,transcriber's ,note  italic text shown 
as italic          ,illustration3       
,,spitzbergen4            ,,the         
,,arctic ,,regions      ,,and ,,the     
,,northern      ,,whale-,,fishery4      
,,by      ,,captain ,,scoresby1         
,f4,r4,s4,e4        ,,london3 ,,the     
,,religious ,,tract ,,society3          
,instituted #agii4 #ef1    ,,paternoster
 ,,row1 ,,and #fe1 ,,st4 ,,paul',s      
,,churchyard4          ,,preface4       
,the following pages contain1 in an     
abridged and somewhat modified  form1   
the substance of the first volume of    
captain 7now the rev4  ,dr47 ,scoresby's
 work on the ,arctic ,regions and the   
,whale-fishery1  ,edinburgh1 #ahbj2 with
 the omission of the third chapter on   
the  ,hydrographical ,survey of the     
,greenland ,sea4 ,it is now issued by   
the  kind permission of the author2 and 
a wider circulation may thus be  secured
 for the interesting contents of his    
volumes than they could  receive in     
their original and more costly form4    

,some few materials  have also been     
collated from the valuable papers by the
 same author  contributed to the        
8,edinburgh ,philosophical ,journal40   
,,contents4      ,,chapter ,i4    ,page 
,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,celebrated       
,,question ,,of ,,the ,,existence ,,of  
,a ,,sea    ,,communication ,,between   
,,the ,,atlantic ,,and ,,pacific        
,,oceans1 ,,by ,,the ,,north2    ,,with 
,,an ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,progress    
,,of ,,discovery ,,in ,,the ,,northern  
,,regions #i      ,,chapter ,,ii4       
,,descriptive ,,account ,,of ,,some ,,of
 ,,the ,,polar ,,countries              
#cc      ,,chapter ,,iii4      ,,an     
,,account ,,of ,,the ,,greenland ,,or   
,,polar ,,ice                           
#fb      ,,chapter ,,iv4                
,,observations ,,on ,,the               
,,atmospherology ,,of ,,the ,,arctic    
,,regions1    ,,particularly ,,relating 
,,to ,,spitzbergen ,,and ,,the          
,,adjacent    ,,greenland ,,sea         
#if      ,,chapter ,v4      ,a ,,sketch 

,,of ,,the ,,zoology ,,of ,,the ,,arctic
 ,,regions                      #aci    
,,chapter ,,vi4      ,,expeditions ,,for
 ,,further ,,discovery                  
#ahh          ,,the ,,arctic ,,regions4 
,,chapter ,i4    ,,remarks ,,on ,,the   
,,celebrated ,,question ,,of ,,the      
,,existence ,,of ,a ,,sea               
,,communication ,,between ,,the         
,,atlantic ,,and ,,pacific ,,oceans1    
,,by ,,the ,,north2  ,,with ,,an        
,,account ,,of ,,the ,,progress ,,of    
,,discovery ,,in ,,the ,,northern       
,,regions4      ,the question of the    
existence of a navigable communication  
between  the ,european and the ,chinese 
seas1 by the north1 is one which has    
been long in agitation without being    
resolved1 and has been often  revived1  
with the most sanguine expectations of  
success1 to be again  abandoned as      
hopeless4 ,the first attempts to reach  
,china by sea1 were  made by steering   
along the coast of ,africa toward the   
south1 and the  next1 by proceeding from

 the ,european shore in a westerly      
direction4  ,the former1 which first    
proved successful1 was accomplished by  
,vasquez de ,gama1 a ,portuguese1 in the
 year #adig-h2 and the latter was       
undertaken by the renowned navigator1   
,columbus1 in #adib4 ,the notion  of    
steering to ,india by the north-west1 as
 the shortest way1 was  suggested about 
the middle or latter end of the         
fifteenth century1  by ,john ,vaz ,costa
 ,cortereal1 who performed a voyage to  
,newfoundland  about the year #adfc-d2  
or1 according to a more general opinion1
  by ,john ,cabot1 the father of the    
celebrated ,sebastian ,cabot1 who       
attempted the navigation in #adig1 and  
perhaps also in #adid-e4 ,the  idea of a
 passage to ,india by the ,north ,pole  
was suggested by ,robert  ,thorne1      
merchant of ,bristol1 as early as the   
year #aebg2 and the  opinion of a       
passage by the north-east was proposed  
soon afterwards4    ,the universal      
interest which has been attached to this

 question of  a sea communication       
between the ,atlantic and ,pacific      
,oceans1 by the  north1 ever since it   
was first suggested1 about three hundred
 and  thirty or three hundred and fifty 
years ago1 is fully proved by the       
facts1 that the speculation has never   
but once been abandoned by the  nations 
of ,europe for more than twenty-five    
years together1 and that  there have    
been only three or four intervals of    
more than fifteen  years in which no    
expedition was sent out in search of one
 or other  of the supposed passages1    
from the year #aejj down to the present 
time4 ,and it is not a little surprising
 that1 after nearly a hundred  different
 voyages have been undertaken with a    
view of discovering  the desired        
communication with the ,indian seas1 all
 of which have  failed1 ,britain should 
again revive and attempt the solution of
 this  interesting problem4    ,several 
facts may be brought forward1 on which  
arguments of no mean  force may be      

founded1 in support of the opinion of   
the existence of a  sea communication by
 the north between ,europe and ,china4  
,they may be  enumerated in order4      
#a4 ,the prevailing current in the      
,spitzbergen sea flows1 we are  well    
assured1 during nine months of the year1
 if not all the year  round1 from the   
north-east towards the south-west4 ,the 
velocity of  this current may be from   
five to twenty miles per day1 varying in
  different situations1 but is most     
considerable near the coast of  ,old    
,greenland4 ,the current1 on the other  
hand1 in the middle of  ,behring's      
,strait1 as observed by lieutenant      
,kotzebue1 sets strongly  to the        
north-east1 with a velocity1 as he      
thought1 of two miles and  a half an    
hour2 which is greater1 however1 by     
one-half than the rate  observed by     
captain ,cook4    #b4 ,by the action of 
the south-westerly current1 a vast      
quantity  of ice is annually brought    
from the north and east1 and conducted  

along the east shore of ,old ,greenland 
as far as ,cape ,farewell1  where such  
masses as still remain undissolved are  
soon destroyed by  the influence of the 
solar heat and the force of the sea1 to 
which  they then become exposed from    
almost every quarter4 ,this ice being   
entirely free from salt1 and very       
compact1 appears originally to  have    
consisted of field-ice1 a kind which    
perhaps requires the  action of frost   
for many years to bring it to the       
thickness which  it assumes4 ,the       
quantity of heavy ice1 in surface1 which
 is thus  annually dissolved1 may1 at a 
rough calculation1 be stated to be      
about twenty thousand square leagues1   
while the quantity annually  generated  
in the regions accessible to the        
whale-fishers is1  probably1 not more   
than one-fourth of that area4 ,as such1 
the ice1  which is so inexhaustible1    
must require an immense surface of sea  
for  its generation1 perhaps the whole  
or greater part of the so-called        

8,polar ,basin20 the supply required for
 replacing what is dissolved  in        
,behring's ,strait1 where the current   
sets towards the north1  being1         
probably1 of small moment4 ,the current1
 in opposite parts of  the northern     
hemisphere1 being thus found to follow  
the same line  of direction1 indicates a
 communication between the two across   
the  ,poles2 and the inexhaustible      
supply of ice1 affording about fifteen  
thousand square leagues1 to be annually 
dissolved above the quantity  generated 
in the known parts of the ,spitzbergen  
seas1 supports the  same conclusion4    
#c4 ,the origin of the considerable     
quantity of drift-wood1 found in  almost
 every part of the ,greenland sea1 is   
traced to some country  beyond the      
,pole1 and may be brought forward in aid
 of the opinion  of the existence of a  
sea communication between the ,atlantic 
and  the ,pacific2 which argument       
receives additional strength from the   
circumstance of some of the drift-wood  

being worm-eaten4 ,this last  fact ,i   
first observed on the shores of the     
island of ,jan ,mayen1 in  ,august1     
#ahag1 and confirmed it by more         
particular observation when at          
,spitzbergen the year following4 ,having
 no axe with me when ,i observed  the   
worm-eaten wood1 and having no means of 
bringing it away1 ,i could  not         
ascertain whether the holes observed in 
the timber were the work  of a ptinus or
 a pholas4 ,in either case1 however1 as 
it is not  known that these animals ever
 pierce wood in arctic countries1 it is 
presumed that the worm-eaten drift-wood 
is derived from a transpolar  region4   
,numerous facts of this nature might be 
adduced1 all of which  support the same 
conclusion4    #d4 ,the northern faces  
of the continents of ,europe and ,asia1 
as well  as of that of ,america1 so far 
as yet known1 are such as renders it    
difficult even to imagine such a        
position for the unascertained  regions1
 as to cut off the communication between

 the ,frozen ,sea1 near  the meridian of
 ,london1 and that in the opposite part 
of the northern  hemisphere1 near       
,behring's ,strait4    #e4 ,whales1     
which have been harpooned in the        
,greenland seas1 have been  found in the
 ,pacific ,ocean2 and whales1 with stone
 lances sticking  in their fat1 7a kind 
of weapon used by no nation now known17 
have  been caught both in the sea of    
,spitsbergen and in ,davis's ,strait4   
,this fact1 which is sufficiently       
authenticated1 seems to me the most     
satisfactory argument4    ,the          
,russians1 it appears1 have1 at         
intervals1 discovered all the           
navigation between ,archangel and the   
,strait of ,behring1 excepting a        
portion of about two hundred miles1     
occupied by the eastern part of a  noss1
 or promontory1 lying between the rivers
 ,khatanga and ,piacina4  ,the northern 
extremity of this noss1 called ,cape    
,ceverovostochnoi1  appears to have been
 doubled by lieutenant                  

,prontschitscheff1 in the  year #agce1  
so that ice1 and perhaps some small     
islands1 seem in this  place to form the
 great obstruction to the navigation4   
,as far as can  be well substantiated1  
the portion of the route between        
,archangel  and ,kamtchatka1 which has  
been hitherto accomplished1 clearly     
proves  that1 if a sea communication    
between the ,atlantic and ,pacific by   
the  north-east really exists1 it could 
never be practicable in one year4       
,inasmuch as the ,russians were five or 
six years in performing so much  of the 
navigation as has been accomplished1    
though they employed a  number of       
different vessels in the undertaking1 it
 is probable that  the voyage could     
never be performed in one vessel1 unless
 by mere  accident1 in less than eight  
or ten years4 ,it is clear1 therefore1  
that the discovery of a 8north-east     
passage0 could never be of any          
advantage to our commerce with ,china or
 ,india4    ,though1 however1 the       

voyages undertaken in search of a       
north-east  passage by the different    
nations of ,europe have amounted to     
about  twelve1 besides numerous partial 
attempts by the ,russians1 and though   
all of them have failed in their        
principal intention1 yet they have  not 
been wholly lost to us2 the ,spitzbergen
 whale and seal fisheries1  so valuable 
to the country1 with the trade to       
,archangel1 having  arisen out of them4 
,the voyages of ,davis1 in the years    
#aehe-f and #aehg-h1 of ,hudson1 in     
#afaj1 and of ,baffin1 in #afaf1 were   
the source of the greatest part  of the 
discoveries which have been made in the 
countries situated  to the northward and
 westward of the south point of         
,greenland4  ,to these regions1         
consisting of what have been called bays
 and  straits1 the names of these       
celebrated voyagers have been applied4  
,all the voyages1 indeed1 since         
undertaken for discovery in the  same   
quarter1 amounting to nearly thirty1    

have done little more  than confirm the 
researches of these three individuals1  
and show  how little there was to be    
found1 instead of discovering anything  
of moment4 ,the ostensible object of    
most of these voyages1 was the          
discovery of a shorter passage to ,india
 than that by the ,cape of  ,good ,hope1
 by the north-west4 ,the existence of   
such a passage is  not yet either proved
 or refuted4 ,in an account of 8a       
,voyage to  ,hudson's ,bay10 by ,henry  
,ellis1 such a passage is inferred to   
exist  from the following               
considerations3--the want of trees on   
the west  side of ,hudson's ,bay beyond 
a certain latitude2 the appearance of a 
certain ridge of mountains lying near   
the same coast1 and extending  in a     
direction parallel to it2 the direct    
testimony of the ,indians1  that they   
have seen the sea beyond the mountains1 
and have observed  vessels navigating   
therein2 and1 most particularly1 the    
nature and  peculiarities observed in   

the tides4 ,this latter argument is by  
far  the most conclusive4 ,from         
observations on the winds and tides in  
the  ,baltic1 ,mediterranean1 and other 
inland seas1 ,ellis proceeds to show1   
that every circumstance with regard to  
the tides in ,hudson's ,bay  is         
different from what would take place in 
an inland sea1 and then  concludes that 
,hudson's ,bay is not such a sea1 but   
has some opening  which communicates    
with the ,frozen ,ocean on the          
north-west4    ,other arguments1 which  
have been offered in favour of the      
separation  of ,greenland from ,america1
 are deduced from the existence of a    
current setting from the north--from the
 circumstance of icebergs and           
drift-wood being brought down by the    
current--from whales wounded in  the    
,spitzbergen seas having been caught in 
,davis's ,strait--from the  position of 
the land1 as represented on skins by the
 native ,american  ,indians--and from   
the occurrence of certain plants in     

,greenland1 which  are natives of       
,europe1 but have never been found in   
any part of the  ,american continent4   
,the opinion appears to be quite        
incorrect1 that if a passage were       
discovered1 it would1 probably1 be open 
above half the year4 ,i  imagine it     
would be only at intervals of years that
 it would be open  at all1 and then1    
perhaps1 for no longer time than eight  
or ten  weeks in a season4 ,hence1 as   
affording a navigation to the ,pacific  
,ocean1 the discovery of a north-west   
passage would be of no service4  ,for   
many reasons1 however1 the examination  
of these interesting  countries is an   
object worthy of the attention of a     
great nation4  ,the advantages that have
 already arisen to ,britain from the    
voyages  undertaken in search of a      
north-west passage are1 the             
establishment  of the ,davis's ,strait's
 whale-fishery1 and of the trade of the 
,hudson's ,bay company1 so that the     
expenditure has not altogether been     

lost4    ,the adventurous spirit        
manifested by our early navigators1 in  
performing such hazardous voyages in    
small barks1 in which we should  be     
scrupulous of trusting ourselves across 
the ,german ,ocean1 is  calculated to   
strike us with surprise and admiration1 
while the  correctness of their         
investigations gives us a high opinion  
of their  perseverance and talent4 ,the 
famous voyage of ,baffin1 in which the  
bay bearing his name was discovered1 was
 performed in a vessel of  only         
fifty-five tons' burden2 that of        
,hudson1 in which also the bay  called  
by his name was first navigated1 in the 
very same vessel2 and  the voyages of   
,davis chiefly in vessels of fifty1     
thirty-five1 and  ten tons' burden4     
,in perusing the voyages of our old     
navigators1 it is particularly          
gratifying to those who consider        
religion as the chief business of  this 
life1 to observe the strain of piety and
 dependence upon ,divine  ,providence   

which runs through almost every         
narrative4 ,their honest  and laudable  
acknowledgments of a particular         
interference of the  ,almighty1 working 
out deliverance for them in times of    
difficulty  and danger1 and their       
frequent declarations expressive of     
their  reliance upon ,providence1 for   
assistance and protection in their      
adventurous undertakings1 are worthy of 
our imitation4 ,thus1 while  our modern 
voyagers are much in the habit of       
attributing their most  remarkable      
deliverances to 8luck10 8chance10 and   
8fortune10 those of  old evidenced      
certainly a more ,christian-like        
feeling1 under such  circumstances1 by  
referring their deliverances to that    
great ,being1  from whom alone every    
good thing must be derived4 ,they only  
who have  a similar dependence on       
,providence1 and who have been          
occasionally  in trying situations1 can 
duly appreciate the confidence and      
comfort  which this belief is calculated

 to afford under the most appalling     
circumstances4    ,the class of vessels 
best adapted for discovery in the ,polar
 seas1  seems to be that of one hundred 
to two hundred tons' burden4 ,they  are 
stronger1 more easily managed1 in less  
danger of being stoved or  crushed by   
ice1 and not so expensive as those of   
larger dimensions4  ,an increase of size
 is a diminution of comparative         
strength2 and  hence it is evident1 that
 a vessel intended for discovery should 
be  just large enough for conveying the 
requisite stores and provisions1  and   
for affording comfortable accommodation 
to the navigators1 but  no larger4      
,perhaps a vessel about one hundred and 
fifty tons' burden  would be fully      
sufficient to answer every purpose4 ,the
 navigation of  the ,polar seas1 which  
is peculiar1 requires in a particular   
manner an  extensive knowledge of the   
nature1 properties1 and usual motions of
  the ice1 and it can only be performed 
to the best advantage by those  who have

 had long experience in working a ship  
in icy situations4  ,it might be a      
material assistance to those employed in
 completing  the examination of         
,baffin's ,bay1 as well as productive of
 some  interesting information in       
meteorological phenomena1 were a vessel 
or  two to remain in the northern part  
of this bay through the winter4  ,there 
is very little doubt that the vessel    
would1 by this method1 be  released by  
the ice as early as ,may or ,june1 and  
thus be afforded  about double the time 
of research that could be obtained by   
wintering  out of the bay4 ,there would 
not1 ,i imagine1 be any very great      
danger  in making this experiment1      
provided a sufficient quantity of fresh 
provisions1 for the prevention of the   
scurvy among the crew1 were  taken out1 
and certain precautions adopted for the 
preservation of  the ships4 ,the        
ingenious apparatus invented by ,mr4    
,thomas ,morton  designed to supersede1 
in repairing vessels1 the necessity of  

dry  docks1 might be eminently          
advantageous4    ,in seas perpetually   
encumbered with ice1 and probably       
crowded with  islands1 if not divided by
 necks of land1 the chance of great     
discoveries and of extensive navigations
 towards the north-west1  even under the
 best arrangements and under the boldest
 seamen1 is  but small4 ,the most       
certain method of ascertaining the      
existence of  a communication between   
the ,atlantic and ,pacific1 along the   
northern  face of ,america1 would       
doubtless be by journeys on land4 ,men  
there  are who1 being long used to      
travel upon snow in the service of the  
,hudson's ,bay company1 would readily   
undertake the journey by the  interior  
lakes of ,north ,america to the ,frozen 
,ocean1 or1 in case of  a continuity of 
land being found1 to the very ,pole     
itself1 of whose  success we should     
certainly have a reasonable ground of   
hope4 ,the  practicability of this mode 
of making discoveries has been fully    

proved by the expeditions of ,mackenzie 
and ,hearne2 and a possibility  of      
performing very long journeys on snow   
can be attested1 from  personal         
experience1 by those who have wintered a
 few times in  ,hudson's ,bay4    ,the  
plan of performing a journey in this    
way1 for discovering the  northern      
termination of the ,american continent1 
and for tracing  it round to its        
junction with the coasts of the same    
country1  washed by the ,atlantic1 might
 be in some measure as follows4 ,the    
party intended for this expedition1     
which should consist of as few          
individuals as possible1 ought1 perhaps1
 in the course of one summer1  to make  
their way to one of the interior        
settlements of the ,hudson's  ,bay      
company1 or of the ,canadian traders1   
such as ,slave ,fort1 on the  great     
,slave ,lake1 situated in the #fbnd     
degree of latitude1 or ,fort            
,chepewyan1 near the ,athapescow ,lake1 
in latitude #eh #dj1 from whence  sir   

,alexander ,mackenzie embarked on his   
voyage to the ,frozen ,ocean1  and there
 abide during the first winter4         
,supposing the travellers  to winter at 
,slave ,fort1 they might calculate on   
being within the  distance of two       
hundred leagues1 or thirty or forty     
days' journey1  moderate travelling1 of 
the ,frozen ,ocean4 ,in the month of    
,march or  ,april1 the party1 consisting
 of two or three ,europeans1 one or two 
,esquimaux interpreters1 and two or more
 ,indian guides1 provided with          
everything requisite for the            
undertaking1 might set out towards the  
north4 ,on the arrival of the travellers
 among the ,esquimaux1 their  ,indian   
guides1 from fear of this nation1 would 
probably desert them1  but the presence 
of their ,esquimaux interpreters would  
secure them  a good reception4 ,when    
once they should meet with this people1 
they  would have a strong evidence of   
being near the sea1 as it is well  known
 the ,esquimaux never retire far from   

the coast4 ,on their arrival  at the    
coast1 it will be necessary to associate
 with the ,esquimaux1  to submit in some
 measure to their mode of living1 and1  
to effect  any considerable discovery1  
it might be requisite to spend a winter 
or two among them1 in which case they   
might trace the line of the  ,frozen    
,ocean to such a length1 that the place 
where it joins the  western coast of    
,baffin's ,bay1 or ,hudson's ,bay1 or   
the eastern side  of ,greenland1 would  
be determined4 ,or1 if it should be     
objectionable  to winter among the      
,esquimaux1 several expeditions might be
 sent out  at the same time from        
different stations1 and on different    
meridians4  ,the expense of three or    
four such expeditions over land would   
probably be less than that of one       
expedition by sea4    ,the scheme       
suggested by ,robert ,thorne1 of        
,bristol1 of finding a  passage to      
,india across the ,north ,pole1 about   
the year #aebg1 appears  to have been   

immediately attempted by an expedition1 
consisting of  two ships1 sent out by   
order of ,henry ,,viii42 one of the     
ships1 we  are informed1 was lost2 of   
the nature of the success of the other  
we  have but a very unsatisfactory      
account4 ,after this voyage1 ,barentz1  
,heemskerke1 and ,ryp1 attempted the    
transpolar navigation1 in #aeif2        
,hudson1 in #afjg2 ,jonas ,poole1 in    
#afaj and #afaa2 ,baffin and ,fotherby1 
in #afad2 ,fotherby1 in #afae2 ,phipps1 
in #aggc2 and ,buchan and ,franklin1  in
 #ahah4 ,the highest latitude attained  
by any of these navigators did  not1 it 
would appear1 exceed #ha4 ,my father1 in
 the ship ,resolution1  of ,whitby1 in  
the year #ahjf1 with whom ,i then served
 as chief mate1  sailed to a much higher
 latitude4 ,our latitude1 on three      
occasions1  in the month of ,may1 as    
derived from observations taken with a  
sextant by myself and my father1 was #hj
 #ej #bh1 #ha #a #ec1 and  #ha #ab #db2 
after which we sailed so far to the     

northward as made  it about #ha #cj1    
which is one of the closest             
approximations to the  ,pole which ,i   
conceive has been well authenticated4   
,whatever may be our opinion of the     
accounts brought forward by some        
parties to prove the occasional         
accessibility of the #hcrd or #hdth     
parallel of north latitude1 of this we  
may be assured1 that the  opinion of an 
open sea round the ,pole is altogether  
chimerical4 ,it  is urged1 indeed1 that 
the extraordinary power of the sun1     
about the  summer solstice1 is so far   
greater at the ,pole than at the        
,equator1  as to destroy all the ice    
generated in the winter season1 and to  
render the temperature of the ,pole     
warmer and more congenial to  feeling   
than it is in some places lying nearer  
the ,equator4 ,so far1  however1 from   
the actual influence of the sun1 though 
acknowledged  at a certain season to be 
greater at the ,pole than at the        
,equator1  being above what it is       

calculated to be by the ordinary formul 
for  temperature1 it is found by        
experiment in latitude #gh to be greatly
  below it--how then can the temperature
 of the ,pole be expected to  be so very
 different8 ,from the remarks in the    
ensuing pages1 it  will be shown that   
ice is annually formed during nine      
months of the  year in the ,spitzbergen 
sea1 and that neither calm weather1 nor 
the  proximity of land1 is essential for
 its formation4 ,can it1 then1 be       
supposed1 that at the ,pole1 where the  
mean temperature is probably as  low as 
#aj1 the sea is not full of ice8 ,if the
 masses of ice1 which  usually prevent  
the advance of navigators beyond the    
#hbnd degree of  north latitude1 be     
extended in a continued series to the   
,pole1 7of  which1 unless there be land 
in the way1 there appears no doubt17    
the expectation of reaching the ,pole by
 sea is altogether vain4 ,by  land1     
however1 ,i do not conceive the journey 
would be impracticable4  ,it would not  

exceed one thousand two hundred miles1  
7six hundred  miles each way17 and might
 be performed on sledges1 drawn by dogs 
or reindeer1 or even on foot4 ,foot     
travellers would require to draw  the   
apparatus and provisions1 necessary for 
the undertaking1 on  sledges by hand1   
and in this way1 with good dispatch1 the
 journey  would occupy at least two     
months2 but1 with the assistance of     
dogs1  it might1 probably1 be           
accomplished in a little less time4     
,with  favourable winds1 great advantage
 might be derived from sails set  upon  
the sledges1 which sails1 when the      
travellers were at rest1  would serve   
for the erection of tents4 ,small       
vacancies in the ice  would not prevent 
the journey1 as the sledges might be    
adapted so  as to answer the purpose of 
boats1 nor would the usual unevenness of
  the ice1 nor the depth or softness of 
the snow1 be an insurmountable          
difficulty1 as journeys of nearly equal 
length1 and under similar               

inconveniences1 have been accomplished4 
,among many similar accounts1 there is  
one related by ,muller1 in  his         
8,voyages from ,asia to ,america10 of a 
,cossack having actually  performed a   
journey of about eight hundred miles in 
a sledge1 drawn  by dogs1 across a      
surface of ice lying to the northward of
 the  ,russian dominions1 which         
sufficiently establishes the            
practicability  of a journey across the 
ice to the ,pole4 ,alexei ,markoff1 a   
,cossack1  was sent to explore the      
,frozen ,ocean1 in the summer of the    
year #agad1  by order of the ,russian   
government1 but finding the sea so      
crowded  with ice that he was unable to 
make any progress in discovery1 he      
formed the design of travelling in      
sledges1 during the winter or  spring of
 the year1 over the ice1 which might    
then be expected to be  firm and        
compact4 ,accordingly1 he prepared      
several of the country  sledges1 drawn  
by dogs1 and accompanied by eight       

persons1 he set  out on the #ajth of    
,march from the mouth of the ,jana1 in  
latitude  #gj #cj1 and longitude about  
#ach east4 ,he proceeded for seven days 
northward1 as fast as his dogs could    
draw1 which1 under favourable           
circumstances1 is eighty or one hundred 
versts a day1 until his  progress was   
impeded1 about the #ghth degree of      
latitude1 by the  ice elevated into     
prodigious mountains4 ,this prevented   
his further  advance2 at the same time1 
falling short of provisions for his     
dogs1  his return was effected with     
difficulty2 several of his dogs died for
  want1 and were given to the rest for  
their support4 ,on the #crd of  ,april1 
he arrived at ,ust-,jauskoe ,simowie1   
the place from whence he  started1 after
 an absence of twenty-four days1 during 
which time he  appears to have travelled
 about eight hundred miles4 ,the journey
 of  ,markoff was nearly equal in extent
 to the projected journey to the  ,pole1
 and there appears no very great reason 

why a person equally  adventurous with  
,markoff1 and better provided1 might not
 in a similar  manner reach the ,pole4  
,the first considerable discovery which 
appears to have been made  in or near   
the arctic circle1 was the result of    
accident2 one of  the numerous          
,scandinavian depredators1 who1 in the  
ninth century1  cruised the northern    
seas in search of plunder1 having been  
driven1  by a long-continued storm1 from
 the eastward upon the coast of         
,iceland1 in the year #hfa4 ,this       
island1 from the quantity of snow seen  
on the mountains1 was1 by its discoverer
 ,naddodd1 at first called  ,schnee1 or 
,snowland4 ,it was visited by a ,swede  
of the name of  ,gardar ,suaffarson1    
three years after its discovery1 and    
afterwards by  another ,swede1 ,flocke1 
from whom it received the name of       
,iceland4  ,it was again visited in the 
year #hgd1 by ,ingolf and ,lief1 two    
,norwegians1 and became the seat of a   
,norwegian colony4    ,the coast of     

,norway1 to the entrance of the ,white  
,sea1 was examined  about this period by
 a person of the name of ,ohthere1 a    
,norwegian1  who himself gave an account
 of his voyage to ,alfred the ,great1 by
  whom it has been handed down to us    
along with the translation of the       
,ormesta of ,orosius4    ,about the     
middle1 or towards the end of the tenth 
century1 an  extensive country1 to the  
westward of ,iceland1 was discovered by 
one of the colonists of the name of     
,gunbiorn1 which country was  visited1  
in the year #ihb1 by one ,eric ,rauda1  
who had fled from ,norway  to ,iceland1 
to avoid the punishment due to the crime
 of murder  and various other offences4 
,to this country he gave the name of    
,greenland1 and in consequence of his   
exaggerated account of its  products and
 appearance1 a respectable colony was   
founded4 ,about  the year #ajja1 one of 
the ,iceland colonists1 ,biorn by name1 
was  accidentally driven by a storm to  
the southward of ,greenland1 where  he  

discovered a new country1 covered with  
wood4 ,lief1 the son of ,eric  ,rauda1  
fitted out a vessel1 and visited the    
country4 ,grapes were  discovered in it1
 and from this circumstance it was      
called ,vinland2  the day was eight     
hours long in winter1 whence it appears 
that it  must have been somewhere on the
 coast of ,north ,america1 probably on  
the shore of ,newfoundland4    ,the     
,christian religion was introduced into 
,iceland and ,greenland  about the year 
#ajjj1 and within a hundred years       
afterwards generally  diffused4 ,above  
sixteen churches were then built1 and   
two convents4  ,these buildings1 as well
 as the habitations of the colonists1   
were erected near the southern point of 
,greenland4 ,they had two  settlements1 
the most western of which increased up  
to four parishes1  containing one       
hundred farms or villages2 and the most 
eastern1 to  twelve parishes1 one       
hundred and ninety villages1 one        
bishop's see1  and two convents4 ,the   

intercourse between ,greenland and the  
rest of  the world was intercepted about
 the year #adjf1 when the seventeenth   
bishop attempted to reach his see1 but  
was prevented by ice4 ,since  the       
beginning of the fifteenth century1     
these unfortunate colonists  have been  
of necessity left to themselves1 and not
 having been heard  of1 are supposed to 
have perished2 but whether they were    
destroyed  by their enemies the         
,esquimaux1 or perished for want of     
their usual  supplies1 or were carried  
off by a destructive pestilence1 as some
  have imagined1 is still matter of     
doubt4 ,various attempts have been  made
 by order of the ,danish government for 
recovery of this country1  and to       
ascertain the fate of these colonists1  
but hitherto without  success4    ,alter
 the voyages of ,columbus1 a new        
stimulus was offered to  the            
enterprising trader1 and to those who   
might be desirous of  prosecuting the   
task of discovery1 and a ,portuguese    

navigator1 ,john  ,vaz ,costa           
,cortereal1 about the year #adfc or     
#adfd1 tried the passage  to ,india by  
the west1 on a parallel far to the      
northward of that  pursued by ,columbus4
 ,in this voyage the land of            
,newfoundland appears  to have been     
seen4 ,the same voyage was attempted by 
,sebastian ,cabot1  a ,venetian1 in the 
year #adig1 and by ,gaspar ,cortereal   
and ,michael  ,cortereal1 sons of the   
previously named ,costa4 ,both these    
brothers  perished1 and a third brother1
 who would have followed in search of   
them1 was prohibited from embarking by  
the king of ,portugal4    ,an important 
voyage of discovery was that of sir     
,hugh ,willoughby1  in the year #aeec1  
in which the coast now called ,nova     
,zembla was  discovered1 and the        
,russian territory on the east side of  
the  ,white ,sea4 ,in consequence of    
this expedition1 a regular trade was    
established with ,russia1 which was     
accomplished under various  privileges4 

,in the year #aeef1 further discoveries 
in the same quarter  were made by       
,stephen ,burrough4 ,then followed the  
voyages of ,martin  ,frobisher and ,john
 ,davis2 the latter in the year #aehe4  
,he proceeded  along the west side of   
,greenland1 and then crossing an open   
sea to  the north-westward1 discovered  
land in latitude #ff #dj1 giving names  
to the different parts of the coast     
which has since been denominated        
,cumberland ,island4 ,in the course of  
this voyage1 they met with a  multitude 
of natives1 whom they found a very      
tractable people1 and  liberal in their 
mode of trafficking4 ,in the following  
year1 ,davis  prosecuted another voyage1
 but with no discovery of any           
consequence2  and again also1 for the   
third time1 in the year following4      
,amongst several expeditions sent out by
 the ,dutch1 to explore a  passage to   
,india and ,china by the north-east1    
that of two ships1  under the pilotage  
of ,william ,barentz1 is the most       

memorable4 ,it  sailed from ,amsterdam  
the #ajth of ,may1 #aeif4 ,after having 
discovered  ,spitzbergen1 the two ships 
pursued different courses1 and ,barentz1
  while endeavouring to sail round ,nova
 ,zembla1 became entangled in  the ice4 
,they were1 in consequence1 compelled to
 winter in this  desolate and frozen    
country4 8,the journal of the           
proceedings of  these poor people10 as  
,mr4 ,barrow beautifully observes1      
8during  this cold1 comfortless1 dark1  
and dreadful winter is intensely and    
painfully interesting4 ,no murmuring    
escapes them in their hopeless  and     
afflicted situation2 but such a spirit  
of true piety1 and a tone  of such mild 
and subdued resignation to ,divine      
,providence1 breathe  throughout the    
whole narrative1 that it is impossible  
to peruse  the simple tale of their     
sufferings1 and contemplate their       
forlorn  situation1 without the deepest 
emotion40 ,forcibly1 indeed1 does their 
narrative illustrate the mind's         

independence of external comforts1  and 
the peace and joy to be derived from    
trust in ,god1 and cordial  submission  
to his appointments4 ,part of the       
sufferers made their  escape in two open
 boats from this dismal country1 in the 
following  summer1 and after a perilous 
and painful voyage1 of above one        
thousand one hundred miles1 arrived in  
safety at ,cola2 but ,barentz1  with    
some others1 was overcome by the        
severity of the climate1 and  the       
extraordinary exertions which he was    
obliged to make1 and died4    ,in the   
year #afjh1 ,henry ,hudson was employed 
in search of a north-east  passage2 and1
 in #afaj1 in a voyage of discovery     
towards the  north-west1 in a vessel of 
fifty-five tons' burden4 ,it was on this
  occasion that he discovered the bay   
which bears his name1 hauled  his ship  
on shore in a convenient situation1 and 
wintered there4  ,they fell short of    
provisions1 and the following summer the
 crew  mutinied1 and abandoned their    

captain1 his son1 and others of the     
crew1 to a most cruel fate4 ,in #afaf   
was accomplished the remarkable  voyage 
of ,william ,baffin1 attended by        
discoveries of a most extensive  nature 
in the bay which bears his name1 which1 
though regarded with  considerable doubt
 at first1 have since been abundantly   
confirmed by  the labours of captain    
,ross and lieutenant ,parry4    ,in     
,march1 #ahbb1 the ship ,baffin sailed  
from ,liverpool1 and reached  #hj north 
latitude without experiencing any frost2
 on the #bgth ,april1  we arrived within
 ten miles of ,spitzbergen1 and were    
stopped in  latitude #hj #cj by main    
ice4 ,afterwards1 we encountered a most 
heavy  gale1 the thermometer falling in 
the space of sixteen hours #cd1  being  
the most remarkable change ,i ever      
experienced in ,greenland  seas4 ,on the
 #ast ,may1 we advanced to only five    
hundred and sixty-six  miles' distance  
from the ,pole1 and subsequently        
discovered the  eastern coast of        

,greenland1 a continuation towards the  
north of  the coast on which the ancient
 ,icelandic colonies were planted4 ,we  
surveyed and named various parts of this
 coast1 to the extent of  about eight   
hundred miles1 and found traces of      
inhabitants4 ,it was  inferred that     
,greenland is probably a great group of 
islands4 ,the  expedition returned on   
the #ahth ,september1 in the same year4 
,,chapter ,,ii4    ,,descriptive        
,,account ,,of ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,polar
 ,,countries4      ,spitzbergen extends 
furthest towards the north of any       
country yet  discovered4 ,it is         
surrounded by the ,arctic ,ocean1 or    
,greenland  ,sea2 and1 though the       
occasional resort of persons drawn      
thither  for purposes of hunting and    
fishing1 does not appear to have been   
ever inhabited4 ,it lies between the    
latitudes #gf #cj and #hj #g  north1 and
 between the longitude of #i1 and1      
perhaps1 #bb east2  but some of the     
neighbouring islands extend at least as 

far north  as #hj #dj1 and still further
 towards the east than the mainland  of 
,spitzbergen4 ,the western part of this 
country was discovered  by ,barentz1    
,heemskerke1 and ,ryp1 in two vessels1  
fitted out of  ,amsterdam1 on the #aith 
of ,june1 #aeif1 who1 from the numerous 
peaks  and acute mountains observed on  
the coast1 gave it the appropriate  name
 of ,spitzbergen1 signifying 8sharp     
mountains40 ,it was afterwards  named   
,newland1 or ,king ,james's ,newland1   
and then ,greenland1  being supposed to 
be a continuation towards the east of   
the country  so-called by the           
,icelanders4 ,it was re-discovered by   
,henry ,hudson1  an ,english navigator1 
in #afjg1 and four years afterwards     
became the  resort of the ,english for  
the purpose of taking whales1 since     
which  period its shores have annually  
been visited by one or other of the     
nations of ,europe1 with the same       
object1 to the present time4 ,and       
though the soil of the whole of this    

remote country does not produce         
vegetables suitable or sufficient for   
the nourishment of a single  human      
being1 yet its coasts and adjacent seas 
have afforded riches  and independence  
to thousands4    ,this country exhibits 
many interesting views1 with numerous   
examples  of the sublime4 ,its          
stupendous hills1 rising by steep       
acclivities  from the very margin of the
 ocean to an immense height2 its        
surface1  contrasting the native1       
protruding1 dark-coloured rocks1 with   
the  burden of purest snow and          
magnificent ices1 altogether constitute 
an  extraordinary and beautiful picture4
    ,the whole of the western coast is  
mountainous and picturesque1 and  though
 it is shone upon by a four months' sun 
every year1 its snowy  covering is never
 wholly dissolved1 nor are its icy      
monuments of  the dominion of frost ever
 removed4 ,the valleys1 opening towards 
the coast1 and terminating in the       
background with a transverse  chain of  

mountains1 are chiefly filled with      
everlasting ice4 ,the  inland valleys1  
at all seasons1 present a smooth and    
continued bed  of snow1 in some places  
divided by considerable rivulets1 but in
  others exhibiting a pure unbroken     
surface for many leagues in extent4     
,along the western coast1 the mountains 
take their rise from within  a league of
 the sea1 and some from its very edge4  
,few tracts of  table-land1 of more than
 a league in breadth1 are to be seen1   
and in  many places the blunt           
termination of mountain ridges project  
beyond  the regular line of the coast1  
and overhang the waters of the ocean4   
,the southern part of ,spitzbergen      
consists of groups of insulated         
mountains1 little disposed in chains1 or
 in any determinate order1  having      
conical1 pyramidal1 or ridged summits1  
sometimes round-backed1  frequently     
terminating in points1 and occasionally 
in acute peaks1  not unlike spires4 ,an 
arm of a short mountain chain1 however1 

forms  the southern cape1 or ,point     
,look-out1 but a low flat1 in the form  
of  a fish's tail1 of about forty square
 miles in surface1 constitutes  the     
termination of the coast4 ,other        
promontories1 lying nearly north  and   
south1 are of a similar nature4    ,to  
the northward of ,charles's ,island the 
mountains are more  dispersed in chains 
than they are to the southward4 ,the    
principal  ridge lies nearly north and  
south1 and the principal valley extends 
from the head of ,cross ,bay to the     
northern face of the country1  a        
distance of forty or fifty miles4 ,an   
inferior chain of hills1  two or three  
leagues from the coast1 runs parallel   
with the shore1  from which lateral     
ridges project into the sea1 and        
terminate in  mural precipices4 ,between
 these lateral ridges1 some of the      
largest  icebergs on the coast occur4   
,the most remarkable mountains ,i have  
seen are situated near ,horn ,sound1 on 
,charles's ,island1 and near  ,king's   

,bay4 ,horn ,mount1 or ,hedge-hog       
,mount1 so-called from an  appearance of
 spires on the top1 when seen in some   
positions1 takes  its rise from a small 
tract of alpine land1 on the southern   
side  of ,horn ,sound4 ,it has different
 summits1 chiefly in the form of        
spires1 one of which is remarkably      
elevated4 ,i had an opportunity of      
determining its height in the year      
#ahae4 ,from one set of observations    
its altitude came out #a1deg yards1 and 
from another #a1dgc yards1 the  mean of 
which is #a1dfe yards1 or #d1cie feet4  
,another peak1 a few  miles further to  
the northward1 appeared to be #c1cjf    
feet high4    ,on ,charles's ,island is 
a curious peak1 which juts into the sea4
 ,it  is crooked1 perfectly naked1 being
 equally destitute of snow and  verdure1
 and from its black appearance1 or      
pointed figure1 has been  denominated   
the ,devil's ,thumb4 ,its height may be 
about #a1ejj or  #b1jjj feet4 ,the      
middle hook of the foreland1 as the     

central part  of the chain of mountains 
in ,charles's ,island is called1 is a   
very  interesting part of the coast4    
,these mountains1 which are1 perhaps1   
the highest land adjoining the sea which
 is to be met with1 take  their rise at 
the water's edge1 and1 by a continued   
ascent of an  angle at first of about   
#cj1 and increasing to about #de1 or    
more1  each comes to a point1 with the  
elevation of about six-sevenths of  an  
,english mile4 ,this portion of the     
chain exhibits five distinct  summits1  
some of them to appearance are within   
half a league1  horizontal distance1 of 
the margin of the sea4 ,the points      
formed by  the top of two or three of   
them are so fine1 that the imagination  
is  at a loss to conceive of a place on 
which an adventurer1 attempting  the    
hazardous exploit of climbing one of the
 summits1 might rest4  ,were such an    
undertaking practicable1 it is evident  
it could not be  effected without       
imminent danger4 ,besides extraordinary 

courage and  strength requisite in the  
adventurer1 such an attempt would need  
the utmost powers of exertion1 as well  
as the most irresistible  perseverance4 
,frederick ,martens1 in his excellent   
account of a  8,voyage to ,spitzbergen10
 undertaken in the year #afga1 describes
  some of the cliffs as consisting of   
but one stone from the bottom  to the   
top1 and as smelling very sweet where   
covered with lichens4  ,in ,magdalen    
,bay1 the rocks he describes as lying in
 a semicircular  form1 having at each   
extremity two high mountains1 with      
natural  excavations1 8after the fashion
 of a breastwork10 and1 at their        
summits1 points and cracks like         
battlements4    ,some of the mountains  
of ,spitzbergen are well-proportioned1  
four-sided pyramids1 rising out of a    
base of a mile1 or a mile and  a half1  
to a league square2 others form angular 
chains1 resembling  the roof of a house1
 which recede from the shore in parallel
 ridges1  until they dwindle into       

obscurity in the distant perspective4   
,some  exhibit the exact resemblance of 
art1 but in a style of grandeur         
exceeding the famed pyramids of the     
east1 or even the more wonderful  tower 
of ,babel4 ,an instance of such a       
regular and magnificent work of  nature 
is seen near the head of ,king's ,bay1  
consisting of three piles  of rocks1 of 
a regular form1 known by the name of the
 ,three ,crowns4  ,they rest on the top 
of the ordinary mountains1 each         
commencing with  a square table1 or     
horizontal stratum of rock1 on the top  
of which  is another of similar form and
 height1 but of smaller area2 this is   
continued by a third1 a fourth1 and so  
on1 each succeeding stratum  being less 
than the next below it1 until it forms a
 pyramid of steps1  almost as regular1  
to appearance1 as if worked by art4     
,many of the mountains of ,spitzbergen  
are inaccessible4 ,the steepness  of the
 ascent1 and the looseness of the rocks1
 with the numerous  lodgments of ice in 

the cliffs1 or on the sides of the      
cliffs1  constitute in many places      
insurmountable obstacles4 ,some hills1  
indeed1 may be climbed with tolerable   
safety1 but generally the  attempt is   
hazardous4 ,many have fallen and lost   
their lives1  especially in the descent4
 ,when ,barentz and ,heemskerke         
discovered  ,cherie ,island1 on their   
advance towards the north1 they also    
discovered ,spitzbergen1 when some      
daring fellows among their sailors1  who
 had been collecting birds' eggs1       
climbed a high1 steep mountain1         
resembling those of ,spitzbergen1 and   
unexpectedly found themselves  in a most
 perilous situation1 for1 on turning to 
descend1 the way  by which they had     
advanced presented a dismal assemblage  
of pointed  rocks1 perpendicular        
precipices1 and yawning chasms4 ,the    
view of the  danger of the ascent struck
 them with terror4 ,no relief1 however1 
could be afforded them1 and they were   
bewildered among the rocks4  ,at length1

 after a most anxious and painful       
exercise1 in which they  found it       
necessary to slide down the rocks1 while
 lying flat on their  bodies1 they      
reached the foot of the cliff in safety4
 ,barentz1 who  had observed their      
conduct from the shore1 gave them a     
sharp reproof  for their temerity4      
,one of the most interesting appearances
 to be found in ,spitzbergen1  is the   
iceberg4 ,these mountains of ice occur  
in the valleys adjoining  the coast of  
,spitzbergen1 and other ,polar          
countries4 ,a little to the  northward  
of ,charles's ,island are the ,seven    
,icebergs4 ,each of these  occupies a   
deep valley1 opening towards the sea1   
formed by hills of  about two thousand  
feet elevation on the sides1 and        
terminated in  the interior by the chain
 of mountains1 of perhaps three thousand
  to three thousand three hundred feet  
in height1 which follows the  line of   
the coast4 ,they are exactly of the     
nature and appearance of  glaciers1 and 

there are many others of various sizes  
along the shores  of this remarkable    
country4    ,it is not easy to form an  
adequate conception of these truly      
wonderful productions of nature4 ,their 
magnitude1 their beauty1  and the       
contrast they form with the gloomy rocks
 around1 produce  sensations of lively  
interest4 ,their upper surfaces are     
generally  concave2 the higher parts are
 always covered with snow1 and have  a  
beautiful appearance1 but the lower     
parts1 in the latter end of  every      
summer1 present a bare surface of ice4  
,the front of each1 which  varies in    
height from the level of the ocean to   
four hundred or five  hundred feet above
 it1 lies parallel with the shore1 and  
is generally  washed by the sea4 ,this  
part1 resting on the strand1 is         
undermined  to such an extent by the    
sea1 when any way turbulent1 that       
immense  masses1 loosened by the        
freezing of water1 lodged in the        
recesses  in winter1 or by the effect of

 streams of water running over its      
surface and through its chasms in       
summer1 break asunder1 and1 with a      
thundering noise1 fall into the sea4    
,on an excursion to one of the ,seven   
,icebergs1 in ,july1 #ahah1 ,i was      
particularly successful in witnessing   
one of the grandest effects  which these
 ,polar glaciers ever present4 ,a strong
 north-westerly  swell having1 for some 
hours1 been beating on the shore1 had   
loosened  a number of fragments attached
 to the iceberg1 and various heaps  of  
broken ice denoted recent shoots of the 
seaward edge4 ,as we rode  towards it1  
with a view of proceeding close to its  
base1 ,i observed  a few little pieces  
fall from the top1 and1 while my eye was
 fixed  on the place1 an immense column1
 probably fifty feet square1 and one    
hundred and fifty feet high1 began to   
leave the parent ice at the  top1 and   
leaning majestically forward with an    
accelerated velocity1  fell with an     
awful crash into the sea4 ,the water    

into which it  plunged was converted    
into an appearance of vapour1 or smoke1 
like  that from a furious cannonading4  
,the noise was equal to that of         
thunder1 which it nearly resembled4 ,the
 column which fell was nearly  square1  
and in magnitude resembled a church4 ,it
 broke into thousands  of pieces4 ,this 
circumstance was a happy caution1 for we
 might  inadvertently have gone to the  
base of the icy cliff1 from whence      
masses of considerable magnitude were   
continually breaking4    ,this iceberg  
was full of rents as high as any of our 
people ascended  upon it1 extending in a
 direction perpendicularly downward1 and
  dividing it into innumerable columns4 
,the surface was very uneven1  being    
furrowed and cracked all over4 ,this    
roughness appeared to  be occasioned by 
the melting of the snow1 some streams of
 water  being seen running over the     
surface2 and others1 having worn away   
the superficial ice1 could still be     
heard pursuing their course  through    

subglacial channels to the front of the 
iceberg1 where1 in  transparent streams1
 or in small cascades1 they fell into   
the sea4 ,in  some places1 chasms of    
several yards in width were seen1 in    
others  they were only a few inches or  
feet across4 ,one of the sailors1 who   
attempted to walk across the iceberg1   
imprudently stepped into a  narrow      
chasm1 filled up with snow to the       
general level4 ,he instantly  plunged up
 to his shoulders1 and might1 but for   
the sudden extension  of his arms1 have 
been buried in the gulf4    ,icebergs   
are1 probably1 formed of more solid ice 
than glaciers1 but1  in every other     
respect1 they are very similar4 ,the ice
 of which they  consist is1 indeed1 a   
little porous1 but considerable pieces  
are  found of perfect transparency4     
,being wholly produced from rain or     
snow1 the water is necessarily potable4 
,icebergs have1 probably1 the  same kind
 of origin as glaciers1 and the time of 
their first stratum  is nearly coeval   

with the land on which they are lodged4 
,though large  portions may be          
frequently separated from the lower     
edge1 or1 by  large avalanches from the 
mountain summit1 be hurled into the sea1
  yet the annual growth replenishes the 
loss1 and1 probably1 on the  whole1     
produces a perpetual increase in        
thickness4    ,spitzbergen and its      
islands1 with some other countries      
within  the ,arctic ,circle1 exhibit a  
kind of scenery which is altogether     
novel4 ,the principal objects which     
strike the eye are innumerable          
mountainous peaks1 ridges1 precipices1  
or needles1 rising immediately  out of  
the sea1 to an elevation of three       
thousand or four thousand  feet1 the    
colour of which1 at a moderate distance1
 appears to be  blackish shades of      
brown1 green1 grey1 and purple2 snow or 
ice1 in  stri1 or patches1 occupying the
 various clefts and hollows in the      
sides of the hills1 capping some of the 
mountain summits1 and filling  with     

extended beds the most considerable     
valleys2 and ice of the  glacier-form   
occurring at intervals all along the    
coast in particular  situations1 as     
already described1 in prodigious        
accumulations4 ,the  glistening1 or     
vitreous appearance of the iceberg      
precipices1 the  purity1 whiteness1 and 
beauty of the sloping expanse1 formed by
 the  adjoining or intermixed mountains 
and rocks1 perpetually 8covered  with a 
mourning veil of black lichens10 with   
the sudden transitions  into a robe of  
purest white1 where patches or beds of  
snow occur1  present a variety and      
extent of contrast altogether peculiar1 
which1  when enlightened by the         
occasional ethereal brilliancy of the   
,polar  sky1 and harmonized in its      
serenity with the calmness of the ocean1
  constitute a picture both novel and   
magnificent4 ,there is1 indeed1 a  kind 
of majesty1 not to be conveyed in words1
 in these extraordinary  accumulations  
of snow and ice in the valleys1 and in  

the rocks  above rocks1 and peaks above 
peaks1 in the mountain groups1 seen     
rising above the ordinary elevation of  
the clouds1 and terminating             
occasionally in crests of everlasting   
snow1 especially when you  approach the 
shore under shelter of the impenetrable 
density of  a summer fog1 in which case 
the fog sometimes disperses like the    
drawing of a curtain1 when the strong   
contrast of light and shade1  brightened
 by a cloudless atmosphere and powerful 
sun1 bursts on the  senses in a         
brilliant exhibition4 ,here are to be   
beheld the glories  of that one ,god1   
who is the ,maker of all things in      
heaven and on  earth1 and who1 unlike   
the false deities of heathen nations1 is
 not  confined in his presence and      
government to any particular zone of    
the earth's surface1 but illustrates the
 skill and excellence of his  creation1 
both in the beauties of icy and torrid  
climes4    ,a remarkable deception1 in  
the apparent distance of the land1 is to

  be attributed to the strong contrast  
of light and shade1 and the  great      
height and steepness of the mountains1  
displayed in these  regions4 ,any       
strangers to the ,arctic countries1     
however capable  of judging of the      
distance of land generally1 must be     
completely  at a loss in their          
estimations when they approach within   
sight of  ,spitzbergen4 ,when at the    
distance of twenty miles1 it would be no
  difficult matter to induce even a     
judicious stranger to undertake a       
passage in a boat to the shore1 from the
 belief that he was within  a league of 
the land4 ,at this distance1 the        
portions of rock and  patches of snow1  
as well as the contour of the different 
hills1 are  as distinctly marked as     
similar objects in many other countries1
  not having snow about them1 would be  
at a fourth or a fifth part of  the     
distance4 ,hence we can account1 on a   
reasonable ground1 for a  curious       
circumstance related in a ,danish       

voyage1 undertaken for the  recovery of 
the last colony in ,greenland1 by       
,mogens ,heinson4 ,this  person1 who    
passed for a renowned seaman in his day1
 was sent out by  ,frederick ,,ii41 king
 of ,denmark4 ,after encountering many  
difficulties  and dangers from storms   
and ice1 he got sight of the east coast 
of  ,greenland1 and attempted to reach  
it2 but1 though the sea was quite  free 
from ice1 and the wind favourable and   
blowing a fresh gale1 he1  after        
proceeding several hours without        
appearing to get any nearer  the land1  
became alarmed1 backed about1 and       
returned to ,denmark4 ,on  his arrival1 
he attributed this extraordinary        
circumstance--magnified1  no doubt1 by  
his fears--to his vessel having been    
stopped in its  course by 8some         
loadstone rocks hidden in the sea40 ,the
 true cause1  however1 of what he took  
to be a submarine magnetic influence1   
arose1 ,i doubt not1 from the deceptive 
character of the land1 as to  distance1 

which ,i have mentioned4    ,spitzbergen
 abounds with deep bays and extensive   
sounds1 in many  of which are excellent 
harbours4 ,from ,point ,look-out to     
,hackluyt's  ,headland1 the west coast  
forms almost a series of rocks and foul 
ground1 few parts1 excepting the bays1  
affording anchoring for  ships4 ,some of
 these rocks are dry only at low water1 
or only show  themselves when the sea is
 high1 and are dangerous to shipping2   
others are constantly above water1 or   
altogether so below the surface  that   
they can either be seen and avoided1 or 
sailed over in moderate  weather without
 much hazard4 ,on the east side of      
,point ,look-out1 a  ridge of stony     
ground stretches five leagues into the  
sea1 towards  the south-east1 on which  
the sea occasionally breaks4    ,horn   
,sound affords tolerable anchorage2     
within ,bell ,sound are  several        
anchoring places and some rivers1 and in
 ,ice ,sound1 at ,green  ,harbour1 is   
good anchorage near the bank1 in ten to 

eight fathoms'  water1 or less4 ,in     
several other places1 when not          
encumbered with  ice1 there is pretty   
good refuge for ships4 ,on the north and
 east  sides of ,spitzbergen are several
 harbours1 some of them very safe  and  
commodious1 but they are not so often   
free from ice as those  westward1 and1  
therefore1 have seldom been visited4    
,though the whale-fishers in the present
 age generally see the level  of        
,spitzbergen every voyage1 yet not many 
of them visit the shores4  ,my father   
has been several times on shore in      
different parts4 ,my own  landing1 for  
the first time in an ,arctic country1   
was on ,charles's  ,island1 or ,fair    
,forehead1 at the north-west point4 ,the
 number of  birds seen on the precipices
 and rocks adjoining the sea was        
immense1 and the noise which they made  
on our approach was quite  deafening4   
,the weather was calm and clear when ,i 
went on shore1 but  suddenly1 a thick   
fog and breeze of wind commencing1      

obliged us to  put off with haste1 and  
subjected us to great anxiety before we 
reached the ship4    ,in the summer of  
#ahah1 ,i was several times on shore on 
the main1  and landed once in the same  
season on the north side of ,king's     
,bay4  ,being near the land1 on the     
evening of the #bcrd of ,july1 the      
weather  beautifully clear1 and all our 
sails becalmed by the hills1 excepting  
the top-gallant sails1 in which we had  
constantly a gentle breeze1 ,i  left the
 ship in charge of an officer1 with     
orders to stand no nearer  than into    
thirty fathoms' water1 and with two     
boats and fourteen men  rowed to the    
shore4 ,we arrived at the beach about   
half-past seven1  ,p4,m41 and landed on 
a track of low flat ground1 extending   
about  six miles north and south1 and   
two or three east and west4 ,this       
table-land lies so low that it would be 
overflown by the sea1 were it  not for a
 natural embankment of shingle thrown up
 by the sea4    ,after advancing about  

half a furlong1 we met with mica slate1 
in nearly perpendicular strata2 and a   
little further on with an  extensive bed
 of limestone1 in small angular         
fragments4 ,here and  there we saw large
 ponds of fresh water1 derived from     
melted ice and  snow2 in some places1   
small remains of snow2 and lastly1 near 
the  base of the mountains1 a           
considerable morass1 into which we sank 
nearly to the knees4 ,some              
unhealthy-looking mosses appeared on    
this  swamp1 but the softest part1 as   
well as most of the ground we had       
hitherto traversed1 was entirely void of
 vegetation4 ,this swamp had  a moorish 
look1 and consisted1 apparently1 of     
black alluvial soil1  mixed with some   
vegetable remains1 and was curiously    
marked on the  surface with small       
polygonal ridges1 from one to three     
yards in  diameter1 so combined as to   
give the ground an appearance such as   
that exhibited by a section of          
honeycomb4 ,an ascent of a few yards    

from the morass1 of somewhat firmer     
ground1 brought us to the foot of  the  
mountain1 to the northward of the ,mitre
 ,cape4 ,here some pretty  specimens of 
,saxifraga oppositifolia and            
,greenlandica1 ,salix  herbacea1 ,draba 
alpina1 ,papaver alpina1 7of ,mr4 ,don17
 etc41  and some other plants in full   
flower1 were found on little tufts of   
soil1 and scattered about on the ascent4
 ,the first hill rose at an  inclination
 of #de1 to the height of about fifteen 
hundred feet1 and  was joined on the    
north side to another of about twice the
 elevation4  ,we began to climb the     
acclivity on the most accessible side1  
at  about #aj1 ,p4,m42 but1 from the    
looseness of the stones1 and the        
steepness of the ascent1 we found it a  
most difficult undertaking4  ,there was 
scarcely a possibility of advancing by  
the common movement  of walking in this 
attempt2 for the ground gave way at     
every step1  and no progress was made2  
hence1 the only method of succeeding    

was by the effort of leaping or running1
 which1 under the peculiar              
circumstances1 could not be accomplished
 without excessive fatigue4  ,in the    
direction we traversed1 we met with     
angular fragments of  limestone and     
quartz1 chiefly of one or two pounds'   
weight1 and a  few naked rocks          
protruding through the loose materials1 
of which the  side of the mountain1 to  
the extent it was visible1 was          
principally  composed4 ,these rocks     
appeared solid at a little distance1    
but1 on  examination1 were found to be  
full of fractures in every direction1   
so that it was with difficulty that a   
specimen of five or six pounds'  weight1
 in a solid mass1 could be obtained4    
,along the side of the  first range of  
hills1 near the summit1 was extended a  
band of ice and  snow1 which1 in the    
direct ascent1 we tried in vain to      
surmount4 ,by  great exertion1 however1 
in tracing the side of the hill for     
about  two hundred yards1 where it was  

so uncommonly steep that at every  step 
showers of stones were precipitated to  
the bottom1 we found a  sort of angle of
 the hill1 free from ice1 by which the  
summit was  scaled4    ,here we rested  
until ,i took a few angles and bearings 
of the most  prominent parts of the     
coast1 when1 having collected specimens 
of  the minerals1 and such few plants as
 the barren ridge afforded1 we          
proceeded on our excursion4 ,in our way 
to the principal mountain  near us1 we  
passed along a ridge of the secondary   
mountains1 which  was so acute that ,i  
sat across it with a leg on each side as
 on  horseback4 ,to the very top it     
consisted of loose sharp limestones1  of
 a yellowish or reddish colour1 smaller 
in size than the stones  generally used 
for repairing high roads1 few pieces    
being above a  pound in weight4 ,the    
fracture appeared rather fresh4 ,after  
passing  along this ridge about three or
 four furlongs1 and crossing a  lodgment
 of ice and snow1 we descended by a sort

 of ravine to the  side of the principal
 mountain1 which arose with a uniformly 
steep  ascent1 similar to that we had   
already surmounted1 to the very  summit4
 ,the ascent was now even more difficult
 than before2 we could  make no         
considerable progress1 but by the       
exertion of leaping and  running1 so    
that we were obliged to rest after every
 fifty or sixty  paces4 ,no solid rock  
was met with1 and no earth or soil4 ,the
 stones1  however1 were larger1 appeared
 more decayed1 and were more uniformly  
covered with black lichens2 but several 
plants of the ,saxifraga1  ,salix1      
,draba1 ,cochlearia1 and ,juncus genera1
 which had been  met with here and there
 for the first two thousand feet of     
elevation1  began to disappear as we    
approached the summit4 ,the invariably  
broken  state of the rocks appeared to  
have been the effect of frost4 ,on      
calcareous rocks1 some of which are not 
impervious to moisture1 the  effect is  
such as might be expected2 but how frost

 can operate in  this way on quartz is  
not so easily understood4    ,as we     
completed the arduous ascent1 the sun   
had just reached the  meridian below the
 ,pole1 and still shed his reviving rays
 of  unimpaired brilliancy on a small   
surface of snow1 which capped the       
mountain summit4 ,a thermometer1 placed 
among stones in the shade  of the brow  
of the hill1 indicated a temperature as 
high as #cg4  ,at the top of the first  
hill1 the temperature was #db2 and at   
the  foot1 on the plain1 #dd to #df2 so 
that1 at the very peak of the  mountain1
 estimated at three thousand feet       
elevation1 the power of  the sun at     
midnight produced a temperature several 
degrees above the  freezing point1 and  
occasioned the discharge of streams of  
water from  the snow-capped summit4 ,in 
,spitzbergen1 the frost relaxes in the  
months of ,july and ,august1 and the    
thawing temperature prevails for        
considerable intervals on the greatest  
heights that have been visited4    ,as  

the capacity of air for heat increases  
as its density decreases1  and that in  
such a degree that about every ninety   
yards of elevation  in the lower        
atmosphere produces a depression of one 
degree of  temperature of ,fahrenheit1  
we find that the elevation of some of   
the ,alps1 ,pyrenees1 and mountains of  
,nepaul in the temperate zone1  is such1
 that their summits are above the level 
where a temperature  of thawing can at  
any time prevail2 and though1 by the    
application  of this principle to the   
mountains of ,spitzbergen1 we find that 
a thawing temperature may be            
occasionally expected1 yet we do  not   
see how the prevalence of a thaw should 
be so continual as to  disperse the     
winter's coat of snow1 where the mean   
temperature of  the hottest month in the
 year must1 on a mountain fifteen       
hundred  feet elevation or upward1      
probably be below the freezing point4   
,perhaps the difficulty is to be thus   
resolved4 ,the weather1 in the  months  

of ,june1 ,july1 and ,august1 is much   
clearer at ,spitzbergen than  it is near
 the neighbouring ice1 where most of my 
observations on  temperature were made1 
and as such the temperature of these    
months  on shore must be warmer than at 
sea1 and so much higher indeed as is    
requisite for occasioning the           
dissolution of snow even on the tops of 
the mountains4    ,the highest          
temperature ,i ever observed in         
,spitzbergen was #dh2 but  in the summer
 of #aggc1 when captain ,phipps visited 
,spitzbergen1  a temperature of #eh once
 occurred4 ,supposing this to be the    
greatest1 degree of height which takes  
place1 it will require an  elevation of 
#g1gia feet for reducing that           
temperature to the freezing  point1 and 
hence we may reckon this to be about the
 altitude of the  upper line of         
congelation1 where frost perpetually    
prevails4    ,the prospect from the     
mountain which we ascended was most     
extensive  and grand4 ,a fine sheltered 

bay was seen on the east of us1 an arm  
of the same on the north-east1 and the  
sea1 whose glassy surface was  unruffled
 by the breeze1 formed an immense       
expanse on the west2  the icebergs1     
rearing their proud crests almost to the
 tops of the  mountains between which   
they were lodged1 and defying the power 
of  the solar beams1 were scattered in  
various directions about the  sea-coast1
 and in the adjoining bays4 ,beds of    
snow and ice1 filling  extensive        
hollows1 and giving an enamelled coat to
 adjoining valleys1  one of which1      
commencing at the foot of the mountain  
where we stood1  extended in a continued
 line across the north1 as far as the   
eye  could reach2 mountain rising above 
mountain1 until by distance they        
dwindled into insignificance2 the whole 
contrasted by a cloudless  canopy of    
deepest azure1 and enlightened by the   
rays of a blazing  sun1 and the effect  
aided by a feeling of danger1 seated as 
we  were on the pinnacle of a rock1     

almost surrounded by tremendous         
precipices2 all united to constitute a  
picture singularly sublime4    ,a gentle
 breeze of wind1 that prevailed on the  
summit1 much refreshed  us1 and         
strengthened us for the descent1 which1 
though we had  regarded it with         
indifference1 we found really a very    
hazardous1 and1  in some instances1 a   
painful undertaking4 ,on the flat of    
land next  the sea1 we met with the     
horns of reindeer1 many skulls and other
  bones of sea-horses1 whales1          
narwhales1 foxes1 and seals1 and some   
human skeletons1 laid in chest-like     
coffins1 exposed naked on the  strand4  
,two ,russian lodges formed of logs of  
pine1 with a third in  ruins1 were also 
seen2 the former1 from a quantity of    
fresh chips  about them1 and other      
appearances1 gave evidence of having    
been  recently inhabited4 ,these huts   
were built upon a ridge of shingle1     
adjoining the sea4 ,among the shingle on
 the beach were numbers of  nests1      

containing the eggs of terns1 ducks1 and
 burgomasters1 and in  some of them were
 young birds4 ,one of the latter1 which 
we took on  board1 was very lively1 and 
grew rapidly1 but having taken a fancy  
to  a cake of white lead1 with which the
 surgeon was finishing a drawing1  he   
was poisoned4 ,the only insect ,i saw   
was a small green fly1 which  swarmed   
upon the shingle about the beach4 ,the  
sea along the coast  teemed with a      
species of helix1 with the clio         
borealis1 and  with small shrimps4 ,no  
animal of the class ,vermes1 and no     
living  quadruped1 was observed4        
,drift-wood was in some abundance1 and1 
owing  to the prevalence of a strong    
west wind1 the shore was covered in     
many places with deep beds of sea-weed4 
,of all the objects1 however1 that we   
met with in the course of our  research1
 none excited so much interest as the   
carcase of a dead  whale1 found stranded
 on the beach1 which1 though much       
swollen1  and not a little putrid1 fixed

 our attention1 and diverted us from    
objects of mere curiosity4 ,it proved a 
prize to us of the value of  about #djj1
 but was not secured without much       
labour4 ,from a harpoon  found in its   
body1 it appeared to have been struck by
 some of the  fishers on the ,elbe1 and 
having escaped from them1 it had        
probably  stranded itself where we found
 it4    ,the climate of ,spitzbergen is 
no doubt more disagreeable to human     
feeling than that of any other country  
yet discovered4 ,extending  to within   
ten degrees of the ,pole1 it is         
generally intensely cold1  and even in  
the three warmest months1 the           
temperature not averaging  more than    
#cd1 it is then subject to a cold of    
three1 four1  or more degrees below the 
freezing point4 ,it has the advantage1  
however1 of being visited by the sun for
 an uninterrupted period  of four months
 in each year1 thus having a summer's   
day--if so  long an interval between the
 rising and setting of the sun may be   

so denominated--consisting of one-third 
part of the year4 ,but its  winter is   
proportionably desolate2 the sun1 in the
 northern parts  of the country1        
remaining perpetually below the horizon 
from about  the #bbnd of ,october to    
about the #bbnd of ,february4 ,this     
great  winter night1 though sufficiently
 dreary1 is by no means so dark as      
might be expected1 ,god having1 by wise 
and merciful arrangements1  distributed1
 with some approach to equality1 the    
blessings of his  providence4 ,the sun1 
even during its greatest south          
declination1  approaches within #ac of  
the horizon1 and affords a faint        
twilight  for about one-fourth part of  
every twenty-four hours4 ,added to  this
 twilight1 the aurora borealis1 which   
sometimes exhibits a  brilliancy        
approaching a blaze of fire--the stars1 
which shine with  an uncommon degree of 
brightness--and the moon1 which1 in     
north  declination1 appears for twelve  
or fourteen days together without       

setting--altogether have an effect1     
which1 when heightened by the           
reflection of a constant surface of     
snow1 generally give sufficient  light  
for going abroad2 but1 with the light   
afforded by the heavens1  when the moon 
is below the horizon1 it is seldom      
possible to read4    ,the first human   
beings who are known to have passed the 
winter  in ,spitzbergen1 were two       
parties of seamen1 belonging to ,english
  whalers1 who were left on shore by    
accident1 on two different  occasions2  
the first party1 consisting of nine     
persons1 all perished2  but the latter1 
composed of eight individuals1 survived 
the rigours  of the winter of #afcj-a1  
and were all rescued4 ,in the year      
#afcc1  seven volunteers1 belonging to  
the ,dutch fleet1 were induced1 by      
certain emoluments1 to attempt the same 
enterprise1 and succeeded  in passing   
the winter without sustaining any       
injury2 but1 on the  same hazardous     
experiment being tried by seven other   

persons the  following winter1 they all 
fell a sacrifice to the ravages of the  
scurvy4 ,some ,russians seem to have    
been the next to attempt this           
adventurous exploit1 who1 from being    
inured to a winter little less  severe  
at home1 were enabled to accomplish it  
with more safety4  ,four men1 who landed
 on an island on the east side of       
,spitzbergen1  in the year #agdc1 and   
were deprived of the means of getting   
away  by an unexpected calamity having  
overtaken the vessel to which they      
belonged1 remained there some years4    
,being exposed to uncommon  privations1 
they were led by their necessities to   
adopt some most  ingenious devices for  
providing themselves with food and      
raiment in  their long and severe       
banishment4 ,one of their number died2  
but the  others were relieved1 after a  
stay of three years and six months1 by  
a vessel providentially driven on the   
coast1 and restored to their  friends1  
enriched with skins and other produce of

 the country in  which they had been    
exiled4    ,in modern times1 people of  
the same nation have been in the habit  
of  submitting to a voluntary           
transportation1 with the object of      
making  some considerable advantage by  
the opportunities which such a measure  
affords them of hunting and fishing4    
,these persons were formerly  employed  
in the service of the 8,white ,sea      
,fishing ,company20 but this  company   
being now no longer in existence1 the   
trade is conducted by  private          
adventurers4 ,they now proceed from     
,megen1 ,archangel1 ,onega1  ,rala1 and 
other places bordering the ,white ,sea1 
in vessels of sixty  to one hundred and 
sixty tons1 some intended for the summer
 fishing1  and others for the winter4   
,the former put to sea in the beginning 
of ,june1 and sometimes return in       
,september2 the latter sail about a     
month later1 and wintering in the most  
secure coves of ,devil ,bay1  ,bell     
,sound1 ,horn ,sound1 ,cross ,bay1      

,magdalen ,bay1 ,love ,bay1 and  others1
 return home in the months of ,august or
 ,september of the  following year4 ,the
 fishermen reside on shore during the   
winter1 in  huts of the same kind as    
those used by the peasants in ,russia1  
which1  being taken out with them in    
pieces1 are constructed with but little 
trouble1 in the most convenient         
situations4 ,they build their stoves    
with bricks1 or with clay1 found in the 
country4 ,their largest hut1  which is  
erected near the place where their      
vessels or boats are  laid up1 is from  
twenty to twenty-five feet square1 and  
is used as a  station and magazine2 but 
the huts used by the men who go in quest
 of  skins1 which are erected along     
shore1 are only seven or eight feet     
square4 ,the smaller huts are usually   
occupied by two or three men1  who take 
care to provide themselves from the     
store with the necessary  provisions for
 serving them the whole winter4    ,i   
have visited several of these huts1 some

 constructed of logs1  others of deals1 
two inches in thickness4 ,during the    
stay of the  hunters1 they employ       
themselves in killing seals1 sea-horses1
 etc41  in the water2 and bears1 foxes1 
deer1 or whatever else they meet  with1 
on land4 ,they are furnished with       
provisions for eighteen months  by their
 employers1 consisting of rye-flour for 
bread1 oatmeal1  barley-meal1 peas1 salt
 beef1 salt cod1 and salt halibut1      
together  with curdled milk1 honey1 and 
linseed oil2 besides which1 they        
procure for themselves lion-deer in     
winter1 and birds in summer4  ,their    
drink chiefly consists of a liquor      
called nuas1 made from  rye-flour and   
water2 malt or spirituous liquors being 
entirely  forbidden1 to prevent         
drunkenness1 as these persons1 when they
  were allowed it1 drank so             
immoderately1 that their work was often 
altogether neglected4 ,for general      
purposes1 they use spring water  when it
 is to be had1 or1 in lieu of it1 take  

water from lakes2  but1 when neither can
 be got1 they use melted snow4 ,their   
fuel1 for  the most part1 is brought    
with them from ,russia1 and drift-wood  
is  used for the same purpose4 ,the     
hunters defend themselves from the      
rigour of the frost by a covering made  
of skin1 over which they wear  a garment
 called kushy1 made of the skin of      
rein-deer1 with boots  of the same4 ,a  
warm cap1 called a trucchy1 defends the 
whole head  and neck1 and part of the   
face2 and gloves of sheep-skin1 the     
hands4  ,they seldom travel far in      
winter1 but the short excursions they   
have  occasion to make they perform on  
foot1 on snow-skates1 and draw their    
food after them on hand-sledges1 but    
such as have dogs employ them in  this  
service4 ,their huts1 in stormy weather1
 are often buried in the  snow1 and in  
such cases they are obliged to make     
their way through  the chimney to get   
out4 ,as an anti-scorbutic1 they make   
use of a herb  produced in the country1 

a stock of which they generally provide 
themselves with on the approach of      
winter1 but sometimes they are  under   
the necessity of digging through the    
snow to obtain it4 ,they  either eat it 
without any preparation1 or drink the   
liquor prepared  from it by infusion in 
water4 ,for the same purpose1 they use a
 kind  of raspberry1 and a decoction of 
fir-tops4    ,spitzbergen does not      
afford many vegetables4 ,it may be      
remarked1  that vegetation goes on      
uncommonly quick in this country4 ,most 
of  the plants spring up1 flower1 and   
afford seed in the course of a  month or
 six weeks4 ,they are chiefly of a      
dwarfish size4 ,some of the  flowers are
 really pretty1 but exhibit few colours1
 excepting yellow1  white1 and purple4  
,the only plant ,i met with partaking of
 the nature  of a tree1 7a salix1 allied
 to ,s4 herbacea17 grows but to the     
height of three or four inches4         
,although ,spitzbergen is probably  rich
 in minerals1 yet so partial has been   

the examination of it that  nothing of  
any value1 excepting marble and coal1   
has yet been met  with4 ,the remarks    
made concerning the appearances and     
productions of  ,spitzbergen apply in   
general to the islands adjacent4 ,the   
principal  of these are ,moffen ,island1
 ,low ,island1 ,hope ,island1 and       
,cherie  ,island4 ,the last abounds in  
sea-horses1 bears1 foxes1 and sea-fowl4 
,lead ore1 in veins at the surface1 has 
been found here1 and specimens  of      
virgin silver4    ,between the latitudes
 of #gj #di and #ga #h #bj north1 and   
between  the longitudes #g #bf and #h   
#dd1 lies the island of ,jan ,mayen1    
said  to have been first seen by a      
,dutch navigator of this name in the    
year  #afaa4 ,the west side1 affording  
the greatest number of anchorages1      
having the best convenience for landing1
 and being better sheltered  from the   
most frequent storms1 was selected by   
the ,dutch for their  boiling stations4 
,i was successful1 in my passage        

homeward1 in  the year #ahag1 in        
effecting a landing4 ,on approaching1   
the first  object which strikes         
attention is the peak of ,beerenberg1   
which ,i  subsequently saw at a distance
 7by observation7 of ninety-five to a   
hundred miles4 ,it rears its icy summit 
to an elevation of #f1ghj feet  above   
the level of the sea4 ,after leaving the
 sea-shore1 fragments  of lava were seen
 at every step1 and numerous undoubted  
marks of  recent volcanic action4 ,on   
reaching a summit1 estimated at #a1ejj  
feet  above the sea1 we beheld a        
beautiful crater1 forming a basin of    
#ejj  or #fjj feet in depth1 and #fjj or
 #gjj yards in diameter4 ,the bottom  of
 the crater was filled with alluvial    
matter to such a height that  it        
presented a horizontal flat of an       
elliptical form1 measuring #djj  feet by
 #bdj4 ,in the spring of the following  
year1 some volcano was1 ,i  believe1 in 
action in this neighbourhood1 as ,i     
observed considerable  jets of smoke    

discharged from the earth at intervals  
of every three  or four minutes4        
,,chapter ,,iii4    ,,an ,,account ,,of 
,,the ,,greenland ,,or ,,polar ,,ice4   
,of the inanimate productions of the    
,polar ,seas1 none perhaps excite  so   
much interest and astonishment in a     
stranger as the ice in its  great       
abundance and variety4 ,the stupendous  
masses known by the name  of icelands or
 icebergs1 common to ,davis's ,strait1  
and sometimes  met with in the          
,spitzbergen ,sea1 from their height1   
various forms1  and the depth of water  
in which they ground1 are calculated to 
strike the beholder with wonder2 yet the
 prodigious sheets of ice1  called      
ice-fields1 more peculiar to the        
,spitzbergen ,sea1 are not  less        
astonishing4 ,their deficiency in       
elevation is sufficiently  compensated  
by their amazing extent of surface4     
,some of them have  been observed       
extending many leagues in length1 and   
covering an area  of several hundreds of

 square miles1 each consisting of a     
single  sheet of ice1 having its surface
 raised in general four or six feet     
above the level of the water1 and its   
base depressed to the depth of  ten to  
twenty feet beneath4    ,the ice in     
general is designated by a variety of   
appellations1  distinguishing it        
according to the size or shape of the   
pieces1  their number or form of        
aggregation1 thickness1 transparency1   
situation1 etc4 ,as the different       
denominations of ice will be  frequently
 referred to in the course of this work1
 it may be useful  to give definitions  
of the terms in use among the           
whale-fishers for  distinguishing them4 
#a4 ,an iceberg1 or ice-mountain1 is a  
large insulated peak of  floating ice1  
or a glacier1 occupying a ravine or     
valley1 generally  opening towards the  
sea in an arctic country4    #b4 ,a     
field is a sheet of ice1 so extensive   
that its limits cannot  be discerned    
from the ship's mast-head4    #c4 ,a    

floe is similar to a field1 but smaller1
 inasmuch as its  extent can be seen4   
,this term1 however1 is seldom applied  
to pieces  of ice of less diameter than 
half-a-mile or a mile4    #d4 ,drift-ice
 consists of pieces less than floes1 of 
various shapes  and magnitudes4    #e4  
,brash-ice is still smaller than        
drift-ice1 and may be considered  as the
 wreck of other kinds of ice4    #f4    
,bay-ice is that which is newly-formed  
on the sea1 and consists  of two kinds1 
common bay-ice and pancake-ice2 the     
former occurring  in smooth extensive   
sheets1 and the latter in small circular
 pieces1  with raised edges4    #g4     
,sludge consists of a stratum of        
detached ice crystals1 or of  snow1 or  
of the smaller fragments of brash-ice1  
floating on the  surface of the sea4    
#h4 ,a hummock is a protuberance raised 
upon any plane of ice above  the common 
level4 ,it is frequently produced by    
pressure1 where one  piece is squeezed  
upon another1 often set upon its edge1  

and in  that position cemented by the   
frost4 ,hummocks are likewise formed  by
 pieces of ice mutually crushing each   
other1 the wreck being  heaped upon one 
or both of them4 ,to hummocks1          
principally1 the ice  is indebted for   
its variety of fanciful shapes1 and its 
picturesque  appearance4 ,they occur in 
great numbers in heavy packs1 on the    
edges1  and occasionally in the middle  
of fields and floes1 where they often   
attain the height of thirty feet or     
upwards4    #i4 ,a calf is a portion of 
ice which has been depressed by the same
  means as a hummock is elevated4 ,it is
 kept down by some larger mass1  from   
beneath which it shows itself on one    
side4    #aj4 ,a tongue is a point of   
ice projecting nearly horizontally from 
a part that is under water4 ,ships have 
sometimes run aground upon  tongues of  
ice4    #aa4 ,a pack is a body of       
drift-ice1 of such magnitude that its   
extent is not discernible4 ,a pack is   
open when the pieces of ice1  though    

very near each other1 do not generally  
touch1 or close when  the pieces are in 
complete contact4    #ab4 ,a patch is a 
collection of drift or bay-ice1 of a    
circular  or polygonal form4 ,in point  
of magnitude1 a pack corresponds with a 
field1 and a patch with a floe4    #ac4 
,a stream is an oblong collection of    
drift or bay-ice1 the  pieces of which  
are continuous4 ,it is called a         
sea-stream when it  is exposed on one   
side to the ocean1 and affords shelter  
from the sea  to whatever is within it4 
#ad4 ,open-ice1 or sailing-ice1 is where
 the pieces are so separate  as to admit
 of a ship sailing conveniently among   
them4    #ae4 ,heavy and light are terms
 attached to ice1 distinguishable of    
its thickness4    #af4 ,land-ice        
consists of drift-ice attached to the   
shore2 or  drift-ice which1 by being    
covered with mud or gravel1 appears to  
have  recently been in contact with the 
shore2 or the flat ice resting on  the  
land1 not having the appearance or      

elevation of icebergs4    #ag4 ,a bight 
is a bay in the outline of the ice4     
#ah4 ,a lane or vein is a narrow channel
 of water in packs or other  large      
collections of ice4    ,when the sea    
freezes1 the greatest part of the salt  
it contains is  deposited1 and the      
frozen mass1 however spongy1 probably   
contains no  salt but what is natural to
 the sea-water filling its pores4 ,hence
  the generality of ice1 when dissolved1
 affords fresh water4 ,as1  however1 the
 ice frozen altogether from sea-water   
does not appear  so solid and           
transparent as that procured from snow  
or rain water1  the whale-fishers       
distinguish it into two kinds1          
accordingly as it  affords water that is
 potable1 or the contrary1 as it appears
 to have  been the product of fresh or  
salt water4    ,what is considered as   
salt-water-ice appears blackish in the  
water1  but in the air is of a white or 
grey colour1 porous1 and in a great     
measure opaque1 7except when in very    

thin pieces17 yet transmits the  rays of
 light with a blue or blueish green     
shade4 ,when dissolved1  it produces    
water sometimes perfectly fresh1 and at 
others saltish4  ,this depends1 in a    
great measure1 on the situation from    
whence it is  taken2 such parts as are  
raised above the surface of the sea1 in 
the  form of hummocks1 or which1 though 
below the surface1 have been long       
frozen1 appear to gain solidity1 and are
 commonly fresh2 whilst  those pieces   
taken out of the sea1 that have been    
recently frozen1  are somewhat salt4    
,fresh-water-ice of the sailors is      
distinguished by its black  appearance  
when floating in small pieces in the    
sea1 and by its  transparency when      
removed into the air4 ,fresh-water-ice  
is fragile1  but hard2 the edges of a   
fractured part are frequently so keen as
 to  inflict a wound like glass4 ,the   
most transparent pieces are capable  of 
concentrating the rays of the sun1 so as
 to produce a considerable  intensity of

 heat4 ,with a lump of ice1 of by no    
means regular  convexity1 ,i have       
frequently burned wood1 fired gunpowder1
 incited  lead1 and lit the sailors'    
pipes1 to their great astonishment1 all 
of whom1 who could procure the needful  
articles1 eagerly flocked  around me1   
for the satisfaction of smoking a pipe  
ignited by such  extraordinary means4   
,their astonishment was increased by    
observing  that the ice remained firm   
and pellucid1 while the solar rays      
emerging from it were so hot1 that the  
hand could not be kept longer  in the   
focus than for the space of a few       
seconds4 ,in the formation  of these    
lenses1 ,i roughed them out with a small
 axe1 and then  scraped them with a     
knife1 polishing them merely by the     
warmth of  the hand1 supporting them    
during the operation in a woollen glove4
  ,i once procured a piece of the purest
 ice1 so large that a lens of  sixteen  
inches diameter was obtained out of it2 
unhappily1 however1  the sun became     

obscured before it was completed1 and   
never made its  appearance again for a  
fortnight1 during which time1 the air   
being  mild1 the lens was spoiled4      
,all young ice1 such as bay-ice and     
light-ice1 which form a  considerable   
part of drift and pack-ice in general1  
is considered by  ,greenland sailors    
salt-water-ice2 while fields1 floes1    
bergs1 and  heavy-ice1 chiefly consist  
of fresh-water-ice4 ,brash-ice likewise 
affords fine specimens of the latter1   
which1 when taken out of the  sea1 are  
always found crowded on the surface with
 sharp points and  conchoidal           
excavations4    ,ice1 when rapidly      
dissolved1 continues solid as long as   
any remains1  but1 when exposed to the  
air1 at a temperature of only two or    
three  degrees above the freezing point1
 its solution is effected in a very     
peculiar manner4 ,thus1 a large lump of 
fresh-water-ice1 when acted on  by such 
a process1 if placed in the plane of its
 formation1 resolves  itself into       

considerable columns of a prismatic     
appearance4 ,these  columns are situated
 in a perpendicular position1 almost    
entirely  detached1 so that when a blow 
is struck with an axe1 the whole mass   
frequently falls to pieces4 ,in the land
 icebergs1 these columns are  often of  
amazing magnitude1 so as1 when          
separated1 to form floating  icebergs4  
,all the ice floating in the sea is     
generally rough and uneven on the       
surface1 and during the greater part of 
the year covered with snow4  ,even      
newly-formed ice1 which is free from    
snow1 is so rough and soft  that it     
cannot be skated upon4 ,under water the 
colour of the ice  varies with the      
colour of the sea2 in blue water it is  
blue1 in green  water it is green1 and  
of deeper shades in proportion to its   
depth4  ,in the thickest olive-green    
coloured water1 its colour1 far beneath 
the surface1 appears brownish4    ,a    
description of the process of freezing  
from its commencement may  now be       

attempted4 ,the first appearance of ice1
 when in a state of  detached crystals1 
is called by the sailors sludge1 and    
resembles  snow when cast into water    
that is too cold to dissolve it4 ,this  
smooths the ruffled surface of the sea1 
and produces an effect like  oil in     
preventing breakers4 ,these crystals    
soon unite1 and would  form a continuous
 sheet1 but1 by the motion of the waves1
 they are  broken in very small pieces1 
scarcely three inches in diameter4 ,as  
they strengthen1 many of them coalesce1 
and form a larger mass4  ,the           
undulations of the sea still continuing1
 these enlarged pieces  strike each     
other on every side1 whereby they become
 rounded1 and  their edges turn up1     
whence they obtain the name of cakes1 or
  pan-cakes4 ,several of these again    
unite1 and thereby continue to          
increase1 forming larger flakes1 until  
they become perhaps a foot  in          
thickness1 and many yards in            
circumference4 ,every larger flake      

retains on its surface the impression of
 the smaller flakes of which  it is     
composed1 so that when1 by the          
discontinuance of the swell1 the  whole 
is permitted to freeze into an extensive
 sheet1 it sometimes  assumes the       
appearance of a pavement4 ,but when the 
sea is perfectly  smooth1 the freezing  
process goes on more regularly1 and     
probably  more rapidly4 ,during         
twenty-four hours' keen frost1 the ice  
will  become an inch or two in          
thickness1 and in less than forty-eight 
hours' time capable of sustaining the   
weight of a man4 ,both this  kind1 and  
cake-ice1 are termed bay-ice4 ,in every 
opening of the main  body of ice at a   
distance from the sea1 the water is     
always as smooth  as that of a harbour2 
and in low temperatures1 all that is    
necessary  for the formation of ice is  
still water4 ,there is no doubt that a  
large quantity of ice is annually       
generated in the bays and amidst  the   
islands of ,spitzbergen2 which bays1    

towards the end of summer1  are commonly
 emptied of their contents1 from the    
thawing of the  snow on the mountains   
causing a current outwards4 ,but this   
will not  account for the immense fields
 which are so abundant in ,greenland4   
,these evidently come from the          
northward1 and have their origin        
between ,spitzbergen and the ,pole4     
,ice-fields constitute one of the       
wonders of the deep4 ,they are often    
met with of the diameter of twenty or   
thirty miles1 and when in the  state of 
such close combination that no          
interstice could be seen1  they         
sometimes extend to a length of fifty or
 a hundred miles4 ,the  ice of which    
they are composed is generally pure and 
fresh1 and  in heavy fields it is       
probably of the average thickness of ten
 to  fifteen feet1 and then appears to  
be flat1 low1 thin ice2 but when  high  
hummocks occur1 the thickness is often  
forty feet and fifty  feet4 ,the surface
 before the month of ,july is always    

covered with  a bed of snow1 from       
perhaps a foot to a fathom in depth4    
,this snow  dissolves in the end of     
summer1 and forms extensive pools and   
lakes  of fresh water4 ,some of the     
largest fields are very level and       
smooth1  though generally their surfaces
 are varied with hummocks4 ,in some1    
these hummocks form ridges or chains1 in
 others1 they consist of  insulated     
heaps4 ,i once saw a field which was so 
free from either  fissure or hummock1   
that ,i imagined1 had it been free from 
snow1  a coach might have been driven   
many leagues over it in a direct  line1 
without obstruction or danger4 ,hummocks
 somewhat relieve the  uniformity of    
intense light reflected from the surface
 of fields1  by exhibiting shades of    
delicate blue in all the hollows1 where 
the  light is partly intercepted by     
passing through a portion of ice4       
,when the surface of snow on fields is  
frozen1 or when the snow is  generally  
dissolved1 there is no difficulty in    

travelling over them1  even without     
snow-skates or sledges4 ,but when the   
snow is soft and  deep1 travelling on   
foot to any distance is a work of       
labour4 ,the  tribe of ,esquimaux1      
discovered by captain ,ross1 made use of
 sledges1  drawn by dogs1 for conveying 
them across the rough land-ice1 lying   
between the ships and the shore4 ,a     
journey they performed with such        
celerity1 that captain ,ross conjectured
 they could travel fifty or  sixty miles
 a day4 ,if such a distance were        
practicable on drift-ice1  occurring    
near shore1 it would be much more easy  
on the smoother ice  of fields4    ,this
 term1 field1 was given to the largest  
sheets of ice by a ,dutch  whale-fisher4
 ,it was not until a period of many     
years after the  ,spitzbergen fishery   
was established1 that any navigator     
attempted to  penetrate the ice1 or that
 any of the most extensive sheets of ice
  were seen4 ,one of the ships resorting
 to ,smeerenberg for fishery1 put  to   

sea on one occasion when no whales were 
seen1 persevered westward  to a         
considerable length1 and accidentally   
fell in with some immense  flakes of    
ice1 which1 on his return to his        
companions1 he described  as truly      
wonderful1 and as resembling fields in  
the extent of their  surface4 ,hence the
 application of the term field to this  
kind of ice4  ,the discoverer of it was 
distinguished by the title of           
8field-finder40    ,fields commonly make
 their appearance in the months of ,may 
or ,june1  though sometimes earlier2    
they are frequently the resort of young 
whales4 ,strong north and westerly winds
 expose them to the whalers  by driving 
off the loose ice4 ,the invariable      
tendency of fields is  to drift to the  
south-westward1 even in calms1 which is 
the means of  many being yearly         
destroyed4 ,they have frequently been   
observed to  advance a hundred miles in 
this direction within the space of one  
month1 notwithstanding the occurrence of

 winds from every quarter4  ,on emerging
 from amidst the smaller ice1 which     
before sheltered  them1 they are soon   
broken up by the swell1 are partly      
dissolved1  and partly converted into   
drift-ice4 ,the places of such are      
supplied  by others from the north4 ,the
 power of the swell in breaking the     
heaviest fields is not a little         
remarkable4 ,a grown swell1 that is  so 
inconsiderable as not to be observed in 
open water1 frequently  breaks up the   
largest fields1 and converts them wholly
 into floes  and drift-ice in the space 
of a few hours2 while fields composed of
  bay-ice1 or light-ice1 being more     
flexible1 endure the same swell  without
 any destructive effort4    ,the        
occasional rapid motion of fields1 with 
the strange effects  produced by such   
immense bodies on any opposing          
substance1 is one of  the most striking 
objects the ,polar seas present1 and is 
certainly  the most terrific4 ,they not 
unfrequently acquire a rotatory         

movement1  whereby their circumference  
attains a velocity of several miles per 
hour4 ,a field thus in motion1 coming in
 contact with another at  rest1 or more 
especially with another having a        
contrary direction  of movement1        
produces a dreadful shock4 ,a body of   
more than ten  thousand millions of tons
 in weight1 meeting with resistance when
  in motion1 produces consequences which
 it is scarcely possible to  conceive4  
,the weaker field is crushed with an    
awful noise2 sometimes  the destruction 
is mutual2 pieces of huge dimensions and
 weight are  not unfrequently piled upon
 the top1 to the height of twenty or    
thirty feet1 while a proportionate      
quantity is depressed beneath4  ,the    
view of these stupendous effects in     
safety exhibits a picture  sublimely    
grand1 but where there is danger of     
being overwhelmed1  terror and dismay   
must be the predominant feelings4 ,the  
whale-fishers  at all times require     
unremitting vigilance to secure their   

safety1  but scarcely in any situation  
so much as when navigating amidst  these
 fields2 in foggy weather1 they are     
particularly dangerous1  as their       
motions cannot then be distinctly       
observed4 ,it may easily  be imagined1  
that the strongest ship is but an       
insignificant  impediment between two   
fields in motion4 ,numbers of vessels1  
since  the establishment of the fishery1
 have been thus destroyed2 some  have   
been thrown upon the ice1 some have had 
their hulls completely  torn open1 or   
divided in two1 and others have been    
overrun by the  ice1 and buried beneath 
its heaped fragments4 ,the ,dutch have  
lost as  many as twenty-three sail of   
ships among the ice in one year4 ,in the
  season of #afhd1 fourteen of their    
ships were wrecked1 and eleven more     
remained beset during the winter4    ,in
 the month of ,may1 of the year #ahad1  
,i witnessed a tremendous  scene4 ,while
 navigating amidst the most ponderous   
ice which the  ,greenland ,sea presents1

 in the prospect of making our escape   
from  a state of besetment1 our progress
 was unexpectedly arrested by  an       
isthmus of ice1 about a mile in breadth1
 formed by the coalition  of the point  
of an immense field on the north1 with  
that of an  aggregation of floes on the 
south4 ,to the north field we moored the
  ship1 in the hope of the ice          
separating in this place4 ,i then       
quitted  the ship1 and travelled over   
the ice to the point of collision1 to   
observe the state of the bar1 which now 
prevented our release4 ,i  immediately  
discovered that the two points had but  
recently met1 that  already a prodigious
 mass of rubbish had been squeezed upon 
the top1  and that the motion had not   
abated4 ,the fields continued to overlay
  each other with a majestic motion1    
producing a noise resembling  that of   
complicated machinery1 or distant       
thunder4 ,the pressure was  so immense1 
that numerous fissures were occasioned1 
and the ice  repeatedly rent beneath my 

feet4 ,in one of the fissures1 ,i found 
the  snow on the level three and a half 
feet deep1 and the ice upwards of       
twelve4 ,in one place1 hummocks had been
 thrown up to the height of  twenty feet
 from the surface of the field1 and at  
least twenty-five  feet from the level  
of the water2 they extended fifty or    
sixty yards  in length1 and fifteen in  
breadth1 forming a mass of about two    
thousand tons in weight4 ,the majestic1 
unvaried movement of the ice1  the      
singular noise by which it was          
accompanied1 the tremendous power       
exerted1 and the wonderful effects      
produced--were calculated to excite  in 
the mind of the most careless spectator 
admiration of ,him with  whom 8the      
nations are as a drop of a bucket1 and  
are counted as the  small dust of the   
balance3 behold1 he taketh up the isles 
as a very  little thing40    ,the term  
icebergs has commonly been applied to   
the glaciers  occurring in ,spitzbergen1
 ,greenland1 and other arctic countries4

 ,it  is also as commonly extended to   
the large peaks1 mountains1 or islets   
of ice that are found floating in the   
sea4 ,it is the latter kind of  icebergs
 we purpose to describe4    ,icebergs   
occur in many places in the arctic and  
antarctic regions2  some of them of     
astonishing magnitude4 ,in the          
,spitzbergen ,sea1  indeed1 they are    
neither numerous nor bulky1 compared    
with those  of other regions2 the       
largest ,i ever met with in this quarter
 not  exceeding a thousand yards in     
circumference1 and two hundred feet in  
thickness4 ,but in ,hudson's ,strait1   
,davis's ,strait1 and ,baffin's ,bay1   
they occur of a prodigious size4 ,ellis 
describes them as sometimes  occurring  
of the thickness of five hundred or six 
hundred yards4  ,frobisher saw one      
iceberg which was judged to be 8near    
fourscore  fathoms above water40 ,one   
berg is described by captain ,ross 7the 
dimensions of which were given in by    
lieutenant ,parry#a7 as having  nine    

unequal sides1 as being aground in      
sixty-one fathoms1 and as  measuring    
#d1afi yards 7paces7 long1 #c1fhi yards 
broad1 and fifty-one  feet high4 ,the   
weight of this iceberg1 taken at        
somewhat smaller  dimensions1 was       
estimated1 by an officer of the         
,alexander1 at  #a1bib1cig1fgc tons4    
,this amount1 however1 is greater than  
the truth1  the cubical inch of ice     
being taken at #bdj grains1 whereas it  
does  not exceed #bcae grains4    ,the  
most abundant source of icebergs known  
in the arctic regions is  ,baffin's     
,bay4 ,from this remarkable sea they    
constantly make their  way towards the  
south1 down ,davis's ,strait1 and are   
scattered abroad  in the ,atlantic to an
 amazing extent4 ,the banks of          
,newfoundland are  occasionally crowded 
with these wonderful productions of the 
frigid  zone2 beyond which they are     
sometimes conveyed1 by the operation of 
the southerly under-current1 as low as  
latitude #dj north1 and even  lower1 a  

distance of at least two thousand miles 
from the place of  their origin4        
,icebergs commonly float on a base which
 is larger in extent than the  upper    
surface4 ,hence the proportion of ice   
appearing above water is  seldom less in
 elevation than one-seventh of the whole
 thickness2 and  when the summit is     
conical1 the elevation above water is   
frequently  one-fourth of the whole     
depth of the berg4 ,perhaps the most    
general  form of icebergs is with one   
high perpendicular side1 the opposite   
side very low1 and the intermediate     
surface forming a gradual slope4  ,when 
of such a form1 captain ,ross found that
 the higher end was  generally to       
windward4 ,some icebergs have regular   
flat surfaces1 but  most usually they   
have different acute summits1 and       
occasionally  exhibit the most fantastic
 shapes4 ,some have been seen that were 
completely perforated1 or containing    
prodigious caverns1 or having  many     
clefts or cracks in the most elevated   

parts1 so as to give  the appearance of 
several distinct spires4 ,on some       
icebergs1 where  there are hollows1 a   
great quantity of snow accumulates2     
others are  smooth and naked4 ,the naked
 sides are often filled with conchoidal 
excavations1 of various magnitudes2     
sometimes with hollows the size  of the 
finger1 and as regular as if formed by  
art4 ,on some bergs1  pools of water    
occur stagnant2 on others1 large streams
 are seen  oozing through crevices into 
the sea4 ,in a high sea1 the waves      
break against them as against a rock2   
and1 in calm weather1 where  there is a 
swell1 the noise made by their rising   
and falling is  tremendous4 ,when       
icebergs are aground1 or when there is a
 superficial  current running to        
leeward1 the motion of other ice past   
them is so  great that they appear to be
 moving to windward4 ,fields of ice1 of 
considerable thickness1 meeting a berg  
under such circumstances1  are sometimes
 completely ripped up and divided       

through the middle4  ,icebergs1 when    
acted on by the sun1 or by a temperate  
atmosphere1  become hollow and fragile4 
,large pieces are then liable to be     
broken  off1 and fall into the sea with 
a terrible crash1 which1 in some        
places1 produces an echo in the         
neighbouring mountains4 ,when this      
circumstance1 called calving1 takes     
place1 the iceberg loses  its           
equilibrium1 sometimes turns on one     
side1 and is occasionally  inverted4    
,the sea is thereby put into commotion1 
fields of ice in the  vicinity are      
broken up1 the waves extend1 and the    
noise is heard to  the distance of      
several miles2 and sometimes the rolling
 motion of  the berg not ceasing1 other 
pieces get loosened and detached1 till  
the whole mass falls asunder like a     
wreck4    ,icebergs differ a little in  
colour according to their solidity and  
distance1 or state of the atmosphere4 ,a
 very general appearance  is that of    
cliffs of chalk1 or of white or grey    

marble4 ,the sun's  rays reflected from 
them sometimes give a glistening        
appearance to  their surfaces4          
,different shades of colour occur in the
 precipitous  parts1 accordingly as the 
ice is more or less solid1 and          
accordingly  as it contains strata of   
earth1 gravel1 or sand1 or is free from 
any impurity4 ,in the fresh fracture1   
greenish grey1 approaching to  emerald  
green1 is the prevailing colour4 ,in the
 night1 icebergs  are readily           
distinguished1 even at a distance1 by   
their natural  effulgence2 and in foggy 
weather1 by a peculiar blackness in the 
atmosphere1 by which the danger to the  
navigator is diminished4  ,as1 however1 
they occur far from land1 and often in  
unexpected  situations1 navigators      
require to be always on the watch for   
them4  ,though often dangerous          
neighbours1 they have occasionally      
proved  useful auxiliaries to the       
whale-fishers4 ,their situation in a    
smooth  sea is very little affected by  

the wind2 under the strongest gale  they
 are not perceptibly moved1 but1 on the 
contrary1 have the  appearance of       
advancing to windward1 because every    
other description  of ice moves rapidly 
past them4 ,from the iceberg's firmness1
 it often  affords a stable mooring to  
the ship in strong adverse winds1 and   
the  fisher likewise avails himself of  
it when his object is to gain a         
windward situation more open4 ,he moors 
under the lee of the iceberg1  loose ice
 soon forces past1 the ship remains     
nearly stationary1 and  the wished-for  
effect seldom fails to result4 ,vessels 
have1 however1  often been staved1 and  
sometimes wrecked1 by the fall of their 
icy  mooring2 while smaller objects1    
such as boats1 have been repeatedly     
overwhelmed1 even at a considerable     
distance1 by the vast waves  occasioned 
by such events4    ,all ice becomes     
exceedingly fragile towards the close of
 the  whale-fishing season1 when the    
temperate air thaws its surface1  and   

changes its solid structure into a      
brittle mass of imperfectly  attached   
columns4 ,bergs in this state being     
struck by an axe1 for  the purpose of   
placing a mooring anchor1 have been     
known to rend  asunder1 and precipitate 
the careless seaman into the yawning    
chasm2 whilst1 occasionally1 the masses 
are hurled apart1 and fall  in contrary 
directions with a prodigious crash1     
burying boats and  men in one common    
ruin4 ,the awful effect produced by a   
solid mass1  many thousands1 or even    
millions1 of tons in weight1 changing   
its  situation with the velocity of a   
falling body1 whereby its aspiring      
summit is in a moment buried in the     
ocean1 can be more easily  imagined than
 described4 ,though a blow with an      
edge-tool on brittle  ice does not sever
 the mass1 still it is often succeeded  
by a  crackling noise1 proving the mass 
to be ready to burst from the force  of 
internal expansion1 or from the         
destruction of its texture by a  warm   

temperature4 ,it is common1 when ships  
moor to icebergs1 to lie  as remote from
 them as their ropes will allow1 and yet
 accidents  sometimes happen1 though the
 ship ride at the distance of a hundred 
yards from the ice4 ,in the year #ahab1 
while the ,thomas1 of ,hull1  captain   
,taylor1 lay moored to an iceberg in    
,davis's ,strait1 a calf  was detached  
from beneath1 and rose with such        
tremendous force1 that  the keel of the 
ship was lifted on a level with water at
 the bow1  and the stern was nearly     
immersed beneath the surface4           
,fortunately1  the blow was received on 
the keel1 and the ship was not          
materially  damaged4    ,from the deep  
pools of water found in the summer      
season on the  depressed surface of some
 bergs1 or from streams running down    
their  sides1 the ships navigating where
 they abound are presented with         
opportunities for watering with the     
greatest ease and dispatch4 ,for  this  
purpose1 casks are landed upon the lower

 bergs1 filled1 and  rolled into the    
sea2 but1 from the higher1 the water is 
conveyed by  means of a long tube of    
canvas1 or leather1 called a hose1 into 
casks placed in the boats1 at the side  
of the ice1 or even upon the  deck of   
the ship4    ,the greater part of the   
icebergs that occur in ,davis's ,strait1
 and on  the eastern coast of ,north    
,america1 notwithstanding their         
profusion  and immense magnitude1 seem  
to be merely fragments of the land      
icebergs1 or glaciers1 which exist in   
great numbers on the coast  forming the 
boundaries of ,baffin's ,bay4 ,these    
glaciers fill immense  valleys1 and     
extend1 in some places1 several miles   
into the sea2 in  others1 they terminate
 with a precipitous edge at the general 
line  formed by the coast4 ,in the      
summer season1 when they are            
particularly  fragile1 the force of     
cohesion is often overcome by the weight
 of  the prodigious masses that overhang
 the sea2 and1 in winter1 the  same     

effect may be produced by the powerful  
expansion of the water  filling any     
excavation1 or deep-seated cavity1 when 
its dimensions  are enlarged by         
freezing1 thereby exerting a tremendous 
force1 and  bursting the berg asunder4  
,pieces thus1 or otherwise1 detached1   
are hurled into the sea with a dreadful 
crash4 ,when they fall into             
sufficiently deep water1 they are liable
 to be drifted off the land1  and down  
,davis's ,strait1 according to the set  
of the current2 but1  if they fall into 
a shallow sea1 they must remain until   
sufficiently  wasted to float away4     
,spitzbergen is possessed of every      
character which is supposed to be       
necessary for the formation of the      
largest icebergs2 high mountains1  deep 
extensive valleys1 intense frost1       
occasional thaws1 and great  falls of   
sleet and snow2 yet here a berg is      
rarely met with1 and  the largest that  
occur are not to be compared with the   
productions  of ,baffin's ,bay4 ,the    

reason of the difference between        
,spitzbergen  and ,old ,greenland as to 
the production of icebergs is1 perhaps1 
this--that1 while the sea is generally  
deep1 and the coast almost  continually 
sheltered by drift-ice at the foot of   
the glaciers1 in  ,baffin's ,bay2 in    
,spitzbergen1 on the contrary1 they     
usually terminate  at the water's edge1 
or where the sea is shallow1 so that no 
very  large mass1 if dislodged1 can     
float away1 and they are1 at the same   
time1 so much exposed to heavy swells1  
as to occasion dismemberments  too      
frequently to admit of their attaining  
considerable magnitude4    ,that        
extensive body of ice which1 with       
occasional tracts of land1  occupies the
 northern extremity of the earth1 and   
prevents all access  to the regions     
immediately surrounding the ,pole1      
fills1 it appears1  on an average1 a    
circle of above two thousand            
geographical miles  diameter1 and       
presents an outline which1 though       

subject to partial  variations1 is found
 at the same season of each succeeding  
year to be  generally similar1 and often
 strikingly uniform4 ,the most          
remarkable  alteration in the           
configuration of the ,polar ice on      
record1 is that  said to have taken     
place between ,iceland and ,greenland1  
in the  beginning of the fifteenth      
century1 whereby the intercourse between
  the ,icelanders and the colonies in   
,greenland was interrupted2 and1        
although many attempts have been made on
 the part of ,denmark for the  recovery 
of these colonies1 and for ascertaining 
the fate of the  colonists1 they have   
not yet succeeded4 ,in various          
countries1 changes  of climate1 to a    
certain extent1 have occurred within the
 limits  of historical record2 these    
changes have been commonly for the      
better1 and have been considered as the 
effects of human industry1 in  draining 
marshes and lakes1 felling woods1 and   
cultivating the earth2  but here is an  

occurrence which1 if it be indeed true1 
is the reverse  of common experience1   
and concerning the causes of which it is
 not  easy to offer any conjecture4     
,with each recurring spring1 the north  
,polar ice presents the  following      
general outline4 ,filling the ,bays of  
,hudson and ,baffin1  as well as the    
,straits of ,hudson1 and part of that of
 ,davis1 it  exhibits an irregular1     
waving1 but generally continuous line1  
from  ,newfoundland or ,labrador to     
,nova ,zembla4 ,from ,newfoundland it   
extends in a northerly direction along  
the ,labrador shore1 generally          
preventing all access to the land1 as   
high as the mouth of ,hudson's  ,strait2
 then1 turning to the north-eastward1   
forms a bay near the  coast of          
,greenland1 in latitude perhaps #ff or  
#fg1 by suddenly  passing away to the   
southward to the extremity of           
,greenland4 ,the  quantity of ice on the
 east side of ,davis's ,strait being    
often small1  the continuity of its     

border is liable to be broken1 so as to 
admit  of ships reaching the land2 and  
sometimes the bay of the ice1 usually   
occurring in the spring1 in latitude #ff
 or #fg1 does not exist1 but  the sea is
 open up the strait to a considerable   
distance beyond it4  ,after doubling the
 southern promontory1 or ,cape          
,farewell1 it advances  in a            
north-eastern direction along the east  
coast1 sometimes  enveloping ,iceland as
 it proceeds1 until it reaches the      
,island of  ,jan ,mayen4 ,passing this  
island on the north-west1 but frequently
  inclosing it1 the edge of the ice then
 trends a little more to the  eastward1 
and usually intersects the meridian of  
,london between the  #gast and #gcrd    
degree of latitude4 ,having reached the 
longitude of #e  or #f east1 in some    
instances as far as #h or #aj1 in the   
#gcrd or  #gdth degree or north         
latitude1 it joins a remarkable         
promontory1 and  suddenly stretches to  
the north1 sometimes proceeding on a    

meridian  to the latitude of #hj1 at    
others forming a deep sinuosity1        
extending  two or three degrees to the  
northward1 and then south-easterly to   
,cherie ,island1 which1 having passed1  
it assumes a more direct course  a      
little to the southward of east1 until  
it forms a junction with the  ,siberian 
or ,nova ,zemblan coast4    ,during the 
winter and spring months1 the ,polar ice
 seems closely to  embrace the whole of 
the northern shores of ,russia1 to the  
eastward  of ,nova ,zembla1 and filling1
 in a great measure1 ,behring's ,strait 
and the sea to the northward of it1     
continues in contact with the  ,polar   
face of the ,american continent1        
following the line of the coast  to the 
eastward1 until it effects a junction   
with the ice in the  ,spitzbergen ,sea1 
or in the great north-western bays of   
,hudson and  ,baffin1 or is terminated  
by land yet undiscovered4    ,that      
remarkable promontory midway between    
,jan ,mayen and ,cherie  ,islands1      

formed by the sudden stretch of the ice 
to the north1  constitutes the line of  
separation between the east1 or whaling1
  and west1 or sealing1 ice of the      
fishers2 and the deep bay lying to  the 
east of this promontory1 which may be   
called the ,whale-fisher's  ,bight1     
invariably forms the only pervious track
 for proceeding  to fishing latitudes   
northward4 ,when the ice at the         
extremity of  this bay occurs so strong 
and compact as to prevent the approach  
to the shores of ,spitzbergen1 and the  
advance northward beyond the  latitude  
of #ge or #gf1 it is said to be a close 
season1 and1 on  the contrary1 it is    
called an open season when an           
uninterrupted  navigation extends along 
the western coast of ,spitzbergen to    
,hackluyt's ,headland4    ,the place    
where whales occur in the greatest      
abundance is generally  found to be in  
#gh or #gi of north latitude1 though1   
from the #gbnd to  the #hast degree they
 have been met with4 ,they prefer those 

situations  which afford them the most  
secure retreats1 and the course of their
  flight when scared or wounded is      
generally towards the nearest or  most  
compact ice4 ,the place of their        
retreat1 however1 is regulated  by      
various circumstances2 it may sometimes 
depend on the quality or  quantity of   
food occurring1 the disposition of the  
ice1 or exemption  from enemies4        
,sometimes they seem collected within a 
small and  single circuit2 at others1   
they are scattered in various hordes    
and numerous single individuals over an 
amazing extent of surface4  ,in close   
seasons1 though the ice joins the south 
of ,spitzbergen1  and thereby forms a   
barrier against the fishing-stations1   
yet this  barrier is often of a limited 
extent1 and terminates on the coasts  of
 ,spitzbergen in an open space1 either  
forming or leading to the  retreat of   
the whales4 ,such space is sometimes    
frozen over till the  middle or end of  
the month of ,may1 but not unfrequently 

free from  ice4 ,the barrier here       
opposed to the fisher usually consists  
of a  body of ice1 from twenty to thirty
 or forty leagues across in the         
shortest diameter4 ,it is of importance 
to pass this barrier of ice as  early as
 possible in the season4 ,the fisher    
here avails himself of  every power     
within his command4 ,the sails are      
expanded in favourable  winds1 and      
withdrawn in contrary breezes4 ,the ship
 is urged forward  amongst drift-ice by 
the force of the wind1 assisted with    
ropes and  saws4 ,whenever a vein of    
water appears in the required direction1
 it  is1 if possible1 attained4 ,it     
always affords a temporary relief1 and  
sometimes a permanent release1 by       
extending itself through intricate      
mazes1 amidst ice of various            
descriptions1 until at length it opens  
into the desired place1 void of         
obstruction1 constituting the usual     
retreat of the whales4    ,the barrier  
which we have described1 when it occurs1

 is regularly  encountered on the first 
arrival of the ,greenland ships in the  
month of ,april1 but is generally       
removed by natural means as the  season 
advances4 ,it is usually found separate 
from the land1 and  divided asunder by  
the close of the month of ,june2 and    
hence it is  that1 however difficult and
 laborious may have been the ingress    
into the fishing country1 the egress is 
commonly effected without  much         
inconvenience4 ,in the month of ,may1   
the severity of the frost  relaxes1 and 
the temperature generally approaches a  
few degrees of  the freezing point4 ,the
 salt in the sea then exerts its        
liquefying  influence1 and destroys the 
tenacity of the bay-ice1 makes inroads  
in its parts by enlarging its pores into
 holes1 diminishes its  thickness1 and1 
in the language of the whale-fisher1    
completely rots  it4 ,packed drift-ice  
is then liberated1 and obeys the        
slightest  impulses of the winds or     
currents4 ,the heavier having more      

stability  than the lighter1 an apparent
 difference of movement obtains among   
the pieces1 and holes and lanes of water
 are formed to allow the  entrance and  
progress of the ships4 ,bay-ice1 though 
sometimes  serviceable to the whalers in
 preserving them from the brunt of the  
heavy ice1 is often the means of        
besetment1 and hence the primary  cause 
of every calamity4 ,heavy ice1 many feet
 in thickness1 and in  detached pieces  
of from fifty to a hundred tons' weight 
each1 though  crowded together in the   
form of a pack1 may be penetrated in a  
favourable gale with tolerable dispatch1
 whilst a sheet of bay-ice1  of a few   
inches only in thickness1 with the same 
advantage of wind1  will often arrest   
the progress of the ship1 and render her
 in a few  minutes immovable4 ,if this  
ice be too strong to be broken by the   
weight of the boat1 recourse must be had
 to sawing1 an operation slow  and      
laborious in the extreme4    ,when the  
warmth of the season has rotted the     

bay-ice1 the passage  to the northward  
can generally be accomplished with a    
very great  saving of labour4 ,therefore
 it was the older fishers seldom or     
never  used to attempt it before the    
#ajth of ,may1 and foreign fishers  in  
the present day are in general late4    
,sometimes late arrivals  are otherwise 
beneficial1 since it frequently happens1
 in close  seasons1 that ships entering 
the ice about the middle of ,may obtain 
an advantage over those preceding them1 
by gaining a situation more  eligible1  
on account of its nearness to the land4 
,their predecessors1  meanwhile1 are    
drifted off to the westward with the    
ice1 and cannot  recover their easting4 
,hence1 it appears1 it would be         
economical  and beneficial to sail so   
late as not to reach the country before 
the middle of ,may1 or to persevere on  
the sealing stations until  that time4  
,there are1 however1 some weighty       
objections to this  method4 ,open       
seasons occasionally occur1 and great   

progress may be  made1 especially by    
superior fishers1 before that time4 ,a  
week or a  fortnight's solitary fishing1
 under favourable circumstances1 has    
frequently gained half a cargo4 ,the    
change which takes place in the  ice1   
amidst which the whale-fisher pursues   
his object1 is1 towards  the close of   
the season1 indeed astonishing4 ,for1   
not only does  it separate into its     
original individual portions1 not only  
does  it retreat in a body from the     
western coast of ,spitzbergen1 but1  in 
general1 that barrier of ice which      
incloses the fishing-site  in the       
spring1 which costs the fisher immense  
labour and anxiety  to penetrate1 by    
retarding his advance towards the north1
 and  his progress in the fishery1 for  
the space of several weeks1             
spontaneously divides in the midst about
 the month of ,june1 and1 on  the return
 of the ships1 is not at all to be seen4
 ,then is the sea  rendered freely      
navigable from the very haunts of the   

whales to the  expanse of the ,atlantic 
,ocean4    ,our remarks may now be      
directed1 for a few pages1 to the       
properties1  peculiar movements1 and    
drifting of the ice4    #a4 ,the ice    
always has a tendency to separate during
 calms4    #b4 ,openings in packs and   
among fields1 or floes1 frequently break
  out1 or disappear1 without any        
apparent cause4    #c4 ,fields often    
open1 close1 and revolve1 in the most   
extraordinary  manner1 in calms as well 
as in storms4    #d4 ,the amazing       
changes which take place amongst the    
most compact ice  are often             
unaccountable4    #e4 ,when speaking of 
the currents of the ,spitzbergen ,sea1  
it has  been remarked that the ,polar   
ice1 in this situation1 has a constant  
tendency to drift to the south-westward4
 ,near ,spitzbergen1 indeed1  this      
tendency is not usually observed1       
because the influence of the  tide1     
eddies1 peculiar pressures1 etc41       
sometimes produce a contrary  effect2   

but1 at a distance from land1 its       
universal prevalence is  easily         
illustrated4    ,in the beginning of    
,may1 #ahad1 we entered with the ship   
,esk1  of ,whitby1 a spacious opening of
 the ice1 in latitude #gh #aj1          
longitude #d east1 to a distance of ten 
or twelve leagues from the  exterior1   
wherein we were tempted to stay1 from   
the appearance of  a great number of    
whales4 ,on the #ith of ,may1 the ship  
became fixed  in the ice1 and1 until the
 #afth1 we lay immovable4 ,a break of   
the  bay-ice then appeared about        
half-a-mile from us1 to attain which we 
laboured with energy1 and1 in eight     
hours1 accomplished a passage  for the  
ship4 ,on the #bjth1 in attempting to   
advance1 we endured a  heavy pressure of
 the bay-ice1 which shook the ship in an
 alarming  manner4 ,after a fatiguing   
effort in passing through the midst of  
an  aggregation of floes against the    
wind1 we reached a channel1 which  led  
us several miles to the south-eastward2 

and1 on the #bcrd1 we  lay at rest with 
four other ships4 ,the day following1   
having sawn  a place for the ship in a  
thin floe1 we forced forward between two
  large masses1 where bay-ice1          
unconsolidated1 had been compressed     
till it had become ten or twelve feet   
thick4 ,we were assisted by a  hundred  
men from the accompanying ships1 which  
followed close in  our rear4 ,after     
applying all our mechanical powers      
during eight  or nine hours1 we passed  
the strait of about a furlong in length1
  and immediately the ice collapsed1 and
 riveted the ships of our  companions to
 the spot4 ,we advanced on various      
winding courses to  the distance of     
several miles1 and then discovered a    
continuation of  the navigation between 
two immense sheets of ice1 but the      
channel  was so narrow and intricate1   
that1 for the distance of near a mile1  
it did not appear more than from ten to 
twenty yards in width4 ,the  prospect   
was1 indeed1 appalling2 but1 perceiving 

indications of the  enlargement of the  
passage rather than the contrary1 we    
advanced  under a press of sail1 driving
 aside some disengaged lumps of ice     
that opposed us1 and shortly            
accomplished our wishes in safety4 ,here
  an enlivening prospect presented      
itself2 to the extreme limits of  the   
horizon no interruption was visible4 ,we
 made a predetermined  signal to the    
ships we had left1 indicative of our    
hope of speedy  release4 ,in two hours1 
however1 we were disappointed by meeting
  the fields in the act of collapsing1  
and completely barring our  progress4   
,as the distance across was scarcely a  
mile1 and the sea1 to  appearance1 clear
 beyond it1 the interruption was most   
tantalizing4  ,we waited at the point of
 union1 and1 on the morning of the #bfth
 of  ,may1 our anxiety was happily      
relieved by the wished-for division  of 
the ice4 ,the ship1 propelled by a brisk
 wind1 darted through the  strait1 and  
entered a sea1 which we considered the  

termination of  our difficulties4 ,after
 steering three hours to the            
south-eastward1  we were concerned to   
discover our conclusions had been       
premature4  ,an immense pack opened on  
our view1 stretching directly across our
  path4 ,there was no alternative but   
forcing through it2 we therefore  pushed
 forward into the least connected part4 
,by availing ourselves  of every        
advantage of sailing1 where sailing was 
practicable1 and  boring or drifting    
where the pieces of ice lay close       
together1 we  at length reached the     
leeward part of a narrow channel1 in    
which we  had to ply a considerable     
distance against the wind4 ,when        
performing  this1 the wind1 which had   
hitherto blown a brisk breeze from the  
north1 increased to a strong gale4 ,the 
ship was placed in such a  critical     
situation that we could not1 for above  
an hour1 accomplish  any reduction of   
the sails2 and while ,i was personally  
engaged  performing the duty of a pilot 

on the topmast-head1 the bending  of the
 mast was so uncommon that ,i was       
seriously alarmed for its  stability4   
,at length1 we were enabled to reef our 
sails1 and for  some time proceeded with
 less danger4 ,our direction was now    
east1  then north for several hours1    
then easterly1 ten or fifteen miles2    
when1 after eighteen hours of the most  
difficult and occasionally  hazardous   
sailing1 in which the ship received some
 hard blows from  the ice1 after        
pursuing a tedious course nearly ninety 
miles1 and  accomplishing a distance on 
a direct north-east course of about     
forty  miles1 we found ourselves at the 
very margin of the sea1 separated  only 
by a narrow sea-stream4 ,the sea was so 
great without1 and the  wind so violent1
 that we durst not hazard an attempt to 
force through  this remaining obstacle4 
,after waiting about thirty hours1 on   
the  morning of the #bhth of ,may1 the  
weather cleared1 and the wind abated4   
,the sea-stream was now augmented to    

upwards of a mile broad4 ,one  place    
alone was visible where the breadth was 
less considerable1 and  through it we   
accomplished our final escape into the  
open sea4    ,i have thus been minute in
 the relation of our extrication from an
  alarming1 though not very uncommon    
state of besetment1 in order to  give a 
faint idea of the difficulties and      
dangers which those engaged  in the     
whale-fishery have occasionally to      
encounter1 as well as to  illustrate the
 manner in which ships are carried away 
from their  original situation by the   
regularity of the drift of ice to the   
south-westward4 ,the life of the mariner
 is one always of great labour  and     
peril1 but in navigating these arctic   
seas he is exposed to  sudden and       
peculiar dangers4    ,it is possible    
that the title and contents of this     
volume may allure  to its perusal some  
who look forward to exposure to dangers 
such  as those which are here described4
 ,they surely will not deem it          

intrusive to be reminded that the most  
important preparation for  such         
undertakings1 as well as for the whole  
of life1 is to surrender  the heart to  
that ,saviour who has died to redeem his
 servants from  guilt and ruin4 ,the    
pardon and peace which he freely confers
 on all  who come to him1 are the only  
safe comforts of a departing soul4 ,it  
is his blood only that cleanses from all
 sin2 it is his ,spirit that  renews and
 sanctifies the mind2 and whatever pain 
or accident may  befal the body1 there  
can be 8no condemnation0 in time or in  
eternity  8to them which are in ,christ 
,jesus40 ,the message of ,god to man is 
the  offer of a free salvation1 through 
the death of his glorious ,son4  ,this  
offer must determine the eternal        
condition of all to whom it is  in      
,god's mercy revealed4 8,god so loved   
the world1 that he gave his  only       
begotten ,son1 that whosoever believeth 
in him should not perish1  but have     
everlasting life60 ,reader1 do you      

understand1 and have you  accepted1 this
 gracious message8      ,,footnotes3    
#a ,now sir ,john ,ross and sir ,edward 
,parry4          ,,chapter ,,iv4        
,,observations ,,on ,,the               
,,atmospherology ,,of ,,the ,,arctic    
,,regions1  ,,particularly ,,relating   
,,to ,,spitzbergen ,,and ,,the          
,,adjacent ,,greenland ,,sea4      ,in  
treating of the subject of this chapter1
 our remarks shall1 in  the first       
instance1 relate to the climate of the  
,arctic ,regions  and the general       
effects of cold4 ,in the autumn and     
spring seasons1  the climate of         
,spitzbergen and its adjacent sea is    
variable and  tempestuous4 ,the         
temperature passes through its extreme  
range1 which1  probably1 exceeds fifty  
degrees in the same season1 or even in  
the  same month1 with a rapidity unknown
 in countries situate within the        
temperate zones4 ,north1 west1 and east 
winds bring with them the  extreme cold 
of the icy regions immediately          

surrounding the ,pole1  whilst a shift  
of wind to the south-west1 south1 or    
south-east1  elevates the temperature   
towards that of the neighbouring seas4  
,an arctic winter consists of the       
accumulation of almost everything  among
 atmospheric phenomena that is          
disagreeable to the feelings1  together 
with the privation of those bounties of 
,heaven with which  other parts of the  
earth1 in happier climates1 are so      
plentifully  supplied4 ,during the whole
 of the winter months1 the cheering rays
 of  the sun are neither seen nor felt1 
and there are occasional storms of  wind
 and snow4    ,the most severe cold1    
says ,crantz1 that occurs in ,greenland1
 sets in1  as in temperate climates1    
8after the new year2 and is so piercing 
in ,february and ,march1 that the stones
 split in twain1 and the sea  reeks like
 an oven40 ,on the return of the sun1   
the months of ,may1  ,june1 and ,august1
 are even occasionally pleasant2 but    
with ,july1 and  partially with ,june   

and ,august1 the densest fogs prevail1  
which are  more depressing to the       
spirits than even intense cold4    ,the 
temperature of the atmosphere1 when the 
fogs prevail1 is  generally near the    
freezing point1 and is not above three  
or four  degrees higher at midday than  
at midnight1 and sometimes does not     
vary above a degree or two for several  
days together4 ,but1 in the  spring and 
winter seasons1 the temperature is      
subject to very great  and rapid        
alterations1 which are frequently       
simultaneous with the  greatest changes 
of pressure4 ,this renders the          
thermometer a valuable  appendage in the
 prognostication of the weather4    ,the
 great depression of temperature which  
takes place in the  proximity of ice    
with a northerly wind1 appears equally  
as  considerable to the feelings in low 
as in high latitudes4 ,as great  a      
degree of cold as ever ,i noticed in a  
series of twelve years'  observations   
7once excepted7 was in latitude #ga1    

,april #ab1 #ahad1  when the mean of    
three thermometers indicated zero2 and1 
on the same  occasion1 during an        
interval of three days1 the mean        
temperature was  less than #e4 ,the wind
 in the mean time was continually       
blowing from  the north-eastward1       
generally blowing a gale1 but sometimes 
moderate4  ,on the #beth of ,april1     
#ahac1 in latitude #h1 the thermometer  
fell to  #d1 during a hard gale from the
 north-east1 but on account of the  ship
 being driven away from the ice it soon 
rose to #aj or #ae4 ,the  effect of the 
ice in reducing the temperature is so   
considerable1  that our proximity to it 
is often announced by the coldness      
before  it can be seen4 ,in this manner1
 the difference of a few leagues in     
position sometimes produces a surprising
 increase of cold4    ,the ,greenland   
sailors1 being well defended from       
external cold by  a choice selection of 
warm clothing1 generally support the    
lowest  temperature1 after a few days'  

habitude1 without much inconvenience4   
,when1 however1 its attacks are not     
gradual1 as when a ship1 which  has     
attained the edge of the ice1 under a   
southerly gale1 is exposed  suddenly to 
a northerly breeze1 the change of       
temperature is so great  and rapid1 that
 the most hardy cannot conceal their    
uneasiness under  its first impression4 
,on one occasion1 in the year #ahad1    
there  was between the time of my       
leaving the deck at night and arising   
the following morning an increase in the
 cold of about #bj4 ,this  remarkable   
change was attended with singular       
effects4 ,the circulation  of the blood 
was accelerated1 a sense of parched     
dryness was excited  in the nose2 the   
mouth1 or rather lips1 were contracted  
in all their  dimensions1 as by a       
sphincter1 and the articulation of many 
words was  rendered difficult and       
imperfect2 indeed1 every part of the    
body was  more or less stimulated or    
disordered by the severity of the cold4 

,the hands1 if exposed1 would have been 
frozen in a few minutes1 and  even the  
face could not have resisted the effects
 of a brisk wind1  continued for any    
length of time4 ,a piece of metal1 when 
applied to  the tongue1 instantly       
adhered to it1 and could not be removed 
without  its retaining a portion of the 
skin2 iron became brittle1 and such  as 
was at all of inferior quality might be 
fractured by a blow2  brandy1 of        
,english manufacture and wholesale      
strength1 was frozen2  quicksilver1 by a
 single process1 might have been        
consolidated2 the  sea1 in some places1 
was in the act of freezing1 and1 in     
others1  appeared to smoke1 and         
produced1 in the formation of           
frost-rime1 an  obscurity greater than  
that of the thickest fog4    ,the subtle
 principle of magnetism seemed to be1 in
 some way or other1  influenced by the  
frost1 for the deck compasses became    
sluggish1 or  even motionless1 while a  
cabin compass traversed with celerity4  

,the  ship became enveloped in ice2 the 
bows1 sides1 and lower rigging1  were   
loaded2 and the rudder1 if not          
repeatedly freed1 would1 in a  short    
time1 have been rendered immovable4 ,a  
considerable swell at  this time        
prevailing1 the smoke in the cabin1 with
 the doors closed1  was so intolerable1 
that we were under the necessity of     
giving free  admission to the external  
air to prevent it4 ,the consequence was1
  that1 in front of a brisk fire1 at the
 distance of a yard and a half  from it1
 the temperature was #be2 water spilt on
 the table froze1  and1 indeed1         
congelation took place in one situation 
at the distance  of only two feet from  
the stove4 ,hoar-frost1 also1 appeared  
in the  sailors' bed-cabins1 arising    
from their breath1 and was deposited    
upon their blankets4    ,under such a   
temperature1 the whale-fishery could not
 be prosecuted1  for nature could not   
sustain continued exposure to the       
pungent force  of the wind4 ,with a calm

 atmosphere1 however1 the sensible      
effects of  cold are singularly         
diminished2 the cold of zero then       
becomes equally  supportable with the   
temperature of #aj1 #ae1 or even #bj    
degrees1 when  impressed by a brisk     
wind2 hence1 the sensations produced on 
the body  become a very equivocal       
criterion for estimating the degree of  
cold4    ,the effect of cold in         
preventing the traversing of compasses1 
exposed  to its influence1 has been     
noticed by some navigators4 ,as a remedy
  against this inconvenience1 ,ellis1 in
 his voyage to ,hudson's ,bay1  suggests
 the propriety of removing the compasses
 into a warm place1  by which the       
needles speedily resume their activity4 
,i have found1  by experiments1 that    
neither the attractive nor directive    
power of  the magnet suffers diminution 
by an increase of cold4 ,there appears1 
however1 to be an increase of friction1 
or the introduction of some  unknown    
principle1 which1 when the degree of    

cold is very much  increased1 occasions 
a diminution in the mobility of magnetic
 needles4    ,many remarkable effects of
 cold are related in the journals of    
,polar  navigators4 ,captain ,james1    
when wintering in ,hudson's ,bay1       
latitude  #eb north1 experienced such   
cold1 that1 on the #ajth ,december1 many
  of the sailors had their noses1       
cheeks1 and fingers1 frozen as white  as
 paper4 ,ellis1 who wintered in the same
 region1 latitude #eg #cj1  found1 by   
the #crd of ,november1 bottled beer1    
though wrapped in  tow1 and placed near 
a good1 constant fire1 frozen solid4    
,many of  the sailors had their faces1  
ears1 and toes frozen2 iron adhered  to 
their fingers2 glasses used in drinking 
stuck to the mouth1 and  sometimes      
removed the skin from the lips or       
tongue2 and a sailor1 who  inadvertently
 used his finger for stopping a         
spirit-bottle in place  of a cork1 while
 removing it from the house to his tent1
 had his  finger fast frozen in the     

bottle1 in consequence of which a part  
of  it was obliged to be taken off to   
prevent mortification4    ,a ,hamburgh  
whaler1 beset by the ice1 near          
,spitzbergen1 in the year  #agfi1 was   
exposed to great danger4 ,the effect of 
the frost was such1  that the seams in  
the ship's sides cracked with a noise   
resembling  the report of a pistol4     
,these openings at first rendered the   
vessel  very leaky1 but after she got   
free from the ice1 and into a milder    
climate1 they again closed4    ,in the  
interesting narrative1 by ,pelham1 of   
the preservation of eight  seamen1 who  
were accidentally left in ,spitzbergen1 
in the year #afcj1  and wintered there1 
are some remarks on the effects of cold4
 ,the sea  of the bay1 where they took  
up their abode1 froze over on the #ajth 
of ,october4 ,after the commencement of 
the new year1 the frost became  most    
intense2 it raised blisters in their    
flesh as if they had been  burned with  
fire1 and if they touched iron at such  

times it would  stick to their fingers  
like bird-lime4 ,sometimes1 when they   
went  out of doors to procure water1    
they were seized in such a way by  the  
cold1 that their flesh felt as sore as  
if they had been cruelly  beaten4       
,the effects of cold at ,disco1 as      
observed by ,m4 ,paul ,eged1 on the     
#gth ,january1 #agch1 and recorded by   
,david ,crantz1 in his ,history of      
,greenland1 are too striking to be      
omitted4 8,the ice and hoar-frost10     
says ,eged1 8reach through the chimney  
to the stove's mouth1 without  being    
thawed by the fire in the day-time4     
,over the chimney is an  arch of frost1 
with little holes1 through which the    
smoke discharges  itself4 ,the doors and
 walls are as if they were plastered    
over with  frost1 and1 which is scarcely
 credible1 beds are often frozen to the 
bedsteads4 ,the linen is frozen in the  
drawers1 the upper eider-down  bed and  
the pillows are quite stiff with frost  
an inch thick1 from  the breath40       

,the terrific power of these mighty     
agencies of nature illustrate ,his      
perfections1 who has all resources at   
his command1 to minister to  the comfort
 of his servants1 or the inevitable     
destruction of his  enemies4 ,to be     
hostile to the ,god of heaven and of    
earth1 is surely  the height of folly as
 well as of ingratitude4 8,he sendeth   
forth his  commandment upon earth3 his  
word runneth very swiftly4 ,he giveth   
snow  like wool3 he scattereth the      
hoar-frost like ashes4 ,he casteth forth
  his ice like morsels3 who can stand   
before his cold80    ,in these frigid   
regions1 the scurvy becomes a very      
alarming disease1  and many individuals 
have perished by it1 who have attempted 
to  winter in ,spitzbergen and          
neighbouring countries4 ,it appears1    
however1 probable1 that this disease is 
not so much influenced by  the severity 
of the climate as by the use of improper
 aliment4 ,an  excellent paper on this  
subject1 by ,dr4 ,john ,aikin1 is       

published in  the ,memoirs of the       
,literary and ,philosophical ,society of
 ,manchester4  ,it affirms1 that by the 
constant use of fresh provisions1 the   
occasional use of oleaginous substances1
 together with frequent  exercise1 a    
warm dwelling1 and a warm clothing1     
there would1  probably1 be little danger
 in exposure to the severities of a     
,spitzbergen winter4 ,whenever ,i have  
had occasion to expose myself to  severe
 cold1 ,i have found that the more ,i am
 heated the longer ,i can  resist the   
cold without inconvenience4 ,the warmth 
produced by simple  fluids1 such as tea 
or soup1 is preferable to that          
occasioned by  spirits4 ,after the      
liberal use of tea1 ,i have often       
sustained a cold  ten degrees at the    
mast-head for several hours without     
uneasiness4 ,i  have frequently gone    
from the breakfast-table1 where the     
temperature  was #ej or #fj1 to the     
mast-head1 where it was ten1 without any
 other  additional clothing except a    

cap1 yet ,i never received any injury1  
and seldom much inconvenience1 from the 
uncommon transition4    ,the            
antiseptical property of frost is       
remarkable4 ,animal substances          
requisite as food1 of all descriptions1 
7fish excepted17 may be taken  to       
,greenland1 and there preserved any     
length of time1 without being  smoked1  
dried1 or salted4 ,beef1 mutton1 pork1  
and fowls1 the latter  neither plucked  
nor drawn1 are constantly taken out from
 ,england1  ,shetland1 or ,orkney1 and  
preserved in this way4 ,when used1 the  
beef  is best divided by a saw2 it is   
then thawed in cold water1 and1  if     
cooked1 when three1 four1 or five months
 old1 will frequently  appear as profuse
 of gravy as if it had been recently    
killed4 ,a  further antiseptical effect 
is produced by the cold on animal and   
vegetable substances1 so as to preserve 
them1 if they remain in the  same       
climate1 unchanged for a period of many 
years4 ,an instance  corroborative of   

this remark is given by ,m4 ,bleau1 who1
 in his ,atlas  ,historique1 informs us1
 that the bodies of seven ,dutch seamen1
 who  perished in ,spitzbergen1 in the  
year #afce1 were found twenty years     
afterwards by some sailors1 who happened
 to land about the place  where they    
were interred1 in a perfect state1 not  
having suffered the  smallest degree of 
putrefaction4 ,wood1 indeed1 has been   
met with in  ,spitzbergen1 which has    
resisted all injury from the weather    
during  the lapse of a century4    ,our 
remarks must now be directed to         
meteorology1 and to an  investigation of
 the temperature of the north ,polar    
regions1 and its  constant tendency to  
equalization4    ,though in a state of  
rapid improvement1 the science of       
meteorology  is acknowledged to be yet  
in its infancy4 ,before the discovery   
of the weight of the atmosphere by      
,torricelli1 about the year  #afcj1 no  
means of registering its variations of  
pressure could be  known or practised4  

,hence we can have no very correct idea 
of the  relative temperature of climates
 in the present and remote periods1     
unless from occasional historical       
remarks of the formation of ice  in     
particular lakes1 rivers1 or parts of   
the sea1 or from the  capability of the 
earth for producing certain fruits or   
grain4 ,in  consequence1 however1 of the
 use of the thermometer and barometer1  
meteorology1 as a science1 has made     
considerable advancement4 ,the  records 
of phenomena1 which these instruments   
indicate1 have proved  highly useful4   
,professor ,mayer has given us a formula
 for determining  the temperature of any
 situation on the globe1 where          
observations  have not been made4 ,dr4  
,hutton has presented us with an        
ingenious  and plausible theory of rain2
 and ,kirwan1 ,humboldt1 and others1    
have  advanced our knowledge of the     
climates of different countries4 ,dr4   
,wells has investigated the phenomena of
 dew1 and professor ,leslie  has        

conducted profound researches on the    
relations of air to heat  and moisture1 
and on the propagation of heat and cold 
through the  atmosphere to distant      
regions4 ,by the invention1 also1 of    
several  curious and useful instruments1
 especially the hygrometer for the      
measurement of the dryness or dampness  
of the atmosphere1 he has  contributed  
very largely to the advancement of      
meteorological  knowledge4    ,the      
temperature of the atmosphere in any    
particular region is one  of those      
phenomena1 which1 however they may      
fluctuate1 or whatever  may be their    
daily1 monthly1 or yearly variations1   
and however  unequal and capricious     
these may be1 will1 on the average of   
numerous  corresponding periods1 be     
found to be dependent on certain laws   
tending to produce equilibrium2 so that 
the general results are  remarkably     
uniform4 ,when we experience            
particularly cold winters1 or           
particularly hot summers1 we might      

suppose that the mean temperature  of   
the years in which the former occur1    
would be greatly below1  and that of    
years in which the hot summers occur1   
would be greatly  above1 the general    
standard4 ,but this will seldom be found
 to be the  case4 ,in temperate climates
 of the northern hemisphere1 the mean   
temperature of any one year1 derived    
from the mean of the daily  extremes of 
heat and cold1 or from any particular   
number of daily  observations1 continued
 through the course of twelve successive
  months1 seldom differs from the       
general mean temperature1 as derived    
from the observation of a great1 number 
of years1 more than two or  three       
degrees4 ,the mean temperature of any   
single month cannot be  supposed to be  
equally uniform2 this1 however1 does not
 differ so  widely from the general mean
 of the month as might be expected4     
,as the mean annual temperature of a    
country is1 therefore1 probably  given  
by one year's observations only1 to     

within two or three degrees  of the     
truth1 the mean of a period of eight or 
ten years will1  probably1 come within  
one degree of the truth4 ,by the        
comparison  of the results of           
thermometrical observations1 made in    
different  countries1 with each other1  
tracing the changes of temperature1     
which appear with certain changes of    
latitude or situation1 some  ingenious  
and philosophical men have endeavoured1 
by principles  of analogy and induction1
 to determine the mean temperature of   
every parallel of latitude from the     
,equator to the north ,pole4  ,these    
calculations have been considered as    
near approximations2  and1 as long as   
observations were wanting1 served for   
purposes of  investigation1 to complete 
the scale of the temperature of the     
globe4  ,when we reach1 however1 the    
regions of perpetual ice1 a remarkable  
anomaly is discovered1 the mean         
temperature falling below the           
estimation in these tables at once #ag4 

,from a series of observations  on the  
temperature1 etc41 of the ,polar        
regions1 conducted with care  during    
twelve successive voyages to the        
,greenland ,seas1 ,i am able to  deduce 
the following conclusions4    ,the mean 
temperature of the months of ,april1    
,may1 ,june1 and ,july1  are            
satisfactorily derived from the means of
 the latitudes and of  the observations 
of temperature2 but the mean temperature
 of the  whole year1 and of the winter  
months1 wherein no observations in  such
 high latitudes have yet been made1 can 
only be ascertained by  analogy4 ,from  
the examination of numerous             
thermometrical registers1  particularly 
one consisting of #ed1gej observations1 
made in a  succession of fifty years1 at
 ,stockholm1 it would seem that the     
temperature of the year in northern     
latitudes is indicated by that  of the  
#bgth to #bhth of ,april4 ,i have       
collated #fef observations1  made on    
#bdb days1 in nine different years1     

extending equally before  and after the 
#bgth of ,april1 from which the mean    
temperature of the  year1 in latitude   
#gf #de1 near the meridian of ,london1  
appears  to be #ah #hf4 ,reducing all   
the monthly temperatures derived from   
my observations to the parallel of      
latitude #gh north1 by the  application 
of ,mayer's formula1 and allowing for   
the fact that many  of the observations 
of ,april were made at a considerable   
distance  from the ice1 ,i calculate the
 temperature of ,april1 latitude #gh1   
to be #ad #bc1 and the mean of the year 
in the same proportion  exactly #ag4    
,having discovered1 by observation      
chiefly1 the mean  temperature of the   
months of ,april1 ,may1 ,june1 and      
,july1 and the  probable mean           
temperature of the year in the icy      
regions adjoining  ,spitzbergen1 ,i     
conceive it not difficult to calculate  
the temperature  of the remaining       
months4 ,the difference between the mean
 temperature  of the year and that of   

,july1 is #ba in ,stockholm1 and #bj    
near  ,spitzbergen4 ,finding not only   
that the difference of temperature      
between the mean of the year and ,july1 
near ,spitzbergen1 but that  the        
progressive increase of temperature from
 ,april to ,july1 also1  bore a strong  
analogy to the relative circumstances at
 ,stockholm1  ,i formed a scheme of     
decimals1 connected with a simple       
formula1 by  which the same proportion  
of change1 which has been observed to   
take  place every month at ,stockholm1  
may be made very readily to apply to    
any other country1 whence1 situations   
and circumstances being nearly  similar1
 the temperature of unobserved months   
may be calculated4 ,the  temperature of 
,january1 latitude #gh1 comes out--#a2  
that of ,february1  ,o #g2 ,march1 #f   
#a2 ,august1 #cd #i2 ,september1 #bg #h2
 ,october1 #ah  #e2 ,november1 #i #h2   
and ,december1 #c #a4    ,following the 
example of every generalizing           
meteorologist1 ,i  may1 with some       

propriety1 extend my observations to the
 probable  temperature of the north     
,pole1 provided ,i can proceed on data1 
not  merely arbitrary or fanciful1 but  
founded on observation and analogy4     
,it has been observed1 that professor   
,mayer's theory for ascertaining  the   
temperature of every latitude1 becomes  
exceedingly wide of the  truth when we  
approach the regions of perpetual ice1  
notwithstanding  in most other          
situations on the sea1 or bordering     
thereon1 it holds  sufficiently near4   
,according to it1 the mean temperature  
of latitude  #gf #de1 near the western  
coast of ,spitzbergen1 would have been  
#cc  #h1 instead of #ah #h1 as shown by 
my observations2 and1 according  to it1 
the mean temperature of the ,pole is    
reckoned to be about #ca4  ,the #ae     
difference between the observation and  
calculation must be  considered as the  
frigorific effect of the ice1 of which1 
if we can  ascertain the probable       
measurement at the ,pole1 we shall be   

able  to modify ,mayer's calculation1 so
 as to approximate to the mean          
temperature4 ,at the ,pole1 no wind     
could convey the mild influence  of a   
temperate climate1 because1 from        
whatever direction it should  blow1 it  
must be cooled down by brushing over an 
extensive surface  of ice2 consequently1
 the full frigorific effect of the ice  
must be  greater in the ,pole than in   
places situated at or near the borders  
of the ice4 ,in a total period of #bdb  
days1 the temperature of the  air was1  
by observation1 found to be more or less
 influenced by the  ice during #agc days
 of that period4 ,hence1 as #agc is to  
#ae1 the  anomaly occasioned by the mean
 temperature1 so is #bdb to #ba1 which  
is the probable anomaly that may be     
expected when the temperature is  always
 influenced by the ice1 or the anomaly  
which may be supposed  to occur at the  
,pole4 ,now1 if we deduct #ba from #ca1 
the calculated  temperature of the      
,pole1 the actual mean temperature at   

the ,pole will  be about #aj4           
,concerning the pressure of the         
atmosphere in ,polar latitudes1 ,i would
  remark1 particularly in the winter and
 spring months1 it is liable  to sudden 
and very considerable variations1 and a 
careful study and  observation of these 
is necessary to enable the watchful     
mariners to  anticipate the approach of 
storms4    ,the following are the       
relations which1 in ,polar latitudes1 ,i
 have  been enabled to trace between the
 barometer and the weather3--    #a4 ,a 
hard westerly gale1 with snow1 occasions
 the greatest depression  of the        
mercury2 and a light easterly wind1 with
 dry weather1 the  greatest elevation4  
#b4 ,the rising of the mercury foretells
 the subsidence of wind or  rain1 a     
change of wind or fine weather2 and its 
falling1 rain1 snow1  or a change or    
increase of wind4    #c4 ,the mercury   
rising unusually high1 and then becoming
 stationary1  indicates1 in the months  
of ,april and ,may1 a continuance of    

fine  weather2 but in ,june or ,july1   
foggy weather4    #d4 ,if1 in the month 
of ,april1 the mercury fall with some   
rapidity an  inch or more1 a storm will 
most certainly succeed1 however contrary
  appearances may be1 which will        
probably be the more severe in          
proportion as it approximates the east1 
and will frequently continue1  with     
unabated violence1 for fifty or sixty   
hours4    #e4 ,the rising of the mercury
 usually precedes the cessation of  a   
storm1 but does not invariably determine
 the period of its  continuance1 as     
storms frequently blow for a day or two 
after the  first rise of the mercury4   
#f4 ,sudden and repeated fluctuations   
are indicative of unsettled  weather2   
but the rapid fall of the mercury is no 
indication of a  short gale1 though1 in 
other regions1 the reverse is said to be
  the case2 for1 before storms that     
continue two or three days1 the         
barometer frequently falls an inch      
within twenty-four hours2 and  indeed1  

in a gale as long and as heavy as ,i    
almost ever witnessed1  the fall of the 
mercury was above an inch in twelve     
hours4    #g4 ,before very heavy storms1
 when the barometer falls uncommonly    
low1  the mercury seems to get below its
 natural level1 and often rises two  or 
three tenths of an inch as soon as the  
predicted storm commences2  hence this  
first rise of the mercury is no         
indication whatever of an  abatement of 
the wind4    #h4 ,on account of the     
different states of the barometer in    
west and  east winds1 the usual level of
 the mercury1 with a moderate wind at   
west1 not being much higher than with a 
gale at east1 a change of  wind from one
 of these quarters to the opposite may  
be accompanied  with the greatest       
alteration in the strength of the wind1 
without  producing any effect on the    
barometer4    ,the appearance of the    
,greenland atmosphere corresponds in    
some degree  with the winter sky of     
,britain2 the colour of the former is1  

however1  of a deeper azure1 and its    
transparency1 when clear and free from  
icy  crystals1 perhaps more perfect4    
,far within the borders of compact ice  
the atmosphere1 in summer1 is  often    
cloudless1 and the weather serenely     
pleasant1 though cold4  ,but in the     
usual fishing-stations1 and on the      
exterior of the ice  in general1 a clear
 sky is not frequent2 nevertheless1 when
 it does  occur1 its transparency is    
peculiarly beautiful4 ,the sun sometimes
  sweeps two or three times round the   
,pole1 without being for a moment       
obscured by a cloud4 ,objects the most  
remote may be seen perfectly  distinct  
and clear4 ,a ship's top-gallant-mast1  
at the distance of  five or six leagues1
 may be discerned when just appearing   
above the  horizon1 with a common       
perspective glass2 and the summits of   
some  mountains are visible at the      
distance of sixty to a hundred miles4   
,this perfect clearness occurs most     
frequently before easterly winds2  in   

general1 however1 especially in very    
cold weather1 objects on the  horizon1  
when viewed with a high magnifier1      
appear affected with  a perpetual       
tremor2 whence the contemplation of     
distant objects  is accomplished as     
perfectly with a good pocket-glass as   
with the  best telescope4 ,this         
tremulous motion is evidently produced  
by the  quantity of delicate icy        
crystals which1 in very low             
temperatures1  are almost always seen   
floating in the air4    ,the general    
obscurity of the atmosphere1 arising    
from clouds or  fogs1 is such1 that the 
sun is frequently invisible during      
several  successive days4 ,at such      
times1 when the sun is near the northern
  tropic1 there is scarcely any sensible
 variation in the quantity of  light    
from noon to midnight4 ,hence1 when the 
sailors have been long  abroad in the   
boats1 or so fully engaged as to be     
unable to mark the  progress of time1   
the inquiry1 whether it be day or night1

 is not  unfrequent4    ,there is       
nothing remarkable in the appearance of 
the sun at midnight1  excepting that1   
when its altitude is very small1 it may 
be viewed  with the naked eye1 without  
producing any painful sensation2 but    
when  it is more than four or five      
degrees above the horizon1 it generally 
appears as effulgent as with the same   
elevation in ,britain4 ,the force  of   
the sun's rays is sometimes remarkable4 
,where they fall upon the  snow-clad    
surface of the ice or land1 they are1 in
 a great measure1  reflected1 without   
producing any material elevation of     
temperature2  but when they impinge on  
the black exterior of a ship1 the pitch 
on  one side occasionally becomes fluid1
 while ice is rapidly generated  on the 
other2 or1 while a thermometer1 placed  
against the black  paint-work on which  
the sun shines1 indicates a temperature 
of #hj or  #ij1 or even more1 on the    
opposite side of the ship a cold of #bj 
is  sometimes found to prevail4    ,this

 remarkable force of the sun's rays is  
accompanied with a  corresponding       
intensity of light4 ,a person placed in 
the centre of  a field or other compact 
body of ice1 under a cloudless          
atmosphere  and elevated sun1           
experiences such an extraordinary       
intensity of  light1 that if it be      
encountered for any length of time1 is  
not only  productive of a most painful  
sensation in the eyes1 but sometimes  of
 temporary1 or even1 as ,i have heard1  
of permanent blindness4  ,under such    
circumstances1 the use of green glasses 
affords a most  agreeable relief4 ,some 
of the ,indians of ,north ,america      
defend their  eyes by the use of a kind 
of wooden spectacles1 having1 instead of
  glasses1 a narrow perpendicular slit  
opposite to each eye4 ,this  simple     
contrivance1 which intercepts1 perhaps1 
nine-tenths of the  light that would    
reach a naked eye1 prevents any painful 
consequences  in the most intense       
reflection of light that ever occurs4   

,the constant light of the sun during   
the summer prevents the stars  from     
being seen2 and this1 together with the 
frequency of cloudy  or foggy weather1  
rarely admits a sight of the moon4      
,hence1 the  longitude1 which is of such
 essential importance in navigation1 can
  seldom be determined by lunar         
observations4 ,chronometers1 therefore1 
though but little used by the           
whale-fishers1 become of enhanced       
value2 and even a good watch1 well      
regulated1 will1 where the degrees  of  
longitude are so very contracted1 point 
out the meridianal  situation of the    
ship for short intervals1 with a very   
tolerable  degree of accuracy4          
,though the air in the arctic seas is   
generally in a state of  dampness1      
approaching to complete saturation1 yet 
the absolute  quantity of moisture      
cannot1 when the cold is very excessive1
 be  considerable4 ,it is remarked1 that
 vessels are less apt to rust here  than
 in any other climate2 and this         

observation1 if we consider the         
relative humidity of the atmosphere as  
indicated by the hygrometer1  is        
certainly correct2 but though the air in
 the ,polar regions is  generally damp1 
yet it is probable there is no habitable
 situation in  the known world in which 
such a degree of actual dryness         
prevails1 as  in a house or in the cabin
 of a ship1 well heated1 when the       
external  air is intensely cold4 ,the   
wainscoting of the cabin of a ship in   
cold  weather sometimes shrinks1 in     
consequence of the uncommon dryness1 as 
much as half an inch in a panel of about
 fifteen inches broad1 being  equal to  
one-thirtieth of the breadth2 but1 on   
returning to ,britain1  the same panel  
expands again to almost its original    
dimensions4    ,few observations1       
comparatively1 seem to have been made on
 the  electricity of the atmosphere1    
especially in high latitudes4 ,perhaps1 
some trials that ,i made in the spring  
of #ahah1 on this subject1 were  the    

first that have been attempted within   
the arctic circle4 ,when  in latitude   
#fh1 ,i erected an insulated conductor1 
eight feet above  the maintop-gallant   
mast-head1 connected by a copper wire   
with a  copper ball1 attached by a silk 
string to the deck4 ,the conductor      
consisted of a slender tapering tube of 
tinned iron1 terminated by a  pointed   
brass wire4 ,it was fixed in an iron    
socket1 supported by a  large           
cylindrical piece of glass2 which glass1
 by means of another  iron socket1 was  
secured to the top of a long pole1      
elevated several  feet above the        
mast-head4 ,a tin cone encompassed the  
bottom of the  conductor1 the mouth of  
which being downward1 defended the rod  
of  glass from getting wet1 so as to    
injure its insulated property4  ,the    
conducting wire1 being kept clear of the
 rigging of the ship1  was expected to  
exhibit in the ball1 where it           
terminated1 any  difference between the 
state of the electricity of the ship or 

sea  and that of the atmosphere4 ,the   
test of electricity was a ,bennet's     
gold-leaf electrometer1 brought into    
contact with the ball2 but  though      
trials were made for several successive 
days1 from lat4 #gh to  lat4 #ge1 during
 clear1 cloudy1 and showery weather1 not
 the least  excitation was ever         
observed4 ,that the effect might be     
rendered more  perceptible1 the         
electrometer was well dried and warmed  
immediately  before each experiment1    
without which1 indeed1 no excitation    
could be  produced in it1 either with   
glass or sealing-wax4 ,the nights being 
light1 the aurora borealis could not be 
seen2 but on the evening of  the #bjth  
of ,may1 an appearance was observed1    
very much resembling the  aurora        
borealis1 yet no signs of electricity   
were observed in the  electrometer      
applied to the conductor4    ,there are 
several phenomena of the atmosphere     
dependent on reflection  and refraction1
 deserving of notice4 ,ice-blinks have  

been already  mentioned1 when speaking  
of the ice4 ,under certain              
circumstances1 all  objects seen on the 
horizon seem to be lifted above it a    
distance  of two to four1 or more1      
minutes of altitude1 or so far extended 
in  height above their natural          
dimensions4 ,ice1 land1 ships1 boats1   
and  other objects1 when thus enlarged  
and elevated1 are said to loom4  ,the   
lower part of looming objects are       
sometimes connected with the  sensible  
horizon by an apparent fibrous or       
columnar extension of  their parts1     
which columns are always perpendicular  
to the horizon2  at other times1 they   
appear to be quite lifted into the air1 
a void  space being seen between them   
and the horizon4 ,this phenomenon is    
observed most frequently on1 or before1 
an easterly wind1 and is  generally     
considered as indicative of such4    ,a 
most extraordinary appearance of the    
,foreland1 or ,charles's ,island1       
,spitzbergen1 occurred on the #afth of  

,july1 #ahad4 ,while sailing to the     
southward1 along the coast1 with an     
easterly wind1 ,i observed what         
appeared to be a mountain1 in the form  
of a slender1 but elevated1  monument4  
,i was surprised that ,i had never seen 
it before1 and  was more astonished when
 ,i saw1 not far distant1 a prodigious  
and  perfect arch thrown across a       
valley1 of above a league in breadth4   
,the neighbouring mountains disclosed   
the cause1 by exhibiting an  unnatural  
elevation with the columnar structure of
 looming objects4  ,presently1 the scene
 was changed1 the mountains along the   
whole coast  assumed the most           
fantastical forms2 the appearance of    
castles1 with  lofty spires1 towers1 and
 battlements1 would1 in a few minutes1  
be  converted into a vast arch or       
romantic bridge4 ,these varied1 and     
sometimes beautiful1 metamorphoses      
naturally suggested the reality  of     
fairy descriptions2 for the air was     
perfectly transparent2 the  contrast of 

snow and rocks was quite distinct2 even 
in the substance  of the most uncommon  
phantasms1 though examined with a       
powerful  telescope1 and every object   
deemed to possess every possible        
stability4 ,i never before observed a   
phenomenon so varied or so  amusing4    
,the land was not alone affected by this
 peculiar refraction1  since every      
object between the north-east and       
south-east points of  the compass was1  
more or less1 deformed by it4 ,a mass of
 ice on  the horizon appeared of the    
height of a cliff1 and the prismatic    
structure of its front suggested the    
idea of basaltic columns4 ,it  may be   
remarked1 that these phenomena took     
place on a clear evening1  after an     
uncommonly warm afternoon4    ,i        
observed many other peculiar effects of 
refraction4 ,such phenomena  are        
frequent on the commencement or approach
 of easterly winds1  and are probably   
occasioned by the commixture1 near the  
surface of  the land or sea1 of two     

streams of air of different             
temperatures1  so as to occasion an     
irregular deposition of imperfectly     
condensed  vapour1 which1 when passing  
the verge of the horizon1 produced these
  appearances4    ,parhelia1 mock suns1 
and corona1 haloes1 are perhaps not so  
frequent in ,greenland as in some parts 
of ,america4 ,i do not recollect  to    
have observed them more than thrice4 ,in
 the first instance1 ,i did  not        
minutely notice the particulars4 ,i     
recollect1 however1 there were  two or  
three parhelia1 and four or five        
coloured circles1 some of  which almost 
equalled in their colours the brilliancy
 of the rainbow4  ,on the second        
occasion1 several parhelia were         
succeeded by a lunar  halo1 together    
with the aurora borealis1 and proved the
 harbingers  of a tremendous tempest4   
,the last phenomenon of the kind which  
,i  saw1 consisted of a large circle of 
luminous whiteness1 passing  through the
 centre of the sun1 in a direction      

nearly parallel with  the horizon1      
intersected in various places with      
coloured circles of  smaller dimensions4
    ,rainbows are common in these       
regions1 but the fog-bow1 or            
fog-circle1 is more rarely observed1 and
 is entitled to our  attention4 ,it is a
 circle depicted on the fog1 which      
prevails in  the ,polar seas1 at certain
 seasons1 resting upon the surface of   
the  water1 and seldom reaching to a    
considerable height4 ,on the #aith      
,july1 #ahac1 ,i observed one of about  
#cj diameter1 with bands of vivid       
colours depicted on the fog4 ,the centre
 of the circle was in a line  drawn from
 the sun1 through the point of vision1  
until it met the  visible vapour in a   
situation exactly opposite to the sun4  
,the lower  part of the circle descended
 beneath my feet to the side of the     
ship1  and although it could not be a   
hundred feet from the eye1 it was       
perfect1 and the colours distinct4 ,the 
centre of the coloured circle  was      

distinguished by my own shadow1 the head
 of which1 enveloped by  a halo1 was    
most conspicuously portrayed4 ,i        
remained a long time  contemplating the 
beautiful phenomenon before me4    ,in  
the phenomena of the winds1 which ,i am 
now about to describe1 ,i  cannot be so 
precise as ,i have been in my           
observations on atmospheric  temperature
 and pressure2 being able to give a     
correct idea only  of their             
peculiarities and direction1 whilst     
their relative force1  founded on       
conjecture1 ,i am unable to express     
otherwise than in the  phraseology of   
the mariner1 which1 it must be allowed1 
is somewhat  ambiguous4    ,in          
proportion as we recede from the        
equator1 we find the winds  become more 
variable1 irregular1 and partial4       
,storms and calms1  in the northern     
regions1 repeatedly alternate1 without  
warning or  progression2 forcible winds 
blow at one place1 when1 at the distance
  of a few leagues1 gentle breezes      

prevail2 a storm from the south1 on  one
 hand1 exhausts its impetuosity upon the
 gentle breeze1 blowing  from off the   
ice on the other1 without prevailing in 
the least2  ships1 within the circle of 
the horizon1 may be seen enduring every 
variety of wind and weather at the same 
moment2 come becalmed1 and  tossing     
about by the violence of the waves2     
some1 under close-reefed  topsails1     
labouring under the force of a storm2   
and others1 flying  under gentle        
breezes1 from quarters as diverse as the
 cardinal  points4    ,the most general 
preliminaries to sudden storms are      
perfect calms2  curiously variable      
breezes1 with strong squalls2 singular  
agitation  of the sea1 together with    
thick snow1 which often changes from    
flakes  to powder1 and falls in such    
profusion1 as to occasion an astonishing
  gloominess and obscurity in the       
atmosphere4 ,if the snow clear away1    
the gale is often at hand1 whilst a     
luminousness on the horizon1  resembling

 the ice-blink1 sometimes points out its
 direction1 and  a noise in the upper   
regions of the air announces its        
immediate  approach4 ,in this variable  
and occasionally tempestuous climate1   
the value of the barometer is           
satisfactorily proved4 ,my father once  
removed his ship from a most dangerous  
bight in the main ice1 where  she would 
probably have been lost1 had she        
remained a few moments  longer1 in      
consequence of his having heard the     
rushing of a storm in  the air1 while at
 the mast-head4 ,before the ship was out
 of danger1  a heavy gale commenced1 but
 the sails being set1 and the ship under
  command1 she was extricated from the  
perilous situation4 ,from this          
circumstance1 he imagined that sudden   
storms frequently commence at  some     
height in the atmosphere1 and gradually 
descend to the surface4  ,intermitting  
gales are almost equally common with    
sudden storms1  and variable winds      
prevail1 in an extraordinary degree1 in 

the frigid  zone4 ,the winds1 indeed1   
among ice1 are generally unsteady in    
their  direction1 and attended with     
strong gusts or squalls1 particularly   
in very cold weather1 and towards the   
termination of a storm4 ,this           
variableness1 being the effect of the   
unequal temperature of the ice  and     
water1 is curious1 but the phenomenon   
that is most calculated to  excite      
surprise is1 that several distinct1 and 
even opposite winds1  with the force1 in
 many instances1 of a fresh gale1 will  
occasionally  prevail at the same moment
 of time1 within the range of the       
horizon4  ,the situation in which this  
circumstance occurs1 would appear to be 
the point where conflicting winds       
contend for the superiority2 and  as1 in
 some instances1 their forces are       
effectually balanced1 the  winds1 which 
simultaneously blow from the southward  
and northward1 or  from the eastward and
 westward1 have their energies almost   
destroyed  at the place of combination4 

,thus it sometimes happens that ships1  
within sight of each other1 will1 at the
 same period of time1  experience every 
variety of weather1 from calm to storm1 
from fair  weather to thickest snow1    
together with several distinct and      
contrary  currents of wind4    ,on the  
morning of the #cjth of ,april1 #ahaj1  
the ship ,resolution--in  which ,i      
served in the capacity of chief-mate1 or
 harpooner--was1  during thick showers  
of snow1 sailing by the edge of a stream
 of ice1  with the wind from the        
north-westward4 ,about ten1 ,a4,m41 the 
snow  abated1 and several ships were    
seen within the distance of three or    
four miles4 ,as all of these ships were 
sailing 8on a wind10 it was  easy to    
ascertain the direction of the wind     
where they were1 and  curious to observe
 its variableness4 ,two ships1 bearing  
north-east  from us1 had the wind at    
north-east2 two1 bearing east1 had east 
or  east-north-east2 two1 bearing       
south-east1 had the wind at south-east2 

while1 with us1 it blew from the        
north-west4 ,in each of these           
situations a fresh breeze prevailed2 but
 in some situations1 where  there       
happened to be no ships1 there appeared 
to be no wind at all4  ,the clouds above
 us1 at the time1 we're constantly      
changing their  forms4 ,showers of snow 
were seen in various places at a        
distance4    ,instances of local storms 
are not uncommon in temperate climates1 
but in the arctic regions they are      
frequent and striking4 ,their  locality 
is such1 that a calm may occur when a   
storm is expected and  actually does    
prevail at a short distance1 so that the
 indication of  the barometer may appear
 to be erroneous4 ,in such cases1       
however1 the  reality of the storm is   
often proved by the agitation of the    
sea4  ,swells from various quarters make
 their appearance1 and frequently       
prevail at the same time4 ,my father1   
whose opportunities of  observation have
 been very numerous1 relates the        

following instance  of the locality of a
 storm4 ,when commanding the ship       
,henrietta1 he  was on one occasion     
navigating the ,greenland ,sea during a 
tedious  gale of wind1 accompanied with 
snowy weather4 ,as the wind began to    
abate1 a ship appeared in sight1 under  
all sails1 and presently  came up with  
the ,henrietta4 ,the master hailed1 and 
inquired what had  happened that my     
father's ship was under close-reefed    
top-sail in  such moderate weather4 ,on 
being told that a storm had just        
subsided1  he declared that he knew     
nothing of it2 he observed1 indeed1 a   
swell1  and noticed a black cloud a-head
 of his ship that seemed to advance     
before him until he was overshadowed    
with it a little while before he        
overtook the ,henrietta1 but he had had 
fine weather and light winds  the whole 
day6    ,a single instance is given of  
those sudden gusts and various currents 
of wind1 which occur at some elevation  
in the atmosphere1 and which  are common

 to all climates4 ,on a particularly    
fine day1 my father  having landed on   
the northern part of ,charles's island1 
incited by  the same curiosity which led
 him on shore1 ascended1 though not     
without great difficulty and fatigue1 a 
considerable elevation1  the summit of  
which was not broader than a common     
table1 and which  shelved on one side as
 steep as the roof of a house1 and on   
the other  formed a mural precipice4    
,engaged in admiring the extensive      
prospect  from an eminence of about two 
thousand feet1 he scarcely noticed  the 
advance of a very small cloud4 ,its     
rapid approach and peculiar  form       
7having somewhat the appearance of a    
hand7 at length excited  his attention1 
and when it reached the place where he  
was seated  in a calm air1 a torrent of 
wind assailed him with such violence1   
that he was obliged to throw himself on 
his body and stick his hands  and feet  
in the snow to prevent himself from     
being hurled over the  tremendous slope 

which threatened his instant            
destruction4 ,the cloud  having passed1 
the air1 to his great satisfaction1     
became calm1 when  he immediately       
descended by sliding down the surface of
 snow1 and in  a few minutes reached the
 base of the mountain in safety4    ,the
 course of the seasons1 as relates to   
prevailing winds1 is  as follows4 ,in   
the spring months1 north-east and east  
winds are  frequent1 with severe storms 
from these and other quarters4 ,the     
storms from the north-east1 east1 and   
south-east1 are generally the  most     
violent4 ,when they occur in ,march and 
,april1 they frequently  continue       
without intermission for two or three   
successive days1 and  rarely subside    
till the wind veers round to the north  
or north-west4  ,storms1 in the spring  
of the year1 blowing from the           
south-east1  generally change1 before   
they abate1 to the east1 north-east1    
north1  and north-west2 but storms      
commencing at south-west or south1      

usually  veer1 before they subside1 in  
the contrary direction1 towards the     
north-west1 and sometimes continue      
changing until their strength is  spent 
in the north or north-east quarter4 ,a  
storm beginning to blow  from the       
western quarter seldom continues long2  
when it blows hard  it commonly veers to
 the north or north-east1 and it is     
observable  that a very hard southerly  
or easterly gale is frequently succeeded
  within a few days by another from the 
opposite quarter4 ,with the  advance of 
the month of ,may1 storms become less   
frequent1 and the  weather becomes      
sensibly better4 ,the winds then begin  
to blow more  frequently from the       
north-west2 in ,june1 the most common   
winds are  north and north-west1 south  
and south-west2 and in ,july1 south and 
south-westerly winds prevail4 ,at this  
season1 calms or very light  winds also 
become frequent1 and continue sometimes 
for several days  together4 ,in high    
northern latitudes1 however1 very heavy 

storms  from the southward occur in     
,july1 and blow for thirty or forty     
hours  at a time4 ,in ,august1          
north-east winds begin again to prevail4
 ,the  south-west and southerly storms  
of the autumn blow with particular      
violence4 8,the wind rages so           
vehemently1 that the houses quiver  and 
crack1 the tents and lighter boats fly  
up in the air1 and  the sea-water       
scatters about in the land like         
snow-dust--nay1 the  ,greenlanders say  
that the storm rends off stones a couple
 of pounds'  weight1 and mounts them in 
the air4 ,in summer1 whirlwinds also    
spring  up1 that draw up the waters out 
of the sea1 and turn a boat round       
several times40    ,when the countries  
of temperate climates suffer under      
tempests in  frequent succession1 ,polar
 regions enjoy comparative tranquillity4
  ,after the autumn gales have passed1 a
 series of calm weather1  attended by   
severe frosts1 frequently succeeds4 ,so 
striking1 indeed1  is the stillness of  

the northern winter1 that there is truth
 in ,dr4  ,guthrie's observation1 that  
nature seems 8to have studied perfect   
equality in the distribution of her     
favours1 as it is only parts of  the    
earth which most enjoy the kindly       
influences of the sun that  suffer by   
the effects of its superior heat1 so    
that if the atmosphere  of the north is 
not so genial as that of the south1 at  
least it  remains perfectly quiet and   
serene1 without threatening destruction 
to man and the product of his industry  
as in what are called happier           
climates40    ,the principal meteors1   
not being of the aqueous kind1 that     
remain to  be considered are lightning  
and the aurora borealis4 ,as we approach
  the ,pole1 the former phenomenon      
becomes more rare1 and the latter  more 
common4 ,lightning1 indeed1 is seldom   
seen to the northward  of the arctic    
circle1 and when it does occur1 it is   
very seldom  accompanied by thunder4    
,in ,spitzbergen1 neither thunder nor   

lightning has1 ,i believe1 ever  been   
observed4 ,for my own part1 ,i have     
never seen lightning northward  of      
latitude #fe1 and only in two instances 
when at any considerable  distance from 
land4 ,the aurora borealis occurs       
independent of land  and of cold1       
becoming more frequent in its appearance
 as we approach  the ,pole1 and         
enlivening by its brilliancy and        
peculiar grandeur  the tedious gloom of 
the long winter nights4 ,its appearance1
 though  not very frequently seen in    
,britain1 is very common as far south as
  ,shetland and ,feroe4 ,in ,iceland1   
and other countries bordering on the    
arctic circle1 the northern lights occur
 almost every clear night  during the   
winter4 ,in the summer1 they can seldom 
be seen on account  of the presence of  
the sun1 and in the spring of the year1 
the  obscurity of the atmosphere        
prevents their frequent exhibition4 ,in 
several instances1 ,i have known stormy 
weather follow the appearance  of the   

brilliant aurora1 and one of the most   
tremendous storms ,i was  ever exposed  
to1 succeeded a splendid exhibition of  
the northern  lights4 ,under certain    
circumstances1 especially when they are 
seen  at a considerable altitude above  
the horizon1 having a red or copper     
colour1 they are supposed to be         
indicative of a violent storm4    ,our  
chapter on atmospherical phenomena must 
now be concluded by  observations on    
aqueous meteors2 including clouds1 rain1
 hail1 snow1  frost-rime1 hoar-frost1   
and fog4    ,very little clear weather  
occurs in the ,greenland seas1 for often
  when the atmosphere is free from any  
visible vapour on the land1 at  sea it  
is obscured by frost-rime in the spring 
of the year1 and by  clouds or fog in   
the summer2 so that scarcely            
one-twentieth of the  season devoted to 
the whale-fishery can be said to consist
 of clear  weather4    ,the clouds most 
generally consist of a dense stratum of 
obscurity1  composed of irregular       

compact patches covering the whole      
expanse of  the heavens4 ,the cirrus1   
cirrocumulus1 and cirrostratus1 of      
,howard's nomenclature1 are occasionally
 distinct2 the nimbus is  partly formed1
 but never complete3 and the grandeur of
 the cumulus  or thunder-cloud is never 
seen1 unless it be on the land4 ,in the 
atmosphere over the coasts in ,greenland
 and ,spitzbergen1 where the  air is    
greatly warmed by the concentration and 
reflection of the  sun's rays in the    
sheltered valleys1 a small imperfect    
cumulus is  sometimes exhibited4    ,the
 known agents made use of in the economy
 of nature for the  production of rain  
are changes of temperature and          
electricity4 ,the  latter principle is  
supposed to act most powerfully in the  
production  of thunder-showers1 in which
 case it is not unlikely that a portion 
of the air of the atmosphere is1 by the 
passing of the lightning from  one cloud
 to another1 converted into water4 ,the 
former seems to be  the chief agent in  

the colder regions of the globe1 where  
electricity  is either more equal in its
 distribution1 or not so active in its  
operations as in the warmer climates4   
,from the beautiful theory  of the late 
,dr4 ,james ,hutton1 supported by the   
researches of  professor ,leslie1 it    
appears1 that 8while the temperature    
advances  uniformly in arithmetical     
progression1 the dissolving power which 
this communicates to the air mounts with
 the accelerating rapidity  of a        
geometrical series20 and this in such a 
ratio1 that the 8air  has its dryness   
doubled at each rise of temperature     
answering to  fifteen centesimal        
degrees10 or twenty-seven of            
,fahrenheit4 ,hence1  8whatever be the  
actual condition of a mass of air1 there
 must  always exist some temperature at 
which it would become perfectly  damp20 
and hence whenever two streams of air   
saturated with moisture  of different   
temperatures are mixed together1 or     
brush against one  another1 in the form 

of different currents of wind1 there    
must always  be a quantity of moisture  
precipitated4 ,for if two masses of air1
 of  different temperatures1 but equal  
in quantity1 and both saturated  with   
moisture1 were mixed together1 the      
resulting temperature would  be nearly  
the mean of the two1 but1 at that       
temperature1 the capacity  of air for   
moisture being less than the quantity   
contained in the two  commixed masses1  
the surplus must be deposited4    ,rain 
is by no means common in the ,polar     
countries excepting in the  months of   
,july and ,august1 and then only with   
southerly or westerly  winds4 ,during   
all seasons of the year1 however1 with  
strong gales  blowing from a southern   
climate1 rain is occasionally observed  
in  situations near the edge of the ice2
 but snow or sleet are more  common even
 under such circumstances2 and in remote
 situations among  ice1 near the #hjth  
parallel of latitude1 rain seldom or    
never occurs4    ,hail is a much more   

familiar meteor in temperate than in    
frigid  climates4 ,in the ,greenland    
,sea1 this aqueous concretion is very   
rarely seen2 and if we define it as     
consisting of pellucid spheres of  ice1 
generated in the atmosphere1 it may be  
said to be unknown in  very high        
latitudes4 ,this fact is in favour of   
the electrical origin  of hail1 as it is
 well-known to be common in temperate   
climates1  where the air is in a high   
state of electricity1 and to be the     
frequent concomitant of thunder and     
lightning4 ,the only substance          
resembling hail that is generated in the
 frigid zone consists of a  white1      
porous1 spherical concretion of light   
and snowy texture4    ,snow is so very  
common in the arctic regions1 that it   
may be boldly  stated1 that in nine days
 out of ten1 in ,april1 ,may1 and ,june1
  more or less snow falls4 ,with        
southerly winds1 near the borders of    
the ice1 or in situations where humid   
air1 blowing from the sea1  assimilates 

with a gelid breeze from the ice1 the   
heaviest falls of  snow occur4 ,in this 
case1 a depth of two or three inches is 
sometimes  deposited in an hour4 ,the   
thickest precipitations also frequently 
precede sudden storms4 ,the form of the 
particles of snow presents an  endless  
variety4 ,when the temperature of the   
air is within a degree  or two of the   
freezing point1 much snow falls1        
frequently consisting  of large         
irregular flakes1 such as are common in 
,britain4 ,sometimes  it exhibits small 
granular1 or large rough white          
concretions2 at  others1 it consists of 
white spicul1 or rude stellated         
crystals4 ,but  in severe frosts1 though
 the sky appears perfectly clear1       
lamellar  flakes of snow1 of the most   
regular and beautiful forms1 are always 
seen floating in the air1 and sparkling 
in the sunbeams1 and the snow  which    
falls in general is of most elegant     
texture and appearance4    ,snow1 of a  
reddish or brownish colour1 is not      

unfrequently seen4  ,the brownish stain1
 which occurs on shore1 is given by an  
earthy  substance brought from the      
mountains by the streams of water1      
derived  from thawing ice and snow1 or  
the fall of rain4 ,the reddish colour1  
as far as ,i have observed1 is given by 
the mute of birds2 though1  in the      
example met with by captain ,ross1 in   
,baffin's ,bay1 the stain  appears to   
have been of a vegetable nature4 ,the   
little auk1 7,alca  alle17 which feeds  
upon shrimps1 is found1 in some parts of
 the  ,polar seas1 in immense numbers4  
,they frequently retreat to pieces  of  
ice1 or surfaces of snow1 and stain them
 all over red with their  mute4 ,martens
 saw red snow in ,spitzbergen1 which he 
considered as  being stained by         
rain-water running down by the rocks4   
,the extreme beauty and endless variety 
of the microscopic objects  procured in 
the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 are  
perhaps fully  equalled1 if not         
surpassed1 in both particulars of beauty

 and  variety1 by the crystals of snow4 
,the principal configurations are  the  
stelliform and hexagonal1 though almost 
every shape1 of which  the generating   
angles of #fj and #ab are susceptible1  
may1 in the  course of a few years'     
observation1 be discovered4 ,the various
  modifications of crystals may be      
classed under five general kinds1  or   
genera4    #a4 ,lamellar1 infinite in   
variety1 most delicate in structure1 and
  capable of sub-division into several  
distinct species4    #b4 ,a lamellar1 or
 spherical nucleus1 with spinous        
ramifications in  different planes4     
,this genus also consists of two or     
three species4    #c4 ,fine spicul1 or  
six-sided prisms4 ,the finest specimens 
resemble  white hair1 cut into lengths  
not exceeding a quarter of an inch4     
#d4 ,hexagonal pyramids4 ,i have but    
once seen this kind of snow  crystal4   
#e4 ,spicul1 or prisms having one or    
both extremities inserted in the  centre
 of a lamellar crystal4 ,this genus     

resembles a pair of wheels1  united by  
an axle-tree4    ,in low temperatures1  
the greatest proportion of crystals that
 fall  are1 probably1 perfect           
geometrical figures4    ,some of the    
general varieties in the figures of the 
crystals may  be referred to the        
temperature of the air2 but the         
particular and  endless modifications of
 similar classes of crystals can only be
  referred to the pleasure of the great 
,first ,cause1 whose works1 even  the   
most minute and evanescent1 and in      
regions the most remote from  human     
observation1 bear the impress of ,his   
own hand1 and display to  his           
intelligent creatures his vast and      
beneficent wisdom4 ,if1 on  these forms 
of unintelligent matter1 he has bestowed
 such excellent  workmanship1 with how  
much more transcendent loveliness will  
he  clothe those who are redeemed by the
 exceeding riches of his grace1  and    
who1 beyond the history and productions 
of all worlds1 will  reflect the beauty 

of his glorious countenance6            
,frost-rime1 or frost-smoke1 is a meteor
 peculiar to those parts of  the globe  
where a very low temperature prevails   
for a considerable  time4 ,it consists  
of a dense frozen vapour1 apparently    
arising out of  the sea1 or any large   
sheet of water1 and ascending1 in high  
winds  and turbulent seas1 to the height
 of eighty or one hundred feet1  but1 in
 light breezes and smooth water1        
creeping along the surface4  ,the       
particles of which it consists are as   
small as dust1 and cleave  to the       
rigging of ships1 or almost any         
substance against which they  are driven
 by the wind1 and afford a coating of an
 inch or upwards  in depth4 ,these      
particles adhere to one another until   
the windward  surface of the ropes is   
covered1 and form long fibres somewhat  
of a  prismatical or pyramidal shape1   
having their points directed towards    
the wind4 ,frost-rime adheres readily to
 articles of clothing2 and1  from the   

circumstance of its lodging in the hair1
 and giving it the  appearance of being 
powdered1 the sailors humorously style  
it 8the  barber40 ,such of the          
frost-rime as is dislodged from the     
rigging  whenever the ship is tacked1   
covers the deck to a considerable       
thickness1 and1 when trod upon1 emits an
 acute sound1 resembling the  crushing  
of fine particles of glass4 ,the cause  
of this phenomenon1  which generally is 
not observed until the cold is reduced  
to #ad1  may perhaps be similar to that 
producing rain1 and may be explained    
according to ,dr4 ,hutton's theory4     
,an aqueous vapour1 consisting of very  
minute frozen particles1  sometimes     
occupies the lower regions of the       
atmosphere in temperate  and frigid     
climates1 during frosty weather1 and is 
deposited on  the ground1 on surfaces of
 ice1 or almost any other substance with
  which it comes in contact4 ,this      
vapour seems to be of the nature of     
hoar-frost2 it generally appears in the 

evening1 after a bright  sunshiny day4  
,fog1 or mist1 is the last meteor that  
remains to be considered4  ,this is one 
of the greatest annoyances that the     
arctic whalers have  to encounter4 ,it  
frequently prevails during the greater  
part of the  month of ,july1 and        
sometimes1 at considerable intervals1 in
 ,june  and ,august4 ,its density is    
often such1 that it circumscribes the   
prospect to an area of a few acres1 not 
being pervious to sight at  the distance
 of a hundred yards4 ,it frequently lies
 so low that the  brightness of the sun 
is scarcely at all intercepted2 in such 
cases1  substances warmed by the sun's  
rays1 give to the air immediately  above
 them increased capacity for moisture1  
by which evaporation goes  briskly on   
during the densest fogs4 ,in            
,newfoundland1 on occasions  when the   
sun's rays penetrate the mist1 and heat 
the surface of the  rocks1 fish is      
frequently dried during the thickest    
fogs4 ,fogs are  more frequent and more 

dense at the borders of the ice than    
near the  coast of ,spitzbergen4 ,they  
occur principally when the mercury1 in  
the  thermometer1 is near the freezing  
point1 but they are by no means         
uncommon with the temperature of #dj or 
#de4 ,they are most general  with       
south-westerly1 southerly1 and          
south-easterly winds4 ,they seldom      
occur with high winds1 yet in one or two
 instances ,i have observed  them very  
thick1 even in storms4 ,rain generally  
disperses them4 ,fogs1  by increasing   
the apparent distances of objects1      
appear sometimes to  magnify men into   
giants1 hummocks of ice into mountains1 
and common  pieces of drift-ice into    
heavy floes or bergs4 ,they are an      
especial  annoyance to the whale-fisher1
 and greatly perplex the navigator1  by 
preventing him from obtaining           
observations for the correction  of his 
latitude and longitude1 so that he often
 sails in complete  uncertainty4 ,fogs  
are more common near the ice than in the

 vicinity  of the land1 more frequent in
 open seasons than in close seasons1 and
  more intense and more common in the   
southern fishing-stations than in  the  
most northern4          ,,chapter ,v4   
,a ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,zoology ,,of   
,,the ,,arctic ,,regions4      ,in the  
arrangement of the following original   
observations on1  and descriptions of   
the more remarkable animals inhabiting1 
or  frequenting1 ,spitzbergen and the   
adjacent seas1 ,i have followed         
,linnus1 in combination with ,la ,cepde4
 ,the latter author has  published a    
most voluminous and pleasing account of 
cetaceous  animals1 and has made some   
judicious changes in the ,linnan        
arrangements4 ,by ,la ,cepde1 for       
instance1 whales having the dorsal  fin 
are separated from those without it2 the
 former being called1 in  distinction   
from the latter1 ,balnopter1 signifying 
whales with a  fin4    ,our first       
description must relate to the animals  
of the cetaceous  kind1 which frequent  

the ,greenland ,seas4    ,of these the  
first in eminence and of importance to  
our commerce1  is the ,balna mysticetus1
 the common or ,greenland whale4 ,this  
animal is productive of more oil than   
any other of the cetacea1 and  being    
less active1 slower in its motion1 and  
more timid than any  other of its kind1 
of similar1 or nearly similar1          
magnitude1 it is  more easily captured4 
,its size has been much overrated1 and1 
in his  excellent natural history of    
cetaceous animals1 ,la ,cepde has been  
guilty of considerable exaggeration4 ,in
 the age when whales were  regarded with
 superstitious dread1 it is easy to     
conceive that the  dimensions of an     
animal inhabiting an element in which it
 cannot  easily be measured1 would be   
recorded with extravagance4 ,authors of 
the first respectability in the present 
day give a length of eighty  to one     
hundred feet to the mysticetus1 and     
remark with unqualified  assertion1 that
 when the captures were less frequent1  

and the animals  had sufficient time to 
attain their full growth1 specimens were
  found of one hundred and fifty to two 
hundred feet in length1 or  even longer2
 and some ancient naturalists1 indeed1  
have gone so far  as to assert1 that    
whales had been seen of above nine      
hundred feet  in length4 ,in the present
 day1 however1 it is certain that they  
are  by no means so bulky4 ,of three    
hundred and twenty-two individuals1  in 
the capture of which ,i have been       
personally concerned1 no one1  ,i       
believe1 exceeded sixty feet in length1 
and the largest ,i ever  measured was   
fifty-eight feet1 from one extremity to 
the other1  being one of the largest to 
appearance which ,i ever saw4 ,an       
uncommon  whale that was caught near    
,spitzbergen1 about twenty years ago1   
the whalebone of which measured almost  
fifteen feet1 was not1 ,i  understand1  
so much as seventy feet in length2 and  
the longest  actual measurement that ,i 
have met with1 or heard of1 is given by 

sir ,charles ,gieseck1 who informs us1  
that in the spring of #ahac1  a whale   
was killed at ,godhaven of the length of
 sixty-seven feet4  ,these1 however1 are
 very uncommon instances4 ,i therefore  
conceive  that sixty feet may be        
considered as the size of the larger    
animals  of this species1 and sixty-five
 feet in length as a magnitude which    
very rarely occurs4    ,i believe1 too1 
that whales are now met with of as large
 dimensions  as at any former period    
since the commencement of the           
whale-fishery2  a point which1 ,i think1
 can be established from various        
historical  records4    ,the greatest   
circumference of the whale is from      
thirty to forty feet4  ,it is thickest a
 little behind the fins1 or in the      
middle1 between  the anterior and       
posterior extremes of the animal1 from  
whence it  gradually tapers in a conical
 form towards the tail1 and slightly    
towards the head4 ,its form is          
cylindrical1 from the neck to within    

ten feet of the tail1 beyond which it   
becomes somewhat quadrangular1  the     
greatest ridge being upward1 or on the  
back1 and running backward  nearly      
across the middle of the tail4 ,the head
 has somewhat of a  triangular shape4   
,the under-part1 the arched outline of  
which is  given by the jaw-bones1 is    
flat1 and measures sixteen to twenty    
feet  in length1 and ten to twelve in   
breadth4 ,the lips1 extending fifteen   
or twenty feet in length1 and five or   
six in height1 and forming  the cavity  
of the mouth1 are attached to the       
under-jaw1 and rise  from the jaw-bones 
at an angle of about #hj1 having the    
appearance1  when viewed in front1 of   
the letter ,u4 ,the upper-jaw1 including
 the  8crown-bone10 or skull1 is bent   
down at the extremity1 so as to  shut   
the front and upper parts of the cavity 
of the mouth1 and is  overlapped by the 
lips in a squamous manner at the sides4 
,when the mouth is open1 it presents a  
cavity as large as a room1 and  capable 

of containing a merchant-ship's         
jolly-boat full of men1 being  six or   
eight feet wide1 ten or twelve feet high
 in front1 and fifteen  or sixteen feet 
long4 ,the fins1 two in number1 are     
placed between  one-third and two-fifths
 of the length of the animal1 from the  
snout1  and about two feet behind the   
angle of the mouth4 ,they are seven to  
nine feet in length1 and four or five in
 breadth2 and in the living  animal are 
capable of considerable flexion4 ,the   
whale has no dorsal  fin4    ,the tail1 
comprising in a single surface eighty or
 one hundred square  feet1 is a         
formidable instrument of motion or      
defence4 ,its length  is only five or   
six feet1 but its width is eighteen to  
twenty-four  or twenty-six feet4 ,its   
position is horizontal4 ,in its form it 
is  flat and semi-lunar1 indented in the
 middle1 the two lobes somewhat  pointed
 and turned a little backward4 ,its     
motions are rapid and  universal2 its   
strength immense4    ,the eyes are      

situated in the sides of the head1 about
 a foot  obliquely above and behind the 
angle of the mouth4 ,they are little    
larger than those of an ox4 ,the whale  
has no external ear4 ,the  spiracles or 
nostrils of the whale are two           
longitudinal apertures1  six or eight   
inches in length1 from which a moist    
vapour1 mixed  with mucous1 is          
discharged when the animal breathes1 but
 no water  accompanies it unless the    
breathing takes place under the surface4
  ,the mouth1 in place of teeth1        
contains two extensive rows of 8fins10  
or whalebone1 which are suspended from  
the sides of the crown-bone4  ,each     
series1 or side of bone1 as the         
whale-fishers term it1 consists  of     
upwards of three hundred lamin1 of which
 the longest are near the  middle4 ,ten 
or eleven feet is the average length1   
and the greatest  breadth at the gum ten
 or twelve inches4 ,the interior edges  
of these  lamin are covered with a      
fringe of hair4 ,in the youngest whales1

  called suckers1 the whalebone is only 
a few inches long2 when the  length     
reaches six feet or upwards1 the whale  
is said to be of  size4 ,the colour of  
the whalebone is brownish black1 or     
bluish  black1 and occasionally striped 
longitudinally with white4 ,a large     
whale sometimes affords a ton and a half
 of whalebone4 ,the gum1  in which the  
thick ends of the whalebone are         
inserted1 is white1  fibrous1 tender1   
and tasteless4 ,it cuts like cheese1 and
 has the  appearance of the kernel of   
the cocoanut4 ,the animal has a large   
tongue1 a slight beard1 and a remarkably
 narrow throat4    ,the milk of the     
whale resembles that of quadrupeds in   
appearance1 and  is said to be rich and 
well-flavoured4 ,in the female1 two paps
 are  situated on the abdomen4    ,the  
colour of the mysticetus is velvet      
black1 grey1 and white1 with  a tinge of
 yellow1 according to the parts of the  
body4 ,the older  animals contain the   
most grey and white2 under-sized whales 

are  altogether of a bluish black1 and  
suckers of a pale bluish1 or bluish     
grey colour4    ,the skin of the body is
 slightly furrowed1 but on the tail it  
is  smooth4 ,that part of the skin1     
which can be pulled off in sheets  after
 it has been dried a little in the air1 
or particularly in the  frost1 is not   
thicker than parchment4 ,the rete       
mucosum in adults is  about             
three-fourths of an inch in thickness   
over most parts of the  body4 ,under it 
lies the true skin1 white and tough1 and
 immediately  in contact with it the    
blubber4    ,this most valuable portion 
of the animal encompasses its whole     
body4 ,its colour is yellowish white1   
yellow1 or red2 in old animals          
sometimes resembling the substance of   
the salmon4 ,it swims in water4  ,its   
thickness all round the body is eight or
 ten to twenty inches1  varying in      
different parts1 as well as in different
 individuals4 ,the  lips are composed   
almost entirely of blubber1 and yield   

from one to  two tons of pure oil each4 
,the oil appears retained in the blubber
  in minute cells1 connected by a strong
 reticulated combination of  tendinous  
fibres1 which are condensed at the      
surface1 and appears  to form the       
substance of the skin4 ,the oil is      
expelled when heated4  ,in its fresh    
state1 the blubber is without unpleasant
 smell1 and it  is only at the end of   
the voyage that the cargo of a          
,greenland ship  becomes disagreeable4  
,the quantity of oil yielded by a       
certain quantity of blubber varies      
according to the age of the animal2 the 
blubber of the sucker  contains a very  
small portion4 ,the quantity of oil     
generally bears a  proportion to the    
length of the longest blade of          
whalebone4 ,four tons  of blubber in    
measure generally produce three tons of 
oil2 the ton of  oil being two hundred  
and fifty-two gallons1 wine-measure4    
,the flesh of the young whale is of a   
red colour1 and1 when broiled  and      

seasoned with pepper and salt1 eats like
 coarse beef4 ,the bones  are very      
porous1 and contain much fine oil4 ,the 
ribs are thirteen in  number1 and are   
nearly solid1 and the bones of the fins1
 in number  and proportion1 are similar 
to those of the fingers of the human    
hand4    ,a stout whale1 of sixty feet  
in length1 is of the enormous weight of 
seventy tons2 the blubber weighs about  
thirty tons2 the bones of the  head1    
whalebone1 fins1 and tail1 eight or ten2
 the carcase thirty or  thirty-two4     
,the whale is dull of hearing1 but its  
sense of seeing is acute1  especially   
when under water4 ,it has no voice1 but 
makes in breathing  or blowing a very   
loud noise4 ,it blows or breathes about 
four or  five times a minute1           
discharging vapour to the height of some
 yards1  which1 at a distance1 looks    
like a puff of smoke4 ,when the animal  
is  wounded1 this vapour is often       
stained with blood1 and on the approach 
of death jets of blood are sometimes    

discharged4 ,the whale being  lighter   
than the water1 can remain at the       
surface with ease1 but  requires        
considerable exertion to descend4 ,it   
advances through the  water by means of 
the tail1 which1 to attain the greatest 
velocity1  is moved alternately upward  
and downward2 and1 for slower progress1 
laterally and obliquely downward1 in the
 manner of skulling a boat4  ,the fins  
are used for balancing the animal1 and  
in bearing off their  young4 ,i have    
observed a whale descending1 after ,i   
had harpooned  it1 to the depth of four 
hundred fathoms1 with the average       
velocity  of seven or eight miles per   
hour4 ,the usual rate at which whales   
swim1 however1 seldom exceeds four miles
 an hour1 and though their  extreme     
velocity may be eight or nine1 yet we   
find this speed never  continues longer 
than for a few minutes4 ,they sometimes 
ascend with  such rapidity as to leap   
entirely out of the water1 apparently   
for  amusement1 and to the high         

admiration of the distant spectator4 ,at
  other times they throw themselves into
 a perpendicular posture1 with  their   
heads downward1 and rearing their tails 
on high in the air1  they beat the water
 with awful violence2 the sea is thrown 
into foam1  the air is filled with      
vapours1 and the noise in calm weather  
is  heard to a great distance4          
,sometimes the whale shakes its         
tremendous  tail in the air1 which1     
cracking like a whip1 resounds to the   
distance of two or three miles4    ,when
 it retires from the surface1 it first  
lifts its head1 then  plunging it under 
water1 elevates its back1 like the      
segment of a  sphere1 deliberately      
rounds it away towards the extremity1   
throws its  tail out of the water1 and  
then disappears4 ,whales usually remain 
at the surface to breathe about two     
minutes1 during which time they  8blow0 
eight or nine times1 and then descend   
for an interval usually  of five or ten 
minutes1 but sometimes1 when feeding1   

fifteen or  twenty4 ,they commonly      
descend to only a trifling depth2 but1  
when  struck1 they have been known1 by  
the quantity of line taken out of  the  
boat1 to descend to the depth of an     
,english mile1 and1 with such  velocity1
 as to break their jaw-bones by the blow
 struck against the  bottom4            
,occasionally1 they may be found        
sleeping in calm weather  among ice1 and
 some persons are of opinion that1 when 
undisturbed1  they can remain under the 
surface for many hours at a time4       
,the food of the whale consists of      
various species of actini1  clioncs1    
sepi1 medus1 cancri1 and helices1       
judging from  the fact that some of     
these genera are always to be seen      
wherever any  tribe of whales is found  
stationary4 ,i have only discovered in  
the  stomachs of dead animals squill or 
shrimps4 ,when the whale feeds1  it     
swims swiftly through the sea1 with its 
jaws extended2 its food is  entangled by
 the whalebone1 which1 from its compact 

arrangement and  thick internal covering
 of hair1 does not allow a particle to  
escape4    ,the whale has one young at a
 birth4 ,at this time the young one  is 
said to be at least ten feet long1 and  
continues under the  protection of the  
mother for probably a year1 until1 by   
the growth  of the whalebone1 it is able
 to maintain itself4 ,it probably       
reaches  the magnitude called size1 that
 is1 with a six feet length of          
whalebone1 in twelve years1 and attains 
its full growth at the age  of twenty or
 twenty-five4 ,whales live to a great   
age4 ,the maternal  affection of the    
whale is very interesting4 ,the cub1    
being insensible  to danger1 is easily  
harpooned1 and is sometimes struck as a 
snare  to secure the mother4 ,in this   
case she joins it at the surface        
whenever it has occasion to rise for    
respiration1 encourages it to  swim off1
 assists its flight by taking it under  
her fin1 and seldom  deserts it while   
life remains4 ,in ,june1 #ahaa1 one of  

my harpooners  struck a sucker1 with the
 hope of its leading to the capture of  
the  mother4 ,presently she arose close 
by 8the fast-boat10 and seizing the     
young one1 dragged about a hundred      
fathoms of line out of the boat  with   
remarkable force and velocity4 ,again   
she rose to the surface1  darted        
furiously to and fro1 frequently stopped
 short1 or suddenly  changed her        
direction1 and gave every possible      
intimation of extreme  agony4 ,for a    
length of time she continued thus to    
act1 though closely  pursued by the     
boats2 and1 inspired with courage and   
resolution by  her concern for her      
offspring1 seemed regardless of the     
danger which  surrounded her4 ,at       
length1 one of the boats approached so  
near that a  harpoon was hove at her4   
,it hit1 but did not attach itself4 ,a  
second  harpoon was struck1 this also   
failed to penetrate1 but a third was    
more effectual1 and held4 ,still she did
 not attempt to escape1 but  allowed    

other boats to approach1 so that1 in a  
few minutes1 three  more harpoons were  
fastened1 and1 in the course of an hour 
afterwards  she was killed4    ,there is
 something deeply interesting in the    
manner in which the  great ,maker of all
 things1 in giving laws to the animal   
kingdom1 has  thus presented so many    
illustrations of the parental relation4 
,it  is as if he would not leave his    
intelligent creatures destitute of      
memorials of their relation to himself2 
so that1 while in the field  and on the 
flood1 they behold the signs of parental
 affection and  filial dependence1 they 
may be led to ponder the solemn question
 of  their tender and faithful ,parent  
in heaven--8,if1 then1 ,i be a ,father1 
where is mine honour80    ,the          
mysticetus occurs most abundantly in the
 frozen seas of ,greenland  and ,davis's
 ,strait1 in the bays of ,baffin and    
,hudson1 in the sea  to the northward of
 ,behring's ,strait1 and along some part
 of the  northern shores of ,asia1 and  

probably ,america4 ,it is never met with
  in the ,german ,ocean1 and rarely     
within two hundred leagues of the       
,british coast2 but along the coasts of 
,africa and ,south ,america it  is met  
with periodically1 in considerable      
numbers4 ,in these regions1  it is      
attacked and captured by the southern   
,british and ,american  whalers1 as well
 as by some of the people inhabiting the
 coasts to  which it resorts4 ,whether  
this whale is precisely of the same kind
  as that of ,spitzbergen and ,greenland
 is uncertain1 though it is  evidently a
 mysticetus4 ,one striking difference1  
possibly the effect  of situation and   
climate1 is1 that the mysticetus in     
southern regions  is often covered with 
barnacles1 while those of the ,arctic   
,seas are  free from these shell-fish4  
,besides the formidable inroads made    
upon the whale by man1 it is  subject to
 annoyance from sharks1 and it is also  
said from the  narwal1 sword-fish1 and  
thrasher4 ,the opinion as to the narwal 

,i  am persuaded is incorrect2 the      
sword-fish and thrasher 7if such  an    
animal there be7 may be enemies of the  
whale1 and the shark  certainly is      
hostile to the extent of his ability1   
which1 in  comparison to that of the    
whale1 can hardly be very formidable4   
,it is certain that the flesh of the    
whale is now eaten by savage  nations1  
and it is also well authenticated that1 
in the twelfth1  thirteenth1 fourteenth1
 and fifteenth centuries1 it was used as
 food  by the ,icelanders1 the          
,netherlander1 the ,french1 the         
,spaniards1 and1  probably1 by the      
,english4 ,besides forming a choice     
eatable1 the  inferior products of the  
whale are applied to other purposes by  
the  ,indians and ,esquimaux of ,arctic 
countries1 and1 with some nations1  are 
essential to their comfort4 ,some       
membranes of the abdomen  are used for  
an upper article of clothing1 and the   
peritoneum in  particular1 being thin   
and transparent1 is used instead of     

glass in  the windows of their huts2 the
 bones are converted into harpoons  and 
spears for striking the seal1 or darting
 at the sea-birds1 and  are also        
employed in the erection of their tents1
 and1 with some  tribes1 in the         
formation of their boats2 the sinews are
 divided into  filaments1 and used as   
thread1 with which they join the seams  
of  their boats and tent-cloths1 and    
sew1 with great taste and nicety1  the  
different articles of dress they        
manufacture2 and the whalebone  and     
other superior products1 so valuable in 
,european markets1 have  also their uses
 among them4    ,the largest animal of  
the whale tribe is not the mysticetus1  
but the  ,balna physalis of ,linnus1    
,balnoptera gibbar of ,la ,cepde1 and   
razor-back of the whalers4 ,this is1    
probably1 the most powerful and  bulky  
of created beings4 ,in comparison with  
the mysticetus1 it has  a form less     
cylindrical1 a body longer and more     
slender1 whalebone  shorter1 produce in 

blubber and oil less1 colour bluer1 fins
 more  numerous1 breathing more violent1
 speed greater1 and actions quicker1    
more restless and more bold4 ,its length
 is about one hundred feet1  and its    
greatest circumference thirty or        
thirty-five4 ,its colour is  a pale     
bluish black1 or dark bluish grey1 in   
which it resembles the  sucking         
mysticetus4 ,besides the two pectoral   
fins1 it has a small  horny             
protuberance1 or rayless and immovable  
fin on the extremity  of the back4 ,its 
greatest velocity in swimming is about  
twelve  miles an hour4 ,it is by no     
means a timid animal1 yet it does not   
appear revengeful or mischievous4 ,when 
closely pursued by boats1 it  manifests 
little fear1 and does not attempt to    
outstrip them in the  race1 but merely  
endeavours to avoid them by diving or   
changing its  direction4 ,if harpooned1 
or wounded1 it then exerts all its      
energies1  and escapes with its utmost  
velocity1 but shows little disposition  

to retaliate on its enemies1 or to repel
 their attacks by engaging  in a combat4
 ,unlike the mysticetus1 it very rarely1
 when descending  into the water1 throws
 its tail into the air4 ,its great speed
 and  activity render it a difficult and
 dangerous object of attack1 and  the   
small quantity of inferior oil it       
affords makes it unworthy the  general  
attention of the fishers4 ,when struck1 
it not uncommonly  drags the fast-boat  
with such speed through the water1 that 
it is  liable to be carried immediately 
beyond the reach of assistance1 and     
soon out of sight of both boats and     
ship4 ,hence the striker is under  the  
necessity of cutting the line1 and      
sacrificing his employer's  property for
 securing the safety of himself and his 
companions4 ,in  the year #ahah1 ,i     
ordered a general chase of them1        
providing against  the danger of having 
my crew separated from the ship by      
appointing a  rendezvous on the shore   
not far distant1 and preparing against  

the  loss of much line by dividing it at
 two hundred fathoms from the  harpoon1 
and affixing a buoy to the end of it4   
,thus arranged1 one  of these whales was
 shot1 and another struck4 ,the former  
dived with  such impetuosity that the   
line was broken by the resistance of the
  buoy1 as soon as it was thrown into   
the water1 and the latter was  liberated
 within a minute by the division of the 
line1 occasioned1  it was supposed1 by  
its friction against the dorsal fin4    
,both of  them escaped4 ,another        
physalis was struck by one of my        
inexperienced  harpooners1 who mistook  
it for a mysticetus4 ,it dived obliquely
 with  such velocity that four hundred  
and eighty fathoms of line were         
withdrawn from the boat in about a      
minute of time4 ,this whale was  also   
lost by the breaking of the line4       
,the physalis occurs in great numbers in
 the ,arctic ,seas1 especially  along   
the edge of the ice1 between ,cherie    
,island and ,nova ,zembla1  and also    

near ,jan ,mayen4 ,persons trading to   
,archangel have often  mistaken it for  
the common whale4 ,it is seldom seen    
among much ice1  and seems to be avoided
 by the mysticetus2 hence the fishers   
view it  with painful concern4 ,it      
inhabits most generally in the          
,spitzbergen  quarter the parallels of  
#gj to #gf2 but in the months of ,june1 
,july1  and ,august1 when the sea is    
usually open1 it advances along the land
  to the northward as high as #hj of    
latitude4 ,in open seasons it is  seen  
near the headland at an earlier period4 
,a whale1 probably of  this kind1 one   
hundred and one feet in length1 was     
stranded on the  banks of the ,humber1  
about the middle of ,september1 #agej4  
,another species of whale frequenting   
the coasts of ,scotland1 ,ireland1      
,norway1 etc41 is the ,balnoptera       
rorqual of ,la ,cepde1 ,balna  musculus 
of ,linnus1 or the broad-nosed whale4   
,in many characters1 this species       
resembles the physalis1 though1 ,i      

think1 with an essential difference4    
,the musculus is shorter1 having  a     
larger head and mouth1 and a rounder    
under-jaw than the physalis  and is said
 to feed principally upon herrings4     
,several individuals1  apparently of    
this kind1 have been stranded or killed 
on different  parts of the coast of the 
,united ,kingdom4 ,one was embayed and  
killed  in ,balta ,sound1 ,shetland1 in 
the winter of #ahag-ah1 some remains of 
which ,i saw4 ,it was eighty-two feet in
 length1 the jaw-bones were  twenty-one 
feet long1 and the largest lamina of    
whalebone about three  feet4 ,instead of
 hair at the inner edge1 and at the     
point of each  blade of whalebone1 it   
had a fringe of bristly fibres1 and it  
was  stiffer1 harder1 and more horny in 
its texture than common whalebone4  ,it 
produced only about five tons of oil1   
all of it of an inferior  quality2 some 
of it viscid and bad4 ,it valued1       
deducting expenses1 no  more than #fj   
sterling4 ,it had the usual sulci about 

the thorax1 and  a dorsal fin4    ,a    
smaller species of whale is ,balnoptera 
jubartes of ,la ,cepde1  ,balna boops of
 ,linnus1 or the finner of the          
whale-fishers4    ,the following is its 
description3--,length1 about forty-six  
feet2  greatest circumference of the    
body1 about twenty feet2 dorsal         
protuberance1 or fin1 about two feet and
 a half high2 pectoral fins1  four or   
five feet long externally1 and scarcely 
a foot broad2 tail1  about three feet   
deep and ten broad2 whalebone1 about    
three hundred  lamin on each side1 the  
longest about eighteen inches in length1
  the under-jaw about fifteen feet long1
 or one-third of the whole  length of   
the animal2 sulci1 about two dozen in   
number2 two external  blow-holes2       
blubber on the body two or three inches 
thick1 under the  sulci none4    ,the   
last1 and smallest of the whalebone     
whales1 with which ,i am  acquainted1 is
 the ,balnoptera acuto-rostrata of ,la  
,cepde1 ,balna  rostrata of ,linnus1 or 

the beaked whale4 ,an animal of this    
kind was  killed in ,scalpa ,bay1       
,november #ad1 #ahjh4 ,its length was   
seventeen and  a half feet1             
circumference twenty4 ,pectoral fins1   
two feet long and  seven inches broad2  
dorsal fin fifteen inches long by four  
and a half  feet broad4 ,largest        
whalebone1 about six inches4 ,the       
rostrata is said  to inhabit principally
 the ,norwegian ,seas1 and to grow to   
the length  of twenty-five feet4 ,one of
 the species was killed near            
,spitzbergen1  in #ahac1 and ,i have    
some of the whalebone in my possession4 
,three species of narwals are noticed by
 ,la ,cepde1 though ,i myself  have seen
 but one1 and perhaps the other species 
are imaginary1 for  the animal varies in
 appearance4 ,it is the ,monodon        
monoceros of  ,linnus1 and the narwal1  
or unicorn1 of whalers4    ,it is1 when 
full grown1 from thirteen to sixteen    
feet in length1  exclusive of the tusk2 
and in circumference 7two feet behind   

the  fins1 where it is thickest17 eight 
to nine feet4 ,the form of the  head1   
with the part of the body before the    
fins1 is paraboloidal2  of the middle of
 the body1 nearly cylindrical2 of the   
hinder-part1  to within two or three    
feet of tail1 somewhat conical1 and from
  thence a ridge1 commencing both at the
 back and belly2 the section  becomes   
first an ellipse1 and then a rhombus1 at
 the junction  of the tail4 ,at the     
distance of twelve or fourteen inches   
from  the tail the perpendicular        
diameter is about twelve inches1 the    
transverse diameter about seven4 ,the   
head is about one-seventh of  the whole 
length of the animal2 it is small1      
blunt1 round1 and of  a paraboloidal    
form4 ,the mouth is small and not       
capable of much  extension4 ,the        
under-lip is wedge-shaped4 ,the eyes are
 small1 the  largest diameter being only
 an inch1 and are placed in a line with 
the opening of the mouth about thirteen 
inches from the snout4 ,the  blow-hole1 

which is directly over the eyes1 is a   
single opening1 of  a semicircular form1
 about three and a half inches in       
diameter1 or  breadth1 and one and a    
half radius1 or length4 ,the fins are   
twelve or  fourteen inches long1 and six
 or eight broad2 the tail1 from fifteen 
to twenty inches long1 and three to four
 feet broad4 ,it has no dorsal  fin1 but
 in place of it an irregular1 sharpish1 
fatty ridge4 ,the  colour of the narwal 
is in the young animal blackish grey1 on
 the  back variegated with numerous     
darker spots1 running into one another2 
in the older animals the ground is      
wholly white1 or yellowish white4  ,the 
integuments are similar to those of the 
mysticetus1 only thinner4    ,a long    
prominent tusk1 with which some narwals 
are furnished1 is  considered as a horn 
by the whale-fishers1 and as such has   
given  occasion for the name of unicorn 
being applied to this animal4 ,this     
tusk occurs on the left side of the     
head1 and is sometimes found  of the    

length of nine or ten feet2 according to
 ,eged1 fourteen or  fifteen4 ,it       
springs from the lower part of the      
upper-jaw1 points  forward and a little 
downward1 being parallel in its         
direction to the  roof of the mouth4 ,it
 is spirally situated from right to     
left1 is  nearly straight1 and tapers to
 around1 blunt point1 is of a yellowish 
white colour1 and consists of a compact 
kind of ivory4 ,it is usually  hollow   
from the base to within a few inches of 
the point4 ,in a five  feet tusk the    
diameter at the base is two and a       
quarter inches1 and  about three-eighths
 within an inch of the end4 ,this       
external tusk is  peculiar to the male1 
and there is another imbedded in the    
skull1  on the right side of the head1  
about nine inches long4 ,two or three   
instances have occurred of male narwals 
having been taken1 which  had two large 
external tusks4 ,the use of the tusk is 
ambiguous4 ,it  cannot be essential for 
procuring their food1 nor for defence4  

,dr4  ,barclay is of opinion that it is 
principally a sexual distinction2  and  
it appears not improbable that it is    
used in piercing the ice for            
convenience of breathing1 without the   
animal being obliged to retreat  to open
 water4 ,if this latter supposition be  
correct1 it affords  another            
illustration of the wisdom of the great 
,creator1 who has  adapted in so many   
instances the organization of every     
animal to the  locality which it        
inhabits4    ,a quantity of blubber1    
from two to three and a half inches in  
thickness1 and amounting sometimes to   
above half a ton1 encompasses  the whole
 body of the narwal1 and affords a large
 proportion of  very fine oil4 ,in a    
fine fatty substance about the internal 
ears of  the narwal are found multitudes
 of worms4 ,they are about an inch in   
length1 some shorter1 very slender1 and 
taper both ways1 but are  sharper at one
 end than at the other4 ,they are       
transparent4 ,the  vertebral column of  

the narwal is about twelve feet in      
length4 ,the  cervical vertebr are seven
 in number1 the dorsal twelve1 the      
lumbar  and caudal thirty-five4 ,the    
spinal marrow appears to run through the
  processes of all the vertebr from the 
head to the fortieth1 but does  not     
penetrate the forty-first4 ,the ribs are
 twelve on each side1 six  true and six 
false1 and are small for the size of the
 animal4 ,the  principal food of the    
narwal are molluscous animals4 ,i have  
found  remains of sepi in several       
stomachs which ,i have examined4        
,narwals  are quick1 active1 inoffensive
 animals1 and swim with considerable    
velocity4 ,they appear in numerous      
little herds of half a dozen or  more   
together1 each herd being most          
frequently composed of animals  of the  
same sex4 ,when harpooned1 the narwal   
dives with almost the  velocity of the  
mysticetus1 but not to the same extent2 
on returning  to the surface it is      
dispatched with a lance in a few        

minutes4    ,passing now from these     
tribes1 a short space must be allotted  
to the  description of the dolphins4    
,the first is ,delphinus deductor1      
defined by ,dr4 ,traill1 the ca'ing or  
leading whale4 ,the following are  its  
specific characters4 ,body thick1 black2
 one short dorsal fin2  pectoral fins   
long1 narrow2 head obtuse2 upper jaw    
bent forward2  teeth subconoid1 sharp1  
and a little bent4    ,this animal grows
 to the length of about twenty-four     
feet1 and is  about ten feet in         
circumference4 ,the skin is smooth1     
resembling  oiled-silk2 the colour a    
white blueish black on the back1 and    
generally whitish on the belly2 the     
blubber is three or four inches  thick4 
,the head is short and round2 the upper 
jaw projects a little  over the lower4  
,externally it has a single spiracle4   
,the full grown  have generally         
twenty-two to twenty-four teeth in each 
jaw1 and when  the mouth is shut1 the   
teeth lock between one another like the 

teeth  of a trap4 ,the tail is about    
five feet broad1 the dorsal fin about   
fifteen inches high1 cartilaginous1 and 
immovable4    ,this kind of dolphin     
sometimes appears in large herds off the
 ,orkney1  ,shetland1 and ,feroe        
islands4 ,the main body of the herd     
follows the  leading whales1 and from   
this property the animal is called in   
,shetland the ca'ing whale1 and by ,dr4 
,traill the deductor4 ,many herds  of   
this animal have been driven on shore at
 different periods1 and  it is recorded 
that there were taken in two places in  
the year #affd  about a thousand2 and in
 modern times extensive slaughters have 
taken place on the shores of the        
,british and other northern islands4    
,the ,delphinapterus beluga of ,la      
,cepde1 ,delphinus ,leucas of  ,linnus1 
,beluga of ,pennant1 or white whale of  
the fishers1 is  the last of the cetacea
 to which we shall refer4 ,it is not    
unlike  the narwal in its general form1 
but is thicker about the middle of  its 

body in proportion to its length4 ,both 
jaws are furnished with  teeth4 ,it has 
no dorsal fin4 ,the skin is smooth1 the 
colour white4  ,a male animal of this   
kind was taken in the ,frith of ,forth  
in ,june1  #ahae4 ,the length was       
thirteen feet four inches1 and the      
greatest  circumference nine feet4 ,the 
beluga is generally met with in families
  or herds of five or ten together4     
,they are plentiful in ,hudson's  ,bay1 
,davis's ,strait1 and on some parts of  
the northern coasts of  ,europe and     
,asia1 where they frequent some of the  
larger rivers4  ,they are taken for the 
sake of the oil they produce by harpoons
 or  strong nets2 in the latter case1   
the nets are extended across the        
stream1 so as to prevent their escape   
out of the river1 and when  thus        
interrupted in their course to seaward1 
they are attacked with  lances1 and     
great numbers are sometimes killed4     
,it is now our purpose to give an       
account of the quadrupeds which  inhabit

 ,spitzbergen and the icy seas adjacent4
    ,the connecting link between the    
mammalia of the land and the  water is  
,trichecus rosmarus1 walrus1 morse1 or  
sea-horse of the  whale-fishers4 ,it    
corresponds in several of its characters
 both with  the bullock and the whale4  
,it grows to the bulk of an ox4 ,its    
canine  teeth1 two in number1 are of the
 length externally of ten to twenty     
inches1 7some naturalists say three     
feet17 and extend downward from  the    
upper jaw1 and include the point of the 
lower jaw between them4  ,they are      
incurvated inward4 ,their full length   
when cut out of the  skull is commonly  
fifteen to twenty inches1 sometimes     
almost thirty1  and their weight five to
 ten pounds each or upward4 ,the walrus 
being a slow clumsy animal on land1 its 
tusk seems necessary for  its defence   
against the bear1 and also for enabling 
it to raise its  unwieldy body upon the 
ice when its access to the shore is     
prevented4    ,the walrus is found on   

the shores of ,spitzbergen twelve to    
fifteen  feet in length1 and eight to   
ten feet in circumference4 ,the head is 
short1 small1 and flattened in front4   
,the flattened part of the face  is set 
with strong bristles4 ,the nostrils are 
on the upper part of  the snout1 through
 which it blows like a whale4 ,the fore 
paws1 which  are a kind of webbed hand1 
are two-sevenths of the full length of  
the animal from the snout4 ,they are    
from two to two and a half feet  in     
length1 and being expansive maybe       
stretched to the breadth of  fifteen to 
eighteen inches4 ,the hind feet1 which  
form a sort of tail  fin1 extend        
straight backward4 ,they are not united1
 but detached from  each other4 ,the    
length of each is about two to two and a
 half feet2  the breadth1 when fully    
extended1 two and a half or three feet2 
the  termination of each toe is marked  
by a small tail4    ,the skin of the    
walrus is about an inch thick1 and it is
 covered with  a short1 yellowish brown 

coloured hair4 ,the inside of the paws  
in  old animals is defended by a rough1 
horny kind of casing1 a quarter  of an  
inch thick1 probably produced by the    
hardening of the skin in  consequence of
 coarse usage in climbing over ice and  
rocks4    ,beneath the skin is a thin   
layer of fat4 ,at some seasons the      
produce  is said to be considerable1 but
 ,i have never met with any that        
afforded above twenty or thirty gallons 
of oil4 ,in the stomachs  of walruses ,i
 have met with shrimps1 a kind of       
craw-fish1 and the  remains of young    
seals4    ,it is not at all improbable  
that the walrus has afforded foundation 
for some of the stories of mermaids4 ,i 
have myself seen a sea-horse  in such a 
position1 that it requires little       
stretch of imagination  to mistake it   
for a human being2 so like1 indeed1 was 
it1 that the  surgeon of the ship       
actually reported to me that he had seen
 a man  with his head just appearing    
above the surface of the water4    ,the 

walrus is a fearless animal4 ,it pays no
 regard to a boat1  excepting as an     
object of curiosity4 ,it is sometimes   
taken by a  harpoon when in the water4  
,if one attack fails1 it often affords  
an opportunity for repeating it4 ,the   
capture cannot be always  accomplished  
without danger1 for1 as they go in      
herds1 an attack  made upon one         
individual draws all its companions to  
its defence4 ,in  such cases they       
frequently rally round the boat from    
which the blow  was struck1 pierce its  
planks with their tusks1 and1 though    
resisted  in the most determined manner1
 sometimes raise themselves upon the    
gunwale1 and threaten to overset it4    
,the best defence against these  enraged
 animals is1 in such a crisis1 sea-sand1
 which1 being thrown  into their eyes1  
occasions a partial blindness1 and      
obliges them to  disperse4 ,when on     
shore they are best killed with long    
sharp-pointed  knives4    ,the tusks of 
the walrus1 which are hard1 white1 and  

compact ivory1  are employed by dentists
 in the fabrication of false teeth4 ,the
  skin is used in place of mats for     
defending the yards and rigging  of     
ships from being chafed by friction     
against each other4 ,when  cut into     
shreds and plaited into cordage1 it     
answers admirably for  wheel-ropes1     
being stronger and wearing much longer  
than hemp4 ,in  ancient times1 most of  
the ropes of ships1 in northern         
countries  at least1 would appear to    
have been made of this substance4 ,when 
tanned1 it is converted into a soft     
porous leather1 above an inch in        
thickness1 but it is by no means so     
useful or so durable as in its  green or
 raw state4    ,as early as the ninth   
century1 we have accounts of the walrus 
being  extensively fished for on the    
western coast of ,norway4 ,prior to the 
institution of the ,spitzbergen         
whale-fishery1 the capture of this      
animal was an object of some commercial 
importance4 ,it was at first  attacked  

by the ,english1 on ,cherie ,island1 but
 being driven from  thence1 if not      
extirpated in that quarter1 by the great
 slaughter  that was carried on1 it was 
then pursued to ,spitzbergen4 ,the      
earliest  attacks made on it were very  
unsuccessful1 but experience rendered   
the assailants more skilful1 and1 in one
 voyage1 nine hundred or  one thousand  
sea-horses were killed in less than     
seven hours4 ,the  ,russians now1 rather
 than the ,british1 are their enemies4  
,with the exception of the head1 the    
general form of the walrus is  similar  
to the next animal which we describe1   
the phoca1 or seal4    ,several species 
of seals occur in the ,greenland ,sea1  
and resort  to the ice in the           
neighbourhood of ,spitzbergen and ,jan  
,mayen1 in  immense herds2 but1 as the  
seal frequents the ,british coast1 and  
is a  well-described and well-known     
animal1 ,i shall not particularize the  
well-known species that are met with in 
the ,arctic ,seas4 ,some few  general   

observations only will be necessary4    
,seals are generally fat in the spring  
of the year1 and afford several  gallons
 of blubber2 even small seals will then 
yield about four or  five gallons of    
oil4 ,the voice of the young seal when  
in pain or  distress is a whining cry1  
resembling that of a child4 ,they appear
  to hear well under water2 music1 or   
particularly a person whistling1  draws 
them to the surface1 and induces them to
 stretch their necks  to the utmost     
extent1 so as to prove a snare by       
bringing them within  reach of the      
shooter4 ,the most effectual way of     
shooting them is by  the use of small   
shot1 fired into their eyes2 when killed
 with a  bullet they generally sink1 and
 are lost4 ,seals are often seen on     
their passage from one situation to     
another in very large shoals4  ,their   
general conduct in such cases is such as
 to amuse spectators1  and the sailors  
call such a shoal a 8seal's wedding40   
,the feet of  seals are better adapted  

for motion in the water than on land4   
,they  feed on birds1 crabs1 and small  
fishes1 and are very tenacious of  life4
    ,the uses of the seal are various1  
and to some nations highly  important4  
,it yields train-oil1 and its skin is   
extensively employed  in making shoes1  
and1 when dressed with the hair1 in     
covering trunks4  ,to the ,esquimaux the
 seal is everything4 ,its flesh is food1
 its fat  gives light1 and its skin1    
dressed so as to be waterproof1 is used 
for covering for boats and tents1 and   
for garments4    ,the ,phoca vitulina is
 the common species in the ,greenland   
,sea1 especially near ,jan ,mayen4 ,the 
hooded seal is common near              
,spitzbergen4 ,the latter is longer than
 the former1 and is said to  grow to the
 length of ten or twelve feet4 ,it is   
also much more  formidable4 ,seals are  
not fond of the water1 but1 when on the 
ice1  are extremely watchful1 and secure
 their retreat either by reclining  at  
the edge or by keeping a hole in the ice

 open for them4 ,the young  ones1       
however1 are not so wary as the old     
folks4 ,the best situation  for the     
seal-fishery in the ,arctic ,sea is in  
the vicinity of ,jan  ,mayen1 and the   
best season ,march and ,april4 ,the     
capture of the  seal is the work of a   
moment4 ,a blow with a seal-club on the 
nose  immediately stuns it1 and affords 
opportunity of making a prize  of many  
at a time4 ,ships fitted out for the    
whale-fishery have  accidentally        
obtained in ,april from two thousand to 
three thousand  seals1 and sometimes    
more2 and vessels sent out for          
seal-fishery  only1 four thousand or    
five thousand1 yielding nearly one      
hundred  tons of oil4 ,from the ports of
 the ,elbe and ,weser a number of       
sealers  are annually dispatched1 but   
few comparatively on this pursuit alone 
sail from ,britain4    ,of the dangers  
of the seal-fishery1 arising from the   
liability to  heavy storms at the season
 and in the place where seals are taken1

  the following narrative will furnish  
full illustration4    ,fifty-four ships1
 chiefly ,hamburghers1 were1 in the year
 #aggd1 fitted  out for seal-fishery    
alone from foreign ports4 ,in the spring
 of  the year they met with several     
,english ships on the borders of the    
ice1 about sixty miles to the eastward  
of the island of ,jan ,mayen4  ,while   
the boats of the fleet were in search   
for seals1 a dreadful  storm suddenly   
arose4 ,almost all the people who were  
at a distance  from the ships perished4 
,the ,duke of ,york1 captain ,peters1   
had two  boats at that time down4 ,the  
crews of these by great exertion rowed  
up to the ship1 got hold of the rudder  
rings1 but were unable to  make their   
way alongside2 they held fast for some  
time1 but the sea  was too strong for   
them1 and they lost their hold and fell 
astern4  ,the chief-mate of the ship1   
seeing that they were too exhausted to  
recover their position1 determined to   
attempt their rescue at the  peril of   

his own life4 ,he manned a boat with six
 stout seamen beside  himself1 and went 
to their assistance4 ,on reaching them  
he exchanged  four of his vigorous crew 
for two of the fainting men in each     
boat4  ,thus reinforced1 the three      
boats1 by the exertions of their crews1 
were brought to the stern of the ship2  
but while in this critical  situation1 a
 sea struck the boats1 filled and       
overwhelmed them1 on  which the whole of
 their crews1 nineteen men1 perished4   
,this was only  a portion of the        
disasters of the storm4 ,one ship       
foundered in a  heavy surge1 and all    
hands were lost4 ,another was wrecked on
 the ice1  and all hands perished4 ,many
 boats and men were washed from several 
others1 and the results were that about 
four hundred foreign seamen1  and two   
hundred ,british1 were drowned1 four or 
five ships lost1 and  scarcely any      
escaped without damage4    ,to all those
 who navigate the treacherous ocean1    
especially to such  as do business in   

such dangerous waters1 it ought to be of
 more than  ordinary importance to live 
in a continued preparation for death and
  judgment1 and to be the servants of   
that ,god who          8---- rides upon 
the stormy sky          ,and manages the
 seas40    ,beneath his care the mariner
 is safe1 and whether from the abysses  
of  its ancient caves1 or the           
foundations of its lofty icebergs1 the  
sea  must surrender unto eternal life   
the bodies of the disciples of ,jesus4  
,the ,arctic fox1 ,canis lagopus1 is an 
animal known to those who  winter in    
,spitzbergen1 though seldom seen by the 
whale-fishers4  ,they are rarely found  
on the ice1 though ,i have often found  
their  impressions on the snow4 ,they   
are of a white colour1 and not easily   
distinguished4    ,a more remarkable    
animal is the ,polar or ,greenland bear1
 ,ursus  maritimus4 ,he is the sovereign
 of the quadrupeds of the ,arctic       
countries4 ,he is powerful and          
courageous2 savage and sagacious2       

apparently clumsy1 yet not inactive4    
,his senses are extremely acute1        
especially his sight and smell4 ,as he  
traverses extensive fields  of ice1 he  
mounts the hummocks and looks for prey1 
and on rearing  his head and snuffing   
the breeze1 he can perceive the scent of
 the  carrion of the whale at an immense
 distance4 ,seals are his usual  food1  
but from their watchfulness he is often 
obliged to fast4 ,he is  as much at home
 on the ice as on the land1 and is found
 on field-ice  above two hundred miles  
from shore4 ,he can swim with the       
velocity of  three miles an hour1 and   
can dive to a considerable distance4    
,bears occur in ,spitzbergen1 ,nova     
,zembla1 ,greenland1 and other ,arctic  
countries1 throughout the year4 ,in some
 places1 they are met with in  great    
numbers4 ,by means of the ice1 they     
often effect a landing on  ,iceland1 but
 as soon as they appear1 they are       
generally attacked by  the inhabitants  
and destroyed4 ,on the east coast of    

,greenland1 they  have appeared like    
flocks of sheep on a common4    ,the    
size of the bear is generally four or   
five feet in height1 seven  or eight in 
length1 and nearly as much in           
circumference4 ,sometimes1  however1 the
 size is much larger4 ,his paws are     
seven inches in  breadth1 and his claws 
two inches in length4 ,his canine teeth1
  exclusive of the part in the jaw1 are 
about an inch and a half in  length4 ,he
 has been known by the strength of his  
jaw to bite a lance  in two1 though made
 of iron half an inch in diameter4 ,in  
the water  he can be captured without   
much danger1 but on land the experiment 
is hazardous4 ,when pursued and         
attacked1 he turns upon his enemies4    
,he always1 however1 unless urged by    
hunger1 retreats before men4  ,his      
general walk is slow1 but upon the ice  
he can easily outrun any  man4 ,if      
struck with a lance1 he is apt to seize 
it in his mouth1  and either bite it in 
two1 or wrest it out of the hand4 ,if   

shot  with a ball1 unless he is struck  
in the head1 in the heart1 or in  the   
shoulder1 he is enraged rather than     
depressed1 and falls with  increased    
power upon his pursuers4 ,when shot at a
 distance1 and  able to escape1 he has  
been observed to retire to the shelter  
of a  hummock1 and1 as if conscious of  
the styptical effect of cold1 apply     
snow with his paws to the wound4    ,the
 bear feeds on the kreng1 or carcases of
 the whales1 as they are  left by the   
fishers2 on seals1 birds1 foxes1 and    
deer1 when it can  surprise them2 on    
eggs1 and indeed on any animal substance
 that comes  within its power4 ,the skin
 of the bear1 when dressed with the hair
  on1 forms beautiful mats for a hall or
 for the bottom of a carriage4          
,prepared without being ripped up1 and  
the hairy side turned inward1  it forms 
a very warm sack bed1 and is used as    
such in some parts of  ,greenland4 ,the 
flesh1 when cleared of the fat1 is well 
flavoured and  savoury1 especially the  

muscular part of the ham4 ,i once       
treated my  surgeon with a dinner of    
bears ham1 and he did not know for above
  a month afterwards1 but that it was   
beefsteak4 ,the liver is very           
unwholesome4    ,bears are remarkably   
affectionate towards their young1 and   
peculiarly  sagacious4 ,the female has  
generally two at a birth4 ,on one       
occasion1  a mother bear with two cubs  
was pursued across a field of ice by  a 
party of armed sailors4 ,at first1 she  
urged her young ones to  increase their 
speed1 but finding the pursuers gaining 
on them1  she carried or pushed or      
pitched them alternately forward1 until 
she effected their escape4 ,the little  
creatures are said to have  placed      
themselves across her path to receive   
her impulse1 and when  thrown forward   
they ran on till she overtook them1 when
 they adjusted  themselves for a second 
throw4    ,many instances have been     
observed of the peculiar sagacity of    
these  animals4 ,a seal1 lying on the   

middle of a large piece of ice1 with  a 
hole just before it1 was marked out by a
 bear for its prey1 and  secured by the 
artifice of diving under the ice1 and   
making its way  to the hole by which the
 seal was prepared to retreat4 ,the     
seal1  however1 observed its approach1  
and plunged into the water1 but  the    
bear instantly sprang upon it1 and      
appeared in about a minute  afterwards  
with the seal in its mouth4    ,the     
captain of one of the whalers being     
anxious to procure a bear  without      
wounding the skin1 made trial of the    
stratagem of laying the  noose of a rope
 in the snow1 and placing a piece of    
kreng within it4  ,a bear1 ranging the  
neighbouring ice1 was soon enticed to   
the spot  by the smell of burning meat4 
,he perceived the bait1 approached1 and 
seized it in his mouth1 but his foot1 at
 the same moment1 by a jerk  of the rope
 being entangled in the noose1 he pushed
 it off with the  adjoining paw1 and    
deliberately retired4 ,after having     

eaten the piece  he carried away with   
him he returned4 ,the noose1 with       
another piece  of kreng1 being then     
replaced1 he pushed the rope aside1 and 
again  walked triumphantly off with the 
kreng4 ,a third time the noose was      
laid1 and this time the rope was buried 
in the snow and the bait laid  in a deep
 hole dug in the centre4 ,but ,bruin1   
after snuffing about the  place for a   
few minutes1 scraped the snow away with 
his paw1 threw  the rope aside1 and     
escaped unhurt with his prize4    ,in   
the month of ,june1 #ahab1 a female     
bear1 with two cubs1 approached  the    
ship ,i commanded1 and was shot4 ,the   
cubs1 not attempting to  escape1 were   
taken alive4 ,these animals1 though at  
first evidently  very unhappy1 became at
 length1 in some measure1 reconciled to 
their  situation1 and being tolerably   
tame1 were allowed occasionally to go   
at large about the deck4 ,while the ship
 was moored to a floe1 a few  days after
 they were taken1 one of them1 having a 

rope fastened round  its neck1 was      
thrown overboard4 ,it immediately swam  
to the ice1 got  upon it1 and attempted 
to escape4 ,finding itself1 however1    
detained  by the rope1 it endeavoured to
 disengage itself in the following      
ingenious way3--,near the edge of the   
floe was a crack in the ice1 of         
considerable length1 but only eighteen  
inches or two feet wide1 and  three or  
four feet deep4 ,to this spot the bear  
returned2 and when1  on crossing the    
chasm1 the bight of the rope fell into  
it1 he placed  himself across the       
opening2 then1 suspending himself by his
 hind  feet1 with a leg on each side1 he
 dropped his head and most of his  body 
into the chasm1 and1 with a foot applied
 to each side of the  neck1 attempted   
for some minutes to push the rope over  
his head4  ,finding this scheme         
ineffectual1 he removed to the main ice1
 and  running with great impetuosity    
from the ship1 gave a remarkable pull   
on the rope2 then1 going backward a few 

steps1 he repeated the jerk4  ,at       
length1 after repeated attempts to      
escape this way1 every failure  of which
 he announced by a significant growl1 he
 yielded himself  to his hard necessity1
 and lay down on the ice in angry and   
sullen  silence4    ,accidents with     
bears occasionally occur2 not so many1  
however1 as  the ferocity of these      
animals1 and the temerity of the        
sailors1  might lead one to expect4     
,some of the early voyagers to the      
,polar  ,seas had hard conflicts with   
them4 ,barentz's crew especially were   
often in danger from them1 but always   
succeeded either in conquering  or      
repelling them4 ,two1 however1 of the   
crew of a vessel which had  anchored    
near ,nova ,zembla1 landed on an island 
at the mouth of  the ,weigats1 and1     
impelled by curiosity1 wandered some    
distance  from the beach2 but1 whilst   
unconscious of danger1 one of them was  
suddenly seized on the back by a bear1  
and brought to the earth4 ,his          

companion ran off1 and gave the alarm1  
and a party of his shipmates  came to   
their assistance4 ,the bear stood over  
its prey during their  approach without 
the least appearance of fear and1 on    
their attack1  sprang upon one of their 
number1 and made him also a victim to   
its  ferocity and power4 ,the rest now  
fled in confusion1 and could not  be    
induced to renew the conflict4 ,three   
sailors only among the crew  had        
sufficient courage to combat with this  
formidable animal2 they  attacked it1   
and1 after a dangerous struggle1 killed 
it1 and rescued  the mangled bodies of  
their two unfortunate shipmates4        
,captain ,cook1 of the ,archangel1 of   
,lynn1 being near the coast of          
,spitzbergen1 in the year #aghh1 landed1
 accompanied by his surgeon  and mate4  
,while traversing the shore1 the captain
 was unexpectedly  attacked by a bear1  
which seized him in an instant between  
its  paws4 ,at this awful juncture1 when
 a moment's pause must have been  fatal 

to him1 he called to his surgeon to     
fire2 who1 with admirable  resolution   
and steadiness1 discharged his piece as 
directed1 and  providentially shot the  
bear through the head4 ,the captain1 by 
this  prompt assistance1 was preserved  
from being torn to pieces4    ,on a more
 recent occasion1 a commander of a whale
 ship was in a  similar danger4 ,captain
 ,hawkins1 of the ,everthorpe1 of ,hull1
 when  in ,davis's ,strait1 in ,july1   
#ahah1 seeing a very large bear1 took a 
boat1 and pushed off in pursuit of it4  
,on reaching it1 the captain  struck it 
twice with a lance in the breast2 and1  
while in the act of  recovering his     
weapon for another blow1 the enraged    
animal sprang  up1 and seized him by the
 thigh1 and threw him over its head into
  the water4 ,fortunately it did not    
repeat its attack1 but exerted  itself  
to escape4 ,this exertion1 when the     
attention of every one was  directed    
towards their captain1 was not made in  
vain1 for it was  allowed to swim away  

without further molestation4    ,with   
regard to curious adventures1 on one    
occasion a bear1 which was  attacked by 
a boat's crew1 made such formidable     
resistance1 that it  was enabled to     
climb the side of the boat and take     
possession of it1  while the intimidated
 crew fled for safety to the water1     
supporting  themselves by the gunwale   
and rings of the boat1 until1 by the    
assistance of another party from the    
ship it was shot1 as it sat             
inoffensively in the stern4 ,with regard
 to narrow escapes1 a sailor1  who was  
pursued on a field of ice by a bear1    
when at a considerable  distance from   
assistance1 preserved his life by       
throwing down an  article of clothing   
whenever the bear gained upon him1 on   
which it  always suspended the pursuit  
until it had examined it1 and thus gave 
him time to obtain some advance4 ,in    
this way1 by means of a hat1 a  jacket1 
and a neckerchief1 successively cast    
down1 the progress of  the bear was     

retarded1 and the sailor escaped from   
the danger that  threatened him1 in the 
refuge afforded him by his vessel4      
,the rein-deer1 ,cervus tarandus1       
deserves to be mentioned amongst  the   
quadrupeds of the ,arctic regions4 ,i   
have never seen one myself1  though it  
is known to inhabit almost every part of
 ,spitzbergen4    ,our remarks must now 
be directed to the ,birds which frequent
 the  sea and coast of ,spitzbergen4    
,the brent goose and eider duck1 ,anas  
bernicla and ,anas  mollissima1 are     
found in these regions2 the former      
occurring  in considerable numbers near 
the coast of ,greenland1 but not in     
,spitzbergen1 and the latter frequenting
 all the islands in the  ,greenland     
,sea4 ,the puffin1 or ,greenland parrot1
 ,alca arctica1  feeding on shrimps1 is 
rarely seen out of sight of land1 but is
 very  common near the coast of         
,spitzbergen4 ,alca alle1 also1 the     
little  auk or roach1 is an extremely   
numerous species in some situations in  

the ,polar ,seas4 ,they occur in the    
water in thousands together1 and        
sometimes in like abundance on the      
pieces of ice4 ,they dive quickly  on   
being alarmed1 and on the approach of   
thick weather they are  particularly    
noisy4    ,the fulmar1 ,procellaria     
glacialis1 is the constant companion of 
the whale-fisher4 ,it joins his ship    
immediately on passing the  ,shetland   
,islands1 and accompanies it through the
 trackless ocean  to the highest        
accessible latitudes4 ,it keeps an eager
 watch for  anything thrown overboard2  
the smallest particle of fatty substance
  can scarcely escape it4 ,as such1 a   
hook baited with a piece of fat  meat or
 blubber1 and towed by a long twine over
 the ship's stern1 is  a means employed 
by the sailor-boys for taking them4 ,in 
the spring  of the year1 before they    
have glutted themselves with the fat of 
the  whale1 they are pretty good eating4
 ,they are remarkably easy and  swift on
 the wing1 and can fly to windward in   

the highest storms4  ,though very few   
fulmars should be seen when a whale is  
about being  captured1 yet1 as soon as  
the flensing commences1 they rush in    
from all quarters1 and seize1 with great
 audacity1 all the pieces  of fat that  
come in their way4 ,they frequently glut
 themselves so  completely as to be     
unable to fly1 in which case1 when not  
relieved  by a quantity being disgorged1
 they rest on the ice until restored  by
 digestion4 ,the fulmar is a bold and   
very hardy bird4 ,its feathers  being   
thick1 it is not easily killed with a   
blow4 ,its bite1 from the  crookedness1 
strength1 and sharpness of its bill1 is 
very severe4  ,fulmars differ in colour2
 some are a dirty grey1 others much     
paler1  and totally white on the breast 
and belly4 ,in size this bird is a      
little smaller than a duck4 ,beneath its
 feathers is a thick bed of  fine grey  
down4 ,when carrion is scarce1 the      
fulmar sometimes points  out the whale  
to the fisher by following in its track4

 ,they cannot  make much impression on  
the dead whale until some more powerful 
animal tears away the skin4    ,the     
tyst1 or doveca1 ,colymbus grylle1 is a 
beautifully formed  bird1 occurring in  
considerable numbers in icy situations1 
at various  distances from land4 ,it is 
so watchful1 and so quick at diving1    
that1  if fired at without precaution to
 conceal the flash of the powder1 it    
generally escapes the shot4 ,it feeds on
 shrimps and small fishes4 ,the  common 
colour is black1 but the feet are all   
red4    ,almost equally common with the 
preceding is the ,colymbus troile1  a   
clumsy bird1 weighing two pounds or     
upwards1 and measuring only  sixteen or 
seventeen inches in length1 and         
twenty-eight inches across  the wings1  
when full spread1 in breadth4 ,it cannot
 rise on the  wing in any direction     
except to windward4 ,if it attempts to  
fly to  leeward1 it runs for a          
considerable distance along the surface 
of the  water1 and at length falls into 

it4 ,both in this instance and that of  
the doveca1 shortness of tail is        
compensated for by the feet1 which  are 
used as a rudder in flying4 ,the        
,colymbus glacialis was seen by  captain
 ,phipps on the coast of ,spitzbergen4  
,the sea-swallow1 or great tern1 ,sterna
 hirundo1 is an elegant bird1  common on
 the shore of ,spitzbergen1 but is not  
met with at a distance  from land4 ,its 
length is seven or eight inches1 and    
including the  tail fourteen1 and the   
spread of its wings twenty-nine or      
thirty  inches4 ,it flies with great    
ease and swiftness1 and to a            
considerable  height4 ,it defends its   
eggs and young with great boldness from 
the  ,arctic gull1 and even descends    
within a yard of the head of any  person
 who ventures to molest them1 startling 
him with its loud  screams4 ,it lays its
 eggs among the shingle of the beach    
above  high-water mark1 where the full  
power of the sun falls4    ,there are   
several varieties of the gull tribe4    

,the kittywake1 ,larus  rissa1 is seen  
in every part of the northern ,atlantic 
from ,britain  to the highest latitudes4
 ,it is a better fisher than its enemy1 
the  ,arctic gull1 ,larus parasiticus1  
by whom it is pursued until it  gives up
 the food it has procured4 ,the latter  
kind of gull lives at  the expense of   
its neighbours1 preying upon their eggs 
and their  young4 ,larus crepidatus and 
,larus eburneus are other varieties4    
,the latter1 remarkable for its         
immaculate whiteness1 is as ravenous  as
 the fulmar4 ,larus glaucus1            
burgomaster1 is the chief magistrate  of
 the feathered tribe in the ,spitzbergen
 regions1 as none of its  class dare    
dispute its authority1 or refuse at its 
bidding to  surrender their prey4 ,it is
 a large and powerful bird1 twenty-eight
  inches in length1 and five inches in  
breadth across the wings4 ,the          
kittywake1 snow-bird1 and burgomaster1  
are sometimes shot for the  sake of     
their feathers4 ,the two latter species 

are very shy4 ,they  are shot with the  
greatest ease1 however1 from a house    
built of snow  on the ice4 ,the ,tringa 
hypoleucos1 sandpiper1 and the ,emberiza
  nivalis1 snow-bunting1 are inhabitants
 also of these regions4 ,a bird  of     
great delicacy and smallness is         
,fringilla linaria1 the lesser  redpole4
 ,on our approach to ,spitzbergen1      
several of this species  alighted on the
 ship1 and were1 apparently1 so wearied 
by flight  that they allowed themselves 
to be taken alive4 ,it is difficult to  
understand how this small bird manages  
to perform the journey from             
,spitzbergen to a milder climate1       
without becoming exhausted and          
perishing by the way4    ,the ,amphibia1
 ,fishes1 ,animalcules1 etc41 must      
conclude our  sketch of the zoology of  
the ,arctic regions4    ,in the class   
,amphibia1 the most notable personage is
 the ,greenland  shark1 ,squalus        
borealis4 ,it has not1 ,i believe1 been 
described4  ,the ventral fins are       

separate4 ,it is without anal fin1 but  
has the  temporal opening1 and it       
belongs1 therefore1 to the third        
division of  the genus4 ,the spiracles  
on the neck are five in number on each  
side4  ,the colour is cinereous grey4   
,the eyes are the most extraordinary    
part of the animal4 ,the pupil is       
emerald green1 the rest of the  eye     
blue4 ,to the posterior edge of the     
pupil is attached a white  vermiform    
substance1 one or two inches in length4 
,each extremity of  it consists of two  
filaments1 but the central part is      
single4 ,the  sailors imagine this shark
 is blind1 because it pays not the least
  attention to the presence of a man1   
and is1 indeed1 so apparently  stupid1  
that it never draws back when a blow is 
aimed at it with a  knife or a lance4   
,it is twelve or fourteen feet in       
length1 and six or  eight feet in       
circumference1 and in general form very 
much resembles  the dog-fish4 ,it is one
 of the foes of the whale4 ,it bites and

 annoys  it when living1 and feeds on it
 when dead4 ,with its teeth1 which are  
serrated in one jaw1 and lancet-shaped  
and denticulated in the other1  it      
scoops out of the body of the whale     
pieces as large as a person's  head1 and
 continues scooping and gorging till its
 belly is filled4  ,it is so insensible 
to pain that1 though run through the    
body with a  knife1 it will return to   
its food1 and for some hours after its  
heart  is taken out1 or its body cut in 
pieces1 they will continue to show      
signs of life4 ,it does not1 so far as  
,i am aware1 attack the fishers4    ,in 
the class ,pisces1 ,gadus carbonarius1  
the coal-fish1 was  procured by captain 
,phipps1 as also of the former class1   
,cyclopterus  liparis1 during his stay  
in the vicinity of ,spitzbergen4 ,mullus
  barbatus was taken out of the mouth of
 a seal by a seaman1 near  ,spitzbergen4
 ,it was boiled by our officers1 and    
proved an excellent  dish4    ,in the   
class ,articulata are one or two species

 of gammarus4 ,the  ,g4 arcticus of     
,leach1 the actions of which suggest as 
a familiar  name1 the mountebank shrimp4
 ,there are also various crabs1 and the 
,oniscus ceti of ,linnus1 or whale's    
louse4 ,this little animal is  about    
half an inch in diameter1 and firmly    
fixes itself by hooked  claws on the    
skin of the mysticetus4 ,it is found    
under the fin1 and  wherever the skin is
 tender1 and it is not likely to be     
dislodged4 ,a  similar animal1 though   
smaller1 is found on the body of the    
narwal4    ,in the class ,vermes are    
several species found in various animals
  inhabiting the northern seas4 ,the    
sea-snail1 ,clio helicina1 is an  animal
 covered with a delicately beautiful    
sheet1 similar to that of  the nautilus4
 ,the diameter is from two-eighths to   
three-eighths of an  inch4 ,it is found 
in great quantities near the coast of   
,spitzbergen4  ,the ,clio borealis      
occurs in vast numbers in some          
situations near  ,spitzbergen1 but is   

not found generally in the ,arctic      
,seas4 ,in  swimming1 it brings the tips
 of its fins almost into contact1 first 
oil one side and then on another4 ,i    
kept several of them alive in a  glass  
of sea-water for about1 a month1 when   
they gradually wasted  away and died4   
,the cuttle-fish1 ,sepia1 were found by 
me in large numbers in the  stomachs of 
the narwals4    ,more than six or seven 
kinds of ,medus may be distinguished1   
among which may be named1 ,medusa       
pileus1 and the purse-shaped1           
bottle-shaped1 and orange-coloured      
medus4 ,medusa pileus is one  of the    
most curious of the tribe4 ,it consists 
of eight lobes1 with a  beautiful1      
irridescent1 finny fringe on the        
external edge of each4 ,a  canal1       
four-fifths the length of the animal1   
penetrates the centre  of it1 and two   
red cirrhi1 which may be extended to the
 length of  nearly a foot1 proceed from 
a crooked cavity in opposite sides4 ,the
  animal is semi-transparent1 the colour

 white1 and the finny fringes  of deeper
 red4 ,it is found of various sizes4    
,the substance of the purse-shaped      
medusa is tougher than that of any      
other species which ,i have examined4   
,it has one large open cavity1  and is  
divided by the finny fringes into eight 
segments1 each  alternate pair of which 
are similar4 ,the colour is a pale      
crimson1  with waved purple lines1 and  
the finny fringes deeper crimson4 ,the  
animal appeared to be almost without    
sensation4 ,the only evidence it  gave  
of feeling was in an increased vibration
 of the finny fringes4  ,though it was  
cut into pieces1 each portion on which  
there was any  of the fringe continued1 
by its incessant play1 to give evidence 
of  life during two or three days1 after
 which it became putrescent1 and  began 
to waste away4 ,i have only seen one    
specimen of this and of  the            
orange-coloured medusa4 ,the colour of  
the latter was a brilliant  orange1 and 
it was not transparent4 ,it was not     

tenacious of life1  having died1 to     
appearance1 soon after it was taken4    
,the ,greenland ,sea1 frozen and        
extensive as it is1 teems with life4    
,the variety of the animal creation is  
not1 indeed1 very great1 but  the       
quantity of some of the species that    
occur is truly immense4 ,the  minute    
medus and animalcules1 throughout the   
,spitzbergen ,sea1 would  exceed all the
 powers of the mind to conceive4 ,these 
little creatures  constitute the food of
 the largest animals in the creation4   
,the  common whale feeds on medus1 sepi1
 cancri1 actini1 etc41 and these  feed1 
probably1 on the minor medus            
animalcules4 ,the fin-whales and        
dolphins feed principally on herrings   
and other small fishes4 ,these  subsist 
on the smaller cancri1 medus1 and       
animalcules4 ,the bear's  most general  
food is the seal2 the seal subsists on  
the cancri and  small fishes1 and these 
on lesser animals of the tribe1 or on   
the  minor medus and animalcules4 ,thus 

the whole of the larger animals  depend 
on these minute beings1 which1 until the
 year #ahaf1 when  ,i first entered on  
the examination of the sea-water1 were  
not1 ,i  believe1 known to exist in the 
,polar ,seas4    ,the manner in which   
these minute animals are preserved1 in a
 sea  which is surrounded by an         
atmosphere ten or twelve degrees in mean
  temperature below the freezing point  
of salt water1 is curious and           
interesting1 and illustrates the        
combined wisdom and goodness of the     
,lawgiver of these icy regions1 as well 
as of the entire globe4 ,if the  water  
of the sea were stationary1 the         
temperature of the atmosphere  would    
soon freeze it to the very bottom1 and  
destroy all these minute  animals1 who  
have not either instinct or power of    
motion to retire  into a more southern  
region4 ,a current1 however1 is         
provided1  setting towards the          
south-west1 which carries away the ice  
into a  parallel where it can be        

dissolved1 and creates a circulation of 
water into the frozen regions from a    
warmer climate2 while therefore  the    
superficial current is carrying away the
 ice1 an under-current1  in a contrary  
direction1 is bringing in warmth        
beneath4 ,but how1 it  may be asked1    
does it happen that the minor medus are 
not carried  away into the southern     
region8 ,it is no violation of commonly 
received principles to suppose1 that    
whenever the medus are carried  to some 
extent southward1 they sink in the water
 until they reach the  stream of the    
under-current1 and are by it conveyed to
 their proper  element4 ,the fact that  
the olive-green water of the sea        
maintains a  similar position for years 
together1 while surface after surface of
  ice is carried away and dissipated1 is
 in support of this conjecture4  ,thus1 
by a most beautiful contrivance1 a large
 portion of the  surface of the globe is
 rendered habitable1 which would        
otherwise  be a solid mass of ice1 and  

the ,polar ,sea affords a dwelling-place
  for many tribes of animals most useful
 in supplying the wants1 and            
contributing to the comfort1 of man4    
,it is not only1 therefore1 in those    
regions where          8,spices breathe 
and milder seasons smile10    but even  
in the laws of a less genial climate1   
that we are called  upon to observe ,his
 eternal power and godhead1 who gives   
the  bounties of his providence to the  
just and the unjust1 and pleads  with   
us1 in the gospel of his ,son1 that we  
should be reconciled  to him4 ,the      
mighty whale1 the ephemeral insect1 and 
the minute  animalcule1 all the         
productions of his power and skill1 have
 their  wants supplied by his laws1 and 
are subject to his control4 ,in these   
he displays the strength of his arm1 and
 the adaptations of his  wisdom1 but in 
man1 redeemed and sanctified1 8the      
exceeding riches  of his grace40 ,happy1
 indeed1 are we1 if whilst1 with the    
ancient  psalmist1 we can proclaim that 

the earth is full of the goodness of    
the ,lord1 8who gathereth the waters of 
the sea together as an heap10  and      
8layeth up the depth in store-houses10  
we can also1 without  presumption1      
through our union with the great heir of
 all things1 the  ,lord ,jesus1 and by  
the merit of his life and death1        
honestly declare  all things are ours1  
whether 444 the world1 or life1 or      
death1 or  things present1 or things to 
come1 all are ours1 and we are          
,christ's1  and ,christ is ,god's4      
,,chapter ,,vi4    ,,expeditions ,,for  
,,further ,,discovery4      ,having now 
completed the account of the ,arctic    
,regions1 as given by  captain          
,scoresby1 it may be interesting to the 
reader to have a brief  statement of    
some of the principal expeditions for   
further discovery  down to the present  
time4    ,in #ahai1 lieutenant ,parry   
sailed with the ,hecla and ,griper4 ,the
  object of his expedition was to       
examine the great and open bay1 known   

as sir ,j4 ,lancaster's ,sound2 and1 in 
case of failure1 the ,sound of  alderman
 ,jones1 and that of sir ,t4 ,smith4 ,on
 the #ast of ,august1 the  ships entered
 the ,sound of sir ,j4 ,lancaster1 and  
ran quickly up it1  finding no land     
across the bottom of the inlet1 but     
arriving at a  strait1 which they named 
,barrow's ,strait1 and a magnificent    
opening  into which it led1 ,wellington 
,channel4 ,on the #dth of ,september1   
the  expedition crossed the meridian of 
#aaj west longitude1 in latitude  #gd   
#dd1 becoming entitled to a reward of   
#e1jjj4 ,they anchored1 and  put into   
winter-quarters at ,melville ,island1   
losing sight of the sun  from #aath     
,november till the #crd of ,february1   
when it became once more  visible from  
the ,hecla's main-top4 ,with the        
greatest difficulty1  they managed to   
escape from the ice during the months of
 ,august and  ,september1 arriving at   
the ,orkneys #bhth ,october1 #ahbj4     
,the second voyage of ,parry was with   

the ,fury and ,hecla4 ,his  instructions
 were to proceed towards1 or into1      
,hudson's ,strait1 to  penetrate to the 
westward through that strait1 until he  
should reach  some portion of the coast 
of the continent of ,america4 ,the      
object was  to discover a way westward  
from the ,atlantic into the ,pacific    
,ocean4  ,the vessels left the ,nore    
#hth ,may1 #ahba1 and arrived at        
,resolution  ,island1 at the entrance of
 ,hudson's ,strait1 on #bnd ,july1      
attempted  the direct passage through   
the ,frozen ,strait1 and passed through 
it  into ,repulse ,bay4 ,from it no     
passage was found to the west1 and the  
ships1 after beating about to no profit1
 were compelled to winter  near ,lyon's 
,inlet4 ,here the dreariness of the     
winter was relieved by  interviews with 
the inhabitants1 who were found to be   
intelligent  and honest4 ,on #bnd ,july1
 the ships left their winter-quarters1  
and1  after being exposed to the most   
fearful dangers1 arrived at a strait1   

called by ,parry1 the ,strait of the    
,fury and ,hecla1 and believed by  him  
to be an opening into the ,polar ,sea4  
,the ships again went into              
winter-quarters1 and were frozen in     
until late in the following year1  but  
arrived at ,lerwick on ,october #ajth1  
#ahbc4    ,the same ships1 under the    
same commander1 sailed on a third       
expedition in ,may1 #ahbd1 having for   
its object to penetrate through         
,lancaster ,sound1 ,barrow's ,strait1   
and ,prince ,regent's ,inlet1 to the    
westward4 ,through detention by the ice1
 they did not arrive at  ,lancaster     
,sound till #ajth ,september1 and went  
into winter-quarters on  the #bgth1 in  
,prince ,regent's ,inlet1 at ,port      
,bowen4 ,on the breaking up  of the ice1
 they explored1 southerly1 close to the 
westward shore2  but by the accidents to
 which they were exposed1 they were     
compelled  to abandon the ,fury1 with   
her stores1 and the ,hecla only returned
 to  ,england4    ,in #ahbg1 captain    

,parry proposed to reach the ,north     
,pole by means of  travelling with      
sledge-boats over the ice4 ,two boats   
were constructed  for the purpose1 the  
one to be commanded by ,parry1 the other
 by  lieutenant ,ross4 ,they proceeded  
in the ,hecla to ,spitzbergen1 and      
there left the ship1 starting in their  
sledge-boats with seventy-one  days'    
provisions4 ,they travelled by night    
rather than by day2 found  the ice very 
rough1 and in some places tender2 and   
after experiencing  great difficulties1 
arrived only at latitude #hb #de1 and   
were  compelled to abandon the          
undertaking as hopeless4    ,captain    
,john ,franklin received instructions to
 explore the northern  coast of         
,america1 from the mouth of ,copper     
,mine ,river to the  eastward4 ,he      
sailed on #bbnd ,may1 #ahai1 in a ship  
of the ,hudson's  ,bay ,company4 ,they  
arrived at ,york ,factory1 in ,hudson's 
,bay1 on #cjth  ,august4 ,their route   
was to be by ,cumberland ,house1 and    

through a  chain of posts to the ,great 
,slave ,lake4 ,at ,cumberland ,house1 it
 was  arranged that ,franklin and others
 should proceed at once on to the       
,athobasca department1 to the northward 
of the ,great ,slave ,lake1 and  that   
the rest of the party should follow in  
the spring4 ,the place of  meeting was  
,fort ,chepewyan1 eight hundred and     
fifty-seven miles from  ,cumberland     
,house2 and1 by the #bjth ,august1 they 
had advanced to ,fort  ,enterprise1 five
 hundred and fifty miles from           
,chepewyan4 ,here they  wintered1 and   
were exposed to awful hardships2 but1 on
 the arrival  of the spring1 they       
prosecuted their journey down the       
,copper ,mine  ,river1 reaching the     
,polar ,sea on the #ahth ,july4 ,they   
then navigated  the coast to the        
eastward1 in their canoes1 exploring    
,coronation  ,gulf4 ,they attempted to  
return by ,hood's ,river1 and across the
 land  to ,point ,lake4 ,after being    
exposed to the most dreadful sufferings1

  they regained their winter-stations1  
at ,fort ,enterprise1 and returned  to  
,england4    ,notwithstanding the perils
 and hardships which had already        
befallen  them1 captain ,franklin and   
his companions1 ,dr4 ,richardson and    
lieutenant ,back1 undertook a second    
expedition over the same country1  and  
left ,liverpool #afth ,february1 #ahbe1 
arriving at ,fort ,chepewyan as  early  
as #aeth ,july4 ,they then descended    
,mackenzie ,river to the sea4  ,dividing
 themselves into two parties1 they      
explored the coast east  and west1 and  
the expedition returned home #bdth      
,september1 #ahbg4    ,other voyages are
 those of ,ross1 of ,back1 first and    
second1 and of  ,dease and ,simpson1 two
 officers of the ,hudson's ,bay         
,company1 who  surveyed1 in #ahci1 the  
remainder of the western coast which had
 been  left by ,franklin4 ,dr4 ,john    
,rae was dispatched by the ,hudson's    
,bay  ,company in ,july1 #ahdf1 to      
survey the unexplored portion of the    

,arctic  coast at the north-eastern     
angle of the ,american continent1 and   
returned successfully in ,october1      
#ahdg4    ,an important expedition for  
discovery in the ,north ,polar regions1 
the termination of which is yet awaited 
with serious anxiety1 left  ,england    
under sir ,john ,franklin in ,july1     
#ahde4 ,the ships were  victualled for  
only three full years1 which expired    
during the summer  of this year4 ,three 
expeditions have been sent in search of 
the lost  travellers4 ,one departed     
early in ,february1 #ahdh1 for          
,behring's  ,strait2 a second1 which    
sailed in the spring1 under sir ,j4     
,ross1 has  been heard of as having     
reached ,disco ,island on the #bnd      
,july2 and a  third1 under sir ,john    
,richardson1 accompanied by ,dr4 ,rae1  
left in  ,march to proceed overland1 and
 arrived at ,lake ,superior on #bith of 
,april4 ,a report has very recently come
 in from the ,esquimaux of their  having
 seen 8two large boats1 full of white   

men1 to the east of the  ,mackenzie     
river20 and sir ,j4 ,ross has been      
spoken with by a whaler on  the east    
side of ,baffin's ,bay1 in latitude #gd 
#bj2 but no tidings to  relieve the     
public anxiety have been received to the
 close of #ahdh1  concerning the fate of
 sir ,j4 ,franklin and his companions4  
,,the ,,religious ,,tract ,,society3    
,,instituted #agii                      
,transcriber's ,note    ,hyphenation has
 been retained as published in the      
original publication4    ,pg #eg        
,changed ,magdalena ,bay to ,magdalen   
,bay    ,pg #gf ,removed quote before3  
,from this remarkable sea    ,pg #aef   
,changed of ,la ,cpede1 to ,cepde    ,pg
 #aeh ,changed according to ,egde1 to   
,eged