,illustration3 ,by permission of ,harrison ,h ,dodge1 ,superintendent ,a ,,corner ,,of ,,washington',s ,,kitchen ,,at ,,mount ,,vernon ,,school ,,and ,,home ,,cooking ,,by ,,carlotta ,c4 ,,greer ,,head ,,of ,,the ,,department ,,of ,,foods ,,and ,,household ,,management1 ,,east ,,technical ,,high ,,school ,,cleveland1 ,,ohio ,,preface ,school and ,home ,cooking is a text which can be placed in the hands of the pupils and used by them as a guide both in the school and home4 ,its use eliminates note-taking 7which in reality is dictation7 and thus saves much time4 ,the psychological method of education1 which treats first of material within the experience of the beginner and with that as a basis develops new material to meet the needs of the pupil1 was kept in mind in preparing this text4 ,although the grouping of foods rich in each foodstuff may be considered a logical arrangement1 the method of arrangement of the content of each division and the method of approach of each lesson is psychological4 ,the manipulative processes and kinds of dishes are sufficiently varied to arouse and sustain the interest of a pupil4 ,experience with pupils in the classroom shows that their interest in any subject cannot be awakened by using a list or classification involving technical terms in introducing the subject4 ,for this reason a classification of the foodstuffs is not placed at the beginning of the text2 they are classified after each is considered4 ,at the close of each division of the text there is placed a group of lessons called ,related ,work1 which includes table service lessons1 home projects1 and meal cooking4 ,table service lessons are introduced in this way to emphasize the fact that a complete meal should be prepared before all types of foods are studied and manipulative processes are performed4 ,the cost and food value of meals are considered in conjunction with their preparation4 ,wise selection and thrifty buying of foods are also treated in these lessons4 ,home projects which progressive teachers have found effective in making home economics function in the home--one of the goals to be attained in democratic education--contain suggestive material which may be adapted to the particular needs of the pupils in their homes4 ,an adaptation of the meal method1 i4e41 meal cooking1 is used both for the purpose of reviewing processes of cooking1 and also for gaining skill and speed in the preparation of several foods at the same time4 ,experiments regarding food preparation and composition and processes of digestion are found in this book4 ,special care has been taken to state these experiments in terms within the understanding of the pupil and to intersperse definite questions so that a pupil can follow directions1 make observations1 and draw helpful deductions4 ,the recipes have been adapted from various sources4 ,where it is possible1 without a sacrifice of flavor or food value1 the least expensive food materials are used4 ,the more expensive materials are used as sparingly as possible4 ,definite and practical methods of preparing foods follow the list of ingredients4 ,the recipes have proved satisfactory in the home kitchen4 ,special thanks are due to ,mrs4 ,mary ,swartz ,rose1 ,assistant ,professor of ,nutrition1 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 for criticizing portions of the text regarding dietetics2 to ,miss ,s4 ,gertrude ,hadlow1 ,head of the ,department of ,english1 ,longwood ,high ,school of ,commerce1 ,cleveland1 for valuable suggestions of material formerly prepared which aided in the preparation of this work2 to ,mrs4 ,jessie ,m4 ,osgood for painstaking reading of the manuscript2 and to the following for the use of illustrative material3 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company1 ,william ,wood and ,company1 ,the ,journal of the ,american ,medical ,association1 ,the ,journal of ,home ,economics1 and the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 ,,cleveland1 ,july1 #aibj4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,list ,,of ,,experiments ,,foreword ,,division ,,one ,,introduction ,i4 ,baked ,apples--,dishwashing ,,ii4 ,measurements--,stuffed and ,scalloped ,tomatoes ,,iii4 ,fuels and ,combustion--,sauted and ,baked ,squash ,,iv4 ,coal ,ranges--,corn ,dishes ,v4 ,gas ,ranges--,scalloped ,fruit ,,vi4 ,stoves and ,heating ,devices--,stuffed ,peppers1 ,butterscotch ,apples ,,division ,,two ,,body-,,regulating ,,food--,,water ,,vii4 ,water and ,beverages 7,a7 ,,viii4 ,water and ,beverages 7,b7 ,,related ,,work ,,ix4 ,home ,projects ,x4 ,afternoon ,tea ,,division ,,three ,,body-,,building ,,and ,,body-,,regulating ,,foods1--,,rich ,,in ,,ash 7,,mineral ,,matter7 ,,xi4 ,fresh ,vegetables 7,a7 ,,xii4 ,fresh ,vegetables 7,b7 ,,xiii4 ,fresh ,fruits ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,xiv4 ,review3 ,meal ,cooking ,,xv4 ,home ,projects ,,division ,,four ,,energy-,,giving ,,or ,,fuel ,,foods1--,,rich ,,in ,,carbohydrates ,,xvi4 ,sugar3 ,digestion of ,sugar ,,xvii4 ,sugar-rich ,fruits3 ,dried ,fruits 7,a7 ,,xviii4 ,sugar-rich ,fruits3 ,dried ,fruits 7,b7 ,,xix4 ,cereals3 ,starch and ,cellulose ,,xx4 ,cereals3 ,rice 7,a7 ,,xxi4 ,cereals3 ,rice 7,b7 ,,xxii4 ,cereals and the ,fireless ,cooker ,,xxiii4 ,cereals for ,frying or ,baking ,,xxiv4 ,powdered ,cereals ,used for ,thickening ,,xxv4 ,toast3 ,digestion of ,starch ,,xxvi4 ,root ,vegetables 7,a7 ,,xxvii4 ,root ,vegetables 7,b7 ,,xxviii4 ,root ,vegetables 7,c7 ,,xxix4 ,starchy ,foods ,cooked at ,high ,temperature ,,related ,,work ,,xxx4 ,dining ,room ,service ,,xxxi4 ,cooking and ,serving ,breakfast ,,xxxii4 ,review3 ,meal ,cooking ,,xxxiii4 ,home ,projects ,,division ,,five ,,energy-,,giving ,,or ,,fuel ,,foods1--,,rich ,,in ,,fats ,,an ,,oils ,,xxxiv4 ,fat as a ,frying ,medium ,,xxxv4 ,fat as a ,frying ,medium--,food ,fats ,,xxxvi4 ,fat as a ,frying ,medium--,digestion of ,fat ,,xxxvii4 ,fat ,saving ,,related ,,work ,,xxxviii4 ,dining ,room ,courtesy ,,xxxix4 ,cooking and ,serving ,breakfast ,,xl4 ,review3 ,meal ,cooking ,,xli4 ,home ,projects ,,division ,,six ,,energy-,,giving ,,and ,,body-,,building ,,foods1--,,rich ,,in ,,protein ,,xlii4 ,eggs ,,xliii4 ,eggs3 ,digestion of ,protein ,,xliv4 ,eggs3 ,omelets 7,a7 ,,xlv4 ,eggs3 ,omelets 7,b7 ,,xlvi4 ,milk ,,xlvii4 ,milk with ,cocoa and ,chocolate ,,xlviii4 ,milk and ,cream ,,xlix4 ,cream ,soups 7,a7 ,l4 ,cream ,soups 7,b7 ,,li4 ,milk ,thickened with ,egg 7,a7 ,,lii4 ,milk ,thickened with ,egg 7,b7 ,,liii4 ,milk ,thickened with ,egg 7,c7 ,,liv4 ,milk ,thickened with ,egg and ,starchy ,materials 7,a7 ,,lv4 ,milk ,thickened with ,egg and ,starchy ,materials 7,b7 ,,lvi4 ,milk ,thickened with ,egg and ,starchy ,materials 7,c7 ,,lvii4 ,cheese 7,a7 ,,lviii4 ,cheese 7,b7 ,,lix4 ,structure of ,beef--,methods of ,cooking ,tender ,cuts ,,lx4 ,beef3 ,methods of ,cooking ,tender ,cuts 7,applied to ,chopped ,beef7 7,a7 ,,lxi4 ,beef3 ,methods of ,cooking ,tender ,cuts 7,applied to ,chopped ,beef7 7,b7 ,,lxil4 ,beef3 ,methods of ,cooking ,tough ,cuts 7,a7 ,,lxiii4 ,beef2 ,methods of ,cooking ,tough ,cuts 7,b7 ,,lxiv4 ,beef3 ,methods of ,cooking ,tough ,cuts 7,c7 ,,lxv4 ,beef3 ,methods of ,cooking ,tough ,cuts 7,d7 ,,lxvi4 ,beef3 ,uses of ,cooked ,beef ,,lxvii4 ,gelatine 7,a7 ,,lxviil4 ,gelatine 7,b7 ,,lxix4 ,fish 7,a7 ,,lxx4 ,fish 7,b7 ,,lxxi4 ,fish 7,c7 ,,lxxii4 ,legumes 7,a7 ,,lxxiii4 ,legumes 7,b7 ,,lxxiv4 ,legumes 7,c7 ,,related ,,work ,,lxxv4 ,cost of ,food ,,lxxvi4 ,cooking and ,serving a ,breakfast ,,lxxvii4 ,review3 ,meal ,cooking ,,lxxviii4 ,home ,projects ,,division ,,seven ,,health ,,and ,,growth-,,promoting ,,foods1--,,rich ,,in ,,vitamines ,,lxxix4 ,vitamines--,vegetables of ,delicate ,flavor ,,lxxx4 ,vitamines--,vegetables of ,strong ,flavor ,,lxxxi4 ,salads 7,a7 ,,lxxxii4 ,salads 7,b7 ,,lxxxiii4 ,classification of ,foodstuffs ,,related ,,work ,,lxxxiv4 ,selecting ,food ,,lxxxv4 ,cooking and ,serving a ,luncheon or ,supper ,,lxxxvl4 ,review3 ,meal ,cooking ,,lxxxvii4 ,home ,projects ,,division ,,eight ,,flavoring ,,materials3 ,,food ,,adjuncts ,,lxxxviii4 ,food ,adjuncts--,dishes ,containing ,food ,adjuncts ,,related ,,work ,,lxxxix4 ,spending for ,food ,,xc4 ,cooking and ,serving a ,luncheon or ,supper ,,xci4 ,review3 ,meal ,cooking ,,xcii4 ,home ,projects ,,division ,,nine ,,food ,,combinations ,,xciii4 ,vegetables with ,salad ,dressing 7,a7 ,,xciv4 ,vegetables with ,salad ,dressing 7,b7 ,,xcv4 ,fish ,salad and ,salad ,rolls ,,xcvi4 ,cream of ,tomato ,soup and ,cheese ,straws ,,xcvii4 ,veal and ,potatoes ,,xcviii4 ,mutton and ,lamb ,dishes ,,xcix4 ,pork1 ,vegetables1 and ,apple ,sauce ,c4 ,chicken and ,rice ,,ci4 ,chicken and ,peas ,,cii4 ,oyster ,dishes ,,ciii4 ,meat-substitute ,dishes ,,civ4 ,meat ,extenders and ,one-dish ,meals ,,related ,,work ,,cv4 ,menu-making ,,cvi4 ,planning1 ,cooking1 and ,serving a ,luncheon or ,supper ,,cvii4 ,review3 ,meal ,cooking ,,cviii4 ,home ,projects ,,division ,,ten ,,quick ,,breads3 ,,pour ,,batters ,,cix4 ,leavening with ,steam and ,air3 ,popovers ,,cx4 ,leavening with ,baking ,soda and ,sour ,milk3 ,spider ,corn ,bread ,,cxi4 ,leavening with ,baking ,soda1 ,sour ,milk1 and ,molasses3 ,gingerbread ,,cxii4 ,leavening with ,baking ,powder3 ,griddle ,cakes ,,cxiii4 ,leavening with ,baking ,soda1 ,sour ,milk1 and ,baking ,powder3 ,sour ,milk ,griddle ,cakes ,,cxiv4 ,leavening with ,baking ,soda1 ,sour ,milk1 and ,cream of ,tartar3 ,steamed ,brown ,breads ,,cxv4 ,formulating ,recipes--,waffles ,,related ,,work ,,cxvi4 ,measurement of the ,fuel ,value of ,foods ,,cxvii4 ,planning1 ,cooking1 and ,serving a ,dinner ,,cxviii4 ,review3 ,meal ,cooking ,,cxix4 ,home ,projects ,,division ,,eleven ,,quick ,,breads3 ,,drop ,,batters ,,cxx4 ,fine and ,coarse ,flours--,muffins ,,cxxi4 ,comparison of ,wheat and ,other ,grains--,muffins ,,cxxii4 ,baking ,powder ,loaf ,breads ,,cxxiii4 ,eggs for ,quick ,breads--,cream ,puffs ,,related ,,work ,,cxxiv4 ,food ,requirement ,,cxxv4 ,planning1 ,cooking1 and ,serving a ,dinner ,,cxxvi4 ,review3 ,meal ,cooking ,,cxxvii4 ,home ,projects ,,division ,,twelve ,,quick ,,breads3 ,,soft ,,doughs ,,cxxviii4 ,method of ,mixing ,fat in ,quick ,breads--,drop ,biscuit ,,cxxix4 ,quantity of ,fat in ,quick ,breads--,short ,cake ,,cxxx4 ,cut ,biscuit ,,related ,,work ,,cxxxi4 ,measurement of the ,fuel ,value of ,food ,applied to the ,daily ,food ,requirement4 ,,cxxxii4 ,planning1 ,cooking1 and ,serving a ,dinner4 ,,cxxxiii4 ,review3 ,meal ,cooking4 ,,cxxxiv4 ,home ,projects4 ,,division ,,thirteen ,,yeast ,,breads3 ,,stiff ,,doughs ,,cxxxv4 ,yeast--,loaf ,bread4 ,,cxxxvi4 ,wheat ,flour--,bread ,sponge4 ,,cxxxvii4 ,modifications of ,plain ,white ,bread4 ,,cxxxviii4 ,rolls and ,buns4 ,,related ,,work ,,cxxxix4 ,food for ,girls and ,boys4 ,,cxl4 ,planning a ,day's ,diet--,cooking and ,serving a ,meal4 ,,cxli4 ,review3 ,meal ,cooking4 ,,cxlii4 ,home ,projects4 ,,division ,,fourteen ,,cake ,,cxliii4 ,cake without ,fat--,sponge ,cake4 ,,cxliv4 ,cake ,containing ,fat--,one-egg ,cake4 ,,cxlv4 ,cake ,containing ,fat--,plain ,cake and ,its ,modifications 7,a7 ,,cxlvi4 ,cake ,containing ,fat--,plain ,cake and ,its ,modifications 7,b7 ,,cxlvii4 ,cake ,containing ,fat--,cookies ,,cxlviii4 ,cakes without ,eggs ,,related ,,work ,,cxlix4 ,the ,luncheon ,box ,,cl4 ,planning and ,preparing ,box ,luncheons ,,cli4 ,review--,meal ,cooking ,,clii4 ,home ,projects ,,division ,,fifteen ,,pastry ,,cliii4 ,pies with ,under ,crust ,,cliv4 ,pies with ,upper ,crust ,,clv4 ,two-crust ,pies ,,related ,,work ,,clvi4 ,infant ,feeding ,,clvii4 ,modifying ,milk ,,clviii4 ,review--,meal ,cooking ,,clix4 ,home ,projects ,,division ,,sixteen ,,frozen ,,desserts ,,clx4 ,method of ,freezing--,water ,ice ,,clxi4 ,frozen ,creams ,,related ,,work ,,clxii4 ,diet for ,young ,children ,,clxiii4 ,planning and ,preparing ,menus for ,children ,,clxiv4 ,review--,meal ,cooking ,,clxv4 ,home ,projects ,,division ,,seventeen ,,food ,,preservation ,,clxvi4 ,the ,principles of ,preserving ,food ,,clxvii4 ,processing with ,little or ,no ,sugar--,canned ,fruit ,,clxviii4 ,processing with ,much ,sugar--,preserves1 ,jams1 and ,conserves ,,clxix4 ,processing with ,much ,sugar--,jellies ,,clxx4 ,processing with ,vinegar and ,spices--,relishes ,,clxxi4 ,canned ,vegetables ,,clxxii4 ,dried ,vegetables ,,related ,,work ,,clxxiii4 ,the ,sick-room ,tray ,,clxxiv4 ,preparing ,trays for the ,sick and ,convalescent ,,clxxv4 ,review--,meal ,cooking ,,clxxvi4 ,home ,projects ,,division ,,eighteen ,,supplementary ,i4 ,thanksgiving ,sauce ,,ii4 ,thanksgiving ,desserts ,,iii4 ,christmas ,sweets ,,iv4 ,christmas ,candy ,,appendix ,suggestions for ,teaching ,books for ,reference ,,index ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,a corner in ,washington's kitchen at ,mt4 ,vernon ,frontispiece #a4 ,skewer and knitting needle for testing foods #b4 ,a sink arranged for efficiency in dish-washing #c4 ,utensils for dish-washing #d4 ,dish-drainer #e4 ,dish-drainer #f4 ,dish-rack #g4 ,dish-rack #h4 ,a rack for drying dishes #i4 ,utensils for measuring and weighing foods #aj4 ,coal range1 showing course of direct draft #aa4 ,coal range1 showing course of indirect draft #ab4 ,gas burner1 showing mixer #ac4 ,gas burners #ad4 ,gas range1 showing direction of draft #ae4 ,cross-section of wickless kerosene stove #af4 ,electric range #ag4 ,pressure cooker #ah4 ,steam cooker1 containing various foods #ai4 ,scene on a tea plantation #bj4 ,tea-ball teapot #ba4 ,coffee berries #bb4 ,coffee percolator #bc4 ,grains of starch #bd4 ,a cupful of rice before and after boiling #be4 ,insulated wall of a refrigerator #bf4 ,fireless cooker1 having excelsior packing #bg4 ,fireless cooker1 with stone disks #bh4 ,electric fireless cooker #bi4 ,gas range1 having fireless cooker attachment1 insulated oven and hoods #cj4 ,method of folding filter paper #ca4 ,utensil for steaming1--a steamer #cb4 ,steam without pressure1 and steam which has been under pressure #cc4 ,table laid for an informal luncheon #cd4 ,wheel tray #ce4 ,how to hold the knife and fork #cf4 ,keeping the fork in the left hand to carry food to the mouth #cg4 ,the teaspoon should rest on the saucer #ch4 ,how to hold the soup spoon #ci4 ,apparatus to determine the temperature at which eggs coagulate #dj4 ,method of holding pan to turn an omelet on to a platter #da4 ,cocoa pods #db4 ,dried bread crumbs #dc4 ,structure of meat #dd4 ,club or ,delmonico steak #de4 ,porterhouse #df4 ,sirloin1--hip steak #dg4 ,sirloin1--flat bone #dh4 ,sirloin1--round bone #di4 ,first cut prime rib roast #ej4 ,second cut prime rib roast #ea4 ,blade rib roast #eb4 ,chuck rib roast #ec4 ,colonial fireplace1 showing a roasting kitchen #ed4 ,round #ee4 ,chuck #ef4 ,cuts of beef #eg4 ,rump #eh4 ,cross rib1 ,boston cut1 or ,english cut #ei4 ,skirt steak2 flank steak #fj4 ,fish kettle1 showing rack #fa4 ,a suggestion for the division of each dollar spent for food #fb4 ,the composition of roots and succulent vegetables #fc4 ,the composition of butter and other fat-yielding foods #fd4 ,the composition of milk and milk products #fe4 ,cuts of veal #ff4 ,cuts of lamb or mutton #fg4 ,lamb chops #fh4 ,the composition of fresh and cured meats #fi4 ,cuts of pork #gj4 ,the composition of fresh and dried fruits #ga4 ,removing tendons from the leg of a fowl #gb4 ,fowl trussed for roasting1--breast view #gc4 ,fowl trussed for roasting1--back view #gd4 ,composition of fish1 fish products1 and oysters #ge4 ,the composition of eggs and cheese #gf4 ,the composition of legumes and corn #gg4 ,the composition of bread and other cereal foods #gh4 ,foods containing calcium #gi4 ,foods containing phosphorus #hj4 ,foods containing iron #ha4 ,oven heat regulator #hb4 ,illustrating the amount of heat represented by one ,calorie #hc4 ,comparative weights of #ajj-;,calorie portions of food #hd4 #ajj-;,calorie portions of food #he4 ,longitudinal section of wheat grain1 showing bran1 floury part1 and germ #hf4 ,growing yeast plants #hg4 ,graduated measure and dipper for measuring the ingredients of modified milk #hh4 ,some species of molds #hi4 ,the four types of bacteria #ij4 ,canning foods #ia4 ,rack for holding jars #ib4 ,the composition of fruits and fruit products #ic4 ,drier for vegetables or fruits #id4 ,the composition of sugar and similar foods ,,list ,,of ,,experiments #a4 ,measurement equivalents4 #b4 ,use of the wooden spoon4 #c4 ,lack of draft4 #d4 ,presence of draft4 #e4 ,the regulation and purpose of a gas mixer4 #f4 ,the dissolving power of water4 #g4 ,presence of gases in water4 #h4 ,simmering and boiling of water4 #i4 ,tannin in tea4 #aj4 ,the solubility of granulated sugar in cold water4 #aa4 ,the solubility of granulated sugar in hot water4 #ab4 ,the solubility of powdered sugar4 #ac4 ,the solubility of caramel4 #ad4 ,the starch test4 #ae4 ,the effect of cold water on starch4 #af4 ,the effect of heat on starch4 #ag4 ,stiffening of cooked starch4 #ah4 ,the structure of starch4 #ai4 ,separation of cellulose and starch4 #bj4 ,the difference in the nutritive value of boiled rice and rice cooked over boiling water4 #ba4 ,retention of heat4 #bb4 ,starch grains and boiling water4 #bc4 ,separation of starch grains with cold water4 #bd4 ,separation of starch grains with sugar4 #be4 ,separation of starch grains with fat4 #bf4 ,the change of starch into dextrin4 #bg4 ,the solubility of dextrin4 #bh4 ,starch in cracker4 #bi4 ,action of saliva upon starch4 #cj4 ,the effect of soaking starchy vegetables in water4 #ca4 ,temperature at which fats and oils decompose or burn4 #cb4 ,bread fried in cool fat4 #cc4 ,the temperature of fat for frying #cd4 ,saponification of fat #ce4 ,action of oil and water #cf4 ,emulsion of fat #cg4 ,the coagulation of egg-white #ch4 ,the solubility of albumin #ci4 ,temperature at which eggs coagulate #dj4 ,comparison of cooked and boiled eggs #da4 ,effect of beating a whole egg #db4 ,comparison of eggs beaten with a ,dover egg beater and with a wire spoon #dc4 ,effect of beating egg yolk and white separately #dd4 ,separation of milk into foodstuffs #de4 ,scalding milk #df4 ,comparison of the conducting power of metal and earthenware #dg4 ,effect of rennet on milk #dh4 ,separation of curd and whey #di4 ,effect of acid on milk #ej4 ,division of muscle #ea4 ,effect of dry heat on 7a7 connective tissue1 7b7 muscle fiber #eb4 ,effect of moisture and heat on 7a7 connective tissue1 7b7 muscle fiber #ec4 ,comparison of starch and dextrin for thickening #ed4 ,effect of cold water on meat #ee4 ,effect of boiling water on meat #ef4 ,effect of salt on meat #eg4 ,effect of cold water on gelatine #eh4 ,effect of hot water on gelatine #ei4 ,effect of soaking fish in water #fj4 ,effect of boiling fish rapidly #fa4 ,effect of acid on milk #fb4 ,neutralization of acid by means of soda #fc4 ,protein in oyster liquor #fd4 ,leavening with steam and air #fe4 ,comparison of thick and thin quick breads #ff4 ,preparation of flour for quick breads #fg4 ,action of baking soda on sour milk #fh4 ,chemical change #fi4 ,quantity of baking soda to use with sour milk #gj4 ,action of baking soda on molasses4 #ga4 ,quantity of baking soda to use with molasses4 #gb4 ,effect of cold water on a mixture of cream of tartar and baking soda4 #gc4 ,effect of hot water on a mixture of cream of tartar and baking soda4 #gd4 ,effect of hot water on baking powder4 #ge4 ,starch in baking powder4 #gf4 ,comparison of the time of action of different types of baking powders4 #gg4 ,conditions for growth of the yeast plant4 #gh4 ,protein in flour4 #gi4 ,mixtures for freezing4 #hj4 ,effect of air1 light1 and drying upon the growth of molds4 #ha4 ,effect of moisture and light upon the growth of molds4 #hb4 ,effect of moisture and darkness upon the growth of molds4 #hc4 ,effect of moisture and low temperature upon the growth of molds4 #hd4 ,growth of molds on cut fruit4 #he4 ,growth of molds upon whole fruits4 #hf4 ,growth of molds on other foods4 #hg4 ,growth of molds upon wood4 #hh4 ,growth of molds upon cloth4 #hi4 ,contamination of fresh food by means of moldy food4 #ij4 ,growth of bacteria4 #ia4 ,effect of boiling upon the growth of bacteria4 #ib4 ,effect of preservatives on the growth of bacteria4 #ic4 ,use of sugar as a preservative4 #id4 ,pectin in fruit juice4 #ie4 ,pectin in the inner portion of orange and lemon peel4 ,illustration3 ,,blest ,,be ,,the ,,feast ,,with ,,simple ,,plenty ,,crowned ,,foreword ,one of the slogans of the ,world ,war1--,food will win the ,war1--showed that food was much more important than many persons had believed4 ,it confirmed the fact that food was not merely something that tastes good1 or relieves the sensation of hunger1 but that it was a vital factor in achieving one of the noblest ideals of all time4 ,the subject of food is a broad one1--one that is growing in interest4 ,many present-day scientists are finding a lifework in food study4 ,tell me what you eat and ,i will tell you what you are1 was spoken many years ago4 ,the most recent work in science confirms the fact that the kind of food an individual eats has much to do with his health and his ability to work4 ,if you would be well1 strong1 happy1 and full of vim choose your food carefully4 ,a study of food means a knowledge of many things4 ,before purchasing foods one should know what foods to select at market1 whence they come1 how they are prepared for market1 by what means they are transported1 and how they are taken care of in the market4 ,there is a great variety of foods in the present-day market2 some are rich in nutrients2 others contain little nourishment1 yet are high in price4 ,it has been said that for food most persons spend the largest part of their incomes2 it is a pity if they buy sickness instead of health4 ,whether foods are purchased at the lunch counter or at market1 it is necessary to know what foods to choose to meet best the needs of the body4 ,meal planning is an important factor of food study4 ,the matter of combining foods that are varied in composition or that supplement one another in nutritious properties deserves much consideration4 ,not only nutriment but flavor enters into food combination4 ,it is most important to combine foods that taste well4 ,in learning to prepare foods1 the experience of those who have cooked foods successfully is most helpful4 ,hence the pupil is told to follow directions for cooking a type of food or to use a recipe4 ,following a direction or recipe in a mechanical way1 however1 does not result in rapid progress4 ,keen observation and mental alertness are needed if you would become skilful in food preparation4 ,one class of food or one principle of cooking may be related to another or associated with another4 ,for example1 the method of cooking a typical breakfast cereal may be applied to cereals in general4 ,there may be some exceptions to the rule1 but when the basic principle of cooking is kept in mind1 the variations can be readily made4 ,if a pupil has learned to prepare ,creamed ,potatoes she should be able to apply the principle to the cooking of ,potato ,soup4 ,in making chocolate beverage1 the pupil learns to blend chocolate with other ingredients4 ,the knowledge gained in making chocolate beverage should be applied to the flavoring of a cake or of a dessert with chocolate4 ,in all the thousands of recipes appearing in cook books1 only a few principles of cooking are involved4 ,the pupil who appreciates this fact becomes a much more resourceful worker and acquires skill in a much shorter time4 ,the results of every process should be observed4 ,careful observations should be made when work is not successful4 ,there is no such thing as good luck in cooking4 ,there is a cause for every failure4 ,the cause of the failure should be found and the remedy ascertained4 ,the same mistake should never be made a second time4 ,progress is sure to result from such an attitude towards work4 ,moreover1 confidence in the result of one's work is gained4 ,this is of incalculable value1 besides being a great satisfaction1 to the home-keeper4 ,a dining table with carefully laid covers is always inviting4 ,graceful serving of food at such a table is an art4 ,the ability to serve food in an attractive way is an accomplishment that no girl should fail to acquire4 ,considerations regarding success in learning to cook may be summed up as follows3 7a7 ,know what foods to select from the standpoint of economy1 nutriment1 and flavor4 7b7 ,observe and think when working4 ,relate or associate one class of foods with another and one principle of cooking with another4 7c7 ,note the results of your work2 know why the results are successful or why they are unsuccessful4 ,food selection1 food combination1 and food preparation are all important factors of good cooking4 ,it is to be hoped that the pupil will realize that the study of food and cooking means the ability not only to boil1 broil1 and bake1 but to select1 combine1 use1 and serve food properly4 ,all this demands much earnest thought and effort4 ,,school ,,and ,,home ,,cooking ,,division ,,one ,,introduction ,,lesson ,i ,,baked ,,apples--,,dish-,,washing ,,baked ,,apples 7,stuffed with ,raisins7 #f apples ,seeded raisins #f tablespoonfuls brown sugar #f tablespoonfuls water ,wash the apples2 with an apple corer or paring knife1 remove the core from each4 ,place the apples in a granite1 earthenware1 or glass baking-dish4 ,wash a few raisins and place #f of them and ,i level tablespoonful of sugar in each core4 ,pour the water around the apples4 ,bake in a hot oven until tender4 ,test the apples for sufficient baking with a fork1 skewer1 or knitting needle 7see ,figure #a74 ,during baking1 occasionally baste the apples1 i4e4 take spoonfuls of the water from around the apples and pour it on the top of them4 ,the time for baking apples varies with the kind of apple and the temperature of the oven4 ,from #bj to #dj minutes at #djj degrees ,f4 is usually required4 ,,dish-,,washing ,,and ,,efficiency4--,there is almost invariably a waste of effort in both the washing and the drying of dishes4 ,this may be due to3 7a7 ,poorly arranged dish-washing equipments4 7b7 ,inadequate utensils for dish-washing4 7c7 ,lack of forethought in preparing the dishes for washing and too many motions in washing and drying them4 ,since dish-washing is one of the constant duties of housekeeping1 efficiency methods1 i4e4 methods which accomplish satisfactory results with the fewest motions and in the least time1 should be applied to it4 ,the washing of dishes1 invariably considered commonplace1 may become an interesting problem if it is made a matter of motion study4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #a4--,,skewer ,,and ,,knitting ,,needle ,,for ,,testing ,,foods4 ,note that the knitting needle has one end thrust into a cork1 which serves as a handle4 ,for thorough and rapid dish-washing1 the following equipment is desirable3 ,a sink placed at a height that admits of an erect position while washing dishes1 ,footnote #a3 ,in case it is necessary for one to wash dishes at a sink which is placed too low1 the dish-pan may be raised by placing it on an inverted pan or on a sink-rack1 which may be purchased for this purpose4 and equipped with two draining boards1 one on each side of the sink1 or with one draining board on the left side2 dish and draining pans2 dish-drainer 7see ,figures #d and #e72 dish-rack 7see ,figures #f and #g72 dish- mop 7see ,figure #c72 wire dish-cloth or pot-scraper 7see ,figure #c72 dish- cloths 7not rags72 dish-towels2 rack for drying cloths and towels2 soap- holder 7see ,figure #c7 or can of powdered soap2 can of scouring soap and a large cork for scouring2 tissue paper or newspapers cut in convenient size for use2 scrubbing-brush2 bottle-brush 7see ,figure #c72 rack made of slats for drying brushes 7see ,figure #b74 ,,preparing ,,dishes ,,for ,,washing4--,if possible1 as soon as serving dishes1 i4e4 dishes used at the dining table1 are soiled1 scrape away bits of food from them4 ,the scraping may be done with3 7a7 a piece of soft paper1 7b7 plate-scraper 7see ,figure #c71 7c7 a knife or spoon4 ,the latter is doubtless the most commonly used for dish scraping1 but it is less efficient and may scratch china4 ,if it is impossible to wash dishes soon after soiling1 let them soak in water until they can be washed4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #b4--;,a ,,sink ,,arranged ,,for ,,efficiency ,,in ,,dish-,,washing4 ,note the draining board on each side of the sink1 the dish-cupboard in the upper left corner1 and the rack for drying brushes below the sink4 ,cooking utensils need special care before washing1 especially if they have held greasy foods4 ,oil and water do not mix6 ,the grease from dish-water often collects in the drain-pipe and prevents or retards the drainage of waste water4 ,this often means expensive plumber's bills and great inconvenience4 ,bear in mind the following cautions ,before putting a utensil which has held fat into the dish-water1 always wipe it carefully with a piece of paper4 ,after wiping most of the grease from a pan or kettle1 the remaining fat can be entirely removed by filling the utensil with hot water and then adding washing-soda4 ,boil the solution a few minutes4 ,fat and washing-soda react and form soap2 hence the effectiveness of this method 7,see ,experiment #cd7 7,this method should not be applied to aluminum utensils2 washing-soda or any alkaline substance makes a dark stain on aluminum7 ,illustration3 ,,figure #c--,,utensils ,,for ,,dish ,,washing ,a1 soap-holder1 ,b1 ,c bottle-brushes1 ,d1 dish-mop1 ,e ,f1 wire dish-cloths ,g plate scraper ,utensils used in cooking can generally be washed with greater efficiency if they are soaked before washing4 ,fill each dish or pan with water1 using cold water for all utensils which have held milk1 cream1 eggs1 flour1 or starch1 and hot water for all dishes having contained sugar or sirup4 ,,arranging ,,dishes4--,arrange dishes and all the requisite dish-washing utensils in convenient order for washing1 placing all of one kind of dishes together4 ,also place the dishes to be washed at the right of the dish-pan4 ,wash them and place the washed dishes at the left of the pan4 ,a dish-washer invariably holds a dish that is being washed in her left hand and the dish-cloth or mop in her right hand4 ,that there may be no unnecessary motions1 the dishes should be placed to drain after washing at the left of the dish-pan4 ,in this way there is no crossing of the left hand over the right arm as there would be if the washed dishes were placed at the right of the dish-pan4 ,a cupboard located above the draining board at the left makes the storing of dishes an efficient process 7see ,figure #b74 ,,washing ,,and ,,scouring ,,dishes ,,and ,,utensils4--,fill the dish-pan about two thirds full of hot water4 ,soap the water before placing the dishes in the pan2 use soap-powder1 a soap-holder1 or a bar of soap4 ,if the latter is used1 do not allow it to remain in the water4 ,fill another pan about two thirds full of hot water for rinsing the dishes4 ,a wire basket may be placed in the rinsing pan4 ,place the dishes1 a few at a time1 in the dish-pan4 ,wash the cleanest dishes first1 usually in the following order3 glasses1 silverware1 cups1 saucers1 plates1 large dishes1 platters1 cooking utensils1 then the soap- dish and dish-pan4 ,in washing decorated china1 use soap sparingly4 ,do not wash glassware in very hot water4 ,use slices of potato1 finely torn bits of blotting paper1 or egg shells to clean the inside of water bottles or vinegar cruets4 ,wooden-handled utensils or the cogs of the ,dover egg beater should not soak in water4 ,if the cogs of the egg beater are soiled1 wipe them with a damp cloth4 ,change the dish-water occasionally1 not allowing it to become cold or greasy4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #d4--;,,dish-,,drainer4 ,wash steel knives and forks and place them without rinsing on a tin pan to scour4 ,with a cork apply powdered bath brick or other scouring material to the steel4 ,again wash the scoured utensils1 rinse1 and dry4 ,if there are any stains on tin1 iron1 or enamel ware1 remove with scouring soap4 ,apply the latter with a cork1 or wring out the dish-cloth as dry as possible1 rub scouring soap on it1 and apply to the utensils4 ,scrub meat1 pastry or bread boards1 wooden rolling pins1 and wooden table tops with cold water and scouring soap4 ,then rinse and wipe the scoured wood with a cloth which is free from grease4 ,if it is not necessary to scrub meat1 pastry1 or bread boards on both sides1 they should be rinsed on the clean side to prevent warping4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #e4--;,,dish-,,drainer4 ,,rinsing ,,and ,,draining ,,dishes4--,place the washed dishes in wire baskets 7see ,figures #d and #e7 or in dish-racks 7see ,figures #f1 #g1 and #h74 ,if the former has been placed in the rinsing pan1 the basket may be lifted out of the water to drain the dishes4 ,in case the washed dishes are placed in dish- racks1 rinse them by pouring hot water over them and let them drain again4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #f--;,,dish-,,rack4 ,,drying ,,dishes ,,and ,,utensils4--,if such dishes as plates1 platters1 and saucers are placed upright to drain and are rinsed with very hot water1 no towel-drying is required4 ,glassware and silver should be dried with a soft towel4 ,towels made from flour sacks or from glass toweling are good for this purpose4 ,coarser towels may be used to dry cooking utensils4 ,to prevent rusting1 dry tin1 iron1 and steel utensils most thoroughly4 ,after using a towel on these wares it is well to place them on the back of the range or in the warming oven4 ,woodenware should be allowed to dry thoroughly in the open air4 ,stand boards on end until dry4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #g4--;,,dish-,,rack4 ,,care ,,of ,,dish-,,towels ,,and ,,cloths4--,use dish-towels and cloths for no other purpose than washing and drying dishes4 ,it is a matter of much importance to keep dish-towels and cloths clean4 ,to clean the towels and cloths soak them in cold water4 ,then wash in hot soapy water and rinse them well4 ,wring1 stretch1 and hang to dry on a rack1 or preferably in the sun4 ,at least once a week boil the towels4 ,first soak1 wash1 and rinse them as directed above4 ,then place them in cold water and heat the water until it boils4 ,wring1 stretch1 and hang to dry4 ,illustration3 ,from ,home ,furnishing1 by ,alice ,m ,kellogg ,,figure #h4--;,a ,,rack ,,for ,,drying ,,dishes4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,sink4--,if the sink is of porcelain or enamel1 it may be cleaned with soap1 but not with scouring soap or powder4 ,the latter wears away the smooth finish1 makes it slightly rough and hence more difficult to clean4 ,before applying soap to a sink1 wring out the cloth used in cleaning it as dry as possible and then with the hand push any water standing in the sink down the drainpipe4 ,then apply soap to the cloth and wash the sink4 ,do not let the water run from the faucet while cleaning the sink4 ,if the dirt and grease on a sink do not yield to soap1 apply a small quantity of kerosene4 ,after cleaning1 rinse the sink by opening the hot-water faucet1 letting a generous supply of water flow down the drain-pipe so as to rinse the trap4 ,the drain-pipe and trap of a sink need special cleaning occasionally4 ,this is often done by pouring a solution of washing-soda down the drain4 ,if this is used1 special care should be taken to rinse the drain with much hot water4 ,as previously explained1 grease and washing-soda form soap4 ,if the latter is allowed to remain in the trap1 it may harden and stop the drain-pipe4 ,because of the formation of soap and the possible stoppage of the drain-pipe when washing-soda is used1 kerosene is advised4 ,to use this1 first flush the drain with about half a gallon of hot water4 ,immediately pour in one half cupful of kerosene4 ,let the kerosene remain in the trap for at least #e minutes4 ,then rinse with another half gallon of water4 ,kerosene emulsifies grease and makes it easy to rinse away4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,personal ,,neatness ,,in ,,the ,,school ,,kitchen ,,and ,,at ,,home4--,for both comfort and cleanliness a washable gown should be worn in the kitchen or the gown should be well covered by an apron4 ,it is advisable to cover the hair with a hair net or cap4 ,rings are an inconvenience when worn in the kitchen4 ,the hands should be washed before preparing or cooking food1 and after touching the hair or handkerchief4 ,it is desirable to have a hand towel conveniently placed4 ,clean cooking means clean tasting4 ,this can be done by taking some of the food with the cooking spoon and then pouring it from the cooking spoon into a teaspoon4 ,taste from the teaspoon4 ,,questions ,are apples sold by weight or by measure1 i4e4 by the pound or peck8 ,what is the price per pound or per peck of apples8 ,why should dishes which have held milk1 cream1 egg1 flour1 or starch be rinsed with cold water8 ,why should dishes having contained sugar or sirup be soaked in hot water8 ,why should greasy dishes and utensils be wiped with paper and then rinsed with hot water before washing8 ,why should not a bar of soap soak in dish-water8 ,why not fill the dish-pan with soiled dishes8 ,why should glass be washed in warm 7not hot7 water8 ,why should not wooden-handled utensils and the cogs of the ,dover egg beater soak in dish-water8 ,why should glass and silver be wiped with a soft towel8 ,why should tin1 iron1 and steel utensils be dried most thoroughly8 ,why should woodenware be allowed to dry in the open air8 7,see ,experiment #hg47 ,why should dish-towels be placed in boiling water during laundering8 ,why should scouring soap or powder not be used in cleaning a porcelain or enamel sink8 ,what is the purpose of wringing out dry a sink-cloth and letting no water run from the faucet while cleaning a sink8 ,,lesson ,,ii ,,measurements--,,stuffed ,,and ,,scalloped ,,tomatoes ,,experiment #a3 ,footnote #b3 ,the pupil should record each experiment in a notebook in a methodical way1 giving 7a7 the aim of the experiment1 7b7 the process1 7c7 the result1 and 7d7 the conclusion or practical application4 ,,measurement ,,equivalents4--,in measuring solid materials with teaspoon1 tablespoon1 or standard measuring cup 7see ,figure #i71 fill the measuring utensil with the material and then level it with a knife4 ,use both water and flour or sugar for the following measurements3 7a7 ,find the number of teaspoonfuls in one tablespoonful 7b7 ,find the number of tablespoonfuls in one cup 7c7 ,find the number of cupfuls in one pint ,half a spoonful is obtained by dividing through the middle lengthwise ,a quarter of a spoonful is obtained by dividing a half crosswise ,illustration3 ,,figure #i--,,utensils ,,for ,,measuring ,,and ,,weighing ,,foods ,an eighth of a spoonful is obtained by dividing a quarter diagonally ,a third of a spoonful is obtained by dividing twice crosswise ,a set of measuring spoons 7see ,figure #i7 is most convenient for measuring fractional teaspoonfuls ,,need ,,of ,,accuracy--,when learning to cook1 it is necessary to measure all ingredients with exactness4 ,experienced cooks can measure some ingredients for certain purposes quite satisfactorily by eye4 ,the result is satisfactory1 however1 only when the cook has established her own standards of measurements by much practice4 ,even then many housewives are not sure of success4 ,for certain foods the ingredients should always be measured accurately1 no matter how skilful the cook4 ,as far as possible1 the exact quantity of a recipe is given in this text4 ,when the quantity of an ingredient is too small for practical measurement1 merely the name of the ingredient is given and no definite quantity indicated4 ,when large quantities of materials are to be measured1 a quart measure on which the pint and half pint quantities are indicated usually proves more convenient than a measuring cup4 ,many foods1 especially fats1 are more conveniently weighed than measured4 ,kitchen scales are a useful equipment for cooking 7see ,figure #i74 ,the amateur should1 however1 train her eye to approximate measurements4 ,she should learn to estimate the size of saucepans and other cooking utensils1 and also of serving dishes4 ,measure by cupfuls the capacity of several utensils in constant use and thus establish a few standards of measurement4 ,also it is well to be on the alert to learn the proper quantity of food to buy at market1 and the proper quantity of food to cook for a stated number of persons4 ,she would make a sad failure who would prepare just enough rice to serve four persons when six were to be seated at the table4 ,she might be able to cook the cereal well and to tell many interesting facts concerning its growth1 composition1 and preparation1 yet for the lack of a little homely knowledge the meal would be disappointing4 ,a thrifty housekeeper would not buy enough lettuce or spinach for ten people when there were only six to be served4 ,in the school kitchen always note the quantity of the materials used1 and then observe the quantity of the finished product4 ,,experiment #b3 ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,wooden ,,spoon4--,place a tin and a wooden spoon in a saucepan of boiling water4 ,after the water has boiled for at least #e minutes grasp the handles of the spoons4 ,which is the hotter8 ,which would be the more comfortable to use when stirring hot foods8 ,what kind of spoon--tin or wood--should be used for acid foods8 ,why8 7,see ,suggestions for ,cooking ,fruits47 ,explain why it is that the handles of teakettles1 knobs on covers for saucepans1 etc41 are of wood4 ,,stuffed ,,tomatoes #f ripe tomatoes #b cupfuls soft bread crumbs #a #a_/b teaspoonfuls salt ,dash pepper #c_/d teaspoonful mixed herbs #b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute ,wash the tomatoes1 remove a slice from the tops1 and take out most of the seed portion4 ,add the seasoning to the bread crumbs1 melt the fat1 then add the seasoned bread crumbs to the fat4 ,fill the tomatoes with the prepared crumbs1 place them in an oiled baking-pan1 and bake slowly 7about #bj minutes7 until the tomatoes are soft but not broken1 and the crumbs brown4 ,test the tomatoes with a knitting needle or skewer 7see ,figure #a7 rather than with a fork4 ,for mixed herbs use equal parts of marjoram1 savory1 and thyme4 ,soft bread crumbs are prepared from stale bread1 i4e4 bread that has been out of the oven for at least twenty-four hours4 ,vegetables1 such as corn and canned peas1 may be used instead of bread crumbs to stuff tomatoes4 ,use salt1 pepper1 and butter with these vegetables4 ,use a granite1 glass1 or earthenware utensil for cooking tomatoes4 7,see ,suggestions for ,cooking ,fruits47 ,,scalloped ,,tomatoes ,footnote #c3 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,recipes for both fresh and canned vegetables are given so that a selection depending upon the season can be made4 #a can or #a quart tomatoes #a tablespoonful salt ,dash pepper #c cupfuls bread crumbs #c tablespoonfuls butter or substitute ,if fresh tomatoes are used1 plunge them into boiling water1 then drain and peel and cut into pieces4 ,mix the salt and pepper with the tomatoes and pour into a buttered baking- dish4 ,cover with buttered crumbs 7see ,stuffed ,tomatoes7 and bake at #djj degrees ,f41 #cj to #dj minutes4 ,cover during first part of baking to prevent the crumbs from browning too rapidly4 ,serve hot4 ,a scalloped dish should be served from the dish in which it is baked4 ,green tomatoes may be scalloped in the same manner as ripe tomatoes4 ,soft or dried bread crumbs may be used in scalloping tomatoes4 ,use only #a cupful of the dried crumbs4 ,,to ,,grease ,,or ,,oil ,a ,,pan ,,or ,,baking-,,dish4--,heat slightly the pan or dish to be oiled4 ,put a bit of fat on a small piece of clean paper4 ,then rub the heated pan or dish with the paper4 ,this is a most satisfactory method because little fat is required and the utensils used for oiling do not have to be cleaned4 ,often a spoon or cup that has contained fat may be wiped with a piece of paper and the latter used for greasing a pan4 ,it is well for a housekeeper to have a boxful of pieces of paper in the kitchen for this purpose4 ,some authorities consider a pastry brush a satisfactory means of applying melted butter for oiling4 ,much fat1 however1 clings to the bristles of the brush and the brush needs frequent and careful cleaning4 ,butter1 oleomargarine1 lard1 vegetable fats1 or oils may be used for oiling pans or baking-dishes4 ,,questions ,in stuffed tomatoes1 note that the seasonings are added to the crumbs before they are buttered4 ,why8 ,why test the tomatoes with a knitting needle or skewer rather than with a fork8 ,what kind of baking-pan--tin1 granite1 or earthenware--is best to use for ,stuffed or ,scalloped ,tomatoes8 ,why8 7,see ,suggestions for ,cooking ,fruits1 p4#fe7 ,are tomatoes sold by weight or by measure1 i4e4 by the pound or peck8 ,what is the price of tomatoes per pound or peck8 ,how many slices of bread are required to make #b cupfuls of crumbs8 ,how many slices in one loaf of bread8 ,,lesson ,,iii ,,fuels ,,and ,,combustion--,,sauted ,,and ,,baked ,,squash ,,fuel4--,in order to cook foods1 heat in some form must be applied4 ,this heat is obtained usually by burning some substance4 ,thus the first requisite for obtaining heat is something to burn1 i4e4 a fuel4 ,the fuels commonly used in households are1--wood1 coal1 kerosene1 and gas4 ,although electricity is not a fuel1 its use in cooking is so well established that it should be mentioned as a source of heat4 ,,heat2 ,,kindling ,,temperature4--,there are fuel substances everywhere1--paper1 cloth1 wood1 etc4 ,these materials do not burn unless heated2 even gas does not burn by simply turning on the stopcock4 ,but if a piece of paper is placed in contact with glowing iron1 the paper burns4 ,it burns because it is heated4 ,if the blazing paper is placed in contact with kindling wood and coal1 the kindling wood soon begins to burn because it is heated by the burning paper4 ,the coal burns when it is heated by the burning wood4 ,all fuels must be heated before they will burn4 ,when one thinks of the ease with which paper catches fire and of the difficulty of making hard coal burn1 it becomes evident that some substances require only a small amount of heat before they will burn1 while others require much heat4 ,different materials1 then1 require different degrees of heat to burn4 ,the phosphorus and other substances on the tip of a match ignite readily4 ,the heat that is developed by rubbing the tip over some surface is sufficient to make the phosphorus burn4 ,the burning phosphorus and other substances heat the match stick to the temperature at which it begins to burn2 the burning match stick applied to paper heats the latter to the temperature at which it burns4 ,the temperature to which a substance must be heated in order to burn and continue to burn is called the kindling temperature of that substance4 ,,draft2 ,,oxygen4-- ,,experiment #c3 ,,lack ,,of ,,draft4--7a7 ,place a short candle on a pan4 ,light the candle and put a tall slender lamp chimney over it4 ,does the candle continue to burn8 ,why8 7b7 ,again light the candle and replace the chimney1 but this time support it on two sticks of wood or on the handles of a knife and fork so that it will not rest directly on the pan4 ,place a saucer or a piece of cardboard over the top of the chimney4 ,does the candle continue to burn8 ,why8 ,,experiment #d3 ,,presence ,,of ,,draft4--,remove the cover from the top of the chimney1 and again light the candle4 ,does it continue to burn8 ,what substance necessary for combustion is present in the chimney8 ,explain why the candle soon went out in ,experiment #c1 but continued to burn in this experiment4 ,if a blanket is thrown upon a burning stick of wood1 the wood soon ceases to burn4 ,the wood stops burning because the oxygen of the air is excluded from it4 ,the act of burning1 i4e4 combustion1 is the union of any substance with oxygen1 with the result that heat and light are produced4 ,we have learned that a fuel cannot unite with oxygen until heated to a certain temperature4 ,and1 no matter how hot it is1 the fuel will not burn unless it unites with oxygen4 ,oxygen1 then1 is the third requisite for combustion4 ,the necessity for a draft1 i4e4 a continuous supply of fresh air which furnishes oxygen1 is shown by ,experiments #c and #d4 ,,sauted ,footnote #d3 ,to saute is to brown in a small quantity of fat4 ,,summer ,,squash ,footnote #e3 ,see footnote #c4 ,wash summer squash4 ,cut it in slices #c_/d inch thick4 7,do not remove the skin or the seeds47 ,dip each slice in flour4 ,in a frying pan put some fat and heat it4 ,add the squash and cook each slice on both sides until golden brown in color4 ,sprinkle with salt and pepper4 ,then place a cover over the frying pan and continue to cook the squash until it is tender4 ,serve at once4 ,,baked ,,winter ,,squash ,footnote #f3 ,see ,note to ,teacher1 ,footnote #c ,wash a squash and cut or split it into pieces of suitable size for serving4 ,remove the seeds from each piece and make several gashes 7at right angles to one another7 cutting through the pulp down to the shell4 ,place the pieces 7shell down7 on the grating in the oven and bake 7at moderate temperature7 until the pulp is tender4 ,serve hot1 with butter1 salt1 and pepper4 ,,questions ,name the three requisites for combustion4 ,which has the higher kindling temperature1 wood or coal8 ,explain your answer4 ,what is the price of summer and of winter squash8 ,how much of each kind of squash is required to serve #f persons8 ,,lesson ,,iv ,,coal ,,ranges ,footnote #g3 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,the principles of building a coal fire and of regulating dampers may be applied to furnaces and heating stoves as well as to kitchen ranges4 ,in case there are no cooking or heating stoves or furnaces in which coal is burned in the homes of the pupils1 this lesson may be omitted--,,corn ,,dishes ,,examination ,,of ,a ,,coal ,,range4--,remove the lids from the coal range4 ,note the location of the fire box4 ,what is its purpose8 ,how is the floor of the fire box constructed8 ,where is the check damper8 ,what is its purpose8 ,where is the ash pan8 ,where is the front damper8 ,what is its purpose8 ,note the place where the stovepipe joins the range4 ,what is the purpose of the stovepipe8 ,note the damper in the stovepipe4 ,what is its purpose8 ,note the location of the oven4 ,by what is the oven surrounded8 ,find the oven damper4 ,open it4 ,in what direction do the hot gases pass out when the oven damper is open8 ,what part of the range is heated when the oven damper is open8 ,an open damper permits a direct draft to pass through the range 7see ,figure #aj74 ,close the oven damper4 ,trace the direction of the hot gases when the damper is closed4 ,what parts of the range are heated when the oven damper is closed8 ,a closed oven damper permits an indirect draft to pass through the range 7see ,figure #aa74 ,how should the front1 oven1 check1 and chimney dampers be arranged when the fire is kindled8 ,,products ,,of ,,combustion4--,what is found deposited on the inside of the stovepipe of a coal range8 ,to what is the upper end of the stovepipe joined8 ,what does one often see coming from the top of a chimney8 ,illustration3 ,,figure #aj4--;,,coal ,,range ,,showing ,,course ,,of ,,direct ,,draft4 ,in the previous lesson it was found that when a material burned1 it united with oxygen4 ,it is a matter of common observation that when all solid fuels--coal1 wood1 paper--burn1 they decrease in size1 and that fuel gas is consumed4 ,apparently only a few ashes remain when solid fuels have been burned1 and only a disagreeable odor remains when gas has been burned4 ,yet soot is deposited in the stovepipe and smoke issues from the chimney4 ,both solid and gaseous materials1 such as ashes1 soot1 and smoke1 are formed when fuels burn4 ,such materials are called products of combustion4 ,,fire ,,building ,,in ,a ,,coal ,,range4--,it is necessary to have the fire box1 ash pan1 and other parts of the stove clean before building a fire4 ,after cleaning1 place a generous layer of loosely crumpled paper over the bottom of the fire box1 then about four layers of kindling wood1 placed so that there are air passages between the pieces1 and on top of the wood put two shovelfuls of coal4 ,regulate the dampers for a direct draft1 replace the stove-lids1 and brush the surface of the stove4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #aa4--;,,coal ,,range ,,showing ,,course ,,of ,,indirect ,,draft4 ,before lighting the fuels1 polish the range in the following manner3 ,to the nickel of the stove apply whiting and ammonia or any satisfactory metal cleanser4 ,to the iron of the stove apply oil rather than blacking4 ,light paraffin oil may be used for this purpose4 ,apply the oil with cotton waste1 or a soft cloth4 7,care should be taken not to apply an excess of oil47 ,polish with soft cotton or woolen cloth4 ,one should remember1 however1 that oil must be used with caution4 ,it should never be applied to a stove containing burning fuels4 ,if the stove cloth1 saturated with oil1 is not destroyed after using1 it is well to keep it in a covered tin can or stone jar4 ,after polishing the stove1 light the fuels4 ,when the wood is reduced to glowing embers and the coal is burning1 add more coal4 ,if this burns well1 change the dampers to make an indirect draft4 ,,green ,,corn ,in selecting corn for cooking1 choose those ears that are filled with well-developed kernels1 from which milky juice flows when pressed with the thumb4 ,cook as soon as possible after gathering4 ,to boil green corn remove silk and husk from the corn1 place the ears in boiling water4 ,cook the corn until no juice flows from the kernels when pressed 7usually from #ab to #bj minutes74 ,serve whole on a platter4 ,the platter may be covered with a folded napkin4 ,to bake green corn select #ab ears4 ,remove the corn from the cob as follows3 ,cut through the center of each row of grains1 slice off the tops of the kernels1 and then scrape the pulp thoroughly from the cob4 ,put in a baking-dish1 add3 #c_/d cupful milk #a tablespoonful butter or substitute #b teaspoonfuls salt ,pepper ,bake in a moderate oven for about #de minutes4 ,serve hot4 ,green corn which has been cut from the cob may also be cooked on top of the range4 ,to the corn cut from #ab ears1 add the same ingredients1 using less milk4 ,cook at simmering temperature until tender4 ,,scalloped ,,corn #a can corn #b_/c cupful milk #a #a_/d teaspoonfuls salt ,dash pepper #b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute #b cupfuls soft bread crumbs ,mix the corn1 milk1 and seasonings4 ,mix the crumbs and fat1 and place one fourth of them in the bottom of a buttered baking-dish1 add one half of the corn mixture1 then another fourth of the crumbs1 the remainder of the corn mixture1 and finally the remainder of the buttered crumbs4 ,bake at #djj degrees ,f41 for #de minutes4 ,,questions ,explain why it is necessary to have the fire box1 ash pan1 and other parts of a coal range clean before building a fire4 ,if both hard and soft woods are used in building a fire1 which should be placed next to the paper8 ,explain your answer4 ,what is the advantage in using oil rather than blacking in cleaning a range8 ,explain why a stove cloth1 saturated with oil1 should be kept in a covered tin can or stone jar4 ,compare the method of mixing the crumbs in ,scalloped ,tomatoes and in ,scalloped ,corn4 ,which contains the more moisture1--corn or tomatoes8 ,from this explain the difference in mixing4 ,what is the price of #ab ears of green corn or of #a can of corn8 ,,lesson ,v ,,gas ,,ranges--,,scalloped ,,fruit ,,examination ,,of ,a ,,gas ,,burner4--,inspect a gas burner and find the following parts3 7a7 ,supply pipe4 7b7 ,stopcock4 7c7 ,burner4 7d7 ,mixer 7see ,figure #ab74 ,to light a gas burner1 observe the following directions1 and in the order named3 7a7 ,strike the match4 7b7 ,turn the stopcock4 7c7 ,apply the match to the open burner4 7d7 ,if necessary1 regulate the stopcock and mixer1 so that the flame is blue in color4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,clark ,stove ,co ,,figure #ab4--;,,gas ,,burner ,,showing ,,mixer ,,experiment #f3 ,,the ,,regulation ,,and ,,purpose ,,of ,a ,,gas ,,mixer4--,light a gas burner and then completely close the mixer of the burner4 ,if the mixer is stationary1 it may be closed by wrapping a piece of paper about it4 ,what is the color of the flame8 ,now open the mixer4 ,what is the color of the flame8 ,what substance has been mixed with the gas by opening the burner8 ,what is the purpose of the mixer8 ,,examination ,,of ,a ,,gas ,,range4--,inspect a gas range and find the following parts3 7a7 ,top burners--regular1 giant and simmering 7see ,figure #ac74 7b7 ,stopcocks of top burners4 7c7 ,oven burners4 7d7 ,stopcocks of oven burners4 7e7 ,pilot 7if there is one74 7f7 ,baking oven4 7g7 ,broiling oven4 7h7 ,warming oven and its burner 7if there is one74 7i7 ,supply pipe4 7j7 ,stovepipe4 ,the method of lighting oven burners varies in different ranges1 and for this reason it is impossible to give directions for lighting which will apply to all oven burners4 ,there is1 however1 one important direction that should always be borne in mind4 ,always open the oven door before lighting the oven burners4 ,if such caution is not observed1 the gas may escape into the oven and cause an explosion4 ,in case there is a pilot- lighter1 open the oven door and see that the oven burners are turned off before lighting the pilot4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,clark ,stove ,co ,,figure #ac--;,,gas ,,burners ,a1 giant1 ,b1 regular1 ,c1 simmering ,,adjusting ,a ,,gas ,,burner4--,the products of combustion of fuel gas that most interest the housekeeper are carbon and carbon dioxide4 ,carbon dioxide is not a poisonous gas1 but it does not support animal life4 ,air containing much carbon dioxide does not contain enough oxygen for perfect respiration1 hence the need of an outlet for the products of combustion of a gas stove2 good flue construction is quite as necessary for a gas range as for a coal range 7see ,figure #ad74 ,when gas burns with a yellow flame1 it deposits soot on cooking utensils and does not give as much heat as it should4 ,this is caused by incomplete combustion4 ,moreover1 carbon monoxide1 which is present in some gas1 may escape without burning4 ,this is an exceedingly poisonous gas and when inhaled even in small quantities may cause serious effects4 ,hence it is specially necessary for a housewife to see that the gas burner is clean1 well regulated1 and properly constructed1 so that sufficient air can mix with the gas to produce a blue flame4 ,,conserving ,,gas4--,according to authoritative information1 ,footnote #h3 ,united ,states ,fuel ,administration ,bulletin1 ,use and ,conservation of ,natural ,gas the demands for natural gas are now greater than the available supply4 ,food and trees can be grown4 ,water supplies are constantly replenished by nature1 but there is no regeneration in natural gas4 ,it is thought that natural gas forms so slowly that millions of years will be required to make the present concentrated supply4 ,as far as we are concerned1 when the present supply is used up1 it is gone forever4 ,since natural gas is a most efficient fuel1 every housekeeper and householder should feel obligated to waste none of it4 ,suggestions for conserving gas follow3 7#a7 ,see that the mixer is properly adjusted so that the flame is light blue in color4 7#b7 ,in selecting a gas stove1 see that the burner is so located that the cooking surface is the correct distance above the burner4 ,the tip of the flame should touch the bottom of the utensil4 ,if it is necessary to have a long flame in order to bring this about1 there is considerable waste of gas4 7#c7 ,if the flame is long1 the gas pressure is greater than necessary4 ,regulate the gas pressure by adjusting the valve in the supply pipe4 ,a short flame will save gas and produce satisfactory results1 provided the cooking surface is the proper distance above the burner4 7#d7 ,after the contents of a cooking utensil boils1 turn the gas cock so that only gentle boiling takes place4 ,a food becomes no hotter in rapidly boiling than in gently boiling water4 7#e7 ,when possible1 use the simmering burner rather than the regular or giant burner4 7#f7 ,let the flame touch only the bottom of the cooking utensil4 ,there is a wastage of gas when the flame streams lip the sides of the cooking utensil4 7#g7 ,turn off the gas immediately when fuel is not needed4 ,matches are cheaper than fuel gas4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,gas ,,range4--,daily ,care4--,if any substance on the stove cannot be removed easily1 loosen it with a knife1 and then wipe the stove with a newspaper4 ,clean the stove with waste or a cloth having a little light paraffin oil on it4 ,polish with soft cotton or flannel cloth4 ,remove the tray that is beneath the top burners1 and wash4 ,weekly ,care4--,wash the inside of the oven and the movable tray with water to which washing soda solution has been added4 ,it is well to light the oven burner to dry the stove after washing the ovens4 ,polish the nickel1 if necessary4 ,clean the stove with oil as directed for a coal range4 7,since oils ignite most readily1 care should be taken not to apply the oil when the stove is lighted67 ,wipe the burner with the oil4 ,clean the small holes of the burners by using a knitting needle or wire kept for this purpose2 or1 if the openings in the burners are slots1 use a knife to clean them4 ,,scalloped ,,apples #b cupfuls soft bread crumbs #b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute #c cupfuls apples #a_/b cupful sugar #a_/d teaspoonful cinnamon #a_/b teaspoonful nutmeg #a_/b lemon1--juice and grated rind #a_/d cupful water ,mix the bread crumbs with the fat as directed for ,stuffed ,tomatoes4 ,chop or cut the apples in small pieces1 and add the remaining ingredients to the apples4 ,arrange the crumbs and apple mixture in a baking dish as directed for ,scalloped ,corn4 ,bake #dj to #fj minutes 7until the apples are tender and the crumbs brown71 in a moderate oven4 ,cover during first #bj minutes of baking4 ,serve hot with sugar and cream or ,hard ,sauce4 ,care should be taken in grating lemon rind4 ,only the thin yellow portion should be used as flavoring4 ,,hard ,,sauce #a cupful butter #a cupful powdered sugar #a teaspoonful vanilla ,cream the butter1 add the sugar gradually1 then the flavoring4 ,chill and serve over hot puddings4 ,,scalloped ,,bananas ,in the ,scalloped ,apple recipe substitute bananas for apples1 omit the water1 and use #a_/b teaspoonful of cinnamon and #a_/h teaspoonful of cloves for the spices4 ,bake until the bananas are heated through and the crumbs browned4 7,it will take about #ae minutes47 ,serve as ,scalloped ,apples4 ,,questions ,explain fully why the oven door of a gas range should be opened while the oven burners are being lighted4 ,if a gas stove has no pipe for waste products1 what special caution must be observed in ventilating the kitchen8 ,what are some of the advantages of a gas range over a coal range8 ,what disadvantage other than gas wastage is there when a flame streams up the sides of a cooking utensil8 ,what causes pared apples to become discolored8 ,give the order of preparation of ingredients for ,scalloped ,apples so that discoloration of the apples will be avoided4 ,how many medium-sized apples are required to make three cupfuls of chopped apples8 ,what is the purpose of covering the ,scalloped ,apples during the first half of the time for baking8 ,what is the effect of the air on peeled bananas8 ,give the order of preparation of ingredients for ,scalloped ,bananas4 ,why should the banana mixture be baked a shorter time than the apple mixture8 ,what is the effect of too long baking on bananas8 ,what is the most practical method of cleaning a grater8 ,why should not the dish-cloth be used in cleaning it8 ,,lesson ,,vi ,,stoves ,,and ,,heating ,,devices--,,stuffed ,,peppers1 ,,butterscotch ,,apples ,,kerosene ,,stoves4 ,footnote #i3 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,in case no kerosene1 gasoline1 or electric stoves are used in the homes of the pupils1 the portion of the lesson regarding these stoves may be omitted4--,where gas is not available for cooking1 kerosene may serve as a fuel4 ,in case a house is equipped with a coal range1 a kerosene stove may also be desirable for use in summer time4 ,there are two types of kerosene stoves1 viz41 wick and wickless stoves4 ,the burners of the former type are supplied with cotton wicks which become saturated with kerosene4 ,when a match is applied to the wick1 the kerosene on it vaporizes and the vapor burns4 ,the burning kerosene vapor vaporizes more kerosene and thus the burning continues4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,detroit ,vapor ,stove ,co ,,figure #ae4-- ,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,wickless ,,kerosene ,,stove4 ,in one type of wickless stove it is necessary to heat the burner so that the kerosene will vaporize when it comes in contact with it 7see ,figure #ae74 ,such a burner may be heated by pouring a small quantity of gasoline into it4 ,a lighter is then applied to the burner4 ,when the latter is sufficiently heated1 the kerosene is turned on4 ,the kerosene then vaporizes as it flows into the hot burner and burns4 ,in other types of so-called wickless stoves1 the burners are equipped with asbestos or other incombustible material4 ,this material becomes saturated with kerosene and carries the fuel to the tip of the burner somewhat as does a cloth wick4 ,it is especially necessary to keep kerosene burners clean4 ,bits of carbon collect in them and prevent perfect combustion4 ,this results in smoke or soot issuing from the burner4 ,it is well to keep the burners and wicks free from charred material1 and to renew the latter when they become short4 ,most kerosene stoves are equipped with removable containers for the fuel4 ,these should be kept filled with sufficient kerosene for burning4 ,a wick burner should never be allowed to burn after all the kerosene in the container is exhausted4 ,,gasoline ,,stoves ,footnote #aj3 ,see note to the teacher1 ,footnote #i4-- ,since gasoline is a much more readily inflammable fuel than kerosene1 it requires a different type of burner and stove4 ,as a usual thing gasoline cannot be burned in kerosene stoves nor kerosene in gasoline stoves4 7,in the stove shown in ,figure #ae1 however1 either fuel may be burned47 ,when gasoline is used in a stove1 it is necessary to vaporize the gasoline before lighting the burner4 ,this is accomplished in most stoves by letting the gasoline flow into a cup situated underneath the burner1 turning off the supply of gasoline1 and then applying a match to the cup4 ,by the time the gasoline is burned the burner is heated4 ,then the stopcock is turned on1 a match applied to the burner1 and the gasoline vaporizes and burns4 ,gasoline burners1 like those in which kerosene is burned1 should be kept clean4 ,when a mixture of gasoline vapor and air is heated1 an explosion may result4 ,it is for this reason that the tank or gasoline container of a stove should never be filled while the burners of the stove are lighted or even hot4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,westinghouse ,electric and ,manufacturing ,co ,,figure #af4--;,,electric ,,range4 ,,electric ,,stoves4 ,footnote #aa3 ,see note to the teacher1 ,footnote #i4--;,it was mentioned previously that electricity is not a fuel4 ,hence electric stoves are not provided with burners4 ,they have heaters which contain coils of wires through which an electric current passes4 ,electricity is the cleanest source of heat for cooking4 ,but in order to operate an electric stove economically1 it is necessary to utilize the current required for a heating element to its greatest extent4 ,for example1 if the current is turned on to heat the oven as many foods as possible should be cooked in the oven 7see ,figure #af74 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ag4--,,pressure ,,cooker4 ,,devices ,,and ,,utensils ,,for ,,saving ,,fuel4--,the pressure cooker 7see ,figure #ag7 in which a temperature higher than that of boiling water is maintained is a great saver of fuel4 ,a food can be cooked in from one third to one fourth the usual length of time in one of these devices4 ,moreover1 pressure cookers are especially valuable for high altitude cooking1 where water boils at a temperature lower than at sea level4 ,the steam cooker 7see ,figure #ah7 is a fuel saver1 when several foods are cooked at one time in it4 ,sufficient fuel for only one burner is required to operate it4 ,the so-called clover leaf pans or utensils of such shape that two or three can be placed over one burner or heater save much fuel or current 7see ,figures #af and #bg474 ,the fireless cookers described in ,lesson ,,xxii are practical fuel and heat savers4 ,,stuffed ,,peppers ,footnote #ab3 ,a choice of either ,stuffed ,peppers or ,butterscotch ,apples may be made for this lesson4 #f green peppers #a cupful cooked meat1 chopped #a tablespoonful scraped onion #a teaspoonful salt #b cupfuls soft bread crumbs #a tablespoonful butter or substitute ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,toledo ,cooker ,co ,,figure #ah4--,,steam ,,cooker ,,containing ,,various ,,foods4 ,cut a slice from the stem end of each pepper or cut each pepper lengthwise in halves4 ,remove the seeds4 ,mix the chopped meat1 onion1 and salt4 ,mix the bread crumbs and fat as directed in ,stuffed ,tomatoes4 ,combine the ingredients and stuff the peppers with the mixture4 ,place the peppers in a baking-dish or pan1 and pour enough boiling water into the dish or pan to cover the bottom of it4 ,bake in a moderate oven 7#cge degrees ,f47 for #cj to #de minutes or until the peppers are tender4 ,serve hot in place of meat4 ,if desired1 #a_/d cupful fresh or canned tomatoes may be added to the stuffing mixture4 ,cooked rice may be substituted for the bread crumbs4 ,a mixture of cooked rice and cheese sauce 7see p #hg7 also makes a tasty stuffing for peppers4 ,if a slice is cut from the top of the pepper1 it may be used as a lid to cover the pepper after stuffing4 ,,butterscotch ,,apples ,footnote #ac3 ,see footnote #ab4 #e apples #b_/c cupful brown sugar #a_/b cupful water #c_/d cupful milk #a_/b tablespoonful corn-starch #a_/h teaspoonful salt #a_/b to #a tablespoonful butter #a_/b teaspoonful vanilla ,wash the apples1 and cut them into quarters1 pare and core them4 ,into a saucepan put the sugar and water1 and heat4 ,when the sirup boils1 add the apples4 ,cover and boil gently until the apples are tender4 ,remove the apples from the sirup with a skimmer or a wire egg beater1 placing the fruit in sherbet glasses or other suitable dishes for serving4 ,in another pan1 mix the milk and corn-starch thoroughly4 ,stir and cook until the mixture reaches the boiling point1 then add it to the sirup in which the apples were cooked4 ,boil for a few minutes4 ,add the salt1 butter1 and vanilla4 ,stir these into the mixture1 then pour the sauce over the apples4 ,serve ,butterscotch ,apples hot or cold for a dessert4 ,,questions ,state at least two reasons why gas1 kerosene1 and gasoline are more popular fuels in summer time than coal4 ,mention a possible cause for smoke issuing from a kerosene burner4 ,why should a wick burner never be allowed to burn after all the kerosene in the container is exhausted8 ,carefully explain why the tank of a gasoline stove should never be filled while the stove is lighted or hot4 ,why are electric stoves not provided with burners8 ,why is a pressure cooker regarded as a fuel saver8 ,how should a steam cooker be used in order to save fuel8 ,explain how it is possible to save fuel by using clover leaf pans4 ,note that no ground pepper is added to the stuffing for peppers ,give the reason for this4 ,what is the purpose of pouring boiling water in the dish or pan in which peppers are baked8 ,did the sirup in which the apples were placed completely cover the fruit8 ,from this explain why it is advisable to cover the apples during the cooking4 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,if the course in food study is begun in the fall1 when fruits are in season1 the lessons of ,division ,seventeen--,the ,preservation of ,food--may follow this lesson4 ,the plan of canning fruit in the autumn is desirable1 especially if the course in foods covers but one year4 ,if more than one year is devoted to food study1 the teacher may find it more satisfactory to can fruits in the autumn of the second year1 or at the close of the spring semester of the first year4 ,the pupils at these times will have become more skilful1 so that the canning of foods can be accomplished with greater satisfaction4 ,the high cost of fruits and sugar make it imperative that as little spoilage as possible result from food preservation4 7,also see the note at the end of lesson ,,xiii47 ,,division ,,two ,,body-,,regulating ,,food3 ,,water ,,lesson ,,vii ,,water ,,and ,,beverages 7,a7 ,,experiment #f3 ,,the ,,dissolving ,,power ,,of ,,water4--,put #a_/b teaspoonful of salt in a test tube1 half fill it with water4 ,cover the mouth of the test tube with the thumb1 then shake the tube4 ,do the contents become clear8 ,set the tube aside for a few minutes4 ,does the salt separate from the water8 ,when a solid substance1 by mixing with water1 disappears in the water and does not separate on standing1 the solid substance is dissolved4 ,the salt was therefore dissolved in cold water1 or it may be said that salt is soluble in cold water1 or that water is a solvent of salt4 ,,solution ,,and ,,digestion4--,the change of foods in the body from insoluble to a soluble form is one step in digestion4 ,foods are dissolved in the digestive juices of the mouth1 stomach1 and intestines4 ,some foods such as salt and certain sugars are readily dissolved4 ,other foods have to undergo changes before they will dissolve4 ,corn-starch1 for example1 does not dissolve in cold water4 ,it must be changed into sugar 7which is easily dissolved7 in the process of digestion4 ,dissolving then is an important step in the process of digesting4 ,,use ,,of ,,water ,,in ,,the ,,body4--,a person might live for a number of weeks without eating food1 but he could live only a few days without drinking water4 ,water has many uses in the body4 7a7 ,it is the greatest known solvent4 ,because of this property1 water is extremely important in the processes of digestion4 7,see ,solution and ,digestion47 7b7 ,it is a great carrier4 ,water helps carry food materials to all parts of the body2 and it aids in carrying off the wastes of the body4 7c7 ,it assists in regulating the temperature of the body4 ,because water is present in blood1 and blood flows from the warmer interior of the body to the colder exterior1 the water aids in distributing the heat of the body4 ,the evaporation of perspiration1 which is largely composed of water1 also aids in regulating body temperature4 ,it is thus readily seen that water is needed to keep the machinery of the body working smoothly4 ,the uses of water may be summed up in the statement3 ,water aids in regulating body processes4 ,,foreign ,,materials ,,in ,,water4--,since water is such a ready solvent1 it contains many foreign materials4 ,in passing through the air and in flowing through the ground1 it dissolves many substances4 ,some of these substances are harmless1 while some contain disease bacteria and are dangerous4 ,well water is frequently contaminated4 ,it is often not safe to use for drinking purposes unless boiled4 ,,experiment #g3 ,,presence ,,of ,,gases ,,in ,,water4--,fill a beaker half full of water1 and note its temperature4 ,heat the water1 and observe the changes which take place4 ,what appears on the sides and bottom of the beaker8 ,what does water contain which is driven off by heat8 ,,experiment #h3 ,,simmering ,,and ,,boiling ,,of ,,water4--,continue to heat the water of ,experiment #g until the larger bubbles form and disappear at the surface of the water4 ,note the temperature4 ,continue to heat the water until bubbling occurs on the surface of the water4 ,note the temperature4 ,what is indicated by the larger bubbles8 ,,heating ,,water4--,when bubbling occurs below the surface1 water is simmering4 ,when the surface is in motion and steam is given off1 water is boiling4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ai--,,scene ,,on ,a ,,tea ,,plantation4 ,the loss of gases makes boiled water taste flat or insipid4 ,this flatness can be overcome somewhat by aerating the water after boiling1 i4e4 by pouring it from one vessel into another and thus mixing air with it4 ,,tea ,,and ,,its ,,selection4--,tea shrubs grow in ,india1 ,ceylon1 ,china1 and ,japan 7see ,figure #ai74 ,the buds and leaves of these shrubs are cut and dried and sold as tea4 ,in buying tea the size of the dried leaves should be noted4 ,the smallest leaves are those which have grown nearest the tip of the twig and hence are the youngest4 ,these make the choicest tea4 ,the older and larger leaves make tea of less fine flavor4 ,flowery ,pekoe and ,orange ,pekoe are choice ,india teas4 ,these brands consist of the buds and youngest leaves4 ,another point to consider in buying tea is its color4 ,tea leaves are either black or green4 ,the chief difference between black and green tea is that black tea leaves are fermented after picking1 while green are not4 ,tea leaves contain flavoring and stimulating materials and a substance called tannin 7sometimes called tannic acid7 which interferes with digestion4 ,the presence of tannin in both black and green tea can be shown by the following3 ,,experiment #i3 ,,tannin ,,in ,,tea4--7a7 ,put #a_/b teaspoonful of black tea in a cup4 ,add #a_/b cupful of boiling water4 ,let it stand for #e minutes1 then strain the infusion4 7b7 ,repeat 7a7 substituting green tea for black4 7c7 ,into #b test tubes put #a teaspoonful of each kind of beverage4 ,to each tube1 add #a_/b teaspoonful of ferrous sulphate solution and let the tubes stand4 ,if a black substance appears in the tubes1 tannin is present4 ,which kind of beverage1--black or green tea1--shows the greater quantity of tannin8 ,by fermentation1 tannin is changed into a less soluble form1 so the beverage made from black tea contains less tannin than that made from green tea4 ,hence1 black tea is preferable4 ,it is1 however1 slightly more stimulating than green tea4 ,good black tea is grayish black in color1 not dead black4 ,english ,breakfast is a black tea4 ,it consists of a mixture of several black teas4 ,oolong is black in appearance1 but has the flavor of green tea4 ,this is because it is only semi-fermented4 ,teas grown in various countries have different flavors4 ,tea is sometimes adulterated by using the leaves of other plants or by adding large leaves and stems4 ,it is said the finest brands of tea do not reach this country4 ,,making ,,the ,,beverage4--,because tea contains tannic acid1 an earthen1 enamel1 china1 or silver teapot should be used2 a tin teapot should never be used4 7,see ,suggestions for ,cooking ,fruits47 ,the ingredient in tea that gives it its odor and flavor is a volatile substance4 ,hence tea leaves should be kept in closely covered jars or cans4 ,boiling water draws out substances which give the beverage its flavor and stimulating properties1 while water below the boiling point only partially draws out these substances4 ,if1 however1 the leaves are boiled or are allowed to remain in water for more than five minutes1 much tannin is drawn out in the water4 ,therefore1 never boil tea1 but pour boiling water over it and in five minutes strain out the tea leaves4 ,,tea 7proportion for one cupful7 #a_/d to #a teaspoonful black tea leaves #a cupful freshly boiled water ,heat the teapot by pouring boiling water into it4 ,pour out the water and add the tea leaves4 ,pour over them the freshly boiled water4 ,place the teapot in a warm place to steep1 and in #e minutes strain out the tea leaves4 ,teapots provided with perforated cups or with tea-balls 7see ,figure #bj7 for holding the tea leaves are most convenient1 as the cup containing the leaves may easily be removed or the tea-ball can be drawn above the surface of the liquid after steeping the tea for #e minutes4 ,or two teapots may be used1 the beverage being strained from one teapot into the other4 ,the quantity of tea to be used varies with the strength of tea desired4 ,if the leaves are closely rolled1 less tea is required than if they are loosely folded4 ,tea may be served with cream and sugar1 or with lemon and sugar4 ,the latter is called ,russian ,tea1 and is often served with a preserved cherry4 ,in warm weather ,iced ,tea may be served4 ,left over tea may be utilized in this way1 or hot tea may be cooled quickly by adding ice to it4 ,while the latter method requires more ice1 the tea is considered of a finer flavor4 ,iced ,tea is served usually with sugar and lemon4 ,since sugar does not dissolve as readily in cold solutions as in hot 7see ,experiments #aj and #aa7 a sirup may be prepared for sweetening ,iced ,tea4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,manning1 ,bowman ,co ,,figure #bj4--,,tea-,,ball ,,teapot4 ,even though tea is carefully selected and prepared it contains some tannin4 ,this1 as has been mentioned1 is injurious4 ,the stimulating material in tea also distresses some persons4 ,children1 nervous persons1 and those who suffer from constipation are advised not to drink tea4 ,,toasted ,,wafers ,,and ,,cheese ,spread crackers or wafers with a small quantity of cheese4 ,season the cheese with a sprinkling of salt and paprika4 ,brown the wafers in the oven4 ,when the cheese is melted1 the wafers are ready to serve4 ,if thick crackers are used1 they may be split open and the broken surface spread with cheese4 ,,questions ,by what means is flavor extracted from tea leaves8 ,how can the extraction of much tannic acid be avoided in tea8 ,give the reason for using freshly boiled water for tea4 7,see ,experiments #g and #h47 ,which is the better kind of tea to use--black or green8 ,explain4 ,why should tea be strained after steeping #e minutes8 ,from your grocer learn the names and prices of two green and two black teas4 ,from what countries do they come8 ,how many cupfuls in one pound of tea leaves8 ,how many teaspoonfuls in a pound8 ,determine the approximate number of wafers in a pound4 ,also estimate the quantity of cheese needed for one pound of wafers4 ,,lesson ,,viii ,,water ,,and ,,beverages 7,b7 ,,water ,,as ,a ,,beverage4--,most foods contain water4 ,not only moist foods such as milk and watermelon1 but solid foods such as potatoes and rice contain water4 ,the water present in foods1 however1 is not sufficient for the needs of the body4 ,it is necessary to use water as a beverage4 ,when one rises in the morning1 it is well to drink one or two glassfuls of water4 ,from one to two quarts of water1--either as plain water or in beverages1--should be taken each day4 ,it used to be thought that water drinking during a meal was harmful4 ,scientific investigations have shown that this is a mistaken idea4 ,water may be drunk at mealtime4 ,indeed it has been found that it aids in the digestive processes1 provided foods are not rinsed down with it and provided very cold water is not used4 ,,water1 ,a ,,foodstuff4--,the body is nourished by food and there are many different kinds of food4 ,moreover1 most foods are made up not of one substance1 but of a number of materials4 ,the chemical substances of which foods are composed are called nutrients or foodstuffs ,footnote #ad3 ,the difference between the scientific and popular meaning of the word foodstuffs should be noted4 ,foodstuffs is defined and used as a scientific term in this text44 7,foodstuffs were formerly called food principles47 ,a few foods contain but one foodstuff1 some contain several foodstuffs1 many contain all the foodstuffs4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ba--;,coffee ,berries4 ,water is a foodstuff4 ,there are other foodstuffs about which we shall study later4 ,each foodstuff has a certain function to perform in the body4 ,as explained in the previous lesson1 water is a body-regulating foodstuff4 ,,use ,,of ,,water ,,in ,,cleaning ,,and ,,in ,,preparing ,,foods4--,water is a cleansing agent because most soil is soluble in water4 ,it also plays a most important part in the preparation of foods1 since it serves as a medium for the cooking of foods1 as in the processes of steaming and boiling4 ,because water dissolves many substances1 it acts as a carrier of flavor as in fruit drinks1 tea1 and coffee4 ,although there are some foods which can be cooked without a water medium1 baked potatoes and roast meat for example1 certain foods such as rice and dried beans require water during cooking4 ,it is readily seen that water is indispensable in cooking4 ,,coffee4--,coffee is the seed of the fruit of an evergreen tree grown in tropical countries 7see ,figure #ba74 ,each fruit contains two seeds or berries4 ,the fruit is picked1 allowed to ferment1 and the seeds removed from their pulpy covering4 ,the seeds1 which are also called coffee beans1 are then roasted and sent to market4 ,the flavor of the coffee bean is due to the variety of coffee tree1 the maturity of the fruit when picked1 and the time subjected to the roasting process4 ,mocha ,footnote #ae3 ,mocha is a port in ,arabia4 ,mocha coffee was so called because much of the coffee grown in ,arabia was exported from ,mocha4 and ,java are choice brands of coffee4 ,although originally grown in ,arabia and ,java1 their names are not used to designate the localities in which they grow1 but the variety of coffee4 ,much of our coffee now comes from ,brazil4 ,coffee is somewhat like tea in composition4 ,it contains tannic acid1 and therefore a tin coffeepot should never be used4 ,the flavor can be extracted from coffee by boiling it or by pouring boiling water through it4 ,coffee should not boil longer than three minutes1 as much tannic acid is extracted by long boiling4 ,because coffee contains volatile substances1 it should not be purchased ground1 unless in small quantities1 and it should then be kept in tightly covered jars or cans4 ,when freshly roasted1 coffee has the best flavor4 ,in this condition1 it is crisp and emits a strong aroma4 ,,boiled ,,coffee 7proportion for one cupful7 #a heaping tablespoonful coarsely ground coffee #b tablespoonfuls cold water ,bit of crushed egg-shell or a little egg white #a cup boiling water 7#a egg-shell or #a_/b egg white is sufficient for #h heaping tablespoonfuls of ground coffee47 ,into a well-cleaned coffeepot1 place the coffee1 #a tablespoonful of the cold water1 and egg4 ,mix2 then add the boiling water and boil for not more than three minutes4 ,remove from the fire2 pour out about one half cupful of coffee1 in order to rinse the grounds from the inside and from the spout of the coffeepot4 ,return the coffee to the pot2 add the second tablespoonful of cold water4 ,if the spout is not covered1 a piece of paper may be inserted so that the aroma will be retained4 ,allow to stand in a warm place for about #e minutes for the coffee to become clear4 ,cold water may be used instead of boiling water in making coffee ,,care ,,of ,,coffeepot4--,the coffee should never be allowed to stand in the coffeepot1 but should be turned out at once after using4 ,if any clear coffee is left1 it may be used for spice cakes1 jellies1 or other desserts4 ,the coffeepot should be washed well1 and scoured if necessary4 ,the spout needs special care in cleaning4 ,,filtered ,,coffee #b_/c cupful finely ground coffee #e cupfuls freshly boiled water 7,for the following method of preparing coffee1 a drip coffeepot is used4 ,a drip coffeepot is provided with a perforated receptacle or a muslin bag in which the finely ground coffee is held4 ,the boiled water is poured through the ground coffee47 ,heat the coffee by steaming it1 placing a little boiling water in the bottom of the coffeepot and the ground coffee in the coffee bag or perforated cup4 ,remove the bag or cup and pour the water from the pot4 ,return the bag or cup to the coffeepot and slowly pour over it the freshly boiled water4 ,if it is desired to make the coffee stronger1 the beverage may be poured over the ground coffee a second time4 ,care should be taken1 however1 not to cool the coffee in so doing4 ,wash the coffee bag in clear cold water and dry in the air4 ,renew the bag occasionally4 ,black or ,after ,dinner ,coffee may be prepared in a drip coffeepot4 ,use #a cupful of finely ground coffee to #e cupfuls of freshly boiled water4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,manning1 ,bowman ,co ,,figure #bb4--;,,coffee ,,percolator4 ,filtered coffee may also be prepared in a coffee percolator 7see ,figure #bb74 ,a percolator is so constructed that the water is heated in the pot and kept at boiling temperature while passing through the ground coffee4 ,the method of preparing the beverage depends upon the construction of the percolator4 ,follow the directions that come with it4 ,,oatmeal ,,cookies #a egg #a_/b cupful sugar #c_/h cupful fat or #a_/d cupful vegetable oil #b tablespoonfuls sour milk #a cupful rolled oats #a cupful flour #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a_/h teaspoonful baking soda #b teaspoonfuls baking powder #a_/b cupful raisins ,break the egg in a mixing bowl4 ,beat it1 then add the sugar4 ,if solid fat is used1 melt it4 ,add the fat or oil to the sugar and egg mixture4 ,add the sour milk and rolled oats4 ,sift the flour1 then measure it4 ,turn it into a sifter1 add the salt1 baking soda1 and baking powder4 ,sift these dry ingredients into the first mixture4 ,wash the raisins1 dry them on a towel1 then sprinkle a little flour over them and add to the other ingredients4 ,mix well and drop the mixture by the teaspoonfuls on an oiled baking sheet4 ,bake in a moderate oven 7#cge degrees ,f47 until golden brown in color4 ,these cookies may be served with coffee4 ,,questions ,how long should coffee boil8 ,why not boil it longer8 ,when the coffee is poured from the coffeepot1 examine the grounds and then explain the use of the egg white and egg-shell in preparing coffee4 ,why is a cupful of coffee poured out and returned to the coffeepot after the coffee is boiled8 ,why should cold water be added to coffee after boiling8 ,in what form1--ground or whole1--should coffee be purchased8 ,why8 ,in what kind of jars should tea and coffee be kept8 ,explain4 ,how many cupfuls in one pound of coffee8 ,estimate the number of heaping tablespoonfuls in one pound of coffee4 ,what is the average price per pound of coffee8 ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,ix ,,home ,,projects ,footnote #af3 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,one of the most insistent ideas of modern educators is that the pupil be taught not merely to get him ready to live1 footnote3 but that he be taught to live4 ,it is thought that the processes of present growth will serve as the best training for future needs4 ,if the school girl is living in her home1 she is in immediate need of such training as will help her contribute her share to the workings of her home4 ,to a certain degree1 success in school activities can be measured by the way they function in the home4 ,perhaps there is no more effective way of making the school work function in the home than by the educative process called the project4 ,stevenson defines a project as a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting1 while ,kilpatrick says a project is a whole- hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment4 ,in order to aid the pupils in their home work1 it is necessary to know the needs of the home4 ,if possible1 interest and cooperation of the pupils' mothers in this matter should be secured4 ,it is hoped that the afternoon tea suggested in the following lesson may afford means for the teacher to become acquainted with the mother to find out something of the needs of the home and to secure the mother's cooperation for her daughter's work in the home4 ,in order to assign definite projects to the pupils1 it will be necessary to confer with the girl4 ,by discussing plans for home work you can doubtless discover what type of work interests her and what she can contribute with profit to her home4 ,you can thus assign a project which will be performed in a hearty manner4 ,definite plans should be made for carrying out the work in the home4 ,for successful results it is most necessary that the pupil understand that a project is an act which involves mental effort1 and that the activity must be carried to completion4 ,the fact that the project is to be performed in the home carries out one of the premises of the project1 viz41 that the act be performed in its natural setting or in a social environment4 ,reports concerning the progress and results of work should be submitted by the pupil4 ,home visitation on the part of the teacher is most desirable and in most cases necessary for satisfactory results4 ,the following articles regarding ,projects are most illuminating3 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,volume ,,xix1 ,number #d 7,sept4 #aiah71 ,the ,project ,method by ,william ,h4 ,kilpatrick2 ,the ,journal of ,home ,economics1 ,volume ,x1 ,number #c 7,mar4 #aiah71 ,the ,project in ,home ,economics ,teaching by ,w4 ,w4 ,charters2 ,school ,science and ,mathematics1 ,volume ,,xix 7,jan4 #aiai71 ,the ,project in ,science ,teaching by ,john ,alford ,stevenson4 ,,worthy ,,home ,,membership4--,each member of a home has certain obligations to fulfill4 ,the course in foods which you are following in school offers an unusual opportunity for you to contribute your share in performing home duties4 ,in a most definite way1 it may help you to qualify for worthy home membership4 ,,applying ,,school ,,activities ,,to ,,home ,,work4--,there is no more effective way of gaining skill in cooking and housekeeping than by applying the methods learned at school in your home4 ,it is not enough for you to make cookies or cook potatoes once in the school kitchen4 ,if you would become an expert in these processes1 repeat them many times in your home4 ,your efforts will be more than repaid by your own growth and by the satisfaction your achievements will bring to the entire household4 ,discuss your school work in food study with your mother4 ,you will doubtless find many things of mutual interest and your mother will be glad to have your cooperation in housekeeping4 ,household duties assigned by the teacher and performed in the home with a determination to accomplish a definite aim1 we will term ,home ,projects4 ,to secure successful results1 your home work must be done thoughtfully1 and earnestly1 and in a whole-hearted way4 ,we shall suppose1 for example1 that your teacher assigns you the home project of setting the table of the evening meal for one week4 ,she also instructs you to keep in mind the following aims3 7#a7 ,to make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the dining table4 7#b7 ,to plan the entire number of dishes1 knives1 forks1 spoons1 and other things needed during the meal1 and then place these on the dining table or other suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the meal is being served4 ,in order to accomplish these things1 you must work with a determination to succeed at what you are doing and to keep your mind steadfastly on the work at hand4 ,with such an attitude toward your work you will doubtless have accomplished several things by the end of a week4 ,you will have set the table in an orderly manner1 and thus have given real assistance and satisfaction to the members of your family2 you will have become more skilful in spreading the table1 and you will have made it possible to spend less time in setting the table in the future4 ,you could not have accomplished all this if you had not earnestly thought as you worked4 ,you will find it interesting and beneficial to make each assignment of home work as complete as possible4 ,if1 for example1 you are to make cakes1 it will be most desirable if you not only mix and bake cakes1 but1 if possible1 select and purchase the materials for them and compute their cost4 ,suggestions for ,home ,projects3 ,make the beverages for one or more meals each day4 ,wash the dishes of the evening meal4 ,prepare a scalloped dish or any of the foods given in ,lessons ,i to ,v once a week4 ,suggested ,aims3 7#a7 ,to prepare tea or coffee so as to draw out as little tannin as possible4 7#b7 ,to wash dishes well but to make as few movements as possible4 ,to note the time required to do the dishes each day and by means of efficiency methods strive to lessen the time4 7#c7 ,to utilize left-over pieces or crumbs of bread in preparing scalloped dishes4 ,to prepare seasonable fruits and vegetables so well that the members of your home will find them most palatable4 ,,lesson ,x ,,afternoon ,,tea ,,planning ,,the ,,tea4--,to entertain friends is a pleasure4 ,meeting friends or having them become acquainted with a pleasure4 ,this lesson is arranged that you may entertain your mother at afternoon tea and that she may visit with your teacher and classmates4 ,in planning for any special occasion1 it is necessary to decide upon the day and hour for the party4 ,if the occasion is at all formal1 or if a number of persons are to be present1 it is also necessary to plan how to entertain your guests1--what you will have them do to have a pleasant time4 ,if it is desired to serve refreshments1 you must decide what to serve1 how much to prepare1 and when to prepare the foods4 ,the method of serving them must also be considered4 ,the ,refreshments for an afternoon tea should be dainty and served in small portions4 ,tea served with thin slices of lemon or cream and sugar and accompanied by wafers1 sandwiches1 or small cakes is the usual menu4 ,sweets or candies are often served with these foods4 ,the following menu may be prepared for your first tea3 ,tea with ,lemon 7or ,cream7 and ,sugar ,toasted ,wafers with ,cheese or ,oatmeal ,cookies ,coconut ,sweetmeats ,from previous work1 estimate the quantity of tea1 lemons 7or cream71 sugar1 wafers1 or cakes you will need4 ,a recipe for ,coconut ,sweetmeats follows4 ,it makes #bj sweetmeats about one inch in diameter4 ,,coconut ,,sweetmeats #a_/d cupful powdered sugar l #a_/d cupfuls shredded coconut #b tablespoonfuls flour #a_/h teaspoonful salt #a teaspoonful vanilla #a egg white ,mix the dry ingredients1 then add the vanilla4 ,beat the egg white stiff4 ,add the other ingredients and mix thoroughly4 ,grease a baking sheet and dredge it with flour4 ,drop the coconut mixture by the teaspoonfuls on the baking sheet4 ,bake in a moderate oven 7#cge degrees ,f47 for #bj minutes or until slightly browned4 ,remove from the pan1 place on a cake cooler4 ,when cold store in a tin box4 ,,serving ,,the ,,tea4--,for an afternoon tea1 the beverage may be poured in the kitchen and carried into the dining room or the other room where the guests are assembled1 or it may be poured in the dining room in the presence of the guests4 ,when the latter plan is followed1 the teapot1 cups1 plates1 spoons1 and napkins are placed on the dining table4 ,seated at the table1 one of the pupils ,footnote #ag3 ,if afternoon tea is served in a home to a number of guests1 an intimate friend of the hostess or a member of the household usually pours tea4 ,in this way the hostess is free to greet every guest and to see that every one is having an enjoyable time4 pours the tea1 and places a filled cup and a teaspoon on a plate4 ,the tea 7with a napkin7 is then passed to the guests2 the lemon or cream and sugar1 wafers or cakes and sweets are also passed4 ,the slices of lemon should be placed on a small plate or other suitable dish and served with a lemon fork4 ,wafers1 sandwiches1 or small cakes should be placed on plates or in dainty baskets4 ,no article of silver is provided in serving them2 the guests take them from the plates with their fingers4 ,those who are serving the tea should be watchful and note when the guests have drunk their tea and relieve them of cup and plate4 ,they should also replenish the teapot1 and see that the one pouring the tea has all the materials and dishes needed4 ,,division ,,three ,,body-,,building ,,and ,,body-,,regulating ,,foods1 ,,rich ,,in ,,ash 7,,mineral ,,matter7 ,,lesson ,,xi ,,fresh ,,vegetables 7,a7 ,,ash4--,in a previous lesson1 it was mentioned that most foods do not consist of one material1 but of several substances4 ,ash or mineral matter is a common constituent of food4 ,it is a foodstuff4 ,the term ash does not apply to one substance2 it is used to indicate a group of substances4 ,milk1 eggs1 vegetables1 both fresh and dried fruits1 and cereals are valuable sources of ash4 ,they do not all1 however1 contain the same kind of ash4 ,the presence of ash in food is not apparent until the food is burned4 ,the substance that remains after burning1 i4e4 the ashes1 is mineral matter or ash4 ,although ash exists in combination with other substances in most foods1 a few materials consist almost entirely of ash4 ,common salt is a mineral substance2 another example is the white scaly substance which sometimes forms on the inside of a teakettle or on any pan in which water has been heated4 ,soda is still another familiar mineral substance4 ,the condiment salt--ordinary table salt--7see ,condiments7 must not be confused with the term salts2 the latter applies to many mineral substances besides common salt4 ,,use ,,of ,,ash ,,in ,,the ,,body4--,ash as well as water does not burn in the body4 ,it is therefore considered an incombustible foodstuff4 ,bones1 teeth1 and many other parts of the body contain certain mineral materials4 ,ash helps to build the body4 ,ash exists in the fluids of the body4 ,for example1 there is salt in perspiration and in all excretions of the body4 ,the digestive juices also contain mineral materials1 and ash aids in the digestive processes of the body4 ,scientists have shown that ash participates in many ways in the regulation of body processes4 ,thus ash has two main uses in the body3 7a7 it aids in building the body2 and 7b7 it aids in regulating body processes4 ,ash1 therefore1 is an absolute necessity in diet4 ,,fresh ,,vegetables4--,it was mentioned above that fresh vegetables are one of the most valuable food sources of ash4 ,the leaves1 stems1 pods1 and roots of certain plants1 and also those fruits which are used as vegetables1 may be classed as fresh vegetables4 ,some of these are3 cabbage1 brussels sprouts1 lettuce1 water cress1 spinach1 celery1 onions1 tomatoes1 cucumbers1 beets1 carrots1 and turnips4 ,fresh vegetables contain not only the foodstuff ash1 but water4 ,indeed most fresh vegetables contain from #ge to #ij per cent of water4 ,in addition to these two foodstuffs1 vegetables contain cellulose4 ,the latter is a fibrous substance which forms for the most part the skins and interior framework of vegetables and fruits4 ,the strings of beans and celery and the pith of turnips and radishes1 for example1 contain much cellulose4 ,foods containing both ash and cellulose have a laxative effect4 ,hence the value of fresh vegetables in diet4 ,the use of fresh vegetables cannot be too strongly urged4 ,certain vegetables1 especially the green leaved vegetables1 also contain substances which are necessary to make the body grow and keep it in good health 7see ,division ,seven74 ,most persons should use fresh vegetables more freely than they do4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,cooking ,,green ,,vegetables4--,if ash is such a valuable constituent of vegetables1 the latter should be cooked so as to retain all the ash4 ,unfortunately vegetables are not always cooked in such a way that the minerals are saved4 ,just as salt dissolves readily in water1 so many of the mineral materials found in green vegetables dissolve in the water in which vegetables are cooked4 ,hence if it is necessary to drain off water from vegetables after cooking1 it is evident there may be much loss of nutriment4 ,ash is also one of the substances which gives flavor to vegetables4 ,insipid flavors of certain vegetables may be due to improper cooking4 ,a most important point to consider in the cooking of vegetables is the saving of the minerals4 ,this can be accomplished in several ways3 #a4 ,cooking in water with their skins4 #b4 ,cooking in water and using the water which must be drained away after cooking for sauces and soups4 #c4 ,cooking in such a small quantity of water that none needs to be drained away after cooking4 #d4 ,cooking in steam4 #e4 ,cooking in the oven by means of dry heat4 ,,cooking ,,vegetables ,,in ,,water4--,water in which vegetables are cooked should be salted4 ,use #a teaspoonful of salt for each quart of water4 ,the water should be boiling when the vegetables are added and should be kept boiling gently during the entire cooking4 ,rapidly boiling water wears off the edges of vegetables and breaks them4 ,the water in which vegetables are cooked is called vegetable stock4 ,when vegetables are pared or scraped before cooking in water1 the stock should be utilized in making vegetable sauces4 ,test vegetables for sufficient cooking with a fork or knitting needle4 ,,beets ,clean beets by scrubbing them with a small brush1 using it carefully so as not to break the skin4 ,leave two or three inches of the stems on until the beets are cooked4 ,cook them whole in boiling salted water 7see ,cooking ,vegetables in ,water74 ,test only the largest beet for sufficient cooking4 ,use a knitting needle or wire skewer for testing4 ,drain and cover with cold water and rub off the skin with the hands4 ,cut the beets into slices1 sprinkle generously with salt and pepper1 and add a little butter4 ,a small quantity of vinegar may be added1 if desired4 ,serve hot4 ,beets may also be served with a sauce4 ,prepare the sauce like ,white ,sauce1 using for the liquid three parts of water and one part of vinegar4 ,beets may be pickled by slicing them or by cutting into cubes and placing in plain or spiced vinegar4 ,serve cold4 ,,scalloped ,,tomatoes ,,with ,,onions #b cupfuls sliced onions #b cupfuls tomatoes #a tablespoonful fat ,salt and pepper #a cupful bread crumbs ,parboil the onions for #ae minutes2 drain4 ,footnote #ah3 ,when the water is drained from the onions1 there is a loss of nutriment4 ,in cooking onions1 however1 we usually consider it advisable to lose some food value for the sake of flavor4 ,see ,nutriment versus ,flavor4 ,into a greased baking-dish put a layer of tomatoes1 then one of onions1 and sprinkle with salt and pepper4 ,repeat until all the vegetables are added4 ,mix the bread crumbs and fat as directed for ,stuffed ,tomatoes4 ,sprinkle these crumbs on top of the vegetables4 ,bake in a moderate oven 7#djj degrees ,f47 for #cj minutes or until the onions are tender4 ,serve hot4 ,,broiled ,,tomatoes ,wash and cut tomatoes in halves1 crosswise2 do not peel them4 ,place them 7with cut surface up7 in a frying pan 7without fat74 ,cook on top of the range or in the oven at a low temperature for about #cj minutes1 or until the tomatoes are soft1 but not broken4 ,add a bit of butter to each half of tomato and season with salt and pepper4 ,serve at once4 ,,questions ,since sugar is manufactured from beets1 the latter must contain considerable sugar4 ,from this fact and the results of ,experiment #aa1 explain why beets must not be pared or cut in pieces before cooking4 ,state another reason why beets should not be pared or cut into pieces before cooking4 ,also give the reason for leaving a portion of the stem on beets during cooking4 ,explain why only one beet should be tested for sufficient cooking1 and why it should be tested with a knitting needle or wire skewer rather than with a fork4 ,what is the price of beets per pound8 ,how many beets in a pound8 ,carefully explain how the nutriment is retained by cooking beets and tomatoes according to the recipes of this lesson4 ,what is the advantage and disadvantage in draining water from onions after parboiling them8 ,,lesson ,,xii ,,fresh ,,vegetables 7,b7 ,,food ,,prejudices4--,most persons have decided likes and dislikes for certain foods4 ,these opinions very often have no reasonable foundation4 ,one taste of a food poorly prepared or a disparaging remark heard in childhood may be the cause for a lifetime's aversion for a food4 ,there is no better way to overcome food prejudices than by learning to prepare foods well--to make them tasty and nutritious--and to appreciate their nutritive value4 ,food prejudices like most others may be overcome by a thorough knowledge of the subject4 ,come to the school kitchen with an open mind4 ,when you understand why certain foods are valuable in diet and are able to prepare them skilfully1 you may learn to enjoy them4 ,to discover that foods which you previously considered commonplace and uninteresting are tasty1 is really a pleasing experience4 ,,time ,,for ,,cooking ,,fresh ,,vegetables ,,in ,,water4--,it is not possible to state just how long a vegetable will be required to cook in water4 ,the time varies with the kind of vegetable1 its size1 and age4 ,usually the older a vegetable1 the longer the time required for cooking4 ,young vegetables1 especially green corn and tender cabbage1 may be spoiled by too long cooking4 ,for novices1 a time table may be helpful not only in determining when a food is sufficiently cooked but in deciding how long to allow for cooking a food before it is to be served4 ,but do not depend entirely upon a time table4 ,judging by appearance and using the fork or knitting needle is the most reliable test4 ,,table ,asparagus #ae-bj minutes ,beets 7young7 #de-fj minutes ,beets 7old7 #c-d hours ,cabbage #ae-cj minutes ,carrots #cj-fj minutes ,cauliflower #bj-cj minutes ,celery #bj-de minutes ,green ,corn #ab-bj minutes ,lima beans 7fresh7 #de-fj minutes ,onions #cj-de minutes ,parsnips #cj-de minutes ,peas 7fresh7 #bj-cj minutes ,potatoes #be-cj minutes ,spinach #ae-cj minutes ,squash 7summer7 #bj-cj minutes ,string ,beans #a-c hours ,sweet ,potatoes #ae-be minutes ,turnips #cj-de minutes ,,paring ,,vegetables4--,if the outside skin of a vegetable is removed1 it should be pared as thin as possible4 ,the covering of the carrot and new potato is so thin that it can be removed by scraping1 thereby saving the valuable nutritive substances just beneath the skin4 ,turnips are an exception to the rule1 a thick layer of cellular material covers them4 ,for this reason1 a thick paring is cut from turnips4 7,cut a turnip in two and note the thickness of its skin47 ,,mashed ,,turnips #f medium turnips ,salt and pepper #b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute ,scrub and pare the turnips4 ,cut each into cubes4 ,place in the top part of a steamer 7see ,figure #ca7 and cook until tender when tested with a fork or knitting needle4 ,mash the turnips with a potato masher4 ,add butter or substitute and enough salt and pepper to season4 ,serve hot4 ,,buttered ,,carrots #d cupfuls carrots1 cut into strips #b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute #b teaspoonfuls salt ,dash pepper ,scrub and scrape carrots1 cut them into strips4 ,put them in a saucepan and add water to a depth of #a inch4 ,when the carrots are tender and only a small amount of water remains1 add the butter or substitute and seasonings4 ,continue to cook slowly until almost all of the remaining water has evaporated4 ,serve the vegetables and surrounding liquid hot4 ,young string beans cut in halves lengthwise and parsnips cut in strips may be cooked in the same way4 7,adapted from a ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture recipe47 ,,questions ,why should the outside skin of a vegetable be pared as thin as possible8 ,what is the exception to this rule8 ,how should vegetable stock be utilized8 ,why8 ,housekeepers usually add milk to potatoes when mashing them4 ,why is moisture not added to mashed turnips8 ,what1 advantage is there in steaming turnips rather than cooking them in water8 ,why are carrots cooked in a small quantity of water rather than a large amount8 ,what are the prices of turnips and carrots per pound8 ,how many of each of these vegetables in a pound8 ,,lesson ,,xiii ,,fresh ,,fruits ,,fruit1 ,a ,,necessity4--,an authority ,footnote #ai3 ,see ,feeding the ,family 7p #bdj71 by ,mary ,swartz ,rose1 ,ph4,d4 on diet says that at least as much money should be spent for fruits as for meat1 eggs1 and fish4 ,fruit should no longer be considered a luxury but a necessity in diet4 ,fruits as well as vegetables are effective in preventing constipation1-- the common disorder which may lead to serious disturbances4 ,most fruits1 especially those containing considerable acid1 such as lemons1 oranges1 and apples1 are laxative4 ,prunes and figs are also valuable in constipation4 ,blackberries are unlike other fruits in this respect1--they are constipating4 ,a disease called scurvy is often due to a lack of fresh vegetables and fruits in diet4 ,orange juice is especially valuable in preventing scurvy4 ,fruits are valuable not only because they aid in preventing constipation and scurvy1 but because they contain ash4 ,fruits are rich in mineral matter4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,fruits4--,in a broad sense fruits are seed vessels4 ,this classification includes many foods that are ordinarily considered vegetables4 ,so in this text seed vessels that are used as desserts are termed fruits4 ,rhubarb is not properly a fruit2 it is a vegetable1 but because it is used in the diet the same way as fruit1 it is classed as such4 ,fruits are sometimes classified as food fruits and flavor fruits4 ,this distinction depends upon the quantity of sugar and water that fruits contain1--those containing much sugar1 such as ripe bananas and dried fruits1 being called food fruits and those containing much water and less sugar1 such as oranges and strawberries1 being termed flavor fruits4 ,this classification may be somewhat misleading1 however1 for all fruits may be considered food fruits4 ,fruits containing much water are generally rich in ash and other valuable substances and hence have decided food value4 ,,when ,,to ,,add ,,the ,,sugar to cooked fruits--before or after cooking--is a practical problem for every housewife4 ,fruits contain acids1 and most cooked fruits require the addition of sugar to make them palatable4 ,the flavor of fresh fruit is generally popular4 ,in cooking fruit it is desirable to retain the fresh fruit flavor4 ,housekeepers have found that a less desirable flavor results--the fruit loses more of its fresh flavor--if the sugar is cooked with the fruit4 ,moreover1 when sugar is cooked with fruit1 a sirup is formed1 which is more apt to scorch than a mixture of fruit and water4 ,for these reasons1 it is well to add sugar to fruit after cooking1 unless it is desired to preserve the shape of the fruit or unless fruit is made into jelly4 ,fruit is cooked in a sirup if it is desired to preserve its shape4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,cooking ,,fruits4--,fruits should be washed1 cut into pieces1 and then pared or peeled1 unless they are to be strained after cooking4 ,for some fruits it is not necessary to remove the skins before straining4 ,we have all seen the dark stain on a steel knife that has been used for paring fruit or certain vegetables4 ,this black substance is formed by the action of the acid of the fruit or vegetable on the metal4 ,it is disagreeable in taste and may produce harmful results4 ,for this reason all fruits should be cooked in granite1 earthenware1 or glass utensils4 ,the characteristic odors from cooking fruits indicate loss of flavor4 ,this can be prevented somewhat by cooking fruits at a low 7simmering7 temperature in a covered utensil4 ,the casserole used on top of a range or in the oven is most desirable for cooking fruits4 ,slow cooking prevents some fruits from breaking into pieces4 ,,fruit ,,sauces ,cook fruit in enough water to keep from scorching4 ,when the fruit is tender1 remove it from the fire1 stir or beat until smooth1 or press through a colander or strainer4 ,add the sugar at once and stir until the sugar is dissolved4 ,use #a_/h to #a_/d cupful of sugar for each cupful of cooked fruit4 ,if fruit is somewhat lacking in flavor1 it is often improved by adding spices or other flavoring4 ,some apples are made more palatable by adding cinnamon1 nutmeg1 or lemon juice4 ,,stewed ,,fruits ,make a sirup of sugar and water1 using one cupful of water and #a_/b to #a cupful of sugar4 ,when the sirup is boiling1 add the fruit and cook gently until tender4 ,if the sirup is not thick enough when the fruit is tender1 remove the fruit from the sirup1 cook the sirup until of proper consistency1 and then pour over the fruit4 ,very firm fruit1 such as quinces and sweet apples1 as well as some unripe fruits1 should be cooked in clear water until tender and then sweetened4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,fruit ,,sauce ,,and ,,stewed ,,fruit4--,use the same kind of fruit and the same quantity of sugar1 and make a ,fruit ,sauce and a dish of ,stewed ,fruit4 ,compare the fruit cooked by the two methods as to flavor and appearance4 ,which is more like fresh fruit in flavor8 ,at what time during its preparation should sugar be added to cooked fruit8 ,explain your answer clearly4 ,give two exceptions to this rule4 ,should sugar be added to cooked fruit while the fruit is hot or after it is cool8 ,why8 7,see ,experiments #aj and #aa47 ,what is gained by not paring or peeling fruit that is to be strained after cooking8 ,when fruit is cooking1 what indicates a loss of flavor8 ,what two precautions can be taken to preserve the flavor of fruits8 ,what means1 other than cooking in sirup1 can be employed to retain the shape of cooked fruit8 ,,rhubarb ,,sauce ,cut rhubarb 7without peeling7 into one-inch pieces4 ,place these in the top of a double boiler4 ,cook in a double boiler until soft1 stirring occasionally4 ,when cooked1 add #a_/c to #a_/b cupful of sugar for each cupful of cooked rhubarb4 ,the casserole may be used for cooking rhubarb4 ,place the rhubarb in a casserole4 ,add one tablespoonful of water for each cupful of rhubarb4 ,cover and simmer on top of a range1 or bake in a slow oven until soft4 ,add sugar as directed above4 ,,questions ,how many pounds in one peck of apples8 ,how many medium sized apples in a pound8 ,what is the price per pound of fresh peaches8 ,for what substances is fruit especially valuable in diet8 ,give suggestions for retaining these nutritious materials when cooking fruit4 ,make a list of fresh fruits1 stating when each is in season4 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,if desired1 the lessons of ,division ,seventeen1 ,the ,preservation of ,food1 may follow this lesson4 ,also see the note at the end of ,lesson ,,vi4 ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,xiv ,,review3 ,,meal ,,cooking ,,menu ,footnote #bj3 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,the menu of a meal lesson is to be assigned during the lesson previous to the meal lesson1 so that its preparation can be planned before class time4 ,since only review foods are assigned1 no instruction other than criticism of the finished product is to be given during the lesson4 ,by cooking the group of foods in individual quantity1 it is possible for pupils to complete the meal lesson in a #ij-minute class period4 ,it is more desirable1 however1 to cook enough of each food to serve five or six persons1 provided the laboratory period is sufficiently long and the foods can be utilized in the lunch room4 ,scalloped ,corn ,baked ,apple ,tea ,outside ,preparation of ,lesson4 7a7 ,examine the recipes for these foods given in the text4 7b7 ,determine the number of servings each recipe will make4 7c7 ,study the methods of preparation so that no written directions regarding the process of cooking will be needed in class4 7d7 ,note the kind of utensils to be used for each food4 7e7 ,plan the order of preparing these foods so as to cook them in the least time4 7f7 ,plan the preparation so that all foods may be ready to serve in the proper condition--hot or cold--at one time4 ,preparation of ,lesson in ,class4 7a7 ,having your plans well in mind1 begin to work at once4 ,work independently4 7b7 ,cook a sufficient quantity of each food to serve one or more persons as the time permits4 7c7 ,soil the least number of dishes possible4 7d7 ,keep the table and utensils neat while working4 7e7 ,have the serving dishes ready1--warmed1 if necessary4 7f7 ,taste the food before serving to see if properly seasoned4 7g7 ,just before serving food1 clear the table so that it may be ready for serving4 7h7 ,serve all the foods at once1 as a hostess cooking and serving without a maid4 7i7 ,if your work is a failure in any way1 determine the cause of the failure and its remedy4 ,,lesson ,,xv ,,home ,,projects ,footnote #ba3 ,see ,lesson ,,ix4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,home ,,work4--,prepare vegetables for at least one meal daily4 ,cook fruit at least once a week4 ,suggested ,aims3 7#a7 ,to cook vegetables in such a way that no nutriment is lost4 7#b7 ,to retain as much of the nutriment and fresh flavor of the fruits as possible4 ,,division ,,four ,,energy-,,giving ,,or ,,fuel ,,foods1--,,rich ,,in ,,carbohydrates ,,lesson ,,xvi ,,sugar3 ,,digestion ,,of ,,sugar ,,energy2 ,,fuel4--,an automobile is a machine4 ,the use of gasoline in this machine gives it energy or the power to move4 ,the human body is also a machine4 ,certain foods are taken into the human machine4 ,the utilization of these foods gives the body energy or the power to move 7i4e4 to do work74 ,the body is capable of both voluntary and involuntary work4 ,walking and running are examples of the former kind of work1 while the beating of the heart and the circulating of the blood are examples of the latter kind4 ,at the same time that the body works1 heat is generated4 ,hence foods not only give the body the power to do work1 but incidentally they heat the body4 ,foods which enable the body to work are termed energy-giving or fuel foods4 ,there are a number of energy-giving or fuel foods3 sugar is the first one to be considered4 ,,experiment #aj3 ,,the ,,solubility ,,of ,,granulated ,,sugar ,,in ,,cold ,,water--,place half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in a test tube1 add a little cold water1 shake4 ,is the mixture clear8 ,set it aside for a few minutes4 ,does the sugar separate from the water8 ,,experiment #aa3 ,,the ,,solubility ,,of ,,granulated ,,sugar ,,in ,,hot ,,water4--,dissolve half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in hot water4 ,compare with ,experiment #aj4 ,which dissolves sugar more readily1--cold or hot water8 ,if you desired to dissolve some sugar quickly1 at what temperature would you have the water8 ,,experiment #ab3 ,,the ,,solubility ,,of ,,powdered ,,sugar4--,dissolve half a teaspoonful of powdered sugar in the same quantity of hot water used in ,experiment #aa4 ,does it dissolve more readily than granulated sugar8 ,explain this difference4 ,if you desired to dissolve some lumpy sugar quickly1 how would you prepare it8 ,,the ,,digestion ,,of ,,sugar4--,since sugar is so readily dissolved1 and since dissolving is an important step in the process of digestion 7see ,solution and ,digestion71 it would seem that the digestion of sugar would be easy4 ,some sugars1 such as glucose1 need no digestion in a chemical sense1 and are wholesome provided their solution is not too concentrated4 ,the digestion of other sugar1 such as granulated sugar1 is slightly more complex4 ,because the digesting of some sugar is simple1 one should not conclude that this food should be used in large quantities or in preference to other fuel foods4 ,if sugar is eaten in large quantities there is so much dissolved sugar for the organs of digestion to take care of that the stomach and small intestines become irritated4 ,this is especially true when candy is eaten between meals1--at a time when the stomach is empty4 ,then1 too1 it may ferment in the stomach or intestines and produce digestive disturbances4 ,all sweets should be eaten only in moderation and either during a meal or at its close4 ,when sugar is mixed with other foods1 it is diluted1 and is not so apt to cause distress4 ,,sugars ,,and ,,sirups4--,in various plants and in milk1 the chemist finds a number of different kinds of sugar4 ,these may be classified into two groups3--7#a7 single sugars and 7#b7 double sugars4 ,dextrose or glucose is one of the single sugars1 while sucrose or cane sugar is an example of a double sugar4 ,the solid sugars and sirups found at market and having different trade names consist of one or more of the different kinds of sugars4 ,a discussion of these follows3 7a7 ,granulated sugar is made either from the sugar cane or sugar beet4 ,the juice is pressed or soaked out of these plants1 then purified1 refined1 and crystallized4 ,powdered sugar is prepared by crushing granulated sugar4 ,confectioners' sugar is a very finely ground form of cane or beet sugar4 ,granulated sugar is #ajj per cent sugar4 ,crushed sugars sometimes contain flour or other materials4 ,brown sugar is made from the cane or beet1 but is not refined as much as is granulated sugar4 ,it contains some ash and moisture4 7b7 ,corn sirup is made by boiling corn-starch with an acid and then refining the product4 ,this sirup contains no cane sugar4 ,its sweet flavor and sirupy consistency are due to the presence of #ch4e per cent glucose and #db per cent dextrin4 ,glucose is not as sweet as granulated sugar4 ,hence1 in depending upon corn sirup alone1 the tendency is to use more sugar than is advisable so as to satisfy our taste for sweets4 ,at least #a #a_/b times as much corn sirup as granulated sugar is needed to produce the sweetness of the solid sugar4 ,a mixture of corn sirup and granulated sugar is often used for sweetening foods4 7c7 ,molasses and ,sorghum4--,molasses is a by-product of cane sugar4 ,in addition to sugar1 it contains certain mineral materials such as lime4 ,since it is especially necessary that foods given children contain lime1 the use of molasses in place of sugar may be recommended for children4 ,one should remember1 however1 that much sugar of any kind is not good for children4 ,molasses contains some acid4 ,because of modern methods of sugar refining1 however1 molasses is less acid than the sirup of former days4 ,it also differs in flavor4 ,sorghum is a sirup prepared from the sorghum plant4 ,it contains ash and has a characteristic flavor4 ,if the flavor of molasses or sorghum is too strong to be pleasant1 a mixture of equal parts of corn sirup and molasses or sorghum may be found desirable4 ,mixtures of different sirups sold under various trade names may be purchased4 7d7 ,honey is sugar extracted from flowers4 ,its limited supply and cost prevent its general use4 ,it is not so rich in mineral matter as is molasses4 7e7 ,maple ,sirup and ,sugar4--,maple sirup and sugar are prepared from sap extracted from the maple tree4 ,they both have a distinctive flavor in addition to their sweet taste4 ,maple sugar contains approximately #hc per cent of sugar1 while maple sirup contains about #ga per cent4 ,,peanut ,,candy #b cupfuls granulated sugar or #a cupful granulated sugar and #a cupful corn sirup 7dark7 #c_/d cupful chopped peanuts #a_/d teaspoonful salt ,mix the peanuts and salt and place in the warming oven to heat4 ,if sugar is used alone1 put it in an iron pan4 ,place the pan over a low flame and stir constantly until the sugar is changed to a light brown sirup4 ,if a combination of sugar and sirup is used1 put them in a pan1 stir1 and cook until the mixture is very brittle when tried in cold water4 ,add the chopped peanuts and salt to either kind of sirup1 stirring them in as quickly as possible4 ,pour immediately into a hot1 unbuttered pan4 ,when slightly cool divide into squares with a chopping knife4 ,puffed cereals or shredded coconut may be used instead of peanuts4 ,commercial salted peanuts may be used also4 ,when the latter are used1 the salt in the recipe above should be omitted4 ,,caramelized ,,sugar4--,it should be noted that when heat is applied to granulated sugar1 the latter liquefies and becomes brown in color4 ,this brown liquid is called caramel ,the process of making it is called caramelization4 ,when sugar is caramelizing1 it reaches a high temperature4 ,the melting point of tin is near the temperature of caramelized sugar4 ,the enamel of granite ware is apt to chip off if subjected to great changes of temperature4 ,iron is not affected by the highest cooking temperature1 hence it is desirable to use an iron utensil for caramelizing sugar4 ,,note4--,when cane or granulated sugar is caramelized1 a small quantity of an injurious substance called furfural is formed4 7,see ,journal of ,home ,economics1 ,vol4 ,,ix 7,april1 #aiag71 p4 #afg47 ,the more sugar is heated1 the more of the injurious substance is produced4 ,also1 cane sugar yields more furfural than glucose1--the kind of sugar that is present in corn sirup4 ,when caramelized sugar is boiled with water1 however1 the furfural is expelled4 ,in making ,peanut ,candy1 the caramelized sugar cannot be boiled with water1 hence it is desirable to use a combination of granulated sugar and corn sirup and heat the mixture until it is only light brown in color4 ,,experiment #ac3 ,,the ,,solubility ,,of ,,caramel4--,immediately after removing the candy from the iron pan1 pour hot water into the pan4 ,allow it to stand for several minutes1 then examine4 ,is caramel soluble in water8 ,does it dissolve more or less readily than granulated sugar8 ,what practical application can be drawn from this experiment with regard to washing a pan in which sugar has been caramelized8 ,,questions ,weigh one pound of granulated sugar4 ,how many cupfuls does it measure8 ,weigh one pound of powdered sugar4 ,how many cupfuls does it measure8 ,what is the price per pound of granulated and of powdered sugar8 ,what is the price of corn sirup per can8 ,how much does a can measure8 ,calculate the cost of peanut candy made entirely with granulated sugar and that made with granulated sugar and sirup4 ,note the proportion of unshelled to shelled peanuts4 ,how many unshelled peanuts are required for one cupful of shelled peanuts8 ,why is an iron rather than a granite pan used for making peanut candy8 ,what is the advantage of heating the pan8 ,why is it necessary to pour the mixture into the pan immediately after adding the peanuts8 ,why is a mixture of granulated sugar and corn sirup used in the making of peanut candy rather than corn sirup8 7,see ,corn ,sirup47 ,from your work in physiology1 explain the relation of the digestion1 absorption1 and assimilation of foods4 ,,lesson ,,xvii ,,sugar-,,rich ,,fruits3 ,,dried ,,fruits 7,a7 ,,dried ,,fruits4--,the wrinkled skins of dried fruits indicate that there has been a loss of some material4 ,the water of fresh fruits evaporates as they are dried4 ,hence dried fruits contain very much less water than fresh fruits4 ,but weight for weight they contain a greater quantity of sugar and ash4 ,like all fruits1 dried fruits are especially valuable for their ash4 ,they are also valuable for their sugar4 ,three fourths of the weight of most dried fruit is sugar4 ,dried fruits such as raisins1 dates1 figs1 and prunes are valuable sweets for boys and girls4 ,it is much better to eat one of these fruits than candy4 ,this is because the sugar is mixed with other materials and as explained previously does not irritate the digestive organs as does the concentrated sugar existing in most candies4 7,see the ,digestion of ,sugar47 ,the fact that mineral materials exist along with sugar is another point in favor of the sweet fruits4 ,all the above-mentioned fruits contain iron4 ,very young children are fed prune juice because of its laxative effect4 ,the unpopularity of prunes is unfortunate4 ,this may be because prunes were formerly one of the cheapest fruits or because they are cooked and served in the same way too often4 ,a pleasing variation may be made by combining them with other food materials4 ,many kinds of very tasty desserts containing prunes may be made4 ,many varieties of prunes may be cooked without the addition of any sugar4 ,desirable results can often be secured by combining prunes and other dried fruits with tart fruits such as apricots1 apples1 and rhubarb4 ,raisins are a favorite food of mountain climbers and those tramping long distances4 ,they serve as a satisfying diet on such trips because of their high sugar content 7sugar has been mentioned previously as energy-giver74 ,since they are a dried fruit1 a small quantity furnishes much food4 ,this is an advantageous factor in carrying them4 ,,general ,,rules ,,for ,,cooking ,,dried ,,fruits4--,wash the fruit carefully4 ,place it in the saucepan in which it is to be cooked and pour enough cold water over the fruit to cover it4 ,cover the saucepan and allow the fruit to soak for several hours or overnight4 ,then cook the fruit at simmering temperature in the water in which it was soaked4 ,when the fruit is tender1 remove the saucepan from the fire1 add sugar if desired1 and stir carefully until the sugar is dissolved4 ,serve cold4 ,,prunes ,prepare according to the general rule4 ,for each #b cupfuls of prunes add about #a_/d cupful of sugar and one tablespoonful of lemon juice4 ,the sugar may be omitted and only the lemon juice added4 ,,apricots ,prepare according to the general rule4 ,for #a_/b pound of apricots add #a_/b cupful of sugar4 ,,to ,,prepare ,,raisins ,,for ,,cooking4--,raisins that are sold in packages need only slight washing4 ,before using1 they should be separated and examined for any bits of stem that have not been removed before packing4 ,it is desirable to cut each raisin in halves when used for cakes and breads4 ,raisins that are sold by bulk need careful washing4 ,place seeded raisins in a strainer and pour cold water over them2 drain well4 ,if the raisins are to be used at once or in a cake1 dry them on a towel4 ,if raisins are to be seeded1 cover them with boiling water4 ,when they are soft1 drain and press out the seeds4 ,,to ,,prepare ,,currants ,,for ,,cooking4--,package currants need but little washing1 but they should be examined carefully for bits of stem before using4 ,to clean bulk currants place them in a colander or strainer1 shake flour over them1 and rub the floured currants between the hands4 ,pour water through the strainer until the water comes through clear4 ,if the currants are to be used in a cake1 dry them in the sun1 on a towel1 or in a cool oven4 ,,mixed ,,fruit ,,sauce #a_/b pound dried apricots #a pint water #a cupful raisins #a_/d teaspoonful salt #a lemon1--juice #a orange1--juice and grated rind #e_/h cupful sugar ,soak the apricots for several hours or overnight in the water4 ,add the other fruits and cook the mixture at simmering temperature until the apricots and raisins are tender4 ,add the sugar and salt4 ,stir until dissolved4 ,serve the sauce cold as a dessert4 ,,questions ,weigh #a cupful of dried fruit and record weight4 ,weigh and measure soaked fruit 7#a cupful before soaking7 and record weight and measure4 ,to what is the increase in measure of the soaked fruit due8 ,what use should be made of the water in which dried fruit is soaked8 ,what does this water contain8 7,see ,experiment #aj47 ,what is the purpose of soaking dried fruit before cooking8 ,what is the purpose of covering the fruit while soaking8 ,using the data regarding fresh fruit obtained in ,lesson ,i1 and that obtained by weighing dried fruit before and after soaking1 estimate the difference in the cost of one pound of fresh and of soaked dried fruit4 ,state two reasons for combining raisins with apples and apricots in ,baked ,apples and ,mixed ,fruit ,sauce4 ,,lesson ,,xviii ,,sugar-,,rich ,,fruits3 ,,dried ,,fruits 7,b7 ,,desserts ,,and ,,food ,,value4--,very often dried fruits and nuts are used as accessories after a meal4 ,under these conditions they are digested often with difficulty1 because the meal itself has taxed the digestive organs4 ,these foods should be considered as a part of the meal and should not be added after enough other foods have been eaten4 ,not only dried fruits and nuts but other desserts often prove distressing1 not because they are unwholesome1 but because too much food has been eaten4 ,,prune ,,pudding #a cupful cooked prunes1 seeded and chopped #a_/b cupful sugar #a cupful chopped nuts #a_/b cupful milk or prune water #a teaspoonful vanilla #a tablespoonful butter or substitute1 melted #c crackers 7rolled fine7 or #a_/b cupful dried bread crumbs #a teaspoonful baking powder ,salt ,mix all the ingredients4 ,pour into a buttered baking-dish4 ,place the baking-dish in a pan of hot water4 ,bake in a moderate oven for #bj minutes1 or until the mixture is firm4 ,serve hot or cold with plain or whipped cream4 ,,date ,,pudding #a_/b cupful sugar #a egg #b tablespoonfuls milk #a_/c cupful flour #a teaspoonful baking powder ,salt #a cupful dates1 seeded1 and cut in pieces #a cupful ,california walnuts1 chopped ,mix the sugar1 milk1 and egg4 ,mix the remaining ingredients2 then add to the first mixture4 ,mix1 and turn into an oiled baking-dish or pan4 ,bake in a moderate oven from #cj to #dj minutes or until it is firm4 ,serve hot or cold with plain or whipped cream4 ,,questions ,how many dry1 uncooked prunes are required to make #a cupful of cooked prunes8 7,see ,questions1 ,lesson ,,xvii47 ,what are the prices per pound of figs and dates8 ,how many will the above recipes serve8 ,what ingredients in these puddings scorch readily8 ,why is ,prune ,pudding surrounded with hot water during baking8 ,,lesson ,,xix ,,cereals3 ,,starch ,,and ,,cellulose ,,starch is a very important ,,fuel food2 like sugar1 it gives energy to the body4 ,starch is closely related to sugar2 it has much the same composition and the same use in the body4 ,in certain respects1 however1 starch differs from sugar4 ,,experiment #ad3 ,,the ,,starch ,,test4--,put a drop of tincture of iodine on1-- corn-starch1 flour1 rice1 cream of wheat1 wheatena1 oatmeal1 tapioca1 potato1 meat1 and egg4 ,what is the result8 ,if a substance contains starch1 it changes to a blue color when tincture of iodine is added to it4 ,from these experiments determine in which class--animal or vegetable--the starchy foods belong4 ,,experiment #ae3 ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,cold ,,water ,,on ,,starch4--,mix half a teaspoonful of corn-starch or flour with cold water in a test tube or glass cup4 ,what happens to a solid substance when it is dissolved8 7,see ,experiment #f47 ,set the mixture aside for a few minutes1 then note its appearance4 ,is starch soluble in cold water8 ,what important difference between starch and sugar does this experiment show8 ,,experiment #af3 ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,heat ,,on ,,starch4--,hold to the light the starch and water mixture from ,experiment #ae4 ,is it opaque or transparent8 ,turn the mixture into a saucepan1 heat1 and stir it2 return the mixture to the test tube or cup and again hold it to the light4 ,what change was caused by heating it8 ,set the mixture aside for a few minutes4 ,have the starch and water separated as in the uncooked starch8 ,can you say it is insoluble1 like uncooked starch8 ,can you say it is soluble1 like sugar8 ,what term indicating a half-dissolved condition can you apply to the cooked starch8 ,,experiment #ag3 ,,stiffening ,,of ,,cooked ,,starch4--,place the test tube containing cooked starch from ,experiment #af in cold water4 ,after ten minutes examine it4 ,can you pour it out of the tube8 ,how does cooked starch change when cooled8 ,,experiment #ah3 ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,starch4--,examine starch under the microscope4 ,while you are still looking through the microscope1 make a drawing of several grains of starch4 ,insert this drawing in your notebook4 ,,cellulose4--,cellulose is a tough substance found in the fiber of wood4 ,as previously mentioned the outside covering of vegetables and fruits and their interior framework contain much cellulose4 ,the fibrous material found in rolled oats consists almost entirely of cellulose4 ,,experiment #ai3 ,,separation ,,of ,,cellulose ,,and ,,starch4--,place a heaping teaspoonful of rolled oats in a cup and add just enough water to cover it4 ,allow it to stand for at least #ae minutes4 ,pour the mixture into a cheese- cloth and press out the moisture and much of the starch1 catching it in a saucepan4 ,rinse the starch out of the cloth as thoroughly as possible by holding it under running water4 ,examine the substance remaining in the cloth4 ,tear it into pieces4 ,is it tough8 ,does it suggest any common material8 ,what is it8 ,heat the contents of the saucepan4 ,what is this substance8 ,the tiny grains of starch shown under the microscope 7see ,figure #bc7 contain both starch and cellulose4 ,the latter forms the outer covering of the microscopic grains4 ,starchy vegetables contain much cellulose3 7a7 in the outside covering2 7b7 in the interior framework2 7c7 in the covering of the starch grains4 ,illustration3 ,from ,household ,chemistry1 by ,j4 ,m4 ,blanchard4 ,figure #bc4--;,grains of ,starch4 a1 potato starch2 b1 corn-starch4 7,much magnified47 ,some plants rich in cellulose can be eaten in the raw state4 ,but certain fibrous foods1 especially cereals or grains1 are irritating if eaten in the uncooked condition4 ,it is necessary to soften them if used as food4 ,now cellulose itself is not soluble in cold or hot water nor is it softened by boiling in water4 ,but other materials existing with cellulose are softened or changed by cooking4 ,hence changes in these substances in contact with the cellulose brought about by boiling water soften the food and separate cellulose fibers4 ,heat and moisture applied to starchy foods serve three important purposes3 7a7 ,they soften the food2 7b7 they change the starch to a paste or make it semisoluble2 7c7 they improve the flavor4 ,cellulose is not a fuel material2 it does not serve in the body as an energy-giver4 ,its value in diet is due to the fact that it is bulky and furnishes ballast for the alimentary canal4 ,it stimulates the flow of the digestive juices as it brushes against the walls of the digestive tract1 and thus aids in the digestion of foods and in the elimination of waste material4 ,,carbohydrate1 ,a ,,foodstuff4--,because sugar1 starch1 and cellulose have somewhat the same composition and some properties in common1 they are grouped into one class1 viz4 carbohydrate4 ,sugar1 starch1 and cellulose are all included in the term carbohydrate4 ,carbohydrate is one of the foodstuffs4 ,sugar is a food containing only the carbohydrate foodstuff4 ,cereals contain not only carbohydrates but other foodstuffs4 ,they contain1 however1 a larger quantity of carbohydrate than any of the other foodstuffs1 for which reason they are classed as carbohydrate-rich foods4 ,,cereals4--,cereals are cultivated grasses1 the seeds of which are used for food4 ,the most important are wheat1 ,indian corn or maize1 rice1 oats1 rye1 and barley4 ,from these many different kinds of flours1 meals1 and breakfast foods are prepared4 ,cereals rank high in nutritive value4 ,many of them contain about #ge per cent of starch4 ,they also contain ash and a substance which builds the body4 ,because they are widely distributed in various climates1 they have an important place in man's diet4 ,at market one finds two classes of cereals sold as breakfast foods--7#a7 the ready to eat and 7#b7 the uncooked or partially cooked grains4 ,the ready-to-eat cereals cost much more per pound than the cereals that require cooking4 ,the difference in the price per pound1 however1 is not an accurate difference in the cost of the two1 for the cost of the fuel in cooking grains at home must be taken into consideration4 ,of the cereals that require cooking1 those that are partially cooked are doubtless the more popular4 ,many of these such as rolled oats or wheat are steamed and rolled4 ,hence they take much less time to prepare in the home kitchen than the uncooked grains4 ,all breakfast cereals require long cooking to make them most palatable1 the time of cooking depending upon the character of the cellulose and the method of preparing the cereal for market4 ,most partially cooked grains are improved by a longer cooking than is usually given them4 ,it is interesting to measure equal quantities of a rolled cereal and cook one quantity for #bj minutes and the other for #a #a_/b hours and taste each4 ,the superior flavor and texture of the well-cooked cereal is well worth the additional length of time of cocking4 ,grains are also found on sale in bulk and in package4 ,the latter cost more but insure greater cleanliness4 ,since1 however1 cereals sold in bulk are those that require cooking1 they will be thoroughly sterilized before serving and need occasion no concern regarding their cleanliness4 ,,general ,,rules ,,for ,,cooking ,,cereals4--,pour the cereal slowly into boiling salted water4 ,cook directly over the flame for about #aj minutes4 ,then place over boiling water and cook from #a_/b to #h hours4 ,usually one teaspoonful of salt is used for each cupful of cereal4 ,the quantity of water depends upon the kind of cereal4 ,the double boiler is particularly good for cooking cereals4 ,the fireless cooker also is a most satisfactory device for cooking these foods easily and economically4 ,starchy foods are most easily digested when well masticated4 ,dry foods require more mastication than moist foods4 ,it is well then to have the water used in cooking the cereal entirely absorbed4 ,if1 when nearly done1 the cereal is too moist1 uncover the vessel and cook until the excess of water is evaporated4 ,care should be taken1 however1 not to allow a tough skin to form on the top of the cereal4 ,this digests with difficulty4 ,its formation can be prevented by keeping the cereal covered or by stirring occasionally4 ,heat ready-to-eat cereals in the oven until they are crisp4 ,,rolled ,,oats ,,or ,,wheat #c cupfuls boiling water #a cupful cereal #a teaspoonful salt ,prepare according to the general directions1 cooking in the double boiler at least #a #a_/b hours4 ,,cream ,,of ,,wheat ,,or ,,wheatena #c cupfuls boiling water #a_/b cupful cereal #a teaspoonful salt ,prepare according to the general rule1 cooking in the double boiler at least #a_/b hour4 ,a few minutes before taking from the fire1 #a_/b pound of dates1 cleaned1 stoned1 and cut into pieces1 may be added4 ,raisins or figs may also be used with ,cream of ,wheat and other cereals4 ,,questions ,how would the temperature of boiling water be affected if a cupful of cereal were poured into it all at once8 ,from this explain why cereals should be added slowly to the boiling water4 ,compare the cooked and uncooked cereal4 ,how does it change in appearance and quantity8 ,why are cereals not cooked entirely over the naked flame8 ,what is the price1 weight1 and measure of a package of ,rolled ,oats or ,wheat8 ,of a package of ,cream of ,wheat or ,wheatena8 ,what is the cost of the quantity of cereal indicated in the recipes above8 ,calculate the difference in the cost per pound of ready-to-eat and uncooked cereals4 ,,lesson ,,xx ,,cereals3 ,,rice 7,a7 ,,polished ,,and ,,unpolished ,,rice4--,at market one finds two kinds of rice1--one white and pearly in appearance called polished rice1 and the other1 gray or brown and lusterless called unpolished rice4 ,in preparing rice for market1 the outer husks of the grain are removed and the rice is cleaned4 ,it may then be sold as unpolished rice or it may be further treated by rubbing or polishing to make it ready for market4 ,rice is subjected to this latter process merely to satisfy the demand of purchasers4 ,the food value of polished rice is inferior to that of the unpolished grain4 ,much valuable ash and other material are lost4 ,indeed1 a certain disease1 ,footnote #bb3 ,beri-beri1 a disease common among those inhabitants of ,oriental countries whose diet consists almost entirely of polished rice and fish4 due to improper nourishment1 has been cured by giving the sufferer rice polishings4 ,the flavor of rice is also impaired by polishing it4 ,unpolished rice is much the more valuable food4 ,it requires1 however1 longer cooking than polished rice4 ,soaking in water before cooking shortens the length of time required for cooking4 ,,to ,,clean ,,rice4--,to wash rice1 put it in a strainer and allow the water from a faucet to run through the strainer4 ,rub the rice between the hands4 ,,rice 7cooked over boiling water7 #c cupfuls boiling water #a teaspoonful salt #a cupful rice ,follow the ,general ,rules for ,cooking ,cereals2 when the rice is added to the boiling water1 stir it to prevent adhering to the pan4 ,cook over hot water1 i4e4 in a double boiler1 until the grains are soft 7usually about #de minutes74 ,the above ingredients may be placed in a steamer 7see ,figure #ca7 and cooked in steam until the rice grains are tender4 ,it is then called ,steamed ,rice4 ,rice is most palatable combined with various fruits4 ,,energy-,,giving ,,or ,,fuel ,,foods ,illustration3 ,,figure #bd--;,a ,,cupful ,,of ,,rice ,,before ,,and ,,after ,,boiling ,the large utensil was required to boil it1 the water drained from it is in the jar ,,boiled ,,rice ,footnote #bc3 ,reserve some of the cooked rice of this lesson for the following lesson4 #c quarts boiling water #a cupful rice #b teaspoonfuls salt ,add the salt to the boiling water4 ,when the water boils rapidly1 add the rice slowly1 so that the water does not stop boiling4 ,boil rapidly for #bj minutes or until the grains are soft4 ,turn into a colander or strainer to drain4 ,rinse with hot water1 drain well1 then sprinkle with salt4 ,save the water from the ,boiled ,rice for the experiment below and for preparing ,cheese ,sauce for class work4 ,when the rice is boiling1 decide whether or not it should be covered tightly4 ,,experiment #bj ,,the ,,difference ,,in ,,nutritive ,,value ,,of ,,boiled ,,rice ,,and ,,rice ,,cooked ,,over ,,boiling ,,water--,pour a little of the water from the boiled rice into a test tube4 ,cool the rice water and test it with iodine for starch4 ,is any of the starch from rice cooked over boiling water wasted8 ,which method of cooking rice leaves more nutriment in the cooked product8 ,,cheese ,,sauce 7made with rice water7 #a pint rice water #a tablespoonful corn-starch #a teaspoonful salt #a_/d teaspoonful mustard #a_/f teaspoonful paprika #a_/b cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces ,mix the corn-starch with about #b tablespoonfuls of cold rice water4 ,heat the remainder of the liquid4 ,add the corn-starch mixture to the hot rice water4 ,stir and cook for about #aj minutes4 ,then add the seasonings and cheese4 ,continue stirring and cooking until the cheese is blended with the other ingredients4 ,serve hot over cooked rice4 ,one cupful of tomatoes or a small quantity of pimentos 7cut into pieces7 may be added along with the cheese to the sauce4 ,if pimentos are used1 the paprika should be omitted4 ,,questions ,how is rice tested for sufficient cooking8 ,why does rice take a shorter time to cook than most of the wheat and oat foods8 7,see ,cereals47 ,note the difference in the quantity of water used for boiled rice and for rice cooked over boiling water4 ,note that the saucepan is used for cooking one and the double boiler for cooking the other4 ,from this explain the reason for the difference in the quantity of water used4 ,which method of cooking rice takes longer8 ,explain the difference in the length of time of cooking4 ,measure the rice after cooking4 ,how much has it increased in bulk8 ,if one desired #b cupfuls of cooked rice1 how much uncooked rice should be used8 ,compare the individual grains of rice cooked in boiling water and rice cooked over boiling water1--are the grains separated or pasted together8 ,explain the difference in appearance4 ,what ingredients do cereals contain that make it possible to mold them 7see ,experiment #ag78 ,which is the better for molding1--boiled rice or rice cooked over boiling water8 ,why8 ,what is the advantage in using rice water rather than plain water to prepare ,cheese ,sauce8 ,what other use could be made of rice water8 ,,lesson ,,xxi ,,cereals3 ,,rice 7,b7 ,,rice ,,pudding ,steamed rice may be prepared for a simple dessert by using both milk and water4 ,follow the recipe for ,rice ,cooked over ,boiling ,water1 using #a #a_/b cupfuls of water and l #a_/b cupfuls of milk4 ,cook the water and rice until the water is absorbed1 add the milk1 and continue cooking over water4 ,serve with cream and sugar1 or with a suitable sauce4 ,,rice ,,pudding 7made with cooked rice7 ,footnote #bd3 ,a portion of the rice cooked in the previous lesson may be utilized in making this pudding4 #b cupfuls cooked rice #c_/d - #a cupful milk #a_/b cupful raisins #a_/c cupful sugar ,grated rind #a_/b lemon ,these ingredients may be cooked in several different ways4 ,by changing the flavoring1 method of serving1 and sauce1 rice desserts of pleasing variety may be made from the materials above4 ,the pudding may be baked in the following manner3 ,mix the ingredients1 place in a buttered baking-dish1 and bake in a slow oven until the rice has absorbed the milk and is brown4 ,vanilla or nutmeg1 or both1 may be substituted for the lemon rind4 ,this dessert may be cooked over water by mixing the ingredients in the top of a double boiler and cooking until the milk is absorbed4 ,then butter hot custard cups or tea cups and press some rice into each4 ,turn out at once and serve with ,caramel1 ,chocolate1 or other sauce4 ,lemon ,sauce1 in which dates1 cut into pieces1 have been cooked1 makes a tasty sauce for this pudding4 ,when ,lemon ,sauce and dates are used1 the raisins should be omitted and the pudding flavored with nutmeg4 ,,caramel ,,sauce #a_/c cupful sugar #b tablespoonfuls flour #a tablespoonful butter or substitute #a cupful milk #a_/b teaspoonful vanilla ,salt ,mix the sugar1 flour1 and butter in a frying pan2 then heat the mixture to caramelize the sugar1 stirring constantly4 ,scald the milk in a double boiler4 ,when the sugar is caramelized1 add it to the hot milk and heat the mixture until the caramelized sugar is dissolved4 ,add the salt and vanilla4 ,footnote #be3 ,if the sauce is to be served cold1 it is well to allow the cooked mixture to cool before adding the vanilla 7see ,flavoring ,extracts74 ,serve hot or cold over puddings4 ,,questions ,why is it advisable to use a double boiler for cooking rice8 7,see ,lesson ,,xx7 ,if rice is cooked in a double boiler and milk is to be added1 why should not the milk be added until the rice mixture is placed over hot water8 7,see statement regarding the scorching of milk in ,questions1 ,lesson ,,xxiv7 ,which method of cooking the ,rice ,pudding--baking or cooking over water-- requires more milk8 ,explain your answer4 ,also explain why a definite quantity of milk cannot be stated in the recipe4 ,see ,note1 ,lesson ,,xvi4 ,is any of the injurious substance formed in caramelizing sugar present in ,caramel ,sauce8 ,,lesson ,,xxii ,,cereals ,,and ,,the ,,fireless ,,cooker ,,the ,,fireless ,,cooker4--,the fact that fuels are expensive and that the supply of some fuels is diminishing1 makes it advisable to conserve heat4 ,this can be done in no more satisfactory way than by means of a fireless cooker4 ,it has been said that future historians in summing up the great achievements of the first quarter of the twentieth century will probably name as the most important1 wireless telegraphy1 aviation1 and fireless cookery4 ,the fireless cooker cannot be used with all methods of cooking1 but its possibilities are many4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,mc,cray ,refrigerator ,co ,,figure #be4 --,,insulated ,,wall ,,of ,a ,,refrigerator4 ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,fireless ,,cookery4--,in ,experiment #b it was found that wood did not transmit heat rapidly1 while tin did4 ,another familiar illustration will show the difference between wood and metal in transmitting heat4 ,a metal door knob feels very cold on a winter day1 because the metal conducts the heat away from the hand rapidly1 while a wooden knob is comfortable to touch4 ,wood is termed a poor conductor of heat4 ,metals are good conductors of heat4 ,paper1 hay1 excelsior1 sawdust1 cork1 wool1 feathers1 and many other materials are poor conductors of heat4 ,if any hot substance is surrounded by any of these poor conducting materials1 the heat of that substance is retained for some time4 ,also1 if any cold substance is surrounded by a poor conductor1 the substance remains cold4 ,in throwing a piece of carpet or newspaper over an ice cream freezer1 to prevent the ice from melting1 one makes use of the latter principle4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #bf4--;,,fireless ,,cooker ,,having ,,excelsior ,,packing4 ,the walls of a well-built refrigerator consist of a number of layers of non-conducting materials 7see ,figure #be74 ,to understand the principle involved in cooking without fire1 try the following3 ,,experiment #ab3 ,,retention ,,of ,,heat4--,fill #b tin measuring cups half full of boiling water4 ,immediately inclose one cup of water in a paper bag or wrap paper about it so there will be considerable air space between the cup and paper4 ,after #ae minutes1 insert a thermometer into the water in each of the cups4 ,which is hotter8 ,what has kept in the heat of the hotter water8 ,the fireless cooker is a device containing cooking kettles which are surrounded by some poor conductor4 ,when food is heated thoroughly1 the heat can be retained for a number of hours by placing the hot food in the fireless cooker4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #bg--;,,fireless ,,cooker ,,with ,,stone ,,disks ,note the kettles of various shapes ,in the ordinary fireless cooker it is possible to cook all foods that can be cooked in water at a temperature below the boiling point of water1 i4 e4 simmering temperature4 ,another type of fireless cooker has a metallic or an enamel lining and is provided with movable stone disks4 ,both the stones and food are heated on a range and then introduced into the cooker in such a way that the stones are under and over the kettle of food4 ,by this arrangement1 foods can be cooked at a higher temperature than in the ordinary fireless cooker 7see ,figures #bf and #bg74 ,there are also electric fireless cookers 7see ,figure #bh74 ,such cookers are equipped with a heating element which is placed in the bottom of the insulated box4 ,with these it is not necessary to heat the food before placing it in the cooker4 ,the uncooked food is put into the cooker and the current turned on4 ,by means of a clock arrangement the current may be cut off when the desired length of time of heating has passed4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of the ,standard ,electric ,stove ,co ,,figure #bh4--;,,electric ,,fireless ,,cooker4 ,has a heating element in the bottom of the cooker4 ,the principle of the fireless cooker is used on some of the modern gas and electric ranges4 ,the walls of the ovens of these ranges are surrounded by insulating materials4 ,when an oven is heated and has reached the desired temperature1 the gas or electricity is cut off1 but the baking temperature is retained for some time4 ,the top burners of some gas ranges have a fireless cooker attachment in the form of an insulated hood4 ,the food is first heated over the burner1 then the hood is lowered over the food1 and the gas is cut off4 ,the food continues to cook1 however1 by the retained heat 7see ,figure #bi74 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,using ,a ,,fireless ,,cooker4--,one should keep the following in mind in using the ordinary fireless cooker3 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of the ,chambers ,manufacturing ,co4 ,,figure #bi4--;,,gas ,,range ,,having ,,fireless ,,cooker ,,attachment1 ,,insulated ,,oven ,,and ,,hoods4 #a4 ,have the food heated thoroughly before placing in the fireless cooker4 7,this direction does not apply to an electrical fireless cooker such as shown in ,figure #bh47 ,if the foods are small1 as cereals1 #e minutes' boiling is usually sufficient cooking on the range2 if large in size1 as a piece of beef1 #cj minutes is required to heat it through4 #b4 ,after heating1 place the covered kettle containing the food into the cooker immediately4 ,it is well to have the cooker near the range so as to waste but little heat while getting the food into the cooker4 #c4 ,the kettle should be well filled4 ,a small quantity of food should not be placed in a large kettle4 ,it is possible1 however1 to fill the large kettle almost full of boiling water1 then rest a wire rack on the rim of the kettle and place a small pan containing the food in the wire rack 7see ,figure #bf74 ,or place the food in a pan with sloping sides and broad rim1 such as a pudding pan1 which may be set in the large kettle so as to rest on the rim4 #d4 ,do not open the cooker to see how the food is getting along4 ,if the box is opened1 the food must be removed at once4 ,the food may1 however1 be reheated and returned to the cooker4 ,it is sometimes necessary to follow this plan1 where food requires very long cooking4 #e4 ,the length of time a food must be left in the fireless cooker varies with the kind of food and style of cooker4 ,in many of the homemade boxes1 the water does not remain hot enough for cooking after #ab hours2 in some1 for not more than #h hours4 ,if foods require longer cooking than this1 they should be removed and reheated as mentioned above4 ,food should never be allowed to become cool in a fireless cooker4 #f4 ,after using any type of fireless cooker1 let the lid remain wide open for #b or #c hours4 ,except when in use do not close it tightly4 ,every thrifty housekeeper should possess and use a fireless cooker4 ,as has been mentioned1 it saves fuel1 prevents the strong odor of food permeating all parts of the house1 lessens work and care in cooking1 prevents burning and scorching1 and provides workers and picnickers with warm lunches4 ,a fireless cooker can be made satisfactorily at home with little expenditure of effort and money4 ,it has been found that paper crumpled so as to afford considerable air space is a satisfactory non-conducting material for a fireless cooker4 ,detailed directions for making a fireless cooker are given in ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin #gga1 ,homemade ,fireless ,cookers and ,their ,use and in several popular books4 ,,corn-,,meal ,,mush #d cupfuls boiling water #a cupful corn-meal #a teaspoonful salt ,mix the ingredients in the small pan of the fireless cooker and cook directly over the flame of a range1 boiling for #e minutes1 and stirring occasionally4 ,cover and place in the large kettle of the fireless cooker which contains boiling water4 ,place in a fireless cooker for #e to #aj hours4 ,,note4--,if corn-meal mush is to be cooked over a flame in a double boiler1 prepare according to the general rule for cereals and cook over boiling water for at least #c hours4 ,,corn-,,meal ,,mush ,,for ,,frying #b cupfuls corn-meal #b tablespoonfuls flour #b teaspoonfuls salt #b cupfuls cold water #a quart boiling water ,mix the dry ingredients1 add the cold water1 and mix thoroughly4 ,place the boiling water in the small pan of the fireless cooker4 ,stir the corn-meal mixture into the boiling water and cook #aj minutes directly over the flame1 stirring constantly4 ,cover and place in the large kettle of boiling water4 ,place in the fireless cooker #e to #aj hours4 ,remove the pan of mush from the water and allow the mush to cool4 ,,note4--,corn-meal ,mush for frying may be cooked over a flame in a double boiler according to the recipe given above4 ,cook it for several hours4 ,,rice ,,and ,,tomatoes #a_/b cupful rice #a tablespoonful butter or substitute #a_/b teaspoonful celery salt l-#a_/d cupfuls boiling water #a cupful tomatoes #a slice onion #a teaspoonful salt #a_/h teaspoonful pepper ,in the small pan of the fireless cooker cook 7over a flame7 the rice1 onion1 and fat1 stirring constantly until they are slightly brown4 ,add boiling water and cook until the water is almost absorbed4 ,add the tomatoes and seasoning and heat the mixture until it boils4 ,cover and place in the large kettle of boiling water belonging to the fireless cooker4 ,place in the fireless cooker for #c_/d hour4 ,this food may be served as a border around meat4 ,,questions ,in your own way1 explain the principle of cooking without fire4 ,what ingredient does ,corn-meal ,mush for ,frying contain that plain ,corn- meal ,mush does not8 ,what is the use of this ingredient in ,corn-meal ,mush for ,frying8 7,see ,wheat ,flour and ,corn-meal47 ,how does the method of preparing ,corn-meal ,mush for ,frying differ from the usual method of cooking cereals8 ,how many cupfuls of corn-meal in one pound8 ,of rice in one pound8 ,what is the price per pound of corn-meal and rice8 ,,lesson ,,xxiii ,,cereals ,,for ,,frying ,,or ,,baking ,,fried ,,or ,,baked ,,mush ,cut ,corn-meal ,mush for ,frying into slices #a_/c inch thick4 ,dip each slice in flour and brown in a little hot fat 7butter or substitute1 or a slice of salt pork fat may be used74 ,the slices of mush may be spread with softened fat1 or dipped in melted fat1 and browned in the oven or broiling oven4 ,instead of spreading the mush with fat1 the slices may be dipped in cracker or fine dried bread crumbs1 then dipped into egg mixture--#a egg beaten and diluted with #a tablespoonful of water--and again dipped into cracker or bread crumbs4 ,place the breaded slices in a dripping pan1 put fat in bits over the top and bake for about half a hour or until the crumbs are brown4 ,hot mush may be served plain or with sirup4 ,in the same way1 left-over wheatena1 cream of wheat1 farina1 and other breakfast cereals may be molded1 cooled1 and then fried or baked4 ,,french ,,toast #a or #b eggs #a cupful milk #a_/d teaspoonful salt #f or #h slices of stale bread ,beat the eggs slightly1 add the salt and milk1 and dip the bread in the mixture4 ,heat a griddle or frying pan and place a little butter or substitute1 or a combination of butter and some other fat1 in the pan4 ,brown the bread on one side in the hot fat4 ,place a bit of fat on the top of each slice1 turn1 and brown the other side4 ,serve hot4 ,a mixture of powdered sugar and cinnamon1 or sirup is sometimes used in serving ,french ,toast4 ,,sirup #a_/b cupful corn sirup 7dark7 #a_/d cupful boiling water #b tablespoonfuls brown sugar #a_/h teaspoonful salt #a teaspoonful vanilla ,mix the corn sirup1 sugar1 water1 and salt4 ,heat until the boiling point is reached4 ,cool and then add the vanilla4 ,if it is desired to serve the sirup hot1 its flavor is improved by the addition of #a teaspoonful of butter4 ,,questions ,in preparing ,french ,toast1 what care must be taken in dipping the stale bread in the milk and egg mixture8 ,since it is desirable to serve the slices of toast whole1 which are the better for ,french ,toast1--large or small pieces of bread8 ,what is the advantage of placing a bit of fat on each slice of bread just before turning it8 ,why is it advisable to add butter to the sirup only when the latter is to be served hot8 ,what is the purpose of adding sugar to corn sirup8 7,see ,corn ,sirup47 ,,lesson ,,xxiv ,,powdered ,,cereals ,,used ,,for ,,thickening ,,experiment #bb3 ,,starch ,,grains ,,and ,,boiling ,,water4--,pour #b tablespoonfuls of boiling water over #a teaspoonful of flour4 ,stir and heat over the flame4 ,is the mixture smooth8 ,examine the center of a ,jump4 ,how does it compare with uncooked starch8 ,are all the starch grains swelled and semisoluble8 ,,experiment #bc3 ,,separation ,,of ,,starch ,,grains ,,with ,,cold ,,water4--,mix #a teaspoonful of flour with #a teaspoonful of water4 ,add #b tablespoonfuls of boiling water1 stir1 and heat4 ,is the mixture smooth8 ,explain clearly the use of cold water in this mixture4 ,,experiment #bd3 ,,separation ,,of ,,starch ,,grains ,,with ,,sugar4--,mix #a teaspoonful of flour with #a teaspoonful of sugar4 ,add #b table-spoonfuls of boiling water1 stir1 and heat4 ,is the mixture smooth8 ,carefully explain the use of sugar in the mixture4 ,,experiment #be3 ,,separation ,,of ,,starch ,,grains ,,with ,,fat4--,mix #a teaspoonful of flour with #a teaspoonful of fat4 ,add #b tablespoonfuls of boiling water1 stir1 and heat4 ,is the mixture smooth8 ,explain the use of fat in this mixture4 ,to cook starch successfully1 it is necessary to swell every grain of starch contained in the starchy food4 ,to accomplish this each grain must be surrounded by heat and moisture4 ,in vegetables and cereals1 the cellular framework separates the starch grains so that they are uniformly cooked4 ,since there is nothing to separate the grains in a powdered starchy substance1 as shown in the foregoing experiments1 it becomes necessary to mix it with certain materials so that the heat and moisture can penetrate every grain at the same time4 ,,blanc ,,mange #b cupfuls milk #a_/d cupful corn-starch #a_/b cupful sugar #b teaspoonfuls vanilla ,nutmeg #a_/h teaspoonful salt ,scald the milk in a double boiler4 ,mix the sugar and corn-starch4 ,add the hot milk slowly to the sugar and corn-starch mixture1 stirring rapidly4 ,return to the double boiler and cook #cj minutes1 stir rapidly until the mixture thickens4 ,add the salt and flavoring and pour into a mold which has been moistened with cold water4 ,cool1 turn from the mold1 and serve with sugar and cream4 ,if a softer and more creamy dessert is desired1 the corn-starch may be reduced to #c tablespoonfuls4 ,if this quantity of thickening is used1 the cooked dessert should be poured into sherbet glasses or other suitable dishes for serving2 it will not become stiff enough to mold4 ,,note4--,while cooking ,blanc ,mange1 note the number of minutes that is required to thicken the mixture and the length of time of cooking given in the recipe4 ,why is it necessary to cook the mixture for so long a time after it thickens8 7,see ,cereals47 ,,chocolate ,,corn-,,starch ,,pudding ,proceed as for ,blanc ,mange1 using #c_/h cupful of sugar instead of #a_/d cupful4 ,cut into pieces #a square 7i4e4 #a ounce7 of ,baker's chocolate4 ,add to it #a_/d cupful of boiling water4 ,stir and heat until smooth and thoroughly blended4 ,add this to the corn-starch mixture just before taking from the fire4 ,add #a_/b teaspoonful of vanilla4 ,mold and serve as ,blanc ,mange4 ,note that the quantity of sugar is increased when chocolate is added to the corn-starch mixture4 ,chocolate mixtures require considerable sugar to make them tasty4 #c tablespoonfuls of cocoa may be substituted for the chocolate4 ,when this is done1 mix the cocoa with the corn-starch and sugar and add no water to it4 ,proceed as in making plain ,blanc ,mange4 ,,questions ,name three substances that can be used to prevent the lumping of powdered cereals used for thickening4 ,give the reason for mixing the sugar1 corn-starch1 and hot milk of ,blanc ,mange as directed4 ,for how long a time after placing in the double boiler is it necessary to stir the corn-starch1 sugar1 and hot milk mixture8 ,milk1 especially a milk and starchy mixture1 scorches readily 7see ,scalding ,milk74 ,from this explain why ,blanc ,mange is cooked entirely over boiling water1 and not over the flame and then in a double boiler1 as cereals4 ,why is the flavoring not added while the mixture is cooking 7see ,flavoring ,extracts78 ,what is the price per package of corn-starch8 ,how much does a package of corn-starch weigh and measure8 ,which material--flour or corn-starch--is the cheaper to use for thickening8 ,how many persons does the quantity of ,blanc ,mange above serve8 ,,lesson ,,xxv ,,toast3 ,,digestion ,,of ,,starch ,,experiment #bf3 ,,change ,,of ,,starch ,,into ,,dextrin4--,place a teaspoonful of flour in a frying pan and heat slowly until it becomes very dark brown and uniform in color4 ,put a little of the browned flour into a test tube1 add water1 then shake4 ,add a few drops of iodine4 ,what indicates the presence of starch8 ,is starch present8 ,the starch has been changed to dextrin4 ,dextrin gives a purple 7reddish blue7 color when treated with iodine4 ,,experiment #bg3 ,,the ,,solubility ,,of ,,dextrin4--,pour the remainder of the browned flour from ,experiment #bf into a test tube4 ,add water and shake4 ,pour through filter paper ,footnote #bf3 ,liquids pass through filter paper1 but solids do not4 ,hence if a mixture of solid and liquid is poured upon filter paper1 the liquid passes through1 but the solid remains on the paper4 into another test tube 7see ,figure #cj74 ,notice the color of the liquid that has been filtered4 ,add a few drops of iodine to the filtered liquid4 ,is dextrin present8 ,is dextrin soluble in water8 ,illustration3 ,figure #cj4--,method of ,folding ,filter ,paper4 ,from these experiments1 we find that dry heat has changed insoluble starch into a soluble substance called dextrin4 ,dextrin is found in small amounts in the crust of bread and in toast4 ,,digestion ,,of ,,starch4--,it was found in a previous lesson 7,lesson ,,xvi7 that sugar is entirely soluble in water1 and since digestion and solution are closely related1 the digestion of some sugar is simple4 ,starch was found to be insoluble in cold water and only semi-soluble in hot water4 ,in the process of digestion it would seem that some change must take place in the starch to make it soluble4 ,such a change does take place2 starch is changed into a soluble carbohydrate or a sugar before it is digested4 ,substances called enzymes which are in the saliva of the mouth ,footnote #bg3 ,ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in the mouth and intestines1 respectively4 and in the digestive juices of the intestines ,footnote #bh3 ,ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in the mouth and intestines1 respectively4 cause this change4 ,to show that this change takes place to some extent in the mouth1 try the following experiments3 ,,experiment #bh3 ,,starch ,,in ,,cracker4--,test a bit of cracker with iodine for starch4 ,what indicates the presence of starch8 ,does the cracker contain starch8 ,,experiment #bi3 ,,action ,,of ,,saliva ,,upon ,,starch4--,thoroughly chew a bit of cracker4 ,as you chew the cracker1 note that it becomes sweeter in flavor4 ,remove from the mouth1 and place upon a piece of paper4 ,test it with iodine4 ,a purple 7reddish blue7 color indicates a soluble carbohydrate 7see ,experiment #bg74 ,what substance does the masticated cracker contain8 ,explain the change that has taken place in the cracker by mastication4 ,,toast4--,bread is properly toasted when it is dried out thoroughly and then browned on the outside4 ,both the crumb and the crust of the toast are thus made crisp4 ,crisp toast crumbles during mastication4 ,fresh bread contains much moisture4 ,when it is toasted quickly1 the moisture is inclosed in the interior of the slice and the resulting toast is very soft4 ,this kind of toast is almost as difficult to digest as fresh bread4 ,instead of toast breaking into bits during digestion1 it remains in a solid mass and is digested with difficulty4 ,give at least two practical methods of toasting bread to produce the desired kind of toast4 ,,cream ,,toast #a #a_/b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute #a_/b teaspoonful salt #b tablespoonfuls flour #b cupfuls milk or cream #f to #h slices of toast ,heat the fat2 when it bubbles1 add the flour and salt1 mixing thoroughly4 ,add a small portion of the milk4 ,heat and stir continually until it thickens4 ,add another portion of the milk and proceed as before4 ,continue until all the milk has been added4 ,the sauce is sufficiently cooked when it reaches the boiling point after the last quantity of milk has been added4 ,pour this sauce over dry or moist toast4 ,moist toast is prepared by dipping dry toast quickly into hot1 salted water or hot milk4 ,if the crust has not been cut from bread for toasting1 only the outer edges of the toast may be moistened4 ,the flavor of butter in ,cream ,toast is pleasing4 ,to secure some butter flavor and at the same time economize1 a combination of butter and a mild flavored fat or oil may be used4 ,,questions ,give the reason for mixing flour and fat as directed in ,white ,sauce 7see ,experiment #be74 ,what is the proportion of fat and flour8 ,what is the proportion of flour and liquid8 ,using this proportion1 how much flour should be used for one cupful of liquid8 ,what is the use of flour in ,white ,sauce8 ,note the consistency of the sauce1 and keep it in mind as a standard of comparison for the thickness of other sauces4 ,what should be the condition of the crumb of toast to be most quickly digested8 ,give reasons for your answer4 ,,lesson ,,xxvi ,,root ,,vegetables 7,a7 ,plant ,roots4--,plants used for food have their stored-up food largely in the form of starch and to some extent in the form of sugar4 ,the parts of the plant underneath the ground as well as the seeds serve as a storehouse for the plant4 ,all roots and tubers contain carbohydrates1 although not in so large a proportion as cereals4 ,those most commonly used as foods are potatoes1 tapioca1 parsnips1 carrots1 beets1 and turnips4 ,potatoes and tapioca contain the most starch in this group4 ,parsnips1 carrots1 and beets contain a little starch and much sugar4 ,turnips contain much cellulose4 ,carrots1 parsnips1 and beets are also rich in cellulose4 ,all root vegetables as well as leaf and stem vegetables contain ash4 ,comparison of ,vegetables ,cooked with or without the ,skins1 and in ,water or in ,steam ,footnote #bi3 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,this lesson can be conducted most expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of six and having each group clean1 prepare1 and cook in water and in steam1 potatoes and carrots as directed above4--,clean1 prepare1 and cook in water pared and unpared potatoes1 scraped and unscraped carrots1 and cook in steam pared potatoes and scraped carrots4 ,clean the vegetables by scrubbing with a brush2 cook them in gently boiling water4 ,use the same quantity of water in each case 7when cooked in water7 and add one teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water4 ,when the vegetables are tender 7test with a fork or knitting needle71 drain each thoroughly1 catching the water in a bowl4 ,dry each vegetable by shaking the saucepan containing it over a flame4 ,pour into a test tube a little of the water from each water-cooked vegetable2 cool1 and then test with iodine for starch4 ,also pour some of the water from each water-cooked vegetable in an evaporating dish4 ,boil the water until the moisture is entirely evaporated4 ,then continue to heat the contents of the dish until charred material appears and then disappears4 ,is any solid material left8 ,if so1 it is mineral matter4 ,which vegetables1--those cooked 7in water7 with or without the skins1-- lose the more starch and ash8 ,which vegetables without the skins1--those cooked in water or those cooked in steam1--lose the more starch and ash8 ,as far as saving nutriment is concerned1 which method of preparation is better for vegetables cooked in water8 ,which method of cooking is better for vegetables without the skins8 ,peel the vegetables that were cooked with the skins4 ,cut all into dice4 ,prepare about half as much ,white ,sauce as you have of the vegetable1 using the ingredients for the sauce in the following proportion3 #a #a_/b tablespoonfuls flour #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a tablespoonful butter or substitute #a cupful liquid ,for the liquid of the sauce for those vegetables cooked in water without the skins1 use half milk and half vegetable stock4 ,use only milk for the sauce for the vegetables cooked in water with the skins and for steamed vegetables4 7,for method of making ,white ,sauce1 see ,cream ,toast7 ,add the vegetables to the sauce1 reheat1 and serve4 ,divide the vegetables among the pupils of each group so that each tastes the six vegetables4 ,which vegetables1--those cooked with or without the skins1--have the more pleasing color8 ,which vegetables1--those cooked with or without the skins1--have the more pleasing flavor8 ,as far as appearance and flavor are concerned1 which method of preparation is better for potatoes8 ,which method for carrots8 ,as far as both nutriment and flavor are concerned1 which method of cooking is better for both vegetables8 ,suggestions for ,cooking ,root ,vegetables4--,all vegetables growing beneath the ground should be cleaned by scrubbing with a small brush4 ,unless a vegetable is dried or wilted1 it should not be soaked in water for any length of time before cooking4 ,the comparison just made shows that the outside skins of vegetables should not be removed before cooking in water if we wish to retain all the nutriment4 ,there are some who contend1 however1 that a more delicate and pleasing flavor results when old and strong-flavored vegetables have their skins removed before cooking1 and that the flavor is more to be desired than a saving of all nutrients4 ,often vegetables are more pleasing in color when cooked without their skins4 ,the nutrients lost by paring root vegetables and cooking them in water consist not only of carbohydrates1 but of ash and other valuable materials4 ,footnote #cj3 ,vitamines1 see ,division ,seven ,satisfactory results may be obtained by baking or steaming vegetables4 ,by using the latter method1 vegetables can be pared and cut into pieces and then cooked with little loss of nutrients4 ,it has been pointed out1 ,footnote #ca3 ,see ,journal of ,home ,economics1 ,vol4 ,,xi 7,may1 #aiai71 ,changes in the ,food ,value of ,vegetables1 by ,minna ,c4 ,denton4 however1 that there may be considerable loss of nutrients in steamed vegetables4 ,the extent of the loss depends in part upon the type of steamer and the method of using it4 ,if the bottom of the upper pan of a steamer is perforated and the vegetables are placed in contact with the perforated portion1 the condensed steam washes the mineral matter from the vegetable4 ,this vegetable broth then drops into the lower pan of the steamer4 ,an evidence of this can be secured by steaming spinach or squash in the manner described above and observing the coloring which appears in the water beneath the steaming vegetable4 ,loss of nutrients in such a steamer can be avoided by placing the vegetable in a pan or plate and inserting the latter in the upper portion of the steamer4 ,the pan or plate should1 of course1 be of smaller diameter than the top of the steamer4 ,by using the type of steamer which has perforations at the top of the upper pan 7see ,figure #ca71 no loss of nutrients occurs1 provided the accumulated vegetable broth is used4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,geo ,h ,bowman ,co ,,figure #ca4--,,utensil ,,for ,,steaming--,a ,,steamer ,care should also be taken not to steam vegetables for long periods at a very high temperature as is sometimes done in using the pressure cooker4 ,this results in both loss of nutrients and flavor4 ,if starchy vegetables are cooked in water1 when tender immediately drain away the water and dry them4 ,serve at once or let them remain uncovered in a warm place4 ,the steam is thus allowed to escape4 ,condensed steam makes starchy vegetables soggy4 ,,boiled ,,potatoes ,if potatoes are to be cooked without their skins1 pare them as thin as possible1 or in the case of new potatoes1 scrape them4 ,cut away any green portion ,footnote #cb3 ,green spots on potatoes are caused by the tubers growing too near the surface of the ground4 ,this colored portion contains an injurious substance called solanin4 which appears on the potato4 ,if the potatoes are sprouted1 ,footnote #cc3 ,sprouted potatoes also contain some solanin4 ,potatoes should not be allowed to sprout since nutritious material is used up by the growing sprouts and1 as mentioned above1 an injurious material is formed4 ,potatoes can be prevented from sprouting by storing them in a dry1 dark1 cool place4 also cut away the portion around the sprouts4 ,in cooking potatoes in water1 follow the directions given on page #ei1 ,cooking ,vegetables in ,water4 ,when they are tender1 drain off the water immediately2 shake gently and dry on the back of the range with the saucepan uncovered or with a cloth folded over the top to absorb the moisture4 ,sprinkle generously with salt4 ,boiled potatoes may be put through a ricer before serving4 ,,creamed ,,and ,,scalloped ,,vegetables4--,cooked vegetables may be creamed by cutting them into cubes1 adding ,white ,sauce1 and then reheating4 ,if the cut vegetables are cold1 they can be heated by adding them to the sauce with the last portion of liquid4 ,by the time the sauce reaches the boiling point1 the vegetables will be heated4 ,care should be taken not to break the vegetables while heating them in the sauce4 ,care should also be taken to prevent the sauce from scorching4 ,an asbestos mat over a gas burner is desirable for this purpose4 ,use one part of ,white ,sauce with #b or #c parts of diced vegetables4 ,vegetables may be scalloped by placing ,creamed ,vegetables in an oiled baking-dish1 covering with buttered crumbs1 and browning in the oven4 ,,white ,,sauce ,,for ,,vegetables #a #a_/b tablespoonfuls flour #a tablespoonful butter or substitute or #b tablespoonfuls flour #a #a_/b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute #a_/b teaspoonful salt ,white pepper #a_/b cupful milk #a_/b cupful vegetable stock ,cook as directed for ,cream ,sauce 7see ,cream ,toast74 ,the thickness of ,white ,sauce for vegetables depends upon the kind of vegetable4 ,the thinner sauce is generally more satisfactory with starchy vegetables4 ,,crumbs ,,for ,,scalloped ,,dishes #a cupful soft bread crumbs #a_/h teaspoonful salt ,white pepper or cayenne #a tablespoonful butter or substitute ,mix seasonings and crumbs together1 then add to the melted fat1 or place the fat in bits over the seasoned crumbs4 ,,questions ,how should the water boil in cooking vegetables8 ,why8 ,why should not potatoes be covered with a tin lid or plate after cooking8 ,are potatoes sold by the pound or bushel8 ,what is the price per pound or bushel8 ,mention at least three ways of cooking root vegetables so as to retain their nutriment4 ,,lesson ,,xxvii ,,root ,,vegetables 7,b7 ,,experiment #cj3 ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,soaking ,,starchy ,,vegetables ,,in ,,water1--,over several pieces of potato pour enough water to cover4 ,allow the vegetable to stand at least #ae minutes4 ,pour the water from the vegetable into a test tube and heat it4 ,cool1 then test the water with iodine4 ,what does the water contain8 ,what conclusion can you draw concerning the soaking of vegetables in water before cooking8 ,,sweet ,,potatoes ,cook sweet potatoes with or without the skins 7see ,cooking ,vegetables in ,water74 ,peel 7if cooked with the skins71 mash1 add a little hot milk1 salt1 and butter1 beat thoroughly and serve4 ,cooked sweet potatoes may also be cut into halves lengthwise1 spread with butter or substitute1 sprinkled with a very little sugar1 and browned in the oven4 ,,sweet ,,potatoes 7,southern style7 #c tablespoonfuls butter or substitute #b tablespoonfuls sugar #f sweet potatoes ,salt and pepper ,boiling water ,scrub and pare the sweet potatoes1 cut them into halves lengthwise4 ,put the butter and sugar in a frying pan and when hot1 add the sweet potatoes4 ,brown the potatoes1 add the salt and pepper and enough boiling water to cover the bottom of the frying pan4 ,cover and cook slowly until the potatoes are tender4 ,nearly all the water should be evaporated when the potatoes are cooked4 ,that which remains should be poured over the potatoes as a sauce for serving4 ,sweet potatoes may also be cooked in a casserole in the oven4 ,uncover the casserole when the potatoes are almost tender1 in order to brown them4 ,,mock ,,oysters 7parsnips with nuts and rice7 #d parsnips #b eggs #a cupful nuts1 chopped #a_/h teaspoonful pepper #a cupful cooked rice ,footnote #cd3 ,if the rice is cooked by boiling1 use the rice water instead of plain water in making ,tomato ,sauce4 #d tablespoonfuls flour #a teaspoonful salt ,boil or steam the parsnips until tender4 ,press them through a coarse sieve or colander4 ,add the beaten eggs4 ,then add the remainder of the ingredients4 ,if the mixture is too thick to drop from the spoon1 add a little milk4 ,drop by tablespoonfuls on to an oiled baking-sheet4 ,bake until slightly brown4 ,serve hot with ,tomato ,sauce4 ,tomato ,catsup or ,celery ,sauce may also be used in serving ,mock ,oysters4 7,adapted from ,ninety ,tested ,recipes1 ,teachers ,college47 ,,tomato ,,sauce #a_/b can tomatoes #a cupful water #b cloves #c allspice berries #c peppercorns #b sprays of parsley #c tablespoonfuls fat #b slices onion #a_/d cupful flour #a teaspoonful salt ,allow tomatoes1 water1 spices1 and herbs to simmer #ae to #bj minutes4 ,brown the onion in the fat1 add flour and salt1 then the tomato mixture4 ,follow the method of making ,white ,sauce 7see ,cream ,toast74 ,strain and serve4 ,,questions ,from the results of ,experiment #cj explain why vegetables should be placed in boiling rather than in cold water for cooking4 ,why should the water be drained from boiled vegetables immediately after cooking8 ,from your grocer1 find out in what quantities sweet potatoes are usually purchased4 ,what is the price of them8 ,how do they compare in price with white potatoes8 ,what is the price per pound of parsnips8 ,in preparing ,tomato ,sauce1 what is the purpose of cooking the tomatoes and spices together for #ae or #bj minutes8 ,why are the tomatoes strained after thickening rather than before8 ,,lesson ,,xxviii ,,root ,,vegetables 7,c7 ,tapioca is a food material prepared from the roots of the cassava plant grown in ,south ,america4 ,like many other foods prepared from the roots of plants1 it consists of a large percent of starch4 ,in its preparation1 tapioca is heated so that the starch is partially cooked4 ,tapioca is prepared for the market in two forms1--pearl tapioca1 and minute or granulated tapioca4 ,the latter requires a much shorter time to cook4 ,if granulated tapioca is substituted for pearl tapioca1 but one half the quantity is required4 ,,apple ,,tapioca #c_/d cupful pearl tapioca or #c_/d cupful granulated tapioca #b #a_/b cupfuls boiling water #a_/b teaspoonful salt #f apples #a_/b cupful sugar ,if pearl tapioca is used1 cover it generously with cold water and allow it to stand one hour or overnight4 ,while soaking keep the tapioca covered4 ,if any water is unabsorbed1 do not discard it1--use less than the given quantity of boiling water4 ,if granulated tapioca is used1 no cold water is needed4 ,for either granulated or pearl tapioca1 add the boiling water and salt to the tapioca and cook over the naked flame and then over hot water as in the case of breakfast cereal 7see ,general ,rules for ,cooking ,cereals74 ,cook in the double boiler until transparent4 ,wash1 core1 and pare the apples2 place them in a buttered baking-dish2 fill the cavities with sugar1 pour tapioca over them1 and bake in a moderate oven until the apples are soft4 ,serve with sugar and cream1 or with ,lemon ,sauce4 ,other fruits may be substituted for apples4 ,if canned fruits are used1 substitute the fruit sirup for part of the water in which the tapioca is cooked4 ,,rhubarb ,,tapioca ,use the same ingredients for the rhubarb dessert as for ,apple ,tapioca1 substituting for the apples #c cupfuls of rhubarb1 cut into pieces1 and using twice the quantity of sugar4 ,bake until the rhubarb is soft4 ,,lemon ,,sauce #c_/d cupful sugar #b tablespoonfuls flour #b cupfuls boiling water #a lemon1--juice and rind #a tablespoonful butter ,mix sugar and flour thoroughly2 then slowly add the boiling water4 ,cook #aj minutes4 ,add the lemon juice and rind1 then the butter4 ,stir until the butter is melted1 when the sauce will be ready to serve4 ,for economy1 the butter may be omitted4 ,it adds to the flavor1 however4 ,,sweet ,,sauces4--,sweet ,sauces usually contain sugar and butter and are thickened with a powdered cereal4 ,it is interesting to consider which of the two materials--sugar or butter--should be used to separate the grains of the flour or corn-starch4 ,the quantity of fat used with the flour of ,white ,sauces 7see below7 is a little less than that of the flour4 ,it is difficult to separate starch grains when the quantity of fat equals only one half the quantity of flour4 ,on the other hand1 when starch grains are separated by means of sugar1 the quantity of the sugar should equal at least the quantity of the starchy material 7see ,blanc ,mange74 ,in the recipe for ,lemon ,sauce above1 it will be noted that the quantity of fat is one half that of the flour2 the quantity of sugar greatly exceeds that of the flour4 ,hence the sugar affords a more satisfactory means of separating the starch grains in ,lemon ,sauce4 ,,proportions ,,of ,,ingredients ,,for ,,sauces ,flour ,fat ,liquid ,thin ,white ,sauce #a tablespoonful1 #c_/d tablespoonful1 #a cup 7,toast1 sweet sauce1 certain cream soups1 etc47 ,medium ,white ,sauce #b tablespoonfuls1 #a #a_/b tablespoonfuls1 #a cup 7,vegetables 7see page #aji71 gravy1 tomato sauce1 etc47 ,thick ,white ,sauce #c tablespoonfuls1 #b tablespoonfuls1 #a cup 7,gravy1 tomato sauce1 etc47 ,very ,thick ,white ,sauce #d tablespoonfuls1 #c tablespoonfuls1 #a cup 7,croquettes1 etc47 7,if richer sauces are desired1 equal quantities of fat and flour should be used47 ,,questions ,what is the purpose of soaking pearl tapioca in water before cooking8 ,give the reason for covering pearl tapioca while it is soaking4 ,why is it necessary to cook it in a double boiler8 ,what is the use of flour in ,lemon ,sauce8 ,why is the flour mixed with the sugar before adding the boiling water 7see ,experiment #bd78 ,how long does it take the flour to thicken8 ,how long a time does the recipe give for cooking the flour mixture8 ,what is the purpose of cooking it for so long a time8 ,what precautions can be taken to prevent the sauce from scorching8 ,if1 after cooking the required length of time1 the sauce is not thick enough1 what is the simplest method of thickening it8 ,for a sauce recipe in which very little fat and no sugar are given1 devise a method of preparing smooth sauce4 ,,lesson ,,xxix ,,starchy ,,foods ,,cooked ,,at ,,high ,,temperature ,,steam ,,under ,,pressure4--,which is hotter1--the steam 7i4e4 water vapor7 coming from boiling water in an uncovered saucepan or teakettle or the steam which has been held underneath the lid of a covered saucepan or teakettle 7see ,figure #cb78 ,steam confined in a small space or held under pressure may reach a temperature higher than that of boiling water4 ,,effect ,,of ,,high ,,temperature ,,upon ,,pop ,,corn ,,and ,,potatoes4--,pop corn contains water4 ,when heated1 the water changes to steam4 ,the covering of cellulose holds the steam in the kernel4 ,when the steam expands and reaches a temperature far above the boiling point of water1 it finally bursts the covering and the starch swells at once4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #cb4--,,steam ,,without ,,pressure ,,and ,,steam ,,which ,,has ,,been ,,under ,,pressure4 ,in baking potatoes1 the water contained in them vaporizes4 ,the vaporized water or steam is held under pressure by the skin of the vegetable4 ,the steam thus becomes hotter than boiling water1 hence a baked potato is cooked at a higher temperature than a boiled potato1 and no nutrients are lost4 ,,pop ,,corn ,moisten pop corn with cold water4 ,almost cover the bottom of a popper with the kernels4 ,hold the popper first at some distance from the heat and then gradually bring it closer1 shaking it well all the time to keep the corn from burning4 ,the corn should not begin to pop before three and one half minutes4 ,when popping commences1 most of the kernels should open4 ,if there is some time between the popping of the first and last kernels1 the corn will become tough4 ,,buttered ,,pop ,,corn ,,no4 ,i #d quarts freshly popped corn #a_/d cupful butter ,salt ,melt the butter and pour it over the corn1 stirring with a spoon4 ,sprinkle at once with salt from a salt shaker1 continue stirring4 ,,buttered ,,pop ,,corn ,,no4 ,,ii #a tablespoonful butter and #a tablespoonful oil or #b tablespoonfuls oil #a_/b cupful shelled pop corn ,salt ,put the fat in a large frying pan2 when melted1 add the salted corn4 ,stir until the corn is evenly coated with fat4 ,cover closely and heat gradually1 shaking the pan vigorously all the time4 ,,baked ,,potatoes ,scrub potatoes and place them on the grate of a hot oven 7#ejj degrees ,f474 7,potatoes should be baked in a hot oven1 to prevent them from becoming waxy or soggy47 ,bake until soft when tested with a fork or knitting needle1 usually #ej to #fj minutes4 ,break the skin at once to allow the steam to escape1 or make two gashes in the top of each potato1 one at right angles to the other4 ,gently press the potato so that the steam may escape4 ,serve in an uncovered dish4 ,place the steaming potatoes on a folded napkin for serving4 ,,stuffed ,,potatoes #b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute #a teaspoonful salt #c tablespoonfuls milk ,pepper #f baked potatoes ,cut the baked potatoes in halves lengthwise4 ,remove the inside1 taking care not to break the skin2 mash the potatoes1 add the milk1 butter1 and seasoning1 and beat them as ordinary mashed potatoes4 ,return the mixture to the potato shells1 place the stuffed potatoes in a pan1 and bake in a hot oven 7#ejj degrees ,f47 until brown4 ,before browning the stuffed potatoes1 grated cheese may be sprinkled over them4 ,,questions ,explain why pop corn can be cooked thoroughly in about #e minutes while rolled oats or wheat requires #a #a_/b hours for sufficient cooking4 ,analyze the difference in taste of a baked and a boiled potato4 ,to what is the sweet taste of a baked potato due 7see ,experiment #bf78 ,explain fully why baked potatoes are more easily digested than boiled potatoes 7see ,experiment #bf and ,solution and ,digestion74 ,which contains more nutriment1--baked potatoes or boiled potatoes8 ,explain 7see ,comparison of ,vegetables ,cooked with and without the ,skins1 and in ,water or in ,steam74 ,what is the purpose of breaking the skins of potatoes at once after baking8 ,why are baked potatoes served in an uncovered dish8 ,what could be used to cover them8 ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,xxx ,,dining ,,room ,,service ,footnote #ce3 ,,note4--,see ,suggestions for ,teaching1 ,appendix4 ,,basic ,,principles4--,practically all rules for laying the table and all methods of serving have been formulated to bring about neatness1 convenience1 and order4 ,the standard of living1 ,footnote #cf3 ,,note4--,see ,suggestions for ,teaching1 ,appendix4 the occasion1 the size of the dining room1 the number of guests1 and the attendants1 all have to be taken into consideration in dining room service4 ,therefore the method of serving must be governed by conditions4 ,it is possible here to give only general suggestions4 ,,the ,,table ,,table ,,linen4--,table padding1 or a silence cloth1 should first be placed on the table1 then the table-cloth should be laid straight and smooth4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #cc4--,,table ,,laid ,,for ,,an ,,informal ,,luncheon ,note the position of the silver1 napkins1 bread-and-butter plates1 and tumblers4 ,also note that a low bowl of flowers is used as a centerpiece4 ,napkins should be folded simply and laid at the left of the plate4 ,a dinner napkin is folded four times1 a luncheon napkin is folded twice to form a square1 or three times to form either a triangle or an oblong4 ,if desired1 the table-cloth may be omitted for breakfast or luncheon4 ,doilies with pads underneath them1 lunch or breakfast cloths1 or table runners 7see ,figure #cc7 may be used instead of the table-cloth4 ,the two latter coverings are especially practical1 since they are more quickly laundered than table-cloths4 ,their initial cost is also usually less than that of a table-cloth4 ,doilies may be placed on the serving tray4 ,they are also often used on plates containing crackers1 bread1 and cakes4 ,baked potatoes1 corn1 and hot breads may be served in a folded napkin4 ,,china ,,and ,,glassware4--,the term cover means the space1 with its china1 silver1 and glassware1 allowed for each guest4 ,at least twenty-two inches of space should be allowed for a cover 7see ,figure #cc74 ,the quantity of china on the table depends upon the occasion and the style of serving4 ,in any form of service1 the first course1 if cold1 may be placed on the table before the guests are seated4 ,if the first course is a hot food1 it is always placed on the table after the guests are seated4 ,for informal occasions1 and sometimes for formal occasions1 the bread-and- butter plate is used4 ,it is placed beyond the tines of the fork4 ,glasses are placed beyond the tip of the knife4 ,a sugar bowl and cream pitcher1 salts1 peppers1 etc41 may also be placed on the table4 ,a salt and a pepper shaker should be placed so as to be accessible to each two covers4 ,dishes containing olives or nuts are sometimes placed on the table before the guests are seated4 ,for breakfast1 the coffeepot1 hot-water pitcher1 milk and cream pitchers1 spoon tray1 and cups and saucers may be placed so as to form a semicircle about the hostess's place4 ,the coffeepot should be placed at the right1 and the cups and saucers at the left4 ,if tiles or stands for the coffeepot and hot-water pitcher are used1 they should also be a part of the table service4 ,a large tray may be used to hold all of the coffee service4 ,if the serving is to be done without a maid1 it is advisable to place all the china1 glass1 and silver to be used for the meal either on the table or on the serving table4 ,,silver4--,convenience and order have determined the customary way of placing the silver at each cover4 ,at the right of the plates place the knives1 the spoons1 and the forks that are to be used without knives 7as for oysters1 fish1 or salad74 ,at the left1 place all the forks that are to be used with knives4 ,many prefer1 however1 to place all the forks1 except the oyster fork1 at the left of the plate4 ,enough silver for all courses1 except the dessert course1 is usually placed on the table2 it is permissible1 however1 to place the silver for all courses4 ,if the silver for any course is not placed on the table before the meal is announced1 it may be brought in on a tray and placed at each cover just before serving the course2 or it may be laid on each serving dish of the course4 ,while a general rule for laying silver is to place each piece at each cover in the order of its use1 the knives are usually all grouped together at the right of the plate and the spoons laid together at the right of the knives4 ,it is advisable1 however1 to place the spoons and knives in the order of their use1 i4e4 place the spoon that is to be used first farthest to the right and the knife that is to be used first1 farthest to the right of the group of knives4 ,since only forks are placed at the left of the plate1 they should be laid in the order of their use1 that first to be used being placed farthest to the left 7see ,figure #cc74 ,all silver should be placed from one half to one inch from the edge of the table2 the sharp edges of the blades of the knives should be turned towards the plates2 the spoons and forks should be placed with their bowls and tines turned up4 ,the butter spreaders may be laid across the bread- and-butter plates4 ,generally when soup and raw oysters are served1 the oyster fork is laid across the soup spoon4 ,if the silver that is to be used in serving a dish of food is placed on the table1 it should be laid beside not in the dish of food4 ,,table ,,accessories4--,a low bowl of flowers or fruit1 tastefully arranged1 makes a pleasing centerpiece4 ,a centerpiece1 however1 should be a real source of pleasure2 it should not obstruct the view of guests opposite 7see ,figure #cc74 ,place cards afford a graceful means of seating guests4 ,when used1 they should be placed on the napkin4 ,menu cards1 sometimes used for occasional dinners1 are also placed on the napkin4 ,,styles ,,of ,,serving ,there are several styles of serving3 ,,english 7ordinary family service74--,the foods are served at the table1 the host serving fish1 meat1 and vegetables2 the hostess serving soup1 salad1 and dessert2 and other members of the family serving fruit and the vegetables that are served in individual dishes4 ,the served dishes may be passed to each guest by the maid1 or when no maid serves1 they may be passed from one person to another4 ,this method is used for family and informal service1 and also when serving is done without a maid4 ,,russian 7serving from the side74--,this may be observed in one of two ways3 7a7 ,foods are separated into portions on individual plates and placed before the guests4 7b7 ,foods are separated into portions on the serving dishes and passed to the left of each guest so that he may help himself1 or the portions may be served by the maid4 ,the necessary serving spoon or fork should be provided with the serving dishes4 ,the ,russian style of serving is the most formal and requires the service of at least one maid4 ,,compromise4--,sometimes it is desirable to use one style of serving for one course and another style for another course1 as the ,russian style for the soup course1 and the ,english style for the meat course4 ,or the foods of one course may be in such form that it is convenient to follow both styles of serving1 as meat served in ,english style and side dishes served in ,russian style4 ,such style of serving is termed the compromise4 ,,methods ,,of ,,serving ,,with ,a ,,maid ,,established ,,rules ,,for ,,serving4--,while each hostess follows her own inclination in the details of serving1 there are certain rules that are always observed3 ,cold foods are served on cold dishes2 hot foods on hot dishes4 ,dishes offered to a guest are passed to the left of the guest2 other dishes are placed to the right of a guest1 except when a plate is placed at the same time a soiled or served plate is removed1--it is then placed at the left4 ,plates are removed from the right when possible4 ,when the ,russian style of serving is observed1 the following plan of removing and placing plates at the close of a course is followed3 ,the maid carries the clean or served plate of the following course in her right hand and goes to the left of the guest4 ,she removes the soiled plate of the course just concluded with her left hand and then places the empty or served plate before the guest with her right hand4 ,she then goes to the kitchen or pantry with the soiled plate1 returns with a clean or served plate1 and proceeds as before4 ,in following the ,english style in serving plates1 the maid first places the dish to be served 7the platter of meat1 for example7 in front of the host4 ,then an empty plate is placed before the host4 ,the maid then gets another clean plate1 returns to the left of the host1 takes up the served plate in her left hand1 and places the empty plate before him4 ,she then places the served plate before one of the guests from the right side4 ,again she goes to the left of the host1 places a plate before him1 and proceeds as before4 ,at the end of a course1 remove the dishes of each cover1 then such dishes as the platters and tureens1 and finally the crumbs4 ,all dishes belonging to a particular course should be removed at the end of that course4 ,soiled dishes are always unsightly2 hence care should be taken to remove them in the neatest way4 ,plates should not be piled on top of one another4 ,when the dinner plate1 the bread-and-butter plate1 and the side dishes are to be removed1 the smaller dishes 7bread-and-butter plates and side dishes7 should be removed on the serving tray4 ,the larger plates may be removed one at a time1 and an empty or service plate may be put in the place of each4 ,if no empty or service plate is to be placed for the next course1 two soiled plates may be removed at the same time1 one in each hand4 ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,buffet ,,and ,,serving ,,table4--,many dining rooms have both a buffet and serving table4 ,when such is the case the serving table is used for holding the dishes and foods that are used in serving the meal1 such as dessert plates1 creamer and sugar1 plate of bread1 etc42 the buffet is used for holding dishes that are used occasionally1 such as the coffee service1 chafing dish1 etc4 ,accidents at the table may be quickly remedied1 if extra silver and a soft 7i4e4 unfolded7 napkin are placed on the serving table before the meal is announced4 ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,serving ,,tray4--,the serving tray should be used for carrying all silver4 ,it should also be used for small dishes1 such as preserves1 olives1 sauces1 and for the creamer and sugar1 and the cups and saucers4 ,in passing large dishes1 such as plates1 platters1 and tureens1 use a folded napkin underneath the dishes instead of a tray4 ,,removing ,,the ,,crumbs ,,from ,,the ,,table4--,for a table with a cloth1 the crumb tray and scraper1 or better1 a plate and folded napkin are used to remove the crumbs4 ,a brush is not desirable for crumbing the table4 ,for a table without a cloth1 the folded napkin and plate are used4 ,the table may be crumbed before and after the salad course or before the dessert course4 ,,use ,,of ,,finger ,,bowls4--,finger bowls are used after the fruit course of breakfast1 and at the end of a luncheon or dinner4 ,they should be placed on plates1 with a doily between the plate and finger bowl4 ,for breakfast1 the finger bowls and plates may be brought in first4 ,the finger bowl and doily should be removed to the left so that the same plates may be used for the fruit course4 ,for formal luncheon or dinner1 finger bowls on doilies and plates are brought in1 one at a time1 when removing the main dish of the dessert4 ,the finger bowls and doilies are then set aside and the plate used for bonbons and nuts1 which are passed on a tray4 ,or1 if desired1 the finger bowls may be brought after the bonbons4 ,in this case the finger bowl and plate are exchanged for the plate of the dessert course4 ,an informal way is to pass finger bowls on plates and doilies before the dessert course4 ,then the finger bowl and doily are set aside as at breakfast and the dessert served on the same plate4 ,,order ,,of ,,seating ,,and ,,serving ,,guests4--,the host and hostess usually sit opposite each other1 i4e4 at the head and foot of the table4 ,if there is a waitress to do the serving1 the head of the table should be farthest from the entrance of the dining room4 ,if there is no maid1 the hostess's chair should be nearest the kitchen door or pantry4 ,a woman guest of honor sits at the right of the host2 a gentleman guest1 at the right of the hostess4 ,the order of serving guests varies in different homes and for different occasions4 ,sometimes the women at the table are served before the men4 ,this is usually done1 however1 for home service or when only a few persons are at the table4 ,at a large dinner table or a banquet1 guests are usually served in the order in which they sit4 ,in many homes1 the guests are served first1 while in others the hostess is always the first to be served4 ,at a family meal1 when no guests are present1 the hostess should always be served first4 ,,method ,,of ,,serving ,,without ,a ,,maid ,when there is no maid1 a woman has a threefold duty to perform when serving a meal4 ,she must act as cook1 as waitress1 and as hostess4 ,much skill1 ingenuity1 and practice are required to do this successfully4 ,the underlying principle of its accomplishment is forethought4 ,a hostess must plan1 even to the minutest detail1 the performance of each duty4 ,,preparation ,,before ,,announcing ,,the ,,meal4--,in planning the menu1 a wise selection should be made4 ,simple foods should be selected and but few courses should be served4 ,a young hostess should remember that a simple meal easily served is more enjoyable and more fitting than an elaborate dinner where the hostess must frequently leave the table4 ,foods should be selected that can be prepared before the meal is served1 and that will not be harmed by standing4 ,a souffle which must be served immediately when taken from the oven is not a wise choice for such a meal4 ,for almost all meals some of the dishes and foods must be left in the warming oven or in the refrigerator1 but as many dishes and foods as possible should be taken to the dining room before the meal is announced4 ,the suggestion has been made that dishes be kept warm by placing them in a pan of hot water on the serving table4 ,this would mean1 however1 that a tea towel be at hand to dry the dishes before using4 ,special hot-water dishes for the purpose can now be obtained in city shops4 ,a serving table or a wheel tray 7see ,figure #cd7 is of great service to a woman acting as hostess and waitress4 ,it should be placed near the hostess so that she can reach it without rising from her chair4 ,in the absence of a wheel tray1 a large serving tray is a great convenience in setting and clearing the table2 it saves many steps4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #cd--,,wheel ,,tray4 ,,serving ,,at ,,the ,,table4--,the ,english style of serving should be followed4 ,the hostess may thus have the aid of the host and the other members of the family in serving4 ,moreover1 serving in this manner gives an air of hospitality4 ,as hostess1 a woman must not leave her place at the table many times or for many minutes4 ,if the details of the meal have not been well planned1 she will have to make many trips to the kitchen4 ,this is one of the indications that the presence of guests is a burden to the hostess4 ,she should never leave or enter the dining room empty-handed1 for a saving of energy is more sensible than faithful adherence to form4 ,the soiled dishes1 as they are removed from the table1 may be placed upon the serving table4 ,by the use of the latter1 the dining table can be kept free from an overcrowded appearance and the hostess saved many steps4 ,the lower shelf of the serving table is the most desirable place for the soiled dishes4 ,for a family meal1 the table may be crumbed as follows3 ,let the hostess use the crumb tray while seated at her place1 and then let her pass it on so that each member of the family may in turn remove the crumbs from his own cover4 ,it is perfectly proper to omit crumbing when guests are present and where there is no maid4 ,the host and the other members of the family can do much to add to the pleasure of a meal by introducing an interesting topic of conversation that will occupy the attention of the guests during the absence of the hostess4 ,if the hostess is sole entertainer1 she would do well to start an absorbing subject of conversation just before leaving the dining room4 ,,questions ,why is it desirable to use doilies on plates containing crackers1 bread1 and cakes8 ,why should baked potatoes1 corn1 and hot breads be served on a folded napkin8 ,why should the coffeepot be placed at the right of the hostess's cover and the cups and saucers at the left of her cover8 ,in laying the table1 why should the knives1 spoons1 and the forks that are to be used without knives be placed at the right of the plates8 ,why should the forks that are to be used with knives be placed at the left of the plates8 ,in serving1 why should dishes which admit of choice be passed to the left of a guest8 ,why should dishes which do not admit of choice be placed at the right8 ,why should this order of clearing the table at the end of a course be followed3 first1 the soiled dishes1 then the food1 then the clean dishes1 and finally the crumbs8 ,why should all dishes belonging to a particular course be removed at the end of the course8 ,why is a brush not desirable for crumbing the table8 ,why are finger bowls used after the fruit course of breakfast and at the end of luncheon or dinner8 ,make a list of the linen1 silver1 glass1 and china needed for the dining and serving tables1 when serving the menu given below4 ,give method of serving each course1 using the ,english style4 ,cream of ,tomato ,soup--,soup ,sticks ,veal ,cutlets ,rice ,rolls--,butter ,cucumber ,salad ,wafers ,snow ,pudding1 ,custard ,sauce ,cakes--,coffee ,,lesson ,,xxxi ,,cooking ,,and ,,serving ,,breakfast ,cook and serve a breakfast4 ,if the lesson period is limited to #ij minutes1 it is advisable to plan only a simple meal4 ,the following menu is suggested3 ,seasonable ,fruit1--fresh or cooked ,french ,toast with ,sirup ,milk ,determine the number of persons each recipe for the foods above will serve4 ,it may be necessary to prepare only a portion of a given recipe or more food than the quantity stated in the recipe4 ,the pupil should become accustomed to dividing or multiplying the quantities given in recipes4 ,commence your work at such a time that the food will be in proper condition--hot or cold--at the time set for serving the breakfast4 ,follow the ,english or family style of serving4 ,serve the breakfast with or without a maid 7see previous lesson74 ,,lesson ,,xxxii ,,review3 ,,meal ,,cooking ,,menu ,seasonable ,fruit ,sauce ,breakfast ,cereal ,coffee ,see ,review1 for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson4 ,,lesson ,,xxxiii ,,home ,,projects ,footnote #cg3 ,see ,lesson ,,ix ,,suggestions ,,for ,,home ,,work4--,if cooked cereals are desired for breakfast at your home1 prepare breakfast cereals in the evening for the following morning4 ,make a dessert for the evening meal at least three times a week4 ,,suggested ,,aims3 7#a7 ,to cook the cereal a sufficient length of time to produce a sweet flavor and make it tender1 to evaporate the moisture sufficiently so that mastication will be necessary1 to allow no scum to form on top4 7#b7 ,to select a variety of desserts so that a different one may be served each time4 ,,division ,,five ,,energy-,,giving ,,or ,,fuel ,,foods1--,,rich ,,in ,,fats ,,and ,,oils ,,lesson ,,xxxiv ,,fat ,,as ,a ,,frying ,,medium ,,comparison ,,of ,,fats ,,and ,,carbohydrates4--,fat is a foodstuff4 ,fat and oil ,footnote #ch3 ,fat and oil are very similar1 oil being fat that is liquid at ordinary temperature4 form another great class of energy-giving or fuel foods4 ,in the body1 these foods1 like carbohydrates1 give energy2 in fact weight for weight they furnish more than twice as much energy as carbohydrates4 ,there is1 for example1 about as much fat by weight in one pound of butter as there are carbohydrates in one pound of tapioca4 ,by measurement it has been found that one pound of butter gives to the body almost two and one fourth times as much energy as does one pound of tapioca4 ,fats and oils are not only used as food 7butter for example7 and as constituents of foods 7fat in pastry71 but as a medium for cooking4 ,the use of fat as a cooking medium follows3 ,,experiment #ca3 ,,temperature ,,at ,,which ,,fats ,,and ,,oils ,,decompose ,,or ,,burn4-- ,into each of #f test tubes put #b teaspoonfuls of butter1 cottonseed oil1 corn oil1 beef drippings1 lard1 and ,crisco4 ,gently heat each one of the fats or oils until fumes first arise from them4 ,then insert a thermometer ,footnote #ci3 ,care should be taken in using a thermometer in hot fat4 ,it should be allowed to cool before washing4 in each tube and note the temperatures4 ,these are the temperatures at which the various fats decompose4 ,record these temperatures in your notebook4 ,how do the decomposing temperatures of fat compare with that of boiling water8 ,which would be the hotter medium for cooking--hot fat or boiling water8 ,which fat reaches the highest temperature before it begins to decompose8 ,if fat is used as a medium of cooking1 which of these fats1 as far as temperature is concerned1 would be the most desirable8 ,give a reason for your answer4 ,what is the price per pound or pint of each of these fats or oils8 ,which of these are vegetable and which are animal fats or oils8 ,,fats ,,for ,,deep-,,fat ,,frying4--,as shown by the above experiment1 fat reaches a high temperature when heated4 ,for this reason fat may be used as a cooking medium4 ,the process of cooking food in deep fat is called frying4 ,from the standpoint of temperature the best fat for frying is that which can be heated to a very high temperature without burning4 ,other factors such as flavor and cost1 however1 have to be taken into consideration4 ,fat not only heats foods1 but it imparts flavor since some of the fat in which a food is cooked1 clings to the food4 ,the costs of the various fats differ greatly4 ,this must be regarded in selecting fats for cooking4 ,taking these factors into consideration1 many prefer the cheaper vegetable fats for frying1 while others find a mixture of beef drippings and lard satisfactory4 ,,experiment #cb3 ,,bread ,,fried ,,in ,,cool ,,fat 7,,class ,,experiment74--,put some suitable fat for frying in an iron pan and heat4 ,note carefully the change that takes place in fat as it heats4 ,when the fat foams or bubbles1 or reaches a temperature of about #cjj degrees ,f41 drop into it a piece of bread4 ,after one minute remove the bread from the fat2 examine the bread by breaking it apart to see if the fat has soaked into the bread4 ,is it desirable to have the fat soak into fried foods8 ,what conclusion can you draw as to frying foods in cool fats8 ,,experiment #cc3 ,,the ,,temperature ,,of ,,fat ,,for ,,frying 7,,class ,,experiment74-- ,continue to heat the fat of ,experiment #cb4 ,when fumes begin to rise from the fat1 or the fat reaches a temperature of #cfe degrees ,f41 again drop a bit of bread into it4 ,after one minute remove the bread and examine it as above4 ,has as much fat soaked into it as in the first bit of bread8 ,what conclusion can you draw from this in regard to the proper temperature for frying foods8 ,cooked foods and foods needing but little cooking require a higher temperature than batters or other uncooked foods4 ,if a bit of bread is browned in #dj seconds1 the fat is of proper temperature for cooked foods and for oysters4 ,if bread is browned in #fj seconds1 the fat is of proper temperature for uncooked foods4 ,,general ,,rules ,,for ,,frying4--,since fat1 when heated1 reaches such a high temperature1 the kettle in which it is heated should be of iron4 ,if there is any moisture on foods1 it must be evaporated before the foods brown4 ,excessive moisture also cools the fat considerably1 hence1 foods that are to be fried should be as dry as possible4 ,place the foods to be cooked in a bath of fat deep enough to float them4 ,the kettle should not be too full1 however1 as fat is apt to bubble over especially when moist foods are placed in it4 ,foods may be placed in a frying basket1 or they may be lowered into the fat and taken from it with a wire spoon4 ,all fried foods should be drained on paper4 ,when one quantity of food has been removed1 the fat should be reheated and its temperature tested before adding the second quantity of food4 ,fat used for frying should be cooled and clarified with potato as directed on the following page4 ,if a coal range is used for heating the fat1 sand or ashes and a shovel should be near at hand in case the fat takes fire4 ,if hot fat must be carried or lifted1 wrap a towel about the hand before grasping the handle of the kettle4 ,,to ,,try ,,out ,,fat4--,the fat of meat consists of fat held by a network of connective tissue4 ,to make meat fat suitable for frying it is necessary to separate the fat from the tissue4 ,this is done as follows3 ,remove the tough outside skin and lean parts from meat fat and cut it into small pieces4 ,put the fat into an iron kettle1 and cover it with cold water4 ,place it uncovered on the stove and heat4 ,when the water has nearly all evaporated1 set the kettle back1 or lessen the heat1 or place in a cool oven1 and let the fat slowly try out4 ,as the fat separates from the pieces of tissue1 it is well to strain or drain it into a bowl4 ,if this is done1 the fat is less apt to scorch4 ,the heating of the connective tissue should continue1 until it is shriveled in appearance and no fat can be pressed out from it with a fork4 ,the strained fat should be set aside to become firm and then stored in a cool place4 ,,to ,,clarify ,,fat4--,add a few slices of raw potato to fat and heat slowly until it ceases to bubble4 ,cool1 strain through a cloth1 and let stand until solid4 ,,fried ,,oysters ,footnote #dj3 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,if the price of oysters is too high1 some seasonable small fresh fish such as pike may be used in place of oysters4 ,these may be prepared for frying in the same manner as oysters4 ,if desired1 corn-meal may be substituted for dried bread crumbs4 ,large oysters ,dried bread crumbs ,salt and pepper ,eggs #a tablespoonful water or oyster juice for each egg ,remove pieces of shell from the oyster by running each oyster through the fingers4 ,wash the oysters1 drain immediately1 and dry them on a soft cloth or towel 7see ,cleaning ,oysters74 ,season with salt and pepper4 ,beat the eggs slightly and dilute by adding one tablespoonful of water or strained oyster juice to each egg4 ,sprinkle salt and pepper over the dried bread crumbs4 ,dip the oysters into the prepared crumbs1 then into the egg mixture1 and finally into the crumbs4 ,fry one minute1 drain1 place on paper1 and serve4 ,lemons cut into eighths are desirable to serve with fried oysters4 ,parsley makes a pleasing garnish4 ,to ,clean ,utensils that have ,contained ,fat4--,an alkaline substance such as washing soda is effective in cleaning utensils that have held fat4 ,to show the action of washing soda on fats try the following3 ,,experiment #cd3 ,,saponification ,,of ,,fat4--,into a test tube put #a_/b teaspoonful of washing soda and #a teaspoonful water1 then heat until the washing soda is entirely dissolved4 ,melt #a teaspoonful of solid fat and add it to the soda solution4 ,boil the contents of the tube for a few minutes and then examine it4 ,what substance does the foaming suggest8 ,what has been formed by the union of fat and soda8 ,what application can be drawn from this with regard to the use of soda in cleaning utensils that have contained fat8 ,wipe out with soft paper the utensil that has held fat4 ,fill it full of water1 add some washing soda1 and heat4 ,empty the water and wash4 ,do not use washing soda in aluminum utensils 7see ,preparing ,dishes for ,washing74 ,,questions ,what is taking place when hot fat emits an odor8 ,name two advantages in dipping foods that are to be fried in egg4 ,why are dried rather than soft bread crumbs used for covering foods that are to be fried8 ,,lesson ,,xxxv ,,fat ,,as ,a ,,frying ,,medium--,,food ,,fats ,,food ,,fats4--,fats and oils are extracted from various materials and refined so as to make them suitable for food4 ,food fats are of both animal and vegetable origin4 ,fats separated from milk 7butter71 meat fats 7suet1 lard7 are animal fats while those separated from seeds 7cottonseed and peanut71 cereal 7corn71 fruit 7olive71 nuts 7coconuts7 are vegetable fats4 ,a discussion of various food fats follows3 7a7 ,butter is made by churning ripened cream so as to separate the fat from the other ingredients contained in milk4 ,it is salted and usually colored before putting it on the market4 ,the popularity of butter is dependent upon its flavor1 for its fuel value is not greater than any other fat4 ,indeed butter does not contain as much fat as do the vegetable oils and fats1 and certain other animal fats4 ,butter contains #he per cent of fat while many vegetable oils and fats and lard contain #ajj per cent of fat4 ,butter contains1 however1 certain growth-producing substances called vitamines 7see ,division ,seven74 ,all fats do not contain vitamines4 ,the latter are found in butter1 but are not present in vegetable oils and fats and in pork fat4 ,butter is one of the most expensive foods of a household4 ,its use1 therefore1 must be carefully considered4 ,because of its pleasing flavor1 for some purposes no fat is as desirable as butter4 ,if1 however1 fat is to be combined with foods of pronounced flavor1 i4e4 foods whose flavor is strong enough to cover up other food flavors1 other fats may be substituted with satisfactory results4 7b7 ,oleomargarin is a combination of several different fats4 ,it is usually made by churning soft beef fat 7called oleo oil7 and neutral 7i4e4 carefully rendered7 lard with milk or cream4 ,sometimes butter and cottonseed and peanut oils are added4 ,because colored oleomargarin is highly taxed1 this fat is usually not colored in its preparation for the market4 ,the term oleomargarin is used not only as the trade name for fat of the composition stated above1 but as the legal name of any food fat prepared as a butter substitute4 ,to comply with the law1 solid fats found at market and containing no oleo oil are labeled oleomargarin4 7c7 ,nut ,margarin is also a mixture of various fats4 ,it usually consists of coconut oil combined with cottonseed or peanut oil4 7d7 ,meat ,fats4--,the fat of pork is commonly tried out or rendered to free it from connective tissue4 ,that obtained from trying out the fat from around the kidneys is called leaf lard2 ordinary lard is obtained from the fats of other parts of the animal4 ,the former is considered of superior quality4 ,beef suet or the fat from around the kidneys and loin of beef is also tried out and used for cooking4 ,all scraps of fat--cooked or uncooked--as well as any drippings from beef1 veal1 pork1 and chicken1 should be saved and used in cooking4 ,the fat from mutton has a peculiar flavor and so cannot be used in food1 unless cooked with certain flavoring materials 7see ,mutton74 ,it may be saved for soap-making4 ,fat from soup and drippings need only be clarified before using for cooking2 suet and other uncooked fat of meat must be first tried out4 7e7 ,vegetable ,oils4--,the oil from cottonseed1 corn1 and peanut is prepared for table use and sold under various trade names4 ,oil is also extracted from the olive4 ,this is an extremely expensive oil4 ,its food value is no greater than that of other vegetable oils2 only olive flavor is secured for the greater price4 ,refined cottonseed and corn oils are bland in flavor4 ,peanut has a characteristic flavor pleasing to most persons4 ,when these vegetable oils become rancid1 however1 their flavor is disagreeable4 ,,fat ,,combinations4--,every thrifty housekeeper should have several kinds of fats in her larder1 and should use all with discretion4 ,fats may be combined for certain purposes4 ,many times in making pastry or in sauteing and frying1 it is desirable to use a firm and a soft fat together1 such as butter and lard1 suet and oil1 or suet and chicken fat4 ,,fish ,,balls #a cupful salt codfish #d small potatoes #a egg #a_/b tablespoonful butter or substitute #a_/h teaspoonful pepper ,wash the fish in water and tear into small pieces2 wash and pare the potatoes4 ,cook the fish and the whole potatoes together in gently boiling water1 containing no salt1 until the potatoes are soft4 ,drain and shake over the fire until dry2 mash1 add the beaten egg1 fat1 pepper1 and salt 7if needed71 and beat until light4 ,take up the mixture by spoonfuls1 mold slightly1 and place in hot deep fat4 ,do not fry more than six balls at one time4 ,fry until brown1 drain1 garnish1 and serve at once4 ,white or ,cheese ,sauce may be served over ,fish ,balls4 ,the potatoes used in fish balls may be steamed4 ,the codfish1 however1 must be soaked or cooked in water4 ,,questions ,why is it not necessary to soak codfish for ,fish ,balls in water before cooking8 ,why is salt not added to the water in which codfish and potatoes are cooked8 ,if a food that is to be fried contains much water1 what happens to the water when placed in the hot fat8 ,explain why it is better to leave the potatoes whole rather than cut them into pieces for cooking4 ,why is it especially necessary to dry the fish and potato mixture before frying8 ,what ingredient do ,fish ,balls contain that hardens immediately on being heated8 ,of what advantage is this ingredient in mixtures that are to be fried8 ,what is the price per package of codfish8 ,what is the weight and measure of a package8 ,,lesson ,,xxxvi ,,fat ,,as ,a ,,frying ,,medium--,,digestion ,,of ,,fat ,,experiment #cf3 ,,action ,,of ,,oil ,,and ,,water4--,pour a little corn or cottonseed oil into a test tube1 add the same quantity of water1 and shake the tube4 ,set the tube aside for a minute and examine4 ,which material rises to the top8 ,is oil soluble in water8 ,what application can be made from this concerning the effectiveness of cleaning the fat of meats with water8 ,,experiment #cf3 ,,emulsion ,,of ,,fat4--,in a test tube put a bit of soap and #b tablespoonfuls of water4 ,heat until the soap is melted4 ,add #a_/b teaspoonful of vegetable oil4 ,shake the mixture and then examine4 ,what familiar food does the mixture look like8 ,set the tube aside for a minute4 ,does the oil rise to the top as in ,experiment #ce8 ,the fat is in an emulsified condition4 ,,breaking ,,up ,,of ,,fats4--,fats and oils are not soluble in any substance found in the digestive juices1 but they are acted upon by an enzyme ,footnote #da3 ,steapsin or lipase is the enzyme found in the pancreatic juice which acts upon fat4 and by an alkaline substance found in the pancreatic juice4 ,the enzyme breaks up some of the fat into a fatty acid ,footnote #db3 ,fatty acids are substances related to fats2 they have certain acid properties4 and glycerin4 ,during digestion1 fat is emulsified1 i4e4 divided into tiny globules which do not coalesce4 ,when a fat is emulsified1 it often looks like milk4 7,milk contains fat in an emulsified form2 the fat separates1 however1 by standing and rises to the top to form cream47 ,fats can be emulsified by several different substances4 ,a soap solution is one of the substances that will emulsify fats4 7,the action of soap solution in emulsifying fat was shown in ,experiment #cf47 ,if fats are emulsified by means of soap1 one might ask where the soap comes from in the process of digestion4 ,the soap is thought to be formed by the action of the alkali of the pancreatic juice upon some of the fatty acids formed by the splitting up of the fat4 ,by means of the soap thus formed1 fat is emulsified during digestion4 ,during digestion1 fat is broken up into fatty acids and glycerin4 ,,frying ,,and ,,digestion4--,fat is a slowly digesting foodstuff4 ,not only fats1 but foods coated with fat are digested slowly4 ,because of the longer time in the digestive tract1 foods may cause digestive disturbances4 ,when fats are heated to a high temperature1 they are decomposed and irritating substances 7free fatty acids7 are formed4 ,these substances are absorbed by foods which are browned in fats4 ,it is well1 then1 to have the least possible quantity of fat soak into foods cooked in fats4 ,it has been found that foods soak up much more fat when sauted 7i4e4 browning in a small quantity of fat7 than when fried4 ,the greatest care should be taken in frying1 however1 to have the fat and the food to be fried in such condition that as little fat as possible will be absorbed4 ,the fat should be sufficiently hot 7see ,experiments #cb and #cc71 the food as dry as possible1 and the browned food drained on paper4 ,care should be taken not only in frying foods1 but in avoiding the use of an excessive amount of fat such as butter1 cream1 and vegetable oils in sauces1 dressings1 and pastry4 ,,croquettes4--,croquettes are cooked vegetable1 cereal1 meat1 or fish mixtures dipped in dried crumbs and eggs and browned in deep fat4 ,these food mixtures are shaped in various ways4 ,rice and potato croquettes are usually cylindrical in shape1 while chicken croquettes are formed into cones4 ,croquettes may be dipped in melted butter or substitute or they may be dotted with bits of fat and browned in the oven or broiling oven instead of frying in deep fat4 ,starch occurs in considerable quantity in the vegetables and cereals commonly used for croquettes4 ,meat and fish are usually mixed with a thick ,white ,sauce when used for croquettes1 hence croquettes invariably contain a starchy substance4 ,if croquette ingredients are heated while mixing1 it is necessary to cool them thoroughly before shaping1 in order that the starch may be as stiff as possible4 ,,potato ,,croquettes #a pint mashed potatoes ,celery salt #b tablespoonfuls butter ,onion juice ,cayenne #a teaspoonful chopped parsley #a teaspoonful salt #a egg-yolk or #a_/b egg ,mix ingredients together1 shape into smooth round balls and then into cylinders4 ,roll in dried bread crumbs1 eggs1 and crumbs again 7see ,fried ,oysters74 ,fry in deep fat until brown4 ,,questions ,how does the temperature of fat hot enough for frying compare with that of boiling water8 ,why is an iron kettle preferable to one of tin or granite for heating fat 7see ,caramelized ,sugar78 ,what happens to foods that are cooked in fat too cool for frying 7see ,experiment #cb78 ,what is the purpose of covering with egg1 mixtures that are to be fried8 ,how should the egg be prepared for dipping8 ,how can the remaining white or half an egg be utilized in preparing ,potato ,croquettes8 ,if left over mashed potatoes are used for making croquettes1 what ingredient in the recipe above should be omitted8 ,,lesson ,,xxxvii ,,fat ,,saving ,,baking ,,vs4 ,,frying4--,foods fried under the most ideal conditions and in the most skilful manner absorb much fat4 ,many foods well fried1 especially doughnuts1 are about #a_/c fat4 ,fish ,balls and croquettes1 as mentioned previously1 can be baked instead of fried4 ,baked croquettes seem somewhat more dry1 however1 than the fried food4 ,if this is objectionable a sauce may be poured over them before serving4 ,tomato1 cheese1 and brown sauces are tasty with most croquettes4 ,doubtless many housekeepers who dislike the odor of hot fat and the cleaning of utensils used in frying foods1 will consider the process of baking croquettes very much more satisfactory than that of frying4 ,,rice ,,cutlets ,,with ,,cheese ,,sauce #c_/d cupful rice #c cupfuls boiling water #a teaspoonful salt ,wash the rice1 add the water4 7,if unpolished rice is used1 let it soak for several hours47 ,then add the salt and heat the mixture until it boils4 ,proceed as directed on page #he1 ,rice 7cooked over boiling water74 7,unpolished rice requires about #b hours of cooking47 ,make a ,white ,sauce of the following ingredients3 #d tablespoonfuls flour #a teaspoonful salt ,dash pepper #c tablespoonfuls fat #a cupful milk ,to #b_/c of the ,white ,sauce add3 ,cooked rice #a or #b hard-cooked eggs1 chopped #a tablespoonful parsley1 chopped 7,reserve the remainder of the ,white ,sauce for the preparation of ,cheese ,sauce47 ,shape the mixture into cutlets4 ,dip in dried bread crumbs 7or corn-meal7 and egg as directed for ,fried ,oysters4 ,place the cutlets on greased dripping pan4 ,place bits of fat on top of the cutlets1 then bake in a hot oven until they are browned4 ,serve hot with the following sauce3 ,remainder of the ,white ,sauce #c_/d cupful milk #a_/d to #a_/b cupful cheese1 cut in small pieces #a pimento chopped ,dilute the ,white ,sauce with the milk4 ,add the cheese and pimento4 ,heat and stir until the cheese is melted4 ,if necessary1 add seasoning4 ,serve hot over the cutlets4 ,,fat ,,saving ,,and ,,soap-,,making4--,the housekeeper who endeavors to waste no food may find that she has saved some fat which is not suitable for food4 ,such fat can be utilized in soap-making4 ,by using modern lye soap-making is not the laborious task as was the preparation of soft soap in colonial days4 ,the fat for soap-making need not necessarily be decolorized4 ,it should1 however1 be tried out 7if it is meat fat7 and clarified before using in the preparation of soap4 7,these processes are given above47 ,soap made at home differs somewhat from that made at a factory4 ,when fat and lye are combined chemically1 soap and glycerin are formed4 ,a commercial soap-maker extracts the glycerin from soap1 the housekeeper does not4 ,homemade soap1 however1 usually proves very satisfactory4 ,when the time consumed in making it is not needed for other duties or obligations1 it is a saving to make soap at home4 ,,soap #a can ,babbit's lye #a quart cold water #f pounds clarified fat #b tablespoonfuls ammonia ,turn the lye into a granite kettle1 slowly add the cold water1 stirring with a stick or a wooden spoon4 ,work most carefully to avoid getting the lye or the lye solution on the hands4 ,when the water is added to the lye1 the mixture becomes very hot4 ,let it stand until it is cool4 ,put the fat into a large kettle or dish pan4 ,heat it until it melts4 ,then remove it from the fire4 ,let it cool sufficiently to bear the hands in it4 ,slowly add the lye solution1 stirring constantly4 ,add the ammonia and continue stirring until the mixture becomes about the consistency of thick cream4 ,then turn the soap into a wooden box lined with paper or into a granite dripping pan4 ,when the soap becomes firm1 cut into pieces of suitable size4 ,the materials above will make about #h #a_/b pounds of soap4 ,,note4--,if desired one small cake of soap may be prepared by each pupil in the classroom4 ,the following recipe may be used3 #a teaspoonful lye #d teaspoonfuls cold water #b tablespoonfuls fat #a_/h teaspoonful ammonia ,proceed as directed for the large quantity4 ,pour the mixture into one cup of a granite muffin pan or into a small pasteboard box4 ,,questions ,how does unpolished rice differ from polished rice8 ,explain why the former takes a longer time to cook than the latter 7see ,polished and ,unpolished ,rice74 ,explain why baked croquettes require a sauce to make them most tasty for serving1 while fried croquettes do not4 ,state at least #c advantages of baking croquettes rather than frying them4 ,under what conditions do you think it would be desirable to make soap at home8 ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,xxxviii ,,dining ,,room ,,courtesy ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,good ,,table ,,manners ,no matter how cultivated in mind and spirit one may be1 if there is an absence of refinement of manners1 the higher qualities are likely to be overlooked4 ,no one can afford to slight the study of good manners4 ,the basis of all good manners is tact1 i4e4 a kindly consideration of others4 ,this consideration may be shown at the dining table quite as well as at a social gathering4 ,graceful and easy table manners and a knowledge of how to serve and be served add to the comfort as well as to the pleasure of one's associates in the dining room4 ,most of the rules of table conduct have been adopted because they lend ease and grace or because they are sensible2 others have been established by custom and long usage4 ,,suggestions ,,concerning ,,table ,,manners ,,the ,,chair4--,if the chair is placed so that the front edge of the seat just touches the table-cloth1 there is no necessity for moving the chair when taking one's seat or when rising4 ,one should stand back of the chair until the hostess moves to seat herself and then move to the left of the chair to assume the seat assigned4 ,one should also rise at the left of the chair4 ,,the ,,knife ,,and ,,fork4--,there is but one right way to hold the knife or fork4 ,when the knife and fork are used together1 grasp the handle of the knife or fork with the first finger and the thumb so that the end of the handle touches the center of the palm of the hand4 ,the hands should almost cover the handle1 but the first finger should not extend down on the blade of the knife or on the prongs of the fork 7see ,figure #ce74 ,the knife is held in the right hand only1 and is used for cutting foods and spreading butter on bread4 ,for the latter1 a small knife1 called a butter spreader1 is sometimes provided4 ,after the knife has been used for cutting1 it should be so laid on the plate1 that it rests wholly on it1 never partly on the plate and partly on the table4 ,it is not pleasing to see a guest at the table holding his knife upright or waving it in the air while he is talking4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ce--;,,how ,,to ,,hold ,,the ,,knife ,,and ,,fork4 ,the fork is held sometimes in the left hand and sometimes in the right4 ,it should be in the left1 when holding foods that are being cut with the knife4 ,it may be held in either hand when conveying food to the mouth4 ,it used to be considered good form to use only the right hand in lifting food to the mouth1 though this necessitated changing the fork to the right hand after the knife had been laid aside4 ,the common-sense method of keeping the fork in the left hand to carry food to the mouth is now accepted 7see ,figure #cf74 ,when the fork is held in the right hand and used for conveying such food as mashed potato to the mouth1 its handle should be grasped by the thumb and first finger in somewhat the manner as a pen is held4 ,when a second serving is desired1 the knife and fork should be placed together on one side of the plate1 in order to make room for the food4 ,at the end of a course the knife and fork should be placed side by side in the center of the plate4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cf--,keeping the ,fork in the ,left ,hand to ,carry ,food to the ,mouth ,,the ,,fork ,,and ,,spoon--,since both the fork and the spoon are used to convey food1 there may be some indecision as to the best use of each4 ,the fork should be used whenever it is possible and sensible to do so4 ,soft foods1 such as soft-cooked eggs1 custards1 certain fruits1 and desserts served with cream or sauce1 should be eaten with a spoon4 ,the fork should be used for brick ice-cream or stiffly frozen desserts4 ,all vegetables1 salads1 and pastry are eaten with a fork4 ,in the case of salads and pastry1 it is sometimes necessary to cut them with a fork4 ,it is unconventional to cut lettuce with a knife at the table2 it may be shredded or torn into pieces before it is served4 ,for beverages1 the spoon is used for stirring and tasting1 but not for sipping4 ,after the spoon has been used it should be placed in the saucer 7see ,figure #cg74 ,when tasting with a spoon1 the side--not the tip--of the spoon should be used4 ,when using a spoon for serving1 or for sipping soup1 there is less danger of spilling the food if the spoon is moved away from1 rather than toward1 oneself 7see ,figure #ch74 ,illustration3 ,,figure #cg--,,the ,,teaspoon ,,should ,,rest ,,on ,,the ,,saucer ,,the ,,fingers4--,almost all foods are served with a fork1 or a spoon4 ,the serving-dish for all such foods should of course be provided with a fork or a spoon4 ,there are a few foods1 however1 such as bread1 cake1 and wafers1 which should be taken with the fingers4 ,a slice of bread should not be cut in pieces at the table4 ,it is better to break off a piece of bread and then butter it than to spread the entire slice at one time4 ,if cake is soft1 it should be eaten with a fork4 ,celery1 hard cheese 7if cut into pieces71 radishes1 confections1 and most uncooked fruits are taken with the fingers1 and eaten from them4 ,olives and salted nuts may be taken from the serving-dish with the fingers1 but usually spoons are provided for the purpose4 ,pieces of chicken or chops should be handled only with the knife and fork4 ,special utensils are sometimes provided for holding corn served on the cob4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ch4--;,,how ,,to ,,hold ,,the ,,soupspoon4 ,fruits served whole are sometimes difficult to manage4 ,when possible the hostess should prepare them before they are served4 ,oranges and grapefruit may be cut into halves or peeled and sliced2 bananas may be peeled1 scraped1 and sliced4 ,if fruits1 such as apples1 pears1 and peaches1 are served whole1 they should first be cut into quarters1 and each quarter should be pared separately and eaten4 ,peaches may be cut into halves and eaten with a spoon4 ,,the ,,napkin4--,when the napkin is placed on the lap1 it need not be spread entirely out1 but may be left with one fold in it4 ,a guest who is to be present at consecutive meals should fold his napkin after eating2 if1 however1 he is dining in a hotel or restaurant1 or if he is in a home for but one meal1 the napkin should be laid on the table without folding4 ,,quiet ,,eating4--,quiet mastication without hurry and without noise is an obligation that we owe ourselves and our companions4 ,it is well to refrain from talking during mastication4 ,one cannot eat quietly unless the lips are kept closed while chewing4 ,,lesson ,,xxxix ,,cooking ,,and ,,serving ,,breakfast ,cook and serve a breakfast4 ,the following is a suggestive menu3 ,breakfast ,cereal with ,dried ,fruit ,baked ,fish ,balls with ,white ,sauce ,toast--,butter ,coffee ,follow the ,english or family style of serving4 ,serve the breakfast with or without a maid 7see ,lesson ,,xxx74 ,,lesson ,,xl ,,review3 ,,meal ,,cooking ,,menu ,cooked ,fruit1--fresh or dried ,creamed ,toast ,coffee ,see ,review 7,lesson ,,xiv7 for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson4 ,,lesson ,,xli ,,home ,,projects ,footnote #dc3 ,see ,lesson ,,ix4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,home ,,work4--,save all scraps of fat or bits of meat fats which are unfit for food4 ,try out the latter kind of fat4 ,when you have #c or more pounds of fat1 make soap4 ,when the soap is firm and ready for use1 weigh it4 ,prepare ,fish ,balls 7either fried or baked71 ,rice ,cutlets with ,cheese ,sauce1 or some other fish or cheese dish which could be used as a substitute for meat4 ,,suggested ,,aims3 7#a7 ,to calculate the cost of the soap made at home4 ,to calculate the cost of an equal weight of factory-made soap4 ,to determine how much you have saved by making soap at your home4 7#b7 ,to determine the difference in cost between meat and meat-substitute sufficient to serve the family4 ,,division ,,six ,,energy-,,giving ,,and ,,body-,,building ,,foods1--,,rich ,,in ,,protein ,,lesson ,,xlii ,,eggs ,footnote #dd3 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,if the egg lessons came in the mid-winter months1 they may be omitted until the price of eggs is reasonable2 or the theory concerning eggs and the experiment concerning the temperature of cooking protein-rich foods may be given1 and the cooking of eggs take place later in the year4 ,,protein1 ,a ,,body-,,builder ,,and ,,repairer4--,an automobile requires not only fuels for its use but occasional repair4 ,the body also needs not only fuel but building and repairing materials4 ,the function of the fuel foods considered thus far is to give energy to the body4 ,but there is another great class of foods1 or foodstuffs--those included under the term protein--that not only give energy to the body but also build up or promote growth and repair it or support life4 ,the process of building and repairing takes place in the body cells4 ,hence the body differs from an automobile in that it possesses the property of self-building and repairing4 ,the child must have protein food so that it can grow and live when growth is completed1 the adult must have protein food so that it can live and maintain health4 ,the slightest using of the body causes the wearing away of some of the tissues1 hence the importance of food containing the foodstuff1 protein4 ,protein is a very broad term1 including many different materials1 having different properties4 ,some proteins will promote the growth of the body and support life1 while others are growth promoting but not life supporting1 while still others are only life supporting4 ,the first type of protein is sometimes called complete protein1 while the two latter types are called incomplete protein4 ,in food study and meal planning1 it is not sufficient to know that a food contains protein2 one should know whether the protein is complete or incomplete4 ,the incomplete proteins need to be supplemented with other foods containing the lacking type of protein4 ,milk1 eggs1 cheese1 meat1 and fish contain complete proteins1 while beans1 peas1 gelatine1 and certain cereals contain incomplete proteins4 ,a consideration of eggs1 a food rich in complete protein1 follows3 ,,experiment #cg3 ,,the ,,coagulation ,,of ,,egg ,,white4--,put the white of an egg in a dish and break the membranes by cutting with a pair of scissors4 ,then place a small quantity of the white of egg in a test tube4 ,apply heat4 ,into what form is the liquid egg white changed by heat8 ,when eggs are cooked1 the protein in the white called albumin stiffens or coagulates4 ,the yolk also contains a kind of protein which coagulates when heated4 ,,experiment #ch3 ,,the ,,solubility ,,of ,,albumin4--,put a small portion of the broken egg white in a test tube4 ,half fill the tube with cold water4 ,then turn the contents of the tube on to a folded filter paper1 and catch the filtrate in another test tube4 ,are the contents of the tube clear8 ,apply heat to the filtrate4 ,what happens8 ,does this prove that egg albumin was dissolved in the water before applying heat to the contents of the tube8 ,explain4 ,,experiment #ci3 ,,temperature ,,at ,,which ,,eggs ,,coagulate4--,place a teaspoonful of white of egg in a test tube4 ,insert a thermometer in the test tube and place the test tube in a beaker of water 7see ,figure #ci74 ,heat the water gradually4 ,note and record3 7a7 ,temperature at which coagulation first appears4 7b7 ,temperature at which the egg white is entirely coagulated4 ,has the water reached the boiling point when the egg white has entirely coagulated8 ,what application can you draw from this as to the temperature of the water in which eggs may be cooked8 ,,experiment #dj3 ,,comparison ,,of ,,cooked ,,and ,,boiled ,,eggs4--,remove at once about half of the coagulated egg from the test tube of ,experiment #ci4 ,examine it and press it between the fingers4 ,continue to heat the remainder of the egg in the test tube1 allowing the water to boil a few minutes4 ,then remove the egg1 examine it1 and press it between the fingers4 ,compare it with the egg cooked below the boiling point of water4 ,which is more tender8 ,which breaks more easily8 ,which do you consider more palatable8 ,what conclusion can you draw concerning the temperature at which eggs should be cooked to make them most tender and palatable8 ,,digestibility ,,and ,,palatability ,,of ,,eggs4--,the experiments of this lesson show that eggs cooked at simmering temperature are more tender than those cooked at boiling temperature4 ,the question may arise1 is the tender egg more wholesome than the tough egg8 ,it is true that eggs cooked below the boiling temperature will digest in a little less time than those cooked in boiling water4 ,since1 however1 the tougher egg is as completely digested as the more tender1 the difference in the time of digestion is a matter of little importance4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ci4--;,,apparatus ,,to ,,determine ,,the ,,temperature ,,at ,,which ,,eggs ,,coagulate4 ,but even though the difference in digestion is not considered1 the difference in palatability is worth some attention4 ,if soft-cooked and soft-boiled eggs are compared1 the soft-cooked will be found to be much more uniformly cooked4 ,the white of a soft-boiled egg may be firm1 while its yolk is very soft or the white may be soft while its yolk is raw4 ,,structure ,,of ,,eggs4--,a hen's egg consists of shell1 membrane1 white1 yolk1 and the little mass in the yolk called the embryo1 from which the young chicken grows4 ,the yolk is kept in place by two twisted cords of white membrane4 ,this membrane is the first part to disappear when the egg begins to spoil4 ,,care ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,eggs4--7a7 ,wash eggs just before using4 ,footnote #de3 ,washing removes a coating on egg-shells4 ,this coating prevents the entrance of microorganisms4 ,hence eggs should not be washed until they are to be used4 ,the shells may be used for clearing coffee4 7b7 ,keep eggs in a cool place4 7c7 ,the unbroken yolk of an egg may be kept from hardening by covering with cold water4 7d7 ,all protein-rich foods contain substances which spoil or decompose readily4 ,the egg loses water by evaporation through the pores in the shell2 air enters to take the place of this and since the air contains microorganisms1 the egg spoils4 ,eggs may be kept fresh by keeping air out of them4 ,they may be preserved by packing them1 small end down1 in bran1 sawdust1 or sand2 by immersing them in water-glass4 7e7 ,when using several eggs1 if not sure of their freshness1 break each separately into a saucer and examine before adding to the rest4 7f7 ,when using a number of eggs1 it is well to scrape out the bit of white clinging to the inside of the shell4 ,,tests ,,for ,,freshness4--7a7 ,a fresh egg has a rough shell4 7b7 ,drop an egg into cold water4 ,if it sinks1 it is fresh2 if it floats1 it is stale4 ,,soft-,,cooked ,,eggs ,place eggs in enough boiling water to cover4 ,remove from the fire1 cover1 and allow to stand from #e to #h minutes4 ,the time of soft-cooking an egg varies with the different conditions4 ,the time depends upon3 7a7 ,temperature of the eggs4 7b7 ,number of eggs cooked4 7c7 ,quantity of water used4 7d7 ,place on the stove4 ,one must determine by experience the length of time of cooking to produce the desired results4 ,by following the method above1 eggs may be cooked at the dining table4 ,,hard-,,cooked ,,eggs4 ,footnote #df3 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,the ,hard-cooked ,eggs prepared in this lesson may be used in the preparation of ,goldenrod ,eggs of the following lesson4--,place eggs in cold water and heat the water gradually until it reaches the boiling point4 ,remove from the fire at once2 cover and place on the back of range1 or in a warm place1 for #bj minutes4 ,plunge into cold water1 so that the shells may be removed easily4 ,eggs may be hard-cooked by using the same method as for soft-cooked1 allowing the eggs to remain in the hot water for #dj minutes or longer4 ,eggs may also be hard-cooked in the double boiler4 ,put boiling water in the top and bottom of the double boiler4 ,place the eggs in the top part and cook #dj minutes4 ,if hard-cooked eggs are not well masticated1 they are apt to cause distress during digestion4 ,to insure thorough mastication1 it is well to chop them fine and mix them with some other food 7see ,goldenrod ,eggs74 ,hard-cooked eggs used in this way cause no digestive disturbances to the normal person4 ,,questions ,is it possible to cook eggs hard in water that is below the boiling point8 ,explain your answer4 ,why should eggs be called hard- or soft-cooked rather than hard- or soft-boiled8 ,,lesson ,,xliii ,,eggs3 ,,digestion ,,of ,,protein ,,the ,,digestion ,,of ,,protein4--,it was mentioned previously that proteins are made up of many different substances4 ,the materials composing proteins are called amino acids4 ,there are #ah common amino acids4 ,all proteins are not made up of the same amino acids4 ,amino acids in the various proteins differ not only in kind1 but in quantity4 ,when proteins are digested1 they undergo certain changes and are finally separated into their amino acids4 ,as amino acids proteins are finally absorbed and carried to all parts of the body4 ,the digestion of protein begins in the stomach and continues in the intestines4 ,the digestive juices ,footnote #dg3 ,the pepsin and hydrochloric acid of the stomach1 the trypsin of the pancreatic juice1 and the erepsin of the intestinal juice digest proteins4 of these organs change protein into soluble forms4 ,,poached ,,egg ,fill a shallow pan about two thirds full of boiling water4 ,add #a_/b teaspoonful of salt to each pint of water2 place buttered muffin rings in the pan4 ,break separately each egg into a saucer and carefully slip it into a buttered muffin ring4 ,cover the pan and place it where the water will keep hot but not boil4 ,pour a spoonful of the hot water on each yolk occasionally4 ,let stand 7about #e minutes7 until the white is coagulated and a film covers the yolk4 ,take up with a skimmer1 drain1 place on slices of toast1 and serve at once4 ,an egg poacher may be used in place of the muffin rings1 or the water in the pan may be stirred in a circular motion and the eggs dropped at once into the whirlpool4 ,this tends to keep the white of egg from separating into pieces4 ,eggs are thought by some to be much more tasty when poached in milk rather than in water4 ,,goldenrod ,,eggs #c or #d hard-cooked eggs #b tablespoonfuls flour #a_/h teaspoonful pepper #c_/d teaspoonful salt #a #a_/b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute #a #a_/b cupfuls milk #f pieces of toast ,parsley ,separate the yolk and white of the cooked eggs and chop the whites4 ,make a ,white ,sauce of flour1 seasoning1 fat1 and milk4 ,add the chopped egg whites to the sauce and pour it over the toast4 ,press the yolks through a strainer or crush them with a fork and sprinkle them over the top of the toast4 ,garnish with parsley and serve at once4 ,if the crusts are not cut from bread in making toast1 it is well to dip the edges of each slice of toast for an instant in hot1 salted water before adding the sauce 7see ,cream ,toast74 ,,questions ,why is it advisable to pour occasionally a spoonful of hot water over the yolks of eggs that are being poached8 ,explain why the chopped hard-cooked eggs in ,goldenrod ,eggs should be more easily digested than plain hard-cooked eggs 7see ,experiment #ab1 and ,solution and ,digestion74 ,,lesson ,,xliv ,,eggs3 ,,omelets 7,a7 ,,to ,,break ,,and ,,separate ,,the ,,white ,,and ,,yolk4--,an egg is sometimes broken by cracking the shell with the blade of a knife or by striking the egg on the edge of a bowl or pan4 ,the following method has also been found satisfactory1 especially when it is desired to separate the white and yolk4 ,strike the egg one blow upon the surface of the table4 ,put the thumbs together at the crack in the shell1 then hold the egg upright1 and gently break the shell into two parts4 ,then slip the yolk several times from one part of the shell to the other until all the white has run over the edge into a bowl or plate4 ,scrape out the shell of the egg4 ,two kinds of egg beaters are used for eggs1--the ,dover egg beater and the wire spoon4 ,if the former utensil is used1 the egg is generally dropped into a bowl2 if the latter1 the egg is placed on a plate4 ,,to ,,beat ,,an ,,egg4--,when the wire spoon is used to beat an egg1 draw the spoon straight and swiftly through the egg1 tilting the dish and lifting the egg beater so that the material will be turned over at each stroke4 ,egg whites are beaten stiff when the impression made by the beater is retained2 and they are beaten dry1 when the gloss has disappeared and flaky bits fly off as the egg is beaten4 ,egg yolks are beaten thoroughly when they are thicker and much lighter in color than before beating4 ,,to ,,cut ,,and ,,fold ,,beaten ,,egg ,,whites ,,and ,,other ,,materials4--,pour the beaten egg whites into the material with which they are to be mixed2 then with a tablespoon edgewise1 cut the ingredients1 lift them1 and turn them over the whites4 ,repeat quickly until the ingredients are mixed thoroughly4 ,,experiment #da3 ,,effect ,,of ,,beating ,a ,,whole ,,egg4--,break an egg into a bowl4 ,what is its approximate measure8 ,with a ,dover egg beater or wire spoon beat it thoroughly4 ,what is the approximate increase in quantity8 ,what has been beaten into the egg8 ,what other difference is there between a beaten and an unbeaten egg8 7,use this egg for making ,scrambled ,eggs4 ,see below47 ,,experiment #db3 ,,comparison ,,of ,,eggs ,,beaten ,,with ,a ,,dover ,,egg ,,beater ,,and ,,with ,a ,,wire ,,spoon4--,half the pupils of the class beat eggs with ,dover egg beaters and the other half with wire spoons4 ,compare results4 ,what is the difference in the size of the air cells made by using the different utensils8 ,is there any difference in the quantity of the beaten eggs8 ,which contains the more air8 ,,experiment #dc3 ,,effect ,,of ,,beating ,,egg ,,yolk ,,and ,,white ,,separately4--,separate an egg and beat thoroughly the white and then the yolk with a ,dover egg beater or wire spoon4 ,what is the approximate increase in quantity8 ,which becomes lighter when beaten1--a whole or a separated egg8 ,from this explain why every bit of yolk should be removed from the egg white before beating1 if it is desired to beat the egg white as stiff as possible4 7,use this egg for making ,foamy ,omelet4 ,see below47 ,,scrambled ,,eggs #d eggs #a teaspoonful salt ,pepper #a_/b cupful milk #a teaspoonful butter ,scald the milk in a double boiler and add the butter4 ,beat the eggs and add the seasoning4 ,pour the hot milk over the egg mixture2 return the whole to the double boiler1 and cook1 stirring constantly4 ,when the mixture is thick and lumpy but still tender1 remove from the double boiler and serve at once4 ,for economy1 the butter may be omitted4 ,,foamy ,,omelet #d eggs #d tablespoonfuls milk or water #a_/b teaspoonful salt ,pepper #b teaspoonfuls butter or substitute ,separate the yolks and whites of the eggs4 ,beat the yolks of the eggs until creamy2 add seasonings and milk or water4 ,then beat the whites until stiff and cut and fold them into the yolk mixture4 ,place the fat in an omelet pan1 heat1 and turn the omelet into it4 ,cook slowly1 occasionally turning the pan so that the omelet may brown evenly ,when the omelet is set and delicately browned underneath1 place it in a hot oven for a few minutes to dry the top4 ,fold and serve immediately4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #dj--,,method ,,of ,,holding ,,pan ,,to ,,turn ,,an ,,omelet ,,on ,,to ,a ,,platter ,,to ,,fold ,,an ,,omelet--,run a spatula underneath the omelet to loosen it4 ,make a slight incision with a knife through the middle of the omelet at right angles to the handle of the pan1 and fold the omelet over upon itself away from the handle of the pan4 ,grasp the handle of the pan in the right hand1 placing the back of the hand underneath with the thumb pointing away from you4 ,then turn the omelet upon a platter 7see ,figure #dj74 ,,questions ,how are ,scrambled ,eggs usually cooked8 ,from your work concerning the effect of intense heat upon eggs1 explain the advantages of the method given above for ,scrambled ,eggs4 ,what is the proportion of liquid and salt for each egg of a ,foamy ,omelet8 ,explain why it is especially important to cook a ,foamy ,omelet slowly4 ,what causes a ,foamy ,omelet to fall8 ,what is the test for the sufficient oven-drying of a ,foamy ,omelet8 ,how many persons may be served by using these recipes for ,scrambled ,eggs and ,foamy ,omelet8 ,,lesson ,,xlv ,,eggs3 ,,omelets 7,b7 ,,white ,,sauce ,,omelet #c tablespoonfuls flour #b #a_/b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute #a teaspoonful salt #a cupful milk ,pepper #d eggs #b teaspoonfuls butter or substitute ,make a ,white ,sauce of the milk1 fat1 flour1 and seasoning4 ,separate the whites and yolks of the eggs1 and beat them until light4 ,when the ,white ,sauce is cool1 stir in the yolks and fold in the whites4 ,cook and serve as ,foamy ,omelet4 ,,baked ,,omelet ,prepare a ,white ,sauce ,omelet4 ,instead of turning it into a frying pan1 pour it into an oiled baking-dish4 ,bake in a hot oven 7#cge degrees ,f47 for #cj to #dj minutes1 or until it is puffed in appearance and golden brown in color4 ,serve at once from the dish in which it was baked4 ,,modification ,,of ,,foamy ,,and ,,white ,,sauce ,,omelets4--,mix and cook a ,foamy or ,white ,sauce ,omelet4 ,as soon as the omelet begins to set1 spread it while cooking with finely chopped cooked ham1 veal1 or chicken4 ,continue to cook and then dry1 fold1 and serve as with the usual omelet4 ,cooked peas1 asparagus1 cauliflower1 or flaked fish may be added to the sauce of ,white ,sauce ,omelet4 ,cheese may be used in place of meat with either omelet4 ,foamy ,omelet may be varied by using tomato juice instead of milk4 ,tomato sauce may be served with either of these omelets4 ,sweet ,omelet may be made as follows3 ,add #d tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar to the ,foamy ,omelet mixture2 after cooking1 spread with softened jelly2 after folding1 sprinkle with powdered sugar4 ,use #a_/b cupful of jelly for the ,foamy ,omelet recipe4 ,,questions ,why is the ,white ,sauce cooled before adding the egg yolks in ,white ,sauce ,omelet8 ,point out the most important differences between a ,foamy and a ,white ,sauce ,omelet4 ,what is the purpose of cutting and folding in the whites of eggs in omelets8 ,what is the purpose of beating eggs8 ,what are the tests that show when egg white is beaten stiff and when dry8 ,what are the tests for thoroughly beaten egg yolk8 ,,lesson ,,xlvi ,,milk ,,milk1 ,,an ,,invaluable ,,food4--,it has been said that there is no one food except milk which cannot be eliminated from the diet4 ,milk is the only food for which there are no easily found substitutes4 ,the housekeeper or one who plans the food for the family should purchase daily1 if possible1 a pint of milk for each adult and a quart for each child under ten years4 ,she should see to it that this amount of milk is entirely used either as a beverage or in cooked foods4 ,if one must economize in foods1 less should be spent for meat1 and more for milk4 ,although more than #d_/e of milk is water1 it contains only a little more water than do potatoes and lean meat4 ,the value of milk is due to the fact that it contains3 7a7 ,proteins of excellent quality4 ,an authority on diet says ,footnote #dh3 ,see ,the ,newer ,knowledge of ,nutrition1 by ,mc,collum1 p4 #gd43 ,there can be no doubt that the proteins of milk are far superior to those of any foods derived from vegetable sources4 ,the most important protein existing in milk is called casein4 ,casein is a complete protein and is very important for growth4 ,it has a peculiar property2 it precipitates when acid is added to milk4 ,when milk sours1 the sugar contained in the milk changes to an acid1 and this acid causes the casein to precipitate4 ,casein is also clotted by an enzyme occurring in the digestive juice of the stomach4 7b7 ,valuable ash4 ,lime which is so essential to bodybuilding is one of the minerals in milk4 ,the following diagram from ,united ,states ,food ,leaflet ,no4 #aa shows that milk is especially rich in lime4 7,lime is calcium oxide47 ,illustration 7c7 ,vitamines4 ,these are substances contained only in certain foods4 ,they are essential for maintaining life and health4 ,milk is rich in these indispensable materials 7see ,division ,seven74 ,milk also contains fat and carbohydrate4 ,the presence of the foodstuffs in milk is shown by the following3 ,,experiment #dd3 ,,separation ,,of ,,milk ,,into ,,foodstuffs4 7a7 ,by means of a cream dipper1 remove the cream from a bottle of milk4 ,place a drop of the cream on a piece of paper4 ,let the paper dry4 ,what foodstuff is indicated by the stain on the paper8 7b7 ,take #a_/d cupful of the skimmed milk4 ,heat it to blood temperature 7test by dropping the milk on the wrist1 see ,junket ,custard74 ,crush #a_/h junket tablet and add it to the warm milk4 ,stir until the powder is dissolved4 ,let the milk stand in a warm place until it is clotted4 ,heat the clotted milk and boil #a minute4 ,pour it into a filter paper4 ,catch the filtrate in a beaker4 ,what is the foodstuff that remains in the filter paper 7see ,proteins of excellent quality78 7c7 ,put #ae cubic centimeters of ,fehling's ,solution ,footnote #di3 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,fehling's ,solution is made as follows3 ,prepare a solution of ,rochelle salts1--#age grams of ,rochelle salts1 #ej grams of sodium hydroxide1 and #bej cubic centimeters of water4 ,prepare a solution of copper sulphate1--#eg4gc grams of copper sulphate1 #bej cubic centimeters of water1 and #j4d cubic centimeter of sulphuric acid4 ,then combine #a part of the alkaline ,rochelle salt solution1 #a part of copper sulphate1 and #d parts of water4 ,boil the mixture4 ,this solution deteriorates readily4 ,the best results are obtained by using a fresh mixture for testing sugar and by boiling just before using4 in a flask4 ,boil for #b minutes4 ,add #b cubic centimeters of the filtrate from 7b7 and boil one minute4 ,to what color does the blue mixture change8 ,a red precipitate indicates sugar4 ,what foodstuff does this test indicate that milk contains8 7d7 ,put the remainder of the filtrate from 7b7 in a custard cup and evaporate over hot water to dryness4 ,note the residue4 ,what foodstuff other than sugar is contained in the residue8 7e7 ,what foodstuff has passed off in the form of vapor during evaporation8 7f7 ,as mentioned above1 milk also contains vitamines4 ,,lesson ,,xlvii ,,milk ,,with ,,cocoa ,,and ,,chocolate ,,experiment #df3 ,,scalding ,,milk4--,fill the lower part of a double boiler one third full of boiling water4 ,put #a_/b cupful of milk in the top of the double boiler1 cover1 and heat over the boiling water4 ,in a few minutes examine4 ,carefully note the appearance of the surface of the milk4 ,explain why it is that dishes that have contained milk should be soaked in cold water1 and then washed in warm water4 ,insert a thermometer in the milk and record temperature4 ,is it possible to boil milk over hot water8 ,explain your answer4 7,use this scalded milk to make cocoa and chocolate47 ,the taste of milk is changed by heating it above #aeh degrees ,f4 ,less change1 however1 is produced by scalding than by boiling4 ,milk is also apt to scorch if cooked at boiling temperature4 ,it is sometimes necessary to boil milk to sterilize it4 ,,cocoa ,,and ,,chocolate as found at market are prepared from cacao beans4 ,the latter grow in pods1--the fruit of the tropical cacao trees 7see ,figure #da74 ,the beans are taken from the pods1 allowed to ferment1 dried1 and roasted4 ,the husks loosened by roasting are then removed from the beans4 ,cacao beans are ground1 molded1 and sold as bitter or baker's chocolate4 ,in the preparation of sweet chocolate sugar is added to the powdered chocolate before molding4 ,cocoa differs from chocolate in that some of the fat is removed4 ,cocoa and chocolate contain protein1 fat1 and carbohydrates4 ,these materials1 in addition to the milk and sugar used in preparing the beverages1 make the cocoa and chocolate beverages high in food value4 ,but in addition to the materials mentioned above1 there is present in cocoa and chocolate some tannin and stimulating materials4 ,the large percentage of fat existing in chocolate may produce distressing effects when taken in addition to a full meal4 ,if1 however1 the use of these beverages causes no ill effects1 they may be classed among the nutritious foods and are much preferable to tea and coffee especially for girls and boys4 ,neither cocoa nor chocolate is soluble in water4 ,some cocoas are very finely ground and are termed soluble cocoas4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #da4--;,,cacao ,,pods4 ,when mixed with water these cocoas do not separate as rapidly as others1 but they are not soluble4 ,because of its insolubility1 chocolate should be blended as thoroughly as possible with other materials4 ,a satisfactory and practical method of accomplishing this is to make a smooth paste of chocolate and boiling water4 ,to develop flavor1 it is well to cook both chocolate and cocoa at boiling temperature1 especially when combining with liquids4 ,the flavor of the cocoa beverage is improved by much cooking4 ,long cooking of the chocolate beverage causes the fat to separate and float4 ,,cocoa #a_/d cupful cocoa #c cupfuls milk #a to #c teaspoonfuls corn-starch #a_/d to #c_/h cupful sugar #a cupful water #a_/d teaspoonful salt ,mix cocoa1 corn-starch1 and water and boil for #aj minutes4 ,add the milk and sugar to the mixture and cook over hot water for #a_/b hour4 ,add salt4 ,beat well and serve4 ,vanilla may be added to cocoa if desired4 ,varying quantities of corn-starch and sugar are given so that the beverage may be thickened and sweetened to suit one's taste4 ,if desired1 the corn- starch may be omitted entirely4 ,,chocolate #b squares chocolate #c cupfuls milk #a cupful boiling water #a_/d teaspoonful salt #a_/c cupful sugar #a_/b teaspoonful vanilla ,cut the chocolate into bits and put it in a pan2 add the boiling water4 ,stir and cook until it reaches the boiling point and is perfectly smooth4 ,heat the milk in a double boiler4 ,then gradually add the hot milk to the chocolate mixture1 add the sugar1 and heat all in a double boiler4 ,add salt and vanilla1 if desired4 ,if there is a scum over the beverage1 beat well4 ,serve hot4 ,whipped cream or marshmallows are often served with chocolate4 ,the use of whipped cream with chocolate1 however1 makes the beverage excessively rich in fat4 ,,questions ,what is the difference in method between scalding milk and boiling it8 ,how can one determine when milk is scalded8 ,if it is necessary to heat milk1 give two reasons why it is usually better to scald it than to boil it4 ,under what conditions should it be boiled8 ,what is the present cost of milk per quart8 ,when is the price highest and when lowest8 ,if sweetened chocolate is used1 how should the recipe for chocolate beverage be changed8 ,give two reasons why cocoa and chocolate should not be boiled after adding the hot milk4 ,why is vanilla not added until the beverages are ready to be served 7see ,flavoring ,extracts78 ,what is the weight of one square of chocolate8 ,how many squares in an ordinary cake of chocolate8 ,what is the price per cake8 ,how many cupfuls are there in a half pound box of cocoa8 ,what is the price per box8 ,see ,chocolate ,corn-starch ,pudding4 ,how much cocoa may be used for #a ounce of chocolate when one is substituted for the other8 ,what is the difference in cost of these quantities of chocolate and cocoa8 ,,lesson ,,xlviii ,,milk ,,and ,,cream ,,whipping ,,cream4--,a popular way of preparing cream for serving is to whip it4 ,this is done most successfully when the cream is cold and kept cold1 i4e4 surrounded with ice water during the beating process4 ,to show one of the points involved in chilling materials try the following3 ,,experiment #df3 ,,comparison ,,of ,,the ,,conducting ,,power ,,of ,,metal ,,and ,,earthenware4--,select a tin and an earthenware utensil of about the same size and shape4 ,put an equal quantity of water of the same temperature in each utensil4 ,surround each with ice water and cover4 ,after #e minutes1 take the temperature of the water in the tin and in the earthenware utensil4 ,which is colder8 ,through which material1--tin or earthenware1--is heat transmitted more readily8 ,when cream is to be surrounded by ice water for whipping1 in which kind of utensil should it be placed8 ,explain your answer4 ,use a ,dover egg beater or a cream whip for whipping cream4 ,since cream spatters when being beaten1 a cream whip arranged with a cover is very satisfactory4 ,to prevent spattering1 the bowl of cream may be covered with paper while the cream is being whipped4 ,cut a slit in a piece of paper1 insert the ,dover egg beater in the slit1 put the beater in the cream and push the paper down to cover4 ,since cream contains considerable fat1 under certain conditions1 it is possible to mass the fat together1 that is1 separate it from the other constituents1 and form butter4 ,for making butter the cream should be ripened1 i4e4 it should contain certain bacteria4 ,it should then be churned4 ,on the other hand1 if it is desired to beat or whip the cream1 but not to form butter1 it is necessary to prevent the fat from massing together4 ,to accomplish this1 use thick cream 7containing #bj per cent or more of fat7 from #ab to #bd hours old ,footnote #ej3 ,such cream contains a small amount of lactic acid4 and have it very cold2 it will then whip quickly4 ,cream may be chilled by placing it on ice for some time before whipping or by surrounding it with ice water while whipping4 ,in warm weather1 it is safer not only to chill the cream but also to surround it with ice water while whipping4 ,a harmless substance called viscogen may be added to thinner cream 7i4e4 the so-called coffee or #af per cent cream7 to make the latter whip4 ,viscogen is prepared by mixing the following ingredients3 #a_/b cupful sugar #a cupful water #a tablespoonful milk of lime ,footnote #ea3 ,milk of lime may be prepared by mixing #a part of slaked lime with #c parts of water4 ,mix the sugar and water and heat the mixture until it boils4 ,cool and add the milk of lime4 ,let the mixture stand at least #bd hours before using4 ,add #a teaspoonful to each pint of cream1 then whip the mixture as directed above4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,milk ,,and ,,cream4--,cream is richer in fat than milk1 average cream containing #af per cent of fat and whole milk about #d per cent4 ,but cream contains less protein and ash than whole milk4 ,since cream is always more expensive than milk1 it is interesting to compare the food value of quantities of each which may be purchased for the same price4 ,although the prices of cream and milk vary in different places1 usually #a_/b pint of cream costs about as much as #a quart of milk4 ,the following shows the approximate quantity of nutrients shown in the two quantities3 ,in #a quart of milk ,footnote #eb3 ,by permission ,journal of ,home ,economics1 ,vol4 ,x 7,august1 #aiah1 p4 #cgi74 ,as much protein as in #e eggs #b #a_/b tablespoonfuls of fat #c tablespoonfuls of sugar ,in #a_/b pint of cream ,as much protein as in #a egg #c tablespoonfuls of fat #a_/b tablespoonful of sugar ,although #a_/b pint of cream contains #a_/b tablespoonful more of fat than does #a quart of milk1 the latter contains #b #a_/b tablespoonfuls more of sugar and as much more protein as is contained in #d eggs4 ,this comparison makes us question the advisability of buying much cream4 ,if whole milk is purchased1 its top milk may often be used in place of cream4 ,the skim milk that remains is a valuable food4 ,although whole milk contains more fat and vitamines than does skim milk1 the latter has as much protein1 lime1 and sugar as whole milk4 ,the use of both whole and skim milk is advised4 ,,care ,,of ,,milk4--,milk is one of the foods that require the greatest care1 and should be well cared for not only in the home but also on the dairy farm4 ,it is one of the foods that afford ideal conditions for the growth of microscopic vegetable organisms1 called bacteria 7see ,why ,foods ,spoil74 ,many varieties of these bacteria or tiny plants produce changes in the milk which cause it to sour4 ,a few varieties of disease- producing bacteria also sometimes exist in milk4 ,milk can be kept reasonably free from bacteria by3 7a7 ,perfect cleanliness on the dairy farm4 7b7 ,cooling it immediately after being drawn from the cow1 and by keeping it cool4 7c7 ,placing it in sterilized utensils4 7d7 ,covering it1 thus keeping it free from dust4 ,utensils for holding milk should be of glass1 earthenware1 or smooth1 bright tin4 ,they should be washed1 scalded1 or even better1 boiled1 and placed in the sun for two or three hours4 ,in the home1 milk should not be used after long standing1 even though it is sweet4 ,it is well to buy milk in small quantities and in bottles4 ,the upper rim of a milk bottle should be washed before pouring milk from it4 ,because milk readily absorbs odors and flavors1 it should be kept away from any substance having a strong odor or flavor4 ,,rice ,,dainty #c_/d cupful cooked rice #c_/d cupful fruit1 cut into pieces #c_/d cupful powdered sugar #a_/b to #c_/d cupful cream1 whipped ,mix the rice1 fruit1 and sugar1 then fold in the whipped cream4 ,pineapple1 shredded or diced2 bananas cut into pieces 7not slices72 dates1 seeded and cut into pieces2 or cooked apricots are desirable fruits for this dessert4 ,,cream ,,of ,,rice ,,pudding #a quart milk or #a quart milk and water #a_/c cupful rice #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a_/c cupful sugar ,grated rind of #a_/b lemon ,wash rice2 put it and all the other ingredients into a buttered pudding dish4 ,bake in a slow oven 7#bej degrees ,f47 until firm4 ,this usually takes three hours4 ,while baking1 stir the mixture occasionally4 ,if desired1 one half cupful of raisins may be added to the mixture1 and #a teaspoonful vanilla or #a_/d teaspoonful nutmeg may be substituted for lemon rind4 ,,questions ,from your knowledge of the effect of intense heat upon milk1 explain why ,cream of ,rice ,pudding should be baked in a slow oven4 ,what change in quantity takes place in the milk of this pudding during long cooking8 ,what change in quantity takes place in the rice during long cooking8 ,from this explain why so much milk when combined with a little rice forms a solid mixture4 ,what is the price per pint of thin or coffee cream8 ,what is the price per pint of heavy or whipping cream8 ,what is the least quantity of cream that can be purchased8 ,explain why it is that scalded milk does not sour as soon as uncooked milk 7see ,care of ,milk74 ,why should utensils that have held milk be scalded or boiled8 ,,lesson ,,xlix ,,cream ,,soups 7,a7 ,,thick ,,soups4--,milk combined with various vegetables1 grains1 and fish is used in making ,cream ,soups and ,purees4 ,the vegetables are cooked and mashed or forced through a strainer and combined with a liquid1--usually milk or milk with vegetable stock4 ,in order to have the vegetable pulp uniformly mixed through the liquid1 it is necessary to thicken the liquid with a starchy material4 ,flour with butter or substitute1 mixed and cooked as in ,white ,sauce1 is used for this purpose4 ,it is said to bind the vegetables and the liquid4 ,thus1 ,cream ,soups and ,purees are simply ,white ,sauces to which vegetable pulp is added4 ,,general ,,proportions4--,the usual proportion of vegetable pulp or puree to liquid is3 ,one part of vegetable pulp or puree to #b parts of liquid1 i4e4 milk1 vegetable stock1 or meat stock4 ,the proportion of flour to liquid is3 #a_/b tablespoonful flour to #a cupful liquid1 if a starchy vegetable is used1 or1 #a tablespoonful flour to #a cupful liquid1 if a vegetable having little thickening property1 as celery1 is used4 ,sometimes an egg or two is added to soup for thickening or flavor1 and to increase the food value4 ,different kinds of vegetables are sometimes mixed for a soup1 as3 ,peas and beans1 or corn and beans4 ,,potato ,,soup #c potatoes #a tablespoonful flour #a pint milk or #a pint milk and potato stock #a #a_/b teaspoonfuls salt #a_/h teaspoonful pepper #b slices of onion ,celery salt #c_/d tablespoonful butter or substitute #b teaspoonfuls chopped parsley ,cook and mash the potatoes1 heat the milk and onion in a double boiler1 then add them to the mashed potatoes4 ,press the potato mixture through a strainer and use it as the liquid for a ,white ,sauce1 using all other ingredients except the parsley in the sauce4 ,if necessary1 add more liquid1 or evaporate to the desired consistency4 ,add the chopped parsley just before serving4 ,left over mashed potatoes may be utilized in making this soup4 ,,croutons ,cut stale bread into half-inch cubes4 ,bake slowly in the oven until a golden brown4 ,stir often4 ,serve with soups4 ,save the crusts and prepare ,dried ,bread ,crumbs with them4 ,,questions ,what is the proportion of flour and liquid in one cup of ,white ,sauce for ,vegetables8 ,how does the proportion of flour and liquid for one cup of ,cream ,soup differ from the above proportion8 ,why are the potatoes pressed through a strainer after rather than before adding the hot milk8 ,why should the cubes of stale bread be baked slowly 7see ,toast78 ,,lesson ,l ,,cream ,,soups 7,b7 ,,food ,,value ,,of ,,cream ,,soups4--,since thin or clear soups contain much liquid1 their food value is not as high as most solid foods4 ,cream ,soups1 however1 are as concentrated as a potato2 they are the most nourishing of all soups4 ,the use of milk instead of water or stock and of flour and fat1 to say nothing of vegetable pulp1 increases their food value4 ,cream ,soups are more suitable to serve at a meal of few courses such as luncheon or supper rather than at dinner where there is a greater variety of foods4 ,thick soups may serve as a valuable part of a meal2 a hot liquid taken into an empty stomach is easily assimilated1 acts as an appetizer1 and thus prepares for the digestion of the remainder of the meal4 ,,corn ,,soup #a can of corn #a pint water l #a_/b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute #a slice onion #b tablespoonfuls flour #a teaspoonful salt #a_/h teaspoonful white pepper #a pint milk ,add the water to the canned corn and simmer #bj minutes4 ,melt the fat1 add the onion1 and cook until light brown4 ,to this add the dry ingredients and proceed as in making ,white ,sauce4 ,add the cooked corn and strain4 ,reheat before serving1 if necessary4 ,,note4--,the method of adding onion flavor to this soup 7i4e4 browning onion in fat7 is often used in the preparation of other foods1 especially meats and sauces4 ,,soup ,,sticks ,cut stale bread into slices1 remove the crusts1 and spread with butter4 ,cut into strips and brown slowly in the oven4 ,save the crusts and prepare ,dried ,bread ,crumbs with them4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #db4--;,,dried ,,bread ,,crumbs4 7,note that the jar is covered with a cloth47 ,,dried ,,bread ,,crumbs ,dried ,bread ,crumbs may be prepared from crusts and small pieces of bread4 ,dry the bread in a slow oven or in a warming oven4 ,crumb it by rolling on a pastry board or putting it through a meat grinder4 ,if fine crumbs are desired1 sift the crushed bread4 ,place the fine and coarse crumbs in separate jars4 ,cover the jars by tying a piece of muslin over each4 7,the muslin covering can also be conveniently secured by means of a rubber band47 ,if each jar is tightly covered with a lid1 air is excluded from the crumbs and molds often grow on them4 ,bread crumbs thoroughly dried and stored as directed will keep for several months 7see ,figure #db74 ,,questions ,explain why thick soup may serve as a valuable part of a meal4 ,why is it served as the first course of a meal8 ,is the mashed potato of ,potato ,soup strained before or after adding it to the other ingredients8 ,when is the ,corn ,soup strained8 ,how is the flavor extracted from the onion in preparing ,potato ,soup8 ,how is the flavor extracted for ,corn ,soup8 ,from this explain the difference in straining the soups4 ,if fresh corn were used for this soup1 how would its cooking differ from that of canned corn8 ,how should fresh corn be cut from the cob for soup 7see ,green ,corn78 ,what is the price per can of corn8 ,in preparing ,soup ,sticks1 why are the crusts removed from the bread before buttering it8 ,why is the bread spread with butter before cutting it into strips8 ,aside from flavor1 what is the purpose of spreading the bread for ,soup ,sticks with butter8 ,how should dried bread crumbs be covered for storing8 ,why8 ,what is the difference between soft bread crumbs 7see note under recipe for ,stuffed ,tomatoes7 and dried bread crumbs8 ,which should be used for scalloped dishes8 ,which for covering fried foods8 ,think of the dishes which contain bread crumbs and then state for which foods either kind of crumbs could be used4 ,explain4 ,,lesson ,,li ,,milk ,,thickened ,,with ,,egg 7,a7 ,,custards4--,since eggs have the property of stiffening when heated1 they are often used for thickening liquids1 especially milk4 ,milk thickened with eggs is called custard4 ,there are two kinds of plain custards3 7a7 steamed or baked custard and 7b7 soft custard4 ,the method of mixing these custards is the same1 but the methods of cooking and the tests for sufficient cooking differ4 ,that the milk may not scorch and that the egg may not cook too hard1 all milk-and-egg mixtures should be cooked below the boiling temperature of water4 ,they should never be cooked directly over the fire1 but over hot water or in a double boiler4 ,that the egg may cook evenly and not too quickly1 the water in the double boiler should not boil rapidly4 ,if a custard is properly cooked1 the egg is in a soft-cooked condition4 ,it exists in a jelly-like mass throughout the milk4 ,the custard has a creamy appearance4 ,if1 however1 a custard is cooked too much1 the egg becomes hard-cooked and the particles of egg appear in lumps in the milk mixture4 ,the custard is then said to be curdled4 ,a curdled custard may be made smooth by placing the upper part of the double boiler in a pan of cold water and then beating the custard at once with a ,dover egg beater4 ,this applies to all types of plain custards4 ,,steamed ,,or ,,baked ,,custard #a pint milk #b or #c eggs #a_/d cupful sugar #a_/h teaspoonful salt #b tablespoonfuls caramel sirup or #a_/af teaspoonful nutmeg ,scald the milk in a double boiler4 ,beat the eggs slightly1 add the sugar and salt1 mix4 ,add the hot milk to this mixture4 ,strain the mixture1 flavor1 and pour it into a mold4 ,if steamed custard is desired1 steam 7without stirring7 until the custard is firm4 ,let the water in the steamer boil gently rather than vigorously4 ,test for sufficient cooking by inserting a knife into the custard4 ,if it comes out clean1 the custard is done4 ,if baked custard is desired1 place the cups of custard in a pan of hot water1 and bake in a moderate oven 7#cbe degrees ,f47 for #ce minutes or until firm4 ,test as steamed custard4 ,if a ,baked or ,steamed ,custard is to be turned out of the mold after steaming1 #c or #d eggs should be used with each pint of milk4 ,by placing a little ,caramel ,sirup in the bottom of each mold1 a custard may easily be turned out of the mold4 ,the custard mixture should be poured very gently on top of the sirup to prevent the custard and sirup from mixing4 ,the caramel also serves as a sauce for the custard when served4 7,caramel ,sirup may be prepared by caramelizing sugar 7as directed in making ,peanut ,candy7 and then dissolving the caramelized sugar in boiling water4 ,use equal quantities of sugar and water47 ,,soft ,,custard #a pint milk #a_/d cupful sugar #b eggs #a_/h teaspoonful salt #a_/b teaspoonful vanilla ,mix the materials in the same way as for steamed or baked custard4 ,instead of pouring the mixture into molds1 return it to the double boiler and cook 7stirring constantly7 until it thickens or forms a coating over the spoon4 ,strain1 cool1 and flavor4 ,note that steamed custard is strained and flavored before cooking1 and soft custard1 after cooking4 ,in preparing soft custard1 the eggs may be separated and the yolks cooked with the milk and other ingredients4 ,the whites may be beaten stiff and beaten into the hot mixture with a ,dover egg beater4 ,soft ,custard may be used as a sauce over cooked rice1 cake1 bananas1 peaches1 and other foods4 ,to ,decrease the ,eggs in ,custard ,when eggs are expensive omit #a or #b from a custard recipe4 ,substitute #a_/b tablespoonful of corn-starch for each omitted egg4 ,for methods of thickening milk with both eggs and starchy materials1 see ,lessons ,,liv4 ,,questions ,what is the purpose of eggs in custard8 ,why are eggs beaten slightly for custards8 ,how do ,steamed ,custards and ,soft ,custards differ in method of cooking8 ,what are the tests for sufficient cooking of each8 ,what is the purpose of straining custards8 ,why is ,steamed ,custard strained and flavored before cooking1 and ,soft ,custard1 after cooking8 ,in what condition is the egg when a custard is curdled8 ,how can a curdled custard be made smooth8 ,,lesson ,,lii ,,milk ,,thickened ,,with ,,egg 7,b7 ,,floating ,,island ,custard #a pint milk #c egg yolks #a_/d cupful sugar #a_/h teaspoonful salt #a_/b teaspoonful vanilla ,meringue #c egg whites #c tablespoonfuls powdered sugar ,the custard may be made thicker by using #d 7instead of #c7 eggs4 ,prepare the custard as ,soft ,custard4 ,prepare the ,meringue by beating the whites of eggs stiff and then adding ,i tablespoonful of sugar for each white of egg4 ,drop the ,meringue by spoonfuls on the custard4 ,if desired1 garnish the ,meringue by bits of jelly or colored gelatine4 ,from the results of ,experiment #db1 which egg beater do you consider most advisable for preparing ,meringue8 ,if desired1 the ,meringue may be cooked4 ,this may be accomplished in several ways3 7a7 place it on the hot custard at once after preparing the custard1 7b7 ,steam it by dropping it by spoonfuls on the hot milk before preparing the custard4 ,cover1 and let the egg white cook for about #b minutes1 then remove from the milk and proceed to thicken the milk with the egg yolks1 7c7 ,drop the uncooked ,meringue on the cooked custard as directed above1 then cook and brown it slightly by placing the custard in the broiling oven or in the top of a hot baking oven4 ,,questions ,in making custards1 why should the hot milk be added to the eggs1 instead of the eggs to the hot milk8 ,how does ,floating ,island differ from ,soft ,custard8 ,what is ,meringue8 ,compare ,floating ,island made with three eggs to that made with four eggs4 ,how does it differ in thickness1 color1 and cost8 ,,lesson ,,liii ,,milk ,,thickened ,,with ,,egg 7,c7 ,,apricot ,,dainty #a cupful dried apricots #a_/c cupful powdered sugar #c egg whites ,wash and soak the apricots4 ,steam until soft4 ,mash the apricots1 or press through a coarse strainer or colander2 add the sugar4 ,beat the whites of eggs until very stiff2 fold them into the apricots and sugar mixture4 ,chill and serve with ,custard ,sauce4 ,dried prunes may be substituted for apricots1 using less sugar and adding a little lemon juice4 ,if it is desired to make ,apricot ,dainty some time before serving1 it should be stiffened with gelatine4 ,to do this1 mix #a_/b tablespoonful of granulated or powdered gelatine with #b tablespoonfuls of cold water4 ,add the gelatine mixture to the hot mashed or strained apricots1 stir until the gelatine is dissolved1 then proceed to add the sugar and egg white as directed above4 ,,custard ,,sauce ,use the recipe for ,soft ,custard for ,custard ,sauce1 substituting #c yolks for #b whole eggs4 ,,questions ,why is it desirable to steam the fruit rather than cook it in water for this dessert8 ,compare the custard made with the entire egg to that made with the egg yolk4 ,what is the difference in thickness and color8 ,how many egg yolks are equivalent to two whole eggs in thickening8 ,,lesson ,,liv ,,milk ,,thickened ,,with ,,egg ,,and ,,starchy ,,materials 7,a7 ,,egg ,,and ,,starch4--,how long is it necessary to cook milk-and-starch mixtures so that the starch will be cooked thoroughly 7see ,blanc ,mange78 ,how long does it take to cook eggs when used for thickening8 ,are eggs used for thickening harmed by long cooking8 ,explain your answer4 ,if both starch and egg are used for thickening a mixture1 devise a way whereby the starch can be cooked thoroughly1 and the egg can be cooked without curdling4 ,,butterscotch ,,tapioca #a pint milk #a_/h to #a_/d cupful granulated tapioca #a_/b cupful dark brown sugar #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a egg #a_/b teaspoonful vanilla #a_/b to #a tablespoonful butter ,scald the milk1 add the tapioca1 and cook the mixture over hot water until the tapioca is transparent 7see ,apple ,tapioca1 above74 ,mix the sugar1 salt1 and egg4 ,add a portion of the hot tapioca mixture to the egg mixture4 ,mix thoroughly1 then return the mixture to the double boiler4 ,stir and cook until the egg thickens4 ,add the vanilla and butter and turn into dishes for serving4 ,cool4 ,serve with plain or whipped cream4 ,the quantity of tapioca determines the stiffness of the dessert4 ,if a very soft consistency is desired1 use the smaller quantity of tapioca4 ,chopped nuts may be added to the dessert just before turning into the serving dishes4 ,for economy1 the egg and butter may be omitted4 ,if the egg is omitted1 the greater quantity of tapioca should be used4 ,,cream ,,of ,,potato ,,soup #c potatoes #b #a_/b cupfuls milk #b egg yolks or #a egg #a #a_/b teaspoonfuls salt ,pepper #a_/h teaspoonful celery salt ,cook the potatoes until soft1 drain1 and mash4 ,scald the milk and add it to the potatoes1 then strain the mixture4 ,beat the eggs1 add seasoning1 combine with the potato mixture1 and cook in the top part of the double boiler1 stirring constantly1 until the egg thickens4 ,serve immediately4 ,,questions ,in ,butterscotch ,tapioca what ingredient could be substituted for tapioca8 ,how much of this ingredient should be used 7see ,blanc ,mange1 above78 ,what is the purpose of the eggs in ,cream of ,potato ,soup8 ,why should the soup be served immediately after cooking the eggs8 ,how does this soup differ in thickening materials from ,potato ,soup 7see above78 ,what would be the effect of adding #a egg to plain ,blanc ,mange8 ,when and how should the egg be added8 ,give reasons for your method of adding the egg4 ,write a recipe for ,soft ,custard in which corn-starch is substituted for one of the eggs4 ,write out the method of cooking such a custard4 ,,lesson ,,lv ,,milk ,,thickened ,,with ,,egg ,,and ,,starchy ,,materials 7,b7 ,,corn ,,custard #a can corn or #f ears green corn #a teaspoonful salt l #a_/b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute #b tablespoonfuls flour #a cupful milk #b eggs ,make a ,white ,sauce of the flour1 salt1 butter1 and milk4 ,add the corn 7for method of cutting green corn from the cob1 see ,lesson ,,iv74 ,beat the eggs1 add them to the corn mixture4 ,turn the mixture into a buttered baking- dish1 and place the dish in a pan of hot water4 ,bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is firm4 ,serve hot as a vegetable4 ,one egg may be omitted and the flour and fat increased to #c and #b tablespoonfuls respectively4 ,,cheese ,,pudding #a cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces #a egg #a cupful milk #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a_/d cupful dried bread crumbs or granulated tapioca ,cayenne ,beat the egg slightly1 and add the other ingredients4 ,turn into a buttered baking-dish1 custard cups1 or ramekins4 ,place in a pan of hot water1 and bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is firm4 ,serve hot 7for method of preparing ,dried ,bread ,crumbs74 ,,questions ,what ingredients in ,corn ,custard thicken the mixture8 ,what ingredients in ,cheese ,pudding thicken the mixture8 ,what is the purpose of placing the baking-dish containing ,corn ,custard or ,cheese ,pudding in a pan of hot water8 ,at what temperature should these two foods bake8 ,give a reason for your answer4 ,in ,cheese ,pudding1 why are the starchy material and egg cooked for the same length of time8 ,compare the cost of a can of corn and six ears of green corn4 ,how many persons will the recipe for ,corn ,custard serve8 ,how many will the ,cheese ,pudding serve8 ,,lesson ,,lvi ,,milk ,,thickened ,,with ,,egg ,,and ,,starchy ,,materials 7,c7 ,bread ,puddings are made by adding bread to a custard mixture1 and then baking in the oven like ,baked ,custard4 ,for these puddings either stale or dry bread is used4 ,the bread should be softened with the milk4 ,how many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in ,steamed or ,baked ,custard8 ,how many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in ,bread ,puddings 7see recipe below78 ,account for this difference4 ,,bread ,,pudding #b cupfuls milk #a cupful bread crumbs #a tablespoonful butter #c tablespoonfuls sugar #a egg #a_/d teaspoonful salt #a teaspoonful vanilla or #a_/b teaspoonful spices #c tablespoonfuls cooked currants ,scald the milk2 add the bread crumbs4 ,when the crumbs are soft1 add the remaining ingredients4 ,pour the mixture into a buttered baking-dish1 and place the baking-dish in a pan of hot water4 ,bake the pudding slowly until it becomes firm and golden brown4 ,cover during the first #ae minutes of baking4 ,serve with cream1 ,hard ,sauce1 ,chocolate or ,vanilla ,sauce 7see below74 ,if chocolate were added to the recipe for plain ,bread ,pudding1 what change should be made in the other ingredients 7see ,chocolate ,corn-starch ,pudding78 ,since chocolate contains much fat1 what ingredient could be omitted1 if chocolate were used8 ,compare the recipes for ,bread ,pudding and ,chocolate ,bread ,pudding4 ,,chocolate ,,bread ,,pudding #a cupful bread crumbs #b cupfuls scalded milk #a ounce chocolate #a_/d cupful boiling water #a_/c cupful sugar #a egg #a_/d teaspoonful salt #a_/b teaspoonful vanilla ,add the bread crumbs to the scalded milk and allow them to soak until soft4 ,cut the chocolate in pieces1 add the boiling water to it1 and cook gently until a smooth paste is formed4 ,add this to the bread mixture4 ,proceed as in the preparation of plain ,bread ,pudding4 ,serve with plain or whipped cream or ,lemon ,sauce4 ,,vanilla ,,sauce #a_/b cupful sugar #b tablespoonfuls flour #a_/h teaspoonful salt #b cupfuls boiling water #a to #b tablespoonfuls butter #a teaspoonful vanilla ,mix sugar and flour thoroughly1 then add boiling water slowly4 ,cook #aj minutes4 ,dilute or evaporate if necessary4 ,add the butter and vanilla ,footnote #ec3 ,see footnote #be regarding the adding of vanilla4 just before serving4 ,,chocolate ,,sauce #a_/b cupful sugar #c tablespoonfuls flour #a cupful water #a cupful milk #c_/h cupful cocoa or #b squares 7or ounces7 chocolate #a_/d teaspoonful salt #a_/b teaspoonful vanilla ,mix the sugar1 flour1 and cocoa 7if the latter is used74 ,add the water2 stir and cook until the mixture thickens4 ,then add the milk and cook over boiling water for at least #ae minutes4 ,if chocolate is used1 cut it in pieces1 add #e tablespoonfuls of boiling water4 ,stir and cook until a smooth paste is formed4 ,add the chocolate to the other ingredients1 then the salt and vanilla4 ,footnote #ed3 ,see footnote #be regarding the adding of vanilla4 ,serve hot or cold over desserts4 ,,questions ,what is the purpose of the egg and bread in the ,bread ,pudding8 ,what care must be taken in combining the egg mixture with the hot milk mixture8 ,think of the effect of intense heat upon the ingredients of ,bread ,pudding1 and then explain why the pudding should bake slowly4 ,what is the result1 if baked in a very hot oven8 ,what is the reason for covering the pudding during the first #ae minutes of baking8 ,name combinations of spices that would be desirable for the pudding4 ,what care should be taken in cooking chocolate in boiling water8 ,in preparing ,vanilla ,sauce1 why is the flour mixed with the sugar 7see ,experiment #bd78 ,how does the quantity of thickening for ,vanilla ,sauce compare with the quantity of thickening for the ,sauce for ,cream ,toast8 ,give the four different quantities of flour generally used to thicken one pint of sauce4 ,what care should be taken in cooking ,vanilla ,sauce8 ,compare the recipe for ,chocolate ,corn-starch ,pudding with that for ,chocolate ,sauce4 ,what material and how much of it is used for thickening each8 ,what difference in consistency is there in the two cooked mixtures8 ,what liquids are used in each mixture8 ,why is the sauce cooked directly over the flame and then over1 boiling water1 while the pudding is cooked only over boiling water8 ,,lesson ,,lvii ,,cheese 7,a7 ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,cheese ,,to ,,milk4--,to show the relation of cheese to milk1 and to understand the manufacture of cheese1 try the following3 ,,experiment #dg3 ,,effect ,,of ,,rennet ,,on ,,milk4--,put a small quantity of milk in a test tube and heat the milk a very little1 taking care not to boil it4 ,add to it #a_/d teaspoonful liquid rennet1 or #a_/h junket tablet1 and set aside4 ,after a few minutes examine the milk4 ,how has the rennet changed the milk8 ,what substance in the milk has been clotted by the rennet 7see ,lesson ,,xlvi78 ,,experiment #dh3 ,,separation ,,of ,,curd ,,and ,,whey--,again heat the contents of the test tube of ,experiment #dg1 turn the mixture into a cheese-cloth1 and press the cloth until the mixture is dry4 ,examine the material left in the cloth4 ,how does it differ from ordinary cheese in color and texture8 ,in cheese making what names are given to the solids and liquids of clotted milk8 ,cheese is prepared for the market in a way somewhat similar to that shown in ,experiments #dg and #dh1 except that it is colored1 salted1 pressed into shape1 and allowed to ripen4 ,while ripening1 changes take place in the ingredients of cheese which develop characteristic flavors and make the cheese firm4 ,there are two general classes of cheese1--hard cheese and soft cheese4 ,a hard cheese commonly known as ,american ,cream ,cheese is generally used in this country4 ,,action ,,of ,,rennin ,,in ,,digesting ,,milk4--,the rennet or junket used to clot the casein of the milk is obtained from the digestive juices of the stomach of a calf4 ,an enzyme called rennin exists in the gastric juice of the human stomach also4 ,when milk is digested1 it is first clotted by the enzyme in the stomach4 ,,experiment #di3 ,,effect ,,of ,,acid ,,on ,,milk4--,add a few drops of vinegar to warm milk in a test tube4 ,what is the result8 ,what substance in the milk has been curdled by the acid8 ,to what substance in milk is its sweet taste due8 ,into what has this substance changed when milk sours8 ,what causes the change in this material 7see ,care of ,milk78 ,knowing the effect of acid on milk1 explain the clotted condition of sour milk4 ,,junket ,,custard #a quart milk #a_/d cupful sugar #a teaspoonful vanilla #a tablespoonful liquid rennet or #a junket tablet ,powdered cinnamon or nutmeg ,heat the milk in a double boiler until it is lukewarm only2 do not heat it to scalding temperature4 ,test milk for lukewarm1 i4e4 body temperature1 by letting a drop fall on the wrist4 ,if the milk feels like the wrist--neither warmer nor colder--it is lukewarm in temperature4 ,if a junket tablet is used1 crush it4 ,add the sugar1 vanilla1 and rennet or junket1 and stir until dissolved4 ,pour into a glass dish and stand in a warm place until it thickens4 ,then set the ,junket ,custard in a cool place4 ,when cold1 sprinkle with a little cinnamon or nutmeg1 and serve with cream4 ,,cottage ,,cheese #a quart thick sour milk #a_/d teaspoonful salt ,cream1 top milk1 or butter ,pour at least #b quarts of boiling water into the sour milk4 ,allow the mixture to stand until the curd separates from the whey4 ,strain the mixture in a cloth1 pressing the cloth until the curd is dry1 or allow it to drip for several hours or overnight4 ,put the curd in a bowl1 add salt and a little cream1 top milk1 or melted butter1 and mix thoroughly4 ,serve lightly heaped1 or molded into balls4 ,,questions ,why should junket tablets be crushed before adding to the milk 7see ,experiment #ab78 ,in what way is the preparation of milk for ,junket ,custard like the digestion of milk in the stomach8 ,tell why ,junket ,custard is quickly digested4 ,how much ,cottage ,cheese is obtained from #a quart of milk8 ,explain the use of boiling water in preparing ,cottage ,cheese from sour milk4 ,what is the price per pint of ,cottage ,cheese prepared at home8 ,what is the price per pint of ,cottage ,cheese obtained at market8 ,,lesson ,,lviii ,,cheese 7,b7 ,,food ,,value ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,cheese4--,cheese is concentrated food1 i4e4 it contains much nourishment in small bulk4 ,one pound of cheese contains as much protein as two pounds of eggs or one and one half pounds of meat1 and as much fat as three pounds of eggs and one pound of beef4 ,in addition to protein and fat1 cheese contains ash and vitamines 7see ,division ,seven74 ,cottage ,cheese is a particularly good food4 ,since it is less expensive than most foods rich in protein1 it should be used to a greater extent than it is at the present time4 ,most tasty salads and meat substitute dishes may be prepared from cottage cheese4 ,cheese was formerly considered somewhat difficult of digestion1 but investigations 7see ,farmers' ,bulletin #dhg1 ,the ,digestion of ,cheese1 p4 #ae47 show that cheese differs but little from meat in ease of digestion4 ,cheese1 like protein foods in general1 if cooked at all1 should be heated at low or moderate temperature4 ,it is well to cook cheese in combination with other food materials4 ,the use of cheese at the close of a dinner1 when sufficient food has already been eaten1 is not advisable4 ,,care ,,of ,,cheese4--,molds grow rapidly upon cheese1 especially if it is placed in a warm place and the air is excluded from it 7see ,why ,foods ,spoil74 ,for this reason1 cheese should never be placed in a tightly covered dish or jar4 ,it may be placed in a dish or jar and covered with a cloth4 ,to keep cheese that has been cut from drying1 wrap it in paraffin paper1 then in a slightly dampened cloth1 and then in paper4 ,it should not1 however1 be kept in the damp cloth too long2 molds will grow upon it4 ,,macaroni ,,and ,,cheese #a cupful macaroni #a #a_/b cupfuls medium ,white ,sauce #b cupfuls buttered crumbs #c_/d cupful grated cheese ,break macaroni into one-inch pieces4 ,cook in a large quantity of boiling1 salted water1 in the same manner as ,boiled ,rice4 ,when tender1 pour into a colander1 and run cold water through it4 ,make the sauce1 using half milk and half macaroni water for the liquid2 then add the cheese and macaroni to it4 ,pour into a buttered baking-dish4 ,cover with the buttered crumbs and bake at #dej degrees ,f4 for #bj minutes or until brown4 ,rice or noodles1 cooked in the same way1 may be substituted for macaroni4 ,,questions ,what must be the condition of cheese in order to grate it8 ,if it is very soft1 how should it be prepared to add to the sauce8 ,what is macaroni8 ,what foodstuff does it contain in large quantity8 ,what is the effect of cold water on cooked macaroni 7see ,experiment #ag78 ,why is it cooked in a large quantity of boiling water8 ,what does the water in which the macaroni was cooked contain8 ,what use can be made of the water that is drained from the macaroni 7see ,cheese ,sauce178 ,what is the price per pound of macaroni8 ,what is the price per pound of rice8 ,what is the price per pound of cheese8 ,how much cheese1 by weight1 is required for one cupful of grated cheese8 ,how many will this recipe for ,macaroni and ,cheese serve8 ,how does cheese compare in price per pound with beefsteak8 ,how does it compare in nutritive value8 ,how much of the cheese is waste material8 ,how much of beefsteak is waste material8 ,which is the cheaper food8 ,,lesson ,,lix ,,structure ,,of ,,beef--,,methods ,,of ,,cooking ,,tender ,,cuts ,,meat4--,the flesh of animals is called meat4 ,in market this term is applied to the muscle1 bone1 and fat of beef 7cattle71 veal 7calf71 mutton 7sheep71 lamb1 and pork 7pig74 ,to show the structure and properties of the substances in lean meat1 try the following experiments with beef3 ,,experiment #ej3 ,,division ,,of ,,muscle4--,scrape a piece of lean beef on both sides until nothing remains but the stringy mass or framework of the meat4 ,what is the color and texture1 i4e4 toughness1 of the two parts into which the muscle is divided8 ,lean meat1 or muscle1 of animals may be divided into two parts3 7a7 connective tissue or framework1 and 7b7 muscle fiber4 ,divide both the connective tissue and muscle fiber into two equal portions4 ,use them for ,experiments #ea and #eb4 ,,experiment #ea3 ,,effect ,,of ,,dry ,,heat ,,on3 7a7 ,,connective ,,tissue4-- ,examine the connective tissue and note its toughness4 ,place it in a frying pan and heat it for a few minutes4 ,examine it again4 ,is it made more tender or tough by dry heat8 7b7 ,,muscle ,,fiber4--,shape one portion of the muscle fiber into a ball4 ,place it in a frying pan and heat as directed in 7a74 ,is the fiber made more tender or tough by dry heat8 ,sprinkle a bit of salt over it and taste4 ,what can you say regarding the flavor of the fiber8 ,,experiment #eb3 ,,effect ,,of ,,moisture ,,and ,,heat ,,on3 7a7 ,,connective ,,tissue4--,place the second portion of connective tissue in a pan and cover it with water4 ,let it simmer for at least #ae minutes4 ,how do moisture and heat affect its toughness8 7b7 ,,muscle ,,fiber4--,use the second portion of muscle fiber and cook in water at simmering temperature as directed in 7a74 ,how do heat and moisture affect its toughness8 ,sprinkle a bit of salt over it and taste4 ,compare its flavor with muscle fiber cooked by dry heat4 ,which has a more pleasing flavor8 ,from these experiments what conclusion can you draw with regard to the length of time--long or short--that connective tissue must be cooked in order to make it tender8 ,what conclusion can you draw with regard to the kind of heat--dry or moist--that must be applied to connective tissue to make it tender8 ,what conclusion can you draw regarding the effect of dry and moist heat upon muscle fiber8 ,which makes it more tender8 ,which develops the more pleasing flavor8 ,illustration3 ,,figure #dc4--,,structure ,,of ,,meat4 ,a4 muscle fibers2 ,b4 fat cells2 ,c4 connective tissue4 ,,the ,,structure ,,and ,,composition ,,of ,,meat4--,the connective tissue of meat is the material which holds the muscle fiber in place4 ,one can get an idea of the structure of muscle fiber from some cuts of meat such as the rump4 ,this meat when cooked can be torn into strands4 ,on closer examination1 however1 one finds that these strands are made up of tiny tubes1 microscopic in size1 which are also held together by a network of connective tissue 7see ,figure #dc74 ,the microscopic tubes hold the muscle juice1 which consists of water1 protein1 ash1 coloring and flavoring materials4 ,the latter give to meat its characteristic taste2 they are called extractives4 ,in the network of connective tissue1 there is fat as shown also in ,figure #dc4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college4 ,,figure #dd4--;,,club ,,or ,,delmonico ,,steak4 ,the muscle juice found in muscle fiber not only contains protein1 but the walls of muscle fiber and connective tissue contain protein4 ,these proteins differ greatly in quality1 however4 ,they will be discussed in the following lesson4 ,,care ,,of ,,meat4--,as soon as meat comes from the market remove the paper in which it is wrapped1 and put the meat away in a cool place4 ,before cooking1 wipe the meat with a damp cloth4 ,do not allow it to stand in cold water4 ,if meat is to be roasted1 it should be weighed before cooking4 ,,searing ,,meat4--,since the juice of meat contains both nutriment and flavor1 it is desirable to retain the juice when meat is cooked4 ,this can be accomplished by subjecting meat to intense heat4 ,by so doing1 the protein coagulates and seals the outside of the meat so that its juices are prevented from escaping4 ,this process is called searing4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college ,,figure #de4--,,porterhouse ,from the results of ,experiment #ea 7b71 one can understand why seared meat tastes good4 ,dry heat tends to develop flavor4 ,hence it is desirable to sear meat not only to prevent waste of its juices1 but to make it tasty4 ,after meat is seared1 it is usually necessary to reduce the temperature of cooking in order to cook the interior of meat4 ,,tender ,,cuts ,,of ,,beef--,certain muscles of an animal used for food contain more connective tissue than others4 ,such muscles are considered tough cuts of meat4 ,other muscles contain either less connective tissue or the connective tissue is less tough4 ,these are considered tender cuts4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #df4--,,sirloin1--,,hip ,,steak 7portion next to the porterhouse7 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college ,illustration3 ,,figure #dg4--,,sirloin1--,,flat ,,bone 7choice cut in the middle of the sirloin section74 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college4 ,muscles which are the least used by the animal are most tender4 ,what parts of the beef would one expect to find most tender8 ,certain methods of cooking meat are adapted to cooking the tender cuts4 ,unless meat is chopped1 only tender cuts of meat can be cooked successfully by dry heat4 ,the following methods are used for tender cuts of meat3 7a7 broiling1 7b7 pan-broiling1 and 7c7 roasting 7baking74 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college ,,figure #dh4--,,sirloin1--,,round ,,bone 7next to the rump and round74 ,the best steaks of beef for broiling or pan-broiling are club 7see ,figure #dd71 porterhouse 7see ,figure #de71 sirloin 7see ,figures #df1 #dg1 #dh71 and first cuts of round4 ,the best cuts for roasting are porterhouse1 prime ribs 7see ,figures #di1 #ej71 and sirloin4 ,long shoulder or chuck 7see ,figures #ea1 #eb71 top round1 and rump 7see ,figures #ed and #eg7 are inferior roasts4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college ,,figure #di4--;,,first ,,cut ,,prime ,,rib ,,roast ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college ,,figure #ej4--,,second ,,cut ,,prime ,,rib ,,roast ,,broiling ,select one of the tender steaks for broiling4 ,tender steaks should be cut from #a to #b inches in thickness4 ,clean it as directed previously1 remove the excess fat1 and place the meat on a broiler4 ,broil over glowing coals or in the broiling oven1 holding the broiler very close to the coals1 or placing it near the gas flame4 ,the meat should be thoroughly seared on both sides4 ,finish cooking the meat by holding it farther away from the coals or the gas flame and turning it about every #aj seconds4 ,steak #a inch thick should be cooked at least #e minutes2 #b inches thick1 at least #aj minutes4 ,season1 place on a hot platter1 and serve at once4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college ,,figure #ea4--;,,blade ,,rib ,,roast 7#gth and #hth ribs74 ,,pan-,,broiling ,clean the meat1 remove excess fat1 and place the meat in a very hot frying pan without any fat4 ,sear the meat on both sides1 then cook more slowly until done4 ,when thick chops are broiled1 stand them on end to brown the edges4 ,keep the pan free from fat4 ,the time for pan-broiling is the same as for broiling4 ,,difference ,,between ,,pan-,,broiling ,,and ,,sauteing4--,pan-broiled steak differs from sauteed steak 7commonly termed fried steak7 in3 7a7 ease of digestion and 7b7 flavor4 ,as explained previously 7,frying and ,digestion71 fat cooked at high temperature is not easily digested4 ,for this reason1 as far as digestion is concerned1 it is better to omit the fat1 and to broil a steak4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications4 ,teachers ,college ,,figure #eb--;,,chuck ,,rib ,,roast 7#ith and #ajth ribs7 ,meat has a distinct and characteristic flavor4 ,browned fat also has a pronounced flavor4 ,in broiled steak1 the pure meat flavor exists2 ,in fried steak there is meat flavor plus browned fat flavor4 ,since the flavor of meat is most pleasing1 it is not advisable to modify it by the addition of any other flavor4 ,,roasting 7,,baking7 ,roasting was accomplished formerly by placing thick pieces of meat before an open fire 7see ,figure #ec74 ,roasts are now placed in the oven and baked4 ,the term roasting1 however1 is still used4 ,meat is roasted as follows3 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ec4--;,,colonial ,,fireplace1 ,,showing ,a ,,roasting ,,kitchen--a device for roasting meat--at lower right-hand corner4 ,weigh the meat and clean it4 ,then skewer it into shape and place it on a rack in a roasting pan4 ,if the meat has but little fat1 place extra fat in the bottom of the pan4 ,place the pan on the upper shelf of a hot oven 7#ejj degrees ,f47 and sear for #bj minutes4 ,reduce the temperature to #djj degrees ,f4 ,season the exposed surface with salt and pepper1 dredge with flour1 and remove the pan to the floor or lower shelf of the oven4 ,baste often4 ,when the meat is about half done1 turn it over1 season1 dredge with flour1 and continue baking as before4 ,since less evaporation takes place in a large roast than in a small one1 the larger roasts are more juicy1 hence more desirable4 ,a good roast of beef should weigh at least #d pounds4 ,the time for roasting varies with the weight of the meat4 ,usually1 for beef roasts1 #ae minutes to each pound is allowed4 ,,questions ,explain the purpose of searing meat4 ,if meat is to be roasted1 pan-broiled1 or broiled1 how is it seared8 ,why is it necessary to remove the fat from meat that is to be broiled or pan-broiled8 ,why cannot meat be broiled over blazing coals8 ,what is the price per pound of porterhouse and of sirloin steak8 ,what is the average weight of sirloin steak8 ,of porterhouse steak8 ,how many persons will each serve8 ,,lesson ,,lx ,,beef3 ,,methods ,,of ,,cooking ,,tender ,,cuts 7,,applied ,,to ,,chopped ,,beef7 7,a7 ,,protein ,,in ,,meat4--,it was mentioned previously that there are several different kinds of protein in lean meat4 ,it was also stated that proteins exist in3 7a7 ,connective tissue4 7b7 ,walls of muscle fibers4 7c7 ,muscle juice4 ,two proteins exist in connective tissue1 viz41 collagen and elastin4 ,collagen is changed into gelatine by cooking in water4 ,elastin is found not only in connective tissue1 but in the walls of muscle fibers4 ,in muscle juice1 there are two proteins1--myosin or muscle globulin and albumin4 ,both myosin and albumin coagulate by heating4 ,it is possible to sear meat because it contains proteins4 ,the scum which invariably forms when meat broth is heated consists largely of protein1 probably in the form of albumin4 ,this protein as shown in experiments on eggs is soluble in cold water1 but is coagulated by heating4 ,if meat broth is skimmed1 much of its nutriment is lost4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college ,,figure #ed--,,round4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college ,,figure #ee4--;,,chuck4 ,of all proteins in meat1 myosin is the most important2 it exists in greater quantity than the other proteins4 ,myosin1 is practically insoluble in both hot and cold water1 though somewhat soluble in a salt solution4 ,as not much myosin is extracted from meat in soup making1 the solid part of meat must be eaten in order to obtain the greatest nourishment4 ,meat broth does not contain as much food value as meat4 ,,chopped ,,beef4--,if meat is chopped1 what is the effect of the cutting on its structure8 ,how would this affect its toughness8 ,it is possible to pan-broil or roast some of the tough cuts of meat1 if the meat is chopped fine4 ,round 7see ,figure #ed1 p4 #bjc7 and shoulder or chuck 7see ,figure #ee7 are especially desirable cuts for this purpose4 ,,chopped ,,steak #a pound beef steak1 chopped #a to #b tablespoonfuls chopped parsley #a onion1 grated #a teaspoonful salt #a_/b cupful water or #c_/d cupful tomatoes #a_/h teaspoonful pepper ,mix all the ingredients and shape into firm cakes4 ,heat an iron frying pan until hot2 oil it with a bit of fat from the meat2 then remove the fat4 ,sear the cakes2 then reduce the temperature to finish cooking4 ,turn the cakes often4 ,season with salt and pepper4 ,serve at once4 ,half a cupful of soft bread crumbs and #a egg may be added to this meat mixture4 ,the addition of #a tablespoonful of lemon juice1 or a dash of nutmeg is thought by some to improve the flavor of chopped beef4 ,instead of shaping chopped beef into small cakes1 it may be formed into one large cake or steak4 ,the chopped steak may be either broiled or pan- broiled4 ,if the latter method is followed1 a pan-cake turner is useful in turning over the steak4 ,,beef ,,loaf ,use the ingredients for ,chopped ,steak1 adding the bread crumbs and egg4 ,shape into a loaf1 and place in a greased baking-pan4 ,bake in a hot oven 7#dej degrees ,f47 for about #cj minutes4 ,serve hot1 plain1 or with ,tomato or ,brown ,sauce4 ,the use of tomatoes instead of water in ,beef ,loaf makes the meat especially tasty4 ,,questions ,why is it necessary to reduce the temperature to finish cooking meat after searing it8 ,what are the prices per pound of round and long shoulder8 ,how many cupfuls are there in one pound of chopped meat8 ,how many servings of ,chopped ,steak can be obtained from one pound of meat8 ,,lesson ,,lxi ,,beef3 ,,methods ,,of ,,cooking ,,tender ,,cuts 7,,applied ,,to ,,chopped ,,beef7 7,b7 ,,stuffed ,,meat ,,roast #b pounds chopped meat #b teaspoonfuls salt #a_/h teaspoonful pepper ,mix these ingredients4 ,take about three fourths of the mixture1 put it into a greased baking-dish or pan1 shape it into a loaf1 and make a large cavity in the center4 ,into the cavity1 put a stuffing prepared as follows3 #b cupfuls bread crumbs #a teaspoonful salt #a teaspoonful marjoram #a_/d teaspoonful thyme #a_/d teaspoonful savory #a_/h teaspoonful pepper #b tablespoonfuls fat ,mix the crumbs and seasoning4 ,melt the fat1 add the seasoned crumbs4 ,stir and heat until the crumbs are slightly browned4 ,put the remainder of the meat mixture on top of the crumbs1 so that the latter are entirely surrounded by the meat mixture4 ,place in a hot oven and bake from #a_/b to #c_/d hour4 ,serve hot1--plain or with ,brown ,sauce 7see below74 ,instead of bread stuffing1 potato stuffing prepared as follows may be used in ,stuffed ,meat ,roast4 ,tomatoes may be added to the meat mixture 7see ,beef ,loaf74 ,,potato ,,stuffing ,footnote #ee3 ,from ,united ,states ,food ,administration ,bulletin4 #b cupfuls dry mashed potatoes #a egg 7beaten7 #a small onion1 grated #a tablespoonful fat #a stalk celery finely minced or #a_/b teaspoonful celery salt #a teaspoonful salt ,pepper ,mix the ingredients and use in place of ordinary bread stuffing4 ,,experiment #ec3 ,,comparison ,,of ,,starch ,,and ,,dextrin ,,for ,,thickening4--,when flour is browned what substance is formed from some of the starch 7see ,experiment #bf1 above78 ,make a ,white ,sauce1 using #a teaspoonful of fat1 #a_/b tablespoonful of flour1 and #a_/d cupful of water4 ,make a ,brown ,sauce with the same ingredients1 browning the fat and flour4 ,compare the ,brown and ,white ,sauce as to thickness4 ,which has the greater thickening property1--starch or dextrin8 ,estimate the quantity of flour to use for ,brown ,sauce in order to make it equal in thickness to a ,white ,sauce made by using #a1 #b1 and #c tablespoonfuls of flour to #a cupful of liquid4 ,,note4--,if a suitable fat has been used1 the ,brown ,sauce may be seasoned and used with the ,stuffed ,meat ,roast4 ,,brown ,,sauce #a #a_/b tablespoonfuls fat #b tablespoonfuls flour #a_/b teaspoonful salt ,pepper #a cupful meat stock or hot water #a teaspoonful scraped onion ,if there is any meat stock in the roasting pan1 remove it and make the ,brown ,sauce in the pan4 ,put fat and onion in the pan1 and brown them4 ,add the flour and brown it1 then add the other ingredients and cook as ,white ,sauce4 ,,questions ,what cuts of meat are suitable for roasting8 ,why8 ,explain how it is possible to use tough cuts of meat and roast them successfully4 ,,lesson ,,lxii ,,beef3 ,,methods ,,of ,,cooking ,,tough ,,cuts 7,a7 ,,experiment #ed3 ,,effect ,,of ,,cold ,,water ,,on ,,meat4--,place a bit of meat in a test tube or glass measuring cup and add cold water4 ,allow it to stand for a few minutes and note the appearance4 ,what has been drawn out into the water8 ,what practical application as to washing meat can be made from this8 ,heat the water in which the meat has been soaked4 ,what does the water contain8 ,in soup making1 should this material be strained out of broth8 ,explain4 ,if broth must be strained1 should a coarse or a fine strainer be used8 ,why8 ,,experiment #ee3 ,,effect ,,of ,,boiling ,,water ,,on ,,meat4--,pour boiling water over a bit of meat1 then heat it4 ,has the juice been drawn out into the water8 ,explain how hot water prevents the juices from being drawn out4 ,,experiment #ef3 ,,effect ,,of ,,salt ,,on ,,meat4--,sprinkle some salt on a piece of meat4 ,let stand for #aj minutes or longer and note results4 ,what practical application as to seasoning meats can be drawn from this8 ,,note4--,the bits of meat used in these three experiments should be saved and used for soup-making4 ,,tough ,,cuts ,,of ,,beef4--,from the ,experiments of ,lesson ,,lix1 what was found to be the toughest portion of the muscle of meat8 ,what method of cooking was used to make this tough part tender 7see ,experiments #ea and #eb78 ,toughness of meat depends upon 7a7 amount of connective tissue1 and 7b7 character of the walls of muscle-fiber tubes 7thick or thin74 ,these conditions depend upon 7a7 the age of the animal1 and 7b7 locality of muscle or cut of meat4 ,although meat contains some materials which are better slightly cooked1 tough cuts of meat contain so much connective tissue that long cooking is necessary to make them palatable4 ,the long cooking must be accomplished in water or steam in order that the meat may not burn or become too dry4 ,meat from old animals is usually tough4 ,veal and lamb are more tender than beef and mutton4 ,the muscles that are used most are toughest1 because they are developed to a greater extent and contain more connective tissue4 ,muscles that are constantly used contain more extractives1 hence tough cuts of meat have more flavor than tender cuts4 ,this is not always appreciated1 however1 since all the flavor of tough meat is rarely extracted because it is so hard to chew4 ,moreover1 as mentioned previously1 dry heat usually applied to tender cuts tends to develop flavor in meat4 ,,use ,,of ,,bone ,,and ,,fat ,,in ,,soup-,,making4--,bone contains a substance which long cooking changes into a jellylike mass called gelatine4 ,in the center of the bone there is a fatty substance called marrow4 ,this fat in the bone and that in and around the muscles liquefies in making soup stock4 ,in cooling1 the fat rises to the top1 hardens1 excludes the air from the stock1 and thus prevents it from spoiling readily4 ,hence1 in soup-making1 it is of advantage to use both the fat and the bone with the lean meat4 ,the fat1 however1 should be removed carefully from the stock before using4 ,,beef ,,stock #b pounds meat1 bone and fat #a_/d teaspoonful celery seed #e peppercorns #b cloves #b quarts cold water #a_/b bay leaf #b #a_/b teaspoonfuls salt ,cut the meat and fat into small pieces4 ,try out some of the fat and brown about #a_/c of the meat in it4 ,put all the meat in a kettle1 add the seasoning and water2 cover1 and allow to soak one hour4 ,then cook below boiling temperature for #c hours2 strain through a coarse strainer4 ,pour it through a fat separator or set aside to cool4 ,if the fat has been allowed to solidify1 skim it from the surface when the stock is to be used4 #a can of tomatoes1 #a carrot1 #a turnip1 and #a onion 7all cut in small pieces7 may be added to the ingredients of beef stock4 ,trimmings and bones of fresh meats or bones and pieces of roasts or unused meat may be cut into small pieces and used for soup stock4 ,no smoked or charred pieces of meat or bone should be used1 however4 ,stock may be colored with caramel1 provided the sugar has been cooked sufficiently to lose its sweetness4 ,,cuts ,,of ,,beef 7see ,figure #ef74--,the feeding1 care1 and age of an animal have much to do with the quality of its meat4 ,it is considered that good beef is obtained from an animal four or five years old4 ,beef should be firm1 of bright red color1 and of fine grain4 ,there should also be a generous supply of suet4 ,the latter should be dry and easily crumbled4 ,in most markets1 meat is made more tender by allowing it to hang for several days at a temperature near freezing4 ,the cost of the different cuts of meat varies greatly4 ,the difference in cost is based upon the tenderness of the cut of meat1 and upon the demand1--not upon the nutritive value4 ,prices vary in different localities1 and in different seasons4 ,the waste of a cut of meat is a factor which the housekeeper needs to consider in determining the cost of meat4 ,the cuts of meat containing no waste may be cheaper than some cuts whose price per pound is lower4 ,illustration3 ,adapted from diagram in ,university of ,illinois ,bulletin1 ,no #aeh ,,figure #ef4--;,,cuts ,,of ,,beef4 ,the line dividing the rib and loin cuts and the plate and flank1 marks the division of the beef into hind and fore quarters4 ,the position of the various cuts is indicated by letters4 ,the names of the cuts are indicated around the outer boundary of the diagram4 ,the closely spaced lines such as shown in the round cut indicate that the cut is sliced into steaks1 while the more widely spaced lines such as shown in the rib cut1 indicate that the cut is separated into pieces for roasting or stewing4 ,the numerals indicate the number of steaks or pieces into which a cut is usually divided4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,figure #ef4 ,,cuts ,,of ,,beef ,,hind ,,quarter ,,name ,,and ,,form ,,of ,,cut ,,method ,,of ,,cooking ,,round ,a4 ,rump4 ,pot-roasting4 #a4 ,rump piece 7see ,figure ,stewing4 #eg74 ,corning4 ,b4 ,round 7not including ,sauteing4 rump and shank74 ,stewing4 #b-ad4 ,round steaks 7see ,braising4 ,figure #ed74 ,pot-roasting4 ,c4 ,horseshoe or ,heel4 ,pot-roasting4 #ae4 ,pot roast4 ,stewing4 ,d4 ,hind shank4 #af4 ,knuckle soup bone4 ,soup-making4 #ag-ai4 ,soup bones4 ,,loin ,e4 ,sirloin4 ,broiling #a-d4 ,round-bone sirloin ,roasting 7when cut into steaks 7see ,figure #dh74 thick pieces #e-f4 ,flat-bone sirloin steaks 7see ,figure #dg74 #g4 ,hip-bone sirloin steak 7see ,figure #df74 ,f4 ,porterhouse4 ,broiling4 #h-ae4 ,porterhouse steaks ,roasting 7when cut into 7see ,figure #de74 thick pieces74 #af-ah4 ,club or ,delmonico steaks 7see ,figure #dd74 ,,flank ,g4 ,flank steak 7see ,figure #ei74 ,sauteing4 ,rolling and ,braising ,h-,h4 ,flank stew4 ,stewing4 ,corning4 ,,fore ,,quarter ,,name ,,and ,,form ,,of ,,cut ,,method ,,of ,,cooking ,,rib ,i4 ,rib roasts4 ,roasting4 #a-d4 ,prime-rib roasts 7see ,figures #di and #ej74 ,,chuck ,j4 ,chuck roasts and steaks #a4 ,chuck-rib roast 7see ,braising4 ,figures #ea and #eb74 ,pot-roasting4 #b-i4 ,chuck or shoulder steaks ,broiling4 7see ,figure #ee74 ,sauteing4 #aj-ac4 ,pot roasts4 ,,note4--,in some localities1 a pot roast is cut from the lower portion of the chuck4 ,it is called ,cross ,rib1 ,boston ,cut1 or ,english ,cut 7see ,figure #eh74 #ad4 ,clod1 no bone 7over knuckle soup bone74 ,l4 ,neck4 ,stewing4 #ae4 ,stew4 ,soup-making4 ,corning4 ,,plate ,m4 ,rib ends4 ,stewing4 #a1 #b4 ,stews4 ,soup-making4 ,corning4 ,n4 ,navel4 ,stewing4 #c4 ,stew4 ,soup-making4 ,corning4 ,o4 ,brisket4 ,stewing4 #d4 ,stew4 ,soup-making4 ,corning4 ,,fore ,p4 ,shin4 ,,shank #a4 ,stew4 #b4 ,knuckle soup bone 7underneath ,stewing4 clod1 ,j1 #ad74 ,soup-making4 #c-f4 ,soup bones 7#c underneath clod1 ,j1 #ad74 ,skirt steak1--diaphragm inside of ,rolling and ,braising4 ribs 7see ,figure #ei74 ,stewing4 ,tail4 ,soup-making4 ,,questions ,other than the differences in cost1 what advantages are there in using tough cuts of meat for soup8 ,name at least three cuts of meat that would be suitable for soup-making4 ,give the price per pound of these cuts4 ,in soup-making1 what is the purpose of cutting the meat into pieces and of cracking the bone8 ,why should salt be added to the water in which meat is soaked 7see ,experiment #ef78 ,,lesson ,,lxiii ,,beef3 ,,methods ,,of ,,cooking ,,tough ,,cuts 7,b7 ,,examination ,,of ,,cold ,,beef ,,stock4--,examine the beef stock of the previous lesson4 ,why has the fat risen to the top 7see ,experiment #ce78 ,why is fat cooked with meat and bone in making soup stock8 ,what use can be made of the fat after removing it from the stock8 ,remove the fat from the stock4 ,stir the stock with a spoon4 ,how do you account for its jellylike consistency8 ,from what material has the gelatine been formed8 ,what solid material is found in the stock8 ,should this be strained out when the stock is used for soup8 ,explain your answer 7see ,experiment #ed74 ,,vegetable ,,soup #b quarts beef stock #b tablespoonfuls fat #a onion1 sliced #a carrot #a turnip #a_/b stalk celery or dried celery leaves ,heat the fat and sliced onion4 ,cook until the onion is browned2 add a small quantity of water4 ,cut the vegetables into dice1 add them to the water containing browned onion and cook until the vegetables are tender4 ,add the beef stock to the vegetables and vegetable stock2 heat2 evaporate1 if necessary1 and then serve4 ,the vegetables may be strained from the soup1 and cooked rice1 macaroni1 or barley added2 or the rice1 macaroni1 or barley may be cooked with the vegetables4 ,pearl barley should be soaked in water before being cooked in the stock4 ,other vegetables may be used for soup-making1 as tomatoes1 green peas1 asparagus1 and cauliflower4 ,indeed1 ingenuity in combining flavors and utilizing left overs should form no small part of soup-making4 ,,examination ,,of ,,meat ,,left ,,from ,,soup-,,making4--,which contains the more nutriment1--beef stock or the meat from which the stock was prepared8 ,what valuable protein material does the solid meat contain 7see ,protein in ,meat78 ,taste a bit of the meat4 ,what does it lack8 ,in what does the flavoring of this meat exist8 ,what can be added to this left over meat as a substitute for its flavor8 ,in the recipe for ,baked ,hash 7below71 what supplies flavor to the meat8 ,,baked ,,hash l #a_/b cupfuls chopped meat and fat #a_/c cupful 7or more7 boiling water #a #a_/b cupfuls mashed potatoes or stock ,salt and pepper #a cupful cracker crumbs1 or #b cupfuls soft bread crumbs #a teaspoonful scraped onion ,chopped parsley #b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute ,mix all the ingredients1 except the fat and crumbs4 ,add enough water or stock to moisten all ingredients4 ,place the mixture in a buttered baking- dish4 ,mix the fat with the bread or cracker crumbs4 ,cover the hash mixture with the crumbs1 and bake slowly until the meat is thoroughly heated and the crumbs browned4 ,serve at once4 ,,lesson ,,lxiv ,,beef3 ,,methods ,,of ,,cooking ,,tough ,,cuts 7,c7 ,,rolled ,,beefsteak #a pound round steak #a cupful soft bread crumbs #a_/h teaspoonful ground cloves ,pepper #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a small onion1 chopped ,hot water or milk1 salt1 pepper1 flour and fat ,illustration3 ,,figure #eg4--,,rump4 ,cut round steak of #a_/b inch thickness into pieces #c by #d inches4 ,make a stuffing of the bread crumbs1 chopped onions1 cloves1 salt1 pepper1 with enough hot water or milk to moisten4 ,spread the stuffing over the pieces of steak1 roll up each piece and tie it with a piece of string1 or skewer it with toothpicks4 ,dredge generously with flour and add salt and pepper4 ,brown in beef drippings or other fat1 cover with boiling water1 and simmer for #a #a_/b hours or until tender4 ,remove the strings or toothpicks1 and serve the meat with the sauce in which it was cooked4 ,if the meat has not been cut thin enough1 it may be pounded with a wooden potato masher or mallet to make it sufficiently thin4 ,,beef ,,stew #b pounds beef #a_/d cupful flour #b teaspoonfuls salt #a_/h teaspoonful pepper #a onion cut into slices #a quart hot water #b carrots1 cut in dice #a turnip1 cut in dice #d potatoes1 cut in dice #a tablespoonful kitchen bouquet ,remove the fat from the meat to be stewed2 cut the meat into #a-;inch pieces4 ,dredge the meat with the flour2 add the salt and pepper4 ,try out the fat in a frying pan2 remove the scraps4 ,brown the onion and then the meat in the hot fat4 ,add the hot water and pieces of bone and cook in the frying pan for #b hours at a low temperature2 or turn into a double boiler and cook for the same length of time4 ,add vegetables1 except potatoes1 and cook for ,i hour longer2 add the potatoes #a_/b hour before the stew is done4 ,if desired1 more flour1--mixed with enough cold water to pour easily1--may be added when the potatoes are added4 ,remove the bone1 add kitchen bouquet1 and serve4 ,,thickening ,,the ,,sauce ,,of ,,meat ,,cooked ,,in ,,water4--,when meat is dipped in flour1 then browned in fat1 and finally cooked in water1 the flour thickens the water and forms a sauce around the meat4 ,usually1 however1 more flour needs to be added to the sauce to make it sufficiently thick4 ,sometimes directions for adding a flour-and-water paste to the hot meat stock are given1 but unless the flour-and-water paste is cooked for some time 7boiled for #e minutes at least7 the sauce does not have a pleasing flavor4 ,this is because the starch is insufficiently cooked or the flour is not browned4 ,it has been found much more satisfactory to sprinkle a little extra flour into the hot fat while browning the floured meat4 ,thus the sauce is made smooth1 and the starch cooked thoroughly by the time the sauce is ready to serve4 ,,questions ,if round steak has been cut too thick for rolling1 what is a practical way of making it of one half inch thickness8 ,for what purpose is rolled steak browned in fat before cooking in water8 ,explain why the rolled steak is cooked in water at simmering rather than at boiling temperature4 ,what is the purpose of dredging these meats in flour8 ,why are not the vegetables added to the ,beef ,stew when the boiling water is added8 ,why are not the potatoes added with the other vegetables8 ,why is the bone added to the ,beef ,stew8 ,name at least two cuts of beef that would be suitable for ,beef ,stew4 ,what are the prices per pound of these cuts8 ,,lesson ,,lxv ,,beef3 ,,methods ,,of ,,cooking ,,tough ,,cuts 7,d7 ,,swiss ,,steak #a #a_/b pounds round steak1 cut #a to #a #a_/b inches thick #a_/b to #a cupful flour ,suet or bacon fat #a_/b onion1 sliced #a #a_/b teaspoonfuls salt ,dash pepper ,with the edge of a saucer1 pound the flour into both sides of the steak4 ,in a frying pan1 put the suet or bacon fat and brown the onion in it4 ,then brown both sides of the floured meat in the fat4 ,cover with boiling water and let the meat cook at simmering temperature either on top of the range or in the oven from #a #a_/b to #b hours or until it is tender4 ,add enough salt and pepper to season the meat4 ,if necessary1 evaporate the sauce around the meat until it is of sufficient thickness to serve as ,brown ,sauce4 ,serve the meat and sauce hot4 ,if desired1 the meat may be stewed in tomato juice instead of water4 7,if tomato is added1 what kind of frying pan 7i4e4 of what material7 should be used in cooking the meat8 ,see ,suggestions for ,cooking ,fruits47 ,this variation may also be made3 ,one half green pepper may be chopped and sprinkled over the surface of the steak while the latter is simmering4 ,the onion may be omitted1 if desired4 ,,pot ,,roast #c pounds beef ,flour ,salt pork or suet #a_/b bay leaf #f peppercorns ,salt and pepper #a_/d cupful each1--diced carrot1 turnip1 onion1 and celery ,illustration3 ,,figure #eh4--;,,cross ,,rib1 ,,boston ,,cut1 ,,or ,,english ,,cut ,try out the fat and remove the scraps4 ,dredge the meat generously with flour and brown the entire surface in the fat4 ,place the meat on a rack in the kettle2 surround it with the vegetables and spices1 and season it with salt and pepper4 ,add #c cupfuls of boiling water2 cover closely and simmer for #d hours4 ,turn after the second hour4 ,serve hot both the meat and the sauce containing vegetables4 ,,note--,this meat may be saved and used in the following lesson regarding the uses of cooked beef ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications ,teachers ,college ,,figure #ei--,,skirt ,,steak1 ,,flank ,,steak4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,methods ,,of ,,cooking ,,tough ,,cuts ,,of ,,meat--,there are many recipes for cooking meats ,all1 however1 are modifications of a few methods4 ,moist heat must be applied to tough cuts of meat 7see ,tough ,cuts of ,beef7 ,the methods of cooking such cuts can be summed up as follows #a ,soup-making--,soak meat1 bone1 and fat in cold salted water1 and then cook below boiling temperature in the water4 #b4 ,boiling or ,stewing4--,plunge meat into boiling water2 boil until well seared2 then cook in water below the boiling temperature4 #c4 ,pot-roasting and ,braising4--,sear meat by boiling or browning in fat1 then cook in steam4 ,if the cooking is done on the top of the range1 it is called pot-roasting4 ,if it is done in the oven1 it is called braising4 ,,questions ,what is the chief difference between pot-roasting and braising8 ,why is it not necessary to baste meats cooked by these methods8 ,what is the difference between braising and roasting meats 7see ,roasting78 ,why is braising suitable for tough cuts1 and roasting for tender cuts 7see ,experiments #ea and #eb78 ,name at least three cuts of meat suitable for pot roasts4 ,give the price per pound of each4 ,,lesson ,,lxvi ,,beef3 ,,uses ,,of ,,cooked ,,beef ,,left ,,overs--,small pieces of cooked meat should not be thrown away2 they can be used in many ways4 ,even though the meat has been cooked so as to extract its juices1 there still remains practically all of the myosin1 and this is a valuable constituent4 ,if the juices have been drawn from the meat1 a little fresh meat should be added to it1 or it should be seasoned well with condiments1 spices1 or herbs4 ,water in which the meat has been cooked1 and left over gravy1 should be utilized in making sauces for cooked meats4 ,cooked meat of tender cut should merely be reheated1 not recooked4 ,hence it is usually well to cut it into pieces or chop it fine in order to heat it quickly4 ,as in soup-making1 ingenuity in combining and using left over materials is required in making meat dishes4 ,stewed tomatoes can be substituted for stock or gravy1 and one starchy food substituted for another4 ,the recipes here given simply serve as suggestions4 ,the ingredients and proportions should be changed to utilize available materials4 ,,scalloped ,,meat #b cupfuls chopped meat #b tablespoonfuls fat #c tablespoonfuls flour l-#a_/b teaspoonfuls salt #a_/h teaspoonful pepper #a teaspoonful scraped onion or chopped parsley l-#a_/b cupfuls milk1 stock1 or water #b cupfuls buttered crumbs 7,see ,crumbs for ,scalloped ,dishes47 ,make a ,brown ,sauce of the fat1 salt1 pepper1 flour1 onion or parsley1 and milk or stock4 ,mix with the meat4 ,butter the crumbs1 and place about one half cupful in the bottom of the buttered baking-dish4 ,add the meat mixture1 and cover the top with the remainder of the crumbs4 ,bake in the oven until the mixture is thoroughly heated and the crumbs are brown4 ,cold fish may be shredded and used in the same way4 ,,cottage ,,pie4--,use the same ingredients as for ,scalloped ,meat1 substituting mashed potatoes for buttered bread crumbs4 ,place the potato only on the top of the mixture4 ,a little nutmeg may be substituted for the onion4 ,,questions ,how does meat left from beef stock differ from fresh meat in nutritive value8 ,how does it differ in taste8 ,name a starchy food that could be substituted for potatoes in ,baked ,hash4 ,why are spices and herbs added to left over meat dishes8 ,name at least three vegetable-and-meat combinations that would be desirable for hash4 ,how many cupfuls of chopped cooked meat can be obtained from one pound of fresh meat8 ,why should cooked meat of tender cut be reheated rather than recooked8 ,,lesson ,,lxvii ,,gelatine 7,a7 ,,experiment #eg3 ,,effect ,,of ,,cold ,,water ,,on ,,gelatine4--,pour #a teaspoonful of cold water on #a_/d teaspoonful gelatine4 ,cover and let stand a few minutes4 ,examine4 ,has the water combined with the gelatine8 ,press a bit of the gelatine with a spoon4 ,how does it compare with the dry gelatine as to hardness8 ,,experiment #eh3 ,,effect ,,of ,,hot ,,water ,,on ,,gelatine4--,pour #a teaspoonful boiling water on #a_/d teaspoonful gelatine4 ,place the mixture over hot water4 ,stir4 ,what is the effect of boiling water on gelatine8 ,,note4--,use the gelatine from these two experiments for the preparation of the gelatine dessert of the lesson4 ,,gelatine4--,when the beef stock of ,lesson ,,lxii was strained and cooled1 what material1 other than fat and protein1 was present in it8 ,from what substance in the meat and bone was this material formed 7see ,protein in ,meat2 ,use of ,bone and ,fat in ,soup-making2 ,examination of ,cold ,beef ,stock78 ,the gelatine which is found at market is prepared from the bones1 gristle1 skin1 and other portions of animals4 ,although gelatine may be purchased in several different forms1 housekeepers find the granulated or pulverized gelatine the most convenient to use4 ,one ounce of granulated gelatine will stiffen #a #a_/b to #b quarts of jelly4 ,in hot weather more is required4 ,if fruit1 vegetables1 or nuts are to be molded in the jelly1 use #a #a_/b ounces of gelatine4 ,gelatine should be first hydrated 7i4e4 combined with water7 by means of cold water1 and then dissolved in boiling water4 ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,gelatine4--,gelatine is an incomplete protein1 i4e4 it is lacking in certain amino acids and hence while a good fuel1 it does not1 without the help of other proteins1 both build and repair the body4 ,the usual gelatine dish contains such a small quantity of gelatine that the question of its food value may be disregarded4 ,the sugar and fruit1 however1 that are invariably used in gelatine dishes give them food value4 ,since gelatine liquefies readily by heating1 it is valuable in liquid diet4 ,,lemon ,,jelly #a tablespoonful granulated gelatine or #a_/d ounce shredded gelatine #a_/d cupful cold water #c_/d cupful sugar ,salt #a #a_/b cupfuls boiling water #a_/d cupful lemon juice ,mix the gelatine and cold water4 ,let them stand until the water is absorbed4 ,add the boiling water1 sugar1 and salt4 ,stir until the gelatine is dissolved completely1 then add the fruit juice1 strain1 and pour into a mold4 ,set in a cool place to harden4 ,gelatine mixtures should be covered while soaking and cooling4 ,to remove jelly from the mold1 apply a cloth wrung out of hot water to the outside of the mold4 ,,fruit ,,jelly ,prepare lemon jelly mixture4 ,cover and allow to cool until it begins to stiffen4 ,peel oranges and bananas2 cut them into small pieces or slices4 ,cut nuts into pieces4 ,stir in the prepared fruit and nuts4 ,turn into a mold1 cover1 and put in a cool place until firm4 ,serve cold1 with or without cream4 ,other fruits may be used instead of those mentioned in the recipe4 ,if pineapple is used it must be cooked before adding to jelly4 ,pineapple contains an enzyme which liquefies gelatine4 ,hence jelly containing fresh pineapple fails to stiffen4 ,,whipped ,,jelly ,when a gelatine mixture is cool and begins to stiffen1 it may be whipped with a ,dover egg beater4 ,air beaten into a gelatine dessert changes it in appearance and quantity4 ,lemon ,jelly may be varied as follows3 ,prepare lemon jelly mixture4 ,cover and set aside to cool4 ,then divide into two portions4 ,add fruit to one portion and turn it into a mold and set aside in a cool place4 ,whip the second portion of jelly4 ,when the jelly in the mold is stiff1 pour the whipped jelly over it and set aside to cool4 ,when ready to serve1 unmold1 garnish with fruit or nuts1 if desired4 ,serve with top milk1 plain or whipped cream or ,custard ,sauce4 ,,questions ,what is the purpose of covering the gelatine while soaking and cooling8 ,why is it necessary to dissolve the gelatine completely8 ,what would be the effect of adding cold fruit juice to the hot gelatine mixture8 ,what must be the temperature of water to dissolve gelatine8 ,from this explain why the gelatine should be dissolved before the fruit juice is added4 ,what is the purpose of straining gelatine mixtures8 ,through what should gelatine mixtures be strained8 ,of what material should jelly molds be made8 ,why8 ,how are jellies removed from the molds without breaking or marring the jellies8 ,explain4 ,when fruit is to be added to jelly1 what is the purpose of allowing the jelly to cool and almost stiffen before adding the fruit8 ,,lesson ,,lxviii ,,gelatine 7,b7 ,,snow ,,pudding #a tablespoonful granulated gelatine #a_/d cupful cold water #a cupful sugar ,salt #a cupful boiling water #a_/d cupful lemon juice #b or #c egg whites ,mix these ingredients 7except egg whites7 as for ,lemon ,jelly4 ,set aside to cool4 ,beat the egg whites until stiff4 ,when the gelatine mixture begins to stiffen1 beat it 7surrounded by ice water7 until it becomes frothy1 then add the beaten egg whites and continue beating until the mixture begins to stiffen4 ,turn into a mold and set aside in a cool place4 ,serve with chilled ,custard ,sauce4 ,for the sauce1 follow the recipe for ,soft ,custard1 using egg yolks 7instead of whole eggs7 and #c_/h cupful of sugar 7instead of #a_/d cupful74 ,in case only #b egg yolks are used in making the custard1 #a teaspoonful of corn-starch may be used for additional thickening1 as suggested4 ,the addition of #a_/b cupful of chopped nuts to ,snow ,pudding makes a pleasing variation4 ,the nuts should be added just before turning the mixture into the mold4 ,snow ,pudding may be prepared by whipping plain ,lemon ,jelly as directed in the previous lesson and serving it with ,custard ,sauce4 ,the use of egg whites1 however1 adds to the food value of the dessert and makes it more tasty4 ,,pineapple ,,bavarian ,,cream #a tablespoonful gelatine #a_/d cupful cold water #a small can 7#h ounces7 shredded pineapple ,boiling water #a_/b cupful sugar ,salt #b tablespoonfuls lemon juice #a_/b cupful 7or more7 whipped cream ,mix the gelatine and cold water and let stand until the water is absorbed4 ,drain the sirup from the shredded pineapple and add enough water to it to make #a #a_/b cupfuls4 ,heat the pineapple sirup and water to boiling point4 ,then pour it over the gelatine mixture4 ,stir until the gelatine is dissolved4 ,add the sugar and salt and continue stirring until they are dissolved4 ,add the lemon juice4 ,cover and set aside in a cold place until the mixture begins to stiffen4 ,whip the cream4 ,add the shredded pineapple and whipped cream to the gelatine mixture4 ,surround this with ice water and beat until the mixture again begins to stiffen4 ,turn into a mold and set aside in a cool place4 ,serve cold4 ,,questions ,what is the price per package of gelatine8 ,how many ounces are there in one package8 ,how many tablespoonfuls in one package8 ,determine the cost of ,lemon ,jelly4 ,of ,snow ,pudding4 ,what is the difference in the cost8 ,which is lighter in weight1--beaten egg white or plain ,lemon ,jelly8 ,from this1 explain why it is necessary to set the gelatine mixture aside until it begins to stiffen before adding the beaten egg-white in the preparation of ,snow ,pudding4 ,explain why the gelatine mixture should be in a slightly stiffened condition before the whipped cream is added to it in the preparation of ,bavarian ,cream4 ,,lesson ,,lxix ,,fish 7,a7 ,,experiment #ei3 ,,effect ,,of ,,soaking ,,fish ,,in ,,water4--,soak a piece of fresh fish in water for at least #aj minutes4 ,strain the water and heat it to the boiling point4 ,what foodstuff is found in the water8 ,what practical application can be drawn from the result of this experiment as to washing fish8 ,,experiment #fj3 ,,effect ,,of ,,boiling ,,fish ,,rapidly4--,boil a small piece of fresh fish rapidly for a few minutes4 ,what happens to the fish8 ,judging from this experiment1 what care must be taken in cooking and serving fish8 ,from the results of ,experiments #ei and #fj1 which method1--boiling or baking1--would be more desirable for cooking fish8 ,why8 ,,comparison ,,of ,,beef ,,with ,,fish4--,fish is an animal food containing protein4 ,it differs from beef in structure and composition4 ,most fish contains more water than does beef1 hence it has not as high a nutritive value4 ,in the quantity of protein1 however1 fish is about equal to beef2 its protein is also complete4 ,hence many consider it quite as nutritious as beef4 ,it is lacking in extractives1 and needs careful seasoning4 ,,fat ,,of ,,fish4--,the fat content of fish varies greatly in different kinds of fish4 ,a few fish1 such as salmon for example1 contain considerable fat4 ,the edible portion of most fish1 however1 contains less fat than beef4 ,the ease with which we digest fish depends upon the fat it contains4 ,fish containing the least quantity of fat is the most easily digested4 ,,classes ,,of ,,fish4--,according to the quantity of fat it contains1 fish may be divided into two classes3 7a7 dry1 or lean fish1 and 7b7 oily fish4 ,cod1 haddock1 smelt1 flounder1 perch1 bass1 brook trout1 and pike are dry1 or lean fish4 ,salmon1 shad1 mackerel1 herring1 eel1 halibut1 lake trout1 and white fish are oily fish4 7,this latter group contains from #e to #aj per cent of fat47 ,fish may also be divided into two classes1 according to the water in which they live1 fish from the sea being termed salt-water fish1 and those from rivers and lakes fresh-water fish ,since fish contains about as much protein as does beef1 it should be generally used as a meat alternative4 ,inspection of the fish found at market will doubtless acquaint you with many kinds of fish4 ,,salmon ,,timbale ,,or ,,loaf #a can salmon #a cupful soft bread crumbs #a #a_/b teaspoonfuls chopped parsley #a_/b teaspoonful salt ,pepper #a or #b eggs #a tablespoonful lemon juice #a_/d to #a_/b cupful milk ,mix all the ingredients thoroughly1 adding enough milk to moisten4 ,pour into buttered timbale molds or into one bowl4 ,place on a rack in a pan1 surround with hot water1 and cover4 ,bake in the oven or cook on top of the range until the fish mixture is firm and is heated thoroughly4 ,turn out1 and serve with ,white ,sauce to which chopped parsley has been added 7for ,white ,sauce1 see ,white ,sauce for ,vegetables4 ,for the fat of the ,white ,sauce1 use the oil drained from the salmon74 ,peas in ,white ,sauce make a pleasing addition to ,salmon ,timbale1 ,tuna fish or other cooked fish may be used instead of salmon4 ,,casserole ,,of ,,fish ,cook #a cupful of rice or barley 7see page #he74 ,measure the ingredients given in ,salmon ,timbale or ,loaf1 using salmon or any kind of canned or cooked fish1 and prepare a fish loaf4 ,let the cereal cool slightly after cooking4 ,then line a baking dish or a mold with about three fourths of the cooked rice or barley1 pressing it in the dish firmly with a spoon4 ,put the fish mixture in the cavity and cover it with the remainder of the cereal4 ,steam the food #cj to #de minutes4 ,turn from the mold and serve hot with ,white ,sauce as directed for ,salmon ,timbale4 ,any kind of cooked and chopped meat may be used instead of fish and combined with rice or barley as described above4 ,,questions ,what purpose do the eggs serve in ,salmon ,loaf8 ,think of the effect of intense heat upon the different ingredients in this fish mixture1 and then explain why it should not cook for a long time or at a high temperature4 ,what is the price per can of salmon8 ,of tuna fish8 ,name two fresh fish that are in market now4 ,what is the price per pound of each8 ,,lesson ,,lxx ,,fish 7,b7 ,,freshness ,,of ,,fish4--,fish is a food which spoils very quickly1 and which is dangerous to eat if not fresh4 ,for this reason the housekeeper should be able to judge of the freshness of fish4 ,in fresh fish3 7a7 ,the flesh is firm and elastic1 especially along the backbone4 7#f7 ,the gills are bright4 7c7 ,the eyes are bright and bulging4 ,the sinking of fish when placed in water has also been given as an indication of its fitness for use as food4 ,decayed fish floats on water4 ,since fish spoils readily1 it must be frozen if kept for any length of time4 ,frozen fish is not undesirable provided it is kept in a frozen state until used2 it should be thawed out by placing it in cold water just before cooking4 ,fish that has been thawed out and kept for some time before cooking may contain at times poisonous substances called ptomaines4 ,ptomaines in food may produce distressing effects or may even prove fatal4 ,fresh fish should be kept in a cool place until used1 but should not be placed uncovered in the refrigerator4 ,it may1 however1 be tightly covered1--put in a tin pail or glass jar1--and placed in the refrigerator4 ,before cooking1 fish should be washed thoroughly with a wet cloth4 ,on account of the odor1 all utensils used in the cooking of fish should be washed in salted water4 ,,baked ,,fish ,clean and wash a large fish4 ,the head or tail may or may not be removed before baking4 ,if the head is retained1 the eyes should be removed before serving2 this is done more easily after cooking4 ,if the tail is retained1 it should be wrapped in oiled paper to prevent it from burning4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #fj4--;,,fish ,,kettle1 ,,showing ,,rack ,sprinkle salt on the inside of the fish and also on the outside1 and then fill with stuffing4 ,skewer the cut edges of the fish together or close the incision as follows3 ,hold the edges of the skin together and thrust toothpicks across the opening1 through both cut edges of the fish4 ,then fasten the opening by lacing string around the toothpicks4 ,cut gashes on each side across the fish and put strips of salt pork into them or insert strips of pork with a larding needle4 ,oil a baking sheet or the rack of a fish kettle 7see ,figure #fj7 and place the fish on it1 forming the fish into an ,s by means of skewers4 ,place the sheet in a baking-pan and add pieces of salt pork4 ,bake #ae minutes for each pound1 or until the flesh can be separated easily from the bones by means of a skewer or a fork4 ,if the baking-pan is uncovered1 baste every #aj minutes4 ,when done1 carefully remove the fish from the pan and place on a platter1 garnish with parsley and lemon1 and serve with ,tomato ,sauce or ,sauce for ,fish 7see below74 ,in the absence of a baking sheet1 two well oiled strips of muslin may be placed across the baking-pan1 underneath the fish4 ,when baked1 the fish may be removed easily from the pan by means of the strips of muslin4 ,,stuffing ,,for ,,fish #b cupfuls soft bread crumbs #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a_/h teaspoonful pepper ,cayenne #a teaspoonful scraped onion #a teaspoonful chopped parsley #a teaspoonful capers or chopped pickles #b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute ,mix the ingredients in the order given 7see ,crumbs for ,scalloped ,dishes7 ,,sauce ,,for ,,fish #c tablespoons butter or substitute #a_/d cupful flour #a_/b teaspoonful salt ,cayenne l #c_/d cupfuls hot water #a_/d cupful vinegar or #a large lemon1--juice #a tablespoonful chopped parsley ,prepare the first five ingredients as in ,white ,sauce 7see ,white ,sauce for ,vegetables4 ,then add vinegar or lemon juice and chopped parsley4 ,serve hot over fish4 ,hard-cooked eggs make a pleasing addition to this sauce4 ,chop the whole eggs or slice the whites and mash the yolks with a fork2 then add to the sauce4 ,,questions ,why should fish not be left uncovered in the refrigerator8 ,why should fish be cleaned by wiping with a cloth1 rather than by placing in a pan of water 7see ,experiment #ei78 ,what is the purpose of placing fish on a baking sheet or placing strips of muslin underneath for baking 7see ,experiment #fj78 ,how is fish tested for sufficient cooking8 ,how can the odor be removed from utensils in which fish has been cooked8 ,,lesson ,,lxxi ,,fish 7,c7 ,,planked 7,,broiled7 ,,fish ,an oak plank1--one inch in thickness and as long and wide as a large platter1--is a satisfactory device for broiling fish4 ,for planking or broiling1 fish steaks or thin1 flat fish1 such as mackerel or bluefish1 should be selected4 ,clean the fish1 then place it1 skin side down1 on the plank4 ,sprinkle with salt and pepper1 and spread with softened or melted butter4 ,place in the broiling oven and broil until done1 usually #ae or #bj minutes4 ,a border of potato puff mixture makes a pleasing addition to the fish 7see ,potato ,puff74 ,a few minutes before the fish is done1 remove it from the oven and arrange the potato mixture around it4 7,a pastry bag and tube may be used for this purpose47 ,brush the potato with egg diluted with water 7#a tablespoonful of water to #a egg74 ,return the plank to the oven to finish broiling the fish and to brown the potatoes4 ,serve the fish and potatoes on the plank4 ,,fried ,,or ,,sauteed ,,fish ,clean fish and season with salt and pepper4 ,mix equal parts of corn-meal and flour4 ,dip the fish in this mixture4 ,fry in deep fat or saute4 ,drain and serve with a sauce4 ,dried bread or cracker crumbs1 and egg may be used for dipping instead of the corn-meal and flour mixture 7see ,fried ,oysters74 ,,fish ,,chowder #a_/b pound salt fish or #b pounds fresh fish #a quart potatoes cut in pieces #b tablespoonfuls bacon drippings or other fat #a onion1 chopped #b tablespoonfuls corn-meal #a pint milk ,crackers ,if salt fish is used1 hold it under running water for a few minutes 7why871 then shred it4 ,if fresh fish is used1 ,wash it1 remove bones if possible1 and cut it into six or eight pieces4 ,brown the onion in the fat4 ,into a kettle put layers of fish and potatoes and add a little browned onion and corn-meal to each layer4 ,cover with hot water and boil gently until the potatoes are tender4 ,add the milk and continue heating until the mixture is hot4 ,just before serving1 add a few crackers broken into pieces4 ,,questions ,state the advantages of using a plank for broiling fish4 ,why select fish steaks or thin1 flat fish for broiling8 ,what is the purpose of brushing the potato mixture with egg8 ,give two reasons for using well seasoned sauces and stuffing with fish 7see ,comparison of ,beef with ,fish74 ,,lesson ,,lxxii ,,legumes 7,a7 ,,the ,,legumes include peas1 beans1 lentils1 and peanuts4 ,these plants bear pods containing seeds2 the seeds--green or ripened--and the pods of some of the plants are commonly used as foods4 ,,protein ,,in ,,seeds4--,many foods rich in protein belong to the animal kingdom4 ,the seeds of plants1 however1 contain protein4 ,the common cereals1 wheat and corn1 contain almost #aj per cent of protein1 while oats contain about #af per cent4 ,but the dried seeds of legumes exceed all seeds in protein content4 ,peas1 beans1 lentils1 and peanuts contain more protein than most cuts of meat4 ,about #be per cent of their composition is protein4 ,soy-beans are much richer in protein than any of the other legumes4 ,they contain about #cg per cent4 ,it has been mentioned that proteins differ in quality4 ,although the dried legumes are especially rich in protein1 they do not all contain complete protein4 ,with the exception of peanuts and soy-beans1 these foods need to be supplemented with other protein-rich foods such as milk1 eggs1 and cheese4 ,since the dried legumes are a much cheaper source of protein than meat1 they should be used oftener than they are4 ,legumes supplemented with milk or combined with a small quantity of meat furnish economical sources of protein food4 ,the protein in legumes is called legumin4 ,,cooking ,,dried ,,legumes4--,the dried legumes should be soaked overnight in water1 to which a little baking soda has been added4 ,these vegetables require long cooking to soften them1 and also to develop flavor4 ,a little soda added to the water in which they are cooked also aids in softening them and neutralizes the vegetable acid found in some of the legumes4 ,during the long heating1 dried legumes break up1 if not carefully cooked4 ,dried soy-beans have a strong flavor which is objectionable4 ,this can be removed as follows3 ,soak the beans overnight in a large quantity of hot water1 drain1 add fresh water and baking soda 7about #a teaspoonful for each cupful of beans71 and cook the beans for about #dj minutes1 then drain1 add more water1 and cook until they are tender4 ,dried soy-beans require long cooking1--usually #d or #e hours4 ,after the #dj-minute cooking1 they may be drained1 heated in more water1 and then placed in a fireless cooker4 ,the pressure cooker may be used effectively in cooking these dried beans4 ,soy-beans may also be baked after the #dj-minute cooking in the same manner as navy beans 7see ,boston ,baked ,beans74 ,serve cooked soy-beans with ,tomato ,sauce4 ,although dried legumes are comparatively cheap1 the fuel required to cook them for so long a time may increase their cost to a considerable extent4 ,in cooking these foods1 care should be taken to utilize fuel that is already required for some other purpose4 ,the fireless cooker is most satisfactory in cooking these dried foods4 ,,boston ,,baked ,,beans #b cupfuls navy beans #b tablespoonfuls molasses or brown sugar #b teaspoonfuls salt #b ounces salt pork or bacon #a_/b teaspoonful mustard ,soak the beans overnight as directed in ,cooking ,dried ,legumes4 ,add a little baking soda and gradually heat to the boiling point4 ,then add the seasoning to the beans2 place half of them in a bean crock2 and add the pork which has been scraped and scored4 7,to score salt pork cut gashes in it nearly to the rind47 ,add the remainder of the beans and enough water to cover them slightly4 ,bake in a slow oven 7#bej degrees ,f47 #f to #ab hours4 ,keep the beans below the boiling point and see that they are covered with liquid4 ,lentils may be baked in the same way as beans4 ,,salted ,,peanuts #a_/b cupful salt #a cupful shelled unroasted peanuts #c cupfuls water #b teaspoonfuls butter or substitute ,remove the skins from the peanuts by placing them in boiling water for #c minutes2 drain1 cover with cold water2 and then slip off the skins4 ,heat the salt and water1 and when boiling1 add the peanuts4 ,cook #h minutes4 ,drain1 rinse off the salt1 place in a baking-pan1 add the fat1 and bake until slightly browned1 stirring often4 ,turn from the pan on paper4 ,,questions ,why should dried vegetables be soaked in water before cooking8 ,measure the beans after soaking4 ,how much have they increased in bulk8 ,what is the reason for keeping the beans below the boiling point while baking8 ,devise a method for preparing ,baked ,beans1 when they can remain in the oven but an hour or two4 ,how are fatty meats cleaned8 ,why can they not be cleaned by washing in water 7see ,experiment #ce78 ,what is the purpose of scoring the salt pork or bacon8 ,what is the advantage of seasoning peanuts by cooking in strong salted water rather than sprinkling salt over them after browning8 ,what are the prices of beans and raw peanuts per pound8 ,how many cupfuls in a pound of each8 ,,lesson ,,lxxiii ,,legumes 7,b7 ,,bean ,,soup #b cupfuls beans #c quarts water ,baking soda #a piece of celery root or #a_/b teaspoonful celery salt or ,dried celery leaves l #a_/b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute #b slices onion ,cayenne #a_/h teaspoonful pepper #b teaspoonfuls salt #a_/d teaspoonful mustard #b tablespoonfuls flour ,soak the beans overnight2 add soda1 onion1 and celery4 ,cook slowly until the beans are soft4 ,add more water1 if more than one quart evaporates4 ,press through a strainer4 ,use the remainder of the ingredients in making a sauce4 ,the strained beans should be used as the liquid for the sauce 7see ,thick ,soups74 ,slices of lemon and of hard-cooked eggs may be used as a garnish for this soup4 ,,split ,,pea ,,soup #a cupful split peas #b #a_/b quarts water ,baking soda #b slices onion #a pint milk #a_/h teaspoonful pepper l #a_/d teaspoonfuls salt #c tablespoonfuls flour #b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute ,soak the peas overnight2 add soda and onion2 and cook slowly until the peas are soft4 ,press through a strainer4 ,make a ,white ,sauce of the remainder of the ingredients4 ,add the strained peas1 heat1 and serve4 ,cooking a ham bone with the split peas changes the flavor4 ,,green ,,pea ,,soup #a pint or can of peas #a_/b teaspoonful sugar #a pint liquid round peas and water ,pepper #a teaspoonful salt #a #a_/b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute #a pint milk #b tablespoonfuls flour ,turn the peas into a saucepan2 add the liquid1 water1 and sugar2 and cook until very soft4 ,press the peas through a strainer4 ,make a ,white ,sauce of the remaining ingredients4 ,add the strained peas1 heat1 and serve4 ,peas too old to serve as a vegetable may be used for soup4 ,some of the pods of fresh peas may be cooked with the peas4 ,,crisp ,,crackers ,spread thin crackers very lightly with butter4 ,brown in the oven and serve with soup4 ,,questions ,how should the water boil to prevent dried legumes from breaking 7see ,cooking ,vegetables in ,water78 ,what is the simplest way of thickening soup1 if it is too thin8 ,too thick8 ,if a ham bone is cooked with split peas1 what ingredient should be omitted in making the soup8 ,why8 ,how many persons will these recipes for soup serve8 ,how many cupfuls in a pound of split peas8 ,what is the cost per pound of split peas8 ,how much does one cupful of split peas increase in bulk by soaking8 ,what quantity of split peas would be equal to a can of peas8 ,what is the cost of a can of peas8 ,how much is saved in making soup by using split peas rather than green peas8 ,,lesson ,,lxxiv ,,legumes 7,c7 ,,bean ,,roast #a cupful white beans1 cooked #a cupful roasted peanuts #a_/b cupful bread crumbs #a teaspoonful salt ,speck pepper #a_/b cupful milk ,put the beans and peanuts through a food chopper1 add the remaining ingredients4 ,mix and shape into a loaf4 ,place in an oiled dish and bake #cj minutes in a moderate oven4 ,serve hot with ,tomato ,sauce4 ,,peanut ,,butter ,,soup #a cupful peanut butter #a_/b cupful chopped celery #a #a_/b cupfuls water #c cupfuls milk #b teaspoonfuls salt #a_/h teaspoonful pepper #a grated potato ,mix the peanut butter with ,i cupful of milk4 ,heat #b cupfuls of milk in a double boiler4 ,cook the celery in the water until the vegetable is tender4 ,add the grated potato1 cook1 and stir until the mixture is thickened4 ,then add it to the hot milk4 ,also add the peanut butter mixture and seasoning4 ,heat until it is hot4 ,beat with a ,dover egg beater4 ,serve hot4 ,dried celery leaves may be used instead of fresh celery4 ,,questions ,mention the nutrients contained in the food materials of ,bean ,roast and ,peanut ,butter ,soup4 ,discuss the value of each nutrient4 ,calculate the cost of ,bean ,roast4 ,how many persons will it serve8 ,how many persons will one pound of chopped beef serve8 ,estimate the difference in cost of one serving of ,bean ,roast and of ,chopped ,steak4 ,what is the purpose of grated potato in ,peanut ,butter ,soup8 ,what substance could be substituted for the grated potato8 ,state the method of mixing and cooking if the substitution were made4 ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,lxxv ,,cost ,,of ,,food ,,foods ,,differ ,,greatly ,,in ,,cost4--,one pound of rice costs much less than one pound of beefsteak4 ,one cut of meat may cost less per pound than another4 ,twenty-five cents buys much less in weight of sweetbreads than of beefsteak4 ,many factors other than difference in cost must1 however1 be taken into consideration when determining the value of foods4 ,,cost ,,of ,,food ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,nutritive ,,value4--,foods differ in nutritive value per pound4 ,one pound of dried split peas contains more than three times as much nutriment as one pound of fresh peas4 ,the nutritive value of a pound of sweetbreads is much less than that of a pound of beefsteak4 ,,cost ,,of ,,food ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,refuse4--,although one cut of meat may sell for more than another1 the higher priced one may be cheaper because there is less waste4 ,in most localities flank steak costs more per pound than shoulder steak2 yet flank steak is the cheaper meat because it is all edible1 while there is about one fifth waste in most shoulder steak4 ,one pays for some refuse even when purchasing eggs4 ,,cost ,,of ,,food ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,season4--,most foods are higher in price when out of season4 ,strawberries may cost seventy-five cents per quart in ,february and twenty-five cents in the spring or summer months4 ,an unseasonable food is invariably expensive4 ,,cost ,,of ,,food ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,weight4--,food labels often contain valuable information4 ,the weight of the contents of a package1 can1 or bottle1 and sometimes the composition of food appears on them4 ,packages1 bottles1 and cans of equal size do not always contain the same quantity of foods4 ,the shape or thickness of a container also affects the quantity of its contents4 ,by examining labels and noting weight and composition1 the price and quality of one brand of foods may be compared with another4 ,household scales are useful in checking up the weight of foods1 such as meats1 fats1 and vegetables4 ,by weighing foods after they have been purchased1 a housekeeper can determine if a dealer is giving her that for which she pays4 ,,lessening ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,foods4--,there are many things1 then1 that the thrifty buyer should take into consideration when purchasing foods4 ,it is one of the obligations of a woman who purchases and plans the foods for a family to be careful of expense4 ,the following statement concerning thrift is both forceful and true3 ,it is not beneath the dignity of any family to avoid useless expenditure no matter how generous its income1 and the intelligent housekeeper should take as much pride in setting a good table1 at a low price1 as the manufacturer does in lessening the cost of production in his factory4 ,footnote #ef3 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin #cia1 ,economical ,use of ,meat in the ,home1 p4 #dc4 ,,calculation ,,of ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,food4--,in counting the cost of foods1 it is necessary to know not only the price per pound1 quart1 dozen1 or package1 but the measurement in cupfuls of the given weight4 ,most of the data for the list given below can be obtained from labels on the containers and from the notes on the weights and measures of various foods prepared from the ,questions of this text4 ,the dashes indicate that data are not required4 ,the cost should be calculated to four decimal places4 ,,foods ,,cost ,,measure ,,cost ,,per ,,cost ,,per ,,cost ,,per ,,per ,,in ,,cupful ,,table- ,,tea- ,,pound1 ,,cupfuls ,,spoonful ,,spoonful ,,quart1 ,,of ,,etc4 ,,pound1 ,,quart1 ,,etc4 ,apricots 7dried7 ----- ----- ,baking ,powder ----- ----- ,beans1 dried ----- ----- ,butter ,butter ,substitute ,cheese ----- ----- ,cocoa ----- ----- ,coffee ,heaping ----- ,table- spoonful ,corn-meal ----- ----- ,corn-starch ----- ,cream of ,wheat ----- ----- ,cream ----- ,currants ----- ----- 7dried7 ,eggs 7see ----- ,one ----- ,experiment #da ,flour1 white ----- ,flour1 whole wheat ----- ----- ,flour1 graham ----- ----- ,gelatine ----- ,lard ----- ,macaroni ----- ----- ,meat1 chopped ----- ----- ,milk ----- ----- ,potatoes ----- ,one ----- ----- potato ,prunes 7dried7 ----- ----- ,raisins 7dried7 ----- ----- ,rice ----- ----- ,rolled ,oats ----- ----- ,salt ----- ,split ,peas ----- ----- ,sugar1 brown ----- ----- ,sugar1 granulated ----- ----- ,sugar1 loaf ,one ----- ----- lump ,sugar1 powdered ----- ----- ,tapioca ----- ----- ,tea ----- ,vanilla ----- ----- ----- ,vegetable ,oil ----- ,wheatena ----- ----- ,,lesson ,,lxxvi ,,cooking ,,and ,,serving ,a ,,breakfast ,cook and serve a breakfast4 ,the following menu is suggested3 ,oranges or ,baked ,apples ,goldenrod ,eggs ,baked ,mush with ,honey or ,marmalade ,cocoa ,follow the ,english or family style of serving4 ,serve the breakfast with or without a maid4 ,calculate the cost of the meal4 ,in determining the cost1 use the data from the previous lesson for the staple materials4 ,the cost of fresh foods such as oranges or apples may be secured from the one who did the marketing or from the grocer's statement4 ,,lesson ,,lxxvii ,,review3 ,,meal ,,cooking ,,menu ,cereal with ,fruit ,poached ,egg on ,toast ,see ,lesson ,,xiv for suggestions regarding the preparation of the ,lesson4 ,,lesson ,,lxxviii ,,home ,,projects ,footnote #eg3 ,see ,lesson ,,ix ,,suggestions ,,for ,,home ,,work4--,set the table for the evening meal each day4 ,cook at least one tough cut of meat each week4 ,suggested ,aims3 7#a7 ,to lay the cloth smooth and straight4 7#b7 ,to place the dishes in a neat and orderly way on the table4 7#c7 ,to make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the dining table4 7#d7 ,to plan the entire number of dishes1 knives1 forks1 spoons1 and other things needed during the meal1 and then place these on the dining table or other suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the meal is being served4 7#e7 ,to prepare the tough meat so that it is tender1 moist1 and tasty4 7#f7 ,to determine the cost of meat4 ,,division ,,seven ,,health ,,and ,,growth-,,promoting ,,foods1--,,rich ,,in ,,vitamines ,,lesson ,,lxxix ,,vitamines--,,vegetables ,,of ,,delicate ,,flavor ,,vitamines4--,in determining the proper diet for perfect nourishment1 scientists long since came to the conclusion that the body needed a certain quantity of carbohydrates1 fats1 protein1 ash1 and water4 ,they were all agreed that all these foodstuffs needed to be represented in the foods making up a day's diet4 ,scientists also found that these foodstuffs must exist in a certain proportion in a day's food1--that there should be enough of each of the foodstuffs to meet the needs of the body4 ,a diet made up of foods in which all the foodstuffs were represented in the proper proportion was termed a balanced ration4 ,investigations of recent years1 however1 show that these foodstuffs alone do not afford perfect nourishment4 ,much valuable scientific work is being done on the question of adequate diet4 ,it is found that certain substances contained in foods in small amounts are absolutely essential in diet4 ,when animals are fed foods containing only the foodstuffs mentioned above and none of these other substances1 they cease growing1 become diseased1 and eventually die4 ,these materials so necessary to the growth and maintenance of animal life are termed ,vitamines by some authorities4 ,there are three classes of ,vitamines1 called ,fat-soluble ,a1 ,water-soluble ,b1 and ,water-soluble ,c4 ,it is now believed that there is at least one more vitamine4 ,although vitamines exist in foods only in minute quantities it is necessary to use foods containing all the kinds of vitamines to promote growth and to keep in health4 ,fat-soluble ,a1 especially with certain minerals1 is thought to prevent rickets and a disease of the eye called xerophthalmia4 ,during the war1 because of inadequate diet1 many cases of these diseases developed in ,europe4 ,water-soluble ,b is called the anti-neuritic vitamine because it is necessary to prevent a disease called polyneuritis or beri-beri 7see ,polished and ,unpolished ,rice74 ,water-soluble ,c is called the anti-scorbutic vitamine because it is necessary to prevent a disease called scurvy4 ,,foods ,,containing ,,fat-,,soluble ,a are milk1 eggs1 and leafy vegetables4 ,leafy vegetables include3 spinach1 lettuce1 celery tops1 beet tops1 ,swiss chard1 collards1 cabbage1 ,brussels sprouts1 and onions4 ,milk products1 such as butter and cheese1 and cod-liver oil also contain fat-soluble ,a4 ,it is also thought to be present in certain vegetables such as carrots1 which are not leafy vegetables4 ,not all fat foods contain fat- soluble ,a4 ,it does not exist in the vegetable oils4 ,it has been demonstrated that foods rich in fat-soluble ,a1 especially milk1 eggs1 and leafy vegetables1 are most essential in diet4 ,according to ,mc,collum1 dry leaves contain #c to #e times as much total ash as do seeds2 the former are also especially rich in the important elements calcium1 sodium1 and chlorine1 in which the seed is poorest4 ,hence leafy vegetables not only abound in the growth-promoting vitamine but in certain essential minerals4 ,cereals1 root vegetables1 and meat need to be supplemented with milk and leafy vegetables4 ,because milk1 eggs1 and leafy vegetables are so valuable and essential in diet1 these foods have been termed protective foods4 ,fresh milk contains fat-soluble ,a and a small quantity of water-soluble ,b and water-soluble ,c4 ,its value as a food has been previously discussed4 ,doubtless the leafy vegetables are not as generally and as constantly used as they should be4 ,root vegetables and cereals seem to be a much more popular form of vegetable food4 ,the pupil should realize the importance of these foods and when possible explain their use in her home4 ,learning to prepare leafy vegetables so as to retain their nutriment and to make them appetizing would doubtless do much in promoting their use4 ,,foods ,,containing ,,water-,,soluble ,b4--,water-soluble ,b is more widely distributed in foods than is fat-soluble ,a4 ,it occurs for the most part1 however1 in vegetable foods4 ,plants containing this vitamine include seeds1 root1 stem1 and leafy vegetables4 ,whole grains1 legumes1 spinach1 cabbage1 potatoes1 carrots1 onions1 turnips1 beets1 and tomatoes and all other commonly used vegetables contain water-soluble ,b4 ,it is thought that the germ of whole grains1 rather than the bran1 furnishes water-soluble ,b4 ,compressed yeast contains some of this vitamine1 but none of the other two4 ,,foods ,,containing ,,water-,,soluble ,c include both animal and vegetable foods1 but fresh fruits and green vegetables contain the largest quantity4 ,orange juice1 lettuce1 cabbage1 and spinach are valuable sources of this vitamine4 ,milk and meat contain only a very small quantity of water- soluble ,c4 ,,saving ,,the ,,nutriment ,,and ,,flavor4--,it was mentioned in ,suggestions for ,cooking ,fresh ,vegetables that a saving of ash in vegetables meant a saving of both nutriment and flavor4 ,if vegetables of delicate flavor are to be made tasty1 it is especially necessary to lose none of the ash constituents4 ,note that in the methods of cooking the vegetables of delicate flavor in this lesson that either the vegetables are cooked in such a way that no moisture needs to be drained from them1 or the vegetable stock drained from them is used in making sauce for the vegetable4 ,by these methods both nutriment and flavor are retained4 ,,spinach #a pound or #a_/b peck spinach #a_/b tablespoonful salt #a_/h teaspoonful pepper #b tablespoonfuls butter ,if the spinach is at all wilted1 place it in cold water until it becomes fresh and crisp4 ,cut off the roots1 break the leaves apart1 and drop them in a pan of water4 ,wash well1 and then lift them into a second pan of water2 wash again1 and continue until no sand appears in the bottom of the pan4 ,lift from the water1 drain1 and place in a granite utensil1 and add the seasoning4 ,steam until tender 7usually about #cj minutes74 ,add the butter1 cut the leaves with a knife and fork4 ,turn into a hot dish and serve at once4 ,spinach is most pleasing if served with a few drops of vinegar or a combination of oil and vinegar4 ,if desired1 the pepper may be omitted and #a tablespoonful of sugar added4 ,spinach may also be garnished with slices of hard-cooked eggs1 using #b eggs to #a_/b peck of spinach4 ,spinach may be cooked directly over the flame1 as follows3 wash the spinach as directed above4 ,then drain1 and place in a saucepan or casserole4 ,do not add water unless the spinach is old4 ,add the seasoning1 cover1 and cook for #aj minutes1 pressing down and turning over the spinach several times during the cooking4 ,cut with a knife and fork in the saucepan or casserole4 ,add the butter1 and simmer for #e minutes4 ,serve at once4 ,,scalloped ,,spinach ,,with ,,cheese #a pound spinach #a cupful thick ,white ,sauce #a_/b cupful cheese1 cut in pieces #b to #c hard-cooked eggs1 sliced #b cupfuls buttered bread crumbs ,wash the spinach and cook it by either of the methods given above4 ,season it with #a_/b tablespoonful of salt4 ,drain the moisture from the cooked spinach4 ,use this liquid combined with milk for the liquid of the ,white ,sauce4 ,season the sauce with #a_/b teaspoonful of salt and add the cheese to it4 ,stir the mixture until the cheese is blended with the sauce4 ,divide the spinach1 sauce1 and eggs into #b portions and the bread crumbs into #c portions1 as directed for ,scalloped ,corn4 ,place a layer of crumbs in a baking-dish1 add a layer of spinach1 sauce1 and eggs4 ,add another layer of each material and finally the third layer of crumbs4 ,bake in a moderate oven until the materials are heated and the crumbs browned4 ,serve hot4 ,,dried ,,celery ,,leaves ,footnote #eh3 ,the stems of celery from which the leaves are cut1 should be utilized4 ,they may be used in a salad or cooked and served with ,white ,sauce as ,creamed ,celery4 ,if the vegetable is cooked1 it should be steamed or cooked in a small quantity of boiling water4 ,in case the latter method is followed1 the celery stock should be combined with milk and used in the preparation of the ,white ,sauce4 ,wash celery leaves and remove the stems4 ,place the leaves on a platter or granite pan1 cover with cheese-cloth1 and set aside to dry4 ,when perfectly dry1 crumble the leaves and place them in a covered jar4 ,use for flavoring soups and stews4 ,,questions ,in what kind of soil does spinach grow8 ,what is the advantage of using two pans in washing spinach8 ,what is the advantage of cooking in steam green vegetables of delicate flavor8 ,if green vegetables are cooked in water1 what is the advantage in using a small1 rather than a large quantity of water8 ,what is the price of spinach per pound or peck8 ,how many persons does one pound or peck serve8 ,what is the price of celery per bunch8 ,what vitamines are present in spinach and celery leaves and stems8 ,,lesson ,,lxxx ,,vitamines--,,vegetables ,,of ,,strong ,,flavor ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,cooking ,,and ,,drying ,,vitamine-,,rich ,,foods4--,since vitamines are so essential in food1 the effect of cooking and drying upon the vitamine content of a food needs to be considered4 ,there has been some difference of opinion regarding this matter4 ,indeed1 the question of whether or not vitamines of all vitamine-rich foods are destroyed by cooking and drying has not been determined4 ,it is thought1 however1 that fat-soluble ,a may be destroyed in part by cooking at boiling temperature and that prolonged cooking may almost entirely destroy it4 ,water-soluble ,b is thought to be little affected by ordinary home cooking processes4 ,but when foods containing it are heated above boiling temperature1 as in commercial canning and cooking in the pressure cooker1 the vitamine is believed to be partially or completely destroyed4 ,it is thought the water-soluble ,b vitamine present in foods is destroyed by cooking them in water to which baking soda or any alkali is added4 ,water-soluble ,c is decidedly affected by heat4 ,vegetables cooked for even twenty minutes at boiling temperature lose much of their usefulness in preventing scurvy4 ,it is thought1 however1 that very young carrots cooked for a short time1 and canned tomatoes1 contain water-soluble ,c4 ,drying also destroys to a great extent the anti-scorbutic effect of foods containing water-soluble ,c4 ,most dried vegetables and fruits have been found valueless in checking scurvy4 ,since there is no question about the vitamine content of uncooked vegetables1 the use of salads containing lettuce and raw vegetables such as cabbage and carrots should find favor4 ,spinach is a valuable food not only because it contains vitamines1 but because it is rich in iron4 ,young beet tops so often discarded contain too much valuable material to be wasted4 ,,nutriment ,,versus ,,flavor4--,if vegetables of strong flavor are cooked carefully in a large quantity of boiling water 7at least #d quarts71 a mild flavor results1 but much of the ash is lost4 ,if vegetables are steamed there is little loss of ash but the strong flavor is retained4 ,in the cooking of cabbage1 for example1 investigation has shown that almost four times as much ash may be lost by boiling as by steaming4 ,in the cooking of such vegetables as cabbage and onions the question arises3 ,is it better to steam them and thus lose little nutriment but preserve the strong flavor2 or to boil them in much water and thus lose much nutriment but secure delicate flavor8 ,if strong cabbage flavor is not distasteful1 steam it or cook it in a small quantity of water by all means4 ,if delicate cabbage flavor is much more pleasing1 cook it in much water4 ,onions have such a strong flavor that most housekeepers prefer to sacrifice nutriment for flavor4 ,,creamed ,,cabbage 7,cooked in ,much ,water7 ,a head of cabbage should be cut into quarters and placed in cold water4 ,if it is wilted1 it should remain in the water until freshened4 ,cook the cabbage uncovered from #ae to #be minutes in a large quantity of boiling water 7#a teaspoonful of salt to ,i quart of water74 ,the time depends upon the age of the cabbage4 ,drain well4 ,with the knife and fork cut the cabbage in the saucepan4 7,do not discard the core of young cabbage since it contains valuable nutrients47 ,mix with ,white ,sauce1 using two parts of cabbage to one of ,white ,sauce4 ,heat and serve 7see ,creamed and ,scalloped ,vegetables74 ,scalloped ,cabbage may be prepared by placing creamed cabbage in a baking-dish1 covering with ,buttered ,crumbs and baking until the crumbs are brown4 ,instead of using ,white ,sauce with the cabbage1 butter 7or substitute71 pepper1 and more salt 7if required7 may be added4 ,use #a tablespoonful of butter 7or substitute7 to each pint of cabbage4 ,,cabbage 7,,cooked ,,in ,,little ,,water7 ,clean cabbage1 then cut or chop both the leaves and core4 ,cook in a small quantity of boiling water from #ae to #be minutes4 ,the small quantity of stock which remains after cooking should be served with the vegetable to which butter 7or substitute7 and seasonings are added4 ,the stock may also be drained from the cabbage and used in making ,white ,sauce in which the vegetable is served4 ,,creamed ,,cabbage 7,,steamed7 ,cut and clean cabbage as directed above4 ,place in a granite utensil and steam until tender 7usually about #de minutes74 ,cut the leaves and add ,white ,sauce as directed above4 ,,onions 7,,cooked ,,in ,,much ,,water7 #a pound onions #a_/b cupful milk #a to #b tablespoonfuls butter #a_/b teaspoonful salt ,pepper ,peel and wash the onions2 then cook uncovered in a large quantity of boiling salted water2 change the water at the end of #e minutes and again in #aj minutes2 cook until tender4 ,drain2 add milk and seasonings and cook until the milk is hot4 ,,note4--,it is advisable to save the water drained from onions1 boil it down1 and use it in soups1 stews1 or hash for flavor4 ,onions may also be served with ,white ,sauce1 or they may be scalloped1 i4e4 cut into quarters1 placed in a baking-dish1 covered with ,white ,sauce and ,buttered ,crumbs1 and then browned in the oven4 ,the stain and odor may be kept from the hands if onions are held under water when peeled4 ,if onions are cooked uncovered in a large quantity of gently boiling water in a well-ventilated kitchen1 not much odor is noticed4 ,the fireless cooker1 however1 provides satisfactory means of cooking onions without the disagreeable odor 7see ,lesson ,,xxii74 ,place the onions in a large quantity of water and boil for #e minutes4 ,then cook in the fireless cooker from #b to #h hours1 according to the size and the age of the onions1 and the type of cooker4 ,,questions ,compare the three methods of cooking cabbage given in this lesson4 ,state the advantages and disadvantages of each4 ,why should the core or thick stem of cabbage be used as food8 ,what is the price per pound of cabbage8 ,what is the weight of one cabbage of average size8 ,give suggestions for selecting a cabbage4 ,why should onions be peeled under water8 ,what is the purpose of changing the water twice in cooking onions8 ,why is it advisable to save the water drained from onions and use it in soups and other foods8 ,what is the price per pound of onions8 ,how many persons will one pound of onions serve8 ,,lesson ,,lxxxi ,,salads 7,a7 ,,preparation ,,of ,a ,,salad4--,a well-prepared salad is a good food4 ,it is necessary1 however1 to prepare it so that it may be pleasing in appearance as well as in taste4 ,the green vegetables used for salads should be crisp1 cold1 and dry when served4 ,if several food materials are used1 the flavors should blend4 ,have the salad dressing well seasoned1 and its ingredients well proportioned4 ,add the dressing to a salad just before serving4 ,,lettuce ,,for ,,salad ,either leaf or head lettuce forms a part of almost all salads4 ,it is often used as a bed for a salad1 or as a border4 ,for the latter purpose1 leaf lettuce should be used and cut into strips with the scissors4 ,keep lettuce in a cold place2 separate the leaves1 and place them in cold water until crisp and fresh4 ,wash and look over carefully to see that no insects cling to them4 ,shake the water from the leaves or place them in a cloth bag or a wire basket4 ,then place the bag or basket in the refrigerator to drain4 ,the leaves may also be dried with a towel4 ,lettuce served with ,french ,dressing makes a plain but pleasing salad4 ,when lettuce is used as a bed or border for a salad1 it should be eaten and not left to be turned into the garbage can4 ,,french ,,dressing ,clove of garlic or ,slice of onion #a teaspoonful salt #f tablespoonfuls salad oil half teaspoonful paprika #b tablespoonfuls vinegar or lemon juice ,rub a bowl with the clove of garlic or slice of onion4 ,add the remainder of the ingredients1 and stir until well blended4 ,more vinegar or lemon juice may be used1 if desired4 ,chopped parsley or mint may be added4 ,some find it convenient to put the materials for ,french ,dressing in a bottle or jar and mix the ingredients by shaking the bottle4 ,for ,fruit ,salads1 the addition of #a tablespoonful of sugar and #a teaspoonful of lemon juice to the ,french ,dressing recipe above makes a pleasing flavor4 ,celery salt is thought by some to improve the flavor4 ,from a quarter to a half teaspoonful may be added4 ,,coleslaw #c cupfuls shredded cabbage #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a_/b teaspoonful mustard ,cayenne #a teaspoonful sugar #a egg or #b egg yolks #a_/b cupful milk #b teaspoonfuls butter or substitute #a_/d cupful vinegar ,heat the milk in a double boiler4 ,beat the eggs1 add the dry ingredients4 ,then add the milk to them4 ,return the mixture to the double boiler and cook as a custard 7see ,soft ,custard74 ,remove from the hot water1 add the fat and vinegar1 and at once strain over the cabbage4 ,set aside to cool4 ,serve cold4 ,,carrot ,,and ,,cabbage ,,salad #a medium-sized carrot #b cupfuls cabbage #a_/b cupful roasted peanuts ,french or ,cream ,salad ,dressing ,clean and scrape the carrot4 ,wash the cabbage4 ,put the carrot 7uncooked71 cabbage1 and peanuts through the food chopper4 ,mix with ,french or ,cream ,salad ,dressing4 ,add more seasoning if necessary4 ,serve at once4 ,,questions ,explain why it is necessary to dry the salad materials before adding the salad dressing4 ,give at least three different vegetable mixtures that would be palatable and pleasing if served with ,french ,dressing4 ,how is cabbage cleaned8 ,how should it be cut for salad8 ,when is the dressing usually added to salads8 ,when is the dressing added to the ,coleslaw8 ,give the reason for this exception4 ,what is the purpose of the egg in this salad dressing8 ,what could be substituted for the egg8 ,give the method of preparation if this substitution were made4 ,what is the price per pound of leaf lettuce8 ,of head lettuce per pound or per head8 ,what is the average number of leaves in a pound8 ,what materials in ,carrot and ,cabbage ,salad contain vitamines8 ,state the kind of vitamine present in each material4 ,,lesson ,,lxxxii ,,salads 7,b7 ,,stuffed ,,eggs ,cut hard-cooked eggs into halves crosswise4 ,remove the yolks1 mash them1 and for each egg add the following ingredients3 #a tablespoonful chopped chicken1 ham1 or other meat ,dash salt #a teaspoonful vegetable oil or melted butter #f drops vinegar #a_/h teaspoonful mustard ,cayenne ,mix the ingredients4 ,refill the whites with the yolk mixture4 ,serve the stuffed eggs on lettuce leaves4 ,the chopped chicken or meat may be omitted from the egg mixture1 or a little chopped pickle or olive or cheese may be used instead of the meat4 ,salad dressing may be served with ,stuffed ,eggs4 ,,cream ,,salad ,,dressing #c tablespoonfuls butter or substitute #d tablespoonfuls flour #b tablespoonfuls sugar ,pepper #a to #b eggs l #a_/b teaspoonfuls salt #a_/b teaspoonful mustard #a #a_/b cupfuls milk 7sweet or sour7 #a_/b cupful vinegar ,make a sauce of the fat1 flour1 and milk4 ,beat the eggs1 add the seasonings4 ,add the first mixture gradually to the egg mixture and cook over hot water as a custard 7see ,soft ,custard74 ,add the vinegar1 strain4 ,cool before serving4 ,less mustard may be used1 if desired4 ,,banana ,,salad ,peel and scrape bananas4 ,place them on lettuce leaves or surround with a border of shredded lettuce4 ,cover with ,cream ,salad or ,mayonnaise ,dressing and sprinkle chopped peanuts or ,california walnuts over them4 ,serve at once4 ,banana ,salad may be varied by serving it with ,cream ,salad ,dressing to which peanut butter is added1--7#a_/b cupful salad dressing and #a_/d cupful peanut butter74 ,do not use the chopped peanuts with this combination4 ,a mixture of sliced apples and bananas served with the peanut butter dressing makes a pleasing salad4 ,,questions ,name the food materials contained in the above recipes which contain vitamines4 ,what kind of vitamines does each contain8 ,give two methods of hard-cooking eggs 7see ,hard-cooked ,eggs74 ,in ,stuffed ,eggs what meats could be substituted for chopped chicken or ham8 ,what material could be substituted for one of the eggs in ,cream ,salad ,dressing8 ,if yolks of eggs are used in ,cream ,salad ,dressing1 how many should be substituted for two whole eggs8 ,why should bananas be scraped8 ,why should they be served at once after preparing8 ,,lesson ,,lxxxiii ,,classification ,,of ,,the ,,foodstuffs ,substances that nourish the body may be classified as follows3 _/ 7a7 ,starch _/ ,carbohydrates 7b7 ,sugar ,energy ,givers ,fats ,protein ,footnote #ei3 ,carbohydrates also include cellulose4 ,but because cellulose does not yield any appreciable amount of energy1 it is not listed with starch and sugar4 _/ ,complete ,proteins _/ ,protein ,body ,builders ,incomplete ,proteins ,ash _/ ,ash ,body ,regulators ,water _/ 7a7 ,fat-soluble ,a ,vitamines 7b7 ,water-soluble ,b 7c7 ,water-soluble ,c ,footnote #fj3 ,so little is known regarding the chemical composition of vitamines that it is difficult to classify them4 ,since the three food essentials termed as fat-soluble ,a1 water-soluble ,b1 and water-soluble ,c are individual substances and very different in character1 it may be that they will be classified later as three separate foodstuffs4 ,it could then be said that there are eight foodstuffs4 ,make lists of foods rich in3 7#a7 ,water4 7#b7 ,ash4 7#c7 ,carbohydrates4 ,subdivide foods rich in carbohydrates1 into foods rich in 7a7 sugar1 7b7 starch1 7c7 cellulose 7i4e4 bulky foods74 7#d7 ,fats4 7#e7 ,protein4 ,indicate those foods that contain complete proteins and those that contain incomplete proteins4 7#f7 ,vitamines4 ,subdivide foods rich in vitamines into foods rich in fat-soluble ,a1 water-soluble ,b1 water-soluble ,c4 ,explain why certain foods are contained in two or more lists4 ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,lxxxiv ,,selecting ,,food ,,marketing ,,versus ,,telephoning4--,visits to food markets or grocery stores are most essential1 especially if one is learning to buy4 ,it is first necessary to find desirable market places or stores1--those that are clean and reliable4 ,screened windows and doors1 and adequate bins1 boxes1 jars1 or other receptacles for storing foods are necessary in keeping foods clean4 ,after one has found desirable places for marketing1 it is well to become acquainted with desirable brands of staple canned or package goods4 ,after this knowledge is gained such foods may be ordered by telephone1 or by messenger with satisfaction4 ,but no matter how experienced the buyer1 it is more satisfactory to select at markets perishable goods such as meat1 fish1 fruits1 and vegetables that wilt readily4 ,in certain cases where the housekeeper has such obligations or so many duties that a personal visit to markets is impossible1 food must be purchased by telephone or messenger4 ,such a procedure1 however1 is usually followed at the sacrifice of economy and satisfaction in buying4 ,,fresh ,,versus ,,canned ,,foods4--,fresh foods of good quality are generally more desirable both from the standpoint of flavor and nutriment than canned goods4 ,when1 however1 fresh foods are unseasonable1 their price may greatly exceed that of canned foods4 ,a good rule to follow is to buy fresh foods when they are in season and the canned ones when fresh foods of reasonable price cannot be secured4 ,the practice of buying perishable foods1 especially fruits1 when they are abundant and canning them for later use is thrifty4 ,to buy factory-canned fruits and vegetables when fresh winter fruits1 such as cranberries1 oranges1 and apples1 and root vegetables may be purchased is questionable both from the standpoint of economy and nutriment4 ,it is often more economical to purchase dried rather than canned fruits4 ,the former usually contain more food value per pound4 ,,bulk ,,versus ,,package ,,goods4--,time spent in placing and sealing foods in packages and the cost of the containers make the price of package foods exceed those sold in bulk4 ,moreover1 large packages usually cost more proportionately than small ones4 ,on the other hand1 package foods may be cleaner1 require less handling1 and are often much more inviting because of their attractive wrapping4 ,it does not follow1 however1 that all foods sold in containers are cleaner than those sold in bulk4 ,unsanitary conditions sometimes prevail at factories where the foods are packed4 ,it is a safe rule to buy in package form only those foods which cannot be washed or sterilized by cooking4 ,,uncooked ,,versus ,,cooked ,,foods4--,not only breads1 cakes1 certain cereals1 and canned goods may be purchased ready cooked1 but other foods1 such as salads and puddings1 may be bought in certain markets and stores4 ,such foods are much higher in price than those of equal quality prepared at home4 ,the cost of labor1 fuel1 and overhead expense as well as of materials must be paid for by the purchaser4 ,unless one is engaged in business other than housekeeping or one's housekeeping duties are too arduous it is generally not wise to make a practice of buying cooked foods4 ,,large ,,versus ,,small ,,quantities4--,it is usually wasteful to purchase perishable foods in large quantities4 ,fresh meats1 perishable fruits such as berries1 and green vegetables should be purchased only in quantities sufficient for immediate use4 ,it is sometimes economical1 as far as fuel and time are concerned1 to buy enough fresh meat for two days' consumption1 provided all of it can be cooked on the first day1 and then used cold or merely reheated on the second day4 ,unless storage space is limited1 flour should not be purchased in less than #be pound sacks4 ,in less quantity than this it usually costs more per pound4 ,it is wise for small families1 however1 to purchase flour and other grains in smaller quantities in the summer time since weevils may infest such food materials4 ,when a non-perishable food such as sugar1 or any of the grains1 sells for a fractional sum per pound1 it is economical to buy several pounds so as not to add to the cost per pound4 ,it is wiser1 for example1 to buy #b pounds of dried beans at #ab #a_/b cents per pound than one pound at #ac cents4 ,semi-perishable foods such as eggs and fats can usually be purchased with satisfaction in quantities sufficient for a week4 ,they should1 of course1 be stored in a cool place4 ,many persons find it economical to buy eggs in large quantities in the summer time and pack them in water glass for winter use4 ,root vegetables and canned goods are cheaper when bought by the bushel and case4 ,there must1 however1 be cool1 dry storage space to make the purchase of the former in large quantities practical4 ,it is impossible to purchase certain foods for small families in small enough quantities for immediate consumption4 ,a can of molasses1 for example1 is usually more than enough for use at one time4 ,when this is the case1 the greatest care should be exercised to store such foods carefully and to utilize them before they spoil4 ,cooperative buying usually means a saving4 ,such foods as flour1 potatoes1 dried vegetables1 sugar1 apples1 and dried fruits may be purchased by the barrel1 box1 or other measure4 ,if several families jointly purchase such quantities of foods1 the expense is reduced4 ,it is also of advantage to buy from the producer4 ,the middle man's profit is thus eliminated4 ,,lesson ,,lxxxv ,,cooking ,,and ,,serving ,a ,,luncheon ,,or ,,supper ,cook and serve a luncheon or supper4 ,the following menu is suggested3 ,cream of ,pea ,soup--,croutons ,macaroni and ,cheese ,lettuce ,salad ,bread and ,butter ,oatmeal ,cookies ,tea ,follow the ,english or family style of serving4 ,serve the luncheon or supper without a maid4 ,calculate the cost of the meal per person4 ,,lesson ,,lxxxvi ,,review3 ,,meal ,,cooking ,,menu ,chopped ,steak ,boiled or ,steamed ,potato ,coleslaw ,tea ,see ,lesson ,,xiv for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson4 ,,lesson ,,lxxxvii ,,home ,,projects ,i ,footnote #fa3 ,see ,lesson ,,ix ,,suggestions ,,for ,,home ,,work4--,prepare salads or other foods containing leafy vegetables at least twice a week4 ,calculate the quantity of milk used by each member of your household4 ,,suggested ,,aims3 7#a7 ,to prepare salads which are both pleasing in appearance and tasty4 7,make sure that they are properly seasoned47 7#b7 ,to vary either the materials used in salad-making or the method of serving and preparing the same salad materials4 7#c7 ,if the vegetable is cooked1 to prepare it in such a way that no nutriment is lost4 7#d7 ,to compare the quantity of milk used by each member of the family with the quantities suggested at the top of4 ,,division ,,eight ,,flavoring ,,materials3 ,,food ,,adjuncts ,,lesson ,,lxxxviii ,,food ,,adjuncts--,,dishes ,,containing ,,food ,,adjuncts ,,food ,,adjuncts4--,besides the foodstuffs there are edible substances called food adjuncts4 ,these cannot be termed foods1 as they do not perform the functions of such1 but they give flavor to them and they may excite the secretion of the digestive juices1 and thus aid in the digestion of real foods4 ,for the most part1 food adjuncts are contained in these classes of materials1--condiments1 flavoring extracts1 and beverages4 ,condiments4--,seasoning materials and spices are called condiments4 ,they are used with foods to give the latter a pleasing flavor4 ,but condiments should be eaten in moderation4 ,they are often used to cover up the flavor of inferior or poorly prepared foods and they are often used to excess in sauces4 ,highly seasoned sauces should be served only with foods that are insipid in taste1 but valuable for their nutritive properties4 ,good foods1 well cooked1 have a flavor which needs little change4 ,we should train ourselves to enjoy the natural flavor of foods1 so that there is no craving for condiments4 ,salt may be classed both as a condiment and as a food 7see ,ash74 ,when used in moderation1 it has undoubted value in diet4 ,it is used in many types of foods1 especially meats and vegetables4 ,the flavor of sweet foods such as cakes and sweet sauces is invariably improved by the addition of a small quantity of salt4 ,vinegar is an acid flavoring material prepared by fermenting apple or grape juice or other materials4 ,it contains acetic acid4 ,cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of a small tree4 ,like most spices1 it contains a volatile oil1 i4e4 an oil which evaporates4 ,cinnamon is sometimes adulterated with cassia1 a spice prepared from the bark of the cassia tree which grows in ,china and ,dutch ,west ,indies4 ,cassia is similar to cinnamon in flavor4 ,cloves are the flower buds of an evergreen tree which grows in ,brazil1 ,ceylon1 and ,west ,indies4 ,nutmeg is the dried kernel of a fruit which grows on a tree native to the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,ginger is the root of a tropical plant4 ,it contains starch and oil of ginger4 ,mustard is prepared from the seed of mustard plants4 ,black pepper is obtained from the unripe berry of a tropical vine while white pepper is prepared from the ripe berries4 ,the latter is not as pleasing in flavor as black pepper and is more expensive4 ,it is sometimes desired1 however1 because of its more pleasing appearance4 ,cayenne pepper is prepared from the dried ripe fruit of the ,capsicum plant4 ,paprika is also prepared from the fruit of the ,capsicum plant1 but the seeds and stems of the fruit are removed4 ,it is a much milder spice than cayenne pepper4 ,marjoram1 savory1 and thyme are the leaves of herbs used for flavoring4 ,,flavoring ,,extracts4--,alcoholic solutions of volatile oils derived from plants are termed flavoring extracts4 ,by dissolving the vanilla bean and lemon and orange peel in alcohol vanilla1 lemon1 and orange extracts are prepared4 ,since volatile oils evaporate readily1 especially when heated1 flavoring extracts should be added1 if possible1 to cold foods4 ,,beverages4--,the stimulating materials contained in the common beverages1-- tea1 coffee1 cocoa1 and chocolate1--are food adjuncts4 ,footnote #fb3 ,caffeine is the stimulating material in coffee2 theine1 in tea2 and theobromine1 in cocoa and chocolate4 ,except for the value of the water they contain1 in carrying on the needs of the body1 and for the small quantity of sugar and cream used with them1 tea and coffee have no food value4 ,but cocoa and chocolate are rather rich in food value 7see ,cocoa and ,chocolate74 ,these beverages contain both foodstuffs and food adjuncts4 ,,curry ,,of ,,kidney ,,beans #a pint kidney beans #b tablespoonfuls fat #a onion #a teaspoonful curry powder ,footnote #fc3 ,curry powder is a mixture of various spices including turmeric and coriander-seed powders4 #a teaspoonful salt #b tablespoonfuls flour #a pint tomatoes ,wash and soak the beans overnight4 ,boil gently until tender4 ,brown the onion in the fat1 then add the curry powder1 salt1 and flour1 and proceed as for ,tomato ,sauce 7see ,tomato ,sauce74 ,add the cooked beans to the mixture and cook all together for a few minutes4 ,serve hot4 ,chili con carni may be prepared by adding #a pound chopped beef to the ingredients above and substituting chili powder for curry powder4 ,if this change is made1 brown the onion in the fat1 then add the meat4 ,stir and cook until the meat loses its red color4 ,add the cooked beans and seasonings4 ,mix the flour with a small quantity of cold tomato4 ,add this and the remainder of the tomatoes to the meat mixture4 ,stir and cook for a few minutes4 ,serve hot4 ,,spiced ,,baked ,,apples #e apples #e tablespoonfuls sugar ,water #a lemon ,whole cloves ,wash and core the apples4 ,they may be pared if desired4 ,stick #b or #c whole cloves in each apple4 ,place the apples in a baking-dish1 put #a tablespoonful of sugar in the cavity of each apple1 and a slice of lemon on the top4 ,add enough water to cover the bottom of the baking-dish4 ,cover1 bake at #djj degrees ,f4 until soft4 ,serve cold4 ,if the apples are very sour1 more sugar should be used4 ,,savory ,,toast #b cupfuls canned tomatoes #a cupful water #b cloves #c allspice berries #c peppercorns #b sprays parsley #b tablespoonfuls fat #a_/b onion1 sliced #c tablespoonfuls flour #a_/b teaspoonful mustard #b teaspoonfuls salt ,dash cayenne #a_/d pound cheese #a egg #h slices toast ,in a covered saucepan1 cook the tomatoes1 water1 cloves1 allspice berries1 peppercorns1 and parsley at simmering temperature for at least #ae minutes4 ,brown the onion in the fat4 ,mix the flour1 mustard1 salt1 and cayenne4 ,add these ingredients to the onion and fat4 ,mix well and add the cooked tomatoes4 ,stir and cook until the mixture reaches the boiling point1 then strain4 ,add the cheese1 stir and cook until the cheese is blended with the other ingredients4 ,beat the egg1 add a portion of the hot tomato mixture to it4 ,mix thoroughly and add it to the remainder of the tomato mixture4 ,stir and cook on the back of the range or over hot water until the egg is thickened4 ,pour over toast4 ,serve at once4 ,canned tomato soup may be used instead of canned tomatoes4 ,if this substitution is made1 the cloves1 allspice berries1 peppercorns1 and parsley should be omitted4 ,for economy1 the egg may be omitted4 ,if no egg is used1 the flour may be increased to #d tablespoonfuls and the fat to #c tablespoonfuls4 ,compare this recipe with that for ,tomato ,sauce4 ,in what ways are the ingredients and method of preparation similar8 ,in what ways do they differ8 ,,questions ,in which ingredients of the ,curry of ,kidney ,beans and ,spiced ,baked ,apples are the food adjuncts found8 ,beans contain what ingredients that require long cooking8 ,what material can be added during cooking that will soften them 7see ,cooking ,dried ,legumes78 ,what is the purpose of covering apples during baking8 ,why should they be baked in a slow oven 7see ,suggestions for ,cooking ,fruits78 ,what kind of substance do all spices contain8 ,why should spices be used in moderation8 ,explain why flavoring extracts should be added1 if possible1 to cold foods4 ,mention at least two forms in which the following spices may be purchased3 ,cinnamon1 cloves1 nutmeg1 ginger1 mustard1 and black pepper4 ,what materials in the recipe for ,savory ,toast are used merely for flavoring8 ,what materials are removed by straining8 ,how is the flavor extracted from these materials before straining8 ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,lxxxix ,,spending ,,for ,,food ,,what ,,to ,,buy4--,dr4 ,langworthy of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture has listed foods into five groups and has advised that food from each group be used daily4 ,the five groups follow3 #a4 ,fruits and ,vegetables4 #b4 ,milk1 ,cheese1 ,eggs1 ,fish1 ,meat1 ,beans1 ,peas1 ,peanuts4 #c4 ,cereals--,corn-meal1 ,oatmeal1 ,rice1 ,rye1 ,wheat1 ,flour1 ,bread4 #d4 ,sugar1 ,sirups1 ,jelly1 ,honey1 ,candies4 #e4 ,fats--,butter1 ,margarine1 ,cottonseed ,oil1 ,olive ,oil1 ,drippings1 ,suet1 ,bacon1 ,chocolate4 ,from studying the previous contents of this textbook the pupil will doubtless recognize in these groups foods to supply all the needs of the body4 ,by following this plan of using some food from each group every day1 the needs of the body will be supplied4 ,,how ,,much ,,to ,,spend ,,for ,,food4--,any one no matter how ignorant or thoughtless can get rid of money4 ,but it takes a wise person1 one who understands values and quality1 to get value received for money spent4 ,whether one is purchasing food for all the meals of a family or is only selecting a luncheon or one meal1 it is desirable to spend money wisely4 ,the five food groups may serve as a basis for the purchase of foods4 ,it has been suggested that each dollar used in buying foods be divided into #e parts of #bj cents each4 ,out of every dollar spent use3 ,footnote #fd3 ,from ,united ,states ,thrift ,leaflet #ae4 #bj cents1 more or less1 for vegetables and fruits #bj cents1 or more1 for milk and cheese #bj cents1 or less1 for meat1 fish1 eggs1 etc4 #bj cents1 or more1 for bread and cereals #bj cents1 or less1 for sugar1 fat1 tea1 coffee1 chocolate1 flavoring ,,note4--,compare these groups of food with those given above4 ,note that the first division of money should be used for the foods of ,group #a2 the second and third divisions for the foods of ,group #b2 the fourth division for the foods of ,group #c2 and the fifth division for the foods of ,groups #d and #e4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #fa4--;,a ,,suggestion ,,for ,,the ,,division ,,of ,,each ,,dollar ,,spent ,,for ,,food4 ,according to ,lucy ,h4 ,gillett of the ,dietetic ,bureau of ,boston1 when strictest economy is necessary1 one fourth of each dollar spent for food should be used to purchase bread and other grain products4 ,the remainder of the dollar should be spent about equally for the groups of food mentioned above4 ,if #be instead of #bj cents is spent for cereal products1 however1 care should be taken to buy sufficient milk to meet the needs of each member of the family 7see ,milk1 an ,invaluable ,food74 ,this is especially necessary where there are young children in the family4 ,,comparing ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,foods4--,the pupil should note that the different foods contained in the same groups differ in cost4 ,one can economize by using the cheaper foods in the group or by using the more expensive only occasionally4 ,if you find that fresh vegetables cost less than fruits1 use the latter more sparingly than the former4 ,meats are more expensive than dried peas or beans and cheese1 especially ,cottage ,cheese4 ,cottage ,cheese or peas and beans in combination with milk or eggs may take the place of meat4 ,a small quantity of meat may be combined with the dried legumes or cereals and a saving effected4 ,the third1 fourth1 and fifth groups contain energy-giving foods 7see ,divisions ,,iv and ,v74 ,of the three groups of foods1 cereals are by far the cheapest source of energy4 ,a generous use of cereals is economical4 ,in buying grains one gets much nutriment at little cost 7when compared with other foods74 ,if the food bills must be curtailed1 use cereals generously and meat sparingly4 ,do not eat cereals1 however1 to the exclusion of the foods of the other groups4 ,it is especially necessary to use milk and leafy vegetables with cereals4 ,the latter are lacking in the fat-soluble ,a vitamine4 ,the fats included in ,group #e differ in cost4 ,it is necessary to select these wisely in order to economize4 ,a wise and economical use of fats is discussed previously4 ,,planning ,,before ,,buying4--,it is not only an obligation but a necessity to waste no food4 ,the bit of cereal left from breakfast1 the crust of bread1 and the scrap of meat represent money4 ,they must be utilized4 ,the thrifty housekeeper sees to it that left-over food is properly cared for so that it need not be wasted because of spoilage4 ,she covers food and stores it in a cool place4 ,she uses it before it begins to spoil4 ,in order to buy wisely it is necessary to take account of the foods already in the house or in the garden4 ,it is necessary to decide before going to market just what is needed to supplement the materials already on hand4 ,,lesson ,,xc ,,cooking ,,and ,,serving ,a ,,luncheon ,,or ,,supper ,cook and serve a luncheon or supper4 ,the following menu is suggested3 ,salmon ,timbale with ,white ,sauce ,stuffed ,baked ,potatoes ,stewed or ,scalloped ,tomatoes ,bread and ,butter ,prune ,pudding with ,top ,milk ,analyze this menu4 ,is food from each of the groups given in lesson ,,lxxxix contained in it8 ,follow the ,english or family style of serving4 ,serve the luncheon or supper without a maid4 ,calculate the cost of the meal per person4 ,,lesson ,,xci ,,review3 ,,meal ,,cooking ,,menu ,cream of ,tomato ,soup ,cheese ,pudding ,spiced ,baked ,apples ,see ,lesson ,,xiv for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson4 ,,lesson ,,xcii ,,home ,,projects ,footnote #fe3 ,see ,lesson ,,ix ,,suggestions ,,for ,,home ,,work4--,if possible secure lists of foods purchased for use at your home during a week or a month4 ,list each article and price in one of the five groups1 viz41 ,vegetables ,milk and ,meat1 ,fish1 ,bread and ,sugar1 ,fat and and ,fruits ,cheese ,eggs1 ,etc ,cereals ,other ,groceries ,add up the cost in each column4 ,compare the sums4 ,,suggested ,,aims3 7#a7 ,to determine if the money for the various groups of food has been spent according to the plan suggested in lesson ,,lxxxix4 7#b7 ,if not1 to use the food lists actually purchased as a foundation and change them so as to embody the division of the dollar suggested in lesson ,,lxxxix4 ,,division ,,nine ,,food ,,combinations ,,lesson ,,xciii ,,vegetables ,,with ,,salad ,,dressing 7,a7 ,,food ,,combinations4--,from a dietetic standpoint1 it is well to combine foods of different compositions4 ,if a food is lacking in one or more of the foodstuffs1 it should be combined with a food that supplies the missing nutrient4 ,bread contains little fat1 and butter contains no carbohydrates2 hence these two foods make a desirable combination4 ,vegetable oils1 butter1 and other fats make desirable additions to vegetables4 ,macaroni contains little fat1 while cheese is rich in this foodstuff4 ,moreover1 macaroni contains a small quantity of incomplete protein1 while cheese is rich in complete protein4 ,hence macaroni and cheese make a good combination4 ,in selecting foods to be used together1 careful attention should be given to their composition4 ,,emulsion ,,of ,,oil2 ,,salad ,,dressing4--,as has been stated 7see ,breaking ,up of ,fats71 to emulsify fat it is necessary to separate it into tiny globules1 and to coat each globule with some materials1 so that the droplets will remain separate4 ,various materials serve to emulsify fats4 ,during digestion1 fat is emulsified by means of a soap 7see ,experiment #cf74 ,egg is another material which emulsifies fats4 ,this fact is made use of in making ,mayonnaise ,dressing from vegetable oil and eggs4 ,if one understands that the oil must be divided into globules1 and that each globule must be coated with egg1 the preparation of salad dressing becomes interesting and successful4 ,it is evident that the fat should be added to the egg slowly and should be beaten while being added4 ,if the oil and other ingredients are cold1 a thicker dressing results4 ,quick mayonnaise1 however1 is an exception to this rule4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #fb--,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,roots ,,and ,,succulent ,,vegetables 7,revised edition7 ,since emulsion of fat is one of the processes of digestion1 it would seem that fat in emulsified form would be most readily digested4 ,this is true of some emulsified fats1--the fat of milk is one of the most readily digested4 ,but when an emulsified fat is mixed with protein as in ,mayonnaise ,dressing1 the digestion of the mixture is slower than if either of the foodstuffs were alone4 ,hence to some persons1 ,mayonnaise ,dressing proves distressing4 ,,mayonnaise ,,dressing #a egg yolk #a tablespoonful vinegar #a tablespoonful lemon juice #a_/d teaspoonful mustard #c_/d teaspoonful salt #a_/b teaspoonful sugar ,cayenne #a cupful vegetable oil #b tablespoonfuls boiling water ,put the egg yolk into a mixing bowl1 add hot vinegar1 and mix thoroughly4 ,then add the lemon juice and dry ingredients4 ,let the mixture stand until cool4 ,then beat it with a ,dover egg beater and while beating add the oil in small quantities1--about #a_/b tablespoonful at a time4 ,continue beating and adding the oil4 ,when the mixture begins to thicken1 the oil can be added in greater quantities4 ,after all the oil is added1 add the boiling water4 ,beat until the latter is thoroughly blended4 ,it has been found that the oil may be added more rapidly if the egg is acidified before mixing it with the oil4 ,footnote #ff3 ,this is due to the fact that the acid reacts with the albumin of the egg to form a kind of salt which hydrates and takes up water from the mixture4 ,the more water that can be taken out of an emulsion in the form of hydrates1 the more easily will an emulsion be formed4 ,the addition of boiling water to the mixture after the egg and oil have been blended1 prevents the oil from separating from the other ingredients4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #fc--,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,butter ,,and ,,other ,,fat-,,yielding ,,foods 7,revised edition7 ,if desired1 the whole egg may be used in place of the egg yolks4 ,in case this substitution is made1 all the ingredients other than the egg should be doubled in quantity1 since #a whole egg will emulsify #b cupfuls of oil4 ,the flavor of refined corn1 cottonseed1 or peanut oil is mild and pleasing4 ,these oils have less flavor than olive oil but are as nutritious4 ,their use lessens the cost of ,mayonnaise ,dressing4 ,after opening a bottle of vegetable oil1 it should be kept in a cold place4 ,if it is rancid1 it should not be used in salad dressing4 ,if ,mayonnaise ,dressing is made successfully1 it is thick and smooth4 ,if the dressing is thin and curdled1 the oil has been added too quickly1 i4e4 it has not been emulsified4 ,to remedy ,mayonnaise that has curdled1 beat the yolk of an egg slightly1 then add the dressing to it gradually1 beating constantly4 ,mayonnaise ,dressing may be varied by the addition of chili or celery sauce1 chopped hard-cooked eggs1 chopped parsley1 pimentos1 and green peppers4 ,,quick ,,mayonnaise ,,dressing ,footnote #fg3 ,adding the entire quantity of oil at one time and mixing it with hot paste may seem an unusual procedure for making an oil dressing4 ,the fact that the method is successful may be explained as follows3 ,mixing the acid with the egg forms a salt which hydrates the mixture1 and thus aids in making favorable conditions for emulsifying the oil as explained in the footnote of a previous page4 ,the starch paste also takes up water from the mixture4 ,this makes it possible to emulsify the oil easily1 and also to make a stable emulsion4 #b egg yolks or #a whole egg #b tablespoonfuls vinegar #b tablespoonfuls lemon juice #a #a_/d teaspoonfuls salt #a teaspoonful sugar #a_/b teaspoonful mustard ,cayenne #a cupful vegetable oil ,into a mixing bowl put the eggs and vinegar4 ,mix well4 ,add the other ingredients4 7,it is not necessary to stir them47 ,prepare a thick paste as follows3 ,in the top part of a double boiler put #a_/c cupful flour #a cupful cold water #a tablespoonful butter ,mix thoroughly4 ,then stir and cook over boiling water at least #aj minutes4 ,at once 7while it is hot7 turn this paste into the egg and oil mixture4 ,beat all the ingredients with a ,dover egg beater until a thick1 uniform dressing results4 7,adapted from a recipe by ,mrs4 ,hill47 ,,seasonable ,,vegetable ,,salads ,use seasonable vegetables in salads4 ,cucumbers1 tomatoes1 celery1 and cooked cauliflower may be used in the fall4 ,cooked beets1 cabbage1 carrots1 and olives may be used in the winter1 and head lettuce1 radishes1 and cooked asparagus in the spring4 ,vegetables should be chilled1 cut into desirable shapes1 and served on lettuce with salad dressing4 ,beets are greatly improved by cutting into pieces1 after cooking1 and soaking for one hour in vinegar to which salt has been added4 ,they may also be soaked in ,french ,dressing4 ,a combination of vegetables and fruits makes a pleasing salad4 ,cucumbers and pineapple1 celery and apples1 olives and cooked cranberries are successful salad mixtures4 ,the use of cheese1 nuts1 and peanuts with vegetables and fruits adds to the flavor and food value of salads4 ,uncooked carrots1 cabbage1 and peanuts dressed with ,french ,dressing make a tasty salad4 ,canned vegetables1 left over cold vegetables1 meat1 and fish have a better flavor in salads if they are mixed with ,french ,dressing and allowed to stand in a cold place for one hour before serving4 ,this process is called marinating4 ,if several meats or vegetables are used in the same salad1 they should be marinated separately4 ,just before serving1 ,cream ,salad ,dressing or ,mayonnaise ,dressing may be added to marinated salad materials4 ,a salad consisting of lettuce or other uncooked leafy vegetables should not be dressed until it is ready to be served4 ,the acid in salad dressing wilts the leaves4 ,,questions ,explain why it is necessary to add the oil to the egg mixture in small quantities4 ,explain why it is that a curdled dressing can be remedied by adding it gradually to an egg4 ,what is the price per quart of olive oil8 ,of peanut oil8 ,of cottonseed oil8 ,of corn oil8 ,find the difference in cost between a ,mayonnaise ,dressing made with corn1 cottonseed1 or peanut oil and one made with olive oil4 ,from the standpoint of composition1 explain why fresh vegetables and ,mayonnaise ,dressing make a suitable combination 7see ,figures #fb and #fc74 ,how much ,mayonnaise ,dressing is generally used for one serving8 ,how many will the above recipe serve8 ,make a list of combinations of materials which make tasty salads4 ,,lesson ,,xciv ,,vegetables ,,with ,,salad ,,dressing 7,b7 ,,salad ,,garnishing4--,successful garnishing of a salad requires a sense of good color combination1 judgment in blending flavors1 and ingenuity in arranging materials4 ,usually it is well to use only edible materials for garnishing4 ,certain flowers and greens may be used to advantage1 however1 in garnishing the salad for an occasional dinner or luncheon4 ,celery with fringed ends1 stuffed olives cut in slices1 lettuce shredded or whole1 pimentos1 parsley1 hard-cooked eggs sliced or pressed through strainer1 and vegetables of pronounced color 7as beets or carrots7 cut into slices1 cubes1 or fancy shapes1--all these make pleasing garnishes4 ,,perfection ,,salad #b tablespoonfuls granulated gelatine #a_/b cupful cold water #a_/b cupful vinegar #a lemon1--juice #b cupfuls boiling water #a_/b cupful sugar #a teaspoonful salt #a #a_/b cupfuls sliced celery #a #a_/b cupfuls shredded cabbage #c pimentos chopped ,prepare all ingredients1 except the vegetables1 as for a gelatine mixture 7see ,lemon ,jelly74 ,when the mixture begins to set1 stir in the vegetables1 and pour into a mold4 ,serve on lettuce leaves with ,mayonnaise ,dressing4 ,other vegetable mixtures such as cucumbers and tomatoes or peas and celery molded in jelly make tasty salads4 ,,questions ,mention at least four different kinds of salads1 with a suitable garnish for each4 ,what should be the condition of all green vegetables used in salads8 ,how should lettuce be kept and prepared for salads8 ,from ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of tomatoes1 cucumbers1 spinach1 cabbage1 lettuce1 celery1 and onions4 ,which contains the most water8 ,which contains the most ash8 ,aside from the fact that sugar improves the flavor of ,perfection ,salad1 why is it a valuable ingredient of the salad mixture 7see ,figure #id78 ,explain why ,mayonnaise ,dressing with wafers or rolls would make a valuable food addition to ,perfection ,salad4 ,,food ,,combinations ,,lesson ,,xcv ,,fish ,,salad ,,and ,,salad ,,rolls ,,salmon ,,or ,,tunny ,,salad #a can salmon or tunny 7or tuna7 fish #a cupful shredded cabbage or sliced celery ,drain the oil from the fish2 remove the bone and bits of skin4 ,add the cabbage or celery1 and ,mayonnaise or ,cream ,salad ,dressing4 ,arrange on lettuce and garnish as desired4 ,if ,cream ,dressing is used with salmon1 the oil drained from the salmon may be used for the fat of ,cream ,dressing4 ,the salmon may be marinated before adding the other ingredients4 ,when this is done1 the salad dressing may be omitted4 ,salmon contains so much fat that it is not well to add more oil after marinating4 ,,salad ,,rolls #b cupfuls flour #c #a_/b teaspoonfuls baking powder #a_/b teaspoonful salt #d tablespoonfuls vegetable oil or melted butter or substitute #a_/b cupful milk #a egg ,sift some flour1 then measure #b cupfuls of it4 ,add the baking powder and salt to the flour4 ,beat the egg1 add the milk and oil or melted fat to it4 ,through a sifter add the dry ingredients to the milk mixture4 ,thoroughly mix the ingredients by cutting them with a knife4 ,roll out on a floured board1 cut into oblong pieces1 and with a floured knife make a deep crease through the center of each roll4 ,brush the top with diluted egg 7use #b tablespoonfuls of water to #a egg7 and sprinkle granulated sugar over it4 ,bake in a moderate oven4 ,,questions ,why is the top of the salad roll mixture brushed with egg8 ,why should the egg be diluted for such purposes8 ,what reason is there for combining fish1 salad dressing1 and rolls8 ,how much fat and protein does canned salmon and tunny contain 7see ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh78 ,compare this with the quantity of fat and protein in beef steak 7see ,figure #fh74 ,,lesson ,,xcvi ,,cream ,,of ,,tomato ,,soup ,,and ,,cheese ,,straws ,,combining ,,milk ,,with ,,acid4--,in the preparation of ,cream of ,tomato ,soup1 it is necessary to combine milk with tomatoes1--a food containing acid4 ,if the following experiments are performed1 and applications drawn from the results of the experiments1 it should be possible to make this soup successfully4 ,,experiment #fa3 ,,effect ,,of ,,acid ,,on ,,milk4--,put a small quantity of milk in a test tube1 heat it slightly1 and add a few drops of some acid substance1-- tomato juice1 lemon juice1 or vinegar4 ,what is the result8 ,,experiment #fb3 ,,neutralization ,,of ,,acid ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,soda4--,put a small quantity of any of the acids mentioned above in a test tube and add #a_/d teaspoonful baking soda4 ,what happens8 ,now add a little milk to the mixture4 ,does the milk curdle8 ,how has the acid been changed so that it does not curdle the milk8 ,what conclusions may be drawn from this as to the use of soda in cooking tomato and milk mixtures8 ,,cream ,,of ,,tomato ,,soup #a can tomatoes #a_/d teaspoonful baking soda #a quart milk #a_/c cupful flour #a_/d cupful butter or substitute #a tablespoonful salt #a_/h teaspoonful pepper ,turn the tomatoes into a saucepan1 cover them2 cook at simmering temperature for about fifteen minutes4 ,press through a strainer and add the baking soda4 ,make a ,white ,sauce of the milk1 flour1 and fat1 remove from the fire4 ,add the hot tomatoes slowly to the ,white ,sauce1 stirring constantly4 ,add the seasonings4 ,do not heat the mixture after combining the tomatoes and ,white ,sauce4 ,serve at once4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #fd--,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,milk ,,and ,,milk ,,products ,cream of ,tomato ,soup may also be prepared by making a sauce of the tomatoes1 flour1 and fat1 adding the baking soda and pouring the sauce into the hot milk and finally adding the seasonings4 ,note that in either method of preparation1 the tomato is added to the milk and the salt is added just before serving4 ,only enough baking soda is used to affect a portion of the acid of the tomatoes so that the pleasing acid flavor of the tomatoes still predominates4 ,,cheese ,,straws #b_/c cupful flour #a_/d teaspoonful salt ,cayenne #a cupful soft bread crumbs #a cupful grated cheese #b tablespoonfuls milk ,mix the ingredients in the order given in the recipe4 7,the milk should merely moisten the ingredients so they will stick together4 ,it may be necessary to increase the quantity47 ,on a slightly floured board roll the mixture to #a_/d inch thickness4 ,cut in strips #a_/d inch wide and #d to #f inches long4 ,place on an oiled pan4 ,bake until brown in a moderate oven4 ,,questions ,why should tomatoes be covered when cooked for soup8 ,why should they be cooked at simmering rather than boiling temperature8 ,from the results of your experiments 7see ,experiments #fa and #fb7 explain why soda is added to the tomatoes in ,cream of ,tomato ,soup4 ,what is the purpose of adding the strained tomatoes or ,tomato ,sauce slowly to the ,white ,sauce or milk8 ,why should the soup be served at once after combining the tomato and milk mixture8 ,if enough ,cream of ,tomato ,soup were prepared for two meals1 how and when should the tomatoes and ,white ,sauce be mixed8 ,what is the price per can of tomatoes8 ,how many cupfuls in one can of tomatoes8 ,with the aid of ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh and illustrations in this text1 tabulate the composition of tomatoes1 whole milk 7see ,figure #fd71 cheese 7see ,figure #ge71 flour1 and bread 7see ,figure #gg74 ,explain why ,cream of ,tomato ,soup and ,cheese ,straws make a desirable combination from the standpoint of composition and use in the body4 ,,lesson ,,xcvii ,,veal ,,and ,,potatoes ,,muscle ,,of ,,young ,,animals4--,the muscle of an undeveloped animal contains more water than does the muscle of a mature animal4 ,it is also lacking in flavor and usually contains little fat4 ,the meat does not keep so well as that of a mature animal2 therefore it should be used at once and not allowed to hang4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #fe4--;,,cuts ,,of ,,veal4 ,,cuts ,,of ,,veal 7see ,figure #fe74 ,,name ,,of ,,cut ,,form ,,of ,,cut ,,method ,,of ,,cooking ,a4 ,loin4 ,chops4 ,sauteing4 ,thick ,pieces4 ,roasting4 ,b4 ,leg4 ,steaks--veal cutlets ,sauteing4 or veal steak4 ,stewing4 ,thick ,pieces4 ,roasting4 ,c4 ,knuckle4 ,whole4 ,stewing4 ,soup-making4 ,d4 ,rib or ,rack4 ,chops4 ,sauteing4 ,thick ,pieces4 ,roasting4 ,e4 ,shoulder4 ,thick ,pieces4 ,stuffing and ,roasting4 ,whole4 ,braising4 ,f4 ,neck4 ,thick ,pieces4 ,stewing4 ,g4 ,g4 ,breast4 ,thick ,pieces4 ,roasting4 ,whole4 ,stewing4 ,sweetbreads ,whole--in pairs4 ,parboiling and 7thymus glands7 ,sauteing1 ,broiling1 --,throat and etc4 ,heart ,sweetbreads4 ,,veal4--,veal is the muscle of the calf or young cow4 ,it has the characteristic qualities of undeveloped muscle4 ,because it is lacking in flavor1 it should be seasoned with herbs and spices1 or served with a sauce of pronounced flavor4 ,it is also improved by adding some fat1 or some meat containing considerable fat such as pork4 ,a calf is usually killed when it is six or eight weeks old4 ,the season for veal is spring2 it can usually be purchased1 however1 throughout the year4 ,the muscle of the veal should be pink in color1 and the fat1 white4 ,the meat of a calf less than six weeks old is lacking in color4 ,the connective tissue in veal is abundant1 but it is easily changed to gelatine by cooking4 ,veal is generally considered difficult of digestion4 ,,veal ,,cutlets 7,,steak7 ,clean the meat2 then remove the bone and tough membranes4 ,cut the meat into pieces for serving4 ,cover the bone and the tough pieces of meat with cold water and cook at a low temperature4 7,this stock is to be used in the sauce47 ,small pieces of meat may be put together by using wooden toothpicks for skewers4 ,season the veal with salt and pepper4 ,roll in dried bread crumbs1 dip in beaten egg1 then in crumbs again4 ,put #b tablespoonfuls of drippings or other fat in a frying pan4 ,brown the cutlets in the fat4 ,remove the veal2 in the frying pan prepare the following3 ,,sauce ,,for ,,cutlets #c tablespoonfuls drippings #a_/d cupful flour #a_/b tablespoonful salt #a_/h teaspoonful pepper #b cupfuls stock or water #b tablespoonfuls chopped parsley #a teaspoonful ,worcestershire sauce ,make a brown sauce1 using all ingredients except the ,worcestershire sauce 7see ,brown ,sauce74 ,add the cutlets to the sauce1 and cook them at simmering temperature for #a hour or until tender4 ,just before serving1 add the ,worcestershire sauce4 ,beef may be prepared in the same way4 ,,veal ,,with ,,egg ,,dressing #a pound veal steak1 sliced thin #b eggs #c_/d cupful flour ,salt and pepper ,cut the meat into pieces of suitable size for serving4 ,brown each piece in fat4 7,use scraps of fat cut from the meat47 ,mix the egg1 flour1 and seasoning4 ,spread both sides of each piece of meat with the egg mixture4 ,again brown the pieces of meat in fat4 ,then add boiling water and let the meat cook at simmering temperature for at least #b hours4 ,serve hot4 ,beef may be substituted for veal4 ,,potato ,,puff #b cupfuls mashed potatoes #b tablespoonfuls milk #a tablespoonful butter or substitute #a teaspoonful salt ,pepper #a egg ,mix all the ingredients except the egg4 ,separate the egg1 and beat the white and the yolk4 ,beat the yolk into the potato mixture2 then add the white by cutting and folding-in4 ,turn into a buttered baking-dish or drop by spoonfuls on a buttered baking-sheet4 ,bake until the egg is cooked and the top brown4 ,serve at once4 ,the egg may also be added unbeaten to the potatoes1 and the entire mixture beaten vigorously4 ,,questions ,why is cold water1 rather than hot1 used for making meat stock8 ,how does veal stock compare in color with beef stock8 ,what is the stock called that is made from veal8 ,why is this meat cooked at simmering rather than at boiling temperature8 ,why is it desirable to use parsley and ,worcestershire sauce with veal8 ,is it desirable to use ,worcestershire sauce with beef or mutton8 ,explain your answer4 ,why is ,worcestershire sauce not cooked with the brown sauce8 ,locate veal cutlets or veal steak 7see ,figure #fe74 ,to what cut of beef does it correspond8 ,what cut of veal corresponds to the tenderloin cuts of beef8 ,how does the cutting and the using of the rib section of veal differ from that of beef8 ,what are the prices per pound of each cut of veal8 ,arrange in tabulated form and record the date4 ,from ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of veal cutlets or veal steak4 ,compare with the percentage composition of beef steak 7see ,figure #fh74 ,potato ,puff may be prepared from either hot or cold mashed potatoes4 ,should the temperature of the oven be the same for each8 ,explain your answer4 ,what is the purpose of the egg in the potato mixture8 ,which would give the better result when added to the potato mixture1 beaten egg or unbeaten egg8 ,give the reason for your answer4 ,how many persons will the ,potato ,puff recipe serve8 ,from ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of fresh potatoes 7see ,figure #fb7 and boiled potatoes4 ,how much nutriment is lost by boiling one pound of potatoes8 ,by what method can potatoes be cooked in order to retain the most nutriment8 ,give reasons for combining veal and potatoes4 ,,lesson ,,xcviii ,,mutton ,,and ,,lamb ,,dishes ,,mutton4--,mutton is the meat obtained from the sheep4 ,the animal is usually about three years of age when killed4 ,like beef1 mutton needs to hang a few days before using4 ,it is considered as nutritious and as easily digested as beef4 ,its strong flavor may be destroyed by removing the pink skin and much of the fat4 ,the latter has such a strong flavor1 that it cannot be used for cooking unless it is tried out with onion1 apple1 and dried herbs4 ,mutton fat so prepared is sometimes termed savory fat4 ,it is thought that the fat dissolves certain flavoring materials present in the fruit1 vegetable1 and herbs4 ,the caramelized carbohydrate formed by browning the apple and onion also adds to the flavor4 ,footnote #fh3 ,see ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin1 ,no4 #ebf4 ,mutton fat is useful for soap-making4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ff4--;,,cuts ,,of ,,lamb ,,or ,,mutton ,,lamb4--,lamb is meat obtained from the young sheep1 killed when from six weeks to one year old4 ,as the animal matures1 the blood recedes from its joints2 hence the joints of lamb are pink in color1 while those of mutton are white4 ,lamb has the characteristics of the meat of immature animals4 ,it contains more water and a little less fat than mutton1 and should not be allowed to hang4 ,it is more delicate in flavor than is mutton4 ,lamb should be well cooked2 mutton is sometimes served rare4 ,,food ,,combinations ,,cuts ,,of ,,lamb ,,and ,,mutton 7see ,figure #ff74 ,name of ,cut ,form ,of ,cut ,method ,of ,cooking ,a4 ,loin4 ,chops--,loin chops 7see ,broiling4 ,figure #fg74 ,roasting4 ,thick pieces 7loin sections of both hind quarters in one piece called ,saddle of ,mutton74 ,b4 ,leg4 ,slices4 ,broiling4 ,thick pieces4 ,roasting4 ,stewing4 ,c4 ,rib4 ,chops--rib chops7see ,fig- ,broiling4 ure #fg7 7when trimmed ,roasting4 called ,french chops4 see ,figure #fg74 ,thick ,pieces 7rib sections of both fore quarters in one piece called ,rack of ,mutton74 ,d4 ,shoulder4 ,chops blade shoulder ,broiling4 chops 7see ,figure #fg7 ,braising4 and round shoulder ,roasting4 chops 7see ,figure #fg74 ,stuffing and ,thick ,pieces4 ,roasting4 ,whole4 ,e4 ,breast4 ,thick ,pieces4 ,stewing4 ,broth-making4 ,f4 ,neck4 ,thick ,pieces4 ,stewing4 ,broth-making4 ,,stuffed ,,shoulder ,,of ,,lamb #d to #e pounds shoulder of lamb1 boned1 cleaned1 and stuffed with the mixture used in ,stuffed ,meat ,roast4 7,double the quantity of ingredients for the shoulder of lamb47 ,add the stuffing to the meat2 then lace 7see ,baked ,fish7 or skewer into shape4 ,season1 and dredge with flour4 ,place drippings or other fat in a frying pan or iron roasting pan1 and brown the surface of the meat4 ,place the lamb on the rack in a roasting pan1 add boiling water2 cover2 and bake in a moderate oven1 allowing one half hour to the pound4 ,shoulder of veal may be prepared and stuffed in the same way4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college4 ,,figure #fg4--,,lamb ,,chops4 ,upper row3 ,rib chops1--,french4 ,loin chops4 ,lower row3 ,rib chops4 ,blade shoulder chop4 ,round bone shoulder chop4 ,,mint ,,sauce #a cupful fresh mint #a_/b cupful vinegar #a_/d cupful sugar ,chop the leaves and the tender tips of the mint4 ,dissolve the sugar in the vinegar1 and add the mint4 ,let the sauce stand one hour before using4 ,heat over hot water before serving4 ,,lamb ,,or ,,mutton ,,in ,,the ,,casserole #b pounds neck1 breast1 or shoulder of lamb or mutton ,flour ,fat for browning ,water or stock #d carrots #b cupfuls peas #b teaspoonfuls salt ,pepper #a_/b bay leaf #c allspice berries ,cut the meat into pieces suitable for serving4 ,roll in flour1 and brown in a frying pan with hot fat4 ,remove to the casserole1 and cover with boiling water or stock4 ,wash1 scrape1 and cut the carrots into halves4 ,add them and the spices to the meat in the casserole4 ,cover1 and cook at simmering temperature for two hours4 ,then add the peas and the seasoning4 ,cook until tender4 ,serve hot from the casserole4 ,one half cupful of cooked rice may be used instead of the carrots and peas4 ,tomatoes also make a pleasing addition4 ,,the ,,casserole4--,the casserole is a popular utensil for cooking and serving4 ,it is suitable for foods that need to be cooked at a low temperature for a long period of time2 hence its adaptability to tough cuts of meat4 ,because the casserole is tightly covered1 foods may be cooked in it with little loss by evaporation4 ,the flavor is retained also1 if the cooking is carefully done4 ,the use of the casserole in serving is a distinct advantage1 since the foods may be served hot4 ,the casserole may be used in the oven or on top of the range4 ,if a covered crock is used in place of the regulation casserole1 a dinner napkin should be folded neatly around it for serving4 ,,questions ,tell how lamb can be distinguished from mutton4 ,give two reasons for adding dried herbs to the stuffing for lamb4 ,give two reasons for serving ,mint ,sauce with lamb4 ,what is the purpose of first browning the lamb that is to be roasted8 ,illustration3 ,,figure #fh4--,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,fresh ,,and ,,cured ,,meats4 7,revised edition7 ,what is the easiest method of adding extra flour to the sauce around lamb or mutton in the casserole 7see ,thickening the ,sauce of ,meat ,cooked in ,water78 ,how many persons will this recipe serve8 ,name the advantages of cooking meat in a casserole4 ,give a dietetic reason for combining carrots1 peas1 or rice1 with lamb or mutton4 ,distinguish between rib and loin chops of lamb or mutton4 ,what is a ,french chop8 ,obtain the prices per pound of each cut of mutton or lamb4 ,arrange in tabulated form and record the date4 ,from ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of the hind quarter of mutton4 ,compare it with the composition of beef steak4 ,tabulate the percentage composition of beets1 carrots1 parsnips1 and turnips4 ,which contains the most carbohydrates8 ,which the most ash8 ,,lesson ,,xcix ,,pork1 ,,vegetables1 ,,and ,,apple ,,sauce ,,pork4--,pork is meat obtained from the pig4 ,in all meats1 much fat is entangled in the network of connective tissue that binds the muscle fibers4 ,pork1 however1 contains more fat than does any other meat4 ,the fat is most intimately mingled with the lean4 ,for this reason it is digested slowly4 ,fresh pork should be used sparingly4 ,its use should be confined to the winter months4 ,pork should be thoroughly cooked4 ,it sometimes contains organisms which may produce serious results1 if not destroyed in the cooking4 ,pork is made more wholesome by curing1 salting1 and smoking4 ,the fat of bacon is readily digested4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #fi4--;,,cuts ,,of ,,pork4 ,,cuts ,,of ,,pork 7see ,figure #fi74 ,,name ,,of ,,cut ,,form ,,of ,,cut ,,method ,,of ,,cooking ,a4 ,loin4 ,chops--rib and loin ,sauteing4 chops 7freed from fat ,roasting4 called spare ribs7 --cut into chops or thick pieces4 ,b4 ,ham ,slices4 ,sauteing4 7usually smoked74 ,whole4 ,boiling4 ,roasting4 ,c4 ,back 7all fat74 ,strips4 ,tried out 7its ,slices4 fat used for sauteing1 frying1 and flavoring71 ,larding4 ,d4 ,shoulder ,slices4 ,sauteing4 7smoked or fresh74 ,whole4 ,boiling4 ,roasting4 ,e4 ,bacon 7smoked7 ,thin or thick slices4 ,sauteing4 or ,salt ,pork4 ,broiling4 ,,pork ,,chops ,,with ,,sweet ,,potatoes ,pare sweet potatoes1 and place them in the bottom of a roasting pan4 ,wipe the pork chops1 and place them on top of the potatoes4 ,place the roasting pan on the top shelf of a hot oven1 in order to brown the chops4 ,brown on one side2 turn the chops with a fork1 and brown on the other side4 ,then remove the roasting pan from the oven1 sprinkle the chops with salt1 pepper1 and powdered sage4 ,add a little boiling water4 ,return to the oven4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #gj4--,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,fresh ,,and ,,dried ,,fruits4 7,revised edition7 ,cover and bake #a hour1 or until the potatoes are tender4 ,baste the potatoes and meat occasionally4 ,remove the chops to the center of a hot platter1 and surround them with the potatoes4 ,serve at once with ,apple ,sauce 7for preparation of ,apple ,sauce1 see ,fruit ,sauces74 ,,turnips ,,with ,,fresh ,,pork #a #a_/b pounds fresh pork 7shoulder7 #c medium sized turnips #a tablespoonful salt #b tablespoonfuls flour ,pepper ,clean the meat1 put it in a saucepan1 and add enough boiling water to cover4 ,cook at simmering temperature for #a #a_/b hours4 ,pare the turnips1 cut them into cubes4 ,when the meat has cooked #a_/b hour1 add the turnips and salt and continue cooking for #a hour or until the meat and vegetables are tender4 ,mix the flour with enough cold water 7about #b tablespoonfuls7 to make a thin batter4 ,add it to the meat and turnips4 ,stir and cook for at least #aj minutes4 ,add a dash of pepper4 ,serve hot4 ,,broiled ,,ham ,parboil in boiling water for #aj minutes a slice of ham about #a_/b inch thick4 ,place in a broiler and broil1 or place in a frying pan and pan- broil1 turning often4 ,garnish with parsley and serve at once4 ,,bacon ,place thin slices of bacon 7from which the rind has been removed7 in a hot frying-pan4 ,as the fat tries out1 drain it from the bacon4 ,scorching of the fat is thus prevented4 ,cook the bacon until it is brown and crisp1 turning once4 ,bacon fat should be saved4 ,it can be used in cooking4 ,,scalloped ,,potatoes ,,with ,,bacon #d medium potatoes #a_/d pound sliced bacon ,flour ,salt1 used sparingly ,pepper ,milk ,pare the potatoes and cut them into thin slices4 ,cook the bacon until brown2 cut each slice of bacon into several pieces4 ,oil a baking-dish and place a layer of potatoes in it1 then a layer of bacon and some of the tried-out bacon fat4 ,sprinkle with flour1 salt1 and pepper4 ,repeat1 until all the ingredients are used2 the top layer should be of bacon4 ,add milk until it reaches the top layer4 ,bake in a moderate oven for one hour1 or until much of the milk has evaporated and the potatoes are tender4 ,serve hot4 #a_/d cupful of bacon drippings may be used instead of sliced bacon4 ,,questions ,why should fresh pork be used in winter rather than in summer8 ,why is pork slow in digesting8 ,explain why vegetables and ,apple ,sauce are desirable foods to serve with pork 7see ,figure #fb1 ,figure #fh1 and ,figure #gj74 ,for what reason should pork be cooked thoroughly8 ,what is the purpose of parboiling ham before broiling it8 ,what ingredient1 invariably used in ,scalloped ,potatoes1 is omitted in ,scalloped ,potatoes with ,bacon8 ,what is substituted for this material8 ,why should salt be added sparingly to potatoes cooked with bacon8 ,how many persons does the given quantity of ,scalloped ,potatoes with ,bacon and of ,turnips with ,fresh ,pork serve8 ,to what cut of beef does ham correspond8 ,from ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of fresh and salted ham4 ,compare it with the composition of beef steak 7see ,figure #fh74 ,obtain the price per pound of each cut of pork4 ,arrange in tabulated form and record date4 ,,lesson ,c ,,chicken ,,and ,,rice ,,poultry4--,poultry includes chicken 7or common fowl71 turkey1 duck1 and goose--domestic birds suitable for food4 ,pigeon and squab are not considered poultry4 ,chickens that are three or four months old are called spring chickens or broilers4 ,birds older than one year are sometimes called fowls4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ga4--,,removing ,,tendons ,,from ,,the ,,leg ,,of ,a ,,fowl4 ,,selection ,,of ,,chicken ,,and ,,fowl4--,chickens and fowls have certain characteristics which make them readily distinguishable4 ,chickens have soft feet1 a soft and flexible breast bone1 many pin feathers1 and little fat4 ,fowls have hard and scaly feet1 rigid breast bone1 long hairs1 and much fat surrounding the intestines4 ,,digestion ,,of ,,poultry4--,the muscle of chicken1 fowl1 and turkey contains little fat2 the fat that exists is in layers directly under the skin and around the intestines4 ,the fibers of the muscle are short4 ,for this reason1 and also because they have so little fat1 these meats are readily digested4 ,the white meat contains less fat than the dark4 ,illustration with caption3 ,,figure #gb--;,,fowl ,,trussed ,,for ,,roasting4 ,,breast ,,view ,,dressing ,,and ,,cleaning ,,poultry4--,singe1 by holding the bird over a flame of gas1 alcohol1 or burning paper4 ,cut off the head1 push back the skin1 and cut off the neck close to the body4 ,cut through the skin around the leg one inch below the leg joint4 ,if it is a fowl1 take out the tendons2 remove them separately1 using a skewer 7see ,figure #ga74 ,remove the pin feathers with the point of a knife or with a strawberry huller4 ,cut the oil bag from the tail4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #gc--;,,fowl ,,trussed ,,for ,,roasting1--,,back ,,view4 ,the internal organs are not always removed before the chicken is sold4 ,if they have not been removed1 make an opening under one of the legs or at the vent1 leaving a strip of skin above the vent4 ,remove the organs carefully1--the intestines1 gizzard1 heart1 and liver should all be removed together4 ,care must be taken that the gall bladder1 which lies under the liver1 is not broken2 it must be cut away carefully from the liver4 ,the lungs and kidneys1 lying in the hollow of the backbone1 must be carefully removed4 ,press the heart to extract the blood4 ,cut off the outer coat of the gizzard4 ,the gizzard1 heart1 and liver constitute the giblets to be used in making gravy4 ,wash the giblets4 ,place them all1 with the exception of the liver1 in cold water2 heat quickly and cook 7at simmering temperature7 until tender4 ,add the liver a short time before removing the other giblets from the stove1 as it does not require long cooking4 ,clean the bird by wiping it thoroughly inside and out with a damp cloth1 stuff and truss for roasting1 or cut into pieces for fricassee or stew4 ,if the bird is stuffed1 the incision in the skin may be fastened together as directed for ,baked ,fish4 ,,trussing ,,fowl4--,insert a skewer through the fowl just underneath the legs1 then thrust another skewer through the wings and breast4 ,with a piece of string1 tie the ends of the legs together and fasten them to the tail4 ,then wind the ends of the string fastened to the tail1 around the ends of the skewer beneath the legs4 ,cross the strings over the back1 and wind them around the ends of the skewer through the wings2 tie the strings together at the back4 ,if trussed in this manner1 there is no string across the breast of the fowl4 ,a fowl should be served breast side up 7see ,figures #gb and #gc74 ,,cutting ,a ,,fowl4--,cut off the leg1 and separate it at the joint into drumstick and second joint4 ,cut off the wing and remove the tip2 make an incision at the middle joint4 ,remove the leg and wing from the other side2 separate the wishbone with the meat on it1 from the breast1 cut through the ribs on each side1 and separate the breast from the back4 ,cut the breast in half lengthwise and the back through the middle crosswise4 ,there should be twelve pieces4 ,the neck and the tips of the wings may be cooked with the giblets for making gravy4 ,,stewed ,,chicken ,footnote #fi3 ,stewed ,chicken may be utilized for ,chicken ,croquettes7 or ,creole ,stew4 ,cover the pieces of chicken with boiling water1 and cook at boiling temperature for #ae minutes2 then add one tablespoonful of salt and cook at simmering temperature until tender4 ,arrange the pieces on a platter1 placing the neck at one end of the platter and the drumsticks at the other1 and the remaining pieces in order between4 ,cover with a sauce4 ,the chicken may be placed on pieces of toast or served in a border of cooked rice4 ,,sauce ,,for ,,chicken #c tablespoonfuls tried-out chicken fat or butter or substitute #a_/d cupful of flour #a teaspoonful salt #b tablespoonfuls chopped parsley #a pint stock #b egg yolks or #a egg #a_/h teaspoonful pepper ,prepare the sauce 7see ,cream ,toast71 and pour it over the well- beaten eggs1 stirring until thoroughly mixed4 ,cook until the eggs are coagulated4 ,serve at once over chicken4 ,,questions ,why is chicken more readily digested than other meat8 ,what is the reason for cooking stewed chicken #ae minutes in boiling water8 ,why is the salt not added at first8 ,why should the chicken finally be cooked at simmering temperature rather than at boiling8 ,what use can be made of the fat of a fowl8 ,what is the purpose of the eggs in ,sauce for ,chicken8 ,explain fully why rice or toast makes a desirable addition to ,stewed ,chicken4 ,,lesson ,,ci ,,chicken ,,and ,,peas ,,chicken ,,croquettes #b #a_/b cupfuls chopped chicken or fowl ,onion juice #b tablespoonfuls lemon juice #a tablespoonful parsley ,,sauce #a pint cream or milk #a_/c cupful fat #a_/b cupful flour #a #a_/b teaspoonfuls salt #a_/h teaspoonful pepper #a teaspoonful celery salt ,chop the chicken very fine2 add the seasonings4 ,make the sauce 7see ,cream ,toast74 ,add the chicken to the sauce4 ,cool the mixture4 ,shape into cones4 ,cover with dried bread crumbs and egg1 and cook in deep fat 7see ,fried ,oysters74 ,drain on paper4 ,serve at once with green peas4 ,an egg may be beaten and added to the sauce1 before mixing it with the meat4 ,,questions ,what is the purpose of cooling the chicken mixture before shaping it into croquettes 7see ,experiment #ag78 ,how many croquettes does this recipe make8 ,how many cupfuls of chopped meat can be obtained from fowl of average weight8 ,what is the average weight of a chicken one year old8 ,how long does it take to cook it8 ,what is the average weight of a spring chicken8 ,what is the present market price of spring chicken8 ,of fowl8 ,compare the composition of fowl with that of round steak1 using ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture ,bulletin ,no4 #bh4 ,also record the percentage of refuse in a fowl when it is purchased4 ,considering the refuse in fowl1 what is the price per pound8 ,tabulate the percentage composition of fresh and dried peas and beans1 and of dried lentils4 ,which are richer in protein1 the fresh or the dried vegetables 7see ,figure #gf78 ,,lesson ,,cii ,,oyster ,,dishes ,,experiment #fc4 ,,protein ,,in ,,oyster ,,liquor4--,pour a small quantity of oyster liquor into a test tube and boil it4 ,what change takes place8 ,from your previous experience with eggs1 what foodstuff would you infer that oysters contain8 ,what inference can you draw from this as to the temperature at which oysters should be cooked8 ,,oysters4--,an oyster is an animal covered with shell4 ,the shell1 which consists of mineral matter1 protects the animal4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #gd--;,,composition ,,of ,,fish1 ,,fish ,,products ,,and ,,oysters 7,revised edition7 ,the oyster has no head1 arms1 or legs1 but it has a mouth1 liver1 gills1 and one strong muscle4 ,the mouth is near the hinge-end of the shell2 by means of the hinge1 the shell is opened and water and food taken in2 by means of the muscle1 the shell is closed4 7,find the muscle in an oyster2 then the dark spot1--this is the liver2 also find the fluted portions that partly surround the liver1--these are the gills47 ,oysters are in season from ,september until ,may4 ,they are sometimes eaten during the summer months1 but are not so palatable and are more apt to be contaminated by the bacteria of warm water4 ,the bluish green color of some oysters is due to the oyster's feeding upon vegetable materials4 ,this does not harm the flavor of the oyster4 ,oysters are sometimes placed in fresh water streams or in water which is less salt than that in which they have grown to fatten them4 ,the animals take in the fresh water1 become plump1 and increase in weight4 ,if the water is sewage-polluted1 the oysters become contaminated with dangerous bacteria4 ,methods of cooking usually applied to oysters1 such as stewing and boiling1 may not destroy all bacteria4 ,hence1 the danger in eating oysters taken from polluted water4 ,when oysters are prepared for market1 they are sorted according to size4 ,blue points1 or small oysters originally grown in ,blue ,point1 are prized for serving raw in the half shell4 ,this name1 however1 no longer indicates the place from which the oysters come1 but is applied to small oysters in the shell4 ,large oysters selected for frying may be purchased4 ,oysters are found at markets either in the shell or with the shell removed4 ,since oysters spoil readily1 they must be kept cold during transportation4 ,they are now shipped in containers surrounded by ice4 ,formerly ice was placed in contact with the oysters4 ,note the percentage composition of oysters 7see ,figure #gd74 ,with such a large quantity of water1 the oyster has little food value4 ,oysters are prized for their flavor1 but make an expensive food4 ,cooking makes oysters somewhat tough1 but it sterilizes them and makes them safer to use4 ,it is considered that oysters properly cooked are easily digested4 ,they should be eaten when very fresh4 ,they spoil quickly and develop poisonous products4 ,,cleaning ,,oysters4--,drain off the liquor4 ,if the liquor is to be used1 strain it through a fine strainer4 ,place the oysters in a strainer or colander1 and wash them4 ,do not allow oysters to stand in water after washing4 ,run each oyster through the fingers to remove pieces of shell that may be clinging to it4 ,,oyster ,,stew #a cupful milk #a pint oysters #a tablespoonful butter ,salt and pepper ,heat the milk in a double boiler2 add the seasonings and butter4 ,clean the oysters2 cook them in a saucepan until they become plump and the edges curl4 ,add the hot milk and serve at once4 ,the milk may be thickened with #a tablespoonful of flour 7see recipe for ,thin ,white ,sauce74 ,serve crackers or bread with ,oyster ,stew4 ,,scalloped ,,oysters #a pint oysters #a_/b teaspoonful salt #c cupfuls soft bread crumbs #c tablespoonfuls butter or substitute #a_/d cupful oyster juice or milk ,cayenne ,wash the oysters1 strain the juice1 and butter the crumbs4 ,add the seasoning to the oysters4 ,place one fourth of the buttered crumbs in the bottom of a buttered baking-dish4 ,add one half of the oysters1 another fourth of the crumbs1 then the remainder of the oysters1 the liquid1 and finally the remaining half of the buttered crumbs4 ,bake in a moderate oven from #cj to #dj minutes4 ,if baked in individual baking-dishes1 only #ae minutes will be required for baking4 ,,questions ,count and record the number of oysters in one pint4 ,from ,figures #fd and #gd1 tabulate the percentage composition of oysters and milk4 ,find the weight of one cupful of oysters and of one cupful of milk4 ,how do they compare as to the amount of water1 protein1 and fat contained in one pint of each8 ,what is the difference in cost of one pint of each8 ,what is the purpose of straining the oyster liquor8 ,why should not oysters stand in water after washing 7see ,experiment #ch78 ,explain why oysters should be cooked only a short time4 ,what is the effect of long cooking upon oysters8 ,in ,scalloped ,oysters1 why is the liquid added before the last layer of crumbs8 ,how many persons do each of these oyster recipes serve8 ,what dietetic reason can be given for combining oysters and bread8 ,from ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of the following fish3 ,fresh and salt cod1 fresh and smoked herring1 fresh and salt mackerel1 fresh and canned salmon1 fresh perch1 and fresh white fish4 ,which contains the most fat8 ,how can fish be classified with regard to fat content 7see ,classes of ,fish78 ,which fish contains the most protein8 ,how do fish1 shellfish1 and beef compare in protein content8 ,which is the cheapest source of protein 7see ,figures #fh and #gd78 ,,lesson ,,ciii ,,meat-,,substitute ,,dishes ,,meat-,,substitute ,,materials4--,cottage cheese1 eggs1 peanuts1 and other legumes are valuable substitutes for meat4 ,the legumes with the exception of soy-beans and peanuts1 however1 do not contain complete protein4 ,hence1 their use with eggs or milk is desirable4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ge4--,the composition of eggs and cheese4 7,revised edition47 ,nuts are a form of fruit4 ,they are rich in nutritive materials4 ,if they can be digested readily1 they make a valuable food4 ,they need to be ground fine or chewed thoroughly1 however1 to make them digestible4 ,nuts contain much fat1 protein1 and little carbohydrates4 ,chestnuts1 however1 contain much of the latter foodstuff4 ,because they contain protein1 nuts may be used as substitutes for meat4 ,but most nuts are expensive4 ,for this reason in many households they are impractical as everyday foods4 ,,cottage ,,cheese ,,and ,,nut ,,loaf #a cupful cottage cheese #a cupful chopped nuts #a cupful soft bread crumbs #a teaspoonful salt #a_/h teaspoonful pepper #b teaspoonfuls lemon juice #b tablespoonfuls scraped onion #a tablespoonful fat ,mix the cheese1 nuts1 bread crumbs1 lemon juice1 salt1 and pepper4 ,cook the onion and fat together until they are brown4 ,add a small quantity of water and then add the onion mixture to the other ingredients4 ,if necessary1 add more water to moisten the mixture4 ,pour into a baking-dish and bake until brown4 7,from ,united ,states ,food ,administration ,leaflet47 ,,scalloped ,,eggs ,,with ,,cheese #f hard-cooked eggs #b cupfuls medium ,white ,sauce #b cupfuls buttered soft bread crumbs #c_/d cupful cheese ,grate the cheese1 or cut it into pieces1 and add it to the ,white ,sauce4 ,cut the eggs in slices4 ,oil a baking-dish1 and place the materials in the dish in layers1 having the lower and top layers of bread crumbs4 ,bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is heated through and the crumbs are browned4 ,serve hot in place of meat4 ,,peanut ,,roast #a #a_/b cupfuls dried bread crumbs ,milk #a #a_/b cupfuls shelled peanuts #d teaspoonfuls baking powder #a egg ,salt and pepper ,,figure #gf--,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,legumes ,,and ,,corn 7,revised edition47 ,cover the bread crumbs with milk1 and soak them until soft4 ,chop the peanuts very fine1 and mix with the baking powder2 beat the egg4 ,mix thoroughly all the ingredients1 and turn into an oiled bread pan4 ,bake about #de minutes in a moderate oven4 ,serve hot with ,tomato ,sauce4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #gg4--,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,bread ,,and ,,other ,,cereal ,,foods4 7,revised edition47 ,commercial salted peanuts may be used for ,peanut ,roast4 ,,questions ,from ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 find the percentage of protein in ,cream and ,cottage ,cheese1 eggs 7see ,figure #ge71 walnuts1 peanuts1 dried peas1 and beans 7see ,figure #gf71 and beef4 ,how many ounces of protein does a pound of each of these foods contain8 ,what is the price per pound of each of these foods8 ,which food is the cheapest source of protein8 ,why are bread crumbs a valuable addition to ,scalloped ,eggs with ,cheese 7see ,figure #gg78 ,name other meat-substitute foods and dishes4 ,,lesson ,,civ ,,meat ,,extenders ,,and ,,one-,,dish ,,meals ,,meat ,,extenders4--,the flavor of meat is generally liked4 ,doubtless the flavor accounts more than any other characteristic for the popularity of meat4 ,by using a small quantity of meat and combining it with various cereals and vegetables1 the flavor of meat permeates the mixture although its quantity is reduced and price consequently lowered4 ,foods containing such a combination of food materials are termed meat extenders4 ,those desiring to reduce the quantity of meat consumed either for the sake of health or economy will find meat-extending dishes desirable4 ,,one-,,dish ,,meals4--,when many demands other than those of housekeeping are made upon homekeepers it is often wise to lessen housekeeping duties4 ,it is both possible and satisfactory to cook an entire meal in one dish4 ,a meal consisting of one dish with a few accessories is termed a one-dish meal4 ,it is obvious that the one-dish meal is both simple and economical2 it saves time1 fuel1 and food2 it is a wise conservation measure4 ,in preparing the one-dish meal use a combination of two or more of the following groups of food3 7#a7 ,vegetables1 7#b7 ,milk1 or cheese1 or eggs1 or fish1 or meat1 or beans1 or nuts1 7#c7 ,cereal1 such as corn1 barley1 rice1 oats1 or buckwheat4 ,to two or more of these groups of food a small amount of fat or oil is generally added4 ,the use of such foods with a dessert or fruit or a plain salad makes a meal that satisfies the most exacting4 ,it is most interesting to select foods from the groups above that would eat well together4 ,the one-dish meal gives one the opportunity for a fascinating study of food combinations4 ,if the casserole or fireless cooker is used in their preparation1 the possibilities are limitless4 ,an examination of the meat-substitute dishes and meat extenders will show that most of these foods make one-dish meals4 ,,mutton ,,with ,,barley #a pound mutton #a onion #a_/b cupful pearled barley #b quarts water1 boiling #d potatoes ,celery leaves 7fresh or dried7 #a #a_/b teaspoonfuls salt ,cut the fat from the meat1 cut the meat into pieces4 ,put the fat and sliced onion in a frying pan4 ,brown the meat in the fat4 ,add the barley and water and let the mixture cook at simmering temperature for at least #a #a_/b hours4 ,pare the potatoes1 cut them into quarters4 ,add the potatoes and celery leaves and cook the mixture at boiling temperature until the potatoes are tender4 ,serve hot4 7,adapted from ,department of ,agriculture ,leaflet47 ,,tamale ,,pie #c_/d cupful corn-meal #a #a_/b teaspoonfuls salt #c cupfuls boiling water #a onion #a tablespoonful fat #a pound chopped meat #b cupfuls tomatoes ,dash ,cayenne pepper1 or #a small chopped sweet pepper #a #a_/d teaspoonfuls salt ,make a mush by stirring the corn-meal and #a #a_/b teaspoons salt into boiling water4 ,cook in a double boiler or over water for #de minutes4 ,brown the onion in the fat1 add the chopped meat1 and stir until the red color disappears4 ,add the tomato1 pepper1 and salt4 ,grease a baking-dish1 put in a layer of corn-meal mush1 add the seasoned meat1 and cover with mush4 ,bake #cj minutes4 7,adapted from ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture ,leaflet47 ,,creole ,,stew #a pound lean beef or #a medium fowl #a tablespoonful fat #a_/d cupful chopped onion #a_/b cupful chopped sweet peppers #a cupful boiling water #a_/b cupful rice #a cupful carrots or okra 7cut into small pieces7 #b cupfuls tomatoes #b #a_/b teaspoonfuls salt ,cut the meat into small pieces or cut the fowl into joints4 ,in a frying pan melt the fat1 add the onions1 peppers1 meat1 or chicken4 ,brown for a few minutes4 ,pour these materials into a casserole or kettle of the fireless cooker and add the other ingredients4 ,if the casserole is used1 cook at simmering temperature for #b hours4 ,if the stew is to be cooked in the fireless cooker1 cook it directly over the flame for #a_/b hour and then place it in the fireless cooker from #b to #c hours4 ,serve hot4 ,with chicken and okra this is the famous ,creole ,chicken of the ,south4 7,adapted from ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture ,leaflet47 ,,questions ,make a list of meat-extending dishes4 ,make a list of foods suitable for the main food of one-dish meals4 ,how many persons will one pound of meat serve8 ,how many persons will the dishes of this lesson 7each containing one pound of meat7 serve8 ,tell why the foods comprising these dishes are desirable food combinations4 ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,cv ,,menu-,,making ,,representation ,,of ,,all ,,essentials ,,of ,,diet4--,all the foodstuffs or nutrients should be represented in the foods of a meal1 or at least in the foods composing a day's diet4 ,the meal1 or the day's ration1 should consist of3 ,food rich in carbohydrates and fat1 to supply energy to the body4 ,food rich in protein ,footnote #gj3 ,protein is not only a body-builder1 but also a fuel4 ,but since it should be used chiefly for body-building 7see ,daily ,carbohydrate and ,fat ,requirement7 its energy-giving power is not considered in meal planning4 and ash1 to build the body4 ,food in the form of ash and water1 to regulate the processes of the body4 ,food containing vitamines1 to promote the health and growth of the body4 ,food containing cellulose1 to give bulk to diet4 ,water is supplied to some extent with almost all the foods of a meal1 but as mentioned previously1 a generous quantity should be used as a beverage4 ,a consideration of the kinds of food to meet the different needs of the body follows3 ,a4 ,food for ,energy4--,although both starch and sugar are carbohydrates which furnish energy to the body1 this need of the body should be supplied for the most part by starch4 ,the harmful effects of excessive sugar eating were mentioned previously4 ,a certain amount of fat is needed for energy-giving4 ,a meal containing fat stays by a person for a longer time than one devoid of foods rich in fat4 ,this is because fat is more slowly digested than other foodstuffs4 ,hence a vigorous person leading an active outdoor life may feel much more comfortable when fat is included in his diet4 ,on the other hand1 those exercising little find that fat-rich foods distress them greatly1 since they are too slowly digested4 ,for many persons1 the use of much fat is harmful4 ,since butter contains the fat-soluble vitamine1 it is valuable not only for energy-giving1 but for growth-promoting4 ,b4 ,food for ,body-building and ,repairing4--,both protein and ash are needed for body-building4 ,the former foodstuff contains the element nitrogen1--one of the necessary elements for the growth and maintenance of the body4 ,since there are several kinds of food containing protein1 the question arises whether protein is best supplied by meat1 eggs1 milk1 cheese1 or vegetable protein foods4 ,there are some who contend that meat is the least desirable source of protein food4 ,the use of much meat may lead to the formation of an excess of uric acid which is eliminated by some persons with difficulty4 ,it may also cause intestinal putrefaction4 ,many find that by using meat once a day their health is normal4 ,others find that by using meat but several times a week a more desirable condition is maintained4 ,doubtless many people would find themselves much benefited by using less meat4 ,if the quantity of meat eaten is greatly lessened1 care should be taken that protein is supplied by other foods1 such as eggs1 legumes1 cheese1 and the various meat-substitute dishes4 ,care should also be taken to see that complete proteins are included in diet4 ,if foods containing incomplete protein such as some of the legumes and cereals are used for body-building1 they should be supplemented by foods rich in complete protein such as milk and eggs4 ,if much meat is eaten1 a generous quantity of water and of fresh vegetables and fruits should be used4 ,while all the mineral materials found in the body ,footnote #ga3 ,the ash constituents existing in the body in largest quantity are3 ,sulphur ,chlorine ,calcium ,iron ,sodium ,magnesium ,potassium ,phosphorus are necessary for its growth and maintenance1 calcium1 phosphorus1 and iron are the elements most likely to be used in insufficient quantities 7see ,figures #gh1 #gi1 and #hj74 ,illustration3 ,,figure #gh4--;,,foods ,,containing ,,calcium4 a1 ,dried beans1 b1 dried figs2 c1 rutabaga1 d1 celery2 e1 milk2 f1 cauliflower1 g1 almonds2 h1 egg yolk2 i1 cheese ,calcium is needed for building the hard tissues such as the teeth and bones4 ,a diet deficient in calcium is sometimes the cause of poor teeth4 ,calcium is equally important for body-regulating functions4 ,it is especially necessary that calcium-rich food be given to children4 ,the most practical and effective way of obtaining calcium is to use a generous supply of milk4 ,cheese1 eggs1 and the leaves and stems of plant-foods are also valuable sources of calcium4 ,milk1 egg yolk1 cheese1 whole grains1 and vegetables are the most satisfactory sources of phosphorus4 ,a free use of these foods is especially desirable since it has been found that phosphorus is quite as necessary as nitrogen4 ,the whole grains are a very valuable source of ash4 ,many of the ash constituents in cereals are found next to the outer coat of bran1 hence fine white flour is not so rich in ash as whole wheat flour4 ,illustration3 ,foods ,containing ,phosphorus3 a ,dried peas2 b1 chocolate2 c1 dried beans2 d1 whole wheat2 e1 peanuts2 f1 cheese2 g1 cocoa2 h1 egg yolk4 ,in the formation of blood and for the welfare of the body as a whole1 iron is needed4 ,for this reason1 it is often a constituent of tonics4 ,if foods rich in iron were more generally used1 the body would not be so likely to get into a condition requiring such tonics4 ,the iron found in eggs1 milk1 and vegetable foods is thought to be more completely assimilated than that found in meat4 ,spinach and prunes are valuable sources of iron4 ,this is one of the reasons why they are most desirable foods for children4 ,the need of eggs1 dried fruits1 fresh vegetables1 and whole grain in diet to furnish iron should be emphasized4 ,sulphur is one of the necessary elements of the body4 ,it is usually found1 however1 as a component of protein2 hence if enough protein is supplied to the diet1 sulphur will be present in sufficient quantity4 ,as mentioned1 leafy vegetables not only supply calcium but sodium and chlorine1--two of the needed minerals of the body4 ,if fresh vegetables and fruits along with foods rich in calcium1 iron1 and phosphorus are used1 and these foods are cooked and served so as to retain all their nutriment1 one can be assured that the diet contains all the necessary ash constituents4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #hj4--;,,foods ,,containing ,,iron4 a4 ,dried peas2 b4 dried figs2 c4 whole wheat2 d4 lentils2 e4 spinach2 f4 dried dates2 g4 eggs2 h4 rye2 i4 lean beef2 j4 dried beans2 k4 raisins2 l4 dried lima beans4 ,c4 ,food for ,regulating4--,although ash is needed for body-building1 it also serves to regulate certain body processes as explained previously4 ,hence if the mineral matter valuable for building is used1 the body is also supplied with regulating materials4 ,d4 ,food for ,promoting ,growth4--,a discussion of vitamines1--the materials essential for growth of the body and the maintenance of health1--was given in a previous lesson4 ,it is most necessary that foods rich in vitamines be included in diet4 ,e4 ,food for ,bulk4--,the use of foods containing cellulose1 which adds bulk to diet1 is needed by most persons4 ,many foods rich in mineral matter also contain much cellulose4 ,vegetables1 fruits1 and whole grains furnish both of these materials4 ,,other ,,factors ,,to ,,be ,,considered ,,in ,,menu-,,making4--,for successful menu- making1 a number of factors other than the selection of foods to meet the needs of the body should be considered4 ,a discussion of these follows3 ,a4 ,appetizing ,foods4--,if the appetite needs stimulation1 foods which have an appetizing effect may be used for the first course of meals4 ,fruit is very often served for the first course of a breakfast and sometimes for the first course of a luncheon4 ,soup may serve as the appetizer of either a luncheon or dinner4 ,cream soup being especially nourishing because of its milk content not only serves as an appetizing food1 but as one of the nutritious foods of a meal4 ,b4 ,foods of ,contrasting ,flavor4--,if beef or some other protein-rich food is chosen for the main dish of a meal 7such as dinner71 root vegetables or grains rich in starch1 but bland in flavor1 are good additions4 ,by combining foods of decided flavor with those of less pronounced taste and those rich in one foodstuff with those abounding in another nutrient1 combinations that are both pleasing and varied in flavor may be secured4 ,a housekeeper needs to use imagination in selecting foods that will taste well together4 ,c4 ,variation of ,foods4--,the same food should not be used twice in the same meal1 even though it is prepared in a different form4 ,it would be monotonous to serve tomato soup and tomato salad1 or bean soup and baked beans at the same meal4 ,neither would one care to have hash served for both breakfast and luncheon on the same day4 ,of course such foods as bread and butter may be used with every meal4 ,d4 ,moist and ,dry ,foods4--,a combination of moist and dry foods is more pleasing than a combination of foods of equal dryness or moisture4 ,this does not mean that dry foods should be rinsed down with liquids2 that is unwise from a physiological standpoint4 ,to the majority of persons1 creamed potatoes are more desirable with broiled steak than plain boiled potatoes4 ,the latter would be more pleasing with meat served with a sauce or gravy4 ,e4 ,sweet ,foods4--,a sweet food should not be eaten at the beginning of a meal4 ,such sugar-rich foods as preserves and jellies may be served with the main course of a meal or at its close4 ,as explained previously1 the sugar is then diluted with other food materials and proves less irritating4 ,if desserts are included in a menu1 the practice of serving them at the close of a meal is desirable from a dietetic viewpoint4 ,when the appetite is partially appeased1 there is less tendency to eat large quantities of sweet foods4 ,a dessert that is rich in both fat and sugar such as pastry should be served only with a light meal1 while a light dessert such as fruit or gelatine may be used at the close of a heavy meal4 ,very often dried fruits and nuts are used as accessories after a meal4 ,they are then often digested with difficulty1 because the meal itself has taxed the digestive organs4 ,these foods should be considered as a part of the meal and should not be added after enough other nutrients have been eaten4 ,there is no reason why a wholesome dessert should not be considered one of the nutritious foods of a meal4 ,f4 ,milk and ,beverages4--,since milk is necessary for perfect nourishment it is well for adults to use it as a beverage for at least one meal each day4 ,children should use it at all meals4 ,if milk is distasteful to any or all members of a family1 cocoa made with much milk may be served in its stead4 ,in meal planning1 a housekeeper should see to it that the proper quantity of milk either as a beverage or constituent of such dishes as cream soup1 vegetables1 and custards is used by each member of the family4 ,when tea and coffee are included in meal plans1 the fact that these beverages have no food value except the milk and sugar added to them1 should be taken into consideration4 ,g4 ,foods on ,hand4--,when menus are made the thrifty housekeeper considers those materials she has on hand and especially those which would spoil if not used at once4 ,very often left-over material serves as a basis on which to plan one or more meals4 ,a housekeeper may drain from a vegetable the water in which it was cooked4 ,but she sees in it for the next meal or for the next day several possible uses4 ,the vegetable stock may be used in soup or it may be combined with milk or cheese and serve as a sauce for some left-over vegetable4 ,bread crumbs combined with milk1 peanuts1 or egg make a tasty meat substitute one week2 or they may be utilized in making bread pudding the second week2 a scalloped dish the third week2 and a meat loaf the fourth4 ,if several pieces of dry cake are on hand1 a tasty dessert may be made by pouring over them some hot sauce such as apple or chocolate4 ,dry cake may also be crumbed and used in place of flour and sugar in a steamed pudding4 ,it is possible1 of course1 for a housekeeper to spend an undue amount of time in utilizing left-overs or to defeat her efforts in thrift and buy expensive supplementary foods in order to use food on hand4 ,often it is wise to cook just enough so that there are no left-overs4 ,on the other hand1 it is sometimes economical as far as fuel and time are concerned to plan to cook enough food at one time for more than one meal4 ,this is especially true of foods requiring long cooking such as baked beans and other dried foods4 ,,menu ,,plans4--,serving meals in a number of courses should be attempted only where the housekeeper is assisted in her work4 ,for everyday living the meals of most families are served only in one or two courses4 ,although there are a great many things to be considered in menu-making1 it is not necessary to use a great variety of foods to meet the requirements of successful meal planning4 ,a breakfast consisting of fruit1 rolled oats1 and top milk1 for example1 is simple1 but it embraces all the factors involved in the planning of a desirable meal4 ,as previously mentioned1 the groups of foods may serve as a basis for menu planning4 ,after selecting foods from each group that are seasonable1 economic1 and that will taste well together it is wise to analyze the menu4 ,see if it contains all the essentials of diet to meet the needs of the body as explained previously4 ,some housekeepers find it helpful to have lists of dishes found to be satisfactory for serving1 such as lists of meat dishes1 vegetables1 salads1 desserts1 etc41 and glance over these when planning meals4 ,the menu plans which follow are merely suggestive4 ,both simple and more elaborate menus are given for each of the three meals4 ,a breakfast may consist of3 ,fruit ,cereal or ,eggs and ,toast ,beverage or ,fruit or ,cereal 7or both7 ,meat1 ,egg1 or ,vegetable ,bread and ,butter ,beverage ,a luncheon or supper may consist of3 ,cream ,soup ,bread and ,butter ,salad or fruit ,beverage or ,fruit or ,cream ,soup ,fish or ,meat ,substitutes ,vegetables ,bread and ,butter ,salad ,dessert ,beverage ,a dinner may consist of3 ,meat ,vegetables ,bread and ,butter ,salad or ,dessert ,beverage or ,clear ,soup ,fish ,meat ,vegetables ,bread ,with or ,without ,butter ,salad ,dessert ,beverage ,,questions ,mention several combinations of two or more foods that are varied in moisture1 dryness1 and composition1 and that are of contrasting flavor4 ,give reasons for making the combinations4 ,make out suitable menus in your home for a week4 ,compute the cost of the week's menus4 ,if the cost does not come within the limit that can be spent for food in your home1 change the menus so that the cost does not exceed the food allowance4 ,,lesson ,,cvi ,,planning1 ,,cooking1 ,,and ,,serving ,a ,,luncheon ,,or ,,supper ,plan a luncheon or supper1 ,footnote #gb3 ,if the laboratory period is limited to #ij minutes1 all this time will be required to cook and serve the meal and wash the dishes4 ,hence1 it will be necessary to do the meal planning in a previous lesson4 making it a one-dish meal or using a meat substitute instead of meat4 ,also use seasonable food-materials and follow the suggestions given in ,lesson ,,cv 4 ,compute the cost of the menu4 ,if it exceeds #bj cents per person1 change the menu so that its cost comes within this amount4 ,analyze the menu4 ,is food from each of the groups contained in it8 ,cook and serve the luncheon or supper4 ,follow the ,english or family style of serving4 ,serve the meal without a maid4 ,,lesson ,,cvii ,,review3 ,,meal ,,cooking ,,menu ,seasonable ,vegetable ,salad ,salad ,dressing ,salad ,rolls ,see ,lesson ,,xiv for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson4 ,,lesson ,,cviii ,,home ,,projects ,footnote #gc3 ,see ,lesson ,,ix ,,suggestions ,,for ,,home ,,work4--,plan and prepare one-dish meals or meals containing meat-substitute1--at least one a week4 ,plan and prepare meals containing meat1--at least one a week4 ,compute the cost of these meals4 ,also note the time required to prepare them4 ,,suggested ,,aims3 7#a7 ,to determine the difference in time required to cook a one-dish meal and a meal containing several different dishes4 7#b7 ,to determine the difference in cost of a meal without meat and one containing a meat-substitute4 ,,division ,,ten ,,quick ,,breads3 ,,pour ,,batters ,,lesson ,,cix ,,leavening ,,with ,,steam ,,and ,,air4 ,,popovers ,when flour is to be moistened and baked to make bread or cake1 other ingredients are usually added to improve the grain1 texture1 and flavor4 ,to understand some of the principles of mixing and lightening baked flour mixtures1 try the following3 ,,experiment #fd3 ,,leavening ,,with ,,steam ,,and ,,air4,footnote #gd3 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,experiments #fd and #fe can be performed most expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of two and having each group do the two experiments4--,mix #a_/h cupful of flour and #a_/h cupful of cold water4 ,beat thoroughly with a ,dover egg beater4 ,note the consistency of the batter4 ,pour at once into an oiled muffin pan4 ,bake in a hot oven for at least #bj minutes4 ,remove from the pan1 break it open1 and answer the following questions3 ,what happened during baking to the cold air inclosed in the mixture8 ,with what material did the flour combine during baking8 ,into what form was a part of the water changed during baking8 ,explain fully how the mixture was made porous4 ,,experiment #fe3 ,,comparison ,,of ,,thick ,,and ,,thin ,,quick ,,breads--,repeat ,experiment #fd1 using #a_/b tablespoonful of cold water instead of #a_/h cupful4 ,after baking1 examine and compare with the bread of ,experiment #fd4 ,which is the more porous8 ,explain how the difference in quantity of moisture accounts for the difference in grain4 ,if a mixture is to be leavened with steam and air1 what should be the consistency of the mixture8 ,some simple flour mixtures are lightened by the method indicated above4 ,in most cases1 however1 more air is introduced into the mixture by using lightly beaten eggs1 or by using ingredients that produce gas1 on being moistened and heated4 ,,experiment #ff3 ,,preparation ,,of ,,flour ,,for ,,quick ,,breads4--,measure #a_/d cupful of pastry flour just as it comes from the can4 ,sift it1 and return it carefully to the measuring cup1 using a teaspoon4 ,how much does the flour measure now8 ,what does this experiment teach with regard to sifting flour before measuring8 ,of what advantage is it to sift flour not only before measuring1 but when adding it to the other ingredients of a quick bread8 ,,note4--,use this sifted flour for making ,popovers4 ,in preparing all quick bread mixtures1 pastry flour 7see ,wheat ,flour7 should be used4 ,it should be sifted before measuring4 ,usually any other powdered ingredient1 such as baking powder1 soda1 or spices1 is added to the flour and mixed thoroughly 7by sifting7 into the other materials4 ,baking powder and soda need not be sifted before measuring1 but should be stirred4 ,,oven ,,thermometers ,,and ,,temperatures4--,the ovens of a number of ranges are equipped with thermometers4 ,although it is possible to secure more satisfactory results with a thermometer than without1 oven thermometers do not always indicate the temperature of an oven accurately4 ,if a thermometer is fastened on an oven door1 for example1 and the door does not heat as quickly or to as high a degree as the interior of the oven1 the true temperature of the oven cannot be ascertained by this device4 ,by making allowance for the difference1 however1 such a thermometer may prove very useful4 ,it is much more accurately and conveniently read than a thermometer which is hung or rests inside the oven unless the oven is provided with a glass door4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of the ,national ,stove ,co ,,figure #ha--,,oven ,,heat ,,regulator ,a device known as an ,oven ,heat ,regulator 7see ,figure #ha7 may be attached to gas ranges4 ,these devices do not merely measure the heat of an oven1 but control it and keep the oven temperature constant4 ,a temperature wheel 7shown at ,b7 is set for a desired temperature and the oven burner lighted4 ,by the expansion or contraction of a sensitive copper tube placed in the top of the oven 7shown at ,a7 the gas valve 7shown at ,c7 is opened or closed4 ,when the valve is opened the amount of gas burning is increased or decreased so that the temperature of the oven is kept constant1 i4e4 at the temperature at which the wheel is set4 ,insulated ovens1 i4e4 ovens which are constructed so as to retain heat and allow little to escape1 are found on some of the modern gas1 electric1 and kerosene stoves4 ,some of the insulated electric ovens are provided with clocks or dials which may be adjusted so that the current is cut off automatically at the expiration of a certain length of time1 or when a certain temperature is reached 7see ,figure #ad74 ,because of the insulated walls on such ovens1 the food continues to cook on stored heat4 ,a chemical thermometer inserted in an oven is a fairly satisfactory means of obtaining oven temperatures4 ,if one has the use of an oven provided with a chemical thermometer in the school kitchen1 tests may be obtained so that the temperature of the oven in the home kitchen may be estimated4 ,the tests are as follows3 ,heat the oven2 when it reaches a temperature of #bej degrees ,f41 ,footnote #ge3 ,see footnote #hf1 regarding the use of the ,fahrenheit scale4 place a piece of white paper in the oven4 ,after #e minutes1 remove the paper1 note the color4 ,continue to heat the oven2 place paper in the oven at #cej degrees ,f41 #djj degrees ,f41 #dbe degrees ,f41 #dej degrees ,f41 #dge degrees ,f41 #ejj degrees ,f41 #ebe degrees ,f41 and #eej degrees ,f4 ,note the color of each piece of paper4 ,baking temperatures have been classified as follows3 ,footnote #gf3 ,from ,technical ,education ,bulletin1 ,no4 #bb1 ,some ,attempts to ,standardize ,oven ,temperatures for ,cookery ,processes1 by ,may ,b4 ,van ,arsdale1 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university4 #a4 ,slow oven 7#bej degrees to #cej degrees ,f47 for custards and meringues4 #b4 ,moderate oven 7#cej degrees to #djj degrees ,f47 for bread1 gingerbread1 plain cake1 ,footnote #gg3 ,the lower temperature should be used for loaf cakes and the higher temperature for layer cakes4 all molasses mixtures4 #c4 ,hot oven 7#djj degrees to #dej degrees ,f47 for ,parkerhouse rolls1 and ,popovers4 ,in baking ,popovers1 the oven should be cooled to moderate heat after the first ten minutes4 #d4 ,very hot oven 7#dej degrees to #eej degrees ,f47 for pastry4 ,after the first #f minutes1 the temperature should be lowered to hot4 ,oven temperatures may be estimated also as follows3 7a7 note the number of minutes required to change white paper1 flour1 or bread to a light brown or to a golden brown2 7b7 note the number of counts 7one count per second7 that the hand may be held in the oven4 ,,pour ,,batter4--,all breads may be divided into two classes3 7a7 ,quick ,breads and 7b7 ,yeast ,breads4 ,the former are so named because a much shorter time is required in their preparation4 ,quick breads are divided into several classes1 depending upon the proportion of flour and moisture in the batter4 ,a pour batter is the thinnest quick bread mixture4 ,it usually contains about equal parts of flour and moisture4 ,a definite proportion cannot be stated1 since the thickening quality of different flours varies1 and the wetting quality of different moist materials varies4 ,many pour batters contain a little more flour than moisture4 ,popover mixture is4 a typical pour batter4 ,,popovers #a egg #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a cupful milk #a cupful flour #a_/c teaspoonful fat 7melted7 ,oil iron gem pans2 place them in the oven1 heat until very hot4 ,put all the ,popover ingredients in a mixing bowl1 and beat the mixture with a ,dover egg beater4 ,pour it into the hot pans and bake #ce to #de minutes in a hot oven1 at #dbe degrees ,f4 ,earthen cups placed in a dripping pan may be used instead of iron pans4 ,popovers may be served hot as a bread1 for breakfast or luncheon2 or may be used as a dessert with custard or lemon filling or sauce4 ,fruit makes a pleasing addition to ,popovers4 ,before baking1 drop a piece of apple1 peach1 or other fruit1 into the batter in each cup4 ,,questions ,what change1 other than moistening the flour1 takes place in the milk that helps to lighten the ,popovers8 ,what changes take place in the eggs and in the air inclosed in them when they are heated quickly8 ,what is the purpose of beating the ,popover mixture thoroughly8 ,how many ,popovers will the given recipe make8 ,,lesson ,,cx ,,leavening ,,with ,,baking ,,soda ,,and ,,sour ,,milk3 ,,spider ,,corn ,,bread ,besides the air that is beaten into the eggs and into the combined ingredients of quick bread mixtures1 a gas--carbon dioxide--is often introduced into such mixtures4 ,to find how this gas may be formed1 try the following3 ,,experiment #fg3 ,,action ,,of ,,baking ,,soda ,,on ,,sour ,,milk4--,place a teaspoonful of sour milk in a test tube and add a pinch of baking soda4 ,do you notice any change in the ingredients8 ,apply heat to the contents of the tube4 ,what kind of material 7solid1 liquid1 or gas7 is indicated by the bubbling 7see ,experiment #g78 ,what does this experiment teach with regard to the use of baking soda and sour milk1 for lightening a mixture8 ,,experiment #fh3 ,,chemical ,,change4--,measure #a_/d cupful of thick sour milk4 ,footnote #gh3 ,the amount of acid in sour milk varies slightly4 ,dip the end of a piece of blue litmus paper in it4 ,what change in color takes place in the paper8 ,when blue litmus changes to pink1 an acid is present4 ,the sour milk therefore contains acid4 ,measure #a_/h teaspoonful of baking soda4 ,mix this with a little water4 ,test with pink litmus paper4 ,when pink litmus paper changes to blue1 an alkaline substance is present4 ,baking soda is therefore alkaline in reaction4 ,pour the milk into a saucepan1 add about #c_/d of the soda mixture1 stir and heat until effervescence 7bubbling7 has ceased4 ,test the mixture in the saucepan with blue litmus paper4 ,if the blue litmus paper changes color1 carefully add a little more of the soda solution4 ,test with litmus again4 ,if there is still a change in color1 add soda solution until the litmus does not change4 ,then test with pink litmus4 ,when neither pink nor blue litmus paper changes color a neutral substance is present1 i4e4 a substance neither acid nor alkaline4 ,when this occurs1 the mixture in the pan is no longer acid in reaction4 ,neither sour milk nor baking soda exists in the pan4 ,a chemical change has taken place4 ,from the union of sour milk and soda1 entirely different materials are formed2 one is the neutral substance in the pan2 another is the carbon dioxide gas which has escaped1 and the third is water4 ,when an acid and an alkaline material are mixed1 a chemical change always occurs4 ,chemical changes are constantly taking place when certain food mixtures are cooked and digested4 ,,experiment #fi3 ,,quantity ,,of ,,baking ,,soda ,,to ,,use ,,with ,,sour ,,milk4--,to the contents of the saucepan of ,experiment #fh1 add #a_/h teaspoonful more of baking soda4 ,stir1 heat1 and test with pink litmus4 ,what is the reaction-- acid or alkaline8 ,has the last quantity of soda been neutralized as was the first quantity8 ,explain4 ,if more baking soda than is necessary to neutralize the acid of the sour milk is used1 some unneutralized soda will remain in the mixture4 ,this is undesirable1 since soda has a bitter taste4 ,an excessive quantity of unneutralized soda also discolors the mixture4 ,experiments #fh and #fi indicate that the approximate proportion of baking soda to sour milk is3 #a_/b teaspoonful of baking soda to #a cupful of thick sour milk4 ,the following equations indicate the importance of using the proper amount of baking soda to neutralize the acid materials3 #a cupful of sour milk #a_/b teaspoonful of baking soda -- ,footnote #gi3 ,the plus sign is read with2 the arrow is read yields4 water carbon dioxide gas neutral material4 #a cupful of sour milk #a teaspoonful of baking soda -- water carbon dioxide gas neutral material unneutralized soda4 ,,spider ,,corn ,,bread #c_/d cupful corn-meal #a_/b teaspoonful baking soda #a_/d cupful flour #a egg #a tablespoonful sugar #a cupful sour milk #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a tablespoonful butter or substitute ,mix the dry ingredients4 ,in a mixing bowl1 beat an egg1 add the sour milk1 then the dry ingredients4 ,beat the mixtures until the ingredients are well blended4 ,melt the butter or substitute in a hot spider or frying pan4 ,pour the corn-meal mixture into it4 ,bake in a hot oven until sufficiently baked1 usually about #bj minutes 7see tests below74 ,serve hot4 ,,tests ,,for ,,sufficient ,,baking ,,of ,,quick ,,bread4--,quick ,bread is usually sufficiently baked3 7a7 when it is a golden brown in color2 7b7 when the mixture shrinks from the pan2 7c7 when the crust springs back into place1 if pressed gently with the fingers2 or 7d7 when no batter or dough clings to a wire skewer or knitting needle 7see ,figure #a7 that has been inserted4 ,usually it is not necessary to apply this last test1 unless the quick bread is baked in a loaf or in a very thick layer4 ,,questions ,mention the materials used in ,spider ,corn ,bread to make it light4 ,explain their action4 ,explain why satisfactory results could not be obtained by using #a #a_/b teaspoonfuls of baking soda in this ,spider ,corn ,bread recipe4 ,what is the price per half-pound of baking soda8 ,how many persons does this ,spider ,corn ,bread recipe serve8 ,,lesson ,,cxi ,,leavening ,,with ,,baking ,,soda1 ,,sour ,,milk1 ,,and ,,molasses3 ,,gingerbread ,,experiment #gj3 ,,action ,,of ,,baking ,,soda ,,on ,,molasses4--,place a teaspoonful of baking molasses in a test tube and dilute with a little water4 ,test it with litmus paper4 ,what is its reaction8 ,add a pinch of baking soda4 ,heat4 ,what does effervescence indicate8 ,what do we call the gas formed by the action of the baking soda and a substance having an acid reaction8 ,explain how baking soda and molasses could be used to lighten a quick bread4 ,,experiment #ga3 ,,quantity ,,of ,,baking ,,soda ,,to ,,use ,,with ,,molasses4--,carefully measure #a_/h cupful of molasses4 ,footnote #hj3 ,the acidity of molasses may be due to fermentation or to the preservatives used in many brands4 ,its intensity varies4 ,dilute it with much water4 ,carefully measure #a_/af teaspoonful of baking soda and mix it with water4 ,add about #c_/d of the soda mixture to the molasses solution4 ,stir and heat4 ,test with blue litmus4 ,if it changes color1 keep adding the soda mixture1 until the litmus paper does not change1 as in ,experiment #fh4 ,when neither blue nor pink litmus paper changes color1 what kind of substance1--acid1 alkaline1 or neutral1--is present8 ,what change has taken place in the materials placed in the saucepan8 ,this experiment shows that the approximate proportion of baking soda to molasses is3 #a_/b teaspoonful of baking soda to #a cupful of molasses4 ,this equation expresses the chemical change in the experiment3 #a cupful molasses #a_/b teaspoonful of baking soda -- neutral material carbon dioxide gas water4 ,,gingerbread #b cupfuls flour #a_/b teaspoonful salt #c_/d teaspoonful baking soda #a teaspoonful cinnamon #b teaspoonfuls ginger #a_/h teaspoonful cloves #a egg #a cupful thick sour milk #a_/b cupful molasses #a_/b cupful sugar #b to #d tablespoonfuls fat ,mix all the dry ingredients except the sugar4 ,beat the egg in a mixing bowl4 ,add the sour milk1 molasses1 and sugar4 ,if solid fat is used1 melt it4 ,add the fat to the molasses mixture4 ,through a sifter1 add the dry ingredients to other materials4 ,beat thoroughly and turn at once into a shallow oiled pan4 ,bake in a moderate oven 7#cge degrees ,f4 to #djj degrees ,f47 #bj minutes or longer 7see ,tests for ,sufficient ,baking of ,quick ,bread7 ,gingerbread without ,eggs may be made4 ,omit the egg from the recipe above4 ,to the dry ingredients1 add #a teaspoonful of baking powder4 ,water ,gingerbread may be made by substituting #g_/h cupful cold water for the sour milk1 and using #a_/d teaspoonful baking soda 7instead of #c_/d teaspoonful7 and adding #c teaspoonfuls of baking powder4 ,,questions ,mention the leavening materials used in this ,gingerbread1 and explain their action4 ,what is the price per quart of molasses8 ,how many persons does this recipe serve8 ,,lesson ,,cxii ,,leavening ,,with ,,baking ,,powder3 ,,griddle ,,cakes ,,experiment #gb3 ,,effect ,,of ,,cold ,,water ,,on ,a ,,mixture ,,of ,,cream ,,of ,,tartar ,,and ,,baking ,,soda4--,test a bit of cream of tartar with moistened litmus paper4 ,is it acid or alkaline in reaction8 ,put #a_/h teaspoonful of baking soda and twice the quantity of cream of tartar in a dry test tube4 ,does any change take place8 ,add about #a teaspoonful of cold water to the mixture and examine4 ,what change takes place8 ,what substance is being formed8 ,,experiment #gc3 ,,effect ,,of ,,hot ,,water ,,on ,a ,,mixture ,,of ,,cream ,,of ,,tartar ,,and ,,baking ,,soda4--,repeat ,experiment #gb1 using hot water instead of cold with the baking soda and cream of tartar4 ,which causes greater effervescence1-- hot or cold water8 ,is it desirable to have more of the gas formed before or after the mixture is placed in the oven8 ,what1 then1 should be the temperature 7hot or cold7 of liquids and other materials used in the quick bread mixtures8 ,,experiment #gd3 ,,effect ,,of ,,hot ,,water ,,on ,,baking ,,powder4--,add about #a teaspoonful of hot water to #a_/d teaspoonful of baking powder4 ,compare the effervescence with that of ,experiment #gc4 ,from the comparison of ,experiments #gb and #gc1 with ,experiment #gd1 what two kinds of substances do you infer this baking powder contains8 7,save the contents of the tube for the following experiment47 ,,experiment #ge3 ,,starch ,,in ,,baking ,,powder4--,filter the contents of the tube used in ,experiment #gd through filter paper 7see ,figure #cj74 ,add a drop of tincture of iodine to the insoluble material left on the filter paper4 ,what is the insoluble constituent of this baking powder8 ,,composition ,,of ,,baking ,,powder4--,baking powder consists of 7a7 baking soda1 7b7 a substance having an acid reaction1 7c7 a starchy material4 ,the substance of acid reaction varies in different baking powders4 ,some powders in common use contain either cream of tartar1 calcium or sodium acid phosphate1 or alum ,footnote #ha3 ,alums differ in composition4 ,they are sulphates of various metals4 ,the alum most commonly used in alum baking powder is sodium aluminium sulphate4 as the acid material4 ,certain baking powders contain a mixture of materials with acid reaction1 such as cream of tartar with tartaric acid1 and alum with calcium acid phosphate4 ,the starch is added to keep the other materials apart1 and thus prevent the possible formation and consequent loss of carbon dioxide4 ,the trade name of a baking powder does not usually suggest its composition4 ,but the latter is always stated on the label of the can4 ,,experiment #gf3 ,,comparison ,,of ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,action ,,of ,,different ,,types ,,of ,,baking ,,powders4--,put #a_/b cupful of water of the same temperature into each of #c tumblers or glass measuring cups4 ,to one tumbler add #a_/b teaspoonful of tartrate baking powder2 to the second1 the same quantity of phosphate baking powder2 and to the third an equal quantity of alum 7or alum and phosphate7 baking powder4 ,stir each and note the length of time that chemical change occurs in each tumbler4 ,which type of baking powder reacts the longest time8 ,,difference ,,in ,,types ,,of ,,baking ,,powders4--,although there has been much discussion regarding the superiority of one type of baking powder over another1 it is thought that one standard baking powder is as little harmful as another4 ,but1 as shown by ,experiment #gf1 the action of certain types is slower than that of others1 i4e4 the formation of the gas continues for a longer time4 ,certain types of baking powders which react very quickly when moisture is added may react to some extent while still in the can and thus lose some of their effectiveness in leavening4 ,it is well to buy those baking powders in such quantities so that a fresh can can be purchased often4 ,the price of certain types of baking powders is much greater than that of others4 ,,quantity ,,of ,,baking ,,powder ,,in ,,quick ,,breads4--,since baking powder contains both acid and alkaline materials1 the quantity of baking powder used in a quick bread is dependent not upon another leavening material1 but upon the quantity of flour and eggs4 ,when no eggs are used1 #b tea-spoonfuls of baking powder should be used with #a cupful of flour4 ,when eggs are added to a quick bread1 the quantity of baking powder should be lessened #a_/b teaspoonful for each egg4 ,two and one half teaspoonfuls of baking powder should be used with #a cupful of coarse wheat flour or flour or meal other than wheat4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,preparing ,,griddle ,,cakes4--,the general rules for mixing quick breads apply also to griddle cakes4 ,when the yolk and white of the egg are separated1 the mixture will be somewhat lighter4 ,most housekeepers1 however1 beat the eggs together quickly1 and find the result satisfactory4 ,the consistency of griddle cake batter is most important4 ,as suggested in the recipe1 the moisture should be added cautiously4 ,since the quantity of baking powder depends upon the amount of flour1 it is better to change from a thick to a thinner batter by increasing the moisture1 rather than to change from a thin to a thicker batter by increasing the flour4 ,after mixing the batter1 drop a small cake on the hot iron4 ,the thickness as well as the grain of the browned cake depends largely upon the consistency of the batter4 ,if too much moisture has been used1 the cake is thin1 pasty1 and coarse grained4 ,a griddle should be heated slowly1 and should be hot when the cakes are mixed4 ,if sufficient fat is used in the batter1 it is not necessary to oil the griddle4 ,the recipes for griddle cakes given in this book contain one and one half times the quantity of fat generally used in griddle cake batters4 ,hence oiling the griddle is unnecessary4 ,it is well after each baking to wipe off the griddle with a cloth or paper4 ,drop the batter by the spoonful 7from the end of the spoon7 on the hot griddle1 brown on the under side thoroughly4 ,when the cakes have risen1 when the tops are full of bubbles1 and when the edges are brown1 the cakes should be turned and browned on the other side4 ,serve cakes at once after baking4 ,,plain ,,griddle ,,cakes #b cupfuls flour #a egg #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a #a_/b cupfuls milk #c #a_/b teaspoonfuls baking powder #c tablespoonfuls fat ,prepare according to the directions above4 ,add the milk cautiously4 ,more or less 7according to the absorbing property of the flour7 than the given quantity may be required4 #a_/h cupful of sugar or molasses may be added to the mixture4 ,if desired1 one more egg may be used in this recipe4 ,serve with maple or other sirup 7see ,sirup74 ,,bread ,,griddle ,,cakes #a #a_/b cupfuls bread crumbs #a #a_/b cupfuls hot milk #c tablespoonfuls fat #a to #b eggs #a_/b cupful flour #a_/b teaspoonful salt #c teaspoonfuls baking powder ,soak the bread in the hot milk until soft4 ,add the other ingredients in the order given4 #a cupful of cooked cereal may be used instead of bread crumbs4 ,rice ,griddle ,cakes are especially pleasing4 ,,questions ,account for the quantity of baking powder used in each of these recipes4 ,what is the price per pound of cream of tartar8 ,of tartrate baking powder8 ,of phosphate baking powder8 ,of alum baking powder8 ,of alum-phosphate baking powder8 ,what would be the effect of exposing baking powder to moist air8 ,how should baking powder be stored8 ,what kind of griddle cakes result when the batter is too thin8 ,when too thick8 ,what indicates that the griddle is too hot8 ,too cool8 ,how should griddle cakes be served8 ,,lesson ,,cxiii ,,leavening ,,with ,,baking ,,soda1 ,,sour ,,milk1 ,,and ,,baking ,,powder3 ,,sour ,,milk ,,griddle ,,cakes ,,additional ,,leavening ,,for ,,sour ,,milk ,,mixtures4--,some housekeepers maintain that a superior flavor and quality is given to quick bread by the use of sour milk4 ,it has been found that most quick breads are sufficiently light and porous when made with sour milk and baking soda1 provided they contain as much or almost as much sour milk as flour and provided they contain eggs4 ,if the quantity of sour milk is much less than that of flour and no eggs are present1 it is often desirable to add leavening materials other than sour milk and baking soda4 ,from the results of ,experiment #fi we know that an increased quantity of baking soda will not produce satisfactory results4 ,hence more carbon dioxide gas must be obtained by other means4 ,since baking powder consists of both baking soda and an acid material1 it makes a desirable substance for additional leavening4 ,a combination of baking soda1 sour milk1 and baking powder is therefore used for leavening some quick bread mixtures1 especially those that contain only a small quantity of sour milk and no eggs4 ,this involves a double reaction3 7a7 ,baking soda sour milk -- neutral material carbon dioxide gas water4 7b7 ,baking powder 7moistened and heated7 -- neutral material carbon dioxide gas water4 ,about #a_/d of baking powder is baking soda4 ,hence #a_/d teaspoonful of baking soda 7with the necessary quantity of acid material7 is equivalent to #a teaspoonful of baking powder in leavening4 ,if #b teaspoonfuls of baking powder are used to leaven #a cupful of flour1 #a_/b teaspoonful of baking soda 7with the necessary quantity of acid material7 should be used to leaven #a cupful of flour4 ,two thirds teaspoonful of baking soda 7with the necessary quantity of acid material7 should be used to leaven #a cupful of coarse flour or flour or meal other than wheat4 ,in determining the quantity of baking powder to use in materials leavened with sour milk and baking soda1 note the quantity of baking soda and flour4 ,assuming that #a_/b teaspoonful of baking soda 7with acid7 or #b teaspoonfuls of baking powder leavens #a cupful of flour1 determine the amount of flour that the given quantity of baking soda 7with acid7 will leaven and then use sufficient baking powder to leaven the remainder of the flour4 ,for example1 if a recipe states 7among other ingredients7 #a_/b teaspoonful of baking soda and #b cupfuls of flour1 the baking soda 7with acid7 will leaven #a cupful of flour4 ,hence baking powder sufficient to leaven #a cupful of flour 7i4e4 #b teaspoonfuls7 should be used4 ,again1 if a recipe states that #c_/d teaspoonful baking soda and #b cupfuls of flour1 the baking soda 7with acid7 will leaven #a #a_/b cupfuls of flour4 ,hence baking powder sufficient to leaven #a_/b cupful flour 7i4e4 #a teaspoonful7 should be used4 ,,sour ,,milk ,,griddle ,,cakes 7without eggs7 #b cupfuls flour #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a_/b teaspoonful baking powder #g_/h teaspoonful baking soda #a #c_/d cupfuls sour milk #c tablespoonfuls fat ,turn the sour milk into a mixing bowl4 ,melt the fat and add it to the sour milk4 ,add the dry ingredients 7through a sifter7 to the mixture4 ,mix thoroughly4 ,if more moisture is needed1 add water4 ,,corn-,,meal ,,griddle ,,cakes #a cupful corn-meal #b cupfuls water #c tablespoonfuls fat #a cupful sour milk #a cupful flour #a teaspoonful salt #a_/b teaspoonful baking soda ,footnote #hb3 ,the #a_/b teaspoonful of baking soda 7with acid7 is sufficient to leaven the #a cupful of flour4 ,then #b #a_/b teaspoonfuls of baking powder should be added1 since #a cupful of corn- meal is contained in the recipe 7see ,quantity of ,baking ,powder in ,quick ,breads74 #b #a_/b teaspoonfuls baking powder ,footnote #hc3 ,see footnote #hb #a to #b tablespoonfuls sugar ,add the corn-meal to the water1 mix thoroughly1 and cook #e minutes4 ,add the fat4 ,cool4 ,then add the milk and dry ingredients4 ,mix thoroughly4 ,drop at once on a hot griddle4 ,,fruit ,,sirup ,cook fresh fruit1 or dried fruit that has been soaked in water1 in a generous quantity of water until it is very soft4 ,press through a strainer4 ,if it is not of the consistency of catsup1 add more hot water4 ,add from one eighth to one fourth cupful of sugar for each cupful of sirup1 or sweeten to taste4 ,serve on griddle cakes1 or use as a sauce for ,bread ,pudding or ,rice ,pudding4 ,fruit butters1 marmalades1 or jams may be diluted with water1 heated1 and used in the same way4 ,,questions ,if an egg or two were added to griddle cakes made with sour milk1 how should the recipe be changed8 ,give reasons for the change4 ,explain the action of the leavening agents in ,sour ,milk ,griddle ,cakes 7without eggs74 ,in a quick bread leavened with baking soda1 sour milk1 and baking powder1 upon what ingredient does the quantity of baking soda depend8 ,upon what ingredients does the quantity of baking powder depend8 ,explain your answers4 ,what is the purpose of cooking the corn-meal before adding the other ingredients8 ,why should the cooked mixture be cooled before adding the other ingredients8 ,,lesson ,,cxiv ,,leavening ,,with ,,baking ,,soda1 ,,sour ,,milk1 ,,and ,,cream ,,of ,,tartar3 ,,steamed ,,brown ,,breads ,,additional ,,leavening ,,for ,,sour ,,milk ,,mixtures4--,instead of using prepared baking powder as additional leavening for sour milk mixtures 7see previous lesson7 cream of tartar with sour milk and baking soda may be used4 ,enough baking soda must be used1 however1 to neutralize both the sour milk and the cream of tartar4 ,this involves a double reaction3 7a7 ,baking soda sour milk -- water carbon dioxide gas neutral substance4 7b7 ,baking soda cream of tartar -- water carbon dioxide gas a neutral substance4 ,if molasses is used with the sour milk and baking soda1 a third reaction occurs3 7c7 ,baking soda molasses -- water carbon dioxide gas neutral substance4 ,it has been found that the following proportion of cream of tartar and baking soda is effective in leavening3 #a #a_/d teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar with #a_/b teaspoonful of baking soda4 ,these quantities of materials are sufficient to leaven #a cupful of flour4 #a #a_/b teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar with #b_/c teaspoonful of baking soda are required to leaven #a cupful coarse wheat flour or flour or meal other than wheat4 ,in determining the quantity of cream of tartar and baking soda to use with mixtures containing sour milk or other acid food1 note the quantity of flour 7or other cereal7 in the recipe4 ,assuming that #a_/b teaspoonful of baking soda 7with the necessary acid material7 leavens #a cupful of flour1 determine the total quantity of baking soda1 which 7with the necessary acid material7 will leaven the flour4 ,then determine how much of the baking soda will be neutralized by the sour milk or other acid food4 ,assuming that l-#a_/d teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar are needed to neutralize #a_/b teaspoonful of baking soda1 use enough cream of tartar to neutralize the remainder of the baking soda4 ,for example1 if a recipe calls for 7among other ingredients7 #b cupfuls flour and #a cupful of sour milk1 #a teaspoonful of baking soda 7with the necessary acid material7 will be needed to leaven the flour4 ,since #a cupful of sour milk will neutralize only #a_/b teaspoonful of baking soda1 enough cream of tartar 7i4e4 #a #a_/d teaspoonfuls7 will be needed to neutralize the remainder of the baking soda4 ,,general ,,suggestions ,,for ,,steamed ,,quick ,,bread ,,mixtures4--,a quick bread mixture that is to be steamed should be placed in a covered utensil4 ,if the mold or the can used for steaming has no cover1 an oiled paper should be tied over the top4 ,as with all quick breads1 the molds for steamed mixtures should be oiled4 ,if the quick bread is a pour batter1 the mold should be oiled and then sprinkled with flour4 ,it should never be filled more than two thirds full4 ,a steamer placed over boiling water may be used for the steaming2 or a kettle of boiling water containing a rack may be used4 ,if the latter device is employed1 the boiling water in the kettle should come halfway to the top of the molds4 ,as the water evaporates1 add more boiling water4 ,less time is required in the steaming1 if the mold is placed directly in the water4 ,at least one hour is required for steaming breads4 ,the longer brown bread is steamed1 the darker it becomes4 ,a mixture in an earthen mold requires more time than does one in a tin or granite mold 7see ,experiment #df74 ,,plain ,,brown ,,bread #b cupfuls graham flour #b_/c cupful white flour #c_/d cupful brown sugar #b_/c teaspoonful salt #a #b_/c teaspoonfuls baking soda #a #a_/b teaspoonfuls cream of tartar #b cupfuls sour milk ,mix all dry ingredients thoroughly4 ,turn the sour milk into a mixing bowl4 ,add the dry ingredients2 mix well4 ,turn at once into an oiled bread pan1 and bake in the oven from #ej to #fj minutes2 or fill one-pound baking powder cans 7which have been oiled7 two thirds full1 and steam at least #d hours4 ,if the bread is steamed1 remove it 7after steaming7 from the molds and dry in the oven for a few minutes4 ,,boston ,,brown ,,bread #a_/d cupful sugar #a cupful corn-meal #b cupfuls graham flour #c_/d teaspoonful salt #b teaspoonfuls baking soda #b teaspoonfuls cream of tartar #b cupfuls sour milk #a_/b cupful molasses ,mix the dry ingredients 7except the sugar7 thoroughly4 ,turn the molasses1 sugar1 and sour milk into a mixing bowl4 ,add the dry ingredients2 mix well4 ,turn at once into oiled molds1 and steam at least #d hours4 ,remove from the molds1 and dry in the oven for a few minutes4 ,rye meal or bread crumbs may be substituted for #a cupful of graham flour4 ,if dried bread crumbs are used1 moisten them with a little cold water before adding to the other ingredients4 #a cupful of raisins may also be added to the ingredients of the above recipe4 ,if raisins are used1 cut them in two and sprinkle flour over them4 ,,butter ,,balls ,cut firm butter into half-ounce pieces and place in a pan of ice water4 ,scrub the butter paddles2 place in boiling water for #aj minutes2 and then in the pan of ice water until chilled4 ,place a piece of butter on one of the paddles and hold the paddle stationary4 ,shape the butter with the other butter paddle1 moving it in a circular direction4 ,hold the paddle over the ice water while shaping4 ,place the butter balls in a cool place4 ,,questions ,what gas is formed in these mixtures to leaven them8 ,by what means is the gas formed in each mixture8 ,how much baking soda and cream of tartar should be used in a recipe containing #b cupfuls of flour1 #a cupful of sour milk1 and #a_/b cupful molasses8 ,account for the quantity of baking soda used in each of the ,brown ,bread recipes4 ,give two reasons why the paper used to cover a steamed quick bread mixture should be oiled4 ,why are molds for steamed mixtures filled only two thirds full8 ,why should boiling water be used to replenish the water in steaming kettle8 ,why is a longer time required for steaming than for baking quick bread mixtures8 ,why should butter paddles be cleaned with a brush rather than with a cloth8 ,what is the purpose of placing butter paddles in boiling water before using8 ,why hold the paddles over ice water while shaping the butter balls8 ,,lesson ,,cxv ,,formulating ,,recipes--,,waffles ,,leavening ,,formulas4--,a practical housekeeper needs to be able to formulate fundamental recipes4 ,in preparing quick bread recipes1 she should know the required consistency of flour mixtures1 i4e4 the approximate proportion of moisture and flour for each bread2 and the proportion of leavening1 seasoning1 and shortening 7fat7 materials to use with flour4 ,in previous lessons1 general statements have been made concerning the quantity of leavening materials to use under various conditions4 ,the following is the approximate amount of leavening material to be used for quick breads that contain little or no sugar3 ,,baking ,,soda ,,and ,,sour ,,milk #a_/b teaspoonful baking soda to #a cupful of sour milk ,,baking ,,soda ,,and ,,molasses ,footnote #hd3 ,see footnote #hj4 #a_/b teaspoonful of baking soda to #a cupful molasses ,,flour ,,and ,,baking ,,powder #b teaspoonfuls baking powder to #a cupful of flour when no eggs are used4 ,when eggs are used1 reduce the entire quantity of baking powder by #a_/b teaspoonful for each egg4 ,,coarse ,,wheat ,,flour1 ,,or ,,flour 7,,or ,,meal7 ,,other ,,than ,,wheat1 ,,and ,,baking ,,powder #b #a_/b teaspoonfuls of baking powder to #a cupful of coarse flour or meal4 ,,flour1 ,,cream ,,of ,,tartar1 ,,and ,,baking ,,soda #a #a_/d teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and #a_/b teaspoonful of baking soda to #a cupful of flour4 ,,coarse ,,wheat ,,flour1 ,,or ,,flour 7,,or ,,meal7 ,,other ,,than ,,wheat1 ,,cream ,,of ,,tartar ,,and ,,baking ,,soda #a #a_/b teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and #b_/c teaspoonful of baking soda to #a cupful of flour4 ,examine a number of recipes previously given1 and note the quantity of salt and fat used with #a cupful of flour4 ,in general1 the following quantities of salt and fat are used for quick breads that contain little or no sugar3 ,,flour ,,and ,,salt #a_/d teaspoonful of salt to #a cupful of flour ,,flour ,,and ,,fat #a tablespoonful of fat to #a cupful of flour ,while these data are helpful in formulating recipes1 the pupil should remember that they are all approximate and for plain breads only4 ,when recipes are modified by the addition of a cereal1 a fruit1 or a flavoring material1 some of the quantities will need to be changed4 ,,waffles #b cupfuls flour #c to #c #a_/b teaspoonfuls baking powder #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a to #b eggs #a #a_/b cupfuls milk #b tablespoonfuls fat ,mix according to the directions for ,plain ,griddle ,cakes4 ,the quantity of baking powder depends upon the number of eggs4 ,the greater quantity should be used with one egg4 ,before using the waffle irons1 they should be heated slowly on both sides and oiled thoroughly4 ,oleomargarine1 oil1 or lard may be used for this purpose4 ,pour the batter quickly into the hot irons1 close the irons at once1 and brown the waffles on both sides4 ,serve with sirup or gravy4 ,,questions ,write a recipe for waffles1 using sweet milk and baking powder and #c eggs4 ,write two recipes for waffles1 using sour milk and soda 7with additional leavening1 if necessary7 and #a egg in the one1 and #b eggs in the other4 ,how many waffles does the given recipe make8 ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,cxvi ,,measurement ,,of ,,the ,,fuel ,,value ,,of ,,foods ,,how ,,food ,,is ,,assimilated4--,the uses of the foodstuffs1--carbohydrates1 fats1 protein1 ash1 water1 and vitamines1--were given4 ,it was stated that these foodstuffs either 7a7 burned 7i4e4 united with oxygen7 and produced energy1 7b7 built the body1 or 7c7 aided in regulating body processes4 ,all parts of the body are composed of microscopic cells4 ,by the process of digestion the foodstuffs are made entirely soluble 7see ,solution and ,digestion72 they are then further altered1 i4e4 split to their end products and absorbed through the walls of the alimentary canal4 ,the blood carries the digestion products to all parts of the body4 ,the blood also carries oxygen1--which has been breathed into the body from the air1--to all parts of the body4 ,the body cells then select the foodstuffs that they need to carry on their work4 ,some cells pick out the fuel materials--carbohydrates1 fat1 or protein--and oxygen4 ,fuel foods when oxidized1 produce energy4 ,other body cells select some of the body builders--protein or ash--and use these for building or repairing tissue4 ,the cells which build bone choose ash and the other materials needed for building bones2 the cells which build muscle choose protein and the other materials needed for building muscle4 ,little is known regarding the use of vitamines by the body cells1 other than that they are indispensable for the growth and maintenance of the body4 ,,how ,,energy ,,or ,,fuel ,,value ,,is ,,measured4--,it was stated that the human body could be compared to an automobile1 i4e4 the burning of the fuel foods in the body produced the ability to do work4 ,the quantity of energy that fuel food is capable of giving off is termed the fuel value of that food4 ,energy has been defined as the ability to do work4 ,since heat is energy1 the fuel value of foods shows1 in part1 ,footnote #he3 ,although ash1 water1 and vitamines nourish the body1 it is impossible to measure their nutritive value in terms of fuel value4 ,fuel value expresses the nutritive value only of the combustible foodstuffs1--carbohydrates1 fats1 and protein4 ,however1 according to ,sherman1 the most conspicuous nutritive requirement is that of energy for the work of the body4 ,hence1 the fuel value of a food is often spoken of as its nutritive value 7see ,chemistry of ,food and ,nutrition1 ,second ,edition1 by ,henry ,c4 ,sherman1 ,ph4,d41 p4 #ach74 their nutritive value4 ,if the quantity of heat that is produced by burning a food is measured1 the measurement indicates the quantity of energy that the food is capable of giving to the body4 ,heat cannot be measured by weight or length1 but by the change in temperature which it produces in a given weight of a certain material4 ,the heat unit is not a pound or yard1 but a ,calorie1 or a definite quantity of heat1 which1 when applied to materials1 will produce change of temperature in those materials4 ,if the temperature of one pound ,footnote #hf3 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,teacher--,the avoirdupois system of measurement and the ,fahrenheit scale of temperature are used in this text4 ,it is believed by the author that less than ten per cent of all pupils taking this course will enter college4 ,hence1 the use of the measurements that are more in keeping with the pupils' practical needs4 ,for the small minority who will enter college1 a thorough drill in the metric system is urged4 ,the following formula gives the necessary information for changing from the ,fahreheit to the ,centigrade scale3 ,subtract #cb and multiply by #e_/i4 of water is #gj degrees ,fahrenheit1 and it is desired to increase the temperature of that water to #gd degrees ,fahrenheit1 a certain quantity of heat will have to be applied4 ,it has been found that the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through any four degrees of the ,fahrenheit scale is practically the same1 i4e4 the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water from #cb degrees to #cf degrees ,f4 is about the same as the quantity of heat that must be applied to raise the temperature of one pound of water from #fj degrees to #fd degrees ,f4 ,the unit of measurement of heat is taken as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through about #d degrees ,f4 ,the ,calorie1 ,footnote #hg3 ,i4e4 greater ,calorie1 distinguished from the lesser calorie by the capital ,c4 used for food calculation1 is approximately the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound 7pint7 of water through #d degrees ,f4 ,if one pint of water were placed over a lighted burner and heated until it increased four degrees in temperature1 approximately one ,calorie of heat would have been applied to the water 7see ,figure #hb74 ,,how ,,the ,,fuel ,,value ,,of ,a ,,food ,,material ,,is ,,measured4--,scientists have worked with care to obtain accurate data for the measurement of the heat produced by foods burning in the body4 ,the data accepted to-day differ from those given by ,rubner some years ago4 ,footnote #hh3 ,see ,chemistry of ,foods and ,nutrition1 ,second ,edition1 by ,henry ,c4 ,sherman1 ,ph4,d41 p4 #adc1 ,physiological ,fuel ,values4 #a gram protein yields #d ,calories #a gram fat yields #i ,calories #a gram carbohydrate yields #d ,calories ,expressing grams approximately in ounces1 these data become3 #a ounce of protein yields #aac ,calories #a ounce of fat yields #bee ,calories #a ounce of carbohydrate yields #aac ,calories ,illustration3 ,,figure #hb4--;,,illustrating ,,the ,,amount ,,of ,,heat ,,represented ,,by ,,one ,,calorie4 ,in order to find the fuel value of foods1 it is necessary to know their composition4 ,for such data ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture ,bulletin ,no4 #bh is a valuable source4 ,flour4--,the fuel content of flour is 7see ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 p4 #eh1 ,all ,analyses ,average73 #aj4f per cent protein2 #a4a per cent fat2 #gf4c per cent carbohydrates4 ,then1 #a ounce of flour contains1 #j4ajf ounce of protein2 #j4jaa ounce of fat2 #j4gfc ounce carbohydrates4 ,the protein in one ounce of flour yields 7#aac x #jajf 7 #aa4ig ,calories4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #hc4--;,,comparative ,,weights ,,of #ajj-;,,calorie ,,portions ,,of ,,foods4 ,the fat in one ounce of flour yields 7#bee x #j4jaa 7 #b4hj ,calories4 ,the carbohydrates in one ounce of flour yield 7#aac x #j4gfc 7 #hf4ba ,calories4 ,total ,calories furnished by #a ounce of flour are 7#aa4ig #b4hj #hf4ba 7 #ajj4ih4 ,butter4--,the fuel content of butter is 7see ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 p4 #ed73 #a per cent protein2 #he per cent fat2 no carbohydrates4 #a ounce of butter contains #j4ja ounce of protein1 #j4he ounce of fat1 and no carbohydrates4 ,the protein in one ounce of butter yields 7#j4ja x #aac 7 #a4ac ,calories4 ,the fat in one ounce of butter yields 7#j4he x #bee 7 #baf4ge ,calories4 ,number of total ,calories furnished by one ounce of butter is 7#a4acbaf4ge7 #bag4hh4 ,sugar4--,the fuel content of sugar is 7see ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 p4 #fe7 no per cent protein2 no per cent fat2 #ajj per cent carbohydrates4 #a ounce of sugar contains no protein1 no fat1 and #a ounce carbohydrates4 #a ounce sugar yields 7#aac x #a 7 #aac ,calories4 ,,how ,,the ,,weight ,,of ,,food ,,materials ,,producing #ajj ,,calories ,,is ,,measured4--,for practical work in computing the fuel value of foods1 it has been found more convenient to reduce all data to terms which express equal fuel value instead of equal weight as in the foregoing paragraph4 ,one hundred ,calories is the unit chosen4 ,the weight of a food which1 when burned in the body1 will produce one hundred ,calories is the desired data4 ,this weight is termed a standard portion or a #ajj-;,calorie portion 7see ,figures #hc and #hd74 ,from the previous work1 it is a simple matter to compute in ounces the quantity of food materials which will yield #ajj ,calories4 ,if #a ounce of flour yields #ajj4ih ,calories and x represents the number of ounces of flour which will yield #ajj ,calories1 then x_/#aajj_/ajj4ih or x#j4ii1 the number of ounces of flour which yield #ajj ,calories1 i4e4 a #ajj-;,calorie portion of flour4 ,if #a ounce of butter yields #bag4hh ,calories and x represents the number of ounces of butter which will yield #ajj ,calories1 then x_/#aajj_/bag4hh or x#j4de1 the number of ounces of butter which yield #ajj ,calories1 i4e4 a #ajj-;,calorie portion of butter4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #hd--ajj-;,,calorie ,,portions ,,of ,,foods4 a1 banana1 b1 butter1 c1 eggs d1 meat2 e1 bread4 ,if #a ounce of sugar yields #aac ,calories and x represents the number of ounces of sugar which will yield #ajj ,calories1 then x_/#aajj_/aac or x#j4hh1 the number of ounces of sugar which will yield #ajj ,calories1 i4e4 a #ajj-;,calorie portion of sugar4 ,,how ,,the ,,fuel ,,value ,,of ,a ,,combination ,,of ,,food ,,material ,,is ,,measured4--,it is possible to compute the fuel value of a food that is made up of several food materials4 ,to do this one must know or find3 7a7 ,recipe for food4 7b7 ,weight and measure of combustible food materials4 7c7 ,number of ,calories yielded by one ounce of each of the combustible foodstuffs4 ,the recipe for one loaf of bread is3 #a cupful water #a teaspoonful salt #a teaspoonful sugar #c #a_/b cupfuls flour #a_/b tablespoonful butter #a_/d cake compressed yeast #a_/d cupful water ,by weighing and measuring one finds3 #a pound sugar measures #b cupfuls #a pound butter measures #b cupfuls #a pound flour measures #d cupfuls ,then1 #a teaspoonful sugar weighs #j4af ounce #a_/c tablespoonful butter weighs #j4be ounce #c #a_/b cupfuls flour weigh #ad4j ounces 7,from data of ,how the ,fuel ,value of a ,food ,material is ,measured47 #a teaspoonful sugar yields 7#aac x #j4af 7 #ah4jh ,calories #a_/b tablespoonful butter yields 7#bag4hh x #j4be 7 #ed4dg ,calories #c #a_/b cupfuls flour yield 7#ajj4ih x #ad 7 #adac4gb ,calories #a loaf of bread yields 7#ah4jh #ed4dg #adac4gb 7 #adhf4bg ,calories ,for the practical method of calculating diet 7which is more fully treated in ,lesson ,,cxxxi71 it is convenient to have the #ajj-;,calorie portion of a recipe1 or a made food4 ,the #ajj-;,calorie portion of bread is estimated from the result above in the following manner3 ,since #adhf4bg ,calories are yielded by one loaf of homemade bread1 then #ajj ,calories are yielded by 7#ajj_/adhf4bg 7 4#jf or #f per cent of a loaf of homemade bread2 hence1 #a_/af 7#f 7 or #a slice of homemade bread yields #ajj ,calories4 ,,questions ,find the number of ,calories produced by one ounce of milk4 ,find the number of ,calories produced by one ounce of egg4 ,weigh out #ajj-;,calorie portions of flour1 butter1 and sugar4 ,measure these quantities1 using a cup for the flour1 a tablespoon for the butter1 and a teaspoon for the sugar4 ,compute #ajj-;,calorie portions of milk and the edible portion of eggs1 then weigh these portions4 ,measure this portion of milk in a cup4 ,how many eggs make a standard portion8 ,why are water1 salt1 and yeast not considered when the fuel value is computed8 ,compute the fuel value of #a pint of ,soft ,custard4 ,find the #ajj-;,calorie portion of ,soft ,custard4 ,,note4--,forms ,a and ,b given on the following pages will be found convenient in recording the results of these calculations4 ,,lesson ,,cxvii ,,planning1 ,,cooking1 ,,and ,,serving ,a ,,dinner ,plan a plain dinner4 ,footnote #hi3 ,see footnote #gb4 ,use seasonable foods4 ,follow the suggestions given in ,lesson ,,cv4 ,plan the menu so that the cost of the materials used does not exceed #be cents per person4 ,analyze the menu and see that it meets the requirements stated in ,lesson ,,cv4 ,cook and serve the dinner4 ,follow the ,english or family style of serving4 ,serve the meal without a maid4 ,illustration3 ,,form ,a3 ,,calculation ,,of #ajj-;,,calorie ,,portions ,,of ,,foods ,illustration3 ,,form ,b3 ,,calculation ,,of ,,fuel ,,value ,,of ,,recipes ,,lesson ,,cxviii ,,review3 ,,meal ,,cooking ,,menu ,cereal ,griddle ,cakes ,fruit ,sirup ,coffee or ,butterscotch ,apples ,gingerbread ,tea ,see ,lesson ,,xiv regarding suggestions for the preparation of the lesson4 ,,lesson ,,cxix ,,home ,,projects ,footnote #ij3 ,see ,lesson ,,ix4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,home ,,work4--,prepare a quick bread such as ,popovers or ,gingerbread in your home at least once a week4 ,if griddle cakes are served in your home1 prepare cakes at least once a week4 ,calculate the cost of these breads4 ,suggested ,aims3 7#a7 ,to use various leavens in quick breads4 ,to compare results secured by using sweet milk or water with baking powder1 and sour milk with baking soda1 or sour milk with baking soda and baking powder4 7#b7 ,to use different liquids in ,gingerbread1 viz41 sour milk1 water1 sweet milk4 ,to compare results obtained by the use of each4 ,,division ,,eleven ,,quick ,,breads3 ,,drop ,,batters ,,lesson ,,cxx ,,fine ,,and ,,coarse ,,flours--,,muffins ,,differences ,,in ,,wheat ,,flours4--,examine white flour1 whole wheat flour1 and graham flour4 ,notice the difference in color1 grittiness1 and quantity of bran 7cellulose74 ,as has been mentioned before1 all cereals or grains have an outer hard covering of cellulose 7see ,cellulose74 ,cereals also contain a germ from which the young plant springs4 ,in the preparation of fine flours1 the germ and most of the cellulose covering are removed4 ,whole wheat 7erroneously named7 has part of the outer covering removed4 ,graham ,footnote #ia3 ,graham flour is so called because ,dr4 ,sylvester ,graham advocated the use of the entire grain and devised a method of preparing it4 flour1 properly made1 contains all the materials of the wheat grain4 ,the germ is rich in fat1 protein1 and ash4 ,the outer part1 called bran1 contains more ash1 fat1 and protein than does the center of the grain4 ,hence with the removal of the germ and bran1 much of the protein and ash is lost 7see ,figure #he74 ,however1 much graham flour is a mixture of inferior flour and bran4 ,,the ,,milling ,,of ,,flour4--,in the milling of fine flour1 the wheat kernels are passed through a series of rollers and sifters that crush the wheat and separate the bran from the other materials4 ,the greater the number of times the flour is subjected to the rolling and sifting process1 the more thoroughly are the parts of the grain separated and the more finely are they crushed4 ,when the separation is complete1 the resulting fine flour consists almost entirely of the center of the crushed grains 7called middlings74 ,flour made with fewer rollings and siftings contains more of the outer coats4 ,in general1 the term patent is applied to flour made from the middlings4 ,the flour containing more of the outer coats is called baker's or family flour4 ,patent flour contains more starch than does baker's flour while baker's flour contains more protein than does patent flour4 ,the terms patent and baker's vary in meaning1 however1 in different localities4 ,illustration3 ,from ,maine ,agricultural ,experiment ,station ,bulletin ,no4 #ajc4 ,,figure #he4--,,longitudinal ,,section ,,of ,,wheat ,,grain ,,showing ,,bran 7outer coatings71 ,,floury ,,part 7interior of grain71 ,,and ,,germ 7base of grain74 ,,value ,,of ,,coarse ,,flour4--,analyses show that graham and whole wheat flours contain more protein and ash than fine white flour4 ,so it would seem that breads made from these coarser flours furnish more body-building material4 ,but investigations have shown that the protein contained in the coarse flours is not entirely assimilated and that about the same quantity of protein is digested and absorbed from fine as from coarse flours4 ,the coarser grain products1 however1 have more available ash than the fine flours4 ,indeed1 experiments show that the bran of coarse cereals is a valuable source of ash ,footnote #ib3 ,see ,chemistry of ,food and ,nutrition1 ,second ,edition1 ,h4 ,c4 ,sherman1 p4 #cjf1 ,grain ,products1 and p4 #cjh4 and that whole wheat flour is a more complete food than fine or bolted wheat flour4 ,footnote #ic3 ,see ,the ,newer ,knowledge of ,nutrition1 ,e4,v4 ,mc,collum1 p4#adj4 ,doubtless1 for many persons1 whole wheat foods are more beneficial than fine flour products4 ,,per ,,cent ,,of ,,nutrients2 ,,nutritive ,,values4--,the per cent of nutrients in a food does not always indicate the quantity of nourishment it will yield4 ,the nutrient must be in a condition to be absorbed4 ,wheat grains contain as much protein when whole as when ground into meal1 yet uncooked whole wheat grains yield little nourishment to the body4 ,they pass through the system with much nutriment unextracted4 ,even if the unbroken grains are thoroughly cooked1 they will not furnish as much nourishment to the body as they will when in the form of meal4 ,in the consideration of nutritive value1 the personal factor enters1 for some persons assimilate food much more easily or completely than others4 ,in summing up what has been said1 it will be seen that three factors determine the nutritive value of a food3 7a7 per cent of nutrients1 7b7 form of nutrients1 and 7c7 personal digestive characteristics4 ,,drop ,,batters4--,all batters can be stirred with a spoon4 ,drop batters are somewhat stiffer than pour batters4 ,they contain1 approximately1 two parts of flour to one part of moisture4 ,compare the ,plain ,muffin recipe below with that for ,popovers4 ,note how the recipes differ in the quantity of flour used4 ,why do muffins contain baking powder1 while popovers do not8 ,muffin mixture is a typical drop batter4 ,,plain ,,muffins #b cupfuls flour #c #a_/b teaspoonfuls baking powder #a_/b teaspoonful salt #b tablespoonfuls fat #a to #b tablespoonfuls sugar #a egg #a cupful milk ,break the egg into a mixing bowl1 beat it4 ,add the milk to it4 ,melt the fat1 add it to the egg mixture4 ,measure the dry ingredients thoroughly4 ,add them 7through a sifter7 to the other ingredients4 ,mix quickly and thoroughly1 and drop into buttered muffin pans4 ,bake in a hot oven 7#djj degrees ,f47 from #be to #cj minutes4 ,whole wheat flour may be substituted for fine white flour4 ,for graham muffins1 use #a cupful of fine white flour and #a cupful of graham flour4 #a #a_/h cupfuls of sour milk may be used instead of #a cupful of sweet milk4 ,if this substitution is made1 use #a_/b teaspoonful baking soda and decrease the baking powder to #b teaspoonfuls4 ,molasses may be substituted for sugar4 ,,questions ,account for the quantity of baking powder in the muffin recipes4 ,what determines the quantity of baking powder8 ,write a recipe for muffins1 using sour cream instead of milk4 ,what ingredients may be decreased in quantity if sour cream is used8 ,if all the cups in the muffin pan are not filled with batter1 how should the empty cups be protected while in the oven8 ,how many muffins will the recipes above make8 ,from ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of patent wheat flour1 of graham flour1 and of entire wheat flour4 ,which contains the most protein and ash8 ,which probably yields the most protein to the body8 ,account for the discrepancy 7see ,value of ,coarse ,flour74 ,tabulate the percentage composition of baker's flour and of a high grade of wheat flour 7patent roller process74 ,which contains the more protein8 ,which1 the more carbohydrates8 ,what is the weight of a barrel of flour8 ,of an ordinary sack of flour8 ,what is the present price per sack of baker's and of high-grade patent flour8 ,how many cupfuls in a pound of flour8 ,in what quantity are whole wheat flour and graham flour usually purchased for home use8 ,what is the price per pound of each8 ,,lesson ,,cxxi ,,comparison ,,of ,,wheat ,,and ,,other ,,grains--,,muffins ,,substituting ,,other ,,cereals ,,for ,,wheat ,,flour4--,a resourceful worker in foods is able to follow a standard recipe and make such substitutions as her available materials permit4 ,such ability is most desirable4 ,it enables one to work more independently1 to produce more varied foods1 and to utilize all materials1 allowing none to waste4 ,during the wheat shortage of the ,world ,war1 many valuable investigations were made regarding the substitution of other grains for wheat flour4 ,it was found that the substitution should be based upon the relative weights of wheat flour and other flours or meals rather than upon their relative measures4 ,by comparing the weight of #a cupful of wheat pastry flour with the same quantity of its substitutes1 the following data have been obtained4 ,for #a cupful of wheat flour substitute3 l #a_/h cupfuls barley flour #e_/f cupful buckwheat flour #a #a_/f cupfuls fine corn-meal #a scant cupful peanut flour #g_/h cupful rice flour #a #a_/b cupfuls rolled oats #a #a_/h cupfuls rolled oats1 ground in food chopper #a_/c cupful tapioca flour #g_/h cupful soy-bean flour #c_/d cupful potato flour #a cupful rye flour ,although yeast breads are not so satisfactory if made entirely of a grain other than wheat1 quick breads of desirable grain and texture may be made without wheat4 ,it has been found1 however1 that a combination of two or more wheat substitutes gives more satisfactory results than a single substitute4 ,when no wheat is used in quick breads1 the following combinations of substitutes are suggested by the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,states ,relation ,service4 ,rolled oats 7ground7 or ,barley flour or ,buckwheat flour or ,peanut flour or ,soy-bean flour and ,corn flour or ,corn-meal or ,rice flour or ,potato flour or ,sweet potato flour ,since the wheat substitutes contain little or none of the kind of protein which when moistened forms a sticky and elastic substance1 an increase in the number of eggs in quick breads containing no wheat produces a satisfactory texture4 ,the albumin of eggs aids in holding the materials together4 ,by scalding certain of the wheat substitutes before adding them to other ingredients1 a sticky starch paste is formed4 ,this also aids in binding materials together4 ,when using a wheat substitute instead of wheat 7as suggested in ,quantity of ,baking ,powder in ,quick ,breads7 it is advisable to increase the quantity of baking powder1--#a_/b teaspoonful for each cupful of the substitute used4 ,thus1 if a muffin recipe calls for #c #a_/b teaspoonfuls of baking powder and #b cupfuls of corn flour are substituted for wheat1 the quantity of baking powder should be increased to #d #a_/b teaspoonfuls4 ,,why ,,wheat ,,is ,,popular4--,in this country1 wheat is doubtless the most used of all grains4 ,its white or creamy color and mild flavor which blends well with that of many foods account in part for its popularity4 ,from a culinary standpoint1 wheat flour is more satisfactory to use than any other kind4 ,it produces breads of pleasing texture1--tender but firm enough to hold their shape4 ,yeast breads made of wheat flour are larger than those made with other cereals4 ,although wheat is generally used1 its food value is not superior to that of other grains4 ,it is doubtless because we are used to wheat that we have favored it more than other cereals4 ,,comparing ,,wheat ,,with ,,other ,,grains4--,make a comparative study of the composition of the following3 ,wheat ,flour and ,corn-meal4--,from ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour and of corn-meal4 ,which contains the more fat8 ,which contains the more ash8 ,corn-meal does not contain as much protein as does wheat4 ,the protein in corn-meal differs from that in wheat2 it does not have the elastic property of the protein of wheat4 ,it is this property which makes the latter so satisfactory in bread making4 ,for this reason1 it is always best to combine corn-meal with wheat flour or some other cereal in preparing corn breads4 ,it should be noted that corn-meal contains more fat than wheat flour1 and it compares favorably in digestibility with wheat flour4 ,there is a difference in flavor1 but no difference in the nutritive value of yellow and of white corn-meal4 ,wheat ,flour and ,oatmeal4--,from ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour and of oatmeal4 ,which contains the more protein1 fat1 and ash8 ,which contains the more carbohydrates8 ,oatmeal contains more protein1 fat1 and ash than any of the cereals commonly used4 ,it is a very tough cereal and requires long cooking in order to make it palatable4 ,wheat ,flour and ,rice4--,from ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour 7all analyses1 average74 ,now tabulate the percentage composition of rice 7average74 ,which contains the more carbohydrates8 ,which1 the more protein and ash8 ,polished rice contains the least ash and protein of all the common cereals4 ,it is also deficient in fat in comparison with the other cereals4 ,unpolished rice1 however1 contains more than twice as much ash as the polished cereal4 ,it also contains more fat and protein4 ,footnote #id3 ,composition of unpolished rice3 protein1 #h4jb2 fat1 #a4if2 carbohydrates1 #gf4ih2 ash1 #a4ae4 ,hence it compares favorably with the composition of other grains4 ,wheat ,flour1 ,barley1 ,buckwheat1 and ,rye4--,from ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour1 of barley1 of buckwheat1 and of rye4 ,note the quantity of fat in barley and in buckwheat1 and the small amount of protein in buckwheat and in rye4 ,,corn ,,muffins #a #a_/c cupfuls flour #b_/c cupful corn-meal #d teaspoonfuls baking powder #a to #b tablespoonfuls sugar #a_/c teaspoonful salt #a egg #a #a_/d cupfuls milk #b tablespoonfuls fat ,mix as plain muffins1 and bake in oiled muffin tins #be to #cj minutes at #djj ,f4 ,rye meal may be substituted for corn-meal in this recipe4 ,,rice ,,muffins #a #a_/c cupfuls flour #c #c_/d teaspoonfuls baking powder #b tablespoonfuls sugar #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a egg #b_/c cupful milk #a_/b cupful cooked rice #b tablespoonfuls fat ,beat the egg2 add the milk and the cooked rice4 ,add the dry ingredients 7through a sifter7 to the egg mixture2 melt the fat2 add it to the flour mixture4 ,mix quickly and thoroughly1 and bake in buttered muffin tins in a hot oven 7#djj ,f47 for #be to #cj minutes4 ,,oatmeal ,,muffins ,use the recipe for ,plain ,muffins as a basic rule4 ,substitute #a cupful rolled oats for #a cupful of wheat flour4 ,scald the milk1 pour it over the rolled oats4 ,let the mixture stand for about #a_/b hour or until it is cool4 ,then add the other ingredients and mix as plain muffins4 ,use #d teaspoonfuls of baking powder instead of #c #a_/b teaspoonfuls4 ,,questions ,explain why corn-meal is not used alone for corn-meal muffins 7see ,wheat ,flour and ,corn-meal74 ,compare the quantity of milk used in ,rice ,muffins with that used in ,plain ,muffins4 ,account for the difference4 ,from ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of boiled rice4 ,compare with the composition of the uncooked food4 ,how much nourishment is lost by boiling8 ,by what method can rice be cooked to retain the most nourishment8 ,explain why the per cent of nutrients in a food does not always indicate the quantity of nourishment that the nutrients yield to the body 7see ,per ,cent of ,nutrients2 ,nutritive ,values74 ,,lesson ,,cxxii ,,baking ,,powder ,,loaf ,,breads ,,quick ,,loaf ,,breads4--,the making of yeast bread requires kneading and covers a considerable period of time4 ,a loaf of bread leavened with baking powder or other leavens suitable for quick breads may be made in a short time4 ,the ingredients used for such a loaf1 and the method of mixing it are about the same as for muffins4 ,baking the mixture in a bread pan rather than in muffin pans saves some effort in pouring the batter in the pan and in washing them4 ,for those whose time is limited for food preparation1 the making of baking powder loaf breads is recommended4 ,if it is necessary or desirable to use meals or flours other than wheat1 baking powder loaf breads are advisable4 ,such grains can be used successfully in greater quantity 7i4e4 with the addition of little or no wheat flour7 in quick breads than in yeast breads4 ,a quick bread baked in a loaf should be placed in a moderate oven1--about #cjj degrees ,f4 ,moderate heat is applied so that the loaf will rise sufficiently before a crust is formed4 ,after #aj or #ae minutes1 the temperature of the oven should be increased4 ,some secure desirable results by allowing a loaf of quick bread to stand #bj minutes before placing it in the oven4 ,such a procedure is unnecessary if the loaf is placed in an oven of proper temperature4 ,,whole ,,wheat ,,baking ,,powder ,,bread #c cupfuls whole wheat flour #c tablespoonfuls sugar #b #c_/d teaspoonfuls baking powder #g_/h teaspoonful baking soda #a #a_/b teaspoonfuls salt #a egg #a #c_/d cupfuls sour milk #c tablespoonfuls fat ,mix these ingredients in the same way as ,plain ,muffins4 ,pour into an oiled bread pan4 ,bake in a moderate oven 7#cbe degrees ,f47 #de to #fj minutes4 ,the egg may be omitted4 ,if this is done1 increase the baking powder to #c #a_/d teaspoonfuls4 ,peanut ,bread may be made by adding #a cupful chopped peanuts4 ,if commercial salted peanuts are used1 decrease the salt to #a_/b teaspoonful4 ,,prune ,,baking ,,powder ,,bread #a #a_/b cupfuls whole wheat flour #a cupful pastry flour #c_/h cupful sugar #e #c_/d teaspoonfuls baking powder #a teaspoonful salt #a egg #a cupful prunes 7measured before soaking and cooking7 #a cupful liquid 7prune water and milk7 #b tablespoonfuls fat ,wash the prunes1 soak1 and cook them as directed previously4 ,drain1 stone1 and cut in pieces or chop them4 ,break an egg in the mixing bowl4 ,beat it and add the chopped prunes4 ,put the water drained from the prunes in a measuring cup and fill up the latter with milk4 ,add this liquid to the egg and prune mixture4 ,then proceed as in making ,plain ,muffins4 ,turn into an oiled bread pan4 ,bake in a moderate oven 7#cbe degrees ,f47 #de to #fj minutes4 ,raisins or dates may be used instead of prunes4 ,these fruits may be cooked before adding to the other ingredients or they may be used uncooked4 ,if the latter plan is followed1 use #a #a_/d cupfuls milk instead of #a cupful liquid4 ,,questions ,write a recipe for ,prune ,baking ,powder ,bread in which no eggs are used4 ,write a recipe for ,raisin ,baking ,powder ,bread in which uncooked raisins are used1 and sour milk is substituted for sweet milk4 ,use the recipe for ,whole ,wheat ,baking ,powder ,bread as a basis1 and write a recipe for a loaf of quick bread in which fine white flour is used4 ,decrease the sour milk to #a #a_/b cupfuls4 ,if the latter change is made1 what ingredients will also require changing in quantity8 ,,lesson ,,cxxiii ,,eggs ,,for ,,quick ,,breads--,,cream ,,puffs ,,dried ,,eggs4--,eggs are a most valuable food1 but they are extremely high in price4 ,in the packing and transportation of eggs1 many are broken4 ,to save these cracked eggs1 methods of drying them have been devised4 ,if dried or desiccated eggs are cooked or used in cooked foods1 they are not injurious4 ,their food value is high4 ,it has been found ,footnote #ie3 ,see ,journal of ,home ,economics1 ,vol4 ,,xi1 p4 #ajh 7,march1 #aiai71 ,the ,use of ,desiccated ,eggs1 by ,lois ,lhamon that desiccated eggs can be used successfully in custards1 quick breads1 cakes1 and salad dressings4 ,use #a slightly rounded tablespoonful of dried egg for each egg desired4 ,to this amount of powder1 add #c tablespoonfuls of water4 ,cover the mixture and allow to stand from #cj to #de minutes1 stirring occasionally4 ,a solution is thus obtained1 which resembles eggs in which the whites and yolks have been beaten together4 ,desiccated eggs should not be confused with the so-called egg-substitute powders4 ,the latter contain little and sometimes no dried egg4 ,these usually are composed of starch1 coloring material1 with a little nitrogenous material in the form of gelatine1 casein1 or albumin4 ,their food value cannot be compared with that of eggs4 ,for the amount of nutriment contained in egg-substitute powders1 their price is high4 ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,eggs ,,for ,,delicate ,,quick ,,breads4--,in all the quick bread mixtures given thus far1 the whites and yolks of eggs were beaten together4 ,it was shown in ,experiments #da and #dc that more air could be inclosed in an egg mixture when the white and yolk were beaten separately4 ,it is well1 therefore1 to beat each part of an egg separately when a delicate bread is desired4 ,the reason that meringues1 unless cooked1 fall after a time1 is because some of the inclosed air has escaped4 ,from this it is apparent why eggs used in quick breads should not be beaten until ready for use4 ,it is possible1 also1 by much stirring and careless mixing1 to lose some of the air inclosed in a beaten egg white4 ,when the egg is to be separated1 the method of cutting and folding1 as used in ,foamy ,omelet1 should be used for mixing the egg whites with the other ingredients of a quick bread4 ,,cream ,,puff ,,batter4--,the flour of cream puff mixture is usually cooked before baking so that a paste is formed4 ,when the mixture containing the flour paste is dropped on a flat surface1 it does not spread to a great extent and holds its shape4 ,it is possible to mix ,cream ,puffs in the same manner as ,popovers4 ,if this method is followed and uncooked flour is added to the batter1 it is necessary to bake the cream puff mixture in muffin tins or gem pans4 ,the method of leavening ,cream ,puffs is similar to that used in leavening ,popovers1 i4e4 by means of steam and air inclosed in beaten eggs4 ,,cream ,,puffs #a_/b cupful water #c tablespoonfuls vegetable oil #a tablespoonful butter #e_/h cupful flour #a_/d teaspoonful salt #b eggs ,mix the water and fat and heat the mixture until the water boils4 ,add all of the flour and salt and mix thoroughly4 ,stir and cook until the ingredients are well blended and the paste does not stick to the sides of the pan4 7,care should be taken not to cook the mixture too long4 ,if the fat separates from the other ingredients1 the puffs will not be successful47 ,while the mixture is hot1 add the eggs1 unbeaten1 one at a time4 ,beat until thoroughly mixed4 ,drop by tablespoonfuls on an oiled baking-sheet1 and bake at #dej degrees ,f41 for #bj minutes1 then at #cbe degrees ,f41 for #be minutes4 ,when cool slit one side open and fill with ,cream or ,chocolate ,filling or ,whipped ,cream4 ,cream ,puffs may also be filled with creamed chicken or veal1 or a salad mixture4 ,,cream ,,filling #a cupful flour #c_/d cupful sugar #b cupfuls scalded milk #a_/b tablespoonful butter #a egg #a_/d teaspoonful salt #a teaspoonful vanilla ,mix the flour and sugar together4 ,slowly add the hot milk4 ,pour the mixture into a double boiler and cook for #bj minutes4 ,remove from heat4 ,beat the egg1 add the egg and butter to the flour and milk mixture4 ,return to the fire and cook over water until the egg is coagulated2 then add the salt4 ,cool1 and add flavoring4 ,for economy the butter may be omitted4 ,chocolate ,filling may be made by following the recipe for ,cream ,filling1 increasing the sugar to #a cupful and adding a paste made by cooking #a square 7or ounce7 of chocolate with #a_/d cupful of water as directed in ,chocolate ,corn-starch ,pudding4 ,,questions ,note the quantity of flour and water used in cream puff mixture4 ,what kind of batter do these quantities of flour and moisture usually make8 ,how do you account for the consistency of the cream puff batter when it is ready to bake8 ,from the difference in the methods of preparing ,cream ,puffs and ,popovers before baking1 explain the difference in the stiffness of the mixtures4 ,by what gas is the mixture lightened8 ,by what means is this gas introduced into the mixture8 ,why is it necessary to bake the mixture for so long a time8 ,what is the result of baking this mixture for too short a time8 ,in ,cream ,filling1 what is the purpose of mixing the flour and sugar before cooking 7see ,experiment #bd78 ,give two reasons for cooking this mixture in the double boiler1 rather than directly over the flame4 ,how long a time does it take to thicken the flour mixture8 ,why is it necessary to cook it for #bj minutes8 ,what is the use of eggs in the filling8 ,why are they not cooked as long as the flour mixture8 ,determine the number of ,cream ,puffs this recipe will make4 ,from ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of the edible portions of whole eggs 7see ,figure #ge71 of egg yolk1 and of egg white4 ,compare the last two4 ,which contains the more fat8 ,which contains the more protein8 ,which contains the more water8 ,which contains the more nutriment8 ,tabulate the percentage composition of milk 7see ,figure #fd74 ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,cxxiv ,,food ,,requirement ,,daily ,,energy ,,requirement4--,one hears much concerning working efficiency1 i4e4 the ability to do the maximum amount of work of the highest type with a minimum waste of effort4 ,there is no doubt that the kind and quantity of food that an individual consumes has much to do with his working efficiency1 and that it is consequently a matter worthy of serious consideration4 ,enough gasoline is used in an automobile so that there is produced sufficient power to move the car at the desired speed4 ,so sufficient food should be used by the individual that enough energy be supplied to his body for its greatest usefulness4 ,since foods furnish the body with energy1 the energy which the body spends in doing its work is a measure of the fuel food needed4 ,if the body requires a certain amount of energy for its needs1 this energy1 measured in ,calories1 can be supplied by a definite quantity of combustible food4 ,hence1 daily energy requirements can be measured in ,calories4 ,scientists have done much experimenting and investigating concerning the quantity of food that individuals require4 ,they have concluded that many factors may be taken into consideration in determining daily food requirements or dietary standards4 ,some of these factors are3 7#a7 weight2 7#b7 occupation2 7#c7 age4 7#a7 ,relation of ,weight1 ,size1 and ,shape to ,daily ,energy ,requirement4--,in general the quantity of food required increases with the size of an individual but not at the same rate as the body weight increases4 ,two persons may be equal in weight1 yet very different in height and shape4 ,a tall1 slender person requires more food than a short1 fleshy person of the same weight4 ,for this reason1 size and shape rather than weight are found more accurate in computing the daily food requirement4 ,however1 for practical purposes1 energy requirement is generally based upon body weight4 7#b7 ,relation of ,occupation to ,daily ,energy ,requirement4--,from the previous consideration of energy1 it is obvious that muscular exercise1 even though very slight1 requires some expenditure of energy4 ,it has been found that1 even during sleep and rest1 energy is required to carry on the functions of the body 7such as the beating of the heart1 etc474 ,since the energy for both the voluntary and involuntary activities of the body is furnished by the fuel foods1 it is clear that one's occupation is an important factor in determining the kind and quantity of food an individual should use4 ,the man who is doing hard physical work needs more food than the man who sits quietly at his employment4 ,the following table1 showing the energy required for different conditions of activity1 has been formulated by scientists3 ,footnote #if3 ,atwater and ,benedict1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,yearbook #aijd1 p4 #bae4 ,man sleeping requires #fe ,calories per hour ,man sitting at rest requires #ajj ,calories per hour ,man at light muscular exercise requires #agj ,calories per hour ,man at active muscular exercise requires #bij ,calories per hour ,man at severe muscular exercise requires #dej ,calories per hour ,man at very severe muscular exercise requires #fjj ,calories per hour ,from these data1 it is possible to compute the dietaries of people of different occupations4 ,for example1 the energy requirement for a bookkeeper 7male7 leading an inactive muscular life is3 #h hours sleep 7#fe ,calories per hour7 #ebj ,calories #i hours work at desk 7#ajj ,calories per hour7 #ijj ,calories #d hours sitting at rest and reading 7#ajj ,calories per hour7 #djj ,calories #c hours walking 7#agj ,calories per hour7 #eaj ,calories ------------- #bccj ,calories ,the energy requirement for a man of severe muscular activity1 such as excavating1 is3 #h hours sleep 7#fe ,calories per hour7 #ebj ,calories #h hours excavating 7#dej ,calories per hour7 #cfjj ,calories #a hour walking 7#agj ,calories per hour7 #agj ,calories #g hours sitting at rest 7#ajj ,calories per hour7 #gjj ,calories ------------- #diij ,calories ,another authority ,footnote #ig3 ,textbook of ,physiology1 p4 #ada1 ,tigerstedt4 gives these data pertaining to men engaged in muscular work3 ,shoemaker requires #bjja-bdjj ,calories per day ,weaver requires #bdja-bgjj ,calories per day ,carpenter or mason requires #bgja-cbjj ,calories per day ,farm laborer requires #cbja-dajj ,calories per day ,excavator requires #daja-ejjj ,calories per day ,lumberman requires #ejjj or more ,calories per day ,the following data regarding the energy requirements of the average woman in some of her common occupations have been formulated ,footnote #ih3 ,see ,feeding the ,family1 p4 #gf1 by ,mary ,swartz ,rose1 ,ph4,d43 ,at rest #afjj-ahjj ,calories per day ,sedentary occupations #bjjj-bbjj ,calories per day ,milliners ,teachers ,bookkeepers ,seamstresses ,stenographers ,machine operatives ,occupations involving standing1 walking1 or manual labor #bbjj-bejj ,calories per day ,cooks in family groups ,chamber maids ,general housekeepers ,waitresses ,occupations developing muscular strength #bejj-cjjj ,calories per day ,laundresses ,cooks for large groups 7#c7 ,relation of ,age to ,daily ,energy ,requirement4--,young children1 i4e4 those under eight or nine years of age1 do not require as much food as adults4 ,the food requirement of a child and of an adult is not proportional to weight1 however4 ,in proportion to his weight a child requires more food than an adult4 ,the growing child needs food1 not only to give energy to the body and rebuild tissue1 but to build new tissue4 ,an aged person needs less food to build new tissue4 ,furthermore1 since an old person's strength is somewhat lessened1 he needs less food to carry on the activities of the body4 ,hence1 the aged person requires less food than the adult of middle life4 ,the following table ,footnote #ii3 ,from ,chemistry of ,food and ,nutrition1 ,second ,edition1 by ,henry ,c4 ,sherman1 ,ph4,d41 p4 #aig4 gives the differences in energy requirement of children from one to seventeen years inclusive4 ,it is thought that after the age of seventeen1 food requirement will depend quite as much upon occupation as upon age4 ,hence1 the foregoing tables can be used to estimate energy requirement for all ages above seventeen3 ,children of #a-b years inclusive #ajjj-abjj ,calories per day ,children of #b-e years inclusive #abjj-aejj ,calories per day ,children of #f-i years inclusive #adjj-bjjj ,calories per day ,girls of #aj-ac years inclusive #ahjj-bdjj ,calories per day ,boys of #aj-ac years inclusive #bcjj-cjjj ,calories per day ,girls of #ad-ag years inclusive #bbjj-bfjj ,calories per day ,boys of #ad-ag years inclusive #bhjj-djjj ,calories per day ,the fact that the energy requirement of the boy from #aj to #ag years is greater than that of the girl of equal age is due probably to the greater restlessness or muscular activity of the boy4 ,,daily ,,protein ,,requirement4--,if a person's energy requirement were #bejj ,calories1 sufficient energy might be supplied by using butter or beef steak for a day's ration4 ,yet this would be extremely unpalatable and would not meet the needs of the body4 ,the body should be nourished by all the combustible foodstuffs1--carbohydrates1 fat1 and protein4 ,now the question arises3 ,how many of the required ,calories shall be supplied by each of these foodstuffs8 ,too much or too little protein is often harmful and produces serious results4 ,as mentioned previously1 too much protein may cause intestinal disturbances1 and an overtaxing of the excretory organs4 ,on the other hand1 the use of too little protein may produce imperfect nourishment4 ,concerning the quantity of protein used in diet1 there has been much difference of opinion4 ,atwater1 an ,american authority1 thought that there should be a generous supply1 i4e4 a surplus of protein1 to supply the demands of body-building4 ,chittenden1 another ,american authority1 believes in just enough protein to meet the demands of the body4 ,however1 the use of sufficient protein food to produce from ten to fifteen per cent of the total ,calories has been found both practical and satisfactory4 ,daily ,carbohydrate and ,fat ,requirement4--,although protein may furnish the body with energy1 it should not serve as the principal source of fuel4 ,its more essential function is to help build the body4 ,if carbohydrates and fat are present with protein1 the former supply energy and allow the protein to perform its more important function of body-building4 ,there should always be enough carbohydrates and fat to furnish energy to the body1 so that the protein can be used chiefly for body-building4 ,in the growing period of youth or after a wasting disease1 it might seem that flesh could be put on by increasing the quantity of bodybuilding food4 ,but such is not the case4 ,the most effective work in building the body can be accomplished by using a normal amount of food rich in protein and a generous supply of foods rich in ash1 carbohydrates1 fat1 and vitamines4 ,with such a combination1 the protein can be used to best advantage for body-building4 ,for practical purposes1 the following general statement concerning the carbohydrates and fat requirement is believed to be adequate3 ,if the total ,calories and the number of ,calories yielded by protein meet the requirement of a dietary standard and the food composing the diet is varied in composition1 the carbohydrates and fat will exist in satisfactory proportion4 ,,daily ,,ash ,,requirement4--,since ash is not a combustible foodstuff1 it cannot be included in the foodstuffs whose energy requirement can be measured4 ,although ash exists in small quantity in food1 the use of certain ash constituents is considered as necessary as the use of protein4 ,a diet may meet the total energy1 the protein1 the carbohydrate1 and the fat requirements1 yet may be lacking in certain essential mineral materials4 ,it is especially necessary to include food containing phosphorus1 iron1 and calcium in one's diet4 ,,the ,,appetite ,,and ,,food ,,requirement4--,the appetite is the most common measure of daily food requirement4 ,if one relies upon his appetite as an index of the quantity of food he should consume1 and if his health and weight remain normal1 the appetite may serve as a guide for daily food requirement4 ,but one may be a little over weight or under weight1 and yet have normal body functions4 ,there can be no doubt1 however1 that the whims of the appetite often lead to unwise selection of food4 ,a study of food composition is absolutely essential in overcoming this fault4 ,lack of energy or loss of flesh may be due to improper feeding4 ,if the needs of the body and the kind and quantity of food that will supply these needs are understood by the home- keeper1 she may do much in maintaining the health1 happiness1 and usefulness of the members of the family4 ,,weight ,,as ,,an ,,index ,,to ,,proper ,,nourishment4--,it has been found that the diet of an individual has a most decided effect upon his weight4 ,dr4 ,thomas ,d4 ,wood has prepared tables showing the normal height and weight of girls and boys of various ages4 ,these tables are most valuable in determining whether or not a girl or boy is of the proper weight for his height4 ,if the weight of a girl or boy is less than it should be1 he is likely to be malnourished4 ,,height ,,and ,,weight ,,table ,,for ,,girls ,,height #e #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab #ac #ad #ae #af #ag #ah ,,inches ,,yrs ,,yrs ,,yrs ,,yrs ,,yrs ,,yrs ,,yrs ,,yrs ,,yrs ,,yrs ,,yrs ,,yrs ,,yrs ,,yrs #ci #cd #ce #cf #dj #cf #cg #ch #da #ch #ci #dj #db #dj #da #db #dc #dc #db #db #dc #dd #dd #dd #de #de #df #de #df #dg #dg #dh #di #df #dh #dh #di #ej #ea #dg #di #ej #ea #eb #ec #dh #ea #eb #ec #ed #ee #ef #di #ec #ed #ee #ef #eg #eh #ej #ef #eg #eh #ei #fj #fa #ea #ei #fj #fa #fb #fc #fd #eb #fb #fc #fd #fe #ff #fg #ec #ff #fg #fh #fh #fi #gj #ed #fh #fi #gj #ga #gb #gc #ee #gb #gc #gd #ge #gf #gg #ef #gf #gg #gh #gi #hj #ha #eg #ha #hb #hc #hd #he #hf #eh #he #hf #hg #hh #hi #ij #ia #ei #hi #ij #ia #ic #id #ie #if #ih #fj #id #ie #ig #ii #ajj #ajb #ajd #ajf #fa #ii #aja #ajb #ajd #ajf #ajh #aji #aaa #fb #ajd #ajf #ajg #aji #aaa #aac #aad #aae #fc #aji #aaa #aab #aac #aae #aag #aah #aai #fd #aae #aag #aah #aai #abj #aba #abb #fe #aag #aai #abj #abb #abc #abd #abe #ff #aai #aba #abb #abd #abf #abg #abh #fg #abd #abf #abg #abh #abi #acj #fh #abf #abh #acj #acb #acc #acd #fi #abi #aca #acc #ace #acf #acg #gj #acd #acf #ach #aci #adj #ga #ach #adj #adb #adc #add #gb #ade #adg #adh #adi ,,about ,,what ,a ,,girl ,,should ,,gain ,,each ,,month ,age ,age #e to #h #f oz4 #ad to #af #h oz #h to #aa #h oz4 #af to #ah #d oz #aa to #ad #ab oz4 ,weights and measures should be taken without shoes and in only the usual indoor clothes ,,child ,,health ,,organization #aef ,fifth ,avenue1 ,new ,york ,courtesy of ,child ,health ,organization4 ,prepared by ,dr4 ,thomas ,d4 ,wood4 ,,height ,,and ,,weight ,,table ,,for ,,boys ,,height #e #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab #ac #ad #ae #af #ag #ah ,,inches ,yrs ,yrs ,yrs ,yrs ,yrs ,yrs ,yrs ,yrs ,yrs ,yrs ,yrs ,yrs ,yrs ,yrs #ci #ce #cf #cg #dj #cg #ch #ci #da #ci #dj #da #db #da #db #dc #dd #dc #dc #dd #de #df #dd #de #df #df #dg #de #dg #dg #dh #dh #di #df #dh #di #ej #ej #ea #dg #ea #eb #eb #ec #ed #dh #ec #ed #ee #ee #ef #eg #di #ee #ef #eg #eh #eh #ei #ej #eh #ei #fj #fj #fa #fb #ea #fj #fa #fb #fc #fd #fe #eb #fb #fc #fd #fe #fg #fh #ec #ff #fg #fh #fi #gj #ga #ed #fi #gj #ga #gb #gc #gd #ee #gc #gd #ge #gf #gg #gh #ef #gg #gh #gi #hj #ha #hb #eg #ha #hb #hc #hd #he #hf #eh #hd #he #hf #hg #hh #ij #ia #ei #hg #hh #hi #ij #ib #id #if #ig #fj #ia #ib #ic #id #ig #ii #aja #ajb #fa #ie #ig #ii #ajb #ajd #ajf #ajh #aaj #fb #ajj #ajb #ajd #ajf #aji #aaa #aac #aaf #fc #ajc #ajg #aji #aaa #aad #aae #aag #aai #fd #aac #aae #aag #aah #aai #abj #abb #fe #abj #abb #abc #abd #abe #abf #ff #abe #abf #abg #abh #abi #acj #fg #acj #aca #acb #acc #acd #ace #fh #acd #ace #acf #acg #ach #aci #fi #ach #aci #adj #ada #adb #adc #gj #adb #add #ade #adf #adg #ga #adg #adi #aej #aea #aec #gb #aeb #aed #aee #aef #aeg #gc #aeg #aei #afj #afa #afb #gd #afb #afd #afe #aff #afg #ge #afi #agj #aga #agb #gf #agd #age #agf #agg ,,about ,,what ,a ,,boy ,,should ,,gain ,,each ,,month ,,age ,,age #e to #h #f oz #ab to #af #af oz #h to #ab #h oz #af to #ah #h oz ,courtesy of ,child ,health ,organization ,prepared by ,dr ,thomas ,d ,wood ,dr4 ,wood's tables also indicate the proper rate of increase in weight4 ,the rate of increase in weight is thought to be quite as important as is the correct proportion between weight and height4 ,the use of scales in the home and school is to be recommended4 ,they furnish a means of determining whether the proper amount is being eaten4 ,,questions ,compute the energy requirement of at least two members of your family4 ,compute your own energy requirement from this table4 ,determine your height and weight4 ,how does your weight compare with the normal weight given in the table for one of your height8 ,if you are under weight1 discuss with your teacher the kind and quantity of food needed to increase your weight4 ,at the end of a month1 again determine your weight4 ,how does the gain compare with that given in the table for one of your age8 ,,lesson ,,cxxv ,,planning1 ,,cooking1 ,,and ,,serving ,a ,,dinner ,plan a dinner4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,see footnote #gb4 ,use seasonable foods and a meat-substitute4 ,follow the suggestions given in ,lesson ,,cv4 ,plan the menu so that the cost of the materials used does not exceed #be cents per person4 ,analyze the menu and see that it meets the requirements stated in ,lesson ,,cv4 ,cook and serve the dinner4 ,follow the ,russian or ,compromise style of serving4 ,serve the dinner with a maid1 provided the pupils find it useful to know how to serve with a maid either in their own homes or in the homes of others4 ,footnote #aja3 ,see ,suggestions for ,teaching1 ,appendix71 regarding service with and without a maid4 ,,lesson ,,cxxvi ,,review--,,meal ,,cooking ,,menu ,potato ,soup ,lettuce ,salad with ,french ,dressing ,muffins ,see ,lesson ,,xiv regarding suggestions for the preparation of the lesson4 ,,lesson ,,cxxvii ,,home ,,projects ,footnote #ajb3 ,see ,lesson ,,ix4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,home ,,work4--,prepare muffins1 baking powder biscuits1 or baking powder loaf breads at least twice a week4 ,,suggested ,,aims3 7#a7 ,to learn to work quickly4 ,note the time required to mix these quick breads4 ,strive to lessen the number of minutes each time you prepare them4 7#b7 ,to use available materials4 ,use the food-materials you have on hand1-- such as sour or sweet milk1 left-over cooked cereals1 and different kinds of flours or meals4 ,,division ,,twelve ,,quick ,,breads3 ,,soft ,,doughs ,,lesson ,,cxxviii ,,method ,,of ,,mixing ,,fat ,,in ,,quick ,,breads--,,drop ,,biscuit ,,mixing ,,fat4--,what method is used in mixing the fat in all batter quick breads 7see previous lessons on ,batters78 ,in making quick breads1 it is desirable to mix all ingredients thoroughly4 ,fat is mixed in a quick bread most easily and thoroughly by melting it and stirring it into the other ingredients1 provided only that the quick bread mixture is thin1 i4e4 a batter4 ,when the quick bread is a stiff mixture1 i4e4 a dough1 this method of mixing the fat is not considered satisfactory1 although it has been found that biscuits of good quality can be made by adding melted fat1 provided the dough is beaten thoroughly4 ,fat is usually added to doughs by working it1 in solid form1 into the dry ingredients1 either with a knife or with the fingers4 7,in which method of mixing--with the knife or with the fingers--can the mixture be kept cooler8 ,which is the cleaner method87 ,if the fingers are used for mixing the fat1 it is well to work it into the flour with the tips of the fingers rather than to rub the ingredients between the palms of the hands4 ,,soft ,,doughs4--,doughs are most easily mixed by using a knife instead of a spoon4 ,a soft dough contains approximately three parts of flour to one part of moisture4 ,baking ,powder ,biscuit is a typical soft dough mixture4 ,,drop ,,biscuits #b cupfuls flour #d teaspoonfuls baking powder #a_/b teaspoonful salt #b tablespoonfuls fat ,milk or water1 about #c_/d cupful ,mix the dry ingredients2 then work the fat into the mixture with the tips of the fingers1 or cut it in thoroughly with a knife4 ,with a knife mix the liquid with the dry ingredients4 ,the mixture is of proper consistency when it may be dropped from the spoon without spreading4 ,drop by spoonfuls on an oiled pan1 or into oiled muffin tins4 ,bake in a hot oven 7#dge degrees ,f47 from #ab to #ae minutes4 ,,fruit ,,pudding ,place sliced fruit--fresh1 canned1 or dried--in an oiled baking-dish4 ,cover the fruit with a biscuit mixture1 made by using the ingredients in the same proportion as for ,drop ,biscuits4 ,two or three times as much fat as the given quantity may be used4 ,bake until the fruit is tender and the batter is firm and brown1 usually from #ae to #cj minutes4 ,serve with cream or fruit sauce4 ,plain cream may be used1 or the cream may be whipped1 or sweetened and flavored with a little nutmeg or vanilla4 ,,whipped ,,cream ,,sauce #a cupful whipped cream #a egg white #a_/c cupful powdered sugar #a_/b teaspoonful vanilla ,chill the cream2 add the unbeaten egg2 then beat with an egg beater 7for method of whipping cream see ,lesson ,,xlviii74 ,add the sugar and vanilla4 ,,questions ,explain why the fat in ,drop ,biscuit is not added in the same manner as in pour batters4 ,if the fat is to be mixed with the dry ingredients1 why rub the ingredients together between the fingers rather than between the palms of the hands8 ,compare as to taste and appearance the biscuits made with lard or vegetable fat with those made with butter4 ,why should not a tin pan be used for the fruit pudding8 ,mention at least four kinds of fruit that could be used for the pudding and tell how the use of some kinds of fruit would modify the time of baking4 ,why does the quantity of liquid given in ,drop ,biscuits vary 7see ,pour ,batter and ,gluten78 ,why is it necessary to surround the cream with ice water while whipping it 7see ,whipping ,cream78 ,,lesson ,,cxxix ,,quantity ,,of ,,fat ,,in ,,quick ,,breads--,,short ,,cake ,shortening4--,the tenderness of a quick bread is an important consideration4 ,it is dependent upon the quantity of fat in the bread4 ,oil and water do not mix 7see ,experiment #ce74 ,hence when much fat is used in a quick bread1 particles of dough or batter1 which contain both fat and moisture1 do not adhere firmly4 ,quick bread containing much fat becomes tender1 that is1 it crumbles readily4 ,in preparing modified biscuit mixtures1--short cakes1 fruit dumplings1 etc41--in which the quantity of fat is increased1 make very careful comparisons between the rich or short breads and those containing the standard quantity of fat4 ,in making observations1 note the following3 7a7 ease or difficulty in removing from the pan without breaking1 7b7 tenderness or toughness1 7c7 difference in flavor4 ,,fruit ,,short ,,cake ,make a biscuit mixture1 containing two or three times the quantity of fat used in biscuit mixture4 ,place one half of the mixture in an oiled cake pan1 then spread it with a scant quantity of melted butter or substitute4 ,add the remainder of the mixture and bake at #dej degrees ,f41 for #bj minutes4 ,remove from the pan1 and place on a cake cooler for a few minutes4 ,split the cake open and fill with crushed and sweetened fruits4 ,place uncrushed fruits on the top1 and serve with plain cream or ,whipped ,cream or ,fruit ,sauce2 or cover the cake with a meringue1 garnish with whole fruit1 and serve with a ,soft ,custard ,sauce4 #a_/d cupful of sugar may be added to the dry ingredients of ,short ,cake4 ,,questions ,what general statement can you make with regard to the effect of increasing the fat in quick breads8 ,knowing the change that takes place in a quick bread1 when the quantity of fat is increased1 state the effect of adding too much fat4 ,what is the purpose of using melted butter or substitute in the ,short ,cake mixture8 ,mention some fruits1 or fruit combinations1 that would be palatable in a ,short ,cake4 ,how many persons can be served with a ,short ,cake made with #b cupfuls of flour8 ,,lesson ,,cxxx ,,cut ,,biscuit ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,rolling ,,pin4--,when dough is to be rolled and cut into biscuits1 it needs to be a little stiffer than for ,drop ,biscuits4 ,it should1 however1 be a soft dough4 ,biscuit dough should not be pressed down with a rolling motion1 but should be deftly and gently patted out with several successive touches with the rolling pin4 ,in using the rolling pin for stiff doughs1 when more pressure should be exerted1 the pin should be lifted up at the end of each stroke4 ,,baking ,,powder ,,biscuits #b cupfuls flour #a_/b teaspoonful salt #d teaspoonfuls baking powder #b tablespoonfuls fat ,milk or water1 about #b_/c cupful ,mix as in drop biscuits1 using less milk1 so that the dough is just stiff enough to roll out4 ,roll gently to #a_/b inch thickness on a slightly floured board1 and cut into small biscuits4 ,if any dry flour clings to the top of the biscuits1 moisten it with a little milk or water4 ,place on a slightly oiled pan1 and bake in a hot oven 7#dge degrees ,f47 from #ab to #ae minutes4 ,serve hot4 ,they may be placed on a folded napkin or doily4 ,,apple ,,dumplings ,make ,baking ,powder ,biscuit dough4 ,roll until #a_/d inch thick and cut into pieces4 ,place an apple 7cored and pared7 in the center of each piece4 ,fold the dough over the fruit and bake 7#cge degrees ,f47 or steam for #a_/b hour1 or until the apples are soft4 ,the dumplings may be browned in the oven after steaming4 ,rich biscuit dough or pastry may be used for ,apple ,dumplings4 ,other fruits may be used instead of apples4 ,,fruit ,,rolls ,make a biscuit mixture1 using #d tablespoonfuls of fat instead of #b tablespoonfuls1 as given in the recipe for ,baking ,powder ,biscuits4 ,gently roll to #a_/d inch thickness1 and spread the following ingredients over it3 #a tablespoonful butter or substitute #b tablespoonfuls sugar #a_/b teaspoonful cinnamon ,fruit ,for the fruit use3 #a_/b cupful dried currants1 or #a_/c cupful raisins and #b tablespoonfuls citron1 or #b cupfuls chopped apples ,roll as jelly roll1 then cut into pieces #c_/d inch thick and place 7cut side down7 on buttered tins4 ,bake in a hot oven 7#dej degrees ,f47 #ae to #cj minutes4 ,if apples are used1 serve the roll with cream and sugar as a dessert4 ,if the dried fruits are used1 serve the roll in place of a hot bread or cake4 ,,questions ,compare recipes for drop and cut biscuits4 ,how do they differ8 ,why should biscuits be patted out rather than rolled out with the rolling pin8 ,if dry flour clings to the top of the biscuits after cutting1 what is the result after baking8 ,how can this be remedied8 ,how can the biscuit cutter and rolling pin be prevented from sticking to the dough8 ,why are biscuits sometimes served on a napkin or doily8 ,write a recipe for ,baking ,powder ,biscuits1 using #c cupfuls of flour as the basis4 ,how many apples of medium size are required for ,apple ,dumplings1 when #b cupfuls of flour are used8 ,why do ,apple ,dumplings require a longer time for baking than ,baking ,powder ,biscuits8 ,how should citron be cut for use in cooking8 ,if apples are to be used for the fruit of ,fruit ,rolls1 give in order the measuring1 the preparation1 and the mixing of the materials4 ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,cxxxi ,,measurement ,,of ,,the ,,fuel ,,value ,,of ,,food ,,applied ,,to ,,daily ,,food ,,requirement ,practical ,method of ,diet ,calculation4--,the #ajj-;,calorie portions can be used in a very practical way for computing the fuel value of one's daily diet4 ,in ,lesson ,,cxvi the weights of #ajj-;,calorie portions of flour1 butter1 sugar1 etc41 were determined1 then these portions were weighed and measured4 ,in much the same way1 tables have been prepared containing the weight and measure of #ajj-;,calorie portions4 ,if such a table is read and the quantity of the various ordinary foods that will produce #ajj ,calories of heat is kept in mind1 the computation of the meal becomes very simple4 ,if a person knows his energy requirement1 he can select such quantities of food for the day as will conform with the ideal standard4 ,the quantity of food to be used at each meal is a matter of personal choice4 ,the important point is to have the food of the entire day conform to the standard4 ,however1 in computing the energy value of the foods of each meal1 some find it convenient to divide the day's ration4 ,the following is a convenient division3 ,one third for breakfast1 one fourth for luncheon1 and five twelfths for dinner4 ,but the division may vary with individual needs4 ,ascertaining one's energy requirement and deciding upon a certain division for the three meals1 one can very easily select such quantities of foods for each meal as will conform with the ideal standard4 ,if the energy requirement of a girl of fourteen years is #bbjj ,calories1 her breakfast may yield approximately #gej ,calories1 her luncheon #eej ,calories1 and her dinner #ijj ,calories4 ,a luncheon consisting of an omelet made with one egg 7#ej71 one medium slice of homemade bread 7#ajj71 orange marmalade 7#ajj71 butter for bread 7#ajj71 large banana 7#ajj71 and a small glass of milk 7#ajj7 would yield sufficient nourishment according to the requirement above4 ,if it is desired to compute the ,calories produced by the protein of a meal1 data can be obtained from the table also 7see ,calories ,derived from ,protein74 ,the calculation of the protein content of the luncheon above is3 ,number of ,calories derived from protein of egg #ah4b ,number of ,calories derived from protein of bread #ac4h ,number of ,calories derived from protein of marmalade #j4g ,number of ,calories derived from protein of butter #j4e ,number of ,calories derived from protein of banana #e4c ,number of ,calories derived from protein of milk #ai4a ---- ,number of ,calories derived from protein of entire meal #eg4f ,if one tenth of the total energy requirement is taken as the desired protein requirement1 the above luncheon approaches the ideal4 ,the ,form ,c given below will be found convenient to use in calculating the fuel value of menus from #ajj-;,calorie portions4 ,,questions ,calculate your own breakfast1 luncheon1 and dinner energy requirement1 and those of at least two members of your family4 ,from the table of #ajj-;,calorie portions estimate the fuel value of all your meals served either at your home or at school for several days4 ,compare the result with the ideal energy requirement obtained above4 ,if the results vary greatly1 strive to select the proper kind and quantity of foods so that the total ,calories and ,calories derived from protein approach the ideal4 ,,form ,c3 ,,calculation ,,of #ajj-;,,calorie ,,portions ,meal3 ,number ,served3 ,food ,quantity ,number ,total ,calories ,total ,cost ,total of #ajj- ,calories ,produced ,calories of #ajj- ,cost ,calorie by ,protein ,produced ,calorie ,portions in #ajj- by ,protein ,portion ,calorie ,portion ,total ,total for ,one ,person ,percent of ,total ,calories produced by calories derived from ,protein3 ,signature3 ,date3 ,,table ,,of #ajj-;,calorie ,,portions ,footnote #ajc3 ,the approximate measure of #ajj-;,calorie portions is based in part upon ,table of #ajj ,food ,units1 compiled by ,dr4 ,irving ,fisher4 ,the weight in ounces of #ajj-;,calorie portions and ,calories derived from protein are based upon data found on p4 #daj of ,chemistry of ,food and ,nutrition1 by ,henry ,c4 ,sherman1 ,ph4 ,d4 ,items marked 99 are from ,feeding the ,family1 by ,mary ,swartz ,rose1 ,table ,,iii1 p4 #cee4 ,,edible ,,portions ,,approximate ,,measure ,,weight ,,calories ,,of #ajj-;,,calorie ,,in ,,ounces ,,derived ,,portion ,,of #ajj- ,,from ,,calorie ,,protein ,,portion ,almonds #ae average #j4e #ab4f ,apples #b medium #e4f #b4e ,apricots1 fresh #b large #f4a #g4g ,asparagus1 cooked #b servings #g4e #ag4i ,bacon1 smoked 7uncooked7 #a thin slice1 small #j4f #f4g ,bananas #a large #c4f #e4c ,beans1 baked1 canned #a small serving 7#a_/b cupful7 #b4h #ba4e string1 canned #e servings #ag4b #ba4e lima1 canned #a large saucedish #d4f #bj4h ,beef1 corned #a4b #ba4b dried1 salted1 and smoked #d large slices #b4j #fg4b 99loaf ,slice #d;in4x#f;in4x#a_/h;in4 #a4d #dj4j porterhouse steak #a serving #a4c #cb4d ribs1 lean #a average serving #a4i #db4c ribs1 fat #j4i #ae4f round1 free from visible fat #a generous serving #c4a #hj4g rump1 lean #a4g #da4j rump1 fat #j4i #ag4e 99stew with vegetables #b_/e cupful #c4j #af4j sirloin steak #a average serving #a4d #ca4j ,beets1 cooked #c servings #h4i #bc4b 99,biscuits1 baking powder #b small #a4c #aa4j 99,blanc ,mange #a_/d cupful #a4i #h4j ,brazil nuts #c average size #j4e #aj4b ,bread1 graham #a thick slice #a4c #ac4e toasted #b medium slices 7baker's7 #a4b #ae4b white homemade #a medium slice #a4c #ac4h average #a thick slice #a4c #ad4j whole wheat #a thick slice #a4d #ae4i ,buckwheat flour #a_/d cupful #a4j #g4d ,butter #a tablespoonful7ordinary pat7 #j4e #j4e ,buttermilk #a #a_/d cupfuls 7#a #a_/b #i4i #cc4f glasses7 ,cabbage #b servings #aa4b #bj4c 99,cake1 chocolate ,piece #b #a_/b x #b #a_/b #j4i #h4j x #g_/h 99,cake1 one egg ,piece #a #c_/d x #a #c_/d #a4j #h4j x #a #c_/d ,calf's-foot jelly #d4a #ai4h ,carrots1 fresh #b medium #g4h #i4g ,cauliflower 7as purchased7 #aa4f #bc4f ,celery #ai4a #bc4h ,celery soup1 canned #b servings #f4f #ae4g ,cheese1 ,american pale 7as purchased7 #a #a_/b cubic inches #j4h #bf4e ,american red 7as purchased7 #a #a_/b cubic inches #j4h #bj4j ,cheddar 7as purchased7 #a #a_/b cubic inches #j4h #bd4d ,cottage #d cubic inches 7#a_/b cupful7 #c4b #gf4a ,neufchatel #a #a_/b cubic inches #a4a #bc4b 7#a_/d cupful7 7#a_/b small package7 ,roquefort 7as purchased7 #a4j #be4c ,swiss 7as purchased7 #a #a_/c cubic inches #j4h #be4d ,chicken1 broilers #a large serving #c4c #gi4a ,chocolate generous half square #j4f #h4c 99,chocolate 7beverage half milk and half water7 #a_/b cupful 7scant7 #d4a #aj4j ,cocoa #b #a_/b tablespoonfuls #j4g #ag4c 99,cocoa 7beverage1 half milk and half water7 #c_/d cupful #e4e #ad4j ,cod1 salt #b #a_/b tablespoonfuls #c4d #ig4e 99,cookies #b1 #b #a_/d in4 diameter #j4i #f4j ,corn1 green 7as purchased7 #a side dish #c4f #aa4d ,corn-meal #b tablespoonfuls #a4j #aj4c ,crackers1 graham44 #c crackers #j4i #i4f soda #c crackers #j4i #i4d water #c crackers #j4i #aj4c ,cranberries7as purchased7 #a cupful 7cooked7 #g4e #c4d ,cream #a_/d cupful #a4h #e4j ,cucumbers #b large #bj4c #ah4d 99,custard1 cup #a_/c cupful #c4c #ag4j ,dates1 dried #d medium #a4j #b4d ,doughnuts #a_/b doughnut #j4h #f4b ,eggs1 uncooked #a #a_/b medium or #b small #b4d #cf4d ,farina #a4j #ab4c ,figs1 dried #a large #a4a #e4e ,flour1 rye #a_/d cupful #a4j #g4i wheat1 entire #a_/d cupful #a4j #ae4e wheat1 graham #a_/d cupful #a4j #ad4i wheat1 average high and medium #a_/d cupful #a4j #ab4h ,gelatine #d tablespoonfuls #a4j #ih4g 99,gingerbread ,piece #a in4 x #b;in4 x #b in4 #a4b #h4j ,grapes #a large bunch #c4g #e4d ,haddock #d4i #if4c ,halibut steaks #a average serving #b4i #fa4h ,ham1 fresh1 lean #a4e #dd4j fresh1 medium #a average serving #a4a #ai4j smoked1 lean #a4c #cj4a ,herring1 whole #b4e #ed4f ,hominy1 uncooked #a_/d cupful #a4j #i4c 99,ice cream1 vanilla #a_/d cupful #b4j #f4j ,lamb1 chops1 broiled #a small chop #a4j #bd4c leg1 roast #a average serving #a4h #da4j ,lard1 refined #a tablespoonful 7scant7 #j4d 7--7 ,lemons #c medium #h4j #i4j ,lettuce #ej large leaves #bj4d #be4b ,liver1 veal1 uncooked #b small servings #b4i #fa4f 99,macaroni and cheese #a_/c cupful #b4a #ag4j ,macaroni1 uncooked4 #a_/d cupful7#d sticks7 #a4j #ae4j ,macaroons #b #j4h #f4b ,mackerel1 uncooked #a large serving #b4e #ec4i salt #a4b #bi4e ,marmalade1 orange #a tablespoonful #a4j #j4g ,milk1 condensed1 sweetened #a #a_/af cupfuls #a4a #aj4i skimmed #a #a_/d cupfuls 7scant7 #i4f #cg4a whole #e_/h cupful 7generous half glass7 #e4a #ai4a ,molasses1 cane #a_/h cupful #a4b #c4d 99,muffins1 corn-meal #c_/d muffin #a4b #ac4j 99,muffins1 wheat #d_/e muffin #a4b #ab4j ,muskmelons #a_/b average serving #h4i #f4j ,mutton1 leg #a average serving #a4h #da4b ,oatmeal1 uncooked #a_/h cupful #j4i #af4a ,olives1 green #g to #aj #a4b #a4e ,onions1 fresh #b medium #g4c #ac4b ,oranges #a very large #f4i #f4b ,oysters1 canned #e oysters #d4i #dh4f ,parsnips #a large #e4d #i4i ,peaches1 canned #a large serving #g4e #f4j fresh #d medium #h4e #f4h ,peanuts #aj to #ab 7double kernels7 #j4f #ah4f ,peas1 canned #b servings #f4c #be4i ,peas1 dried1 uncooked #b tablespoonfuls #a4j #bg4f green #a generous serving #c4e #bh4j ,pies1 apple #a_/c piece #a4c #d4f custard #a_/c piece #b4j #i4d lemon #a_/c piece #a4d #e4f mince #a_/d piece #a4b #h4a squash #a_/c piece #b4j #i4i ,pineapples1 fresh #e slices #h4b #c4g canned #a small serving #b4c #a4j ,pork1 chops1 medium #a very small serving #a4a #ai4i fat1 salt ,footnote #ajd3 ,as purchased4 #j4e #a4j 99,potatoes1 creamed #b_/e cupful #b4g #i4j ,potatoes1 white1 uncooked #a medium #d4b #aj4f ,potatoes1 sweet1 uncooked #a_/b medium #b4i #e4h ,prunes1 dried #c large #a4b #b4h ,raisins #a_/h cupful #a4j #c4j 7packed solid7 ,rhubarb1 uncooked #c #a_/b cupfuls 7scant7 #ae4c #aj4d 99,rice ,pudding #a_/d cupful #b4b #ab4j ,rice1 uncooked #b tablespoonfuls #a4j #i4c ,salmon1 whole #a small serving #a4g #dc4a ,sauce1 white #a_/d cupful #b4d #h4j 99,salmon1 loaf #a_/d cupful #b4a #cg4j ,shad1 whole #a average serving #b4b #de4i ,shredded wheat #a biscuit #a4j #aa4c 99,soup1 corn #a_/b cupful #c4i #ab4j potato #a_/b cupful 7scant7 #d4b #ae4j cream of tomato #c_/h cupful #c4b #aa4j ,spinach1 fresh #c ordinary servings #ad4g #ce4j ,footnote #aje3 as 7after cooking7 purchased ,succotash1 canned #a average serving #c4f #ad4g ,sugar #c lumps1 #e teaspoonfuls granulated #j4i 7--7 #f #a_/b teaspoonfuls powdered sugar ,tapioca1 apple #a_/d cupful #c4f #j4g ,tomatoes1 fresh #d average servings #ae4e #ae4h canned #a #c_/d cupfuls #ae4f #ba4c ,turkey #a serving #a4b #bh4g ,turnips #b large servings #i4j #ac4c 7#b turnips7 ,veal1 cutlet #b4c #ec4f fore quarter #b4c #eb4h hind quarter #b4c #ec4j ,walnuts1 ,california #d whole nuts #j4e #aj4c ,wheat1 cracked #a4j #ab4d ,white fish #b4d #fa4d ,zwieback #a thick slice #j4h #i4d ,,lesson ,,cxxxii ,,planning1 ,,cooking1 ,,and ,,serving ,a ,,dinner ,plan a dinner4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,see ,footnote #gb4 ,use seasonable foods4 ,follow the suggestions given in ,lesson ,,cv4 ,plan the menu so that the cost of the materials does not exceed #cj cents per person4 ,from the ,table of #ajj-;,calorie ,portions estimate the total ,calories and the ,calories derived from protein produced by the foods of your menu4 ,how do the total ,calories compare with the dinner energy requirement of an average man or woman8 ,are the ,calories derived from protein from #aj to #ae per cent of the total ,calories8 ,if necessary1 change your menu so that its total ,calories meet the dinner energy requirements of an average man or woman and its ,calories derived from protein are from #aj to #ae per cent of the total ,calories4 ,the pupil should note that the ,calorific value of meals is usually correct if the suggestions for menu-making given in ,lesson ,,cv are followed4 ,cook and serve the dinner4 ,follow the ,russian or ,compromise ,style of serving4 ,serve the dinner with a maid4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,see ,footnote #aja4 ,,lesson ,,cxxxiii ,,review--,,meal ,,cooking ,,menu ,rolled ,beef ,steak ,stuffed ,baked ,potato ,drop ,biscuits ,see ,lesson ,,xiv for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson4 ,,lesson ,,cxxxiv ,,home ,,projects ,footnote #ajh3 ,see ,lesson ,,ix4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,home ,,work4--,plan and cook meals4 ,from the ,table of #ajj-;,calorie ,portions estimate the fuel value of the meals you prepare4 ,,suggested ,,aims3 ,to compare the fuel value of the meals with the energy requirements secured in answering the ,questions in ,lesson ,,cxxxi4 ,to use these comparisons as a basis on which to plan meals more nearly approaching the desired energy requirements4 ,,division ,,thirteen ,,yeast ,,breads3 ,,stiff ,,doughs ,,lesson ,,cxxxv ,,yeast--,,loaf ,,bread ,,experiment #gg3 ,,conditions ,,for ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,yeast ,,plant4--7a7 ,mix #a tablespoonful of flour1 #a tablespoonful of sugar1 #c_/d cake compressed yeast1 and #e tablespoonfuls of cold water4 ,put #a tablespoonful of the mixture in a test tube and mark the tube a4 ,fill the tube nearly full of lukewarm water and stand in a warm place for #ae minutes4 ,examine1 noting especially the appearance at the top of the test tube4 ,what kind of substance 7gas1 liquid1 or solid7 has been formed by the growth of the yeast plants8 7b7 ,put #a teaspoonful of the yeast mixture in a test tube1 and fill nearly full of boiling water4 ,label it b and after #ae minutes examine4 ,is there any change in the contents of the tube8 ,what has happened to the yeast plants8 7c7 ,put #a teaspoonful of the yeast mixture in a test tube1 fill nearly full of cold water1 and label it c4 ,surround it with cracked ice or1 if the weather is cold1 place it out of doors4 ,after #ae minutes examine4 ,is there any change in the contents of the tube8 ,why do not the yeast plants grow8 7d7 ,surround the tube marked c with lukewarm water and stand in a warm place4 ,after #ae minutes examine4 ,are the yeast plants growing8 ,does freezing kill yeast plants8 7e7 ,mix #a_/h cake yeast with a little lukewarm water4 ,stand in a warm place and after #ae minutes examine4 ,will yeast grow in water alone8 7f7 ,mix #a_/h cake yeast1 #a tablespoonful of sugar1 and a little lukewarm water4 ,set aside in a warm place so that the yeast plants may grow4 ,then examine under the microscope4 ,are there any budding yeast cells8 ,make a drawing of the plants as they appear under the microscope4 ,draw at least two practical conclusions from these experiments as to the use and care of yeast for bread making ,illustration3 ,from ,farmers' ,bulletin #cih ,,figure #hf--;,,growing ,,yeast ,,plants ,,properties ,,of ,,yeast4--,yeast consists of a mass of microscopic plants 7see ,figure #hf74 ,when placed under proper conditions these plants grow rapidly1 and in so doing they separate the sugar that exists in flour into carbon dioxide and alcohol4 ,the carbon dioxide lightens dough4 ,the alcohol passes off as vapor in baking4 ,plants need moisture1 warmth1 light1 and the food that is furnished by the air and soil for their growth4 ,yeast plants require all of these except light4 ,they are not green plants1 hence they need no light4 ,moisture is obtained from the water1 milk1 or other liquids used in bread dough4 ,yeast thrives at a temperature of #ij degrees ,f4 ,it is killed by a temperature above #acj degrees ,f4 ,hence the yeast is mixed with lukewarm water4 ,the other liquids that are added to it are of the same temperature4 ,also1 the dough is placed in a warm place while it is rising1 or while the yeast plants are growing4 ,the food required for the rapid growth of the yeast is obtained from the protein and carbohydrates in the flour4 ,compressed yeast cakes which are wrapped in tinfoil and received fresh at the market every day or two are the most satisfactory to use4 ,this yeast must be fresh for successful bread making4 ,it is fresh when it is of a light color1 is free from dark streaks1 and is crumbly in texture4 ,stiff ,dough4--,approximately four parts of flour to one of moisture are used for stiff doughs4 ,when sufficient flour has been added to stiff dough1 it should not cling to the sides of the mixing bowl4 ,this is an indication to the pupil of the proper stiffness of the dough4 ,the test applies1 however1 only when there is no coating of flour over the dough4 ,one should remember that the softest dough will not stick1 if covered generously with flour4 ,general ,suggestions for ,bread ,making4--,use wheat bread flour1 or a combination of wheat bread flour with whole wheat1 or graham flour1 or with flour or meal made from other grains1 in making bread4 ,flour should be kept in a dry place4 ,it is well to warm flour for bread before using4 ,if milk is used1 scald or boil it to prevent it from souring4 ,water should be boiled and then cooled 7see ,why ,foods ,spoil74 ,with #a pint of liquid #a_/b to #a cake of yeast should be used4 ,when it is desired to mix and bake bread in a few hours1 a greater quantity of yeast may be used4 ,if the yeast is fresh1 most satisfactory results are secured when this is done4 ,the use of much yeast1 however1 adds to the cost of bread4 ,the less quantity of yeast 7#a_/b cake7 is used when the dough is allowed to rise overnight4 ,mix #a yeast cake in #a cupful of lukewarm water before adding the rest of the liquid4 ,it is desirable to use sufficient yeast and to subject it to desirable conditions so that the dough will rise quickly4 ,if the rising process occupies much time1 certain kinds of bacteria which may be present in the yeast or other materials may act upon the alcohol present in the risen dough and convert it into acid4 ,this produces sour dough and consequently bread of sour taste and odor4 ,although it is customary to allow bread to rise twice1 tasty bread may be secured by one rising4 ,bread raised only once1 however1 is usually of uneven grain1 because the carbon dioxide bubbles formed during rising are uneven in size or are unevenly distributed4 ,by kneading bread1 the larger bubbles are broken or distributed more evenly through the dough4 ,since considerable gas is pressed out by kneading1 it is necessary to allow the dough to rise a second time4 ,it is well to make the dough into small loaves1 and place them in small pans1 so that the bread will be baked through4 ,loaves of bread should bake at least #a hour at a temperature varying from #cge degrees ,f4 to #djj degrees ,f4 ,during the first #bj minutes they should rise but slightly and just begin to brown2 during the second #bj minutes they should continue to brown2 during the last #bj minutes they should shrink from the sides of the pan1 while still continuing to brown4 ,to soften the crust1 rub it with a bit of butter or substitute a few minutes before taking from the oven and again after removing from the oven4 ,after baking1 place the loaves of bread on a bread cooler1 or arrange them in such a way that the air may reach them on all sides4 ,when cool1 place in a covered tin box4 ,,bread 7#b loaves7 #b cupfuls hot water or milk and water #b teaspoonfuls salt #b teaspoonfuls sugar #a_/b tablespoonful fat #a_/b to #a cake compressed yeast #a_/b cupful lukewarm water ,bread flour 7#g to #h cupfuls7 ,boil the water or milk and water4 ,pour it into a bowl and add the salt1 sugar1 and fat4 ,stir until the salt and sugar are dissolved1 and the fat is melted4 ,mix the yeast with lukewarm water4 ,when the first mixture is cooled to lukewarm temperature1 add the yeast mixture to it4 ,then add flour enough to make it of the proper consistency 7see ,stiff ,dough71 using a knife for mixing4 ,turn out on a floured board1 and knead until soft and elastic4 ,return the dough to the bowl1 moisten1 cover1 and let rise until doubled in bulk4 ,then divide it into loaves1 or shape into biscuits4 ,cover and allow the loaves or biscuit to rise in the pan in which they are to be baked until they are doubled in bulk4 ,bake the biscuits #cj minutes in a hot oven and the bread about #fj minutes in a moderate oven 7see ,oven ,thermometers and ,temperatures74 ,,questions ,why should the flour for bread be warmed before using8 ,what should be the temperature of all materials mixed with yeast8 ,why8 ,what should be the difference in the temperature of the oven for loaf bread and for biscuits8 ,explain4 ,why should bread be stored in a covered tin box8 ,at what temperatures should biscuits and loaf bread bake8 ,why are these foods baked at different temperatures8 ,for how long a time should biscuits and bread bake8 ,explain the difference in the length of time of baking each4 ,,lesson ,,cxxxvi ,,wheat ,,flour--,,bread ,,sponge ,,experiment #gh3 ,,protein ,,in ,,flour4--,make a stiff dough1 using #b tablespoonfuls of bread flour and about #a_/b tablespoonful of water4 ,knead well1 and allow to stand for #bj minutes4 ,then tie the dough in cheese- cloth1 place it in a bowl of water1 and knead for a few minutes4 ,pour a little of the water in a test tube2 drain the remainder of the water from the dough4 ,add more water to the bowl4 ,again knead the dough under the clean water4 ,examine the material in the cloth4 ,what is its color8 ,feel and pull it4 ,put a little on a plate to dry1 and bake some in the oven4 ,examine after drying and baking4 ,how has it changed in size by heating8 ,test the water in the test tube for starch4 ,,gluten4--,the material left in the cloth consists largely of protein4 ,if flour is mixed with water1 gluten is formed from the two kinds of protein that are to be found in all wheat flours4 ,gluten is yellowish gray in color1 is extremely elastic and sticky1 and1 if moistened and heated1 expands to many times its original bulk4 ,these qualities of gluten are most desirable for good yeast bread2 hence1 the more protein that flour contains1 the better it is for bread making4 ,as has been stated1 some flours contain more protein than others4 ,the protein of wheat as well as of other grains is incomplete1 hence grains need to be supplemented with other kinds of protein food4 ,,wheat ,,flour4--,the quantity of protein in flour is not only dependent upon the portion of the wheat kernel used in making the flour 7see ,difference in ,wheat ,flours71 but also upon the kind of wheat from which the flour is made4 ,spring wheat1 the seeds of which are sown in the springtime1 usually contains more protein than winter wheat1 the seeds of which are sown in the fall4 ,the flour made from spring wheat is called hard wheat flour or bread flour4 ,this flour is creamy in color1 rather gritty in feeling1 and when pressed in the hand does not retain the impression of the fingers4 ,flour made from winter wheat is called soft wheat flour or pastry flour4 ,this is white1 very fine and velvety in feeling1 and easily retains the impression of the fingers4 ,on account of the greater quantity of protein in bread flour1 this flour absorbs more moisture than pastry flour4 ,less bread flour than pastry flour1 therefore1 is required for the bread mixture4 ,if bread flour is substituted for pastry flour1 its quantity should be decreased1--#b tablespoonfuls for each cupful4 ,,dry ,,yeast ,,sponge4--,it is generally agreed that compressed yeast is more satisfactory for bread making than dry yeast4 ,by the use of the former1 the method is shorter1 and the rising can take place during the daytime and be checked at the proper time4 ,the use of dry yeast1 however1 is necessary under some conditions4 ,for this kind of yeast cake1 the yeast is made into a stiff dough by mixing it with starch or meal1 and is then dried4 ,in the dry state1 yeast plants do not grow1 but remain inactive until they are subjected to conditions favorable for growth4 ,in order that dry yeast may begin to grow1 it is necessary to make a sponge of the materials used in bread making4 ,a sponge is a batter containing half as much flour as is required for the stiff dough4 ,a thin mixture rises more quickly than does a stiff dough2 hence the advantage of starting dry yeast in a sponge4 ,the growth of yeast is somewhat retarded by salt and spices4 ,sugar in small quantity aids rapid growth2 much sugar delays the rising of bread4 ,much fat and many eggs also make the process slower4 ,in the preparation of buns1 when much fat and sugar and many eggs are to be used1 it is advisable to make a sponge4 ,these materials are not to be added1 however1 until the sponge is stiffened4 ,the yeast thus gets a good start before the eggs1 etc41 are added4 ,,bread 7made with dry yeast7 7#b loaves7 #b cupfuls water #a_/b cake dry yeast #b teaspoonfuls salt #b teaspoonfuls sugar #a tablespoonful fat #f cupfuls 7or more7 bread flour ,soak the yeast in the water 7lukewarm7 until softened4 ,then add the salt1 sugar1 and fat4 ,stir until the salt and sugar are dissolved1 and the fat is melted4 ,add one half the given quantity of flour4 ,beat until the mixture is smooth2 cover4 ,let rise until very porous and foamy4 ,add enough flour to make a stiff dough2 knead2 and allow to rise until doubled in bulk4 ,proceed as for bread made with compressed yeast4 ,,score ,,card ,,for ,,bread ,footnote #aji3 ,selection and ,preparation of ,food1 by ,bevier and ,van ,meter1 p4 #hb4--;,,determining ,,its ,,quality ,flavor #ce ,lightness #ae ,grain and texture #bj ,crust 7color1 depth1 texture7 #aj ,crumb 7color1 moisture7 #aj ,shape and size #aj --- ,total #ajj ,,questions ,under what conditions would dry yeast be used in bread making8 ,for what reason is bread dough kneaded8 ,what is the test for sufficient kneading of bread dough8 ,in what part of the country is spring wheat grown8 ,winter wheat8 ,how are the flours distinguished that are made from these different kinds of wheat8 ,from ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of winter and of spring wheat flour4 ,which contains the more protein2 which1 the more carbohydrates8 ,compare the quantity of ash in each4 ,knowing the method of leavening1 the time required for raising1 and the properties of gluten1 explain why spring wheat flour is better adapted to yeast breads than to quick breads4 ,what is the price per sack of pastry and of bread flour8 ,what is the price per cake of compressed yeast8 ,what is the price per package of dry yeast8 ,how many cakes in a package8 ,,lesson ,,cxxxvii ,,modifications ,,of ,,plain ,,white ,,bread ,,breads ,,other ,,than ,,wheat4--,as mentioned previously1 wheat is the most popular grain in this country1 largely because we are most used to it1 not because it is a better food than other cereals4 ,the use of different starchy materials and grains1 especially the whole cereals1 is advised to give variation not only in flavor1 but in nutritive content4 ,yeast breads containing cereals other than wheat are more satisfactory in texture and in size of loaf when they are made by combining some wheat with the other grains4 ,the housekeeper of olden days considered the potato most essential for bread making4 ,it is possible to make good bread by using #a_/c as much mashed potato as wheat flour4 ,potato bread is moist2 it keeps better than bread made entirely with wheat4 ,it has been observed that bread containing potatoes or potato water rises quickly4 ,it is possible that the growth of the yeast is stimulated by potato4 ,although bread containing potatoes is light1 it is not as delicate or fluffy as plain wheat bread4 ,since potatoes contain much moisture1 the quantity of liquid used in making potato bread should be lessened4 ,because bread dough containing potatoes softens as it rises1 sufficient flour should be added to make it very stiff or more flour added while kneading4 ,much experimenting with bread during the ,world ,war showed that bread containing cereals other than wheat is more satisfactory when potatoes are used in making it4 ,it was found that less of wheat and more of the other grains could be used when potatoes were added to the dough4 ,bread made of grains other than wheat requires a greater quantity of yeast than wheat bread4 ,the following explanation may account for this fact3 ,some recent scientific investigations point out the fact that the activity of yeast is increased when vinegar or other weak acid material is added to bread dough4 ,since the proteins of cereals other than wheat absorb more of the free acid of the dough than do the proteins of wheat1 the acidity of the dough is lessened4 ,hence more yeast is required to leaven dough containing grains other than wheat4 ,,graham ,,bread ,use one half white bread flour and one half graham flour in the recipe given for ,bread in order to make ,graham ,bread4 ,one fourth cupful of molasses may be substituted for the sugar4 ,mix and bake as white bread4 ,some consider that it is much more satisfactory to make a sponge when using graham flour4 ,if this is done1 first make a sponge using only one half the given quantity of flour4 ,let the mixture rise1 then add the remainder of the flour1 and proceed as in making white wheat bread4 ,,whole ,,wheat ,,bread ,follow the recipe for ,bread1 substituting whole wheat for the fine wheat bread flour1 but make a soft1 not stiff dough4 ,raisin ,bread may be made by adding #b cupfuls of seeded raisins to whole wheat bread mixture and increasing the sugar to #a_/d cupful or substituting #a_/c cupful molasses for the sugar4 ,use the greater quantity of yeast4 ,add the raisins to the mixture before adding the flour4 ,,potato ,,bread 7#b loaves7 #b cupfuls dry mashed potatoes #a cupful water in which potatoes were cooked #a tablespoonful salt #a_/b cupful lukewarm water #b tablespoonfuls sugar #a tablespoonful fat #a_/b to #a cake compressed yeast #e #a_/b to #f cupfuls wheat bread flour ,pare #f medium-sized potatoes4 ,cut into pieces and cook in boiling water until tender4 ,drain the water from the potatoes1 but save the potato water to use as moisture for the dough1 and for mixing with the yeast4 ,mash the potatoes2 add the potato water1 salt1 sugar1 and fat4 ,then proceed as directed for ,bread4 ,,oatmeal-,,potato ,,bread 7#b loaves7 #a #a_/b cupfuls potato water #b cupfuls rolled oats #a tablespoonful salt #b teaspoonfuls sugar ,wheat bread flour1 about #f cupfuls #a tablespoonful fat #b cupfuls dry mashed potatoes #a cake compressed yeast #a tablespoonful lukewarm water ,heat the liquid to boiling point4 ,pour it over the rolled oats4 ,add the salt1 sugar1 and fat4 ,stir and let stand until the mixture is lukewarm4 ,add the potatoes1 then proceed as for plain bread4 ,let the dough rise in the pans until it is from #b #a_/d to #b #a_/b times its original bulk4 ,,questions ,from ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of white1 of graham1 and of whole wheat bread4 ,under what conditions should a sponge be made when compressed yeast is used8 ,what kind of bread is most satisfactory in high altitudes1 i4e4 where the climate is dry8 ,explain4 ,why is potato water a more valuable liquid for bread making than water8 ,what is the purpose of adding boiling water to rolled oats in making ,oatmeal-,potato ,bread 7see ,substituting ,other ,cereals for ,wheat ,flour78 ,compare the quantity of yeast used in ,oatmeal-,potato ,bread with that used in plain wheat bread4 ,account for the difference4 ,,lesson ,,cxxxviii ,,rolls ,,and ,,buns ,,plain ,,rolls ,,or ,,biscuits ,for rolls or biscuits use the recipe for ,bread1 adding twice the quantity of fat1 and using milk for part of the liquid4 ,or they may be made by kneading more fat into any bread dough4 ,knead well after the first rising2 then cut into pieces half the size of an egg1 and shape into balls4 ,place the balls some distance apart in a pan or place the balls so that one touches another4 ,the latter plan of placing in the pan produces biscuits having a small amount of crust4 ,allow the biscuits to rise to double their bulk2 then bake in a hot oven4 ,,parker ,,house ,,rolls #b cupfuls hot milk and water #c tablespoonfuls fat #b tablespoonfuls sugar #a teaspoonful salt #a yeast cake #a_/d cupful lukewarm water ,bread flour ,make a sponge of the ingredients1 using #c cupfuls of flour4 ,beat thoroughly1 cover1 and let rise until light4 ,then add enough flour to knead4 ,knead1 cover1 and allow to rise until doubled in bulk4 ,knead again slightly1 and roll out on a floured board until #a_/c of an inch in thickness4 ,cut into rounds with a biscuit cutter2 put a bit of butter or substitute near the edge of the biscuit2 fold2 and press the edges together4 ,place in an oiled pan2 cover4 ,let rise until double in bulk1 and bake at #dbe degrees ,f4 from #bj to #cj minutes4 ,the crust may be glazed with a mixture of milk and sugar a few minutes before removing the biscuits from the oven4 ,use #a part sugar to #b parts milk4 ,diluted egg white also may be used for glazing4 ,a corn-starch paste is sometimes used for glazing4 ,it is made as follows3 ,mix #b teaspoonfuls of corn-starch with the same quantity of cold water4 ,add #c_/d cupful of boiling water2 stir and cook for #e minutes4 ,brush this over the top of the rolls1 sprinkle with sugar4 ,return the rolls to the oven and continue baking until the crust is browned4 ,,potato ,,yeast ,,rolls ,use the recipe for ,parker ,house ,rolls as a basic rule4 ,in preparing the sponge1 use #b cupfuls of dry mashed potatoes instead of flour4 ,decrease the liquid to #a cupful4 ,increase the quantity of salt to #a tablespoonful4 ,when the sponge is light1 add sufficient wheat flour to make the dough of the proper consistency4 ,proceed as for plain wheat rolls4 ,rye flour may be used instead of wheat in preparing these rolls4 ,,cinnamon ,,buns ,use one half of the recipe for ,parker ,house ,rolls4 ,after the dough has risen1 roll until #a_/d inch thick1 and spread with the following3 #a_/b cupful butter or butter and other fat softened #b tablespoonfuls cinnamon #a cupful currants or raisins #a cupful brown sugar ,roll the dough as for ,jelly ,roll or for ,fruit ,rolls and cut into slices #a inch thick4 ,place in well-oiled pans or muffin tins1 with a cut surface resting on the pan4 ,when very light1 bake in a moderate oven about #cj minutes4 ,the buns may be basted with molasses or sugar1 or with a milk and sugar mixture 7see ,parker ,house ,rolls74 ,add #a teaspoonful of the basting material to each bun #ae minutes before removing from the oven4 ,,biscuits ,,with ,,prune ,,or ,,raisin ,,filling #a cupful milk #a cupful water #b tablespoonfuls sugar #a teaspoonful salt #c tablespoonfuls fat #a to #c eggs #b cakes compressed yeast #a_/d cupful lukewarm water ,bread flour 7about #g cupfuls7 ,heat the milk and water4 ,turn into a bowl and add the sugar1 salt1 and fat4 ,let the mixture stand until it is lukewarm in temperature4 ,mix the yeast with the lukewarm water and add it to the lukewarm milk mixture4 ,break the egg2 beat the white and yolk separately4 ,add the egg to the other ingredients4 ,through a sifter1 add enough flour to knead4 ,knead and roll out on a floured board until about #a inch in thickness4 ,cut into rounds with a biscuit cutter4 ,make a depression in the center of each biscuit1 fill with prunes or raisins prepared as directed below4 ,place the biscuits on greased pans1 let them rise 7in a warm place7 until doubled in bulk2 bake in a hot oven4 ,,prune ,,or ,,raisin ,,filling #a pound dried prunes or #a #a_/b cupfuls seeded raisins #a teaspoonful cinnamon #a_/h teaspoonful cloves #b tablespoonfuls lemon juice #a_/d teaspoonful salt ,sugar ,soak the fruit in enough water to cover overnight or for several hours4 ,cook as directed on until the fruit is tender and the water is almost evaporated4 ,if prunes are used1 remove the stones4 ,add the spices1 lemon juice1 and salt4 ,also add sugar to taste4 ,,questions ,why should a sponge be made when eggs are to be added to the yeast mixture8 ,what would be the disadvantage in adding them to a dough1 after the dough had stiffened8 ,what must be done to produce biscuits having much crust rather than little crust8 ,what care should be taken in regulating the temperature of the oven when baking ,cinnamon ,buns1 especially if they are to be basted during baking8 ,how many times are ,biscuits with ,prune or ,raisin ,filling allowed to rise8 ,how does yeast bread made with one rising differ from that made with several risings8 ,why is it necessary to cook the fruit used for filling for biscuits until the water is almost evaporated8 ,what would be the effect on the biscuits of much moisture in the filling8 ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,cxxxix ,,food ,,for ,,girls ,,and ,,boys ,,the ,,young ,,girl4--,adolescence is a period of great activity and growth4 ,much physical development characterizes the years of youth4 ,during the time of rapid growth1 it is very easy to acquire craving not only for sweets1 but for condiments and highly seasoned and spiced foods and for foods of decided and contrasting flavor4 ,as previously explained1 such foods used excessively are harmful4 ,it is especially necessary that a girl growing into womanhood use foods which furnish building and energy- giving nutrients in sufficient quantity as well as materials to promote growth4 ,going without breakfast may be the cause of headaches1 poorly prepared lessons1 and in some cases irritability or bad dispositions4 ,when the morning meal is omitted1 an undue quantity of food is apt to be eaten at noon4 ,in many schools1 work is resumed immediately or shortly after luncheon4 ,the digestion of a large quantity of hearty food interferes with mental effort4 ,,the ,,hungry ,,boy belongs to the period of adolescence4 ,it is perfectly natural for the growing boy to be hungry4 ,indeed during the time from twelve to seventeen years1 more food is consumed by the average youth than by an adult4 ,if three meals a day are to satisfy the hungry boy1 a nourishing diet must be eaten4 ,concentrated1 but easily digested foods1 such as eggs1 cereals1 meat1 starchy and nitrogenous vegetables for building and energy as well as foods which supply mineral matter such as fruits and succulent vegetables1 are needed4 ,the use of milk and cocoa rather than tea and coffee should be encouraged4 ,it is especially necessary that milk with its growth-promoting materials and valuable proteins be included in the diet of a growing youth4 ,if coffee must be used1 let it be cereal coffee4 ,for the boy who would make the team and excel in athletics the matter of a proper food selection is most important4 ,the athlete must give serious consideration to his diet4 ,,food ,,plans ,,for ,,girls ,,and ,,boys4--,according to the table given on previously1 the diet of a girl from fourteen to seventeen should supply ,calories averaging #bdjj1 while that of a boy of the same age should supply ,calories averaging #cdjj4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,the reason why the energy requirements of a boy exceeds that of a girl of the adolescent period is stated on previously4 ,the following plans for a day's diet for the girl and boy of fourteen to seventeen years are offered as suggestions for wholesome food combinations3 ,,foods ,,approximate ,,calories ,breakfast4 ,fruits1 fresh or cooked #ge-ajj ,cereal with ,whole ,milk and ,sugar #bjj-bej ,toast and ,butter 7#b to #c slices7 #cjj-dej ,cocoa or ,whole ,milk #abj-aej ,luncheon4 ,cream ,soup #aej-age ,meat ,substitute #bjj-cjj ,bread and ,butter 7#a to #b slices7 #aej-cjj ,rice or ,tapioca ,pudding or ,blanc ,mange #aej-bjj ,cocoa or ,whole ,milk #abj-aej ,dinner4 ,egg-dish or ,meat #bjj-cjj ,starchy ,vegetable or ,cereal #ajj-abe ,succulent ,vegetable or ,salad #ej-aej ,bread and ,butter 7#a to #b slices7 #aej-cjj ,baked ,custard or ,ice ,cream with ,chocolate ,sauce #bej-cjj ,cereal ,coffee 7with ,sugar1 and ,top ,milk7 or ,whole ,milk #abe-aej --------- #bcdj-cdjj ,,the ,,school ,,luncheon4--,girls and boys of high school age invariably lunch at school1 or a luncheon is brought from home and eaten at school4 ,if a pupil buys his luncheon at school1 hot1 wholesome1 nourishing foods such as cream-soup vegetables1 eggs1 cereal puddings1 cocoa1 and milk should be purchased4 ,it is unfortunate if pastry and sweets are chosen to the exclusion of the foods just mentioned4 ,in case the plainer foods are selected1 it is a mistake for the pupil to narrow his purchase to a very few foods such as meat1 potatoes1 and pastry4 ,too often pupils get in the habit of choosing foods which furnish too little variety in composition4 ,learning to like many different foods is a characteristic one should strive to develop4 ,when one abolishes food prejudices and eats everything that is wholesome1 the possibility of securing a well-balanced meal to meet the needs of the body is increased4 ,,luncheon ,,menus4--,the quantity and kind of food that should be eaten at luncheon depends largely upon the kind and quantity of foods eaten at breakfast and dinner or supper4 ,some eat more breakfast than luncheon while others follow the reverse plan4 ,it has been found1 however1 that a luncheon yielding from #gej to #ajjj ,calories furnishes adequate nutriment for the average youth1 provided of course the foods are well balanced in composition4 ,suggestive luncheon menus for school girls and boys follow4 7,the luncheon which is carried from home is discussed in ,lesson ,,cxlix47 ,,food ,,calories ,,derived ,,total ,,from ,,protein ,,calories #a serving macaroni and cheese 7#a cupful7 #cd4j #bjj4jj #a slice bread and butter #ad4b #aej4jj #a portion gingerbread 7#b ounces7 #ad4j #bjj4jj #a medium baked apple with whole milk #f4h #abh4jj #a serving cocoa 7#c_/d cupful7 #af4a #aah4dj ---- ------ #he4a #gif4dj #a serving vegetable soup 7#a cupful7 #ba4bh #adh4bb #a cheese and peanut sandwich #dc4dg #bgj4jj #a large orange #f4bj #ajj4jj #a portion cake 7#b ounces7 #ad4jj #bjj4jj #a glass milk 7#g_/h cupful7 #bf4fj #adj4jj ------ ------ #aaa4ee #heh4bb #a serving cream of tomato soup 7#a cupful7 #be4jg #agh4d #c soda crackers #i4d #ajj4j #a ham sandwich #ea4a #caf4d #a portion ice cream 7#a_/h quart7 #g4ff #aii4b #a large banana #e4c #ajj4j #a glass milk 7#g_/h cupful7 #bf4f #adj4j ------ ------ #abe4ac #ajcd4j ,,questions ,plan a week's series of school luncheons containing foods which may be obtained at home or at school or at any other place where you eat your luncheon4 ,calculate the total ,calorific value of the menus4 ,also determine the per cent of ,calories derived from protein4 ,,lesson ,,cxl ,,planning ,a ,,day',s ,,diet--,,cooking ,,and ,,serving ,a ,,meal ,plan ,footnote #aaa3 ,see ,footnote #gb a day's diet containing the kinds of foods suitable for you and other members of your class and furnishing sufficient ,calories to meet the energy-requirement of girls of your age4 7,follow the suggestions given in ,lesson ,,cv and ,,cxxxix47 ,determine the per cent of the total ,calories produced by ,calories derived from protein4 ,compute the cost of the meal4 ,cook and serve one of the meals of the day's diet4 ,follow the ,english or family style of serving1--either with or without a maid4 ,,lesson ,,cxli ,,review3 ,,meal ,,cooking ,,menu ,bread 7or ,raised ,biscuits7 ,cranberry ,jelly 7or ,fruit ,sauce7 ,see ,lesson ,,xiv for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson4 ,,lesson ,,cxlii ,,home ,,projects ,footnote #aab3 ,see ,lesson ,,ix4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,home ,,work4--,bake yeast bread or raised biscuits at your home at least once a week4 ,,suggested ,,aims3 7#a7 ,to improve the quality of the bread4 ,score your products each time you prepare them4 ,by careful observation and by consultation with your teacher1 determine the cause of any undesirable quality your breads may have and then strive at the next baking to correct your mistakes4 7#b7 ,to compare homemade and baker's bread4 ,determine the weight and cost of a loaf of homemade and baker's bread4 ,compute the cost per pound of each4 ,compare the flavor and satisfying qualities of each4 ,consult other members of your family regarding these two qualities4 ,name the advantages and disadvantages of baking bread at home4 ,,division ,,fourteen ,,cake ,,lesson ,,cxliii ,,cake ,,without ,,fat--,,sponge ,,cake ,,comparison ,,of ,,sponge ,,cake ,,and ,,popovers4--,see the recipe for ,popovers4 ,compare it with the recipe for ,sponge ,cake ,i4 ,,sponge ,,cake ,,no4 ,i #d egg yolks #a cupful sugar #a teaspoonful lemon juice ,grated rind of #a_/b lemon #d egg whites #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a cupful flour ,what two ingredients are similar in these recipes8 ,what ingredients does ,sponge ,cake contain which do not exist in ,popovers8 ,what ingredients in ,popovers are omitted in ,sponge ,cake8 ,note the number of eggs in each4 ,what is the wetting material in ,popovers8 ,in ,sponge ,cake8 ,by what means are ,popovers lightened8 ,sponge ,cake8 ,how do you account for the difference in the number of eggs8 ,,note4--,a typical ,sponge ,cake contains no baking powder or moisture except that contained in the eggs and flavoring material4 ,to make a cheaper cake1 the following modification may be made3 ,instead of #d eggs1 #b eggs with #a_/d cupful of water and #a teaspoonful of baking powder may be used4 ,,method ,,of ,,mixing ,,sponge ,,cake4 ,beat the yolks of the eggs until thick and lemon-colored4 ,add the sugar and continue beating2 then add the flavoring and any other liquid that the recipe may call for4 ,beat the mixture well4 ,add the salt to the egg whites and beat until the whites are stiff4 ,sift the flour 7and baking powder if used7 several times4 ,add part of the dry ingredients through the sifter to the yolk mixture1 then add some of the egg whites4 ,repeat until all the dry ingredients and the egg whites have been added4 ,mix by cutting and folding the ingredients4 ,turn at once into an unoiled pan4 ,bake in a moderate oven 7#cbe degrees ,f47 for #ej or #fj minutes4 ,,baking ,,sponge ,,cakes4--,the baking of a cake1 as well as the manner of mixing the ingredients and the quality of the ingredients themselves1 determines the success of the cake4 ,a practical test for the temperature of the oven is the placing of a bit of flour or white paper in the oven4 ,if at the end of #e minutes the paper or flour is slightly browned1 the oven is of proper temperature for sponge cakes or cakes without fat4 ,the time required to bake a cake should be divided into quarters4 ,during the first quarter the cake should begin to rise2 during the second quarter it should continue to rise and begin to brown2 during the third quarter it should continue to brown1 and the fourth quarter it should finish baking4 ,if the mixing and the baking have been successful1 failure may result after removing the cake from the oven4 ,it should not be placed in a cold place or in a draft4 ,invert the cake pan on a wire rack and allow the cake to remain until cool4 ,remove the cake from the pan1 and store in a covered tin box4 ,,sponge ,,cake ,,no4 ,,ii #b or #c egg yolks l #a_/b cupfuls sugar #a tablespoonful lemon juice #c_/d cupful water #b cupfuls flour #a_/b teaspoonful salt #b teaspoonfuls baking powder #b or #c egg whites ,mix and bake according to the directions given above4 ,it is advisable to oil the pan for this cake4 ,,washington ,,pie ,sponge ,cake with ,cream ,filling is termed ,washington ,pie4 ,follow the recipe for ,cream ,filling and put it between the layers of ,sponge ,cake1 or as a filling between split sheets of a loaf or thick sheet of ,sponge ,cake4 ,,questions ,what is the purpose of cutting and folding the egg whites and the dry ingredients into a sponge cake mixture8 ,why is it necessary to add moisture and baking powder to ,sponge ,cake ,no4 ,,ii8 ,what is the effect of too cool an oven on ,sponge ,cake8 ,,lesson ,,cxliv ,,cake ,,containing ,,fat--,,one-,,egg ,,cake ,,classes ,,of ,,cakes4--,cakes are commonly divided into two classes3 7a7 ,cakes without fat and 7b7 ,cakes containing fat4 ,sponge ,cake is an example of the first class and the ,one-egg ,cake given below is an example of the second class4 ,the method of mixing cakes containing fat differs from the method of mixing cakes without fat4 ,the temperature of the oven and the length of time required for baking also differ for the two classes of cakes4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,one-,,egg ,,cake ,,and ,,muffins4--,see the recipe for ,plain ,muffins4 ,compare it with the following recipe4 ,,one-,,egg ,,cake ,footnote #aac3 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,if a richer cake is desired1 follow the ,plain ,cake recipe given in ,lesson ,,cxlv4 #b cupfuls flour #c #a_/b teaspoonfuls baking powder #a_/b teaspoonful salt #c_/d to #a cupful sugar #a egg #a cupful milk or water #a teaspoonful flavoring #b to #d tablespoonfuls fat ,what ingredient does cake contain that is not present in muffins8 ,what two ingredients exist in greater quantity in cake than in muffins8 ,,the ,,ingredients ,,of ,a ,,cake ,,containing ,,fat4--,materials of the best quality should be used for cakes4 ,pastry flour and the finest granulated sugar are necessary ingredients4 ,in determining the kind of fat to use in a cake1 one should consider all of the ingredients in a recipe1 and then decide which one will give the most pronounced flavor to the combined materials4 ,if a cake contains so much fat that the fat will be one of the predominating flavoring ingredients1 table butter should be used alone or combined with some bland fat4 ,when but little fat is used in ,plain ,cake1 there is little difference in the flavor of cake made with butter or substitutes4 ,oleomargarine1 tried-out chicken fat1 suet1 lard1 or vegetable fat may be used for spice cakes or other highly flavored cakes4 ,cake is one of the foods whose ingredients require the greatest accuracy and care in measuring4 ,when a cake contains much fat1 the latter can usually be more easily and accurately weighed than measured4 ,,method ,,of ,,mixing ,,cake ,,containing ,,fat4--,since cakes contain much more fat and sugar than muffins1 a different method of mixing the fat with the other ingredients of the cake has been used quite generally4 ,the fat and sugar have usually been blended by creaming them4 ,however1 many experiments in the mixing and baking of cakes have been made4 ,these show that a cake of good quality may be made by following the method of mixing fat in a muffin mixture1 i4e4 melting the fat and adding it to other ingredients4 ,the following is the method of mixing cake when melted fat is used3 ,beat the eggs1 add the sugar1 liquid1 and flavoring4 ,melt the fat and add it to the other ingredients4 ,mix the dry ingredients1 i4e4 the flour1 baking powder1 and salt4 ,add these through a sifter to the egg and sugar mixture4 ,beat from #a to #b minutes4 ,in cake mixing1 the yolks and the whites of the eggs are often separated4 ,when this is done1 the yolks and sugar are blended1 the moisture1 flavoring1 melted fat1 and dry ingredients are added1 the mixture beaten1 and finally the beaten whites are folded in4 ,in combining cake ingredients1 great care must be taken to mix all ingredients thoroughly4 ,cakes1 except those containing very little moisture and much fat1 such as ,jumbles or ,pound ,cake1 can be made satisfactorily by adding melted fat4 ,it has been estimated that half as much time is required for mixing a cake in which melted fat is used as one in which the fat is creamed4 ,it has been found ,footnote #aad3 ,see ,journal ,home ,economics1 ,vol4 ,x1 pp4 #edb-g1 ,december1 #aiah4 that the amount of mixing and the preparation of ingredients in a cake are much more important factors than the manner of combining the ingredients4 ,too little beating makes a cake of coarse1 crumbly mixture4 ,too much beating makes it compact in texture with tunnels through it4 ,,preparing ,,the ,,pans ,,for ,,cakes ,,containing ,,fat4--,the pans for cakes that contain fat should be well oiled4 ,it is well to line the pans with paper and to oil the paper thoroughly1 or to oil the pans well and to sprinkle a little flour over them before adding the cake batter4 ,,baking ,,layer ,,and ,,loaf ,,cakes4--,if a bit of flour or white paper is delicately browned after being placed for #b minutes in the oven1 the oven is of proper temperature for layer cakes containing fat4 ,for a loaf cake the oven should be cooler1 since a longer time for baking is required4 ,it is especially important that a crust does not form over the top of a cake before the cake has risen1 or before it has been in the oven one fourth of the time required 7see ,baking ,sponge ,cakes74 ,to avoid this1 the temperature of the oven should be quite low when a thick loaf cake is first placed in it4 ,some housekeepers find it most satisfactory to cover the top of a pan containing loaf cake with paper until the cake has risen4 ,in general1 layer cakes require #bj to #ce minutes for baking and loaf cakes from #dj minutes to #a #a_/b hours4 ,shortly after taking from the oven1 cake containing fat may be removed from the pan1 and placed on a wire cake cooler or towel until cold4 ,in a heat-regulated oven1 bake layer cakes at #cge degrees ,f41 and loaf cakes at #cej degrees ,f4 ,,the ,,quality ,,of ,,cake4--,desirable cake is tender and light1 but of fine grain4 ,the quantity of eggs1 sugar1 fat1 and moisture affects these qualities4 ,too much sugar makes a cake of coarse grain and of waxy or tough texture4 ,on the other hand1 a cake containing too little sugar is not as fine grained as one having just enough4 ,a cake in which there is too much fat is crisp or crumbly1--i4e4 it will not hold its shape4 ,too little fat may make it tough in texture4 ,generally the more fat a cake contains the smaller the quantity of moisture needed4 ,note that the ,one-egg ,cake recipe contains #a cupful of liquid1 but when the fat is increased to #a_/b cupful1 the moisture is decreased to #b_/c cupful 7see ,plain ,cake recipe74 ,many eggs without a proportionate quantity of fat and sugar produce a tough cake4 ,the toughness occasioned by eggs1 may be offset1 of course1 by the tenderness produced by fat4 ,it is a most interesting study to compare cake recipes4 ,some are well proportioned1 others could be greatly improved by variations in the quantity of ingredients4 ,the flavor of a cake is largely affected by the proportion of ingredients in a cake4 ,for the sake of economy1 however1 certain ingredients1 especially fat and eggs1 must be decreased even though texture1 grain1 and flavor are sacrificed4 ,the matter of wholesomeness must also be taken into consideration4 ,many persons can eat with comfort plain cakes1 i4e4 those containing little fat and a moderate quantity of sugar1 while rich cakes distress them4 ,,score ,,card ,,for ,,cake1--,,determining ,,its ,,quality ,flavor #dj ,lightness #bj ,grain and texture #ae ,baking 7crust and color7 #ae ,appearance 7shape and icing7 #aj --- ,total #ajj ,,questions ,how should cake batter be spread in the pan to prevent it from rising higher in the center than at the edges8 ,what is the purpose of placing the warm cake on a cake cooler or on a cloth8 ,mention some substitute other than a cloth for a wire cake cooler4 ,why not place the warm cake inverted on the cake cooler8 ,explain why a hot cake should not be placed in a cool place or in a draft4 ,why store a cake in a tightly covered tin box8 ,give two reasons for the cracking of the crust of a cake4 ,what is the effect of using too much fat in a cake8 ,too much sugar8 ,too much moisture8 ,if the quantity of fat is increased1 what ingredient in a cake recipe should be decreased8 ,if the number of eggs in a cake is reduced1 what ingredient should be increased8 ,,lesson ,,cxlv ,,cake ,,containing ,,fat--,,plain ,,cake ,,and ,,its ,,modifications 7,a7 ,the ,conventional method of mixing cake is as follows3 ,cream the fat2 then gradually add the sugar4 ,cream the mixture4 ,add egg yolks that have been beaten until light4 ,add the flavoring4 ,then add some of the milk and part of the dry ingredients4 ,repeat until all the milk and dry ingredients have been added4 ,beat the mixture thoroughly4 ,cut and fold in the whites of the eggs quickly2 then turn into oiled pans4 ,bake layer cakes at #cge degrees ,f41 and loaf cakes at #cej degrees ,f4 ,,plain ,,cake #b cupfuls flour #b teaspoonfuls baking powder #a_/b teaspoonful salt #b eggs #a cupful sugar #b_/c cupful liquid #a teaspoonful flavoring #a_/d to #a_/b cupful fat ,mix according to the directions above or according to ,method of ,mixing ,cake ,containing ,fat4 ,compare this recipe with that for ,one-egg ,cake4 ,note that the eggs and fat are increased1 while the baking powder and moisture are decreased4 ,can you account for these variations8 ,,white ,,cake ,follow the ,plain ,cake recipe1 using #d egg whites instead of #b eggs and the greater quantity of fat4 ,vanilla or almond flavoring are pleasing in ,white ,cake4 ,if almond extract is used1 add only #a_/b teaspoonful4 ,white ,cake is mixed according to the general directions1 except1 of course1 that the egg yolks are omitted2 the egg whites are beaten until stiff and folded into the other ingredients4 ,a cheaper but tasty white cake may be made by following the recipe for ,one-egg ,cake and using #b egg whites instead of #a whole egg4 ,,fresh ,,coconut ,,cake ,break open a fresh coconut1 save all the milk and use it as part of the liquid for a ,white ,cake4 ,add milk to the milk of coconut to make the #b_/c cupful of liquid in the plain cake recipe4 ,prepare a ,white ,cake in two layers4 ,,cake ,break the coconut into pieces1 pare these and put them through a food chopper or grate them4 ,prepare ,boiled ,frosting4 ,when the frosting is ready to spread on the cake1 add about #c_/d of the chopped coconut4 ,spread the mixture on the cake layers and sprinkle the remainder of the coconut over the frosting on the top layer of the cake4 ,a fresh coconut cake will keep moist for a week4 ,,water ,,frosting #a cupful confectioner's sugar #a tablespoonful hot water1 milk1 or cream ,salt #a tablespoonful lemon juice ,stir the hot water into the sugar and add the salt and lemon juice4 ,if too stiff1 add a little more boiling water4 #c tablespoonfuls of cocoa or #a ounce of chocolate may be mixed with #c tablespoonfuls of water1 cooked for a few minutes1 and used in place of the moisture and lemon juice4 #a_/b teaspoonful of vanilla should be added when these materials are used4 ,when cocoa is used the addition of #a tablespoonful of butter improves the flavor4 ,mocha frosting may be made by mixing the cocoa or chocolate with strong coffee instead of water4 ,,egg ,,frosting #a egg white #a tablespoonful lemon juice #a cupful confectioner's sugar ,salt ,put the unbeaten egg white into a bowl2 add the lemon juice1 then the salt and sugar4 ,mix thoroughly4 ,spread on warm cake4 ,the lemon juice may be omitted1 and chocolate 7or cocoa7 and vanilla added1 as in ,water ,frosting4 ,,gold ,,frosting #b egg yolks ,confectioner's sugar #a tablespoonful lemon juice or vanilla ,salt ,add the flavoring and salt to the unbeaten yolks4 ,add enough confectioner's sugar to the mixture to make it thick enough to spread4 ,use on ,white ,cake when it is warm4 ,,boiled ,,frosting #c_/d to #a cupful sugar #a teaspoonful vinegar #a teaspoonful flavoring #a_/c cupful water #a egg white ,salt ,mix the sugar1 water1 and vinegar in a saucepan4 ,cook gently until the sirup 7when dropped from a spoon7 spins a thread #c inches long4 ,remove from the fire1 and gradually pour the sirup over the egg white to which a pinch of salt has been added and which has been beaten stiff4 ,continue to beat the mixture2 when it begins to stiffen1 add the flavoring1 and spread over cooled cake4 ,the less quantity of sugar produces a more delicate and less dense frosting than the greater quantity4 ,,chocolate-,,marshmallow ,,frosting #a cupful sugar #a_/d cupful boiling water #a_/h teaspoonful salt #ab marshmallows #b ounces chocolate #c tablespoonfuls water #a_/b teaspoonful vanilla ,in a saucepan stir the sugar1 boiling water1 and salt4 ,then place over a low flame and heat until the sugar is dissolved4 ,cut the marshmallows in halves1 add to the sugar mixture1 and beat until the marshmallows have melted4 ,cut the chocolate in pieces and mix with #c tablespoonfuls water4 ,stir and cook over a low flame until a thick1 smooth paste is formed4 ,add to the sugar mixture4 ,beat until the frosting is of proper consistency to spread1 then stir in the vanilla4 ,,questions ,give the reason for the greater quantity of fat in cake when egg yolks are omitted4 ,if the conventional method of mixing cake is followed1 what can be done in cold weather to hasten the creaming of fat8 ,what is the result of insufficient creaming8 ,why is the cake mixture beaten thoroughly before the whites of eggs are added8 ,what is the purpose of cutting and folding in the whites of eggs in the cake mixture8 ,what kind of fat should be used for white cake8 ,why8 ,why use hot water rather than cold water for ,water ,frosting 7see ,experiment #aa78 ,when egg whites alone are used in cake1 give at least three uses for the yolks of the eggs4 ,why is ,egg ,frosting used on warm cake1 rather than on cold8 ,what is the use of vinegar in ,boiled ,frosting 7see ,christmas ,candy78 ,why should the white of egg be beaten while the hot sirup is being poured over it8 ,,lesson ,,cxlvi ,,cake ,,containing ,,fat--,,plain ,,cake ,,and ,,its ,,modifications 7,b7 ,,chocolate ,,cake #b cupfuls flour #c teaspoonfuls baking powder #a_/b to #a teaspoonful salt #b ounces chocolate or #a_/c cupful cocoa #a_/b cupful water #a_/d teaspoonful baking soda #b eggs #a #a_/b cupfuls sugar #a_/b cupful milk #a teaspoonful vanilla #a_/c cupful fat ,cook the chocolate or cocoa in the water until a smooth paste is formed1 stirring constantly while cooking4 ,cool1 and add the baking soda4 ,beat the egg yolks and whites separately4 ,mix as plain cake1 adding the chocolate mixture after the egg yolks have been mixed with the sugar4 ,use the less quantity of salt if butter is used for the fat4 ,bake in layers at #cge degrees ,f41 placing ,chocolate ,filling between the layers and ,boiled ,frosting on the top layer4 ,sour milk may be substituted for the sweet milk4 ,when this is done1 increase the baking soda to #a_/b teaspoonful and decrease the baking powder to #b teaspoonfuls4 ,baking soda is used with chocolate to neutralize a small quantity of acid 7tartaric7 contained in it4 ,its use with chocolate will also darken the cake4 ,,chocolate ,,filling #a_/b cupful sugar #a_/c cupful flour #a cupful milk #a ounce chocolate #c tablespoonfuls water #a_/d teaspoonful salt #a egg yolk #a teaspoonful vanilla ,mix all ingredients except the egg yolk and flavoring in the same manner as ,chocolate ,corn-starch ,pudding4 ,when sufficiently cooked1 add the egg yolk as directed for ,butterscotch ,tapioca4 ,continue cooking until the egg is coagulated4 ,remove from the fire1 cool1 add vanilla4 #c tablespoonfuls of cocoa may be substituted for the chocolate4 ,when this substitution is made1 mix the cocoa with the flour and sugar and omit the water4 ,the egg yolk may be omitted4 ,when this is done add #a_/b tablespoonful of corn-starch to the flour and sugar mixture4 ,compare the recipes for chocolate and plain cake4 ,how do you account for the difference in the quantities of sugar 7see ,chocolate ,corn-starch ,pudding78 ,does the water used for making the chocolate paste change in quantity during the cooking8 ,explain4 ,what ingredient do both chocolate and cocoa contain which aids in thickening the cake8 ,from this can you account for the greater quantity of moisture used in ,chocolate ,cake8 ,would it be advisable to use a greater quantity of fat 7#a_/b cupful7 for ,chocolate ,cake8 ,why8 ,,nut ,,cake ,follow the recipe for ,plain ,cake1 use the smaller quantity of fat1 and add #a cupful of chopped nuts4 ,a convenient way of chopping nuts is to put them through the food chopper1 using the coarse knife4 ,,cake ,,containing ,,fruit ,follow the recipe for ,plain ,cake1 but add #a cupful of raisins or currants4 ,clean the fruit1 then dry1 and sprinkle it with flour4 ,raisins may be chopped1 or cut in two pieces 7see ,to ,prepare ,raisins for ,cooking74 ,citron may also be added4 ,it should be cut in thin slices or put through the food chopper4 ,when light brown sugar is used instead of white sugar1 dates make a pleasing addition4 ,these should be cleaned1 stoned1 cut into pieces1 and added as are the raisins or currants4 ,spices give pleasing flavor when dried fruits are used4 #a teaspoonful each of cinnamon and nutmeg and #a_/h teaspoonful of cloves make desirable flavoring4 ,,questions ,mention the kinds of fat that could be used for spice cakes and for ,chocolate ,cake4 ,give the reason for the selection made4 ,from ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of some common nuts4 ,of chocolate and cocoa4 ,explain why the minimum quantity of fat should be used for ,nut ,cake4 ,why are the dried fruits floured8 ,why are nuts not floured8 ,compare cakes made with the least and the greatest quantity of fat4 ,which is the more tender8 ,which has the better taste8 ,calculate the cost per pound of ,sponge ,cake4 ,calculate the cost per pound of cake containing fat 7see ,plain ,cake74 ,,lesson ,,cxlvii ,,cake ,,containing ,,fat--,,cookies ,,classes ,,of ,,cookies4--,cooky mixture may be thin like a drop batter and dropped by spoonfuls on to a pan or it may be about as stiff as a soft dough and rolled and then cut into rounds or other shapes4 ,hence cookies may be classified as3 7#a7 ,drop ,cookies4 7#b7 ,cut or ,rolled ,cookies4 ,,texture ,,of ,,cookies4--,drop cookies may or may not contain fat4 ,cut or rolled cookies usually contain fat4 ,since a dough is prepared in making the latter kind of cookies1 fat is needed to make the mixture sufficiently tender4 ,a dough containing little or no fat usually produces a tough cut cooky4 ,a skilled cooky maker1 however1 can secure a soft cut cooky containing little fat by making a very soft dough4 ,if crisp1 cut cookies are desired1 the dough should be rolled thin4 ,to secure soft cookies roll the dough to at least #a_/d inch thickness4 ,if cookies containing fat are stored in a tightly covered box1 they become softer after several days4 ,,compare the recipe for ,sugar ,cookies with that for ,plain ,cake4 ,account for the difference in the quantity of milk4 ,explain why the quantity of milk is decreased rather than the quantity of flour increased4 ,,sugar ,,cookies #b cupfuls flour #b teaspoonfuls baking powder #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a egg #a cupful sugar #a_/b cupful fat ,milk or water 7about #c_/h cupful7 #a teaspoonful flavoring or spice ,mix as for ,plain ,cake 7do not separate the eggs71 adding just sufficient milk to make the dough stiff enough to be rolled out4 ,put the dough in a cool place to chill4 ,roll out in small portions2 then sprinkle with sugar4 ,cut and bake at #cge degrees ,f4 #aj minutes or until browned4 ,,sour ,,milk ,,or ,,cream ,,cookies ,follow the recipe for ,sugar ,cookies1 using #a_/b cupful of thick sour milk or cream in the place of sweet milk and adding #a_/d teaspoonful of baking soda4 ,if sour cream is used1 only #a_/c cupful 7instead of #a_/b cupful7 of fat is needed4 ,nutmeg--#a_/b teaspoonful--is a pleasing flavoring material for these cookies4 ,for ,ginger ,cookies1 vary the recipe for ,sour ,cream ,cookies as follows3 ,use #a_/b cupful sugar and #a_/b cupful molasses instead of #a cupful of sugar4 ,increase the baking soda to #a_/b teaspoonful4 ,for flavoring use #a teaspoonful ginger and #a teaspoonful allspice4 ,since the molasses furnishes some moisture1 it is usually necessary to add more flour or decrease the sour milk or cream4 ,,cookies ,,with ,,raisin ,,filling ,prepare ,sour ,cream ,cooky dough4 ,roll the dough into a thin sheet and cut it into rounds4 ,spread half of the rounds with a thin layer of ,raisin ,filling 7see below74 ,then cover each round with another piece of dough4 ,press the edges together4 ,place on an oiled baking sheet and bake in a moderate oven4 ,,raisin ,,filling #a_/b cupful corn sirup #a cupful seeded raisins #a_/d teaspoonful salt ,cook these ingredients until the mixture is thick enough to use as cake filling4 ,one fourth cupful of chopped nuts may be added4 ,one egg may also be added to the mixture just before removing from the fire4 ,,peanut ,,butter ,,cookies #b #a_/b cupfuls flour #c teaspoonfuls baking powder #a_/b teaspoonful baking soda #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a egg #a cupful sugar #c_/d cupful peanut butter #a cupful sour milk ,mix and bake as ,sugar ,cookies4 ,it is especially necessary to make the dough for these cookies very soft4 ,it requires skilful handling4 ,,corn-,,meal ,,cookies #a_/b cupful melted fat #a_/b cupful molasses #a_/b cupful corn sirup #a egg #f tablespoonfuls sour milk #a_/b teaspoonful baking soda #b teaspoonfuls baking powder #b cupfuls corn-meal #a cupful wheat flour #a_/b teaspoonful salt ,combine the melted fat1 molasses1 sirup1 beaten egg1 and milk4 ,sift the dry ingredients and combine with the liquid4 ,drop from a teaspoon on to a greased pan and bake in a moderate oven 7#cge degrees ,f47 for #ae minutes4 ,this makes #ee to #fj cookies about #b inches in diameter4 7,adapted from ,united ,states ,food ,administration ,bulletin47 ,,questions ,how does the method of preparing cooky mixture differ from that of preparing cake mixture8 ,why should cooky dough be chilled before rolling out8 ,what can be done to the cooky cutter to prevent it from sticking8 ,why is less fat required for ,sour ,cream than for ,sour ,milk ,cookies 7see ,figure #fd78 ,from the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 find the per cent of fat in peanut butter4 ,what is the per cent of fat in butter 7see ,figure #fc78 ,if butter were substituted for peanut butter in ,peanut ,butter ,cookies1 how much would be needed to furnish the same quantity of fat8 ,,lesson ,,cxlviii ,,cakes ,,without ,,eggs ,,omitting ,,eggs ,,in ,,cake4--,it was previously stated that #b teaspoonfuls of baking powder are required to leaven #a cupful of flour when no eggs are used4 ,the statement was also made that the quantity of baking powder is reduced when eggs are used4 ,hence cakes made with eggs require less than the proportionate quantity of leavening given above4 ,when eggs are omitted in a cake1 it is necessary to use #b teaspoonfuls of baking powder 7or its equivalent7 for each cupful of flour4 ,the flavor of cakes is usually improved when eggs are used4 ,in eggless cakes1 it is advisable to use spices or other materials of pronounced flavor4 ,since eggs are highly nutritious1 their omission in cake decreases considerably the food value of the cake4 ,leavens and flavoring materials 7except chocolate7 used in eggless cakes have practically no food value4 ,,apple ,,sauce ,,cake #b cupfuls flour #a_/h teaspoonful cloves #a #a_/b teaspoonfuls cinnamon #a teaspoonful nutmeg #a teaspoonful baking soda #a_/d teaspoonful salt #a cupful sugar #a cupful apple sauce 7unsweetened7 #a_/c cupful fat #a cupful raisins1 cut in halves ,mix the sugar and apple sauce2 add the fat4 ,mix the dry ingredients4 ,through a sifter1 add them to the apple sauce mixture4 ,flour the raisins and stir them into the batter4 ,turn into a greased loaf-cake pan or into two layer-cake pans4 ,bake in a moderate oven 7#cge degrees ,f474 ,if the cake is baked in layers1 put ,raisin ,filling between them1 but omit the raisins in the cake batter4 ,,chocolate ,,cake #b cupfuls flour #b teaspoonfuls baking powder #a teaspoonful salt #a_/c cupful cocoa #a_/c cupful water #a_/d cupful fat #a_/b teaspoonful baking soda #a cupful sugar #c_/d cupful sour milk #a teaspoonful vanilla ,mix the cocoa and water4 ,stir and cook until a thick smooth paste is formed4 ,add the fat4 ,if solid fat is used stir until it is melted4 ,set aside to cool4 ,add the baking soda and mix well4 ,then add the sugar and sour milk4 ,through a sifter1 add the dry ingredients4 ,then add the vanilla4 ,beat well4 ,bake in two layers 7#cge degrees ,f47 or in one sheet 7#cej degrees ,f474 ,use frosting or ,chocolate ,filling made without eggs between the layers and frosting on the top layer4 ,if it is desired to save sugar1 a thin layer of ,chocolate ,filling may be used between the layers and on the top layer4 ,,spice ,,cake #a cupful brown sugar #a_/d cupful molasses #a cupful seeded raisins #c_/d cupful water #a_/b cupful fat #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a teaspoonful nutmeg #b teaspoonfuls cinnamon #a_/h teaspoonful cloves #b #a_/b cupfuls flour #a_/d teaspoonful baking soda #c #a_/b teaspoonfuls baking powder ,in a saucepan mix all the ingredients except flour and leavening materials4 ,stir and cook the mixture at boiling temperature for #c minutes4 ,set aside to cool4 ,through a sifter1 add the leavening materials and flour4 ,beat well4 ,turn into an oiled loaf-cake pan and bake in a moderate oven 7#cej degrees ,f47 from #de to #fj minutes4 ,chopped nuts--#a_/b cupful--may be added to this cake4 ,this addition1 however1 increases the cost4 ,for economy the raisins may be omitted4 ,,note4--,various changes occur when certain of the ingredients of this cake are cooked1 viz41 7a7 ,the sugar is dissolved 7b7 ,the raisins are softened 7c7 ,the fat is melted 7d7 ,the spices are improved in flavor4 ,,questions ,what materials in ,apple ,sauce ,cake leaven it8 ,what ingredient usually present in cake recipes is omitted in this cake8 ,what takes the place of this ingredient8 ,in ,chocolate ,cake1 how much baking soda is required to neutralize the acid of the sour milk8 ,for what purpose is the additional quantity used8 ,what is the purpose of cooking the cocoa and water 7see ,cocoa and ,chocolate78 ,determine the difference in the cost of ,chocolate ,cake with and without eggs4 ,what ingredient in ,spice ,cake contains a small quantity of acid8 ,explain why baking soda is an ingredient of this ingredient4 ,why should the cooked mixture of ,spice ,cake be cool before the remaining ingredients are added8 ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,cxlix ,,the ,,luncheon ,,box ,the luncheon box most commonly used is of pasteboard or tin4 ,both these materials have advantages and disadvantages4 ,bread and cake are prevented from drying out when placed in a tightly covered tin box4 ,on the other hand1 food odors are retained and one pronounced odor may permeate all of the foods4 ,but since dry bread is unpalatable1 the tin box is considered more satisfactory4 ,it should be kept clean and free from odors1 should be emptied of its contents every day1 washed 7scalded often71 and allowed to remain open all night4 ,the collapsible box is the most convenient4 ,for most lunches1 a teaspoon1 jelly glass1 and in some cases a drinking cup are all the dishes needed4 ,the jelly glass may serve for many purposes4 ,cup custard may be steamed or baked in it1 or it makes an admirable mold for an individual steam pudding4 ,small fruits and fruit sauces may also be carried in jelly glasses4 ,,menu ,,making ,,for ,,the ,,luncheon ,,box4--,a luncheon box may be made a source of pleasure to the school child or everyday worker4 ,to bring this about1 the foods must be varied on successive days4 ,it is not necessary that each luncheon consist of various foods4 ,indeed1 many kinds of food or foods in great quantity are not desirable for a child who sits quietly at study much of the day or for a person of sedentary occupation4 ,it is both possible and necessary1 however1--if the luncheon box is not to become monotonous1--to have different foods for each day of the week4 ,as in any meal1 all of the foodstuffs should be represented in the food of a luncheon box4 ,,foods ,,for ,,the ,,luncheon ,,box4--7#a7 ,sandwiches4--,bread is the basis of almost all box luncheons4 ,since sandwiches furnish the most convenient way of carrying foods that are to be eaten with bread1 they invariably form a part of every luncheon4 ,because they are used so frequently they should be varied4 ,different kinds of bread1 such as graham1 ,boston brown1 and nut bread1 may be used4 ,variety may be had by serving bread sometimes in the form of muffins or rolls4 ,the slices of bread may be cut thin or thick to suit the appetite of the eater4 ,it is often desirable to leave the crusts on the bread4 ,butter should be creamed before spreading it on the bread4 ,if the sandwiches are to be cut extremely thin1 spread the bread before cutting it into slices4 ,if sandwiches are prepared some time before they are served1 they can be kept moist by wrapping in a dry towel1 covered with a towel wrung out of hot water4 ,the fillings for sandwiches offer many variations4 ,they may be divided into two classes1 seasoned and sweet4 ,seasoned fillings may include meat1 eggs1 cheese1 vegetables4 ,if meat is used1 it may be cut in slices1 or chopped and mixed with a sauce4 ,if sliced meat is used1 it is well to tear it into pieces4 7,this applies also to lettuce47 ,if it is desired to lessen the quantity of meat in a diet1 the meat should be chopped1 for it has been found that only half as much meat is required when it is chopped and mixed with a dressing4 ,either ,salad ,dressing or ,white ,sauce may be combined with meat4 ,a ,french ,dressing made of vegetable oil1 lemon juice1 and seasonings is better1 so far as ease of digestion is concerned1 than ,cream or ,boiled ,salad ,dressing4 ,if oil is not palatable1 learn to like it4 ,any of the seasoned fillings may be mixed with ,salad ,dressing4 ,sliced tomatoes spread with ,mayonnaise or ,cream ,salad ,dressing1 chopped peanuts mixed with salad dressing1 sardines or cold chicken with lemon juice and paprika make tasty sandwich fillings4 ,sweet fillings for sandwiches include3 preserved or dried fruits1 bananas1 nuts4 ,sandwiches made with a sweet filling are most popular among children4 ,some of them make good substitutes for cake1 and are much more easily digested4 ,the dried fruits such as dates1 figs1 and prunes1 cooked and combined with bread and butter1 make excellent foods4 ,the growing child is apt to become anemic4 ,since prunes contain iron1 they should be frequently used in children's diet4 ,cooked prunes--seeded and flavored with lemon juice--make palatable sandwiches1 especially when brown bread is used or a few chopped nuts are added4 ,breads containing sugar or molasses are most pleasing when used with a sweet filling4 ,banana sandwiches are much improved by the addition of lemon juice or ,salad ,dressing4 ,nuts are often combined with both sweet and seasoned materials2 their use gives opportunity for variety4 ,chopped raisins and nuts may be moistened with grape juice and used as sandwich filling4 ,chopped dates1 apples1 and nuts mixed with salad dressing make a pleasing filling4 ,crushed maple or brown sugar mixed with cream or butter and used with whole wheat bread is a favorite sandwich among children4 7#b7 ,relishes4--,celery1 olives1 and radishes serve as relishes for the luncheon box4 ,celery and olives 7especially those stuffed with pimentos or nuts7 are pleasing as a sandwich filling4 ,most relishes1 however1 are more suitable for the luncheon box of a mature person than for that of a child4 7#c7 ,desserts4--,cake is a common constituent of the luncheon box4 ,not all cakes1 however1 are suitable for luncheons4 ,for children1 only the plainer cakes1 i4e4 those containing little fat1 should be used4 ,plain cake and cookies1 sponge cake1 lady fingers1 and gingerbread 7if not too highly spiced7 are also desirable for the school luncheon4 ,cookies or cakes baked in muffin pans are more suitable for packing than cut pieces of cake4 ,most fresh fruits can be easily packed in the luncheon box4 ,as has been mentioned1 grapes1 the small fruits such as strawberries and raspberries1 sliced pineapple1 or fruit sauces may be carried in jelly glasses4 ,cup custards and simple puddings may be used as desserts4 ,if a child is permitted to have sweets1 a little candy may be placed in the luncheon box2 it is better for a child to have candy at the end of a luncheon than after school 7see ,use of ,candy in ,diet74 ,,packing ,,the ,,luncheon4--,neatness is an essential in an inviting luncheon box4 ,all foods should be wrapped separately in paraffin paper1 and placed neatly in the box4 ,since some foods crush readily1 it is not always possible to place the foods to be eaten first on top1 but it is desirable to arrange the foods so that not all of them will have to be removed before beginning to eat the luncheon4 ,the paper napkin should always be placed on top4 ,it is perhaps unnecessary to say that foods should not come in direct contact with newspapers or any printed matter4 ,,question ,plan menus for five school luncheons1 making them as varied as possible4 ,if you carry your luncheon to school1 follow these menus in preparing your luncheon box4 ,,lesson ,,cl ,,planning ,,and ,,preparing ,,box ,,luncheons ,plan ,footnote #aae3 ,see ,footnote #gb4 box luncheons4 ,make sandwiches and other foods for the luncheon box4 ,fill one or more luncheon boxes according to plans4 ,,lesson ,,cli ,,review--,,meal ,,cooking ,,menu ,cake 7for ,cottage ,pudding7 ,vanilla ,sauce ,cocoa ,see ,lesson ,,xiv for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson4 ,,lesson ,,clii ,,home ,,projects ,footnote #aaf3 ,see ,lesson ,,ix ,,suggestions ,,for ,,home ,,work4--,bake cake or cookies at least once a week4 ,if eggs are high in price1 bake cake without eggs or bake ,one-egg ,cake4 ,,suggested ,,aims3 7#a7 ,to improve the quality of cake4 ,as suggested in a previous ,home ,project1 score your product1 determine the cause of any undesirable quality1 and then avoid your error at the next baking4 7#b7 ,to compare homemade and baker's cake4 ,determine the weight and cost of homemade and baker's cake4 ,compare like kinds of cake1 i4e4 plain1 chocolate1 etc4 ,compute the cost per pound of each4 ,if possible compare the flavor1 grain1 and texture of each4 ,what are the advantages of homemade over baker's cake8 ,,division ,,fifteen ,,pastry ,,lesson ,,cliii ,,pie ,,with ,,under ,,crust ,,pastry4--,good pastry is3 7a7 light1 7b7 flaky or friable1 and 7c7 tender4 ,the lightness of pastry is largely dependent upon the temperature of the ingredients4 ,all the materials should be cold1 so that the expansion in baking may be as great as possible4 ,in order to keep the ingredients cold and the fats solid1 a knife 7instead of the fingers7 should be used in mixing4 ,it is well to chill pastry by placing it on the ice before rolling out4 ,the lightness of pastry is dependent somewhat upon quick and deft manipulations4 ,a little baking powder also increases the lightness of pastry4 ,flaky pastry results when the ingredients are mixed so as to form layers4 ,to accomplish this1 solid fat is used and it is not cut fine into the dry ingredients1 but is left in pieces4 ,thus1 when rolled1 there are layers of flour and fat4 ,pastry is sometimes made by cutting part of the fat into the flour mixture1 then moistening and rolling it out2 adding the remainder of the fat in small bits1 folding and rolling out again4 ,friable pastry usually results when oil is used instead of solid fat4 ,the following fats may be used alone or in combination3 butter1 oleomargarine1 lard1 vegetable oil or fat1 lard substitutes4 ,to make pastry tender and not tough1 the least possible moisture should be used4 ,the quantity of fat used also determines its tenderness4 ,the more fat used1 the less the amount of water required4 ,less moisture is required when oil rather than solid fat is used4 ,for this reason1 many persons can produce more tender pastry by using a cooking oil4 ,the fact that the moisture is decreased when oil is used may also account for the decreased quantity of oil given in the recipe for pastry4 ,less oil than solid fat will produce the same degree of tenderness1 provided less water is used4 ,,pie ,,with ,,the ,,under ,,crust4--,pastry is somewhat difficult of digestion2 but a crust that is brittle and easily crumbled is more readily digested than one that is moist and pasty4 ,pie crust should crumble as finely as a cracker4 ,to prevent moist and pasty pie crust1 it is advisable to bake one crust pie4 ,if an under crust only is used1 it should be baked before adding the filling4 ,the filling should be cooked and sweetened before adding it to the crust4 ,,plain ,,pastry 7#b crusts7 #a #a_/b cupfuls flour #a teaspoonful baking powder #a_/b teaspoonful salt #a_/d to #a_/b cupful fat or #a_/f to #a_/c cupful oil ,ice water ,mix the dry ingredients1 cut in the fat slightly2 then add just enough water to hold the ingredients together4 ,chill2 then roll out 7one crust at a time74 ,pastry should be baked in a hot oven4 ,a pastry shell containing no filling should be baked at #djj degrees ,f41 for #ae to #bj minutes4 ,bake a one crust pie on the outside of a pie pan2 it should be pricked with a fork before baking4 ,the pastry trimmings should be utilized4 ,they may be made into tarts or cheese straws4 ,,lemon ,,pie #c tablespoonfuls flour #c tablespoonfuls corn-starch #a cupful sugar #b cupfuls boiling water #b egg yolks ,juice and grated rind of #a lemon #a tablespoonful butter #a_/d teaspoonful salt ,,meringue #b egg whites #b tablespoonfuls powdered sugar ,mix the sugar1 flour1 and corn-starch1 add the boiling water4 ,stir and cook on the back of the range1 or over an asbestos mat1 for #ae minutes4 ,add the egg yolks and cook at simmering temperature1 until the eggs thicken4 ,add the remaining ingredients4 ,cool and place in a baked crust4 ,cover with a meringue4 ,bake until the meringue is a light brown1 i4e4 at #cjj degrees ,f41 #aj to #ae minutes4 ,note that the lemon is added to the mixture after cooking4 ,cooking a starchy material with a small amount of acid1 dextrinizes the starch4 ,since dextrin has less thickening power than starch1 the starch mixture would become thinner if cooked for some time with lemon4 ,,score ,,card ,,for ,,pie1--,,determining ,,its ,,quality ,flavor #cj ,tenderness #bj ,lightness #aj ,flakiness #aj ,appearance 7color and thickness7 #aj ,filling 7flavor and consistency7 #bj --- ,total #ajj ,,questions ,why should not the fingers be used to mix the fat with the dry ingredients in pastry making8 ,why is it easier to roll out pastry1 if it has been chilled after mixing8 ,why should a lower crust1 when used alone1 be baked before adding the filling8 ,what is the purpose of pricking the lower crust with a fork before baking8 ,compare the filling for ,lemon ,pie with that for ,cream ,puffs4 ,how do they differ in moisture1 method of preparation1 and length of time in cooking8 ,give the reason for these differences4 ,from ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of butter 7see ,figure #fc71 oleomargarine1 lard1 lard substitute1 and vegetable oil4 ,what is the price per pound of each8 ,which furnishes more fat1--a pound of butter or a pound of lard8 ,if lard1 lard substitute1 or vegetable oil were substituted for butter in a cake or other quick bread1 should the same quantity be used8 ,explain4 ,,lesson ,,cliv ,,pies ,,with ,,upper ,,crust ,,digestion ,,of ,,pastry4--,as previously mentioned 7see ,frying and ,digestion71 when fats are heated to a high temperature1 they decompose4 ,the products of this decomposition are less readily digested than is fat before it is decomposed4 ,hence in fried foods1 the fat is made somewhat indigestible4 ,thus it is much better to spread uncooked fat over hot potatoes than to combine the two foods by frying the potatoes4 ,fat is the most slowly digested of all foodstuffs4 ,hence a combination of fat and carbohydrates is more slowly digested than carbohydrate4 ,for this reason1 foods consisting of fat and flour such as pastry may remain in the digestive tract for a long time and cause disturbances4 ,distressing effects are less likely to result1 however1 when a person's work is out of doors4 ,since fatty foods remain in the stomach longer than others1 they may serve to allay the feeling of hunger which is caused by the contracting of an empty stomach4 ,,pie ,,with ,,the ,,upper ,,crust4--,in the previous lesson 7see ,pie with ,under ,crust71 it was mentioned that pasty pie crust was not readily digested4 ,for this reason1 fresh fruit pie may be made with an upper crust only4 ,such pie should be baked in a pan of granite1 glass1 or similar material4 ,the fruit is placed in the pie pan1 then a half-inch strip of pastry is placed over the rim of the pie pan2 the strip is moistened and the crust placed over the top4 ,the strip of pastry and the upper crust are pressed together1 then the edges of the latter are trimmed4 ,the upper crust should be cut in several places for the escape of steam4 ,,rhubarb ,,pie #b cupfuls rhubarb1 cut in small pieces #a egg #d tablespoonfuls flour #a cupful sugar ,salt ,lemon rind ,mix the sugar1 salt1 lemon rind1 and flour2 beat the egg4 ,add the rhubarb and flour mixture to the egg4 ,turn into an earthenware dish or a granite pan1 and cover with pastry as directed above4 ,bake until the rhubarb is tender and the crust is brown1 i4e4 at #dbe degrees ,f41 #ce to #de minutes4 ,rhubarb contains such a large percentage of moisture that it is well to use but one crust4 ,,questions ,explain why it is that baked potatoes and butter are more readily digested than fried potatoes4 ,what is the advantage of using only a top crust for fresh fruit pie8 ,what is the purpose of egg and flour in ,rhubarb ,pie8 ,why is it desirable to use these ingredients with rhubarb8 ,why should the flour in ,rhubarb ,pie be mixed with sugar8 ,how much water is there in apples and rhubarb 7see ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh and ,figure #gj78 ,,lesson ,,clv ,,two-,,crust ,,pies ,,two ,,crusts4--,if both upper and lower crusts are used in making a pie1 the lower crust should be placed inside the pan4 ,the filling should be added1 the edge of the crust moistened1 and the upper crust placed over the pie and pressed around the edges4 ,then the edges should be trimmed4 ,as was mentioned before1 upper crusts should always be cut in several places for the escape of steam4 ,sometimes a half-inch strip of pastry is placed around the edge of the under crust before placing the upper crust4 ,this is thought to aid in preventing the escape of the moisture of the filling4 ,,apple ,,pie ,cut #d or #e apples into slices1 and for each apple use #b tablespoonfuls 7or more7 of sugar4 ,if the apples are not juicy1 add from #a_/b to #a tablespoonful of water for each apple4 ,flavor with #a teaspoonful each of lemon juice and rind1 #a_/d teaspoonful cinnamon or nutmeg1 and #a_/h teaspoonful salt4 ,line the inside of a pie pan with pastry1 pour in the apple mixture4 ,add bits of butter1 and cover with pastry as directed above4 ,bake until the apples are soft and the crust is brown1 i4e4 at #dbe degrees ,f41 #ce to #de minutes4 ,apple sauce may be used as a filling for a baked crust4 ,such a pie is sometimes covered with meringue or strips of pastry4 ,,fruit ,,pie ,,with ,,two ,,crusts #b cupfuls fruit #a_/b to #a cupful sugar #c tablespoonfuls flour ,if the fruit is fresh1 wash and drain it well4 ,mix the sugar and flour4 ,line the inside of a pie pan with pastry1 add half of the sugar and flour mixture4 ,add the fruit1 and then the remainder of the sugar and flour4 ,cover with a top crust according to the directions above4 ,,questions ,explain why pie with only one crust1 if properly made1 is more desirable than that with two crusts 7see ,pie with ,under ,crust74 ,why should fresh fruit1 for fruit pie with two crusts1 be well drained after washing8 ,give three ways of preventing the juice from boiling over1 in a pie with two crusts4 ,compare pastry that is made with lard1 lard substitutes1 vegetable oils and butter1 as to taste1 appearance1 flakiness or friability1 and tenderness4 ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,clvi ,,infant ,,feeding ,,perfect ,,food ,,for ,,infants4--,nature in her wisdom provides ideal food for the infant1--mother's milk4 ,no perfect substitute has been found for it4 ,it is most unfortunate when a child is denied this food4 ,it has been found ,footnote #aag3 ,see ,feeding the ,family1 by ,mary ,swartz ,rose1 ,ph4,d41 p4 #ih4 that babies fed with mother's milk are much less likely to contract disease and much more apt to grow to maturity4 ,a mother's milk is adapted to the needs of her child4 ,it agrees with the infant and nourishes it well4 ,a practical advantage of a healthy mother's milk is that it is sterile and of the proper temperature4 ,,modified ,,milk4--,in case it is necessary to give the infant artificial diet1 the greatest care should be taken to provide clean1 easily digested food4 ,cow's milk is the basis of the food generally chosen4 ,the way babies digest cow's milk shows the necessity of changing or modifying it to meet the needs of an infant4 ,cow's milk is modified sometimes by diluting it to make it digest easier and adding other ingredients to it4 ,in order to increase the fuel value of diluted milk1 carbohydrate food of some soluble1 easily digested kind is added4 ,sometimes gruel or cereal water is used as one of the constituents of modified milk4 ,formulas for modified milk vary with the individual infant4 ,a physician should be consulted regarding the formula for food for a baby4 7a7 ,utensils for measuring and preparing the ingredients of modified milk should be kept very clean4 ,before using1 all glass and metal utensils used for measuring and holding the milk should be covered with cold water1 then the water should be heated and allowed to boil for twenty minutes4 ,just before using rubber nipples1 place them in boiling water for a few minutes4 ,after using1 they should be rinsed in cold water and then carefully washed inside and out with soap and water4 ,when not in use1 nipples should be kept in a clean covered jar or jelly glass4 7,the jar and cover should be sterilized daily47 ,after using the milk bottles 7have as many bottles as there are feedings a day71 rinse them in cold water1 and then fill them with water and add a pinch of baking soda4 ,before filling the bottle with milk1 wash with soap and water--using a bottle brush--and then sterilize in boiling water for twenty minutes 7as directed above74 ,bacteria cannot pass through cotton1 hence it is used for stoppering the filled milk bottles4 ,it should be clean1 however4 ,paper caps are also used4 7b7 ,ingredients4--7#a7 ,milk4--,the selection of milk for an infant is an important consideration4 ,clean milk is most essential4 ,milk is considered clean when it comes from dairy farms where clean milkers work under sanitary conditions1 approved by a medical milk commission 7see ,care of ,milk74 ,such milk contains few bacteria and is called certified milk4 ,this is by far the safest milk for infant diet1 but it is expensive4 ,it usually costs almost twice as much as ordinary milk4 ,milk is pasteurized commercially by heating it to #aej degrees ,f41 keeping it at that temperature for about thirty minutes1 and then quickly cooling it4 ,while pasteurizing kills most of the disease-producing germs1 it does not destroy all the spores 7see ,microorganisms in the,spore ,form74 ,the taste of milk is not affected by pasteurizing4 ,milk is sterilized--all germ life destroyed--by heating at #bab degrees ,f4 from one to one and one half hours4 ,since the value of milk as an infant food depends upon its cleanliness1 it is difficult to state just how old milk may be before it is unsafe for infant feeding4 ,it is safest to use only fresh milk4 ,bacteria in milk may develop so rapidly that it is unfit to use a few hours after it has been drawn from the cow4 ,unless milk is certified1 it should not be used in summer after it is twenty-four hours old1 and in winter1 after it is forty-eight hours old4 ,bottled milk should be used for infants4 ,according to most plans for modifying milk1 whole milk is used4 7#b7 ,sugar4--,several kinds of sugar are used in modified milk4 ,these are3 ,milk sugar or lactose4 ,malt sugar combined with dextrin or dextrimaltose4 ,granulated sugar or cane sugar4 ,the advice of a physician should be consulted regarding the kind of sugar best suited to the needs of the particular infant4 ,the first two kinds of sugar can be obtained at a drug store4 ,granulated sugar is too sweet for general use4 7#c7 ,water or ,cereal ,water4--,if plain water is to be used with milk1 it should be boiled before adding to the other ingredients4 ,in some cases1 gruel or cereal water is added4 ,usually rolled oats or barley flour is the grain used4 ,to prepare either of these use3 #d tablespoonfuls rolled oats or #c tablespoonfuls barley flour #a quart cold water ,mix and boil gently until the mixture is reduced to a pint4 ,then strain through a fine wire strainer or muslin4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hg4--;,graduated ,measure and ,dipper for ,measuring the ,ingredients of ,modified ,milk4 7c7 ,method of ,mixing4--,measure the sugar4 ,this ingredient is usually measured in ounces1 tablespoonfuls1 or teaspoonfuls4 7#a #a_/b dipperfuls 7,figure #hg7 of milk sugar weigh #a ounce47 ,in the graduated measure 7,figure #hg71 measure the water or cereal water for diluting the milk and dissolve the sugar in it4 ,stir the mixture until the sugar is completely dissolved4 ,then pour it into the mixing pitcher4 ,measure the milk 7and other ingredients if required7 and pour into pitcher4 ,mix thoroughly4 ,while stirring1 turn the proper quantity of food into as many sterilized bottles as are required for a day's feeding4 ,stopper with cotton or cap4 ,if the milk used is certified1 place in a clean refrigerator until used for feeding4 ,if the milk is not certified1 it may be pasteurized4 ,,pasteurizing ,,milk ,,at ,,home4--,place the bottles of milk in a wire basket4 ,then place the basket in a kettle4 ,pour water in the kettle so that the water is a little higher outside of the bottles than the surface of the milk inside4 ,heat the water and let it boil for #e minutes4 7,do not begin to count the time until the water reaches the boiling point47 ,at once cool the milk by allowing a stream of cold water to displace the hot water4 ,do not allow the cold water to run directly on the hot bottles4 ,when the milk is cooled1 place the bottles immediately in a clean refrigerator4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,milk ,,before ,,feeding4--,at feeding time1 milk should be heated to about #ih degrees ,f4 ,place the bottle in a pan of warm water4 ,test the milk for proper temperature4 ,use the method described in ,junket ,custard1 for testing the temperature of the milk4 ,shake the bottle before feeding4 ,,other ,,foods ,,given ,,to ,,infants4--,in addition to modified milk1 boiled water should be given to infants4 ,a few other foods--egg yolk or vegetable juices and orange juice--may often be given during the first year4 ,the egg yolk should be soft-cooked4 ,this food supplies iron and increases the ,calorific value of the diet4 ,orange juice 7strained through muslin7 may be usually given at five or six months of age4 ,it is especially necessary to give orange juice to infants whose milk is pasteurized or sterilized4 ,its use prevents constipation and scurvy4 ,,energy ,,requirement ,,of ,,an ,,infant4--,the energy requirement of an infant is greater than one would suppose4 ,growth and development are going on at a rapid rate4 ,like the adult1 a baby asleep needs energy to carry on the involuntary activities of its body4 ,when awake such muscular activities as crying1 kicking1 and throwing of arms require energy4 ,an infant's energy requirement is usually based upon its body weight4 ,according to generally accepted standards ,footnote #aah3 ,see ,feeding the ,family1 by ,mary ,swartz ,rose1 ,ph4,d41 p4 #ajc4 an infant's average energy requirement is3 #ast to #c;d months #ej ,calories per pound per day #dth to #fth months #de ,calories per pound per day #gth to #ith months #dj ,calories per pound per day #ajth to #abth months #ce ,calories per pound per day ,,quantity ,,of ,,food4--,when a baby must be given artificial food entirely or as a supplement to natural food1 it is safest and most satisfactory to follow the advice of a physician4 ,it is said1 however1 that an infant requires an average of #a #a_/b ounces of milk per day for every pound of body weight4 ,after the eighth month1 this quantity of milk is usually decreased first to #a #a_/c and then to #a #a_/d ounces for every pound of body weight per day4 ,the amount of artificial food found satisfactory for the infant during the first few months of its life is usually not sufficient to yield as many ,calories as given in the table above4 ,but while the baby is adjusting itself to artificial feeding1 it is especially necessary that the stomach be not overtaxed4 ,as the infant develops1 the quantity of food can be increased and the deficiency made up later4 ,,questions ,define certified1 pasteurized1 sterilized1 modified1 and top milk4 ,give reasons for sterilizing utensils used for measuring and holding milk4 ,in preparing modified milk why is milk diluted8 ,why is sugar added8 ,what is the price per quart of certified milk8 ,,lesson ,,clvii ,,modifying ,,milk ,modify cow's milk according to a formula secured from a physician or baby's dispensary4 ,pasteurize milk4 ,,lesson ,,clviii ,,review--,,meal ,,cooking ,,menu ,baked ,sweet ,potatoes or ,scalloped ,potatoes ,apple ,dumpling 7made with pastry or biscuit dough7 ,see ,lesson ,,xiv1 for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson4 ,,lesson ,,clix ,,home ,,projects ,footnote #aai3 ,see ,lesson ,,ix4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,home ,,work4--,if pies are served in your home1 bake at least one pie a week4 ,in case pies are not used1 bake cake in which different quantities of fat are used4 ,,suggested ,,aims3 7#a7 ,to compare ,one- and ,two-crust ,pies4 ,prepare each kind4 ,determine the difference in cost1 time of preparation1 and quality of the crust of each4 ,which kinds of pies do you consider more successful in regard to quality8 ,which is cheaper8 ,which kind meets the approval of other members of your home8 7#b7 ,to compare ,cake ,containing ,little and ,much ,fat4 ,follow the recipe for ,one-egg or ,plain ,cake4 ,vary the quantity of fat from #a_/h to #a_/b cupful4 ,make comparisons regarding cost1 texture1 grain1 and flavor4 ,which amount do you consider most successful from the standpoint of texture1 grain1 and flavor8 ,,division ,,sixteen ,,frozen ,,desserts ,,lesson ,,clx ,,method ,,of ,,freezing--,,water ,,ice ,,experiment #gi3 ,,mixtures ,,for ,,freezing4--,prepare #b cupfuls of cracked ice4 ,place #a cupful of the cracked ice in each of two bowls4 ,to one bowl of ice add #a_/c cupful of rock salt1 and mix thoroughly4 ,insert thermometers into both bowls and note temperature4 ,what effect does the salt have upon the temperature of the ice8 ,allow the ice mixture to stand a few minutes1 then observe the difference in the condition of the ice in the two bowls4 ,besides lowering the temperature1 what does the salt do to the ice8 ,,freezing ,,with ,,ice ,,and ,,salt4--,when a solid substance is changed to a liquid1 heat is absorbed from surrounding materials4 ,when solid ice liquefies1 heat is absorbed from surrounding materials4 ,salt makes ice liquefy at a lower temperature1 thus absorbing more heat from its surroundings4 ,since foods must be cooled1 i4e4 heat drawn from them1 in order to freeze them1 a mixture of ice and salt rather than ice is used in freezing4 ,if ice and salt surround a tin can containing substances to be frozen1 from what is the heat absorbed when the ice is changed to liquid form8 ,explain why it is that a mixture of ice and salt1 rather than ice alone1 is used to freeze a dessert4 ,,conductors ,,of ,,heat4--,in ,experiment #b and in1 ,the ,principle of ,fireless ,cookery1 it is shown that some materials are better conductors of heat than others4 ,which is a better conductor of heat1 wood or metal8 ,explain why it is that most freezers consist of an inner can of metal and an outer bucket of wood4 ,a few freezers have an outside metal bucket4 ,such freezing devices have been found more satisfactory when heavy paper is tied around the outer metal bucket4 ,,cooling ,,by ,,evaporation4--,if a few drops of alcohol1 ether1 or gasoline are poured in the palm of the hand and allowed to evaporate1 the hand feels cold4 ,during evaporation1 the liquid takes heat from the hand4 ,when any liquid evaporates1 heat is absorbed from surrounding materials4 ,water may be cooled by placing it in a porous jar and hanging it in a breeze4 ,when there is no ice1 this principle of cooling by the rapid evaporation of a liquid may be applied to the cooling of butter and other foods4 ,wrap butter in an oiled paper and place it in a flower crock or any porous jar4 ,place the crock in a draft2 put a bowl of water beside it4 ,wrap a wet cloth about the crock and place one end of it in the bowl of water4 ,the continuous evaporation of the moisture keeps the food cool4 ,,preparing ,,and ,,packing ,,the ,,freezer4--,scald the can1 the cover1 and the dasher of the freezer2 cool it before the mixture that is to be frozen is placed in it4 ,adjust the can carefully in the bucket2 put in the dasher2 pour in the mixture1 cover2 adjust the crank4 ,crush the ice for freezing by placing it in a strong bag and pounding it with a wooden mallet4 ,mix the ice with rock salt in the proportion given below4 ,then pour the ice and salt mixture around the can of the freezer4 ,the ice and salt mixture should be higher around the can than the level of the mixture inside4 ,for freezing ice creams and most ices use three parts of cracked ice to one of rock salt4 ,if ice of coarse grain is desired1 use a greater quantity of salt4 ,the less salt in proportion to ice used1 the finer the grain2 the process of freezing1 however1 takes place very slowly when little salt is used4 ,for mixtures which are frozen by merely packing in ice and salt but are not stirred1 such as mousse or parfait1 use two parts of cracked ice to one of rock salt4 ,for packing frozen mixtures after freezing1 use four parts of cracked ice to one of rock salt4 ,,freezing4--,if a dessert of fine texture is desired1 turn the crank slowly and steadily until the mixture is rather stiff1 then turn more rapidly4 ,in making water ices1 it is considered advisable by some to turn the crank steadily for #e minutes1 then allow to stand #e minutes1 turn again #e minutes1 and continue until freezing is completed4 ,do not draw off the salt water while freezing the mixture1 unless the salt water stands so high that there is danger of its getting into the can4 ,when the mixture is frozen1 remove the ice and salt around the top of the can2 wipe the cover and top2 uncover2 and remove the dasher4 ,then stir the frozen mixture thoroughly2 place thin paper or paraffin paper over the can2 cover2 place a cork in the hole of the cover4 ,drain off all the water which has collected in freezing2 repack the freezer with ice and salt mixture in the proportion given above2 cover with carpet1 blanket1 or newspapers2 and allow to stand in a cold place several hours4 ,,fruit ,,ice #d cupfuls water #b #c_/d cupfuls sugar #c oranges #c lemons #c bananas #a_/d teaspoonful salt ,make a sirup of the sugar and water1 and then cool it4 ,extract the juice from the lemons and oranges2 crush the peeled and scraped bananas with a wooden potato masher4 ,mix the fruits and salt immediately with the sirup4 ,freeze at once4 ,when frozen1 remove the dasher and repack as directed above4 ,a less expensive but more mildly flavored ice may be prepared by using #c pints of water 7instead of #d cupfuls74 ,when the greater quantity of water is used1 #c #a_/d cupfuls 7instead of #b #c_/d cupfuls7 of sugar should be used4 ,these recipes for ,fruit ,ice are modifications of the popular recipe termed ,five ,threes4 ,,questions ,explain why it is necessary to scald the can1 cover1 and dasher of an ice cream freezer 7see ,care of ,milk74 ,what harm sometimes results when an ice cream freezer has been carelessly prepared8 ,why should not the salt water be drawn from the freezer during freezing 7see ,experiment #gi78 ,what is the purpose of placing paper over the can when packing the frozen mixture8 ,what is the purpose of covering the packed freezer with carpet1 blanket1 or newspapers 7see ,the ,principle of ,fireless ,cookery78 ,why is it well to tie heavy paper around an outside metal bucket of a freezer8 ,why should ,fruit ,ice mixture be frozen at once after preparing the fruit8 ,heat aids chemical action4 ,can you explain why acid mixtures are not acted upon by the metal and consequently discolored when frozen in a tin or iron can8 ,,lesson ,,clxi ,,frozen ,,creams ,frozen desserts consist of3 #a4 ,,cream ,,mixtures3 7a7 ,plain ,ice ,cream4--,cream1 sugar1 and flavoring4 ,this is sometimes called ,philadelphia ,ice ,cream4 7b7 ,french ,ice ,cream4--,custard1 cream1 and flavoring4 ,on the continent1 this frozen mixture is called ,neapolitan ,ice ,cream4 ,in this country1 three kinds of frozen mixtures served together make up what is termed ,neapolitan ,ice ,cream4 7c7 ,mousse4--,whipped cream1 folded into various sweetened and flavored mixtures1 placed in a mold1 and packed in ice and salt1 but not beaten4 #b4 ,,water ,,mixtures3 7a7 ,water ,ice4--,fruit juice1 water1 and sugar4 7b7 ,sherbet4--,water ice with the addition of dissolved gelatine or beaten whites of eggs4 7c7 ,frappe4--,water ice of coarse texture4 7d7 ,granite4--,water ice to which fruit is added after freezing4 #c4 ,,frozen ,,puddings3 ,various sweet mixtures4 ,,method ,,of ,,mixing ,,frozen ,,foods4--,the sugar of a frozen dessert should always be dissolved4 ,to accomplish this a sirup should be made of the sugar and water 7see ,experiment #aa74 ,for mixtures that contain no eggs1 but in which cream or milk is used1 the cream or milk may be scalded1 and the sugar dissolved in the hot liquid4 ,if eggs are used to thicken ice cream1 they should be combined with the sugar and cream and cooked as for a soft custard4 ,in sherbets1 whites of eggs are often used4 ,they are usually beaten stiff1 and added uncooked to the mixture4 ,if fruit juice is to be used with milk or cream1 the latter should be chilled before adding the fruit4 ,fruits that are to be frozen with the other ingredients should be crushed thoroughly4 ,small fruits1 or large fruits cut in pieces1 are sometimes added to a dessert after it is frozen1 thereby preventing the fruit from freezing and becoming hard4 ,all frozen mixtures should stand several hours before serving1 in order to ripen4 ,,plain ,,ice ,,cream #a quart cream #c_/d cupful sugar #a tablespoonful vanilla ,prepare as directed in ,method of ,mixing ,frozen ,foods4 ,,chocolate ,,ice ,,cream #a quart cream #a cupful sugar #b ounces chocolate #a_/c cupful boiling water ,salt #a teaspoonful vanilla ,scald the cream2 add the sugar to it4 ,prepare the chocolate in the usual way1 by cooking it in the boiling water until a smooth paste is formed 7see ,chocolate74 ,add the chocolate mixture to the hot cream4 ,cool1 add salt and vanilla1 and freeze4 ,,french ,,ice ,,cream #a quart cream #a pint milk #c egg yolks ,salt #a cupful sugar #a tablespoonful vanilla ,prepare as directed in ,method of ,mixing ,frozen ,foods4 ,,fruit ,,ice ,,cream #b cupfuls fruit juice1 or #c cupfuls crushed fruit #a quart cream #b cupfuls sugar ,prepare and freeze according to the ,method of ,mixing ,frozen ,foods4 ,for ,frozen ,fruit or ,water ,ice1 use water instead of cream4 ,the flavor of most fruits is improved by adding #b tablespoonfuls of lemon juice to the water mixture4 ,,questions ,for ,fruit ,ice ,cream1 why is it necessary to chill the cream before adding the fruit juice or crushed fruit 7see ,experiment #fa78 ,why is it necessary to crush the fruit for frozen fruit mixture8 ,how much sugar would be required to sweeten one and one half quarts of custard1 according to the recipe for ,soft ,custard8 ,compare this with the quantity of sugar used for ,french ,ice ,cream4 ,how do extremely cold beverages affect the sense of taste8 ,from this1 account for the difference in the quantity of sugar used in frozen and in cold desserts4 ,also compare the quantity of sugar and vanilla used in ,chocolate ,ice ,cream and ,chocolate ,beverage4 ,account for the difference4 ,approximately how much ice is required to freeze and pack one quart of ,ice ,cream8 ,what is the cost of ice per hundred pounds8 ,how many persons does one quart of ice cream serve8 ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,clxii ,,diet ,,for ,,young ,,children ,,selection ,,of ,,food ,,for ,,children 7#b to #ab years74--,although solid food is included in the diet of a child after the first year1 the baby is by no means ready for the food of adults4 ,childhood differs essentially from maturity in that it is a period of growth4 ,in proportion to weight a child is much more active than an adult4 ,a child has not the reserve power of a grown-up person4 ,his organs of digestion and assimilation are delicate4 ,because the activities and needs of the child differ greatly from those of the adult1 diet suitable for the adult is not adapted to the child4 ,a consideration of foods for young children follows3 7#a7 ,milk4--,since milk is the food provided for young animals1 it should be used generously all through childhood4 ,the nutritive value of milk is high in proportion to the effort required to digest and assimilate it4 ,the average child with good digestion should take from one and one half pints to one quart daily until the tenth year4 ,in this amount is included not only the milk that is used as a beverage1 but the milk served with cereals and vegetables and that used in soups1 custards1 blanc mange1 rice and bread puddings1 and other easily digested desserts4 7#b7 ,cereals and ,breads4--,well-cooked cereals are among the essential foods of childhood4 ,ready-to-serve breakfast cereals are undesirable as staples for young children4 ,cereals should be cooked from one to three hours4 ,for very young children 7under eighteen months7 all cereals must be strained4 ,for older children1 unstrained cereals may be used1 provided they are thoroughly cooked4 ,frequent use of the whole grains1 as rolled oats and wheat1 is recommended4 ,these cereals contain more protein and ash than the finer cereals and hence may be better body-builders1 but they also contain much bran4 ,usually the latter does not prove irritating if thoroughly cooked4 ,but if these coarse cereals do cause irritation they should either be strained or the cereals containing less bran1 as cream of wheat1 farina1 and arrowroot1 should be used4 ,cereals should be served with milk or cream1 but with no sugar or sirup or not more than one teaspoonful to a serving4 ,carefully made toast1 zwieback1 and stale bread may be given to young children4 ,on account of the difficulty in digesting fresh breads1 they are excluded from children's diet4 7#c7 ,eggs are especially good foods for children1 provided they are fresh and properly cooked4 ,they should be cooked in some way which leaves them soft such as soft-cooking or poaching4 ,only soft-cooked egg yolks should be given to children under three years4 ,one whole egg per day may be included in the diet of older children4 7#d7 ,broth and ,meat4--,there is some difference of opinion regarding the use of meat in children's diet4 ,some authorities advise beef broth and the more easily digested meats for young children4 ,others say that if a generous amount of eggs and milk is included in children's diet1 it is well not to give them meat before eight years4 ,in the diets for children from two to eight years1 neither broth nor meat is included4 ,it is possible to obtain sufficient protein from milk and eggs4 ,doubtless1 as with adults1 most young children would be benefited by much less meat than is generally given them or by none at all4 ,if meat is given to young children1 it should be scraped 7see ,experiment #ej7 and pan-broiled 7see ,pan-,broiling71 as it is somewhat difficult to masticate4 7#e7 ,fresh ,vegetables should be included in children's diet4 ,for very young children select mild vegetables such as spinach1 asparagus tips1 string beans1 and peas4 ,cook until very soft and press through a sieve or mash4 ,later1 such cooked vegetables as potatoes 7baked or mashed71 beets1 carrots1 cauliflower1 and squash may be added4 ,no uncooked vegetables should be given to young children4 7#f7 ,fruits and ,sugar4--,fruits are especially valuable for children4 ,care should be taken1 however1 in selecting fruits4 ,it is said that until a child is five years old only cooked fruits and the juice of fresh fruits should be given4 ,for very young children the juice of orange or the pulp of cooked prunes should be given daily1 because they contain valuable nutrients and possess laxative properties4 ,for older children the cooked food fruits 7see ,kinds of ,fruits7 such as dates1 figs1 and raisins 7without seeds71 and bananas 7baked7 are desirable4 ,apples1 peaches1 and apricots1 baked or made into sauces1 are also suggested4 ,fruits should be cooked with little or no sugar4 ,sweets in the form of sweet fruits rather than sugar and candy should be given to children under six years4 ,after six years1 very little candy or sweet chocolate may be given at the end of a meal1 not between meals4 ,it is a mistake to give children candy just because they want it 7see ,the ,use of ,candy in ,diet47 7#g7 ,desserts4--,fruits selected and prepared as given in the previous section1 very plain cakes--sponge cake and those containing little fat--and easily digested desserts made of eggs1 milk1 cereals1 etc41 are the only desserts suitable for young children4 7#h7 ,water and ,other ,beverages4--,pure water in generous quantities is needed for children4 ,water and milk are the only beverages 7if milk can be considered a beverage7 that should be given to children under six years4 ,after that age1 cocoa made with much milk may be given1 but not tea1 coffee1 or any carbonated drinks4 ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,proper ,,diet ,,for ,,children cannot be over-emphasized4 ,it is a child's right to be hardy4 ,good food in proper quantity given at the right time is essential for the sure and steady growth of the body4 ,the child's future health1 usefulness1 and happiness depend much upon the nourishment he receives4 ,if insufficient food1 or food lacking in foodstuffs for growth1 is given to children1 a wasting away of brain cells and muscle may take place and stunted growth will result4 ,the additional care in preparing special menus for children is an effort well worth making2 its compensation is inestimable4 ,if from babyhood a child is given his own special diet1 it is possible to satisfy him at the table with food that differs from that of the rest of the family4 ,habits of eating plain food should be established in childhood4 ,mrs4 ,richards says3 ,habit rather than instinct guides civilized man in the choice of food4 ,likes or dislikes for food should not be discussed in the presence of children4 ,such discussions may establish distaste for a food of decided nutritive value4 ,regularity in feeding children is most important4 ,there should be no lunches between meals4 ,it is important also that a child be taught to masticate food thoroughly4 ,,energy ,,requirements ,,of ,,children ,,of ,,different ,,ages4--,it is difficult to write definitely regarding the quantity of food that should be given to children4 ,as with adults1 some children require more than others4 ,the personal factor enters largely into this question4 ,in ,lesson ,,cxxiv the energy requirements of children of different ages are given 7see ,relation of ,age to ,daily ,energy ,requirement74 ,as stated there1 these tables indicate the energy requirement of children of normal size1 development1 and activity4 ,note that in the menus given below the ,calories derived from protein are approximately one seventh of the total ,calories 7see ,daily ,protein ,requirement74 ,the following menus ,footnote #abj3 ,prepared by ,mary ,swartz ,rose1 ,ph4,d41 ,assistant ,professor of ,nutrition1 ,school of ,household ,arts1 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university 7see ,teachers ,college ,bulletin1 ,the ,feeding of ,young ,children1 pp4 #f-i74 for children from two to twelve years were prepared for average children of moderate activity in a family of limited income4 ,,meals ,,for ,,one ,,day ,child #b-d ,years ,old ,breakfast3 #g3cj ,a4,m4 ,oatmeal ,mush #j4h ounce dry cereal ,milk #a #a_/b cupfuls ,stale ,bread #a slice ,orange ,juice #d tablespoonfuls ,lunch3 #aa ,a4,m4 ,milk #a cupful ,stale ,bread #a slice ,butter #a teaspoonful ,dinner3 #a ,p4,m4 ,baked ,potato #a ,boiled ,onion 7,mashed7 #a ,bread and ,butter #a slice ,milk to ,drink #a cupful ,baked ,apple #a ,supper3 #e3cj ,p4,m4 ,boiled ,rice #a cupful ,milk #c_/d cupful ,bread and ,butter #a slice ,fuel ,value1 #acac ,calories2 ,calories derived from protein1 #aia4b4 ,substitutes or ,additions3 ,for ,rolled ,oats or ,rice3 ,other cereals1 such as rolled wheat1 wheaten grits1 farina1 hominy1 and corn-meal4 ,for ,orange ,juice and ,baked ,apple3 ,prune pulp or apple sauce4 ,for ,onions3 ,spinach1 strained peas1 stewed celery1 carrots1 or cauliflower tips4 ,an egg may be added every day1 and should be included at least two or three times a week4 ,these changes will alter the cost somewhat4 ,child #d-h ,years ,old ,breakfast3 ,oatmeal #a #a_/b ounces dry cereal ,top ,milk #d ounces ,stewed ,prunes #d or #e ,toast #a slice ,milk to ,drink #f ounces ,dinner3 ,pea ,soup #a cupful ,croutons #a slice bread ,boiled ,onions #b small ,baked ,potato #a large ,molasses ,cookies #b ,supper3 ,cream ,toast #b slices bread ,rice ,pudding with ,milk and ,sugar #a cupful ,milk to ,drink #e ounces ,fuel ,value1 #ahib ,calories2 ,calories derived from protein1 #bfa4f4 ,substitutes or ,additions3 ,for ,rolled ,oats3 ,other cereals1 as suggested on previous page4 ,for ,onions and ,peas3 ,strained dried beans2 other vegetables carefully cooked2 fresh lettuce4 ,for ,prunes3 ,fresh ripe apples1 baked bananas1 other mild fruits well cooked4 ,for ,rice ,pudding3 ,junkets1 custards1 blanc manges1 bread puddings1 and other very simple desserts4 ,for ,cookies3 ,gingerbread1 sponge cake1 or very plain cookies4 ,child #h-ab ,years ,old ,breakfast3 ,oatmeal ,mush #a #a_/b ounces dry cereal ,top ,milk #f ounces ,stewed ,prunes #f or #g ,toast #b slices ,milk to ,drink #f ounces ,luncheon3 ,pea ,soup #a cupful ,boiled ,onions #b small ,baked ,potato #a large ,bread and ,butter #b slices bread ,molasses ,cookies #c cookies ,dinner3 ,baked ,haddock small serving 7#b ounces7 ,creamed ,hashed ,potato #c_/d cupful ,spinach #a_/b cupful ,bread and ,butter #b slices ,rice ,pudding--,milk and ,sugar #a cupful ,fuel ,value1 #bdbj ,calories2 ,calories derived from protein1 #cde4f4 ,substitutes or ,additions3 ,for ,rolled ,oats3 ,other cereals thoroughly cooked4 ,for ,haddock3 ,rare beefsteak1 roast beef1 or mutton chops2 other fish1 especially white varieties4 ,for ,prunes3 ,any mild ripe fruit uncooked or cooked4 ,for ,onions3 ,string beans1 stewed celery1 beets1 squash4 ,peas or ,spinach3 ,turnips or cauliflower4 ,suggestive ,dietary for ,child who will not ,drink ,milk1 ,age #e ,years 7#a quart milk concealed in the menu47 ,breakfast3 #g ,a4,m4 ,oatmeal #a_/d cup cereal cooked in #a cupful milk ,creamy ,egg on ,toast #a egg yolk with #a_/b slice bread and #a_/d cupful milk ,cocoa #a teaspoonful cocoa and #a_/d cupful milk #aj ,a4,m4 ,zwieback and ,cream #a piece zwieback and #a tablespoonful cream #a3cj ,p4,m4 ,spinach ,soup #d ounces ,baked ,potato with #a potato and #b tablespoonfuls ,cream cream ,bread and ,butter #a slice ,caramel ,junket #a #a_/b cupfuls #e3cj ,p4,m4 ,rice and ,prunes #b tablespoonfuls rice cooked in #a_/b cupful milk1 and #e prunes ,zwieback #a slice ,total ,calories1 #adca2 ,calories from protein1 #bjg4f4 ,,questions ,give at least three reasons why young children should have different food from adults4 ,why are not ready-to-serve cereals suitable staple foods for young children8 ,what are the advantages of using whole grains for children's food8 ,why not serve sugar with breakfast cereals for children8 ,why is not meat a desirable food for most young children8 ,why are fresh vegetables and fruits such necessary foods for children8 ,,lesson ,,clxiii ,,planning ,,and ,,preparing ,,menus ,,for ,,children ,plan ,footnote #aba3 ,see ,footnote #gb4 a day's feeding for a child of five years1 meeting the total energy and the protein requirements4 ,prepare these foods4 ,,lesson ,,clxiv ,,review--,,meal ,,cooking ,,menu ,creamed ,vegetable ,apricot ,dainty ,coffee ,see ,lesson ,,xiv for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson4 ,,lesson ,,clxv ,,home ,,projects ,footnote #abb3 ,see ,lesson ,,ix4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,home ,,work4--,plan a week's diet for a small sister1 brother1 or other child in whom you are interested4 7,follow suggestions given in ,lesson ,,clxii47 ,calculate the total ,calorific value and ,calories derived from protein4 ,does your menu consist of foods which furnish the proper ,calorific value and ,calories derived from protein8 ,,supposed ,,aims3 7#a7 ,if your menus do not conform to the requirements1 to change them so as to meet the requirements of the young child4 7#b7 ,if possible1 to arrange to have your menus prepared and fed to the child1 assisting as much as possible in the preparation of the food and in the feeding of the child4 ,,division ,,seventeen ,,food ,,preservation ,,lesson ,,clxvi ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,preserving ,,food ,,why ,,foods ,,spoil4--,most foods spoil or change readily1--fruits decay1 milk sours1 butter becomes rancid1 and meat putrefies4 ,knowledge concerning the spoiling of foods makes it possible for the housekeeper to preserve foods from one season to another2 it gives her the assurance that her preserved fruit will keep4 ,the decay of foods is due largely to the existence of minute vegetable organisms or microorganisms4 ,these microorganisms are molds1 yeasts1 and bacteria4 ,the molds 7see ,figure #hh7 are visible to the naked eye1 the yeasts 7see ,figure #hf7 and bacteria 7see ,figure #hi7 are microscopic in size4 ,these plants exist everywhere1 and in everything 7except those things in which the organisms have been destroyed and prevented from reentering71--in the air1 in and on foods1 and all over our bodies4 ,like all plants1 these organisms require warmth1 moisture1 and food for their most rapid growth4 ,oxygen is necessary for the growth of some of these plants4 ,many foods constitute nourishment for these organisms4 ,it is because these plants exist in foods and live upon them that changes in foods result4 ,the mold on bread and fruit1 the odor from decaying meat and eggs1 the liquefaction of decayed eggs1 and the gas from fermenting canned fruit are caused by microorganisms existing and growing in these foods4 ,the following experiments show the growth of molds on food and other materials3 ,,experiment #hj3 ,,effect ,,of ,,air1 ,,light1 ,,and ,,drying ,,upon ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,molds4 --,place a piece of bread on a saucer4 ,allow it to remain uncovered1 in a light place1 at room temperature1 for several days4 ,examine4 ,what is the condition 7moist or dry7 of the bread8 ,have molds grown upon the bread8 ,illustration3 ,from ,household ,bacteriology1 by ,buchanan4 ,,figure #hh4--,,some ,,species ,,of ,,molds4 ,,experiment #ha3 ,,effect ,,of ,,moisture ,,and ,,light ,,upon ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,molds4-- ,sprinkle a thick piece of bread with water1 place it on a saucer1 and cover with a jelly glass or any glass dish4 ,leave in a light place at room temperature for several days4 ,examine4 ,is the bread moist or dry8 ,have molds grown upon the bread8 ,from the results of ,experiments #hj and #ha what would you say has caused the molds to grow8 ,what conclusion can you draw from this concerning the growth of molds upon foods in damp and dry places and in damp and dry weather8 ,how should bread be stored in dry weather8 ,in damp weather8 ,give the reason for storing ,dried ,bread ,crumbs as directed in ,lesson ,l4 ,,experiment #hb3 ,,effect ,,of ,,moisture ,,and ,,darkness ,,upon ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,molds4-- ,repeat ,experiment #ha1 except the method of covering4 ,cover with an earthen dish so that the light is excluded4 ,let it remain at room temperature for the same length of time as given in ,experiment #ha4 ,have molds grown8 ,how does the growth compare in quantity with that of ,experiment #ha8 ,,experiment #hc3 ,,effect ,,of ,,moisture ,,and ,,low ,,temperatures ,,upon ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,molds4--,repeat ,experiment #ha1 but place the bread on the lower shelf of the refrigerator4 ,after several days1 examine4 ,have molds grown8 ,how do they compare in quantity with that of ,experiment #ha8 ,what conclusion can you draw from this concerning the temperature at which food liable to mold should be kept8 ,,experiment #hd3 ,,growth ,,of ,,molds ,,upon ,,cut ,,fruit4--,place pieces of apple1 banana1 lemon1 or other fruits on separate saucers and cover each with a glass dish4 ,place some lemon or other fruit juice in a test tube and allow it to stand4 ,after two days examine4 ,have molds grown on all the fruits8 ,do you notice any difference in the quantity of the molds on the different fruits8 ,have molds grown on the fruit juice8 ,,experiment #he3 ,,growth ,,of ,,molds ,,upon ,,whole ,,fruits4--,place whole fruits1 such as apples and lemons1 on saucers and cover with glass4 ,after two days examine4 ,have molds grown upon the whole fruits8 ,if so1 how do the molds compare in quantity to those growing on cut fruit8 ,account for this difference4 ,apply the results of ,experiments #hd and #he to the keeping of fresh fruits4 ,,experiment #hf3 ,,growth ,,of ,,molds ,,on ,,other ,,foods4--,place a piece of cheese and a piece of meat on separate saucers and cover each with a glass dish4 ,after two days examine4 ,have molds grown upon these foods8 ,account for the growth of molds upon these foods when no moisture was added to them4 ,devise a method for keeping cheese free from mold4 ,give the reasons for your method4 ,,experiment #hg3 ,,growth ,,of ,,mold ,,upon ,,wood4--,soak a bit of wood in water for at least #ae minutes4 ,cover it with an earthen dish and let it stand at room temperature for several days4 ,examine4 ,have molds grown upon the wood8 ,what has caused the molds to grow upon the wood8 ,from this give directions for the care of the wooden part of the dasher of an ice cream freezer4 ,draw conclusions concerning the care of pastry and bread boards and butter paddles after scrubbing4 ,draw conclusions concerning the scrubbing1 drying1 and airing of wooden floors4 ,,experiment #hh3 ,,growth ,,of ,,molds ,,upon ,,cloth4--,sprinkle a bit of cloth with water4 ,cover with an earthen dish4 ,let stand a few days at room temperature4 ,examine4 ,have molds 7mildew7 grown upon the cloth8 ,what caused the molds to grow8 ,from this draw a conclusion concerning the care of washed clothes1 wet dish-cloths1 towels1 and wash-cloths4 ,,experiment #hi3 ,,contamination ,,of ,,fresh ,,food ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,moldy ,,food4--,dip a piece of bread in water and place it on a saucer4 ,with a knitting needle1 place bits of mold at several points on the surface of the bread4 ,cover with a glass dish4 ,after several days examine4 ,at what points on the bread have the molds started to grow8 ,what conclusion can you draw from this concerning the placing of moldy food with fresh food8 ,when fruit is falling to the ground1 tell how an orchard should be cared for4 ,explain4 ,the following experiments show the growth of bacteria on food3 ,,experiment #ij3 ,,growth ,,of ,,bacteria4--,into test tubes put one of the following foods3 7#a7 bit of uncooked meat2 7#b7 small quantity of egg2 7#c7 piece of bread2 7#d7 crushed peas or beans2 7#e7 sugar or syrup4 ,add a little water to each tube4 ,set aside in a warm place4 ,after several days1 examine4 ,what change in appearance do you note8 ,what has caused the foods to spoil8 ,,experiment #ia3 ,,effect ,,of ,,boiling ,,on ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,bacteria4--,place a little chopped meat in two test tubes4 ,add lukewarm water to each4 ,boil the contents of one of the tubes for several minutes4 ,set both aside4 ,after #bd hours1 examine4 ,what difference is there in the condition of the meat in each tube8 ,explain this difference4 ,from the result of this ,experiment draw conclusions regarding the boiling of food to prevent spoiling4 ,,experiment #ib3 ,,effect ,,of ,,preservatives ,,on ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,bacteria4--,beat slightly an egg white4 ,add to it #a_/b cupful of water4 ,pour a little of the diluted egg white into four test tubes4 ,to three of the test tubes add one of the following3 7#a7 salt2 7#b7 sugar2 7#c7 vinegar4 ,put all of the tubes in a warm place4 ,after several days1 examine4 ,what is the condition of the egg white in each tube8 ,explain4 ,draw inferences regarding the use of safe preservatives to prevent foods from spoiling4 ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,preserving ,,food4--,food may be preserved by opposing the growth of microorganisms or by destroying them4 ,low temperatures1 certain preservatives1 and drying destroy microorganisms or retard their growth4 ,illustration3 ,from ,household ,bacteriology1 by ,buchanan ,,figure #hi4-,,the ,,four ,,types ,,of ,,bacteria4 ,a1 cocci2 ,b1 bacilli2 ,c1 spirilla2 ,d1 branched filamentous organism4 ,drying is effective in preserving such foods as fruits1 certain vegetables1 fish1 and meats4 ,the drying of fruit and vegetables may be done in the home4 ,this process of food preservation is often advisable when there is an excessive supply of fruit or vegetables in the orchard or garden4 ,substances known as preservatives are used in food preservation4 ,some of these are harmless1 as sugar1 salt1 vinegar1 and spices4 ,others are harmful1 as formaldehyde1 boric1 salicylic1 benzoic1 and sulphurous acids1 with their related compounds4 ,saltpeter and smoke are also preservatives4 ,there is some doubt concerning the harmlessness of these latter preserving agents4 ,foods preserved with harmful materials should never be used4 ,good food materials can be preserved without the use of harmful preservatives4 ,the destruction of microorganisms by heat is the basic principle of preserving much food1 especially fruit and vegetables4 ,in order to preserve fruits it is necessary to process them1 i4e4 to apply heat in such a way as to insure preservation and secure the maximum of good quality4 ,to do this1 the fruit must be cooked well1 packed in cans which have been boiled1 and sealed to exclude the air from them4 ,it is necessary1 also1 to sterilize all utensils which come in contact with the foods in the processes of cooking and sealing4 ,if canned fruits do not keep1 some microorganisms either in the fruit1 on the can1 or on the utensils used in canning1 have not been destroyed1 or the can has not been securely sealed4 ,slight flaws in the can or rubbers which were not detected at the time of sealing may cause the spoiling of carefully canned fruit4 ,in the preservation of fruit1 every effort should be made to secure sound fruit1 perfect jars1 and good rubbers1 and to have the fruit and utensils perfectly processed1 and the jars securely sealed4 ,failure to accomplish these ends may result in much loss of materials and time4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,spoilage4--,as mentioned previously1 canned foods spoil either from imperfect processing or sealing4 ,different organisms growing in preserved foods cause different kinds of spoilage4 ,a discussion ,footnote #abc3 ,adapted from ,journal of ,home ,economics1 ,vol4 ,x 7,july1 #aiah71 pp4 #cbi- #cca1 ,a ,consideration of the ,canning ,problem1 by ,elizabeth ,f4 ,genung4 of the various kinds of spoilage follows3 7a7 ,,fermentation ,,or ,,swell4--,when canned foods spoil with a production of gas1 fermentation of the food is taking place4 ,the visible indications of such spoilage are gas bubbles in the jar and a bulging of the lid of a jar or a distending of the top and bottom of a can4 ,because of the latter condition1 the term swell is used in the commercial canning industry to designate this kind of spoilage4 ,when fermentation takes place1 the lid of a jar may become loosened instead of bulged4 ,this type of spoilage is caused by the action either of yeast or of a certain kind of bacterium which thrives best without air4 ,it is usually due to imperfect sterilization4 ,fermentation can usually be detected by the presence of bubbles of gas in the jar and a loosening of the sealed cover4 7b7 ,flat ,sour is a kind of spoilage in which no gas is formed1 but acid is produced1 giving the food a sour taste4 ,in some cases of flat sour1 a milky deposit appears in the bottom of the jar which can be detected if the container is glass4 ,in other cases1 no change in the appearance of the jar and its contents takes place4 ,little is known of the kind of organism producing flat sour4 ,whether or not food thus spoiled is injurious also has not been determined4 ,flat sour is probably due to imperfect sterilization4 7c7 ,,putrefaction4--,when putrefaction takes place1 food decays and disintegrates1 or decay takes place with the production of a gas of a disagreeable odor4 ,this type of spoilage is readily detected4 ,food thus affected is unfit for use4 ,putrefaction is usually caused by imperfect sealing4 ,it may result1 however1 from imperfect sterilization4 7d7 ,,botulism4--,a bacillus termed botulinus sometimes grows on canned foods1 especially those rich in protein or lacking in acid4 ,this organism produces a violent poison in the food4 ,but fortunately1 the poison may be destroyed by boiling the food for ten minutes4 ,hence1 it is advisable to boil canned food at least #cj minutes before using4 ,this should be done even though the food is to be served cold4 ,it may easily be cooled after boiling4 ,when there is the least suspicion that food is spoiled1 it should be discarded4 ,,questions ,explain why boiled milk keeps sweet for a longer time than uncooked milk4 ,why do foods need to be sealed to preserve them8 ,why does cooked meat keep longer than uncooked meat8 ,,lesson ,,clxvii ,,processing ,,with ,,little ,,or ,,no ,,sugar--,,canned ,,fruit ,,jars ,,for ,,canned ,,fruit4--,there are many types of fruit jars4 ,glass jars rather than metal cans should be used for home canning4 ,jars should be constructed so that there is no contact of the fruit with metal1 hence a jar having a glass cover is desirable4 ,a large opening1 simple construction1 ease in cleaning1 and perfect sealing are characteristics of good fruit jars4 ,glass jars should be tested before using3 ,partly fill the jar with water1 adjust the rubber and cover1 seal1 invert the jar4 ,examine carefully for leakage4 ,,rubber ,,rings4--,soft1 elastic rubbers should be chosen4 ,it is poor economy to use old rubbers4 ,rubber after usage becomes hard and inelastic2 it may cause imperfect sealing and hence decay of the fruit4 ,in certain processes of canning1 it is necessary to subject the jars provided with rubber rings and covers to long periods of boiling or to the intense heat of a pressure or steam cooker4 ,when such a method is followed it is especially necessary that rubber rings of good quality be used4 ,to meet this requirement1 the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture advises that rubber rings conform to the following3 #a4 ,inside diameter of #b #a_/d inches 7for the jar of standard size74 #b4 ,width of ring or flange from #a_/d to #ab_/cb of an inch4 #c4 ,thickness of #a_/ab of an inch4 #d4 ,tensile strength sufficient to stretch considerably and return promptly to place without changing the inside diameter4 #e4 ,firm enough so that no crease or break shows after it has been tightly folded4 ,,selection ,,and ,,preparation ,,of ,,fruit ,,for ,,canning4--,select solid1 and not over-ripe1 fruit4 ,it is better to have underripe than over-ripe fruit4 ,fresh fruits--if possible picked on the same day they are to be used--are desirable for canning4 ,most fruits should be washed before using4 ,quinces should be rubbed with a coarse towel before they are washed4 ,berries and small fruits should be washed before they are hulled or stemmed4 ,most small fruits contain so much water that it is not necessary to add water for cooking4 ,hence such fruits should be drained thoroughly after washing4 ,if there are any decayed or bruised spots on fruit1 the damaged portion should be removed completely4 ,peaches and tomatoes may be peeled instead of pared4 ,this is done by placing the fruit in a wire basket and then immersing the basket in a kettle of boiling water for #c minutes4 ,remove the basket of fruit from the hot water and plunge it for a moment in cold water4 ,drain1 then peel the fruit4 ,if desired1 cut into halves1 quarters1 or slices4 ,after fruit is peeled or pared1 it can be kept from discoloring by covering with cold water4 ,,methods ,,of ,,canning ,,fruit ,several methods may be used for canning fruit3 7a7 ,,open ,,kettle4--,this method consists of cooking the fruit in water or sirup and pouring it into jars and sealing4 ,the entire process of sterilization takes place in the kettle before the food is poured into the jars4 ,hence the name of the process1--,open ,kettle4 ,for this method it is necessary to boil the jars and rubbers before placing the food in them4 ,this is done as follows3 ,fill and surround jars with cold water4 ,cover lids and rubbers with cold water4 ,gradually heat the water and allow it to boil for at least #ae minutes4 ,allow the jars1 covers1 and rubbers to remain in the boiling water until just ready to use them4 ,do not touch the inside of the jars and covers with your fingers4 ,immerse spoons1 cups1 knives1 skewers1 or knitting needles used for testing fruits1 in boiling water before using them in contact with the foods4 ,if corks are used for sealing bottles1 scald them also4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,merrill ,school ,,figure #ij--;,,canning ,,foods4 ,if small juicy fruits are preserved by the open kettle method1 no water should be added4 ,add the sugar to them and allow them to stand until some of the juice is drawn from them1 then cook4 ,if tough fruits are canned by this method1 first steam1 then cook in sirup1 or first cook them in clear water1 add the sugar1 and finish cooking4 ,fruit may be canned with or without sugar4 ,usually some sugar is used4 ,however1 some housekeepers contend that the fresh-fruit flavor is retained better by reheating the fruit and adding the sugar just before it is served4 ,different quantities of sugar may be used4 ,if the fruit breaks into pieces readily1 cook in a thick sirup4 ,the quantity of water used with the sugar varies with the juiciness of the fruit4 ,for each pound of fruit use from #a_/b to #a cupful of sugar with from #a_/h to #a cupful of water4 ,after cooking the fruit1 adjust the rubber on the sterilized jar1 fill the jar 7to overflowing7 with the hot fruit and sirup1 cover at once1 and seal4 ,invert the can and let it stand until cool4 7b7 ,,cold ,,pack4--,this method is followed by placing the prepared food in a clean1 tested1 hot jar1 covering the food with water or sirup1 adjusting the rubber ring and cover to the jar1 and processing both the jar and its contents in boiling water or steam4 ,before placing the food in the jar1 it may be blanched1 i4e4 subjected to boiling water or steam4 ,after blanching1 the food is cold- dipped1 i4e4 plunged into cold water4 ,after the preliminary steps1 such as washing1 paring1 and cutting into pieces1 foods may be blanched and cold-dipped as follows3 ,place the food in a cheese-cloth bag or in a wire basket and immerse it in boiling water4 ,certain fruits are allowed to remain in the water from #a to #e minutes 7see ,table74 7,the time is dependent upon the kind of fruit47 ,then remove the product from the boiling water1 dip it immediately in cold water1 remove at once1 and drain for a few minutes4 ,these two processes are used for large firm fruits4 ,berries and all soft fruits are canned without blanching and cold-dipping4 ,whether the fruit is blanched and cold-dipped or not1 place it in hot jars to #a_/b inch of the top4 ,if a sirup is desired1 it may be made by using #a_/d to #a cupful of sugar for each quart jar with from #b to #c cupfuls of water4 ,adjust a new1 wet rubber on the jar2 fill the jar to #a_/d inch of the top with sirup or with boiling water4 ,place the cover on the jar1 but do not seal it tightly4 ,if a screw top jar is used1 screw on the lid by grasping it with the thumb and little finger4 ,if the jar has a bail top1 adjust the top bail only1--not the lower bail4 ,then process the jars and their contents by placing in3 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ia4--,,rack ,,for ,,holding ,,jars4 ,note that the rack is shaped to fit a wash boiler4 7#a7 ,kettle or clothes boiler provided with a rack 7see ,figure #ia7 or some sort of false bottom such as strips of wood1 straw1 paper1 or wire-netting of one half inch mesh4 7#b7 ,steam cooker 7see ,figure #ah74 7#c7 ,pressure cooker 7see ,figure #ag74 ,if the kettle or wash boiler is used1 rest the jars on the rack in the container1 fill the latter with enough hot water so that it extends to a depth of one inch above the covers of the jars4 ,then boil the water4 ,count the time of processing when the water begins to boil4 ,keep the water at boiling temperature for the length of time given in the ,table below4 ,if the steam cooker is used1 place the filled jars in the cooker and steam for a few minutes longer than when the jar is immersed in boiling water 7see ,table below74 ,if the pressure cooker is used1 process according to the length of time stated in the ,table given below4 ,after sterilizing fruit by any of these methods1 remove the jars from the container1 seal1 invert1 and set them aside to cool in a place free from draft4 ,when cool1 wash the outside of the jars1 and label4 ,store in a cool1 dark cupboard4 ,wrapping each jar in paper before storing is advised4 ,bail top jars may be tested for perfect sealing by loosening the top bail1 and lifting the jar by grasping its lid with the fingers4 ,if the jar is securely sealed1 the lid will not come off1 because of internal suction4 ,in case the lid comes off1 remove the rubber1 replace it with a new1 wet one1 adjust the cover and again process for at least #a_/c of the original processing period or not less than #aj minutes4 ,a ,,discussion ,,of ,,methods ,,of ,,canning4--7a7 ,while the open kettle is not as safe a method of canning as the cold pack from the standpoint of perfect processing1 it is desirable for small watery fruits1 especially strawberries1 since evaporation of some of the water takes place4 ,it is also generally used for fruits preserved with much sugar1 such as preserves1 jams1 conserves1 etc4 ,many housekeepers find this method desirable for canning tomatoes and beets4 ,the skins may be removed from the latter after cooking1 thereby losing less coloring of the vegetable4 7b7 ,the cold pack method of canning is very satisfactory for most fruits and all vegetables4 ,it is especially desirable for whole fruits or for fruits in large pieces4 ,the shape of the fruit may be preserved better by this method than by the open kettle process4 ,it is also a safer method as far as satisfactory processing is concerned4 ,many housekeepers find it easier than the open kettle method4 ,the blanching and cold-dipping of vegetables and fruits which may be one of the steps in the cold pack method is thought to accomplish several things3 #a4 ,to remove objectionable acids and flavors4 #b4 ,to make the foods more pliable for packing in the jars4 ,it was formerly thought that blanching and cold-dipping of vegetables destroyed some of the bacteria and aided in processing the food4 ,recent experimentation shows that these processes do not affect the bacteria and have no value as far as the preservation of the food is concerned4 ,,table ,,for ,,canning ,,fruits ,,by ,,one ,,period ,,of ,,processing ,footnote #abd3 ,adapted from ,farmers' ,bulletin #abaa1 ,home ,canning of ,fruits and ,vegetables1 ,revised ,august1 #aibb4 ,,time ,,of ,,processing ,,in ,,pint ,,or ,,food ,,time ,,of ,,quart ,,jars ,,in3 ,,blanching 7a7 7b7 ,water ,bath at ,pressure #ab degrees ,f4 or ,steam ,cooker #e ,pounds ,cooker ,minutes ,minutes ,minutes ,apples1 cut in pieces #a #a_/b #bj to #cj ,apricots #a to #b #cj #aj ,blackberries1 ,blueberries ,none #aj to #bj #aj ,cherries #a_/d #be #aj ,currants1 ,dewberries1 ,gooseberries ,none #aj to #bj #aj ,pears #d-h in boiling sirup #bj to #cj #aj ,footnote #abe3 ,do not cold dip after blanching in boiling sirup4 ,use the longer time of processing in the water bath for large pears4 ,peaches #a or until skin is loosened #bj to #cj #aj ,plums ,none #bj to #cj #ab ,pineapples ,none #cj #aj ,raspberries ,none #aj to #bj #aj ,rhubarb ,none #bj to #cj #aj to #ae ,strawberries ,none #aj to #bj #aj ,,note4--,use only fresh1 sound fruits for canning4 ,do not begin to count the time of processing in a water bath until the water reaches the boiling point4 ,when different times of processing are given1 as #bj to #cj minutes1 use the longer time for quart glass jars and the shorter for tin cans4 ,for altitudes higher than #ajjj feet1 increase the time of processing #aj per cent for each additional #ajjj feet4 ,for very high altitudes it may be best to use a pressure cooker for certain fruits4 ,if fruits are packed tightly1 time of processing should be increased4 ,,discussion ,,of ,,the ,,different ,,devices ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,cold ,,pack ,,process4--7#a7 ,the kettle or wash boiler provided with a rack is an inexpensive device4 ,it is satisfactory for processing fruits and acid vegetables2 there is a question whether non-acid vegetables may be processed in the hot water bath even though they are processed on three successive days4 ,it is thought by some that the flavor of foods canned at low temperature1 i4e4 not above #bab degrees ,f41 is superior to that canned at a higher temperature4 7#b7 ,the steam cooker is a convenient and satisfactory equipment to use for canning fruits and some vegetables4 ,it is more expensive1 however1 than the kettle having a rack1 but less fuel is required when using it4 7#c7 ,the pressure cooker is the most satisfactory from the standpoint of processing4 ,it is especially satisfactory for vegetables and meat1 since a much higher temperature than that of boiling water is maintained during the processing period4 ,the higher temperature also makes it possible to process foods in a shorter time4 ,however1 it is thought by some that the flavor of foods canned above #bab degrees ,f4 is inferior to that canned at a lower temperature4 ,moreover1 the pressure cooker is a more expensive device than either of the other two4 ,,questions ,why should processed jars1 covers1 and rubbers remain in boiling water until just ready for use8 ,why not touch the inside of jars and covers with the fingers8 ,why should berries and small fruits be washed before hulling or stemming8 ,why should decayed or bruised spots on fruits be removed completely before canning the fruit8 ,why is it that the cold pack method of canning is safer from the standpoint of processing than the open kettle method8 ,why should the jar containing fruit that is to be processed by the cold pack method be filled to #a_/d inch of the top with sirup rather than to overflowing8 ,why should the covers of jars not be sealed tightly before placing in the kettle or steamer used for processing8 ,why is it unnecessary and undesirable to dislodge air bubbles in jars containing food processed by the cold pack process8 ,when food is processed by immersing the jars in boiling water1 why should the water extend above the covers of the jars to a depth of one inch8 ,,lesson ,,clxviii ,,processing ,,with ,,much ,,sugar--,,preserves1 ,,jams1 ,,and ,,conserves ,,experiment #ic3 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,sugar ,,as ,a ,,preservative4--,place #b thin slices of fresh fruit in a sauce dish4 ,sprinkle one of the slices generously with sugar4 ,set the sauce dish aside for at least #bd hours4 ,examine4 ,what change has taken place in the fruit without sugar8 ,what has caused the change8 ,compare the sugared fruit with that without sugar4 ,what conclusion can be drawn concerning the use of sugar in preserving fruit8 ,,preserves ,sugar was mentioned as one of the preservatives used in the preservation of food 7see ,the ,principles of ,preserving ,food74 ,sugar in large quantity is unfavorable to germ life and hence is a most effective preservative4 ,preserves are made by cooking fruit in a thick sirup as in the ,method of ,canning 7a7 ,open ,kettle4 ,a large quantity of sugar is desirable as far as preservation is concerned2 but for flavor less sugar is usually to be preferred4 ,only a few fruits are better when preserved with considerable sugar4 ,fruits best adapted for preserving are strawberries1 sour cherries1 sour plums1 quinces1 currants1 and raspberries4 ,for preserves1 use #c_/d to #a pound of sugar for #a pound of fruit4 ,the less quantity of sugar should be used for peaches1 plums1 quinces1 currants1 and raspberries2 the greater quantity1 for strawberries and cherries4 ,use the quantity of water given in ,method of ,canning 7a7 ,open ,kettle4 ,cook and seal as canned fruit4 ,,jams ,jam is made as follows3 ,clean the fruit4 ,if large fruits are used1 pare or peel them and cut into small pieces4 ,if small fruits1--berries or grapes1 --are used1 mash them4 ,cook the fruit in as little water as possible4 ,when the fruit is soft1 measure it and add the sugar1--use #c_/d to #a part of sugar to #a part of cooked fruit4 ,cook until thick1 stirring to prevent burning4 ,test the thickness by dropping from a spoon4 ,if it falls in heavy drops1 the jam is sufficiently cooked4 ,pour into sterilized jelly glasses4 ,cover the glasses with clean cloth or paper and set aside to cool and stiffen4 ,melt paraffin4 ,pour it 7hot7 over the cold jam4 ,allow the paraffin to harden and then cover the glasses with the lids4 ,wipe the outside of the glasses1 label1 and store4 ,fruit that is too soft or too ripe for canning or preserving may be used for making jam4 ,,marmalades ,marmalades are made much as jams4 ,however1 usually only the pulp and juices of fruits are used4 ,the fruit is first cooked1 and the skins and seeds removed before adding the sugar4 ,in ,orange ,marmalade1 the rind is used4 ,,conserves ,conserves consist of a combination of two or more fruits4 ,nuts and other materials are sometimes added4 ,conserves may be prepared as preserves1 i4e4 cooking the ingredients with sugar1 until thick2 or as jam1 i4e4 cooking the ingredients until tender1 then adding the sugar and cooking until thick4 ,it is thought by some that the latter method produces a finer flavor2 it makes a product less tough and less sticky4 ,in the special recipes for conserves given in this text1 the latter method is followed4 ,,orange ,,marmalade 7,i7 #a dozen oranges #a grapefruit #f lemons ,sugar ,weigh the fruit1 slice it4 ,to each pound of fruit add #a quart of cold water4 ,let the mixture stand for #bd hours4 ,then cook slowly for #b hours4 ,weigh the cooked fruit4 ,add an equal weight of sugar4 ,cook for #a hour or until it stiffens4 ,pour into sterilized jelly glasses1 seal1 and cover as directed for ,jams4 ,,orange ,,marmalade 7,,ii7 #a dozen oranges #c pounds sugar #b quarts rhubarb ,rind of #f oranges ,wash the fruit4 ,slice the oranges and cut the rhubarb into pieces4 7,do not peel the rhubarb47 ,cook the oranges and rhubarb for #cj minutes4 ,add the sugar and cook slowly for #b hours or until thick4 ,pour into sterilized glasses4 ,when cool1 seal and cover as directed for ,jams4 ,,carrot ,,marmalade #a pound carrots #c cupfuls sugar #b lemons #a_/b teaspoonful salt ,wash1 scrape1 and chop the carrots4 ,extract the juice from the lemons4 ,put the carrots and lemon rinds through a food chopper1 cover them with water1 and cook until tender4 ,add the lemon juice1 salt1 and sugar to the cooked mixture4 ,cook until it is thickened4 ,turn into sterilized jelly glasses4 ,let stand until cool4 ,then cover with melted paraffin4 ,,strawberry ,,and ,,pineapple ,,conserve ,use equal quantities of strawberries and shredded pineapple4 ,cook the shredded pineapple in the least possible quantity of water4 ,when tender1 add the strawberries and cook until they are soft4 ,measure the fruit and add three fourths as much sugar as fruit and a small quantity of salt4 ,cook until thick 7see ,jams74 ,pour into sterilized glasses4 ,seal and cover as directed for ,jams4 ,,cranberry ,,conserve #a quart cranberries #a #a_/b cupfuls water #a_/d pound raisins #a_/b pound ,california walnuts1 chopped #a orange1--juice and grated rind #a #a_/b pounds sugar #a_/b teaspoonful salt ,wash the fruit4 ,cook the cranberries in the water until the berries burst4 ,strain4 ,add the remaining ingredients and cook #be minutes or until the mixture is thick 7see ,jams74 ,pour into sterilized glasses4 ,when cool1 seal and cover as directed for ,jams4 ,,grape ,,conserve #a_/b peck grapes #b oranges1--juice and rind #b lemons1--juice and rind #a cupful chopped nuts ,sugar #a_/b teaspoonful salt ,wash the fruit4 ,remove the grapes from the stems2 remove the skins from the pulp4 ,cook the pulp until soft2 strain1 to remove the seeds4 ,place the strained pulp and skins in a preserving kettle4 ,extract the juice from the oranges and lemons1 then put the rinds through a food-chopper4 ,add the lemon and orange juice and rind to the grape mixture and cook for #a hour4 ,measure the mixture4 ,then add an equal quantity of sugar and the nuts and salt4 ,continue cooking until thick 7see ,jams74 ,pour into sterilized glasses4 ,when cool1 seal and cover as directed for ,jams4 ,,apricot ,,conserve #a pound dried apricots #a #a_/b quarts water ,sugar #b pineapples or #a large can shredded pineapple #a_/b teaspoonful salt ,wash the dried apricots and soak them in the water4 ,in the water in which they were soaked1 cook the apricots until tender4 ,press through a colander4 ,if fresh pineapples are used1 shred them and cook1 in as little water as possible1 until tender4 ,combine the cooked fruits and measure4 ,add #a_/b as much sugar and the salt4 ,cook until thick 7see ,jams74 ,pour into sterilized glasses4 ,when cool1 seal and cover as directed for ,jams4 ,,plum ,,conserve #a pound 7#a #a_/b dozen7 plums #a_/d cupful chopped nuts #a cupful seeded raisins #b oranges #a cupful water #a #a_/d cupfuls sugar #a_/b teaspoonful salt ,wash the plums1 stone1 and cut into pieces4 ,extract the juice from the oranges4 ,put the rind through a food chopper4 ,mix the plums1 raisins1 orange rind1 and water4 ,simmer until the fruits and peel are tender4 ,add the orange juice1 sugar1 nuts1 and salt1 and continue cooking until the mixture has the consistency of marmalade4 ,pour into sterilized glasses4 ,when cool1 seal and cover as directed for ,jams4 ,,questions ,how do ,preserves differ from ,canned ,fruit8 ,how does ,jam differ from ,preserves8 ,how does ,jam differ from ,fruit ,sauce8 ,why does ,jam keep better than ,fruit ,sauce8 ,give method of sealing ,canned ,fruit and method of sealing ,jam4 ,explain why different methods are used4 ,,lesson ,,clxix ,,processing ,,with ,,much ,,sugar--,,jellies ,,experiment #id3 ,,pectin ,,in ,,fruit ,,juice4--,put a few grapes1 slices of apple1 or cranberries in a small saucepan1 and add enough water to cover and cook until the fruit is tender and soft enough to mash4 ,strain the cooked fruit through cheese-cloth4 ,put #a teaspoonful of the extracted fruit juice in a saucer1 add an equal quantity of alcohol4 ,footnote #abf3 ,either grain 7ethyl71 wood 7methyl71 or denatured alcohol may be used4 ,both wood and denatured alcohol are poisonous4 ,if they are used for testing1 they should be handled and stored away with caution4 ,mix by gently rotating the saucer4 ,let the mixture stand for #e minutes4 ,then examine4 ,what change has taken place in the fruit juice8 ,the formation of a solid mass in the mixture of fruit juice and alcohol which has stood for #e minutes indicates that the fruit juice contains pectin1--a vegetable gelatine4 ,,experiment #ie3 ,,pectin ,,in ,,the ,,inner ,,portion ,,of ,,orange ,,or ,,lemon ,,peel4--,cut away the yellow portion from orange or lemon rind4 ,cut or chop the white portion of the rind in small pieces4 ,cover with water and soak several hours or overnight4 ,then cook slowly for #a_/b hour4 ,strain and set aside to cool4 ,to #a teaspoonful of this liquid add an equal quantity of alcohol1 and proceed as in ,experiment #id4 ,does the lemon or orange rind contain pectin8 ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,jelly ,,making4--,when the juices of certain fruits are extracted and cooked with sugar1 the mixture stiffens when cool4 ,this property of stiffening is due to the presence in fruit of two materials1-- a certain carbohydrate1 called pectin1 and an acid4 ,pectin is like starch in that it stiffens when cold2 but like sugar1 in that it is soluble4 ,not all fruits contain pectin4 ,jelly is most easily prepared from fruits which are rich in pectin and contain some acid4 ,unless pectin is contained in the fruit1 the addition of sugar to fruit juice will not cause the juice to jelly4 ,but jelly may be made from a fruit lacking in pectin1 if it is combined with a fruit rich in pectin4 ,certain fruits contain pectin1 but are lacking in acid1 hence are not good for jelly making4 ,these fruits can be used for jelly1 however1 if acid is added4 ,,selection ,,of ,,fruits ,,for ,,jelly ,,making4--,for jelly making1 choose fruits which contain considerable pectin and some acid4 ,the fruits should be fresh and not over-ripe4 ,some green fruits make fine jelly4 ,currant1 crabapple1 grape1 apple1 and plum are good jelly-making fruits4 ,if it is desirable to use a fruit containing little pectin1 as strawberries1 add a fruit rich in pectin1 as currants4 ,if about #aj per cent of the fruit which contain much pectin is added to the other fruit1 the flavor of the foundation fruit is not much altered4 ,if it is desired to use a fruit containing pectin but deficient in acid1 as sweet apple and quince1 add tartaric or citric acid4 ,since the acidity of fruits varies1 no definite quantity of acid can be stated4 ,it has been suggested ,footnote #abg3 ,see ,university of ,illinois ,bulletin1 ,principles of ,jelly ,making1 p4 #bdi4 that enough acid should be added to make the fruit juice about as acid to taste as good tart apples4 ,at least one teaspoonful of acid is required for one quart of fruit juice4 ,dissolve the acid in the fruit juice1 then taste the mixture4 ,if necessary1 add more acid to produce the acidity indicated above4 ,jelly may be prepared from strawberries1 peaches1 and pears by the addition of these acids1 but the flavor is somewhat impaired4 ,the suggestion has been made also ,footnote #abh3 ,idem1 p4 #be4 that the inner white portion of lemon or orange peel be used as a source of pectin with fruit deficient in pectin4 ,remove the yellow portion of the rind1 put the white portion through a food chopper1 and soak in water for several hours or overnight4 ,then cook slowly for several hours4 ,strain out the solid portion4 ,add the liquid to the fruit juice deficient in pectin and use for jelly making4 ,the rind of lemons and oranges may be dried for use in jelly making4 ,when desired for use1 soak and cook as directed above4 ,,general ,,method ,,of ,,jelly ,,making ,wash and pick over the fruit2 remove the stems1 but use the skin and seeds and thus retain as much of the fruit as possible4 ,the skin of fruit usually adds color to jelly4 ,if large fruit is used1 cut it in pieces4 ,cook the fruit slowly in water4 ,use very little water for juicy fruits1 such as currants and raspberries1--#a cupful of water to #d or #e quarts of fruit4 ,crush the fruits during cooking4 ,to cook large fruits requires water4 ,a general proportion is half as much water1 by measure1 as prepared fruit4 ,a little less water may be used for peaches and plums and a little more for winter apples4 ,a fair estimate is #c quarts of strained juice from #h quarts of fruit and #d quarts of water4 ,if the quantity of juice is greater than this1 it should be boiled down to #c quarts before adding the sugar4 ,when the fruit is cooked until it is very soft1 it is ready for straining4 ,for straining1 make a bag of double cheesecloth or flannel4 ,wring the jelly bag out of hot water and suspend it from a strong support4 ,pour the cooked fruit into the bag and let the juice drip into a bowl4 ,if transparent jelly is desired1 do not press the juice through the bag2 let the juice drip for several hours or overnight4 ,measure the clear fruit juice and heat it4 ,the time of cooking depends upon the per cent of pectin and the acidity of the juice2 the more pectin and acid1 the less the time of cooking4 ,the time varies from #h to #cj minutes4 ,skim the juice when necessary4 ,while the juice is cooking1 measure three fourths as much sugar ,footnote #abi3 ,the quantity of sugar used in jelly making depends upon the quantity of pectin in fruit juice1--the more pectin1 the more sugar4 ,a most satisfactory method of determining the quantity of pectin and consequently the quantity of sugar to use with fruit juice is suggested by the ,bulletin of the ,national ,war ,garden ,commission4 ,the test follows3 ,to a tablespoonful of fruit juice which has been boiled and cooled1 add #a tablespoonful of alcohol 7see footnote #abf474 ,mix by gently rotating and then let stand4 ,if a solid mass forms1 use equal parts of fruit juice and sugar4 ,if #b or #c masses form1 use #b_/c to #c_/d as much sugar as juice4 ,if several small solid particles form1 use #a_/b as much sugar as juice4 ,if no solid particles form1 the fruit juice should be enriched by the addition of some pectin-rich fruit juice4 as fruit juice and heat the sugar4 ,for currants and green or under-ripe grapes1 use equal quantities of sugar and fruit juice4 ,add the hot sugar to the boiling sirup and cook4 ,the following are tests for sufficient cooking of jelly4 7a7 ,coats the spoon4 7b7 ,falls from the spoon in heavy drops4 ,footnote #acj3 ,two drops forming side by side along the edge of the spoon has been found to be a reliable test4 7c7 ,stiffens when dropped on a cold dish and allowed to cool4 ,the first two tests are more satisfactory than the last1 since the cooking process may be carried too far while the test-jelly is cooling4 ,seal as ,jam or shred paraffin and place it in the bottom of sterilized jelly glasses4 ,pour the hot jelly into the glasses and set aside to stiffen4 ,then cover and store4 ,it is well to store jelly in a cool1 dry1 and dark place4 ,the color of fruit sometimes fades when kept in a light place4 ,long cooking of pectin changes it into substances which do not have the property of jellying1 hence1 make jelly in as short a time as possible4 ,the purpose of heating the sugar is to hasten the process of jelly making4 ,the addition of cold sugar would cool the mixture and thus prolong the process4 ,the addition of too much sugar is often the cause of unsuccessful jelly making4 ,crystallization of the sugar from the jelly may result from an excess of sugar4 ,the fruit pulp left in the jelly bag should be utilized4 ,marmalade may be made from it1 or more jelly can be prepared from it4 ,to accomplish the latter1 add water to the fruit pulp 7enough to cover71 mix1 and heat slowly until the boiling point is reached4 ,strain and prepare jelly from the juice4 ,however1 more cooking of the juice before the sugar is added is required for the second extraction1 since the juice contains so much water4 ,the juice extracted for a third time from most fruits will contain enough pectin for jelly making4 ,it has been found that more desirable jelly can be obtained by this method than by pressing the juice from the bag and thus obtaining what is termed second quality jelly4 ,,fruit ,,juices ,,without ,,sugar4--,extract the juice from fruit as directed in ,general ,method of ,jelly ,making4 ,do not add sugar to the juice4 ,can it as directed in 7a7 or 7b74 7a7 ,reheat until the boiling temperature is reached1 then pour into sterilized jars4 ,fill to overflowing and seal4 7b7 ,place the juice in sterilized jars4 ,partially seal and place in a water bath having the water reach the neck of the jar4 ,let it cook at a simmering temperature from #bj to #cj minutes4 ,remove from the water bath1 and seal securely4 ,in the winter time or when desired for use1 this fruit juice may be made into jelly as directed in ,general ,method of ,jelly ,making1 or it may be sweetened1 diluted if necessary1 and used as a beverage4 ,this method of preserving fruit juice is especially desirable when there is a scarcity of sugar4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ib--,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,fruits ,,and ,,fruit ,,products4 7,revised edition47 ,,questions ,note the difference in the quantity of carbohydrates in ,canned ,fruit and ,fruit ,jelly 7see ,figure #ib74 ,what kind of carbohydrate is present in greatest quantity in these foods8 ,to what is the difference in flavor of ,canned ,fruit and ,fruit ,jelly largely due8 ,what is the chief difference in the processes of jam making and jelly making8 ,what is the result if too much sugar is used in jelly making8 ,what is the result if jelly is cooked too long8 ,note the difference in the methods of sealing jams and jellies4 ,explain4 ,,lesson ,,clxx ,,processing ,,with ,,vinegar ,,and ,,spices--,,relishes ,,spices ,,and ,,vinegar ,,are ,,preservatives ,,of ,,foods4 ,not all spices1 however1 have equal preservative power4 ,it has been found that cinnamon and cloves aid in food preservation1 but that pepper and ginger have very little1 if any1 preservative power4 ,in the lesson on ,flavoring ,materials3 ,food ,adjuncts1 it was mentioned that spices and condiments should be used sparingly in the diet1 hence spiced fruits and pickles should have only occasional use4 ,there is no doubt that lemon juice or other tart fruit juices are better sources of acid-satisfying materials than vinegar4 ,,spiced ,,pears #a_/b peck pears #c pounds sugar #a pint vinegar #a_/b ounce ginger root ,rind of #a_/b lemon ,whole allspice ,stick cinnamon ,whole cloves ,cut the pears in halves1 remove the seeds1 and pare4 ,into each piece of pear stick two or three cloves4 ,make a sirup of the vinegar and sugar4 ,divide the cinnamon1 allspice1 and ginger into two parts1 tie in cheese- cloth bags1 and add to the sirup4 ,when the sirup begins to simmer1 add the pears and lemon rind2 bring to the boiling point1 remove from the fire1 and turn into a stone jar4 ,cover and stand in a cool place overnight4 ,next day bring the mixture to the boiling point1 again place in the stone jar and stand overnight4 ,the following day heat as before4 ,do this for five consecutive days4 ,the last day1 remove the fruit from the sirup1 heat the sirup and evaporate it until there is just enough to cover the fruit4 ,add the fruit to the hot sirup1 heat to the boiling point1 then put in stone or glass jars or tumblers4 ,the pears may be finished in one day as follows3 ,cook the fruit until tender1 then remove it1 evaporate the sirup1 add the fruit1 reheat again1 and finish as above4 ,fruit prepared by the first method has a finer flavor4 ,,tomato ,,catsup #ab ripe tomatoes #b large onions #b green peppers #b tablespoonfuls salt #d tablespoonfuls brown sugar #b tablespoonfuls ginger #a tablespoonful cinnamon #a tablespoonful mustard #a nutmeg grated #a pint vinegar ,peel the tomatoes and onions4 ,chop the onions and peppers fine4 ,cook all the ingredients together for #c hours1 or until soft and broken4 ,stir frequently4 ,bottle and seal while hot4 ,the mixture may be strained before bottling4 ,,celery ,,sauce #bj large ripe tomatoes #f large onions #d large stalks celery #c_/d cupful sugar #a large red pepper #d tablespoonfuls salt #b cupfuls vinegar ,chop the vegetables1 add the salt and vinegar1 and cook for #b hours4 ,then add the sugar4 ,allow it to reach the boiling point again4 ,turn into sterilized bottles or jars1 and seal4 ,,oil ,,pickles #b dozen small cucumbers #b dozen small onions #a_/b cupful olive oil #a_/d cupful sugar #a pint vinegar #a_/c cupful salt #a_/d cupful mustard seed #a pint vinegar #a teaspoonful celery seed ,scrub the cucumbers4 ,cut them 7without paring7 into thin slices4 ,wash and cut the onions into thin slices4 ,mix the salt with these vegetables 7to extract moisture71 and let the mixture stand over night4 ,then drain the moisture from the vegetables so that the vinegar may not be diluted4 ,mix the remaining ingredients4 ,pour the mixture over the onions and cucumbers4 ,mix well1 cover1 and set aside for a few hours4 ,then pour into sterilized jars4 ,fill the jar with liquid4 7,if necessary1 more vinegar may be used47 ,to drive out the air1 place the jars 7with covers loosely adjusted7 in a water bath at simmering temperature 7#ahj degrees ,f47 and heat at this temperature for #ae minutes4 ,remove from the water bath and seal4 ,,to ,,seal ,,bottles4--,melt together1 over hot water1 equal parts of shoemaker's wax and resin4 ,when liquefied1 dip the tops of corked bottles into it4 ,corks in bottles may be dipped also in hot paraffin4 ,dip several times4 ,,questions ,what is the objection to excessive use of spiced foods8 ,name some substitutes for pickles4 ,why is an excessive or continuous use of pickles objectionable in diet8 ,,lesson ,,clxxi ,,canned ,,vegetables ,,microorganisms ,,in ,,the ,,spore ,,form4--,many microorganisms are destroyed by heating them for a few minutes to boiling temperature4 ,however1 some microorganisms have a peculiar power of retaining life under most adverse conditions4 ,when subjected to extreme heat or cold1 intense drying1 or when there is lack of food1 certain microorganisms assume a spore form1 i4e4 they cease growing and reproducing1 and are able to undergo conditions which would readily kill microorganisms in the active form4 ,some microorganisms in the spore form are able to resist the temperature of boiling water for an hour or longer4 ,then as soon as the adverse conditions mentioned above are removed1 the microorganisms assume active form and begin to grow and reproduce4 ,in the growing state1 their destruction is not so difficult4 ,some of the microorganisms in certain foods1 especially vegetables and fruits grown in a dry season1 are capable of spore formation4 ,when microorganisms in spore form do exist in foods that are to be canned1 or the microorganisms change into spore form during the canning process1 the microorganisms may not be destroyed by the time the ordinary process of canning is completed4 ,if such is the case1 when the canned foods are cooled and the conditions are favorable for growth1 the microorganisms assume active form1 begin to grow1 and cause the decomposition of food4 ,twenty-four hours is sufficient time for the microorganisms to change from the spore to the active form4 ,hence the canned foods must be heated again1 if they are to be preserved4 ,for foods difficult to process 7for the reason given above7 processing should be carried on for three successive days4 ,this is called intermittent processing4 ,destruction of microorganisms in the spore form can be accomplished in a short time by subjecting them to very intense heat4 ,in canning factories this is done by processing at a temperature higher than that of boiling water4 ,in the home this may be accomplished by processing in the pressure cooker4 ,according to one authority processing intermittently1 i4e4 on three successive days1 does not insure satisfactory processing of materials containing spores4 ,,single ,,period ,,and ,,intermittent ,,processing4--,the acid of tomatoes and fruits aids in the destruction of microorganisms4 ,hence intermittent processing is unnecessary for these4 ,processing tomatoes and fruits in a hot water bath for one period has proved very satisfactory and certain4 ,there is some question1 however1 regarding the safety of canning all vegetables by one period of processing in the water bath at #bab degrees ,f41 especially in regions where botulism is known to occur and where ,foods cannot be stored in a cool place4 ,in ,farmers' ,bulletin #abaa1 ,home ,canning of ,fruits and ,vegetables1 revised ,august1 #aibb1 one period of processing in the water bath at #bab degrees ,f4 is not advised in climates where the storage conditions are trying for the following vegetables3 corn1 beans1 asparagus1 okra1 spinach and other greens1 and peas 7especially if at all mature74 ,for processing these vegetables1 a higher temperature than that obtained in the boiling water bath is recommended4 ,processing at a high temperature 7from #bbh degrees ,f4 to #bej degrees ,f47 can be accomplished conveniently by means of a pressure cooker4 ,this is especially recommended for vegetable canning in high altitudes and in localities where botulism has occurred4 ,it is thought that in some places the above mentioned vegetables may be processed intermittently with safety4 ,for vegetables difficult to can1 pint jars only are recommended for both intermittent and single period processing in the water bath4 ,heat penetrates more rapidly to the center of the small jars than to the center of the large jars4 ,,selection ,,and ,,preparation ,,of ,,vegetables ,,and ,,canning4--,young vegetables1 especially those that have grown quickly1 are most desirable for canning4 ,if possible1 vegetables1 especially corn1 should be canned immediately after picking4 ,vegetables for canning should be thoroughly washed1 pared1 scraped1 or cut into pieces in the same manner as when they are cooked and served immediately4 ,if the vegetables vary in size1 it is well to sort them and fill jars with those of uniform size4 ,if there is much difference in ripeness1 sort the mature and young vegetables4 ,,method ,,of ,,canning ,,vegetables4--,the method of canning vegetables for a single period does not differ greatly from the method of canning fruits4 ,the chief difference is that jars containing fruit are filled with sirup1 while those holding vegetables are filled with water and salt is added4 ,blanch and cold-dip vegetables as directed previously1 for the length of time given4 ,greens and vegetables of delicate flavor are blanched most successfully by steaming either in a colander placed over boiling water or in a steamer4 7,steaming greens prevents the escape of volatile oils and other materials47 ,pack the vegetables in jars to within #a_/b inch of the top4 ,it is well not to pack spinach and other greens too solidly in jars4 ,since lima beans1 corn1 and peas swell during processing1 they should be packed only to about #a inch of the top of the jar4 ,to each jar add salt1--#a teaspoonful to each quart jar4 ,fill each jar to #a_/b inch of the top with boiling water4 ,put a new rubber on the jar1 partly seal the cover1 and proceed as directed for fruit 7see ,table below for the length of time for processing74 ,when vegetables are processed intermittently1 jars with glass tops and spring clamps are recommended4 ,in processing vegetables for three successive periods1 the same method of processing and sealing is followed as for the single period4 ,at the beginning of the second and third periods1 raise the clamps of the jars to allow for expansion1 then fasten the clamps at the close of processing period 7see ,table for the length of time of processing on each of the three successive days74 ,,food ,,preservation ,,table ,,for ,,canning ,,fresh1 ,,sound1 ,,and ,,firm ,,vegetables ,,by ,,one ,,period ,,of ,,processing ,footnote #aca3 ,adapted from ,farmers' ,bulletin #abaa4 ,revised ,august1 #aibb4 ,,time ,,of ,,processing ,,time ,,of ,,vegetable ,,blanching ,,or 7a7 7b7 ,steam ,pressure ,water 7,pressure ,cooker7 ,,cooking ,bath at 7#a7 #elb 7#b7 #ajlb 7#c7 #aelb #bab deg4 ,f4 #bbh deg4 ,f4 #bdj deg4 ,f4 #bej deg4 ,f4 ,minutes ,hours ,minutes ,minutes ,minutes ,asparagus #d - - #cj to #dj ,corn #a to #e - - #ij #fj to #ij ,lima beans #c to #e - - #de to #fj ,okra #f to #h - - #cj ,peas #c to #h - - #dj to #ej ,spinach #d in water or #ae in steam - - #ij #ce ,string beans4 #c to #e - - #dj to #ej ,tomatoes #a to #a #a_/b to loosen skins #a_/b #ae #aj ,footnote for ,asparagus3 ,scrape off tough outer skin of asparagus4 ,tie into bundles for blanching4 ,blanch tough ends #b minutes and entire bundle #b minutes longer4 ,footnote for ,corn3 ,blanch corn on the cob1 then cold dip and cut from the cob4 ,for each pint jar1 use #a pint of cut corn1 #a cupful boiling water1 and #a_/b tea-spoonful each of salt and sugar4 ,cook the mixture in a saucepan until it boils and pour immediately into a hot1 sterilized jar4 ,footnote for ,okra3 ,cold dip okra in salt water 7#a tablespoonful salt to #a quart water74 ,footnote for ,spinach3 ,to loosen grit1 cover spinach with scalding water1 let stand #a or #b minutes4 ,then wash in several cold waters4 ,do not cold dip after blanching4 ,footnote for ,tomatoes3 ,pack tomatoes whole in jars1 then fill the jars with cooked and strained tomato pulp4 ,tomatoes cut into pieces may be packed closely in jars4 ,when this is done1 no liquid need be added4 ,,note4--,processing in the hot water bath is not advised for non-acid vegetables such as asparagus1 corn1 lima beans1 okra1 peas1 spinach1 and string beans4 ,count time of processing in a water bath after the water boils4 ,when two different times of processing are given1 use the longer time for quart glass jars1 the shorter time for tin cans4 ,if the jar is packed tightly1 increase the time of processing4 ,for altitudes higher than #ajjj feet1 increase the time of processing #aj per cent for each additional #ajjj feet4 ,for very high altitudes1 the pressure cooker rather than the hot water bath should be used4 ,,time ,,table ,,for ,,canning ,,vegetables ,,by ,,intermittent ,,processing ,footnote #acb3 ,see statements previously ,,vegetable ,,time ,,of ,,time ,,of ,,processing ,,in ,,water ,,bath ,,blanching ,,at #bab ,f4 #ab ,,to #ah ,,hour ,,intervals ,,between ,,periods 7a7 ,first ,day 7b7 ,second and ,third ,day ,asparagus #aj to #ae #fj #fj ,corn #e to #aj #ij #ij ,lima ,beans #c to #e #ij #ij ,peas #e #ij #ij ,string ,beans #c to #e #ij #ij ,footnote #acc3 7,for ,asparagus1 ,corn1 and ,lima ,beans7 ,process in pint jars only4 ,see footnotes for ,asparagus and ,okra1 above4 ,,use ,,of ,,canned ,,vegetables4--,open the can and if it is tin1 empty its contents at once4 ,if the vegetable is surrounded by liquid1 use the water in cooking the vegetable1 as it contains valuable materials4 ,there are some who contend1 however1 that the flavor of certain vegetables such as peas and string beans is improved if the vegetable water is drained from them and they are cooked in fresh water4 ,if this is done1 the vegetable water should not be wasted4 ,it should be used in making soup or sauce4 ,if possible1 let the vegetable stand exposed to the air for an hour or longer4 ,if the vegetable is to be served plain1 turn into a saucepan4 ,cook in its own liquor at boiling temperature1 for at least #cj minutes4 7,cooking at boiling temperature for this length of time is advised to remove any possible danger of botulism47 ,when cooked1 the liquid should be almost entirely evaporated4 ,add butter1 salt1 and1 if desired1 a very little sugar1 and serve hot4 ,a ,white ,sauce may also be used with a vegetable that has been heated as above4 ,,questions ,explain why vegetables 7except tomatoes7 are more difficult to can successfully than fruits4 ,what foodstuffs does the water in which vegetables are canned contain8 ,from this explain why the water should not be drained from vegetables when removing them from the cans4 ,what is the purpose of cooking canned vegetables at boiling temperature8 ,,lesson ,,clxxii ,,dried ,,vegetables ,,advantages ,,of ,,drying ,,foods4--,while preserving foods by drying does not take the place of canning foods and storing them in jars or cans1 it has certain advantages1 viz43 #a4 ,little storage space is required for dried foods4 #b4 ,dried foods can be stored in containers that cannot be used for canning4 ,when foods are dried1 they may be reduced in bulk as much as #ij per cent2 for example1 #aj pounds of fresh food may be reduced to #a pound of dried food4 ,by this reduction no food value is lost1 and the flavor is not greatly changed4 ,dried foods may be stored in paper bags and boxes which are much less expensive containers than glass jars or tin cans4 ,hence if space is limited and glass or tin containers are difficult to secure or are expensive1 drying may prove a very satisfactory method of preserving food4 ,,methods ,,of ,,drying ,,and ,,driers4--,food may be dried by3 #a4 ,sun4 #b4 ,steam 7placing food on a specially constructed tray 7see ,figure #ic7 which is heated with steam74 #c4 ,stove or oven drying 7placing food above a stove or in the oven74 #d4 ,fan drying 7placing an electric fan near the food74 ,a combination of these methods1 especially the two latter1 is often used in drying foods4 ,plates or dishes may serve as driers when the drying is done in the oven4 ,trays for drying may be constructed at home or they may be purchased4 ,most of them consist of a wood or metal frame over which wire netting is tacked4 ,single trays or a series of trays one placed above the other may serve as driers4 ,when drying is accomplished by heat from a stove1 the drier is hung over a stove or it rests on the top of the stove4 ,in the latter case1 it is necessary that the frame of the tray be constructed so that the bottom tray does not rest directly on the stove4 ,in case the drying is done over a kerosene stove1 the bottom of the tray must be of tin or galvanized iron to protect the food from kerosene fumes4 ,the lowest tray must be placed at least #d inches above the metal bottom4 ,,selection ,,and ,,preparation ,,of ,,vegetables ,,for ,,drying4--,to secure the best results1 select mature but fresh vegetables4 ,they should be in good condition1 free from blemish4 ,certain foods1 such as berries1 cherries1 peas1 lima and shell beans1 are dried whole4 ,most vegetables should be cut into slices from #a_/h to #a_/d inch in thickness4 ,the slicing may be done with a paring or kitchen knife1 or it may be done by means of a slaw-cutter or a rotary chopper4 ,foods are sometimes cut into pieces for drying by means of the food chopper4 ,it is necessary that all knives and cutting devices be clean4 ,there should be no discoloration of the vegetable from the cutting utensil4 ,it has been found advisable to blanch most vegetables before drying4 ,the method of blanching given previously can be used in drying vegetables as well as canning them4 ,foods are not cold-dipped1 however1 after blanching when they are to be dried4 ,fruits are usually not blanched before drying4 ,,food ,,preservation ,,method ,,of ,,drying ,,foods4--,place the prepared food on drying trays4 ,unless the drying is done in the oven1 cover the food with cheese-cloth4 ,if possible1 tack the cloth to the frame so that no dust or insects can come in contact with the food4 ,stir or turn foods once or twice a day while they are drying4 ,this is especially necessary when foods are dried in the sun4 ,if the food is to be dried in the sun1 place the tray containing the food in the sun1 where there is a breeze4 ,if it rains1 take the trays indoors4 ,also bring the trays indoors just before sunset4 ,if food is to be dried by means of steam1 a special device is needed 7see ,figure #ic74 ,the device consists of a large pan for holding water and a hollow tray4 ,the under surface of the tray has an opening about the size of the diameter of the pan4 ,to this opening is fastened a collar which fits snugly into the pan4 ,the pan filled with water is placed over a burner4 ,when the water boils1 the steam rises and fills the hollow tray and escapes by means of the small pipe in the upper surface of the tray4 ,the food is placed on the upper surface and is dried by steam heat4 ,if the food is to be dried in the oven1 place the food on suitable trays4 ,oven drying is much more satisfactorily done if the oven is provided with a thermometer4 ,the temperature for drying foods is much less than that of boiling water1--it varies from #aae degrees to #age degrees ,f4 ,it is often necessary to keep the oven door open so that the temperature does not become too high4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ic4---;,,drier ,,for ,,vegetables ,,or ,,fruits4 ,if food is dried over a stove in a series of trays one placed above the other1 the position of the trays should be changed so that the food may be uniformly dried4 ,if food is dried by means of an electric fan1 the fan should be so placed that the current of air is directed along the trays lengthwise4 ,the drying will be most rapid nearest the fan2 hence it is necessary to change the position of the tray or of the food every few hours4 ,foods may be dried in less than #bd hours by means of an electric fan4 ,a few foods such as sliced string beans may be dried in a few hours4 ,before drying by means of a fan1 food should be blanched4 ,it is also necessary to heat food dried in this way in an oven at #ahj degrees ,f4 for #aj or #ae minutes before storing4 ,testing for ,sufficient ,drying and ,conditioning4--,the time for drying varies with the method of drying and the kind of food4 ,a definite time of drying cannot be stated4 ,there are some tests which may be applied in determining when a food is sufficiently dried4 ,the following is quoted from the ,bulletin of the ,national ,war ,garden ,commission1 ,victory ,edition1 p4 #bb3 ,when first taken from the drier1 vegetables should be rather brittle and fruits rather leathery and pliable4 ,one method of determining whether fruit is dry enough is to squeeze a handful2 if the fruit separates when the hand is opened1 it is dry enough4 ,another way is to press a single piece2 if no moisture comes to the surface the piece is sufficiently dry4 ,berries are dry enough if they stick to the hand but do not crush when squeezed4 ,when the food is judged to be sufficiently dried1 it should be placed in boxes or bowls and covered with clean cloths4 ,the dried foods should be stirred or poured from one container to another once a day for #aj days or two weeks4 ,if at the end of this time the food is found to be moist1 it must be subjected to the drying process for a short time4 ,after the second drying1 it should be treated as directed above4 ,if the food is observed for several days and found to be dry1 it may be stored away4 ,this process of testing and making them sufficiently dry after removing from the drier is termed conditioning4 ,,dried ,,corn ,select such sweet corn for drying as you would for immediate table use4 ,blanch the corn 7on the cob7 for #h to #ab minutes in boiling water4 ,drain thoroughly4 ,then cut the corn from the cob as directed in ,lesson ,,iv4 ,dry by subjecting to a temperature of #acj degrees ,f4 gradually increased to #adj degrees ,f4 ,stir the corn often4 ,it is sufficiently dried when it is hard and semi-transparent4 7,adapted from ,bulletin of the ,national ,war ,garden ,commission1 ,victory ,edition47 ,,table ,,for ,,blanching ,,and ,,drying ,footnote #acd3 ,from ,bulletin of the ,national ,war ,garden ,commission1 ,victory ,edition ,the following table shows blanching time for vegetables and the temperatures to be used in drying by artificial heat4 ,,vegetables ,,blanching ,,temperature ,,time 7,,fahrenheit7 ,minutes ,degrees ,beets #b #abj to #ade ,cabbage #c to #d #aae to #ace ,carrots #b #abj to #ade ,cauliflower #d to #f #abj to #acj ,celery #b to #c #ace ,figs #abj to #adj ,garden peas #c to #e #aae to #adj ,green string beans #e to #h #acj to #ade ,lima beans #c #aej ,okra #c #aae to #ace ,onions #adj ,parsnips #b #abj to #ade ,potatoes #b to #c #abe to #aej ,prunes - #acj to #age ,pumpkin and winter squash #c to #f #ace to #afj ,spinach #b #acj ,summer squash #c to #f #ace to #afj ,sweet corn #h to #ab #acj to #adj ,sweet potatoes #f to #h #ade to #afe ,tomatoes #a #a_/b #abj to #adj ,turnips #a to #b #ace to #afe ,wax beans #c #aej ,fruits ,apples #acj to #age ,apricots #acj to #afe ,berries #acj to #aee ,cherries #abj to #aej ,peaches #acj to #afe ,pears #acj to #age ,plums #acj to #afe ,,questions ,under what conditions do you think it would be advisable to dry foods rather than can them8 ,name the advantages of dried over canned foods and the advantages of canned over dried4 ,from what you have learned regarding the cooking of dried fruits and dried peas and beans1 how would you cook home-dried vegetables8 ,give a reason for each step of the process4 ,why is it necessary to stir foods occasionally while drying8 ,why is oven drying of foods much more satisfactory when the oven is provided with a thermometer8 ,explain why it is necessary to condition dried foods before storing4 ,,related ,,work ,,lesson ,,clxxiii ,,the ,,sick-,,room ,,tray ,,selection ,,of ,,foods ,,for ,,the ,,sick4--,methods of preparation of food for the sick differ somewhat from methods of preparation of food for those in health4 ,the chief difference is in the selection of the foods to be prepared4 ,in severe illness the physician prescribes definitely the diet of the patient4 ,in the absence of a trained nurse1 it is the home-keeper's work to follow the physician's directions and to prepare such foods as can readily be digested4 ,often the home-keeper not only prepares1 but selects the foods for the indisposed members of the household4 ,in any case of feeding the sick1 the following suggestions should be kept in mind3 7a7 ,choose easily digested foods and prepare them in such a way that they will be easily digested4 ,liquid or easily liquefied foods are digested with the least effort1 hence the use of milk1 broths1 soups1 and gruels in sick-room diet4 ,such semisolid foods as eggs 7uncooked or soft cooked71 cereals1 softened toast1 etc41 are also easily digested4 ,avoid foods that are digested with difficulty1 as pastry1 fried foods1 rich sauces1 pork1 veal1 lobster1 and baked beans4 7b7 ,give special attention to the selection of foods that appeal to the appetite4 ,when foods are served1 even though they are selected according to the physician's directions1 likes and dislikes of the patient should be observed4 ,if food suitable for the patient is distasteful to him1 substitutions should be made or distasteful foods should be disguised4 ,eggs1 for example1 are most valuable foods for the sick4 ,if disliked by the patient they may be slipped into such foods as cocoa or gruels4 ,appeal to the appetite can be made by changing the methods of preparing foods4 ,the selection and preparation of food for the sick call for ingenuity and resourcefulness on the part of the homekeeper4 7c7 ,prepare less food for the sick than for those in health4 ,sometimes a lessened quantity of easily digested food is all that is needed to effect recovery from an indisposed condition4 ,some energy is needed to carry on the involuntary activities of the body1 such as the beating of the heart1 and the movements of the lungs 7see ,table of ,energy ,requirements74 ,for the very sick patient1 food served in small quantities1 but served often1 is necessary4 ,,selection ,,of ,,foods ,,for ,,the ,,convalescent4--,in recovery from severe illness1 there is often the problem of building up an emaciated body4 ,knowledge of the proper quantity and the kind of food aids greatly in solving this problem4 ,the basic principles of the selection of food to increase weight were discussed previously 7see ,daily ,carbohydrate and ,fat ,requirement74 ,the use of concentrated foods1 i4e4 those whose fuel value is high1 such as eggs1 cream or top milk1 and butter1 is usually advisable4 ,these foods can be added to foods of less fuel value such as vegetables4 ,a generous use of whole milk is also effective in gaining weight4 ,this can be used to advantage not only at meal times but between meals and at bed time4 ,milk is one of the few foods which can be used effectively between meals4 ,because it is bland in flavor1 it does not spoil the appetite for the following meal4 ,bread and other grain foods and starch-rich vegetables are useful foods for gaining weight4 ,many of the suggestions for the selection of foods for the sick apply to the selection of foods for the convalescent4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,special ,,foods ,,for ,,the ,,sick ,,and ,,for ,,the ,,convalescent4--7#a7 ,milk4--,milk is one of the most important foods for an invalid because it is a liquid containing valuable nutrients4 ,it is used in a partially predigested condition in ,junket ,custard1 peptonized milk1 and malted milk4 ,buttermilk1 kumiss1 and matzoon are often agreeable and beneficial to the sick2 by some1 they are more easily digested than whole milk4 ,frozen desserts made of milk or cream are popular foods for the sick4 7#b7 ,eggs4--,since eggs are both high in nutrients and easily digested1 they serve as a most important article of diet for the sick4 ,the variety of ways in which eggs can be cooked and served also adds to their value as a sick-room food4 ,eggs combined with milk 7egg-nog1 custards71 with cereals 7rice pudding1 gruels71 and with toast make suitable foods for the sick and convalescent4 ,the principles used in the preparation of custards 7see ,lesson ,,li7 should be applied in combining eggs with hot liquids4 7#c7 ,gruels4--,the principle of preparing breakfast cereals may be applied to the preparation of gruels4 ,in the making of gruels less cereal and more liquid are used1 i4e4 mix #a tablespoonful of cereal with #a cupful of liquid4 ,the finished product is strained4 ,a gruel may be prepared by diluting a cooked cereal and straining4 ,gruels should be of the consistency of cream soups4 ,corn-meal1 oatmeal1 barley1 rice1 flour-- especially graham1 whole wheat1 and gluten--arrowroot1 and crushed crackers--especially graham and oatmeal--are suitable cereals for gruels4 ,water or a combination of water and milk is used for the liquid4 ,when both water and milk are used1 the method of cooking ,rice ,pudding should be followed4 ,the seasoning and flavoring of gruels are most important4 ,distaste for gruels is often due to improper seasoning4 ,high seasoning is not desirable for the sick or convalescent4 ,usually a patient does not care for highly seasoned food4 ,but some seasoning is necessary to make a tasty gruel4 ,gruels may be flavored with whole spices1 meat extract1 fruits1 such as raisins1 cranberries1 etc41 and lemon peel4 ,the flavor of whole spices and fruits is extracted by cooking them with the gruel4 ,if nutmeg is used1 it is grated over the surface of the cooked food4 ,the identity of this spice can thus be recognized4 ,sugar is used sparingly for the sick4 7#d7 ,broth and ,meat4--,although there is little nourishment contained in meat broths 7see ,protein in ,meat71 beef tea is often used as food for the sick1 especially when liquid diet is necessary4 ,it is appetizing and tasty4 ,to make beef tea1 soak chopped meat in water for at least one hour4 7,use #a pint of water to #a pound of lean beef47 ,then cook the mixture slightly1 over hot water 7until it becomes reddish brown in color71 and stir constantly4 ,strain through a coarse strainer1 season1 and serve at once4 ,sometimes the juice of beef without any dilution with water is served to the sick4 ,the meat is cut into pieces and heated slightly2 then by means of a lemon squeezer or a meat press the juice is extracted4 ,meats such as chicken 7white meat preferably71 lamb1 broiled or roasted beef1 can be used for convalescents4 ,scraped meat1 i4e4 meat from which the tough tissue is removed 7see ,experiment #ej71 can often be given to an invalid when solid meats are denied4 ,the scraped meat contains more nutriment than beef juice 7see ,protein in ,meat74 ,it should be made into balls and pan-broiled 7see ,pan-broiling74 ,,preparing ,,the ,,tray4--,attractive serving of foods may make a stronger appeal to the appetite than choice selection or skilful preparation of foods4 ,it should be remembered that the foods are to be carried from the kitchen to the sick room4 ,for this reason1 it is well to place foods1 especially liquids1 in deep dishes suitable for transit4 ,all hot foods should be placed in covered dishes1 that they may be hot when the bedside is reached4 ,for serving sick-room foods1 the daintiest china available should be used4 ,the tray should be spread with a clean napkin or doily4 ,in the case of a contagious disease1 a paper napkin or doily may be used4 ,it should be destroyed at once after using4 ,a bedside stand which supports the tray without any effort of the patient is a comfort4 ,for contagious diseases1 burn any remaining bits of food and sterilize the dishes1--cover with cold water1 heat1 and boil4 ,,questions ,keeping in mind that the requisite for food for the sick is ease of digestion1 make a list of liquid1 semisolid1 and solid foods suitable for the sick room4 ,explain why it is that liquid foods are invariably prescribed for the sick4 ,give a variety of ways of cooking and serving eggs for the sick4 ,keeping in mind the suggestions given in the chapter on ,menu-making and in the present chapter1 write several menus for an indisposed or convalescent patient4 ,,lesson ,,clxxiv ,,preparing ,,trays ,,for ,,the ,,sick ,,and ,,convalescent ,plan ,footnote #ace3 ,see ,footnote #gb4 menus for the sick and for the convalescent4 ,prepare the foods and arrange them on trays4 ,,lesson ,,clxxv ,,review--,,meal ,,cooking ,,menu ,cream of ,potato ,soup ,croutons ,baked ,custard ,see ,lesson ,,xiv for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson4 ,,lesson ,,clxxvi ,,home ,,projects ,footnote #acf3 ,see ,lesson ,,ix4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,home ,,work4--,can fruit or vegetables1 or make marmalades1 jellies1 etc4 ,if possible1 select the fruits or vegetables at market4 ,,suggested ,,aims3 7#a7 ,to compare home-canned and factory-canned products4 ,determine the difference in cost per pint or quart4 ,compare the difference in flavor and appearance4 7#b7 ,to compare the yield of fruit made into jam or conserve and jelly4 ,note the weight of the fruit1 sugar1 and other ingredients before preserving4 ,how many glasses of jam or conserve does each five pounds of material yield8 ,state the advantages of preparing jelly from fruit and of preparing jam or conserve4 ,,division ,,eighteen ,,supplementary ,,lesson ,i ,,thanksgiving ,,sauce ,,cranberry ,,sauce #a quart 7#a pound7 cranberries #b cupfuls water #b cupfuls sugar ,salt ,pick over and wash the cranberries4 ,cook them in water until they are soft and the skins are broken4 ,remove from the fire2 strain if desired1 add the sugar and salt1 and stir until dissolved4 ,set aside to cool4 ,,cranberry ,,jelly #a quart 7#a pound7 cranberries #a cupful water #b cupfuls sugar ,salt ,prepare and cook the cranberries in water1 as for ,cranberry ,sauce4 ,press through a strainer1 add the sugar and salt1 and mix well4 ,without further cooking pour the mixture into molds which have been rinsed in cold water4 ,set aside to cool and stiffen4 ,,questions ,give a practical method of washing cranberries4 ,how does ,cranberry ,sauce differ from ,cranberry ,jelly8 ,if you desired to make clear ,cranberry ,jelly what change would you make in the method given above8 ,,lesson ,,ii ,,thanksgiving ,,desserts ,,plum ,,pudding #b cupfuls soft bread crumbs #a_/d teaspoonful baking soda #b teaspoonfuls baking powder #a_/h teaspoonful cloves #a_/b teaspoonful cinnamon #a_/d teaspoonful salt #a_/b cupful suet #a_/b cupful molasses #a egg #c_/d cupful milk #a_/b cupful currants #a_/b cupful raisins ,to prevent suet from sticking while being chopped1 sprinkle it with a little flour4 ,use a meat grinder1 or a chopping bowl and knife1 to chop the suet4 ,beat the eggs lightly and add the milk to them4 ,the currants and raisins should be cleaned as directed previously1 and sprinkled with flour4 ,mix the ingredients in the order given4 ,steam in an oiled pudding mold for at least #b hours4 ,serve with ,hard ,sauce ,i or ,,ii1 ,yellow ,sauce1 or ,vanilla ,sauce4 ,,vegetable ,,plum ,,pudding #b cupfuls flour #a pound seeded raisins #a cupful potatoes #a cupful carrots #a cupful sugar #a teaspoonful salt #a teaspoonful baking soda #a tablespoonful cold water #a cupful suet #b oranges--juice and grated rind #a lemon--juice and grated rind ,mix the flour and raisins4 ,put the potatoes1 carrots1 and suet through a food chopper4 ,mix the baking soda and water4 ,combine these three mixtures4 ,then add the remaining ingredients4 ,turn into a greased mold and steam three hours4 ,serve hot with ,lemon ,sauce or with ,hard or ,yellow ,sauce4 ,,hard ,,sauce ,,ii #c_/d cupful brown sugar #a_/c cupful butter #b tablespoonfuls cream or milk #a teaspoonful vanilla or #a teaspoonful lemon juice and #a_/b teaspoonful vanilla ,cream the butter1 add the sugar gradually1 and mix thoroughly4 ,add the cream or milk gradually4 ,add the flavoring4 ,chill2 serve over hot puddings4 ,,yellow ,,sauce #b eggs #a_/b cupful powdered sugar #a tablespoonful milk or cream #a_/b teaspoonful vanilla ,salt ,separate the eggs2 beat the whites until they are stiff and dry4 ,add the yolks and continue beating until the mixture is very light4 ,then add the powdered sugar and beat again4 ,continue beating and add the milk or cream gradually2 finally add the vanilla and salt4 ,serve at once over hot puddings4 ,,cranberry ,,frappe #a quart 7#a pound7 cranberries #b #a_/b cupfuls sugar #d cupfuls water ,juice #a large lemon ,salt ,cook the cranberries and water slowly1 until soft4 ,force through a sieve1 and add the sugar1 lemon juice1 and salt4 ,when cool1 freeze 7see ,preparing and ,packing the ,freezer and ,freezing74 ,serve with roast chicken or turkey1 or as a dessert4 ,,questions ,what are the leavening materials used in ,plum ,pudding8 ,explain their action4 ,why are raisins and currants sprinkled with flour before adding to the pudding8 ,how should pudding molds be prepared for pour batters 7see ,general ,suggestions for ,steamed ,quick-bread ,mixtures78 ,if it is desired to use left-over steamed pudding1 how should it be reheated8 ,what is the price per pound of suet8 ,how much by weight is required to make one half cupful8 ,see ,figure #fc and tabulate the percentage composition of beef suet and butter4 ,which contains the more fat8 ,how many persons does the ,plum ,pudding recipe serve8 ,how many persons does the ,cranberry ,frappe recipe serve8 ,,lesson ,,iii ,,christmas ,,sweets ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,candy ,,in ,,diet4--,candy is an energy-giving food1 but1 unfortunately perhaps1 it is not 7at all times7 a most desirable energy- giving food4 ,sugar exists in candy in concentrated form4 ,as stated previously1 such sugar is irritating to the organs of digestion4 ,sugar is contained in large quantity in some fruits1 especially in dried fruits1 figs1 dates1 prunes1 etc4 ,these fruits are a much better source of sweets for children than is candy1 because they do not contain as much sugar1 and have1 in addition1 valuable food materials in the form of ash4 7,see ,figures #ib and #id4 ,note the large quantity of carbohydrates and ash in raisins4 ,also note the large quantity of carbohydrates--which are in the form of sugar--in stick candy47 ,candy should never be used to excess or at the wrong time4 ,a little eaten at the end of a meal is not harmful to the normal person4 ,at that time the sugar is diluted because it is mixed with other foods4 ,when diluted it does not irritate the digestive tract to the extent that it would if eaten between meals with no other foods4 ,it is well to drink a generous quantity of water when eating candy or other sweets4 ,since molasses1 honey1 and maple sirup are not so concentrated as is sugar 7see ,figure #id71 they are desirable sweets for children1--provided they are used moderately1 at the right time1 and are mixed with other foods4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #id--,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,sugar ,,and ,,similar ,,foods 7,revised edition7 ,,parisian ,,sweets ,chop equal parts of figs1 dates1 or raisins1 and nuts together4 ,knead on a board dredged with confectioner's sugar1 until well blended4 ,roll to #a_/c inch thickness1 cut into cubes or rounds1 and dip each piece in confectioner's sugar4 ,store in tin boxes4 ,,stuffed ,,fruits ,cover prunes with cold water1 and let them soak for #cj minutes4 ,then heat and cook at boiling temperature for #ae minutes4 ,now drain off the water and place prunes in the top part of a double boiler and cook over boiling water for #de minutes4 ,or put the prunes in a tightly covered pan and place in the fireless cooker for several hours4 ,cool and remove the stones and fill the open space with a nut or a mixture of chopped dates or raisins1 figs1 and nuts4 ,press the prunes into symmetrical shape1 then roll them in fine granulated sugar4 7,the ,parisian ,sweet mixture may be used for stuffing prunes47 ,prunes may also be stuffed with marshmallows4 ,one half of a marshmallow should be inserted in each cooked and seeded prune4 ,dates stuffed with chopped nuts1 peanut butter1 or candied ginger are tasty sweets4 ,they may be rolled in granulated sugar after stuffing4 ,,date ,,bars #a egg #a cupful sugar #a teaspoonful vanilla #a cupful flour #b teaspoonfuls baking powder #a_/d teaspoonful salt #c_/d cupful dates1 seeded and cut into pieces #a cupful nuts1 chopped #a_/b cupful milk ,mix as ,date ,pudding4 ,turn into an oblong or square pan about #i by #i inches4 ,bake at #cej degrees ,f41 for from #cj to #dj minutes4 ,when sufficiently baked1 remove from the pan and place on a cake cooler for a few minutes4 ,then cut the cake into halves1 and cut each half into narrow strips about #a inch wide and #d #a_/b inches long4 ,roll each strip in powdered sugar4 ,store in a tightly covered tin box4 ,these cakes have a finer flavor after they have been stored for a few days4 ,raisins may be substituted for dates4 ,,pop-,,corn ,,balls #a cupful molasses #a_/d teaspoonful baking soda #a cupful corn sirup or sugar #a_/b teaspoonful salt ,mix the molasses and sirup or sugar and cook them to the crack stage4 ,then add the soda and salt and pour the mixture over popped corn1--about six quarts4 ,stir the corn while pouring the sirup4 ,let the sweetened corn stand a few minutes4 ,then dip the hands into cold water1 shake off the water1 and with the two hands press some corn into a ball4 ,repeat until all the corn is shaped into balls4 ,,questions ,explain why ,parisian ,sweets and ,stuffed ,fruits are a more desirable sweet food than candy4 ,when is the best time to eat candy8 ,explain your answer4 ,why are mints served at the close1 rather than at the beginning of a meal8 ,why is it advisable to drink a generous quantity of water when eating candy or sweets8 ,compare the recipes for ,date ,pudding and ,date ,bars4 ,account for the greater quantity of flour1 sugar1 and milk in ,date ,bars4 ,why is it necessary to dip the hands in cold water before shaping ,pop-corn ,balls8 ,,lesson ,,iv ,,christmas ,,candy ,,sugar ,,and ,,glucose4--,granulated sugar and glucose differ in taste and composition4 ,granulated sugar is crystalline in structure1 while commercial glucose exists in the form of a heavy sirup1 i4e4 is non-crystalline in form4 ,in many candies1 a creamy consistency is desired4 ,this is not possible1 if all the sugar of the candy exists in coarse crystalline form4 ,hence in the making of candy from granulated sugar1 it is desirable to add glucose or sirup to granulated sugar or to change some of the crystallized sugar to a sugar which crystallizes with difficulty1 i4e4 invert sugar4 ,this can be accomplished by boiling granulated sugar with acid4 ,recent experimentation ,footnote #acg3 ,see ,journal of ,home ,economics1 ,february1 #aiai 7,vol4 ,,xi71 p4 #fe1 ,factors ,influencing the ,amount of ,invert ,sugar in ,fondant1 by ,daniels and ,cook4 with sugars1 however1 shows that the quantity of acid required varies with the degree of hardness or the alkalinity of the water1--the more alkaline the water1 the greater the quantity of acid needed4 ,this experimental work also shows that unless soft water is used in boiling sugar to which acid is added1 more constant and satisfactory results may be secured by adding glucose rather than acid to sugar4 ,,cooking ,,sirups4--,sugar and water are boiled to different degrees of temperature for making different kinds of candy4 ,the thicker the sirup1 the higher the temperature4 ,tests for sirups of different consistencies are3 7a7 ,thread1--when dropped from a spoon1 the sirup forms a thread about two inches long 7#bcj degrees ,f474 ,footnote #ach3 ,these temperatures apply to sirups made from cane sugar4 ,the addition of glucose to cane sugar lowers the temperatures of the sirups at the various stages4 ,see ,note to the ,teacher1 ,lesson ,,cxvi1 regarding the use of the ,fahrenheit scale of temperature4 7b7 ,soft ball1--when dropped into cold water1 the sirup forms a soft ball if rolled between the fingers 7#bcf degrees ,f474 7c7 ,hard ball1--when dropped into cold water1 the sirup forms a firm ball 7#beb degrees ,f474 7d7 ,crack1--when dropped into cold water1 the sirup becomes brittle 7#bgj degrees ,f474 7e7 ,hard crack1--when dropped into cold water1 the sirup becomes very hard and brittle 7#bic degrees ,f474 7f7 ,caramel1--when sugar 7without addition of water7 liquefies when hot and becomes very hard and brittle when cold 7#caj degrees ,f474 ,,fudge #b cupfuls sugar #a_/b cupful water or milk #a_/b cupful corn sirup #b ounces chocolate #b tablespoonfuls butter #a teaspoonful vanilla #a_/d teaspoonful salt ,mix the sugar with the liquid4 ,add the chocolate and sirup4 ,boil gently to a soft ball stage4 ,just before removing from the fire1 add the butter4 ,cool1 then beat the mixture until it thickens4 ,add the vanilla and salt and pour into a buttered pan4 ,cut into squares2 when cool the fudge is ready for serving4 ,the butter may be omitted4 ,,panocha #b cupfuls light brown sugar #a_/b cupful milk #a_/h teaspoonful cream of tartar #b tablespoonfuls butter or substitute #a_/b pound nuts #a_/h teaspoonful salt ,mix the sugar with the milk4 ,add the cream of tartar1 and boil gently to a soft ball stage4 ,just before removing from the fire1 add the butter and salt4 ,cool and beat until the mixture thickens4 ,add nuts that have been cut into pieces2 pour into a buttered pan2 cut into squares4 ,when cool1 the ,panocha is ready for serving4 ,sour milk or cream may be substituted for sweet milk and cream of tartar4 ,when sour cream is used1 omit the butter or substitute4 ,,butterscotch #a_/b cupful water #c cupfuls light brown sugar ,juice of #a lemon or #a_/d cupful vinegar #b to #d tablespoonfuls butter ,mix the sugar and liquids thoroughly4 ,boil gently to the crack stage4 ,add the butter4 ,pour into buttered pans4 ,when almost cool1 cut into squares with a chopping knife4 ,break into pieces when cold4 ,the butter may be omitted4 ,if this is done1 add #a_/h teaspoonful of salt4 ,,cinnamon ,,balls #a cupful sirup #b cupfuls sugar #a tablespoonful butter #a_/h teaspoonful salt #a tablespoonful water #a tablespoonful vinegar #a tablespoonful ground cinnamon or #b drops of oil of cinnamon ,put all the ingredients except oil of cinnamon into a saucepan and boil to the crack stage4 ,if oil of cinnamon is used for flavoring1 add it to the mixture after cooking4 ,pour into a greased pan4 ,when cool enough to handle1 take a small portion and shape it into a ball4 ,if the candy becomes too stiff to shape1 it may be placed in an oven until it is soft enough to handle4 ,oil of cinnamon produces a more pleasing flavor than ground cinnamon4 ,however1 the former is expensive4 ,if it is added1 the use of a medicine dropper prevents its waste4 ,,questions ,what ingredient does corn sirup contain that would make it effective in preparing creamy candy8 ,explain the use of corn sirup1 cream of tartar1 sour milk1 and vinegar in these candies4 ,in ,fudge1 why is the butter added just before removing the candy from the fire 7see ,frying and ,digestion78 ,why are not the nuts cooked in the ,panocha mixture8 ,why is butter or substitute omitted in ,panocha if sour cream is substituted for sweet milk8 ,if a thermometer is used for testing sirups1 what precaution should be taken against breaking8 ,from ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bh1 tabulate the percentage composition of granulated 7see ,figure #id71 powdered1 brown1 and maple sugars4 ,what is the price per pound of each8 ,how many cupfuls in a pound of brown sugar8 ,considering the percentage of carbohydrates1 and the price per pound of granulated and brown sugar1 which is the cheaper8 ,tabulate the percentage composition of honey1 of molasses1 and of maple sirup4 ,how much fudge1 by weight1 does #a pound of sugar make8 ,what is the cost per pound of homemade fudge8 ,,appendix ,,suggestions ,,for ,,teaching ,in using this text1 the teacher may follow the order of presenting a lesson which she considers most satisfactory4 ,she may prefer to preface processes of cooking with a discussion of foods and reasons for the steps involved in the processes1 or she may consider it advisable to have the pupils do the cooking and discuss foods and methods later4 ,in case both the so-called theory and practical work are undertaken in the same lesson1 the time required to cook the food often determines the order of the lesson4 ,in either case1 this text may be used to advantage4 ,although recipes in definitely stated form appear in the book1 the teacher need not refer to them in class1 or place them upon the board previous to the lesson4 ,she may prefer to lead the pupils to develop a recipe4 ,the latter method is valuable in training pupils to know the proper quantity of food materials to combine for practical recipe making1 and to know how to substitute one food material for another4 ,the relation of one recipe to another is shown in this text and should be constantly emphasized4 ,the pupils should be made to understand that there are a few basic recipes from which many may be developed4 ,much attention should be given to the cost of foods4 ,at frequent intervals1 pupils should be required to compute the cost of particular dishes or of entire meals4 ,the buying of foods by the pupils is most valuable4 ,in table service lessons1 it is advisable to have the pupils not only plan and cook foods but1 when possible1 buy them4 ,in teaching table service lessons1 the greatest care should be taken to adapt the lessons to the standard of living of the pupils4 ,in communities where the equipment for serving foods is most meagre1 a special effort should be made to make the best use of such dishes and furnishings as are found in the homes of the pupils4 ,serving meals in a more pleasing way with more adequate 7but not elaborate7 equipment should also be taught4 ,methods of serving without a maid meet best the needs of most pupils of the public schools4 ,the cooking of foods by each pupil in family quantity rather than in individual amount is valuable4 ,to do this some practical way of disposing of the cooked products must be arranged4 ,the lunch rooms of the school may serve as the means of disposal4 ,in case the pupils of a school cook for the lunch room1 the greatest care needs to be exercised by the teacher to place the responsibility of preparing a salable product upon the pupil4 ,too much assistance on the part of the teacher in directing the pupils' work and in deciding when a food is sufficiently cooked or baked1 may interfere in developing initiative in pupils1--one of the aims to be accomplished in education4 ,the plan of having each pupil prepare a food for the first time in individual quantity and then later in family quantity for the lunch room has proved satisfactory in some cases4 ,this text furnishes material for a year's work1 if five lessons per week 7at least ninety minutes in length7 are given2 or for two years' work1 if the curriculum provides for but two or three lessons per week4 ,if it is necessary to arrange a shorter course1 certain lessons may be omitted or assigned for home work1 or lessons may be combined4 ,if the teacher wishes to correlate food study with some other subject such as general science1 or physiology1 chemistry1 or physics1 the time may be extended1 or the order of work may be changed to fit the particular requirements4 ,because many of the lessons of the first eight divisions treat of the uses of the foods in the body1 they are especially good for correlation with physiology4 ,the remaining lessons1 many of which emphasize food composition1 may be correlated to advantage with chemistry4 ,if for any reason an entire semester's work is to be devoted to table service1 including the planning1 buying1 cooking1 and serving of foods and determining the cost and computing the calorific value of the foods1 the material found in ,related ,work--the lessons placed at the end of each division--will be found adequate for such a course4 ,,books ,,for ,,reference ,bevier and ,van ,meter3 ,selection and ,preparation of ,food4 ,brechner3 ,household ,physics4 ,brownlee and ,others3 ,chemistry of ,common ,things4 ,buchanan3 ,household ,bacteriology4 ,child ,health ,organization of ,america3 ,pamphlets4 ,cooley and ,others3 ,teaching ,home ,economics4 ,conn3 ,bacteria1 ,yeasts1 and ,molds in the ,home4 ,department of ,household ,science1 ,university of ,illinois3 ,principles of ,jelly-,making 7,bulletin74 ,farmer3 ,food and ,cookery for the ,sick and the ,convalescent4 ,farmer3 ,the ,boston ,cooking ,school ,cook ,book4 ,hill3 ,cooking for ,two4 ,hill3 ,the ,up-,to-,date ,waitress4 ,holt3 ,the ,care and ,feeding of ,children4 ,holt and ,sedgwick3 ,the ,human ,mechanism4 ,holt and ,shaw3 ,save the ,babies1 ,pamphlet4 ,kansas ,agricultural ,college3 ,table ,etiquette and ,table ,service 7,bulletin74 ,lincoln and ,barrows3 ,home ,science ,cook ,book4 ,lusk3 ,elements of the ,science of ,nutrition4 ,lusk3 ,fundamental ,basis of ,nutrition4 ,mc,collum3 ,the ,american ,home ,diet4 ,mitchell3 ,fireless ,cook ,book4 ,pattee3 ,practical ,dietetics4 ,richards1 ,ellen ,h43 ,the ,cost of ,food4 ,rose3 ,feeding the ,family4 ,rose3 ,laboratory ,handbook for ,dietetics4 ,sherman3 ,chemistry of ,food and ,nutrition1 ,second ,edition4 ,sherman3 ,food ,products4 ,styles3 ,human ,physiology4 ,taber3 ,the ,business of the ,household4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture3 ,bulletins4 ,van ,rensselaer and ,others3 ,a ,manual of ,home-,making4 ,vulte3 ,household ,chemistry4 ,vulte and ,vanderbilt3 ,food ,industries4