,the ,university of ,chicago ,,herder',s ,,conception ,,of 8,,das ,,volk0 ,a ,,dissertation ,,submitted ,,to ,,the ,,faculty ,,of ,,the ,,graduate ,,schools ,,of ,,arts ,,and ,,literature ,,in ,,candidacy ,,for ,,the ,,degree ,,of ,,doctor ,,of ,,philosophy ,,department ,,of ,,germanics ,,by ,,georgiana ,r4 ,,simpson ,private ,edition1 ,distributed ,by ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,chicago ,,libraries ,,chicago1 ,,illinois #aiba ,composed and ,printed ,by ,the ,university of ,chicago ,press ,chicago1 ,illinois1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,dedicated ,,to ,,the ,,memory ,,of ,,my ,,friend ,,and ,,teacher ,,fr,,ulein ,,agnes ,,burchard ,,of ,,rostock1 ,,germany ,,note ,i wish to express my sincere thanks to all my ,professors1 but especially to ,professors ,starr ,w4 ,cutting1 ,martin ,schtze1 and ,francis ,a4 ,wood1 under whom the major portion of my work in the ,graduate ,school has been pursued4 ,this particular study1 however1 is the outcome of interest awakened by ,professor ,schtze while ,i was a member of his seminars4 ,i owe a special debt of gratitude to him1 not only for his guidance in this endeavor1 but for the inspiration and encouragement which has come to me from the very beginning of my work under him4 ,,georgiana ,r4 ,,simpson ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,semasiology ,,of ,,the ,,word1 ,volk--,,the ,,idea ,,in ,,other ,,words #a ,,ii4 ,,conceptions ,,of ,volk ,,as ,,seen ,,in ,,herder',s ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,term #d ,,iii4 ,,conceptions ,,of ,volk ,,as ,,gathered ,,from ,,herder',s ,,collection ,,of ,volkslieder #ae ,,iv4 ,,conceptions ,,of ,volk ,,in ,,herder',s ,,discussion ,,of 8,,ossian',s ,,people0 ,,and ,,the ,,ancient ,,hebrews #bb ,v4 ,,foundations ,,of ,,individuality ,,and ,,personality ,,in ,,herder #ca ,,vi4 ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,thought ,,in ,,herder',s ,,conception ,,of ,das ,volk #cf ,,vii4 ,,conclusion #ed ,,bibliography #eh ,,chapter ,i ,,semasiology ,,of ,,volk--,,the ,,idea ,,in ,,other ,,words ,before going directly to the main discussion of our theme1 a background is sought in a brief semasiological study of the word ,volk4 ,the word is widespread in the ,germanic languages2 ,gothic1 however1 offers no examples4 ,among the earliest recorded ,germanic forms are those in ,old ,english and in ,old ,high ,german4 ,old ,english folc meant people1 common people1 multitude1 a people1 tribe1 family1 army3 8,he sloh folces ,denigea fyftyne men0--,beowulf4 8,folces hyrde0--,beowulf4 ,it was particularly used originally of a crowd of people4 ,skeat's ,etymological ,dictionary suggests the possibility of its being related to both flock and full4 ,old ,high ,german folc meant people1 body of warriors1 servants1 crowd1 mass4 ,the oldest meaning here suggests forces of war3 dhazs himilisc folc4 ,the word occurs in ,old ,frisian as folk2 in ,old ,saxon1 folc2 and in ,old ,norse1 folk2 with meanings equivalent to those found in ,old ,high ,german and ,old ,english4 ,kluge's ,etymological ,dictionary says that the meaning 8division of an army0 seems to be the fundamental meaning of the family group1 from which ,lithuanian pulkas1 heap mass1 ,old ,slavonic plk1 host of war1 are borrowed forms4 ,in ,middle ,english the word took on the additional meaning of an aggregation of people in relation to a superior2 e4g41 ,god1 a king1 or priest2 further it began to mean also the vulgar or lower classes1 this use easily rising out of the meaning 8mass0 or 8the many40 ,such expressions occur as beboden waes ,godes folce1 ,folkes ,mass ,book4 ,in ,middle ,high ,german the meaning was people1 hosts of war1 army1 servants1 subjects1 multitude3 er das ,volk gewan 7,gudrun1 #aafb1 #b74 ,in ,modern ,english the word is chiefly colloquial1 being superseded in more formal use by 8people40 ,in numerous combinations 7following ,german precedent7 it has the sense of pertaining to1 current among1 or existing among the masses of the people or the common people4 ,such expressions as folk-belief1 folk-custom1 folk-literature1 folk-name1 folk-song1 and folk-speech are prevalent4 ,modern ,high ,german has retained the word with nearly all of its primitive meanings3 die schottischen ,vlker empren sich und drohen abzuziehen2#a ,mein ,volk zu mindern2#b ,was rennt das ,volk82#c du weisst1 wir alten fahren1 und ihr junges ,volk reitet2#d den ,teufel sprt das ,vlkchen nie4#e ,the large number of compounds in which the word is used limit its connotation to either 8the masses0 or 8the common people03 ,volksbuch1 ,volksdichter1 ,volksgeist1 ,volkslehrer1 ,volksschule1 etc4 ,kluge in his ,etymological ,dictionary says3 8,connection with ,latin vulgus is uncertain2 for it is questionable whether the ,latin word together with the ,germanic family group would come from an original qelgos1 qolgos40 ,weigand1 ,deutsches ,wrterbuch says3 8,the earlier comparison with the ,latin1 volgus1 is not possible4 ,rather to be compared here are the word voll and roots related to the ,greek 40 ,,the ,,idea ,,in ,,other ,,words ,the ideas conveyed by the fundamental meanings found in the word ,volk appear in other words and in various languages3 ,,greek --a great number1 a throng1 a crowd1 multitude1 especially of people4 --properly of number1 many2 opposed to 4 --the many2 that is1 the greater number4 --a moving crowd1 a throng1 irregular crowd1 in a political sense1 the populace or mob1 opposed to 4 --race1 stock1 family1 whether by blood or by nationality3 --a race in regard to number1 1 mankind4 --a set of men or any living beings as naturally distinct from others2 a race or tribe2 in a closer sense1 a race of people or a nation4 --a number of people living together1 a company1 a body of men4 --a band of comrades4 --a host of men4 --a district1 country1 land4 ,also the people of such a district1 hence 7as in early times the common people were scattered through the country while the chiefs held the city7 the commons1 common people4 opposed to 4 ,,latin ,vulgus--people collectively or without distinction1 the public or people generally3 ,non est consilium in vulgo4 ,the multitude1 the common people1 the populace4 ,populus--a people1 the commons in contradistinction to the senate and knights3 senatus populusque ,romanus4 ,the inhabitants of a country or town1 a nation1 a whole people3 ,populus ,romanus victor dominusque omnium gentium4 ,a large number of people1 a crowd1 throng3 populus fratrum4 ,plebs--,the common people1 commonality1 the ignoble opposed to patricii1 patres or senatus2 whereas populus comprises both classes4 ,when the knights1 equites1 were raised to a separate class1 the plebs formed the third2 i4e41 the last or lowest class2 hence1 the lower class of people1 the populace1 the mass4 ,,french ,peuple--a multitude of people of the same country and living under the same laws3 ,les peuples ne souffrent que par les fautes des rois4#f ,peuple--a multitude of people who1 although not occupying the same country1 have the same religion or the same origin3 et je serai leur ,dieu1 et eux ils seront mon peuple4#g ,peuple--that part of a nation considered as opposed to the classes among whom there is either more ease or more education3 ,il y a le peuple qui est oppos aux grands4 ,c'est la populace et la multitude4#h ,in ,middle ,english the word people was already a synonym for folc3 8,a ,blysful lyf1 ,ledden the peoples in the former age0 7,chaucer74 ,in ,modern ,english the word people has almost entirely displaced ,volk except in colloquial or archaic speech4 ,like ,volk in its fundamental sense we have3 ,people--a body of persons composing a community1 tribe1 race1 or nation4 ,people--persons in relation to a superior1 or to some one to whom they belong4 ,people--the common people1 the commonality2 the mass of the community as distinguished from the nobility and ruling1 or official1 classes1 etc4 8,a people's voice6 ,we are a people yet0 7,tennyson74 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,conceptions ,,of ,,volk ,,as ,,seen ,,in ,,herder',s ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,term ,i ,volk is that part of a nation which is the governed class as distinct from those who are above them in authority and who stand as the ruling class2 i4e41 the governed as separate from the governing4 ,i1 #af3 8,man weiss dass nach den ,staatsplnen ,lykurgs und ,solons1 die als die ,muster der brigen glnzten1 die ,stimme des ,volks1 eine ,stimme des ,staats1 ja beinahe selbst ,gott war40 ,volk here is the collective mass of individuals constituting the state as opposed to the ruling heads4 ,i1 #af3 8,dies konnte das ,volk beantworten1 nicht aus ,staatseinsichten1 sondern weil jeder ,brger streiten musste40 ,herder is discussing the power which the people have in the simplest democratic form of government to declare or to forbid war4 ,volk is here the collection of citizens which make up the state as opposed to nominal rulers4 ,i1 #ahh3 8,cicero rgert sich1 dass er dem ,volk zu gefallen1 #8pulcher' und #8triumphus' statt #8pulcer' und #8triumpus' aussprechen msste40 ,in similar connotation are such phrases as3 8fraget das ,volk02 8die niemand als das ,volk geben wird02 8worauf das ,volk hinkte1 wenn es nicht gehen konnte02 8bloss weil das ,volk sie vor ,drsen ansahe40 ,i1 #ah3 8,selbst das ,volk ist nicht mehr dasselbe4 ,dort war dieser ,name ehrwrdig3 er begriff alle ,brger1 ,rath und ,priester ausgenommen40 ,the collective mass of citizens who form the state in contradistinction to the individuals who were nominal rulers4 ,i1 #bb3 8,so sieht man1 dass ihre ,schutzgtter1 und ihre ,gottesdienste1 dass ,orakelsprche und ,ceremonien blos heiliger ,nebel und ,opferrauch waren1 die ,augen des ,volks zu blenden40 ,herder here mentions ,cicero as augur and writer on religious subjects2 ,volk are the citizens1 exclusive of those occupying the official rank such as that held by ,cicero1 for example4 ,,xiv1 #cd3 8,so ist ein ,unterschied zwischen ,cultur der ,gelehrten und ,cultur des ,volks40 ,herder speaks here concerning the organization of the state among ancient peoples4 ,the ,gelehrten were the teaching and priestly class--those who were in possession of certain secret knowledge4 ,the ,volk1 while not having this knowledge1 were nevertheless not without culture4 ,we may take ,volk to mean nation or people in the same sense in which a modern people might be considered as such and include its clergymen and lawyers who had special professional training4 ,,ii ,quotations in which ,volk is used as synonymous with nation4 ,the ideas of collective personality and of ,nationalgeist are prominent here4 ,i1 #bc3 8,der ,charakter unseres ,volks ist nicht mehr die dreiste ,wildheit der ,alten2 sondern eine feinere und mssigere ,freiheit2 die ,freiheit des ,gewissens40 ,herder discusses the question of freedom in the fatherland and uses 8fatherland0 as synonymous with ,volk2 ,volk is nation4 ,i1 #adg3 8,ein ,volk das ohne ,poetische ,sprache grosse ,dichter 444 gehabt htte ist ein ,unding40 ,volk is nation4 ,i1 #bfa3 8,so sehr sich immer ,voltaire1 und die seines ,theils sind1 beklagen1 dass wir ein eckles dummes ,volk aus einem ,winkel der ,erde so sehr erheben40 ,wir here refers to the ,german people in the eighteenth century4 ,volk1 then1 means a nation4 ,i1 #bfb3 8singen wir denn fr ,juden8 die sich fr das einzige ,volk ,gottes hielten8 die von dem feurigsten ,nationalstolz belebt wurden80 ,volk1 here1 in the light of ,nationalstolz1 clearly means nation4 ,in the same connection and with the same meaning he says3 8,unser ,gott ist ein ,vater der ,menschen nicht eines ,volks40 ,i1 #bgf3 8,ein ,rabbi1 der fr sein ,volk ,patriotismus1 ,knntniss seiner ,gebruche40 ,volk here refers to the ,jews1 hence means nation4 ,,ii1 #h3 8,allerdings ist auch die ,sprache einer ,nation ein betrchtliches ,stck in der ,litteratur derselben4444 ,man kann die ,litteratur eines ,volks1 ohne seine ,sprache nicht bersehen40 ,volk is clearly a synonym with nation4 ,i1 #ac3 8ein ,vorrath1 der freilich oft durch ,raub und ,beute ,nachbarn bereichert1 aber so wie er ist doch eigentlich der ,nation zugehrt1 die ihn hat 444 der ,gedankenschatz eines ganzen ,volks40 ,in this passage1 language 7,sprache7 is the word ,vorrath1 to which reference is made4 ,volk is the same as nation4 ,,ii1 #bh3 8,der ganzen ,nation wre ein solches ,buch ein ,schatz3 444 denn der ,genius1 der ber die ,wissenschaften eines ,volks wachet ist zugleich der ,schutzgott der ,sprache desselben40 ,volk is nation4 ,,ii1 #cb3 8,und was drfen wir uns unserer ,consonanten schmen1 wenn sie ,concente der ,tapferkeit sind1 um ,gtter und ,stammvter unseres ,volks1 ,helden und ,erretter der ,nation zu preisen40 ,volk is nation4 ,,ii1 #afj3 8,gemeiniglich waren die grssesten ,schriftsteller zugleich die grssesten ,nationalautoren4 ,den ,geist ihrer ,zeit1 die ,denkart ihres ,volks1 die ,natur ihrer ,sprache1 wusten sie40 ,volk is nation4 ,,iii1 #cj3 8sie werden ,thrnen und ,thaten wecken3 ein ,schatz des ,vaterlandes1 und das ,gefhl1 das sie besingen und wirken1 ,gefhl des ,volks1 ,nationalgeist40 ,volk here is nation4 ,,iii1 #fb3 8ihn sollte ein ,held anstimmen1 der zugleich ,knig war1 der dadurch die ,griechen rettete1 der ihnen die ,opferung versprochen hatte3 dieser also sein ,wort brechen1 sein ,volk nicht lieben1 dafr auch nicht etwas ,saures thun wollen80 ,volk here refers to the ancient ,greeks1 and therefore has the meaning of nation4 ,,iii1 #cih3 8,wo1 unsre ,religion noch sinnlichen ,vorstellungen ,raum gibt2 wo sie sich einer ,poetischen ,bildersprache bequemt3 da ist sie--,orientalisch4 ,unter einem ,volke gebildet1 das ihr ,gott auf alle ,art von ,bildnissen abwenden wollte1 in ,gegenden1 die das ,uebermenschliche suchten1 in ,nationen1 die ,verhllungen des ,krpers1 und ,geheimnisse des ,geistes lieber verehren als das offne ,schne lieben wollten--im ,geist und in der ,sprache dieses ,volks die sinnliche ,bildersprache unsrer ,religion also geoffenbaret40 ,volk is nation4 ,,iii1 #dad3 8,wenn er durch ,dichter gebildet war1 wenn einem ,publikum in ,griechenland ,dichterverse und ,poetische ,bilder ihrer ,mythologie im ,kopfe schwebten1 ohngefhr auf die ,art1 als unserm ,volke ,kirchenlieder1 ,bibelsprche 7eine ,vergleichung die hier blos ,nationalunterschied seyn soll740 ,volk is nation4 ,,iii1 #dbe3 8eine ,nation1 deren ,merkwrdigkeiten eben so verwickelt von der ,politischen ,wissenschaft sind1 dass eine einzelne ,mnzensymbole sie nicht vorstellen kann1 ein ,volk1 das aus der verblmten ,bilderzeit hinaus1 ,wahrheit suchet1 und ,wahrheit findet3 ein ,volk endlich1 in dem die ,mnzen und der ,geschmack auf denselben durchaus fr keine ,produktion des ,publikum gelten kann--ein solches ,volk soll sich seine ,geschichte des ,geschmacks und der ,kunst aus ,mnzen weissagen1 sich ein ,buch durch mit einem andern1 dessen ,numismatik ,himmelweit von der ihrigen abliegt1 hmisch vergleichen lassen8 wer ist ,brger dieses ,volks1 und sagt nicht3 unde mihi lapides80 ,this passage shows ,volk to be synonymous with nation4 ,there are frequent uses of the word ,volk in the plural1 ,vlker1 with the same connotation3 ,,ii1 #ai3 8,die ,litteratur fremder ,vlker und ,sprachen ist oft als eine fremde ,colonie unter andere ,nationen eingefhrt40 ,,ii1 #bc3 8,was haben ,vlker und ,sprachen fr ,vor- und ,nachtheile gegen einander80 ,,ii1 #gi3 8das ,namenregister 444 das mich aus allen ,zungen und ,sprachen und ,vlkern und ,gesellschaften der ,erde berfhren soll40 ,,iii1 #cb3 8eine ,ader des ,gefhls1 die die besten ,dichtungen und ,geschichte1 nicht blos der ,griechen1 sondern aller ,vlker durchstrmt40 ,,iii1 #eb3 8warum die ,griechen in ,bildung des ,schnen so hoch gekommen1 um allen ,vlkern der ,erde hierinn den ,preis abzulaufen80 ,,iv1 #afh3 8der das ,schne unter allen ,vlkern und ,zeitaltern sucht40 ,v1 #hf3 8der ,erste ,kopf der an eine wahre ,philosophie der ,grammatik 444 denkt1 muss gewiss erst die ,geschichte derselben durch ,vlker und ,stuffen hinab berdacht haben40 ,i1 #b3 8,gestorbene ,sprachen4444 ,glcklich1 dass die ,vlker denen sie eigen waren1 verlebt sind40 ,i1 #c3 8,hier knpft die ,politik des ,staats die ,sprachen zur allgemeinen ,kette der ,vlker40 ,i1 #bfb3 8,von allen ,vlkern der ,erde abgesondert1 brachte es seinem ,schutzgott ,nationalgesnge40 7,jews47 ,v1 #ejj3 8,der ,stamm des ,baums zu seiner grssern ,hhe erwachsen1 strebte1 ,vlker und ,nationen unter seinen ,schatten zu nehmen1 in ,zweige40 ,v1 #eja3 8,wenn alle ,vlker unter dem ,rmischen ,joche gewissermaasse die ,vlker zu seyn aufhrten1 die sie waren80 ,v1 #ead3 8,norden wars4 ,und was man auch nun ber den ,zustand dieser ,vlker fr ,ursprnge und ,systeme ersinnen mag40 ,,vi1 #aae3 8,kannte ,noah diese ganz8 ,konnte er allen ,vlkern die ,warnung ,gottes bekannt machen80 ,,vi1 #abh3 8,ich bleibe bei den ,umwandlungen dieser ,philosophie bei sptern benachbarten ,vlkern1 und dnkts mich kein ,traum40 8,aber dass sich die ,geheimnisse mit ,ideen dieser ,gattung unter allen ,vlkern beschftigt40 ,,iii ,volk1 a special group1 less cultured1 unaltered in certain respects by the influence of civilization4 ,there are marked implications of theories of universalism and democracy here4 ,the largest part of the people are the most important and respectable4 ,in the following two passages we have a degree of characterization of the rabble3 ,,xvii1 #ia3 8den leider ist es nur ,ein ,ding1 ,poebelsinn und ,tyrannei1 mit zwei ,namen genannt1 wie die rechte und linke ,seite40 ,,xxv1 #cbc3 8,volk heisst nicht der ,poebel auf den ,gassen1 der singt und dichtet niemals1 sondern schreyt und verstmmelt40 ,these characterizations of ,poebel suggest not a lack of culture but culture of a sort that has had a warping effect4 ,if ,volk is not this rabble and1 yet1 not the learned class1 it must stand in some respects1 at least1 between the two4 ,it is more dignified and respectable than the rabble2 it has certain intellectual aptitudes and moral traits found among primitive peoples1 but which are usually effaced by a high degree of civilization and culture4 ,i1 #cib3 8,o eine ,schrift1 die das ist1 was eine ,erbauungs--eine ,bildungsschrift fr den grssten1 nutzbarsten und ehrwrdigsten ,theil der ,menschen1 das ,volk sein soll40 ,the author has been regretting that the weekly journals1 religious books1 and sermons are not suited to the common man1 and suggests the kind of literature that would meet his needs4 ,volk is here the largest1 most useful1 and most respectable part of mankind4 ,these people are to be edified and cultivated4 ,,vii1 #bdf3 8die bei dem grossen ehrwrdigen ,haufen ,volk erregt werden mssen1 wenn etwas wrken soll4 ,dies ,volk noch nicht zu ,raisonnement gebildet1 glaubt und handelt40 ,these are too nave to have reason2 ,volk are the nave1 simple people4 ,,vi1 #bid3 ,herder here calls the ,bible 8,orakel ,gottes fr den besten1 grssten ,theil der ,menschheit1 ,kinder und ,volk40 ,,vi1 #cji3 8ber den ,euch noch immer ,kind und ,volk1 der edelste ,theil der ,menschheit40 ,,vi1 #ddc3 8wie die ,kindes- und ,volkswelt sich das ursprnglich denken konnte40 ,in these last three passages the mental capacity of ,volk is that of a child1 and the thought therefore implies for ,volk a meager degree of education and culture4 ,,vi1 #ajd3 8,wo sind in allen unsern ,lndern ,weisheitsschulen fr den ehrwrdigen ,theil unsers ,publikum1 den man das ,volk nennet80 ,herder says these are human beings who form the stock of the nation and distinguishes them from the nobility who would refuse to enlighten the ,volk that these might be the better utilized by the nobility and the better become the subjects of their tyranny4 ,volk is here a class beneath the nobility1 but ideally they are enlightened and made better by social contact and religious observances4 ,,vi1 #cja3 8,zu dem schrieb er frs ,volk2 ich verstehe unter diesem ,namen die ,menge derer1 die sich nicht durch die ,sprachlehre zu ,deutschen gebildet hatten40 ,herder here refers to ,luther and the people for whom he wrote2 these were the less cultured people4 ,i1 #bih3 8,weil damals noch nicht ein ,unterschied zwischen der ,sprache der ,weisen und des ,volks1 zwischen der ,denkart der ,vornehmen und ,geringen war2 was ,homer sang war die ,sprache der ,gtter und zugleich eine veredelte ,sprache des ,pbels40 ,herder is speaking of ,homer's language and times4 ,in the parallel the wise are the aristocratic2 the ,volk are those of humble rank4 ,,iv ,volk meaning a special group characterized by primitivism in various forms4 ,,ii1 #be3 8wie die ,denkart des ,volks mit der gelehrten ,denkart neben und in einander laufe80 8,was giebt die ,denkart und ,sprache des ,volks dem ,philosophen1 ,dichter und ,redner fr ,masse80 8,was hat dies fr ,vortheile und ,nachtheile fr die ,weisen und dem ,schler des ,volks80 ,here ,herder discusses two separate manners of thinking1 designating one as being peculiar to the ,volk and the other as being that of the ,gelehrten2 one as belonging to the ,volk1 the other to the ,philosophen1 ,dichter and ,redner4 ,here is a clear implication that the ,volk is a class apart from philosophers1 poets1 and orators2 a class different from the sages4 ,not being wise and learned1 they must be those upon whom artificial methods of training and culture have had less effect than upon the philosophers1 poets1 and orators4 ,they are therefore more nearly the natural man4 ,i1 #aeg3 8,so wie das ,vlkerrecht jetzt im ,staat zum ,gesez ward3 so in der ,sprache4444 ,es entstand ein ,adel ein ,pbel und ein ,mittelstand unter den ,vlkern wie er in der ,gesellschaft entstand40 ,herder here has traced the development of prose out of poetry4 ,he finds that the language of passion gave way to that of mediocre wit1 and this in turn became the speech of reason4 ,here is suggested a parallel between the rights of the people1 which passed into state laws1 and the language which passes from ,poebel to ,mittelstand and then to ,adel4 ,if we make parallel the ,vlkerrecht in the development of law with the ,mittelstand in the social status1 then ,volk is a class between the rabble and the nobility4 ,if we follow the analogy suggested in the second sentence of the quotation1 we shall make the rabble those who have the language of passion2 the ,volk those who have the language of mediocre wit2 and the nobility those whose language is that of reason4 ,herder's ,volk here would be a middle class4 ,volk is used commonly to mean primitive peoples1 i4e41 people who have reached only an early stage of civilization4 ,among those to whom frequent reference is made as such are3 ,greenlanders1 ,laplanders1 ,early ,scandinavians1 ,early ,germans1 ,greeks of ,homer's time1 ,ancient ,hebrews1 ,ancient ,celts in ,scotland and ,ireland1 and ,american ,indians4 ,the moral standards and intellectual equipment found among these are eulogized and idealized whenever these peoples as groups are compared with civilized communities4 ,v1 #ahi3 8,in mehr als einer ,provinz sind mir ,volkslieder1 ,provinziallieder1 ,bauerlieder bekannt1 die an ,lebhaftigkeit und ,rhythmus und ,naivett und ,strke der ,sprache vielen derselben gewiss nichts nachgeben wrden40 ,here ,volk is put in apposition with that which is provincial1 which has a peasant character4 ,a meaning which is equivalent to the less cultured4 ,herder is discussing the whereabouts of ,volkslieder which he locates among the ,volk1 and ,volk are to be found in the lanes1 in the fish markets1 and in the country4 ,v1 #ahe3 8,zuerst sollten also wohl fr die ,seele des ,volks die doch nur fast sinnlicher ,verstand und ,einbildung ist40 444 ,herder here considers the ,volk as having the kind of soul which would be formed by contact with the forces of nature1 unaltered by the hand of man1 and1 especially1 little touched by reflection1 the reasoning faculty4 ,,ii1 #cdi3 8,alles was fr das ,volk redete und schrieb1 ,redner1 und ,geschichtsschreiber1 musste populr sprechen2 alles was fr ,gebildetere schrieb1 ,dichter1 und ,philosoph1 und ,redner1 und ,briefschreiber war freyer40 ,this statement clearly opposes ,volk to those more cultured4 ,the adjective1 8populr10 used with reference to that which would befit them1 gives a shading to the meaning of ,volk1 derived from the meaning of 8popular10 that which partakes of a quality peculiar to the populace4 ,volk here are the less cultured4 ,v ,,connations ,,arising ,,from ,,uses ,,with ,,adjectives ,these imply an emphasis on a group in which crudeness1 the natural as opposed to the cultured and polished1 are eulogized4 ,,xiii1 #bii3 8,jedes eingebohrne sinnliche ,volk hat sich also mit seinen ,begriffen auch in seine ,gegend umschrnkt40 ,,xiii1 #cjc3 8,was ich auszuzeichnen habe sind einige allgemeine ,wahrnehmungen aus diesem ,schattenreich phantasierender ,vlker40 ,herder gives as an example of the phantasierender ,vlker the people of ,greenland1 ,india1 ,lappland1 ,japan1 ,peru1 and ,africa at a period of their existence when they have a mythology4 ,the mythology he calls a philosophical effort of the human soul1 which dreams before it awakens and gladly remains in its childhood4 ,,xiii1 #cbh3 8,auch unter den wildesten ,vlkern unterscheidet sich das ,weib vom ,mann40 ,,xiii1 #chi3 8,daher ist auch bei den rohesten ,vlkern die ,sprache der ,religion immer die lteste40 ,,xiii1 #cib3 8die gttlichen ,gesetze und ,regeln der ,humanitt1 die sich wenn auch nur in ,resten bei dem wildesten ,volk ussern40 ,,xiii1 #cic3 8,von den rohen ,vlkern der ,vorwelt40 ,v1 #fha3 84444 wie die ,rmische ,staatskunst mit den ,deutschen ,frsten spielte2 und die ,grundverfassung dieser ,barbarischen ,vlker in ,freiheit und ,einigung zu erschttern suchte40 ,,xxv1 #g3 8,rohe ,gesnge eines rohen ,volks6 ,barbarische ,tne und ,mrchen1 der ,grundsuppe einer ,nation40 ,,xxv1 #g3 8,ohne ,zweifel war das ,gallische1 ,englische und noch mehr das ,nordischere ,volk blos ,volk60 ,,xxv1 #h3 8,und wenn man sich nun diese ,lieder44444 in die lebendige ,rhrung des ,volks zurckdenkt40 ,,xxv1 #i3 8die ,denkart der ,nation selbst ,national2 das ,volk mit ein so ansehnlicher ,theil des ,volks dessen ,namen man also nicht so ,schaamroth oder eckelnd und betroffen ansah und abscheute40 ,,xxv1 #aa3 8die ,reste aller lebendigen ,volksdenkart rollen mit beschleunigtem letzten ,sturze in ,abgrund der ,vergessenheit hinab4 ,das ,licht der sogenannten ,kultur frisst wie der ,krebs um sich40 ,,compounds ,,with ,,volk ,words compounded with ,volk show all the various meanings distinguished in the following simple usages4 ,,xxiv1 #bfh3 8,wenn ,du ,deine ,ballade einem jungen ,bauermdchen aus einem ,thale 4444 gbest die ausser den ,kirchenliedern 4444 oder sonst einem alten schlichten ,gesang nie eine ,musik gehrt dabei jedoch von ,natur eine angenehmere und fr den ,zweck deines ,gedichts passendere ,volks-,melodie whlen als irgend einer unserer grssten ,virtuosen40 ,,xxiv1 #bhj3 8,ein engerer ,bund zwischen ,gott und dem ,stammvater eines ,hirtenvolks wird darauf dieses ,volks ,losung40 ,this ,hirtenvolk is the ,hebrews4 ,,xxiv1 #cje3 8dieser grosse ,vlkerstamm sich nicht von ,nord nach ,sden hinab sondern von ,gallien ,nordwrts40 ,this ,vlkerstamm is the ,irish and ,scotch4 ,,xxiv1 #cjg3 8nur so viel ist gewiss dass die allgemeine ,volkssage ,ossian einige ,jahrhunderte spter leben lsst40 ,,xxiv1 #cii3 8und da sie ,gesetzgeber1 ,volksleiter waren40 ,i1 #hf3 8,die herumschweifenden ,beduinen sind noch solche ,rhapsodisten als ,homer war3 sie sammeln einen ,volkhaufen um sich40 ,i1 #aeg3 8so wie das ,vlkerrecht jetzt im ,staat zum ,gesez ward40 ,v1 #h3 8,eigentlich ist diese ,sprache der ,natur eine ,vlkersprache fr jede ,gattung unter sich und so hat auch der ,mensch die ,seinige40 ,v1 #acb3 8,eine ,morgenlndische ,urkunde ber die ,trennung der ,sprachen 7die ich hier nur als ein ,poetisches ,fragment zur ,archologie der ,vlkergeschichte betrachte740 ,v1 #bah3 8,shakespeare 4444 fand keinen so einfachen ,volks- und ,vaterlandscharakter40 ,v1 #dhf3 8,wie tausendmal mehr thricht wenn du einem ,kinde 4444 deine allgemeine ,vlkerliebe voll tolerante ,unterjochung 4444 gnnen wolltest60 ,v1 #dic3 8ob der ,phnicier gleich nicht aus ,menschenliebe1 ,nationen besuchte1 es ward eine ,art von ,vlkerliebe1 ,vlkerbekanntschaft1 ,vlkerrecht sichtbar40 ,,xxv1 #e3 8,dnkts mich indessen recht1 dass wenn auch diese nie ganz erwnschbare ,vaterlandsschtze gefunden wrden1 sie doch kaum ,volks-,vaterlands-,lieder fr uns im strengern ,verstande wren40 ,,xxv1 #f3 8nur mit den ,augen sehen und mit dem ,herzen verstehen 4444 wie es allemal ,volksrhrung ist und seyn sollte40 ,,xxv1 #aj3 8,natrlich musste auch die ,denkart und ruhige ,volksart der ,deutschen an dem ewigen ,zwistgewitter theilnehmen40 ,,xxv1 #cac3 8ganz ,volksartig1 d4i4 leicht1 einfach1 aus ,gegenstnden und in der ,sprache der ,menge40 ,,xxv1 #cad3 8,der grsste ,snger der ,griechen ,homerus ist zugleich der grsste ,volksdichter4 ,sein herrliches ,ganze ist 4444 ,sage lebendige ,volksgeschichte40 ,,xxv1 #caf3 8und doch ist berall der alte ehrwrdige ,volkssnger der einfltige ,hirt40 ,,xxv1 #cbc3 8,zum ,volkssnger gehrt nicht1 dass er aus dem ,pbel sein muss1 oder fr den ,pbel singt40 ,,xxiv1 #bfc3 8,heisst also die ,romanze1 obwohl ihr nachher der ,gebrauch eine engere ,bedeutung gegeben eigentlich nichts als ,muttersprache der sdlichen ,lnder ,europens und in ihnen ,volksrede1 ,volksgesang40 ,,xxiv1 #bfe3 8die alten ,englischen und ,schottischen ,volksgesnge40 ,,xxiv1 #bfg3 8,und so wre mit echten ,volksgesange abermals nicht etwa nur ein ,hauptzweig alter1 edler1 rhmlicher und ,ruhmweckender ,poesie sondern der ,grund aller ,poesie die innere ,rechtschaffenheit und ,honnettett im ,herzen des ,volks--ermordet40 ,,xxiv1 #daa3 8,ungebundenheit 7,license7 soll ,endzweck der ,regierung sein3 ,volkslaune 7populare humour7 ,ursprung der ,regierung40 ,,xiii1 #ci3 8,die ,abessinier sind ein ,arabischer #8,vlkerstamm' 7race740 ,,xiii1 #bad3 8,vlkerschaften die den ,drfern und ,stdten nah sind mildern und mischen auch mehr ihre ,sitten und ,zge40 ,,xiii1 #bca3 8,kennten wir nun noch die zahlreichen ,vlkerschaften die ber ihren drren ,gegenden 4444 wohnen40 ,,xiii1 #cib3 8so ist dieser ,begriff1 als allgemeiner ,volksglaube auf der ,erde40 ,,xiii1 #dbg3 8,priester- und ,volkstradition40 ,,xiii1 #dcg3 8,geschlechtstafel dieser ,stmme 4444 hlt sich in den ,schranken ihrer ,vlkerkunde und ihres ,erdstrichs40 ,,xiii1 #dch3 84444 widerspricht nicht nur der ,zeitrechnung und der gesammten ,vlkergeschichte40 ,,xv1 #abd3 8,damit ich mich des altdeutschen ,volksausdrucks bediene40 8,aus dem ,latein kam er ins ,englische ins ,deutsche1 wie mehrere ,wrter und noch ist er in der ,volkssprache40 ,herder is discussing the word ,priamel which he says is perhaps from the ,latin praeambulum4 ,volk in the two compounds must mean the less learned4 ,v1 #dic3 8nun msste der ,bewohner des ,schiffs und der ,kste der expatrirte ,seestreicher und ,vlkerlufer dem ,bewohner des ,zelts und der ,ackerhtte ein ganz anderes ,geschpf dnken40 ,v1 #eja3 8,vlkerrecht40 ,v1 #eae3 8,ihre ,feudaleinrichtung wie untergrub sie das ,gewhl ,volkreicher ppiger ,stdte40 ,the foregoing citations indicate two distinct senses in which ,herder uses the term ,volk3 ,volk is equivalent to nation2 nation carrying the idea of a group bound together by blood or language or government1 or by all three4 ,as such1 a ,volk is a collective personality1 has a marked individuality1 and is characterized by a national spirit4 #b4 7a7 ,volk is a race or a nation that never advanced beyond primitive grades of culture2 that therefore never was subject to what he considers the deteriorating and degrading effects of higher civilization2 7b7 ,volk is a group to be found within a civilized nation2 a group which has retained the primitivism just noted above4 ,primitivism then is characteristic of all ,volk included in section ,,ii4 ,this primitivism whether in the entire race or in a special portion is always eulogized4 ,these primitive specimens have the most pronounced racial individuality because civilization has not interfered with the influences of environment4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,conceptions ,,of ,,volk ,,as ,,gathered ,,from ,,herder',s ,,collection ,,of ,,volkslieder ,that ,herder's conception of that group of people which he calls ,volk bears relationship to a certain genre of poetry is implied in the fact that he first coined the word ,volkslied3 8,volkslied1 n4 von ,herder1 ,august1 #agga geprgt40 ,f4 ,l4 ,k4 ,weigand1 ,deutsches ,wrterbuch1 ,giessen2 ,verlag von ,alfred ,tpelmann1 #aiji4 8,volkslied zuerst von ,herder40 ,m4 ,heyne1 ,deutsches ,wrterbuch1 ,leipzig2 ,verlag von ,s4 ,hirzel1 #ahie4 ,herder himself has made a collection of specimens of this peculiar type of song4 ,according to his own statements these poems bear the distinguishing marks of that sort of people which he has in mind as being distinctively ,volk4 ,in his essay1 hnlichkeit der mittlern englischen und deutschen ,dichtkunst1 he says3 ,alle unpolizirte ,vlker singen und handeln2 was sie handeln singen sie und singen ,abhandlung4 ,ihre ,gesnge sind das ,archiv des ,volks der ,schatz ihrer ,wissenschaft und ,religion ihrer ,theogonie und ,kosmogenien der ,thaten ihrer ,vter und der ,begebenheiten ihrer ,geschichte1 ,abdruck ihres ,herzens1 ,bild ihres huslichen ,lebens in ,freude und ,leid1 beim ,brautbett und ,grabe4 ,herder's collections are from national bodies of people4 ,we ought to find among these groups of songs common factors which would not be found as such in that body of poetry which ,herder excludes as not being ,volk songs4 ,further1 we should be able to reduce these common factors to lowest terms which would embody some interpretation of ,herder's conception of ,volk3 8,das sind einmal alte ,nationalstcke die das ,volk singt1 und sang1 woraus man also die ,denkart des ,volks1 ihre ,sprache der ,empfindung kennen lernet40 ,,volk ,,songs ,,collected ,,by ,,herder ,,danish--,,four ,,pieces ,content--themes3 love1 marriage1 fairy tales4 ,form--rhythm and rhyme marked2 often irregular4 ,method of appeal--concrete4 ,,german--,,sixty-,,two ,,pieces ,content--themes3 love1 war1 religion1 dance1 court life1 rural life1 fairy tales1 domestic life4 ,form--rhythm and rhyme marked2 often irregular4 ,method of appeal--concrete pictures2 abstract thinking4 ,,english ,,and ,,scotch--,,three ,,pieces ,content--themes3 love1 war1 religion1 domestic life1 idyllic scenes1 court life1 vengeance1 ghost and fairy tales4 ,form--marked rhyme and rhythm2 blank verse1 irregular rhyme and rhythm4 ,method of appeal--concrete pictures2 abstract thinking2 deep reflecting2 dramatic presentations4 ,,esthonian--,,five ,,pieces ,content--themes3 love1 war1 marriage1 tyranny4 ,form--marked rhythm and rhyme4 ,method of appeal--somewhat concrete4 ,,french--,,thirteen ,,pieces ,content--themes3 love1 idyllic scenes1 court life1 domestic life1 phenomena of nature1 classic mythology4 ,form--marked rhyme and rhythm4 ,method of appeal--concrete pictures1 abstract thinking4 ,,gallic 7,,ossian7--,,six ,,pieces ,content--themes3 love1 war1 religion1 death1 personified nature4 ,form--little rhyme1 rhythm often marked but irregular4 ,method of appeal--concrete1 vivid visual and auditory pictures1 dramatic presentations4 ,,greek--,,seven ,,pieces ,content--themes3 friendship1 freedom1 marriage1 love4 ,form--rhyme and rhythm1 sometimes irregular4 ,method of appeal--direct and concrete4 ,,greenland--,,one ,,piece ,content--theme3 death4 ,form--parallelism4 ,methods of appeal--concrete4 ,,italian--,,five ,,pieces ,content--theme3 hope1 care1 springtime1 love4 ,form--rhythm regular4 ,method of appeal--concrete and abstract4 ,,lapland--,,two ,,pieces ,content--theme3 love for animals1 love4 ,form--rhythm regular4 ,method of appeal--concrete4 ,,latin--,,six ,,pieces ,content--theme3 temptation1 marriage1 religion4 ,form--rhythm1 rhyme1 sometimes irregular4 ,method of appeal--concrete1 abstract4 ,,lettic--,,five ,,pieces ,content--theme3 love1 marriage1 springtime1 lordship4 ,form--rhythm and rhyme4 ,method of appeal--concrete4 ,,lithuanian--,,nine ,,pieces ,content--love1 marriage1 war1 idyllic scenes1 fairy tales4 ,form--rhythm1 rhyme1 often irregular4 ,method of appeal--concrete pictures1 abstract thinking4 ,,skaldic--,,ten ,,pieces ,content--themes3 mythology1 battle4 ,form--rhythm is regular4 ,method of appeal--concrete1 rugged4 ,,peruvian--,,two ,,pieces ,content--theme3 mythological1 love4 ,form--rhyme irregular1 rhythm4 ,method of appeal--somewhat concrete4 ,,spanish--,,thirty-,,four ,,pieces ,content--themes3 love1 war1 religion1 court and city life4 ,form--rhyme and rhythm quite regular4 ,method of appeal--moralizing and abstract thinking4 ,few concrete pictures4 ,this investigation of these poems leads to the following3 ,each group of poems embodies an expression of personality1 individuality which grows out of peculiar environment2 not merely physical environment1 but also social1 political1 and religious environment4 ,each1 either in content1 form1 or in its method of appeal1 sometimes in all three1 bears traces of the milieu out of which it sprung4 ,the notes of waning glory and ancestral lament of ,ossian gain their character from a different period in the life of the nation from that recorded in the ,moorish battle songs in the ,spanish collection4 ,the ruggedness of the ,skaldic poetry bespeaks a roughness in climate and scenery not to be found in the ,french poems4 ,the mythology of the ,scotch ,highlanders and of the ,norsemen1 depicted in their poetry1 is different indeed from the ,mohammedanism of which the ,spanish pieces speak4 ,the ,english and ,german songs which are characterized by ,christian customs are colored neither by ,mohammedanism1 ,gallic1 nor ,classic mythology4 ,the deep reflective moods of the ,shakespeare specimens grew out of a social and intellectual environment entirely the opposite of that in which the concrete and vivid pictures of many of ,percy's ,reliques had their birth4 ,in all this difference1 the common feature is that individuality is expressed4 ,individual traits appear within each group4 ,racial consciousness distinguishes one group from the other4 ,now personality and individuality are corner stones in ,herder's system of thought4 ,his discussion of ,lessing's 8,laokoon0 sets forth the principle that true art will be characterized by these4#i ,herder's philosophy is also emphatic in showing that all art is shaped by the environment out of which it grew4 ,the essays 8,shakespeare10 8,homer und ,ossian10 and 8,vom ,geist der ,ebrischen ,poesie0 are replete with such thought4 ,the art of every nation then will bear national imprint4 ,the national stamp1 this expression of personality and individuality1 both products of various kinds of environment1 belongs to ,herder's conception of ,volk wherever the idea is identical with that of nation or race4 ,now the preceding chapter has shown that however often ,herder uses the term as synonymous with nation or race1 he has also a distinctive and a sort of esoteric use4 ,the evidence that poetry has been shaped by environment and expresses the individual consciousness of a group of people cannot be taken as conclusive evidence that the group from which it emanated belongs to ,herder's ,volk of the specific type1 for ,herder excludes from the category of ,volkslieder that poetry which bears the imprint of scholastic and pedantic cultural milieu to the extent that certain primitive traits find no expression4 ,another common factor1 then1 must be sought which is distinctive of people in this more restricted sense4 ,the way in which the material is presented is what ,i have called in my analysis of the pieces 8the method of appeal40 ,there is no common basis on which we can place the specimens viewing them from this side4 ,many of them present vivid visual and auditory pictures4 ,many others are marked by abstract thinking or sober reflection4 ,some are dramatic presentations1 others are simple descriptions4 ,some are cold moralizing2 others expressions of strong emotions4 ,all of these selections are in some kind of rhythmic form4 ,it may be parallelism1 rhythmical blank verse1 or marked feet and rhyme4 ,but we cannot make use of this as a very definite factor1 since many specimens are translations which cannot preserve the original exactly4 ,however1 we have in the original the ,english and ,scotch1 the ,ossian and the ,german collections4 ,all of these present a form of rhythm which is usually so irregular that it would not meet the demands for measured feet1 verses1 and rhyme to be found in the highly polished and formal poetry4 ,now in his discussion of rhythmic forms in poetry ,herder indicates that the human love for rhythm has its foundations in the physiological processes and symmetry of the body3 ,der ,pulsschlag der ,natur1 dies ,athemholen der ,empfindung ist in allen ,reden des ,affekts 444 in der ,poesie 444 die doch eigentlich ,rede des ,affekts seyn soll4 ,the people who produced this poetry1 then1 were close to nature in their forms of rhythmical speech4 ,the content of these poems remains to be considered4 ,among the ,esthonian pieces is a little love song which ,herder has heard the harvesters sing at work4 ,it is idyllic in setting4 ,thoughts of love are all-abounding4 ,happiness amidst rural scenes is common among all nations4 8,knig ,ludwig0 is an ,old ,high ,german battle song which interweaves thoughts of ,god and religion2 subjects which never cease to engage the attention of mankind4 ,wiegenlied einer unglcklichen ,mutter1 a ,scotch mother's song of unfaithful love2 the poem has a setting in domestic life4 ,litthauische ,daina--song of the departure of a young bride who goes to her new home2 domestic life and custom are the themes4 ,there is sadness at leaving the home of her girlhood4 ,these embody expressions of common1 human feelings4 ,a number of the ,spanish songs have their scenes laid in the city and at court2 but they sing of love1 vengeance1 and jealousy--all of which are intensely human4 ,erlknigs ,tochter1 is a ,danish piece which sings of elves4 ,thoughts of the supernatural are among all mankind4 ,frhlingslied1 is an ,italian piece which rejoices at the coming of the flowers and birds and the budding of the trees4 ,this season always awakens human happiness4 ,rschen auf der ,heide presents personified nature4 ,such personification is among all men4 ,totenlied comes from ,greenland4 ,all peoples bemoan and eulogize their dead in song4 ,tanzlied is ,german4 ,nearly every collection has pieces which present the rhythm and joyous emotions of the dance4 ,this kind of pleasure is common among all races4 ,the songs from ,ossian tell of departed ancestors and heroes4 ,the sentiment expressed is universal4 ,from ,shakespeare appears such things as ,hamlet's ,probe einer schauderhaften ,metaphysik ber ,tod und ,leben4 ,macbeths schreckliche ,dolchscene2 is there any human breast in which the sentiments involved in these deep reflections have not sometimes found a place8 ,now it is what ,herder himself says in introducing these selections from ,shakespeare which justifies us in making the content1 the theme of his whole collection of ,volk songs1 the common ground upon which they all meet4 8,in ,shakespear gibts von jeder kleinen ,nuance der menschlichen ,denkart und ,stimme ,proben oder vielmehr lebende ,naturartungen3 und so fange das berhmte ,selbstgesprch ,hamlets an1 was man schon ,prosaisch in unsrer ,sprache hat40 ,herder's collection of ,volk poetry embraces as themes3 love1 war1 religion1 domestic life1 idyllic scenes1 vengeance1 court life1 ghost tales1 fairy tales1 marriage1 mythology1 phenomena of nature1 death1 personified nature1 freedom1 the dance1 the seasons1 and hero and ancestral veneration4 ,these embody sentiments universal among mankind2 feelings which are fundamental in the human breast2 thoughts which are innate in humanity4 ,that which is universal1 fundamental1 and innate is natural4 ,these songs find a response among the people from whom they arose because these people are products of unhampered nature4 ,both rhythm and content lead to this conclusion according to ,herder's conception4 ,volk as seen from this angle1 then1 are either a primitive people or a group within a people representing advanced stages of civilization1 which group has still retained the methods of thinking1 the feelings1 the modes of expression1 and the tastes of primitive people4 ,we get from ,herder's collection of ,volkslieder1 then1 two conceptions of ,volk3 7#a7 ,volk1 a collective personality resulting from the development of individual consciousness into community individuality and consciousness2 7#b7 ,volk1 a primitive people or1 within a civilized nation1 a section1 which has maintained certain natural fundamental and primitive characteristics4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,conceptions ,,of ,,volk ,,in ,,herder',s ,,discussion ,,of 8,,ossian',s ,,people0 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,ancient ,,hebrews ,herder has discussed1 in connection with two groups of poetry which he distinctly calls ,volkspoesie1 each race from which the particular collection arose4 ,both directly and indirectly he presents in each of these peoples the peculiar characteristics by which he identifies a community with his ideal conception of ,volk4 ,in his collection of ,volk songs he has presented literature from many and varied peoples of the earth1 but he has discussed at length1 to show the traits which stamp their ,volkspoesie as such1 only two of these groups4 ,an examination of the common factors which the author sees as essential elements of each of these races ought to give us in one form his conception of ,das ,volk4 ,the two races are3 7#a7 ,those whom he believes to be the ancient ,gauls1 from whom we have the collection known as 8,the ,songs of ,ossian0#aj2 7#b7 the ancient ,hebrews4#aa ,,ossian ,herder places the people among whom this body of literature arose in the islands known as the 8,hebrides10 in the highlands of ,scotland1 and in ,ireland4 ,rugged mountains covered with roaring forests or spotted with desert tracts surround the inhabitants4 ,mists and clouds1 midnight and storm1 abound both on mountain tops and in the intervening valleys4 ,their huts are bordered by rocks and narrowly shut in by foggy darkness or from rough cliffs2 they overlook the sea4 ,at the time at which we see them these highland dwellers look often upon wilderness full of sacred views1 upon battlefields1 lonesome graves1 and blotted-out footsteps4 ,these old ,highlanders believed in an all-high ,being1 whom they conceived to be self-existing4 ,the cloud was the dwelling place of patriotism and love4 ,the voice of renown1 that is of song sung by friends yet alive to the honor of their departed ones1 still highly esteemed1 introduced these departed to their ancestors4 ,with a sigh and tear as password1 they were received at once into the smiling presence of their forefathers1 who had clear1 transparent figures like to the curled clouds4 ,their hands were weak1 their voices deep and soft4 ,they swayed themselves over the entire abode of their race and rejoiced in boundless space4 ,space they prized above everything else4 ,fright and horror were considered as narrow and shut in4 ,hence they called the grave the narrow house1 and weak courage1 the breath of a narrow soul4 ,the noble dead never became old1 but grew constantly wiser because they conversed with the good of other times4 ,on the other hand1 the souls of the wicked were driven whirling into a thick fog which always hung over an offensive smelling morass4 ,they never came out of this fog1 and never saw the sun4 ,one did not know the name of the other4 ,the black water of the morass lake was their only converse2 the voice of the ,heron and the quacking of ducks their music4 ,ossian's folk attributed every sudden death to an invisible hand which threw a stone out of the clouds and which they called an 8arrow of the destroying woman40 8,their chief conception of the highest being was that it governs the clouds and heavenly bodies and rejoices at bravery and fortune of mankind2 that it remained ever invisible 444 that the entire earth out of fear would like to catch and imprison it40 ,the dead were mourned in funeral dirges sung on the graves of the departed2 in the case of heroes1 often amid battle tumult1 these songs were directed to ancestral heroes who awaited the dead in the clouds4 ,one of their myths which ,herder extracts from ,ossian shows a certain phase of their religion3 8,as they sing in the moonlight to the moon goddess1 ,mona1 this maiden of the heavens comes with gentle movement1 with silent1 beautiful cheek2 her playmates1 the stars1 stand in rows to receive her2 the clouds bordered with gold trip before them as servants2 she outshines all her rivals so that they blush and conceal themselves in veils4 ,on such an occasion as this the hero ,ossian turns his sad song to the thought1 ,how would it be if she should once disappear from the heavens1 if she should then go into her little hut to cry and cry as he does8 ,he wonders if she like him has lost friends1 and he begins to comfort the beautiful girl and to cheer her up so that she quite joyfully smiles again40 ,the family feeling is strong1 and it is the foundation of nearly all good feeling toward fatherland and friend1 tribe and neighbor4 ,there are common among these people scenes full of innocence1 of friendship1 of fatherly1 brotherly1 in fact family1 love in general4 ,fingal is hero and leader but also lover1 bridegroom1 husband1 friend1 father4 ,ossian is warrior1 but also son of noble ,fingal1 and in this very relation the singer of the praises of his ancestors1 of his friends1 of his brothers1 of his sons4 ,it is out of the sadness of separated loved ones that we hear the most touching tones and the harp is made to resound to praises sung to ancestors4 ,although these tribes are said to be wild1 they are in many respects closely bound to customs and forms4 ,the harp is their musical instrument to whose touching tones their legends are fitted into song4 ,herder points out that the stage in the history of ,ossian's people from which this collection of poetry wins its character is the time of the extinction of the race of heroes of whom ,ossian the brave is the chief and sad singer4 ,he is the last of his courageous tribe2 the witness to the deeds of noted ,fingal and his colleagues2 the departing voice of a heroic age to its weaker descendants4 ,his mournful strains are accompanied by no awakening call for an age yet to come4 ,his race was not1 like ,homer's on ,ionian shores1 a growing people in the dawn of splendor looking toward a flowering in the future4 ,the cause of the mournful strain in the life of ,ossian's race may have been subjection by a foreign power or the invasion of monks bringing the ,christian religion4 ,the poems suggest both4 ,ossian's songs must have had a powerful effect upon the people out of whose midst they grew4 ,as long as there were bards this people's strength was irrepressible4 ,but now we see a patient1 subject race trying to revive itself on the renown and happy existence of departed ancestors4 ,when ,herder brings to our attention the difference between the mournful tones of ,ossian and the arousing strains of ,homer1 when he reminds us of the differing stages of history commemorated by each1 the points entirely unlike at which each writer halts and from which he extracts for his art character1 he sets forth a definite theory2 namely1 that each writer1 speaking as his people would speak1 characterizes his poetry with the individual content and feeling of his race2 that each race has its personality1 and each spontaneously expresses this personality in its song3 ,und ,ossian8 ,es ist ungerecht von einem ,baume ,frchte zu erwarten1 die er1 seiner ,art nach1 nicht bringen kann2 ,ossian sei an seinem ,orte das was ,homer war2 nur stand er auf einer ganz andern ,stelle4 ,in jedem ,lande bildet sich der ,volksgesang nach innnern und ussern ,veranlassungen der ,nation4 ,the eye and the ear of these people are wide open to every sight and sound which their physical environment presents4 ,the ear is strong1 quick1 lasting2 the eye keen1 embracing1 receptive4 ,a certain perceptual power expressed in alertness1 boldness1 and noble aspect pervaded their entire being4 ,according to ,herder's philosophy1 as expressed in ,erkennen und ,empfinden1 the senses present to the mind pictures which receive the stamp of feeling and which in turn are given back through some medium of expression4 ,in ,ossian1 the material for these pictures is first and foremost ,nature2 ,nature robed in the peculiar majesty of the north4 ,the sun is a rash youth1 the moon a maiden who has had as sisters other moons in the heavens4 ,the evening star is a lovely boy who comes out1 winks1 and goes away again4 ,all objects are personified1 filled with life and movement1 whether it be wind or wave1 or even the down of a thistle4 ,as soon as possible the object itself becomes a voice1 and we hear moanings of sadness and songs of the harp4 ,these figures are often of the mist1 coming out of clouds through which the stars twinkle4 ,ossian sings1 also1 deeds1 happenings of history1 the bygone fates of forefathers1 and old legends4 ,in outline all these pictures are delineations1 which are snappy1 strong1 manly1 abrupt1 wild1 lively4 ,they are not painted in detail1 and their content does not stream forth slowly in regular and measured intervals4 ,less harsh and wild are they1 however1 than the songs of the so-called 8,northmen10 because ,ossian's soul possesses a charm giving out lonesomeness1 love1 and gentleness mingled with courage and strength of feeling4 ,the language is crisp1 short1 true1 and exact1 and penetrates by its simplicity4 ,a single word literally seizes a whole thought and the two break forth together upon a voice tender and sad4 ,when the singer would exhort his comrades to courage1 he painted his pictures through tones that fell upon the ear4 ,in general1 ,ossian makes us see and hear the living world in scenes that pass quickly1 singly1 one by one1 without arranging themselves in a regular and formal procession4 ,rough1 strong sublimity is their character4 ,the colors which burst upon the eye and the tones which storm the ear come forth without premeditation and polish2 the natural outlet of a people to whom nature has given an eye and heart and mind for wild beauty1 and in whom manners1 customs1 and language of civilization have wrought no marring effects4 ,these peoples see and feel1 but they do not think and ponder4 ,here ,herder makes spontaneity a child of unwarped nature4 ,,the ,,ancient ,,hebrews ,herder applies his studies to the ,hebrew people as he finds them in their earliest habitations4 ,from his analysis of formative forces and of the peculiar personality resulting from these influences we have what follows3 ,the physical features of the lands with which the ,hebrews were familiar were varied enough to give them a rather complete natural history of the earth4 ,they understood the subsiding of water that left mountains above them and valleys in between these4 ,they saw that waters coursed through the valleys and made fertile plains4 ,they knew how springs gush forth from rocks and trees grow on the banks of rivers4 ,they knew both the sea and the desert4 ,the summer sun brought calm waters and the cold winds forged fetters of ice4 ,the palm tree and the cedar1 the olive and the grape1 grew in these lands4 ,the variety of animals seems to imply a wide and varied expanse of territory4 ,the crane1 the turtledove1 the eagle1 the raven1 the stork1 the ostrich1 the lion1 the wild ox1 perhaps the elephant and the rhinoceros1 as well as most of our common domestic birds and other animals1 frequented these environments4 ,herder conceives of this entire milieu as a world in which the dawn of human life was arising out of dark night1 and giving way to the broad daylight in which water and air1 earth and sea1 mountain and forest1 were in the fullest view and most powerful working4 ,the strong contrasts of oriental skies wrought through light and darkness their sharpest outlines4 ,the mild climate was perhaps the most beautiful in the world1 and produced the simplest needs of life with little labor on the part of the inhabitants4 ,with fertile river valleys in addition1 which furnished grazing lands1 it was natural that one of the earliest grades of civilization should arise here--the shepherd folk4 ,although these people had a civilization that was early circumscribed1 it nevertheless presupposes some cultivation4 ,even the shepherd state cannot exist without arts and fixed customs4 ,the ,hebrews in this shepherd state had developed family bonds and fixed the ruling power of the father in domestic life4 ,they had domesticated animals1 and developed tender feelings toward them4 ,let us look at the moral and mental traits due to this physical and social environment4 ,the eye developed clearness and acuteness1 a vivid sensitiveness2 it saw every leaf1 every blade of grass1 the plains and valleys1 the waters in outline and expanse1 the planets and the broad ether in which they hung1 and it distinguished every movement4 ,the ear heard the delicate rustlings of branches and bows1 as well as the roar of winds1 the smallest raindrop1 and the rush of mighty waters4 ,every sense was thus developed to a finesse which left no phenomenon of nature unobserved4 ,these sense impressions were impregnated with the feelings and carrying these effects of feelings they passed onward to the mind and made mental pictures of a kind which correspond to the character of the imprint made by the feelings4 ,then these made-over pictures were given back to the world in the sublime language found in the ,old ,testament4 ,it is in these pictures1 in this investing of free nature with the power to feel1 that we see the texture and depth of feeling which are an essential part of the personality of this group4 ,they saw the dawn rising out of darkness4 ,they felt that the phenomenon was due to a cause superior to any power in man4 ,they could not account for the beginnings of mankind4 ,the consciousness of limitations of their own knowledge and the awe for the unknown first cause turned the actual darkness and dawn and full daylight into chaotic emptiness1 a ray of light at the beginning of creation and a completed work at the end of six days--a wonderful personality directing it all4 ,they saw the trees and the plants thriving in their own spheres1 and they attributed to them life impulses given them by the sympathy and love and directing force of special geniuses1 the messengers of ,god4 ,the stars were light2 they had undeceiving brightness and constant courses4 ,they stamped the sense impression of them with the feeling of worshipful joy1 of rhythm which became music and dancing1 and so it was that the stars became the daughters that shouted about the throne of the ,great ,ruler4 ,at times they assigned to them the sense of power for defense in well-ordered numbers of individuals1 and the stars became an army ready to do battle for ,god4 ,again they were his willing servants and messengers4 ,they saw the heavens stretching from horizon to horizon1 and everything in creation working in its own sphere with regularity and order4 ,their own feeling for system1 harmonious working in family and tribal circles1 pictured ,god in paternal relations2 a householder who stretched his great tent by fastening it to the outmost borders of the earth1 and opened and arranged therein the treasures of his household4 ,they heard a light rustle of leaves and imprinted upon it the feeling of gentleness and kindness1 and it became a messenger of ,god1 an angel4 ,they heard the thunder and their shuddering gloom translated it into the voice of an angry ,god4 ,they listened to their own heartbeats and transferred their rhythm to their own speech1 for we may account for the free light rhythm in their songs by comparing it with the systole and diastole of the heart and the movements of the breath in the physiological processes of inspiration and expiration4 ,their national pride and national joy found expression in collective song which might either glorify ,god or invoke their own well-being4 ,such song is at one and the same time inspiration and expression4 ,in general1 their poetic language draws concise analogy between the objects of creation and the qualities and attributes of the creator of these things4 ,it lingers over single images1 repeats them1 wonders at them1 and finally gives them forth with a vigorous tongue incapable of empty words4 ,these souls so entirely formed by the sights and sounds of nature blended with inner feeling give a secret1 mystical significance touched with the finest spiritual sense to the pictures and parallels which they produce4 ,we have here a peculiar race type living close to crude nature1 an individuality which is shaped by this primitive milieu and which expresses itself in sharp and strong outlines in its art4 ,the most marked feature of this individuality is the spontaneity in its expression4 ,the common factors to be drawn from this exposition1 which contribute to the interpretation of ,herder's general conception of ,volk are3 #a4 ,the physical environment of both groups was primeval nature2 i4e41 a material world that had undergone very few of the changes which may be wrought by the arts and crafts of what we term higher stages of civilization4 ,kurz wir sind mit ,denkart1 ,sprache1 ,sitten des ,jahrhunderts so weit aus ,ossians ,natur heraus1 als unsre ,stdte1 ,hfe1 ,pallste1 ,schulgebude keine ,schottische rauhen ,gebrge1 unsre ,gesellschaftskreise und ,zerstreuungen im ,museum kein ,tanz unter rauschenden ,bumen4#ab ,als ,gesetzgeber wirkte ,moses auf den ,geist seines ,volks mit ,riesenstrke4 ,dass er sie zum ,acker- und ,hirtenvolk machte1 und so viel es seyn konnte1 ,handel u4 ,eroberung ausschloss4 ,land- und ,hirtenmssig ist ihre ,poesie dem grssten ,theile nach4 ,lndlich sind ihre ,bilder1 im ,hirten- und ,ackerleben der grsste ,reichtum ihrer ,sprache4#ac #b4 ,both races were subject to powerful control by this physical environment3 ,alle ,gesnge solcher wilden ,vlker weben um daseiende ,gegenstnde1 ,handlungen1 ,begebenheiten1 um eine lebendige ,welt4#ad ,und alle hat das ,auge gesehen6 ,die ,seele stellt sie sich vor6 ,das setzt ,sprnge und ,wrfe3#ae ,ihre ,ideen sind voll starker ,contraste1 voll ,licht und ,dunkel1 voll ,ruhe und ,arbeit3 dies ist der ,character des morgenlndischen ,himmels1 und des ,genius seiner ,nationen4#af ,wenn die ,biblischen ,dichter von den ,schneegssen des ,libanon2 vom ,thau des ,hermon2 von den ,eichen ,basans2 vom prchtigen ,libanon1 und angenehmen ,carmel reden2 so geben sie ,bilder1 die ihnen die ,natur selbst vorgestellt hat4#ag #c4 ,among both1 their ideas of ,god and their religion were interwoven with personified nature3 ,darthula4 ,ein ,gesang an die ,mondgttin 7,mona1 ,mana1 7 vielleicht der schnste1 der je im ,mondschein gesungen worden4#ah ,solche ,bilder und ,ideen1 als uns auch nur die ersten ,kapitel ,moses gewhren4 ,hier ist als ob ,einer der ,elohim selbst1 der ,genius der ,menschheit unsichtbar lehrte 4444 und singet den ,menschen1 seinem unsichtbaren ,vater und ,schpfer gleich4#ai #d4 ,both were races of people with keen1 strong1 exact senses3 4444 der rauhe ,schotte ,ossian8 ,er sang lebendig1 und strmte also in den kurzen ,augenblicken lebendiger ,stimme auf ,herz und ,ohr2 fr matte ,augen im ,lehnstuhl1 4444 wollte er nie in der ,welt solche schne klassische ,augenweide schaffen4#bj ,bilderrede und ,gesang also sind die beiden ,hauptforten der ,poesie der ,ebrer2 4444 sie sind ,poesie frs ,auge und ,ohr1 durch welche beide sie das ,herz besnftigen oder bestrmen4#ba #e4 ,the members of both races had1 as innate characteristics1 rapid and direct interaction between sensation1 feeling1 imagination1 and expression3 ,wir sind freilich in der ganzen ,denkart unsres ,jahrhunderts zu weit von ,ossian ab4 ,mehr an eine ,kette raffinirter ,vorstellungen1 leichter ,abstraktionen angenehmer ,penses und ,reflexionen gewhnt1 fals an den rauhen ,schrei der ,leidenschaft1 khner ,hinwrfe einer starkgetrofnen ,einbildung1 und einer wsten1 starken ,gestalt der ,seele4#bb ,seine ,muse ist ,tochter der ,natur auf ihren wildesten ,hhen erzogen1 aber rasch1 khn1 edeln ,ansehens1 nur mit natrlichem ,reitze geschmckt und im ,tanze der ,natur hinfliegend4#bb ,sehen ,sie ,hiob4 ,die ,erde war ein ,pallast4444 ,der ,ocean ward1 wie ein ,kind1 gebohren und gewindelt3 das ,morgenroth handelte1 die ,blitze sprachen4#bc #f4 ,in general1 the texture resulting from control of the individual by forces of nature unchanged by human interference is in both peoples fitly correlated with functioning2 i4e41 spontaneity is innately and intrinsically their nature4 ,homers ,rhapsodien und ,ossians ,lieder waren gleichsam impromptus1 weil man damals noch von ,nichts als impromptus der ,rede wusste4#bd ,nun ist bei den ,ebrern beinahe ,alles ,verbum3 d4i4 alles lebt und handelt4#be ,alles in ihr ruft3 444 ich lebe1 bewege mich1 wirke4 ,mich erschuffen ,sinne und ,leidenschaften1 nicht abstrakte ,denken und ,philosophen4#bf ,with all these points in common1 ,ossian's people and the ancient ,hebrews1 as portrayed in ,herder's analysis of their poetry1 differ from each other as races in religion and in social customs4 ,they show us different habitats4 ,they depict different historical epochs and scenes4 ,but that which is common in all this difference is1 according to ,herder1 that each has a personality of its own which characterizes its art4 ,in jedem ,lande bildet sich der ,volksgesang nach innern und ussern ,veranlassungen der ,nation4 ,ossians ,gedichte bezeichnen den ,herbst seines ,volkes4 ,die ,bltter frben und krmmen sich2 sie falben und fallen4 ,der ,lufthauch1 der sie ablset1 hat keine ,erguickung des ,frhlinges in sich2 sein ,spiel indessen ist traurig 444 angenehm mit den sinkenden ,blttern4#bg ,gesetzt1 wir konnten alles dies wissen2 singen wir denn fr ,juden die sich fr das einzige ,volk ,gottes hielten8444 ,von allen ,vlkern der ,erde abgesondert1 brachte es seinem ,schutzgott ,nationalgesnge4#bh ,es verdient fast nicht bemerkt zu werden 444 dass man die poetischen ,bilder und ,empfindungen keines ,volks und keiner ,zeit nach dem ,regelmaas eines andern ,volks1 einer andern ,zeit zu beurteilen1 zu tadeln1 zu verwerfen habe4#bi ,,chapter ,v ,,foundations ,,of ,,individuality ,,and ,,personality ,,in ,,herder ,herder as philosopher was concerned more with practical and concrete applications of his principles than with dogmas and abstract theories4 ,the following brief investigation of purely philosophical discussions is made with a view of determining how he applies his philosophy to this definite anthropological conception4 ,in his ,gesprche ber ,spinozas ,system ,herder sets forth much of his own religious philosophy4 ,a passage in the second dialogue substitutes for the word 8attributes0 the word 8forces0 in expounding one of ,spinoza's postulates4 ,the passage then reads3 8,the ,godhead reveals itself in an infinite number of forces and in an infinite number of ways40 ,it is with the word for forces that we are concerned at this point--,kraft1 ,krfte4 ,this same word ,herder uses in discussing the fundamental life-principle in the world at large1 which is the theme of his first few sections in the essay entitled3 ,vom ,erkennen und ,empfinden in ihrem menschlichen ,ursprunge und den ,gesetzen ihrer ,wrkung4 ,these ,krfte1 these 8modifications of ,god10 find their impulse to operate in a stimulus1 beyond the material form of which ,herder cannot go4 ,herder's philosophy plants itself from the beginning quite firmly on material foundations4 ,he says that in the qualities which are constantly designated by such words as heavy1 thrust1 fall1 movement1 rest1 strength1 even power of inertia1 is implied a life-principle1 a soul4 ,any close observation of nature must show that the great working power of nature is everywhere the same1 and it is the analogy between the processes of the material world in general and the phenomena in the human organism in particular which can give the clearest insight into the great life-principle4 ,this study by analogous reasoning is not artificial1 ,man cannot avoid feeling the similarity between himself and external nature4 ,human beings must of necessity1 he continues1 vitalize everything about them with their own feelings4 ,the feelings then are strongly instrumental in man's interpretation of the world about him4 ,i4 ,,stimulus ,the first phase of feeling which ,herder considers is ,reiz or stimulus4 ,the peculiar phenomenon of stimulus says he1 which may be seen in the smallest1 most delicate filaments of plants1 causing them to contract and expand1 and bespeaking a sort of feeling is due to the same law which controls the most complicated feelings and passions of the human being4 ,this all-pervading law of stimulus ,herder finds in the action of physical heat and cold1 which he makes parallel in its working with pleasure and pain respectively4 ,pain1 disturbance by something foreign1 contracts2 the strength collects1 increases for resistance1 and takes its stand again4 ,well-being and pleasure--warmth--expands1 makes for calmness1 placidity1 enjoyment1 and release4 ,that which is expansion and contraction in dead nature1 the result of warmth and cold1 seems to be here the obscure seed of stimulus and feeling in man4 ,the 8world-all10 the entire feeling1 nature of human beings and animals moves in this ebb and flood of warmth and cold4 ,the power to expand and contract which is the effect of this heat and cold1 pleasure and pain1 ,herder makes the fundamental principle of the power for self-nutriment4 ,this power is nothing external or mechanical1 in which case it would not be life4 ,the plant structure of organic fibers which takes in life from the surrounding elements does so through its own activities4 ,the power to escape its enemies and to make over all its nourishment into differentiated parts lies within the plant4 ,the complicated body of the animal likewise has this stimulus to seek the nutrition essential for life within3 hunger and thirst are powerful exciting forces4 ,when he applies his theories to man1 he calls love the most powerful stimulus to life4 ,herder ascribes to the plant something in addition to the stimulus to seek nutrition when he recognizes that intelligence in plant structures which selects only such elements as fit the peculiar needs for its development after its kind4 ,he does not succeed in getting rid entirely of the external in operating the organism2 he sees in breathing a kind of time-beating by which nature swings the machine1 and here nature is without1 for she breathes upon the machine1 in this harmonious way1 the spirit of life4 ,thus far ,herder has recognized the existence of a stimulus in the vegetable and animal kingdoms1 which is in reality a life-principle4 ,this life-principle is not only the monitor over the feelings1 but merges into them and becomes the stuff of which feelings are made4 ,what is the relation of these indefinable and unanalyzed stimuli to the feelings8 ,since the passions which surround the heart find their roots in the finest fibers of the physical structure1 the degree to which these fibers are stimulated determines the degree to which the feelings will be excited and will express themselves4 ,love1 courage1 anger1 and bravery are in proportion to the stimulus of the heart and the collaborating parts3 8,die ,innigkeit1 ,tiefe und ,ausbreitung mit der wir ,leidenschaften empfangen1 verarbeiten und fortpflanzen macht uns zu den flachen oder tiefen ,gefssen die wir sind40 ,the forcefulness of thought is likewise dependent upon the vigor of this obscure stimulus1 for no thought1 says he1 can reach the brain unless feeling in its proper physical connection has preceded it4 ,and just here our philosopher lays the very roots of individuality4 ,the degree to which the fibers are stimulated is the beginning of the operations which will end in producing an aggregate of properties peculiar to an individual4 ,,ii4 ,,senses ,by this inductive method1 which develops fundamentally a philosophy of evolution1 ,herder finds that the senses are a nerve-structure developed to meet the waves of stimulus from without and feeling from within and to differentiate them more finely than did the fibers which worked only in a general way4 ,but the law is the same4 ,the nerves of every sense operate according to the same law by which the fibers contract and expand4 ,the nerves advance to meet pleasant agreeable things1 but recede from and resist unpleasant things4 ,now ,herder observes that something other than the organ of sense and the external objects must operate to produce sensation in at least two of the senses4 ,he sees a certain mental bond without which sight and hearing could not go to the object nor the object to the senses2 this common substance1 he says1 is light1 a substance which has the peculiarity of taking just so much from creation as the two end organs can receive4 ,but this light as a medium is a requisite for the finer senses only4 ,there are coarser senses1 fibers1 and stimuli which cannot be brought into action thus4 ,they can feel only in themselves1 for the object must come to them1 touch them1 and1 to a certain extent1 be one with them4 ,herder is explicit in connecting individual character with the senses4 ,the contribution which each sense makes to the soul cannot with any two human beings be the same in kind1 strength1 depth1 and breadth4 ,there are many proofs of this4 ,seeing and hearing1 which furnish most of the material for thinking1 are seldom in one individual with the same degree of training or of natural force4 ,this will not only account for inequalities of the senses evinced in all forms of expression in a single individual1 but for such inequalities among groups and races4 ,for1 he continues1 imaginative power in which thoughts and feelings disport themselves is made of the flowing together of sense impressions4 ,this is ,plato's thought also when he objects to making knowledge mere sense-perception because it would make a different standard of knowledge for each man4 ,socrates in ,theaetetus quotes ,protagoras on the same point3 8,sensations are relative and individual40 ,one scarcely needs to be reminded here of ,herder's thorough acquaintance with ,greek philosophy4 ,the way from a sensation to thought is through the nerve-structure of sense organs1 these nerve-structures furnishing just such a medium between the object of sensation on the one hand and thinking and willing on the other1 as does light between the object of sense and the visual and auditory organs4 ,never losing sight of the physiological element in his psychology1 ,herder tells us that the soul has grown out of the body1 and has so outgrown the body that soul has become the monarch over that1 without which soul could not exist4 ,all its thinking grows out of feeling1 and this feeling out of a body having in its command manifold obscure forces administered to by variously endowed 8servants0 and 8messengers40 ,,iii4 ,,knowing ,,and ,,willing ,herder denies that anything in the way of knowledge comes back to the soul out of the platonic fore-world1 and abstract egoism1 he says1 is opposed to truth and the open course of nature4 ,just as all of the soul's knowing depends upon obscure stimuli and forces having their foundations in the body and leading to sensations and then to reasoning1 so her willing comes from these as a natural sequence of her knowing4 ,any knowing without willing would be false and incomplete4 ,if knowing is only a deep feeling of truth1 who is going to see truth and at the same time be blind to it--know goodness and not will to do it8 ,every single passion or feeling thus knowing the good would at the same time will the good4 ,herder is emphatic about the interdependence of these two4 ,just as no knowing is without willing1 no willing is without knowing2 they are only one energy of the soul4 ,this suggests ,socrates in the ,protagoras1 as he argues that men would always do good if they knew the good4 8,no man voluntarily pursues evil or that which he thinks to be evil4 ,to prefer evil to good is not in human nature40 ,briefly summarizing3 ,herder finds his stimulus the same everywhere in the material world4 ,it is the principle of life since it impels to self-nutriment and reproduction4 ,it works by the same law in both body and soul4 ,variations of it in degree are the foundations for individuality and personality4 ,all that is true of feeling for essentially stimulus becomes feeling4 ,out of all this ,herder arrives at the conclusion3 8,der tiefste ,grund unseres ,daseyns ist individuell1 sowohl in ,empfindungen als ,gedanken40 ,the distinctive personal and individual character whose foundations have just been traced1 according to our author1 can not come to its fullest development except as a component part in a larger self-conscious and self-directing entity which he calls 8humanity40 ,this humanity as a whole1 and the relation of the individual to it1 is discussed in the collections ,briefe zur ,befrderung der ,humanitt4 ,an emphatic tone regarding personality and individuality as characteristics of the group pervades these letters4 ,existence as a self-conscious being which develops into group consciousness ,herder finds rooted in human frailty4 ,primitive man1 to himself and enigma1 he observes1 when comparing his visible condition1 his natural capacities1 his will-power with enduring nature1 was forced to a feeling of weakness1 to a sense of mortal existence2 he finds himself of the earth1 a fragile house of clay4 ,sympathy then and the realization of one's duty to one's fellow-men began here4 ,but the consciousness of frailty led also to a knowledge of our powers and abilities1 to a sense of our calling and our duties1 and brought us to a deep consideration of human nature4 ,the group is always striving toward an ideal pattern which is 8the character of the race10 and1 again1 this character is in the individual2 for1 says ,herder1 he who does not make the best of himself cannot assist the sum total of the race4 ,the author states the idea when he says that it is according to the sacred laws of nature that man is a complete unit in himself1 and at the same time an important element of groups each a consistent part of larger groups which make the sum total of humanity4 ,man is friend1 citizen1 husband1 father2 fellow-citizen1 finally1 in the great city of ,god on earth4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,eighteenth ,,century ,,in ,,herder',s ,,conception ,,of ,,das ,,volk ,herder1 by numerous references and discussions1 in which he is definite and explicit as to name and theories1 shows a thorough acquaintance with the various schools of philosophy which were influential throughout the century in which he lived4 ,among those whose names occur many times in his works are3 ,roger ,bacon ,francis ,bacon ,baumgarten ,berkeley ,boileau ,bolingbroke ,condillac ,descartes ,diderot ,hume ,kant ,leibniz ,locke ,montaigne ,montesquieu ,newton ,rousseau ,shaftesbury ,spinoza ,voltaire ,wolf ,these are philosophers whose expressions of thought left their traces either vaguely or deeply upon the enlightenment period and1 as already said1 whom ,herder knew well4 ,but the doctrines of many of these men converged4 ,of others1 the principles were developed and amplified by successors4 ,the main ideas of the period which enter into ,herder's conception of ,volk are found in three great exponents3 ,leibniz1 ,shaftesbury1 and ,rousseau4 ,the influence of each upon ,herder will be examined here4 ,,leibniz ,,and ,,herder ,,iv1 #bbd3 ,herder calls ,leibniz the greatest man that ,germany has produced in later times4 ,,iv1 #cfa3 ,herder calls ,leibniz and ,plato the two greatest heads for hypotheses4 ,,viii1 #agh3 ,herder says that no one says it better than ,leibniz1 that bodies as such are only phenomena of substances1 as the ,milky ,way is of stars and the clouds of drops4 ,,ix1 #dic3 ,herder regrets that ,leibniz was not sufficiently appreciated by the ,germans2 most of them in the city in which he lies did not even know where his grave was4 ,,ix1 #ecd3 ,herder cites ,leibniz as saying that human wit and humor are never more effective than in play1 and uses this in support of his own belief that the human heart expresses itself most effectively in the nature songs of primitive people4 ,x1 #cje3 ,herder sees the flower of ,leibniz in ,shaftesbury4 ,,xiii1 #aii3 ,herder agrees with ,leibniz that the soul is a mirror of the 8world-all0 and he believes there is a deeper truth in ,leibniz' statement than is usually recognized2 i4e41 all the forces of a 8world-all0 lie hidden in the soul1 and they need only an organization or a succession of organizations to set them into activity4 ,,xiv1 #dag3 ,herder finds support in ,leibniz for the statement that the ,catholic ,church considered the king a protective magistrate under the supremacy of the ,pope4 ,,xv1 #ahj3 ,herder says ,leibniz pointed out weak sides of ,locke's philosophy4 ,,xvi1 #dej3 ,herder makes the following statements3 #a4 ,in ,leibniz' mind were associated fruitful conceptions of all sciences and of all the realms of nature4 #b4 ,leibniz said that one must finally1 so far as conceptions of bodies are concerned1 come to simple substances1 which he calls 8,monads40 #c4 ,i 7,herder7 am convinced that among the three ingenious hypotheses with which he has enriched metaphysics the monad is the most fundamental1 and will sometime win a place4 #d4 ,without this indivisible working element1 the nature of physical bodies cannot be explained4 ,,xvi1 #deh3 ,herder calls ,leibniz a 8,proteus of ,science10 who has done much to unify philosophical truths4 ,,xvi1 #fjf3 ,herder calls ,leibniz1 8our immortal ,leibniz40 ,,xvii1 #cca ff43 ,herder eulogizes ,leibniz1 emphasizing his theories of play1 his mildness and sympathy in criticizing others his youthful1 impartial soul4 ,,xviii1 #abf3 ,herder says that ,leibniz was the most modest among all the reformers of philosophical thought2 he thought that all systems of the ancients could be united because each held something good4 ,,xxi1 #ai3 ,herder quotes ,leibniz as saying that language is the mirror of human understanding4 ,,xxi1 #gj ff43 ,herder translates ,leibniz' ,ueber ,philosophie in der ,deutschen ,sprache4 ,,xxi1 #ade3 ,herder mentions ,leibniz' principles of ,identity and ,causality4 ,,xxi1 #cai3 ,herder translates ,leibniz' ,vom philosophischen ,vortrag4 ,,xxii1 #aij3 ,herder translates ,leibniz' ,ueber ,macht und ,anwendung der ,musik4 ,,xxiii1 #acb3 ,herder recommends ,leibniz' ,neue ,versuche ber den menschlichen ,verstand to young men4 ,,xxiii1 #dgi3 ,herder says1 ,leibniz1 had he lived to see his original plans revived in the ,scientific ,society in ,berlin1 probably would have arranged a ,system der ,vlker nach ,sprachen und ,bildungen4 ,this method of studying history by going to natural environments and to the sources is sufficiently in accord with ,herder's ideas to call forth the prophecy that what the past century had omitted in this respect the future would do4 ,,xxiii1 #dhc3 ,herder1 referring to ,leibniz' system of ,monaden1 prstabilirten ,harmonie u4 f41 says that no one doubts that there is much that is true and beautiful in it2 no one dares deny a world of souls and a harmony between mind and body2 there is no doubt that there are pure conceptions in which thoughts are considered only as workings or developments of the soul1 and1 on the other hand1 the laws of the world of bodies are considered as mechanical and artificial4 ,,xxiv1 #bfg3 ,herder notes ,leibniz' romantic attitude1 observing that ,leibniz regretted the decline in the feeling of courage and honor and that he counseled a return to the deeds and voices and models of the past to reawaken these4 ,,xxv1 #hh3 ,herder says if ,leibniz found human wit and humor most real and effective in play1 certainly he 7,herder7 is justified1 in finding the most faithful reproductions of traditions1 language1 and customs at the point where truth and delight meet2 i4e41 in song4 ,,xxx1 #ace3 ,herder calls ,leibniz the greatest man that ,germany has had4 ,,xxx1 #beh3 ,herder has remarked frequently upon ,leibniz' theory that the human mind is never more clear-sighted and disposed to activity than in play4 ,he analyzes the thought here1 and it is worth considering because it hinges closely upon ,herder's philosophy which causes him to seek genuine ,volk character in methods of expression which are natural rather than artificial4 ,he asks1 ,why is it that there is this connection between our innermost selves and pleasure and joy8 ,many forms of play are so difficult and fatiguing1 others are subject to such strict rules2 just because they demand this is the form of play interesting for those who like it4 ,it becomes pleasant because it keeps both soul and body constantly and interchangeably busied4 ,in the progress of being occupied lies an indefinable pleasure2 we feel the happy progressiveness by which our forces are strengthened and grow4 ,the more frequently this interchange takes place1 the more do we realize our forces enriched4 ,,xxiii1 #aed3 ,herder says ,shaftesbury sent to ,leibniz the former's works and that ,leibniz found in them his own system4 ,,xxiii1 #dfa3 ,herder praises ,leibniz' efforts in behalf of the ,royal ,scientific ,society in ,berlin4 ,,xxiii1 #dfh ff43 ,herder has written an essay on ,leibniz in which he reviews the work of the latter under the following heads3 ,gottfried ,wilhelm ,leibniz3 7#a7 ,theologie und ,religion2 7#b7 ,rechtsgelehrsamkeit und ,politik2 7#c7 ,geschichte1 ,alterthmer1 ,sprachen2 7#d7 ,mathematik und ,physik2 and 7#e7 ,die erste ,philosophie4 ,herder's own comments in certain parts of this series of expositions are important in this connection4 #a4 ,theology and religion4--,leibniz' proof of ,christianity ,herder finds was based upon natural religion2 after firmly laying the foundation of this natural religion1 one should show the necessity of a revealed religion1 then the superior beauty of the ,christian religion1 surpassing as it does all other religions4 ,leibniz sees atheism as well as materialism1 to say nothing of the disparagement or mockery of ,christendom1 as the herald of a barbarism with which is bound up the decay of honor and morality4 ,herder's comment upon this is3 ,how faithfully have succeeding times proved this to be true6 ,leibniz1 he continues1 would rejoice if he could see the ,bible so clarified1 every one of its books interpreted in the light and spirit of its own time and above all the subtleties foreign to the sense and content of ,christianity removed--all this1 such as it was in his own day1 is ,herder's idea4 ,important to note here is the return to nature as a foundation for ,christianity1 and to natural environment for the interpretation of ,christian teachings4 #b4 ,jurisprudence and statesmanship4--,here ,herder finds that ,leibniz became a real teacher der ,vlker through his work1 ,codex des allgemeinen ,vlkerrechts4 ,just as ,leibniz in his opposition to ,puffendorf founds man's natural rights upon eternal principles of right and reason1 so he carries these on into the so-called 8voluntary rights of peoples0 to which he adds in the ,christian ,republic a divine1 positive right4 ,this divine1 positive right ,herder admits was1 in the beginnings of the ,christian republic1 conceived of as being embodied in the emperor as head of the state4 ,but1 says he1 ,leibniz' great thought was true2 true in the sense that this divine1 positive right is that which made itself evident long before the ,french ,revolution4 ,he asks1 ,does ,christendom teach anything other than pure humanity8 ,it must be founded upon humanity which is also ,leibniz' ,codex des ,vlkerrechts4 ,it is clear1 continues the commentator1 that what a nation demands or wishes from another it must also offer2 force1 faithlessness1 and bold arrogance of one toward the other enrage all nations4 ,this ,codex des ,vlkerrechts is written in the breasts of all human beings4 ,wherever his view was unobstructed1 he saw clearly the political relationships of ,europe1 and prophesied much that followed4 ,the natural rights of mankind to be applied to humanity through states and nations1 then1 is what ,herder notes at this point in ,leibniz4 #c4 ,history1 antiquities1 languages4--,herder notes here that ,leibniz liked above everything else in ,history the origins of races1 ,uranfnge der ,vlker1 which led to their antiquities and language stocks4 ,this accounts for his diligence in comparison and derivation of languages and in etymologies4 ,herder reminds us that a family tree of languages has been established since ,leibniz' time through the ,russian journeys in ,northern ,asia1 continuous news from ,china1 the investigations of the ,english in ,india1 and other studies made in ,tibet1 ,persia1 ,arabia1 ,egypt1 ,africa1 ,america1 and the ,southern world4 ,,xxxii1 #bbf3 ,herder's discussion of ,leibniz' monad3 ,a monad is said to be able to change its representations 7,vorstellungen7 and it must change them in accordance with its fundamental force2 now if these representations are nothing but external rapports1 must there not lie in the fundamental force also the foundation of perceptibility of the external and the foundation of the constantly changing perceptibility8444 ,if therefore1 the soul is a living mirror of the universe then it must not reflect this universe from within itself outward4444 ,but there must be an internal cause in every soul which accounts for the part of the universe which the soul looks upon and which cannot be sought in a third being1 the cause of both4 ,everywhere there is life2 everywhere life is connected with organs1 and where would the cause of the connection lie8 ,not in the life2 not in the organ4 ,where then8 ,a ,deus ex machina must be called which contains the cause of the connection of both so that neither of these 7life1 organ7 contain anything of this cause1 and that is contradiction4 ,one monad is said to rule over the others and over many others without there being in any one the cause of change which is in the other4 ,a monad is said to heighten its forces just so much as its body heightens its own organization4 ,now still this interconnected increase is to contain nothing in the one for the other2 not causa efficiens1 not conditio sine qua non1 only simultaneousness4 ,how unbelieveable6 ,if the adjustment of the organs extends to the making of a certain relief or difference1 then such a relief or difference in the perceptions and all the connecting comes about without internal cause1 only one cause to explain so many effects which are scarcely covered by it4 ,it seems to me the world would be incomparably simpler and more manifold if in every monad were the cause for its connection and all of its changes4 ,it seems evident that ,herder accepts much of ,leibniz' theory of the monad4 ,the important point of departure is expressed in the two sentences3 #a4 ,but there must be an internal cause in every soul which accounts for the part of the universe which that soul looks over and which cannot be sought in a third being1 the cause of both4 #b4 ,the world would be simpler and more manifold if in every monad were the cause for its connection and all its changes4 ,it is at this point of departure that we see ,herder's emphasis on innate potentialities1 which are fundamentally different1 taking shape4 ,here are individuality and spontaneity in incipiency4 ,,references ,,to ,,leibniz ,i3 #aaf1 #adb1 #aff1 #bcc1 #dae4 ,,ii3 #ej1 #if1 #cjj4 ,,iv3 #ae1 #bbd1 #bdh1 #cfa4 ,v3 #eg1 #caf1 #cah1 #daj1 #dab1 #dei1 #dfa1 #ejd1 #eab1 #ecb4 ,,viii3 #aab1 #agj1 #agh1 #bbf1 #bdg1 #bff1 #bgb1 #cai4 ,,ix3 #dic1 #ejj1 #ecd4 ,x3 #cje1 #cdf4 ,,xi3 #ij4 ,,xiii3 #aii1 #cfd4 ,,xiv3 #dag4 ,,xv3 ,note to page #cc2 #ce1 #ga1 #ahj1 #cbj4 ,,xvi3 #dej1 #deh1 #ejd1 #bib1 #fjf4 ,,xvii3 #aeh1 #baj1 #bfe1 #bfg1 #bgd1 #cbf1 #cca1 #ccd1 #ccf1 #cch4 ,,xviii3 #abf1 #cbc4 ,,xx3 #ceh4 ,,xxi3 #ag1 #ai1 #di1 #gj1 #ga1 #ade1 #ahe1 #cai4 ,,xxii3 #fg1 #aij4 ,,xxiii3 #fg1 #hh1 #acb1 #aed1 #dfa1 #dfh1 #dgb4 ,,xxiv3 #i1 #ib1 #bfg1 #cae4 ,,xxv3 #hh4 ,,xxviii3 #bcb1 #cec4 ,,xxix3 #eha4 ,,xxx3 #fd1 #ace1 #djc1 #beh1 #djg4 ,,xxxii3 #cb1 #bba1 #bbe4 ,,shaftesbury ,,and ,,herder ,i1 #ahb3 ,herder says ,shaftesbury knows how to use the dialogue excellently2 he had learned it from ,plato and taught ,diderot4 ,v1 #dij3 ,herder calls ,shaftesbury the amiable ,plato of ,europe4 ,x1 #bcb3 ,herder mentions ,shaftesbury's philosophischen ,lobgesang auf die ,natur in seinen 8,moralists04 ,x1 #cje3 ,herder concedes to ,shaftesbury a refined1 beautiful1 philosophical intellect4 ,he is impressed with the 8,characteristics0 and the 8,moralists40 ,the latter1 says he1 can be put side by side with the writings of the ,ancients4 ,herder finds in ,shaftesbury the flower of ,leibniz' philosophy and the teachings of new platonism4 ,he sees traces of ,shaftesbury in ,mendelsohn's ,letters concerning ,feeling4 ,herder's tone defends ,shaftesbury in the statement that one should love virtue for her own sake1 on the ground that many religious enthusiasts1 including ,fnlon1 have maintained the same thing4 ,nor is he either atheist or pantheist in his ,song of ,praise to ,nature4 ,he further mentions the following works in ,german translations3 ,the ,moralists2 ,investigations ,concerning ,virtue1 ,berlin1 #agde2 ,shaftesbury's ,philosophical ,works1 translated by ,voss1 ,leipzig1 #aggf4 ,,xi1 #abc3 ,herder finds ,shaftesbury's ,ten ,letters to a ,student of ,theology excellent in the following points3 7#a7 ,what he says of real philosophy1 of empty speculation1 of academic polyhistorie1 of intellectual ambition and the real freedom of thought1 of the writings of the ,greek1 and of the beautiful and pure toward which one must aim in studies of all kinds2 7#b7 what he says of the spirit of endurance and ,christian simplicity4 ,,xi1 #bbj3 ,herder admires die ,grazien des ,platonish-,shaftesbury dialogue4 ,,xvi1 #djg3 ,herder expresses himself by quoting in translation a stanza from ,shaftesbury's ,moralists4 ,,xvi1 #aeh1 #aei3 ,article on ,shaftesbury2 holds him in high esteem1 calls him ,virtuoso der ,humanitt4 ,herder declares that ,shaftesbury has influenced the best minds of the eighteenth century4 ,,xxiii1 #adc ff43 ,herder shows an intimate acquaintance with the life and works of ,shaftesbury as well as the sources of his philosophy4 ,he reminds that ,shaftesbury influenced both ,diderot and ,leibniz4 ,herder reveals his own inclination to take nature and the feelings as standards3 7#a7 ,by criticizing ,shaftesbury for overlooking an important principle in ,greek philosophy in one of his discussions2 namely1 the principle der ,natur zu folgen4 7#b7 ,by saying an honorable feeling for truth and justice is a law of our nature4 ,,xxx1 #cba3 ,herder calls ,shaftesbury the high priest of the temple of ,grazie4 ,shaftesbury's ,characteristics of ,men1 ,manners1 ,opinions1 and ,time will be used as a reference book4 ,,shaftesbury ,,and ,,herder ,the elevation of human nature1 as found in the individual1 to something which has a universal value1 to something higher and nobler than the interests of self alone was one of the prominent tenets of ,shaftesbury's philosophy4 ,this implied a moral and social system composed of parts nicely adjusted in each single entity1 which in turn was a component part of a larger whole2 the parts of this greater system were likewise in constant proportion to one another1 and so finely and fitly adjusted that any disarrangement could not fail to effect the harmonious blending and the unity of the entire design4 ,out of this1 it follows that man can come to his truest and most natural development in community life only4 ,and thus1 if there be found in any creature a more than ordinary self-concernment or regard to private good1 which is inconsistent with the interest of the species or public1 this must in every respect be esteemed an ill and vicious affection4 ,and this is what we commonly call selfishness1 and disapprove so much1 in whatever creature we happen to discover it4--,inquiry1 ,book ,i4 ,when we reflect on any ordinary frame or constitution either of art or nature1 and consider how hard it is to give the least account of a particular part without a competent knowledge of the whole1 we need not wonder to find ourselves at a loss in many things relating to the constitution and frame of nature herself4--,inquiry1 ,book ,i4 ,to love the public1 to study universal good1 and to promote the interest of the whole world1 as far as lies within our power1 is surely the height of goodness1 and makes that temper which we call divine4--,letter ,concerning ,enthusiasm1 section #d4 ,the harmonious man is to be the product of a natural unfolding of innate human nature4 ,the potentialities within are to be allowed to develop unwarped and unimpeded and to express themselves completely and symmetrically4 ,there must be no subordination of personality or individuality to artificial standards1 for nature is the sovereign4 ,if no powers1 inclinations1 or impulses are thwarted in their trend and activity1 they will1 in all their manifold variety1 flower into the perfectly beautiful and therefore the perfectly good4 ,now the variety of nature is such as to distinguish everything she forms by a peculiar1 original character1 which1 if strictly observed1 will make the subject appear unlike to anything extant in the world besides4 ,for all beauty is truth4 ,true features make the beauty of a face1 and true proportions the beauty of architecture--,essay on the ,freedom of ,wit and ,humor1 ,part ,,iv4 ,that faculty by which the good and the beautiful are to be recognized and approved is indeed little different if different at all from an emotion4 ,the principle of feeling really becomes the criterion of right and wrong4 ,it is the principle of feeling which forms the essence of ,shaftesbury's ,moral ,sense4 ,he admits that this sense may be improved by cultivation1 but its essential part is innate4 8,sense of right and wrong0 is as natural to us as natural affection itself1 and a first principle in our constitution4 ,the two ideas which we are considering here as a part of ,shaftesbury's philosophy are the development of the individual and his harmonious relation to the whole of mankind4 ,these ideas are made the nucleus of a collection of writings and reviews by ,herder which he calls ,briefe zu ,befrderung der ,humanitt4 ,these have been considered to some extent in a preceding chapter as a part of ,herder's system of thought1 but the purpose here is to connect the same with that of ,shaftesbury4--,dritte ,sammlung1 ,brief #bg ff4 ,at the outset in this letter the author is concerned with the distinction between the following3 #a4 ,menschheit3 ,menschen sind wir allesamt 444 wir gehren zur ,menschheit4 #b4 ,mensch1 ,menschlichkeit3 ,leider hat man in unserer ,sprache dem ,wort ,mensch1 und noch mehr dem barmherzigen ,wort ,menschlichkeit so oft eine ,nebenbedeutung von ,niedrigkeit1 ,schwche und falschem ,mitleid angehngt4 #c4 ,menschenrechte3 ,kann ohne ,menschenpflichten nicht genannt werden4 #d4 ,menschenwrde3 ,das ,menschengeschlecht 444 hat seinem grssesten ,theil nach keine ,wrde4444 ,es soll aber zum ,charakter seines ,geschlechtes1 mithin auch zu dessen ,werth und ,wrde gebildet werden4 #e4 ,menschenliebe3 ,das schne ,wort ,menschenliebe is so trivial worden1 dass man meistens die ,menschen liebt um keinen unter den ,menschen wirksam zu lieben4 ,he concludes that the word ,humanitt will best suit1 because among both ancients and moderns it connotes worthy ideas4 ,the reference to the ancients reminds us of the common source from which both ,herder and ,shaftesbury drew inspiration4 ,both were schooled in the literature of the ancients4 ,as ,herder lingers on the philological discussion1 he gives us the philosophical reason why the conception of frailty attaches to the idea expressed in the word for man1 ,mensch4 ,the word 8humanity10 he says1 not only connotes the thought which he desires to express1 but it suits his purpose also on account of its history4 ,among the upper classes of the ,romans were some who were wont to temper the execution of justice with mercy when exercising power over their subjects2 such a ,roman citizen1 ,patrician1 was humanus1 humanissimus4 ,now1 he thinks1 that since with the ,romans the word connoted the idea of mildness in the exercises of citizenship and law1 that it would be well to take over the word and the idea4 ,he makes reference also to the ,greeks whose word1 1 looking upward1 he clothes in ,plato's words3 8,as he looks he reasons40 ,therefore1 says ,herder1 he does not fail to notice the human failings that lead to sympathy1 consequently to humanity4 ,the knowledge of our powers and inborn potentialities1 of our calling and our duty arises from an intense study of mankind4 ,he repeats that the ,greeks and ,romans led the way in this studium humanitatis4 ,the only limit which ,herder sets to what we shall be is to be found in the highest possible formation and completion of whatever belongs to the character of our race4 ,many of the telling thoughts in these letters are scattered in isolated paragraphs running something like the following3 ,truth is the bond of humanity between friends4 ,the purer the thoughts of men are1 the more they agree4 ,the true invisible church is one in all times1 in all lands4 ,franklin had a wonderful sense of humanity4 ,he proceeds from the simple eternal laws of nature1 from the most infallible practical rules--the needs and interests of mankind4 ,franklin recognized the value of the common people and thought to teach them by clothing his ideas in simplicity4 ,companionship is the foundation of humanity and the communion of human souls1 a mutual interchange of acquired ideas 7thoughts7 and of traits of understanding which increases the mass of human knowledge and skill infinitely4 ,if humanity is no empty name1 suffering mankind must rejoice at the advance in medical science4 ,human society founded on virtue must stand4 ,the highest and most fruitful wisdom arises from the 7common7 people because they have felt need and suffering1 they have been driven here and there1 they have tasted the sweet fruit of trouble and they know how to care for others4 ,the kinship to the spirit and philosophy pervading ,shaftesbury is here quite evident4 ,,references ,,to ,,shaftesbury ,i3 #ahb1 #cjc1 #cje1 #cjg1 #ebd4 ,,iv3 #cfg4 ,v3 #bhd1 #caf1 #chh1 #cij1 #cif1 #dij4 ,,vii3 #aac1 #bcf4 ,,viii3 #bah1 #caa1 #dfa4 ,,ix3 #cjf4 ,x3 ,note to page #bcb2 #cje4 ,,xi3 #abc1 #bje2 note to page #bbj4 ,,xv3 #aii ,,xvi3 #bf1 #djc1 #djg4 ,,xvii3 #aed1 #bdi1 #bgd1 #cbf4 ,,xx3 #cjh4 ,,xxii3 ,note to page #baj2 note to page #ccd4 ,,xxiii3 #acb;d1 #acb1 #acf1 #add1 #aea2 note to page #aee2 #cif4 ,,xxiv3 #bai4 ,,xxvii3 #cig4 ,,xxx3 #ag1 #cb1 #djg4 ,,xxxii3 #cc1 #aii4 ,,rousseau ,,and ,,herder ,,iv1 #cfi3 ,in discussing his ideal book for the development of humanity1 ,herder finds that important points would be rules and exhortations for the development of body and soul2 in this he says3 ist ,rousseau ein grosser ,lehrer4 ,,iv1 #cga3 ,he will imitate ,rousseau zealously2 will read him1 contemplate him1 nationalize him4 ,v1 #cg3 ,herder agrees with ,rousseau in that language is not the result of convention and agreement4 ,,vi1 #bej3 ,reference is made to ,rousseau's ,pygmalion4 ,,vii1 #fe3 ,herder in his discussion concerning the fall of man quotes ,rousseau with reference to the tree of knowledge and the fall of man4 ,,vii1 #gd3 ,herder calls ,rousseau one of the greatest lights of his times4 ,x1 #bih3 ,herder says ,rousseau's ,confessions and other writings contain excellent passages for philosophy and natural theology4 ,many of these writings have suffered evil repute 7bel berchtigt47 ,,xv1 #bdh3 ,herder calls ,rousseau a great1 wonderful man4 ,,xvi1 #bf3 ,herder calls ,rousseau a teacher of wisdom and morals4 ,,xvii1 #aij3 ,herder speaks of ,rousseau as a good man who exaggerates and who in his phantasy is an idealist for the good4 ,,xvii1 #cbf3 ,herder says in his own day 7bis in unsern ,tagen7 ,rousseau's ,social ,contract has had an effect that its author had scarcely expected4 ,,xviii1 #cei and #cga3 ,herder says that in his own time 7in unserer ,zeit71 ,rousseau's ,confessions have aroused a great sensation4 ,he quotes from them4 ,,xviii1 #cgb3 ,sein ,geist war stolz1 seine ,grundstze waren edel1 p4 #cgd1 he speaks of ,rousseau as a tree having brought forth beautiful fruit and blossoms4 ,,xxii1 #aea3 ,herder approves ,rousseau's views in the introduction to ,nouvelle ,hloise1 views on poetic language as a natural human art4 ,,xxii1 #afa3 ,he calls ,rousseau one with great ability to express the thoughts of his heart1 and ,herder considers this ability peculiar to ,naturmenschen4 ,,xxiii1 #bgb3 ,herder says much that ,rousseau has said in ,emile against the use of ,la ,fontaine's ,fables for youth is right4 ,,xxv1 #fja3 ,herder translates from ,rousseau's ,consolations4 ,,xxv1 #fca3 ,herder has a translation of ,rousseau's 8,shepherd ,song10 ,consolations1 p4 #ig1 ,no4 #ec4 ,,xxv1 #fcb3 ,translation of 8,song of ,desdemona10 ,consolations1 p4 #abe1 ,no4 #fe4 ,,xxix1 #bef3 ,herder eulogizes ,rousseau in the poem ,der ,mensch4 ,,xxix1 #bfe3 ,herder calls upon ,rousseau to help him know himself4 ,,xxx1 #cj3 ,in regretting the fact that the taste and desire for overrefinement was causing wholesome simplicity to be displaced in educational methods and life in general1 ,herder calls attention to ,rousseau and interprets him thus3 ,rousseau ruft also ein philosophisches ,wehe ber unser ,geschlecht1 das die ,tugend1 ,menschlichkeit und ,wahrheit vom ,altar gestrzt hat1 und statt dessen eine lcherlich verkleidete ,puppe des ,wohlstandes anbetet4 ,dieser falsche ,anstand hat die ,schpfung verdorben2 denn was sind seine ,vasallen8 ,,xxxii1 #da3 ,herder calls ,rousseau 8our patriotic friend of mankind40 ,,xxxii1 #adg3 ,herder says only ,rousseau could dig to the knowledge of the human heart4 8,,der ,,mensch0 ,line #de ff43 ,herder shows that he is influenced by the eighteenth-century demand for a return to nature in general and by ,rousseau's philosophy in particular in a portion of this poem3 #a4 ,he prizes the universal and fundamental instincts and longings of man which show him to be a simple product of nature3 ,den ,menschen der ,natur den keiner je gesehen und jeder in sich fhlt und jeder wnscht zu sehen 444 den sing' ich4 #b4 ,the primitivism of this nature-man is eulogized3 den ,menschen ohne ,kunst voll ,seele ohne ,witz1 gut ohne ,gttergunst1 voll ,menschheit ohne ,scham1 voll ,wahrheit ohne ,lgen ohn' alle ,tugend fromm und glcklich ohn' ,vergngen-- ,den sing' ich4 ,sohn der ,natur o ,mensch--blhst du in ,edens ,flur8 halb ,pflanze und halb ,thier4 #c4 ,the feelings are set up as a standard3 blos durch ,empfindung wahr1 schn durch die ,wahrheit nur4 ,nicht weniger nicht mehr als ,mensch6 so ist dein ,leben dir zum ,gefhl1 zur ,ruh1 zur ,wirksamkeit gegeben4 #d4 ,physical environment is to have free sway in shaping this ideal man3 wie zeigt sich deine ,spur8 im ,schnee der ,eskimaux wo edelfrei die ,wilden ,empfindung und ,gesezz nach ,jagd und ,eis sich bilden4 #e4 ,rousseau is eulogized3 gebar dich ,rousseaus ,geist8 sahn dich verblichne ,zeiten8 444 ,o ,rousseau6 den die ,welt im ,vorurtheil verkandt1 das wahre grosse ,maas des ,menschen in der ,hand wgst du was edel sey wenns gleich das ,volk verdammet ,the eulogy continues by praising ,rousseau's condemnation of wealth and pomp and false glory and1 finally3 ,du ,prediger in der ,wste1 fhlst dass du edel bist wenn niemand dich auch grsste4 ,,rousseau ,,and ,,herder ,discourses4--,in his ,discourse concerning the ,arts and ,sciences ,rousseau insists that our outward lives should be true expressions of our inner feelings4 ,this harmony between expression and feeling began its decline under the influences of overrefinement and of tastes that had been distorted by excessive civilization4 ,therefore1 he argues1 it is the common man1 the crude rustic1 rather than the polished and elegant courtier who reveals his heart in all purity2 we may deal with this common man without suspicions1 fears1 reserves1 and treacheries4 ,it was the simplicity of ancient times when men lived in a primitive state that bred innocence and virtue1 courage and genuine humanity4 ,in this discourse there is in general a pointed attack upon literary and scientific training and polish4 ,the discourse which deals with the inequality of man is based in general upon the same doctrine which furnishes the ground for the attack on the sciences and the arts4 ,it attempts to show us what men would have been had they remained in their original state4 ,this original state was one in which man lived much like the dumb animals2 forests and rocks1 running brooks and springs1 furnished abode by day and bed and shelter for the night1 and among these were to be found the meat and drink which produced strong healthy bodies2 bodies robust because their nourishment was simple4 ,this was a primitive state which had remained true to nature by not advancing at all or at least not more than a single degree beyond the original4 ,in such a state man by reason of both his physical hardiness and his native animal instincts and alertness has all his faculties1 these operating with a force and fineness unknown to the highly civilized man4 ,here1 as in the essay on the social contract1 the philosopher is opposed to a superior ruling power and arbitrary establishment of laws4 ,social contract4--,in the ,social ,contract in which ,rousseau's social state is presented as the superior form of government1 men had been brought to realize their dependence upon one another and to know that co-operation was the true basis of welfare4 ,the doctrine of individuality which made of man a self-centered unit was weak in that it offered little protection for the individual4 ,for this individual1 born with natural freedom1 was in danger of exercising this freedom to the detriment of the rights of others4 ,in giving up himself and his rights to the group1 the individual became subject to no one person1 but gained certain rights over each member of the community4 ,in this compact there is a union of individuals1 each working for the good of the body politic1 each a sovereign with civil liberty and moral freedom4 ,thus the restrictions which would be imposed upon members of society by one supreme authority were avoided4 ,by this means the general will worked for the general good of humanity4 ,but the idea of progress implied not only the teaching that the good of one must be the good of all1 but meant also3 7#a7 ,that man was not self-sufficient and therefore could come to fullest development only in the group4 7#b7 ,that the seeds of individuality lay within man as a universal element and were nurtured and brought to flower by the peculiar touch of him who was expressed in their flowering4 ,the fundamental tendencies in mankind being allowed to unfold1 the man will be good2 this goodness is the essential thing in his manhood1 and it is natural4 ,emile4--,the keynote of ,rousseau's doctrine here is that of absolute reliance upon nature without impeding or diverting her progress at any point4 ,he is in accord with the epistemological side of ,locke's philosophy1 and therefore demands that ,emile shall have his senses well developed4 ,he is to have a strong vigorous body1 full of courage and hardihood4 ,moral education is to be the result of natural discipline carried on in a sort of laissez-faire way4 ,in general1 ,emile gets his education by being thrown into contact with nature and being allowed to observe and feel the phenomena of a crude environment1 and by expressing directly what he has learned at first hand from this teacher4 ,emile1 then1 is shaped by primitive forces just as the simple1 common man in the ,social ,contract and the ,inequality4 ,these made the simple1 common man the epitome of that which was of greatest worth to humanity4 ,origin of language4--,in fixing the beginnings of speech1 ,rousseau says we can believe that necessities dictated the first movements1 and that passions called forth the first voices4 ,the genius of oriental languages1 the most ancient known to us1 have nothing in them that is methodical or reasoned out2 they are vivacious and figurative4 ,it is evident that the origin of languages is not at all due to the primary needs of man4 ,the origin is due to the moral needs1 to the passions4 ,it is neither hunger nor thirst1 but love1 hate1 pity1 or anger which have called forth from men the first voices4 ,fruits do not steal away from our hands at all2 one may nourish one's self with them without talking2 we may follow in silence the prey of which we wish to make a repast2 but to move a young heart1 to repel an unjust aggressor1 nature dictates accents1 cries1 and tones of resentment4 ,it was for this reason that the oldest words were invented4 ,the following quotations affirm in a general way the preceding statements of ,rousseau's philosophy3 ,l'astronomie est ne de la superstition1 de la haine1 de la flatterie1 du mensonge2 la gomtrie1 de l'avarice2 la physique1 d'une vaine curiosit2 toute et la morale mme de l'orgueil humain4 ,les sciences et les arts doivent donc leur naissance nos vices4 ,discours sur les ,sciences et les ,arts1 ,part4 ,,ii3 ,o vertu6 science sublime des mes simples1 faut-il donc tant de peines et d'appareil pour te connatre8 ,tes principes ne sont-ils pas graves dans tous les coeurs8 et ne suffit-il pas pour apprendre tes lois de rentrer en soi-mme et d'couter la voix de sa conscience dans le silence des passions8 ,discours sur l'origine et les fondements de l'ingalit parmi les hommes3 ,il suit de cet expos que l'ingalit1 tant presque nulle dans l'tat de nature tire sa force et son accroissement du developpement de nos facults et des progrs de l'esprit humain1 et devient enfin stable et lgitime par l'tablissement de la proprit et des lois4 ,il suit encore que l'ingalit morale autorise par le seul droit positif1 est contraire au droit naturel toutes les fois qu'elle ne concourt pas en mme proportion avec l'ingalit physique2 distinction qui dtermine suffisamment ce qu'on doit penser cet gard de la sorte d'ingalit qui rgne parmi tous les peuples polics1 puis-qu'il est manifestement contre la loi de nature4 ,the primitivism which stands out in ,rousseau's two discourses is to be seen in a general way in ,herder's dislike for the higher culture that would discourage spontaneous outbursts of human feelings as they appear in the so-called cruder forms of literature2 a culture that would displace these by a smoother product born of reflection and regulated by set rules and formulas4 ,he has an admiration for the instinct which to him is always to be found in women1 children1 and fools1 and which he sees as the foundation of a navet more valuable as a part of mental equipment than anything which could be substituted by processes of training and culture4 ,rousseau's attempt to return to nature for concrete everyday life finds its approval with ,herder1 but the general idea takes a new turn4 ,he finds in it the inspiration for scientific methods of studying art1 history1 and philosophy4 ,his line of investigation in these will be by way of nature2 i4e41 man in his primitive abode2 man in the hands of nature2 man as the product of his environment4 ,the opposition to a central and superior governing power1 which is found in the ,social ,contract1 to be opposed to the natural method of community life1 finds its echo in ,herder in frequent tirades against the policirte ,nationen4 ,it is the unpolicirte ,nationen to whom nature has given a certain solace that can scarcely be found in ,menschliche ,knsteleien4 ,the ,briefe zur ,befrderung der ,humanitt carry a constant strain1 which makes the interdependence between the individual and the group a requisite for well-being4 ,this theory1 we have seen1 finds a distinct place in ,shaftesbury's philosophy before ,rousseau had voiced it as his own4 ,emile's senses have been highly developed by his contact with nature1 and it is this sharpness and exactness of the senses that ,herder extols so much in primitive peoples4 ,they are both cause and effect of the work which nature achieves by her most trusted handmaiden2 namely1 environment4 ,in discussing the origin of language1 even though ,herder at certain points takes issue with ,rousseau1 it is very clear that he is influenced by the latter and is in agreement with him to considerable extent4 ,rousseau has pursued the question of the origin of language1 not only in his essay bearing this title1 but also in the ,discourse on ,inequality4 ,the first sentences of ,herder's essay ,abhandlung ber den ,ursprung der ,sprache run not unlike a passage in ,rousseau's ,discours just mentioned3 ,schon als ,thier1 hat der ,mensch ,sprache4 ,alle heftigen1 und die heftigsten unter den heftigen1 die schmerzhaften ,empfindungen seines ,krpers1 alle starken ,leidenschaften seiner ,seele ussern sich unmittelbar in ,geschrei1 in ,tne1 in wilde1 unartikulirte ,laute4 ,le premier langage de l'homme1 le langage le plus universel1 le plus nergique et le seul dont il eut besoin avant qu'il fallt persuader des hommes assembls est le cri de la nature4 ,comme ce cri n'tait arrach que par une sorte d'instinct dans les occasions pressantes1 pour implorer du secours dans les grands dangers ou du soulagement dans les maux violents1 il n'tait pas d'un grand usage dans le cours ordinaire de la vie1 o rgnent des sentiments plus modrs4 ,further1 in his own essay1 ,herder says1 that as our tones of nature are for the purpose of expressing passion1 it is natural that they should become also the elements of all that which is emotional1 and if we call this immediate sound of feeling speech1 then1 says he1 it is easy to find the origin of speech natural4 ,but although all animals have a speech by which they sound forth their feelings1 such speech will never become human language until reason1 understanding 7,verstand71 arises to use these tones with direct intention4 ,in so far1 then1 as the very beginnings of language are cries of passion1 ,herder is in accord with ,rousseau in both essays in which the latter discusses the question4 ,,references ,,to ,,rousseau1 ,,jean ,,jacques ,i3 #bb1 #dg1 #if1 #dhd4 ,,ii3 #bbi1 #bfi1 #bgf1 #cac4 ,,iii3 #bgi4 ,,iv3 #eb1 #ade1 #cfi1 #cga4 ,v3 #bj1 #ba1 #cc1 #cg1 #dd1 #eh1 #he1 #aad1 #aag1 #abj1 #adg1 #afh1 #cad1 #cid1 #deb1 #ehc1 #fdj1 #fdc4 ,,iv3 #afc2 note to page #bej4 ,,vii3 #fe1 #gd4 ,,viii3 #cbh4 ,,ix3 #ced1 #dgd4 ,x3 #bih1 #cjf1 #cjg1 #ceb4 ,,xii3 ,note to page #aih4 ,,xiii3 #bfe4 ,,xv3 #ce1 #bdh1 #die4 ,,xvi3 #bf4 ,,xvii3 #h1 #ig1 #aij1 #cji1 #cbf4 ,,xviii3 #ia1 #cei1 #cga4 ,,xx3 #bhh1 #bic4 ,,xxii3 #aea1 #afa4 ,,xxiii3 #bca1 #bgb4 ,,xxv3 ,note to page #fja2 #fca1 #fcb4 ,,xxix3 #bef1 #bfe4 ,,xxx3 #cj4 ,,xxxii3 #ag1 #cc1 #da1 #ge1 #adg1 #ahe1 #bcc4 ,,conclusion ,the character and frequency of the references which ,herder makes in his writings to the philosophers of the eighteenth century show that he knew the predominant lines of thought which characterized the entire period of the enlightenment4 ,the outstanding eighteenth-century theories which seem to have a place in ,herder's conception of das ,volk are well epitomized in the teachings of ,leibniz1 ,shaftesbury1 and ,rousseau4 ,herder's own exposition of a part of ,leibniz' contribution to thought shows how he found here some things which were in agreement with his own fundamental ideas concerning innate potentialities4 ,the praise given to ,shaftesbury's principal ideas of the harmonious development of the individual and of humanity lead us to believe that ,shaftesbury had exercised an influence on the ,german writer4 ,the numerous eulogistic outbursts over ,rousseau1 the coinciding in many writings by both men of details concerning the essential elements in man's nature1 concerning primitivism1 liberty1 and the ideal state1 show that ,herder was fully imbued with the spirit of ,rousseau1 expressed in the cry1 8back to nature40 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,conclusion ,both the word ,volk and the various ideas for which it stands are old and are to be found among many peoples4 ,the parent tongue1 the ,indo-,european1 seems to have had a form which meant 8full10 8many40 ,the 8many0 easily became the 8common10 so that the 8many0 as opposed to the 8few0 was parallel with the 8common10 8vulgar0 as opposed to the 8upper classes10 the 8aristocracy40 ,this meaning seems to have been a fundamental one in both ancient and modern times4 ,the shift in meaning of the ,germanic word ,volk1 which extends the sense to that of 8nation10 has been more general and more permanent in ,german than in ,english4 ,it is with these two main conceptions1 that is ,volk1 the common people1 and ,volk1 nation1 that we are concerned in this study of ,herder4 ,many examples of ,herder's use of the term ,volk show that he makes the word an exact synonym for nation4 ,in many other examples it is used as an equivalent term for nation4 ,in both of these uses 8nation0 with ,herder means those bound together only by the same laws and customs whether related by consanguinity or not4 ,but ,herder frequently makes ,volk stand more specifically for those who are of the same blood1 and in that sense identifies it with 8race40 ,we have seen that these are common uses of the term ,volk and the idea conveyed by it1 uses which occur in many languages and among many civilized peoples4 ,now ,herder1 while using the term ,volk in the commonly accepted sense of nation1 has always firmly in mind certain attributes and powers which characterize groups as such4 ,they have power to rule2 they have power to express themselves in peculiar ways2 they have ,nationalgeist4 ,this ,nationalgeist in the final analysis is the outgrowth of physical and social environment and conforms to the dictates of these in all its peculiarities4 ,in exercising their powers and general spirit1 they act as an entity according to ,herder's conception4 ,he makes the group a single being1 an individual4 ,in ,herder's day when ideas of nationalism had no definite shape1 this added sense of the meaning of nation meant clearly that he was a forerunner in the realm of philosophy1 and gave to ,herder's conception of ,volk1 even in this commonly used sense1 a unique place4 ,individuality1 personality1 distinguished nations just as these traits mark out human beings4 ,herder makes use of the term ,volk in a second sense4 ,here he means a group within a civilized nation which forms the mass below the aristocracy and the governing class4 ,this use likewise is to be found in all languages of civilized peoples4 ,but ,herder is emphatic in noting that this group has not been affected by expurgating and eliminating influences to the fullest extent to which these have operated4 ,it has therefore been more thoroughly the product of natural environment4 ,in the proportion to which innate tendencies have not been checked and warped1 individual traits have had free development4 ,therefore spontaneous personality characterizes this group to a higher degree than it does the more cultured4 ,here ,herder makes prominent his philosophy that unhampered nature is the most potent force in the development of this spontaneous personality4 ,in his collection of ,volkslieder1 ,herder does not confine himself to those which are marked by primitivism1 but includes also many selections of polished literary form4 ,but these all submit to a classification which takes into account the true expression of universal and fundamental feelings common to all humanity4 ,here ,herder's mind is fixed on that power which the group has to express itself1 to express that which is fundamental and therefore to show forth its personality4 ,ossian's people and the ,ancient ,hebrews are products of an environment which is most effective in shaping ,herder's ideal ,volk3 namely1 nature unaltered by the hand of man4 ,as a result of such rough1 crude surroundings1 these peoples have developed into simple1 harmonious beings1 and possess all the elements which ,herder considers essential in man's nature4 ,he finds they are natural because they are primitive1 and they possess superior traits because they are natural4 ,they have the power to give expression to their personality and have exercised this power in a marked way in their unique literatures4 ,the individuality of each group is sharply defined in the songs of each4 ,now how does ,herder arrive at the requirements to which he makes his ,volk conform8 ,his philosophy as expressed in ,erkennen und ,empfindung recognizes inborn forces in the individual which are potentialities differing in kind and degree of working power in each person4 ,these varying potentialities he makes the constituencies of the senses which are accordingly different in scope and capacity in every human being4 ,it must be noted that ,herder does not regard these original 8forces0 as constituted by the senses2 they are prior to and more fundamental than the senses4 ,the phenomenon ,reiz1 stimulus1 which causes the smallest fiber either in plant or animal to contract or expand1 repeats itself in the nerves of each one of the senses4 ,but this ,reiz is in the beginning1 and without it there would be no ,krfte1 no nerve1 no sense organ4 ,this ,reiz1 then1 is identical with the innate forces1 ,krfte4 ,they control and direct the development of the senses and are1 therefore1 the very beginning of that variation in sense functioning which initiates individuality4 ,it is in the treatment of these original ,krfte that ,herder gives his own turn to ,leibniz' theory of the monad4 ,the principle of the monad was highly abstract1 and when ,herder took it over he gave to it a more concrete application4 ,it became the principle of innate and varying potentialities4 ,the monad was not controlled and directed by a force outside itself1 according to ,herder1 but by a power within1 and as the power within was never exactly alike in any two beings1 no two could develop just alike4 ,here are ,herder's foundations for individuality and personality4 ,a perfection resulting from the unfolding of the content of the individual life and the shaping of its originality are seen in ,shaftesbury's thought when he makes morality consist of the rich and full expression of individual powers in a beautiful and sovereign personality4 ,the individual system as seen in one man in all its physical and mental elements is related to something external to himself4 ,altruistic inclinations are an important part of the natural endowment of every human being4 ,now ,herder sees that this unfettered development of natural endowments will come to its fullest only in relations to others4 ,it is the essence of his ,humanitt4 ,he goes further than ,shaftesbury in that he finds in this tie1 which unites the individual to the group1 that which is universal and fundamental4 ,he endows his ,volk with sentiments which are universal and fundamental4 ,it is this universal and fundamental which makes such expressions as 8,hamlet's soliloquy0 find a place among the songs of ,herder's ,volk4 ,we have seen that when ,herder lays emphasis on the feelings1 when he is opposed to arbitrary and restrictive government1 when he elevates the crude and primitive1 his system of thought is in agreement with that of ,rousseau4 ,but ,herder makes an advance in seeking standards in processes actually or believed to be found in ,nature4 ,his line of investigation in history1 art1 and philosophy will be by way of the natural man1 i4e41 the primitive4 ,his ,volk1 then1 because of their power to express their personality freely1 give him a theory of art2 art must be an expression of personality4 ,both ,shaftesbury and ,rousseau relate the development of the individual to the group but neither makes the altruism or interdependence such an impelling force as does ,herder4 ,his ,volk1 conscious of their own frailty1 will have sympathy and a general regard for the needs and interests of mankind4 ,this consciousness will be not merely a passive altruism nor an interdependence of material and economic necessity1 but it will be heightened by an ideal love for humanity1 which will force to active and positive efforts to make humanity the highest possible4 ,when we eliminate details1 when we regard only those elements upon which ,herder's thought seems to be continuous1 those qualifications of which he never seems to loose sight1 whether he idealizes his ,volk through his philosophy1 his song collections1 his study of the works of other philosophers1 or through the analysis of concrete examples1 we come to the following as essentials in ,herder's ,volk3 ,das ,volk is a group whose innate1 natural tendencies have been allowed to unfold and develop unhindered and unwarped by civilization4 ,they are people who have come into contact with various forces of nature in the physical world and have been strongly influenced by their natural environment4 ,they1 as an entity1 possess3 7#a7 ,individuality1 personality2 7#b7 a sense of that which is universal and fundamental among mankind2 7#c7 common feelings of relationship to humanity2 7#d7 strong religious sentiments4 ,they are wont to express themselves freely1 fully1 truthfully1 in various forms of art1 the individual specimens of which find their test of genuineness in the response which they receive from the group out of which they arose4 ,in this ideal conception ,herder sees the best that mankind can produce4 ,,footnotes #a ,schiller1 ,jungfrau von ,orleans1 ,i1 p4 #c4 #b ,piccolomini1 ,,ii1 p4 #g4 #c ,kampf mit dem ,drachen4 #d ,wildenbruch4 #e ,goethe1 ,faust1 ,i4 #f ,fnlon1 ,tlmaque1 ,,xxiv4 #g ,bible1 ,jrmie1 ,,xxxi1 #cc4 #h ,la ,bruyre1 ,,ix4 #i ,dr4 ,martin ,schtze has analyzed this feature of ,herder's philosophy1 8,fundamental ,ideas in ,herder's ,thought10 ,modern ,philosophy1 ,,xviii2 ,june1 ,october1 #aibj4 #aj ,references to these discussions3 ,herder's ,smmtliche ,werke1 ,suphan1 volume and page3 ,i1 #dcg2 ,,ii1 #aai1 #acb1 #afh1 #ahb1 #bjc1 #bei1 #cbb1 #cbd1 #cca1 #chg1 #daf2 ,,vi1 #ba2 ,,viii1 #ii1 #baf1 #cia2 ,,ix1 #cag1 #edc2 ,,xi1 #big2 ,,xii1 #ccd2 ,,xiv1 #ajc1 #bfc2 ,,xvi1 #cbc2 ,,xviii1 #ddf2 ,,xxiii1 #efi2 ,,xxiv1 #bcb1 #cja1 #cjb2 ,,xxvii1 #ahj4 #aa ,references to these discussions3 ,herder's ,smmtliche ,werke1 ,suphan1 volume and page3 ,i1 #beh2 ,,vi1 #a2 ,,xi1 #bae2 ,,xii1 #a4 #ab ,ossian1 ,v1 #cbe4 #ac ,ancient ,hebrews1 ,,xi1 #agc4 #ad ,ossians ,gedichte1 ,lieder 4444 ,v1 #aif4 #ae ,ossians ,gedichte1 ,v1 #aig4 #af ,ancient ,hebrews1 ,,xii1 #bh4 #ag ,ancient ,hebrews1 ,i1 #beh4 #ah ,ossian1 ,v1 #cbf4 #ai ,ancient ,hebrews1 ,,xii1 #bg4 #bj ,ossian1 ,v1 #cbd4 #ba ,ancient ,hebrews1 ,,xii1 #bb4 #bb ,ossian1 ,v1 #cbd4 #bc ,ancient ,hebrews1 ,,xi1 #bib4 #bd ,ossian1 ,v1 #ahb4 #be ,ancient ,hebrews1 ,,xi1 #bbg4 #bf ,ancient ,hebrews1 ,,xi1 #bbh4 7die ,ebrische ,sprache74 #bg ,ossian1 ,,xviii1 #deg4 #bh ,ancient ,hebrews1 ,i1 #bfb4 #bi ,ancient ,hebrews1 ,,xii1 #h4 ,,bibliography ,,andress1 ,,james ,,mace4 ,johann ,gottfried ,herder as an ,educator4 ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,e4 ,stechert1 #aiaf4 ,,bacharach1 ,,armand4 ,shaftesbury's ,optimismus und sein ,verhltnis zum ,leibnischen4 ,inaugural dissertation4 ,,beardslee1 ,j4 ,w4 ,the ,use of in ,fifth-,century ,greek ,literature4 ,chicago3 ,university of ,chicago ,press1 #aiah4 ,b,,rkner1 ,,richard4 ,herder1 sein ,leben und ,wirken4 ,berlin3 ,e4 ,hofmann ,co41 #aijd4 ,,dewey1 ,,malcolm ,,howard4 ,herder's ,relation to the ,aesthetic ,theory of ,his ,time4 ,chicago1 #aibj4 ,d,,ntzer ,,und ,,herder4 ,herder's ,reise nach ,italien4 ,herders ,briefwechsel mit seiner ,gattin4 ,giessen3 ,j4 ,ricker'sche ,buchhandlung1 #ahei4 ,,friedrich ,,nikolae4 ,der ,begriff und das ,wort ,natur4 ,,genthe1 ,,eduard ,,theodor4 ,der ,kulturbegriff bei ,herder4 ,jena ,universittsbuchdruckerei3 von ,g4 ,neuenhalen1 #aijb4 ,h,,nssel1 ,o4 ,der ,einfluss ,rousseaus auf die philosophisch-pdagog4 ,anschauungen ,herders4 ,dresden3 ,bleyl1 #aijb4 ,,hatch1 ,,irvin ,,clifton4 ,der ,einfluss ,shaftesburys auf ,herder4 ,berlin3 ,a4 ,duncker1 #aija4 ,,haym1 ,r4 ,herder nach seinem ,leben und seinen ,werken4 ,berlin3 ,weidmannsche ,buchhandlung1 #ahhj4 ,,herder1 ,,emil ,,gottfried ,,von4 ,j4 ,g4 von ,herders ,lebensbild4 ,verlag von ,theodor ,blsing4 ,erlangen1 #ahdf4 ,,herder1 ,,johann ,,gottfried4 ,smmtliche ,werke herausgegeben von ,bernhard ,suphan4 ,berlin3 ,weidmannsche ,buchhandlung1 #ahgg4 ,h,,ffding1 ,,harald4 ,rousseau und seine ,philosophie4 ,stuttgart3 ,fr4 ,frommanns ,verlag1 #ahig4 ,,hibben1 ,j4 ,g4 ,the ,philosophy of the ,enlightenment4 ,new ,york3 ,scribners1 #aiaj4 ,,hoppe1 ,,georg1 i4e41 ,,adam ,,franz ,,georg4 ,die ,pdagogik ,herders dargestellt auf dem ,grunde seiner religis-metaphysischen und ethischen ,anschauungen4 ,leipzig3 ,g4 ,kreysing1 #aijh4 ,,hudson1 ,,william ,,henry4 ,rousseau and ,naturalism in ,life and ,thought4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 #aijc4 ,,jacoby1 ,g,,nther4 ,herder als ,faust4 ,leipzig3 ,meiner1 #aiaa4 ,,karsten1 ,g4 ,e4 ,herder and the ,volkslied4 ,the ,bulletin of the ,washington ,university ,association4 ,st4 ,louis3 #aije1 ,no4 #c1 pp4 #aja-abc4 ,,keller1 ,,ludwig4 ,j4 ,g4 ,herder4 ,jena1 #aiaj4 ,,kr,,hnert1 ,,otto4 ,herder als ,politiker und ,deutscher ,patriot4 ,gumbinnen1 #aije4 ,,kronenberg1 ,,moritz4 ,herders ,philosophie nach ihrem ,entwickelungsgang und ihrer historischen ,stellung4 ,heidelberg3 ,c4 ,winter1 #ahhi4 ,k,,hnemann1 ,,eugen4 ,herders ,leben4 ,mnchen1 #ahie4 ,k,,hnemann1 ,,eugen4 ,herder4 ,mnchen1 #aiab4 ,k,,hnemann1 ,,dr4 ,,eugen4 ,herders ,persnlichkeit in seiner ,weltanschauung4 ,berlin3 ,ferd4 ,dmmlers ,verlagsbuchhandlung1 #ahic4 ,,leibniz1 ,,gottfried ,,wilhelm4 ,the ,monadology and ,other ,philosophical ,writings4 ,translated by ,robert ,latta4 ,oxford3 at the ,clarendon ,press1 #ahih4 ,,morelly4 ,code de la ,nature2 ou1 ,le veritable esprit de ses loix1 #agee4 ,paris3 ,p4 ,geuthner1 #aiaj4 ,,morley1 ,,john4 ,rousseau4 ,london3 ,macmillan ,co41 and ,new ,york1 #ahia4 ,,rand1 ,,benjamin4 ,the ,life1 ,unpublished ,letters1 and ,philosophical ,regimen of ,anthony1 ,earl of ,shaftesbury4 ,london3 ,swan ,sonnenschein ,co4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,co41 #aijj4 ,,rousseau1 ,,jean ,,jacques4 ,oeuvres ,compltes de ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau4 ,paris3 ,chez ,p4 ,dupont1 ,libraire-,editeur1 #ahbd4 ,,rousseau1 ,j4 ,j4 ,oeuvres ,compltes4 ,a ,paris3 ,chez ,furne1 ,libraire-,editeur4 #ahce4 ,,sch,,tze1 ,,martin4 8,fundamental ,ideas in ,herder's ,thought40 ,modern ,philology4 ,vol4 ,,xviii1 ,june1 ,october1 ,university of ,chicago ,press1 #aibj4 ,,shaftesbury1 ,,anthony ,,earl ,,of4 ,characteristicks of ,men1 ,manners1 ,opinions1 ,times4 ,birmingham3 ,printed by ,john ,baskerville1 #aggc4 ,,siegel1 ,,karl4 ,herder als ,philosoph4 ,stuttgart und ,berlin3 ,j4 ,g4 ,cotta'sche ,buchhandlung1 #aijg4 ,,sivers1 ,,jegor ,v4 ,humanitt und ,nationalitt zum ,andenken ,herder's4 ,berlin3 ,b4 ,behrs ,buchhandlung1 #ahfi4 ,,spinoza1 ,,benedict ,,de4 ,the ,chief ,works4 ,translated from the ,latin1 with an introduction by ,r4 ,h4 ,m4 ,elmes4 ,london3 ,george ,bell ,sons1 #ahhg4 ,,thann1 ,,elsass4 ,thanner ,druckerei und ,zeitungsverlag1 #aiai4 ,,windelband1 ,,dr4 ,w4 ,a ,history of ,philosophy4 ,translated by ,james ,h4 ,tufts4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,co4 ,london3 ,macmillan ,co41 #aiai4