,,who ,,wrote ,,the ,,bible8  ,,by      
,,washington ,,gladden    ,,contents4   
,i4 ,a ,,look ,,into ,,the ,,hebrew     
,,bible   ,,ii4 ,,what ,,did ,,moses    
,,write8  ,,iii4 ,,sources ,,of ,,the   
,,pentateuch   ,,iv4 ,,the ,,earlier    
,,hebrew ,,histories    ,v4 ,,the       
,,hebrew ,,prophecies   ,,vi4 ,,the     
,,later ,,hebrew ,,histories  ,,vii4    
,,the ,,poetical ,,books ,,viii4 ,,the  
,,earlier ,,new ,,testament ,,writings  
,,ix4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the         
,,gospels    ,x4 ,,new ,,testament      
,,history ,,and ,,prophecy   ,,xi4 ,,the
 ,,canon  ,,xii4 ,,how ,,the ,,books    
,,were ,,written ,,xiii4 ,,how ,,much   
,,is ,,the ,,bible ,,worth8     ,,who   
,,wrote ,,the ,,bible8     ,,chapter ,i4
  ,a ,,look ,,into ,,the ,,hebrew       
,,bible4    ,the aim of this volume is  
to put into compact and popular form1   
for the benefit of intelligent readers1 
the principal facts upon which scholars 
are now generally agreed concerning the 
literary history of the ,bible4 ,the    

doctrines taught in the ,bible will not 
be discussed2 its claims to a           
supernatural origin will not be the     
principal matter of inquiry2 the book   
will concern itself chiefly with those  
purely natural and human agencies which 
have been employed in writing1          
transcribing1 editing1 preserving1      
transmitting1 translating1 and          
publishing the ,bible4  ,the writer of  
this book has no difficulty in believing
 that the ,bible contains supernatural  
elements4 ,he is ready to affirm that   
other than natural forces have been     
employed in producing it4 ,it is to     
these superhuman elements in it that    
reference and appeal are most frequently
 made4 ,but the ,bible has a natural    
history also4 ,it is a book among books4
 ,it is a phenomenon among phenomena4   
,its origin and growth in this world can
 be studied as those of any other       
natural object can be studied4 ,the old 
apple-tree growing in my garden is the  
witness to me of some transcendent      

truths1 the shrine of mysteries that ,i 
cannot unravel4 ,what the life is that  
was hidden in the seed from which it    
sprang1 and that has shaped all its     
growth1 cordinating the forces of       
nature1 and producing this individual   
form and this particular variety of     
fruit1--this ,i do not know4 ,there are 
questions here that no man of science   
can answer4 ,life in the seed of the    
apple as well as in the soul of man is a
 mystery4 ,but there are some things    
about the apple-tree that may be known4 
,i may know--if any one has been curious
 enough to keep the record--when the    
seed was planted1 when the shoot first  
appeared above the ground1 how many     
branches it had when it was five years  
old1 how high it was when it was ten    
years old1 when this limb and that twig 
were added1 when the first blossom      
appeared1 when that branch was grafted  
and those others were trimmed off4 ,all 
this knowledge ,i may have gained2 and  
in setting forth these facts1 or such as

 these1 concerning the natural history  
of the tree1 ,i do not assume that ,i am
 telling all about the life that is in  
it4 ,in like manner we may study the    
origin and growth of the ,bible without 
attempting to decide the deeper         
questions concerning the inspiration of 
its writers and the meaning of the      
truths they reveal4  ,that the ,bible   
has a natural as well as a supernatural 
history is everywhere assumed upon its  
pages4 ,it was written as other books   
are written1 and it was preserved and   
transmitted as other books are preserved
 and transmitted4 ,it did not come into 
being in any such marvelous way as that 
in which ,joseph ,smith's ,book of      
,mormon1 for example1 is said to have   
been produced4 ,the story is1 that an   
angel appeared to ,smith and told him   
where he would find this book2 that he  
went to the spot designated1 and found  
in a stone box a volume six inches      
thick1 composed of thin gold plates1    
eight inches by seven1 held together by 

three gold rings2 that these plates were
 covered with writing in the ,reformed  
,egyptian tongue1 and that with this    
book were the ,urim and the ,thummim1 a 
pair of supernatural spectacles1 by     
means of which he was able to read and  
translate this ,reformed ,egyptian      
language4 ,this is the sort of story    
which has been believed1 in this        
nineteenth century1 by tens of thousands
 of ,mormon votaries4 ,concerning the   
books of the ,bible no such astonishing 
stories are told4 ,nevertheless some    
good people seem inclined to think that 
if such stories are not told1 they might
 well be2 they imagine that the ,bible  
must have originated in a manner purely 
miraculous2 and though they know very   
little about its origin1 they conceive  
of it as a book that was written in     
heaven in the ,english tongue1 divided  
there into chapters and verses1 with    
head lines and reference marks1 printed 
in small pica1 bound in calf1 and sent  
down to earth by angels in its present  

form4 ,what ,i desire to show is1 that  
the work of putting the ,bible into its 
present form was not done in heaven1 but
 on earth2 that it was not done by      
angels1 but by men2 that it was not done
 all at once1 but a little at a time1   
the work of preparing and perfecting it 
extending over several centuries1 and   
employing the labors of many men in     
different lands and long-divided        
generations4 ,and this history of the   
,bible as a book1 and of the natural and
 human agencies employed in producing   
it1 will prove1 ,i trust1 of much       
interest to those who care to study it4 
,mr4 ,huxley has written a delightful   
treatise on ,a ,piece of ,chalk1 and    
another on ,the ,crayfish2 a ,french    
writer has produced an entertaining     
volume entitled ,the ,story of a ,stick2
 the books of the ,bible1 considered    
from a scientific or bibliographical    
point of view1 should repay our study   
not less richly than such simple1       
natural objects4  ,a great amount of    

study has been expended of late on the  
,scriptures1 and the conclusions reached
 by this study are of immense           
importance4 ,what is called the ,higher 
,criticism has been busy scanning these 
old writings1 and trying to find out all
 about them4 ,what is the ,higher       
,criticism8 ,it is the attempt to learn 
from the ,scriptures themselves the     
truth about their origin4 ,it consists  
in a careful study of the language of   
the books1 of the manners and customs   
referred to in them1 of the historical  
facts mentioned by them2 it compares    
part with part1 and book with book1 to  
discover agreements1 if they exist1 and 
discrepancies1 that they may be         
reconciled4 ,this ,higher ,criticism has
 subjected these old writings to such an
 analysis and inspection as no other    
writings have ever undergone4 ,some of  
this work has undoubtedly been          
destructive4 ,it has started out with   
the assumption that these books are in  
no respect different from other sacred  

books2 that they are no more a          
revelation from ,god than the           
,zendavesta or the ,nibelungen ,lied is 
a revelation from ,god2 and it has bent 
its energies to discrediting1 in every  
way1 the veracity and the authority of  
our ,scriptures4 ,but much of this      
criticism has been thoroughly candid and
 reverent1 even conservative in its     
temper and purpose4 ,it has not been    
unwilling to look at the facts2 but it  
has held toward the ,bible a devout and 
sympathetic attitude2 it believes it to 
contain1 as no other book in the world  
contains1 the message of ,god to men2   
and it has only sought to learn from the
 ,bible itself how that message has been
 conveyed4 ,it is this conservative     
criticism whose leadership will be      
followed in these studies4 ,no          
conclusions respecting the history of   
these writings will be stated which are 
not accepted by conservative scholars4  
,nevertheless it must be remembered that
 the results of conservative scholarship

 have been very imperfectly reported to 
the laity of the churches4 ,many facts  
about the ,bible are now known by       
intelligent ministers of which their    
congregations do not hear4 ,an anxious  
and not unnatural feeling has prevailed 
that the faith of the people in the     
,bible would be shaken if the facts were
 known4 ,the belief that the truth is   
the safest thing in the world1 and that 
the things which cannot be shaken will  
remain after it is all told1 has led to 
the preparation of this volume4  ,i have
 no doubt1 however1 that some of the    
statements which follow will fall upon  
some minds with a shock of surprise4    
,the facts which will be brought to     
light will conflict very sharply with   
some of the traditional theories about  
the ,bible4 ,some of my readers may be  
inclined to fear that the foundations of
 faith are giving way4 ,let me1 at the  
outset1 request all such to suspend     
their judgment and read the book through
 before they come to such a conclusion4 

,doubtless it will be necessary to make 
some readjustment of theories2 to look  
at the ,bible less as a miraculous and  
more as a spiritual product2 to put less
 emphasis upon the letter and more upon 
the spirit2 but after all this is done  
it may appear that the ,bible is worth  
more to us than it ever was before1     
because we have learned how rightly to  
value it4  ,the word ,bible is not a    
biblical word4 ,the ,old ,testament     
writings were in the hands of the men   
who wrote the books of the ,new         
,testament1 but they do not call these  
writings the ,bible2 they name them the 
,scriptures1 the ,holy ,scriptures1 the 
,sacred ,writings1 or else they refer to
 them under the names that were given to
 specific parts of them1 as the ,law1   
the ,prophets1 or the ,psalms4 ,our word
 ,bible comes from a word which began to
 be applied to the sacred writings as a 
whole about four hundred years after    
,christ4 ,it is a ,greek plural noun1   
meaning the books1 or the little books4 

,these writings were called by this     
plural name for about eight hundred     
years2 it was not till the thirteenth   
century that they began to be familiarly
 spoken of as a single book4 ,this fact1
 of itself1 is instructive4 ,for though 
a certain spiritual unity does pervade  
these sacred writings1 yet they are a   
collection of books1 rather than one    
book4 ,the early ,christians1 who       
honored and prized them sufficiently1   
always spoke of them as ,the ,books1    
rather than as ,the ,book1--and their   
name was more accurate than ours4  ,the 
names ,old and ,new ,testament are      
,bible words2 that is to say we find the
 names in our ,english ,bibles1 though  
they are not used to describe these     
books4 ,paul calls the old dispensation 
the old covenant2 and that phrase came  
into general use among the early        
,christians as contrasted with the      
,christian dispensation which they      
called the new covenant2 therefore      
,greek-speaking ,christians used to talk

 about the books of the old covenant1   
and the books of the new covenant2 and  
by and by they shortened the phrase and 
sometimes called the two collections    
simply ,old ,covenant and ,new          
,covenant4 ,when the ,latin-speaking    
,christians began to use the same terms1
 they translated the ,greek word        
covenant by the word testament which    
means a will1 and which does not fairly 
convey the sense of the ,greek word4    
,and so it was that these two           
collections of sacred writings began to 
be called ,the ,old ,testament and ,the 
,new ,testament4 ,it is the former of   
these that we are first to study4  ,when
 ,jesus ,christ was on the earth he     
often quoted in his discourses from the 
,jewish ,scriptures1 and referred to    
them in his conversations4 ,his apostles
 and the other ,new ,testament writers  
also quote freely from the same         
,scriptures1 and books of the early     
,christian ,fathers are full of         
references to them4 ,what were these    

,jewish ,scriptures8  ,at the time when 
our ,lord was on the earth1 the sacred  
writings of the ,jews were collected in 
two different forms4 ,the ,palestinian  
collection1 so called1 was written in   
the ,hebrew language1 and the           
,alexandrian collection1 called the     
,septuagint1 in the ,greek4 ,for many   
years a large colony of devout and      
learned ,jews had lived in ,alexandria2 
and as the ,greek language was spoken   
there1 and had become their common      
speech1 they translated their sacred    
writings into ,greek4 ,this translation 
soon came into general use1 because     
there were everywhere many ,jews who    
knew ,greek well enough but knew no     
,hebrew at all4 ,when our ,lord was on  
earth1 the ,hebrew was a dead language2 
it may have been the language of the    
temple1 as ,latin is now the language of
 the ,roman ,catholic mass2 but the     
common people did not understand it2 the
 vernacular of the ,palestinian ,jews   
was the ,aramaic1 a language similar to 

the ,hebrew1 sometimes called the later 
,hebrew1 and having some such relation  
to it as the ,english has to the ,german
 tongue4 ,there is some dispute as to   
the time when the ,jews lost the use of 
their own language and adopted the      
,aramaic2 many of the ,jewish historians
 hold the view that the people who came 
back from the captivity to ,jerusalem   
had learned to use the ,aramaic as their
 common speech1 and that the ,hebrew    
,scriptures had to be interpreted when  
they were read to them4 ,others think   
that this change in language took place 
a little later1 and that it resulted in 
great measure from the close intercourse
 of the ,jews with the peoples round    
about them in ,palestine1 most of whom  
used the ,aramaic4 ,at any rate the     
change had taken place before the coming
 of ,christ1 so that no ,hebrew was then
 spoken familiarly in ,palestine4 ,when 
the ,hebrew tongue is mentioned in the  
,new ,testament it is the ,aramaic that 
is meant1 and not the ancient ,hebrew4  

,the ,greek1 on the other hand1 was a   
living language2 it was spoken on the   
streets and in the markets everywhere1  
and many ,jews understood it almost as  
well as they did their ,aramaic         
vernacular1 just as many of the people  
of ,constantinople and the ,levant now  
speak ,french more fluently than their  
native tongues4 ,the ,greek version of  
the ,scriptures was1 for this reason1   
more freely used by the ,jews even in   
,palestine than the ,hebrew original2 it
 was from the ,septuagint that ,christ  
and his apostles made most of their     
quotations4 ,out of three hundred and   
fifty citations in the ,new ,testament  
from the ,old ,testament writings about 
three hundred appear to be directly from
 the ,greek version made at ,alexandria4
 ,between these two collections of      
sacred writings1 the one written in     
,hebrew1 then a dead language1 and the  
other in ,greek1--the one used by       
scholars only1 and the other by the     
common people1--there were some         

important differences1 not only in the  
phraseology and in the arrangement of   
the books1 but in the contents          
themselves4 ,of these ,i shall speak    
more fully in the following chapters4   
,it is to the ,hebrew collection1 which 
is the original of these writings1 and  
from which our ,english ,old ,testament 
was translated1 that we shall now give  
our attention4 ,what were these ,hebrew 
,scriptures of which all the writers of 
the ,new ,testament knew1 and from which
 they sometimes directly quote8  ,the   
contents of this collection were        
substantially if not exactly the same as
 those of our ,old ,testament1 but they 
were arranged in very different order4  
,indeed they were regarded as three     
distinct groups of writings1 rather than
 as one book1 and the three groups were 
of different degrees of sacredness and  
authority4 ,two of these divisions are  
frequently referred to in the ,new      
,testament1 as ,the ,law and ,the       
,prophets2 and the threefold division is

 doubtfully hinted at in ,luke xxiv4    
#dd1 where our ,lord speaks of the      
predictions concerning himself which are
 found in the ,law and the ,prophets and
 in the ,psalms4  ,the first of these   
holy books of the ,jews was1 then1 ,,the
 ,,law contained in the first five books
 of our ,bible1 known among us as the   
,pentateuch1 and called by the ,jews    
sometimes simply ,the ,law1 and         
sometimes ,the ,law of ,moses4 ,this was
 supposed to be the oldest portion of   
their ,scriptures1 and was by them      
regarded as much more sacred and        
authoritative than any other portion4   
,to ,moses1 they1 said1 ,god spake face 
to face2 to the other holy men much less
 distinctly4 ,consequently their appeal 
is most often to the law of ,moses4     
,the group of writings known as ,the    
,prophets is subdivided into the        
,earlier and the ,later ,prophets4 ,the 
,earlier ,prophets comprise ,joshua1 the
 ,judges1 the two books of ,samuel1     
counted as one1 and the two books of the

 ,kings1 counted also as one4 ,the      
,later ,prophets comprise ,isaiah1      
,jeremiah1 ,ezekiel1 and the twelve     
,minor ,prophets1 the last books in our 
,old ,testament1--,hosea1 ,joel1 ,amos1 
,obadiah1 ,jonah1 ,micah1 ,nahum1       
,habakkuk1 ,zephaniah1 ,haggai1         
,zechariah1 and ,malachi4 ,these twelve 
were counted as one book2 so that there 
were four volumes of the earlier and    
four of the later prophets4 ,why the    
,jews should have called ,joshua1       
,judges1 ,samuel1 and the ,kings books  
of the ,prophets is not clear2 perhaps  
because they were supposed to have been 
written by prophets2 perhaps because    
prophets have a conspicuous place in    
their histories4 ,this portion of the   
,hebrew ,scriptures1 containing the four
 historical books named and the fifteen 
prophetical books 7reckoned1 however1 as
 four71 was regarded by the ,jews as    
standing next in sacredness and value to
 the book of the ,law4  ,the third group
 of their ,scriptures was known among   

them as ,kethubim1 or ,writings1 simply4
 ,sometimes1 possibly1 they called it   
,the ,psalms1 because the book of the   
,psalms was the initial book of the     
collection4 ,it consisted of the        
,psalms1 the ,proverbs1 ,job1 the ,song 
of ,solomon1 ,ruth1 ,lamentations1      
,ecclesiastes1 ,esther1 ,daniel1 ,ezra1 
,nehemiah1 and the ,chronicles4 ,this   
group of writings was esteemed by the   
,jews as less sacred and authoritative  
than either of the other two groups2 the
 authors were supposed to have had a    
smaller measure of inspiration4         
,respecting two or three of these books 
there was also some dispute among the   
rabbis1 as to their right to be regarded
 as sacred ,scripture4  ,such1 then1    
were the ,hebrew ,scriptures in the days
 of our ,lord1 and such was the manner  
of their arrangement4  ,they had1       
indeed1 other books of a religious      
character1 to which reference is        
sometimes made in the books of the      
,bible4 ,in ,numbers xxi4 #ad1 #ae1 we  

have a brief war song quoted from ,the  
,book of the ,wars of ,jehovah1 a       
collection of which we have no other    
knowledge4 ,in ,joshua x4 #ac1 the story
 of the sun standing still over ,gibeon 
is said to have been quoted from ,the   
,book of ,jasher1 and in #b ,samuel i4  
#ah1 the beautiful ,song of the ,bow1   
written by ,david on the death of ,saul 
and ,jonathan1 is said to be contained  
in the ,book of ,jasher4 ,it is evident 
that this must have been a collection of
 lyrics celebrating some of the great   
events of ,hebrew history4 ,the title   
seems to mean ,the ,book of the ,just4  
,the exploits of the worthies of ,israel
 probably furnished its principal theme4
  ,in #a ,chronicles xxix4 #bi1 we read3
 ,now the acts of ,david the king1 first
 and last1 behold they are written in   
the ,history of ,samuel the ,seer1 and  
in the ,history of ,nathan the ,prophet1
 and in the ,history of ,gad the ,seer4 
,there is no reason to doubt that the   
first named of these is the history     

contained in the books of ,samuel in our
 ,bible2 but the other two books are    
lost4 ,we have another reference to the 
,history of ,nathan1 in #b ,chronicles  
ix4 #bi1--the concluding words of the   
sketch of ,king ,solomon's life4 ,now   
the rest of the acts of ,solomon1 first 
and last1 are they not written in the   
,history of ,nathan the ,prophet1 and in
 the ,prophecy of ,abijah the           
,shilonite1 and in the ,visions of ,iddo
 the ,seer concerning ,jeroboam the son 
of ,nebat8 ,here are two more books of  
which we have no other knowledge2 their 
titles quoted upon the page of this     
chronicle are all that is left of them4 
,a similar reference1 in the last words 
of the sketch of ,solomon's son         
,rehoboam1 gives us our only knowledge  
of the ,histories of ,shemaiah the      
,prophet4  ,in the ,kings and in the    
,chronicles1 reference is repeatedly    
made to the ,books of the ,chronicles of
 the ,kings of ,israel1 and the ,books  
of the ,chronicles of the ,kings of     

,judah1 under which titles volumes that 
are now lost are brought to our notice4 
,undoubtedly much of the history in the 
biblical books of ,kings and ,chronicles
 was derived from these ancient annals4 
,they are the sources from which the    
writers of these books drew their       
materials4  ,we are also told in #b     
,chronicles xxvi4 #bb1 that ,isaiah     
wrote a history of the ,acts of ,uzziah1
 which is wholly lost4  ,other casual   
references are made to historical       
writings of various sorts1 composed by  
prophets and seers1 and thus apparently 
accredited by the biblical writers as   
authoritative utterances of divine      
truth4 ,why were they suffered to       
perish8 ,has not ,emerson certified us  
that    ,one accent of the ,holy ,ghost 
,the heedless world has never lost8     
,but this is a fond exaggeration4 ,mr4  
,emerson was certainly not himself      
inspired when he uttered it4 ,many and  
many an accent of the ,holy ,ghost has  
been lost by this heedless world4 ,and  

it is not at all improbable that some of
 these histories of ,nathan and ,gad and
 ,shemaiah held vital and precious      
truth1--truth that the world has needed4
 ,the very fact that they are hopelessly
 lost raises some curious questions     
about the method of revelation4 ,is it  
to be supposed that the ,providence     
which suffers whole books to be lost by 
men would infallibly guarantee those    
that remain against errors in the       
copies1 and other imperfections8 ,as a  
matter of fact1 we know that ,he has not
 so protected any of them4  ,still ,i   
doubt not that ,providence has kept for 
us the best of this ,hebrew literature4 
,to say that it is the best literature  
that the world has produced is to say   
very little4 ,it is separated widely    
from all other sacred writings4 ,its    
constructive ideas are as far above     
those of the other books of religion as 
the heavens are above the earth4 ,i pity
 the man who has had the ,bible in his  
hand from his infancy1 and who has      

learned in his maturer years something  
of the literature of the other          
religions1 but who now needs to have    
this statement verified4 ,true it is    
that we find pure maxims1 elevated      
thoughts1 genuine faith1 lofty morality1
 in many of the ,bibles of the other    
races4 ,true it is that in some of them 
visions are vouchsafed us of the highest
 truths of religion1 of the very        
substance of the gospel of the ,son of  
,god4 ,but when we take the sacred books
 of the other religions in their        
entirety1 and compare them with the     
sacred writings of the ,hebrews1 the    
superiority of these in their           
fundamental ideas1 in the conceptions   
that dominate them1 in the grand        
uplifting visions and purposes that     
vitalize them1 can be felt by any man   
who has any discernment of spiritual    
realities4 ,it is in these great ideas  
that the value of these writings        
consists1 and not in any petty          
infallibility of phrase1 or inerrancy of

 statement4 ,they are the record1 as no 
other book in the world is a record1 of 
that increasing purpose of ,god which   
runs through the ages4 ,i hope that it  
will appear as the result of our        
studies1 that one may continue to       
reverence the ,scriptures as containing 
a unique and special revelation from    
,god to men1 and yet clearly see and    
frankly acknowledge the facts concerning
 their origin1 and the human and        
fallible elements in them1 which are not
 concealed1 but lie upon their very     
face4     ,,chapter ,,ii4  ,,what ,,did 
,,moses ,,write8    ,we are now to study
 the first five books of the ,bible1    
known as the ,pentateuch4 ,this word    
,pentateuch is not in the ,bible2 it is 
a ,greek word signifying literally the  
,five-fold ,work2 from penta1 five1 and 
teuchos1 which in the later ,greek means
 roll or volume4  ,the ,jews in the time
 of our ,lord always considered these   
five books as one connected work2 they  
called the whole sometimes ,torah1 or   

,the ,law1 sometimes ,the ,law of       
,moses1 sometimes ,the ,five-fifths of  
the ,law4 ,it was originally one book1  
and it is not easy to determine at what 
time its division into five parts took  
place4  ,later criticism is also        
inclined to add to the ,pentateuch the  
,book of ,joshua1 and to say that the   
first six books of the ,bible were put  
into their present form by the same     
hand4 ,the ,hexateuch1 or ,six-fold     
,work1 has taken the place in these     
later discussions of the ,pentateuch1 or
 ,five-fold ,work4 ,doubtless there is  
good reason for the new classification1 
but it will be more convenient to begin 
with the traditional division and speak 
first of the five books reckoned by the 
later ,jews as the ,torah1 or the       
,five-fifths of the ,law4  ,who wrote   
these books8 ,our modern ,hebrew ,bibles
 give them the general title1 ,quinque  
,libri ,mosis4 ,this means ,the ,five   
,books of ,moses4 ,but ,moses could     
never have given them this title1 for   

these are ,latin words1 and it is not   
possible that ,moses should have used   
the ,latin language because there was no
 ,latin language in the world until many
 hundreds of years after the day of     
,moses4 ,the ,latin title was given to  
them1 of course1 by the editors who     
compiled them4 ,the preface and the     
explanatory notes in these ,hebrew      
,bibles are also written in ,latin4     
,but over this ,latin title in the      
,hebrew ,bible is the ,hebrew word      
,torah4 ,this was the name by which     
these books were chiefly known among the
 ,jews2 it signifies simply ,the ,law4  
,this title gives us no information1    
then1 concerning the authorship of these
 books4  ,when we look at our ,english  
,bibles we find no separation1 as in the
 ,hebrew ,bible1 of these five books    
from the rest of the ,old ,testament    
writings1 but we find over each one of  
them a title by which it is ascribed to 
,moses as its author1--,the ,first ,book
 of ,moses1 commonly called ,genesis2   

,the ,second ,book of ,moses1 commonly  
called ,exodus2 and so on4 ,but when ,i 
look into my ,hebrew ,bible again no    
such title is there4 ,nothing is said   
about ,moses in the ,hebrew title to    
,genesis4  ,it is certain that if ,moses
 wrote these books he did not call them 
,genesis1 ,exodus1 ,leviticus1 ,numbers1
 ,deuteronomy2 for these words1 again1  
come from languages that he never heard4
 ,four of them are ,greek words1 and one
 of them1 ,numbers1 is a ,latin word4   
,these names were given to the several  
books at a very late day4 ,what are     
their names in the ,hebrew ,bible8 ,each
 of them is called by the first word1 or
 some of the first words in the book4   
,the ,jews were apt to name their books1
 as we name our hymns1 by the initial   
word or words2 thus they called the     
first of these five books1 ,bereshith1  
,in the ,beginning2 the second one      
,veelleh ,shemoth1 ,now these are the   
names2 the third one ,vayikra1 ,and he  
called1 and so on4 ,the titles in our   

,english ,bible are much more           
significant and appropriate than these  
original ,hebrew titles2 thus ,genesis  
signifies origin1 and ,genesis is the   
,book of ,origins2 ,exodus means        
departure1 and the book describes the   
departure of ,israel from ,egypt2       
,leviticus points out the fact that the 
book is mainly occupied with the        
,levitical legislation2 ,numbers gives a
 history of the numbering of the people1
 and ,deuteronomy1 which means the      
second law1 contains what seems to be a 
recapitulation and renactment of the    
legislation of the preceding books4 ,but
 these ,english titles1 which are partly
 translated and partly transferred to   
,english from older ,latin and ,greek   
titles1 tell us nothing trustworthy     
about the authorship of the books4      
,how1 then1 you desire to know1 did     
these books come to be known as the     
books of ,moses8  ,they were quoted1    
answer some1 and thus accredited by our 
,lord and his apostles4 ,they are       

frequently mentioned in the ,new        
,testament as inspired and authoritative
 books2 they are referred to as the     
writings of ,moses2 we have the         
testimony of ,jesus ,christ and of his  
apostles to their genuineness and       
authenticity4 ,let us see how much truth
 this answer contains4 ,it confronts us 
with a very important matter which may  
as well be settled before we go on4  ,it
 is true1 to begin with1 that ,jesus and
 the ,evangelists do quote from these   
books1 and that they ascribe to ,moses  
some of the passages which they quote4  
,the soundest criticism cannot impugn   
the honesty or the intelligence of such 
quotations4 ,there is good reason1 as we
 shall see1 for believing that a large  
part of this literature was written in  
the time of ,moses1 and under the eye of
 ,moses1 if not by his hand4 ,in a      
certain important sense1 which will be  
clearer to us as we go on1 this         
literature is all ,mosaic4 ,the         
reference to it by the ,lord and his    

apostles is therefore legitimate4  ,but 
this reference does by no means warrant 
the sweeping conclusion that the five   
books of the law were all and entire    
from the pen of the ,lawgiver4 ,our     
,lord nowhere says that the first five  
books of the ,old ,testament were all   
written by ,moses4 ,much less does he   
teach that the contents of these books  
are all equally inspired and            
authoritative4 ,indeed he quotes from   
them several times for the express      
purpose of repudiating their doctrines  
and repealing their legislation4 ,in the
 very fore-front of his teaching stands 
a stern array of judgments in which     
undoubted commandments of the ,mosaic   
law are expressly condemned and set     
aside1 some of them because they are    
inadequate and superficial1 some of them
 because they are morally defective4 ,ye
 have heard that it was said to them of 
old time thus and thus2 but ,i say unto 
you--and then follow words that directly
 contradict the old legislation4 ,after 

quoting two of the commandments of the  
,decalogue and giving them an           
interpretation that wholly transforms   
them1 he proceeds to cite several old   
laws from these ,mosaic books1 in order 
to set his own word firmly against them4
 ,one of these also is a law of the     
,decalogue itself4 ,there can be little 
doubt that the third commandment is     
quoted and criticised by our ,lord1 in  
this discourse4 ,that commandment       
forbids1 not chiefly profanity1 but     
perjury2 by implication it permits      
judicial oaths4 ,and ,jesus expressly   
forbids judicial oaths4 ,swear not at   
all4 ,i am aware that this is not the   
usual interpretation of these words1 but
 ,i believe that it is the only meaning 
that the words will bear4 ,not to insist
 upon this1 however1 several other      
examples are given in the discourse     
concerning which there can be no        
question4  ,jesus quotes the law of     
divorce from ,deuteronomy xxiv4 #a1b4   
,when a man taketh a wife and marrieth  

her1 then it shall be1 if she find no   
favour in his eyes1 because he hath     
found some unseemly thing in her1 that  
he shall write her a bill of            
divorcement1 and give it in her hand1   
and send her out of his house4 ,and when
 she is departed out of his house she   
may go and be another man's wife4 ,these
 are the words of a law which ,moses is 
represented as uttering by the authority
 of ,jehovah4 ,this law1 as thus        
expressed1 ,jesus ,christ unqualifiedly 
repeals4 ,i say unto you that every one 
that putteth away his wife1 saving for  
the cause of fornication1 maketh her an 
adulteress1 and whosoever shall marry   
her when she is put away committeth     
adultery4  ,the law of revenge is       
treated in the same way4 ,ye have heard 
that it was said1 ,an eye for an eye and
 a tooth for a tooth4 ,who said this8   
,was it some rabbin of the olden time8  
,it was ,moses2 nay1 the old record says
 that this is the word of the ,lord by  
,moses3 ,the ,lord spake unto ,moses1   

saying among other things1 ,if a man    
cause a blemish in his neighbor1 as he  
hath done so shall it be done to him2   
breach for breach1 eye for eye1 tooth   
for tooth2 as he hath caused a blemish  
in a man1 so shall it be rendered unto  
him4 7,lev4 xxiv4 #ai1bj47 ,so in       
,exodus xxi4 #bd1 ,thou shalt give life 
for life1 eye for eye1 tooth for tooth1 
hand for hand1 burning for burning1     
wound for wound1 stripe for stripe4 ,it 
is sometimes said that these            
retaliations were simply permitted under
 the ,mosaic law1 but this is a great   
error2 they were enjoined3 ,thine eye   
shall not pity1 it is said in another   
place 7,deut4 xix4 #ba72 life shall go  
for life1 eye for eye1 tooth for tooth1 
hand for hand1 foot for foot4 ,this law 
of retaliation is an integral part of   
the moral legislation of the            
,pentateuch4 ,it is no part of the      
ceremonial law2 it is an ethical rule4  
,it is clearly ascribed to ,moses2 it is
 distinctly said to have been enacted by

 command of ,god4 ,but ,christ in the   
most unhesitating manner condemns and   
countermands it4  ,ye have heard1 he    
continues1 that it was said1 ,thou shalt
 love thy neighbor and hate thine enemy2
 but ,i say unto you1 ,love your        
enemies1 and pray for them that         
persecute you4 ,but this1 it is         
objected1 is not a quotation from the   
,old ,testament4 ,these words do not    
occur in that old legislation4 ,at any  
rate ,jesus introduces them with the    
very same formula which he has all along
 been applying to the words which he has
 quoted from the ,mosaic law4 ,it is    
evident that he means to give the       
impression that they are part of that   
law4 ,he is not careful in any of these 
cases to quote the exact words of the   
law1 but he does give the meaning of it4
 ,he gives the exact meaning of it here4
 ,the ,mosaic law commanded ,jews to    
love their neighbors1 members of their  
own tribe1 but to hate the people of    
surrounding tribes3 ,an ,ammonite or a  

,moabite shall not enter into the       
assembly of the ,lord2 even to the tenth
 generation shall none belonging to them
 enter into the assembly of the ,lord   
for ever4444 ,thou shalt not seek their 
peace nor their prosperity all thy days 
for ever4 7,deut4 xxiii4 #c-f47  ,when  
the ,lord thy ,god shall bring thee into
 the land whither thou goest to possess 
it1 and shalt cast out many nations     
before thee1 444 then thou shalt utterly
 destroy them2 thou shalt make no       
covenant with them1 nor show mercy unto 
them4 7,deut4 vii4 #a1b47 ,this is the  
spirit of much of this ancient          
legislation2 and these laws were1 if the
 record is true1 literally executed1 in 
after times1 by ,joshua and ,samuel1    
upon the people of ,canaan4 ,and these  
bloody commands1 albeit they have a     
,thus said the ,lord behind every one of
 them1 ,jesus1 in the great discourse   
which is the charter of his kingdom1    
distinctly repeals4  ,such is the method
 by which our ,lord sometimes deals with

 the ,old ,testament4 ,it is by no means
 true that he assumes this attitude     
toward all parts of it4 ,sometimes he   
quotes ,lawgiver and ,prophets in       
confirmation of his own words2 often he 
refers to these ancient ,scriptures as  
preparing the way for his kingdom and   
foreshadowing his person and his work4  
,nay1 he even says of that law which we 
are now studying that not one jot or    
tittle shall in any wise pass from it   
till all things be accomplished4 ,what  
he means by that we shall be able by and
 by to discover4 ,but these passages    
which ,i have cited make it clear that  
,jesus ,christ cannot be appealed to in 
support of the traditional view of the  
nature of these old writings4  ,the     
common argument by which ,christ is made
 a witness to the authenticity and      
infallible authority of the ,old        
,testament runs as follows3  ,christ    
quotes ,moses as the author of this     
legislation2 therefore ,moses must have 
written the whole ,pentateuch4  ,moses  

was an inspired prophet2 therefore all  
the teaching of the ,pentateuch must be 
infallible4  ,the facts are1 that ,jesus
 nowhere testifies that ,moses wrote the
 whole of the ,pentateuch2 and that he  
nowhere guarantees the infallibility    
either of ,moses or of the book4 ,on the
 contrary1 he sets aside as inadequate  
or morally defective certain laws which 
in this book are ascribed to ,moses4    
,it is needful1 thus1 on the threshold  
of our argument1 to have a clear        
understanding respecting the nature of  
the testimony borne by our ,lord and his
 apostles to this ancient literature4   
,it is upon this that the advocates of  
the traditional view of the ,old        
,testament wholly rely4 ,christ was     
authority1 they say2 the ,new ,testament
 writers were inspired2 you all admit   
this2 now ,christ and the ,new          
,testament writers constantly quote the 
,scriptures of the ,old ,testament as   
inspired and as authoritative4          
,therefore they must be the infallible  

word of ,god4 ,to this it is sufficient 
to reply1 ,christ and the apostles do   
quote the ,old ,testament ,scriptures2  
they find a great treasure of inspired  
and inspiring truth in them1 and so can 
we2 they recognize the fact that they   
are organically related to that kingdom 
which ,christ came to found1 and that   
they record the earlier stages of that  
great course of revelation which        
culminates in ,christ2 but they nowhere 
pronounce any of these writings free    
from error2 there is not a hint or      
suggestion anywhere in the ,new         
,testament that any of the writings of  
the ,old ,testament are infallible2 and 
,christ himself1 as we have seen1       
clearly warns his disciples that they do
 not even furnish a safe rule of moral  
conduct4 ,after this1 the attempt to    
prove the inerrancy of the ,old         
,testament by summoning as witnesses the
 writers of the ,new ,testament may as  
well be abandoned4  ,but did not ,jesus 
say1 ,search the ,scriptures1 for in    

them ye think ye have eternal life1 and 
they are they that testify of me8 ,well1
 if he had said that1 it would not prove
 that the ,scriptures they searched were
 errorless4 ,the injunction would have  
all the force to-day that it ever had4  
,one may very profitably study documents
 which are far from infallible4 ,this   
was not1 however1 what our ,lord said4  
,if you will look into your ,revised    
,version you will see that his words1   
addressed to the ,jews1 are not a       
command but an assertion3 ,ye search the
 ,scriptures1 for in them ye think ye   
have eternal life 7,john v4 #ci72 if you
 searched them carefully you would find 
some testimony there concerning me4 ,it 
is not an injunction to search the      
,scriptures2 it is simply the statement 
of the fact that the ,jews to whom he   
was speaking did search the ,scriptures1
 and searched them as many people in our
 own time do1 to very little purpose4   
,but does not ,paul say1 in his letter  
to ,timothy1 that ,all ,scripture is    

given by inspiration of ,god8 ,no1 ,paul
 does not say that4 ,look again at your 
,revised ,version 7#b ,tim4 iii4 #af73  
,every ,scripture inspired of ,god is   
also profitable for teaching1 for       
reproof1 for correction1 for            
instruction1 which is in righteousness4 
,every writing inspired of ,god is      
profitable reading4 ,that is the whole  
statement4  ,but ,paul says in the      
verses preceding1 that ,timothy had     
known from a child the ,sacred ,writings
 which were able to make him wise unto  
salvation through faith in ,jesus       
,christ4 ,was there not1 then1 in his   
hands1 a volume or collection of books1 
known as the ,sacred ,writings1 with a  
definite table of contents2 and did not 
,paul refer to this collection1 and     
imply that all these writings were      
inspired of ,god and profitable for the 
uses specified8  ,no1 this is not the   
precise state of the case4 ,these       
,sacred ,writings had not at this time  
been gathered into a volume by          

themselves1 with a fixed table of       
contents4 ,what is called the ,canon of 
the ,old ,testament had not yet been    
finally determined4,footnote3 ,see      
chapter xi ,there were1 indeed1 as we   
saw in the last chapter1 two collections
 of sacred writings1 one in ,hebrew and 
the other in ,greek4 ,the ,hebrew       
collection was not at this time         
definitely closed2 there was still a    
dispute among the ,palestinian ,jews as 
to whether two or three of the books    
which it now contains should go into it2
 that dispute was not concluded until   
half a century after the death of our   
,lord4 ,the other collection1 as ,i have
 said1 was in the ,greek language1 and  
it included1 not only our ,old          
,testament books1 but the books now     
known as the ,old ,testament ,apocrypha4
 ,this was the collection1 remember1    
most used by our ,lord and his apostles4
 ,which of these collections was in the 
hands of ,timothy we do not certainly   
know4 ,but the father of ,timothy was a 

,greek1 though his mother was a ,jewess2
 and it is altogether probable that he  
had studied from his childhood the      
,greek version of the ,old ,testament   
writings4 ,shall we understand ,paul1   
then1 as certifying the authenticity and
 infallibility of this whole collection8
 ,does he mean to say that the ,story of
 ,susanna and ,bel and the ,dragon1 and 
all the rest of these fables and tales1 
are profitable for teaching and         
instruction in righteousness8 ,this     
text1 so interpreted1 evidently proves  
too much4 ,doubtless ,paul did mean to  
commend to ,timothy the ,old ,testament 
,scriptures as containing precious and  
saving truth4 ,but we must not force his
 language into any wholesale indorsement
 of every letter and word1 or even of   
every chapter and book of these old     
writings4  ,so far1 therefore1 as our   
,lord himself and his apostles are      
concerned1 we have no decisive judgment 
either as to the authorship of these old
 writings or as to their absolute       

freedom from error4 ,they handled these 
,scriptures1 quoted from them1 found    
inspired teaching in them2 but the      
,scriptures which they chiefly handled1 
from which they generally quoted1 in    
which they found their inspired         
teaching1 contained1 as we know1        
worthless matter4 ,it is not to be      
assumed that they did not know this     
matter to be worthless2 and if they knew
 this1 it is not to be asserted that    
they intended to place upon the whole of
 it the stamp of their approval4  ,we   
have wandered somewhat from the path of 
our discussion1 but it was necessary in 
order to determine the significance of  
those references to the ,old ,testament 
with which the ,new ,testament abounds4 
,the question before us is1 ,why do we  
believe that ,moses wrote the five books
 which bear his name in our ,bibles8 ,we
 have seen that the ,new ,testament     
writers give us no decisive testimony on
 this point4 ,on what testimony is the  
belief founded8  ,doubtless it rests    

wholly on the traditions of the ,jews4  
,such was the tradition preserved among 
them in the time of our ,lord4 ,they    
believed that ,moses wrote every word of
 these books2 that ,god dictated the    
syllables to him and that he recorded   
them4 ,but the traditions of the ,jews  
are not1 in other matters1 highly       
regarded by ,christians4 ,our ,lord     
himself speaks more than once in stern  
censure of these traditions by which1 as
 he charges1 their moral sense was      
blunted and the law of ,god was made of 
none effect4 ,many of these old tales of
 theirs were extremely childish4 ,one   
tradition ascribes1 as we have seen1 to 
,moses the authorship of the whole      
,pentateuch2 another declares that when1
 during an invasion of the ,chaldeans1  
all the books of the ,scripture were    
destroyed by fire1 ,ezra wrote them all 
out from memory1 in an incredibly short 
space of time2 another tradition relates
 how the same ,ezra one day heard a     
divine voice bidding him retire into the

 field with five swift amanuenses1--how 
he then received a full cup1 full as it 
were of water1 but the color of it was  
like fire1 444 and when he had drank of 
it1 his heart uttered understanding and 
wisdom grew in his breast1 for his      
spirit strengthened his memory1 444 and 
his mouth was opened and shut no more   
and for forty days and nights he        
dictated without stopping till two      
hundred and four books were written     
down4 ,footnote3 #b ,esdras xiv4 ,see1  
also1 ,stanley's ,jewish ,church1 iii1  
#aea4 ,these fables had wide currency   
among the ,jews2 they were believed by  
,irenus1 ,tertullian1 ,augustine1 and   
others of the great fathers of the      
,christian ,church2 but they are not    
credited in these days4 ,it is evident  
that ,jewish tradition is not always to 
be trusted4 ,we shall need some better  
reason than this for believing that     
,moses was the author of the            
,pentateuch4  ,i do not know where else 
we can go for information except to the 

books themselves4 ,a careful examination
 of them may throw some light upon the  
question of their origin4 ,a great      
multitude of scholars have been before  
us in their examination2 what is their  
verdict8  ,first we have the verdict of 
the traditionalists1--those1 ,i mean1   
who accept the ,jewish tradition1 and   
believe with the rabbins that ,moses    
wrote the whole of the first five books 
of the ,bible4 ,some who hold this      
theory are ready to admit that there may
 be a few verses here and there         
interpolated into the record by later   
scribes2 but they maintain that the     
books in their substance and entirety   
came in their present form from the     
hands of ,moses4 ,this is the theory    
which has been generally received by the
 ,christian church4 ,it is held to-day  
by very few eminent ,christian scholars4
  ,over against this traditional theory 
is the theory of the radical and        
destructive critics that ,moses wrote   
nothing at all2 that perhaps the ten    

commandments were given by him1 but     
hardly anything more2 that these books  
were not even written in the time of    
,moses1 but hundreds of years after his 
death4 ,moses is supposed to have lived 
about #adjj ,b4,c42 these writings1 say 
the destructive critics1 were first     
produced in part about #gcj ,b4,c41 but 
were mainly written after the ,exile    
7about #ddd ,b4,c471 almost a thousand  
years after the death of ,moses4 ,strict
 and impartial investigation has shown1 
says ,dr4 ,knappert1 that 444 nothing in
 the whole ,law really comes from ,moses
 himself except the ten commandments4   
,and even these were not delivered by   
him in the same form as we find them    
now4 ,footnote3 ,the ,religion of       
,israel1 p4 #i4 ,this is1 to my mind1 an
 astounding statement4 ,it illustrates  
the lengths to which destructive        
criticism can go4 ,and ,i dare say that 
we shall find in our study of these     
books reason for believing that such    
views as these are as far astray on the 

one side as those of the traditionalists
 are on the other4  ,let us test these  
two theories by interrogating the books 
themselves4  ,first1 then1 we find upon 
the face of the record several reasons  
for believing that the books cannot have
 come1 in their present form1 from the  
hand of ,moses4  ,moses died in the     
wilderness1 before the ,israelites      
reached the ,promised ,land1 before the 
,canaanites were driven out1 and the    
land was divided among the tribes4  ,it 
is not likely that he wrote the account 
of his own death and burial which we    
find in the last chapter of             
,deuteronomy4 ,there are those1 it is   
true1 who assert that ,moses was        
inspired to write this account of his   
own funeral2 but this is going a little 
farther than the rabbins2 they declare  
that this chapter was added by ,joshua4 
,it is conceivable that ,moses might    
have left on record a prediction that he
 would die and be buried in this way2   
but the ,spirit of the ,lord could never

 inspire a man to put in the past tense 
a plain narrative of an event which is  
yet in the future4 ,the statement when  
written would be false1 and ,god is not 
the author of falsehood4  ,it is not    
likely either that ,moses wrote the     
words in ,exodus xi4 #c3 ,moreover the  
man ,moses was very great in the land of
 ,egypt1 in the sight of all the people2
 nor those in ,numbers xii4 #c3 ,now the
 man ,moses was very meek above all the 
men which were on the face of the earth4
 ,it has been said1 indeed1 that ,moses 
was directed by inspiration to say such 
things about himself2 but ,i do not     
believe that egotism is a supernatural  
product2 men take that in the natural   
way4  ,other passages show upon the face
 of them that they must have been added 
to these books after the time of ,moses4
 ,it is stated in ,exodus xvi4 #ce1 that
 the ,israelites continued to eat manna 
until they came to the borders of the   
land of ,canaan4 ,but ,moses was not    
living when they entered that land4  ,in

 ,genesis xii4 #f1 in connection with   
the story of ,abraham's entrance into   
,palestine1 the historical explanation  
is thrown in3 ,and the ,canaanite was   
then in the land4 ,it would seem that   
this must have been written at a day    
when the ,canaanite was no longer in the
 land1--after the occupation of the land
 and the expulsion of the ,canaanites4  
,in ,numbers xv4 #cb1 an incident is    
related which is prefaced by the words1 
,while the children of ,israel were in  
the wilderness4 ,does not this look back
 to a past time8 ,can we imagine that   
this was written by ,moses8 ,again1 in  
,deuteronomy iii4 #aa1 we have a        
description of the bedstead of ,og1 one 
of the giants captured and killed by the
 ,israelites1 just before the death of  
,moses2 and this bedstead is referred to
 as if it were an antique curiosity2 the
 village is mentioned in which it is    
kept4 ,in ,genesis xxxvi4 we find a     
genealogy of the kings of ,moab1 running
 through several generations1 prefaced  

with the words3 ,these are the kings    
that reigned in the land of ,edom before
 there reigned any king over the        
children of ,israel4 ,this is looking   
backward from a day when kings were     
reigning over the children of ,israel4  
,how could it have been written five    
hundred years before there ever was a   
king in ,israel8 ,in ,genesis xiv4 #ad1 
we read of the city of ,dan2 but in     
,judges xviii4 #bi1 we are told that    
this city did not receive its name until
 hundreds of years later1 long after the
 time of ,moses4 ,similarly the account 
of the naming of the villages of ,jair1 
which we find in ,deuteronomy iii4 #ad1 
is quite inconsistent with another      
account in ,judges x4 #c1 #d4 ,one of   
them must be erroneous1 and it is       
probable that the passage in            
,deuteronomy is an anachronism4  ,most  
of these passages could be explained by 
the admission that the scribes in later 
years added sentences here and there by 
way of interpretation4 ,but that        

admission would of course discredit the 
infallibility of the books4 ,other      
difficulties1 however1 of a much more   
serious kind1 present themselves4  ,in  
the first verse of the twentieth chapter
 of ,numbers we read that the people    
came to ,kadesh in the first month4 ,the
 first month of what year8 ,we look     
back1 and the first note of time        
previous to this is the second month of 
the second year of the wandering in the 
wilderness4 ,their arrival at ,kadesh   
described in the twentieth chapter would
 seem1 then1 to have been in the first  
month of the third year4 ,in the        
twenty-second verse of this chapter the 
camp moves on to ,mount ,hor1 and ,aaron
 dies there4 ,there is no note of any   
interval of time whatever2 yet we are   
told in the thirty-third chapter of this
 book that ,aaron died in the fortieth  
year of the wandering4 ,here is a skip  
of thirty-eight years in the history1   
without an indication of anything having
 happened meantime4 ,on the supposition 

that this is a continuous history       
written by the man who was a chief actor
 in it1 such a gap is inexplicable4     
,there is a reasonable way of accounting
 for it1 as we shall see1 but it cannot 
be accounted for on the theory that the 
book in its present form came from the  
hand of ,moses4  ,some of the laws also 
bear internal evidence of having        
originated at a later day than that of  
,moses4 ,the law forbidding the removal 
of landmarks presupposes a long         
occupation of the land2 and the law     
regulating military enlistments is more 
naturally explained on the theory that  
it was framed in the settled period of  
the ,hebrew history1 and not during the 
wanderings4 ,this may1 indeed1 have been
 anticipatory legislation1 but the      
explanation is not probable4  ,various  
repetitions of laws occur which are     
inexplicable on the supposition that    
these laws were all written by the hand 
of one person4 ,thus in ,exodus xxxiv4  
#ag-bf1 there is a collection of legal  

enactments1 all of which can be found1  
in the same order and almost the same   
words1 in the twenty-third chapter of   
the same book4 ,thus1 to quote the      
summary of ,bleek1 we find in both      
places1 7a7 that all the males shall    
appear before ,jehovah three times in   
every year2 7b7 that no leavened bread  
shall be used at the killing of the     
,paschal ,lamb1 and that the fat shall  
be preserved until the next morning2 7c7
 that the first of the fruits of the    
field shall be brought into the house of
 the ,lord2 7d7 that the young kid shall
 not be seethed in its mother's         
milk4,footnote3 ,introduction to the    
,old ,testament1 i4 #bdj4  ,we cannot   
imagine that one man1 with a fairly good
 memory1 much less an infallibly        
inspired man1 should have written these 
laws twice over1 in the same words1     
within so small a space1 in the same    
legal document4 ,in ,leviticus we have a
 similar instance4 ,if any one will take
 that book and carefully compare the    

eighteenth with the twentieth chapter1  
he will see some reason for doubting    
that both chapters could have been      
inserted by one hand in this collection 
of statutes4 ,it is not probable1 as    
,bleek has said1 that ,moses would have 
written the two chapters one after the  
other1 and would so shortly after have  
repeated the same precepts which he had 
before given1 only not so well arranged 
the second time4 ,footnote3             
,introduction to the ,old ,testament1 i4
 #bdj4  ,there are also quite a number  
of inconsistencies and contradictions in
 the legislation1 all of which may be   
easily explained1 but not on the theory 
that the laws all came from the pen of  
one infallibly inspired lawgiver4 ,we   
find also several historical repetitions
 and historical discrepancies1 all of   
which make against the theory that      
,moses is the author of all this        
,pentateuchal literature4 ,a single     
author1 if he were a man of fair        
intelligence1 good common sense1 and    

reasonably firm memory1 could not have  
written it4 ,and unless tautology1      
anachronisms1 and contradictions are a  
proof of inspiration1 much less could it
 have been written by a single inspired 
writer4 ,the traditional theory cannot  
therefore he true4 ,we have appealed to 
the books themselves1 and they bear     
swift witness against it4  ,now let us  
look at the other theory of the         
destructive critics which not only      
denies that ,moses wrote any portion of 
the ,pentateuch1 but alleges that it was
 written in ,palestine1 none of it less 
than six or seven hundred years after he
 was dead and buried4  ,in the first    
place the book expressly declares that  
,moses wrote certain portions of it4 ,he
 is mentioned several times as having   
written certain historical records and  
certain words of the law4 ,in ,exodus   
xxiv41 we are told that ,moses not only 
rehearsed to the people the ,covenant   
which the ,lord had made with them1 but 
that he wrote all the words of the      

,covenant in a book1 and that he took   
the book of the ,covenant and read it in
 the audience of all the people4 ,after 
the idolatry of the people ,moses was   
again commanded to write these words1   
and it is added1 he wrote upon the      
tables the words of the ,covenant1 the  
ten commandments4 ,in ,exodus xvii4 #ad1
 we are told that ,moses wrote the      
narrative of the defeat of ,amalek in a 
book2 and again in ,numbers xxxiii4 #ba1
 we read that ,moses recorded the       
various marches and halts of the        
,israelites in the wilderness4 ,we have 
also in the ,book of ,deuteronomy 7xxxi4
 #bd-bf7 a statement that ,moses wrote  
the words of the law in a book1 and put 
it in the ark of the covenant for       
preservation4 ,precisely how much of the
 law this statement is meant to cover is
 not clear4 ,some have interpreted it to
 cover the whole ,pentateuch1 but that  
interpretation1 as we have seen1 is     
inadmissible4 ,we may concede that it   
does refer to a body or code of         

laws1--probably that body or code on    
which the legislation of ,deuteronomy is
 based4  ,these are all the statements  
made in the writings themselves         
concerning their origin4 ,they prove1 if
 they are credible1 that portions of    
these books were written by ,moses2 they
 do not prove that the whole of them    
came from his hand4  ,i see no reason   
whatever to doubt that this is the      
essential fact4 ,the theory of the      
destructive critics that this literature
 and this legislation was all produced  
in ,palestine1 about the eighth century 
before ,christ1 and palmed off upon the 
,jews as a pious fraud1 does not bear   
investigation4 ,in large portions of    
these laws we are constantly meeting    
with legal provisions and historical    
allusions that take us directly back to 
the time of the wandering in the        
wilderness1 and cannot be explained on  
any other theory4 ,when1 says ,bleek1 we
 meet with laws which refer in their    
whole tenor to a state of things utterly

 unknown in the period subsequent to    
,moses1 and to circumstances existing in
 the ,mosaic age1 and in that only1 it  
is in the highest degree likely that    
these laws not only in their essential  
purport proceeded from ,moses1 but also 
that they were written down by ,moses or
 at least in the ,mosaic age4 ,of these 
laws which appear to carry with them    
such clear and exact traces of the      
,mosaic age1 there are many occurring1  
especially in ,leviticus1 and also in   
,numbers and ,exodus1 which laws relate 
to situations and surrounding           
circumstances only existing whilst the  
people1 as was the case in ,moses' time1
 wandered in the wilderness and were    
dwellers in the close confinement of    
camps and tents4 ,footnote3 ,vol4 i4 p4 
#bab4 ,it is not necessary to draw out  
this evidence at length2 ,i will only   
refer to a few out of scores of         
instances4 ,the first seven chapters of 
,leviticus1 containing laws regulating  
the burnt offerings and meat offerings1 

constantly assume that the people are in
 the camp and in the wilderness4 ,the   
refuse of the beasts offered in         
sacrifice was to be carried out of the  
camp to the public ash heap1 and burned4
 ,the law of the ,great ,day of         
,atonement 7,lev4 xvi47 is also full of 
allusions to the fact that the people   
were in camp2 the scapegoat was to be   
driven into the wilderness1 and the man 
who drove it out was to wash his clothes
 and bathe1 and afterward come into the 
camp2 the bullock and the goat1 slain   
for the sacrifice1 were to be carried   
forth without the camp2 he who bears    
them forth must also wash himself before
 he returns to the camp4 ,large parts of
 the legislation concerning leprosy are 
full of the same incidental references  
to the fact that the people were        
dwelling in camp4  ,there are also laws 
requiring that all the animals killed   
for food should be slaughtered before   
the door of the ,tabernacle4 ,there was 
a reason for this law2 it was intended  

to guard against a debasing             
superstition2 but how would it have been
 possible to obey it when the people    
were scattered all over the land of     
,palestine8 ,it was adapted only to the 
time when they were dwelling in a camp  
in the wilderness4  ,besides1 it must   
not be overlooked that in all this      
legislation the priests are not at all  
referred to in general1 but by name1 as 
,aaron and his sons1 or the sons of     
,aaron the priests4  ,all the           
legislation respecting the construction 
of the tabernacle1 the disposition of it
 in the camp1 the transportation of it  
from place to place in the wilderness1  
the order of the march1 the summoning of
 the people when camp was to be broken1 
with all its minute and circumstantial  
directions1 would be destitute of       
meaning if it had been written while the
 people were living in ,palestine1      
scattered all over the land1 dwelling in
 their own houses1 and engaged in       
agricultural pursuits4  ,the simple1    

unforced1 natural interpretation of     
these laws takes us back1 ,i say1 to the
 time of ,moses1 to the years of the    
wandering in the wilderness4 ,the       
incidental references to the conditions 
of the wilderness life are far more     
convincing than any explicit statement  
would have been4 ,can any one conceive  
that a writer of laws1 living in        
,palestine hundreds of years afterwards1
 could have fabricated these allusions  
to the camp life and the tent life of   
the people8 ,such a novelist did not    
exist among them2 and ,i question       
whether ,professor ,kuenen and          
,professor ,wellhausen1 with all their  
wealth of imagination1 could have done  
any such thing4 ,many of these laws were
 certainly written in the time of       
,moses2 and ,i do not believe that any  
man was living in the time of ,moses who
 was more competent to write such laws  
than was ,moses himself4 ,the conclusion
 of ,bleek seems therefore to me        
altogether reasonable3 ,although the    

,pentateuch in its present state and    
extent may not have been composed by    
,moses1 and also many of the single laws
 therein may be the product of a later  
age1 still the legislation contained in 
it is genuinely ,mosaic in its entire   
spirit and character4 ,footnote3 ,vol4  
i4 p4 #bba4 ,we are brought1 therefore1 
in our study1 to these inevitable       
conclusions3  #a4 ,the ,pentateuch could
 never have been written by any one man1
 inspired or otherwise4  #b4 ,it is a   
composite work1 in which many hands have
 been engaged4 ,the production of it    
extends over many centuries4  #c4 ,it   
contains writings which are as old as   
the time of ,moses1 and some that are   
much older4 ,it is impossible to tell   
how much of it came from the hand of    
,moses1 but there are considerable      
portions of it which1 although they may 
have been somewhat modified by later    
editors1 are substantially as he left   
them4  ,i have said that the ,pentateuch
 is a composite work4 ,in the next      

chapter we shall find some curious facts
 concerning its component parts1 and the
 way in which they have been put        
together4 ,and although it did not come 
into being in the way in which we have  
been taught by the traditions of the    
rabbins1 yet we shall see that it       
contains some wonderful evidence of the 
superintending care of ,god1--of that   
continuous and growing manifestation of 
his truth and his love to the people of 
,israel1 which is what we mean by       
revelation4  ,revelation1 we shall be   
able to understand1 is not the dictation
 by ,god of words to men that they may  
be written down in books2 it is rather  
the disclosure of the truth and love of 
,god to men in the processes of history1
 in the development of the moral order  
of the world4 ,it is the ,light that    
lighteth every man1 shining in the paths
 that lead to righteousness and life4   
,there is a moral leadership of ,god in 
history2 revelation is the record of    
that leadership4 ,it is by no means     

confined to words2 its most impressive  
disclosures are in the field of action4 
,thus did the ,lord1 as ,dr4 ,bruce has 
said1 is a more perfect formula of      
revelation than ,thus said the ,lord4   
,it is in that great historical movement
 of which the ,bible is the record that 
we find the revelation of ,god to men4  
,,chapter ,,iii4  ,,sources ,,of ,,the  
,,pentateuch4    ,in the last chapter we
 found evidence that the ,pentateuch as 
it stands could not have been the work  
of ,moses1 though it contains much      
material which must have originated in  
the time of ,moses1 and is more likely  
to have been dictated by him than by any
 one else2 that large portions of the   
,mosaic law were of ,mosaic authorship2 
that the entire system of ,levitical    
legislation grew up from this ,mosaic   
germ1 though much of it appeared in     
later generations2 and that1 therefore1 
the habit of the ,jews of calling it all
 the law of ,moses is easily understood4
 ,we thus discovered in this study that 

the ,pentateuch is a composite book4    
,the ,christian ,church in all the ages 
has been inclined to pin its faith to   
what the rabbins said about the origin  
of this book1 and this is not altogether
 surprising2 but in these days when     
testimony is sifted by criticism we find
 that the traditions of the rabbins are 
not at all trustworthy2 and when we go  
to the ,book itself1 and ask it to tell 
us what it can of the secret of its     
origin1 we find that it has a very      
different story to tell from that with  
which the rabbins have beguiled us4 ,a  
careful study of the ,book makes it     
perfectly certain that it is not the    
production of any one man1 but a growth 
that has been going on for many         
centuries2 that it embodies the work of 
many hands1 put together in an artless  
way by various editors and compilers4   
,the framework is ,mosaic1 but the      
details of the work were added by       
reverent disciples of ,moses1 the last  
of whom must have lived and written many

 hundred years after ,moses' day4  ,some
 of the evidences of composite structure
 which lie upon the very face of the    
narrative will now come under our       
notice4 ,it is plain that the whole of  
this literature could not have been     
written by any one man without some kind
 of assistance4 ,all the books1 except  
the first1 are indeed a record of events
 which occurred mainly during the       
lifetime of ,moses1 and of most of which
 he might have had personal knowledge4  
,but the story of ,genesis goes back to 
a remote antiquity4 ,the last event     
related in that book occurred four      
hundred years before ,moses was born2 it
 was as distant from him as the         
discovery of ,america by ,columbus is   
from us2 and other portions of the      
narrative1 such as the story of the     
,flood and the ,creation1 stretch back  
into the shadows of the age which       
precedes history4 ,neither ,moses nor   
any one living in his day could have    
given us these reports from his own     

knowledge4 ,whoever wrote this must have
 obtained his materials in one of three 
ways4  #a4 ,they might have been given  
to him by direct revelation from ,god4  
#b4 ,he might have gathered them up from
 oral tradition1 from stories1          
folk-lore1 transmitted from mouth to    
mouth1 and so preserved from generation 
to generation4  #c4 ,he might have found
 them in written documents existing at  
the time of his writing4  ,the first of 
these conjectures embodies the          
rabbinical theory4 ,the later form of   
that theory declared1 however1 that ,god
 did not even dictate while ,moses      
wrote1 but simply handed the law1 all   
written and punctuated1 out of heaven to
 ,moses2 the only question with these   
rabbins was whether he handed it down   
all at once1 or one volume at a time4   
,it is certain that this is not the     
correct theory4 ,the repetitions1 the   
discrepancies1 the anachronisms1 and the
 errors which the writing certainly     
contains prove that it could not have   

been dictated1 word for word1 by the    
,omniscient ,one4 ,those who maintain   
such a theory as this should beware how 
they ascribe to ,god the imperfections  
of men4 ,it seems to me that the        
advocacy of the verbal theory of        
inspiration comes perilously near to the
 sin against the ,holy ,ghost4  ,the    
second conjecture1 that the writer of   
these books might have gathered up oral 
traditions of the earlier generations   
and incorporated them into his writings1
 is more plausible2 yet a careful       
examination of the writings themselves  
does not confirm this theory4 ,the form 
of this literature shows that it must   
have had another origin4  ,the only     
remaining conjecture1 that the books are
 compilations of written documents1 has 
been established beyond controversy by  
the most patient study of the writings  
themselves4 ,in the ,book of ,genesis   
the evidence of the combination of two  
documents is so obvious that he who runs
 may read4 ,these two documents are     

distinguished from each other1 partly by
 the style of writing1 and partly by the
 different names which they apply to the
 ,supreme ,being4 ,one of these old     
writers called the ,deity ,elohim1 the  
other called him ,yahveh1 or ,jehovah4  
,these documents are known1 therefore1  
as the ,elohistic and the ,jehovistic   
narratives4 ,sometimes it is a little   
difficult to tell where the line runs   
which separates these narratives1 but   
usually it is distinct4 ,readers of     
,genesis find many passages in which the
 name given to the ,deity is ,god1 and  
others in which it is ,,lord1 in small  
capitals4 ,the first of these names     
represents the ,hebrew ,elohim1 the     
second the ,hebrew ,yahveh or ,jehovah4 
,in one important section1 beginning    
with the fourth verse of the second     
chapter1 and continuing through the     
chapter1 the two names are combined1 and
 we have the ,supreme ,being spoken of  
as ,the ,,lord ,god1 ,jehovah-,elohim4  
,it is evident to every observing reader

 that we have in the beginning of       
,genesis two distinct accounts of the   
,creation1 the one occupying the first  
chapter and three verses of the second1 
the other occupying the remainder of the
 second chapter with the whole of the   
third4 ,the difference between these    
accounts is quite marked4 ,the style of 
the writing1 particularly in the        
,hebrew1 is strongly contrasted2 and the
 details of the story are not entirely  
harmonious4 ,in the first narrative the 
order of creation is1 first the earth   
and its vegetation1 then the lower      
animals1 then man1 male and female1 made
 in ,god's image4 ,in the second        
narrative the order is1 first the earth 
and its vegetation1 then man1 then the  
lower orders of animals1 then woman4 ,in
 the first story plant life springs into
 existence at the direct command of     
,god2 in the second it results from a   
mist which rose from the earth and      
watered the whole face of the ground4   
,these striking differences would be    

hard to explain if we had not before our
 faces the clear evidence of two old    
documents joined together4  ,i spoke in 
the last chapter of certain historical  
discrepancies which are not explicable  
on the supposition that this is the work
 of a single writer4 ,such are the two  
accounts of the origin of the name of   
,beersheba1 the one in the twenty-first 
and the other in the twenty-sixth       
chapter of ,genesis4 ,the first account 
says that it was named by ,abraham1 and 
gives the reason why he called the place
 by this name4 ,the second account says 
that it received its name from ,isaac1  
about ninety years later1 and gives a   
wholly different explanation of the     
reason why he called it by this name4   
,when we find that in the first of these
 stories ,god is called ,elohim1        
,footnote3 ,in the last verse of this   
narrative the word ,jehovah is used1 but
 this is probably an interpolation4 and 
in the second ,jehovah1 we can readily  
explain this discrepancy4 ,the compiler 

took one of these narratives from one of
 these old documents1 and the other from
 the other1 and was not careful to      
reconcile the two4  ,a similar          
duplication of the narrative is found in
 chapters xx4 and xxvi41 with respect to
 the incident of ,abimelech2 in the     
first of these narratives a serious     
complication is described as arising    
between ,abimelech ,king of ,gerar on   
the one hand and ,abraham and ,sarah on 
the other2 in the second ,abimelech is  
represented as interfering1 in precisely
 the same way and with the same results1
 in the domestic felicity of ,isaac and 
,rebekah4 ,the harmonizers have done    
their work1 of course1 upon these two   
passages2 they have said that there were
 two ,abimelechs1 and that ,isaac       
repeated the blunder of his father2 but 
it is a little singular1 if this were   
so1 that no reference is made in the    
latter narrative to the former4 ,it is  
altogether probable that we have the    
same story ascribed to different actors2

 and when we find that the one narrative
 is ,elohistic and the other            
,jehovistic1 the problem is solved4     
,more curious than any other of these   
combinations is the account of the      
,flood1 in which the compiler has taken 
the narratives of these two old writers 
and pieced them together like patchwork4
 ,refer to your ,bibles and note this   
piece of literary joiner-work4 ,at the  
fifth verse of the sixth chapter of     
,genesis this story begins2 from this   
verse to the end of the eighth verse the
 ,jehovistic document is used4 ,the name
 of the ,deity is ,jehovah1 translated  
,,lord4 ,from the ninth verse to the end
 of the chapter the ,elohistic document 
is used4 ,the word applied to ,god is   
,elohim1 translated ,god4 ,with the     
seventh chapter begins again the        
quotation from the other document1 ,and 
the ,,lord ,jehovah said unto ,noah4    
,this extends only to the sixth verse2  
then the ,elohistic narrative begins    
again1 and continues to the nineteenth  

verse of the eighth chapter1 including  
it2 then the ,jehovistic narrative      
begins again1 and continues through the 
chapter2 then the ,elohist takes up the 
tale for the first seventeen verses of  
the ninth chapter2 then the ,jehovist   
goes on to the twenty-seventh verse1 and
 the ,elohist closes the chapter4 ,it is
 true that we have in the midst of some 
of these ,elohistic passages a verse or 
two of the other document inserted by   
the compiler2 but the outlines of the   
different documents are marked as ,i    
have told you4 ,if you take this story  
and dissect out of it the portions which
 ,i have ascribed to the ,elohist and   
put them together1 you will have a      
clear1 complete1 consecutive story of   
the ,flood2 the portions of the         
,jehovistic narrative inserted rather   
tend to confusion4 ,the consideration of
 the context here1 says ,bleek1 quite   
apart from the changes in the naming of 
,god1 shows that the ,jehovistic        
passages of the narrative did not       

originally belong to it4 ,it cannot fail
 to be observed that the connection is  
often interrupted by the ,jehovistic    
passages1 and that by cutting them out a
 more valuable and clearer continuity of
 the narrative is almost always         
obtained4 ,for instance1 in the existing
 narrative certain repetitions keep on  
occurring2 one of these1 especially1 is 
connected with a difference in the      
matters of fact related1 introducing no 
slight difficulty and obscurity4        
,footnote3 ,vol4 i4 p4 #bgc4  ,hear the 
,jehovist3 ,and ,jehovah saw that the   
wickedness of man was great in the earth
 7ch4 vi4 #e74 ,now hear the ,elohist   
7vi4 #aa73 ,and the earth was corrupt   
before ,elohim1 and the earth was filled
 with violence4 ,the ,jehovist says 7vi4
 #g73 ,and ,jehovah said1 ,i will       
destroy man whom ,i have created from   
the face of the ground4 ,the ,elohist   
says 7vi4 #ac73 ,the earth is filled    
with violence through them1 and behold  
,i will destroy them with the earth4 ,in

 the ninth verse of the sixth chapter we
 read3 ,noah was a righteous man and    
perfect in his generations2 ,noah walked
 with ,elohim4 ,in the first verse of   
the seventh chapter1 we read1 ,and      
,jehovah said unto ,noah1 ,come thou and
 all thy house into the ark2 for thee   
have ,i seen righteous before me in this
 generation4 ,these repetitions show how
 the same story is twice told4 ,but the 
contradictions are more significant4    
,here the one narrative represents      
,elohim as saying 7vi4 #ai73 ,and of    
every living thing of all flesh1 two of 
every kind shalt thou bring into the ark
 to keep them alive with thee2 they     
shall be male and female4 ,of the fowl  
after their kind and of the cattle after
 their kind1 of every creeping thing of 
the earth after its kind1 two of every  
sort shall come unto thee to keep them  
alive4 ,but the other narrative         
represents ,jehovah as saying1 ,of every
 clean beast thou shalt take to thee    
seven and seven1 the male and the       

female2 and of the beasts that are not  
clean1 two1 the male and the female2 of 
the fowl also of the air seven and      
seven1 male and female1 to keep seed    
alive upon the face of all the earth4   
,the one story says that of every kind  
of living creature one pair should be   
taken into the ark2 the other says that 
of clean beasts1 seven pairs of each    
species should be received1 and of      
unclean beasts only one pair4 ,the      
harmonists have wrestled with this      
passage also2 some of them say that     
perhaps the first passage only meant    
that they should walk in two and two2   
others say that a good many years had   
elapsed between the giving of the two   
commands 7of which there is not a       
particle of evidence71 and we are left  
to infer that in the mean time the      
,almighty either forgot his first       
orders1 or else changed his mind4 ,it is
 a pitiful instance of an attempt to    
evade a difficulty that cannot be       
evaded4 ,one of the very conservative   

commentators1 ,dr4 ,perowne1 in ,smith's
 ,bible ,dictionary1 concludes to face  
it3 ,may we not suppose1 he timidly     
asks1 that we have here traces of a     
separate document1 interwoven by a later
 writer1 with the former history8 ,the  
passage has not1 indeed1 been           
incorporated intact1 but there is a     
coloring about it which seems to        
indicate that ,moses1 or whoever put the
 book of ,genesis into its present      
shape1 had here consulted a different   
narrative4 ,the distinct use of the     
divine names in the same phrase 7vi4    
#bb2 vii4 #e71 in the former ,elohim1 in
 the latter ,jehovah1 suggests that this
 may have been the case4 ,footnote3     
,art4 ,noah1 iii4 #bagi1 ,american      
,edition4  ,may we not suppose1 the good
 doctor asks1 that we have traces of two
 documents here8 ,certainly1 your       
reverence4 ,it is just as safe to       
suppose it1 as it is to suppose1 when   
you see a nose on a man's face1 that it 
is a nose4 ,there is no more doubt about

 it than there is about any other       
palpable fact4 ,the truth is1 that the  
composite character of ,genesis is no   
longer1 in scholarly circles1 an open   
question4 ,the most cautious1 the most  
conservative of scholars concede the    
point4 ,even ,president ,bartlett1 of   
,dartmouth ,college1 a ,hebraist of some
 eminence1 and as sturdy a defender of  
old-fashioned orthodoxy as this country 
holds1 made this admission more than    
twenty years ago3 ,we may accept the    
traces of earlier narratives as having  
been employed and authenticated by him  
,moses2 and we may admit the marks of   
later date as indications of a surface  
revision of authorized persons not later
 than ,ezra and ,nehemiah4 ,and ,dr4    
,perowne1 the conservative scholar      
already quoted1 in the article on the   
,pentateuch in ,smith's ,bible          
,dictionary1 sums up as follows3--      
#a4 ,the ,book of ,genesis rests chiefly
 on documents much earlier than         
the time of ,moses1 though it was       

probably brought to very nearly         
its present shape either by ,moses      
himself1 or by one of the       elders  
who acted under him4    #b4 ,the books  
of ,exodus1 ,leviticus1 and ,numbers are
 to a great extent       ,mosaic4       
,besides those portions which are       
expressly declared to       have been   
written by him1 other portions1 and     
especially the       legal sections1    
were1 if not actually written1 in all   
probability       dictated by him4      
#c4 ,deuteronomy1 excepting the         
concluding part1 is entirely the work   
of ,moses1 as it professes to be4       
4    4    4    4    4    4    4    4    
4    4    #e4 ,the first composition of 
the ,pentateuch as a whole could        
not have taken place till after the     
,israelites entered ,canaan4    #f4 ,the
 whole work did not finally assume its  
present shape till its       revision   
was undertaken by ,ezra after the return
 from the       ,babylonish captivity4  
,the volume from which ,i have quoted   

these words bears the date of #ahgj4    
,twenty years of very busy work have    
been expended upon the ,pentateuch since
 ,dr4 ,perowne wrote these words2 if he 
were to write to-day he would be much   
less confident that ,moses wrote the    
whole of ,deuteronomy1 and he would     
probably modify his statements in other 
respects2 but he would retract none of  
these admissions respecting the         
composite character of these five books4
  ,the same fact of a combination of    
different documents can easily be shown 
in all the three middle books of the    
,pentateuch1 as well as in ,genesis4    
,this is the fact which explains those  
repetitions of laws1 and those singular 
breaks in the history1 to which ,i      
called your attention in the last       
chapter4 ,there is1 as ,i believe1 a    
large element of purely ,mosaic         
legislation in these books2 many of     
these laws were written either by the   
hand of ,moses or under his eye2 and the
 rest are so conformed to the spirit    

which he impressed upon the ,hebrew     
jurisprudence that they may be fairly   
called ,mosaic2 but many of them1 on the
 other hand1 were written long after his
 day1 and the whole ,pentateuch did not 
reach its present form until after the  
exile1 in the days of ,ezra and         
,nehemiah4  ,the upholders of the       
traditional theory--that ,moses wrote   
the ,pentateuch1 just as ,blackstone    
wrote his ,commentaries--are wont to    
make much account of the disagreements  
of those critics who have undertaken to 
analyze it into its component parts4    
,these critics1 they say1 are all at    
loggerheads2 they do not agree with one 
another2 none of them even agrees with  
himself very long2 most of them have    
several times revised their theories1   
and there seems to be neither certainty 
nor coherency in their speculations4    
,but this is not quite true4 ,with      
respect to some subordinate questions   
they are not agreed1 and probably never 
will be2 but with respect to the fact   

that these books are composite in their 
origin they are perfectly agreed1 and   
they are also remarkably unanimous in   
their judgments as to where the lines of
 cleavage run between these component   
parts4 ,the consensus of critical       
opinion now is that there are at least  
four great documents which have been    
combined in the ,pentateuch2 and the    
critics agree in the main features of   
the analysis1 though they do not all    
call these separated parts by the same  
names1 nor do they all think alike      
concerning the relative antiquity of    
these portions4 ,some think that one of 
these documents is the oldest1 and some 
give that distinction to another2 nor do
 they agree as to how old the oldest is1
 some bringing the earliest composition 
down to a recent period2 but on the main
 question that the literature is        
composite they are at one4 ,the         
closeness of their agreement is shown by
 ,professor ,ladd in a series of tables 
,footnote3 ,the ,doctrine of ,sacred    

,scripture1 ,part ,,ii4 chap4 vii4 in   
which he displays to the eye the results
 of the analysis of four independent    
investigators1 ,knobel1 ,schrader1      
,dillmann1 and ,wellhausen4 ,he goes    
through the whole of the ,pentateuch and
 the ,book of ,joshua1--the ,hexateuch1 
as it is now called1--and picks out of  
every chapter those verses assigned by  
these several authorities to that       
ancient writing which we have been      
calling the ,elohistic narrative1 and   
arranges them in parallel columns4 ,you 
can see at a glance when they agree in  
this analysis1 and when they disagree4  
,i think that you would be astonished to
 find that the agreements are so many   
and the disagreements so few4 ,so much  
unity of judgment would be impossible if
 the lines of cleavage between these old
 documents were not marked with         
considerable distinctness4 ,the only    
satisfactory explanation1 says          
,professor ,ladd1 of the possibility of 
accomplishing such a work of analysis is

 the fact that the analysis is          
substantially correct4 ,footnote3 ,what 
is the ,bible8 p4 #caa4  ,professor ,c4 
,a4 ,briggs1 of the ,union              
7,presbyterian7 ,theological ,seminary  
in ,new ,york1 bore this testimony three
 years ago in the ,presbyterian ,review3
 ,the critical analysis of the          
,hexateuch is the result of more than a 
century of profound study of the        
documents by the greatest critics of the
 age4 ,there has been a steady advance  
until the present position of agreement 
has been reached1 in which ,jew and     
,christian1 ,roman ,catholic and        
,protestant1 ,rationalistic and         
,evangelical scholars1 ,reformed and    
,lutheran1 ,presbyterian and ,episcopal1
 ,unitarian1 ,methodist1 and ,baptist   
all concur4 ,the analysis or the        
,hexateuch into several distinct        
original documents is a purely literary 
question in which no article of faith is
 involved4 ,whoever in these times1 in  
the discussion of the literary phenomena

 of the ,hexateuch1 appeals to the      
ignorance and prejudices of the         
multitude as if there were any peril to 
faith in these processes of the ,higher 
,criticism1 risks his reputation for    
scholarship by so doing4 ,there are no  
,hebrew professors on the continent of  
,europe1 so far as ,i know1 who would   
deny the literary analysis of the       
,pentateuch into the four great         
documents4 ,the professors of ,hebrew in
 the ,universities of ,oxford1          
,cambridge1 and ,edinburgh1 and tutors  
in a large number of theological        
colleges1 hold to the same opinion4 ,a  
very considerable number of the ,hebrew 
professors of ,america are in accord    
with them4 ,there are1 indeed1 a few    
professional scholars who hold to the   
traditional opinion1 but these are in a 
hopeless minority4 ,i doubt whether     
there is any question of scholarship    
whatever in which there is greater      
agreement among scholars than in this   
question of the literary analysis of the

 ,hexateuch4  ,i have but one more      
witness to introduce1 and it shall be   
the distinguished ,german professor     
,delitzsch1 who has long been regarded  
as the bulwark of evangelical orthodoxy 
in ,germany4 ,his name1 says ,professor 
,ladd1 has for many years been connected
 with the conception of a devout        
,christian scholarship used in the      
defense of the faith against attacks    
upon the supernatural character of the  
,old ,testament religion and of the     
writings which record its development4  
,in a preface to his commentary on      
,isaiah published since his recent      
death1 he speaks with great humility of 
the work that he has done1 adding1 ,of  
one thing only do ,i think ,i may be    
confident1--that the spirit by which it 
is animated comes from the good ,spirit 
that guides along the everlasting way4  
,the opinion of such a scholar ought to 
have weight with all serious-minded     
,christians4 ,when ,i give you his      
latest word on this question1 you will  

recognize that you have all that the    
ripest and most devout scholarship can  
claim4 ,let me quote1 then1 ,professor  
,ladd's abstract of his verdict3--  ,in 
the opinion of ,professor ,delitzsch    
only the basis of the several codes444  
incorporated in the ,pentateuch is      
,mosaic2 the form in which these        
codes444 are presented in the           
,pentateuch is of an origin much later  
than the time of ,moses4 ,the ,decalogue
 and the laws forming the ,book of the  
,covenant are the most ancient portions2
 they preserve the ,mosaic type in its  
relatively oldest and purest form4 ,of  
this type ,deuteronomy is a development4
 ,the statement that ,moses 'wrote' the 
,deuteronomic law 7,deut4 xxxi4 #i1 #bd7
 does not refer to the present ,book of 
,deuteronomy1 but to the code of laws   
which underlies it4  ,the ,priest's     
,code1 which embodies the more          
distinctively ritualistic and ceremonial
 legislation1 is the result of a long   
and progressive development4 ,certain of

 its principles originated with ,moses1 
but its form1 which is utterly unlike   
that of the other parts of the          
,pentateuch1 was received at the hands  
of the priests of the nation4 ,probably 
some particular priest1 at a much later 
date1 indeed1 than the time of ,moses1  
but prior to the composition of         
,deuteronomy1 was especially influential
 in shaping it4 ,but the last stages of 
its development may belong to the period
 after the ,exile4  ,the historical     
traditions which are incorporated into  
the ,hexateuch were committed to writing
 at different times and by different    
hands4 ,the narratives of them are      
superimposed1 as it were1 stratum upon  
stratum1 in the ,pentateuch and the     
,book of ,joshua4 ,for the ,book of     
,joshua is connected intimately with the
 ,pentateuch1 and when analyzed shows   
the same composite structure4 ,the      
differences which the several codes     
exhibit are due to modifications which  
they received in the course of history  

as they were variously collected1       
revised1 and passed from generation to  
generation4444 ,the ,pentateuch1 like   
all the other historical books of the   
,bible1 is composed of documentary      
sources1 differing alike in character   
and age1 which critical analysis may    
still be able1 with greater or less     
certainty1 to distinguish and separate  
from one another4 ,footnote3 ,what is   
the ,bible8 pp4 #dhi-dia4  ,that such is
 the fact with respect to the structure 
of these ancient writings is now beyond 
question4 ,and our theory of inspiration
 must be adjusted to this fact4         
,evidently neither the theory of verbal 
inspiration1 nor the theory of plenary  
inspiration can be made to fit the facts
 which a careful study of the writings  
themselves bring before us4 ,these      
writings are not inspired in the sense  
which we have commonly given to that    
word4 ,the verbal theory of inspiration 
was only tenable while they were        
supposed to be the work of a single     

author4 ,to such a composite literature 
no such theory will apply4 ,to make this
 claim1 says ,professor ,ladd1 and yet  
accept the best ascertained results of  
criticism1 would compel us to take such 
positions as the following3 ,the        
original authors of each one of the     
writings which enter into the composite 
structure were infallibly inspired2     
every one who made any changes in any   
one of these fundamental writings was   
infallibly inspired2 every compiler who 
put together two or more of these       
writings was infallibly inspired1 both  
as to his selections and transmissions  
omissions81 and as to any connecting or 
explanatory words which he might himself
 write2 every redactor was infallibly   
inspired to correct and supplement and  
omit that which was the product of      
previous infallible inspirations4 ,or   
perhaps it might seem more convenient to
 attach the claim of a plenary          
inspiration to the last redactor of all2
 but then we should probably have       

selected of all others the one least    
able to bear the weight of such a claim4
 ,think of making the claim for a       
plenary inspiration of the ,pentateuch  
in its present form on the ground of the
 infallibility of that one of the       
,scribes who gave it its last touches   
some time subsequent to the date of     
,ezra6 ,footnote3 ,the ,doctrine of     
,sacred ,scripture1 i4 #dii  ,and yet   
this does not signify that these books  
are valueless4 ,when it was discovered  
that the ,homeric writings were not all 
the work of ,homer1 the value of the    
,homeric writings was not affected4 ,as 
pictures of the life of that remote     
antiquity they had not lost their       
significance4 ,the value of these       
,mosaic books is of a very different    
sort from that of the ,homeric writings1
 but the discoveries of the ,higher     
,criticism affect them no more          
seriously4 ,even their historical       
character is by no means overthrown4    
,you can find in ,herodotus and in ,livy

 discrepancies and contradictions1 but  
this does not lead you to regard their  
writings as worthless4 ,there are no    
infallible histories1 but that is no    
reason why you should not study history1
 or why you should read all history with
 the inclination to reject every        
statement which is not forced on your   
acceptance by evidence which you cannot 
gainsay4  ,these books of ,moses are the
 treasury1 indeed1 of no little valuable
 history4 ,they are not infallible1 but 
they contain a great deal of truth which
 we find nowhere else1 and which is yet 
wonderfully corroborated by all that we 
do know4 ,ewald declares that in the    
fourteenth chapter of ,genesis ,abraham 
is brought before us in the clear light 
of history4 ,from monuments and other   
sources the substantial accuracy of this
 narrative is confirmed2 and the account
 of the visit of ,abraham to ,egypt     
conforms1 in all its minute incidents1  
to the life of ,egypt at that time4 ,the
 name ,pharaoh is the right name for the

 kings reigning then2 the behavior of   
the servants of ,pharaoh is perfectly in
 keeping with the popular ideas and     
practices as the monuments reveal them4 
,the story of ,joseph has been          
confirmed1 as to its essential accuracy1
 as to the verisimilitude of its        
pictures of ,egyptian life1 by every    
recent discovery4 ,georg ,ebers declares
 that this narrative contains nothing   
which does not accurately correspond to 
a court of ,pharaoh in the best times of
 the ,kingdom4 ,many features of this   
narrative which a rash skepticism has   
assailed have been verified by later    
discoveries4  ,we are told in the       
,exodus that the ,israelites were       
impressed by ,pharaoh into building for 
him two store-cities 7treasure cities1  
the old version calls them71 named      
,pithom and ,rameses1 and that in this  
work they were made to serve with rigor2
 that their lives were embittered with  
hard service in mortar and brick and all
 manner of hard service in the field2   

that they were sometimes forced to make 
brick without straw4 ,the whereabouts of
 these store-cities1 and the precise    
meaning of the term applied to them1 has
 been a matter of much conjecture1 and  
the story has sometimes been set aside  
as a myth4 ,to ,pithom there is no clear
 historical reference in any other book 
except ,exodus4 ,only four or five years
 ago a ,genovese explorer unearthed1    
near the route of the ,suez ,canal1 this
 very city2 found several ruined        
monuments with the name of the city     
plainly inscribed on them1 ,pi ,tum1 and
 excavating still further uncovered a   
ruin of which the following is ,mr4     
,rawlinson's description3 ,the town is  
altogether a square1 inclosed by a brick
 wall twenty-two feet thick1 and        
measuring six hundred and fifty feet    
along each side4 ,nearly the whole of   
the space is occupied by solidly built1 
square chambers1 divided one from       
another by brick walls1 from eight to   
ten feet thick1 which are unpierced by  

window or door or opening of any kind4  
,about ten feet from the bottom the     
walls show a row of recesses for beams1 
in some of which decayed wood still     
remains1 indicating that the buildings  
were two-storied1 having a lower room   
which could only be entered by a        
trap-door1 used probably as a           
store-house1 or magazine1 and an upper  
one in which the keeper of the store may
 have had his abode4 ,therefore this    
discovery is simply that of a           
'store-city1' built partly by ,rameses  
,,ii42 but it further appears from      
several short inscriptions1 that the    
name of the city was ,pa ,tum1 or       
,pithom2 and thus there is no reasonable
 doubt that one of the two cities built 
by the ,israelites has been laid bare1  
and answers completely to the           
description given of it4 ,footnote3     
,quoted by ,robinson in ,the ,pharaohs  
of the ,bondage1 p4 #ig4  ,the walls of 
,egypt were not all laid with mortar1   
but the record speaks of mortar in this 

case1 and here it is3 the several       
courses of these buildings were usually 
laid with mortar in regular tiers4 ,more
 striking still is the fact that in some
 of these buildings1 while the lower    
tiers are composed of bricks having     
straw in them1 the upper tiers consist  
of a poorer quality of bricks without   
straw4 ,photographs may be seen in this 
country of some of these brick granaries
 of this old store-city of ,pithom1 with
 the line of division plainly showing   
between the two kinds of bricks2 and    
thus we have before our eyes a most     
striking confirmation of the truth of   
this story of the bondage of the        
,israelites in ,egypt4 ,quite a number  
of such testimonies to the substantial  
historical verity of these ,old         
,testament records have been discovered 
in recent years as old mounds have been 
opened in ,egypt and in ,chaldea1 and   
the monuments of buried centuries have  
told their story to the wondering world4
 ,the books are not infallible1 but he  

who sets them all aside as a collection 
of myths or fables exposes his ignorance
 in a lamentable way4  ,but what is far 
more to the purpose1 the ideas running  
all through the old literature1 the     
constructive truths of science1 of      
ethics1 of religion1 are pure and lofty 
and full of saving power4 ,even science1
 ,i say1 owes much to ,genesis4 ,the    
story of the ,creation in the first     
chapter of ,genesis must not indeed be  
taken for veritable history2 but it is a
 solemn hymn in which some great truths 
of the world's origin are sublimely set 
forth4 ,it gives us the distinct idea of
 the unity of ,creation1--sweeping away1
 at one mighty stroke1 the whole system 
of naturalistic polytheism1 which makes 
science impossible1 when it declares    
that ,in the beginning ,god created the 
heavens and the earth4 ,in the same     
words it sets forth the truth by whose  
light science alone walks safely1 that  
the source of all things is a spiritual 
cause4 ,the ,god from whose power all   

things proceed is not a fortuitous      
concourse of atoms1 but a spiritual     
intelligence4 ,from this living ,god    
came forth matter with its forces1 life 
with its organisms1 mind with its       
freedom4 ,and although it may not be    
possible to force the words of this     
ancient hymn into scientific statements 
of the order of creation1 it is most    
clear that it implies a continuous      
process1 a law of development1 in the   
generations of the heaven and the earth4
 ,this is not a scientific treatise of  
creation1 but the alphabet of science is
 here1 as ,dr4 ,newman ,smyth has said2 
and it is correct4 ,the guiding lights  
of scientific study are in these great  
principles4  ,similarly the ethical     
elements and tendencies of these old    
writings are sound and strong4 ,i have  
shown you how defective many of the     
,mosaic laws are when judged by         
,christian standards2 but all this      
legislation contains formative ideas and
 principles by which it tends to purify 

itself4 ,human sacrifices were common   
among the surrounding nations2 the story
 of ,abraham and ,isaac banishes that   
horror forever from ,hebrew history4    
,slavery was universal1 but the law of  
the ,jubilee ,year made an end of       
domestic slavery in ,israel4 ,the family
 was foundationless2 the wife's rights  
rested wholly on the caprice of her     
husband2 but that law of divorce which  
,i quoted to you1 and which our ,lord   
repealed1 set some bounds to this       
caprice1 for the husband was compelled  
to go through certain formalities before
 he could turn his wife out of doors4   
,the law of blood vengeance1 though in  
terms it authorized murder1 yet in      
effect powerfully restrained the        
violence of that rude age1 and gave a   
chance for the development of that idea 
of the sacredness of life which to us is
 a moral commonplace1 but which had     
scarcely dawned upon the minds of those 
old ,hebrews4 ,thus the history shows a 
people moving steadily forward under    

moral leadership1 out of barbarism into 
higher civilization1 and we can trace   
the very process by which the moral     
maxims which to us are almost axioms    
have been cleared of the crudities of   
passion and animalism1 and stamped upon 
the consciousness of men4 ,is not ,god  
in all this history8  ,those first      
principles which ,i have called the     
guiding lights of science are also the  
elements of pure religion4 ,science and 
religion spell out different messages to
 men1 but they start with the same      
alphabet4 ,and the religious purity of  
that hymn of the ,creation is not less  
wonderful than its scientific verity4   
,compare it with the other traditional  
stories of the origin of things2 compare
 it with the mythologies of ,egypt1 of  
,chaldea1 of ,greece and ,rome1 and see 
how far above them it stands in         
spiritual dignity1 in moral beauty4 ,we 
could more easily1 indeed1 says ,dr4    
,newman ,smyth1 compute how much a pure 
spring welling up at the source of a    

brook that widens into a river1 has done
 for meadow and grass and flowers and   
overhanging trees1 for thousands of     
years1 than estimate the influence of   
this purest of all ancient traditions of
 the ,creation1 as it has entered into  
the lives and revived the consciences of
 men2 as it has purified countries of   
idolatries and swept away superstition2 
and has flowed on and on with the       
increasing truth of history1 and kept   
fresh and fruitful1 from generation to  
generation1 faith in the ,one ,god and  
the common parentage of men4 ,footnote3 
,old ,faiths in ,new ,light1 p4 #gc4    
,above all1 we find in all this         
literature the planting and the first   
germination of that great hope which    
turned the thought of this people from  
the earliest generations toward the     
future1 and made them trust and pray and
 wait1 in darkest times1 for better days
 to come4 ,speak unto the children of   
,israel that they go forward6 ,this is  
the voice that is always sounding from  

the heights above them1 whether they    
halt by the shore of the sea1 or bivouac
 in the wilderness4 ,they do not always 
obey the voice1 but it never fails to   
rouse and summon them4 ,no people of all
 history has lived in the future as     
,israel did4 ,by faith they worshiped   
and trusted and wrought and fought1 the 
worthies of this old religion2 towards  
lands that they had not seen they set   
their faces2 concerning things to come  
they were always prophesying2 and it is 
this great hope that forms the germ of  
the ,messianic expectation by which they
 reach forth to the glories of the      
latter day4 ,this attitude of ,israel1  
in all the generations1 is the one      
striking feature of this history4 ,no   
soulless sphinx facing a trackless      
desert with blind eyes--no impassive    
,buddha ensphered in placid silence--is 
the genius of this people1 but some     
strong angel poised on mighty pinion    
above the highest peak of ,pisgah1 and  
scanning with swift glances the beauty  

of the promised land4 ,now any people of
 which this is true must be1 in a large 
sense of the word1 an inspired people2  
and their literature1 with all the signs
 of imperfection which must appear in   
it1 on account of the medium through    
which it comes1 will give proof of the  
divine ideas and forces that are working
 themselves out in their history4  ,it  
is in this large way of looking at the  
,hebrew literature that we discover its 
real preciousness4 ,and when we get this
 large conception1 then petty questions 
about the absolute accuracy of texts and
 dates no longer trouble us4 ,he who has
 once gained this broader view of the   
,bible1 says ,dr4 ,newman ,smyth1 as the
 development of a course of history     
itself guided and inspired by ,jehovah1 
will not be disconcerted by the confused
 noises of the critic4 ,his faith in the
 ,word of ,god lies deeper than any     
difficulties or flaws upon the surface  
of the ,bible4 ,he will not be disturbed
 by seeing any theory of its mechanical 

formation1 or school-book infallibility 
broken to fragments under the repeated  
blows of modern investigation2 the water
 of life will flow from the rock which  
the scholar strikes with his rod4 ,he   
can wait1 without fear1 for a candid and
 thorough study of these sacred writings
 to determine1 if possible1 what parts  
are genuine1 and what narratives1 if    
any1 are unhistorical4 ,his belief in   
the ,word of ,god1 from generation to   
generation1 does not depend upon the    
minor incidents of the ,biblical        
stories2 it would not be destroyed or   
weakened1 even though human traditions  
could be shown to have overgrown some   
parts of this sacred history1 as the    
ivy1 creeping up the wall of the church1
 does not loosen its ancient stones4    
,footnote3 ,old ,faiths in ,new ,light1 
p4 #ei4     ,,chapter ,,iv4  ,,the      
,,earlier ,,hebrew ,,histories4    ,we  
found reasons1 in previous chapters1 for
 believing that considerable portions of
 the ,levitical legislation came from   

the hands of ,moses1 although the       
narratives of the ,pentateuch and many  
of its laws were put into their present 
form long after the time of ,moses4 ,the
 composite character of all this old    
literature has been demonstrated4 ,the  
fact that its materials were collected  
from several sources1 by a process      
extending through many centuries1 and   
that the work of redaction was not      
completed until the people returned from
 the exile about five centuries before  
,christ1 and almost a thousand years    
after the death of ,moses1 are facts now
 as well established as any other       
results of scholarly research4          
,nevertheless1 we have maintained that  
the ,israelites possessed1 when they    
entered ,canaan1 a considerable body of 
legislation framed under the eye of     
,moses and bearing his name4 ,throughout
 the ,book of ,joshua this legislation  
is frequently referred to4 ,if the ,book
 of ,joshua was1 as we have assumed1    
originally connected with the first five

 books1 constituting what is now called 
the ,hexateuch1 if these six books were 
put into their present form by the same 
writers1 we should expect that the      
,mosaic legislation would be clearly    
traced through all these books4  ,but   
when we go forward in this history we   
come at once upon a remarkable fact4    
,the ,book of ,judges1 the ,book of     
,ruth1 and the two books of ,samuel     
cover a period of ,jewish history       
estimated in our common chronology at   
more than four hundred years1 and in    
these four books there is no mention    
whatever of that ,mosaic legislation    
which constituted1 as we have supposed1 
the germ of the ,pentateuch4 ,the name  
of ,moses is mentioned only six times in
 these four books2 twice in the early   
chapters of the ,judges in connection   
with the settlement of the kindred of   
his wife in ,canaan2 once in a reference
 to an order given by ,moses that       
,hebron should be given to ,caleb2 twice
 in a single passage in ,i ,samuel xii41

 where ,moses and ,aaron are referred to
 as leaders of the people out of        
,egyptian bondage1 and once in ,judges  
iii4 #d1 where it is said that certain  
of the native races were left in        
,canaan1 to prove ,israel by them1      
whether they would hearken to the       
commandments of the ,lord which he      
commanded their fathers by the hand of  
,moses4 ,this last is the only place in 
all these books where there is the      
faintest allusion to any legislation    
left to the ,israelites by ,moses2 and  
this reference does not make it clear   
whether the commandments referred to    
were written or oral4 ,the word law is  
not found in these four books4 ,there is
 nothing in any of these books to       
indicate that the children of ,israel   
possessed any written laws4 ,there are1 
indeed1 in ,ruth and in the ,judges     
frequent accounts of observances that   
are enjoined in the ,pentateuch2 and in 
,samuel we read of the tabernacle and   
the ark and the offering of sacrifices2 

the history tells us that some of the   
things commanded in the ,mosaic law were
 observed during this period2 but when  
we look in these books for any reference
 or appeal to the sacred writings of    
,moses1 or to any other sacred writings1
 or to any laws or statutes or written  
ordinances for the government of the    
people1 we look in vain4 ,samuel the    
,prophet anointed ,saul and afterward   
,david as ,kings of ,israel2 but if1 on 
these solemn occasions1 he said anything
 about the writings of ,moses or the law
 of ,moses1 the fact is not mentioned4  
,the records afford us no ground for    
affirming that either ,samuel or ,saul  
was aware of the existence of such      
sacred writings4  ,this is a notable    
fact4 ,that the written law of ,moses   
should1 for four centuries of ,hebrew   
history1 have disappeared so completely 
from notice that the historian did not  
find it necessary to make any allusion  
to it1 is a circumstance that needs     
explanation4  ,it is true1 as ,i have   

said1 that during this period certain   
observances required by the law were    
kept more or less regularly4 ,but it is 
also true that many of the most specific
 and solemn requirements of the law were
 neglected or violated during all these 
years by the holiest men4 ,the ,mosaic  
law utterly forbids the offering of     
sacrifices at any other place than the  
central sanctuary1 the tabernacle or the
 temple2 but the narrative of these     
early historical books shows all the    
saints and heroes of the earlier history
 building altars1 and offering          
sacrifices freely in many places1 with  
no apparent consciousness of            
transgression1--nay1 with the strongest 
assurance of the divine approval4       
,samuel1 says ,professor ,robertson     
,smith1 sacrifices on many high places1 
,saul builds altars1 ,david and his son 
,solomon permit the worship at the high 
places to continue1 and the historian   
recognizes this as legitimate because   
the temple was not yet built 7,i ,kings 

iii4 #b-d74 ,in ,northern ,israel this  
state of things was never changed4 ,the 
high places were an established feature 
in the ,kingdom of ,ephraim1 and ,elijah
 himself declares that the destruction  
of the altars of ,jehovah--all          
illegitimate according to the           
,pentateuch--is a breach of ,jehovah's  
covenant4 ,footnote3 ,the ,old          
,testament in the ,jewish ,church1 pp4  
#bbj1 #bba4  ,according to the          
,levitical law it was positively        
unlawful for any person but the high    
priest ever to go into the innermost    
sanctuary1 the holy of holies1 where the
 ark of ,god was kept2 and the high     
priest could go into that awful place   
but once a year4 ,but we find the boy   
,samuel actually sleeping in the temple 
of the ,lord where the ark of the ,lord 
was4 ,the old version conceals this fact
 by a mistranslation4 ,these are only a 
few of many violations of the           
,pentateuchal legislation which we find 
recorded in these books4  ,from the     

silence of these earlier histories      
concerning the law of ,moses1 and from  
these many transgressions1 by the       
holiest men1 of the positive            
requirements of the ,pentateuchal       
legislation1 the conclusion has been    
drawn by recent critics that the        
,pentateuchal legislation could not have
 been in existence during this period of
 history2 that it must have been        
produced at a later day4 ,it must be    
admitted that they make out a strong    
case4 ,for reasons presented in the     
second chapter1 ,i am unable to accept  
their theory4 ,it is probable1 however1 
that the code of laws in existence at   
this time was a limited and simple      
code--no such elaborate ritual as that  
which we now find in the ,pentateuch2   
and that those particular requirements  
with respect to which the earlier       
,judges and ,samuel and ,david appear to
 behave themselves so disorderly1 had   
not then been enacted4  ,moreover1 it   
seems to be necessary to admit that     

there was a surprising amount of popular
 ignorance respecting even those        
portions of the law which were then in  
existence4 ,this is the astonishing     
phenomenon4 ,attempts are made to       
illustrate it by the ignorance of the   
,bible which prevailed among our own    
ancestors before the invention of       
printing2 but no parallel can be found1 
as ,i believe1 in the medival history of
 ,europe4 ,it is true that many of the  
common people were altogether unfamiliar
 with the ,bible in medival times2 but  
we cannot conceive of such a thing as   
that the priests1 the learned men1 and  
the leaders of the church at that time1 
should have been unaware of the         
existence of such a book4  ,on his      
death-bed ,david is said to have        
admonished ,solomon 7,i ,kings ii4 #c71 
that he should keep the statutes and    
commandments of the ,lord1 according to 
that which is written in the law of     
,moses4 ,this is the first reference to 
the ,mosaic law which we find in        

connection with the history of ,david2  
the first mention of a written law since
 the death of ,joshua1 four centuries   
before4 ,after this there are three     
other casual allusions to the law of    
,moses in the first book of ,kings1 and 
four in the second book4 ,the books of  
,chronicles1 which follow the ,kings1   
contain frequent allusions to the law2  
but these books1 as we shall see by and 
by1 were written long afterward2 and the
 tradition which they embody cannot be  
so safe a guide as that of the earlier  
histories4 ,it is in ,chronicles that we
 learn of the attempt which was made by 
one of the good kings of ,judah1        
,jehoshaphat1 to have certain princes1  
priests1 and ,levites appointed to teach
 the law2 they went about the land1 it  
is said1 teaching the people1 and had   
the book of the law of ,jehovah with    
them4 ,i think that this is the first   
intimation1 after the death of ,moses1  
that the law delivered by him had been  
publicly taught or even read in         

connection with the ordinances of       
worship4 ,the earlier narrative of      
,jehoshaphat's reign1 which we find in  
the ,book of the ,kings1 makes no       
allusion to this circumstance4  ,nearly 
three hundred years after ,jehoshaphat1 
and nearly five hundred years after     
,david1 the young ,king ,josiah was     
reigning in ,jerusalem4 ,the temple had 
fallen into ruin1 and the good king     
determined to have it repaired4         
,hilkiah1 the high priest1 who was      
rummaging among the rubbish of the      
dilapidated sanctuary1 found there the  
,book of the ,law of the ,lord4 ,the    
surprise which he manifests at this     
discovery1 the trepidation of ,shaphan  
the scribe1 who hastens to tell the king
 about it1 and the consternation of the 
king when he listens for the first time 
in his life to the reading of the book1 
and discovers how grievously its        
commandments have been disobeyed1 form  
one of the most striking scenes of the  
old history4 ,how are we to explain1    

asks ,dr4 ,perowne1 this surprise and   
alarm in the mind of ,josiah1 betraying1
 as it does1 such utter ignorance of the
 ,book of the ,law and the severity of  
its threatenings1--except on the        
supposition that as a written document  
it had well-nigh perished8 ,footnote3   
,smith's ,bible ,dictionary1 art4       
,pentateuch4 ,undoubtedly the ,book of  
the ,law thus discovered was that body  
of legislation which lies at the heart  
of the ,deuteronomic code2 and this was 
never again lost sight of by the ,jewish
 people4 ,it was less than fifty years  
after this that ,nebuchadnezzar         
destroyed the city and the temple and   
carried the people away into captivity4 
,and it was not until their return from 
the ,captivity1 seventy years later1    
that these sacred writings began to     
assume that place of eminence in the    
religious system of the ,jews which they
 have held in later times4 ,the man by  
whom the ,jews were taught to cherish   
and study these writings was ,ezra1 one 

of the returning exiles4 ,this ,ezra1   
the record says1 was a ready scribe in  
the law of ,moses which the ,lord ,god  
of ,israel had given1 and he had        
prepared his heart to seek the law of   
the ,lord1 and to do it and to teach in 
,israel statutes and judgments4 ,he it  
was1 no doubt1 who gave to these laws   
their last revision1 and who put the    
,pentateuch substantially into the shape
 in which we have it now4 ,doubtless    
much was added at this time2 ritual     
rules which had been handed down orally 
were written out and made part of the   
code2 the ,pentateuch1 after the ,exile1
 was a more elaborate law book than that
 which ,hilkiah found in the old temple4
 ,under the presidency of ,ezra in      
,jerusalem1 and in the days which       
followed1 the ,book of the ,law was     
exalted2 it was the standard of         
authority2 it was read in the temple and
 explained in the synagogues2 its       
writings were woven into all the thought
 and life of the people of ,israel2     

there never has been a time since that  
day when the history of the reign of any
 king could have been written without   
mentioning the law of ,moses2 there     
never has been a decade when any        
adequate account of the life of the     
,jewish people could have been given    
which would not bring this book         
constantly into view4  ,this ,book of   
the ,law1 as finally completed by ,ezra 
and his co-laborers1 was the foundation 
of the ,hebrew ,scriptures2 it possessed
 a sacredness in the eyes of the ,jews  
far higher than that pertaining to any  
other part of their writings4 ,next to  
this in age and importance was the great
 division of their ,scriptures known by 
them as ,the ,prophets4  ,after the     
,book of the ,law was given to the      
people with great solemnity1 in the days
 of ,ezra1 and the public reading and   
explanation of it became a principal    
part of the worship of the ,jews1 it    
began to be noised abroad that there    
were certain other sacred writings      

worthy to be known and treasured4 ,the  
only information we have concerning the 
beginning of this second collection is  
found in one of the apocryphal books1   
the second of ,maccabees 7ii4 #ad71 in  
which we are told that ,neemias         
7,nehemiah71 in founding a library1     
gathered together the acts of the kings1
 and the writings of the prophets1 and  
of ,david1 and the epistles of the kings
 concerning the holy gifts4 ,these last 
named documents are not now in          
existence4 ,they appear to have been the
 letters and commissions of ,babylonian 
and ,persian kings respecting the return
 of the people to ,jerusalem and the    
rebuilding of the temple4 ,the other    
writings mentioned are1 however1 all    
known to us1 and are included in our    
collection4 ,it is not certain that     
,nehemiah began this collection2 it may 
have been initiated before his day1 and 
the founding of the library may have    
been only the work of providing for the 
preservation and arrangement of books   

already in his possession4 ,this second 
collection of sacred writings1 called   
,the ,prophets1 was divided1 as ,i have 
before stated1 into the ,earlier and the
 ,later ,prophets2 the former           
subdivision containing the books of     
,joshua1 ,footnote3 ,joshua1 although   
originally a portion of the pentateuchal
 literature1 was1 about the time of the 
,exile1 separated from the first five   
books1 and put into this later          
collection4 ,judges1 ,samuel1 and       
,kings2 the latter1 the books which we  
now regard and class as the prophecies4 
,ruth was at first considered as a part 
of the ,judges1 and was included among  
the ,earlier ,prophets1 and             
,lamentations was appended to ,jeremiah1
 and included among the ,later          
,prophets4 ,these two books were        
afterward removed from this collection1 
for liturgical reasons1 and placed in   
the third group of writings1 of which we
 shall speak farther on4  ,it is        
probable that the prophetic writings    

proper were first collected2 but it will
 be more convenient to speak first of   
the books known to the ,jews as the     
,earlier ,prophets1 and to us as the    
,old ,testament ,histories1--,judges1   
,ruth1 ,samuel1 and the ,kings4  ,these 
books take up the history of ,israel at 
the death of ,joshua1 and continue it to
 the time of the ,captivity1 a period of
 more than eight centuries4 ,some of the
 critics are inclined to connect them   
all together as successive volumes of   
one great history2 but there is not much
 foundation for this judgment1 and it is
 better to treat them separately4  ,the 
,book of ,judges contains the annals of 
the ,israelites after the death of      
,joshua1 and covers a period of three or
 four centuries4 ,it was a period of    
disorder and turbulence1--the ,dark     
,ages of ,jewish history2 when every    
man1 as the record often says1 did that 
which was right in his own eyes4 ,there 
is frequent mention of the keeping of   
various observances enjoined in the laws

 of ,moses2 but there is no express     
mention of these laws in the book4 ,the 
story is chiefly occupied with the      
northern tribes2 no mention is made of  
,judah after the third chapter2 and it  
is largely a recital of the various wars
 of deliverance and defense waged by    
these northern ,hebrews against the     
surrounding peoples1 under certain      
leaders who arose1 in a providential    
way1 to take command of them4  ,the     
questions1 ,who wrote it8 and ,when was 
it written8 are not easily answered4 ,it
 would appear that portions of it must  
have been written after the time of     
,saul1 for the phrase1 frequently       
repeated1 there was then no king in the 
land1 looks back from a period when     
there was a king in the land4 ,and it   
would appear that the first chapter must
 have been written before the middle of 
the reign of ,king ,david2 for it tells 
us that the ,jebusites had not yet been 
driven out of ,jerusalem2 that they     
still held that stronghold2 while in #b 

,samuel v4 #f1 #g1 we are told of the   
expulsion of the ,jebusites by ,david1  
who made the place his capital from that
 time4 ,the tradition that ,samuel wrote
 the book rests on no adequate          
foundation4  ,the evidence that this    
book also was compiled1 by some later   
writer1 from various written documents1 
is abundant and convincing4 ,there are  
two distinct introductions1 one of which
 comprises the first chapter and five   
verses of the second1 and the other of  
which occupies the remainder of the     
second chapter4 ,the first of these     
begins thus3 ,and it came to pass after 
the death of ,joshua that the children  
of ,israel asked of the ,lord1 saying1  
,who shall go up for us against the     
,canaanites1 to fight against them8 ,the
 second of these introductions begins by
 telling how ,joshua sent the people    
away1 after his farewell address1 and   
goes on 7ii4 #h7 to say1 ,and ,joshua   
the son of ,nun the servant of the ,lord
 died1 being an hundred and ten years   

old4 ,after recounting a number of      
events which happened1 as it tells us1  
after the death of ,joshua1 the         
narrative goes on to give us as naively 
as possible an account of ,joshua's     
death4 ,if this were a consecutive      
narrative from the hand of one writer1  
inspired or otherwise1 such an          
arrangement would be inexplicable2 but  
if we have here a combination of two or 
more independent documents1 the         
explanation is not difficult4 ,it is a  
little puzzling1 too1 to find the       
circumstances of the death of ,joshua   
repeated here1 in almost the same words 
as those which we find in the ,book of  
,joshua 7xxiv4 #bi-ca74 ,it would seem  
either that the writer of ,joshua must  
have copied from ,judges1 or the writer 
of ,judges from ,joshua1 or else that   
both copied from some older document    
this account of ,joshua's death4        
,another still more striking            
illustration of the manner in which     
these old books are constructed is found

 in the account given in the first      
chapter of the capture of ,debir1 by    
,caleb 7i4 #aa-ae74 ,here it is         
expressly said that this capture took   
place after the death of ,joshua1 as a  
consequence of the leadership assigned  
by ,jehovah to the tribe of ,judah in   
this war against the ,canaanites4 ,but  
the same narrative1 in the same words1  
is found in the ,book of ,joshua 7xv4   
#ae-ai71 and here we are told no less   
explicitly that the incident happened   
during the lifetime of ,joshua4 ,there  
is no doubt that the incident happened2 
it is a simple and natural story1 and   
carries the marks of credibility upon   
its face2 but if it happened after the  
death of ,joshua it did not happen      
before his death2 one of these narrators
 borrowed the story from the other1 or  
else both borrowed it from a common     
source2 and one of them1 certainly1 put 
it in the wrong place1--one of them must
 have been mistaken as to the time when 
it occurred4 ,such a mistake is of no   

consequence at all to one who holds a   
rational theory of inspiration2 he      
expects to find in these old documents  
just such errors and misplacements2 they
 do not in the least affect the true    
value of the book2 but it must be       
obvious to any one that instances of    
this nature cannot be reconciled with   
the theory of an infallible book1 which 
has been generally regarded as the only 
true theory4  ,the book is of the utmost
 value as showing us the state of morals
 and manners in that far-off time1 and  
letting us see with what crude material 
the great ideas committed to            
,israel--the unity and spirituality and 
righteousness of ,god--were compelled to
 work themselves out4  ,the ,book of    
,ruth1 which was formerly1 in the       
,jewish collections1 regarded as a part 
of the ,book of ,judges1 is a beautiful 
pastoral idyl of the same period4 ,its  
scene is laid in ,judea1 and it serves  
to show us that in the midst of all     
those turbulent ages there were quiet   

homes and gentle lives4 ,no sweeter     
story can be found in any literature2   
maternal tenderness1 filial affection1  
genuine chivalry1 find in the book their
 typical representatives4 ,the first    
sentence of the book gives us the       
approximate date of the incidents       
recorded3 it was in the days when the   
judges judged4 ,the concluding verses   
give us the genealogy of ,king ,david1  
showing that ,ruth was his              
great-grandmother2 it must1 therefore1  
have been written as late as the reign  
of ,david1--probably much later2 for it 
describes1 as if they belonged to a     
remote antiquity1 certain usages of the 
,jews which must needs have shaped      
themselves after the occupation of      
,canaan4 ,yet it could scarcely have    
been written so late as the ,captivity1 
for the marriage of ,ruth1 who is a     
,moabitess1 to ,boaz1 is mentioned as if
 it were a matter of course1 with no    
hint of censure4 ,in the latter days of 
,israel such an alliance of a ,jew with 

a foreigner would have been regarded as 
highly reprehensible4 ,indeed the       
,deuteronomic law most stringently      
forbids all social relations with that  
particular tribe to which ,ruth         
belonged4 ,an ,ammonite or a ,moabite   
shall not enter into the assembly of the
 ,lord2 even to the tenth generation    
shall none belonging to them enter into 
the assembly of the ,lord for ever4444  
,thou shalt not seek their peace nor    
their prosperity all thy days for ever4 
7,deut4 xxiii4 #c1 #f47 ,but ,ruth1 the 
,moabitess1 becomes the wife of one of  
the chief men of ,bethlehem1 with the   
applause of all the ,bethlehemites1 and 
the highest approval of the author of   
this narrative2 nay1 she becomes1 in the
 fourth generation1 the ancestress of   
the greatest of all the kings of        
,israel4 ,this certainly shows that the 
people of ,bethlehem did not know of the
 ,deuteronomic law1 for they were a     
,god-fearing and a law-abiding people2  
and it also makes it probable that the  

incident occurred1 and that the book    
which describes the incident was        
written1 before this part of the        
,deuteronomic code was in existence4 ,it
 is therefore valuable1 not only as     
throwing light on the life of the people
 at that early period1 but also as      
illustrating the growth of the          
pentateuchal literature4  ,the two      
,books of ,samuel and the two ,books of 
,kings appear in the ,septuagint and in 
the ,latin ,vulgate as one work in four 
volumes1--they are called the ,four     
,books of ,kings4 ,in the recent ,hebrew
 ,bibles they are divided1 however1 as  
in our ,bible1 and bear the same names4 
,they constitute1 it is true1 a         
continuous history2 but the supposition 
that they were all written at one time  
and by one author is scarcely credible4 
,the standpoint of the writer of the    
,kings is considerably shifted from that
 occupied by the writer of ,samuel2 we  
find ourselves in a new circle of ideas 
when we pass from the one book to the   

other4  ,the ,books of ,samuel are      
generally ascribed to ,samuel as their  
author4 ,this is a fair sample of that  
lazy traditionalism which ,christian    
opinion has been constrained to follow4 
,there is not the slightest reason for  
believing that the ,books of ,samuel    
were written by ,samuel any more than   
that the ,odyssey was written by        
,ulysses1 or the neid by neas1 or       
,bruce's ,address by ,bruce1 or         
,paracelsus by ,paracelsus1 or ,st4     
,simeon ,stylites by ,simeon himself4   
,even in ,bible books we do not hold    
that the ,book of ,esther was written by
 ,esther1 or the ,book of ,ruth by      
,ruth1 or the ,book of ,job by ,job1 or 
the ,books of ,timothy by ,timothy4 ,the
 fact that ,samuel's name is given to   
the book proves nothing as to its       
authorship4 ,it may have been called    
,samuel because it begins with the story
 of ,samuel4 ,the ,hebrews were apt to  
name their books by some word or fact at
 the beginning of them1 as we have seen 

in their naming of the books of the     
,pentateuch4  ,it is true that certain  
facts are mentioned in this book of     
which ,samuel would have better         
knowledge than any one else2 and he is  
said to have made a record of certain   
events1 7,i ,sam4 x4 #be47 ,but his     
death is related in the first verse of  
the twenty-fifth chapter of ,first      
,samuel2 and it is certain1 therefore1  
that considerably more than half of the 
document ascribed to him must have been 
written by some one else4  ,as to the   
name of the writer we are wholly        
ignorant1 and it is not easy to         
determine the date at which he wrote4   
,if we regarded this as a continuous    
history from the hand of one writer1 we 
should be compelled to ascribe it to a  
date somewhat later than the separation 
of the two kingdoms2 for in ,i ,sam4    
xxvii4 #f1 we read of the present made  
by the king of ,gath to ,david of the   
city of ,ziklag1 at the time when ,david
 was hiding from ,saul2 wherefore1 it is

 added1 ,ziklag pertaineth unto the     
kings of ,judah even unto this day4 ,now
 there were no kings of ,judah until    
after the ten tribes seceded2 ,rehoboam 
was the first of the kings of ,judah1   
therefore this must have been written   
after the time of ,rehoboam4 ,doubtless 
this sentence was written after that    
time2 and in all probability the books  
of ,samuel did not receive their present
 form until some time after the         
secession of the ten tribes4 ,the       
materials from which the writer composed
 the book are hinted at here and there2 
it is almost certain that here1 as in   
the other books1 old documents are      
combined by the author1 and not always  
with the best editorial care4 ,several  
old songs are quoted3 the ,song of      
,hannah1 ,david's exquisite lament over 
,saul and ,jonathan1 which is known as  
,the ,bow2 ,david's ,song of            
,deliverance1 after he had escaped from 
,saul1 which we find in the ,psalter as 
the ,eighteenth ,psalm1 and ,the ,last  

,words of ,david4 ,the books contain a  
vivid narrative of the times of ,eli and
 ,samuel and ,saul1 and of the splendid 
reign of ,king ,david4 ,no portion of   
the ,old ,testament has been more       
diligently studied1 and the moral       
teaching of the books is clear and      
luminous4 ,the ethical thoroughness of  
these writings when compared with almost
 any literature of equal antiquity is   
always remarkable4 ,take1 as an example1
 the treatment which ,david receives at 
the hands of the writer4 ,he is a great 
hero1 the one grand figure of ,hebrew   
history2 but there is nothing of the    
demigod in this picture of him2 his     
faults and crimes are exposed and       
denounced1 and he gains our respect only
 by his hearty contrition and amendment4
 ,verily the ,god of ,israel whom this  
book reveals is a ,god who loveth       
righteousness and hateth iniquity4  ,the
 ,books of the ,kings were originally   
one book1 and ought to have remained    
one4 ,the manuscript was torn in two by 

some scribe or copyist long ago1 in the 
middle of the story of the reign of     
,king ,ahaziah2 the first word of       
,second ,kings goes on without so much  
as taking breath1 from the last word of 
,first ,kings4 ,there is no excuse for  
this bisection of the narrative2 it must
 be due to some accident1 or to the     
arbitrary and unintelligent act of some 
person who paid no attention to the     
meaning of the document4 ,as the ,books 
of ,samuel carry the history from the   
birth of ,samuel down to the end of     
,david's reign1 so the ,books of the    
,kings take up the story in the last    
days of ,david and carry it on to the   
time of the ,exile1 a period of four    
hundred and fifty years4 ,the name of   
the author is concealed from us2 there  
is a tradition1 not altogether          
improbable1 that it was written by the  
,prophet ,jeremiah4 ,if you will compare
 the last chapter of ,second ,kings with
 the last chapter of ,jeremiah1 you will
 discover that they are almost verbally 

the same4 ,here1 again1 if ,jeremiah was
 not the author1 either writer may have 
copied the passage from the other1 or   
both may have taken it from some older  
book4 ,but this passage gives us a note 
of time4 ,it tells us that              
,evil-,merodach1 king of ,babylon1 in   
the first year of his reign1 released   
the captive king of ,judah1 ,jehoiachin1
 from his long confinement1 and gave him
 a seat at his own table4 ,the book must
 have been written1 then1 after the     
beginning of the reign of               
,evil-,merodach2 and there is plenty of 
history to show that his reign began    
#efa ,b4,c4 ,and inasmuch as the book   
gives no hint of the return of the ,jews
 from their captivity1 which began in   
#ech ,b4,c41 we may fairly conclude that
 the book was written some time between 
those dates4 ,let us suppose that       
,jeremiah wrote it2 even he1 as prophet 
of the ,lord1 certainly used the        
materials of history which had          
accumulated in the archives of the two  

nations4  ,it is evident that1 after the
 establishment of the kingdom1          
considerable attention was paid to the  
preservation of the records of important
 national events4 ,the kings kept       
chroniclers who not only preserved and  
edited old documents1 but who wrote the 
annals of their own times4 ,in ,i ,kings
 xi4 #da1 at the conclusion of the      
narrative of ,solomon's reign1 we read1 
,now the rest of the acts of ,solomon1  
and all that he did1 and his wisdom1 are
 they not written in the ,book of the   
,acts of ,solomon8 ,for his history of  
,jeroboam the writer refers in the same 
way to ,the ,book of the ,chronicles of 
the ,kings of ,israel1 and for his      
history of ,rehoboam to ,the ,book of   
the ,chronicles of the ,kings of ,judah4
 ,the same is true of the reigns of     
other kings4 ,these were not1 of course1
 our ,books of ,chronicles1 for these   
were not written for two hundred years  
after the ,book of ,kings was finished4 
,it is thus evident1 as one modern      

writer has said1 that the author        
laboriously employed the materials      
within his reach1 very much as a modern 
historian might do1 and further that he 
was as much puzzled by chronological    
difficulties as a modern historian      
frequently is4 ,footnote3 ,horton's     
,inspiration and the ,bible1 p4 #ahb4   
,prophet or not1 he took the materials  
at his hands1 and put them together in  
this history4  ,the splendid but corrupt
 reign of the son of ,david2 the        
secession of the ten tribes under       
,jeroboam2 the hostile relations of the 
two kingdoms of ,israel and ,judah for  
two hundred and fifty years1 by which   
both were weakened1 and through unholy  
alliances corrupted1 and the result of  
which was the final destruction of both1
 are described in this book in a        
spirited and evidently veracious manner4
 ,the two great prophets1 ,elijah and   
,elisha1 are grand figures in this      
narrative2 much of the story revolves   
around them4 ,as witnesses for the      

righteous ,jehovah they stand forth1    
warning1 rebuking1 counseling kings and 
people2 the moral leadership by which   
,israel is chastened and corrected and  
led in the way of righteousness         
expresses itself largely through their  
ministry4 ,the words of ,lord ,arthur   
,hervey1 in ,smith's ,bible ,dictionary1
 none too strongly convey the           
historian's sense of the value of this  
part of the ,old ,testament3--          
,considering the conciseness of the     
narrative and the simplicity of the     
style1 the amount of the knowledge which
 these books convey of the characters1  
conduct1 and manners of kings and people
 during so long a period is truly       
wonderful4 ,the insight which they give 
us into the aspect of ,judah and        
,jerusalem1 both natural and artificial1
 with the religious1 military1 and civil
 institutions of the people1 their arts 
and manufactures1 the state of education
 and learning among them1 their         
resources1 commerce1 exploits1          

alliances1 the causes of their          
decadence1 and finally of their ruin1 is
 most clear1 interesting1 and           
instructive4 ,in a few brief sentences  
we acquire more accurate knowledge of   
the affairs of ,egypt1 ,tyre1 ,syria1   
,assyria1 ,babylon1 and other           
neighboring nations than had been       
preserved to us in all the other remains
 of antiquity up to the recent          
discoveries in hieroglyphical and       
cuneiform monuments4 ,footnote3 ,vol4   
iii4 p4 #aefa1 ,american ,edition4  ,the
 substantial historical veracity of     
these books has been confirmed in many  
ways by these very monuments to which   
,lord ,hervey refers4 ,and yet this     
substantial historical accuracy is      
found1 as in other histories of the     
olden time1 in the midst of many minor  
errors and discrepancies4 ,it would seem
 as if ,providence had taken the utmost 
pains to show us that the essential     
truth and the moral and religious value 
of this history could not be identified 

with any theory of verbal or even       
plenary inspiration4  ,take1 for        
example1 some of the chronological items
 of this record4 ,mr4 ,horton's clear   
statement will bring a few of them      
before us3--  ,the author seems to have 
been content1 in dealing with an        
,israelite king1 to give the date       
reckoned by the year of the reigning    
king in ,judah just as he found it      
stated in the ,israelite chronicles1 and
 then to do the same in dealing with the
 dates of the reigning kings of ,israel2
 but he did not consider whether the two
 chronicles harmonized4 ,we may take    
some illustrations from the latter part 
of the work4 ,hoshea began to reign in  
,israel 7#b ,kings xv4 #cj7 in the      
twentieth year of ,jotham the king of   
,judah4 ,so far writes our author1      
following the records of the ,northern  
,kingdom4 ,for his next paragraph he    
turns to his records of the ,southern   
,kingdom1 and naively tells us that     
,jotham never reached a twentieth year1 

but only reigned sixteen years 7xv4     
#cc72 but even this is not the end of   
the difficulty2 in chapter xvii4 he goes
 back to the ,northern ,kingdom and     
tells us that ,hoshea began to reign1   
not in ,jotham's reign at all1 but in   
the reign of ,ahaz1 ,jotham's successor2
 and if now he had said1 'in the fourth 
year of ,ahaz1' we might see our way    
through the perplexity1 for the fourth  
year of ,ahaz would1 at any rate1 be    
twenty years from the beginning of      
,jotham's reign1 though ,jotham himself 
had died after reigning sixteen years2  
but he says1 not in the fourth1 but 'in 
the twelfth year of ,ahaz king of       
,judah4' ,we may give it up1 and exclaim
 with the ,speaker's commentator1 ',the 
chronological confusion of the history1 
as it stands1 is striking1' and then    
perhaps we may exclaim at the ,speaker's
 commentator1 that he and the like of   
him have given us so little account of  
these unmistakable phenomena1 and the   
cause of them1 in the history4  ,one    

other illustration may suffice4 ,king   
,ahaz1 according to one authority1 lived
 twenty years and then came to the      
throne and reigned for sixteen years4   
7#b ,kings xvi4 #b47 ,at his death1     
therefore1 ,ahaz was thirty-six years of
 age4 ,in that year he was succeeded by 
his son ,hezekiah1 who was twenty-five  
years of age4 ,this would mean that     
,king ,ahaz was married at the age of   
ten1 which1 making all allowance for the
 earlier puberty of ,eastern boys1 does 
not seem probable2 and the explanation  
is much more likely to be found in the  
chronological inaccuracies of our       
author1 to which1 if we have been       
observantly reading his book through1 we
 shall by this time have become quite   
accustomed4 ,footnote3 ,inspiration and 
the ,bible1 pp4 #ahi-aia4  ,observe that
 we are not going to any hostile or     
foreign sources for these evidences of  
inaccuracy2 we are simply letting the   
book tell its own story4 ,such phenomena
 as these appear throughout this        

history4 ,they lie upon the very face of
 the narrative4 ,probably few of the    
readers of these pages have noted them4 
,for myself1 ,i must confess that ,i    
read the ,bible through1 from cover to  
cover1 several times before ,i was      
thirty years old1 but ,i had never      
observed these inaccuracies4 ,the       
commentators1 for the most part1--the   
orthodox commentators1--carefully keep  
these facts out of sight4 ,sometimes    
they attempt1 indeed1 to explain or     
reconcile them1 but such explanations   
generally increase the incredibility of 
the narrative4 ,the latest verdict of   
ultra-conservatism is that these dates  
and chronological notes are interpolated
 by some later hand2 but this1 too1 is  
quite out of the question4 ,the only    
true account of the matter is1 that the 
author took these records from the      
,chronicles of the ,kings of ,judah and 
the ,chronicles of the ,kings of        
,israel1 and pieced them together       
without noticing or caring whether they 

agreed4 ,his mind was not fixed upon    
scientific accuracy of dates4 ,he was   
thinking only of the great ethical and  
spiritual problems working themselves   
out in this history1--of the question   
whether or not these kings did that     
which was right in the sight of the     
,lord1 and of the effects of their right
 doing and their evil doing upon the    
lives of the people4 ,what difference1  
indeed1 does it make to you and me      
whether ,jotham reigned sixteen years or
 twenty years8 ,it seems to me that     
these inaccuracies are suffered to lie  
upon the face of the narrative that our 
thoughts may be turned away from these  
details of the record to the great      
principles of morality and religion     
whose development it reveals to us4     
,these errors which appear upon the     
surface are obvious enough to any       
careful reader4 ,but other facts1 most  
important and suggestive1 are brought to
 light when we compare these narratives 
of ,samuel and ,kings as we find them in

 the ,hebrew text with the same         
narrative in the ,greek text1 the       
,septuagint4 ,the ,old ,testament1 as we
 have seen1 was translated into the     
,greek language1 for the benefit of     
those ,jews who spoke only ,greek1 early
 in the third century before ,christ4   
,undoubtedly it was a pretty faithful   
translation at the time when it was     
made4 ,but a careful comparison of the  
two texts as they exist at the present  
time shows that considerable additions  
have been made to both of them2 and that
 some changes and misplacements have    
occurred in both of them4 ,sometimes it 
is evident that the ,hebrew is the more 
correct1 because the story is more      
orderly and consistent2 and sometimes it
 is equally evident that the ,greek     
version1 which1 as you remember1 was    
commonly used by our ,lord and his      
apostles1 is the better4 ,this          
comparison gives us a vivid and         
convincing illustration of the freedom  
with which the text was handled by      

scribes and copyists2 how bits of       
narrative--most commonly legends and    
popular tales concerning the heroes of  
the nation--were thrust into the text1  
sometimes quite breaking its continuity2
 they make it plain that that           
preternatural supervision of it1 for the
 prevention of error1 which we have     
frequently heard about1 is itself a     
myth4 ,it is in these books of ,samuel  
and the ,kings that these variations of 
the ,septuagint from the ,hebrew text   
are most frequent and most instructive4 
,in the story of ,david's introduction  
to ,saul1 for example1 our version1     
following the ,hebrew1 tells us 7,i     
,sam4 xvi4 #ad-bc71 that when ,david was
 first made known to ,saul he was a     
mighty man of valor1 and a man of war1  
and prudent in speech1 and a comely     
person4 ,he comes into ,saul's          
household2 ,saul loves him greatly1 and 
makes him his armor-bearer4 ,in the next
 chapter ,david is represented as a mere
 lad1 and it appears that ,saul had     

never seen or heard of him4 ,indeed1 he 
asks his general1 ,abner1 who this      
stripling is4 ,the contradiction in     
these narratives is palpable and        
irreconcilable4 ,when we turn now to the
 ,septuagint1 we find that it omits from
 the seventeenth chapter verses #ab-ca  
inclusive2 also from the #eeth verse to 
the end of the chapter and the first    
five verses of the next chapter4 ,taking
 out these passages1 the main           
difficulties of the narrative are at    
once removed4 ,it appears probable that 
these passages were not in the narrative
 when it was translated into ,greek1 but
 that they embodied a current and a very
 beautiful tradition about ,david which 
some later ,hebrew transcriber ventured 
to incorporate into the text4  ,in the  
,books of the ,kings the variations     
between these two versions are also     
extremely suggestive4 ,you can see      
distinctly1 as if it were done before   
your eyes1 how supplementary matter has 
been inserted into the one text or the  

other1 since the ,greek translation was 
made4 ,in the sixth chapter of ,first   
,kings1 the ,septuagint omits verses    
#aa-ad1 which is an exhortation to      
,solomon1 injected into the             
specifications respecting the temple    
building4 ,omit these verses1 and the   
description goes on smoothly4 ,similarly
 in the ninth chapter of the same book  
the ,septuagint omits verses #ae-be4    
,this passage breaks the connection2 the
 narrative of ,solomon's dealings with  
,hiram is consecutively told in the     
,greek version2 in the ,hebrew it is    
interrupted by this extraneous matter4  
,you can readily see which is the       
original form of the writing4  ,now what
 does all this signify8 ,of course it   
signifies most distinctly that this     
history must not be judged by the canons
 of modern historical criticism4 ,mr4   
,horton quotes some strenuous advocate  
of the traditional theory of the ,bible 
as maintaining that when ,god writes    
history he will be at least as accurate 

as ,bishop ,stubbs or ,mr4 ,gardiner2   
and if we are to admit errors in his    
historical work1 then why not in his    
plan of salvation and doctrine of       
atonement8 ,it is this kind of reasoning
 that drives intelligent men into       
infidelity4 ,for the errors are here2   
they speak for themselves2 nothing but a
 mole-eyed dogmatism can evade them2 and
 if we link the great doctrines of the  
,bible with this dogma of the historical
 inerrancy of the ,scriptures1 they will
 all go down together4  ,but what1 after
 all1 do these errors amount to8 ,what  
is the meaning and purport of this      
history8 ,what are these writers trying 
to do8 ,it seems1 says ,mr4 ,horton1 as 
if their purpose was not so much to tell
 us what happened as to emphasize for us
 the lesson of what happened4 ,it is    
applied history1 rather than history    
pure and simple2 and on this ground we  
can understand the tendency to          
irritation which critical historians    
sometimes betray in approaching it4444  

,the prophetic historian would never    
dream1 like a modern historian1 of      
writing interminable monographs about a 
disputed name or a doubtful date2 he    
might even take a story which rested on 
very doubtful authority1 finding in it  
more that would suit his purpose than   
the bare and accurate statement of the  
fact which could be authenticated4 ,the 
standpoint of the prophetic historian   
and of the scientific historian are     
wholly different2 they cannot be judged 
by the same canons of criticism4 444,to 
the prophetic eye the significance of   
all events seems to be in their relation
 to the will of ,god4 ,the prophet may  
not always discern what the will of ,god
 is2 he may interpret events in a quite 
inadequate manner4 ,but his predominant 
thought makes itself felt2 and          
consequently the study of these         
histories leaves us in a widely         
different frame of mind from that which 
,thucydides or ,mr4 ,freeman would      
produce4 ,we do not feel to know1       

perhaps1 so accurately about the wars   
between ,israel and ,judah as we know   
about the wars between ,athens and      
,sparta2 we do not feel to know1        
perhaps1 so much about the monarchy of  
,israel as we know about the            
,anglo-,norman monarchy2 but1 on the    
other hand1 we seem to be more aware of 
,god1 we seem to recognize his hand     
controlling the wavering affairs of     
states1 we seem to comprehend that      
obedience to his will is of more        
importance than any political           
consideration1 and that in the long     
course of history disobedience to his   
will means national distress and        
national ruin4 ,the study of scientific 
histories has its advantages2 but it is 
not quite certain that these advantages 
are greater than those which the study  
of prophetic history yields4 ,perhaps1  
after all1 the one fact of history is   
,god's work in it2 in which case the    
scientific histories1 with all their    
learning1 with all their toil1 will look

 rather small by the side of these      
imperfect compositions which at least   
saw vividly and recognized faithfully   
the one fact4     ,,chapter ,v4  ,,the  
,,hebrew ,,prophecies4    ,in the last  
chapter the opinion was expressed that  
the first books collected by ,nehemiah1 
when he made up his library1 a century  
after the ,exile1 were the writings of  
the prophets4 ,we studied the historical
 books first1 because they stand first  
in the ,hebrew ,bible1 and are there    
named the ,earlier ,prophets2 but the   
probabilities are that the prophetical  
writings proper1 called by the ,jews the
 ,later ,prophets1 were first gathered4 
,when was this collection made8 ,if it  
was made by ,nehemiah 7and there is     
nothing to discredit the statement of   
the author of #b ,maccabees that he was 
the collector71 then it was not compiled
 until one hundred years after the      
,exile1 or only about four hundred and  
twenty years before ,christ4 ,most of   
the prophets had written before or      

during the ,exile4 ,joel1 ,hosea1 and   
,amos had flourished three or four      
hundred years before this collection was
 made2 ,isaiah1 the greatest of them    
all1 had been in his grave almost three 
centuries2 ,micah1 nearly as long2      
,nahum1 ,habakkuk1 and ,zephaniah had   
been silent from one to two hundred     
years2 ,jeremiah1 who was alive when the
 seventy years' captivity began1 and    
,ezekiel1 who prophesied and perished   
among the captives on the banks of the  
,euphrates1 were more remote from       
,nehemiah than ,samuel ,johnson and     
,jonathan ,edwards are from us2 even    
,haggai and ,zechariah1 who came back   
with the returning exiles and helped to 
build the second temple1 had passed away
 from fifty to one hundred years before 
the time of ,nehemiah4 ,malachi         
alone1--,the ,messenger1--and the last  
of the prophets1 may have been alive    
when the compilation of the prophetic   
writings was made4  ,it may be safely   
conjectured that the ,jews1 although    

they had never possessed any collection 
of the books of the prophets1 had known 
something of their contents4 ,several of
 the prophets had foretold the          
desolation and the captivity1 and there 
had been abundant time during the ,exile
 to recall the words they had spoken and
 to wish that their fathers had heeded  
them4 ,these remembered words of the    
prophets1 passing from lip to lip1 would
 thus have acquired peculiar sacredness4
 ,it seems clear1 also1 that copies of  
these books must have been              
kept1--perhaps in the schools of the    
prophets2 for the later prophets quote1 
verbally1 from the earlier ones4 ,it    
may1 therefore1 have been in response to
 a popular wish that this collection of 
their writings was undertaken4 ,words so
 momentous as these ought to be sacredly
 treasured4 ,furthermore1 there were    
reasons to apprehend that the holy flame
 of prophecy was dying out4 ,malachi may
 have been speaking still1 but there was
 not much promise that he would have a  

successor1 and the expectation of       
prophetic voices was growing dim among  
the people4  ,the ,levitical ritual1 now
 so elaborate and cumbersome1 had       
supplanted the prophetic oracle4 ,the   
ritualist is never a prophet2 and out of
 such a formal cult no words of         
inspiration are apt to flow4 ,with all  
the greater carefulness1 therefore1     
would the people treasure the messages  
that had come to them from the past4    
,accordingly these prophetic writings1  
which had existed in a fragmentary and  
scattered form1 were gathered into a    
collection by themselves4  ,it must be  
admitted that when we try to tell how   
these writings had been preserved and   
transmitted through all these centuries1
 we have but little solid ground of fact
 to go upon4 ,the ,scriptures themselves
 are entirely silent with respect to the
 manner of their preservation2 the      
traditions of the ,jews are wholly      
worthless4 ,we must not imagine that    
these books of ,isaiah and ,jeremiah and

 ,hosea were written and published as   
our books are written and published2    
there was no book trade then through    
which literature could be marketed1 and 
no subscription agencies hawking books  
from door to door4 ,you must not imagine
 that every family in ,judea had a copy 
of ,isaiah's ,works1--nor even that a   
copy could be found in every village2 it
 is possible that there were not1 when  
the people were carried into captivity1 
more than a few dozen copies of these   
prophecies in existence1 and these were 
in the hands of some of the prophets or 
literary dignitaries of the nation1 or  
in the archives of some of the          
prophetical schools4 ,the notion that   
these works were distributed among the  
people for study and devotional reading 
is not to be entertained4 ,no such      
general use of the prophetical writings 
was ever conceived of by the ,jews      
before the ,captivity4  ,indeed1 many of
 these prophecies1 as we call them1 were
 not1 primarily1 literature at all4     

,they were sermons or addresses1        
delivered orally to the individuals     
concerned1 or to assemblies of the      
people4 ,you can see the evidence1 in   
many cases1 that they must have been    
thus delivered4  ,we speak of the       
prophecy of ,isaiah1 or the prophecy of 
,jeremiah2 but the books bearing their  
names are made up of a number of        
prophecies1 uttered on various          
occasions4 ,the division between these  
separate prophecies is generally        
indicated by the language2 in all       
,paragraph ,bibles it is marked by blank
 lines4 ,in each of these earlier       
prophetical books we thus have1 in all  
probability1 a succession of            
deliverances1 extending through long    
periods of time and prepared for various
 occasions4  ,after the oracle was      
spoken to those for whom it was         
designed1 it was written down by the    
prophet or by his friends and disciples1
 and thus preserved4 ,this supposition  
seems1 at any rate1 more plausible than 

any other that ,i have found4           
,manifestly many of these prophecies    
were originally sermons or public       
addresses2 it is natural to suppose that
 they were first delivered1 and then1   
for substance1 reduced to writing1 that 
a record might be made of the utterance4
  ,it is sometimes alleged that these   
prophecies1 as soon as they were        
produced1 were at once added to a       
collection of sacred ,scriptures which  
was preserved in the sanctuary4 ,there  
was a ,book or ,scripture1 it is said1  
which from the time of ,moses was kept  
open1 and in which the writings of the  
prophets may have been recorded as they 
were produced4 ,footnote3 ,alexander on 
,isaiah1 i4 #g4  ,the learned divine who
 ventures this conjecture admits that it
 would be as hard to prove it as to     
disprove it4 ,my own opinion is that it 
would be much harder4 ,if there had been
 any such official receptacle of sacred 
writings1 the prophets were not         
generally in a position to secure the   

admission of their documents into it4   
,they were often in open controversy    
with the people who kept the sanctuary2 
the political and the religious         
authorities of the nation were the      
objects of their severest denunciations2
 it is not likely that the priests would
 make haste to transcribe and preserve  
in the sanctuary the sermons and        
lectures of the men who were scourging  
them with censure4 ,this national       
bibliotheca sacra in which the writings 
of the prophets were deposited as soon  
as they were composed is the product of 
pure fiction4 ,it was not thus that the 
prophetical utterances were preserved2  
rather is it to be supposed that the    
pupils and friends of the prophet       
faithfully kept his manuscripts after he
 was gone2 that occasional copies were  
made of them by those who wished to     
study them1 and that thus they were     
handed down from generation to          
generation4  ,when ,nehemiah made his   
collection he found these manuscripts1  

in whose hands we know not1 and brought 
them together in one place4 ,we may     
presume that the writings of each       
prophet were copied upon a separate     
roll1 and that the rolls were kept      
together in some receptacle in the      
temple4 ,most of these prophets had now 
been dead some hundreds of years2 the   
truth of their messages was no longer   
disputed even by the priests and the    
scribes2 their heresy was now the       
soundest orthodoxy2 the custodians of   
orthodoxy would of course now make a    
place for their writings in the national
 archives4 ,the priests have always been
 ready to build sepulchres for the      
prophets after they were dead1 and to   
pay them plenty of post mortem          
reverence4  ,the books of the prophets  
stand in the later ,hebrew ,bibles in   
the same order as that in which they are
 placed in our own2 they occupy a       
different place in the whole collection3
 they are in the middle of the ,hebrew  
,bible1 and they are at the end of ours2

 but their relation to one another is   
the same in both ,bibles4 ,this order is
 not chronological2 in part1 at least1  
it seems to represent what was supposed 
to be the relative importance of the    
books4 ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 and ,ezekiel 
are placed first1 perhaps because they  
are longest1 although several of the    
minor prophets are of earlier date than 
they4 ,daniel is not among the prophets 
in the ,hebrew ,bible2 the book which   
bears this name is one of the books of  
the third collection1--the              
,hagiographa1--of which we shall speak  
at another time4  ,when we follow       
further the same collection1 says       
,professor ,murray1 we find ,hosea      
immediately following ,ezekiel although 
,hosea lived more than two centuries    
before ,ezekiel and in turn followed by 
,joel and ,amos1 mainly on the principle
 of comparative bulk4 ,haggai1          
,zechariah1 and ,malachi were placed at 
the end for reasons purely              
chronological1 after the rest of the    

collection had been made up4 ,we cannot 
see any clear or consistent reason for  
the position of ,obadiah1 ,jonah1       
,micah1 ,nahum1 ,habakkuk1 and          
,zephaniah1 which stand together in the 
middle of the collection4  ,an          
examination of the chronological notes  
on the margin of our ,english ,bibles   
7which are not always correct though    
they are approximately so7 will show    
that these prophetical books are not    
arranged in the order of time4 ,it would
 be a great improvement to have them so 
arranged4 ,pupils in the ,sunday-schools
 who attempted a few years ago to follow
 the ,international lessons through     
these prophecies1 seriatim1 found       
themselves skipping back and forward    
over the centuries in a history-defying 
dance which was quite bewildering to all
 but the clearest heads4 ,we could      
understand these prophecies much better 
if they were arranged in the order of   
their dates4 ,and as no one supposes    
that the present arrangement1 made by   

,jewish scribes1 is in any wise         
inspired1 there seems to be no good     
reason why the late revisers might not  
have altered it1 and set these books in 
a historical and intelligible order4    
,who were these prophets and what was   
their function8 ,to give any adequate   
answer to this inquiry would require a  
treatise2 it is only in the most cursory
 manner that we can deal with it in this
 place4  ,the prophet is the man who    
speaks for ,god4 ,he is the interpreter 
of the divine will4 ,by some means he   
has come to understand ,god's purpose1  
and his function is to declare it4 ,thus
 in ,exodus iv4 #af1 ,jehovah says to   
,moses1 ,aaron thy brother 444 shall be 
thy spokesman unto the people1 and it   
shall come to pass that he shall be to  
thee a mouth and thou shalt be to him as
 ,god4 ,and again 7vii4 i71 ,see1 ,i    
have made thee a god to ,pharaoh1 and   
,aaron thy brother shall be thy prophet4
 ,these passages indicate the ,biblical 
meaning of the word4 ,the prophet is the

 spokesman or interpreter of some       
superior authority4 ,in ,classic ,greek1
 also1 ,apollo is called the prophet of 
,jupiter1 and the ,pythia is the        
prophetess of ,apollo4 ,almost          
universally1 in the ,old ,testament1 the
 word is used to signify an expounder or
 interpreter of the divine will4  ,the  
,english words 'prophet1 prophecy1      
prophesying1' says ,dean ,stanley1      
originally kept tolerably close to the  
,biblical use of the word4 ,the         
celebrated dispute about 'prophesyings' 
in the sense of 'preachings' in the     
reign of ,elizabeth1 and the treatise of
 ,jeremy ,taylor on ',the ,liberty of   
,prophesying1' i4e41 the liberty of     
preaching1 show that even down to the   
seventeenth century the word was still  
used as in the ,bible1 for preaching or 
speaking according to the will of ,god4 
,in the seventeenth century1 however1   
the limitation of the word to the sense 
of prediction had gradually begun to    
appear4 ,this secondary meaning of the  

word had by the time of ,dr4 ,johnson so
 entirely superseded the original       
,scriptural signification that he gives 
no other special definition of it than  
'to predict1 to foretell1 to            
prognosticate1' 'a predicter1 a         
foreteller1' 'foreseeing or foretelling 
future events2' and in this sense it has
 been used almost down to our own day1  
when the revival of ,biblical criticism 
has resuscitated1 in some measure1 the  
,biblical use of the word4 ,footnote3   
,history of the ,jewish ,church1 i4     
#dei1 #dfj4 ,the predictive function of 
the prophet is not1 then1 the only1 nor 
the prominent feature of his work4 ,by  
far the larger portion of the prophetic 
utterances were concerned with the      
present1 and made no reference to the   
future4  ,the prophet exercised his     
office in many ways4 ,moses was a       
prophet1 the first and greatest of the  
prophets2 but we have from him few      
predictions2 he interpreted the will of 
,god in the enactment of laws4 ,samuel  

was a great prophet2 but ,samuel was not
 employed in foretelling future events2 
he sought to know the will of ,god1 that
 he might administer the affairs of the 
,jewish commonwealth in accordance with 
it4 ,elijah and ,elisha were great      
prophets1 but they were not             
prognosticators2 they were preachers of 
righteousness to kings and people1 and  
they delivered their message in a way to
 make the ears of those who heard them  
to tingle4 ,and this1 for all the       
prophets who succeeded them1 was the one
 great business4 ,the ethical function  
of these men of ,god came more and more 
distinctly into view4  ,when ,paul      
admonished ,timothy 7#b ,tim4 iv4 #b7 to
 preach the word2 be instant in season1 
out of season2 reprove1 rebuke1 exhort  
with all long-suffering and teaching1 he
 was calling on him to be a follower of 
the prophets4 ,when kings became        
profligate and faithless1 when priests  
grew formal and greedy1 when the rich   
waxed extortionate and tyrannical1 these

 men of ,god arose to denounce the      
transgressors and threaten them with the
 divine vengeance4 ,they might arise in 
any quarter1 from any class4 ,they were 
confined to no tribe1 to no locality1 to
 no calling4 ,neither sex monopolized   
this gift4 ,miriam1 ,deborah1 ,huldah   
were shining names upon their roll of   
honor4 ,to no ecclesiasticism or        
officialism did they owe their          
authority2 no man's hands had been laid 
upon them in ordination2 they were      
,jehovah's messengers2 from him alone   
they received their messages1 to him    
alone they held themselves responsible4 
,no such preachers of politics ever     
existed as these ,hebrew prophets2 with 
all the affairs of state they constantly
 intermeddled2 bad laws and unholy      
policies found in them sharp and        
unsparing critics2 the entangling       
alliances of ,israel with the           
surrounding nations were denounced by   
them in season and out of season4 ,the  
people of their own time often          

stigmatized them as unpatriotic2 because
 they would not approve popular         
iniquities1 or refrain their lips from  
rebuking even favorite sons1 or the     
idols of the populace1 they often found 
themselves under the ban of public      
opinion2 they lived lonely lives2 not a 
few of them died violent deaths4 ,which 
of the prophets did not your fathers    
persecute8 demanded ,stephen1 and they  
killed them which showed before of the  
coming of the ,righteous ,one2 of whom  
ye have now become betrayers and        
murderers4 ,footnote3 ,acts vii4 #eb4   
,the relation of the prophets to the    
political life of the ,jewish people is 
brought out in a striking way by ,john  
,stuart ,mill in his book on            
,representative ,government4 ,in that   
chapter in which he discusses the       
criterion of a good government1 he shows
 how the ,egyptian hierarchy and the    
,chinese paternal despotism destroyed   
those countries by stereotyping their   
institutions4 ,then he goes on3--  ,in  

contrast with these nations let us      
consider the example of an opposite     
character1 afforded by another and a    
comparatively insignificant ,oriental   
people1 the ,jews4 ,they1 too1 had an   
absolute monarchy and a hierarchy1 and  
their organized institutions were as    
obviously of sacerdotal origin as those 
of the ,hindoos4 ,these did for them    
what was done for other ,oriental races 
by their institutions1 subdued them to  
industry and order1 and gave them a     
national life4 ,but neither their kings 
nor their priests ever obtained1 as in  
those other countries1 the exclusive    
moulding of their character4 ,their     
religion1 which enabled persons of      
genius and a high religious tone to be  
regarded and to regard themselves as    
inspired from heaven1 gave existence to 
an inestimably precious unorganized     
institution1--the ,order 7if it may be  
so termed7 of ,prophets4 ,under the     
protection1 generally though not always 
effectual1 of their sacred character1   

the ,prophets were a power in the       
nation1 often more than a match for     
kings and priests1 and kept up in that  
little corner of the earth the          
antagonism of influences which is the   
only real security for continued        
progress4 ,religion1 consequently1 was  
not then what it has been in so many    
other places1 a consecration of all that
 was once established1 and a barrier    
against further improvement4 ,the remark
 of a distinguished ,hebrew1 ,m4        
,salvador1 that the ,prophets were in   
church and state the equivalent of the  
modern liberty of the press1 gives a    
just but not an adequate conception of  
the part fulfilled in national and      
universal history by this great element 
of ,jewish life2 by means of which1 the 
canon of inspiration never being        
complete1 the persons most eminent in   
genius and moral feeling could not only 
denounce and reprobate1 with the direct 
authority of the ,almighty1 whatever    
appeared to them deserving of such      

treatment1 but could give forth better  
and higher interpretations of the       
national religion1 which thenceforth    
became part of the religion4            
,accordingly1 whoever can divest himself
 of the habit of reading the ,bible as  
if it was one book1 which until lately  
was equally inveterate in ,christians   
and unbelievers1 sees with admiration   
the vast interval between the morality  
and religion of the ,pentateuch1 or even
 of the historical books 7the           
unmistakable work of ,hebrew            
,conservatives of the ,sacerdotal       
order71 and the morality and religion of
 the ,prophecies4 ,conditions more      
favorable to progress could not easily  
exist2 accordingly1 the ,jews1 instead  
of being stationary like other          
,asiatics1 were1 next to the ,greeks1   
the most progressive people of          
antiquity1 and1 joint with them1 have   
been the starting-point and main        
propelling agency of modern             
civilization4 ,footnote3 ,considerations

 on ,representative ,government1 pp4    
#ea-ec1 ,american ,edition4  ,not only  
in the sphere of politics1 but in that  
of religion also1 were they constantly  
appearing as critics and censors4 ,the  
tendency of religion to become merely   
ritual1 to divorce itself from          
righteousness1 is inveterate4 ,against  
this tendency the prophets were the     
constant witnesses4 ,the religious      
machine is always in the same danger of 
becoming corrupt and mischievous as is  
the political machine2 the man with the 
sledge-hammer who will smash it and     
fling it into the junk-pile has a work  
to do in every generation4 ,this was the
 work of the ,hebrew prophets4 ,i       
desired mercy1 and not sacrifice1 cries 
,hosea1 speaking for ,jehovah4 ,i hate1 
,i despise your feast days1 says ,amos1 
and ,i will not smell in your solemn    
assemblies1444but let judgment run down 
as waters1 and righteousness as a mighty
 stream4 ,your new moons and your       
appointed feasts my soul hateth1        

proclaims ,isaiah2 they are a trouble   
unto me2 ,i am weary to bear them4 ,wash
 ye1 make you clean2 cease to do evil2  
learn to do well4 ,is not this the fast 
that ,i have chosen1 to loose the bands 
of wickedness1 to undo the heavy burden1
 and to let the oppressed go free8      
,this is1 then1 the chief function of   
the ,hebrew prophet2 he is the expounder
 of the righteous will of ,god1 not     
mainly with respect to future events1   
but with respect to present             
transgressions and present obligations  
of kings and priests and people4 ,and   
yet it would be an error to overlook or 
disparage his dealings with the future4 
,as a teacher of righteousness he saw   
that present disobedience would bring   
future retribution1 and he pointed it   
out with the utmost fidelity4 ,any man  
who carefully studies the laws of ,god  
can make some predictions with great    
confidence4 ,he knows that certain      
courses of conduct will be followed by  
certain consequences4 ,some of the      

predictions of the ,hebrew prophets were
 of this nature4 ,yet predictions of    
this nature were always conditional4    
,the condition was not always expressed1
 but it was always understood4 ,the     
threatening of destruction to the       
disobedient was withdrawn when the      
disobedient turned from their evil ways4
 ,the predictions of the prophets were  
not always fulfilled for this good      
reason4 ,the rule is explicitly laid    
down by the ,prophet ,jeremiah3 ,at what
 instant ,i shall speak concerning a    
nation444to destroy it2 if that         
nation444turn from their evil1 ,i will  
repent of the evil that ,i thought to do
 unto them4 ,and at what instant ,i     
shall speak concerning a nation444to    
build and to plant it2 if it do evil in 
my sight1 that it obey not my voice1    
then ,i will repent of the good         
wherewith ,i said ,i would benefit them4
 ,footnote3 ,jeremiah xviii4 #g-i4  ,and
 there is something more than this4     
,instances are here recorded of specific

 predictions of future events1 which    
came to pass as they were               
predicted1--predictions which cannot be 
explained on naturalistic principles4   
,of this sort1 says ,bleek1 are the     
prophecies of ,isaiah as to the closely 
impending destruction of the kingdoms of
 ,israel and ,syria1 which he predicted 
with great confidence at a time when the
 two kingdoms appeared particularly     
strong by their treaty with each        
other1444besides the repeated           
predictions as to the destruction of the
 mighty hosts of ,sennacherib1 king of  
,assyria1 which besieged ,jerusalem1 and
 the deliverance of the state from the  
greatest distress4 ,among these         
predictions1 those in ,isaiah xxix4     
#a-h1 appear to me particularly         
noteworthy1 where he foretells that a   
long time hence ,jerusalem should be    
besieged by a foreign host and pressed  
very hard1 but that the latter1 just as 
they believed they were getting         
possession of the city1 should be       

scattered and annihilated2 for this     
prediction1 from its whole character1   
appears to have been uttered before any 
danger showed itself from this quarter4 
,footnote3 ,introduction to the ,old    
,testament1 ii4 #bg4  ,beyond and above 
all this is the gradual rise in ,israel 
of that great ,messianic hope1 of which 
the prophets were the inspired and      
inspiring witnesses4 ,we find1 at a very
 early day1 an expectation of a future  
revelation of the glory of ,god1 dawning
 upon the consciousness of the nation1  
and expressing itself by the words of   
its most devout spirits4 ,even in       
prosperous days there was a dim         
outreaching after something better2 in  
times of disaster and overthrow this    
hope was kindled to a passionate        
longing4 ,of this ,messianic hope1 its  
nature and its fulfillment1 no words of 
mine can tell so eloquently as these    
words of ,dean ,stanley3--  ,it was the 
distinguishing mark of the ,jewish      
people that their golden age was not in 

the past1 but in the future2 that their 
greatest hero 7as they deemed him to be7
 was not their ,founder1 but their      
,founder's latest ,descendant4 ,their   
traditions1 their fancies1 their        
glories1 gathered round the head1 not of
 a chief or warrior or sage that had    
been1 but of a ,king1 a ,deliverer1 a   
,prophet who was to come4 ,of this      
singular expectation the ,prophets were1
 if not the chief authors1 at least the 
chief exponents4 ,sometimes he is named1
 sometimes he is unnamed2 sometimes he  
is almost identified with some actual   
,prince of the present or the coming    
generation1 sometimes he recedes into   
the distant ages4 ,but again and again1 
at least in the late prophetic writings1
 the vista is closed by this person1 his
 character1 his reign4 ,and almost      
everywhere the ,prophetic spirit in the 
delineation of his coming remains true  
to itself4 ,he is to be a ,king1 a      
,conqueror1 yet not by the common       
weapons of earthly warfare1 but by those

 only weapons which the ,prophetic order
 recognized2 by justice1 mercy1 truth1  
and goodness2 by suffering1 by          
endurance1 by identification of himself 
with the joys1 the sufferings of his    
nation2 by opening a wider sympathy to  
the whole human race than had ever been 
offered before4 ,that this expectation1 
however explained1 existed in a greater 
or less degree amongst the ,prophets is 
not doubted by any theologians of any   
school whatever4 ,it is no matter of    
controversy4 ,it is a simply and        
universally recognized fact that1 filled
 with these ,prophetic images1 the whole
 ,jewish nation--nay1 at last1 the whole
 ,eastern world--did look forward with  
longing expectation to the coming of    
this future ,conqueror4 ,was this       
unparalleled expectation realized8 ,and 
here again ,i speak only of facts which 
are acknowledged by ,germans and        
,frenchmen no less than by ,englishmen1 
by critics and by skeptics even more    
than by theologians and ecclesiastics4  

,there did arise out of this nation a   
,character as unparalleled as the       
expectation which had preceded him4     
,jesus of ,nazareth was1 on the most    
superficial no less than on the deepest 
view of his coming1 the greatest name1  
the most extraordinary power that has   
ever crossed the stage of ,history4 ,and
 this greatness consisted not in outward
 power1 but precisely in those qualities
 in which from first to last the        
,prophetic order had laid the utmost    
stress1--justice and love1 goodness and 
truth4 ,footnote3 ,history of the       
,jewish ,church1 i4 #eai1 #ebj4  ,this  
is the great fact from which the student
 of the ,old ,testament must never      
remove his attention4 ,that this        
wonderful hope and expectation did      
suffuse all the utterances of the       
prophets is not to be gainsaid by any   
candid man4 ,that the expectation       
assumed1 as the ages passed1 a more and 
more definite and personal form is      
equally certain4 ,isaiah was perhaps the

 first to give distinct shape to this   
prophetic hope4 ,ewald thus summarizes  
the ,messianic idea in the writings of  
,isaiah3--  ,there must come some one   
who should perfectly satisfy all the    
demands of the true religion1 so as to  
become the centre from which all its    
truth and force should operate4 ,his    
soul must possess a marvelous and       
surpassing nobleness and divine power1  
because it is his function perfectly to 
realize in life the ancient religion1   
the requirements of which no one has yet
 satisfied1 and that1 too1 with that    
spiritual glorification which the great 
prophets had announced4 ,unless there   
first comes some one who shall          
transfigure this religion into its      
purest form1 it will never be perfected1
 and its kingdom will never come4 ,but  
he will and must come1 for otherwise the
 religion which demands him would be    
false2 he is the first true ,king of the
 community of the true ,god1 and as     
nothing can be conceived of as          

supplanting him1 he will reign forever  
in irresistible power2 he is the        
divine-human ,king1 whose coming had    
been due ever since the true community  
had set up a human monarchy in its      
midst1 but who had never come4 ,he is to
 be looked for1 to be longed for1 to be 
prayed for2 and how blessed it is simply
 to expect him devoutly1 and to trace   
out every feature of his likeness4 ,to  
sketch the nobleness of his soul is to  
pursue in detail the possibility of     
perfecting all religion2 and to believe 
in the necessity of his coming is to    
believe in the perfecting of all divine 
agency on earth4 ,footnote3 ,the        
,history of ,israel1 iv4 #bjc1 #bjd4    
,it is precisely here that we get at the
 heart of the ,old ,testament2 this     
wonderful fore-looking toward the       
,messianic manifestations of ,god upon  
the earth1 which kindled the hearts of  
the people and found clearest utterance 
by the lips of its most inspired men1   
which binds this literature all         

together1 histories1 songs1 precepts1   
allegories4 ,this it is which reveals   
the true inspiration of these old       
writings1 and which makes them1 to every
 ,christian heart1 precious beyond all  
price4  ,such being the character of    
these prophetic books1 let us glance for
 a moment at a few of them1 merely for  
the purpose of locating the prophecy in 
the history1 and of discerning1 when it 
is possible1 the providential causes    
which called it forth4  ,it is difficult
 to tell which of these fifteen         
prophets1 whose utterances are treasured
 in this collection1 first appeared upon
 the scene4 ,the probability seems to be
 that the earliest of them was ,joel4   
,opinions differ widely2 ,i cannot      
discuss them nor even cite them2 but the
 old theory that ,joel lived and        
preached about eight hundred and        
seventy-five years before ,christ does  
not seem to me to be invalidated by     
modern criticism4 ,he was a native of   
the ,southern ,kingdom2 and at the time 

we have named1 the ,king of ,judea was  
,joash1 whose dramatic elevation to the 
throne in his seventh year1 by ,jehoiada
 the priest1 is narrated in the ,book of
 ,kings4 ,it was a time of disturbance  
and disaster in ,judah and ,jerusalem2  
the boy-king was but a nominal ruler2   
the regent was ,jehoiada2 and incursions
 of the surrounding tribes1 who carried 
away the people and sold them as slaves1
 kept the land in a constant state of   
alarm4 ,worse than this was the         
visitation of locusts1 continuing1 as it
 would seem1 for several years1 by which
 the country was stripped and           
devastated4 ,this visitation furnishes  
the theme of the short discourse which  
is here reported4 ,the description of   
the march of the locusts over the land  
is full of poetic beauty2 and the people
 are admonished to accept this as a     
divine chastisement for their sins1 and 
to do the works meet for repentance4    
,then comes the promise of the divine   
forgiveness1 and of that great gift of  

the ,spirit1 whose fulfillment ,peter   
claimed on the day of ,pentecost3 ,in   
the midst of the deepest woes which then
 afflicted the kingdom1 says ,ewald1 his
 great soul grasped all the more        
powerfully the eternal hope of the true 
community1 and impressed it all the more
 indelibly upon his people1 alike by the
 fiery glow of his clear insight and the
 entrancing beauty of his passionate    
utterance4 ,footnote3 ,the ,history of  
,israel1 iv4 #aci4  ,the next prophet in
 the order of time is undoubtedly ,amos4
 ,he tells us that he lived in the days 
of ,uzziah1 ,king of ,judah1 about      
seventy years after ,joel4 ,he was a    
herdsman of ,tekoa1 a small city of     
,judah1 twelve miles south of           
,jerusalem4 ,in these days the ,northern
 ,kingdom was far more prosperous and   
powerful than the ,southern2 under      
,jeroboam ,,ii4 ,israel had become rich 
and luxurious2 and the prophet was      
summoned1 as he declares1 by the call of
 ,jehovah himself to leave his herds    

upon the ,judean hills1 and betake      
himself to the ,northern ,kingdom1 there
 to bear witness against the pride and  
oppression of its people4 ,this         
messenger and interpreter of ,jehovah to
 his people is a poor man1 a laboring   
man2 but he knows whose commission he   
bears1 and he is not afraid4 ,stern and 
terrible are the woes that fall from his
 lips3 the words vibrate yet with the   
energy of his righteous wrath4  ,ye that
 put far away the evil day1 and cause   
the seat of violence to come near2 that 
lie upon beds of ivory1 and stretch     
themselves upon their couches1 and eat  
the lambs out of the flock1 and the     
calves out of the midst of the stall2   
that sing idle songs to the sound of the
 viol2 that devise for themselves       
instruments of music1 like ,david2 that 
drink wine in bowls1 and anoint         
themselves with the chief ointments2 but
 they are not grieved for the affliction
 of ,joseph4  ,such luxury always goes  
hand in hand with contempt of the lowly 

and oppression of the poor2 it is so    
to-day2 it was so in that far-off time2 
and this prophet pours upon it the vials
 of the wrath of ,god3--  ,forasmuch    
therefore as ye trample upon the poor1  
and take exactions from him of wheat3 ye
 have built houses of hewn stone1 but ye
 shall not dwell in them2 ye have       
planted pleasant vineyards1 but ye shall
 not drink the wine thereof4 ,for ,i    
know how manifold are your              
transgressions and how mighty are your  
sins2 ye that afflict the just1 that    
take a bribe1 and that turn aside the   
needy in the gate from their right4  ,it
 is no wonder that ,amaziah1 the priest 
of ,bethel1 writhed under the scourge of
 the herdsman prophet1 and wanted to be 
rid of him3 ,o thou seer1 he cried1 go1 
flee thee away into the land of ,judah1 
and there eat bread1 and prophesy there3
 but prophesy not again any more in     
,bethel4 ,but the prophet stood his     
ground and delivered his message1 and it
 still resounds as the very voice of    

,god through every land where the greed 
of gold makes men unjust1 and the love  
of pleasure banishes compassion from    
human hearts4  ,the nearest successor of
 ,amos1 in this collection1 seems to    
have been ,hosea1 who tells us in the   
opening of his prophecy that the word of
 the ,lord came unto him in the days of 
,uzziah1 ,jotham1 ,ahaz1 and ,hezekiah1 
kings of ,judah1 and in the days of     
,jeroboam1 son of ,joash1 king of       
,israel4 ,there is some doubt about the 
genuineness of this superscription2 but 
it was about this time1 undoubtedly1    
that ,hosea flourished4 ,to which       
kingdom he belonged it is not known2    
probably1 however1 to ,israel1 with     
whose affairs his teaching is chiefly   
concerned4 ,he must have followed close 
upon the herdsman of ,tekoa2 possibly   
they were contemporaries4 ,his prophecy1
 too1 is a blast from the trumpet of the
 ,lord our ,righteousness4 ,such an     
indictment of a people has not often    
been heard4  ,hear the word of the      

,lord1 ye children of ,israel3 for the  
,lord hath a controversy with the       
inhabitants of the land1 because there  
is no truth1 nor mercy1 nor knowledge of
 ,god in the land4 ,there is nought but 
swearing and breaking faith1 and        
killing1 and stealing1 and committing   
adultery2 they break out1 and blood     
toucheth blood4  ,especially severe is  
the prophet in his denunciation of the  
priesthood4  ,they feed on the sin of my
 people1 and set their heart on their   
iniquity4 ,and it shall be1 like people1
 like priest3 and ,i will punish them   
for their ways1 and will reward them    
their doings4  ,these prophecies of     
,hosea are instinct with a severe       
morality2 the ethical thoroughness with 
which he chastises the national sins is 
unflinching2 but it is not all          
threatening2 now and again we hear the  
word of tenderness1 the promise of the  
divine forgiveness3--  ,i will heal     
their backsliding4 ,i will love them    
freely2 for mine anger is turned away   

from him4 ,i will be as the dew unto    
,israel2 he shall blossom as the lily1  
and cast forth his roots as ,lebanon4   
,micah follows ,hosea1 at an interval of
 perhaps fifty years4 ,he lived in a    
little village of ,judah1 west of       
,jerusalem1 and exercised his ministry  
in both kingdoms1 testifying impartially
 against the wickedness of ,jerusalem   
and ,samaria1 though the weight of his  
censure seems to rest upon the ,judean  
capital4 ,his strain is an echo of the  
outcry of ,amos and ,hosea2 it is the   
same intense indignation against the    
violence and rapacity of the rich1      
against corrupt judges1 false prophets1 
rascally traders1 treacherous friends4  
,for all these sins condign punishment  
is threatened2 and yet1 after these     
retributive woes are past1 there is     
promise of a better day4 ,the great     
,messianic hope here begins to find     
clear utterance2 the former prophets    
have seen in their visions only the     
restoration of the people of ,israel2 to

 ,micah there comes the anticipation of 
an individual ,leader and ,deliverer4   
,but thou1 ,bethlehem ,ephratah1 which  
art little to be among the thousands of 
,judah1 out of thee shall one come forth
 that is to be ruler in ,israel1 whose  
goings forth are from old1 from         
everlasting4444 ,and he shall stand and 
shall feed his flock in the strength of 
the ,lord1 in the majesty of the name of
 the ,lord his ,god2 and they shall     
abide2 for now shall he be great unto   
the ends of the earth4  ,thus slowly    
broadens the dawn of the ,messianic     
hope4  ,the first part of the fourth    
chapter of ,micah1 which is a prediction
 of the glory that shall come to ,zion  
in the latter day1 is verbally identical
 with the first part of the second      
chapter of ,isaiah4 ,one of the prophets
 must have quoted from the other or     
else1 as ,dr4 ,geikie suggests1 both    
copied from some older prophet4  ,after 
,micah comes the greatest of the        
prophets1 ,isaiah4 ,he appeared upon the

 scene in his native city of ,jerusalem 
about the middle of the eighth century  
before ,christ4 ,his work was mainly    
done during the reigns of ,ahaz1 the    
,grasper1 one of the vilest and most    
ungodly of the ,judean monarchs1 and of 
,hezekiah1 the good king1 about a       
century and a half before the           
destruction of ,jerusalem4  ,about this 
time ,judea was constantly exposed to   
the rapacity of the great ,assyrian     
power before whose armies she finally   
fell2 sometimes her rulers entered into 
coalitions with the surrounding nations 
to resist the ,assyrian2 sometimes they 
submitted and paid heavy tribute4       
,egypt1 on the south1 was also a mighty 
empire at this time1 constantly at war  
with ,assyria2 and the kings of ,judah  
sometimes sought alliances with one of  
these great powers1 as a means of       
protection against the other4 ,they     
proved to be the upper and nether       
millstones between which the ,jewish    
nationality was ground to powder4 ,it   

was in the midst of these alarming signs
 of national destruction that ,isaiah   
arose4 ,of the prophetic discourses     
which he delivered in ,jerusalem we have
 about thirty2 his words are the words  
of a patriot1 a statesman1 a servant and
 messenger of ,jehovah4 ,he warned the  
kings against these entangling alliances
 with foreign powers2 he admonished them
 to stand fast in their allegiance to   
,jehovah1 and obey his laws2 yet he saw 
that they would not heed his word1 and  
that swift and sure destruction was     
coming upon the nation4 ,and his        
expectation was not like that of the    
other prophets1 that the nation as a    
whole would be saved out of these       
judgments2 to him it was made plain that
 only a remnant would survive2 but that 
from that remnant should spring a noble 
race1 with a purer faith1 in whom all   
the nations of the earth should be      
blessed4 ,of the ,messianic hope as it  
finds expression in these words of      
,isaiah ,i have already spoken4  ,this  

,book of ,isaiah contains thirty-one    
prophetic discourses1 some of them mere 
fragments4 ,there is reason for doubt as
 to whether they were all spoken by     
,isaiah2 when they were gathered up1 two
 hundred years later1 some utterances of
 other prophets may have been mingled   
with them4 ,indeed it is now regarded as
 well-nigh certain that the last        
twenty-seven chapters are the work of a 
later prophet1--of one who wrote during 
the ,captivity4 ,professor ,delitzsch1  
in the last edition of his commentary on
 ,isaiah1 finally concedes that this is 
probable4 ,the ,book of ,isaiah1 he is  
reported as saying1 may have been an    
anthology of prophetic discourses by    
different authors2 that is1 it may have 
been composed partly and directly by    
,isaiah1 and partly by other later      
prophets whose utterances constitute a  
really homogeneous and simultaneous     
continuation of ,isaian prophecy4 ,these
 later prophets so closely resemble     
,isaiah in prophetic vision that        

posterity might1 on that account1 well  
identify them with him1--his name being 
the correct common denominator for this 
collection of prophecies4  ,these words 
of the most distinguished and devout of 
the ,old ,testament critics throw a     
flood of light on the structure not only
 of ,isaiah1 but of other ,old          
,testament writings2 they show how      
unlike our own were the primitive ideas 
of authorship2 and how the ,pentateuch1 
for example1 drawn from many sources and
 revised by many editors1 could be      
called the law of ,moses2 how his name  
may have been the common denominator of 
all that collection of laws4  ,i have   
shown1 perhaps1 in these hasty notices1 
something of the nature and purpose of  
five of these prophetic books4 ,of the  
rest ,i must speak but a single word1   
for the time fails me to tell of        
,zephaniah1 who in the time of good     
,king ,josiah1 denounced the idolatry of
 the people1 the injustice of its       
princes and judges1 and the corruption  

of its prophets and priests1 threatened 
the rebellious with extermination1 and  
promised to the remnant an enduring     
peace2 of ,jeremiah1 who about the same 
time first lifted up his voice1 and     
continued speaking until after the      
destruction of ,jerusalem1--from whose  
writings we may derive a more complete  
and intelligible account of the period  
preceding the ,exile than from any other
 source2 of ,nahum1 who1 just before the
 fall of ,jerusalem1 uttered his oracle 
against ,nineveh2 of ,obadiah1 who1     
after the fall of the holy city1        
launched his thunderbolts against the   
perfidious ,edomites because of their   
rejoicing over the fate of ,jerusalem2  
of ,ezekiel1 the prophet of the ,exile1 
who wrote among the captives by the     
rivers of ,babylon2 of ,haggai and      
,zechariah1 who came back with the      
returning exiles1 and whose courageous  
voices cheered the laborers who wrought 
to restore the city and the temple2 of  
,malachi1 whose pungent reproofs of the 

people for their lack of consecration   
followed the erection of the second     
temple1 and closed the collection of the
 ,hebrew prophets4  ,the limits of this 
small volume forbid us to enter upon    
several interesting critical inquiries  
respecting the component parts of       
,isaiah and ,zechariah1 and especially  
the matter of the variations of the     
,septuagint from the ,hebrew text in the
 ,book of ,jeremiah4 ,in this last named
 book we find the same phenomena that we
 encountered in our study of ,samuel and
 ,the ,kings3 the ,greek version differs
 considerably from the ,hebrew2 a       
comparison of the two illustrates1 as   
nothing else can do1 the processes      
through which the text of these old     
documents has passed1 and the freedom   
with which they have been handled by    
scribes and copyists4 ,the ,hebrew text1
 from which our ,english version was    
made1 is generally better than the      
,greek2 but there are several cases in  
which the ,greek is manifestly more     

accurate4  ,there is one book1 reckoned 
among these minor prophets1 of which ,i 
have not spoken1 and to which ,i ought  
to make some reference4 ,that is the    
book of ,jonah4  ,it is found among the 
minor prophets1 but it is not in any    
sense prophetical2 it is neither a      
sermon nor a prediction2 it is a        
narrative4 ,probably it was placed by   
the ,jews among these prophetical books 
because ,jonah was a prophet4 ,but this 
book was not written by ,jonah2 there is
 not a word in the book which warrants  
the belief that he was its author4 ,it  
is a story about ,jonah1 told by        
somebody else long after ,jonah's day4  
,jonah1 the son of ,amittai1 was a      
prophet of the ,northern ,kingdom in the
 days of ,jeroboam ,,ii41 far back in   
the ninth century4 ,the only reference  
to him contained in the ,old ,testament 
is found in #b ,kings xiv4 #be4 ,but    
this book was almost certainly written  
long after the destruction of ,nineveh1 
which took place two hundred years      

later4 ,one reason for this belief is in
 the fact that the writer of the book   
feels it necessary to explain what kind 
of a city ,nineveh was4 ,he stops in the
 midst of his story to say3 ,now        
,nineveh was an exceeding great city of 
three days' journey4 ,that explanation  
would have been superfluous anywhere in 
,israel in the days of ,jeroboam ,,ii41 
and the past tense indicates that it was
 written by one who was looking back to 
a city no longer in existence4 ,nineveh 
was4 ,the character of the ,hebrew also 
favors the theory of a later date for   
the book4 ,we have1 therefore1 a tale   
that was told about ,jonah probably     
three or four hundred years after his   
day4  ,is it a true tale1 or is it a    
work of didactic fiction8 ,i believe    
that it is the latter4 ,it is a very    
suggestive apologue1 full of moral      
beauty and spiritual power1 designed to 
convey several important lessons to the 
minds of the ,jewish people4 ,i cannot  
regard it as the actual experience of a 

veritable prophet of ,god1 because ,i   
can hardly imagine that such a prophet  
could have supposed1 as the ,jonah of   
this tale is said to have supposed1 that
 by getting out of the bounds of the    
,kingdom of ,israel1 he would get out of
 the sight of ,jehovah4 ,this is        
precisely what this ,jonah of the story 
undertook to do4 ,when he was bidden to 
go to ,nineveh and cry against it1 he   
rose up to flee unto ,tarshish from the 
presence of the ,lord2 and he went down 
to ,joppa1 and found a ship going to    
,tarshish3 so he paid the fare thereof1 
and went down into it1 to go with them  
unto ,tarshish from the presence of the 
,lord 7ch4 i4 #c74 ,is this actual      
history8 ,is this the belief of a       
genuine prophet of the ,lord8 ,what sort
 of a prophet is he who holds ideas as  
crude as this concerning the ,being with
 whom he is in constant communication   
and from whom he receives his messages8 
,if ,jonah did entertain this belief1   
then it is not likely that he can teach 

us anything about ,god which it is      
important that we should know4  ,thus1  
without touching the miraculous features
 of the story1 we have sound reasons for
 believing that this cannot be the      
actual experience of any veritable      
prophet of ,god2 that it is not history1
 but fiction4 ,why not8 ,can any one who
 has read the parable of the ,prodigal  
,son or the ,good ,samaritan doubt that 
fiction may be used in ,sacred          
,scripture for the highest purpose8     
,but it is argued that the references to
 this story which are found in the words
 of ,christ authenticate the story4 ,our
 ,lord1 in ,matt4 xii1 #ci-db1 refers to
 this book4 ,he speaks of the repentance
 of the ,ninevites under the preaching  
of ,jonah as a rebuke to the ,jews who  
had heard the word of life from him and 
had not repented2 and he uses these     
words3 ,an evil and adulterous          
generation seeketh a sign2 and there    
shall no sign be given to it but the    
sign of ,jonah the prophet3 for as      

,jonah was three days and three nights  
in the belly of the whale2 so shall the 
,son of man be three days and three     
nights in the heart of the earth4  ,this
 confirms1 say the orthodox             
commentators1 the historical accuracy of
 the story of ,jonah4 ,if1 says ,canon  
,liddon1 he would put his finger on a   
fact in past ,jewish history which1 by  
its admitted reality1 would warrant     
belief in his own resurrection1 he      
points to ,jonah's being three days and 
three nights in the belly of the whale4 
,this use of the incident by our ,lord  
clearly authenticates the incident as an
 actual historical fact4 ,so say the    
conservative theologians4 ,and so say   
also the men who labor to destroy the   
authority of ,christ4 ,mr4 ,huxley      
perfectly agrees with ,canon ,liddon4   
,he praises the ,canon's penetration and
 consistency2 he agrees that there can  
be no other possible interpretation of  
,christ's words4 ,the ultra-conservative
 and the anti-,christian critics are at 

one in insisting that ,christ stands    
committed to the literal truth of the   
narrative in ,jonah4 ,the inference of  
the ultra-conservative is that the      
narrative is historically true2 the     
inference of the anti-,christian critic 
is that ,jesus is unworthy our          
confidence as a religious teacher2 that 
one who fully indorsed such a           
preposterous tale cannot be divine4 ,it 
is instructive to observe the           
ultra-conservative critics thus playing 
steadily into the hands of the          
anti-,christian critics1 furnishing them
 with ammunition with which to assail   
the very citadel of the ,christian      
faith4 ,it is a kind of business in     
which1 ,i am sorry to say1 they have    
been diligently engaged for a good      
while4  ,now ,i1 for my part1 utterly   
deny the proposition which these allied 
forces of skepticism and traditionalism 
are enlisted in supporting4 ,i deny that
 ,jesus ,christ can be fairly quoted as 
authenticating this narrative4 ,i       

maintain that he used it allegorically  
for purposes of illustration1 without   
intending to express any opinion as to  
the historical verity of the narrative4 
,it was used in a literary way1 and not 
in a dogmatic way4 ,our ,lord speaks    
always after the manner of men1--speaks 
the common speech of the people1 takes  
up the phrases and even the fables that 
he finds upon their lips1 and uses them 
for his own purposes4 ,he does not stop 
to criticise all their stories1 or to   
set them right in all their scientific  
errors2 that would have been utterly    
aside from his main purpose1 and would  
certainly have confused them and led    
them astray4 ,he speaks always of the   
rising and the setting of the sun1 using
 the phrases that were current at that  
time1 and never hinting at the error    
underneath them4 ,he knew what these    
people meant by these phrases4 ,if he   
knew that these phrases conveyed an     
erroneous meaning1 why did he not       
correct them8 ,so1 too1 he quotes from  

the story of the ,creation in ,genesis1 
and never intimates that the six days   
there mentioned are not literal days of 
twenty-four hours each4 ,he knew that   
those to whom he was speaking           
entertained this belief1 and put this   
interpretation upon these words4 ,why   
does he not set it aside8  ,these       
questions may admit of more than one    
answer2 but1 taking the very highest    
view of ,christ's person1 it is         
certainly enough to say that any such   
discussion of scientific questions would
 have been1 as even we can see1 palpably
 unwise4 ,there was no preparation in   
the human mind at that day for the      
reception and verification of such a    
scientific revelation4 ,it could not    
have been received4 ,it would not have  
been preserved4 ,it would only have     
confused and puzzled the minds of his   
hearers1 and would have shut their minds
 at once against that moral and         
spiritual truth which he came to impart4
 ,and what we have said about scientific

 questions applies with equal force to  
questions of ,old ,testament criticism4 
,to have entered upon the discussion of 
these questions with the ,jews would    
have thwarted his highest purpose4 ,in  
the largest sense of the word these     
,scriptures were true4 ,their           
substantial historical accuracy he      
wished to confirm4 ,their great         
converging lines of light united in him4
 ,he constantly claimed their           
fulfillment in his person and his       
kingdom4 ,why1 then1 should he enter    
upon a kind of discussion which would   
have tended to confuse and obscure the  
main truths which he came to teach8 ,if1
 then1 he refers to these ,scriptures1  
he uses them for his own ethical and    
spiritual purposes1--not to indorse     
their scientific errors2 not to confirm 
the methods of interpretation in use    
among the ,jews4  ,but ,mr4 ,huxley     
insists1 and all the ultra-conservative 
commentators join him in insisting1 that
 ,christ could not1 if he had been an   

honest man1 have spoken thus of ,jonah  
if the story of ,jonah had not been     
historically accurate4 ,this is the way 
he puts it3 ,if ,jonah's three days'    
residence in the whale is not an        
'admitted fact1' how could it 'warrant  
belief' in the 'coming resurrection'8   
,footnote3 ,the ,nineteenth ,century1   
,july1 #ahij4 ,mr4 ,huxley is using     
,canon ,liddon's phrases here2 but he is
 using them to confute those for whom1  
as he knows very well1 ,canon ,liddon   
does not speak4 ,those who say that the 
story of ,jonah is an admitted reality  
may1 perhaps1 be able to see that it    
warrants belief in the coming           
resurrection4 ,to my own mind1 even this
 is by no means clear4 ,i do not see how
 the one event1 even if it were an      
admitted reality1 could warrant belief  
in the other4 ,no past event can warrant
 belief in any future event1 unless the 
two events are substantially identical4 
,the growth of an acorn into an oak in  
the last century warrants the belief    

that an acorn will grow into an oak in  
the present century2 but it does not    
warrant the belief that a city planted  
on an eligible site will grow to be a   
great metropolis4 ,the one event might  
illustrate the other1 but no conclusions
 of logic can be carried from the one to
 the other4 ,it is precisely so with    
these two events4 ,there is a certain   
analogy between the experience of       
,jonah1 as told in the book1 and that of
 our ,lord2 but it is ridiculous to say 
that the one event1 if an admitted      
reality1 warrants belief in the         
other1--whether it is said by ,mr4      
,huxley or ,canon ,liddon4 ,our ,lord's 
words convey no such meaning4 ,in truth1
 if we are here dealing with scientific 
comparisons1 the one event1 if taken as 
an admitted reality1 warrants disbelief 
in the other4 ,what are our ,lord's     
precise words8 ,as ,jonah was three days
 and three nights in the whale's belly1 
so shall the ,son of man be three days  
and three nights in the heart of the    

earth4 ,we are told by ,mr4 ,huxley and 
his orthodox allies that we must take   
this as a literal historical parallel1  
or not at all2 that if we treat it in   
any other way1 we accuse our ,lord of   
dishonesty4 ,what1 then1 was the        
condition of ,jonah during these three  
days and nights8 ,was he dead or alive8 
,he was certainly alive1 if the tale is 
history--very thoroughly alive in all   
his faculties4 ,he was praying part of  
the time1 and part of the time he was   
writing poetry4 ,we have a long and     
beautiful poem which he is said to have 
composed during that enforced retirement
 from active life4 ,it would appear that
 his release took place immediately     
after the poem was finished4 ,if1 now1  
these events are bound together with the
 links of logic1 if the one event is the
 historic counterpart of the other1 the 
,son of man1 during the three days of   
his sojourn in the heart of the earth1  
was not dead at all6 ,he was only hidden
 for a little space from the sight of   

men4 ,he was alive all the while1 and   
there was no resurrection6 ,it is to    
this that you come when you begin to    
apply to these parables and allegories  
of the ,bible the methods of scientific 
exposition4 ,this may be satisfactory   
enough to ,mr4 ,huxley4 ,i should like  
to know how it suits his orthodox       
allies4  ,the fact is1 that you are not 
dealing here with equivalents1 but with 
analogies2 not with laws of evidence1   
but with figures of rhetoric3 and it is 
absurd to say that one member of an     
analogy warrants belief in the existence
 of the other4 ,there is no such logical
 nexus4 ,the leaven in the meal does not
 warrant belief in the spread of        
,christianity1 but it serves to         
illustrate it4 ,the story of the        
,prodigal ,son does not warrant belief  
in the fatherly love of ,god1 but it    
helps us to understand something of that
 love1 and it helps us precisely as much
 as if it had been a veritable history1 
instead of being1 as it is1 a pure work 

of fiction4  ,what sort of value1 asks  
,mr4 ,huxley1 as an illustration of     
,god's methods of dealing with sin1 has 
an account of an event that never       
happened8 ,such an admonition1 he says1 
is morally about on a level with telling
 a naughty child that a bogy is coming  
to fetch it away4 ,let us apply this    
maxim to some of ,mr4 ,huxley's         
homilies3--  ,surely1 he says in one of 
his ,lay ,sermons1 our innocent         
pleasures are not so abundant in this   
life that we can afford to despise this 
or any other source of them4 ,we should 
fear being banished for our neglect to  
that limbo where the great ,florentine  
tells us are those who during this life 
wept when they might be joyful4         
,footnote3 ,lay ,sermons and ,addresses1
 p4 #ib4 ,this limbo of ,dante's is not1
 ,i dare say1 an admitted reality in    
,mr4 ,huxley's physical geography4 ,what
 sort of value1 therefore1 has his      
reference to it8 ,is he merely raising  
the cry of bogy8 ,he certainly does     

intend what he says as a dissuasive from
 a certain course of erroneous conduct4 
,i venture to insist that he has a real 
meaning1 and that1 although the limbo is
 a myth1 the condition which he intends 
to illustrate by his allusion to it is a
 reality4  ,once more3 ,i do not suppose
 that the dead soul of ,peter ,bell1 of 
whom the great poet of nature says1--   
',a primrose by the river's brim    ,a  
yellow primrose was to him1    ,and it  
was nothing more1'  would have been a   
whit roused from its apathy by the      
information that the primrose is a      
,dicotyledonous ,exogen1 with a         
monopetalous corolla and a central      
placentation4 ,footnote3 ,ibid4 p4 #ia4 
,does ,mr4 ,huxley believe that ,peter  
,bell was a historical person8 ,if he   
was not1 how1 in the name of biological 
theology1 could his dead soul have been 
roused by any information whatever8 ,yet
 these sentences of his have a real and 
valuable meaning4 ,it is evident that   
,mr4 ,huxley does understand the uses of

 allegory and fable for purposes of     
illustration2 that he can employ        
characters and situations which are not 
historical1 but purely imaginary1 to    
illustrate the realities which he is    
trying to present1--speaking of them all
 the while just as if they were         
historical persons or places1 and       
trusting his readers to interpret him   
aright4 ,such a use of language is      
common in all literature4 ,to affirm    
that our ,lord could not resort to it   
without dishonesty is to deny to him the
 ordinary instruments of speech4  ,we   
may conclude1 then1 with ,professor     
,ladd1 that the reference to ,jonah does
 not cover the question whether the     
prophet's alleged sojourn in the sea    
monster is an historical verity2 and    
that it is no less uncritical than      
invidious to make the holding of any    
particular theory of the ,book of ,jonah
 a test of allegiance to the teachings  
of the ,master4 ,footnote3 ,the         
,doctrine of ,sacred ,scripture1 i4 #fg4

   ,it is evident enough1 as ,professor 
,cheyne has said1 that the symbolic     
meaning of the book was the most        
important part of it in the ,new        
,testament times4 ,but other and more   
obvious meanings are conveyed by the    
narrative4 ,indeed1 there is scarcely   
another book in the ,old ,testament     
whose meaning is so clear1 whose message
 is so divine4 ,apologue though it is1  
it is full of the very truth of ,god4   
,there is not one of the minor          
prophecies that has more of the real    
gospel in it4 ,to the people who first  
received it1 how full of admonition and 
reproof it must have been6 ,that great  
city ,nineveh--a city which was1 in its 
day1 as ,dr4 ,geikie says1 as intensely 
abhorred by the ,jews as ,carthage was  
by ,rome1 or ,france under the elder    
,napoleon was by ,germany--was a city   
dear to ,god6 ,he had sent his own      
prophet to warn it of its danger2 and   
his prophet1 instead of being stoned or 
torn asunder1 as the prophets of ,god   

had often been by their own people1 had 
been heard and his message heeded4 ,the 
,ninevites had turned to ,god1 and ,god 
had forgiven them6 ,god was no less     
ready to forgive and save ,nineveh than 
,jerusalem4 ,what a wonderful disclosure
 of the love of the universal ,father6  
,what a telling blow1 even in those old 
days1 at the middle wall of partition by
 which the ,jew fenced out the ,gentile 
from his sympathy6  ,and then the gentle
 rebuke of ,jonah's petulant narrowness6
 ,how true is the touch that describes  
,jonah as angry because ,god had        
forgiven the ,ninevites6 ,his credit as 
a prophet was gone4 ,i suppose that he  
was afraid also1 like many theologians  
of more modern times1 that if threatened
 penalty were remitted solely on the    
ground of the repentance of the sinners1
 the foundations of the divine          
government would be undermined4 ,how    
marvelously does the infinite pity and  
clemency of ,god shine out through all  
this story1 as contrasted with the petty

 consistency and the grudging compassion
 of man2 and how clearly do we hear in  
this beautiful narrative the very       
message of the gospel3 ,let the wicked  
forsake his way1 and the unrighteous man
 his thoughts3 and let him return to the
 ,lord1 and he will have mercy upon him2
 and to our ,god1 for he will abundantly
 pardon4 ,for my thoughts are not your  
thoughts1 neither are your ways my ways1
 saith the ,lord4  ,may ,i say1 in      
closing1 that the treatment which the   
,book of ,jonah has received1 alike from
 skeptics and from defenders of the     
faith1 illustrates1 in a striking way1  
the kind of controversy which is raised 
by the attempt to maintain the          
infallibility of the ,bible4 ,the crux  
of all the critics1 orthodox and        
heterodox1 is the story about the fish4 
,the orthodox have assumed that the     
narrative without the miracle was       
meaningless1 and the heterodox have     
taken them at their word4 ,in their     
dispute over the question whether ,jonah

 did really compose that psalm in the   
belly of the fish1 with his head        
festooned with seaweed1 they have almost
 wholly overlooked the great lessons of 
fidelity to duty1 of the universal      
divine fatherhood1 and the universal    
human brotherhood1 which the story so   
beautifully enforces4 ,how easy it is   
for saints as well as scoffers1 in their
 dealing with the messages of ,god to   
men1 to tithe the mint1 anise1 and      
cummin of the literal sense1 and neglect
 the weightier matters of judgment1     
mercy1 and truth which they are intended
 to convey6     ,,chapter ,,vi4  ,,the  
,,later ,,hebrew ,,histories4    ,after 
the ,book of the ,law had been revised  
by ,ezra1 and the ,book of the ,prophets
 had been compiled by ,nehemiah1 there  
still remained a body of sacred         
writings1 not ,mosaic in their origin   
and not from the hands of any recognized
 prophet1 but still of value in the eyes
 of the ,jews4 ,we cannot tell the time 
at which the work of collecting these   

,scriptures was begun2 possibly it was  
going on while the ,books of the        
,prophets were being compiled4 ,this    
third collection was called from the    
first by the ,jews1 ,ketubim1 meaning   
simply writings2 the ,greeks afterward  
called it by a name which has been      
anglicized1 and which has become the    
common designation of these writings    
among us1 ,the ,hagiographa1 or the     
,holy ,writings4 ,the adjective holy was
 not a part of the ,jewish title2 it    
would have overstated1 somewhat1 their  
first estimate of this part of their    
,bible4 ,for while the degree of        
sacredness attached to these books      
gradually increased1 they were always   
held as quite inferior to the other two 
groups of ,scriptures4 ,for convenience 
the list of books in this collection may
 be here repeated3--     ,the ,psalms4  
,the ,proverbs4    ,job4    ,the ,song  
of ,solomon4    ,ruth4    ,lamentations4
    ,ecclesiastes4    ,esther4          
,daniel4    ,ezra4    ,nehemiah4    #a  

,chronicles4    #b ,chronicles4  ,the   
arrangement is topical2 first1 three    
poetical books1 ,the ,psalms1 ,the      
,proverbs1 and ,job2 then five so-called
 ,megilloth1 or ,rolls1 read in the     
later synagogues on certain great feast 
days1--,the ,song of ,songs at the      
,passover1 ,ruth at ,pentecost1         
,lamentations on the anniversary of the 
burning of the temple1 ,ecclesiastes at 
the ,feast of ,tabernacles1 and ,esther 
at the ,feast of ,purim2 lastly1 the    
historical and quasi-historical books1  
,daniel1 ,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 and the      
,chronicles4  ,of ,ruth ,i have already 
spoken in its proper historical         
connection1 taking it with the ,book of 
,judges4  ,in treating of the remaining 
books ,i shall not follow the order of  
the ,hebrew ,bible1 which ,i have given 
above1 but shall rather reverse it1     
treating first of the historical books1 
,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 and the ,chronicles1  
also of ,esther and ,daniel2 then1 in a 
subsequent chapter1 of the poetical     

books1 the ,lamentations1 the books     
attributed to ,solomon1--,proverbs1     
,ecclesiastes1 and ,solomon's           
,song1--and finally of ,job and the     
,psalms4  ,the histories which1 under   
the title of the ,earlier ,prophets1 are
 contained in the middle group of the   
,hebrew ,scriptures1 have been studied  
in a former chapter4 ,in this later     
group of writings we find certain other 
historical works which cover the same   
ground4 ,in the words of ,mr4 ,horton3--
  ,taking historical excerpts from the  
first six books of the ,bible1 and then 
going on in a continuous narrative from 
the beginning of ,judges to the end of  
the ,second ,book of ,kings1 we have a  
story--true1 a story with many gaps in  
it1 still a connected story--from the   
earliest times to the captivity of      
,judah4 ,then1 starting from the ,first 
,book of ,chronicles and reading on to  
the end of ,nehemiah1 we have1 in a very
 compressed form1 though enlarged in    
some parts1 a complete record from ,adam

 to the return from the ,captivity2 at  
the end of this long sweep of narrative 
comes the ,book of ,esther1 which is a  
brief appendix containing a historical  
episode of the ,captivity4 ,taking these
 two distinct histories1 we have two    
lines of narrative1 an older and a      
later1 which run together up to the     
,captivity2 the older1 though covering a
 shorter time1 is much the larger and   
fuller2 the later1 very thin in most    
parts1 becomes very full in its account 
of the ,temple-worship and              
,temple-kingship at ,jerusalem1 and then
 continues the story alone up to the end
 of the ,captivity1 and the             
restablishment of the ,temple-worship   
after the return4 ,footnote3            
,inspiration and the ,bible1 pp4 #aei1  
#afj4  ,the older history1 contained in 
,samuel and ,kings1 breaks off abruptly 
in the time of the ,captivity2 we know  
that it must have been written during   
the ,exile1 and could not have been     
written earlier than about #eej ,b4,c4  

,the later history1 in ,chronicles and  
,ezra-,nehemiah1 begins with ,adam1 and 
goes on1 by one or two genealogical     
tables1 for almost two centuries after  
the ,captivity4 ,in #a ,chronicles iii4 
#ai1 the genealogy of ,zerubbabel1 who  
came back with the captives1 is carried 
on for at least six generations4        
,counting thirty years for a generation1
 the table extends the time of the      
writing of this record to at least one  
hundred and eighty years after the      
return of the exiles4 ,this occurred in 
#ech ,b4,c41 and the book must therefore
 have been written as late as #cej      
,b4,c41 or very nearly two centuries    
after the earlier history was finished4 
,there are conclusive reasons for       
believing that the four books now under 
consideration1 the two books of         
,chronicles1 ,ezra1 and ,nehemiah1 were 
originally but one book4 ,in the ,hebrew
 ,canon the ,chronicles is now but one  
book2 and in the old ,hebrew collections
 ,ezra and ,nehemiah were but one book4 

,it was in the ,septuagint that they    
were first separated4 ,thus we have the 
four certainly reduced to two4 ,and it  
is not difficult1 on an inspection of   
the documents1 to reduce the two to one4
 ,if you will open your ,bible at the   
last verses of ,second ,chronicles1     
beginning with the twenty-second verse  
of the last chapter1 and1 fixing your   
eyes on this passage1 will ask some one 
to read to you the first three verses of
 the ,book of ,ezra1 you will see how   
these two books were formerly one2 and  
how the manuscript was torn in two in   
the wrong place2 so that the ,book of   
,chronicles actually ends in the middle 
of a sentence4 ,the period at the end of
 this book ought to be expunged4  ,the  
explanatfon of this curious phenomenon  
is not difficult4 ,the last group of    
sacred writings1 what the ,jews call the
 ,ketubim1 was kept open for additions  
to a very late day4 ,after this history 
was written                             
7,chronicles-,ezra-,nehemiah7 the       

question arose whether it should be     
admitted into the canon4 ,the first     
answer to this question evidently was3  
,we do not need the first part of the   
history1--the ,book of ,chronicles1--for
 we have the substance of it already in 
the ,books of ,samuel and ,kings and in 
the earlier writings2 but we do need the
 last part of it1 ',ezra-,nehemiah1' for
 this carries the history on beyond the 
,captivity1 and gives the account of the
 return of the exiles and the rebuilding
 of the city and the temple4 ,so they   
tore the book in two1 and put the last  
part of it into the growing collection  
of ,ketubim1 or ,writings4 ,the careless
 division of the manuscript1 not at the 
beginning of a paragraph1 but in the    
middle of a sentence1 made it necessary1
 of course1 for the scribe to copy at   
the beginning of the ,ezra-roll the     
words belonging to it which had been    
torn off2 but they were not erased from 
the first part1 and have been left      
there1 as the old historians say1 unto  

this day4  ,by and by there were        
requests that this first part--the      
,chronicles--be admitted to the         
,ketubim4 ,the priests and the ,levites 
of the temple would be sure to urge this
 request1 for the ,chronicles is the one
 book of the ,old ,testament in which   
their order is glorified2 and at length 
the request was granted2 the ,chronicles
 were added to the collection1 and as   
they went in last they follow           
,ezra-,nehemiah1 although they belong1  
chronologically1 before it4 ,they stand 
to-day at the end of the ,hebrew ,bible1
 and thus testify1 by their position1   
respecting the lateness of the date at  
which they were admitted to the canon4  
,thus the ,hebrew ,bible ends with an   
incomplete sentence4  ,what this later  
history may have been called before it  
was torn in two we have no means of     
knowing2 but the ,jews called the last  
part of it 7which stands first in their 
collection7 by the name of ,ezra1 and   
the first part of it 7which is last in  

their canon7 they named1 ,events of the 
,times1 or ,annals4 ,in the ,septuagint 
this book of the ,chronicles was called 
,paraleipomena1 ,leavings1 ,things ,left
 ,over1 ,supplements4 ,jerome first gave
 it the name of ,chronicles1 by which we
 know it4  ,the name of the author of   
this book is unknown4 ,the strong       
probabilities are that he was a ,levite1
 connected with the temple service in   
,jerusalem4 ,the ,levites had charge of 
the public religious services of the    
temple1 especially of its music2 and the
 fullness with which this writer        
expatiates upon all this part of the    
ritual shows that it was very dear to   
his heart4 ,footnote3  ,see #a ,chron4  
vi4 #ca-dh2 xv4 #af-bd2 xvi #d-db2      
xxv4#b ,chron4 v4 #ab1 #ac2 vii4 #f2    
viii4 #ad2 xx4 #ai-ba2 xxiii4 #ac2 xxix4
 #be-cj2 xxxi #b2 zxxiv4 #ab2 xxxv4 #ae4
 ,everything relating to the ,levitical 
priesthood and its services is dwelt    
upon in this book with emphasis and     
elaboration2 as the histories of ,samuel

 and the ,kings are written from the    
prophetical standpoint1 this is most    
evidently written from the priestly     
point of view4  ,in these books of the  
,chronicles the author constantly points
 out the sources of his information4 ,he
 tells us that he quotes from the ,book 
of the ,kings of ,judah and ,israel1    
from the ,acts of the ,kings of ,israel1
 and from ,the ,story of the ,book of   
the ,kings4 ,the identity of these books
 is a disputed question4 ,it is supposed
 by some critics that he refers to the  
,books of ,kings in our ,bible2 others  
maintain that he draws from another and 
much larger book of a similar name which
 has been lost4 ,the latter theory is   
generally maintained by the more        
conservative critics2 and it is easier  
to vindicate the author's               
trustworthiness on this supposition2 yet
 even so there are serious difficulties 
in the case2 for it is hard to believe  
that he could have written these annals 
without having had before him the       

earlier record1 and between the two are 
many discrepancies4 ,the main facts of  
the history are substantially the same  
in the two narratives2 but in minor     
matters the disagreements and           
contradictions are numerous4 ,it is part
 of the purpose of this study to look   
difficulties of this kind fairly in the 
face2 it is treason to the spirit of all
 truth to refuse to do so4 ,let us      
examine1 then1 a few of these           
discrepancies between the earlier and   
later history4  ,in #b ,samuel viii4 #d1
 we are told that in ,david's victory   
over ,hadadezer king of ,zobah1 he took 
from the latter a thousand and seven    
hundred horsemen4 ,in #a ,chronicles    
xviii4 #d1 he is said to have taken a   
thousand chariots and seven thousand    
horsemen4 ,in #b ,samuel xxiv4 #i1      
,david's census is said to have returned
 #hjj1jjj warriors for ,israel1 and     
#ejj1jjj for ,judah4 ,in #a ,chronicles 
xxi4 #e1 the number is stated as        
#a1ajj1jjj for ,israel1 and #dgj1jjj for

 ,judah4 ,in #b ,samuel xxiv4 #bd1      
,david is said to have paid ,araunah for
 his threshing-floor fifty shekels of   
silver1 estimated at about thirty       
dollars of our money2 in #a ,chronicles 
xxi4 #be1 he is said to have given him  
six hundred shekels of gold by weight1  
amounting to a little more than         
thirty-four hundred dollars4 ,in #b     
,chronicles xiv4 i1 we read that ,asa   
reigned in the stead of his father      
,abijah1 and that in his days the land  
was quiet ten years4 ,again in the #ajth
 and the #aith verses of the following  
chapter we learn that from the fifteenth
 to the thirty-fifth year of ,asa there 
was no war in the land4 ,in #a ,kings   
xv4 #cb1 we are explicitly told that    
there was war between ,asa and ,baasha  
king of ,israel all their days4 ,in #a  
,chronicles xx4 the story of the taking 
of ,rabbah seems to be abridged from #b 
,samuel xi41 xii42 but the abridgment is
 curiously done1 so that the part taken 
by ,david in the siege and capture of   

the city is not brought out2 and the    
whole narrative of ,david's relation to 
,uriah and ,bathsheba1 with the rebuke  
of ,nathan and the death of ,david's    
child1 is not alluded to4 ,the relation 
of the two narratives at this point is  
significant2 it deserves careful study4 
,one more curious difference is found in
 the two accounts of the numbering of   
,israel4 ,in #b ,samuel xxiv4 #a1 we    
read1 ,and the anger of the ,lord was   
kindled against ,israel1 and he moved   
,david against them1 saying1 ,go1 number
 ,israel and ,judah4 ,in #a ,chronicles 
xxi41 we read1 ,and ,satan stood up     
against ,israel and moved ,david to     
number ,israel4 ,the numbering in both  
narratives is assumed to be a grievous  
sin2 and the penalty of this sin1 which 
was ,david's1 was visited upon the      
people in the form of a pestilence1     
which slew seventy thousand of them4 ,i 
observe that the commentators try to    
reconcile these statements by saying    
that ,god permitted ,satan to tempt     

,david4 ,i wonder if that explanation   
affords to any mind a shade of relief4  
,but the older record utterly forbids   
such a gloss4 ,the anger of the ,lord   
against ,israel prompted the ,lord to   
move ,david against them1 and the ,lord 
said1 ,go1 number ,judah and ,israel6   
,it was not a permission2 it was a      
direct instigation4 ,then because ,david
 did what the ,lord moved him to do1 the
 ,lord sent a pestilence upon ,israel1  
which destroyed seventy thousand men4   
,we are not concerned to reconcile these
 two accounts1 for neither of them can  
be true4 ,let us not suppose that we can
 be required1 by any theory of          
inspiration1 to blaspheme ,god by       
accusing him of any such monstrous      
iniquity4 ,let no man open his mouth in 
this day to declare that the ,judge of  
all the earth instigated ,david to do a 
presumptuous deed1 and then slew seventy
 thousand of ,david's subjects for the  
sin of their ruler4 ,such a view of ,god
 might have been held without censure   

three thousand years ago2 it cannot be  
held without sin by men who have the    
,new ,testament in their hands4 ,this   
narrative belongs to that class of crude
 and defective teachings which ,jesus1  
in the ,sermon on the ,mount1 points out
 and sets aside4 ,we may1 nay we must   
apply to the morality of this           
transaction the principle of judgment   
which ,jesus gives us in that discourse1
 and say3 ,ye have heard that it hath   
been said by them of old time that ,god 
sometimes instigates a ruler to do      
wrong1 and then punishes his people for 
the wrong done by the ruler which he    
himself has instigated2 but ,i say unto 
you that ',god cannot be tempted with   
evil1 neither tempteth he any man2'     
moreover the ruler shall not bear the   
sin of the subject1 nor the subject the 
sin of the ruler2 for every man shall   
give account of himself unto ,god4 ,it  
is by the higher standard that ,christ  
has given us in the ,new ,testament that
 we must judge all these narratives of  

the ,old ,testament1 and when we find in
 these old writings statements which    
represent ,god as perfidious and unjust1
 we are not to try to harmonize them    
with other statements2 we are simply to 
set them aside as the views of a dark   
age4  ,such blurred and distorted ideas 
about ,god and his truth we do certainly
 find here and there in these old       
writings2 the treasure which they have  
preserved for us is in earthen vessels2 
the human element1 which is a necessary 
part of a written revelation1 all the   
while displays itself4 ,it is human to  
err2 and the men who wrote the ,bible   
were human4 ,we may have a theory that  
,god must have guarded them from every  
form of error1 but the ,bible itself has
 no such theory2 and we must try to make
 our theories of inspiration fit the    
facts of the ,bible as we find them     
lying upon its pages4  ,the second      
portion of this history1 the ,book of   
,ezra-,nehemiah1 presents fewer of these
 difficulties than the ,book of         

,chronicles4 ,it is a fragmentary1 but  
to all appearance a veracious record of 
the events which took place after the   
first return of the exiles to           
,jerusalem4 ,the first caravan returned 
in the first year of ,king ,cyrus2 and  
the history extends to the last part of 
the reign of ,artaxerxes                
,longimanus1--covering a period of more 
than a hundred years4 ,the documents on 
which it is based were largely official2
 and there is no doubt that considerable
 portions of the first book came from   
the pen of ,ezra himself1 and that the  
second book was made up in part from    
writings left by ,nehemiah4 ,the        
language of the second book is ,hebrew2 
that of the first is partly ,hebrew and 
partly ,chaldee or ,aramaic4 ,we read in
 the fourth chapter of ,ezra that a     
certain letter was written to ,king     
,artaxerxes1 and it is said that the    
writing of the letter was written in the
 ,syrian character4 ,the margin of the  
revised version says ,aramaic4 ,we find 

this letter in our ,hebrew ,bibles in   
the ,aramaic language4 ,and the writer1 
after copying the letter in ,aramaic1   
goes right on with the history in       
,aramaic2 from the twelfth verse of the 
fourth chapter to the eighteenth verse  
of the sixth chapter the language is all
 ,aramaic2 then the historian drops back
 into ,hebrew again1 and goes on to the 
twelfth verse of the seventh chapter1   
when he returns to ,aramaic to record   
the letter of ,artaxerxes1 which extends
 to the twenty-seventh verse4 ,the rest 
of the book is ,hebrew4 ,with the       
exception of some short sections of the 
,book of ,daniel1 this is the only      
portion of our ,old ,testament that was 
not written originally in the ,hebrew   
tongue4  ,the contents of these two     
books may be briefly summarized4 ,the   
first book tells us how the ,persian    
king ,cyrus1 in the first year of his   
reign1 issued a proclamation to the     
,jews dwelling in his kingdom1          
permitting and encouraging them to      

return to their own country and to      
rebuild the temple in ,jerusalem4 ,the  
conquest of the ,babylonians by the     
,persians had placed the captive ,jews  
in vastly improved circumstances4       
,between the faith of the ,persians and 
that of the ,jews there was close       
affinity4 ,the ,persians were           
monotheists2 and ,cyrus1 as ,rawlinson  
says1 evidently identified ,jehovah with
 ,ormazd1 and1 accepting as a divine    
command the prophecy of ,isaiah1        
undertook to rebuild their temple for a 
people who1 like his own1 allowed no    
image of ,god to defile the             
sanctuary4444 ,the foundation was then  
laid for that friendly intimacy between 
the two peoples of which we have        
abundant evidence in the books of ,ezra1
 ,nehemiah1 and ,esther4 ,the words of  
the decree of ,cyrus1 with which the    
,book of ,ezra opens1 show how he       
regarded the ,god of the ,jews3         
,whosoever there is among you of all his
 people1 his ,god be with him1 and let  

him go up to ,jerusalem1 which is in    
,judah1 and build the house of the      
,lord1 the ,god of ,israel1 7he is      
,god17 which is in ,jerusalem4 ,the     
parenthetical clause is a clear         
confession of the faith of ,cyrus that  
,jehovah was only another name for      
,ormazd2 that there is but one ,god4    
,in consequence of this decree1 a       
caravan of nearly fifty thousand        
persons1 led by ,zerubbabel1 carrying   
with them liberal free-will offerings of
 those who remained in ,babylon for the 
building of the temple1 went back to    
,jerusalem1 and in the second year began
 the erection of the second temple4     
,with this pious design certain         
,samaritans interfered1 finally         
procuring an injunction from the        
successor of ,cyrus by which the        
building of the temple was interrupted  
for several years4 ,on the accession of 
,darius1 the prophets ,haggai and       
,zechariah stirred up the people to     
resume the work1 and at length succeeded

 in getting from the great king complete
 authority to proceed with it4 ,in the  
sixth year of his reign the second      
temple was completed1 and dedicated with
 great rejoicing4 ,this closes the first
 section of the ,book of ,ezra4 ,the    
rest of the book is occupied with the   
story of ,ezra himself1 who is said to  
have been a ready scribe in the law of  
,moses1 and who1 in the seventh year of 
,artaxerxes1 king of ,persia1 led a     
second caravan of exiles home to        
,jerusalem1 with great store of silver  
and gold and wheat and wine and oil for 
the resumption of the ritual worship of 
the ,lord's house4 ,the story of this   
return of the exiles is minutely told2  
and the remainder of this book is       
devoted to a recital of the matter of   
the mixed marriages between the ,jewish 
men and the women of the surrounding    
tribes1 which caused ,ezra great        
distress1 and which he succeeded in     
annulling1 so that these strange women1 
as they are called1 were all put away4  

,to our eyes this seems a piece of      
doubtful morality1 but we must consider 
the changed standards of our time1 and  
remember that these men might have done 
with the purest conscientiousness some  
things which we could not do at all4    
,the ,book of ,nehemiah is in part a    
recital by ,nehemiah himself of the     
circumstances of his coming to          
,jerusalem1 which seems to have taken   
place about thirteen years after the    
coming of ,ezra4 ,he was the cupbearer  
of ,artaxerxes the king2 he had heard of
 the distress and poverty of his people 
at ,jerusalem1 and in the fervid        
patriotism of his nature he begged the  
privilege of going up to ,jerusalem to  
rebuild its walls4 ,permission was      
gained1 and the first part of the book  
contains a stirring account of the      
experiences of ,nehemiah in building the
 walls of ,jerusalem4 ,after this work  
was finished1 ,nehemiah undertook a     
census of the restored city1 but he     
found1 as he says1 the book of the      

genealogy of them that came up at the   
first1--the list of families which      
appears in ,ezra1--and this he copies4  
,it may be instructive to take these two
 lists--the one in ,ezra ii4 and the one
 in ,nehemiah vii4--and compare them4   
,after this we have an account of a     
great congregation which assembled in   
the broad place that was before the     
water gate1 when ,ezra the scribe stood 
upon a pulpit of wood from early morning
 until midday1 and read to the assembled
 multitude from the book of the law4    
,and ,ezra opened the book in the sight 
of all the people 7for he was above all 
the people72 and when he opened it all  
the people stood up1 and ,ezra blessed  
,jehovah the great ,god4 ,and all the   
people answered1 ,amen1 ,amen1 with the 
lifting up of their hands2 and they     
bowed their heads1 and worshiped        
,jehovah1 with their faces to the       
ground4 ,other scribes stood by1        
apparently to take turns in the reading2
 and it is said that they read in the   

book1 in the law of the ,lord distinctly
 or1 'with an interpretation1' ,marg41  
and they gave the sense1 so that they   
understood the reading4 ,from this it   
has been inferred that the people had   
already become1 in their sojourn in the 
,east1 more familiar with ,aramaic than 
with their own tongue1 and that they    
were unable to understand the ,hebrew   
without some words of interpretation4   
,it is doubtful1 however1 whether all   
this meaning can be read into this      
passage4 ,at any rate1 we have here1    
undoubtedly1 the history of the         
inauguration of the reading of the law  
as one of the regular acts of public    
worship4 ,and this must have been about 
#ddj ,b4,c4  ,the narrative of the first
 complete and formal observance of the  
,feast of ,tabernacles since the days of
 ,joshua2 the narrative of the solemn   
league and covenant by which the people 
bound themselves to keep the law2 the   
narrative of the dedication of the wall 
of the city1 and the account of various 

reforms which ,nehemiah prosecuted1 with
 certain lists of priests and ,levites1 
fill up the remainder of the book4      
,taking it all in all it is a very      
valuable record2 no historical book of  
the ,old ,testament gives greater       
evidence of veracity2 none excels it in 
human interest4 ,the pathetic tale of   
the return of this people from their    
long exile1 of the rebuilding of their  
city and their temple1 and of the heroic
 and self-denying labors of ,zerubbabel 
and ,nehemiah1 the governors1 and       
,haggai and ,zechariah1 the prophets1   
and ,ezra the scribe1 with all their    
coadjutors1 is full of significance to  
all those who trace in the history of   
the people of ,israel1 more clearly than
 anywhere else1 the increasing purpose  
of ,god which runs through all the ages4
  ,that portions of the first book were 
written by ,ezra1 and of the second book
 by ,nehemiah1 is not doubted2 but both 
books were revised somewhat by later    
hands2 additions were undoubtedly made  

after the death of ,nehemiah2 for one1  
at least1 of the genealogies shows us a 
certain ,jaddua as high priest1 and     
tells us that he was the great grandson 
of the man who was high priest when     
,nehemiah came to ,jerusalem4 ,it is not
 probable that ,nehemiah lived to see   
this ,jaddua in the high priest's       
office4 ,it is probable that the last   
revision of the ,bible was made some    
time after #djj ,b4,c4  ,i have now to  
speak1 in the conclusion of this        
chapter1 of two other books of this last
 group1 concerning which there has      
always been much misconception1 the     
,book of ,esther and the ,book of       
,daniel4 ,esther stands in our ,bibles  
immediately after ,ezra-,nehemiah1 while
 ,daniel is included among the prophets4
 ,but in the ,hebrew ,bibles both books 
are found in the group which was last   
collected and least valued4  ,i have    
styled these historical books2 are they 
truly historical8 ,that they are founded
 upon fact ,i do not doubt2 but it is1  

perhaps1 safer to regard them both      
rather as historical fictions than as   
veritable histories4 ,the reason for    
this judgment may appear as we go on    
with the study4  ,the ,book of ,esther  
may be briefly summarized4 ,the scene is
 laid in ,shushan the palace1 better    
known as ,susa1 one of the royal        
residences of the kings of ,persia4 ,the
 story opens with a great feast1 lasting
 one hundred and eighty days1 given by  
the ,king ,ahasuerus to all the nabobs  
of the realm4 ,it is assumed that this  
king was ,xerxes the ,great1 but the    
identification is by no means           
conclusive4 ,at the close of this       
monumental debauch1 the king1 in his    
drunken pride1 calls in his queen       
,vashti to show her beauty to the       
inebriated courtiers4 ,she refuses1 and 
the refusal ought to be remembered to   
her honor2 but this book does not so    
regard it4 ,the sympathy of the book is 
with the bibulous monarch1 and not with 
his chaste and modest spouse4 ,the king 

is very wroth1 and after taking much    
learned advice from his counselors1 puts
 away his queen for this act of         
insubordination1 and proceeds to look   
for another4 ,his choice falls upon a   
,jewish maiden1 a daughter of the       
,exile1 who has been brought up by her  
cousin ,mordecai4 ,esther1 at           
,mordecai's command1 at first conceals  
her ,jewish descent from the king4 ,an  
opportunity soon comes for ,mordecai to 
reveal to ,esther a plot against the    
king's life2 and the circumstance is    
recorded in the chronicles of the realm4
  ,soon after this a certain ,haman is  
made ,grand ,vizier of the kingdom1 and 
,mordecai the ,jew refuses to do        
obeisance to him2 in consequence of     
which ,haman secures from the king an   
edict ordering the assassination of all 
the ,jews in the kingdom4 ,his wrath    
against ,mordecai being still further   
inflamed1 he erects a gallows fifty     
cubits high1 with the purpose of hanging
 thereon the testy ,israelite4 ,the     

intervention of ,esther puts an end to  
these malicious schemes4 ,at the risk of
 her life she presents herself before   
the king1 and gains his favor2 then1    
while ,haman's purpose halts1 the king  
is reminded1 when the annals of his     
kingdom are read to him on a wakeful    
night1 of the frustration of the plot   
against his person by ,mordecai1 and    
learning that no recompense has been    
made to him1 suddenly determines to     
elevate and honor him2 and the          
consequence is1 that ,haman himself1 his
 purposes being disclosed by the queen1 
is hanged on the gallows that he had    
prepared for ,mordecai1 and ,mordecai is
 elevated to ,hainan's place4 ,the      
decree of an ,eastern king cannot be    
annulled1 and the massacre of the ,jews 
still remains a legal requirement2 yet  
,esther and ,mordecai are permitted to  
send royal orders to all parts of the   
realm authorizing the ,jews upon the day
 of the appointed massacre to stand for 
their lives1 and to kill as many as they

 can of their enemies4 ,thus encouraged1
 and supported also by the king's       
officials in every province1 who are now
 the creatures of ,mordecai1 the ,jews  
turn upon their enemies1 and slay in one
 day seventy-five thousand of           
them1--five hundred in the palace of    
,shushan1--among whom are the ten sons  
of ,haman4 ,on the evening of this      
bloody day1 the king says to ,esther the
 queen3 ,the ,jews have slain five      
hundred men in ,shushan the palace1 and 
the ten sons of ,haman2 what then have  
they done in the rest of the king's     
provinces8 ,from this sample of their   
ferocity you can judge how much blood   
must have been shed throughout the      
kingdom4 ,now what is thy petition8 and 
it shall be granted thee2 or what is thy
 request further8 and it shall be done4 
,it might be supposed that this fair    
,jewish princess would be satisfied with
 this banquet of blood1 but she is not2 
she wants more4 ,then said ,esther1 if  
it please the king1 let it be granted to

 the ,jews which are in ,shushan to do  
to-morrow also1 according unto this     
day's decree1 and let ,haman's ten sons 
be hanged upon the gallows4 ,the request
 is granted2 the next day three hundred 
more ,persians are butchered in ,shushan
 the palace2 and the dead bodies of the 
ten sons of ,haman1 weltering in their  
gore1 are lifted up and hanged upon the 
gallows1 and all to please ,queen       
,esther6 ,if a single ,jew loses his    
life in this outbreak1 the writer       
forgets to mention it4 ,it is idle to   
say that this is represented as a       
defensive act on the part of the ,jews2 
the impression is given that the        
,persians1 by the menacing action of    
their own officials under ,mordecai's   
authority1 were completely cowed1 and   
were simply slaughtered in their tracks 
by the infuriated ,jews4  ,as a memorial
 of this feast of blood1 the ,jewish    
festival of ,purim was instituted1 which
 is kept to this day2 and the ,book of  
,esther is read at this feast1 in       

dramatic fashion1 with passionate       
responses by the congregation4  ,is this
 history8 ,there is every reason to hope
 that it is not4 ,that some deliverance 
of the ,jews from their enemies in      
,persia may be commemorated by the feast
 of ,purim is possible2 that precisely  
such a fiendish outbreak of fanatical   
cruelty as this ever occurred1 we may   
safely and charitably doubt4 ,the fact  
that the story was told1 and that it    
gained great popularity among the ,jews1
 and by some of those in later ages came
 to be regarded as one of the most      
sacred books of their canon is1 however1
 a revelation to us of the extent to    
which the most baleful and horrible     
passions may be cherished in the name of
 religion4 ,it is precisely for this    
purpose1 perhaps1 that the book has been
 preserved in our canon4 ,if any one    
wishes to see the perfect antithesis of 
the precepts and the spirit of the      
gospel of ,christ1 let him read the     
,book of ,esther4 ,frederick ,bleek is  

entirely justified in his statement that
 a spirit of revenge and persecution    
prevails in the book1 and that no other 
book of the ,old ,testament is so far   
removed as this is from the spirit of   
the gospel4 ,footnote3 ,introduction to 
the ,old ,testament1 i4 #dej4 ,for it is
 not merely true that these atrocities  
are here recited2 they are clearly      
indorsed4 ,there is not a word said in  
deprecation of the beastliness of the   
king or the vindictiveness of the hero  
and the heroine4 ,it is clear1 as ,bleek
 says1 that the author finds a peculiar 
satisfaction in the characters and mode 
of acting of his ,jewish compatriots1   
,esther and ,mordecai2 and that the     
disposition shown by them appears to him
 as the right one1 and one worthy of    
their nation4 ,esther the beautiful     
queen1 whose praises have been sung by  
many of our poets1 possesses1 indeed1   
some admirable qualities2 her courage is
 illustrious2 her patriotism is         
beautiful2 but her bloodthirstiness is  

terrible4  ,as to the time when this    
book was written1 or who wrote it1 ,i am
 not curious4 ,probably it was written  
long after the ,exile1 but by some one  
who was somewhat familiar with the      
manners of ,oriental courts4 ,the name  
of ,god is not once mentioned in the    
book2 and it seems like blasphemy to    
intimate that the ,spirit of ,god could 
have had anything to do with its        
composition4 ,it is absolutely sickening
 to read the commentaries1 which assume 
that it was dictated by the ,holy       
,ghost1 and which labor to justify and  
palliate its frightful narrative4 ,one  
learns1 with a sense of relief1 that the
 ,jews themselves long disputed its     
admission to their canon2 that the      
school of ,schammai would not accept it1
 and that several of the wisest and best
 of the early fathers of the ,christian 
church1 ,athanasius and ,melito of      
,sardis among the rest1 denied it a     
place in sacred ,scripture4 ,dr4 ,martin
 ,luther is orthodox enough for me1 and 

he1 more than once1 expressed the hearty
 wish that the book had perished4 ,that1
 indeed1 we need not desire2 let it     
remain as a dark background on which the
 ,christian morality may stand forth    
resplendent2 as a striking example of   
the kind of ideas which ,christians     
ought not to entertain1 and of the kind 
of feelings which they ought not to     
cherish4  ,the ,book of ,daniel brings  
us into a very different atmosphere4    
,esther is absolutely barren of         
religious ideas or suggestions2 ,daniel 
is full of the spirit of faith and      
prayer4 ,whether the character of       
,daniel1 as here presented1 is a sketch 
from life or a work of the imagination1 
it is a noble personality4 ,the         
self-control1 the fidelity to           
conscience1 the heroic purposes which   
are here attributed to him1 make up a   
picture which has always attracted the  
admiration of generous hearts4  ,as in  
the story of the ,three ,children1 says 
,dean ,stanley1 so in that of the ,den  

of ,lions1 the element which has lived  
on with immortal vigor is that which    
tells how1 'when ,daniel knew that the  
writing was signed1 he kneeled upon his 
knees three times a day and prayed and  
gave thanks to ,god1 as he did          
aforetime4' ,how often have these words 
confirmed the solitary protest1 not only
 in the ,flavian amphitheatre1 but in   
the ordinary yet not more easy task of  
maintaining the right of conscience     
against arbitrary power or invidious    
insult6 ,how many an independent patriot
 or unpopular reformer has been nerved  
by them to resist the unreasonable      
commands of king or priest6 ,how many a 
little boy at school has been           
strengthened by them for the effort1    
when he has knelt down by his bedside   
for the first time to say his prayers in
 the presence of indifferent or scoffing
 companions4444 ,shadrach1 ,meshach1 and
 ,abednego in the court of              
,nebuchadnezzar1 ,daniel in the court of
 ,darius1 are the likenesses of 'the    

small transfigured band whom the world  
cannot tame1' who1 by faith in the      
,unseen1 have in every age 'stopped the 
mouths of lions1 and quenched the       
violence of fire4' ,this was the example
 to those on whom1 in all ages1 in      
spirit if not in letter1 'the fire had  
no power1 nor was an hair of their head 
singed1 neither were their coats        
changed1 nor the smell of fire passed   
upon them2' but it was 'as it were a    
moist1 whistling wind1 and the form of  
the fourth1 who walked with them in the 
midst of the fire1 was like a ,son of   
,god4' ,footnote3 ,history of the       
,jewish ,church1 pp4 #da1 #db4  ,was    
,daniel a historical person8 ,the       
question has been much disputed1 but ,i 
think that we may safely answer it in   
the affirmative4 ,it is true that in all
 these writings of the later period of  
,israel ,daniel is mentioned but twice1 
both times in the ,book of ,ezekiel     
7xiv4 #ad2 xxviii4 #c74 ,the first of   
these allusions is a declaration that a 

few righteous men cannot save a wicked  
city1 when the decree of destruction    
against it has been issued2 though these
 three men1 ,noah1 ,daniel1 and ,job    
were in it1 they should deliver but     
their own souls by their righteousness1 
saith the ,lord ,god4 ,the other is in a
 prophecy against the ,king of ,tyre1 in
 which he is represented as saying to   
himself that he is wiser than ,daniel2  
that there is no secret that can be     
hidden from him4 ,whether these casual  
uses of the name of ,daniel for purposes
 of illustration can be regarded as     
establishing his historical character   
may be questioned4 ,and it is a singular
 fact that we have not in ,ezra1 or     
,nehemiah1 or ,haggai1 or ,zechariah1 or
 ,malachi1 any reference to the         
existence of ,daniel4 ,nevertheless1 it 
is hardly to be supposed that such a    
character was wholly fictitious2 we may 
well suppose that he existed1 and that  
the narratives of his great fidelity and
 piety are at any rate founded upon     

fact4  ,the first six chapters of the   
book are not ascribed to ,daniel as     
their author2 he is spoken of in the    
third person1 and sometimes in a way    
that a good man would not be likely to  
speak about himself4 ,the remainder of  
the book claims to be written by him4   
,the question is whether this claim is  
to be taken as an assertion of          
historical fact1 or as a device of      
literary workmanship4 ,ecclesiastes was 
undoubtedly written long after the      
,exile1 yet it purports to have been    
composed by ,king ,solomon4 ,the author 
puts his words into the mouth of        
,solomon1 to gain attention for them4   
,it is not fair to call this a fraud2 it
 was a perfectly legitimate literary    
device4 ,it is entirely possible that   
this may be the case with the author of 
this book4 ,daniel was a person whose   
name was well-known among his           
contemporaries1 and the author makes him
 his mouthpiece4 ,there may have been a 
special reason why the author should    

have desired to send out these          
narratives and visions under the name of
 a hero of antiquity1 a reason which we 
shall presently discover4  ,the ,book of
 ,daniel is not what is commonly called 
a prophecy2 it is rather an apocalypse4 
,it belongs to a class of literature    
which sprang up in the last days of the 
,jewish nationality1 after the old      
prophets had disappeared2 it is designed
 to comfort the people with hopes of    
future restoration of the national      
power2 its method is that of vision and 
symbolic representation4 ,daniel is the 
only book of this kind in the ,old      
,testament2 the ,new ,testament canon   
closes1 as you know1 with a similar     
book4 ,i shall not undertake to         
interpret to you these visions of the   
,book of ,daniel2 they are confessedly  
obscure and mysterious4 ,but there is   
one portion of the book1 the eleventh   
chapter1 which is admitted to be a      
minute and realistic description of the 
coalitions and the conflicts between the

 ,grco-,syrian and the ,grco-,egyptian  
kings1 events which took place about the
 middle of the second century before    
,christ4 ,these personages are not      
named1 but they are vividly described1  
and the intrigues and vicissitudes of   
that portion of ,jewish history in which
 they are the chief actors are fully    
told4 ,moreover the recital is put in   
the future tense2 ,there shall stand up 
yet three kings in ,persia2 and the     
fourth shall be richer than they all2   
and when he is waxed strong through his 
riches1 he shall stir up all against the
 realm of ,greece4 ,if1 now1 the ,book  
of ,daniel was written in the early days
 of the ,exile1 this was a very         
circumstantial prediction of what       
happened in the second century1--a      
prediction uttered three hundred years  
before the event4 ,and respecting these 
predictions1 if such they are1 we must  
say this1 that we have no others like   
them4 ,the other prophets never         
undertake to tell the particulars of    

what is coming to pass2 they give out1  
in terms very large and general1 the    
nature of the events which are to come4 
,no such carefully elaborated programme 
as this is found in any other predictive
 utterance4  ,but there are those--and  
they include the vast majority of the   
leading ,christian scholars of the      
present day--who say that these words   
were not written in the early days of   
the ,exile2 that they must have been    
written about the middle of the second  
century2 that they were therefore an    
account of what was going on1 by an     
onlooker1 couched in these phrases of   
vision and prophecy4 ,the people of     
,israel were passing through a terrible 
ordeal2 they needed to be heartened and 
nerved for resistance and endurance4    
,their heroic leader1 ,judas ,maccabeus1
 was urging them on to prodigies of     
valor in their conflict with the vile   
,antiochus2 such a ringing manifesto as 
this1 put forth in the progress of the  
conflict1 might have a powerful         

influence in reinforcing their          
patriotism and confirming their faith4  
,it might also have appeared at some    
stage of the conflict when it would have
 been imprudent and perhaps impossible  
to secure currency for the book if the  
reference to existing rulers had been   
explicit2 such a device as the author   
adopted may have been perfectly         
understood by the readers2 although     
slightly veiled in the form of its      
deliverance1 it was1 perhaps1 for this  
very reason1 all the better fitted for  
its purpose4  ,it might1 then1 have been
 written when the ,ptolemies and the    
,seleucid were wasting the fields of    
,palestine with their conflicts4 ,but   
was it written then8 ,how do we know    
that it was not a circumstantial        
prediction made three hundred years     
before8 ,we do not know1 with absolute  
certainty1 when it was written2 but     
there are strong reasons for believing  
that the later date is the true date4   
#a4 ,the book is not in the ,hebrew     

collection of the ,prophets4 ,that      
collection was made at least a hundred  
years after the time at which ,daniel is
 here said to have lived2 if so great a 
prophecy had been existing then1 it is  
strange that it should not have been    
gathered with the other prophets into   
,nehemiah's collection4 ,it is found1   
instead1 among the ,ketubim1--the later 
and supplementary writings of the       
,hebrew ,bible4  #b4 ,it is strange     
also1 as ,i have intimated1 that no     
mention of ,daniel or of his book is    
found in the histories of the ,exile and
 the return1 or in any of the prophecies
 uttered in ,israel after the return4   
,that there should be no allusion in any
 of these books to so distinguished a   
personage can hardly be explained4  #c4 
,jesus1 the son of ,sirach1 one of the  
writers of the ,apocrypha1 who lived    
about #bjj ,b4,c41 gives a full         
catalogue of all the great worthies of  
,israel2 he has a list of the prophets2 
he names all the other prophets2 he does

 not name ,daniel4  #d4 ,the nature of  
this prediction1 if it be a prediction1 
is unaccountable4 ,daniel is said to    
have lived in the ,babylonian period1   
and looked forward from that day4 ,his  
people were in exile1 but there is not a
 vision of his that has any reference to
 their return from the captivity1 to the
 rebuilding of the temple1 or to any of 
the events of their history belonging to
 the two centuries following4 ,it is    
strange that if1 standing at that point 
of time1 he was inspired to predict the 
future of the ,jewish people1 he should 
not have had some message respecting    
those great events in their history     
which were to happen within the next    
century4 ,instead of this1 his visions1 
so far as his own people are concerned1 
overleap three centuries and land in the
 days of ,antiochus ,epiphanes4 ,here   
they begin at once to be very specific2 
they tell all the particulars of this   
period1 but beyond this period they give
 no particulars at all2 the vision of   

the ,messianic triumph which follows is 
vague and general like the rest of the  
prophecies4 ,these circumstances        
strongly support the theory of the later
 date4  #e4 ,words appear in this       
writing which almost certainly fix it at
 a later date than the ,babylonian      
period4 ,there are certainly nine       
undoubted ,persian words in this book2  
there are no ,persian words in ,ezekiel1
 who lived at the time when ,daniel is  
placed at the ,babylonian court1 nor in 
,haggai1 ,zechariah1 or ,malachi4 ,there
 are several ,greek words1 names of     
musical instruments1 and it is almost   
certain that no ,greek words were in use
 in ,babylonia at that early day4 ,this 
philological argument may seem very     
dubious and far-fetched1 but it is      
really one of the most conclusive tests 
of the date of a document4 ,there is no 
witness so competent as the written     
word4 ,let me give you a homely         
illustration4 ,suppose you find in some 
late history of the ,united ,states a   

quoted letter said to have been written 
by ,president ,zachary ,taylor1 who died
 in #ahej1 respecting a certain         
political contest4 ,the letter contains 
the following paragraph3--  ,on         
receiving this intelligence1 ,i called  
up the ,secretary of ,state by          
telephone1 and asked him how he         
explained the defeat4 ,he told me that1 
in his opinion1 boodle was at the bottom
 of it4 ,i determined to make an        
investigation1 and after wiring to the  
member of ,congress in that district1 ,i
 ordered my servant to engage me a      
section in a ,pullman car1 and started  
the same night for the scene of the     
contest4  ,now of course you know that  
this paragraph could not have been      
written by ,president ,taylor1 nor      
during the period of his administration4
 ,the telephone was not then in         
existence2 there were no ,pullman cars2 
the words boodle and wire1 in the sense 
here used1 had never been heard4 ,in    
precisely the same way the trained      

philologist can often determine with    
great certainty the date of a writing4  
,he knows the biography of words or     
word-forms2 and he may know that some of
 the words or the word-forms contained  
in a certain writing were not yet in the
 language at the date when it is said to
 have been written4 ,it is by evidence  
of this nature that the critics fix the 
date of the ,book of ,daniel at a period
 long after the close of the ,babylonian
 empire4  ,this verdict reduces1        
somewhat1 the element of the marvelous  
contained in the book2 it does not in   
any wise reduce the moral and spiritual 
value of it4 ,the age of the ,maccabees1
 when this book appeared1 was one of the
 great ages of ,jewish history4 ,judas  
,maccabeus is one of the first of the   
,israelitish heroes2 and the struggle1  
in which he was the leader1 against the 
dissolute ,syrian ,greeks brought out   
some of the strongest qualities of the  
,hebrew character4 ,the genuine         
humility1 the fervid consecration1 the  

dauntless faith of the ,jews of this    
generation put to shame the conduct of  
their countrymen in many ages more      
celebrated4 ,and it cannot be doubted   
that this book was both the effect and  
the cause of this lofty national        
purpose4 ,rarely1 says ,ewald1 does it  
happen that a book appears as this did1 
in the very crisis of the times1 and in 
a form most suited to such an age1      
artificially reserved1 close and severe1
 and yet shedding so clear a light      
through obscurity1 and so marvelously   
captivating4 ,it was natural that it    
should soon achieve a success entirely  
corresponding to its inner truth and    
glory4 ,and so1 for the last time in the
 literature of the ,old ,testament1 we  
have in this book an example of a work  
which1 having sprung from the deepest   
necessities of the noblest impulses of  
the age1 can render to that age the     
purest service2 and which1 by the       
development of events immediately after1
 receives with such power the stamp of  

,divine witness that it subsequently    
attains imperishable sanctity4          
,footnote3 ,quoted by ,stanley1 ,history
 of the ,jewish ,church1 iii4 p4 #ccf4  
,,chapter ,,vii4  ,,the ,,poetical      
,,books4    ,the poetical books of the  
,old ,testament now invite our          
attention1--,the ,lamentations1         
,proverbs1 ,ecclesiastes1 ,the ,song of 
,solomon1 ,job1 and ,the ,psalms4       
,ecclesiastes is not in poetical form1  
but it is a prose poem2 the movement of 
the language is often lyrical1 and the  
thought is all expressed in poetic      
phrases4 ,the other books are all       
poetical in form as well as in fact4    
,,lamentations1 called in the ,hebrew   
,bible by the quaint title ,ah ,how1 the
 first two words of the book1 and in the
 ,greek ,bible ,threnoi1 signifying     
mourning1 is placed in the middle of the
 latest group of the ,hebrew writings4  
,in the ,english ,bible it follows the  
prophecy of ,jeremiah4 ,it is called in 
our version ,the ,lamentations of       

,jeremiah4 ,this title preserves the    
ancient tradition1 and there is no      
reason to doubt that the tradition      
embodies the truth4 ,in favor of this   
opinion1 says ,bleek1 we may note the   
agreement of the songs with ,jeremiah's 
prophecies in their whole character and 
spirit1 in their purport1 and in the    
tone of disposition shown in them1 as   
well as in the language4444 ,as regards 
the occasion and substance of these     
songs1 the two first and the two last   
relate to the misery which had been sent
 on the ,jewish people1 and particularly
 on ,jerusalem2 the middle one1 however1
 chiefly refers to the personal         
sufferings of the author4 ,footnote3    
,vol4 ii4 p4 #ajb4   ,these five parts  
are not the five chapters of a book2    
they are five distinct poems1 each      
complete in itself1 though they are all 
connected in meaning4 ,you notice the   
regularity of the structure1 which is   
even exhibited to some extent in the    
,old ,version4 ,the first and second1   

the fourth and fifth1 have each         
twenty-two verses or stanzas2 the third 
one has sixty-six stanzas4 ,all but the 
last are acrostical poems4 ,there are   
twenty-two letters in the ,hebrew       
alphabet2 each of these letters1 in     
regular order1 begins a verse in four of
 these songs2 in the third lamentation  
there are three verses for each letter4 
,the time at which these elegies were   
written was undoubtedly the year of the 
capture of ,jerusalem by the army of    
,nebuchadnezzar1 #ehf ,b4,c4 ,the       
,chaldean army had been investing the   
city for more than a year2 the walls    
were finally broken down1 and the       
,chaldeans rushed in2 as they gained    
entrance on one side1 the wretched ,king
 ,zedekiah escaped on the other with a  
few followers and fled down the ,jericho
 road2 he was pursued and overtaken1 his
 sons and princes were slain before his 
face1 then his own eyes were put out1   
and he was led away in chains to        
,babylon1 where he afterward died in    

captivity4 ,after a few months' work of 
this sort1 a portion of the ,chaldeans  
under ,nebuzar-adan returned to the     
dismantled and pillaged city and utterly
 destroyed both the city and the temple4
 ,it is supposed that ,jeremiah1 who was
 allowed to remain in the city during   
this bloody interval1 wrote these       
elegies in the midst of the desolation  
and fear then impending4 ,never1 says   
,dean ,milman1 was ruined city lamented 
in language so exquisitely pathetic4    
,jerusalem is1 as it were1 personified  
and bewailed with the passionate sorrow 
of private and domestic attachment2     
while the more general pictures of the  
famine1 common misery of every rank and 
age and sex1 all the desolation1 the    
carnage1 the violation1 the dragging    
away into captivity1 the remembrance of 
former glories1 of the gorgeous         
ceremonies1 and of the glad festivals1  
the awful sense of the ,divine wrath1   
heightening the present calamities1 are 
successively drawn with all the life and

 reality of an eye-witness4 ,footnote3  
,history of the ,jews1 i4 #ddf4  ,the   
ethical and spiritual qualities of the  
book are pure and high2 the writer does 
not fail to enforce the truth that it is
 because ,jerusalem hath grievously     
sinned that she is become an unclean    
thing4 ,and in the midst of all this    
calamity there is no rebellion against  
,god2 it is only the cry of a desolate  
but trusting soul to a just and faithful
 ,ruler4  ,,the ,,proverbs1 in the      
,hebrew ,bible1 is called ,mishle1 or   
sometimes ,mishle ,shelomoh4 ,the first 
word signifies ,parables or ,proverbs or
 ,sayings2 the second word is the       
supposed name of the author1 ,solomon4  
,by the later ,jews it is sometimes     
called ,sepher ,chokmah1--the ,book of  
,wisdom1--the same title as that which  
is borne by one of the apocryphal books4
  ,here1 doubtless1 we have again1 in   
the name of the author1 what ,delitzsch 
calls a common denominator4 ,on this    
subject the words of ,william ,aldis    

,wright1 in ,smith's ,bible ,dictionary1
 express a conservative judgment3--     
,the superscriptions which are affixed  
to several portions of the ,book of     
,proverbs in i4 #a1 x4 #a1 xxv4 #a1     
attribute the authorship of those       
portions to ,solomon1 the son of ,david1
 king of ,israel4 ,with the exception of
 the last two chapters1 which are       
distinctly assigned to other authors1 it
 is probable that the statement of the  
superscriptions is in the main correct1 
and that the majority of the proverbs   
contained in the book were uttered or   
collected by ,solomon4 ,it was natural  
and quite in accordance with the        
practice of other nations that the      
,hebrews should connect ,solomon's name 
with a collection of maxims and precepts
 which form a part of their literature  
to which he is known to have contributed
 most largely 7#a ,kings1 iv4 #cb74 ,in 
the same way the ,greeks attributed most
 of their sayings to ,pythagoras2 the   
,arabs to ,lokman1 ,abu ,obeid1 ,al     

,mofaddel1 ,meidani1 and ,samakhshari2  
the ,persians to ,ferid ,attar2 and the 
northern people to ,odin4  ,but there   
can be no question that the ,hebrews    
were much more justified in assigning   
the ,proverbs to ,solomon than the      
nations which have just been enumerated 
were in attributing the collections of  
national maxims to the traditional      
authors above mentioned4 ,footnote3     
,art4 ,book of ,proverbs4  ,this is1    
undoubtedly1 as much as can be truly    
said respecting the ,solomonian         
authorship of these sayings4 ,professor 
,davidson1 writing at a later day1 is   
more guarded4  ,in the book which now   
exists we find gathered together the    
most precious fruits of the wisdom of   
,israel during many hundreds of years1  
and undoubtedly the later centuries were
 richer1 or at all events fuller1 in    
their contributions than the earlier4   
,the tradition1 however1 which connects 
,solomon with the direction of mind     
known as ',the ,wisdom' cannot be       

reasonably set aside4444 ,making        
allowances for the exaggerations of     
later times1 we should leave history and
 tradition altogether unexplained if we 
disallowed the claim of ,solomon to have
 exercised a creative influence upon the
 wisdom in ,israel4 ,footnote3 ,art4    
,proverbs1 ,encyc4 ,brit4  ,the book is 
divided into several sections3  #a4 ,a  
general introduction1 explaining the    
character and aim of the book1 which    
occupies the first six verses4  #b4 ,a  
connected discourse upon wisdom1 not in 
the form of maxims1 but rather in the   
manner of a connected essay1 fills the  
first nine chapters4  #c4 ,the next     
thirteen chapters 7x4-xxii4 #af7 contain
 three hundred and seventy-four         
miscellaneous proverbs1 each consisting 
of two phrases1 the second of which is  
generally antithetical to the first1 as 
,a wise son maketh a glad father1 but a 
foolish son is a heaviness to his       
mother4 ,there is only one exception    
7xix4 #g71 where the couplet is a       

triplet4 ,probably one phrase has been  
lost4 ,the heading of this section is   
,the ,proverbs of ,solomon2 the section 
ends with the twenty-second chapter4    
#d4 ,from xxii4 #ag to xxiv4 #bb is a   
more connected discussion1 though in the
 proverbial form1 of the principles of  
conduct4 ,this is introduced by a brief 
exhortation to listen to the words of   
the wise4  #e4 ,at xxiv4 #bc1 begins    
another short section which extends     
through the chapter1 under this title3  
,these also are sayings of the wise4    
#f4 ,the next five chapters 7xxv4-xxix47
 have for their caption this sentence3  
,these also are proverbs of ,solomon1   
which the men of ,hezekiah1 king of     
,judah1 copied out4  #g4 ,chapter xxx4  
is said to contain ,the words of ,agur1 
the son of ,jakeh1 the oracle4 ,the     
author is wholly unknown4  #h4 ,chapter 
xxxi4 #a-i1 contains ,the words of ,king
 ,lemuel1 the prophecy that his mother  
taught him4 ,he too stands here upon the
 sacred page but the shadow of a name4  

#i4 ,the book closes with an acrostical 
poem---twenty-two verses beginning with 
the ,hebrew letters in the order of the 
alphabet--upon ,the ,virtuous ,woman4   
,the word virtue here is used in the    
,roman sense2 it signifies rather the   
vigorous woman1 the capable woman4  ,of 
these sections it seems probable that   
the one here numbered #f is the oldest1 
and that it contains the largest        
proportion of ,solomonian sayings4      
,professor ,davidson thinks that it     
cannot have taken its present form      
earlier than the eighth century4  ,the  
character of the teaching of the book is
 not uniform1 but on the whole it is    
best described as prudential rather than
 prophetic4 ,it embodies what we are in 
the habit of calling good common sense4 
,there is an occasional maxim whose     
application to our own time may be      
doubted1 and now and then one whose     
morality has been superseded by the     
higher standards of the ,new ,testament2
 but1 after making all due deductions1  

we shall doubtless agree that it is a   
precious legacy of practical counsel1   
and shall consent to these words of     
,professor ,conant3--  ,the gnomic      
poetry of the most enlightened of other 
nations will not bear comparison with it
 in the depth and certainty of its      
foundation principles1 or in the        
comprehensiveness and moral grandeur of 
its conceptions of human duty and       
responsibility4 ,footnote3 ,smith's     
,bible ,dictionary1 iii4 #bfaf4         
,ecclesiastes1 or the ,preacher1 bears  
in the ,hebrew collection the name1     
,koheleth1 which means the assembler of 
the people1 and therefore1 probably1 the
 man who addresses the assembly4        
,ecclesiastes is the ,greek name of the 
book in the ,septuagint2 we have simply 
copied the ,greek word in ,english      
letters4  ,the first verse is1 ,the     
words of ,koheleth 7the ,preacher71 the 
son of ,david1 ,king in ,jerusalem4 ,the
 only son of ,david who was ever king in
 ,jerusalem was ,solomon2 was ,solomon  

the author of this book8 ,this is the   
apparent claim2 the question is whether 
we have not here1 as in the case of     
,daniel1 a book put forth               
pseudonymously2 whether the author does 
not personate ,solomon1 and speak his   
message through ,solomon's lips4 ,that  
this is the fact modern scholars almost 
unanimously maintain4 ,their reasons for
 their opinion may be briefly stated3   
#a4 ,in the conclusion of the book the  
author speaks in his own person1 laying 
aside the thin disguise which he has    
been wearing4 ,in several other passages
 the literary veil becomes transparent4 
,thus 7i4 #ab71 ,i ,koheleth was king   
over ,israel in ,jerusalem4 ,this sounds
 like the voice of one looking backward 
and trying to put himself in ,solomon's 
place4 ,again1 in this and the following
 chapter1 he says of himself3 ,i have   
gotten me great wisdom above all that   
were before me in ,jerusalem2 ,i was    
great1 and increased more than all that 
were before me in ,jerusalem1 etc41--all

 of which1 says ,bleek1 does not appear 
very natural as coming from the son of  
,david1 who first captured ,jerusalem4  
,nobody had been before him in          
,jerusalem except his father ,david4    
#b4 ,the state of society as described  
in the book1 and particularly the       
reference to rulers1 agree better with  
the theory that it was written during   
the ,persian period1 after the          
,captivity1 when the satraps of the     
,persian king were ruling with          
vacillating arbitrariness and fitful    
violence4  #c4 ,the religious condition 
of the people as here depicted1 and the 
religious ideas of the book represent   
the period following the ,captivity1 and
 do not represent the golden age of     
,israel4  #d4 ,more important and indeed
 perfectly decisive is the fact that the
 book is full of ,chaldaisms1 and that  
the ,hebrew is the later ,hebrew1 of the
 days of ,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 ,daniel1 and 
,esther4 ,it could not have been written
 by ,solomon1 any more than the ,idylls 

of the ,king could have been written by 
,edmund ,spenser4 ,there are those1 of  
course1 who maintain that the book was  
written by ,solomon2 just as there are  
those who still maintain that the sun   
revolves around the earth4 ,the reason  
for this opinion is found in the first  
sentence of the book itself4 ,the book  
announces its own author1 it is said2   
and to question the truth of this claim 
is to deny the veracity of ,scripture4  
,on this question we may call1 from the 
array of conservative writers who have  
given us ,smith's ,bible ,dictionary1   
such a witness as ,professor            
,plumptre3--  ,the hypothesis that every
 such statement in a canonical book must
 be received as literally true is1 in   
fact1 an assumption that inspired       
writers were debarred from forms of     
composition which were open1 without    
blame1 to others4 ,in the literature of 
every other nation the form of          
personated authorship1 when there is no 
animus decipiendi1 has been recognized  

as a legitimate channel for the         
expression of opinions1 or the          
quasi-dramatic representation of        
character4 ,why should we venture on the
 assertion that if adopted by the       
writers of the ,old ,testament it would 
make them guilty of falsehood8444,there 
is nothing that need startle us in the  
thought that an inspired writer might   
use a liberty which has been granted    
without hesitation to the teachers of   
mankind in every age and country4       
,footnote3  ,art4 ,ecclesiastes1 vol4 i4
 p4 #fde4  ,that such is the character  
of the book and that it appeared some   
time during the ,persian age are        
well-ascertained results of scholarship4
  ,the doctrine of the book is not so   
easily summarized4 ,it is a hard book to
 interpret4 ,dr4 ,ginsberg gives a      
striking rsum of the different theories 
of its teaching which have been         
promulgated4 ,there is no room here to  
enter upon the great question4 ,let it  
suffice to say that we seem to have in  

these words the soliloquy of a soul     
struggling with the problem of evil1    
sometimes borne down by a dismal        
skepticism1 sometimes asserting his     
faith in the enduring righteousness4    
,the writer's problem is the one to     
which ,mr4 ,mallock has given an        
epigrammatic statement3 ,is life worth  
living8 ,he greatly doubts1 yet he      
strongly hopes4 ,much of the time it    
appears to him that the best thing a man
 can do is to enjoy the present good and
 let the world wag4 ,but the outcome of 
all this struggle is the conviction that
 there is a life beyond this life and a 
tribunal at which all wrongs will be    
righted1 and that to fear ,god and keep 
his commandments is the whole duty of   
man4 ,there are thus many passages in   
the book which express a bitter         
skepticism2 to winnow the wheat from the
 chaff and to find out what we ought to 
think about life is a serious           
undertaking4 ,it is only the wise and   
skillful interpreter who can steer his  

bark along these tortuous channels of   
reflection1 and not run aground4 ,yet1  
properly interpreted1 the book is sound 
for substance of doctrine1 and the      
experience which it delineates1 though  
sad and depressing1 is full of          
instruction for us4 ,dean ,stanley's    
words about it are as true as they are  
eloquent2 they will throw some light on 
the path which lies just before us3--   
,as the ,book of ,job is couched in the 
form of a dramatic argument between the 
patriarch and his friends1 as the ,song 
of ,songs is a dramatic dialogue between
 the ,lover and the ,loved ,one1 so the 
,book of ,ecclesiastes is a drama of a  
still more tragic kind4 ,it is an       
interchange of voices1 higher and lower1
 mournful and joyful1 within a single   
human soul4 ,it is like the struggle    
between the two principles in the       
,epistle to the ,romans4 ,it is like the
 question and answer of ',the ,two      
,voices' of our modern poet4444 ,every  
speculation and thought of the human    

heart is heard and expressed and        
recognized in turn4 ,the conflicts1     
which in other parts of the ,bible are  
confined to a single verse or a single  
chapter1 are here expanded into a whole 
book4 ,and after quoting a few of the   
darker and more cynical utterances1 this
 clear-sighted teacher goes on3 ,their  
cry is indeed full of doubt and despair 
and perplexity2 it is such as we often  
hear from the melancholy1 skeptical1    
inquiring spirits of our own age2 such  
as we often refuse to hear and regard as
 unworthy even a good man's thought or  
care1 but the admission of such a cry   
into the ,book of ,ecclesiastes shows   
that it is not beneath the notice of the
 ,bible1 not beneath the notice of ,god4
 ,footnote3 ,history of the ,jewish     
,church1 ii4 #bhc1 #bhd4  ,,the ,,song  
,,of ,,songs is another of the books    
ascribed to ,solomon4 ,it may have been 
written in ,solomon's time2 that it was 
composed by ,solomon himself is not     
probable4  ,it has generally been       

regarded as an allegorical poem2 the    
,jews interpreted it as setting forth   
the love of ,jehovah for ,israel2 the   
,christian interpreters have made it the
 representation of the love of ,christ  
for his ,church4 ,these are the two     
principal theories1 but it might be     
instructive to let ,archdeacon ,farrar  
recite to us a short list of the        
explanations which have been given of   
the book in the course of the ages3--   
,it represents1 say the commentators1   
the love of ,god for the congregation of
 ,israel2 it relates the history of the 
,jews from the ,exodus to the ,messiah2 
it is a consolation to afflicted        
,israel2 it is an occult history2 it    
represents the union of the divine soul 
with the earthly body1 or of the        
material with the active intellect2 it  
is the conversation of ,solomon and     
,wisdom2 it describes the love of       
,christ to his ,church2 it is           
historico-prophetic2 it is ,solomon's   
thanksgiving for a happy reign2 it is a 

love-song unworthy of any place in the  
canon2 it treats of man's reconciliation
 to ,god2 it is a prophecy of the       
,church from the ,crucifixion till after
 the ,reformation2 it is an anticipation
 of the ,apocalypse2 it is the seven    
days' epithalamium on the marriage of   
,solomon with the daughter of ,pharaoh2 
it is a magazine for direction and      
consolation under every condition2 it   
treats in hieroglyphics of the sepulchre
 of the ,saviour1 his death1 and the    
,old ,testament saints2 it refers to    
,hezekiah and the ,ten ,tribes2 it is   
written in glorification of the ,virgin 
,mary4 ,such were the impossible and    
diverging interpretations of what many  
regarded as the very ,word of ,god4 ,a  
few only1 till the beginning of this    
century1 saw the truth1--which is so    
obvious to all who go to the ,bible with
 the humble desire to know what it says1
 and not to interpret it into their own 
baseless fancies1--that it is the       
exquisite celebration of a pure love in 

humble life2 of a love which no splendor
 can dazzle and no flattery seduce4     
,these last sentences of ,canon ,farrar 
give the probable clew to the           
interpretation of the book4 ,it is a    
dramatic poem1 celebrating the story of 
a beautiful peasant girl1 a native of   
the northern village of ,shunem1 who was
 carried away by ,solomon's officers and
 confined in his harem at ,jerusalem4   
,but in the midst of all this splendor  
her heart is true to the peasant lover  
whom she has left behind1 nor can any   
blandishments of the king disturb her   
constancy2 her honor remains unstained1 
and she is carried home at length1      
heart-whole and happy1 by the swain who 
has come to ,jerusalem for her rescue4  
,this is the beautiful story4 ,the      
phrases in which it is told are1 indeed1
 too explicit for ,occidental ears2 the 
color and the heat of the tropics is in 
the poetry1 but it is perfectly pure2 it
 celebrates the triumph of maiden       
modesty and innocence4 ,the song        

breathes at the same time1 says ,ewald1 
such deep modesty and chaste innocence  
of heart1 such determined defiance of   
the over-refinement and degeneracy of   
the court-life1 such stinging scorn of  
the growing corruption of life in great 
cities and palaces1 that no clearer or  
stronger testimony can be found of the  
healthy vigor which1 in this century1   
still characterized the nation at large1
 than the combination of art and        
simplicity in the ,canticles4 ,footnote3
 ,history of ,israel1 iv4 #dc4  ,the    
,book of ,job has been the subject of a 
great amount of critical study4 ,the    
earliest ,jewish tradition is that it   
was written by ,moses2 this tradition is
 preserved in the ,talmud1 which        
afterward states that it was composed by
 an ,israelite who returned to          
,palestine from the ,babylonian         
,captivity4 ,it is almost certain that  
the first of these traditions is        
baseless4 ,the theory that it was       
written after the ,captivity is held by 

many scholars1 but it is beset with     
serious difficulties4  ,the book        
contains no allusion whatever to the    
,levitical law1 nor to any of the       
religious rites and ceremonies of the   
,jews4 ,the inference has therefore been
 drawn that it must have been written   
before the giving of the law1 probably  
in the period between ,abraham and      
,moses4 ,it seems inconceivable that a  
devout ,hebrew should have treated all  
the great questions discussed in this   
book without any reference to the       
religious institutions of his own       
people4 ,it is equally difficult to     
understand how the divine interposition 
for the punishment of the wicked and the
 rewarding of the righteous could have  
been so fully considered without a      
glance at the lessons of the ,exodus1 if
 the ,exodus had taken place before the 
book was written4 ,but these arguments  
for an early origin are quite           
neutralized by the doctrine of the book4
 ,the view of divine providence set     

forth in it is very unlike that         
contained in the ,pentateuch4 ,it is not
 necessary to say that there is any     
contradiction between these two views2  
but the subject is approached from a    
very different direction1 and the whole 
tone of the book indicates a state of   
religious thought quite different from  
that which existed among the ,hebrews   
before the ,exodus4 ,if we are to       
believe that ,moses wrote it1 says a    
late critic1 then we must believe that  
he held these views as an esoteric      
philosophy1 and omitted from the        
religion which he gave to his people the
 truths which had been revealed to him  
in the desert4 ,the book itself must    
have been suppressed until long after   
his day4 ,the ignorant ,israelites could
 not have been trained under the        
discipline of the ,law if they had had  
at the same time the fiery1 cynical1    
half-skeptical1 and enigmatical         
commentary which the ,book of ,job      
furnishes4 ,there is nothing abnormal or

 contrary to the conception of an       
inspired revelation in the development  
of truth by wider views and deeper      
analysis through successive sacred      
writers4 ,but it is repulsive to        
conceive an inspired teacher as first   
gaining the wider view1 and then        
deliberately hiding it1 to utter the    
truth in cruder and more partial forms4 
,footnote3 ,raymond's ,the ,book of     
,job1 p4 #ah4 ,the fact that neither the
 person nor the ,book of ,job is        
mentioned in the historical books of the
 ,jews1 and that the first reference to 
him is in the ,book of ,ezekiel1 would  
indicate that the date of the book must 
have been much later than the time of   
,moses4 ,this argument could not be     
pressed1 however1 for we have noted     
already the silence of the earlier      
historical books concerning the ,mosaic 
law4  ,the dilemma of the critics may be
 summed up as follows3--  #a4 ,the      
absence of allusion to the history of   
the ,exodus and to the ,mosaic system   

shows that it must have been written    
before the ,exodus4 #b4 ,the absence of 
all reference to the book in the ,hebrew
 history1 and more especially the       
doctrinal character of the book1 shows  
that it could not have been written     
before the age of ,solomon4 ,the latter 
conclusion is held much more firmly than
 the former2 and the silence respecting 
the history and the ,law is explained on
 the theory that the book is a          
historical drama1 the scene of which is 
laid in the period before ,moses1 and   
the historic unities of which have been 
perfectly observed by the writer4 ,the  
people of this drama lived before the   
,exodus and the giving of the ,law1 and 
their conversations do not1 therefore1  
refer to any of the events which have   
happened since4 ,the locality of the    
drama is the ,land of ,uz1 and the      
geographers agree that the descriptions 
of the book apply to the region known in
 the classical geographies as ,arabia   
,deserta1 southeast of ,palestine4 ,it  

is admitted that the scenery and costume
 of the book are not ,jewish2 and they  
agree more perfectly with what is known 
of that country than with any other4    
,that ,job was a real personage1 and    
that the drama is founded upon          
historical tradition cannot be doubted4 
,it is probable that it was written     
after the time of ,josiah4  ,i need not 
rehearse the story4 ,job is overtaken by
 great losses and sufferings2 in the    
midst of his calamities three friends   
draw near to condole with him1 and also 
to administer to him a little wholesome 
reproof and admonition4 ,their theory is
 that suffering such as he is enduring  
is a sign of the divine displeasure2    
that ,job must have been a great sinner1
 or he could not be such a sufferer4    
,this argument ,job indignantly repels4 
,he does not claim to be perfect1 but he
 knows that he has been an upright man1 
and he knows that bad men round about   
him are prospering1 while he is scourged
 and overwhelmed with trouble2 he sees  

this happening all over the earth1--the 
good afflicted1 the evil exalted2 and he
 knows1 therefore1 that the doctrine of 
his miserable comforters cannot be true4
 ,sin does bring suffering1 that he     
admits2 but that all suffering is the   
result of sin he denies4 ,he cannot     
understand it2 his heart is bitter when 
he reflects upon it2 and the insistence 
of his visitors awakes in him a fierce  
indignation1 and leads him to charge    
,god with injustice and cruelty4 ,they  
are shocked and scandalized at his      
almost blasphemous outcries against     
,god2 but he maintains his              
righteousness1 and drives his critics   
and censors from the field4 ,finally    
,jehovah himself is represented as      
answering ,job out of the whirlwind1 in 
one of the most sublime passages in all 
literature1--silencing the arguments of 
his friends1 sweeping away all the      
reasonings which have preceded1         
explaining nothing1 but only affirming  
his own infinite power and wisdom4      

,before this august manifestation ,job  
bows with submission2 the mystery of    
evil is not explained2 he is only       
convinced that it cannot be explained1  
and is content to be silent and wait4   
,the teaching of the book is well       
summarized in these words of ,dr4       
,raymond3--  ,the current notion that   
calamity is always the punishment of    
crime and prosperity always the reward  
of piety is not true4 ,neither is it    
true that the distress of a righteous   
man is an indication of ,god's anger4   
,there are other purposes in the ,divine
 mind of which we know nothing4 ,for    
instance1 a good man may be afflicted1  
by permission of ,god1 and through the  
agency of ,satan1 to prove the genuine  
character of his goodness4 ,but whether 
this or some other reason1 involved in  
the administration of the universe1     
underlies the dispensation of temporal  
blessings and afflictions1 one thing is 
certain3 the plans of ,god are not1 will
 not be1 cannot be revealed2 and the    

resignation of faith1 not of fatalism1  
is the only wisdom of man4 ,footnote3   
,the ,book of ,job1 p4 #di4  ,i have    
reserved for the last the most precious 
of all the ,hebrew writings1 the ,book  
of ,psalms4 ,the ,hebrews called it     
,tehillim1 praise-book or hymn-book1 and
 the title exactly describes it2 in the 
form in which we have it1 it was a      
hymn-book prepared for the service of   
the later temple4  ,if the question ,who
 wrote the ,psalms8 were to be          
propounded in any meeting of            
,sunday-school teachers1 nine tenths of 
them would unhesitatingly answer1       
,david4 ,if the same question were put  
to an assembly of modern ,biblical      
scholars some would answer that ,david  
wrote very few and perhaps not any of   
the psalms2 that they were written      
during the ,maccabean dynasty1 only one 
or two hundred years before ,christ4    
,both these views are extreme4 ,we may  
believe that ,david did write several of
 the psalms1 but it is more than        

probable that the great majority of them
 are from other writers4  ,seventy-three
 psalms of the book seem to be ascribed 
to ,david in their titles4 ,a ,psalm of 
,david1 ,maschil of ,david1 ,michtam of 
,david1 or something similar is written 
over seventy-three different psalms4    
,concerning these titles there has been 
much discussion4 ,it has been maintained
 that they are found in the ancient     
,hebrew text as constituent parts of the
 ,psalms1 and are therefore entitled to 
full credit4 ,but this theory does not  
seem to be held by the majority of      
modern scholars4 ,the variations of the 
inscriptions1 says a late conservative  
writer1 in the ,septuagint and the other
 versions sufficiently prove that they  
were not regarded as fixed portions of  
the canon1 and that they were open to   
conjectural emendations4 ,footnote3     
,speaker's ,commentary1 iv4 #aea4 ,dr4  
,moll1 the learned author of the        
monograph on the ,psalms in ,lange's    
,commentary1 says in his introduction3  

,the assumption that all the            
inscriptions originated with the authors
 of the ,psalms1 and are therefore      
inseparable from the text1 cannot be    
consistently maintained4 ,it can at most
 be held only of a few4444 ,there is now
 a disposition to admit that some of    
them may have originated with the       
authors themselves4  ,the probability is
 that most of these inscriptions were   
added by editors and transcribers of the
 ,psalms4 ,you open your hymn-book1 and 
find over one hymn the name of ,watts1  
and over another the name of ,wesley1   
and over another the name of            
,montgomery4 ,who inserted these names8 
,not the authors1 of course1 but the    
editor or compiler of the collection4   
,compilers in these days are careful and
 accurate1 but they do make mistakes1   
and you find the same hymn ascribed to  
different authors in different books1   
while hymns that are anonymous in one   
book are credited in another1 rightly or
 wrongly1 to the name of some author4   

,the men who collected the hymn-book of 
the ,jews made similar mistakes1 and the
 old copies do not agree in all their   
titles4  ,but while the inscriptions    
over the psalms do not1 generally1      
belong to the psalms themselves1 and are
 not in all cases accurate1 most of them
 were1 no doubt1 suffixed to the psalms 
at a very early day4 ,on the whole1 says
 ,dr4 ,moll1 an opinion favorable to the
 antiquity and value of these           
superscriptions has again been wrought  
out1 which ascribes them for the most   
part to tradition1 and indeed a very    
ancient one4  ,even if the titles were  
rightly translated1 then1 they would not
 give us conclusive proof of the        
authorship of the ,psalms4 ,but some of 
the best scholars assert that they are  
not rightly translated4 ,the late       
,professor ,murray of ,johns ,hopkins   
,university1 whose little book on the   
,psalms is vouched for as one of the    
most admirable productions of ,biblical 
scholarship which has yet appeared in   

this country1 says that whenever we have
 an inscription in our version stating  
that the psalm is 'of ,david' it is     
almost invariably a mistranslation of   
the original4 ,it should be written to  
,david1 and it signifies that the       
compilers ascribed the psalm to a more  
ancient collection to which the name of 
,david had been appended1 not because he
 wrote all the poems in it1 but because 
he originated the collection and wrote  
many of its songs4 ,this older          
collection was called ,the ,psalms of   
,david something as a popular hymn-book 
of these times is called ,robinson's    
,laudes ,domini1 because ,dr4 ,robinson 
compiled the book1 and wrote some of the
 hymns4 ,this old ,davidic collection is
 not in existence1 but many of the      
psalms in our book were taken from it1  
and the titles in our version are       
attempts to credit to this old book such
 of them as were thus borrowed4  ,this  
method of crediting is not altogether   
unknown in this critical age4 ,in the   

various eclectic commentaries on the    
,sunday-school lessons ,i often find    
sentences and paragraphs credited to    
,william ,smith which were taken from   
,dr4 ,smith's ,bible ,dictionary1 the   
articles from which they are taken being
 signed in all cases by the initials of 
the men who wrote them4 ,i find1 also1  
quotations from the ,speaker's          
,commentary1 of which ,canon ,cook is   
the editor1 ascribed to ,f4 ,c4 ,cook1  
or to ,cook1 though the table of        
contents in the volume from which the   
quotation was taken bears in capital    
letters the name of the writer of the   
commentary on this particular book4 ,in 
like manner ,lange gets the credit of   
all that is written in his famous       
,bibelwerk1 though he wrote very little 
of it himself4 ,the power to distinguish
 between editorship and authorship was  
not1 probably1 possessed by ancient     
compilers in any greater degree than by 
modern ones2 and the inscriptions over  
the psalms must be estimated with this  

fact in view4  ,i have spoken of the    
present collection of the ,psalms as one
 book1 but it is in reality five books4 
,it is so divided in the ,revised       
,version4 ,the concluding verse of the  
,forty-first ,psalm is as follows3      
,blessed be the ,lord ,god of ,israel1  
from everlasting to everlasting4 ,amen  
and amen4 ,this doxology marks the close
 of the first hymn-book prepared by the 
,jews for the worship of the second     
temple4 ,it was probably formed soon    
after the first return from the ,exile4 
,all the ,psalms except the first1 the  
tenth1 and the thirty-third are credited
 to the old ,davidic ,psalm ,book4 ,the 
title of the thirty-third has probably  
been omitted by some copyist2 the ninth 
and tenth in some old ,hebrew copies are
 written as one psalm1 and there is an  
acrostical arrangement which shows that 
they really belong together4 ,the psalm 
may have been divided for liturgical    
purposes1 or by accident in copying4    
,the title of the ninth1 therefore1     

covers the tenth4 ,the first and second 
are1 then1 the only psalms that are not 
ascribed to the old book of which this  
book was simply an abridgment4  ,at the 
end of the ,seventy-second ,psalm is the
 doxology which marks the close of the  
second of these hymn-books4 ,after a    
while the psalms of the first book grew 
stale and familiar1 and a new book was  
wanted4 ,gospel ,hymns ,no4 #a1 of the  
,moody and ,sankey psalmody1 had to be  
followed after a year or two by ,gospel 
,hymns ,no4 #b1 and then by ,no4 #c and 
,no4 #d and ,no4 #e1 and finally they   
were all bound up together4 ,i may be   
pardoned for associating things sacred  
with things not very sacred1 and poetry 
with something that is not always       
poetry1 but the illustration1 familiar  
to all1 shows exactly how these five    
hymn-books of the ,jews first came to   
be1 and how they were at length combined
 in one4  ,the last verse of the        
,seventy-second ,psalm has puzzled many 
readers3 ,the prayers of ,david the son 

of ,jesse are ended4 ,after this you    
find in our collection several psalms   
ascribed to ,david1 some of which he    
undoubtedly wrote4 ,the probable        
explanation is that the ,seventy-second 
,psalm was the last psalm of the old    
,davidic hymn-book2 the compiler made it
 the last one of this second book1 and  
carelessly copied into this psalm the   
inscription with which the old book     
ended4  ,the second of these hymn-books 
begins1 therefore1 with ,psalm xlii41   
and ends with ,psalm lxxii41 a          
collection of thirty-one songs of       
praise4  ,number three of the           
temple-service contains eighteen psalms1
 and ends with ,psalm lxxxix2 this book1
 as well as the one that precedes it1 is
 ascribed by a probable tradition to    
,nehemiah as its compiler4  ,the last   
verse of ,psalm cvi4 indicates the close
 of the fourth book4 ,it contains but   
seventeen psalms1 and is the shortest   
book of the five4 ,the fifth book       
includes the remaining forty-four       

psalms1 among them the ,songs of ,david1
 or ,pilgrim ,songs1 sung by the people 
on their journeys to ,jerusalem to keep 
the solemn feasts4 ,it is probable that 
this fifth book was compiled by the     
authorities in charge of the temple     
worship1 and that they at the same time 
collected the other four books and put  
them all together1 completing in this   
way the greater book of sacred lyrics   
which has been so precious to many      
generations not only of ,jews1 but also 
of ,christians4  ,various unsuccessful  
attempts have been made to classify     
these books according to their          
subject-matter4 ,it is plain that the   
first two are composed chiefly of the   
oldest psalms and of those adapted to   
the general purposes of worship2 the    
third book reflects the grief of the    
nation in the ,captivity2 the fourth1   
the joy of the returning exiles2 the    
fifth contains a more miscellaneous     
collection4  ,the ,jewish scholars      
recognize and sometimes attempt to      

explain this arrangement of the ,psalms 
into five books4 ,the ,hebrew ,midrash  
on ,psalm i4 ,i41 says3 ,moses gave the 
five books of the law to the            
,israelites1 and as a counterpart of    
them1 ,david gave the ,psalms consisting
 of five books4 ,this is1 of course1    
erroneous2 the present collection of    
,psalms was made long after the time of 
,david2 but it is not unlikely that some
 notion of a symmetrical arrangement of 
the ,psalms1 to correspond to the       
five-fold division of the ,law1         
influenced the compilers of this ,praise
 ,book4  ,of the contents of this book1 
of the peculiar structure of ,hebrew    
poetry1 and of the historic references  
in many of the psalms1 much might be    
said1 but this investigation would lead 
us somewhat aside from our present      
purpose4  ,it may1 however1 be well to  
add a word or two respecting some of the
 inscriptions and notations borne by the
 ,psalms in our translation4 ,many of   
them are composed of ,hebrew words1     

transliterated into ,english1--spelled  
out with ,english letters4 ,king ,james'
 translators did not know what they     
meant1 so they reproduced them in this  
way4 ,there has been much discussion as 
to the meaning of several of them1 and  
the scholars are by no means agreed2 the
 interpretations which follow are mainly
 those given by ,professor ,murray3--   
,first is the famous ,selah1 which we   
used to hear pronounced with great      
solemnity when the ,psalms were read4   
,it is a musical term1 meaning1 perhaps1
 something like our ,da ,capo or1       
possibly1 ,forte--a mark of expression  
like those ,italian words which you find
 over the staff on your sheet music4    
,michtam and ,maschil are also musical  
notes1 indicating the time of the       
melody1--metronome-marks1 so to speak2  
and ,gittith and ,shiggaion are marks   
that indicate the kind of melody to     
which the psalm is to be sung4          
,negiloth means stringed instruments2 it
 indicates the kind of accompaniment    

with which the psalm was to be sung4    
,nehiloth signifies pipes or flutes1    
perhaps wind instruments in general4    
,the inscription ,to the ,chief         
,musician means1 probably1 ,for the     
,leader of the ,choir1 and indicates    
that the original copy of the psalm thus
 inserted in the book was one that had  
belonged to the chorister in the old    
temple4 ,upon ,shemimith means set for  
bass voices2 ,upon ,alamoth1 set for    
female voices4 ,upon ,muthlabben1 a     
curious transliteration1 means arranged 
for training the soprano voices4        
,professor ,murray supposes that this   
particular psalm was used for rehearsal 
by the women singers4  ,some of these   
inscriptions designate the airs to which
 the psalms were set1 part of which seem
 to be sacred1 and part secular4 ,such  
is ,shushan ,eduth1 over ,psalm lx41    
meaning ,fair as lilies is thy law1     
apparently the name of a popular        
religious air4 ,another1 probably       
secular1 is over ,psalm xxii41 ,aijeleth

 ,shahar1 ,the stag at dawn1 and        
another1 over ,psalm #avi41 ,jonathelem 
,rechokim1 which is1 being interpreted1 
,o silent dove1 what bringest thou us   
from out the distance8  ,these          
inscriptions and many other features of 
this ancient ,hebrew poetry have        
furnished puzzles for the unlearned and 
problems for the scholars1 but the      
meaning of the psalms themselves is for 
the most part clear enough4 ,the humble 
disciple pauses with some bewilderment  
over ,neginoth or ,michtam2 he classes  
them perhaps among the mysteries which  
the angels desire to look into2 but when
 he reads a little farther on1 ,the     
,lord is my shepherd2 ,i shall not want2
 or ,god is our refuge and strength1 a  
very present help in trouble2 or ,create
 in me a clean heart1 ,o ,god1 and renew
 a right spirit within me1 he knows full
 well what these words mean4 ,there is  
no life so lofty that these psalms do   
not lift up a standard before it2 there 
is no life so lowly that it does not    

find in them words that utter its       
deepest humility and its faintest trust4
 ,wherever we are these psalms find us2 
they search the deep things of our      
hearts2 they bring to us the great      
things of ,god4 ,of how many heroic     
characters have these old temple songs  
been the inspiration6 ,jewish saints and
 patriots chanted them in the synagogue 
and on the battle-field2 apostles and   
evangelists sung them among perils of   
the wilderness1 as they traversed the   
rugged paths of ,syria and ,galatia and 
,macedonia2 martyrs in ,rome softly     
hummed them when the lions near at hand 
were crouching for their prey3 in       
,german forests1 in ,highland glens1    
,lutherans and ,covenanters breathed    
their lives out through their cadences2 
in every land penitent souls have found 
in them words to tell the story of their
 sorrow1 and victorious souls the voices
 of their triumph2 mothers watching     
their babes by night have cheered the   
vigil by singing them2 mourners walking 

in lonely ways have been lighted by the 
great hopes that shine through them1 and
 pilgrims going down into the valley of 
the shadow of death have found in their 
firm assurances a strong staff to lean  
upon4 ,lyrics like these1 into which so 
much of the divine truth was breathed   
when they were written1 and which a     
hundred generations of the children of  
men have saturated with tears and       
praises1 with battle shouts and sobs of 
pain1 with all the highest and deepest  
experiences of the human soul1 will live
 as long as joy lives and long after    
sorrow ceases2 will live beyond this    
life1 and be sung by pure voices in that
 land from which the silent dove1 coming
 from afar1 brings us now and then upon 
her shining wings some glimpses of a    
glory that eye hath never seen4  ,,note4
 ,the reference on pages #bjj and #bja  
to the ,gospel ,hymns is not strictly   
accurate4 ,number ,five has not been    
bound up with the other numbers4        
,,chapter ,,viii4  ,,the ,,earlier ,,new

 ,,testament ,,writings4    ,the books  
of the ,new ,testament are now before   
us4 ,our task is not without its        
difficulties2 questions will confront us
 which have never yet been answered1 and
 probably will never be2 nevertheless1  
compared with the ,old ,testament       
writings1 the books of the ,new         
,testament are well-known documents2 we 
are on firm ground of history when we   
talk about them2 of but few of the      
famous books of ,greek and ,latin       
authors can we speak so confidently as  
to their date and their authorship as we
 can concerning most of them4  ,we have 
in the ,new ,testament a collection of  
twenty-seven books1 by nine different   
authors4 ,of these books thirteen are   
ascribed to the ,apostle ,paul2 five to 
,john the son of ,zebedee2 two to       
,peter2 two to ,luke2 one each to       
,matthew1 ,mark1 ,james1 and ,jude1 and 
the authorship of one is unknown4  ,of  
these books it must be first remarked   
that they were not only written         

separately but that there is no trace in
 any of them of the consciousness on the
 part of the author that he was         
contributing to a collection of sacred  
writings4 ,of the various epistles it is
 especially evident that they were      
written on special occasions1 with a    
certain audience immediately in view2   
the thought that they were to be        
preserved and gathered into a book1     
which was to be handed down through the 
coming centuries as an inspired volume1 
does not appear to have entered the mind
 of the writer4 ,but this fact need not 
detract from their value2 often the     
highest truth to which a man gives      
utterance is truth of whose value he is 
imperfectly aware4  ,it must also be    
remembered that these books of the ,new 
,testament were nearly all written by   
apostles4 ,the only clear exceptions are
 the ,gospel of ,mark1 the ,gospel of   
,luke1 the ,acts of the ,apostles1 and  
the ,epistle to the ,hebrews2 and the   
authors of these books1 though not      

apostles1 were undoubtedly in the       
closest relations with apostolic men1   
and reflected their thought4 ,these     
apostolic men had received a special    
training and a definite commission to   
bear witness of their ,master1 to tell  
the story of his life and death1 and to 
build up his kingdom in the world4  ,we 
must admit that they possessed unusual  
qualifications for this work4 ,those who
 had been for three years in constant   
and loving intercourse with ,jesus      
,christ ought to have been inspired men4
 ,and he promised them1 before he parted
 from them1 that the ,spirit of truth   
should come to them and abide with them 
to lead them into all truth4  ,now      
although we may find it difficult to    
give a satisfactory definition of       
inspiration2 though we may be utterly   
unable to express1 in any formularies of
 our own1 the influence of the ,infinite
 ,spirit upon human minds1 yet we can   
easily believe that these apostolic men 
were exceptionally qualified to teach   

religious truth4 ,no prophet of the     
olden time had any such preparation for 
his mission as that which was vouchsafed
 to them4 ,no school of the prophets1   
from the days of ,samuel downward1 could
 be compared to that sacred college of  
apostles1--that group of divine         
peripatetics1 who followed their master 
through ,galilee and ,perea1 and sat    
down with him day by day1 for three     
memorable years1 on the mountain top and
 by the lake side1 to listen to the     
words of life from the lips of ,one who 
spake as never man spake4  ,to say that 
this training made them infallible is to
 speak beyond the record4 ,there is no  
promise of infallibility1 and the       
history makes it plain enough that no   
such gift was bestowed4 ,the ,spirit of 
all truth was promised2 but it was      
promised for their guidance in all their
 work1 in their preaching1 their        
administration1 their daily conduct of  
life4 ,there is no hint anywhere that   
any special illumination or protection  

would be given to them when they took   
the pen into their hands to write2 they 
were then inspired just as much as they 
were when they stood up to speak1 or sat
 down to plan their missionary          
campaigns1--just as much and no more4   
,now it is certain that the inspiration 
vouchsafed them did not make them       
infallible in their ordinary teaching1  
or in their administration of the       
church4 ,they made mistakes of a very   
serious nature4 ,it is beyond question  
that the majority of the apostles took  
at the beginning an erroneous view of   
the relation of the ,gentiles to the    
,christian church4 ,they insisted that  
,gentiles must first become ,jews before
 they could become ,christians2 that the
 only way into the ,christian church was
 through the synagogue and the temple4  
,it was a grievous and radical error2 it
 struck at the foundations of ,christian
 faith4 ,and this error was entertained 
by these inspired apostles after the day
 of ,pentecost2 it influenced their     

teaching2 it led them to proclaim a     
defective gospel4 ,this is not the      
assertion of a skeptic1 it is the clear 
testimony of the ,apostle ,paul4 ,if you
 will read the second chapter of his    
,epistle to the ,galatians you will     
learn from the mouth of an unimpeachable
 witness that the very leaders of the   
apostolic band1 ,peter and ,james and   
,john1 were greatly in error with       
respect to a most important subject of  
the ,christian teaching4 ,in his account
 of that famous council at ,antioch1    
,paul says that ,peter and ,james and   
,john were wholly in the wrong1 and that
 ,peter1 for his part1 had been acting  
disingenuously3--  ,but when ,cephas    
came to ,antioch1 ,i resisted him to the
 face1 because he stood condemned4 ,for 
before that certain came from ,james1 he
 did eat with the ,gentiles3 but when   
they came1 he drew back and separated   
himself1 fearing them that were of the  
circumcision4 ,and the rest of the ,jews
 the ,jewish ,christians dissembled     

likewise with him2 insomuch that even   
,barnabas was carried away with their   
dissimulation4 ,but when ,i saw that    
they walked not uprightly according to  
the truth of the gospel1 ,i said unto   
,cephas before them all1 ,if thou1 being
 a ,jew1 livest as do the ,gentiles1 and
 not as do the ,jews1 how compellest    
thou the ,gentiles to live as do the    
,jews8  ,now it is evident that one or  
the other of these opposing parties in  
the apostolic college must have been in 
error1 if not greatly at fault1 with    
respect to this most vital question of  
,christian faith and doctrine4 ,when one
 apostle resists another to the face    
because he stands condemned1 and tells  
him that he walks not uprightly1        
according to the truth of the gospel1 it
 must be that one or the other of them  
has1 for the time being1 ceased to be   
infallible in his administration of the 
truth of the gospel4 ,and if these      
apostolic men1 sitting in their         
councils1 teaching in their             

congregations1 can make such mistakes as
 these1 how can we be sure that they    
never make a mistake when they sit down 
to write1 that then their words are     
always the very word of ,god8 ,we can   
have no such assurance4 ,indeed we are  
expressly told that their words are not1
 in some cases1 the very word of ,god2  
for the ,apostle ,paul plainly tells us 
over and over1 in his epistles to the   
,corinthians 7#a ,cor4 vii42 #b ,cor4   
xi471 that upon certain questions he is 
giving his own opinion1--that he has no 
commandment of the ,lord4 ,with respect 
to one matter he says that he is        
speaking after his own judgment1 but    
that he thinks he has the ,spirit of the
 ,lord2 two or three times he distinctly
 declares that it is he1 ,paul1 and not 
the ,lord1 that is speaking4  ,all of   
these facts1 and others of the same     
nature clearly brought before us by the 
,new ,testament itself1 must be held    
firmly in our minds when we make up our 
theory of what these writings are4 ,that

 these books were written by inspired   
men is1 indeed1 indubitable2 that these 
men possessed a degree of inspiration   
far exceeding that vouchsafed to any    
other religious teachers who have lived 
on the earth is to my mind plain2 that  
this degree of inspiration enabled them 
to bear witness clearly to the great    
facts of the gospel of ,christ1 and to  
present to us with sufficient fullness  
and with substantial verity the         
doctrines of the kingdom of heaven ,i am
 very sure2 but that they were          
absolutely protected against error1 not 
one word in the record affirms1 and they
 themselves have taken the utmost pains 
to disabuse our minds of any such       
impression4 ,that is a theory about them
 which men made up out of their own     
heads hundreds of years after they were 
dead4 ,we shall certainly find that they
 were not infallible2 but we shall also 
find that1 in all the great matters     
which pertain to ,christian faith and   
practice1 when their final testimony is 

collected and digested1 it is clear1    
harmonious1 consistent1 convincing2 that
 they have been guided by the ,spirit of
 the ,lord to tell us the truth which we
 need to know respecting the life that  
now is and that which is to come4       
,furthermore1 it is a matter of         
rejoicing when we take up these books of
 the ,new ,testament to find their      
substantial integrity unimpeached4      
,there is no reason to suspect that any 
important changes have been made in any 
of these books since they came from the 
hands of their writers4 ,whatever may be
 said about the first three ,gospels    
7and we shall come to that question in  
our next chapter71 the remaining books  
of the ,new ,testament have come down to
 us1 unaltered1 from the men who first  
wrote them4 ,there is none of that      
process of redaction1 and accretion1 and
 reconstruction whose traces we have    
found in many of the ,old ,testament    
books4 ,there may be1 here and there1 a 
word or two or a verse or two which has 

been interpolated by some officious     
copyist1 but these alterations are very 
slight4 ,the books in our hands are the 
very same books which were in the hands 
of the contemporaries and successors of 
the apostles4  ,i shall not attempt any 
elaborate discussion of these           
twenty-seven books4 ,i only propose to  
go rapidly over them1 indicating1 with  
the utmost brevity1 the salient facts1  
so far as we know them1 respecting their
 authorship1 the date and the place at  
which they were written1 and the        
circumstances which attended the        
production of them4  ,from the fact that
 the ,gospels stand first in the ,new   
,testament collection it is generally   
assumed that they are the earliest of   
the ,new ,testament books1 but this is  
an error4 ,several of the ,epistles were
 certainly written before any of the    
,gospels2 and one of the ,gospels1 that 
of ,john1 was written later than any of 
the ,epistles1 except the three brief   
ones by the same author4  ,the first of 

these ,new ,testament books that saw the
 light was1 as is generally supposed1   
the ,first ,epistle to the              
,thessalonians4 ,it was in the year #dh 
of our era that ,st4 ,paul set out on   
his first missionary journey from       
,antioch through ,cyprus and ,eastern   
,asia ,minor1 a journey which occupied  
about a year4 ,two years afterward1 his 
second journey took him through the     
eastern part of ,asia ,minor and across 
the gean ,sea to ,europe1 where he      
preached in ,troas1 ,philippi1          
,thessalonica1 ,athens1 and ,corinth4   
,his stay in ,thessalonica was          
interrupted1 as you will remember1 by   
the hostility of the ,jews1 and he      
remained but a short time in that place2
 long enough1 however1 to gather a      
vigorous church4 ,afterward1 while he   
was in ,corinth1 he learned from one of 
his helpers that the people of          
,thessalonica had misunderstood portions
 of his teaching1 and were in painful   
doubt on certain important subjects4 ,to

 set them right on these matters he     
wrote his first epistle1 which was      
forwarded to them from ,corinth1        
probably about the year #eb4  ,this     
explanation was also misunderstood by   
the ,thessalonians1 and it became       
necessary during the next year to write 
to them again4 ,these two letters are in
 all probability the first of the       
,christian writings that we possess4    
,they contain instruction and counsel of
 which the ,christians of ,thessalonica 
were just then in need4 ,the question   
which had most disturbed them had       
relation to the second coming of        
,christ4 ,they expected him to return   
very soon2 they were impatient of delay2
 they thought that those who died before
 his coming would miss the glorious     
spectacle2 and therefore they deplored  
the hard fate of some of their number   
who had been snatched away by death     
before this sublime event4 ,in his first
 epistle the apostle assures them that  
the dead in ,christ would be raised to  

participate in their rejoicing4 ,we who 
are alive when the ,lord returns1 he    
says1 will have no advantage over those 
who have been called to their reward    
before us2 for they will be raised from 
their graves to take part with us in    
this great triumph4 ,it is manifest that
 ,paul1 when he wrote this1 expected    
that ,christ would return to earth while
 he was alive4 ,alford and other        
conservative commentators say that he   
here definitely expresses that          
expectation2 others deny that these     
words can be so interpreted1 but concede
 that he did entertain some such        
expectation4 ,it does not seem improper 
to admit1 says ,bishop ,ellicott1 that  
in their ignorance of the day of the    
,lord the apostles might have imagined  
that he who was coming would come       
speedily4 ,footnote3 ,com4 in loc4 ,it  
is unmistakably clear from this1 says   
,olshausen1 that ,paul deemed it        
possible that he and his contemporaries 
might live to see the coming again of   

,christ4 ,the early church1 and even the
 apostles themselves1 say ,conybeare and
 ,howson1 expected their ,lord to come  
again in that very generation4 ,st4     
,paul himself shared in that            
expectation1 but being under the        
guidance of the ,spirit of truth1 he did
 not deduce any erroneous conclusions   
from this mistaken premise4 ,footnote3  
,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 i4   
#dja4 ,it is evident1 then1 that ,st4   
,paul and the rest of the apostles were 
mistaken on this point2 this is one of  
the evidences which they themselves have
 taken pains to point out to us of the  
fact that though they were inspired men 
they were not infallible4  ,paul's first
 letter to the ,christians at           
,thessalonica was interpreted by them1  
very naturally1 as teaching that the    
return of the ,lord was imminent2 and   
they began to neglect their daily duties
 and to behave in the same foolish way  
that men have behaved in all the later  
ages1 when they have got their heads    

full of this notion4 ,his second letter 
was written chiefly to rebuke this      
fanaticism1 and to bid them go right on 
with their work making ready for the    
,lord's coming by a faithful discharge  
of the duties of the present hour4 ,st4 
,paul might have been mistaken in his   
theories about the return of his        
,master1 but his practical wisdom was   
not at fault2 it was his spirit that    
survived in ,abraham ,davenport1 the    
,connecticut legislator1 who1 in the    
dark day of #aghj when his colleagues   
thought that the end of the world had   
come1 refused to vote for the           
adjournment of the ,house1 but insisted 
on calling up the next bill2 saying as  
,whittier has phrased it3--    ',this   
well may be    ,the ,day of ,judgment   
which the world awaits2    ,but be it so
 or not1 ,i only know    ,my present    
duty1 and my ,lord's command    ,to     
occupy till he come4 ,so at the post    
,where he hath set me in his providence1
    ,i choose1 for one1 to meet him face

 to face1--    ,no faithless servant    
frightened from my task1    ,but ready  
when the ,lord of the harvest calls2    
,and therefore1 with all reverence1 ,i  
would say1    ,let ,god do his work1 we 
will see to ours4    ,bring in the      
candles4' ,and they brought them in4    
,these two letters are1 then1 the       
earliest of the ,new ,testament         
writings4 ,like most of the other       
,epistles of ,paul they begin with a    
salutation4 ,the common salutation with 
which the ,greeks began their letters   
was ,live well6 that of the ,roman was  
,health to you6 ,but ,paul almost always
 began with a ,christian greeting1      
,grace1 mercy1 and peace to you4 ,in    
these letters he associates with himself
 in this greeting his two companions1   
,timothy and ,silas4  ,the last words of
 his epistles are almost always personal
 messages to individuals known to him in
 the several churches1--to men and women
 who had labored with him in the        
gospel1--casual yet significant words1  

which show a heart within               
blood-tinctured1 of a veined humanity4  
,the letters were written by an         
amanuensis1--all save these concluding  
words which ,paul added in his own      
chirography4 ,he seems to desire to put 
more of himself into these personal     
messages than into the didactic and     
doctrinal parts of his epistles4 ,at the
 end of the second of the letters to the
 ,thessalonians we find these words3    
,the salutation of me ,paul with mine   
own hand1 which is the token in every   
epistle3 so ,i write2 better1 perhaps1  
,this is my handwriting4 ,this signature
 and this concluding greeting are to be 
proof to them of the genuineness of the 
letter4 ,it appears from other          
references in the same epistle 7ch4 ii4 
#b7 that some busybody had been writing 
a letter to the ,thessalonians1 which   
purported to be a message from ,paul2 he
 puts them on their guard against these 
supposititious documents4 ,at the end of
 the letter to the ,galatians you find  

in the old version3 ,ye see how large a 
letter ,i have written unto you with my 
own hand2 but the right rendering is in 
the new version3 ,see with how large    
letters what a bold chirography ,i have 
written unto you with my own hand4      
,these last coarse characters are my own
 handwriting4 ,it is almost universally 
assumed that ,paul was a sufferer from  
some affection of the eyes2 the large   
letters are thus explained4 ,mr4        
,conybeare1 in a foot-note on this      
passage1 speaks of receiving a letter   
from the venerable ,neander a few months
 before his death1 which illustrates    
this point in a striking manner3 ,his   
letter1 says ,mr4 ,conybeare1 is written
 in the fair and flowing hand of an     
amanuensis1 but it ends with a few      
irregular lines in large and rugged     
characters1 written by himself and      
explaining the cause of his needing the 
services of an amanuensis1 namely the   
weakness of his eyes 7probably the very 
malady of ,st4 ,paul74 ,it was          

impossible to read this autograph       
without thinking of the present passage1
 and observing that he might have       
expressed himself in the very words of  
,st4 ,paul3 ',behold the size of the    
characters in which ,i have written to  
you with my own hand4' ,footnote3 ,life 
and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 ii4 #adi4  
,there is another touching sentence at  
the end of ,paul's letter to the        
,colossians which was written from ,rome
 when he was prisoner there3 ,the       
salutation of me ,paul with mine own    
hand4 ,remember my bonds4 ,grace be with
 you4 ,amen4 ,this seems to say3 ,there 
is a manacle1 you remember1 on my wrist4
 ,i cannot write very well4 ,grace be   
with you4 ,i will only add that the     
subscriptions which follow the epistles 
in the old version are no part of the   
epistles1 and in several cases they are 
erroneous4 ,they embody conjectures of  
later copyists1 or traditions which are 
without foundation4 ,these letters to   
the ,thessalonians1 for example1 are    

said to have been written from ,athens2 
but we know that they were written from 
,corinth4 ,for ,paul expressly says     
7iii4 #f7 that the letter was written   
immediately after the return of ,timothy
 from ,thessalonica1 and we are told1 in
 ,acts xviii4 #e1 that ,silas and       
,timothy joined him at ,corinth after he
 had left ,athens and had gone to       
,corinth4 ,besides1 he associates ,silas
 and ,timothy with himself in his       
greetings1 and they were not with him at
 ,athens4 ,the evidence is therefore    
conclusive1 that the subscription is    
incorrect4 ,you will not find any of    
these subscriptions in the new version4 
,some of them are undoubtedly correct1  
but some of them are not2 and in no case
 is the subscription an integral part of
 the epistle4 ,the excision of these    
traditional addenda was one of the first
 results of what is called the ,higher  
,criticism1 and admirably illustrates   
the uses of this kind of criticism1     
which1 to some of our devout brethren1  

is such a frightful thing4 ,why should  
it be regarded as a dangerous1 almost a 
diabolical proceeding1 to let the ,bible
 tell its own story about its origin1   
instead of trusting to rabbinical       
traditions and medival guesses and a    
priori theories of seventeenth century  
theologians8  ,these two letters were1  
no doubt1 read in the assemblies of the 
,thessalonian ,christians more than     
once1 and were sacredly treasured by    
them4 ,they were the only ,christian    
documents possessed by them2 and there  
was1 at this time1 no other church so   
rich as they were4 ,the ,gospels1 as we 
have them now1 were not then in the     
possession of any ,christian church4    
,the story of the gospel had been       
repeated to them by ,paul and ,silas and
 ,timothy1 and had been diligently      
impressed upon their memories2 but it   
was only an oral gospel that had been   
delivered to them2 the written record of
 ,christ's life and sayings was not in  
their hands4 ,they remembered1          

therefore1 the things which had been    
told them concerning the life and death 
of ,jesus ,christ2 they repeated them   
over one to another1 and they explained 
and supplemented these remembered words 
by the two letters which they had       
received from the great apostle4  ,the  
next year after ,paul wrote these       
letters to the ,thessalonians from      
,corinth1 he returned to ,jerusalem and 
,antioch 7,acts xviii4 #ah-bc71 and the 
year following1 probably #ed1 he set out
 on his third missionary journey1 which 
took him through ,galatia and ,phrygia  
in ,asia ,minor to ,ephesus1 where his  
home was for two or three years4 ,while 
there1 perhaps in the year #eg1 he wrote
 the first of his letters to the        
,christians in ,corinth4 ,shortly after 
writing it he went on to ,macedonia1    
whence the second of his letters to the 
,corinthians was written2 presently he  
followed his letters to ,corinth1 and   
while there1 probably in #eh1 he wrote  
his letter to the ,galatians4 ,galatia  

was a province rather than a city2 there
 may have been several churches1 which  
had been established by ,paul1 in the   
province2 and this may have been a      
circular letter1 to be handed about     
among them1 copies of it to be made1    
perhaps1 for the use of each of the     
churches4 ,it was in the spring of the  
next year1 while he was still in        
,corinth1 that he wrote his letter to   
the ,romans1 the longest1 and from some 
points of view1 the most important of   
his epistles4 ,he had never1 at the time
 of this writing1 been in ,rome 7ch4 i4 
#ac71 but he had met ,roman ,christians 
in many of the cities of the ,east where
 he had lived and taught2 and1          
doubtless1 since all roads led to ,rome1
 and the metropolis of the world was    
constantly drawing to itself men of     
every nation and province1 many of      
,paul's converts in ,asia and ,macedonia
 and ,achaia had made their way to the  
,eternal ,city1 and had joined          
themselves there to the ,christian      

community4 ,the long list of personal   
greetings with which the epistle closes 
shows how large was his acquaintance in 
the ,roman church1 and1 doubtless1 by   
his correspondence1 he had become fully 
informed concerning the needs of these  
disciples4 ,he tells the ,romans1 in    
this letter1 that he hopes to visit them
 by and by2 he did not1 however1 at that
 time1 expect to appear among them as a 
prisoner4 ,this was the fate awaiting   
him4 ,shortly after writing this epistle
 he returned from ,corinth to           
,jerusalem1 bearing a collection which  
had been gathered in ,europe for the    
poor ,christians of the mother church2  
at ,jerusalem he was arrested2 in that  
city and in ,csarea he was for a long   
time imprisoned2 finally1 probably in   
the spring of #fa1 he was sent as a     
prisoner to ,rome1 because he had       
appealed to the imperial court2 and     
here1 for at least two years1 he dwelt a
 prisoner1 in lodgings of his own1      
chained by day and night to a ,roman    

soldier4 ,during this imprisonment1     
probably in #fb1 he wrote the letters to
 the ,colossians1 the ,ephesians1 the   
,philippians1 and ,philemon4 ,from the  
first imprisonment he seems to have been
 released2 and to have gone westward as 
far as ,spain1 and eastward as far as   
,asia ,minor1 preaching the gospel4     
,during this journey he is supposed to  
have written the first letter to        
,timothy and the letter to ,titus4 ,at  
length he was re-arrested1 and brought  
to ,rome where1 in the spring of #fh1   
just before his death1 he wrote the     
second letter to ,timothy1 the last of  
his thirteen epistles4  ,much of this   
account of the late years of ,paul's    
life1 following the close of his first  
two years at ,rome1 where the narrative 
in the ,acts of the ,apostles abruptly  
leaves him1 is traditional and          
conjectural2 ,i do not give it to you as
 indubitable history2 it furnishes the  
most reasonable explanation that has    
been suggested of that productive       

activity of his which finds its chief   
expression in the letters that bear his 
name4  ,of these letters it is          
impossible to give any adequate account 
in this place4 ,let it suffice to say   
that the principal theme of the two     
epistles to the ,thessalonians is the   
expected return of ,christ to earth2    
that those to the ,corinthians are      
largely occupied with questions of      
,christian casuistry2 that those to the 
,galatians and the ,romans are the great
 doctrinal epistles unfolding the       
relation of ,christianity to ,judaism1  
and discussing the philosophy of the new
 creed2 that the ,epistle to the        
,philippians is a luminous exposition of
 ,christianity as a personal experience2
 that those to the ,colossians and the  
,ephesians are the defense of           
,christianity against the insidious     
errors of the ,gnostics1 and a wonderful
 revelation of the immanent ,christ2    
that the ,epistle to ,philemon is a     
letter of personal friendship1 embodying

 a great principle of practical         
religion2 and that the letters to       
,timothy and ,titus are the counsel of  
an aged apostle to younger men in the   
ministry4  ,may we go farther1 with     
,archdeacon ,farrar1 and attempt1 in one
 or two words1 a description of each    
separate epistle1 necessarily imperfect 
from the very brevity1 and yet perhaps  
expressive of some one main             
characteristic4 ,if so we might perhaps 
say that the ,first ,epistle to the     
,thessalonians is the epistle of        
consolation in the hope of ,christ's    
return2 and the second of the immediate 
hindrances to that return1 and our      
duties with regard to it4 ,the ,first   
,epistle to the ,corinthians is the     
solution of practical problems in the   
light of eternal principles2 the second1
 an impassioned defense of the apostle's
 impugned authority1 his ,apologia pro  
vita sua4 ,the ,epistle to the          
,galatians is the epistle of freedom    
from the bondage of the law2 that to the

 ,romans of justification by faith4 ,the
 ,epistle to the ,philippians is the    
epistle of ,christian gratitude and of  
,christian joy in sorrow2 that to the   
,colossians the epistle of ,christ the  
universal ,lord2 that to the ,ephesians1
 so rich and many-sided1 is the epistle 
of the 'heavenlies1' the epistle of     
grace1 the epistle of ascension with the
 ascended ,christ1 the epistle of       
,christ in his one and universal church2
 that to ,philemon the ,magna ,charta of
 ,emancipation4 ,the ,first ,epistle to 
,timothy and that to ,titus are the     
manuals of a ,christian pastor2 the     
,second ,epistle to ,timothy is the last
 message of a ,christian ere his death4 
,footnote3 ,the ,life and ,work of ,st4 
,paul1 chap4 xlvi4  ,the genuineness of 
several of these books has been assailed
 by modern criticism4 ,the authorship of
 ,paul has been disputed in the cases of
 nine out of the thirteen epistles4 ,the
 ,epistle to the ,galatians1 that to the
 ,romans1 and the two to the            

,corinthians are undisputed2 all the    
rest have been spoken against4 ,i have  
attended to these criticisms2 but the   
reasons urged for denying the ,pauline  
authorship of these epistles seem to me 
in many cases far-fetched and fanciful  
in the extreme4 ,respecting the pastoral
 epistles1 those to ,timothy and ,titus1
 it may be admitted that there are some 
difficulties4 ,it is not easy for us to 
understand how there could have been    
developed in the churches at that early 
day so much of an ecclesiasticism as    
these letters assume2 and there is force
 in the suggestion that the peculiar    
errors against which some of these      
counsels are directed belong to a later 
day rather than to the apostolic age4   
,to this it may be replied that         
ecclesiasticism is a weed which grows   
rapidly when once it has taken root1 and
 that the germs of ,gnosticism were in  
the church from the earliest day4 ,and  
although the vocabulary of these        
epistles differs in rather a striking   

way1 as ,dr4 ,harnack has pointed out1  
,footnote3 ,encyc4 ,brit41 art4         
,pastoral ,epistles4  from that of      
,paul's other epistles1 ,i can easily   
imagine that in familiar letters to his 
pupils he would drop into a different   
style from that in which he wrote his   
more elaborate theological treatises4   
,one could find in the letters of       
,macaulay or ,charles ,kingsley many    
words that he would not find in the     
history of the one or the sermons of the
 other4 ,putting all these objections   
together1 ,i do not find in them any    
adequate reason for denying that these  
epistles were written by ,st4 ,paul4    
,indeed1 it seems to me incredible that 
the ,second ,epistle of ,timothy should 
have been written by any other hand than
 that which wrote the undoubted letters 
to the ,corinthians and the ,romans4    
,when we come to the other disputed     
epistles1 those to the ,thessalonians1  
the ,ephesians1 the ,philippians1 and   
the ,colossians1 ,i confess that the    

doubts of their genuineness seem to me  
the outcome of a willful dogmatism4     
,what ,archdeacon ,farrar says of the   
cavils respecting the epistles to the   
,philippians applies to much of this    
theoretic criticism3 ,the ,tbingen      
school1 in its earlier stages1 attacked 
it with the monotonous arguments of     
their credulous skepticism4 ,with those 
critics1 if an epistle touches on points
 which make it accord with the narrative
 of the ,acts it was forged to suit     
them2 if it seems to disagree with them 
the discrepancy shows that it is        
spurious4 ,if the diction is ,pauline it
 stands forth as a proved imitation2 if 
it is un-,pauline it could not have     
proceeded from the apostle4 ,footnote3  
,life and ,work of ,st4 ,paul1 chap1    
xlvi ,one grows weary with this reckless
 and carping skepticism1 much of which  
springs from a theory of a permanent    
schism in the early church1--a theory   
which was mainly evolved from the inner 
consciousness of some mystical ,german  

philosopher1 and which has been utterly 
exploded4  ,we may1 then1 receive as    
genuine the thirteen epistles ascribed  
to ,st4 ,paul2 and we have good reason  
for believing that we have them in their
 integrity1 substantially as he wrote   
them4  ,the title of one of these       
epistles1 that to the ,ephesians1 is1   
however1 undoubtedly erroneous4 ,as ,mr4
 ,conybeare says1 the least disputable  
fact about the letter is that it was not
 addressed to the ,ephesians4 ,for it is
 incredible that ,paul should have      
described a church in whose fellowship  
he had lived and labored for two years  
as one of whose religious life he knew  
only by report 7ch4 i4 #ae72 and it is  
strange that he should not have a single
 word of greeting to any of these       
,ephesian ,christians4 ,several of the  
early ,christian fathers testify that   
the words at ,ephesus are omitted from  
the first verse of the manuscript known 
to them4 ,the two oldest manuscripts now
 in existence1 that of the ,vatican and 

that known as the ,sinaitic manuscript1 
both omit these words4 ,the destination 
of the epistle is not indicated4 ,the   
place filled by the words at ,ephesus is
 left blank4 ,thus it reads3 ,paul1 an  
apostle of ,christ ,jesus through the   
will of ,god1 to the saints which are   
and the faithful in ,christ ,jesus4     
,some of the old fathers expatiate on   
this title1 drawing distinctions between
 the saints which are and the saints    
which seem to be1--an amusing example of
 exegetical thoroughness4 ,undoubtedly  
the letter was designed as a circular   
letter to several churches in ,western  
,asia1--,laodicea among the number2 and 
a blank was left in each copy made1 in  
which the name of the church to which it
 was delivered might be entered4 ,some  
knowing copyist at a later day wrote the
 words at ,ephesus into one of these    
copies2 and it is from this that the    
manuscript descended from which our     
translation was made4  ,that these      
letters of ,paul were highly prized and 

carefully preserved by the churches to  
which they were written we cannot doubt2
 and as from time to time messengers    
passed back and forth between the       
churches1 copies were made of the       
letters for exchange4 ,the church at    
,thessalonica would send a copy of its  
letter to the church at ,philippi and to
 the church at ,corinth and to the      
church at ,ephesus1 and would receive in
 return copies of their letters2 and    
thus the writings of ,paul early        
obtained a considerable distribution4   
,we have an illustration of these       
exchanges in the closing words of the   
,epistle to the ,colossians 7iv4 #af73  
,and when this epistle hath been read   
among you1 cause that it be read also in
 the church of the ,laodiceans2 and that
 you also read the epistle from         
,laodicea4 ,it is probable that the     
last-named epistle was the one of which 
we have just been speaking1 called in   
our version1 the ,epistle to the        
,ephesians4  ,the ,epistle to the       

,hebrews is ascribed in its title to    
,paul the ,apostle4 ,but the title was  
added at a late date2 the ,greek        
,testaments contain only the brief title
 ,to the ,hebrews1 leaving the question 
of authorship unsettled4 ,of all the    
other epistles ascribed to ,paul his    
name is the first word2 this epistle    
does not announce its author4 ,in the   
early church there was much controversy 
about it2 the ,eastern ,christians      
generally ascribed it to ,paul1 while   
the ,western church1 until the fourth   
century1 refused to recognize his       
authorship4 ,one sentence in the epistle
 7ch4 ii4 #c7 is supposed to signify    
that the writer was of the number of    
those who had received the gospel at    
second hand1 and this was an admission  
that ,paul always refused to make2 he   
steadily contended that his knowledge of
 the gospel was as direct and immediate 
and copious as that of any of the       
apostles4 ,for these and other reasons  
it has been contended that the letter   

was written by some one not an apostle1 
but an associate and pupil of apostolic 
men2 the most plausible conjecture      
ascribes it to ,apollos4 ,the date of it
 is not easily fixed2 it was probably   
written before the destruction of       
,jerusalem2 such an elaborate discussion
 of the ,jewish ritual would scarcely   
have been made after the temple was     
destroyed1 without any reference to the 
fact of its destruction4  ,following the
 letter to the ,hebrews in our ,new     
,testament are seven epistles ascribed  
to four different authors1 ,james1      
,peter1 ,john1 and ,jude4 ,these are    
commonly called the ,catholic           
,epistles1--catholic meaning general or 
universal1--since they are not addressed
 to any one congregation1 but to the    
whole church1 to ,christians in general4
 ,two of them1 however1 the ,second and 
,third of ,john1 hardly deserve the     
designation1 for they are addressed to  
individuals4  ,the author of the        
,epistle of ,james is not easily        

identified4 ,there are numerous ,jameses
 in the ,new ,testament history2 we do  
not readily distinguish them4 ,it was   
not ,james the son of ,zebedee1 for he  
was put to death by ,herod only six or  
seven years after the death of our ,lord
 7,acts xii4 #b74 ,probably this was the
 one named ,james the ,lord's brother1  
who was a near relative of ,jesus1      
brother or cousin1 and who was the      
leading man--perhaps they called him    
bishop--of the church at ,jerusalem4 ,he
 may1 also1 be identical with that      
,james the son of ,alpheus1 who was one 
of the apostles4 ,the letter was issued 
at an early day1 probably before the    
year #fj4 ,it was addressed to the      
twelve tribes which are of the          
,dispersion1--that was the name by which
 the ,jews scattered through ,asia and  
,europe were generally known4 ,to       
,christians who had been ,jews1         
therefore1 this letter was written2 in  
this respect it is to be classed with   
the letter to the ,hebrews2 but in the  

tenor of its teaching it is wholly      
unlike that letter2 instead of putting  
emphasis on the ritual and symbolical   
elements of religion1 it leaves these   
wholly on one side1 and makes the       
ethical contents of the ,christian      
teaching the matter of supreme concern4 
,there is more of applied ,christianity 
in this than in any other of the        
epistles2 and both in style and in      
substance we are reminded by it of the  
teaching of our ,lord more strongly than
 by any other portion of the ,new       
,testament4  ,the ,first ,epistle of    
,peter is addressed to the same class of
 persons1--to the elect who are         
sojourners of the ,dispersion in various
 provinces of ,asia ,minor4 ,the only   
intimation of tha locality of the       
writing is contained in one of the      
concluding verses3 ,she that is in      
,babylon1 elect together with you1      
saluteth you4 ,what ,babylon is this8   
,is it the famous capital of the        
,euphrates8 ,so some have supposed1 for 

there is a tradition that ,peter        
journeyed to the distant ,east and      
founded ,christian churches among the   
,jews1 who1 in large numbers1 were      
dwelling there4 ,others take it to be   
the mystical ,babylon1--,rome upon her  
seven hills4 ,this theory helps to      
support the contention1 for which there 
is small evidence1 that ,peter was the  
first bishop of ,rome4 ,the first       
conjecture has a firmer basis4 ,but who 
is she that sends her salutations to    
these ,asian saints8 ,was it the church 
or the wife of the apostle8 ,either     
interpretation is difficult2 ,i cannot  
choose between them4 ,of the origin of  
this letter we know little2 but there is
 nothing in it inconsistent with the    
unbroken tradition which ascribes it to 
the impetuous leader of the apostolic   
band4 ,like the ,epistle of ,james it is
 full of a strenuous morality2 while it 
does not disregard the essentials of    
,christian doctrine it puts the emphasis
 on ,christian conduct4  ,the ,second   

,epistle of ,peter is the one book of   
the ,new ,testament concerning whose    
genuineness there is most doubt4 ,from  
the earliest days the canonicity of this
 book has been disputed4 ,it is not     
mentioned by any early ,christian writer
 before the third century2 and ,origen1 
who is the first to allude to the book1 
testifies that its genuineness has been 
doubted4 ,the early versions do not     
contain it2 ,eusebius marks it doubtful2
 ,erasmus and ,calvin1 in later times1  
regarded it as a dubious document4 ,it  
seems almost incredible1 with such      
witnesses against it1 that the book     
should be genuine2 but if it is not the 
work of ,st4 ,peter it is a fraudulent  
writing1 for it openly announces him as 
its author and refers to his first      
epistle4 ,there is a remarkable         
similarity between this letter and the  
short ,epistle of ,jude2 it would appear
 that this must be an imitation and     
enlargement of that1 or that a          
condensation of this4 ,there are some   

passages in this book with which we     
could ill afford to part1--with which1  
indeed1 we never shall part2 for whether
 they were written by ,peter or by      
another they express clear and          
indubitable verities2 and even though   
the author1 like that ,balaam whom he   
quotes1 may have been no true prophet1  
he was constrained1 even as ,balaam was1
 to utter some wholesome and stimulating
 truth4  ,the three epistles of ,john   
are the last words of the disciple that 
,jesus loved4 ,the evidence of their    
genuineness1 particularly of the first  
of them1 is abundant and convincing2    
,polycarp1 who was ,john's pupil and    
friend1 quotes from this book1 and there
 is an unbroken chain of testimony from 
the early fathers respecting it4 ,of    
course those who have determined1 for   
dogmatic reasons1 to reject the ,fourth 
,gospel1 are bound to reject these      
epistles also2 but that procedure is    
wholly unwarranted1 as we shall see in  
the next chapter4 ,these epistles were  

probably written from ,ephesus during   
the last years of the first century4    
,the first is a meditation on the great 
fact of the incarnation and its mystic  
relation to the life of men2 it sounds  
the very depths of that wonderful       
revelation which was made to the world  
in the person and work of ,jesus        
,christ4 ,the other two are personal    
letters1 wherein the fragrance of a     
gracious friendship still lingers1 and  
in which we see how the spirit of       
,christ was beginning1 even then1 to    
transfigure with its benignant          
gentleness the courtesies of life4  ,the
 ,book of ,jude1 the last of the        
epistles1 is one of whose author we have
 little knowledge4 ,he styles himself   
the brother of ,james1 but that1 as we  
have seen1 is a vague description4 ,of  
the close relation between this letter  
and ,second ,peter ,i have spoken4 ,it  
is not in the early ,syriac version2    
,eusebius and ,origen question it1 and  
,chrysostom does not mention it2 we may 

fairly doubt whether it came from the   
hand of any apostolic witness4 ,one     
feature of this short letter deserves   
mention2 the writer quotes from one of  
the old apocryphal books1 the ,book of  
,enoch1 treating it as ,scripture4 ,if a
 ,new ,testament citation authenticates 
an ancient writing1 ,enoch must be      
regarded as an inspired book4 ,we must  
either reject ,jude or accept ,enoch1 or
 abandon the rule that makes a ,new     
,testament citation the proof of ,old   
,testament canonicity4 ,the abandonment 
of the rule is the simplest and the most
 rational solution of the difficulty4   
,i have now run rapidly over the history
 of twenty-one of the twenty-seven books
 of the ,new ,testament1--all of the    
,epistles of the inspired book4 ,the end
 of the first century found these books 
scattered through ,europe and ,asia1    
each probably in possession of the      
church to which it had been sent2 those 
addressed to individuals probably in the
 hands of their children or children's  

children4 ,some exchanges1 such as ,i   
have suggested1 had taken place2 and    
some churches might have possessed      
several of these apostolic letters1 but 
there was yet no collection of them4 ,of
 the beginning of this collection of the
 ,new ,testament writings ,i shall speak
 in the chapter upon the canon4  ,i said
 at the beginning that these writers    
probably had no thought when they       
composed these letters that they were   
contributing to a volume that would     
outlast empires1 and be a manual of     
study and a guide of conduct in lands to
 the world then unknown1 and in         
generations farther from them than they 
were from ,abraham4 ,but each of them   
uttered in sincerity the word that to   
him seemed the word of the hour2 and    
,god who gives life to the seed gave    
vitality to these true words1 so that   
they are as full of divine energy to-day
 as ever they were4 ,it is easy to cavil
 at a sentence here and there1 or to    
pick flaws in their logic2 but the      

question always returns1 ,what kind of  
fruit have they borne8 ,by their fruits 
ye shall know them4 ,one of the most    
precious gifts of ,god to men is        
contained in these twenty-one brief     
letters4 ,it is not in equal measure in 
all of them1 but there is none among    
them that does not contain some portion 
of it4 ,the treasure is in earthen      
vessels2 it was so when the apostles    
were alive and speaking2 it is so now2  
it always was and always will be so2 but
 the treasure is there1 and he who with 
open mind and reverent spirit seeks for 
it will find it there1 and will know    
that the excellency of the power is of  
,god1 and not of men4     ,,chapter     
,,ix4  ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the        
,,gospels4    ,we have arrived in our   
study of the ,sacred ,scriptures at the 
threshold of the most interesting and   
the most momentous topic which is       
presented to the student of the         
,biblical literature1--the question of  
the origin of the ,gospels4 ,these      

,gospels contain the record of the life 
and the death of ,jesus ,christ1 that   
marvelous ,personality in whom the      
histories1 the prophecies1 the liturgies
 of the ,old ,testament are fulfilled1  
and from whom the growing light and     
freedom and happiness of eighteen       
,christian centuries are seen to flow4  
,most certain it is that the history of 
the most enlightened lands of earth     
during these ,christian centuries could 
not be understood without constant      
reference to the power which came into  
the world when ,jesus ,christ was born4 
,some tremendous social force made its  
appearance just then by which the whole 
life of mankind has been affected ever  
since that day4 ,the most powerful      
institutions1 the most benign influences
 which are at work in the world to-day1 
can be followed back to that period as  
surely as any great river can be        
followed up to the springs from which it
 takes its rise4 ,if we had not these   
four ,gospels we should be compelled to 

seek for an explanation of the chief    
phenomena of modern history4 ,we trace1 
says ,mr4 ,horton1 this astonishing     
influence back to that life1 and if we  
knew nothing at all about it1 but had to
 construct it out of the creative       
imagination1 we should have to figure to
 ourselves facts1 sayings1 and          
impressions which would account for what
 has flowed from it4 ,thus1 if the place
 where this biography comes were        
actually a blank1 we should be able to  
surmise something of what ought to be   
there1 just as astronomers surmised the 
existence of a new planet1 and knew in  
what quarter of the heavens to look for 
it by observing and registering the     
influences which retarded or deflected  
the movements of the other planets4     
,footnote3 ,inspiration and the ,bible1 
p4 #fe4  ,that place is not a blank2 it 
is filled with the fourfold record of   
the ,life from which all these mighty   
influences have flowed4 ,must not this  
record prove to be the most inspiring   

theme open to human investigation8 ,is  
it any wonder that more study has been  
expended upon this theme than upon any  
other which has ever claimed the        
attention of men8  ,what do we know of  
the origin of this four-fold record8    
,origin it must have had like every     
other book1 an origin in time and space4
 ,that there are divine elements in it  
the most of us believe2 but the form in 
which we have it is a purely human form1
 and it would be worthless to us if it  
were not in purely human form4 ,the     
sentences of which it is composed were  
constructed by human minds1 and were    
written down by human hands on parchment
 or papyrus leaves4 ,when1 and where1   
and by whom8 ,these are the questions   
now before us4  ,let us go back to the  
last half of the second century and see 
what traces of these books we can find4 
,irenus1 ,bishop of ,lyons1 in ,france1 
who died about #bjj1 speaks distinctly  
of these four ,gospels1 which1 he       
declares1 are equal in authority to the 

,old ,testament ,scriptures1 and which  
he ascribes to the four authors whose   
names they now bear4 ,with the fanciful 
reasoning then common among ,christian  
writers1 he finds a reason in the four  
quarters of the globe why there should  
have been four ,gospels and no more4    
,clement of ,alexandria was living at   
the samq time4 ,he also quotes liberally
 in his writings from all these four    
books1 of which he speaks as the four   
,gospels that have been handed down to  
us4  ,tertullian1 who was born in       
,carthage about #afj1 also quotes all   
these ,gospels as authoritative         
,christian writings4  ,it is clear1     
therefore1 that in the ,west1 the ,east1
 and the ,south1--in all quarters where 
,christianity was then established1--the
 four ,gospels were recognized and read 
in the churches in the latter half of   
the second century4 ,let us go back a   
little farther4  ,justin ,martyr was    
born at ,rome about the year #ajj1 and  
was writing most abundantly from his    

fortieth to his forty-fifth year4 ,in   
one of the books which he has left us1  
in describing the customs of the        
,christians1 he uses the following      
language3 ,on the day which is called   
,sunday there is an assembly in the same
 place of all who live in cities or in  
country districts1 and the records of   
the apostles or the writings of the     
prophets are read as long as we have    
time4 ,then the reader concludes1 and   
the president verbally instructs and    
exhorts us to the imitation of these    
excellent things4 ,then we all rise up  
together and offer our prayers4 ,in     
another place he speaks of something    
commanded by the apostles in the records
 which they made1 and which are called  
,gospels4 ,justin does not say how many 
of these ,gospels the church in his day 
possessed1 but we find in his writings  
unmistakable quotations from at least   
three of them4 ,dr4 ,edwin ,abbott1 of  
,london1 whom ,mrs4 ,humphry ,ward      
refers to as master of all the ,german  

learning on this subject1 says that it  
would be possible to reconstruct from   
his 7,justin's7 quotations a fairly     
connected narrative of the incarnation1 
birth1 teaching1 crucifixion1           
resurrection1 and ascension of the      
,lord2 that this narrative is all found 
in the three ,synoptic ,gospels1 and    
that ,justin quotes no words of ,christ 
and refers to no incidents that are not 
found in these ,gospels4 ,footnote3     
,encyc4 ,brit41 vol4 x4 p4 #hag4  ,we   
may fully accept ,dr4 ,abbott's         
testimony so far as the quotations of   
,justin from the first three ,gospels   
are concerned2 but his arguments1 which 
are intended to prove that there is no  
certain reference to the fourth ,gospel 
in ,justin's works1 appear to me        
inconclusive4 ,when ,justin says3 ,for  
indeed ,christ also said1 'except ye be 
born again1 ye shall not enter into the 
kingdom of heaven1' but that it is      
impossible for those who were once born 
to enter into their mother's womb is    

plain to all1 he is quoting words that  
are found in the fourth ,gospel1 and not
 in any of the other three4 ,the attempt
 to show that he found these and similar
 citations in the same sources from     
which the author of the fourth ,gospel  
derived them is not successful4         
,several indirect lines of evidence tend
 to confirm the belief that ,justin     
possessed all four of our ,gospels4     
,this1 then1 carries us back to the     
first half of the second century4       
,between #ajj and #aej ,papias of       
,hierapolis1 ,clement of ,rome1 and     
,polycarp of ,smyrna were writing4      
,papias1 who wrote about #acj-adj ,a4   
,d41 composed five books or commentaries
 on what he calls ,the ,oracles of the  
,lord4 ,he gives us some account of the 
origin of at least two of these         
,gospels4 ,mark1 he says1 was the       
interpreter of ,peter2 ,matthew wrote   
his scriptures 7logia7 in ,hebrew1 and  
each man interpreted them as best he    
could4 ,interpreted here evidently means

 translated4 ,elsewhere he repeats a    
tradition of the elder1 by which word he
 apparently means the ,apostle ,john1   
whom he may have known1 in these words3 
,mark1 having become ,peter's           
interpreter1 wrote down accurately all  
that he remembered1--not1 however1 in   
order1--both the words and the deeds of 
,christ4 ,for he never heard the ,lord1 
nor attached himself to him1 but later  
on1 as ,i said1 attached himself to     
,peter1 who used to adapt his lessons to
 the needs of the occasion1 but not as  
though he was composing a connected     
treatise of the discourses of our ,lord2
 so that ,mark committed no error in    
writing down some matters just as he    
remembered them4 ,for one object was in 
his thoughts1 to make no omissions and  
no false statements in what he heard4   
,footnote3 ,quoted by ,abbott1 as above4
 ,this is a perfect description of the  
,gospel of ,mark as we have it in our   
hands to-day4 ,and the testimony of     
,papias to its authorship1 and to the   

spirit and purpose of the author1 is    
significant and memorable4 ,evidence of 
this nature would be regarded as        
decisive in any other case of literary  
criticism4  ,polycarp1 who was the      
friend and pupil of ,john the ,apostle1 
was born about the year #fi1 and        
suffered martyrdom about #aee4 ,in his  
writings we find no express mention of  
the ,gospels1 but we do find verbally   
accurate quotations from them4 ,it is   
clear that he was acquainted with the   
books4 ,polycarp was the teacher of     
,irenus of ,lyons whom ,i first quoted1 
and he was the pupil and friend of ,st4 
,john and the other apostles2 and       
,irenus1 who quotes all these ,gospels  
so freely1 bears this testimony         
respecting ,polycarp1 in a letter which 
he wrote to ,florinus4  ,i saw you1 when
 ,i was yet a boy1 in ,lower ,asia with 
,polycarp4444 ,i could even point out   
now the place where the blessed         
,polycarp sat and spoke1 and describe   
his going out and coming in1 his manner 

of life1 his personal appearance1 the   
addresses he delivered to the multitude1
 how he spoke of his intercourse with   
,john1 and with the others who had seen 
the ,lord1 and how he recalled their    
words1 and everything that he had heard 
about the ,lord1 about his miracles and 
his teaching4 ,polycarp told us1 as one 
who had received it from those who had  
seen the ,word of ,life with their own  
eyes1 and all this in complete harmony  
with the ,scriptures4 ,to this ,i then  
listened1 through the mercy of ,god     
vouchsafed to me1 with all eagerness1   
and wrote it not on paper1 but in my    
heart1 and still by the grace of ,god ,i
 ever bring it into fresh remembrance4  
,these living witnesses give us solid   
ground for our statement that the       
,gospels--the first three of them at any
 rate--were in existence during the last
 years of the first century4 ,indeed1   
not to prolong this search for the      
origin of the books1 it is now freely   
admitted1 by many of the most radical   

critics1 that the first three ,gospels  
were written before the year #hj1 and   
that ,mark must have been written before
 #gj4  ,it is interesting to contrast   
the course of ,new ,testament criticism 
with that engaged upon the ,old         
,testament4 ,in the study of the origin 
of the ,pentateuch the gravitation of   
opinion has been steadily downward1     
toward a later date1 so that the great  
majority of scholars are now certain    
that the books must have been put into  
their present form long after the time  
of ,moses4 ,in the study of the origin  
of the ,gospels the date has been       
steadily pushed upward1 to the very age 
of the apostles4 ,the earlier critics1  
,strauss and ,baur1 insisted that they  
must have appeared much later1 far on in
 the second century2 but the more recent
 and more scientific criticism has      
demolished or badly discredited their   
theories1 and has carried the ,gospels  
back to the last part of the first      
century4  ,are we entitled1 then1 to say

 that these ,gospels were written by    
,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 and ,john8 ,we  
should be cautious1 no doubt1 in making 
such a statement4 ,the ,gospels         
themselves are not so explicit on this  
point as we could desire4 ,their titles 
do not warrant this assertion4 ,it is   
not ,the ,gospel of ,st4 ,matthew or    
,the ,gospel of ,st4 ,mark2 it is the   
,gospel according to ,st4 ,matthew or   
,st4 ,mark4 ,the import of the title    
would be fully satisfied with the       
explanation that this is the story as   
,matthew or ,mark was wont to tell it1  
put into form by some person or friend  
of his1 in his last days1 or even after 
his death4 ,but the testimony of        
,papias1 to which ,i have referred1 is  
to my own mind good evidence that these 
,gospels were written by the men who    
bear their names4 ,in the case of ,luke1
 as we shall presently see1 the evidence
 is much stronger4 ,and after going over
 the evidence as carefully as ,i am     
able1 the theory that the four ,gospels 

were written by the men whose names they
 bear1 all of whom were the             
contemporaries of our ,lord1 and two of 
whom were his apostles1 seems to me1 on 
the whole1 the best supported by the    
whole volume of evidence4 ,the case is  
not absolutely clear2 perhaps it was    
left somewhat obscure for the very      
purpose of stimulating study4 ,at all   
events1 the study which has been given  
to the subject has confirmed rather than
 weakened the belief that the ,gospels  
are contemporary records of the life of 
,christ4 ,mr4 ,norton1 a distinguished  
,unitarian scholar1 sums up the evidence
 as follows3 ,it consists in the        
indisputable fact that throughout a     
community of millions of individuals1   
scattered over ,europe1 ,asia1 and      
,africa1 the ,gospels were regarded with
 the highest reverence1 as the works of 
those to whom they are ascribed1 at so  
early a period that there could be no   
difficulty in determining whether they  
were genuine or not1 and when every     

intelligent ,christian must have been   
deeply interested to ascertain the      
truth4444 ,this fact is itself a        
phenomenon admitting of no explanation  
except that the four ,gospels had all   
been handed down as genuine from the    
apostolic age1 and had everywhere       
accompanied our religion as it spread   
throughout the world4  ,when we turn    
from the external or historical evidence
 for the genuineness of the ,gospels to 
study their internal structure and their
 relations to one another1 we come upon 
some curious facts4 ,these ,gospels1 in 
the form in which we possess them1 are  
written in the ,greek language4 ,but the
 ,greek language was not the vernacular 
of the ,jews in ,palestine when our     
,lord was on the earth2 the language    
which was then spoken by them1 as ,i    
have before explained1 was the ,aramaic4
 ,it is true that ,palestine was1 to    
some extent1 a bilingual country1--like 
,wales1 one writer suggests1 where the  
,english and the ,welsh languages are   

now freely spoken1--that ,aramaic and   
,greek were used indifferently4 ,i can  
hardly imagine that a people as         
tenacious of their own institutions as  
the ,jews could have adopted ,greek as  
generally as the ,welsh have adopted the
 ,english tongue4 ,even in ,wales1 if a 
,welshman were speaking to a            
congregation of his countrymen on any   
important topic1 he would be likely to  
speak the ,welsh language4 ,and much    
more probable does it seem to me that   
the discourses and the common           
conversation of ,jesus must have been   
spoken in the vernacular4 ,the          
discourses and sayings of our ,lord1 as 
reported for us in these ,gospels1 are  
not therefore given us in the words that
 he used4 ,we have a translation of his 
words from the ,aramaic into the ,greek1
 made either by the writers of the      
,gospels1 or by some one in their day4  
,we have quoted the testimony of        
,papias1 that the ,gospel of ,matthew   
was originally written in ,hebrew 7by   

which he undoubtedly means ,aramaic71   
and that each one interpreted it as best
 he could2 and if this be true1 then    
that copy first made by ,matthew did    
contain many of our ,lord's very words4 
,but that ,aramaic copy has never been  
seen since that day2 we have no         
manuscript of any ,new ,testament book  
except in the ,greek language4 ,there   
are a few cases in which the writers of 
the ,gospels have preserved for us the  
very words used by ,christ4 ,thus in the
 healing of the deaf man in the         
neighborhood of ,decapolis1 of which    
,mark tells us 7vii4 #cd71 ,jesus       
touched his ears1 and said unto him1    
,ephphatha1 that is1 ,be opened4 ,the   
,evangelist gives us the ,aramaic word  
which ,jesus used1 and translates it for
 his readers into ,greek4 ,likewise in  
the healing of the ruler's daughter     
7,mark v4 #da7 he took her by the hand1 
and said unto her1 ,talitha cumi1 which 
is1 being interpreted1 the ,evangelist  
explains1 ,damsel1 ,i say unto thee1    

,arise4 ,doubtless most readers get the 
impression that our ,lord used here some
 cabalistic words in a foreign tongue2  
the fact is that these are the words of 
the common speech of the people2 only   
the ,evangelist seems to have thought   
them especially memorable1 and he has   
given us not merely1 as he generally    
does1 a translation into the ,greek of  
our ,lord's words1 but the ,aramaic     
words themselves1 with their meaning    
appended in a ,greek phrase4 ,the same  
is true of our ,lord's words on the     
cross3 ,eli1 ,eli1 lama sabachthani8    
,these are ,aramaic words1 the very     
words that ,jesus uttered4 ,the ,roman  
soldiers who stood near might not know  
what he meant2 but every ,jew who       
distinctly heard him must have          
understood him1 for he was speaking in  
no foreign tongue1 but in the language  
of his own people4  ,when we speak1     
therefore1 of the ,greek as the original
 language of the ,gospels1 we do not    
speak with entire accuracy4 ,the ,greek 

does not give us our ,lord's original   
words4 ,these we have not1 except in the
 cases ,i have named1 and a few others  
less important4 ,no man on earth knows  
or ever will know what were the precise 
words that our ,lord used in his ,sermon
 on the ,mount1 in his conversation with
 the woman at the well1 in his last     
discourses with his disciples4 ,we have 
every reason to believe that the        
substance of what he said is faithfully 
preserved for us2 the fourfold record1  
so marvelously accordant in its report  
of his teachings1 makes this perfectly  
clear4 ,but his very words we have not1 
and this fact itself is the most        
convincing dis-proof of the dogma of    
verbal inspiration4 ,if our ,lord had   
thought it important that we should have
 his very words he would have seen to it
 that his very words were preserved and 
recorded for us1 instead of that ,greek 
translation of his words1 made by his   
followers1 which we now possess4 ,these 
evangelists could have written ,aramaic1

 doubtless did write ,aramaic2 and they 
would certainly have kept our ,lord's   
discourses and sayings in the ,aramaic  
original if they had been instructed to 
do so4 ,the fact that they were not     
instructed to do so1 but were permitted 
to give his teachings to the world in   
other words than those in which they    
were spoken1 shows how little there was 
of modern literalism in ,christ's       
conception of the work of revelation4   
,the first three of these ,gospels      
exhibit many striking similarities2 they
 appear to give1 from somewhat different
 standpoints1 a condensed and complete  
synopsis of the events of our ,lord's   
life2 therefore they are called the     
,synoptic ,gospels4 ,the fourth ,gospel 
differs widely from them in matter and  
form4 ,it will be more convenient1      
therefore1 to speak first of the        
,synoptic ,gospels1 ,matthew1 ,mark1 and
 ,luke4  ,the singular fact respecting  
these ,gospels is the combination in    
them of likeness and difference4 ,a     

considerable portion of each one of them
 is to be found1 word for word1 in one  
or both of the others2 other            
considerable portions of each are not   
found in either of the others2 some     
passages are nearly alike1 but slightly 
different in two or in all of them4 ,did
 these three authors write independently
 each of the other8 ,if so1 how does it 
happen that their phraseology is so     
often identical8 ,did they copy one from
 another8 ,if so1 why did they copy so  
little8 ,why1 for example1 did each one 
of them omit so much that the others had
 written8 ,and why are there so many    
slight differences in passages that are 
nearly identical8 ,if we accepted the   
theory of verbal inspiration1 we might  
offer some sort of explanation of this  
phenomenon4 ,we might say that the ,holy
 ,ghost dictated these words1 and that  
that is the end of it2 since no         
explanation can be offered of the reason
 why the ,holy ,ghost chose one form of 
expression rather than another4 ,but the

 ,gospels themselves contain abundant   
proof that the ,holy ,ghost did not     
dictate the words employed by these     
writers4  ,the two genealogies of our   
,lord1 one in ,matthew and the other in 
,luke1 are widely different4 ,from      
,abraham to ,david they substantially   
agree2 from ,david to ,christ1 ,matthew 
makes twenty-eight generations1 and     
,luke thirty-eight2 only two of the     
intermediate names in the one table are 
found in the other2 the one list makes  
,jacob the father of ,joseph1 and the   
other declares that the name of         
,joseph's father was ,heli4 ,all sorts  
of explanations1 some plausible and     
others preposterous1 have been offered  
of this difficulty2 the one explanation 
that cannot be allowed is that these    
words were dictated by ,omniscience4 ,in
 the story of the healing of the blind  
near ,jericho1 ,matthew and ,mark       
expressly say that the healing took     
place as ,christ was departing from the 
city2 ,luke that it was before he       

entered it4 ,matthew says that there    
were two blind men2 ,mark and ,luke that
 there was but one4 ,about these details
 of the transaction there is some       
mistake1--that is the only thing to be  
said about it4 ,the various explanations
 offered are weak and inadmissible4 ,but
 what difference does it make to anybody
 whether the healing took place before  
or after ,jesus entered the city1 or    
whether there was one man healed or two8
 ,the moral and spiritual lessons of the
 story are just as distinct in the one  
case as in the other2 and it is these   
moral and spiritual values only that    
inspiration is intended to secure4      
,similarly1 ,luke 7iv4 #ch-ci7 expressly
 tells us that the healing of ,peter's  
wife's mother took place before the     
calling of ,simon and ,andrew2 while    
,matthew and ,mark tell us with equal   
explicitness that the calling took place
 before the healing4 ,no reconciliation 
is possible here2 either ,luke or       
,matthew and ,mark must have misplaced  

these events4  ,so in ,matthew xxvii4   
#i1 certain words are said to have been 
spoken by ,jeremiah the prophet4 ,these 
words are not in ,jeremiah2 they are in 
,zechariah xi4 #ac4 ,it is simply a slip
 of the ,evangelist's memory4  ,so in   
the record of the inscription on the    
cross when ,jesus was crucified4 ,each  
of the four ,evangelists copies it for  
us in a different form4 ,the meaning is 
the same in all the cases1 but the copy 
was not exactly made by some of them1   
perhaps not by any of them4 ,if the     
,holy ,ghost had dictated the words1    
they must1 in a case like this1 have    
been exactly alike in all the           
,evangelists4 ,the substance is given1  
but the inexactness of the copy shows   
that the words could not have been      
dictated by ,omniscience4 ,it is        
sometimes explained that this           
inscription was in three languages1     
,greek1 ,latin1 and ,hebrew1 and that we
 may have the exact translations of the 
different inscriptions4 ,this might     

account for three of them1 but not for  
four4  ,from these and many other       
similar facts1 we know that the theory  
of verbal inspiration is not true2 but  
that these ,evangelists were allowed to 
state each in his own language the facts
 known by him concerning our ,lord1 and 
that nothing like infallible accuracy   
was so much as attempted4 ,the only     
inspiration that can be claimed for them
 is that which brought the important    
facts to their remembrance1 and guarded 
them against serious errors of history  
or doctrine4  ,but now the question     
returns1 if they wrote these ,gospels in
 their own language and independently of
 one another1 how happens it that they  
use so often the very same words and    
phrases and sentences8 ,take1 for       
example1 the following verses from      
parallel narratives in ,matthew and in  
,mark1 concerning the calling of the    
first apostles3--  ,,matthew iv4 #ah-bb4
  ,and walking by the sea of ,galilee1  
he saw two brethren1 ,simon who is      

called ,peter1 and ,andrew his brother1 
casting a net into the sea2 for they    
were fishers4 ,and he saith unto them1  
,come ye after me1 and ,i will make you 
fishers of men4 ,and they straightway   
left the nets1 and followed him4 ,and   
going on from thence he saw two other   
brethren1 ,james the son of ,zebedee1   
and ,john his brother1 in the boat with 
,zebedee their father1 mending their    
nets2 and he called them4 ,and they     
straightway left the boat and their     
father1 and followed him4  ,,mark i4    
#af-bj4  ,and passing along by the sea  
of ,galilee1 he saw ,simon and ,andrew  
the brother of ,simon casting a net in  
the sea3 for they were fishers4 ,and    
,jesus said unto them1 ,come ye after   
me1 and ,i will make you to become      
fishers of men4 ,and straightway they   
left the nets1 and followed him4 ,and   
going on a little further1 he saw ,james
 the son of ,zebedee1 and ,john his     
brother1 who also were in the boat      
mending the nets4 ,and straightway he   

called them3 and they left their father 
,zebedee in the boat with the hired     
servants1 and went after him4  ,there   
are slight verbal variations1 but in    
general the words are the same1 and the 
corresponding sentences are in precisely
 the same order in both narratives4     
,now1 as ,archbishop ,thomson says1 in  
,smith's ,bible ,dictionary1 ,the verbal
 and material agreement of the first    
three ,evangelists is such as does not  
occur in any other authors who have     
written independently of each other4    
,besides many such passages which are   
substantially alike but verbally or     
syntactically different1 there are quite
 a number which are identical1 word for 
word1 and phrase for phrase4 ,these     
verbal agreements occur most frequently1
 as is natural1 in the reports of our   
,lord's discourses and sayings2 but they
 also occur in the descriptive and      
narrative portions of the gospel4 ,this 
is the fact which is so difficult to    
reconcile with the theory that the books

 were produced by independent writers4  
,suppose three competent and truthful   
reporters are employed by you to write  
an exact and unvarnished report of some 
single transaction which has occurred1  
and which each of them has witnessed4   
,each is required to do his work without
 any conference with the others4 ,when  
these reports are brought to you1 if    
they are very faithful and accurate for 
substance1 you will not be surprised to 
find some circumstances mentioned by    
each that are not mentioned by either of
 the others1 and it will be strange if  
there are not some important            
discrepancies4 ,but if on reading them1 
you find that the reports1 taken        
sentence by sentence1 are almost        
identical1--that there is only an       
occasional difference in a word or in   
the order of a phrase1--then you at once
 say1 ,these reporters must have been   
copying from some other reporter's      
note-book1 or else they must have been  
comparing notes2 they could not have    

written with such verbal agreement if   
they had written independently4         
,suppose1 for example1 that each of the 
three reports began in just these words3
 ,the first object that attracted my    
notice on entering the door was a chair4
 ,now it is extremely improbable that   
all these writers1 writing independent  
reports of a transaction1 should begin  
in the same way by mentioning the first 
object that attracted the attention of  
each4 ,and even if they should so begin1
 it is wholly beyond the range of       
possibilities that they should all      
select from all the multitude of the    
words in the ,english language the very 
same words in which to make this        
statement2 and should put these words in
 the very same order1 out of the        
multitude of different orders into which
 they could grammatically be put4 ,there
 is not one chance in a million that    
such a coincidence would occur4 ,but    
such coincidences occur very often in   
the first three ,gospels4 ,how can we   

account for it8 ,we say that they wrote 
independently1 that their words were not
 dictated to them2 how does it happen   
that there is so much verbal agreement8 
,we may get some hint of the manner in  
which these biographies were produced if
 we turn to the beginning of ,luke's    
,gospel3--  ,forasmuch as many have     
taken in hand to draw up a narrative    
concerning those matters which have been
 fulfilled among us1 even as they       
delivered them unto us1 which from the  
beginning were eyewitnesses and         
ministers of the word1 it seemed good to
 me also1 having traced the course of   
all things accurately from the first1 to
 write unto thee in order1 most         
excellent ,theophilus2 that thou        
mightest know the certainty concerning  
the things wherein thou wast instructed4
 ,the marginal reading of this last     
phrase is1 which thou wast taught by    
word of mouth4 ,this is the more exact  
meaning of the ,greek4 ,the passage     
contains these statements3--  #a4       

,theophilus had been orally taught the  
,gospels4  #b4 ,many persons1 not       
apostles1 had undertaken to write out   
parts of the gospel story1 as they had  
heard it from eyewitnesses and ministers
 of the word4  #c4 ,luke also1 as one   
who had full and accurate information1  
had determined to reduce his knowledge  
to an orderly written narrative1 for the
 benefit of his friend ,theophilus4  ,it
 appears from this clear statement that 
written memoranda of the discourses of  
our ,lord and of the incidents of his   
life had been made by many persons4     
,numbers of these had undertaken to     
combine their memoranda with their      
recollections in an orderly statement4  
,this fact itself shows how powerful an 
impression had been made by our ,lord's 
life and death upon the people of       
,palestine4 ,everything relating to him 
was treasured with the utmost care2     
,luke1 for his part1 believing that he  
had gained by careful investigation     
sufficient knowledge to warrant the     

undertaking1 sets out to collect the    
facts and present them in a consecutive 
and intelligible literary form4 ,yet    
,luke1 in this announcement of his      
purpose1 betrays no consciousness that  
he is using any different powers from   
those employed by the many others of    
whom he speaks4 ,rather does he most    
clearly rank himself with them1 as one  
of many gleaners in this fruitful field4
 ,he does claim thoroughness and        
painstaking accuracy2 ,i believe that   
every honest man will concede his claim4
  ,this1 then1 was the way in which     
,luke went to work to write his ,gospel4
 ,this is not guesswork2 it is the      
explicit statement of the author        
himself4 ,have we not good reason for   
believing that the ,gospels of ,matthew 
and ,mark were composed in much the same
 way8  ,in addition to the written      
memoranda of ,christ's life which were  
in the hands of the apostles1 and of    
many others1 there was another source   
from which the ,evangelists must have   

drawn4 ,luke alludes to it when he      
speaks of the fact that ,theophilus had 
received much of his narrative by word  
of mouth4 ,there was1 unquestionably1 an
 oral gospel1 covering the larger part  
of the deeds and the words of ,jesus1   
which had been widely circulated in     
,palestine and in the whole missionary  
field4 ,when it is said 7,acts viii4    
#a-d2 xi4 #ai7 that they which were     
scattered abroad by the early           
persecutions went everywhere preaching  
the word1 it must be understood that    
they went about simply telling the story
 of ,jesus1 his birth1 his life1 his    
deeds1 his words1 his death upon the    
cross4 ,sometimes1 when preaching to    
,jews1 they would show the              
correspondence between his life and the 
,old ,testament prophecies1 to prove    
that he was the ,messiah2 but the       
substance of their preaching was the    
telling over and over again of the story
 of ,jesus4 ,it was upon this oral      
gospel that the apostles and the first  

missionaries mainly relied4 ,what they  
desired to do was to make known as      
speedily and as rapidly as possible the 
words of his lips and the facts of his  
life4 ,and it is highly probable that   
before they set out on these missionary 
tours1 they took great pains to rehearse
 to one another the story which they    
were going forth to tell4 ,the apostles1
 says ,professor ,westcott1 guided by   
the promised ,spirit of truth1 remained 
together in ,jerusalem in close         
communion for a period long enough to   
shape a common narrative1 and to fix it 
with requisite surroundings4  ,it was   
these concerted recollections and       
rehearsals that gave to so many passages
 of the gospel its identity in form4    
,some of the sentences often and        
devoutly repeated were remembered by    
all1 word for word2 in some of them     
there were verbal differences and       
discrepancies1 as they were repeated by 
one and another4 ,the verbal            
resemblances as well as the verbal      

differences are thus explained by this  
theory of an oral gospel1 prepared at   
first for preaching by the apostles1 and
 held only in their memory4  ,the       
preservation of so many passages in     
words and sentences nearly or exactly   
similar is nothing miraculous4 ,even in 
our own time there are1 as we are told1 
secret societies whose ritual has never 
been written1 but has been handed down  
with nearly verbal accuracy1 from       
generation to generation4 ,for the      
,hebrews1 who were a people at this time
 greatly disinclined to write1 and      
thoroughly practiced in remembering and 
repeating the sayings of their wise men1
 this task would not be difficult4  ,the
 apostles and the early evangelists1 as 
,westcott suggests1 were preachers1 not 
historians1 not pamphleteers4 ,they     
believed in living witnesses more than  
in transmitted documents4 ,they did not 
write out the record at first1 partly   
because they were naturally disinclined 
to write1 and partly1 no doubt1 because 

they expected the immediate return of   
our ,lord to earth4 ,their gospel was   
therefore for many years a spoken and   
not a written word4 ,as they went on    
repeating it1 changes would occur in the
 repetition of the words2 to the        
remembrance of one and another of them  
the ,spirit of truth would bring facts  
and circumstances that they did not     
think of at first2 words1 phrases1      
gestures of our ,lord would reappear in 
the memory of each1 and thus the        
narrative became varied and shaded with 
the personal peculiarities of the       
several writers4  ,years passed1 and the
 expected return of the ,lord to earth  
did not take place4 ,the churches were  
spreading over ,asia and ,europe1 and   
the apostles were unable personally to  
instruct those who were preaching the   
gospel in other lands4 ,thus the need of
 a written record began to make itself  
felt2 and the apostles themselves wrote 
out the story which they had been       
telling1 or it was written for them by  

their companions and fellow-helpers in  
the gospel4 ,the oral gospel as it lived
 in their memories would form1 no doubt1
 the substance of it1 and the written   
memoranda of the discourses and         
incidents1 to which ,luke refers1 would 
be drawn upon in completing the         
biography4 ,the oral gospel thus        
carefully prepared and transmitted by   
memory would be substantially the same1 
yet many differences in arrangement of  
words and phrases would naturally have  
crept in2 the written memoranda would in
 many cases be verbally identical4 ,and 
each ,evangelist1 gleaning from this    
wide field1 would collect some facts and
 sayings omitted by the others4  ,there 
are other explanations of the origin of 
the ,synoptic ,gospels1 some of which   
are ingenious and plausible1 but ,i     
shall not burden your minds with them1  
since the theory which ,i have presented
 appears to me the simplest1 the most   
natural1 and the most comprehensive of  
them all4  ,the ,fourth ,gospel1 it is  

evident1 must have had a different      
origin4 ,beyond question it is a        
consecutive narrative1 composed by a    
single writer1 and not1 like the        
,synoptics1 a compilation of memoranda1 
oral or written4 ,it appears to be1 in  
part at least1 a supplementary          
narrative1 omitting much that is        
contained in the other ,gospels1        
supplying some omissions1 and           
correcting1 possibly1 certain           
unimportant errors4 ,mr4 ,horton        
illustrates the supplementary work of   
this ,evangelist by several instances4  
,the communion of the ,lord's ,supper1  
he says1 was so universally known and   
observed when he wrote that he actually 
does not mention its institution1 but he
 records a wonderful discourse          
concerning the ,bread of ,life which is 
an indispensable commentary on the      
unnamed institution1 and by filling in  
with great detail the circumstances of  
the last evening1 he furnished a        
framework for the ordinance which is    

among our most precious possessions4 ,on
 the other hand1 because the common     
tradition was very vague in its date he 
gave precision to the event which they  
had recorded by fixing the time of its  
occurrence4444 ,in ,matt1 iv4 #ab and   
,mark i4 #ad1 the temptation1           
immediately following ,christ's baptism1
 is immediately followed by the         
statement1 ',when he heard that ,john   
was delivered up1 he withdrew into      
,galilee2 and leaving ,nazareth he came 
and dwelt in ,capernaum4' ,but this     
summary narrative had excluded one of   
the most interesting features of the    
early ministry of ,jesus4 ,accordingly  
the ,fourth ,gospel enlarges the story  
and emphasizes the marks of time4 ,after
 the ,baptism1 according to this        
authority1 ,jesus 'went down to         
,capernaum1 he and his mother and his   
brethren and his disciples1 and there   
they abode not many days' 7ii4 #ab74    
,then he went up to the ,passover at    
,jerusalem1 where he had the interview  

with ,nicodemus4 ,after that he went    
into the country districts of ,judea1   
where ,john was baptizing in non1 and   
then the writer adds1 as if his eye were
 on the condensed and misleading        
narrative of the common tradition1 ',for
 ,john was not yet cast into prison4'   
,the two great teachers1 the            
,forerunner1 and the ,greater-than-he1  
were actually baptizing side by side1   
and it was because ,jesus saw his       
reputation overshadowing ,john's that he
 voluntarily withdrew into ,galilee1    
passing through ,samaria4 ,so that while
 there had been two journeys to ,galilee
 before ,john was imprisoned1 and that  
early period of the life was full of    
unique and wonderful interest1 all had  
been compressed and crushed into the    
brief statement of ,matt4 iv4 #ab and   
,mark i4 #ad4 ,in this case we seem to  
see the ,evangelist deliberately        
loosening and breaking up the current   
history in order that he might insert   
into the cramped and lifeless framework 

some of the most valuable episodes of   
the ,lord's life4 ,if the fourth        
,evangelist had treated the triple      
narrative in the way that many of us    
have treated it1 regarding it as a sin  
against the ,holy ,spirit to suggest    
that there was any incompleteness or any
 misleading abbreviations in it1 we     
should have lost the wonderful accounts 
of the conversation with ,nicodemus and 
with the woman at the well4 ,footnote3  
,inspiration and the ,bible1 pp4 #ie-ii4
  ,if such is the relation of the       
,fourth ,gospel to the ,synoptics1 it   
follows that it must have been the work 
of one who was thoroughly familiar with 
the events recorded4 ,that the narrative
 bears evidence of having been written  
by an eyewitness is to my own mind      
clear4 ,that the writer intends to      
convey the impression that he is the    
beloved disciple is also manifest4      
,either it was written by ,john the     
,apostle1 or else the writer was a      
deliberate deceiver4 ,there can be no   

such explanation of his personation of  
,john as that which satisfies our minds 
in the case of ,daniel and              
,ecclesiastes2 the book is either the   
work of ,john1 or it is a cunning and   
conscienceless fraud4 ,and it seems to  
me that any one who will read the book  
will find it impossible to believe that 
it is an imposture4 ,if any book of the 
ages bears in itself the witness to the 
truth it is the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,it    
shines by its own light4 ,any of us     
could tell the difference between the   
sun in the heavens and a brass disk     
suspended in the sky reflecting the     
sun's rays2 and in much the same way the
 fact is apparent that the book is not a
 counterfeit gospel4  ,it is true that  
historical criticism has raised         
difficulties about it2 the battle of the
 critics has been raging around it for  
half a century2 but one after another of
 the positions taken by men like        
,strauss and ,baur have been shown to be
 untenable2 and it can truthfully be    

said1 in the words of ,professor ,ladd1 
that the vigorous and determined attacks
 upon the genuineness of the ,fourth    
,gospel have greatly increased instead  
of impairing our confidence in the      
traditional view4 ,footnote3 ,what is   
the ,bible8 p4 #cbg4 ,and ,i am ready to
 go farther with the same brave but     
reverent scholar1 and say1 ,having thus 
grounded in historical and critical     
researches the genuineness of the       
,fourth ,gospel1 we have no hesitation  
in affirming what position it must take 
in ,sacred ,scripture4 ,it is the heart 
of ,jesus ,christ with which we here    
come in contact4 ,inspiration and       
reflection uniting upon the choicest and
 most undoubted material of history1 and
 fusing all the material with the holy  
characteristics of revelation1 are      
nowhere else so apparent as in the      
,gospel of the ,apostle ,john4          
,footnote3 ,doctrine of ,sacred         
,scripture1 i4 #egc  ,such1 then1 is the
 fourfold biography of ,jesus the       

,christ preserved for us in the ,new    
,testament4 ,if this study has removed  
something of the mystery with which the 
origin of these writings has been       
shrouded1 it has1 ,i trust1 at the same 
time1 made them appear more real and    
more human2 and it has shown the        
providential oversight by which their   
artless record1 many-sided1 manifold1   
yet simple and clear as the daylight1   
has been preserved for us4 ,of these    
four ,gospels we are certainly entitled 
to say as much as this1 that whatever   
verbal discrepancies may be detected in 
them1 and however difficult it may be   
satisfactorily to explain all the       
phenomena of their structure and        
relations1 in one thing they marvelously
 agree1 and that is in the picture which
 they give us of the life and character 
of ,jesus ,christ4 ,in this each one of 
them is self-consistent1 and they are   
all consistent with one another4 ,and   
this1 if we will reflect upon it1 is a  
marvelous1 not to say a miraculous fact4

 ,that four such men as these           
,evangelists incontestably were should  
have succeeded in giving us four        
portraitures of the ,divine ,man1       
without contradicting themselves1 and   
without contradicting one another1--four
 distinct views of this wonderful       
,person1 which show us different sides  
of his character1 and which we yet      
instantly recognize as the same person1 
is a very great wonder4 ,no such task   
was ever laid on any other human        
biographer as that which confronted     
these men2 no character so difficult to 
comprehend and describe ever existed2   
for one man to preserve all the unities 
of art in describing him would be       
notable2 for four men to give us1       
independently1 four narratives1 from the
 simple pages of which the same         
lineaments shine out1 so that no one    
ever thinks of saying that the ,jesus of
 ,matthew is a different person from the
 ,jesus of ,mark or ,luke or            
,john1--this1 ,i say1 is marvelous4     

,and it is this character1 majestic in  
its simplicity1 glorious in its         
humility1 the ,ideal of ,humanity1 the  
,mystery of ,godliness1 that these      
,gospels are meant to show us4 ,if they 
only bring him clearly before us1 make  
his personality real and familiar and   
vivid before our eyes1 so that we may   
know him and love him1 that is all we   
want of them4 ,infallibility in details 
would be worthless if this were wanting2
 any small discrepancies are beneath    
notice if this is here4 ,and this is    
here4 ,read for yourselves4 ,from the   
page of ,matthew1 illuminated with the  
words of prophecy that tell of the      
,messiah's coming2 from the vivid and   
rapid record of ,mark1 in which the     
,wonder-worker displays his power2 from 
the tender story of ,luke1 speaking the 
word of grace to those that are lowest  
down and farthest off2 from the mystical
 ,gospel of the beloved disciple opening
 to us the deep things that only love   
can see1 the same divine form appears1  

the same divine face shines1 the same   
divine voice is speaking4 ,behold the   
man6     ,,chapter ,x4  ,,new           
,,testament ,,history ,,and ,,prophecy4 
,the ,acts of the ,apostles contains the
 history of the ,christian church from  
the time of the ascension of our ,lord  
to the end of the second year of ,paul's
 first imprisonment at ,rome4 ,the      
period covered by the history is        
therefore only about thirty years4 ,the 
principal events recorded in it are the 
great ,pentecostal ,revival1 the        
,martyrdom of ,stephen1 the first       
persecution of the church and the       
dispersion of the disciples1 the        
conversion and the missionary work of   
,paul1 with the circumstances of his    
arrest at ,jerusalem1 his journey as a  
prisoner to ,rome1 and a brief account  
of his residence in that city4 ,in the  
first part of the book ,peter1 the      
leader of the apostolic band1 is the    
central figure2 the last part is        
occupied with the life and work of      

,paul4  ,who is the writer8 ,irenus1    
about #ahb1 names ,luke as the author of
 the book1 and speaks as though the fact
 were undisputed4 ,he calls him a       
follower and disciple of apostles1 and  
declares that he was inseparable from   
,paul and was his fellow-helper in the  
gospel4 ,this is the earliest distinct  
reference to the book in any ancient    
,christian writing4 ,after this1        
,clement of ,alexandria1 ,tertullian1   
,origen1 and ,eusebius bear the same    
testimony4 ,but these are late          
witnesses4 ,the earliest of them        
testified a hundred years after the     
death of ,luke4 ,the direct testimony to
 the existence of this book in the first
 two cenuries is not1 therefore1        
altogether satisfactory4 ,the indirect  
testimony is1 however1 clear and strong4
  ,that the ,acts was written by the    
author of the ,third ,gospel is scarcely
 doubted by any critical scholar4 ,the  
fact of the identity of authorship is   
stated with the utmost explicitness in  

the introduction of the ,acts4 ,the     
former treatise ,i made1 ,o ,theophilus1
 concerning all that ,jesus began both  
to do and to teach 7,luke i4 ,i1 #b74   
,the author of the ,acts of the         
,apostles certainly intends to say that 
he is the writer of the ,third ,gospel4 
,if he is not the author of the ,third  
,gospel he is an artful and shameless   
deceiver4 ,but the whole atmosphere of  
the book forbids the theory that it is a
 cunning imposition4 ,and the internal  
evidence that the two books were written
 by the same author is ample and        
convincing4 ,the style and the method of
 the treatment of the two books are     
unmistakably identical4 ,every page     
bears witness to the fact that the      
author of the ,third ,gospel and the    
author of the ,acts are one and the same
 person4 ,now we know1 beyond all       
reasonable doubt1 that the ,gospel of   
,luke was written certainly as early as 
the year #hj ,a4 ,d4 ,and there is as   
good reason1 as we have seen already1   

for accepting the ancient and universal 
tradition of the church that ,luke was  
its author4 ,if ,luke wrote the two     
books1 the date of both of them is      
carried back to the last part of the    
first century4 ,but the concluding      
portion of the ,acts of the ,apostles   
seems to fix the date of that book much 
more precisely4 ,the author1 after      
narrating ,paul's journey to ,rome1 his 
arrival there1 and his first            
unsatisfactory interview with the       
,jewish leaders1 closes his book with   
this compendious statement3--  ,and he  
abode two whole years in his own hired  
dwelling1 and received all that went in 
unto him1 preaching the kingdom of ,god1
 and teaching all things concerning the 
,lord ,jesus ,christ with all boldness1 
none forbidding him4  ,this is the last 
word in the ,new ,testament history     
respecting the ,apostle ,paul4 ,now it  
is evident that this writer was ,paul's 
friend and traveling companion4 ,it is  
true that he keeps himself out of sight 

in the history4 ,we only know when he   
joined ,paul by the fact that the       
narrative changes from the third person 
singular to the first person plural2 he 
ceases to say he1 and begins to say we4 
,thus we are made aware that he joined  
,paul at ,troas on his second missionary
 journey1 and went with him as far as   
,philippi2 rejoined him at the same     
place on his third missionary tour1 and 
accompanied him to ,jerusalem2 was his  
fellow-voyager on that memorable journey
 to ,rome1 and there abode with him for 
two years4 ,the ,epistle to the         
,colossians and the ,epistle to         
,philemon were written during this      
imprisonment at ,rome1 and in both of   
these ,epistles ,paul speaks of the fact
 that ,luke is near him4 ,in the second 
letter to ,timothy1 which is supposed to
 have been written during the second    
imprisonment at ,rome1 and near the     
close of his life1 he says again1 ,only 
,luke is with me4 ,take ,mark1 and bring
 him unto me1 for he is useful to me for

 ministering4 ,if the common opinion    
concerning the date of this letter is   
correct1 then ,luke must have remained  
with ,paul at ,rome until the close of  
his life4 ,but the narrative in ,luke   
does not give any account of the closing
 years of ,paul's life4 ,it breaks off  
abruptly at the end of his two years'   
residence in ,rome4 ,why is this8       
,evidently because there is no more to  
tell at this time4 ,the writer continues
 the history up to the date of his      
writing and stops there4 ,if he had been
 writing after the death of ,paul1 he   
would certainly have told us of the     
circumstances of his death4 ,there is no
 rational explanation of this abrupt    
ending1 except that the book was written
 at about the time when the story       
closes4 ,this was certainly about #fc   
,a4 ,d4 ,and if the ,book of ,acts was  
written as early as this1 the ,gospel of
 ,luke1 the former treatise by the same 
author1 must have been written earlier  
than this4 ,thus the ,book of ,acts not 

only furnishes strong evidence of its   
own early date1 but helps to establish  
the early date of the third ,gospel4    
,these conclusions1 to my own mind1 are 
irresistible4 ,no theory which consists 
with the common honesty of the writer   
can bring these books down to a later   
date4 ,and ,i cannot doubt the honesty  
of the writer4 ,his writings prove him  
to be a careful1 painstaking1 veracious 
historian4 ,in many slight matters this 
accuracy appears4 ,the political        
structure of the ,roman ,empire at this 
time was somewhat complicated4 ,the     
provinces were divided between the      
,emperor and the ,senate2 those heads of
 provinces who were directly responsible
 to the ,emperor and the military       
authorities were called proprtors2 those
 who were under the jurisdiction of the 
,senate were called proconsuls4 ,in     
mentioning these officers ,luke never   
makes a mistake2 he gets the precise    
title every time4 ,once1 indeed1 the    
critics thought they had caught him in  

an error4 ,sergius ,paulus1 the ,roman  
ruler of ,cyprus1 he calls proconsul4   
,wrong6 said the critics1 ,cyprus was an
 imperial province2 the title of this   
officer must have been proprtor4 ,but   
when the critics studied a little more1 
they found out that ,augustus put this  
province back under the ,senate1 so that
 ,luke's title is exactly right4 ,and to
 clinch the matter1 old coins of this   
very date have been found in ,cyprus1   
giving to the chief magistrate of the   
island the title of proconsul4 ,such    
evidences of the accuracy of the writer 
are not wanting4 ,it is needless to     
insist that he never makes a mistake2   
doubtless he does1 in some small        
matters1 and we have learned to take    
such a view of the inspiration of the   
,scriptures that the discovery of some  
small error does not trouble us in the  
least2 but the admission that he is not 
infallible is perfectly consistent with 
the belief that he is an honest1        
competent1 faithful witness4 ,this is   

all that he claims for himself1 this is 
all that we claim for him1 but this we  
do claim4 ,we do not believe that he was
 a conscienceless impostor4 ,we do not  
believe that the man who told the story 
of ,ananias and ,sapphira was himself a 
monumental liar4 ,we believe that he    
meant to tell the truth1 and the whole  
truth1 and nothing but the truth4       
,therefore1 we believe that he lived in 
the times of the apostles1 and received 
from them1 as he says that he did1 the  
facts that he recorded in his ,gospel2  
that he was the traveling companion and 
missionary helper of ,paul1 as he       
intimates that he was1 and that he has  
given us a true account of the life and 
work of that great apostle4  ,the       
constant and undesigned coincidences    
between the ,acts of the ,apostles and  
the ,epistles of ,paul--the many ways in
 which the personal and historical      
references of the latter support the    
statements of the former--are also      
strong evidence of the genuineness of   

the ,acts4 ,putting all these indirect  
and incidental proofs together the      
historical verity of the ,acts seems to 
me very firmly established4 ,that there 
are critical difficulties may be        
admitted2 some passages of this ancient 
writing are not easily explained2 there 
are discrepancies1 for example1 between 
the story of the resurrection and       
ascension of ,christ as told in ,luke   
and the same story as related in the    
,acts2 possibly the writer obtained     
fuller information in the interval      
between the publication of these two    
books by which he corrected the earlier 
narrative4 ,in the different accounts of
 the conversion of ,paul there are also 
disagreements which we cannot reconcile2
 nevertheless1 in the words of ,dr4     
,donaldson1 ,even these very accounts   
contain evidence in them that they were 
written by the same writer1 and they do 
not destroy the force of the rest of the
 evidence4 ,footnote3 ,encyc4 ,brit41 i4
 #abd4   ,the theory of ,baur that this 

book was written in the last part of the
 second century by a disciple of ,st4   
,paul1 and that it is mainly a work of  
fiction1 intended to bring about a      
reconciliation between two bitterly     
hostile parties in the church1 the      
,pauline and the ,petrine sects1 need   
not detain us long4 ,baur contends that 
the church in the first two centuries   
was split in twain1 the followers of    
,peter insisting that no man could      
become a ,christian without first       
becoming a ,jew1 the followers of ,paul 
maintaining that the ,jewish ritual was 
abolished1 and that the ,gentiles ought 
to have immediate access to the         
,christian fellowship4 ,their antagonism
 was so radical and far-reaching that at
 the end of the apostolic age the two   
parties had no dealings with each other4
 ,then1 in the words of ,professor      
,fisher1 who is here summarizing the    
theory of ,baur1 followed attempts to   
reconcile the difference1 and to bridge 
the gulf that separated ,gentile from   

,jewish1 ,pauline from ,petrine         
,christianity4 ,to this end various     
irenical and compromising books were    
written in the name of the apostles and 
their helpers4 ,the most important      
monument of this pacifying effort is the
 ,book of ,acts1 written in the earlier 
part of the second century by a ,pauline
 ,christian who1 by making ,paul        
something of a ,judaizer1 and then      
representing ,peter as agreeing with him
 in the recognition of the rights of the
 ,gentiles1 hoped1 not in vain1 to      
produce a mutual friendliness between   
the respective partisans of the rival   
apostles4 ,the ,acts is a fiction       
founded on facts1 and written for a     
specific doctrinal purpose4 ,the        
narrative of the council or conference  
of the ,apostles1 for example 7,acts    
xx471 is pronounced a pure invention of 
the writer1 and such a representation of
 the condition of things as is          
inconsistent with ,paul's own           
statements1 and for this and other      

reasons plainly false4 ,the same ground 
is taken in respect to the conversion of
 ,cornelius1 and the vision of ,peter   
concerning it4 ,footnote3 ,the          
,supernatural ,origin of ,christianity1 
pp4 #baa1bab4  ,for this theory there   
is1 of course1 some slight historical   
basis4 ,it is true1 as we have seen1    
that ,peter and ,paul did have a sharp  
disagreement on this very question at   
,antioch4 ,it is also true that both    
these great apostles behaved quite      
inconsistently1 ,peter at ,antioch1 and 
,paul afterwards at ,jerusalem1 when he 
consented to the propositions of the    
,judaizers1 and burdened himself with   
certain ,jewish observances in a vain   
attempt to conciliate some of the weaker
 brethren4 ,that the story of the ,acts 
unflinchingly shows us the weaknesses   
and errors of the great apostles is good
 evidence of its veracity4 ,but the     
notion that it is a work of fiction     
fabricated for such purposes as are     
outlined above is utterly incredible4   

,those ,epistles of ,paul which ,baur   
admits to be genuine contain abundant   
disproof of his theory4 ,there never was
 any such schism as he fancies4 ,paul   
spends a good part of his time in his   
last missionary journey in collecting   
funds for the relief of those poor      
saints1 for so he calls them1 at        
,jerusalem2 and every reference that he 
makes to them is of the most            
affectionate character4 ,paul recognizes
 in the most emphatic way the authority 
of the other apostles1 and the          
fellowship of labor and suffering by    
which he is united to them4 ,all this   
and much more of the same import we find
 in those epistles which ,baur admits to
 be the genuine writings of ,paul4 ,in  
short1 it may be said that after the    
thorough discussion to which his theory 
has been subjected for the last         
twenty-five years1 it has scarcely a    
sound leg left to stand on4 ,it may be  
admitted to be one of the most brilliant
 works of the historical imagination    

which the century has produced4 ,it is  
supported by vast learning1 and it has  
thrown much light on certain movements  
of the early church2 but1 taken as a    
whole it is unscientific and            
contradictory2 it raises two            
difficulties1 where it disposes of one1 
and it ignores more facts than it       
includes4  ,we return from this         
excursion through the fields of         
destructive criticism with a strong     
conviction that this narrative of the   
,acts of the ,apostles was written by   
,luke the ,evangelist1 the companion and
 fellow-worker of ,paul1 and that it    
gives us a veracious history of the     
earliest years of the ,christian church4
  ,the last of the ,new ,testament books
 does not belong chronologically at the 
end of the collection4 ,there was a     
tradition1 to which ,irenus gives       
currency1 that it was written during the
 reign of ,domitian1 about #ig or #ih   
,a4 ,d4 ,but this tradition is now      
almost universally discredited4 ,critics

 of all classes date the book as early  
as #ge-gi ,a4 ,d41 while the best       
authorities put it nearly ten years     
earlier1 in the autumn of #fh or the    
spring of #fi4 ,as ,archdeacon ,farrar  
suggests1 it would be vastly better if  
these books of the ,new ,testament were 
arranged in true chronological order2   
they could be more easily understood4   
,the fact that this weird production    
stands at the end of the collection has 
made upon many minds a wrong impression 
as to its meaning1 and has given it a   
kind of significance to which it is not 
entitled4  ,the authorship of the book  
is quite generally ascribed to ,john the
 son of ,zebedee1 brother of ,james1 and
 one of the apostles of our ,lord4 ,even
 the destructive critics agree to this2 
some among them say that there is less  
doubt about the date and the authorship 
of this book than about almost any other
 ,new ,testament writing4 ,in making    
this concession they intend1 however1 to
 discredit the ,johannine authorship of 

the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,the more certain  
we are that ,john wrote the ,revelation1
 they argue1 the more certain are we    
that he did not write the ,gospel which 
bears his name2 for the style of the two
 writings is so glaringly contrasted    
that it is simply impossible that both  
could have come from the same writer4   
,this does not seem nearly so clear to  
me as it does to some of these learned  
and perspicacious critics4 ,a great     
contrast there is1 indeed1 between the  
style of the ,revelation and that of the
 ,gospel2 but this contrast may be      
explained4 ,it is said1 in the first    
place1 that the ,greek of the           
,apocalypse is very bad ,greek1 full of 
ungrammatical sentences1 abounding in   
,hebraisms1 while that of the ,gospel is
 good ,greek1 accurate and rhetorical in
 its structure4 ,but this is by no means
 an unaccountable phenomenon4 ,the first
 book was written by the apostle very   
soon1 probably1 after his removal to    
,ephesus4 ,he had never1 ,i suppose1    

been accustomed to use the ,greek       
familiarly in his own country2 had never
 written in it at all1 and it is not    
strange that he should express himself  
awkwardly when he first began to write  
,greek2 that the ,aramaic idioms should 
constantly reproduce themselves in his  
,greek sentences4 ,after he had been    
living for twenty-five years in the     
cultivated ,greek city of ,ephesus1     
using the ,greek language continually1  
it is probable that he would write it   
more elegantly4  ,but it is said that   
the rhetorical style of the one book    
differs radically from that of the      
other4 ,doubtless4 ,the one book is an  
apocalypse1 the other is a biography4   
,john may not have been a practiced     
litterateur1 but he certainly had       
literary sense and feeling enough to    
know how to put a very different color  
and atmosphere into an apocalyptical    
writing from that which he would employ 
in a report of the life and words of    
,jesus4 ,without any reflection1 indeed1

 he would instinctively use the         
apocalyptic imagery2 his pages would    
flare and resound with the lurid        
symbolism peculiar to the apocalypses4  
,how definite a type of literature this 
was we shall presently see2 no writer1  
while using it1 would clearly manifest  
his own personality4 ,and if through all
 this disguise we do discern symptoms of
 a temper more fervid and a spirit more 
,judaic than that which finds expression
 in the ,fourth ,gospel1 let us remember
 that the ripened wisdom of the old man 
speaks in the latter1 and the intense   
enthusiasm of conscious strength in the 
former4 ,this ,john1 let us not forget1 
was not in his youth a paragon of       
mildness2 it was he and his brother     
,james who earned the sobriquet of      
,boanerges1 ,sons of thunder2 it was    
they who wanted to call down fire from  
heaven to consume an inhospitable       
,samaritan village4 ,moreover1 we shall 
see as we go on that the times in which 
this apocalypse was written were times  

in which the mildest1 mannered men would
 be apt to forget their decorum1 and    
speak with unwonted intensity4 ,a man   
with any blood in him1 who undertook to 
write in the year #fh of the themes with
 which the soul of this apostle was then
 on fire1 would be likely to show1 no   
matter in what vehicle of speech his    
thought might be conveyed1 some sign of 
the tumult then raging within him4  ,all
 these circumstances1 taken together1   
enable me to explain the difference     
between the literary form of the        
,revelation and that of the ,gospel4    
,but when we come to look a little more 
deeply into the meaning of the two      
books1 we shall find that beneath all   
this dissimilarity there are some       
remarkable points of agreement4 ,quite a
 number of the leading ideas and        
conceptions of the one book reappear in 
the other2 the idea of ,christ as the   
,word or ,logos of ,god1 the            
representation of ,christ as the ,lamb1 
as the ,good ,shepherd1 as the ,light1  

are peculiar to ,john2 we find them     
emphasized in the ,gospel and in the    
,revelation4 ,the unity of the two books
 in fundamental conceptions has been    
admirably brought out by ,dr4 ,sears1 in
 his volume entitled ,the ,heart of     
,christ4 ,and after weighing the        
evidence1 ,i find neither historical nor
 psychological reasons sufficient to    
overthrow my belief that the ,fourth    
,gospel1 as well as the ,revelation1 was
 written by ,john the ,apostle4  ,the   
,greek name of the book means an        
uncovering or unveiling1 and is fairly  
interpreted1 therefore1 by our word     
,revelation4 ,it belongs to a class of  
books which were produced in great      
numbers during the two centuries        
preceding the birth of ,christ and the  
two centuries following2 and no one can 
understand it or interpret it who does  
not know something of this species of   
literature1 of the forms of expression  
peculiar to it1 and of the purposes     
which it was intended to serve4  ,we    

have in the ,old ,testament one         
,apocalyptic book1 that of ,daniel1 and 
there are apocalyptical elements in two 
or three of the prophecies4 ,the fact   
that the ,book of ,daniel bears this    
character is a strong argument for the  
lateness of its origin2 for it was in   
the last years of the ,jewish           
nationality that this kind of writing   
became popular4 ,we have six or seven   
books of this kind1 which are written   
mainly from the standpoint of the old   
dispensation1 part of which appeared    
just before and part shortly after the  
beginning of our era2 and there are     
nearly a dozen volumes of ,christian    
apocalypses1 all of which employ similar
 forms of expression1 and are directed  
towards similar ends4 ,doubtless these  
are only a few of the great number of   
apocalyptical books which those ages    
produced4 ,their characteristics are    
well set forth by ,dr4 ,davidson3--     
,this branch of later ,jewish literature
 took its rise after the older prophecy 

had ceased1 when ,israel suffered sorely
 from ,syrian and ,roman oppression4    
,its object was to encourage and comfort
 the people by holding forth the speedy 
restoration of the ,davidic ,kingdom of 
,messiah4 ,attaching itself to the      
national hope1 it proclaimed the        
impending of a glorious future1 in which
 ,israel freed from her enemies should  
enjoy a peaceful and prosperous life    
under her long-wished-for deliverer4    
,the old prophets became the vehicle of 
these utterances4 ,revelations1         
sketching the history of ,israel and of 
heathenism1 are put into their mouths4  
,the prophecies take the form of        
symbolical images and marvelous         
visions4444 ,working in this fashion    
upon the basis of well-known writings1  
imitating their style1 and artificially 
reproducing their substance1 the authors
 naturally adopted the anonymous4 ,the  
difficulty was increased by their having
 to paint as future1 events actually    
near1 and to fit the manifestation of a 

personal ,messiah into the history of   
the times4 ,many apocalyptists employed 
obscure symbols and mysterious pictures1
 veiling the meaning that it might not  
be readily seen4 ,footnote3 ,encyc4     
,brit41 i4 #agd4   ,every time1 says    
,dr4 ,harnack1 the political situation  
culminated in a crisis for the people of
 ,god1 the apocalypses appeared stirring
 up the believers2 in spirit1 form1     
plan1 and execution they closely        
resembled each other4444 ,they all spoke
 in riddles2 that is1 by means of       
images1 symbols1 mystic numbers1 forms  
of animals1 etc41 they half concealed   
what they meant to reveal4 ,the reasons 
for this procedure are not far to seek3 
7#a47 ,clearness and distinctness would 
have been too profane2 only the         
mysterious appears divine4 7#b47 ,it was
 often dangerous to be too distinct4    
,footnote3 ,encyc4 ,brit41 xx4 #dif4    
,that these writings appeared in        
troublous times1 and that they dealt    
with affairs of the present and of the  

immediate future1 must always be borne  
in mind4 ,certain symbolical conceptions
 are common to them2 earthquakes denote 
revolutions2 stars falling from heaven  
typify the downfall of kings and        
dynasties2 a beast is often the emblem  
of a tyrant2 the turning of the sun into
 darkness and the moon into blood       
signify carnage and destruction upon the
 earth4 ,we have these symbolisms in    
several of the ,old ,testament writings 
as well as in many of the apocalyptical 
books which are not in our canon2 and   
the interpretation of such passages is  
not at all difficult when we understand 
the usage of the writers4  ,of these    
apocalyptic books one of the most       
remarkable is the ,book of ,enoch1 which
 appears to have been written a century 
or two before ,christ4 ,it purports to  
be a revelation made to and through the 
patriarch ,enoch2 it contains an account
 of the fall of the angels1 and of a    
progeny of giants that sprung from the  
union of these exiled celestials with   

the daughters of men2 it takes ,enoch on
 a tour of observation through heaven   
and earth under the guidance of angels1 
who explain to him many things supernal 
and mundane2 it deals in astronomical   
and meteorological mysteries of various 
sorts1 and in a series of symbolical    
visions seeks to disclose the events of 
the future4 ,it is a grotesque          
production2 one does not find much      
spiritual nutriment in it1 but ,jude    
makes a quotation from it1 in his       
epistle1 as if he considered it ,holy   
,scripture4  ,the ,fourth ,book of      
,esdras is another ,jewish book of the  
same kind1 which may have been written  
about the hundredth year of our era4 ,it
 purports to be the work of ,ezra1 whom 
it misplaces1 chronologically1 putting  
him in the thirtieth year of the        
,captivity4 ,the problem of the writer  
is the restoration of the nation1       
destroyed and scattered by the ,roman   
power4 ,he makes the ancient scribe and 
law-giver of ,israel his mouthpiece1 but

 he is dealing with the events of his   
own time4 ,nevertheless1 his allusions  
are veiled and obscure2 he speaks in    
riddles1 yet he speaks to a people who  
understand his riddles1 and know how to 
take his symbolic visions4 ,this book is
 in our ,english ,apocrypha1 under the  
title #b ,esdras4  ,the ,book of        
,jubilees1 which assumes to be a        
revelation made to ,moses on ,mount     
,sinai1 ,the ,ascension of ,moses1 ,the 
,apocalypse of ,moses1 and the          
,apocalypse of ,baruch1 are other       
similar books of the ,jewish literature4
  ,of apocalyptical ,christian writings1
 ,i may mention ,the ,sibylline ,books1 
,the ,apocalypse of ,paul1 ,the         
,apocalypse of ,peter1 ,the ,revelation 
of ,bartholomew1 and ,the ,ascension of 
,isaiah1 and there is also another      
,apocalypse of ,john1 a feeble imitation
 of the one with which our canon closes4
 ,these books appeared in the second1   
third1 and fourth centuries of our era2 
they generally look forward to the      

second coming of ,christ1 and set forth 
in various figures and symbols the      
conflicts and persecutions which his    
saints must encounter1 the destruction  
of his foes1 and the establishment of   
his kingdom4  ,it will be seen1         
therefore1 that the ,revelation of ,st4 
,john is not unique2 and the inference  
will not be rash that much light may be 
thrown upon its dark sayings by a       
careful study of kindred books4  ,it may
 be answered that the writer of this    
book is inspired1 and that nothing can  
be learned of the meaning of an inspired
 book by studying uninspired books4 ,i  
reply that no inspired book can be      
understood at all without a careful     
study of uninspired books4 ,the ,greek  
grammar and the ,greek lexicon are      
uninspired books1 and no man can        
understand a single one of the books of 
the ,new ,testament without carefully   
studying both of them1 or else availing 
himself of the labor of some one else   
who has diligently studied them4 ,an    

inspired writer uses language1--the same
 language that uninspired writers use2  
the meaning of language is fixed not by 
inspiration1 but by usage2 you must     
study the grammar and the lexicon to    
learn about the usage4 ,and the case is 
precisely similar when an inspired      
writer uses a peculiar form of          
literature like the apocalyptical       
writings4 ,he knows when he uses        
symbolisms of this class that they will 
be interpreted according to the common  
usage2 he expects and desires that they 
shall be so understood2 and1 therefore1 
in order to understand them1 we must    
know what the usage is4  ,when our      
,lord1 speaking of the calamities which 
were about to fall upon the ,jewish     
people1 said1 ,immediately after the    
tribulation of those days1 the sun shall
 be darkened1 and the moon shall not    
give her light1 and the stars shall fall
 from heaven1 and the powers of the     
heavens shall be shaken1 he was speaking
 to people who were perfectly familiar  

with language of this sort1 because the 
same expressions occur over and over    
again in their prophets1 and are there  
distinctly declared to mean great       
political overturnings4 ,he used the    
apocalyptic phraseology1 and he expected
 them to give it the apocalyptic        
signification4 ,if we wish to understand
 the ,scripture1 we must understand the 
language of ,scripture1 and this means  
not only the grammatical forms1 but also
 the symbolic usages of the language4   
,we have seen that the apocalypses are  
apt to appear in times of great         
calamity1 and we have accepted the      
verdict of later scholarship1 that this 
,apocalypse of ,st4 ,john appeared about
 #fh or #fi ,a4,d4 ,was this a time of  
trouble in that ,eastern world8 ,verily 
it was2 the most appalling hour perhaps 
in the world's history4 ,the unspeakable
 ,nero was either still upon the throne 
of the ,roman ,empire1 or had just      
reeled from that eminence to the doom of
 a craven suicide4 ,the last years of   

his life were gorged with horror4 ,the  
murder of his brother1 the burning of   
,rome1 probably by his connivance1 if   
not by his command1 in order that he    
might sate his appetite for sensations  
upon this horrid spectacle2 following   
this the fiendish scheme to charge this 
incendiarism upon the ,christians1 and  
slaughter them by tens of thousands in  
all the cities of the ,empire1--these   
are only instances of a career which    
words are too feeble to portray4 ,those 
who succeeded him in this supreme power 
were not much less ferocious2 the very  
name of pity seemed to have been blotted
 from the ,roman speech2 the whole      
,empire reeked with cruelty and perfidy4
 ,while such men ruled at ,rome it could
 not be supposed that the imperial      
representatives in the provinces would  
be temperate and just4 ,some of them1 at
 any rate1 had learned the lesson of the
 hour1 and were as perfidious1 as       
truculent1 as base as their master could
 have wished4 ,such a one was that      

,gessius ,floras who was the procurator 
of ,judea1 and who seemed to have       
exhausted the ingenuity of a malignant  
nature in stirring up the ,jews to      
insurrection4 ,by every species of      
indignity and cruelty he finally stung  
the long-suffering people into a perfect
 fury1 and the rebellion which broke out
 in ,palestine in the year #ff was one  
of the most fearful eruptions of human  
nature that the world has ever seen4    
,florus had raised the demon2 now the   
legions of ,rome must be called in to   
exorcise it4 ,it was a terrible         
struggle4 ,all the energies of ,jewish  
fanaticisms were enlisted2 the ,zealots1
 the fiercest party among them1 not     
content with slaughtering their ,roman  
enemies1 turned their hands against     
every man of their own nation who       
ventured to question the wisdom of their
 desperate resistance4 ,in ,jerusalem   
itself a reign of terror raged which    
makes the ,french ,revolution seem in   
comparison a calm and orderly procedure4

  ,at the beginning of the outbreak     
,nero had sent one of his trusted       
generals1 ,vespasian1 and ,vespasian's  
son ,titus1 to put down the             
insurrection4 ,neither of these soldiers
 was a sentimentalist2 both believed as 
heartily as did ,wentworth in later     
years that the word of the hour was     
,thorough4 ,they started with their     
armies from ,antioch in ,march1 #fg1    
resolved on sweeping ,palestine with the
 besom of destruction4 ,cities and      
villages1 one by one1 were besieged1    
captured1 destroyed2 men1 women1 and    
children were indiscriminately          
massacred4 ,the ,jewish army fought     
every inch of the ground like tigers2   
but they were overpowered and beaten in 
detail1 and steadily forced southward4  
,blackened walls1 pools of blood1 and   
putrefying corpses were all that the    
,romans left in their rear2 ruthlessly  
they drove the doomed people before them
 toward their stronghold of ,jerusalem4 
,in the autumn of that year ,vespasian  

withdrew his army into winter-quarters1 
and left the ,zealots in ,jerusalem to  
their orgy of brigandage and butchery4  
,he could well afford to rest and let   
them do his deadly work4  ,in the spring
 of the following year1 the siege of    
,jerusalem began4 ,the ,christians of   
the city had fled to ,pella1 east of the
 ,jordan2 the remnant of the ,jews held 
their sacred heights with the courage of
 despair4  ,it is at this very juncture 
that this book of the ,revelation was   
written4 ,john testifies that it was    
written on ,patmos1 a desolate islet of 
the gean ,sea1 west of ,asia ,minor1 to 
which he had either been banished by    
some tool of ,nero1 or else had betaken 
himself for solitude and reflection4 ,to
 him1 in this retreat1 the awful tidings
 had come of the scourge that had fallen
 on the land of his fathers2 added to   
this1 the conflagration at ,rome1 the   
,neronian persecution1 all the horrors  
of the past decade were fresh in his    
memory4 ,may we not say that the time   

was ripe for an apocalyptic message8    
,it is in these events1 then1 that we   
must find the explanation of much of    
this symbolical language4 ,such is the  
law of the apocalypse1 and this         
apocalypse may be expected to conform to
 the law4 ,st4 ,john is instructed by   
the angel to write the things which thou
 sawest1 and the things which are1 and  
the things which shall come to pass     
hereafter1--the things which must       
shortly come to pass1 the first verse   
more explicitly states4 ,it is the past 
which he has seen1 the present1 and the 
immediate future with which his visions 
are concerned4 ,it is not any attempt to
 outline the whole course of human      
history2 it is the picture1 in mystic   
symbols1 of the present crisis and of   
the deliverance which is to follow it4  
,there is no room here for a commentary 
on the ,apocalypse2 ,i will only        
indicate1 in a rapid glance1 the outline
 of the book4  ,the first three chapters
 are occupied with the epistles to the  

seven churches which are in ,asia1      
administering reproof1 exhortation1     
comfort1 and counsel to the ,christians 
in these churches1--faithful1 stirring1 
persuasive appeals1 whose meaning can be
 easily understood1 and whose truth is  
often sorely needed by the churches of  
our own time4  ,then begins the proper  
,apocalypse1 with the first vision of   
the throne in heaven1 and sitting       
thereon the ,lamb that was slain1 who is
 also the ,lion of the tribe of ,judah4 
,the book sealed with seven seals is    
given to him to open1 and the opening of
 each seal discloses a new vision4 ,the 
first seal opened shows a white horse   
bearing a rider who carries a bow and   
wears a crown1 and who goes forth       
conquering and to conquer4 ,this is the 
emblem of the ,messiah whose conquest of
 the world is represented as beginning4 
,but the ,messiah once said1 ,i came not
 to bring peace1 but a sword1 and the   
consequences of his coming must often be
 strife and sorrow because of the       

malignity of men4 ,and therefore the    
three seals which are opened next       
disclose a fiery horse1 the symbol of   
,war1 a black horse1 whose rider is     
,famine1 a pale horse in whose saddle is
 ,death4 ,the opening of the fifth seal 
shows the martyred multitude before the 
throne of ,god4 ,the sixth discloses the
 desolation and the ruin taking place   
upon the earth4 ,thus the mighty        
panorama passes constantly before our   
eyes2 the confusion1 the devastation1   
the woes1 the scourges of mankind       
through which ,messiah's ,kingdom is    
advancing to its triumph4 ,the seals1   
the trumpets1 the vials bring before us 
representations of the retributions and 
calamities which are falling upon       
mankind4 ,sometimes we seem to be able  
to fix upon a historical event which the
 vision clearly symbolizes2 sometimes   
the meaning to us is vague2 perhaps if  
we had lived in that day the allusion   
would have been more intelligible4      
,there is1 however1 one great central   

group of these visions round about which
 the others seem to be arrayed as scenic
 accessories1 whose interpretation the  
writer has taken great pains to         
indicate4 ,these are the visions found  
in chapters xii41 xiii41 xvi41 and xvii4
 ,the woman1 sun-clad1 with the moon    
under her feet and a crown of twelve    
stars upon her head 7chap1 xii471 is    
beyond all question the ancient ,jewish 
church2 the child which is born to the  
woman is the ,christian church2 the     
great red dragon that seeks to devour   
the child is the ,satanic power1 the    
,prince of this world4 ,the ,dragon is  
here on the earth because he has been   
expelled from heaven4 ,the war of the   
,dragon against the woman indicates the 
persecutions of the church2 the flight  
of the woman to the wilderness may      
symbolize the recent escape of the      
mother church from ,jerusalem to ,pella4
  ,the next vision shows a ,beast1      
coming up out of the sea1 with seven    
heads and ten horns1 and on his horns   

ten diadems1 and on his heads names of  
blasphemy4 ,here we have an instance of 
that confounding of symbols1 the merging
 of one in another1 which is very common
 in the apocalyptic writings4 ,the beast
 is1 primarily1 ,nero1 or the ,roman    
,empire1 as represented by--,nero4 ,the 
ten horns are the ten chief provinces2  
the seven heads are seven emperors4 ,it 
is a symbol1 says ,dr4 ,farrar1         
interchangeably of the ,roman ,empire   
and of the ,emperor4 ,in fact1 to a     
greater degree than at any period of    
history1 the two were one4 ,roman       
history had dwindled down into a        
personal drama4 ,the ,roman ,emperor    
could say with literal truth1 ',l',etat 
c'est moi'4 ,and a wild beast was a     
,jew's natural symbol either for a      
,pagan ,kingdom or for its autocrat4    
,footnote3 ,the ,early ,days of         
,christianity1 p4 #dfc4 ,i can do no    
better than to repeat to you a small    
part of ,dr4 ,farrar's further comment  
upon this vision4  ,this wild beast of  

,heathen ,rome has ten horns1 which     
represent the ten main provinces of     
,imperial ,rome4 ,it has the power of   
the ,dragon1 that is1 it possesses the  
,satanic dominion of the ',prince of the
 power of the air4'  ,on each of its    
heads is the name of blasphemy4 ,every  
one of the seven ,kings1 however        
counted1 had borne the 7to ,jewish ears7
 blasphemous surname of ,augustus       
7,sebastos1 one to be adored72 had      
received apotheosis1 and been spoken of 
as ,divine after his death2 had been    
crowned with statues1 adorned with      
divine attributes1 had been saluted with
 divine titles1 and1 in some instances1 
had been absolutely worshiped1 and that 
in his lifetime4444  ,the diadems are on
 the horns1 because the ,roman          
,proconsuls1 as delegates of the        
,emperor1 enjoy no little share of the  
,csarean autocracy and splendor1 but the
 name of blasphemy is only on the heads1
 because the ,emperor alone receives    
divine honors and alone bears the daring

 title of ,augustus4 ,footnote3 ,ibid41 
p4 #dfd4  ,one of the heads of this     
,beast was wounded to death1 but the    
deadly wound was healed4 ,it was the    
universal belief among ,pagans and      
,christians that the world had not yet  
seen the last of ,nero4 ,either his     
suicide was feigned and ineffectual1 and
 he was in hiding1 or else he would come
 to life and resume his savage splendors
 and his gilded villainies4 ,to make it 
certain that the writer here refers to  
this expectation1 we find1 in chapter   
xvii41 another reference to the ,beast1 
which seems at first a riddle1 but which
 is easily interpreted4 ,the five are   
fallen1 the one is1 the other is not yet
 come2 ,the ,beast that thou sawest was 
and is not1 and is about to come out of 
the abyss4 ,the ,beast that was and is  
not1 even he is an eighth1 and is of the
 seven4 ,the head and the ,beast are    
here identified4 ,the meaning is that   
five ,roman ,emperors are dead1         
,augustus1 ,tiberius1 ,caligula1        

,claudius1 ,nero2 one is1--,galba is now
 reigning2 the other 7,otho7 is not yet 
come2 but he must come soon for ,galba  
is an old man and cannot long survive1  
and the ,beast that was and is          
not1--,nero1--who is about to come out  
of the abyss1--to return to life1--even 
he is an eighth1 and is of the seven4   
,he is one of the seven1 for he was the 
fifth1 and he will be the eighth4 ,it   
was the universal ,christian belief that
 ,nero1 raised from the dead1 would be  
the future ,antichrist1 and it is this  
belief which the vision reflects4 ,to   
make the case still clearer the writer  
gives us1 by the current ,hebrew        
,kabbalistic method1 the number of the  
,beast1 that is to say1 the numerical   
value of his name4 ,each letter of the  
old alphabets has a numerical value4    
,thus the writer of the ,sibyllines     
points out the ,greek name of           
,jesus--,greek3 ,iesous1--by saying that
 its whole number is equivalent to eight
 units1 eight tens1 and eight hundreds4 

,this is the exact numerical value of   
the six ,greek letters composing the    
,saviour's name1 #ajhbjjgjdjjbjjhhh4    
,precisely so ,john here tells us what  
is the numerical value of the letters in
 the name of the ,beast4 ,if we tried   
the ,latin or the ,greek names of ,nero 
the clue would not be found2 but ,john  
was writing mainly for ,hebrews1 and the
 ,hebrew letters of ,kesar ,neron1 the  
name by which every ,jew knew this      
,emperor1 amount to exactly #fff4  ,many
 other of the features of this veiled   
description tally perfectly with the    
character of this infamous ruler2 and   
when the evidence is all brought        
together it seems as though the apostle 
could scarcely have made his meaning    
more obvious if he had written ,nero's  
name in capital letters4  ,this is the  
central vision of the ,apocalypse1 as ,i
 have said2 round about this the whole  
cyclorama revolves2 and it has been the 
standing enigma of the interpreters in  
all the ages4 ,the early church         

generally divined its meaning2 but in   
later years the high-soaring exegesis   
which has spread this ,apocalypse all   
over the centuries and found in it      
prophetic symbols of almost all the     
events that have happened in medival and
 modern history1 has identified the     
,beast with countless characters1 among 
them ,genseric1 ,king of the ,vandals1  
,benedict1 ,trajan1 ,paul ,v41 ,calvin1 
,luther1 ,mohammed1 ,napoleon4 ,all this
 wild guessing arises from ignorance of 
the essential character and purpose of  
the apocalyptical writings4  ,i can     
follow this enticing theme no further4  
,let it suffice to call the attention of
 all who desire to reach some sober     
conclusions upon the meaning of the book
 to ,archdeacon ,farrar's ,early ,days  
of ,christianity1 in which the whole    
subject is treated with the amplest     
learning and the soundest literary      
judgment4  ,the ,book of ,revelation has
 been1 as ,i have intimated1 the        
favorite tramping ground of all the     

hosts of theological visionaries2 men   
who possessed not the slightest         
knowledge of the history or the nature  
of apocalyptic literature1 and whose    
appetite for the mysterious and the     
monstrous was insatiable1 have          
expatiated here with boundless license4 
,to find in these visions descriptions  
of events now passing and characters now
 upon the stage is a sore temptation4   
,to use these hard words1 the ,beast1   
the ,dragon1 the ,false ,prophet1 as    
missiles wherewith to assail those who  
belong to a school or a party with which
 you are at variance1 is a chance that  
no properly constituted partisan could  
willingly fore-go4 ,thus we have seen   
this book dragged into the controversies
 and applied to the events of all the   
centuries1 and the history of its       
interpretation is1 as one of its        
interpreters confesses1 the opprobrium  
of exegesis4 ,but if one ceases to look 
among these symbols for a predictive    
outline of modern history1 a sort of    

anticipated ,gibbon1 and begins to read 
it in the light of the apocalyptic      
method1 it may have rich and large      
meanings for him4 ,he will not be able1 
indeed1 to explain it all2 to some of   
these riddles the clue has been lost2   
but1 in the words of ,dr4 ,farrar1 he   
will find that the ,apocalypse is what  
it professes to be1--an inspired outline
 of contemporary history1 and of the    
events to which the sixth decade of the 
first century gave immediate rise4 ,he  
will read in it the tremendous manifesto
 of a ,christian seer against the       
blood-stained triumph of imperial       
heathenism2 a pan and a prophecy over   
the ashes of the martyrs2 the thundering
 reverberations of a mighty spirit      
struck by the fierce plectrum of the    
,neronian persecution1 and answering in 
impassioned music which1 like many of   
,david's ,psalms1 dies away into the    
language of rapturous hope4 ,footnote3  
,early ,days of ,christianity1 p4 #dbi4 
,for we must not forget that this is a  

song of triumph4 ,this seer is no       
pessimist4 ,the strife is hot1 the      
carnage is fearful1 they that rise up   
against our ,lord and his ,messiah are  
many and mighty1 but there is no        
misgiving as to the event4 ,for all     
these woes there is solace1 after all   
these conflicts peace4 ,even in the     
midst of the raging wars and            
persecutions1 the door is opened now and
 again into the upper realm of endless  
joy and unfading light4 ,and he whose   
name is called ,the ,word of ,god1 upon 
whose garment and whose thigh the name  
is written1 ,king of ,kings and ,lord of
 ,lords1 will prevail at last over all  
his foes4 ,the ,beast and the ,dragon1  
and the ,false ,prophet and the ,scarlet
 ,woman 7the harlot city upon her seven 
hills whose mystic name is ,babylon7    
will all be cast into the lake of fire2 
then to the purified earth the ,new     
,jerusalem shall come down out of heaven
 from ,god4 ,this is the emblem and the 
prophecy1 not of the city beyond the    

stars1 but of the purified society which
 shall yet exist upon the earth1--the   
fruition of his work who came1 not to   
judge the world1 but to save the world4 
,it is on these plains1 along these     
rivers1 by these fair shores that the   
,new ,jerusalem is to stand2 it is not  
heaven2 it is a city that comes down out
 of heaven from ,god4 ,no statement     
could be more explicit4 ,the glorious   
visions which fill the last chapters of 
this wonderful book are the promise of  
that ,all hail ,hereafter1 for which    
every ,christian patriot1 every lover of
 mankind1 is always looking and longing 
and fighting and waiting4 ,and he who1  
by the mouth of this seer1 testifieth   
the words of the prophecy of this book  
saith1 ,yea1 ,i come quickly4 ,even so1 
come1 ,lord ,jesus4     ,,chapter ,,xi4 
,,the ,,canon4    ,we have studied with 
what care we were able tee historical   
problem of the origin and authorship of 
the several books of the ,old and ,new  
,testament2 we now come to a deeply     

interesting question1--the question of  
the canon4  ,this word1 as used in this 
connection1 means simply an             
authoritative list or catalogue4 ,the   
canon of the ,bible is the determined   
and official table of contents4 ,the    
settlement of the canon is the process  
of determining what and how many books  
the ,bible shall contain4 ,in the ,old  
,testament are thirty-nine books1 in the
 ,new ,testament twenty-seven2 and it is
 a fixed principle with ,protestants    
that these books and no others          
constitute the ,sacred                  
,scriptures1--that no more can be added 
and none taken away4  ,the popular      
belief respecting this matter has been  
largely founded upon the words with     
which the ,book of ,revelation          
concludes3--  ,for ,i testify unto every
 man that heareth the words of the      
prophecy of this book1 ,if any man shall
 add unto them1 ,god shall add unto him 
the plagues which are written in this   
book3 and if any man shall take away    

from the words of the book of this      
prophecy1 ,god shall take away his part 
from the tree of life1 and out of the   
holy city1 which are written in this    
book4  ,the common notion is that the   
book here referred to is the ,bible2 and
 that these sentences1 therefore1 are   
the divine authorization of the present 
contents of the ,bible1 a solemn        
testimony from the ,lord himself to the 
integrity of the canon4 ,but this is a  
misapprehension4 ,the book referred to  
is the ,revelation of ,st4 ,john1--not  
the ,bible1 not even the ,new           
,testament4 ,when these words were      
written1 says ,dr4 ,barnes in his       
,commentary1 the books that now         
constitute what we call the ,bible were 
not collected into a single volume4     
,that passage1 therefore1 should not be 
adduced as referring to the whole of the
 ,sacred ,scriptures4 ,in fact1 when    
these words of the ,revelation were     
written1 several of the books of the    
,new ,testament were not yet in         

existence2 for this is by no means the  
last of the ,new ,testament writings1   
though it stands at the end of the      
collection4 ,the ,gospel and the        
,epistles of ,john were added after     
this2 and we may trust that no plagues  
were added to the beloved disciple for  
writing them4  ,nevertheless1 as ,i     
said1 it is assumed that the contents of
 the ,bible are fixed2 that the         
collection is and for a long time has   
been complete and perfect2 that it      
admits neither of subtractions nor of   
additions2 that nothing is in the book  
which ought not to be there1 and that   
there is nothing outside of its covers  
which ought to be within them2 that the 
canon is settled1 inflexibly and        
infallibly and finally4  ,the questions 
now to be considered are these3 ,who    
settled it8 ,when was it settled8 ,on   
what grounds was it determined8 ,was any
 question ever raised concerning the    
sacredness or authority of any of the   
books now included in the canon8 ,did   

any other books1 not now included in the
 canon1 ever claim a place in it8 ,if   
so1 why were these rejected and those   
retained8  ,this is1 as will be seen1 a 
simple question of history4 ,we can     
trace with tolerable certainty the steps
 by which this collection of sacred     
writings was made2 we know pretty well  
who did it1 and when and how it was     
done4 ,and there is nothing profane or  
irreverent in this inquiry1 for the work
 of collecting these writings and fixing
 this canon has been done mainly1 if not
 wholly1 by men who were not inspired   
and did not claim to be4 ,there is      
nothing mysterious or miraculous about  
their doings any more than there is     
about the acts of the framers of the    
,westminster ,confession1 or the        
,american ,constitution4 ,they were     
dealing with sacred matters1 no doubt1  
when they were trying to determine what 
books should be received and used as    
,scriptures1 but they were dealing with 
them in exactly the same way that we do1

 by using the best lights they had4  ,as
 we have learned in previous chapters1  
the beginning of our canon was made by  
,ezra the scribe1 who1 in the fifth     
century before ,christ1 newly published 
and consecrated the ,pentateuch1 or     
,five ,books of ,moses1 as the ,holy    
,book of the ,jewish people4  ,after    
,ezra came ,nehemiah1 to whom the       
beginning of the second collection of   
,jewish ,scriptures1 called the         
,prophets1 is ascribed in one of the    
apocryphal books4 ,but this collection  
was not apparently finished and closed  
by ,nehemiah4 ,the histories of ,joshua 
and ,judges1 of ,samuel and ,kings1 and 
the principal books of the ,prophets    
were undoubtedly gathered by him2 but it
 would seem that the collection was left
 open for future prophecies4  ,about the
 same time the third group of the ,old  
,testament ,scriptures1 ,the            
,hagiographa1 or ,writings1 began to be 
collected4 ,no book of the ,bible       
contains any information concerning the 

making of these two later collections1  
the ,prophets and the ,hagiographa2 and 
we are obliged to rely wholly upon      
,jewish tradition1 and upon references  
which we find in ,jewish writers4       
,professor ,westcott1 who is one of the 
most conservative of ,biblical scholars1
 says that the combined evidence of     
tradition and of the general course of  
,jewish history leads to the conclusion 
that the canon in its present shape was 
formed gradually during a lengthened    
interval1 beginning with ,ezra and      
extending through a part1 or even the   
whole of the ,persian period1 or from   
,b4,c4 #deh to #ccb4 ,without adopting  
this conclusion1 we may remark that this
 last date1 #ccb1 was nearly a century  
after ,nehemiah and ,malachi1 the last  
of the prophets2 so that if the canon   
was closed at a date so late as this1 it
 must have been closed by men who were  
certainly not known to have been        
inspired4 ,if it was forming1 through   
all this period1 then it must have been 

formed in part by men in behalf of whom 
no claim of inspiration has ever been   
set up4  ,according to ,jewish tradition
 the work of collecting1 editing1 and   
authorizing the sacred writings was done
 by a certain ,great ,synagogue1 founded
 by ,ezra1 presided over by ,nehemiah1  
after him1 and continuing in existence  
down to about the year #bjj ,b4,c4 ,this
 is wholly a tradition1 and has been    
proved to be baseless4 ,there never was 
such a synagogue2 the ,scriptures know  
nothing about it2 the apocryphal        
writers1 so numerous and widely         
dispersed1 have never heard of it2      
,philo and ,josephus are ignorant       
concerning it4 ,none of the ,jewish     
authors of the period who freely discuss
 the ,scriptures and their authority    
makes mention of this ,great ,synagogue4
 ,the story of its existence is first   
heard from some ,jewish rabbin hundreds 
of years after ,christ4  ,we have proof 
enough in the ,new ,testament that the  
,jews had certain ,sacred ,scriptures2  

the ,new ,testament writers often quote 
them and refer to them2 but there is no 
conclusive proof that they had been     
gathered at this time into a complete   
collection4 ,jesus tells the ,jews that 
they search the ,scriptures1 but he does
 not say how many of these ,scriptures  
there were in his day2 ,paul reminds    
,timothy that from a child he had known 
the ,holy ,scriptures1 but he gives no  
list of their titles4 ,if we found all  
the books of the ,old ,testament quoted 
or referred to by the ,new ,testament   
writers1 then we should know that they  
possessed the same books that we have4  
,most of these books are thus referred  
to2 but there are seven ,old ,testament 
books whose names the ,new ,testament   
never quotes1 and at least five to which
 it makes no reference whatever3        
,ecclesiastes1 ,song of ,solomon1       
,esther1 ,ezra1 and ,nehemiah4 ,to      
,judges1 ,chronicles1 and ,ezekiel it   
refers only in the same way that it     
refers to a number of the apocryphal    

books4 ,some of these omissions appear  
to be significant4 ,the ,new ,testament 
gives us therefore no definite          
information by which we can determine   
whether the ,old ,testament canon was   
closed at the time of ,christ1 nor does 
it tell us of what books it was         
composed4  ,we have seen already that   
two different collections of ,old       
,testament writings were in existence1  
one in ,hebrew1 and the other a         
translation into the ,greek1 made by    
,jews in ,alexandria1 and called the    
,septuagint4 ,the latter collection was 
the one most used by our ,lord and the  
apostles2 much the greater number of    
quotations from the ,old ,testament     
found in the ,gospels and the ,epistles 
are taken from the ,septuagint4 ,this   
,greek ,bible contained quite a number  
of books which are not in the ,hebrew   
,bible3 they were later in their origin 
than any of the ,old ,testament books2  
most of them were originally written in 
,greek2 and while they were regarded by 

some of the more conservative of the    
,jews in ,egypt as inferior to the ,law 
and the ,prophets1 they were generally  
ranked with the books of the            
,hagiographa as sacred writings4 ,this  
is evident from the fact that they were 
mingled indiscriminately with these     
books of the older ,scriptures4 ,you    
know that ,i am speaking now of the     
apocryphal books which you find in some 
of your old ,bibles1 between the ,old   
and ,new ,testaments4 ,these were the   
later books contained in the            
,septuagint1 and not in the ,hebrew     
,bible4 ,but they were not sorted out by
 themselves in the ,septuagint2 they    
were interspersed through the other     
books1 as of equal value4 ,thus in the  
,vatican ,bible1 of which we shall learn
 more by and by1 ,esdras ,first and     
,second succeed the ,chronicles2 ,tobit 
and ,judith are between ,nehemiah and   
,esther2 the ,wisdom of ,solomon and    
,sirach follow ,solomon's ,song2 ,baruch
 is next to ,jeremiah2 ,daniel is       

followed by ,susanna and ,bel and the   
,dragon1 and the collection closes with 
the three books of ,maccabees4  ,all the
 old manuscripts of the ,bible which we 
possess--those which are regarded as    
above all others sacred and             
authoritative--contain these apocryphal 
writings thus intermingled with the     
books of our own canon4 ,it is clear1   
therefore1 that to the ,alexandrian     
,jews these later books were ,sacred    
,scriptures2 and it is certain also that
 our ,lord and his apostles used the    
collection which contained these books4 
,it is said that they do not refer to   
them1 and it is true that they do not   
mention them by name2 but they do use   
them occasionally4 ,let me read you a   
few passages which will illustrate their
 familiarity with the apocryphal books4 
,james i4#ai3 ,let every man be swift to
 hear1 slow to speak4 ,sirach v4 #aa2   
iv4 #bi3 ,be swift to hear4 ,be not     
hasty in thy tongue4  ,hebrews i4 #c3   
,who being the effulgence of his glory1 

and the very image of his substance1 and
 upholding all things by the word of his
 power4 ,wisdom vii4 #bf3 ,for she      
7,wisdom7 is the brightness of the      
everlasting light1 the unspotted mirror 
of the power of ,god1 and the image of  
his goodness4  ,rom4 ix4 #ba3 ,hath not 
the potter a right over the clay1 from  
the same lump to make one part a vessel 
unto honor1 and another unto dishonor8  
,wisdom xv4 #g3 ,for the potter1        
tempering soft earth1 fashioneth every  
vessel with much labor for our service2 
yea1 of the same clay he maketh both the
 vessels that serve for clean uses1 and 
likewise also such as serve to the      
contrary3 but what is the use of either 
sort1 the potter himself is the judge4  
,i ,cor4 ii4 #aj1 #aa3 ,the ,spirit     
searcheth all things1 yea1 the deep     
things of ,god4 ,for who among men      
knoweth the things of a man1 save the   
spirit of the man1 which is in him8 even
 so the things of ,god none knoweth save
 the ,spirit of ,god4 ,judith viii4 #ad3

 ,for ye cannot find the depth of the   
heart of man1 neither can ye perceive   
the things that he thinketh3 then how   
can ye search out ,god1 that hath made  
all these things1 and know his mind1 or 
comprehend his purpose8  ,several       
similar indications of the familiarity  
of the ,new ,testament writers with     
these apocryphal books might be pointed 
out4 ,these are not express citations1  
but they are clear appropriations of the
 thought and the language of the        
apocryphal writers4 ,we have1 then1 the 
most indubitable proof that the         
apocryphal books were in the hands of   
the ,new ,testament writers2 and so far 
as ,new ,testament use authenticates an 
,old ,testament writing1 several of the 
apocryphal books stand on much better   
footing than do five of our ,old        
,testament books4  ,it is true that the 
,hebrew or ,palestinian canon differed  
from the ,greek or ,alexandrian canon2  
the books which were written in ,greek  
had never been translated into the      

,hebrew1 and could not1 of course1 be   
incorporated into the ,hebrew canon2 and
 there was undoubtedly a strong feeling 
among the stricter ,jews against        
recognizing any of these later books as 
,sacred ,scriptures2 nevertheless1 the  
,greek ,bible1 with all its additions1  
had large currency among the ,jews even 
in ,palestine1 and the assertion that   
our ,lord and his apostles measured the 
,alexandrian ,bible by the ,palestinian 
canon1 and accepted all the books of the
 latter while declining to recognize any
 of the additions of the former1 is     
sheer assumption1 for which there is not
 a particle of evidence1 and against    
which the facts already adduced bear    
convincingly4 ,paul1 in his letter to   
,timothy1 refers to the ,scriptures as  
having been in the hands of ,timothy    
from his childhood2 and we have every   
reason to believe that the ,scriptures  
to which he refers was this ,greek      
collection containing the ,apocrypha4   
,whatever ,paul says about the          

inspiration of the ,scriptures must be  
interpreted with this fact in mind4 ,to 
find in these words of ,paul the        
guarantee of the inspiration and        
infallibility of the books of the       
collection which are translated from the
 ,hebrew1 and not those which are       
written in ,greek1 is a freak of        
exegesis not more violent than          
fantastic4 ,we know that ,paul read and 
used some of these apocryphal books1 and
 there are several of the books in our  
,hebrew ,bible that he never quotes or  
refers to in the remotest way4 ,the     
attempt which is often made to show that
 the ,new ,testament writers have       
established1 by their testimony1 the    
,old ,testament canon1 as containing    
just those books which are in our ,old  
,testament1 and no more1 is a most      
unwarrantable distortion of the facts4  
,it is true that at the time of ,christ 
the ,palestinian ,jews had not1 for a   
century or so1 added any new books to   
their collection1 and were not inclined 

to add any more4 ,their canon was       
practically closed to this extent1 that 
no new books were likely to get in4 ,but
 it was not yet settled that some later 
books1 which had been trying to maintain
 a footing in the canon1 should not be  
put out4 ,esther1 ,ecclesiastes1 and    
,solomon's ,song were regarded by some  
of the ,palestinian ,jews as sacred     
books1 but their right to this          
distinction was hotly disputed by       
others4 ,this question was not settled  
at the time of our ,lord4  ,the canon1  
says ,davidson1 was not considered to be
 closed in the first century before and 
the first after ,christ4 ,there were    
doubts about some portions4 ,the ,book  
of ,ezekiel gave offense1 because some  
of its statements seemed to contradict  
the ,law4 ,doubts about some of the     
others were of a more serious           
nature--about ,ecclesiastes1 the        
,canticles1 ,esther1 and the ,proverbs4 
,the first was impugned because it had  
contradictory passages and a heretical  

tendency2 the second because of its     
worldly and sensual tone2 ,esther for   
its want of religiousness2 and ,proverbs
 on account of inconsistencies4 ,this   
skepticism went far to procure the      
exclusion of the suspected works from   
the canon and their relegation to the   
class of the genuzim4 ,but it did not   
prevail4 ,hananiah1 son of ,hezekiah1   
son of ,garon1 about #cb ,b4,c41 is said
 to have reconciled the contradictions  
and allayed the doubts4 ,but these      
traces of resistance to the fixity of   
the canon were not the last4 ,they      
reappeared about #fe ,a4 ,d41 as we     
learn from the ,talmud1 when the        
controversy turned mainly upon the      
canonicity of ,ecclesiastes1 which the  
school of ,schammai1 which had the      
majority1 opposed2 so that that book was
 probably excluded4 ,the question       
emerged again at a later synod in       
,jabneh or ,jamnia1 when ,r4 ,eleaser   
ben ,asaria was chosen patriarch1 and   
,gamaliel the ,second1 deposed4 ,here it

 was decided1 not unanimously1 however1 
but by a majority of ,hillelites1 that  
,ecclesiastes and the ,song of ,songs   
'pollute the hands1' i4 e41 belong      
properly to the ,hagiographa4 ,this was 
about #ij ,a4 ,d4 ,thus the question of 
the canonicity of certain books was     
discussed by two synods4 ,footnote3     
,encyc4 ,brit41 v4 #c4  ,by such a plain
 tale do we put down the fiction1 so    
widely disseminated1 that the canon of  
the ,old ,testament was fixed long      
before the time of ,christ1 and1        
presumably1 by inspired men4 ,it was not
 fixed1 even in ,palestine1 until sixty 
years after our ,lord's death2 several  
of the books were in dispute during the 
whole apostolic period1 and these are   
the very books which are not referred to
 in the ,new ,testament4 ,whether the   
men who finally fixed it were           
exceptionally qualified to judge of the 
ethical and spiritual values of the     
writings in question may be doubted4    
,they were the kind of men who slew our 

,lord and persecuted his followers4     
,when we are asked what are our         
historical reasons for believing that   
,esther and ,ecclesiastes and ,solomon's
 ,song are sacred books and ought to be 
in the ,old ,testament canon1 let us    
answer3 ,it is not because any prophet  
or inspired person adjudged them to be  
sacred1 for no such person had anything 
to say about them2 it is not because our
 ,lord and his apostles indorsed them1  
for they do not even mention them2 it is
 not because they held a place in a     
collection of ,sacred ,scriptures used  
by our ,lord and his apostles1 for their
 position in that collection was in     
dispute at that time2 it is because the 
chief priests and scribes who rejected  
,christ pronounced them sacred4 ,the    
external authority for these books      
reduces to exactly this4 ,those who     
insist that all parts of the ,old       
,testament are of equal value and       
authority1 and that a questioning of the
 sacredness of one book casts doubts    

upon the whole collection1 ought to look
 these facts in the face and see on what
 a slender thread they suspend the      
,bible which they so highly value4      
,these later books1 says one1 have been 
delivered to us2 they have their use and
 value1 which is to be ascertained by a 
frank and reverent study of the texts   
themselves2 but those who insist on     
placing them on the same footing of     
undisputed authority with the ,law1 the 
,prophets1 and the ,psalms1 to which our
 ,lord bears direct testimony1 and so   
make the whole doctrine of the canon    
depend on its weakest part1 sacrifice   
the true strength of the evidence on    
which the ,old ,testament is received by
 ,christians4 ,footnote3 ,the ,old      
,testament in the ,jewish ,church1 p4   
#age4  ,such1 then1 is the statement    
with respect to the ,old ,testament     
canon in the apostolic age4 ,the        
,palestinian canon1 which was identical 
with our ,old ,testament1 was           
practically settled at the synod of     

,jamnia about #ij ,a4 ,d41 though doubts
 were still entertained by devout ,jews 
concerning ,esther4 ,the ,alexandrian   
collection1 containing our apocryphal   
books1 was1 however1 widely circulated2 
and as it was the ,greek version which  
had been most used by the apostles1 so  
it was the ,greek version which the     
early ,christian fathers universally    
studied and quoted4 ,very few if any of 
these ,christian fathers of the first   
two centuries understood the ,hebrew2   
they could not1 therefore1 use the      
,palestinian manuscripts2 the ,greek    
,bible was their only treasury of       
inspired truth1 and the ,greek ,bible   
contained the ,apocrypha4 ,accordingly  
we find them quoting freely as ,sacred  
,scripture all the apocryphal books4    
,westcott gives us a table1 in ,smith's 
,bible ,dictionary1 of citations made   
from these apocryphal books by fifteen  
of the ,greek fathers1 beginning with   
,clement of ,rome and ending with       
,chrysostom1 and by eight ,latin        

writers1 beginning with ,tertullian and 
ending with ,augustine4 ,every one of   
these apocryphal books is thus quoted   
with some such formula as ,the          
,scripture saith1 or ,it is written1 by 
one or more of these writers2 the ,book 
of ,wisdom is quoted by all of them     
except ,polycarp and ,cyril2 ,baruch and
 the ,additions to ,daniel are quoted by
 the great majority of them2 ,origen    
quotes them all1 ,clement of ,alexandria
 all but one1 ,cyprian all but two4 ,it 
will therefore be seen that these books 
must have had wide acceptance as ,sacred
 ,scriptures during the first centuries 
of the ,christian church4 ,in the face  
of these facts1 which may be found in   
sources as unassailable as ,smith's     
,bible ,dictionary1 we have such        
statements as the following1 put forth  
by teachers of the people1 and indorsed 
by eminent theological professors3--    
,we may say of the apocryphal books of  
the ,old ,testament that1 while some who
 were not ,jews and who were            

unacquainted with ,hebrew used them to  
some extent1 yet they never gained wide 
acceptance1 and soon dropped out        
altogether4  ,certain apocryphal        
writings have since been bound up with  
the ,septuagint1 but there is no reason 
to think that they made any part of it  
in the days of our ,saviour6  ,these    
books were not received as canonical by 
the ,christian fathers1 but were        
expressly declared to be apocryphal6    
,the last statements are copied from a  
volume on the ,bible1 prepared for      
popular circulation by the president of 
a theological seminary6  ,it is true    
that some of the most inquisitive and   
critical of the ,christian fathers      
entertained doubts about these          
apocryphal books2 ,melito of ,sardis    
traveled to ,palestine on purpose to    
inquire into the matter1 and came back1 
of course1 with the ,palestinian canon  
to which1 however1 he did not adhere4   
,origen made a similar investigation1   
and seems to have been convinced that   

the later books ought to be regarded as 
uncanonical2 nevertheless1 he keeps on  
quoting them2 ,jerome was the first     
strenuously to challenge the canonicity 
of these later ,greek books and to      
maintain a tolerably consistent         
opposition to them4 ,while1 therefore1  
several of these early fathers were led 
by their investigations in ,palestine to
 believe that the narrower canon was the
 more correct one1 their opinions had   
but little weight with the people at    
large2 and even these fathers themselves
 freely and constantly quoted as ,sacred
 ,scripture the questionable writings4  
,in #cic the ,african bishops held a    
council at ,hippo1 in which the canon   
was discussed4 ,the list agreed upon    
includes all the ,old ,testament        
,scriptures of our canon1 and1 in       
addition to them1 ,wisdom1              
,ecclesiasticus1 ,tobit1 ,judith1 and   
the two books of ,maccabees4 ,in #cig   
another council at ,carthage reaffirmed 
the list of its predecessor4 ,augustine 

was the leader of both councils4  ,in   
spite of the protests of ,jerome and of 
other scholars in all the centuries1    
this list1 for substance1 was regarded  
as authoritative1 until the ,council of 
,trent1 in #aedf1 when the long debate  
was finally settled1 so far as the      
,roman ,catholic ,church is concerned1  
by the adoption of the ,augustinian     
canon1 embracing the apocryphal books1  
the list concluding with the following  
anathema4 ,if any one will not receive  
as sacred and authoritative the whole   
books with all their parts1 let him be  
accursed4 ,this determines the matter   
for all good ,catholics4 ,since #aedf1  
they have known exactly how many books  
their ,bible contains4 ,and if usage and
 tradition are and ought to be          
authoritative1 they have the strongest  
reasons for receiving as sacred the     
books of their ,bible2 for it is beyond 
question that the books which they      
accept and which we reject have been    
received and used as ,sacred ,scriptures

 in all the ages of the church4 ,most of
 us who do not accept usage and         
tradition as authoritative will         
continue1 no doubt1 to think our own    
thoughts about the matter4  ,the        
,council of ,trent marks the definite   
separation of the ,roman ,catholic      
,church from the ,protestant reformers4 
,up to this time there had been among   
the reformers some differences of       
opinion respecting the ,old ,testament  
books2 when they were excluded from the 
,holy ,church and were compelled to fall
 back upon the authority of the ,bible1 
the present limits of the canon at once 
became an important question4 ,they did 
not settle it all at once4 ,luther1 in  
making his ,german version of the       
,bible1 translated ,judith1 ,wisdom1    
,tobit1 ,sirach1 ,baruch1 #a and #b     
,maccabees1 the ,greek additions to     
,esther and ,daniel1 with the ,prayer of
 ,manasseh4 ,each of these books he     
prefaces with comments of his own4      
,first ,maccabees he regards as almost  

equal to the other books of ,holy       
,scripture1 and not unworthy to be      
reckoned among them4 ,he had doubted    
long whether ,wisdom should not be      
admitted to the canon1 and he truly says
 of ,sirach that it is a right good     
book1 the work of a wise man4 ,baruch   
and #b ,maccabees he finds fault with2  
but of none of these apocryphal books   
does he speak so severely as of ,esther1
 which he is more than willing to cast  
out of the canon4 ,the fact that ,luther
 translated these apocryphal books is   
good evidence that he thought them of   
value to the church2 nevertheless1 he   
considered the books of the ,hebrew     
canon1 with the exception of ,esther1 as
 occupying a higher plane than those of 
the ,apocrypha4 ,gradually this opinion 
gained acceptance among the             
,protestants2 the apocryphal books were 
separated from the rest1 and although by
 some of the ,reformed churches1 as by  
the ,anglican church1 they were         
commended to be read for example of life

 and instruction of manners1 they ceased
 to be regarded as authoritative sources
 of ,christian doctrine4 ,since the     
sixteenth century1 there has been little
 question among ,protestants as to the  
extent of the canon4 ,the books which   
now compose our ,old ,testament1 and no 
others1 have been found in the ,bible of
 the ,protestants for the past three    
hundred years4 ,the apocryphal books    
have sometimes been printed between the 
,old and the ,new ,testaments1 but they 
have not been used in the churches1     
,footnote3 ,the ,english ,church uses   
some portions of them4 nor have they    
been regarded as part of the ,sacred    
,scripture4  ,the history of the ,new   
,testament canon is much less obscure1  
and may be more briefly treated4 ,the   
,bible of the early ,christians was the 
,old ,testament4 ,they relied wholly    
upon this for religious instruction2    
they had no thought of any other ,sacred
 ,scripture4  ,i have explained in a    
former chapter how the ,epistles and the

 ,gospels originated2 but when these    
writings first came into the hands of   
the disciples there was not1 it is      
probable1 any conception in their minds 
that these were sacred writings1 to be  
ranked along with the books of the ,old 
,testament4 ,they read them for         
instruction and suggestion2 they did not
 at first think of them as holy4 ,but   
their conviction of the value and       
sacredness of these writings soon began 
to strengthen2 we find them quoting     
,gospels and ,epistles with the same    
formula that they apply to the ,old     
,testament books2 and thus they began to
 feel the need of making a collection of
 this apostolic literature for use in   
the churches4 ,it is not until the      
second half of the second century that  
any such collection comes into view4 ,it
 consisted at first of two parts1 ,the  
,gospel and ,the ,apostle2 the first    
part contained the four ,gospels1 and   
the second the ,acts1 thirteen ,epistles
 of ,paul1 one of ,peter1 one of ,john1 

and the ,revelation4 ,it will be seen   
that this twofold ,testament omitted    
several of our books1--the ,epistle to  
the ,hebrews1 two of ,john's ,epistles1 
one of ,peter's1 and the ,epistles of   
,james and ,jude4  ,about this time     
there was also in circulation certain   
writings which are not now in our canon1
 but which were sometimes included by   
the authorities of that time among the  
apostolic writings1 and were quoted as  
,scripture by the early fathers4 ,there 
was a book called ,the ,gospel according
 to the ,egyptians1 and another entitled
 ,the ,preaching of ,peter1 and another 
called ,the ,acts of ,paul1 and another 
called ,the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 and an
 epistle attributed to ,barnabas1 and   
several others1 all claiming to be      
sacred and apostolic writings4 ,it      
became1 therefore1 a delicate and       
important question for these early      
,christians to decide which of these    
writings were sacred1 and which were    
not2 and they began to make lists of    

those which they regarded as canonical4 
,the earliest of these lists is a       
fragmentary anonymous canon1 which was  
made about #agj4 ,it mentions all the   
books in our ,new ,testament but        
four1--,hebrews1 ,first and ,second     
,peter1 and ,james4  ,irenus1 who died  
about #bjj1 had a canon which included  
all the books of our ,new ,testament    
except ,hebrews1 ,jude1 ,james1 ,second 
,peter1 and ,third ,john4 ,first ,peter1
 ,second ,john1 and ,the ,shepherd of   
,hermas he put by themselves in a second
 class of writings1 which he thought    
excellent but not inspired4  ,clement of
 ,alexandria 7#ahj7 puts into his list  
most of our canonical books1 but regards
 several of them as of inferior value1  
among them ,hebrews1 ,second ,john1 and 
,jude4 ,in the same list of inferior    
writings he includes ,the ,shepherd of  
,hermas1 the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 and 
the ,apocalypse of ,peter4  ,tertullian 
7#bjj7 omits entirely ,james1 ,second   
,peter1 and ,third ,john1 but includes  

among useful though not inspired books1 
,hebrews1 ,jude1 ,the ,shepherd of      
,hermas1 ,second ,john1 and ,second     
,peter4  ,these are the greatest        
authorities of the first two centuries4 
,no ,christian teachers of that day were
 better informed or more trustworthy    
than these1 and it will be seen that    
they were far from agreeing with one    
another or with our canon2 that each one
 of them received as sacred some books  
which we do not possess1 and rejected   
some which we receive4  ,coming down    
into the third century1 we find ,origen 
7#bej71 one of the great scholars1      
wrestling with the problem4 ,he seems to
 have made three classes of the ,new    
,testament writings1 the authentic1 the 
non-authentic1 and the doubtful4 ,the   
authentic books are the ,gospels1 the   
,acts1 the thirteen ,epistles of ,paul1 
and the ,apocalypse2 the non-authentic  
ones are ,the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 ,the
 ,epistle of ,barnabas1 and several     
other books not in our canon2 and the   

doubtful ones are ,james1 ,jude1 ,second
 and ,third ,john1 and ,second ,peter4  
,it will be seen that ,origen admits    
none that are not in our collection1 but
 that he is in doubt respecting some    
that are in it4  ,facts like these are  
writ large over every page of the       
history of the early church4 ,and yet we
 have eminent theological professors    
asserting that the canon of the ,new    
,testament was finally settled during   
the first half of the second century1   
within fifty years after the death of   
the ,apostle ,john4 ,a more baseless    
statement could not be fabricated4 ,it  
is from teachers of this class that we  
hear the most vehement outcries against 
the ,higher ,criticism4  ,eusebius1 who 
died in #cdj1 has a list agreeing       
substantially with that of ,origen4     
,cyril of ,jerusalem 7#chf7 includes all
 of our books except the ,apocalypse1   
and no others4  ,athanasius 7#cfe7 and  
,augustine 7#dcj7 have lists identical  
with ours4 ,this indicates a steady     

progress toward unanimity1 and when the 
two great councils of ,hippo and        
,carthage confirmed this judgment of the
 two great fathers last named1 the      
question of the ,new ,testament canon   
was practically settled4 ,footnote3 ,it 
is noted1 however1 that the reception of
 the doubtful books into the canon does 
not imply a recognition of their        
equality with the other books4 ,the     
distinct admission of their inferiority 
was made by all the ecclesiastical      
authorities of that period4 ,none of the
 early fathers believed that all these  
writings were equally inspired and      
equally authoritative4 ,nevertheless1   
considerable independent judgment on the
 subject still seems to have been       
tolerated1 and writings which we do not 
now receive were long included in the   
,new ,testament collection4 ,the three  
oldest manuscripts of the ,bible now in 
existence are the ,sinaitic1 the        
,vatican1 and the ,alexandrian ,bibles1 
dating from the fourth and the fifth    

centuries4 ,of these the ,sinaitic and  
the ,alexandrian ,bibles both include   
some of these doubtful books in the ,new
 ,testament collection2 the ,sinai      
,bible has ,the ,epistle of ,barnabas   
and ,the ,shepherd of ,hermas2 the      
,alexandrian ,bible the ,epistle of     
,clement and one of ,athanasius4 ,these 
old ,bibles are clear witnesses to the  
fact that the contents of the ,new      
,testament were not clearly defined even
 so late as the fifth century4 ,indeed1 
there was always some freedom of opinion
 concerning this matter until the       
,reformation era4 ,then1 of course1 the 
,council of ,trent fixed the canon of   
the ,new ,testament as well as of the   
,old for all good ,catholics2 and the   
,new ,testament of the ,catholics1      
unlike their ,old ,testament1 is        
identical with our own4  ,the           
,protestants of that time were still in 
doubt about certain of the ,new         
,testament books4 ,luther1 as every one 
knows1 was inclined to reject the       

,epistle of ,james2 he called it a right
 strawy epistle4 ,the letter to the     
,hebrews was a good book1 but not       
apostolic2 he put it in a subordinate   
class4 ,jude was a poor transcript of   
,second ,peter1 and he assigned that    
also to a lower place4 ,the ,apocalypse1
 says ,davidson1 he considered neither  
apostolic nor prophetic1 but put it     
almost on a level with the ,fourth ,book
 of ,esdras1 which he spoke elsewhere of
 tossing into the ,elbe4 ,luther's      
principle of judgment in many of these  
cases was quite too subjective2 he      
carried the ,protestant principle of    
private judgment to an extreme2 ,i only 
quote his opinions to show with what    
freedom the strong men of the           
,reformation handled these questions of 
,biblical criticism4  ,zwingli rejected 
the ,apocalypse4 ,o,ecolampadius placed 
,james1 ,jude1 ,second ,peter1 ,second  
and ,third ,john and the ,apocalypse    
along with the ,apocryphal books1 on a  
lower level than the other ,new         

,testament ,scriptures4  ,the great     
majority of the ,reformers1 however1    
speedily fixed upon that canon which we 
now receive1 and their decision has not 
been seriously called in question since 
the sixteenth century4  ,i have now     
answered most of the questions proposed 
at the beginning of this chapter4 ,we   
have seen that while the great majority 
of the books in both ,testaments have   
been universally received1 questions    
have been raised at various times       
concerning the canonicity of several of 
the books in either ,testament2 that    
many good men1 from the second century  
before ,christ until the sixteenth      
century after ,christ1 have disputed the
 authority of some of these books4 ,we  
have seen also that quite a number of   
other books have at one time and another
 been regarded as sacred and numbered   
among the ,holy ,scriptures2 we have    
seen that the final judgment respecting 
these doubtful books is different in    
different branches of the church1 the   

,roman ,catholic ,church and the ,greek 
,catholic ,church admitting into their  
canons several books that the ,reformed 
churches exclude from theirs4  ,we have 
seen that the decision which has been   
reached by the several branches of the  
church respecting this matter has been  
reached as the result of discussion and 
argument2 that the canonicity of the    
disputed books was freely canvassed by  
the church fathers in their writings1 by
 the church councils in their           
assemblies1 by the ,reformers in their  
inquiries2 that no supernatural methods 
have been employed to determine the     
canonicity of these several books2 but  
that the enlightened reason of the      
church has been the arbiter of the whole
 matter4  ,the grounds upon which the   
,jews acted in admitting or rejecting   
books into their ,scriptures it might be
 difficult for us to determine4 ,in some
 cases we know that they were fanciful  
and absurd4 ,but the grounds on which   
the ,christians proceeded in making up  

their canon we know pretty well4  ,the  
first question respecting each one of   
the ,christian writings seems to have   
been3 ,was it written by an apostle8 ,if
 this question could be answered in the 
affirmative1 the book was admitted4 ,and
 in deciding this question1 the         
,christians of later times made appeal  
to the opinions of those of earlier     
times2 authority and tradition had much 
to do in determining it4 ,was it the    
general opinion of the early church that
 this book was written by an apostle8   
they asked4 ,and if this seemed to be   
the case1 they were inclined to admit   
it4 ,besides1 they compared ,scripture  
with ,scripture3 certain books were     
unquestionably written by ,paul or ,luke
 or ,john2 other books which were       
doubted were also ascribed to them2 if  
they found the language of the disputed 
book corresponding to that of the       
undisputed book1 in style and in forms  
of expression1 they judged that it must 
have been written by the same man4 ,upon

 such grounds of external and internal  
evidence1 it finally came to be believed
 that all of the ,new ,testament books  
except four were written by apostles1   
and that these four1 ,mark1 ,luke1 ,the 
,acts of the ,apostles1 and the ,epistle
 to the ,hebrews1 were written by men   
under the immediate direction of        
apostles4  ,but1 it may be said1 there  
have been great differences of opinion  
on this matter through all the ages1    
down to the sixteenth century2 how do we
 know but that those good and holy men1 
like ,ignatius and ,clement and         
,tertullian and ,origen in the early    
church1 and ,luther and ,zwingli and    
,o,ecolampadius in the ,reformed church1
 were right in rejecting some books that
 we receive and in receiving some that  
we reject8  ,if you were a good         
,catholic1 that question would not      
trouble you4 ,for the fundamental       
article of your creed would then be1    
,the ,holy ,catholic ,church1 when she  
is represented by her bishops in a      

general council1 can never make a       
mistake4 ,and the ,holy ,catholic       
,church in a general council at ,trent1 
in #aedf1 said that such and such books 
belonged to the ,bible1 and that no     
others do2 and the council of the       
,vatican1 in #ahgj1 said the same thing 
over again1 making it doubly sure2 so1  
that1 as a good ,catholic1 you would    
have no right to any doubts or questions
 about it4  ,but1 being a ,protestant1  
you cannot help knowing that all general
 councils have made grave and terrible  
mistakes2 that no one of them ever was  
infallible2 and so you could not rest   
satisfied with the decisions of ,trent  
and the ,vatican1 even if they gave you 
the same ,bible that you now possess1   
which1 of course1 they do not4 ,what    
certainty has the ,protestant1 then1    
that his canon is the correct one8 ,he  
has no absolute certainty4 ,there is no 
such thing as absolute certainty with   
respect to historical religious truth4  
,but this discussion has made one or two

 things plain to the dullest            
apprehension4  ,the first is that the   
books of this ,bible are not all of     
equal rank and sacredness4 ,if there is 
one truth which all the ages1 with all  
their voices1 join to declare1 it is    
that the ,bible is made up of many      
different kinds of books1 with very     
different degrees of sacredness and     
authority4 ,for one1 ,i do not wish to  
part with any of them2 ,i find          
instruction in all of them1 though in   
some of them1 as in ,esther and         
,ecclesiastes1 it is rather as records  
of savagery and of skepticism1 from     
which every ,christian ought to recoil1 
that ,i can see any value in them4 ,as  
powerful delineations of the kind of    
sentiments that the ,christian ought not
 to cherish1 and the kind of doubts that
 he cannot entertain without imperilling
 his soul1 they may be useful4 ,it is   
not1 therefore1 at all desirable that   
these ancient records should be torn    
asunder and portions of them flung away4

 ,that process of mutilation none of us 
is wise enough to attempt4 ,let the     
,bible stand2 there are good uses for   
every part of it4 ,but let us remember  
the lesson which this survey has brought
 home to us1 that these books are not   
all alike1 and that the message of      
divine wisdom is spoken to us in some of
 them far more clearly than in others1  
,richard ,baxter is an authority in     
religion for whose opinion all          
conservative people ought to entertain  
respect4 ,he cannot be suspected of     
being a ,new ,departure man2 he was a   
stanch ,presbyterian1 and he passed to  
the ,saints' ,rest nearly two hundred   
years ago4 ,with a few words of his upon
 the question now before us1 this       
chapter may fitly close3--  ,and here ,i
 must tell you a great and needful      
truth1 which ,christians1 fearing to    
confess1 by overdoing1 tempt men to     
infidelity4 ,the ,scripture is like a   
man's body1 where some parts are but for
 the preservation of the rest1 and may  

be maimed without death4 ,the sense is  
the soul of the ,scripture1 and the     
letters but the body or vehicle4 ,the   
doctrine of the ,creed1 ,lord's ,prayer 
and ,decalogue1 ,baptism and the ,lord's
 ,supper1 is the vital part and         
,christianity itself4 ,the ,old         
,testament letter 7written as we have it
 about ,ezra's time7 is that vehicle    
which is as imperfect as the revelation 
of those times was4 ,but as1 after      
,christ's incarnation and ascension1 the
 ,spirit was more abundantly given1 and 
the revelation more perfect and sealed1 
so the doctrine is more full1 and the   
vehicle or body1 that is the words1 are 
less imperfect and more sure to us2 so  
that he which doubteth of the truth of  
some words in the ,old ,testament or of 
some circumstances in the ,new1 hath no 
reason therefore to doubt of the        
,christian religion of which these      
writings are but the vehicle or body1   
sufficient to ascertain us of the truth 
of the ,history and ,doctrine4          

,footnote3 ,the ,catechizing of         
,christian ,families1 p4 #cf4           
,,chapter ,,xii4  ,,how ,,the ,,books   
,,were ,,written4    ,the books of the  
,old ,testament were originally written 
upon skins of some sort4 ,the ,talmud   
provided that the law might be inscribed
 on the skins of clean animals1 tame or 
wild1 or even of clean birds4 ,these    
skins were usually cut into strips1 the 
ends of which were neatly joined        
together1 making a continuous belt of   
parchment or vellum which was rolled    
upon two sticks and fastened by a       
thread4 ,they were commonly written on  
one side only1 with an iron pen which   
was dipped in ink composed of lampblack 
dissolved in gall juice4  ,the ,hebrew  
is a language quite unlike our own in   
form and appearance4 ,not only do we    
read it from right to left1 instead of  
from left to right1 but the consonants  
only of the several words are written in
 distinct characters on the line2 the   
vowels being little dots or dashes      

standing under the consonants1 or within
 their curves4 ,these vowel points were 
not used in the original ,hebrew2 they  
are a modern invention1 originating some
 centuries after ,christ4 ,it is true   
that it was the belief of the ,jews in  
former times that these vowel points    
were an original part of the language2  
their scholars made this claim with     
great confidence1 which shows how little
 reliance is to be placed on ,jewish    
tradition4 ,the evidence is abundant    
that the ,hebrew was originally written 
without vowels1 precisely as            
stenographers often write in these days4
 ,we know from the testimony of old     
students and interpreters of the ,hebrew
 that they constantly encountered this  
difficulty in reading the language4     
,write a paragraph of our own language  
without vowels and look at it4 ,or1     
better1 ask some one else to treat for  
you in the same way a paragraph with    
which you are not familiar1 and see if  
you can decipher it4 ,undoubtedly1 you  

could with some difficulty make out the 
sense of most passages4 ,it would puzzle
 you at first1 but after you had had    
some practice in supplying the vowels   
you would learn to read quite readily4  
,stenographers1 as ,i have said1 have a 
somewhat similar task4 ,nevertheless1   
you would sometimes be in uncertainty as
 to the words4 ,suppose you have the    
three consonants brd1 how would you know
 whether the word was bard1 or bird1 or 
bread1 or board1 or brad1 or broad1 or  
bride1 or braid1 or brood1 or breed8 ,it
 might be any one of them4 ,you could   
usually tell what it was by a glance at 
the connection1 but you could not tell  
infallibly1 for there might be sentences
 in which more than one of these words  
would make sense1 and it would be       
impossible to determine which the writer
 meant to use4 ,now the old ,hebrew as  
it came from the hands of the original  
writers was all in this form2 while1    
therefore1 the meaning of the writer can
 generally be gained with sufficient    

accuracy1 you see at a glance that      
absolute certainty is out of the        
question2 that the ,jewish scholars who 
supplied these vowel points a thousand  
years or more after the original        
manuscripts were written may sometimes  
have got the wrong word4  ,jerome gives 
numerous illustrations of this          
uncertainty4 ,in ,jer4 ix4 #ba1 ,death  
is come up into our windows1 he says    
that we have for the first word the     
three ,hebrew consonants corresponding  
to our dbr2 the word may be dabar1      
signifying death1 or deber1 signifying  
pestilence2 it is impossible to tell    
which it is4 ,in ,habakkuk iii4 #e1 we  
have the same consonants1 and there the 
word is written pestilence4 ,either word
 will made good sense in either place2  
and we are perfectly helpless in our    
choice between them4 ,again1 in ,isaiah 
xxvi4 #ad1 we have a prediction         
concerning the wicked1 ,therefore hast  
thou visited and destroyed them and made
 all their memory to perish4 ,the       

,hebrew word here translated memory     
consists of three consonants represented
 by our ,english zkr2 it may be the word
 zeker1 which signifies memory1 or the  
word zakar1 which signifies a male      
person4 ,and ,jerome says that it is    
believed that ,saul was deceived1       
perhaps willingly1 by the difference in 
these words 7,i ,sam4 xv472 having been 
commanded to cut off every              
zeker--memorial or vestige--of ,amaiek1 
he took the word to be zakar1 instead of
 zeker1 and contented himself with      
destroying the males of the army and    
keeping for himself the spoil4 ,jerome's
 conjecture in this case is sufficiently
 fanciful2 nevertheless he illustrates  
the impossibility of determining the    
exact meaning of many ,hebrew sentences4
 ,this impossibility is abundantly      
demonstrated by the ,septuagint1 for we 
find many undoubted errors in that      
translation from the ,hebrew into the   
,greek1 which have arisen from this lack
 of precision in the ,hebrew language4  

,when1 therefore1 we know that the      
,bible was written in such a language--a
 language without vowels--and that it   
was not until six hundred years after   
,christ that the vowel points were      
invented and the words were written out 
in full1 the theory of the verbal       
inerrancy of the text as we now have it 
becomes incredible4 ,unless the men who 
supplied the vowel points were gifted   
with supernatural knowledge they must   
have made mistakes in spelling out some 
of these words4 ,i do not believe that  
these mistakes were serious1 or that    
they affect in any important way the    
meaning of the ,scripture1 but the      
assumption that in this stupendous game 
of guess-work no wrong guesses were made
 is in the highest degree gratuitous4   
,the substantial truthfulness of the    
record is not impeached by this         
discovery1 but the verbal inerrancy of  
the document can never be maintained by 
any honest man who knows these facts4   
,it is unsafe and mischievous to indulge

 in a priori reasonings about           
inspiration2 we have had too much of    
that2 but the following proposition is  
unassailable3 ,if the ,divine ,wisdom   
had proposed to deliver to man an       
infallible book1 he would not have had  
it recorded in a language whose written 
words consist only of consonants1       
leaving readers a thousand years after  
to fill in the vowels by conjecture4    
,the very fact that such a language was 
chosen is the conclusive and            
unanswerable evidence that ,god never   
designed to give us an infallible book4 
,we are familiar with the fact that the 
,old ,testament writings in general use 
among the early churches were those of  
the ,septuagint4 ,the ,christians from  
the second to the sixteenth centuries   
knew very little ,hebrew4 ,but during   
all these ages the ,palestinian ,jews   
and their successors in other lands were
 preserving their own ,scriptures2 it   
was they who added at a late            
day--probably as late as the sixth      

century--the vowel points1 which were   
invented in ,syria2 and when1 at length1
 under the impulse of ,biblical study   
which led to the ,reformation1          
,christian scholars began to think of   
going back to the original ,hebrew1 they
 were obliged to obtain from the ,jews  
the copies which they studied4 ,it is   
somewhat remarkable that the ,jews1 who 
were the exclusive custodians of the    
,hebrew writings up to the sixteenth    
century1 had not been careful to        
preserve their old manuscripts4 ,after  
the vowel points had been introduced    
into the text1 they seem to have been   
willing that copies not written in this 
manner should pass out of existence4    
,accordingly we have few ,hebrew        
manuscripts that are even supposed to be
 more than six or seven hundred years   
old4 ,there is one copy of the          
,pentateuch which may have been made as 
early as #ehj ,a4 ,d41 but this is      
extremely doubtful2 aside from this ,i  
do not know that there are any ,hebrew  

,bibles which claim to be older than the
 ninth century4 ,of these ,hebrew       
manuscripts nearly six hundred are now  
known to be in existence1 but the       
greater part of these are only          
fragmentary copies of the ,pentateuch or
 of single books4 ,there are two classes
 of these--synagogue rolls1 prepared for
 reading in the way that ,i have        
described1 and manuscripts in the book  
form1 some on parchment and some on     
paper4  ,the variations in these        
manuscripts are few4 ,compared with the 
,greek manuscripts of the ,new          
,testament1 the accuracy of these       
,hebrew codices is remarkable4 ,it is   
evident that the care of the ,scribes to
 guard their ,scriptures against error  
has been scrupulous and vigilant4       
,doubtless this intense devotion to the 
very letter of the sacred books has been
 exercised for many centuries4 ,we know 
that in the earliest days this precision
 was not sought2 for the ,septuagint    
translation1 made during the second and 

third centuries before ,christ1 gives us
 indubitable proof1 when we compare it  
with the ,hebrew text1 that changes1    
some of them radical and sweeping1 have 
been made in the text of the ,hebrew    
books since that translation was        
finished4 ,but it is evident that the   
,scribes at an early day1 certainly as  
early as the beginning of the ,christian
 era1 determined to have a uniform and  
an unchangeable text4 ,for this purpose 
they chose some manuscript copy of the  
,scriptures1 doubtless the one which    
seemed to them most accurate1 and made  
that the standard2 all the copies made  
since that time have been religiously   
conformed to that4 ,consequently1 all   
the ,hebrew manuscripts now in existence
 are remarkably uniform4 ,the ,old      
,testament contains more than three     
times as many pages as the ,new         
,testament2 but while we have more than 
one hundred and fifty thousand various  
readings in the ,greek manuscripts and  
versions of the ,new ,testament1 we have

 less than ten thousand such variations 
in those of the ,old ,testament4 ,it    
must be remembered1 however1 that this  
uniformity has its source in some copy  
chosen to be the standard hundreds of   
years after most of the ,old ,testament 
books were written2 and it does not     
guarantee the close correspondence      
between this copy and the autographs of 
the original writers4 ,footnote3 ,for an
 interesting discussion of the          
preservation and transmission of the    
,hebrew text1 the reader is referred to 
,mr4 ,robertson ,smith's ,the ,old      
,testament in the ,jewish ,church1      
,lectures ii4 and iii4  ,our chief      
interest centres1 however1 in the ,greek
 manuscripts of the ,bible preserved and
 transmitted by ,christians1 and        
including both ,testaments4 ,all the    
oldest and most precious documents that 
we possess belong to this class4  ,the  
original ,new ,testament writings which 
came from the hands of the apostles and 
their amanuenses we do not possess4     

,these were probably written1 not on    
skins1 but upon the papyrus paper       
commonly used at that day1 which was a  
frail and flimsy fabric1 and under      
ordinary circumstances would soon       
perish4 ,fragments of this papyrus have 
come down to us1 but only those which   
were preserved with exceptional care4   
,jerome tells us of a library in        
,cassarea that was partly destroyed1    
owing to the crumbling of its paper1    
though it was only a hundred years old4 
,parchment was sometimes used by the    
apostles2 ,paul requests ,timothy1 in   
his second letter1 to bring with him1   
when he comes1 certain parchments that  
belong to him4 ,but these materials were
 costly1 and it is not likely that the  
apostles used them to any extent in the 
preparation of the books of the ,new    
,testament4 ,at any rate the autographic
 copies of these books disappeared at an
 early date4 ,this seems strange to us4 
,placing the estimate that we do upon   
these writings1 we should have taken the

 greatest care to preserve them4 ,it is 
clear that the ,christians into whose   
hands they fell did not value them as   
highly as we do4 ,as ,westcott says1    
,they were given as a heritage to man1  
and it was some time before men felt the
 full value of the gift4  ,at the close 
of the second century there were        
disputes concerning the correct reading 
of certain passages1 but neither party  
appeals to the apostolic                
originals1--showing that they must      
before that time have perished4 ,in     
after years legends were told about the 
preservation of these originals1 but    
these are contradictory and incredible4 
,no manuscript is now in existence which
 was written during the first three     
centuries4 ,but we have one or two that 
date back to the fourth century2 and    
from that time through all the ages to  
the invention of printing many copies   
were made of the ,sacred ,scriptures1 in
 whole or in part1 which are still in   
the hands of scholars4 ,it is from these

 old ,greek manuscripts that our        
received text of the ,new ,testament is 
derived2 by a comparison of them the    
scholars of the seventeenth century made
 up a ,greek ,new ,testament which they 
regarded as approximately accurate1 and 
from that our ,english version was made4
  ,the number of these old manuscripts  
is large1 and the first general division
 of them is into uncials or cursives1 as
 they are called2 the uncial manuscripts
 being written in capital letters1 the  
cursives in small letters more or less  
connected1 as in our written hand4 ,the 
uncials are the oldest1 as they are the 
fewest2 there are only one hundred and  
twenty-seven of them in all2 while of   
the cursives there are about fifteen    
hundred4  ,yet most of these manuscripts
 are fragmentary4 ,some of them contain 
only the ,gospels or portions of them2  
some of them contain the ,acts and the  
,catholic ,epistles2 some of them the   
,epistles of ,paul or a single epistle2 
some are selections from the ,gospels or

 the ,epistles1 prepared to be read in  
church1 and called lectionaries4        
,professor ,ezra ,abbot gives us a      
classification of these manuscripts     
which will be found instructive4  ,for  
the ,new ,testament1444we have          
manuscripts more or less complete1      
written in uncial or capital letters1   
and ranging from the fourth to the tenth
 century2 of the ,gospels twenty-seven1 
besides thirty small fragments2 of the  
,acts and ,catholic ,epistles ten1      
besides six small fragments2 of the     
,pauline ,epistles eleven1 besides nine 
small fragments1 and of the ,revelation 
five4 ,all of these have been most      
thoroughly collated1 and the text of the
 most important of them has been        
published4 ,one of these manuscripts1   
the ,sinaitic1 containing the whole of  
the ,new ,testament1 and another1 the   
,vatican1 containing much the larger    
part of it1 were written probably as    
early as the middle of the fourth       
century2 two others1 the ,alexandrian   

and the ,ephraem1 belong to about the   
middle of the fifth1 of which date are  
two more1 containing considerable       
portions of the ,gospels4 ,a very       
remarkable manuscript of the ,gospels   
and ,acts--the ,cambridge manuscript1 or
 ,codex ,bez--belongs to the sixth      
century4444 ,i pass by a number of small
 but valuable fragments of the fifth and
 sixth centuries4 ,as to the cursive    
manuscripts ranging from the tenth      
century to the sixteenth1 we have of the
 ,gospels more than six hundred2 of the 
,acts over two hundred2 of the ,pauline 
,epistles nearly three hundred2 of the  
,revelation about one hundred1--not     
reckoning the lectionaries1 or          
manuscripts containing the lessons from 
the ,gospels1 ,acts1 and ,epistles1 read
 in the service of the church1 of which 
there are more than four hundred4       
,footnote3 ,anglo-,american ,bible      
,revision1 p4 #ie4  ,out of all this    
vast mass of extant manuscripts1 only   
twenty-seven contain the ,new ,testament

 entire4  ,the three oldest and most    
valuable manuscripts among those named  
by ,professor ,abbot1 in the passage    
above1 are the ,sinaitic1 the ,vatican1 
and the ,alexandrian manuscripts4  ,of  
these old ,bibles perhaps the oldest is 
the one in the ,vatican ,library at     
,rome4 ,it was enrolled in that library 
as late as the year #adge2 what its     
history was before that time is unknown4
 ,by whose hands or at what place it was
 written1 no one can tell4 ,some have   
supposed that it was brought from       
,constantinople to ,rome1 in the        
fifteenth century1 by ,john ,bessarion1 
a learned patriarch2 some that it was   
written in ,alexandria1 when that city  
was the metropolis of the world's       
culture2 some that it was produced in   
,southern ,italy when that region was   
celebrated for its learning4 ,the signs 
favor the latter theory4 ,the form of   
the letters is like those found on      
papyri in ,herculaneum2 and other       
manuscripts of the ,bible found in      

southern ,italy agree remarkably with   
this one in many peculiar readings4 ,but
 this is all guess-work4 ,nobody knows  
where the old ,bible came from or who   
brought it to ,rome4  ,some things1     
however1 the old book plainly tells us  
about its own history4 ,it bears the    
unmistakable marks of great antiquity4  
,the scholar who is familiar with old   
,greek manuscripts can judge by looking 
at a document something about its       
probable age4 ,by the form of the       
letters1 by the presence or absence of  
certain marks of punctuation1 by the    
general style of the manuscript1 he can 
determine within a century or so the    
date at which it was written4  ,this old
 ,bible is written in the uncial or     
capital letters2 this would make it     
tolerably certain that it must be older 
than the tenth century4 ,we have        
scarcely any uncial manuscripts later   
than the tenth century4 ,but other      
unmistakable marks take it back much    
farther than this4 ,the words are       

written continuously1 with no breaks or 
spaces between them2 there are no       
accents1 no rough or smooth breathings1 
no punctuation marks of any sort4 ,these
 are signs of great age4 ,another       
peculiarity is the manner of the        
division of the books into sections4 ,i 
cannot stop to describe to you the      
various methods of division adopted in  
antiquity4 ,the present separation into 
chapters and verses was1 as you know1 a 
quite modern device4 ,but the divisions 
of this old ,bible follow a method that 
we know to have been in use at a very   
early day2 and the conclusion of all the
 scholars is that it must have been     
written as early as the year #cej1      
possibly as early as #cjj4  ,it is not1 
however1 a roll1 but a book in form like
 those we handle every day4 ,before this
 date manuscripts were generally        
prepared in this way4 ,martial1 the     
,latin poet1 who died about #ajj1       
mentions as a novelty in his day books  
with square leaves1 bound together at   

the edges4  ,the ,vatican ,bible is a   
heavy quarto1 the covers are red morocco
 discolored with age1 the leaves1 of    
which there are #gei1 are of fine and   
delicate vellum4 ,it contains the       
,septuagint translation of the ,old     
,testament1 except the first forty-five 
chapters in ,genesis and a few of the   
,psalms1 which have been torn out and   
lost4 ,of the ,new ,testament writings1 
the last five chapters of ,hebrews1     
,first and ,second ,timothy1 ,titus1    
,philemon1 and the ,apocalypse are      
wanting4 ,otherwise both ,testaments are
 complete4  ,we may recall another fact1
 to which allusion has been made1 that  
this old ,bible contains among the ,old 
,testament books those books which we   
now call apocryphal1 and that these     
apocryphal books1 instead of being      
divided from the rest in a separate     
group1 are mingled with them1 the order 
of the books being quite unlike that of 
our ,bibles or of the ,hebrew canon4    
,the apocryphal ,first ,book of ,esdras 

precedes our ,book of ,ezra2 while our  
,book of ,ezra is united with ,nehemiah1
 forming the ,second ,book of ,esdras4  
,judith and ,tobit follow ,esther1 and  
next comes the twelve minor prophets1   
and so on4  ,the same thing is true of  
all these oldest ,bibles2 they all      
contain the apocryphal books1 and these 
books are mingled with the other books1 
either promiscuously1 or by some system 
of classification which accepts them as 
equal in value with the other ,old      
,testament writings4 ,there is no       
indication in these old ,bibles that the
 apocryphal books are any less sacred or
 authoritative than the others4         
,another manuscript ,bible1 scarcely    
less venerable and no less precious than
 the ,vatican ,bible1 is the one known  
as the ,sinaitic manuscript ,this was   
discovered by ,constantine ,tischendorf1
 a ,german scholar1 in an ancient       
convent at the base of ,mount ,sinai4   
,the first journey of ,tischendorf to   
the ,sinaitic peninsula was undertaken  

in #ahdd1 for the express purpose of    
searching in the old monasteries of this
 neighborhood for ancient copies of the 
,scriptures that might be preserved in  
them4 ,the monks of this old convent    
admitted him to their ancient           
library1--a place not greatly frequented
 by them1--and there in the middle of   
the room he found a waste basket1 filled
 with leaves and torn pieces of old     
parchment gathered to be burned4 ,in    
looking them over he discovered one     
hundred and twenty leaves of a ,bible   
that seemed to him of great antiquity4  
,he asked for these leaves1 but when    
they found that he wanted them1 the     
monks began to suspect their value1 and 
permitted him to take only forty-three  
of them4 ,in #ahec he returned again1   
but this time could not find the rest of
 the precious manuscript4 ,he feared    
that it had been destroyed long before1 
but this was not the case4 ,stimulated  
by his desire to possess the loose      
leaves1 the monks had made search for   

the rest of the volume1 and1 using as   
samples the leaves they had refused to  
give him1 they had found them all and   
secreted them4 ,upon his second visit   
they did not show him the book1 however1
 nor reveal to him in any way its       
existence4  ,six years later1 in #ahei1 
he returned again1 this time fortified  
with a letter from the ,emperor of      
,russia1 the head of the ,greek ,church2
 and this mighty document made the monks
 open their treasures for his           
inspection4 ,he obtained permission1    
first1 to carry the old ,bible to ,cairo
 to be copied1 and finally1 under the   
imperial influence1 the monks           
surrendered it1 and suffered it to be   
removed to ,st4 ,petersburg1 where since
 #ahei it has been sacredly kept4  ,the 
,sinai ,bible1 says ,dr4 ,f4 ,p4        
,woodbury1 contains the ,new ,testament1
 the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 a portion of
 the ,shepherd of ,hennas1 and          
twenty-two books of the ,old ,testament4
 ,the whole is written on fine vellum   

made from antelope skins into the       
largest pages known in our ancient      
manuscripts4 ,while most of the oldest  
manuscripts have only three columns to  
the page1 and the ,vatican ,bible has   
three1 the ,sinai ,bible alone shows    
four4 ,the letters are somewhat larger  
than those of the ,vatican and much more
 roughly written4 ,the book contains    
many blunders in copying1 and there are 
a few cases of willful omission4 ,its   
remote age is attested by many of the   
same proofs that have been mentioned in 
the description of the ,vatican ,bible4 
,footnote3 ,from an interesting sketch  
of ,three ,old ,bibles1 in ,sunday      
,afternoon1 vol4 i pp4 #fe-ga4  ,it is  
known that the ,emperor ,constantine1 in
 the year #cca1 authorized the          
preparation of fifty costly and         
beautiful copies of the ,holy           
,scriptures under the care of ,eusebius 
of ,csarea4 ,tischendorf himself        
thinks--and his conjecture is accepted  
by other scholars--that this is one of  

those fifty ,bibles1 and that it was    
sent from ,byzantium to the monks of    
this convent by the ,emperor ,justinian1
 who was its founder4 ,at all events1 it
 is incontestably a manuscript of great 
age1 certainly of the fourth century1   
and probably of the first half of that  
century4  ,the other great ,bible is the
 one known as the ,alexandrian1 which   
was presented1 in #afbh1 to ,king       
,charles ,i of ,england by ,cyril       
,lucar1 patriarch of ,constantinople1   
who had brought it from ,alexandria4 ,it
 was transferred in #agec from the      
king's private library to the ,british  
,museum1 where it is now preserved4 ,it 
is bound in four folio volumes1 three of
 which contain the text of the ,old and 
one of the ,new ,testament4 ,the portion
 which contains the ,old ,testament is  
more perfect than that which contains   
the ,new1 quite a number of leaves      
having been lost from the latter4 ,the  
material of which this volume is        
composed is thin vellum1 the page being 

about thirteen inches high by ten broad1
 containing from fifty to fifty-two     
lines on each page1 each line consisting
 of about twenty letters4 ,the number of
 pages is #ggc1 of which #fdj are       
occupied with the text of the ,old      
,testament and #acc with the ,new4 ,the 
characters are uncial1 but larger than  
the ,vatican manuscript4 ,there are no  
accents or breathings1 no spaces between
 the letters or words save at the end of
 a paragraph1 and the contractions1     
which are not numerous1 are only such as
 are found in the oldest manuscripts4   
,the punctuation consists of a point    
placed at the end of a sentence1 usually
 on a level with the top of the         
preceding letter4 ,footnote3 ,encyc4    
,brit41 i4 p4 #dif4 ,the general verdict
 of scholars is that this manuscript    
belongs to about the middle of the fifth
 century4  ,the contents of this old    
,bible are curious1 and they are        
curiously arranged4 ,the first volume   
contains the ,pentateuch1 ,joshua1      

,judges1 ,ruth1 the two books of        
,samuel1 the two books of ,kings1 and   
the two books of ,chronicles4 ,the      
second contains1 first1 the twelve minor
 prophets 7from ,hosea to ,malachi71    
then ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 ,baruch1       
,lamentations1 ,the ,epistle of         
,jeremiah1 ,ezekiel1 ,daniel1 ,esther1  
,tobit1 ,judith1 ,esdras ,i4 7the       
apocryphal ,esdras71 ,esdras ,,ii4      
7including our ,nehemiah and part of our
 ,ezra71 and the four books of the      
,maccabees4 ,the third volume contains  
,an ,epistle of ,athanasius to          
,marcellenus on the ,psalms2 ,the       
,hypothesis of ,eusebius on the ,psalms2
 then the ,book of the ,psalms1 of which
 there are one hundred and fifty-one1   
and fifteen ,hymns2 then ,job1          
,proverbs1 ,ecclesiastes1 ,canticles1   
,wisdom of ,solomon1 and                
,ecclesiasticus1 or ,sirach4 ,the fourth
 volume contains the four ,gospels1 the 
,acts1 the seven ,catholic ,epistles    
7one of ,james1 two of ,peter1 three of 

,john1 and one of ,jude71 fourteen      
,epistles of ,paul 7including the one to
 the ,hebrews71 ,the ,revelation of     
,john1 two ,epistles of ,clement to the 
,corinthians1 and eight ,psalms of      
,solomon4  ,this1 it will be admitted1  
is a generous ,bible4 ,it contains most 
of the apocryphal books1 and several    
others that we do not find in the other 
collections4 ,it is probable that the   
works of ,athanasius and ,eusebius on   
the ,psalms were admitted rather as     
introduction or commentary than as text2
 but the rest1 judging from the         
positions in which they stand1 must have
 been regarded as ,sacred ,scriptures4  
,these1 then1 are the three oldest1 most
 complete1 and most trustworthy copies  
of the ,sacred ,scriptures now in       
existence4 ,by all scholars they are    
regarded as precious beyond price2 and  
any reading in which they agree would   
probably be regarded as the right       
reading1 if all the other manuscripts in
 the world were against them4  ,i have  

suggested that these old manuscripts do 
not always agree4 ,the fact is that no  
two of them are exactly alike1 and that 
there are a great many slight           
differences between those which are most
 closely assimilated4 ,of these         
differences ,professor ,westcott says   
that there cannot be less than          
#abj1jjj1--though of these a very large 
proportion consists of differences of   
spelling and isolated aberrations of    
scribes4 ,it is not generally difficult 
for the student on comparing them to    
tell which is the right reading4 ,a word
 may be misspelled1 for example1 in     
several different ways2 the student     
knows the right way to spell it1 and is 
not in doubt concerning the word4       
,probably1 says ,mr4 ,westcott1 there   
are not more than from sixteen hundred  
to two thousand places in which the true
 reading is a matter of uncertainty1    
even if we include in this questions of 
order1 inflection1 and orthography2 the 
doubtful readings by which the sense is 

in any way affected are very much fewer1
 and those of dogmatic importance can be
 easily numbered4  ,the ways in which   
these errors and variations arose are   
easily explained4 ,the men who copied   
these manuscripts were careful men1 many
 of them1 but all of them were fallible4
 ,sometimes they would mistake a letter 
for another letter much like it1 and    
change the form of a word in that way2  
sometimes there would be two clauses of 
a sentence ending with the same word1   
and the eye of the copyist1 glancing    
back to the manuscript after writing the
 first of these words1 would alight upon
 the second one1 and go on from that2 so
 that the clause preceding it would be  
omitted4 ,sometimes in copying the      
continuous writing of the uncial        
manuscripts1 mistakes would be made in  
dividing words4 ,for example1 if a      
number of ,english words1 written in    
close order1 with no spaces between     
them1 were given you to copy1 and you   
found infancy1 you might make two words 

of it or one2 and if you were a little  
careless you might write it in fancy    
when it should be infancy1 or vice      
versa4 ,a case might arise in which it  
would be difficult for you to tell      
whether it should be in fancy or        
infancy4 ,such uncertainties the        
copyists encountered1 and such mistakes 
they sometimes made4  ,mistakes of      
memory they also made in copying1 just  
as ,i sometimes do when ,i undertake to 
copy a passage from ,mr4 ,westcott or   
,mr4 ,davidson into one of these        
chapters4 ,i look upon the book1 and    
take a sentence in my mind1 but perhaps 
while ,i am writing it down ,i will     
change slightly the order of the words1 
or it may be put a word of my own in the
 place of another that much resembles   
it1 as but for though1 or from for out  
of1 or doubtless for without doubt4 ,i  
try to copy very exactly1 but there are1
 unquestionably1 now and then such slips
 as these in my quotations4 ,and such   
mistakes were made by the copyists of   

the ,old ,scriptures4  ,there are some  
instances of intentional changes4       
,sometimes a copyist evidently          
substituted a word that he thought was  
plainer for one that was more obscure2 a
 more elegant word for one less elegant2
 a grammatical construction for one that
 was not grammatical4  ,other           
differences have arisen from the habit  
of some of the copyists or owners of    
manuscripts of writing glosses1 or brief
 explanatory notes1 on the margin4 ,some
 of these marginalia were copied by     
subsequent scribes into the text1 where1
 in our version1 they still remain4     
,some of them1 however1 were removed in 
the late revision4  ,the great majority 
of these errors are1 however1 as ,i have
 said1 extremely unimportant2 and nearly
 all of them seem to have arisen in the 
ways ,i have suggested--through simple  
carelessness1 and not with any intent of
 corrupting the text4  ,the translations
 of the ,bible which were made in early 
days into other languages than our own  

must be dismissed with the briefest     
mention4 ,the most important version of 
the ,old ,testament was the ,septuagint1
 of which nothing more needs to be said4
  ,you will remember that the ,hebrew   
was a dead language while our ,lord was 
on the earth1 the ,jews of ,palestine   
speaking the ,aramaic4 ,for their use1  
translations of the ,hebrew into the    
,aramaic1 called ,targums1 were made4   
,there is a great variety of these1 and 
there are many opinions about their age2
 but it is not likely that the oldest of
 them was committed to writing before   
the second century ,a4 ,d4 ,they are    
curious specimens of the translator's   
work1 combining text and commentary in a
 remarkable manner4 ,additions and      
changes are freely made2 the simple     
sentences of the old record are greatly 
expanded2 not only is a spade generally 
called a useful ligneous and ferruginous
 agricultural implement1 but many things
 are said concerning the aforesaid spade
 which ,moses or ,david or ,isaiah never

 dreamed of saying4  ,for example1 in   
,judges v4 #aj1 the ,hebrew is literally
 translated in our ,english ,bible thus3
 ,speak1 ye that ride on white asses1 ye
 that sit in judgment and walk by the   
way4 ,the ,targum of ,jonathan          
expatiates thereon as follows3 ,those   
who had interrupted their occupations   
are riding on asses covered with many   
colored caparisons1 and they ride about 
freely in all the territory of ,israel1 
and congregate to sit in judgment4 ,they
 walk in their old ways1 and are        
speaking of the power ,thou hast shown  
in the land of ,israel1 etc4 ,this may  
be pronounced a remarkably free         
translation2 and the ,targums generally 
evince a similar liberality of sentiment
 and phraseology4  ,besides these1 the  
ancient translations of the ,bible1     
which must be mentioned1 are the ,old   
,latin1 made in the second century1 out 
of which1 by many revisions1 grew that  
,latin ,vulgate which is now used in the
 ,catholic ritual2 an ancient ,syriac   

version of about the same age2 two      
,egyptian versions1 in different        
dialects1 made in the third century2 the
 ,peshito-,syriac1 the ,gothic1 and the 
,ethiopic in the fourth1 and the        
,armenian in the fifth2 besides several 
later translations1 including the       
,arabic and the ,slavonic4 ,these       
ancient translations are all of value to
 modern scholars in helping them to     
reach more certain conclusions          
respecting the nature of the ,sacred    
,scriptures and the right reading in    
disputed passages4  ,the ages which we  
have been traversing in this            
chapter--when the ,bible was a          
manuscript--were ages of great darkness4
 ,the copies of the book were few1 and  
the common people could neither possess 
them nor read them4 ,it is hard for us  
who have had the book in our hands from 
our infancy1 who have gone to it so     
freely for light in darkness1 for       
comfort in sorrow1 for wisdom to work   
with1 for weapons to fight with1 to     

understand how men could have lived the 
life of faith without it2 how a godly   
seed could have been nourished in the   
earth without the sincere milk of the   
word for them to feed on4  ,it was      
indeed a great privation that they      
suffered1 but we must not suppose that  
they were left without witness4 ,for    
there is another and even a clearer     
revelation than the written word1 and   
that is a godly life4 ,godly lives there
 were in all these dark times2 and it   
was at their fires that the torch of    
gospel truth was kindled and kept       
burning4 ,there may be reason for a     
question whether we have not come to    
trust in these times too much in a word 
that is written1 and to undervalue that 
other revelation which ,god is making of
 his truth and love in the characters of
 his children4 ,for it is only in the   
light that ,christ is constantly        
manifesting to the world in the lives of
 men that we can see any meaning in the 
words of the book4 ,the ,christian1 says

 ,dr4 ,christlieb1 is the world's       
,bible4 ,this is the word that is known 
and read of men4 ,let it be our care to 
make it1 not an infallible1 but a clear1
 an adequate1 and a safe revelation of  
the truth and love of ,god to men4      
,,chapter ,,xiii4  ,,how ,,much ,,is    
,,the ,,bible ,,worth8    ,of the ,bible
 as a book among books1 of the human    
elements which enter into its           
composition1 some account has been given
 in the preceding chapters4 ,but in     
these studies the whole story of the    
,bible has not been told4 ,there is     
need1 therefore1 that we should enlarge 
our view somewhat1 and take more        
directly into account certain elements  
with which we have not hitherto been    
chiefly concerned4  ,our study has1     
indeed1 made a few things plain4 ,among 
them is the certainty that the ,bible is
 not an infallible ,book1 in the sense  
in which it is popularly supposed to be 
infallible4 ,when we study the history  
of the several books1 the history of the

 canon1 the history of the distribution 
and reproduction of the manuscript      
copies1 and the history of the          
versions1--when we discover that the    
various readings of the differing       
manuscripts amount to one hundred and   
fifty thousand1 the impossibility of    
maintaining the verbal inerrancy of the 
,bible becomes evident4 ,we see how     
human ignorance and error have been     
suffered to mingle with this stream of  
living water throughout all its course2 
if our assurance of salvation were made 
to depend upon our knowledge that every 
word of the ,bible was of divine origin1
 our hopes of eternal life would be     
altogether insecure4  ,the book is not  
infallible historically4 ,it is a       
veracious record2 we may depend upon the
 truthfulness of the outline which it   
gives us of the history of the ,jewish  
people2 but the discrepancies and       
contradictions which appear here and    
there upon its pages show that its      
writers were not miraculously protected 

from mistakes in dates and numbers and  
the order of events4  ,it is not        
infallible scientifically4 ,it is idle  
to try to force the narrative of        
,genesis into an exact correspondence   
with geological science4 ,it is a hymn  
of creation1 wonderfully beautiful and  
pure2 the central truths of monotheistic
 religion and of modern science are     
involved in it2 but it is not intended  
to give us the scientific history of    
creation1 and the attempt to make it    
bear this construction is highly        
injudicious4  ,it is not infallible     
morally4 ,by this ,i mean that portions 
of this revelation involve an imperfect 
morality4 ,many things are here         
commanded which it would be wrong for us
 to do4 ,this is not saying that these  
commands were not divinely wise for the 
people to whom they were given2 nor is  
it denying that the morality of the ,new
 ,testament1 which is the fulfillment   
and consummation of the moral progress  
which the book records1 is a perfect    

morality2 it is simply asserting that   
the stages of this progress from a lower
 to a higher morality are here clearly  
marked2 that the standards of the       
earlier time are therefore inadequate   
and misleading in these later times2 and
 that any man who accepts the ,bible as 
a code of moral rules1 all of which are 
equally binding1 will be led into the   
gravest errors4 ,it is no more true that
 the ceremonial legislation of the ,old 
,testament is obsolete than that large  
portions of the moral legislation are   
obsolete4 ,the notions of the writers of
 these books concerning their duties to 
,god were dim and imperfect2 so were    
their notions concerning their duties to
 man4 ,all the truth that they could    
receive was given to them2 but there    
were many truths which they could not   
receive1 which to us are as plain as the
 daylight4  ,not to recognize the       
partialness and imperfection of this    
record in all these respects is to be   
guilty of a grave disloyalty to the     

kingdom of the truth4 ,with all these   
facts staring him in the face1 the      
attempt of any intelligent man to       
maintain the theoretical and ideal      
infallibility of all parts of these     
writings is a criminal blunder4 ,nor is 
there any use in loudly asserting the   
inerrancy of these books1 with vehement 
denunciations of all who call it in     
question1 and then in a breath admitting
 that there may be some errors and      
discrepancies and interpolations4       
,perfection is perfection4 ,to stoutly  
affirm that a thing is perfect1 and then
 admit that it may be in some respects  
imperfect1 is an insensate procedure4   
,infallibility is infallibility4 ,the   
,scriptures are1 or they are not1       
infallible4 ,the admission that there   
may be a few errors gives every man the 
right1 nay it lays upon him the duty1 of
 finding what those errors are4 ,our    
friends who so sturdily assert the      
traditional theory can hardly be aware  
of the extent to which they stultify    

themselves when their sweeping and      
reiterated assertion that the ,bible can
 never contain a mistake is followed1 as
 it always must be1 by their timid and  
deprecatory1 hardly ever4 ,the old      
rabbinical theory1 as adopted and       
extended by some of the                 
post-,reformation theologians1 that the 
,bible was verbally dictated by ,god and
 is absolutely accurate in every word1  
letter1 and vowel-point1 and that it is 
therefore blasphemy to raise a question 
concerning any part of it1 is a         
consistent theory4 ,between this and a  
free but reverent inquiry into the      
,bible itself1 to discover what human   
elements it contains and how it is      
affected by them1 there is no middle    
ground4 ,that it is useless and         
mischievous to make for the ,bible      
claims that it nowhere makes for        
itself1--to hold and teach a theory     
concerning it which at once breaks down 
when an intelligent man begins to study 
it with open mind--is beginning to be   

very plain4 ,the quibbling1 the         
concealment1 the disingenuousness which 
this method of using the ,bible involves
 are not conducive to ,christian        
integrity4 ,this kind of lying for ,god 
has driven hundreds of thousands already
 into irreconcilable alienation from the
 ,christian church4 ,it is time to stop 
it4  ,how did this theory of the        
infallibility of the ,bible arise8      
,those who have followed these          
discussions to this point know that it  
has not always been held by the         
,christian church4 ,the history of the  
canon1 told with any measure of         
truthfulness1 will make this plain4 ,the
 history of the variations between the  
,septuagint and the ,hebrew shows1      
beyond the shadow of a doubt1 that this 
theory of the unchangeable and absolute 
divinity of the words of the ,scripture 
had no practical hold upon transcribers 
and copyists in the early ,jewish       
church4 ,the ,new ,testament writers    
could not have consistently held such a 

theory respecting the ,old ,testament   
books1 else they would not have quoted  
them1 as they did1 with small care for  
verbal accuracy4 ,they believed them to 
be substantially true1 and therefore    
they give the substance of them in their
 quotations2 but there is no such       
slavish attention to the letter as there
 must have been if they had regarded    
them as verbally dictated by ,god       
himself4 ,the ,christian ,fathers were  
inclined1 no doubt1 to accept the       
rabbinical theories of inspiration      
respecting the ,old ,testament2 but they
 sometimes avoid the difficulties       
growing out of manifest errors in the   
text by a theory of an inner sense which
 is faultless1 frankly admitting that   
the natural meaning cannot always be    
defended4 ,as to the early ,reformers1  
we have seen how freely they handled the
 ,sacred ,writings1 submitting them to a
 scrutiny which they would not have     
ventured upon if they had believed      
concerning them what we have been       

taught4 ,it was not until the period    
succeeding the ,reformation that this   
dogma of ,biblical ,infallibility was   
clearly formulated and imposed upon the 
,protestant churches4 ,as taught by     
,quenstedt and ,voetius and ,calovius1  
the dogma asserts that not only the     
substance of truth and the views        
proposed in their minutest detail1 but  
even the identical words1 all and in    
particular1 were supplied and dictated  
by the ,holy ,ghost4 ,not a word is     
contained in the ,holy ,scriptures which
 is not in the strictest sense inspired1
 the very interpunctuation not          
excepted4444 ,errors of any sort        
whatever1 even verbal or grammatical1 as
 well as all inelegancies of style1 are 
to be denied as unworthy of the ,divine 
,spirit who is throughout the primary   
author of the ,bible4 ,footnote3 ,the   
,doctrine of ,sacred ,scripture1 ii4 p4 
#bji4 ,this view was long maintained    
with all strictness1 and many a man has 
been made a heretic for denying it4     

,within the last century the form of the
 doctrine has been somewhat modified by 
theologians1 yet the substance of it is 
still regarded as essential orthodoxy4  
,dr4 ,charles ,hodge1 in his ,theology1 
vol4 i4 p4 #aeb1 says1 ,protestants hold
 that the ,scriptures of the ,old and   
,new ,testaments are the word of ,god1  
written under the inspiration of ,god   
the ,holy ,ghost1 and are therefore     
infallible1 and consequently free from  
all error1 whether of doctrine1 of fact1
 or of precept4 ,and again 7p4 #afc71   
,all the books of ,scripture are equally
 inspired4 ,all alike are infallible in 
what they teach4 ,such is the doctrine  
now held by the great majority of       
,christians4 ,intelligent pastors do not
 hold it1 but the body of the laity have
 no other conception4  ,whence is it    
derived8 ,where do the teachers quoted  
above get their authority for their     
affirmations8  ,not1 as we have seen1   
from any statements of the ,bible       
itself4 ,there is not one word in the   

,bible which affirms or implies that    
this character of inerrancy attaches to 
the entire collection of writings1 or to
 any one of them4  ,the doctrine arose1 
as ,i have said1 in the seventeenth     
century1 and it was in part1 no doubt1 a
 reflection of the teaching of the later
 rabbins1 whose fantastic notions about 
the origin of their sacred books ,i have
 before alluded to4 ,it was also        
developed1 as a polemical necessity1 in 
the exigencies of that conflict with the
 ,roman ,catholic theologians which     
followed the ,reformation4 ,the eminent 
,german scholar and saint1 ,professor   
,tholuck1 gives the following account of
 its origin3  ,in proportion as         
controversy1 sharpened by ,jesuitism1   
made the ,protestant party sensible of  
an externally fortified ground of       
combat1 in that same proportion did     
,protestantism seek1 by the exaltation  
of the outward authoritative character  
of the ,sacred ,writings1 to recover    
that infallible authority which it had  

lost through its rejection of infallible
 councils and the infallible authority  
of the ,pope4 ,in this manner arose1 not
 earlier than the seventeenth century1  
those sentiments which regarded the     
,holy ,scripture as the infallible      
production of the ,divine ,spirit--in   
its entire contents and its very        
form--so that not only the sense but    
also the words1 the letters1 the ,hebrew
 vowel points1 and the very punctuation 
were regarded as proceeding from the    
,spirit of ,god4 ,footnote3 ,theological
 ,essays1 collected by ,george ,r4      
,noyes4 ,the fact that the doctrine had 
this origin is itself suspicious4 ,a    
theory which is framed in the heat of a 
great controversy1 by one party in the  
church1 is apt to be somewhat extreme4  
,the strength of the doctrine lies1     
however1 in the fact that it is a       
theological inference from the doctrine 
of ,god4 ,god is the author of the      
,bible1 men have said2 ,god is          
omniscient2 he can make no mistakes2    

therefore the ,book must be infallible4 
,to deny that it is infallible is to    
deny that it is ,god's book2 if it is   
not his book it is worthless4 ,or1      
putting it in another form1 they have   
said1 ,the ,bible is an inspired book4  
,god is the source of inspiration4 ,he  
cannot inspire men to write error4      
,therefore every word of the inspired   
book must be true4 ,this is what the    
logicians call an a priori argument4    
,the view of what inspiration is1 and of
 what the ,bible is1 are deduced from   
our theory of ,god4 ,it amounts to just 
this3 ,if ,god is what we think him to  
be1 he must do what seems wise to us4   
,this is hardly a safe argument4        
,doubtless we would have said beforehand
 that if ,god1 who is all-wise and      
all-powerful1 should create a world1 he 
would make one free from suffering and  
every form of evil4 ,we find1 however1  
that he has not made such a world4 ,and 
it may be wiser for us1 instead of      
making up our minds beforehand what ,god

 must do1 to try and find out what he   
has done4 ,it might seem to us1         
doubtless1 that if he has given us a    
revelation1 it must be a faultless      
revelation4 ,but has he8 ,that is the   
question4 ,we can only know by studying 
the revelation itself4 ,we have no right
 to determine beforehand what it must   
be4 ,we might have said with equal      
confidence1 that if ,god wished to have 
his truth taught in the world1 he would 
certainly send infallible teachers4 ,he 
has not done so4 ,the treasure of his   
truth is in earthen vessels1 to-day4    
,has it not always been so8  ,the       
trouble in this whole matter arises from
 the fact that men have made up their   
theories of the ,bible out of their     
ideas about ,god1 and have then gone to 
work to fit the facts of the ,bible to  
their preconceived theories4 ,this has  
required a great deal of stretching and 
twisting and lopping off here and there2
 the truth has been badly distorted1    
sometimes mutilated4 ,the changed view  

of the ,bible1 which greatly alarms some
 good people1 arises from the fact that 
certain honest men have determined to go
 directly to the ,bible itself and find 
out by studying it what manner of book  
it is4 ,they have discovered that it is 
not precisely such a book as it has been
 believed to be1 and the answer that    
they make to those who hold the old     
theory about it is simply this3 ,we     
cannot believe what you have told us    
about the ,bible1 because the ,bible    
contradicts you4 ,it is because we      
believe the ,bible itself that we reject
 your theory4 ,we believe that the      
,bible is an inspired book1 nay1 that it
 is by eminence ,the ,inspired ,book2   
but when you ask us ',what is an        
inspired book8' instead of making up a  
definition of inspiration out of our own
 heads1 we only say1 ',it is such a book
 as the ,bible is1' and then we proceed 
to frame our definition of inspiration  
by the study of the ,bible4 ,therefore1 
when you say that inspiration must imply

 infallibility1 we answer1 ,no2 it does 
not2 for here is ,the ,inspired ,book   
and it is not infallible4  ,in what     
sense the book is inspired we may be    
able1 after a little1 to see more       
clearly4 ,for the present ,i only desire
 to point out the sources of the        
traditional doctrine of the ,bible1 and 
the sources of the new doctrine4 ,the   
one is the result of the speculations of
 men about what the ,bible must be2 the 
other is the result of a careful and    
reverent study of the ,bible itself4    
,what1 then1 do we find the ,bible to   
be8  ,i4 ,it is the book of             
righteousness4 ,no other book in the    
world fixes our thoughts so steadily    
upon the great interest of character4   
,whatever else the ,bible may show us or
 may fail to show us1 it does keep      
always before us the fact that the one  
great concern of every man is to be     
right in heart and in life4             
,righteousness tendeth to life2         
righteousness is salvation2 ,jehovah is 

,he who loveth righteousness and hateth 
iniquity1 and in his favor is life2     
these are the truths which form the very
 substance of this revelation4 ,it is   
quite true that in the application of   
this principle to the affairs of every  
day1 the early records show us much     
confusion and uncertainty2 the          
definitions of righteousness which      
sufficed for the people of that time    
would not suffice for us at all2 but the
 fact remains that the only interest of 
this ,book in the individuals and the   
races which it brings before us is in   
their loyalty or disloyalty to that     
ideal of conduct which it always lifts  
up before us4 ,righteousness is life2   
righteousness is salvation2 this is the 
one message of the ,bible to men4 ,there
 are rites and ceremonies1 but these are
 not the principal thing2 ,to obey is   
better than sacrifice1 and to hearken   
than the fat of rams4 ,he hath showed   
thee1 ,o man1 what is good2 and what    
doth the ,lord require of thee1 but to  

do justly1 and to love mercy1 and to    
walk humbly with thy ,god8 ,this great  
truth of the ,bible has been but        
imperfectly apprehended1 even among     
modern ,christians2 there is always a   
tendency to make the belief in sound    
dogma1 or the performance of decorous   
rites1 or the experience of emotional   
raptures the principal thing2 but the   
testimony of the ,bible to the supremacy
 of character and conduct is clear and  
convincing1 and the world is coming to  
understand it4  ,now for any man who    
cares for the right1 to whom character  
is more precious than anything else in  
the world1 this book is worth more than 
any other book can be4 ,even the ,old   
,testament narratives1 indistinctly as  
they reveal the real nature of true     
conduct to us in this day1 show us      
plainly the fact that nothing else in   
the world is to be compared with it2 and
 the struggles and temptations of the   
heroes of that old book are full of     
instruction for us2 their failures and  

follies and sins admonish and warn us2  
their steadfastness and fidelity inspire
 and hearten us4  ,,ii4 ,the ,bible is  
the record of the development of the    
kingdom of righteousness in the world4  
,man knows intuitively that he ought to 
do right2 his notion of what is right is
 continually being purified and         
enlarged4 ,the ,bible is the record of  
this moral progress in the one nation of
 the earth to which morality has been   
the great concern4 ,we have seen1       
clearly enough1 the imperfection of the 
ethical standards to which the early    
,hebrew legislation was made to conform2
 we have also seen that this legislation
 was always a little in advance of the  
popular morality1 leading it on to purer
 conceptions and better practices4 ,the 
legislation concerning divorce1 the     
legislation regulating blood-vengeance1 
recognizes the evils with which it deals
 and accommodates itself to them1 but   
always with the purpose and the result  
of giving to men a larger thought and a 

better standard4 ,laws which conformed  
to our moral ideal would have been      
powerless to control such a             
semi-barbarous people as the ,hebrews   
were when they came out of ,egypt4 ,the 
higher morality must be imparted little 
by little2 one principle after another  
must be drilled into their apprehension2
 they could not well be learning more   
than one or two simple lessons at a     
time1 and while they were learning      
these1 other coarse and cruel and savage
 practices of theirs must be winked at1 
as ,paul says4 ,against any rule more   
strict at this early time the ,hebrews  
would have revolted2 the divine wisdom  
of this legislation is seen in this     
method which takes men as they are1 and 
does for them the thing that is         
feasible1 patiently leading them on and 
up to higher ground4 ,if you would seize
 a running horse by the rein and stop   
him1 you had better run with him for a  
little4 ,this homely parable illustrates
 much of the ,old ,testament legislation

 which we find so defective1 when judged
 by our standards4  ,it is in this      
larger sense that we see the signs of   
divinity in this old ,book4 ,it is a    
book of inspiration because it is the   
record of an inspired or divinely guided
 development2 because the life it shows 
as unfolding is divine2 because the goal
 to which we see the people steadily    
conducted in its vivid chapters is the  
goal which ,god has marked for human    
progress2 because it gives us the origin
 and growth of the kingdom of ,god in   
the world4  ,whence came1 asks one1 and 
of what manner of spirit is this        
anti-historic power in ,israel and the  
,bible8 ,some inner principle of        
development struggles against the       
outward historical environment1 and will
 not rest until it prevails4 ,what was  
it which selected ,israel1 and in one   
narrow land1 while all the surrounding  
country was sinking1 lifted man up in   
spite of himself8 which along the course
 of one national history carried on a   

progressive development of religious    
life and truth1 while other peoples1    
though taught by many wise men and      
seers1 and not without their truths1    
still can show no one connected and     
progressive revelation like this8       
,footnote3 ,old ,faiths in ,new ,light1 
p4 #ha4  ,what is the power that has    
wrought all this but the divine ,power8 
,if you ask for a proof of the existence
 of ,god1 ,i point you to the life of   
the ,jewish people as the ,bible records
 it4 ,that history is the revelation of 
,god4 ,in the record of this nation's   
life1 in its privileges and its         
vicissitudes1 its captivities and its   
restorations1 its blessings and its     
chastenings1 its institutions and its   
laws1 its teachers and its legislators1 
its seers and its lawgivers1 in all the 
forces that combine to make up the great
 movement of the national life1 ,i see  
,god present all the while1 shaping the 
ends of this nation1 no matter how      
perversely it may rough-hew them1 till  

at last it stands on an elevation far   
above the other nations1 breathing a    
better atmosphere1 thinking worthier and
 more spiritual thoughts of ,god1       
obeying a far purer moral law1 holding  
fast a nobler ideal of                  
righteousness1--polytheism gradually and
 finally rooted out of the national     
consciousness2 the family established   
and honored as in no other nation2 woman
 lifted up to a dignity and purity known
 nowhere else in the world2 the ,sabbath
 of rest sanctified2 the principles of  
the decalogue fastened in the           
convictions of the people1 the sure     
foundations laid of the kingdom of ,god 
in the world4  ,we are quite too apt    
unduly to disparage ,judaism4 ,doubtless
 the formalism that our ,lord found in  
it needed rebuke2 its worship and its   
morality were yet far away from the     
ideal when ,jesus came to earth2        
nevertheless1 compared with all the     
peoples round about them even           
then--compared with classic ,greeks and 

noble ,romans--the ethical and spiritual
 development of the ,jews had reached a 
higher stage4 ,it is not extravagant to 
claim for this race the moral leadership
 of the world4 ,hear ,ernest ,renan1 no 
champion of orthodoxy1 as you know3 ,i  
am eager1 gentlemen1--,i quote from a   
lecture of his on ,the ,share of the    
,semitic ,people in the ,history of     
,civilization1--to come at the prime    
service which the ,semitic race has     
rendered to the world2 its peculiar     
work1 its providential mission1 if ,i   
may so express myself4 ,we owe to the   
,semitic race neither political life1   
art1 poetry1 philosophy1 nor science4   
,we owe to them religion4 ,the whole    
world--we except ,india1 ,china1 ,japan1
 and tribes altogether savage--has      
adopted the ,semitic religions4         
,speaking then of the gradual decay of  
the various pagan faiths of the ,aryan  
races1 ,renan continues3 ,it is         
precisely at this epoch that the        
civilized world finds itself face to    

face with the ,jewish faith4 ,based upon
 the clear and simple dogma of the      
divine unity1 discarding naturalism and 
pantheism by the marvelously terse      
phrase1 ',in the beginning ,god created 
the heavens and the earth1' possessing a
 law1 a book1 the depository of grand   
moral precepts and of an elevated       
religious poetry1 ,judaism had an       
incontestable superiority1 and it might 
have been foreseen then that some day   
the world would become ,jewish1 that is 
to say1 would forsake the old mythology 
for monotheism4 ,footnote3 ,religious   
,history and ,criticism1 pp4 #aei1 #afj4
  ,here is the testimony of a man who   
can be suspected of no undue leanings   
toward the religion of the ,bible1 to   
the fact that the world is indebted for 
its great thoughts of religion to the   
,semitic races1 and chiefly to the      
,hebrew race2 that the religion of      
,judaism1 brought into comparison with  
the other religions1 is incontestably   
superior4 ,now any man who believes in  

religion and in ,god must believe that  
the people to whom such a task was      
committed must have been trained by ,god
 to perform it4 ,the history of this    
nation will then be the history of this 
training4 ,that is exactly what the ,old
 ,testament is4 ,no disputes over the   
nature of inspiration must be suffered  
to obscure this great fact4 ,the ,old   
,testament ,scriptures do contain in    
biography and history1 in statute and   
story and song and sermon1 the records  
of the life of the nation to which ,god 
at sundry times and in divers manners   
was revealing himself2 which he was     
preparing to be the bearer of the torch 
of his own truth into all the world4    
,and now ,i ask whether anybody needs to
 be told that these records are         
precious1 precious above all price8 ,are
 there any authentic portions of them   
that any man can afford to despise8 ,is 
not every step in the progress of this  
people out of savagery into a spiritual 
faith1 matter of the profoundest        

interest to every human soul8 ,even the 
dullness and ignorance and crudity of   
this people1--even the crookedness and  
blindness of their leaders and teachers1
 are full of instruction for us2 they   
show us with what materials and what    
instruments the divine wisdom and       
patience wrought out this great result4 
,what other book is there that can      
compare in value with this book1 which  
tells us the way of ,god with the people
 whom he chose1 as ,renan declares1 to  
teach the world religion8 ,and when one 
has firmly grasped this great fact1 that
 the ,bible contains the history of the 
religious development of the ,jewish    
people under providential care and      
tuition1 how little is he troubled by   
the small difficulties which grow out of
 theories of inspiration6 ,we can       
listen1 says ,dr4 ,newman ,smyth1 with  
incurious complacency while small       
disputants discuss vehemently the story 
of the ark or ,jonah's strange          
adventure4444 ,after all the work of the

 critics1 the ,bible still remains1 the 
great1 sublime1 enduring work of the    
,eternal who loves righteousness and    
hates iniquity4 ,footnote3 ,old ,faiths 
in ,new ,light1 pp4 #fj1 #fa4  ,but what
 have ,i been vindicating8 ,the ,bible8 
,nay1 ,i have carefully restricted my   
argument to the ,old ,testament4 ,it is 
in behalf of the ,old ,testament        
writings alone that ,i have sought to   
establish this exalted claim4 ,what ,i  
have shown you is only the pedestal on  
which the beauty and strength of the    
,bible rests1 the enduring portals which
 open into the glory that excelleth4    
,the ,old ,testament shows us the       
progressive revelation of ,god to the   
,jewish people2 the ,new ,testament     
gives us the consummation of that work1 
the perfect flower of that growth of    
centuries4 ,after shadows and hints and 
refracted lights of prophecy1 breaks at 
last upon the world the ,light that     
lighteth every man6 ,when the fullness  
of time had come1 ,god sent forth his   

,son4 ,it was for this that the age-long
 discipline of this people had been     
preparing them4 ,true1 ,he came to his  
own1 and they received him not1 but     
where else in the world would the seed  
of his kingdom have found any lodgment  
at all8 ,the multitude rejected him1 but
 there was a remnant who did receive    
him1 and to whom he gave power to become
 the sons of ,god4 ,so the word of ,god1
 that had been painfully and dimly      
communicated to the ancient people in   
laws and ordinances and prophecies1 in  
providential mercies and chastenings1 in
 lives of saints and prophets and       
martyrs1 was now made flesh1 and dwelt  
among men full of grace and truth1 and  
they beheld his glory4  ,it is here that
 we find the real meaning of the ,bible4
 ,the end1 as ,canon ,mozley has so     
strongly shown1 is the test of a        
progressive revelation4 ,jesus ,christ1 
who is himself the ,word1 toward whom   
these laws and prophecies point1 and in 
whom they culminate1 is indeed the      

perfect ,revelation of ,god4 ,from his  
judgment there is no appeal2 at his feet
 the wisest of us must sit and learn the
 way of life4 ,with his words all these 
old ,scriptures must be compared2 so far
 as they agree with his teachings we may
 take them as eternal truth2 those      
portions of them which fall below this  
standard1 we may pass by as a partial   
revelation upon us no longer binding4   
,he himself has given us1 in the ,sermon
 on the ,mount1 the method by which we  
are to test the older ,scriptures4 ,when
 we refuse to apply his method and go on
 to declare every portion of those old  
records authoritative1 we are not       
honoring him4 ,the mischief and bane of 
the traditional theory is that it       
equalizes things which are utterly      
unlike4 ,when it says that all the books
 of the ,scripture are equally inspired2
 all alike are infallible in what they  
teach1 it puts the ,gospels on the same 
level with ,deuteronomy and             
,ecclesiastes and ,esther4 ,the effect  

of this is not to lift the latter up1   
but to drag the former down4 ,they are  
not on the same level2 it is treason to 
our ,master ,christ to say that they are
 alike2 the one is as much higher than  
the other as the heavens are higher than
 the earth4  ,it is here1 then1 in the  
simple veracious records that bring     
before us the life of ,christ1 that we  
have the very ,word of ,god4 ,whatever  
else the four ,gospels may or may not   
be1 they certainly do contain the story 
of the ,life that has been for many     
centuries the light and the hope of the 
world4 ,it is the same unique ,person   
who stands before us in every one of    
these narratives1--    ,so meek1        
forgiving1 godlike1 high1    ,so        
glorious in humility4  ,what fault has  
criticism to find with this ,life8 ,what
 word or deed is here ascribed to him   
that is not worthy of him1 that is not  
like him8 ,is it any wonder to us when  
we read this record through1 that the   
guileless ,nathanael cried out as he    

communed with him1 ,rabbi1 thou art the 
,son of ,god1 thou art the ,king of     
,israel4  ,if1 then1 the ,new ,testament
 gives us the artless record of the life
 and words of this divine ,person1 the  
,son of ,god and the ,saviour of the    
world2 if it brings ,him before us and  
manifests to us1 so far as words can do 
it1 his power and his glory2 if it shows
 us how1 by bearing witness to the truth
 in his life and in his death1 he       
established in the world the kingdom    
which for long ages had been preparing2 
if it makes known to us the messages he 
brought of pardon and salvation2 if it  
gives us the record of the planting and 
training of his church in the early     
ages1 is there any need that ,i should  
go about to praise and magnify its worth
 to the children of men8 ,if light is   
worth anything to those who sit in      
darkness1 or hope to those who are      
oppressed with tormenting doubt2 if     
wisdom is to be desired by those who are
 in perplexity1 and comfort by those who

 are in trouble1 and peace by those     
whose hearts are full of strife1 and    
forgiveness by those who bear the burden
 of sin2 if strength is a good gift to  
the weak1 and rest to the weary1 and    
heaven to the dying1 and the eternal    
life of ,god to the fainting soul of    
man1 then the book that tells us of     
,jesus ,christ and his salvation is not 
to be compared with any other book on   
earth for preciousness2 it is the one   
book that every one of us ought to know 
by heart4  ,the value of the ,bible1 the
 greatness of the ,bible1 are in this   
,life that it discloses to us4 ,it is   
upon ,jesus1 says a modern rationalist1 
that the whole ,bible turns4 ,in this   
lies the value1 not only of the ,new    
,testament1 a great part of which refers
 to him directly1 but of the ,old       
,testament as well4 ,rationalist though 
he is1 no man could have stated the     
truth more clearly4 ,it is upon ,jesus  
that the whole ,bible turns4 ,the ,old  
,testament shows us the way preparing by

 which the swift feet of the messengers 
approach that tell us of his coming2 the
 ,new ,testament lifts the veil and bids
 us1 ,behold the man6 ,the ,bible is of 
value to us1 just in proportion as it   
helps us to see him1 to know him1 to    
trust him4 ,you may have a cast-iron    
theory of inspiration with every joint  
riveted2 you may believe in the         
infallible accuracy of every vowel point
 and every punctuation mark2 but if the 
,bible does not bring you into a vital  
union with ,jesus ,christ1 so that you  
have his mind and follow in his         
footsteps1 it profiteth you nothing4    
,and if1 by your study of it1 you are   
brought into this saving fellowship1    
your theories of inspiration will take  
care of themselves4  ,i fear that we do 
not always comprehend the fact that it  
is this divine ,life shining out of its 
pages that makes the ,bible glorious4   
,we strain our eyes so much in verifying
 commas1 and in trying to prove that the
 dot of a certain i is not a fly-speck1 

that we fail to get much impression of  
the meaning or the beauty of the        
,saviour's life4 ,see those two critics1
 with their eyes close to the wonderful 
,ecce ,homo of ,correggio1 disputing    
whether there is or is not a visible    
stitch in the garment of ,christ that   
ought to be seamless4 ,how red their    
faces2 how hot their words6 ,stand back 
a little1 brothers6 look away1 for a    
moment1 from the garment's seam2 let the
 infinite pain and the infinite pity and
 the infinite yearning of that ,face    
dawn on you for a moment1 and you will  
cease your quarreling4 ,so1 not seldom1 
do the idolaters of the letter wholly   
miss the meaning of the sacred book1 and
 remain in mournful ignorance of him who
 himself is the ,word4  ,there are those
 to whom the view of the ,bible         
presented in these chapters seems not   
only inadequate but destructive4 ,if the
 ,bible is not infallible1 they say1 it 
is no more than any other book2 we have 
no further use for it4 ,in one of the   

leading church reviews ,i find these    
words1 the joint utterance of two       
eminent ,american theologians3 ,a proved
 error in ,scripture contradicts not    
only our doctrine but the ,scripture's  
claims1 and therefore its inspiration in
 making those claims4 ,footnote3        
,presbyterian ,review1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bde4
 ,a proved error in ,scripture stamps   
the book as fraudulent and worthless6   
,worthless it is then6 ,proved errors   
there are1 scores of them4 ,it is       
fatuity1 it is imbecility1 to deny it4  
,and every man who can find an error in 
these old writings has the warrant of   
these teachers for throwing the book    
away4 ,tens of thousands of ingenuous   
and fair-minded men have taken the word 
of such teachers1 and have thrown the   
book away4 ,may ,god forgive the folly  
of these blind guides6  ,but what stupid
 reasoning is this6 ,if the ,bible is   
not infallible1 it is worthless4 ,your  
watch is not infallible2 is it therefore
 worthless8 ,your physician is not      

infallible2 are his services therefore  
worthless8 ,your father is not          
infallible2 are his counsels worthless8 
,will you say that the moment you       
discover in him an error concerning any 
subject in heaven or on earth1 that     
moment you will refuse to listen to his 
counsel8 ,the church of ,god is not     
infallible1 and never was1 whatever     
infatuated ecclesiastics may have       
claimed for it2 are its solemn services 
and its inspiring labors and its        
uplifting fellowships worthless8  ,a    
ship on a lee shore1 says one1 in the   
midst of a driving storm1 throws up     
signal rockets or fires a gun for a     
pilot4 ,a white sail emerges from the   
mist2 it is the pilot boat4 ,a man      
climbs on board1 and the captain gives  
to him the command of the ship4 ,all his
 orders are obeyed implicitly4 ,the     
ship1 laden with a precious cargo and   
hundreds of human lives1 is confided to 
a rough-looking man whom no one ever saw
 before1 who is to guide them through a 

narrow channel1 where to vary a few     
fathoms to the right or left will be    
utter destruction4 ,the pilot is        
invested with absolute authority as     
regards bringing the vessel into port4  
,footnote3 ,orthodoxy2 its ,truths and  
,errors1 by ,james ,freeman ,clarke1 p4 
#aad4 ,is this because the man is       
infallible1 because he has never been   
detected in holding an erroneous        
opinion8 ,doubtless any of these        
intelligent passengers could find out1  
by half an hour's conversation with him1
 that his mind was full of crass        
ignorance and misconception4 ,and nobody
 supposes that he is infallible1 even as
 a pilot4 ,he may make a mistake4 ,what 
then8 ,will these passengers gather     
around the captain1 and demand that he  
be ordered down from the bridge and     
thrown overboard if he disobeys8 ,will  
they say1 ,a pilot who is not on all    
subjects infallible is one whom we will 
not trust8 ,no2 they believe him to be1 
not omniscient1 but competent and       

trustworthy1 and a great burden is      
lifted from their hearts when they see  
him take command of the ship4 ,on all   
other subjects besides religion1 people 
are able to exercise their common sense2
 why can they not use a modicum of the  
same common sense when they come to deal
 with religious truth8  ,it is not true1
 as a matter of fact1 that the ,bible no
 longer has any value for those who have
 ceased to hold the traditional view of 
it4 ,not seldom1 indeed1 those who have 
been compelled by overwhelming evidence 
to relinquish the traditional view have 
been driven by the natural reaction     
against it to undervalue the ,bible1 and
 even to treat it with contempt and     
bitterness2 but even some of these have 
come back to it again and have found in 
it1 when they studied it with open mind1
 more truth than they ever before had   
known4 ,let me cite an extreme case4 ,i 
could take you to a society of          
free-thinkers1 consisting of people who 
have long been outspoken in their       

rejection of all the doctrines of       
historical ,christianity1 many of whom  
formerly flouted the ,bible as a book of
 fables1 but who are now studying it    
diligently week by week1 in the most    
sympathetic spirit4 ,they do not now    
accept its supernaturalism2 but they    
believe that as a manual of conduct1 as 
a guide to life1 it excels all other    
books4 ,the young people of their       
,sunday-school are told that the ,bible 
is not like other books2 that the men   
who wrote it knew more about the human  
soul and its struggles and its          
aspirations after good than any other   
men who ever lived2 and they are        
besought to attend1 most carefully1 to  
the lessons of life which this ancient  
book teaches4 ,i should like to take    
some of our ultra orthodox friends1 who 
are pettishly crying out that the       
,bible1 if not infallible1 is good for  
nothing1 and set them down for a ,sunday
 or two in the midst of this            
free-thinking ,sunday-school2 they might

 learn some things about its value that 
they never knew before4  ,this incident 
ought to be of service1 also1 to those  
who1 having discovered that the ,bible  
contains human elements1 have rushed to 
the conclusion that it is no more than  
any other book1 and who1 although they  
do not cast it from them1 hold it off1  
at arm's length1 as it were1 and        
maintain toward it an attitude of       
critical superiority4 ,even these       
free-thinkers treat it more fairly4     
,they are learning to approach it with  
open mind2 they sit down before it with 
reverent expectancy4 ,the ,bible has a  
right to this sympathetic treatment4 ,it
 is not just like other books4 ,do not  
take my word for this2 listen rather to 
the testimony of one who was known1     
while he was alive1 as the arch-heretic 
of ,new ,england3--  ,this collection of
 books has taken such a hold on the     
world as no other4 ,the literature of   
,greece1 which goes up like incense from
 that land of temples and heroic deeds1 

has not half the influence of this book1
 from a nation alike despised in ancient
 and in modern times4 ,it is read of a  
,sabbath in all the ten thousand pulpits
 of our land4 ,in all the temples of    
religion is its voice lifted up week by 
week4 ,the sun never sets on its        
gleaming page4 ,it goes equally to the  
cottage of the plain man and the palace 
of the king4 ,it is woven into the      
literature of the scholar1 and colors   
the talk of the street4 ,the bark of the
 merchant cannot sail the sea without   
it2 no ships of war go to the conflict1 
but the ,bible is there4 ,it enters     
men's closets2 mingles in all their     
grief and cheerfulness of life4 ,the    
affianced maiden prays ,god in          
,scripture for strength in her new      
duties2 men are married by ,scripture4  
,the ,bible attends them in their       
sickness1 when the fever of the world is
 on them4 ,the aching head finds a      
softer pillow when the ,bible lies      
underneath4 ,the mariner escaping from  

shipwreck clutches this first of his    
treasures and keeps it sacred to ,god4  
,it goes with the peddler in his crowded
 pack2 cheers him at eventide when he   
sits down dusty and fatigued2 brightens 
the freshness of his morning face4 ,it  
blesses us when we are born1 gives names
 to half ,christendom2 rejoices with us2
 has sympathy for our mourning2 tempers 
our grief to finer issues4 ,it is the   
better part of our sermons4 ,it lifts   
man above himself2 our best of uttered  
prayers are in its storied speech1      
wherewith our fathers and the patriarchs
 prayed4 ,the timid man1 about awaking  
from this dream of life1 looks through  
the glass of ,scripture and his eye     
grows bright2 he does not fear to stand 
alone1 to tread the way unknown and     
distant1 to take the death angel by the 
hand and bid farewell to wife and babes 
and home4 ,men rest on this their       
dearest hopes2 it tells them of ,god and
 of his blessed ,son1 of earthly duties 
and of heavenly rest4 ,footnote3        

,theodore ,parker1 ,discourses on       
,religion4  ,this is not mere rhetoric2 
it is simplest truth of human           
experience4 ,how is it possible for any 
man to treat this book just as he would 
any other book8 ,he ought to come to its
 perusal with the expectation of finding
 in it wisdom and light and life4 ,he   
must not stultify his reason and stifle 
his moral sense when he reads it2 he    
must keep his mind awake and his        
conscience active2 but there is treasure
 here if he will search for it2 search  
he must1 yet the only right attitude    
before it is one of reverence and trust4
 ,any man of ripe wisdom and high       
character1 who has been known to you all
 your life1 whose judgment you have     
verified1 whose goodness you have       
witnessed and experienced1 commands your
 respectful attention the moment he     
begins to speak4 ,you do not believe him
 to be infallible1 but you listen to    
what he says with trustfulness2 you     
expect to find it true4 ,to say that you

 listen to him as you do to every other 
man is not the fact2 the posture of your
 mind in his presence is different from 
that in which you stand before most     
other men4 ,it ought to be4 ,he has     
gained1 by his probity1 the power to    
speak to you with authority4 ,the ,bible
 has gained the same power4 ,you do not 
use it fairly when you use it as you do 
every other book4  ,there is the        
nation's flag proudly flying from the   
summit of the ,capitol4 ,it may be a    
banner that was borne upon the          
battlefield1 decorated now with         
well-mended rents1 and with stains of   
carnage4 ,behold it6 cries the idolater4
 ,it is absolutely faultless in         
perfection and beauty6 ,there is not a  
blemish on its folds1 there is not an   
imperfection in its web2 every thread in
 warp and woof is flawless2 every seam  
is absolutely straight2 every star is   
geometrically accurate2 every proportion
 is exact2 the man who denies it is a   
traitor6  ,absurd6 replies the          

iconoclast4 ,see the holes and the      
stains2 there is not one straight seam2 
there is not a star that is in perfect  
form2 ravel it1 and you will find no    
thread in warp or woof that is flawless2
 nay1 you may even discover shreds of   
shoddy mixed with the fine fibre4 ,your 
flag is nothing more than any other old 
piece of bunting1 and if you think it   
is1 you are a fool4  ,nay1 good friends1
 you are both wrong4 ,the blemishes are 
there2 it would be fanaticism to deny   
them2 and he who says that no man can be
 loyal to the nation who will not       
profess that this banner is immaculate  
is setting up a fantastic standard of   
patriotism4 ,but1 on the other hand1    
this flag is something more than any    
other old piece of bunting1 and he who  
thinks it something more is not a fool4 
,it is the symbol of liberty2 it is the 
emblem of sovereignty2 it is the pledge 
of protection2 it is the sign and       
guarantee of justice and order and      
peace4 ,what memories cluster round it1 

of dauntless heroism1 and holy          
sacrifice1 and noble consecration6 ,what
 hopes are gleaming from its stars and  
fluttering in its shining folds--hopes  
of a day when wars shall be no more and 
all mankind shall be one brotherhood6   
,the man to whom the flag of his country
 is no more than any other piece of     
weather-beaten bunting is a man without 
a country4  ,is not my parable already  
interpreted8 ,are not the idolaters who 
make it treason to disbelieve a single  
word of the ,bible1 and the iconoclasts 
who treat it as nothing better than any 
other book1 equally far from the truth8 
,is it not the part of wisdom to use the
 book rationally1 but reverently2 to    
refrain from worshiping the letter1 but 
to rejoice in the gifts of the ,spirit  
which it proffers8 ,the same divine     
influence which illumines and sanctifies
 its pages is waiting to enlighten our  
minds that we may comprehend its words1 
and to prepare our hearts that we may   
receive its messages4 ,some things hard 

to understand are here1 but the ,spirit 
of truth can make plain to us all that  
we need to know4 ,no man wisely opens   
the book who does not first lift up his 
heart for help to find in it the way of 
life1 and to him who studies it in this 
spirit it will show the salvation of    
,god4