,transcriber's ,notes3 ,underscores 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate italics in the original text4 ,small capitals have been converted to ,,solid capitals4 ,old or antiquated spellings have been preserved4 ,typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected4 ,,greek ,,primer ,illustration ,,greek ,,primer ,,colloquial ,,and ,,constructive ,,by ,j4 ,,stuart ,,blackie ,,emeritus ,,professor ,,of ,,greek ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,edinburgh ,scribendo dicimus diligentius1 dicendo scribimus facilius4 ,,quinctilian4 ,london ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co4 ,,and ,,new ,,york #ahia ,all rights reserved ,,preface ,one cannot have moved much in the world without hearing complaints1 both from parents and young persons1 about the amount of time and brain spent in the learning of languages1 and the little profit derived from this outlay4 ,these complaints1 no doubt1 arise partly from the want of judgment on the part of the parents1 and the want of capacity and inclination on the part of their young hopefuls3 parents often acting thoughtlessly on the vulgar notion that far birds have fair feathers1 and preferring what is foreign to what is native1 and what lies at a great distance in time or space to what is near2 and young persons being forced to submit themselves to a grammatical indoctrination in which they feel no interest1 and from which they derive no benefit4 ,but it is no less true that these complaints are due in no small measure to false methods of linguistic training generally1 or to some cherished prejudices in favour of certain languages on the part of the teachers2 and it becomes therefore1 at the present day1 a matter of great practical importance to inquire how far our traditional methods of teaching languages are in conformity with the method of ,nature in her great art of thought-utterance1 and how far they may justly be called on to submit themselves to a revision and a reconstitution4 ,we say at the present day emphatically1 because it is quite evident that education1 following in the train of democratic reform1 is one of the watchwords of the hour1 to which every good citizen must lend an obedient ear2 and not only so1 but circumstances have so changed since our schooling received its traditional form1 that the wants which were satisfied by our school curriculum and school practice in the days of ,milton and ,locke now demand an altogether different treatment4 ,in particular1 the so-called learned languages1 two hundred years ago the only medium of culture to an accomplished ,english gentleman1 have now become the luxury of the leisurely1 or the arsenal of the professional few1 while other languages1 such as ,german1 not named in those days1 are now sought after as the keys to the most valuable storehouses of all sorts of knowledge4 ,add to this that ,great ,britain1 which was then a secondary naval power1 and following the ,french and the ,spaniards slowly in the great world-transforming process of colonisation1 is now mistress of a world-wide empire from the ,ganges to ,vancouver ,isle1 through which stretch she exercises a dominant influence1 combining the political virtue of ancient ,rome with the commercial activity of ,carthage4 ,in these circumstances it becomes the special duty of every ,british man to acquire a familiar knowledge of the languages of the various races with which he may be brought into political or commercial relations2 and1 as languages after all are not valuable in themselves1 but only as tools by which effective work in certain fields falls to be performed1 we ought to see to it1 both that we get the proper tools for doing the work1 and that we learn to use them in such fashion as to work pleasantly and profitably2 and in this view it may be truly said that1 while the wrong language in the wrong place is of no use at all1 even the right language in the right place1 when imperfectly learned1 is a tool with which the best workman can do only bad work1 and perhaps cut his own fingers in the process4 ,as language is a function which belongs as much to every normal human creature as seeing or hearing1 there can be no difficulty in finding out the method of ,nature in its acquisition4 ,we have to answer only two questions3 first1 ,what are the factors of the process by which the human babe1 from being capable merely of inarticulate cries1 like any of the lower animals1 is developed into an easy and graceful manipulator of articulate speech8 and again1 ,how far1 and in what respects1 does this model require to be modified in order to enable the expert handlers of the mother tongue to use any second or third language with like expertness8 ,that this cannot be a very difficult matter demands no far-sought induction to prove1 as the fact lies before us2 for from the ,greeks in the ,south-,east to the ,highlanders in the ,north-,west we find bilingual and trilingual peoples largely scattered over ,europe4 ,it is in fact as easy to learn two or three languages as to learn one1 if only the learner be habitually submitted to the natural influences1 and guided by the steps of a natural process4 ,what then1 in the first place1 are the steps of the process which analysis presents as elevating the inarticulate babe to the significant-speaking boy or girl8 ,there is 7#a7 the direct connection of certain objects with certain sounds and gestures2 7#b7 these objects are such as stand in the nearest relation to the learner1 and are presented to him in an atmosphere of the most natural and most pleasant surroundings2 7#c7 the imitative faculty1 by which he appropriates the proper sounds1 is encouraged and cherished by frequent repetition1 till the original impression becomes permanently stamped into his soul1 and1 so to speak1 jumps up spontaneously with the object4 ,let us1 in the next place1 ask how far this child's linguistic ladder is affected by the performer being an adult4 ,manifestly the difference lies only in one point1 and that altogether in favour of the adult1 viz4 the application of a regulated system to the accidental sequences by which the child learns its mother tongue1 easily indeed and pleasantly1 but slowly2 for he learns not architecturally as a mason builds a house1 but by the way1 as one picks up a pebble on the shore or a daisy from the meadow2 whereas the adult1 with his firm will and his reasonable purpose1 wishing to learn a language can submit himself to a reasonable and a calculated treatment2 and in so doing experience has shown that in favourable circumstances1 and under wise training1 he can learn a foreign language more perfectly in six months than a child can do in as many years4 ,why then1 you ask1 is this not always done8 ,why does it seem such a difficult business to acquire a familiar knowledge of any foreign language1 and why is so much brain and so much time spent so frequently on their acquisition with such scanty results8 ,the answer can be only one3 because your teacher has ignored the method of ,nature1 and given you a bad substitute for it in his own devices2 instead of speaking to you and making you respond1 in direct connection of the old object with the new sound1 and thus forming a living bond between the thinking soul1 the perceptive sense1 and the significant utterance1 he sends you to a book1 there to cram yourself with dead rules and lifeless formulas about the language1 in the middle of which he ought to have planted you at the start4 ,the evil results of this neglect of the living model of ,nature are only too manifest4 ,books are useful1 but they are only secondary2 in all matters of observation and practical exercise they may form an apt accompaniment or a supplement1 but they never can supplant the vital function of which they are only the dead record4 ,no one learns dancing1 or fencing1 or golf1 or lawn-tennis from a book4 ,the evils caused by this unnatural delegation of the work of a living teacher to the formulas of a dead book are three3 7#a7 ,the direct connection between the reasonable soul and the new articulate sign of the object is lost2 the learner does not shake hands1 so to speak1 with the object1 but he cumbers himself with the phraseology of his mother tongue1 and instead of saying at once 1 give me bread1 he must first ask what is the ,greek for bread4 ,in this way the new term remains a stranger to his thought1 and he uses it uncomfortably1 as when a man puts on a pair of shoes which have only an occasional acquaintance with his feet4 7#b7 ,then again1 when1 after being sufficiently tortured with mere grammatical forms1 he acquires a certain vocabulary from the elementary reading books1 the objects for which this vocabulary supplies the new names are seldom the objects with which he is familiarly surrounded and in which he has a living interest1 but they relate to something ,julius ,csar did in ,gaul or ,cicero said in ,rome some #bjjj years ago1 a region of strange sounds1 in which the linguistic neophyte of this nineteenth century has no particular inclination to move1 and to which his memory cannot ally itself with any feeling of kinship2 and he easily forgets the word1 because he does not care for the thing4 ,but 7#c7 even when he does care for the thing1 the mere reading of a lesson every day does not in the least ensure that frequent repetition of a new vocable in connection with an object1 on which the familiar knowledge of a language depends2 whereas1 if the teacher had commenced by making his schoolroom an echo-chamber of daily repeated sounds in connection with interesting and familiar objects directly in the view of the learner or near to his daily life1 familiarity with a new language1 be it ,greek or be it ,german1 would come as naturally and as pleasantly to a clever lad of seventeen as the use of the mother tongue to a dainty girl or a rattling boy of seven4 ,these things being so1 and the method of ,nature being so plain in the matter1 we now ask what are the causes that have led so many of our teachers1 even the most accomplished of their class1 to neglect so infallible a guide1 and to follow methods of linguistic inculcation equally unpleasant in the process and unprofitable in the result8 ,these causes1 fortunately1 are as patent as the consequences to which they have led4 ,the first cause is ignorance4 ,in not a few of our educational institutions it is to be feared there are teachers--an over-worked and under-paid class--who are employed to teach languages of which they have only a very superficial knowledge and no firm hold4 ,with persons of this class the whole process of linguistic training amounts to this1 ,read your book1 ,get your lesson1 and ,i will hear you4 ,of a living appeal from the tongue of the teacher and a living response from the tongue of the learner these gentlemen have no conception4 ,they must do the most they can1 confine themselves within page and chapter of a printed book1 where they require no knowledge beyond the marked limits of the lesson1 and where the scantiness of their linguistic furniture and the feebleness of their linguistic vitality cannot be exposed4 ,let them pass4 ,but what of the men of high accomplishment1 exact scholarship1 and fine taste3 why should they scorn the practice which is the foundation of the rules1 and the conversation which made great speeches and great poems before rules or schools were heard of8 ,simply because they have forgotten the lesson taught in a well-known dialogue of ,plato1#a that the printed papers which we call books1 useful for record1 are rather prejudicial than profitable to the culture of memory2 they have become the slaves of their tools1 and defrauded the ear and the tongue of their natural rights in the field of significant speech by a wholesale transference of their functions to the eyes4 ,the scholar1 in their conception1 is a reading animal1 and without books he is nowhere4 ,why then1 they will argue1 when our object is to read and to understand books1 should we trouble ourselves with conversation8 ,we do not learn ,latin in order to talk with ,csar and ,cicero1 but to read their books2 and in like manner we do not study ,german to drink beer and smoke pipes and sing songs with rollicking students in a kneipe1 but to ponder with many-sided thought over the poems of ,goethe or the speculations of ,hegel4 ,so be it4 ,let books and not living converse be the final end of the study of languages2 so they certainly are with the dead languages2 but even with regard to them it is quite certain that the familiarity and frequent repetition which are the special virtues of the conversational method both render the mastery of books1 as in the case of the mother tongue1 more complete1 and the hold of the printed signature at once more firm in the grasp and more easy in the approach4 ,but some one will say1 ,does not speaking in a language imply thinking in it1 and is not thinking in a foreign tongue one of the most difficult and rare attainments even with the most accomplished linguists8 ,not at all4 ,the difficulty lies merely in starting from the wrong end and following the false direction thus given till it culminates in the persistency of a bad habit and the imagination of an impossibility4 ,it is as easy to look the ,sun in the face and say 1 ,,shemish1 as to say ,,sun1 and there is no more difficulty in saying 1 than in saying1 take the poker and stir the fire4 ,in both cases the direct connection of thought1 thing1 and word is equally obvious1 equally easy1 and equally natural2 only at the start the habit of thinking exclusively in the mother tongue must be broken4 #a ,phaedrus1 #bge ,e4 ,there is one other objection to the conversational method in the teaching of languages1 viz4 that it makes a man a parrot4 ,well1 a parrot is an imitative animal1 and so is a man1 and so far must not be ashamed to own his kinship with the plumy prattler4 ,but he is a parrot and something more2 and this something more every sensible teacher will take into account4 ,for myself1 ,i have no preference for random talk3 my contention is for regulated talk2 the talk first and the regulation afterwards1 in the order of gradation so succinctly stated by ,lord ,bacon--speaking makes a ready man1 reading makes a full man1 writing makes an accurate man2--all the three4 ,but have your nails first before you pare them2 this is the common sense of the matter4 ,in conclusion1 ,i have a word or two to say with regard to the occasion and the plan of this little book4 ,in the first place1 whatever may be said of ,hebrew or ,latin1 ,greek is a living language1 and must be treated as such even by those who persist in the notion that1 while the method of living vocal appeal applies in its full extent to modern languages1 it is certainly out of place in the treatment of the two ancient languages which justly claim the first place in the linguistic culture of our highest schools4 ,the delusion that ,greek is a dead language1 springing as it does mainly out of our 8insular ignorance10 as ,professor ,seeley calls it1 and partly1 ,i fear1 our national insolence1 will be dispelled in a moment by a glance at any current ,greek newspaper2 as for instance the following paragraph1 the first that met my eye1 from the #b;d ,november number of the ,athenian 810 giving a short notice of the application of ,koch's remedy for consumption4 4 4 4 #abj1jjj1jjj 1 #e 7#j7j 1 #f1jjj1jjj 4 4 4 4 1 4 4 ,any person who can read classical ,greek without a dictionary will have no difficulty in understanding this passage2 and1 if he is familiar with the ,new ,testament in the original1 he will find that some of the principal peculiarities which distinguish the ,greek used by the living political and public men of ,athens1 so far from being corruptions1 are no less distinctive features of the of the ,greeks now than they were in the days of the ,apostle ,paul and the ,evangelist ,john4 ,but this is not all4 ,it requires only a superficial acquaintance with the most patent facts of ,greek literature to know that some of the most popular and the most profound teachers of ,greek wisdom--,plato1 ,aristophanes and ,xenophon--use the conversational style4 ,the ,greeks1 in fact1 were1 as they are still1 a lively and a talking people1 and ,socrates1 their greatest name1 cannot be better described than as a talking street preacher of reason and common sense4 ,well1 then1 on this double basis that ,greek is a living language1 and that the colloquial style is that in which its highest and best thoughts are expressed2 and knowing1 moreover1 by large experience1 that the most effective way to get a firm grasp of any language is to begin by speaking it1 some twenty years ago ,i published a small volume of ,greek and ,english dialogues1#b which ,i used in my class in as far as it was possible to do so in such a multitudinous huddlement of untrained lads as the ,scottish ,universities1 contrary to the practice of all educated nations1 admit into the junior classes of the ,faculty of ,arts4 ,the little book came to a second edition2 but that it was in anywise generally used by classical teachers ,i have no reason to believe1 partly because1 of all classes of men1 teachers are the most closely wedded to old bookish habits1 and partly because ,scotland is not a country to which the world1 governed as it is by authority and by names1 would look for anything worthy of imitation in the ,greek line3 8,can any good thing come out of ,nazareth80 ,this1 as the world goes1 was quite legitimate1 and gave me no concern4 ,but since that time1 as a natural consequence of the great educational movement of the age1 some very distinct voices have come to my ear1 to the effect that there is something radically wrong in our way of dealing with languages1 and that the method of teaching by rules and grammar mainly can no longer be tolerated4 ,i therefore felt it my duty to appeal a second time to the public and to teachers on this important matter1 the more so that my little book stood too far apart from the educational attitude of the teachers1 and1 if it was to find its way into general school use1 required a more elementary book as an introduction4 ,this elementary book ,i now send forth under the title of a ,greek ,primer1 ,colloquial and ,constructive1 indicating by this title that the lessons in talking go hand in hand with the grammatical forms naturally educed from them1 each lesson being regulated talk1 according to a natural progression from the more simple to the more complex forms in ordinary use4 ,this progressive incorporation of the grammar is the feature which distinguishes the lessons of this introductory book from the dialogues in its predecessor2 and the necessity of having constant reference to grammatical forms prevented me from giving that unity of subject to the dialogue as dialogue which belonged to the previous volume4 #b ,greek and ,english ,dialogues for the use of ,schools and ,colleges4 ,london3 ,macmillan1 #ahga4 ,i have only further to state1 with regard to the use of this little primer in the hands of a teacher1 that ,i have no desire that he should bind himself slavishly to the text4 ,the scraps of talk that are given under each lesson are meant to lend him a helping hand in the use of a new organ2 and1 to enable both teacher and learner to furnish themselves with a living vocabulary of ,greek words in direct connection with their daily surroundings1 ,i have added an alphabetical list of the names of the most familiar objects that belong to the field of life in town or country where the learner may happen to be4 ,when the young ,hellenist has stamped its ,greek designation directly on every object that meets his eyes1 and connected it with some single verb that belongs to its significance in familiar life1 ,i would then suggest that the teacher1 besides the daily repetition of certain forms of common conversation1 should give a viv voce description of pictures hung on the wall two or three times a week1 which the learner shall be called on to repeat without any written notes2 the principle of the method being always to maintain the direct action of the mind on the object1 through the instrumentality of the new sound1 without the intervention of the mother tongue4 ,as to when1 and how far1 and in what kind the usual furniture of elementary books of grammar1 reading1 and exercises should go parallel with colloquial practice1 this ,i leave altogether in the hands of the practised teacher1 being well assured that easy reading and accurate writing1 so far from being inconsistent with1 are the natural blossom and the ripe fruit of the root of living utterance from which ,i start4 ,one other matter requires special notice--a matter not necessarily connected with the colloquial method1 but which may be wisely used as a help4 ,to each lesson ,i have appended a short list of ,english words1 either by family affinity1 or by direct borrowing1 or by indirect borrowing through the ,latin1 radically identical with the ,greek4 ,the habit of identifying such words under an ,english disguise will perform the double function of facilitating memory and giving a lesson on the transmutation of sounds and meaning1 the tracing of which gives so peculiar a charm to comparative philology4 ,in ,appendix ,i4 ,i have added some of the principles on which these transmutations depend1 so far as they are suggested by the words used in the text4 ,but what of the pronunciation8 ,after what has been shown of the living continuity of the ,greek tongue1 from ,byzantium downwards to the present day1 there cannot be the slightest doubt that ,greek orthoepy should be treated in the same fashion that the orthoepy of ,french1 ,german1 or any other living tongue is treated4 ,the pronunciation is ruled by the practice of the present1 not by philological facts or fancies as to the pronunciation of the past4 ,no doubt1 as ,heraclitus says1 1 all things flow1 as in the universe1 so in language1 there is no fixation--there is always change4 ,but the changes which take place in living languages1 like ,english or ,greek1 are of a very different kind from those which take place when a language like ,latin becomes dead1 and rises to a new life in the form of such specific varieties as ,spanish1 ,italian1 and ,portuguese4 ,they are of the nature of a normal growth1 and are at all events only exaggerations or expansions of a native tendency4 ,to such exaggerations every spoken language is subject1 and few more than our insular ,english1 as any one may see who will compare the accentuation of ,english in the time of ,chaucer with the orthoepy of the present hour4 ,but in respect of accents at least ,greek has been far more conservative than ,english1 so much so indeed that the accentual marks placed on ,greek words by the ,alexandrian grammarians two hundred and fifty years before ,christ1 in the practice of the ,greek ,church and the ,greek people still indicate the same dominance of voice on the accented syllable that the ,athenian ear recognised as classic in the orations of ,demosthenes and the apostolic eloquence of ,st4 ,paul4 ,there can therefore be no greater barbarism than to disown this legitimate music of ,greek speech1 as is done both in ,england and ,scotland1 when we pronounce 1 like ,latin or ,english1 2 not to mention the staring absurdity and loss of brain implied in the practice of the great ,english schools of first pronouncing the word with a false accentuation1 and then stultifying the daily practice of the ear by learning a rule to say where the accent ought to have been placed6 ,nothing could more distinctly show the falseness of our habit of flinging the burden of learning languages on formulas of the understanding and leaving the living organ of linguistic practice altogether out of account4 ,therefore1 by all means1 either drop the accents out of the grammar1 or use them whenever you give the written word voice in the air4 ,as to the quantity of the vowels1 which is the stumbling block with most ,english scholars1 we have no lack of words1 even in our own unmusical ,english1 such as lndholder1 in which1 as in the ,greek 1 the antepenultimate has the rising inflexion1 while the penult is long2 and if the modern ,greeks pronounce as if written 1 that is only a natural curtailment of the unaccented syllable which lies in the nature of human speech1 and will be found exemplified more or less in all languages4 ,as to the vocal value of the separate vowels and consonants1 this1 no doubt1 is a point in some cases of considerable difficulty2 but it is quite certain that a1 both in ,latin and ,greek1 has the broad sound as in ,italian and ,scotch1 not the sound of the ,english in ptent1 that is the most slender of the vowel sounds1 not the broad semi-diphthongal sound of the ,english in prime or sigh1 that has the soft sound of oo in boom1 not the bow-wow sound of ou as in howl2 also that in all probability was pronounced as in the ,english vain1 not as in the ,german ,kaiser4 ,on the whole matter of pronunciation1 however1 the ,english scholar should bear in mind that the poetry of the ancients was composed on musical principles1 with a strict regard to the quantitative value of the vowel on which the rhythmical accent fell1 a practice which necessarily caused the spoken accent to be dropped in verse1 or very much subordinated2 and again1 if his ear should happen to be very much offended by the predominance of the slender sound of in the familiar of ,homer1 there is no reason why he should not adopt a special vocalisation for the reading of the ,greek poets1 just as we in our reading of ,chaucer must constantly put a final accent on words that1 if applied to the spoken tongue1 would render the speaker either ridiculous or unintelligible4 ,but in whatever fashion the teacher of ,greek in this country may choose to settle this delicate point1 the matter of pronunciation has nothing radically to do with the great principle of linguistic practice which this little book inculcates4 ,to start with the practice of speaking will facilitate the acquisition of a new language under any system of pronunciation2 only this must distinctly be said1 that the scholar who has learned to read ,greek with a vocalisation and an accentuation invented by himself for himself has deliberately cut himself off from all intelligible communion with the people whose literary tradition he values so highly1 and with whom to maintain a familiar intercourse1 both in a political and a literary point of view1 should be no secondary consideration with the wise4 ,in conclusion1 ,i have great pleasure in returning thanks to the learned ,hellenists who kindly undertook the task of revising the proofs of this little work as they came from the press1 viz4 ,mr4 ,hardie1 ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford2 ,principal ,geddes1 ,aberdeen2 ,principal ,donaldson1 ,st4 ,andrews2 and ,mr4 ,gardiner1 ,edinburgh ,academy2 and if ,i have not in every instance taken advantage of their suggestions1 it is because on principle ,i have no sympathy with the nice sensibility which refuses the stamp of classicality to all forms and idioms unsanctioned by the usage of ,attic writers1 preferring to float my skiff freely on the great ,catholic ,greek of all ages1 from ,plato to ,polybius1 from ,polybius to ,chrysostom1 and from ,chrysostom to ,thereianos and ,paspati4 ,,edinburgh1 ,april #ahia4 ,,contents ,,page ,,the ,,greek ,,letters #c ,,notes #e ,,accentuation ,,and ,,quantity #g ,,lesson ,i4--,nouns3 ,nominative and ,objective ,case1 ,first and ,second ,declension2 ,verbs3 ,three ,persons ,singular1 ,present ,indicative #ab ,,ii4--,cases1 ,genitive and ,dative #ae ,,iii4--,plurals1 ,numerals1 ,diminutives #ag ,,iv4--,third ,declension1 ,singular #ai ,v4--,third ,declension1 ,plural #be ,,vi4--,degrees of ,comparison in ,adjectives #bf ,,vii4--,the ,future ,active #bh ,,viii4--,the ,past ,tense #cj ,,ix4--,infinitive ,mood and ,participles #cc ,x4--,the other ,past ,tenses #ce ,,xi4--,verbs in #ch ,,xii4--,compound ,verbs #dj ,,xiii4--,moods3 ,subjunctive and ,conditional #db ,,xiv4--,the ,optative ,mood #dd ,,xv4--,the ,particle #dg ,,xvi4--,the ,passive ,voice #dh ,,xvii4--,the ,middle ,voice #ea ,,xviii4--,participles #ec ,,appendix ,i4--,elementary ,hints on ,etymology #ee ,,ii4--,vocabularies #eg ,,the ,,alphabet ,,accent ,,and ,,quantity ,,the ,,greek ,,letters ,the ,greek letters1 borrowed as they were from the ,east and adopted by the ,romans1 are substantially the same as the ,roman letters of our common ,english usage1 and in fact differ from them both in figure and power scarcely more than our present ,english type differs from the old ,english black letter or the common ,german type4 ,a few remarks will suffice to show where or how far the pronunciation varies from our ,english use of the same letters4 ,greek ,english ,figures4 ,names4 ,figures4 1 alpha a 1 1 bta b 1 1 gamma g 1 delta d 1 epsilon e 1 1 zta z 1 ta ee 1 1 thta th 1 ita i 1 kappa k 1 lambda l 1 mu m 1 nu n 1 xi x 1 omikron 1 pi p 1 rho r 1 1 sigma s 1 1 tau t 1 'upsilon u 1 phi f or ph 1 chi ch 1 psi ps 1 omega ,,notes is always the broad a 7ah7 of all ,european languages1 and never softened down to the ,english 1 as heard in ptent1 ntion4 in the spoken ,greek of the present day is softened down to the cognate v1 exactly as in ,gaelic b with the h appended becomes v1 as ban1 fair1 with h1 bhan van4 1 when followed by the broad vowels a and o1 is pronounced hard as in ,english and ,gaelic2 but when followed by soft vowels the ,greeks now give it the sound of the ,english y in yes1 yellow--1 1--just as in ,german the g in the third syllable of ,gttingen is so softened down as almost to disappear4#c ,this euphonic action of a weak vowel upon a strong consonant preceding is natural and found in most languages2 exactly as the ,italians in their soft dialect of ,latin have changed into ,chichero1 ch being pronounced as in the ,english church4 ,before 1 1 and 1 the letter has the sound of n1 as in 1 in ,latin angelus1 ,english angel4 1 or ,d1 is in like manner softened into th as in the ,english mother2 thus not1 from 1 pronounced 4 is our short e1 as in get2 never long 4 1 or 1 was in ancient times always a long 1 ,english as in gate2 now it is always ee as in seem or theme4 is the ,english th1 as in mouth1 south4 is always the slender ,english ee1 either short as in peep or long as in scne4 is ks1 gs1 contracted into x4 1 from which our y came1 was in ancient times identical with the delicate 1 ue1 of the ,germans1 halfway between oo and ee1 into which in the living language it is always softened1 exactly as in some parts of ,germany ,brder is pronounced ,brder4 is an aspirated k1 but pronounced like milch in ,german or loch in ,scotch1 which the ,english1 who do not possess this beautiful soft guttural1 generally sharpen into a k1 as in lake4 1 omega1 as the name indicates1 is simply a long o1 as in 1 a foal4 ,for the ,english h the ,greeks used a simple mark of aspiration turned to the right thus1 sacred1 pronounced hee-er-s1 while the same mark turned to the left1 as in 1 simply signifies the absence of the h4 ,whether this spiritus lenis1 as it is called1 was put on the initial vowel to indicate the presence of an original h which had vanished1 ,i cannot say2 but one can readily fancy that if the ,cockney fashion of calling ,highgate ,igate were to become general1 every such curtailed word might receive a mark thus1 'igate1 as the survival of a lost breathing4 ,besides the vowels in the alphabet we find in ,greek1 as in other languages1 compound vowel sounds called diphthongs4 ,they are seven--1 1 1 1 1 and 4 ,their ancient pronunciation is very difficult to expiscate1 and in them we note the partiality of the ,greeks for the slender sound of ee1 called by a ,latin writer gracilitas1 and by modern scholars itacism4 ,this tendency has wiped off the diphthongal character altogether from 1 1 and 1 which are all pronounced like a single 1 ,english ee4 ,to balance this1 becomes the ,english ai1 as in vain2 retains its full soft roundness as in gloom2 while in and in the living ,greek the has assumed a consonantal value and become v1 from which usage the of the ,gospels has become the evangelium of the ,latin ,church1 and the evangel of ,english2 so 1 a flute1 is pronounced avlss1 and this v is aspirated into the kindred 1 when the following consonant is 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 or 1 as in 1 aftos1 1 efxeinos4 ,that the ancients1 at least in poetry1 did not do this is evident from the full diphthongal value of a long sound given to the in and such-like words by the dramatic writers4 #c ,see ,zampolides's ,modern ,greek4 ,london1 ,williams and ,norgate1 #ahhg4 ,,accentuation ,,and ,,quantity ,in respect of accentuation the ,greek language has the advantage above most others that1 while in ,latin1 ,english1 or ,german the proper intonation of a word in doubtful cases can only be known by an appeal to a dictionary or to an authoritative speaker1 in ,greek every word in a book1 as it stands before the eye1 exhibits and perpetuates the tonic relation of the syllables to one another4 ,the student has but to observe the rise or fall of the syllables on his page as he would do the notes in a piece of music1 and he cannot go wrong4 ,only a few characteristic points require to be laid down to make the principle on which the practice depends intelligible4 ,the word accent1 taken from the ,latin grammarians1 evidently signifies a certain music of speech1 a singing to or with 7ad and cano7 an articulate word2 while the expression used by the ,greek grammarians1 from 1 indicates a stretch1 stress1 or intension of the voice on the syllable so affected4 ,taking these two elements together we see that a ,greek word1 say 1 beautiful1 with the mark of the acute accent on the last syllable--hence called oxytone1 from 1 sharp--is pronounced with an elevation of the voice1 which brings along with it a dominance of the syllable on which it stands above the other syllables with which it is connected4 ,it stands to reason that after such a dominance given to one syllable the voice1 if there be a subsequent syllable1 will fall2 and so1 as in 1 the final syllable will be pronounced in a lower tone which is called grave4 ,in the general use this lower-toned syllable requires no special mark1 being sufficiently indicated by its necessary subservience to the accented syllable2 with the ,greeks1 however1 it seems to have been the practice to pronounce an oxytone word1 when it occurs in the middle of a sentence1 in a lower tone than at the end1 and so the word in the middle of a sentence1 as in 1 is marked with a grave accent from left to right instead of from right to left2 but this1 though it lowers the tone1 does not affect the dominance of the syllable4 ,it is just as if in music the same note1 with the same rhythmical dominance1 were sung an octave lower4 ,practically1 the learner need not concern himself curiously about the matter4 ,it is a rule1 both in ,greek and ,latin1 that no word can be accented farther back than the third syllable from the end1 the antepenultimate1 the favourite accent of the ,english language4 ,but1 while this rule1 in a musical point of view1 preserves the language from such a rattle of insignificant sounds as in lmentable1 mlitary1 and not a few other quadrisyllables in our unmusical ,english tongue1 it manifestly requires a correction from the side of penultimate and oxytone accentuation to achieve the just balance of the music of speech4 ,in this respect ,greek is decidedly superior to both ,latin and ,english2 for1 while ,latin rejects the sonorous cadence of the accent on the last syllable altogether1 ,english uses it only in some verbs1 remnants of the past participle of ,latin verbs1 as in rejct1 suppse1 accpt1 and such-like2 and in the case of the penult the fine swelling cadence of the ,greek words1 in which the acute accent of the penult is followed by a final long syllable1 altogether fails1 as in 1 which an ,englishman1 following his ,english ear1 will pronounce not only but 1 as if were 4 ,the student1 therefore1 will carefully train his ear to give all oxytone words their full value1 and never to say instead of 1 or for 4 ,by the quantity of a word we mean the comparative duration of the sound1 exactly as in music a symbol3 minim is related to a symbol3 quaver2 and in ,greek the accentuation stands in a very marked relation to the quantity of the syllables1 which in practice asserts itself prominently as follows3-- 7#a7 ,it is an invariable condition of the antepenultimate accent that the last syllable be short1 as in 1 a man2 and in consequence1 7#b7 ,if in the course of flexion a word with an antepenultimate accent takes a long final vowel1 as in the genitive and dative singular of the second declension1 the accent of the first syllable is advanced to the penult1 as in 4 7#c7 ,the converse takes place in verbs1 where the accent is naturally on the root1 as in 1 of which the imperfect is 2 but in the aor4 mid4 indic41 while the third person is 1 the first person is not 1 but 4 ,a long syllable of course1 as in 1 may have an acute accent on a long vowel with the same right as a short syllable2 but there are many long syllables in ,greek which are marked neither with an acute nor a grave but with a circumflex1 which is a prolonged accent compounded of a rise and a fall marked thus 1 or for greater ease1 4 ,these words are generally compounds of which the elements are quite plain1 as in for 1 for 2 in other words1 as in 1 a body1 or the genitive plural of the first declension1 as 1 and some others1 the single elements from which the complex tone arose were either historically known to the grammarians or legitimately assumed4 ,at all events1 every syllable in ,greek with a circumflex accent is practically treated as if it had two accents2 as if it were 1 as 1 as if it were 1 and so on4 ,it follows from this1 and the principle that no word can be accented farther back than the antepenultimate1 that1 if in the course of flexion a word with a circumflex on the penult receives an additional syllable so as to become1 in accentual value1 a quadrisyllable1 the accent must be advanced2 thus from 1#d ,i am honoured1 we can say in the second person plural1 but we cannot say 1 so must say 4 ,the change of accentual marking in this instance is of no practical value to the student1 but in the case of enclitics1 of which we shall now speak1 it affects the ear most decidedly4 #d ,final and for accentual purposes are pronounced short in the terminal flexions of nouns and verbs--1 1 4 ,enclitics are small words1 which1 so to speak1 have not force enough to stand on their own legs1 but lean 77 on the weightier word that precedes them for support1 and become absorbed in it2 just as in ,english we say don't for do not1 and in ,italian dimmi for the ,latin dic mihi4 ,these enclitics are 1 1 1 and a few others1 the oblique cases of the personal pronouns1 the indefinite pronoun 1 and the verbs 1 ,i am1 1 ,i say1 except in the second person singular4 ,the effect of their being thus taken up by the previous word and forming a new whole must1 in not a few cases1 materially affect the position of the accent2 for1 while in 1 a certain good-looking fellow1 there is no change in the intonation of to the ear1 the moment ,i say 1 ,i either violate the rule which forbids the accent on the fourth syllable from the end1 or ,i keep to the rule and say 4 ,in the same way when ,i say 1 the devil1 simply1 ,i preserve the antepenultimate accent with full effect in its natural place2 but if ,i apply the reproachful term to a special person1 and say1 as in ,john vi4 #gj1 1 one of you is a devil1 ,i immediately1 to give the something to lean on1 must make the oxytone4 ,similarly1 ,i cannot write 1 which in accentual value would be a compound word of five syllables1 but ,i must say 7,john vi4 #fc71 when the last syllable of the supporting word with the two syllables of the enclitic become accentually a new word of three syllables with a legitimate antepenultimate accent4 ,if the position of the accent1 a point often not a little troublesome even to natives in the orthoepy of their own language1 has been relieved of all practical difficulty by the curious prevision of the ,alexandrian elders1 the quantity is even more simple4 ,with the double aid of the two separate signs for long vowels1 and 1 and the quantity of the final vowel as determined by its relation to the previous accented syllables1 the only difficulty that remains is obviated by the mark over the long vowels1 and the over the short ones found in all good dictionaries4 ,in the present little work it will be sufficient to mark the long vowel where it occurs in doubtful cases1 and leave the short ones to be understood as short from the absence of the long mark4 ,but the real difficulty that prevents both accent and quantity from being easily acquired by ,english scholars is the negligent practice of transferring ,latin or ,english habits of accentuation to ,greek words1 as when is pronounced like ,dus1 and as ,scrates1 and again the supposition that the accent cannot be put on a syllable without making it long1 or removed without making it short4 ,let only the honest attempt be made to pronounce 1 not as anthropos1 but as in lndhlder1 crndaler1 and other such words1 and the in 1 not like a in claw or maw1 but like the a in lattice and scatter1 and the difficulty will vanish like the gleam of a mirage before the firm foot and the cool eye of the traveller4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,nouns ,,nominative ,,and ,,objective ,,case ,,first ,,and ,,second ,,declension ,,verbs ,,three ,,persons ,,singular1 ,,present ,,indicative ,a noun is the name of a thing or person1 a verb signifies an action1 an adjective a quality as good or bad belonging to a noun4 ,the nominative case is the person who is or may be doing what the verb means2 the objective case is the thing or person to which or towards which the action of the verb tends4 ,the verb to be1 denoting simple existence1 not action1 of course is followed by the nominative1 not the objective case4 ,nouns are masculine1 feminine1 or neuter4 ,masculines generally end in 4 ,feminines in or 1 a few in --1 a way1 1 a book1 1 a maiden4 ,neuters in 4 ,the objective case ends in 1 the being added to the termination of feminines1 and substituted for the in masculines4 ,in neuters the nominative and objective are the same4 ,adjectives follow the same rule4 ,verbs3 first person ends in 1 second in 1 and third in or 1 as-- 1 1 1 ,i see1 thou seest1 he sees4 1 1 1 ,i hear1 etc4 ,so-- 1 ,i wonder4 1 ,i hate4 1 ,i love4 1 ,i have4 ,,useful ,,imperatives 1 bring4 1 give4 1 behold6 here6 ,the article the is declined masculine1 feminine1 and neuter like the nouns1 thus-- ,it never has in the feminine4 ,the verb to be1 1 has second person 1 third 1 or before a vowel 1 and in plural 1 1 4 ,the pronouns of the first and second persons are-- 1 1 1 ,i of me to me me thou of thee to thee thee 1 the sun is bright4 1 and the day beautiful4 2 do you see the sun8 1 ,i see a cloud4 1 ,i see a dark cloud4 2 do you see the smoke8 2 do you see the blue sky8 2 do you hear the river8 2 do you hear the thunder8 2 do you admire this tall tree8 1 ,i admire it extremely4 2 do you see this beautiful rose8 2 and the white lily8 2 and the green grass8 1 the garden is beautiful4 1 and the gardener wise4 1 ,i see a thistle4 1 1 bad1 bad6 1 1 ugly1 ugly6 1 ,i hate the ugly thistle4 1 ,i love the lovely rose4 2 do you hate the nettle8 1 certainly4 1 the wind is strong4 1 ,i love the shade4 1 and the shelter4 1 bring the table4 2 where is my hat8 1 give me the hat4 1 ,i love a cap4 1 or 1 stir the fire4 1 give me the poker4 2 have you tongs8 1 there4 2 do you see the mirror8 2 have you a seat8 2 have you a footstool8 2 have you a sofa8 1 give me my stick4 2 who is this little boy8 1 my brother4 2 have you a sister8 1 ,i love dinner4 2 have you bread and butter8 1 this silver cup is beautiful4 1 bring the inkstand4 1 take it4 1 ,i do not see a pen4 1 here4 1 thanks4 1 give me a napkin4 1 and some soap4 1 here it is1 ,pears' soap4 1 a splendid cleanser6 4 4 now my hands are white as snow4 ,farewell4 ,,english ,,affinities ,panorama4 ,lamp4 ,heliotrope4 ,calisthenics4 ,ephemeral4 ,urania4 ,acoustics4 ,thaumaturgy4 ,rose4 ,lily4 ,chlorine4 ,sophist4 ,cacophony4 ,misanthrope4 ,democrat4 ,animation4 ,philanthropy4 ,fire4 ,optics4 ,ophthalmia4 ,cathedral4 ,clinical4 ,philadelphia4 ,adelphi ,court4 ,soap4 ,chiromancy4 ,cathartic4 ,,lesson ,,ii ,,cases1 ,,genitive ,,and ,,dative ,the genitive case signifies the source from which a thing comes and to which it belongs1 as the folly of fools1 the fool's folly1 the folly that comes from the fool4 ,the dative case means either the secondary or more distant object of an action1 as ,i gave the book to the boy2 or it signifies rest or residence in a thing1 for which in ,english there is no special form2 also in ,greek it signifies the instrument with which1 or by which1 a thing is done1 as to cut with a knife4 ,in ,greek masculines in have the genitive in and the dative in 2 feminines in or and have the genitive in and the dative in 2 other feminines in --as 1 a table--and feminines in have in the genitive and in the dative4 1 ,i see a cloud in the sky4 1 ,i admire the wisdom that is in your brother4 1 give your brother this pen4 1 and the inkstand4 1 your brother admires the white rose in the garden4 2 do you hear the thunder of the river8 1 the violence of the wind disturbs the garden4 1 yes1 and the hat on my head4 1 stir the fire with the poker4 2 do you see the bishop's seat8 1 he is strong2 he eats the bread of labour4 1 give me your brother's pen4 1 bring your sister's inkstand4 1 cut the pen with the knife4 ,,english ,,affinities ,bishop4 ,kinetics4 ,seat4 ,cathedral4 ,hydrocephalus4 ,,lesson ,,iii ,,plurals1 ,,numerals1 ,,diminutives ,the plural of verbs is in 1 1 and for the three persons4 ,in pure verbs becomes 1 1 and 2 becomes 1 1 and 4 ,the plural of nouns in is in 1 nominative4 1 genitive4 1 dative4 1 objective4 ,neuters have nominative and objective 4 ,the plural of feminines is in 1 nominative4 1 genitive4 1 dative4 1 objective4 ,the relative pronoun1 1 1 1 who1 which1 is declined all through1 like masculine nouns in 1 and feminines in 1 and neuters in 4 ,the numerals are--1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 in their order2 1 twenty2 1 a hundred2 1 a thousand2 1 ten thousand4 ,diminutives are mostly neuter1 ending in 1 1 and 3 as 1 a horse--1 a pony2 1 a boy--1 a little boy2 1 a babe--1 a little babe4 ,masculine is 1 as 1 a young boy1 with feminine 1 a little girl4 ,the adjective 1 many 7,german viel71 is declined in the nominative-- and objective-- otherwise regularly1 as if from --4 ,it is a peculiarity of ,greek syntax that neuter plurals are joined with a singular verb1 as 1 matters are going on well4 1 1 we write with a pen1 and see with our eyes4 1 the letter which ,i write for you give to your brothers4 2 how many brothers have you8 1 1 six1 and seven sisters4 1 that is too bad6 2 how many roses have you in your hat8 1 1 twelve1 and six lilies4 2 how many horses has your brother8 1 three4 2 do you see the swans and the cranes in the loch8 1 1 yes1 a very great number4 2 also three pretty calves in the field8 1 1 2 also a neat little piebald pony8 2 what are you laughing at8 1 that boy riding on the little pony4 1 and behind runs the pretty little girl4 1 a pleasant sight4 1 1 this strange man sees two suns in the sky2 we see only one4 1 we hate a fool's voice4 1 but we love the voice of the wise man4 1 the astronomers see many things with their telescopes which we do not see4 1 1 there are many trees in the forest1 and many words in a fool's tongue4 1 we are cutting down many thistles in the fields4 1 1 1 and not a few nettles also1 ,i hope4 1 1 the nettles which you hate4 1 1 with good reason too4 ,all hate the evil nettles4 2 what are you about8 1 we are writing letters4 2 do you say letters8 1 1 yes1 to the queen4 1 wonderful6 1 1 good is the queen1 and not deaf to the prayers of loyal citizens4 1 you say what is just4 ,,english ,,affinities ,epistle4 ,graphic4 ,hippodrome4 ,euphony4 ,astronomy4 ,telescope4 ,polyglot4 ,agriculture4 ,basilica4 ,basil4 ,police4 ,two4 ,triad4 ,pentarchy4 ,hexagon4 ,heptarchy4 ,october4 ,decade4 ,myriad4 ,,lesson ,,iv ,,third ,,declension1 ,,singular ,the third declension of nouns in ,greek is more rich and varied than the other two1 and1 besides1 is distinguished by a peculiarity from which the others are free1 viz4 while in the first and second declensions all that requires to be done in forming the cases is to change the last syllable of the nominative commencing with a vowel1 leaving the main body of the word unchanged1 as 1-1 -1-1 in the third we observe that the final consonant of the root seems in many cases to have been assimilated or absorbed by the termination of the nominative1 and reappears in the other cases1 as in 1 genitive 4 ,sometimes also the vowel of the last syllable of the nominative is shortened before the addition of the genitival termination1 as in 1 4 ,in some classes of nouns no change is made1 and the analogy of the two other declensions is followed throughout4 ,we shall take our examples from the more simple classes1 leaving the more complex and exceptional to be learned in the course of reading4 ,the general type is-- -1 genitive4 -1 dative4 -1 objective4 as-- 1 a saviour4 1 of or from a saviour4 1 to a saviour4 1 a saviour4 1 a bell4 1 of a bell1 etc4 1 -1 a blackguard1 etc4 and a number of words signifying a dwelling-place1 as-- 1 a horse2 1 -1 a stable4 1 -1 an oliveyard4 1 -1 room of the virgin2 and nicknames of men3 1 - paunchy4 ,and to this class which follows the analogy of the other declensions our first colloquy is confined4 7#a7 2 do you see the ploughman cutting up the ground with his plough8 1 this is a useful and necessary work4 1 the ploughman has a strong horse4 2 what likeness is that8 1 the likeness of ,jesus ,christ our ,saviour4 1 an altogether divine countenance4 2 what is that grand book8 1 the geography of ,strabo4 2 what are you drinking out of that bowl8 1 we are drinking wine4 1 give me my old cloak4 1 from a small spark often a fearful flame arises4 1 as ,james the ,apostle writes4 2 but why do you say this8 1 ,i fear that quantity of smoke from the chimney4 1 ,i hear the bell1 and the voice of the crier who wakes the people4 1 there is great danger4 1 ,i hear the cock4 7#b7 ,nouns in and shorten the long ultimate vowel of the nominative1 as 1 2 1 2 1 1 water4 2 do you see that shepherd with the sheep in the meadow8 1 1 ,i see them and the dog4 2 do you hear the voice of that great orator8 1 we hear2 but like better the twitter of the swallows and the song of the nightingale4 1 with good reason2 for these stir the depths of the soul4 7#c7 ,feminines in and 1 with the radical before the case terminations1 as 1-2 1-4 ,neuters in have the genitive in 4 ,words ending in or 1 as 1 1 a storm2 1 1 a vein2 1-1 a ,cyclops1 ,giant ,round ,eye1 lose the of the nominative and present or before the case termination4 ,in the same way nouns in or 1 by losing the final of the compound consonant1 cause the single or to reappear in the oblique cases1 as 1 a hawk1 2 1 a fox1 gen4 2 1 1 a crow1 1 the rain is coming4 1 not at all4 1 a thin drizzle ,i do not call rain4 1 that cloud foretells a storm4 1 ,i have bright hope of a beautiful day4 2 do you see that little woman in the field8 1 they say that she is mad4 1 ,i for one believe it4 1 1 give me my boot1 my hat1 and my plaid4 2 where is my other shoe8 2 what have you in your mouth8 1 bread1 thank ,god6 2 what are you writing8 1 a poem4 2 is there any sense in the poem8 2 1 of course2 ,i don't blow soap-bubbles4 2 do you see that crow8 1 1 ,i do2 he walks like a clergyman1 with a grave step4 2 what is the name of that famous orator8 1 ,gladstone4 1 a ,scotch name4 1 1 certainly1 for the interpretation of the name is the stone of the hawk4 1 ,gladstone is the name of a parish in ,midlothian4 2 what is that boy doing8 1 he is whipping his top4 1 1 himself is more worthy of the whip1 for he is a wicked creature4 1 also idle2 not worthy of his bread4 1 ,i think the whip and his back are nearly related4 1 he is bad2 a strange mixture of a fox and a bear4 7#d7 ,nouns in and have in the objective1 as 1 a pig2 1 a fish1 1 a woodworm4 ,also those in and 1 as 1 a city1 2 1 a snake1 2 1 a forearm1 4 ,these have the genitive in 1 and the dative in 1 as 1 4 1 a father1 and 1 a mother1 have and in genitive1 and and in dative2 but the objective is in the regular form with the short penult 4 1 a daughter1 follows the same rule1 has 1 1 4 1 a king1 and 1 a priest1 have the genitive in 1 and the dative in 1 like 1 but the objective is 4 1 an ox1 has 1 1 and 4 1 a woman1 has genitive and dative -1 -1 and objective -4 2 do you see that beautiful fish in the water8 1 1 1 yes1 the creature glances like a pearl4 1 very different is the filthy pig in the sty4 1 ,i hate the pig4 1 nevertheless a fatted pig--bacon--is the great glory of a dinner4 2 do you see the snake in the grass8 1 ,i hate the creature4 2 why8 1 it is dangerous4 1 1 ,i shudder at the creature1 a mask of the devil4 1 the snake has ,satan for his father4 1 the devil has many masks4 1 specially that of a fair woman4 1 and that of a proud priest4 1 also of a lawless king1 and a cruel tyrant4 1 and of any bad man in the town4 7#e7 ,adjectives of this declension occur most commonly in one of these three forms-- 77 1 -1 masculine and feminine2 1 neuter--as 1 sound-minded2 1 forward1 ready--like nouns in supra4 77 1 as 1 masculine and feminine2 1 neuter2 genitive in and dative in --1 healthy2 1 -1 distinct1 clear4 77 1 masculine2 1 feminine2 1 neuter2 as 1 sweet2 1 heavy4 1 black1 has 1 1 and 1 wretched1 the same4 1 this doctrine about the devil is true4 1 yes1 and weighty4 1 sweet is honey after sour4 1 the bees are the makers of sweet honey4 1 it is a king's dainty1 honey4 1 we all like dainties and a dessert to follow the dinner4 ,,english ,,affinities ,gastric juice4 ,work4 ,bible4 ,geography4 ,crater4 ,wine4 ,palography4 ,phlox 7the name of a flame-coloured flower74 ,apostle4 ,police4 ,rhetorician4 ,pound4 ,abyss4 ,phrenzy4 ,wet4 ,phlebotomy4 ,cyclops4 ,hydropathy4 ,mnad4 ,heterodoxy4 ,poem4 ,crow4 ,genesis4 ,generation4 ,mixture4 ,paradox4 ,ichthyology4 ,paternal4 ,andrew4 ,alexander4 ,bovine4 ,gyncology4 ,sow4 ,devil4 ,hierarchy4 ,tyrant4 ,glycerine4 ,barometer4 ,mellifluous4 ,,lesson ,v ,,third ,,declension1 ,,plural ,the plural terminations of the third declension are-- 1 nominative1 1 neuter4 1 genitive4 1 dative4 1 objective1 1 neuter2 as 1 1 1 1 following always the type of the genitive singular1 as 1 not 2 but has 1 not 4 ,only in the dative plural the final consonant 1 1 or is dropped before the of the dative1 as 1 to shepherds2 1 to mouths2 1 to torches4 ,the adjective 1 1 follows this rule1 having in the genitive1 but in dative plural2 so 1 a giant2 1 of a giant2 but 1 to giants4 1 1 this father gives all the money to his daughters1 to his son nothing4 1 1 the fathers of the church are many1 but each boy has only one father4 1 1 give a stick to the boys1 a parasol to the young ladies4 1 1 this boy is a giant1 and a monster to boot2 he has seven toes on his feet4 1 1 1 the dress of all these boys is ridiculous1 a black plaid with a yellow cap4 1 true4 ,,english ,,affinities ,father4 ,panorama4 ,daughter4 ,ecclesiastical4 ,polytheism4 ,monologue4 ,giant4 ,dactyl4 ,seven4 ,foot4 ,melancholy4 ,lecture4 ,parthenon4 ,,lesson ,,vi ,,the ,,degrees ,,of ,,comparison ,,in ,,adjectives ,the general form is for the comparative and for the superlative1 the genders following the type of the substantives of the first and second declensions1 as 1 just1 1 2 also1 to avoid the concurrence of four short syllables unfavourable to the dactylic rhythm of the early poetry1 the in certain cases becomes 1 and the 1 1 as-- 1 wise1 1 4 ,so-- 1 terrible4 1 difficult4 1 plain4 ,adjectives in 1 1 1 and in 1 1 add the and to the neuter1 as-- 1 black1 1 -4 1 true1 1 -4 1 accurate1 1 -2 a termination which is assumed also by adjectives in 1 as 1 happy1 1-4 ,some adjectives are compared by 1-1 and 1-1-1 as-- 1 beautiful2 1 more beautiful2 1 very beautiful4 1 sweet1 1 4 1 swift2 for 1 swifter2 and 1 very swift4 ,this form belongs also to some common irregular comparisons as-- 1 1 1 good1 better1 best4 1 great1 1 4 1 bad1 1 4 1 many1 1 2 which follow in declension the law of the substantives of the same type1 as 1 2 1-1 plural 1 contracted 4 ,comparatives are either accompanied with a genitive or followed by --as 1 the son is taller than the father--or 4 1 this young man is much less than his sister2 he is a dwarf4 1 the holy scripture says that ,saul was by far the tallest of all his fellow citizens4 1 but not the wisest4 1 wisdom is better than stature4 2 how many irregular verbs are there in the ,greek tongue8 1 ,i do not know4 1 1 on this point you must consult the oracle1 ,veitch4 1 a terrible multitude4 1 more than the crows in the field4 1 you say what is very true4 1 ,i say what for me at least is a very painful and a very difficult business4 1 1 don't despair2 there are many bad things in life1 but the worst is despair4 2 and of the good things in life which is best8 1 faith4 1 as the prophet ,habakkuk says1 the just man shall live by faith4 1 a word than which nothing more true is found in holy scripture4 1 1 faith is the father of courage1 and courage is the father of manly deeds4 1 admirable4 1 1 a beautiful saying1 but more beautiful is the deed4 1 without the deed speech is the most empty of all things4 1 more light than chaff4 1 and not less barren4 1 farewell4 ,,english ,,affinities ,new4 ,polygon4 ,hagiography4 ,tactics4 ,crow4 ,biology4 ,prophet4 ,energetic4 ,plethora4 ,,lesson ,,vii ,,the ,,future ,,active ,the characteristic letter of the future tense is 1 inserted before the terminations that mark the persons1 thus3 1 ,i loosen2 1 ,i will2 1 thou wilt2 1 he will2 1 we will2 1 ye will2 1 they will loosen4 ,of course by inserting this 1 a preceding consonant1 where the root is labial1 uniting with it forms a 1 as above in nouns 7,lesson ,,iv1 #c72 and in the same way1 when the final vowel of the root is a palatal the or appears as --so1 from 1 ,i see1 2 from 1 ,i say1 4 ,but there are several variations1 which will be learned by practice2 the following are dominant3-- 77 ,verbs with two consonants before the of the present eject the latter before inserting the 1 so that the or of the root united with the becomes a 1 as in 1 2 1 ,i cut1 2 1 ,i dig1 2 1 ,i write1 4 77 ,the same rule holds with many verbs in 1 ,attic 1 the root ending in or 1 as 1 ,i do1 root 1 future 2 1 ,i arrange1 4 77 ,verbs in have either or 1 or both1 as 1 ,i admire1 2 1 ,i nod1 or 2 1 to carry off1 1 in ,attic2 1 to carry1 4 77 ,pure verbs generally lengthen the vowel of the present1 being changed into 1 except where a vowel or precedes the 1 as-- 1 ,i honour1 4 1 ,i love1 4 1 ,i show1 4 ,but-- 1 ,i break1 4 1 ,i labour at1 4 ,but some in prefer 1 as 1 ,i finish1 2 1 to tremble1 2 1 to boil1 4 77 ,liquid verbs shorten the long vowel of the root1 or throw out the last of two consonants in the root1 and lay a circumflex accent on the termination 1 as-- 1 ,i remain1 4 1 ,i sow1 4 1 ,i show1 4 1 ,i throw1 4 1 ,i cut1 4 1 now indeed you frighten me2 this future tense is terrible4 1 1 ridiculous2 ,i will not permit you to speak thus2 say rather1 as the proverb has it1 all excellent things are difficult4 1 ,i will say so4 1 have faith4 1 ,i will believe and conquer4 1 your father will praise you4 1 ,i do not doubt it4 1 you will show a manly spirit4 1 ,i will look manfully in the face of the devil and not tremble4 2 what is that paunchy fellow digging at in the meadow8 1 he is digging a trench4 1 he is digging the foundations of a grand house4 1 not at all2 such a fellow we will not admire4 1 1 1 he is a bungler4 ,he has labour1 but no skill4 ,he will cut his finger with his knife some day1 and dig his own grave4 ,such is wont to be the end of the unlearned4 ,,english ,,affinities ,hydrophobia4 ,chronology4 ,chronic4 ,andrew4 ,idiot4 ,penury4 ,technical4 ,polytechnic4 ,idiosyncrasy4 ,paedeutics4 ,,lesson ,,viii ,,the ,,past ,,tense ,the first aorist or indefinite past tense follows the type of the future1 with a before the personal terminations1 and an augment prefixed to the whole word1 as a sign of the past tense1 thus-- 1 ,i will do4 1 -1 -1 ,i1 thou1 he did 1 -1 -1 we1 you1 they ,in liquid verbs1 where the future has no 1 the aorist lengthens the vowel of the penult1 as-- ,there is another form of the past in - - - - - - as for 1 which some verbs prefer1 as in 1 ,i threw1 from 1 2 from 1 and some have both1 as 1 1 ,i brought1 irregular from 1 ,i bring1 future 1 ,i will bring4 1 ,i know1 has 1 1 1 ,i1 thou1 he know4 1 1 1 we1 you1 they and with the past participle1 1 -4 1 1 1 ,i1 thou1 he knew4 1 1 1 we1 you1 they 1 1 1 what ,i did yesterday you will do to-morrow2 you are always behind4 2 who cut the leaves of that beautiful book8 1 ,i did4 1 1 1 verily you cut it with a blunt knife2 besides1 your fingers are filthy4 1#e ,i will wash my hands4 #e ,a dual number for 1 which both in nouns and verbs the ,greeks sometimes used for a pair of persons or things4 ,see the grammar4 1 2 ,i gave that girl an apple1 and the boy seized it4 ,who taught him that trick8 1 an evil genius4 2 who threw the stone8 1 the boy in the garden4 1 he is a lawless boy4 1 yesterday he broke a glass pane in my study window4 1 not so2 the cat was the sinner2 the bloody nose of the animal declared its sin4 7,attic 7 1 the book which ,i gave you yesterday you will hand over to your sister2 she is a good girl1 and worthy of a good book4 2 who built this church8 1 an architect4 1 1 not an architect1 a stonemason4 1 1 for a true architect is a poet2 and the edifice which he raised yesterday remains a stone poem to-morrow and for ever1 as one may see in ,egypt4 2 who saw the boy who cut the branch of that tree8 1 ,i saw him4 1 bring him to me2 ,i will flog the rascal4 1 he shall have no dinner to-day4 1 or dine with the pigs4 1 ,i gave him good advice4 1 in vain4 1 he did not hear4 1 he is deaf4 1 yes1 deaf to the counsel of the wise4 ' 1 yesterday he closed his ears to the word of the wise ,solomon3 the eyes of a fool are in the ends of the earth4 1 1 he heard the word1 but he did not take in the sense4 1 his foolish brother filled his brain with vain imaginations4 1 and he believed his brother rather than the holy scripture4 1 sad6 sad6 ,,english ,,affinities ,egotism4 ,practice4 ,foliation4 ,chiromancy4 ,the ,parthenon4 ,didactic4 ,technical4 ,cacodemon4 ,lithotomy4 ,rhinoceros4 ,zoology4 ,agatha4 ,hierarchy4 ,dendritis4 ,divine4 ,acrobat4 ,geography4 ,logic4 ,hagiology4 ,hagiolatry4 ,graphic4 ,,lesson ,,ix ,,infinitive ,,mood ,,and ,,participles ,the infinitive mood gives the action of the verb substantively as we use the participle in seeing is a good thing1 but in ,greek1 as in ,latin1 always the infinitive1 as 1 and declined with the article like a noun1 through all the cases1 of course neuter1 as the gender does not lie in the action1 but in the actor4 ,its normal ending in the active voice is 1 as in the present 1 to throw1 and second aorist 2 but in first aorist its termination is 1 as 1 from 4 ,pure verbs follow their vowel1 as 1 to honour2 1 to love4 ,like substantives1 verbal infinitives are governed by prepositions through all the cases1 as 1 about2 1 from beside2 1 with2 1 in1 and into--as 1 about smoking ,i say moderation is best4 ,participles are verbal adjectives declined as such1 and signifying the quality or accident of a certain state of being or action belonging to an agent4 ,the participles of the present and of the second aorist are declined in masculine and neuter according to the type of the second declension1 in feminine according to the first1 as-- 1 1 1 he1 she1 or it -1 1 1 of him1 her1 or it striking4 1 1 1 to him1 her1 or it ,the first aorist participle bears the type of the third declension1 as in 1 1 a giant--so 1 having made2 feminine 1 neuter 4 genitive1 - - -4 dative1 - - -4 objective1 - - -4 ,pure verbs have a long vowel or diphthong3 thus1 from 2 did you see that boy walking in the garden8 1 ,i did4 1 1 walking is good and healthy1 but not for him who stole the apples4 1 in honouring the queen you honour the state of which she is the head4 1 1 about sleeping ,i prescribe nothing curiously2 only this one thing ,i say1 that to lie in bed more than eight hours is not healthy4 1 you say well4 1 at least for those who have a healthy body4 1 for lying idle damages both body and soul4 1 1 1 1 certainly1 for to do anything contrary to the system of the universe destroys the soul1 as ,james the apostle of good works says1 8to him that knoweth what is good and doeth it not1 to him it is sin40 1 to the great talker there is great danger4 1 but in speaking little there is great safety4 1 a good library is useful to get great knowledge4 2 1 certainly1 but not always for wise living4 1 it is possible that many books may confound weak brains4 1 1 as they say1 many cooks spoil the broth4 1 and in the same way1 a great quantity of furniture1 beyond what is proper and comfortable1 fills up the room1 and inconveniences those who enter4 4 1 wise4 ,all excess is bad4 1 the wisdom of ,aristotle3 safety lies in the mean4 ,,english ,,affinities ,peripatetics4 ,hygiene4 ,cleptomania4 ,hypnotism4 ,system4 ,psychology4 ,apostle4 ,polyanthus4 ,trope4 ,hyperbole4 ,plethora4 ,,lesson ,x ,,the ,,other ,,past ,,tenses ,the imperfect1 with the augment prefixed as the sign of the past1 is as follows2 from -- -1 -1 -1 ,i1 thou1 he was cutting4 -1 -1 -1 we1 you1 they were ,pure verbs contract into 0 0 0 0 0 as in-- into 0 0 0 0 0 as in-- ,the present perfect1 or the immediately past perfect1 in addition to the augment1 reduplicates the initial consonant of the root1 and its terminations are-- -1 -1 -1 ,i1 thou1 he has 444 -1 -1 -1 we1 you1 they have 444 ,it changes also the of the future into a -- -- but this 1 when the root ends in or 1 appears as 2 thus-- and in the same way the final of the root appears as 2 thus-- ,in the pluperfect1 which is not often used1 the same reduplication takes place1 and the terminations are-- - - - - - - or - as in-- 1 1 ,i was beating the boy1 when the policeman entering took me to prison4 1 ,i have written a letter to your father saying that you are a well-behaved young man4 1 ,i happened to be lying on my back in the bed when a rat1 leaping over the bedcover1 gave me a great fright4 1 and with good reason4 2 and now1 where is the shameless creature8 1 my little ,skye terrier has just snapped it up4 1 served it right6 2 where is my inkstand8 1 1 1 ,i have found it1 ,i have found it1 in the bathroom4 1 strange2 ,i was not writing in the bathroom4 1 ,i do not see my pen4 1 here it is2 ,i found it in the dining-room4 1 1 1 1 the cat was playing with your pen1 and with your hat1 and your plaid1 and your boots1 and making a terrible row4 1 kill the brute6 1 1 1 not at all2 you yourself are to blame1 who left the room in great disorder1 and the cat has finished your work4 1 you are right4 1 and ,i have committed an act of great folly4 1 ,i repent of the business4 1 farewell4 ,,english ,,affinities ,harpy4 ,graphic4 ,epistle4 ,tropic4 ,the ,cosmos4 ,cosmetic4 ,big4 ,melancholy4 ,paradox4 ,autonomy4 ,pragmatic4 ,,lesson ,,xi ,,verbs ,,in ,the great mass of ,greek verbs1 whatever their variations of person and tense may be1 agree in this one prominent feature1 that the first person singular of the present indicative ends in 1 as in ,latin 1 possibly a relic of the pronoun 1 ,i4 ,but there is a small class of verbs in familiar use which1 instead of the 1 affix to the first person 1 evidently identical with the ,english me and the ,german mich--a confusion of the nominative and accusative cases familiar to our ears in ,french and vulgar ,english1 when we say it is me instead of it is ,i4 ,whatever may have been the original form of the verbs in 1 as a matter of practice1 if we fling off the from the present1 the future and the tenses cognate with it may be formed directly from an assumed form in 3 thus 1 ,i cause to stand1 1 ,i will cause to stand1 as if from 2 1 ,i place1 1 ,i will place1 as if from 2 1 ,i show1 1 ,i will show1 as if from 2 and 1 ,i give1 future 1 ,i will give1 as if from 1 the ,latin d evidently preserving the simple form from which comes by the prefix of and the suffix 4 ,present 1 1 1 ,i1 thou1 he cause to stand4 1 1 1 we1 you1 they ,imperfect ,second ,aorist ,the middle and passive voice follow the form of the regular verb4 ,the perfect active of 1 1 is used as a present with a neuter sense1 ,i stand1 and in like manner1 the pluperfect 1 and the #bnd aorist 1 ,i stood4 and its analogues have for the in the plural1 and first aorist instead of 2 and in the same way 1 to send1 has first aorist 1 ,i sent2 so also has 1 ,i gave1 not 4 ,the irregular verbs 1 ,i am1 1 ,i go 7usually future3 ,i will go71 evidently fall under this scheme4 ,for 1 ,i am1 see supra1 ,lesson ,i4 ,the verb to go has 1 ,i go2 1 thou art going2 1 he is going2 1 we are going2 1 you are going2 1 they are going4 ,imperative 1 go4 1 1 ' 1 begone1 begone6 you have no business in that seat2 ,i will plant you here4 1 1 ,i stand where ,i stand1 and ,i sit where ,i sit4 1 1 2 ,i gave the pretty book to you1 and you gave it to that little girl4 ,do you so despise me and my gift8 1 ,i understand what you say2 but the young lady will be more profited by the book than ,i4 1 you are very humble4 1 not at all2 ,i love the girl4 1 likely enough4 2 what do people say about ,gladstone8 1 1 1 they admire him1 with good reason1 as a great speaker1 also as an expert and apt financier1 and besides a great ,greek and ,italian scholar4 1 #f 1 1 1 1 very true2 if they had made him professor of ,greek in the university of ,oxford1 he would not have stood below ,boeckh1 or ,hermann1 or ,mller1 or any of the ,germans who are most distinguished for great learning4 #f ,for the use of the particle here and below see ,lesson ,,xv infra4 1 and so he might have happily escaped the great bother and the corruption of political life4 1 possibly2 however no man can escape his destiny4 ,,english ,,affinities ,stand4 ,sit4 ,seat4 ,dowry4 ,philology4 ,mathematics4 ,empiric4 ,dynamics4 ,logic4 ,grammar4 ,allopathy4 ,biology4 ,,lesson ,,xii ,,compound ,,verbs ,verbs compounded with a preposition place the augment and reduplication between the preposition and the verb4 ,except and all prepositions ending in a vowel have the vowel elided before the augment2 generally forms a crasis with the augment and becomes 4 ,the in and 1 which had been assimilated in the present1 is resumed before the augment4 ,the prepositions that most frequently occur in compound verbs are-- 1 round about1 as in ,english periphery4 1 off or away from1 as in apogee4 1 under1 as in hypocrite4 1 in1 as in energy4 1 into4 1 together1 as in sympathy4 1 before1 as in prophet4 1 alongside or away1 as in parallel1 parasite4 1 instead of1 opposite to1 as in antidote4 1 with or after1 as in metaphysics4 1 toward1 as in proselyte4 1 up or back1 as in anatomy4 1 down1 as in catalepsy4 1 on or upon1 as in epilogue4 1 my true friend threw his cloak round my shoulders as a protection against the cold4 1 put on my shoes4 1 ,i flung away the old-fashioned shoes2 those of the new fashion are more elegant4 1 thanks to you for the pretty gift4 1 to-day the weather has changed for the worse4 1 quite natural1 at least in our country1 where the weather is never steady4 1 1 yesterday ,i went down to the pier and saw the big steamboat4 2 did it please you or not8 1 ,i admired it exceedingly4 2 did you not go on board8 1 ,i did1 and saw the captain and a great number of the crew4 1 afterwards ,i went down into the hold1 and saw with wonder countless piles of barrels1 boxes and chests1 baskets1 and all sorts of stuff4 1 1 1 then ,i came up1 and looked on the blue sky1 and thanked ,god4 1 1 lastly1 ,i gathered up my chattels1 and stand before you with a whole skin4 1 1 1 good luck be with you2 you are a lucky dog2 you always fall on your feet like the cats4 1 ,i am not blind1 and am accustomed to do everything with forecasting eyes4 1 a wise man you6 ,,english ,,affinities ,philanthropy4 ,steady4 ,navy4 ,hollow4 ,chest4 ,theology4 ,epidermis4 ,physiology4 ,patriot4 ,atmosphere4 ,plethora4 ,podagra4 ,,lesson ,,xiii ,,moods3 ,,subjunctive ,,and ,,conditional ,the subjunctive or conjunctive mood is the form which the verb takes when no independent assertion is made as a fact1 but only as a sequence of an asserted fact or truth1 and having only a secondary or conditional existence2 as if ,i should say in ,english1 ,i give you this1 that it may be in your power to do so and so1 the secondary sentence preceded by that is altogether dependent on the precedent thing done1 ,i give you this4 ,in this example the substantival proposition is in the present indicative1 and the subjunctive nature of the dependent sentence is expressed by the auxiliary verb may2 but1 if the leading clause is in the past tense1 the dependent clause is expressed by might1 which in fact is the past tense of may1 as ,i gave you this that you might4 ,in ,greek this past conditional is1 from a peculiar usage1 commonly called the optative mood4 ,in the present lesson we shall confine ourselves to the dependent tense subjoined to a present or a future4 ,the form of the subjunctive is very simple1 consisting as it does in the mere change of the terminational vowel or diphthong of the present into and -- -1 -1 -1 ,i1 thou1 he may strike2 -1 -1 -1 we1 you1 they and in the first and second aorist the same--1 1 1-1 -4 ,the subjunctive mood is often introduced by or 1 1 and 1 and when a negative particle belongs to it1 it is 1 not 4 1 ,i give you this book that you may understand how difficult the matter is on which you were writing4 1 1 if you don't work out the lessons1 ,i will not teach you4 1 ' 1 if you cut your finger with that sharp knife1 the blame is not with me4 1 1 finish the work that lies before you1 that the leavings of to-day may not disturb you to-morrow4 1 1 take the poker and stir the fire1 that the weight of the coals may not choke the flame4 1 1 if you do not take care of the flame1 you will burn the sleeves of your coat4 1 1 bring me ,homer from the shelf1 that ,i may hear what he says about the beauty of women4 1 here it is4 1 read it4 ' 1 beautiful and tall1 and skilful in tasteful works4 4 1 excellent4 ,the singer's ladies were no idlers4 1 they were imitators of their patron goddess ,pallas1 wise in all that relates to life4 1 1 fling the dog into the water1 that he may learn to swim4 ---- 1 there he goes--he swims--what a clever creature6 1 do you the same4 1 no2 ,i fear the wave will overwhelm me4 1 nonsense2 the human body is lighter than the water4 1 it is not the water that will drown you1 but fear4 1 likely enough2 nevertheless ,i hold by the dry land4 1 4 1 you are wise1 but the animal is more clever4 ,adieu4 ,,english ,,affinities ,anthracite4 ,barometer4 ,phlogiston4 ,caustic4 ,ferry4 ,mimetic4 ,pantomime4 ,hydropathy4 ,baptize4 ,anthropology4 ,dexterity4 ,,lesson ,,xiv ,,the ,,optative ,,mood ,the optative mood1 or subjunctive in a historic sequence after a past tense1 is distinguished by the domination of the diphthong 1 and runs thus-- 1 ,i advise4 1 1 1 ,i1 thou1 he might 1 1 1 we1 you1 they advise4 ,and so in the second aorist1 where there is one1 as 1 1 1 etc41 from 1 might1 could1 would1 or should get4 ,in the first aorist the vowel rules1 and becomes 1 as singular1 1 or 1 or 2 plural1 1 1 or 4 ,the most common uses of the optative may be classified thus-- 7#a7 ,in narrating what some one said1 without guaranteeing the fact2 as if ,i should say in ,english1 he said that he were going to do so1 instead of was2 e4g4 1 he said that it was not easy for a man young and vehement to control his passions4 7#b7 ,to express a purpose or consequence in past time1 with 1 1 or 1 as 1 he laboured steadily that he might gain a prize4 7#c7 ,after 1 if1 to express an indefinite future1 generally with in the dependent clause1 as 1 1 if one gave me the choice1 ,i should prefer to study ,greek rather than ,italian4 7#d7 ,to express a wish 7from which use the name optative came71 as 1 may it not happen--,god forbid6 1 1 my friend advised me to leap into the water that ,i might learn to swim like a dog2 but ,i am not such a fool4 1 1 you say well2 ,i must confess dancing is more agreeable1 but swimming is sometimes more useful1 especially in a shipwreck4 1 1 an acquaintance of mine told me that he is practising swimming to escape the dangers of the sea4 1 a wise man he4 1 forethought is the shield of the wise4 1 hearing the cock crow ,i forthwith shook off sleep1 and ran at full speed that ,i might not be too late for the games4 1 and ,i ran off without my plaid1 that ,i might not miss so splendid a spectacle4 2 what did you see there8 1 ,i saw a huge bag full of hydrogen gas4 1 1 and a man inside1 sailing through the air1 that he might make a rabble of people stare at him1 as one going to pay a visit to the man in the moon4 1 ,o what folly6 1 fool admires fool4 1 1 as he was coming down a strong blast suddenly seized him and drove him on to the steeple of the cathedral1 and the cock on the top of the steeple pierced his bowels4 1 ,o the poor wretch6 1 1 ,o the fool6 served him right6 birds ought to tread the air1 not men4 ,,english ,,affinities ,mathematics4 ,homologate4 ,orchestra4 ,ode4 ,agony4 ,theatre4 ,acrobat4 ,ochlocracy4 ,sceptic4 ,ornithology4 ,fugitive4 ,hypnotism4 ,pathology4 ,ether4 ,,lesson ,,xv ,,the ,,particle ,besides the use of with the optative in reference to a future probability1 noticed in the last lesson1 it is joined in ,greek with the past tenses1 the imperfect or aorists1 to express what might1 could1 would1 or should have taken place in past time if something else had happened1 or had not happened1 as 1 you would have done what is right if you had done this4 1 1 1 if ,i had known your character1 ,i would not have given you the money4 2 how have ,i done wrong8 1 1 you squandered your money uselessly4 ,if you had had sense1 you would not have spent it all on a fleeting pleasure4 1 1 if you had been wise1 you would have saved some of to-day's treasure for to-morrow's need4 1 1 ,i should have been a fool1 dreaming of the future and missing the present pleasure4 1 when you speak thus the ants and the bees confute you4 1 2 if ,bruce had not gained the victory at ,bannockburn1 what would have been the consequence8 1 dominant ,england would have caused the ,scot to disappear from the face of the earth4 1 and this would have been a great piece of good luck4 1 1 some think so and some not4 1 2 what would have been the consequence if ,alexander1 the son of ,philip1 had not gained the battle of ,arbela8 1 1 the ,persian would have continued lording it over the ,east1 and the ,apostles would not have preached the gospel in ,greek2 for it was the son of ,philip that introduced ,greek learning into all the ,east4 1 1 ,alexander the ,great truly was the torch-bearer of ,greek wisdom and the harbinger of the gospel4 1 very true4 4 1 and now enough of this very serviceable particle 4 ,adieu6 ,,english ,,affinities ,ethics4 ,terpsichore4 ,ephemeral4 ,treasure4 ,alexander4 ,despot4 ,anatolia4 ,evangel4 ,angel4 ,scheme4 ,geography4 ,apostle4 ,pedagogue4 ,,lesson ,,xvi ,,the ,,passive ,,voice expressing not what a man does to another person or thing by the putting forth of his active force1 but what he suffers from the active force of another1 has its characteristic form in ,greek as follows-- ,present ,indicative-- -1 -1 -1 ,i1 thou1 he is persuaded4 -1 -1 -1 we1 you1 they are ,subjunctive1 with the long vowel as in the active voice-- - - - - - - and optative with -- - - - - - - ,imperfect ,future - - - - - - ,first ,aorist - - - - - - ,optative-- singular1 - - - plural1 - - - ,in the perfect as in the active voice the reduplication takes place1 as-- ,certain verbs have a second aorist1 as 1 ,i send1 not but 1 ,i was sent2 and pure verbs have the characteristic contraction of the vowel into a diphthong1 as for 2 but these variations are best learned by practice4 1 1 the ,apostles were sent to preach the gospel1 and they preached it with power4 1 1 when the ,apostles preached the gospel in ,athens1 few were persuaded4 1 that bad fellow struck me a heavy blow with his cudgel1 and my back was severely wounded4 2 then what happened8 1 1 one of the policemen who keep the peace of the city laid hold of him1 and he was forthwith cast into prison4 1 served him right4 1 quite natural2 all lawless and violent persons will naturally be cast into prison2 for such persons are not men1 but related to tigers4 1 2 woe's me1 ,i am struck6 whence came the blow8 1 1 my acquaintance ,john ,cameron1 playing at golf on the links1 struck his ball obliquely and it was driven against your head4 ----1 ,o woe's me1 woe6 1 ,o poor fellow4 2 what must we do8 1 1 take him to the infirmary and call the doctor2 it is a dangerous business4 1 instantly2 he shall be called4 ,,english ,,affinities ,oligarchy4 ,plague4 ,toxicology4 ,phylacteries4 ,tiger4 ,sphere4 ,nosology4 ,call4 ,physic4 ,,lesson ,,xvii ,,the ,,middle ,,voice ,the middle voice1 or1 as it might more significantly be called1 the reflexive or the subjective voice1 is a form of the verb where the action does not pass on from the agent to an outward object1 but comes back on him1 or in some loose way is looked on as done for his benefit1 or affecting himself specially4 ,thus it is in the main identical with what in ,latin grammar used to be called neuter verbs1 only it is subject to not a few nice shades of personal reference1 which leads to its apparent confusion with the active voice1 and to various anomalous usages which can only be learned by practice4 ,it is1 of course1 in strictness more nearly allied to the passive than to the active voice2 for in both these voices1 as distinguished from the active1 the force of the verb is either altogether spent on the agent1 or is in some way passively or emotionally or intentionally connected with him4 ,this intimate relationship leads to a similarity of form in the two voices1 the present and imperfect middle being in fact identical with the same tenses in the passive voice1 and the other tenses1 in their characteristic changes1 more allied to the passive than to the active4 ,future ,indicative ,first ,aorist 1 1 ,i had the good luck to have no common teachers of wisdom1 but now with good reason ,i profess wisdom for myself4 1 1 ,i received the book which you got from your cousin1 and ,i will read it carefully4 1 this young man runs furiously2 he will hurt himself4 1 ,i am not afraid4 1 he is a steady-footed fellow4 1 this young man stoops miserably down into his books2 he will wear himself away1 stuffing himself with reading4 4 1 1 1 do not repine4 ,all things grow ripe by degrees4 ,the smallest seeds beginning with the spring by harvest time will become large plants4 1 1 this fellow sails out with full sails1 but we shall not fall behind4 1 to-day we have fine weather4 1 but it will rain to-morrow4 1 1 alas1 alas6 there is no continuity or permanence of weather in ,scotland4 1 1 true2 only the character of the ,scots boasts of steadiness and permanence4 ,the ,scottish character is strong as the ,aberdeen granite4 1 thank ,god6 myself boast that ,i have a fair share of this persistent temperament4 4 1 and with good reason2 perseverance is the pledge of success4 ,farewell4 ,,english ,,affinities ,didactic4 ,sophist4 ,study4 ,new4 ,early4 ,vernal4 ,chronology4 ,grace4 ,hypertrophy4 ,idiosyncrasy4 ,orthography4 ,acme4 ,phytology4 ,,lesson ,,xviii ,,participles ,the ,greek participle has a large range of idiomatic and significant usages1 which can only be learned by reading4 ,for a start1 however1 it may be enough to say that the participle follows the leading verb of the sentence in many cases where both ,latin and ,english use the infinitive1 and that when joined with the definite article the participle performs the function of a relative clause in a less formal style2 as if in ,english1 instead of the man who used such language is not a gentleman1 we should say the man the having used1 which no doubt sounds very clumsy1 because we require an auxiliary verb to express the past participle1 but in ,greek is manifestly neater and more succinct than 4 1 ,i cannot stand to be slandered in this way4 1 never mind2 never mind2 ,i know the creature2 it is his delight always to be speaking ill of men better than himself4 2 what was he slandering about8 1 1 ,i happened to be praising a gentleman of the influential classes in ,manchester1 rich and good and sensible1 and forthwith he began to denounce in a sweeping style all the plutocracy and the aristocracy of the country4 1 1 1 he appears to be a calumniator1 and a cousin-german of the evil ,spirit1 the ,devil4 1 1 and he went on to use insolent language1 saying 7or implying7 that ,i was a parasite and a flunkey of the detestable faction of the oligarchs2 and in addition to all this he got this insulting language printed in the newspapers4 1 1 4 1 such ill-tongued rascals should have been flogged2 but1 as ,i said before1 never mind4 ,it is plain that the man who says has conquered his passion4 1 possibly2 but ,i am conscious that ,i do not profess the apathy of the ,quaker4 4 1 never mind2 never mind2 he is three times conqueror who has conquered his passion4 ,anger is a brief madness4 ,,english ,,affinities ,devil4 ,blasphemy4 ,dynamics4 ,dynasty4 ,plutocracy4 ,aristocracy4 ,cacodemon4 ,parasite4 ,heresy4 ,oligarchy4 ,type4 ,ephemeral4 ,apathy4 ,maniac4 ,,appendix ,i ,,elementary ,,hints ,,on ,,etymology 7#a7 ,in borrowed words1 especially when the borrowing language1 as ,english1 does not deal largely in sounding terminations1 it is a common practice to let the termination drop1 either altogether or partly1 and leave only the simple root1 as from 1 lamp2 from 1 democracy2 from 1 cacophony1 and other such feminines1 as theology1 philology1 where the is dropped1 and the accent transferred to the antepenultimate after the favourite ,english fashion1 while the ,german1 more faithful to the ,greek1 preserves the accented 1 and marks the presence of the by an e1 as in ,theologi1 ,philologi4 7#b7 ,as the ,greek element in the ,english language often comes to us not directly from the ,greek1 but indirectly through the ,latin of the ,middle ,ages1 it sometimes happens that we find a pure ,greek word with a ,latin termination attached to it naturalised in ,english1 as in cathdral1 from 1 and in ephemeral1 from 4 ,in this example the termination al1 so common in ,latin1 takes the place of the ,greek 1 with the same adjectival force2 but in not a few cases1 as optical1 ethical1 clinical1 political1 the al is an unmeaning superfluity1 as the adjectival character of the word is already fixed by the ,greek termination 1 as in from 4 ,in verbs the termination ate is pure ,latin1 but appears sometimes barbarously appended to a pure ,greek verb1 as homologate1 from 4 7#c7 ,it is a general rule in etymology that cognate letters1 that is1 letters pronounced by the same organs1 or a similar modification of the vocal organs1 easily pass into one another2 thus and being both dental1 a pure dental1 and a sibilant dental1 and being only the blunt form of 1 these three letters pass into one another1 as in ,attic for 1 and 1 ,english rose4 ,so in ,german das for ,english that4 ,in like manner1 and being both liquids1 becomes lily1 and the ,latin ,tibur becomes the ,italian ,tivoli1 by the interchange of the labials and of the liquids4 7#d7 ,the termination s in the names of many of the sciences1 as optics1 acoustics1 mechanics1 is simply the sign of the plural in ,english1 put for the neuter plural in ,greek1 as in 1 things belonging to the state2 1 things belonging to vision1 which1 however1 the ,greeks often express by in the nominative singular feminine1 with 1 art1 or 1 theory1 understood4 7#e7 ,the termination ise or ize1 so common in ,english1 generally though not always with an active signification1 as in advertise1 solemnise1 is the of ,greek1 as in 1 ,i make wise1 with 1 in the middle voice1 ,i profess myself wise4 ,the word from this verb1 in ,english sophist1 is the person who makes this profession1 as in baptist1 theorist1 atheist1 and other pure ,greek words for an agent1 with only the loss of the termination 2 sometimes in a hybrid way ist is added to a ,latin root1 as in deist1 etymologically but not colloquially identical with theist4 7#f7 ,sometimes not only is the terminational syllable cut off1 but the initial also1 either wholly or in part2 so 1 with the change of into the kindred labial 1 becomes bishop4 7#g7 ,when two consonants of different kinship come together1 one of them1 specially that not belonging to the root1 disappears1 as from 1 lap2 from 1 1 type4 7#h7 ,the aspirate h1 in ,greek spiritus asper1 has a close affinity with the sibilant s2 so for we have in ,latin sex1 in ,english six2 for sow2 1 sedes1 seat4 7#i7 ,when a word in ,latin or ,greek commences with a p1 by aspiration it becomes f in ,english and the ,teutonic languages2 thus for we have fire1 for -foot1 for 1 father1 etc4 7#aj7 ,the ,english w is closely connected with the vowels1 as appears from water and ooater2 hence it disappears in ,greek altogether1 or is represented by a breathing1 as in 1 wine2 1 water2 1 wet4 7#aa7 ,in some adjectives the ,latin an1 like al1 is superfluously appended to the ,greek termination in 1 as rhetorician1 from 4 7#ab7 ,the ,greek 1 as in 1 and cornu in ,latin1 appears in the ,teutonic languages as h1 so hound1 horn2 1 collis1 hill4 7#ac7 ,the letter m at the end of an ,english word curtailed from ,greek signifies the thing done1 the product of the verb1 as 1 poem1 the thing made1 a poem1 from 1 ,i make2 so baptism from 1 and chrism from 1 ,i anoint1 and other isms4 7#ad7 ,finally1 as at least two-thirds of the technical words used in our scientific nomenclature1 and not a few even outside of the range1 are of ,greek extraction1 the student would act wisely if at starting he were to make a list of all such terms in familiar use1 with their ,greek form and ,greek analysis in an opposite column2 as-- theology 71 ,god2 1 discourse7 ,he will thus find that he knows already some two or three hundred ,greek words in a slightly disguised ,english form4 ,,appendix ,,ii ,,vocabularies ,in accordance with the principle set forth in the preface1 these vocabularies1 containing the names of the most familiar objects1 are to be taken with him as a vade mecum wherever the student goes4 ,he must in no wise be content with the lazy habit of recognising a word only in a passive recipient style when he meets with it in a book1 but he must stamp it directly on every object that comes in his way1 and repeat it frequently without the intervention of the mother tongue1 till he uses it as familiarly as a workman handles his tools4 ,the language will thus become his familiar friend1 not1 as in the mere bookish method1 an occasional visitor4 ,of course1 such a catalogue of words is not intended to be exhaustive2 but the learner1 after training himself to the habit of thinking and speaking in the foreign idiom1 may supply the deficiency by consulting any good ,english-,greek dictionary1 such as ,arnold and ,browne's1 ,london #ahef1 and for modern ,greek1 where that may be necessary1 ,lascarides's ,english-,greek dictionary1 ,london #ahhb4 ,from these sources also1 and from his own reading1 which must in no wise be neglected1 he will be able to pick out appropriate verbs with which he may put the ,hellenised objects around him1 so to speak1 into motion1 and hold a conversation with a fellow-student trained to the colloquial method1 or with himself1 solus cum solo1 if he can find no partner in his colloquial exercise4 ,i4 ,,man ,,and ,,his ,,belongings 7#a7 ,,the ,,body ,appetite1 1 -1 4 ,arm1 1 -1 4 ,bandy-legged1 1 -1 -4 ,blind1 1 -1 -4 ,bosom1 1 -1 4 ,bowels1 4 ,boy1 1 1 4 ,bread1 1 4 ,breakfast1 1 4 ,breast1 1 4 ,breath1 1 -1 4 ,butter1 1 4 ,button up1 to1 4 ,cake1 1 -1 4 ,choke1 trans41 1 -4 ,cough1 1 -1 or 4 ,creep1 to1 4 ,dessert1 1 4 ,digested1 easily1 1 -4 ,digestion1 1 4 ,dinner1 1 4 ,disease1 1 4 ,drink1 1 -1 4 ,drink1 to1 4 ,dyspepsia1 1 4 ,ear1 1 1 4 ,eat1 to1 4 ,elbow1 1 -1 4 ,erect1 1 -1 -4 ,excrement1 4 ,eye1 1 -1 4 ,face1 1 4 ,fat1 1 -1 -4 ,fever1 1 4 ,food1 1 -1 4 ,foot1 1 1 4 ,forehead1 1 4 ,gout1 1 4 ,gums1 1 4 ,hair1 1 1 4 ,head1 1 4 ,health1 1 4 ,heel1 1 -1 4 to kick with the heel1 4 ,hungry1 to be1 4 ,hungry1 to be very1 4 ,inflammation1 1 -1 4 ,jaw1 1 4 ,knee1 1 -1 4 ,lament1 to1 4 ,laugh1 to1 4 ,leg1 1 -1 4 ,limp1 to1 4 ,lip1 1 -1 4 ,lungs1 1 -1 4 ,meagre1 1 -1 -4 ,mouth1 1 -1 4 ,muscle1 1 1 4 ,nail1 1 -1 4 ,neck1 1 4 ,nose1 1 -1 4 to turn up the nose1 4 to blow the nose1 4 ,pain1 1 -1 4 ,palsy1 1 -1 4 ,paunchy1 1 -1 or 1 -1 4 ,pleasure1 1 -1 4 ,porridge1 1 -1 4 ,pudding1 1 -1 4 ,rheumatism1 1 -1 4 ,run1 to1 4 ,scab1 or itch1 1 -1 4 ,scratch1 to1 4 ,shoulder1 1 -1 4 ,sinew1 1 4 ,skin1 1 -1 4 ,snore1 to1 4 ,spittle1 1 -1 4 ,stomach1 1 -1 4 ,stoop1 to1 4 ,sugar1 1 4 ,supine1 1 -1 -4 ,swallow1 to1 4 ,sweetmeats1 1 4 ,tall1 1 -1 -4 ,thigh1 1 -1 4 ,thin1 1 -1 -4 ,throat1 1 -1 4 ,thumb1 1 -1 4 ,toe1 1 -1 4 ,tooth1 1 -1 4 ,vinegar1 1 -1 4 ,vomit1 to1 4 ,walk1 to1 4 ,wash1 to1 1 fut4 4 ,water1 1 -1 4 ,windpipe1 1 -1 4 ,wine1 1 4 7#b7 ,,dress ,belt1 1 -1 4 ,bonnet1 1 -1 4 ,boots1 1 -1 4 ,bracelet1 1 4 ,breeches1 1 -1 4 ,buckle1 1 -1 4 ,clothes1 1 -1 4 ,coat1 1 4 ,cosmetic1 1 4 ,curl1 1 4 ,dress1 1 -1 4 ,dress1 to1 1 4 ,garter1 1 -1 4 ,glove1 1 -1 4 ,gown1 a lady's1 1 4 ,greatcoat1 1 -1 4 ,hat1 1 -1 4 ,necklace1 1 4 ,plaid1 1 -1 4 ,shirt1 1 -1 4 ,shoe1 1 -1 4 ,shoe-tie1 1 -1 4 ,slippers1 1 4 ,stick1 1 4 ,umbrella1 1 4 ,undress1 to1 4 ,veil1 1 4 7#c7 ,,character ,,and ,,conduct ,bashful1 to be1 4 ,benevolence1 1 4 ,braggadocio1 1 -1 4 ,brave1 1 -1 -4 ,careless1 1 -4 ,cautious1 1 -4 ,clever1 1 -4 ,cowardly1 1 -1 -4 ,cunning1 1 -1 -4 ,dandy1 1 -1 4 ,diligent1 1 -4 ,foolish1 1 -1 -4 ,gambler1 1 -1 4 ,gentle1 1 -1 -4 ,handsome1 1 -4 ,haughty1 to be1 4 ,high-minded1 1 -4 ,lazy1 1 -1 -4 ,learned1 1 -4 ,parsimonious1 1 -1 -4 ,prig1 1 4 ,prudent1 1 -1 -4 ,rash1 1 -4 ,religious1 1 -4 ,rude1 1 -1 -4 ,sensible1 1 -4 ,shameless1 1 -4 ,snort1 to1 4 ,squander1 to1 4 ,superstitious1 1 -4 ,swindler1 1 -1 4 ,thrifty1 1 -1 -4 ,ugly1 1 -1 -4 ,vain1 1 -4 ,well-mannered1 1 -1 -4 ,worship1 to1 4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,house ,,and ,,its ,,belongings ,basket1 1 -1 4 ,bath1 1 -1 1 or 1 4 ,bed1 1 1 or 1 4 ,bed-clothes1 1 4 ,bedroom1 1 -1 4 ,bell1 1 -1 4 ,bellows1 1 -1 4 ,book1 1 -1 4 ,bottle1 1 4 ,box1 1 -1 4 ,bread1 loaf of1 1 4 ,bread1 roll of1 1 4 ,bust1 1 4 ,cage1 1 4 ,candlestick1 1 4 ,carpet1 1 -1 4 ,cellar1 1 4 ,chair1 1 4 ,chest1 1 4 ,chimney1 1 4 ,cistern1 1 4 ,clock1 1 4 ,closet1 1 4 ,cook1 1 4 ,court-yard1 1 4 ,cover1 or lid1 1 -1 4 ,cradle1 1 4 ,cup1 1 -1 4 ,curtain1 1 -1 4 ,dining-room1 1 4 ,door1 1 4 ,ewer1 1 4 ,fire1 1 4 ,flask1 1 4 ,floor1 1 4 ,foot-stool1 1 4 ,foundation1 1 4 ,garret1 1 4 ,hearth1 1 4 ,ink1 1 -1 4 ,inkstand1 1 2 1 4 ,jar1 1 4 ,kettle1 1 -1 4 ,kitchen1 1 4 ,lamp1 1 -1 4 ,lavatory1 1 4 ,library1 1 4 ,lobby1 1 4 ,lumber-room1 1 4 ,maid-servant1 1 4 ,master of the house1 1 -1 4 ,mirror1 1 4 ,mistress1 1 4 ,nurse1 1 1 4 ,pail1 1 4 ,pane1 1 -1 4 ,paper1 1 -1 4 ,parlour1 1 4 ,pen1 1 4 ,pencil1 1 -1 4 ,picture1 1 -1 4 ,pillow1 1 4 ,poker1 1 4 ,porch1 1 -1 4 ,portrait1 1 -1 4 ,pot1 an earthen1 1 4 ,roof1 1 4 ,room1 1 -1 4 ,screen1 1 4 ,servant1 1 -1 4 ,shake-down1 1 -1 4 ,shelf1 1 4 ,shovel1 1 4 ,sofa1 1 4 ,stairs1 1 -1 4 ,statue1 1 -1 4 ,storeroom1 1 4 ,story1 1 4 ,study1 a1 1 4 ,table1 1 4 ,tongs1 1 4 ,towel1 1 4 ,vessel1 1 4 ,wardrobe1 1 4 ,wash-hand basin1 1 4 ,window1 1 -1 4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,town ,,and ,,its ,,belongings ,abbey1 1 4 ,advocate1 1 4 ,alderman1 1 4 ,alley1 see ,lane4 ,baker1 1 4 ,bank1 1 4 ,barracks1 1 1 or 1 4 ,bazaar1 1 4 ,beadle1 see ,verger4 ,bell1 1 -1 4 ,bishop1 1 4 ,bookseller1 1 -1 4 ,bookseller's shop1 1 4 ,brick1 1 4 ,bridge1 1 4 ,butcher1 1 4 ,canal1 1 4 ,carpenter1 1 4 ,castle1 1 -1 1 or 1 4 ,cathedral1 1 4 ,chapel1 1 4 ,church1 1 4 ,churchyard1 1 4 ,clergyman1 1 4 ,concert1 1 4 ,confectioner1 1 4 ,council1 1 4 ,councillor1 1 -1 4 ,court-house1 1 4 ,deacon1 1 4 ,dispensary1 1 4 ,draper1 1 -1 4 ,elder1 1 4 ,grocer1 1 -1 4 ,groom1 1 4 ,horse1 1 4 ,hotel1 1 4 ,house1 1 4 ,infirmary1 1 4 ,judge1 1 -1 1 or 1 4 ,lamp1 1 -1 4 ,lane1 or close1 1 4 ,laundry1 1 4 ,market-place1 1 4 ,mason1 1 4 ,mayor1 1 1 or 1 4 ,monument1 1 4 ,night-watch1 1 -1 4 ,palace1 1 4 ,park1 1 4 ,pastry-cook1 1 4 ,pillar1 1 4 ,policeman1 1 1 or 1 -1 4 ,poor-house1 1 4 ,post-office1 1 4 ,preacher1 1 -1 4 ,prison1 1 4 ,provost1 1 -1 4 ,railway1 1 4 ,revenue1 1 4 ,scavenger1 1 4 ,school1 1 4 ,shoemaker1 1 4 ,shop1 1 4 ,station1 1 4 ,statue1 1 -1 4 ,steeple1 1 4 ,store1 1 4 ,street1 1 4 ,suburbs1 1 4 ,tailor1 1 4 ,taxes1 1 4 ,town-clerk1 1 -1 4 ,town-hall1 1 1 or 1 4 ,university1 1 4 ,verger1 1 4 ,waiter1 1 -1 4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,country ,,and ,,its ,,belongings ,adder1 1 4 ,apple1 1 -1 4 ,ass1 1 and 4 ,barn1 1 -1 4 ,bay1 1 4 ,bay tree1 1 4 ,bean1 1 4 ,beech1 1 4 ,beetle1 1 4 ,berry1 1 -1 4 ,birch1 1 4 ,bird1 1 -1 and 4 ,blossom1 1 -1 4 ,branch1 1 4 ,brier1 1 -1 4 ,brook1 1 1 4 ,bull1 1 4 ,cabbage1 1 4 ,calf1 1 4 ,clay1 1 4 ,clod1 1 4 ,clover1 1 4 ,cock1 or hen1 1 -1 or 4 ,colt1 1 4 ,cottage1 1 -1 4 ,cow1 1 1 4 ,cow-house1 1 4 ,dike1 1 -1 4 ,ditch1 1 4 ,dog1 1 -1 and 4 ,dove-cot1 1 -1 4 ,drain1 1 4 ,duck1 1 -1 4 ,dung1 1 -1 4 ,dunghill1 1 -1 4 ,farmer1 1 4 ,fence1 1 4 ,fern1 1 -1 1 or 1 4 ,ferry1 1 4 ,field1 1 4 ,fir1 1 -1 4 ,flower1 1 -1 4 ,foam1 1 4 ,fountain1 1 4 ,fox1 1 -1 4 ,frog1 1 4 ,furrow1 1 4 ,garden1 1 4 ,goat1 1 4 ,goose1 1 -1 4 ,gooseberry1 1 4 ,grape1 1 -1 4 dried1 1 -1 4 ,grass1 1 4 ,grove1 1 -1 4 ,harvest1 1 4 ,hawk1 1 -1 4 ,heath1 1 4 ,hedgehog1 1 4 ,hill1 1 4 ,horse1 1 4 ,hunter1 1 4 ,ivy1 1 4 ,lake1 1 4 ,lamb1 1 4 ,lane1 1 4 ,laurel1 1 4 ,leaf1 1 4 ,lily1 1 4 white1 1 4 ,marsh1 1 4 ,meadow1 1 -1 4 ,mine1 1 4 ,mole1 1 -1 4 ,mountain1 1 4 ,mud1 1 4 ,mule1 1 4 ,nursery1 1 4 ,oak1 1 1 4 ,ox1 1 1 1 4 ,pea1 1 4 ,peacock1 1 -1 1 or 1 4 ,pear1 1 4 ,pen1 or fold1 1 4 ,pig1 1 1 and 4 ,pigeon1 1 4 ,pig-sty1 1 4 ,plough1 1 4 ,potato1 1 4 ,precipice1 1 4 ,rabbit1 1 4 ,rake1 1 4 ,ravine1 1 -1 4 ,river1 1 4 ,rock1 1 4 ,root1 1 4 ,rose1 1 4 ,rush1 1 4 ,sand1 1 4 ,settler1 1 4 ,sheep1 1 4 ,shrub1 1 4 ,slope1 1 -1 4 ,spade1 1 4 ,stable1 1 -1 4 ,straw1 1 4 ,strawberry1 1 4 ,thicket1 1 -1 4 ,thorn1 1 4 ,toad1 1 4 ,torrent1 1 1 or 1 4 ,tree1 1 4 ,trout1 1 4 ,valley1 1 -1 4 ,village1 1 -1 4 ,wag-tail1 1 4 ,well1 1 -1 4 ,worm1 1 -1 4 ,,the ,,end ,printed by ,r4 ,r4 ,,clark1 ,edinburgh