,illustration3 8,grizzly ,giant10 a ,big ,tree in ,mariposa ,grove1 ,california ,,elementary ,,woodworking ,,by ,,edwin ,w4 ,,foster ,,ginn ,,company ,,boston ,,new ,,york ,,chicago ,,london ,,copyright1 #aijc ,,by ,,edwin ,w4 ,,foster ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved #be4a ,the ,athenum ,press ,,ginn ,,company ,,cambridge ,,massachusetts ,,preface ,this text has been prepared for the purpose of furnishing the pupil with the essential facts about tools and their uses4 ,however efficient the instruction may be and however attentive the pupil1 it is impossible for him to fully grasp and comprehend during a demonstration the names of tools and technical terms1 most of which are new to him4 ,this applies with equal force to the manner of using the tools and to the methods of working4 ,the function of the text is to supplement the instruction of the teacher4 ,it is intended to gather up and arrange in a logical order the facts which the pupil has already been told4 ,by this means these facts will become fixed in the mind of the pupil and he will work with a better understanding and make greater progress4 ,it is believed that the text can be used to the greatest advantage by requiring the pupil to read up the subjects presented in class immediately after the close of the lesson4 ,frequent rapid reviews and occasional written tests are very effective4 ,no course of study in the form of a series of models is presented4 ,it is hardly possible for any two schools to follow the same series of models4 ,local conditions necessarily affect the choice of a course1 while new and better designs are being brought out continuously4 ,the order in which the tools are described in the following pages is the one that has seemed most natural4 ,they may be taken up1 however1 in any convenient and logical order4 ,it is with the earnest hope that nature study and manual work may be closely correlated1 that ,part ,,ii is added4 ,no better period can be selected in which to study trees1 their leaves1 bark1 wood1 etc41 than when the student is working with wood1 learning by experience its grain1 hardness1 color1 and value in the arts4 ,occasional talks on the broader topics of forestry1 its economic aspects1 climatic effects1 influence on rainfall1 the flow of rivers1 floods1 droughts1 etc41 will be found interesting as well as instructive1 and such interest should be instilled into every ,american boy and girl4 ,the writer is indebted to the ,fish1 ,forest1 and ,game ,commission of ,new ,york state for the series of ,adirondack lumbering scenes1 and to the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,forestry for the views of ,california ,big ,trees4 ,,edwin ,w4 ,,foster4 ,,contents ,,page ,,part ,i4 ,,tools ,chapter ,i4 ,introduction #c ,general directions regarding care of tools and bench4 ,plan of work and division of tools into groups4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,measuring and ,marking ,tools #e ,the rule3 divisions2 method of using4 ,the try-square3 method of handling4 ,the framing square4 ,the marking gauge4 ,the bevel4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,cutting ,tools #aa ,saws3 necessity for two classes2 shape of teeth2 set2 tapers2 method of holding4 ,backsaw2 use of bench hook4 ,the turning saw4 ,the plane3 use of cap iron2 names of parts4 ,adjustment of plane4 ,use of lever and adjusting screw2 positions for planing4 ,the jack plane4 ,the smooth plane4 ,jointers2 action of short and long planes4 ,the block plane4 ,the wooden plane4 ,the chisel3 size of cutting angle2 effect of careless sharpening4 ,the framing and firmer chisels2 proper positions for horizontal and vertical cutting4 ,sharpening on oilstone4 ,brace and bit4 ,center and auger bits2 gimlet and countersink bits4 ,the spokeshave4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,miscellaneous ,tools and ,methods of ,work #ca ,the hammer2 use of nail punch4 ,the mallet4 ,the screw-driver4 ,sandpaper1 use of4 ,squaring up stock2 method explained in detail4 ,laying out work2 method of laying out a typical joint4 ,securing parts2 use of glue and hand screws4 ,nails2 method of using cut nails4 ,screws2 method of using round-head and flat-head screws4 ,mechanical drawing4 ,the drawing instruments explained1 and method of making complete working drawings described4 ,scale drawings4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,wood ,chapter ,v4 ,lumbering and ,milling #ea ,the forest2 felling trees and floating logs to the mill4 ,the forming and breaking up of log jams4 ,the log boom and modern sawmills4 ,timber and lumber defined4 ,annual rings2 medullary rays2 formation of grain4 ,characteristics and defects in wood4 ,warping and shrinkage4 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,broad-,leaved ,trees3 the ,oaks #fe ,white oak4 ,post oak4 ,mossy-cup oak4 ,black and black-jack oak4 ,red oak4 ,scarlet and pin oaks4 ,chestnut oak4 ,live oak4 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,broad-,leaved ,trees3 the ,maples #gf ,sugar and ,norway maples4 ,silver and red maples4 ,sycamore maple4 ,moosewood4 ,maple keys4 ,ash-leaved maple4 ,japan maples4 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,broad-,leaved ,trees having ,compound ,leaves #he ,horse-chestnut4 ,buckeye4 ,the hickories4 ,black walnut and butternut4 ,locust4 ,honey locust4 ,ash4 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,broad-,leaved ,trees having ,simple ,leaves #id ,elm4 ,the birches4 ,beech4 ,iron wood4 ,buttonball4 ,sweet gum4 ,tulip4 ,basswood4 ,willow4 ,the poplars4 ,sassafras4 ,mulberry4 ,chapter ,x4 ,the ,evergreens #aaa ,white pine4 ,georgia pine4 ,yellow pine4 ,hemlock4 ,spruce4 ,cypress4 ,balsam fir4 ,the cedars4 ,chapter ,,xi4 ,the ,big ,trees of ,california #abc ,,elementary ,,woodworking ,,part ,i ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,in order to obtain good results in the using of tools it is necessary to know their construction1 how to properly sharpen and adjust them1 and the correct method of handling them4 ,it is also essential to know how to lay out and work the material or stock4 ,carelessness or a lack of knowledge is invariably followed by a failure4 ,it is more important at first to work carefully and accurately than rapidly4 8,tools are made to be used1 not abused40 ,they must be kept clean and sharp and should be used only for the purpose intended4 ,wipe them off occasionally with an oily rag or waste to prevent them from rusting4 ,put away all tools not in use and keep the top of the bench clean4 ,do not mark it with a pencil or scratch it with a knife4 ,do not cut into it with the chisel or allow other tools to mark or deface it4 ,when using glue1 shellac1 or similar materials1 cover the top of the bench2 or1 better still1 do the work on a table provided for that purpose4 ,the plan of work in making all models is in general the same and is as follows3 ,first4 8,squaring up0 the stock4 ,second4 8,laying out0 the work4 ,third4 ,cutting to the lines4 ,when the article is composed of two or more pieces a fourth step may be added1 namely1 fitting and securing the parts4 ,the tools used may be divided into three groups1 as follows3 ,first4 ,laying-out tools4 ,these include the rule1 try-square1 marking gauge1 bevel1 and knife4 ,second4 ,cutting tools4 ,in this group are the saw1 plane1 chisel1 spokeshave1 bit1 and knife4 ,third4 ,miscellaneous tools1 such as the hammer1 mallet1 screw-driver1 brace 7or bitstock71 and others not so common4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,measuring ,,and ,,marking ,,tools #a4 ,the ,rule4 ,the standard unit of length is the yard1 but the foot is commonly used for all measurements in woodwork4 ,if the rule be twelve inches long it is known as a foot rule1 and if twenty-four inches long it is called a two-foot rule4 ,the inches are subdivided into halves1 quarters1 eighths1 and in some cases sixteenths4 ,rules are usually of boxwood or maple1 with brass joints1 and are commonly made to fold once or twice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,the ,rule ,the rule is quite thick1 and if laid flat upon the work to be measured errors will usually follow4 ,it should be stood on edge so that the pencil or knife point may touch the divisions on it and the wood at the same time4 ,the proper position when laying out measurements is shown in the sketch 7,fig4 #b74 ,consecutive measurements should be laid off without moving the rule4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,methods of using the ,rule3 ,a1 incorrect2 ,b1 correct #b4 ,the ,try-,square4 ,the try-square has two distinct uses3 first1 to act as a guide for the pencil or knife point in laying out lines across the grain at right angles to the edge1 as shown in ,fig4 #d2 second1 for testing or trying the adjoining sides to see if they are square with each other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,the ,try-,square ,the try-square may be made entirely of iron or steel1 but sometimes the beam ,a is of wood with a brass strip ,c to protect it and to take the wear4 ,the blade ,b is of steel and is divided1 like a rule1 into inches and fractions of an inch4 ,try-squares are made in several sizes1 the most convenient for general use being six inches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,methods of using the ,try-,square ,in using the try-square the beam should be held firmly against the face or edge of the stock4 ,when working near the end of the piece1 if the beam projects1 reverse its position4 ,for nice1 accurate work the knife point instead of the pencil should be used for lining4 ,when it is desired to saw off the end of the stock it is first necessary to mark or square clear around it with the knife and try-square4 ,in doing this the beam of the try-square must be used against the work face and joint edge only4 ,large squares made of steel in one piece are called framing squares1 and are used by carpenters and others for rough or large work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,the ,framing ,square ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,the ,marking ,gauge #c4 ,the ,marking ,gauge4 ,the marking gauge is shown in ,figs4 #f and #g4 ,a is the gauge stick1 ,b the gauge block1 ,s the set screw1 and ,p the marking point1 or spur4 ,the gauge stick is graduated like a rule into inches and fractions1 beginning at the steel marking point2 but as the latter is not always exactly in the right place the graduations are not entirely reliable4 ,it is safer then to set the gauge with the rule in the manner shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,hold gauge bottom side up in left hand and rule in right4 ,place end of rule against gauge block and the measurement desired at spur4 ,turn set screw4 ,the gauge is then accurately set4 ,in the cut the gauge is set at one inch and is ready for use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,setting the ,marking ,gauge ,to gauge a line parallel to the edge of a block hold the tool firmly1 with thumb and forefinger encircling gauge block4 ,tip the tool away from you until the marking point 7spur7 barely touches the wood and push the tool away from 7never toward7 you4 ,the line made should be as fine as a knife line4 ,a little practice is needed to give the proper control1 as the marking point tends to follow the grain of the wood1 which is usually not straight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,holding the ,marking ,gauge ,a good plan is to use a small piece of prepared stock as a practice block1 laying out lines a quarter of an inch apart1 then an eighth1 and finally a sixteenth4 #d4 ,the ,bevel4 ,the bevel differs from the try-square in having a movable blade4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,the ,bevel ,this tool may be used to lay out lines at any angle from zero to #ahj degrees4 ,the blade may be fixed firmly at any desired angle by simply turning the set screw4 ,the method of using it is similar to that of the try-square4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,cutting ,,tools #e4 ,saws4 ,the saw might be described as a succession of chisels1 one back of the other4 ,we can readily understand the action of the saw by making cuts with a narrow chisel along the grain of a piece of wood1 as shown in ,fig4 #aj at a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,cutting with and across the ,grain with a ,narrow ,chisel ,the little pieces of wood removed in this way are similar to the sawdust made by the saw1 the only difference being that in the saw the teeth are narrower and the little pieces consequently smaller1 and instead of one chisel dozens are being pushed forward at one time4 ,a saw with these chisel-shaped teeth1 and used for cutting along the grain1 is called a ripsaw4 ,that this tool will not cut so readily across the grain may easily be proved by again resorting to the narrow chisel and attempting to repeat the first experiment4 ,the wood will act as shown in ,fig4 #aj at b1 splitting along the grain in both directions4 ,it is quite evident1 then1 that a tool for cutting across the grain must be constructed in some other way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,the ,saw ,continuing this experiment1 let us cut the fibers with a knife point in two parallel lines across the grain1 close together1 as at c4 ,it will be found that the wood between these lines may now be easily removed with the narrow chisel4 ,this fact is made the basis on which we construct the crosscut saw4 ,every tooth is sharpened to a point1 one on the right side1 the next on the left1 giving two parallel lines of sharp points designed to cut the fibers1 as was done in our experiment with the knife4 ,fig4 #ab shows the end view of the crosscut teeth enlarged4 ,observe that not only are the alternate teeth sharpened on opposite sides1 but each tooth is bent outward from the body of the saw4 ,this bending is called set1 and is designed to make the saw cut1 or kerf1 wider than the thickness of the saw1 that the latter may pass easily through the wood after the teeth have done their work4 ,if it were not for this set1 the fibers would spring back against the body of the saw after the teeth had passed and make the work very laborious4 ,when a saw is properly set it should pass through the wood easily4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,teeth of ,crosscut ,saw ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,teeth of ,ripsaw ,the teeth of the ripsaw are also set1 but1 as will be seen in the sketch1 the bottoms are flat like a chisel instead of pointed like those of the crosscut teeth4 ,beside the end views of the two kinds of teeth1 the side views1 which are also different1 are shown in ,figs4 #ab and #ac4 ,we are inclined to think of the saw as a very commonplace article1 yet a careful examination will prove that the greatest care and skill are needed in its manufacture4 ,observe that the body1 which must be of the best steel1 tapers1 being considerably wider at the handle than at the opposite end4 ,this is to give strength1 and to prevent buckling1 or bending1 as the tool is pushed forward4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,body of ,saw1 showing ,tapers ,most delicate measurements must be made1 however1 to discover that not only the width but the thickness increases from ,a to ,b1 and decreases from ,c to ,d4 ,how carefully this tapering must be done can be realized when we know that the difference in thickness from ,a to ,b is only three one-thousandths of an inch1 and from ,c to ,d twelve one-thousandths at end ,a and five one-thousandths at end ,b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,method of holding the ,saw ,the saw should be held in the right hand1 with the left grasping the board4 ,the thumb of the left hand acts as guide1 the saw is tilted1 as shown in ,fig4 #ae1 and drawn toward the worker at the first stroke4 ,this tool should be used without exerting much pressure1 in accordance with the general rule that we do our best work with tools when we work easily and deliberately4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,the ,backsaw ,many varieties of saws are designed for special purposes1 including those which cut stone and metal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,method of using the ,backsaw and ,bench ,hook #f4 ,backsaw4 ,the backsaw is a crosscut saw with small teeth1 and has a heavy steel backpiece1 ,fig4 #ag1 to prevent bending4 ,in this respect it differs from the ordinary crosscut varieties1 which bend readily4 ,the purpose of the backsaw is to make fine1 straight cuts in delicate1 accurate work4 ,the steel back ,b is necessary on account of the thin blade1 but on account of the thickness of ,b no cut can be made deeper than the line ,c4 ,this tool will cut in any direction with reference to the grain1 but is primarily a crosscut saw4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,the ,bench ,hook ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,the ,turning ,saw #g4 ,the ,turning ,saw4 ,in ordinary work the saw is supposed to cut to a straight line1 but there are certain classes of work where it is desirable to follow a curved line1 and consequently a special tool is necessary4 ,the turning saw shown in the cut is used for this purpose4 ,the handles holding the saw blade may be turned in any direction with reference to the frame4 #h4 ,the ,plane4 ,the plane reduces our rough lumber to planed1 or dressed1 stock4 ,the cutting part is a thin1 wide chisel called the plane iron4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,the ,plane ,iron in ,action ,fig4 #bj shows the position of the plane iron in operation4 ,assume the iron to be moving in the direction of the arrow on a piece of wood4 ,the sharp point would enter the board and1 should the grain be unfavorable1 start a splitting action1 as shown at a4 ,we wish to smooth the wood instead of roughing it1 and must in some way stop the splitting4 ,this is accomplished by placing a cap iron on the plane iron1 as shown at b4 ,the cap bends and breaks the shaving before the splitting action has a chance to begin1 and gives the spiral form so familiar in wood shavings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,plane ,iron1 ,cap1 and ,set ,screw ,the cap is firmly fastened to the plane iron by a stout screw1 and this whole combination is fastened in the throat of the plane by a clamp 7,fig4 #bb74 ,the opening on the bottom of the plane through which the cutting edge protrudes is called the mouth of the plane4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,sectional ,views of ,iron ,plane #i4 ,adjustment of ,plane4 ,there are two ways of adjusting a modern iron plane1--by means of the set screw s1 and of the lever l4 ,screw s lowers or raises the plane iron so that we may take a thin or thick shaving1 and lever l straightens the iron1 which is liable to project more on one side than on the other1 and will then take a shaving thicker on one side than on the other4 ,before using the plane always examine it carefully4 ,invert the tool1 holding it toward the light with the toe toward you1 and glance along the bottom4 ,if the iron projects1 observe whether it is even1 and if not1 move the lever until it is4 ,for a thin shaving the cutting edge should appear as a black line of uniform thickness4 ,for a heavy shaving turn the brass screw until the iron projects slightly4 ,in using the plane avoid a stooping position4 ,stand with the right side to the bench and with the shoulders thrown back4 ,let the pressure of the left hand be greater at the beginning and that of the right hand at the end of the stroke4 ,the tool should rest perfectly flat on the wood from start to finish4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,irons of ,smooth and ,jack ,planes #aj4 ,the ,jack ,plane4 ,the ordinary plane iron has a straight edge1 as shown at a1 ,fig4 #bc1 but when a large quantity of wood is to be removed the iron is sharpened in the shape shown at b4 ,this curved iron will cut out the wood in hollows1 leaving ridges between1 and it is necessary to follow this jack plane with a finer one having a straight edge in order to smooth the surface4 ,the jack plane might be called a roughing plane4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,relative ,sizes of ,smooth and ,jack ,planes ,the lower figure is a jack plane #aa4 ,the ,smooth ,plane4 ,the smoothing plane is shorter than the jack plane1 its object being to smooth the surface without regard to straightening it1 as it is supposed that the straightening has previously been done4 ,the cap iron in the smooth plane should be set from a sixteenth to a thirty-second of an inch from the cutting edge of the plane iron4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,action of ,short and ,long ,planes #ab4 ,jointers4 ,for straightening very rough and uneven stock a long plane is necessary 7,fig4 #be74 ,in the illustration let line ab represent the edge of a very uneven board4 ,a short plane c would simply follow the hills and hollows1 smoothing but not straightening it1 while a long plane1 as shown at d1 would merely cut off the top of the high places1 as shown by the dotted line1 and would not touch the bottoms of the hollows until all the elevations were leveled2 in other words1 until the surface was straightened4 ,such planes1 which are often three feet long or more1 are called jointers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,the ,block ,plane #ac4 ,the ,block ,plane4 ,to square the end of a piece of stock the conditions are quite different from those just described where we were planing with the grain4 ,in end planing no cap iron is necessary1 the plane iron in the block plane being reversed with bevel side up4 ,this tool requires more care than the others1 as the stroke is usually quite short1 and if the cutting edge is allowed to reach the farther corner1 the latter will be broken off4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,method of using ,block ,plane ,to avoid this error the plane must be lifted up before the end of the stroke1 as shown by the dotted line a4 ,the piece is then reversed1 and planed as shown by arrow b4 ,in this way the whole end is smoothed1 without ruining the corners4 ,besides these standard planes there are many patent and special ones for cutting tongues1 grooves1 beads1 etc4 #ad4 ,the ,wooden ,plane4 ,although the iron-bodied planes just described are now in common use1 the old-fashioned wooden plane is still the favorite of many woodworkers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,the ,wooden ,plane ,this tool1 while lacking some of the adjustments of the iron plane1 was much simpler and contained a smaller number of parts4 ,the iron and cap were held in position by a wooden wedge1 which was driven in by a light blow of the hammer4 ,the workman removed the iron and wedge by turning the plane upside down and striking the forward part a light downward blow on the bench1 while the thickness of the shaving was increased by a light tap on the plane iron4 ,one of the chief objections to the wooden plane was its liability to wear and warp1 so that it became necessary to straighten1 or joint1 the face4 ,no such difficulty is encountered in the iron-bodied plane4 #ae4 ,the ,chisel4 ,the chisel is one of the simplest forms of cutting tools4 ,the size of the angle a depends on the kind of material to be cut4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,cutting ,angle of ,chisel ,a chisel for cutting wood must be sharpened to an angle of from #cj to #ce degrees4 ,by careless sharpening an extra bevel is sometimes formed1 as shown at b4 ,the cutting angle is then no sharper than if the chisel were shaped like that shown by dotted lines1 and care must always be taken when sharpening to keep the line cd straight1 so that angle a will be the real cutting angle4 ,two classes of chisels are in common use3 the framing chisel used for heavy work1 such as the frames of buildings2 and the firmer chisel4 ,the framing chisel is strong and heavy1 and has a handle capable of withstanding the blows of a mallet4 ,the firmer chisel is designed for finer and lighter work without the mallet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,the ,framing ,chisel ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,the ,firmer ,chisel ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,proper ,position for ,horizontal ,chiseling ,the chisel must be sharp if we wish to do good and accurate work1 and a cut on the hand made by such a sharp tool is liable to be a deep one4 ,special care must be used in handling it1 keeping both hands away from the cutting edge1 as shown in the sketch1 and placing it when not in use where it cannot be pushed off the bench on to the floor or the student's feet4 ,fig4 #cb shows the method of using the tool on horizontal work1 and ,fig4 #cc for vertical cutting4 ,for this kind of work only a small portion of the cutting edge can be used1 the student judging for himself how heavy a cut to take by the hardness of the wood and amount of strength required4 ,good work can never be done when one has to exert all his strength on the tool4 ,the best results are obtained when we work easily4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,proper ,position for ,vertical ,chiseling ,better work can usually be done with the chisel if1 instead of pushing it straight ahead or straight downward1 we incline it somewhat so as to secure a slight paring action4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,sharpening ,chisel on ,oilstone ,when the chisel becomes dull1 unless its edge has been nicked or ruined by some accident1 it is only necessary to sharpen it on the oilstone4 ,hold the tool with the bevel flat on the stone4 ,a drop or two of oil may be used to lubricate the stone1 the tool being worked back and forth on the face of it4 ,especial care must be taken to avoid a rocking motion1 which will produce a curved edge instead of a flat one4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,common ,forms of the ,brace ,after the rubbing1 reverse the chisel1 lay the flat side firmly on the stone1 and draw toward you4 ,this is to straighten the wire edge which has been turned over by the rubbing4 ,the wire edge may then be removed by drawing the cutting edge across the end of a block of wood4 ,when the chisel is nicked or very dull it must be ground on the grindstone4 #af4 ,brace and ,bit4 ,the old-fashioned augers and gimlets have given way to the modern brace and bit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,the ,center ,bit ,the brace1 which is sometimes called the bitstock1 allows both hands to be used continuously1 which was not true of the old-fashioned auger4 ,several varieties of the brace are in use1 the ones shown in the cuts being common4 ,bits are designed for a variety of purposes1 the name being applied to a tool which is to be turned by the brace4 ,the old-fashioned center bit shown in the cut possessed most of the essentials of a good boring tool4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,the ,auger ,bit ,the sharp spur in the center allowed the hole to be accurately placed4 ,the lip on the outer edge cut the fibers in a circle before the chisel edge began to remove the wood1 and so a smooth hole could be bored2 but considerable pressure was necessary to force the tool through the wood4 ,the progress that has been made in the manufacture of tools can be easily appreciated by comparing this center bit with the modern auger bit4 ,referring to the sketch 7,fig4 #ch71 ,b ,b are two knife points1 or nibs1 which cut the wood fibers before the chisel edges1 or lips1 ,c ,c1 can touch the wood4 ,the point ,a allows us to accurately place the center of the hole where we wish it1 and the screw back of ,a draws the tool into the wood as it revolves4 ,this part is known as the spur1 or worm4 ,on this class of bits no pressure is necessary4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,details of ,auger ,bit ,the opposite end of the bit1 called the shank1 fits into the brace4 ,any tool with such a shank1 and designed for use with the brace1 is a bit4 ,we have screw-driver bits1 gimlet bits1 auger bits1 etc4 ,on the shank of an auger bit will be found a number4 ,this is the numerator of a fraction whose denominator is #af4 ,if we find this number to be #d1 it is a 1 or a -inch bit4 ,if the number is #af1 we have a 1 or a one-inch bit1 etc41 always referring to the diameter of the hole which the tool will bore4 ,in using the brace and bit care must be taken to see that the bit shank is far enough in the brace to be fastened securely1 and that the tool is held at right angles to the wood4 ,it may appear from the front to be perfectly vertical1 yet by stepping to one side and looking at it from another position it will frequently be found far from vertical4 ,when starting a hole it is well to do this several times until assured that the tool is working in a true upright position4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,the ,gimlet ,bit ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,the ,countersink ,bit ,the gimlet bit is used for small holes1 such as we make for screws4 ,in this case the hole must be countersunk to receive the screw head1 when flat-headed screws are used4 ,the countersink bit is shown in the cut1 and its purpose is more fully explained in the chapter on screws4 #ag4 ,the ,spokeshave4 ,the spokeshave is practically a short plane with handles at the side so that the tool may be drawn or pushed4 ,it may be adjusted by means of screws to take light or heavy shavings1 and is used principally to smooth curved surfaces4 ,the forming of a hammer handle is a good illustration of the kind of work it will do4 ,it may be worked toward or away from the worker1 and is an exceedingly handy tool4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,the ,iron ,spokeshave ,,chapter ,,iv ,,miscellaneous ,,tools ,,and ,,methods ,,of ,,work #ah4 ,hammer4 ,the carpenter's hammer is used principally to drive or withdraw nails4 ,the various trades have hammers made specially for their needs2 thus we have machinists'1 roofers'1 upholsterers'1 stonecutters'1 and other hammers1 but the claw hammer shown in the sketch is the one commonly used by workers in wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,the ,claw ,hammer ,the head a 7,fig4 #dc7 is of steel1 with the face b specially hardened so that it may not be dented by the nails4 ,notice the length of the handle h4 ,this length did not simply happen4 ,had it been intended to hold the tool in the position shown at ,a1 the handle would not have been made so long4 ,the proper position is that shown at ,b4 ,position ,a is frequently taken by beginners1 and should be studiously avoided4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,using the ,hammer ,a nail may be withdrawn with the claw1 and be kept straight for further use by a little care4 ,having started the nail slightly1 place a small block of wood under the hammer head1 as shown at ,c4 ,should the nail be an unusually long one1 the size of the block may be increased as the nail comes out4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,common ,forms of ,nail ,punch1 or 8,set0 ,in driving nails care must always be taken not to mar the surface of the wood by striking the nail head after it has become even with the surface1 as this produces a depression and ruins any fine surface4 ,if it is desirable to sink the nail head below the surface1 a nail punch1 or set1 is used4 ,this is always necessary when the surface is to be planed after the nailing4 #ai4 ,the ,mallet4 ,the mallet might be described as a hammer with a wooden head1 and is used whenever we wish to deliver a blow which shall be less concentrated than that of the hammer4 ,it is used in certain kinds of heavy chiseling1 such as house framing1 and gives a blow which does not shatter the tool handle as a hammer would4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,the ,mallet ,the use of the mallet is well illustrated by the making of a mortise-and-tenon joint1 the chisel and mallet being used to cut the opening known as the mortise1 as shown in ,fig4 #df4 #bj4 ,screw-,driver4 ,the screw-driver is perhaps the most common of household tools1 and is probably abused more than any other4 ,the handle is usually flattened so that the hand may grip it more tightly1 but occasionally a round or fluted handle is seen4 ,patent spiral screw-drivers have come into use in recent years1 but where considerable force is required the brace and screw-driver bit are more effective4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,cutting a ,mortise #ba4 ,sandpaper4 8,sandpaper is the last resort of a poor workman40 ,this statement has been made by many teachers to many thousands of students1 and is true in many cases2 but there are certain kinds of work where sandpaper1 if properly used1 is allowable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,the ,screw-,driver ,it must always be kept in mind that a surface which has been sandpapered has become 8gritty10 i4e4 the fine sand has come off and is more or less imbedded in the wood4 ,consequently sandpapering must not be done until all tool work has been finished1 as the grit will take the edge off the best tool1 and the finer the edge the more quickly will it be ruined4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,an ,exercise involving the ,use of ,sandpaper ,again1 a sandpapered surface is always a scratched surface1 and the finest of scratched surfaces cannot compare with the perfectly smooth1 satiny surface produced by a sharp plane4 ,however1 there are many places where neither the plane nor spokeshave can be used1 and here it is allowable to use sandpaper after the tool work has been carried as far as practicable4 ,fig4 #dh is a case where sandpaper may be used with propriety4 ,the bevels in this lesson are to be chiseled and then sandpapered with a sandpaper block1--the block in this case being simply a small piece of wood with square edges1 about which the sandpaper is fastened closely4 ,curved articles1 such as the hammer handle1 must dispense with the block1 the sandpaper being held in the hand4 #bb4 ,squaring up ,stock4 ,this term simply means to reduce a piece of sawed or rough lumber to one having smooth1 flat sides at right angles to each other1 and of definite length1 breadth1 and thickness 7see ,fig4 #di74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,the ,successive ,steps in squaring up ,stock ,first4 ,straighten one face with fore plane1 jack plane1 or jointer1 and smooth with smoothing plane4 ,this face1 called the working face1 becomes the basis from which all the other sides are squared4 ,second4 ,plane one of the adjoining edges and make square with the working face4 ,this edge1 known as the joint edge1 must be thoroughly tested throughout its entire length with the try-square1 and must be square with the working face at every point4 ,third4 ,set marking gauge at required width and with gauge block against the joint edge1 gauge a fine line on working face4 ,fourth4 ,plane down second edge to gauge line1 just drawn1 squaring the edge with working face4 ,fifth4 ,set gauge to required thickness and gauge line on both edges from working face4 ,sixth4 ,plane face parallel to working face down to the two gauge lines4 ,this gives the required thickness4 ,it only remains now to secure the required length4 ,seventh4 ,square knife line around the four smoothed sides with knife and try-square as near one end as possible1 carefully observing the precautions given in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,eighth4 ,from the line just drawn1 measure the required length along edge of working face and square a line on the four sides at the last point1 as at first end4 ,ninth4 ,block-plane first end to knife lines4 ,if the second line is more than an eighth of an inch from the end of block1 saw to the knife line with backsaw1 and block-plane smooth and square4 ,the above method should always be followed in preparing stock for laying out the exercise4 #bc4 ,laying ,out4 ,let it be assumed that the exercise to be executed is the middle lap joint shown at ,a1 ,fig4 #ej4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,successive ,steps in laying out and making a ,middle ,lap ,joint ,first4 ,square up stock1 leaving ends rough4 ,second4 ,lay off the length of each piece1 in this case #d inches1 with an eighth of an inch between for sawing1 as at a4 ,third4 ,square all the lines around four sides4 ,fourth4 ,saw to end lines and block-plane ends4 ,fifth4 ,lay off width of opening in piece ,no4 #a and square lines across face and halfway down on both edges4 ,sixth4 ,measure length of lap on ,no4 #b1 square the line across bottom and halfway up the sides4 ,gauge the horizontal lines ll from working face4 ,seventh4 ,saw pieces ,no4 #a and ,no4 #b apart and block-plane ends4 ,eighth4 ,saw to the lines1 chisel1 and fit the pieces4 ,although the above is the method of laying out a typical joint1 each problem will require special treatment and here the student will be guided by his instructor4 #bd4 ,securing ,parts4 ,many articles made of wood consist of several pieces fastened together4 ,when two pieces are fitted together the surfaces of contact are called a joint4 ,there are many kinds and shapes in joinery1 and usually some extra fastening is required to hold the pieces together4 ,these aids are glue1 nails1 and screws2 while on heavy construction still others1 such as wedges1 pins1 and dowels are used4 ,the first three are commonly used in small work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,the ,hand ,screw ,glue is of two kinds1 fish and animal4 ,both are made from refuse matter1--animal glue being manufactured from such products as bone1 horn1 hoofs1 and hide4 ,the dry glue in the form of chips must be dissolved in water and heated1 being applied while hot4 ,liquid glues sold in cans ready for use are now very common and require no heating4 ,in making a glued joint it is usually necessary to hold the pieces tightly together until the glue has set1 or hardened1 and as this takes some time1 hand screws built on the principle of the vise are resorted to4 ,fig4 #eb shows two pieces glued together and fastened in a pair of hand screws4 ,care must always be taken to keep the jaws of the latter parallel4 ,at a this is shown done properly1 while at b is shown a careless method which1 of course1 will spoil the joint4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,method of using the ,hand ,screw ,in gluing on the end grain a preliminary1 or sizing1 coat of glue must first be made to fill up the pores1 which act very much like a sponge4 ,this coat should be allowed to dry1 or partially dry1 before applying the final coat2 otherwise the pieces will be held weakly1 if at all4 ,beginners are inclined to use too large a quantity1 and this tendency should be avoided4 ,in some cases nails are used together with the glue1 as at the corners of picture frames4 ,it is customary in this instance to nail in only one direction1 as shown in ,fig4 #ec4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,miter ,joint at ,corner of ,picture ,frame #be4 ,nails4 ,the nails in common use are of two kinds1 cut and wire4 ,two views of a cut nail are shown in ,fig4 #ed1 a being the side view and b the front view4 ,notice that in the front view the sides converge like a wedge1 while in the side view they are parallel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,use of ,cut ,nails ,care must always be taken that the point does not enter the wood as shown at c1 as the wood will be split by the wedge action2 d shows the proper method4 ,steel wire nails are now in general use4 ,they are made from wire and are consequently round in section1 with a comparatively sharp point4 ,there are two distinct kinds1 named flat head and bung head4 ,flat-head wire nails1 as the name implies1 have thin1 flat heads1 which prevent the nail from being driven beneath the surface4 ,bung-head wire nails1 or brads as the smaller sizes are called1 have very small heads1 which allow the nail to be sunk below the surface4 ,this is done by means of the nail punch1 or set1 and is necessary when the surface is to be planed after the nailing4 #bf4 ,screws4 ,screws are much used1 and allow the pieces to be readily taken apart4 ,they are divided into two classes1 flat head and round head1 and are of steel or brass4 ,steel screws are either blued or bright4 ,bright screws are polished and blued screws are produced by treating the bright ones with heat or an acid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,methods of using ,screws ,fig4 #ee shows a flat-head screw at a and a round-head at b4 ,flat heads are used for the more common work where it is desirable to have the screw head flush 7even7 with the surface or below it1 while round heads are used where this is not necessary4 ,in the latter case round heads are used partly because they are more ornamental4 ,flat heads must always be flush or below the surface1 and in all but the softest woods it is necessary not only to bore a hole for the screw1 but also to countersink it with a countersink bit in order that it may receive the head4 ,two methods of fastening with flat-head screws are shown in ,fig4 #ee4 ,sketch ,a shows the two pieces of wood in position1 the hole bored in upper piece 7only7 and countersunk2 ,b shows the screw in position4 ,in this case the screw head is visible4 ,it is occasionally desirable to hide the screw entirely4 ,sketch ,c shows the hole prepared for the screw2 ,d shows the screw in position and a circular wooden plug driven in over it4 ,the plug is then leveled with the surface and the screw completely hidden4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,the ,difference between ,perspective and ,mechanical ,drawing #bg4 ,mechanical ,drawing4 ,a mechanical1 or working1 drawing is quite different from a pictorial drawing such as an artist produces4 ,the artist's drawing represents objects as they appear1 while the mechanical drawing represents them as they really are4 ,things in nature do not look as they are4 ,for example1 when we stand on a railroad track the rails appear to converge until they seem to meet in the distance4 ,we know that this is not the case1 that the rails are really everywhere equally distant4 ,the optical illusion of the rails meeting at the horizon is called perspective4 ,mechanical1 or constructive1 drawing takes no account of perspective4 ,in ,fig4 #ef a is the perspective representation of a track1 while b shows a track by mechanical drawing4 ,in a working drawing more than one view is necessary to show the true shape of an object4 ,in ,fig4 #eg is shown the mechanical drawing of a cylinder1--the front view1 as its name implies1 being the image it would make in a mirror held before it vertically1 and the top view the image it would make in a mirror held directly over it horizontally4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,mechanical ,drawing of a ,cylinder ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,mechanical ,drawing of ,end ,lap ,joint ,occasionally three views are necessary4 ,fig4 #eh a shows the front1 top1 and side views of an end lap joint4 ,the complete working drawing of this joint1 with all the necessary dimensions1 is shown at b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,drawing ,board showing ,t ,square and ,triangles in ,position ,in making drawings of this kind the greatest accuracy is required and special instruments are necessary4 ,the drawing board on which the paper is fastened must be perfectly flat1 with one of its edges straight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,the ,t ,square ,the ,t square is used for guiding the pencil or pen when drawing horizontal lines4 ,the two triangles t t 7,fig4 #ei7 are used for drawing vertical and oblique lines1 and a pair of compasses is needed for circles and arcs of circles4 ,each triangle contains one right angle1 the one on the left being known as a thirty-sixty triangle because the two remaining angles are thirty degrees and sixty degrees respectively4 ,the one on the right is called a forty-five-degree triangle because it has two forty-five-degree angles4 ,the position of ,t square and triangle when drawing vertical lines is that shown in the sketch1 the line being drawn from the ,t square upward4 ,horizontal lines are drawn from left to right4 ,the rule used in mechanical drawing is called a scale1 and should not be used for drawing lines4 ,its purpose is measuring4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,the ,triangles used in ,mechanical ,drawing ,in making a drawing the first step is to determine the spacing4 ,the size of the paper may be measured1 the number of views are known1 and also the size of each4 ,the views should be so arranged that the spaces between will be in good proportion4 ,it is a good plan to make first a free-hand sketch1 putting on dimensions and figuring the spaces before beginning actual work on the mechanical drawing4 ,fig4 #fb at a shows a free-hand sketch of a single dovetail joint1 and b the mechanical drawing complete4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,drawings of a ,single ,dovetail ,joint ,all dimensions must be given1 and as far as possible they should be so placed as not to interfere with the clearness of the drawing4 ,neat1 small arrowheads and plain1 clear figures add to the general appearance1 just as does careful lettering in titles and all printed words4 ,a drawing which is made the exact size of the object represented is known as a full-sized drawing2 but for large objects such a method would necessitate large and unhandy sheets of drawing paper4 ,it is customary in such cases to make what is called a scale drawing4 ,a scale drawing may be half1 quarter1 or eighth size1 and the fact is printed under the title in smaller letters1 thus3 inch #a inch1 or inch #a inch4 ,other scales may be used4 ,in map making1 for example1 a sixteenth of an inch may represent one1 ten1 or even a hundred miles4 ,whatever scale is used1 however1 the dimensions must always give the exact size of the object represented4 ,,elementary ,,woodworking ,,part ,,ii ,,chapter ,v ,,wood ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,the ,forest1 ,norway ,spruce1 ,bavaria1 ,germany #bh4 ,lumbering and ,milling4 ,it is well to remember1 when using wood for any purpose1 that it was once part of a living tree which had roots1 bark1 leaves1 and flowers1 and that the tree began life as a little sapling1 which grew taller and larger for years before it could be called a tree1 and that it was between fifty and a hundred years old before it was large enough to cut down for timber4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,felling a ,tree ,the lumberman selects trees which have large1 straight trunks4 ,they are usually cut with the ax1 although the first cut is often made partially through the trunk with a saw4 ,the branches are then chopped off and the body of the tree cut into lengths convenient for handling4 ,they are rolled into a stream and floated down the river to a sawmill1 or1 in case there is no river near by1 are carted on sleds or wagons to the railroad and thence to the mill4 ,the cutting of the trees is usually done in winter1 the floating of the logs1 or river driving as it is called1 beginning with the breaking up of the ice in the spring4 ,river driving is a very interesting and dangerous business4 ,logs will often get caught sidewise and the whole river from shore to shore become jammed so tightly that hundreds of thousands of logs are stopped in their course1 forming an immense dam which the lumbermen call a log jam4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,a ,skidway of ,adirondack ,spruce ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,river ,drivers breaking up a 8,log ,jam0 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,log ,boom and ,lumber ,piles at ,tupper ,lake1 ,n4,y4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,a ,modern ,gang ,saw--,interior of ,modern ,sawmill ,to break up this jam very often requires much labor and great daring on the part of the drivers1 who wear spiked shoes and are armed with long poles having sharp steel points4 ,when such a jam breaks up1 the crashing of the logs and rush of water can be heard for miles4 ,having finally reached the mill1 the logs float in the river1 inclosed in a log boom1 until the mill men are ready to saw them into planks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,a ,modern ,sawmill ,the boom consists of logs chained together and stretched across the river just as a fence is built on land to inclose cattle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,the ,circular ,saw--,interior of ,sawmill ,the sawmill of to-day is a mass of automatic machinery1 and after the log enters it is not touched by human hands until it comes out as lumber of various sizes ready to be loaded on boats or cars4 ,logs are sawed into timber1 planks1 or boards1 and these forms are called lumber4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,a ,large ,band ,saw ,timber refers to all of the largest sizes1 such as beams and joists4 ,planks are wide strips over one inch thick1 and boards are one inch or less in thickness1 varying in width and length4 ,lumber may be planed at a planing mill1 and is then known as dressed lumber4 ,it may be dressed on one1 two1 or all sides4 ,dressed stock which is free from knots1 shakes1 and sapwood is called clear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,end of ,log1 showing ,annual ,rings and ,medullary ,rays ,by examining the end of a log we can learn a great deal of the life of the tree4 ,it is made up of a number of irregular rings and of lines radiating from the center and running in nearly straight lines toward the bark4 ,the number of rings tells us the age of the tree1 as a new ring is added each year4 ,as the tree grows1 the old wood near the center becomes compressed and dry and is known as the heartwood1 while that portion between the heartwood and bark is called sapwood4 ,in some woods the difference between the heartwood and sapwood is very marked4 ,in ebony1 for instance1 the heartwood is coal black and the sapwood white4 ,the sketch shows half a log1 the annual rings being indicated1 and also the radial lines1 called medullary rays4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,log cut lengthwise1 showing how 8,grain0 is formed ,looking at the length of the log we see that the lines in a board1 which we call the grain1 are really the edges of the annual rings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,showing ,weather ,checks and 8,shake0 ,it often happens in the forest that the wind sways the trees to such an extent that the annual rings separate and slide one within the other2 this produces a defect in the wood called a shake 7see s1 ,fig4 #gd74 ,there are other characteristics of wood known as warping and shrinkage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 ,after a tree has been cut down the cut end at first looks like ,fig4 #gb4 ,if it is allowed to lie for some time exposed to the weather1 its appearance changes to ,fig4 #gd4 ,this is due to the evaporation of the sap1 and as there is more sap toward the outside1 the shrinkage is greatest there and becomes less toward the center where the heartwood is comparatively dry4 ,this is an important fact to know1 because if we had cut the log1 while it was still green1 into planks1 as shown in ,fig4 #ge1 the boards would have curled up or warped1 as shown in ,fig4 #gf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,showing ,effect of ,warping ,besides warping1 the evaporation of the sap causes the whole tree to shrink in diameter1 and consequently our planks will tend to become narrower4 ,this is called shrinkage1 and in some woods amounts to a quarter of an inch to the foot1 which means that a plank sawed twelve inches wide will1 after a few months1 measure only eleven and three quarter inches4 ,when we construct anything in wood we must always consider how the object will be affected by warping and shrinkage1 remembering that the shrinkage is only across the grain4 ,let us consider the problem of constructing a drawing board to see how warping and shrinkage may be overcome4 ,if we make it of one piece1 like ,a 7,fig4 #gg71 the board will soon change its shape to that shown in ,b1 which would make it useless for mechanical drawing1 as a perfectly flat surface is necessary4 ,we can overcome the warping by screwing heavy cleats on one side across the grain1 as shown at ,c4 ,the cleats would need to be heavy or the warping force would bend them4 ,a better way would be to build the board up of several narrow strips glued together1 as the warping of one would be counteracted by the warping of its neighbors in opposite directions2 but to make doubly sure1 cleats fastened with tongue and groove joint should be added at the ends1 as shown at ,d4 ,this has an advantage over the first method1 as the cleats in ,c are often in the way and make the board clumsy to handle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,a ,study in ,construction4 ,methods of overcoming ,warping and ,shrinkage ,the student will find many evidences about the house of how the woodworker has tried to prevent warping and shrinkage1 as1 for instance1 in the paneled doors1 tables1 etc4 ,the wood of the various trees differs greatly in hardness1 evenness of grain1 durability1 etc41 and every boy should know not only what our woods are used for1 but he should also know the trees when he sees them4 ,we are indebted to the trees for many things besides wood4 ,they give us delightful shade and coolness in summer2 many of them produce delicious fruit and nuts2 from them we obtain such valuable products as maple sirup and sugar2 while tar1 pitch1 turpentine1 rubber1 and tannin are only a few of the many tree products4 ,the houses we live in1 the chairs we sit on1--in fact1 most of our furniture1 even to the frames of our pictures1 the cars we ride in1 and the very pencils we write with1 are of wood which was once part of the living forest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,a ,large ,tree being moved by a ,modern ,tree ,mover1 showing ,root ,formation ,,chapter ,,vi ,,broad-,,leaved ,,trees3 ,,the ,,oaks ,our ,american trees may be divided roughly into two classes3 7#a7 those which keep their leaves the year round1 known as evergreens2 7#b7 those whose leaves drop off in the fall1 called broad-leaved1 or deciduous trees1 in distinction from the evergreens1 whose leaves are usually needle-shaped4 ,among the broad-leaved family are such trees as the oak1 chestnut1 hickory1 maples1 elms1 etc42 and among the evergreens or cone-bearing trees are the pines1 spruces1 hemlocks1 firs1 and cedars4 ,the oak family is a very important one1 the wood being hard and strong and the tree a sturdy1 healthy1 and well-known specimen of tree life4 ,white oak is perhaps the most common member of the oak family4 ,it grows to a very large size and has a leaf of the form shown in ,fig4 #gi4 ,observe carefully the outline of the leaf and compare it with the sketch of the next form4 ,the white oak1 like all oaks1 bears acorns1 and its timber is used as a standard when comparing different kinds of wood4 ,if we say that the strength of white pine is one half1 we mean one half that of white oak1 and in all timber calculations white oak is the standard1 just as the yard and mile are standards of length4 ,in work which requires strength1 such as carriage making1 shipbuilding1 and cooperage1 white oak is used very extensively4 ,the quartered oak used so much for furniture is obtained by cutting the logs in a special manner4 ,the method of cutting gives a beautiful mottled effect with the silver rays spread out in irregular white splashes on a dark background4 ,we might separate the oak into two distinct groups3 7#a7 those trees whose acorns ripen in one season2 7#b7 those which require two years4 ,the acorns of this latter group remain on the tree throughout the first winter and ripen the second summer4 ,to the first class belong the white oak just mentioned1 the post oak1 chestnut oaks1 mossy-cup oak1 and live oak4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,typical ,leaf of the ,white ,oak ,in the second class are the red1 scarlet1 black1 pin1 laurel1 and willow oaks4 ,the difference in the leaves of these trees is so great that we need never mistake one for the other4 ,notice the cut of the red oak and compare it with that of the white oak4 ,the latter has rounded lobes1 while the red-oak leaf has sharp points and the fingers of the leaf are indented again with smaller teeth4 ,the different trees in the white-oak family all have leaves with rounded lobes1 and most of those in the red-oak group have pointed ones1 yet there is a difference between members of the same family1 just as among human beings4 ,we can tell at a glance whether a man is a negro1 a ,chinaman1 or a white man4 ,if a white man1 he may be a ,frenchman or an ,american2 and again1 if an ,american1 he may belong to the ,jones family4 ,but all the members of the ,jones family do not look alike and we know one from another4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,leaf of the ,post ,oak ,this is true of trees4 ,no two are alike1 and we can tell from observation whether a tree is an evergreen or a broad-leaved tree1 whether it belongs to the white-oak group2 and after studying trees a little we can tell whether a member of this group is a white oak1 a post oak1 or a mossy-cup oak4 ,compare the post-oak leaf 7,fig4 #hj7 with that of the white oak4 ,there is not a great difference in form1 but the post-oak leaf is thick1 leathery1 and dark green1 while the white oak has a beautiful thin1 light green leaf1 which turns red in the fall4 ,the post oak is a rougher and coarser tree than the other1 and is sometimes called iron oak on account of its very hard1 tough wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,leaf of ,mossy-,cup ,oak #bi4 ,the ,mossy-,cup ,oak4 ,one of the most beautiful oaks we have in ,america grows in the ,south and ,west1 and is only rarely found in our parks in the ,east4 ,it is called the mossy-cup oak because the large acorn which it bears is surrounded by a bushy fringe which almost hides the nut4 ,this acorn is a sight never to be forgotten4 ,the leaf is larger than that of the white oak1 and although the two leaves look somewhat alike1 the divisions of the mossy-cup leaf are not as regular as those of the white oak1 and it is not so thin and delicate4 ,its wood is very strong and is valuable for many purposes1 such as boats1 carriages1 farming implements1 railroad ties1 and cooperage4 #cj4 ,black ,oak and ,black-jack ,oak4 ,these two trees are usually found growing in wild places1 and the black-jack oak is often called barren oak from the fact that it frequents bleak and barren plains1 such as the sandy stretches of ,new ,jersey and ,long ,island4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,leaves of ,black ,oak and ,black-jack ,oak 7,black-jack on right7 ,the sketch shows the difference in the leaves1 that of the black-jack having only three main lobes1 or divisions1 while the black oak has five4 ,however1 the leaves of these two trees vary considerably1 and one must always look for the typical leaf1 which is the one shown in the sketch4 ,the black-jack is a small1 shrubby tree1 with branches often twisted and contorted1 and its wood is not very valuable except as fuel or for making charcoal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,leaf of ,red ,oak ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,wood of the ,red ,oak1 showing three sections4 ,the one on the left shows annual rings obtained by a horizontal cut through the tree4 ,central view shows vertical cut at center of tree4 ,view on right shows vertical cut between center and bark as illustrated in ,fig4 #gc4 ,the acorns require two seasons for ripening1 as do those of the red1 scarlet1 and pin oaks4 #ca4 ,the ,red ,oak4 ,the red oak is one of our largest and most noble trees1 growing taller even than the white oak1 and may always be distinguished by its very large1 shiny1 dark green leaves4 ,its bark is also much smoother and darker than the white oak4 ,its acorn is very bitter and can easily be recognized by its shallow cup and by its large size4 ,it is the largest of the two-year acorns4 ,the wood of the red oak is darker than that of the white1 and is used in the manufacture of furniture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,scarlet ,oak #cb4 ,the ,scarlet ,oak4 ,this tree is often confused with the red1 but a glance at the leaves will show a great difference4 ,that of the scarlet has deeper indentations and is much more slender and skeleton-like in shape4 ,it takes its name from the bright scarlet or red tinge it takes on when the leaves change color in the fall4 #cc4 ,the ,pin ,oak4 ,the pin-oak leaf is much more readily confounded with the scarlet oak than that of any other tree4 ,in fact1 no two trees have leaves so nearly alike as these two2 yet a glance at two typical leaves placed side by side will show considerable difference4 ,the pin-oak leaf is smaller than the other1 and in proportion to its size the indentations are not so deep4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,pin ,oak ,the pin-oak tree has a great many small branchlets1 or stems1 which give the tree the appearance of a bundle of pins1 especially when the leaves are off in winter4 ,it is a beautiful tree and is now being planted very extensively as a shade tree4 ,it is hardy1 and stands city air very well indeed4 ,its bark is rich in tannic acid1 which is used in tanning leather4 ,the oak family is such a large and valuable one that we cannot afford to pass it over lightly4 ,in the ,south grows the willow oak1 famous for its shade and its leaves1 which resemble those of the willow4 ,a little farther north we find1 along the ,ohio valley1 the shingle oak1 so called from the fact that its wood is mostly made into shingles4 ,it is also known as the laurel oak1 because its leaves are shaped like those of the laurel1 although not so glossy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4 ,pin ,oak in ,winter ,this is such an odd shape for an oak leaf that one would be likely to pass it by and not recognize it but for the fact that it bears acorns4 ,this is always the test1--8,by their fruits ye shall know them40 ,if we meet a new tree which seems not to be an oak because its leaves are new to us1 and it bears acorns1 we may be sure it is an oak4 ,a very interesting group of trees which come under this head are the chestnut oaks4 ,at first glance one would take one of these trees to be a chestnut1 but it bears acorns and must therefore be an oak4 ,the sketch shows the two leaves side by side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4 ,chestnut ,chestnut ,oak ,let us examine them closely4 ,although they slightly resemble each other1 by looking carefully we see that the teeth on the chestnut leaf are pointed1 while those on the chestnut oak are decidedly rounded4 ,there is also a difference in proportion1 as the chestnut leaf is long and narrow1 while that of the chestnut oak is broader4 ,there are several varieties of chestnut oak1 but their leaves are quite similar and they all belong to the white-oak group and ripen their acorns in one season4 ,they grow to a large size1 one famous from ,revolutionary times at ,fishkill-on-the-,hudson measuring seven feet in diameter4 ,the acorns are sweet and are eagerly sought after by the squirrels4 ,the wood is durable in exposed places and is used for cooperage1 railroad ties1 and fencing4 #cd4 ,the ,live ,oak4 ,no list of ,american oaks would be complete without the live oak4 ,this is a southern tree and is remarkable in many ways4 ,its leaf has no indentations1 remains green all winter1 and is thick and leathery4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4 ,leaf of ,live ,oak ,the wood is extremely heavy1 a cubic foot weighing nearly sixty pounds4 ,it is as hard as it is heavy1 and although it takes a high polish and has a fine grain1 it soon dulls the edge of a tool4 ,before the age of steel1 when all ships were wooden1 it was much used in shipbuilding1 and the government bought large tracts of land where live oak grew abundantly1 so that the ,united ,states navy should never lack the necessary timber4 ,it grows along the ,atlantic coast1 south from ,virginia1 and along the ,gulf to ,texas4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,broad-,,leaved ,,trees3 ,,the ,,maples ,it is the maple family to which we are indebted for much of the glorious coloring of our autumn landscapes4 ,it is true that all trees play their part in the general color scheme1 but for the brilliant reds and scarlets of the fall foliage we must look to the maples4 ,when we think of the word maple we are apt to have visions of other things besides trees4 ,maple and sugar or sirup seem to go together1 and in fact some of us do not know that there are other maples besides the sugar maple4 ,this fine ,american tree is one of which we should be proud4 ,not only is it a handsome large tree1 valuable for its shade and the beautiful colors it wears in the fall1 but its wood is hard and valuable1--it is often called rock maple1--and besides all these good qualities it furnishes us with our maple sirup and sugar4 ,the process of making maple sugar is quite interesting and may be divided into two stages1--gathering the sap1 and boiling down4 ,very early in the spring1 often as early as ,march1 the sap begins to flow up through the tree4 ,the farmer knows by experience when to tap the tree1 which he does by boring a three-quarter inch hole with an auger4 ,into this hole he inserts a spout of wood or iron through which the lifeblood of the tree--the sap--flows in a steady drip1 drip1 drip1 into a pail or bucket placed beneath to catch it4 ,the sap comes in drops about as regularly as the ticks of a clock1 one a second4 ,this continues for two or three weeks1 until each tree has yielded something like twenty-five gallons4 ,as it takes five gallons of sap to produce a pound of sugar1 each tree yields about five pounds of maple sugar4 ,in ,new ,england and ,new ,york there are maple groves containing thousands of trees1 and one farm alone produces five thousand pounds of sugar in a season4 ,strange as it may seem1 this excessive bleeding of the trees does not kill them unless improperly done4 ,the farmer must not tap them at the wrong time nor in too many places4 ,the tree will stand a great deal if properly treated1 but harsh treatment will kill it4 ,the boiling process is very simple4 ,the sap is poured into large boilers or evaporators and boiled until it becomes a sirup4 ,the old-fashioned test to find out when the boiling had been carried on long enough was to drop a little of the hot sirup into the snow or into a cold dish4 ,if it hardened1 the boiling was finished4 ,fig4 #ij shows the leaf of the sugar maple1 also that leaf which is most often confounded with it1 viz41 the ,norway maple4 ,observe the two closely4 ,the sugar maple has blunt1 rounded points and is thick1 while the ,norway has sharp points1 which are more numerous1 and the leaf is much thinner and more delicate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4 ,sugar ,maple ,norway ,maple ,the sugar maple grows taller and does not cast so dense a shade as the ,norway1 which is a low-growing tree with close1 dark foliage4 #ce4 ,the ,silver ,maple4 ,the one which naturally comes next in the list is the silver1 soft1 or white maple1 as it is variously termed4 ,from the ground up to the topmost leaf the whole character of this tree suggests the word thoroughbred4 ,clean-cut1 refined1 strong1 and healthy in every detail1 the silver maple is a thing of beauty and might truly be called the acme of perfection in tree life4 ,its name is derived from the fact that the under side of the leaf is silvery white4 ,the upper side being dark green gives a beautiful effect when the wind stirs the foliage1 which as a whole has the grace and drooping effect of the ,american elm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4 ,the ,silver ,maple ,the ,red ,maple ,this description does not always fit1 however1 as it is planted extensively in cities where horses gnaw the fine bark2 smoke1 soot1 and coal gas discolor the leaves2 and the caterpillars complete the work of destroying its beauty4 ,yet it still lives1 even if it does not thrive under such harsh treatment4 ,its wood is white1 soft1 and not very valuable4 #cf4 ,the ,red ,maple4 ,a relative of the silver maple and one which might be mistaken for it is the red1 swamp1 or wild maple4 ,it is this tree which displays the brightest reds in autumn4 ,referring to the sketch it will be seen that the leaf is smaller and three-fingered instead of five1 as in the silver variety4 ,the stem of this leaf is also red during the entire season1 as if it could not wait for autumn4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4 ,the ,sycamore ,maple #cg4 ,the ,sycamore ,maple4 ,in the rows on rows of maples so common in our towns and cities one will often find a leaf larger1 heavier1 and coarser than any of the others4 ,this variety1 like the ,norway1 is an importation from ,europe1 known as the sycamore maple because of its resemblance to the sycamore leaf4 ,it is easily identified by its large size1 coarseness1 the very long1 thick red stem1 and by the fact that its entire edge is finely toothed1--in which point it differs from all the foregoing varieties4 ,its value as a shade tree is nearly equal to the ,norway1 and in ,europe it is often planted in preference to all other maples4 #ch4 ,the ,striped ,maple4 ,growing in the shade of other trees and forming part of the undergrowth of our ,north woods is a small tree known as the striped maple1 from the stripes which run up and down its bark4 ,the ,new ,england name for this little mountain tree is moosewood1 from the fact that the moose is very fond of the bark and twigs1 which form his chief food in winter4 ,the leaves are quite large1 but very thin1 soft1 and delicate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4 ,the ,striped ,maple1 or ,moosewood #ci4 ,maple ,keys4 ,the fruit1 or seeds1 of all the maples are known as winged4 ,the flat1 thin part gives the seed a swirling motion as it drops from the tree4 ,this is the way nature has of spreading the seed over a large area so that more trees may be started in life4 ,many tree seeds are winged1 but the maple seed or key is so large and so common that every one must at some time have noticed it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4 ,maple 8,keys10 a ,common ,form of ,winged ,seeds #dj4 ,the ,ash-,leaved ,maple4 ,the ash-leaved maple is a leaf very common in our parks4 ,it has no resemblance to other maple leaves1 yet it bears the unmistakable maple key1--8,by their fruits ye shall know them40 ,it is therefore a maple4 ,the box elder1 or ash-leaved maple1 is interesting because it is our only maple having a compound leaf2 that is1 a leaf stem with several distinct leaflets4 ,compound leaves are very common 7notice the hickory leaf and the horse-chestnut71 but not on maples1 and our ash-leaved maple is a curiosity4 ,it delights in swampy places1 but grows almost anywhere4 ,it is a small tree1 and its wood is not especially valuable except for making paper pulp4 ,north ,america has only nine varieties of maple1 while ,china and ,japan have more than thirty4 ,indeed1 it is to ,japan1 whose forests are largely made up of maples1 that we are indebted for some of the most dainty and exquisite trees to be found4 ,the ,japan maples planted so extensively on our lawns and in our parks have such a variety of form and color that no written description can do them justice4 ,fig4 #if will give some idea of their shape and delicacy4 ,the colors1 which of course cannot be shown1 range from dark purple to the most delicate combinations of white and green4 ,the finest of these dainty leaves bears a stronger resemblance to an ostrich plume than to anything in the line of tree leaves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4 ,ash-,leaved ,maple1 or ,box ,elder ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4 ,japan ,maples ,,chapter ,,viii ,,broad-,,leaved ,,trees ,,having ,,compound ,,leaves ,the beginner is often in doubt as to whether a twig with several leaves is a compound leaf or a number of simple leaves4 ,this is a very easy thing to decide4 ,at the end of the leaf stem1 where the leaf joins the twig or branch1 is always a little bud4 ,when the leaf drops off in the fall the bud remains1 and in the spring begins to swell and finally develops into a leaf4 ,this bud then is the promise of next year's leaf1 and it is always found at the base of the leaf stem1 as shown at ,a4 ,there is no such bud at the base of the leaflet on the compound leaf1 as shown at ,b4 ,if then we find no bud at ,b1 we must look farther down until we discover it at ,c4 ,this furnishes the test and we know that our specimen is a compound leaf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4 ,method of distinguishing ,compound and ,simple ,leaves ,this class of leaf is very common1 as our horse-chestnuts1 buckeyes1 hickories1 and walnuts all have compound leaves4 ,the horse-chestnut is not a native ,american tree1 but was imported from ,europe1 where it is a great favorite4 ,the leaflets number five or seven1 always an odd number1 and they radiate from one central point1 the odd one in the center usually being the largest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4 ,the ,horse-,chestnut ,it is very interesting to watch these leaves as they come out of the sticky buds in the spring4 ,they unfold and grow very rapidly and soon the tree brings forth large pyramidal clusters of beautiful flowers4 ,the large1 neat brown nuts which come later in the season do not seem to be very useful1 yet they are so solid and shiny that every boy delights to gather them4 ,an ,american tree closely resembling the horse-chestnut is the buckeye4 ,the leaflets on the buckeye leaf number five1 sometimes seven1 and radiate like the horse-chestnut from a common center4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4 ,buckeye ,hickory ,this tree is well known through the ,ohio valley1 where it is very common1 ,ohio being called the ,buckeye ,state4 ,the nuts are not edible1 but the wood is very tough and strong and is used extensively in making farm implements4 ,compare the leaf of the buckeye and the hickory shown in ,fig4 #ii4 ,both leaves are compound1 and each has five leaflets1 but they are quite different1 because the hickory leaflets are arranged on opposite sides of the leaf-stalk instead of radiating from one point4 ,there are several varieties of hickory1 including the shagbark1 or shellbark1 the pignut1 and pecan4 ,the name shagbark hickory is taken from the peculiar appearance of the bark1 which hangs in loose pieces nearly a foot long and gives the tree a very shaggy effect4 ,shellbark is another common name for this tree4 ,the nut which this tree bears is hard and thick1 but the kernel is very sweet1 and is considered by some superior to all other hickory nuts4 ,the pignut hickory is so called because the nuts in some parts of the country are used to feed the pigs4 ,it is also called broom hickory4 ,the nuts are small and become bitter after having lain awhile4 ,the wood1 however1 like all the hickories1 is valuable1 being hard and tough4 ,there is a difference between strength and toughness4 ,oak is strong1 but not tough4 ,hickory is both hard and tough4 ,a tough wood is one which will stand bending without breaking4 ,a wood which will bend easily but is not strong cannot be called tough4 ,it must be both strong and elastic1 and hickory has both of these qualities4 #da4 ,the ,pecan4 ,we usually think of the pecan nut as different from the hickory1 yet they belong to the same family4 ,the pecan hickory is a southern tree which delights in the warm climate south of the ,ohio ,river1 and in ,texas is found as a grand forest giant one hundred and fifty feet high1 producing an enormous crop of the sweetest and most delicately flavored nuts4 ,the leaf has nine leaflets and occasionally as many as fifteen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4 ,black ,walnut ,butternut #db4 ,the ,black ,walnut and ,butternut4 ,perhaps no two trees are so difficult for the city boy or girl to distinguish as the butternut and black walnut4 ,both have compound leaves1 the number of leaflets varying from nine to seventeen for the butternut and from fifteen to twenty-three for the black walnut4 ,a leaf having fifteen leaflets1 then1 might belong to either tree if there were no other way to distinguish them4 ,the teeth on the black-walnut leaflet are larger and sharper than on the butternut1 and the fuzzy stem is lacking4 ,the green nuts1 too1 are different1 the black walnuts being just about the size and shape of green lemons1 the butternuts longer and thinner2 but the unmistakable feature is the odor4 ,having once smelled the crushed leaves of a butternut and a black walnut1 a person will thereafter need no other test4 ,the use of black-walnut lumber for making furniture was at one time very common4 ,the great supply of this valuable wood has been exhausted and other woods have become fashionable4 ,it is still used for gunstocks1 for which purpose nothing seems better suited4 ,butternut is a light-colored wood1 but takes a good polish and is occasionally used in cabinet work4 #dc4 ,the ,locusts4 ,the locust family is a large one2 its members all bear compound leaves1 and their fruit is in the form of beans instead of nuts4 ,the common yellow or black locust is famous for its hard1 durable wood1 its delicate light green leaves1 and its white flowers4 ,the tree is not very beautiful when the leaves are off1 but its wood is so valuable that its beauty is not considered4 ,the wood is yellow and becomes very hard after it has dried4 ,the honey locust is another common member of this family4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4 ,the ,locust ,the ,honey ,locust #dd4 ,the ,honey ,locust4 ,its leaves are much finer and somewhat resemble ferns4 ,it may always be known by the dangerous sharp-pointed thorns which grow all over the tree4 ,these thorns are unusually large1 sometimes being found in great bunches and as long as six inches4 ,its fruit is a long1 thin1 brownish pod1 which is sweet and contains little light brown beans4 ,the wood is strong and durable4 #de4 ,the ,ash4 ,every boy who has owned a rowboat knows that oars are made of wood from the ash4 ,this is because the oar must be elastic as well as strong1 and the timber of the ash tree supplies these two qualities4 ,the ash is one of our tallest and noblest forest trees4 ,it is rather slim in build1 with beautiful clean shiny green foliage4 ,the members of this group seem to be fond of colors1 and we have the white ash1 red ash1 green ash1 blue ash1 and black ash4 ,there are slight differences in the leaves and seeds1 but1 as in other trees1 when we have once seen an ash seed we can always thereafter distinguish an ash tree4 ,fig4 #ajb shows the seed of the red ash4 ,it is a winged seed1 with the seed part inclosed by the wing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4 ,red ,ash ,the compound leaf of the white ash has from five to seven leaflets and the black ash has from seven to eleven4 ,the wood is hard1 tough1 and elastic1 has a handsome grain1 and is used for many purposes besides making oars1 such as furniture1 carriages1 and those farm implements which require strength4 ,the ,indian could find no better wood for his bow1 and even ,cupid is said to have first made his arrows of ash4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,broad-,,leaved ,,trees ,,having ,,simple ,,leaves #df4 ,the ,elm4 ,the elm is the well-known shade tree of ,new ,england4 ,its tall1 graceful form is familiar to every visitor and native of that section of country1 where it is found along every roadway and in every city4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4 ,the ,american ,elm ,who can think of ,new ,england without its noble elms8 ,it would indeed be a different country4 ,the elm may be said to represent ,new ,england character1--dignified1 sturdy1 graceful1 and refined4 ,being tall1 with foliage well up1 the general shape of the tree gives the desired shade1 yet does not obstruct the view2 while its stately dignity gives an air of comfort and repose to the grounds1 which it seems to protect from the elements4 ,its wood is valuable for certain kinds of work1 being tough and strong1 but it is not suitable for cabinetwork1 as it is difficult to polish4 ,it is used considerably for wheel hubs and in cooperage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4 ,leaf of ,american ,elm ,observe the edge of the elm leaf carefully4 ,the teeth not only curve gracefully toward the extreme tip of the leaf1 but they are themselves also toothed1--a form known as double-toothed4 ,the leaf is coarse and rough to the touch1 in marked contrast to the birch family1 whose leaves it slightly resembles4 ,there are several elms famous in the history of our country4 ,at ,cambridge is the old elm under which ,george ,washington drew his sword and took command of the ,american ,army on ,july #c1 #agge2 there are several other 8,washington ,elms0 in different parts of the country1 while ,new ,haven is known as the ,city of ,elms4 ,william ,penn made his famous treaty with the ,indians under the branches of a magnificent elm1 which remained standing until it was over two hundred years old1 when it was finally blown down4 ,the spot has been marked by a marble column4 ,the tree is called the ,american1 or white1 elm1 and we have several other varieties growing wild1 including the well-known slippery elm1 so called because the inner bark is slippery and edible4 #dg4 ,the ,birches4 ,if the black birch with its sweet1 aromatic bark is not known to a boy1 the white1 or canoe1 birch is sure to be4 ,it seems to be the fate of this beautiful tree to be disfigured by every wandering youth who has strength enough to tear off a strip of its paper-like bark4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4 ,leaf of ,black ,birch ,the leaf of the black1 or sugar1 birch may be distinguished from the elm by its smoothness and thinness4 ,its base is slightly heartshaped1 the edge is double-toothed1 the tender bark on the twigs is sweet to the taste1 and the leaves grow in pairs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4 ,birches bordering a ,canal #dh4 ,white ,birch4 ,the famous white1 paper1 or canoe birch has a leaf somewhat broader than the black variety1 but without the heartshaped base4 ,its bark is its peculiar feature and cannot be mistaken4 ,it comes off in layers and possesses a resinous quality which makes it waterproof1 a fact fully appreciated by the ,indians1 who constructed their canoes of it4 ,the wood is hard and tough4 #di4 ,gray ,birch4 ,a smaller tree1 known as the gray birch1 also has white bark1 but it is not as perfect as that of the canoe birch1 does not peel in layers1 and has triangular black spots on the trunk beneath every limb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4 ,leaf of ,gray ,birch ,it loves barren1 rocky places1 abandoned farms1 etc41 and is sometimes called old field birch4 ,it has a fine1 delicate foliage1 which is not duplicated in the forest4 ,each leaf swings from a long1 slender stem1 and every passing breeze gives it a trembling effect1 like the aspen4 ,the leaf form is very odd1--a broad1 flat base1 and then a long1 graceful curve out to a fine point1 the whole edge being finely double-toothed4 #ej4 ,the ,beech4 ,the difference in the leaf forms of the birch and beech is very marked4 ,both have toothed edges1 but in the beech the spaces between the teeth are so remarkably shallow that one has to search for them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4 ,a ,remarkable ,growth of ,beeches in ,greater ,new ,york ,there has been a common belief for generations that the beech is proof against lightning1 and recent experiments prove that beech wood offers considerably greater resistance to the electric current than oak1 poplar1 or willow2 so our ancestors were partly right4 ,the wood is hard1 strong1 and tough1 and will take a high polish4 #ea4 ,hornbeam4 ,closely related to the beeches are two little trees which have delicate birchlike foliage and wood of great hardness1--the hornbeam1 or blue beech1 and the hop hornbeam1 or ironwood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4 ,leaf of ,american ,beech ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4 ,ironwood1 or ,hop ,hornbeam ,the leaves of these two varieties are quite similar1 that of the ironwood being somewhat the larger4 ,the name hop hornbeam is derived from the fruit1 which resembles the hop1 and the name ironwood from the great strength and hardness of the wood4 #eb4 ,buttonball4 ,no list of trees would be complete which did not include those three forest giants1 buttonball1 tulip1 and sweet gum4 ,the names buttonwood1 buttonball1 sycamore1 and plane tree1 as the same tree is called in different parts of the country1 all apply to that fine ,american tree which sheds its bark as well as its leaves1 leaving a ghostly monarch of tree life1 which produces an enormous crop of buttonballs so well known to country boys and girls4 ,the leaves are in proportion to the size of the tree1 often measuring a foot in length1 and being frequently covered on the under side with a white down called fungus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4 ,leaf of ,buttonwood ,the wood of the sycamore1 as it is incorrectly called1 is valuable for cabinetwork1 having a beautiful grain and taking a high polish4 ,it is1 however1 difficult to work1 and has a tendency to warp4 #ec4 ,sweet ,gum4 ,the sweet-gum tree also produces a crop of balls1 or seed pods1 but although the same size as the buttonballs1 they need never be confused1 as the gum balls are covered with somewhat sharp points1 while the buttonballs are comparatively smooth4 ,the leaves of the sweet gum1 or liquid amber--so called from the amber-colored gum the tree gives out--remind one of the starfish1 being five-fingered and decidedly different from any leaf in the forest4 ,the tree grows to a height of one hundred and fifty feet1 and its wood is a handsome brown color with fine and intricate markings4 ,it warps badly1 but is valued for wood turning on account of its softness and even grain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4 ,sweet ,gum1 or ,liquid ,amber #ed4 ,tulip4 ,the lumber furnished by the tulip tree1 commonly called whitewood1 is less liable to warp than gum wood1 and is somewhat harder4 ,just why it should be called whitewood is not clear1 as it is much darker than white pine and of a greenish-yellow color4 ,the leaf of the tulip tree is very peculiar1 having only four points1 without any small teeth1 and with an outline so odd that one often wonders if nature did not use a pair of scissors in cutting it out4 ,each leaf stands out aggressively on a long stem4 ,the glory of the tree--which gives it its name--is the mass of tulip-shaped flowers it bears in the spring4 ,they are large and brilliant1 yellowish-green in color1 with dashes of red1 and develop a narrow1 light-brown cone1 which remains on the tree all winter4 ,the tree thrives best south of the ,ohio valley1 where it is frequently found from five to seven feet in diameter4 ,the ,indians formerly made their dugout canoes from its trunk1 and in some sections it is still called canoe wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4 ,tulip1 or ,whitewood #ee4 ,basswood1 or ,linden4 ,a very valuable group of trees for both shade and timber are the basswoods1 or lindens4 ,there are several varieties1 the ,european linden thriving here as readily as our native varieties4 ,these trees may always be distinguished by the leaves1 which are heartshaped and lopsided1 i4e4 one side from the middle line being always larger than the other1 as if two leaves of different sizes had been joined along the center4 ,this is a very common feature among certain classes of trees1 such as the elms4 ,another remarkable feature is the seed1 or bract1 shown in the sketch 7,fig4 #aae74 ,the tree is sugar-loaf in shape1 gives a dense shade1 and has sweet flowers so fragrant that it is sometimes called the bee tree1 because the bees swarm all over it in the summer time4 ,its timber is valuable1 being free from knots and of such an even grain that it is much sought after for some kinds of carving4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4 ,american ,linden1 or ,basswood1 showing the ,sugar-,loaf ,form of the ,tree ,the familiar cigar-store ,indian is usually carved from basswood4 ,among the broad-leaved trees there are still several familiar families1 all loved by some of us for some reason4 ,the willow is always a striking tree1 not only because of its weeping or drooping appearance1 but also because we usually associate it with water4 ,what is more common in the country than a stream hidden by the willows which crowd its bank and dip down into the clear water6 ,then1 too1 we watch it for the first sign of spring1 and friends in different states often vie with each other to discover the first pussy willow1 the name given to the soft1 downy buds which appear often before the snow has melted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4 ,leaf and ,bract of ,linden ,the willow is dear to boys1 because on the green twigs in spring the bark can be separated from the wood and a whistle or simple flute manufactured4 ,the wood of the willow is not very valuable1 being used chiefly by pulp makers1 but it grows where no other trees can exist1 being found nearly all over the world1 and creeping nearer to the north pole than any other broad-leaved tree except the birch4 ,it has over one hundred and fifty varieties1 which vary from small shrubs up to trees a hundred feet high4 ,its soft and gentle beauty is sufficient excuse for its existence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4 ,a ,weeping ,willow #ef4 ,the ,poplars4 ,in the poplars we have a group of trees similar to the willows in some ways but very different in others4 ,the wood is weak and of little use except for fuel and paper pulp1 but there the likeness ends4 ,to this family belongs the quaking aspen1 whose leaves are continually trembling1--in fact1 the whole family is a restless one1 the constant motion being due to the shape of the long stems1 which are flattened4 ,the people of ,scotland have a superstition that it was of aspen wood that our ,saviour's cross was made1 and that the tree shivers in constant remembrance of that fact4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4 ,aspen ,aspen ,poplar1 or ,large-,toothed ,aspen ,beside the quaking aspen is the large-toothed aspen1 the ,lombardy poplar1 and the cottonwood4 ,the ,lombardy is the spirelike tree which seems to reach toward the clouds1 and its tall1 narrow form is familiar in many sections of our country1 although the tree was originally imported from ,europe4 ,cottonwood and balm of ,gilead are two well-known members of this family4 ,cottonwood is best known in the ,west1 where it often constitutes the chief and only growth along the water courses1 and balm of ,gilead is known as one of our common city shade trees4 ,this latter tree1 often called the balsam1 is really an important tree of the great northwestern country1 being found plentifully in the ,klondike1 and often forming in that far northern country great forests thousands of square miles in extent4 ,it is used as a shade tree because it stands the smoke and gas of the city where many other trees pine away and die4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4 ,cottonwood1 or ,carolina ,poplar #eg4 ,sassafras4 ,we find many freaks in the tree world1 and nature seems to have tried to see how odd she really could be2 for instance1 on the sassafras tree we find three distinct kinds of leaves1 having one1 two1 and three divisions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4 ,sassafras ,this tree1 which in the northern states is usually quite small1 grows under favorable conditions to a height of fifty feet4 ,it is noted for the pleasant taste of its leaves1 twigs1 and roots1 which are used considerably in flavoring medicines4 #eh4 ,mulberry4 ,another tree noted for the peculiar shape of its leaves is the mulberry4 ,there are three common kinds1 named1 from the color of their berries1 red1 black1 and white4 ,it is the white mulberry whose leaves are the food of the silkworm4 ,the leaves of this tree are quite regular1 but those of the red and black vary apparently as they please4 ,no two leaves seem to be alike either in size or shape1 and they are very soft and downy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4 ,red ,mulberry1 showing ,variation in ,leaf ,form ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,evergreens ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4 ,white ,pines at ,westbury1 ,long ,island ,the evergreen trees1 so called because their needle-like leaves remain on the tree all winter1 are fully as interesting as the broad-leaved trees4 ,without them our landscapes in winter would be much more barren and bleak1 and their shade is very pleasant in summer4 ,a pine forest with its fresh balsam air and needle-covered floor is a sight to be long remembered4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4 ,a ,view showing how ,evergreens help to enrich the ,landscape4 ,arbor ,vit ,hedges ,the wood of the evergreens is usually classed among the soft timbers1 although the yellow pine is far from soft4 #ei4 ,white ,pine4 ,the king among evergreens is usually admitted to be the white pine4 ,its soft1 bluish-green foliage1 the widespreading branches1 and the value of its fine1 even-grained wood give it the first rank4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4 ,needles and ,cone of ,white ,pine ,pines have needle-shaped leaves which grow in groups of two1 three1 or five4 ,white pine needles grow in groups of five and are from three to four inches long4 ,the cones which contain the seeds are about five inches long4 ,the tree grows tall and straight1 and formerly grew in great forests covering thousands of square miles2 the wood is so free from pitch and is so easily worked with tools that these great forests have been almost annihilated by the lumberman's ax1 and white-pine timber has become quite expensive4 ,it takes many years for a tree to grow large enough for timber1 and unless we are more economical in the future white pine will be only a memory4 #fj4 ,georgia ,pine4 ,the southern yellow pine1 or ,georgia pine1 is a very different tree from its northern cousin1 the white pine1 furnishing us with a resinous yellow wood1 much harder than white pine1 and a beautiful and valuable material for the interiors of buildings4 ,it is also very durable and is frequently used for exposed places1 such as the decks of ships4 ,the needles are very long1 measuring a foot and sometimes fifteen inches in length4 ,the seed cones are from six to ten inches long1 and the scales have little prickles on their ends4 ,the tree grows throughout the southern states from ,virginia to ,texas1 and the cutting of its timber is a valuable industry of the ,south4 #fa4 ,yellow ,pine4 ,the common yellow pine must not be confounded with the long-leaved ,georgia pine4 ,the former has needles growing three in a bunch1 and the latter short needles three or four inches long1 growing two and sometimes three in a group4 ,the cone of the common yellow pine is also very much smaller1 being only two inches long4 ,its wood is very valuable and is used for flooring1 ceiling1 and interior finishing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4 ,hemlock ,there are several less important kinds of pine1 such as the northern and ,jersey scrub pines1 and the red1 or ,norway pine4 ,spruce1 hemlock1 and fir are well-known members of the evergreen family4 #fb4 ,hemlock is a graceful1 dainty-looking tree1 with drooping branches and little needles not over half an inch long4 ,it is a northern tree except along the ,allegheny ,mountains1 where it extends as far south as ,alabama4 ,the seed cones are the tiniest brown things to be found among the common trees4 ,they are no longer than the hemlock needles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4 ,the ,influence of ,hemlock on the ,winter ,landscape4 ,snow ,scene ,the wood is not as valuable as pine1 splitting very easily and being afflicted with shakes1 a defect caused by the annual layers or rings breaking away from each other when the trees are swayed by the winter storms4 ,the bark is valuable1 however1 as it is rich in tannin4 #fc4 ,spruce4 ,the tall1 dark1 cone-shaped evergreen trees which ornament so many of our old farm dooryards are usually some species of spruce4 ,the spruce is sometimes mistaken for the balsam fir1 which is so commonly used for ,christmas trees1 but they are so different that they need never be confused4 ,there are several varieties of spruce1 including the red1 black1 white1 and ,norway1 but they all bear a family resemblance4 ,looking at the end of a spruce twig1 it will be found that the needles completely surround it4 ,this is not true of the fir4 ,then the spruce needles are sharp at the tip1 while the fir needles are blunt4 ,this family is distinctly a northern group1 being found as far north as ,hudson ,bay and forming dense forests1 particularly on mountain sides4 ,one may often see on the steep slopes the dividing line between the broad-leaved trees and the evergreens1 the dark spruces extending clear up to the summit4 ,the red spruce is found as far south as ,tennessee1 but in that latitude it grows only at high elevations4 ,it has cones about one and a half inches long1 and its wood is light1 soft1 and close-grained4 ,the wood is used for the sounding-boards of musical instruments and for the frames of buildings4 ,the black spruce is the northern brother of the red1 and is really a ,canadian tree which occasionally reaches down into the ,united ,states4 ,it reaches the ,mackenzie ,river on the north and covers large areas in ,manitoba4 ,it takes its name from the dark1 somber color of its foliage1 which seems almost black against the snowy hillsides4 ,the cones are the same size as on the red spruce1 but they persist in remaining on the tree for several years4 ,the wood is soft and weak and is used for sounding-boards1 pulp1 and light framing for houses4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4 ,black ,spruce ,the white spruce is similar to the other two1 but lighter in color1 cones a trifle longer and softer1 and needles more slender4 ,it is a northern tree2 its wood is very white and clear-grained1 and is used for finishing the interior of houses4 ,norway spruce1 as its name implies1 is an importation from ,europe1 where its majestic height graces the mountains from the ,alps to ,norway and ,sweden4 ,it grows very tall1 sometimes a hundred and fifty feet1 and flourishes as well in ,america as in ,europe4 ,the cones are four or five inches long4 ,its wood is known in ,europe as deal4 #fd4 ,cypress4 ,in the swamps of our southern states1 from ,maryland south along the ,gulf of ,mexico1 are found great dark forests of the bald cypress4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4 ,cypress ,they grow directly out of the water and are famous for a peculiar formation of the roots called cypress knees1--lumpy growths which come up out of the water as if they were in search of air4 ,the cypress is a tall1 spirelike tree1 which has the most delicate1 feathery needles imaginable4 ,they drop off in the fall1 so that the tree is sometimes called deciduous cypress4 ,the cones are roundish and about an inch long4 ,the timber furnished by this tree is very handsome in grain and valuable for many parts of buildings1 especially inside finishing4 #fe4 ,the ,balsam ,fir1 or our famous ,christmas tree1 is noted for its great healing qualities4 ,in fact1 sanitaria for invalids1 especially consumptives1 are frequently built in the midst of great fir forests1 that the sufferers may inhale the pure mountain air1 laden as it is with the odors of the balsam fir4 ,the needles are often used to fill pillows1 which are said to soothe tired and worn-out people to sleep4 ,we are all familiar with the sweet1 woodsy smell of the ,christmas tree4 ,no other tree can take its place4 ,it brings visions of the country1 of the woods and fields and flowers1 and it will always be dear to us4 ,the balsam fir can always be distinguished from the spruce by the fact that the needles only come out at the sides of the twig instead of from all directions1 as in the spruce1 and its end is blunt1 whereas that of the spruce is sharply pointed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4 ,balsam ,fir ,the bark of the tree is gray and has tiny blisters which contain the balsam1 ,canada balsam it is usually called1 well known for its healing qualities4 ,the cones are from two to four inches long1 stand upright on the branches1 and the wood is not very valuable4 #ff4 ,the ,cedars4 ,no list of evergreen trees would be complete without the cedars4 ,in this group is the well-known hedge tree1 arbor vit1 sometimes erroneously called white cedar4 ,it is famous for its flattened1 bright green1 scaly leaves1 with their strong1 pungent odor4 ,this tree is usually so trimmed that we have very little knowledge as to its real shape and height if allowed to grow naturally2 but it is said to reach a height of fifty feet under favorable conditions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4 ,arbor ,vit #fg4 ,white ,cedar4 ,the real white cedar has a more delicate leaf and is fond of cool swamps4 ,it has a conical shape and is much larger than the arbor vit1 reaching sometimes ninety feet4 ,the wood is very valuable1 being soft but durable1 and is used for shingles1 posts1 and boats4 ,it has the property of enduring the changes such as posts or other structural members are obliged to withstand in contact with the soil1 and ranks next to yellow locust in this particular4 #fh4 ,red ,cedar is the tree which supplies our lead pencils4 ,it is remarkable for its straight1 even grain1 and the ease with which it can be worked4 ,this is the familiar tree of our roadside1 where the birds who feast on the cedar berries have stood on the fence rails and unconsciously planted rows of cedars for future generations by dropping the seeds on the ground4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4 ,red ,cedar growing along ,roadside from ,seed dropped by ,birds ,the red cedar seems to grow where other trees cannot exist1 but like other trees responds to good treatment and reaches its best development in the balmy and luxuriant ,south4 ,it is found from ,maine to ,florida and from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific4 ,in the ,north it rarely grows over twenty feet high1 and is of compact growth1 but in ,florida it reaches eighty feet4 ,the leaves are remarkable in that there are two shapes1 the sharp or awl-shaped1 and the scale-shaped1 growing upon the same branch4 ,the wood is valuable for many purposes and has been used so extensively that it is becoming scarce4 ,florida has furnished the world with red cedar for lead pencils for years1 and it is said that during the ,civil ,war1 when the whole southern coast was blockaded1 the ,european manufacturers were obliged to scour the world to find a substitute for the ,florida cedar4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,big ,,trees ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4 ,big ,trees scarred by ,fire at the ,base4 ,redwood ,meadow1 ,california ,each section of country has its own peculiar trees1 and those described have been mainly representative of the eastern states2 but no list of ,american trees would be complete without the 8big trees10 as they are commonly called1 of ,california4 ,the annual rings of these giants show them to be from two thousand to four thousand years old4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4 ,big ,trees1 8,general ,grant0 and 8,general ,sherman10 ,calaveras ,county1 ,california ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4 8,general ,grant10 a ,big ,tree1 ,mariposa ,grove1 ,california ,it is hard to realize this great age4 ,it means that for centuries and centuries before the white men came these kings of the forests looked down on generations and generations of ,indian tribes4 ,they may even have seen the coming of the first ,indians4 ,what wonderful tales they might relate if they could only talk6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4 ,redwood ,logs in ,humboldt ,county1 ,california ,on that fateful day over four hundred years ago1 when the three little caravels of ,columbus sighted the ,west ,indies1 these hoary old trees were twenty-five hundred years old4 ,they should be sacred to every ,american1 and not one should ever be cut down for lumber4 ,there are two distinct kinds of big trees1 the redwood and the so-called 8big trees10 which are the largest trees in the world4 ,they both belong to the cone-bearing 7coniferous7 group1 and the needles are only three quarters of an inch long and the little cones an inch4 ,the wood is reddish1 as the name implies1 not unlike red cedar1 but is softer and is used for many purposes on the ,pacific coast4 ,the big trees are now carefully guarded by the government4 ,one grove alone which contains seven hundred of these fine trees1 called the ,mariposa ,grove1 has been reserved as a national park1 and is watched carefully to keep out forest fires1 etc4 ,many of the best known of these trees are given names4 ,one is called 8,uncle ,tom's ,cabin10 because of a peculiar opening at the base4 ,the most famous perhaps is the 8,grizzly ,giant40 ,this one is ninety-three feet in circumference at the ground1 and its first branch is two hundred feet above the earth and eight feet in diameter4 ,it is considered the largest tree in the world4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace4 ,redwood ,logs blasted apart for ,easier ,handling 7a very wasteful method7 ,we can get some idea of what these figures represent when we know that it takes five men three weeks to cut one down1 and that the cost of felling one of these monsters is five hundred dollars4 ,a stump of one of these trees is so large that dances have been held on it1 and on one very large one a ballroom has been built for this special purpose4 ,as one ,californian has said1 8,the redwood forests are apparently imperishable1 except through the ax1 as the trees are rarely injured by fire4 ,the redwood is the only lumber that can take the place of the white pine1 answer as a satisfactory substitute for mahogany and black walnut1 displace oak for railroad ties1 cypress and cedar for shingles1 and surpass all other woods for durability when in contact with the earth or when exposed to moisture40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4 ,immense ,flock of ,sheep being herded illegally in a ,united ,states ,government ,forest ,reservation4 7,they kill the young seedling trees7 ,,index ,annual rings1 #ei ,ash1 #ib ,aspen1 #ajg ,band saw1 #eh ,basswood1 #ajc ,beech1 #ii ,bench1 care of1 #c ,bench hook1 #ae ,bevel1 #aj ,big ,trees of ,california1 #abc ,birches1 #if ,bit1 auger1 #bg auger1 details of1 #bh center1 #bg countersink1 #bi gimlet1 #bi ,black walnut1 #hi ,brace1 common forms of1 #bf and bit1 #bg ,bract of linden1 #aje ,buckeye1 #hg ,butternut1 #hi ,buttonwood1 #aja ,cap iron1 #ag ,cedar1 #abj ,chisel1 cutting angle of1 #bc firmer1 #bd framing1 #bd methods of using1 #bd sharpening1 #be ,clamp iron of plane1 #ah ,compound leaves1 #he ,cottonwood1 or ,carolina poplar1 #ajh ,cutting tools1 #aa ,cypress1 #aah ,dovetail4 ,see ,joint ,drawing board1 #de1 #fb ,elm1 ,american1 #id ,evergreens1 #aaa ,felling trees1 #eb ,fir1 balsam1 #aah ,framing square1 #h ,gang saw1 #ee ,glue1 use of1 #ci ,grain of wood1 #ei ,groups of tools1 #d ,gum1 sweet1 or liquid amber1 #aja ,hammer1 claw1 #ca use of1 #cb ,hand screw1 use of1 #dj ,hemlock1 #aae ,hickory1 #hg ,honey locust1 #ia ,hornbeam1 #ajj ,horse-chestnut1 #hf ,ironwood1 #ajj ,joint1 definition of1 #ci dovetail1 #dg end lap1 #dd middle lap1 #ch miter1 #da ,joint edge1 #cg ,jointers1 #ba ,laying out work1 #ch ,linden1 or basswood1 #ajc ,locust1 #ia ,log boom1 #ee ,log jam1 #ec ,logs1 redwood1 #abf ,lumbering and milling1 #ea ,mallet1 #cc ,maple1 ash-leaved1 #hb ,japan1 #hd ,norway1 #gh red1 #hj silver1 #gh striped1 #ha sugar1 #gf sycamore1 #hj ,maple keys1 #hb ,marking gauge1 #h ,mechanical drawing1 #dc of end lap joint1 #dd of cylinder1 #dd ,medullary rays1 #ei ,miscellaneous tools1 #ca ,mortise1 cutting a1 #cd ,mulberry1 #aji ,nail set or punch1 #cb ,nails1 cut and wire1 #da method of using cut1 #da withdrawing1 #cb ,oak1 black and black-jack1 #fi chestnut1 #gd live1 #ge mossy-cup1 #fh pin1 #gb post1 #fg red1 #gj scarlet1 #ga white1 #ff ,oilstone1 use of1 #be ,pecan1 #hi ,perspective drawing and constructive drawing compared1 #dc ,pine1 ,georgia1 #aad white1 #aac yellow1 #aad ,plan of work1 #d ,plane1 #ag adjustments on1 #ah block1 #ba block1 method of using1 #bb jack1 #ai smooth1 #bj wooden1 #bb ,plane iron in action1 #ag ,poplars1 #ajf ,river driving1 #ec ,rule1 use of1 #f ,sandpaper1 use of1 #cd ,sassafras1 #ajh ,saw1 back1 #ae circular1 #eg method of holding1 #ad turning1 #af ,saw tapers1 #ad ,saw teeth1 shape of1 #ac ,saw tooth action1 #aa ,saw tooth set1 #ac ,sawmill1 #ee ,saws1 #aa ,scale drawing1 #dh ,screw-driver1 #cc ,screws1 varieties of1 and methods of using1 #db ,sections of red oak1 #gj ,set screw of plane iron1 #ag ,shake in wood1 #fj ,shrinkage1 #fa ,spokeshave1 #bi ,spruce1 #aaf ,stock1 squaring up1 #cf ,sycamore1 #aja ,t square1 use of1 #de ,timber and lumber1 #eh ,trees1 broad-leaved1 or deciduous1 #fe ,triangles1 use of1 #de ,try-square1 use of1 #f ,tulip1 or whitewood1 #ajb ,warping1 #fa ,weather checks1 #fj ,willow1 #ajf ,working face1 #cg