,transcriber's ,note ,italics are indicated with underscores1 boldface with equals signs1 and superscripts with text or text4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,commercial ,,salt ,,company',s ,,brine ,,reservoirs ,,at ,,rode ,,heath1 ,,cheshire1 ,showing the ,brine being pumped up from a depth of #bej feet ,frontispiece ,,pitman',s ,,common ,,commodities ,,and ,,industries ,,salt ,,and ,,the ,,salt ,,industry ,,by ,,albert ,f4 ,,calvert1 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,author ,,of 8,,salt ,,in ,,cheshire02 8,,the ,,salt ,,deposits ,,of ,,the ,,world02 ,,etc4 ,,london ,,sir ,,isaac ,,pitman ,,sons1 ,,ltd41 #a ,,amen ,,corner1 ,e4,c4#d ,,bath1 ,,melbourne ,,and ,,new ,,york ,,printed ,,by ,,sir ,,isaac ,,pitman ,,sons1 ,,ltd41 ,,london1 ,,bath1 ,,melbourne ,,and ,,new ,,york ,,preface ,the fact that salt is almost universally distributed over the surface of the globe1 and has been worked in a number of countries from time immemorial1 will explain the impossibility1 in the limited space at my disposal1 to consider the mineral and its manufacture comprehensively as the staple of a world-industry4 ,the salt deposits of ,china1 ,india1 ,russia1 ,japan1 and ,austria would each require a volume of the size of this if the subject was to be even adequately represented4 ,i have1 therefore1 dared to assume that the public will accept a book practically restricted to one phase of the matter1 and allow me to concentrate upon our ,cheshire salt district and its industry4 ,caesar's salinators1 who found the natives of ,cheshire procuring brine from little natural springs in the neighbourhoods of ,northwich and ,nantwich1 taught them to boil the brine and precipitate the salt crystals in open pans set over open fires1 and in the following #a1gjj years all the salt of ,cheshire was manufactured by that process4 ,with the discovery of rock salt in #afgj1 mining was introduced1 and for another #bjj years both rock salt and brine salt were produced4 ,but from causes which ,i have described1 the mines collapsed in rapid succession from about the middle of the nineteenth century1 and fresh water breaking into the abandoned workings converted them into the brine reservoirs from which the salt-men have since obtained their inexhaustible supplies of brine4 ,but1 although the salt industry is one of the oldest in the country1 it has received scant treatment at the hands of authors1 and this is accounted for by the fact that the trade has been conducted by a comparatively small group of men who have resisted all attempts of outsiders to participate in either their secrets or their profits4 ,the desire for information has been consistently rebuked1 and practical details relating to borings1 working expenses1 levels of brine1 and quantities raised have been jealously concealed4 ,it was my good fortune to be able to prosecute most of my researches on the spot1 and to supplement the knowledge gained from books1 pamphlets1 scientific papers and periodicals1 with material contained in private records and documents placed at my disposal1 and information obtained by word of mouth4 ,there is romance in every industry1 and a modicum of it enters into the development of the ,cheshire salt trade2 but for the most part the story is a chronicle of bitter struggles to maintain a monopoly1 of money thrown away1 of produce sold at ruinous loss1 of obsolete methods stubbornly persisted with1 and of hardship and injustice callously inflicted--in a word1 of the sordid determination of the salt magnates to crush competition and control prices4 ,the methods of the ,dark ,ages survived both in the manufacture and the marketing of the produce1 and the industry has more than once been reduced almost to ruin through the war of extermination in which for so many years the salt-men were engaged4 ,it is not a pretty story1 but it is one of unusual interest2 and ,i have endeavoured in the telling of it to retain the interest and preserve the essential facts4 ,,albert ,f4 ,,calvert4 ,,royston1 ,,eton ,,avenue1 ,n4 ,w4 ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page ,,preface iii ,i4 ,,the ,,chemistry ,,and ,,properties ,,of ,,salt #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,the ,,salt ,,industry #h ,,iii4 ,,the ,,cheshire ,,wiches #cb ,,iv4 ,,development ,,of ,,brine ,,processes #ef ,v4 ,,formation ,,and ,,extent ,,of ,,the ,,cheshire ,,deposits #hc ,,vi4 ,,the ,,cheshire ,,subsidences #ig ,,vii4 ,,latest ,,methods ,,of ,,salt-,,making #abe ,,viii4 ,,the ,,salt ,,market #adb ,,illustrations ,,page ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,commercial ,,salt ,,company',s ,,brine ,,reservoirs ,,at ,,rode ,,heath1 ,,cheshire ,frontispiece ,,ancient ,,salt ,,works #ac ,,ancient ,,salt ,,works #ai ,,wieliezka ,,salt ,,mines #ba ,,slanicu1 ,,rumania1 ,,interior ,,of ,,salt ,,mine #be ,,wieliezka ,,salt ,,mines #bi ,,subsidence ,,of ,,land1 ,,northwich #da ,,dunkirk ,,subsidence1 ,,northwich #di ,,the ,,canal-,,burst ,,and ,,landslip ,,near ,,northwich ,,in #aijg #ei ,a ,,salt ,,store-,,shed #fg ,,witton ,,brook1 ,,submergence ,,of ,,agricultural ,,land #ge ,,working ,,in ,,dangerous ,,ground ,,after ,,subsidence1 ,,dunkirk ,,lake1 ,,northwich #ha ,,street-,,raising ,,in ,,progress--,,high ,,street1 ,,northwich #hi ,,this ,,road ,,was ,,raised ,,twenty ,,feet ,,in ,,twenty ,,years4 ,,none ,,of ,,these ,,buildings ,,is ,,now ,,standing--,,northwich #ic ,,interior ,,penny',s ,,lane ,,mine1 ,,northwich #ii ,,remarkable ,,subsidence ,,in ,,northwich #aaa ,a ,,row ,,of ,,open ,,pans #aai ,,illustration ,,of ,,four ,,scott ,,patent ,,double ,,effect ,,salt ,,evaporators1 ,,with ,,automatic ,,salt ,,dischargers1 ,,salt ,,conveyors1 ,,and ,,hydro-,,extractors #aca ,,the ,,hodgkinson ,,patent ,,salt-,,making ,,plant #acg ,,salt ,,and ,,the ,,salt ,,industry ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,chemistry ,,and ,,properties ,,of ,,salt 8,salt0 was the name which was given in the first place to the residue left by the evaporation of sea-water1 but the designation was subsequently employed to include the other substances held in solution in the sea1 and1 at a still later period1 the name was still further extended by chemists to cover all the combinations of a base and an acid which are now classed as 8salts40 ,sodium1 or sodic chloride ,na ,cl1 which is now distinguished as 8common salt10 is an example of the simplest type of chemical salt1 its molecule consisting of one atom of the metal sodium combined with one atom of the gas chlorine1 both sodium and chlorine being mono-valent elements1 i4e41 one atom of each being able to unite with1 or displace from a compound1 one atom of hydrogen4 ,rock-salt is rarely found in an absolutely pure anhydrous state1 in which it is colourless and perfectly transparent4 ,in most rock-salt mines such specimens are regarded as curiosities1 but in the deposits of ,nevada and of ,wieliezka1 in ,hungary 7where the salt1 containing #ajj per cent4 ,na,cl1 is the purest in the world71 large masses of quite transparent salt are encountered4 ,the white opaque mass which the ordinary person is accustomed to think of as rock-salt1 is the purified product of commerce4 ,the colour of sea-water is affected by its percentage of salt1 the colour changing from blue to green as the quantity of salt decreases2 but sea-salt is generally white1 although not transparent owing to the presence of minute particles of water1 air1 etc41 in its intercrystalline spaces4 ,but rock-salt is never more than whitish inclining to grey1 and1 as a general rule1 it is coloured by earth or mineral impurities4 ,the ,salt ,range in the ,panjab yields a substance that varies from pink to red1 according to the different quantities of iron present as impurities4 ,that found at ,marston1 in ,cheshire1 varies from yellow to red and brownish-red in colour4 ,small blocks of transparent salt of a deep sapphire blue are occasionally found in the ,wieliezka mines4 ,the colour disappears on heating1 and when the salt is ground to powder4 ,it is attributed by some chemists to the presence of subchloride of sodium1 by others to the presence of thin cavities having parallel surfaces with gas inclusions4 ,common salt1 which is classed as 8sweet0 to distinguish it from the bitter-tasting salts of magnesium1 has a peculiar saline taste which gains in pungency with refinement1 and in its pure state is odourless4 ,in solution1 the smallest quantity perceptible to the taste is about #ae grains to the litre1 roughly1 #fh grains to the gallon4 ,common salt is highly soluble in cold water1 and rather more so in hot water1 but while it dissolves slightly in alcohol1 neither ether nor oil has any effect upon it4 ,one hundred parts of distilled water at #fj ,f4 7#aee ,c47 will dissolve #cei parts of chemically pure ,na,cl4 ,a saturated solution of common salt1 therefore1 contains #bfdb per cent4 ,na,cl4 ,the increase of solubility of ,na,cl in proportion to the rise in temperature1 calculated by ,gay ,lussac and ,poggiale1 is particularly marked between #ajj deg4 and #aaj deg41 when boiling point is passed1 the increase amounting to #gd parts of #aj deg41 as compared with an increase of one #aji parts between freezing and boiling points4 ,in a double solution of ,na,cl and some other more soluble salt1 as sodium or magnesium sulphate or magnesium chloride1 the solubility of sodium chloride is very greatly reduced4 ,the evaporation of brine is slightly less rapid than that of ordinary pure water1 and the boiling point of brine varies with the amount of ,na,cl present in solution1 from #ajjba deg4 when only #a per cent4 ,na,cl is present1 to #ajhii deg4 when the solution contains #bid per cent4 of ,na,cl4 ,a saturated solution of refined table-salt 7i4e41 a solution containing #bfd per cent4 ,na,cl7 has1 at normal temperatures1 specific gravity #ab4 ,salt crystals have specific gravity #bafg at a temperature of #ag4 ,the salt which separates at high temperature contains no water of crystallization4 ,but when the thermometer falls much below -#ae ,c4 the crystals have the composition ,na,cl4#b;,h,o and are prismatic in shape4 ,when heated1 these give up their water of crystallization and take the simple composition ,na,cl4 ,pure sodium chloride is not deliquescent 7i4e41 it does not dissolve and become liquid by absorbing moisture from the air71 but1 owing to the presence of minute quantities of magnesium chloride 7one of the most deliquescent substances known71 all except the most refined table-salt appears to be so to a slight extent4 ,even the finest table-salt is slightly hygroscopic1 its crystals absorbing as much as #f per cent4 moisture from a damp atmosphere4 ,in some of the mines of ,cheshire and ,austria the very fine saline dust that is diffused through the atmosphere is found by the miners to be extremely irritating to the eyes and lungs1 but all the more usual kinds of salt are sufficiently hygroscopic to indicate plainly the condition of the atmosphere4 ,sodic chloride melts at a very high temperature1 and at a still higher temperature it evaporates1 while at white heat it forms thick clouds4 ,it would be supposed that in the same ocean areas1 the proportion of the salt contents1 except where marked differences in temperature occur1 would be fairly constant1 but it has been demonstrated that1 even where masses of water of varying densities are superimposed upon each other1 no very complete process of diffusion takes place between them1 and practical salt-makers are familiar with differences in density which occur in different parts of the same salt pan4 ,the hardness of a mineral depends upon the degree of cohesion of its particles2 but although no unit of hardness has been determined upon1 and therefore no accurate method of measuring hardness has been arrived at1 minerals have been approximately classed in a comparative table of ten substances1 of which talc is placed at one end and diamond at the other4 ,in this table1 rock salt appears in the second place1 and its hardness is estimated at #be4 ,its cohesion or power of supporting pressure is1 therefore1 about twice as great as that of bricks1 and the practical advantage of this property is fully employed in rock-salt mines1 where galleries and roofs are supported upon pillars of salt4 ,common salt is a crystalline substance which crystallizes in the ,isometric1 ,monometric1 or ,tesseral system4 ,that is to say1 each crystal has three equal perpendicular planes of symmetry and six equal diagonal planes of symmetry4 ,the crystals generally form cubes having six rectangular and equilateral faces4 ,when these form on the surface of brine the sides often collapse1 giving the distinctive 8hopper-shaped0 forms4 ,more rarely the crystals form in octahedra1 having eight equal1 equilateral triangular faces1 or in long needles under certain modifying conditions4 ,the hollow quadrangular pyramidal form with an irregular inner surface arranged in steps1 which manufactured salt generally takes1 is the result of continuous depositions of crystals from a constantly saturated solution of brine during a considerable period1 being superimposed layer after layer upon each other4 ,in his exhaustive explanation of these phenomena1 given in his ,principles of ,chemistry1 ,mendeleff says3 8,if a solution of sodium chloride be slowly heated from above1 where the evaporation takes place1 the upper layer will become saturated before the lower and cooler layers1 and therefore crystallization will begin on the surface1 and the crystals first formed will float--having also dried from above--on the surface until they become quite soaked4 ,being heavier than the solution the crystals are partially immersed in it1 and the following crystallization1 also proceeding on the surface1 will only form crystals by the side of the original crystals4 ,a funnel is formed in this manner4 ,it will be borne on the surface like a boat 7if the liquid be quiescent7 because it will grow more from the upper edges4 ,we can thus understand this1 at first sight1 strange funnel-form of crystallized salt4 ,to explain why the crystallization under the above conditions begins at the surface and not at the lower edges1 it must be mentioned that the specific gravity of a crystal of sodium chloride is #baf1 and that a solution saturated at #be contains #bfg per cent4 of salt and has a specific gravity #abjjd at #be2 at #ae a saturated solution contains #bfe per cent4 of salt and has a specific gravity #abjc at #ae4 ,hence1 a solution saturated at a higher temperature is specifically lighter1 notwithstanding the greater amount of salt it contains4 ,with many substances1 surface crystallization cannot take place1 because their solubility increases more rapidly with the temperature than their specific gravity decreases4 ,in this case the saturated solution will always be in the lower layers1 where also the crystallization will take place40 ,the acoustic properties of common salt render it an excellent medium for the transmission of sound1 and as it possesses in a high degree the power of staying decomposition in dead organisms1 it is1 perhaps1 the commonest of all preservatives4 ,it is largely owing to its preservative property that common salt is an absolute necessity to the life of man and the higher animals1 from a quarter to half an ounce a day being sufficient to prevent the putrefaction of food in the digestive tract in the case of an adult4 ,in agriculture1 salt is not only valuable as a destroyer of weeds and insect life1 but used sparingly and with knowledge1 it forms an excellent manure2 while its more strictly chemical value in the manufacture of soda1 chlorine1 etc41 causes it to play an important part in many branches of industry4 ,even at the highest temperatures1 heat cannot effect the decomposition of common salt4 ,at a red heat1 pure sodic chloride melts and becomes liquid1 and if cooled again1 a solid crystalline mass is formed4 ,ordinary salt fuses at a lower temperature and volatilizes when heated in an open vessel4 ,but even in a closed vessel the purest salt will volatilize at a white heat4 ,when gases or fluids are present in the crystalline cavities1 heat causes decrepitation4 ,on the subject of the composition of brine1 it is only necessary to add that it is so extremely variable that no two districts produce brine springs of the same strength and density1 while the composition of ocean brine varies not only from ocean to ocean1 but also for different parts and different depths in the same plane of water1 and with the different distances from the mouths of large rivers4 ,in the ,cheshire district1 the ,brine test or ,salinometer is graduated to show ounces in the gallon2 but the gallon is the old ,winchester ,gallon of #bca cub4 in4 and not the ,imperial ,gallon of #bggbgd cub4 in4 ,these are related to each other in the proportion of #aj to #ab1 therefore the ,imperial ,gallon will contain more than the old gallon4 ,fully saturated brine by the ,salinometer contains #db oz4 7#b lb4 #aj oz471 therefore1 in the ,imperial ,gallon #ejd oz4 ,as brines vary from #b lb4 #h oz41 or #dj oz4 old measure1 or #c lb4 or #dh oz4 ,imperial to #b lb4 #aj oz41 or #c lb4 #b oz4 ,imperial1 so #a1jjj gallons1 which has been chosen as the measure for assessing brine-pumpers--under the ,brine ,pumping ,compensation for ,subsidence ,act of #ahia--will contain under the old measurement #b1fbe lb4 and under the ,imperial #c1abe lb4 of salt4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,the ,,salt ,,industry ,salt1 being existent in all animal and vegetable life1 is coeval with life itself2 it was present in the first herbage which gave nourishment to the first beast that1 in its turn1 became food for the first omnivorous man4 ,in the beginning1 man consumed the saline essences that were required to preserve his body in health1 in the form of sodium chloride1 which he absorbed in the uncooked flesh of animals1 birds1 and fishes1 and in raw green-foods4 ,the herbivorous animals were equally dependent upon salt1 and1 finding it in only infinitesimal quantities in the grasses upon which they fed1 instinct directed them to the sea swamp pasturage and to the outcropping salt deposits4 ,so long as man's diet consisted of uncooked foods1 his fresh meat provided him with a sufficiency of salt1 but directly he employed a cook-pot in the preparation of his food1 the boiling processes denuded it of #gj per cent4 of its natural salt1 and it became necessary for him to make up the deficiency4 ,it must have been at this period that his herds directed his attention to the 8salt licks0 from which they satisfied their own saline wants1 and enabled him to secure salt as a distinct and separate condiment4 ,it is probable that1 from the ,palaeolithic ,age down to the time of the early ,roman writers1 man was content to season his victuals by the simple process of licking a piece of rock-salt1 and we have no record to indicate the period when salt was first employed in the cooking of food4 ,from varieties of grain and fragments of pottery that have been discovered in the dwellings of the cave-men of ,belgium1 it is supposed that salt was employed in the cooking of wheat and barley some five thousand years ago4 ,thirteen centuries before ,christ1 fish preserved in salt was eaten in ,ancient ,troy1 and1 according to ,herodotus1 the ,egyptians not only salted ducks1 quails1 and a species of sardine which inhabited the ,nile1 but also employed salt or brine as an antiseptic in preparing the bodies of the illustrious dead for the process of embalming4 ,we cannot determine the period in which salt came to be regarded as a symbol of sanctity or entered into the religious ceremonials of the ancients4 ,we know that in the ,levitical ,law1 promulgated in #aejj ,b4,c41 every meat-offering was seasoned with salt1 and salt is referred to in the 8,verbal ,instructions0 which were enunciated by the founder of ,buddhism1 five centuries later4 ,by the time of ,pythagoras1 about #fjj ,b4,c41 salt was regarded as the emblem of justice1 but who shall say when the ,arabs first employed it as a token of friendship1 or the ,chinese offered their first oblation to ,phelo1 the salt deity of ,celestial worship8 ,we read in ,herodotus that caravans brought salt from ,north ,africa1 and ,schleiden tells us that the priests of ,egypt preferred the salt of ,hammomen to that evaporated from sea-water2 but these references do not help us to fix the date when salt became an article of commerce1 or tell us when or where or by whom it was first produced in a manufactured form4 ,it was rock-salt which the ,egyptians procured from the salt basin of the ,sahara1 and rock-salt from the margin of the ,red ,sea was the variety that is referred to by the compilers of ,biblical history4 ,but1 although the natural crude product was probably the sole form in which it was known in the ,western world by the ,ancients1 and through the vaunted golden epochs of ,babylon1 ,byzantium1 and ,greece1 the ,chinese--who had invented explosives before the ,romans had perfected the catapult1 and had learnt to navigate by the compass while yet the mariners of the ,mediterranean were dependent upon the stars and their wits--had probably been familiar for ages with a salt manufactured by a process1 the origin of which they had forgotten1 but the practice of which was to remain in operation1 almost without revision1 for further thousands of years4 ,the first mention of salt in the ,chinese language is found in the annals of the ,emperor ,yu 7#bbje-baig ,b4,c471 who ordered the province of ,shantung to supply the ,court with that commodity4 ,during the ,chow dynasty 7#aabb-bdi ,b4,c47 the administration of the salt industry was conducted by ,court officials1 but the ,crown monopoly of salt was not instituted until the days of ,kuan ,chung1 who died #fde ,b4,c4 ,between ,a4,d4 #efa and ,a4,d4 #ehc1 references to various taxes on salt lead us to the conclusion that salt was produced at that period from sea-water1 salt marshes1 and salt springs1 and at the present day salt is produced in ,china in three varieties--sea-salt1 lake-salt1 and well-salt4 ,as the success of the boiling operation 7which antedated by unnumbered centuries the comparatively modern industry of extracting salt from sea-water by evaporation in the sun7 depends mainly on the condition of the brine and the time allowed in each stage of the process1 the details were the subject of many series of experiments in the pursuit of the perfect system1 but since about the twelfth century the following method has been consistently followed by the ,chinese salt-makers4 ,the whole of the sea-shore in the neighbourhood of the salt works is measured out and divided into a number of small1 regular squares2 the surface layer in each is dug out2 the bottom of each pit thus formed is then strewn with straw1 and the earth that has been removed is thrown back upon it4 ,when these brine ovens1 as they were called--which are shaped like chests1 #i ft4 long1 #b ft4 broad1 and #c ft4 deep--are prepared1 they are soaked with sea-water4 ,the sea-water in the interior of the ovens forms brine1 and flows through little ditches into wells which have been dug for its reception4 ,from these wells1 which are about #h ft4 deep1 the brine is drawn out and carried to the boiling ovens4 ,these brine ovens are furnished with large evaporating pans1 three to five of which are attached to each oven4 ,the boiling takes place at once and is continued without interruption1 from #aa p4m4 until #aj4cj on the following morning1 and during this period the salt is taken out six times4 ,as soon as the salt begins to harden1 pods of the tsao-chio tree are thrown into the pans1 in order that the particles of salt may combine more quickly1 and as soon as it is precipitated1 it is removed and the pans are refilled with fresh brine4 ,on an average1 #fjj caths of the best brine yield #adj caths of pure salt1 which is produced in three qualities and colours--white1 dark1 and yellow4 ,the white is the best1 the dark is less esteemed1 and the yellow1 which is much inferior1 has a bitter taste4 ,since the fifteenth century1 the ,chinese have produced salt by solar evaporation of salt water1 according to a simple but satisfactory process4 ,pits are dug on the sea-shore and bamboos are laid crosswise over them4 ,the whole is covered with double mats1 and sand is strewn over the top4 ,every morning and evening the covering of sand is soaked with sea-water by the tide1 and the salt liquor finds its way into the pits4 ,as soon as the water has receded1 the salt workers appear with flaming bundles of straw1 to test the saline character of the moisture1 which is not regarded as fully impregnated unless the salt vapour arising from the pits extinguishes the fire4 ,the brine thus produced is drawn off and run into secondary or crystallizing ponds1 the level of which is set a foot or so below the first series of pits4 ,the secondary ponds1 which are smaller and of less depth1 are provided with carefully-rolled1 hard clay bottoms4 ,when a sufficiently thick crystalline deposit has been formed at the bottom of the secondary ponds1 workmen1 starting at the centre1 scrape the bottoms1 working outward spirally and finishing at the corner of the pond1 where the coarse crystalline product is collected and allowed to drain4 ,when drained and dried1 the salt is ready for transfer to the market4 ,in ,japan1 where the manufacture of sea-salt by boiling or by spontaneous evaporation was introduced more than two thousand years ago1 the process is similar to that employed in ,china1 but in some parts of the kingdom the evaporation basin generally employed in solar evaporation is dispensed with4 ,in the latter method1 a level field is formed close to the sea and sprinkled over with fine sand4 ,sea-water is then poured into the field1 and1 after evaporation of the water1 the salt crystallizes and adheres to the sand4 ,the mixture of salt and sand is next thrown into a kind of extracting apparatus and sea-water is poured upon it1 whereupon the salt is dissolved and filtered in the form of a thick salt liquid4 ,in other ,japanese salt fields the concentrated liquor is poured into a crystallization basin prepared for the purpose1 and1 upon evaporation of the water by the sun's heat1 the salt crystallizes4 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,salt ,,works ,a4 ,wooden ,ladle4 ,b4 ,cask4 ,c4 ,tub4 ,d4 ,the ,master4 ,e4,assistant4 ,f4 ,the ,master's ,wife4 ,g4 ,wooden ,spade4 ,h4 ,boards4 ,i4 ,salt-baskets4 ,k4 ,hoe4 ,l4 ,rake4 ,m4 ,straw4 ,n4 ,bowls4 ,o4 ,bucket for ,blood4 ,p4 ,beer ,tankard4 ,from an ,old ,print ,published in #aeef ,in ,italy most of the salt is made by solar evaporation4 ,the salt grounds1 which occupy extensive areas1 are furnished with reservoirs for the preparation of the sea-water by saturation and for the deposit of salt4 ,the former are known as condensers and the latter as crystallizing beds1 and in both the work is carried on by solar evaporation only4 ,every salt-ground1 or salt-garden1 as it is called1 has a feeding channel for the inflow of sea-water1 a drainage channel1 and a network of internal channels at low and high levels1 as are required for immission or drainage purposes4 ,in ,portugal and ,spain1 salt is made by solar evaporation from sea-water1 and although there are differences between the several methods1 they apply only to details regarding the areas of the salt-grounds or the sizes of the reservoirs4 ,let it be clearly understood that all commercial salt is produced either from the sea or from rock-salt4 ,sea-water is evaporated to precipitate its salt either by the heat of the sun or by artificial heat4 ,rock-salt is mined and refined for market purposes1 and it is resolved into brine from which the salt is extracted by solar heat or the process of boiling1 but whether the salines are obtained from salt lakes or from natural brine springs1 or are prepared by flooding salt deposits with water and pumping it out in the form of fully saturated brine1 rock-salt is the foundation for them all4 ,and in all the processes of manufacture the basic principle is the same1 and consists of applying heat to drive off the liquid which contains the salt and collecting the crystalline deposit which remains4 ,the principle of what is described as the boiling process is fundamental and unalterable1 and for thousands of years the plant and utensils employed in the process underwent no material change4 ,since the sixteenth century in ,england1 variations in the shape1 size1 and capacity of the pans have been introduced1 and experiments have been made in the re-arrangement of the receptacles and redistribution of the furnaces1 while coal fuel has been substituted for straw and wood1 but it is only in the past twenty-five years that any material success has been achieved in the matter of economizing and accelerating the process of production1 controlling the heat in order to regulate the grain of the salt1 producing more than one grade of salt in one operation1 or of automatically and continuously collecting the salt as it is precipitated from the brine4 ,the earliest exact and detailed description that we have of salt-making appears in ,de ,re ,metallica1 a famous work by ,georgius ,agricola1 of ,saxony1 which was published in #aeef1 and which for the following #ahj years1 remained the standard text-book on mining and metallurgy4 ,in ,chapter ,,xii of this work1 the preparation of which occupied ,agricola for a quarter of a century1 he gives the exhaustive particulars relating to the boiling process from which the ensuing account is compiled4 ,after explaining the method by which sea-water is received into the first series of prepared trenches1 in which the first stage of evaporation takes place and is thereafter carried into the second basins1 where it is thickened by further evaporation to the constituency in which it is ready to be converted into salt1 ,agricola tells us that the liquor is then boiled in pans placed in sheds arranged for the purpose4 ,each shed is divided into three parts4 ,in the first part is stored the firewood or straw1 and in the second is the fireplace on which is placed the caldron4 ,to the right of the caldron is a tub for the brine that is to be converted into salt1 and on the left is a bench upon which the salt is placed before being removed to the third compartment1 where it is moulded into cones or tablets and left to dry in the warm air4 ,the fireplaces are made #h ft4 long and #g ft4 wide2 if wood is burned in them they are nearly #d ft4 high1 but if straw fuel is used1 they are #f ft4 in height4 ,the caldrons are rectangular1 #h ft4 long and #g ft4 wide1 and #f in4 deep4 ,they are made of sheets of iron or lead1 8not very thick so that the water is heated more quickly by the fire and is boiled away rapidly40 ,to prevent the brine from leaking out at the points where the metal plates are fastened with rivets1 the caldrons are smeared over with a cement of ox-liver1 or ox-blood1 mixed with ashes4 ,as soon as the first dipperful of brine is poured from the brine tub into the caldron1 the wood or straw is ignited in the fireplace4 ,if the firewood consists of faggots or brushwood1 the salt will be white1 but if straw is burned the salt is not infrequently blackish from the sparks which rise with the smoke and settle upon the water4 ,in order to accelerate the condensation of the brine1 the salt-maker adds and mixes into it bullock's blood1 or calf's blood1 or buck's blood1 which dissolves and is distributed into all the corners of the caldron4 ,when the boiling water seems to be mixed with scum1 it is skimmed with a ladle1 and from the firing of the furnace to the skimming of the boiling scum is the work of half an hour4 ,after this it boils down for another quarter of an hour1 and thereafter it begins to condense into salt4 ,when the brine commences to thicken with the heat1 it is stirred assiduously with a wooden spatula1 and then allowed to boil for an hour4 ,at this stage beer is added to the contents of the caldron1 which is protected from the wind by boards1 and the salt is then withdrawn with a shovel and thrown into baskets4 ,the remaining brine is allowed to boil for another three-quarters of an hour1 when the salt is again removed and placed in the drying compartment4 ,in this manner the salters alternately boil the brine and collect the salt1 8day and night1 with the exception only of the annual feast days40 ,no caldron is able to stand the fire for more than half a year4 ,new caldrons are washed out three times in the first two weeks1 and afterwards once a week4 ,in this manner the incrustations fall from the bottom of the caldron1 and if this is not done the salt would have to be made more slowly over a fiercer fire1 which not only requires more brine but burns the plates of the caldron4 ,if any cracks make their appearance in the caldron1 they are filled up with cement4 ,the salt made during the first two weeks in a new caldron is usually inferior in quality1 being stained by the rust at the bottom where incrustations have not yet adhered4 ,agricola's description is full of technical exactness in regard to those parts of the apparatus and the process which are of comparatively insignificant interest1 but it is1 unfortunately1 silent about details on which fuller information would be useful4 ,he tells us the capacity of the tubs in which the brine is conserved1 but not of the caldrons in which it is boiled1 and we cannot calculate the quantity by the dimensions of the receptacles1 since he omits to mention the depth to which they are filled4 ,he explains that it takes half an hour to fill the baskets with the salt that is drawn from the caldron1 but as he does not give us the dimensions of the baskets employed1 or the amount of wood or straw consumed1 we cannot determine the length of time required to make a certain quantity of salt1 or the cost in fuel4 ,but1 condensed and simplified by the elimination of extraneous particulars and complex technicalities1 the foregoing enables us to obtain a fair idea of the methods employed by the salter of ,halle1 in ,saxony1 assisted by his wife as helper and a youthful stoker--working naked1 on account of the great heat1 save for a straw cap and a breech cloth--in the first half of the sixteenth century4 ,the subject of the formation of rock-salt deposits will be treated in a later chapter1 in which a description will be given of rock-salt mining in ,cheshire4 ,the primitive methods that characterized the brine industry have been adhered to with equal tenacity in the winning of rock-salt4 ,it is extraordinary that1 in the manufacture and in the mining of salt1 each successive generation of salt-men1 in inheriting their methods from their forefathers1 or adapting them from the miners of another country1 have always preserved the intense conservatism that appears to be inseparable from the industry1 and have resisted all innovations that have promised to simplify or expedite their labours4 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,salt ,,works ,a4 ,sheds4 ,b4 ,painted ,signs4 ,c4 ,first ,room4 ,d4 ,second ,room4 ,e4 ,third ,room4 ,f4 ,windows4 ,g4 ,window in ,roof4 ,h and ,i4 ,wells4 ,k4 ,casks4 ,l4 ,pole4 ,m4 ,forked ,resting ,sticks ,from an ,old ,print ,published in #aeef ,it would be an interminable and unprofitable undertaking to conduct the reader upon a tour of the salt mines of the world1 and explain the different methods that are adopted to conform with the local and geological conditions which obtain in the various salt regions4 ,the systems followed in most countries are governed by traditions that have their origin in immemorial times1 and the disposition to perpetuate the operations without change through succeeding ages is1 perhaps1 traceable to the races that work the mines rather than to the deposits in which they work4 ,the process of solar evaporation which is employed to-day on the shores of the ,mediterranean and the ,adriatic is practically the same as it was when the civilization of ,china was in its infancy2 the implements and methods in present use in the salt mines of ,austria1 ,russia1 and ,rumania were introduced by the discoverers of the lodes in the darkest ages4 ,we cannot even fix the comparatively recent period in which it was decreed that the ,rumanian mines of ,tirgu-,ocna and ,ocnele-,mari should be exploited by convict labour1 while the ,slavic mine was to find employment for free workers only4 ,every country1 every salt district1 and almost every mine has its peculiar and distinguishing rules1 customs1 and methods of work1 which are interesting in themselves but of insufficient importance to warrant detailed consideration in a treatise of this scope4 ,there are1 however1 certain salt regions and mines which1 by reason of their magnitude and the possession of unprecedented features1 have obtained rank among the lesser wonders of the world1 and for this reason we must devote a little space to 8the ,great ,salt0 of ,wieliezka1 in ,hungary1 and to the great ,rumanian salt deposits4 ,the famous mines of ,wieliezka1 in the lower ,carpathians1 about eight miles from the city of ,cracow--with their underground roads1 houses1 and monuments2 their churches1 ball-rooms1 and restaurants2 their lakes1 bridges1 and railway stations--constitute a city commemorative of the art and industry of bygone periods1 and present a spectacle1 weird and splendid1 that reminds one of the marvels of the ,thousand-and-,one ,nights4 ,the ,wieliezka system1 which has been in operation since the thirteenth century1 extends over an area of about twelve square miles1 and reaches a maximum depth of some #ab1jjj ft4 ,the various galleries at present accessible have an aggregate length of #fe miles1 and the total length of mining railways is about thirty miles4 ,each mine consists of five storeys4 ,the first storey is about #bjj ft4 below the surface1 and between the different storeys a body of earth or salt from #hj ft4 to #ajj ft4 thick is left4 ,as in ,northwich1 many of the old workings in ,wieliezka have fallen in1 and whole chambers and streets have been engulfed in the holes4 ,broad staircases connect the various storeys1 each of which boasts its distinctive chambers and thoroughfares4 ,the air in the upper levels is much more moist than in the lower excavations1 with the result that the salt statues in these apartments are gradually losing their shape4 ,the head of one is nearly gone1 the arms of another are wasted2 while the deeper furrows1 which are observable upon the sculptured bodies1 give them a grotesque appearance4 ,the smoke of lamps and wicks adds to the moisture of the air and darkens the surface of the statues1 which might be carved in black marble4 ,onward and downward one proceeds1 the stairways appear to be innumerable2 the visitor loses all sense of depth1 distance1 and direction2 chambers and passages lead to further chambers and passages1 until the tour of the workings leaves one with a dominating impression of limitless repetition4 ,everything is of solid salt1 except where some insecure roof is supported by huge timbers or a wooden bridge is thrown over some vast chasm4 ,as depth is attained the air grows drier and purer1 and the points and faces of the rock become more crystalline and beautiful4 ,onward and downward still1 through labyrinths of shafts1 galleries1 and chambers1 up crooked passages1 and under vaulted archways1 that lead into innumerable1 unnamed smaller apartments4 ,illustration3 ,,wieliezka ,,salt ,,mines1 ,,galicia4 ,,the ,,beautiful ,,francis ,,joseph ,,ball ,,room1 ,,made ,,of ,,salt4 ,,the ,,chandeliers ,,are ,,made ,,of ,,polished ,,salt ,,crystals ,groups and gangs of miners1 naked to the hips1 are everywhere busy with pick1 mallet1 and wedge1 with which they block out and separate the salt slabs from the solid mass4 ,the process has the simplicity of the age in which it was first employed4 ,the blocks are marked out on the surface of the rock by grooves4 ,one side is then deepened to the required thickness1 and the face is split off by wedges inserted under the block4 ,it is then divided into pieces of #ajj lb4 each and removed to the shafts1 where it is hoisted1 stage after stage1 to the surface4 ,the number of labourers continually engaged is from one to two thousand4 ,the miners1 who are muscular1 healthy-looking men1 are divided into gangs4 ,the work is carried on in shifts of six hours each1 and in each shift a gang will quarry out about #a1jjj lb4 weight of salt4 ,the ,letow ball-room1 which lies at a depth of #baf ft4 below the surface1 dates from #agej1 and has been the scene of many ,royal visits and splendid entertainments4 ,one end of the spacious chamber is adorned with a colossal ,austrian eagle1 and in an alcove at the opposite end is set up a crystal throne4 ,the giant chamber which bears the name of ,michalowice1 a fearsome and stupendous excavation1 was completed in #agja1 as the result of forty years of continuous labour4 ,it is #ei ft4 long by #ib ft4 broad1 and the roof1 supported by a wooden framework1 has a height of #aah ft4 ,the chamber is lit by a salt chandelier furnished with #cjj electric bulbs4 ,the ,francis ,joseph ball-room is another of the wonders of this subterranean city4 ,it is an immensely large and immensely lofty apartment1 lit by six large chandeliers fashioned of crystalline rock-salt4 ,salt statues of ,vulcan and ,neptune1 which adorn the hall1 reflect the electric light from myriad brilliant points and angles1 and contribute to the general impression of flashing splendour which the scene conveys4 ,beneath these great reception rooms1 are smaller halls1 each beautiful in itself1 bearing the names of royal or princely personages4 ,massive pyramids of salt and sculptured monuments1 with carved inscriptions1 perpetuate the memories of ,emperors and ,empresses of ,austria1 or commemorate their visits to the mines4 ,near to the ,letow ball-room is the celebrated ,st4 ,anthony's ,chapel1 which was hewn in #afih1 and for upwards of two centuries has been the resort of thousands of the devout4 ,the vestibule in the chapel consists of a symmetrical archway with figures at the sides4 ,the interior is beautified by an altar bearing a sculptured representation of the ,crucifixion1 and flanked by salt effigies of kneeling monks4 ,hard by ,st4 ,anthony's ,chapel a magnificent shrine is hewn in one of the passages1 peopled with figured saints1 which leads to the ,queen's ,chapel1 with the superbly-chiselled altar and its view of ,bethlehem carved in the solid salt4 ,the central railway station in the third storey1 and the great restaurant1 with its ponderous pillars and its long vista of latticed galleries1 are among the many marvels of the mines1 but nothing it contains is so wonderful as the subterranean lake1 lying #gjj ft4 below the surface of the earth4 ,the waters of the lake are dark1 thick1 and heavy1 and as the boat glides over its surface the slumberous wavelets roll up against the sides of the grotto with a ghost-like swish4 ,a ponderous solitude over weighs all4 ,the ,styx alone of all the legendary rivers of death could rival this in stillness4 ,the boat is guided through the ,stephanie and ,rudolf grottoes by ropes running on pulleys along the sides of the curious craft1 and the boatman1 with his hands resting on the stern1 pushes it with his feet braced against the rope4 ,of the sixteen lakes in different parts of the mine1 this is the only one upon which visitors are allowed to go4 ,the report of a gun fired in the centre of the lake fills the vault with long and lingering echoes1 and the voice of the boatman sounds like a giant's voice uprising from the depths of chaos4 ,the illumination of the mine is arranged according to a regular tariff based on the number of visitors sharing the expense4 ,for any number of persons up to twenty1 the illumination1 which comprehends the employment of over a thousand candles and electric lamps1 costs about ninety shillings1 but for an additional sovereign1 which is charged when a party numbers over thirty persons1 the whole mine becomes a blaze of light4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,,salt ,,mine ,,at ,,slanicu1 ,,rumania ,this famous mine has been worked since the time of the ,romans4 ,serious calamities at ,wieliczka are now practically unknown1 owing to the care exercised by the officials1 but minor accidents are unavoidable4 ,some few years ago a huge mass of rock-salt1 weighing some #bjj tons1 fell from the roof of one of the chambers2 in #ahfh the mines were flooded by the bursting of a subterranean salt lake2 and a fire in #ahae resulted in the loss of several hundred lives4 ,the early history of the mines contains the record of several terrible disasters1 including an incendiary fire in #aeaj1 which caused a great number of deaths1 and another fire in #afdd1 which raged for over a year1 and consumed all the people1 horses1 and mules who were in the mine when the fire occurred4 ,the working of the three great ,rumanian salt deposits present other examples of the persistent survival of ancient methods1 but it must be admitted that an attempt was made at one time to introduce modern machinery4 ,it was demonstrated that the machine produced more salt in a given time1 and that the waste of about #be per cent4 of the salt attendant upon manual labour and the use of picks was saved1 but as the supply of salt is practically inexhaustible1 and there is no limit set upon the time of winning it1 and as man-power1 especially convict man-power1 is cheaper than machinery1 the authorities soon reverted to the old system4 ,in the ,slanic mine1 in which the salt is crystalline1 white1 and almost absolutely pure1 the free labourers1 of whom about #ejj are employed1 are divided into gangs of six men4 ,each man takes an oblong piece of the floor of the mine1 about as big as an ordinary tombstone1 and1 using his pick1 scoops round it a narrow groove about #e in4 deep4 ,this done1 he summons the rest of his gang1 and1 standing beside him on the slab1 they raise and bring down their picks simultaneously at the word of command4 ,force is necessary1 but rhythmical accuracy in the planting of the blow is more essential1 and by long practice the men have become so extraordinarily expert that they scarcely ever diverge a hair's breadth from the point at which they aim4 ,in a few minutes the persistent blows detach the slab1 which the six men raise with the aid of a lever4 ,the gang proceed from slab to slab until all six have been detached and lifted1 after which each man breaks his own slab into chunks and loads it into a truck for removal to the shaft1 through which it is hauled to the surface4 ,an expert miner's earnings at this work range from half a crown to three shillings a day4 ,the convicts employed in the ,tirgu-,ocna and ,ocnele-,mari mines are paid from sixpence to eightpence a day for their work1 and1 save that liberty and the hospitality of the local taverns are denied them1 their condition is little worse than that of the free labourers4 ,as capital punishment does not obtain in ,rumania1 the convict miners include murderers1 brigands1 and the worst class of criminals1 and armed soldiers escort them to and fro between the prison and the mine1 and remain on guard while they are at work4 ,dashes for liberty used to be common1 and organized attempts to escape have also been attempted1 but now1 on the first sign of suspicious behaviour on the part of the convicts1 the order is given for the whole gang to throw themselves flat upon the ground4 ,as those who disobey the order are immediately shot1 instantaneous compliance with the command is usually observed4 ,on one occasion a body of disaffected convicts had recourse to a form of passive resistance1 and when the day's work was over they refused to leave the mine4 ,the guards and overseers thereupon withdrew and left the mutineers to reflect in an intolerably salt atmosphere upon the virtues of fresh water1 of which they had no supply4 ,after two days of torture1 the men capitulated4 ,but the work of superintending the convicts in the mines is a delicate and dangerous task4 ,the overseers are compelled to mix with the men1 and it is but the work of a few silent minutes for a gang to overpower an unpopular official and squeeze the breath out of his body4 ,as the murder is a communal affair1 and the practice of making an example of one man pour l'encourager les autres is not adopted in ,rumania1 the extent of punishment inflicted upon the whole gang is less than would be meted out to individual offenders4 ,as the salt reserves in the three principal mines of ,rumania are estimated at #h1ggd1jjj1jjj tons1 and the annual extraction has never exceeded #aej1jjj tons1 it follows that1 at the present rate of progress1 the deposits cannot be exhausted for several millenniums4 ,where the salt deposits are composed of a mineral that is white1 odourless1 and practically pure1 as in the ,wieliezka system and the mines of ,rumania1 and particularly if labour is abundant and cheap1 and the industry is a monopoly of the ,state1 rock-salt mining will always hold its own4 ,illustration3 ,,wieliezka ,,salt ,,mines1 ,,galicia4 ,,the ,,railway ,,station ,,on ,,the ,,third ,,level ,even in this country1 when the old open-pan system of evaporating salt from brine produced only two tons of salt for the consumption of a ton of fuel1 rock-salt could be raised1 purified1 and marketed in competition with white salt1 but the modern boiling processes have effected such substantial improvements and consequent economical advantages1 that the rock-salt industry appears to be doomed to decay4 ,rock-salt1 as quarried from its native bed1 is found in many variations of colour1 from grey and yellow to green and brick red1 according to the nature of the impurities of the locality in which the deposit lies1 and such salt must be cleansed from all traces of iron1 clay1 gypsum1 or bitumen before it is fit for domestic use4 ,many processes have been experimented with for the removal of impurities4 ,one of the most plausible methods was based on the fact that salt fuses at a temperature of about #a1gej degrees1 and the theory was to remove all impurities from the fluid mass by the agency of compressed air4 ,the principle was unsuccessfully experimented with in ,wrtemberg nearly half a century ago1 but a modern adaptation of the process claimed to be more successful4 ,the molten material1 in this case1 ran into rotating pans and gradually overflowed2 and it was then shovelled into another receptacle and1 while subjected to the action of compressed air1 raised by small buckets to a certain height and emptied into inclined screens1 through which it was automatically graded4 ,it was claimed that from the time of casting the crude material into the furnace1 until the perfect white salt appeared1 the process occupied only fifteen minutes1 and that rock-salt could be broken in the mine1 transported1 fused1 and packed ready for table use in less than two hours4 ,at the time when the master-patent for this process was taken out1 the latest brine-evaporating systems were unperfected1 and there was some possibility that the invention might be capable of taking the rock-salt direct from the mine1 eliminating at one stroke all its impurities1 and in the course of an hour or two delivering into the warehouse an anhydrous salt 8at a fraction of the cost of the ordinary process0 of evaporating salt from brine4 ,but by the time that this bold claim was put forward on behalf of the process1 the admitted total cost of production had been advanced from #ds4 to #es4 #h;d4 per ton1 while the latest patent brine-evaporating system was producing the manufactured article at a total inclusive cost of #cs4 #f;d4 per ton4 ,since then1 this rock process was installed in ,mexico1 persevered with for a while1 and finally discarded because1 in the words of ,mr4 ,w4 ,l4 ,bonney1 the ,united ,states ,consul1 8the experiment proved a failure40 ,even if the latest brine process has not 8relegated rock-salt mining into the limbo of extinct enterprises10 it appears certain that it will never be able to be worked in competition with the process by which salt is manufactured direct from brine where brine is available4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,cheshire ,,wiches ,if we turn from the study of salt as one of the staples of world industry to the history of the salt industry in ,england1 we find that it is practically comprised in the records of the development of the trade in rock-salt and brine in the county of ,cheshire4 ,the first documentary reference to the existence of saline deposits in this country1 as well as the earliest mention of the method of native manufacture and of the introduction of the open-pan system of salt-making1 dates from the time of the ,roman occupation4 ,the ,caesarean soldiers1 who penetrated as far north as the ,northwich district1 found the people obtaining salt by the process of pouring brine upon faggots of charcoal and scraping away the resultant crystalline formation4 ,a little spring which existed at that period in ,sheath ,street1 ,northwich1 furnished the ,romans with a limited supply of brine1 and from this source1 with the crude plant improvised on the spot1 they produced the first salt ever manufactured in ,england by the boiling of brine in open pans4 ,the ,britons named the brine spring at ,nantwich 8,hellath ,wen10 or the ,white ,pit1 on account of the whiteness of the salt produced from its waters2 while the spring at ,northwich received the name of 8,hellath ,du10 or the ,black ,pit4 ,the suffix 8wich0 may have been introduced into ,cheshire direct from the ,vikings of the ,north1 or brought there by way of the south-eastern counties4 ,in ,camden's ,britannia 7published in ,latin in #afjg1 and translated by ,philemon ,holland1 #afaj71 we read that the word ,wiccij 8may seeme to have beene derived of those salt pittes that the old ,englishmen in their language named ,wiches10 and ,william ,smith1 a ,cheshire ,man and author of a work which is known as ,king's ,vale ,royal 7#afef edition71 says3 8,the house in which the salt is boiled is called the ,wychhouse2 whence may be guessed what wych signifies1 and why all those towns where there are salt-springs or salt made are called by the name of wych1 viz41 ,namptwych1 ,northwych1 ,middlewych1 ,droitwych40 ,but the ,norse word wig and the ,anglo-,saxon wic signified1 in the original1 a dwelling-place1 and in the latter form of wich1 it is seen in the names of ,woolwich1 ,norwich1 ,harwich1 ,sandwich1 etc4 ,the ,norse and ,danish pirates who visited our coasts to pillage and procure salt1 established wigs--afterwards wiches or hamlets--on the bays and inlets1 and wherever they located themselves they proceeded to make bay-salt4 ,the word wich1 in course of time1 became identified not with the village but with the salt manufacture that was carried on there1 and when the ,cheshire towns developed the industry they may easily have adopted the nomenclature that was already regarded as indicative of the manufacture4 ,in the records of ,droitwich1 which was also called ,durt-wich 8by reason of the wettish ground on which it stands10 we learn that in the year #haf1 ,kenulph1 ,king of the ,mercians1 gave ,hamilton and ten houses in ,wich together with their salt-furnaces1 to the church of ,worcester1 and that in #ijf the same church was endowed by ,edwy1 ,king of ,england1 with ,fepstone and five salt-furnaces2 but the next earliest references to the ,cheshire ,wiches must be searched for among the entries in ,domesday ,book1 which was prepared between #ajhd and #ajhf4 ,william the ,conqueror's authorized inquiry as to the several places in which salt was being made1 and the persons who had held proprietorial rights in them since the time of ,edward the ,confessor1 was productive of much detailed information4 ,from the zincograph reproduction of the original made by ,mr4 ,william ,beaumont in #ahfc1 it would appear that the ,cheshire brine-springs and salt works were strictly held1 and were subject to certain well-defined customs4 ,in several localities the existence of solitary salt-houses is mentioned1 and it would seem safe to infer that the supply of brine was obtained in the vicinity and the salt was only made for local consumption4 ,salt-making for commercial purposes was confined to ,nantwich1 in ,warmundestron ,hundred1 and ,northwich and ,middlewich in the ,hundred of ,mildestvic1 and1 although no figures relating to output or revenues are given1 the laws governing the trade1 the prices charged1 and the method of dividing the moneys accruing from rents and sales are concisely set forth in the following paragraphs-- 8,mildestvic hundred4 ,hugh and ,william held of the ,earl ,rode ,godric and ,ravesa held it for two manors and were free men40 8,in the same hundred of ,mildestvic there was a third ,wich called ,norwich 7,northwich71 which was in farm at eight pounds4 ,in it there were the same laws and customs as in the other ,wiches1 and the ,king and the ,earl divided the receipts in the like manner4 ,all the thanes who held salt-houses in this ,wich gave no ,friday's boilings of salt the year through4 ,whoever brought a cart1 with two or more oxen1 from another shire1 gave #d pence for the toll4 ,a man from the same shire gave for his cart #b pence within the third night after his return home4 ,if he allowed the third night to pass1 he was fined #dj shillings4 ,a man from another shire paid #a penny for a horse load4 ,but a man from the same shire paid #a styca within the third night after his return1 as aforesaid4 ,a man living in the same hundred1 if he carted salt about through the same county to sell1 gave a penny for every cart1 for as many times as he loaded it4 ,if he carried salt on a horse to sell1 he gave #a penny at ,martinmas4 ,whoso did not pay it at that time was fined #dj shillings4 ,all the other customs in the ,wiches are the same4 ,this manor was waste when ,earl ,hugh received it4 ,it is now worth #ce shillings40 8,nantwich4--,in ,king ,edward's time there was a ,wich in ,warmundestron hundred1 in which there was a well for making salt1 and between the ,king and ,earl ,edwin there were #h salt-houses1 so divided that of all their issues and rents the ,king had two parts and the ,earl the third4 ,but besides these1 the ,earl had one salt-house adjoining his manor of ,acatone 7,acton7 which was his own4 ,from this salt-house the ,earl had sufficient salt for his house throughout the year4 ,but if he sold any from thence1 the ,king had twopence1 and the ,earl a third penny1 for the toll4 ,in the same ,wich many men from the country had salt-houses1 of which this was the custom-- 8,from our ,lord's ,ascension to ,martinmas1 anyone having a salt-house might carry home salt for his own house4 ,but if he sold any of it either there1 or elsewhere in the county of ,chester1 he paid toll to the ,king and the ,earl4 ,whoever after ,martinmas carried away salt from any salt-house except the ,earl's1 under his custom aforesaid1 paid toll1 whether the salt was his own or purchased4 ,these aforesaid #h salt-houses of the ,king and the ,earl1 in every week that salt was boiled or they were used on a ,friday1 rendered #af boilings of salt1 of which #ae made a horse-load4 ,from our ,lord's ,ascension to ,martinmas1 the salt-houses of the other men did not give these ,friday's boilings4 ,but from ,martinmas to our ,lord's ,ascension1 these boilings were given according to custom1 as from the salt-houses of the ,king and the ,earl4 ,all these salt-houses1 both of the lord and other people1 were surrounded on one part by a certain river1 and on the other part by a ditch4 ,whosoever committed a forfeiture within these bounds1 might make amends1 either by the payment of #b shillings1 or by #cj boilings of salt1 except in the case of homicide1 or of a theft1 for which the thief was adjudged to die4 ,these last1 if done here1 were dealt with as in the rest of the shire4 ,if out of the prescribed circuit of the salt-houses1 any person within the county withheld the toll1 and was convicted thereof1 he brought it back and was fined #dj shillings1 if a free man2 or if not free1 #d shillings4 ,but if he carried the toll into another shire1 where it was demanded the fine was the same4 ,in ,king ,edward's time1 this ,wich1 with all pleas in the same hundred1 rendered #ba pounds in farm4 ,when ,earl ,hugh received it1 except only one salt-house1 it was waste4 ,william ,maldebeng now holds of the ,earl the same ,wich1 with all the customs thereto belonging1 and all the same hundred1 which is rated at #dj shillings1 of which #cj shillings are put on the land of the said ,william1 and #aj shillings on the land of the ,bishop1 and the lands of ,richard and ,gilbert which they have in the same hundred1 and the ,wich is let to farm at #aj pounds40 8,middlewich4--,in ,mildestvich hundred there is another ,wich between the ,king and the ,earl4 ,there1 however1 the salt-houses were not the lord's1 but they had the same laws and customs that have been mentioned in the above-mentioned ,wich1 and the customs were divided between the ,king and the ,earl in the same manner4 ,this ,wich was let to farm for #h pounds and the hundred wherein it was1 for #dj shillings4 ,the ,king had two parts1 and the ,earl the third4 ,when ,earl ,hugh received it1 it was waste4 ,the ,earl now holds it1 and it is let to farm for #be shillings1 and two wain-loads of salt4 ,but the hundred is worth #dj shillings4 ,from these two ,wiches1 whoever carried away bought salt in a wain drawn by four oxen or more1 paid #d;d4 for the toll2 but if by two oxen1 #b pence if the salt were two horse-loads4 ,a man from another hundred gave #b;d4 for a horse-load4 ,but a man of the same hundred gave only a halfpenny for a horse-load4 ,whoever loaded his wain so that the axle broke within a league of either ,wich1 gave #b shillings to the ,king's or the ,earl's officers1 if he were overtaken within the league4 ,in like manner1 he who loaded his horse1 so as to break its back1 gave #b shillings if overtaken within the league1 but nothing if overtaken beyond it4 ,whoever made two horse-loads of salt out of one1 was fined #dj shillings if the officers overtook him4 ,if he was not found1 nothing was to be exacted from any other4 ,men on foot from another hundred buying salt1 paid #b;d4 for eight men's loads4 ,men of the same hundred paid #a;d4 for the same number of such loads40 ,the first private record relating to salt appears in the foundation deed of ,combermere ,abbey1 dated #aacb1 in which ,hugh ,malbane1 the founder1 caused it to be written3 8,and ,i also grant to the same monks the fourth part of the town of ,wych1 and tythe of my salt and of the salt pits that are mine1 and salt of ,blessed ,mary the ,virgin1 and salt on ,friday1 and salt for the ,abbot's table as freely as ,i have it at my table40 ,ancient ,deeds in the ,record ,office contain occasional reference to salt properties in the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries which show that salt was made in limited quantities in ,cambridgeshire and at ,rye1 ,mimera1 and ,brembre 7formerly ,hayerskys71 in the ,county of ,sussex4 ,protests against the importation of salt from abroad1 and of salt-making by foreigners contrary to the liberties and ancient customs of the borough of ,northwich1 are recorded in the ,harleian ,,mss4 ,in response to a complaint made on behalf of the burgesses and inhabitants of ,northwich concerning the mischievous irregularities committed in the making of salt by 8p'sons forrayne and not inhabiting w_/thin the ,s towne10 ,king ,henry ,,viii issued an ,order to the ,justice and ,chamberlaine of the ,county ,palatine of ,chester to the effect3 8,,wherefore we will and command you that in any case such forrayne p'son or p'sons not inhabiting within the s_/d towne1 do1 or hereafter at any time shall attempt to use makeing of salt contrary to the lib_/erties and ancient customes of the same within the same towne without lycence of the burgess and the rulers thereof4 ,,that then without delay ye and ether of you from tyme to tyme upon complaynt or of the rulers and govnors of the same towne do send for all and every such forrayne p'sons as do or hereafter shall attempt to make any salt within the s_/d towne of ,northwich contrary to the libties and ancient customes of the same1 without the assent and agreem_/t of the s_/d ,burgess and ruler by o_/r writts of subp3 to appear before you in o_/ ,castle of ,chester at there appearance to punish and reforme them3 ,and also further to order them as right and good conscience shall require according to the lawes and customes heretobefore used now in other wyches there abts w_/thin o_/r s_/d ,county ,palatyne1 for the reformacon of such transgressions fayle ye not hereof as ye maye intend to please us40 ,in the time of the ,tudors1 the salt-makers of ,cheshire were composed of natives and 8forrayners10 or residents born outside the boundaries of the county1 and in the ,northwich ,book of ,orders is given a list of ten 8outliers0 in the town of ,northwich who occupied between them no fewer than eighty-nine salt pans or leads4 ,although we have no information as to the exact size and capacity of the evaporating pans of the period1 it is evident that they were made to a regulation scale1 and we read that it was the business of an officer of the ,court ,leet to examine the leads and see that they conformed with the standard dimensions4 ,if the prescribed measurements were exceeded1 the official cut a piece out of the corner of the pan with a pair of shears with which he was furnished for the purpose1 so as to reduce its capacity to the legal limit4 ,only three of these old salt-pans have been recovered1 and1 of these1 one was cut up and sold as old lead4 ,one which was drawn out of the river at ,northwich in #ahff was forwarded by the ,river ,weaver ,trustees to the ,warrington ,exhibition1 and was transferred subsequently to the ,northwich ,museum4 ,this pan measures #c ft4 #h in4 long on one side1 and #c ft4 #d in4 on the other2 it has a width of #b ft4 #h in41 and is #d in4 deep4 ,the thickness of the lead is about half an inch4 and the weight of the pan is #b cwt41 #a qr4 #ah lb4 ,there are raised patterns on each end of the pan1 which was evidently cast1 and the sides are rounded up from the bottom4 ,in #ahgh1 in the vicinity of ,ashton's ,salt ,works at ,witton1 was found a smaller pan made out of a sheet of lead #b ft4 #h in4 square4 ,the sheet was bent up to form a pan and the corners were hammered together4 ,this lead is #be in4 square by #c in4 in depth1 and has a capacity of about #g gallons4 ,in the early years of the reign of ,james ,i we have particulars of the salt districts in ,camden's ,britannia1 and in a letter received in ,february1 #afje1 from ,chomley written by one ,george ,johnson4 ,camden explains that the ,cheshire ,wiches were so-called because 8there bee here very notable salt pits and many salt springs often-time have been found which notwithstanding are stopped up1 because it was provided 7as wee read7 that for the saving of woods1 salt should not be boiled but in certain places40 ,illustration3 ,,subsidence ,,near ,,the ,,dane ,,bridge1 ,,northwich ,meagre as these accounts are in exact particulars1 they constitute the only information we have concerning the supply and treatment of brine in ,england in the early days of the industry1 and1 consequently1 they invite attention4 ,camden is responsible for the following details-- 8,at ,northwich there is a deep and plentiful brine pit with stairs about it1 by which1 when they have drawn the water in their leathern buckets1 they ascend1 half naked1 to their troughs and fill them1 from whence it is conveyed to the wich-houses about which there stand on every side many stakes and piles of wood4 8,nantwich4--,there is but one salt pit here 7they call it the brine pit7 distant about #ad ft4 from the river4 ,from this brine pit they convey water by wooden troughs into the houses adjoining1 where there stand ready little barrels1 fixed in the ground1 which they fill with that water2 and at the notice of a bell1 they presently make a fire under their leads1 whereof they have six in every house for boiling the water4 ,these are attended by #8,wallers'--a name probably derived from the ,anglo-,saxon weallere1 a boiler2 ,german1 wallen1 to boil--who with little wooden rakes1 draw the salt out of the bottom of them and put it in baskets1 out of which the liquor runs1 but the salt remains and settles4444 8,the depth of the salt springs is in some places not above three or four yards4 ,in ,nantwich the pit is full #g yards 7deep7 from the footing about the pit3 which is guessed to be the natural height of the ground1 though the bank be #f foot higher1 accidentally raised by rubbish of long making salt or 8walling10 as they call it4 ,in two places within our ,township1 the spring breaks up so in the meadows as to fret away not only the grass1 but part of the earth1 which lies like a breach at least half a foot or more lower than the turf of the meadow3 and hath a salt liquid ousing 7oozing7 as it were out of the meed but very gently4 8,droitwich possesses three fountaines yielding plenty of water to make salt of1 divided asunder by a little brooke of fresh water passing betweene1 by a peculiar gift of nature spring out3 out of which most pure white salt is boiled for six months every yeare1 to wit1 from ,midsommer to ,midwinter1 in many set fornaces round about3 wherewith a mighty deal of wood is consumed1 ,fakenham ,forest 7where trees grew sometime thicker71 and the woods round about1 if men hold their peace1 will by their thinness1 make manifest more and more44440 ,of the two wells of salt-water at ,middlewich1 which are separated by a small brook1 we are only told that 8one stands not open but at certain set times1 because folke willingly steale the watere thereof1 as being of great vertue and efficacie40 ,more informative on essential points is the unknown correspondent of ,george ,johnson1 who writes as follows-- 8,namptwich4 8,there is in the town of ,namptwich two hundred and sixteen salt-houses of six leads apeece1 and every of the said houses doth spend in wood per annum eight pounds so as there is spent in wood yearly within the said town in omnibus annis4444 #agbh 8,middlewich4 8,there is1 in the said town1 one hundred and seven salt houses of six leads apeece1 and one of four leads and every of the said houses doth spend yearly in wood the sum of #ac4 #f4 #h1 so as there is spent every year within the said town1 #adce4 #d4 #j4 8,northwich4 8,the said ,northwich is a ,burrow and holden of the ,earle of ,chester by the service of twelve armed men to serve at the ,watergate in ,chester in the time of wars betwixt ,england and ,wales4 ,there is1 in the same towne or ,burrow1 one hundred and thirteen salt houses1 every one containing four leads apeece1 and one odd lead and one four leads which was given to the ,earl of ,derby by the ,burgesses1 occupiers of the said ,town1 for the portion of his house1 and no land in the ,town for it1 and every four leads must have in provision of wood1 nine quarters and so rateable1 whether it be four leads or six leads1 so that there is spent in wood in the said town #ajbf quarters and a peece after the rate of five score to the hundred and after the rate of forty shillings per ,quarter comes to #bjef4 #aj4 ,spent in the wich houses yearly in wood1 #ebai4 #ad40 ,the particulars which are given of the salt manufacture in the ,wiches in #afje and #afjg by ,george ,johnson's correspondent and by ,camden1 are repeated with only the slightest variation half a century later in ,king's ,vale ,royal4 ,but in the latter account we are able to glean a little more information about the towns themselves4 ,concerning ,northwich1 we are told that it had the mischance to be burnt in ,july1 ,anno #adch1 and was 8most part miserably consumed with fire10 in ,december1 #aehc4 8,but through the ,benevolence gathered throughout the ,realm1 it is new builded1 and is in as good case or rather better than before40 ,the town in #afef was divided into two parts1 one of which was called the ,cross1 while a 8very fair church of stone10 called ,northwich ,church1 stood 8without the ,town's-end40 ,but although it was called ,northwich ,church1 we are told that it was only a chapel and its proper name was ,witton2 a combination of coincidences which caused the chronicler to conclude 8that the town was named first ,northwich1 after the finding of the salt40 ,of ,nantwich1 we are only informed that the town was visited in #afag by the gracious ,king's ,most ,excellent ,majestie1 who1 with his own eyes beheld the manner of the brine well and the labours of the drawers of brine--who1 in the course of their work1 8spend the coldest day in frost and snow1 without any clothing more than a shirt with great cheerfulnesse0--and 8with his own hand most princely rewarded them40 ,middlewich is described by the same authority as no market town3 8yet may it pass amongst them1 as well for the bigness thereof1 as also it hath ,burgesses and other privileges1 as the other wiches have1 yet it hath a small market of flesh and other things every ,saturday1 and yearly two fairs3 that is to say on ,ascension ,day and ,st4 ,luke's ,day4 ,it hath divers streets and lanes1 as ,king ,street1 ,kinderton ,street1 ,wich ,house ,street1 ,lewis ,street1 ,wheelock ,street3 ,pepper ,lane3 ,cow ,lane and ,dog ,lane4 ,but the chiefest place of all is a broad place in the middest of the ,town1 in manner of a market place1 called the ,king's ,mexon40 ,a large accumulation of matter of great local and antiquarian interest is to be found in the ,northwich ,book of ,orders1 the ,court ,rolls1 and the ,walling ,booke of ,northwich1 which consist of documents and records relating to the government of the town and the regulation of its salt industry about the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,the 8,ancient ,customes of the ,burrow and ,town of ,northwich10 the inventory of 8,the ,liberties and ,priviledges of ,burgesses10 and the ,orders 8concerning the making of salt10 were collected and set down by ,peter ,warburton1 of ,chester1 ,esquire1 ,steward of ,northwich1 and afterwards a ,justice of the ,court of ,common ,pleas at ,westminster4 ,at a ,court held on #ahth ,december1 #afjh1 this compilation1 8so full of interest and instruction10 was ratified and confirmed by ,thomas ,berrington1 ,gentleman1 ,steward of the said ,court1 and a jury of ,burgesses1 and ,thomas ,poole1 ,gentleman1 ,clerk of the said ,court1 was instructed to write them into a ,booke 8to the end the same may remain upon record to future ages40 ,the ,nine ,customes1 numbered #aj to #ah1 which were written in #afch1 were supplemented in #afda by other ,nine ,customes1 numbered #a to #i1 which had been 8heretofore omitted merely through forgetfulness40 ,of the eighty-four ,orders relating to salt-making which appear in these records1 the first sixty-one were agreed upon by 8,the ,steward and ,jury at ,diverse ,courts0 up to #afbi1 the seven following were added in #afcj1 and seven more appeared on the rolls before ,master ,poole made a fair copy of the ,orders in #afch4 ,in the following year eight further regulations were issued4 ,order ,no4 #hd bears the date of ,december1 #afef1 and only three subsequent unnumbered enactments were included up to #afff1 when the record comes to an end4 ,although these old ,orders 7#afbi-afff7 include directions relating to the general behaviour of the townspeople1 injunctions concerning the sales of liquor and butchers' meat1 the malpractices of begging at men's doors1 piking or stealing wood1 8scoulding or chideing 444 to the trouble or disquietness of the good and honest neighbours10 and rules for the maintenance of cleanliness in the streets and public places and the publication and preservation of ,proclamations put forth by the ,king1 the bulk of the laws are framed in the interests of the staple industry of the district4 ,no detail connected with salt-making1 from the drawing of the brine to the transport of the manufactured product1 is left to chance or the discretion of the individual4 ,the rights and privileges of ,burgesses1 and particularly of such as occupy salt-houses or wallings1 are set forth in the ,ancient ,customes1 but in all particulars relating to the making of salt1 the ,orders are paramount and precise4 ,space does not permit of the reproduction here of the whole of the regulations1 but a few of the ,items may be quoted as evidence of the care and thoroughness with which they were framed4 8#g4 ,item4 ,it is ordered that no man shall enter into the ,lead-looker's book any more walling or occupation for one ,wich-house than six leads walling upon paine for every offence 444 #ajs40 8#ae4 ,item4 ,that if any ,person or ,persons receive into their ,houses any ,wood by ,night or by day by the way of ,exchange for ,candles1 ,meat or ,drink every such ,person as well the ,changer as the ,receiver shall pay fine to the ,lord for every default #es4 or to be punished by the ,steward40 8#ag4 ,item4 ,that every ,waller shall sell the salt she maketh by the ,walme or ,cranock and not by the sack or load1 and at the price which the officers sett down to be the com'on price of the ,towne upon pains for every default #cs4 and also to make up the full price to her ,mr4 upon her wages40 8#ah4 ,item4 ,that no ,waller nor no other ,person shall make any fire in the ,wich-house streets in the night time1 and every such offence to be presented by the ,bailiffe at any single ,court and punished by the ,steward according to his discretion40 8#bb4 ,item4 ,that no person shall deliver any bryne to be carryed out of this ,towne either in ,hodge heads or ,barrels 7except upon ,woemen's heads7 upon paine to forfeit to the ,lord for every such offence 444 #bjs40 8#bd4 ,item4 ,that there should be left at every pile made at the end of any ,wich-house or ,wood roome a yard and a halfe between the said pile and the ,crest of the ,pavement to the intent that waynes may have better passage upon paine of #fs4 #h;d4 presentable at any single ,court40 8#bf4 ,item4 ,it is ordered that no ,person from henceforth shall be suffered to wall or occupy any ,odd ,lead as #c1 #e or #g1 but #b1 #d or #f ,leads for avoiding of trouble to the officers except in such case as cannot be remedied upon paine of 444 #ajs40 8#bg4 ,item4 ,it is ordered that henceforth no ,person shall occupie ,walling unless they first continue a householder for the space of three years and after such time expired to be allowed by the ,steward or his ,deputy1 and the ,lead-lookers 7except he be a ,burgess7 upon paine to forfeit for every lead 444 #acs4 #d;d40 8#cc4 ,item4 ,that all ,inhabitants and ,occupiers of the ,towne do aide and assist lawfully every ,officer of the ,towne in ,executing their office lawfully upon paine every one that offendeth to pay for every offence 444 #ajs40 8#dj4 ,item4 ,it is ordered that if any ,waller be found making of ,course ,salt when they might make it better if they would1 the ,lead-lookers or ,salt-viewers so finding them and making presentment thereof e'ry such ,waller so offending shall fine to yr ,lord for e'ry offence therein 444 #b;d40 8#dc4 ,item4 ,we do also order that every ,occupiers' ,leads of this town shall henceforth be made ,tenn stone weight a peece to the pan before they be cast1 upon paine of the ,lead-casters forfeiture to the ,lord of this ,towne for every default in casting any ,leads contrary to this order the sum of 444 #ajs40 8#fc4 ,item4 ,it is also ordered that every occupier of ,walling or his ,waller1 or his ,servts shall weekly make cleane ye pavemt agt their ,wich-,houses one yard and a half from the middle of the pavement upon paine to forfeit for every such offence 444 #ab;d40 ,duly set forth in these records are the forms of oaths to be administered by the ,court to those who 8shall well and truly execute the office0 of ,constable1 ,lead-looker1 ,overseer1 ,salt-viewer1 ,assessor1 ,killer of ,salt1 ,market ,looker1 ,sealer and ,searcher of ,leather1 ,ale-,taster2 ,skavinger1 ,gutter ,viewer1 ,wood ,tender1 or ,pan ,cutter4 ,each of these important officers in the prescribed form must 8swear by the holy ,contents of this ,booke10 to 8spare no man for any love1 favour or affection0 in the fulfilment of his several duties but 8of all ,defaults and ,defects that you find in the execution of yor office you shall present at every ,single ,court to be holden after such ,default made--,so help you ,god40 ,the compiler of ,vale ,royal 7#afef7 does not admit that he is indebted to the ,northwich ,book of ,orders for his information1 but he alludes in general terms to the 8authentique rules and customes0 which regulate the manner of making salt in the ,cheshire wiches1 and adds3 8,all these things ,i leave to be read other where1 knowing well their jealous love to be such towards this their beloved commodity as ,i should soon incur some reprehension for being too busie to look narrowly upon such a beauty40 ,illustration3 ,,dunkirk ,,subsidence1 ,,near ,,northwich ,in 8,a ,copie of ,the ,walling booke of ,northwch10 amongst the ,harleian ,,mss41 the earliest list of occupiers of wich-houses with the number of leads1 together with the names of such persons as had wich-houses of ,inheritance in the town1 with their number of leads1 was compiled in #aefe1 and gives a total of 8five score and thirteene ,salt houses and one lead40 ,a list of owners and of salt-houses arranged in the form of a street directory was drawn up in #aeic1 and1 about #afjj1 a revised list1 compiled in accordance with the location of the houses1 and giving the number of leads in each1 was supplemented by a street plan of the town4 ,in the list of #aehi it is recorded that-- 8,our ,soveraigne lady the queene hath two salt-houses of free occupa'ion1 and toulfree wth all and one is ,judger of ,cogshall40 ,in the list of #afjd1 the ,king appears as the owner of two salt-houses1 and it is assumable that ,his ,majesty acquired an additional half of a salt-house in the following year1 since1 in the more detailed compilation drawn up in #afje1 we read that-- 8,our ,soveraigne ,lord the ,kings ,majty hath two ,salt-house and a halfe which be both towle free and ffine free and is ,judger of ,cockshall40 ,the ,king's name as the owner of 8#b towle free and fine free0 salt-houses heads the list for #afai and that for #afcf-afch4 ,this last contains the names of forty-six lords and owners of salt-houses1 having an aggregate of over #djj leads4 ,it was the custom to repeat the legend either at the beginning or the end of each succeeding list that-- 8,there is and tyme out of mynd hath been within the ,towne of ,northwich #aab four leads and one odde lead and noe more2 and four leads called the ,running ,wich-house4 ,soe the totall is #aac four leads and one odde lead40 ,this formula was evidently only a fable4 ,the discrepancy between the figures and the statement was pointed out by a scribe in #afcj1 who1 having cast up the number of leads tabulated in the list of #aehi1 appended the following note3 8,these leads answere but unto #cjh leads whereas there is #dec leads yearly walled for ut pateat ante3 soe that there wanted #ade leads to make up the full accoumpt for #cjh leads and #ade leads make but just #dec40 ,there are about #dej leads accounted for in the next list1 which was drawn up in #aeic1 but the clerk persisted in the assumption that what had been 8time out of mynd0 could suffer no change1 and he formally declared1 despite his own figures to the contrary1 that 8the totall some is #aac four leads and one odde lead1 which stand in the ,towne rowe as is before written and declared40 ,on folio #fa of one of the ,harleian ,,mss41 following the list of ,northwich salt-owners for the years #afcf-ch1 are undated lists of salt-owners of ,middlewich and ,nantwich4 ,the clerk admits the incompleteness of the list of twenty-two owners in ,middlewich1 but he explains that the names he gives are 8as manie as ,i can learne for the p'sent10 and he adds1 8,but the number of their sev'all and respective howses and leads ,i cannot learne40 ,only five owners appear in the returns for ,nantwich1 and the meagre particulars that the clerk has been able to acquire respecting the other salt districts of ,cheshire are contained in the following note3 8,there is another ,wiche where there is a great store of ,salt made in ,cheshire ,and wch is of greate ,antiquitie called ,fulwich1 also ,durtwich1 and my ,lo3 ,brereton is an owner of sev'all wich-houses theire4 ,but whoe are owners of the rest ,i cannot learne40 ,nantwich was long famous among the ,wiches for its production of the finest and best white salt4 ,the ,welsh named it ,hellath ,wen1 and the ,london ,magazine1 in #agej1 translated the words as the 8,white ,salt ,town10 but there is no reference to the quality or colour of its output in the present name1 which is derived from the ,welsh word 8nant10 a vale1 and the ,saxon 8wyche40 ,that its salt was good1 plentiful1 and of considerable commercial value would seem to be shown by the fact that under the ,saxons the supplies were in the hands of the princes and nobles1 and ,william the ,conqueror had not been in ,england more than a year before he divided the salt production of ,nantwich between himself and ,earl ,edwin1 who owned some salt-houses in the district4 ,according to ,leland1 there were #djj salt works at ,nantwich in the reign of ,henry ,,viii1 but the number was reduced to #baf under ,elizabeth1 and in #afbd only #ajh were in existence4 ,nantwich was described in the ,london ,magazine of #agej as the largest and most considerable town in the county next to ,chester1 but its salt industry at that period was fast declining4 ,an ,act of ,parliament which had been obtained in #agcd to extend the navigation of the river ,weaver from ,winsford to ,nantwich1 was never put into operation4 ,in #aggh the salt works had been reduced to two1 each containing five large pans of wrought iron4 ,the ,nantwich salt industry was practically moribund in #ahdi1 but some twenty-five tons per week were produced by one maker until #ahef1 which is the last year in which salt was made in the district4 ,in #ahia a company was registered for the purpose of acquiring property in ,nantwich and manufacturing salt from brine1 but the necessary financial support was not forthcoming and the project was abandoned4 ,the decline of the ,nantwich salt industry is ascribed in ,poole's ,history of ,cheshire 7#aggh7 to various causes1 including the frequent destruction by fire of the works in the town--8fourteen of which in the memory of persons living lately1 having been destroyed in one day02 to the discovery and exploitation of new salt springs in adjacent localities2 and to the superior advantages in the matter of accessibility which were possessed by ,northwich and ,winsford4 ,northwich1 described by the ,welsh as ,hellath-du1 became the chief of the ,cheshire salt towns in the seventeenth century1 and its output of brine is still greater than that of any other district4 ,in #afje1 ,northwich had #ddi leads1 against #fdb leads at ,middlewich and #a1bif leads at ,nantwich1 but the comparative superiority of the brine pumped at ,nantwich over that of her rivals is demonstrated by the relative amount of boiling required to precipitate the salt4 ,in ,northwich1 the annual expenditure for wood fuel was #b1jef2 ,middlewich1 with nearly one-third more leads1 consumed wood fuel to the amount of #a1dce yearly2 while ,nantwich1 working twice as many leads as ,middlewich1 and nearly three times the number operated at ,northwich1 had an annual wood bill of only #a1gbh4 ,in #afgj1 ,winsford1 which had only just started as a salt producer1 had two salt works in operation on a small scale4 ,in #afge1 ,lord ,brereton ignored the output of ,winsford in his calculation of the total annual salt production of the ,cheshire works at #bf1ibg tons4 ,in #ahgh1 or practically two centuries later1 the ,cheshire output of salt was calculated at #b1jee1jjj tons1 made up as follows3 ,winsford and ,district1 #a1jcf1jjj tons2 ,northwich and ,district1 #hhj1jjj tons2 ,middlewich and ,district1 #ba1jjj tons2 and the newly-developed ,sandbach ,district1 #aah1jjj tons4 ,but while ,winsford has surpassed her older competitors in the matter of salt production1 ,northwich is still the commercial centre of the industry and the greatest producer of brine2 whereas1 in the case of the other districts1 the brine is converted into salt on the spot1 the ,northwich brine1 to the amount of hundreds of millions of gallons annually1 is pumped out of the neighbourhood through the ,marbury pipe1 to be employed in the chemical works of ,brunner1 ,mond ,co41 and be manufactured into salt at the ,salt ,union's works at ,weston ,point4 ,compared with the other salt-making centres1 the record of ,middlewich is of slight importance1 and although the ancient town boasts an honourable place in the history of the ,cheshire ,wiches1 it now takes a secondary position among the salt-producing districts4 ,lawton1 in the south-eastern corner of the ,cheshire salt region1 is a comparatively modern entrant into the local industry1 for although the place is of historic importance as the scene of the discovery of the bottom bed of salt in #aggi1 white salt has only been manufactured there for something over #acj years4 ,the deposits1 which are found at a considerable height above sea-level1 are of great but undefined magnitude1 as the lowest strata has been bored through for a thickness of #gb feet1 without penetrating the formation4 ,the rock salt here was acknowledged to be purer than any previously encountered in ,cheshire1 and the brine derived therefrom1 containing #bfajj chloride sodium by weight1 yields on evaporation an exceptionally high class of white salt4 ,the ,commercial ,salt ,company1 ,ltd41 which was formed to work the ,hodgkinson ,patent ,salt-making ,process1 to which further reference must be made later1 have their works at ,lawton1 where they are most conveniently situated in the important matters of transport and fuel1 being on the canal which brings them nearer to the markets of the ,midland ,counties than any other salt works in the country1 and obtaining their coal from workings within two miles of the property4 ,the rock salt formation is so vast that the supply of brine1 if not actually inexhaustible1 will allow of an enormous production of salt for many generations to come4 ,the output of white salt at ,lawton for nearly a century and a half has not appreciably depleted the deposits and is not at present being drawn upon1 as the ,commercial ,salt ,company are pumping from an excellent 8brine run0 which is pumped without the damage to property and subsidence of land that have occurred in other parts of the ,cheshire salt districts4 ,the chronicle of the salt industry of ,winsford is one of the romances of commerce4 ,until the river ,weaver was made navigable1 the ,winsford salt manufacture was limited to the output of only four pans of unrecorded dimensions1 which were probably worked by ,middlewich makers4 ,in #ageh1 the first year in which the ,winsford shippings were recorded separately1 the export of white salt was #a1jee tons4 ,by the end of the century1 ,winsford sent #dd1chd tons down the river ,weaver1 and1 in the year #ahej1 their shipments had increased to #cbd1bdi tons4 ,this output had risen in #ahhj to #gid1hbd tons of white salt4 ,in the ensuing ten years there was a slight increase1 followed by a sharp decline 7in #ahij7 to #eja1edh tons1 or a fall from the high-water mark of #hcd1cjf tons in #ahha1 of no less than #ccb1geh tons4 ,the decline in the ,winsford make of salt was not arrested by the formation of the ,salt ,union in #ahhh1 and ten years later the output of white salt had decreased to #djc1dee tons1 and the export of rock-salt from ,winsford1 which had recommenced with an output of #ada tons in #ahef and risen to #bh1bcf tons in #ahhf1 ceased in #ahih4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,development ,,of ,,brine ,,processes ,it has been said that ,de ,re ,metallica of ,georgius ,agricola1 published in #aeef1 was regarded as the standard text-book on the subject for nearly two centuries1 and in that long period the method he describes of salt-making by the artificial evaporation of brine underwent no material change4 ,but from the last half of the seventeenth century1 various attempts were made to effect improvements in the open-pan process in this country1 and the history of these endeavours is set forth in a sequence of interesting publications4 ,among the most important of these is an article1 which was printed in the ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,england1 in #affi1 in which ,dr4 ,william ,jackson1 in the form of a catechism1 gives a number of particulars concerning the salt springs of ,nantwich and the ways of salt-making as practised in that town4 ,it appears from this account that each of the salt houses was still furnished with six leads1 but one learns that this number of leads had1 in the case of the majority of the salt-houses1 been converted into four iron-pans1 rather more than #c ft4 square by about #f in4 deep1 and containing the same quantity of brine as was previously distributed among the six leads2 while still more recently the four pans had been again changed into two larger pans1 and some salt-makers had re-fashioned these two receptacles into one great pan4 ,the description which ,dr4 ,jackson gives of the process is so concise and lucid that it may be reproduced here without the alteration of a word4 ,the question that he propounds to himself is-- 8,what is the manner of their 7the salt-makers7 work8 or what time of boiling the salt water8 ,whether they use any peculiar thing to make it granulate1 and1 if so1 what that is80 ,in the course of his reply1 he says3 8,they use for their fuel pitcoals brought out of ,staffordshire4 ,these pans are set upon iron bars1 bricked in very close4 ,they first fill their pans with brine out of the pit3 which comes to them in several wooden gutters3 then they put into their pans amongst the brine1 a certain mixture1 made of about #bj gallons of brine1 and two quarts of calves'1 cows'1 and1 chiefly1 sheep's blood4 ,of this mixture they put about #b quarts into a pan that holds about #cfj quarts of brine3 this bloody brine at the first boiling of the pan brings up a scum which they are careful to skim off3 they continue their fire as quick as they can till half the brine be wasted1 and this they call boiling upon the fresh4 ,but when it is half boiled away1 they fill their pans again with new brine out of the ship 7so they call a great cistern by their pan sides1 into which their brine runs through the wooden gutters from the pump1 that stands in the pit7 then they put into the pan two quarts of the mixture following3 they take a quart of white of eggs1 beat them with as much brine1 as before was done with the blood2 and thus that which they call the whites is made4 ,as soon as this is in1 they boil sharply till the second scum arise3 then scum it off as before1 and boil very gently till it corne2 to procure which1 when part of the brine is wasted they put into each pan of the size aforesaid1 about a quarter of a pint of the best and strongest ale they can get3 this makes a momentary ebullition1 which is soon over1 and then they abate their fires yet not so but that they keep it boiling all over though gently3 for the workmen say that if they boil fast here1 it wastes their salt4 ,after all their leach brine is in1 they boil gently till a kind of scum comes on it like a thin ice3 which is the first appearance of the salt3 then that sinks and the brine everywhere gathers into cornes at the bottom to it1 which they gently rake together with their loots1 this they continue till there is but very little brine left in the pan3 then with their loots they take it up1 the brine dropping from it1 and throw it into their barrows1 which are cases made with flat cleft wickers1 in the shape almost of a sugar loaf1 the bottom uppermost4 ,when the barrow is full they let it stand so for an hour and a half in the trough where it drains out all the leach brine1 then they remove it into their hothouse behind their works made there by two tunnels under their pans1 carried back for that purpose4 ,the leach brine that runs from the barrows they put into the next boiling1 for it is to their advantage being salt melted and wanting only hardening4 8,this work is performed in two hours in the smaller pans1 which are shallower1 and generally boil their brine more away3 wherefore their salt will last better1 though it does not granulate so well1 because when the brine is wasted1 the fire and stirring breaks the cornes4 ,but this salt weighs heavier and melts not so soon3 and therefore is bought for many sales to a distance4 ,but in the greater pans1 which are usually deeper1 they are above half an hour longer in boiling2 but because they take their salt out of their brine1 and only harden it in their hothouse1 it is apter to melt away in a moist air3 yet of this sort of salt the longer the grain is1 the longer it endures3 and generally this is the better granulated and the clearer1 though the other be the whiter4 ,and ,i think it is rather the taking of the salt out of the brine before it is wasted1 that causes the granulating of it1 than the ale1 to which the workmen impute it4 8,they never cover their pans at all1 during the whole time of boiling4 ,they have their houses like barns open up to the thatch with a cover-hole or two to vent the steam of the pans40 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,canal-,,burst ,,and ,,landslip1 ,,owing ,,to ,,subsidence ,,near ,,northwich1 #ba,,st ,,july1 #aijg ,on the subject of the supply and quality of the brine obtained at ,nantwich and ,middlewich1 ,dr4 ,jackson explains that the springs are rich or poor in a double sense1 as a spring may be rich in salt but poor in the quantity of brine it affords4 ,thus1 the chief pit at ,middlewich contained a rich brine yielding a full fourth part of salt1 but the supply was so meagre that the inhabitants were 8limited to their proportions out of it10 and their requirements were made up out of pits furnishing a weaker brine4 ,the pit at ,nantwich was so plentiful as to supply all the salters1 but while the brine contained only a sixth part of salt1 8such quick use of it extremely strengthens the brine1 perhaps to a degree little less than that of ,middlewich pit40 ,in support of this statement that freshly drawn brine is richer than the liquor that has stood for some days in the pit1 ,dr4 ,jackson testified1 as the result of personal experiment1 that 8a quart of brine1 when the pit has been drawn off three or four days first1 to supply five or six wich-houses1 has yielded an ounce and a half more of salt than at another time1 when it has had a rest of a week or thereabouts40 ,in the ,droitwich locality of ,worcestershire1 the quality of the brine closely resembled that of the ,cheshire salt springs4 ,in the account by ,dr4 ,thomas ,rastel1 published in #afgh in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 the writer says3 8,in the great pit at ,upwich1 we have at once three sorts of brine1 which we call by the names of first-man1 middle-man1 and last-man1 these sorts being of different strengths4 ,the brine is drawn by a pump3 that which is in the bottom is first pumped out2 which is that we call first-man1 etc4 ,a quart measure of this brine weighs #bi ounces troy1 but of distilled water only #bd ounces4 ,this brine yields about a fourth part of salt2 so that four tons of brine make about a ton of salt4 ,the other two sorts less1 or #bh ounces4 ,and the pit yields #dej bushels of salt per day4 ,in the best pit at ,netherwich a quart of brine weighs #bh ounces and a half2 this pit is #ah feet deep and #d broad1 and yields as much brine every #bd hours as makes about #dj bushels of salt4 ,the worst pit at ,netherwich is of the same breadth and depth as the former3 a quart of brine out of which weighs #bg ounces and yields as much brine daily as makes about #cj bushels of salt40 ,although ,dr4 ,rastel's account of the salt-making methods in use at ,droitwich coincides with that employed about the same period in ,cheshire1 he explains one or two minor variants and the reason of their adoption4 8,the vats we boil the brine in10 he writes1 8are made of lead1 cast into a flat plate #e feet and a half long and #c feet over3 having the side and ends beaten up1 and a little raised in the middle1 which are set upon brickwork called ovens1 in which is a grate to make the fire on1 and an ash-hole which we call a trunk4 ,in some seals are #f of these pans1 in some #e1 some #d1 some #c1 some #b4 ,in each of these pans is boiled at a time as much brine as makes #c pecks of white salt4 ,for clarifying the salt we should have little need1 were it not for dust accidentally falling into the brine4 ,the brine of itself being so clear that nothing can be clearer4 ,for clarifying it1 we use nothing but the whites of eggs1 of which we take a quarter of a white1 and put it into a gallon or two of brine1 which being beaten with the hand1 lathers as if it were soap1 a small quantity of which froth put into each vat raises all the scum1 the white of one egg clarifying #bj bushels of salt1 by which means our salt is as white as anything can be3 neither has it any ill savour1 as that salt has that is clarified with blood4 ,for granulating it we use nothing at all1 for the brine is so strong of itself1 that unless it be often stirred1 it will make salt as large grained as bay-salt4 ,i have boiled brine to a candy height1 and it has produced clods of salt as clear as the clearest alum1 like ,isle of ,may salt3 so that we are necessitated to put a small quantity of rosin into the brine1 to make the grain of the salt small40 8,if it is asked why we use not iron pans as in ,cheshire10 ,dr4 ,rastel concludes1 8,i answer there have been trials made of both forged iron pans and cast iron4 ,the former the strength of the brine so corrodes1 that it quickly wears them out1 the latter the brine breaks40 ,the first serious attempt to effect a real improvement in the making of salt from brine was communicated to the ,lords of the ,admiralty in #agdf by ,thomas ,lowndes1 and under the title of 8,,brine ,,salt ,,improved or the ,method of ,making ,salt from ,brine1 that shall be as good or better than ,,french ,,bay-,,salt40 ,it was published in the same year in a handsomely printed1 block-type brochure of #dj pages by ,s4 ,austin1 of ,newgate ,street1 ,lowndes1 who had spent his infancy in ,middlewich and had acquired in his youth a thorough acquaintance with the ,cheshire manner of salt-making1 employed several years in travelling in ,france1 during which he studied the process employed in the making of salt by solar evaporation from sea-water in the neighbourhood of ,rochelle4 ,at this time the bay-salt of ,rochelle was regarded by merchants1 victuallers1 and fishermen as the best in ,europe4 ,he afterwards visited ,holland for the purpose of ascertaining why the ,dutch white herrings were superior to those cured in ,england1 and he learned that the cause was explained by the method employed by the ,dutch in purifying their salt4 ,armed with the knowledge he had acquired in ,france and ,holland1 and allowing for the difference between the ,french1 ,dutch1 and ,english brines1 ,lowndes offered to enter into an agreement with the ,admiralty to supply them with a better article than the ,french bay-salt1 made by the following process-- 8,let a ,cheshire salt-pan 7which commonly contains about eight hundred gallons7 be filled with ,brine1 to within about an inch of the top2 then make and light the fire2 and when the ,brine is just lukewarm1 put in about an ounce of blood from the butcher's1 or the whites of two eggs2 let the pan boil with all possible violence2 as the scum rises take it off2 when the fresh or watery part is pretty well decreased1 throw into the pan the third part of a pint of new ale1 or that quantity of bottoms of malt-drink2 upon the ,brine's beginning to grain1 throw into it the quantity of a small nutmeg of fresh butter2 and when the liquor has sailed for about half an hour1 that is1 has produced a good deal of ,salt1 draw the pan1 in other words1 take out the ,salt4 ,by this time the fire will be greatly abated1 and so will the heat of the liquor4 ,let no more fewel be thrown on the fire2 but let the ,brine gently cool1 till one can just bear to put one's hand into it2 keep the ,brine of that heat as near as possible2 and when it has worked for some time1 and is beginning to grain1 throw in the quantity of a small nutmeg of fresh butter2 and about two minutes after that1 scatter throughout the pan1 as equally as may be1 an ounce and three quarters of clean common ,allom pulverized very fine2 and then instantly1 with the common iron-scrape-pan stir the ,brine very briskly in every part of the pan1 for about a minute2 then let the pan settle1 and constantly feed the fire1 so that the ,brine may never be quite scalding hot1 nor near so cold as lukewarm2 let the pan stand working thus1 for about three days and nights1 and then draw it4 8,the ,brine remaining will by this time be so cold1 that it will not work at all2 therefore fresh ,coals must be thrown upon the fire1 and the ,brine must boil for about half an hour1 but not near so violently as before the first drawing2 then1 with the usual instrument1 take out such ,salt as is beginning to fall1 7as they term it7 and put it apart2 now let the pan settle and cool4 ,when the ,brine becomes no hotter1 than one can just bear to put ones hand into it1 proceed in all respects as before2 only let the quantity of ,allom not exceed an ounce and a quarter4 ,and in about eight and forty hours after draw the pan40 ,this process1 as will be seen1 involved the use of much slower fires than were usually employed in ,cheshire1 and allowed the liquor to simmer instead of boiling for a longer period4 ,for this purpose1 ,mr4 ,lowndes proposed to use a large proportion of cinders in his furnaces1 8since long boiling with great fires not only deprives salt of its spirit and strength1 but causes its grain to become loose and soft1 since cinders are better than coals in preserving a constant1 equal1 and gentle heat40 ,in order to correct the ill-effects suffered by the salt through being made in an enclosed1 intensely hot room1 filled with steam and smoke1 he had recourse to the use of alum1 which1 he claimed1 would restore to the salt its 8natural cubical shoot and give it a proper hardness40 ,he further claimed that by this process the hot-houses or drying-houses could be dispensed with1 waste in carriage would be avoided1 and the pans would last three times as long2 while1 in order to anticipate the inevitable objections of the salt-makers and dispel the pretended difficulties that the workmen would find in executing his directions1 the inventor explained that he had been careful to accommodate his process1 as near as possible1 8to the present practice in ,cheshire40 ,at the request of the ,admiralty1 the ,college of ,physicians conducted several examinations of salt made by the ,lowndes process1 and reported that it was 8in all respects1 a strong and pure salt1 equal at least1 if not preferable to any we are acquainted with40 ,on the strength of this testimonial1 ,mr4 ,lowndes applied to the ,admiralty to allow him a six months' trial to prove the goodness of his salt for domestic purposes1 twelve months to prove its excellence for the purpose of the ,fishery of ,america1 and two years in which to prove its efficacy in preserving beef and pork for the ,royal ,navy4 ,if in this series of tests it should be proved that salt made by his process equalled ,french bay-salt1 he proposed that they should pay him a total sum of #g1jjj1 and should the trials demonstrate the slightest inferiority1 he would be content to make his country a present of his labours4 ,when the ,admiralty declined to enter into negotiations with him1 ,mr4 ,lowndes laid his scheme before the ,house of ,commons1 which petitioned the ,king to instruct the ,admiralty to make the tests on the inventor's terms1 but the sudden death of ,lowndes in #agdh closed the controversy4 ,but the determination to bring the art of salt-making to 8greater perfection0 was not abandoned1 although1 as ,dr4 ,william ,brownrigg admitted1 the success achieved by ,thomas ,lowndes was thought by some people 8to supersede the necessity of any further attempts for improving or extending our salt manufacture40 ,brownrigg commended ,lowndes's method and testified to the purity and strength of his salt which had been exhibited before the ,college of ,physicians1 but he maintained that by other methods a purer and stronger salt might be made at a less expense4 ,in point of fact1 ,dr4 ,brownrigg's objection to the ,lowndes' method was that it was applied only to salt made from brine1 or a solution of ,english rock-salt often prepared with impure water1 and that the salt so produced1 in his opinion1 was inferior to marine salt4 ,brownrigg1 only half realizing ,lowndes's intention1 would appear to have grasped the fact that his process aimed at economy of fuel combined with uniformity in the degree and distribution of heat1 but he does not seem to have appreciated the value of the improvement anticipated therefrom4 ,it must by this time have become evident to scientific investigators and practical salt-men that the solution of the problems of economical manufacture and increased output lay in the application and regulation of heat4 ,christopher ,chrysel1 of ,leipsic1 after fourteen years of 8great industry1 much pains1 and cost0 spent in the practice and study of salt-making in ,cheshire1 published the result of his labours in #aghg4 ,chrysel claimed that by his method 8with the least ,fire and ,coal the most ,salt can be made and the greatest ,profit received such as in no other way can possibly happen10 but curiously enough the improvement for which he obtained a ,royal ,patent1 was primarily based upon a more advantageous arrangement of the brine pans1 while the improvement effected in the furnace was treated as a matter of only subsidiary importance4 ,chrysel demonstrated his method at ,bye ,flat1 near ,northwich1 in ,cheshire1 in ,june1 #aggf4 ,the experiment was carried out in the presence of witnesses1 the same pan was used in testing both the old and the new methods1 the same two salt-boilers were employed in conducting both operations1 and the amounts of fuel consumed and salt produced were carefully weighed and attested4 ,the results were recorded in the following report furnished by the ,liverpool ,agent of ,mr4 ,richard ,kent's salt-works at ,bye ,flat-- ,illustration3 ,a ,,salt ,,store-,,shed 8,in three #8firings' of #b ,furnaces under a salt pan set up on the old plan ten years ago and constantly worked till the present time--#bd feet long3 #ae feet broad and #ab inches deep--filled with ,brine three times in a half week1 and boiled down each time in #bd hours and the salt drawn out there was burnt #e tons of ,coal and made #g tons #ca bushels1 or #aee cwts4 of salt4 8,after the experiment the ,patentee1 ,mr4 ,christopher ,chrysel1 set up the same pan on his improved ,patent ,method1 and then in three similar firings in half a week as before there was only burnt #c tons #e cwt4 of coal and made #h tons #b cwts4 or #afb cwts4 of salt#b tons #aj cwts4 of salt per ton of fuel40 ,chrysel says in his treatise that the pan mentioned in his experiments--#bd ft4 long1 #ae ft4 broad1 and #ab in4 deep--will be regarded by his ,german readers as of phenomenal bigness1 but he explains that in ,england it is looked upon as only a medium-sized receptacle4 ,the pans in use in ,cheshire at this period were of various sizes1 but the tendency was to introduce pans of increasing dimensions4 8,indeed ,i can with all truth say10 he writes1 8that in ,england ,i have seen with my own eyes1 pans two1 three and four times as big 7as the one he used at ,bye ,flat7 and have measured them with my own hands1 and have proved each one designedly and have seen and marked and become persuaded that from large salt pans the greater advantage and the most noted cheapness in the manufacture of salt depend and proceed40 ,in the course of his experiments with pans of all sizes1 he proved that in a small pan1 #h ft4 square and #i in4 deep1 heated with one furnace1 he obtained in five weeks a clear profit of #ce #aes4 #b;d41 while in one pan1 compounded out of five of the small pans1 and heated with two furnaces1 the profit of one week's working was #db #aes4 #e;d41 or a net additional profit of #g #js4 #c;d41 and the saving of four weeks in time and labour4 ,he further experimented with three of the largest pans for one week1 with the following results-- 8,the first--#cf by #be feet and #ac inches deep holding #ige cubic feet of ,brine--burnt in #c ,furnaces in one week #ab tons of coal and made #cb tons #b cwts4 of salt4 8,the second--#dj by #bg ft4 and #ac inches deep holding #aagj cubic feet of brine--burnt in #c ,furnaces in a week #ae tons #ah cwts4 of coal and made #cd tons of salt4 8,the third--#eb by #bf feet and #ac inches deep holding #adfd cubic feet of ,brine--burnt in #d ,furnaces in one week1 #bd tons of coal and made #fb tons of salt40 ,chrysel is himself amazed that pans containing #cfj1 #ijj1 and even #a1djj cubic feet of brine can be boiled into salt in the same space of time1 and he is feign to admit that 8up to now1 nobody1 to my knowledge1 has proved what length1 breadth1 and depth of pan is calculated to make the most salt with the least consumption of coal4 ,consequently everywhere are to be found many different pans1 and other varieties are continually being tested4 ,and ,i myself cannot feel that ,i am capable of deciding the question1 nevertheless ,i will1 from my experience and conscientious conviction1 say what ,i consider is the best1 cheapest1 and most reliable pan for this purpose40 ,after long search1 and close inquiry in numerous salt-works1 and as the result of his study of salt-making in pans of every size1 ,chrysel came to the conclusion that a single pan--8#bf feet long1 #ah feet broad1 and #ab inches deep1 with two furnaces1 in a roomy salt-works with sufficient room for the workmen and baskets on both sides of the pan0--was to be preferred to all others4 ,but this considered judgment was amended after further application to the problem by advocating an increase in length without changing the breadth of the pan4 ,his ultimate verdict was in favour of a pan #eb ft4 long1 #ah ft4 broad1 and #a ft4 deep1 with a capacity of #icf cubic feet of brine1 equipped with two furnaces1 and he declared that this pan1 producing about #fch cwt4 of salt per week1 at a cost of #aj #es4 #f;d4 for fuel1 and selling for #abg #aes4 #f;d41 and giving a profit of #aag #ajs4 was 8the perfect article40 ,although1 as ,i have pointed out1 ,chrysel's patent was principally concerned with the arrangement of the brine pans1 which were so arranged as to obtain the maximum amount of heat from the fuel consumed in the furnaces1 in the course of his experiments he evolved an improved1 if by no means a perfect1 furnace4 ,the peculiar nature of the superiority effected was based on the common knowledge that it is the natural tendency of fire heat and smoke to escape into the open air and disappear4 ,he proceeds3 8,if1 however1 they are confined and shut up in a furnace under a salt pan they still require an opening to escape to the chimney else the fire cannot burn and is extinguished4 ,if however the opening and place of exit into the draughts and chimney is too large and wide1 as it is generally1 and particularly under salt pans1 not only will the draught of ,air cause ,wood and ,coal to be more rapidly consumed and changed into ,ashes which will choke the fire but also the fireheat and smoke will1 by the draught of the air1 hasten into the draughts and chimney1 and the bottom of the pan will hardly be touched and scarcely half the work be done4 ,on the contrary1 if the opening and exit into the draughts and chimney has a proper proportion1 according to the different sizes of the ,pans and to the requisite ,fire in the ,furnace under the pan1 the ,fireheat and ,smoke will be longer contained under the pan and that1 steadily coming from the ,furnace1 will be increased and strengthened1 so that double work under the pan will result1 and wood or coal will not so rapidly be burnt to ashes but last longer and consequently do more work4 ,all that is required in this is to calculate the mathematical proportion between the different sizes of the pans1 the ,furnace and the ,fires and between the opening and ,exit into the draughts and chimney1 and to apply it40 ,it will be recognized that both ,lowndes and ,chrysel were on the way to the solution of the problem of the perfect salt-making plant when they devoted themselves to the improvement of the furnace1 but another century and a half was to elapse before the secret that eluded their efforts should be revealed4 ,the luckless ,furnival1 some fifty years later than ,chrysel1 approached nearly to the goal to which they were all striving1 and he1 in common with his forerunners1 had his share of the savage jealousy and persecution that the salt-men have ever visited upon those who venture into the lists with them4 8,no malice has been wanting to bring a disreputation upon my salt2 and every wicked art will be practised to render its virtues ineffectual4 ,the ,salt ,commissioners are my avowed enemies2 for the miscarrying of my attempts will be their gain40 ,thus wrote poor ,lowndes1 and ,chrysel had similar grounds for complaint4 8,before the above proof 7the result of his experiment at ,bye ,fleet7 was made openly1 nobody believed in the anticipated saving10 he says1 8but everybody doubted and some declared it to be impossible4 ,after1 however1 the thing was made known1 everybody on the contrary was in a state of wonderment4 ,in a short time wonder was changed into envy1 ill-will and malice1 and many attempts were made to suppress me and destroy my patent1 although it was not possible for any one to point out any failures or errors40 ,we shall see presently how the salt-men dealt with their successor1 ,william ,furnival4 ,henry ,holland1 writing in #ahjh on 8,the ,production of ,salt ,brine10 furnishes some reliable details concerning the manufacture of brine-salt as it was conducted in ,cheshire at the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,according to this authority3 8,the pans used in ,cheshire1 for the evaporating of the brine1 are now made of wrought iron4 ,the dimensions of these vary very much2 but1 in general1 those of modern erection are considerably larger than what were in use a few years ago2 and they usually contain from #fjj to #hjj superficial feet4 ,one or two pans of still larger dimensions have been erected1 each containing nearly #a1jjj feet4 ,their usual form is that of an oblong square1 and their depth from #ab to #af inches4 ,to a pan containing #fjj to #hjj superficial feet1 there are usually three furnaces1 from six and a half to seven feet long1 and #bj to #bd inches wide4 ,the grates are from two and a half to three feet from the bottom of the pan4 ,the furnace-doors are single1 and there are no doors to the ash-pits4 8,the different pans are usually partitioned out from each other1 and there is a separate pan-house to each pan4 ,within this pan-house1 at one end is the coal-hole2 the chimney occupies the other end1 there is a walk along the two remaining sides of the pan1 five or six feet wide2 and between these walks and the sides of the pan-house1 which are generally of wood1 long benches four or five feet wide1 are fixed1 on which the salt is placed in conical baskets to drain after it has been taken out of the pan2 a wooden or slated roof is placed over the pan-house1 with louvres to allow the steam to pass freely out4 8,the manufacture is conducted in several different ways1 or rather heat is applied in various degrees1 to effect the evaporation of the water of solution2 and according to these different degrees of heat1 the product is the stoved or lump salt2 common salt2 the large grained flaky2 and large grained or fishery salt40 ,in the making of stoved salt1 the brine was brought to a boiling heat--which in brine fully saturated is #bbf degrees of ,fahrenheit--and the pan was twice filled in the course of twenty-four hours4 ,in the making of common salt1 the brine was first brought to boiling heat1 for the double purpose of expediting saturation and clearing the brine of any earthy contents1 and then1 moderating the fires1 the process of crystallization was completed with the brine heated to #afj or #agj degrees of ,fahrenheit4 ,the pan in which common salt was made was filled only once in twenty-four hours4 ,the large grained1 flaky salt was made with an evaporation conducted at the heat of #acj or #adj degrees1 and the pan was filled once in every forty-eight hours2 while in the case of fishery salt1 the brine was brought to a heat of from #ajj to #aaj degrees of ,fahrenheit1 and five or six days were required to evaporate the water of solution4 ,in the course of these several processes1 various additions were often made to the brine1 with the view of promoting the separation of any earthy mixture1 or the more ready crystallization of the salt4 ,these additions varied in different works1 and many of them seem to have been made from ill-founded prejudices without any exact idea as to their probable effects4 ,the principal additions made at various times were acids1 animal jelly and gluten1 vegetable mucilage1 new or stale ale1 wheat-flour1 resin1 butter1 and alum4 ,holland believed that the addition of acids to the brine was an innovation based upon the mistaken idea that the use of acid accounted for the superiority of the ,dutch salt1 but at the time at which he wrote the practice had been discontinued in ,cheshire4 ,animal jelly and gluten for clearing the brine and promoting the separation of the earthy contents1 were much used in preference to blood1 which1 while excellent for the purpose when fresh1 was difficult to procure in sufficient quantity and to preserve from putrefaction4 ,white of eggs1 glue1 and jelly procured by boiling cows' and calves' feet1 were also found to answer perfectly well for the purpose of clarifying brine1 but the use of new or stale ale and beer grounds as a brine clarifier1 had been abandoned as inefficacious by ,cheshire salt-men4 ,dr4 ,brownrigg was of opinion that salt-boilers had little to plead in favour of the addition of butter during the evaporation process1 beyond immemorial custom1 but ,holland considered the salt-makers had ample grounds for their belief that butter assisted the granulation of the salt and made the brine 8work more kindly40 ,on the question of the addition of alum opinions varied4 ,lowndes ascribed the superiority of his salt to the use of alum1 but ,brownrigg declared that 8the goodness of ,mr4 ,lowndes' salt does not seem to be owing to the alum with which it is mixed1 but may be attributed chiefly to the gentle heat used in the preparation40 ,illustration3 ,,witton ,,brook1 ,,northwich4 ,,submerged ,,tract ,,of ,,agricultural ,,land ,holland combated the general impression obtaining at the time1 that salt formed from the same brine varied by the application of different degrees of heat1 not only in external appearance but also in quality1 and the equally prevalent idea that salt formed from natural brine was inferior in its power of preserving animal flesh to bay-salt4 ,he proved by quotation and experiment that such prejudices were entirely unfounded1 and proceeded to show that the action of bay-salt is exactly similar to that of the large-grained salt1 and that neither variety has any advantage over the salt prepared by a boiling heat except in the size and compactness of its crystals and in its containing a somewhat smaller proportion of the water of crystallization2 and as the large-grained fishery salt is more than equal to the bay salt in these important points1 it at least equals the latter in its power of preserving animal flesh or provisions4 ,the first person who introduced steam heat into the manufacture of salt1 and1 in so doing1 anticipated the revolutionary improvements which were achieved some three-quarters of a century later by the ,vacuum ,system and the ,hodgkinson ,patent ,salt-,making ,process1 was ,william ,furnival4 ,for our knowledge of the intentions and achievements of this bold and persevering innovator we have to rely almost entirely upon his 8,statement of ,facts1 ,humbley and ,respectfully submitted to the ,consideration of ,his ,majesty1 ,his ,majesty's ,ministers1 and ,both ,houses of ,parliament40 ,in this document we have a story of oppression1 conspiracy1 and persecution which the author describes as 8unparalleled in free ,england10 and since his narration of the treatment he endured has never been refuted1 we must conclude that the gist of what he writes is substantially true4 ,it is to be regretted that in this only available account of his activities1 ,furnival is so intent upon exposing the wrongs to which he had been subjected that he omits to furnish us with a detailed description of his process4 ,we know that in #ahbc ,furnival erected works at ,droitwich and commenced making salt1 and we have his assurance that his patent answered every expectation he had formed of it4 ,moreover1 its working was investigated by ,messrs4 ,s4 ,fowler1 ,fardon ,co41 who1 on #agth ,april1 #ahbd1 certified that the advantages of the ,furnival method over all existing processes1 consisted-- 8,firstly4--,in the saving of fuel which may be stated at about one-half4 8,secondly4--,in the production of twice the quantity of salt1 as usually made in vessels of the same size1 in a given space of time4 8,thirdly4--,in the superior quality of the salt1 arising out of the regular distribution of heat to the bottom of the brine pan40 ,in ,april1 #ahbe1 ,furnival disposed of his salt property at ,anderton1 and three years later1 to a month1 he bought property at ,marston for #a1eej4 ,on this ground he erected works covering an area of about twelve acres1 and installed some three miles of pannage at a cost of upwards of #ace1jjj1 capable of producing some #acj1jjj tons of salt per annum4 ,he subsequently bought and started to erect works intended1 when finished1 to occupy nearly six acres of ground at ,marston4 ,he asserted that these ,wharton and ,marston properties were the only two in the kingdom possessing the peculiar advantages of inexhaustible supplies of fully saturated brine and dry rock-salt on the same premises1 and he claimed that he could not only deliver rock-salt at fully #be to #cj per cent4 less than any other mine in the country1 but1 further1 that the salt made on his principle was admitted to be superior in quality1 owing to the regular distribution of heat1 by which more uniform and superior crystals were produced4 ,in the autumn of #ahbi1 he opened negotiations in two separate quarters to lease on royalty certain portions of his salt-works at ,wharton1 and two committees1 each consisting of three men1 were appointed by the prospective tenants to investigate the system4 ,on #bbnd ,august1 #ahbi1 the two committees drew up a joint report1 from which ,i extract the following-- 8,the first committee entered upon the investigation on the #aeth ,august1 #ahbi2 remained on duty eight hours2 was then relieved by the second for the like period1 and so continued the investigation1 alternately superintending the weighing and delivery of the coals and salt1 and taking note of the temperatures every hour4 8,the following is the result of working for #afb hours1 a steam boiler1 constantly fed with brine1 the specific gravity from #bc to #beajjths4 ,length of the boiler1 #bj ft42 width1 #h ft4 ,a triangular flue pan1 #hj ft42 width1 #h ft4 ,a triangular steam pan1 #ajaf in42 width1 #h ft4 forming a surface of #a1fab superficial ft4 of brine4 ,the quantity of coal consumed was #h tons4 ,the quantity of fine salt produced was #cef cwt4 ,ditto of common and fishery #djd -------- ,making #gfj cwt4 8,being a product of four and a half tons of salt for every ton of coals consumed40 ,it will be convenient here to explain what became of these several ,furnival properties1 and then describe very briefly the stages which led to the inventor's incarceration in ,horsemonger ,lane ,gaol and caused him to address his ,statement of ,facts to the ,government4 ,in ,april1 #ahbe1 he sold his works at ,anderton to the ,british ,rock and ,salt ,company1 which continued to ship salt until #ahbi4 ,the ,marston property appears to have been worked until #ahdg4 ,the ,wharton works were managed by ,trustees until #ahci1 when they were taken over by the ,national ,patent ,salt ,company1 which became one of the most important firms in the ,winsford trade4 ,in #ahge1 ,justice ,manisty1 the surviving leaseholder1 transferred his interests to ,stubbs ,brothers1 who1 in #ahhh1 disposed of the business to the ,salt ,union4 ,furnival had no sooner established himself as a salt-maker at ,anderton than the old salt proprietors1 8who had contrived in the past to ruin all1 or any one who should dare to enter the lists against them10 became seriously alarmed at the apparent magnitude of his plans and the great improvements which threatened both their exorbitant profits and their hitherto unchallenged monopoly4 ,furnival1 to employ a colloquialism1 proceeded to 8back himself both ways40 ,having more than once proved his strength by breaking up 8the ,coalition0 7which the old proprietors had formed to regulate the output and price of salt71 and bringing down the price of common salt from #bjs4 to #hs4 per ton1 he offered to erect his patent apparatus at his own cost and risk on the works of his wealthy rivals1 and to allow them two-thirds of the saving effected by its application4 ,according to ,furnival's unsupported but uncontradicted account1 they ridiculed his offer1 declaring that they wanted none of his patents1 that they could command their own profits in defiance of him1 and that they would never sanction any improvements or innovations in the trade4 ,furnival1 who had secured patents for ,france and the ,netherlands1 thereafter gave his ,english competitors a rest and proceeded to erect salt-works at ,rotterdam and ,ghent capable of taking nearly #fj1jjj tons of rock salt annually from the ,british market4 ,but the ,english salt refiners prompted their ,dutch and ,belgian confrres to bring official discredit upon the enterprise1 and ,furnival and his partner were compelled to abandon their works1 which had cost them #ac1jjj to erect1 and to forgo the #cc1jjj they were to have received for their patent rights4 ,furnival returned to ,england and set up his salt-works at ,wharton1 where he 8produced some of the finest rock-salt in the kingdom40 ,the old proprietors decided that no sacrifice was too great that would have the effect of crushing this competitor4 ,they lowered the price of rock-salt #ej per cent41 and kept manufactured salt so low that every establishment was worked at a loss4 ,a meeting of proprietors1 convened to consider the situation1 resolved that while 8they deeply lamented the low price of salt1 they considered1 at the same time1 that it would not be prudent to raise the price until ,mr4 ,furnival was disposed of40 ,the salt manufacturers admitted1 in a circular published in #ahbi1 that this cutting-out operation had1 in four and a half years1 involved the trade in a loss of #bhb1aid #ads41 but it had the effect of frightening away ,furnival's financial supporters1 and landed him in further misfortunes4 ,illustration3 ,,working ,,in ,,dangerous ,,ground ,,after ,,subsidence1 ,,dunkirk ,,lake1 ,,northwich ,in #ahbf1 ,furnival had entered into a contract with a ,peter ,bouvain to erect a salt-works in the ,isle of ,rh1 but the month that was required to prove the capabilities of the patent plant was sufficient to demonstrate the commercial worthlessness of the ,frenchman1 and ,furnival cut his loss and returned to ,england4 ,bouvain brought a claim against him for the loss of prospective profits and obtained a judgment for #h1jjj1 against which ,furnival appealed to the ,court of ,cassation in ,paris4 ,before the case was heard1 ,furnival was inveigled to the ,netherlands by a forged invitation1 purporting to come from a wealthy ,belgian salt-refiner1 driven over the frontier1 arrested in ,france at the suit of ,bouvain1 and thrown into gaol4 ,finding that legal redress was unobtainable1 ,furnival escaped from prison after four months' incarceration1 and in ,january1 #ahcj1 was again in ,cheshire4 ,he was engaged in a bitter and protracted altercation with his two sets of tenants in the ,wharton salt-works in ,august1 #ahcb1 when he was arrested for the non-payment of his debt of #h1ahj to ,bouvain1 and lodged in ,horsemonger ,lane ,gaol4 ,in ,january1 #ahcc1 he brought an action for perjury against ,bouvain1 who fled to ,france to escape the warrant that was issued for his arrest1 but this moral victory brought ,furnival neither release nor amelioration of his lot1 and he found himself 8foully and unjustly charged by a band of conspirators1 defeated in every attempt to obtain justice1 and left without a hope or prospect of being able to vindicate himself1 or extricate himself from a confinement more close than that awarded to a felon40 ,the end of ,furnival need not occupy us2 he came into the salt trade in #ahbb with a sufficiency of financial backing1 an unusual stock of confidence and energy1 and a patent which 8created a sensation through the whole salt trade02 we take our leave of him eleven years later in a debtors' gaol--a victim to the methods which the ,cheshire salt proprietors invariably adopted in ridding themselves of an obtrusive competitor4 ,,chapter ,v ,,formation ,,and ,,extent ,,of ,,the ,,cheshire ,,deposits ,the theories propounded and the conclusions arrived at on the subject of the formation of the ,cheshire salt beds do not differ in any important particular from those which have been put forward1 investigated1 and accepted with regard to rock-salt deposits in all parts of the world1 but1 because of the enormous geologic and climatic changes that have occurred in the ,english county since a salt basin was in course of formation there1 scientists were slower in accepting those conclusions in respect of our home deposits than in the case of the salt areas which are found in the ,runn of ,kutch1 at ,lake ,elton1 or ,black ,gulph on the eastern side of the ,caspian ,sea4 ,the facts that the chief accompaniment of every known deposit of rock-salt is clay1 and that clay is deposited in water1 formed the basis of the erroneous theory that because salt is a deposit out of water1 and sea-water contains salt1 all salt beds must have been deposited in the sea4 ,but salt does not mix mechanically with water and has not been deposited like sedimentary rocks2 it forms a solution1 and not until the solution becomes super-saturated does it crystallize out4 ,now sea-water rarely contains more than #c per cent4 of salt1 and since the solution must contain at least #bf per cent4 of salt before the salt will crystallize out1 and1 provided it is left from contact with the air1 a solution of this strength may be left for an indefinite length of time without a single particle of salt depositing1 the old theory that all salt beds were deposited in the sea had to be abandoned4 ,the theory of the sea-water deposition of salt beds having been disposed of1 it was long a popular idea that the beds of rock-salt owed their formation to volcanic action4 ,professor ,c4 ,thompson was of opinion that some enormous electrical force had been at work in its crystallization2 ,professor ,silvestri found quantities of chloride of sodium varying from #ej to #ij per cent4 in different sublimations in the lava which was erupted from ,etna in #ahfc2 ,bunsen discovered a considerable but less important sublimation of chloride of sodium in the lava erupted from ,hekla in #ahed2 and ,g4 ,f4 ,rodwell and ,h4 ,m4 ,elder also recognized small traces of sodic chloride as one of the products of volcanic action4 ,in a paper contributed to the ,manchester ,geological ,society1 in #ahdb1 on 8,an ,inquiry into the ,origin of the ,salt ,field of ,cheshire10 so respected an authority as ,ormerod stated his conclusions as follows-- 87a7 ,that from the lithological character of the accompanying beds and partings1 and from the regularity in the thickness of the respective beds1 as far as the same were now known1 these salt beds were1 in his opinion1 deposited from an aqueous menstruum1 and had not been injected4 87b7 ,that from the absence of marine remains1 from the salt deposits containing matter not found in the ocean1 and from similar beds of salt not being in any place known to have been formed from the ocean1 he considered that there were not satisfactory reasons for ascribing the origin of the salt found in the new red sandstone of ,england to marine deposits4 87c7 ,that from the minerals found associated with the salt1 and adjoining red sandstone rocks1 being similar to those found together with it in volcanic districts in other parts of the world2 that from former or present volcanic action being apparent at localities in various parts of the globe1 at which beds of salt of similar character are found1 and the origin of which can be evidently traced to that cause1 and from the salt beds in ,england being always found accompanied by neighbouring traces of volcanic action1 he considered that there were satisfactory reasons for ascribing the origin of the salt fields of ,england to volcanic agency40 ,ormerod was not only convinced that the ,cheshire deposits were the result of volcanic action which had impregnated neighbouring lagoons and formed the aqueous menstruum from which those beds were precipitated1 but that these lakes lay in depressions of the upper ,new ,red ,sandstone1 and that the alternation of the strata of rock and salt had arisen from subsidences1 followed or accompanied by fresh discharges of the same impregnating matter4 ,this theory is untenable1 for beyond the fact that salt has been ejected in volcanic eruptions there is practically nothing to support it4 ,volcanic action is always accompanied by intense heat1 and the fact that the pure rock crystal is one of slow growth in a cool liquid1 and is not of rapid formation in a hot fluid1 conclusively disposes of the volcanic theory4 ,particles of chloride of sodium in volcanic ejections were no explanation of the formation of huge deposits of rock-salt1 and since it was realized that salt in large quantity can only be obtained from salt water1 and that it cannot be got naturally from the sea1 it became evident that what man does in isolating tracts of sea-water to produce salt by solar evaporation1 must have been practised by nature on an extensive scale in all ages4 ,and as an isolated tract of salt water is a salt lake1 we are directed to the obvious conclusion that all rock-salt formations have been deposited in salt lakes4 ,in support of this theory we have the evidence of the salt-forming process that is now in operation in ,southern ,russia1 ,america1 and ,india4 ,it is evident that at one time the low-lying country to the west and north of the ,caspian ,sea was part of that inland sea1 and that1 when its surface was contracted by shrinkage1 the retreating water left behind it numerous swamps1 which now form salt lakes1 and tracts of intervening land which1 in the dry season1 are covered with a saline afflorescence4 ,the large quantities of salt which1 in ordinary seasons are deposited in these salt lakes1 are collected by the ,russian ,government4 ,in ,india there are many salt lakes1 such as ,lake ,sambhur1 in ,rajpootana1 which in the rainy season has a length of from fifteen to twenty miles1 but in the dry season is only three or four miles long1 the remainder of its course consisting of a succession of small salt pools alternating with stretches of salt-encrusted ground4 ,in the great desert of ,mongolia many square miles of country are spread with salt incrustations2 and in ,america similar tracts are found which once formed the beds of considerable lakes4 ,in ,nevada1 at the sink of the ,carson ,river1 is an area of five square miles which was once the bed of a salt lake4 ,the famous ,great ,salt ,lake1 between the ,wahsatch ,mountains and the ,nevadas in ,america1 is the remains of a large inland sea which once covered the district1 and should the climate become drier than it is now1 the shrinkage1 which went on for ages1 will be resumed1 and a huge salt deposit will be formed4 ,the salt lakes in rainless districts soon dry up1 and the salt1 being quickly deposited1 is almost pure1 but such instances are not usual1 and1 in dealing with existing salt-depositing lakes1 we find continual references to the salt and clay mixtures1 or alternations of the deposits4 ,herr ,cech tells us that the yearly layers of salt in ,lake ,elton are separated from one another by a layer of black mud2 beneath the fourth layer is found black clay1 and beneath this are further layers of salt of a more solid quality4 ,schleiden1 in speaking of ,lake ,elton1 says3 8,on this old salt is deposited a blackish mud layer 7salt clay7 which separates the salt from the next succeeding layer4 ,in #ahje ,gbel bored1 in the very shallow lake1 about #a miles from the shore4 ,he found forty-two distinctly separated layers of rock salt1 the uppermost from #a to #d inches thick1 the lowest #i inches thick4 ,the deeper he bored the more solid the salt was1 and the more pure4 ,at the hundredth layer the salt was so hard that the iron tool broke40 ,from the foregoing1 which are among a great collection of accepted data1 it will be seen that1 in whatever quarter of the world salt lakes occur1 the same characteristics are encountered1 viz41 salt depositing on mud and covered by mud4 ,every shower of rain creates a certain amount of mud or sand1 and every brook and stream running into the salt lakes during the rainy season brings in a certain quantity of the same material4 ,the mud represents the wet season of the year1 and the salt the dry season4 ,the geological conditions must have been the same when salt was deposited in ,cheshire1 and with the instances of modern salt-forming regions before us1 and the strata of the ,cheshire salt country to guide us1 it must be concluded that the genesis of rock-salt1 modified by local circumstances1 must have been the same in every case4 ,indeed1 in the face of the evidence1 it seems certain that the ,cheshire beds of rock-salt have been crystallized out of the saturated waters of salt lakes1 and that their admixture of marl has been caused by streams running into the lakes during the wet seasons1 and that the peculiar amorphous mixture of marl and salt known as rock-salt is the result of the continual growth of pure salt crystals1 and their partial destruction by mud-bearing fresh waters4 ,this conclusion on the subject1 which is now generally accepted1 is based on the theory that the ,cheshire salt lake was situated in a desert1 or more probably a salty steppe1 such as are found in the region of the ,caspian ,sea1 and that the climate was divided into wet and dry seasons4 ,the presence of rock-salt supports these ideas1 because the marls could only be formed in periods of heavy rainfall1 and the salt could only crystallize out in dry1 water-evaporating periods4 ,it is further evident that the lake1 though extensive in area1 was shallow1 and that the dry seasons produced extensive shrinkages and caused salt to form in the saturated water that remained in the deeper parts1 while the occurrence of the deep deposits in a shallow lake is explained by the constantly varying elevation and depression of the earth's surface4 ,the difficulty of explaining how the salt in this lake could be renewed to enable the waters to go on depositing for a geologic age is recognized1 but it is no greater than that which is presented by scores of existing salt lakes out of which thousands of tons of salt are taken annually without causing any apparent diminution in the salt which forms year by year4 ,and when it is considered that1 in a lake having a probable area of from #ejj to #a1jjj square miles1 the known salt deposits do not occupy #ej square miles1 and in many portions contain #ej per cent4 of marl1 the difficulty does not seem to be insuperable4 ,it is1 moreover1 safe to conclude that1 when the bar rose that eventually cut off the ,cheshire lake from the sea1 it would be many years before the high tides ceased to wash over it and replenish the lake1 and ,dr4 ,ball's theory as to the enormity of the tides that occurred in past ages--owing to the moon being nearer to the earth than at present--reveals a means by which the lake might continue to receive fresh accessions of sea-water for many generations4 ,illustration3 ,,street-,,raising ,,in ,,progress--,,high ,,street1 ,,northwich ,irrespective of all theories1 the outstanding fact remains that enormous beds of salt were deposited in the ,cheshire salt lake1 and an examination of the strata in the appended ,northwich section will enable the salt to tell its own history4 ,depth4 ,thickness4 ,ft4 in4 ,ft4 in4 #a #f #a #f ,soil4 #i #j #g #f ,drift composed of brown sand mixed with clay varying from #a to #ajj ft4 in thickness4 #bg #j #ah #j ,brown clay with greenstone1 etc41 boulders4 #acb #j #aje #j ,marl in thin bands1 brown and blue with thin beds and streaks of gypsum to the rock head4 #baf #j #hd #j ,rock-salt1 top bed4 #bbb #j #f #j ,upper blue marlstone mixed with brown1 which falls on exposure4 #bbi #j #g #j ,brown marl and marlstone1 with vein of red rock-salt4 #bcd #j #e #j ,lower blue marlstone1 very compact1 hard1 and does not fall on exposure4 7,this forms the foundation for the wedging-curb of the shaft cylinders47 #bdf #j #ab #j ,marl and rock-salt mixed in about equal parts4 #ccj #j #hd #j ,rock-salt1 bottom bed4 #ccd #j #d #j ,brown and blue marlstone1 with rock-salt4 #dag #j #hc #j ,ditto with thin veins of rock-salt1 ramifying in various directions4 #cbj #j #c #j ,rock-salt1 almost pure4 #eja #j #ha #j ,brown and blue marlstone1 with thin veins of rock-salt4 #ejg #j #f #j ,rock-salt1 almost transparent4 #ebe #j #ah #j ,hard blue marlstone1 not sunk through4 ,the formation has only been bored through to a depth of #ebe ft41 where we find an unpierced stratum1 #ah ft4 thick1 of hard marl4 ,above it are #f ft4 of pure rock-salt1 then #ha ft41 of marl with thick veins of rock-salt1 then #c ft4 of nearly pure salt1 then #hc ft4 of marl with thin veins of salt1 and above it #d ft4 of marl and salt4 ,so far it is evident that the wet seasons predominated1 and that marl was deposited far more extensively than salt4 ,for a time1 a cycle of dry seasons prevailed2 a great change occurred1 and a bed of rock-salt1 #hd ft4 in thickness1 was deposited4 ,in other parts1 the bed of rock-salt varies from #hj ft4 to over #ajj ft4 in thickness1 none of which is perfectly pure1 and not more than #bj ft4 of it is sufficiently pure to be of commercial use4 ,the greatly changed seasons are indicated by these formations4 ,a portion near the bottom1 containing less clay1 shows a less copious or less protracted rainfall1 and these periods were followed by wet seasons and the presence of much clay4 ,after a time1 so much rain fell that for a period sufficiently long for about #cj ft4 of marl to deposit1 practically no salt formed4 ,here and there in this deposit are veins of salt1 and as these are perpendicular and run as if deposited in rifts or cracks of the marl1 the salt doubtless belongs to the next period1 when another change occurred and another bed of salt1 varying from #ej to #hj ft4 in thickness1 was deposited4 ,the whole of this bed is fairly full of marl1 and1 for an untold period1 marls were deposited1 covering up the rock-salt4 ,the cycles of greater or less rainfalls are traceable in the varying preponderance of marls1 in the crystallization of salt1 and in the form in which the rock-salt is found4 ,each minute cube starts as a crystal from some independent point of rock salt1 and these increase in numbers until they form a mass of crystallization possessing no distinct lines or features4 ,had the dry season continued for a long period a thick mass of rock-salt would have been formed4 ,the floor of the lake would have been covered with salt crystals1 like the crystal floor of a mine1 and the moment the rainy season commenced1 and the brooks began to bring in fresh water and mud1 these crystals1 being attacked by non-saturated water1 immediately lost their sharp angles and became covered with a fine layer of mud4 ,as soon as the crystals became completely covered they ceased to dissolve1 but the angles and cubes disappeared1 and a shapeless mass of mixed salt and mud was formed4 ,with the next dry season1 crystallization again set in and another crystal floor was produced1 to be again destroyed by the succeeding wet season4 ,this constant growth and destruction of crystals went on for ages1 until the salt beds were formed and the water ceased to become super-saturated4 ,scientific exploration work and a great number of borings have enabled us to form a fairly accurate estimate of the area of the ,cheshire salt-beds1 except in the region to the north of the deposits1 where systematic examination has still to be undertaken4 ,without quoting the exact locations of bore-holes and distances between them--particulars which would convey little or nothing to the general reader--it may be broadly stated that the proved salt area in the ,northwich district is about four square miles1 while the increasing quantity of marl that is mixed with the salt to the northward favours the probability that the beds soon die out in that direction4 ,the ,winsford salt district comprises an area of six square miles1 while it is calculated1 with less preciseness1 that the ,middlewich1 ,nantwich1 and ,lawton districts all contain large quantities of rock-salt4 ,at the bore-hole at ,marston1 which appears to be on the highest proved portion of the salt-bed1 the salt is found at #dg ft4 below ordnance datum1 and from this central point the surface of the salt falls away gently in every direction4 ,mr4 ,james ,thompson1 a recognized local authority upon salt and salt-mining1 writing on the subject nearly fifty years ago1 gave the thickness of the upper bed of rock-salt at about twenty-five yards1 but that thickness was only maintained within a circle of about three miles in circumference1 beyond which he found that it thinned off rapidly on the upper surface4 ,the extent of the second or bottom bed1 from which all the rock-salt produced in ,cheshire since #aghj has been extracted1 is less clearly defined1 but it is known to underlie not only the whole of the upper bed1 but a further considerable area in all directions4 ,illustration3 ,,this ,,road ,,was ,,raised ,,twenty ,,feet ,,in ,,twenty ,,years4 ,,none ,,of ,,these ,,buildings ,,is ,,now ,,standing ,professor ,thompson1 in calculating the period of time that was required to lay the salt contents comprised in these deposits1 fixed upon an inch in ten years as a fair estimate of the rate of progress at which it was accumulated1 and found that it must have taken #ba1jjj years to lay #fj yds4 of rock-salt4 ,with this figure before us1 it is interesting to study the following calculation of the salt contents of the ,cheshire deposits and of the quantity of mineral that is extracted from the interior of the earth in the form of brine to produce the salt that is made in the ,cheshire districts4 ,calculating the ,northwich salt area at #c square miles or #a1ibj acres or #i1bib1hjj square yards1 and ,taking the upper bed of rock-salt at an average of #be yds4 thick1 we have #bcb1cbj1jjj cubic yds4 of rock-salt4 ,taking the specific gravity of rock-salt at #babe1 a cubic yard of rock-salt weighs #cb cwts41 therefore weight of rock-salt in upper bed #bcb1jbj1jjj #cb tons _/ #bj #cga1gjb1jjj tons4 ,taking the bottom bed as extending over the same area1 but having a thickness of #ce yds41 we find in it-- #i1bib1hjj #ce #cb _/ #bj #ebj1cif1hjj tons1 or1 in both beds together1 #hib1ajh1hjj tons4 ,the ,winsford district1 taking the beds of rock-salt at an average thickness of #fe yds41 which is #e yds4 less than the figure given by ,dickinson1 we have #a1icb1ijb1djj tons4 ,as the whole of the white salt has been manufactured from brine derived from the rock-salt1 it represents so many tons of rock-salt pumped up4 ,now1 as the specific gravity of rock-salt is #babe1 a cubic yard contains #cb cwts4 ,this being the case1 we find the cubic yards of rock-salt pumped up annually in each district to be1 viz4-- ,in ,,winsford ,,district-- #fhg1jjj #bj _/ #cb #dbi1cge cubic yds4 ,in ,,northwich ,,district-- #ehg1jjj #bj _/ #cb #cff1hge cubic yds4 ,in ,,middlewich ,,district-- #ad1jjj #bj _/ #cb #h1gej cubic yds4 ,in ,,sandbach ,,district-- #gh1jjj #bj _/ #cb #dh1gej cubic yds4 ,making a total of #hec1gej cubic yds4 ,this represents #agfe acres of #a yd4 thick4 ,this is entirely independent of the rock-salt1 which1 at a low estimate1 equals #abj1jjj tons per annum1 or1 say1 #ge1jjj cubic yds41 or #aee acres of #a yd4 thick4 ,in these calculations no allowance has been made for wastage1 and this is very large4 ,during the year every pan requires picking from six to twelve times1 the stoved oftener than the common4 ,this necessitates the pan being swept out and an enormous quantity of brine wasted4 ,besides this1 the pan scale contains a large percentage of salt4 ,again1 in drawing the salt out of the pans a large quantity of brine is wasted4 ,add to this also the leakage in pipes1 overflow of cisterns1 leakage through defective pans1 etc41 and the total of wastage will be very large4 ,it is scarcely possible to estimate this1 but if we calculate #aj per cent4 we shall be under the mark4 ,thus1 for waste1 we may set down #acf1fjj tons4 ,this would represent #he1jge cubic yds41 or #agfe acres #a yd4 thick4 ,we thus see that #bjife acres of rock-salt #a yd4 thick is every year consumed in the ,cheshire salt district4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,cheshire ,,subsidences ,the salt industry of ,cheshire may be divided into three periods1 viz43 the natural brine period1 the rock-salt period1 and the prepared brine period4 ,from ,saxon times up to the last quarter of the seventeenth century the manufacture of white salt from brine had been continued without interruption1 but the output had never been large4 ,in #afge the production of the three 8,wiches0 was returned at #bj1jjj tons1 and all the evidence shows that the total annual make had never exceeded #cj1jjj tons4 ,in #afgj1 rock-salt was discovered in the county1 and for the next hundred years1 although brine continued to be worked1 rock-salt mining was the chief producing industry4 ,with the collapse of the mines1 the salt proprietors turned once more to the brine supply1 upon which ,cheshire has since risen to its present commercial eminence as one of the great salt-making centres of the world4 ,in #afgj1 a rock of natural salt was discovered on the ,marbury ,estate1 about one mile north of ,northwich1 by one ,john ,jackson1 of ,halton1 who was engaged at the time in 8searching for coals on behalf of the ,lord of the ,soil 7or ,manor1 ,i should say71 ,william ,marbury1 of ,marbury1 ,esquire40 ,the event was communicated to the ,royal ,society by ,mr4 ,adam ,martindale in a letter dated #abth ,december1 #afgj4 ,he added that the liquid issuing from the rock was 8a vigorous sharp brine beyond any of the springs made use of in our salt works10 and1 being asked by the ,royal ,society to visit the place and send a further report1 he subsequently wrote3 8,the rock of salt1 by the relation of the workmen1 is between #cc and #cd yards distant from the surface of the earth1 about #cj whereof are already digged and they hope to be at the ,flagg which covers the salt rock about three weeks hence4444 ,that piece of natural salt which the instrument brought up 7divers saw it1 a pure ore7 was as hard as alum and as pure40 ,the records of the rock-salt mining period are singularly incomplete1 inexact1 and disappointing4 ,it is not known for certain which was the first mine sunk after the discovery of the salt-bed in #afgj4 ,it may have been the one which is described as 8very near to a small brook which drains ,marbury ,mere and joins the ,witton ,brook1 near the ,buttevant ,bridge on the ,marbury ,estate40 ,or it may have been another early mine which was situated 8close to a small runnel or gutter which runs into this small brook near the ,dairy ,house ,farm but passes across the land of ,mr4 ,lyons and over the old ,marston mine40 ,if the curious inquirer is not yet satisfied with these conjectures1 he is further informed that there is yet another subsidence of an old mine1 8close to the ,forge ,lane or road leading to ,budworth across the ,fields1 where the road branches off at the cottages and salt-works of ,mr4 ,lyons' property 444 and this mine is probably the earliest sunk40 ,but if little is known about the beginning of the salt-mining industry in ,cheshire1 there is not much more to be learnt about its development and ultimate decay4 ,to-day1 only the ,adelaide ,marston ,mine at ,northwich is working1 and of the nineteen mines that were open in ,cheshire in #ahha1 only nine were at work1 while from an undated plan and key showing the rock-salt mines in the ,northwich district1 which was probably published a few years earlier1 we learn that of the fifty rock-salt mines that had been abandoned1 twelve had been sunk to the bottom bed and the rest had been worked as top-bed mines4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,penny',s ,,lane ,,mine1 ,,northwich ,the story of the exploitation of the top and bottom beds is one that is soon told4 ,the top bed was worked until the mines began to fall in and the subsequent breaking in of fresh water converted the old workings into brine reservoirs4 ,in #aggi1 the discovery of the lower bed of rock-salt at ,lawton prompted the owners of the ,marston ,mine at ,northwich to sink below the top bed in which they were working1 and1 in #agha1 a trial shaft which was sunk from the top mine by means of a horse gin1 demonstrated the existence of the bottom deposit in that district4 ,other owners transferred their operations from the top to the bottom bed1 and for the next fifty years practically all the rock-salt was excavated from that source4 ,in #ahcj the roofs in these workings began to crack1 and attention was directed to the insufficiency of the pillars by which they were supported4 ,a competent surveyor1 who did not hesitate to declare that the workings were in a dangerously insecure condition1 was regarded as an alarmist by the old salt proprietors1 who commissioned other 8experts0 to examine the pits1 and were satisfied with their assurance that they considered each pit to be entirely free from any danger1 and that they should not hesitate to work in any of them4 ,three years later the roof of the first bottom-bed mine fell in1 others collapsed in rapid succession1 and by #ahdj some twenty mines had collapsed1 let in water1 and become filled with brine4 ,in #ahha1 only nine rock-salt mines were at work1 and eight of these had a combined area of #abc acres4 ,rock-salt mining in ,england is a dead industry1 but it will be of interest to outline very briefly the methods that were employed in ,cheshire during the comparatively short period of its existence4 ,the old top-bed mines were operated1 in the first place1 with one shaft to each mine1 and they were ventilated by means of an air-pipe and a fan4 ,a horse gin was used for winding1 but the winding-shaft in which the gin rope worked did not go into the rock-salt1 but only to within a short distance of it1 and it was out of this shaft1 at a distance of #b or #c yds4 from the bottom1 that a side drift was driven4 ,from this side drift a windlass pit was sunk into the rock-salt1 and it was up this windlass pit that the rock-salt was drawn to the drift and thence taken to and up the gin shaft1 the part of the gin shaft below the drift being used as a sump or lodgment for water4 ,these top-bed workings did not usually extend more than #ajj yds4 from the shaft1 but1 as the number of the mines increased1 the workings from adjoining shafts occasionally become connected4 ,in this way one shaft became a downcast and the other an upcast1 and the air-pipe and fan at each were able to be dispensed with4 ,the thickness of rock-salt worked averaged from #cj to #cf ft41 and pillars of natural rock-salt1 usually about #e yds4 square1 were left to support the roof and superincumbent strata4 ,although the bottom-bed mines were worked upon the same plan1 the inadequacy of the supports employed in the top-mines was rectified by an increase in the size of the supporting pillars and in the thickness of the rock-salt roof that was left between them4 ,steam engines with direct shafts to the bottoms of the mines were substituted for the horse-gins and windlasses1 and improved methods were introduced for preventing water from breaking into the shafts4 ,two winding-shafts were sunk1 placed about #aj to #ae yds4 apart1 and a pump-shaft was sunk to the depth to which the surface water penetrated4 ,one of the earliest precautions taken in the rock-salt shafts1 and afterwards in brine shafts when they came to be sunk through rock-salt1 was to protect the sides from the ravages of fresh water4 ,all the shafts were roofed over to keep out rain or snow1 and the wood casing1 which was originally used1 was replaced1 in #ahde1 by cast-iron tubings1 similar in construction to those used in colliery shafts4 ,as soon as the miners had sunk the shaft to the depth of the sole or floor of the mine and had made an opening large enough for their purpose1 they proceeded to blast off enough rock to form a chamber about #e ft4 high4 ,this formed1 they advanced by blasting off the rock-salt from the face of the seam4 ,the salt was loaded into waggons1 which ran along small railways to the mouth of the shaft4 ,the men engaged in blasting the rock and squaring the walls and pillars 7for these were left quite square and well hewn7 were called miners2 those who loaded the trucks and conveyed them to the shaft were ferriers4 ,they were a fine set of men1 and their occupation1 compared with coal-mining1 was a very healthy one4 ,the mines were of an equable temperature1 and were sufficiently warm for the men to dispense with their shirts4 ,being lofty1 the air was pure1 except when excessive blasting was undertaken4 ,the greatest number of men employed in one pair of shafts was about eighty1 and the quantity of blasting powder used by that number in the course of a day averaged #a cwt4 ,safety fuses were seldom used1 the charge being fired by a straw filled with fine powder1 which was lighted from a candle4 ,many of the mines were of considerable size1 and some of them increased at the rate of about an acre annually4 ,the quantity of rock-salt mined was small compared with coal4 ,no mine in the district yielded above #dj1jjj tons per annum4 ,rock-salt is more free from danger than most kinds of mining2 no explosions occur1 for there are no deleterious gases1 and accidents are rare4 ,in a general way the rock-salt strata are remarkably free from carbonic acid gas1 and in only one instance in ,northwich1 and twice at ,meadow ,bank1 ,winsford1 does fire-damp appear to have been met with1 and then only at pipe veins and in very small quantity4 ,there are no falls of earth1 as in coal mines1 for the rock-salt is extremely tenacious1 and the miners never undermine it but blast it1 which is a much safer operation4 ,the two great dangers to which rock-salt mining is exposed1 though they rarely result in loss to human life1 are the falling in of the mine bodily1 or of the shafts and neighbouring earths1 and the breaking in of brine either at the head of the top-rock shaft or from old mines1 long disused1 and full of brine4 ,neither the name of the first mine that fell in1 nor the date of its collapse1 is recorded4 ,we know that a mine in ,witton fell in in #agej1 and another to the north of the ,northwich ,town ,bridge followed in #agei1 and that many others collapsed before #aggj4 ,lakes1 or 8flashes0 as they are called locally1 have formed over the larger of these sinkings1 but the sites are more commonly marked by what are known as rock-pit holes1 and large tracts of country are scored with these funnel-shaped indentations4 ,there can be no doubt that a number of these old mines were worked with pillars that were too few and slender for the purpose1 and these supports gradually weakened to their ultimate collapse under the pressure of the superincumbent earths4 ,as the sinking did not take place evenly all over the mine1 but most frequently occurred near the shafts and at the greatest distance from the sides of the cavity1 the roof would curve down towards the sinking centre and the falling-in formed the ,v-shaped apertures on the surface which are described as rock-pit holes4 ,but1 while in a percentage of cases the collapse of the mine could be traced to the crashing of the pillars1 the destruction of the majority of the mines was caused directly by the influx of water1 although this water1 having become saturated with salt1 would1 if undisturbed1 cause no further havoc in the interior of the mine4 ,but the manufacture of white salt from brine1 which was temporarily surpassed in importance by the rock-salt industry1 was not discontinued1 and a copious supply of brine flowing over the rock head of the upper bed1 was tapped by shafts and pumped to the surface4 ,when1 about #ahej1 this supply showed signs of failing1 attention was directed to the enormous reservoirs of brine in the old inundated mines1 into which had drained a great quantity of the rock-head brine4 ,the attempt to pump brine out of the abandoned workings was successful1 and for some years an abundant supply was obtained4 ,after #ahgj the pumping operations caused further collapses1 the land overlying the mines subsided1 and lakes were formed which1 at intervals1 broke into the partially exhausted reservoirs1 and1 pouring through the top-rock workings into the mines in the bottom bed of salt1 replenished the supply of brine4 ,a great collapse which occurred in the ,dunkirk district in #ahhj let down the waters of ,cranage ,brook and the ,wadebrook1 together with a huge quantity from the river ,weaver4 ,the subsidence resulted in the formation of a large lake1 which1 following upon a later subsidence in the same area1 suddenly disappeared into the earth and literally flooded all the underlying strata4 ,surprise has frequently been expressed that in a salt country in which brine has been manufactured for over twenty centuries1 the existence of the rock-salt deposits should only have been discovered in the last two hundred and fifty years1 but it must be borne in mind that not only was the brine the best custodian of the secret of its own source1 but that1 when the problem of the supply had been solved1 the danger of tapping and controlling it had still to be overcome4 ,when the supply of brine in many of the springs was cut into1 it proved so copious that the sinkers had to flee for their lives and to ascend the shaft among the brine4 ,the fact that the depth at which the brine would be encountered was unknown1 explained the inability to provide a safeguard against the sudden inrush of brine1 but subsequent observation showed that when the workmen met with the 8flag10 or bed of hard marlstone that existed above the top of the rock-salt in many districts1 the brine might be expected to be found at high pressure4 ,it was then the practice to case the shaft sides down to the flag to prevent the entrance of surface water1 and either to blow through the flag with powder or pierce it with boring rods4 ,at a later period1 the shaft was sunk to the approximate point of encounter with the brine1 and cased with iron cylinders1 the bottom cylinder being furnished with an iron bottom pierced with two pipe holes4 ,a column of pipes was erected in the cylinder1 and a set of boring rods was let down each pipe1 so that when the flag was bored through1 the brine rose until it attained its level in the pipes1 while by means of a tap attached to each pipe it was possible to stop the entry of the brine and to empty the shaft4 ,in the brine-shafts employed in the case of the old rock-salt mines1 in which the brine was met with at a much higher pressure than in the rock-head brine-shafts1 the tapping operation was attended with extraordinary difficulties4 ,the brine in the old workings rose to a height corresponding with that attained by the brine found at the rock-head1 and as it had to be tapped through a pillar near the bottom of the old workings1 the pressure was proportionately higher4 ,when the holeing was first effected into the brine in the old bottom-bed workings1 the rush of the incoming brine was so strong that it passed through the two #e in4 bore holes and rose up a #d ft4 shaft to a height of #fg yds4 in eight minutes4 ,the shaft for tapping this supply of brine was sunk in a pillar of rock-salt1 and a drift1 fitted with two #e in4 bore-holes1 was worked through the intervening face and into the brine4 ,when these bore-holes were knocked through1 the brine entered with the report of a cannon1 and the engineer and his assistant1 leaving their tools behind them1 leapt into the bucket and were hastily drawn up the shaft1 closely pursued by the rising brine4 ,an improved process for tapping the brine1 which entirely removed the danger attending the operation1 was subsequently introduced4 ,this was effected by boring the last part of the main bore-hole through a stuffing-box at the other end--an innovation which prevented brine from escaping during the boring4 ,a drift1 with the usual in4 bore-hole in advance1 was driven #fa yds4 into the barrier1 until the small bore-hole showed that only #aj yds4 remained between the face and the brine that was known to be present in the old workings4 ,into this remaining #aj yds4 of barrier a hole #aa in4 in diameter was bored until nearly through1 and a closely-fitted pipe was inserted into the hole for a distance of #g ft4 ,the pipe was #aj ft4 long1 but at #g ft4 from the inner end was a disc #c ft4 in diameter to rest against the face of the drift1 leaving the remaining #c ft4 of pipe in the drift4 ,about midway between the disc and the outer end of the pipe1 were placed two strong iron uprights1 let into a trench cut #a ft4 deep in solid rock-salt in the roof and floor to secure the pipe against the pressure4 ,these two uprights were placed close together at the top and bottom1 but in the middle they were curved so as to form a circle for the pipe to pass between them4 ,the face of the drift against which the disc had to rest1 having been carefully dressed1 and a disc of india-rubber covered with red lead having been placed between the iron disc and the dressed face of rock-salt1 the iron disc was secured up tight against the face by means of six set screws4 ,a stop-valve was then fitted to the outer end of the pipe1 and to this1 for the temporary purpose only of completing the bore-hole1 was attached an end piece with a stuffing box and a hole in it large enough for the bore rod to be worked through4 ,the bore rock was then withdrawn and1 the valve being closed1 the stuffing box and the temporary end piece were removed4 ,a range of pipes was attached to the stop-valve and1 in this range1 the brine was taken through the old workings and up one of the shafts to the surface4 ,many geologists have subscribed to the theory that the ,cheshire meres were formed by subsidences which occurred in pre-historic times1 but the evidence based on the phenomena attending the modern subsidences proves that the latter were the result of artificial and readily-identified causes4 ,leland1 in #aecc1 reports a sinking near ,combermere and the formation of a pit containing salt-water2 in #afeg a small sinking occurred at ,bickley1 near ,malpas2 and a third took place in #agac at ,weaver ,hall1 to the south of ,winsford4 ,no traces of any of these subsidences now remain1 but1 from the descriptions handed down to us1 these sinkings belonged to the class of funnel-shaped holes and were of limited diameter and no great depth4 ,of the modern subsidences1 which are of three kinds1 we have no documentary evidence prior to #aggg1 and the earliest distinct record belongs to the year #agij4 ,from that time to the present day this class of sinking has continued to increase in extent year by year4 ,in #agij the sinking portion along the ,witton ,brook was recorded as being #acj yds4 long by #ij yds4 wide4 ,in #ahcg1 the subsidence had obtained an area of #a1bcj yds4 long by #acj yds4 wide4 ,in #ahaa1 about #bj statute acres in ,witton commenced sinking1 and in the ensuing thirty-three years some portions of this area had sunk #bd ft4 ,in #ahhj1 the piece of water called the ,top of the ,brook had subsided over an area of #d1cgj ft4 by #a1dgj ft41 and in the same year it was estimated that no less than #b1gjj acres of land in ,northwich and ,winsford were inundated4 ,these modern subsidences usually consist of funnel-shaped holes caused by the falling-in of top-rock mines1 and of trough-shaped hollows which cannot be connected with rock-salt mining1 and are frequently found in places far removed from the localities of the old workings4 ,of two dozen subsidences1 two are nearly four miles distant from the nearest old workings or from the brine shafts1 fifteen are upwards of two miles1 and only one is less than a mile from either a mine or a pumping station4 ,the subsidences could not be caused by volcanic action or the shock of earthquakes1 as nothing of the kind has occurred in the districts1 and it is impossible to explain them by the action of natural brine springs running to waste in the brooks or rivers1 because it is known that no such springs now exist1 while evidence accumulated from all parts of the world confirms the conclusion that where brine springs escape into the streams1 no subsidence has ever occurred4 ,yet it is evident in ,cheshire that some subterranean denudation must be taking place which is removing portions of the lower strata and allowing the super-incumbent earths to sink into the excavations thus made4 ,many theories have been advanced to explain the phenomena1 but even those people whose interests have caused them to seek for alternative causes must realize that it can only be attributed to the simple and most obvious agency4 ,when the number of brine pits was multiplied and the natural springs of a weak solution of salt decreased in volume1 it was necessary to sink down to the rock-head brine1 which was a highly-saturated solution consisting of one part salt to three parts water4 ,when this supply is pumped up1 its place is taken by fresh water1 which1 flowing over the rock-beds1 takes up its quota of salt on its way to the pumping shafts1 and is raised to the surface in the form of brine4 ,it is not the presence of water over the beds of salt or in the old salt workings which causes the damage1 because when such water has taken up salt to the extent of a fourth of its bulk1 it remains inactive and makes no further ravages upon the mineral earths with which it is in contact4 ,but when the saturated brine is pumped up and its place is taken with a new supply of water which collects its tribute from the salt strata1 and that water1 in its turn1 is raised1 to be replaced by more1 and when it is known that each #ajj tons of water that traverses the salt-bed to the pumps carries away with it #be tons of solid earth1 the work of destruction that is continually going on is explained4 ,it may be convenient to explain at this point that the subsidences caused by this simple operation of removing rock-salt from the earth in the form of brine are divided into three classes1 viz4-- #a4 ,shallow troughs1 with sides not terraced or broken up4 #b4 ,very shallow depressions extending over considerable areas4 #c4 ,deep troughs1 much broken up1 and with stepped or terraced sides4 ,with these three classes in mind1 it is easy to follow the results of the action of the subterranean brine and associate the causes with the effects produced4 ,at first the water flowed over the salt in irregular channels and reached the pumping centres by devious routes1 but after a time it made defined courses for itself exactly as the rainfall carves out for itself channels on the surface of the earth4 ,these underground streams of brine all gravitate towards the pumps1 widening and deepening as the continually renewed water takes up its supply of salt4 ,where the earths overlying these brine 8runs0 are not too tenacious1 they soon follow the hollow or trough formed on the surface of the salt bed1 and a corresponding hollow or trough is formed on the surface of the ground4 ,where the hollow forms at an early stage1 it rarely attains any considerable depth1 for the sinking earths impede the course of the flowing brine stream and cause the fluid to spread and be diffused over a wider area4 ,these subsidences are the shallow troughs1 not stepped or terraced on the sides1 and are best seen in streets and roads where the weight of the houses and the constant passage of traffic cause the earths to gradually follow the wasting surface of the salt4 ,where1 at a considerable distance from the shafts1 the water has not formed for itself a definite channel1 it percolates over a wide area4 ,the denudation in such cases is more generally spread1 and a very extensive shallow trough or basin is formed4 ,again1 where the pumping stations are close together1 or in the same line1 the various rivulets or streams of brine converge into one broad and deep channel1 in which the denudation proceeds with great rapidity4 ,the magnitude of these channels causes the super-incumbent ground to subside swiftly1 forming deep troughs with stepped or terraced sides1 where the earths have broken away in huge masses4 ,where the earth consists of strong marls and a kind of flagstone they are very tenacious and remain suspended for a considerable time over these deeper cavities4 ,when they will bear no longer1 a sudden fall occurs in one spot1 and tens of thousands of tons of suspended earths fall into the trough below1 forcing out the stream of brine at the weaker places and leaving a huge1 crater-shaped hole on the surface1 which fills with water4 ,illustration3 ,,remarkable ,,subsidence ,,in ,,northwich ,in addition to the three classes of subsidences already mentioned1 there is another which is the result of a combination of collapses of the surface earth caused by the rock-salt mining operations1 and the denudation of subterranean strata caused by the pumping of brine4 ,the pumping from the reservoirs formed by the flooding of the old mines does not empty these huge receptacles1 as the place of the brine is continuously retaken by fresh water1 which naturally gravitates to these centres and proceeds to dissolve and take up its quota of rock-salt4 ,when a subsidence occurs on the site of these old workings it is of the most destructive nature1 and as all the top-rock mines were in the neighbourhood of streams and brooks1 the surface waters flow into the cavity until it is filled to the level of the earth and allows the streams to pursue their proper course4 ,but as fast as the fresh water becomes saturated and is pumped to the surface1 the overlying stream or brook lets in further supplies of fresh water to fill the vacuum1 and the work of internal destruction is followed by further subsidences of the suspended earths4 ,the immense bodies of water in the neighbourhood of ,northwich and ,winsford1 locally called 8,flashes10 which cover a total area of many hundreds of acres1 are the work of subsidences4 ,the ,flashes are not shallow swamps1 but lakes varying in depth over many acres1 from a few yards to #ej ft4 ,the largest ,flash1 known as the ,top of the ,brook and resembling the letter ,l in shape1 has a length in each arm of about half a mile1 an average breadth of a quarter of a mile1 and attains a depth of #aej ft4 ,in an account of these subsidences1 written in #ahgi1 we read3 8,the whole of the surrounding district still sinks rapidly1 and year by year the water covers more ground4 ,the land subsides gradually here2 but when we go a quarter of a mile to the north-east of the ,top of the ,brook1 we come across a subsidence of a still more alarming character4 ,here the ground sinks bodily in immense masses to a great depth4 ,a tiny brook or ditch that a child could skip across passed over flat fields some five years ago4 ,gradually the land began to sink1 and cracks opened in the surface right across the course of the brook4 ,the water went down the crevices4 ,the land immediately sank more rapidly2 huge cracks1 wide enough for a man to slip down1 formed1 and very soon a district extending fully one thousand feet in length by as many in breadth1 sank rapidly to a depth of forty or fifty feet in the centre1 and was filled up to a certain height with water1 which covered the hedges and trees4 ,at times cracks opened in the bottom of this lake1 and the whole of the water rushing rapidly below1 caused still more extensive sinking40 ,one of the most extraordinary subsidences1 which was described in ,chambers's ,journal1 occurred in ,dunkirk1 on the outskirts of ,northwich1 in ,december1 #ahhj4 ,the earliest intimation of impending disturbance on an unusual scale was a rumbling subterranean noise1 the violent bubbling of the water in all the surrounding pools1 and the uprushing of air and foul gas through rifts which its passage tore in the ground4 ,it was quickly discovered that ,wincham ,brook1 a channel of water nearly #bj ft4 in width1 had broken into the earth about #a1jjj ft4 from its entrance into the ,top of the ,brook1 and the uprush of air from the old mines1 was caused by the force of the descending waters4 ,a series of alarming1 but comparatively small1 subterranean displacements caused extensive rifts in the ground about ,ashton ,salt-works1 and these were followed by a sudden explosion in a neighbouring pool1 which ejected a geyser of mud and water some #cj ft4 into the air4 ,in the ruin that ensued1 stacks of timber1 an engine and boiler1 a salt pan1 and other material disappeared into the gaping earth1 and a massive chimney stack1 some #ij ft4 high and #i ft4 square at the base1 tilted towards the centre of subsidence and collapsed with a terrible crash4 ,scarcely had this subsidence ceased1 says the writer in ,chambers's ,journal1 8when an enormous sinking of the whole of ,ashton's ,old ,rock ,pit ,hole and the surrounding land1 for an area of over five hundred feet in diameter1 took place1 leaving two very deep holes4 ,the land was riven and cracked all round1 and fell in steps of two feet4 ,over ten thousand tons of water went down into the subterranean cavities4 ,a huge brine cistern was riven in two1 and the brine all lost2 and two large brick kilns cut completely in halves1 and the bricks scattered about4 ,the whole surface of the ,weaver and the ,top of the ,brook was lowered fully a foot over one hundred and sixty acres in about four hours2 and if we add to this the whole of the water of the ,wincham ,brook for twelve hours1 we shall find1 on a careful computation1 that not less than six hundred thousand tons of water rushed below40 ,from the time of the 8,great ,subsidence10 as this event is described1 the sinking has been continuous throughout the locality4 ,in some places meadows have been converted into swamps1 roads have sunk fully #cj ft4 below their original level1 and small brooks have become lakes of many acres in extent2 sunken and distorted fences1 roads1 and streams are common objects of the country-side1 the tenure of pastoral lands is precarious1 and property is valueless for building purposes2 and nothing but its inexhaustible reserves of brine saves the district from abandonment as a place accursed4 ,the shallow1 gradual1 almost imperceptible subsidences which occurred in the neighbourhood of the towns of ,northwich and ,winsford were at first infrequent and of comparative unimportance1 but as time went on the damage to property increased so rapidly that1 in #ahfj1 the house-owners of ,northwich combined in an unsuccessful attempt to obtain legal redress4 ,by #ahhj1 many parts of the towns were rendered unfit for habitation4 ,in ,northwich alone1 nearly #djj houses and other property to the value of over #ajj1jjj were more or less seriously affected1 while water-mains1 sewers1 and gas-pipes were being continually repaired2 houses were condemned1 pulled down and rebuilt1 and bridges had to be raised4 ,the rents of many lots of property were absorbed in keeping them in repair1 and in some districts property had been raised and rebuilt three times in eleven years4 8,the area of the mischief is extending yearly10 wrote ,mr4 ,thomas ,ward in #ahha1 8and a larger proportion of property is becoming affected1 and more and more land is sinking beneath the water and increasing the area of the already existing extensive lakes4 ,very few1 except those conversant with the district1 have the slightest knowledge of the amount of suffering caused to property owners by this subsiding of the land40 ,for over half a century the appearance of ,northwich1 with its undulating streets1 its ramshackle1 dilapidated houses1 its fissured walls1 and its system of shoring and bolting-up of property to postpone as long as possible its inevitable condemnation and demolition1 has presented a tragico-comic spectacle4 8,if a stranger were to be set down some morning in the town of ,northwich10 wrote a ,times correspondent1 8without any previous knowledge of its peculiarities1 he would be struck with a startling and novel spectacle4 ,he would see buildings of every sort1 from the humble1 two-storeyed cottage of the artisan to the solidly built church or chapel1 standing many degrees out of the perpendicular1 and suggestive1 all of them1 were it not for the props and iron stays with which they are secured1 of some recent convulsion of nature4 ,in main thoroughfares and back streets alike there are houses whose sloping floors and cracked walls would lend considerable colour to such an effort of the imagination4 ,the inhabitants seem to take this tumble-down state of their dwellings quite as a matter of course4 ,they have1 in fact1 to make the best of a condition of things from which there is absolutely no escape4 ,the effects described are produced1 not indeed by any sudden catastrophe1 but by a slow1 though equally effective process of subsidence1 which may be detected in continuous operation over nearly the whole area of the ,cheshire salt field1 and which will continue to operate so long as the earth yields its vast stores of salt for human consumption40 ,but although newspaper representatives could philosophize upon the matter-of-fact spirit in which the inhabitants of the salt towns faced existence in their tumble-down surroundings1 and the salt proprietors desired that they should make the best of a condition of things from which they wished them to believe there was absolutely no amelioration or escape1 a feeling of resentment was rapidly growing in the neighbourhood4 ,the people of ,northwich and ,winsford were being pumped out of their houses and out of their lands1 and the future held every promise of a continuation and extension of the damage4 ,lord ,delamere1 who1 as an owner and letter of salt lands1 benefited by the brine industry and suffered from the depredation it wrought1 admitted the damage and the cause thereof4 ,indeed1 nobody but the salt proprietors doubted that the pumpers were wholly responsible for the destruction1 and most people recognized that their wrong-doing was twofold in character4 ,standing on the ancient assumption in law that everything beneath a man's property belongs to the owner1 the owners of property in the affected districts contended that they were not only being deprived of the rock-salt which legally belonged to them1 but were further despoiled by having their land made worthless by the abstraction of the salt for which they received no payment4 ,the justice of the protest was obvious1 and it became a public question how far these operations1 useful in themselves1 but involving consequences of a disastrous nature1 should be allowed to proceed4 ,in ,december1 #ahhj1 the ,daily ,news asked who was to compensate the sufferers1 who had neither caused nor contributed to the disaster4 ,following the failure of the property owners to obtain compensation from the salt proprietors for the damage attributable to the pumping operations1 an application was made to the ,trustees of the ,river ,weaver to devote a portion of their surplus revenue for compensation purposes4 ,the application was refused1 and an appeal to ,quarter ,sessions failed4 ,the evil was allowed to drag on until #ahga1 when the ,board of ,trade1 in response to representations made to them by the ,northwich ,salt ,chamber of ,commerce1 instructed ,mr4 ,joseph ,dickinson to report upon the salt districts of ,cheshire4 ,mr4 ,dickinson1 one of the most eminent ,inspectors of ,mines in the service of the ,government1 after a prolonged investigation1 reported his conclusions that the subsidences and the resulting damages to property were caused by the pumping of brine1 which constituted a public danger and inflicted heavy losses upon many persons totally unconnected with the salt industry4 ,a further report by ,colonel ,cox1 corroborating the conclusions arrived at by ,mr4 ,dickinson1 came before ,parliament in #ahgi1 and upon the recommendation of the ,local ,government ,board1 the local ,boards decided to promote the ,cheshire ,salt ,districts ,compensation ,bill1 8to make provision for the assessment1 levy1 and application for compensation for damage by subsidence of land in the salt districts of the ,county of ,cheshire1 and for other purposes40 ,the salt proprietors exerted every effort to frustrate the plans of the promoters of the ,bill2 they declared that a tax upon salt would cripple the trade and ruin the entire neighbourhood2 they endeavoured to create local ill-feeling by insisting that the movement was an attempt of the property-owners to saddle the ratepayers with the expense of the proposed measure4 ,briefly stated1 the case that the promoters were asked to make required them to prove 7a7 the subsidence in the salt district2 7b7 that the subsidence was caused by the pumping of brine for the manufacture of salt2 7c7 that the subsidence was of a most extensive and serious character1 and affected the property of persons deriving no benefit either from the manufacture of salt in the form of compensation from the salt manufacturers for the salt extracted1 or for damage done to the property by such abstraction2 7d7 that there was no legal remedy for the injury suffered2 and1 finally1 7e7 that the moneys required to adequately compensate for the injury done1 if levied upon the manufacture of salt1 would not injuriously affect the salt industry4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,row ,,of ,,open ,,pans ,a copy of the ,bill was lodged in ,december1 #ahhj2 it was read a first and second time on #bast ,january and #dth ,february1 #ahha1 and referred to a ,select ,committee1 which commenced sitting on #eth ,may1 and on the #bjth of the same month announced their unanimous opinion that the preamble of the ,bill had not been proved4 ,in the preamble of the ,bill it was estimated that a contribution not exceeding threepence for every ton of salt in brine in the district covered by the ,act would be sufficient to provide the required compensation4 ,the opponents of the ,bill declared that a compensation tax upon the salt trade would severely injure the industry and act as a restraint upon trade2 they put forward expert witnesses to contend that if the brine--which they contended was produced by rainfall percolating through the superincumbent strata and reaching the salt--was not pumped out1 it would run away to the sea1 and the consequent subsidence of land and injury to property would not be arrested4 ,the theory that brine1 in quantity sufficient for the manufacture of #a1fjj1jjj tons of salt per annum would1 without pumping1 have been carried away into the rivers by natural agency and deposited in the sea1 was supported by such ingenious misstatement and misrepresentation1 and the fictitious instances of brine springs overflowing and causing damage in other parts of the world were quoted with so much specious authority that they succeeded in wrecking the ,bill4 ,after a further ten years of continued subsidences and attendant damage to public and private property1 the ,brine ,pumping 7,compensation for ,subsidence7 ,bill was introduced in #ahia1 to authorize the formation of ,compensation ,districts and ,boards1 with power to levy a yearly rate not exceeding threepence per #a1jjj gallons of brine pumped4 ,shortly after the passing of the ,bill1 the action of ,northwich1 which memorialized for the formation of the whole of the ,county of ,cheshire into one district for purposes of compensation1 led to an inquiry by the ,local ,government ,board1 as the result of which ,middlewich and ,sandbach were excluded4 ,the ,provisional ,order uniting ,northwich and ,winsford in one area was opposed by ,winsford1 and a ,select ,committee of the ,house1 in #ahic1 quashed the ,provisional ,order and made ,northwich an independent compensation district4 ,the next great struggle in the salt district1 known locally as the ,battle of the ,brine1 arose out of the action of the ,salt ,union1 which1 in #aiji1 enlarged its works at ,weston ,point with the intention of manufacturing salt at that place from brine pumped at ,marston1 near ,northwich1 #aa miles distant4 ,in pursuance of their policy of stalling off competition and safeguarding their monopoly1 the ,salt ,union1 in #ahij1 had successfully petitioned against the ,bill that was promoted to obtain powers to convey brine from ,cheshire to be made into salt at ,widnes1 in ,lancashire1 and at ,middlewich they had obtained an injunction to restrain trade competitors from laying pipes under one of the streets of the town for the conveyance of brine from their own pumps to their own salt-pans4 ,in #agff1 #ahcc1 and #ahfa1 the ,trent and ,mersey ,canal1 the ,grand ,junction ,railway1 and the ,west ,cheshire ,railway1 respectively1 received authorizations from ,parliament1 but in each instance a clause was inserted prohibiting the several companies from conveying or permitting to be conveyed in or upon any part of their properties1 any brine for the making of salt to any district beyond the district in which salt was then made4 ,in #ahhd1 when the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway sought to gain the repeal of the brine clause in order to enable brine to be carried from one salt township to another adjoining1 ,parliament refused to sanction even such a limited modification of the prohibition4 ,the logical objection which the salt districts opposed to the removal from the several pumping centres of the brine upon which the prosperity of the towns entirely depended1 had thus consistently been upheld by ,parliament1 but in the face of these facts1 and of their previous attitude on the subject1 the ,salt ,union insisted upon their right to carry brine from ,marston to ,weston ,point1 and announced their intention to defend their position to the utmost of their power4 ,it must be explained that the ,marbury ,pipe ,line had been laid in #ahhb by the ,mersey ,salt ,brine ,company1 who carried it1 by agreement1 across lands belonging to private landowners and over a canal belonging to the ,north ,stafford ,railway4 ,the railway made a formal protest1 but an amicable settlement was ultimately reached by which the ,mersey ,salt ,company agreed to pay the ,north ,stafford ,company #e a year and to remove the pipe on receipt of a three months' notice4 ,the railway company appear to have persisted with their opposition in order to force an admission from the ,mersey ,company that they possessed no permanent right to carry the pipe across their canal1 but the concern was of such trifling importance that it was practically ignored by the people of the district1 and for twenty years after the property of the ,mersey ,salt ,company and the ,marbury ,brine ,pipe had been acquired by the ,salt ,union1 the question of the removal of brine from the neighbourhood in which it was raised had found all classes of the salt community united against such proposals4 ,but with the completion of the works at ,weston ,point1 and the enlargement of the ,marbury ,pipe and the installation of powerful engines1 capable of driving millions of gallons of brine from ,marbury to be converted into salt at the sea-board1 a new menace was organized against which the ,urban ,authorities and ,local ,councils made a long and spirited1 if fruitless1 resistance4 ,in the autumn of #aiaj1 the ,north ,stafford ,railway served the ,salt ,union with a notice to remove their pipe line from the ,trent and ,mersey ,canal by the end of the following ,march1 and the ,salt ,union proving obdurate1 the towns of ,northwich1 ,winsford1 and ,middlewich promoted the ,brine ,pumping 7,cheshire7 ,bill1 8to regulate the conveyance of brine pumped1 raised and gotten0 in the county4 ,the original draft1 which proposed to permit the removal of brine by pipe to a distance of three miles within the county from the place at which it was raised1 was amended to permit manufacturers to carry brine by pipe from one set of works to another in their own occupation1 and they further attempted to meet the alleged rights of the ,salt ,union by the insertion of a clause allowing the ,marbury ,pipe to be used for the conveyance of brine to the extent of #bej million gallons a year4 ,but the ,salt ,union declined all conciliatory overtures1 and combated the ,bill before the ,select ,committee on the grounds that it was a proposal to alter the common law of ,england and interfere with the sacred rights of property4 ,the injury that was sought to be done1 not only to the ,salt ,union but to the export trade of the country1 was enlarged upon1 and the ,committee may have been impressed by the assurance that the ,union1 so far from intending to leave ,winsford and ,northwich1 expected to do an even greater trade in those districts in the future than had been done there in the past4 ,in the result1 the ,salt ,union's insistence upon the legality of a course of action which they had previously denounced and opposed as totally illegal1 carried so much weight with the ,select ,committee1 that they made an unsavoury meal of the ,parliamentary decisions of #agff1 #ahcc1 #ahfa1 #ahij1 #ahia1 and #ahic1 and announced that the ,bill could not proceed4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,latest ,,methods ,,of ,,salt-,,making ,in tracing the development of the salt-making industry in this country1 it will be observed that1 until the last quarter of a century1 the old open-pan system defied improvement1 and the salt-makers from generation to generation successfully resisted the endeavours of all who suggested innovations or hinted that better methods could be introduced in the manufacture4 ,it is true that experiments were made with the sizes and arrangement of the pans1 that coal replaced wood and straw as fuel1 that the locomotive superseded the wain as a means of transporting salt from the works to the markets1 and that pumps were employed instead of buckets to raise the brine and deposit it in the cisterns which supplied the pans2 but these several developments produced no change in the system of manufacture1 which consisted of lighting a fire beneath a pan of brine1 driving off the water in the form of vapour1 and collecting the salt crystals that form and sink to the bottom of the pan4 ,the salt-men were devoted to their primitive1 rule-of-thumb methods1 and the most enterprising among them regarded the process as unimprovable4 ,in the construction of salt-works there was no attempt at engineering exactness2 the size of the pans was regulated roughly by the dimensions of the plates of which they were made2 and the heights of the brickwork of the furnaces1 etc41 was usually reckoned by courses of bricks4 ,the fireman1 the real salt-maker1 whose business it was to attend to the fires and see that the proper degree of heat was maintained to produce the variety of salt required1 did his work almost entirely by rule-of-thumb4 ,it was only rarely that a thermometer was used4 ,the technical knowledge acquired by experience enabled a man to see at a glance whether the pan was working properly1 and the quantity and quality of the salt showed whether his work had been well or ill done4 ,the late ,thomas ,ward was a greatly respected authority1 one of the most reliable experts of the ,salt ,union1 and a voluminous writer and indefatigable lecturer on every aspect of the subject of salt1 but he failed to persuade himself that it was even thinkable that the open-pan system should ever be abandoned in favour of a more scientific1 more rapid1 or more economical process4 ,mr4 ,ward admitted that the process was archaic1 but he was at pains to demonstrate that the trade was justified in desiring it to remain so4 ,he argued that the price of salt was so low1 and the product was so bulky1 that costly and elaborate apparatus was both inappropriate and ineffective4 ,he compared the life of an ordinary open salt-pan with that of any of the innumerable patented pans that had been tried1 and found that the ancient article produced salt at less cost than the patent contraptions1 and was far easier to repair4 8,the chief business of the salt manufacturer10 ,mr4 ,ward wrote in #ahid1 8is to utilize to the best purpose1 for the production of salt1 the heat obtained from the fuel4 ,to this end1 innumerable patents have been taken out1 but few have been so successful as the simple application of direct heat to open pans4 ,the method seems a very primitive one1 and most visitors to salt-works think they can improve upon what they consider a rude1 antiquated system4 ,i have had brought before me1 and have seen working1 scores of patented plans4 ,in all1 or nearly all1 the idea was to economize heat2 and if the whole of salt manufacturing consisted in evaporating the greatest quantity of water with the least quantity of fuel1 doubtless many of the schemes would succeed instead of fail1 as they do now40 ,since the open-pan system of manufacturing salt from brine was in general and uninterrupted use in this country from the time of ,julius ,caesar to within a few years ago1 we must study the interim developments from direct-fire to vacuum pan evaporation in the industry of the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,the salt springs in ,new ,york ,state were discovered by ,jesuit missionaries about the middle of the seventeenth century1 but the manufacture of salt on a commercial scale was not begun until #aghh1 when the industry was established in the vicinity of ,syracuse4 ,solar salt is still manufactured in large quantities at ,syracuse1 where the evaporating surface covers an area of over #ab1jjj1jjj square feet1 and the season's output amounts to about #c1ejj1jjj bushels of salt1 but between the solar and the vacuum processes the ,american salt-men have exploited the ,pan and the ,kettle processes of direct-fire evaporation1 and the ,steam ,kettle and the ,grainger processes of steam evaporation2 all of which methods are employed to-day in the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,in the ,pan process1 several pans1 having a width of #bj to #bd ft41 a length of #ajj ft4 in two sections1 and a depth of #ab in41 are placed under one roof4 ,adjoining this front row of pans at the back are arranged a second row of pans1 #bj to #bd ft4 wide1 #cj ft4 long1 and #ab in4 deep1 set from #ab to #af in4 higher than the front pans1 to enable the easy transfer of brine by syphon from the back to the front pan4 ,the grates are #c to #d ft4 wide1 by #e to #f ft4 long1 and the pan bottoms1 which are directly over the fires are protected from a too intense heat by fire-brick arches1 which decrease in width from the front to the back of the pan1 while the air spaces between the arches increase in width in the same direction4 ,beyond #bj ft4 from the front of the first section of the pan they cease altogether4 ,to convey the heat as close to the pan bottom as possible1 beyond the last arch1 the flues are usually filled in with earth or plaster1 and thus the distance between the pan and flue bottom is between #c and #d ft41 or even less1 at the end of the first pan1 where a perpendicular wall1 called a bridge wall1 reduces the space to about #a to #b ft41 through which the products of combustion pass under the back pan and finally into a common chimney4 ,after the pans are properly cleansed they are white-washed with a thin milk of lime to prevent their rusting before they become thoroughly heated2 the fires are started1 and the pans are filled by syphons to a depth of about #f in4 with brine from the back pans4 ,the former are so inserted that a constant flow of brine passes from the back pans into the last section of the front pans1 and from these under the partition into the first section4 ,into the back pan flows a constant stream from the outside cistern1 until the front pans are sufficiently full1 when the flow is stopped4 ,after a sufficient amount of salt has collected in the first section of the front pan it is removed to the 8drip0 for drainage4 ,this is called drawing or raking the pans4 ,the front pans are refilled from the back pan in which the brine has become considerably heated1 and thus is prevented a too rapid cooling of the brine in the front pan1 which would seriously interfere with the formation of a properly grained salt4 ,for the same reason1 the partition is placed in the front pan1 since it prevents any cold brine from coming suddenly into the first section1 but is compelled to enter at the bottom of the pan1 where the temperature is at the highest4 ,for the purpose of aiding the formation of fine grained salt1 butter1 specially prepared soft soap1 gelatine1 or white glue are added1 and when this variety of salt is made the pans are drawn every #de to #fj minutes4 ,in the manufacture of coarser grained salt1 the drawing of the pans take place at intervals of from two to twelve hours1 while the temperature is reduced from #bbi ,f4 to as low as #adh ,f41 according to the size of the grain4 ,the ,kettle process1 which is exclusively employed on the ,onondaga ,salt ,reservation1 consists of from #fj to #ajj hemispherical cast-iron kettles suspended or hung on 8lugs0 or pins in two parallel flues1 called arches1 ending in one chimney1 which has a height of #ej to #ajj ft41 according to the length of the flues4 ,in front the arches are provided with cast-iron1 flat-topped grates1 #c ft4 in width and #e ft4 long1 perforated with holes in4 in diameter and #a in4 apart4 ,these are well adapted for the burning of anthracite dust1 which is now exclusively used for the purpose4 ,the necessary artificial draught is furnished by a pressure blower4 ,the kettles are from #bc to #bf in4 in depth1 and from #c ft4 #aj in4 to #d ft4 #b in4 in diameter1 with a capacity of #ajj to #aej gallons4 ,the distance from the bottom of the kettle to the top of the grate is #c ft4 #f in41 with a solid fire-brick arch in each1 extending somewhat beyond the length of the grate4 ,the distance from the bottom of the kettle to the crown of this arch is #aj to #ab in4 ,beyond the grate the fire-brick arches are constructed in sections1 the air spaces between the arches increasing in size with the advancing distance from the grates4 ,this construction allows the heated gases to pass through these spaces without striking the kettle bottoms directly4 ,while the distance between the bottom of the front kettle and the top of the grate is #c ft4 #f in41 these flues decrease in depth as they advance towards the chimney1 so that under the last kettle the distance is but #f or #h in4 ,the kettles are hung as close as possible with their rims against each other1 and the space between the walls and kettles above the lugs is properly covered by masonry1 etc41 for the purpose of confining all the heat as much as possible within the two arches4 ,the system of kettles is fed by means of a conduit connected with large wooden cisterns situated outside the building and sufficiently elevated to supply the brine contained therein by gravity to the kettles in the block4 ,the manufacture proper of salt is commenced by lighting the fires under the kettles and filling them partly with brine as soon as they become warm1 and from within #c to #d in4 of the top when evaporation has well commenced4 ,when salt commences to separate1 the pan is withdrawn and the evaporation is allowed to go on undisturbed till a sufficient amount of salt has separated1 when the contents of the kettle are well stirred with the ladle and dipped into the basket resting on the so-called basket-sticks laid across the rim of the kettle4 ,while the process of taking the salt from the kettle is going on1 the workman opens the faucet for a few minutes to add some fresh brine to the concentrated pickle of the kettle1 and washes the salt1 so to speak1 with this mixture1 thereby freeing it as much as possible from the adhering calcium sulphate and the calcium and magnesium chlorides4 ,illustration3 ,,illustration ,,of ,,four ,,scott ,,patent ,,double ,,effect ,,salt ,,evaporators1 ,,with ,,automatic ,,salt ,,dischargers1 ,,salt ,,conveyers1 ,,and ,,hydro-,,extractors ,the panning process1 though carried out in the best possible manner1 will not completely remove from the kettle all the separated calcium sulphate1 but some of it1 together with separated salt1 will bake on the bottom and sides1 forming an incrustation constantly increasing in thickness1 though at every refilling of the kettle with fresh brine much of this adhering salt re-dissolves4 ,this incrustation increases much more rapidly in the front kettles than in those nearer to the chimney1 since1 a front kettle is usually drawn every #d or #e hours1 while a back kettle often requires from #bd to #cf hours before a sufficient amount of salt has separated4 ,moreover1 a front kettle holds #aej gallons of brine1 while those nearest the chimney contain but #ajj gallons4 ,usually1 in #e or #f days the incrustation becomes so thick that it interferes very materially with the evaporation1 causing a great loss of fuel1 as gypsum is one of the poorest conductors of heat4 ,the workman therefore draws the salt from the kettle1 removes the remaining brine to within a few gallons1 and refills the kettle with fresh water4 ,after a continuous boiling of about half an hour1 the greater part of the adhering salt has dissolved and the rest of the incrustation can easily be removed4 ,the time a salt block is in operation is between #aj and #ae days1 and the manufactured salt1 according to the ,state laws1 remains undisturbed for #ad days for drainage4 ,a salt block usually cools sufficiently in #bd hours for the kettles1 grates1 arches1 etc41 to be properly cleaned and made ready for the next run1 so that about two runs can be accomplished per month4 ,the quantity of salt produced in #bd hours in a good salt block1 with average good coal dust and brine1 is from #ejj to #fjj bushels of #ef lbs4 each1 and the amount obtainable by the burning of #a ton of #b1jjj lb4 of this fuel varies from #de to #ej bushels4 ,there are two salt blocks at the ,wyoming ,valley1 at ,warsaw1 in which the ,onondaga kettles are heated by steam instead of direct fire4 ,here1 in place of the brick arches in which the kettles are hung at ,syracuse1 they are supported by a framework1 and each kettle is surrounded by a steam jacket covered with a non-conductor4 ,moreover1 the kettle is made much thinner for the better transmission of the heat4 ,the steam enters the jacket at the upper end of the kettle at one side1 and the condensed water escapes by a valve below it1 to be returned to the steam boiler4 ,the method of manufacture of the salt does not differ in any particular from the ,onondaga method4 ,the grainer or ,michigan process is1 like the 8kettle method10 a purely ,american invention1 and consists in passing live or exhaust steam through a set of iron pipes immersed in long1 shallow wooden or iron vats4 ,these vats rest on a strong wooden frame4 ,they are from #ajj to #aej ft4 long1 usually #ab ft4 wide1 and from #bj to #bd in4 deep2 provided with four or six steam pipes having a diameter of #d to #e in41 and hung on pendants #d to #f in4 above the bottom of the vats4 ,these pipes are within a few feet of the same length as the grainer1 and so arranged that the salt can be conveniently removed towards the outer side of the grainer4 ,to obtain the best effect in a grainer system1 the temperature of the heated brine is kept at or near the boiling-point when no lifting or removal of salt is in progress4 ,to do this an abundance of high-pressure steam must first be supplied to the grainers1 and1 secondly1 the constant supply of brine required for the grainers while evaporation is going on1 must enter at a temperature but little lower than that of the brine in the grainer4 ,for this purpose two large tanks1 called settlers1 are employed1 which are usually as long and wide as the grainers1 but #f ft4 deep1 and provided with four rows of steam pipes about #a ft4 above the floor to heat the cold brine drawn into them from the outside cisterns as required4 ,although the six rows of steam pipes in the grainer have an entire length of from #eej to #gej ft4 7suspended in the brine #d to #f in4 above the bottom of the grainer and with #h to #aj in4 of brine above them7 and a heating surface of from #gjj to #a1jjj square feet1 a great deal of the steam supplied to them is not condensed1 and1 therefore1 passes from the grainer pipes into the settler pipes 7sometimes passing through a steam trap to separate the condensed water7 to heat the brine of the settlers4 ,the main difficulty with which the manufacturers of ,new ,york ,state have to contend is the calcium sulphate4 ,in fact1 it is this impurity which causes the interruption of the process1 and the laborious cleaning out1 whether the kettle1 the pan1 the grainer1 or the vacuum pan is used4 ,it not only entails a great loss of heat in consequence of its slow conductivity1 but it also causes the overheating of the metal exposed to direct fire1 wherever this is employed4 ,suggestions and experiments have been made to overcome this difficulty1 involving the expenditure of great sums of money1 but without any practical results as far as mechanical means are concerned4 ,from the time of the introduction of the open-pan system in ,cheshire1 until the beginning of the present century it was found impossible1 owing to the nature of the furnaces employed in the process1 to maintain a sufficiently high and uniform temperature to produce salt which1 without grinding1 is marketed as finest table salt1 or to make more than #b tons of salt from the consumption of #a ton of coal4 ,experiments for the purpose of economizing fuel appeared destined to perpetual failure1 and the hand-stoking of the furnaces entailed so many variations of temperature that the production of salt crystals of uniform size was impossible4 ,then1 within the same decade1 two processes were invented which1 between them1 solved the problems that had hitherto eluded all the efforts of the scientist1 the engineer1 and the practical salt-man4 ,in order to understand the advantages secured by the operation of the ,vacuum ,system1 which comes to us from the ,united ,states1 it must be remembered that1 under atmospheric pressure1 brine boils at a temperature of #bbf ,f41 whereas in a vacuum of #bh in4 mercury1 the boiling temperature is reduced to about #ajj ,f4 ,it will thus be seen that evaporation in vacuo renders it possible to use multiple effect apparatus without causing unduly high pressure in the first vessel1 and it has this further advantage1 that the low-pressure steam1 in passing through the evaporation gives up its latent heat1 whereas if the steam went to the condenser direct from the engine1 the heat employed in the steam engine would be only the difference between the heat contained in steam at #agj lb4 and the steam at #e lb4 pressure4 ,by multiple effect evaporation1 a great economy in the amount of steam required is effected4 ,between the evaporation of brine and that of other liquors1 the chief difference to be noted is that in the multiple effect system1 each pan or unit is supplied with its brine independently of the others1 and graining goes on in the pans1 whereas in concentrating other liquors the pans are fed from the first to the second and from the second to the third4 ,the removal of the salt from each pan has1 therefore1 to be arranged for4 ,the method of working a triple-effect plant may be briefly described as follows-- ,each of the three pans having been charged with brine to the proper level1 exhaust steam from the engines is admitted to the calandria of the first pan in which the highest temperature is maintained4 ,the brine in this pan becomes quickly heated1 and the steam given off enters the calandria of the second pan1 where it serves to raise the temperature of the brine4 ,after doing its work in the second stage1 the steam is condensed1 and thus creates a partial vacuum in the first pan4 ,the atmospheric pressure being thus reduced1 violent ebullition of the brine in the first pan results4 ,the same process takes place in the second pan1 owing to the calandria of the third pan acting as a condenser of the vapour and producing a vacuum4 ,the vapour given off by the brine in the third pan is condensed by means of a jet condenser4 ,it will1 therefore1 be seen that the highest vacuum and the lowest temperature exist in the third pan1 while the highest temperature and lowest vacuum are found in the first pan4 ,as the salt is precipitated it falls to the bottom of the pans4 ,the bottom of each vacuum pan is connected with the boot of a continuous bucket elevator1 which is carried in a cast-iron1 water-tight casing to a level sufficiently above that of the brine in the pans to ensure that they shall be brine-sealed4 ,the salt is delivered into waggons and the brine drainage returns to the pans4 ,the further treatment of the salt crystals varies with the purpose for which they are required4 ,for table salt they are subjected to grinding1 but for export they are simply allowed to drain4 ,the general aim of the ,vacuum apparatus is to divide the boiling process into two stages1 in order to prepare the brine beforehand by purification1 and out of the purified brine to produce the purest salt possible--chiefly by boiling under atmospheric pressure--and to acquire another liquor of the highest content in medium salt4 ,balzberg1 in his ,die ,erdesalz ,erzeugung1 has to admit that the process results in the most complete purification of the common salt1 but in the conclusion of his critical summary of the vacuum plant1 he says3 8,at the same time it must be admitted that a complicated machine1 which only gains1 at a high cost1 advantages that can be achieved by more economical and simpler means is of no use in practical business4 ,the question then arises as to whether it is necessary1 for the production of domestic or table salt1 to have pure chloride of sodium1 and whether it pays to use complicated machinery to attain this end40 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,hodgkinson ,,patent ,,salt-,,making ,,plant ,while the largest size triple-effect vacuum plants are capable of turning out #a1jjj tons of salt per diem1 with brine at or near saturation1 and produce about #f tons of salt for the combustion of #a ton of coal1 it is a very expensive process to operate as well as to install4 ,the cost of the plant ranges from #bf1jjj to #ajj1jjj1 and a large percentage of skilled labour is required in its manipulation4 ,but1 despite the high initial cost1 and the fact that it only makes one grade of salt1 it is extremely complicated1 and has to be stopped for #d hours in each #bd for the purpose of boiling out and cleaning up the pans1 the vacuum plant is a highly efficient piece of mechanism1 and for a while it remained the best and most economic system on the market4 ,but the ,vacuum process was not destined to remain long without a rival4 ,in point of fact1 the merits of the ,american invention had scarcely obtained recognition when a new furnace was designed which1 when applied to the open-pan system and subjected to practical tests1 proved an entire success4 ,the late ,james ,hodgkinson1 the patentee1 was not a salt-man1 but the head of a ,manchester firm of engineers and machinery manufacturers1 and it was a professional visit to a salt-works which revealed to him the crudity of the brine-boiling operation and gave him the idea of adapting to the salt furnaces a mechanical stoker of his own invention1 which was already being operated for other manufacturing purposes4 ,in the development of his idea1 and with his mechanical stoker as its foundation1 he perfected the ,hodgkinson ,patent ,salt-,making ,process1 the advantages of which over all other processes for the manufacture of salt from brine have been summarized by ,sir ,thomas ,h4 ,holland1 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s41 under the following six heads-- #a4 ,complete utilization of the heat derived from the fuel employed4 #b4 ,the absolute maintenance uniformly of this heat4 #c4 ,the fact that finely-divided first-quality table salt can be produced in the dry form fit for dispatch to the market without grinding or other preparation4 #d4 ,the fact that coarsely crystallized salt can be produced at the same time as the finest table salt4 #e4 ,that the proportion of the different grades of salt can be varied at will1 as well as maintained constantly1 to suit the varying requirements of the market4 #f4 ,the automatic and continuous removal of the salt as fast as it is precipitated from the brine4 ,the essential features of the ,hodgkinson plant consist of 7a7 a mechanically-stoked furnace for the production of heat2 7b7 a primary closed evaporating pan1 #cj ft4 in diameter2 7c7 two secondary circular pans1 #be ft4 in diameter2 7d7 four open rectangular pans1 #fj ft4 by #be ft42 7e7 a series of folded steam-jacketed pipes for heating the inflowing brine by the waste steam2 and 7f7 a condensing arrangement to produce a partial vacuum in the closed pans4 ,the ,hodgkinson furnace is not placed under the pan1 as in the old system1 but in front of the plant1 and the heated gases pass under the primary pan1 where the temperature ranges between #a1hjj and #b1jjj;,f4 ,in this primary pan is made a finer and better salt than can be manufactured by any other system in the world4 ,moreover1 by means of the mechanically-stoked furnace1 and the consequent uniform high temperature1 it is possible1 for the first time1 to control the character of the salt produced4 ,where the temperature varies1 as in the open-pan system1 crystals of varying shapes and sizes are produced1 and this mixed salt must be ground to make it suitable for table purposes4 ,where steam heat is employed1 as in the vacuum process1 the temperature is not high enough to make crystals of the smallest size4 ,by the ,hodgkinson system the primary pan produces a precipitation which requires no grinding1 which flows in a cascade of salt from the pan1 and can be delivered to the consumer without having come into contact with the hand of man in the whole course of the operation4 ,the heated gases1 having passed under the primary pan1 are then divided and sent under the two secondary pans1 and from thence they pass under the open rectangular pans1 the gases being distributed by the broken columns of brickwork on which the pans stand4 ,the temperature of the gases passing under the open pans commences at about #fjj ,f41 and gradually decreases to about #bjj ,f4 under the farthest pans4 ,by the automatic regulation of the temperature1 the waste gases are utilized to produce salts of the various degrees of coarseness required for the dairy1 the stock-yard1 and fishery purposes4 ,in the two secondary closed pans1 finely divided table salt is also produced1 but it is possible1 by opening the manhole traps in the covers1 to increase the size of the crystal and make dairy salt in these pans4 ,the coarser crystals and flake salts are made in the open pans in which the crystallization is at the lowest rate4 ,the grain of the salt can be altered at will4 ,in order to meet any change in the market requirements1 coarser salt can be produced at a moment's notice in the secondary pans4 ,one very marked superiority of the whole system over all other processes is seen in the fact that a change in the type of salt produced can be immediately effected1 and a constant and uniform output of any combination of products can be absolutely guaranteed4 ,the improvements which the ,hodgkinson plant has effected in the open-pan system are3 the increased production of from #b to #g tons of salt from the combustion of #a ton of coal1 the production of the finest table salt without grinding1 and of every grade of salt from the flour-fine table to the coarsest fishery salt1 in one and the same operation1 and the saving of time that is required in all other processes for scraping and cleaning the pans4 ,its superiority over the ,vacuum system lies in the facts that its initial cost is about #d1jjj1 as against anything from #bf1jjj to #ajj1jjj2 that the majority of the work being automatic1 the expense of specially trained1 skilled labour is dispensed with2 that it is operated for #bd hours a day as against #bj2 requires no grinding process in the manufacture of table salt2 and produces every grade of salt simultaneously4 ,sir ,thomas ,holland1 while studying the ,hodgkinson process in operation1 is said to have exclaimed3 8,this is not an improvement1 it is a revolution02 and in his subsequent report upon the process1 he has declared that it 8has an enormous advantage over any known process for the production of salt40 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,salt ,,market ,although no purpose would be served by dealing in detail with other of the many schemes that have been elaborated in the past three hundred years for the improvement of brine salt manufacture1 the complete list of patents that have been taken out for the purpose constitutes a record of almost unrelieved failure which would occupy many pages4 ,it has always been obvious to every intelligent investigator outside the little circle of salt proprietors1 that the open-pan process was a survival of the dark ages1 but the principle governing the precipitation of salt from brine is so simple that the equal difficulty presented itself to the practical salt-men1 of either effecting further simplification or of securing further economies by the elaboration of the process4 ,individuals in every generation recognized that the methods of mediaevalism cried aloud for revision1 but the salt trade resolutely and consistently set their faces1 and their hands1 against every suggested innovation4 ,the salt-men were the avowed enemies of ,thomas ,lowndes1 they drove ,chrysel back to ,saxony1 they loaded ,furnival with misfortune and landed him in gaol4 ,in #ahij1 an official of the ,salt ,union reflected with grim complaisance that1 although no trade had had more patents applied to it than the salt trade1 no trade could show so large a percentage of failures in the matter of reformed methods1 and since all the companies that had brought forward new plants and processes in competition with the ,salt ,union had come short of success1 he piously concluded that the system which had survived the trial of generations must be the fittest4 ,the opposition of the salt trade to the introduction of new methods of manufacture is explained by the fact that the profits accruing from the old1 clumsy1 crude1 and wasteful process were so large that the proprietors could see no possible reason for welcoming innovations4 ,moreover1 the manufacture under established conditions was in the hands of a comparatively small number of makers1 who could not adopt new measures without letting in more men1 and the long tenure of their monopoly made the salt-men intolerant of a competitive system4 ,opposition was so abominable to them that1 while they would combine as one man to keep out the daring intruder1 or to crush such an one if he succeeded in getting in1 they were not at all averse from employing similar tactics for the purpose of exterminating one another4 ,although it had cost them over a quarter of a million sterling to dispose of ,william ,furnival1 the game of price-cutting was not discontinued after #ahcc4 ,in order to safeguard themselves against the periodical falls in prices1 which1 if persisted in1 would mean wholesale ruin1 all sorts of associations1 syndicates1 trusts1 committees1 and pools were formed for the regulation of stocks and prices1 but each successive combination was successively abandoned1 and was followed by another period of bitter jealousy and trading loss4 ,between #ahdf and #ahhj1 the trade was being continually reorganized for offensive and defensive commercial purposes1 but1 in #ahha1 it was admitted that1 in spite of all attempts to encourage a better feeling among the leading manufacturers1 8the spirit of envy1 hate1 malice1 and all uncharitableness1 which has so long been the bane of the salt trade1 has again become rampant10 with the result that the price of common salt--#ds41 less the brokers' discount of #e per cent4--was the lowest that it had touched since the ,american ,civil ,war4 ,two years later it was declared that the trade1 instead of being ruled by common sense and business experience1 was being ruined by personal animosities and trade jealousies4 ,the files of the ,northwich ,guardian at this period chronicle the development of a state of affairs which must be almost without parallel in any other trade4 ,during #ahhc the violent competition continued1 resulting in heavy loss1 the closing of many works1 and a large increase in bankruptcies4 ,in #ahhd1 the ,guardian declared that 8the battle is fast becoming a war of giants4444 ,capital is showing itself1 almost everywhere1 a remorseless ,juggernaut1 crushing thousands of victims beneath its ponderous wheels40 ,in that year a proposal to form the trade into one huge company was frustrated by the bitterness of internal jealousies4 ,further attempts to bring all the salt proprietors into a combination for mutual protection and profit were made and abandoned from the same cause4 8,it is easy to make laws and regulations and to carry them out successfully when men are governed by the ordinary laws of business and common sense10 commented the ,guardian in #ahhf1 8but when sentiment or passion is allowed to interfere1 it is impossible either to make sensible laws or carry them out successfully when made40 ,in ,march1 #ahhh1 we read that 8the great struggle for mastery still goes on02 in ,april1 8the process of exhaustion is not yet complete10 and the deplorable state of the salt trade was attributed to 8a few men who seem to have made more money than they know what to do with1 and are spending it in seeing what amount of injury they can do to each other1 and as a necessary consequence to numbers of others who are innocent of offence40 ,in ,may1 a correspondent of the same journal deplored the material damage the trade was suffering through the perversity and selfishness of the salt proprietors1 and he came to the conclusion that their object was 8not really to do business but to kill one another out40 8,is there more morality10 he asked1 8in the man of means starving out the man without means by selling1 below cost of make1 than there would be in stopping him on the highway and picking his pocket8444 ,when the intention in the two cases is the same--the plunder or ruin of the opponent--how can the morality differ8 ,it does seem a most grievous thing that when the greater number in the trade are anxious to do business at a profit to themselves 444 they should be prevented because a few--a very few--should think only of themselves1 and care nothing for the sufferings of others1 and carry on the fight to the bitter end1 causing enormous suffering and distress44440 8,we can see very clearly10 he concluded1 8that if something is not done shortly to bring about a better state of affairs1 some defensive action must be taken by those firms outside the present strife which will result in no good to the parties now responsible for the mischief40 ,the 8defensive action0 referred to was already being formulated1 and in ,october1 #ahhh1 was issued the prospectus of the ,salt ,union ,limited1 which was formed with a capital of #d1jjj1jjj for the purpose of consolidating the undertakings of the ,salt ,proprietors in the ,united ,kingdom1 8with a view to ending reckless competition which injuriously affects the salt industry without conferring any adequate advantage on the public40 ,by virtue of the sixty-four agreements1 covering the purchase of properties involving the inclusive payment of #c1gjd1eai1 the ,union became the greatest salt proprietors in the world1 and the success of the flotation was described as 8almost unprecedented40 ,apparently the only two newspapers that had the least dubiety concerning the success of the venture were ,the ,times and the ,northwich ,guardian4 ,the ,times1 while recognizing that the primary object of the movement1 viz41 that of 8curtailing supply and creating an artificial scarcity0--would be gained if an effective monopoly could be secured1 pointed out that3 8,the ,syndicate has not acquired the control of all the mines or works at which salt is produced1 and unless they do this they will not have an absolute monopoly40 ,the ,guardian admitted that with careful management the company would prosper1 but1 speaking from its intimate knowledge of the spirit which animated the salt-trade1 it cautiously predicted that the first few months' operations would show whether the enterprise could go on successfully4 8,the scheme is a gigantic one1 and may prove either a great blessing or a great curse1 according to the principles on which it is conducted4 ,let us hope that a spirit of justice and fairness towards shareholders1 servants1 and the public at large will make the scheme a blessing40 ,the warning voiced by ,the ,times with regard to the ,salt ,union's inefficient monopoly was justified almost immediately by the issue of prospectuses of rival salt schemes1 and although opposition of this kind was treated by the ,union with affected contempt1 and the public was assured that the insignificant salt lands secured by rash outsiders were 8such as to break the hearts of all investors who might visit them10 the fact remained1 as was noted in ,november1 #ahhi1 that 8the most remarkable thing in connection with salt has been the continuous fall in the price of ,salt ,union shares40 ,the principle on which the valuation of the ,union's acquisitions was made did not transpire1 but ,the ,times understood that 8the selling price has been quite satisfactory to the vendors10 and the ,chairman of the ,union1 in #ahif1 was feign to confess that 8never were covenants so ingeniously framed as to cause lawsuits40 ,it is not overstating the case to say that the terms upon which the ,salt ,union purchased their properties provides one of the most amazing instances of reckless optimism in the history of comparatively modern finance1 and the subsequent administration of the ,company's affairs was as unfortunate as the preliminary settlements had been disastrous4 ,in one law case with a vendor from whom they had purchased for #fjj1jjj a property which their own representative valued at #djj1jjj1 they had to pay a further #fj1jjj1 and they settled another action by selling for #abe1jjj a tract of land which they had originally acquired for #cgb1jjj4 ,in #ahie1 they increased their capital to #d1bjj1jjj by issue of further debentures to the amount of #bjj1jjj2 and1 in #aija1 the capitalization of the ,union was reduced to #b1fjj1jjj4 ,up to #aiac1 they had paid away #aag1dea for directors' fees1 travelling expenses1 etc41 #ii1bcf for preliminary and ,parliamentary expenses1 law charges1 etc41 and #gbc1ihe for administration charges1 and from #ahif to #aiad they had only paid 7in #aijg7 one dividend of per cent4 on the ordinary shares4 ,,index ,agricola 7,georgius7 on salt-making1 #ae1 #ah1 #ef ,america1 salt-making in1 #abg-ace --1 vacuum system in1 #ace ,brine1 battle of the1 #aba --1 composition of1 #g --1 economy in production of1 by ,furnival1 #gh --1 evaporation of1 #c --1 ,dr4 ,jackson on the process1 #ef-fj --1 old reservoirs of1 #ajd --1 output at ,northwich1 #ec --1 treatment of1 in early days1 #dj ,brine-making1 methods of ,dr4 ,jackson1 ,rastel1 ,lowndes1 ,brownrigg1 ,chrysel1 ,furnival1 ,holland1 #ef-gc ,brine-tapping1 improved process described1 #ajf1 #ajg ,camden's ,britannia1 derivation of suffix 8wich10 #cb --1 supply and treatment of brine described1 #dj1 #db ,chambers's ,journal1 a subsidence described1 #aac1 #aad ,cheshire1 the 8wiches0 of1 #cb1 #cd --1 extent of deposits in1 #hc-if ,chrysel1 persecution of1 #ga ,domesday ,book1 references to salt works in ,cheshire1 rules governing the trade1 #cd-cg ,droitwich1 salt-making there1 ,a4,d4 #haf1 #cc ,furnival1 ,wm41 introduces steam heat1 #gf --1 economy in production by2 alarm of salt proprietors1 #gh --1 persecution of1 a victim to ,cheshire salt proprietors1 #gf-hb --1 his patents1 #gg2 --1 his end1 #hb ,hodgkinson 7,jas471 his system1 #gf1 #ach-ada ,holland 7,philemon71 #cb ,holland 7,sir ,thos471 his eulogy of the ,hodgkinson process1 #ada ,jackson1 7,dr4 ,w471 #ef ,johnson 7,geo471 account of treatment of brine by1 #db1 #dc ,king's ,vale ,royal1 particulars relating to ,cheshire salt districts1 #dc1 #dd ,lakes1 or 8,flashes10 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aab1 #aac ,lowndes 7,thos471 improved method of brine-making by1 #fb1 #fe --1 persecution of1 #ga ,marbury1 discovery of salt at1 in #afgj1 #ig ,marbury ,pipe1 #ed1 #abb1 #abc ,martindale 7,adam71 ,communication to ,royal ,soc41 #ig ,mendeleff1 on crystallization1 #e ,middlewich owners and number of salt-houses at1 #ea --1 output at1 #ed ,nantwich owners and number of salt-houses at2 decline of industry at1 #ea1 #ec ,nevada1 rock-salt at1 #c ,new ,york1 salt-springs in2 methods employed there1 #abg ,northwich1 ,adelaide ,marston mine1 #ih --1 earliest manufacture in ,england1 #cb --1 output of brine at1 #ec --1 the 8,walling ,booke0 of1 #dh ,ormerod1 on the origin of the salt field of ,cheshire1 #hd1 #he ,rainfalls1 cycles of1 affecting salt deposits1 #ia ,rastel 7,dr4 ,thos471 method of evaporation of brine at ,droitwich1 #fj-fb ,rock-salt1 purest in ,hungary1 #a2 rarely found pure1 ib4 ,rock-salt ,mining--a dead industry2 method of working1 #aja-ajc ,royal ,society1 ,phil4 ,trans41 #ef1 #fj ,rumania1 deposits in1 #bj1 #bf --1 estimated reserves and annual output1 #bh ,salt1 ,adelaide ,marston mine1 #ih --1 ancient orders concerning1 #dd-dh --1 beginnings of the industry1 #h1 #i1 #aj --1 chemistry and properties of1 #a --1 ,chinese methods of making1 #aa --1 colour of1 #b --1 convict labour1 #bj --1 crystals in1 #d --1 decline of industry at ,nantwich1 #eb1 #ec --1 depth and thickness of deposit at ,northwich1 #ij --1 discovery of1 at ,marbury in #afgj1 #ig --1 ,domesday ,book--reference to salt in ,a4,d4 #ajhd1 #cc --1 earliest manufacture in ,england1 #cb --1 effect upon sea-water1 #b --1 experiments for removal of impurities in1 #cj1 #ca --1 formation and extent of ,cheshire deposits1 #hc-if --1 importation of1 #ch --1 ,italian method of making1 #ab --1 ,japanese methods of making1 #ab --1 lectures on1 by ,ward 7,thos471 #abf --1 ,mendeleff on1 #f --1 method of working top and bottom beds1 #ajj --1 name first given1 #a --1 ,portuguese and ,spanish method of making1 #ad --1 preservative property of1 #f1 #i --1 ,rastel's account of clarifying1 #fa1 #fb --1 solubility of1 #b --1 symbol of sanctity1 #i --1 theories respecting deposits1 #he-ij --1 ,prof4 ,thompson's calculations1 #ib-if --1 value in agriculture1 #f ,salt-beds1 area of ,cheshire1 #ib 8,salt-licks10 #h ,salt-makers1 conservatism of1 #ah ,salt-making1 methods of1 #abe-abi --1 methods employed in ,america1 #abg1 #ace --1 processes of1 #abg --1 vacuum system1 #ace1 et seqq4 ,salt-,market1 the1 #adb-adg --1 mines1 collapse of1 various dates1 #ajc1 #ajg1 #ajh ,salt-pans1 recovery of old1 #ci ,salt-trade1 competition in1 #add1 #ade ,salt ,union1 #ed -- --1 alleged rights of1 #abc1 #abd -- --1 8,battle of the ,brine10 #aba -- --1 brine carrying by1 #abb1 #abc -- --1 large capital of1 #ade -- --1 newspaper comments1 #adf-adg -- --1 opposition to new processes by1 #adb -- --1 ,wharton ,works1 #gi-ha ,subsidences1 #ig-abc --1 causes of1 #ajh-aab --1 described #aac --1 damage to property1 #aae1 #aaf --1 ,compensation ,bill1 #abj1 #aba --1 legal aspects of1 #aag-aba --1 resentment of townspeople1 #aag --1 pumpers responsible for1 #aag ,thompson 7,prof4 ,jas471 his calculations1 #ib-if 8,wallers10 derivation of name1 #dj 8,walling ,booke of ,northwich0 7,harleian ,,ms4 in ,british ,museum containing earliest list of 8wich-houses0 and their owners71 #dh1 #ej1 #ea ,ward 7,thos471 lecturer on salt1 #abf 8,wich10 derivation of the name1 #cc ,wieliezka rock-salt at1 #a --1 works at1 #bj-bf ,winsford1 output at1 #ec1 #ee ,,the ,,end ,printed by ,sir ,isaac ,pitman ,sons1 ,ltd41 ,bath1 ,england ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in the original book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,archaic spellings were retained4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 unbalanced quotation marks were remedied when the change was obvious1 and otherwise left unbalanced4 ,illustrations in this e,book have been positioned between paragraphs and outside quotations4 ,in versions of this e,book that support hyperlinks1 the page references in the ,list of ,illustrations lead to the corresponding illustrations4 ,the index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4