,practical ,forging and ,art ,smithing ,,thomas ,f4 ,,googerty ,milwaukee1 ,wis4 ,the ,bruce ,publishing ,company ,copyright1 #aiae ,the ,bruce ,publishing ,company ,,introduction ,the present demand for school instruction in the industrial arts has made it necessary for the teachers of industries to have that knowledge of materials and methods which can only result from long and careful experience with the materials of industry4 ,this book is the result of a life of such experience by a man who is now recognized as a master craftsman in wrought metal4 ,the author's work in wrought iron is comparable in design and finish to the best work that has been produced in that material4 ,some pieces of the best ,german work are before me as ,i make this statement and tho more intricate they are no better in execution and far less suitable to the material in design than the pieces illustrated in this book which ,i have seen in process of execution and in the finished form4 ,the author has moreover been a teacher of wrought metal work for many years4 ,this experience is reflected in the sequence of difficulty presented by the exercises and the clear1 simple statement of the text4 ,with such clear and exact statement and with such profuse illustration it is evident that the metal worker can gather much of the author's long experience from this book and take many a short cut to success in an accomplishment to which there can be no royal road4 ,but the effectiveness of an applied art is measured best by its expression of purpose within the limitations of the material used4 ,the artistic success of this book lies in the evident fact that the work represented appears 8,hand wrought and fashioned to beauty and use40 ,i predict for it increasing usefulness in setting right the practice of forging in school shops and as an inspiration to teachers1 craftsmen and tradesmen4 ,,edward ,j4 ,,lake4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,the ,forge--,forge ,tools--,the ,anvil--,anvil ,tools--,making the ,fire--,cleaning the ,fire--,welding--,flux and ,its ,uses #g ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,electric ,welding--,oxy-acetylene ,gas ,welding--,the ,fagot ,weld--,the ,separate ,heat ,weld--,scarfing--,upsetting--,making the ,weld--,lap ,welding without ,scarfing--,jump ,welding--,butt ,weld--,split ,welding--,corner ,weld--,t-,weld #bb ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,corner ,weld--,brazing--,fagot ,weld--,fuming a ,loose ,eye--,hammock ,hook--,finishing ,wrought ,iron--,s-,link--,welded ,eye ,pin #cf ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,staples--,open ,links--,welded ,chain ,lines--,punching--,a ,grab ,hook #df ,,chapter ,v4 ,bolts--,cupping ,tool--,gate ,hook--,hay ,hook--,welded ,ring--,expansion of ,heated ,iron #ed ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,making ,tongs--,pig ,iron--,puddling--,the ,bessemer ,process--,the ,open ,hearth ,process--,crucible ,steel--,the ,cementation ,process--,tempering #fj ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,making a ,flat ,cold ,chisel--,spring ,tempering--,welding ,steel--,case ,hardening--,coloring ,steel--,annealing--,making a ,scratch ,awl--,making a ,center ,punch--,making a ,hand ,punch--,high ,speed ,steel--,annealing ,high ,speed ,steel #gj ,,art ,,smithing ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,wrought ,iron ,work--,making a ,wrought ,iron ,leaf--,making a ,volute ,scroll--,grilles #hc ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,twisting--,braiding--,making a ,fire ,shovel #ic ,,chapter ,x4 ,making a ,door ,latch--,making a ,hinge--,making a ,candle ,stick #ii ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,making a ,drawer ,pull--,chasing--,making a ,door ,knocker--,repousse--,perforated ,decoration #ajg ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,making a ,hat and ,coat ,hook--,a ,fuller--,jump ,welding--,making a ,wall ,hook #aag ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,making a ,toasting ,fork--,inlaying #abd ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,making a ,lantern--,making a ,wall ,lamp #acj ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,making a ,portable ,lamp #aci ,,practical ,,forging ,,chapter ,i4 ,the ,forge--,forge ,tools--,the ,anvil--,anvil ,tools--,making the ,fire--,cleaning the ,fire--,welding--,flux and ,its ,uses4 ,one of the most essential things in the school forge shop is a good forge and fire2 half the work is then mastered4 ,a few years ago nearly all of the small commercial shops running from one to six or more fires were equipped with brick or iron forges4 ,the blast was furnished either with a bellows or fan which had to be turned by hand4 ,this method was a great drawback1 which resulted in much loss of time4 ,it was impossible to do much work without the aid of a helper4 ,work that required two men in those days is being done now by one4 ,modern invention has played an important part in simplifying the labors of the workers in iron and steel4 ,at the present time there are various kinds of forges in use that lessen the work of the smith4 ,the most successful factories are now equipped with modern forges and appliances in order that they may be able to do work quickly4 ,in our manual training schools1 where the pupils have such short periods in which to do work1 it is necessary that the shops be equipped with modern tools so that they can produce work quickly4 ,this will give the individual pupil more practice in a shorter length of time1 which simply means more knowledge4 ,our schools should not be hampered by using forges that have been out-of-date for years4 ,the best forge for manual training and trade schools is the down draft with power driven fans1 thus eliminating all pipes overhead and doing away with the dust and dirt4 ,a boy1 working at this kind of a forge1 can use both hands in the handling of the work being heated in the fire2 this is a great advantage over the old way of turning a crank4 ,another good feature of the mechanical draft forge is that it teaches a boy early how to avoid over-heating or burning his iron4 ,this is the first thing one must learn in working at forging1 as one who cannot heat the metal properly cannot work it4 ,one must become acquainted with the material1 and the burning heat must be understood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,a ,typical ,school ,forge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,fire ,tools4 ,figure #a shows an illustration of a down draft forge suitable for schools2 it is made of cast iron4 ,a pressure fan furnishes the blast for the fire and an exhaust fan takes away the gas and smoke thru an opening at the bottom of the hood1 and thru a large pipe which continues under the floor and out thru a flue4 ,the hood represented at ,a1 can be moved backward and forward to catch the smoke4 ,the hood is moved with a crank and worm gear as shown at ,b4 ,the hearth is shown at ,c2 a hole in the center is called the tuyere4 ,this is where the fire is built and is the outlet for the wind4 ,the amount of air needed for the fire is regulated by a valve that is moved with a rod shown at ,d4 ,the coal box is always at the right hand of any forge and is shown at ,e4 ,the water box is represented at ,f4 ,at ,g is shown the pressure pipe and at ,h the exhaust pipe4 ,notice the large opening under the forge at ,i4 ,thru this opening any nut or screw under the tuyere can be tightened with ease4 ,notice the slide-rod at ,j4 ,this rod1 when pulled1 dumps the cinders out of the tuyere1 and a bucket may be set under the hearth to catch them4 ,in school shops these forges are generally set in pairs in order to save room4 ,figure #b shows three fire-tools needed for the forge fire4 ,these tools consist of a poker made from -inch round stock1 #bf inches long with a loose eye turned on one end for a handle2 a shovel with a flat blade #d by #f by inches with a handle riveted to the blade1 and a tool called a scraper4 ,this scraper is made from the same stock as the poker and is made with an eye at one end and a flat hook at the other4 ,it is used to scrape the coal and coke onto the fire1 and to move pieces of coke or coal1 so that the iron may be seen while heating4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,anvil4 ,the anvil should be of wrought iron with a steel face1 weighing about #abe pounds4 ,this is large enough for any work being done in manual training schools4 ,in the school shop the anvils should all be of the same size and weight so that any tool used with them will fit into any square hole4 ,in factories where anvils are made1 they are forged from wrought iron or soft steel1 with a carbon steel face welded on2 some are cast steel thruout and others are cast iron with a steel face4 ,the face is generally three-quarters inch thick1 and is hardened to resist heavy blows from the hammer and sledge4 7,see drawing ,figure #c of anvil47 ,the anvil should be fastened with iron straps1 on a #aj by #aj-;inch block1 set into the ground about #c feet4 ,from the top of the anvil to the floor should measure #bf inches4 ,the proper place to set the anvil in relation to the forge is shown in the drawing1 ,figure #d4 ,the smith should stand between the forge and the anvil1 with the horn of the anvil at his left when facing it4 ,the anvil edge farthest from the smith is called the outer edge and the one nearest the smith is called the inner edge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,hammer4 ,fig4 #f4 ,sledge4 ,fig4 #i4 ,punch4 ,fig4 #g4 ,hardie4 ,fig4 #h4 ,hand ,punch4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,center ,punch4 ,every anvil should have two ball hammers weighing about #a and #b lbs4 each4 7,see drawing of hammer1 ,figure #e47 ,the hammers should be numbered corresponding with a number on the anvil4 ,all the hammers should be kept in a rack when not in use4 ,when the pupils come into the shop to work1 they should be assigned to a certain forge and held responsible for the care of tools4 ,a ten-pound sledge hammer should also be included1 perhaps one for every two forges2 the handle should be #bf inches long4 7,see ,figure #f47 ,a piece of tool steel fitted into the square hole of the anvil and sharpened at the top1 is called a hardie4 ,it is used in cutting iron4 ,a piece of iron is set on the sharpened edge of the hardie and struck with the hammer4 ,the sharpened edge of the hardie cuts into the iron1 and in this manner it is cut deep enough so that it may be broken4 7,see drawing of hardie1 ,figure #g47 ,if a piece of steel is pointed on one end1 it can be hammered thru a flat piece of iron4 ,this is one method of punching holes in iron2 a steel punch so made is called a hand punch4 ,ordinarily hand punches are made out of -inch to -inch hexagonal tool-steel bars about eleven inches long4 7,see drawing ,figure #h47 ,for heavy punching1 a short1 thick punch with a hole thru it1 7called the eye7 to receive a wooden handle1 is used4 ,this kind of punch is struck on with a sledge hammer4 7,see drawing ,figure #i47 ,a center punch is used to make depressions in metal so that a drill may be started in a given place4 ,it is used also to mark places or distances on the surface of metal when the metal is to be bent at a certain place4 ,center punches are made from hexagonal tool steel about #d by -inch1 drawn to a point and ground to a short angle4 7,see ,figure #aj47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,flat ,tongs4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,hot ,chisel4 ,cold ,chisel4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,flatter4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,set ,hammer4 ,in heating and handling short pieces of stock1 tongs are used 7see ,figure #aa7 which are made from ,swedish iron or mild steel2 they are made in various sizes and shapes according to use4 ,they are called pick-ups1 flat1 round-nose1 and bolt tongs according to the shape of the lips4 ,tongs should always be made to fit the piece being forged4 ,one cannot hold a piece of iron properly with tongs that do not fit the piece4 ,they may be heated and fitted to the stock when occasion demands4 ,one important reason why tongs should fit the piece being hammered1 is that when turning and striking the piece there is danger of the piece being knocked out of the tongs in a whirling motion and the flying piece of hot iron is liable to strike someone2 this danger must be closely watched4 ,tongs should not be heated red hot and cooled in water2 this destroys them4 ,hot and cold chisels are used in cutting stock4 ,the blade of the hot chisel is made very thin1 while the cold chisel is made blunt to stand the heavy strain in cutting4 ,they are generally made with a hole thru them1 called the eye1 to receive a wooden handle4 ,these chisels are struck on with a sledge hammer4 7,see ,figure #ab47 ,iron and steel are sometimes smoothed with a tool called a flatter4 ,this tool is struck on with a sledge1 and should not be used to stretch iron4 ,its purpose is only to give the work a smooth finish4 ,figure #ac shows a flatter1 and ,figure #ad a set-hammer4 ,the set-hammer is always used to smooth and draw stock4 ,all of these tools are made from tool-steel4 ,a heading tool is made from a flat piece of soft steel with a hole in one end4 ,sometimes a carbon steel face is welded on4 ,the heading tool is used mostly in heading bolts4 ,heading tools are made with different sized holes4 7,see ,figure #ae47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,heading ,tool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,top and ,bottom ,swages4 ,swages and fullers are used to smooth and form iron into various shapes4 ,the swages generally have half round depressions in them4 ,they are made in pairs called top and bottom swage4 ,the bottom one fits the square hole of the anvil2 the top one has a hole for a wooden handle4 7,see drawing ,figure #af47 ,the fullers are also made in pairs called top and bottom fullers4 ,they are used to make depressions in metal4 7,see drawing ,figure #ag47 ,when referring to swages1 fullers1 and other tools of this character1 blacksmiths speak of anvil tools4 ,special anvil tools are used in doing various kinds of forging1 and are made when needed4 ,the anvil tools should be kept in a tool rack next to the anvil4 ,these tools should be made from tool-steel of about #ge-point carbon1 or they may be purchased from a dealer4 ,some tools1 such as swages1 that do not require continuous service1 are made of soft steel4 ,the anvil tool should have a buggy-spoke for a handle4 ,the handle should stick thru the eye of the hole about one inch and should never be wedged4 ,if the handle is wedged it is more liable to be broken when the tool is struck a glancing blow with the sledge hammer4 ,this is very often the case4 ,the reason the spoke should stick thru the tool is that if it should begin to work off the handle when struck with the sledge hammer1 the movement can be seen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,top and ,bottom ,fullers4 ,figure #ah shows a wrought vise suitable for school work4 ,a cast iron machinists' vise should not be used excepting1 perhaps1 for bench work4 ,figure #ai shows a cast-iron swage block with various sized holes1 and depressions around the edge for forming iron4 ,the stock used in a forge shop should be kept in a rack built for the purpose4 ,the different kinds of stock1 such as soft and tool-steel1 common and ,swedish iron1 should be partly painted with a distinguishing color1 so that there will be no trouble finding what is wanted4 ,for instance1 all soft steel should be painted white1 tool-steel another color1 and so on4 ,there should also be in the shop a shears to cut iron4 ,one of the ordinary hand-power shears in use today would be suitable and may be purchased from a dealer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,vise4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,cast ,iron ,swage ,block4 ,in lighting the fire in the forge all of the cinders are cleaned out down to the tuyere4 ,this is done by scraping them to the sides of the fire-place with the shovel4 ,all clinkers should be picked out with the hands and put under the forge4 ,it is a good plan to pick out some of the best pieces of coke and set them to one side on the forge1 to be used later on4 ,the slide rod that controls the ash dump at the bottom of the tuyere1 is now pulled to allow the cinders and ashes to drop thru4 ,do not allow a boy to pull the valve after the fire is started1 as this wastes the coke and is a bad habit to get into4 ,when the tuyere is clean1 some shavings are lighted in the bottom and when well burned1 the coke is raked back on the fire4 ,a little wind is then turned on4 ,wet coal is banked around the sides and back of the fire4 ,when the fire is well started and loosened up in front with the poker and most of the smoke burned1 it is ready for heating4 ,the coal in the box should be thoroly mixed with water before putting it on the fire1 for the reason that it cokes better1 and packs in around the sides of the fire1 keeping it from breaking thru4 ,the coal box is always at the right of the worker when he is facing the fire4 ,the box on his left1 and between the down draft forges1 is to hold water--not coal4 ,there should be a water cup of some sort hanging on a hook so that when water is needed for fire or coal it may be handled with the cup4 ,a fire1 when not properly handled becomes hollow1 due to the center burning out4 ,if iron is heated in this kind of a fire1 it will become oxidized1 that is to say1 a dirty scale will form over the metal4 ,iron cannot be properly heated1 and it is impossible to get the welding heat with a fire in this condition4 ,the reason a fire becomes hollow is that it may be filled with clinkers1 or too much blast may have been used1 and when it comes in contact with the pieces being heated causes them to cool and oxidize4 ,sometimes the fire will not be directly over the hole in the tuyere2 which is one cause of poor heating4 ,this is a common fault with boys working at the forge4 ,always have the fire over the hole in the tuyere1 and not to one side4 ,when the fire becomes hollow and dirty1 clean it by picking out the clinkers with the poker or scraper1 then move the sides of the fire towards the center of the tuyere with the shovel1 keeping the well-coked inner sides near the center of the tuyere1 and having the center of fire over the hole in the tuyere4 ,wet coal is now banked around the outer sides4 ,always have a thick bed of coke under the piece being heated and regulate the blast so as not to burn out the center of the fire at once4 ,see drawing of fire with piece about on the same plane with bottom of hearth2 notice dotted lines representing the wrong way to put stock in the fire4 7,fig4 #bj47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,section of ,forge ,fire4 ,if two pieces of iron are placed in the fire and heated1 they will become gradually softer until they reach a state where the metal has become sticky4 ,if touched together the two pieces will stick4 ,this is what is known as welding heat4 ,if they were taken to the anvil and hammered while in this condition they would unite and become one piece4 ,this would be called welding4 ,all metals cannot be welded4 ,iron1 soft steel1 low-carbon tool steel and spring steel can be welded4 ,a flux is used in welding steel--this excludes the air and forms a pasty surface on the metal which is squeezed out from between the surfaces of the metal when hammered4 ,borax and the many welding compounds are used4 ,very seldom is it necessary to use a flux on iron4 ,clean sand1 which is good1 is used by many4 ,borax or welding compound is sometimes used on very thin stock4 ,for ordinary welding1 such as is being done in school shops1 borax should never be used4 ,it is poor practice1 unnecessary1 and a useless waste4 ,in heating iron1 if it is brought beyond the welding heat1 it will become softer and softer until it will finally burn4 ,this may be known by the great number of little explosive sparks coming from the fire4 ,these little sparks are particles of iron separating from the bar and burning4 ,as the heat gradually rises1 the metal separates4 ,if the bar were now placed on the anvil and struck a hard blow with a hammer1 it would fly to pieces4 ,therefore1 judgment must be used in striking the first blow on any welding heat--it should be light4 ,the succeeding blows should be made gradually harder4 ,a hard blow at the start might make the metal fly to pieces1 or make the upper piece slip away from the under piece4 ,if lighter blows were struck1 the weld might be made in good shape4 ,the principal thing in welding is to have a clean fire4 ,all of the clinkers must be kept out4 ,the fire should be a well burned one1 without much smoke or gas1 and never any green coal near the pieces being heated4 ,well burned pieces of coke around the metal should always be used in raising the welding heat4 ,in raising the welding heat very little blast should be used at first4 ,heat the pieces slowly so as to get them hot thruout4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,electric ,welding--,oxy-acetylene ,gas ,welding--,the ,fagot ,weld--,the ,separate ,heat ,weld--,scarfing--,upsetting--,making the ,weld--,lap ,welding ,without ,scarfing--,jump ,welding--,butt ,weld--,split ,welding--,corner ,weld--,t ,weld4 ,a rapid blast on the start1 not only heats the outer part of the metal first and not the center1 but it also burns out the fire and makes it become hollow before the metal has the welding heat4 ,there is a right and a wrong way of taking a welding heat from the fire to the anvil4 ,the pieces must be lifted clear up out of the fire1 and must not be dragged thru the dirt and cinders on the inner edge of the fire4 ,iron will not unite when dirty4 ,it is very easy to get a clean heat if one will pay attention to having the fire clean4 ,do not attempt to get the welding heat in a dirty fire2 this is one thing that must be impressed upon the mind of one working at the forge4 ,the skillful worker in iron always pays particular attention to the fire1 for he knows by experience that it must be clean1 in order to do good work4 ,welding is also done with an electric welding machine4 ,the pieces to be welded are clamped and held in bronze clamps4 ,the clamps are adjusted so that the ends of the pieces to be welded touch4 ,they can be moved so as to bring the pieces into close contact or separate them4 ,when the pieces are in close contact1 the current is turned on4 ,the pieces are then separated a little so that the current jumps across the space between them1 forming an electric arc4 ,this heats the ends to a welding heat1 and by forcing them together they are welded4 ,another form of welding is by the oxy-acetylene gas method4 ,it is being used extensively at present1 and has been found very valuable and economical in making the lighter welds4 ,it is possible to weld steel1 iron1 cast-iron1 copper1 brass and aluminum by this process4 ,the apparatus consists of a specially designed blow pipe1 an acetylene tank and an oxygen tank under pressure4 ,the method of welding is to heat the pieces to be welded with the blow pipe until they reach the fusion point4 ,for instance1 in welding cast-iron1 the pieces are clamped together1 a ,v shape is cut nearly thru the joint1 the metal is heated to the fusion point1 and a feeder1 which is a small cast-iron rod1 is melted into it4 ,in welding steel1 the feeder is a steel rod2 for copper or brass welding1 a rod of copper or brass is used4 ,nowadays this method is extensively used in automobile work1 in repairing cracked cylinders4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,a very simple weld to make by heating in the forge1 is what is known as the fagot weld4 ,in doing this1 two or three pieces are welded by simply laying one piece on top of the other1 or a bundle of pieces of iron of various sizes and shapes are bound together1 heated and welded4 ,for example1 if a bar of flat iron is heated and cut half thru in several places1 doubled over and over1 one piece on top of the other and then welded in order to make a large piece of stock this would be called a fagot weld4 ,in ,figure #ba1 the pieces are represented ready to make a fagot weld4 ,the welding of two pieces of stock by scarfing and lapping is known as a separate-heat-weld1 so called because the pieces are detached while the heat is taken4 ,in making any kind of a weld there is more or less stock wasted in the raising of the welding heat1 therefore the parts to be lapped and welded are always upset or thickened and then scarfed4 ,the word 8scarfed0 means the shaping of the ends of the bars so that when heated and lapped one on top of the other1 they will fit and make a splice1 leaving the stock when hammered about its original size4 ,the method of upsetting is to heat the ends of the bar1 then set the hot end on the anvil with the bar vertical and hammer on the other end4 ,this thickens the heated end4 ,if it is a long heavy bar1 the worker churns the bar up and down striking the hot end on the anvil4 ,a bar may also be heated on the end1 then fastened in a vise and the hot part hammered to thicken it4 ,in upsetting1 the bar must be kept straight as hammering will bend it where heated2 if not kept straight1 it will not thicken4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,fig4 #bc4 ,when a piece is upset about one inch in diameter for a three-quarter inch1 round bar1 it is scarfed by setting the hot end on and near the outer edge of the anvil4 ,it is then driven back on a bevel by hammering4 ,see ,figure #bb4 ,it is also turned on the side and beveled on both sides to nearly a point4 ,see ,figure #bc4 ,the scarf must not be hammered when the piece is held in the center of the anvil1 7,figure #bd71 for the reason that the edge of the hammer comes in contact with the anvil1 pecking dents in it or breaking out pieces from the hammer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,fig4 #be4 ,another method of scarfing is to hammer the end partly back as previously explained1 then set the piece on the inner edge of the anvil and hammer it as shown in ,figure #be4 ,after each blow1 it is drawn away from the edge of the anvil just a little2 this tapers it with a series of little steps1 not for the purpose of making notches in the scarfs to fit together and hold while hammering1 but simply because the edge of the anvil leaves it in this condition when tapered4 ,it is also drawn pointed by hammering on the outer edge of the anvil4 ,theory teaches that the scarf should be made with the beveled part convexed4 ,however1 in practice1 it is made to look like the drawing in ,figure #bf4 ,note the raised parts at 8,d04 ,this is forced up when the scarf is first driven back with the hammer as shown at 8,b04 ,the reason that the high part should be on the scarf1 is1 that when lapped it gives an additional amount of stock at this part of the laps to be hammered4 ,if the scarfs are made flat1 when hammered1 they are not liable to finish up without having the pieces thin1 or the point of the lap exposed4 ,if the scarfs are made concave1 it is claimed by some workers of iron that dirt will deposit there and result in a poor weld4 ,this is true to some extent4 ,however1 dirt will deposit on any scarf unless the fire is clear4 ,with a concaved scarf when lapped1 there is not stock enough to be hammered without leaving the pieces thin1 or the lapping too long when welded4 ,scarfs should not be made concave4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,fig4 #bh4 ,notice in ,figure #bg1 the incorrect way of scarfing and in ,figure #bh1 the correct way4 ,the scarfs must not be made too long2 this is a common fault with all beginners and one to avoid4 ,the scarfs should be made a little longer than the thickness of the iron1 perhaps #a times the thickness4 ,in raising the welding heat1 the pieces must be placed in the fire with the scarfs1 or beveled part1 down4 ,the fire must be a clean one4 ,a well burned fire is best4 ,a new fire is not a good one to raise the welding heat in1 as there is too much smoke and green coal that comes in contact with the metal4 ,the hammer should be placed on the anvil about over the square hole1 so it will be handy to reach when making the weld4 ,the anvil should also be clean4 ,a heavy hammer should be used in welding4 ,the proper way to hold the hand hammer is with the fingers around the handle and the thumb protruding along the side and near the top4 ,the thumb should never grip around the handle1 but lie along the side to guide and direct the blows4 ,when using the sledge hammer1 stand in front of the anvil and not at its side1 and let the first blow be a light one4 ,in heating a slow blast is maintained4 ,when the pieces begin to get about yellow1 more blast is used4 ,the pieces can be watched without removing them from the fire4 ,they should be turned over occasionally1 moving them nearer to the surface of fire to see how the heat is progressing1 and then under the coke again4 ,care must be taken to get both pieces heated alike4 ,if one piece should get hotter than the other1 it can be moved over in the fire a little1 and the cool one put in its place4 ,perhaps the fire is hotter in one spot than another4 ,if one piece is heating much faster than the other1 lift it clear up and out of the fire for a few seconds to cool and give the other piece a chance to become hotter4 ,if the points of the scarf are heating too fast for the body1 the pieces must be pushed thru the fire a little farther4 ,it is a good plan sometimes1 when the pieces are about a yellow heat to shut off the wind for a moment1 to let the pieces and fire even up and give the heat a chance to soak thru them4 ,as the pieces become nearly white1 the blast is increased4 ,welding heat is about #aijj-bjjj ,fahrenheit1 and can only be determined by experience4 ,when the temperature of the pieces reaches the welding heat1 they are lifted up and out of the fire and taken by the smith to the anvil1 without the aid of a helper4 ,the smith raps them against one another or against the anvil to dislodge any dirt that may be on the scarfs4 ,the piece in the left hand is set against the inner edge of the anvil4 ,the piece in the right hand is now moved across the anvil until it comes under the top one4 ,see ,figure #bi4 ,the piece in the left hand is then placed on the under one1 by simply raising the hand1 teetering the piece on the edge of the anvil1 and holding it firmly by pressing down4 ,this is important4 ,the smith lets go of the piece in his right hand1 and taking the hammer strikes lightly until the two are stuck1 after which he welds them together with solid blows1 first on one side1 then on the other and finally on the corners4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,it requires some practice to be able to take two pieces from the fire and place them in position on the anvil to be welded4 ,this should be practiced by the pupil under the eye of the teacher1 perhaps a dozen or more times1 with the cold pieces before he undertakes to get the welding heat4 ,if one cannot take the pieces out and place them in position1 he cannot make a weld of this kind4 ,two boys should not be allowed to work together on this weld4 ,one can do it much better than two4 ,it is a one-man job4 ,there is nothing difficult about it1 after the method is learned by deliberate and persistent practice with the cold iron4 ,there is no need of hurrying when taking the pieces out of the fire to the anvil4 ,if the scarfs are too long1 they will overlap one another too far and cannot be welded down quickly enough4 ,if too short1 they hammer down too quickly to make a good job1 and the weld will be thin4 ,if the scarfs are the right length and about the same size1 which is important1 the weld will finish down in good shape and make a smooth job1 providing the ends are clean4 ,when the pieces being heated1 look as tho they are covered with grease1 you may be sure the fire is dirty1 or is too new4 ,lap ,welding ,without ,scarfing4 ,a lap weld is sometimes made without scarfing the ends4 ,for instance1 pieces of #a iron are to be welded by the lap method4 ,they are brought to a welding heat without upsetting2 taken to the anvil as previously explained for the scarf weld1 lapped about -inch1 as shown in ,figure #cj1 and welded4 ,this form of welding is used in a hurry-up job where there is no great amount of strain on the work4 ,it is impossible to make a strong weld this way4 ,very thin stock1 either iron or steel1 can be welded to advantage in this manner by hammering on the flat sides4 ,the edges1 instead of being hammered1 are cut off with a chisel1 then ground or filed smooth4 ,in welding very thin stock1 a little flux is used4 ,always weld by separate heats1 and do not rivet or split the stock to hold both ends in place4 ,this is not necessary4 ,try to make the weld with one heat4 ,all good welds are made in one heat4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,jump ,welding4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,fig4 #cb4 ,for example1 a piece like the one shown in ,figure #ca1 is to be made by welding4 ,the pieces should be prepared as shown in ,figure #cb4 ,the square piece is #a by #a by #f1 the flat one #a by by #h4 ,the square piece is heated directly on one end4 ,if the heat cannot be taken short enough1 it may be cooled in water so as to upset it with a lip or projection1 as shown4 ,this lip can be worked out afterwards with a fuller1 or it may be driven into a heading tool which has the top corners of the hole rounded4 ,this will leave the corners of the lip round as shown4 ,the bar at the end should also be made slightly convex1 so that the center part comes in contact with the flat piece first4 ,the flat piece is also upset in the center4 ,in welding1 separate heats are taken4 ,with the square bar1 handled with the right hand1 the pieces are brought to the anvil by the smith4 ,the square bar is set on top of the flat one1 and a helper strikes the top piece with the sledge1 driving it down into the bottom one4 ,the edge of the lip is then welded fast with a hand-hammer2 or a fuller or set hammer is used1 the helper striking with a sledge4 ,butt ,weld4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,iron may be welded by butting the ends together4 ,in doing this1 the bars must be long enough so that they can be handled without tongs4 ,for instance1 two bars of one-inch round stock1 one five feet long and the other shorter are to be welded4 ,this size is about as light as can be welded with this method4 ,the ends are heated and upset a little making them a little high in the center so that when they are placed together1 the contact is in the center4 ,a short heat is taken on the end of each bar4 ,the smith takes out the long bar and the helper the short one1 butting the ends together on the anvil1 as shown in ,figure #cc4 ,the helper hammers on the end of the short piece with a heavy hammer while the smith holds the long one firmly1 and hammers on the joint1 at the same time turning the bar so as to hammer the joint all around4 ,in welding heavier stock1 a sledge should be used requiring more helpers4 ,this method makes a good weld1 providing the heats are clean4 ,split ,welding4 ,figure #cd shows a drawing of round stock prepared for a split weld4 ,in making this weld1 one piece is heated on the end1 caught in a vise and split with a thin chisel4 ,see ,figure #ce4 ,these prongs are then spread and scarfed on the inside with the ball of the hammer letting them become fan shape and as wide as possible4 ,see ,figure #cf4 ,the other piece is upset and both pieces are caught in the vise4 ,the scarf is then hammered tight and the ends are cut so as not to have them too long4 ,see ,figure #cg4 ,the cutting of the scarf1 and partly into the bar1 helps to bind the pieces firmly while the heat is being taken4 ,see drawing of piece ready to be welded1 ,figure #ch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,fig4 #ce4 ,fig4 #cf4 ,fig4 #cg4 ,fig4 #ch4 ,fig4 #ci4 ,fig4 #dj4 ,a heat is now taken1 using a little sand or welding flux1 if the stock is very small4 ,in welding1 the first blow is struck on the end of the split piece to drive it down tight and weld it in the center4 ,see ,figure #ci4 ,the sides are next hammered to weld the laps4 ,it is then finished4 ,on heavy work1 the heats are taken separately and placed on the anvil by the smith1 in the same manner as described for a jump weld4 ,another form of split welding is shown in ,figure #dj4 ,this method is used in welding heavy iron and steel1 such as picks and drills4 ,notice the little beards cut with a chisel to help hold the pieces in position when heating4 ,heavy tool steel is also welded with this form of splitting4 ,the first blow struck with the hammer on this weld1 is on the end1 forcing the pieces together2 then on the flat part4 ,corner ,weld4 ,in ,figure #da is shown an angle made by welding on the corner2 this is called a corner weld4 ,it is generally made by using square or flat stock4 ,figure #db shows the scarfs prepared for a corner weld1 using #a by stock4 ,the piece at 8,a0 is scarfed with the ball of the hammer4 ,the one at ,b1 with the face of the hammer4 ,separate heats are taken and the pieces lapped and welded4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,fig4 #db4 ,t-,weld4 ,the scarfs for ,t-welds are made in just the same manner as for the corner weld1 excepting that one scarf is in the center of the bar4 ,see ,figure #dc4 ,in taking the pieces from the fire to the anvil1 the one scarfed in the center is handled with the tongs in the left hand4 ,the one scarfed on the end is handled with the right hand1 letting it under the other1 and then hammered4 ,notice how wide the scarf is made on the end piece at 8,a04 ,this is done to cover the other scarf4 ,all flat 8,t0 scarfs are made in this manner4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,corner ,weld--,brazing--,fagot ,weld--,turning a ,loose ,eye--,hammock ,hook--,finishing ,wrought ,iron--,s ,link--,welded ,eye ,pin4 ,a corner weld made by using heavy stock1 for example1 one and one-fourth inch square1 is to have a square corner by welding4 ,see ,figure #dd4 ,with the dimensions six inches from one end1 the bar is heated and cut about half thru from one side with a hot chisel4 ,the bar is then heated and bent to about a right angle1 as shown in ,figure #de4 ,a piece of -in4 square stock is cut on four sides as shown in ,figure #df4 ,this piece is welded into the corner as shown in ,figure #dg4 ,the heat is separate1 and the smith takes both pieces to the anvil when hot4 ,he places them in position as shown in the drawing1 the helper doing the welding4 ,the long part of the bar is then broken off1 another heat is taken and the corner is finished up by the smith4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd-de4 ,brazing4 ,iron and steel can be fastened together by brazing4 ,in doing this1 the ends are tapered or dove-tailed together and bound with wire or a rivet to hold them in position4 ,they are then placed in the fire and brought to a red heat4 ,some borax and spelter are put on and the heat is raised until the brass flows4 ,the work is then taken out of the fire and let cool2 then it is finished with a file1 or by grinding4 ,spelter is an alloy of copper and zinc1 and may be purchased from dealers4 ,brass wire may also be used in brazing1 and sometimes copper4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df-dg4 ,in teaching boys forging1 the writer feels that it is a waste of time to give a beginner little pieces to make1 such as staples1 hooks1 etc4 ,a boy cannot learn to handle his hammer1 or to heat a piece of stock by making small things4 ,what the beginner in forging needs is some work that he can swing a hammer on without danger of spoiling it4 ,very few boys on entering a shop can handle a hammer1 and they certainly do not learn about heating metal in a forge1 by working at staples1 etc4 ,the first exercise should be a fagot weld4 ,exercise ,no4 #a4--;,fagot ,weld4 ,in doing this1 two pieces of iron in4 square and #f in4 long are used4 ,the instructor demonstrates the welding of these two pieces before the class4 ,in making the weld1 one piece is laid on top of the other and both are caught at one end with a pair of tongs4 ,the tongs should fit the pieces nicely2 a ring is placed over the ends of handles to bind the jaws firmly on to the pieces4 ,a heat is then taken on about one-half of the length of the stock2 the pieces are welded and at the same time drawn to in4 square4 ,the pieces are now turned around in the tongs and the balance is heated and welded4 ,while drawing stock always have the bar at right angles with the long side of the anvil4 ,if the bar is not so held1 it will twist on the slightly rounded face of the anvil4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,there will be more or less iron burned by the boys in making this fagot weld2 but this is necessary1 for a boy can never learn how to work iron until he can heat it properly4 ,he must over-heat and burn iron in order to understand the heat limitations of the metal4 ,after the weld is made and the bar is drawn to the original size1 the ends must be squared by upsetting them4 ,the bar when finished should be in4 square thruout its length1 and straight with the ends squared4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,it is then formed into a loose ring by hammering it over the horn of the anvil and not on a ring mandrel4 ,in forming the ring1 the ends are upset on an angle1 so that when bent into ring form1 they will fit together nicely4 ,see ,figure #dh4 ,exercise ,no4 #b4 ,this exercise will be made in the same manner as number one1 excepting that the bar is finished to in4 square1 and a ring is turned on each end4 ,see ,figure #di4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,the eye is formed by heating and hammering it over the horn of the anvil1 giving it the shape as shown at ,b4 ,it is then reheated1 set on the horn of the anvil and hammered close to the eye as shown at ,c1 which bends it central with the shank as shown at ,d4 ,in turning loose eyes of any size stock or dimensions1 on the end of a bar1 the ring is first turned into a circle of the desired size4 ,it is then sprung central with the shank4 ,with this method1 no figuring of stock is required4 ,exercise ,no4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,fig4 #eb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,fig4 #ed4 ,in making a hammock hook1 the stock should be soft steel1 which may be purchased for about the same price as iron4 ,it will stand the bending strains better than iron4 ,the size of the stock is #g in4 by in4 round4 ,the end is heated and a loose eye formed4 ,the other end is drawn to a taper with in4 of the end turned up as shown4 ,see drawing of hook1 ,figure #ej1 and the different steps in forming the eye at ,a1 ,b and ,c4 ,the hook is formed over the horn of the anvil as shown in ,figure #ea4 ,figure #eb shows the finished hook with a dotted line drawn thru the center1 indicating where the pull should come4 ,in ,figure #ec is shown a common fault when turning a loose ring at the end of a bar1 in not bending the extreme end first4 ,notice ,figure #ed1 where the end is bent as it should be4 ,the expert worker in iron is very careful not to hammer mark and destroy the section of a bar4 ,one should remember that bending a ring or iron hook is simply holding the bar on the horn of the anvil and striking the part that protrudes past it4 ,never strike the bar when it is directly over the horn4 ,this does not bend it1 but makes a dent in the stock4 ,finishing4 ,to finish wrought iron1 all of the scale and dirt should be scraped off with an old file while the piece is hot4 ,when the iron is cooled1 linseed or machine oil is rubbed on4 ,if the work is held over the smoke of the fire and then oiled1 it will take on a darker color4 ,never paint iron work4 ,this destroys the texture of the metal4 ,do not file work bright4 ,it should be dark--filing is not forging4 ,exercise ,no4 #d4--,s-,link4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,fig4 #ef4 ,figure #ee shows a drawing of an ,s-,link1 which is used to splice broken chains4 ,in ,figure #ef is shown he length and size of the stock4 ,the ends are drawn to a short point and the center of the bar is marked with a center punch4 ,one-half of the link is then formed1 bringing the point at the center punch mark and using one-half of the bar4 ,this is a simple link to make4 ,the only thing to be careful about is to not destroy the section of the bar with hammer marks4 ,this may be avoided if one does not strike the hook directly over the horn of the anvil1 but to one side of the horn4 ,see in ,figure #eg1 the correct blow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,exercise ,no4 #e4 ,figure #eh shows a drawing for a welded ,eye ,pin4 ,the eye may be made any size for practice4 ,in making the ring1 the bar is heated in the center and hammered over the outer edge of the anvil1 as shown in ,figure #ei4 ,the piece is now turned end for end1 and jogged down again with the ball of the hammer4 ,see ,figure #fj4 ,the piece should now look like the drawing in ,figure #fa4 ,the center of the piece is heated and hammered over the horn of the anvil to make the ring round and to bring the shanks together4 ,see ,figure #fb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei 7above74 ,fig4 #fj 7below74 ,fig4 #fa 7above74 ,fig4 #fb 7right74 ,fig4 #fc 7left1 below74 ,in welding1 the piece is caught by the ring with a flat pair of tongs4 ,see ,figure #fc4 ,it is now placed in the fire so as to get the heat close to the ring4 ,the tongs are then removed1 until the piece reaches a white heat2 the piece is again caught with the tongs1 and the heat is raised4 ,it is taken out and set on the edge of the anvil and hammered as shown in ,figure #fd4 ,the first blow struck is close to the ring in order to weld that part first4 ,if it cannot be all welded in one heat1 it should be reheated at once4 ,do not hammer unless the heat is a welding heat1 as the stock will become too thin before it is welded4 ,do not heat the tongs red as this destroys them and the piece cannot be held with hot tongs4 ,when the ring is welded1 the end is drawn to a square point4 ,see ,figure #fe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,fig4 #fe4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,staples--,open ,links--,welded ,chain ,links--,punching--,a ,grab ,hook4 ,exercise ,no4 #f4 ,staples are used for hasps1 gate hooks1 and for various other purposes4 ,they are made from all sizes of stock1 depending on the use to which they are put4 ,on account of its pliability1 soft steel is the best stock to use in making staples4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,the length to cut stock is shown in the drawing of the staple in ,figure #ff4 ,the stock is caught at one end with a pair of light tongs4 ,the piece is then heated and drawn out to a point2 it is reversed in the tongs and the other end is drawn out4 ,the center of the piece is then reheated and bent into shape over the horn of the anvil4 ,in drawing any piece of stock to a tapered point1 the taper should not be hammered on one side continuously and1 when turned over1 hammered back again4 ,to have a taper on all four sides alike1 the bar must be raised the proper distance and not laid flat on the anvil4 ,figure #fg illustrates the wrong way and ,figure #fh1 the correct way4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,fig4 #fh4 ,exercise ,no4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,fig4 #ga4 ,in ,figure #fi is shown a drawing of an open link4 ,open links are used in the splicing of broken chains4 ,in splicing a chain1 the link is opened by driving a chisel between the laps1 or it is opened when made4 ,these laps are hooked into links of broken chain and then driven together4 ,in making the link1 one end is drawn to a flat point and a hook is hammered on it4 ,see ,figure #gj4 ,the other end is heated and drawn out as in ,figure #ga4 ,the center of the piece is now heated and bent over the horn of the anvil to the desired shape4 ,see ,figure #gb4 ,notice in the drawing that the hooks at the open end of the link are not very long4 ,they should not be made longer than shown4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,exercise ,no4 #h4--,welding a ,chain ,link4 ,the form and length of the stock for this exercise is shown in ,figure #gc4 ,the link may be made from iron or soft steel4 ,after the stock is cut1 it is heated in the center and bent over the horn of the anvil into a 8,u0 shape4 ,see ,figure #gd4 ,the ends are now heated and scarfed by setting them on the anvil as shown in ,figure #ge4 ,the iron is then struck on top with the hand hammer4 ,after each blow1 it is moved away from the anvil just a little1 giving the end a bevel1 so that1 when finished1 the scarf consists of a series of slanting notches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,fig4 #gd4 ,in scarfing1 both ends of the links are set on the anvil4 ,the end of the one on the right hand side must not be moved when scarfing the other4 ,after each blow of the hammer1 the piece is moved just a little4 ,if it is moved too far and the other end of the link is fixed it will describe an arc4 ,see ,figure #gf4 ,this is the method used in scarfing links4 ,sometimes they are welded without scarfing1 but it is not good practice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,fig4 #gf4 ,figure #gg shows the link scarfed1 lapped and ready to be welded4 ,in welding1 the heat is taken directly on the end of the lap and not on the sides1 so as not to burn the stock above the laps4 ,when the link has the welding heat1 it is taken to the anvil and hammered on the flat sides1 then set on the horn of the anvil1 and hammered on the corners4 ,see ,figure #gh4 ,the shape of the link at the weld should be just a little pointed for a strong link4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,in making chains1 do not weld two single links and then one between them4 ,weld a link on the end of the chain and keep repeating until finished4 ,exercise ,no4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,punching holes thru hot iron is not a difficult exercise4 ,for instance3 ,a -in4 hole is to be punched thru a flat piece of iron or steel4 ,the piece is heated1 taken to the anvil and a punch set on the spot to be punched4 ,the punch is struck three or four blows with the hand hammer driving it into the metal as shown in ,figure #gi4 ,the piece is then turned over and the punch is set over the dark spot which is caused by the former blows1 and is driven thru4 ,see ,figure #hj4 ,square and other shaped holes are punched in the same manner4 ,thin stock is punched cold4 ,in doing this1 the piece to be punched is set on the punch block and the punch driven thru the metal into the hole of the block4 ,a punch-block is a round or square block of steel with one or more tapered holes thru it4 ,see ,figure #ha4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,left4 ,fig4 #gi4 ,center4 ,fig4 #ha4 ,right4 ,figure #hb shows some holes that could be punched while the metal is hot4 ,a hole like the one shown at ,a1 is made with a punch of that shape2 the next hole is made with the same punch4 ,afterwards the hole is upset or shortened by heating and cooling each side of the hole4 ,the bar is then hammered on the end4 ,this shortens and spreads the metal4 ,the hole is made true by driving a round punch thru it4 ,the stock used for this exercise should be soft steel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,exercise ,no4 #aj4--;,a ,grab ,hook for a ,log ,chain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,fig4 #he4 ,figure #hc shows a drawing of the hook with size of stock to be used4 ,the stock should be mild steel1 #f by by inches4 ,to form the eye one end is heated and shouldered back one inch from the end1 by hammering it on the anvil as shown in ,figure #hd4 ,the eye is then rounded with the hammer and the hole punched with a hand punch4 ,the hole is countersunk by hammering it on the horn as shown in ,figure #he4 ,the point is next drawn out and then the hook is heated in the center4 ,it is cooled each side of the center and hammered over the horn to bend1 then on the anvil as shown at ,figure #hf4 ,a piece of -in4 flat iron is set on the inside of the hook and the hook hammered to fit the iron4 ,this leaves the opening of the hook uniform and just the size required4 ,see ,figure #hg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,bolts--,capping ,tool--,gate ,hook--,hay ,hook--,welded ,ring--,expansion of ,heated ,iron4 ,exercise ,no4 #aa4 ,bolts may be made in one piece by upsetting the end of a bar1 then squaring the head by driving the piece into a heading tool4 ,a bolt may also be made by welding a collar around the end of a bar after which the head is squared4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,figure #hh shows a welded bolt head4 ,after the stock is cut to proper length1 the collar for the head is made4 ,it is heated and hammered over the horn of the anvil to make it round4 ,the end of the collar is now cut off on the hardie1 cutting clear thru from one side and giving it a bevel4 ,the other end is cut from the opposite side giving it a bevel also4 ,see drawing at ,a4 ,the collar is driven on the end of the bar while the collar is cold and the bar is hot4 ,when the collar is hammered on the end of the bar1 there should be about -in4 crack4 ,see drawing at ,b4 ,the reason is that1 in welding1 the collar is lengthened4 ,hammering stretches the metal1 and it must have end room4 ,when the collar is ready the bar is heated on the end and upset just a little4 ,a heat is then taken1 and the collar is welded by striking it on four sides1 letting the opening form one of the corners4 ,the bolt is then inserted into a -in4 hole in a heading tool to smooth the end of the head with a hammer4 ,a cupping tool is next set on to the head and given a few good blows with the hammer4 ,this bevels the top corners of the square head4 ,a cupping tool is a piece of tool steel with a half round depression in one end4 ,see ,figure #hi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,the heads of bolts can be beveled with the hammer1 instead of with a cupping tool4 ,figure #ij shows a tool to be used in the vise to make heads on light rods4 ,the rod is heated and inserted into the hole2 then the vise is tightened after which the ends are hammered down4 ,exercise ,no4 #ab4--;,forging a ,gate ,hook4 ,figure #ia shows the length and size of stock which should be of soft steel4 ,one and one-half inches from each end of the bar is marked with a center punch4 ,one end is drawn round to a point4 ,the other is hammered round for the eye4 ,see ,figure #ib4 ,in the drawing ,figure #ic1 the eye and the hook are shown turned4 ,the center part of the hook is square and is to be twisted4 ,this is done by heating the square part to a uniform heat and cooling each end4 ,the hook is then twisted with two pairs of tongs1 or it may be caught in a vise and twisted with one pair of tongs4 ,see drawing of the finished hook1 ,figure #id4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia 7above74 ,fig4 #ib 7below74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,fig4 #id4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,horn4 ,figure #ie shows a tool called a horn2 it fits into the square hole of the anvil4 ,it is used to turn very small eyes at the end of a bar4 ,a piece of #a-;in4 round soft steel is used in making it1 by drawing the end square to fit the hole in the anvil4 ,it is afterwards bent over and the taper drawn as shown4 ,exercise ,no4 #ac--,making a ,hay ,hook4 ,figure #if shows the stock which should be soft steel1 to be used in making a ,hay ,hook4 ,the eye is first turned1 using #aa inches of the bar4 ,the end is then heated and drawn to a point after which it is bent as shown in the drawing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,hay ,hook4 ,exercise ,no4 #ad--,welding ,ring4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,figure #ig shows a drawing for a ring to be made from -in4 round stock cut #aj inches long4 ,the whole is heated red at one time and then formed into shape by hammering it over the horn as shown in ,figure #ih4 ,the ends are now heated and scarfed in the same manner as described for the welded link4 ,when they are lapped and ready for welding1 they should look like ,figure #ii4 ,notice that the ring is made egg shape so that a heat may be taken directly on the ends of the scarfs and not at the sides4 ,the ring when welded is formed round4 ,another method of welding rings is to upset the ends and then form the rings4 ,it is scarfed as explained above4 ,this is seldom done in practical work because it is too slow1 and the other method is about as strong4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,fig4 #ii4 ,in welding the ring1 it is handled in the same manner as in welding links4 ,to find the amount of stock for rings1 the inside diameter plus the thickness of stock is multiplied by #c4adaf or #c4 ,to this is added enough stock for the lap of the weld4 ,for example a ring is required of one-inch stock4 ,the inside measure is #aj inches4 ,solution3 7#aj #a7 #c #aa #c #cd inch for welding4 ,in heating a piece of iron to be formed into a ring1 it should never be heated to the welding heat4 ,a welding heat on any piece of work that is not to be hammered destroys the texture of the metal4 ,any piece of work to be formed1 should be heated evenly and not too hot4 ,iron when heated expands4 ,for example1 if a piece of stock #ab by #a by in4 is heated red its entire length and then measured1 it will be about #ab in4 long4 ,when the piece is cooled it will go back to its original length of twelve inches4 ,in making bands or tires for wagons1 they are made a little short1 then heated and put on1 letting them shrink to their original size1 which makes them tight4 ,illustration3 ,wrought ,iron ,lantern4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,marking ,tongs--,pig ,iron--,puddling--,the ,bessemer ,process--,the ,open ,hearth ,process--,crucible ,steel--,the ,cementation ,process--,tempering4 ,exercise ,no4 #af4 ,in forging tongs1 stock -in4 square of ,norway or ,swedish iron may be used1 as it is much easier for a beginner in welding the handle on to the jaws4 ,soft steel may be used later on if desired4 ,figure #ajj shows the drawing of a finished pair of flat tongs4 ,figure #aja shows the size of stock used and the dimensions of the rough forgings4 ,it is not intended that the dimensions given are to be accurately followed1 but they are given as an idea of what may be forged from this size of stock4 ,in forging the jaws1 no helper is required to handle a sledge hammer after the piece is cut from the bar for the reason that it is time lost for the one who handles it1 besides one man can do it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,blacksmith's ,tongs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,in forging the jaws a heavy hand hammer is used1 and the bar is heated to the welding heat1 or near it4 ,one and one-eighth inch of the bar is set on the inner edge of the anvil and the lip is hammered as shown in ,figure #ajb4 ,the lip must not be turned and hammered on its edge4 ,let it get as wide as it will1 and do not hammer it too thin4 ,after the shoulder has been started for the length of the lip1 it must not be moved4 ,a common fault is to start the shoulder and then to find that the lip is not long enough and proceed to make another shoulder4 ,the result of the second shoulder is that when nearly finished a crack will be discovered4 ,the reason that second shoulder starts a crack is that the metal stretched over the first shoulder4 ,this is called a cold shut4 ,see ,figure #ajc4 ,another common fault is to lower the bar when making the lip4 ,this pulls the lip on an angle with the bar and when it is straightened1 another crack is formed in the corner4 ,see ,figure #ajd4 ,the bar must be on the same plane with the anvil face at all times4 ,when the lip is made1 the bar is turned to the left1 setting it on the outer edge of the anvil and hammering to form the shoulder for the eye4 ,see ,figure #aje4 ,it is then turned again to the left hand and hammered down for the last shoulder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,fig4 #aje4 ,at this time the stock required for the eye is beyond the outer edge of the anvil4 ,see ,figure #ajf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,the rough forging should always be made a little larger than the finished tongs2 finishing it to size when the handle is welded on4 ,when both jaws are forged1 they are cut in the center and the handles are welded on4 ,when the handles are well upset and scarfed1 the shanks of the jaws are drawn to equal size4 ,care must be taken in having the scarfed ends equal in size or a poor weld will result4 ,the handles at the weld are drawn square with the corners tapered off4 ,the jaws are now drawn and fitted to size4 ,notice that the lip tapers on the edge1 also on the flat part4 ,a small flute is fullered lengthways on the inside of the lip so that round as well as flat iron may be held4 ,the hole is next punched thru the eye with a hand punch4 ,a piece of -in4 rod of soft steel is cut to the proper length and used for a rivet4 ,it is heated and inserted into the holes in the jaws and hammered on both sides with hard blows4 ,the jaws of the tongs are now heated red and worked back and forth to loosen the rivet in the eye4 ,the jaws are fitted to the size of the stock they are to handle as in ,figure #ajg4 ,the regular stock rivets should not be used in tongs4 ,the -in4 round piece headed from both sides fits the holes thru the eye best4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,in making tongs to hold a larger piece of stock1 the square bar should have an offset4 ,the jaws should then be forged as in ,figure #ajh4 ,notice where the hammer strikes the bar to offset it4 ,in forging tongs1 the handles should be welded to the jaws to give practice in welding4 ,pig ,iron4 ,pig iron is made by smelting the iron ore in a blast furnace4 ,the ore is charged in a furnace mixed with lime stone as a flux1 and melted by using coke or coal as fuel4 ,the resulting metal is called pig iron4 ,it contains from three to five per cent of carbon1 two to four per cent of silicon and various small amounts of sulphur1 phosphorus and manganese4 ,puddling4 ,wrought iron is made by melting the pig iron in a puddling furnace2 about one-half ton is charged at a time4 ,after it is softened1 it is stirred with large iron hooks by the puddler and his helper4 ,it is kept kneaded to expose every part to the action of the flame1 so as to burn out all of the carbon4 ,all the other impurities separate from the iron and form what is known as the puddle clinker4 ,pig iron melts at about #bajj ,f41 steel at #bejj ,f41 and wrought iron at #bhjj ,f41 so the temperature of the puddling furnace is kept high enough to melt pig iron but not hot enough to keep wrought iron in a liquid state4 ,consequently1 as soon as the iron becomes pure it forms a spongy mass4 ,this mass of sponge is divided into lumps of about #ajj or #aej pounds which are taken to a squeezer and formed into blocks4 ,in the operation of squeezing the greater proportion of impurities left in the iron after the puddling1 are removed4 ,while these blocks are still hot they are rolled into flat musk bars4 ,the bars are now cut and heated to white heat in a furnace1 taken to the rolls1 welded and rolled into merchant bars4 ,in the welding and rolling the cinder coated globules of iron are forced close together as the iron is welded4 ,this gives the iron a fibrous structure increasing its strength4 ,bessemer ,process4 ,in making steel by the ,bessemer process1 the pig iron is put into a large pear shaped vessel called the converter4 ,the bottom is double2 the inner casing is perforated with holes called tuyeres1 to admit air forced under pressure4 ,from ten to fifteen tons of molten iron at one time are poured into the converter while it is lying on its side4 ,the compressed air is now turned into the double bottom as the converter rises to a vertical position4 ,the air has sufficient pressure to prevent the metal from entering the tuyeres1 and it passes up and thru the metal1 burning out the carbon4 ,after the blast which lasts about ten minutes1 the metal is practically liquid wrought iron4 ,the converter is now laid on its side and the blast is shut off4 ,a certain amount of molten spiegeleisen 7white cast iron containing much carbon or ferromanganese7 is added so as to give the steel the proper amount of carbon and manganese to make it suitable for its purpose4 ,the steel is then poured into ingots and rolled into rails1 girders1 etc4 ,carbon is pure charcoal2 manganese is a chemical element very difficult to fuse1 but easily oxidized4 ,open ,hearth ,process4 ,the open hearth process of steel manufacturing is similar to the puddling process4 ,the carbon is removed by the action of an oxidizing flame of burning gas4 ,the furnace has a capacity of forty or fifty tons and is heated with gas or oil4 ,the gas and air needed for its combustion are heated to a temperature of over #ajjj ,f4 before entering the combustion chamber1 by passing thru so-called regenerative chambers4 ,owing to the preheating of the gas and air a very high temperature can be maintained in the furnace so as to keep the iron liquid after it has parted with the carbon4 ,the stirring up of the metal is not done with hooks as in puddling furnace but by adding certain proportions of iron scales or other oxides the chemical reaction of which keeps the metal in a state of agitation4 ,with the open hearth process the metal can be tested from time to time4 ,when it contains the proper amount of carbon it is drawn off thru the tapping hole at the bottom of the hearth1 leaving the slag at the top4 ,as steel is produced in a liquid form1 from which impurities have been removed in the form of slag that rises and floats at the top1 the metal is homogeneous and practically without grain4 ,wrought iron will outlast steel when exposed to the weather4 ,crucible steel1 or tool steel1 also called cast steel1 is made by using high grade1 ,swedish1 wrought iron and adding carbon which is low in phosphorus content4 ,the oldest method is called the 8,cementation ,process40 ,the iron bars were packed in air-tight retorts with powdered charcoal between them4 ,they were put in a cementation furnace1 heated red and kept at this temperature for several days4 ,the bars1 in this way1 absorbed the carbon from the charcoal4 ,the carbonized bars 7called 8blister steel07 were then cut into small pieces1 remelted in a crucible1 poured in ingots and rolled into bars4 ,the newer method is to melt small pieces of ,norway or ,swedish iron base with charcoal in a graphite or clay crucible4 ,it is then poured into moulds and made into ingots1 after which it is forged or rolled into bars4 ,the crucible process enables the manufacture of steel to almost exact analysis and insures a clean and pure material4 ,it also absorbs the carbon much faster than steel made the old way4 ,in the school forge shop1 the tool steel used should be of an inexpensive kind4 ,high priced steel should not be used as more or less is wasted by the pupils in working4 ,a carbon steel should be used for all forge shop tools4 ,about #ge to #ie point is suitable4 ,high-speed tool steel should be used only to give the pupils instruction in its handling and use1 and to familiarize them with the different kinds of steel and their treatment4 ,to the steel maker1 temper means the percentage of carbon in the steel4 ,the word point means one-hundredth of one per cent1 thus #aj point carbon means ten one-hundredths of one per cent4 ,one hundred and fifty point carbon contains one and one-half per cent4 ,this is about as high as is generally made4 ,one hundred and fifty point is known as high temper2 low temper is about #dj point4 ,steel containing less than #dj point does not harden to advantage and is classed with machinery steel4 ,there is a range of tempers between high and low point which are used for different kinds of tools4 ,in the forge shop the term temper means the degree of hardness given to a piece of tool steel4 ,as an example1 a piece of steel is heated to a dark red color and cooled in water or oil4 ,this is called hardening4 ,if this piece is too hard for the purpose intended1 it is then tempered to reduce some of its hardness1 and to give the steel elasticity and strength4 ,in doing this1 it is subjected to heat1 7the more heat the softer the piece becomes74 ,in the forge shop1 in tempering steel1 the metal is polished bright after hardening4 ,if it is a small piece1 it is then held on or near a piece of hot iron4 ,as the piece becomes heated1 the steel heated in the air assumes colors2 at first a very faint yellow and gradually darker1 until all of the color has disappeared leaving the steel without any trace of hardness4 ,these different colors as they appear on the surface of hardened steel represent different degrees of hardness4 ,the following simple list of colors applies to the different tools and carbon to use3 ,light straw--#dcj ,f4 ,lathe tools--#acj point carbon4 ,dark straw--#dgj ,f4 ,taps and dies--#abj point carbon4 ,purple gray--#ecj ,f4 ,chisels and blacksmiths' tools1 #ge to #ie point carbon4 ,of course there are other colors than these4 ,as the heat advances every few degrees the color keeps changing to a darker which indicates the tool is becoming softer4 ,the hardening heat is about #acjj to #adjj degrees ,fahrenheit1 or a cherry red4 ,about #djj degrees ,fahrenheit relieves the strain in a hardened piece of steel2 #fjj degrees leaves a trace of hardness and is about right for springs4 ,in order to know the results of heating and cooling steel one should take a small bar and cut nicks in it with a chisel every half inch4 ,the bar is then heated from a white heat at the end to a very dark red some inches back4 ,it is then cooled in water1 the pieces broken and the grain noted4 ,the heat that leaves the steel file hard and a very fine grain is the hardening heat of that steel4 ,the hardening heat is a dark red4 ,the hotter it was when cooled the coarser the grain shows on the end of the broken pieces4 ,in further demonstrating hardening and tempering of tool steel1 the making of a flat cold chisel will be considered4 ,the principles involved are about the same in all hardening and tempering4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,making a ,flat ,cold ,chisel--,spring ,tempering--,welding ,steel--,case ,hardening--,coloring ,steel--,annealing--,making a ,scratch ,awl--,making a ,center ,punch--,making a ,hand ,punch--,high ,speed ,steel--,annealing ,high ,speed ,steel4 ,exercise ,no4 #ag4--;,flat ,cold ,chisel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,a good cold chisel is an indispensable tool in a shop1 and one that is very much abused4 ,therefore1 it should be made with the greatest care4 ,in the forging of a good chisel a piece of -in4 octagonal tool steel1 from #ge to #ie point carbon1 is used4 ,the piece is cut six inches long4 ,in doing this the bar may be nicked with a chisel4 ,the nicked part is then set over the outer edge of the anvil4 ,a chisel with a handle is set on the nicks and given a good blow with a sledge hammer1 shearing the piece from the bar4 ,see ,figure #aji4 ,this method of cutting is quite dangerous1 so care must be taken4 ,perhaps1 a less dangerous method1 tho not so practical1 is to heat the bar red and cut the piece off with a hot chisel and sledge1 or on the hardie1 if one has no helper4 ,the end is then hammered4 ,see ,figure ,no4 #aaj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,when cut off and hammered round on one end1 the piece is caught with a fluted-lip pair of tongs that will hold it firmly and a ring is placed on the ends of the reins to bind them4 ,the end is now heated in a well burned fire1 letting the heat soak in slowly1 and not forcing it with too much blast4 ,if the fire is lively hardly any blast is used on the start4 ,the piece is brought to a heat somewhat beyond what is commonly called cherry heat4 ,it is then taken to the anvil and drawn out square with hard blows of the hammer1 to a long taper1 and nearly to a point4 ,this taper should be about #a inches long4 ,see ,figure ,no4 #aaa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,hammering must cease before the red heat has left the steel4 ,it is again heated and hammered on two sides2 in drawing the chisel bends edgewise4 ,do not strike it on the edge2 it will fracture the grain of the steel4 ,to straighten the blade1 it should be hammered on the flat side near the concave edge4 ,see ,figure ,no4 #aab4 ,this stretches the metal and straightens the blade4 ,care must be taken in hammering not to make the chisel wider in one place than in another4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,fig4 #aac4 ,when finishing the chisel1 it is hammered lightly until the red is nearly but not quite gone4 ,this hammering packs the grain and makes it fine4 ,the end of the chisel is set on a hardie and cut half thru1 so that when it is hardened and tempered it may be broken to note its grain and also require less grinding in sharpening4 ,see ,figure ,no4 #aac4 ,the chisel is now heated very slowly to a dark red and set in a dry place on the forge to anneal4 ,this annealing relieves the strain in the tool due to hammering4 ,when the chisel is cold it is reheated to harden and temper4 ,over-heating does not make the tool harder when cooled in water1 but increases its brittleness1 so care must be taken when heating4 ,the heating must be very slow1 and to a dark red1 #b inches long4 ,the chisel should be cooled as the heat is going up4 ,a common practice of heating the steel more than a cherry red and holding it out of the forge until the heat goes down1 before dipping1 is wrong4 ,when properly heated the chisel is held in a vertical position and dipped about #a inches into #af gallons of salt and water1 heated from #fj to #gj ,f4 ,see ,figure #aad4 ,the tool is kept in motion when dipped4 ,when cooled it is removed1 and the hardened part is rubbed bright with an emery stick or sand paper4 ,this is done so that the temper colors may be seen4 ,tempering increases the tool's elasticity and strength1 and reduces the brittleness4 ,the temper color will show just a faint yellow against the edge of the remaining heat that was left in the tool after hardening4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,in hardening the tool1 it is heated #b inches of its length and #a inches is cooled in water to harden4 ,the remaining heat gradually runs thruout the whole chisel and may be noted by the faint yellow color on the bright part of the tool traveling towards the cutting end4 ,this faint yellow temper color1 due to the heat and air1 is followed with darker colors2 if let run too much all of the hardness would be taken out of the tool4 ,four hundred and thirty degrees ,fahrenheit would be about a light straw color1 leaving the steel very hard4 ,about #fjj ,f4 would be the darkest color1 nearly black4 ,this is as hot as steel can be made and still leave a trace of hardness4 ,this temper is too soft for a chisel but about right for springs2 therefore when the very dark purple temper color covers the whole bright part of the chisel the point is dipped in water4 ,the chisel is then set in a dry place on the forge to cool slowly4 ,the temper color must run to the end of the chisel very slowly4 ,the reason for this is that if the temper color comes slow1 the chisel is tempered farther back from the point4 ,the temper colors on the surface of the bright steel are obtained by different degrees of heat1 as it travels from the remaining heat left in the tool when the piece was hardened4 ,the less heat allowed to travel toward the end of chisel1 the paler the temper color and the harder the chisel2 therefore1 the faint yellow color indicates that the steel is very hard4 ,the darker the temper color becomes the softer the tool4 ,the best chisels are those that are file proof4 ,if1 after hardening and tempering a chisel1 it cannot be cut with a file1 it is too hard and the temper must be run out more4 ,if the grain of steel is very fine when broken the chisel had the proper heat when quenched1 but if it looks coarse the tool was too hot when cooled and must be annealed1 rehardened and tempered4 ,a little judgment will enable one to determine the proper hardness for all tools of this character by noting these temper colors4 ,the above explanation in a general way applies to the working of all carbon steel tools4 ,spring ,tempering4 ,there are many kinds of springs that are hardened and tempered4 ,the methods of handling are about the same with all4 ,as an example1 a piece of spring steel #e by #a by inches is to be tempered4 ,in doing this1 the piece is caught at one end with a pair of light tongs4 ,the steel is heated to a dark red and dipped into a can of sperm oil1 or equal parts of lard and tallow4 ,when cool it is held over the fire until the surplus oil takes fire and blazes off4 ,it is redipped in the oil1 and the oil is burned three times in all4 ,it is then partly cooled in the oil and set on the forge until cool1 when it is ready for use4 ,steel is manufactured especially for springs4 ,it is called spring steel4 ,it is made in a different way from tool steel1 by the open hearth process4 ,it differs in quality and cannot be absolutely guaranteed4 ,the steel is never free from all foreign elements which might be detrimental to its quality4 ,tempering ,thin ,pieces of ,steel4 ,in hardening thin pieces of steel such as knives1 very thin milling cutters1 etc41 there is always difficulty in preventing warping after hardening4 ,two heavy surface plates1 planed on one side1 are used4 ,on one of these plates equal parts of tallow and lard are spread inch thick4 ,the knife is heated in a steam pipe with one end plugged and having fire under and over it4 ,when an even red heat is reached1 the knife is brought out and set on the oil and at the same time the top plate is set onto the knife until cool4 ,this hardens the blade and keeps it from springing4 ,the knife is brightened and the temper is drawn to a dark straw color by holding it on a hot iron4 ,very small pieces of steel are packed into an iron pipe or box surrounded with charcoal4 ,the whole is then heated red and the pieces are dumped out and cooled in water4 ,to draw temper1 they are put in an iron ladle filled with lard oil that is heated on the fire4 ,welding ,steel4 ,all small pieces of tool and spring steel should be welded with separate heats4 ,a little practice and a clean fire1 with some good welding compound1 are necessary4 ,in separate heat welding of flat steel1 the flat sides of the scarfs are put together instead of the beveled ones4 ,the scarfs are shown in ,figure ,no4 #aae4 ,the method of riveting and splitting small pieces of flat steel to hold them together while taking the heat is not to be recommended because after they are put together in this manner the lap is double thick1 and in raising the heat there is always danger of over-heating each side of the lap4 ,separate heats and a clean fire is the best method to use to make a good weld1 unless the steel is heavy4 ,in this case1 it is split and forked as previously explained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,welding ,thin ,steel4 ,case ,hardening4 ,the difference between wrought iron and tool steel lies in the absence of carbon in the iron4 ,tool steel can be hardened because it contains carbon1 and when heated and suddenly cooled becomes hard thruout4 ,the surface of wrought iron or mild steel can be carbonized and then made very hard4 ,this is called case hardening because about inch or less of the outside of the bar is made hard while the center is soft4 ,there are several methods4 ,one is to place the articles in a tight cast iron box and surrounded with ground bone before placing in a furnace4 ,the box is then brought to a high heat of about #agjj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,it is held at this heat for several hours and then let cool4 ,when cool1 the pieces are reheated and dipped in salt water to harden them or they may be cooled with the first heating4 ,by another method the pieces are placed in an iron ladle with cyanide of potassium and heated4 ,iron may be heated red and rolled in the cyanide1 then reheated and plunged into water4 ,care must be taken in handling cyanide as even the fumes are poisonous4 ,coloring ,steel4 ,very bright pieces of soft steel can be case hardened and colored at the same time4 ,in doing this1 cyanide is heated in an iron box1 and the steel articles are put into it4 ,when heated they are removed and dipped into a solution of water and salt peter to cool and harden them4 ,this gives them a mottled effect with many colors4 ,a pint of salt peter to about four gallons of water makes a solution strong enough4 ,this bath becomes poisoned from the cyanide4 ,it should be kept clean and labeled 8,poison40 ,annealing4 ,a piece of metal of any kind is said to be 8annealed0 when made very soft4 ,steel should be annealed before it is filed1 drilled1 or machined1 as it is a very hard metal to work when cold4 ,the method of annealing is first to heat the piece to a red heat4 ,it is then covered with warm1 slacked lime so that the air will not come in contact with it until cool4 ,a simple way to anneal1 when in a hurry1 is to heat the steel red1 setting it in a dry place on the forge until black4 ,it is then plunged into water quickly and brought out4 ,this operation is repeated until the piece is cool4 ,steel is also annealed by heating the piece red and setting it on the forge until cool4 ,the slower steel is cooled1 the softer it becomes4 ,wrought iron and mild steel forgings should always be annealed when used in work where there is danger of breaking them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf 7above74 ,fig4 #aag 7below74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,scratch ,awl4 ,exercise ,no4 #ah4--,scratch-,awl4 ,this tool is used to scratch holes on the surface of metal1 and also to lay out shapes on metal4 ,figure #aaf shows the dimensions of stock4 ,the piece should be carbon steel4 ,one and one-half inches from one end1 the bar is drawn out until it measures #b inches in length1 as shown in ,figure #aag4 ,it is then bent on an angle as shown in ,figure #aah4 ,this part is now heated and hammered over the horn of the anvil to form the eye or ring4 ,it is then twisted by catching one end in the vise and twisting to the right4 ,the point is next drawn out as shown in ,figure #aai4 ,the point is then ground or filed and the awl tempered hard4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,scratch ,awl ,complete4 ,exercise ,no4 #ai--;,center-,punch4 ,figure #abj shows the size of stock and ,figure #aba shows the center-punch completed4 ,the top part is first made1 then the bottom is drawn out to a taper4 ,in doing this1 it is first drawn square1 then eight sided and finally rounded4 ,the point is ground and the punch is tempered to a purple color4 ,for heavy centering a larger size steel should be used4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj 7above74 ,center ,punch4 ,fig4 #aba 7below74 ,exercise ,no4 #bj--;,hand-,punch4 ,hand-punches are made of various sizes of stock1 in41 in4 and in41 and are used for hot punching4 ,figure #abb shows the size of stock for a punch that will be useful in the school shop1 and ,figure #abc shows the completed punch4 ,it is made in the same manner as described for the center-punch4 ,this punch must not be tempered4 ,for punching square holes the punch is drawn square1 and the ends of all hand-punches are made smaller than the hole to be punched4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,stock for ,punch4 ,fig4 #abc4 ,completed ,punch4 ,high speed steels1 due to their hardness and durability1 retain their edge when cutting at extremely high speeds4 ,it has only been of recent years that high speed steels came into use4 ,before this time self-hardening steels were made by ,jessop and ,mushet which were in general use4 ,they were tempered by heating to a dark red and left to cool in the air4 ,the high speed steels of today are heated to #b1jjj or #b1bjj ,fahr41 or a white heat bordering on a welding heat4 ,the chemical composition of these new steels are only known by their makers4 ,however1 it is said that they contain carbon1 tungsten1 chromium1 manganese and other elements4 ,the great advantage in using high speed steel1 is that a machine can be run three times as fast as one using carbon steel1 without destroying the edge of the tool4 ,the output is therefore greater4 ,of course1 in order to force this steel to do a great amount of work the machine tools should be constructed to stand heavy strains4 ,all kinds of tools are now being made from high speed steel4 ,for light lathe work1 high speed steel is used in the adjustable tool holder4 ,the most common tool for doing heavy work is the round nose which is made from various size steel4 ,high speed tool steel is sold under many brands4 ,the method of handling is about the same for all4 ,however each manufacturer will give the method which is best for his particular make of steel4 ,in forging high speed lathe tools1 a furnace or clean fire with plenty of coke is used4 ,the steel is heated to a bright red heat1 holding the steel at this heat as nearly as possible when hammering4 ,forging at a low heat is liable to cause the steel to burst4 ,when the tool is forged1 it is laid in a dry place on the forge to cool4 ,when hardening1 the point of the tool is brought to a white welding heat1 about #b1ajj ,fahr41 and this is noticeable by the appearance of melted borax1 forming on the nose4 ,the tool is now held in a compressed air blast1 or dipped into sperm1 linseed or lard oil until cool4 ,annealing ,high ,speed ,steel4 ,the process is the same as the one used for carbon steel1 heating to a red heat and covering the piece with slacked lime until cold4 ,in cutting high speed tool steel1 the bar may be nicked with the emery wheel1 then broken4 ,in working tool steel or iron of any weight the blows of the hammer must be heavy4 ,light blows stretch the outer part of the metal and not the center4 ,this is liable to fracture it4 ,the blow must be heavy so as to penetrate thru the bar4 ,a trip hammer of ordinary size run by a belt is a very economical tool for the school shop4 ,it is inexpensive and can be used to advantage in drawing out large pieces of stock1 especially tool steel4 ,every pupil should have more or less practice in the handling of a trip or steam hammer4 ,illustration ,,ii--,,art ,,smithing ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,wrought ,iron ,work--,making a ,wrought ,iron ,leaf--,making a ,volute ,scroll--,grilles4 ,at the present time great interest is being taken in the teaching of art work in our public schools4 ,every school of importance is doing something in the way of giving the pupils a knowledge of art4 ,one working in the school crafts should study art4 ,there is no craft work that one can do well without this training4 ,with art training one can see defects in his work much quicker than without such training4 ,in fact1 it opens up a new world of possibilities to the workman4 ,the more one is convinced of the value of thoro acquaintance with the medium in which he is working1 the higher the class of work he produces4 ,all fine workmen in any craft have more or less ability to draw4 ,this not only gives them power to transfer their conceptions to paper1 but it also helps them in the execution of the work4 ,the iron-worker in particular should practice free-hand drawing4 ,it enables him to form his material into proper shape4 ,as a general thing1 forge work is fashioned into shape by eye4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,forged ,leaf4 ,wrought iron-work is one of the oldest of the handicrafts4 ,it was extensively practiced by the ancients and carried to a high degree of excellence1 both in execution and design4 ,during the ,middle ,ages and up to the seventeenth century some of the finest examples were produced4 ,a study of the older forms1 especially those of ,medieval ,german production1 shows iron fashioned in keeping with its properties and with the spirit of the craftsman4 ,it is impossible to utilize natural forms in wrought iron without convention4 ,realistic iron flowers are inconsistent with the material in which they are executed4 ,they kill the strength and destroy the character of the metal4 ,this should be learned early by one working in iron4 ,when the iron-worker of the past imitated nature too closely in leaf and flower1 he failed as a designer and his work deteriorated4 ,iron as a crude metal must be fashioned into shapes that are suitable and practical for the material4 ,for instance1 it readily allows itself to be worked into graceful curved forms which can be used to advantage in grille work4 ,it may be surface-decorated by using chasing tools4 ,this may be done on hot or cold metal1 depending upon the depth wanted4 ,iron may also be punctured with openings thru the metal which give the play of light and shadow that is very pleasing4 ,grotesque figures and an endless variety of leaf forms may also be worked in iron4 ,these should be conventionalized4 ,embossed or repousse work may be done to advantage4 ,in doing this the metal while hot is hammered on the end grain of elm wood and on forms made from iron4 ,when cold it is hammered on lead1 and steel tools are used to sharpen up the detail4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,cutting ,tool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,modeling ,hammer4 ,in ,figure #a is shown a leaf made from ,number #af sheet steel and ,figure #b shows a pattern of the same leaf4 ,in making a leaf of this kind1 a full-size drawing is made just as it should look when modeled4 ,from this drawing a pattern is developed as the leaf would look when in the flat4 ,it is impossible to lay it out accurately4 ,the method used is to find the stretch out of the leaf by measuring along its greatest length4 ,this can be done by using a pair of dividers4 ,the length found is then laid off on the metal4 ,the widest parts of the leaf are then measured and laid on the metal4 ,having the length and width1 the rest can be sketched in4 ,the leaf is now cut out with a narrow cold chisel that can be made to follow the curved line4 ,this cutting should be done while the metal is cold4 ,the leaf shown in the illustration has been fluted with a steel hand-tool4 ,in doing this a tool as shown in ,figure #c is used4 ,this tool is made smooth1 rounded at the base like an ordinary fuller and then hardened4 ,the fluting is also done while the metal is cold4 ,lines are marked on the metal with a slate pencil and then sunken with the tool and hammer4 ,in modeling the leaf a hammer like the one shown in ,figure #d is used4 ,it is called the modeling hammer4 ,this hammer has a ball on one end and a pein on the other1 both of which are made very smooth and without sharp corners4 ,these hammers are made in various sizes4 ,in modelling the leaf it is heated and hammered on the back side with the ball of the hammer1 using the elm block to hammer on4 ,the ends of the lobes are then formed to give the whole a decorative effect4 ,these leaves are generally used in grille work and are welded into position4 ,in ,figure #e is shown part of a grille with a similar leaf welded on4 ,in welding leaves to the members of grille work the bottom part of the leaf is formed around the bar2 caught with a pair of tongs1 it is heated1 using a flux when hot4 ,it is then taken to the anvil and welded4 ,a small collar is finally welded in front of the leaf as shown in the illustration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,grille with ,leaf4 ,the leaves shown in the illustrations are made to cover the grille on but one side4 ,if a grille is to be seen from both sides when in place1 the leaves are cut out symmetrically and then bent and modeled to fit over the top and sides of the bars so that they appear finished from both sides4 ,figure #f shows the pattern of such a leaf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,pattern of ,leaf4 ,the following exercises will be of a simple nature to give the beginner an idea of the tools and processes used in producing this kind of work by hand4 ,the writer does not claim that the following method is the only one to be used in doing this work4 ,there are many other ways to execute these exercises and one should use his own ingenuity in designing and executing individual pieces4 ,it is hoped that pupils will be encouraged to originate designs of their own to work out in this interesting metal4 ,the tools used in making these exercises will be the ordinary forge shop tools that can be made1 and will be described later on1 as they are needed4 ,exercise ,no4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,volute ,scrolls4 ,volute ,scroll4 ,this exercise is given in order to familiarize one with the bending of curved forms and also to train the hand and eye in doing free-hand work4 ,no metal lends itself more readily to the bending of curves than wrought iron4 ,the scroll is an important element in the designing of iron doors1 window grilles1 etc4 ,in bending1 the scroll must not have kinks or flat places1 but a gradual curve4 ,if it is desired to suggest strength1 the scroll is coiled tightly2 or if lightness of effect is desired1 it is coiled loosely4 ,in making a scroll to fit some particular place a drawing is made with chalk on a surface plate4 ,the scroll is then measured along the line with a string to find its length4 ,in ,figure #g are shown drawings of typical scrolls4 ,the one at ,a shows too much space between the coils4 ,the scroll at ,b is top-heavy owing to the coils being equal in size4 ,the one at ,c has a continuous curve with unequal coils which balance better4 ,in bending a scroll from a flat piece of stock1 as shown in ,figure #h1 the end is heated and hammered on the corners to make it round at one end4 ,it is then bent over the outer edge of the anvil1 as shown in ,figure #i ,a and ,b1 to form the eye4 ,it is then heated for a considerable part of its length and rolled up as shown at ,c4 ,if any kinks get into the bar they can be rectified by hammering on the horn4 ,this is the method used in forming a scroll with the hammer4 ,in heating the bar to be rolled into scroll form1 it must not be heated to a white heat4 ,scrolls are also bent over forms when a great number are wanted4 ,heavy scrolls are formed by bending in a bending fork that fits into a square hole in the anvil4 7,see fork in ,figure #aj47 ,a monkey wrench is used to bend the bar when in the fork4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,bending ,fork4 ,in ,figure #aa and ,figure #ab are shown grilles which are made from flat stock4 ,the scrolls in this case were made after the bars had been welded in place4 ,they could be made first and then riveted or fastened with iron bands1 but welding of course makes a better job4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,grille4 ,in ,figure #ac is shown a drawing for a welded scroll4 ,notice the dotted line at ,a4 ,this is where the weld is made4 ,at ,b1 the pieces are shown in position to be welded by the separate heat method4 ,in doing this the length is measured on the drawing with a string1 and the three pieces cut4 ,the two short ones are upset2 and one is laid on top of the other2 then heated and welded at the same time they are scarfed4 ,the long piece is upset and welded to the short one4 ,they are then formed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,grille4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,twisting--,braiding--,making a ,fire ,shovel4 ,exercise ,no4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,twisting4 ,a piece of one-half inch square stock1 nine inches long1 is heated its entire length1 one end caught in a vise and with a monkey wrench or heavy pair of tongs on the other1 it is twisted to the right4 ,if the heat is an even one and not too hot1 the spacing of the twist will be uniform4 ,in case one part twists faster than another1 a little water is used to cool that part4 ,the beauty of twisted work depends on having the spacing uniform between the turns4 7,see ,figure #ad47 ,flat stock can also be twisted in this manner4 ,to straighten twisted work1 it is heated red1 set on the end grain of elm wood and hammered with a wooden mallet4 ,the mallet used in this work should be made from hickory4 ,for heavy striking a little band of iron can be put on the mallet a half-inch from one end1 so that the mallet will not split4 ,the block on which to straighten the iron should be about ten inches in diameter and three feet high4 ,a short block about eight inches wide and twelve inches long may be set into the coal box1 having coal under and around it to hold it in place4 ,this makes a very handy block on which to bump up light pieces of metal or to straighten metal4 ,exercise ,no4 #c4 ,figure #ae shows the dimensions of stock for a twisted poker-handle4 ,the four -inch rods are upset on one end until they measure six inches4 ,they are then welded together on this end4 ,this is done by first twisting a strong binding wire around the rods to keep them in place while taking the heat4 7,see ,figure #af47 ,in welding1 they are welded directly on the ends and scarfed as shown in ,figure #ae4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,poker ,handles4 ,notice that the scarf is made so that the point of the scarf on the other piece will come onto a one-quarter inch rod and not between the two4 ,the scarf must not be hammered farther back from the ends than -inch4 ,the -inch bar is now upset on one end and scarfed4 ,the two parts are then welded1 smoothing the weld with the hand hammer4 ,the end of the handle is welded directly at the ends of the rods4 ,the entire handle is heated uniformly1 caught in a vise and twisted to the right4 ,if any part twists faster than another1 that part is cooled with water dropped from a hole in the bottom of a tin cup4 ,in twisting the handle1 the bar is caught in the vise4 ,a strong pair of tongs are used on the end of the handle to twist it1 or the end of the handle can be caught with a monkey wrench4 ,the point of the poker is drawn to a square point and then flattened4 ,in making pokers or shovels1 the stock may be either round or square4 ,in ,figure #ag are shown some handles that are suitable for pokers or shovels4 ,a method of braiding the last handle shown in the illustration is to weld four -in4 rods of either round or square stock to a piece of -inch round stock4 ,two of the rods are then bent over at right angles to the one-half inch piece4 ,the others are bent over them1 and so on until finished4 ,the four rods are then welded at the top and a ring turned4 ,the last illustration shows the method of bending the rods4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,shovel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,shovel ,handle4 ,exercise ,no4 #d4 ,shovel4--,figure #ah shows the dimensions and form of the exercise4 ,in making the handle1 -in4 square stock is used4 ,the piece is cut #be inches long4 ,on one end the piece is upset considerably in order to get a good sized head4 ,five inches from the end of the head a line is cut on four sides with a chisel4 ,this part is then hammered with a ball hammer while hot to give it a rough texture as shown in ,figure #ai4 ,the other end of the handle is upset a little1 bent on an angle and flattened1 letting it get as wide as it will4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,the development of the pattern for the shovel blade is shown in ,figure #bj4 ,at the top is shown a side and end elevation of the shovel4 ,the dimensions should be drawn full size4 ,the shapes of the sides and of the ends are found by measuring from the elevation4 ,the pattern should be made from sheet iron and kept for future use4 ,in forming the shovel1 the sides are first bent up by using the vise and heel of the anvil4 ,this forming must be done while the metal is cold4 ,the end of the shovel may be bent by hammering it over a heavy1 flat piece of iron4 ,the corners are hammered around the sides by catching the shovel in the vise4 ,they are fastened by drilling holes thru both pieces and riveting them1 using a rivet set to finish the rivets4 ,in fastening the handle to the blade or shovel1 three ,number #aj round-head rivets are used4 ,if desired1 the handle can be made from larger stock1 also increasing the size and the thickness of the shovel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,door ,latch4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,making a ,door-latch--,making a ,hinge--,making a ,candle-stick4 ,exercise ,no4 #e4 ,door latch4--,in ,figure #ba is shown a latch for a double door4 ,in ,figure #bb are shown the dimensions of the two plates and the bar latch4 ,in making the plates1 a piece of soft steel1 #b in4 wide and -in4 thick is used4 ,the design is sketched on the metal and five -in4 holes are drilled in each plate where the square holes come in the design4 ,the plates are then heated and a square punch is used to drift out the holes4 ,the outside edges are then cut4 ,the plate is heated and with a square punch the metal is set down to give it the interlaced effect as shown in ,figure #bc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,the plates are now filed to straighten the square holes1 and the holes on the corners for screws are drilled4 ,figure #bd represents the catch1 which can be made as shown1 and the knob which is worked out on the end of a rod1 as shown in ,figure #be4 ,it is hammered on the outer edge of the anvil4 ,after each blow it is turned until finished4 ,then it is cut off and the tenon is filed4 ,the guard shown in ,figure #bf is cut from a flat piece as represented4 ,the bar is made from by -in4 stock1 drilled1 and a slot is sawed for the spring4 ,the spring is about by -in4 and can be made from spring steel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,figure #bg represents a hinge that can be made from -in4 soft steel4 ,after the design is sketched with a slate pencil on the metal1 the open parts are drilled and cut out4 ,the outside is next cut with a chisel and the edges are filed smooth4 ,the eye or joint of the hinge is formed without welding1 by hammering it around an eye pin of the desired size4 ,the prongs or projections to form the knuckle are filed so that they fit into one another4 ,the interlacing is done with a square end punch in the same manner as explained for the latch4 ,a great variety of designs of this kind can be made to advantage in iron4 ,a drawing of a simple strap hinge is shown in ,figure #bh4 ,the part of the strap at ,a on the drawing is made greater in length than width for appearance4 ,this gives the strap apparent strength and emphasizes its length4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,candle-stick4 ,the hinge can be made any length desired but should be carefully proportioned2 the eye can be made loose or welded4 ,in welding a hinge-eye the lap should always be on the back4 ,note the drawing of the eye ready for welding in ,figure #bi4 ,in making hinges1 the making of the eye is always the first operation4 ,a welded eye makes the strongest hinge2 but it can be made with a loose eye if desired4 ,in bending and finishing the eye1 an eye-pin should be used to true the hole4 ,an eye-pin is a piece of round steel of the desired size drawn tapering on each end so that it can be driven thru a hole4 ,the projections that form the joint for a loose eye hinge should be cut out before the eye is made4 ,if the stock is light1 the joint in either a loose or a welded hinge can be filed or sawed after the eye is turned4 ,in a heavy eye the projections are laid off and marked on the metal while flat4 ,the bar is then heated and split lengthwise from one side1 starting -inch from the end1 and cutting long enough to make the eye4 ,the eye is then formed and welded1 and pieces are cut out leaving alternating projections which can be filed to fit4 ,exercise ,no4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,exercise ,no4 #f is a candle-stick4 ,the reproduction1 ,figure #cj1 shows the finished piece4 ,the drawing1 ,figure #ca1 at ,a1 gives the dimensions2 at ,b1 is shown the pattern of the bottom in the flat4 ,the bottom is cut from a sheet of soft steel1 using a narrow cold chisel4 ,the edge is then filed and bent up about one-quarter of an inch4 ,in doing so1 it is hammered over a round block or iron which fits into the square hole of the anvil4 ,see ,figure #cb4 ,the handle is formed by heating it1 and hammering it over the horn of the anvil4 ,in making the socket to hold the candle as shown at ,c1 ,figure #ca1 the piece is cut from number #bj soft steel4 ,at ,d1 is illustrated the stock cut ready for forming4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,in cutting this piece1 the shape is sketched with a slate pencil on the metal4 ,five holes are now drilled1 the center hole1 in4 in diameter and four -in4 holes at the base of leaves4 ,a narrow cold chisel is then used which will cut on a curved line4 ,the edges of the pieces are then filed2 the piece is heated and hammered on the elm block to raise it4 ,in raising the socket1 it is heated in the center1 set over a depression in the block and hammered4 ,this brings the wings or leaves up4 ,they are brought up until they overlap one another1 the leaves forming a square box4 ,the whole piece is then heated1 placed on the end of a -in4 round bar1 setting the whole into a swage1 and the leaves are fitted around the bar by hammering4 ,the socket is then riveted in place4 ,a rivet is put in the end of the handle to hold it in place4 ,the candle-stick is now smoothed with a file and smoked over the fire1 then oiled4 ,illustration3 ,wrought ,iron ,lantern4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,making a ,drawer ,pull--,chasing--,making a ,door-knocker--,repousse--,perforated ,decoration4 ,exercise ,no4 #g4 ,drawer pulls can be of one part1 the handle being fastened directly to the drawer1 or they may be of two parts1 the handle and plate4 ,the handle can be made stationary on the plate or movable4 ,in ,figure #cc are shown some hinges1 drawer pulls and key escutcheons4 ,the open work is cut out while the stock is hot1 or if light stock is used1 it may be drilled1 cut and filed while the plate is cold4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,fig4 #ce4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,fig4 #cg4 ,the stock used in making a plate for a pull1 somewhat like those illustrated1 is represented in ,figure #cd4 ,after the plate is cut to size1 which is done cold with a hand chisel1 the outside surface is hammered while hot with a ball hammer1 drawing the plate a little thinner near the edge4 ,this hammering gives the surface a rough texture4 ,the edges are now ground or filed to shape and the holes are drilled as shown in the drawing4 ,the round holes are for screws to fasten the pull1 and the square holes are to fasten lugs1 on which the handle is to swing4 ,the lugs are shown in ,figure #ce4 ,the tenon can be filed1 the top rounded1 the holes drilled1 and the lugs riveted into the plate4 ,when riveting the lugs1 they are caught in a vise1 the plate set on and the tenons are riveted tight into the holes4 ,the square holes in the plate should be countersunk a little on the back before the lugs are riveted4 ,the handle is a movable one1 and the drawing is shown in ,figure #cf4 ,the different steps in making the handle are represented in ,figure #cg4 ,when the stock1 which should be soft steel1 is cut1 the ends are heated and drawn out tapering to inch at the end4 ,one-and-a-half inches from each end of the bar is marked with a center punch4 ,the ends are now bent over inch1 then the bar is bent at the center marks4 ,when the handle is formed to fit the plate it is smoothed with a file4 ,if desired1 a line can be chased on the handle and around the edge of plate4 ,in doing this a short1 light chisel is used4 ,after lines are traced on the plate with a slate pencil the chisel is set on the line and struck with a light hammer2 at the same time it is drawn towards the worker with the lead corner of the cutting edge directly on and above the line4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,the chisel should receive rapid1 light blows and be continually moved toward the workman4 ,the lead corner of the chisel should be guided onto the line while the other corner is doing the cutting4 ,see ,figure #ch1 a rather large sized drawing of the cutting edge of the chisel4 ,when the lines are chased with the chisel1 they should be gone over again with quite hard blows of the hammer1 forcing the chisel down to make the lines quite pronounced4 ,to put the handle in place on the plate1 it is heated and sprung into the holes of the lugs4 ,the last thing to do in finishing all work of this kind is to heat it to a dark red4 ,all scale and dirt is then scraped off2 when cool1 some oil is put on4 ,for this kind of work1 machine oil is good4 ,the reason it is heated to a dark1 even red heat is that when cool the handle and the plate will have the same color and texture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,exercise ,no4 #h4 ,in ,figure #ci are shown some hinges1 latches and door knockers4 ,figure #dj is a drawing of a simple knocker4 ,the plate is cut out and the line around the edge is chased with a tool4 ,the chasing tool is simply a cold chisel ground to a short bevel and rounded somewhat like a fuller1 as shown in ,figure #da4 ,a short chisel is used for cold work and a longer one for hot work4 ,the chasing can be done while the metal is cold4 ,if it is to be very deep or wide the plate is heated and a longer chisel is used4 ,the lug at ,figure #db is made and riveted into the plate4 ,the top of the hammer is filed to straddle it4 ,a hole is then drilled and a rivet put thru4 ,holes are drilled around the edge of the plate for screws or nails4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,fig4 #db4 ,in making the hammer a piece of -inch square1 soft steel is used4 ,it is upset on one end to get the stock large enough for the bottom of the hammer4 ,the bar is then drawn out on the horn as shown at ,figure #dc4 ,the top part is formed as shown at ,figure #dd4 ,lines are chased on the front of hammer as shown in the drawing2 this can be done after it is formed4 ,if the lines are to be very deep it should be done while the piece is straight and heated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,fig4 #dd4 ,there is ample room for design in the making of door knockers1 both for outside and inside doors of dwellings4 ,knocker plates for doors on the inside of dwellings can be elaborated by a combination of repousse1 chasing and perforated decoration which give a variety of light and shadow4 ,perforated plates can be backed up with colored leather or cloth which gives a very pleasing contrast to the metal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,in ,figure #de is shown an interior door knocker4 ,it is backed up with colored leather4 ,the plates are made of -in4 thick1 soft steel4 ,after the plates are cut out1 the openings are marked with a slate pencil and gone over with a short cold chisel to mark them4 ,the plate is then heated1 and the part enclosed by the chisel line is cut out4 ,a very narrow chisel1 #ab in4 long1 is used to do the cutting4 ,the cutting is all done from the outside4 ,this gives the edge a slight bevel4 ,the edges of open places are trued up with a file4 ,the openings must not be filed too exact and smooth4 ,the most essential thing to look after is form2 the work looks best when it shows handwork and is not mechanical4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,handwork is most in keeping with the design and the material4 ,the lines on the plate are chased with a narrow chisel and the foliated form bumped out from the back by hammering on the end grain of the elm block4 ,the hammer that does the knocking is hinged on the top plate so that the bottom part moves out and in when knocking4 ,very thin red leather is glued on the back of the plate with fish glue4 ,the diameter of the top plate is #d-;in41 the bottom #b-;in41 and the hammer is #f-;in4 long4 ,a good method of working out ideas for pieces of this character is to make numerous rough sketches on paper with a lead pencil1 making one line over another without erasing4 ,when one gets what he thinks is good it is redrawn and perfected4 ,it may then be worked in the material4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,at ,figure #df is shown a door knocker hinged at the top4 ,the plate is one piece4 ,at ,figure #dg are shown the dimensions of the plate4 ,after the shape of the plate is sketched on the metal1 the lines are traced with a chisel4 ,the open work is then cut out1 and the outside of the plate is cut and filed4 ,the center leaf at the top of the plate is indicated by forcing the metal down along the top edge of the leaf with a punch1 also at the bottom to form the interlace4 ,the plate should be hot when this is done4 ,the hammer shown in ,figure #dh should be forged from -in4 square1 soft steel4 ,the lug shown on the drawing is to be made and riveted into the top of the plate4 ,the hammer is then placed over the lug1 and the lug is drilled to conform to the drilled holes in the hammer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,the chasing on the plate and hammer is done with a chisel as previously explained4 ,a gauge should be made from a piece of steel to scratch the guide lines on the plate for the chasing as shown in ,figure #dh4 ,these lines are then cut with the chisel4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,making a ,hat and ,coat ,hook--,a ,fuller--,jump ,welding--,making a ,wall ,hook4 ,exercise ,no4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,hat and ,coat ,hook4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,figure #di represents a hat-and-coat hook4 ,in the making of this piece1 the plate should be made from ,no4 #ad soft steel4 ,the dimensions are shown in ,figure #ej4 ,the shape of the plate can be drawn on heavy paper1 which is afterward cut out and used as a pattern when making the plate from metal4 ,after the plate is cut out with a cold chisel1 it is ground or filed on the edges4 ,the holes are next drilled1 and the lines are cut on the surface as shown in the drawing4 ,in cutting the lines1 a short1 narrow cold chisel is used for chasing in the same manner as previously described4 ,the lines on the leaf should be made quite deep4 ,a fuller is shown in ,figure #ej1 which is used to make the lines still deeper4 ,the fuller should have the edge smooth1 and without sharp corners4 ,the plate should be clamped on to a surface plate while making the lines4 ,the fuller is then set on the cut lines and struck with the hand hammer1 chasing the tool to the ends of the lines4 ,this work can1 also1 be done to advantage by heating the plate and having a helper hold it on the anvil while fullering the lines4 ,when all the lines are made1 the leaf is heated1 set on the elm block and hammered on the back to raise the end of the lobes as shown in the illustration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,the hook is made from iron4 ,figure #ea represents the dimensions of stock for the hook4 ,the lug is welded on1 and the ends of the bar are rounded ready to be formed4 ,after the stock is cut1 it is upset six inches from one end to enlarge it so that the lug can be welded on4 ,the stock from which the lug is made is cut #c inches long1 upset on end1 and split in the vise inch deep as shown at ,figure #eb4 ,the split end should be formed as shown4 ,in welding1 separate heats are taken1 and the lug is jumped onto the bar as shown in ,figure #ec4 ,the first blows are struck directly on the end of the lug1 then the lips are welded4 ,figure #ea shows the length of the piece before the knobs are formed4 ,in making the knobs at the end1 they should be upset as shown in ,figure #ed4 ,they are then hammered as shown1 and finally rounded4 ,the lug is next cut the proper length1 and a shoulder is filed at the end4 ,the chased lines are now cut on the front side4 ,in forming the piece1 it is heated and hammered over the horn of the anvil1 starting to bend at the end first1 and working toward the center4 ,in bending anything of this kind1 always start at one end1 and finish as you work toward the other end4 ,see the drawing of the bent hook at ,figure #ee4 ,the end of the lug is next heated and caught in a vise1 the plate is set on and riveted tightly4 ,the work is smoothed with a file1 heated to darken it1 and oiled4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,exercise ,no4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,a wall hook1 suitable to hang a bird cage or fern dish1 is shown in ,figure #ef4 ,in ,figure #eg are shown the length and size of stock1 and the piece ready to form4 ,in making the ball1 the piece is shouldered at one end by hammering it on the outer edge of the anvil as shown in ,figure #eh4 ,it is then hammered on the corner1 to make it round4 ,the other end is drawn to a square point1 and is then flattened as shown in ,figure #ei1 letting it become as wide as it will4 ,this flat end is then veined suggesting a leaf form4 ,in doing this1 a long chisel1 made round somewhat like a fuller1 is used4 ,the piece is heated1 and a sunken line is made with the chisel1 as shown by the drawing of the leaf end4 ,the piece is then heated1 and the leaf end is formed4 ,the holes should now be drilled4 ,the balance of the hook is heated and formed by hammering it over the horn of the anvil4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,illustration3 ,hall ,lanterns4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,making a ,toasting-fork--,inlaying4 ,exercise ,no4 #aa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,stock for ,toasting ,fork4 ,a very interesting and useful article to make is a toasting fork4 ,the stock used can be spring steel4 ,a disadvantage in using this steel is that it is too hard to work out a design on the handle4 ,if one can weld quite well1 the fork should have the handle made of soft steel and the balance of carbon steel4 ,in doing this1 the weld is the first thing to do while the stock is straight and full size4 ,if one without much welding experience is to make the fork1 it should be made of soft steel1 and when finished the prongs should be case hardened4 ,in making a fork of this kind1 a piece of soft steel as shown in the drawing in ,figure #fj is used4 ,on one end1 the stock is enlarged a little1 by upsetting for a distance of five or six inches4 ,this end is to be used for the handle4 ,the other end of the bar is then heated1 and a hole is punched #a-;in4 from the end4 ,the piece should then look somewhat like the drawing at ,a1 ,figure #fa4 ,in drawing out1 the shoulder is hammered as shown at ,b1 ,figure #fa4 ,the shank 7the part between the handle and the shoulder7 is next drawn out4 ,it should be a scant -in4 thick so as to finish to the dimensions given in ,figure #fj4 ,care must be taken to avoid getting too much stock in the shank4 ,it is a very easy matter to get too much stock between the handle and the shoulder which1 when drawn out1 is too long4 ,the prongs are roughly made by cutting the stock out as shown by the dotted lines in ,figure #fa4 ,when this is done the prongs are hammered out to the correct size1 allowing for finishing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,in ,figure #fb are shown reproductions of similar forks4 ,the line shown running around the rectangular open parts is inlaid copper4 ,a channel is sunken and the copper driven into it4 ,in making the handle1 the three oblong holes are punched while hot with a punch about in4 by in4 at the end1 making a series of punchings to cut out the holes4 ,the holes should be small enough so that they may be finished to size with a file4 ,notice that the openings are not of the same size2 but two short ones1 with a longer one in the center1 give variety4 ,notice1 also1 that the shape of the handle is in keeping with the long1 slim shank and the slender1 two-tine fork at the end4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,toasting ,forks1 ,spoon and ,cake ,turner4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,after the handle is shaped1 and the holes are punched1 including the one at the top to hang the fork by1 the line to receive the copper is marked4 7,see ,figure #fc47 ,the marking should be done with a scratch awl4 ,the line is then cut with a small chisel4 ,this cutting should be quite deep and exact4 ,this is important if the work is to be true and straight4 ,all of the marking should be done while the handle is cold4 ,it is now heated and taken to the anvil4 ,a small punch1 as represented in ,figure #fc1 is then set onto the cut line and given a blow with the hammer1 sinking the punch about of an inch4 ,one-half of the punch is now raised up and out of the channel4 ,while it is directly on the chased line1 it is given another blow with the hammer and so on until the end is reached4 ,the particular thing to watch is to have the lead corner of punch directly on the chased guide line1 while the other edge of the punch is in the channel in order to keep the finished line straight4 ,keep the punch in good order1 straight and square at the end4 ,the punch should not have much taper and should not be used after the red heat leaves the metal4 ,after the entire line has been sunken in4 deep1 the handle is reheated and the line is sunken perhaps in4 deep4 ,a wider punch is now used in the long channel to straighten it and make it deeper4 ,the wide punch should have no taper and should be a scant in4 thick so that the line will be about in4 wide4 ,if any part of the channel should be too wide1 the handle should be hammered on the edge with a light hammer to close the channel a little4 ,when the channel is finished1 the handle should be filed flat on the channel side4 ,this will give one a better view of the straightness of the channel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,file4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,cross ,section of ,fork ,handle4 ,in case the channel is not as straight as it should be1 a small flat file is heated and bent at the end and rehardened4 7,see ,figure #fd47 ,this file is used to straighten up the edges of the channel4 ,a small cold chisel can also be used for this purpose4 ,the channel must be straight along the top edge4 ,when the channel is well straightened1 strips of copper are filed to fit the channel1 letting them project above the channel about of an inch and also having each piece a little short in length4 ,when the pieces are all in place1 the handle is set on the anvil and with a heavy hammer they are driven down forcing the copper to fill the whole of the channel4 ,the entire handle is filed to the dimensions given in ,figure #fc4 ,notice ,figure #fe which shows a sectional drawing of the handle1 with the copper in place and a chased line running along between copper and steel4 ,a channel without copper is shown at the right of the illustration4 ,illustration3 ,wrought ,iron ,lamp4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,making a ,lantern--,making a ,wall-lamp4 ,exercise ,no4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,lantern4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,the lantern shown in ,figure #ff consists of four sides which are fastened together with angles and rivets4 ,the top is made from four pieces1 with angles also riveted to them4 ,the stock is cut with a pair of snip shears1 ,no4 #jf4 7,see ,figure #fg47 ,the sides must be cut to the same size or there will be trouble in putting them together4 ,after they are cut1 the open work is marked with a slate pencil4 ,holes are drilled in the corners of each opening1 and they are cut out with a sharp chisel4 ,the edges are filed and all holes are drilled for ,no4 #ab rivets4 ,at ,figure #fh is a drawing1 with dimensions of one of the sides as it should be in the flat4 ,notice the section of the sheet bent at the top for the roof and at the bottom to hold the glass4 ,the glass is held in position at the top with a little strip of copper1 with a rivet to hold it4 ,the glass is set into the groove at the bottom1 and the copper cleat is bent over the top of the glass4 ,the copper cleat should be by in41 made from ,no4 #bf soft copper4 ,the bottom of the sheet is first bent at right angles1 then a flat piece in4 thick is laid on the inside of the sheet1 and the whole is placed on the anvil4 ,the end of the sheet is now hammered over the -in4 piece with a mallet to make the pocket to hold the glass4 ,all of the holes for rivets to fasten the angles should be countersunk a little on the inside4 ,the angles are made from one inch wide ,no4 #bj hoop iron4 ,they are formed by placing them between two pieces of flat iron as shown in ,figure #fi1 and holding the whole in a vise while hammering with a wood mallet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,in fastening the angles to the sides1 the heads of the rivets are on the outside1 and the inside is smooth4 ,in doing this1 the heads of the rivets are held in a rivet set while hammering on the inside4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,the rivet set is caught in a vise as shown in ,figure #gj4 ,a rivet set is a piece of steel with the shape of a rivet head sunken into one end4 ,in making this1 a punch is filed the shape of a rivet head and is then driven into the end of a hot piece of steel4 ,in ,figure #ga is shown a simple method of developing a pattern of one section for the top of a lantern4 ,a-,b of the pattern is first drawn4 ,the length of ,x-,b of the elevation is the length of ,c-,d of the pattern4 ,lines are then drawn from ,c to ,a and ,b4 ,the point of each section at the top is cut off so that when the four pieces are riveted to the angles there will be a -in4 hole thru the top4 7,see ,figure #gb47 ,in this hole is put a piece of -in4 steam pipe with a lock nut on the top and another on the bottom to hold it in place4 7,see ,figure #gc47 ,the pipe is for the socket to screw onto under the top1 and also for the wire to come thru4 ,the loop at the top is to suspend the lantern by4 ,it is made of by -in4 stock1 #f inches long4 ,two ,no4 #aj rivets are put in each end to fasten it to the roof4 ,the lamp is to hang by a chain suspended from the ceiling4 ,in doing this a ceiling cap is necessary4 ,this may be a piece of -in4 steam pipe threaded on one end and a hook made on the other4 7,see drawing1 ,figure #gd47 ,a cast iron piece is screwed on the end of the pipe and is then fastened to the ceiling by three screws1 which supports the chain and lamp4 ,the wires go thru the pipe and connect with other wires in the ceiling4 7,see drawing of the casting1 ,figure #ge47 ,when the lamp is wired and the casting is fastened to the ceiling1 it must be covered with something to hide the wires and its rough appearance4 ,in ,figure #gf is shown a drawing for a cap to cover the casting and wiring4 ,the cap has a hole in the center for the pipe to pass thru1 leaving it movable on the pipe4 ,a collar of cast iron1 with a set screw in the side1 is to go under the cap and the screw tightened when the cap is against the ceiling4 7,see drawing of the collar1 ,figure #gg47 ,in making the cap1 it is heated and hammered over a hole in the swage block4 ,a hammer with a large-sized1 rounded face is used4 ,the disk is driven into the hole until it becomes bowl-shaped and the right height4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,fig4 #ge4 ,fig4 #gf4 ,fig4 #gg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,at ,figure #gh is represented a lamp that is to be fastened to the side of the wall1 instead of hanging from the ceiling with a chain4 ,the light is inverted1 the lamp being open at the top and closed at the bottom4 ,the stock used in the construction of the lamp is very heavy1 ,no4 #ad soft steel being used4 ,the angle plates on the corners are made from ,no4 #bj soft steel4 ,the plate that is on the back of the lamp has a cup-shaped pocket hammered into it to cover the wiring when the lamp is in place1 and on which the light socket is fastened4 ,in ,figure #gi is shown a cross-section of the back plate1 with the depression and socket in place4 ,this kind of lamp is very simple to make and can be made in various shapes and sizes4 ,the back of the lamp can be made of wood instead of metal1 if desired4 ,illustration3 ,wrought ,iron ,table ,lamps4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,making a ,portable ,lamp4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,in ,figure #hj is represented a portable lamp4 ,this kind of lamp can be made in various sizes with one light4 ,the lamp shown in the illustration1 consists of two parts2 the standard1 and the shade1 which can be removed4 ,the standard consists of a box-shaped bottom1 with a pipe screwed into it for the upright piece4 ,the arms that the shade rests on1 are separate and are held in position by the lamp socket1 which is screwed down on them4 ,the strips running over the bottom of the base and up the pipe are riveted in place to support the pipe4 ,this gives the whole standard a more substantial appearance1 and relieves the plain round pipe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,fig4 #hb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,fig4 #hd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,in making a very simple lamp of this character1 we may eliminate the strips running up the pipe1 and make the bottom with a round pipe screwed into it4 ,of course a square standard would be more in keeping with the square base and shade4 ,in making the box-shaped base1 soft steel should be used4 ,figure #ha shows the dimensions of the flat stock4 ,the plate is heated and an inch of the edge is bent over the outer edge of the anvil1 as shown in ,figure #hb4 ,the outer edges of the plate can be bent over the end of the anvil as shown in ,figure #hc4 ,when all the edges are bent the piece will look somewhat as in ,figure #hd4 ,the corners are now ground off1 and the bottom is made level4 ,a hole is drilled in the center and threaded for a -in4 steam pipe4 ,two inches from the center hole1 another hole is drilled and tapped for a -in4 or -in4 rubber bushing4 ,in wiring the lamp1 the cord should enter thru the bushing from the outside1 and under and up thru the pipe to the socket4 ,the drawing for the pipe is shown at ,figure #he1 also a bushing which is brazed into the top of the pipe and threaded for a -in4 pipe4 ,the -in4 steam pipe and bushing are shown in position in the illustration at one end of the pipe4 ,this small pipe is for the lamp socket to be screwed onto4 ,the other end of the large pipe is to be threaded and screwed into the base4 ,the pipe should be screwed into the base far enough1 so that the threads will not be exposed to the outside and the surplus cut off4 ,the pipe when screwed tight should be brazed to the base4 ,in doing this1 the borax and spelter should be applied to the under side1 after the base is well heated1 as the brass will discolor the iron on the top side4 ,when the pipe is brazed it should be made to stand vertical4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,fig4 #hg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,fig4 #hi4 ,in ,figure #hf is shown the lamp standard with the shade support in position4 ,the support has a hole in the center to fit the -in4 steam pipe at the top of the standard4 ,when the support is in place another -in4 hole is drilled thru it into the pipe4 ,a pin is driven into the hole so that the support cannot be moved around4 ,the lamp socket when screwed down makes the support tight4 ,in making the support the center part is cut from a plate in4 by #d by #d in4 and in4 round soft steel bars are welded on for the arms4 ,in ,figure #hg is shown the drawing which does not need explanation4 ,the drawing for the pattern is shown at ,figure #hh and the pattern for one section at ,figure #hi4 ,in developing the pattern which is very simple the top drawing1 ,figure #hh1 represents the shade which should be drawn full size4 ,the length from ,a to ,b is then laid off on the center line of the pattern1 which in this case measures #g in4 ,the top and bottom of shade shows a return of in4 which should be added to the length of the pattern4 ,the width of the top and bottom of the shade is then drawn1 also diagonal lines which will complete the pattern4 ,the edge view of the pattern is shown at ,c4 ,the -in4 bend at the top is made so that the cap can be riveted on4 ,the one at the bottom is to receive the glass4 ,this was explained on a previous page in describing the making of a hall lantern4 ,in assembling the shade1 corner angles are used to fasten the sections together1 which was also explained for the hall lantern4 ,the top cap is put on last and fastened with rivets4 ,illustration ,,index ,annealing1 #gg ,annealing high speed steel1 #ha ,anvil1 construction of1 #aj how to fasten1 #aa tools1 #ac ,awl1 scratch1 #gh ,ball hammer1 #ac ,bessemer process1 #fe ,blast1 control of1 #bg ,bolts1 heading1 #ee making of1 #ed ,bottom fuller1 #ag ,bottom swage1 #af ,braiding1 #if ,brazing1 #cf ,butt welding1 #ca ,candle-stick1 making of1 #ajd ,case hardening1 #gf ,cementation process1 #ff ,center punch1 use of1 #ac ,chain links1 welding of1 #dh ,chasing1 #aji ,chisels1 hot and cold1 #ae making of cold1 #gj ,coal1 method of handling1 #ai ,cold ,chisel1 use of1 #ae ,coloring steel1 #gg ,crucible steel1 making of1 #ff ,cupping tool1 #ee ,door knocker1 making of1 #aaj1 #aac ,door latch1 making of1 #ii ,drawer pull1 making of1 #ajg ,expansion of iron1 #ei ,eye-pin1 use of1 #ajc welding of1 #dc ,eyes1 welding of hinge1 #ajb ,fagot welding1 #bc1 #cg ,file1 used for inlaying1 #abh ,fire1 making of forge1 #ah cleaning of1 #ai ,fire shovel1 making of1 #ig ,flatter1 use of1 #ae ,fluting tool1 #hf ,flux and its uses1 #ba ,forge1 the1 #g tools1 #aj ,forging a cold chisel1 #gj ,forming a loose eye1 #dj ,fuller1 #af1 #aah ,gate hook1 forging of1 #ee ,grab hook1 making of1 #eb ,grilles1 making of1 #hg1 #ia ,hammer1 ball1 #ac danger of1 #be modeling1 #hg proper way to hold1 #bg round-faced modeling1 #acg set1 #ae sledge1 #ac sledge1 danger1 #ga ,hammock hook1 making of1 #da ,handle1 twisted poker1 #id ,hardening cold chisel1 #gb ,hardie1 #ac ,hat and coat hook1 making of1 #aag ,hay hook1 making of1 #eg ,heading tool1 #ae ,heating1 method of1 #bb1 #bg ,hinge1 making of1 #aja ,horn1 #ef ,hot chisel1 #ae ,inlaying1 #abe ,jump welding1 #cj1 #abj ,lamp1 portable1 making of1 #aci wall1 making of1 #acg ,lamp ceiling cap1 #acg ,lamp shade1 making of1 #adc ,lantern1 assembling1 #acc fittings of1 #ace making of1 #acj ,links1 open1 #dg ,s1 #db ,open hearth process1 #fe ,perforated decoration1 #aab ,pig iron1 making of1 #fd ,puddling1 #fd ,punch block1 #ea ,punch1 hand1 #ac1 #gi used for inlaying1 #abg ,punching1 method of1 #ej ,repousse1 #aab ,scarf1 correct and incorrect1 #bf theory of1 #be ,scarfing1 meaning of1 #bd ,scraper1 #aj ,scroll1 volute1 #hi ,separate heat weld1 the1 #bd ,shovel handle1 making of1 #if ,shears1 kinds of1 #ah ,snip shears1 #aca ,spring tempering1 #gd ,staples1 #df ,steel1 annealing of1 #gg1 #ha ,bessemer process1 #fe case hardening1 #gf cementation1 #ff crucible1 #ff high speed1 #hj ,steel1 making of1 #fe open hearth process1 #fe temper colors of1 #fh tempering of1 #fg1 #ge welding of1 #gf ,stock1 storage of1 #ag ,swages1 #af ,swage block1 #ag ,tempering thin steel1 #ge ,toasting fork1 making of1 #abd ,tongs1 danger in handling1 #ae making of1 #fj ,tools1 anvil1 #ac center punch1 #gi cupping1 #ee eye-pin1 #ajc flatter1 #ae forging1 #aj fuller1 for deepening lines1 #af1 #aah hand punch1 for heavy punching1 #gi hardie1 #ac heading1 #ae horn1 #ef punch for inlaying1 #abg punch block1 for cutting holes1 #ea round-faced hammer1 #acg scraper1 #aj scratch-awl1 #gh snip shears1 #aca swages1 #af ,top fuller1 #af ,top swage1 #af ,tuyere1 #i ,twisting1 #ic handles1 #id ,upsetting1 #bd ,vise1 #ag ,volute scroll1 making of1 #hi ,wall hook1 making of1 #abb ,welding1 bolt heads1 #ed butt1 #ca chain links1 #dh corner1 #cd1 #cf electric1 #bb eye-pins1 #dc fagot1 #bc1 #cg heat1 determining1 #bh hooks1 #da jump1 #cj1 #abj lap1 #bi making the1 #bg method of1 #bj oxy-acetylene gas1 #bc ring1 #ci1 #eg scarf1 #bd scroll1 #ia separate heat1 #bd split1 #cb steel1 #gf ,t1 #cd ,wrought iron1 finish of1 #db manufacture of1 #fd ,wrought iron leaf1 making of1 #he ,wrought iron work1 #hc ,illustration