,,lessons ,,in ,,chalk ,,modeling ,,the ,,new ,,method ,,of ,,map ,,drawing #ajj ,,illustrations ,,with ,,introduction ,,and ,suggestions on the ,use of the ,map ,,by ,,ida ,,cassa ,,heffron 7,late of the ,cook ,county ,normal ,school1 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,lecturer and ,instructor in ,pedagogics in ,art1 ,university ,extension ,division1 ,university of ,chicago47 ,,educational ,,publishing ,,company ,,boston ,,new ,,york ,,chicago ,,san ,,francisco ,,copyrighted ,,by ,,educational ,,publishing ,,company #aijj ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4 ,,introduction4 #a4 ,necessity for the ,study of ,structural ,geography as ,preparatory to the ,drawing of ,maps #i #b4 ,necessity for ,field ,lessons and ,importance of ,forming1 in ,connection with ,them1 the ,habit of ,modeling and ,drawing #ac #c4 ,importance of ,learning to ,interpret ,pictures as an ,aid to ,imaging the ,continent #bg #d4 ,maps--of the ,past and ,present4 ,the ,chalk ,modeled ,map #cd ,,part ,,ii4 ,,fifteen ,,lessons ,,in ,,chalk ,,modeling4 ,,remarks #eb ,i4 ,representation of ,surfaces with ,hints on the ,delineation of ,distances4 ,land ,sloping from the ,observer4 ,light and ,shade #ed ,,ii4 ,land ,sloping toward the ,observer4 ,quality of ,line4 ,relations and ,proportions #ei ,,iii4 ,high and ,low ,water-partings1 with ,map ,showing ,divide #fc ,,iv4 ,meeting of ,land and ,water4 ,lakes4 ,springs4 ,islands4 ,high and ,low ,tide #ff ,v4 ,sketches ,illustrative of ,wind and ,water ,erosion #fi ,,vi4 ,scenes ,typical of the ,different ,zones #gf ,,vii4 ,river ,basins4 ,coasts #hb ,,viii4 ,suggestions on the ,use of the ,chalk ,modeled ,map of ,north ,america in ,fourth and ,fifth ,grades #hg ,,ix4 ,map of ,north ,america #if ,x4 ,natural ,features of ,interest in ,north ,america #ajd ,,xi4 ,map of ,mexico1 with ,suggestions for ,teachers of ,fifth and ,sixth ,grades #ajh ,,xii4 ,map of ,section of the ,united ,states of ,america for ,use in ,preparatory ,lessons on the ,civil ,war #aag ,,xiii4 ,map of ,south ,america #abc ,,xiv4 ,map of ,eurasia1 with ,sections in ,detail #abg ,,xv4 ,maps of ,africa and ,australia4 ,summary of ,instructions #acb ,books of ,reference #acg ,,preface4 ,in preparing the following lessons1 in answer to the demand of the public school teacher for such assistance1 the aim has been to present them in such a manner that both teacher and pupil may1 through the understanding and acceptance of the steps involved1 become expert in the development and delineation of original maps showing surface structure in relief4 ,to this end1 suggestions vital to the success of the would-be mapmaker will be found in the ,introduction4 ,in ,part ,,ii4 it is aimed to show that1 with a clear mental image of surface forms and areas1 the expression of the same will be a simple and easy matter1 and a valuable preparation for the mapping of large areas or continents4 ,for the illustrations a medium has been used1 which1 in many respects1 closely resembles in its results on paper the texture of chalk on the blackboard4 ,the author desires to acknowledge her indebtedness to ,francis ,w4 ,parker1 the head of the ,chicago ,institute1 late ,principal of the ,chicago ,city ,normal ,school1 for help derived from the study of his works1 and for the rare educational privilege enjoyed while working as a member of his ,faculty4 ,especially were the discussions under his leadership1 at the ever-to-be-remembered weekly meetings1 a continual source of inspiration4 ,under the new light thrown upon the subject of geography1 as presented by ,colonel ,parker1 the impulse was first received which afterward bore fruit in the development of a new method of map drawing2 a method which it was desired should be an adequate expression of the solidity and continuity of the continental land mass4 ,the necessity for such a map ,colonel ,parker had himself realized for years and had sought its delineation4 ,with a desire to meet the pupil's needs in this respect1 upon further study of structural geography the idea was conceived of drawing maps which would show mass without outline1 and which would also represent relief4 ,this method of map drawing was called 8,chalk ,modeling10 and from the first crude effort in this direction by the author1 in the year #ahia1 at the ,cook ,county ,normal ,school1 the 8,chalk ,modeled ,map0 passed through many stages of development until it reached its present form4 ,thus to ,colonel ,parker himself is primarily due whatever of educational value has resulted from the invention of the author or development by others of what is called 8,the ,chalk ,modeled ,map40 ,acknowledgments are also due ,miss ,louise ,barwick1 for the zeal displayed in forwarding the development and delineation of the ,maps of the ,continents1 and for valuable assistance rendered in the drawing of the same1 as illustrations for this work4 ,i4 ,c4 ,h4 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher ,,in ,,general1 ,,and ,,to ,,the ,,members ,,of ,,the ,c4 ,c4 ,n4 ,s4 ,,alumni ,,association ,,in ,,particular1 ,,is ,,this ,,book ,,respectfully ,,dedicated ,,by ,,the ,,author4 ,,part ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,illustration ,,necessity ,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,structural ,,geography ,,preparatory ,,to ,,the ,,drawing ,,of ,,maps4 ,the fundamental object in the study of ,geography1 as we understand it1 is to acquire mental images of the present appearance of the earth's surface2 its structure1 the rocky material of which it is composed1 and the causes and effects of its changes1 as a preparation for the home of organic life4 ,it is a study of the earth as a material basis for the evolution of man1 and the development of civilization4 ,it leads up to a search for the laws and workings of the creative forces--forces relating to our planet and to the sun1 the central source of light and heat4 ,this study has a different meaning to different persons4 ,to one it means the study of all that lies between the covers of a book1 or memorizing other people's sayings4 ,to another it means 8,connected information regarding the condition of man's life on this planet0--again 8,geography is a description of the earth's surface1 or anything that affects or is affected by it40 ,a more common definition is1 8,geography is a description of the earth's surface and its inhabitants40 ,an ability to recognize in present environment that which leads to an understanding of geographical conditions in general1 is much to be desired and is the aim of the teacher of the present day4 ,geologists tell us that the same processes are going on now that have ever been in operation1 in the fitting of the earth for the habitation of man4 ,that these changes are taking place is implied in the very fact that we are studying the earth's present appearance4 ,the study of the history of these changes1 and of the nature of the earthy material as shown in rock and soil1 and in vegetation1 and of the influence of heat1 light1 air and moisture1 means the study of all the natural sciences2 not as special isolated studies1 but bound together in one great whole4 ,so closely are they related1 merging into and impinging upon each other as they do1 that there seems to be no place or line of separation between them4 ,the larger part of the surface of the earth 7nearly three-fourths7 is covered with water1 and the action of this mighty agent1 under the influence of that great dynamic force and life-giving energy1 heat1 opens an immense field for investigation4 ,these combined influences constitute the study of the environment of all organic life2 and knowing these in a given case1 we get an approximate idea of the stage of development4 ,the development of man1 the highest type of organic life1 depends largely upon structural1 climatic1 vegetable and animal environment4 ,to know these is to understand his habits of life1 his reasons for choice of homes1 and to judge of his probable advancement in civilization4 ,the powerful influence which the physical features of the earth's surface have exerted in shaping the current of historical events1 can hardly be realized1 until thoughtful investigation of the subject has been made4 ,the knowledge of geographical conditions1 as climate1 mountains1 valleys1 rivers and seas1 with vegetable and animal life gives us the theatre of action for events in history4 ,as the mere existence of mountain range1 desert1 sea or river1 may be essentially the influence which has led to the growth or downfall of empires1 it is clearly seen that a sound knowledge of structural geography is absolutely necessary for all intelligent study of history2 no general relation of important occurrences can be traced without it4 ,nearly1 if not equally necessary is it in the study of literature4 ,in order to properly appreciate the works of our best writers1 both of prose and poetry1 an acquaintance with nature1 a scientific and geographical knowledge1 local and general1 is very essential4 ,it forms a basis for the correct understanding of books1 since the best writers and thinkers of all ages have been students of nature4 ,their writings are filled with lessons and illustrations1 as well as generalizations drawn from close observations of her methods4 ,if1 then1 a knowledge of structural geography is requisite to the true understanding of man's relation to man and the world around him1 it becomes important that the subject be presented in such a manner as to attract and hold the interest of the pupil2 and properly presented there can be nothing more interesting than the study of his immediate environment--that which touches him in his every day experience4 ,this study of his immediate environment is essential to the forming of mental images of areas and surface forms outside and beyond his sense grasp and to a comprehension of the structure and surface contour of the world at large3 such mental images being fundamentally a necessity to the delineation of adequate structural maps of the whole or any part of the earth's surface4 ,,necessity ,,for ,,field ,,lessons ,,and ,,importance ,,of ,,forming1 ,,in ,,connection ,,with ,,them1 ,a ,,habit ,,of ,,modeling1 ,,painting ,,and ,,drawing4 ,the study of geography1 which in the past consisted mainly in the memorizing of meaningless names with little or no exercise of the reasoning faculties1 or opportunities for making generalizations through acts of comparison and inference1 has been superseded by instruction of a more rational order4 ,we have learned that to memorize names and locations of mountains1 rivers and lakes1 without seeing their relation to a whole1 or to make only superficial observations of extended areas of land1 results merely in indefinite mental impressions1 leaving out the very basis of all concise and clearly defined geographical knowledge4 ,to the end that definite mental images may be acquired1 field excursions under the direction of competent leaders are now advocated1 and when entered upon with an intelligent purpose are held to be indispensable factors in the correct study of geography4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,,stream ,,showing ,,rapids4 ,under these conditions 7the intelligent purpose and the competent leader71 the pupil who visits a lake is likely to have a more adequate mental image of old ocean1 than one who has never seen a lake or other large body of water4 ,one who has seen low hills with their out-cropping rock1 and the action of small streams upon them1 will have a better idea of what mountains and rivers may be4 ,in the new education the pupils are thus in the field lesson brought face to face with nature4 ,through these lessons the powers of the imagination are quickened and strengthened by the continual observation of surface forms1 the true basis for all attempts to image the structure of the earth4 ,inferences are made at every step of the way as to the history of the physical features observed1 and the nature of the forces that have acted upon them to shape and distribute4 ,areas and forms of land are constantly being compared as to shape1 size1 width1 length and height1 and simple generalizations1 formed from direct observations1 are combined with other generalizations1 to form those that are higher or more comprehensive4 ,this is but a brief suggestion of the part the field lesson bears to education in general4 ,in the particular study of geography it must be borne in mind that no essential knowledge can be gained except through close observation of the earth's surface forms4 ,as the true teacher of science in his classes in botany or zoology leads his pupils to an individual study of plants and animals1 and also to a study of these in their surroundings1 their social relations1 so also the student of geography goes directly to nature for all fundamental knowledge pertaining to the subject4 ,field lessons1 though conducted mainly as contributing to the student's fund of knowledge1 are also a source of pleasure1 and may be made the foundation of a more healthful love for and delightful companionship with nature4 ,they are not alone a mine of knowledge but also a perfect well-spring of inspiration4 ,in every stream1 plain and valley1 new beauties of form and color are continually presenting themselves4 ,varying tints of landscape vistas1 drifting cloud masses1 softly rounding hills1 majestic mountain forms1 the play of sunlight and shadow2 all make subtle appeal4 ,entering into harmony with creation we are led into harmony with its source4 ,everything combined1 all the wealth of color1 warmth of sunlight1 song of birds1 hum of insects and breath of growing things1 conspire to the unfoldment of the being on all the planes of life's expression1 for1 the first and controlling impulse is toward expression2 expression on the physical1 mental and emotional planes--in fulfillment of the law of growth1 for expression is a necessity to growth4 ,expression4 ,geography has been said to be an analytical study of the earth's surface1 or the study of the separate landscape elements1 such as form1 color and organic structure4 ,geography is emphatically a study of form1 the forms of the earth's surface features1 each to be studied in relation to other and contrasting forms1 as well as in relation to their environment4 ,upon the pupils' return from the field1 the forms and areas observed may be modeled in sand1 sketched on paper1 or chalk modeled on the blackboard4 ,maps may be drawn of the areas studied and sketches may be made in color of stretches of different soils and verdure1 together with the atmospheric effects observed4 ,tints of sea1 sky and cloud1 color and shades of rock and foliage are all speaking in tones which the child may interpret and render intelligible to others1 through the medium of brush and paints4 ,it is of great importance to his future growth that the student acquire the habit of freely expressing himself through the art modes of modeling1 painting and drawing1 since much of his mental power depends upon such expression2 for by holding in mind1 while in the act of expression1 the images acquired through observation1 more of the details of the object or scene as well as the generalities are recalled4 ,illustration3 ,,river ,,basin4 ,expression thus reacts upon self1 causing the mental picture to be intensified and expression to become more definite and complete4 ,no other means are so adequate to this end3 i4e41 the forming of distinct images in the mind1 unless it may be the giving of oral and written descriptions4 ,these1 of course1 should be demanded of the pupil as well4 ,by this demand the pupil sees the necessity of closer observation and investigation that he may give a fuller and more truthful expression1 and with careful leading he becomes a critic of his own thought and skill1 which is a step pre-eminently educative4 ,aim of ,field ,lesson4 ,a direct purpose or aim of the field lesson in teaching geography should be to form a clear idea or mental picture of a river basin as a basis for imaging other river basins1 and as a unit for the study of the continent1 or of all land surface3 and to know the river basin is to know its history2 that is1 the history of the river itself1 its valley1 and the story of its building and shaping4 ,it may not be possible for all students to make a study of the whole of a river or brook basin1 yet it may be done by sections--getting a general idea of the slope of the river bed1 water-parting1 slope and valley4 ,the action of the forces of nature may also be seen in the changes now going on in the different sections--the cutting back of the stream at its source1 its eroding power1 its carrying power1 and its building or leveling power4 ,if it is not possible to take the children to the field for nature study1 they may find fruitful sources of study without4 ,city ,schools4 ,nearly every school-house has some surroundings that may be studied to advantage1 except those in closely built city streets2 but even in such cases there is always the work of rain1 heat1 frost1 and wind to study1 as well as insect life4 ,the drifting of sand and snow1 the frost on the window-panes1 the forming of ice around doors and windows and the effect of heat in its melting1 rain-drops1 clouds1 puddles of water in the slight depressions of sills and walks1 with tiny streams flowing therefrom1 are all to be observed4 ,where did the dirt on the windows and sills come from1 especially after some snow-storm8 ,tiny seeds in the corners where the winds have left them2 insects in the spring2--where did they come from8 ,where were they all winter8 ,these and many other hints might be given for such study4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cutting ,,back ,,of ,a ,,stream ,,at ,,its ,,source4 ,the country furnishes a rich field for investigation4 ,around every building and in many localities that can be easily reached1 most of the types of the earth's surface forms may be found4 ,care must be taken that they are considered as types1 or the pupil might answer the question1 8,how high are mountains80 as the child did who said in reply1 8,two inches high40 ,in the lower grades of school1 much of the geography work should be the direct lesson in the field followed by lessons in school4 ,the higher grades1 also1 should continue the frequent field excursions which are begun in the lower4 ,illustration3 ,,source ,,of ,,brook ,,in ,,nearly ,,level ,,country4 ,visits may be made to the hills1 groves1 lakes and ponds of the vicinity1 and upon returning to the school-room1 these and surrounding areas may be modeled in sand or clay1 painted in water-color or drawn on the blackboard4 ,illustration3 ,,farm ,,in ,,central ,,new ,,york4 ,brook basins may be studied as presenting many if not all of the features of the river basins4 ,maps may also be made of these areas1 as well as detailed drawings of special features4 ,as has been said1 the pupil should model and draw continually1 in connection with or after every lesson in the field4 ,it is the very best method by which to attain mental growth1 and should of course1 be the genuine expression of his own mental images gained through observation4 ,he should model and draw all surface features or areas seen in his excursions4 ,he may model1 in sand1 putty or clay1 maps of the areas of the school-yard1 farms or parks in the vicinity2 or chalk model them1 then indicate upon them the boundaries of any sub-divisions they may have1 such as fields1 clumps of trees1 houses or other buildings4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,showing ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,brook ,,and ,,river4 ,imaginary ,areas4 ,let the pupil also sketch on the blackboard1 imaginary scenes and typical features of other areas and countries under the same or contrasting climatic and other conditions2 always questioning1 as he draws his mental picture--if of a river1 for instance--what is the cause of its rapidity1 what its probable depth and effect on the soil1 why it cuts here or builds there1 and why the slopes back of it are terraced as they are4 ,if he represents islands1 he should ask himself the question why they are rocky or alluvial2 i4e41 what their origin2 and never represent in any expression that which is contradictory and so untrue to nature4 ,landscapes typical of the different zones of temperature1 showing characteristic structure1 vegetation1 homes1 habits and occupations of inhabitants may be drawn4 ,maps1 also1 of these areas and those adjoining1 may be chalk modeled4 ,as the mind becomes stored with separate images acquired through actual observation of areas of the earth's surface1 gradually1 by the combining and blending of these1 a new mental image1 a comprehensive picture is formed1 corresponding in the main to the general features of the whole earth1 with its uplifted masses and lower plains1 its natural divisions of continents1 seas and oceans1 its atmospheric and climatic conditions4 ,if the habit has been formed of chalk modeling imaginary areas1 as well as those within the sense grasp1 it will be a comparatively easy matter to chalk model a map of the whole continent4 ,on this the student may mark the boundaries of all political divisions as he studies them1 and locate the important cities and places of interest4 ,practical ,suggestions4 ,before we leave the subject of field lessons1 some practical suggestions in regard to them are here offered4 ,actual observations may be made on the action and effects of rivers1 underground water1 rain1 wind1 heat and frost4 ,the effects of glacial action1 and the eruptive forces of nature may also be seen in places4 ,to study river action it is not necessary to visit a river 7if there be none near72 any small stream of water1 any tiny rivulet beside the roadway1 tells its story of wearing and building1 its vertical cutting and its swinging from side to side4 ,it has its miniature valley1 its basin and water-parting and possibly a delta at its mouth4 ,it may also have its cascade or waterfall4 ,illustration3 ,,rivulet ,,showing ,,fall ,,of ,,water ,,and ,,delta4 ,the wearing of rock1 through the influence of rain1 frost and heat1 may be seen in any stone building1 fence or pavement4 ,effects of heat and moisture on vegetation1 as influencing the growth of plants and trees1 should be noticed4 ,the growth of shrubs and trees during a dry season can be measured and compared with that of wet seasons4 ,the observer should mark the effect of vegetation in the action of rain on a grassy slope--how the grass protects the soil1 preventing it from being washed away1 and how1 by holding back the water so that it flows more slowly1 it is less destructive in its action4 ,to add to the interest1 the pupil may be led to imagine the effects upon climate and streams1 of the denuding of large areas of their forests2 also how rock sculpturing1 in the forming of gorges1 caons1 etc41 would be modified by the volume and force of streams4 ,observation should also be made on the making of soils1 their constituents and relative proportions of loam1 sand1 gravel and clay1 and the relation of these to plant and animal life4 ,the part that the common earth-worm bears in constantly uniting1 enriching and otherwise preparing the soils for the support of vegetable life1 may be seen in many areas4 7,it has been computed that in one year several tons of soil are brought up and distributed by them1 within an area of an acre of land47 ,a study made of the action of underground water1 as shown in common and intermittent springs1 would be full of interesting suggestions4 ,the effect of glaciers may be seen in part and their tremendous influence imagined1 by the presence of the countless numbers of striated boulders1 pieces of rock and pebbles1 which are strewn all over our prairies hundreds of miles from any mountains which could have been their home4 ,it is not necessary to witness the devastation of a cyclone in order to study the effects of wind action4 ,the piling of sand on the sea-shore1 the drifting of snow or the whirling of dust in the street illustrate this4 ,the observer may notice where the dust blown from the street has choked and buried the grasses and weeds beside it1 and imagine what might be the fate of forests in the path of encroaching sand-dunes4 ,illustration3 ,,sand-,,dune ,,on ,,the ,,shore ,,of ,,lake ,,michigan4 ,pupils may be told of the dunes which travel great distances3 that one way by which this is known is by noting trees and houses that were once back of the traveling sand-hills and are now in front of them2 also tell of the sites of ancient cities long buried and now being excavated and brought to light again4 ,,importance ,,of ,,learning ,,to ,,interpret ,,pictures ,,as ,,an ,,aid ,,to ,,imaging ,,the ,,continent4 ,the ability to image the continent or any part of it1 from the reading of pictures1 is of great importance4 ,it is an inexpressible aid to the imagination in the study of areas that lie outside of the sense grasp4 ,good pictures should be chosen3 pictures showing several different views of the same section of a country2 pictures that are a truthful representation of both detail and generalities4 7,many wood cuts are as good as photographs for this purpose4 ,great care1 however1 should be taken that they are faithful transcripts47 ,after a close study of them1 questions may be asked the pupil as to climate1 structure1 nature of rock and soil2 whether it may be supposed to be an arid or fertile region2 whether the river basins are young or old2 what agents were most active in shaping its features1 and what its probable destiny3 or the pupil may be led to give his own inferences as to conditions1 without direct questioning4 ,in this way contrasting sections of country may be studied and compared1 thus making the mental picture more vivid and complete4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,abyssinian ,,highland4 7,drawn from information gained through interpretation of pictures and written description47 ,it is understood that these mental images gained from such study of pictures1 have as a basis1 images acquired from actual observation of the earth's surface4 ,from this mental picture1 supplemented by images gained by oral and written descriptions1 maps may be chalk modeled which will contain all the essential features of structure4 ,illustration3 ,,young ,,river ,,basin4 ,valuable information for the making of maps has been gained in this way2 indeed1 adequate maps cannot be made without this means of acquiring the necessary knowledge1 which the delineator has not been able to gain through travel and personal investigation4 ,through this study or reading of pictures a natural interest is aroused in the mind of the pupil to see located on the map 7that is1 to see in relation to the whole7 countries and places of special interest2 such as natural wonders of structure1 and remarkable instances of man's skill and power in overcoming obstacles and improving his environment4 ,especially will this be the case if the teacher accompanies the descriptions with rapid illustrations on the blackboard4 ,illustration3 ,,tepee ,,or ,,wigwam ,,of ,,the ,,sioux ,,indians4 ,necessity for skill in drawing on the part of the teacher1 becomes very evident as the desirability of frequent illustrations is felt1 and the fact is also realized that by it untold influence for good is exerted over the mind of the pupil4 ,it is an aid to correct mental picturing1 which the teacher cannot afford to omit4 ,illustration3 ,,coast ,,of ,,alaska4 7,showing its drowned valleys caused by the gradual sinking of the land1 also glaciers1 ,alaskan hut and totem pole47 ,special features are more readily understood when drawn in detail3 as mountain peaks1 stern or forbidding in outline1 or lofty and grand in their mantles of snow and rivers of ice 7,mt4 ,blanc72 valleys with wooded slopes and streams of water2 lakes1 waterfalls 7,niagara ,falls72 glaciers and icebergs1 with typical scenes of ,arctic regions1 including inhabitants with their homes 7,muir ,glaciers71 7,alaskan huts and totem-poles72 deserts and oases1 with typical trees and surrounding objects 7palm trees1 pyramids1 camels72 ,indian homes and environment2 dykes of ,holland1 ,suez ,canal1 ,st4 ,gothard ,tunnel1 ,great ,wall of ,china1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,chalk ,,modeled ,,map4 ,,maps ,,of ,,the ,,past ,,and ,,present4 ,as it is impossible to adequately teach the surface features of a country with only a vague idea of its structure1 and with no aids in the form of pictures1 drawing or modelings by which these surface features may be illustrated1 there arises the necessity for maps4 ,these1 to be of any real service1 must be a representation of the form and character of the area which is the subject of study1 and must indicate the relation of part to part1 parts to the whole1 and the whole to parts4 ,as symbols and more than symbols1 they must bring to the mind vivid pictures of the real country or continent1 not as too commonly taught2 8,a mental picture of the map1 so clear and consistent 444 that he 7the pupil7 can read the answers to all questions concerning it1 from his mental map1 as easily as he could from the printed one1 if it were before him40 ,this is to limit and cramp the mind's action1 as the pupil sees only the map and its corresponding concept of map1 its size1 boundaries and patches of colored paper4 ,it gives no idea of relation or correspondence between the map and the actual world of life1 form and color4 ,aim of ,teacher4 ,in using maps it should be the aim of teachers to create in the mind a complete1 harmonious picture2 the blending together of the several concepts of structure1 climate1 drainage1 soil1 vegetation1 animal life1 races of men1 etc41 corresponding to reality1 or real life in the real world4 ,the flat political maps of the past made no attempt to show any structural features except those of horizontal or level plains1 markings which show the locations of mountain ranges and volcanoes1 and lines indicating rivers and outlines of continents or coasts4 ,these maps have had comparatively little meaning to the young pupil4 ,there was in them no suggestion of solidity or mass2 the contents to him seemed flat and thin1 and confined between coasts which were sharply defined4 ,tent-like mountains crossed ghost-like surfaces1 and thread-like rivers were made to zigzag along in an erratic and irresponsible way1 showing to him no reason whatever for their being4 ,many teachers or pupils have not known how to interpret maps4 ,they have not realized that1 where rivers rise in certain localities 7especially if more than one rises in the same place71 there is a reason for their rising just there and for their flowing in different directions2 that their source is probably at an elevation or rise of land 7called a divide or water-parting71 that there is likely to be more rainfall on the side of the mountain range that has the more rivers1 and that this has a close relation to the direction of the prevailing winds4 ,natural ,boundaries4 ,in the past study of these maps1 outlines of political divisions have been memorized4 ,it was not realized that many of the boundaries of those areas were fixed in the beginning by the very nature of the surface structure1 and that they are where they are1 simply because they could not well be anywhere else4 7,see ,mexico1 ,india1 ,italy47 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,chicago ,,drainage ,,canal4 7,with larger map showing its relation to ,lake ,michigan and the ,mississippi ,river1 also sections in detail47 ,history4 ,we have seen that the study of history cannot be successfully taught without a knowledge of structural geography on the part of teacher and pupil2 so we may say the same of maps1 that their use is of fundamental importance in that study1 and the ability to read them understandingly is as indispensable as it is in the study of geography4 ,to try to teach history otherwise would be a waste of time and effort4 ,the habit of locating the events recorded1 of tracing upon the map the route of an army1 or the line of an important road or canal1 and observing the impediments or natural obstructions to be overcome1 with the great advantages to be derived therefrom1 together with inferences as to the time and labor required1 has the effect of making the study of history of living interest1 especially if the map used indicates such surface structure4 ,in the structural map the student readily sees the meaning to commerce of the cutting of a canal which would unite two large bodies of water1 or the effect the building of roads and bridges across hitherto impassable regions would have upon the life and growth of a people in the opening up of new and extensive areas to civilization1 and consequently the development of their own internal resources4 ,the importance of this habit of usage1 or constant reference to the map1 is also recognized when one realizes how it fixes in the memory not only the location of cities and boundaries of ancient empires1 but the geographical structure and environment associated with their growth and with important historic events2 making plain the reasons for1 or causes why1 certain events occurred at certain places1 as the inevitable consequence of their environment4 ,light dawns upon the pupil as he studies4 ,he sees that environment has been an important factor in the development of the human race4 ,he traces step by step in imagination the growth of civilization1 from the time that man in his nomad stage first drove his herds into the valley in search of food and water4 ,there1 finding the soil productive1 water unfailing in supply1 and the valley protected from marauders by natural barriers1 as desert or mountain walls1 he fixes his home2 in the course of time comfortable dwellings are constructed1 land is cultivated and the place becomes a center of civilization4 ,in connection with this train of thought1 the student by contrast notes the far different effects of environment as shown by life in the ,arctic or other regions1 and he turns to his map with renewed interest and eager inquiry4 ,literature4 ,the habit also of locating on the map every place1 natural feature or country read about1 should be cultivated1 as it is of importance in obtaining a correct understanding of an author's meaning4 ,if we did not have the knowledge of physical structure in mind as a stage on which the actors move1 much of our literature would lose its value1 becoming flat and uninteresting4 ,to know the great lake region adds to one's interest in ,longfellow's 8,hiawatha10 and the tales of the early explorers2 and a knowledge of the ,catskills and the geography of the ,hudson ,river valley gives greater zest to the enjoyment of ,irving's 8,rip ,van ,winkle0 and 8,sleepy ,hollow40 ,it is also necessary to the understanding of the stories of ,holland 78,hans ,brinker07 that we know the habits of the ,hollanders arising from the physical characteristics of their environment4 ,to read intelligently ,scott1 ,dickens1 ,george ,elliot and others is to understand the peculiarities of climate and structure of the ,british ,isles4 ,the old ,greek stories and the ,german ,folk ,lore as well1 demand for their understanding and interpretation1 that we place them not only in relation to the habits and thoughts of the people1 but also to the physical foundation of the country itself4 ,relief ,map4 ,the nearer a map corresponds in its inherent form and material1 to the surface features of the earth which it is designed to represent1 the more of reality does it recall to the mind4 ,the most effective map of this kind and the one which corresponds most closely to the reality is the modeled map of putty or plaster1 showing structure in relief4 ,these maps have been in use for years1 and have been of incalculable interest and benefit to those whose stock of knowledge concerning geographical structure had been mainly gathered from the flat political map and old modes of teaching4 ,on seeing a relief map of one of the continents for the first time1 there arises a sense of wonder and surprise1 and as the realization dawns upon one of the continuity of the great mass of land represented1 with its altitudes and depressions1 and that it is one stupendous aggregation of soil1 rock and vegetation1 surrounded by a great expanse of water1 a feeling of awe and astonishment is awakened4 ,as this new light comes to the student1 he looks with interest and eagerness to see the plan of it all4 ,we do not mean to say that he sees in the map before him an actual correspondence to the earth's surface structure1 that is1 forms that are reproductions in miniature of mountain range and valley1 but he sees a representation of them calculated to arouse his imagination to a lively degree4 ,he is enabled to picture to himself great slopes crowned by lofty mountain peaks1 and the meeting of their lower edges where mighty rivers flow4 ,he sees in imagination how these waters have cut deep channels into the great uplifted masses1 how they have torn jagged gashes into their rugged sides as they leaped and tumbled through dark caons1 grinding off rocks that form sediment constantly to be deposited later on upon the plain below4 ,he easily understands that they must act as a source of drainage for wet lands and as channels for the irrigation of dry areas4 ,in looking upon the great bodies of water1 oceans1 seas1 lakes and gulfs1 as represented on the maps1 he questions the relation of these waters to the land1 their depth and what place they fill in the economy of nature4 ,indeed1 the relief map has an awakening effect1 quickening the imagination and stimulating to mental effort--earnest thought4 ,they are invaluable in their place and have come to stay2 yet on account of their weight and general unwieldiness they are not practically as useful as maps which are lighter and more easily handled4 ,the papier mache maps in relief1 although much lighter in weight1 are still very bulky if made large enough to be of much practical use as wall maps1 since they cannot be folded or reduced in size to facilitate transportation1 or removal from room to room4 ,the best of these1 also1 are modeled in such low relief that they are better adapted to the use of pupils in the higher than in the lower grades4 ,other maps of rather recent date are the typographical map and the contoured map4 ,the former shows general altitudes by the use of shades of color1 and is of great value to one who can interpret it1 but only a confused mass of signs and symbols to the young student1 and thus not much more helpful to him than was the old reference map4 ,in the contoured map1 the altitudes are scientifically represented by lines drawn to an exact scale1 and such maps are most valuable to students of the higher grades4 ,a structural map suitable to all grades of pupils1 the lower as well as the higher grades1 seems highly essential2 especially should it be one that is adapted to the teacher's use while before the class--one to teach from4 ,this should be entirely different from a reference map4 ,it should plainly show the great facts of physical geography or surface structure1 as well as some detail1 and this in a simple form4 ,for the lower grades there should be no lines to mark the political divisions1 neither should there be any names of countries1 states1 or cities to designate localities4 ,everything should be omitted that would have a tendency to divert the attention from the chief function of the map which is1 to aid in the formation of a mental picture or image1 corresponding to the structural features of the real country or continent4 ,the ,chalk ,modeled ,map4 ,these maps1 following the use of the putty or plaster relief maps1 should be the only ones placed before the pupils of the third and fourth grades1 or even higher grades1 until they have gained mental power to read and understand the signs and symbols of the map1 and realize clearly the chief structural features of the whole globe4 ,the student should be enabled by the use of maps to picture in his mind the configuration of the whole earth2 the distribution and shape of land and water surfaces1 the great structural division of continents1 the slopes and counter-slopes with their crowned heights and level plains1 the great land masses and river basins1 peninsulas1 gulfs and bays1 islands and their relation to the mainland4 ,in fine1 the whole world surface should become a reality to him if the map is rightly taught4 ,this will be an easy matter for a teacher who is alive to the beauty of the world around us and who has a personal knowledge or clearly pictured concepts of the real country4 ,such an one will readily see the value of the maps as an aid to the pupil in gaining a comprehensive mental picture of the earth's surface4 ,she will remember that the mere placing of the maps before the pupil is not enough1 that they will be as unmeaning to him as the flat political map1 unless he has already in mind the primary concepts acquired through observation of surface forms1 and has made his inference as to cause from the effects seen4 ,of what value will it be to him to know that certain lines indicate a mountain range or river1 unless he has an approximate idea of what a mountain range or river is8 ,for the use of the more advanced pupils of the higher grades1 who see the relation of structural environment to man in his development as a nation1 the relation of natural structural divisions to political divisions1 these maps should have lines drawn upon them to indicate the boundaries of such divisions4 ,names1 also1 of countries1 mountain and river systems should be marked1 and the large bodies of water of the interior4 ,later on1 the smaller divisions of states and provinces1 gulfs and bays1 lakes and rivers1 with their tributaries1 should be shown1 and important cities may also be located2 in the end1 all the data needed as a reference map4 ,the map devised to fulfil these conditions1 and now in considerable use in this country1 is called the 8,chalk ,modeled ,map40 ,it is drawn to represent surface structure in relief1 giving much of the effect of an engraving or photograph of a relief map1 yet intrinsically more truthful and artistic than any such representation could be4 ,there is an immense difference between this and a drawing from a relief map1 or from a photograph of one4 ,in this map the delineator expresses at first hand his own concept of the continental structure1 as the artist or poet expresses in his work his own original ideas4 ,we feel his thought in the very quality of line used4 ,we read how the truths have appealed to his own consciousness4 ,it stands where the relief map itself stands1 as representing the delineator's own mental image of such structure4 ,there are no lines drawn in this map that contradict or confuse the meaning2 all is direct1 truthful and clear in statement of fact4 ,each line has its own particular meaning4 ,if represents direction4 ,applied to land surface1 a vertical line means a perpendicular mountain or side wall of plateau1 horizontal lines indicate level areas1 and oblique lines a sloping surface4 ,until recently1 this map has not been available for general use1 except as each teacher made his or her own4 ,the latter1 however1 is the ideal way of teaching4 ,to draw a map of a continent or section of it1 as is required1 in order to illustrate or emphasize any particular point before the class1 adds intensely to the interest of the lesson and to the adequacy of concept gained by the pupil4 ,too often1 however1 the opposite course is pursued4 ,the teacher's conceptions of earth structure are perhaps vague1 or1 teachers may not have been in the habit of representing by drawings that which they may be able to picture quite clearly in their own minds1 even the desirability of so doing may not have been entertained by them4 ,in fact1 there are comparatively few who have been persistent enough to make maps1 for though there may be a good knowledge of geography1 clear mental pictures of structure and the ability1 also1 to draw them1 yet lack of time necessary for their proper delineation has doubtless often compelled the busy teacher to forego their execution4 ,printed ,wall ,map4 ,the ,chalk ,modeled map has recently been presented to us in a more durable and serviceable form for general use2 a printed wall map1 which combines the latest geographical knowledge together with the best available skill in delineation4 ,it does not embody all the desirable points of the original1 yet it has an added one1 that of durability4 ,the introduction of 8,nature ,study0 into the public schools has contributed largely to the demand for such a map4 ,pupils brought into close relations with nature1 naturally seek to relate the knowledge gained in this basic study of geography1 to the map2 as in connection with the field lessons1 after actual observation of surface areas1 the student is led to model or draw what he has seen4 ,this he represents in pictorial form1 as it appears to him1 or he charts or maps it from actual measurements4 ,sometimes he tries to combine these methods so as to show elevations as altitudes on his map or chart1 but the results are often very crude2 a mere representation of hills and mountains piled up on level ground4 ,he realizes that this is not a proper representation and is often discouraged4 ,he knows that peaks are related to level ground by continuity of mass3 that they are the corrugated tops of great uplifted masses or swells of land1 and his failure to find this illustrated in the old maps has led him to lose much of his interest in them1 and to greet the new one with ardor4 ,it appeals to his reason as a symbol more nearly corresponding to the features of the country represented4 ,it is indeed the link needed to connect the political map with the putty relief map4 ,mass ,without ,outline4 ,not only can we say that the ,chalk ,modeled map has been a great factor in the better understanding of the surface contour and conditions of the continental mass1 thus advancing the true study of geography1 but that it has also awakened some of the teachers of the public schools of the country1 to the lack of interest and lifelessness in the teaching of drawing as it has prevailed in the schools in the past4 ,it has been the means of revealing to them the beauty and desirability of delineating mass without a continuous hard outline4 ,the artist when inspired with his subject masses his material in boldly and each stroke counts for the thing he wants to say--it tells of the direction of surface1 or edge of mass1 or detail4 ,in the new map1 the representation of solidity and land continuity as mass1 with no hard and fast limitations of land and water1 such as the outlines so prominent in the old reference maps1 is a noticeable feature4 ,it is a well-known fact that a general or approximate shape of the coasts of continents is all that can be known from the most careful surveys2 for in reality with every season there is more or less change in coast line1 caused by wearing and building of ocean and river1 as well as by the occasional rising or sinking of stretches of land along the coast4 ,in course of time these changes become very apparent4 ,the omitting of outlines of continents1 then1 in the drawing of maps has been for a purpose4 ,they have not been necessary to the showing of limitation of continental mass or the meeting of the surface plane of water with land surface2 and as the direction of all lines used in delineating have their meaning1 there can be truthfully none used to represent something lying between land and sea1 as there is nothing there4 ,continental coast contours may be as accurately shown as the occasion demands without the use of any outline to confuse the eye or to contradict the direction of line used to delineate the structure of the land surface at the water's edge4 7,see map illustrations in ,part ,,iv47 ,the most prominent feature of the new map is the representation of the relief of the earth's surface2 showing1 as it does at a glance1 the great back bone of the continent1 with its ragged broken line of peaks dividing the waters of the two slopes2 its great land masses1 primary and secondary2 and its area or line of greatest depressions4 ,its river basins also are plainly seen1 and we infer the reason for the general course of the rivers and read their history from the sculpturing they have done4 ,we may note also the character of the mountain ranges2 whether they are young or old2 where new land is being made1 and where areas are sinking4 ,one can often determine what the prevailing wind of a section may be and the regions of greatest rainfall1 and can judge of the climate and vegetation2 in short1 very rational conclusions concerning the life and habits of a people may be formed from a study of the map alone1 and the student can picture1 in imagination1 the growth or advancement of nations under the given conditions4 ,he will be enabled to see1 as has been remarked in substance before1 that the mighty influences bearing upon civilization have always been largely dependent upon the geographical structure of a country2 the relation of natural divisions to existing political divisions will be noted1 and the reasons for the locations of great centers of commerce1 important cities1 and military fortifications1 will be understood4 ,altitudes4 ,in common with all relief maps1 altitudes are shown in these1 greatly exaggerated in comparison with the horizontal distances1 but this is essential in order that the pupil may be able to grasp the general truths of the organization of the continent4 ,relief maps in relatively exact proportions will not help to this1 as the highest elevation would appear nearly on a plane with the ocean level1 and would be of no better service for school use than the flat maps1 from which no idea of the general organism can be acquired by the young student1 if indeed it can be by one of riper years4 ,also in all topographical surveys1 and in the profile of vertical sections of country found in many geographies1 we find the same exaggeration of height in relation to horizontal distances1 used to illustrate elevations and slopes4 ,these1 with photographs or pictures of relief maps are extensively used1 as well as birds'-eye views1 showing on the part of the map-makers1 a recognition of the importance of the pupil's gaining mental concepts of altitudes4 ,the latter1 of course1 must exercise his judgment in relating the heights1 to the horizontal distances given1 as he so continually does in every-day life in regard to other matters4 ,the horizontal map distances should be related to the other horizontal distances of the map1 and the altitudes to other altitudes1 and these with reference1 also1 to the tabulated lists found in every geography1 of the heights of mountain peaks and lengths of rivers4 8,all knowledge of external things comes through observation1 comparison1 and judgment40 ,to judge of great altitudes1 one must have a knowledge of the heights within experience4 ,to be able to gain a proper conception of immense distances1 as the distance across a continent1 comparison must be made with the distances one has already measured or traveled4 ,in the measurements of areas1 size of fields and gardens1 width of ponds1 or heights of trees and hills1 the pupil has numerical facts from which he judges of other forms and areas2 as forests1 marshes1 plains1 the width of rivers and lakes1 the heights of mountains and cliffs1 or length of rivers and mountain ranges4 ,also in the measuring of the deposition of silt in small streams1 he may judge of the quantity that large rivers like the ,mississippi or ,nile must carry2 and from measuring the yearly growth of vegetation in his own climate1 he judges what might be the growth in other climates4 ,thus through observations1 inferences1 and comparisons1 he is enabled to read his map with some degree of power to judge its distances and altitudes4 ,the aim in the preceding pages has been to show the vital importance to the would-be delineator of ,chalk ,modeled maps1 of the thorough study of geography1 in its truest sense1 and that the foundation of such study lies in the field lesson1 with its accompanying expression of the knowledge gained there1 of surface forms1 areas and structures4 ,the habit1 also1 of modeling and drawing in connection with the study of geography1 is conducive to the wished-for end2 i4e41 an adequate knowledge and expression1 of the surface contour of the continent4 ,the chalk modeling of maps is in itself the simplest of all modes of drawing4 ,it may have been inferred from what has been said on the subject of maps1 that drawing them consists merely in showing simple indications of slopes2 short or long1 abrupt or gentle1 and summits2 broken or rounded1 river basins1 character of water-partings1 valleys1 lakes1 rivers and coasts either bold and rocky1 or low and alluvial4 ,it would be as unnecessary for the purposes of geographical instruction1 as it would be impossible1 to draw absolutely correct maps of the earth's surface4 ,each mountain peak cannot be shown1 nor every indentation of coast-line1 but the general trend or direction of mountain ranges and rivers1 and more or less of geological structure can be portrayed in a conventional manner4 ,it is not difficult to chalk model with reasonable accuracy4 ,the ability to do this1 however1 with any degree of rapidity as well as accuracy1 implies1 as has just been said1 an adequate knowledge of the subject to be represented4 ,no mere imitation1 or acquisition of technique1 or copying of maps1 is educational1 nor has it any vital relation to the true study of geography4 ,like all dead copies1 it betrays in itself its lack of life1 or of real knowledge on the part of the delineator4 ,an instructor whose eyes are open to truth1 can generally tell from a pupil's representation whether it is the result of his own individual thought1 the expression of his own knowledge of the subject1 or the reflex of another's thought4 ,if it is an expression of his own1 there will be much revealed in the touch and in the quality of line itself1 that could not be depicted in form or put into words4 ,the representation1 also1 will indicate to what degree the subject has interested and inspired the individual1 and how1 with a clear mental image1 he has instinctively expressed himself in the simplest and most direct manner possible with the medium at hand4 ,in the following pages will be found suggestions as to the method of chalk modeling1 given in the form of a series of lessons2 the underlying principles in the lessons being those on which is based all expression of thought in every field of study and among all peoples4 ,the illustrations are not intended to be models for the teacher or pupils to copy1 but are meant to be helps or encouragement to those who desire and have courage to attempt to express their own mental images4 ,busy teachers need only to realize that comparatively little effort is necessary in order to acquire a certain amount of success1 if they have their subject in hand1 that is1 if they have an adequate mental image of the object to be sketched4 ,it is hoped that such success will prove a strong inducement to a deep study of the subject of art1 and especially to the psychology of expression4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,lessons4 ,,remarks4 ,chalk ,modeling of surface forms is the easiest and simplest method of geographical drawing1 and one of the best ways of beginning art work in the school-room1 for absolute definiteness of form and detail is not required1 and we know that generalities are represented much more easily than details--large masses more easily than small objects4 ,no one need hesitate to try to draw who can write or gesture3 this last we are all doing continually1 either consciously or unconsciously4 ,watch the friend while telling some interesting story1 or while giving a description of some object or landscape4 ,note the gestures unconsciously employed and how truthful to the subject they are4 ,also notice that the more intense the desire to make you understand1 the more adequate is the gesture4 ,no conscious thought is required as to what motion to make1 for the very desire to express brings with it both the required word and action4 ,this is spontaneity1 and if a pencil or crayon were in the hand of the narrator1 with paper or a blackboard near1 a sketch might be the result1 and one quite adequate to its purpose4 ,if you are in earnest and truly desire to express your thought by drawing or chalk modeling1 you will forget yourself in your effort to be understood4 ,you will find a way to accomplish your object1 choosing and using the right direction of line and giving the right accentuation or emphasis without any special attention as to the method of working4 ,drawings may be made on the blackboard with common blackboard crayon of medium softness1 or with charcoal or crayon upon paper4 ,the blackboard is much the more serviceable1 as upon that you can draw with great freedom1 without fear of wasting paper or of spoiling your work4 ,swing the arm out freely from the shoulder as you work1 give out that which you have to give1 without fear1 generously4 ,if it is but a line to indicate the edge of a table1 draw that line as though you were glad to draw it4 ,express your thought boldly regarding the fact or object you wish to make your statement about--fear not4 ,,representation ,,of ,,surfaces ,,with ,,hints ,,on ,,the ,,delineation ,,of ,,distances4 ,,land ,,sloping ,,from ,,the ,,observer4 ,,light ,,and ,,shade4 ,the most convenient length of crayon to use1 is a piece about an inch and a half or two inches long1 yet we may often profitably use the whole side or length of the crayon4 ,if we wish to represent broad surfaces1 we will naturally use the side of the crayon1 as a child does4 ,to show narrower widths of surface press more upon the end of the crayon1 also use a long edge to represent the edges or the meeting of surface planes4 ,this manner of using the crayon seems the most natural for the purpose1 and it certainly economizes time4 ,line represents direction4 ,when applied to surface we understand it to indicate horizontal1 vertical1 oblique1 and curved surface directions4 ,try it and see if it is not true that lines in one direction never indicate any other direction2 the vertical can never be mistaken for the horizontal1 or the reverse4 ,for the representation of a level plain1 make simple strokes in the horizontal direction with the side of the crayon1 and to represent a vertical surface as a cliff1 make a stroke in the vertical direction with the same broad side of the crayon4 ,oblique surfaces1 as slopes1 are to be drawn with oblique strokes1 and curved surfaces like rounded hills1 represented by continuous upward and downward strokes4 7,see ,fig4 #a47 ,in the delineation of mountain masses1 that are high with abrupt declivities as well as gradual slopes1 we use the side of the crayon with an oblique stroke as in ,fig4 #b4 ,we see then that right direction of lines of themselves illustrate surface planes1 elevations or depressions4 ,illustration3 #a #b #c #d #e ,detail of structure1 however1 cannot be well brought out except by effects of light and shade4 ,choose from which direction your map or sketch is to be lighted1 and keep it always in mind while drawing4 ,study the effects of light and shade everywhere4 ,note the length of shadows at different times of the day1 and their relation to the position of the sun4 ,to represent an unbroken sweep of land or water1 as of a plain or lake1 draw a broad unbroken line for the distance1 as all detail of surface forms seems to merge into one horizontal mass2 nearer to us1 we perceive more detail of landscape or broken land surface1 which we may represent with broken lines4 ,this is the most simple representation of level distance4 7,note ,fig4 #c47 ,in ,fig4 #d1 or the representation of a plateau 7upraised mass of land71 there are horizontal1 vertical1 and oblique surfaces combined4 ,the detail of structure in the foreground is represented with some definiteness of line1 while the mountain slopes are quite indefinite4 ,notice that the oblique and vertical lines are shorter in the distance than in the foreground1 and that the land seems to rise as it recedes from us4 ,look out of doors and see if it is not so4 ,notice rows of trees1 houses1 or telegraph poles1 in their relative height1 also in their relation to the ground on which they stand4 ,in the delineation of a valley between parallel mountain ranges1 keep in mind the proportionate height of mountains to width of valley2 for example1 think of the apparent width of street or railroad track at the farther end1 in comparison with the width of the same close by you1 and also notice that it decreases in definiteness as it recedes into the distance4 ,note the width of the valley in ,fig4 #d4 ,fig4 #e represents land sloping from us as it recedes4 ,note the more definite lines in the foreground1 indicating some detail of structure1 and the indefiniteness1 or less distinct lines that indicate the distant hills1 these lines becoming more and more indistinct as the hills recede4 ,illustration3 #f #g #i ,,land ,,sloping ,,towards ,,the ,,observer4 ,,quality ,,of ,,line4 ,,relations4 ,each line drawn has its own characteristic meaning--its own individuality1 so to speak4 ,it not only represents direction1 but carries with it a certain quality of effort or mentality1 as indecision1 fear1 courage1 certainty4 7,see ,fig4 #f1 a4 b4 c47 ,we also see in it the habitual mental attitude of the delineator4 ,this is plainly seen in the quality of line used by the timid1 contrasted with that of the fearless--by the unstable or changeable mind in contrast to one who is clear in his thought 7who 8knows his own mind07 and positive in his expression4 7d4 c4 e47 ,it follows1 then1 that to draw a firm line with ease and rapidity1 one must have a positive knowledge of what one desires to express1 just the length of the line and its relation to all other lines2 that is1 one must see things or objects in their right relations4 ,all things in the universe are related to each other--nothing stands alone4 ,the mountain is closely related to the valley1 it has given of its substance to build and enrich the latter1 and its streams have carried nourishment to help swell the river at its base4 ,in its delineation1 therefore1 one must keep in mind the relation of its height to the width of the valley1 and to the plateau on which it may stand2 the declivity of its slopes1 and their relation to the vertical direction1 which may be seen as an imaginary line drawn from the center of the base to the zenith4 ,illustration3 #h #aj ,the trees beside the hill in ,fig4 #g show the latter to be very high4 ,in ,fig4 #h the hill becomes low because of the relation of its altitude to the height of the trees in the foreground4 ,the delineation of more or less detail also helps to determine altitudes2 as1 to draw grasses1 boulders or out-cropping rocks on the hill side1 would show that we were near enough to the hill or knoll to see them in detail4 ,hills in the far distance would be represented without much detail1 for they are too far away naturally for us to observe it4 ,to represent land sloping towards us as in ,figs4 #g1 #i1 and #aj1 the foreground must be broken up1 that is1 represented in more or less of structure detail4 ,fig4 #i shows low hills at the foot of the mountain range sloping toward the level land in the immediate foreground4 ,fig4 #aj a steep alluvial fan indicating the nature and character of its structure by the direction and quality of line used4 ,the crumbling sandstone rock1 showing the effects of weathering1 is indicated by short nearly vertical strokes1 with the thought of stratification also in mind4 ,the flowing sand is represented by vertical and oblique lines drawn in the direction in which sand would naturally flow4 ,we have here three examples of land sloping towards us4 ,one represented by nearly horizontal lines1 the others by vertical or oblique lines4 ,grasses grow many blades from one root4 ,their tendency may be vertical but many influences combine to turn them from that direction4 ,use an edge of the chalk with an upward or downward motion4 ,knolls of any contour may be represented by drawing grasses in the direction of the slopes as in ,fig4 #h4 ,illustration3 #aa #ab #ac #ad ,,high ,,and ,,low ,,water-,,partings ,,with ,,map4 ,if your subject 8possesses0 you1 there will be no need of giving special thought to effects or results2 these will follow naturally from the state or quality of feeling engendered in your mind by its contemplation2 that is1 if one part of the surface to be represented is hard and rocky1 and another soft and yielding1 and you have observed this fact in relation to the whole1 you will naturally show it in the quality of line you use4 ,no other hints can be given that will help you so readily to the artistic touch as this1 together with the hints given in our last lesson as to the necessity of an adequate knowledge of form and of relationships or proportions4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a water-parting high and mountainous4 ,it shows its rocky structure in the harsh and 8liney0 quality of the work as well as in the surface contour4 ,the paper is left white for the streams of water4 ,on the blackboard1 when drawing maps with chalk1 use charcoal for the rivers1 as in the rapid delineation of such maps it takes too much time to save spaces for them2 and at the best it is such an exaggeration of the width of streams1 that it misleads the pupil4 ,fig4 #ab represents a low water-parting4 ,notice the texture of line1 soft and yielding1 produced by thinking1 knowing and feeling that the surface was not rocky1 but a somewhat sandy soil1 mixed with a little loam4 ,perspective is shown by less of detail in the distance than in the foreground2 the trees in the latter being more accurately drawn1 as well as taller4 ,the poplars at the right of the picture also show that the ground is a little uneven1 as the distant ones seem to be partially below a slight rise in the surface4 ,fig4 #ac is a map or bird's eye view of a height of land worn down by streams running in different directions1 leaving the water-parting sharply defined4 ,a little sketch of the sea shore 7,fig4 #ad7 illustrates another quality of 8touch40 ,in depicting water rolling irresistibly on1 a mighty force dashing against the shore and breaking into showers of spray1 you will naturally use a steady1 forceful but light touch in indicating its curves and masses4 8,feeling0 and 8touch0 are something to be experienced and not taught mechanically4 ,illustration3 #ae #af #ag #ah #ai ,,meeting ,,of ,,water ,,and ,,land4 ,,lakes1 ,,springs1 ,,islands4 ,,high ,,and ,,low ,,tide4 ,the artistic appeals to the higher or finer qualities of our nature1 and to be artistic is to show forth or make visible these qualities4 ,work which is truly artistic can only be produced when we are in such harmony with our subject that these qualities predominate4 ,these truths are so important that ,i ask you to experiment and discover them for yourselves4 ,how will you get the 8atmospheric0 effect unless you realize that a certain volume of atmosphere is between you and the distant object8 ,how will you keep true values unless you see truly 7correctly78 ,in all drawing of any special subject it should be the aim to keep everything subordinated to the main point of interest1 just as in writing you make every word or sentence bear upon the main point of your theme or your argument4 ,the meeting of land and water can never be represented by a continuous line2 as line indicates direction of surface1 and as the surface planes of both land and water are continually changing1 the direction of line is changing or being broken1 even if on the same general plane4 ,fig4 #ae 7a lake among the hills7 shows the horizontal plane of water surface meeting the oblique surface of land4 ,where the water falls over the rock1 the oblique and curved lines used are broken1 to represent the nature of the rock underneath4 ,notice that the depth of each little fall corresponds with the stratification of rock4 ,the water1 as it recedes1 lies level1 also4 ,you will have no difficulty in drawing ponds and lakes1 if you think of the farther shores as less distinct1 and the waves1 although rough and broken in the foreground1 as merged and blended together in the distance4 ,illustration3 #bj #ba #bb #bc #bd ,figs4 #af and #ag are high and low tide on the ,piscataqua ,river4 7,the ocean tides flow in for miles up the river47 ,these illustrations show the broken1 or short1 nearly horizontal lines used to indicate the tops of the little waves and ripples in the foreground4 ,as the water lowers a little in the river1 the island 7,fig4 #af7 is seen1 connected with the mainland by an isthmus1 or narrow neck of land2 and in ,fig4 #ag it is seen as a part of the mainland4 ,figs4 #ah and #ai are springs flowing out from hillsides4 ,notice the relation the grasses and rock bear to the water4 ,fig4 #bj represents ,north ,cape2 ,fig4 #bc1 a coral island3 both show water in active motion1 compared with that in ,fig4 #ae1 and with ,fig4 #ba 7a rocky island74 ,fig4 #bb shows rapids in a ,new ,england stream4 ,notice the velocity and volume of water4 ,fig4 #bd is a map of the ,mississippi ,river4 ,the upper part of the map is drawn without any lines between river and land4 ,the lower half has a line drawn close to the edge of the water1 to indicate the levees1 which are necessary in that region1 to prevent inundation4 ,for a map of continental islands and drowned valleys1 see map of the fiord coast of ,alaska1 in the ,introduction4 ,,sketches ,,illustrative ,,of ,,wind ,,and ,,water ,,erosion4 ,all who will may learn to draw4 ,it is that which we most earnestly desire to do1 that is accomplished in every department of effort4 ,all lesser interests will give place to that which we consider of the greatest importance4 ,therefore if we as teachers recognize the value of the habit of sketching before our classes and greatly desire to be able to draw with ease and rapidity1 we will put ourselves into right relationship to the work1 and will undoubtedly acquire the desired skill4 ,we have been observing all our lives2 we have made careful observations of many details of form and color1 perhaps1 and close investigation of structure1 but we have not analyzed them into terms of drawing4 ,we have not been looking for the planes of surface1 or the relative proportions of parts1 or for distance or foreground4 ,now1 however1 with the desire to be able to sketch readily1 we will observe the object or landscape for that special purpose4 ,one sketch will represent only what has been observed by looking in one direction without turning the head4 ,the most interesting point of the view will be that at which one looks directly1 and consequently it will be the most important part of the sketch with every other part subordinated to it4 ,illustration3 #be #bf #bg #bh #bi ,in out of door sketching it will be necessary to eliminate much that is seen1 only drawing that which is chosen to be the vital or interesting part of the picture1 with that which modifies1 or is necessary to show it in its completeness4 ,select your point of view1 standing at such a distance that all you care to study may be comprehended in a glance4 ,illustration3 #cj ,note the relation of earth to sky1 and of trees to hills1 streams1 or other objects to be included in the sketch4 ,as a help to find the true direction compare the surface planes and edges with that which you know is vertical4 ,study the light and shade1 choose the simple broad tones which will best express distance1 middle ground and near details4 ,work simply and easily1 not straining after certain preconceived effects4 ,it is this particular truth or fact which now appeals to you1 which you are to express1 and do not hesitate to express it freely and boldly4 ,sketch everything1 anything1 no matter how complicated it may seem to be1 and sketch often4 ,the child does that1 and learns to draw by drawing4 ,illustration3 #ca ,fig4 #be shows the edge of a desert in ,wyoming ,territory1 where the only vegetation is sage brush4 ,the rains have worn a little gully in the general sandy level4 ,notice the steep slant of the sandy sides4 ,fig4 #bf is a sketch of a hole in the sandy soil of a farm1 on the banks of the ,au ,sable ,river1 ,new ,york4 ,it was first worn by the rains as a little gully on the upper edge of the bank1 and with every rain-storm more sand was washed out and carried down into the river4 ,a part of this is deposited lower down the river1 below the bank on the right1 in the sketch ,fig4 #cj4 ,illustration3 #cb ,use horizontal lines for the sandy level1 and curved lines to indicate the slow current in the water4 ,fig4 #bg also shows the result of rain and wind erosion of the bank behind the stump of the tree4 ,fig4 #bh represents a section of ,yellowstone caon1 and ,fig4 #bi is a sketch from ,monument ,park1 ,colorado4 ,in both the latter are seen examples of rain and wind erosion1 more particularly in ,fig4 #bi4 ,notice the hard layers of rock that cap and protect the softer sandstone beneath1 and the hard pinnacles that jut out from among the sliding sands in ,fig4 #bh4 ,illustration3 #cc ,the effects of river erosion1 together with the weathering of rocks are seen in ,fig4 #ca1 which is a sketch of a section of ,wilmington ,pass1 in the ,adirondacks4 ,the precipitous sides of rock1 are shown with evergreens growing wherever they can find a foothold in the soil made by the disintegration of the rocks above4 ,boulders and trees have been brought down by the loosening of masses of rock1 through the action of frost1 heat1 and melted snow1 causing obstructions in the stream1 over and between which the waters tumble and roll4 ,fig4 #cb is a view taken from the beach of ,arch ,rock1 at ,mackinac ,island4 ,it is a mass of calcareous rock1 showing the result of lake erosion and weathering4 ,the rock in ,fig4 #cc shows signs of disintegration from the action of wind and rain4 ,illustration3 #cd #cf #cg #ch #ci #dj ,,scenes ,,typical ,,of ,,the ,,different ,,zones4 ,take the children into your confidence3 that is1 cause them to feel that you are not sketching for their amusement or for their admiration1 but are trying to help them to a better understanding of the subject4 ,they will appreciate your motive and be stimulated to increase their own efforts4 ,with every attempt to sketch on your part1 additional skill will be acquired1 for it is only by repeated attempts that progress is made4 ,by such continued efforts you not only gain the power to express the knowledge you have1 but are led to see wherein you are deficient and require closer study of your subject4 ,when we try to express our knowledge of a subject by drawing1 we are often greatly surprised to find how little we know of it4 ,it is the same with writing or speaking4 ,our knowledge or ideas of a subject should be arranged in orderly sequence1 so logical and clearly defined1 that we shall not be obliged to go back and modify or correct any part of our expression4 ,such corrections in connection with drawing destroy that pleasing quality which marks a sketch as 8artistic40 ,the teacher who appreciates the importance of forming correct mental habits1 will encourage in his pupils the practice of accurate and thorough study of a subject1 before any attempts at expression are made4 ,illustration3 #ce #db #dc #dd #de #df #dg ,in drawing from your imaginary picture1 look at it closely and carefully4 ,clear it up1 classify its component parts into primary and secondary1 that is1 decide which is the most important and interesting part of the whole1 and to what degree the other parts are to be subordinated to that1 then analyze it into terms of drawing1 i4e41 vertical1 horizontal1 etc4 ,in the scenes given in this lesson as typical of the different zones of climate1 some of the primary features were gained through observation1 some through pictures supplemented by reading4 ,many of the sketches illustrating the other lessons1 as well as those in the ,introduction1 will also give suggestions for this lesson1 such as the illustrations on ,alaska1 ,india1 and the continents4 ,these need not be duplicated here4 ,in the scene from ,siberia 7,fig4 #cd71 and in that of the dunes in the ,sahara desert 7,fig4 #ce71 notice the form of both snow and sand drifts--their sharp edges and short and long slopes4 ,the corn-field in northern ,new ,york 7,fig4 #cf71 illustrates the law of receding parallel lines--that they appear to converge as they recede1 and if extended far enough1 would seem to meet at a point on the horizon 7the 8point of sight071 a point immediately opposite the eye4 ,a line drawn from the top and one from the bottom of each stalk in the front row1 to the point of sight1 will show this4 ,notice how the stalks in the foreground are brought out with more prominence than those farther away and outside of the direct line of vision4 ,illustration3 #da #dh #di ,figs4 #cg to #dj1 inclusive1 tell the stories of a lumber camp 7,northern ,michigan72 logs of cotton-wood floating out into the ,au ,sable ,river 7,adirondacks72 a scarred and storm-worn pine tree1 also one gashed by the axe of the wood-cutter4 ,in contrast to the pine1 notice the graceful elm of ,new ,england1 in ,fig4 #da1 and in ,fig4 #db1 the banana tree of hot climates4 ,fig4 #dc is a scene typical of the hot belt 7the ,amazon region1 where there is abundant rainfall71 and ,figs4 #dd and #de show an oasis in the desert1 also cactus1 as another typical form of vegetation4 ,fig4 #df represents a rice-field1 and ,fig4 #dg cotton balls and flowers4 ,figs4 #dh and #di1 showing a factory or 8mill0 in ,new ,england1 and the ,new ,york ,state harvest scene1 are typical of the cool belt1 or temperate zone4 ,illustration3 #ej #ea ,,river ,,basins4 ,,coasts4 ,do not copy the sketches given in these lessons4 ,they are but suggestions to you1 who will be able to express your own thoughts and represent your own mental pictures better than you can another's4 ,they are given to show you that simple sketches will help a child to a clearer understanding of the subject under consideration4 ,as has been said elsewhere1 all such illustrations should be drawn as they are needed to illustrate a given point in the development of a lesson2 for they carry more weight than if sketched beforehand1 that is1 outside of the class exercise4 ,to merely locate in your sketch a house1 spring1 tree or man1 will often be of great value to the pupil1 though you may feel timid about trying to draw it1 or think you have not the time4 ,the experience of many teachers in this respect may be illustrated by supposing a case4 ,a sketch is to be drawn1 including the figure of a man1 animal or any object which has been considered difficult and therefore somewhat avoided4 ,the teacher1 by one or two rapid strokes in the right direction1 indicates the location and movement of this figure1 and proceeds with the lesson without any hesitation or laborious attempts to really sketch it4 ,the next time it is necessary to represent it 7perhaps in the second or third lesson71 sufficient confidence and skill have been gained to encourage additional strokes in the development of form1 and every succeeding attempt has resulted in the addition of details of structure1 until almost without knowing it1 the necessary skill has been acquired to make an adequate sketch4 ,how8 ,by doing1 the teacher has been forced to form the mental picture1 which1 once acquired1 can be represented1 though it may be more or less crudely at first4 ,illustration3 #eb #ec #ed #ee #ef ,fig4 #ej illustrates the basin of a young river or brook1 with its slopes and system of drainage1 just such an one as may be seen near many country school-houses1 and an exaggerated type1 only1 of what may be found in the streets and alleys of the city4 ,its source 7a7 is found in a slight depression which1 in the spring or after heavy rains1 becomes a pond1 from which its waters overflow and trickle down through two channels1 which they have worn for themselves4 ,the soil brought down by these rivulets and others which are tributaries to the main stream1 may be seen deposited at b1 c1 d1 e1 as flood plains1 islands1 and delta4 ,notice the caon cut by one of the tributaries through the left slope of the basin1 and the cascade and waterfall where the debris brought down at high water has formed an obstruction4 ,in ,fig4 #ea is given a typical ,switzerland river basin4 ,figs4 #eb to #ee inclusive1 show ocean wearing and rock weathering4 8,hilt ,rock0 7,fig4 #eb7 shows alternate layers of trap rock and sandstone4 ,in ,fig4 #ec 78,point ,portal10 ,pictured ,rocks1 ,lake ,superior71 is seen the effect of wave and wind wearing in soft rock1 and ,fig4 #ed 78,land's ,end10 ,cornwall1 ,england71 is an example of wave wearing in hard rock4 ,fig4 #ee 78,giant's ,cause-way10 ,ireland71 shows the weathering and wearing of basaltic rock4 ,fig4 #ef is ,eddystone ,light-house1 7,england74 ,illustration3 #eg #eh #ei #fj ,in the drawing of maps1 the meeting of land and water can be as accurately drawn by the new method as by the old4 ,the following sketches illustrate the fact that it is not necessary to use any line running contrary to the general direction of surface1 in order to represent any contour of coast4 ,figs4 #eg to #fj are imaginary bird's-eye views of coasts4 ,fig4 #eg shows a stretch of level land at the coast1 with broken or hilly land between it and the distant higher hills or mountains3 the latter being merely suggested in the representation4 ,a stream winds its way through the low land to the ocean1 where the silt which it has brought down and the sands which have been washed up by the sea1 form a delta and sand-bars4 ,fig4 #fj shows drowned valleys1 fiord coasts1 and continental islands4 ,,suggestions ,,on ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,chalk ,,modeled ,,map ,,of ,,north ,,america ,,in ,,fourth ,,and ,,fifth ,,grades4 ,it is hoped that these suggestions will aid many teachers to realize that the ,chalk ,modeled maps signify much more than the simple fact of high and low land1 or a representation of structural relief3 that from them1 together with suitable pictures showing typical scenes in different parts of the world1 such valuable knowledge of the real surface of the earth may be gained by the pupil1 as will enable him to appreciate the important relation sustained by man to his environment1 and also to his fellow man4 ,previous to the study of the map of ,north ,america1 the pupil may be led to imagine the character of the country to the north1 south1 east and west of his own locality4 ,he may travel in imagination across the continent to either ocean1 and may study different sections of the country through pictures and from oral and written descriptions4 ,such sections should also be chalk modeled1 showing the plateaus1 mountain ranges1 plains1 valleys1 arid and fertile regions4 ,these drawings should be large1 sometimes extending the whole length of the blackboard from left to right1 and drawn in a semi-conventionalized manner1 that is1 in a style that combines both landscape1 and map drawing4 ,this is an essential link between the two and should play an important part in the development of continental picturing3 the motive being 7in all this7 to have the pupil mentally image the real continent1 before the map or symbol is presented to him4 ,with such preparation1 when the chalk modeled map is placed before him he readily reads its surface contour4 ,he notes the great highlands1 plateaus1 and mountains1 the plains1 valleys1 slopes1 river basins1 lakes and rivers4 ,he is then led to infer the character of soil1 climate and vegetation--everything1 indeed1 that relates to man's environment4 ,he is asked to locate the great forest regions that furnish material for shelter and articles of household use2 to point out the areas best adapted to the growth of different kinds of food-plants1 and also those that furnish material for clothing2 to indicate the grazing lands where herds of cattle feed2 the mining regions1 where coal for fuel1 iron1 copper1 silver1 gold1 and other valuable metals and minerals are found4 ,information necessary to inferences is given at the moment required1 such as altitudes1 horizontal distances1 latitude1 etc4 ,the pupil is also encouraged to read and acquire knowledge upon certain points for himself1 that he may bring it to the class for the benefit of others4 7,the following questions may have some value to the teacher in the further study of the map1 but should by no means be used as a set form or method of questioning4 ,they are only suggestions1 given to those who may need them in assisting the pupil to think and reason for himself47 ,his attention may be called to the triangular shape of the land mass1 with its greatest elevation in the west4 ,he may be told that its length is #e1gjj and its greatest width #c1jjj miles4 ,questions may then be asked as follows3 ,into how many slopes or great drainage systems is the continent divided8 ,into what ocean do the waters of the long slope flow8 ,those of the short slope8 ,locate and give general direction of the continental axis4 ,trace this from ,behring ,strait to ,isthmus of ,panama4 ,compare its length with greatest width of continent4 ,compare length of long slope 7#b1bjj miles7 with length of short slope 7#ejj to #gjj miles74 ,which slope has the longer coast-line8 ,mold in sand and chalk model1 showing the two slopes and continental axis4 ,compare surface of both slopes4 ,which has the greater area of highlands8 ,which of plains8 ,give number and comparative size of lakes4 ,compare length and direction of rivers on each slope4 ,what is the character of the coasts and harbors8 ,what of the islands8 ,which slope has the larger inland drainage system8 ,compare with oceanic drainage system4 ,locate highlands of each slope4 ,give the appearance of the ,appalachian ,mountain ,system4 ,compare with the ,rocky ,mountain ,system4 ,what can be learned as to the general formation and altitude of each slope8 7,show typical pictures47 ,what is the effect of altitude upon the surrounding country8 ,what on drainage8 ,what is the effect of large rivers upon plateaus8 ,locate great central valley of ,north ,america4 ,what two great rivers flow through this valley8 ,trace the ,mississippi ,river from its source to its mouth4 ,trace the ,mackenzie ,river in the same way4 ,what separates the ,mississippi basin from the ,mackenzie basin8 ,from the ,saskatchawan basin8 ,trace lowest line from the mouth of the ,mississippi to the mouth of the ,mackenzie4 ,into what does this line divide the continent8 7,into two land masses47 ,compare these two4 ,in which is the continental axis8 7,in the primary land mass47 ,the secondary land mass is divided by the ,appalachian ,mountain ,system into two slopes1 of which the eastern is called the ,atlantic slope4 ,compare these slopes4 ,where do the ,appalachian ,mountains begin8 7,in the ,st4 ,lawrence basin47 ,nearly to what gulf do they extend8 7,gulf of ,mexico47 ,what is their direction8 ,what separates the secondary land mass into two parts--northern and southern8 7,the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river47 ,the northern part is the peninsula of ,labrador4 ,in this part trace the water partings of the ,hudson ,bay river system4 ,in the primary land mass two immense mountain ranges extend over #e1jjj miles--nearly the entire length of the continent4 ,what are these mountains called8 ,compare their general altitude with the low range of mountains 7#ajj feet high7 crossing the ,isthmus of ,panama4 ,how wide is this ,isthmus8 7,fifty miles from coast to coast47 ,what is known about a certain canal which has been begun in ,panama8 ,is there any other important canal in ,central ,america8 ,commencing in the southern part of ,mexico1 and extending northerly and westerly1 two great ranges bound the great plateau of ,mexico on the east and west4 ,this plateau is divided by the ,rio ,grande1 ,colorado1 and other rivers1 at a distance of about #ejj miles north4 ,the southern part of it is a volcanic region1 in which are ,popocatapetl and other high mountains4 ,what can be told about the ,colorado ,river8 7,show pictures of structure1 also of ancient cliff dwellings47 ,what is the character of the rock through which the river cuts8 ,is it in the region of much rainfall or of no rainfall8 ,north of the great plateau is the great basin1 #fjj miles wide and #ijj miles from north to south1 enclosed by the ,sierra ,nevada1 ,wasatch and ,rocky ,mountains4 ,what is the character of the large lake found here8 ,of what was it once a part8 7,tell of old ,lake ,bonneville1 and the terraces which record the height of its ancient waters1 high up on the mountain sides1 at the east of ,salt ,lake4 ,show pictures of structure of country and the effect of irrigation on the barren soil47 ,what low range of mountains west of the ,sierra ,nevada range8 ,describe the beautiful valley lying between these ranges4 ,why is it fertile8 ,what are its products8 ,describe the great red-wood trees4 ,what peninsula south of this is formed by the union of these two ranges8 ,locate ,mt4 ,shasta1 #ad1ddb feet high1 in the ,cascade range 7a part of ,sierra ,nevada71 just north of the ,california valley2 also ,mts4 ,tacoma1 ,hood1 and ,ranier1 in the same range4 ,find ,mt4 ,st4 ,elias1 in ,alaska--the highest peak in ,north ,america1 being #ai1ejj feet above sea level4 7,show pictures of these mountains4 ,tell stories of ,alaskan ,indians47 ,yellowstone ,park is in the ,rocky ,mountain range1 east and north of ,mt4 ,shasta4 ,what do you know of this wonderful park8 7,sketch geysers of ,yellowstone ,park47 ,can the prevailing wind of the ,pacific slope be confidently stated8 ,what of the ,atlantic slope8 ,compare the number and character of rivers1 also the coastal planes of these two slopes4 ,what relation has the structure of a region to the amount of rainfall8 ,locate the region of greatest rainfall on the continent2 also the region of no rainfall1 or desert region4 ,compare with the rainfall of the home region4 7,let the pupils chalk model the map again1 showing the depressed axis1 great plateau and mountain ranges3 also indicating the character of coasts1 whether high or low1 and stating whether they are building or wearing coasts1 and why47 ,name the river basins of each slope4 ,locate the basin of the ,mississippi ,river1 and trace its water partings4 ,give the general direction of the river and the reason for its flowing in this direction4 ,what great rivers are in the right slope of this basin8 ,which is the largest river8 ,why are the waters of the ,missouri ,river colored8 ,which is the largest river in the left slope8 ,compare the two slopes4 ,which is the higher8 ,which has the greater number of river basins8 ,locate the ,ozark ,mountains4 ,are there any lakes in this basin8 ,in which course of the river are the waterfalls or cascades found8 7,show pictures of ,st4 ,anthony and ,minnehaha ,falls47 ,what is the length of the ,mississippi ,river in a direct line8 7#a1bge miles1 while the length by water way is #c1afj miles47 ,what is to be inferred from these data as to the course of the river8 ,what as to the slope of the land and the character of the soil8 ,what must be the effect on navigation and commerce8 ,in which course1 upper1 middle1 or lower1 are most of the windings8 7,tell of the levees built to prevent the river from overflowing its banks47 7,the total length of the line of embankments1 including those on both sides of the river and its tributaries1 is #db1ejj miles47 ,at what rate is the river lowering the continent8 7,enough sediment is annually carried down to cover twelve miles square of surface one foot deep47 ,where is the soil being deposited8 ,how far is the river navigable8 ,what canal is being dug to connect its waters with those of ,lake ,michigan8 ,consider the effect of this great work on the commerce of ,chicago4 ,what is the temperature in the northern part of the ,mississippi ,river basin8 ,what is the character of its vegetation8 ,compare these with those of the southern part4 ,where is the greatest rainfall8 ,what besides fertile soil and abundant rainfall1 is necessary to insure luxuriant vegetation8 ,name some fruits characteristic of the northern part of the basin1 also of the southern part4 ,locate areas of land best adapted to the growing of food plants2 as grain1 including rice2 potatoes and sugar-cane2 also those best for grazing purposes2 the raising of cattle1 sheep1 etc4 ,what plants produce materials for the manufacture of clothing8 ,what areas are especially suitable to the growth of cotton8 ,what to the growth of flax and hemp8 ,locate coal mines1 and other mining districts2 also lumber regions4 ,where are the largest cities situated8 ,why are they thus located8 ,what localities are best adapted to manufacturing purposes8 ,which to commerce8 ,interest the children in the discovery of the 8great river40 ,read accounts of ,joliet's and ,marquette's discoveries in #afgc1 also ,la,salle's discovery of its mouth in #afhb4 ,study the history of the early colonists and show the relation of their environment to their social and political development4 ,the further study of history will require a constant review of the geographical features of the continent1 and will show their relation to the political divisions4 ,these may be marked off upon the map with red chalk at the proper time4 ,in a similar manner each river basin of the continent may be studied separately1 and the ,hudson ,bay basin4 ,compare the ,atlantic and the ,pacific1 river basin systems1 also ,alabama and ,texas systems of river basins4 ,review the whole continent4 ,see where the boundaries of all natural divisions coincide with the political divisions4 ,draw the continent1 and mark all the large political divisions on the map4 ,add1 also1 the continental islands4 ,how were these formed8 ,what is a political division8 ,what is its use8 ,mention the government of each division of the continent4 ,as the study of other continents are taken up1 they may be compared with this one1 and with each other1 in regard to resemblances and differences4 ,illustration3 #fa ,,map ,,of ,,north ,,america4 ,it is supposed that in the course of their study1 the pupils have been in the habit of modeling in sand and chalk modeling on the blackboard at every step of the way4 ,it may now be found that they are prepared to represent the entire continent1 first in two slopes1 again in land masses1 and then as an aggregation of river basins1 as suggested in the last lesson4 ,such a development of the map is illustrated in the present lesson by four stages of chalk modeling4 ,the first stage is represented in ,fig4 #fa4 ,it shows the continent of ,north ,america in two great slopes1 one long one sloping to the east1 and a short one sloping to the west1 from the line of meeting of their upper edges1 or what has been termed the ,continental ,axis4 ,fig4 #fb represents the continent as sketched after a study of it as simple land masses--a primary land mass1 and a secondary land mass1 with the line of depression at the meeting of the two opposing slopes4 ,this line is indicated by lines slanting downwards towards the depressed axis4 ,illustration3 #fb ,the primary land mass is represented as one continuous unbroken land mass extending from the ,isthmus of ,panama to ,behring ,strait1 and is itself divided into two main slopes4 ,the secondary land mass is likewise divided into two slopes2 it is also separated by the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river basin into two parts1 viz41 the northern or ,labrador land mass1 and the southern or ,appalachian land mass4 ,fig4 #fc is drawn to represent the drainage1 or principal river basins2 as1 the ,mississippi1 ,mackenzie1 ,st4 ,lawrence1 and ,saskatchawan basins1 and the ,hudson ,bay river system4 ,in drawing small maps on paper it is necessary to trace the rivers with a fine pencil point4 ,for very large maps1 four of five feet long1 spaces may be left1 but great care should be taken to keep them as narrow as possible1 so as not to exaggerate the width of the rivers more than is necessary4 ,fig4 #fd is drawn in more detail and the great political divisions are marked upon it4 ,on the blackboard map these divisions may be marked with colored chalk1 and should follow the contour of the surface as closely as possible4 ,for the teacher who wishes to rapidly chalk model a map for immediate use in the class1 the following hints may be of service3 ,plan to draw the continent in its proper proportions within a given space4 ,imagine that you see it as already drawn4 ,commence with the region best known or understood1 and draw as you mentally travel1 to the north1 south1 east or west4 ,it may be that you will begin with the great depressed regions1 in which case draw the ascending slopes and crowning altitudes as you mentally picture2 or if the great highlands or water partings are fixed upon as a starting-point1 the descending slopes should be drawn to the line of meeting of other slopes1 or to the sea level4 ,break the line to indicate broken or uneven surface4 ,you will do this naturally1 however1 if you have in mind the picture of a broken surface4 ,illustration3 #fc ,keep the river basins definitely in mind1 and the character of streams and rivers3 the character also of the land structure2 whether it is rocky or alluvial2 sharp or hard1 or soft and yielding4 ,knowing that line represents direction1 and having a clear and distinct picture in mind of the real country with its surface features1 it will be an easy matter to draw or represent it4 ,understand1 as has often been said1 that the delineator is drawing from his own mental image of a map1 and not copying the work of another4 ,in the latter case no instructions are necessary1 as the practice is of no educative value1 and should be persistently discouraged4 ,while at work1 always think of the continent as being lighted from one direction1 so as to show strong lights and shadows 7utilize the blackboard for shadows71 this helps to show altitudes2 bear in mind1 however1 that these depend mainly upon direction of line corresponding to direction of surface4 ,it is to be remembered also1 that knowing the geological structure prevents one from drawing level lands first1 and from afterward delineating mountains as being piled upon them4 ,mountains should be drawn where they belong and valleys where they belong1 with no contradictory lines underneath to confuse the meaning4 ,with few exceptions1 mountains are the crowning points or peaks of slopes--their meeting place4 ,they may be the corrugated points of mountain ranges or of worn down plateaus4 ,from whatever part of the continent the work is commenced1 let it be carried out in every direction until the limit of land is reached1 and then stop4 ,remember that there is no line between land and water1 either at sea-shore or at lake-shore4 ,the rivers may be drawn with charcoal1 accentuating the lower part of the river near its mouth4 ,illustration3 #fd ,let me say to the beginner--do not let any crude results disturb or discourage you4 ,you can chalk model with an adequate amount of skill if you will4 ,it simply means a close study of nature1 a clear knowledge of geographical structure1 and persistent effort4 ,illustration3 #fe #ff #fg #fh ,,natural ,,features ,,of ,,interest ,,in ,,north ,,america4 ,it is the constant1 persevering attempts--simply the continual doing--that accomplishes the work of the world4 ,devote ten minutes a day1 if you cannot spare more time1 to your preparation for sketching in to-morrow's classes4 ,by expressing your mental picture again and again you clear it up1 and the increased interest of your pupils in the work will be ample reward4 ,the experience gained will probably show that your last attempt is a much more complete expression than the first one2 the repeated efforts made having resulted in a more thorough knowledge of the subject and therefore1 a more complete representation4 ,as before stated in connection with the study of ,north ,america1 natural features of interest should be sketched while with the class1 at the same time locating them on the map4 ,the mental images for such sketches1 as well as for all others1 if not gained by actual observations1 must be acquired through the study of pictures and descriptions1 as has been remarked before1 and should not be copied line for line from another's sketch4 ,illustration3 #fi #gj #ga #gb #gc ,in ,fig4 #fe 7entrance to ,mammoth ,cave1 ,kentucky7 the stratification of the rocks is seen back of the entrance1 within it1 and at the right in the rocks of the foreground4 7,it is estimated that #ab1jjj1jjj cubic yards of limestone have been worn away or displaced in the excavation of the interior of this celebrated cave47 ,fig4 #ff 7,natural ,bridge1 ,virginia7 also plainly shows the stratification of rock4 ,what is the character of the rock8 ,what was the agency employed in the sculpturing of both of these natural wonders8 ,in ,fig4 #fg 7,niagara ,falls7 the general direction of the mass is oblique4 ,notice how the water breaks as it falls1 owing to the resistance of the atmosphere4 ,in the 8,palisades on the ,hudson0 7,fig4 #fh7 notice the debris at the foot of the vertical wall of stone1 forming what is called the talus slope4 ,this is mostly overgrown with vegetation4 ,in ,fig4 #fi 7a gorge in the caon of the ,colorado7 the stratification of rock and the almost vertical cliffs are the principal features illustrated4 ,fig4 #gj represents a lofty peak in one of the caons along the line of the ,colorado4 ,fig4 #ga 7,devil's ,slide1 ,weber ,caon1 ,utah7 shows the mountain side as worn back leaving the trap rock projecting4 7,how came the harder rock there in this peculiar shape87 ,figs4 #gb and #gc are geysers in ,yellowstone ,park--8,old ,faithful0 and 8the ,sponge40 ,in the latter1 notice the corrugated formation1 and the little stream that flows from its base4 ,illustration ,,map ,,of ,,mexico ,,with ,,suggestions ,,for ,,fifth ,,and ,,sixth ,,grade ,,teachers4 ,in the study of political divisions1 details of structure1 climate1 etc41 that were not brought out in the work on the continent as a whole1 should precede the historical study4 ,again let it be stated1 that the method and questions here given are not to be followed literally2 they are merely presented as suggestive hints to teachers1 who should frame their own questions so as to best lead the pupil in his study to a realization of what the country is in itself1 and how geographical conditions affect the history and civilization of a people4 ,having a general idea of the geographical features of ,mexico1 the pupil in its closer study1 may give its location as lying south of the ,united ,states and extending from ,texas on the north to central ,america on the south4 ,he may describe its general shape as triangular or cornucopia shaped4 ,he may notice that the ,rio ,grande forms its natural boundary on the north1 for nearly three fourths of the distance from gulf to ocean4 ,what is the length of this river8 ,compare with length of the ,mississippi4 ,how far is it navigable8 7,about #ejj miles47 ,what is its character8 7,swift1 crooked1 and obstructed by rapids and sand-bars47 ,notice the break in the great western range of mountains1 forming a depression between the ,sierra ,madre and ,sierra ,nevada ,ranges4 ,just north of this break and west of the ,colorado ,river1 in the state of ,california1 lies the great ,mohave ,desert1 in which is the famous 8,death ,valley10 #ajj feet below the level of the sea4 ,from the ,gulf of ,mexico on the east and the ,pacific ,ocean on the west the land rises in a succession of terraces or plateaus1 with elevations varying from #b1jjj feet to #h1jjj feet above sea-level4 ,the great central or upper plateau has an elevation of about #c1jjj feet at the north1 but ascends gradually to the height of #h1jjj feet in the southern part4 ,compare this with the ,mohave ,desert4 ,with the great plateau of the ,united ,states4 ,with ,florida 7mean elevation #cj feet74 ,in this part1 the eastern mountain wall of the great central plateau1 and the western1 which is much higher of the two1 culminate in a knot of lofty mountains4 ,this is a volcanic region1 and here a number of isolated volcanoes tower above the uplands in a line from east to west4 ,of these snow-capped volcanoes the highest are ,popocatapetl and ,orizaba1 which are about #ag1ejj feet above the sea-level4 ,compare these with the highest peaks of the ,rockies4 ,from this point the land abruptly lowers to the low ,isthmus of ,tehuantepec and the ,peninsula of ,yucatan4 ,mexico has an area of #gdd1jjj square miles4 ,compare with area of the ,united ,states 7#c1fje1jjj74 ,why are there more rivers flowing into the ,gulf of ,mexico than into the ,pacific ,ocean8 ,where is the greatest rainfall8 ,what is the direction of the prevailing wind8 ,can this be known from the map8 ,the average annual rainfall at the ,gulf ,coast is #aej inches4 ,how does this compare with that of ,florida8 7#fj inches47 ,with that of ,chicago8 7#cf inches47 ,what is the rainfall on the western coast8 7,there is scarcely no rain at all47 ,why8 ,where is the source of the rivers on the west coast8 ,the average rainfall of the plateau is #bg inches4 ,may we expect to find many rivers flowing from it8 ,what is likely to be the character of rivers flowing into the ,gulf8 7,they are swift torrents bearing trees and rocks1 tearing and cutting gorges and caons from #hjj to #a1jjj feet deep47 ,compare these with rivers of the ,atlantic ,coast4 ,how are the sand-bars at the mouths of the rivers on the eastern coast to be accounted for8 ,what effect must they have upon commerce8 ,what may we conclude as to the character of ,mexican harbors8 ,would the water-ways afford an enemy means of transportation to the heart of the country8 ,may we conclude that the natural structure of the country affords protection from enemies8 ,what influence has this isolation had upon the progress of the people8 ,has ,mexico a navy8 ,why not8 ,mexico has two seasons--the dry season and the rainy season4 ,the latter begins in ,june and lasts until ,october4 ,what is the prevailing wind in each season8 ,what influence has altitude upon climate8 ,mexico has three zones of climate1 according to altitude4 ,the mean temperature of the low lying coast zone or 8,hot ,lands0 is #gg to #hb degrees ,fah4 at ,acapulco on the western coast4 ,what is the climate8 7,hot or dry47 ,what is the climate on the eastern or ,gulf coast1 where the mean temperature is #gg degrees ,fah4 rising at ,vera ,cruz sometimes to #aaj degrees ,fah48 7,hot1 humid and unhealthy4 ,in the rainy season the land is partly under water--steaming4 ,in the dry season the ground is parched and the air oven-like47 ,what is the character of vegetation1 birds1 and animals8 ,compare vegetation with that of cold or cool regions as to appearance1 kinds of trees1 etc41 and its value or usefulness to animals and man4 ,which city would be the most desirable for a home8 ,what must be the natural effect of the existing structure and climatic conditions upon the inhabitants of these areas8 ,what kind of houses would they be apt to build8 ,draw type of houses with environment4 ,the plains rise from the coast gradually to the height of about #b1jjj feet where the hills begin1 and above these we find other plains4 ,how does this altitude affect the climate8 ,vast herds of cattle1 horses and sheep roam these plains1 and well stocked ranches are in the northern part4 ,agriculture is the chief occupation in the southern part4 ,the soil being largely volcanic is extremely fertile when irrigated4 ,from the height of #b1jjj feet to about #g1jjj feet we find the 8,temperate ,lands40 ,these combine the conditions of two zones4 ,the heat and moisture of the 8,hot ,lands0 uniting with the cooler breezes of the uplands1 produces one of the most equable and delightful climates in the world4 ,the mean temperature is from #fb to #gj degrees ,fah4 ,compare this with the mean temperature of ,chicago4 ,the heaviest annual rainfall recorded is #ij inches4 ,air-plants and creeping vines are everywhere4 ,flowers are more delicately fragrant1 birds are songsters1 and insects are fewer than in the lower hot lands4 ,tropical products are found at a height of #d1jjj feet4 ,rice1 coffee1 sugar-cane1 tobacco and fruits like olives1 oranges and lemons are all found here4 ,evergreens1 oaks and cedars are here as well1 while maize and beans are seen growing all the way up from the coast4 ,grains grow best at a height of #f1jjj feet4 ,compare these conditions with those of the ,hot ,lands4 ,would the temperate lands be a desirable place for a home8 ,what effect has the climate upon the people8 ,compare them with inhabitants of the low lands4 ,draw typical scenes1 including houses1 of temperate lands4 ,about #g1jjj feet we find the 8,cold ,lands40 ,here the amount of rainfall is only one-sixth of that of the low lands4 ,many small rivers having their source in the eternal snows of the lofty mountain peaks1 disappear before reaching the lakes or lagoons4 ,why8 ,above #h1jjj feet many varieties of the fir tree are seen climbing the mountain slopes4 ,only four mountain peaks are snow-capped all the year round4 ,the mountains are rich in metals1 especially silver4 ,sulphur is obtained from the very throat of the crater of ,popocatapetl4 ,salt is obtained from the lakes4 ,the pupils should chalk model the plateau of ,mexico showing what they have learned of details of structure4 ,on this plateau every variety of surface is seen4 ,here are deserts1 wooded hills1 quiet valleys1 and broad level plains studded with clear sparkling lakes which have no visible outlets4 ,what feeds these lakes8 ,what is their character8 7,saline47 ,why are they salt8 ,are they getting larger or smaller8 ,why8 ,compare the surface here described with that of ,yucatan4 ,the soil of the latter is largely limestone4 ,the surface is low and monotonous1 with scarcely a river or brook of any considerable size4 ,midway between ,vera ,cruz on the ,gulf coast and ,acapulco on the ,pacific in the valley or basin of ,anahuac1 on a plateau of the interior1 is situated the renowned city of ,mexico1 at an altitude of about #g1hjj feet above sea-level4 ,in which climate zone is it located8 ,the valley is about #ee miles long1 and #cj miles wide1 and is hemmed in by mountains with the great volcanoes to the southeast4 ,higher than any other1 and the first to attract the traveler's eye as he enters the valley1 is the mighty ,popocatapetl4 ,in the northern half of the valley are three small lakes and a number of towns and villages4 ,in the southern half there are three large lakes and the city of ,mexico4 ,the lowest part of the basin is ,lake ,tezcuco4 ,this is only #f feet below the level of the plateau on which the city stands4 ,the waters of this lake are salt1 while ,lake ,xochimilco is a fresh water lake1 situated a few miles south of the city and is #d feet higher4 ,it is from this lake that the city of ,mexico obtains its water supply4 ,what is the population of the city8 ,what do you know of its people8 ,throughout the lessons the pupil should be continually led to imagine what the life of the people must be1 from what is known of their environment4 ,lead him also to infer the reasons for their present state of advancement in civilization4 ,have him sketch scenery1 houses1 utensils1 etc41 illustrative of their modes of life4 ,show pictures of ancient ,aztec and ,toltec ruins4 ,tell of the people who came from the north and settled in the marsh near ,lake ,tezcuco4 ,speak of their great works--temples1 aqueducts1 dykes and causeways4 ,refer to evidences of culture as shown in ruins of buildings1 fountains1 baths1 tapestries1 etc4 ,what was their religion8 ,compare them with the ,indians of northern forest regions4 ,what were the motives of the ,spaniards in the conquest of ,mexico8 ,describe the landing of ,cortez and his army and let the pupil infer the difficulties and dangers encountered on their way into the country2 the hot climate1 shifting sands1 tropical marshes1 slippery precipices1 gorges with swollen streams1 and the mountains to be crossed4 ,through a pass they went in single file into a sterile region where there was no water3 through a second defile1 a valley1 and then another and more difficult gorge until the summit reached1 they descended into the interior valleys4 ,here the ,spaniards rested for four days1 near the desert infested with wolves and other wild animals4 ,tell of ,cortez' attack on the great city--his repulse--the siege1 etc4 ,show that the results were largely determined by the geography of the country4 ,cortez conquered because the country being broken up by mountains1 plateaus and valleys naturally divided the people into many small tribes1 some speaking different languages1 who were under forced subjection to a federation consisting of warrior bandits from the stronger cities4 ,give the result of the conquest to the ,mexicans1 and bring their history down to the present day if desired4 ,what class of people now inhabit ,mexico8 ,what regions are most densely populated8 ,what is the population8 ,compare with the population of the ,united ,states4 ,what is the form of government8 ,where are the largest cities8 ,where the greatest seaports8 ,describe the modifications of surface structure since the conquest4 7,lake ,tezcuco has receded from the city two and one half miles4 ,how87 ,tell of the floating gardens4 ,illustration3 #gd #ge #gf #gg #gh ,the page of illustrations accompanying the above suggestions include the ,map of ,mexico1 ,fig4 #gd1 and also a section of the map1 ,fig4 #ge1 showing more plainly the old valley of ,anahuac1 and ,lake ,tezcuco4 ,figs4 #gf to #gh are scenes typical of the country4 ,,map ,,of ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states1 ,,for ,,use ,,in ,,preparatory ,,lessons ,,on ,,the ,,civil ,,war4 ,the section under consideration lies east of the ,mississippi1 and south of the ,ohio and ,potomac ,rivers4 ,the motive for its study is to trace the influence of physical environment upon the character and motives of the inhabitants4 ,the following plan for the lesson is suggested3 #a4 ,description of ,country4 7a7 character2 7b7 altitude2 7c7 vegetation2 7d7 productions4 #b4 ,division into ,belts4 7a7 mountainous2 7b7 hilly or plateaus2 7c7 lowlands4 #c4 ,interests of the ,people in these ,sections to be ,subserved4 7a7 ,protection of homes2 7b7 railroads2 7c7 factories and cattle2 7d7 open navigation2 7e7 non-interruption of labor4 #d4 ,plans of ,attack by the ,enemy4 7a7 ,to gain a stronghold in the mountains2 7b7 destroy railroads2 7c7 obstruct rivers2 7d7 capture cattle2 7e7 devastate the fields4 ,illustration3 #gi ,locate on the map of the ,united ,states the special section of country to be studied1 and chalk model in detail large map of the same4 7,see ,fig4 #gi47 ,from this map1 together with typical pictures of scenery1 i4e41 mountains1 rivers1 valleys1 vegetation1 industries1 etc41 the pupil may imagine the general character of the land4 ,what will be his mental picture8 7,a rolling country1 broken into hills and valleys1 with mountains more or less rounded and generally clothed with vegetation47 ,passing downwards from the heights1 the surface becomes more gently undulating and finally stretches away in long level fields4 ,the pupil may imagine what might be seen from a great height south of the whole section4 ,immediately below is the sea4 ,florida at the right1 low and green1 widens into the mainland in front4 ,the sandy gulf shores broken by many rivers and blending into light greens1 darken and turn into browns in the mountains4 ,lines of grays and purples in the distance indicate the farther mountain ranges4 ,the gentle western slope1 and the more abrupt eastern one are clothed with rich foliage1 through which gleam the waters of many rivers4 ,what is the trend of the mountain ranges8 7,from northeast to southwest4 ,three nearly parallel ranges are seen with long valleys between47 ,which is the most important one8 ,what is the whole mountain system called8 7,the ,appalachian ,system47 ,give the names by which the principal ridges are known4 ,where is the greatest height8 7,in ,north ,carolina--,mt4 ,mitchell1 #f1gaj feet high4 ,from this point the mountains lower gradually to the north1 being in ,pennsylvania from about #a1jjj feet to #a1ejj feet in height4 ,to the south they drop more rapidly1 through ,georgia and ,alabama47 ,are there any natural divisions in the eastern slope8 7,the mountains1 piedmont1 and tide-water regions4 ,the piedmont or old plateau region is hilly1 while the tide-water region1 having been built by the rivers1 is low and near the coast often swampy and unhealthy4 ,the rivers are numerous1 forming low islands at their mouths47 ,what are the divisions of the western slope8 7,mountains1 plateaus and valley country4 ,the plateaus are long arms of high land stretching out from the mountains1 under the names of the ,cumberland and ,tennessee4 ,rivers have cut into the plateaus which gradually widen into the ,ohio and ,mississippi47 ,what is the nature of the soil8 7,rich1 low and level1 adapted to the raising of cotton4 ,near the ,mississippi the land is often swampy and covered with a dense rank growth of vegetation4 ,the strong current of the river often changes the course of its channel1 thus forming the numerous bayous or long narrow lakes found in ,arkansas1 ,louisiana and ,mississippi47 ,what is the vegetation of the mountain regions8 7,wooded with pine1 oak and other mountain trees47 ,what would be the chief products of this region8 ,how could the lumber be gotten out of the country8 7,tell of mines47 7,slightly wooded and richly turfed would describe the middle section47 ,what would be the chief occupations of the people8 7,farming and stock-raising4 ,in the low valley country the products are tobacco1 sugar1 rice and cotton47 ,at the time of the ,civil ,war1 what were the chief interests of the mountain people8 7,in consequence of their industries they had comparatively slight interest in the questions of slavery47 ,their knowledge of passes1 cross-roads1 sites for forts1 etc41 would make them invaluable aids to either party4 ,of what value might the possession of any special point be to either side during the war8 7,it might be used as a fort or arsenal4 ,to the opposing side it might prove an entering wedge by which other points might be gained and so divide the people47 ,what would be the interest of the miners8 7,they would favor peace for the sake of uninterrupted labor4 ,if by war their work should be stopped their families would be reduced to starvation47 ,near the mines would be found railroads4 ,what would be the policy of the ,south in regard to them8 7,to protect them for their own use47 ,that of the ,north8 7,destruction or possession47 ,what would be the farmer's interest8 7,the protection of stock and farm products47 ,in the lowland section the protection of railroads would be one interest4 ,what other interests would be endangered by war8 7,vast fields of cotton and other southern products would be subject to trampling or burning2 fences1 houses and other buildings likely to be destroyed4 ,the desertion of slaves would leave fields uncultivated1 want in the houses and homes unprotected47 ,if crops could be raised and gathered1 what of their disposal8 7,the market would be smaller1 their delivery uncertain4 ,blockaded rivers and deserted railroads are obstacles to commerce47 ,what points would be desirable to gain against the ,south8 7a7 7,a foothold in the mountains and control of the railroads leading thereto2 7b7 ,possession of boats to be used on the ,mississippi in closing ports and the holding of them2 7c7 ,occupation of a line of points on the ,tennessee or the ,cumberland ,river1 and so push the northern line farther down2 7d7 ,possession of seaports along the ,atlantic coast47 ,what could be planned for the opposite side8 7a7 7,to gain possession of ,washington2 7b7 ,to fortify the northern boundary of the ,confederacy2 7c7 ,to protect the ,mississippi ,river and the coast47 ,read extracts from war letters of ,grant1 ,mc,clellan and others to show the relation of the plans of the generals to the geography of the country4 ,,map ,,of ,,south ,,america4 ,to repeat what has been said in substance again and again1 in the course of these lessons 7it cannot be too often brought to mind71 if you know your subject1 i4e41 have the knowledge1 and desire to give it to others you will be able to do so2 more or less crudely it may be1 but one learns to do1 only by doing4 ,should you be in doubt as to the direction of line to use1 analyze the gestures you would naturally make in an oral expression of the same subject1 and see just what direction you wish to represent4 ,do not misunderstand in regard to the representations of elevations on the map4 ,these are not drawn to represent actual shape1 any more than actual size or height2 they merely indicate location4 ,the horizontal distances of the map should never be compared with the altitudes1 but compare altitudes with altitudes1 and horizontal distance with horizontal distance4 ,lead the pupil also to continually compare the altitudes given1 with those within his sense grasp2 e4g41 ,mt4 ,chimborazo is about #bj1ejj feet in height4 ,what is the height of the highest building1 hill or mountain the pupil has ever seen8 ,how many such elevations placed one above another would equal the height of ,chimborazo8 ,by such comparison the pupil will be in no danger of getting a wrong idea of the altitude from the study of the maps4 ,horizontal distances may be compared in the same way4 ,a given distance of thousands of miles may be compared with a shorter distance within the experience of the pupil4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,south ,,america ,remember this method of drawing or chalk modeling is designed chiefly to suggest to the mind the main characteristic features of the continent4 ,to those who have read ,lessons ,,viii4 and ,,ix4 it is scarcely necessary to illustrate the four stages in the map of ,south ,america or other continents4 ,notice that the land lowers towards the north in ,peru and ,bolivia and also from the ,guiana highlands4 ,get the effect by reducing the size of the hills and mountains as they recede1 and by making them less definite4 ,illustration3 #hj ,,map ,,of ,,eurasia ,,with ,,sections ,,in ,,detail4 ,your pupils may soon excel their teacher in chalk modeling4 ,this is encouraging4 ,the true teacher will rejoice at such proofs of success in instruction and be stimulated to renewed endeavors4 ,it is of such vital importance that pupils acquire the habit of expression through drawing4 ,fig4 #hj is a map of 8,eurasia0 or ,europe and ,asia together as one continent4 ,it shows the highlands which divide the waters of the northern or long slope1 from those of the short slope1 i4e41 the backbone of the continent or continental axis4 ,about midway between the extreme eastern and western coasts1 note the high plateau or center from which many mountain ranges radiate--the ,pamir or 8,roof of the ,world0 #ae1jjj feet in height4 ,the plateau of ,thibet is also #ae1jjj feet high1 but towering above these are many lofty mountain peaks1 some reaching the height of #be1jjj to #bi1jjj feet4 ,from these plateaus1 those of ,gobi and ,iran1 and the highlands in ,europe1 the land lowers more or less abruptly as it recedes to the north1 east and south4 ,to represent the ,arctic coast1 where the land is mostly low1 draw with the horizontal stroke4 ,between this and the highlands use broken horizontal or slightly curved lines to indicate the broken hilly surface4 ,be careful to keep the great depressions level around the ,black1 the ,caspian and ,aral ,seas4 ,illustration3 #ha #hb #hc #hd #he #hf ,illustration3 #hg #hh #hi #ij #ia ,the ,scandinavian ,peninsula 7,fig4 #ha7 is drawn more in detail to show the fiord coast4 ,fig4 #hb is a typical view of the coast4 ,a map of ,india1 with the ,himalaya ,mountains on the north1 and the ,hindu ,kush ,mountains on the west1 is seen in ,fig4 #hc4 ,notice the source of its three great rivers4 ,fig4 #hd is a typical view on the ,bramahpootra ,river4 ,fig4 #he is a map of ,greece and ,fig4 #hf a view of the country immediately surrounding the ,acropolis4 ,figs4 #hg-ia are a map of ,japan and typical scenes illustrative of the country1 houses1 and costumes of the people4 ,illustration ,,review ,,of ,,instructions4 ,,maps ,,of ,,africa ,,and ,,australia4 ,in reviewing the directions for chalk modeling1 the following points are noted1 7a7 ,a mental picture made clearer by expression2 7b7 ,a desire to express through the medium of chalk and blackboard2 7c7 ,analysis into terms of drawing1 as masses and sub-masses1 direction of line1 light and shade2 7d7 ,quality of line1 attained through 8feeling0 or harmony with the subject2 7e7 ,artistic expression 7no modifications1 as erasures or additions72 7f7 ,persistent effort4 ,through the observance of the hints given on these points adequate skill in execution may be acquired4 ,the plateaus of ,africa and ,australia are classed together in this lesson4 ,little is known of the western half of the latter1 but the eastern half of ,australia has its rivers and river basins4 ,we see also how it has been worn into mountain ranges2 the highest part being in the southeast4 ,africa is also wearing back from the coasts and the plateau itself has many long river basins1 the longest of which is that of the ,nile4 ,the ,nile is not only the longest river in ,africa but is the third river of the globe as to length4 ,the valleys of the continent are mostly very narrow1 especially the valleys of this river4 ,illustration ,the ,sahara ,desert is represented as being broken into a number of plateaus and depressed regions1 which is expressed by short1 nearly horizontal lines4 ,the ,abyssinian ,plateau is given in detail in ,fig4 #ib4 ,notice that it lowers gradually towards the south1 but abruptly towards the north and that its surface is broken into many plateaus and deeply cut river beds by tributaries to the ,nile4 ,illustration3 #ib ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,abyssinian ,,plateau4 ,,books ,,of ,,reference4 ,the following books of reference may be found useful in the study of geography as a preparation for map drawing3 ,abbott4 ,waste-land ,wanderings4 ,appleton4 ,agassiz4 ,journey in ,brazil4 ,appleton4 ,physical ,geography4 ,arrold4 ,through ,persia by ,caravan4 ,baker4 ,the ,nile and ,tributaries of ,abyssinia4 ,bartholomi4 ,travels and ,discoveries in ,north and ,central ,america4 ,bates4 ,bird's-eye ,view of ,central and ,south ,america4 ,bates4 ,the ,naturalist of the ,amazon4 ,biart4 ,the ,aztecs4 ,brown4 ,countries of the ,world4 ,chamberlin and ,salisbury4 ,geology4 ,h4 ,e4 ,holt ,co4 ,croll4 ,climate and ,cosmology4 ,appleton4 ,croll4 ,climate and ,time4 ,appleton4 ,dall4 ,alaska and ,its ,resources4 ,dallas4 ,caves4 ,humboldt ,library4 ,dana4 ,geological ,stories4 ,darwin4 ,formation of ,vegetable ,mould4 ,humboldt ,library4 ,davis4 ,elementary ,meteorology4 ,encyclopdias4 ,fitzgerald4 ,australia4 ,foster4 ,the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,geikie4 ,text-book of ,geology4 ,macmillan ,co4 ,geikie4 ,geological ,sketches at ,home or ,abroad4 ,geikie4 ,physical ,geography4 ,macmillan ,co4 ,geikie4 ,text-book of ,geography4 ,geikie4 ,earth ,lore4 ,gilbert4 ,lake ,bonneville4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey4 ,giberne4 ,ocean of ,air4 ,gilbert4 ,henry ,mountains4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey4 ,guyot4 ,earth and ,man4 ,scribner4 ,guyot4 ,physical ,geography4 ,guyot4 ,common ,school ,geography4 ,hale4 ,mexico4 ,hart4 ,geology and ,physical ,geography of ,brazil4 ,hinman4 ,eclectic ,physical ,geography4 ,hill4 ,physiography4 ,huxley4 ,physiography4 ,jackman4 ,nature ,study for the ,common ,schools4 ,jackman4 ,field ,work in ,nature ,study4 ,johnson4 ,surface ,zones of the ,globe4 ,johnson4 ,geography--,physical1 ,historical and ,descriptive4 ,judd4 ,volcanoes4 ,jukes-,brown4 ,hand-book of ,physical ,geography4 ,bell4 ,kingsley4 ,town ,geology4 ,humboldt ,library4 ,lawson4 ,geography of ,coast ,lines4 ,le ,conte4 ,elements of ,geology4 ,appleton4 ,longman4 ,school ,geography4 ,longman4 ,physical ,school ,atlas4 ,lubbock4 ,beauties of ,nature4 ,humboldt ,library4 ,lyell4 ,principles of ,geology4 ,mill4 ,realm of ,nature4 ,scribner4 ,milner4 ,gallery of ,geography4 ,mortimer4 ,journey ,across ,australia4 ,nansen4 ,first ,crossing of ,greenland4 ,nordenskjold4 ,voyage of the ,vega4 ,ober4 ,travels in ,mexico4 ,palgrave4 ,dutch ,guiana4 ,parker4 ,how to ,study ,geography4 ,appleton4 ,poole4 ,egypt4 ,reclus4 ,earth and ,its ,inhabitants4 ,appleton4 ,reclus4 ,birds'-eye ,view of the ,world4 ,ticknor ,co4 ,reclus4 ,the ,history of a ,mountain4 ,harper ,bros4 ,reclus4 ,the ,earth4 ,reclus4 ,the ,earth1 the ,sea and the ,sky4 7#b ,vols47 ,ritter4 ,comparative ,geography4 ,van ,antwerp4 ,ritter4 ,geographical ,studies4 ,bragg ,co4 ,robert4 ,the ,earth's ,history4 ,scribner4 ,schuyler4 ,turkestan4 ,shaler4 ,aspects of the ,earth4 ,scribner4 ,shaler4 ,nature and ,man in ,america4 ,shaler4 ,our ,continent4 ,squier4 ,peru4 ,stanford4 ,compendiums of ,geography and ,travel4 ,stanley4 ,the ,congo4 ,stanley4 ,in ,darkest ,africa4 ,taylor4 ,arabia1 ,india1 ,china and ,japan4 ,treat4 ,home ,studies in ,nature4 ,harper4 ,tyler4 ,anahuac1 or ,mexico and the ,mexicans4 ,tyndall4 ,forms of ,water4 ,humboldt ,library4 ,united ,states ,geological ,surveys from #dth to #abth ,vols4 ,inclusive4 ,vincent4 ,thirty ,thousand ,miles' ,travel in ,australia4 ,wallace4 ,darwinism4 -- ,what ,darwin ,saw4 ,williams4 ,the ,middle ,kingdom4 ,whymper4 ,travels and ,adventures in ,alaska4 ,williams4 ,geography of the ,ocean4 ,winchell4 ,geological ,excursions4 ,griggs4 ,winchell4 ,sketches of ,creation4 ,harper4 ,,advertisements ,,chalk-,,modeling4 ,relief maps or representation of relief maps are absolutely essential to the intelligent teaching of geography4 ,the most effective means that ,i have seen employed for the production of such maps is the chalk-modeling so long and successfully taught by ,,miss ,,ida ,c4 ,,heffron4 ,i can think of no other contribution to present text-books which would be of so great service to the teachers as a book from which they may learn chalk-modeling1 to the end that any portion of a continent or country may be placed in relief before the eyes of the children on whatever scale the teacher desires4 ,i have known ,,miss ,,heffron',s work for the last fifteen years and commend it without reserve4 ,o4 ,t4 ,,bright1 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,it gives me great pleasure to commend ,,miss ,,heffron',s work to the attention of school officers1 and to school teachers who desire assistance along the lines of expression in school work4 ,her large practical experience in teaching children in all the grades of public school work1 furnishes a substantial basis for most excellent instruction in her chosen field4 ,whatever success may have attended the introduction of ,nature ,study into this school has been largely due to her intelligence and skill in directing the work in drawing1 painting and modeling4 ,,wilbur ,s4 ,,jackman1 ,teacher of ,natural ,science1 ,cook ,county ,normal ,school4 ,the value of ,drawing and ,modeling as modes of expression cannot be over-estimated4 ,every subject taught in our schools gains new power and life1 as the brush or pencil1 the clay or tool1 tells its own truth concerning it4 ,literature1 ,history1 ,science and ,geography gain an immensely added value3 each one becomes a living thing if the teacher possess the power to illustrate her subject4 ,in ,geography especially1 the ,chalk-,modeling originated by ,,miss ,,heffron1 while teacher of ,drawing in the ,cook ,county ,normal ,school1 is of incalculable value4 ,in fact1 to those in whose schools it has been introduced1 the wonder is that pupils ever comprehend the subject without its revealing and interpreting aid4 ,,kate ,,starr ,,kellogg1 ,prin4 of ,lewis ,school1 ,englewood1 ,ill4 ,i have seen the results of ,,miss ,,ida ,,cassa ,,heffron',s work in teaching ,drawing1 ,painting1 ,modeling and ,illustrative ,drawing1 and ,chalk-,modeling in ,structural ,geography1 and ,i consider her work of the highest importance4 ,it gives to training teachers1 and teachers of general experience as well1 a newer and deeper insight into the truth that ,drawing with its allied subjects is a form of expression4 ,,jesse ,,lowe ,,smith1 ,supt4 of ,schools1 ,lexington1 ,ill4 ,,for ,,the ,,teacher',s ,,desk4 ,illustration ,the ,story of ,our ,planet4 ,by ,t4 ,g4 ,,bonney1 ,d4 ,sc41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 ,f4 ,s4 ,a41 ,f4 ,g4 ,s41 ,professor of ,geology in ,university ,college1 ,london2 ,fellow of ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge2 and ,honorary ,canon of ,manchester4 ,with six ,colored ,plates and ,maps and about #ajj illustrations4 #a ,vol41 large1 #hvo4 ,price1 #c4jj ,,educational ,,publishing ,,co4 ,,helps ,,in ,,geography4 ,people and ,places ,here and ,there4 ,in this series1 designed primarily for supplementary reading in schools1 the plan has been to prepare books which shall have all the charm and interest attaching to volumes of travels written by the travelers themselves4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,stories of ,australasia4 ,fully ,illustrated4 ,boards1 #dj cents2 ,cloth1 #fj cents4 ,stories of ,australasia is evidently a success1 possessing simplicity and life4 ,it is a difficult thing to get down to the plane of child life and comprehension without devitalizing matter and style4 ,you have done it without loss of freshness4 ,d4 ,l4 ,,kiehle1 ,st4 ,paul1 ,minn4 ,illustration3 ,,in ,,same ,,series4 ,stories of ,india ,stories of ,china ,stories of ,northern ,europe ,stories of ,england ,fully ,illustrated4 ,price1 ,boards1 #dj cents2 ,cloth1 #fj cents4 ,gentlemen3--,people and ,places1 the sample copies of ,australasia1 ,india1 ,china1 ,northern ,europe1 and ,england are at hand4 ,they are handsome books and what ,i have read of them up to this time makes me feel that all1 all our schools ought to be supplied with a full set of such books4 ,f4 ,j4 ,,george1 ,county ,supt4 ,schools1 ,tell ,city1 ,ind4 ,,educational ,,publishing ,,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4