,,the ,,chinese ,,theater ,illustration ,seven hundred and fifty copies of ,,the ,,chinese ,,theater have been printed from type and the type distributed4 ,of this ,limited ,edition1 seven hundred and twenty copies are for sale1 of which this is ,number #af ,illustration3 ,a ,,general ,chinese ,character ,type ,,the ,,chinese ,,theater ,,by ,a4 ,e4 ,,zucker ,professor of ,comparative ,literature1 ,university of ,maryland ,formerly1 ,assistant ,professor of ,english1 ,peking ,union ,medical ,college ,,with ,,illustrations ,illustration ,,boston ,,little1 ,,brown1 ,,and ,,company ,,mcmxxv ,copyright1 #aibe1 ,,by ,,little1 ,,brown1 ,,and ,,company4 ,all rights reserved ,published ,november1 #aibe ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america ,to ,,my ,,wife1 ,,lois ,,miles ,illustration ,,preface ,the genial ,reverend ,arthur ,smith in his 8,village ,life in ,china0 says that the ,chinese sometimes finds it hard to understand the ,westerner4 ,as an instance he cites the case of a tired traveler who stops at an inn for the night and is told that there will be theatricals in the evening4 ,instead of sharing the glee of the natives1 he gathers his tired self together and hurries on to the next village that he may enjoy his sleep far away from sounding brass and clanging#a cymbal4 ,possibly this explains why among all the books written on ,china comparatively few concern themselves with the theater4 ,one might add too that the drama stands on a relatively lower level than some other ,chinese arts1 for example1 landscape painting and lyric poetry4 ,yet though his dramas are poor the ,chinese actor has at his command consummate skill to hold the mirror up to life2 he is no less of an artist than his ,occidental colleague4 ,still1 the subject has attracted a fair number of ,occidental writers4 ,du ,halde was the first2 in his monumental description of ,china published in #agce he printed a translation by a ,jesuit missionary of the ,yuan ,dynasty drama1 8,the ,orphan of the ,chao ,family40 ,it was this translation that inspired ,voltaire's 8,l',orphelin de la ,chine40 ,other translations followed in the nineteenth century1 together with some critical material and various descriptions of ,chinese staging4 ,in the last few years the interest in the ,chinese stage has evidently become greater than ever1 both in ,china and in ,western lands4 ,a history of the ,chinese drama1 however1 has never been written2 largely because the ,chinese themselves have no such work4 ,only a few present-day innovators among ,celestial scholars consider the drama as literature4 ,thus the information we possess on this vast subject is very meager1 and much of it is also out of print4 ,this book is an attempt to gather together what is known on the subject1 as well as to present in a volume supplied with vivid illustrations the results of five years' experience with the ,peking theater by a student of comparative literature possessed of a modest knowledge of the ,peking dialect4 ,those who have so far written on the subject have always spoken of a decadence of the drama which set in immediately after the first period of bloom in the ,yuan ,dynasty 7#abhj-acfh74 ,in the course of the revaluation of values now going on in ,china this opinion is being changed4 ,mr4 ,wang ,kuo-wei has recently compiled a dramatical catalogue which shows that numerically1 at least1 there is no decrease in the production of dramas4 ,a trenchant critic1 ,doctor ,hu ,shih1 holds that only technically can the drama of the ,ming ,dynasty 7#acfh-afdd7 be said to be inferior1 because the compact and unified plays of the ,yuan period become diffuse and of serpentine length2 but that in the matter of characterization1 poetic diction1 and content they are far superior4 ,furthermore1 modern ,chinese criticism considers the very highest point of the drama to have been reached in two historical tragedies of the ,ching ,dynasty 7#afdd-aiaa74 ,as can readily be seen1 there is an enormous amount of work to be done in this field2 and if the gaps and errors in this book shall impel a competent scholar to write the long overdue history of the ,chinese drama this work will have served its purpose4 ,in general the ,chinese drama is like ours4 ,it is divided into acts1 often corresponding in number to our customary four or five4 ,it is presented in a manner strikingly similar to that employed during our greatest period of the drama--,shakespeare's day4 ,it can be classified according to content into our usual divisions4 ,historical drama prevails perhaps2 because of the great love of the ,chinese for his long tradition contemporaries of the ,romans or even earlier heroes are favorites on the stage4 ,family drama is extremely popular1 with subdivisions such as the drama of the court room and criminal drama4 ,the magic or mythological drama1 recalling perhaps 8,a ,midsummer ,night's ,dream01 is also very important2 among this group the very best plays are those that treat superstitious beliefs satirically4 ,then there are dramas of character1 among which can be found a good counterpart to 8,the ,miser0 of ,plautus or ,molire4 ,dramas of intrigue abound on every program4 ,even the monodrama can be found among modern innovations4 ,and last1 but by no means least1 there is the religious drama in some ways analogous to our miracle and mystery plays4 ,the three chief religions of ,china have exerted their influence on the stage4 ,confucianism supplies the general moral background of the majority of plays4 ,the veneration of the scholar rather than of the warrior makes the former the chief hero on the ,chinese stage1 while filial piety is the most outstanding virtue which the hero displays4 ,taoism1 generally described as the religion of superstitions1 is responsible for the many mythological and ghostly figures that fill ,chinese plays4 ,rational ,confucianism is not conducive to imaginative writing1 but under the influence of ,taoism the ,chinese allowed his fancy to roam to the end that innumerable delightful fairy and ghost stories were invented4 ,the keen sense of humor of the ,chinese often comes to the fore in plays dealing with ,buddhist monks4 ,these monks are the exact counterpart of the lazy1 ignorant1 sensual1 superstitious brethren who people the pages of ,boccaccio1 ,chaucer1 ,hans ,sachs1 and many other tellers of droll tales4 ,in fact when ,pre ,prmave first came to ,china 7around #agjj7 and saw the monasteries with the celibate monks1 who abstained from meat1 chanted offices1 burned incense1 shaved their heads1 prayed with beads1 and gathered money from the pious1 he decided that this was an invention of the ,evil ,one for the sole purpose of exasperating the ,jesuits4 ,with the exception of some satire on the migration of souls the doctrine of ,sakyamouni has had little influence1 but whenever chanting priests or monks are brought on the stage they are burlesqued4 ,the ,chinese are extremely tolerant in regard to religion and never fanatical2 their attitude toward the supernatural has been aptly defined as 8politeness toward possibilities40 ,but the main theme of the ,chinese drama1 as of all drama1 is the human side of life4 ,the stage is naturally enough a mirror in which we can see the ,chinese as they see themselves4 ,they present themselves not as the wise men of the ,east that some idealizing travelers would like to make them1 nor as the bloodthirsty monsters of the 8,limehouse ,nights0 brand2 but as human beings1 neither white nor black4 ,we see the corruption of officials1 the callousness toward suffering1 the selfishness of parents1 the eagerness for compromise1 and the lack of physical or moral courage2 on the other hand the polite civilization with its long tradition1 the respect for the past and for learning1 the love of poetry and art1 the general kindliness and honesty of the people1 the love of humor1 the extreme democracy in social relations1 and the reasonableness and lack of fanaticism4 ,he who would know the ,chinese ought to know their stage2 and furthermore1 he who loves our ,middle ,ages will derive endless pleasure from its counterpart1 the pageant of ,chinese life4 ,in my years in the ,east ,i received helpful suggestions from many friends in the course of hundreds of visits to the theater4 ,professor ,soong ,tsung-faung first introduced me to this fascinating spectacle4 ,doctor ,hu ,shih discussed it illuminatingly in conversation and by correspondence4 ,lucius ,porter1 ,professor of ,chinese1 ,columbia ,university1 #aibb-aibd1 offered helpful suggestions on the manuscript1 which he read in part1 as did likewise ,professor ,ferdinand ,lessing1 formerly of the ,national ,university1 ,peking4 ,two of my students1 ,huang ,ke-k'ung and ,jung ,tu-shan1 who learned from me about ,sophocles and ,shakespeare1 introduced me in turn to many fine things on the ,chinese stage4 ,and finally1 ,i wish to express my appreciation to ,mr4 ,chang ,ziang-ling and the many other p'iao-yu 7amateurs7 for acquainting me with the nonprofessional stage4 ,thanks are due to the editors of ,la ,revue de ,littrature ,compare and of ,asia for permission to reprint a number of chapters4 ,a4 ,e4 ,,zucker ,,riverdale1 ,,maryland1 ,december #g1 #aibd ,illustration ,,contents ,,page ,preface vii ,,chapter #a ,early ,history #c #b ,formal ,development--,yuan ,dynasty1 #abjf-acfh ,a4,d4 #ai #c ,the ,ming ,dynasty1 #acfh-afdd ,a4,d4 ,the ,pi-,pa-,chi #dc #d ,the ,drama under the ,manchus and the ,republic--#afdd to the ,present ,day #fi #e ,modern ,tendencies #ajh #f ,external ,aspects of the ,chinese ,theater #abi #g ,the ,conventions #afa #h ,mei ,lan-fang--,china's ,greatest ,actor #aga #i ,analogies ,between ,east and ,west #aij ,chronological ,table #bba ,bibliography #bbc ,index #bca ,illustration ,,illustrations ,for the purpose of giving a vivid impression of the colorfulness of the ,chinese stage1 the publishers have imported from ,china four thousand paintings on silk1 done by students of the ,peking ,school of ,fine ,arts4 ,they represent four of the standing character type of the ,chinese stage1 in their traditional make-ups4 ,a ,general ,frontispiece ,,facing ,,page ,a ,scholar #eb ,a ,demi-,mondaine #aeb ,a ,clown #bjf ,illustration by a ,chinese artist for 8,the ,chalk ,circle0 #bh ,illustration by a ,chinese artist for 8,the ,chalk ,circle0 #cb ,illustration by a ,chinese artist4 ,tou-,e before the judge #ch ,illustration by a ,chinese artist4 ,tou-,e about to be beheaded #dj ,a ,chinese artist's conception of two pious souls #dh ,warrior-acrobats #hj ,amateur actors in an old-style ,chinese play #aaj ,hu ,shih #aah ,a typical ,peking audience with the inevitable teapots #acj ,orchestral instruments #adf ,orchestral instruments #adh ,the actress ,kin ,feng-,kui in a male rle #afd ,mei ,lan-fang in ,european dress1 and in parts #agf 8,burying the ,blossoms0 #ahj ,the ,fortune ,theater #aih ,a typical ,peking theater #aih ,the orchestra seated in a corner of the stage #bjb ,,the ,,chinese ,,theater ,illustration ,illustration ,,chapter ,,one ,,early ,,history 8,students of the ,pear ,garden0 7,li ,yuan ,tzu ,ti7 is the name by which actors in ,china are called in elegant literary style4 ,this appellation was given them in memory of the traditional origin of the ,chinese theater in the imperial palace gardens of a ,t'ang ,dynasty emperor1 ,ming ,huang 7,yuen ,tsung1 #gac-gef ,a4,d471 who was a generous patron of the arts in his splendid capital ,ch'ang ,an4 ,this ruler established a college called the ,pear ,garden for the training in music and dramatics of young actors of both sexes4 ,his plan for court entertainment the emperor had derived1 according to legend1 from a visit to the moon where he had seen a troupe of performers in the ,jade ,palace of the lunar emperor4 ,in the annals of the ,t'ang ,dynasty the following is told about the art-loving ruler3 8,ming ,huang was not only passionately fond of music1 but he also had a thorough knowledge of its essential principles4 ,he established an academy of music with three hundred students4 ,ming ,huang himself gave them lessons in the ,pear ,garden2 if any of the students sang in poor taste or incorrectly the emperor noted the fault immediately and corrected it sharply4 ,the young girls of the harem1 several hundred in number1 were later also attached to the academy as students4444 ,on the occasion of the emperor's birthday the empress ordered them to perform some musical numbers in the ,palace of ,eternal ,life40 ,the ,french scholar ,bazin in the introduction to his translation of four ,chinese plays comments upon this as follows3 8,surely it is a great thing that1 at a time when the ,chinese had as yet no idea of dramatic performances1 a man who had founded the institution of the ,han-,lin 7literally #8,the ,forest of ,pencils'1 i4e41 ,the ,imperial ,academy of ,scholars71 and who could justly call himself #8the teacher of his nation'1 conceived and carried out single-handed a work of art1 in which we find for the first time with all its marvelous charm the union of lyric poetry with the drama4 ,this work1 fitted to arouse in the souls of the spectators the sentiment of the sublime1 could be the product only of a genius40 ,in 8,the ,chinese ,drama01 ,william ,stanton writes on the origin of the drama as follows3 ,the long reign of ,yuen ,tsung1 styled the ,illustrious ,emperor 7,ming ,huang7 owing to its splendid beginning and disastrous close1 is one of the most remarkable in ,chinese history4 ,on ascending the throne1 the young emperor zealously strove to purge the empire of the extravagance and debauchery that was ruining it2 and in his austerity went so far as to prohibit the wearing of the then fashionable costly apparel1 and1 as an example to his subjects1 he made a large bonfire in his palace of an immense quantity of embroidered garments and jewellery4 ,under the wise administration of this stern ruler and his able ministers the state attained a great height of prosperity4 ,but unexpectedly the emperor's character underwent a change2 he developed a love of sensuality and himself indulged in the luxuries he had formerly so strongly condemned4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gcd he obtained a sight of his daughter-in-law1 the beautiful ,yang ,kuei-fei1 and became so violently enamoured with her that he took her into his own seraglio4 ,she speedily obtained a complete ascendency over him and succeeded in getting raised to the highest position next the throne4 ,according to legendary stories the ,herdsman and ,spinning ,damsel are two lovers who each inhabit a star separated by the ,silver ,river 7the ,milky ,way7 and are unable to meet except on the seventh night of the seventh moon1 when magpies from all parts of the world assemble1 and with their linked bodies form a bridge to enable the damsel to cross to her lover4 ,consequently this is one of the great festive occasions of ,china4 ,on the said evening of ,a4,d4 #gce1 ,yuen ,tsung and his celebrated consort stood gazing into the starlit sky4 ,remembering the occasion ,yang ,kuei-fei burst into protestations of affection and assured the monarch that she was more faithful than the ,spinning ,damsel1 for that she would never leave him1 but1 inseparably with him1 tread the spiritual walks of eternity4 ,in order to reward such love the emperor sought to discover a novel amusement for her4 ,after consideration he summoned his prime minister and commanded him to select a number of young children1 and1 after carefully instructing and handsomely dressing them1 to bring them before the beautiful ,yang ,kuei-fei1 to recite for her delectation the heroic achievements of his ancestors4 ,that was the origin of the drama in ,china4 ,the first performances were generally held in a pavilion in the open air1 among fruit trees1 and ,yuen ,tsung subsequently established an ,imperial ,dramatic ,college in a pear garden1 where hundreds of male and female performers were trained to afford him pleasure4 ,from the site of the college the actors become known as the 8,young ,folks of the ,pear ,garden01 a title they claim to the present day4 ,the ,pear ,garden origin of the ,chinese drama is a fine legend and heroic history1 but it is typical of ,chinese who have come in touch with ,occidental science that they should search for a more realistic1 if less picturesque1 account of the beginning of their theater4 ,the first1 and so far the only1 systematic and scientific work on this subject is 8,the ,history of the ,drama under the ,sung and ,yuan ,dynasties01 by ,mr4 ,wang ,kuo-wei4#b ,this author has taken great pains in collecting all evidences of pantomimes1 dramatic dances1 satirical buffoonery1 or anything else to which the roots of a theater might be traced4 ,while he is not yet able on the basis of his evidence to lead us back step by step to the genesis of the theater--as could for example a scholar dealing with the ,greek drama--yet the evidence he adduces is most interesting4 ,about #bjjj ,b4,c4 there were found mediums called wu when they were women or hsien when men1 who performed dances and sang songs in the worship of the gods1 to exorcise evil spirits1 to induce the gods to send rain1 or to act as mourners in times of calamity4 ,it was believed that the gods descended to earth and communicated with men through these mysterious beings1 especially in the course of violent dances4 ,this form of worship designed for the pleasure of the gods was evidently much according to the taste of men1 for we find it such a widespread form of popular amusement that ,i-,yin1 famous minister of the ,shang ,dynasty 7#agff-aabb ,b4,c471 issued an edict prohibiting it4 8,the late sovereign instituted punishments for the officers1 and warned the men in authority1 saying1 #8,if you dare to have constant dancing in your mansions1 and drunken singing in your houses1 ,i call it wu-fashion'40#c ,during the classical ,chou ,dynasty1 beginning #aabb ,b4,c4 with ,wu ,wang1 everything in ,chinese life was cast into the fetters of a strict ritual4 ,there were regulations governing the dress to be worn1 the speeches to be made1 and the postures to be assumed on all possible occasions1 whether at the court or in private life2 in fact1 these rules were the prototypes of most of the characteristic features governing ,chinese public and social life down to the present day4 ,it can be seen readily that the more or less spontaneous and popular mimicry of the wu 7mediums7 would naturally enough be suppressed at this time2 but in later dynasties we find again many references to the beauty1 the splendid costumes1 the singing and dancing1 and in general the charm of these actors in popular religious ceremonies4 ,these performances of the early ,chinese centered about the divine worship1 as everything of sthetic nature in the life of primitive man seems to do4 ,even to-day all of the theatrical performances in ,china outside the large cities are a form of divine worship1 usually harvest festivals staged by way of thanksgiving for good crops4 ,that there is in the minds of the ,chinese a definite religious association with theatricals performed in the villages is shown by the fact that the ,christian converts always receive a dispensation for their share of the sum demanded by the traveling company4 ,sometimes missionaries hear complaints from the village elders that some thrifty members of their flocks save the tax for theatricals and yet go to look on at the shows2 however1 thanks to the reasonable and unfanatic character of the ,chinese such quarrels are usually easily adjusted4 ,because of this close association of the theater with temple worship1#d it seems reasonable to seek for another possible origin of the drama in the early ancestor worship in which the deceased forefather of the family was impersonated by one of his descendants4 ,a ceremony of honoring a revered ancestor could easily be expanded into a representation of his great deeds4 ,it is also known that not only men but also gods were impersonated by the actors2 as ,mr4 ,wang puts it1 they dressed in the attire of the gods and imitated their gestures4 ,however1 in regard to these representations of the gods our author feels that it is impossible to give any definite details4 ,yet in the verse of the time there are allusions to these performances referring to extravagance in dress and in articles of toilet1 such as perfume2 to a change in the style of music2 to the employment of themes of love or of sadness in parting--all of which indicates the great popularity of these entertainments of singing or dancing4 ,hence our ,chinese scholar believes that out of these beginnings the drama has grown4 ,in this connection it would seem proper to mention the work of the ,cambridge ,university scholar1 ,professor ,william ,ridgeway4 ,he holds that ,greek tragedy proper did not arise in the worship of the ,thracian god ,dionysus2 but that it sprang out of the indigenous worship of the dead1 especially dead chiefs who in some cases are later deified4#e ,in dramatic dances in honor of ancestors or deceased heroes in ,asiatic countries ,professor ,ridgeway finds support for his theory of the origin of the ,greek theater4 ,speaking of the ,chinese theater1 he says that already in the time of ,confucius certain solemn dances were held in the ancestral temples2 at the present time in the temples of local deities1 who were once heroes or heroines of the immediate neighborhood1 dramatic performances are held in which these deified heroes are supposed to take an interest for the reason that they are themselves frequently the object of the worship2 and that these modern theatricals seem to be descended directly from the ancient cult practiced five hundred years before ,christ4 ,it would seem from the foregoing that ,mr4 ,wang's evidence gives support to ,professor ,ridgeway's theories of the origin of tragedy out of the worship of deified heroes4 ,doctor ,berthold ,laufer1 curator of the ,field ,museum1 ,chicago1 has stated to me that in his opinion a discussion of the origin of the ,chinese drama ought to differentiate between the beginnings of the 8military plays0 and the 8civil plays40 ,the latter are1 as will be explained more fully in a later chapter1 plays in our sense of the word1 while the 8military plays0 consist of acrobatics that symbolize fighting4 ,doctor ,laufer believes that these last-named take their origin from ancient ceremonials in which the use of weapons was the chief feature4 ,doctor ,laufer has had considerable experience with the ,chinese theater1 and his museum is the only one in the world1 so far as ,i know1 which possesses life-size figures of ,chinese actors in correct costume4 ,so much for ancestor worship as the source of the drama with the wu or hsien4 ,mr4 ,wang adduces records also of other types of actors4 ,as early as #ahah ,b4,c41 according to a none too reliable ,han ,dynasty 7#bjf ,b4,c4-#bba ,a4,d47 record1 a ruler is said to have abolished the temple rites and ceremonies and to have collected about his court clowns1 dwarfs1 and actors to perform amusing plays4 ,in the more historic period of 8,spring and ,autumn0 7#ggj-edd ,b4,c47 there are records of dwarfs in rles similar to those of our court fools4 ,they attempted to gain the favor of the rulers by their witty sayings which were often full of satire4 ,confucius in his capacity of prime minister saw himself forced to put to death one of these wits#f because of his disrespectful allusions to the ruler--an action1 incidentally1 that seems most characteristic of the noble sage1 who with all his virtues certainly was not endowed with a sense of humor4 ,the function of these dancing1 singing1 play-acting dwarfs was not a religious one2 8they were to amuse men1 not to amuse the gods40 ,in a review#g of ,mr4 ,wang's 8,history of the ,drama under the ,sung and ,yuan ,dynasties0 ,professor ,soong calls attention to the following interesting analogies between ,orient and ,occident3 ,the influence of the court fools was considerable1 and on the whole salutary in ,china4 ,shih ,huang-ti 7#bee-bjf ,b4,c471 the builder of the ,great ,wall1 was so addicted to great building enterprises that the people suffered in consequence4 ,it was ,yu ,sze1 the court fool1 who caused the emperor to treat the people with more consideration4 ,the successor of this mighty ruler conceived the plan of having the ,great ,wall painted--perhaps just a caprice on his part1 perhaps in order to render the ,wall less subject to the influence of the weather4 ,again ,yu ,sze dissuaded the emperor from carrying out such a costly and wasteful project4 ,the history of ,yu ,meng is even more interesting4 ,in the kingdom of ,chou the family of ,suen ,lo ,ngao had become extremely impoverished because the king had forgotten the merits of the chief of the house1 a famous general4 ,yu ,meng1 the court fool1 donned the armor of the defunct military leader and sang of his exploits before the royal palace2 now the king could no longer refuse to recognize and recompense the merits of the family4 ,this touching episode told by the historian in the 8,biography of ,court ,fools0 cannot but recall ,will ,sommer to whom 8,the ,king would ever grant what he would crave40 ,during the ,han ,dynasty records show the existence of jugglers1 magicians1 rope-walkers1 sword-swallowers1 and also of plays in which masked actors disguised as gods1 fearful leopards1 cruel tigers1 white bears1 and gray dragons had their parts4 ,dwarfs and giants were made to play together in humorous pieces4 ,singing girls in costumes of feathers executed artful dances4 ,some of these performances are said to have been so indecent that passers-by covered their eyes4 ,however1 such performances were sharply censored at the time1 just as they would be in present-day ,china4 ,all of these performances were very much favored by the rulers1 but they consisted mostly of singing and dancing1 while there was very little that might be called drama4 ,in the northern ,ch'i ,dynasty 7#eej-egj ,a4,d47 however1 there arose what might be called a historical play based on an episode in the life of a heroic warrior1 ,duke ,lan ,lu4 ,this warrior had a somewhat effeminate aspect1 and therefore he wore a mask in battle to inspire fear in the hearts of his enemies4 ,his story was dramatized and became a very popular play1 probably similar to the present-day 8military plays0 in which the play with swords and spears forms the pice de rsistance4 ,there is a record about the same time of a comedy also based on an actual occurrence1 called 8,the ,drunkard40 ,a certain man1 ,su ,pao-pi 7a name alluding to red spots on his nose7 was a very heavy drinker and after each spree would beat his wife in the village street until she wept pitifully4 ,two actors1 one dressed as a woman and the other as a man1 would amuse the people by a popular farce portraying this quarrel between husband and wife4 ,the playlet must have been one of extraordinary vitality1 for there are records of it in the ,chi1 ,chou1 and ,sui dynasties--to be sure1 three short dynasties that followed one closely upon the other4 ,music and dancing also played a part in these two early dramatic presentations1 so that they were probably of the melodramatic 7in the etymological sense of the term7 variety1 such as is most of the ,chinese drama of to-day4 ,the dramas in ,china are classified according to the style of music they employ4 ,another play of the same1 or perhaps a little earlier period1 called 8,the ,tiger10 is thought by ,mr4 ,wang1 because of the music of foreign tribes employed in it1 to have been brought into ,china from 8,the ,western ,regions0 7central ,asia74#h ,it is the story of a man who was killed by a tiger and whose son then set out on a search for the wild beast1 fought with it and avenged his father by killing it in turn4 ,mr4 ,wang even hazards the suggestion that the two plays mentioned above1 8,the ,mask0 and 8,the ,drunkard10 were in their music and manner of presentation imitations of 8,the ,tiger10 in which case this form of drama would be a borrowing from a foreign country and not indigenous to ,china4 ,two other early plays which ,mr4 ,wang mentions deal with historical episodes4 ,from the ,han dynasty 7#bjf ,b4,c4-#bba ,a4,d47 dates the story of an unjust mandarin who had 8squeezed0 as they say in ,china1 ten thousand rolls of silk and was put in jail4 ,later on the emperor moderated this punishment1 because of the mandarin's great learning1 into the following3 the culprit had to appear at court dressed in a white robe while for the period of one year the court fools were at liberty to make sport of him4 ,this became the basis of a play shown by a number of records to have been acted frequently before the ,t'ang ,dynasty4 ,the plot seems1 indeed1 to have been a comedy made to order for the court fools to display their wit4 ,there is evidence to show that this play was enacted in the imperial palace in the middle of the eighth century4 ,a group of actors from ,chekiang in presenting this play were said to have had voices so loud that they penetrated to the clouds--a circumstance that would win the favor of the devotees of certain types of modern ,chinese drama4 ,the other historical play has for a hero ,fan ,kuai1 a noble who saved the emperor's life by his prompt action against rebels4 ,it is said to have been written by the ,t'ang ,dynasty emperor1 ,chao ,tsung himself1 and to have been acted in the imperial palace in ,ch'ang ,an4 ,it was during the ,t'ang ,dynasty especially that a nonmusical type of drama flourished in the form of extemporized comedies4 ,the plots hinged on local occurrences and differed with practically each presentation4 ,however1 much as in the ,italian commedia dell' arte1 with its ,arlecchino1 ,pantalone1 ,dottore1 ,scapino1 etc41 certain characters or character types seem to have arisen4 ,the very same extortionate mandarin1 mentioned above as the central figure of a play1 became such a type who figured in almost all of these comedies--in fact he is a stock character on the ,chinese stage even to-day--while opposite him there appeared as his regular companion a fool wearing a green cap4 ,thus dialogue between two actors--in other words rudimentary drama--became firmly established4 ,since the satirizing of current events and of local characters was the avowed purpose of these comedies1 it will be readily understood by all familiar with life in the ,east that the dishonest official came in for his fair share4 ,a topical comedy with a purpose from the ,sung ,dynasty 7#ifj-aabf ,a4,d47 played before the emperor attained all that might have been desired4 ,through the efforts of an unpopular official a system of coinage had been introduced in which the smallest coin had a value of ten cash4 ,naturally enough this caused great inconvenience to very many poor people4 ,therefore some actors called upon to play before the emperor in the course of a feast proceeded to give him a lesson in rudimentary economics4 ,a vendor of syrups appeared and shortly afterwards a thirsty customer4 ,the latter paid one coin and demanded one drink4 ,the merchant explained that he had no change for the coin and asked his patron therefore to take a number of drinks4 ,the buyer does his best1 but after the fifth or sixth cup taps his bulging stomach and exclaims1 8,well1 ,i've done it at last4 ,but if the gentlemen in the government were to make us use hundred-cash coins ,i should surely burst60 ,the emperor was moved to gay laughter and smaller coins were at once issued4 ,however1 the efforts of these actors were not always so fortunate in outcome4 ,the story is told1 for example1 of actors who had dressed up to represent ,confucius1 ,mencius1 and other sages for the purpose of giving the emperor some very pertinent advice on the division of land in the very words of the great moral teachers4 ,the advice proved to be so inconvenient that the emperor had the actors whipped for their pains4 ,from the ,sung ,dynasty 7#ifj-aabg ,a4,d47 ,mr4 ,wang reports the names of #bhj plays and from the ,chin ,dynasty 7#aaae-abcd ,a4,d47 #fij plays1 but fails to state how many are extant4 ,of the so-called ,ancient ,drama it is known that a certain kind of free metrical form adapted to music 7ch'7 was employed2 that as a rule only two actors appeared in each play2 and that theatricals1 though still very primitive1 were quite popular1 as they were presented both to the general public in shabby mat-sheds and to the court at magnificent feasts4 ,our knowledge of the ,ancient ,drama is very meager to be sure1 yet the work of ,mr4 ,wang has made it possible to go beyond what ,mr4 ,giles says in his 8,history of ,chinese ,literature0#i after having mentioned the ,pear ,garden myth3 8,nothing1 however1 which can be truly identified with the actor's art seems to have been known until the thirteenth century1 when suddenly the ,drama1 as seen in the modern ,chinese stage play1 sprang into being40 ,owing to the great interest in ,western drama in ,china at the present time it is very likely that other ,chinese scholars will make researches in this interesting field and that more light will soon be shed on the origin of the ,chinese drama4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,two ,,formal ,,development--,,yuan ,,dynasty1 #abjf-acfh ,the rise of the ,chinese drama was due to a national disaster that broke the sway of the ruling literary class4 ,in #abfd ,kublai ,khan with his ,mongols fixed his capital at ,peking and for the first time in their history the sons of ,han passed under the rule of an alien sovereign4 ,the barbarians naturally enough abolished the literary examinations for government posts1 consisting of competitions in the writing of essays and poetry in the language of the classics1 for they did not care to appoint as viceroys and justices members of the subject race4 ,the ,mongol language had absolutely no literature and1 indeed1 not even an alphabet until #abgi1 when a ,tibetan priest constructed one by imperial order4 ,chinese scholars were thrust out of their high offices and could find employment only as writers of petitions or as lowly clerks4 ,there was no longer any call for the exercise of their talents in the writing of descriptive essays or lyrical poetry such as had been demanded in the examinations formerly leading to the highest offices2 they found1 however1 a fruitful outlet for their literary powers in a genre previously greatly despised by the literati--the drama4 ,the cause of the scholar's disdain for the drama and the novel was the great chasm that yawned between the classical language and the spoken language of the day in which1 perforce1 popular literature of entertainment or of the stage had to be written4 ,for over a thousand years the literary language had been a dead language1 so dead that a learned scholar could comprehend it only if he saw the text in black and white before his eyes--to hear it read did not by any means enable him to understand it4 ,everything that had been considered literature up to that time was composed in this language1 and anything composed in the vulgar tongue was considered beneath the dignity of a scholar4 ,now1 however1 clever writers turned to the drama and the novel with the result that the written language was to a certain extent democratized in the works that appealed to the broad masses of readers or hearers4 ,but let it be noted1 to a certain extent only2 for1 as vanquished ,greece in turn conquered ,rome by her superior culture1 so ,chinese culture conquered the ,mongols4 ,after having been abolished for practically eighty years the literary examinations were reinstated and the drama too was gradually caught in pedantic fetters of formalism4 ,yet in spite of the fact that the ,yuan dramatists moved away from the spoken language to one presupposing considerable erudition on the part of the reader1 there are many scholars even to-day who regard the novel and drama as beneath their notice1 just as a medieval scholar would have despised any work not written in ,latin4#aj ,in fact these works have been recognized at their true worth only as late as #aiag1 when ,hu ,shih1 ,columbia ,university doctor of philosophy and professor at the ,national ,university in ,peking1 began to lecture on the ,chinese drama as drama and to publish the best of the novels with historical introductions4 ,professor ,hu ,shih finds in the language of these works a compromise which he hopes will be an aid in inducing the ,chinese of to-day finally to adopt the vernacular as the language of science and belles-lettres4 ,for1 in spite of the concessions made to the firmly rooted conventions of the conservative class of scholars for the sake of lending dignity to their works and securing the approval of the literati1 the novel and the drama1 owing to their popular appeal1 deviated largely from the dead language and approached the vernacular of the day4 ,the dramatists are as a rule men who are not otherwise famous as writers4 ,biographical material concerning the authors of the 8,one ,hundred ,yuan ,dramas01 the collection of plays considered classical in ,china1 is so meager that it does not seem worth while to mention names about whose bearers little more can be said than that they 8flourished40 ,about five hundred plays were extant at the beginning of the ,ming ,dynasty1 while to-day there exist but one hundred and sixteen4 ,modern ,celestial scholars are proud of the fact that an overwhelming percentage of the authors were real ,chinese1 practically all from the territory now covered by the provinces of ,chihli1 ,shantung and ,shansi1 about a third of them born in ,peking 7called ,yenching at the time74 ,nine tenths of the authors lived in what is called the first period of the ,yuan drama 7#abce-abhj7 with its center in ,peking2 while the much smaller ,southern ,school developed later 7#abhj-acce7 around ,hangchow4 ,most of the authors were from among the common people1 and only one among the whole ninety odd was a ,tartar4 ,chinese critics regard ,kuan ,han-ching 7the author of 8,the ,sufferings of ,tou-,e01 a play discussed below7 as the greatest of all these writers1 because his manner is true and natural4 ,others are spoken of as having a style that is lofty and magnificent1 or pure and beautiful1 or biting and vigorous4 ,the historian of the ,chinese drama1 ,mr4 ,wang ,kuo-wei1 quoted above1 states that the ,yuan drama is a natural growth out of the previously existing forms and the traditional plots4 ,more than thirty ,yuan plots1 he points out1 had been used before in plays of the ,sung ,dynasty4 ,he finds the chief advance of the ,yuan drama to consist in the employment of more flexible verse forms for the poetic sections and the use of more dialogue in the place of narration and description4 ,thus the essence of drama1 action1 takes the place of narration4 ,moreover1 the drama rose to the dignity of an art4 ,previous to this the plays1 generally dialogues by clowns1 had been mostly interlarded in entertainments of acrobatics1 dancing1 and music4 ,such performances took place frequently at the royal court and are described also in the writings of the ,italian ,ma-,ke-,po-,lo 7,marco ,polo7 when he tells about the feast of the ,grand ,khan3 8,when the repast is finished1 and the tables have been removed1 persons of various descriptions enter the hall and amongst these a troop of comedians and performers on various instruments1 as also tumblers and jugglers1 who exhibit their skill in the presence of the ,grand ,khan to the high amusement and gratification of all the spectators40#aa ,as has been stated above1 the dramas soon took on certain formal aspects4 ,in general they have four acts1 with a prologue1 epilogue1 or interlude1 which makes them in appearance and length quite similar to our five-act plays4 ,some plays--analogous to our trilogies--have acts of a number that is a multiple of four and each group of four acts forms a unity by itself4 ,for example1 8,the ,western ,chamber01 has twenty acts and forms really five plays4 ,according to ,chinese critics the drama is composed of three elements3 7#a7 action2 7#b7 speech2 7#c7 singing4 ,speech may be divided into monologue and dialogue2 the purpose of the latter is to advance the action and of the former to arouse emotions--a function that very properly invites comparison with the rle of the chorus in the ,greek drama4 ,no longer are there only two characters in these plays1 but we now find four chief rles along with various minor parts4 ,in very rigid manner only one character is made to sing in each act1 which means that each of the four characters has one act in which he or she plays the main rle4 ,this arrangement has had its peculiar effect which can be witnessed in present-day ,peking1 where plays of this type are staged1 inasmuch as a famous actor who plays1 let us say1 the rle of the lover1 will not present entire dramas1 but only such of the acts as give him the principal part4 ,in the new plays of to-day1 of course1 a different practice is followed but the old repertoire of the average ,chinese theater is so well known that it makes very little difference whether a drama is presented as a whole or in part4 ,the character types of the ,yuan drama1 the ,mei 7male7 and ,tan 7female71 with their many variations1 are in general quite similar to the types of present-day drama1 a discussion of which is given in a later chapter4 ,in the printed texts of the play characters are designated not by their names1 but by the rles which they play4 ,the classical drama of ,china offers many interesting parallels to different stages in the development of our drama1 though it nowhere equals the plays of our great masters4 ,its greatest height reaches the level of perhaps the pre-,shakespearean drama in content1 construction1 and manner of presentation4 ,the presentation of ,chinese plays with the projecting platform stage1 the lack of scenery and the emphasis on gorgeous costume1 the playing of female parts by male actors1 the extemporizing of clowns1 and the use of music in 8flourish0 and 8alarums0 offers a strikingly close parallel to ,elizabethan staging4 ,but that is a chapter by itself4 ,in the consideration of ,chinese drama a few facts of ,chinese life must be borne in mind4 ,the beau ideal in the ,middle ,kingdom is not the warrior1 but the scholar4 ,there is no hereditary aristocracy1 but wealth and power falls to him who distinguishes himself in the competitive examinations and thus becomes viceroy of a province or some other type of high official4 ,the passing of the examination therefore serves as the deus ex machina in many plays1 solving all knotty problems accumulated by the fifth act4 ,marriages are arranged by the parents1 and the romance of courtship is a rare and forbidden fruit4 ,the religious and ethical background consists chiefly of a respect for the minute moral precepts of ,confucius1 with some ,buddhistic notions of reincarnation and some ,taoist superstitions impartially admixed4 ,to examine a few of the acknowledged masterpieces of the ,yuan drama is to invite fascinating comparisons4 ,in 8,chao ,mei ,hsiang0 7,intrigue of a ,lady's ,maid7 we have a young servant girl uniting two lovers1 a sort of ,dorine of ,molire's 8,tartuffe0 in a ,chinese setting4 ,the destiny of the young man and the girl have been settled beforehand by their parents1 much as ,orgon in 8,tartuffe0 disposes of his daughter's future3 ,enfin1 ma fille1 il faut payer d'obeissance1 ,et montrer pour mon choix entire dfrence4 ,the lovers in both plays revolt against parental authority1 and in both cases a happy ending is brought about indirectly through fortunate intervention on the part of the monarch himself4 ,the meat contained in the ,chinese play is about what 8,tartuffe0 would be with ,tartuffe left out4 ,two generals arrange1 shortly before they die in battle1 that their children are to marry4 ,the son of the one1 therefore1 while on his journey to the capital to take his examination1 visits at the home of the widow of his father's friend4 ,the widow invites him to take up his abode in a pleasant pavilion in the garden1 but she meets with icy silence every reference on the part of the young man to marriage4 ,this is because she wishes to observe the very strictest code of conduct1 which ordains that when a girl has lost her father she dare not marry until three years afterward4 ,the young people fall in love at first sight2 the young man so desperately that the yearning for the girl he is not permitted to see after their first accidental meeting causes him to become violently ill4 ,the quick-witted1 impertinent maid sent to look after the wants of the patient carries messages between him and the young girl and finally arranges a meeting on a moonlit night4 ,the lovers have exchanged but a few words when the mother discovers them4 ,she punishes the maid and sends the young man away in disgrace4 ,he goes to the capital and passes such a brilliant examination that he attracts the attention of the emperor4 ,the latter becomes interested in the young man's future and decides to carry out the wish of his two faithful generals4 ,the marriage is arranged by imperial command4 ,both lovers are in ignorance as to who their selected mates are to be1 and at first are very much dejected2 but when they meet as bride and groom their happiness is all the greater when they realize that the choice of their elders is also the choice of their hearts4 ,illustration3 ,,illustration ,,by ,a ,,chinese ,,artist ,,for 8,,the ,,chalk ,,circle0 ,this1 together with three similar illustrations1 has been taken from the standard edition of the ,yuan ,dynasty classics ,the play moves in an atmosphere of strictly prescribed etiquette of which the mother is a stony-eyed incarnation4 ,the facetious little maid is a breaker of rules in the interest of more human considerations1 and1 like the servant in all our comedies from the time of ,menander downward1 she tells her mistress some frank home-truths4 ,not only is the young man a scholar1 but the heroine with her maid-companion also have been ardent students of the classics4 ,quotations from ,confucius1 ,mencius1 ,laotze1 and the ,buddhist writings lend their sparkle to the dialogue4 ,the lovers exchange poems exhibiting that charming impressionism of delicately sketched moonlight on the lotus or snowfall on pine trees so characteristic of ,chinese verse4 ,allusions to myths abound2 for example1 to the moonlit cloud that wooed the mother of ,huang ,ti as ,jupiter did ,io4 ,as in the plays of ,bernard ,shaw and of his predecessor ,shakespeare1 the heroine takes the initiative by tossing into the room of the rather passive hero a bag embroidered with characters revealing her love4 ,a wistful note is sounded by the young scholar when the wedding commanded by the emperor is1 as he believes1 about to unite him to a woman other than the one he loves3 8,musicians1 please do not now play the air of the teals meeting in chaste pleasure who lament and yet feel no sorrow40 ,this speech gives the same blending of the emotions so often spoken of by our poets in analyzing the mystery of love1 perhaps most strikingly in ,goethe's lines3 ,freudvoll und leidvoll1 ,gedankenvoll sein1 ,langen und bangen ,in schwebender ,pein1 ,himmelhoch jauchzend1 ,zum ,tode betrbt1 ,glcklich allein ist ,die ,seele die liebt4 ,the play 8,ho ,lang ,tan0 7,the ,singing ,girl7 portrays the punishment of vice and the triumph of virtue4 ,a rich merchant decides to take into his house a second wife1 a certain singing girl4 ,he finds himself desperately in love with this lady of easy virtue1 while the girl herself is planning to get his money in order to run off with her real lover4 ,there is a scene between husband and wife in which the latter bitterly resents the plan of bringing a concubine into the house and pronounces grave warnings of the evils that will befall her husband in consequence4 ,but the merchant persists in his plan and brings the singing girl to salute his wife as mistress of the house4 ,the former is required by etiquette to make four bows1 of which the last two must be returned by the wife4 ,the wife refuses to greet the interloper1 and after a short but violent quarrel she dies of anger4 ,the next scene shows the singing girl stealing the merchant's money and setting his house on fire4 ,her lover1 disguised as a boatman1 throws the husband into a stream and tries to strangle the latter's son and his nurse4 ,but passers-by prevent the cowardly murder1 and one of the strangers buys from the nurse the seven-year-old boy for one ounce of silver4 ,the poor nurse faces starvation and decides to adopt the profession of a singing girl4 ,while traveling about in this capacity she meets the merchant who has had a miraculous escape from drowning and has sunk to the position of swineherd in a far country4 ,his lowly state eloquently points the moral4 ,at first he upbraids the nurse for having adopted her dishonorable calling1 but afterward he accepts her invitation to quit his miserable post and to be supported by her4 ,thirteen years have passed and the young son has become a famous judge by virtue of having passed a brilliant examination4 ,he happens to arrive in the same city where his relatives are and calls on the keeper of his inn to provide some singers for his entertainment4 ,the host leads in his childhood nurse and his father4 ,the young judge wipes his teacup with a piece of paper which he throws on the floor4 ,as this paper happens to be the contract of his sale by the nurse to the kind-hearted stranger who later made him his heir and as it happens to be picked up by the father1 a recognition is effected4 ,at the same time two thieves are brought before the judge1 who turn out to be the erstwhile second wife and her scoundrel lover4 ,they meet their just punishment2 the judge puts them to death with his own hand as a pious offering to the spirit of his deceased mother4 ,the father praises the justice of ,heaven and asks his son to order a feast that they may celebrate in due form this remarkable meeting4 ,the chief interest of this clumsy play lies in the light it throws on ,chinese life4 ,the indignation and subsequent death of the wife show how even in countries where 8they are used to it0 women resent bitterly the advent of a concubine into the house4 ,during my stay in ,peking there occurred several weddings that were marred by violent quarrels between the first wife and the new bride4 ,the husband in our play vainly exhorts his wife to be good1 to observe the three obediences and the four virtues of a wife4#ab ,yet he cannot exile her1 because she has borne him a son4 ,all of the characters are drawn with great realism in their ignoble conduct4 ,the sale of the child by the nurse is followed by a tearful monologue on the part of the sailor who had come to the rescue3 8,poor child1 your lot is to be pitied4 ,this woman who was just about to be strangled by the brigands finds herself reduced to the necessity of selling her child4 ,could one find a sadder and more heart-rending situation8 ,who would not shed tears of pity for her80 ,the author sets out with a realistic portrayal of a phase of life1 but he yields to the force of convention which required a moral and happy ending--an influence not unknown in the drama of ,western countries4 ,our plays1 from 8,the ,merchant of ,venice0 to 8,madam ,x01 abound in court scenes1 but the ,chinese theater makes use of this effective device even more frequently4 ,a play called 8,the ,chalk ,circle0 presents in a trial scene a story almost identical with a ,biblical one4 ,two women appearing before a judge with a child each claim it as their own4 ,the judge orders the child placed in a circle drawn on the floor1 while the women are to decide who is the mother by pulling at the child in a sort of tug-of-war4 ,one woman refuses to hurt the child by pulling at his arm1 and the judge decides with ,solomonic wisdom that she must be the true mother4 ,very frequently these plays are satirical in character1 making sport of the notoriously corrupt judges4 ,in one of the naively primitive speeches of introduction1 required by the theatrical convention of every character on entering the stage1 a judge is made to say1 8,i am the governor of ,ching-,chou4 ,my name is ,sou ,shen4 ,although ,i fulfill the functions of a judge1 yet ,i do not know a single article of the code4 ,i like only one thing and that is money4 ,by means of the bright metal every plaintiff can always make sure the winning of his suit40 ,illustration3 ,,illustration ,,by ,a ,,chinese ,,artist ,,for 8,,the ,,chalk ,,circle0 8,the ,transmigration of ,you ,hsin0 is a play dealing with the popular superstitions regarding the reincarnation of souls in much the same spirit in which ,voltaire in 8,candide0 treats the belief that this is the best of all possible worlds4 ,as in ,gogol's 8,revizor0 the government sends an inspector to a certain village where the officials of the law court are said to be corrupt4 ,the rumor of the coming inspection reaches town before the inspector2 and most of the judges flee4 ,only ,you ,hsin remains1 together with the clerks and minor officials4 ,one of these expresses his surprise at the fact that ,you ,hsin is going to meet the inspector so calmly1 especially since he had recently accepted a scandalously large bribe4 ,you ,hsin answers1 8,yes1 to be sure1 ,i've accepted presents4 ,but my friend1 you certainly are simple6 ,isn't it necessary that we fulfill our destiny8 ,no one can die before his time has come4 ,have the courts ever prolonged by one minute the life of a man8 ,if it were otherwise people would no longer believe in lucky and unlucky fates2 they would no longer call ,heaven and ,earth the arbiters of life and death40 ,a famous anchorite appears prophesying that ,you ,hsin will die within two hours4 ,then the inspector enters the village and begins immediately his examination of the court records4 ,however1 since he is an extremely stupid and incapable man1 the clerks succeed in persuading him that everything is in order4 ,but ,you ,hsin in his home has fallen ill4 ,he implores his beautiful wife never to show her face in public and to remain a widow forever4 ,he dies at the very hour the holy man had foretold--even though his death is not due to a sentence imposed on him because of his corrupt practices4 ,you ,hsin's soul appears before the judge of the lower world4 ,as he had been very avaricious in life his punishment is to consist in having to gather coppers tossed into a deep kettle of boiling oil4 ,but the holy man appears and obtains forgiveness for ,you ,hsin1 because he allows himself to be quickly converted to ,taoism and makes the vows of poverty and chastity4 ,the judge will even grant him the boon of a speedy return to earth4 ,he cannot renter his own body1 because his wife has been a bit precipitate in cremating it2 but he is allowed to enter that of a butcher who has just died1 a blue-eyed1 lame1 and otherwise ugly man4 ,the butcher's parents1 wife1 and neighbors are engaged in mourning1 when the dead man suddenly rises from his coffin4 ,you ,hsin wants1 first of all1 to see his pretty wife1 but when he tries to walk he stumbles with his lame leg4 ,as they hand him the crutch he reflects1 8,ah1 yes1 in my former life ,i had a crooked conscience and in this life ,i have a crooked and useless leg4 ,i realize only too well the heavenly justice60 ,the butcher's relatives follow him to his former home1 where his wife had been happy to receive him after he had fully explained his miraculous return4 ,a violent quarrel breaks out between the two women1 each of whom claims her husband4 ,the case is taken before the stupid imperial inspector1 who is in great perplexity before the question as to whether the body or the soul constitutes the husband4 ,the case and the play end when the anchorite arrives to remind ,you ,hsin of his vows and to take him into the unworldly wilderness4 ,plautus' and ,molire's subject for a comedy of character1 the miser1 has been employed by a ,chinese playwright with strong local color to his humor4 ,one of the many scenes of his play describes how the miser comes to feel that he must have a son to pray at his grave and therefore decides to buy one from an unlucky scholar reduced by poverty to selling his children4 ,he offers the parents one ounce of silver4 ,the mother exclaims in her disappointment1 8,why1 for that sum you couldn't buy a boy modeled in clay40 ,perhaps this is a bit unmotherly in sentiment1 but the retort is truly miserly1 8,yes1 but a boy of clay does not eat or cause other expenses40 ,when this sum is refused the miser instructs his servant to go once more to the man1 to hold the silver high1 very high1 above his head and to say1 8,there1 you poor scholar1 ,his ,excellency ,lord ,kou deigns to give you one precious ounce of silver40 ,his servant replies that no matter how high he holds it an ounce will be only an ounce2 and finally he pays the father more out of his own wages6 ,when the son has reached the age of twenty the miser scolds him one day because he seems to think that money is for the purpose of buying food and clothes6 ,by way of instruction he tells how one can live economically3 8,one day ,i felt inclined to eat roast duck and therefore ,i went to the market to that shop which you know4 ,they were just roasting a fine duck and the delicious juice was running down4 ,under the pretext of bargaining ,i handled it and soaked my fingers thoroughly in the gravy4 ,then ,i went home without having bought it and called for a plate of boiled rice4 ,with each spoonful of rice ,i sucked one finger4 ,at the fourth spoonful ,i became tired and fell asleep4 ,during my nap a treacherous dog came and licked my last finger4 ,when on awakening ,i noticed this theft1 ,i became so angry that ,i have been ill ever since40 ,the house is in need of a picture of the god of luck1 and the miser instructs his son to order the artist to paint a rear view1 because to paint the face costs most4 ,when he is about to die he orders his son to bury him not in a coffin of pine1 nor even of willow wood1 but to use the old watering trough standing in the back yard4 ,the son objects that it is too short1 but the father instructs him to chop his body in two to make it fit4 8,and there is one more important thing ,i wish to say to you before ,i die2 don't use my good ax to cut me in two1 but borrow one from the neighbor40 8,since we have an ax1 why should ,i bother the neighbor80 8,perhaps you don't know that my bones are extremely hard1 and that if you'd use my good cutting edge you'd have to spend some coppers to get it resharpened40 ,the miser's last words are inaudible1 but he persists in holding up two fingers4 ,all the relatives assembled in the death chamber are very much puzzled and try to please him by doing this or that1 but the dying man's discomfort increases4 ,finally his old servant enters and he understands4 ,there are two candles burning where one might do2 and after one of them has been extinguished the miser dies in peace4 ,tragedy is not found in the ,chinese drama4 ,the plays abound in sad situations1 but there is none that by its nobility or sublimity would deserve to be called tragic4 ,the closest approach to it is found perhaps in 8,the ,orphan of the ,chao ,family01#ac made familiar to ,western readers by ,voltaire2 or in 8,the ,sorrows of ,han40 ,this latter play1 in the ,chinese literally 8,autumn in the ,house of ,han01 is full of poetical touches4 ,north of the ,great ,wall there is the ,tartar ,khan who sees in the weakness of the ,han emperor his opportunity for further conquest4 ,this young emperor is addicted to a life of dissipation1 and through his minister ,mao he gathers beauties for his harem from the four corners of his realm4 ,as a true ,oriental1 ,mao demands a heavy bribe from the family of every girl whose portrait he submits to the emperor4 ,but the family of the most beautiful girl of all is so poor as to be unable to pay a bribe1 and therefore the minister causes the artist to distort the portrait4 ,naturally the emperor does not summon this lady into his presence4 ,but one evening1 when in a melancholy mood he walks in an unfrequented part of his palace grounds1 he comes by chance upon this girl as she is singing to her lute4 ,her beauty enchants him4 8,the very lantern shines brighter in the presence of this maid10 he exclaims1 and falls violently in love with her4 ,of course1 he orders the grasping minister to be beheaded2 but the latter flees to the ,tartar ,khan to show him a truthful picture of the favorite and to incite him to war against ,china4 ,the ,khan sends an ultimatum3 8,either give me this beauty for a wife or ,i will make war on ,china40 ,the emperor is aghast with fear of a ,tartar invasion1 but the princess is willing to be sacrificed4 8,in return for your bounties it is your handmaiden's duty to brave death for you10 she says and adds that surpassing beauty has always been coupled with great sorrow1 but that she will leave a name ever green in history4 ,after a sad farewell she departs for the country of the ,tartars and meets the ,khan on the banks of the ,amur4 ,she drinks a last cup of wine to her lover3 8,emperor of ,han1 this life is ended4 ,i await thee in the next40 ,with these words the princess casts herself into the swift current and drowns in spite of the ,khan's valiant effort to save her4 ,he erects for her a tomb on the bank of the river1 which tradition says is green both summer and winter4 ,moved by her noble character1 the ,tartar decides to live in peace with ,china4 ,illustration3 ,,illustration ,,by ,a ,,chinese ,,artist4 ,,tou-,e ,,before ,,the ,,judge ,a play that is even to-day a favorite in ,peking playhouses under the title of 8,snow in ,june0 was called by its ,yuan dynasty author 8,the ,sufferings of ,tou-,e40 ,it is the record of the endless sufferings at the hands of a pitch-black1 wicked world of an innocent girl and her final vindication through a triple miracle from ,heaven4 ,in her childhood she was sold by her own father into a family where she became the son's wife and the drudge of her mother-in-law4 ,for thirteen years she was a dutiful wife and when her husband died she hoped to remain faithful to his memory1 as every widow in ,china is expected to do4 ,but two cowardly ruffians1 father and son1 force themselves into the house where she is living with her likewise widowed mother-in-law and demand that the women marry them1 endowing them at the same time with all their worldly goods4 ,the two women refuse to yield to these insolent demands4 ,then the younger intruder1 or rather bandit1 places some poison in a bowl of soup1 intending to murder the older woman1 but his father drains the cup by mistake4 ,hereupon he tries once more to coerce the heroine into marriage by threatening to fasten the murder upon her4 ,she feels quite secure in her innocence and dares him to bring the case to court1 very certain in the belief that justice will prevail4 ,but the wicked judge begins by having the accused tortured1 and this so brutally that the girl is at last forced into a false confession merely to escape the unbearable pain4 ,upon this she is promptly condemned to death4 ,as she is kneeling to be beheaded she announces that three things will prove her innocence2 her blood will not fall on the ground but on a banner ten feet above her head2 snow will fall although the season is summer2 and there will be a drought of three years' duration4 ,all of this comes true as it had been foretold1 and the strange tale is noised abroad in the land4 ,finally1 a just judge--her very father who as a poor scholar had been forced to sell his child6--hears of the case and decides to investigate it4 ,the spirit of his daughter comes to enlighten him in regard to the true state of affairs1 and the real murderer is punished by being nailed to a wooden ass and cut into a hundred and twenty pieces4 ,illustration3 ,,illustration ,,by ,a ,,chinese ,,artist4 ,,tou-,e ,,about ,,to ,,be ,,beheaded ,this obtrusively moral ending is a sine qua non in ,chinese plays2 likewise the crude plot as well as the rle played by accident rather mar one's enjoyment of the play4 ,yet the courage of the girl in the face of her persecutors1 her firm belief that justice will prevail in the end1 and her stoical manner of meeting death are elements not without their charm4 ,the scene of the execution is rather impressive in its simplicity4 ,tou-,e3 7sings7 ,ye clouds that float in the air on my account1 make dark the sky6 ,ye winds that sigh because of my fate1 come down in storms6 ,oh1 that ,heaven would make my three predictions come true6 ,mother-in-law3 ,rest assured that snow will fall for six months1 and that a drought will afflict the country for three years4 ,now1 ,tou-,e1 let your soul reveal clearly the great injustice which is about to cause your death4 7,the executioner strikes off ,tou-,e's head74 ,the ,judge 7seized with terror73 ,o ,heavens6 ,the snow is beginning to fall6 ,this is surely a miracle6 ,executioner3 ,i behead criminals every day and their blood always flows on the ground1 but the blood of ,tou-,e has spotted the two banners of white silk and not a drop has fallen on the ground4 ,there is something supernatural about this catastrophe4 ,the ,judge3 ,this woman was truly innocent6 ,the plays discussed in this chapter are sufficient to show that in the thirteenth century the ,chinese possessed a theater of fair merit4 ,to be sure1 the technique is extremely crude2 characters on their first appearance on the stage tell the audience their names followed by a conscientious account of their past lives and the part to be played by them in the drama2 the motivation of the actions is very poor2 many plays seem to be dramatized narratives rather than real dramas2 there is a great paucity of invention as shown by the rather frequent repetition of dramatic devices and motives2 the necessity of having a moral ending leads to numerous absurdities2 and chance rules the playwright's world from beginning to end1 always in the interest of the good4 ,furthermore1 there is lacking a real sense of the tragic2 there are no sublime heroes overcome by the universal human limitations which they challenge1 nor are there moral conflicts of an elevating nature in which poetic justice triumphs4 ,the characters are in general types rather than individuals1 and there is very little deep psychological insight displayed4 ,and on the whole it must be said1 the plays do not rise to a very high spiritual level4 ,yet there is great charm in this drama which brings on the stage characters of all sorts from emperors down to coolies1 and displays in full the rich life in the ,middle ,kingdom of the days when ,marco ,polo described it4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,three ,,the ,,ming ,,dynasty--#acfh-afdd ,,the ,,pi-,,pa-,,chi ,the ,yuan ,dynasty of ,mongol rulers was a very powerful one and extended the ,chinese frontiers to include ,korea1 ,ynnan1 ,annam1 and ,burma4 ,the rulers proved themselves very tolerant of ,chinese religions and institutions2 the emperor ,jen ,tsung even restablished the ,hanlin ,academy and the official examinations4 ,but though the government of these foreigners was fairly efficient yet it was by no means popular1 and frequent rebellions occurred4 ,finally1 the ,chinese under the leadership of a former ,buddhist monk1 ,chu ,yuan-chang1 drove the ,mongols beyond the ,great ,wall and founded the ,ming ,dynasty4 ,the ex-monk ascended the throne in #acfh and is known in history as ,emperor ,hung ,wu4 ,the ,ming ,dynasty is known as a period of prosperity in which industry and commerce1 as well as the arts of poetry and painting1 flourished4 ,it was also a great period for the drama4 ,over six hundred ,ming dramas are still extant or are at least known by title1 and many of them were written by well-known authors of high literary standing and great scholarship4 ,the drama was so much appreciated at this time that many high officials and wealthy families had private troupes of actors1 a large number of the dramas being specially written for these troupes4 ,since the audiences were composed of the lite1 the language of the dramas could be of a highly literary character4 ,a development took place at this time that altered considerably the form of the drama4 ,instead of the compact and unified three1 four1 or five-act plays of the ,yuan period1 playwrights began to produce dramas of thirty-two1 forty1 or even forty-eight acts4 ,the name of this new form is ch'an ch'i 7literally 8novel07 in distinction to the tsa ch'i of the ,yuan ,dynasty4 ,doctor ,hu ,shih1 writing to me about these two forms1 suggests that one might call the former 8play0 and the latter 8drama40 8,technically the new form seems to be a degradation10 he says1 8but aside from the aspect of literary economy the ,ming dramas were superior to the ,yuan plays in many respects1 viz4 7#a7 profounder conception1 7#b7 far better characterization1 7#c7 more even distribution of parts among the characters4 ,in the ,yuan plays only one character had a #8singing' part and the others were completely subordinated2 while in ,ming dramas the rles are more evenly balanced4 ,in many cases the same theme was treated by ,yuan and ,ming dramatists1 and in most cases the ,ming version is far better40 ,in this chapter ,i am presenting an example of this new variety of drama1 a #bd-;act piece called 8,pi-,pa-,chi0 7,the ,story of a ,lute74 ,except for the fact that dialogue and stage directions are used the work might well be called a novel4 ,aside from the technical interest of the drama it is most significant as a presentation of ,confucian ideals1 a revival of which was typical likewise of the ,ming ,dynasty4 ,such ideals are embodied in the family system with the selfishness--as it appears to us--of old age4 ,after reading about the adventures of the hero1 ,tsai ,yung1 the ,westerner can understand why in ,confucian writings along with widows and orphans there are enumerated 8son-less fathers40 ,the conflict in the drama centers about the 8higher0 and the 8lower0 obedience--service to the state or to the family4 ,but the problem is not a clear-cut one1 as the son is to serve the state in the interest of the greater prosperity of his own family2 nor can it be said that it is solved in any way4 ,the drama1 however1 is full of ,chinese moralizing along lines far removed from the thinking of the 8practical0 ,westerner4 ,indeed1 much of the famous mystery of the ,east or the inscrutability of the ,orientals might be less baffling to the average ,american if he were better acquainted with the literature of ,china4 ,i have known1 for example1 a young ,chinese politician who was none too scrupulous in the manner in which he went about earning his living1 who drank1 supported a number of concubines1 and in fact was what might be called by the vulgar a 8rounder40 ,in the course of a dinner one evening he told me between the sharks' fins and the ,peking duck that he had been offered a post in ,washington1 but1 lucrative though it was1 he could not accept it because of 8filial piety0--his very words4 ,now piety in any sense of the word was the last thing ,i associated with this youth1 and therefore his statement seemed to me surprising4 ,there was another ,chinese1 the owner of an excellent stable1 with whom ,i went riding frequently in the ,temple of ,heaven4 ,he was a vigorous young man1 educated in ,paris1 very businesslike and progressive in all his ideas4 ,one day ,i received an invitation to his wedding1 and1 on going1 found a merry throng in the gaily decorated courtyard1 with dancing in ,european fashion going on in full blast4 ,i noted the groom among the dancers1 congratulated him and remarked1 8,well1 ,i'm sure you're very happy to-day60 ,but he shook his head and1 as tears came into his eyes1 he told me that the bride was not of his choice but had been selected and forced on him by his elder brother1 the head of the family4 ,again1 in speaking one day with a progressive young student who talked a great deal about reforms in politics and who participated eagerly in parades and other demonstrations staged for that end1 ,i mentioned a certain official who had flagrantly stolen funds collected for the famine sufferers4 ,the student expressed perfunctory disapproval of the official's conduct1 but added1 8,still1 if ,i were in his position1 ,i'd probably do the same40 ,such is the manner in which the ,chinese act and as such they show themselves in their literature4 8,pi ,pa ,chi0 was written by an otherwise unknown author1 ,kao ,tsi-ch'ing1 about the end of the fourteenth century4 ,the first performance of the play is known to have taken place in #adjd1 in the reign of ,yung ,loh1 the ruler who1 as every tourist knows1 has the most prominent monument among the ,tombs of the ,ming ,emperors north of ,peking4 ,the play is typically ,chinese inasmuch as the hero is not a warrior or a prince1 but a poor scholar who rises to fame through his knowledge of literature4 ,it abounds in sad situations and is praised by ,chinese critics because it makes the spectators or readers weep4 ,furthermore1 it conforms to the demand made on all ,chinese dramas by being strictly ethical in its tendency4 ,the moral lesson inculcated is that of the chief virtue of the ,chinese--veneration of parents4 ,this is done with such devotion and force that the play might well be called the ,song of ,songs of ,filial ,piety4 ,the first scene introduces a young scholar1 ,tsai-yung1 face to face with the alternatives of remaining in his village to take care of his aged parents or of going to the capital in search of honors and lucrative posts4 ,his own wishes are to remain at home1 less for his parents' sake than because of the beautiful wife whom he has married but two months ago4 ,but his father urges him to go to ,ch'ang ,an1 to use his talents1 and to gain fame and wealth4 8,at fifteen one must study1 at thirty a man must act40 ,a friend of the family1 an elderly gentleman called ,chang1 sides with the father against the mother1 who wishes to keep her son at home4 ,she tells the story of a young man who had left his family to take the examination at the capital1 but who1 when at last his learning had gained him a post as superintendent of an almshouse1 found his parents as inmates in the very institution4 ,the young wife takes no part in the discussion at all2 in fact1 the elderly gentlemen seem to consider affection for her an unmanly weakness on the son's part4 8,he thinks of nothing but love and the sweet pleasures of the nuptial couch10 says his father4 8,here it's two months that he is married1 and yet one cannot tear him away from this place40 ,this represents a very common attitude in ,china--,i remember reading in a ,peking paper in #aiag in an attack on the vice-president of ,tsing ,hua ,college that one of his faults was that he occasionally went walking with his wife6 ,one of my students from ,shansi told me one day that he had been married during the summer vacation4 ,i asked whether his wife was with him in ,peking1 and when he answered in the negative1 whether he was writing to her4 8,oh1 no10 he said shamefacedly1 8,i wouldn't do such a thing40 ,illustration3 ,a ,,chinese ,,artist',s ,,conception ,,of ,,two ,,pious ,,souls ,the father calls on the son to state what he understands by filial piety4 ,the son answers by quoting the 8,book of ,rites10 8,it is the duty of the son to take every care that in summer as well as in winter his parents should enjoy all comforts of life4 ,he must every evening himself arrange the bed on which they are to sleep2 every morning at the first crowning of the cock he must inquire in affectionate terms about the state of their health2 then1 in the course of the day1 he must ask repeatedly whether they are suffering from the cold or whether the heat incommodes them4 ,the duty of the son is to watch over his parents wherever they go1 to love those whom they love1 honor those whom they honor2 he must even love the horses and dogs whom his father loves40 ,and he adds from the 8,sayings of ,confucius03 8,a son should not leave the home of his father and his mother so long as they are still living40 ,to this the father retorts with a quotation from 8,the ,book of ,filial ,piety02 8,the first degree of filial piety consists in serving one's parents2 the second in serving one's prince1 and the third in seeking after honors40 ,the father persuades the son to go4 ,his son will soon be a mandarin1 he says1 and then1 8,the three kinds of meat 7beef1 mutton and pork7 and the rare foods which are offered up in the great sacrifices will be served to me three times a day in tripods of elegant form or in dishes of fine porcelain4 ,that will be better than eating beans and drinking water40 ,but the mother gives expression to her grief in a metaphor praised by ,chinese commentators3 8,in a moment they will tear away the pearl ,i was holding in my hand40 ,forebodings of evil fill her heart4 8,go then1 my son1 but if during your absence your father and mother should die of hunger and cold1 your honor will not therefore be smirched when you return in an embroidered robe40 ,the second scene of the play transfers the action to ,ch'ang ,an1 the old capital4 ,with the symmetry so characteristic of all ,chinese art the action of the drama is divided almost equally between the scenes in ,tsai-yung's native village1 and those in the imperial city4 ,we are introduced into the palace of an imperial minister1 a certain ,niu1 and here through the words of a maidservant we learn of the dull1 tedious1 joyless life in the women's apartments4 ,the author pictures the minister's daughter1 ,niu-hsi1 as the model young woman who prefers working at embroidery to playing in the open air4 ,the servant girl on the other hand is sad because spring 7used symbolically for love7 is passing her by4 ,in a beautiful allegory on spring and its manifestations she gives expression to her feelings1 while her mistress cites in reply the ancient ,chinese rule of conduct3 8,women must not leave the interior apartments40 ,the scene seems to be a protest on the author's part against this cruel stunting of the lives of his countrywomen4 ,into ,minister ,niu's house come two rival go-betweens who make offers of marriage for ,niu's daughter in the interest of two fathers of distinguished sons4 ,but ,niu refuses2 he will accept for his daughter none but the scholar who has won the very highest honors at the examinations4 ,the two women begin to quarrel and are driven off with blows by ,niu's orders1 because by fighting in his house they offend against the rites4 ,a marriage arranged by such wrangling old hags between young people who meet for the first time on the day of their wedding certainly does not offer much in the way of romance4 ,an even more depressing picture of the life of the young girl one gains from the manner in which ,niu takes his daughter to task for having walked in the garden4 8,don't you know of what the principal merit of a young woman consists8 ,i have told you before1 men are looking for women who don't like to leave the women's apartments40 ,everywhere the ghost of ,confucius giving precepts for the regulation of the private life down to the minutest details6 ,the play returns to ,tsai-yung1 who is now on the road to the capital in the company of three other candidates for the examination4 ,each in turn tells of the purpose of his studies4 ,tsai-yung outlines his principles as follows3 8,here is the method ,i have adopted4 ,when ,i was seated ,i read1 when ,i walked ,i recited from memory what ,i had learned4 ,i have studied thoroughly ten thousand chapters2 ,i have carried on difficult studies and researches4 ,but as there are two things in life that one must never lose sight of--loyalty to the prince and filial piety--,i have always tried to show myself grateful for the emperor's benefits and to return with thankfulness the kindness of my parents40 ,this speech is applauded by the other scholars and they in turn give their answers1 some of which are of rather satirical turn1 especially the one of the student who explains that with him the essential is correct pronunciation and beautiful penmanship6 ,the next scene presents a burlesque on the literary examinations4 ,it recalls somewhat an entrance examination given in a 8prep0 school ,i once attended1 where the older students1 dressed up in frock coats and with false beards on their faces1 took the part of faculty4 ,the examination of freshmen consisted of the singing of hymns1 the shining of shoes1 and a guessing contest as to which of the 8professors0 had paddled them in the rear4 ,the imperial examiner announces solemnly to the five hundred candidates that the present test would not be like last year's1 when they had been asked to write essays1 one on literature1 another on morals1 and a third on politics1 but that he was going to ask them first1 to compose a rhyme2 second1 to guess a riddle2 and third1 to sing a song4 ,needless to state1 ,tsai-yung passes with flying colors in this test full of humorous puns which are1 of course1 untranslatable4 ,the examiner is made to say at the end1 8,tsai-yung1 ,i recognize the superiority of your talents1 your learning is indeed profound2 you rise far above the others2 your merit is most extraordinary4 ,immediately ,i am going to apprise the emperor of the outcome of the examinations60 ,this scene leads one to suspect that the author of the play had good reasons for venting his satire on the inane literary competitions--probably he had failed and was therefore forced to waste his talents in a life of retirement4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,scholar ,chinese ,character ,type ,the real hero1 or rather heroine1 of the play now appears for the first time1 namely ,tsai-yung's young wife ,wu-niang4 ,no news has come from the capital as to her husband's success1 a famine is ravishing the district1 and the old parents of ,tsai-yung are making one trip to the pawnshop after the other4 ,but ,wu-niang is determined to do her duty as daughter-in-law2 she is going to show filial piety to the last in conformity with precepts such as the following1 quoted from the 8,book of ,rewards and ,punishments01 a work which is not for sale in bookshops but is distributed in the temples to the pious3 8,a daughter-in-law must serve the father and mother of her husband as a daughter serves her father and mother4 ,she must show filial piety and complete obedience4 ,if she lacks in her duty toward them she lacks at the same time filial piety4 ,this crime always becomes known to ,heaven1 as the following story illustrates4 ,in the territory of ,chang-,chu there were three sisters-in-law entirely lacking in filial piety4 ,one day they heard a clap of thunder and at the same time they were changed3 one into a cow1 the second into a lamb1 and the third into a dog2 their heads alone preserved the original form4444 ,chin-ing1 the governor of that district1 had an engraving made showing the metamorphoses and had it distributed among the people to teach them a lesson4 ,that is how ,heaven punishes60 ,wu-niang's immediate duty is to try to make peace between her aged parents-in-law4 ,tsai's wife is not slow in telling her husband 8,i told you so0 in regard to the evils that have followed their son's departure1 while ,tsai naturally enough does not become any calmer for being told what a fool he is4 ,to appease their wrath and to supply a bit of food ,wu-niang pawns the few hairpins and other ornaments that she possesses4 ,while his parents are slowly dying of hunger1 ,tsai-yung1 by his brilliant record1 has attracted the attention of the emperor himself4 ,the latter orders that the daughter of ,minister ,niu1 who has been refused to many a deserving suitor1 should be given to him4 ,niu is overjoyed to receive as a son-in-law the candidate accorded the highest honors and immediately sends a go-between to arrange the affair4 ,however1 she returns to announce that ,tsai-yung refuses1 because he is married and has various obligations toward his parents4 ,but the real reason1 she whispers1 is that the bride's feet are too long4 ,minister ,niu flies into a rage2 he says that no one would any longer respect his position if he were to accept this refusal4 ,he is going to speak to the emperor about it4 ,small wonder that under the circumstances ,tsai-yung's petition to the emperor to be allowed to return home is refused2 instead he is again ordered to marry ,niu-hsi in a mandate beginning with the words1 8,if filial piety is the basis of all virtues1 then the perfection of all morals consists in serving one's prince40 ,with tears he leaves the imperial palace and must submit to being married against his wishes to a second wife4 ,he regrets that he cannot return to his parents 7does not seem to feel any regrets about ,wu-niang7 and breaks out into a lamentation3 8,high reputation is a tie that binds2 good fortune is an iron chain4 ,fortune and reputation are the instruments used by ,heaven to inflict tortures on mankind60 ,the scene again shifts to the famine-stricken province4 ,a mandarin finds that a corrupt official has stolen the little grain that is to be distributed to the poor4 ,this commissioner is caught in the very act1 yet in typical ,chinese fashion he has a ready but translucent excuse to offer2 however1 when he is threatened with torture he is willing to confess that he is a robber4 ,this wicked official is then made to sign a written confession of his guilt and is led off to jail4 ,his kind appears in hundreds of plays2 in fact1 he is probably the very favorite type on the ,chinese stage4 ,the mandarin asks ,wu-niang why she had come to the court herself instead of sending a male member of the family2 a woman1 he says1 should not leave the inner apartments of the house4 ,it is interesting to note that a ,chinese commentator considers this an erroneous interpretation of the passage in the 8,book of ,rites02 it is only the young girl who is not to leave the inner apartments2 once a woman is married she may do so4 ,when the mandarin learns of ,wu-niang's sad situation1 he commands an attendant to give her three portions of the rice embezzled by the official4 ,another official1 who seems to be hand in glove with the embezzler1 follows ,wu-niang and in a lonely place on the road demands that she return the rice1 lest he kill her on the spot4 ,wu-niang offers him her clothes2 if he will only not demand the food that is to save the lives of the old people4 ,the black-hearted villain says that he wants the rice and does not care to expose her limbs to the fury of the elements4 ,then comes the young woman's touching answer1 which reaches perhaps the highest level of a daughter's devotion3 8,what matters it if my body be exposed to the fury of the elements1 so long as ,i can save the lives of my father-in-law and my mother-in-law60 ,the cowardly wretch pretends to be touched and bids her go her way in peace1 but as soon as she is off her guard he snatches from the defenseless woman her bag of rice4 ,fearing the reproaches of her parents-in-law ,wu-niang plans suicide1 but the memory of her husband's admonition that she watch over his parents decides her to continue in the thankless task4 ,the next scenes show just how ungrateful her parents-in-law are for her unlimited devotion4 ,wu-niang herself is eating roots1 buds1 the bark of trees1 and other things classified as material containing some slight food values in so-called 8famine food books0--a type of literature enjoying a wide circulation in ,china4 ,but her suspicious mother-in-law fears that the young woman is eating better food than she is serving to her1 because ,wu-niang eats her miserable stew in private4 ,at one of her meals the author1 by a strange realism1 has her say1 8,when ,i have eaten this mess my hunger ceases1 but then there begin pains in the intestines much more violent than the hunger had been40 ,when the mother-in-law surprises her she finds that ,wu-niang had been extremely self-sacrificing instead of selfish as she had supposed1 and the shock is too much for her weakened body2 she dies4 ,the husband too is very much enfeebled1 and when the friend of the family1 ,chang1 comes to call1 he is mortified that he cannot rise to meet his guest4 ,throughout the play there is in the speeches of practically all the characters an urbanity and a politeness which show how deeply the lessons of ,confucius to do or say always the fitting thing have gone over into the flesh and blood of his nationals4 ,wu-niang tells ,chang of their greatest cause for anguish--they have not the means to give the deceased a proper burial4 ,chang then shows himself an ideal friend from the ,chinese point of view by saying1 8,i shall order a servant to prepare a wooden coffin in which we shall place the body of your wife4 ,i myself shall then select a lucky day for the funeral1 and after having had a grave dug on the hill in the south1 ,i shall accompany the procession40 ,the scene that gives the title to the play is one in which ,tsai-yung gives expression to his tenderest emotion by playing on the lute4 ,this instrument is regarded by the ,chinese as the noblest and sthetically the highest musical instrument in existence4 ,a ,chinese lover of music cannot find words to express the delight the lute can provide4#ad ,as a general thing the ,chinese are ashamed to display emotion1 and the ,westerner is often shocked by apparent callousness1 as for example when a person who has just lost a dear relative gives vent to a nervous laugh instead of yielding to tears when the subject is alluded to4 ,therefore it is by means of the lute that ,tsai-yung gives expression to his repressed feelings4 ,he does this with the delicate touch employed by ,chinese painters in their impressionistic pictures and by the poets in their suggestive verses in which1 as some one has said1 the i's are never dotted1 but a definite mood is nevertheless conveyed all the more forcefully4#ae ,while ,tsai-yung touches the strings of his instrument one servant fans him with an ivory fan1 and a second burns incense1 and a third places his books before him4 ,under such ideal conditions the ,chinese scholar is quietly singing to his lute4 ,at this point his newly wedded wife1 ,niu-hsi1 enters4 ,evidently the relation between the two is still an extremely distant one1 for his wife1 in asking ,tsai-yung to sing a ballad for her1 remarks that every time she comes to listen to his music1 he stops4 ,she too has her grief which she would like to have dispelled by sweet music4 ,tsai-yung begins to play1 8,the pheasant in the morning begins his long flight01 and 8,the wild duck separated from the companion he loves40 ,but these songs do not suit ,niu-hsi's mood4 ,she wants not a song of a disappointed lover1 but one to fit the present situation where husband and wife are together4 8,my lord1 in the calm of this lovely evening1 in full view of this ravishingly beautiful scenery1 sing me the ballad1 #8,when the storm wind moves the pine trees4'0 ,tsai-yung starts to play it1 but alas6 as ,niu-hsi discovers1 he gradually slips into the air1 8,when ,i think of returning to my native land40 ,niu-hsi is disappointed because she cannot penetrate her husband's melancholy mood4 ,he explains that he cannot play better because he has his old lute no longer4 ,in answer to his wife's questions ,tsai-yung speaks of his lute with evident symbolism1 telling her that he has thrown his old lute aside but that at the bottom of his heart he loves it still4 ,niu-hsi guesses the cause of her husband's grief1 but she cannot persuade him to confide it to her4 ,the two drink wine together and recite verses1 but when the hour becomes late ,tsai-yung asks his wife to retire and calls for his servant4 ,before the latter appears ,tsai-yung sings to notes of his lute about a dream in which ,wu-niang had appeared to him2 but1 in the words of ,heine1 8,es war ein ,traum40 ,he asks the servant to find him a trustworthy messenger whom he may send to his native village to inquire about his parents4 ,but before this plan is put into operation an impostor appears1 bringing an alleged letter from ,tsai-yung's father1 according to which all the family are enjoying the very best of health4 ,the letter gives the young scholar great pleasure and earns its bearer a rich reward2 ,tsai-yung gives the impostor some pearls and some gold for his father in addition to a letter in which he states that he is detained at the capital1 but that he hopes to return home soon4 ,meanwhile1 he very humbly begs forgiveness for the long delay4 ,the false messenger is portrayed in a monologue as the most cowardly and the direst of villains4 ,that it is so easy for him to deceive ,tsai-yung is not so far-fetched as it may seem to the ,westerner1 for the employment of professional letter-writers is a very common practice in ,china where the percentage of illiteracy is high4 ,of course1 the father never receives his son's letter2 on the contrary1 the next scene shows him dying of hunger4 ,his faithful daughter-in-law watches over him to the last4 ,for three years ,tsai-yung has been absent without so much as sending a letter2 therefore the father asks his daughter-in-law to marry again as soon as he has died4 ,wu-niang replies with a ,chinese proverb1 8,no one can serve two masters01 and affirms her resolve to remain faithful to her husband4 ,he is so grateful to her that he hopes1 according to ,buddhist beliefs1 to be her daughter-in-law in his next life while she is to be his father-in-law4 ,he curses the day he asked his son to leave home and gives to his friend ,chang the injunction3 8,i leave you my cane4 ,when this ungrateful and disobedient son of mine returns home1 beat him for me with my stick and chase him out of the house40 ,with these fatherly words he breathes his last4 ,in order to earn the money for her father-in-law's funeral ,wu-niang cuts her hair and tries to sell it in the street4 ,her bald head gives her the appearance of a nun1 although she feels scarcely worthy of becoming one4 ,in the anguish of her poverty she runs through the streets1 imploring people not to bargain with a wretched woman in her position1 but to help her by buying the very last thing of value she possesses4 ,the faithful ,chang meets her in the street1 and1 on learning her story1 promises to send to her house enough money to enable her to bury her father-in-law properly according to the rites4 ,she in return gives him her hair1 asking him to sell it4 ,he accepts it1 but not in order to sell it2 far from that1 he is going to keep it until ,tsai-yung's return1 in order to prove to him the full extent of ,wu-niang's filial piety4 ,this piety is so great that when ,wu-niang goes to the cemetery to erect a monument over the grave of the deceased1 a genie1 touched by her devotion1 comes to her aid by calling the white monkey of the south and the black tiger of the north to help him erect this tomb with the well-known speed and skill that genii possess4 ,he also advises ,wu-niang through the medium of a dream to assume the garb of a nun and to search for her husband in the capital4 ,wu-niang decides to follow this advice4 ,she plans to earn her subsistence by taking with her ,tsai-yung's lute1 in order to sing in the villages songs in praise of filial piety4 ,in order to be able to accord the spirits of her parents-in-law their proper worship she paints their portraits and carries them with her4 ,the ,octogenarian ,chang totters with ,wu-niang to the edge of the village and bids her godspeed on her long journey4 ,meanwhile ,tsai-yung has been acting all this time like a man in a stupor1 his wife says4 ,niu-hsi is pictured as a kindly young woman watching over her husband with loving care4 8,what ails you80 she asks4 8,you have the finest delicacies served you4 ,you eat boiled tongues of orang-outang and roasted leopard embryos4 ,you wear robes of violet silk2 your belt is a belt of jade4 ,when you go out or when you return your horse crushes under foot all manner of flowers which people spread on your path4 ,your head is shaded by an umbrella with three layers of silk4 ,formerly you were only a poor scholar living in a thatched hut2 now you fulfill the highest functions in the emperor's palace4 ,you swim in wealth1 but this wealth is not sufficient for you2 you do nothing but wrinkle your forehead and heave sighs40 ,niu-hsi asks many more questions1 but her husband refuses to reveal the cause of his grief4 ,but when she leaves the room ,tsai-yung relieves his feelings in a monologue which she overhears4 ,when he has finished lamenting his separation from his parents and his wife 7the latter is always mentioned after father and mother71 ,niu-hsi comes in to say simply that she will travel with him to his native village1 if that is what he is longing for4 ,he retorts1 with the timidity found in most scholar-heroes in ,chinese plays1 that he is afraid to let her father hear of the matter and that he therefore forbids her to mention it4 ,but the otherwise docile and obedient wife simply overrides his wishes and takes the matter to her father4 ,the latter is quite willing to give his permission for the journey2 only suggests that it might be better to send a faithful servant to bring ,tsai-yung's parents and wife to the capital4 ,this plan is agreed to by all except the servant who1 in a somewhat humorous scene1 speaks of the evils that are sure to follow when two wives are living under one roof4 ,but at last he agrees to go1 even though he feels his mistress will never thank him for having obeyed on this occasion4 ,wu-niang has meanwhile reached the capital4 ,she enters a ,buddhist temple where she is asked to sing by two clowns who pretend to be mandarins4 ,the long series of misfortunes that has followed her consistently does not forsake her at this point--the two clowns simply make sport of her and pay her nothing4 ,after her disappointment she unrolls the pictures of her parents-in-law to render homage before them and to pray to ,heaven that she may find her husband4 ,at this very moment ,tsai-yung enters to pray for a safe journey for his parents4 ,the bonze asks ,wu-niang to leave and to make room for the great man4 ,she forgets the pictures in her haste1 and ,tsai-yung carries off the scroll without having looked at it closely4 ,but ,wu-niang recognizes him and makes inquiries in regard to his residence4 ,in this whole scene there is1 as in many ,chinese plays1 a great deal of satire on ,buddhist priests4 ,one priest while saying a prayer is corrected by the abbot for mispronouncing one of the ,sanskrit names for ,buddha1 ,po-lo-t'ang instead of ,po-lo-mi4 ,the ignorant priest retorts1 8,well1 #8t'ang' is sugar and #8mi' is honey2 both are sweet1 so what difference does it make80 ,an ,occidental parallel for this scene would be the medieval priest who baptized1 8,in nomine patriae1 filiae1 et spiritus sanctae40 ,wu-niang goes to her husband's house as a mendicant nun and meets ,niu-hsi4 ,in a scene which the ,chinese commentators consider the best in the play she gradually tells her story and reveals her identity to her husband's second wife4 ,niu-hsi is touched by the filial piety of ,wu-niang1 calls her sister1 and asks her to live with them4 ,first she advises her how to reveal herself to her husband1 namely by writing him a letter and placing it on his table in the library where he will be sure to find it4 ,when ,tsai-yung comes home he reads in the 8,book of ,annals01 a collection of historical illustrations selected by ,confucius to give point to his moral teachings4 ,in every passage he finds a rebuke for his lack of filial piety1 and when he finds ,wu-niang's letter with the picture of his parents in their famished condition this means to him a greater reproof still4 ,he begins to suspect that the messenger with the letter from his father had been an impostor4 ,his wife's letter contains nothing but hidden allusions to his actions4 ,among ancient examples quoted there is mention of one man to whom an emperor had offered his daughter but who had refused to degrade his wife to the rank of a concubine1 and of another who had under similar circumstances repudiated his wife4 ,niu-hsi asks him whose conduct he approves of and he says the former's1 of course4 ,then she asks whether1 if his first wife were to step before him now clad in rags1 he would not blush with shame and repudiate her8 ,he answers that he would not1 that he considers his marriage indissoluble4 ,when ,wu-niang appears and tells him her story he feels deep shame because an ironic fate had led him to serve his emperor but to neglect his parents4 ,since his parents have died ,chinese etiquette demands that he give up his office for a number of years and mourn for the death of his father and mother4 ,tsai-yung with his two wives sets out to make a pilgrimage to the ancestral tomb to offer proper worship to the deceased4 ,the emperor is going to give posthumous honors to his parents because of ,wu-niang's faithfulness1 and the historians will keep ever fresh the memory of the daughter-in-law's filial piety4 ,even after the death of his parents the son must put their interests 7or supposed interests7 above his own by a three-year period of mourning1 a space of time which is simply lost out of his life4 ,in his 8,chinese ,characteristics01 ,doctor ,arthur ,h4 ,smith points out the one-sidedness of the matter of filial piety--the ,chinese ethical code mentions no duties of the parents toward their children4 ,his summary of the subject1 given in the chapter on ,filial ,piety1 seems most apropos of the action of this play3 8,every son has performed his filial duties to his father1 and demands the same from his own son4 ,that is what children are for4 ,upon this point the popular mind is explicit4 #8,trees are raised for shade1 children are reared for old age4' ,neither parents nor children are under any illusions upon this subject4 #8,if you have no children to foul the bed1 you will have no one to burn paper at the grave4' ,each generation pays the debt which is exacted of it by the generation which preceded it1 and in turn requires from the generation which comes after full payment to the uttermost farthing4 ,thus is filial piety perpetuated from generation to generation1 and from age to age40 ,of course1 this is as the matter appears to the ,occidental from the outside4 ,but for the ,chinese1 who has grown up in a deep veneration of ,confucius1 filial piety is the most laudable institution in existence4 ,confucius laid it down as a principle that in the relations of ruler and subject1 husband and wife1 father and son1 elder brother and younger brother1 there must be rule on one side and submission on the other4 ,moreover1 the 8,book of ,filial ,piety0 condemns sharply 8selfish attachment to wife and children02 in other words1 if the claims of father and wife clash1 the son must neglect his wife to serve his father4 ,these things are among the bases of ,chinese society on which it has outlived the ,egyptian1 ,babylonian1 ,persian1 ,roman and other civilizations2 it is small wonder therefore that they seem good to the ,chinese4 ,the other extreme perhaps is found in ,anglo-,saxon countries where a son1 on becoming of age1 goes where he likes and does what he likes without feeling any responsibility toward his parents4 ,to quote ,doctor ,smith once more1 8,to the ,chinese such customs must appear like the behaviour of a well-grown calf or colt to the cow and the mare1 suitable enough for animals1 but by no means conformable to li 7ethical standards7 as applied to human beings4 ,an attentive consideration of the matter from a ,chinese standpoint will show that there is abundant room in our own social practice for improvement1 and that most of us really live in glass houses1 and would do well not to throw stones recklessly40 ,to both the ,westerner and the ,chinese the practice of the other seems inferior1 and neither can express an impartial opinion as to which is the better system4 ,but the ,westerner who wishes to understand the ,chinese point of view can gain an insight into many things from reading 8,the ,story of a ,lute40 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,four ,,the ,,drama ,,under ,,the ,,manchus ,,and ,,the ,,republic--#afdd ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,day ,in #afdd the last of the ,ming emperors committed suicide when a rebel army entered his capital4 ,but the rebel did not become the next emperor2 the throne went to a ,manchu leader who1 in characteristically ,chinese manner1 had been called in by the ,ming ruler to help put down the rebellion4 ,the ,manchus soon established themselves as firm rulers of the land and forced all ,chinese to adopt the queue4 ,china became under their rule a strong and united empire2 in fact1 many writers believe that the reigns of ,k'ang ,hsi 7#affb-agbc7 and of ,ch'ien ,lung 7#agcf-agie7 were the most glorious in all ,chinese history4 ,both of these rulers were great warriors and administrators1 as well as patrons of literature and the arts4 ,the drama1 too1 flourished2 a recently published catalogue of ,chinese dramas records eight hundred and fifteen plays of some literary merit from the ,ch'ing ,dynasty4 ,among these the critics assign the first places to two historical tragedies written about the beginning of the eighteenth century3 8,the ,blood-,stained ,fan0 7,t'ao ,hua ,shan7 by ,kung ,shang-jen and 8,the ,palace of ,eternal ,life0 7,ch'ang ,shan ,tien7 by ,hung ,sen4 ,the former deals with the last days of the ,ming ,dynasty4 ,the author presents the struggles of the various parties and the dissensions among the generals in the face of a tottering throne4 ,in the foreground of the revolutionary scene stand two lovers4 ,the hero1 a courageous young literary man1 is forced to flee before his political enemies1 and the heroine is likewise threatened4 ,since she prefers death to disgrace she attempts suicide4 ,the play takes its name from the fact that some of her blood stained the fan her lover had presented to her4 ,an artist1 coming across this fan1 painted the bloodstains into peach blossoms so cleverly as to deceive every one4 ,after years of civil war1 in the course of which the dynasty is overthrown1 the lovers meet again4 ,they feel that love has no place in a broken and disrupted fatherland2 patriotism is higher than love--such seems to be the author's meaning4 ,the other play1 8,the ,palace of ,eternal ,life01 goes back to a much earlier period1 that of the ,t'ang ,dynasty4 ,it has for hero and heroine the emperor ,ming ,huang1 traditional founder of the ,chinese theater1 and his capricious concubine1 ,yang ,kuei-fei4 ,the ,palace of ,eternal ,life was the name they had given to the pleasure dome where the famous lovers gave themselves up to idyllic and voluptuous amusements4#af ,this story is full of romantic and dramatic elements2 there are said to be more than fifty plays that have ,yang ,kuei-fei for heroine4 ,versions by ballad singers have been well translated by ,george ,carter ,stent1#ag a ,britisher who secured unprinted popular ballads by having street singers come to his house to recite them while his teacher wrote them down verbatim4 ,since ,yang ,kuei-fei and her lover play such an important part in the ,chinese drama1 it might be well to quote two of the numerous ballads about her4 ,,an ,,imperial ,,lover ,tang ,ming-kuang loved ,yang ,kuei-fei-- ,living for her1 in her1 with her1-- ,walking by her1 hither1 thither-- ,in the pleasant summer weather1 ,strolling hand in hand together4 ,side by side with ,yang ,kuei-fei1 ,listening to the play of fountains-- ,climbing up the mimic mountains-- ,through romantic scenery ,of hill and lake1 rock1 dell and tree4 8,if ,i had not ,yang ,kuei-fei1 ,what were all my ,empire worth8 ,with her1 earth is heaven to me1-- ,this is paradise on earth40 ,mid-day in the lakelet found them1 ,lotus leaves and blossoms round them2 ,disporting gaily in the water1 7,daily to this place he brought her74 ,now an avenue they tread1 ,where the trees arch overhead1-- ,saving just enough of space ,to catch a glimpse of heaven's face1 ,showing its intensest blue1 ,peering down upon the two4 8,if ,i had not ,yang ,kuei-fei1 ,what were all this lovely scene8 ,with her1 walking thus by me1-- ,this is heaven1 and she its queen40 ,on the sward beneath their feet1 ,flowers of every hue were springing2 ,bright plumed birds with voices sweet ,their passage here and there were winging4 ,sheltered here from mid-day heat1 ,she taught to them the art of singing4#ah ,now is heard from every tree ,leafy voices1 softly uttering ,whispers1 which sound mysteriously-- ,like wings of angels1 gently fluttering4 8,if ,i had not ,yang ,kuei-fei1 ,what were all my empire worth8 ,with her1 sitting thus by me1-- ,this is paradise on earth40 ,streaks of light through foliage glancing-- ,mixing1 blending1 interlacing-- ,now retreating--now advancing-- ,sunbeams after shadows racing1 ,flinging on the sward a net-work ,of embroidered golden fret-work-- ,quaintly beautifully grotesque1 ,as of flickering arabesque ,sculpt'd from sunbeams1 light and shade1 ,its ground the green enameled glade4 8,if ,i had not ,yang ,kuei-fei1 ,what were all this lovely scene8 ,with her1 sitting thus by me1-- ,this is heaven1 and she its queen40 ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,yang ,,kuei-,,fei ,in silence unbroken1 ,they sat side by side2 ,not a word had been spoken3-- ,they both of them tried ,the dread that was o'er them ,of what lay before them ,in their bosoms to hide4 ,what is that8 ,in the distance a murmur is heard1 ,is't the wail of the night wind--the surge of the sea8 ,as nearer it floats it takes form in a word-- ,and that word1 ,oh1 ,god6 is the name ,yang ,kuei-fei6 ,they listen1 but speak not--though both know full well ,those murmuring sounds are for one a death-knell4 ,nearer1--still nearer ,those hoarse murmurs came3 ,now they sound clearer1 ,they shout out a name4 ',tis ,yang-fei's name they call6 ,break her accursed thrall6 ,too long we have borne it-- ,this night1 we have sworn it-- ,her life pays for all6 ,where is she1--your minion1--frail ,yang ,kuei-fei8 ,drag her forth--the vile traitress6 our daggers would see ,if in her fair body the blood flows more pure ,than in those of your subjects who have had to endure ,wrongs1 which her arts have heaped on them for years3#ai ,whose bread has been moistened by blood1 sweat and tears6 ,whose sons have been slaughtered--whose daughters defiled6 ,whose homes have been pillaged--whose fields made a wild6 ',tis she is the cause of rebellion and strife1#bj ,we fight not your foes till we've taken her life6 8,nought but the blood ,of ,yang ,kuei-fei ,can stem this flood ,of anarchy60 8,oh6 bitter destiny6 ,oh6 dire necessity6 ,must ,i pronounce your doom8 ,consign you to the tomb8 8,alas6 my ,yang ,kuei-fei1 ,i'm powerless to save6 ,my life--throne--empire--all ,i'd give ,had ,i the power to bid you live-- ,to snatch you from the grave4 ,yet they have willed it thus--and ,i ,who'd die to save you1 bid you die40 8,see ,i am calm1--it is not death ,i fear1 ,it is their savage mode of death ,i dread2 ,say could you bear to see me lying here1 ,weltering in blood1 by ruthless butchers shed8 8,fancy their bloody hands wreathed in my hair-- ,that silken hair you used so much to prize2 ,dragged--struck--faint--bleeding6--coul d you bear ,to see all this before your very eyes8 8,pierced by a hundred knives1 my life-blood flows ,in purple streams--could you look on and see1 ,unmoved--my murderers watch my dying throes-- ,with hungry eyes gloat on my agony8 8,i have been vile1 but let my penitence ,in these last moments that to me are given1 ,make some atonement for my great offence1 ,and ,oh6 #8forgive me as you'd be forgiven6' 8,one last entreaty--let me die alone-- ,let no one enter--none but you stand by ,to watch my death2--the act1 too1 be my own2 ,let not the ignoble rabble see me die4 8,the means are here2 ,i have but to unloose ,this silken girdle from my slender waist2 ,i knot it thus1 and thus1 and form a noose1 ,this by my own hand round my neck is placed4 8,with my own hands the ends are tightly drawn1 ,and ,i die thus0--scarce had the words been said-- ,a few brief struggles1 and ,yang-fei had gone 8,with all her inperfections on her head40 8,hide her from my sight6 ,let me not see ,that face so ghastly white-- ,those eyes so wildly bright ,glaring at me6 8,they follow mine everywhere1 ,look where ,i may-- ,on the earth--in the air1 ,still the same glassy stare4 ,take them away6 8,place her gently in the grave ,e'en as she fell2 ,here1 where the willows wave1 ,near this old well4 8,lightly cover her with earth-- ,oh6 ,yang ,kuei-fei6 ,what is all my empire worth ,now ,i've lost thee60 ,during the ,ch'ing ,dynasty the native music was gradually superseded by a much cruder1 less melodious product imported from barbarian lands4 ,with the old style of music went many of the better plays2 in many cases they were replaced by the so-called 8military plays01 that is to say acrobatic exhibitions of stage fighting to the accompaniment of crashing orchestral pandemonium4 ,toward the end of the ,ch'ing ,dynasty the ,yuan drama had almost entirely vanished from the ,peking stage4 ,in a later chapter will be found a fuller discussion of the newer types of music4 ,but the chief innovation in the drama under the ,manchu rule came through the influence of popular novels4 ,episodes from the famous novels read by everybody were brought on the stage in ever-increasing numbers4 ,the novel1 like the drama1 is a literary form despised by the pundits and it too began to flourish during the ,mongol ,dynasty when the literary examinations were suppressed4 ,many novels are of unknown authorship1 because their authors considered such works as beneath their dignity4 ,but for the very reason that the authors did not employ the literary language the great masses of the people were able to enjoy these stories4 ,let it be remarked in passing that the novel is now coming into its own and is receiving its just share of attention from scholars1 at least from the progressive ones4 ,doctor ,hu ,shih1 of the ,national ,university1 ,peking1 has pointed out that it is the novel written in the vernacular that has given to spoken ,chinese such unity as it possesses1 and that it is through works in the popular language that a common speech for all ,china may ultimately be achieved4 ,to-day1 of course1 natives of ,peking1 ,shanghai1 and ,canton speak languages differing as widely as do those of ,berlin1 ,amsterdam1 and ,london1 or ,rome1 ,paris1 and ,madrid4 ,due to the crystallization of the written language1 however1 students from the three ,chinese centers can read one another's letters1 although1 as ,i have often observed in laboratories or on the playground1 when they converse they have recourse to ,english4 ,it is due to their linguistic and literary importance that ,doctor ,hu ,shih has edited critical editions of about a dozen famous ,chinese novels4 ,among the novels1 8,the ,story of the ,three ,kingdoms0 7,san ,kuo ,ch'i7 is by far the most popular4 ,it was written in the ,yuan ,dynasty and deals with the period of romantic chivalry1 #bba-bfe ,a4,d41 when three dynasties ruled in three separate capitals4 ,in it appear the cruel ,tsao ,tsao and the resourceful ,chu ,ko-liang1 together with many another brave warrior4 ,every educated ,chinese has read it1 and the illiterate coolies have hired readers1 that they too may learn of the stirring adventures of their more or less mythical heroes4 ,the enthusiasm for this book is simply unbounded1 as the following instance may serve to illustrate4 ,friends of mine in ,peking1 a young architect and his wife1 were continually annoyed during hot ,august evenings by a fairly loud voice with a monotonous rising and falling inflection that kept coming over the wall of the adjoining courtyard from eight o'clock until midnight4 ,it cast a shadow over conversation1 it distracted attention from reading1 and it effectually prevented peaceful sleep4 ,my friends began by setting their victrola on their side of the wall to playing 8,over ,there60 for an hour or two on end2 next they sent out the house boy to buy firecrackers and ordered him to set off package after package under a tin pail2 and finally they allowed a bottle of asafetida to trickle over the wall--but all to no avail4 ,they recovered neither their peace of mind nor their slumber until the shuo-shu-te had read to his coolie audience the last chapter of 8,the ,three ,kingdoms01 a novel as long as the whole ,bible4 ,an endless number of plays are based on this book of romantic history1 which deserves to be called the national epic of the ,chinese4 ,a long list of 8military plays0 derive their plots from the 8,shui ,hu ,chuan0 7,story of the ,river ,bank71 a novel based upon the doings of a band of brigands who terrorized a number of provinces early in the twelfth century4 ,some of the swashbucklers in this story had ,robin ,hood's habit of giving to the poor what they had stolen from the rich and corrupt officials4 ,from the 8,liao ,chai0 7translated by ,mr4 ,giles1 8,strange ,stories from a ,chinese ,studio07 come many plays dealing with fairies and other supernatural beings4 ,the novel that might be considered a possible rival in popularity to the story of 8,the ,three ,kingdoms01 is 8,the ,dream of the ,red ,chamber0 7,hung ,lou ,meng71 the story of the love of a young idler for his two pretty cousins1 and the decay of an old and wealthy family4 ,poetic love stories from this novel were brought on the stage only in recent years by ,mei ,lan-fang1 the actor who is responsible for many innovations in the ,peking theater4 ,the play1 8,burying the ,flowers01 mentioned in the chapter on ,mei ,lan-fang1 is one example of a dramatization of an episode from this book4 ,in his 8,geschichte der chinesischen ,litteratur0 the ,german scholar ,wilhelm ,grube1 who knew the ,chinese character well1 remarks in discussing the novel that a ruse or a sly calculation on the part of a warrior seems to appeal to the ,chinese much more than actual bravery on the battle field4 ,a number of plays taken from the story of 8,the ,three ,kingdoms0 bear out this point by reason of their perennial popularity4 ,no play perhaps is oftener acted than 8,the ,ruse of the ,empty ,city0 7,kung ,chuan ,chi74 ,the famous hero ,chu ,ko-liang is in a city stripped of all its defenders when suddenly a strong enemy force arrives4 ,he orders the gates to be opened wide as though peace were reigning throughout the country1 and seats himself on the wall above the gate4 ,when the advance guard of the enemy arrives it finds the commander1 who more than any other is known for his resourcefulness and his stratagems1 calmly reading a book in the face of the threatening attack4 ,naturally enough the enemy fears an ambush of some sort and withdraws4 ,by his calm ,chu ,ko-liang has saved a city2 his bluff has won4 ,illustration3 ,,warrior ,,acrobats ,another 8peculiar0 7as ,bret ,harte would put it7 play from the same source is 8,hs ,mu ,ma ,tsao0 7,hs's ,mother ,curses ,tsao ,tsao74 ,the famous general ,tsao ,tsao found that he was being defeated continually through the clever stratagems suggested to his opponent by a certain ,hs ,su4 ,he therefore plotted to get this clever adviser into his hands in order that he might profit by his knowledge of strategy4 ,for this purpose he kidnaped ,hs ,su's mother and sent a forged letter asking the son to come to her4 ,filial piety demanded that ,hs ,su obey and therefore he came into ,tsao ,tsao's camp only to be forced into the service of his enemy4 ,when ,hs ,su's mother heard how her son had been tricked she went to ,tsao ,tsao's tent1 called him a man without honor1 a traitor1 and a wretched deceiver4 ,this scene1 when the tottering old lady scolds in a shrill voice1 as only a ,chinese woman can ma1 is of course the pice de rsistance of the play4 ,when she has spoken out her mind she returns to her own tent and commits suicide4 ,although ,tsao ,tsao continued to hold ,hs ,su1 yet the latter never offered a single stratagem to the general1 an outstanding piece of bravery according to the ,chinese view4 ,the very favorite play from this novel is 8,ch'un ,yin ,hui0 7,the ,meeting of ,many ,heroes74 ,when this play is staged with the parts of the great heroes of the novel filled by stars1 the ,chinese theater lovers feel that such an ensemble offers about the finest thing possible4 ,the plot again turns chiefly upon a ruse by ,chu ,ko-liang4 ,his side is facing tremendous odds in the huge fleet of wooden vessels under the control of the enemy1 and therefore his commander decides to attack them with fiery arrows4 ,chu ,ko-liang is commissioned to procure #ajj1jjj arrows1 and is given for this task five days1 which he himself cuts down to three4 ,two and a half days he spends in calm meditation1 doing nothing about the arrows4 ,when one of his comrades discovers him sitting under a tree he is very much alarmed at the waste of time and suggests that the only thing left for his friend is to commit suicide4 ,but our hero is undaunted4 ,he places a number of straw men in the prows of a few boats and sails toward the position of the enemy4 ,owing to the dense fog the enemy commander is unable to ascertain the size of the attacking force1 but he orders his archers to shoot as fast as they can4 ,the arrows strike the straw men and pierce them without doing any harm4 ,when #ajj1jjj arrows have been caught up in his decoys1 ,chu ,ko-liang orders his boats to retreat1 and thus is able to deliver the required number of arrows to his commander on time4 ,the manner in which the play is staged1 with two or three arrows flitting across the scene1 provides1 at least for the ,westerner1 a distinct anticlimax4 ,another play in which three stars play together to good effect is 8,the ,three ,strange ,meetings0 7,ch'i ,san ,hui7 or1 as it is popularly nicknamed1 8,the ,three ,pulls40 ,it is a popular comedy written during the time of the ,manchu ,dynasty1 and is one of the favorite plays of ,mei ,lan-fang4 ,through his great prestige he is able to induce other stars to play with him1 and when he presents the rle of the wife supported by ,ch ,su-yn as husband and ,li ,shou-shan as father1 the ,chinese consider it a perfect performance4 ,the play is rich in glimpses of ,chinese life and also full of excellent opportunities for the actors to show their mettle4 ,the opening of the play is also most unusual1 for1 like ,goethe's 8,faust0 and some of our other famous plays1 it has a prologue in heaven4 ,there is as a general thing no curtain used in the ,chinese theater1 a rule to which a scene in heaven forms an exception4 ,stage hands bring on a curtain about eight feet high and twelve feet wide1 supported by bamboo poles and painted with clouds and bats to symbolize the sky4 ,behind this the stage is set for the divine scene4 ,when the curtain is removed the spectator sees a god seated on a high throne4 ,four spirits bearing tall shields painted with the conventionalized cloud pattern stand by his side4 ,the horns of the orchestra are blown mightily and fireworks are set off until finally the god begins to speak in a slow1 impressive bass4 ,like a ,homeric ,zeus he sends a messenger to earth to free a certain innocent man who is languishing in prison4 ,the messenger is ordered to find the man's daughter and to conduct her to the prison4 ,the divine herald departs1 carrying a horsehair switch1 the conventional symbol by which a spirit may be recognized on the ,chinese stage4 ,the next scene begins the first of the four acts on earth3 #a4 ,the ,weeping in ,prison2 #b4 ,writing the ,petition2 #c4 ,the ,three ,pulls2 #d4 ,the ,family ,reunited4 ,li ,kuei-chih 7played by ,mei ,lan-fang71 newly married to a young magistrate1 visits the prison1 inspired by the divine messenger4 ,there she sees the jailer mistreating an old man1 in whom1 to her surprise and grief1 she recognizes her father1 from whom she had been separated in childhood at the time of his unjust condemnation4 ,the jailer is willing to relent after the daughter1 without disclosing her identity1 has paid him a good-sized bribe4 ,li ,kuei-chih then asks her husband to make an effort to free her father by writing an appeal to a higher court4 ,the husband complies very willingly1 but1 in order to write the petition he must know his wife's 8little name01 a sort of family nickname of the little girls1 which1 according to ,chinese custom1 is never revealed to the husband4 ,there ensues a fine comedy scene in which the wife at first withholds and then shamefacedly tells her 8little name01 to the great triumph of her husband4 ,in presenting the petition to the judge of the higher court1 the wife is recognized by the judge as his long-lost sister4 ,he rises from his seat1 and discarding the stiff formality of the courtroom1 pulls ,li ,kuei-chih out of the room in order to reveal his identity to her in the privacy of his home4 ,the husband is told of this by the servant1 and rushes to the court in a rage1 because he fears that the judge has been induced by his wife's beauty to make her his concubine4 ,the judge is not in the courtroom1 but he sends out two officers to bring the husband also into his home4 ,the second of the three pulls comes when the messengers drag the husband off-stage in a state of comical terror2 for1 like a true ,oriental1 he fears sudden death1--a fear that caused ,abraham to lie to the ,pharaoh of ,egypt about his relationship to the beautiful ,sarah4 ,in the next scene brother1 sister1 and husband are happily reunited4 ,the father is summoned from the prison into the court4 ,he recognizes his son1 the presiding judge1 and gratefully bows toward the audience 7that is1 toward heaven7 for1 according to ,chinese custom1 a father dare never bow toward his son1 no matter what position the latter may hold4 ,thereupon the father is also pulled off-stage to complete the happy family reunion4 ,the jailer1 knowing full well what manner of unpleasant death may be in store for him1 ends his life by jumping down a well4 ,this last-named action is accomplished by the jailer's making a quick leap and running off-stage1 the conventional expression for suicide by drowning4 ,the court scenes1 especially when the play is given by ,mei ,lan-fang1 abound in gorgeous costumes of richly embroidered silk4 ,the various characters wear historically correct dress1 the ,manchu robes with wide sleeves4 ,so far as my own observation goes1 ,i have found that for ,manchu or ,ming ,dynasty events the styles of the respective periods are followed1 but that beyond this no attempt is made at providing historically correct costume4 ,characters in plays taking place before the ,ming ,dynasty wear ,ming costume2 it is the style worn before the coming of the ,manchus and therefore serves for all ancient settings4 ,the actor who plays the part of the husband in this play is ,chu ,su-yn4 ,he is nearly fifty years old1 but he continues to play the rle of the lover opposite ,mei ,lan-fang1 because there is no younger man who can do it half so well4 ,he is really as good as any ,occidental comedian in assuming the expressions of surprise1 anger1 or terror2 he stutters admirably whenever necessary1 and in laughing gets a comical effect by means of his faulty teeth1 blackened by opium smoking4 ,in another play1 8,ngoh ,chia ,chuan0 7,the ,ngoh ,family ,village71 he plays the part of a young boy who has prodigious strength2 in fact1 he1 though a mere child1 protects his family's home by killing two generals4 ,in one of the first scenes the parents forbid their abnormally strong offspring to handle dangerous weapons1 whereupon this actor in the costume of a child goes into tantrums of weeping that convulse the audience by their realistic imitation of the overgrown baby4 ,li ,shou-shan1 in the rle of the father1 is made up as a fine1 dignified old ,chinese gentleman4 ,he brings out very poignantly the tragic situation of the helpless old man unjustly imprisoned2 though perhaps by some of his pitiful wails he somewhat overdoes his part4 ,another very popular domestic drama is 8,ta ,chih ,shang ,wen0 7,beating the ,nephew and ,worshiping at the ,grave74 ,the ,chinese prodigal son is ,ta ,kuan1 an orphan boy raised by his uncle4 ,wicked companions taught him gambling and other ways of squandering money1 and as he needed funds for these pursuits he insisted that his uncle give him his paternal heritage4 ,in a short time1 of course1 all his substance has been wasted with riotous living and ,ta ,kuan is forced to beg for his food4 ,his uncle at that time is distributing alms among the poor and the nephew is not ashamed to appear among the beggars at his uncle's door4 ,naturally1 the uncle's 8loss of face0 is tremendous2 he becomes extremely angry and chases ,ta ,kuan off with blows4 ,but his aunt1 in the kindness of her heart1 gives him some money and urges him to avoid his angered uncle4 ,but in ,china too there is a destiny that shapes our ends3 ,ta ,kuan's money is stolen from him1 and with no prospects whatever before him1 he suddenly becomes pious and worships at his father's grave4 ,while he is busy burning paper money 7i4e4 paper imitations of silver ingots7 for the spirits of his ancestors his uncle and aunt happen also to visit the family graveyard4 ,the moment ,ta ,kuan sees them1 remembering his uncle's blows and curses1 he runs away4 ,his foster-father is very much surprised that some one should have been burning paper money at his brother's tomb4 ,he never would have suspected his nephew of such an action1 but when he finds that it really was ,ta ,kuan1 his heart is touched by such a display of filial piety that he sends for the nephew1 inviting him to return to his house1 and then persuades him to study under the direction of a teacher4 ,there has been a real change of heart in the youth1 for he applies himself diligently to his task4 ,and virtue is not without its reward2 for when ,ta ,kuan takes the examination he passes with the very highest honors4 ,a play similar to the previous one in that it is much more moral than probable is 8,chu ,sha ,ch0 7,a ,cinnabar ,spot74 ,a certain elderly gentleman by the name of ,han was very unhappy because he had no son4 ,to remedy this condition he bought himself a concubine2 but when the marriage was about to be consummated1 the bride wept bitterly4 ,han asked the cause of the tears at such an inappropriate time1 and learned that his new spouse was in reality a married woman who had allowed herself to be sold to aid her sick husband4 ,the old man took pity on her1 burned the marriage contract1 and presented her with more money for her unfortunate husband4 ,a noble and unusual action1 to be sure1 which merited and received an unusual reward6 ,the woman returned to her husband and the latter recovered at once4 ,returned once more to health1 he went about his business which carried him to ,sze-chuan province4 ,he brought with him a present for his benefactor1 a young boy whom he had bought in a district afflicted by famine4 ,han was very much pleased with the bright boy and devoted himself eagerly to his education4 ,he gradually remarked that the boy resembled him a great deal and began to wonder if it might not be possible that it was his own son1 who had been carried off a few years before in the course of a rebellion4 ,one day it occurred to him to examine the sole of the boy's foot1 and there he found the very same cinnabar spot that had always been his own distinguishing mark4 ,this proved conclusively that it was his own son1 and both were very happy over the reunion that had been brought about through ,han's kindness to a poor woman6 ,the moral ,chinese stage sets forth not only the reward of virtue1 but also the punishment of vice4 ,there can be seen on the ,peking stage almost any day a warning to cruel husbands called 8,pang ,ta ,pao ,ch'ing ,lang0 7,beating the ,heartless ,husband74 ,mu ,chi was a scholar holding the first degree 7,hsiu ,tsai1 corresponding somewhat to our ,a4,b471 but he was very poor because his parents had not left him any property whatsoever4 ,when a famine struck the country he was forced to beg for his bread4 ,in his half-starved condition he was one day caught in a snowstorm1 in the course of which he fell to the ground more dead than alive4 ,in this condition the daughter of the head of the beggar's guild found him lying before the door of her home4 ,she took pity on him and nursed him back to health4 ,at first her father was none too pleased with his daughter's action2 but when the daughter represented that the gods would surely reward her good deed1 he became reconciled to the presence of the young man in the house4 ,the daughter fell in love with her protg and was very proud of his rank as a ,hsiu ,tsai4 ,the father also became quite fond of the young man and gave him his daughter in marriage4 ,then it was arranged that ,mu ,chi was to go to ,peking to take the examination1 while his wife and father-in-law were to go along to beg and thus furnish the young man with a living until such time as he should have secured a profitable post4 ,mu ,chi passed the examination and was appointed the magistrate of a town4 ,the moment he had received his appointment he became extremely disdainful of his new relatives and in the course of the journey by boat to the town where he was to become magistrate he pushed his wife overboard into the stream and drove off his father-in-law4 ,however1 a certain high official saved the life of the beggar chief's daughter and adopted her as his child4 ,when he had learned from her the story of her husband's ingratitude he decided to punish the wretch properly4 ,he called on him in his magistracy and offered him his daughter in marriage4 ,mu ,chi1 the cad1 naturally was glad to marry into the family of such an influential man1 and accepted eagerly4 ,but what was his chagrin and fright when on the evening of his marriage he raised the bride's veil to find under it the beggar's daughter6 ,the official then entered the bridal chamber with a powerful stick and ordered the beggar's daughter to give ,mu ,chi a sound thrashing4 ,this she did with a great deal of 8heart01 as the ,chinese say1 for which no one can blame her4 ,but ,mu ,chi decided to become a wiser and a better man2 he sent out men to find his father-in-law1 and the three lived happy ever after4 ,but the very crowning piece of righteous moral indignation in all the ,flowery ,kingdom is found in a story connected with ,yo ,fei1 deified as the god of war and worshiped as a special patron of the theater4 ,in his lifetime ,yo ,fei was a faithful general of the ,sung emperors1 a great fighter against the ,mongols4 ,in fact1 he had almost succeeded in capturing the ,mongol emperor with his entire army when the enemy bribed some high ,chinese officials1 chief among them ,ch'in ,kuei1 to do away with their great patriotic leader4 ,yo ,fei was summoned before a court for trial1 but was cleared of all charges4 ,then he was tried again before ,ch'in ,kuei and two other judges1 this time being condemned to death by strangling4 ,before the sentence was carried out1 his cruel executioners tore the skin off his back where his mother had tattooed the famous inscription1 8,i repay the state with integrity and loyalty40 ,at ,hangchow is found the tomb of this great ,chinese patriot4 ,before it1 as every tourist sees to his surprise1 are four statues in a kneeling position and bound with chains1 while an inscription invites the wanderer to urinate on them4#ba ,these villains1 who are literally in very bad odor1 are ,ch'in ,kuei1 his wife1 and the two other judges who condemned ,yo ,fei to death4 ,this drastic1 posthumous punishment seems to have had very little effect in furthering patriotism in ,china1 for in recent decades neither the ,russians nor the ,japanese seem ever to have had any trouble in finding ,chinese statesmen willing to accept bribes for the betrayal of their country4 ,the story is also told that in #afgh1 fully #ejj years after ,yo ,fei's death1 this play was performed in a certain town1 when suddenly an excited spectator rushed on the stage and stabbed to death the unfortunate actor who was playing the part of ,ch'in ,kuei1 the traitor4 ,in the course of the trial this fervent patriot told that in all his books he had carefully cut out the name of ,ch'in ,kuei wherever it occurred4 ,the man was not put to death1 as would have been the case had he been a ,britisher1 nor was he celebrated as a hero1 as would have been the case had he been a ,frenchman1 but in characteristic ,chinese manner he was dismissed as an idiot4 ,though as a general thing there is very little courtship on the part of young people in ,china1 yet there are on the stage quite a number of romantic love stories4 ,in the chapter on ,mei ,lan-fang ,i have mentioned some taken from the novel1 8,dream of the ,red ,chamber40 ,the same actor frequently presents 8,y ,chan ,chih0 7,a ,precious ,hairpin71 the plot of which might be an ,occidental love story4 ,in a certain convent the abbess had living with her the daughter of her deceased brother1 a very attractive young girl by the name of ,ch'en ,miao4 ,in the vicinity there lived also the abbess' nephew1 with whom1 because of his personal charm and great learning1 the young lady fell in love4 ,one day the nephew became ill and ,ch'en ,miao asked permission to assist in taking care of the patient4 ,under the tender care of such an attractive nurse the young man recovered speedily1 but he too had lost his heart4 ,he found means to visit ,ch'en ,miao in her room one day as she was reading poetry1 whereupon1 like ,paolo and ,francesca1 that day they read no more4 ,in the village there lived an elderly magistrate who wished to marry ,ch'en ,miao1 but when the generous judge learned that she loved a younger rival1 he did not show any signs of jealousy2 on the contrary1 he went to the abbess to urge her to join in marriage the young lovers4 ,peking theaters have very few properties1 as has been stated1 but behind practically every stage one finds a pair of plaster-of-,paris lions in imitation of the marble lions that guard the gateways of ,chinese palaces and temples4 ,they are used in a very popular play called 8,ch ,t'eng ,kuan ,hua0 7,trial of ,strength and ,viewing the ,ancestral ,portraits74 ,the play seems to be a modern imitation of the ,yuan ,dynasty drama 8,the ,orphan of the ,chao ,family40 ,a wicked minister persuades the emperor that an entire family1 one of whose members he hates1 must be exterminated root and branch4 ,a friend decides to save the family name by substituting just before the execution his own young son for a child of the condemned family4 ,his wife absolutely refuses to enter upon his plan1 but when he kneels before her she is compelled to yield to his wishes to sacrifice her child2 this is typical of the ,chinese1 inasmuch as they seem to think that when some one humbles himself unduly he must gain his end and other people must grant him whatever he asks4 ,the man and his wife then bring up the orphan as their own son4 ,the child they sacrificed was chopped into three pieces by the wicked minister himself1 because he feared that it might some day revenge on him the slaughter of his relatives4 ,the play as given in ,peking theaters opens at the time when the orphan has attained the age of fifteen4 ,he and his servant are playing in the courtyard of his foster-father's house4 ,the boy proposes that they make a test of their strength by moving the stone lions standing at the door of the house4 ,the servant tries in vain to move them1 while the boy1 a prodigy of strength1 picks up the massive stones and moves them with ease4 ,soon afterward the master of the house returns and asks angrily who is responsible for displacing the stone lions4 ,the good-natured servant1 who has the rle of the clown in this play1 says that he did it4 ,his master then orders him to return them to their proper place1 and thus in a comedy scene he is soon proved a liar4 ,then the adopted son is called2 like ,george ,washington he acknowledges what he has done1 and returns the lions to their proper places without the slightest trouble4 ,his foster-father now perceives that although but fifteen years of age1 the boy is strong enough to avenge the cruel injustice done his family4 ,therefore he conducts him into the ancestral temple where he shows him the portraits of his ancestors down to the ones put to death by the wicked minister4 ,no sooner has the orphan boy heard the story than he puts on his armor and sets out on his mission of revenge on the enemy of his family4 ,incidentally there is often a bit of comedy of a simple kind thrown in by the stage hands when they remove the stone lions1 which they pretend to find very heavy4 ,on one occasion when ,i saw this play ,i was surprised to hear the audience break out into peals of laughter at the point when the boy set out on his errand of revenge4 ,i inquired the cause of this from a ,chinese friend4 ,amid sobs of mirth he told me that the orphan boy had left the temple on horseback6 ,as usual1 there was no scenery1 the stage was bare1 only a picture suspended from a chair set on a table marked the locality as an ancestral temple4 ,the actor dressed for war had absent-mindedly acted as though he were on the battle field and had made with his leg the conventional sign for mounting a horse4 ,i had not noticed the gesture at all1 as it was a rather inconspicuous one4 ,the humor of the episode is of about the same variety as that engendered years ago in the ,philadelphia ,little ,theater when1 in the course of the action1 a cat wandered on the stage and in her haste to remove him an actress thrust him into the glowing stage fireplace--in reality1 of course1 off-stage into the wings4 ,in this imitation of a ,yuan drama1 in fact of the drama that several ,western writers have called the nearest approach to true tragedy among all ,chinese plays1 practically all that is presented to modern audiences is the farcical element4 ,of farces the ,chinese stage possesses many1 some good and some less so4 ,a certain ,liu ,yen-ming1 in a farce by that name1 lends money to a magistrate for a journey to the capital4 ,the loan is arranged1 like most things in ,china1 through a third party--in this case an abbess of a convent4 ,when a year has elapsed and the magistrate has not returned1 ,liu demands his money1 or1 in case the abbess cannot repay him1 the hand of ,yu ,ying1 the magistrate's pretty daughter4 ,he brings such pressure to bear by means of threats that the abbess finally agrees to arrange a rendezvous at midnight in the ,convent of ,great ,purity4 ,yu ,ying naturally enough refuses to marry a man just because her father owes him money1 but when the abbess pictures the old miser as a dashing youth of twenty-three she gradually changes her tone and at last gives her consent4 ,at midnight1 therefore1 ,liu ,yen-ming stealthily approaches the convent1 but unfortunately he meets with a patrol of police who arrest the nocturnal prowler as he is unable to account for his presence near the convent at such an unseemly hour4 ,instead of in the arms of his beloved the money-lender spends the night in jail4 ,but much more disagreeable for him is another development of the story4 ,a young scholar on his way to the capital is on the same road when he observes that the police have arrested ,liu ,yen-ming4 ,he decides that the police must be very strict in these parts and so demands hospitality at the very next house1 which is of course the convent4 ,the door is opened by a novice who has been told by the abbess what to do2 the young scholar is asked to enter and to await the young lady4 ,the youth1 though somewhat surprised1 is wise enough to hold his tongue and to follow instructions4 ,soon ,yu ,ying enters and finds that the young man possesses all the charms the abbess had falsely attributed to her father's creditor4 ,love at first sight1 then follow mutual explanations1 and before morning an engagement sealed by pledges4 ,a rather good scene follows when on the next day the abbess calls on the miser to felicitate him on the pleasant night he has spent6 ,there are delightful misunderstandings1 but at the end of the scene ,liu ,yen-ming is in a towering rage1 and determined to have revenge4 ,he forces the daughter of his debtor to become a maid in his tavern1 where she must perform the most menial tasks4 ,in the end1 of course1 the young scholar returns from the capital as a magistrate2 he enters the very inn where his beloved is serving the guests1 recognizes and rescues her1 giving the miser the punishment he so richly deserves4 ,one evening when ,i had gone to see ,mei ,lan-fang at the ,chen ,kwang ,theater1 there was performed as the last play among the curtain raisers another farce1 8,san ,yao ,hui0 7,shaking ,dice74 ,this farce is much less presentable in every way1 but is1 ,i believe1 more typical of the present-day drama1 because of its episodic nature and lack of real plot4 ,on the eve of the husband's return the wife and the concubine are quarreling as to which is to share his first night at home4 ,the dispute waxes hot and violent2 herewith follows a prize specimen of the dialogue3 ,wife3 ,he has no right to have a concubine4 ,concubine3 ,he would not have one1 if you were able to bear him a son4 ,wife3 ,don't say that1 for before ,i was married ,i had several sons4 ,two neighbors1 the clowns in the piece1 enter and after much discussion suggest that the women settle the disagreement by shaking dice4 ,three dice are used1 and the wife throws a score of seventeen4 ,the concubine then prostrates herself before the house god and when her dice are counted it is found that she has eighteen points4 ,she is victorious6 ,probably about as much as one fourth of the drama played in ,china at the present time deals with religious or mythological subjects4 ,kuan-yin1 the goddess of mercy1 the ,buddhist madonna1 very frequently figures in these plays1 releasing unfortunates from punishments and otherwise doing deeds of kindness4 ,a direct contrast to her is found in the cruel judge of the lower world4 ,in the ,field ,museum1 ,chicago1 there are exhibits portraying a number of ,chinese religious plays and the curator1 ,doctor ,berthold ,laufer1 has written an excellent guidebook dealing with these theatrical representations having for their aim the inculcation of better morals through the fear of punishments in the hereafter4 ,i cannot resist quoting from ,doctor ,laufer on the typically ,chinese attitude toward this form of religious drama3 ,it must not be supposed1 however1 that the ,chinese have ever in reality practiced the tortures demonstrated in the ten courts of ,purgatory4 ,this lore is not their own1 they adopted it from ,india4 ,it is the visual illustration of what is described in the sacred books of the ,buddhists4 ,on the stage1 moreover1 everything is mitigated and permeated by a willful1 grotesque humor which makes it difficult for the spectator to take these punishments too seriously4 ,skeptical and rationalistic as many of the ,chinese are1 they will be moved to smile at this performance1 or to entertain doubt as to its reality4 ,the baroque features and semi-comic gestures of the devils contribute to the relief and exhilaration of the audience4 ,the visitor should bear in mind that he is witnessing a fine piece of scenic illusion1 which1 while moralistic at its root and ethical in its tendency1 is far from being calculated to shock the nerves or frighten the conscience1 but which1 on the contrary1 will encourage and elevate by pointing the way to ultimate salvation4 ,the keynote of this drama is not misery and despair1 but hope and the possibility of self-perfection4 ,a favorite example of the mythological drama is the story of 8,the ,white and the ,black ,snake0 7,po ,she ,chuan71 taken from a novel of the same name4 ,two snake demons took on the form of lovely virgins4 ,one day they quarreled and the ,white ,snake said to the black1 8,if you can defeat me in a fight ,i'll serve you1 but if you are beaten you shall be my slave40 ,the ,white ,snake won and according to the agreement the other became her servant4 ,in a former incarnation a certain young man had saved the life of the ,white ,snake and she decided to reward him by becoming his beautiful and loving wife4 ,their marriage was indeed a very happy one for a time4 ,it is a ,chinese custom on the fifth day of the fifth month to drink a cup of wine containing a certain blossom which acts as a charm against venomous animals4 ,hs ,hsuan1 the husband1 followed this custom and gave some also to his unsuspecting wife4 ,the ,white ,snake felt uncomfortable after this draught and retired early4 ,hardly had she gone to sleep when she lost her human form and was changed into a snake4 ,when her husband later on parted the curtains of their bed1 he saw a huge white snake lying there1 raising her head toward him and spewing fire4 ,hs ,hsuan was so frightened that he fell to the ground dead4 ,aroused by the noise1 the ,black ,snake came on the scene and awoke her mistress1 who on awakening once more took on human form4 ,when she realized what she had unwittingly done1 she burst into tears2 but she soon recalled that on the mountain dominated by the ,god of ,long ,life there grew an herb capable of restoring the dead to life4 ,she hurried to this mountain to steal a bit of the herb4 ,but the ,god of ,long ,life saw her and in great anger pursued her4 ,by means of enveloping her in the fumes of a charm against snakes he captured her2 but on learning for what purpose she had come to steal he not only released her1 but presented her with the herb4 ,by means of it the dead man was soon restored to life4 ,the two demons wished to please ,hs ,hsuan in every way1 but in doing him favors they harmed the community4 ,they robbed the state treasury to enrich their favorite2 but the treasurer was beheaded in consequence4 ,thereupon they opened a drug store and in order to make the business prosper they spread various diseases in the village4 ,but the abbot of a nearby monastery discovered their tricks4 ,he visited ,hs ,hsuan under the pretense of collecting alms and warned him that he had better come for a time to the monastery to be freed from the influence of evil demons that were besetting him4 ,hs ,hsuan1 who remembered only too well his experience on the fifth day of the fifth month1 was glad to go4 ,he told his wife that he was going to the temple to worship4 ,but when her husband failed to return1 the ,white ,snake decided to go to the monastery to seek him4 ,on the way she confessed to her servant that she was soon going to give birth to a child1 an event which she hoped would give great pleasure to ,hs ,hsuan4 ,the two snakes in human form rode in a boat to the monastery which was located on an island4 ,the abbot met them and sternly ordered them off lest he destroy them utterly by means of his magic power4 ,full of anger the two demons drew their magic swords against the abbot1 but the latter tossed into the air his cane with a dragon's head1 which was changed immediately into a living dragon and attacked the two snakes so savagely that they were forced to flee for their lives4 ,but by means of their magic they sent a flood which threatened to destroy the island4 ,the abbot1 surrounded by all his priests1 spread his garment at the edge of the water1 thereby causing the island to rise in the same degree as the water4 ,at this point ,k'uei ,shing1 god of the literati1 arrived like the deus ex machina of a ,euripidean play4 ,he had been sent by ,wen ,chang1 the god of science and literature1 to put an end to the quarrel because the son of ,hs ,hsuan and the ,white ,snake was destined to obtain the highest degree in the literary examinations4 ,thus the island was saved and the snakes returned home unscathed4 ,hs ,hsuan1 on the abbot's advice1 also set out for home1 and met his wife with her servant on a bridge4 ,the ,black ,snake drew her sword to avenge on him the humiliation done her mistress1 but the ,white ,snake protected him from the fury of her servant4 ,both were overcome by their emotions2 they wept in silence1 unable to put their feelings into words1 in this struggle between love and fear4 ,soon afterward the son was born2 but three days later the god ,wen ,chang abducted the two demons to his magic pagoda1 while ,hs ,hsuan was left in wistful happiness with his promising son1 the greatest boon in the life of a ,chinese4 ,this charming story1 by the way1 forms the basis of ,grimm's tale1 8,the ,white and the ,black ,snake40 ,i have never seen the first part of this play1 but on several occasions ,i saw the visit of the snakes to the island monastery called 8,chin ,shan-tze40 ,one of these performances was at the annual benefit for the poor riksha-runners of ,peking organized by that widely beloved ,american missionary1 ,mrs4 ,goodrich4 ,as the play was given at the theater of the foreign community1 many of the crudities and incongruities of the ,chinese stage were absent4 ,the orchestra was not sitting on the stage and was muffled somewhat4 ,back and side drops with good lighting effects served to set off well the colorful robes of the shaven-headed monks praying before an immense image of ,buddha4 ,the fighting staged by the demon warriors was an exhibition of graceful and acrobatic movements that would do credit to a ,russian ballet4 ,the story with all its pathos was very well acted1 so that the whole formed a memorable performance such as would1 ,i am sure1 delight ,american audiences if a theatrical manager were to engage ,mei ,lan-fang with his troupe for a tour4 ,in ,chapter ,six are mentioned the many seasonal plays of the ,chinese theater which make of this institution a true folk theater4 ,in concluding this chapter ,i shall quote a synopsis of the libretto of 8,ch'ang-,o ,pin ,yeh0 7,ch'ang-,o's ,flight to the ,moon74 ,this playlet is one of those into which ,mei ,lan-fang has woven his graceful dances1 an innovation on his part on the ,chinese stage4 ,i follow the translation given on the program at a performance before the ,american ,college ,club on ,november #ag1 #aiag4 ,,foreword ,the youthful ,emperor ,ho ,yi of the ,hsia ,dynasty 7about #b1jjj ,b4,c47 being of divine origin1 as a child played with fairies4 ,when he grew to manhood1 he was in a dream led by fairies to the palace of the ,heavenly ,queen1 ,hsi ,wang ,mu1 who gave the young ,emperor the ,elixir of ,life4 ,ch'ang-,o1 the ,imperial ,concubine of ,ho ,yi1 famed for her grace and beauty1 learned of this precious gift and in childish innocence drank it1 scarcely realizing what she had done4 ,filled with remorse and shame1 upon being apprised of the gravity of her offence1 she flew to the moon1 where because of her wonderful beauty she was elected by the moon fairies as their queen4 ,the scene of the play is laid in the moon and has to do with the preparations for and the celebration of the ,mid-,autumn ,festival with ,ch'ang-,o1 the ,queen of the ,moon1 as the central figure and the moon fairies and their invited guests as participants4 ,,synopsis ,,first ,,act4--,the scene depicts a garden blossoming in celestial flowers1 with ,ch'ang-,o plucking the flowers to be used in making the wines for the ,mid-,autumn ,festival ,banquet4 ,,ch',,ang-,o opens with a song in praise of the beautiful surroundings in which she is about to pick flowers4 7,speaks7 ,since arriving in the ,moon1 ,i have had a very pleasant time4 ,the hot summer is now past and ,mid-,autumn is come4 ,in preparation for the celebration of the ,festival1 ,i look forward with delight to the making of wine for the entertainment of the fairies whom ,i am inviting to my feast4 7,sings7 ,deftly though ,i roll up my sleeves and lightly though ,i pluck the flowers1 ,i cannot help brushing off the bees and butterflies4 ,this sprig is full of fragrance and is weighed down with abundance and splendor4 ,that one is yet in bud4 ,and when ,i lift up my eyes ,i behold above me a tree that reaches to the clouds4 ,lifting my hand ,i begin to pluck the flowers4 7,speaking7 ,ah6 ,how beautiful6 ,i have so soon filled my basket with flowers1 and now ,i must carry them home to make my wine4 7,singing7 ,how thickly do the butterflies follow in my trail6 ,,second ,,act4--,the ,moon ,fairies invite other fairies to the ,banquet4 ,,third ,,act4--,the invited guests proceed to the ,banquet ,hall4 ,,fourth ,,act4--,the ,moon ,palace4 ,the ,moon ,fairies dust the ,palace and make preparations for the coming ,banquet and the receiving of their guests4 ,,fifth ,,act4--,the ,banquet4 ,ch'ang-,o1 under the influence of wine1 soliloquises on the lonesomeness of her life amid her present surroundings and yearns for the companionship of mortals and more particularly of ,ho ,yi4 ,,ch',,ang-,o 7singing74 ,forsaking the mortal world1 ,i have come to the ,moon to be ,queen of the ,fairies4 ,my time has passed so pleasantly and fast that ,i have lost all count of time4 ,i have gathered flowers and made wine1 and have invited other fairies to join me on this festive occasion4 7,sitting in meditation7 ,spring and autumn come and go1 as the evening follows the morn4 ,my time has flown by pleasantly amidst these beautiful surroundings4 ,once a year the moon is fullest on this night4 ,heaven and earth are happy in mutual enjoyment4 7,speaking7 ,this day is the ,mid-,autumn ,festival4 ,i have directed the ,palace to be dusted and cleaned4 ,the attendants have conveyed the invitations to the fairies to share with me in my happiness4 ,you1 attendants1 await their arrival4 7,the fairies arrive and sit down to feast47 ,,fairies4 ,o ,queen6 behold the mortal world6 ,see how every family on earth prepares its delicious food and wine to offer to thee as sacrifice8 7,ch'ang-,o speaking7 ,let me look4 7,ch'ang-,o is moved and the fairies speak47 ,,fairies4 ,why1 ,queen1 dost thou feel so sad8 ,,ch',,ang-,o4 ,look at the mortals and see how they celebrate in couples4 ,a hundred times better are they than we who lead a lonesome life4 ,,fairies4 ,do not speak thus1 ,o ,queen6 ,but partake more of this beautiful wine and drown thy sorrow4 ,,ch',,ang-,o4 ,then let us drink4 7,lifts her cup47 7,ch'ang-,o is overcome with wine and the fairies take their leave47 ,,ch',,ang-,o4 ,when we were feasting ,i perceived how mortals celebrated this happy occasion in couples and enjoyed each other's company4 ,the thought of my lonely life fills me with sorrow4 7,singing7 ,i go down by marble steps and part the crystal curtains to see how mortal couples live and prepare fresh fruits and delicious wines to celebrate the ,festival4 ,here ,i see a family feasting and chatting1 there a group walking hand in hand1 and others while away their time in their modest homes1 while ,i sit in my ,palace1 lonely and companionless4 ,ah6 who is there to pity me8 7,speaking7 ,deeply do ,i regret my offence of stealing the ,elixir of ,life4 ,as punishment ,i am now destined to spend my nights in sorrow4 7,fairies reappear to escort ,ch'ang-,o to visit the ,heavenly ,queen1 ,hsi ,wang ,mu47 7,exeunt all47 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,five ,,modern ,,tendencies ,during the last decades of the ,ch'ing ,dynasty1 that is to say about forty years ago1 many of the idle and rich members of the ruling class1 the ,manchus1 developed an interest in the theater4 ,the government provided these men with an income but imposed no duties on them2 and while a large number filled the time that hung heavy on their hands by smoking opium1 others imitated the work of the socially disinherited actor4 ,sometimes princes of the royal family appeared on the stage in much the same spirit of a search for new sensations in which others impersonated beggars on the streets4 ,naturally enough1 such undignified behavior was highly disapproved of in government circles1 and therefore the idlers who spent most of their time in the theaters found it more expedient to perform in private when their artistic natures felt the itch for self-expression4 ,for this purpose clubs were formed called p'iao yu1 friends of the theater or amateurs4 ,it is interesting to note that many of the palaces of the princes of the ,manchu ,dynasty in the vicinity of ,peking are provided with stages where the theater lovers could perform in private4 ,many wealthy merchants followed this fashion set by the princes1 and in recent years also a large number of students have devoted their leisure time to the study of acting4 ,to-day the number of amateurs in ,peking is enormous2 there is such a craze for acting that every photographer's shop is provided with costumes and other theatrical paraphernalia in order that the p'iao yu may have his picture taken in the rle of his favorite character4 ,among this class of amateurs the tendency is to be very conservative4 ,when a club is formed the members hire an old and experienced actor who teaches them to sing and to act in the traditional manner4 ,once a month performances are given at which the amateurs show what they have learned4 ,frequently1 too1 these tyros are given opportunities to act at weddings1 funerals1 or other festivities held in private homes or in restaurants4 ,to belong to such a club is within the reach of even the ordinary clerks1 for the dues are about four dollars a year4 ,i have known former members of the diplomatic corps who had spent many years abroad as well as ten-dollar-a-month clerks among the ranks of the amateurs4 ,when an amateur goes over to the professional stage the ,chinese call it 8hsia hai01 going down to the bottom of the sea1 an expression that indicates the low esteem in which the professional actor is held4 ,however1 in these days of the ,republic1 when the social disqualification of the actor counts for very little1 and what is more important1 a good actor can command the equivalent of a princely income of the days of the ,empire1 the actor is no longer despised so thoroughly as in former days4 ,formerly an actor who could read and write was a notable exception1 while now occasionally a fairly well-educated man goes on the stage4 ,i know1 for example1 a youth of twenty who had been carefully trained by a devout ,american lady in the ,christian way in which he was to go4 ,she had taught him stenography and typing1 and ,percy1 as all ,americans called him1 worked in an office in a modest but useful capacity4 ,suddenly rumor had it that he was going to go on the stage and1 to be sure1 an enterprising manager had offered him about forty times the sum the office was paying him4 ,many of the pious folk felt grieved when ,percy accepted4 ,illustration3 ,,amateur ,,actors ,,in ,,an ,,old-,,style ,,chinese ,,play ,the face painting of the actor on the right shows him to be a wicked man1 probably a robber4 ,the other is the hero of the piece1 a young warrior4 ,percy's going on the stage was perhaps more of a surprise to some other people than to me1 for ,i had not only seen him perform several times with other amateurs at weddings1 but ,i had also observed him during office hours studying ,mei ,lan-fang's acting in the ,market ,theater4 ,one hot summer night ,i went to a feast where ,percy had told me that he was going to play4 ,in the first courtyard of the host's large residence a score of guests were eating delicious ,chinese food and drinking cool beer1 while a temporary stage had been erected in the second courtyard4 ,accompanied by loud music from the orchestra an indifferent play was going on2 therefore ,i set out to find my hero of the evening4 ,i found ,percy seated at a table back of the stage busy with his make-up4 ,on his head he was wearing a wig1 his eyebrows were penciled1 his cheeks rouged1 and he was busy painting his eyeballs4 8,good heavens1 ,percy10 ,i said4 8,what are you doing to your eyes80 8,i have to put ,chinese ink into them to make my pupils large and black40 8,doesn't it hurt like the very ,satan80 8,oh1 yes1 it hurts pretty badly1 but when it's done it looks lovely40 ,how ,i wished that ,percy's missionary sponsors might have seen the show6 ,as imitator of ,mei ,lan-fang he played the rle of the maid1 and he certainly looked beautiful4 ,the maid in this particular farce 78,yi ,tsai ,hua01 one of the plays forbidden by the police67 is sent by her mistress--who is minded to improve her husband's absence--to induce a handsome young man to come to the lady's boudoir4 ,but the maid prefers1 unlike ,john ,alden1 to speak for herself6 ,so she sets about destroying the young man's virtue1 while the efforts of the youth to escape her coquettish wiles supply the comic element4 ,it was a bedroom farce1 and ,i noticed with pride the effects of ,percy's ,christian training--he used sheets on his bed6 ,but in recent years other groups of amateurs have arisen with the definite purpose of reforming the ,chinese theater4 ,in #aiae a group of returned students from ,japan who had derived their inspiration from modern ,european dramas they had seen in ,tokyo founded a dramatic club in ,shanghai called 8,the ,spring ,willow ,dramatic ,society40 ,their aim was to educate the taste of the public both as regards modern drama and modern staging4 ,they introduced non-musical1 spoken drama acted on a stage with footlights and scenery4 8,la ,dame aux ,camlias0 and 8,uncle ,tom's ,cabin0 formed part of their repertoire4 ,but they found only a small following composed of students and people who had been abroad1 and therefore this effort was discontinued after one year4 ,shanghai is the logical spot for such modern theaters--there have been quite a number of others since--because ,occidental influence is stronger in this city than anywhere else in ,china1 and the ,southerners on the whole are less conservative than the ,northerners4 ,one of the idealists of the 8,spring ,willow ,society01 on finding that the audiences were not yet ready for drama in the ,european style1 began to act in the ,chinese theater the rle of the ingnue 7,ch'ing-,i and ,hua-tan74 ,however1 he made the reform of avoiding all plays that taught superstitions and of turning to social plays with a purpose4 ,but this experiment did not succeed very well either1 and therefore in #aibj he accepted the position of director of the dramatic club in ,nantun1 in the province of ,kiangsi1 endowed by ,mr4 ,chang ,chien1 one of the wealthiest business men in ,china4 ,this gentleman believes that the theater is an instrument of great potential force in making over society and that through the proper kind of theater his fellow countrymen can be made honest and patriotic4 ,nantun is an industrial city and an educational center with ten middle schools and three colleges1 and therefore a favorable location for an experimental theater4 ,moreover1 through ,mr4 ,chang ,chien's influence1 a course in dramatics has been made a part of the curriculum in all the schools1 in order that every student may learn to act4 ,the students1 ,mr4 ,chang ,chien hopes1 will spread the message of the modern drama far and wide by giving performances in their native towns and villages4 ,such a tour of student actors1 from quite another educational center1 to be sure1 was described to me by one of my students1 ,mr4 ,jung ,tu-shan4 ,the lad undoubtedly had considerable talent as an actor--,i remember particularly a performance of 8,matre ,patelin0 given at the ,peking ,union ,medical ,college in which he played the leading part with great success4 ,in the year #aiag1 thirty-six students1 all from the vicinity of ,wusih1 set out to perform plays in all the villages in the district4 ,they carried with them some painted scenery and each student supplied his costumes and traveling expenses4 ,the families of different students acted as hosts to the whole company in the various villages visited4 ,performances were given in the afternoon4 ,in the course of the morning the stage was gotten ready--usually the stage at the village temple4 ,four coppers admission fee was charged to pay for the cost of transporting the scenery1 and the surplus was given to various charitable enterprises4 ,the audiences numbered from two hundred to eight hundred spectators4 ,the plays were propaganda against opium smoking and foot binding or--as this was the time of the patriotic fervor of the students--anti-,japanese agitation4 ,the most popular play was 8,the ,sorrowful ,korean01 in which the maltreatment of ,koreans by the ,japanese was graphically portrayed1 together with the warning that the same thing would happen to the ,chinese if they did not show more patriotism4 ,after the representation of the pulling out of finger nails or other tortures1 the cry of 8boycott the ,japanese0 would arise among the spectators1 and those who had had the forethought to provide themselves with ,japanese-made umbrellas would start a bonfire with them4 ,next1 everybody would swear never again to buy ,japanese goods4 ,at times1 too1 improvised plays would be given in which the foibles or crimes of certain natives of the village would be castigated4 ,some professional blackmailers whose machinations were publicly exposed became very angry at the students1 but since they were sons of wealthy and influential men they could not harm them4 ,it is quite a favorable testimonial for the native ability of the ,chinese as actors that such plays could be gotten up at a moment's notice2 the method of the students was for one of the members to tell the story in the morning1 while in the afternoon those who had been awarded the various parts would act it out4 ,mr4 ,jung ,tu-shan is of the opinion that for his illiterate countrymen such performances are of vast educational value1 especially since newspapers are few and travel is rather restricted4 ,it would lead too far afield to enumerate even a small number of the professional companies and student clubs now presenting 8modern drama01 i4e4 drama in imitation of the present-day drama of the ,west4 ,moreover most of these undertakings are very short-lived4 ,the professional companies are generally found in ,shanghai where many a modern ,european or ,american drama has been presented for better or for worse4 ,the best work among the student dramatic clubs has been done by the one at ,nankai ,college1 ,tientsin4 ,in the ,quarterly of that institution many plays have been published dealing with ,chinese life in imitation of the manner of ,ibsen1 ,tolstoy1 ,shaw1 and other moderns4 ,one play from this school1 8,the ,new ,mayor01 was singled out for particular praise by a revolutionary critic1 because it overthrew one of the ancient traditions of the ,chinese drama--the villain is not punished at the end of the play4 ,this play too is quite realistic and 8peculiarly0 ,chinese4 ,mr4 ,tsao1 the mayor of a village1 together with three other unscrupulous men1 agrees to sell to a ,european company the land around the village temple on which are situated the huts of many poor people4 ,the agents of the foreign company begin to drive off the poor people and cause untold suffering among them4 ,at this point a nephew of the mayor appears on the scene4 ,he has been studying in a 8modern0 school in ,shanghai and has acquired some conceptions of honesty and pity4 ,he takes the matter of the illegal sale to court and when he appears followed by a mob of the poor the court annuls the contract of sale4 ,there is even some talk of punishing the four guilty scoundrels4 ,in this crisis the son of the mayor rushes to one of the three other villains1 named ,hou1 in order to plan for his father's safety4 ,mr4 ,hou tells him that the only thing to do is to bring him #djjj for bribes1 with which he says he can save the situation4 ,the family of the mayor sell all their property in order to raise this large sum1 so that only the hope of future extortions stands between them and absolute poverty4 ,after what has passed the mayor is forced to resign1 but ,mr4 ,hou promises to do all he can to influence the election to the effect that the son succeed his father as mayor and the office remain in the family4 ,with this understanding the mayor's family pay out the #djjj4 ,but when the votes are counted it is found that the new mayor is none other than ,mr4 ,hou6 ,it may be worth while briefly to summarize the views of two critics on how to reform the ,chinese theater4 ,professor ,soong ,tsung-faung of the ,national ,university1 ,peking1 for many years a student in ,france1 ,germany and ,switzerland1 in his book 8,la ,littrature ,chinoise ,contemporaine0 makes suggestions as follows3 #a4 ,music and drama should be separated1 performances of operas and plays should be made as distinct genres2 #b4 ,an approach should be made to the ,aristotelian unities2 #c4 ,the false morality of the stage should be replaced by a realistic presentation of life2 #d4 ,more attention should be paid to effective dialogue2 #e4 ,male and female rles should be played by actors of the two sexes respectively2 #f4 ,the stage and auditorium of the ,chinese theater should be reformed to resemble that of the modern ,european theater4 8,europeanize the theater0 is1 in short1 what ,professor ,soong suggests4 ,much the same thing1 from a somewhat different angle1 is said by ,doctor ,hu ,shih1 professor of philosophy in the same university4 ,he argues that literature is constantly changing and that such a change is a gradual progress from low origins to classical perfection4 ,the history of ,chinese drama represents a continuous struggle against formal restrictions which have been gradually overcome4 ,but in the course of this advance useless survivals remained intact owing to the conservatism of the ,chinese4 ,as such survivals he mentions ballad singing1 military plays 7acrobatics71 a conventional manner of walking on the stage1 facial painting in a highly unnatural manner1 use of falsetto speech1 and musical accompaniment4 ,these ought to be eliminated1 just as the chorus1 the mask1 and the aside have long gone out of style in the ,western theater4 ,furthermore1 since progress in literature generally comes about through contact with foreign literatures 7he quotes here the influence of ,ibsen on the ,english stage71 ,china ought to learn from the ,occidental drama4 ,two things especially ,china is in need of3 first1 the conception of tragedy to take the place of the eternal happy ending2 and second1 a conception of dramatic economy4 ,this same critic has himself written a play1 which he modestly calls a farce4 ,it has been acted very successfully by student dramatic societies in ,peking and other cities4 ,doctor ,hu ,shih does not pride himself particularly on this effort of his1 yet1 in my opinion1 it is by far the best 8modern0 play written by a ,chinese under the influence of the ,western drama1 including some published in ,american magazines4 ,i shall reprint it here as an index1 showing the direction the ,chinese drama of the future may take4 ,the influence of ,mei ,lan-fang1 as ,professor ,soong notes in his book1 is in the direction of art for art's sake1 while the drama of the students and reformers is the play with a purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,hu ,,shih ,doctor of ,philosophy1 ,columbia ,university4 ,professor of ,philosophy1 ,national ,university1 ,peking4 ,author of first critical history of ,chinese philosophy1 giving a new evaluation of the ancient sages4 ,editor1 poet1 and author of play reprinted in chapter five4 ,his most important work was his campaign for the introduction of the vernacular in place of the dead language of the scholars1 a reform that will be of inestimable consequence in democratizing knowledge among ,china's four hundred million4 ,,the ,,greatest ,,event ,,in ,,life ,a ,farce in ,one ,act by ,doctor ,hu ,shih ,,characters--,mr4 ,tien1 a gentleman and scholar4 ,mrs4 ,tien1 his wife4 ,miss ,tien ,ah-may1 their daughter4 ,lee ,fuh1 their old servant4 ,a fortune-teller 7blind74 ,,scene--,a parlor in ,mr4 ,tien's home4 ,a door on the right leading to the hall2 a door on the left leading to the dining room4 ,sofa at the back end4 ,armchairs4 ,a round table in the center with flower-vase and writing materials on it4 ,two chairs beside the table4 ,a writing desk at the left side of the stage4 ,on the walls are hanging rolls of ,chinese painting and writing1 together with framed ,dutch landscapes1 bespeaking the complexity of taste in a partially modernized ,chinese family4 ,as the curtain slowly goes up1 there is heard the voice of the fortune-teller1 who is seated by the table1 and the final notes of his accompanying string instrument are still audible4 ,mrs4 ,tien is seated on one of the armchairs4 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,i don't quite understand what you say4 ,tell me1 what do you think of this match4 ,,fortune-,,teller--,i only speak the truth1 ,mrs4 ,tien4 ,we all speak the truth4 ,you see-- ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,but what is the truth8 ,,fortune-,,teller--,i am sorry to say that this match is undesirable4 ,it would be a very unhappy marriage if your daughter should marry this young man4 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,why so8 ,,fortune-,,teller--,well1 you see1 ,i only speak the truth4 ,this young man was born in the year of the ,tiger and your daughter was born in the year of the ,rabbit4 ,in the books of fortune-telling1 this is called 8conquering the rabbit by the tiger40 ,the wife would live in constant fear of being swallowed up4 ,and1 as the conquest is complete1 the wife will probably die long before her husband4 ,i have examined the ,month and the ,day and the ,hour1 and found no way to escape it4 ,of course ,i am only telling the truth3 please don't blame my frankness4 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,not at all4 ,i like truth spoken in frankness4 ,i know what you said is true4 ,for the ,goddess of ,mercy said the same thing yesterday4 ,,fortune-,,teller--,so the ,goddess of ,mercy also disapproved of this union8 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,yes1 she said that this couple1 if married1 will not live long together4 ,,fortune-,,teller--,that's exactly what ,i said4 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,what the ,goddess said must be true4 ,but you see1 this is a very important matter2 it is the greatest event in my daughter's life4 ,we parents cannot take too much care in selecting the best possible mates for our children4 ,so1 having known the ,goddess's opinion1 ,i sent for you to see if there is any possible escape4 ,you know the words of the gods are always very brief3 one may not be sure of their exact meaning4 ,,fortune-,,teller--,quite so1 quite so4 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,i am glad that you have confirmed the ,goddess's judgment4 7,rises and hands him some money7 ,thank you2 here is your pay4 ,,fortune-,,teller--7,groping for the money7 ,no1 no1 that is not necessary4 ,thanks1 thanks4 ,i am glad that the ,goddess has confirmed my truth4 7,rises7 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,lee ,fuh6 7,enter ,lee ,fuh from the right-hand door7 ,show him out4 7,the fortune-teller goes out led by ,lee ,fuh7 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--7,taking up the red paper on which are written the dates of the young couple1 folds it and puts it back into a drawer of the writing desk7 ,it's a pity6--it's a pity6-- 7,miss ,ah-may ,tien enters by the right-hand door4 ,she is a young woman of about twenty-four1 tastefully dressed and wearing a rather anxious look on her face7 ,,miss ,,tien--,mother1 are you consulting fortune-tellers again8 ,i met one at the gate4 ,have you forgotten that father had forbidden fortune-telling in our house8 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,just once more1 my dear4 ,,miss ,,tien--,but you have promised father never to call fortune-tellers into our house4 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,i know that4 ,but you see ,i can't help doing it just once more4 ,i have sent for him to see if you and ,mr4 ,chen-- ,,miss ,,tien--,oh1 ,oh6-- ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,you see this is the greatest event in your life1 and you are my only child4 ,i can't let you marry a man with whom you can't live long4 ,,miss ,,tien--,but we can6 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,no1 you can't4 ,the fortune-teller says so4 ,,miss ,,tien--,what does he know about us8 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,and the ,goddess of ,mercy says so1 too4 ,,miss ,,tien--,so you have asked the ,goddess too8 ,what would father say to this8 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,i know your father would object to this1 as he always objects to everything ,i do4 ,but how can we old folks decide a matter which concerns your entire life8 ,we are liable to make grave mistakes4 ,but the gods cannot deceive us4 ,moreover1 the fortune-teller has confirmed what the goddess said4 7,going to the desk and opening the drawer7 ,let me show you what the goddess said4 ,,miss ,,tien--,oh1 no6 ,i don't want to see it6 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--7,closing the door reluctantly7 ,my dear1 don't be too obstinate4 ,i like your young man whom you have known during your stay in ,japan4 ,he seems to be a fine fellow4 ,you say you know him well4 ,but you are young and inexperienced4 ,even we old folks dare not trust our own judgment in such important matters4 ,that's why ,i went to the ,goddess of ,mercy and sent for the fortune-teller4 ,they both said that this match would be undesirable4 ,it must be true4 ,the fortune-teller said that this is a case of conquering the rabbit by the tiger1 because you were born in the year of-- ,,miss ,,tien--,please don't say any more of it4 7,sobbing7 ,i don't want to hear it4 ,i know father will not agree with you4 ,i know he will not4 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,i will tell him what ,i have done4 ,he must not give away my daughter against my wish4 7,approaching her daughter and trying to dry her tears with a handkerchief7 ,now1 don't cry4 ,i'll leave you to think it over4 ,your father will be back soon2 ,i go to see if dinner is ready4 ,be a good child and cry no more4 7,goes by the door leading to the dining room4 ,a pause4 ,as ,miss ,tien looks up1 ,lee ,fuh appears at the door4 ,she beckons him to come near7 ,,miss ,,tien--,lee ,fuh1 ,i need your help4 7,lee ,fuh bows amicably7 ,my mother does not want to let me marry ,mr4 ,chen4 ,,lee ,,fuh--,it's a pity1 a great pity4 ,he is such a fine gentleman4 ,he even bowed to me when ,i met him this morning at the street corner4 ,,miss ,,tien--,yes1 he saw you bring in the fortune-teller and he was afraid of any sudden change4 ,so he telephoned to me at the school and followed me back in his motor-car4 ,he may still be waiting at the street corner4 ,go and tell him that my mother has made up her mind not to let us marry4 ,of course father will help us4 ,tell ,mr4 ,chen to move his car to the next street and wait for further news4 ,go quickly4 7,lee ,fuh bows to go7 ,come back4 ,tell him--tell him--not to be anxious4 7,lee ,fuh bows smilingly and goes by the right-hand door7 ,,miss ,,tien--7,goes to the desk and opens the drawer2 looks at its contents without taking it out4 ,then looks at her watch7 ,father ought to be back now2 it is almost twelve4 7,mr4 ,tien1 a man of about fifty1 enters by the right-hand door7 ,,miss ,,tien--7,quickly closes the drawer and rises to meet him7 ,oh1 father1 you are back6 ,mother was--7hesitates7 mother has something to say to you1--something very important4 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,what's that8 ,tell me first what it is4 ,,miss ,,tien--,mother will tell you4 7,runs to the dining-room door and calls7 ,mother1 mother1 father is back4 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,what's in this now8 7,sits down in the armchair4 ,mrs4 ,tien enters7 ,ah-may told me that you have something very important to say to me4 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,yes1 something very important4 ,now don't contradict me4 7,sitting down by the table7 ,it is about ,mr4 ,chen's proposal to marry ,ah-may4 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,yes1 ,i have been thinking about it too4 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,good1 we all ought to be thinking about it4 ,it is the greatest event in her life4 ,i was simply overawed at the idea of its importance4 ,it is true that ,ah-may has known this young man for some years during their stay in ,japan4 ,but we don't know him4 ,how can we be sure of his character8 ,he is wealthy1 but many wealthy young men are simply awful4 ,he is well-educated1 but ,i have heard many returned students abandon their wives4 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,what are you driving at8 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,my point is this4 ,we should not trust our own poor judgments4 ,at least ,i can't1 ,i dare not trust myself in this matter4 ,so ,i went yesterday to the ,temple of the ,goddess of ,mercy4 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,what6 ,have you forgotten what you promised me8 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,i can't help it4 ,i did it merely for the sake of our daughter4 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,pooh1 pooh6 ,go on4 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,i went there and asked for a ,divine ,stick4 ,it says that this match is undesirable4 ,let me show you the poem on the ,stick4 7,going to the desk7 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,pooh1 pooh6 ,i don't want to see it4 ,i'll have nothing of this stuff6 ,if you don't trust yourself1 how can you trust such an important matter to wooden images and clay idols8 ,,miss ,,tien--7,cheering up7 ,i know father doesn't believe in all this4 7,going to him7 ,thank you1 father4 ,we should trust our own judgment1 should we not8 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,but it isn't the ,goddess alone that says no4 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,who else then8 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,i still had my doubts1 so ,i sent for the best fortune-teller in this city4 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,ahem6 ,you have broken another promise to me4 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,i know it1 but you see this is the greatest event in ,ah-may's life1 and ,i want to clear up every little doubt in my mind4 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,but1 for heaven's sake1 why did you create the doubt by going to the ,goddess8 ,why didn't you come to me8 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,don't be blasphemous4 ,well1 the fortune-teller said exactly the same thing as the ,goddess of ,mercy4 ,wasn't that wonderful8 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,oh1 come4 ,don't be foolish4 ,you have no confidence in your own eyes1 so you go and put complete confidence in those who have no eyes at all6 ,,miss ,,tien--,i quite agree with you1 father4 ,i knew you would be on our side4 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--7,to her daughter7 ,how dare you talk in that manner about your own marriage8 8,our0 side8 ,whose side is 8our0 side8 ,for shame6 ,you all conspire against me6 7,putting her face into her handkerchief and sobbing7 ,have ,i no right to decide my own daughter's greatest event in life8 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,just because this is our daughter's greatest event in life1 we must go about it in a sane and intelligent manner4 ,we must not be deceived by wooden images and clay idols1--and blind fortune-tellers4 ,am ,i not right1 ,ah-may8 ,,miss ,,tien--,you are quite right1 father4 ,i knew you would not believe in all this4 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,now1 let us talk seriously4 7,to ,mrs4 ,tien7 ,don't cry4 ,no more childish superstitions6 7,to ,miss ,tien7 ,sit down and we'll have a serious talk4 7,she seats herself on the sofa4 ,a pause7 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,ah-may1 ,i don't want you to marry ,mr4 ,chen4 ,,miss ,,tien--7,greatly agitated7 ,oh1 father1 you don't mean it6 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,yes1 ,i do mean it4 ,this union is impossible4 ,i am sorry4 ,,miss ,,tien--,have you found anything against him8 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,no1 ,i like him very much4 ,i could not possibly choose a better son-in-law4 ,so much the more ,i am sorry4 ,,miss ,,tien--7,puzzled and grieved7 ,and you don't believe in the gods and fortune-tellers8 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,oh1 no4 ,,mrs4 ,,tien ,,and ,,miss ,,tien--7,at the same time7 ,what is it then8 ,,mr4 ,,tien--7,to ,miss ,tien7 ,my child1 you have been abroad for so long that you have forgotten our own custom and etiquette4 ,you have even forgotten the law of our ancestors4 ,,miss ,,tien--,what is the law of our ancestors that forbids our marriage8 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,let me show you4 7,goes out by the dining-room door7 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,what could it be8 ,but ,i am glad that he is opposed to this union4 ,,miss ,,tien--7,reflecting1 then suddenly showing determination7 ,i know what to do4 ,,mr4 ,,tien--7,enters with a set of big folio volumes7 ,here is our genealogy4 7,turning over the leaves7 ,look at this long line of our ancestors and see if there has been any marriage between the ,chens 77 and the ,tiens 774 ,,miss ,,tien--,why couldn't there be any marriage between the two families8 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,because it is the custom of the country to forbid intermarriage between persons bearing the same family name4 ,,miss ,,tien--,but our family is ,tien and ,mr4 ,chen's family name is ,chen3 we are not of the same family name4 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,yes1 we are of the same family name4 ,about two thousand five hundred years ago1 these two words1 ,tien and ,chen1 were pronounced in the same way1 and our family name was sometimes written in the form of ,chen and sometimes in the form of ,tien4 ,as the ages passed by1 these two words came to be pronounced quite differently1 and the two branches of our family had all the appearances of a separate origin4 ,but the philologists know it1 and our family records show that the two families have sprung from one and the same stock4 ,the law of both the ,chen family and the ,tien family forbids intermarriage between them4 ,,miss ,,tien--,does this prohibition apply to persons whose relationship dates back two thousand five hundred years8 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,unfortunately it does4 ,,miss ,,tien--,oh1 father1 surely you don't believe in the reasonableness of such a custom4 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,i don't1 but society does and the old scholars do4 ,a story was told of a peasant woman of the ,tien family who married a ,mr4 ,chen by mistake4 ,but after her death1 she was not allowed to occupy a seat in the ancestral temple until her name was changed into ,shen 77 by prolonging the middle stroke of the word ,tien 774 ,,miss ,,tien--,i am willing to prolong the middle stroke of my family name1 if that is the only objection4 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,you are willing1 but ,i am not4 ,i don't want to be criticized by the old scholars of our clan on your account4 ,,miss ,,tien--7,sobbing7 ,but we are not of the same family6 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,our genealogy says we are1 and the old scholars say we are4 ,i have consulted a number of scholars on this point1 and they all oppose this union4 ,you see1 in a matter of such importance1 although one must not be deceived by the wooden gods and blind fortune-tellers1 one must respect the opinion of old scholars4 ,and then1 your young man is from a very wealthy family4 ,i don't want people to think that ,i sold my daughter to a rich man at the cost of sacrificing my family name4 ,,miss ,,tien--7,in despair7 ,oh1 oh6 ,father6 ,you have destroyed the idols of superstition1 but you bow to the idols of tradition6 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,you are angry with me8 ,well1 ,i don't blame you4 ,i understand your feelings4 7,lee ,fuh enters7 ,,lee ,,fuh--,dinner is ready4 7,all rise except ,miss ,tien7 ,,mr4 ,,tien--,let us talk it over after dinner4 ,come1 ,i am hungry4 7,goes into the dining room7 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--7,going to her daughter7 ,don't cry now4 ,we all wish for your best4 ,compose yourself and come to dinner4 ,,miss ,,tien--,i don't want dinner4 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,don't be obstinate4 ,we'll wait for you4 7,goes into the dining room4 ,lee ,fuh closes the door after her7 ,,miss ,,tien--7,looks up and sees ,lee ,fuh standing7 ,is ,mr4 ,chen still waiting in his car8 ,,lee ,,fuh--7,in a low voice7 ,yes1 here is a note for you4 7,hands her a note7 ,,miss ,,tien--7,reads7 8,this concerns us alone4 ,decide for yourself40 7,repeating the last sentence7 8,decide for yourself40 ,yes4 ,i must decide for myself4 ,i must6 7,to ,lee ,fuh7 ,tell father and mother not to wait for me4 ,i'll join them after dinner4 7,lee ,fuh bows knowingly and retires4 ,miss ,tien rises and puts on the cloak which she had taken off when she first entered4 ,goes to the desk and writes a note which she leaves under the flower vase2 then she hurries out by the right-hand door4 ,a pause7 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--7,from within7 ,ah-may1 you must come and have dinner with us4 7,enters7 ,where are you8 ,ah-may6 ,,mr4 ,,tien--7,from within7 ,leave her alone for a while3 she is angry with us4 7,enters7 ,where is she8 ,,mrs4 ,,tien--,where is she8 ,she has gone with her cloak on4 ,,mr4 ,,tien--7,seeing the note under the vase1 takes it and reads7 8,this is the greatest event in my life4 ,i must decide for myself4 ,i am gone with ,mr4 ,chen in his car4 ,good-by60 7,mrs4 ,tien sinks into the armchair4 ,mr4 ,tien rushes to the door and then hesitates4 ,curtain47 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,six ,,external ,,aspects ,,of ,,the ,,chinese ,,theater ,foreigners in general regard the ,chinese theater as noisy1 dirty1 and dull1 and therefore as a most unattractive spot2 yet the ,chinese must think differently about it1 for the houses are always crowded4 ,when still at a great distance from the theater one can hear a horrible racket of drums1 cymbals1 and screeching string instruments4 ,on entering the building one is struck by the lack in the ,chinese of the sense of how to make things attractive1 for1 just as one enters a ,chinese restaurant through a dirty kitchen1 so one often enters a theater through the laundry2 four or five men are seen in the 8foyer0 bending over steaming tubs1 washing towels1 essentials in a ,chinese theater the use of which the spectator is soon to learn4 ,on entering one finds the house--which1 by the way1 is arranged like a beer garden with the spectators seated at little tables--packed to the last seat4 ,but the usher says nothing about ,s4 ,r4 ,o42 he leads you somewhere and as the other spectators seem to telescope you are asked to sit down either at a table or on a bench which has before it a board to hold the teapot and watermelon seeds that arrive the minute you have taken your seat4 ,as you settle down and look about1 you find yourself in the usual kindly1 dirty1 ill-smelling1 smoking1 talking1 shouting1 eating crowd that one finds everywhere in ,china4 ,everybody is glad to give the newcomer information or a match2 the inimitable1 gentle ,peking old men with their pairs of walnuts in their right hands which they roll around to keep their fingers supple for writing ,chinese characters1 drink tea1 and smoke pewter water pipes1 smiling the carefree smile that old age has graven on their faces4 ,waiters are continually walking around1 jostling the spectators and shouting the merits of their tobacco1 candy1 fruit or what not1 and depositing teapots and steaming dishes of food wherever they are wanted4 ,the most spectacular thing is the manner in which the towels arrive4 ,one waiter throws them to the other in tightly wrapped bundles1 the pitcher standing near the entrance and the catcher near the stage or wherever people need to wipe their hands and faces4 ,in hurling these bundles they show an unfailing aim and in catching they never miss4 ,even though one of these soggy masses of steaming cloth seems headed straight for your face1 you need not dodge1 for without fail a waiter's hand will always be stretched out to catch it and all that the drama lover will ever suffer is to have a fine mist sprinkled over his face4 ,needless to say for this he neither expects nor receives any sympathy--not even a passing notice4 ,a great many soldiers--about whom the ,chinese says the worst thing he can think of1 that they are 8rough0--are admitted free1 not because the manager is exceedingly patriotic1 but because he thinks that discretion is better than having the door kicked in4 ,in the gallery are seated the women1 also eating1 drinking1 smoking and chattering4 ,how much attention does this audience pay to the play8 ,about as much as we do to the music in a restaurant4 ,they don't come for a few hours' excitement1 they come to pass the day that hangs heavy on their hands4 ,as one ,french returned student put it1 8,in ,europe one works during the day and amuses oneself at night2 in ,china one amuses oneself during the day and sleeps at night40 ,illustration3 ,a ,,typical ,,peking ,,audience ,,with ,,the ,,inevitable ,,teapots ,from ,jacovleff1 8,le ,thtre ,chinois0 ,the returned student finds the ,chinese theater very little to his taste1 but yet he goes because ,chinese social life is so dull that there is nothing better to do4 ,comforts in our sense are lacking absolutely in these theaters4 ,you sit on stools without backs1 your feet rest on stone slabs when the thermometer is hovering about zero and the cold wind is blowing down on ,peking from ,mongolia2 there is absolutely no effort at heating or ventilation--it is ,chinese animal heat that keeps the spectators comfortable and in a frame of mind to enjoy the performance4 ,yet these discomforts are felt only by those used to ,western standards of life1 for nine out of ten who leave the theater after the last villain has been duly punished go to houses that are likewise unheated and have no light1 no agreeable company1 and of course no play to charm the soul away from reality4 ,peking is the real center of ,chinese drama1 the city that sets the style for the rest of the country so far as native drama is concerned4 ,innovations of ,occidental nature generally have their origin in ,shanghai and are adopted later on in ,peking2 such imitations of ,western institutions are1 for example1 the amusement arcades called in both cities 8,the ,new ,world02 boxes in the theaters in which men and women sit together2 and1 of course1 motion pictures1 at first imported from ,europe and ,america1 but in recent years manufactured by ,chinese firms in ,china4 ,but as regards the native theater1 ,shanghai learns from ,peking4 ,the language of the theater1 in general1 is the ,peking dialect spoken by actors all over ,china4 ,famous actors from ,peking regularly visit ,shanghai4 ,it is only in ,peking and the treaty ports that regular theaters exist4 ,the vast majority of the four hundred million also have their plays1 but they are dependent for them on traveling companies1 that set up their mat-shed theaters wherever the citizens are willing to pay them for acting4 ,thus the political capital ,peking is also the leading city for ,chinese drama4 ,the eight hundred thousand residents of ,peking have1 according to ,mr4 ,gamble's recently published social survey1 twenty-two regular theaters and eight mat-shed theaters2 that is1 portable buildings covered with matting4 ,furthermore1 there are some nine restaurants1 provincial halls1 and temples where theatrical performances are regularly given4 ,it is customary to mark all big weddings1 funerals1 banquets1 charity events1 and other festivities by theatricals for which the services of professionals are engaged or in which the many eager amateurs are given opportunities to appear in public4 ,most of the large buildings1--temples1 guildhalls1 palaces1 etc4--are equipped with the simple projecting stages1 either inside a large hall or out of doors in a courtyard4 ,if you happen to live near a restaurant or a temple you will be able to speak feelingly of the love of the ,chinese for theatricals6 ,the business organization of the ,chinese theater is the same as that which obtained in ,elizabethan playhouses4 ,our theater owner-manager of to-day who selects a play1 determines the manner in which it is to be staged and played1 and then engages actors to do what he pays them for--this enemy of real art and bte noire of the theater uplifters can be found neither in ,elizabethan ,england nor in the ,chinese theater4 ,in staging and acting the company of players has entire freedom in ,china1 just as it had in ,london4 ,the theater-owner 7quite like the 8housekeeper0 of ,shakespeare's day7 engages a troupe to play in his theater1 but he never dreams of interfering with the actor's art4 ,the ,chinese call him the 8behind-the-curtain0 while the actors are the 8before-the-curtain40 ,the former receives thirty per cent4 of the income1 while seventy per cent1 goes to the manager of the company1 who then pays the salaries of his actors4 ,some of these troupes or actors' clubs are of a rather democratic nature1 because all the actors belong to their guild4 ,the actors' guild has its special temple just outside the ,hata ,gate1 for the actors are religious folk--much as are the members of most guilds in ,china4 ,in this temple the actors worship three deities1 or rather deified men4 ,the first of these is ,kuan ,yu 7,yo ,fei71 the god of war1 during his lifetime a great fighter against the ,chin ,tartars in the course of the twelfth century4 ,there is a well-known play that sets forth the high qualities of this hero4 ,though he had been dismissed by the emperor as the result of a court intrigue1 yet he refused to join the rebels1 no matter how tempting the offers they made him1 but remained loyal to his emperor4 ,his mother was so pleased at this that she tattooed on his back3 8,he repays the state with loyalty and integrity40 ,later on the emperor reinstated him in his high honors and placed his mother's inscription on the banner of the army4#bb ,the second deity is the ,t'ang ,dynasty emperor mentioned in the first chapter as the traditional founder of the theater1 ,t'ang ,ming ,huang4 ,in his 8,pear ,garden0 school for actors he is said himself to have acted the rle of the clown4 ,it is for this reason that the clown enjoys special privileges2 for example1 he is the first one to receive the attention of the make-up artist1 while other actors must wait until the clown has had his turn2 and he may sit on any actor's box in the greenroom4 ,it is the clown1 furthermore1 who burns the incense before the idols found in every theater on the rear wall just opposite the stage and in the dressing room4 ,such a little religious ceremony is carried out before and after every performance to ward off bad luck4 ,another feature of the theater that impresses us as being typically ,chinese is found in the boards placed at the rear of the stage and on the two supporting columns on which are found inscriptions1 generally in gilt characters1 setting forth the high moral purpose of the stage4 ,in comparing these mottoes with what is being presented on the stage one is often reminded of the saying of the ,reverend ,arthur ,smith1 that no one knows so well as the ,chinese what is fitting and proper4 ,the third deity is ,lin ,ming-ju1 generally pictured as a little boy4 ,this noble youth was a pupil in the 8,pear ,garden01 and all who were friendly to him made rapid progress in their art4 ,hence they realized gradually that he was a god4 ,like other well-known gods he afterwards disappeared in a sudden and miraculous manner4 ,because the second part of this god's name is the word for dream1 actors never speak of their dreams in the morning4 ,but religion does not mean to the actors merely the burning of incense or the making of an annual pilgrimage to ,miao ,feng ,shan1 two days' journey from ,peking4 ,there is a definite tradition that an actor must show filial piety4 ,whenever he undertakes something out of the ordinary1 such as perhaps accepting a contract to act in ,shanghai1 he must first ask his mother's permission4 ,i asked repeatedly about this custom1 and learned not a reason for it1 but simply the fact that if an actor did not ask his mother's permission he would be laughed at4 ,often it is the mother who makes the contract and receives most of the money4 ,of a certain rising actor it is said that his mother never allows him to act unless he is to receive twenty dollars for each performance4 ,in the fairly democratic ,china of the imperial times the son of the poorest man could rise to the position of viceroy of a province by virtue of passing a brilliant literary examination--and if we are to believe ,chinese playwrights he often did4 ,however1 the actor1 together with the son of the prostitute1 and one or two other despised classes1 was debarred from these examinations4 ,of course1 with the discontinuance of the examinations in #aijg and the establishment of the republic in #aiab1 these disqualifications dropped away4 ,socially the position of the actor is improving rapidly nowadays4 ,for example1 in ,july1 #aibb1 the son of a high official of ,shantung ,province married the actress ,li ,feng-yn4 ,far from being ashamed of her profession1 she acted several plays on her wedding day as part of the festivities of the occasion4 ,however1 she abandoned her professional career on becoming the wife of this wealthy man4 ,the fact that she was the first wife was the remarkable thing to the ,chinese who spoke to me of the event2 for that an actress becomes the concubine of a rich official is almost an everyday occurrence in ,peking4 ,progress along such lines is not a unique or surprising thing in ,china2 to mention but one example1 coeducation has come into being since #aiai1 almost overnight1 so to speak1 with surprisingly little opposition4 ,actresses were forbidden on ,chinese stages during the days of the ,manchu ,dynasty1 but since #aiab their number has increased rapidly so that they are appearing now on eleven stages in ,peking4 ,only in the foreign concessions of such treaty ports as ,tientsin and ,shanghai do men and women appear together on the stage1 however2 in ,peking1 ,chinese prudery still forbids this4 ,there is a current notion that ,chinese plays last a week or a lunar month1 but as a matter of fact about a dozen plays1 or separate acts taken from different plays1 are given in one performance4 ,toward the end of the afternoon's or evening's entertainment the spectator may observe that some long strips of red paper covered with ,chinese characters in black ink are removed from the two side railings of the balcony and others substituted in their place4 ,in this manner the program of the following day is announced4 ,the performances generally last from noon to about six and from seven in the evening until midnight4 ,the best plays with the stars are reserved until the last1 while dull1 long plays with inferior actors generally begin the program4 ,these poor actors are often retained merely for charity's sake2 often1 too1 famous actors give benefits for their less fortunate colleagues4 ,in ,shanghai actors get monthly contracts2 but in ,peking the minor actors are hired by the day1 and some of them must play in several theaters in one afternoon in order to eke out a meager living at about twenty coppers a day4 ,men of this type1 of course1 are hardly more than 8supers40 ,regular actors on the average earn about one dollar a day1 while some of a higher grade receive five dollars to ten dollars4 ,to receive twenty-five dollars for a regular performance a man must be quite prominent in the theatrical world4 ,a few stars1 like ,mei ,lan-fang and ,yang ,hsiao-lo1 receive one hundred dollars for each regular performance1 and considerably more when they act at banquets or on other special occasions4 ,the charges in the theaters depend on the type of theater and even more on the actors4 ,theaters where women or boys appear as actors are lower in price4 ,there is no ticket or money demanded as one enters the theater1 but the price is collected by the usher when he seats the spectator4 ,in the ordinary theater one can sit at a comfortable table for forty cents or in a box for a dollar and a half4 ,there are two large theaters in ,peking built in ,occidental style with receding stages1 in which the prices are somewhat higher3 eighty cents for a first-class seat and nine dollars for a box seating eight persons4 ,when a star is playing1 these prices are augmented somewhat4 ,the poorer classes can enjoy theatrical performances for five coppers by going to the mat-shed theaters4 ,the average seating capacity of a ,peking theater is about a thousand1 and the average attendance is very near this figure1 if not above it4 ,the course of an actor's training is an extremely hard one4 ,for seven years he is instructed in singing and acrobatics1 and then he begins to play in some of the boys' theaters1 institutions connected with the training schools for actors4 ,during the longest part of his apprenticeship he receives no wages1 he has long hours1 menial tasks1 and severe taskmasters4 ,actresses are trained by special private teachers and their courses have not yet become so uniform as have those for the men4 ,the police have very strict regulations to prevent actresses from becoming prostitutes1 but according to ,mr4 ,gamble1 in some theaters women from the licensed quarter appear1 make engagements after giving their acts1 and do some other soliciting4 ,the connection between the lower-grade theaters and the segregated district is rather close4 ,in order to give an idea of the different kinds of theaters one encounters in ,peking1 ,i can do no better than to describe several typical entertainments from my notes stretching over five years4 ,there is in the ,southern ,city1 for example1 the ,tung ,lo ,yuan1 a fine specimen of the old-style ,chinese theater4 ,no women are allowed to visit this theater--not because of immoralities1 but simply because the place is conservative4 ,the seats run at right angles to the stage1 along tables1 showing that people come to hear the music rather than to observe the action on the stage4 ,i paid twenty-four coppers for my seat in the balcony2 the usual price in this theater is eighteen coppers1 but because ,han ,hsi-ch'ang was going to act1 the price was raised on that particular day4 ,after a series of plays dealing with murders and robberies1 in the course of which the audience gloated over the shuddering and weeping of the victims1 there came the chief play of the day--a ,yuan ,dynasty drama revived in this theater4 ,the play deals with a poor woodcutter and his wife4 ,the hero takes no interest in his humble calling2 in fact1 he neglects it for the study of literature4 ,since he does not support his wife1 she deserts him for a smith4 ,finally the husband goes to ,peking for the literary examination and passes with honors4 ,when the wife learns that her first husband is to become a mandarin she is filled with joy2 she sits down at a table1 falls asleep1 and has a wonderful dream4 ,the dream is portrayed just as it would be in our moving pictures2 a conventional symbol1 a short pause in the action and the tapping of the drum1 indicates to the audience that there is going to be a dream1 and then the dream action continues in the same way in which the rest of the play had gone on4 ,a number of men--recalling the ,wise ,men of the ,east--enter1 bringing all manner of silk robes1 headdresses1 and other rich gifts for the lady4 ,in her dream the faithless wife sees all this2 she tries on her robes1 shows them off to the neighbors1 and glories in her riches4 ,then she returns to her sleeping position at the table and awakens to find that all had been a dream4 ,in the fourth act the husband returns1 dressed in embroidered robes1 a prosperous mandarin4 ,he pours a cup of water on the ground1 saying that he will take his wife back provided she can gather up the water again4 ,from this play comes the proverbial expression1 8,water once spilled cannot be gathered up again01 which means1 of course1 that a wife who has been unfaithful cannot be taken back by the husband4 ,according to the custom of ,chinese theaters only one act was presented2 it was the third act1 the dream1 that ,i saw4 ,the too-severe strain on the chief actor who must sing very long arias is generally given as the reason why plays are not presented in their entirety4 ,sometimes when an entire play is presented--this is frequently done at guildhalls and other private theatricals--three or four actors in turn play the leading rle4 ,the actor portrayed exceedingly well the wife's emotions of joy1 surprise1 and pride4 ,he wore a black dress1 because this is the conventional color for the poor1 although it was made of fine silk instead of the cotton which is actually worn by the masses4 ,in the old-style ,chinese music 7called kuan-ch'ang7 the flute is the leading instrument and the strains are melodious and sweet1 not at all offensive to the foreigner's ear as is a great deal of the modern music4 ,one evening ,i was the guest of ,mr4 ,chang ,ziang-ling1 the present ,chinese ,consul-,general in ,new ,york1 at a performance by ,mei ,lan-fang in the so-called ,first ,theater1 a large playhouse built in ,european style4 ,the usher took us to two good seats near the stage occupied by two ragamuffins1 and asked the latter to give up their seats to us4 ,mr4 ,chang then paid him two dollars for two seventy-cent seats and explained that it is a little graft on the part of the ushers to place vagabonds in good seats until people who they know will tip them come to the theater4 ,the play again was a ,yuan drama called 8,snow in ,june02 a play discussed in a previous chapter under the title1 8,the ,sufferings of ,tou-,e40 ,mei ,lan-fang is introducing many innovations into the manner of producing plays1 turning the stage into a veritable riot of colors selected with exquisite taste4 ,the rear of the stage is covered by a curtain painted with plum blossoms and chrysanthemums in allusion to two of the characters of his name4 ,the executioners1 dressed in rich red trousers lined with white1 come on the stage leading in their midst the victim wearing a long robe of a delicate shade of light blue4 ,some of the executioners have their faces painted in vivid reds and blacks2 ,i find that this adds a great deal to the spectacle1 even though it is the very opposite of realism4 ,to illustrate the sort of gagging constantly practiced by ,chinese actors ,i might quote what the judge says to the prisoner3 8,what6 ,one so young as you is accused of having committed a murder8 ,for this you will be beheaded4 ,let that be a lesson to you not to do it again40 ,such a feeble joke in the face of the innocent young victim is1 of course1 just as fitting as many calembours in ,shakespeare's tragedies4 ,after the execution snow falls2 that is1 bits of paper are tossed down from above4 ,all in all the staging of the play is most agreeable and ,mei ,lan-fang's acting is extremely good4 ,quite a different performance can be observed in one of the 8new0 theaters1 a blight which has come to ,peking via ,shanghai4 ,one evening ,i went to the one in the 8,new ,world01 a four-story concrete building1 an amusement palace offering for the single admission fee of thirty cents1 old-style plays1 8new0 drama1 story-tellers1 singsong girls1 moving pictures1 performances by acrobats1 jugglers1 and sword-swallowers1 restaurants both for foreign and ,chinese food1 tea room1 billiard tables1 and bowling alleys1 convex and concave mirrors1 and penny slotmachines showing pictures of various sorts4 78,a number of these pictures were of rather coarse nature10 observes ,mr4 ,sidney ,gamble in his 8,peking1 ,a ,social ,survey01 8but none of them could be called immoral407 ,my goal was the 8new0 theater1 namely plays staged in what the ,chinese fondly believe to be the manner of the ,occidental theaters4 ,before a very crowded auditorium a play was being performed by actors dressed in ,european style1 or perhaps better1 the style of the mail-order-house type of clothing4 ,the play was in spoken ,chinese1 and no music accompanied the action4 ,only in the intermissions between the rather short scenes the band from the ,boys' ,industrial ,school1 sitting in a corner in the rear of the hall1 played 8,john ,brown's ,body0 and other appropriate dirges4 ,the play dealt with a woman who had lured men into her house in order to have them robbed there by her accomplices4 ,this woman was dressed in a red silk waist and a lavender skirt2 she no doubt seemed very ,western to the audience1 because she wore a corset and allowed the contour of her body to show instead of being bound so as to look flat-chested like the ,chinese women4 ,the part1 however1 was acted by a man who spoke in a high falsetto4 ,there was a great deal of love-making of a kind unknown to the ,chinese stage--the men kissed the woman's hand and even put their arms about her4 ,at times the vampire left the stage for a short time with one of the victims1 in a significant manner4 ,most applause was accorded the actor who played the ruffian1 when he strode 8toughly0 across the stage with his coat collar turned up and his cap pulled down over his eyes4 ,by way of giving a good imitation of the manners of ,europeans the actors1 when speaking to the lady1 consistently took off their coats1 held them on their arms1 and displayed brand-new red suspenders6 ,the scenery was changed with every act and showed crude imitations of our painted interiors or street scenes with lamp posts4 ,the play was endless and the action extremely slow4 ,this heart-breaking imitation of our worst melodramas is1 ,i am glad to say1 not making the rapid progress it has made in ,india1 where it has driven out completely the native drama1 at least in ,calcutta and ,bombay4 ,as ,i have stated above1 the ,chinese stage lacks scenery almost altogether4 ,practically the only ornate--and to a certain extent the most realistic--part of the ,chinese theater is found in the costumes4 ,in regard to the dress of the actors1 historical truth1 as has been stated1 is observed to a certain extent4 ,the magistrates1 the courtiers1 the yamen-runners1 the merchants1 the doctors1 the students1 the priests1 the monks and nuns1 the matchmakers1 and similar characters appear in appropriate costumes1 but usually much more elaborate than they would be in real life4 ,in the troupe of ,mei ,lan-fang1 ,peking's most famous actor1 the men carrying banners in processions are dressed in silk of the same color as the cotton gowns which these ragamuffins wear in the streets of ,chinese cities4 ,honorable personages appear in silk robes in solid colors3 purple1 yellow1 orange1 or red4 ,in the dress of common soldiers the spectator finds the styles of the various periods followed with historical accuracy1 but the dress of great warriors is fanciful and highly ornamented4 ,these peacocks of the ,chinese stage with their feather headdress1 their painted faces1 and their richly embroidered gowns studded with little mirrors1 are the most colorful sights in the theater4 ,such warriors wear shoes with thick soles1 thus adding about three or four inches to their natural height1 a touch recalling the soccus of the classical theater4 ,the peculiarly slit-eyed expression of the warrior is achieved by binding a strip of silk tightly about the head1 pulling up the eyebrows4 ,a conception of the immense popularity on the ,chinese stage of the warrior performing acrobatics signifying tremendous battles can be gained from the ,chinese classification of plays4 ,one of the two main divisions is the wu-hsi or fighting play1 involving very little plot and almost continuous acrobatics or 8fighting40 ,the other main division is the wen-hsi or civil play1 which is practically the same thing we mean by the term drama4 ,in general1 the two kinds of plays alternate in the course of the performances so that each division makes up about fifty per cent4 of the plays presented4 ,westerners are frequently surprised that the ,chinese do not make the division into comedy and tragedy1 but it may be well to recall that even with us this differentiation is a floating conception4 ,practically all the divisions mentioned in 8,hamlet0 could be matched on the ,chinese stage2 historical1 comical1 tragical1 pastoral1 and so on4 ,the ,chinese have farces called nao-hsi 7noise plays7 and fen-hsi 7painted1 make-up plays71 both full of comical and burlesque elements4 ,the only difference between them is1 an old ,peking resident has observed1 that the latter excel the former in obscenity4#bc ,illustration3 ,,orchestral ,,instruments #a--,shou4 #b--,ti-tze4 #c--,peng-ku4 #d--;,hu-ch'in4 #e--;,ch'a4 #f--,la-pa4 ,a cross division of the above classification is found in the distinction drawn between plays according to the style of music employed2 kuan-ch'1 er-huang1 hsi-p'i1 and pan-tzu4 ,among them only the first mentioned has an appeal to literary men1 while the other three are considered fit for the mob only4 ,the kuan-ch' music is a real ,chinese product descended from the classical plays of the ,yuan ,dynasty4 ,it flourished during the ,ming ,dynasty1 but during the ,ch'ing rule it fell into desuetude until at the time of the late ,dowager ,empress it had entirely passed out of fashion4 ,in the last decades there have been made fairly successful efforts to revive it1 especially on the part of ,mei ,lan-fang4 ,the chief instrument in this style of music is the flute4 ,er-huang and hsi-p'i are very similar4 ,both styles came to ,peking from the province of ,hupeh at the beginning of the ,ch'ing ,dynasty1 and in both the hu-ch'in1 a string instrument with a sounding-box played by a bow1 gives the characteristic touch to the music4 ,these two styles1 together with the pan-tzu1 are considered rather vulgar music1 especially the pan-tzu4 ,this latter style came to ,peking from the province of ,shansi1 where the barbarian ,mongol blood predominates in the population over the purer ,chinese strain4 ,the hu-ch'in is also played in pan-tzu2 but the instrument that gives the name as well as the character to this style is a wooden board held in one hand by a member of the orchestra and beaten with the other to indicate the rhythm4 ,as can be gathered from this fact1 the music is very simple and primitive4 ,in addition to the instruments mentioned above there are various others employed by the orchestra sitting on the stage4 ,on the whole the instruments are practically the same for all kinds of music4 ,they are shown in the accompanying illustrations drawn for me by a ,chinese artist4 ,the hsien-tzu is a sort of three-stringed banjo1 the sounding box of which is covered with a snake skin4 ,the yeh-ch'in 7moon guitar7 has four strings and a wooden sounding-box4 ,other wind instruments in addition to the ti-tzu 7flute7 are the shou1 resembling somewhat a bagpipe1 and the la-pa1 a brass horn used to announce the entry of great military personages4 ,instruments of percussion outnumber those of other varieties4 ,the ch'iao-pan are two flat boards tied together with a string1 used by the leader of the orchestra to indicate the time4 ,the t'ang-ku is a brass plate beaten furiously in battle scenes1 as are also the lo and the ch'a 7cymbals74 ,the peng-ku is a drum made of a solid block of wood which gives piercing1 high notes when beaten in a whirlwind tattoo by means of two thin sticks4 ,the ku has a leather drumhead and resembles somewhat our kettledrum4 ,it should be noted that the size of the orchestra and the kind of instruments employed vary a great deal4 ,however1 the above may serve to give an approximate conception of the ,chinese theater music4 ,just as in much of our own earlier drama1 emotional or poetic passages are sung by the actors on the ,peking stage4 ,illustration3 ,,orchestral ,,instruments #a--;,hsien-tze4 #b--,ku4 #c--,yeh-ch'in4 #d--;,chiao-pan or pan-tze4 #e--,lo4 ,another striking similarity to the ,european medieval theater is the fact that the ,chinese stage has its fixed character types4 ,the four most important among these1 called the t'ai chih or pillars of the stage1 are3 #a1 the cheng-sheng2 #b1 the wu-sheng2 #c1 the ching-i2 #d1 the hua-tan4 ,each company must always have its best actors among these four1 because one of them is sure to be the star in the play4 ,the cheng-sheng is an elderly man wearing a long beard4 ,the great actor ,t'an ,shen-pei1 who died about five years ago1 but whose fame lives on in his many imitators1 played this part4 ,it comprises the rles of emperors1 generals1 and also old faithful servants1 the latter generally characters oppressed by grief4 ,t'an ,shen-pei1 who became the founder of a tradition called the t'an-p'ai1 was famous for his skill in acting1 his fine singing1 and his distinct1 measured pronunciation4 ,among his most famous followers are ,y ,ssu-yen and ,t'an ,hsiao-sheng1 the latter one of his sons4 ,a related type is the hsiao-sheng1 a youthful civilian or military character1 frequently the young scholar who plays the part of the lover4 ,the young military hero is called the ch'-fei-sheng 7wearing pheasant feathers7 and the young scholar and lover shan-tze-sheng 7carrying a fan74 ,chu ,su-yung is the most famous hsiao-sheng in ,peking at present4 ,he has been nicknamed the 8living ,chou ,y01 after a hero from the ancient tale of 8,the ,three ,kingdoms0 whom he frequently impersonates upon the stage4 ,mei ,lan-fang has found in the handsome ,chang ,miao-shang a very satisfactory partner for his romantic plays4 ,this young man1 who acts the part of the ardent lover to perfection1 has the probably unique distinction among actors of being the product of a ,christian missionary school1 the ,peking ,methodist ,academy4 ,the ,chinese criticize the weakness of his voice and say that his reputation is due only to the fact that he plays opposite the greatest actor of the present day in ,china4 ,the wu-sheng is the military hero4 ,to impersonate this rle properly an actor must be very skillful in the art of stage fighting1 which means that he must possess great acrobatic skill4 ,he must understand how to fence with wooden stage swords or spears1 and furthermore how to box4 ,chinese boxing has nothing whatever to do with the bloodthirsty ,boxers of #aijj1 for the latter received their name through a misunderstanding4 ,it is1 on the other hand1 a most inoffensive art1 consisting of a series of poses rapidly and skillfully executed4 ,i believe that formerly it was a method of fighting1 but that it has become thoroughly conventionalized at present into a system of posturing and rapid movements4 ,for a gorgeous riot of color one might recommend a play acted by ,yang ,hsiao-lou1 ,peking's most famous actor of military plays1 who is beginning to command the same salary as ,mei ,lan-fang4 ,he is known not only for his ability in fighting1 but also because he can sing well and enunciate very clearly4 ,the tourist can tell the home folks that he has seen something if he has watched ,yang ,hsiao-lou with a face painted in heavy reds and blues1 wearing tall feathers on his head1 dressed in a garment embroidered in rich colors and studded with little mirrors1 mounted on shoes with very thick soles1 strutting about the stage in martial attitude1 and finally engaging in combat a similarly dressed hero to the end that both whirl about the stage with lightning speed1 while the orchestra supplies the excitement by means of a terrific noise which threatens to take the roof off the building4 ,it makes a truly exciting spectacle of which even an untrained ,westerner can feel the thrill4 ,the two types of ching-i and hua-tan are both young women characters4 ,the difference made between them is that the former represents an honest and simple girl generally playing a sad part in which great emphasis is placed on the singing1 while the hua-tan represents a woman of doubtful reputation or a maid servant in a comedy part1 requiring great skill in acting4 ,it is one of the merits of ,mei ,lan-fang that he acts both types and thus breaks down one of the stiff rules of the ,chinese theater in the interest of developing it into a freer art4 ,indeed1 for over ten years he has been the supreme artist in both types4 ,it is said of him by ,peking critics that he sings as beautifully as a nightingale1 that he has a pretty face1 that he dances gracefully1 and that his acting1 in the ,chinese simile1 is like quicksilver which fills up every crevice and crack of a hole into which it is poured--that is to say1 satisfying to the last detail4 ,teh ,hing1 a man over sixty years old1 is another famous ching-i2 however1 he scorns to play the rle of the hua-tan1 the flowery maiden who treads the primrose path4 ,still another type in which ,mei ,lan-fang appears at times is that of wu-tan1 or warrior maiden1 a rle comparatively rarely seen4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,demi-,,mondaine ,chinese ,character ,type ,for some of the best make-ups and the most natural action on the ,chinese stage one ought to see men playing the part of lao-tan1 or old woman4 ,i have frequently found it difficult to believe that it was a man who appeared with the sorrowful1 lined face1 the black headdress1 tottering along with the stiff walk engendered by bound feet1 leaning on a tall staff with a carved handle1 and all in all giving a perfect representation of a lao-t'ai-t'ai 7old lady74 ,very touching bits often appear in plays in which an old woman in her broken voice bewails the loss of a son1 her only support in life4 ,among other minor types are found the lao-sheng 7old man71 the ta-ching 7male part1 either wicked or honest--his character is indicated by the style of face-painting he wears71 and the er-hua-mien 7usually a robber74 ,in addition to these there are an infinite number of other possible parts2 for example one sees not infrequently various wild and domestic animals interpreted in very droll make-ups that recall ,shakespeare's 8,midsummer ,night's ,dream40 ,a very important type is the ch'ou1 the clown1 as much an institution on the ,chinese stage as he was on that of our ,middle ,ages4 ,it is very difficult1 ,chinese critics say1 to become a famous clown4 ,the part of the clown consists largely of improvisation1 but it is quite risky for him to be as funny as he can4 ,he is permitted topical allusions1 but he must gauge carefully the mood of the audience4 ,i remember one quite successful hit4 ,in a certain play a husband returns after an absence of ten years and finds his wife and son in good health1 but with an added blessing of ,heaven in the shape of a one-year-old boy4 ,he berates his wife for her infidelity and exclaims1 8,who could have done me such a turn80 ,at that moment the clown leaped to the edge of the stage shouting1 8,it was he60 and allowed his pointing finger to sweep slowly across the sleek1 blushing faces of the row of rich merchants in the front seats4 ,it may seem surprising that ,i speak so glibly of the 8best0 actors among the various types1 but ,i should hasten to state that this is a matter in which ,i do not give my own judgment but the result of popular balloting4 ,a ,peking newspaper holds an annual vote for the best actors among each rubric1 and the judgment of the readers of this journal is generally accepted among theatergoers4 ,although the daily papers are an innovation in ,peking1 perhaps less than twenty years old1 yet many of them have their theatrical critics who 8puff0 actors and more often actresses for other reasons than for art's sake4 ,press-agenting is far from being an unknown art in the ,middle ,kingdom4 ,much of the writing is done by students of the ,national ,university who earn a little extra money by this means4 ,the most picturesque among the ,peking critics is a ,japanese called by his ,chinese name1 ,t'ing ,hua4 ,for the last twenty years he has devoted himself to the ,chinese theater heart and soul1 and shows his devotion by adopting orphans whom he gives a schooling as actors4 ,t'ing ,hua has over twenty such 8sons01 one of whom is becoming very famous1 especially in the ,shun ,t'ien ,shih ,pao1 the paper for which father writes4 ,yet in spite of all touting the vote reflects the popular feeling1 especially as regards ,mei ,lan-fang and ,yang ,hsiao-lou1 the most famous interpreters of the rles of young girl and military hero respectively4 ,theaters on a commercial basis are also practically a new thing in ,china2 that is to say something that has developed on a large scale only within the last twenty years4 ,before that time theatrical performances were given mostly at temples or harvest festivals1 at the houses of rich men1 and1 most elaborately1 at the imperial court4 ,as a sign of the times ,i should like to quote an item clipped from the ,peking ,daily ,news of ,june #bh1 #aibb4 ,the article tells of a meeting of the representatives of ,peking's five thousand blind men held in a temple4 ,the end of the paragraph ,i shall quote verbatim in the ,english of the ,chinese translator3 ,among the business matters discussed was the organization of a blind man's association for the purpose of carrying on their trade effectively4 ,the usual crafts of the blind men in ,peking are singing and fortune telling1 but conditions have gradually changed1 whereby theaters are established everywhere1 popular education has paralyzed superstition1 so now their crafts are generally getting out of date1 and thereby need reformation4 ,but the ,peking police force1 perhaps the best in the world1 has drawn up full regulations1 which are adequate for preserving order in the playhouses that have multiplied so rapidly in the capital4 ,each company must be registered1 must pay a tax of five dollars for each performance1 must reserve certain seats for policemen who keep order1 must not crowd extra seats into the aisles1 must avoid immoral plays1 must submit all new plays to the police1 and must apprise the police beforehand of every performance to be held4 ,the ordinance requiring the separation of the sexes in the theater is an ,eastern touch that is sure to impress ,occidentals--who have forgotten that in ,shakespeare's day also women were confined to the gallery4 ,peking police rules demand that the ushers and tea-venders in the galleries must also be women and that these galleries must have their separate exits4 ,the rule that spectators are forbidden to sit on the stage also recalls ,elizabethan manners4 ,one can read in these police regulations3 ,if the program has been changed and the spectators start a protest by throwing teacups at the actors1 these disturbers of the peace must be arrested and conducted to the nearest police station4 ,there is1 however1 very little disturbance in the theaters2 at least ,i have never seen the least sign of a fight or quarrel among the spectators4 ,actors on the stage are forbidden to curse and are fined if they do so4 ,the hours for the performances are fixed from twelve noon to five in winter and spring1 and from noon to six in summer and fall1 while all evening performances must end at midnight4 ,the latter are an innovation at ,peking and are taxed more heavily than the regular daytime performances4 ,there is also a ruling aimed against 8claques0 which forbids too boisterous applause4 ,on one occasion when ,i took some ,new ,yorkers to see ,mei ,lan-fang in the rle of 8,yang ,kuei-fei on a ,spree01 one of my guests exclaimed1 8,if this play is permitted1 ,i wonder what kind of plays the police forbid60 ,the obliging ,chinese police have supplied me not only with the regulations for theaters1 but also with the list of forbidden plays4 ,naturally enough gross immorality realistically presented is forbidden4 ,there is no question of the display of nudity2 it never occurs and1 ,i believe1 would hold little appeal for a ,chinese audience4 ,some of the plays forbidden are rather interesting4 ,there is the 8,shang ,ting ,chi0 7,ruse of the ,nail74 ,a wife killed her husband because she was in love with another man4 ,the police were unable to learn the cause of the man's sudden death1 but the examining magistrate was told by his superior that he must fathom the mystery or be himself beheaded4 ,when he went home sorrowfully to tell his wife of his plight1 the latter asked whether he had examined the part of the head covered with hair4 ,the officer hastened to investigate the back of the victim's head and found that a nail had been driven into it4 ,when the superior learned of this he ordered the officer's wife to be arrested4 ,she confessed that she had known of the ruse because she had put her former husband to death by driving a nail into his head and braiding the queue over the wound4 ,thereupon both women were put to death4 ,the play is forbidden lest women learn how to rid themselves of their husbands6 ,another forbidden play is 8,sha ,tze ,pao01 the story of a young woman who loved a monk4 ,one day her young son discovered them in flagranti4 ,the mother feared that the boy would tell of her shame and therefore she killed him4 ,his sister suspected a crime1 told the boy's teacher about it1 and he in turn reported it to the authorities4 ,as a result1 both the woman and the monk were put to death4 ,the play is based on an actual incident that happened in the province of ,hunan about forty years ago4 ,the sister1 later in life1 at one time visited a theater where this very play was being staged and received a shock comparable to the one an honest son of a famous murderer might receive if he went to visit ,madame ,tussaud's ,waxworks and suddenly beheld his own father renacting his crime in wax4 ,the ,chinese authorities forbid the play because the killing of the child by the mother is realistically acted out4 ,the mother's face is covered with blood as she cuts the body into many pieces and places them in a wine vat4 ,it is a curious thing that on the ,chinese stage where fixed conventions leave so much to the imagination one finds occasionally the most revolting realism in plays of the 8shuddering0 variety4 ,i have seen1 for example1 the victim of an assault dragging his entrails across the stage--a nauseating imitation of the real thing4 ,the ,chinese love their 8horrors0 just as much as our medieval ancestors did4 ,it is a custom on the ,chinese stage to play on the occasion of various seasonal festivals pieces pertaining to the holiday in question4 ,the best known of the seasonal plays is perhaps the 8,ta ,yin ,ho0 7,crossing the ,milky ,way71 played on the seventh day of the seventh month of the ,chinese calendar1 that is to say1 generally some time during our month of ,july4 ,this story is an old legend1 varying somewhat in different versions1 related in the quotation from ,william ,stanton in ,chapter ,one1 where ,yang ,kuei-fei in the ,t'ang ,dynasty makes allusion to it4 ,it can be seen on a number of stages in ,peking at the time of this festival1 and is staged in an especially colorful manner by ,mei ,lan-fang4 ,the same actor plays another mythological fancy on the occasion of the mid-autumn festival1 8,ch'ang-,o ,pin ,yeh0 7,ch'ang-,o's ,flight to the ,moon74#bd ,this custom of seasonal plays shows a very close connection existing between the popular beliefs and the theater which recalls in a manner the medieval mysteries of the ,easter and ,christmas seasons4 ,the fact that some of the plays have been written within recent years only indicates that the ,chinese theater is in no way declining as a typical ,chinese institution1 as is1 for example1 the popular theater of ,india4 ,what the visitor sees in the native theaters of ,calcutta or ,bombay1 as has been stated above1 is a diluted imitation of our weakest and worst melodrama with all its mannerisms4 ,in contrast to this the ,chinese theater of ,peking is continuing as a living popular art1 introducing some external features from our stage1 but on the whole remaining true to its own genius4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,seven ,,the ,,conventions ,to the average ,occidental the ,chinese stage appears a very queer institution with ridiculous customs4 ,this is due largely to the fact that in the ,chinese make-believe world the conventions differ from those employed by us on the stages where we mock life4 ,we accept our own stage conventions as something so natural that habit permits us to forget the strangeness of the devices employed4 ,how many ,americans among those who have been under the spell of the realistic action of 8,the ,bat0 have thought of the fact that the characters were at all times moving about in rooms with only three walls1 that darkness was symbolized by lights carried by the actors1 that the attic in the country home of the astute spinster was lighted by footlights1 and that an actor who had been killed appeared a moment later for a curtain call8 ,and if in a play that has been pushed approximately to the extreme of realism1 an unsophisticated rustic on his first visit to ,new ,york might discover the above-mentioned ridiculous customs1 what might his comments be on the fact that ,mephistopheles sings melodiously in encouraging ,faust to fight for his life1 that stage whispers are heard by every one in the house except the one person most in need of hearing them1 that a flimsy canvas door can shut out a stout villain1 or that the last words of a dying man reach to the very highest seat in the top gallery8 ,thus it would seem that any one who laughs at the conventions of the ,chinese stage simply displays his provincialism4 ,our forefathers tolerated almost the identical conventions on the medieval stage1 as ,i have shown at length in ,chapter ,nine4 ,moreover1 it is a very striking fact that there is in many of our theaters at present an extreme reaction against a minute and pedantic imitation on the stage of the realities of everyday life4 ,because it is felt that too much attention to external things deadens the imagination of the spectators1 stage managers of to-day are beginning to prefer once more a conventional presentation4 ,as a ,westerner learns to recognize the conventions of the ,chinese stage he quickly becomes used to them1 and soon he is as little disturbed by the make-believe of the ,oriental theater as he had been before by that of the ,occidental4 ,he is then ready to appreciate the art of the ,chinese actor1 which runs the gamut of human emotions quite as fully as that of the great actors of the ,west4 ,he must know1 however1 that the rug on the floor of the projecting1 curtainless stage is a magic carpet which carries the actors without change of scenery from ,mongolia to ,tibet1 from the market place to the audience hall in the palace1 or from the forest to the prison by the simple device on the actor's part of walking once or twice about the stage or of exiting and reappearing immediately afterward4 ,the stage has two doors2 the one at the spectators' left is generally used for entrances and the one at the right for exits4 ,however1 at times the door at the left is also used for exits1 if the actor wishes to indicate that he is not leaving the house or is otherwise remaining in the immediate vicinity4 ,the crossing of a doorsill is presented by raising the feet about eight inches off the floor in making the steps4 ,to open or close a door the actor raises both hands and makes the pantomime of drawing a bolt and moving a door4 ,slow steps in which the feet are raised well off the floor show that the actor is walking up a stairway4 ,when a general ascends a hill to review a battle he mounts on a chair or table4 ,if a mountain is to be crossed1 a similar pantomime is performed4 ,that a man is on horseback is shown by the fact that he carries a riding whip4 ,when he mounts he takes the whip and raises one leg in a movement intended to imitate the action of leaping into the saddle1 and when he dismounts he hands the whip to an attendant with a similarly appropriate movement4 ,when the groom leads off the horse he pulls after him the seemingly refractory whip4 ,sometimes these actions attain a touch of realism1 but generally they are--in better taste--confined to quite conventionalized movements4 ,frequently they escape the newcomer entirely4 ,a mandarin arriving in a chair walks on the stage surrounded by four attendants1 who make a stooping movement such as chair-bearers might make by way of setting down the imaginary palanquin4 ,a lady traveling in a carriage carries with the aid of a servant two pieces of canvas about three feet square1 on each of which is painted a wheel2 the squares of cloth are supported on bamboo rods1 the lady holding the rear ends and the servant the front ends of the rods as they walk across the stage4 ,when she descends she makes an appropriate movement1 while the servant folds up and carries off the two painted wheels4 ,characters who wish to show that they are riding in a boat indicate this by carrying oars with which they paddle in the air4 ,if some one is to enter the boat an oar is stretched out1 the new arrival grips it and takes a long step1 as though he were boarding a vessel4 ,a man committing suicide by drowning performs a leap as though he were jumping into a well and then quickly runs off the stage4 ,some commit suicide by throwing themselves down from a wall1 indicating this by leaping off a table or a chair placed on top of a table1 at times falling on their backs in a manner that requires great acrobatic skill4 ,however1 many of the somersaults and similar feats performed on the stage are simply ornamental1 with no symbolic significance whatever4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,actress ,,kin ,,feng-,,kui ,,in ,a ,,male ,r,,le ,the long feathers and the headdress mark the warrior1 while the riding-whip signifies that the general is on horseback ,stage fighting has been developed in ,china into an intricate art with many cut-and-dried conventions and a minimum of realism4 ,the warriors fly at one another1 but they never hit with their swords or spears4 ,the art consists simply in making quick passes at the opponent1 whirling about rapidly1 throwing a weapon into the air and catching it again1 or spinning a spear about much as a drum major does his baton4 ,all the while the orchestra is playing wild and loud music1 the kind that ,thomas ,moore's ,mr4 ,fudge would call the music of the spears1 for every tone seems to go right through you4 ,as neither of the contestants is wounded or falls down1 the spectator learns the issue of the battle from the fact that the defeated warrior exits first1 while his victorious opponent makes a sort of bow to the audience and then struts off with a dignified step4 ,sometimes a spear is thrown at a soldier who catches it and sinks to the ground clutching it to his breast1 denoting that he has been pierced2 then he runs off quickly1 a dead man4 ,in stage armies one man carrying a banner signifies one thousand men4 ,the stage in ,peking theaters is lighted by daylight or by means of huge arc lamps that illumine the auditorium and the stage alike4 ,therefore darkness must be indicated by a conventional symbol1 and the same one is chosen that we have selected in the ,west1 namely1 a lighted 7sometimes unlighted7 candle1 lamp1 or lantern4 ,it is hardly necessary to recall here that even in our most realistically staged plays the darkness on the stage is only relative and never1 except for very brief moments1 absolute4 ,the passing of time at night is indicated by the drummer of the orchestra1 who beats the hours on his kettledrum while otherwise there is silence on the stage4 ,as the ,chinese divide their day into twelve periods of two hours each1 this can be done more quickly than would be the case if our divisions of time were used and the entire gesture is fairly inconspicuous4 ,high military officers can be recognized readily by the four pheasant feathers1 sometimes as long as six feet1 which form part of their headdress4 ,the ,chinese call them 8back-protecting feathers01 because they are supposed to ward off the blows of the enemy swords4 ,in the same way the painted faces of the warriors can be traced to originally utilitarian purposes2 about a thousand years ago a famous ,chinese warrior whose scholarly face had a very unmartial appearance painted his face in a gruesome manner in order to inspire fear in the hearts of his enemies4 ,the manner in which the faces of traditional heroes of war are painted is an attempt at a conventionalized reproduction of the facial expression of these terror-inspiring men as they are described in the books of history or in novels4 ,therefore it is not possible to give a definite color or color scheme for warriors4 ,but in some other respects there is a definite custom4 ,a face painted pure white denotes a wicked person1 while no color on the face means a good character4 ,pure red designates an honest and faithful man1 gold a heavenly being1 and several colors applied unevenly a robber4 ,the white nose is the mark of the clown4 ,it is interesting to note that in ,chinese clown has likewise the three connotations given for the word in ,webster's dictionary3 rustic1 ill-bred1 and buffoonish4 ,gods and spirits can be recognized by the horsehair switch they carry whenever they appear and by the slight tapping of the gong as they enter the stage4 ,the ghosts of the deceased wear black veils over their heads1 or bundles of strips of paper under their right ears4 ,whenever any character from the world beyond1 god or ghost1 appears1 fireworks are set off by a stage hand2 usually this takes the form of large flames emitted repeatedly from an oil lamp4 ,monks and nuns carry the same horsehair switch1 perhaps because of their 8spiritual0 lives4 ,a bride can be recognized by the red veil she wears on her head4 ,good officials wear square hats1 while wicked officials wear round ones4 ,the wicked jailer in his round hat is a frequent figure on the ,chinese stage4 ,a strong wind is indicated by the waving of flags1 which recalls the fact that the flags used in our operatic performances are not made of silk as are ordinary banners1 but of stiff material1 giving them the appearance of banners flying in the wind4 ,a snowstorm is produced by flakes of paper tossed into the air by a stage hand in full view of the audience4 ,a sick person is designated by a yellow cloth which covers his face4 ,when a character has died his face is covered with a red cloth4 ,the head of a decapitated person is symbolized by some object about the size of a human head1 wrapped in red cloth4 ,sometimes an execution is portrayed by making a sword thrust at the victim who then runs off the stage1 after which his head is brought on4 ,for new or exceptional situations new symbols must be invented4 ,there is a play called 8,chu ,fang ,ts'ao0 taken from the novel 8,the ,three ,kingdoms40 ,it is the story of a guest who hears his host sharpening a butcher knife and1 as he fears the worst1 runs off under somewhat amusing circumstances4 ,however1 his host was the very reverse of a robber2 he was in fact slaughtering the fatted pig in honor of the visitor4 ,the business of slaughtering the pig is done in the following manner3 an actor with a black cloth thrown over his head and back walks on the stage in a stooping posture1 driven forward by another actor's stick and making the various deviations from the right path by which a pig in real life exasperates the swineherd4 ,the actor-pig finally walks up to a chair on which he can rest his hands in comfort1 while the business of slaughtering is given in pantomime4 ,after this has been done the cloth is removed and the man1 now neither pig nor actor1 walks off the stage erect4 ,the above conventions1 which have come under my observation in the course of my attendance in ,chinese theaters1 do not by any means exhaust the list1 nor do they represent anything permanent4 ,changes are continually occurring4 ,one that ,i have been observing is that the long conventionalized beards no longer hang down from the upper lip1 covering the mouth2 probably because this was found to be inconvenient for purposes of speaking or drinking tea1 and some one hit upon the idea of having the beard only below the mouth and of painting in the moustache to match4 ,incidentally1 only good characters have a moustache1 while the villains of the ,chinese stage have no hair on the upper lip4 ,one ought to note1 too1 that these conventions are not so arbitrary as they might seem at first glance1 but are generally founded on some real element in ,chinese life4 ,the yellow dress denoting the emperor1 the red veil marking the bride1 and the black costume signifying the poor man have their basis in everyday ,chinese custom4 ,a mourner on the ,chinese stage appears in white1 and the long beards of old men naturally enough have the same color1 both quite as in real life4 ,the symbols are an imitation of real life more or less stiffened into conventions4 ,of course1 the origins of the conventional signs are sometimes a bit difficult to trace1 especially in the case of ghosts and gods4 ,from the instances cited above it is plain that the ,chinese theater contains much that from our point of view tends to 8destroy the illusion40 ,another factor in this process is the 8property man0--made known to ,americans through 8,the ,yellow ,jacket0--who is ever on the stage in the midst of all action4 ,when the heroine must kneel before the judge a coolie in a dirty blue cotton gown rushes forward to place a pillow on the floor lest the actor's costly embroidered gown be soiled4 ,an actor is frequently handed a cup of tea by another such attendant2 some actors to-day even equip their servants with thermos bottles for these occasions4 ,a general preparing for combat by removing his outer coat is aided in this operation by ordinary stage hands1 not by servants forming part of the dramatis personae4 ,from all the above it would seem that human nature does not demand any particular kind of realism on the stage1 but is quite able to adapt itself to any illusion whatsoever4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,eight ,,mei ,,lan-,,fang--,,china',s ,,greatest ,,actor ,every traveler who comes to ,china hears of the fame of ,mei ,lan-fang4 ,he is told that in his visit to ,peking he ought not to miss the opportunity of seeing this male actor of female rles interpret the gay or tragic events of the lives of coy ,chinese maidens4 ,when the ,chinese ,government entertains a distinguished foreign visitor1 ,general ,joffre or ,secretary of the ,navy ,denby1 for example1 ,mei ,lan-fang gives a performance which forms the pice de rsistance of the ,oriental splendors shown to the visitor by way of hospitality4 ,americans who in turn entertain ,chinese friends in ,peking generally resort also to a play by this actor4 ,in #aiai a group of ,american bankers paid ,mei ,lan-fang four thousand dollars 7,i have the information from the man who wrote out the check7 for half an hour of acting and singing2 it is true that in this case an especially large price was paid by way of gaining that imponderable ,oriental asset known as 8face01 because shortly before this a group of ,japanese bankers had tried to impress their ,chinese guests by paying ,mei ,lan-fang one thousand dollars for an evening's entertainment4 ,the common masses among the ,chinese also appreciate this actor1 and a manager who succeeds in inducing ,mei ,lan-fang to sign a contract with him is always sure of a crowded house4 ,for five years ,i have had the opportunity of observing ,mei ,lan-fang's work and ,i have come to the conclusion that he justly deserves his fame and his popularity4 ,perhaps some who have heard ,mei sing in his falsetto voice and have seen him act a 8slow0 play1 or opera1 if you will1 in the conventionalized ,chinese manner1 to the accompaniment of a screeching violin and ear-splitting brass cymbals1 feel that they would have been willing to pay a good sum to be excused from the performance4 ,there is1 to be sure1 a long list of martyrs who with lavish ,oriental hospitality were treated to interminable sessions of ,chinese drama2 ,general ,wood1 for example1 recently suffered two hours of it4 ,i should like to say that in my opinion1 keenly as ,i appreciate the ,chinese drama and its interpreter1 ,mei ,lan-fang1 ,i realize fully that it does not present such a finished product as is found in our theater4 ,the ,chinese have no great tragedies to place by the side of ,shakespeare's2 they have no profound comedies such as ,molire's2 their plays are never so closely knit as are our 8well-made0 plays2 while in staging they are centuries behind us4 ,the ,chinese drama is a case of arrested development2 it is childish1 medieval1 and very trying to our ears4 ,yet it is typically ,chinese4 ,no other art is so popular in ,china as that of the theater1 which presents the old legends of the nation1 the famous novels read by the masses1 intrigues such as occur on every hand1 the music of the various provinces1 and the moral ideals of the four hundred millions in general4 ,in fact1 the ,chinese consider the theater fit for the gods2 for whenever they wish to thank their deities or reconcile them1 they give theatrical performances for the pleasure of the gods and that of the entire village as well4 ,as ,mr4 ,r4 ,f4 ,johnston remarks in his characteristic manner1 designed to shock the ultra-pious1 the taste of the gods as regards the drama seems to coincide in a remarkable manner with that of the villagers4 ,since the theater is in a manner the mirror of the ,chinese nation1 and is also of intrinsic interest to the student of the drama1 it is well worth some attention on the part of any ,westerner at all interested in the ,orient4 ,furthermore1 because ,mei ,lan-fang is the most widely known actor1 and because he is an extremely intelligent and progressive artist1 it is perhaps best to approach this exotic drama through him4 ,since ,mei ,lan-fang is an actor and his ancestors were actors before him1 he comes from the lowest class of society4 ,in the otherwise extremely democratic organization of the ,chinese empire1 where the poorest boy could rise to wealth and fame by virtue of passing the literary examination in the capital1 sons of prostitutes1 lictors1 and actors1 as has been said1 were barred from competing for government posts4 ,this system of examinations was abolished in #aijg1 but the social disqualification was felt by ,mei ,lan-fang1 for he is now just thirty years old4 ,his youth was tainted also by his being subjected to unspeakable immoral practices which were openly tolerated in ,peking until the ,revolution in #aiaa4 ,quite aside from this1 the childhood of an actor is no bed of roses in a land where the struggle for existence is so desperate1 and ninety per cent4 constantly hover near the starvation line4 ,in the ,southern ,city of ,peking one meets frequently a long line of boys1 with prematurely old faces1 ranging from eight to sixteen years1 marching along seriously and apathetically under the stern eye of a preceptor--the pupils of an actors' training school4 ,or if one takes the morning canter along the city wall on the smooth stretch to the south of the ,temple of ,heaven1 one may see the boys at their interminable lessons1 which begin at sunrise4 ,they must learn to sing in the shrill1 artificial falsetto voice characteristic of the ,chinese theater1 under a master whose cruel discipline would make ,dotheboys ,hall seem a pleasant place for week-ends4 ,when there is a sharp wind blowing ,peking dust in a gale1 the boys are taken to sing against the storm in order that their throats may become properly hardened4 ,the competition for a livelihood as actor is deadly4 ,three boys' theaters are training hundreds of boys1 while about two thousand actors are already out of work in ,peking or are being hired by the day with about twenty coppers' reward for their long hours of labor4 ,in such an environment ,mei ,lan-fang grew up facing a drab1 dismal existence such as the vast majority of ,orientals suffer cheerfully4 ,but ,mei ,lan-fang's originality and talents brought him to the highest position in his art4 ,he had been trained1 because of his slender build1 girl-like face1 and high voice1 to act the type of hua-tan1 the hetaera4 ,this figure appears regularly in ,chinese plays in the rle of servant girl1 lady's maid1 or demi-mondaine4 ,the method pursued by most tyro actors is to attempt to approximate down to the minutest mannerisms the style of the actor at the top of their special class4 ,mei ,lan-fang1 however1 decided to copy nature instead4 ,he introduced into his acting female traits and foibles observed in the women about him1 and this freshness in his style pleased his audiences4 ,he was gradually accorded more and more prominent parts until twelve years ago he was voted the most popular interpreter of female rles in the capital4 ,the actors selected as the best 8lovers01 8warriors01 8old men01 8old women01 and the various other conventional types can count their fortunes as made4 ,after he had been chosen as the most popular actor of female rles1 ,mei ,lan-fang commanded fifty to one hundred dollars for one regular daily performance1 and for private performances some such amounts as were mentioned in the first paragraph of this chapter4 ,he organized his own company1 made a triumphal tour through ,japan1 and began to fill annual engagements in ,shanghai1 the 8,paris of ,china0 so-called4#be ,let us suppose that in wishing to see ,mei ,lan-fang you have done as many ,pekingese do--sent your servant to the theater to hold a seat for you4 ,your menial has been enjoying an afternoon's work by grabbing a good seat in the almost empty theater at one o'clock and warming it until five-thirty1 at the same time drinking tea1 chewing watermelon seeds1 smoking cigarettes1 gossiping blandly with his neighbors1 and occasionally watching the actors on the stage4 ,now comes the hour for the star1 and you1 with many sleek ,chinese merchants1 displace coolies whose figures--in blue cotton--shrink inconspicuously toward the exit4 ,the moment you sit down a waiter with the inevitable teapot is at your elbow1 depositing on the table before you a cup containing one grimy thumb4 ,the tea and watermelon seeds are1 as they say in the ,moulin ,rouge1 8obligatoire01 but you are free to refuse threescore flies resting on a bar of candy1 eggs of uncertain age whose whites have become black1 or apples just the proper softness with which to pelt actors4 ,at the tables all around you men are audibly sipping tea or eating dishes of steaming viands1 after which they wipe face and hands on hot towels which the waiters are passing4 ,bundles of towels continually soaring overhead may remind you of bats under the rafters1 or if you are medically minded you may exclaim1 8,look at them throwing the smallpox around60 ,illustration3 ,,mei ,,lan-,,fang ,in ,european ,dress ,ch'ang-,o's ,flight to the ,moon ,burying the ,blossoms ,a ,young ,nun ,seeks ,love ,the indifferent actors have been on the stage for hours1 impersonating famous emperors of the time of ,attila1 cunning counselors as old as ,alcuin1 or sages contemporary with ,pope ,sylvester4 ,one short play or part of a play after the other--each lasting about thirty to forty-five minutes--has been going on without intermission since noon4 ,the fact that no pause is made between the plays often leads foreigners to believe that ,chinese plays are of serpentine length1 while in reality they are no longer than the separate numbers of our continuous vaudeville4 ,the orchestra leader merely beats a few short notes on a gong and the stage is set for the next play--that is to say1 ,chinese drama has no stage settings whatever4 ,a brightly colored curtain forms the background of the bare stage2 in other words1 the scenery is left to the imagination1 as it was in ,shakespeare's theater4 ,when the hour for the star has finally come1 a special fluteplayer takes his seat as leader of the orchestra and sends out soft1 wistful notes that contrast gratefully with the brass din of the preceding battle scene4 ,with tense interest ,mei ,lan-fang is awaited1 for to-day he is to play 8,a ,young ,nun ,seeks ,love40 ,with light1 mincing step he enters in a long nun's gown of white silk1 over which he wears a white coat dotted with a diamond pattern in light blue4 ,long black tresses and a narrow black belt set off the delicate shades of the light colors4 ,the exquisite color combination is enhanced by his soft1 clear voice and the emotional play of his facial expression4 ,the theme of the forty-minute monodrama is similar to ,browning's 8,fra ,lippo ,lippi01 a story which ,mei alternately sings and recites to orchestral accompaniment4 ,a pitiful existence is that of the nun with the shaven head6 ,at night only a lone lantern consorts me to sleep4 ,time quickly pursues one to old age1 leaving only the memory of a monotonous youth4 ,sent to the convent at a tender age1 she finds her life at sixteen a dull round divided between the burning of incense and the reading of monotonous ,buddhistic sutras4 ,the abbess has deprived her of the ornament of her hair and forces her to carry water from the well at the foot of the hill4 ,on these excursions she has stolen long looks at a handsome youth playing outside the city gate1 and he seems not indifferent toward her4 ,for the price of a little sympathy ,i would be willing to go to the palace of ,yen ,wang1 the god of ,hell1 to be ground up in the mortar1 cut into bits by the saw1 crushed between the millstones1 or to seethe in burning oil4 ,my love is deep enough to outweigh the punishments of all devils4 ,her childhood at the home of her pious parents had been an interminable droning of the sacred syllables1 8,o mane padme hum1 o mane padme hum01 beating of drums1 ringing of bells1 blowing of horns1 tinkling of cymbals--all to drive away the devils4 ,her heart1 hungry for a bit of brightness1 feels cramped in her cell and she decides to enter the large hall filled with the statues of five hundred saints and ,buddhas4 ,since the stage is absolutely bare1 ,mei at this point goes through the pantomime of opening a door and closing it again behind him4 ,after some quaint meditations before the various ascetic lohans and the figure of the 8laughing ,buddha01#bf who seems to say1 8,why waste the precious days of sweet youth801 the young nun decides to risk all for the sake of finding love4 ,in a graceful1 rhythmic dance ,mei moves off the stage4 ,the young girl has gone into the 8black world01 as the ,buddhist nuns call life outside the convent walls4 ,another favorite among ,mei ,lan-fang's plays is 8,burying the ,blossoms40 ,a young girl1 tormented by jealousy and doubt of her lover's good faith1 finds the garden path covered with fallen blossoms4 ,in these flowers1 broken from their stems and lying crushed on the ground1 she sees the image of herself1 a girl whose parents are dead and who is neglected by every one4 ,she takes pity on the flowers1 and1 placing them in a silk bag1 buries them under a tree4 ,as she is shedding tears over the little mound her lover comes upon her4 ,the explanation that follows effects a deepening of their love4 ,in ,professor ,giles' translation 78,chinese ,literature01 page #cfh7 we have the sentiment of the play expressed 7,cf4 ,moore's 8,the ,last ,rose of ,summer073 ,farewell1 dear flowers1 forever now1 ,thus buried as 'twere best1 ,i have not yet divined when ,i1 ,with you shall sink to rest4 ,i who can bury flowers like this ,a laughing-stock shall be2 ,i cannot say in days to come ,what hands shall bury me4 ,see1 how when spring begins to fail ,each opening floweret fades2 ,so too there is a time of age ,and death for beauteous maids2 ,and when the fleeting spring is gone1 ,and days of beauty o'er1 ,flowers fall1 and lovely maidens die1 ,and both are known no more4 ,but not only such pale1 wistful themes are found in ,mei's repertoire4 ,the 8,three ,pulls0#bg is a tragi-comedy of bourgeois life where ,mei presents a delightfully coquettish wife4 ,this is a four-act play in which a large company appears in gorgeous costumes of embroidered silk studded with the little mirrors characteristic of ,chinese stage apparel4 ,the various characters wear historically correct dress1 the well-known ,manchu robes4 ,but as an example of the extreme incongruities in the mixture of the ,oriental and the ,occidental now taking place in ,peking ,i should like to mention an incident that occurred when the play was staged for the first time at the ,chen ,kwang ,theater4 ,this new playhouse has a large ,european stage and various other modern conveniences as yet not fully understood or appreciated by the ,chinese1 for ,i observed that the petition written by the husband and later flaunted in court was written on a three-foot strip of toilet paper6 ,illustration3 ,,burying ,,the ,,blossoms ,the setting in this amateur production shows more stage properties than are customary in most ,chinese theaters4 ,the very best-beloved of ,mei ,lan-fang's plays is 8,yang ,kuei-fei ,tsui ,chou0 7,yang ,kuei-fei's ,spree74 ,yang ,kuei-fei1 the famous concubine of the ,emperor ,t'ang ,ming-huang1 of about #ijj ,a4,d41 as has been stated1 lives on in ,chinese poetry as a charming beauty of absolutely bewitching qualities4 ,in connection with this play one ought to say that drunkenness is rare in ,china and is not considered a vice or a disgrace4 ,on the other hand a genial spree is looked upon as an exploit4 ,a ,chinese gentleman will tell you 8,i was roundly drunk last night01 much as an ,american might beamingly confide his triumphs at golf4 ,k'ang ,hsi1 perhaps the greatest emperor ,china ever had1 used to urge his guests to drink heartily1 assuring them that if they drank too deep he would have them taken to their homes in a dignified manner4 ,the plot of the play is a short episode in the imperial palace4 ,yang ,kuei-fei learns from two eunuchs that the emperor is supping with a rival beauty1 and in her jealous rage she orders one bumper of wine after the other4 ,as the wine begins to take effect1 she performs some charming dances in which other court ladies join1 to the end that a beautiful inebriated ballet is performed4 ,the effect of the dancers in the ancient ,chinese dress1 the style with the long sleeves taken over by the ,japanese as the kimono1 is much like a vision of fluttering1 multicolored butterflies4 ,later ,yang ,kuei-fei1 in a low-comedy scene1 uses her charms first on one and then on the other of the servants1 who prefer to run away rather than be found in a compromising position with the favorite concubine4 ,finally ,yang ,kuei-fei leaves the stage alone1 singing1 8,now lonely ,i return to the palace40 ,one specialty of this play is the manner in which ,mei ,lan-fang drinks the wine4 ,he grips the cup with his teeth and bends backward very slowly until his head touches the ground4 ,such 8stunts0 are fairly frequent in ,chinese plays and are used just as traditionally as some of the byplay in ,french masterpieces staged at the ,comdie ,franaise4 ,the great ,t'an had a very famous trick which no actor has been able to imitate2 in the play1 8,seeing the ,ancestral ,portraits01 he would kick off his shoe in such a manner that in falling it would always strike exactly on his head4 ,mei ,lan-fang is not stressing these acrobatic and other tricks1 but is placing the emphasis on the interpretation of the emotional content of the scenes4 ,a little farce that ,mei presents in a droll manner is the 8,ch'ing ,shang ,lao ,sheh0 7,slave ,girl ,plays ,tricks on the ,old ,schoolmaster74 ,this play presents the perennial theme of the impertinent servant4 ,the make-up of the old scholar in ,ming costume is comical to the last degree4 ,the slave girl receives instruction1 together with her mistress4 ,when asked to recite she does so with the swaying body motion commonly found in our urchins when they 8say their piece40 ,she catches a fly off the teacher's face1 and in mixing ink1 spits in his eye4 ,when he sets out to beat her1 she catches the switch1 and as he pulls1 lets go1 with the result that teacher falls back into his chair and rolls over on the floor with a tremendous crash4 ,after suffering many similar tricks the pedagogue decides to teach in that house no longer4 ,as he leaves the room the audience sees that the slave girl has pinned on his back a picture of a turtle--than which there is no greater insult in all the ,middle ,kingdom6 ,this is the only play ,i have ever seen that makes fun of a scholar4 ,i consider it a pleasant tribute to the ,chinese sense of humor that it allows them to laugh occasionally1 even at the figure of their national hero4 ,the scholar who by virtue of having passed the examination in ,peking is made magistrate or even viceroy of a province is the hero of hundreds of ,chinese plays4 ,the examination in the capital with the attendant change of fortune in the life of the hero is the deus ex machina of the ,chinese stage4 ,as an example ,i shall mention another play of ,mei ,lan-fang's1 the one he played before ,secretary of the ,navy ,denby on ,july #ag1 #aibb4 ,this play is called 8,y ,pei ,t'ing0 7,the ,pavilion of the ,royal ,monument74 ,a poor scholar on his way to ,peking is caught in a heavy storm and seeks shelter in the pavilion of a royal monument4 ,he finds1 however1 that a lady has come before him and taken possession of the interior of the small building4 ,since he is both a scholar and a gentleman1 he passes the night on the outside1 where the eaves afford him only insufficient shelter from the rain4 ,in the morning the lady thanks him for his consideration1 and he continues on his way4 ,the courtesy of the young scholar has made so deep an impression on the lady that she cannot refrain from telling her sister-in-law about it1 who in turn tells the lady's husband4 ,the latter thinks that the story is only a disguise for what he believes to have been the true state of affairs1 namely that his wife has been unfaithful to him4 ,he therefore divorces his wife and abandons her to a life of misery and disgrace4 ,the scholar1 on the other hand1 passes his examination with such distinction that the emperor grants him an audience1 in the course of which he asks the young man to tell of the noblest thing he has ever done4 ,the scholar tells of his night spent out in the rain for the sake of an unknown lady4 ,the husband happens to be among the courtiers present1 and1 upon this corroboration of his wife's story1 he takes her back into his home1 and all live happy ever afterward6 ,the scholar's quick change of fortune as a theme in the ,chinese theater finds a close rival in the motive of filial piety4 ,among ,mei ,lan-fang's plays the latter is best illustrated by the play 8,mu ,lan01 the name of a girl who goes to war in place of her father because the latter is too old to undertake a heavy campaign4 ,it is characteristically ,chinese that this ,joan of ,arc does not fight for motives of patriotism1 but out of regard for the comfort of her aged father4 ,this fascinating play gives ,mei an opportunity of showing in the first part his skill in portraying a demure young maiden1 while in the second part he can display his address in the extremely conventionalized art of ,chinese stage fighting4 ,all of these and many more characters ,mei ,lan-fang is on the stage1 but of his real character very little is known among foreigners in ,china4 ,it is known that he has a kindly heart1 for every year he contributes his services to a dramatic entertainment arranged by ,american missionaries for the purpose of providing shelters for the riksha runners during the bitter ,peking winters4 ,one reads about it in the papers when he makes his annual pilgrimage to ,miao ,feng ,shan1 a mountain temple three days distant from ,peking1 the traditional shrine where actors worship4 ,but artists eager to paint his portrait have never been able to secure him as a sitter1 because he is very shy about entering any society outside his immediate circle4 ,i considered myself very lucky when after some negotiations ,i secured an interview with him in the typical ,chinese fashion through some friends of some friends of his friends4 ,the house in which ,i called on ,mei was his house2 he keeps two other establishments--one for his wife and the other for his concubine4 ,for many years ,mei ,lan-fang was known as the faithful husband of one wife1 but finally friends prevailed on him to act in the manner of every ,chinese gentleman who respects himself and to take a concubine into his domestic circle4 ,among ,mei's friends ,i met a young actor with eloquent scars on his cheeks2 he had been the one who introduced ,mei to the concubine and the scars were the result of some acid thrown by a brother of the jealous wife4 ,another gentleman present was a stocky officer of the ,peking gendarmerie1 a useful friend to the actor1 because on several occasions ruffians have attempted to extort blackmail from him by violence--as they do with every one in ,china who has any money4 ,mei was the last one to appear1 wearing a long white silk gown1 the customary hot-weather dress of the ,chinese gentleman4 ,some of the coyness that gives such a true ring to his stage presentations of young ladies clings to ,mei off-stage4 ,he seems like a charming1 bookish1 slightly effeminate boy of seventeen4 ,in reality he is thirty1 but like so many other ,orientals he appears to ,westerners much younger than he is4 ,he is of the frail1 willowy build demanded in a ,chinese beauty1 but he is the very opposite of languid1 sparkling with vivacity and full of life4 ,his voice is high1 gentle1 and soft2 in fact1 it sounds very much like that of one of his heroines on the stage4 ,all in all ,mei gives the impression of a youthful scholar rather than of an actor4 ,there is not the slightest touch of ,bohemianism about him4 ,his favorite avocations are music and drawing2 opium smoking and other fashionable dissipations hold no charms for him whatever4 ,he is very fond of ,western music1 and hopes ultimately to win over his audiences to an appreciation of the piano and the violin1 which would give him an immensely richer field for his musical repertoire4 ,he has for a close friend and daily companion a learned scholar with whom he makes researches in ancient works dealing with the drama4 ,instead of following in the beaten path he is intent on improving the drama by presenting ancient plays with a staging historically correct1 and by reviving whatever was vital in the past4 ,with great pride he showed me his extensive library1 lingering long over a neatly written text of a play copied by his grandfather1 who had been musician to the great actor ,t'an4 ,to sum up ,mei ,lan-fang3 like most other men who achieve distinction1 he is in love with his work and devotes himself to it night and day4 ,his great merit is that he is bringing good taste and sensible innovations to the ,chinese theater1 which had been stagnant--in a state of arrested development4 ,the old ,empress ,dowager1 showing her usual bad taste1 had made fashionable in ,peking a ,mongolian style of music intended for open-air theaters on the wind-swept plains1 which in a roofed theater is absolutely ear-splitting4 ,mei ,lan-fang is returning to traditional ,chinese music in which the soft notes of the flute prevail4 ,instead of the old hackneyed themes ,mei has staged numerous new plays based on the famous romantic novel1 8,the ,dream of the ,red ,chamber01 as well as many other plays written especially for him4 ,into his fanciful plays of the type of 8,midsummer ,night's ,dream0 he has woven graceful dances1 an absolute innovation on his part4 ,new and often historically correct costumes appear in his plays1 enlivening the otherwise rather drab ,chinese stage4 ,in contrast to the ,chinese habit of presenting only the favorite acts of the well-known plays 7as though our managers should stage only the balcony scene from 8,romeo and ,juliet01 or the husband-under-the-table scene from 8,tartuffe071 he presents even the older plays in their entirety4 ,when he plays in ,japan or in the ,european theater in ,peking1 he removes the ill-clothed orchestra from the stage2 but he cannot do this in the native theaters1 where the strong tradition insists that the musicians must sit on the stage and destroy the illusion1 for the foreigners at least4 ,in this ability of his to make innovations and at the same time to adapt himself to his audiences to a certain extent1 lies the key of ,mei ,lan-fang's success4 ,even the most hidebound theater devotees and connoisseurs must recognize the skill of his acting and the perfection of his enunciation1 and therefore they are willing to accept the foreign elements which he introduces4 ,mei ,lan-fang's greatness lies in the fact that he is able to introduce bold reforms into the theater without cutting himself off from the tradition4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,nine ,,analogies ,,between ,,east ,,and ,,west ,i have often met with people who ask3 8,do the ,chinese have the division of plays into tragedies and comedies80 and when they learn that there is no such division they feel this to be a great defect in the ,chinese theater4 ,but it might be well worth recalling that these ,greek terms did not originally have their present-day connotations1 and that their original meanings were perhaps not far removed from the divisions which the ,chinese make in classifying their plays4 ,tragedy meant originally a 8goat song01 and philologists are divided on the question as to whether the name is derived from the fact that the song was sung by revelers worshiping ,dionysus1 who1 because of their appearance and licentious character were called 8goats01 or whether it was sung at the sacrifice of a goat1 or whether a goat was the prize which was awarded to the successful poet4#bh ,at any rate there is no doubt that tragedy was a musical term4 ,the same is true of comedy1 which is the song of the comus1 or band of revelers1 who marched along in procession carrying aloft the phallus and chanting songs to ,dionysus which were called phallic songs4 ,the scurrilous remarks interlarded in the intervals between songs by the leader of the comus gave rise to the form of light entertainment known as comedy in the theater of to-day4 ,in the ,middle ,ages it had the meaning of a poetic work with a happy ending1 for which reason ,dante called his long poem a 8comedy01 which later writers made 8,the ,divine ,comedy40 ,thus we see the two words have deviated altogether from their original meanings4 ,we know very little about ,greek music of these earliest days1 but we hear also of ,doric music and ,phrygian music employed in the theater4 ,the ,doric music was grave1 dignified1 and employed the harp as the chief musical instrument1 while the ,phrygian mode was emotional and was accompanied by the flute4 ,now let us look for a moment at the ,chinese classification of styles of drama4 ,we generally hear of the divisions of kuan-ch'1 p'i-huang 7a telescoping of hsi-pi and er-huang7 and thirdly of pang-tzu4 ,these are all musical terms4 ,kuan-ch' is accompanied by the flute1 and is said to be the most literary1 the most graceful and soft2 also because of its lack of vulgarity it is caviare to the general4 ,it is rarely performed nowadays1 but was quite popular in the ,ming ,dynasty4 ,it was directly descended from the classical ,yuan drama1 whose authors were scholars ousted by the ,mongols from their public offices4 ,this name is derived from a geographical term1 just as are the ,greek ,doric and ,phrygian modes4 ,the pang-tzu came to ,peking from ,shansi during the ,ch'ing ,dynasty4 ,the chief instrument is a rude kind of fiddle with a round1 flat sounding box1 and the genre is considered to be exciting and vulgar4 ,the er-huang or hsi-p'i 7said to be very similar7 are also styles adopted during the ,manchu ,dynasty4 ,they employ as their chief instrument the well-known hu-ch'in4 ,there is a great similarity between ,greek and ,chinese thought1 in that both speak of the good moral effects of music if only there be the proper harmony2 and likewise of the immoral effects of vulgar1 exciting music4 ,i believe one could find almost exact parallels in the writings of ,plato and of many ,chinese authors1#bi even so modern a one as ,tsai ,yuan-pei4 ,we modern ,europeans and ,americans1 on the other hand1 seem to have given up the idea of music as a means for developing harmonious and moral souls4 ,in practice music was employed in the ,greek theater not only by the chorus1 but also by the actors in the midst of the spoken dialogue when a particularly emotional point was reached4 ,when the passions rose to a high pitch the musical accompaniment commenced and the actor sang2 such a passage was1 for example1 the recital of the forebodings of ,cassandra in schylus' 8,agamemnon01 interrupted by the ,argive elders who form the chorus4 ,exactly the same practice obtains in the ,chinese theater1 as any one can readily observe in almost any play4 ,some scholars have asserted that the whole of a ,greek play was accompanied by music1 but it is generally believed now that only the lyrical passages were sung1 while the iambic dialogue was spoken4 ,in this similarity of the ,greek and the ,chinese theaters we can find an aid in our efforts at reconstructing the past--perhaps worthy of consideration by rgisseurs who attempt to put on the stage to-day some of the plays which stirred the imagination of the ,athenians of old4 ,possibly it may also be a shock to some who have seen modern representations in which the actors1 as well as the chorus1 employ a solemn and stately1 sometimes monotonous recitative1 to learn that the ancients sang or chanted a great part of their plays2 a shock such as we are likely to receive when we first learn that the ancients did not employ marble in their architecture in its austere virginal whiteness only1 but that they frequently colored their buildings4 ,but just as a traveler coming to ,china may see beautiful architectural results achieved by the bold use of color in architecture1 so he may come closer to the real--not the pseudo-classical--art by reflecting on the effect of musical interruptions in ,sophocles' 8dipus0 or ,euripides' 8,medea40 ,in ,greece the theater was an institution which gave performances at the time of certain religious festivals1 and it was in this sense a folk theater4 ,in ,peking also there are certain plays given always at particular festivals1 and dealing always with the supernatural1 or if you prefer1 with religion4 ,on the first day of the ,new ,year1 for example1 there is the 8,ch'ing ,shih ,shan01 a play dealing with the gods' conquest of the devils2 on the fifth day of the ,new ,year comes a play in honor of the god of wealth2 on the fifth of the fifth month1 a play describing the overcoming of the five dangerous poisons2 and on the seventh of the seventh month the 8,meeting on the ,milky ,way40 ,these plays persist in spite of the commercialization of the ,peking theaters4 ,the student of ,european literature whose field of research lies in the reconstruction of the past can find in ,china a wonderful source book1 for this is a magic land where for ,europeans and ,americans the clock has been set back several centuries4 ,we can see the ,middle ,ages enacted before our very eyes1 and get in that way a vivid picture of things as they were in the ,europe of yesterday4 ,in illustration of this ,i wish to cite the ,chinese theater of to-day1 and to offer the suggestion that the ,shakespeare scholar who has seen the ,peking theaters of the present time has--if one may use the figure--not only the words1 but also the tune1 of the ,elizabethan drama4 ,if ,i take a tourist to the theater his first remark often is that this is just like the ,shakespearean theater4 ,and it is indeed not surprising that it should be so1 for ,china to-day is at about the same stage of culture as ,england was at the beginning of the seventeenth century4 ,there is a court where royal splendor can be seen2 the deposed emperor still receives in the ,forbidden ,city the faithful ,manchus1 who come in gorgeous raiment and with fastidious regard for court etiquette to offer their congratulations on the occasion of his birthday4#cj ,the ordinary man of means dresses not in the stereotyped manner of our present-day civilization1 but follows his taste in the selection of rich purple1 wine-colored1 or other shades of silk4 ,sedan chairs are still used as a common means of transportation4 ,torture is still practiced1 and the heads of executed criminals are hung up in the streets in case of a revolution or other great excitement4 ,the servants are typical ,dromios in their submissiveness and occasional impertinence4 ,the streets are frequently still the narrow and filthy lanes of medieval times4 ,most important1 there are few factories1 and manufacture is done by leisurely home industry4 ,much of this is passing with the coming of industry1 the automobile and the tram car1 the ,europeanized tailor and the moving-picture machine2 yet much that is picturesque in ,peking continues to flourish1 and the theater with its huge community of actors is one of the most conservative elements4 ,to begin with1 the ,chinese and the ,elizabethan theaters are almost identical in structure1 and for much the same reasons4 ,the origin of the sixteenth-century theater in ,london is to be found in the innyard in which a platform had been erected for the performance2 and when ,james ,burbage in #aegf built the 8,theater0 outside the jurisdiction of the ,city ,fathers of ,london he erected what was practically an innyard without the inn4 ,there was a platform stage projecting into the yard1 where the rabble could find standing room1 and a gallery in which the wealthier patrons could be seated4 ,the origin of the ,chinese theater building1 such as it is found in ,peking1 is very similar4 ,performances were first given in the courtyards of temples or of the houses of rich men4 ,a platform was erected at one end4 ,the spectators stood in the courtyard or sat at tables4 ,the latter was particularly the case when theaters were held in the private courtyards of princes or other rich men4 ,for centuries theatricals in ,china were either religious or private1 and public theaters which any one may attend for the payment of an admission fee are a fairly recent institution1 but when they were built they were constructed on the model of the temple or palace theaters1 with a projecting roofed stage at one end1 the cheaper seats on the ground floor and the more expensive ones in the gallery4 ,the ,chinese audiences have been trained to regard the stage as anywhere and not as a particular place2 it is unlocalized1 as in ,shakespeare's time4 ,the roof on the stage serves the same purposes as in ,elizabethan times2 it is a protection for the actors against rain1 and a 8heaven0 from which deities may be lowered4 ,in distinction to our modern theater in which we present a series of pictures within a frame called the proscenium1 which we cover with a curtain while the pictures are being shifted1 both the ,elizabethan and the ,chinese stage have neither a proscenium nor1 in general1 a curtain4 ,in both the stages is an unframed rostrum thrust bodily forth into the auditorium1 surrounded on three sides1 if not on four1 by spectators4 ,in short it is not a picture stage1 but a platform stage4 ,on such a stage there can be1 of course1 no question of artistic lighting effects2 the plays are performed either by daylight1 as they were in ,shakespeare's day1 or by the light of huge arc lamps that illuminate stage and audience alike4 ,as the actors cannot present artistic stage pictures to three sides of the house at the same time1 it is not surprising that1 as the ,english literary historians tell us1 the appeal was more to the ear than to the eye4 ,that this is equally true in ,china is seen from the ,peking term for a theatrical performance1 t'ing-hsi1 which means a play that is heard4 ,in old ,peking theaters the seats on the ground floor are arranged at right angles to the stage1 along tables on which are served tea and cakes2 recently built theatres1 however1 have their seats 7with rails for the inevitable teapots7 running parallel to the stage4 ,in speaking of the chief characteristics that distinguish the ,elizabethan from other stages ,professor ,thorndyke says3#ca ,the fixed and most important principle was the use of the projecting platform as a sort of neutral1 vaguely localized territory1 where almost anything might happen4 ,the second principle was the use of the inner stage with its curtains 7and to some extent the upper stage7 as a means to denote locality more exactly1 to employ properties more readily1 and to indicate changes of scene more effectively4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,fortune ,,theater ,illustration3 ,a ,,typical ,,peking ,,theater ,from what has been said it is apparent that in regard to the first principle the ,chinese and the ,shakespearean stage are identical4 ,in regard to the use of the curtain and the inner stage1 scholars are very much divided as to the manner and frequency with which they were employed4 ,to quote ,professor ,thorndyke once more3#cb ,the total evidence of the stage directions alone indicates that the arrangement prescribed was in general use in important theaters1 public and private1 though doubtless its adoption was gradual and subject to variation4 ,we may suppose that the size and visibility of the inner stage varied in different theaters1 and that the extent to which the curtain was used changed from decade to decade1 or playwright to playwright1 or manager to manager1 or even according to the state of the weather and light4 ,the use of the curtain in ,chinese theaters is very rare2 and the curtain itself is by no means like the curtain to which we are accustomed4 ,when a relatively elaborate setting is about to be placed on the stage a curtain about ten feet high by about twenty feet wide is carried by stage hands to the front of the stage1 and there stretched out to cut off the view of the audience4 ,the ends of the curtain are each sewed to a bamboo pole held upright by two coolies4 ,in this most primitive manner a garden setting or a heavenly throne is made to appear to the audience in one burst of glory instead of being carried on piece by piece1 as is the case with most properties and sceneries4 ,the ,chinese playhouse has no inner and likewise no upper stage4 ,curtains about beds or other pieces of furniture are used to 8discover0 actors in the same manner as was done on the ,elizabethan stage4 ,but all of these articles are regularly carried on the stage in full view of the audience4 ,the size of the two stages seems to be about the same1 except that the ,elizabethan was much wider4 ,the dimensions given for the stage of the ,fortune are forty-three feet wide by twenty-seven and a half feet deep2 while a typical ,chinese stage measures about twenty-five feet in both directions4 ,we generally think of the ,elizabethan stage as very primitive1 and in this respect the ,chinese stage is very much like it1 only a bit more so4 ,both stages lack curtains1 and therefore in both properties are brought on in full sight of the audience1 making necessary in ,china the 8property men0 who furnished so much amusement in the performances of 8,the ,yellow ,jacket40 ,shakespeare however arranged that at the end of a play1 for example in 8,hamlet01 the dead were carried off the stage1 while in ,peking convention allows that a victim of murder arise and walk off1 after having gone through the motion of falling dead4 ,the ,london theaters also had 7at least such seems to have been definitely proved by recent writers7 a small curtain at the rear of the stage shutting off a place which served as cave1 shop1 tomb1 bed1 ,bathsheba's bath1 or any other locality that needed to be 8discovered40 ,in ,peking theaters things are much more conventionalized2 a table represents a shop1 a blue curtain with lines painted on it1 held up by two stage hands1 makes a city wall1 a chair may be a gate or a prison door1 a boat on a lake may be represented simply by the actors appearing with oars with which they seem to be rowing4 ,much is also symbolized2 an actor on the bare stage goes through the motions of opening and shutting a door and thus shows that he has left the house4 ,when a curtain is needed to represent a listener in another room1 or a patient in a bed behind drawn curtains1 two vertical bamboo poles with a horizontal one attached to them from which the curtain hangs are placed on the stage by the 8property men40 ,the arrangement is most primitive and casual2 the poles are generally tied to chairs4 ,if the drawing of the 8,swan0 showing neither an inner stage nor a curtain is authentic1 a similar portable curtain may have been the method employed in ,elizabethan times4 ,in ,peking this is a rich1 figured fabric1 even though not exactly an 8,arras40 ,if a ,chinese ,polonius were to conceal himself behind the arras1 it would have been previously brought on by the 8property men0 at the beginning of the act or perhaps even just a few moments before it was needed4 ,in a ,chinese theater the center back of the stage is a wall hung with a rich piece of tapestry just as free from doors or recesses as the wall of the 8,swan40 ,there are doors1 however1 at both sides of the rear wall1 corresponding to those in the 8,swan0 drawing4 ,as the ,chinese theater has no upper stage1 men on a city wall1 for example1 stand on a table behind the curtain held up by the stage hands4 ,a general surveying his troops from a mountain top or a god on his throne in heaven sit on a chair placed on top of a table4 ,in the paucity of the stage properties we find another parallel4 ,in ,albright's 8,the ,shakespearean ,stage01#cc the properties are listed1 and ,i can say from my five years' experience that the same and no more are found on the ,chinese stage2 bedroom3 a bed1 table1 chairs or stools1 and lights2 a hall3 table1 chairs1 and stools2 presence chamber3 a throne1 and occasionally tables and chairs2 a church3 an altar1 and if needed a tomb2 prison scenes3 usually no properties are mentioned except fetters and chains2 woods or park3 large and small artificial trees1 shrubbery1 and benches2 shop scenes3 a counter and a few wares4 ,the ,chinese theater is often even a bit more simple2 for example1 a chair serves as a throne1 or a table with a few decorations as an altar4 ,however1 for certain plays fairly elaborate paper properties are used1 which are brought on and removed in full sight of the audience4 ,in both theaters the imagination of the audience is strained a great deal more than is the case in a ,belasco play2 and many conventions that differ from ours1 such as bringing on properties in full sight of the audience1 seem just as natural as it seems to us that a stage room has only three walls4 ,even though the ,elizabethan and the ,chinese stages have no scenery of any kind1 yet it is wrong to imagine that they seem bare1 for the color is supplied in the rich and elaborate robes of the actors4 ,a ,chinese stage filled with actors in court costumes of yellow1 red1 black1 blue1 or purple1 with inwoven designs1 fierce warriors with masks or painted faces1 wearing pheasant feathers six feet long1 and lovely maidens in costumes of exquisite pastel shades1 walking or running about on a gaudy ,oriental rug against a background of rich tapestry1 form a veritable riot of color1 very similar in its effect1 no doubt1 to what was seen on the ,elizabethan stage when the actors appeared in their gowns costing from #hj to #ajj in modern money4 ,they were elaborate creations of velvet trimmed with gold and silver lace and embroidery1 capped by the 8forest of feathers0 that ,hamlet mentions as necessary for the equipment of an actor1 with tapestry from ,arras as background4 ,to quote ,professor ,thorndyke1#cd 8,no stage cared more for fine clothes than the ,elizabethan or lavished a larger portion of its expenses on dress40 ,in both theaters almost no attention is paid to historical appropriateness of costume4 ,elizabethan actors sometimes wore masks also1 just as the ,chinese often do4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,orchestra ,,seated ,,in ,a ,,corner ,,of ,,the ,,stage ,from ,jacovleff1 8,le ,thtre ,chinois0 ,the stage direction 8alarums0 for the entry of a king or other important personage1 which may never have been associated by the reader with anything definite at all1 will be full of meaning to any ,westerner who has heard the ,chinese orchestra sound the ,leitmotiv for the entry of a famous general4 ,the ,chinese orchestra sits on the stage in full view of the audience1 while in ,shakespeare's day the upper stage was the normal place for the 8noise40 ,the use in the ,elizabethan days of the word 8noise0 for both music and orchestra establishes another great similarity between the two theaters4 ,in ,shakespeare's day the music seems to have been confined chiefly to the intermissions between the acts and to occasional songs1 while in the ,chinese drama almost every emotional part is punctuated by song4 ,it approaches close to opera in many cases in the number of lines sung by the actors4 ,one division of ,chinese plays is that into civil and military1 and in the latter the fighting is always accompanied by a terrible din of brass1 drum and string music4 ,this frantic noise stimulates in the audience the excitement which the desperate contest in arms is supposed to arouse4 ,as a fact1 these military plays are very popular with the masses1 and they take up fully half the program4 ,in the eating1 drinking1 smoking1 hawking1 towel-throwing1 spitting1 and loud interruptions always found in the ,chinese theater we have another close parallel to the ,elizabethan4 ,it is well known that hawkers went about before and during the performance selling ale1 tobacco1 and various articles of food4 ,apples were fought over by young apprentices and sometimes even used to pelt the actors4 ,the women in the galleries were offered pipes to smoke4 ,young nobles insisted on sitting on the stage in order that they might display themselves and their garments1 while pages lighted their pipes for them4 ,the groundlings in the yard were intent on the broad humor and the fighting in the plays4 ,the women of the town in the gallery probably also had other motives for coming besides that of seeing the play4 ,all of this a ,westerner can understand very much better after he has seen a ,chinese theater1 for the conditions are very similar2 except that the ,chinese lack of pugnacity makes the spectators perhaps a little less violent4#ce ,in this connection it is interesting to compare the methods of applause and criticism in ,shakespeare's time and in present-day ,china4 ,applause was rendered by clapping--some writers refer to it as 8thundering0--while disapproval was evinced by hissing1 and by even more violent methods1 as may be judged from the verse of an ,elizabethan drama3 ,we may be pelted off for aught we know1 ,with apples1 egges1 or stones1 from thence belowe4 ,in ,china applause is expressed by shouting the word 8hao01 good1 and disapproval by no more violent method generally than by a sarcastic intonation of the same word6 ,it it difficult for a foreigner to tell which is meant1 especially since applause is rendered for subtleties of intonation often lost even on natives4 ,however there is also the word 8t'ung01 which is very rarely used to express disgust with the performance2 but when it is employed the actors are driven off the stage in utter shame and confusion4 ,in recent years1 however1 clapping has been introduced from the ,west along with many other innovations4 ,but in spite of all distractions one can very often see a ,chinese audience sitting spellbound during the recitation of a particularly beautiful passage or the presentation of a tragic scene1 as ,i imagine must have been the case in ,shakespearean ,england also4 ,without the aid of scenery or lighting the acting must be splendid to hold an audience1 and there is the danger that it become loudly declamatory and bombastic4 ,hamlet's well-known criticisms frequently apply in ,peking1 for there are many who mouth their lines so that the town crier could improve upon them1 who saw the air too much with their hands1 who tear a passion to tatters1 who strut and bellow as though one of nature's journeymen had made them1 and thus make the judicious grieve4 ,however1 good actors of all times avoid this4 ,hamlet tells of a good actor who ,could force his soul to this conceit ,that from her working all his visage wann'd2 ,tears in his eyes1 distraction in 's aspect1 ,a broken voice1 and his whole function suiting ,with form to his conceit6 and all for nothing6 ,for ,hecuba6 ,it is similarly impressive to see ,mei ,lan-fang1 for example1 playing ,mu ,lan1 the ,chinese ,joan of ,arc1 presenting in the first part the coy maiden and loving daughter1 and in the second the brave warrior1 or to see him 7he is an actor who always interprets female rles7 portray the emotions of the daughter who finds her old father in prison but who dares not make herself known4 ,in most theaters in ,peking the acting is good1 so that the foreigner can often follow the play1 even though he does not understand one word of what the actors are saying4 ,for vivid portrayal of emotions1 facial expression1 and delightful byplay1 the ,chinese actors are wonderful1 just as the scholars conjecture that the ,english players must have been in ,shakespeare's day4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,clown ,chinese ,character ,type ,the ,chinese audiences demand the fool1 the acrobat1 and the dancer quite as loudly as they were demanded by the groundling in ,shakespeare's time4 ,the ,chinese clown is very good at improvising1 and provokes the same criticism that ,hamlet made1 8,and let those that play your clowns speak no more than is set down for them40 ,giles in his 8,history of ,chinese ,literature0 writes in this connection1 8,as they stand in the classical collections or the acting editions1 ,chinese plays are as unobjectionable#cf as ,chinese poems or general literature4 ,on the stage1 however1 actors are allowed great license in gagging1 and the direction which their gag takes is chiefly the reason which keeps respectable women away from the playhouse40 ,this recalls that in ,elizabethan days the respectable women who attended the theater wore masks or made judicious use of their fans to hide their blushes4#cg ,it is only in the last few years that the better class of women have begun to attend the theater in ,peking2 just as the mingling of the sexes in the theater was an innovation in the early seventeenth century in ,england4 ,in ,peking1 as formerly was the case in ,london1 the women are admitted to the gallery only4 ,a vital similarity between the two theaters is the fact that women's parts are played by men4 ,the reasons in both cases are moral or ,puritanical motives4 ,the similarity in this case is accidental1 for it was only about ,george ,washington's time that women were forbidden to appear upon the stage2 during the ,ming ,dynasty many princes and officials had large numbers of actresses in their palaces--a custom that led to gross abuses and immorality4 ,therefore the early ,manchu emperors forbade women to appear as actresses4 ,but things are fast changing in this respect in ,china1 for in some parts of the country men and women appear together on the stage1 while in ,peking1 where this is forbidden by the police1 there exist two theaters in which women act both male and female rles4 ,the ,chinese consider the women poor artists1 and the connoisseurs do not patronize these theaters1 or if they do they apologize for it4 ,a ,chinese actor who respects himself will never appear on the same stage with actresses4 ,that the ,elizabethans likewise thought women incapable of good acting can be seen from the patronizing tone of ,thomas ,coryat in which he tells 7#afaa7 of having seen women acting in ,venice 8and they performed it with as good a grace1 action1 gesture and whatsoever convenient for a player1 as ever ,i saw any masculine actor40#ch ,in connection with the subject of impersonation of the other sex1 which we see nowadays only in burlesque or minstrel shows1 ,i should like to quote some observations made by ,goethe#ci in ,italy on seeing a performance of ,goldoni's 8,la ,locandiera0 in which a man acted the part of the heroine1 the pretty innkeeper4 ,goethe of course grants that the highest form of art cannot be found in such a representation1 but he says that he would like to speak a few words in defense of this practice to tell how one might well derive considerable pleasure from such a performance4 ,he states that he went to the theater with prejudice1 but once there he became reconciled to it and even experienced a certain kind of pleasure never felt by him before4 ,he tried to analyze this sthetic sensation and came to the conclusion it consisted in the enjoyment of the fact that the actor could not possibly play himself1 but had to put his art of imitation to a far greater test1 that of holding the mirror up to life in a sex not his own4 ,the spectator enjoys a much more self-conscious delusion1 just as when he sees a young man playing the part of ,rip ,van ,winkle or ,king ,lear4 ,there is a more conscious sthetic pleasure in seeing how well a young man has studied the actions of a young girl in order to present a ,rosalind1 or how perfectly ,mei ,lan-fang can copy the dainty dress1 actions1 and walk of a ,chinese lady4 ,my experience has been that this is much more pleasant than to see round-cheeked girls essay the rles of fearful generals or cruel husbands in the woman's theater in ,peking4 ,it has often been remarked that as a result of the fact that boy actors played the women's parts in the ,elizabethan theater we find ,shakespeare's heroines very frequently masquerading as pages4 ,julia1 ,portia1 ,nerissa1 ,jessica1 ,viola1 ,rosalind1 and ,imogen all appear as handsome youths4 ,an analogous result in the ,chinese theater of to-day is that the heroines appear in an endless number of cases as warriors4 ,the ,chinese have not only their ,mu ,lan 7who goes to war in her father's place because the latter is old and feeble71 but very many other heroines who invariably defeat men in battle4 ,chinese history or legend does not account for this1 but it is due to the fact that the actors who portray women seek opportunities to display their skill in fighting4 ,this fighting is a highly conventionalized art1 a combination of dancing and acrobatics performed to a deafening and exciting music1 which1 in regard to its place on the program1 can best be compared to our ballet4 ,most foreigners in ,peking are kept away from the theater by the fearful noise made in these 8fighting plays01 as they are called1 but if these same people could attend an ,elizabethan theater they would possibly find that the great delight of the audiences was the 8noise0 7music71 the clatter and scuffle of the battles1 the drums1 the squibs1 and the cannon4#dj ,there are in ,peking three companies of boy actors1 the largest of which has about three hundred in its theater4 ,these are training schools for actors in which the boys of eight to sixteen or eighteen years are given very arduous courses in singing1 acrobatics1 stage fighting1 and all the other arts that an actor requires4 ,the competition of these 8little eyases0 in ,peking might well arouse the ire of some of the regular actors1 as it did ,shakespeare's 78,hamlet01 ,,ii1 #b1 #cfb71 for in ,china the life of the common actor is a hard one1 most of them eking out a meager living at about twenty cents a day4 ,the position of the actor in society is very low in ,peking1 just as it was in ,london4 ,a ,chinese moralist might well apply to them the words written in #agei3da 8,players are masters of vice1 teachers of wantonnesse1 spurres to impuritie1 the ,sonnes of idlenesse1 so longe as they live in this order1 loathe them40 ,under the former dynasty the actors and their sons1 together with the sons of prostitutes1 jailers1 and lictors1 were not eligible for taking the examinations4 ,even now they usually intermarry only among their own number1 and they suffer also from various other discriminations4 ,most of them were catamites1 until the ,republic abolished this formerly legalized institution4 ,mei ,lan-fang1 an actor who has risen to high perfection in his art1 as well as to great wealth1 an artist who may tour ,america in the near future1 would have ample reason in the present organization of ,chinese society to reproach ,fortune in ,shakespeare's words3 ,that did not better for my life provide1 ,than public means which public manners breeds1 ,thence comes it that my name receives a brand1 ,and almost thence my nature is subdued ,to what it works in1 like the dyer's hand3 ,pity me then and wish ,i were renewed4 ,peoples are alike and differ also in what they consider to be humorous4 ,it has been said that the first comedy was the torture of a captive by his enemies4 ,this sort of performance would nowadays of course be impossible2 yet in most of our comedies we enjoy heartily the discomfiture of victims of circumstances4 ,we have not yet become too refined to enjoy the difficulties of a man whose senses are benumbed by alcohol1 of a bald man1 a lame man1 yes1 even a deaf man4 ,the condition of a blind man1 however1 strikes us as too tragic to figure in a comedy1 and no modern comedian could draw a laugh from his audience by fooling a tottering old man bereft of his sight4 ,yet every one who has seen 8,the ,merchant of ,venice0 acted recalls very well what ,launcelot ,gobbo does to his blind old father1 and ,i have seen in ,chinese theaters how a blind old beggar deceived by a clown affords huge amusement to the audience4 ,as ,i have already stated1 ,chinese and ,elizabethan audiences are alike also in that they use their imaginations much more vividly than we do4 ,for them a draped screen represents a city wall1 and the bare stage any country1 a ship1 a mountain1 any house1 a street1 or whatever is needed in the particular scene acted4 ,warriors on horseback in the ,chinese theaters carry whips to let the audience know that they are mounted on chargers1 while ,macbeth and ,banquo rode on the stage on hobbyhorses--and were taken seriously4 ,i recall a performance in the ,chinese ,city in which there suddenly came running on the stage on all fours a man in a tiger skin1 and ,i laughed because of droll recollections of ,shaw's 8,androcles and the ,lion40 ,but no one else laughed2 to the ,chinese present it was a tiger1 just as real a tiger as the actors on the stage were for the moment real kings and queens1 soldiers and servants4 ,of this particular illusion more anon4 ,because there are many similarities in the theaters1 stages1 actors1 conventions1 audiences1 and the psychology of the spectator of ,shakespeare's day and of present-day ,peking1 ,i certainly should be the last to say that because a thing is so in local theaters1 it must have been identical in ,london three hundred years ago4 ,yet it seems that since human nature is very much the same everywhere1 it would be safer1 if one wished to hazard conjectures as to what was true in the past1 to take a living example of the theater on the same level of culture1 than to look back at the ,elizabethan stage in the light of what has been accomplished since1 and what happens to be the fad at the present time4 ,this is the day of stage lighting and color effects1 of ,gordon ,craig1 ,max ,reinhardt1 and ,bakst1 but we should hardly think that these problems troubled ,burbage1 who had neither electric light nor scenery1 and who performed his plays on an uncurtained stage by daylight4 ,yet ,professor ,h4 ,t4 ,stephenson of ,indiana ,university1 for fifteen years a lecturer on ,shakespeare1 author of 8,shakespeare's ,london01 and 8,the ,elizabethan ,people01 by profession a specialist in reconstructing the times of 8,merrie ,england01 discusses seriously in his very stimulating 8,study of ,shakespeare0 7page #dj7 the plight of the stage manager of ,shakepearean days1 who could never tell beforehand how the gaily dressed young nobles sitting on the stage would fit into his color scheme6 ,he also believes that changes in the stage setting could not have been made in full sight of the audience1 because 8this would have upset entirely the unity if not the gravity of the piece40 ,in ,peking one can see very remarkable things on the stage that fail to upset the gravity of any present except the ,westerners1 who are used to different conventions in the theater4 ,professor ,stephenson1 with the results of three hundred years of stage experience at his hand1 believes that the ,elizabethans must have been fools if they could not have thought of the same useful devices for the theater that he knows of4 ,to quote 7page #dg73 8,to my mind the situation suggested by these facts reduces itself almost to a mathematical problem2 if one of us can easily invent such a staging for an ,elizabethan scene1 as any ingenious person could construct out of what we know they had in those days1 is it unfair to assume that the ingenious ,elizabethans did as well if not better8 ,more likely better4 ,they were more used than we are to making a little go a great way40 ,he even goes on to explain how one could put up a curtain1 simply by the use of canvas1 wire1 a few rings1 and presto1 the thing is done4 ,a play without the commonplace scenic devices of the twentieth century is unthinkable to him4 ,another theorist is ,mr4 ,corbin1 in the ,century ,magazine for ,december1 #aiaa4 ,he proves to his own satisfaction that ,burbage and his colleagues had means for darkening the stage4#db ,it seems this author staged 8,the ,winter's ,tale0 in ,new ,york a few years ago4 ,in this play a bear has to appear on the stage1 and this part was acted by a man on all fours4 ,at first the scene was played on a lighted stage1 and all the ,new ,yorkers present laughed at the sight of the actor in a bearskin4 ,then they hit upon the device of darkening the stage1 and having the actor-bear run quickly across4 ,when this was done1 no one's risibilities were affected4 ,this forms one of ,mr4 ,corbin's chief arguments for his assumption that the ,elizabethan stage was darkened2 namely1 that it would have offended the good taste of the audience to see in broad daylight in a serious scene1 an actor impersonating a bear4 ,if human nature can endure this convention in ,peking1 with the above-mentioned tiger1 why should we assume that three hundred years ago people felt as we do now1 and base on this the novel theory that stages were darkened in those days8 ,a large measure of the success attained by 8,the ,yellow ,jacket0 was due to the fact that the ,chinese stage conventions employed seemed so funny to us provincial ,westerners that they caused a great deal of happy laughter4 ,but this is really quite as intelligent as the attitude of the rustic who sought out ,richard ,,iii after the performance and offered to sell him a good horse for less than a kingdom4 ,it is very strange that even otherwise scholarly men1 like1 for example1 ,victor ,albright in 8,the ,shakespearean ,stage01 struggle with all fours against the possibility that in the theater of the gentle ,shakespeare there might have been committed such desecrations as setting properties on the stage in full view of the audience4 ,he approaches the evidence with blinkers when it seems to contradict his theory4 ,he says 7page #abf73 8,only the dramatists had not yet learned to use explicit stage directions40 ,on page #adc he tells us that the ,elizabethans did not read stage directions literally4 ,then on page #ajf3 8,here in the midst of a street scene is a direction to set the stage with a table1 stand1 chairs1 stools1 etc41--just such properties as are used in the next scene1 a counting room4 ,we cannot believe that a manager would disturb an important scene by setting the stage for a coming one40 ,further1 on page #aaj3 8,the placing and replacing of a regular setting in full view of the audience never was a general custom4 ,it is contrary to the very nature of the stage1--an illusive1 make-believe world40 ,in my opinion it is contrary only to the very nature of a provincial ,new ,yorker4 ,let me add in passing that ,william ,archer holds that 8in the generality of cases properties were brought on in full sight of the audience1 often in the middle of the action40#dc ,doctor ,albright1 in 8,the ,shakespearean ,stage0 7pages #abb;ff47 condemns with sarcasm 7which seems well merited7 the theory of ,brodmeier1 who holds that the entire stage in ,shakespeare's theater was curtained from view4 ,but ,i should like to question whether or not his own judgments would have been quite the same if he had known the ,chinese stage before he wrote his estimable thesis4 ,a ,chinese actor walks once around the stage in full view of the audience1 and in conformity with the ruling conventions he has traveled miles1 or hundreds of miles1 as the plot requires4 ,doctor ,albright1 arguing backwards from the ,restoration staging1 comes to the conclusion that there was in the ,elizabethan theater a regular changing from inner to outer scenes1 and vice versa1 and that the few pieces of furniture which constituted the stage setting were always carefully shut off from the view of the audience4 ,he quotes an example with his comment from a play called 8,pinner of ,wakefield01 ,act ,,iv1 ,scenes #c-d4 8,jenkins enters a shoemaker's shop1 and dares the owner to meet him at #8the towne's end4' ,the challenge is accepted1 and after a certain amount of stage business1 during which the curtains must have been closed italics mine1 ,jenkins says1 #8,now we are at the towne's end1 what say you now8'0 ,however1 ,i should add that in his concluding paragraph ,doctor ,albright is by no means dogmatic1 but gives this merely as his theory1 stating that there is absolutely no way of proving it4 ,with all the striking similarities in the ,shakespearean and the ,chinese theater there are of course also vast differences1 especially in the background of the two4 ,so far as ,i know there has never existed in ,china a manner of staging which could in any way be compared to the medieval system of mansions4 ,likewise the evolution of the platform stage into the picture-frame stage of the present day makes it seem that even on the projecting stage the feeling for the need of the curtain for the sake of the illusion increased as time went on4 ,i repeat that ,i have not the slightest intention of arguing from certain conventions on the ,chinese stage that they must have been identical in ,elizabethan times4 ,my point is simply that scholars ought not to assert that certain primitive conventions are 8against the nature of the stage0 or 8contrary to human nature01 for this point of view is based on the current conventions with which the particular writer is acquainted4 ,i should like to quote the concluding words of ,doctor ,albright's thesis1 spoken out of the depth of his experience of wrestling for years with the problems we are discussing4 ,he calls an article by ,william ,archer 8one of the most original and enlightening articles on the ,shakespearean stage that has yet appeared40 ,he says further about this writer1 8,as a learned dramatic critic of to-day1 he approaches the ,elizabethan stage with that special insight and ability which a closet student cannot hope to have4 ,the stage and the staging have changed since the days of ,shakespeare1 but the mimic world is still the mimic world2 and the deeper the scholar is grounded in the stage of to-day1 the better he is qualified to study the stage of yesterday40 ,and1 allow me to add1 the knowledge of a living stage at a similar period of culture will likewise add to his qualifications to study the theater of the past4 ,illustration ,,chronological ,,table ,b4,c4 #bgje-beie ,huang ,ti1 mythological emperor4 #bceg-bbjf ,legendary sages to whose teachings ,confucius harked back4 #eea ,birth of ,confucius4 #bee-bjf ,ch'in ,shih ,huang ,ti1 the emperor who burned the books and built the ,great ,wall4 #bjf ,b4,c4 to #bba ,a4,d4 ,han ,dynasty--,recovery of literature--,introduction of ,buddhism4 ,a4,d4 #bba-bfe ,the 8,three ,kingdoms0--,age of romantic chivalry4 #fah-ijf ,the ,t'ang ,dynasty--,emperor ,ming ,huang1 traditional founder of the theater1 and his consort ,yang ,kuei-fei1 ,china's most famous beauty4 ,china was at this time the most civilized country in the world4 ,li ,po and other great lyric poets4 #ifj-aabg ,the ,sung ,dynasty--,development of landscape painting4 #abhj-acfh ,the ,yuan or ,mongol ,dynasty--,classical age of ,chinese drama4 ,genghis ,khan and ,kublai ,khan4 ,marco ,polo4 #acfh-afdd ,the ,ming ,dynasty--,restoration of ,chinese rulers--,drama in the hands of scholars4 #afdd-aiaa ,the ,ch'ing or ,manchu ,dynasty--,emperors ,k'ang ,hsi and ,ch'ien ,lung encourage arts and letters1 including the theater4 #aiab- ,the ,republic4 ,illustration ,,bibliography ,history of the ,drama under the ,sung and ,yuan ,dynasties4 ,wang ,kuo-wei4 ,commercial ,press4 ,shanghai1 #aiae4 ,not translated into any ,european language4 ,thtre ,chinois1 ou ,choix de ,pices de ,thtre ,composes sous les ,empereurs ,mongols4 ,bazin ,ain4 ,paris1 #ahch4 ,four ,yuan ,dynasty plays translated by a ,french sinologue who was for years ,professor of ,chinese at the cole des ,langues ,orientales4 ,chine ,moderne1 ou ,description ,historique1 ,gographique1 et ,littraire de ce vaste ,empire1 d'aprs des ,documents ,chinois4 ,paris1 #ahec4 ,in the second part of this volume ,m4 ,bazin gives numerous discussions of ,chinese plays with summaries of their plots4 ,very valuable work4 ,le ,pi-,pa-,ki1 ou ,l',histoire du ,luth4 ,traduit sur le texte original par ,m4 ,bazin ,ain4 ,paris1 #ahda4 ,contains also a very good introduction to this important ,ming drama4 ,l',orphelin de la ,chine4 ,drame en prose et en vers1 accompagn des pices historiques qui en ont fourni le sujet1 de nouvelles et de posies chinoises traduit de chinois par ,stanislas ,julien4 ,paris1 #ahcd4 ,a complete translation by the famous ,french sinologue of the ,yuan drama1 ,the ,orphan of the ,chao ,family4 ,voltaire made an abridged version by a ,jesuit missionary the basis of his ,l',orphelin de la ,chine 7#agee71 a stiff and artificial piece1 presenting a ,genghis ,khan who falls in love in the manner of a ,french courtier of the #ahth century4 ,l',histoire du ,cercle de ,craie4 ,traduit du chinois par ,stanislas ,julien4 ,london1 #ahcb4 ,translation of a ,yuan drama4 ,the ,sorrows of ,han4 ,translated by ,john ,francis ,davis1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,london1 #ahbi4 ,a ,yuan drama translated by a ,british sinologue2 ,the ,fortunate ,union1 a ,chinese romance1 appears in the same volume4 ,le ,chagrin dans le ,palais de ,han4 ,louis ,laloy4 ,publi par la ,socit littraire de ,france4 ,paris1 #aiba4 ,m4 ,laloy's version of this ,yuan drama attempts to introduce some modern motivation4 ,in his preface the author expresses the fear that in working over this ,chinese tragedy 8il l'a dfigure en tachant de l'embellir01 and perhaps his fears were justified4 ,la ,chine ,familire et ,galante4 ,jules ,arne4 ,paris1 #ahgf4 ,in this volume by a ,french consul 8qui contient des dtails fort curieux et intressants sur les chinois1 et surtout sur les chinoises0 are printed translations of four realistic comedies of popular life1 8sorte de vaudeville au gros sel1 o1 en gestes comme en paroles1 la license chinoise se donne libre carrire40 ,about ninety pages are devoted to the theater4 ,the ,chinese ,drama4 ,william ,stanton4 ,kelly and ,walsh4 ,hongkong1 #ahii4 ,a ,british colonial official has translated three plays4 ,the ,willow ,lute1 ,the ,golden-leafed ,chrysanthemum1 and ,the ,sacrifice for the ,soul of ,ho ,man ,sau4 ,in an introduction of eighteen pages the author discusses the types and conventions of the ,chinese stage as seen in ,hongkong and ,canton4 ,it is interesting to note that in general the southern theater is identical with that of ,peking1 but that there are some variations1 particularly in customs and ceremonials4 ,catching a ,golden ,tortoise4 ,beating the ,gold ,bough4 ,two ,chinese plays translated by ,charles ,budd1 ,tung ,wen ,kuan ,translation ,office1 ,shanghai1 #aiac4 ,short and mildly interesting plays1 translated partly for the purpose of aiding ,chinese who wish to learn ,english4 ,chinesische ,schattenspiele4 bersetzt von ,wilhelm ,grube1 herausgegeben und eingeleitet von ,berthold ,laufer1 ,verlag der kniglich bayerischen ,akademie der ,wissenschaften4 ,mnchen1 #aiae4 ,a huge volume containing in translation the entire repertoire of a company of shadow players which ,berthold ,laufer1 ,curator of the ,field ,museum1 had bought in ,peking in #aija and which were translated by the famous ,german sinologue4 ,though these plays are not presented on the stage1 but recited by shadow players to accompany the movements of their puppets that cast shadows on a screen1 yet the plots are the same as those of the theater4 ,the book thus serves as a wonderful source for some one wishing to familiarize himself with ,chinese plays4 ,berthold ,laufer has prefaced the book with a meaty introduction4 ,pekinger ,volksleben4 ,wilhelm ,grube4 ,berlin1 #aija4 ,sociological studies on popular customs and usages in ,peking4 ,a chapter is devoted to the theater in which numerous summaries of modern plays are given4 ,the author also deals with related subjects3 acrobats1 story-tellers1 annual ceremonies of guilds1 etc4 ,geschichte der chinesischen ,litteratur4 ,wilhelm ,grube4 ,leipzig1 #aiji4 ,several chapters are devoted to the drama4 ,professor ,grube1 in his discussion of ,yuan and ,ming plays1 is using ,bazin's translations1 but in his evaluation of modern plays he is drawing on his long and intimate experience with the theater in ,peking4 ,a ,history of ,chinese literature4 ,herbert ,a4 ,giles4 ,heinemann1 ,london4 ,this well-known sinologue devotes two chapters to the drama1 but they are not up to the standard of the rest of this excellent work4 ,pi-,pa-,chi is the most modern drama he discusses4 ,das ,theater und ,drama der ,chinesen4 ,rudolf von ,gottschall4 ,breslau1 #ahhg4 ,this small volume of #bji pages was written by a minor ,german dramatist without first-hand knowledge of ,china4 ,the author based his study upon ,french translations of older dramas4 ,yet the book is not lacking in remarks showing a keen insight into the ,chinese character4 ,la ,littrature ,chinoise ,contemporaine4 ,soong ,tsung ,faung1 ,journal de ,pkin4 ,peking1 #aiai4 ,a volume by a professor of literature at the ,national ,university1 ,peking1 in which his critical articles from ,peking's ,french paper are reprinted4 ,forty-seven pages are devoted to the theater under headings such as the following3 8,origin of the ,drama01 8,evolution of the ,modern ,chinese ,theater01 8,ibsenism in ,china01 etc4 ,professor ,soong follows to a certain extent ,wang ,kuo-wei's ,history of the ,drama under the ,sung and ,ming ,dynasties4 ,his thorough knowledge of the ,european stage enables him to make very striking comparisons4 ,peking1 ,a ,social ,survey4 ,sidney ,gamble and ,stewart ,j4 ,burgess4 ,doran1 #aiba4 ,the chapter 8,recreations0 in this interesting and painstaking survey presents statistics on the number of theaters1 their locations1 prices of admission1 status of the actor and actress1 etc4 ,en ,chine1 ,murs et ,institutions1 ,hommes et ,faits4 ,maurice ,courant4 ,paris1 #aija4 ,the ,french diplomat devotes one chapter to the theater4 ,he writes before the ,revolution1 but most things connected with the theater have been changed very little4 ,he reports one abuse1 however1 which the ,revolution 7#aiab7 abolished4 ,page #add3 8,la prostitution fminine reste discrte1 car la femme est toujours tenue l'cart2 mais la prostitution masculine s'tale au grand jour2 il n'est gure de prtie de thtre o l'amphitryon ne runisse ses amis d'abord au restaurant et ne convie quelques jeunes garons de bonne mine1 richement habills1 sachant causer et #8rendre le vin plus agrable'2 ils plaisantent et rient avec les convives1 les accompagnent au thtre et restent avec eux jusqu' ce que1 la fte finie1 chacun rentre chez soi4 ,naturellement1 aux simples lettrs on ne demande que leur bonne humeur1 et ce sont les riches qui paient la note2 bien de fils de famille se ruinent de cette faon40 ,the ,yellow ,jacket4 ,a ,chinese play done in the ,chinese manner1 in three acts1 by ,george ,c4 ,hazelton and ,benrimo4 ,bobbs-,merrill1 #aiac4 ,this play represents a unique example of ,chinese influence producing a worth-while drama on our stage4 ,will ,irwin was kind enough to write to me concerning its origin3 8444 ,i can tell you the history of the play4 ,harry ,benrimo1 actor and stage-director1 is a native of ,san ,francisco4 ,he saw much of the ,chinese in ,california4 ,his father was a contractor1 employing ,chinese labor and doing business with ,chinese merchants4 ,as a young actor1 ,benrimo became interested in the ,chinese theaters of ,san ,francisco4 ,that was the golden age of the ,chinese theater in ,america4 ,the price of admission made the ,jackson ,street ,company and the ,washington ,street ,company rich on ,chinese standards and they were able to get some great actors--just as the money from the ,metropolitan ,opera drew ,caruso from ,italy4 ,ah ,chic1 leading tragedian of the ,jackson ,street ,company1 was as great an actor as ,i ever saw4444 ,benrimo sketched out a scenario made not from any one ,chinese play1 but from a dozen--situations or bits of business or dialogue which he remembered from his old days in ,san ,francisco theaters4 ,benrimo called into collaboration the late ,george ,hazelton1 playwright4 ,on this scenario they worked out ,the ,yellow ,jacket4444 ,several ,chinese1 notably one man--name forgotten--from the ,consulate helped with the rehearsals4 ,deliberately the authors took certain liberties with ,chinese drama and psychology in order to make the play effective for an ,occidental audience4 ,notably1 they made the love of man for woman the main theme4 ,one piece of business1 ,i remember1 caused endless dispute4 ,it is where the happy and united lovers kiss4 ,that would not happen1 of course1 with the ,chinese4 ,benrimo understood that perfectly4 ,but he said that an ,occidental audience would expect it4 ,and he had his way4 ,i remember that whenever this piece of business occurred in the rehearsals1 the man from the ,consulate used to giggle4 8,lately ,i was talking over ,the ,yellow ,jacket with ,percy ,hammond1 dramatic critic4 #8,do you know what made it a success8' he said1 #8,the ,property ,man as played by ,shaw4' ,possibly he's right about that4 ,but the play served its artistic purpose4 ,it made ,american audiences understand something of this extraordinary art4 ,and ,i've no doubt but that if ,hazelton and ,benrimo had stuck close to the originals our audiences wouldn't have understood half so well40 ,so far as my experience goes1 making love the main theme is not un-,chinese1 but ,the ,property ,man as played on our stages is4 ,possibly ,cantonese usage differs in this respect1 but in ,peking property men are always on the stage1 coolies dressed in shabby blue cotton1 but they are conspicuous only to the ,westerner not used to ,chinese conventions4 ,they by no means have the importance attached to them in ,the ,yellow ,jacket4 ,compare the chapter1 8,external ,aspects40 ,the ,chinese ,drama4 ,r4 ,f4 ,johnston4 ,kelly ,walsh1 #aiba4 ,a slender volume that came to be written because the publishing firm had four paintings of ,chinese actors which they wanted to issue in calendar form with a few words of comment from the well-known sinologue4 ,mr4 ,johnston became absorbed in the subject and wrote so much and so interestingly on it that ,kelly ,walsh decided to make a book out of it4 ,the text is much better than the pictures4 ,le ,thtre ,chinois4 ,chu ,chia-chien4 ,paris1 #aibb4 ,the chief features of this book are the excellent paintings and sketches made in ,peking theaters by the ,russian artist1 ,alexandre ,jacovleff4 ,an ,english edition has been published by ,putnam4 ,no other book can give such a vivid notion of the real appearance as well as the spirit of the ,chinese stage as this volume of inspired drawings4 ,m4 ,chu ,chia-chien1 instructor in the cole des ,langues ,orientales in ,paris1 writes well1 but too briefly1 on the conditions and conventions of the ,chinese stage4 ,chinesische ,literatur4 ,eduard ,erkes4 ,hirt1 ,breslau1 #aibd4 ,a brief1 but up-to-the-minute sketch of ,chinese literature4 ,this volume by a ,university of ,leipzig ,privatdozent is one of a series on the literatures of various nations4 ,the book came to me too late to include what it said on the origin of the theater in ,china in the text1 and therefore ,i shall quote an interesting paragraph here4 7,the author speaks of the ,pear ,garden origin as a myth and says that the ,chinese had a theater as early as other nations73 8,es hat sich aus den bei festlichen ,gelegenheiten aller ,art1 bei ,krieg und ,jagd1 bei ,opfer und ,gelage1 inszenierten ,tnzen entwickelt1 in denen man vorher im ,spiel darstellte1 was sich nachher zutragen sollte1 um so auf magische ,weise das ,geschick gnstig zu lenken1 und nachher seiner ,freude mimischen ,ausdruck verlieh4 ,zu diesen ,tnzen sang man ,wechselgesnge mit ,rede und ,gegenrede1 wie solche uns anscheinend aus mehreren ,liedern des ,schi-king erhalten sind1 so dasz das ,china der ,urzeit auch hierin das ,leben anderer primitiver ,vlker gefhrt hat4 ,aus ,sdchina sind uns ,texte solcher ,dramen religisen ,charakters1 wie sie auch ,k'h ,yan im dritten ,jahrhundert vor ,christo bearbeitete1 mehrfach berliefert1 und bereits aus dem ,jahre #ede v4 ,chr4 haben wir eine ,notiz nach der bei ,tempelfesten1 ganz hnlich wie im alten ,hellas1 nach den ernsten ,schaustellungen eine ,burleske von den ,stallknechten aufgefhrt wurde4 ,das zeigt also1 dasz die dramatische ,kunst der ,tang-,zeit nicht einen ,anfang1 sondern nur eine spte ,etappe auf einem langen ,wege bedeutet4 ,auch die ,han-,zeit hatte ihre ,singspiele1 die bereits mit einem umfangreichen szenischen ,apparat auf gefhrt wurden und vielleicht kompliziertere ,bhneneinrichtungen voraussetzen lassen1 als sie das heutzutage an ,einfachheit unserer modernsten ,schaubhne ebenbrtige--vielleicht fr sie vorbildlich gewordene8--chinesische ,theater jetzt bietet40 ,pages #eh-ei4 ,altchinesische ,liebeskomdien1 aus dem chinesischen ,urtexte ausgewhlt und bertragen von ,hans ,rudelsberger4 ,kunstverlag von ,anton ,schroll ,co4 ,wien1 #aibc4 ,free translations of five comedies of love 7among them two comedies discussed in this book on pages #cc and #if74 ,the work is a splendid specimen of book-making with five colored illustrations by the ,chinese artist ,hua ,mei-chai and numerous woodcuts from the original ,chinese editions4 ,journal of the ,north ,china ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society4 ,this very interesting journal1 so far as ,i have been able to examine the files1 contains only two articles on the theater3 ,volume ,,xx1 8,chinese ,theatricals01 and ,volume ,,xxi1 8,histrionic ,notes40 ,neither is very important4 ,this bibliography is by no means exhaustive4 ,there are a great many articles not mentioned here1 but they are generally not very instructive4 ,in most cases they are written by travelers who note the obvious things about the ,chinese theater4 ,naturally there is also a great deal of repetition in these writings4 ,,footnotes #a ,as ,i find the ,revised ,version1 with a fuller understanding of ,oriental life1 prefers to phrase it4 #b ,commercial ,press1 ,shanghai1 #aiae4--;,a small volume of about #bjj pages4 ,not translated into a ,european language4--,the same author has issued a 8,dramatical ,catalogue01 same publishers1 #aiag4 #c ,quoted by ,de ,groot1 8,religious ,systems of ,china01 vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #aahg4 #d ,the chief reason why theatricals are given at the village temples to-day is that they are public buildings with convenient stages4 ,not only religious but also secular plays are performed1 sometimes vulgar and immoral ones4 ,on the whole the moral standard of the ,chinese stage is very high and must be called a good influence for the largely illiterate population4 ,the worship at ,chinese temples in the course of the religious festivals has the general character of a carnival with money changers1 booths for eating and drinking1 acrobats1 magicians1 beggars1 gambling devices1 etc4 #e ,see ,sir ,william ,ridgeway1 8,the ,dramas and ,dramatic ,dances of ,non-,european ,races in ,special ,reference to the ,origin of ,greek ,tragedy10 ,cambridge ,university ,press1 #aiae4 #f ,professor ,porter calls my attention to the fact that ,doctor ,hu ,shih calls these court jesters 8sophists40 ,they were the ones to make the shrewdest observations among all courtiers4 ,the suggestion of the revolutionary element probably accounts for the death sentence4 #g ,la ,revue de ,genve1 ,january1 #aiba4 #h ,note by ,professor ,porter3 ,mr4 ,wang develops his argument very well1 using evidence from the odd foreign names of countries1 localities and places4 ,at the period it is known that there was extensive intercourse between ,western countries and ,china along the northern and southern caravan routes4 #i ,page #beg4 #aj ,the difficulty in acquiring a reading knowledge of the classical ,chinese 7,wen ,li7 does not consist chiefly in learning to read five thousand or more ideograms--that is only a minor trouble--but in the retention in the memory of the texts of the classics to which constant allusion is made in a manner to confuse utterly the uninitiated4 8,the dragon has gone down to the sea0 means 8the emperor has died40 ,or to translate the idea into ,english2 the ,bible says1 8,the words of the wise are as goads0 7,ecclesiastes xii1 ,,ii7 and ,shakespeare 7,hamlet ,v1 ,i74 8,there is no ancient gentleman but gardeners02 therefore the reader would have to know that 8goads0 stands for the words of the wise and 8ancient gentlemen0 for gardeners4 ,but connoisseurs regard this classical language as the greatest monument of ,china1 far finer than ,sung pottery or the ,temple of ,heaven4 ,said a friend to me one day1 picking up a copy of ,omar at the verse3 ,o ,thou1 who man of baser earth didst make1 ,and didst with ,paradise devise the snake1 ,for all the sin wherewith the face of man ,is blackened1 man's forgiveness give and take4 8,such is this wonderfully rich1 poetic ,wen ,li1 while in ,pai ,hua 7the vernacular7 this same thought would cover pages of dull1 colorless prose40 ,of course1 the spoken language is still as poor a vehicle for poetic thought as ,italian was before ,dante1 but its advocates hope for its growth and development4 #aa 8,travels of ,marco ,polo01 ,everyman ,edition1 ,dutton and ,company1 page #ahf4 #ab ,the ,chinese woman must as a child obey her father1 as a wife her husband1 and as a widow her son4 ,the four wifely virtues are3 7#a7 to honor and serve her mother-in-law2 7#b7 to respect her husband2 7#c7 to live in peace with her sisters-in-law2 and 7#d7 to have pity on the poor4 #ac ,see ,bibliography4 #ad ,the ,chinese name for the instrument is chin4 ,chinese writers on music have set down seven conditions under which one should not play the instrument3 when one has just heard the news of a death2 when some one is playing the flute in the vicinity2 when one is oppressed by business cares2 when one has not purified his body2 when one is not wearing the ceremonial cap and gown2 when one has not lighted sweet-smelling incense2 and when there is not present a friend who understands music4 ,chancellor ,tsai ,yuan-pei1 until #aibc the head of the ,national ,university in ,peking1 was a believer in training in sthetics1 and considered a proper appreciation of the music of the chin a most desirable element in the mental equipment of a cultured man4 #ae ,giles1 8,chinese ,literature01 page #aee4 8,a poet should not dot his i's4 ,the ,chinese reader likes to do that for himself1 each according to his own fancy4 ,hence such a poem as the following1 often quoted as a model in its own particular line3 8,a tortoise ,i see on a lotus-flower resting3 ,a bird mid the reeds and the rushes is nesting2 ,a light skiff propelled by some boatman's fair daughter1 ,whose song dies away o'er the fast-flowing water40 #af ,a most readable biography in ,english has just been published by the ,commercial ,press1 ,shanghai3 8,yang ,kuei-fei01 by ,mrs4 ,wu ,lien-teh4--,in the ,mercure de ,france1 beginning ,august1 #aibb1 there appeared a fascinating series of articles3 8,la ,passion de ,yang ,kuei-fei01 by ,soulie1 translations of songs by blind ,chinese singers woven into the story of the greatest ,chinese tale of love4 #ag 8,the ,jade ,chaplet1 ,a ,collection of ,songs1 ,ballads1 etc41 from the ,chinese40 ,trbner and ,company1 ,london1 #ahgd4 #ah ,the ,chinese actually say that the birds imitated her voice in their notes4 #ai ,one of the many complaints against ,yang ,kuei-fei was her fancy for fresh ,li-chihs4 ,she was so fond of these1 that she had them1 when in season1 brought from the ,south to ,ch'ang ,an daily1 a distance of three thousand li4 ,this apparently simple fancy was the cause of immense suffering1 distress1 and injustice2 the messengers carrying the luxury1 presuming on the protection of their mistress1 committed all manner of depredation and violence4 #bj ,yang ,kuei-fei had intrigued with a noble named ,an ,lu-shan1 who afterwards raised the standard of rebellion1 it is said1 with the hope of obtaining possession of her4 ,be that as it may1 the ,emperor assembled a large army1 and accompanied by ,yang ,kuei-fei1 went to meet him4 ,on arriving at a place called ,ma-kuei in ,sze-chuen1 the ,emperor's troops mutinied1 declaring that ,yang ,kuei-fei was the cause of the rebellion1 and demanding her life1 otherwise they would not fight4 ,the ,emperor1 having no alternative1 was forced to comply4 ,some say he ordered her to be strangled1 and that this was done by the soldiers2 others again1 that she strangled herself--the latter appears the correct version4 #ba ,for similar practices among the ,romans1 see ,sumner1 8,folkways01 page #dde4 #bb ,see also pages #ia and #ib4 #bc ,see ,bibliography1 book by ,arne1 for examples4 #bd ,see outline1 page #aje4 #be ,about a year after the earthquake ,tokio's ,imperial ,theater was reopened1 and the ,japanese honored ,mei ,lan-fang by engaging him for this occasion4 #bf ,this popular figure1 called also 8big stomach0 or 8cloth sack0 ,buddha1 is laughing in anticipation of the happiness to come4 ,his image is found in practically all ,buddhist temples and frequently among the bibelots collected by foreigners4 ,in regard to the taste of collectors1 ,baron de ,stal-,holstein1 a ,russian scholar versed in ,buddhist lore1 remarked to me one day1 8,the ugliest of all these figures is the one most sought after by ,westerners40 #bg ,see page #hc;ff4 #bh ,see ,haigh1 8,the ,tragic ,drama of the ,greeks01 ,oxford ,university ,press2 ,murray1 8,ancient ,greek ,literature01 ,appleton1 etc4--,so far as ,i know no scholar has suggested that the goat did the singing of the 8goat songs40 #bi ,see 8,sacred ,books of the ,east01 vol4 ,,xxviii1 pp4 #ib-aca4 #cj ,this has now come to an end4 ,in ,october1 #aibd1 the deposed emperor was driven out of his palace by the 8,christian0 ,general ,feng ,yu-hsiang4 #ca ,thorndyke1 8,shakespeare's ,theater01 ,macmillan ,company1 page #aci4 #cb ,ib41 page #hg4 #cc ,page #gf4 #cd ,op4 cit41 page #cid4 #ce ,see ,taine's description1 ,book ,,ii1 chapter ,,ii1 in his 8,history of ,english ,literature40 #cf ,page #bfa4--;,according to my friend ,ferdinand ,lessing1 a ,german sinologist1 ,giles has here made a mistake4 ,in ,lessing's words1 ,chinese plays contain 8faustdicke ,zoten40 #cg 8,shakespeare's ,england10 ,,ii1 #cjh;ff4 #ch ,quoted from 8,shakespeare's ,england01 ,,ii1 #bdf4 ,see also ,thorndyke's 8,shakespeare's ,theater01 page #cgb4 #ci ,goethe1 8,frauenrollen auf dem rmischen ,theater von ,mnnern gespielt40 #dj 8,shakespeare's ,england01 page #beb;ff4 #da 8,shakespeare's ,england01 ,,ii1 #bda4 #db ,thorndyke1 page #ach1 refers to this article1 but takes no stock in ,mr4 ,corbin's arguments4 ,he says that darkness was symbolized by lighted candles1 etc41 which is precisely the thing done on the ,chinese stage4 #dc 8,shakespeare's ,england01 ,,ii1 #cja4 ,illustration ,,index ,the names of ,chinese dramas are printed in italics ,albright1 ,victor1 #bja1 #baf1 #bag1 #bah ,amateurs1 #aji ,archer1 ,william1 #bag1 #bai ,autumn in the ,house of ,han4 ,see ,,sorrows ,,of ,,han ,bakst1 ,leon1 #bad ,bazin1 ,a4 ,p4 ,l41 #d ,beating the ,heartless ,husband1 #ij ,beating the ,nephew and ,worshiping at the ,grave1 #hg ,blood-,stained ,fan1 ,the1 #gj ,brodmeier1 ,professor1 #bag ,burying the ,flowers1 #hj1 #agi ,butchering the ,pig1 #afh ,chalk ,circle1 ,the1 #cb ,ch'ang ,an1 #c1 #ae1 #dh1 #ej1 #gd ,chang ,chien1 ,mr41 #aac ,ch'ang-,o's ,flight to the ,moon1 #ajd ff41 #aei ,ch'ang-,o ,pin ,yeh4 ,see ,,ch',,ang-,o',s ,,flight ,,to ,,the ,,moon ,ch'ang ,shan ,tien4 ,see ,,palace ,,of ,,eternal ,,life ,chang ,yao-shang1 actor1 #ae ,chang ,ziang-ling1 #adb ,chao ,chia ,ku-er4 ,see ,,orphan ,,of ,,the ,,chao ,,family ,chao ,mei ,hsiang4 ,see ,,intrigues ,,of ,a ,,lady',s ,,maid ,chao ,tsung1 ,emperor1 #ae ,character ,types1 #be1 #aab1 #adi1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec1 #age ,chen ,kwang ,theater1 #aha ,ch'i ,san ,hui4 ,see ,,three ,,strange ,,meetings ,ch'ien ,lung1 ,emperor1 #fi ,ch'ing ,shang ,lao ,sheh4 ,see ,,slave ,,girl ,,plays ,,tricks ,,on ,,the ,,old ,,schoolmaster ,ch'ing ,shih ,shan1 #aid ,chu ,fang ,tsao4 ,see ,,butchering ,,the ,,pig ,chu ,sha ,ch4 ,see ,,cinnabar ,,spot1 ,a ,chu ,su-yn1 actor1 #hc1 #hf ,ch ,t'eng ,kuan ,hua4 ,see ,,trial ,,of ,,strength ,,and ,,viewing ,,the ,,ancestral ,,portraits ,chu ,yuan-chang4 ,see ,,hung ,,wu ,ch'un ,yin ,hui4 ,see ,,meeting ,,of ,,many ,,heroes ,cinnabar ,spot1 ,a1 #hh ,civil ,plays1 #aj1 #adf ,classical ,language4 ,see ,,wen ,,li ,clowns1 #bc1 #be1 #aec1 #bjg4 ,cf4 ,,court ,,fools ,commedia dell' ,arte1 #af ,confucius1 #aj1 #ag1 #be1 #bh1 #di ,corbin1 ,john1 #bae ,coryat1 ,thomas1 #bjh ,court ,fool1 ,yu ,meng1 #ab ,yu ,sze1 #ab ,court ,fools1 #aa1 #ab1 #ae1 #af4 ,cf4 ,,clowns ,craig1 ,gordon1 #bad ,crossing the ,milky ,way1 #aei1 #aid ,dances1 ,dramatic1 #f ,dottore4 ,see ,,commedia ,,dell' ,,arte ,dream of the ,red ,chamber1 ,the1 #hj1 #ic1 #ahh ,drunkard1 #ac ,duke ,lan ,lu1 #ac ,dwarfs1 #aa1 #ac4 ,cf4 ,,court ,,fools ,elizabethan ,theater1 #be1 #acc1 #aid ff4 ,empress ,dowager1 #ahh ,fan ,kuai1 #ae ,feng ,yu-hsiang1 ,general1 #aie ,fools1 ,court4 ,see ,,court ,,fools ,gamble1 ,sidney1 #acc1 #add ,giles1 ,herbert1 #ah1 #ei1 #hj1 #ahj1 #bjg ,goodrich1 ,mrs41 #ajd ,greatest ,event in ,life1 ,the1 #aai ff4 ,greek ,theater1 #aj1 #aib ff4 ,grube1 ,wilhelm1 #hj ,han ,hsi-ch'ang1 actor1 #adj ,han ,kung ,tsu4 ,see ,,sorrows ,,of ,,han ,han ,lin ,academy1 #d1 #dc ,harlequin4 ,see ,,commedia ,,dell' ,,arte ,ho ,lan-chi4 ,see ,,chalk ,,circle1 ,,the ,ho ,lang ,tan4 ,see ,,singing ,,girl1 ,,the ,ho ,yi1 ,emperor1 #aje ,hsi ,hsiang ,chi4 ,see ,,western ,,chamber1 ,,the ,hsien1 #g1 #aa ,hs ,mu ,ma ,tsao4 ,see ,,hs',s ,,mother ,,curses ,,tsao ,,tsao ,hs's ,mother ,curses ,tsao ,tsao1 #ha ,hu ,shih1 #aa1 #ba1 #bb1 #gd1 #gh1 #aag1 #aih ,hung ,lou ,meng4 ,see ,,dream ,,of ,,the ,,red ,,chamber1 ,,the ,hung ,sen1 author1 #gj ,hung ,wu1 ,emperor1 #dc ,intrigue of a ,lady's ,maid1 #bf ,i-,yin1 #g ,jade ,palace1 #c ,jen ,tsung1 ,emperor1 #dc ,jesters4 ,see ,,court ,,fools ,jung ,tu-shan1 #aac1 #aae ,k'an ,tsien ,wu4 ,see ,,miser1 ,,the ,k'ang ,hsi1 ,emperor1 #fi1 #ahb ,kuan ,han-ching1 dramatist1 #bc ,kuan ,yin1 #ii ,kublai ,khan1 #ai ,kung ,chuan ,chi4 ,see ,,ruse ,,of ,,the ,,empty ,,city ,kung ,shang-jen1 author1 #gj ,lao ,tze1 #bh ,laufer1 ,berthold1 #aj1 #aa1 #ii ,lessing1 ,ferdinand1 #bjg ,li ,fang-yn1 #acg ,li ,shou-shan1 actor1 #hc ,li ,yuan ,tzu-ti1 #c ,liao ,chai4 ,see ,,strange ,,stories ,,from ,a ,,chinese ,,studio ,literary ,language4 ,see ,,wen ,,li ,liu ,ming-ju1 #ace ,liu ,yen ,ming1 #if ,marco ,polo1 #bc1 #da ,mask1 ,the1 #ac1 #ad ,meeting of ,many ,heroes1 ,the1 #hb ,mei ,lan-fang1 ,chapter ,,viii2 #hj1 #hc1 #hd1 #hf1 #ih1 #ajd1 #aje1 #aaj1 #aah1 #ach1 #adb1 #adc1 #ade1 #aej1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aee1 #aeg1 #aei1 #bjf1 #baa ,mencius1 #ag1 #bh ,military ,plays1 #aj1 #ac1 #gg1 #gi1 #adf ,ming ,huang 7,yuen ,tsung71 ,emperor1 #c1 #gj1 #ace1 #aha ,miser1 ,the1 #ce ff4 ,mu ,lan1 #ahe1 #bja1 #bab ,music1 ,types of1 #adb1 #adg1 #aia ff4 ,musical ,instruments1 #adh ff41 #aib ,new ,mayor1 ,the1 #aae ,new ,world1 #acb1 #adc ,ngoh ,chia ,chuan4 ,see ,,ngoh ,,family ,,village ,ngoh ,family ,village1 #hg ,orphan of the ,chao ,family1 ,the1 #cg1 #id ,pai ,hua1 #ba1 #bb ,palace of ,eternal ,life1 #d1 #gj ,pang ,ta ,poo ,ching ,lang4 ,see ,,beating ,,the ,,heartless ,,husband ,pantalone4 ,see ,,commedia ,,dell' ,,arte ,pantomimes1 #f ,pavilion of the ,royal ,monument1 #ahd ,pear ,garden1 #c1 #ah1 #ace ,pi ,pa ,chi4 ,see ,,story ,,of ,a ,,lute ,p'iao ,yu4 ,see ,,amateurs ,plays1 ,types of1 #adf ff41 #aig ,po ,she ,chuan4 ,see ,,white ,,and ,,black ,,snakes1 ,,the ,porter1 ,lucius1 #aa1 #ad ,precious ,hairpin1 ,the1 #ic ,reinhardt1 ,max1 #bad ,ridgeway1 ,professor ,william1 #i1 #aj ,ruse of the ,empty ,city1 ,the1 #hj ,ruse of the ,nail1 ,the1 #aeg ,san ,kuo ,chi4 ,see ,,three ,,kingdoms1 ,,the ,san ,yao ,hui4 ,see ,,shaking ,,dice ,scapino4 ,see ,,commedia ,,dell' ,,arte ,seasonal ,plays1 #ajd ff41 #aei1 #aid ,seeing the ,ancestral ,portraits4 ,see ,,trial ,,of ,,strength ,shaking ,dice1 #ih ,sha ,tze ,pao4 ,see ,,slaying ,,the ,,son ,shang ,ting ,chi4 ,see ,,ruse ,,of ,,the ,,nail ,shih ,hu4 ,see ,,hu ,,shih ,shih ,wang-ti1 ,emperor1 #ab ,shui ,hu ,chuan4 ,see ,,story ,,of ,a ,,river ,,bank ,singing ,girl1 ,the1 #bi ,slave ,girl ,plays ,tricks on the ,old ,schoolmaster1 ,the1 #ahc ,slaying of the ,son1 #aeh ,smith1 ,doctor ,arthur ,h41 #ff1 #fh ,snow in ,june4 ,see ,,sufferings ,,of ,,tou-,e ,soong ,tsung-faung1 author1 #ab1 #aag1 #aah ,sophists4 ,see ,,court ,,fools ,sorrowful ,korean1 ,the1 #aad ,sorrows of ,han1 #cg ,spring ,willow ,dramatic ,society1 #aab ,ssu ,pao-pi4 ,see ,,drunkard1 ,,the ,stel ,holstein1 ,baron de1 #agi ,stanton1 ,william1 #d1 #aei ,stent1 ,george ,carter1 #ga ,stephenson1 ,professor ,h4 ,t41 #bad1 #bae ,story of a ,lute4 ,see ,,chapter ,,iii ,story of the ,river ,bank1 #gi ,strange ,stories from a ,chinese ,studio1 #hj ,suen ,lo ,ngao1 #ab ,sufferings of ,tou-,e1 #bc1 #ci1 #adb ,ta ,chih ,shang ,wen4 ,see ,,beating ,,the ,,nephew ,ta ,yin ,ho4 ,see ,,crossing ,,the ,,milky ,,way ,tai ,y ,chuan ,hua4 ,see ,,burying ,,the ,,flowers ,taine1 ,h41 #bje ,t'an ,shen-pei1 actor1 #adi1 #ahh ,t'an ,shoo-shan1 actor1 #aej ,t'ao ,hua ,shan4 ,see ,,blood-,,stained ,,fan1 ,,the ,taoism1 #cd ,teh ,hing1 actor1 #aeb ,theater4 ,see ,,elizabethan ,,theater2 ,,greek ,,theater ,thorndyke1 ,professor ,a4 ,h41 #aih1 #bjc1 #bjh ,three ,kingdoms1 ,the1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj ,three ,pulls4 ,see ,,three ,,strange ,,meetings ,three ,strange ,meetings1 #hc1 #ahj ,tiger1 ,the1 #ad ,t'ing ,hua1 critic1 #aed ,tou-,e4 ,see ,,sufferings ,,of ,,tou-,e ,transmigration of ,you ,hsin1 #cc ,trial of ,strength and ,viewing the ,ancestral ,portraits1 #id1 #ahc ,tsai ,yuan-pei1 #eh ,tung ,lo ,yuan1 #adj ,types of ,character4 ,see ,,character ,,types ,types of ,music4 ,see ,,music1 ,,types ,,of ,types of ,plays4 ,see ,,plays1 ,,types ,,of ,vernacular4 ,see ,,pai ,,hua ,wang ,kuo-wei1 #f1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ad1 #ae1 #ag1 #ah1 #bc ,wen ,li1 #bj1 #ba ,western ,chamber1 ,the1 #bd ,white and ,black ,snakes1 ,the1 #ajj ,wu1 #g1 #aa ,wu ,lien-teh1 ,mrs41 #ga ,wu ,wang1 ,empress1 #g ,yang ,kuei-fei1 #d1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb ff41 #aei1 #aha ff4 ,yang ,kuei-fei on a ,spree1 #aeg1 #aha ,yang ,kuei-fei ,tsui ,chou4 ,see ,,yang ,,kuei-,,fei ,,on ,a ,,spree ,yang ,shiao-lo1 actor1 #ach1 #aea1 #aee ,yellow ,jacket1 ,the1 #agj1 #bjj1 #baf ,yi ,tsai ,hua1 #aaa ,yo ,fei1 #ia1 #ib1 #acd ,young ,nun ,seeks ,love1 ,a1 #agh ,y ,chan ,chih4 ,see ,,precious ,,hairpin1 ,a ,yu ,meng1 ,court ,fool1 #ab ,y ,pei ,t'ing4 ,see ,,pavilion ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,monument ,y ,san-yen1 actor1 #aej ,y ,sze1 ,court ,fool1 #ab ,yuen ,tsung4 ,see ,,ming ,,huang ,yung ,lo1 ,emperor1 #dg