 aft] ! e/abli%m5t ( ! new !ory ( *lor9e1 7 *ang$ to hydro*loric acid1 *lor9e1 & *loric acid4 ,?us ! *emical sy/em ( nom5clature1 f\nd$ ^u ! oxyg5 !ory1 :ile x %[s h[ mu* may be effect$ by a good & consi/5t s*eme ( t]ms1 fram$ accord+ to ! real relations ( objects1 proves also t su* a s*eme c h>dly be p]man5t 9 its orig9al =m1 b w almo/ inevitably become imp]fect & anomal\s1 9 consequ5ce ( ! accumulation ( new facts1 & ! introduction ( new g5]alizations4 ,/ill1 we may v5ture to say t su* a s*eme does n1 on ?is acc\nt1 become wor?less2 = x n only answ]s its purpose 9 ! /age ( sci5tific progress to :i* x belongs3--s f> z x is n errone\s1 or m]ely conv5tional1 b really sy/ematic & significant ( tru?1 its t]ms c be translat$ at once into ! language ( any high] g5]alization :i* is aft]w>ds arriv$ at4 ,if t]ms express #bgg relations really asc]ta9$ to be true1 !y c nev] lose _! value by any *ange ( ! receiv$ !ory4 ,!y are l co9s ( pure metal1 :i*1 ev5 :5 c>ri$ into a c\ntry :i* does n recognize ! sov]eign ^: impress !y be>1 are /ill gladly receiv$1 & may1 by ! addition ( an explanatory m>k1 cont9ue "p ( ! common curr5cy ( ! c\ntry4 ,^! two great in/ances ( ! re=m ( sci5tific language1 9 ,botany & 9 ,*emi/ry1 are mu* ! mo/ important & in/ructive ev5ts ( ?is k9d :i* ! hi/ory ( sci5ce (f]s4 ,x is n necess>y to pursue our hi/orical survey fur!r4 ,our rema9+ ,aphorisms respect+ ! ,language ( ,sci5ce w be collect$ & illu/rat$ indiscrim9ately1 f ! precepts & ! examples ( prec$+ philosoph]s ( all p]iods#afd4 ,note #afd3 ,see at ! end ( ^! ,aphorisms1 fur!r illu/rations ( !m f ! rec5t hi/ory ( ,comp>ative ,anatomy & ,*emi/ry4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 rem>k t ,aphorisms ,,iii41 ,,iv41 ,v41 ,,vi41 ,,vii41 respect peculi>ly ! ,=mation ( ,te*nical ,t]ms by ! ,appropriation ( ,common ,words1 :ile ! rema9+ ones apply to ! ,=mation ( ,new ,t]ms4 ,x does n appe> possible to lay d[n a sy/em ( rules :i* may det]m9e & regulate ! con/ruction ( all te*nical t]ms1 on all ! occasions on :i* ! progress ( sci5ce makes !m necess>y or conv5i5t4 ,b if we c collect a few maxims su* z h already (f]$ !mselves to ! m9ds ( philosoph]s1 or su* z may be ju/ifi$ by ! in/ances by :i* we %all illu/rate !m1 ^! maxims may avail to guide u 9 d\btful cases1 & to prev5t our aim+ at advantages :i* are unatta9able1 or be+ di/urb$ by seem+ imp]fections :i* are really no evils4 ,i %all !re=e /ate su* maxims ( ?is k9d z seem mo/ s\nd & useful4 #bgh ,,aphorism ,,iii4 ,9 fram+ sci5tific t]ms1 ! appropriation ( old words is pref]able to ! inv5tion ( new ones4 ,,?is maxim is /at$ by ,bacon 9 8 usual /rik+ mann]4 ,aft] m5tion+ ,metaphysic1 z "o ( ! divisions ( ,natural ,philosophy1 he adds#agd3 ',:]e9 ,i desire x may be conceiv$ t ,i use ! ^w metaphysic 9 a diff]5t s5se f t t is receiv$3 & 9 l mann] ,i d\bt n b x w easily appe> to m5 ( judgm5t t 9 ?is & o!r p>ticul>s1 :]esoev] my conception & notion may diff] f ! anci5t1 yet ,i am /udi\s to keep ! anci5t t]ms4 ,=1 hop+ well to deliv] myself f mi/ak+ by ! ord] & p]spicu\s express+ ( t ,i d prop\nd2 ,i am o!rwise zeal\s & affectionate to rec$e z little f antiquity1 ei!r 9 t]ms or op9ions1 z may /& ) tru?1 & ! pr(ici5ce ( k1 4 4 4 ,to me1 t d desire1 z mu* z lie? 9 my p51 to gr\nd a sociable int]c\rse betwe5 antiquity & pr(ici5ce1 x seeme? be/ to keep a way ) antiquity usque ad aras2 & !re=e to reta9 ! anci5t t]ms1 ?\gh ,i sometimes alt] ! uses & def9itions2 accord+ to ! mod]ate proce$+ 9 civil gov]nm5ts1 :51 al?\gh !re be "s alt]ation1 yet t holde? :i* ,tacitus wisely note?1 eadem magi/ratuum vocabula4' ,note #agd3 ,de ,augm4 lib4 iii4 c4 iv4 ,we h _h be=e u a suffici5t numb] ( examples ( sci5tific t]ms ?us fram$2 = !y =m$ ! fir/ ( ?ree classes :i* we describ$ 9 ! ,fir/ ,aphorism4 ,& we may aga9 rem>k1 t sci5ce1 :5 %e ?us adopts t]ms :i* are 9 common use1 always limits & fixes _! mean+ 9 a te*nical mann]4 ,we may also repeat "h ! w>n+ already giv5 respect+ t]ms ( ?is k9d1 t !y are peculi>ly liable to mislead read]s :o #bgi d n take c>e to und]/& !m 9 _! te*nical in/ead ( _! common signification4 ,=ce1 mom5tum1 in]tia1 impetus1 vis viva1 are t]ms :i* are v useful1 if we rigor\sly be> 9 m9d ! import :i* belongs to ea* ( !m 9 ! be/ treatises on ,me*anics2 b if ! read] cont5t himself ) conjectur+ _! mean+ f ! context1 8 k w be confus$ & wor?less4 ,9 ! application ( ?is ,?ird ,aphorism1 o!r rules are to be att5d$ to1 :i* ,i add4 ,,aphorism ,,iv4 ,:5 common words are appropriat$ z te*nical t]ms1 _! mean+ & relations 9 common use %\ld be reta9$ z f> z c conv5i5tly be done4 ,i ,,w /ate an example 9 :i* ?is rule seems to be applicable4 ,mr ,davies ,gilb]t#ahd has rec5tly propos$ ! t]m effici5cy to designate ! "w :i* a ma*9e1 accord+ to ! =ce ex]t$ ^u x1 is capable ( do+2 ! "w be+ measur$ by ! weight rais$1 & ! space ?r\gh :i* x is rais$1 jo9tly4 ,! usual t]m employ$ among eng9e]s = ! "w :i* a ma*9e actually does1 measur$ 9 ! way j /at$1 is duty4 ,b z !re appe>s to be a little incongruity 9 call+ t "w effici5cy :i* ! ma*9e ought to d1 :5 we call t "w duty :i* x really does1 ,i h propos$ to t]m ^! two quantities !oretical effici5cy & practical effici5cy1 or !oretical duty & practical duty#aid4 ,note #ahd3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbg1 p4 #be4 ,note #aid3 ,! t]m travail is us$ by ,fr5* eng9e]s1 to express effici5cy or !oretical duty4 ,?is t]m has be5 r5d]$ 9 ,engli% by lab\r+ =ce4 ,s9ce common words are (t5 vague 9 _! mean+1 ,i add z a necess>y accompanim5t to ! ,?ird ,aphorism ! foll[+3-- #bhj ,,aphorism ,v4 ,:5 common words are appropriat$ z te*nical t]ms1 _! mean+ may be modifi$1 & mu/ be rigor\sly fix$4 ,,?is is /at$ by ,bacon 9 ! above extract3 'to reta9 ! anci5t t]ms1 ?\gh ,i sometimes alt] ! uses & def9itions4' ,! sci5tific use ( ! t]m is 9 all cases mu* m precise ?an ! common use4 ,! loose notions ( velocity & =ce = in/ance1 :i* are suffici5t = ! usual purposes ( language1 require to be fix$ by exact measures :5 ^! are made t]ms 9 ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics4 ,?is sci5tific fixation ( ! mean+ ( words is to be look$ ^u z a matt] ( conv5tion1 al?\gh x is 9 reality (t5 an inevitable result ( ! progress ( sci5ce4 ,mom5tum is conv5tionally def9$ to be ! product ( ! numb]s express+ ! weight & ! velocity2 b !n1 x c\ld be ( no use 9 express+ ! laws ( motion if x 7 def9$ o!rwise4 ,h5ce x is no valid objection to a sci5tific t]m t ! ^w 9 common language does n mean exactly ! same z 9 its common use4 ,x is no suffici5t reason aga9/ ! use ( ! t]m acid = a class ( bodies1 t all ! sub/ances belong+ to ?is class are n s\r4 ,we h se5 t a trapezium is us$ 9 geometry = any f\r-sid$ figure1 ?\gh orig9ally x meant a figure ) two opposite sides p>allel & ! two o!rs equal4 ,a c]ta9 /ratum :i* lies bel[ ! *alk is t]m$ by ,engli% geologi/s ! gre5 s&4 ,x has sometimes be5 object$ to ?is d5om9ation t ! /ratum has v frequ5tly no t+e ( gre51 & t x is (t5 compos$ ( lime ) little or no s&4 ,yet ! t]m is a good te*nical t]m 9 spite ( ^! app>5t improprieties2 s long z x is c>efully appli$ to t /ratum :i* is geologically equival5t to ! gre5i% s&y b$ to :i* ! appellation 0 orig9ally appli$4 ,:5 x appe>$ t geometry w\ld h to be employ$ z mu* at lea/ ab\t ! heav5s z ! e>?1 ,plato exclaim$ aga9/ ! folly ( call+ ! #bha sci5ce by su* a "n2 s9ce ! ^w signifies 'e>?-measur+2' yet ! ^w geometry has reta9$ its place & answ]$ its purpose p]fectly well up to ! pres5t day4 ,b ?\gh ! mean+ ( ! t]m may be modifi$ or ext5d$1 x mu/ be rigor\sly fix$ :5 x is appropriat$ to sci5ce4 ,?is process is mo/ abundantly exemplifi$ by ! t]m9ology ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 & especially ( ,botany1 9 :i* ea* t]m has a mo/ precise mean+ assign$ to x4 ,?us ,l9nu e/abli%$ exact di/9ctions betwe5 fasciculus1 capitulum1 racemus1 ?yrsus1 paniculus1 spica1 am5tum1 corymbus1 umbella1 cyma1 v]ticillus2 or1 9 ! language ( ,engli% ,botani/s1 a tuft1 a head1 a clu/]1 a bun*1 a panicle1 a spike1 a catk91 a corymb1 an umbel1 a cyme1 a :orl4 ,& x has s9ce be5 laid d[n z a rule#bjd1 t ea* organ ought to h a sep>ate & appropriate "n2 s t ! t]m leaf1 = in/ance1 %all nev] be appli$ to a leaflet1 a bractea1 or a sepal ( ! calyx4 ,note #bjd3 ,de ,c&olle1 ,!or4 ,el4 #cbh4 ,botani/s h n be5 cont5t ) fix+ ! mean+ ( _! t]ms by v]bal def9ition1 b h also illu/rat$ !m by figures1 :i* address ! eye4 ,( ^!1 z excell5t mod]n examples1 may be m5tion$ ^? :i* occur 9 ! works ( ,mirbel#bad1 & ,l9dley#bbd4 ,note #bad3 lm5s de ,botanique4 ,note #bbd3 ,elem5ts ( ,botany4 ,,aphorism ,,vi4 ,:5 common words are appropriat$ z te*nical t]ms1 ?is mu/ be done s t !y are n ambigu\s 9 _! application4 ,,an example w expla9 ?is maxim4 ,! conditions ( a body1 z a solid1 a liquid1 & an air1 h be5 di/+ui%$ z diff]5t =ms ( ! body4 ,b ! ^w =m1 z appli$ to bodies1 has o!r mean+s2 s t if we 7 to inquire 9 :at =m wat] exi/s 9 a sn[-cl\d1 x might be d\bt$ :e!r ! =ms ( cry/allization 7 meant1 or #bhb ! diff]5t =ms ( ice1 wat]1 & vap\r4 ,h5ce ,i h propos$#bcd to reject ! t]m =m 9 su* cases1 & to speak ( ! diff]5t consi/5ce ( a body 9 ^! conditions4 ,! t]m consi/5ce is usually appli$ to conditions betwe5 solid & fluid2 & may )\t ef=t be ext5d$ to ^? limit+ conditions4 ,& ?\gh x may appe> m h>% to ext5d ! t]m consi/5ce to ! /ate ( air1 x may be ju/ifi$ by :at has be5 said 9 speak+ ( ,aphorism ,v4 ,note #bcd3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 x4 c4 ii4 sect4 #b4 ,i may notice ano!r example ( ! necessity ( avoid+ ambigu\s words4 ,a philosoph] :o makes me?od 8 /udy1 w\ld naturally be t]m$ a me?odi/2 b unluckily ?is ^w is already appropriat$ to a religi\s sect3 & h5ce we c\ld h>dly v5ture to speak ( ,csalp9us1 ,ray1 ,morison1 ,riv9us1 ,t\rne=t1 ,l9nu1 & _! successors1 z botanical me?odi/s4 ,aga91 by ?is maxim1 we are almo/ deb>r$ f us+ ! t]m physician = a cultivator ( ! sci5ce ( physics1 because x already signifies a practis] ( physic4 ,we might1 p]haps1 /ill use physician z ! equival5t ( ! ,fr5* physici51 9 virtue ( ,aphorism ,v42 b probably x w\ld be bett] to =m a new ^w4 ,?us we may say1 t :ile ! ,naturali/ employs pr9cipally ! ideas ( resemblance & life1 ! ,physici/ proce$s ^u ! ideas ( =ce1 matt]1 & ! prop]ties ( matt]4 ,:atev] may be ?\ght ( ?is proposal1 ! maxim :i* x implies is frequ5tly useful4 ,x is ?is4 ,,aphorism ,,vii4 ,x is bett] to =m new words z te*nical t]ms1 ?an to employ old ones 9 :i* ! la/ ?ree ,aphorisms _c be compli$ )4 ,,! pr9cipal inconv5i5ce att5d+ ! employm5t ( new words con/ruct$ expressly = ! use ( sci5ce1 is ! difficulty ( effectually introduc+ !m4 ,read]s w n readily take ! tr\ble to le>n ! mean+ ( a ^w1 9 :i* ! memory is #bhc n assi/$ by "s obvi\s sugge/ion connect$ ) ! common use ( language4 ,:5 ?is difficulty is ov]come1 ! new ^w is bett] ?an "o m]ely appropriat$2 s9ce x is m secure f vagu5ess & confusion4 ,& 9 cases :]e ! inconv5i5ces belong+ to a sci5tific use ( common words become great & inevitable1 a new ^w mu/ be fram$ & introduc$4 ,! ,maxims :i* belong to ! con/ruction ( su* words w be /at$ h]eaft]2 b ,i may notice an in/ance or two t5d+ to %[ ! necessity ( ! ,maxim n[ be=e u4 ,! ^w ,=ce has be5 appropriat$ 9 ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics 9 two s5ses3 z indicat+ ! cause ( motion2 & aga91 z express+ c]ta9 measures ( ! effects ( ?is cause1 9 ! phrases accel]at+ =ce & mov+ =ce4 ,h5ce we might h occasion to speak ( ! accel]at+ or mov+ =ce ( a c]ta9 =ce2 = in/ance1 if we 7 to say t ! =ce :i* gov]ns ! motions ( ! planets resides 9 ! sun2 & t ! accel]at+ =ce ( ?is =ce v>ies only ) ! di/ance1 b its mov+ =ce v>ies z ! product ( ! mass ( ! sun & ! planet4 ,?is is a h>% & incongru\s mode ( expression2 & might h be5 avoid$1 if1 in/ead ( accel]at+ =ce & mov+ =ce1 s+le ab/ract t]ms _h be5 introduc$ by ,newton3 if1 = in/ance1 he _h said t ! velocity g5]at$ 9 a second measures ! accel]ativity ( ! =ce :i* produces x1 & ! mom5tum produc$ 9 a second measures ! motivity ( ! =ce4 ,! sci5ce :i* treats ( heat has hi!rto _h no special designation3 treatises ^u x h g5]ally be5 t]m$ treatises ,on ,heat4 ,b ?is practice ( employ+ ! same t]m to d5ote ! prop]ty & ! sci5ce :i* treats ( x1 is awkw>d1 & (t5 ambigu\s4 ,& x is fur!r att5d$ ) ?is inconv5i5ce1 t we h no adjective d]iv$ f ! "n ( ! sci5ce1 z we h 9 o!r cases1 :5 we speak ( ac\/ical exp]im5ts & optical !ories4 ,?is inconv5i5ce has l$ v>i\s p]sons to sugge/ names = ! ,sci5ce ( ,heat4 ,m4 ,comte #bhd t]ms x ,!rmology4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ces1 ,i h nam$ x ,!rmotics1 :i* appe>s to me to agree bett] ) ! analogy ( ! names ( o!r correspond+ sci5ces1 ,ac\/ics & ,optics4 ,electricity is 9 ! same condition z ,heat2 hav+ only "o ^w to express ! prop]ty & ! sci5ce4 ,m4 ,le ,comte proposes ,electrology3 = ! same reason z be=e1 ,i %\ld conceive ,electrics m agreeable to analogy4 ,! co9cid5ce ( ! ^w ) ! plural ( ,electric w\ld n give rise to ambiguity2 = ,electrics1 tak5 z ! "n ( a sci5ce1 w\ld be s+ul>1 l ,optics & ,me*anics4 ,b a t]m (f]s itself to express common or ma*9e ,electrics1 :i* appe>s wor?y ( admission1 ?\gh involv+ a !oretical view4 ,! receiv$ doctr9e ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,voltaic & ,common ,electricity is1 t 9 ! =m] case ! fluid mu/ be consid]$ z 9 motion1 9 ! latt] z at re/4 ,! sci5ce :i* treats ( ! =m] class ( subjects is commonly t]m$ ,electrodynamics1 :i* obvi\sly sugge/s ! "n ,electro/atics = ! latt]4 ,! subject ( ! ,tides is1 9 l mann]1 de/itute ( any "n :i* designates ! sci5ce conc]n$ ab\t x4 ,i h v5tur$ to employ ! t]m ,tidology1 hav+ be5 mu* engag$ 9 tidological rese>*es4 ,_m p]sons possess a peculi>ity ( vision1 :i* disables !m f di/+ui%+ c]ta9 col\rs4 ,on exam9+ _m su* cases1 we f9d t 9 all su* p]sons ! peculi>ities are ! same2 all ( !m conf\nd+ sc>let ) gre51 & p9k ) blue4 ,h5ce !y =m a class1 :i*1 = ! conv5i5ce ( physiologi/s & o!rs1 ought to h a fix$ designation4 ,in/ead ( call+ !m1 z has usually be5 done1 'p]sons hav+ a peculi>ity ( vision1' we might take a ,greek t]m imply+ ?is mean+1 & t]m !m ,idiopts4 ,b my bus9ess at pres5t is n to speak ( ! selection ( new t]ms :5 !y are introduc$1 b to illu/rate ! maxim t ! necessity = _! introduction (t5 arises4 ,! con/ruction ( new t]ms w be treat$ ( subsequ5tly4 #bhe ,,aphorism ,,viii4 ,t]ms mu/ be con/ruct$ & appropriat$ s z to be fitt$ to enunciate simply & cle>ly true g5]al propositions4 ,,?is ,aphorism may be consid]$ z ! fundam5tal pr9ciple & supreme rule ( all sci5tific t]m9ology4 ,x is ass]t$ by ,cuvi]1 speak+ ( a p>ticul> case4 ,?us he says#bdd ( ,gmel91 t by plac+ ! lamant9 9 ! g5us ( morses1 & ! sir5 9 ! g5us ( eels1 he _h r5d]$ e g5]al proposition respect+ ! organization ( ^? g5]a impossible4 ,note #bdd3 ,rgne ,animal1 ,introd4 viii4 ,! maxim is true ( words appropriat$ z well z inv5t$1 & applies equally to ! ma!matical1 *emical1 & classificatory sci5ces4 ,) reg>d to mo/ ( ^!1 & especially ! two =m] classes1 x has be5 abundantly exemplifi$ already1 9 :at has previ\sly be5 said1 & 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ces4 ,= we h !re _h to notice _m te*nical t]ms1 ) ! occasions ( _! introduction2 & all ^! occasions h involv$ ! int5tion ( express+ 9 a conv5i5t mann] "s tru? or suppos$ tru?4 ,! t]ms ( ,a/ronomy 7 adopt$ = ! purpose ( /at+ & reason+ ^u ! relations ( ! cele/ial motions1 accord+ to ! doctr9e ( ! sph]e1 & ! o!r laws :i* 7 discov]$ by a/ronom]s4 ,! few te*nical t]ms :i* belong to ,me*anics1 =ce1 velocity1 mom5tum1 in]tia1 c41 7 employ$ f ! fir/ ) a view to ! expression ( ! laws ( motion & ( re/2 & 71 9 ! end1 limit$ s z truly & simply to express ^? laws :5 !y 7 fully asc]ta9$4 ,9 ,*emi/ry1 ! t]m phlogi/on 0 useful1 z has be5 %[n 9 ! ,hi/ory1 9 class+ toge!r processes :i* really are ( ! same nature2 & ! nom5clature ( ! oxyg5 !ory 0 /ill pref]able1 because x enabl$ ! *emi/ to express a /ill great] numb] ( g5]al tru?s4 #bhf ,to ! connexion "h ass]t$1 ( !ory & nom5clature1 we h ! te/imony ( ! au?or ( ! oxyg5 !ory4 ,9 ! ,preface to 8 ,*emi/ry1 ,lavoisi] says3--',?us :ile ,i ?\ght myself employ$ only 9 =m+ a ,nom5clature1 & :ile ,i propos$ to myself no?+ m ?an to improve ! *emical language1 my "w trans=m$ itself by degrees1 )\t my be+ able to prev5t x1 into a ,treatise on ! ,elem5ts ( ,*emi/ry4' ,& he !n proce$s to %[ h[ ?is happ5$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ma9ly ?r\gh ! progress ( ,natural ,hi/ory 9 mod]n times1 t philosoph]s h be5 l$ to see ! importance & necessity ( new t]ms 9 express+ new tru?s4 ,?us ,h>vey1 9 ! ,preface to 8 "w on ,g5]ation1 says3--',be n (f5d$ if 9 sett+ out ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,egg ,i make use ( a new me?od1 & sometimes ( unusual t]ms4 ,= z !y :i* f9d out a new plantation & new %ores call !m by names ( _! own co9+1 :i* po/]ity aft]w>ds accepts & receives1 s ^? t f9d out new secrets h good title to _! compellation4 ,& "h1 me?9ks1 ,i he> ,gal5 advis+3 ,if we cons5t 9 ! ?+s1 cont5d n ab\t ! words4' ,! ,nom5clature :i* answ]s ! purposes ( ,natural ,hi/ory is a ,sy/ematic ,nom5clature1 & w be fur!r consid]$ "u ! next ,aphorism4 ,b we may rem>k1 t ! ,aphorism n[ be=e u gov]ns ! use ( words1 n 9 sci5ce only1 b 9 common language also4 ,are we to apply ! "n fi% to animals ( ! :ale k9d8 ,! answ] is det]m9$ by our pres5t rule3 we are to d s1 or n1 accord+ly z we c be/ express true propositions4 ,if we are speak+ ( ! int]nal /ructure & physiology ( ! animal1 we mu/ n call !m fi%2 = 9 ^! respects !y deviate widely f fi%es3 !y h w>m blood1 & produce & suckle _! "y z l& quadrup$s d4 ,b ?is w\ld n prev5t our speak+ ( ! :ale-fi%]y1 & call+ su* animals fi% on all occasions connect$ ) ?is employm5t2 = ! relations ?us aris+ dep5d ^u ! animal's liv+ 9 ! wat]1 & be+ caught 9 a #bhg mann] simil> to o!r fi%es4 ,a plea t human laws :i* m5tion fi% d n apply to :ales1 w\ld be reject$ at once by an intellig5t judge4 ,a bitum9if]\s deposit :i* occurs among/ ! coal measures 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,ed9burgh 0 us$ z coal1 & call$ ',boghead ,cannel ,coal4' ,b a lawsuit arose ^u ! "q :e!r ?is1 :i* geologically 0 n ! coal1 %\ld be reg>d$ 9 law z coal4 ,! op9ions ( *emi/s & geologi/s1 z well z ( lawy]s1 7 discrepant1 & a direct decision ( ! case 0 evad$4#bed ,note #bed3 ,mill]'s ,*emi/ry1 iii4 #ih4 ,,aphorism ,,ix4 ,9 ! ,classificatory ,sci5ces1 a ,sy/ematic ,nom5clature is necess>y2 & ! ,sy/em & ! ,nom5clature are ea* ess5tial to ! utility ( ! o!r4 ,,! inconv5i5ces aris+ f ! want ( a good ,nom5clature 7 long felt 9 ,botany1 & are /ill felt 9 ,m9]alogy4 ,! attempts to rem$y !m by ,synonymies are v ineffective1 = su* comp>isons ( synonyms d n supply a sy/ematic nom5clature2 & su* a "o alone c enable u to /ate g5]al tru?s respect+ ! objects ( :i* ! classificatory sci5ces treat4 ,! ,sy/em & ! ,names ought to be introduc$ toge!r2 = ! =m] is a collection ( ass]t$ analogies & resemblances1 = :i* ! latt] provide simple & p]man5t expressions4 ,h5ce x has repeat$ly occurr$ 9 ! progress ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 t good ,sy/ems did n take root1 or produce any la/+ effect among naturali/s1 because !y 7 n accompani$ by a correspond+ ,nom5clature4 ,9 ?is way1 z we h already notic$1 ! excell5t botanical ,sy/em ( ,csalp9us 0 )\t imm$iate effect ^u ! sci5ce4 ,! "w ( ,will\ghby1 z ,cuvi] says#bfd1 =ms an epo*1 & #bhh a happy epo* 9 ,i*?yology2 yet because ,will\ghby _h no ,nom5clature ( 8 own1 & no fix$ names = 8 g5]a1 8 imm$iate influ5ce 0 n great4 ,aga91 9 speak+ ( ,s*lo!im's "w conta9+ repres5tations ( fossil vegetables1 ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongni>t obs]ves#bgd t ! figures & descriptions are s good1 t if ! au?or _h e/abli%$ a nom5clature = ! objects he describes1 8 "w w\ld h become ! basis ( all succe$+ lab\rs on ! subject4 ,note #bfd3 ,hi/4 des ,poissons1 ,pref4 ,note #bgd3 ,prodrom4 ,veg4 ,foss4 p4 #c4 ,z additional examples ( cases 9 :i* ! improvem5t ( classification1 9 rec5t times1 has l$ philosoph]s to propose new names1 ,i may m5tion ! t]m ,pcilite1 propos$ by ,mr4 ,conybe>e to designate ! gr\p ( /rata :i* lies bel[ ! oolites & lias1 includ+ ! new r$ or v>iegat$ s&/one1 ) ! keup] above1 & ! magnesian lime/one bel[ x4 ,aga91 ! transition di/ricts ( our isl& h rec5tly be5 r$uc$ to sy/em by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick & ,mr4 ,mur*ison2 & ?is /ep has be5 m>k$ by ! t]ms ,cambrian sy/em1 & ,silurian sy/em1 appli$ to ! two great gr\ps ( =mations :i* !y h respectively exam9$1 & by sev]al o!r names ( ! subord9ate memb]s ( ^! =mations4 ,?us ,sy/em & ,nom5clature are ea* ess5tial to ! o!r4 ,)\t ,nom5clature1 ! sy/em is n p]man5tly incorporat$ into ! g5]al body ( k1 & made an in/rum5t ( future progress4 ,)\t ,sy/em1 ! names _c express g5]al tru?s1 & conta9 no reason :y !y %\ld be employ$ 9 pref]5ce to any o!r names4 ,?is has be5 g5]ally ackn[l$g$ by ! mo/ philosophical naturali/s ( mod]n times4 ,?us ,l9nu beg9s t "p ( 8 ,botanical ,philosophy 9 :i* names are treat$ (1 by /at+ t ! f\ndation ( botany is tw(old1 ,disposition & ,d5om9ation2 & he adds ?is ,lat9 l9e1 ,nom9a si nescis p]it et cognitio r]um4 #bhi ,& ,cuvi]1 9 ! ,preface to 8 ,animal ,k+dom1 expla9s1 9 a v /rik+ mann]1 h[ ! attempt to connect zoology ) anatomy l$ him1 at ! same "t1 to re=m ! classifications1 & to correct ! nom5clature ( prec$+ zoologi/s4 ,i h /at$ t 9 ,m9]alogy we are /ill de/itute ( a good nom5clature g5]ally curr5t4 ,f :at has n[ be5 said1 x w be se5 t x may be v f> f easy to supply ?is defect1 s9ce we h1 z yet1 no g5]ally receiv$ sy/em ( m9]alogical classification4 ,till we "k :at are really diff]5t species ( m9]als1 & 9 :at l>g] gr\ps ^! species c be arrang$1 s z to h common prop]ties1 we %all nev] obta9 a p]man5t m9]alogical nom5clature4 ,?us ,leucocyclite & ,tesselite are m9]als previ\sly conf\nd$ ) ,apophyllite1 :i* ,sir ,john ,h]s*el & ,sir ,david ,brew/] di/+ui%$ by ^? names1 9 consequ5ce ( c]ta9 optical prop]ties :i* !y exhibit4 ,b are ^! prop]ties def9ite di/9ctions8 & are !re any ext]nal diff]5ces correspond+ to !m8 ,if n1 c we consid] !m z sep>ate species8 & if n sep>ate species1 ought !y to h sep>ate names8 ,9 l mann]1 we might ask if ,augite & ,hornbl5de are really ! same species1 z ,gu/avus ,rose has ma9ta9$8 if ,diallage & ,hyp]/h5e are n def9itely di/+ui%$1 :i* has be5 ass]t$ by ,kobell8 ,till su* que/ions are settl$1 we _c h a fix$ nom5clature 9 m9]alogy4 ,:at appe>s ! be/ c\rse to foll[ 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! sci5ce1 ,i %all consid] :5 we come to speak ( ! =m ( te*nical t]ms4 ,i may1 h[ev]1 notice "h t ! ma9 ,=ms ( sy/ematic nom5clature are two3--t]ms :i* are produc$ by comb9+ words ( high] & l[] g5]ality1 z ! b9>y names1 consi/+ ( ! "n ( ! g5us & ! species1 g5]ally employ$ by natural hi/orians s9ce ! "t ( ,l9nu2--& t]ms 9 :i* "s relation ( ?+s is indicat$ by a *ange 9 ! =m ( ! ^w1 = example1 an alt]ation ( its t]m9ation1 ( :i* k9d ( #bij nom5clature we h a conspicu\s example 9 ! mod]n *emi/ry4 ,,aphorism ,x4 ,new t]ms & *anges ( t]ms1 :i* are n ne$$ 9 ord] to express tru?1 are to be avoid$4 ,,z ! ,sev5? ,aphorism ass]t$ t novelties 9 language may be & ought to be introduc$1 :5 !y aid ! enunciation ( tru?s1 we n[ decl>e t !y are n admissible 9 any o!r case4 ,new t]ms & new sy/ems ( t]ms are n to be introduc$1 = example1 9 virtue ( _! own neatness or symmetry1 or o!r m]its1 if !re is no occasion = _! use4 ,i may m5tion1 z an old example ( a sup]flu\s attempt ( ?is k9d1 an occurr5ce 9 ! hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy4 ,9 #afbh ,john ,bay] & ,julius ,s*ill] devis$ a ,clum ,*ri/ianum1 9 :i* ! common names ( ! planets1 c41 7 replac$ by ^? ( ,adam1 ,moses1 & ! ,patri>*s4 ,! twelve ,signs became ! twelve ,apo/les1 & ! con/ellations became sacr$ places & ?+s4 ,peireskius1 :o _h to pron\nce ^u ! value ( ?is proposal1 prais$ ! piety ( ! inv5tors1 b did n approve1 he said#bhd1 ! design ( p]v]t+ & conf\nd+ :atev] ( cele/ial in=mation f ! p]iod ( ! e>lie/ memory is f\nd 9 books4 ,note #bhd3 ,gass5di1 ,vita ,peireskii1 #cjj4 ,nor are slight anomalies 9 ! exi/+ language ( sci5ce suffici5t gr\nd = a *ange1 if !y d n s]i\sly int]f]e ) ! expression ( our k4 ,?us ,l9nu says#bid t a fair g5]ic "n is n to be ex*ang$ = ano!r ?\gh apt] "o3 &#cjd if we sep>ate an old g5us into sev]al1 we mu/ try to f9d names = !m among ! synonyms :i* describe ! old g5us4 ,?is maxim excludes ! re/oration ( anci5t names long disus$1 no less ?an ! ne$less inv5tion ( new ones4 ,l9nu #bia lays d[n ?is rule#cad2 & adds1 t ! botani/s ( ! sixte5? c5tury well nigh ru9$ botany by _! anxiety to recov] ! anci5t names ( plants4 ,9 l mann] ,cuvi]#cbd lam5ts x z a mis=tune1 t he has _h to introduce _m new names2 & decl>es e>ne/ly t he has tak5 great pa9s to pres]ve ^? ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,note #bid3 ,phil4 ,bot4 #bdf4 ,note #cjd3 ,ib4 #bdg4 ,note #cad3 ,phil4 ,bot4 #bdh4 ,note #cbd3 ,rgne ,anim4 ,pref4 xvi4 ,! great bulk :i* ! ,synonymy ( botany & ( m9]alogy h atta9$1 %[s u t ?is maxim has n be5 univ]sally att5d$ to4 ,9 ^! cases1 h[ev]1 ! multiplication ( diff]5t names = ! same k9d ( object has aris5 9 g5]al f ignorance ( ! id5tity ( x "u diff]5t circum/ances1 or f ! want ( a sy/em :i* might assign to x its prop] place4 ,b !re are o!r in/ances1 9 :i* ! multiplication ( names has aris5 n f defect1 b f excess1 ( ! _s ( sy/em4 ,! love :i* speculative m5 be> t[>ds symmetry & complet5ess is con/antly at "w1 to make !m create sy/ems ( classification m regul> & m p]fect ?an c be v]ifi$ by ! facts3 & z good sy/ems are closely connect$ ) a good nom5clature1 sy/ems ?us errone\s & sup]flu\s lead to a nom5clature :i* is prejudicial to sci5ce4 ,= al?\gh su* a nom5clature is f9ally expell$1 :5 x is f\nd n to aid u 9 express+ ! true laws ( nature1 x may obta9 "s tempor>y sway1 dur+ :i*1 & ev5 aft]w>ds1 x may be a s\rce ( mu* confusion4 ,we h a conspicu\s example ( su* a result 9 ! geological nom5clature ( ,w]n] & 8 s*ool4 ,?us x 0 assum$1 9 ,w]n]'s sy/em1 t 8 ,fir/1 ,second1 & ,?ird ,fltz ,lime/one1 8 ,old & ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 7 univ]sal =mations2 & geologi/s look$ ^u x z _! bus9ess to detect ^! /rata 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,names 7 ?us assign$ to ! rocks ( v>i\s p>ts ( ,europe1 :i* creat$ imm5se p]plexity be=e !y 7 aga9 eject$4 ,! geological t]ms :i* n[ prevail1 = #bib in/ance1 ^? ( ,smi?1 are = ! mo/ "p n sy/ematic1 b are borr[$ f accid5ts1 z localities1 or popul> names2 z ,ox=d ,clay & ,cornbra%2 & h5ce !y are n liable to be ?ru/ out on a *ange ( sy/em4 ,on ! o!r h& we d n f9d suffici5t reason to accept ! sy/em ( names ( /rata propos$ by ,mr4 ,conybe>e 9 ! ,introduction to ! ,geology ( ,engl& & ,wales1 accord+ to :i* ! ,c>bonif]\s ,rocks are ! ,m$ial ,ord]1--hav+ above !m ! ,sup]m$ial ,ord] 7,new ,r$ ,s&1 ,oolites & ,*alk71 & above ^! ! ,sup]ior ,ord] 7,t]ti>y ,rocks72 & aga91--hav+ bel[1 ! ,subm$ial ,ord] 7! ,transition ,rocks71 & ! ,inf]ior ,ord] 7,mica ,slate1 ,gneiss1 ,granite74 ,= ?\gh ^! names h long be5 propos$1 x does n appe> t !y are useful 9 enunciat+ geological tru?s4 ,we may1 x w\ld seem1 pron\nce ! same judgm5t respect+ ! sy/em ( geological names propos$ by ,m4 ,alex&] ,brongni>t1 9 8 ,tableau des ,t]ra9s qui compos5t l'corce du ,globe4 ,he divides ^! /rata into n9e classes1 :i* he t]ms ,t]ra9s ,alluvi5s1 ,lysi5s1 ,pyrog5es1 ,clysmi5s1 ,yzemi5s1 ,hemilysi5s1 ,agalysi5s1 ,plutoniques1 ,vulcaniques4 ,^! classes are aga9 v>i\sly subdivid$3 ?us ! ,t]ra9s ,yzemi5s are ,?alassiques1 ,pelagiques1 & ,abyssiques2 & ! ,abyssiques are subdivid$ into ,lias1 ,keup]1 ,con*ili5s1 ,pcili5s1 ,p5e5s1 ,rudim5taires1 ,entritiques1 ,h\ill]s1 ,c>bonif]s & ,gres ,r\ge ,anci54 ,sc>cely any am\nt ( new tru?s w\ld induce geologi/s to bur!n !mselves at once ) ?is enorm\s sy/em ( new names3 b 9 fact1 x is evid5t t any portion ( tru?1 :i* any au?or c h br\ght to light1 may be convey$ by means ( a mu* simpl] app>atus4 ,su* a nom5clature c>ries its condemnation on its own face4 ,ne>ly ! same may be said ( ! sy/ematic nom5clature propos$ = m9]alogy by ,pr(essor ,mohs4 ,ev5 if all 8 ,g5]a be really natural gr\ps1 7a doctr9e :i* we c h no confid5ce 9 till !y are confirm$ by ! evid5ce ( *emi/ry17 !re is no #bic necessity to make s great a *ange 9 ! receiv$ names ( m9]als4 ,8 proce$+ 9 ?is respect1 s diff]5t f ! temp]ance ( ,l9nu & ,cuvi]1 has probably ensur$ a spe$y oblivion to ?is "p ( 8 sy/em4 ,9 cry/allography1 on ! o!r h&1 9 :i* ,mohs's improvem5ts h be5 v valuable1 !re are sev]al t]ms introduc$ by him1 z rhomboh$ron1 scal5oh$ron1 hemih$ral1 sy/ems ( cry/allization1 :i* w probably be a p]man5t portion ( ! language ( sci5ce4 ,i may rem>k1 9 g5]al1 t ! only p]sons :o succe$ 9 mak+ great alt]ations 9 ! language ( sci5ce1 are n ^? :o make names arbitr>ily & z an ex]cise ( +5uity1 b ^? :o h mu* new k to communicate2 s t ! vehicle is comm5d$ to g5]al reception by ! value ( :at x conta9s4 ,x is only em95t discov]]s to :om ! au?ority is conc$$ ( introduc+ a new sy/em ( names2 j z x is only ! highe/ au?ority 9 ! /ate :i* has ! p[] ( putt+ a new co9age 9 circulation4 ,i w "h quote "s judici\s rem>ks ( ,mr4 ,h[>d1 :i* fall p>tly "u ?is ,aphorism1 & p>tly "u "s :i* foll[4 ,he _h propos$1 z names = ! k9ds ( cl\ds1 ! foll[+3 ,cirrus1 ,cirrocumulus1 ,cirro/ratus1 ,cumulo/ratus1 ,cumulus1 ,nimbus1 ,/ratus4 ,9 an abridgm5t ( 8 views1 giv5 9 ! ,supplem5t to ! ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 ,engli% names 7 propos$ z ! equival5ts ( ^!2 ,curlcl\d1 ,sond]cl\d1 ,wanecl\d1 ,twa9cl\d1 ,/ack5cl\d1 ,ra9cl\d1 ,fallcl\d4 ,^u ^! ,mr4 ,h[>d obs]ves3 ',i m5tion ^!1 9 ord] to h ! opportunity ( say+ t ,i d n adopt !m4 ,! names = ! cl\ds :i* ,i d$uc$ f ! ,lat91 are b sev5 9 numb]1 & v easy to rememb]4 ,!y 7 int5d$ z arbitr>y t]ms = ! /ructure ( cl\ds1 & ! mean+ ( !m 0 c>efully fix$ by a def9ition4 ,! obs]v] hav+ once made himself ma/] ( ?is1 0 able to apply ! t]m ) correctness1 aft] a little exp]i5ce1 to ! subject "u all its v>ieties ( =m1 col\r1 or position4 ,! #bid new names1 if meant to be ano!r set ( arbitr>y t]ms1 are sup]flu\s2 if int5d$ to convey 9 !mselves an explanation 9 ,engli%1 !y fail 9 ?is1 by apply+ to "s "p or circum/ance only ( ! def9ition2 ! :ole ( :i* mu/ be kept 9 view to /udy ! subject ) success4 ,to take = an example ! fir/ ( ! modifications4 ,! t]m cirrus v readily takes an ab/ract mean+1 equally applicable to ! rectil9e> z to ! flexu\s =ms ( ! subject4 ,b ! "n ( curl-cl\d w n1 )\t "s viol5ce to its obvi\s s5se1 acquire ?is m ext5sive "o3 & w !re=e be apt to mislead ! read] r ?an fur!r 8 progress4 ,o!rs ( ^! names are z devoid ( a mean+ obvi\s to ! ,engli% read]1 z ! ,lat9 t]ms !mselves4 ,b ! pr9cipal objection to ,engli% or any o!r local t]ms1 rema9s to be /at$4 ,!y take away f ! nom5clature its g5]al advantage ( con/itut+1 z f> z x goes1 an univ]sal language1 by means ( :i* ! intellig5t ( e c\ntry may convey to ea* o!r _! ideas )\t ! necessity ( translation4' ,i "h adduce ^! z examples ( ! argum5ts aga9/ *ang+ an e/abli%$ nom5clature4 ,z gr\nds ( select+ a new "o1 !y may be tak5 into acc\nt h]eaft]4 ,,aphorism ,,xi4 ,t]ms :i* imply !oretical views are admissible1 z f> z ! !ory is prov$4 ,,x is n unfrequ5tly /at$ t ! circum/ances f :i* ! names employ$ 9 sci5ce borr[ _! mean+1 ought to be facts & n !ories4 ,b su* a recomm5dation implies a belief t facts are rigor\sly di/+ui%$ f !ories & directly oppos$ to !m2 :i* belief1 we h repeat$ly se51 is unf\nd$4 ,:5 !ories are firmly e/abli%$1 !y become facts2 & names f\nd$ on su* !oretical views are unexceptionable4 ,if we speak ( ! m9or #bie axis ( ,jupit]'s orbit1 or ( 8 d5sity1 or ( ! angle ( refraction1 or ! l5g? ( an undulation ( r$ light1 we assume c]ta9 !ories2 b inasmu* z ! !ories are n[ ! inevitable int]pretation ( asc]ta9$ facts1 we c h no bett] t]ms to designate ! conceptions ?us ref]r$ to4 ,& h5ce ! rule :i* we mu/ foll[ is1 n t our t]ms mu/ involve no !ory1 b t !y imply ! !ory only 9 t s5se 9 :i* x is ! int]pretation ( ! facts4 ,= example1 ! t]m pol>ization ( light 0 object$ to1 z involv+ a !ory4 ,p]haps ! t]m 0 at fir/ sugge/$ by conceiv+ light to consi/ ( p>ticles hav+ poles turn$ 9 a p>ticul> mann]4 ,b among intellig5t speculators1 ! notion ( pol>ization soon r$uc$ itself to ! simple conception ( opposite prop]ties 9 opposite positions1 :i* is a b>e /atem5t ( ! fact3 & ! t]m be+ und]/ood to h ?is mean+1 is a p]fectly good t]m1 & inde$ ! be/ :i* we c imag9e = designat+ :at is int5d$4 ,i ne$ h>dly add ! caution1 t names involv+ !oretical views n 9 accordance ) facts are to be reject$4 ,! foll[+ in/ances exemplify bo? ! positive & ! negative application ( ?is maxim4 ,! di/9ction ( prim>y & second>y rocks 9 geology 0 f\nd$ ^u a !ory2 namely1 t ^? :i* d n conta9 any organic rema9s 7 fir/ deposit$1 & aft]w>ds1 ^? :i* conta9 plants & animals4 ,b ?is !ory 0 insecure f ! fir/4 ,! difficulty ( mak+ ! sep>ation :i* x impli$1 l$ to ! introduction ( a class ( transition rocks4 ,& ! rec5t rese>*es ( geologi/s lead !m to ! conclusion1 t ^? rocks :i* are t]m$ prim>y1 may be ! newe/1 n ! olde/1 productions ( nature4 ,9 ord] to avoid ?is incongruity1 o!r t]ms h be5 propos$ z sub/itutes = ^!4 ,sir ,c4 ,lyell rem>ks#ccd1 t granite1 gneiss1 & ! l1 =m a class #bif :i* %\ld be designat$ by a common "n2 :i* "n %\ld n be ( *ronological import4 ,he proposes hypog5e1 signify+ 'ne!r-=m$2' & ?us he adopts ! !ory t !y h n assum$ _! pres5t =m & /ructure at ! surface1 b det]m9es no?+ ( ! p]iod :5 !y 7 produc$4 ,note #ccd3 ,pr9c4 ,geol4 iv4 #chf4 ,^! hypog5e rocks1 aga91 he divides into un/ratifi$ or plutonic1 & alt]$ /ratifi$1 or metamorphic2 ! latt] t]m imply+ ! hypo!sis t ! /ratifi$ rocks to :i* x is appli$ h be5 alt]$1 by ! effect ( fire or o!rwise1 s9ce !y 7 deposit$4 ,t fossilif]\s /rata1 9 "s cases at lea/1 h und]gone su* a *ange1 is demon/rable f facts#cdd4 ,note #cdd3 ,elem4 ,geol4 p4 #ag4 ,! mod]n nom5clature ( *emi/ry implies ! oxyg5 !ory ( *emi/ry4 ,h5ce x has sometimes be5 object$ to4 ,?us ,davy1 9 speak+ ( ! ,lavoisi]ian nom5clature1 makes ! foll[+ rem>ks1 :i*1 h[ev] plausible !y may s\nd1 w be f\nd to be utt]ly errone\s#ced4 ',simplicity & precision ought to be ! *>act]i/ics ( a sci5tific nom5clature3 words %\ld signify ?+s1 or ! analogies ( ?+s1 & n op9ions4 4 4 4 ,a sub/ance 9 "o age suppos$ to be simple1 9 ano!r is prov$ to be comp\nd1 & vice v]s4 ,a !oretical nom5clature is liable to cont9ual alt]ations3 oxyg5at$ muriatic acid is z improp] a t]m z dephlogi/icat$ m>9e acid4 ,e s*ool believes itself to be 9 ! "r3 & if e s*ool assumes to itself ! lib]ty ( alt]+ ! names ( *emical sub/ances 9 consequ5ce ( new ideas ( _! composition1 !re c be no p]man5cy 9 ! language ( ! sci5ce2 x mu/ always be confus$ & unc]ta94 ,bodies :i* are simil> to ea* o!r %\ld always be class$ toge!r2 & !re is a presumption t _! composition is analog\s4 ,metals1 e>?s1 alkalis1 are appropriate names = ! bodies !y repres5t1 & indep5d5t ( all speculation3 :]eas oxides1 sulphurets1 & muriates are t]ms f\nd$ ^u op9ions ( ! composition ( bodies1 "s ( :i* h be5 already f\nd errone\s4 #big ,! lea/ dang]\s mode ( giv+ a sy/ematic =m to a language seems to be to signify ! analogies ( sub/ances by "s common sign affix$ to ! beg9n+ or ! t]m9ation ( ! ^w4 ,?us z ! metals h be5 di/+ui%$ by a t]m9ation 9 um1 z aurum1 s _! calci=m or oxidat$ /ate might h be5 d5ot$ by a t]m9ation 9 a1 z aura3 & no progress1 h[ev] great1 9 ! sci5ce c\ld r5d] x necess>y t su* a mode ( appellation %\ld be *ang$4' ,note #ced3 ,elem5ts ( ,*em4 ,phil4 p4 #df4 ,^! rem>ks are f\nd$ ^u di/9ctions :i* h no real exi/5ce4 ,we _c sep>ate ?+s f _! prop]ties1 nor c we consid] _! prop]ties & analogies 9 any o!r way ?an by hav+ op9ions ab\t !m4 ,by contra/+ analogies ) op9ions1 x might appe> z if ! au?or ma9ta9$ t !re 7 c]ta9 analogies ab\t :i* !re 0 no room = errone\s op9ions4 ,yet ! analogies ( *emical comp\nds1 are1 9 fact1 ^? po9ts :i* h be5 mo/ ! subject ( diff]5ce ( op9ion1 & on :i* ! revolutions ( !ories h mo/ *ang$ m5's views4 ,z an example ( analogies :i* are /ill recogniz$ "u alt]ations ( !ory1 ! writ] gives ! relation ( a metal to its oxide or calci=m /ate4 ,b ?is analogy ( metallic oxides1 z ,r$ ,copp] or ,iron ,ore1 to ,calx1 or burnt lime1 is v f> f be+ self-evid5t2--s f> inde$1 t ! recognition ( ! analogy 0 a great /ep 9 *emical !ory4 ,! t]ms :i* he quotes1 oxyg5at$ muriatic acid 7& ! same may be said ( dephlogi/icat$ m>9e acid17 if improp]1 are s n because !y involve !ory1 b because !y involve false !ory2--n because ^? :o fram$ !m did n endeav\r to express analogies1 b because !y express$ analogies ab\t :i* !y 7 mi/ak54 ,unconnect$ names1 z metals1 e>?s1 alkalis1 are good z ! basis ( a sy/ematic nom5clature1 b !y are n sub/itutes = su* a nom5clature4 ,a sy/ematic nom5clature is an in/rum5t ( great utility & p[]1 z ! mod]n hi/ory ( *emi/ry has %[n4 ,x w\ld be highly unphilosophical to reject #bih ! use ( su* an in/rum5t1 because1 9 ! c\rse ( ! revolutions ( sci5ce1 we may h to modify1 or ev5 to remodel x altoge!r4 ,its utility is n by t means de/roy$4 ,x has reta9$1 transmitt$1 & enabl$ u to reason ^u1 ! doctr9es ( ! e>li] !ory1 s f> z !y are true2 & :5 ?is !ory is absorb$ into a m compreh5sive "o1 7= ?is1 & n its refutation1 is ! end ( a !ory s f> z x is true17 ! nom5clature is easily translat$ into t :i* ! new !ory introduces4 ,we h se51 9 ! hi/ory ( a/ronomy1 h[ valuable ! !ory ( epicycles 01 9 its "t3 ! nom5clature ( ! relations ( a planet's orbit1 :i* t !ory introduc$1 0 "o ( ,kepl]'s res\rces 9 discov]+ ! elliptical !ory2 &1 ?\gh n[ sup]s$$1 is /ill readily intelligible to a/ronom]s4 ,?is is n ! place to discuss ! reasons = ! =m ( sci5tific t]ms2 o!rwise we might ask1 9 ref]5ce to ! objections to ! ,lavoisi]ian nom5clature1 if su* =ms z aurum & aura are good to repres5t ! abs5ce or pres5ce ( oxyg51 :y su* =ms z sulphite & sulphate are n equally good to repres5t ! pres5ce ( :at we may call a small] or l>g] dose ( oxyg51 s long z ! oxyg5 !ory is admitt$ 9 its pres5t =m2 & to indicate /ill ! diff]5ce ( ! same sub/ances1 if "u any *ange ( !ory x %\ld come to be int]pret$ 9 a new mann]4 ,b ,i d n n[ dwell ^u su* argum5ts1 my object 9 ?is place be+ to %[ t t]ms involv+ !ory are n only all[able1 if und]/ood s f> z ! !ory is prov$1 b ( great value1 & inde$ ( indisp5sable use1 9 sci5ce4 ,! objection to !m is inconsi/5t ) ! objects ( sci5ce4 ,if1 aft] all t has be5 done 9 *emi/ry or any o!r sci5ce1 we h arriv$ at no solid k1 no p]man5t tru?2--if all t we believe n[ may be prov$ to be false to-morr[2--!n inde$ our op9ions & !ories are corruptible elem5ts1 on :i* x w\ld be unwise to re/ any ?+ important1 & :i* we might wi% to exclude1 ev5 f our names4 ,b if #bii our k has no m security ?an ?is1 we c f9d no reason :y we %\ld wi% at all to h names ( ?+s1 s9ce ! names are ne$$ ma9ly t we may reason ^u & increase our k su* z x is4 ,if we are condemn$ to endless alt]nations ( v>y+ op9ions1 !n1 no d\bt1 our !oretical t]ms may be a s\rce ( confusion2 b !n1 :]e w\ld be ! advantage ( _! be+ o!rwise8 :at w\ld be ! value ( words :i* %\ld express 9 a m precise mann] op9ions equally fleet+8 ,x w p]haps be said1 our t]ms mu/ express facts1 n !ories3 b ( ?is di/9ction s appli$ we h repeat$ly %[n ! futility4 ,!ories firmly e/abli%$ are facts4 ,is x n a fact t ! ru/+ ( iron arises f ! metal comb9+ ) ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e8 ,is x n a fact t a comb9ation ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 produces wat]8 ,t our t]ms %\ld express su* facts1 is precisely :at we are "h inculcat+4 ,our exam9ation ( ! hi/ory ( sci5ce has l$ u to a view v diff]5t f t :i* repres5ts x z consi/+ 9 ! succession ( ho/ile op9ions4 ,x is1 on ! contr>y1 a progress1 9 :i* ea* /ep is recogniz$ & employ$ 9 ! succe$+ "o4 ,e !ory1 s f> z x is true1 7& all t h prevail$ ext5sively & long1 conta9 a l>ge portion ( tru?17 is tak5 up into ! !ory :i* succe$s & seems to expel x4 ,all ! n>r[] inductions ( ! fir/ are includ$ 9 ! m compreh5sive g5]alizations ( ! second4 ,& ?is is p]=m$ ma9ly by means ( su* t]ms z we are n[ consid]+2--t]ms involv+ ! previ\s !ory4 ,x is by means ( su* t]ms1 t ! tru?s at fir/ asc]ta9$ become s famili> & manageable1 t !y c be employ$ z elem5t>y facts 9 ! =mation ( high] inductions4 ,^! pr9ciples mu/ be appli$ also1 ?\gh ) great caution1 & 9 a temp]ate mann]1 ev5 to descriptive language4 ,?us ! mode ( describ+ ! =ms ( cry/als adopt$ by ,w]n] & ,rom de l',isle 0 to consid] an orig9al =m1 f :i* o!r =ms are d]iv$ by truncations ( ! edges & ! #cjj angles4 ,hay's me?od ( describ+ ! same =ms1 0 to consid] !m z built up ( r[s ( small solids1 ! angles be+ det]m9$ by ! decrem5ts ( ^! r[s4 ,bo? ^! me?ods ( description involve hypo!tical views2 & ! la/ 0 int5d$ to re/ on a true physical !ory ( ! con/itution ( cry/als4 ,bo? hypo!ses are d\btful or false3 yet bo? ^! me?ods are good z modes ( description3 nor is ,hay's t]m9ology vitiat$1 if we suppose 7z 9 fact we mu/ suppose 9 _m in/ances17 t cry/all9e bodies are n really made up ( su* small solids4 ,! mode ( describ+ an octah$ron ( fluor sp>1 z d]iv$ f ! cube1 by decrem5ts ( "o r[ on all ! edges1 w\ld /ill be prop] & useful z a description1 :atev] judgm5t we %\ld =m ( ! mat]ial /ructure ( ! body4 ,b !n1 we mu/ consid] ! solids :i* are ?us introduc$ into ! description z m]ely hypo!tical geometrical =ms1 s]v+ to det]m9e ! angles ( ! faces4 ,x is 9 ?is way alone t ,hay's nom5clature c n[ be reta9$4 ,9 l mann] we may admit !oretical views into ! descriptive phraseology ( o!r p>ts ( ,natural ,hi/ory3 & ! !oretical t]ms w replace ! obvi\s images1 9 proportion z ! !ory is g5]ally accept$ & famili>ly appli$4 ,= example1 9 speak+ ( ! ,honeysuckle1 we may say t ! upp] leaves are p]foliate1 mean+ t a s+le r\nd leaf is p]=at$ by ! /alk1 or ?read$ ^u x4 ,"h is an image :i* suffici5tly conveys ! notion ( ! =m4 ,b x is n[ g5]ally recogniz$ t ?is app>5t s+le leaf is1 9 fact1 two opposite leaves jo9$ toge!r at _! bases4 ,if ?is 7 d\bt$1 x may be prov$ by comp>+ ! upp] leaves ) ! l[]1 :i* are really sep>ate & opposite4 ,h5ce ! t]m connate is appli$ to ^! conjo9$ opposite leaves1 imply+ t !y gr[ toge!r2 or !y are call$ connato-p]foliate4 ,aga92 =m]ly ! corolla 0 call$ monopetal\s or polypetal\s1 z x consi/$ ( "o "p or ( sev]al3 b x is n[ agre$ among botani/s t ^? corollas :i* #cja appe> to consi/ ( a s+le "p1 are1 9 fact1 compos$ ( sev]al sold]$ toge!r2 h5ce ! t]m gamopetal\s is n[ employ$ 7by ,de ,c&olle & 8 foll[]s7 in/ead ( monopetal\s#cfd4 ,note #cfd3 ,on ?is subject1 see ,illig]1 ,v]su* e9] ,sy/ematis*5 ,voll/ndig5 ,t]m9ologie fr das ,?i]rei* und ,pflanz5rei* 7#ahaj74 ,de ,c&olle1 ,?orie lm5taire de la ,botanique4 ,9 ?is way ! language ( ,natural ,hi/ory n only expresses1 b inevitably implies1 g5]al laws ( nature2 & words are ?us fitt$ to aid ! progress ( k 9 ?is1 z 9 o!r prov9ces ( sci5ce4 ,,aphorism ,,xii4 ,if t]ms are sy/ematically good1 !y are n to be reject$ because !y are etymologically inaccurate4 ,,t]ms belong+ to a sy/em are def9$1 n by ! mean+ ( _! radical words1 b by _! place 9 ! sy/em4 ,t !y %\ld be appropriate 9 _! signification1 aids ! processes ( introduc+ & rememb]+ !m1 & %\ld !re=e be c>efully att5d$ to by ^? :o inv5t & e/abli% !m2 b ?is once done1 no objections f\nd$ ^u _! etymological import are ( any mat]ial weight4 ,we f9d no inconv5i5ce 9 ! circum/ance t geometry means ! measur+ ( ! e>?1 t ! "n porphyry is appli$ to _m rocks :i* h no fi]y spots1 z ! ^w implies1 & oolite to /rata :i* h no roelike /ructure4 ,9 l mann]1 if ! t]m pcilite 7 already g5]ally receiv$1 z ! "n ( a c]ta9 gr\p ( /rata1 x w\ld be no valid gr\nd = qu>rell+ ) x1 t ?is gr\p 0 n always v>iegat$ 9 col\r1 or t o!r gr\ps 7 equally v>iegat$3 al?\gh und\bt$ly 9 introduc+ su* a t]m1 c>e %\ld be tak5 to make x z di/9ctive z possible4 ,x (t5 happ5s1 z we h se51 t by ! natural progress ( *anges 9 language1 a ^w is /eadily confirm$ 9 a s5se q diff]5t f its etymological import4 ,b ?\gh #cjb we may accept su* in/ances1 we mu/ n wantonly attempt to imitate !m4 ,i say1 n wantonly3 = if ! progress ( sci5tific id5tification compel u to foll[ any class ( objects into circum/ances :]e ! d]ivation ( ! t]m is inapplicable1 we may /ill consid] ! t]m z an unmean+ s\nd1 or r an hi/orical symbol1 express+ a c]ta9 memb] ( our sy/em4 ,?us if1 9 foll[+ ! c\rse ( ! m\nta9 or c>bonif]\s lime/one1 we f9d t 9 ,irel& x does n =m m\nta9s nor conta9 coal1 we %\ld act unwisely 9 break+ d[n ! nom5clature 9 :i* our sy/ematic relations are already express$1 9 ord] to ga91 9 a p>ticul> case1 a propriety ( language :i* has no sci5tific value4 ,all attempts to act ^u ! maxim opposite to ?is1 & to make our sci5tific names prop]ly descriptive ( ! objects1 h fail$ & mu/ fail4 ,= ! m>ks :i* really di/+ui% ! natural classes ( objects1 are by no means obvi\s4 ,! discov]y ( !m is "o ( ! mo/ important /eps 9 sci5ce2 & :5 !y are discov]$1 !y are con/antly liable to exceptions1 because !y d n conta9 ! ess5tial diff]5ces ( ! classes4 ,! natural ord] ,umbellat1 9 ord] to be a natural ord]1 mu/ conta9 "s plants :i* h n umbels1 z ,eryngium#cgd4 ',9 su* cases1' said ,l9nu1 'x is ( small import :at y call ! ord]1 if y take a prop] s]ies ( plants1 & give x "s "n :i* is cle>ly und]/ood to apply to ! plants y h associat$4' ',i h1' he adds1 'foll[$ ! rule ( borr[+ ! "n =tiori1 f ! pr9cipal feature4' ,note #cgd3 ,see ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xvi4 c4 iv4 sect4 #e4 ,! di/9ction ( cry/als into sy/ems accord+ to ! degree ( symmetry :i* obta9s 9 !m1 has be5 expla9$ else:]e4 ,two ( ^! sy/ems1 ( :i* ! relation z to symmetry might be express$ by say+ t "o is squ>e pyramidal & ! o!r oblong pyramidal1 or ! fir/ squ>e prismatic & ! second oblong prismatic1 are t]m$ by ,mohs1 ! fir/1 ,pyramidal1 & ! second ,prismatic4 ,& x may #cjc be d\bt$ :e!r x is wor? :ile to inv5t o!r t]ms1 ?\gh ^! are ?us defective 9 *>act]i/ic significance4 ,z an example ( a ne$less rejection ( old t]ms 9 virtue ( a suppos$ impropriety 9 _! mean+1 ,i may m5tion ! attempt made 9 ! la/ edition ( ,hay's ,m9]alogy1 to sub/itute autopside & het]opside = metallic & unmetallic4 ,x 0 suppos$ to be prov$ t all bodies h a metal = _! basis2 & h5ce x 0 wi%$ to avoid ! t]m unmetallic4 ,b ! words metallic & unmetallic may mean t m9]als seem metallic & unmetallic1 j z well z if !y conta9$ ! elem5t opside to imply ?is seem+4 ,! old names express all t ! new express1 & ) m simplicity1 & !re=e %\ld n be di/urb$4 ,! maxim on :i* we are n[ insi/+1 t we are n to be too scrupul\s ab\t ! etymology ( sci5tific t]ms1 may1 at fir/ sight1 appe> to be at v>iance ) our ,f\r? ,aphorism1 t words us$ te*nically are to reta9 _! common mean+ z f> z possible4 ,b x mu/ be recollect$1 t 9 ! ,f\r? ,aphorism we spoke ( common words appropriat$ z te*nical t]ms2 we "h speak ( words con/ruct$ = sci5tific purposes4 ,& al?\gh x is1 p]haps1 impossible to draw a broad l9e betwe5 ^! two classes ( t]ms1 /ill ! rule ( propriety may be /at$ ?us3 ,9 te*nical t]ms1 deviations f ! usual mean+ ( words are bad 9 proportion z ! words are m famili> 9 our own language4 ,?us we may apply ! t]m ,cirrus to a cl\d compos$ ( filam5ts1 ev5 if ^! filam5ts are /raight2 b to call su* a cl\d a ,curl cl\d w\ld be mu* m h>%4 ,s9ce ! names ( ?+s1 & ( classes ( ?+s1 :5 con/ruct$ s z to involve a description1 are con/antly liable to become bad1 ! natural classes %ift+ away f ! descriptive m>ks ?us prematurely & casually adopt$1 ,i v5ture to lay d[n ! foll[+ maxim4 #cjd ,,aphorism ,,xiii4 ,! fundam5tal t]ms ( a sy/em ( ,nom5clature may be conv5i5tly borr[$ f casual or arbitr>y circum/ances4 ,,= in/ance1 ! names ( plants1 ( m9]als1 & ( geological /rata1 may be tak5 f ! places :]e !y occur conspicu\sly or 9 a di/9ct =m2 z ,p>iet>ia1 ,p>nassia1 ,*alc$ony1 ,arragonite1 ,silurian sy/em1 ,purbeck lime/one4 ,^! names may be consid]$ z at fir/ supply+ /&>ds ( ref]5ce2 = 9 ord] to asc]ta9 :e!r any rock be ,purbeck lime/one1 we might comp>e x ) ! rocks 9 ! ,isle ( ,purbeck4 ,b ?is ref]5ce to a local /&>d is ( au?ority only till ! place ( ! object 9 ! sy/em1 & its di/9ctive m>ks1 are asc]ta9$4 ,x w\ld n vitiate ! above names1 if x 7 f\nd t ! ,p>nassia does n gr[ on ,p>nassus2 t ,*alc$ony is n f\nd 9 ,*alc$on2 or ev5 t ,arragonite no long] occurs 9 ,arragon2 = x is n[ firmly e/abli%$ z a m9]al species4 ,ev5 9 geology su* a ref]5ce is arbitr>y1 & may be sup]s$$1 or at lea/ modifi$1 by a m sy/ematic det]m9ation4 ,alp9e lime/one is no long] accept$ z a satisfactory designation ( a rock1 n[ t we "k ! lime/one ( ! ,alps to be ( v>i\s ages4 ,aga91 names ( p]sons1 ei!r casually connect$ ) ! object1 or arbitr>ily appli$ to x1 may be employ$ z designations4 ,?is has be5 done mo/ copi\sly 9 botany1 z = example1 ,nicotiana1 ,dahlia1 ,fu*sia1 ,jung]mannia1 ,lonic]a4 ,& ,l9nu has laid d[n rules = re/rict+ ?is mode ( p]petuat+ ! memory ( m51 9 ! names ( plants4 ,^? g5]ic names1 he says#chd1 :i* h be5 con/ruct$ to pres]ve ! memory ( p]sons :o h des]v$ well ( botany1 are to be religi\sly reta9$4 ,?is1 he adds1 is ! sole & supreme rew>d ( ! botani/'s lab\rs1 & mu/ be c>efully gu>d$ & #cje scrupul\sly be/[$1 z an enc\ragem5t & an hon\r4 ,/ill m arbitr>y are ! t]ms borr[$ f ! names ( ! gods & goddesses1 h]oes & h]o9es ( antiquity1 to designate new g5]a 9 ^? dep>tm5ts ( natural hi/ory 9 :i* s _m h be5 discov]$ 9 rec5t times z to we>y out all attempts at descriptive nom5clature4 ,cuvi] has c\nt5anc$ ?is me?od4 ',i h _h to frame _m new names ( g5]a & sub-g5]a1' he says#cid1 '= ! sub-g5]a :i* ,i h e/abli%$ 7 s num]\s & v>i\s1 t ! memory is n satisfi$ ) num]ical indications4 ,^! ,i h *os5 ei!r s z to indicate "s "*1 or among ! usual d5om9ations1 :i* ,i h lat9iz$1 or f9ally1 aft] ! example ( ,l9nu1 among ! names ( my?ology1 :i* are 9 g5]al agreeable to ! e>1 & :i* are f> f be+ exhau/$4' ,note #chd3 ,phil4 ,bot4 #bda4 ,note #cid3 ,rgne ,an4 p4 #af4 ,?is mode ( fram+ names f ! names ( p]sons to :om x 0 int5d$ to d hon\r1 has be5 employ$ also 9 ! ma!matical & *emical sci5ces2 b su* names h r>ely obta9$ any p]man5ce1 except :5 !y record$ an inv5tor or discov]]4 ,"s ( ! con/ellations1 inde$1 h reta9$ su* appellations1 z ,b]5ice's ,hair2 & ! new /> :i* %one out 9 ! "t ( ,cs>1 w\ld probably h reta9$ ! "n giv5 to x1 ( ! ,julian ,/>1 if x _h n disappe>$ aga9 soon aft]4 ,9 ! map ( ! ,moon1 almo/ all ! p>ts h _h su* names impos$ ^u !m by ^? :o h con/ruct$ su* maps1 & ^! names h v prop]ly be5 reta9$4 ,b ! names ( new planets & satellites ?us sugge/$ h n be5 g5]ally accept$2 z ! ,m$icean />s1 ! "n employ$ by ,galileo = ! satellites ( ,jupit]2 ! ,georgium ,sidus1 ! appellation propos$ by ,h]s*el = ,uranus :5 fir/ discov]$#djd2 ,c]es ,f]d9&ea1 #cjf ! "n :i* ,piazzi wi%$ to impose on ! small planet ,c]es4 ,! names giv5 to a/ronomical ,tables by ! a/ronom]s :o con/ruct$ !m h be5 mo/ /eadily adh]$ to1 be+ inde$ names ( books1 & n ( natural objects4 ,?us !re 7 ! ,il*anic1 ! ,alphons9e1 ! ,rudolph9e1 ! ,c>ol9ian ,tables4 ,comets :i* h be5 asc]ta9$ to be p]iodical1 h v prop]ly _h assign$ to !m ! "n ( ! p]son :o e/abli%$ ?is po9t2 & ( ^! we h ?us1 ,halley's1 ,encke's ,comet1 & ,biela's or ,gamb>t's ,comet4 ,note #djd3 ,9 ?is case1 ! "n ,uranus1 select$ ) a view to symmetry accord+ to ! my?ological ord] ( desc5t ( ! p]sons 7,uranus1 ,saturn1 ,jupit]1 ,m>s7 0 adopt$ by a/ronom]s 9 g5]al1 ?\gh n propos$ or sanction$ by ! discov]] ( ! new planet4 ,9 ! cases ( ! small] planets1 ,c]es1 ,pallas1 ,juno1 & ,ve/a1 ! names 7 giv5 ei!r by ! discov]]1 or ) 8 sanction4 ,foll[+ ?is rule1 ,bessel gave ! "n ( ,a/ra to a new planet discov]$ 9 ! same region by ,mr4 ,h5cke1 z m5tion$ 9 ! additions to book vii4 ( ! ,hi/ory 7#bnd ,ed474 ,foll[+ ! same rule1 & adh]+ z mu* z possible to my?ological connexion1 ! a/ronom]s ( ,europe h ) ! sanction ( ,m4 ,le ,v]ri]1 giv5 ! "n ( ,neptune to ! planet revolv+ beyond ,uranus1 & discov]$ 9 consequ5ce ( 8 ann\ncem5t ( its probable exi/5ce1 :i* _h be5 inf]r$ by ,mr4 ,adams & him 7calculat+ 9 ignorance ( ea* o!r's purpose7 f ! p]turbations ( ,uranus2 z ,i h /at$ 9 ! ,additions to ! ,?ird ,edition ( ! ,hi/ory4 ,9 ! case ( discov]ies 9 sci5ce or inv5tions ( app>atus1 ! "n ( ! inv5tor is v prop]ly employ$ z ! designation4 ,?us we h ! ,torricellian ,vacuum1 ! ,voltaic ,pile1 ,fahr5heit's ,!rmomet]4 ,& 9 ! same mann] ) reg>d to laws ( nature1 we h ,kepl]'s ,laws1 ,boyle or ,m>iotte's law ( ! ela/icity ( air1 ,huygh5s's law ( d\ble refraction1 ,newton's scale ( col\rs4 ,desc>tes' law ( refraction is an unju/ appellation2 = ! discov]y ( ! law ( s9es 0 made by ,snell4 ,9 d$uctive ma!matics1 :]e ! inv5tion ( a !orem is g5]ally a m def9ite /ep ?an an induction1 ?is mode ( designation is m common1 z ,demoivre's ,!orem1 ,maclaur9's ,!orem1 ,lagrange's ,!orem1 ,eul]ian ,integrals4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5ce#dad ,i h rem>k$ t 9 ! discov]y ( :at is t]m$ galvanism1 ,volta's #cjg (fice 0 ( a high] & m philosophical k9d ?an t ( ,galvani2 & ,i h1 on ?is acc\nt1 urg$ ! propriety ( employ+ ! t]m voltaic1 r ?an galvanic electricity4 ,i may add t ! electricity ( ! common ma*9e is (t5 plac$ 9 contra/ ) ?is1 & appe>s to require an express "n4 ,mr4 ,f>aday calls x common or ma*9e electricity2 b ,i ?9k t frankl9ic electricity w\ld =m a m natural correspond5ce ) voltaic1 & w\ld be well ju/ifi$ by ,frankl9's place 9 ! hi/ory ( t "p ( ! subject4 ,note #dad3 b4 xiii4 c4 #a4 ,,aphorism ,,xiv4 ,! ,b9>y ,me?od ( ,nom5clature 7,names by ,g5us & ,species7 is ! mo/ conv5i5t hi!rto employ$ 9 ,classification4 ,,! numb] ( species 9 e prov9ce ( ,natural ,hi/ory is s va/ t we _c di/+ui% !m & record ! di/9ctions )\t "s artifice4 ,! kn[n species ( plants1 = in/ance1 7 #aj1jjj 9 ! "t ( ,l9nu1 & are n[ probably #fj1jjj4 ,x w\ld be useless to endeav\r to frame & employ sep>ate names = ea* ( ^! species4 ,! division ( ! objects into a subord9at$ sy/em ( classification enables u to introduce a ,nom5clature :i* does n require ?is enorm\s numb] ( names4 ,! artifice employ$ is1 to "n a specim5 by means ( two 7or x might be m7 /eps ( ! successive division4 ,?us 9 ,botany1 ea* ( ! ,g5]a has its "n1 & ! species are m>k$ by ! addition ( "s epi!t to ! "n ( ! g5us4 ,9 ?is mann] ab\t #a1gjj ,g5]ic ,names1 ) a mod]ate numb] ( ,specific ,names1 7 f\nd by ,l9nu suffici5t to designate ) precision all ! species ( vegetables kn[n at 8 "t4 ,& ?is ,b9>y ,me?od ( ,nom5clature has be5 f\nd s conv5i5t1 t x has be5 univ]sally adopt$ 9 e o!r dep>tm5t ( ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( organiz$ be+s4 #cjh ,_m o!r modes ( ,nom5clature h be5 tri$1 b no o!r has at all tak5 root4 ,l9nu himself appe>s at fir/ to h int5d$ m>k+ ea* species by ! ,g5]ic ,"n1 accompani$ by a *>act]i/ic ,descriptive ,phrase2 & to h propos$ ! employm5t ( a ,trivial ,specific ,"n1 z he t]m$ x1 only z a me?od ( occasional conv5i5ce4 ,! use ( ^! trivial names1 h[ev]1 has become univ]sal1 z we h said2 & is by _m p]sons consid]$ ! greate/ improvem5t introduc$ at ! ,l9nan re=m4 ,,aphorism ,,xv4 ,! ,maxims ( ,l9nu conc]n+ ! ,names to be us$ 9 ,botany1 7,philosophia ,botanica1 ,nom9a4 ,sections #baj to #bee7 are good examples ( ,aphorisms on ?is subject4 ,,bo? ,l9nu & o!r writ]s 7z ,adanson7 h giv5 _m maxims ) a view ( regulat+ ! selection ( g5]ic & specific names4 ,! maxims ( ,l9nu 7 int5d$ z mu* z possible to exclude b>b>ism & confusion1 & h1 ^u ! :ole1 be5 g5]ally adopt$4 ,^! canons1 & ! sagaci\s mode/y ( great botani/s1 l ,rob]t ,br[n1 9 con=m+ to !m1 h kept ! majority ( good botani/s )9 salut>y limits2 ?\gh _m ( ^! canons 7 object$ to by ! contempor>ies ( ,l9nu 7,adanson & o!rs#dbd7 z caprici\s & unnecess>y re/rictions4 ,note #dbd3 ,pref4 cxxix4 clxxii4 ,_m ( ! names introduc$ by ,l9nu c]ta9ly appe> fanciful en\gh4 ,?us he gives ! "n ,bauh9ia to a plant :i* has leaves 9 pairs1 because ! ,bauh9s 7 a pair ( bro!rs4 ,bani/]ia is ! "n ( a climb+ plant 9 hon\r ( ,bani/]1 :o travell$ among m\nta9s4 ,b su* names once e/abli%$ by adequate au?ority lose all _! inconv5i5ce & easily become p]man5t1 & h5ce ! reasonabl5ess ( "o ( ! ,l9nan rules#dcd3-- ,t z su* a p]petuation ( ! names ( p]sons #cji by ! names ( plants is ! only hon\r t botani/s h to be/[1 x ought to be us$ ) c>e & caution1 & religi\sly respect$4 ,note #dcd3 ,phil4 ,bot4 s4 #bci4 #crd ed4 ,x may s]ve to %[ h[ s5sitive botani/s are to ! allusions conta9$ 9 su* names1 t x has be5 *>g$ aga9/ ,l9nu1 z a pro( ( malignity t[>ds ,buffon1 t he *ang$ ! "n ( ! g5us ,buffonia1 e/abli%$ by ,sauvages1 into ,bufonia1 :i* sugge/$ a d]ivation f ,bufo1 a toad4 ,x appe>s to be prov$ t ! spell+ 0 n ,l9nu's do+4 ,ano!r ,l9nan maxim is 7,art4 #bai71 t ! g5]ic "n mu/ be fix$ be=e we attempt to =m a specific "n2 '! latt] )\t ! =m] is l ! clapp] )\t ! bell4' ,! "n ( ! g5us be+ fix$1 ! species may be m>k$ 7,art4 #beg7 by add+ to x 'a s+le ^w tak5 at w f any qu>t]2' t is1 x ne$ n involve a description or any ess5tial prop]ty ( ! plant1 b may be a casual or arbitr>y appellation4 ,?us ! v>i\s species ( ,hi]acium#ddd are ,hi]acium ,alp9um1 ,h4 ,hall]i1 ,h4 ,pilosella1 ,h4 dubium1 ,h4 murorum1 c41 :]e we see h[ diff]5t may be ! k9d ( orig9 ( ! words4 ,note #ddd3 ,hook]1 ,fl4 ,scot4 #bbh4 ,attempts h be5 made at v>i\s times to =m ! names ( species f ^? ( g5]a 9 "s m symmetrical mann]4 ,b ^! h n be5 successful1 nor are !y likely to be s2 & we %all v5ture to prop\nd an axiom 9 condemnation ( su* names4 ,,aphorism ,,xvi4 ,num]ical names 9 ,classification are bad2 & ! same may be said ( o!r names ( k9ds1 dep5d+ ^u any fix$ s]ies ( notes ( ord]4 ,,) reg>d to num]ical names ( k9ds1 ( species = in/ance1 ! objections are ( ?is nature4 ,besides t su* names (f] no?+ = ! imag9ation to take hold (1 new discov]ies w probably alt] ! #caj num]ation1 & make ! names errone\s4 ,?us1 if we call ! species ( a g5us #a1 #b1 #c1 a new species int]m$iate betwe5 #a & #b1 #b & #c1 c4 _c be put 9 its place )\t damag+ ! numb]s4 ,! geological t]m ,trias1 lately introduc$ to designate ! gr\p consi/+ ( ! ?ree memb]s 7,bunt] ,s&/e91 ,mus*elkalk1 & ,keup]7 becomes improp] if1 z "s geologi/s hold1 two ( ^! memb]s _c be sep>at$4 ,objections resembl+ ^? :i* apply to num]ical designations ( species1 apply to o!r cases ( fix$ s]ies3 = in/ance1 :5 x has be5 propos$ to m>k ! species by alt]+ ! t]m9ation ( ! g5us4 ,?us ,adanson#ded1 d5ot+ a g5us by ! "n ,fonna 7,ly*nidea71 conceiv$ he might m>k five ( its species by alt]+ ! la/ syllable1 ,fonna1 ,fonna-e1 ,fonna-i1 ,fonna-o1 ,fonna-u2 !n o!rs by ,fonna-ba1 ,fonna-ka1 & s on4 ,?is w\ld be liable to ! same evils :i* h be5 notic$ z belong+ to ! num]ical me?od#dfd4 ,note #ded3 ,pref4 clxxvi4 ,note #dfd3 ,9 l mann] ! names assign$ by ,mr4 ,rickman to ! successive ( /yles ( ,go?ic ar*itecture 9 ,engl&1--,e>ly ,engli%1 ,decorat$1 & ,p]p5dicul>1--_c be replac$ by num]ical designations1 ,fir/ ,po9t$1 ,second ,po9t$1 ,?ird ,po9t$4 ,=--besides t he :o fir/ di/9ctly e/abli%es classes has ! "r ( nam+ !m1 & t ,mr4 ,rickman's names are really appropriate & significant--^! new names w\ld conf\nd all mean+ ( language4 ,we %\ld n be able to divide ,e>ly ,engli%1 or ,decorat$1 or ,p]p5dicul> into sub-/yles2--= :o c\ld talk ( ,fir/ ,second ,po9t$ & ,second ,second ,po9t$2 & :at %\ld we call t po9t$ /yle--! ,transition f ! ,norman--:i* prec$es ! ,fir/ ,po9t$8 ,,aphorism ,,xvii4 ,9 any classificatory sci5ce names includ+ m ?an two /eps ( ! classification may be employ$ if x be f\nd conv5i5t4 ,,l9n,,u1 9 8 canons = botanical nom5clature 7,art4 #bab71 says t ! names ( ! class & ! ord] are to be mute1 :ile ! names ( ! ,g5us & ,species are sonor\s4 ,& accord+ly ! names #caa ( plants 7& ! same is true ( animals7 h 9 common practice be5 b9>y only1 consi/+ ( a g5]ic & a specific "n4 ,! class & ! ord] h n be5 admitt$ to =m "p ( ! appellation ( ! species4 ,inde$ x is easy to see t a "n1 :i* mu/ be id5tical 9 s _m in/ances z t ( an ,ord] w\ld be1 w\ld be felt z sup]flu\s & bur!nsome4 ,accord+ly1 ,l9nu makes x "o ( 8 maxims#dgd1 t ! "n ( ! ,class & ,ord] mu/ n be express$ b und]/ood1 & h5ce1 he says1 ,roy51 :o took ,lilium = ! "n ( a ,class1 rightly reject$ ?is ^w z a g5]ic "n1 & sub/itut$ ,lirium ) ! ,greek t]m9ation4 ,note #dgd3 ,phil4 ,bot4 s4 #bae4 ,yet we mu/ n too p]emptorily assume su* maxims z ^! to be univ]sal = all classificatory sci5ces4 ,x is v possible t x may be f\nd advisable to use ?ree t]ms1 t ( ,ord]1 ,g5us1 & ,species 9 designat+ m9]als1 z is done 9 ,mohs's nom5clature1 = example1 ,rhomboh$ral ,calc ,haloide1 ,p>atom\s ,hal ,b>yte4 ,x is possible also t x may be f\nd useful 9 ! same sci5ce 7,m9]alogy7 to m>k "s ( ! /eps ( classification by ! t]m9ation4 ,?us x has be5 propos$ to conf9e ! t]m9ation ite to ! ,ord] ,silicides ( ,naumann1 z ,apophyllite1 ,/ilbite1 ,leucite1 c41 & to use names ( diff]5t =m 9 o!r ord]s1 z ,talc ,sp> = ,br5n]ite1 ,pyramidal ,titanium ,oxide = ,octah$rite4 ,"s su* me?od appe>s to be ! mo/ likely to give u a tol]able m9]alogical nom5clature4 ,,aphorism ,,xviii4 ,9 =m+ a ,t]m9ology1 words may be inv5t$ :5 necess>y1 b !y _c be conv5i5tly borr[$ f casual or arbitr>y circum/ances#dhd4 ,note #dhd3 ,i may also ref] to ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,id4 b4 viii4 c4 ii4 sec4 #b1 = "s rem>ks on ,t]m9ology4 ,,x w be recollect$ t ,t]m9ology is a language employ$ = describ+ objects1 ,nom5clature1 a body #cab ( names ( ! objects !mselves4 ,! names1 z 0 /at$ 9 ! la/ maxim1 may be arbitr>y2 b ! descriptive t]ms mu/ be borr[$ f words ( suitable mean+ 9 ! mod]n or ! classical languages4 ,?us ! :ole t]m9ology :i* ,l9nu introduc$ into botany1 is f\nd$ ^u ! receiv$ use ( ,lat9 words1 al?\gh he def9$ _! mean+ s z to make x precise :5 x 0 n s1 accord+ to ,aphorism ,v4 ,b _m ( ! t]ms 7 inv5t$ by him & o!r botani/s1 z ,p]ian?1 ,nect>y1 ,p]ic>p2 s _m1 inde$1 z to =m1 along ) ! o!rs1 a consid]able language4 ,_m ( ! t]ms :i* are n[ become famili> 7 orig9ally inv5t$ by writ]s on botany4 ,?us ! ^w ,petal1 = "o division ( ! corolla1 0 introduc$ by ,fabius ,columna4 ,! t]m ,sepal 0 devis$ by ,neck] to express ea* ( ! divisions ( ! calyx4 ,& up to ! mo/ rec5t times1 new d5om9ations ( p>ts & conditions ( p>ts h be5 devis$ by botani/s1 :5 !y f\nd !m necess>y1 9 ord] to m>k important diff]5ces or resemblances4 ,?us ! g5]al ,receptacle ( ! fl[]1 z x is t]m$ by ,l9nu1 or ,torus by ,salisbury1 is cont9u$ into organs :i* c>ry ! /am9a & pi/il1 or ! pi/il alone1 or ! :ole fl[]2 ?is organ has h5ce be5 t]m$#did ,gonophore1 ,c>pophore1 & ,an?ophore1 9 ^! cases4 ,note #did3 ,de ,c&olle's ,?4 ,el4 #dje4 ,9 l mann] :5 ,cuvi] _h asc]ta9$ t ! l[] jaws ( ,saurians consi/$ always ( six pieces hav+ def9ite relations ( =m & position1 he gave names to !m1 & t]m$ !m respectively ! ,d5tal1 ! ,angul>1 ! ,coronoid1 ! ,articul>1 ! ,complem5t>y1 & ! ,op]cul> ,bones4 ,9 all ^! cases1 ! descriptive t]ms ?us introduc$ h be5 significant 9 _! d]ivation4 ,an attempt to circulate a p]fectly arbitr>y ^w z a means ( description w\ld probably be unsuccessful4 ,we h1 inde$1 "s examples approa*+ to arbitr>y designations1 9 ! ,w]n]ian names ( col\rs1 #cac :i* are a "p ( ! t]m9ology ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,_m ( ^! names are borr[$ f natural resemblances1 z ,auricula purple1 ,apple gre51 ,/raw yell[2 b ! names ( o!rs are tak5 f casual occurr5ces1 mo/ly1 h[ev]1 su* z 7 already recogniz$ 9 common language1 z ,prussian blue1 ,dut* orange1 ,k+'s yell[4 ,! ext5sion ( arbitr>y names 9 sci5tific t]m9ology is by no means to be enc\rag$4 ,i may m5tion a case 9 :i* x 0 v prop]ly avoid$4 ,:5 ,mr4 ,f>aday's rese>*es on ,voltaic electricity _h l$ him to p]ceive ! great impropriety ( ! t]m poles1 z appli$ to ! app>atus1 s9ce ! processes h n ref]5ce to any oppos$ po9ts1 b to two opposite directions ( a pa?1 he v suitably wi%$ to sub/itute = ! phrases positive pole & negative pole1 two words end+ 9 ode1 f 1 a way4 ,a p]son :o did n see ! value ( our pres5t maxim1 t descriptive t]ms %\ld be descriptive 9 _! orig91 might h propos$ words p]fectly arbitr>y1 z ,alphode1 & ,betode3 or1 if he wi%$ to pay a tribute ( respect to ! discov]]s 9 ?is dep>tm5t ( sci5ce1 ,galvanode & ,voltaode1 ,b su* words w\ld v ju/ly h be5 reject$ by ,mr4 ,f>aday1 & w\ld h>dly h obta9$ any g5]al curr5cy among m5 ( sci5ce4 ,z9code & ,plat9ode1 t]ms d]iv$ f ! metal :i*1 9 "o modification ( ! app>atus1 =ms :at 0 previ\sly t]m$ ! pole1 are to be avoid$1 because 9 _! orig9 too mu* is casual2 & !y are n a good basis = d]ivative t]ms4 ,! pole at :i* ! z9c is1 is ! ,anode or ,ca?ode1 accord+ z x is associat$ ) diff]5t metals4 ,ei!r ! ,z9code mu/ sometimes mean ! pole at :i* ! ,z9c is1 & at o!r times t at :i* ! ,z9c is n1 or else we mu/ h z _m names = poles z !re are metals4 ,anode & ,ca?ode1 ! t]ms :i* ,mr4 ,f>aday adopt$1 7 free f ^! objections2 = !y ref] to a natural /&>d ( ! direction ( ! voltaic curr5t1 9 a mann] :i*1 ?\gh p]haps n obvi\s at fir/ sight1 is easily und]/ood & #cad reta9$4 ,anode & ,ca?ode1 ! ris+ & ! sett+ way1 are ! directions :i* correspond to ea/ & we/ 9 t voltaic curr5t to :i* we mu/ ascribe t]re/rial magnetism4 ,& ) ^! words x 0 easy to connect ,anon & ,ca?on1 to designate ! opposite elem5ts :i* are sep>at$ & lib]at$ at ! two ,electrodes4 ,,aphorism ,,xix4 ,! mean+ ( ,te*nical ,t]ms mu/ be fix$ by conv5tion1 n by casual ref]5ce to ! ord9>y mean+ ( words4 ,,9 fix+ ! mean+ ( ! ,te*nical ,t]ms :i* =m ! ,t]m9ology ( any sci5ce1 at lea/ ( ! descriptive ,t]ms1 we necess>ily fix1 at ! same "t1 ! p]ceptions & notions :i* ! ,t]ms are to convey to a he>]4 ,:at d we mean by apple-gre5 or ,fr5* grey8 ,x might1 p]haps1 be suppos$ t1 9 ! fir/ example1 ! t]m apple1 ref]r+ to s famili> an object1 suffici5tly sugge/s ! col\r int5d$4 ,b x may easily be se5 t ?is is n true2 = apples are ( _m diff]5t hues ( gre51 & x is only by a conv5tional selection t we c appropriate ! t]m to "o special %ade4 ,:5 ?is appropriation is once made1 ! t]m ref]s to ! s5sation1 & n to ! p>ts ( ?is t]m2 = ^! ent] into ! comp\nd m]ely z a help to ! memory1 :e!r ! sugge/ion be a natural connexion z 9 'apple-gre51' or a casual "o z 9 ',fr5* grey4' ,9 ord] to d]ive due advantage f te*nical t]ms ( ?is k9d1 !y mu/ be associat$ imm$iately ) ! p]ception to :i* !y belong2 & n connect$ ) x ?r\gh ! vague usages ( common language4 ,! memory mu/ reta9 ! s5sation2 & ! te*nical ^w mu/ be und]/ood z directly z ! mo/ famili> ^w1 & m di/9ctly4 ,:5 we f9d su* t]ms z t9-:ite or p9*beck-br[n1 ! metallic col\r s d5ot$ ought to />t up 9 our memory )\t delay or se>*4 #cae ,?is1 :i* x is mo/ important to recollect ) respect to ! simpl] prop]ties ( bodies1 z col\r & =m1 is no less true ) respect to m comp\nd notions4 ,9 all cases ! t]m is fix$ to a peculi> mean+ by conv5tion2 & ! /ud5t1 9 ord] to use ! ^w1 mu/ be completely famili> ) ! conv5tion1 s t he has no ne$ to frame conjectures f ! ^w itself4 ,su* conjectures w\ld always be insecure1 & (t5 errone\s4 ,?us ! t]m papilionace\s1 appli$ to a fl[]1 is employ$ to indicate1 n only a resemblance to a butt]fly1 b a resemblance aris+ f five petals ( a c]ta9 peculi> %ape & arrangem5t2 & ev5 if ! resemblance to a butt]fly 7 mu* /rong] ?an x is 9 su* cases1 yet if x 7 produc$ 9 a diff]5t way1 z1 = example1 by "o petal1 or two only1 in/ead ( a '/&>d1' two 'w+s1' & a 'keel' consi/+ ( two p>ts m or less unit$ into "o1 we %\ld no long] be ju/ifi$ 9 speak+ ( x z a 'papilionace\s' fl[]4 ,! =mation ( an exact & ext5sive descriptive language = botany has be5 execut$ ) a degree ( skill & felicity1 :i*1 be=e x 0 atta9$1 c\ld h>dly h be5 dreamt ( z atta9able4 ,e "p ( a plant has be5 nam$2 & ! =m ( e "p1 ev5 ! mo/ m9ute1 has _h a l>ge assemblage ( descriptive t]ms appropriat$ to x1 by means ( :i* ! botani/ c convey & receive k ( =m & /ructure1 z exactly z if ea* m9ute "p 7 pres5t$ to him va/ly magnifi$4 ,?is acquisition 0 "p ( ! ,l9nan ,re=m1 ( :i* we h spok5 9 ! ,hi/ory4 ',t\rne=t1' says ,de ,c&olle#ejd1 'appe>s to h be5 ! fir/ :o really p]ceiv$ ! utility ( fix+ ! s5se ( t]ms 9 su* a way z always to employ ! same ^w 9 ! same s5se1 & always to express ! same idea by ! same ^w2 b x 0 ,l9nu :o really creat$ & fix$ ?is botanical language1 & ?is is 8 faire/ claim to glory1 = by ?is fixation ( language he has %$ cle>ness & precision ov] all p>ts ( ! sci5ce4' ,note #ejd3 ,?or4 lm4 p4 #cbg4 #caf ,x is n necess>y "h to give any detail$ acc\nt ( ! t]ms ( botany4 ,! fundam5tal ones h be5 gradually introduc$1 z ! p>ts ( plants 7 m c>efully & m9utely exam9$4 ,?us ! fl[] 0 successively di/+ui%$ into ! calyx1 ! corolla1 ! /am5s1 & ! pi/ils3 ! sections ( ! corolla 7 t]m$ petals by ,columna2 ^? ( ! calyx 7 call$ sepals by ,neck]#ead4 ,sometimes t]ms ( great] g5]ality 7 devis$2 z p]ian? to include ! calyx & corolla1 :e!r "o or bo? ( ^! 7 pres5t#ebd2 p]ic>p = ! "p inclos+ ! gra91 ( :atev] k9d x be1 fruit1 nut1 pod1 c4 ,& x may easily be imag9$ t descriptive t]ms may1 by def9ition & comb9ation1 become v num]\s & di/9ct4 ,?us leaves may be call$ p9natifid#ecd1 p9nnatip>tite1 p9natisect1 p9natilobate1 palmatifid1 palmatip>tite1 c41 & ea* ( ^! words designates diff]5t comb9ations ( ! modes & ext5t ( ! divisions ( ! leaf ) ! divisions ( its outl9e4 ,9 "s cases arbitr>y num]ical relations are introduc$ into ! def9ition3 ?us a leaf is call$ bilobate#edd :5 x is divid$ into two p>ts by a not*2 b if ! not* g to ! middle ( its l5g?1 x is bifid2 if x g ne> ! base ( ! leaf1 x is bip>tite2 if to ! base1 x is bisect4 ,?us1 too1 a pod ( a crucif]\s plant is a silica#eed if x be f\r times z long z x is broad1 b if x be %ort] ?an ?is x is a silicula4 ,su* t]ms be+ e/abli%$1 ! =m ( ! v complex leaf or frond ( a f]n is exactly convey$1 = example1 by ! foll[+ phrase3 'fronds rigid p9nate1 p9n recurv$ subunilat]al p9natifid1 ! segm5ts l9e> undivid$ or bifid sp9uloso-s]rate#efd4' ,note #ead3 ,de ,c&olle1 #cbi4 ,note #ebd3 ,= ?is ,erh>t & ,de ,c&olle use ,p]igone4 ,note #ecd3 ,de ,c&olle1 #cah4 ,note #edd3 ,ibid4 #dic4 ,note #eed3 ,ibid4 #dbb4 ,note #efd3 ,hook]1 ,brit4 ,flo4 p4 #dej4 ,hym5ophyllum ,wilsoni1 ,scotti% filmy f]n1 abundant 9 ! highl&s ( ,scotl& & ab\t ,kill>ney4 ,o!r *>act]s1 z well z =m1 are convey$ ) ! l precision3 ,col\r by means ( a classifi$ scale ( col\rs1 z we h se5 9 speak+ ( ! ,measures #cag ( ,second>y ,qualities2 to :i*1 h[ev]1 we mu/ add1 t ! naturali/ employs arbitr>y names1 7su* z we h already quot$17 & n m]e num]ical expon5ts1 to indicate a c]ta9 numb] ( select$ col\rs4 ,?is 0 done ) mo/ precision by ,w]n]1 & 8 scale ( col\rs is /ill ! mo/ usual /&>d ( naturali/s4 ,w]n] also introduc$ a m exact t]m9ology ) reg>d to o!r *>act]s :i* are important 9 m9]alogy1 z lu/re1 h>dness4 ,b ,mohs improv$ ^u ?is /ep by giv+ a num]ical scale ( h>dness1 9 :i* talc is #a1 gypsum1 #b1 calc sp> #c1 & s on1 z we h already expla9$ 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,m9]alogy4 ,"s prop]ties1 z specific gravity1 by _! def9ition give at once a num]ical measure2 & o!rs1 z cry/all9e =m1 require a v consid]able array ( ma!matical calculation & reason+1 to po9t out _! relations & gradations4 ,9 all cases ! features ( lik5ess 9 ! objects mu/ be rightly appreh5d$1 9 ord] to _! be+ express$ by a di/9ct t]m9ology4 ,?us no t]ms c\ld describe cry/als = any purpose ( natural hi/ory1 till x 0 discov]$ t 9 a class ( m9]als ! proportion ( ! faces might v>y1 :ile ! angle rema9$ ! same4 ,nor c\ld cry/als be describ$ s z to di/+ui% species1 till x 0 f\nd t ! d]iv$ & primitive =ms are connect$ by v simple relations ( space & numb]4 ,! discov]y ( ! mode 9 :i* *>act]s mu/ be appreh5d$ s t !y may be consid]$ z fix$ = a class1 is an important /ep 9 ! progress ( ea* bran* ( ,natural ,hi/ory2 & h5ce we h _h1 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,m9]alogy & ,botany1 to di/+ui% z important & em95t p]sons ^? :o made su* discov]ies1 ,rom de ,lisle & ,hay1 ,csalp9us & ,gesn]4 ,by ! cont9u$ progress ( t k ( m9]als1 plants1 & o!r natural objects1 9 :i* su* p]sons made ! mo/ di/9ct & m>k$ /eps1 b :i* has be5 con/antly advanc+ 9 a m gradual & imp]ceptible mann]1 ! mo/ important & ess5tial features ( simil>ity & dissimil>ity 9 su* objects h be5 select$1 arrang$1 & fitt$ ) #cah names2 & we h ?us 9 su* dep>tm5ts1 sy/ems ( ,t]m9ology :i* fix our att5tion ^u ! resemblances :i* x is prop] to consid]1 & enable u to convey !m 9 words4 ,! foll[+ ,aphorisms respect ! ,=m ( ,te*nical ,t]ms4 ,by ! ,=m ( t]ms1 ,i mean _! philological conditions2 z1 = example1 f :at languages !y may be borr[$1 by :at modes ( inflexion !y mu/ be comp\nd$1 h[ _! d]ivatives are to be =m$1 & ! l4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 o!r p>ts ( ! subject1 ,i %all n lay d[n a sy/em ( rules1 b %all propose a few maxims4 ,,aphorism ,,xx4 ,! two ma9 conditions ( ! ,=m ( te*nical t]ms are1 t !y mu/ be g5]ally intelligible1 & susceptible ( su* grammatical relations z _! sci5tific use requires4 ,,^! conditions may at fir/ appe> some:at vague1 b x w be f\nd t !y are z def9ite z we c\ld make !m1 )\t injuri\sly re/rict+ ourselves4 ,x w appe>1 moreov]1 t !y h an important be>+ ^u mo/ ( ! que/ions respect+ ! =m ( ! words :i* come be=e u2 & t if we c succe$ 9 any case 9 reconcil+ ! two conditions1 we obta9 t]ms :i* are practically good1 :atev] objections may be urg$ aga9/ !m f o!r consid]ations4 #a4 ,! =m] condition1 = in/ance1 be>s ^u ! "q :e!r sci5tific t]ms are to be tak5 f ! le>n$ languages1 ,greek & ,lat91 or f our own4 ,& ! latt] condition v mat]ially affects ! same "q1 s9ce 9 ,engli% we h sc>cely any p[] ( inflect+ our words2 & !re=e mu/ h rec\rse to ,greek or ,lat9 9 ord] to obta9 t]ms :i* admit ( grammatical modification4 ,if we 7 cont5t ) ! t]m ,heat1 to express ! sci5ce ( heat1 /ill x w\ld be a bad te*nical t]m1 = we _c d]ive f x an adjective l #cai !rmotical4 ,if b$ or lay] 7 an equally good t]m ) /ratum1 we mu/ /ill reta9 ! latt]1 9 ord] t we may use ! d]ivative ,/ratification1 = :i* ! ,engli% words _c produce an equival5t sub/itute4 ,we may reta9 ! words lime & fl9t1 b _! adjectives = sci5tific purposes are n limy & fl9ty1 b calc>e\s & silice\s2 & h5ce we are able to =m a comp\nd1 z calc>eo-silice\s1 :i* we c\ld n d ) indig5\s words4 ,we might fix ! phrases b5t back & brok5 to mean 7( optical rays7 t !y are reflect$ & refract$2 b !n we %\ld h no means ( speak+ ( ! angles ( ,reflection & ,refraction1 ( ! ,refractive ,indices1 & ! l4 ,9 l mann]1 s long z anatomi/s describ$ c]ta9 p>ts ( a v]tebra z v]tebral lam91 or v]tebral plates1 !y _h no adjective :]eby to signify ! prop]ties ( ^! p>ts2 ! t]m ,neurapophysis1 giv5 to !m by ,mr4 ,ow51 supplies ! correspond+ expression neurapophysial4 ,s aga91 ! t]m ,basisph5oid1 employ$ by ! same anatomi/1 is bett] ?an basil> or basial process ( ! sph5oid1 because x gives u ! adjective basisph5oidal4 ,& ! l rem>k applies to o!r *anges rec5tly propos$ 9 ! names ( portions ( ! skeleton4 ,?us "o ( ! advantages ( go+ to ! ,greek & ,lat9 languages = ! orig9 ( our sci5tific t]ms is1 t 9 ?is way we obta9 words :i* admit ( ! =mation ( adjectives & ab/ract t]ms1 & ( composition1 & ( o!r inflexions4 ,ano!r advantage ( su* an orig9 is1 t su* t]ms1 if well select$1 are readily und]/ood ov] ! :ole lett]$ _w4 ,= ?is reason1 ! descriptive language ( sci5ce1 ( botany = in/ance1 has be51 = ! mo/ "p1 tak5 f ! ,lat92 _m ( ! t]ms ( ! ma!matical & *emical sci5ces h be5 d]iv$ f ! ,greek2 & :5 occasion occurs to con/ruct a new t]m1 x is g5]ally to t language t rec\rse is _h4 ,! advantage ( su* t]ms is1 z has already be5 intimat$1 t !y con/itute an univ]sal language1 by means ( :i* #cbj cultivat$ p]sons 9 e c\ntry may convey to ea* o!r _! ideas )\t ! ne$ ( translation4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! advantage ( indig5\s t]ms is1 t s f> z ! language ext5ds1 !y are intelligible mu* m cle>ly & vividly ?an ^? borr[$ f any o!r s\rce1 z well z m easily manageable 9 ! con/ruction ( s5t5ces4 ,9 ! descriptive language ( botany1 = example1 9 an ,engli% "w1 ! t]ms droop+1 nodd+1 "o-sid$1 tw9+1 /raggl+1 appe> bett] ?an c]nu\s1 nutant1 secund1 volubile1 div>icate4 ,= ?\gh ! latt] t]ms may by habit become z intelligible z ! =m]1 !y _c become m s to any read]s2 & to mo/ ,engli% read]s !y w give a f> less di/9ct impression4 #b4 ,s9ce ! advantage ( indig5\s ov] le>n$ t]ms1 or ! contr>y1 dep5ds ^u ! balance ( ! capacity ( inflexion & composition on ! "o h&1 aga9/ a ready & cle> significance on ! o!r1 x is evid5t t ! employm5t ( sci5tific t]ms ( ! "o class or ( ! o!r may v prop]ly be extremely diff]5t 9 diff]5t languages4 ,! ,g]man possesses 9 a v em95t degree t p[] ( composition & d]ivation1 :i* 9 ,engli% c h>dly be ex]cis$ at all1 9 a =mal mann]4 ,h5ce ,g]man sci5tific writ]s use native t]ms to a f> great] ext5t ?an d our own au?ors4 ,! descriptive t]m9ology ( botany1 & ev5 ! sy/ematic nom5clature ( *emi/ry1 are repres5t$ by ! ,g]mans by means ( ,g]man roots & inflexions4 ,?us ! description ( ,pot5tilla ans]9a1 9 ,engli% botani/s1 is t x has ,leaves int]rupt$ly p9nate1 s]rate1 silky1 /em creep+1 /alks axilll>1 "o-fl[]$4 ,"h we h words ( ,saxon & ,lat9 orig9 m+l$ pretty equally4 ,b ! ,g]man description is entirely ,teutonic4 ,die ,blume 9 ,a*sel2 die ,bltt] unt]bro*5 gefi$]t1 die ,bltt*5 s*>f gesagt1 die ,/mme krie*5d1 die ,blu!n/iele e9blumig4 ,we c\ld imitate ?is 9 our own language1 by say+ brok5ly-fea!r$1 %>p-saw$2 by us+ ?re$ = t]nate1 z ! ,g]mans employ g$reit2 by say+ #cba f+]$-fea!r$ = digitato-p9nate1 & ! l4 ,b ! habit :i* we h1 9 common z well z sci5tific language1 ( borr[+ words f ! ,lat9 = new cases1 w\ld make su* usages seem v h>% & p$antic4 ,we may add t1 9 consequ5ce ( ^! diff]5t practices 9 ! two languages1 x is a common habit ( ! ,g]man read] to impose a sci5tific def9it5ess ^u a common ^w1 su* z our ,fif? ,aphorism requires2 :]eas ! ,engli% read] expects r t a ^w :i* is to h a te*nical s5se %all be d]iv$ f ! le>n$ languages4 ,die ,kel* & die ,blume 7! cup & ! fl[]7 easily assume ! te*nical mean+ ( calyx & corolla2 die ,griffel 7! p5cil7 becomes ! pi/il2 & a "n is easily f\nd = ! poll51 ! an!rs1 & ! /am5s1 by call+ !m ! du/1 ! du/-cases1 & ! du/-?reads 7d] ,/aub1 die ,/aub-beutel1 or ,/aub-f*]1 & die ,/aub-fd571 ,?is 0 =m]ly done 9 ,engli% to a great] ext5t ?an is n[ possible )\t confusion & p$antry4 ,?us1 9 ,grew's book on ! ,anatomy ( ,plants1 ! calyx is call$ ! impalem5t1 & ! sepals ! impal]s2 ! petals are call$ ! leaves ( ! fl[]2 ! /am5s ) _! an!rs are ! sem9i=m attire4 ,b ! ,engli% language1 z to su* matt]s1 is n[ less flexible ?an x 02 p>tly 9 consequ5ce ( its hav+ adopt$ ! ,l9nan t]m9ology almo/ entire1 )\t any endeav\r to naturalize x4 ,any attempt at idiomatic description w\ld int]f]e ) ! sci5tific language n[ g5]ally receiv$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,9 ,g]many1 on ! o!r h&1 ^? :o fir/ wrote ^u sci5ce 9 _! own language imitat$ ! ,lat9 words :i* !y f\nd 9 =eign writ]s1 in/ead ( transf]r+ new roots into _! own language4 ,?us ! ,num]ator & ,d5om9ator ( a fraction !y call ! ,nam] & ! ,c\nt] 7,n5n] & ,zhl]74 ,?is c\rse !y pursu$ ev5 :]e ! expression 0 errone\s4 ,?us t portion ( ! inte/9es :i* anci5t anatomi/s call$ ,duod5um1 because !y falsely e/imat$ its l5g? at twelve in*es1 ! #cbb ,g]mans also t]m ,zwlff+]d>m 7twelve-in*-gut71 ?\gh ?is inte/9e 9 a :ale is tw5ty feet long1 & 9 a frog n above tw5ty l9es4 ,z ano!r example ( ?is process 9 ,g]man1 we may take ! ^w ,mutt]sackbau*blatte1 ! ut]9e p]itonum4 ,x is a rem>kable evid5ce ( ?is =mative p[] ( ! ,g]man language1 t x %\ld h be5 able to produce an imitation ( ! sy/ematic *emical nom5clature ( ! ,fr5* s*ool1 s complete1 t x is us$ 9 ,g]many z famili>ly z ! orig9al sy/em is 9 ,france & ,engl&4 ,?us ,oxyg5 & ,hydrog5 are ,sau]/(f & 9999,wass]/(f2 ,azote is ,/ick/(f 7suffocat+ matt]72 ,sulphuric & ,sulphur\s ,acid are ,s*wefel-sure & ,s*wefeli*te-sure4 ,! ,sulphate & ,sulphite ( ,b>yta1 & ,sulphuret ( ,b>yum1 are ,s*wefel-sure ,b>yt]de1 ,s*wefeli*te-sure ,b>yt]de1 & ,s*wefel-b>yum4 ,c>bonate ( ,iron is ,kohl5-sures ,eis5oxydul2 & we may obs]ve t1 9 su* cases1 ! ,g]man "n is mu* m agreeable to analogy ?an ! ,engli% "o2 = ! ,protoxide ( ,iron1 7,eis5oxydul17 & n ! ,iron itself1 is ! base ( ! salt4 ,& ! ,g]man language has n only ?us imitat$ ! e/abli%$ nom5clature ( *emi/ry1 b has %[n itself capable ( supply+ new =ms to meet ! dem&s :i* ! progress ( !ory occasions4 ,?us ! ,hydracids are ,wass]/(f-sur52 & ( ^!1 ! ,hydriodic ,acid is ,iodwass]/(f-sure1 & s ( ! re/4 ,9 l mann]1 ! translator ( ,b]zelius has f\nd ,g]man names = ! sulpho-salts ( t *emi/2 ?us he has ,wass]/(fs*wefliges ,s*ewefelli?ium1 :i* w\ld be 7if we 7 to adopt 8 !oretical view7 hydro-sulphuret ( sulphuret ( li?ium3 & a l nom5clature = all o!r simil> cases4 #c4 ,9 ,engli% we h no p[] ( imitat+ ?is process1 & mu/ take our te*nical phrases f "s m flexible language1 & g5]ally f ! ,lat9 or ,greek4 ,we are inde$ s mu* accu/om$ to d ?is1 t except a ^w has its orig9 9 "o ( ^! languages1 x h>dly seems to u a te*nical #cbc t]m2 & ?us by employ+ indig5\s t]ms1 ev5 descriptive ones1 we may1 p]haps1 lose 9 precision m ?an we ga9 9 ! vividness ( ! impression4 ,p]haps x may be bett] to say cuneate1 lunate1 ha/ate1 sagittate1 r5i=m1 ?an w$ge-%ap$1 cresc5t-%ap$1 halb]t-head$1 arr[-head$1 kidney-%ap$4 ,r+5t & p]sonate are bett] ?an any ,engli% words :i* we c\ld sub/itute = !m2 labiate is m precise ?an lipp$ w\ld readily become4 ,urceolate1 tro*le>1 are m compact ?an pit*]-%ap$1 pulley-%ap$2 & infundibuli=m1 hypocrat]i=m1 ?\gh long words1 are n m inconv5i5t ?an funnel-%ap$ & salv]-%ap$4 ,9 ! same way x is bett] to speak 7) ,dr4 ,pri*>d#egd17 ( rep5t & progressive animals1 ?an ( creep+ & progressive3 ! two ,lat9 t]ms make a bett] pair ( correlatives4 ,note #egd3 ,rese>*es1 p4 #fi4 #d4 ,b :]ev] we may draw ! l9e betwe5 ! prop] use ( ,engli% & ,lat9 t]ms 9 descriptive phraseology1 we %all f9d x advisable to borr[ almo/ all o!r te*nical t]ms f ! le>n$ languages4 ,we h se5 ?is 9 consid]+ ! new t]ms introduc$ into v>i\s sci5ces 9 virtue ( our ,n9? ,maxim4 ,we may add1 z fur!r examples1 ! names ( ! v>i\s animals ( :i* a k has be5 acquir$ f ! rema9s ( !m :i* exi/ 9 v>i\s /rata1 & :i* h be5 recon/ruct$ by ,cuvi] & 8 successors4 ,su* are ! ,palo!rium1 ! ,anoplo!rium1 ! ,mega!rium1 ! ,d9o!rium1 ! ,*iro!rium1 ! ,megali*?ys1 ! ,ma/odon1 ! ,i*?yosaurus1 ! ,plesiosaurus1 ! ,pt]odactylus4 ,to ^! o!rs are e ye> add$2 z1 = in/ance1 v rec5tly1 ! ,toxodon1 ,zeuglodon1 & ,phascolo!rium ( ,mr4 ,ow51 & ! ,?ylaco!rium ( ,m4 ,val5ci5nes4 ,/ill m rec5tly ! t]ms ,glyptodon1 ,mylodon1 ,dicynodon1 ,paloplo!rium1 ,rhyn*osaurus1 h be5 add$ by ,mr4 ,ow5 to designate fossil animals newly det]m9$ by him4 #cbd ,! names ( species1 z well z ( g5]a1 are ?us =m$ f ! ,greek3 z ! ,plesiosaurus doli*odeirus 7long-neck$71 ,i*?yosaurus platyodon 7broad-too!d71 ! ,iri% elk1 t]m$ ,c]vus megac]os 7l>ge-horn$74 ,b ! descriptive specific names are also tak5 f ! ,lat91 z ,plesiosaurus breviro/ris1 longiro/ris1 crassiro/ris2 besides :i* !re are arbitr>y specific names1 :i* we d n "h consid]4 ,^! names be+ all con/ruct$ at a p]iod :5 naturali/s 7 famili> ) an artificial sy/em1 ! /&>d language ( :i* is ,lat91 h n be5 tak5 f mod]n language4 ,b ! names ( liv+ animals1 & ev5 ( _! classes1 long ago =m$ 9 ! common language ( m51 h be5 9 "p adopt$ 9 ! sy/ems ( naturali/s1 agreeably to ,aphorism ,?ird4 ,h5ce ! language ( sy/ems 9 natural hi/ory is mix$ ( anci5t & mod]n languages4 ,?us ,cuvi]'s divisions ( ! v]tebrat$ animals are ,mammifres 7,lat971 ,oiseaux1 ,reptiles1 ,poissons2 ,bimanes1 ,quadrumanes1 ,c>nassires1 ,rongeurs1 ,pa*yd]mes 7,greek71 ,rum9ans 7,lat971 ,ctacs 7,lat974 ,9 ! subord9ate divisions ! di/ribution be+ m novel1 ! names are less idiomatic3 ?us ! k9ds ( ,reptiles are ,*eloni5s1 ,sauri5s1 ,ophidi5s1 ,batraci5s1 all :i* are ( ,greek orig94 ,9 l mann]4 ,fi% are divid$ into ,*ondropt]ygi5s1 ,malacopt]ygi5s1 ,acan?opt]ygi5s4 ,! unv]tebrat$ animals are ,mollusques1 ,animaux articuls1 & ,animaux rayonns2 & ! ,mollusques are divid$ into six classes1 *iefly accord+ to ! position or =m ( _! foot2 namely1 ,cephalopodes1 ,pt]opodes1 ,ga/]opodes1 ,acephales1 ,bra*iopodes1 ,cirrhopodes4 ,9 transf]r+ ^! t]ms into ,engli%1 :5 ! t]m is new 9 ,fr5* z well z ,engli%1 we h little difficulty2 = we may take ne>ly ! same lib]ties 9 ,engli% :i* are tak5 9 ,fr5*2 & h5ce we may say mammif]s 7r mammals71 cetaceans or cetaces1 batracians 7r batra*ians71 us+ ! words z sub/antives4 ,b 9 o!r cases we mu/ g back to ! ,lat93 ?us we say radiate #cbe animals1 or radiata 7r radials71 = rayonns4 ,^! *anges1 h[ev]1 r ref] to ano!r ,aphorism4 7,mr4 ,kirby has propos$ radi>y1 radi>ies1 = radiata47 #e4 ,:5 new ,m9]al ,species h be5 e/abli%$ 9 rec5t times1 !y h g5]ally _h arbitr>y names assign$ to !m1 d]iv$ f "s p]son or places4 ,9 "s in/ances1 h[ev]1 descriptive names h be5 select$2 & !n ^! h be5 g5]ally tak5 f ! ,greek1 z ,augite1 ,/ilbite1 ,diaspore1 ,di*roite1 ,dioptase4 ,sev]al ( ^! ,greek names impos$ by ,hay1 ref] to "s circum/ances1 (t5 fancifully select$1 9 8 view ( ! cry/allization ( ! sub/ance1 z ,epidote1 ,p]idote1 ,pleona/4 ,simil> t]ms ( ,greek orig9 h be5 introduc$ by o!rs1 z ,or?ite1 ,anor?ite1 ,p]ikl94 ,greek names f\nd$ on casual circum/ances are less to be comm5d$4 ,b]zelius has t]m$ a m9]al ,es*ynite f 1 %ame1 because x is1 he conceives1 a %ame = *emi/s n to h sep>at$ its elem5ts m di/9ctly ?an !y did at fir/4 #f4 ,9 ,botany1 ! old names ( g5]a ( ,greek orig9 are v num]\s1 & _m ( !m are descriptive1 z ,glycyrhiza 7 & 1 sweet root7 liquorice1 ,rhodod5dron 7rose-tree71 ,hmatoxylon 7bloody wood71 ,*rysocoma 7gold5 hair71 ,alopecurus 7fox-tail71 & _m m4 ,9 l mann] !re are names :i* d]ive a descriptive significance f ! ,lat91 ei!r adjectives1 z ,impati5s1 ,gloriosa1 ,sagitt>ia1 or sub/antives irregul>ly =m$1 z ,tussilago 7 tussis domatione71 ,urtica 7ab ur5do tactu71 ,salsola 7 sals$9e74 ,b ^!1 ?\gh good names :5 !y are e/abli%$ by tradition1 are h>dly to be imitat$ 9 nam+ new plants4 ,9 mo/ in/ances1 :5 ?is is to be done1 arbitr>y or local names h be5 select$1 z ,/relitzia4 #g4 ,9 ,*emi/ry1 new sub/ances h ( late _h names assign$ !m f ,greek roots1 z ,iod9e1 f its violet col\r1 ,*lor9e f its gre5 col\r4 ,9 l mann] fluor9e has by ! ,fr5* *emi/s be5 call$ ,ph?or1 f its de/ructive prop]ties4 ,s ! #cbf new metals1 ,*rome1 ,rhodium1 ,iridium1 ,osmium1 _h names ( ,greek d]ivation descriptive ( _! prop]ties4 ,"s su* t]ms1 h[ev]1 7 borr[$ f localities1 z ,/rontia1 ,yttria1 ! names ( new e>?s4 ,o!rs h a mix$ orig91 z ,pyrogallic1 ,pyroacetic1 & ,pyroligne\s ,_s4 ,9 "s cases ! d]ivation has be5 extravagantly caprici\s4 ,?us 9 ! process = mak+ ,pyrogallic ,acid1 a c]ta9 sub/ance is left beh9d1 f :i* ,m4 ,braconnot extract$ an acid :i* he call$ ,ellagic ,acid1 fram+ ! root ( ! "n by read+ ! ^w ,galle backw>ds4 ,! new laws :i* ! /udy ( ,electro-*emi/ry br\ght into view1 requir$ a new t]m9ology to express _! conditions3 & 9 ?is case1 z we h obs]v$ 9 speak+ ( ! ,twelf? ,maxim1 arbitr>y words are less suitable4 ,mr4 ,f>aday v prop]ly borr[$ f ! ,greek 8 t]ms ,electrolyte1 ,electrode1 ,anode1 ,ca?ode1 ,anon1 ,ca?on1 ,dielectric4 ,9 ! me*anico-*emical & me*anical sci5ces1 h[ev]1 new t]ms are less copi\sly requir$ ?an 9 ! sci5ces ( classification1 & :5 !y are ne$$1 !y are g5]ally det]m9$ by analogy f exi/+ t]ms4 ,!rmo-electricity & ,electro-dynamics 7 t]ms :i* v naturally (f]$ !mselves2 ,nobili's !rmo-multipli]1 ,sn[ ,h>ris's unit-j>1 7 almo/ equally obvi\s names4 ,9 su* cases1 x is g5]ally possible to con/ruct t]ms bo? comp5di\s & descriptive1 )\t introduc+ any new radical words4 #h4 ,! subject ( ,cry/allography has inevitably giv5 rise to _m new t]ms1 s9ce x br+s "u our notice a great numb] ( new relations ( a v def9ite b v complex =m4 ,hay attempt$ to f9d names = all ! lead+ v>ieties ( cry/als1 & = ?is purpose introduc$ a great numb] ( new t]ms1 f\nd$ on v>i\s analogies & allusions4 ,?us ! =ms ( calc-sp> are t]m$ by him primitive1 equiaxe1 inv]se1 meta/atique1 contra/ante1 imitable1 birhomboidale1 prismatique1 apophane1 unit]naire1 bisunitaire1 dodcadre1 contracte1 dilate1 sexduodecimale1 bisalt]ne1 b9ot]naire1 & _m o!rs4 ,! #cbg want ( uni=mity 9 ! orig9 & s*eme ( ^! d5om9ations w\ld be no valid objection to !m1 if any g5]al tru? c\ld be express$ by means ( !m3 b ! fact is1 t !re is no def9ite di/9ction ( ^! =ms4 ,!y pass into ea* o!r by ins5sible gradations1 & ! optical & physical prop]ties :i* !y possess are common to all ( !m4 ,& z a m]e enunciation ( laws ( =m1 ?is t]m9ology is insuffici5t4 ,?us x does n at all convey ! relation betwe5 ! bisalt]ne & ! b9ot]naire1 ! =m] be+ a comb9ation ( ! meta/atique ) ! prismatique1 ! latt]1 ( ! meta/atique ) ! contra/ante3 aga91 ! contra/ante1 ! mixte1 ! cuboide1 ! contracte1 ! dilate1 all conta9 faces g5]at$ by a common law1 ! index be+ respectively alt]$ s z to be 9 ^! cases1 #c1 #c_/b1 #d_/e1 #i_/d1 #e_/i2 & ?is1 :i* is ! mo/ important geometrical relation ( ^! =ms1 is n at all record$ or indicat$ by ! nom5clature4 ,! fact is1 t x is probably impossible1 ! subject ( cry/allography hav+ become s complex z x n[ is1 to devise a sy/em ( names :i* %all express ! relations ( =m4 ,num]ical symbols1 su* z ^? ( ,weiss or ,naumann1 or ,pr(essor ,mill]1 are ! prop] ways ( express+ ^! relations1 & are ! only good cry/allographic t]m9ology = cases 9 detail4 ,! t]ms us$ 9 express+ cry/allographic laws h be5 = ! mo/ "p tak5 f ! ,greek by all writ]s except "s ( ! ,g]mans4 ,^!1 we h already /at$1 h con/ruct$ t]ms 9 _! own language1 z zwei-und-e9 gli$rig1 & ! l4 ,9 ,optics we h "s new t]ms connect$ ) cry/all9e laws1 z uniaxal & biaxal cry/als1 optical axes1 :i* (f]$ !mselves )\t any ef=t on ! "p ( ! discov]]s4 ,9 ! :ole hi/ory ( ! undulatory !ory1 v few innovations 9 language 7 f\nd necess>y1 except to fix ! s5se ( a few phrases1 z plane-pol>iz$ light 9 opposition to circul>ly-pol>iz$1 & ! l4 ,?is is /ill m ! case 9 ,me*anics1 ,a/ronomy1 #cbh & pure ma!matics4 ,9 ^! sci5ces1 sev]al ( ! prim>y /ages ( g5]alization be+ already pass$ ov]1 :5 any new /eps are made1 we h be=e u "s analogy by :i* we may frame our new t]ms4 ,?us :5 ! plane ( maximum areas 0 discov]$1 x _h n "s new arbitr>y d5om9ation assign$ x1 b ! "n :i* obvi\sly describ$ x 0 fix$ z a te*nical "n4 ,! result ( ?is survey ( ! sci5tific t]ms ( rec5t =mation seems to be ?is2--t indig5\s t]ms may be employ$ 9 ! descriptions ( facts & ph5om5a z !y at fir/ pres5t !mselves2 & 9 ! fir/ induction f ^!2 b t :5 we come to g5]alize & !orize1 t]ms borr[$ f ! le>n$ languages are m readily fix$ & made def9ite1 & are also m easily connect$ ) d]ivatives4 ,our native t]ms are m impressive1 & at fir/ m intelligible2 b !y may w&] f _! sci5tific mean+1 & are capable ( little inflexion4 ,words ( classical orig9 are precise to ! c>eful /ud5t1 & capable ( express+1 by _! inflexions1 ! relations ( g5]al ideas2 b !y are un9telligible1 ev5 to ! le>n$ man1 )\t express def9ition1 & convey in/ruction only ?r\gh an artificial & r>e habit ( ?\ght4 ,s9ce 9 ! balance betwe5 words ( dome/ic & ( =eign orig9 s mu* dep5ds ^u ! possibility ( inflexion & d]ivation1 ,i %all consid] a little m closely :at are ! limits & consid]ations :i* we h to take into acc\nt 9 ref]5ce to t subject4 ,,aphorism ,,xxi4 ,9 ! composition & inflexion ( te*nical t]ms1 philological analogies are to be pres]v$ if possible1 b modifi$ accord+ to sci5tific conv5i5ce4 ,,9 ! language employ$ or propos$ by writ]s ^u subjects ( sci5ce1 _m comb9ations & =ms ( d]ivation occur1 :i* w\ld be reject$ & condemn$ by ^? :o are c>eful ( ! purity & #cbi correctness ( language4 ,su* anomalies are to be avoid$ z mu* z possible2 b x is impossible to escape !m altoge!r1 if we are to h a sci5tific language :i* has any *ance ( be+ receiv$ into g5]al use4 ,x is bett] to admit comp\nds :i* are n philologically correct1 ?an to inv5t _m new words1 all /range to ! read]s = :om !y are int5d$3 & 9 writ+ on sci5ce 9 our own language1 x is n possible to avoid mak+ additions to ! vocabul>y ( common life2 s9ce sci5ce requires exact names = _m ?+s :i* common language has n nam$4 ,& al?\gh ^! new names %\ld1 z mu* z possible1 be con/ruct$ 9 con=mity ) ! analogies ( ! language1 su* ext5sions ( analogy c h>dly s\nd1 to ! gramm>ian's e>1 o!rwise ?an z solecisms4 ,b1 z our maxim indicates1 ! analogy ( sci5ce is ( m weight ) u ?an ! analogy ( language3 & al?\gh anomalies 9 our phraseology %\ld be avoid$ z mu* z possible1 innovations mu/ be p]mitt$ :]ev] a sci5tific language1 easy to acquire1 & conv5i5t to use1 is unatta9able )\t !m4 ,i %all proce$ to m5tion "s ( ! transgressions ( /rict philological rules1 & "s ( ! ext5sions ( grammatical =ms1 :i* ! above conditions appe> to r5d] necess>y4 #a4 ,! comb9ation ( diff]5t languages 9 ! d]ivation ( words1 ?\gh to be avoid$ 9 g5]al1 is 9 "s cases admissible4 ,su* words are condemn$ by ,qu9tilian & o!r gramm>ians1 "u ! "n ( hybrids1 or ?+s ( a mix$ race2 z bicl9ium f bis & 2 epitogium1 f & toga4 ,nor are su* t]ms to be unnecess>ily introduc$ 9 sci5ce4 ,:5ev] a homog5e\s ^w c be =m$ & adopt$ ) ! same ease & conv5i5ce z a hybrid1 x is to be pref]r$4 ,h5ce we mu/ h i*?yology1 n piscology1 entomology1 n insectology1 insectivor\s1 n insectophag\s4 ,9 l mann]1 x w\ld be bett] to say unoculus ?an monoculus1 ?\gh ! latt] has ! sanction ( ,l9nu1 :o 0 a puri/ 9 su* matt]s4 #ccj ,dr4 ,turn]1 9 8 ,*emi/ry1 speaks ( protoxides & b9oxides1 :i* comb9ation violates ! rule = mak+ ! mat]ials ( our t]ms z homog5e\s z possible2 protoxide & deutoxide w\ld be pref]able1 bo? on ?is & on o!r acc\nts4 ,yet ?is rule admits ( exceptions4 ,m9]alogy1 ) its ,greek t]m9ation1 has = its root m9]a1 a m$ieval ,lat9 ^w ( ,teutonic orig91 & is pref]able to ,oryctology4 ,t]m9ology appe>s to be bett] ?an ,glossology3 :i* accord+ to its d]ivation w\ld be r ! sci5ce ( language 9 g5]al ?an ( te*nical t]ms2 & ,horology1 f 1 a t]m1 w\ld n be imm$iately intelligible1 ev5 to ,greek s*ol>s2 & is already employ$ to indicate ! sci5ce :i* treats ( horologes1 or "t-pieces4 ,inde$1 ! ,engli% read] is become q famili> ) ! t]m9ation ology1 ! names ( a l>ge numb] ( bran*es ( sci5ce & le>n+ hav+ t =m4 ,?is t]m9ation is at pres5t r appreh5d$ z a =mative affix 9 our own language1 indicat+ a sci5ce1 ?an z an elem5t borr[$ f =eign language4 ,h5ce1 :5 x is difficult or impossible to f9d a ,greek t]m :i* cle>ly designates ! subject ( a sci5ce1 x is all[able to employ "s o!r1 z 9 ,tidology1 ! doctr9e ( ! ,tides4 ,! same rem>k applies to "s o!r ,greek elem5ts ( sci5tific words3 !y are s famili> to u t 9 composition !y are almo/ us$ z "p ( our own language4 ,?is naturalization has tak5 place v decid$ly 9 ! elem5t ar*1 7 a lead]17 z we see 9 ar*bi%op1 ar*duke4 ,x is effect$ 9 a great degree = ! preposition anti3 ?us we speak ( anti-slav]y societies1 anti-re=m]s1 anti-bili\s1 or anti-acid m$ic9es1 )\t be+ consci\s ( any anomaly4 ,! same is ! case ) ! ,lat9 preposition pr or pre1 z appe>s f su* words z pre-engage1 pre-arrange1 pre-judge1 pre-paid2 & 9 "s measure ) pro1 = 9 colloquial language we speak ( pro-ca?olics & anti-ca?olics4 ,also ! preposition ante is simil>ly us$1 z ante-nic5e fa!rs4 ,! preposition co1 abbreviat$ f con1 & #cca imply+ ?+s to be simultane\s or connect$1 is firmly e/abli%$ z "p ( ! language1 z we see 9 coexi/1 coheir1 coord9ate2 h5ce ,i h call$ ^? l9es cotidal l9es :i* pass ?r\gh places :]e ! high wat] ( ! tide occurs simultane\sly4 #b4 ,z 9 ! c\rse ( ! mixture by :i* our language has be5 =m$1 we h ?us lo/ all habitual consci\sness ( ! diff]5ce ( its +r$i5ts1 7,greek1 ,lat91 ,norman-,fr5*1 & ,anglo-,saxon73 we h also ceas$ to conf9e to ea* +r$i5t ! mode ( grammatical inflexion :i* orig9ally belong$ to x4 ,?us ! t]m9ation ive belongs peculi>ly to ,lat9 adjectives1 yet we say sportive1 talkative4 ,9 l mann]1 able is add$ to words :i* are n ,lat91 z eatable1 dr9kable1 pitiable1 enviable4 ,also ! t]m9ation al & ical are us$ ) v>i\s roots1 z loyal1 royal1 f>cical1 :imsical2 h5ce we may make ! adjective tidal f tide4 ,?is end+1 al1 is also add$ to ab/ract t]ms 9 ion1 z occasional1 provisional1 int5tional1 national2 h5ce we may1 if necess>y1 use su* words z educational1 t]m9ational4 ,! end+ ic appe>s to be suit$ to prop] names1 z ,p9d>ic1 ,socratic1 ,platonic2 h5ce x may be us$ :5 sci5tific words are d]iv$ f prop] names1 z ,voltaic or ,galvanic electricity3 to :i* ,i h propos$ to add ,frankl9ic4 ,9 adopt+ sci5tific adjectives f ! ,lat91 we h n mu* room = hesitation2 =1 9 su* cases1 ! habits ( d]ivation f t language into our own are v con/ant2 ivus becomes ive1 z decursive2 inus becomes ine1 z 9 f]9e2 atus becomes ate1 z ha/ate2 & u (t5 becomes ous1 z ruf\s2 aris becomes ary1 z axill>y2 ens becomes ent1 z r+5t4 ,& 9 adopt+ into our language1 z sci5tific t]ms1 words :i* 9 ano!r language1 ! ,fr5* = in/ance1 h a ,lat9 orig9 famili> to u1 we _c d bett] ?an =m !m z if !y 7 d]iv$ directly f ! ,lat94 ,h5ce ! ,fr5* adjectives ctac1 cru/ac1 te/ac1 may become ei!r cetace\s1 cru/ace\s1 te/ace\s1 accord+ to ! analogy ( f>9ace\s1 pr$ace\s1 or else cetacean1 cru/acean1 #ccb te/acean1 imitat+ ! =m ( patrician4 ,s9ce1 z ,i %all soon h to notice1 we require sub/antives z well z adjectives f ^! words1 we mu/1 at lea/ = t use1 take ! =ms la/ sugge/$4 ,9 pursuance ( ! same rem>k1 rongeur becomes rod5t2 & ed5t w\ld become ed5tate1 b t ?is ^w is reject$ on ano!r acc\nt3 ! adjectives bimane & quadrumane are biman\s & quadruman\s4 #c4 ,!re is n mu* difficulty 9 ?us =m+ adjectives3 b ! purposes ( ,natural ,hi/ory require t we %\ld h sub/antives correspond+ to ^! adjectives2 & ^! _c be obta9$ )\t "s ext5sion ( ! analogies ( our language4 ,we _c 9 g5]al use adjectives or p>ticiples z s+ul> sub/antives4 ,! happy or ! doom$ w\ld1 accord+ to good ,engli% usage1 signify ^? :o are happy & ^? :o are doom$ 9 ! plural4 ,h5ce we c\ld n speak ( a p>ticul> scal$ animal z ! squamate1 & /ill less c\ld we call any su* animal a squamate1 or speak ( squamates 9 ! plural4 ,"s ( ! =ms ( our adjectives1 h[ev]1 d admit ( ?is sub/antive use4 ,?us we talk ( ,europeans1 plebeians1 republicans2 ( div9es & mascul9es2 ( ! ultramontanes2 ( mordants & brilliants2 ( ab/]g5ts & emolli5ts2 ( m]c5>ies & tribut>ies2 ( animals1 mammals1 & (ficials2 ( dissuasives & motives4 ,we _c g5]ally use 9 ?is way adjectives 9 ous1 nor 9 ate 7?\gh reprobates is an exception71 nor ,engli% p>ticiples1 nor adjectives 9 :i* !re is no t]m9ation imitat+ ! ,lat91 z happy1 good4 ,h5ce1 if we h1 = purposes ( sci5ce1 to conv]t adjectives into sub/antives1 we ought to foll[ ! =m ( examples l ^!1 9 :i* x has already appe>$ 9 fact1 t su* usage1 ?\gh an innovation at fir/1 may ultimately become a receiv$ "p ( ! language4 ,by att5tion to ?is rule we may judge :at expressions to select 9 cases :]e sub/antives are ne$$4 ,i w take z an example ! division ( ! mammalian animals into ,ord]s4 ,^! ,ord]s1 #ccc accord+ to ,cuvi]1 are ,bimanes1 ,quadrumanes1 ,c>nassi]s1 ,rongeurs1 ,ed5ts1 ,rum9ants1 ,pa*yd]mes1 ,ctacs2 & ( ^!1 ,bimanes1 ,quadrumanes1 ,rod5ts1 ,rum9ants1 ,pa*yd]ms are admissible z ,engli% sub/antives on ! gr\nds j /at$4 ,cetace\s c\ld n be us$ sub/antively2 b ,cetacean 9 su* a usage is suffici5tly c\nt5anc$ by su* cases z we h m5tion$1 patrician1 c42 h5ce we adopt ?is =m4 ,we h no ,engli% ^w equival5t to ! ,fr5* ,c>nassi]s3 ! ,engli% translator ( ,cuvi] has n provid$ ,engli% words = 8 te*nical t]ms2 b has =m$ a ,lat9 ^w1 ,c>n>ia1 to repres5t ! ,fr5* t]ms4 ,f ?is we might readily =m ,c>n>ies2 b x appe>s mu* bett] to take ! ,l9nan "n ,f] z our root1 f :i* we may take ,f]9e1 sub/antive z well z adjective2 & h5ce we call ?is ord] ,f]9es4 ,! ^w = :i* x is mo/ difficult to provide a prop] repres5tation is ,ed5t1 ,ed5tata3 =1 z we h said1 x w\ld be v h>% to speak ( ! ord] z ! ,ed5tates2 & if we 7 to abbreviate ! ^w into ed5t1 we %\ld sugge/ a false analogy ) rod5t1 = z rod5t is quod rodit1 t :i* gnaws1 ed5t w\ld be quod edit1 t :i* eats4 ,& ev5 if we 7 to take ed5t z a sub/antive1 we c\ld h>dly use x z an adjective3 we %\ld /ill h to say1 = example1 ! ed5tate =m ( head4 ,= ^! reasons x appe>s be/ to alt] ! =m ( ! ^w1 & to call ! ,ord] ! ,ed5tals1 :i* is q all[able1 bo? z adjective & sub/antive4 ,an objection might be made to ?is t]m1 bo? 9 its ,lat91 ,fr5* & ,engli% =m3 namely1 t ! natural gr\p to :i* x is appli$ includes _m species1 bo? exi/+ & ext9ct1 well provid$ ) tee?4 ,?us ! armadillo is rem>kable = ! numb] ( its tee?2 ! mega!rium1 = _! complex /ructure4 ,b ! analogy ( sci5tific language readily p]mits u to fix1 ^u ! ^w ed5tata1 a special mean+1 imply+ ! abs5ce ( "o p>ticul> k9d ( tee?1 namely1 incisive tee?4 ,l9nu call$ ! equival5t ord] ,bruta4 ,we c\ld n #ccd apply 9 ?is case ! t]m ,brutes2 = common language has already atta*$ to ! ^w a wid] mean+1 too fix$ly = sci5tific use to trifle ) x4 ,!re are sev]al o!r words 9 ate ab\t :i* !re is ! same difficulty 9 provid+ sub/antive =ms4 ,are we to speak ( ,v]tebrates8 or w\ld x n be bett]1 9 agreem5t ) :at has be5 said above1 to call ^! ,v]tebrals1 & ! opposite class ,inv]tebrals8 ,!re are simil> difficulties ) reg>d to ! names ( subord9ate portions ( zoological classification2 ?us ! ,f]9es are divid$ by ,cuvi] into ,*eiroptres1 ,insectivores1 ,c>nivores2 & ^! latt] into ,plantigrades1 ,digitigrades1 ,amphibies1 ,m>supiaux4 ,!re is n any great h>%ness 9 naturaliz+ ^! sub/antives z ,*iropt]s1 ,insectivores1 ,c>nivores1 ,plantigrades1 ,digitigrades1 ,amphibians1 & ,m>supials4 ,^! words ,c>nivores & ,insectivores are bett]1 because ( m famili> orig91 ?an ,greek t]ms2 o!rwise we might1 if necess>y1 speak ( ,zoophagans & ,entomophagans4 ,x is only ) c]ta9 famili> adjectival t]m9ations1 z ous & ate1 t !re is a difficulty 9 us+ ! ^w z sub/antive4 ,:5 ?is c be avoid$1 we readily accept ! new ^w1 z ,pa*yd]ms1 & 9 l mann] ,mollusks4 ,if we exam9e ! names ( ! ,ord]s ( ,birds1 we f9d t !y are 9 ,lat91 ,pr$atores or ,accipitres1 ,pass]es1 ,scansores1 ,rasores or ,gall91 ,grallatores1 ,palmip$es & ,ans]es3 ,cuvi]'s ,ord]s are1 ,oiseaux de ,proie1 ,pass]eaux1 ,grimpeurs1 ,gall9acs1 *assi]s1 ,palmip$es4 ,^! may be engli%$ conv5i5tly z ,pr$ators1 ,pass]9es1 ,scansors1 ,gall9aceans1 7r ?an ,rasors17 ,grallators1 ,palmip$ans1 or r ,palmip$s1 l ,bip$s4 ,scansors1 ,grallators1 & ,rasors1 are bett]1 z te*nical t]ms1 ?an ,climb]s1 ,wad]s1 & ,scrat*]s4 ,we might v5ture to anglicize ! t]m9ations ( ! names :i* ,cuvi] gives to ! divisions ( ^! ,ord]s3 ?us ! ,pr$ators are ! ,diurnals & ! ,nocturnals2 ! ,pass]9es are ! ,d5tiro/res1 ! ,fissiro/res1 ! #cce ,coniro/res1 ! ,t5uiro/res1 & ! ,syndactyls3 ! ^w lu/re %[+ t ! =m] t]m9ation is all[able4 ,! ,scansors are n sub-divid$1 nor are ! ,gall9aceans4 ,! ,grallators are ,pressiro/res1 ,cultriro/res1 ,macrodactyls4 ,! ,palmip$s are ! ,plung]s1 ! ,longip5s1 ! ,totipalmes & ! ,lamelliro/res4 ,! next class ( ,v]tebrals is ! ,reptiles1 & ^! are ei!r ,*elonians1 ,saurians1 ,ophidians1 or ,batra*ians4 ,cuvi] writes ,batraci5s1 b we pref] ! spell+ to :i* ! ,greek ^w directs u4 ,! la/ or l[e/ class is ! ,fi%es1 9 :i* prov9ce ,cuvi] has himself be5 ! great sy/emati/1 & has !re=e _h to devise _m new t]ms4 ,_m ( ^! are ( ,greek or ,lat9 orig91 & c be angliciz$ by ! analogies already po9t$ out1 z ,*ondropt]ygians1 ,malacopt]ygians1 ,lophobran*s1 ,plectogna?s1 ,gymnodonts1 ,scl]od]ms4 ,discoboles & ,apodes may be ,engli% z well z ,fr5*4 ,!re are o!r cases 9 :i* ! au?or has =m$ ! names ( ,families1 ei!r by =m+ a ^w 9 ides f ! "n ( a g5us1 z ,gadoides1 ,gobiides1 or by galliciz+ ! ,lat9 "n ( ! g5us1 z ,salmones f ,salmo1 ,clupes f ,clupea1 soces f ,esox1 ,cypr9s f ,cypr9us4 ,9 ^! cases ,agassiz's fav\rite =m ( names = families ( fi%es has l$ ,engli% writ]s to use ! words ,gadoids1 ,gobioids1 ,salmonoids1 ,clupeoids1 ,lucioids 7= soces71 ,cypr9oids1 c4 ,!re is a ta9t ( hybridism 9 ?is t]m9ation1 b x is att5d$ ) ?is advantage1 t x has begun to be *>act]i/ic ( ! nom5clature ( family gr\ps 9 ! class ,pisces4 ,"o ( ! ord]s ( fi%es1 co-ord9ate ) ! ,*ondropt]ygians & ! ,lophobran*s1 is t]m$ ,osseux by ,cuvi]4 ,x appe>s h>dly wor? :ile to inv5t a sub/antive ^w = ?is1 :5 ,bony ,fi%es is s simple a phrase1 & may readily be und]/ood z a te*nical "n ( a sy/ematic ord]4 ,! ,mollusks are ! next ,class2 & ^! are divid$ into ,cephallopods1 ,ga/]opods1 & ! l4 ,! ,ga/]opods are ,nudibran*s1 ,inf]obran*s1 #ccf ,tectibran*s1 ,pect9ibran*s1 ,scutibran*s1 & ,cyclobran*s4 ,9 fram+ mo/ ( ^! t]ms ,cuvi] has made hybrids by a comb9ation ( a ,lat9 ^w ) bran*i :i* is ! ,greek "n = ! gills ( a fi%2 & has ?us avoid$ load+ ! memory ) words ( an orig9 n obvi\s to mo/ naturali/s1 z t]ms d]iv$ f ! ,greek w\ld h be54 ,ano!r division ( ! ,ga/]opods is ,pulmons1 :i* we mu/ make ,pulmonians4 ,9 l mann] ! subdivisions ( ! ,pect9ibran*s are ! ,tro*oidans & ,bucc9oidans1 7,tro*odes1 ,bucc9odes74 ,! ,acphales1 ano!r ord] ( ,mollusks1 may be ,acephals 9 ,engli%4 ,aft] ^! comes ! ?ird gr& division1 ,articulat$ ,animals1 & ^! are ,annelidans1 ,cru/aceans1 ,ara*nidans1 & ,insects4 ,i %all n dwell ^u ! names ( ^!1 z ! =m ( ,engli% words :i* is to be select$ mu/ be suffici5tly obvi\s f ! prec$+ examples4 ,f9ally1 we h ! f\r? gr& division ( animals1 ! ,rayonns1 or ,radiata2 :i*1 = reasons already giv51 we may call ,radials1 or ,radi>ies4 ,^! are ,e*9od]ms1 ,inte/9als1 7or r ,entozoans17 ,acalephes1 & ,polyps4 ,! ,polyps1 :i* are composite animals 9 :i* _m gelat9\s individuals are connect$ s z to h a common life1 h1 9 _m cases1 a m solid framework belong+ to ! common "p ( ! animal4 ,?is framework1 ( :i* coral is a special example1 is t]m$ 9 ,fr5* ,polypi]2 ! ^w has be5 angliciz$ by ! ^w polyp>y1 aft] ! analogy ( avi>y & api>y4 ,?us ,polyps are ei!r ,polyps ) ,polyp>ies or ,nak$ ,polyps4 ,any common k9d ( ,polyps has usually 9 ! ,engli% language be5 call$ ,polypus1 ! ,greek t]m9ation be+ reta9$4 ,?is t]m9ation 9 u1 h[ev]1 :e!r ,lat9 or ,greek1 is to be exclud$ f ! ,engli% z mu* z possible1 on acc\nt ( ! emb>rassm5t :i* x occasions 9 ! =mation ( ! plural4 ,= if we say ,polypi ! ^w ceases to be ,engli%1 :ile ,polypuses is h>%3 & !re is ! additional inconv5i5ce1 t bo? ^! =ms w\ld indicate ! plural ( individuals r ?an ( classes4 #ccg ,if we 7 to say1 ',! ,corall9es are a ,family ( ! ,polypuses ) ,polyp>ies1' x w\ld n at once occur to ! read] t ! la/ ?ree words =m$ a te*nical phrase4 ,?is t]m9ation u :i* mu/ ?us be exclud$ f ! names ( families1 may be admitt$ 9 ! designation ( g5]a2 ( animals1 z ,nautilus1 ,e*9us1 ,hippopotamus2 & ( plants1 z ,crocus1 ,asp>agus1 ,n>cissus1 ,acan?us1 ,ranunculus1 ,fungus4 ,! same =m occurs 9 o!r te*nical words1 z ,fucus1 ,mucus1 sophagus1 ,hydrocephalus1 ,callus1 ,calculus1 ,ut]us1 ,ftus1 ,radius1 ,focus1 ,app>atus4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 advisable to reta9 ?is =m only 9 cases :]e x is already firmly e/abli%$ 9 ! language2 = a m g5u9e ,engli% =m is pref]able4 ,h5ce we say1 ) ,mr4 ,lyell1 ,i*?yosaur1 ,plesiosaur1 ,pt]odactyl4 ,9 l mann] ,mr4 ,ow5 anglicizes ! t]m9ation erium1 & speaks ( ! ,anoplo!re & ,paleo!re4 ,s9ce ! wants ( sci5ce ?us dem& adjectives :i* c be us$ also z sub/antive names ( classes1 ?is consid]ation may sometimes s]ve to det]m9e our selection ( new t]ms4 ,?us ,mr4 ,lyell's names = ! subdivisions ( ! t]ti>y /rata1 ,mioc5e1 ,plioc5e1 c be us$ z sub/antives2 b if su* words z ,mione\s1 ,plione\s1 _h sugge/$ !mselves1 !y mu/ h be5 reject$1 ?\gh ( equival5t signification1 z n fulfill+ ?is condition4 #d4 7a47 ,ab/ract sub/antives c easily be =m$ f adjectives3 f electric we h electricity2 f galvanic1 galvanism2 f organic1 organization2 velocity1 levity1 gravity1 are borr[$ f ,lat9 adjectives4 ,caloric is famili>ly us$ = ! matt] ( heat1 ?\gh ! =m ( ! ^w is n support$ by any obvi\s analogy4 7b47 ,x is intol]able to h words regul>ly =m$1 9 opposition to ! analogy :i* _! mean+ (f]s2 z :5 bodies are said to h conductibility or conducibility ) reg>d to heat4 ,! bodies are conductive1 & _! prop]ty is conductivity4 7c47 ,! t]m9ations ize 7r ?an ise71 ism1 & i/1 are appli$ to words ( all orig9s3 ?us we h to #cch pulv]ize1 to colonize1 ,witticism1 ,hea!nism1 ,j\rnali/1 ,tobacconi/4 ,h5ce we may make su* words :5 !y are want$4 ,z we _c use physician = a cultivator ( physics1 ,i h call$ him a ,physici/4 ,we ne$ v mu* a "n to describe a cultivator ( sci5ce 9 g5]al4 ,i %\ld incl9e to call him a ,sci5ti/4 ,?us we might say1 t z an ,arti/ is a ,musician1 ,pa9t]1 or ,poet1 a ,sci5ti/ is a ,ma!matician1 ,physici/1 or ,naturali/4 7d47 ,connect$ ) v]bs 9 ize1 we h ab/ract n\ns 9 ization1 z pol>ization1 cry/allization4 ,^! x appe>s prop] to spell 9 ,engli% ) z r ?an s2 gov]n+ our practice by ! ,greek v]bal t]m9ation :i* we imitate4 ,b we mu/ obs]ve t v]bs & sub/antives 9 yse1 7analyse71 belong to a diff]5t analogy1 giv+ an ab/ract n\n 9 ysis & an adjective ytic or ytical2 7analysis1 analytic1 analytical74 ,h5ce electrolyse is m prop] ?an electrolyze4 7e47 ,! names ( _m sci5ces end 9 ics aft] ! analogy ( ,ma!matics1 ,metaphysics2 z ,optics1 ,me*anics4 ,b ^!1 9 mo/ o!r languages1 z 9 our own =m]ly1 h ! s+ul> =m ,optice1 l',optique1 ,optik1 ,optick3 & ?\gh we n[ write ,optics1 we make su* words ( ! s+ul> numb]3 ',newton's ,opticks is an example4' ,z1 h[ev]1 ?is connexion 9 new words is />tl+1 z :5 we say ',!rmo-electrics is n[ mu* cultivat$1' x appe>s bett] to employ ! s+ul> =m1 aft] ! analogy ( ,logic & ,rhetoric1 :5 we h words to con/ruct4 ,h5ce we may call ! sci5ce ( languages ,l+ui/ic1 z x is call$ by ! be/ ,g]man writ]s1 = in/ance1 ,william ,von ,humboldt4 #e4 ,9 ! d]ivation ( ,engli% f ,lat9 or ,greek words1 ! *anges ( lett]s are to be gov]n$ by ! rules :i* h g5]ally prevail$ 9 su* cases4 ,! ,greek & 1 ! ,lat9 oe & ae1 are all conv]t$ into a simple e1 z 9 ,economy1 ,geodesy1 penal1 ,ces>4 ,h5ce1 accord+ to common usage1 we %\ld write phenom5a1 n phnom5a1 paleontology1 n palontology1 miocene n miocne1 pekilite n #cci pkilite4 ,b 9 ord] to keep m cle>ly 9 view ! orig9 ( our t]ms1 x may be all[able to deviate f ^! rules ( *ange1 especially s long z ! words are new & unfamili>4 ,dr4 ,buckl& speaks ( ! poikilitic1 n pecilitic1 gr\p ( /rata3 palontology is ! spell+ commonly adopt$2 & 9 imitation ( ?is ,i h writt5 paltiology4 ,! diph?ong 0 by ! ,lat9s *ang$ into i1 z 9 ,ari/ides2 & h5ce ?is has be5 ! usual =m 9 ,engli%4 ,"s rec5t au?ors inde$ 7,mr4 ,mit=d = in/ance7 write ,ari/eides2 b ! =m] appe>s to be ! m legitimate4 ,h5ce we write mioc5e1 plioc5e1 n meioc5e1 pleioc5e4 ,! ,greek becomes y1 & becomes u1 9 ,engli% z 9 ,lat91 z cry/al1 colure4 ,! consonants & become c & * accord+ to common usage4 ,h5ce we write cry/al1 n *ry/al1 batra*ian1 n batracian1 cryolite1 n *ryolite4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ! lett] c be=e e & i diff]s f k1 :i* is ! s\nd we assign to ! ,greek 1 x may be all[able to use k 9 ord] to avoid ?is confusion4 ,?us1 z we h se51 poikilite has be5 us$1 z well z pecilite4 ,ev5 9 common language "s au?ors write skeptic1 :i* appe>s to be bett] ?an sceptic ) our pronunciation1 & is pref]r$ by ,dr4 ,johnson4 ,= ! same reason1 namely1 to avoid confusion 9 ! pronunciation1 & also1 9 ord] to keep 9 view ! connexion ) ca?ode1 ! elem5ts ( an electrolyte :i* g to ! anode & ca?ode respectively may be t]m$ ! anion & cathion2 al?\gh ! ,greek w\ld sugge/ caton1 774 #f4 ,! example ( *emi/ry has %[n t we h 9 ! t]m9ations ( words a res\rce ( :i* great use may be made 9 indicat+ ! relations ( c]ta9 classes ( objects3 z sulphurous & sulphuric acids2 sulphates1 sulphites1 & sulphurets4 ,s9ce ! introduction ( ! artifice by ! ,lavoisi]ian s*ool1 x has be5 ext5d$ to "s new cases4 ,! ,*lorine1 ,fluorine1 ,bromine1 ,iodine1 _h _! names put into t %ape 9 consequ5ce ( _! suppos$ analogy3 & = ! same reason h be5 t]m$ ,*lore1 #cdj ,phlore1 ,brome1 ,iode1 by ,fr5* *emi/s4 ,9 l mann]1 ! names ( metals 9 _! ,lat9 =m h be5 made to end 9 um1 z ,osmium1 ,palladium2 & h5ce x is bett] to say ,plat9um1 ,molybd5um1 ?an ,plat9a1 ,molybd5a4 ,x has be5 propos$ to t]m ! basis ( ,boracic acid ,boron2 & ^? :o conceive t ! basis ( ,silica has an analogy ) ,boron h propos$ to t]m x ,silicon1 :ile ^? :o look ^u x z a metal w\ld "n x ,silicium4 ,sel5ium 0 s nam$ :5 x 0 suppos$ to be a metal3 z its analogies are n[ ackn[l$g$ to be ( ano!r k9d1 x w\ld be desirable1 if ! *ange 7 n too />tl+1 to t]m x ,selen1 z x is 9 ,g]man4 ,phosphorus 9 l mann] might be ,phosphur1 :i* w\ld indicate its analogy ) ,sulphur4 ,! res\rce :i* t]m9ations (f] has be5 appli$ 9 o!r cases4 ,! names ( _m species ( m9]als end 9 lite1 or ite1 z ,/aurolite1 ,augite4 ,h5ce ,adolphe ,brongni>t1 9 ord] to =m a "n = a g5us ( fossil plants1 has giv5 ?is t]m9ation to ! "n ( ! rec5t g5us :i* !y ne>ly resemble1 z ,zamites1 f ,zamia1 ,lycopodites f ,lycopodium4 ,names ( diff]5t g5]a :i* diff] 9 t]m9ation only are prop]ly condemn$ by ,l9nu#ehd2 z ,als9e1 ,als9oides1 ,als9ella1 ,als9a/rum2 = !re is no def9ite relation m>k$ by ^? t]m9ations4 ,l9nu gives to su* g5]a di/9ct names1 ,als9e1 ,bufonia1 ,sag9a1 ,elat9e4 ,note #ehd3 ,phil4 ,bot4 #bca4 ,t]m9ations are well adapt$ to express def9ite sy/ematic relations1 su* z ^? ( *emi/ry1 b !y mu/ be employ$ ) a due reg>d to all ! be>+s ( ! sy/em4 ,davy propos$ to d5ote ! comb9ations ( o!r sub/ances ) *lor9e by peculi> t]m9ations2 us+ ane = ! smalle/ proportion ( ,*lor9e1 & anea = ! l>g]1 z ,cuprane1 ,cupranea4 ,9 ?is nom5clature1 common salt w\ld be ,sodane1 & ,*loride ( ,nitrog5 w\ld be ,azotane4 ,?is sugge/ion nev] f\nd fav\r4 ,x 0 #cda object$ t x 0 contr>y to ! ,l9nan precept1 t a specific "n mu/ n be unit$ to a g5]ic t]m9ation4 ,b ?is 0 n putt+ ! matt] exactly on its "r gr\nd2 = ! rules ( nom5clature ( natural hi/ory d n apply to *emi/ry2 & ! ,l9nan rule might ) equal propriety h be5 adduc$ z a condemnation ( su* t]ms z ,sulphurous1 ,sulphuric4 ,b ,davy's t]ms 7 bad2 = x does n appe> t ,*lor9e ent]s1 z ,oxyg5 does1 into s l>ge a portion ( *emical comp\nds1 t its relations af=d a key to _! nature1 & may prop]ly be made an elem5t 9 _! names4 ,?is res\rce1 ( t]m9ations1 has be5 abus$1 :]ev] x has be5 us$ wantonly1 or )\t a def9ite significance 9 ! v>iety4 ,?is is ! case 9 ,m4 ,beudant's ,m9]alogy4 ,among ! names :i* he has giv5 to new species1 we f9d ! foll[+ 7besides _m 9 ite71 ,scolex]ose1 ,opsimose1 ,exan!lose1 c42 ,diacrase1 ,panabase1 ,neoplase2 ,neoclese2 ,rhodoise1 ,/ibiconise1 c42 ,m>celine1 ,wilhelmine1 c42 ,exitele1 & _m o!rs4 ,9 addition to o!r objections :i* might be made to ^! names1 _! v>iety is a mat]ial defect3 = to make ?is v>iety dep5d on caprice alone1 z 9 ^? cases x does1 is to ?r[ away a res\rce ( :i* *emical nom5clature may tea* u ! value4 ,,aphorism ,,xxii4 ,:5 alt]ations 9 te*nical t]ms become necess>y1 x is desirable t ! new t]m %\ld conta9 9 its =m "s memorial ( ! old "o4 ,,we h excell5t examples ( ! advantage\s use ( ?is maxim 9 ,l9nu's re=m ( botanical nom5clature4 ,8 innovations 7 v ext5sive1 b !y 7 /ill mod]at$ z mu* z possible1 & connect$ 9 _m ways ) ! names ( plants !n 9 use4 ,he has himself giv5 sev]al rules ( nom5clature1 :i* t5d to e/abli% ?is connexion ( ! #cdb old & new 9 a re=m4 ,?us he says1 ',g5]ic names :i* are curr5t1 & are n accompani$ ) h>m to botany1 %\ld be tol]at$#eid4' ',a passable g5]ic "n is n to be *ang$ = ano!r1 ?\gh m apt#fjd'4 ',new g5]ic names are n to be fram$ s long z passable synonyms are at h&#fad4' ',a g5]ic "n ( "o g5us1 except x be sup]flu\s1 is n to be transf]r$ to ano!r g5us1 ?\gh x suit ! o!r bett]#fbd4' ',if a receiv$ g5us requires to be divid$ into sev]al1 ! "n :i* be=e includ$ ! :ole1 %all be appli$ to ! mo/ common & famili> k9d#fcd4' ,& ?\gh he rejects all g5]ic names :i* h n a ,greek or ,lat9 root#fdd1 he is will+ to make an exception 9 fav\r ( ^? :i* f _! =m might be suppos$ to h su* a root1 ?\gh !y are really borr[$ f o!r languages1 z ,!a1 :i* is ! ,greek = goddess2 ,c(fea1 :i* might seem to come f a ,greek ^w d5ot+ sil5ce 772 ,*eiran?us1 :i* appe>s to mean h&-fl[]1 b is really d]iv$ f ! ,arabic ,keiri3 & _m o!rs4 ,note #eid3 ,philosophia ,botanica1 ,art4 #bdb4 ,note #fjd3 ,art4 #bdf4 ,note #fad3 ,art4 #bdg4 ,note #fbd3 ,art4 #bdi4 ,note #fcd3 ,art4 #bdi4 ,note #fdd3 ,art4 #bcb4 ,z we h already said1 ! attempt at a re=mation ( ! nom5clature ( ,m9]alogy made by ,pr(essor ,mohs w probably n produce any p]man5t effect1 on ?is acc\nt among/ o!rs1 t x has n be5 conduct$ 9 ?is temp]ate mode2 ! innovations be> too l>ge a proportion to ! :ole ( ! names1 & conta9 too little to rem9d u ( ! kn[n appellations4 ,yet 9 "s respects ,pr(essor ,mohs has act$ ^u ?is maxim4 ,?us he has call$ "o ( 8 classes ,sp>1 because ,felsp> belongs to x4 ,i %all v5ture to (f] a few sugge/ions on ?is subject ( ,m9]alogical ,nom5clature4 ,x has already be5 rem>k$ t ! confusion & complexity :i* prevail 9 ?is subject r5d] a re=m v desirable4 ,b x w be se51 f ! reasons assign$ "u ! ,n9? ,aphorism1 t no p]man5t sy/em ( names c be look$ =1 till a #cdc s\nd sy/em ( classification be e/abli%$4 ,! be/ m9]alogical sy/ems rec5tly publi%$1 h[ev]1 appe> to conv]ge to a common po9t2 & c]ta9 classes h be5 =m$ :i* h bo? a natural-hi/orical & a *emical significance4 ,^! ,classes1 accord+ to ,naumann1 ^: arrangem5t appe>s ! be/1 are ,hydrolytes1 ,haloids1 ,silicides1 ,oxides ( ,metals1 ,metals1 ,sulphurides 7,pyrites1 ,glances1 & ,bl5des71 & ,an?racides4 ,n[ we f9d2--t ! ,hydrolytes are all comp\nds1 su* z are commonly t]m$ ,salts2--t ! ,haloids are1 _m ( !m1 already call$ ,sp>s1 z ,calc ,sp>1 ,heavy ,sp>1 ,iron ,sp>1 ,z9c ,sp>2--t ! ,silicides1 ! mo/ num]\s & difficult class1 are d5ot$ = ! mo/ "p1 by s+le words1 _m ( :i* end 9 ite2--t ! o!r classes1 or subclasses1 ,oxides1 ,pyrites1 ,glances1 & ,bl5des1 h commonly be5 s t]m$2 z ,r$ ,iron ,oxide1 ,iron ,pyrites1 ,z9c ,bl5de2--:ile pure metals h usually _h ! adjective native prefix$1 z ,native ,gold1 ,native ,copp]4 ,^! obvi\s features ( ! curr5t names appe> to af=d u a basis = a sy/ematic nom5clature4 ,! ,salts & ,sp>s might all h ! ^w salt or sp> includ$ 9 _! "n1 z ,natron ,salt1 ,glaub] ,salt1 ,mock ,salt2 ,calc ,sp>1 ,bitt] ,sp>1 7,c>bonate ( ,lime & ,magnesia71 ,fluor ,sp>1 ,phosphor ,sp> 7,phosphate ( ,lime71 ,heavy ,sp>1 ,cele/9e ,sp> 7,sulphate ( ,/rontian71 ,*romic ,lead ,sp> 7,*romate ( ,lead72 ! ,silicides might all h ! "n con/ruct$ s z to be a s+le ^w end+ 9 ite1 z ,*abasite 7,*abasie71 ,natrolite 7,mesotype71 ,sommite 7,nephel9e71 ,pi/acite 7,epidote72 f ?is rule might be except$ ! ,gems1 z ,topaz1 ,em]ald1 ,corundum1 :i* might reta9 _! old names4 ,! ,oxides1 ,pyrites1 ,glances1 & ,bl5des1 might be s t]m$2 ?us we %\ld h ,tung/ic ,iron ,oxide 7usually call$ ,tung/ate ( ,iron71 ,ars5ical ,iron ,pyrites 7,mispickel71 ,tetrah$ral ,copp] ,glance 7,fahl]z71 ,quicksilv] ,bl5de 7,c9nab>71 & ! metals might be t]m$ native1 z ,native ,copp]1 ,native ,silv]4 ,su* a nom5clature w\ld take 9 a v l>ge #cdd proportion ( commonly receiv$ appellations1 especially if we 7 to select among ! synonyms1 z is propos$ above 9 ! case ( ,glaub] ,salt1 ,bitt] ,sp>1 ,sommite1 ,pi/acite1 ,natrolite4 ,h5ce x might be adopt$ )\t s]i\s inconv5i5ce4 ,x w\ld make ! "n convey in=mation respect+ ! place ( ! m9]al 9 ! sy/em2 & by impos+ ?is condition1 w\ld limit ! extreme caprice1 bo? z to orig9 & =m1 :i* has hi!rto be5 indulg$ 9 impos+ m9]alogical names4 ,! pr9ciple ( a m9]alogical nom5clature det]m9$ by ! place ( ! species 9 ! sy/em1 has be5 recogniz$ by ,mr4 ,beudant z well z ,mr4 ,mohs4 ,! =m] writ] has propos$ t we %\ld say ,c>bonate ,calcaire1 ,c>bonate ,)]ite1 ,sulphate ,c\p]ose1 ,silicate ,/ilbite1 ,silicate ,*abasie1 & s on4 ,b ^! are names 9 :i* ! "p add$ = ! sake ( ! sy/em1 is n incorporat$ ) ! common "n1 & w\ld h>dly make its way into common use4 ,we h already notic$ ,mr4 ,mohs's designations = two ( ! ,sy/ems ( ,cry/allization1 ! ,pyramidal & ! ,prismatic1 z n *>act]i/ic4 ,if x 7 ?\ght advisable to re=m su* a defect1 ?is might be done by call+ !m ! ,squ>e ,pyramidal & ! ,oblong ,prismatic1 :i* t]ms1 :ile !y express$ ! real di/9ction ( ! sy/ems1 w\ld be intelligible at once to ^? acqua9t$ ) ! ,mohsian t]m9ology4 ,i w m5tion ano!r sugge/ion respect+ ! introduction ( an improvem5t 9 sci5tific language4 ,! t]m ,depol>ization 0 introduc$1 because x 0 believ$ t ! effect ( c]ta9 cry/als1 :5 pol>iz$ light 0 incid5t ^u !m 9 c]ta9 positions1 0 to de/roy ! peculi>ity :i* pol>ization _h produc$4 ,b x is n[ well kn[n1 t ! effect ( ! second cry/al 9 g5]al is to divide ! pol>iz$ ray ( light into two rays1 pol>iz$ 9 diff]5t planes4 ,/ill ?is effect is (t5 spok5 ( z ,depol>ization1 no bett] t]m hav+ be5 yet devis$4 ,i h propos$ & us$ ! t]m ,dipol>ization1 #cde :i* well expresses :at takes place1 & s ne>ly resembles ! eld] ^w1 t x mu/ s\nd famili> to ^? already acqua9t$ ) writ+s on ?is subject4 ,i may m5tion "o t]m 9 ano!r dep>tm5t ( lit]ature :i* x appe>s desirable to re=m 9 ! same mann]4 ,! !ory ( ! ,f9e ,arts1 or ! philosophy :i* speculates conc]n+ :at is beautiful 9 pa9t+1 sculpture or ar*itecture1 & o!r arts1 (t5 requires to be spok5 ( 9 a s+le ^w4 ,baumg>t5 & o!r ,g]man writ]s h t]m$ ?is prov9ce ( speculation /hetics2 1 to p]ceive1 be+ a ^w :i* appe>$ to !m fit to designate ! p]ception ( beauty 9 p>ticul>4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 /hetics w\ld naturally d5ote ! ,doctr9e ( ,p]ception 9 g5]al2 s9ce ?is ,doctr9e requires a "n2 s9ce ! t]m /hetics has actually be5 appli$ to x by o!r ,g]man writ]s 7z ,kant72 & s9ce ! ess5tial po9t 9 ! philosophy n[ spok5 ( is t x att5ds to ,beauty2--x appe>s desirable to *ange ?is "n4 ,9 pursuance ( ! maxim n[ be=e u1 ,i %\ld propose ! t]m ,call/hetics1 or r 79 agreem5t ) :at 0 said 9 page #cch7 ,call/hetic1 ! sci5ce ( ! p]ception ( beauty4 #cdf ,,fur!r ,,illu/rations ,,( ,,! ,,aphorisms ,,on ,,sci5tific ,,language1 ,,f ,,! ,,rec5t ,,c\rse ,,( ,,sci5ces4 #a4 ,,botany4 ,,! nom5clature ( ,botany z rescu$ f confusion by ,l9nu1 has 9 mod]n times be5 9 "s dang] ( relaps+ into disord] or becom+ intol]ably ext5sive1 9 consequ5ce ( ! multiplication ( g5]a by ! sep>ation ( "o old g5us into sev]al new ones1 & ! l subdivisions ( ! high] gr\ps1 z subclasses & classes4 ,?is inconv5i5ce1 & ! orig9 ( x1 h be5 s well po9t$ out by ,mr4 ,g4 ,b5?am#fed1 t ,i %all v5ture to adopt 8 judgm5t z an ,aphorism1 & give 8 reasons = x4 ,note #fed3 ,l9nan ,society's ,proce$+s1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cj 7,june1 #aheg74 ,,aphorism ,,xxiii4 ,x is ( ! greate/ importance t ! ,gr\ps :i* give _! sub/antive names to e includ$ species %\ld rema9 l>ge4 ,,x w be recollect$ t accord+ to ! ,l9nan nom5clature1 ! g5us is m>k$ by a sub/antive1 7z ,rosa71 & ! species designat$ by an adjective add$ to ?is sub/antive1 7z ,rosa ,alp9a72 :ile ! natural ord]s are describ$ by adjectives tak5 sub/antively1 7z ,rosace71 ,b ?is rule1 ?\gh x has be5 univ]sally ass5t$ to 9 !ory1 has (t5 be5 deviat$ f 9 practice4 ,! numb] ( kn[n species hav+ mu* increas$1 & ! language ( ,l9nu & ! pr9ciples ( ,jussieu hav+ mu* augm5t$ ! facilities = ! /udy ( aff9ities1 botani/s h become aw>e t ! species ( a g5us & ! g5]a ( an ord] c be collect$ into int]m$iate gr\ps #cdg z natural & z well def9$ z ! g5]a & ord]s !mselves1 & names are requir$ = ^! subord9ate gr\ps z mu* z = ! g5]a & ord]s4 ,n[ two c\rses h be5 foll[$ 9 provid+ names = ^! subord9ate gr\ps4 #a4 ,! orig9al g5]a 7consid]+ ! case ( g5]a 9 ! fir/ place7 h be5 pres]v$1 7if well f\nd$72 & ! l[] gr\ps h be5 call$ subg5]a1 sections1 subsections1 divisions1 c43 & ! orig9al names ( ! g5]a h be5 ma9ta9$ = ! purpose ( nom5clature1 9 ord] to reta9 a conv5i5t & /able language4 ,b :5 ^! subord9ate gr\ps are s well def9$ & s natural1 t except = ! conv5i5ce ( language1 !y might be made good g5]a1 !re are giv5 also to ^! subord9ate gr\ps1 sub/antive or sub/antively-tak5 adjective names4 ,:5 ^! subord9ate gr\ps are less def9$ or less natural1 ei!r no names at all are giv51 & !y are di/+ui%$ by figures or signs su* z 991 99991 or #a1 #b1 c4 or !re are giv5 !m m]e adjective names4 ,or1 #b1 ,to reg>d ^! int]m$iate gr\ps betwe5 species & ! orig9al g5]a1 z s _m indep5d5t g5]a2 & to give !m sub/antive names1 to be us$ 9 ord9>y botanical nom5clature4 ,n[ ! second c\rse is t :i* has produc$ ! intol]able multiplication ( g5]a 9 mod]n times2 & ! fir/ c\rse is ! only "o :i* c save botanical nom5clature f replung+ into ! *aos 9 :i* ,l9nu f\nd x4 ,x 0 /rongly advocat$ by ! eld] ,de ,c&olle2 al?\gh 9 ! latt] ye>s ( 8 life1 see+ h[ g5]al 0 ! disposition to conv]t 8 subg5]a & sections into g5]a1 he himself m or less gave 9 to ! g5]al practice4 ,! same pr9ciple 0 adopt$ by ,endli*51 b he aga9 0 dispos$ to g f> 9 giv+ sub/antive names to purely te*nical or ill-def9$ subsections ( g5]a4 ,! multiplication ( g5]a has be5 mu* too common4 ,botani/s h a natural pride 9 e/abli%+ new g5]a 7or ord]s72 & besides ?is1 x is felt h[ useful x is1 9 ! /udy ( aff9ities1 to def9e & #cdh "n all natural gr\ps 9 e grade1 h[ev] num]\s !y may be3 & 9 ! imm5se v>iety ( language x is f\nd easy to co9 names indef9itely4 ,b ! argum5ts on ! o!r side mu* prepond]ate4 ,9 attempt+ to introduce all ^! new names into ord9>y botanical language1 ! memory is tax$ beyond ! capabilities ( any m9d1 & ! orig9al & legitimate object ( ! ,l9nan nom5clature is :olly lo/ sight (4 ,9 a purely sci5tific view x matt]s little if ! ,ord]s are conv]t$ into ,classes or ,alliances1 ! ,g5]a into ,ord]s1 & ! ,sections or ,subsections into ,g5]a3 _! relative importance does n dep5d on ! names giv5 to !m1 b on _! height 9 ! scale ( compreh5siv5ess4 ,b = language1 ! great implem5t )\t :i* sci5ce _c "w1 x is ( ! greate/ importance1 z our ,aphorism decl>es1 ,t ! gr\ps :i* give _! sub/antive names to e species :i* !y include1 %\ld rema9 l>ge4 ,if1 indep5d5tly ( ! inevitable increase ( ,g5]a by new discov]ies1 su* old ones z ,ficus1 ,begonia1 ,arum1 ,erica1 c4 are divid$ into #aj1 #bj1 #cj1 or #dj indep5d5t ,g5]a1 ) names & *>act]s :i* are to be recollect$ be=e any "o species c be spok5 (2--if ,g5]a are to be reckon$ by t5s ( ?\s&s in/ead ( by ?\s&s2--! range ( any individual botani/ w be limit$ to a small portion ( ! :ole field ( ! sci5ces4 ,& 9 l mann] ) reg>d to ,ord]s1 s long z ! numb] ( ,ord]s c be kept )91 or n mu* beyond a c\ple ( hundr$1 x may reasonably be expect$ t a botani/ ( ord9>y capacity %all obta9 a suffici5t g5]al idea ( _! nature & *>act]s to call !m at any "t individually to 8 m9d = ! purpose ( comp>ison3 b if we d\ble ! numb] ( ,ord]s1 all is confusion4 ,! inevitable confusion & ! necessity ( ma9ta9+ 9 "s way ! l>g] gr\ps1 h be5 p]ceiv$ by ^? ev5 :o h gone ! fur!/ 9 l[]+ ! scale ( ,ord]s & ,g5]a4 ,z a rem$y = ?is confusion1 !y propose to erect ! old g5]a into indep5d5t ord]s1 & ! old ord]s into classes #cdi or divisions4 ,b ?is is b an incomplete resumption ( ! old pr9ciples1 )\t ! advantage ( ! old nom5clature4 ,& x w n be ass]t$1 ) reg>d to ^! new g5]a1 =m$ by cutt+ up ! old ones1 t ! new gr\p is bett] def9$ ?an ! gr\p above x3 on ! contr>y1 x is frequ5tly less s4 ,x is n pret5d$ t ,uro/igma or ,phannacosyce1 new g5]a =m$ out ( ! old g5us ,ficus1 are bett] def9$ ?an ! g5us ,ficus3 or t ! new g5]a :i* h lately be5 cut out ( ! old g5us ,begonia1 =m m natural gr\ps ?an ,begonia itself does4 ,! pr9ciple :i* seems to be adopt$ 9 su* subdivisions ( old g5]a is ?is3 t ! l[e/ def9able gr\p above a species is a g5us4 ,if we 7 to g a /ep fur!r1 e species becomes a g5us ) a sub/antive "n4 ,x ought always to be recollect$ t ?\gh ! analytical process c>ri$ to ! utt]mo/1 & sep>at+ gr\ps by obs]vation ( diff]5ces1 is necess>y = ! purpose ( asc]ta9+ ! facts ^u :i* botany or any o!r classificatory sci5ce is bas$1 x is a judici\s syn!sis alone1 associat+ individuals by ! ties ( language1 :i* c enable ! human m9d to take a compreh5sive view ( ^! facts1 to d$uce f !m ! pr9ciples ( ! sci5ce1 or to communicate to o!rs ei!r facts or pr9ciples4 #b4 ,,comp>ative ,,anatomy4 ,! ,language ( ,botany1 z fram$ by ,l9nu1 & regulat$ by 8 ,canons1 is /ill ! mo/ notable & successful example ( sci5tific t]m9ology :i* has obta9$ g5]al reception among naturali/s4 ,b ! ,language ( ,anatomy1 & especially ( ! ,comp>ative ,anatomy ( ! skeleton1 has ( late be5 an object ( great att5tion to physiologi/s2 & especially to ,mr4 ,ow52 & ! collection ( t]ms :i* he has propos$ are select$ ) s mu* ?\ght & c>e1 t !y may m9i/] valuable lessons to u 9 ?is "p ( our subject4 ,!re is1 at fir/ sight1 ?is broad diff]5ce betwe5 ! descriptive language ( ,botany & ( ,comp>ative #cej ,anatomy2 t 9 ! =m] sci5ce1 we h comp>atively few p>ts to describe1 7calyx1 corolla1 /am51 pi/il1 p]ic>p1 se$1 c473 :ile ea* ( ^! p>ts is susceptible ( _m =ms1 = describ+ :i* ) precision _m t]ms mu/ be provid$3 9 ,comp>ative ,anatomy1 on ! o!r h&1 ! skeletons ( _m animals are to be reg>d$ z modifications ( a common type1 & ! t]ms by :i* _! p>ts are describ$ are to m>k ?is community ( type4 ,! t]m9ology ( ,botany has = its object description2 ! language ( ,comp>ative ,anatomy mu/ h = its basis morphology4 ,accord+ly1 ,mr4 ,ow5's t]ms are select$ s z to express ! analogies1 or1 z he calls !m1 ! homologies ( ! skeleton2 ^? p>ts ( ! skeleton be+ t]m$ homologues1 :i* h ! same place 9 ! g5]al type1 & !re=e ought to h ! same "n4 ,yet ?is di/9ction ( ! basis ( botanical & anatomical t]m9ology is n to be pu%$ too f>4 ,! prim>y def9itions 9 botany1 z giv5 by ,l9nu1 are f\nd$ on morphological views2 & imply a g5]al type ( ! /ructure ( plants4 ,^! are 8 def9itions 7,phil4 ,bot4 ,art4 #hf74 ,,calyx1 ,cortex plant 9 ,fructificatione prs5s4 ,,corolla1 ,lib] plant 9 ,flora prs5s4 ,,/am51 ,viscus pro ,poll9is prp>atione4 ,,pi/illum1 ,viscus fructui adh]5s pro ,poll9is receptione4 ,,p]ic>pium1 ,viscus gravidum sem9ibus1 qu matura dimittit4 ,b 9 :at foll[s ^! lead+ def9itions1 ! t]ms are descriptive m]ely4 ,n[ 9 ,comp>ative ,anatomy1 an important object ( t]ms is1 to express :at "p ( ! type ea* bone repres5ts--to answ] ! "q1 :at is x8 be=e we proce$1 assum+ t we "k :at x is1 to describe its %ape4 ,! difficulty ( ?is previ\s "q is v great :5 we come to ! bones ( ! head2 & :5 we assume1 z morphology leads u to d1 t ! heads ( all v]tebrat$ animals1 includ+ ev5 fi%es1 are compos$ ( homolog\s bones4 ,&1 z ,i h already #cea said 9 ! ,hi/ory 7b4 xvii4 c4 #g71 speak+ ( ,animal ,morphology1 ! be/ physiologi/s are n[ agre$ t ! heads ( v]tebrates may be resolv$ into a s]ies ( v]tebr1 homologically repeat$ & modifi$ 9 diff]5t animals4 ,?is doctr9e has be5 gradually mak+ its way among anatomi/s1 ?r\gh a great v>iety ( views respect+ details2 & h5ce1 ) great discrepancies 9 ! language by :i* x has be5 express$4 ,mr4 ,ow5 has propos$ a complete s]ies ( t]ms = ! bones ( ! head ( all v]tebrates2 & ^! names are support$ by reasons :i* are full ( int]e/ & in/ruction to ! physiologi/1 on acc\nt ( ! compreh5sive & precise k ( comp>ative o/eology :i* !y involve2 b !y are also1 z ,i h said1 int]e/+ & in/ructive to u1 z exemplify+ ! reasons :i* may be giv5 = ! adoption ( words 9 sci5tific language4 ,! reasons ?us giv5 agree ) sev]al ( ! aphorisms :i* ,i h laid d[n1 & may p]haps sugge/ a few o!rs4 ,mr4 ,ow5 has done me ! great hon\r to quote ) approval "s ( ^! aphorisms4 ,! t]ms :i* he has propos$ belong1 z ,i h already said1 to ! ,t]m9ology1 n to ! ,nom5clature ( ,zoology4 ,9 ! latt] subject1 ! ,nom5clature 7! names ( species7 ! b9>y nom5clature e/abli%$ by ,l9nu rema9s1 9 its pr9ciple1 un%ak51 simple & suffici5t4 ,i %all be/ d]ive f ,mr4 ,ow5's lab\rs & reflexions "s ( ! in/ruction :i* !y supply ) ref]5ce to ! ,language ( ,sci5ce1 by mak+ rem>ks on 8 t]m9ology ) ref]5ce to su* aphorisms z ,i h prop\nd$ on ! subject1 & o!rs ( a l k9d4 ,mr4 ,ow51 9 8 ,homologies ( ! ,v]tebrate ,skeleton1 has giv5 9 a ,tabul> ,=m 8 views ( ! homology ( ! bones ( ! head ( v]tebrates1 & ! names :i* he consequ5tly proposes = ea* bone1 ) ! synonyms z !y occur 9 ! writ+s ( "s ( ! mo/ celebrat$ anatomical philosoph]s1 ,cuvi]1 ,ge(froy1 ,hallmann1 ,meckel & ,wagn]1 ,agassiz & ,soemm]+4 ,& he has add$ to ?is ,table 8 reasons = diss5t+ f 8 pr$ecessors #ceb to ! ext5t to :i* he has done s4 ,he has done ?is1 he says1 only :]e nature seem$ cle>ly to refuse h] sanction to !m2 act+ ^u ! maxim 7our ,aphorism ,x47 t new t]ms & *anges ( t]ms :i* are n ne$$ 9 ord] to express tru?1 are to be avoid$4 ,! illu/rations :i* ,i h !re giv51 h[ev]1 ( ?is maxim1 apply r to ! *anges 9 nom5clature ?an 9 t]m9ology2 & ?\gh _m consid]ations apply equally to ^! two subjects1 !re are "s po9ts 9 :i* ! reasons diff] 9 ! two cases3 especially 9 ?is po9t3--! names1 bo? ( g5]a & ( species1 9 a sy/em ( nom5clature1 may be d]iv$ f casual or arbitr>y circum/ances1 z ,i h said 9 ,aphorism ,,xiii4 ,b ! t]ms ( a sci5tific t]m9ology ought to coh]e z a sy/em1 & !re=e %\ld n commonly be d]iv$ f any?+ casual or arbitr>y1 b f "s analogy or connexion4 ,h5ce x seems unadvisable to apply to bones t]ms d]iv$ f ! names ( p]sons1 z ossa wormiana2 or ev5 f an accid5t 9 anatomical hi/ory1 z os innom9atum4 ,x is fur!r desirable t 9 e/abli%+ su* a t]m9ology1 ea* bone %\ld be designat$ by a s+le ^w1 & n by a descriptive phrase1 consi/+ ( sub/antive & adjective4 ,on ?is gr\nd ,mr4 ,ow5 proposes presph5oid = sph5ide ant]ieur4 ,s also prefrontal is pref]r$ to ant]ior frontal1 & po/frontal to po/]ior frontal4 ,& ! reason :i* he gives = ?is is wor?y ( be+ /at$ z an ,aphorism1 among ^? :i* %\ld regulate ?is subject4 ,i %all !re=e /ate x ?us3 ,,aphorism ,,xxiv4 ,x is advisable to sub/itute def9ite s+le names = descriptive phrases z bett] in/rum5ts ( ?\ght4 ,,x w be recollect$ by ! read] t 9 ! case ( ! ,l9nan re=m ( ! botanical nom5clature ( species1 ?is 0 "o ( ! great improvem5ts :i* 0 introduc$4 ,aga93 "s ( ! fir/ ( ! t]ms :i* ,mr4 ,ow5 proposes illu/rate1 & confirm by _! manife/ claim #cec to acceptance1 a maxim :i* we /at$ z ,aphorism ,,xxii43 namely1 ,:5 alt]ations 9 te*nical t]ms become necess>y1 x is desirable t ! new t]m %\ld conta9 9 its =m "s memorial ( ! old "o4 ,?us = 'basilaire1' :i* ,cuvi] exclusively applies to ! 'p>s basil>is' ( ! occiput1 & :i* ,ge(froy z exclusively applies 79 birds7 to ! 'p>s basil>is' ( ! sph5oid1 ,mr4 ,ow5 sub/itutes ! t]m basioccipital4 ,aga93 = ! t]m 'suroccipital' ( ,ge(froy1 ,mr4 ,ow5 proposes p>occipital1 to avoid confusion & false sugge/ion3 & ) ref]5ce to ?is ^w1 he makes a rem>k 9 agreem5t ) :at we h said 9 ! discussion ( ,aphorism ,,xxi43 namely1 t ! comb9ation ( diff]5t languages 9 ! d]ivation ( words1 ?\gh to be avoid$ 9 g5]al1 is 9 "s cases admissible4 ,he says1 ',if ! puri/s :o are di/ress$ by su* h>mless hybrids z m9]alogy1 t]m9ology1 & mammalogy1 %\ld prote/ aga9/ ! comb9ation ( ! ,greek prefix to ! ,lat9 n\n1 ,i c only plead t s]vility to a p>ticul> s\rce ( ! fluctuat+ s\nds ( vocal language is a matt] ( ta/e3 & t x seems no unreasonable privilege to use su* elem5ts z ! s]vants ( ?\ght2 & 9 ! int]e/s ( sci5ce to comb9e !m1 ev5 ?\gh !y come f diff]5t c\ntries1 :5 ! requir$ duty is be/ & mo/ exp$iti\sly p]=m$ by _! comb9ation4' ,s aga9 we h illu/rations ( our ,aphorism ,,xii41 t if t]ms are sy/ematically good !y are n to be reject$ because !y are etymologically inaccurate4 ,9 ref]5ce to t bone ( ! skull :i* has commonly be5 call$ vom]1 ! pl\gh%>e3 a t]m :i* ,ge(froy reject$1 b :i* ,mr4 ,ow5 reta9s1 he says1 ',:5 ,ge(frey 0 induc$ to reject ! t]m vom] z be+ applicable only to ! peculi> =m ( ! bone 9 a small portion ( ! v]tebrata1 he appe>s n to h consid]$ t ! old t]m1 9 its wid] application1 w\ld be us$ )\t ref]5ce to its prim>y allusion to ! pl\gh%>e1 & t becom+1 z x #ced has1 a purely arbitr>y t]m1 x is sup]ior & pref]able to any p>tially descriptive "o4' ,ano!r condition :i* ,i h m5tion$ 9 ,aphorism ,,xx41 z valuable 9 te*nical t]ms is1 t !y %\ld be susceptible ( su* grammatical relations z _! sci5tific use requires4 ,?is is1 9 fact1 "o ( ! gr\nds ( ! ,aphorism :i* we h already borr[$ f ,mr4 ,ow51 t we are to pref] s+le sub/antives to descriptive phrases4 ,= f su* sub/antives we c d]ive adjectives1 & o!r =ms2 & ?us ! t]m becomes1 z ,mr4 ,ow5 says1 a bett] in/rum5t ( ?\ght4 ,h5ce1 he mo/ consi/5tly m5tions x z a recomm5dation ( 8 sy/em ( names1 t by !m ! results ( a long s]ies ( inve/igations into ! special homologies ( ! bones ( ! head are express$ 9 simple & def9ite t]ms1 capable ( e requisite inflection to express ! proportion ( ! p>ts4 ,i may also1 9 ref]5ce to ?is same passage 9 ,mr4 ,ow5's appeal 9 behalf ( 8 t]m9ology1 repeat :at ,i h said "u ,aphorism ,x43 t ! p]sons :o may mo/ prop]ly propose new sci5tific t]ms1 are ^? :o h mu* new k to communicate3 s t ! vehicle is comm5d$ to g5]al reception by ! value ( :at x conta9s4 ,x is only to em95t discov]]s & pr(\nd philosoph]s t ! au?ority is conc$$ ( introduc+ a new sy/em ( t]ms2 j z x is only ! highe/ au?ority 9 ! /ate :i* has ! p[] ( putt+ a new co9age into circulation4 ,! long s]ies ( inve/igations ( :i* ! results are conta9$ 9 ,mr4 ,ow5's table ( synonyms1 & ! philosophical _s ( 8 g5]alizations1 entitles him to a mo/ respectful he>+ :5 he appeals to ! ,pr(essors & ,demon/rators ( ,human ,anatomy = an unbiass$ consid]ation ( ! advantages ( ! t]ms propos$ by him1 z likely to rem$y ! conflict+ & unsettl$ synonymy :i* has hi!rto p]vad$ ! subject4 ,!re is ano!r rem>k :i* is sugge/$ by ! works on ,comp>ative ,anatomy1 :i* ,i am n[ consid]+4 ,i h said 9 v>i\s places t ,te*nical #cee ,t]ms are a necess>y condition ( ! progress ( a sci5ce4 ,b we may say mu* m ?an ?is3 & ! rem>k is s important1 t x des]ves to be /at$ z "o ( our ,aphorisms1 z foll[s3 ,,aphorism ,,xxv4 ,9 an advanc$ ,sci5ce1 ! hi/ory ( ! ,language ( ! ,sci5ce is ! hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ce itself4 ,i ,,h already /at$ 9 previ\s ,aphorisms 7,,viii4 & ,,xi47 t ,t]ms mu/ be con/ruct$ s z to be fitt$ to enunciate g5]al propositions1 & t ,t]ms :i* imply !oretical views are admissible = ?is purpose4 ,& h5ce x happ5s t ! hi/ory ( ,t]ms 9 any sci5ce :i* has gone ?r\gh sev]al speculative /ages1 is really ! hi/ory ( ! g5]alizations & !ories :i* h _h curr5cy among ! cultivators ( ! sci5ce4 ,?is appe>s 9 ,comp>ative ,anatomy f :at we h be5 say+4 ,! rec5t progress ( t sci5ce is involv$ 9 ! rise & curr5cy ( ! ,t]ms :i* h be5 us$ by ! anatomi/s ^: synonyms ,mr4 ,ow5 has to discuss2 & ! reasons = select+ among ^!1 or inv5t+ o!rs1 include ^? tru?s & g5]alizations :i* are ! important rec5t /eps ( ! sci5ce4 ,! t]ms :i* are giv5 by ,mr4 ,ow5 9 8 table to d5ote ! bones ( ! head are good t]ms1 if !y are good t]ms1 because _! adoption & use is ! only complete way ( express+ ! tru?s ( homology3 namely1 ( t ,special ,homology1 accord+ to :i* all v]tebrate skeletons are ref]r$ to ! human skeleton z _! type1 & h _! p>ts designat$ accord+ly4 ,b fur!r3 !re is ano!r k9d ( homology :i* ,mr4 ,ow5 calls ,g5]al ,homology1 accord+ to :i* ! prim>y type ( a v]tebrate animal is m]ely a s]ies ( v]tebr2 & all limbs & o!r app5dages are only developem5ts ( ! p>ts ( "o or ano!r ( ! v]tebr4 ,& 9 ord] to express ?is view1 & 9 proportion z ! doctr9e has become curr5t among/ #cef anatomi/s1 ! p>ts ( v]tebr h be5 describ$ by t]ms ( a degree ( g5]ality :i* admit ( su* an int]pretation4 ,& "h1 also1 ,mr4 ,ow5 has propos$ a t]m9ology = ! p>ts ( ! v]tebr1 :i* seems to convey m sy/ematically & compreh5sively ?an ^? ( prec$+ writ]s ! tru?s to :i* !y h be5 t5d+4 ,ea* v]tebra is compos$ ( a c5trum1 neurapophysis1 p>apophysis1 pleurapophysis1 hmaphysis1 neural sp9e & hmal sp9e1 ) c]ta9 exog5\s p>ts4 ,! op9ion t ! head1 z well z ! o!r p>ts ( ! frame ( v]tebrates1 is compos$ ( v]tebr1 is n[ g5]ally accept$ among philosophical anatomi/s4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory 7,hi/4 ,i4 ,s4 b4 xvii4 c4 #g1 sect4 #a71 ,i h m5tion$ ?is op9ion z propos$ by "s writ]s2 & ,i h /at$ t ,ok51 9 #ahjg publi%$ a ',program' ,on ! signification ( ! bones ( ! ,skull1 9 :i* he ma9ta9$1 t ^! bones are equival5t to f\r v]tebr3 :ile ,meckel1 ,spix1 & ,ge(froy took views some:at diff]5t4 ,cuvi] & ,agassiz oppos$ ?is doctr9e1 b ,mr4 ,ow5 has 9 8 ,ar*etype & ,homologies ( ! ,v]tebrate ,skeleton 7#ahdh71 accept$ ! views ( ,ok51 & argu$ at l5g? aga9/ ! objections ( ,cuvi]1 & also ^? ( ,mr4 ,agassiz4 ,z ,i h not$ 9 ! la/ edition ( ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces 7b4 xvii4 c4 #g71 he gives a ,table 9 :i* ! ,bones ( ! ,head are resolv$ into f\r v]tebr1 :i* he t]ms ! ,occipital1 ,p>ietal1 ,frontal & ,nasal ,v]tebr respectively3 ! neural ar*es ( :i* agree ) :at ,ok5 call$ ! ,e>-v]tebra1 ! ,jaw-v]tebra1 ! ,eye-v]tebra1 & ! ,nose-v]tebra4 ,besides ^! doctr9es ( ,special ,homology by :i* ! bones ( all v]tebrates are ref]r$ to _! correspond+ bones 9 ! human skeleton1 & ( ,g5]al ,homology1 by :i* ! bones are ref]r$ to ! p>ts ( v]tebr :i* !y repres5t1 ,mr4 ,ow5 treats ( ,s]ial ,homology1 ! recognition ( ! same elem5ts ?r\gh\t ! s]ies ( segm5ts ( ! same skeleton2 z :5 we %ew 9 :at mann] ! arms correspond to ! legs4 ,& ?us1 he says1 9 ! head also1 ! basioccipital1 basisph5oid1 presph5oid & vom] are #ceg homotypes ) ! c5trums ( all succe$+ v]tebr4 ,! excoccipitals1 alisph5oids1 orbitosph5oids1 & prefrontals1 are homotypes ) ! neurapophyses ( all ! succe$+ v]tebr4 ,! p>occipitals1 mactoids & po/frontals1 ) ! transv]se processes ( all ! succe$+ v]tebr3 & s on4 ,p]haps ^! examples may exemplify suffici5tly = ! g5]al read] bo? ,mr4 ,ow5's t]m9ology1 & ! intimate mann] 9 :i* x is connect$ ) ! wide/ g5]alizations to :i* anatomical philosophy has yet be5 l$4 ,! same doctr9e1 t ! hi/ory ( ! ,language ( a ,sci5ce is ! hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ce1 appe>s also 9 ! rec5t progress ( ,*emi/ry2 b we %all be bett] able to illu/rate our ,aphorism 9 ?is case by putt+ =w>d previ\sly "o or two o!r ,aphorisms be>+ ^u ! hi/ory ( t ,sci5ce4 ,,aphorism ,,xxvi4 ,9 ! ,t]m9ology ( ,sci5ce x may be necess>y to employ lett]s1 numb]s1 & algebraical symbols4 #a4 ,,m9]alogy4 ,i ,,h already said1 9 ,aphorism ,,xv41 t symbols h be5 f\nd requisite z a "p ( ! t]m9ology ( ,m9]alogy4 ,! names propos$ by ,hay1 borr[$ f ! cry/all9e laws1 7 s inadequate & unsy/ematic t !y c\ld n be reta9$4 ,he himself propos$ a notation = cry/all9e =ms1 f\nd$ ^u 8 pr9ciple ( ! d]ivation ( su* =ms f a primitive =m1 by decrem5ts1 on its edges or its angles4 ,to d5ote ?is d]ivation he took ! fir/ lett]s ( ! ?ree syllables to m>k ! faces ( ! ,pri,mi,tive =m1 ,p1 ,m1 ,t2 ! v[els ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o to m>k ! angles2 ! consonants ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 c4 to m>k ! edges2 & num]ical expon5ts1 annex$ 9 v>i\s positions to ^! lett]s1 repres5t$ ! law & mann] ( d]ivation4 ,?us :5 ! primitive =m 0 a cube1 #a ,b repres5t$ ! result ( a d]ivation by a decrem5t ( "o r[ #ceh on an edge2 t is1 a rhombic octah$ron2 & #a ,,bp repres5t$ ! comb9ation ( ?is octah$ron ) ! primitive cube4 ,9 ?is way ! p5tagonal dodecah$ron1 produc$ by decrem5ts ( #b to #a on half ! edges ( ! cube1 0 repres5t$ by ,b ,c ,g ,g4 ,n only1 h[ev]1 0 ! hypo!sis ( primitive =ms & decrem5ts unt5able1 b ?is notation 0 too unsy/ematic to /& long4 ,& :5 ,weiss & ,mohs e/abli%$ ! di/9ction ( ,sy/ems ( ,cry/allography#ffd1 !y naturally f\nd$ ^u t di/9ction a notation = cry/all9e =ms4 ,mohs _h sev]al foll[]s2 b 8 algebraical notation s b>b>\sly violat$ all algebraical mean+1 t x 0 n likely to la/4 ,?us1 f a primitive rhomboh$ron :i* he designat$ by ,r1 he d]iv$1 by a c]ta9 process1 a s]ies ( o!r rhomboh$rons1 :i* he d5ot$ by ,r #a1 ,r #b1 ,r #a1 c42 & !n1 by ano!r mode ( d]ivation f !m1 he obta9$ =ms :i* he m>k$ z 7,r #b71 7,r #b71 c4 ,9 do+ ?is he us$ ! algebraical m>ks ( addition & involution )\t ! smalle/ gr\nd2 besides _m o!r proposals no less transgress+ ma!matical analogy & simplicity4 ,note #ffd3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xv4 c4 #d4 ,b ?is notation might easily sugge/ a bett]4 ,if we take a primitive =m1 we c g5]ally1 by two /eps ( d]ivation1 ea* capable ( num]ical measure1 obta9 any possible face2 & !re=e any cry/all9e =m b\nd$ by su* faces4 ,h5ce all t we ne$ indicate 9 our cry/all9e laws is ! primitive =m1 & two num]ical expon5ts2 & reject+ all sup]fluity 9 our symbols1 in/ead ( 7,r #b7 we might write #b ,r #c4 ,ne>ly ( ?is k9d is ! notation ( ,naumann4 ,! sy/ems ( cry/allization1 ! octah$ral or tessul>1 ! rhombic1 & ! prismatic1 are m>k$ by ! lett]s ,o1 ,r1 ,p2 & f ^! are d]iv$1 by c]ta9 laws1 su* symbols z #c ,o 1 ,r #b1 ,p #b1 #cei :i* h _! def9ite signification fl[+ f ! rules ( ! notation4 ,b ,pr(essor ,mill]1 :o has treat$ ! subject ( ,cry/allography 9 ! mo/ g5]al & symmetrical mann]1 adopts ! plan ( m>k+ ea* cry/all9e plane by ?ree num]ical indices4 ,?us 9 ! ,octah$ral ,sy/em1 ! cube is #ajj2 ! octah$ron is #aaa2 ! rhombic dodecah$ron is #jaa2 ! p5tagonal dodecah$ron is #jab2 :]e indicates t ! =m is n holoh$ral b hemih$ral1 only half ! numb] ( faces be+ tak5 :i* ! law ( d]ivation w\ld give4 ,?is sy/em is ! mo/ ma!matically consi/5t1 & af=ds ! be/ means ( calculation1 z ,pr(essor ,mill] has %[n2 b !re appe>s to be 9 x ?is defect1 t ?\gh an ess5tial "p ( ! s*eme is ! division ( cry/all9e =ms into ,sy/ems1--! ,octah$ral1 ,pyramidal1 ,rhomboh$ral & ,prismatic1--?is division does n at all appe> 9 ! notation4 ,b :atev] be ! notation :i* ! cry/allograph] adopts1 x is evid5t t he mu/ employ "s notation2 & t1 )\t x1 he w be unable to express ! =ms & relations ( =ms ) :i* he has to deal4 #b4 ,,*emi/ry4 ,! same has long be5 ! case 9 ,*emi/ry4 ,z ,i h /at$ else:]e#fgd1 ! *emical nom5clature ( ! oxyg5 !ory 0 = a "t v useful & effective4 ,b yet x _h defects :i* c\ld n be ov]look$1 z ,i h already /at$ "u ,aphorism ,,ii4 ,! relations ( elem5ts 7 too num]\s1 & _! num]ical prop]ties too important1 to be express$ by t]m9ations & o!r modifications ( words4 ,?us ! comp\nds ( ,nitrog5 & ,oxyg5 are ! ,protoxide1 ! ,deutoxide1 ,nitr\s ,acid1 ,p]oxide ( ,nitrog51 ,nitric ,acid4 ,! sy/ematic nom5clature "h1 ev5 ?us loosely ext5d$1 does n express our k4 ,& ! ,atomic ,!ory1 :5 e/abli%$1 br\ght to view num]ical #cfj relations :i* x 0 v important to keep 9 sight4 ,if ,n repres5ts ,nitrog5 & ,o ,oxyg51 ! comp\nds ( ! two elem5ts j m5tion$ might be d5ot$ by ,n ,o1 ,n #b,o1 ,n #c,o1 ,n #d,o1 ,n #e,o4 ,& by adopt+ a lett] = ea* ( ! elem5t>y sub/ances1 all ! comb9ations ( !m might be express$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,note #fgd3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xiv4 c4 #f4 ,b 9 *emi/ry !re are diff]5t ord]s ( comb9ation4 ,a salt1 = in/ance1 is a comp\nd ( a base & an acid1 ea* ( :i* is already comp\nd4 ,if ,fe be iron & ,c be c>bon1 ,fe ,o w be ! protoxide ( iron1 & ,c #b,o w be c>bonic acid2 & ! c>bonate ( iron 7m prop]ly c>bonate ( protoxide ( iron71 may be repres5t$ by 7,fe ,o7 7,c #b,o7 :]e ! brackets indicate ! fir/ /age ( composition4 ,b ^! brackets & signs ( addition1 9 complex cases1 w\ld cumb] ! page 9 an inconv5i5t degree2 & oxyg5 is ( su* v wide occurr5ce1 t x seems desirable to abridge ! notation s f> z x is conc]n$4 ,h5ce ,b]zelius propos$#fhd t 9 ! fir/ /age ( composition ! oxyg5 %\ld be express$ by dots ov] ! lett]2 & ?us ! c>bonate ( iron w\ld be 4,fe 44,c4 ,b ,b]zelius fur!r introduc$ into 8 notation indexes su* z 9 algebra d5ote involution to ! squ>e1 cube1 c4 ,?us ,cu be+ copp]1 ! sulphate ( copp] is repres5t$ by 444,s44,cu4 ,?is notation1 :5 fir/ propos$1 0 /rongly condemn$ by ,engli% *emi/s1 & ,b]zelius's reply to !m may be tak5 z /at+ ! reasons 9 fav\r ( su* notation4 ,he says#fid1 ',we answ] to ! oppon5ts1 t und\bt$ly ! matt] may be look$ at 9 v>i\s lights4 ,! use ( ,=mul has always1 = a p]son :o has n accu/om$ himself to !m1 some?+ repulsive2 b ?is is easy to ov]come4 ,i agree ) my oppon5t1 #cfa :o says t no?+ c be und]/ood 9 a ,=mula :i* _c be express$ 9 words2 & t if ! words express x z easily z ! ,=mula1 ! use ( ! latt] w\ld be a folly4 ,b !re are cases 9 :i* ?is is n s2 9 :i* ! ,=mula says 9 a glance :at x w\ld take _m l9es to express 9 words2 & 9 :i* ! expression ( ! ,=mula is cle>] & m easily appreh5d$ by ! read] ?an ! long] description 9 words4 ,let u exam9e su* a ,=mula1 & comp>e x ) ! equival5t description 9 words4 ,take1 = example1 cry/alliz$ sulphate ( copp]1 ( :i* ! ,=mula is 44,cu444,s #aj;,h,o4 ,n[ ?is ,=mula expresses ! foll[+ propositions3 ',t ! salt consi/s ( "o atom ( copp]-oxide comb9$ ) #b atoms ( sulphuric acid & ) #aj atoms ( wat]2 t ! copp]-oxide conta9s two atoms ( oxyg52 & t ! sulphuric acid conta9s #c atoms ( oxyg5 = "o atom ( sulphur2 t its oxyg5 is ?ree times z mu* z t ( ! oxide2 & t ! numb] ( atoms ( oxyg5 9 ! acid is #f2 & t ! numb] ( atoms ( oxyg5 9 ! wat] is #aj2 t is1 #e times ! numb] 9 ! oxide2 & t f9ally ! salt conta9s1 ( simple atoms1 #a copp]1 #b sulphur1 #bj hydrog51 & #ah oxyg54 ,note #fhd3 ,sy/em ( ,m9]alogy1 #ahaf4 ,note #fid3 ,jahresb]i*t1 #ahbd1 p4 #aai4 ',s9ce s mu* is express$ 9 ?is brief ,=mula1 h[ v long w\ld ! explanation be = a m composite body1 = example1 ,alum2 = :i* ! ,=mula is 44,k444,s #b444;,al444,s #dh;,h,o4 ,x w\ld take half a page to express all :i* ?is ,=mula conta9s4 ',p]haps x may be object$ t x is seldom t any "o wants to "k all ?is at once4 ,b x might reasonably be said 9 reply1 t ! peculi> value ( ! ,=mula consi/s 9 ?is1 t x conta9s answ]s to all ! que/ions :i* c be ask$ ) reg>d to ! composition ( ! body4 #cfb ',b ^! ,=mul h also ano!r application1 ( :i* ,i h sometimes _h occasion to make use4 ,exp]im5ts sometimes br+ be=e u comb9ations :i* _c be =ese5 f ! nom5clature1 & = :i* x is n always easy to f9d a consi/5t & appropriate "n4 ,9 writ+1 ! ,=mula may be appli$ in/ead ( a ,"n3 & ! read] und]/&s x bett] ?an if "o made a new "n4 ,9 my treatise ^u ! sulphurett$ alkalies ,i f\nd ,degrees ( ,sulphur-comb9ation1 = :i* ,nom5clature has no "n4 ,i express$ !m1 = example1 by ,,ks#f1 ,,ks#h1 ,,ks#aj & ,i believ$ t e "o und]/ood :at 0 !reby meant4 ,moreov]1 ,i f\nd ano!r class ( bodies 9 :i* an electro-negative sulphurett$ metal play$ ! "p ( an ,acid ) respect to an electro-positive sulphurett$ metal1 = :i* a :ole new nom5clature 0 ne$$2 :ile yet x 7 n prud5t to con/ruct su* a nom5clature1 till m is kn[n on ! subject4 ,in/ead ( new names ,i us$ =mulas2 = example1 ,,ks #b;,z ,s1 in/ead ( say+ ! comb9ation ( #b atoms ( ,sulphuret ( ,ars5ic conta9+ #c atoms ( ,sulphur1 ) "o atom ( ,sulphuret ( ,potassium 7,kali7 ) ! lea/ dose ( sulphur4' ,b]zelius goes on to say t ! ,engli% *emi/s _h f\nd !mselves unable to f9d any sub/itutes = 8 =mul :5 !y translat$ 8 pap]s4 ,our ,engli% *emi/s h n g5]ally adopt$ ! notation ( oxyg5 by dots2 b h employ$ commas or full /ops & symbols 71 or 4 & 71 to d5ote v>i\s degrees ( union1 & num]ical indices4 ,?us ! d\ble sulphate ( copp] & pota% is ,cu ,o1 ,,s#c ,,ko1 ,,s#c4 ,:at has be5 said is applicable ma9ly to inorganic bodies 7z salts & m9]als7#gjd4 ,9 ^! bodies !re is 7at lea/ accord+ to ! views ( _m intellig5t *emi/s7 a b9>y plan ( comb9ation1 union tak+ #cfc place betwe5 pairs ( elem5ts1 & ! comp\nds s produc$ aga9 unit+ !mselves to o!r comp\nd bodies 9 ! same mann]4 ,?us1 9 ! above example1 copp] & oxyg5 comb9e into oxide ( copp]1 potassium & oxyg5 into pota%1 sulphur & oxyg5 into sulphuric acid2 sulphuric acid 9 its turn comb9es bo? ) oxide ( copp] & oxide ( potassium1 g5]at+ a pair ( salts :i* are capable ( unit+ to =m ! d\ble comp\nd ,cu ,o1 ,,s#c ,,ko1 ,,s#c4 ,note #gjd3 ,f[nes's ,*emi/ry4 ,"p iii4 ,! mo/ complicat$ products ( inorganic *emi/ry may be ?us %[n to be built up by ?is repeat$ pair+ on ! "p ( _! con/itu5ts4 ,b ) organic bodies ! case is rem>kably diff]5t2 no su* arrangem5t c "h be trac$4 ,9 sug>1 :i* is ,c#ab ,h#aa ,o#aa1 or morphia#gad1 :i* is ,c#ce ,h#bj ,,no#f1 ! elem5ts are z x 7 b\nd toge!r into a s+le :ole1 :i* c ent] into comb9ation ) o!r sub/ances1 & be !nce dis*>g$ ) prop]ties unalt]$2 ! elem5ts n be+ obvi\sly arrang$ 9 any subord9ate gr\ps4 ,h5ce ! symbols = ^? sub/ances are su* z ,i h giv5 above1 no m>ks ( comb9ation be+ us$4 ,note #gad3 ,f[nes's ,*emi/ry1 p4 #ced4 ,x is p]haps a consequ5ce ( ?is peculi>ity t organic comp\nds are un/able 9 comp>ison ) inorganic4 ,9 unorganic sub/ances g5]ally ! elem5ts are comb9$ 9 su* a way t ! mo/ p[]ful aff9ities are satisfi$#gbd1 & h5ce arises a /ate ( v consid]able p]man5ce & durability4 ,b 9 an organic sub/ance conta9+ ?ree or f\r elem5ts1 !re are (t5 oppos+ aff9ities ne>ly balanc$1 & :5 "o ( ^! t5d5cies by "s accid5t obta9s a prepond]ance & ! equilibrium is de/roy$1 !n ! organic body breaks up into two or m new bodies ( simpl] & m p]man5t con/itution4 ,note #gbd3 ,see ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xiv4 c4 #c4 ,!re is ano!r prop]ty ( _m organic sub/ances :i* is call$ ! ,law ( ,sub/itution4 ,! #cfd ,hydrog5 ( ! organic sub/ance may (t5 be replac$ by ,*lor9e1 ,brom9e1 ,iod9e1 or "s o!r elem5ts1 )\t ! de/ruction ( ! primitive type or con/itution ( ! comp\nd s modifi$4 ,& ?is sub/itution may take place by sev]al successive /eps1 giv+ rise to a s]ies ( sub/itution-comp\nds1 :i* dep>t m & m 9 prop]ties f ! orig9al sub/ance4 ,?is ,law also gives rise to a special notation4 ,?us a c]ta9 comp\nd call$ ,dut* liquid has ! elem5ts ,c#d ,h#d ,cl#b3 b ?is sub/ance is affect$ by *lor9e 7,cl7 9 ob$i5ce to ! law ( sub/itution2 "o & two equival5ts ( hydrog5 be+ successively remov$ by ! prolong$ action ( *lor9e gas aid$ by sun%9e4 ,! successive products may be ?us writt5 ,h#c ,h#b ,c#d ,h#d ,cl#b2 ,c#d ,cl#b2 ,c#d ,cl#b4 ,cl ,cl#b ,p]haps at a future p]iod1 *emical symbols1 & especially ^? ( organic bodies1 may be made m sy/ematic & m significant ?an !y at pres5t are4 ,,aphorism ,,xxvii4 ,9 us+ algebraical symbols z a "p ( sci5tific language1 violations ( algebraical analogy are to be avoid$1 b may be admitt$ :5 necess>y4 ,,z we mu/ 9 sci5tific language con=m to etymology1 s mu/ we to algebra2 & z we are n to make ourselves ! slaves ( ! =m]1 s also1 n to ! latt]4 ,h5ce we reject su* cry/allographical notation z t ( ,mohs2 & 9 *emi/ry we use ,c#b1 ,o#c r ?an ,c1 ,o1 :i* signify ! squ>e ( ,c & ! cube ( ,o4 ,b we may use1 z we h said1 bo? ! comma & ! sign ( addition1 = *emical comb9ation1 = ! sake ( brevity1 ?\gh bo? /eps ( comb9ation are really addition4 #cfe ,,aphorism ,,xxviii4 ,9 a complex sci5ce1 :i* is 9 a /ate ( transition1 caprici\s & deta*$ d]ivations ( t]ms are common2 b are n satisfactory4 ,,9 ?is rem>k ,i h especial ref]5ce to ,*emi/ry2 9 :i* ! discov]ies made1 especially 9 organic *emi/ry1 & ! difficulty ( r$uc+ !m to a sy/em1 h brok5 up 9 sev]al in/ances ! old nom5clature1 )\t its be+ possible at pres5t to con/ruct a new set ( t]ms sy/ematically connect$4 ,h5ce x has come to pass t *emi/s h con/ruct$ words 9 a caprici\s & deta*$ way3 z by tak+ fragm5ts ( words1 & ! l4 ,i %all give "s examples ( su* d]ivations1 & also ( "s attempts :i* h m ( a sy/ematic "*4 ,i h m5tion$ 7,aph4 9999,,xx4 sect4 #g7 ! ^w ,ellagic 7acid71 made by inv]t+ ! ^w ,galle4 ,sev]al words h rec5tly be5 =m$ by *emi/s by tak+ syllables f two or m diff]5t words4 ,?us ,*evreul discov]$ a sub/ance to :i* he gave ! "n 9999,e?al1 f ! fir/ syllables ( ! words e!r & alcohol1 because ( its analogy to ^? liquids 9 po9t ( composition#gcd4 ,s ,liebig has ! ^w *loral#gdd4 ,note3 #gcd3 ,turn]'s ,*emi/ry1 #ahcd1 p4 #iee ,note3 #gdd3 ,b]zelius' ,jahresb]i*t1 xv4 p4 #cgb4 ,liebig1 exam9+ ! product ( di/illation ( alcohol1 sulphuric acid & amb]1 f\nd a sub/ance :i* he t]m$ ,aldehyd1 f ! words ,alcohol dehydrog5at$#ged4 ,?is mode ( mak+ ,words has be5 /rongly object$ to by ,mr4 ,dumas#gfd4 ,/ill m has he object$ to ! ^w ,m]captan 7( ,zeise71 :i* #cff he says re/s ^u a m]e play ( words2 = x means bo? m]curium captans & m]curio aptum4 ,note #ged3 ,ibid4 xvi4 p4 #cjh4 ,note #gfd3 ,leons de ,*imie1 p4 #ced4 ,dumas & ,peligot1 work+ on pyroligne\s acids1 f\nd reason to believe ! exi/5ce ( a sub/ance#ggd :i* !y call$ me?yl5e1 d]iv+ ! "n f me?y1 a spiritu\s fluid1 & hyle1 wood4 ,b]zelius rem>ks t ! "n %\ld r be me?yl1 & t may be tak5 9 its signification ( matt]1 to imply ! ,radical ( ,w9e3 & he proposes t ! old] !r-,radical1 ,c#d ,h#aj %all be call$ ?yl1 ! new]1 ,c#b ,h#f1 ,me?yl4 ,note #ggd3 ,b]zelius' ,jahresb]i*t1 xv4 7#ahcf74 ,?is notion ( m>k+ by ! t]m9ation yl ! hypo!tical comp\nd radical ( a s]ies ( *emical comp\nds has be5 g5]ally adopt$2 &1 z we see f ! above ref]5ce1 x mu/ be reg>d$ z repres5t+ ! ,greek ^w 3 & su* hypo!tical radicals ( bases h be5 t]m$ 9 g5]al basyls4 ,buns5 obta9$ f ,cadet's fum+ liquid a sub/ance :i* he call$ ,alk>s9 7alkali-arsenic873 & ! sub/ance produc$ f ?is by oxidation he call$ ,alk>g5#ghd4 ,b]zelius 0 ( op9ion1 t ! true view ( its composition 0 t x conta9$ a comp\nd t]n>y radical ,c#f ,h#ab ,z#b1 aft] ! mann] ( organic bodies2 & he propos$ = ?is ! "n#gid ,kakodyl4 ,alk>s9 is ,kakodyl-oxyd1 4,kd1 ,alk>g5 is ,kakodyl-acid1 ,kd4 ,note #ghd3 ,ibid4 xviii4 p4 #dig4 ,note #gid3 ,ibid4 xx4 p4 #ebg4 ,! discov]y ( ,kakodyl 0 ! fir/ in/ance ( ! insulation ( an organic metallic basyl#hjd4 ,note #hjd3 ,mill]'s ,*emi/ry1 iii4 #bbj4 ,! fir/ ( ! ,hydroc>bon ,radicals ( ! ,alcohols 0 ! radical ( ,tetrylic alcohol obta9$ by ,kolbe f ,val]ate ( ,pota%1 & h5ce call$ ,valyl ,c#af ,h#ah4 ,*lor(orm is p]*loride ( =myl1 ! hypo!tical radical ( =mic acid#had4 ,note #had3 ,dumas1 ,leons sur la ,phil4 ,*im4 p4 #cef4 #cfg ,! discov]y ( su* bases goes back to #ahae4 ,! sub/ance =m]ly call$ ,prussiate ( ,m]cury1 be+ treat$ 9 a p>ticul> mann]1 0 resolv$ into metallic m]cury & ,cyanog54 ,?is sub/ance1 ,cyanog51 is1 accord+ to ! old] nom5clature1 ,bic>buret ( ,nitrog52 b *emi/s are agre$ t its mo/ conv5i5t "n is ,cyanog51 propos$ by its discov]]1 ,gay-,lussac1 9 #ahaehbd4 ,! importance ( ! discov]y consi/s 9 ?is2 t ?is sub/ance 0 ! fir/ comp\nd body :i* 0 di/9ctly prov$ to ent] into comb9ation ) elem5t>y sub/ances 9 a mann] simil> to t 9 :i* !y comb9e ) ea* o!r4 ,note #hbd3 ,turn]'s ,*emi/ry 7#ahcd71 p4 #dbj4 ,mill]'s ,*emi/ry1 ii4 #ff4 ,! tru? ( our ,aphorism 7,,xxv47 t 9 su* a sci5ce z *emi/ry1 ! hi/ory ( ! sci5tific nom5clature is ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ce1 appe>s f ?is2 t ! controv]sies ) respect to *emical !ories & _! application take ! =m ( objections to ! common sy/ematic names & proposals ( new names in/ead4 ,?us a c]ta9 comp\nd ( potassa1 sulphur1 hydrog51 & oxyg51 may be reg>d$ ei!r z ,hydrosulphate ( ,potassa1 or z ,sulphide ( ,potassium 9 solution1 accord+ to diff]5t views#hcd4 ,9 "s cases inde$1 *anges are made m]ely = ! sake ( cle>ness4 ,in/ead ( ,hydro*loric & ,hydrocyanic acid1 _m ,fr5* writ]s1 foll[+ ,!n>d1 transpose ! elem5ts ( ^! t]ms2 !y speak ( ,*lorhydric & ,cyanhydric acid2 by ?is means !y avoid any ambiguity :i* might arise f ! use ( ! prefix ,hydro1 :i* has sometimes be5 appli$ to comp\nds :i* conta9 wat]#hdd4 ,note #hcd3 ,mill]'s ,*emi/ry1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ehc4 ,note #hdd3 ,ibid4 ii4 #dcc4 ,an incomplet5ess 9 *emical nom5clature 0 fur!r felt1 :5 x appe>$1 f ! prop]ties ( v>i\s sub/ances1 t m]e id5tity 9 *emical composition is n suffici5t to produce id5tity ( *emical "* or prop]ties#hed4 ,! doctr9e ( #cfh ! exi/5ce ( comp\nds id5tical 9 ultimate composition1 b diff]5t 9 *emical prop]ties1 0 t]m$ ,isom]ism4 ,?us *emi/s enum]ate ! foll[+ comp\nds1 all ( :i* conta9 c>bon & hydrog5 9 ! proportion ( s+le equival5ts ( ea*#hfd2--,me?yl5e1 ,olefiant gas1 ,propyl5e1 ,oil gas1 ,amyl5e1 ,caproyl5e1 ,naph!ne1 ,ele5e1 ,p]amyl5e1 ,cetyl5e1 ,c]otyl5e1 ,meliss9e4 ,note #hed3 ,ibid4 ii4 #fec4 ,note #hfd3 ,mill]'s ,*emi/ry1 ii4 p4 #fed4 ,i w1 9 ! la/ place1 prop\nd an ,aphorism :i* has already (f]$ itself 9 consid]+ ! hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry#hgd z hav+ a special be>+ ^u t ,sci5ce1 b :i* may be reg>d$ z ! supreme & ultimate rule ) reg>d to ! language ( ,sci5ce4 ,note #hgd3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xiv4 c4 #a4 ,,aphorism ,,xxix4 ,9 le>n+ ! mean+ ( ,sci5tific ,t]ms1 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce is our ,diction>y3 ! /eps ( sci5tific induction are our ,def9itions4 ,,x is usual = unsci5tific read]s to compla9 t ! te*nical t]ms :i* !y meet ) 9 books ( sci5ce are n accompani$ by pla9 def9itions su* z !y c und]/&4 ,b su* def9itions _c be giv54 ,= def9itions mu/ consi/ ( words2 &1 9 ! case ( sci5tific t]ms1 mu/ consi/ ( words :i* require aga9 to be def9$3 & s on1 )\t limit4 ,elem5t>y sub/ances 9 *emi/ry1 = in/ance1 :at are !y8 ,! sub/ances into :i* bodies c be analys$1 & by ! junction ( :i* !y are compos$4 ,b :at is analysis8 :at is composition8 ,we h se5 t x requir$ long & labori\s c\rses ( exp]im5t to answ] ^! que/ions2 & t f9ally ! balance decid$ among rival answ]s4 ,& s x is 9 o!r cases4 ,9 ent]+ ^u ea* sci5ce1 we come ^u a new set ( words4 ,& h[ are we to le>n #cfi ! mean+ ( ?is collection ( words8 ,9 :at o!r language %all x be expla9$8 ,9 :at t]ms %all we def9e ^! new expressions8 ,to ?is we are compell$ to reply1 t we _c translate ^! t]ms into any ord9>y or famili> language4 ,"h1 z 9 all o!r bran*es ( k1 ! mean+ ( words is to be s\ght 9 ! progress ( ?\ght4 ,x is only by go+ back ?r\gh ! successful rese>*es ( m5 respect+ ! composition & elem5ts ( bodies1 t we c le>n 9 :at s5se su* t]ms c be und]/ood1 s z to convey real k4 ,9 ord] t !y may h a mean+ = u1 we mu/ inquire :at mean+ !y _h 9 ! m9ds ( ! au?ors ( our discov]ies4 ,& ! same is ! case 9 o!r subjects4 ,to take ! in/ance ( ,morphology4 ,:5 ! beg9n] is told t e gr\p ( animals may be r$uc$ to an ,ar*etype1 he w seek = a def9ition ( ,ar*etype4 ,su* a def9ition has be5 (f]$1 to ?is effect3 ! ,ar*etype ( a gr\p ( animals is a diagram embody+ all ! organs & p>ts :i* are f\nd 9 ! gr\p 9 su* a relative position z !y w\ld h _h if none _h atta9$ an excessive developm5t4 ,b1 !n1 we are l$ fur!r to ask1 ,h[ are we 9 ea* case to become acqua9t$ ) ! diagram2 to "k ( :at p>ts x consi/s1 & h[ !y are relat$2 & fur!r2 ,:at is ! /&>d ( excess8 ,x is by a wide exam9ation ( p>ticul> species1 & by sev]al successive g5]alizations ( obs]v$ facts1 t we are l$ to a diagram ( an animal =m ( a c]ta9 k9d1 7= example1 a v]tebrate27 & ( ! v>i\s ways1 excessive & defective1 9 :i* ! p>ts may be develop$4 ,?is crav+ = def9itions1 z we h already said1 arises 9 a great degree f ! acqua9tance ) geometry :i* mo/ p]sons acquire at an e>ly age4 ,! def9itions ( geometry are easily intelligible by a beg9n]1 because ! idea ( space1 ( :i* !y are modifications1 is cle>ly possess$ )\t any special culture4 ,b ?is is n & _c be ! case 9 o!r sci5ces f\nd$ ^u a wide & exact obs]vation ( facts4 #cgj ,x 0 =m]ly said t !re 0 no ,royal ,road to ,geometry3 9 mod]n times we h occasion (t5 to repeat t !re is no ,popul> ,road--no road easy1 pleasant1 (f]+ no difficulty & dem&+ no toil1--to ,comp>ative ,anatomy1 ,*emi/ry or any o!r ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,,! ,,end4 ,,cambridge3 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,c4 ,j4 ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,:ewell publi%$ ! fir/ edition ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces 9 #ahdj 9 two volumes1 z a companion to ! #ahcg ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,revis$ second editions ( bo? works appe>$ 9 #ahdg4 ,! ?ird editions saw a major re%ap+ ( ! ,philosophy3 a two volume ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas 7#aheh2 9 ,project ,gut5b]g z #fijic71 ,novum ,organon ,r5ovatum 7#aheh2 ! pres5t text1 rely+ ^u res\rces k9dly provid$ by ! ,int]net ,ar*ive71 & ,on ! ,philosophy ( ,discov]y3 *apt]s hi/orical & critical 7#ahfj2 long s9ce 9 ,project ,gut5b]g's collection z #eaee74 7,! ?ird edition ( ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces is available 9 ,,pg z #fhfic47 ,adaptations 9 ?is text ,9 ! pres5t text footnotes are numb]$ by ,book & are plac$ aft] ! p>agraph to :i* !y atta*2 9 ! orig9al1 notes 7 numb]$ by *apt]4 ,page numb]s appe> 9 1 or :5 ! numb] is n pr9t$4 ,:]e a ^w 0 hyph5at$ across pages ! numb] has be5 plac$ be=e ! ^w4 ,fractions h be5 transcrib$ z num]ator d5om9ator2 ! orig9al usually has num]ator ov] a l9e ) d5om9ator bel[4 ,"s unusual symbols occur4 ,on pages #ceg & #ceh1 !re are italic lett]s ) a numb] writt5 above !m4 ,on two occasions ,b has a #a above x1 & once ,c has above x4 ,on page #cfd a =mula is writt5 ) two entries conta9+ ,h on a l9e above ,cl4 ,^! sup]positions h be5 pres]v$ at ! co/ ( "s %ort l9es4 ,! o!r oddities h be5 captur$ by us+ to indicate items above ! foll[+ "*4 7,!y %\ld n be confus$ ) ! use ( = footnote an*ors47 ,= sup]scripts has be5 us$ except = expressions us+ only ! sup]script$ numb]s available 9 ,unicode4 ,subscripts are indicat$ by a prec$+ ! "*4 7,?is un=tunately results 9 d\ble :5 ! prec$+ *>act]s are 9 italics47 ,on pages #aeb & #aig ,:ewell uses a rais$ dot z a decimal po9t & 9 footnote #bfc a comma4 ,^! h be5 replac$ by a mid dot4 ,inductive ,*>ts ,at ! end ( ,book ,,ii41 ,:ewell includ$ two v l>ge ins]ts1 describ$ 9 "s detail 9 ! ,book itself4 ,!y 7 n captur$ by ! scans available 9 ! ,int]net ,ar*ive4 ,i 0 k9dly provid$ ) photographs ( !m4 ,^? *>ts 7 f\r times z wide z ! normal page & a qu>t] z long4 ,9 ! html v]sion !y h be5 fairly accurately repres5t$ via tables2 b ) up to #be columns ^! tables w be v difficult to deciph] on small scre5s4 ,9 ! text v]sion1 cod$ /ructure diagrams h be5 us$1 :i* aga9 utilise ! full #gj spaces ,project ,gut5b]g all[s4 ,r ?an ! tree %ape ,:ewell us$1 ! diagrams h be5 made to fl[ f left to "r4 ,corrections ,corrections are comp>atively few4 ,ap>t f ! sil5t ones1 !y h be5 m>k$ by 9999 & are li/$ bel[4 ,page ,pr9t$ text ,correct$ text xiii v iii ,,lxx4 ,,lxxiii4 ,,lxxxv4 ,,lxxxii4 p4 #ab ( & p4 #abh ^w "w note #bac i4 ii4 p4 #cbb ,waff]/(f ,wass]/(f p4 #cfe ,,xv4 ,,xx4 ,e?ol ,e?al ,giv5 ! v>i\s editions1 "s ( ! int]nal cross-ref]5ces turn out to be obsolete or errone\s3 note #aac reads ,b4 viii4 c4 iii4 b x ref]s actually to ,book viii4 c4 ii4 article #c 9 e>li] editions & 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas1 cf4 ,aphorism #hh 9 ,book ,i4 ( ! pres5t volume4 ,comp>e also ,aphorism #ai 9 ?is volume's ,book ,,iv4 notes #ehc & #eic ref] to ,book v4 c4 i4 ,= ! pres5t ?ird edition !y %\ld h be5 aim$ at t *apt] ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas4 ,!re are "s inconsi/5cies1 notably 9 spell+1 :i* h 9 g5]al n be5 adju/$2 nor h ,:ewell's unbalanc$ quotation m>ks & position+ ( footnote an*ors be5 mod]niz$4