,,hi/ory ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,ideas4 ,,volume ,i4 ,cambridge2 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,c4 ,j4 ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,ideas4 ,,by ,,william ,,:ewell1 ,d4,d41 ,,ma/] ,,( ,,tr9ity ,,college1 ,,cambridge1 ,,& ,,correspond+ ,,memb] ,,( ,,! ,,in/itute ,,( ,,france4 ,,be+ ,,! ,,fir/ ,,"p ,,( ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,inductive ,,sci5ces4 ,,! ,,?ird ,,edition4 ,,9 ,,two ,,volumes4 ,i ,i,i ,i ,,volume ,i4 ,,london3 ,,john ,w4 ,,p>k] ,,& ,,son1 ,,we/ ,,/r&4 #aheh4 v ,,preface ,,to ,,?is ,,edition4 ,,! ,*apt]s n[ (f]$ to ! ,read] 7 =m]ly publi%$ z a portion ( ,! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 f\nd$ ^u _! ,hi/ory3 b ! nature & subject ( ^! ,*apt]s are m exactly describ$ by ! pres5t title1 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas4 ,= ?is "p ( ! "w is ma9ly hi/orical1 & 01 9 fact1 collect$ f ! body ( sci5tific lit]ature1 at ! same "t t ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces 0 s collect$4 ,! pres5t "w conta9s ! hi/ory ( ,sci5ce s f> z x dep5ds on ,ideas2 ! =m] "w conta9s ! same hi/ory s f> z x is d]iv$ f ,obs]vation4 ,! lead+ features 9 t 7 ,!ories inf]r$ f ,facts2 ! lead+ features ( ?is are ,discussions ( ,!ories t5d+ to make !m consi/5t ) ! conditions ( human ?\ght4 ,! ,ideas ( :i* ! ,hi/ory is "h giv5 are ma9ly ! foll[+3 ,space1 ,"t1 ,numb]1 ,motion1 ,cause1 ,=ce1 ,matt]1 ,m$ium1 ,int5sity1 ,scale1 ,pol>ity1 ,elem5t1 ,aff9ity1 ,sub/ance1 ,atom1 ,symmetry1 ,lik5ess1 ,natural ,classes1 ,species1 ,life1 ,function1 ,vital ,=ces1 ,f9al vi ,causes1 ,hi/orical ,causation1 ,cata/rophe & ,uni=mity1 ,fir/ ,cause4 ,! controv]sies to :i* ! exact fixation ( ^! ,ideas & _! prop]ties h giv5 occasion =m a l>ge & ess5tial "p ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5ce3 b !y also =m an important "p ( ! ,philosophy ( ,sci5ce1 = no ,philosophy ( ,sci5ce c be complete :i* does n solve ! difficulties1 anti!ses1 & p>adoxes on :i* su* controv]sies h turn$4 ,i h giv5 a survey ( su* controv]sies1 g5]ally c>ri$ f _! e>lie/ orig9 to _! late/ aspect2 & h /at$ :at appe>$ to me ! be/ solution ( ea* problem4 ,?is has necess>ily involv$ me 9 mu* ?orny metaphysics2 b su* metaphysics is a necess>y "p ( ! progress ( ,sci5ce4 ,! human m9d d]iv+ its k ( ,tru? f ! obs]vation ( nature1 _c evade ! task ( det]m9+ at e /ep h[ ,tru? is consi/5t ) itself4 ,?is is ! ,metaphysics ( ,progressive ,k1 & ?is is ! matt] ( ?is pres5t ,hi/ory4 ,( ! rema9+ "p ( :at 0 =m]ly publi%$ z ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 an additional "p1 describ$ 9 ! ,introduction to ! pres5t "w1 w %ortly be publi%$4 ,,tr9ity ,,lodge1 ,may #bd1 #aheh4 ,,erratum1 p4 #aeg1 l4 #aa f top1 = sci5ces read sci5ce4 ,,cont5ts ,,( ,,! ,,fir/ ,,volume4 ,,page ,,preface v ,,"p ,i4 ,,( ,,ideas4 ,,introduction #c ,,book ,i4 ,,( ,,ideas ,,9 ,,g5]al4 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,,( ,,! ,,fundam5tal ,,anti!sis ,,( ,,philosophy #bc ,sect4 #a4 ,?\ghts & ,?+s -- #b4 ,necess>y & ,exp]i5tial ,tru?s #be #c4 ,d$uction & ,induction #bg #d4 ,!ories & ,facts #bi #e4 ,ideas & ,s5sations #cj #f4 ,reflexion & ,s5sation #cc #g4 ,subjective & ,objective #ce #h4 ,matt] & ,=m #ch #i4 ,man ! ,int]pret] ( ,nature #da #aj4 ,! ,fundam5tal ,anti!sis is insep>able #dc #aa4 ,successive ,g5]alization #di viii ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,,( ,,te*nical ,,t]ms #ed ,art4 #a4 ,examples4 #b4 ,use ( ,t]ms4 ,,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,,( ,,necess>y ,,tru?s #eg ,art4 #a4 ,! two ,elem5ts ( ,k1 #b4 ,%[n by necess>y ,tru?s4 #c4 ,examples ( necess>y ,tru?s 9 numb]s4 #d4 ,! opposite _c be di/9ctly conceiv$4 #e4 ,o!r ,examples4 #f4 ,univ]sal ,tru?s4 ,,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,,( ,,exp]i5ce #fe ,art4 #a4 ,exp]i5ce _c prove necess>y ,tru?s1 #b4 ,except :5 aid$ by ,ideas4 ,,*ap4 ,v4 ,,( ,,! ,,gr\nds ,,( ,,necess>y ,,tru?s #fi ,art4 #a4 ,^! ,gr\nds are ,fundam5tal ,ideas4 #b4 ,^! are to be review$4 #c4 ,def9itions & ,axioms4 #d4 ,syllogism1 #e4 ,produces no new ,tru?s4 #f4 ,axioms ne$$4 #g4 ,axioms dep5d on ,ideas3 #h4 ,s d ,def9itions4 #i4 ,idea n completely express$4 ,,*ap4 ,,vi4 ,,! ,,fundam5tal ,,ideas ,,are ,,n ,,d]iv$ ,,f ,,exp]i5ce #gf ,art4 #a4 ,no connexion obs]v$4 #b4 ,faculties impli$ 9 obs]vation4 #c4 ,we are to exam9e our ,faculties4 ,,*ap4 ,,vii4 ,,( ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,sci5ces #ha ,sci5ces arrang$ accord+ to ,ideas4 ix ,,book ,,ii4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,pure ,,sci5ces4 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,,( ,,! ,,pure ,,sci5ces #hh ,art4 #a4 ,geometry1 ,ari?metic1 ,algebra1 #b4 ,are n ,inductive ,sci5ces3 #c4 ,are ,ma!matical ,sci5ces4 #d4 ,mix$ ,ma!matics4 #e4 ,space1 ,"t1 ,numb]4 ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,space #ia ,art4 #a4 ,space is an ,idea1 #b4 ,n d]iv$ f ,exp]i5ce1 #c4 ,z ,geometrical ,tru? %[s4 #d4 ,space is a ,=m ( ,exp]i5ce4 #e4 ,! phrase n ess5tial4 ,,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,,( ,,"s ,,peculi>ities ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,space #ie ,art4 #a4 ,space is n an ,ab/ract ,notion4 #b4 ,space is inf9ite4 #c4 ,space is real4 #d4 ,space is a ,=m ( ,intuition4 #e4 ,figure4 #f4 ,?ree ,dim5sions4 ,,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,def9itions ,,& ,,axioms ,,:i* ,,relate ,,to ,,space #ih ,art4 #a4 ,geometry4 #b4 ,def9itions4 #c4 ,axioms4 #d4 ,n ,hypo!ses4 #e4 ,axioms necess>y4 #f4 ,/raight ,l9es4 #g4 ,planes4 #h4 ,elem5t>y ,geometry4 ,,*ap4 ,v4 ,,( ,,"s ,,objections ,,:i* ,,h ,,be5 ,,made ,,to ,,! ,,doctr9es ,,/at$ ,,9 ,,! ,,previ\s ,,*apt] #ajg ,art4 #a4 ,h[ is ,geometry hypo!tical8 #b4 ,:at 0 ,/ew>t's view8 x #c4 ',legitimate filiations' ( ,def9itions4 #d4 ,is a ,def9ition a complete explanation8 #e4 ,are "s ,axioms ,def9itions8 #f4 ,axiom conc]n+ ,circles4 #g4 ,c ,axioms become truisms8 #h4 ,use ( su*4 ,,*ap4 ,,vi4 ,,( ,,! ,,p]ception ,,( ,,space #aag ,art4 #a4 ,:i* ,s5ses appreh5d ,space8 #b4 ,p]ception ( solid figure4 #c4 ,is an int]pretation4 #d4 ,may be analys$4 #e4 ,outl9e4 #f4 ,rev]s$ convexity4 #g4 ,d we p]ceive ,space by ,t\*8 #h4 ,br[n's ,op9ion4 #i4 ,! ,muscul> ,s5se4 #aj4 ,bell's ,op9ion4 #aa4 ,p]ception includes ,activity4 #ab4 ,p]ception ( ! ,skyey ,dome4 #ac4 ,reid's ,idom5ians4 #ad4 ,motion ( ! ,eye4 #ae4 ,se>*+ ,motion4 #af4 ,s5sible ,spot4 #ag4 ,expressions imply+ ,motion4 ,,*ap4 ,,vii4 ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,"t #aca ,art4 #a4 ,"t an ,idea n d]iv$ f ,exp]i5ce4 #b4 ,"t is a ,=m ( ,exp]i5ce4 #c4 ,numb]4 #d4 ,is ,"t d]iv$ f ,motion8 ,,*ap4 ,,viii4 ,,( ,,"s ,,peculi>ities ,,9 ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,"t #acd ,art4 #a4 ,"t is n an ,ab/ract ,notion4 #b4 ,"t is inf9ite4 #c4 ,"t is a ,=m ( ,intuition4 #d4 ,"t is ( "o ,dim5sion1 #e4 ,& no m4 #f4 ,rhy?m4 #g4 ,alt]nation4 #h4 ,ari?metic4 xi ,,*ap4 ,,ix4 ,,( ,,! ,,axioms ,,:i* ,,relate ,,to ,,numb] #ach ,art4 #a4 ,gr\nds ( ,ari?metic4 #b4 ,intuition4 #c4 ,ari?metical ,axioms1 #d4 ,are ,conditions ( ,num]ical ,reason+ #e4 ,9 all ,ari?metical ,op]ations4 #f4 ,high] ,numb]s4 ,,*ap4 ,x4 ,,( ,,! ,,p]ception ,,( ,,"t ,,& ,,numb] #ada ,art4 #a4 ,memory4 #b4 ,s5se ( ,successiv5ess #c4 ,implies ,activity4 #d4 ,numb] also does s4 #e4 ,& appreh5sion ( ,rhy?m4 ,note to ,*apt] ,x4 #ade ,,*ap4 ,,xi4 ,,( ,,ma!matical ,,reason+ #adg ,art4 #a4 ,discursive ,reason+4 #b4 ,te*nical ,t]ms ( ,reason+4 #c4 ,geometrical ,analysis & ,syn!sis4 ,,*ap4 ,,xii4 ,,( ,,! ,,f\ndations ,,( ,,! ,,high] ,,ma!matics #aea ,art4 #a4 ,! ,idea ( a ,limit4 #b4 ,! use ( ,g5]al ,symbols4 #c4 ,connexion ( ,symbols & ,analysis4 ,,*ap4 ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,motion #aef ,art4 #a4 ,pure ,me*anism4 #b4 ,=mal ,a/ronomy4 ,,*ap4 ,,xiv4 ,,( ,,! ,,application ,,( ,,ma!matics ,,to ,,! ,,inductive ,,sci5ces #aei ,art4 #a4 ,! ,ideas ( ,space & ,numb] are cle> f ! fir/4 #b4 ,_! application 9 ,a/ronomy4 #c4 ,conic ,sections1 c4 #d4 ,arabian ,num]als4 #e4 ,newton's ,lemmas4 #f4 ,tides4 #g4 ,me*anics4 #h4 ,optics4 #i4 ,conclusion4 xii ,,book ,,iii4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,me*anical ,,sci5ces4 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,,( ,,! ,,me*anical ,,sci5ces #aga ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,cause #agc ,art4 #a4 ,n d]iv$ f ,obs]vation1 #b4 ,z appe>s by its use4 #c4 ,cause _c be obs]v$4 #d4 ,is ,cause only con/ant succession8 #e4 ,o!r reasons4 ,,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,,mod]n ,,op9ions ,,respect+ ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,cause #agh ,art4 #a4 ,hume's ,doctr9e4 #b4 ,/ew>t & ,br[n4 #c4 ,kant4 #d4 ,relation ( ,kant & ,br[n4 #e4 ,axioms fl[ f ! ,idea4 #f4 ,! ,idea implies activity 9 ! ,m9d4 ,,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,axioms ,,:i* ,,relate ,,to ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,cause #ahd ,art4 #a4 ,causes are ,ab/ract ,conceptions4 #b4 ,fir/ ,axiom4 #c4 ,second ,axiom4 #d4 ,limitation ( ! ,second ,axiom4 #e4 ,?ird ,axiom4 #f4 ,ext5t ( ! ,?ird ,axiom4 ,,*ap4 ,v4 ,,( ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,our ,,conceptions ,,( ,,=ce ,,& ,,matt] #bje ,art4 #a4 ,=ce4 #b4 ,matt]4 #c4 ,solidity4 #d4 ,in]tia4 #e4 ,application4 xiii ,,*ap4 ,,vi4 ,,( ,,! ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,/atics #bab ,art4 #a4 ,object ( ! ,*apt]4 #b4 ,/atics & ,dynamics4 #c4 ,equilibrium4 #d4 ,measure ( ,/atical ,=ces4 #e4 ,! ,c5t] ( ,gravity4 #f4 ,oblique ,=ces4 #g4 ,=ce acts at any po9t ( its ,direction4 #h4 ,! ,p>allelogram ( ,=ces #i4 ,is a necess>y ,tru?4 #aj4 ,c5t] ( ,gravity desc5ds4 #aa4 ,/ev9us's ,pro(4 #ab4 ,pr9ciple ( ,virtual ,velocities4 #ac4 ,fluids press equally4 #ad4 ,f\ndation ( ?is ,axiom4 ,,*ap4 ,,vii4 ,,( ,,! ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,dynamics #bce ,art4 #a4 ,hi/ory4 #b4 ,! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion4 #c4 ,gravity is a ,uni=m ,=ce4 #d4 ,! ,second ,law ( ,motion4 #e4 ,! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion4 #f4 ,action & ,reaction 9 ,mov+ ,bodies4 #g4 ,d',alemb]t's ,pr9ciple4 #h4 ,connexion ( ,/atics & ,dynamics4 #i4 ,me*anical ,pr9ciples gr[ m evid5t4 #aj4 ,controv]sy ( ! ,measure ( ,=ce4 ,,*ap4 ,,viii4 ,,( ,,! ,,p>adox ,,( ,,univ]sal ,,propositions ,,obta9$ ,,f ,,exp]i5ce #bfc ,art4 #a4 ,exp]i5ce _c e/abli% necess>y ,tru?s2 #b4 ,b c int]pret ,axioms4 #c4 ,gives u ! ,matt] ( ,tru?s4 #d4 ,exemplifies ,tru?s4 #e4 ,_c %ake ,axioms4 #f4 ,is ?is applicable 9 o!r cases8 ,,*ap4 ,,ix4 ,,( ,,! ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,univ]sal ,,gravitation #bgb ,art4 #a4 ,g5]al c\rse ( ! ,hi/ory4 xiv #b4 ,p>ticul>s z to ! ,law4 #c4 ,z to ! ,gravity ( ,matt]4 #d4 ,univ]sality ( ! ,law4 #e4 ,is ,gravity an ess5tial quality8 #f4 ,newton's ,rule ( ,philosophiz+4 #g4 ,hypo!ses respect+ ,gravity4 #h4 ,d ,bodies act at a di/ance8 ,,*ap4 ,x4 ,,( ,,! ,,g5]al ,,diffusion ,,( ,,cle> ,,me*anical ,,ideas #bgi ,art4 #a4 ,nature ( ! ,process #b4 ,among ! ,anci5ts4 #c4 ,kepl]1 c4 #d4 ,"l ,monboddo1 c4 #e4 ,s*ell+1 c4 #f4 ,common usage4 #g4 ,effect ( ,phrases4 #h4 ,contempt ( ,pr$ecessors4 #i4 ,less detail h]eaft]4 #aj4 ,me*anico-,*emical ,sci5ces4 #aa4 ,second>y ,me*anical ,sci5ces4 ,,book ,,iv4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,second>y ,,me*anical ,,sci5ces4 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,a ,,m$ium ,,z ,,commonly ,,employ$ #bic ,art4 #a4 ,( ,prim>y & ,second>y ,qualities4 #b4 ,! ,idea ( ,ext]nality4 #c4 ,s5sation by a ,m$ium4 #d4 ,process ( ,p]ception ( ,second>y ,qualities4 ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,,on ,,peculi>ities ,,9 ,,! ,,p]ceptions ,,( ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,s5ses #cjb ,art4 #a4 ,diff]5ce ( ,s5ses4 ,sect4 ,i4 ,pr]ogatives ( ,sight4 ,art4 #b4 ,position4 #c4 ,di/ance4 xv ,sect4 ,,ii4 ,pr]ogatives ( ,he>+4 ,art4 #d4 ,musical ,int]vals4 #e4 ,*ords4 #f4 ,rhy?m4 ,sect4 ,,iii4 ,! ,p>adoxes ( ,vision4 ,art4 #g4 ,fir/ ,p>adox4 #h4 ,second ,p>adox4 #i4 ,! same = ne> ,objects4 #aj4 ,objections answ]$4 ,sect4 ,,iv4 ,! ,p]ception ( ,visible ,figures4 ,art4 #aa4 ,br[n's ,op9ion4 ,,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,,successive ,,attempts ,,at ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,a ,,m$ium #cbb ,art4 #a4 ,introduction4 #b4 ,s\nd4 #c4 ,light4 #d4 ,heat4 ,,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,measure ,,( ,,second>y ,,qualities #ccc ,sect4 ,i4 ,scales ( ,qualities 9 ,g5]al4 ,art4 #a4 ,int5sity4 #b4 ,quantity & ,quality4 ,sect4 ,,ii4 ,! ,musical ,scale4 ,art4 #c4 ,musical ,relations4 #d4 ,musical ,/&>d4 ,sect4 ,,iii4 ,scales ( ,col\r4 ,art4 #e4 ,! ,prismatic ,scale4 #f4 ,newton's ,scale4 #g4 ,scales ( ,impure ,col\rs4 #h4 ,*romatomet]4 ,sect4 ,,iv4 ,scales ( ,light4 ,art4 #i4 ,photomet]4 #aj4 ,cyanomet]4 ,sect4 ,v4 ,scales ( ,heat4 ,art4 #aa4 ,!rmomet]s4 #ab4 ,_! progress4 #ac4 ,fix$ ,po9ts4 #ad4 ,concordance ( ,!rmomet]s4 #ae4 ,natural ,measure4 #af4 ,law ( ,cool+4 xvi #ag4 ,!ory ( ,ex*anges4 #ah4 ,air ,!rmomet]4 #ai4 ,!ory ( ,heat4 #bj4 ,o!r ,in/rum5ts4 ,sect4 ,,vi4 ,scales ( o!r ,quantities4 ,art4 #ba4 ,ta/es & ,smells4 #bb4 ,quality ( ,s\nds4 #bc4 ,articulate ,s\nds4 #bd4 ,transition4 ,,book ,v4 ,,( ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,me*anico-,,*emical ,,sci5ces4 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,,attempts ,,at ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,pol>ity #cei ,art4 #a4 ,introduction ( ! ,idea4 #b4 ,magnetism4 #c4 ,electricity4 #d4 ,voltaic ,electricity4 #e4 ,light4 #f4 ,cry/allization4 #g4 ,*emical ,aff9ity4 #h4 ,g5]al ,rem>ks4 #i4 ,l repels l4 ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,,( ,,! ,,connexion ,,( ,,pol>ities #cga ,art4 #a4 ,diff]5t ,pol> ,ph5om5a f "o ,cause4 #b4 ,connexion ( ,magnetic & ,electric ,pol>ity4 #c4 ,ampre's ,!ory4 #d4 ,f>aday's views4 #e4 ,connexion ( ,electrical & ,*emical ,pol>ity4 #f4 ,davy's & ,f>aday's views #g4 ,dep5d ^u ,ideas z well z ,exp]im5ts4 #h4 ,f>aday's ,anticipations4 #i4 ,connexion ( ,*emical & ,cry/all9e ,pol>ities4 #aj4 ,connexion ( ,cry/all9e & ,optical ,pol>ities4 #aa4 ,connexion ( ,pol>ities 9 g5]al4 #ab4 ,s*ell+'s ,speculations4 #ac4 ,hegel's vague notions4 #ad4 ,ideas mu/ guide ,exp]im5t4 #a ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,inductive ,,sci5ces4 ,,introduction4 #c ,,introduction4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,sci5ce1 if ! phrase 7 to be und]/ood 9 ! compreh5sive s5se :i* mo/ naturally (f]s itself to our ?\ghts1 w\ld imply no?+ less ?an a complete insight into ! ess5ce & conditions ( all real k1 & an exposition ( ! be/ me?ods = ! discov]y ( new tru?s4 ,we mu/ n>r[ & l[] ?is conception1 9 ord] to m\ld x into a =m 9 :i* we may make x ! imm$iate object ( our lab\rs ) a good hope ( success2 yet /ill x may be a rational & useful und]tak+1 to endeav\r to make "s advance t[>ds su* a ,philosophy1 ev5 accord+ to ! mo/ ample conception ( x :i* we c =m4 ,! pres5t "w has be5 writt5 ) a view ( contribut+1 9 "s measure1 h[ev] small x may be1 t[>ds su* an und]tak+4 ,b 9 ?is1 z 9 e attempt to advance beyond ! position :i* we at pres5t occupy1 our hope ( success mu/ dep5d ma9ly ^u our be+ able to pr(it1 to ! fulle/ ext5t1 by ! progress already made4 ,we may be/ hope to und]/& ! nature & conditions ( real k1 by /udy+ ! nature & conditions ( ! mo/ c]ta9 & /able portions ( k :i* we already possess3 & we are mo/ likely to le>n ! be/ me?ods ( discov]+ tru?1 by exam9+ h[ tru?s1 n[ univ]sally recogniz$1 h really be5 discov]$4 ,n[ !re d exi/ among u doctr9es ( solid & ackn[l$g$ c]ta9ty1 & tru?s ( :i* ! discov]y has be5 receiv$ ) univ]sal applause4 ,^! con/itute :at we commonly t]m ,sci5ces2 & ( ^! bodies ( exact & endur+ k1 we h )9 our #d rea* s l>ge & v>i$ a collection1 t we may exam9e !m1 & ! hi/ory ( _! =mation1 ) a good prospect ( d]iv+ f ! /udy su* in/ruction z we seek4 ,we may be/ hope to make "s progress t[>ds ! ,philosophy ( ,sci5ce1 by employ+ ourselves ^u ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,sci5ces4 ,! ,sci5ces to :i* ! "n is mo/ commonly & unhesitat+ly giv51 are ^? :i* are conc]n$ ab\t ! mat]ial _w2 :e!r !y deal ) ! cele/ial bodies1 z ! sun & />s1 or ! e>? & its products1 or ! elem5ts2 :e!r !y consid] ! diff]5ces :i* prevail among su* objects1 or _! orig91 or _! mutual op]ation4 ,& 9 all ^! ,sci5ces x is famili>ly und]/ood & assum$1 t _! doctr9es are obta9$ by a common process ( collect+ g5]al tru?s f p>ticul> obs]v$ facts1 :i* process is t]m$ ,induction4 ,x is fur!r assum$ t bo? 9 ^! & 9 o!r prov9ces ( k1 s long z ?is process is duly & legitimately p]=m$1 ! results w be real sub/antial tru?4 ,& al?\gh ?is process1 ) ! conditions "u :i* x is legitimate1 & ! g5]al laws ( ! =mation ( ,sci5ces1 w h]eaft] be subjects ( discussion 9 ?is "w1 ,i %all at pres5t s f> adopt ! assumption ( :i* ,i speak1 z to give to ! ,sci5ces f :i* our lessons are to be collect$ ! "n ( ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,& ?us x is t ,i am l$ to designate my "w z ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,inductive ,,sci5ces4 ,! views respect+ ! nature & progress ( k1 t[>ds :i* we %all be direct$ by su* a c\rse ( inquiry z ,i h po9t$ out1 ?\gh d]iv$ f ^? portions ( human k :i* are m peculi>ly & te*nically t]m$ ,sci5ces1 w by no means be conf9$1 9 _! be>+1 to ! doma9 ( su* ,sci5ces z deal ) ! mat]ial _w1 nor ev5 to ! :ole range ( ,sci5ces n[ exi/+4 ,on ! contr>y1 we %all be l$ to believe t ! nature ( tru? is 9 all subjects ! same1 & t its discov]y involves1 9 all cases1 ! l #e conditions4 ,on "o subject ( human speculation aft] ano!r1 man's k assumes t exact & sub/antial "* :i* leads u to t]m x ,sci5ce2 & 9 all ^! cases1 :e!r in]t matt] or liv+ bodies1 :e!r p]man5t relations or successive occurr5ces1 be ! subject ( our att5tion1 we c po9t out c]ta9 univ]sal *>act]s :i* belong to tru?1 c]ta9 g5]al laws :i* h regulat$ its progress among m54 ,& we naturally expect t1 ev5 :5 we ext5d our range ( speculation wid] /ill1 :5 we contemplate ! _w )9 u z well z ! _w )\t u1 :5 we consid] ! ?\ghts & actions ( m5 z well z ! motions & op]ations ( un9tellig5t bodies1 we %all /ill f9d "s g5]al analogies :i* belong to ! ess5ce ( tru?1 & run ?r\gh ! :ole intellectual univ]se4 ,h5ce we h reason to tru/ t a j ,philosophy ( ! ,sci5ces may ?r[ light ^u ! nature & ext5t ( our k 9 e dep>tm5t ( human speculation4 ,by consid]+ :at is ! real import ( our acquisitions1 :]e !y are c]ta9 & def9ite1 we may le>n some?+ respect+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 true k & its prec>i\s or illusory semblances2 by exam9+ ! /eps by :i* su* acquisitions h be5 made1 we may discov] ! conditions "u :i* tru? is to be obta9$2 by trac+ ! b\nd>y-l9e betwe5 our k & our ignorance1 we may asc]ta9 9 "s measure ! ext5t ( ! p[]s ( man's und]/&+4 ,b x may be said1 9 su* a design !re is no?+ new2 ^! are objects at :i* inquir+ m5 h (t5 be=e aim$4 ,to det]m9e ! diff]5ce betwe5 real & imag9>y k1 ! conditions "u :i* we arrive at tru?1 ! range ( ! p[]s ( ! human m9d1 has be5 a fav\rite employm5t ( speculative m5 f ! e>lie/ to ! mo/ rec5t times4 ,to inquire into ! orig9al1 c]ta9ty1 & compass ( man's k1 ! limits ( 8 capacity1 ! /r5g? & weakness ( 8 reason1 has be5 ! pr(ess$ purpose ( _m ( ! mo/ conspicu\s & valu$ lab\rs ( ! philosoph]s ( #f all p]iods up to our own day4 ,x may appe>1 !re=e1 t !re is little necessity to add "o m to ^! num]\s essays2 & little hope t any new attempt w make any v important addition to ! /ores ( ?\ght ^u su* que/ions1 :i* h be5 accumulat$ by ! pr(\nde/ & acute/ ?9k]s ( all ages4 ,to ?is ,i reply1 t )\t at all disp>ag+ ! value or importance ( ! lab\rs ( ^? :o h previ\sly writt5 respect+ ! f\ndations & conditions ( human k1 x may /ill be possible to add some?+ to :at !y h done4 ,! writ+s ( all great philosoph]s1 up to our own "t1 =m a s]ies :i* is n yet t]m9at$4 ,! books & sy/ems ( philosophy :i* h1 ea* 9 its own "t1 won ! admiration ( m51 & ex]cis$ a p[]ful influ5ce ^u _! ?\ghts1 h _h ea* its own "p & functions 9 ! intellectual hi/ory ( ! _w2 & o!r lab\rs :i* %all succe$ ^! may also h _! prop] (fice & useful effect4 ,we may n be able to d mu*1 & yet /ill x may be 9 our p[] to effect some?+4 ,p]haps ! v advances made by =m] inquir]s may h made x possible = u1 at pres5t1 to advance /ill fur!r4 ,9 ! discov]y ( tru?1 9 ! developm5t ( man's m5tal p[]s & privileges1 ea* g5]ation has its assign$ "p2 & x is = u to endeav\r to p]=m our portion ( ?is p]petual task ( our species4 ,al?\gh ! t]ms :i* describe our und]tak+ may be ! same :i* h (t5 be5 employ$ by previ\s writ]s to express _! purpose1 yet our position is diff]5t f !irs1 & ?us ! result may be diff]5t too4 ,we h1 z !y _h1 to run our appropriate c\rse ( speculation ) ! ex]tion ( our be/ p[]s2 b our c\rse lies 9 a m advanc$ "p ( ! great l9e along :i* ,philosophy travels f age to age4 ,h[ev] famili> & old1 !re=e1 be ! design ( su* a "w z ?is1 ! execution may h1 & if x be p]=m$ 9 a mann] suitable to ! "t1 w h1 some?+ t is new & n unimportant4 #g ,inde$1 x appe>s to be absolutely necess>y1 9 ord] to *eck ! preval5ce ( grave & p]nici\s err\r1 t ! doctr9es :i* are taught conc]n+ ! f\ndations ( human k & ! p[]s ( ! human m9d1 %\ld be f "t to "t revis$ & correct$ or ext5d$4 ,errone\s & p>tial views are promulgat$ & accept$2 "o portion ( ! tru? is insi/$ ^u to ! undue exclusion ( ano!r2 or pr9ciples true 9 !mselves are exagg]at$ till !y produce on m5's m9ds ! effect ( falsehood4 ,:5 evils ( ?is k9d h gr[n to a s]i\s height1 a ,re=m is requisite4 ,! faults ( ! exi/+ sy/ems mu/ be rem$i$ by correct+ :at is wrong1 & supply+ :at is want+4 ,9 su* cases1 all ! m]its & excell5cies ( ! lab\rs ( ! prec$+ times d n sup]s$e ! necessity ( putt+ =? new views suit$ to ! em]g5cy :i* has arriv$4 ,! new =m :i* err\r has assum$ makes x prop] to endeav\r to give a new & correspond+ =m to tru?4 ,?us ! m]e progress ( "t1 & ! natural gr[? ( op9ion f "o /age to ano!r1 leads to ! production ( new sy/ems & =ms ( philosophy4 ,x w be f\nd1 ,i ?9k1 t "s ( ! doctr9es n[ mo/ widely preval5t respect+ ! f\ndations & nature ( tru? are ( su* a k9d t a ,re=m is ne$$4 ,! pres5t age seems1 by _m indications1 to be call$ ^u to seek a s\nd] ,philosophy ( ,k ?an is n[ curr5t among u4 ,to contribute t[>ds su* a ,philosophy is ! object ( ! pres5t "w4 ,! "w is1 !re=e1 l all works :i* take into acc\nt ! mo/ rec5t =ms ( speculative doctr9e1 inve/$ ) a c]ta9 degree ( novelty 9 its aspect & import1 by ! m]e "t & circum/ances ( its appe>ance4 ,b1 moreov]1 we c po9t out a v important peculi>ity by :i* ?is "w is1 9 its design1 di/+ui%$ f prec$+ essays on l subjects2 & ?is diff]5ce appe>s to be ( su* a k9d z may well entitle u to expect "s sub/antial addition to our k z ! result ( our lab\rs4 ,! peculi>ity #h ( :i* ,i speak has already be5 ann\nc$2--x is ?is3 t we purpose to collect our doctr9es conc]n+ ! nature ( k1 & ! be/ mode ( acquir+ x1 f a contemplation ( ! ,/ructure & ,hi/ory ( ^? ,sci5ces 7! ,mat]ial ,sci5ces71 :i* are univ]sally recogniz$ z ! cle>e/ & sure/ examples ( k & ( discov]y4 ,x is by survey+ & /udy+ ! :ole mass ( su* ,sci5ces1 & ! v>i\s /eps ( _! progress1 t we n[ hope to approa* to ! true ,philosophy ( ,sci5ce4 ,n[ ?is1 ,i v5ture to say1 is a new me?od ( pursu+ ! philosophy ( human k4 ,^? :o h hi!rto endeav\r$ to expla9 ! nature ( k1 & ! process ( discov]y1 h1 x is true1 (t5 illu/rat$ _! views by adduc+ special examples ( tru?s :i* !y conceiv$ to be e/abli%$1 & by ref]r+ to ! mode ( _! e/abli%m5t4 ,b ^! examples h1 = ! mo/ "p1 be5 tak5 at r&om1 n select$ accord+ to any pr9ciple or sy/em4 ,(t5 !y h involv$ doctr9es s prec>i\s or s vague t !y confus$ r ?an elucidat$ ! subject2 & in/ead ( a s+le difficulty1--,:at is ! nature ( ,k8 ^! attempts at illu/ration introduc$ two1--,:at 0 ! true analysis ( ! ,doctr9es ?us adduc$8 &1--,:e!r !y might safely be tak5 z types ( real ,k8 ,?is has usually be5 ! case :5 !re h be5 adduc$1 z /&>d examples ( ! =mation ( human k1 doctr9es belong+ to suppos$ sci5ces o!r ?an ! mat]ial sci5ces2 doctr9es1 = example1 ( ,political ,economy1 or ,philology1 or ,morals1 or ! ,philosophy ( ! ,f9e ,arts4 ,i am v f> f ?9k+ t1 9 reg>d to su* subjects1 !re are no important tru?s hi!rto e/abli%$3 b x w\ld seem t ^? tru?s :i* h be5 obta9$ 9 ^! prov9ces ( k1 h n yet be5 fix$ by means ( di/9ct & p]man5t phraseology1 & sanction$ by univ]sal reception1 & =m$ into a connect$ sy/em1 & trac$ ?r\gh ! /eps ( _! gradual discov]y & e/abli%m5t1 s z to make #i !m in/ructive examples ( ! nature & progress ( tru? 9 g5]al4 ,h]eaft] we tru/ to be able to %[ t ! progress ( moral1 & political1 & philological1 & o!r k1 is gov]n$ by ! same laws z t ( physical sci5ce4 ,b s9ce1 at pres5t1 ! =m] class ( subjects are full ( controv]sy1 d\bt1 & obscurity1 :ile ! latt] consi/ ( undisput$ tru?s cle>ly und]/ood & express$1 x may be consid]$ a wise proc$ure to make ! latt] class ( doctr9es ! basis ( our speculations4 ,& on ! hav+ tak5 ?is c\rse1 is1 9 a great measure1 my hope f\nd$1 ( obta9+ valuable tru?s :i* h escap$ prec$+ inquir]s4 ,b x may be said t _m prec$+ writ]s on ! nature & progress ( k h tak5 _! examples abundantly f ! ,physical ,sci5ces4 ,x w\ld be easy to po9t out admirable works1 :i* h appe>$ dur+ ! pres5t & =m] g5]ations1 9 :i* in/ances ( discov]y1 borr[$ f ! ,physical ,sci5ces1 are introduc$ 9 a mann] mo/ happily in/ructive4 ,& to ! works 9 :i* ?is has be5 done1 ,i gladly give my mo/ cordial admiration4 ,b at ! same "t ,i may v5ture to rem>k t !re /ill rema9s a diff]5ce betwe5 my design & !irs3 & t ,i use ! ,physical ,sci5ces z exemplifications ( ! g5]al progress ( k 9 a mann] v mat]ially diff]5t f ! c\rse :i* is foll[$ 9 works su* z are n[ ref]r$ to4 ,= ! conclusions /at$ 9 ! pres5t "w1 respect+ k & discov]y1 are drawn f a connect$ & sy/ematic survey ( ! :ole range ( ,physical ,sci5ce & its ,hi/ory2 :]eas1 hi!rto1 philosoph]s h cont5t$ !mselves ) adduc+ deta*$ examples ( sci5tific doctr9es1 drawn f "o or two dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce4 ,s long z we select our examples 9 ?is arbitr>y & limit$ mann]1 we lose ! be/ "p ( t philosophical in/ruction1 :i* ! sci5ces are fitt$ to af=d :5 we consid] !m z all memb]s ( "o s]ies1 & z gov]n$ by rules :i* are ! same = all4 ,ma!matical & *emical tru?s1 physical & physiological doctr9es1 ! sci5ces ( #aj classification & ( causation1 mu/ alike be tak5 into our acc\nt1 9 ord] t we may le>n :at are ! g5]al *>act]s ( real k4 ,:5 our conclusions assume s compreh5sive a %ape t !y apply to a range ( subjects s va/ & v>i$ z ^!1 we may feel "s confid5ce t !y repres5t ! g5u9e =m ( univ]sal & p]man5t tru?4 ,b if our exemplification is ( a n>r[] k9d1 x may easily cramp & di/urb our philosophy4 ,we may1 = in/ance1 r5d] our views ( tru? & its evid5ce s rigid & conf9$ z to be q wor?less1 by f\nd+ !m too mu* on ! contemplation ( ma!matical tru?4 ,we may ov]look "s ( ! mo/ important /eps 9 ! g5]al c\rse ( discov]y1 by fix+ our att5tion too exclusively ^u "s "o conspicu\s gr\p ( discov]ies1 z1 = in/ance1 ^? ( ,newton4 ,we may misund]/& ! nature ( physiological discov]ies1 by attempt+ to =ce an analogy betwe5 !m & discov]ies ( me*anical laws1 & by n att5d+ to ! int]m$iate sci5ces :i* fill up ! va/ int]val betwe5 ^! extreme t]ms 9 ! s]ies ( mat]ial sci5ces4 ,9 ^! & 9 _m o!r ways1 a p>tial & arbitr>y ref]5ce to ! mat]ial sci5ces 9 our inquiry into human k may mislead u2 or at lea/ may fail to give u ^? wid] views1 & t deep] insight1 :i* %\ld result f a sy/ematic /udy ( ! :ole range ( sci5ces ) ?is p>ticul> object4 ,! design ( ! foll[+ "w1 !n1 is to =m a ,philosophy ( ,sci5ce1 by analyz+ ! sub/ance & exam9+ ! progress ( ! exi/+ body ( ! sci5ces4 ,z a prelim9>y to ?is und]tak+1 a survey ( ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ces 0 necess>y4 ,?is1 accord+ly1 ,i h already p]=m$2 & ! result ( ! lab\r ?us und]tak5 has be5 laid be=e ! public z a ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,9 t "w ,i h endeav\r$ to trace ! /eps by :i* m5 acquir$ ea* ma9 portion ( t k on :i* !y n[ look ) s mu* confid5ce & satisfaction4 ,! ev5ts :i* t ,hi/ory relates1 ! speculations & controv]sies #aa :i* are !re describ$1 & discussions ( ! same k9d1 f> m ext5sive1 :i* are !re omitt$1 mu/ all be tak5 into our acc\nt at pres5t1 z ! prom95t & /&>d examples ( ! circum/ances :i* att5d ! progress ( k4 ,) s mu* ( real hi/orical fact be=e u1 we may hope to avoid su* views ( ! processes ( ! human m9d z are too p>tial & limit$1 or too vague & loose1 or too ab/ract & unsub/antial1 to repres5t fitly ! real =ms ( discov]y & ( tru?4 ,( =m] attempts1 made ) ! same view ( trac+ ! conditions ( ! progress ( k1 t ( ,bacon is p]haps ! mo/ conspicu\s3 & 8 lab\rs on ?is subject 7 op5$ by 8 book on ! ,advancem5t ( ,le>n+1 :i* conta9s1 among o!r matt]1 a survey ( ! !n exi/+ /ate ( k4 ,b ?is review 0 und]tak5 r ) ! object ( asc]ta9+ 9 :at qu>t]s future advances 7 to be hop$ =1 ?an ( le>n+ by :at means !y 7 to be made4 ,8 exam9ation ( ! doma9 ( human k 0 conduct$ r ) ! view ( discov]+ :at rema9$ undone1 ?an ( f9d+ out h[ s mu* _h be5 done4 ,bacon's survey 0 made = ! purpose ( trac+ ! b\nd>ies1 r ?an ( detect+ ! pr9ciples ( k4 ',i w n[ attempt1' he says#a;,i1 'to make a g5]al & fai?ful p]ambulation ( le>n+1 ) an inquiry :at p>ts !re( lie fre% & wa/e1 & n improv$ & conv]t$ by ! indu/ry ( man2 to ! end t su* a plot made & record$ to memory1 may bo? m9i/] light to any public designation1 & also s]ve to excite volunt>y endeav\rs4' ,nor w x be =eign to our s*eme also h]eaft] to exam9e ) a l purpose ! fronti]-l9e ( man's intellectual e/ate4 ,b ! object ( our p]ambulation 9 ! fir/ place1 is n s mu* to det]m9e ! ext5t ( ! field1 z ! s\rces ( its f]tility4 ,we w\ld le>n by :at plan & rules #ab ( culture1 conspir+ ) ! native =ces ( ! b\nte\s soil1 ^? ri* h>ve/s h be5 produc$ :i* fill our g>n]s4 ,bacon's maxims1 on ! o!r h&1 respect+ ! mode 9 :i* he conceiv$ t k 0 !nce=? to be cultivat$1 h little ref]5ce to ! failures1 /ill less to ! successes1 :i* are record$ 9 8 ,review ( ! le>n+ ( 8 "t4 ,8 precepts are connect$ ) 8 hi/orical views 9 a slight & uness5tial mann]4 ,8 ,philosophy ( ! ,sci5ces is n collect$ f ! ,sci5ces :i* are notic$ 9 8 survey4 ,nor1 9 tru?1 c\ld ?is1 at ! "t :5 he wrote1 h easily be5 o!rwise4 ,at t p]iod1 sc>ce any bran* ( physics exi/$ z a sci5ce1 except ,a/ronomy4 ,! rules :i* ,bacon gives = ! conduct ( sci5tific rese>*es are obta9$1 z x 71 by div9ation1 f ! contemplation ( subjects ) reg>d to :i* no sci5ces z yet 74 ,8 in/ances ( /eps rightly or wrongly made 9 ?is pa?1 are 9 a great measure cases ( 8 own devis+4 ,he c\ld n h exemplifi$ 8 ,aphorisms by ref]5ces to treatises !n extant1 on ! laws ( nature2 = ! con/ant burd5 ( 8 exhortation is1 t m5 up to 8 "t _h almo/ univ]sally foll[$ an errone\s c\rse4 ,& h[ev] we may admire ! sagacity ) :i* he po9t$ ! way along a bett] pa?1 we h ?is great advantage ov] him2--t we c int]rogate ! _m travell]s :o s9ce 8 "t h j\rney$ on ?is road4 ,at ! pres5t day1 :5 we h "u our notice s _m sci5ces1 ( su* wide ext5t1 s well e/abli%$2 a ,philosophy ( ! ,sci5ces ought1 x mu/ seem1 to be f\nd$1 n ^u conjecture1 b ^u an exam9ation ( _m in/ances2--%\ld n consi/ ( a few vague & unconnect$ maxims1 difficult & d\btful 9 _! application1 b %\ld =m a sy/em ( :i* e "p has be5 repeat$ly confirm$ & v]ifi$4 ,note #a;,i3 ,advancem5t ( ,le>n+1 b4 i4 p4 #gd4 ,?is accord+ly x is ! purpose ( ! pres5t "w to attempt4 ,b ,i may fur!r obs]ve1 t z my hope ( mak+ any progress 9 ?is und]tak+ is #ac f\nd$ ^u ! design ( keep+ con/antly 9 view ! :ole result ( ! pa/ hi/ory & pres5t condition ( sci5ce1 ,i h also be5 l$ to draw my lessons f my examples 9 a mann] m sy/ematic & regul>1 z appe>s to me1 ?an has be5 done by prec$+ writ]s4 ,bacon1 z ,i h j said1 0 l$ to 8 maxims = ! promotion ( k by ! sagacity ( 8 own m9d1 ) little or no aid f previ\s examples4 ,succe$+ philosoph]s may (t5 h ga!r$ useful in/ruction f ! in/ances ( sci5tific tru?s & discov]ies :i* !y adduc$1 b _! conclusions 7 drawn f _! in/ances casually & arbitr>ily4 ,!y took = _! moral any :i* ! /ory might sugge/4 ,b su* a proce$+ z ?is _c suffice = u1 ^: aim is to obta9 a consi/5t body ( philosophy f a contemplation ( ! :ole ( ,sci5ce & its ,hi/ory4 ,= our purpose x is necess>y to resolve sci5tific tru?s into _! conditions & +r$i5ts1 9 ord] t we may see 9 :at mann] ea* ( ^! has be5 & is to be provid$1 9 ! cases :i* we may h to consid]4 ,?is accord+ly is necess>ily ! fir/ "p ( our task3--to analyse ,sci5tific ,tru? into its ,elem5ts4 ,?is attempt w occupy ! e>li] portion ( ! pres5t "w2 & w necess>ily be some:at long1 & p]haps1 9 _m p>ts1 ab/ruse & un9vit+4 ,! risk ( su* an inconv5i5ce is inevitable2 = ! inquiry br+s be=e u _m ( ! mo/ d>k & entangl$ que/ions 9 :i* m5 h at any "t busi$ !mselves4 ,& ev5 if ^! c n[ be made cle>] & pla9] ?an ( yore1 /ill !y c be made s only by means ( m5tal discipl9e & m5tal ef=t4 ,moreov] ?is analysis ( sci5tific tru? into its elem5ts conta9s mu*1 bo? 9 its pr9ciples & 9 its results1 diff]5t f ! doctr9es mo/ g5]ally preval5t among u 9 rec5t times3 b on t v acc\nt ?is analysis is an ess5tial "p ( ! doctr9es :i* ,i h n[ to lay be=e ! read]3 & ,i mu/ !re=e crave 8 indulg5ce t[>ds any portion ( x :i* may appe> to him obscure or repulsive4 #ad ,!re is ano!r circum/ance :i* may t5d to make ! pres5t "w less pleas+ ?an o!rs on ! same subject1 9 ! nature ( ! examples ( human k to :i* ,i conf9e myself2 all my in/ances be+1 z ,i h said1 tak5 f ! mat]ial sci5ces4 ,= ! tru?s belong+ to ^! sci5ces are1 = ! mo/ "p1 nei!r s famili> nor s int]e/+ to ! bulk ( read]s z ^? doctr9es :i* belong to "s o!r subjects4 ,e g5]al proposition conc]n+ politics or morals at once /irs up an int]e/ 9 m5's bosoms1 :i* makes !m li/5 ) curiosity to ! attempts to trace x to its orig9 & f\ndation4 ,e rule ( art or language br+s be=e ! m9d ( cultivat$ m5 subjects ( famili> & agreeable ?\ght1 & is dwelt ^u ) pleasure = its own sake1 z well z on acc\nt ( ! philosophical lessons :i* x may convey4 ,b ! curiosity :i* reg>ds ! tru?s ( physics or *emi/ry1 or ev5 ( physiology or a/ronomy1 is ( a m limit$ & less animat$ k9d4 ,h5ce1 9 ! mode ( inquiry :i* ,i h prescrib$ to myself1 ! examples :i* ,i h to adduce w n amuse & relieve ! read]'s m9d z mu* z !y might d1 if ,i c\ld all[ myself to collect !m f ! :ole field ( human k4 ,!y w h 9 !m no?+ to engage 8 fancy1 or to w>m 8 he>t4 ,i am compell$ to deta9 ! li/5] 9 ! *illy air ( ! ext]nal _w1 9 ord] t we may h ! advantage ( full daylight4 ,b al?\gh ,i _c avoid ?is inconv5i5ce1 s f> z x is "o1 ,i hope x w be recollect$ h[ great are ! advantages :i* we obta9 by ?is re/riction4 ,we are ?us enabl$ to draw all our conclusions f doctr9es :i* are univ]sally all[$ to be em95tly c]ta91 cle>1 & def9ite4 ,! portions ( k to :i* ,i ref] are well kn[n1 & well e/abli%$ among m54 ,_! names are famili>1 _! ass]tions unconte/$4 ,a/ronomy & ,geology1 ,me*anics & ,*emi/ry1 ,optics & ,ac\/ics1 ,botany & ,physiology1 are ea* recogniz$ z l>ge & sub/antial collections ( und\bt$ tru?s4 ,m5 are #ae wont to dwell ) pride & triumph on ! acquisitions ( k :i* h be5 made 9 ea* ( ^! prov9ces2 & to speak ) confid5ce ( ! c]ta9ty ( _! results4 ,& all c easily le>n 9 :at repositories ^! treasures ( human k are to be f\nd4 ,:51 !re=e1 we beg9 our inquiry f su* examples1 we proce$ ^u a solid f\ndation4 ,) su* a cle> gr\nd ( confid5ce1 we %all n be met ) g5]al ass]tions ( ! vagu5ess & unc]ta9ty ( human k2 ) ! "q1 ,:at tru? is1 & ,h[ we are to recognize x2 ) compla9ts conc]n+ ! hopelessness & unpr(itabl5ess ( su* rese>*es4 ,we h1 at lea/1 a def9ite problem be=e u4 ,we h to exam9e ! /ructure & s*eme1 n ( a %apeless mass ( incoh]5t mat]ials1 ( :i* we d\bt :e!r x be a ru9 or a natural wild]ness1 b ( a fair & l(ty palace1 /ill erect & t5ant$1 :]e hundr$s ( diff]5t ap>tm5ts belong to a common plan1 :]e e g5]ation adds some?+ to ! ext5t & magnific5ce ( ! pile4 ,! c]ta9ty & ! con/ant progress ( sci5ce are ?+s s unque/ion$1 t we are at lea/ engag$ 9 an intelligible inquiry1 :5 we are exam9+ ! gr\nds & nature ( t c]ta9ty1 ! causes & laws ( t progress4 ,to ?is inquiry1 !n1 we n[ proce$4 ,& 9 ent]+ ^u ?is task1 h[ev] our plan or our pr9ciples may diff] f ^? ( ! em95t philosoph]s :o h endeav\r$1 9 our own or 9 =m] times1 to illu/rate or en=ce ! philosophy ( sci5ce1 we mo/ will+ly ackn[l$ge !m z 9 _m ?+s our lead]s & tea*]s4 ,ea* re=m mu/ involve its own peculi> pr9ciples1 & ! result ( our attempts1 s f> z !y lead to a result1 mu/ be1 9 "s respects1 diff]5t f ^? ( =m] works4 ,b we may /ill %>e ) ! great writ]s :o h treat$ ?is subject be=e u1 _! _s ( hope & tru/1 _! rev]5ce = ! dignity ( ! subject1 _! belief 9 ! va/ p[]s & b\ndless de/9y ( man4 ,& we may once m v5ture to use ! #af words ( hopeful exhortation1 ) :i* ! greate/ ( ^? :o h trodd5 ?is pa? enc\rag$ himself & 8 foll[]s :5 he set out ^u 8 way4 ',conc]n+ ourselves we speak n2 b z t\*+ ! matt] :i* we h 9 h&1 ?is we ask2--t m5 deem x n to be ! sett+ up an ,op9ion1 b ! p]=m+ ( a ,"w3 & t !y receive ?is z a c]ta9ty2 t we are n lay+ ! f\ndations ( any sect or doctr9e1 b ( ! pr(it & dignity ( mank9d4 ,fur!rmore1 t be+ well dispos$ to :at %all advantage !mselves1 & putt+ (f factions & prejudices1 !y take common c\nsel ) u1 to ! end t be+ by ^! our aids & appliances fre$ & def5d$ f w&]+s & imp$im5ts1 !y may l5d _! h&s also to ! lab\rs :i* rema9 to be p]=m$3 & yet fur!r1 t !y be ( good hope2 nei!r imag9e to !mselves ?is our ,re=m z some?+ ( inf9ite dim5sion1 & beyond ! grasp ( mortal man1 :5 9 tru? x is ! end & true limit ( inf9ite err\r2 & is by no means unm9dful ( ! condition ( mortality & humanity1 n confid+ t su* a ?+ c be c>ri$ to its p]fect close 9 ! space ( "o s+le age1 b assign+ x z a task to a succession ( g5]ations4' ,! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 accord+ to our view1 mu/ be f\nd$ ^u ! ,hi/ory ( su* ,sci5ces2 :i* hi/ory we h attempt$ 9 a =m] "w4 ,! ev5ts ( t hi/ory may be describ$ g5]ally z ! rise ( ,!ories out ( ,facts4 ,b besides ?is1 :i* we may t]m ! ext]nal hi/ory ( ,!ories1 !re is an int]nal hi/ory ( ,!ories1 namely1 ! s]ies ( /eps by :i* ! human m9d becomes capable ( =m+ ea* ,!ory4 ,h5ce to complete ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ces z d]iv$ f ,facts1 we require a hi/ory ( ! ,ideas by :i* su* d]ivation has be5 made possible3 & ?us1 ! ,fir/ ,"p ( our ,philosophy mu/ be a ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas2--a lab\r no less hi/orical ?an our =m] "w1 & conc]n$ ) ! same ev5ts2 b :i* has be5 purposely kept sep>ate dur+ ! #ag composition1 9 ord] t x might be aft]w>ds pres5t$ 9 a m sy/ematic =m1 :i* ,i h "h attempt$ to d4 ,sci5tific ,ideas are ! ,conditions ( ! d]ivation ( ,sci5ces f ,facts3 b c any me?od or me?ods be giv5 by :i* su* a ,d]ivation c be ensur$1 or at lea/1 aid$8 ,_m su* me?ods h be5 propos$2 ( :i* ! mo/ celebrat$ is ! ,novum ,organon ( ,bacon1 ( :i* ! title 0 int5d$ to imply t its scope goes mu* beyond ! ,organon ( ,ari/otle4 ,) ! exp]i5ce ( ! =mation ( ,sci5ce :i* ! _w has _h s9ce ,bacon's "t1 x does n appe> presumptu\s to suppose t we c n[ improve or correct 8 me?ods2 nor to t]m su* an attempt ,novum ,organon ,r5ovatum4 ,! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 !n1 conta9s ^! two p>ts1 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas1 & ! ,novum ,organon ,r5ovatum4 #ai ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,inductive ,,sci5ces4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,ideas4 ,we h j spok5 ( ,!ories & ,facts1 ( ,ideas & ,facts1 & ( ,inductive ,sci5ces1 :i* imply ! opposition ( ,induction & ,d$uction4 ,! explanation ( ^! anti!ses mu/ be ! />t+ po9t ( our ,philosophy4 ,k gr[s1 & ?r\gh ! ages "o increas+ purpose runs1 ,& ! ?\ghts ( m5 are wid5'd ) ! process ( ! ,suns4 ,,book ,i4 ,,( ,,ideas ,,9 ,,g5]al4 ,qu adhuc inv5ta sunt 9 ,sci5tiis1 ea hujusmodi sunt ut ,notionibus ,vulg>ibus f]e subjaceant3 ut v]o ad int]iora et remotiora ,natur p5etretur1 necesse e/ ut tam ,,notiones quam ,,axiomata magis c]t et munit vi a p>ticul>ibus ab/rahantur2 atque omn9o melior et c]tior intellects adop]atio 9 usum v5iat4 ,,bacon1 ,nov4 ,org41 ,lib4 #a4 ,aphor4 xviii4 #bc ,,book ,i4 ,,( ,,ideas ,,9 ,,g5]al4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,( ,,! ,,fundam5tal ,,anti!sis ,,( ,,philosophy4 ,sect4 #a4--,?\ghts & ,?+s4 ,,9 ord] t we may d some?+ t[>ds det]m9+ ! nature & conditions ( human k1 7:i* ,i h already /at$ z ! purpose ( ?is "w17 ,i %all h to ref] to an anti!sis or opposition1 :i* is famili> & g5]ally recogniz$1 & 9 :i* ! di/9ction ( ! ?+s oppos$ to ea* o!r is commonly consid]$ v cle> & pla94 ,i %all h to attempt to make ?is opposition %>p] & /rong] ?an x is usually conceiv$1 & yet to %ew t ! di/9ction is f> f be+ s cle> & def9ite z x is usually assum$ to be3 ,i %all h to po9t ! contra/1 yet %ew t ! ?+s :i* are contra/$ _c be sep>at$3--,i mu/ expla9 t ! anti!sis is con/ant & ess5tial1 b yet t !re is no fix$ & p]man5t l9e divid+ its memb]s4 ,i may ?us appe>1 9 diff]5t p>ts ( my discussion1 to be proce$+ 9 opposite directions1 b ,i hope t ! read] :o gives me a pati5t att5tion w see t bo? /eps lead to ! po9t ( view to :i* ,i wi% to lead him4 ,! anti!sis or opposition ( :i* ,i speak is d5ot$1 ) v>i\s modifications1 by v>i\s pairs ( t]ms3 ,i %all endeav\r to %ew ! connexion ( ^! diff]5t modes ( expression1 & ,i w beg9 ) t =m :i* is ! simple/ & mo/ idiomatic4 #bd ,! simple/ & mo/ idiomatic expression ( ! anti!sis to :i* ,i ref] is t 9 :i* we oppose to ea* o!r ,,?+s & ,,?\ghts4 ,! opposition is famili> & pla94 ,our ?\ghts are some?+ :i* belongs to ourselves2 some?+ :i* takes place )9 u2 !y are :at we ?9k2 !y are actions ( our m9ds4 ,?+s1 on ! contr>y1 are some?+ diff]5t f ourselves & indep5d5t ( u2 some?+ :i* is )\t u2 !y are2 we see !m1 t\* !m1 & ?us "k t !y exi/2 b we d n make !m by see+ or t\*+ !m1 z we make our ,?\ghts by ?9k+ !m2 we are passive1 & ,?+s act ^u our organs ( p]ception4 ,n[ :at ,i wi% especially to rem>k is ?is3 t 9 all human ,,k bo? ,?\ghts & ,?+s are conc]n$4 ,9 e "p ( my k !re mu/ be "s ?+ ab\t :i* ,i "k1 & an int]nal act ( me :o "k4 ,?us1 to take simple yet def9ite p>ts ( our k1 if ,i "k t a sol> ye> consi/s ( #cfe days1 or a lun> mon? ( #cj days1 ,i "k some?+ ab\t ! sun or ! moon2 namely1 t ^? objects p]=m c]ta9 revolutions & g ?r\gh c]ta9 *anges1 9 ^? numb]s ( days2 b ,i c\nt su* numb]s & conceive su* revolutions & *anges by acts ( my own ?\ghts4 ,& bo? ^! elem5ts ( my k are indisp5sable4 ,if !re 7 n su* ext]nal ,?+s z ! sun & ! moon ,i c\ld n h any k ( ! progress ( "t z m>k$ by !m4 ,& h[ev] regul> 7 ! motions ( ! sun & moon1 if ,i c\ld n c\nt _! appe>ances & comb9e _! *anges into a cycle1 or if ,i c\ld n und]/& ?is :5 done by o!r m51 ,i c\ld n "k any?+ ab\t a ye> or a mon?4 ,9 ! =m] case ,i might be conceiv$ z a human be+1 possess+ ! human p[]s ( ?9k+ & reckon+1 b kept 9 a d>k _w ) no?+ to m>k ! progress ( exi/5ce4 ,! latt] is ! case ( brute animals1 :i* see ! sun & moon1 b d n "k h[ _m days make a mon? or a ye>1 because !y h n human p[]s ( ?9k+ & reckon+4 #be ,! two elem5ts :i* are ess5tial to our k 9 ! above cases1 are necess>y to human k 9 all cases4 ,9 all cases1 ,k implies a comb9ation ( ,?\ghts & ,?+s4 ,)\t ?is comb9ation1 x w\ld n be ,k4 ,)\t ,?\ghts1 !re c\ld be no connexion2 )\t ,?+s1 !re c\ld be no reality4 ,?\ghts & ,?+s are s intimately comb9$ 9 our ,k1 t we d n look ^u !m z di/9ct4 ,"o s+le act ( ! m9d involves !m bo?2 & _! contra/ disappe>s 9 _! union4 ,b ?\gh ,k requires ! union ( ^! two elem5ts1 ,philosophy requires ! sep>ation ( !m1 9 ord] t ! nature & /ructure ( ,k may be se54 ,!re=e ,i beg9 by consid]+ ?is sep>ation4 ,& ,i n[ proce$ to speak ( ano!r way ( look+ at ! anti!sis ( :i* ,i h spok52 & :i* ,i may1 = ! reasons :i* ,i h j m5tion$1 call ! ,,fundam5tal ,,anti!sis ,,( ,,philosophy4 ,sect4 #b4--,necess>y & ,exp]i5tial ,tru?s4 ,,mo/ p]sons are famili> ) ! di/9ction ( necess>y & cont+5t tru?s4 ,! =m] k9d are ,tru?s :i* _c b be true2 z t #ai & #aa make #cj2--t p>allelograms ^u ! same base & betwe5 ! same p>allels are equal2--t all ! angles 9 ! same segm5t ( a circle are equal4 ,! latt] are ,tru?s :i* x happ5s 7cont+it7 are true2 b :i*1 = any?+ :i* we c see1 might h be5 o!rwise2 z t a lun> mon? conta9s #cj days1 or t ! />s revolve 9 circles r\nd ! pole4 ,! latt] k9d ( ,tru?s are le>nt by exp]i5ce1 & h5ce we may call !m ,tru?s ( ,exp]i5ce1 or1 = ! sake ( conv5i5ce1 ,exp]i5tial ,tru?s1 9 contra/ ) ,necess>y ,tru?s4 ,geometrical propositions are ! mo/ manife/ examples ( ,necess>y ,tru?s4 ,all p]sons :o h read & und]/ood ! elem5ts ( geometry1 "k t ! propositions above /at$ 7t p>allelograms #bf ^u ! same base & betwe5 ! same p>allels are equal2 t all ! angles 9 ! same segm5t ( a circle are equal17 are necess>ily true2 n only !y are true1 b !y mu/ be true4 ,! mean+ ( ! t]ms be+ und]/ood1 & ! pro( be+ gone ?r\gh1 ! tru? ( ! propositions mu/ be ass5t$ to4 ,we le>n ^! propositions to be true by demon/rations d$uc$ f def9itions & axioms2 & :5 we h ?us le>nt !m1 we see t !y c\ld n be o!rwise4 ,9 ! same mann]1 ! tru?s :i* conc]n numb]s are necess>y tru?s3 #ai & #aa n only d make #cj1 b mu/ make t numb]1 & _c make any?+ else4 ,9 ! same mann]1 x is a necess>y tru? t half ! sum ( two numb]s add$ to half _! diff]5ce is equal to ! great] numb]4 ,x is easy to f9d examples ( ,exp]i5tial ,tru?s2-- propositions :i* we "k to be true1 b "k by exp]i5ce only4 ,we "k1 9 ?is way1 t salt w dissolve 9 wat]2 t plants _c live )\t light2-- 9 %ort1 we "k 9 ?is way all t we d "k 9 *emi/ry1 physiology1 & ! mat]ial sci5ces 9 g5]al4 ,i take ! ,sci5ces z my examples ( human k1 r ?an ! common tru?s ( daily life1 or moral or political tru?s2 because1 ?\gh ! latt] are m g5]ally int]e/+1 ! =m] are mu* m def9ite & c]ta91 & !re=e bett] />t+-po9ts = our speculations1 z ,i h already said4 ,& we may take elem5t>y a/ronomical tru?s z ! mo/ famili> examples ( ,exp]i5tial ,tru?s 9 ! doma9 ( sci5ce4 ,) ^! examples1 ! di/9ction ( ,necess>y & ,exp]i5tial ,tru?s is1 ,i hope1 cle>4 ,! =m] k9d1 we see to be true by ?9k+ ab\t !m1 & see t !y c\ld n be o!rwise4 ,! latt] k9d1 m5 c\ld nev] h discov]$ to be true )\t look+ at !m2 & hav+ s discov]$ !m1 /ill no "o w pret5d to say !y might n h be5 o!rwise4 ,= aught we c see1 ! a/ronomical tru?s :i* express ! motions & p]iods ( ! sun1 moon & />s1 might h be5 o!rwise4 ,if we _h be5 plac$ 9 ano!r "p ( ! sol> sy/em1 our #bg exp]i5tial tru?s respect+ days1 ye>s1 & ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 w\ld h be5 o!r ?an !y are1 z we "k f a/ronomy itself4 ,x is evid5t t ?is di/9ction ( ,necess>y & ,exp]i5tial ,tru?s involves ! same anti!sis :i* we h already consid]$2--! anti!sis ( ,?\ghts & ,?+s4 ,necess>y ,tru?s are d]iv$ f our own ,?\ghts3 ,exp]i5tial tru?s are d]iv$ f our obs]vation ( ,?+s ab\t u4 ,! opposition ( ,necess>y & ,exp]i5tial ,tru?s is ano!r aspect ( ! ,fundam5tal ,anti!sis ( ,philosophy4 ,sect4 #c4--;,d$uction & ,induction4 ,i ,,h already /at$ t geometrical tru?s are e/abli%$ by demon/rations d$uc$ f def9itions & axioms4 ,! t]m ,d$uction is specially appli$ to su* a c\rse ( demon/ration ( tru?s f def9itions & axioms4 ,9 ! case ( ! p>allelograms ^u ! same base & betwe5 ! same p>allels1 we prove c]ta9 triangles to be equal1 by suppos+ !m plac$ s t _! two bases h ! same extremities2 & h5ce1 ref]r+ to an ,axiom respect+ /raight l9es1 we inf] t ! bases co9cide4 ,we comb9e ^! equal triangles ) o!r equal spaces1 & 9 ?is way make up bo? ! "o & ! o!r ( ! p>allelograms1 9 su* a mann] z to %ew t !y are equal4 ,9 ?is mann]1 go+ on /ep by /ep1 d$uc+ ! equality ( ! triangles f ! axiom1 & ! equality ( ! p>allelograms f t ( ! triangles1 we travel to ! conclusion4 ,& ?is process ( successive d$uction is ! s*eme ( all geometrical pro(4 ,we beg9 ) ,def9itions ( ! notions :i* we reason ab\t1 & ) ,axioms1 or self-evid5t tru?s1 respect+ ^! notions2 & we get1 by reason+ f ^!1 o!r tru?s :i* are demon/ratively evid5t2 & f ^! tru?s aga91 o!rs ( ! same k9d1 & s on4 ,we beg9 ) our own ,?\ghts1 :i* supply u ) ,axioms to />t f2 & we reason f ^!1 till we come to propositions #bh :i* are applicable to ! ,?+s ab\t u2 z = in/ance1 ! propositions respect+ circles & sph]es applicable to ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,?is is ,d$uction1 or ,d$uctive ,reason+4 ,exp]i5tial tru?s are acquir$ 9 a v diff]5t way4 ,9 ord] to obta9 su* tru?s1 we beg9 ) ,?+s4 ,9 ord] to le>n h[ _m days !re are 9 a ye>1 or 9 a lun> mon?1 we mu/ beg9 by obs]v+ ! sun & ! moon4 ,we mu/ obs]ve _! *anges day by day1 & try to make ! cycle ( *ange fit into "s notion ( numb] :i* we supply f our own ,?\ghts4 ,we %all f9d t a cycle ( #cj days ne>ly w fit ! *anges ( phase ( ! moon2--t a cycle ( #cfe days ne>ly w fit ! *anges ( daily motion ( ! sun4 ,or1 to g on to exp]i5tial tru?s ( :i* ! discov]y comes )9 ! limits ( ! hi/ory ( sci5ce--we %all f9d 7z ,hipp>*us f\nd7 t ! unequal motion ( ! sun among ! />s1 su* z obs]vation %ews x to be1 may be fitly repres5t$ by ! notion ( an ecc5tric2--a circle 9 :i* ! sun has an equable annual motion1 ! spectator n be+ 9 ! c5t] ( ! circle4 ,aga91 9 ! same mann]1 at a lat] p]iod1 ,kepl] />t$ f m exact obs]vations ( ! sun1 & comp>$ !m ) a suppos$ motion 9 a c]ta9 ellipse2 & 0 able to %ew t1 n a circle ab\t an ecc5tric po9t1 b an ellipse1 suppli$ ! mode ( conception :i* truly agre$ ) ! motion ( ! sun ab\t ! e>?2 or r1 z ,cop]nicus _h already %ewn1 ( ! e>? ab\t ! sun4 ,9 su* cases1 9 :i* tru?s are obta9$ by beg9n+ f obs]vation ( ext]nal ?+s & by f9d+ "s notion ) :i* ! ,?+s1 z obs]v$1 agree1 ! tru?s are said to be obta9$ by ,induction4 ,! process is an ,inductive ,process4 ,! contra/ ( ! ,d$uctive & ,inductive process is obvi\s4 ,9 ! =m]1 we proce$ at ea* /ep f g5]al tru?s to p>ticul> applications ( !m2 9 ! latt]1 f p>ticul> obs]vations to a g5]al tru? :i* includes !m4 ,9 ! =m] case we may be said to reason d[nw>ds1 9 ! latt] case1 #bi upw>ds2 = g5]al notions are conceiv$ z /&+ above p>ticul>s4 ,necess>y tru?s are prov$1 l ari?metical sums1 by add+ toge!r ! portions ( :i* !y consi/4 ,an inductive tru? is prov$1 l ! guess :i* answ]s a riddle1 by its agree+ ) ! facts describ$4 ,demon/ration is irresi/ible 9 its effect on ! belief1 b does n produce surprize1 because all ! /eps to ! conclusion are exhibit$1 be=e we arrive at ! conclusion4 ,inductive inf]5ce is n demon/rative1 b x is (t5 m /rik+ ?an demon/rative reason+1 because ! int]m$iate l9ks betwe5 ! p>ticul>s & ! inf]5ce are n %ewn4 ,d$uctive tru?s are ! results ( relations among our own ,?\ghts4 ,inductive tru?s are relations :i* we disc]n among exi/+ ,?+s2 & ?us1 ?is opposition ( ,d$uction & ,induction is aga9 an aspect ( ! ,fundam5tal ,anti!sis already spok5 (4 ,sect4 #d4--,!ories & ,facts4 ,,g5]al exp]i5tial ,tru?s1 su* z we h j spok5 (1 are call$ ,!ories1 & ! p>ticul> obs]vations f :i* !y are collect$1 & :i* !y include & expla91 are call$ ,facts4 ,?us ,hipp>*us's doctr9e1 t ! sun moves 9 an ecc5tric ab\t ! e>?1 is 8 ,!ory ( ! ,sun1 or ! ,ecc5tric ,!ory4 ,! doctr9e ( ,kepl]1 t ! ,e>? moves 9 an ,ellipse ab\t ! ,sun1 is ,kepl]'s ,!ory ( ! ,e>?1 ! ,elliptical ,!ory4 ,newton's doctr9e t ?is elliptical motion ( ! ,e>? ab\t ! ,sun is produc$ & gov]n$ by ! ,sun's attraction ^u ! ,e>?1 is ! ,newtonian !ory1 ! ,!ory ( ,attraction4 ,ea* ( ^! ,!ories 0 accept$1 because x includ$1 connect$ & expla9$ ! ,facts2 ! ,facts be+1 9 ! two =m] cases1 ! motions ( ! ,sun z obs]v$2 & 9 ! o!r case1 ! elliptical motion ( ! ,e>? z kn[n by ,kepl]'s ,!ory4 ,?is anti!sis ( ,!ory & ,fact is includ$ 9 :at has j be5 said ( ,inductive ,propositions4 ,a ,!ory is an ,inductive ,proposition1 & ! ,facts #cj are ! p>ticul> obs]vations f :i*1 z ,i h said1 su* ,propositions are inf]r$ by ,induction4 ,! ,anti!sis ( ,!ory & ,fact implies ! fundam5tal ,anti!sis ( ,?\ghts & ,?+s2 = a ,!ory 7t is1 a true ,!ory7 may be describ$ z a ,?\ght :i* is contemplat$ di/9ct f ,?+s & se5 to agree ) !m2 :ile a ,fact is a comb9ation ( our ,?\ghts ) ,?+s 9 s complete agreem5t t we d n reg>d !m z sep>ate4 ,?us ! anti!sis ( ,!ory & ,fact involves ! anti!sis ( ,?\ghts & ,?+s1 b is n id5tical ) x4 ,facts involve ,?\ghts1 = we "k ,facts only by ?9k+ ab\t !m4 ,! ,fact t ! ye> consi/s ( #cfe days2 ! ,fact t ! mon? consi/s ( #cj days1 _c be kn[n to u1 except we h ! ,?\ghts ( ,"t1 ,numb] & ,recurr5ce4 ,b ^! ,?\ghts are s famili>1 t we h ! fact 9 our m9d z a simple ,?+ )\t att5d+ to ! ,?\ght :i* x involves4 ,:5 we m\ld our ,?\ghts into a ,!ory1 we consid] ! ?\ght z di/9ct f ! ,facts2 b yet1 ?\gh di/9ct1 n indep5d5t ( !m2 = x is a true ,!ory1 only by includ+ & agree+ ) ! ,facts4 ,sect4 #e4--;,ideas & ,s5sations4 ,,we h j se5 t ! anti!sis ( ,!ory & ,fact1 al?\gh x involves ! anti!sis ( ,?\ghts & ,?+s1 is n id5tical ) x4 ,!re are o!r modes ( expression also1 :i* involve ! same ,fundam5tal ,anti!sis1 m or less modifi$4 ,( ^!1 ! pair ( words :i* 9 _! relations appe> to sep>ate ! memb]s ( ! anti!sis mo/ di/9ctly are ,ideas & ,s5sations4 ,we see & he> & t\* ext]nal ?+s1 & ?us p]ceive !m by our s5ses2 b 9 p]ceiv+ !m1 we connect ! impressions ( s5se accord+ to relations ( space1 "t1 numb]1 lik5ess1 cause1 c4 ,n[ "s at lea/ ( ^! k9ds ( connexion1 z space1 "t1 numb]1 may be contemplat$ di/9ct f ! ?+s to :i* !y are appli$2 & s contemplat$1 ,i t]m !m ,ideas4 ,& #ca ! o!r elem5t1 ! impressions ^u our s5ses :i* !y connect1 are call$ ,s5sations4 ,i t]m space1 "t1 cause1 c41 ,ideas1 because !y are g5]al relations among our s5sations1 appreh5d$ by an act ( ! m9d1 n by ! s5ses simply4 ,^! relations involve some?+ beyond :at ! s5ses alone c\ld furni%4 ,by ! s5se ( sight we see v>i\s %ades & col\rs & %apes be=e u1 b ! outl9es by :i* !y are sep>at$ into di/9ct objects ( def9ite =ms1 are ! "w ( ! m9d itself4 ,& aga91 :5 we conceive visible ?+s1 n only z surfaces ( a c]ta9 =m1 b z solid bodies1 plac$ at v>i\s di/ances 9 space1 we aga9 ex]t an act ( ! m9d ^u !m4 ,:5 we see a body move1 we see x move 9 a pa? or orbit1 b ?is orbit is n itself se52 x is con/ruct$ by ! m9d4 ,9 l mann] :5 we see ! motions ( a ne$le t[>ds a magnet1 we d n see ! attraction or =ce :i* produces ! effects2 b we inf] ! =ce1 by hav+ 9 our m9ds ! ,idea ( ,cause4 ,su* acts ( ?\ght1 su* ,ideas1 ent] into our p]ceptions ( ext]nal ?+s4 ,b ?\gh our p]ceptions ( ext]nal ?+s involve "s act ( ! m9d1 !y mu/ involve some?+ else besides an act ( ! m9d4 ,if we mu/ ex]cise an act ( ?\ght 9 ord] to see =ce ex]t$1 or orbits describ$ by bodies 9 motion1 or ev5 9 ord] to see bodies exi/+ 9 space1 & to di/+ui% "o k9d ( object f ano!r1 /ill ! act ( ?\ght alone does n make ! ,bodies4 ,!re mu/ be some?+ besides1 on :i* ! ?\ght is ex]t$4 ,a col\r1 a =m1 a s\nd1 are n produc$ by ! m9d1 h[ev] !y may be m\ld$1 comb9$1 & int]pret$ by our m5tal acts4 ,a philosophical poet has spok5 ( ,all ! _w ,( eye & e>1 bo? :at !y half create1 ,& :at p]ceive4 ,b x is cle>1 t ?\gh !y half create1 !y d n :olly create3 !re mu/ be an ext]nal _w ( col\r & s\nd to give impressions to ! eye & e>1 z well z int]nal p[]s by :i* we p]ceive #cb :at is (f]$ to our organs4 ,! m9d is 9 "s way passive z well z active3 !re are objects )\t z well z faculties )92--,s5sations1 z well z acts ( ,?\ght4 ,inde$ ?is is s f> g5]ally ackn[l$g$1 t accord+ to common appreh5sion1 ! m9d is passive r ?an active 9 acquir+ ! k :i* x receives conc]n+ ! mat]ial _w4 ,its s5sations are g5]ally consid]$ m di/9ct ?an its op]ations4 ,! _w )\t is held to be m cle>ly real ?an ! faculties )94 ,t !re is some?+ diff]5t f ourselves1 some?+ ext]nal to u1 some?+ indep5d5t ( u1 some?+ :i* no act ( our m9ds c make or c de/roy1 is held by all m5 to be at lea/ z evid5t1 z t our m9ds c ex]t any effectual process 9 modify+ & appreciat+ ! impressions made ^u !m4 ,mo/ p]sons are m likely to d\bt :e!r ! m9d be always actively apply+ ,ideas to ! objects :i* x p]ceives1 ?an :e!r x p]ceive !m passively by means ( ,s5sations4 ,b yet a little consid]ation w %[ u t an activity ( ! m9d1 & an activity accord+ to c]ta9 ,ideas1 is requisite 9 all our k ( ext]nal objects4 ,we see objects1 ( v>i\s solid =ms1 & at v>i\s di/ances f u4 ,b we d n ?us p]ceive !m by s5sation alone4 ,our visual impressions _c1 ( !mselves1 convey to u a k ( solid =m1 or ( di/ance f u4 ,su* k is inf]r$ f :at we see3--inf]r$ by conceiv+ ! objects z exi/+ 9 space1 & by apply+ to !m ! ,idea ( ,space4 ,aga93--day aft] day passes1 till !y make up a ye>3 b we d n "k t ! days are #cfe1 except we c\nt !m2 & ?us apply to !m our ,idea ( ,numb]4 ,aga93--we see a ne$le drawn to a magnet3 b1 9 tru?1 ! draw+ is :at we _c see4 ,we see ! ne$le move1 & inf] ! attraction1 by apply+ to ! fact our ,idea ( ,=ce1 z ! cause ( motion4 ,aga93--we see two trees ( diff]5t k9ds2 b we _c "k t !y are s1 except by apply+ to !m our ,idea ( ! resemblance #cc & diff]5ce :i* makes k9ds4 ,& ?us ,ideas1 z well z ,s5sations1 necess>ily ent] into all our k ( objects3 & ^! two words express1 p]haps m exactly ?an any ( ! pairs be=e m5tion$1 t ,fundam5tal ,anti!sis1 9 ! union ( :i*1 z ,i h said1 all k consi/s4 ,sect4 #f4--,reflexion & ,s5sation4 ,,x w h]eaft] be my bus9ess to %[ :at ! ,ideas are1 :i* ?us ent] into our k2 & h[ ea* ,idea has be51 z a matt] ( hi/orical fact1 introduc$ into ! ,sci5ce to :i* x especially belongs4 ,b be=e ,i proce$ to d ?is1 ,i w notice "s o!r t]ms1 besides ! phrases already notic$1 :i* h a ref]5ce1 m or less direct1 to ! ,fundam5tal ,anti!sis ( ,ideas & ,s5sations4 ,i w m5tion "s ( ^!1 9 ord] t if !y %\ld come "u ! read]'s notice1 he may n be p]plex$ z to _! be>+ ^u ! view "h pres5t$ to him4 ,! celebrat$ doctr9e ( ,locke1 t all our ',ideas1' 7t is1 9 8 use ( ! ^w1 all our objects ( ?9k+17 come f ,s5sation or ,reflexion1 w naturally occur to ! read] z connect$ ) ! anti!sis ( :i* ,i h be5 speak+4 ,b !re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 ,locke's acc\nt ( ,s5sation & ,reflexion1 & our view ( ,s5sation & ,ideas4 ,he is speak+ ( ! orig9 ( our k2--we1 ( its nature & composition4 ,he is cont5t to say t all ! k :i* we d n receive directly by ,s5sation1 we obta9 by ,reflex ,acts ( ! m9d1 :i* make up 8 ,reflexion4 ,b we hold t !re is no ,s5sation )\t an act ( ! m9d1 & t ! m9d's activity is n only reflexly ex]t$ ^u itself1 b directly ^u objects1 s z to p]ceive 9 !m connexions & relations :i* are n ,s5sations4 ,he is cont5t to put toge!r1 "u ! "n ( ,reflexion1 ev]y?+ 9 our k :i* is n ,s5sation3 we are to attempt to analyze all t is n ,s5sation2 n only to say x consi/s ( ,ideas1 b #cd to po9t out :at ^? ,ideas are1 & to %[ ! mode 9 :i* ea* ( !m ent]s into our k4 ,8 purpose 01 to prove t !re are no ,ideas1 except ! reflex acts ( ! m9d3 our endeav\r w be to %[ t ! acts ( ! m9d1 bo? direct & reflex1 are gov]n$ by c]ta9 ,laws1 :i* may be conv5i5tly t]m$ ,ideas4 ,8 proc$ure 01 to d5y t any k c\ld be d]iv$ f ! m9d alone3 our c\rse w be1 to %[ t 9 e "p ( our mo/ c]ta9 & exact k1 ^? :o h add$ to our k 9 e age h ref]r$ to pr9ciples :i* ! m9d itself supplies4 ,i d n say t my view is contr>y to 83 b x is altoge!r diff]5t f 84 ,if ,i grant t all our k comes f ,s5sation & ,reflexion1 /ill my task !n is only begun2 = ,i want fur!r to det]m9e1 9 ea* sci5ce1 :at portion comes1 n f m]e ,s5sation1 b f ^? ,ideas by ! aid ( :i* ei!r ,s5sation or ,reflexion c lead to ,sci5ce4 ,locke's use ( ! ^w 'idea' is1 z ! read] w p]ceive1 diff]5t f ours4 ,he uses ! ^w1 z he says1 :i* 's]ves be/ to /& = :atsoev] is ! object ( ! und]/&+ :5 a man ?9ks4' ',i h us$ x1' he adds1 'to express :atev] is meant by phantasm1 notion1 species1 or :atev] x is to :i* ! m9d c be employ$ ab\t 9 ?9k+4' ,x might be %[n t ?is sep>ation ( ! m9d itself f ! ideal objects ab\t :i* x is employ$ 9 ?9k+1 may lead to v errone\s results4 ,b x may suffice to obs]ve t we use ! ^w ,ideas1 9 ! mann] already expla9$1 to express t elem5t1 suppli$ by ! m9d itself1 :i* mu/ be comb9$ ) ,s5sation 9 ord] to produce k4 ,= u1 ,ideas are n ,objects ( ,?\ght1 b r ,laws ( ,?\ght4 ,ideas are n synonym\s ) ,notions2 !y are ,pr9ciples :i* give to our ,notions :atev] !y conta9 ( tru?4 ,b our use ( ! t]m ,idea w be m fully expla9$ h]eaft]4 #ce ,sect4 #g4--,subjective & ,objective4 ,,! ,fundam5tal ,anti!sis ( ,philosophy ( :i* ,i h to speak has be5 br\ght into great prom95ce 9 ! writ+s ( mod]n ,g]man philosoph]s1 & has conspicu\sly =m$ ! basis ( _! sy/ems4 ,!y h indicat$ ?is anti!sis by ! t]ms subjective & objective4 ,accord+ to ! te*nical language ( old writ]s1 a ?+ & its qualities are describ$ z subject & attributes2 & ?us a man's faculties & acts are attributes ( :i* he is ! subject4 ,! m9d is ! subject 9 :i* ideas inh]e4 ,moreov]1 ! man's faculties & acts are employ$ ^u ext]nal objects2 & f objects all 8 s5sations arise4 ,h5ce ! "p ( a man's k :i* belongs to 8 own m9d1 is subjective3 t :i* fl[s 9 ^u him f ! _w ext]nal to him1 is objective4 ,& z 9 man's contemplation ( nature1 !re is always "s act ( ?\ght :i* dep5ds ^u himself1 & "s matt] ( ?\ght :i* is indep5d5t ( him1 !re is1 9 e "p ( 8 k1 a subjective & an objective elem5t4 ,! comb9ation ( ! two elem5ts1 ! subjective or ideal1 & ! objective or obs]v$1 is necess>y1 9 ord] to give u any insight into ! laws ( nature4 ,b diff]5t p]sons1 accord+ to _! m5tal habits & con/itution1 may be incl9$ to dwell by pref]5ce ^u ! "o or ! o!r ( ^! two elem5ts4 ,x may p]haps int]e/ ! read] to see ?is diff]5ce ( intellectual "* illu/rat$ 9 two em95t m5 ( g5ius ( mod]n times1 ,g! & ,s*ill]4 ,g! himself gives u ! acc\nt to :i* ,i ref]1 9 8 hi/ory ( ! progress ( 8 speculations conc]n+ ! ,metamorphosis ( ,plants2 a mode ( view+ _! /ructure by :i* he expla9$1 9 a v /rik+ & beautiful mann]1 ! relations ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( a plant to ea* o!r2 z has be5 n>rat$ 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,g! felt a delight 9 ! passive contemplation ( nature1 unm+l$ ) ! desire ( reason+ & !oriz+2 a delight su* z naturally belongs to ^? poets :o #cf m]ely embody ! images :i* a f]tile g5ius sugge/s1 & d n mix ) ^! pictures1 judgm5ts & reflexions ( _! own4 ,s*ill]1 on ! o!r h&1 bo? by 8 own /rong feel+ ( ! value ( a moral purpose 9 poetry1 & by 8 adoption ( a sy/em ( metaphysics 9 :i* ! subjective elem5t 0 made v prom95t1 0 well dispos$ to recognize fully ! au?ority ( ideas ov] ext]nal impressions4 ,g! = a "t felt a degree ( e/rangem5t t[>ds ,s*ill]1 aris+ f ?is contr>iety 9 _! views & *>act]s4 ,b on "o occasion !y fell into discussion on ! /udy ( natural hi/ory2 & ,g! endeav\r$ to impress ^u 8 companion 8 p]suasion t nature 0 to be consid]$1 n z compos$ ( deta*$ & incoh]5t p>ts1 b z active & alive1 & unfold+ h]self 9 ea* portion1 9 virtue ( pr9ciples :i* p]vade ! :ole4 ,s*ill] object$ t no su* view ( ! objects ( natural hi/ory _h be5 po9t$ out by obs]vation1 ! only guide :i* ! natural hi/orians recomm5d$2 & 0 dispos$ on ?is acc\nt to ?9k ! :ole ( _! /udy n>r[ & %all[4 ',^u ?is1' says ,g!1 ',i exp\nd$ to him1 9 z lively a way z ,i c\ld1 ! metamorphosis ( plants1 draw+ on pap] = him1 z ,i proce$$1 a diagram to repres5t t g5]al =m ( a plant :i* %[s itself 9 s _m & s v>i\s trans=mations4 ,s*ill] att5d$ & und]/ood2 &1 accept+ ! explanation1 he said1 ,?is is n obs]vation1 b an idea4 ,i repli$1' adds ,g!1 ') "s degree ( irritation2 = ! po9t :i* sep>at$ u 0 mo/ lum9\sly m>k$ by ?is expression3 b ,i smo!r$ my vexation1 & m]ely said1 ,i 0 happy to f9d t ,i _h got ideas )\t kn[+ x2 nay1 t ,i saw !m be=e my eyes4' ,g! !n goes on to say1 t he _h be5 griev$ to ! v s\l by maxims promulgat$ by ,s*ill]1 t no obs]v$ fact ev] c\ld correspond ) an idea4 ,s9ce he himself lov$ be/ to w&] 9 ! doma9 ( ext]nal obs]vation1 he _h be5 l$ to look ) repugnance & ho/ility ^u any?+ :i* pr(ess$ to dep5d ^u ideas4 ',yet1' he #cg obs]ves1 'x occurr$ to me t if my ,obs]vation 0 id5tical ) 8 ,idea1 !re mu/ be "s common gr\nd on :i* we might meet4' ,!y w5t on ) _! mutual explanations1 & became intimate & la/+ fri5ds4 ',& ?us1' adds ! poet1 by means ( t mighty & int]m9able controv]sy betwe5 object & subject1 we two conclud$ an alliance :i* rema9$ unbrok51 & produc$ mu* b5efit to ourselves & o!rs4' ,! g5]al diagram ( a plant1 ( :i* ,g! "h speaks1 mu/ h be5 a comb9ation ( l9es & m>ks express+ ! relations ( position & equival5ce among ! elem5ts ( vegetable =ms1 by :i* s _m ( _! resemblances & diff]5ces may be expla9$4 ,su* a symbol is n an ,idea 9 t g5]al s5se 9 :i* we propose to use ! t]m1 b is a p>ticul> modification ( ! g5]al ,ideas ( symmetry1 developem5t1 & ! l2 & we %all h]eaft] see1 accord+ to ! phraseology :i* we %all expla9 9 ! next *apt]1 h[ su* a diagram might express ! ideal conception ( a plant4 ,! anti!sis ( subjective & objective is v famili> 9 ! philosophical lit]ature ( ,g]many & ,france2 nor is x uncommon 9 any age ( our own lit]ature4 ,b ?\gh ef=ts h rec5tly be5 made to give curr5cy among u to ?is phraseology1 x has n be5 cordially receiv$1 & has be5 mu* compla9$ ( z n ( obvi\s mean+4 ,nor is ! compla9t )\t gr\nd3 = :5 we reg>d ! m9d z ! subject 9 :i* ideas inh]e1 x becomes = u an object1 & ! anti!sis vani%es4 ,we are n s mu* accu/om$ to use subject 9 ?is s5se1 z to make x a prop] contra/ to object4 ,! comb9ation 'ideal & objective1' w\ld m readily convey to a mod]n read] ! opposition :i* is int5d$ betwe5 ! ideas ( ! m9d itself1 & ! objects :i* x contemplates ar\nd x4 ,to ! anti!ses already notic$--,?\ghts & ,?+s2 ,necess>y & ,exp]i5tial ,tru?s2 ,d$uction & ,induction2 ,!ory & ,fact2 ,ideas & ,s5sations2 ,reflexion & ,s5sation2 ,subjective & #ch ,objective2 we may add o!rs1 by :i* di/9ctions dep5d+ m or less ^u ! fundam5tal anti!sis h be5 d5ot$4 ,?us we speak ( ! int]nal & ext]nal s\rces ( our k2 ( ! _w )9 & ! _w )\t u2 ( ,man & ,nature4 ,"s ( ! m rec5t metaphysical writ]s ( ,g]many h divid$ ! univ]se into ! ,me & ,n-me 7,i* & ,ni*t-i*74 ,^u su* phraseology we may obs]ve1 t to h ! fundam5tal anti!sis ( :i* we speak really und]/ood1 is ( ! highe/ consequ5ce to philosophy1 b t little appe>s to be ga9$ by express+ x 9 any novel mann]4 ,! mo/ weighty "p ( ! philosoph]'s task is to analyze ! op]ations ( ! m9d2 & 9 ?is task1 x c aid u b little to call x1 in/ead ( ! m9d1 ! subject1 or ! me4 ,sect4 #h4--,matt] & ,=m4 ,,!re are "s o!r ways ( express+1 or r ( illu/rat+1 ! fundam5tal anti!sis1 :i* ,i may briefly notice4 ,! anti!sis has be5 at diff]5t times pres5t$ by means ( v>i\s images4 ,"o ( ! mo/ anci5t ( ^!1 & "o :i* is /ill v in/ructive1 is t :i* speaks ( ,s5sations z ! ,matt]1 & ,ideas z ! ,=m1 ( our k2 j z ivory is ! matt]1 & a cube ! =m1 ( a die4 ,?is comp>ison has ! advantage ( %[+ t two elem5ts ( an anti!sis :i* _c be sep>at$ 9 fact1 may yet be advantage\sly sep>at$ 9 our reason+s4 ,= ,matt] & ,=m _c by any means be deta*$ f ea* o!r4 ,all matt] mu/ h "s =m2 all =m mu/ be ! =m ( "s mat]ial ?+4 ,if ! ivory be n a cube1 x mu/ h a sph]ical or "s o!r =m4 ,& ! cube1 9 ord] to be a cube1 mu/ be ( "s mat]ial2--if n ( ivory1 ( wood1 or /one1 = in/ance1 ,a figure )\t matt] is m]ely a geometrical conception2--a modification ( ! idea ( space4 ,matt] )\t figure is a m]e ab/ract t]m2--a suppos$ union ( c]ta9 s5sible qualities :i*1 s insulat$ #ci f o!rs1 _c exi/4 ,yet ! di/9ction ( ,matt] & ,=m is real2 &1 z a subject ( contemplation1 cle> & pla94 ,nor is ! di/9ction by any means useless4 ,! speculations :i* treat ( ! two subjects1 ,matt] & ,figure1 are v diff]5t4 ,matt] is ! subject ( ! sci5ces ( ,me*anics & ,*emi/ry2 ,figure1 ( ,geometry4 ,^! two classes ( ,sci5ces h q diff]5t sets ( pr9ciples4 ,if we refuse to consid] ! ,matt] & ! ,=m ( bodies sep>ately1 because we _c exhibit ,matt] & ,=m sep>ately1 we %ut ! door to all philosophy on su* subjects4 ,9 l mann]1 ?\gh ,s5sations & ,ideas are necess>ily unit$ 9 all our k1 !y c be consid]$ z di/9ct2 & ?is di/9ction is ! basis ( all philosophy conc]n+ k4 ,?is illu/ration ( ! relation ( ,ideas & ,s5sations may enable u to e/imate a doctr9e :i* has be5 put =w>ds at v>i\s times4 ,9 a c]ta9 s*ool ( speculators !re has exi/$ a disposition to d]ive all our ,ideas f our ,s5sations1 ! t]m ,idea1 be+1 9 ?is s*ool1 us$ 9 its wid] s5se1 s z to include all modifications & limitations ( our ,fundam5tal ,ideas4 ,! doctr9es ( ?is s*ool h be5 summ>ily express$ by say+ t ',e ,idea is a trans=m$ ,s5sation4' ,n[1 ev5 suppos+ ?is ass]tion to be exactly true1 we easily see1 f :at has be5 said1 h[ little we are likely to answ] ! ends ( philosophy by putt+ =w>d su* a maxim z "o ( prim>y importance4 ,= we might say1 9 l mann]1 t e /atue is b a trans=m$ block ( m>ble1 or e edifice b a collection ( trans=m$ /ones4 ,b :at w\ld ^! ass]tions avail u1 if our object 7 to trace ! rules ( art by :i* beautiful /atues 7 =m$1 or great works ( ar*itecture erect$8 ,! "q naturally occurs1 ,:at is ! nature1 ! pr9ciple1 ! law ( ?is ,trans=mation8 ,9 :at faculty resides ! trans=m+ p[]8 ,:at tra9 ( ideas ( beauty1 & symmetry1 & /ability1 9 ! m9d ( ! /atu>y or ! ar*itect1 has produc$ ^? great works :i* #dj mank9d look ^u z among _! mo/ valuable possessions2--! ,apollo ( ! ,belvid]e1 ! ,p>!non1 ! ,ca!dral ( ,cologne8 ,:5 ?is is :at we want to "k1 h[ are we help$ by le>n+ t ! ,apollo is ( ,p>ian m>ble1 or ! ,ca!dral ( basaltic /one8 ,we mu/ "k mu* m ?an ?is1 9 ord] to acquire any insight into ! pr9ciples ( /atu>y or ( ar*itecture4 ,9 l mann]1 9 ord] t we may make any progress 9 ! philosophy ( k1 :i* is our purpose1 we mu/ endeav\r to le>n some?+ fur!r respect+ ideas ?an t !y are trans=m$ s5sations1 ev5 if !y 7 ?is4 ,b1 9 reality1 ! ass]tion t our ideas are trans=m$ s5sations1 is errone\s z well z frivol\s4 ,= x conveys1 & is int5d$ to convey1 ! op9ion t our s5sations h "o =m :i* prop]ly belongs to !m2 & t1 9 ord] to become ideas1 !y are conv]t$ into "s o!r =m4 ,b ! tru? is1 t our s5sations1 ( !mselves1 )\t "s act ( ! m9d1 su* z involves :at we h t]m$ an ,idea1 h no =m4 ,we _c see "o object )\t ! idea ( space2 we _c see two )\t ! idea ( resemblance or diff]5ce2 & space & diff]5ce are n s5sations4 ,?us1 if we are to employ ! metaphor ( ,matt] & ,=m1 :i* is impli$ 9 ! expression to :i* ,i h ref]r$1 our s5sations1 f _! fir/ reception1 h _! ,=m n *ang$1 b giv5 by our ,ideas4 ,)\t ! relations ( ?\ght :i* we "h t]m ,ideas1 ! s5sations are matt] )\t =m4 ,matt] )\t =m _c exi/3 & 9 l mann] s5sations _c become p]ceptions ( objects1 )\t "s =mative p[] ( ! m9d4 ,by ! v act ( be+ receiv$ z p]ceptions1 !y h a =mative p[] ex]cis$ ^u !m1 ! op]ation ( :i* might be express$1 by speak+ ( !m1 n z trans=m$1 b simply z =m$2--z inve/$ ) =m1 in/ead ( be+ ! m]e =mless mat]ial ( p]ception4 ,! ^w in=m1 accord+ to its ,lat9 etymology1 at fir/ impli$ ?is process by :i* matt] is #da inve/$ ) =m4 ,?us ,virgil#aa speaks ( ! ?und]bolt z in=m$ by ! h&s ( ,brontes1 & ,/]opes1 & ,pyracmon4 ,& ,dryd5 introduces ! ^w 9 ano!r place3-- ,let o!rs bett] m\ld ! runn+ mass ,( metals1 or in=m ! brea?+ brass4 ,ev5 9 ?is use ( ! ^w1 ! =m is some?+ sup]ior to ! brute mann]1 & gives x a new significance & purpose4 ,& h5ce ! t]m is aga9 us$ to d5ote ! effect produc$ by an intellig5t pr9ciple ( a /ill high] k9d3-- 4 4 4 4 ,he in=m$ ,?is ill-%ap$ body ) a d>+ s\l4 ,& f9ally ev5 ! s\l itself1 9 its orig9al condition1 is look$ ^u z matt]1 :5 view$ ) ref]5ce to education & k1 by :i* x is aft]w>ds m\ld$2 & h5ce ^! are1 9 our language1 t]m$ in=mation4 ,if we conf9e ourselves to ! fir/ ( ^! ?ree uses ( ! t]m1 we may correct ! errone\s op9ion ( :i* we h j be5 speak+1 & reta9 ! metaphor by :i* x is express$1 by say+1 t ideas are n trans=m$1 b in=m$ s5sations4 ,note #aa3 ,f]rum ex]cebant va/o ,cyclopes 9 ,antro ,brontesque ,/]opesque et nudus membra ,pyracmon2 ,8 in=matum manibus1 jam p>te polita ,fulm5 erat4--n4 viii4 #dbd4 ,sect4 #i4--,man ! ,int]pret] ( ,nature4 ,,!re is ano!r image by :i* writ]s h repres5t$ ! acts ( ?\ght ?r\gh :i* k is obta9$ f ! obs]vation ( ! ext]nal _w4 ,nature is ! ,book1 & ,man is ! ,int]pret]4 ,! facts ( ! ext]nal _w are m>ks1 9 :i* man discov]s a mean+1 & s reads !m4 ,man is ! ,int]pret] ( ,nature1 & ,sci5ce is ! "r ,int]pretation4 ,& ?is image also is1 9 _m respects1 #db in/ructive4 ,x exhibits to u ! necessity ( bo? elem5ts2--! m>ks :i* man has to look at1 & ! k ( ! alphabet & language :i* he mu/ possess & apply be=e he c f9d any mean+ 9 :at he sees4 ,moreov] ?is image pres5ts to u1 z ! ideal elem5t1 an activity ( ! m9d ( t v k9d :i* we wi% to po9t out4 ,inde$ ! illu/ration is r an example ?an a comp>ison ( ! composition ( our k4 ,! lett]s & symbols :i* are pres5t$ to ! ,int]pret] are really objects ( s5sation3 ! notion ( lett]s z signs ( words1 ! notion ( connexions among words by :i* !y h mean+1 really are among our ,ideas2--,signs & ,mean+ are ,ideas1 suppli$ by ! m9d1 & add$ to all t s5sation c disclose 9 any collection ( visible m>ks4 ,! ,sci5ces are n figuratively1 b really1 ,int]pretations ( ,nature4 ,b ?is image1 :e!r tak5 z example or comp>ison1 may s]ve to %[ bo? ! opposite "* ( ! two elem5ts ( k1 & _! necess>y comb9ation1 9 ord] t !re may be k4 ,?is illu/ration may also s]ve to expla9 ano!r po9t 9 ! conditions ( human k :i* we %all h to notice3--namely1 ! v diff]5t degrees 9 :i*1 9 diff]5t cases1 we are consci\s ( ! m5tal act by :i* our s5sations are conv]t$ into k4 ,= ! same diff]5ce occurs 9 read+ an inscription4 ,if ! inscription 7 entire & pla91 9 a language ) :i* we 7 famili>1 we %\ld be unconsci\s ( any m5tal act 9 read+ x4 ,we %\ld seem to collect its mean+ by ! sight alone4 ,b if we _h to deciph] an anci5t inscription1 ( :i* only imp]fect m>ks rema9$1 ) a few entire lett]s among !m1 we %\ld probably make sev]al suppositions z to ! mode ( read+ x1 be=e we f\nd any mode :i* 0 q successful2 & ?us1 our guesses1 be+ sep>ate f ! obs]v$ facts1 & at fir/ n fully 9 agreem5t ) !m1 we %\ld be cle>ly aw>e t ! conjectur$ mean+1 on ! "o h&1 & ! obs]v$ m>ks on ! o!r1 7 di/9ct ?+s1 ?\gh ^! #dc two ?+s w\ld become unit$ z elem5ts ( "o act ( k :5 we _h hit ^u ! "r conjecture4 ,sect4 #aj4--,! ,fundam5tal ,anti!sis insep>able4 ,,! illu/ration j ref]r$ to1 z well z o!r ways ( consid]+ ! subject1 may help u to get ov] a difficulty :i* at fir/ sight appe>s p]plex+4 ,we h spok5 ( ! common opposition ( ,!ory & ,fact z important1 & z involv+ :at we h call$ ! ,fundam5tal ,anti!sis ( ,philosophy4 ,b aft] all1 x may be ask$1 ,is ?is di/9ction ( ,!ory & ,fact really t5able8 ,is x n (t5 difficult to say :e!r a special "p ( our k is a ,fact or a ,!ory8 ,is x a ,fact or a ,!ory t ! />s revolve r\nd ! pole8 ,is x a ,fact or a ,!ory t ! e>? is a globe revolv+ on its axis8 ,is x a ,fact or a ,!ory t ! e>? travels 9 an ellipse r\nd ! sun8 ,is x a ,fact or a ,!ory t ! sun attracts ! e>?8 ,is x a ,fact or a ,!ory t ! load/one attracts ! ne$le8 ,9 all ^! cases1 probably "s p]sons w\ld answ] "o way1 & "s p]sons ! o!r4 ,!re are _m p]sons by :om ! doctr9e ( ! globul> =m ( ! e>?1 ! doctr9e ( ! e>?'s elliptical orbit1 ! doctr9e ( ! sun's attraction on ! e>?1 w\ld be call$ !ories1 ev5 if !y all[$ !m to be true !ories4 ,b yet if ea* ( ^! propositions be true1 is x n a fact8 ,& ev5 ) reg>d to ! simpl] facts1 z ! motion ( ! />s r\nd ! pole1 al?\gh ?is may be a ,fact to "o :o has wat*$ & measur$ ! motions ( ! />s1 "o :o has n done ?is1 & :o has only c>elessly look$ at ^! />s f "t to "t1 may naturally speak ( ! circles :i* ! a/ronom] makes !m describe z ,!ories4 ,x w\ld seem1 !n1 t we _c 9 su* cases expect g5]al ass5t1 if we say1 ,?is is a ,fact & n a ,!ory1 or ,?is is a ,!ory & n a ,fact4 ,& ! same is true 9 a va/ range ( cases4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t we _c re/ any reason+ ^u ?is di/9ction ( ,!ory #dd & ,fact2 & we _c avoid ask+ :e!r !re is any real di/9ction 9 ?is anti!sis1 & if s1 :at x is4 ,to ?is ,i reply3 ! di/9ction betwe5 ,!ory 7t is1 true ,!ory7 & ,fact1 is ?is3 t 9 ,!ory ! ,ideas are consid]$ z di/9ct f ! ,facts3 9 ,facts1 ?\gh ,ideas may be involv$1 !y are n1 9 our appreh5sion1 sep>at$ f ! s5sations4 ,9 a ,fact1 ! ,ideas are appli$ s readily & famili>ly1 & incorporat$ ) ! s5sations s entirely1 t we d n see !m1 we see ?r\gh !m4 ,a p]son :o c>efully notes ! motion ( a /> all night1 sees ! circle :i* x describes1 z he sees ! />1 ?\gh ! circle is1 really1 a result ( 8 own ,ideas4 ,a p]son :o has 9 8 m9d ! measures ( diff]5t l9es & c\ntries on ! e>?'s surface1 & :o c put !m1 toge!r into "o conception1 f9ds t !y c make no figure b a globul> "o3 to him1 ! e>?'s globul> =m is a ,fact1 z mu* z ! squ>e =m ( 8 *amb]4 ,a p]son to :om ! gr\nds ( believ+ ! e>? to travel r\nd ! sun are z famili> z ! gr\nds = believ+ ! movem5ts ( ! mail-coa*es 9 ?is c\ntry1 looks ^u ! =m] ev5t z a ,fact1 j z he looks ^u ! latt] ev5ts z ,facts4 ,& a p]son :o1 kn[+ ! ,fact ( ! e>?'s annual motion1 ref]s x di/9ctly to its me*anical cause1 conceives ! sun's attraction z a ,fact1 j z he conceives z a ,fact1 ! action ( ! w9d :i* turns ! sails ( a mill4 ,he _c see ! =ce 9 ei!r case2 he supplies x out ( 8 own ,ideas4 ,& ?us1 a true ,!ory is a ,fact2 a ,fact is a famili> ,!ory4 ,t :i* is a ,fact "u "o aspect1 is a ,!ory "u ano!r4 ,! mo/ recondite ,!ories :5 firmly e/abli%$ are ,facts3 ! simple/ ,facts involve some?+ ( ! nature ( ,!ory4 ,!ory & ,fact correspond1 9 a c]ta9 degree1 ) ,ideas & ,s5sations1 z to ! nature ( _! opposition4 ,b ! ,facts are ,facts1 s f> z ! ,ideas h be5 comb9$ ) ! ,s5sations & absorb$ 9 !m3 ! ,!ories are ,!ories1 s f> z ! ,ideas are kept di/9ct f ! ,s5sations1 & s f> z x is #de consid]$ /ill a "q :e!r ^? c be made to agree ) ^!4 ,we may1 z ,i h said1 illu/rate ?is matt] by consid]+ man z int]pret+ ! ph5om5a :i* he sees4 ,he (t5 int]prets )\t be+ aw>e t he does s4 ,?us :5 we see ! ne$le move t[>ds ! magnet1 we ass]t t ! magnet ex]cises an attractive =ce on ! ne$le4 ,b x is only by an int]pretative act ( our own m9ds t we ascribe ?is motion to attraction4 ,t1 9 ?is case1 a =ce is ex]t$--some?+ ( ! nature ( ! pull :i* we c\ld apply by our own volition--is our int]pretation ( ! ph5om5a2 al?\gh we may be consci\s ( ! act ( int]pretation1 & may !n reg>d ! attraction z a ,fact4 ,nor is x 9 su* cases only t we int]pret ph5om5a 9 our own way1 )\t be+ consci\s ( :at we d4 ,we see a tree at a di/ance1 & judge x to be a *e/nut or a lime2 yet ?is is only an inf]5ce f ! col\r or =m ( ! mass accord+ to preconceiv$ classifications ( our own4 ,our lives are full ( su* unconsci\s int]pretations4 ,! f>m] recognizes a good or a bad soil2 ! arti/ a picture ( a fav\rite ma/]2 ! geologi/ a rock ( a kn[n locality1 z we recognize ! faces & voices ( our fri5ds2 t is1 by judgm5ts =m$ on :at we see & he>2 b judgm5ts 9 :i* we d n analyze ! /eps1 or di/+ui% ! inf]5ce f ! appe>ance4 ,& 9 ^! mixtures ( obs]vation & inf]5ce1 we speak ( ! judgm5t ?us =m$1 z a ,fact directly obs]v$4 ,ev5 9 ! case 9 :i* our p]ceptions appe> to be mo/ direct1 & lea/ to involve any int]pretations ( our own1--9 ! simple process ( see+1--:o does n "k h[ mu* we1 by an act ( ! m9d1 add to t :i* our s5ses receive8 ,does any "o fancy t he sees a solid cube8 ,x is easy to %[ t ! solidity ( ! figure1 ! relative position ( its faces & edges to ea* o!r1 are inf]5ces ( ! spectator2 no m convey$ to 8 conviction by ! eye alone1 ?an !y w\ld be if he 7 look+ at #df a pa9t$ repres5tation ( a cube4 ,! sc5e ( nature is a picture )\t dep? ( sub/ance1 no less ?an ! sc5e ( art2 & 9 ! "o case z 9 ! o!r1 x is ! m9d :i*1 by an act ( its own1 discov]s t col\r & %ape d5ote di/ance & solidity4 ,mo/ m5 are unconsci\s ( ?is p]petual habit ( read+ ! language ( ! ext]nal _w1 & translat+ z !y read4 ,! draughtsman1 inde$1 is compell$1 = 8 purposes1 to return back 9 ?\ght f ! solid bodies :i* he has inf]r$1 to ! %apes ( surface :i* he really sees4 ,he kn[s t !re is a mask ( !ory ov] ! :ole face ( nature1 if x be !ory to inf] m ?an we see4 ,b o!r m51 unaw>e ( ?is masqu]ade1 hold x to be a fact t !y see cubes & sph]es1 spaci\s ap>tm5ts & w9d+ av5ues4 ,& ^! ?+s are facts to !m1 because !y are unconsci\s ( ! m5tal op]ation by :i* !y h p5etrat$ nature's disguise4 ,& ?us1 we /ill h an intelligible di/9ction ( ,fact & ,!ory1 if we consid] ,!ory z a consci\s1 & ,fact z an unconsci\s inf]5ce1 f ! ph5om5a :i* are pres5t$ to our s5ses4 ,b /ill1 ,!ory & ,fact1 ,inf]5ce & ,p]ception1 ,reason+ & ,obs]vation1 are anti!ses 9 none ( :i* c we sep>ate ! two memb]s by any fix$ & def9ite l9e4 ,ev5 ! simple/ t]ms by :i* ! anti!sis is express$ _c be sep>at$4 ,ideas & ,s5sations1 ,?\ghts & ,?+s1 ,subject & ,object1 _c 9 any case be appli$ absolutely & exclusively4 ,our ,s5sations require ,ideas to b9d !m toge!r1 namely1 ,ideas ( space1 "t1 numb]1 & ! l4 ,if n s b\nd toge!r1 ,s5sations d n give u any appreh5sion ( ,?+s or ,objects4 ,all ,?+s1 all ,objects1 mu/ exi/ 9 space & 9 "t--mu/ be "o or _m4 ,n[ space1 "t1 numb]1 are n ,s5sations or ,?+s4 ,!y are some?+ diff]5t f1 & oppos$ to ,s5sations & ,?+s4 ,we h t]m$ !m ,ideas4 ,x may be said !y are ,relations ( ,?+s1 or ( ,s5sations4 ,b grant+ ?is =m ( expression1 /ill a ,relation is n a ,?+ or a #dg ,s5sation2 & !re=e we mu/ /ill h ano!r & opposite elem5t1 along ) our ,s5sations4 ,& yet1 ?\gh we h ?us ^! two elem5ts 9 e act ( p]ception1 we _c designate any portion ( ! act z absolutely & exclusively belong+ to "o ( ! elem5ts4 ,p]ception involves ,s5sation1 along ) ,ideas ( "t1 space1 & ! l2 or1 if any "o pref]s ! expression1 we may say1 ,p]ception involves ,s5sations along ) ! appreh5sion ( ,relations4 ,p]ception is ,s5sation1 along ) su* ,ideas z make ,s5sation into an appreh5sion ( ,?+s or ,objects4 ,& z ,p]ception ( ,objects implies ,ideas1--z ,obs]vation implies ,reason+2--s1 on ! o!r h&1 ,ideas _c exi/ :]e ,s5sation has n be52 ,reason+ _c g on :5 !re has n be5 previ\s ,obs]vation4 ,?is is evid5t f ! necess>y ord] ( developem5t ( ! human faculties4 ,s5sation necess>ily exi/s f ! fir/ mom5ts ( our exi/5ce1 & is con/antly at "w4 ,obs]vation beg9s be=e we c suppose ! exi/5ce ( any ,reason+ :i* is n involv$ 9 ,obs]vation4 ,h5ce1 at :atev] p]iod we consid] our ,ideas1 we mu/ consid] !m z hav+ be5 already engag$ 9 connect+ our ,s5sations1 & z hav+ be5 modifi$ by ?is employm5t4 ,by be+ s employ$1 our ,ideas are unfold$ & def9$2 & su* developem5t & def9ition _c be sep>at$ f ! ,ideas !mselves4 ,we _c conceive space1 )\t b\nd>ies or =ms2 n[ ,=ms involve ,s5sations4 ,we _c conceive "t1 )\t ev5ts :i* m>k ! c\rse ( "t2 b ev5ts involve ,s5sations4 ,we _c conceive numb]1 )\t conceiv+ ?+s :i* are numb]$2 & ,?+s imply s5sations4 ,& ! =ms1 ?+s1 ev5ts1 :i* are ?us impli$ 9 our ,ideas1 hav+ be5 ! objects ( ,s5sation con/antly 9 e "p ( our life1 h modifi$1 unfold$1 & fix$ our ,ideas1 to an ext5t :i* we _c e/imate1 b :i* we mu/ suppose to be ess5tial to ! processes :i* at pres5t g on 9 our m9ds4 ,we _c say t ,objects create ,ideas2 = to p]ceive ,objects we mu/ already h ,ideas4 ,b we may #dh say1 t ,objects & ! con/ant ,p]ception ( ,objects h s f> modifi$ our ,ideas1 t we _c1 ev5 9 ?\ght1 sep>ate our ,ideas f ! p]ception ( ,objects4 ,we _c say ( any ,ideas1 z ( ! ,idea ( space1 or "t1 or numb]1 t !y are absolutely & exclusively ,ideas4 ,we _c conceive :at space1 or "t1 or numb]1 w\ld be 9 our m9ds1 if we _h nev] p]ceiv$ any ,?+ or ,?+s 9 space or "t4 ,we _c conceive ourselves 9 su* a condition z nev] to h p]ceiv$ any ,?+ or ,?+s 9 space or "t4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 j z little c we conceive ourselves becom+ acqua9t$ ) space & "t or numb]s z objects ( ,s5sation4 ,we _c reason )\t hav+ ! op]ations ( our m9ds affect$ by previ\s ,s5sations2 b we _c conceive ,reason+ to be m]ely a s]ies ( ,s5sations4 ,9 ord] to be us$ 9 ,reason+1 ,s5sation mu/ become ,obs]vation2 &1 z we h se51 ,obs]vation already involves ,reason+4 ,9 ord] to be connect$ by our ,ideas1 ,s5sations mu/ be ,?+s or ,objects1 & ,?+s or ,objects already include ,ideas4 ,& ?us1 none ( ! t]ms by :i* ! fundam5tal anti!sis is express$ c be absolutely & exclusively appli$4 ,i w make a rem>k sugge/$ by ! views :i* h ?us be5 pres5t$4 ,s9ce1 z we h j se51 none ( ! t]ms :i* express ! fundam5tal anti!sis c be appli$ absolutely & exclusively1 ! absolute application ( ! anti!sis 9 any p>ticul> case c nev] be a conclusive or immoveable pr9ciple4 ,?is rem>k is ! m necess>y to be borne 9 m9d1 z ! t]ms ( ?is anti!sis are (t5 us$ 9 a vehem5t & p]emptory mann]4 ,?us we are (t5 told t su* a ?+ is a ,fact2 ,a ,,fact & n a ,!ory1 ) all ! emphasis :i*1 9 speak+ or writ+1 tone or italics or capitals c give4 ,we see f :at has be5 said1 t :5 ?is is urg$1 be=e we c e/imate ! tru?1 or ! value ( ! ass]tion1 we mu/ ask to :om is x a ,fact8 :at habits ( ?\ght1 :at previ\s in=mation1 :at ,ideas does x imply1 to conceive ! ,fact z a ,fact8 #di ,does n ! appreh5sion ( ! ,fact imply assumptions :i* may ) equal ju/ice be call$ ,!ory1 & :i* are p]haps false ,!ory8 9 :i* case1 ! ,fact is no ,fact4 ,did n ! anci5ts ass]t x z a ,fact1 t ! e>? /ood /ill1 & ! />s mov$8 & c any ,fact h /rong] app>5t evid5ce to ju/ify p]sons 9 ass]t+ x emphatically ?an ?is _h8 ,^! rem>ks are by no means urg$ 9 ord] to %[ t no ,fact c be c]ta9ly kn[n to be true2 b only1 to %[ t no ,fact c be c]ta9ly %[n to be a ,fact1 m]ely by call+ x a ,fact1 h[ev] emphatically4 ,!re is by no means any gr\nd ( g5]al skepticism ) reg>d to tru?1 involv$ 9 ! doctr9e ( ! necess>y comb9ation ( two elem5ts 9 all our k4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,ideas are requisite to ! ess5ce1 & ,?+s to ! reality ( our k 9 e case4 ,! proportions ( ,geometry & ,ari?metic are examples ( k respect+ our ,ideas ( space & numb]1 ) reg>d to :i* !re is no room = d\bt4 ,! doctr9es ( ,a/ronomy are examples ( tru?s n less c]ta9 respect+ ! ,facts ( ! ext]nal _w4 ,sect4 #aa4--,successive ,g5]alization4 ,,9 ! prec$+ pages we h be5 l$ to ! doctr9e1 t ?\gh1 9 ! ,anti!sis ( ,!ory & ,fact1 !re is involv$ an ess5tial opposition2 namely ! opposition ( ! ?\ghts )9 u & ! ph5om5a )\t u2 yet t we _c di/+ui% & def9e ! memb]s ( ?is anti!sis sep>ately4 ,!ories become ,facts1 by becom+ c]ta9 & famili>3 & ?us1 z our k becomes m sure & m ext5sive1 we are con/antly transf]r+ to ! class ( facts1 op9ions :i* 7 at fir/ reg>d$ z !ories4 ,n[ we h fur!r to rem>k1 t 9 ! progress ( human k respect+ any bran* ( speculation1 !re may be sev]al su* /eps 9 succession1 ea* dep5d+ ^u & includ+ ! prec$+4 #ej ,! !oretical views :i* "o g5]ation ( discov]]s e/abli%es1 become ! facts f :i* ! next g5]ation advances to new !ories4 ,z m5 rise f ! p>ticul> to ! g5]al1 s1 9 ! same mann]1 !y rise f :at is g5]al to :at is m g5]al4 ,ea* induction supplies ! mat]ials ( fre% inductions2 ea* g5]alization1 ) all t x embraces 9 its circle1 may be f\nd to be b "o ( _m circles1 compreh5d$ )9 ! circuit ( "s wid] g5]alization4 ,?is rem>k has already be5 made1 & illu/rat$1 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces#ba2 &1 9 tru?1 ! :ole ( ! hi/ory ( sci5ce is full ( sugge/ions & exemplifications ( ?is c\rse ( ?+s4 ,x may be conv5i5t1 h[ev]1 to select a few in/ances :i* may fur!r expla9 & confirm ?is view ( ! progress ( sci5tific k4 ,note #ba3 ,hi/4 ,inductive ,sci5ces1 b4 vii4 c4 ii4 sect4 #e4 ,! mo/ conspicu\s in/ance ( ?is succession is to be f\nd 9 t sci5ce :i* has be5 progressive f ! beg9n+ ( ! _w to our own times1 & :i* exhibits by f> ! ri*e/ collection ( successive discov]ies3 ,i mean ,a/ronomy4 ,x is easy to see t ea* ( ^! successive discov]ies dep5d$ on ^? antec$5tly made1 & t 9 ea*1 ! tru?s :i* 7 ! highe/ po9t ( ! k ( "o age 7 ! fundam5tal basis ( ! ef=ts ( ! age :i* came next4 ,?us we f9d1 9 ! days ( ,greek discov]y1 ,hipp>*us & ,ptolemy comb9+ & expla9+ ! p>ticul> facts ( ! motion ( ! sun1 moon1 & planets1 by means ( ! !ory ( epicycles & ecc5trics2--a highly important /ep1 :i* gave an intelligible connexion & rule to ! motions ( ea* ( ^! lum9>ies4 ,:5 ^! cycles & epicycles1 ?us truly repres5t+ ! app>5t motions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 _h accumulat$ to an inconv5i5t am\nt1 by ! discov]y ( _m inequalities 9 ! obs]v$ motions1 ,cop]nicus %[$ t _! effects might all be m simply includ$1 by mak+ ! sun ! c5t] ( motion ( ! planets1 in/ead ( #ea ! e>?4 ,b 9 ?is new view1 he /ill reta9$ ! epicycles & ecc5trics :i* gov]n$ ! motion ( ea* body4 ,ty*o ,brahe's obs]vations1 & ,kepl]'s calculations1 %[$ t1 besides ! va/ numb] ( facts :i* ! epicyclical !ory c\ld acc\nt =1 !re 7 "s :i* x w\ld n exactly include1 & ,kepl] 0 l$ to ! p]suasion t ! planets move 9 ellipses4 ,b ?is view ( motion 0 at fir/ conceiv$ by ,kepl] z a modification ( ! conception ( epicycles4 ,on "o occasion he blames himself = n soon] see+ t su* a modification 0 possible4 ',:at an absurdity on my "p6' he cries#ca2 'z if libration 9 ! diamet] ( ! epicycle might n come to ! same ?+ z motion 9 ! ellipse4' ,b aga92 ,kepl]'s laws ( ! elliptical motion ( ! planets 7 e/abli%$2 & ^! laws imm$iately became ! facts on :i* ! ma!maticians _h to f\nd _! me*anical !ories4 ,f ^! facts1 ,newton1 z we h relat$1 prov$ t ! c5tral =ce ( ! sun reta9s ! planets 9 _! orbits1 accord+ to ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance4 ,! same law 0 %[n to prevail 9 ! gravitation ( ! e>?4 ,x 0 %[n1 too1 by induction f ! motions ( ,jupit] & ,saturn1 t ! planets attract ea* o!r2 by calculations f ! figure ( ! e>?1 t ! p>ts ( ! e>? attract ea* o!r2 &1 by consid]+ ! c\rse ( ! tides1 t ! sun & moon attract ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,& all ^! curi\s discov]ies be+ e/abli%$ z facts1 ! subject 0 ready = ano!r /ep ( g5]alization4 ,by an unp>allel$ rapidity 9 ! progress ( discov]y 9 ?is case1 n only 7 all ! inductions :i* we h fir/ m5tion$ made by "o individual1 b ! new advance1 ! high] flight1 ! clos+ victory1 fell to ! lot ( ! same extraord9>y p]son4 ,note #ca3 ,hi/4 ,inductive ,sci5ces1 b4 v4 c4 iv4 sect4 #c4 ,! attraction ( ! sun ^u ! planets1 ( ! moon ^u ! e>?1 ( ! planets on ea* o!r1 ( ! p>ts ( ! e>? on !mselves1 ( ! sun & #eb moon ^u ! ocean2--all ^! tru?s1 ea* ( itself a great discov]y1 7 includ$ by ,newton 9 ! high] g5]alization1 ( ! univ]sal gravitation ( matt]1 by :i* ea* p>ticle is drawn to e o!r accord+ to ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e3 & ?us ?is long advance f discov]y to discov]y1 f tru?s to tru?s1 ea* ju/ly admir$ :5 new1 & !n rightly us$ z old1 0 clos$ 9 a wor?y & consi/5t mann]1 by a tru? :i* is ! mo/ wor?y admiration1 because x includes all ! rese>*es ( prec$+ ages ( ,a/ronomy4 ,we may take ano!r example ( a succession ( ?is k9d f ! hi/ory ( a sci5ce1 :i*1 ?\gh x has made wond]ful advances1 has n yet rea*$ its goal1 z physical a/ronomy appe>s to h done1 b seems to h be=e x a long prospect ( future progress4 ,i n[ ref] to ,*emi/ry1 9 :i* ,i %all try to po9t out h[ ! prec$+ discov]ies af=d$ ! mat]ials ( ! succe$+2 al?\gh ?is subord9ation & connexion is1 9 ?is case1 less famili> to m5's m9ds ?an 9 ,a/ronomy1 & is1 p]haps1 m difficult to pres5t 9 a cle> & def9ite %ape4 ,sylvius saw1 9 ! facts :i* occur1 :5 an acid & an alkali are br\ght toge!r1 ! evid5ce t !y neutralize ea* o!r4 ,b cases ( neutralization1 & acidification1 & _m o!r effects ( mixture ( ! +r$i5ts ( bodies1 be+ ?us view$ z facts1 _h an aspect ( unity & law giv5 !m by ,ge(froy & ,b]gman#da1 :o introduc$ ! conception ( ! ,*emical ,aff9ity or ,elective ,attraction1 by :i* c]ta9 elem5ts select o!r elem5ts1 z if by pref]5ce4 ,t combu/ion1 :e!r a *emical union or a *emical sep>ation ( +r$i5ts1 is ( ! same nature ) acidification1 0 ! doctr9e ( ,bec*] & ,/ahl1 & 0 soon e/abli%$ z a tru? :i* mu/ =m a "p ( e succe$+ physical !ory4 ,t ! rules ( aff9ity & *emical composition may include gase\s elem5ts1 0 e/abli%$ by ,black & ,cav5di%4 ,& all ^! tru?s1 ?us br\ght to light by #ec *emical discov]]s1--aff9ity1 ! id5tity ( acidification & combu/ion1 ! importance ( gase\s elem5ts1--along ) all ! facts respect+ ! weight ( +r$i5ts & comp\nds :i* ! balance disclos$1--7 tak5 up1 connect$1 & includ$ z p>ticul>s 9 ! oxyg5 !ory ( ,lavoisi]4 ,aga91 ! results ( ?is !ory1 & ! quantity ( ! sev]al +r$i5ts :i* ent]$ into ea* comp\nd--7su* results1 = ! mo/ "p1 be+ n[ no long] m]e !oretical speculations1 b recogniz$ facts7--7 ! p>ticul>s f :i* ,dalton d]iv$ t wide law ( *emical comb9ation :i* we t]m ! ,atomic ,!ory4 ,& ?is law1 soon g5]ally accept$ among *emi/s1 is already 9 its turn become "o ( ! facts includ$ 9 ,f>aday's ,!ory ( ! id5tity ( ,*emical ,aff9ity & ,electric ,attraction4 ,note #da3 ,hi/4 ,inductive ,sci5ces1 b4 xiv4 c4 iii4 ,x is unnecess>y to give fur!r exemplifications ( ?is con/ant asc5t f "o /ep to a high]2 ?is p]petual conv]sion ( true !ories into ! mat]ials ( o!r & wid] !ories4 ,x w h]eaft] be our bus9ess to exhibit1 9 a m full & =mal mann]1 ! mode 9 :i* ?is pr9ciple det]m9es ! :ole s*eme & /ructure ( all ! mo/ exact sci5ces4 ,& ?us1 beg9n+ ) ! facts ( s5se1 we gradually climb to ! highe/ =ms ( human k1 & obta9 f exp]i5ce & obs]vation a va/ collection ( ! mo/ wide & elevat$ tru?s4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 tru?s ( a v diff]5t k9d1 to :i* we mu/ turn our att5tion1 9 ord] to pursue our rese>*es respect+ ! nature & gr\nds ( our k4 ,b be=e we d ?is1 we mu/ notice "o m feature 9 t progress ( sci5ce :i* we h already 9 "p describ$4 #ed ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,te*nical ,,t]ms4 #a4 ,,x has already be5 /at$ t we ga!r k f ! ext]nal _w1 :5 we are able to apply1 to ! facts :i* we obs]ve1 "s ideal conception1 :i* gives unity & connexion to multipli$ & sep>ate p]ceptions4 ,we h also %[n t our conceptions1 ?us v]ifi$ by facts1 may !mselves be unit$ & connect$ by a new bond ( ! same nature2 & t man may ?us h to pursue 8 way f tru? to tru? ?r\gh a long progression ( discov]ies1 ea* re/+ on ! prec$+1 & ris+ above x4 ,ea* ( ^! /eps1 9 succession1 is record$1 fix$1 & made available1 by "s peculi> =m ( words2 & su* words1 ?us r5d]$ precise 9 _! mean+1 & appropriat$ to ! s]vice ( sci5ce1 we may call ,te*nical ,t]ms4 ,x is 9 a great measure by inv5t+ su* ,t]ms t m5 n only be/ express ! discov]ies !y h made1 b also enable _! foll[]s to become s famili> ) ^! discov]ies1 & to possess !m s ?or\ghly1 t !y c readily use !m 9 advanc+ to ult]ior g5]alizations4 ,mo/ ( our ideal conceptions are describ$ by exact & con/ant words or phrases1 su* z ^? ( :i* we "h speak4 ,we h already _h occasion to employ _m ( ^!4 ,?us we h _h in/ances ( te*nical ,t]ms express+ geometrical conceptions1 z ,ellipsis1 ,radius ,vector1 ,axis1 ,plane1 ! ,proportion ( ! ,inv]se ,squ>e1 & ! l4 ,o!r ,t]ms h describ$ me*anical conceptions1 z ,accel]at+ ,=ce & ,attraction4 ,aga91 *emi/ry exhibits 7z d all sci5ces7 a s]ies ( ,t]ms :i* m>k ! /eps ( our #ee progress4 ,! views ( ! fir/ real f\nd]s ( ! sci5ce are record$ by ! ,t]ms :i* are /ill 9 use1 ,neutral ,salts1 ,aff9ity1 & ! l4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( ,dalton's !ory has produc$ ! use ( ! ^w ,atom 9 a peculi> s5se1 or ( "s o!r ^w1 z ,proportion1 9 a s5se equally te*nical4 ,& ,mr4 ,f>aday has f\nd x necess>y1 9 ord] to exp\nd 8 electro-*emical !ory1 to introduce su* t]ms z ,anode & ,ca?ode1 ,anon & ,ca?on4 #b4 ,i ne$ n adduce any fur!r examples1 = my object at pres5t is only to po9t out ! use & influ5ce ( su* language3 its rules & pr9ciples ,i %all h]eaft] try1 9 "s measure1 to fix4 ,b :at we h "h to rem>k is1 ! extraord9>y degree 9 :i* ! progress ( sci5ce is facilitat$1 by ?us inve/+ ea* new discov]y ) a comp5di\s & /eady =m ( expression4 ,^! t]ms soon become "p ( ! curr5t language ( all :o take an int]e/ 9 speculation4 ,h[ev] /range !y may s\nd at fir/1 !y soon gr[ famili> 9 our e>s1 & are us$ )\t any ef=t1 or any recollection ( ! difficulty !y once involv$4 ,!y become z common z ! phrases :i* express our mo/ frequ5t feel+s & int]e/s1 :ile yet !y h incomp>ably m precision ?an belongs to any t]ms :i* express feel+s2 & !y c>ry ) !m1 9 _! import1 ! results ( deep & labori\s tra9s ( rese>*4 ,!y convey ! m5tal treasures ( "o p]iod to ! g5]ations t foll[2 & lad5 ) ?is1 _! preci\s freight1 !y sail safely across gulfs ( "t 9 :i* empires h suff]$ %ipwreck1 & ! languages ( common life h sunk into oblivion4 ,we h /ill 9 con/ant circulation among u ! ,t]ms :i* belong to ! geometry1 ! a/ronomy1 ! zoology1 ! m$ic9e ( ! ,greeks1 & ! algebra & *emi/ry ( ! ,arabians4 ,& we c 9 an in/ant1 by means ( a few words1 call to our own recollection1 or convey to ! appreh5sion ( ano!r p]son1 ph5om5a & relations ( ph5om5a 9 optics1 m9]alogy1 *emi/ry1 :i* are s complex & ab/ruse1 t x might seem to require ! utmo/ subtlety ( ! human m9d to #ef grasp !m1 ev5 if t 7 made ! sole object ( its ef=ts4 ,by ?is rem>kable effect ( ,te*nical ,language1 we h ! results ( all ! lab\rs ( pa/ times n only always accessible1 b s prep>$ t we may 7provid$ we are c>eful 9 ! use ( our in/rum5t7 employ :at is really useful & efficaci\s = ! purpose ( fur!r success1 )\t be+ 9 any way imp$$ or p]plex$ by ! l5g? & weight ( ! *a9 ( pa/ connexions :i* we drag along ) u4 ,by su* means1--by ! use ( ! ,inductive ,process1 & by ! aid ( ,te*nical ,t]ms1--man has be5 con/antly advanc+ 9 ! pa? ( sci5tific tru?4 ,9 a succe$+ "p ( ?is "w we %all endeav\r to trace ! g5]al rules ( ?is advance1 & to lay d[n ! maxims by :i* x may be mo/ successfully guid$ & =w>d$4 ,b 9 ord] t we may d ?is to ! be/ advantage1 we mu/ pursue /ill fur!r ! analysis ( k into its elem5ts2 & ?is w be our employm5t 9 ! fir/ "p ( ! "w4 #eg ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,( ,,necess>y ,,tru?s4 #a4 ,,e advance 9 human k consi/s1 z we h se51 9 adapt+ new ideal conceptions to asc]ta9$ facts1 & ?us 9 sup]9duc+ ! ,=m ^u ! ,matt]1 ! active ^u ! passive processes ( our m9ds4 ,e su* /ep introduces into our k an additional portion ( ! ideal elem5t1 & ( ^? relations :i* fl[ f ! nature ( ,ideas4 ,x is1 !re=e1 important = our purpose to exam9e m closely ?is elem5t1 & to le>n :at ! relations are :i* may ?us come to =m "p ( our k4 ,an inquiry into ^? ,ideas :i* =m ! f\ndations ( our sci5ces2--into ! reality1 indep5d5ce1 ext5t1 & pr9cipal heads ( ! k :i* we ?us acquire2 is a task on :i* we mu/ n[ ent]1 & :i* w employ u = sev]al ( ! succe$+ ,books4 ,9 ?is inquiry our object w be to pass 9 review all ! mo/ important ,fundam5tal ,ideas :i* our sci5ces involve2 & to prove m di/9ctly 9 ref]5ce to ea*1 :at we h already ass]t$ ) reg>d to all1 t !re are ev]y:]e involv$ 9 our k acts ( ! m9d z well z impressions ( s5se2 & t our k d]ives1 f ^! acts1 a g5]ality1 c]ta9ty1 & evid5ce :i* ! s5ses c\ld 9 no degree h suppli$4 ,b be=e ,i proce$ to d ?is 9 p>ticul> cases1 ,i w give "s acc\nt ( ! argum5t 9 its g5]al =m4 ,we h already consid]$ ! sep>ation ( our k into its two elem5ts1--,impressions ( ,s5se & ,ideas1--z evid5tly indicat$ by ?is2 t all k possesses *>act]s :i* nei!r ( ^! #eh elem5ts alone c\ld be/[4 ,)\t our ideas1 our s5sations c\ld h no connexion2 )\t ext]nal impressions1 our ideas w\ld h no reality2 & ?us bo? +r$i5ts ( our k mu/ exi/4 #b4 ,!re is ano!r mode 9 :i* ! di/9ction ( ! two elem5ts ( k appe>s1 z ,i h already said 7c4 i4 sect4 #b73 namely 9 ! di/9ction ( necess>y1 & cont+5t or exp]i5tial1 tru?s4 ,= ( ^! two classes ( tru?s1 ! diff]5ce arises f ?is2--t ! "o class d]ives its nature f ! "o1 & ! o!r f ! o!r1 ( ! two elem5ts ( k4 ,i h already /at$ briefly ! diff]5ce ( ^! two k9ds ( tru?s3--namely1 t ! =m] are tru?s :i*1 we see1 mu/ be true3--! latt] are true1 b s f> z we c see1 might be o!rwise4 ,! =m] are true necess>ily & univ]sally3 ! latt] are le>nt f exp]i5ce & limit$ by exp]i5ce4 ,n[ ) reg>d to ! =m] k9d ( tru?s1 ,i wi% to %[ t ! univ]sality & necessity :i* di/+ui% !m c by no means be d]iv$ f exp]i5ce2 t ^! *>act]s d 9 reality fl[ f ! ideas :i* ^! tru?s involve2 & t :5 ! necessity ( ! tru? is exhibit$ 9 ! way ( logical demon/ration1 x is f\nd to dep5d ^u c]ta9 fundam5tal pr9ciples1 7,def9itions & ,axioms17 :i* may ?us be consid]$ z express+1 9 "s measure1 ! ess5tial *>act]s ( our ideas4 ,^! fundam5tal pr9ciples ,i %all aft]w>ds proce$ to discuss & to exhibit 9 ea* ( ! pr9cipal dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce4 ,i %all beg9 by consid]+ ,necess>y ,tru?s m fully ?an ,i h yet done4 ,z ,i h already said1 necess>y tru?s are ^? 9 :i* we n only le>n1 t ! proposition is true1 b see t x mu/ be true2 9 :i* ! negation ( ! tru? is n only false1 b impossible2 9 :i* we _c1 ev5 by an ef=t ( imag9ation1 or 9 a supposition1 conceive ! rev]se ( t :i* is ass]t$4 #c4 ,t !re are su* tru?s _c be d\bt$4 ,we may take1 = example1 all relations ( numb]4 ,?ree & ,two add$ toge!r make ,five4 ,we _c #ei conceive x to be o!rwise4 ,we _c1 by any freak ( ?\ght1 imag9e ,?ree & ,two to make ,sev54 ,x may be said t ?is ass]tion m]ely expresses :at we mean by our words2 t x is a matt] ( def9ition2 t ! proposition is an id5tical "o4 ,b ?is is by no means s4 ,! def9ition ( ,five is n ,?ree & ,two1 b ,f\r & ,"o4 ,h[ does x appe> t ,?ree & ,two is ! same numb] z ,f\r & ,"o8 ,x is evid5t t x is s2 b :y is x evid5t8--n because ! proposition is id5tical2 = if t 7 ! reason1 all num]ical propositions mu/ be evid5t = ! same reason4 ,if x be a matt] ( def9ition t #c & #b make #e1 x mu/ be a matt] ( def9ition t #ci & #bg make #ff4 ,b :o w say t ! def9ition ( #ff is #ci & #bg8 ,yet ! magnitude ( ! numb]s c make no diff]5ce 9 ! gr\nd ( ! tru?4 ,h[ d we "k t ! product ( #ac & #ag is #d less ?an ! product ( #ae & #ae8 ,we see t x is s1 if we p]=m c]ta9 op]ations by ! rules ( ari?metic2 b h[ d we "k ! tru? ( ! rules ( ari?metic8 ,if we divide #abccge by #ihg accord+ to ! process taught u at s*ool1 h[ are we assur$ t ! result is correct1 & t ! numb] #abe ?us obta9$ is really ! numb] ( times "o numb] is conta9$ 9 ! o!r8 ,! correctness ( ! rule1 x may be repli$1 c be rigor\sly demon/rat$4 ,x c be %[n t ! process mu/ inevitably give ! true quoti5t4 ,c]ta9ly ?is c be %[n to be ! case4 ,& precisely because x c be %[n t ! result mu/ be true1 we h "h an example ( a necess>y tru?2 & ?is tru?1 x appe>s1 is n !re=e necess>y because x is itself evid5tly id5tical1 h[ev] x may be possible to prove x by r$uc+ x to evid5tly id5tical propositions4 ,& ! same is ! case ) all o!r num]ical propositions2 =1 z we h said1 ! nature ( all ( !m is ! same4 ,"h1 !n1 we h in/ances ( tru?s :i* are n only true1 b demon/rably & necess>ily true4 ,n[ su* tru?s are1 9 ?is respect at lea/1 altoge!r #fj diff]5t f tru?s1 :i*1 h[ev] c]ta9 !y may be1 are le>nt to be s only by ! evid5ce ( obs]vation1 int]pret$1 z obs]vation mu/ be int]pret$1 by our own m5tal faculties4 ,!re is no difficulty 9 f9d+ examples ( ^! m]ely obs]v$ tru?s4 ,we f9d t sug> dissolves 9 wat]1 & =ms a transp>5t fluid1 b no "o w say t we c see any reason be=eh& :y ! result mu/ be s4 ,we f9d t all animals :i* *ew ! cud h also ! divid$ ho(2 b c\ld any "o h pr$ict$ t ?is w\ld be univ]sally ! case8 or suppos+ ! tru? ( ! rule to be kn[n1 c any "o say t he _c conceive ! facts z occurr+ o!rwise8 ,wat] exp&s :5 x cry/allizes1 "s o!r sub/ances contract 9 ! same circum/ances2 b c any "o "k t ?is w be s o!rwise ?an by obs]vation8 ,we h "h propositions rigor\sly true1 7we w assume17 b c any "o say !y are necess>ily true8 ,^!1 & ! great mass ( ! doctr9es e/abli%$ by induction1 are actual1 b s f> z we c see1 accid5tal laws2 results det]m9$ by "s unkn[n selection1 n demon/rable consequ5ces ( ! ess5ce ( ?+s1 inevitable & p]ceiv$ to be inevitable4 ,accord+ to ! phraseology :i* has be5 frequ5tly us$ by philosophical writ]s1 !y are cont+5t1 n necess>y tru?s4 ,x is requisite to insi/ ^u ?is opposition1 because no insight c be obta9$ into ! true nature ( k1 & ! mode ( arriv+ at x1 by any "o :o does n cle>ly appreciate ! di/9ction4 ,! sep>ation ( tru?s :i* are le>nt by obs]vation1 & tru?s :i* c be se5 to be true by a pure act ( ?\ght1 is "o ( ! fir/ & mo/ ess5tial /eps 9 our exam9ation ( ! nature ( tru?1 & ! mode ( its discov]y4 ,if any "o does n cle>ly compreh5d ?is di/9ction ( necess>y & cont+5t tru?s1 he w n be able to g along ) u 9 our rese>*es into ! f\ndations ( human k2 nor1 inde$1 to pursue ) success any speculation on ! subject4 ,b1 9 fact1 ?is di/9ction is "o t c h>dly fail to be at once und]/ood4 ,x #fa is insi/$ ^u by almo/ all ! be/ mod]n1 z well z anci5t1 metaphysicians#ea1 z ( prim>y importance4 ,& if any p]son does n fully appreh5d1 at fir/1 ! diff]5t k9ds ( tru? ?us po9t$ out1 let him /udy1 to "s ext5t1 ^? sci5ces :i* h necess>y tru? = _! subject1 z geometry1 or ! prop]ties ( numb]s1 s z to obta9 a famili> acqua9tance ) su* tru?2 & he w !n h>dly fail to see h[ diff]5t ! evid5ce ( ! propositions :i* occur 9 ^! sci5ces1 is f ! evid5ce ( ! facts :i* are m]ely le>nt f exp]i5ce4 ,t ! ye> goes ?r\gh its c\rse 9 #cfe days1 c only be kn[n by obs]vation ( ! sun or />s3 t #cfe days is #eb weeks & a day1 x requires no exp]i5ce1 b only a little ?\ght to p]ceive4 ,t bees build _! cells 9 ! =m ( hexagons1 we _c "k )\t look+ at !m2 t regul> hexagons may be arrang$ s z to fill space1 may be prov$ ) ! utmo/ rig\r1 ev5 if !re 7 n 9 exi/5ce su* a ?+ z a mat]ial hexagon4 ,note #ea3 ,ari/otle1 ,dr ,:ately1 ,dugald ,/ew>t1 c4 #d4 ,z ,i h already said1 "o mode 9 :i* we may express ! diff]5ce ( necess>y tru?s & tru?s ( exp]i5ce1 is1 t necess>y tru?s are ^? ( :i* we _c di/9ctly conceive ! contr>y4 ,we c v readily conceive ! contr>y ( exp]i5tial tru?s4 ,we c conceive ! />s mov+ ab\t ! pole or across ! sky 9 any k9d ( curves ) any velocities2 we c conceive ! moon always appe>+ dur+ ! :ole mon? z a lum9\s disk1 z %e might d if h] light 7 inh]5t & n borr[$4 ,b we _c conceive "o ( ! p>allelograms on ! same base & betwe5 ! same p>allels l>g] ?an ! o!r2 = we f9d t1 if we attempt to d ?is1 :5 we sep>ate ! p>allelograms into p>ts1 we h to conceive "o triangle l>g] ?an ano!r1 bo? hav+ all _! p>ts equal2 :i* we _c conceive at all1 if we conceive ! triangles di/9ctly4 ,we make ?is impossibility m cle> by conceiv+ #fb ! triangles to be plac$ s t two sides ( ! "o co9cide ) two sides ( ! o!r2 & x is !n se51 t 9 ord] to conceive ! triangles unequal1 we mu/ conceive ! two bases :i* h ! same extremities bo? ways1 to be diff]5t l9es1 ?\gh bo? /raight l9es4 ,?is x is impossible to conceive3 we ass5t to ! impossibility z an axiom1 :5 x is express$ by say+1 t two /raight l9es _c inclose a space2 & ?us we _c di/9ctly conceive ! contr>y ( ! proposition j m5tion$ respect+ p>allelograms4 ,b x is necess>y1 9 apply+ ?is di/9ction1 to be> 9 m9d ! t]ms ( x2--t we _c di/9ctly conceive ! contr>y ( a necess>y tru?4 ,= 9 a c]ta9 loose1 indi/9ct way1 p]sons conceive ! contr>y ( necess>y geometrical tru?s1 :5 !y errone\sly conceive false propositions to be true4 ,?us1 ,hobbes errone\sly held t he _h discov]$ a means ( geometrically 'd\bl+ ! cube1' z x is call$1 t is1 f9d+ two mean proportionals betwe5 two giv5 l9es2 a problem :i* _c be solv$ by plane geometry4 ,hobbes n only propos$ a con/ruction = ?is purpose1 b ob/9ately ma9ta9$ t x 0 "r1 :5 x _h be5 prov$ to be wrong4 ,b !n1 ! discussion %[$ h[ indi/9ct ! geometrical conceptions ( ,hobbes 72 = :5 8 critics _h prov$ t "o ( ! l9es 9 8 diagram w\ld n meet ! o!r 9 ! po9t :i* 8 reason+ suppos$1 b 9 ano!r po9t ne> to x2 he ma9ta9$1 9 reply1 t "o ( ^! po9ts 0 l>ge en\gh to include ! o!r1 s t !y might be consid]$ z ! same po9t4 ,su* a mode ( conceiv+ ! opposite ( a geometrical tru?1 =ms no exception to ! ass]tion1 t ?is opposite _c be di/9ctly conceiv$4 ,9 l mann]1 ! indi/9ct conceptions ( *ildr5 & ( rude savages d n invalidate ! di/9ction ( necess>y & exp]i5tial tru?s4 ,*ildr5 & savages make mi/akes ev5 ) reg>d to numb]s2 & might easily happ5 to ass]t t #bg & #ch are equal to #fc or #fd4 ,b su* mi/akes _c #fc make ari?metical tru?s cease to be necess>y tru?s4 ,:5 any p]son conceives ^! numb]s & _! addition di/9ctly1 by resolv+ !m into p>ts1 or 9 any o!r way1 he sees t _! sum is necess>ily #fe4 ,if1 on ! gr\nd ( ! possibility ( *ildr5 & savages conceiv+ some?+ diff]5t1 x be held t ?is is n a necess>y tru?1 x mu/ be held on ! same gr\nd1 t x is n a necess>y tru? t #g & #d are equal to #aa2 = *ildr5 & savages might be f\nd s unfamili> ) numb]s z n to reject ! ass]tion t #g & #d are #aj1 or ev5 t #d & #c are #f1 or #h4 ,b ,i suppose t no p]sons w\ld on su* gr\nds hold t ^! ari?metical tru?s are tru?s kn[n only by exp]i5ce4 #e4 ,i h tak5 examples ( necess>y tru?s f ! prop]ties ( numb] & space2 b su* tru?s exi/ no less 9 o!r subjects1 al?\gh ! discipl9e ( ?\ght :i* is requisite to p]ceive !m di/9ctly1 may n be s usual among m5 ) reg>d to ! sci5ces ( me*anics & hydro/atics1 z x is ) reg>d to ! sci5ces ( geometry & ari?metic4 ,yet e "o may p]ceive t !re are su* tru?s 9 me*anics4 ,if ,i press ! table ) my h&1 ! table presses my h& ) an equal =ce3 "h is a self-evid5t & necess>y tru?4 ,9 any ma*9e1 con/ruct$ 9 :atev] mann] to increase ! =ce :i* ,i c ex]t1 x is c]ta9 t :at ,i ga9 9 =ce ,i mu/ lose 9 ! velocity :i* ,i communicate4 ,?is is n a cont+5t tru?1 borr[$ f & limit$ by obs]vation2 = a man ( s\nd me*anical views applies x ) l confid5ce1 h[ev] novel be ! con/ruction ( ! ma*9e4 ,:5 ,i come to speak ( ! ideas :i* are involv$ 9 our me*anical k1 ,i may1 p]haps1 be able to br+ m cle>ly into view ! necess>y tru? ( g5]al propositions on su* subjects4 ,t reaction is equal & opposite to action1 is z necess>ily true z t two /raight l9es _c inclose a space2 x is z impossible !oretically to make a p]petual motion by m]e me*anism z to make ! diagonal ( a squ>e comm5surable ) ! side4 #fd #f4 ,necess>y tru?s mu/ be univ]sal tru?s4 ,if any prop]ty belong to a "r-angl$ triangle necess>ily1 x mu/ belong to all "r-angl$ triangles4 ,& x %all be prov$ 9 ! foll[+ ,*apt]1 t tru?s possess+ ^! two *>act]s1 ( ,necessity & ,univ]sality1 _c possibly be ! m]e results ( exp]i5ce4 ,necess>y tru?s are n consid]$ z a portion ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,!y are ,d$uctions f our ,ideas4 ,?us ! necess>y tru?s :i* con/itute ! ,sci5ce ( ,geometry are ,d$uctions f our ,idea ( ,space3 ! necess>y tru?s :i* con/itute ! ,sci5ce ( ,ari?metic are ,d$uctions f our notions ( ,numb]2 :i* p]haps involves necess>ily ! ,idea ( ,"t4 ,b ?\gh we d n call ^? ,sci5ces ,inductive :i* involve prop]ties ( ,space1 ,numb] & ,"t alone1 ! prop]ties ( ,space1 ,"t & ,numb] ent] 9 _m v important ways into ! ,inductive ,sci5ces2 & !re=e ! ,ideas ( ,space1 ,"t & ,numb] require to be consid]$ 9 ! fir/ place4 ,& moreov] ! exam9ation ( ^! ,ideas is an ess5tial /ep t[>ds ! exam9ation ( o!r ,ideas3 & ! conditions ( ! possibility & c]ta9ty ( tru?1 :i* are exemplifi$ 9 ,geometry & ,ari?metic1 op5 to u important views respect+ ! conditions ( ! possibility & c]ta9ty ( all ,sci5tific ,tru?4 ,we %all !re=e 9 ! next ,book exam9e ! ,ideas on :i* ! ,pure ,sci5ces1 ,geometry & ,ari?metic1 are f\nd$4 ,b we mu/ fir/ say a little m ( ,ideas 9 g5]al4 #fe ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,exp]i5ce4 #a4 ,i ,,"h employ ! t]m ,exp]i5ce 9 a m def9ite & limit$ s5se ?an t :i* x possesses 9 common usage2 = ,i re/rict x to matt]s belong+ to ! doma9 ( sci5ce4 ,9 su* cases1 ! k :i* we acquire1 by means ( exp]i5ce1 is ( a cle> & precise nature2 & ! passions & feel+s & int]e/s1 :i* make ! lessons ( exp]i5ce 9 practical matt]s s difficult to read aright1 no long] di/urb & confuse u4 ,we may1 !re=e1 hope1 by att5d+ to su* cases1 to le>n :at efficacy exp]i5ce really has1 9 ! discov]y ( tru?4 ,t f exp]i5ce 7includ+ int5tional exp]i5ce1 or obs]vation17 we obta9 mu* k :i* is highly important1 & :i* c\ld n be procur$ f any o!r s\rce1 is abundantly cle>4 ,we h already tak5 sev]al examples ( su* k4 ,we "k by exp]i5ce t animals :i* rum9ate are clov5-ho($2 & we "k ?is 9 no o!r mann]4 ,we "k1 9 l mann]1 t all ! planets & _! satellites revolve r\nd ! sun f we/ to ea/4 ,x has be5 f\nd by exp]i5ce t all meteoric /ones conta9 *rome4 ,_m simil> portions ( our k might be m5tion$4 ,n[ :at we h "h to rem>k is ?is2--t 9 no case c exp]i5ce prove a proposition to be necess>ily or univ]sally true4 ,h[ev] _m in/ances we may h obs]v$ ( ! tru? ( a proposition1 yet if x be kn[n m]ely by obs]vation1 !re is no?+ to assure u t ! next case %all n be an exception to ! rule4 ,if x be /rictly true t e rum9ant animal yet kn[n has clov5 ho(s1 we #ff /ill _c be sure t "s creature w n h]eaft] be discov]$ :i* has ! fir/ ( ^! attributes )\t hav+ ! o!r4 ,:5 ! planets & _! satellites1 z f> z ,saturn1 _h be5 all f\nd to move r\nd ! sun 9 "o direction1 x 0 /ill possible t !re might be o!r su* bodies n obey+ ?is rule2 &1 accord+ly1 :5 ! satellites ( ,uranus 7 detect$1 !y appe>$ to (f] an exception ( ?is k9d4 ,ev5 9 ! ma!matical sci5ces1 we h examples ( su* rules sugge/$ by exp]i5ce1 & also ( _! prec>i\sness4 ,h[ev] f> !y may h be5 te/$1 we _c dep5d ^u _! correctness1 except we see "s reason = ! rule4 ,= in/ance1 v>i\s rules h be5 giv51 = ! purpose ( po9t+ out prime numb]s2 t is1 ^? :i* _c be divid$ by any o!r numb]4 ,we may try1 z an example ( su* a rule1 ?is "o--any odd p[] ( ! numb] two1 dim9i%$ by "o4 ,?us ! ?ird p[] ( two1 dim9i%$ by "o1 is sev52 ! fif? p[]1 dim9i%$ by "o1 is ?irty-"o2 ! sev5? p[] s dim9i%$ is "o hundr$ & tw5ty-sev54 ,all ^! are prime numb]s3 & we might be l$ to suppose t ! rule is univ]sal4 ,b ! next example %[s u ! fallaci\sness ( su* a belief4 ,! n9? p[] ( two1 dim9i%$ by "o1 is five hundr$ & elev51 :i* is n a prime1 be+ divisible by sev54 ,exp]i5ce mu/ always consi/ ( a limit$ numb] ( obs]vations4 ,&1 h[ev] num]\s ^! may be1 !y c %[ no?+ ) reg>d to ! inf9ite numb] ( cases 9 :i* ! exp]im5t has n be5 made4 ,exp]i5ce be+ ?us unable to prove a fact to be univ]sal1 is1 z w readily be se51 /ill m incapable ( prov+ a tru? to be necess>y4 ,exp]i5ce _c1 inde$1 (f] ! smalle/ gr\nd = ! necessity ( a proposition4 ,%e c obs]ve & record :at has happ5$2 b %e _c f9d1 9 any case1 or 9 any accumulation ( cases1 any reason = :at mu/ happ54 ,%e may see objects side by side2 b %e _c see a reason :y !y mu/ ev] be side by side4 ,%e f9ds c]ta9 ev5ts to occur 9 succession2 b ! succession supplies1 9 its occurr5ce1 no #fg reason = its recurr5ce4 ,%e contemplates ext]nal objects2 b %e _c detect any int]nal bond1 :i* indissolubly connects ! future ) ! pa/1 ! possible ) ! real4 ,to le>n a proposition by exp]i5ce1 & to see x to be necess>ily true1 are two altoge!r diff]5t processes ( ?\ght4 #b4 ,b x may be said1 t we d le>n by means ( obs]vation & exp]i5ce _m univ]sal tru?s2 inde$1 all ! g5]al tru?s ( :i* sci5ce consi/s4 ,is n ! doctr9e ( univ]sal gravitation le>nt by exp]i5ce8 ,are n ! laws ( motion1 ! prop]ties ( light1 ! g5]al pr9ciples ( *emi/ry1 s le>nt8 ,h[1 ) ^! examples be=e u1 c we say t exp]i5ce tea*es no univ]sal tru?s8 ,to ?is we reply1 t ^! tru?s c only be kn[n to be g5]al1 n univ]sal1 if !y dep5d ^u exp]i5ce alone4 ,exp]i5ce _c be/[ t univ]sality :i* %e h]self _c h1 & t necessity ( :i* %e has no compreh5sion4 ,if ^! doctr9es are univ]sally true1 ?is univ]sality fl[s f ! ideas :i* we apply to our exp]i5ce1 & :i* are1 z we h se51 ! real s\rces ( necess>y tru?4 ,h[ f> ^! ideas c communicate _! univ]sality & necessity to ! results ( exp]i5ce1 x w h]eaft] be our bus9ess to consid]4 ,x w !n appe>1 t :5 ! m9d collects f obs]vation tru?s ( a wide & compreh5sive k9d1 :i* approa* to ! simplicity & univ]sality ( ! tru?s ( pure sci5ce2 %e gives !m ?is "* by ?r[+ ^u !m ! light ( h] own ,fundam5tal ,ideas4 ,b ! tru?s :i* we discov] by obs]vation ( ! ext]nal _w1 ev5 :5 mo/ /rik+ly simple & univ]sal1 are n necess>y tru?s4 ,is ! doctr9e ( univ]sal gravitation necess>ily true8 ,x 0 d\bt$ by ,clairaut 7s f> z x ref]s to ! moon71 :5 ! progression ( ! apogee 9 fact appe>$ to be twice z great z ! !ory admitt$4 ,x has be5 d\bt$1 ev5 m rec5tly1 ) respect to ! planets1 _! mutual p]turbations appe>+ to indicate a deviation f ! law4 ,x is d\bt$ /ill1 by "s #fh p]sons1 ) respect to ! d\ble />s4 ,b suppose all ^! d\bts to be bani%$1 & ! law to be univ]sal2 is x !n prov$ to be necess>y8 ,manife/ly n3 ! v exi/5ce ( ^! d\bts proves t x is n s4 ,= ! d\bts 7 dissipat$ by ref]5ce to obs]vation & calculation1 n by reason+ on ! nature ( ! law4 ,clairaut's difficulty 0 remov$ by a m exact calculation ( ! effect ( ! sun's =ce on ! motion ( ! apogee4 ,! sugge/ion ( ,bessel1 t ! int5sity ( gravitation might be diff]5t = diff]5t planets1 0 f\nd to be unnecess>y1 :5 ,pr(essor ,airy gave a m accurate det]m9ation ( ! mass ( ,jupit]4 ,& ! "q :e!r ! ext5sion ( ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e to ! d\ble />s be true1 7"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable que/ions n[ be=e ! sci5tific _w17 mu/ be answ]$1 n by any speculations conc]n+ :at ! laws ( attraction mu/ necess>ily be1 b by c>efully det]m9+ ! actual laws ( ! motion ( ^! curi\s objects1 by means ( ! obs]vations su* z ^? :i* ,sir ,john ,h]s*el has collect$ = t purpose1 by 8 unexampl$ survey ( bo? hemisph]es ( ! sky4 ,& s9ce ! ext5t ( ?is tru? is ?us to be det]m9$ by ref]5ce to obs]v$ facts1 x is cle> t no m]e accumulation ( !m c make its univ]sality c]ta91 or its necessity app>5t4 ,?us no k ( ! necessity ( any tru?s c result f ! obs]vation ( :at really happ5s4 ,?is be+ cle>ly und]/ood1 we are l$ to an important inquiry4 ,! *>act]s ( univ]sality & necessity 9 ! tru?s :i* =m "p ( our k1 c nev] be d]iv$ f exp]i5ce1 by :i* s l>ge a "p ( our k is obta9$4 ,b s9ce1 z we h se51 we really d possess a l>ge body ( tru?s :i* are necess>y1 & because necess>y1 !re=e univ]sal1 ! "q /ill recurs1 f :at s\rce ^! *>act]s ( univ]sality & necessity are d]iv$4 ,! answ] to ?is "q we w attempt to give 9 ! next *apt]4 #fi ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,( ,,! ,,gr\nds ,,( ,,necess>y ,,tru?s4 #a4 ,,to ! "q j /at$1 ,i reply1 t ! necessity & univ]sality ( ! tru?s :i* =m a "p ( our k1 are d]iv$ f ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas :i* ^? tru?s involve4 ,^! ideas entirely %ape & circumscribe our k2 !y regulate ! active op]ations ( our m9ds1 )\t :i* our passive s5sations d n become k4 ,!y gov]n ^! op]ations1 accord+ to rules :i* are n only fix$ & p]man5t1 b :i* may be express$ 9 pla9 & def9ite t]ms2 & ^! rules1 :5 ?us express$1 may be made ! basis ( demon/rations by :i* ! necess>y relations imp>t$ to our k by our ,ideas may be trac$ to _! consequ5ces 9 ! mo/ remote ramifications ( sci5tific tru?4 ,^! enunciations ( ! necess>y & evid5t conditions impos$ ^u our k by ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas :i* x involves1 are t]m$ ,axioms4 ,?us ! ,axioms ( ,geometry express ! necess>y conditions :i* result f ! ,idea ( ,space2 ! ,axioms ( ,me*anics express ! necess>y conditions :i* fl[ f ! ,ideas ( ,=ce & ,motion2 & s on4 #b4 ,x w be ! (fice ( sev]al ( ! succe$+ ,books ( ?is "w to e/abli% & illu/rate 9 detail :at ,i h ?us /at$ 9 g5]al t]ms4 ,i %all !re pass 9 review _m ( ! mo/ important fundam5tal ideas on :i* ! exi/+ body ( our sci5ce dep5ds2 & ,i %all endeav\r to %[1 = ea* su* idea 9 succession1 t k involves an active z well z a passive elem5t2 t x is n possible )\t an act ( ! m9d1 regulat$ by c]ta9 #gj laws4 ,i %all fur!r attempt to enum]ate "s ( ! pr9cipal fundam5tal relations :i* ea* idea ?us introduces into our ?\ghts1 & to express !m by means ( def9itions & axioms1 & o!r suitable =ms4 ,i w only add a rem>k or two to illu/rate fur!r ?is view ( ! ideal gr\nds ( our k4 #c4 ,to p]sons famili> ) any ( ! demon/rative sci5ces1 x w be app>5t t if we /ate all ! ,def9itions & ,axioms :i* are employ$ 9 ! demon/rations1 we /ate ! :ole basis on :i* ^? reason+s re/4 ,= ! :ole process ( demon/rative or d$uctive reason+ 9 any sci5ce1 7z 9 geometry1 = in/ance17 consi/s entirely 9 comb9+ "s ( ^! fir/ pr9ciples s z to obta9 ! simple/ propositions ( ! sci5ce2 !n comb9+ ^! s z to obta9 o!r propositions ( great] complexity2 & s on1 till we advance to ! mo/ recondite demon/rable tru?s2 ^! la/1 h[ev] intricate & unexpect$1 /ill involv+ no pr9ciples except ! orig9al def9itions & axioms4 ,?us1 by comb9+ ! ,def9ition ( a triangle1 & ! ,def9itions ( equal l9es & equal angles1 namely1 t !y are su* z :5 appli$ to ea* o!r1 co9cide1 ) ! ,axiom respect+ /raight l9es 7t two su* l9es _c inclose a space17 we demon/rate ! equality ( triangles1 "u c]ta9 assum$ conditions4 ,aga91 by comb9+ ?is result ) ! ,def9ition ( p>allelograms1 & ) ! ,axiom t if equals be tak5 f equals ! :oles are equal1 we prove ! equality ( p>allelograms betwe5 ! same p>allels & ^u ! same base4 ,f ?is proposition1 aga91 we prove ! equality ( ! squ>e on ! hypot5use ( a triangle to ! squ>es on ! two sides conta9+ ! "r angle4 ,b 9 all ?is !re is no?+ conta9$ :i* is n rigor\sly ! result ( our geometrical ,def9itions & ,axioms4 ,all ! re/ ( our treatises ( geometry consi/s only ( t]ms & phrases ( reason+1 ! object ( :i* is to connect ^? fir/ pr9ciples1 & to exhibit ! effects ( _! comb9ation 9 ! %ape ( demon/ration4 #ga #d4 ,?is comb9ation ( fir/ pr9ciples takes place accord+ to ! =ms & rules ( ,logic4 ,all ! /eps ( ! demon/ration may be /at$ 9 ! %ape 9 :i* logicians are accu/om$ to exhibit processes ( reason+ 9 ord] to %[ _! conclusiv5ess1 t is1 9 ,syllogisms4 ,?us our geometrical reason+s might be resolv$ into su* /eps z ! foll[+3-- ,all /raight l9es drawn f ! c5tre ( a circle to its circumf]5ce are equal3 ,b ! /raight l9es ,,ab1 ,,ac1 are drawn f ! c5tre ( a circle to its circumf]5ce3 ,!re=e ! /raight l9es ,,ab1 ,,ac1 are equal4 ,ea* /ep ( geometrical1 & all o!r demon/rative reason+1 may be resolv$ into ?ree su* clauses z ^!2 & ^! ?ree clauses are t]m$ respectively1 ! major premiss1 ! m9or premiss1 & ! conclusion2 or1 m briefly1 ! major1 ! m9or1 & ! 9999conclusion4 ,! pr9ciple :i* ju/ifies ! reason+ :5 exhibit$ 9 ?is syllogi/ic =m1 is ?is3--t a tru? :i* c be ass]t$ z g5]ally1 or r z univ]sally true1 c be ass]t$ z true also 9 ea* p>ticul> case4 ,! m9or only ass]ts a c]ta9 p>ticul> case to be an example ( su* conditions z are spok5 ( 9 ! major2 & h5ce ! conclusion1 :i* is true ( ! major by supposition1 is true ( ! m9or by consequ5ce2 & ?us we proce$ f syllogism to syllogism1 9 ea* "o employ+ "s g5]al tru? 9 "s p>ticul> in/ance4 ,any pro( :i* occurs 9 geometry1 or any o!r sci5ce ( demon/ration1 may ?us be r$uc$ to a s]ies ( processes1 9 ea* ( :i* we pass f "s g5]al proposition to ! n>r[] & m special propositions :i* x includes4 ,& ?is process ( d]iv+ tru?s by ! m]e comb9ation ( g5]al pr9ciples1 appli$ 9 p>ticul> hypo!tical cases1 is call$ d$uction2 be+ oppos$ to induction1 9 :i*1 z we h se5 7*ap4 i4 sect4 #c71 a new g5]al pr9ciple is introduc$ at e /ep4 #e4 ,n[ we h to rem>k t1 ?is be+ s1 h[ev] f> we foll[ su* d$uctive reason+1 we c #gb nev] h1 9 our conclusion any tru? :i* is n virtually includ$ 9 ! orig9al pr9ciples f :i* ! reason+ />t$4 ,= s9ce at any /ep we m]ely take out ( a g5]al proposition some?+ includ$ 9 x1 :ile at ! prec$+ /ep we h tak5 ?is g5]al proposition out ( "o m g5]al1 & s on p]petually1 x is manife/ t our la/ result 0 really includ$ 9 ! pr9ciple or pr9ciples ) :i* we began4 ,i say pr9ciples1 because1 al?\gh our logical conclusion c only exhibit ! legitimate issue ( our fir/ pr9ciples1 x may1 nev]!less1 conta9 ! result ( ! comb9ation ( sev]al su* pr9ciples1 & may ?us assume a great degree ( complexity1 & may appe> s f> remov$ f ! p>5t tru?s1 z to betray at fir/ sight h>dly any relation%ip ) !m4 ,?us ! proposition :i* has already be5 quot$ respect+ ! squ>es on ! sides ( a "r-angl$ triangle1 conta9s ! results ( _m elem5t>y pr9ciples2 z1 ! def9itions ( p>allels1 triangle1 & squ>e2 ! axioms respect+ /raight l9es1 & respect+ p>allels2 &1 p]haps1 o!rs4 ,! conclusion is complicat$ by conta9+ ! effects ( ! comb9ation ( all ^! elem5ts2 b x conta9s no?+1 & c conta9 no?+1 b su* elem5ts & _! comb9ations4 ,?is doctr9e1 t logical reason+ produces no new tru?s1 b only unfolds & br+s into view ^? tru?s :i* 71 9 effect1 conta9$ 9 ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ! reason+1 is ass5t$ to by almo/ all :o1 9 mod]n times1 h att5d$ to ! sci5ce ( logic4 ,su* a view is admitt$ bo? by ^? :o def5d1 & by ^? :o depreciate ! value ( logic4 ',:atev] is e/abli%$ by reason+1 mu/ h be5 conta9$ & virtually ass]t$ 9 ! premises#fa4' ',! only tru? :i* su* propositions c possess consi/s 9 con=mity to ! orig9al pr9ciples4' ,note #fa3 ,:ately's ,logic1 pp4 #bcg1 #bch4 ,9 ?is mann] ! :ole sub/ance ( our geometry is r$uc$ to ! ,def9itions & ,axioms :i* we employ 9 our elem5t>y reason+s2 & 9 l #gc mann] we r$uce ! demon/rative tru?s ( any o!r sci5ce to ! def9itions & axioms :i* we !re employ4 #f4 ,b 9 ref]5ce to ?is subject1 x has sometimes be5 said t demon/rative sci5ces d 9 reality dep5d ^u ,def9itions only2 & t no additional k9d ( pr9ciple1 su* z we h suppos$ ,axioms to be1 is absolutely requir$4 ,x has be5 ass]t$ t 9 geometry1 = example1 ! s\rce ( ! necess>y tru? ( our propositions is ?is1 t !y dep5d ^u def9itions alone1 & consequ5tly m]ely /ate ! id5tity ( ! same ?+ "u diff]5t aspects4 ,t 9 ! sci5ces :i* admit ( demon/ration1 z geometry1 me*anics1 & ! l1 ,axioms z well z ,def9itions are ne$$1 9 ord] to express ! gr\nds ( our necess>y convictions1 mu/ be %[n h]eaft] by an exam9ation ( ea* ( ^! sci5ces 9 p>ticul>4 ,b t ! propositions ( ^! sci5ces1 ^? ( geometry = example1 d n m]ely ass]t ! id5tity ( ! same ?+1 w1 ,i ?9k1 be g5]ally all[$1 if we consid] ! ass]tions :i* we are enabl$ to make4 ,:5 we decl>e t 'a /raight l9e is ! %orte/ di/ance betwe5 two po9ts1' is ?is m]ely an id5tical proposition8 ! def9ition ( a /raight l9e 9 ano!r =m8 ,n s3 ! def9ition ( a /raight l9e involves ! notion ( =m only1 & does n conta9 any?+ ab\t magnitude2 consequ5tly1 x _c conta9 any?+ equival5t to '%orte/4' ,?us ! propositions ( geometry are n m]ely id5tical propositions2 nor h we 9 _! g5]al "* any?+ to c\nt5ance ! ass]tion1 t !y are ! results ( def9itions alone4 ,& :5 we come to exam9e ?is & o!r sci5ces m closely1 we %all f9d t axioms1 su* z are usually 9 our treatises made ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( our demon/rations1 nei!r h ev] be51 nor c be1 disp5s$ )4 ,axioms1 z well z ,def9itions1 are 9 all cases requisite1 9 ord] prop]ly to exhibit ! gr\nds ( necess>y tru?4 #g4 ,?us ! real logical basis ( e body ( demon/rat$ tru?s are ! ,def9itions & ,axioms #gd :i* are ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ! reason+s4 ,b :5 we are arriv$ at ?is po9t1 ! "q fur!r occurs1 :at is ! gr\nd ( ! tru? ( ^! ,axioms8 ,x is n ! logical1 b ! philosophical1 n ! =mal1 b ! real f\ndation ( necess>y tru?1 :i* we are seek+4 ,h5ce ?is inquiry necess>ily comes be=e u1 ,:at is ! gr\nd ( ! ,axioms ( ,geometry1 ( ,me*anics1 & ( any o!r demon/rable sci5ce8 ,! answ] :i* we are l$ to give1 by ! view :i* we h tak5 ( ! nature ( k1 has already be5 /at$4 ,! gr\nd ( ! axioms belong+ to ea* sci5ce is ! ,idea :i* ! axiom involves4 ,! gr\nd ( ! ,axioms ( ,geometry is ! ,idea ( ,space3 ! gr\nd ( ! ,axioms ( ,me*anics is ! ,idea ( ,=ce1 ( ,action & ,reaction1 & ! l4 ,& h5ce ^! ,ideas are ,fundam5tal ,ideas2 & s9ce !y are ?us ! f\ndations1 n only ( demon/ration b ( tru?1 an exam9ation into _! real import & nature is ( ! greate/ consequ5ce to our purpose4 #h4 ,n only ! ,axioms1 b ! def9itions :i* =m ! basis ( our reason+s1 dep5d ^u our ,fundam5tal ,ideas4 ,& ! ,def9itions are n arbitr>y def9itions1 b are det]m9$ by a necessity no less rigor\s ?an ! ,axioms !mselves4 ,we c\ld n ?9k ( geometrical tru?s )\t conceiv+ a circle2 & we c\ld n reason conc]n+ su* tru?s )\t def9+ a circle 9 "s mode equival5t to t :i* is commonly adopt$4 ,! ,def9itions ( p>allels1 ( "r angles1 & ! l1 are q z necess>ily prescrib$ by ! nature ( ! case1 z ! ,axioms :i* ^! ,def9itions br+ ) !m4 ,inde$ we may sub/itute "o ( ^! k9ds ( pr9ciples = ano!r4 ,we _c always put a ,def9ition 9 ! place ( an ,axiom2 b we may always f9d an ,axiom :i* %all take ! place ( a ,def9ition4 ,if we assume a prop] ,axiom respect+ /raight l9es1 we ne$ no ,def9ition ( a /raight l9e4 ,b 9 :atev] %ape ! pr9ciple appe>1 z ,def9ition or z ,axiom1 x has ab\t x no?+ casual or #ge arbitr>y1 b is det]m9$ to be :at x is1 z to its import1 by ! mo/ rigor\s necessity1 gr[+ out ( ! ,idea ( ,space4 #i4 ,^! pr9ciples1--,def9itions1 & ,axioms1--?us exhibit+ ! prim>y developm5ts ( a fundam5tal idea1 d 9 fact express ! idea1 s f> z its expression 9 words =ms "p ( our sci5ce4 ,!y are diff]5t views ( ! same body ( tru?2 & ?\gh ea* pr9ciple1 by itself1 exhibits only "o aspect ( ?is body1 tak5 toge!r !y convey a suffici5t conception ( x = our purposes4 ,! ,idea itself _c be fix$ 9 words2 b ^! v>i\s l9es ( tru? proce$+ f x1 sugge/ suffici5tly to a fitly-prep>$ m9d1 ! place :]e ! idea resides1 its nature1 & its efficacy4 ,x is true t ^! pr9ciples1--our elem5t>y ,def9itions & ,axioms1--ev5 tak5 all toge!r1 express ! ,idea incompletely4 ,?us ! ,def9itions & ,axioms ( ,geometry1 z !y are /at$ 9 our elem5t>y works1 d n fully express ! ,idea ( ,space z x exi/s 9 our m9ds4 ,=1 9 addition to ^!1 o!r ,axioms1 indep5d5t ( ^!1 & no less evid5t1 c be /at$2 & are 9 fact /at$ :5 we come to ! ,high] ,geometry4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 is ! ,axiom ( ,ar*im$es--t a curve l9e :i* jo9s two po9ts is less ?an a brok5 l9e :i* jo9s ! same po9ts & includes ! curve4 ,& ?us ! ,idea is disclos$ b n fully reveal$1 imp>t$ b n transfus$1 by ! use we make ( x 9 sci5ce4 ,:5 we h tak5 f ! f\nta9 s mu* z s]ves our purpose1 !re /ill rema9s beh9d a deep well ( tru?1 :i* we h n exhau/$1 & :i* we may easily believe to be inexhau/ible4 #gf ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,fundam5tal ,,ideas ,,are ,,n ,,d]iv$ ,,f ,,exp]i5ce4 #a4 ,,by ! c\rse ( speculation conta9$ 9 ! la/ ?ree ,*apt]s1 we are aga9 l$ to ! conclusion :i* we h already /at$1 t our k conta9s an ideal elem5t1 & t ?is elem5t is n d]iv$ f exp]i5ce4 ,= we h se5 t !re are propositions :i* are kn[n to be necess>ily true2 & t su* k is n1 & _c be1 obta9$ by m]e obs]vation ( actual facts4 ,x has be5 %[n1 also1 t ^! necess>y tru?s are ! results ( c]ta9 fundam5tal ideas1 su* z ^? ( space1 numb]1 & ! l4 ,h5ce x foll[s inevitably t ^! ideas & o!rs ( ! same k9d are n d]iv$ f exp]i5ce4 ,= ^! ideas possess a p[] ( infus+ into _! developm5ts t v necessity :i* exp]i5ce c 9 no way be/[4 ,?is p[] !y d n borr[ f ! ext]nal _w1 b possess by _! own nature4 ,?us we unfold out ( ! ,idea ( ,space ! propositions ( geometry1 :i* are pla9ly tru?s ( ! mo/ rigor\s necessity & univ]sality4 ,b if ! idea ( space 7 m]ely collect$ f obs]vation ( ! ext]nal _w1 x c\ld nev] enable or entitle u to ass]t su* propositions3 x c\ld nev] au?orize u to say t n m]ely "s l9es1 b all l9es1 n only h1 b mu/ h1 ^? prop]ties :i* geometry tea*es4 ,geometry 9 e proposition speaks a language :i* exp]i5ce nev] d>es to utt]2 & inde$ ( :i* %e b half compreh5ds ! mean+4 ,exp]i5ce sees t ! ass]tions are true1 b %e sees n h[ pr(\nd & absolute is _! tru?4 #gg ,%e unhesitat+ly ass5ts to ! laws :i* geometry deliv]s1 b %e does n pret5d to see ! orig9 ( _! obligation4 ,%e is always ready to ackn[l$ge ! sway ( pure sci5tific pr9ciples z a matt] ( fact1 b %e does n dream ( (f]+ h] op9ion on _! au?ority z a matt] ( "r2 /ill less c %e ju/ly claim to be h]self ! s\rce ( t au?ority4 ,david ,hume ass]t$#ga1 t we are incapable ( see+ 9 any ( ! appe>ances :i* ! _w pres5ts any?+ ( necess>y connexion2 & h5ce he inf]r$ t our k _c ext5d to any su* connexion4 ,x w be se5 f :at we h said t we ass5t to 8 rem>k z to ! fact1 b we diff] f him altoge!r 9 ! consequ5ce to be drawn f x4 ,our inf]5ce f ,hume's obs]vation is1 n ! tru? ( 8 conclusion1 b ! falsehood ( 8 premises2--n t1 !re=e1 we c "k no?+ ( natural connexion1 b t1 !re=e1 we h "s o!r s\rce ( k ?an exp]i5ce3--n1 t we c h no idea ( connexion or causation1 because1 9 8 language1 x _c be ! copy ( an impression2 b t s9ce we h su* an idea1 our ideas are n ! copies ( our impressions4 ,note #ga3 ,essays1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gj4 ,s9ce x ?us appe>s t our fundam5tal ideas are n acquir$ f ! ext]nal _w by our s5ses1 b h "s sep>ate & indep5d5t orig91 x is important = u to exam9e _! nature & prop]ties1 z !y exi/ 9 !mselves2 & ?is x w be our bus9ess to d ?r\gh a portion ( ! foll[+ pages4 ,b x may be prop] fir/ to notice "o or two objections :i* may possibly occur to "s read]s4 #b4 ,x may be said t )\t ! use ( our s5ses1 ( sight & t\*1 = in/ance1 we %\ld nev] h any idea ( space2 t ?is idea1 !re=e1 may prop]ly be said to be d]iv$ f ^? s5ses4 ,& to ?is ,i reply1 by ref]r+ to a p>allel in/ance4 ,)\t light we %\ld h no p]ception ( visible #gh figure2 yet ! p[] ( p]ceiv+ visible figure _c be said to be d]iv$ f ! light1 b resides 9 ! /ructure ( ! eye4 ,if we _h nev] se5 objects 9 ! light1 we %\ld be q unaw>e t we possess$ a p[] ( vision2 yet we %\ld n possess x ! less on t acc\nt4 ,if we _h nev] ex]cis$ ! s5ses ( sight & t\* 7if we c conceive su* a /ate ( human exi/5ce7 we "k n t we %\ld be consci\s ( an idea ( space4 ,b ! light reveals to u at ! same "t ! exi/5ce ( ext]nal objects & our own p[] ( see+4 ,& 9 a v simil> mann]1 ! ex]cise ( our s5ses discloses to u1 at ! same "t1 ! ext]nal _w1 & our own ideas ( space1 "t1 & o!r conditions1 )\t :i* ! ext]nal _w c nei!r be obs]v$ nor conceiv$4 ,t light is necess>y to vision1 does n1 9 any degree1 sup]s$e ! importance ( a sep>ate exam9ation ( ! laws ( our visual p[]s1 if we w\ld und]/& ! nature ( our own bodily faculties & ! ext5t ( ! in=mation !y c give u4 ,9 l mann]1 ! fact t int]c\rse ) ! ext]nal _w is necess>y = ! consci\s employm5t ( our ideas1 does n make x ! less ess5tial = u to exam9e ^? ideas 9 _! mo/ intimate /ructure1 9 ord] t we may und]/& ! gr\nds & limits ( our k4 ,ev5 be=e we see a s+le object1 we h a faculty ( vision2 & 9 l mann]1 if we c suppose a man :o has nev] contemplat$ an object 9 space or "t1 we mu/ /ill assume him to h ! faculties ( ent]ta9+ ! ideas ( space & "t1 :i* faculties are call$ into play on ! v fir/ occasion ( ! use ( ! s5ses4 #c4 ,9 answ] to su* rem>ks z ! above1 x has sometimes be5 said t to assume sep>ate faculties 9 ! m9d = s _m diff]5t processes ( ?\ght1 is to give a m]e v]bal explanation1 s9ce we le>n no?+ conc]n+ our idea ( space by be+ told t we h a faculty ( =m+ su* an idea4 ,x has be5 said t ?is c\rse ( explanation leads to an endless multiplication ( elem5ts 9 man's nature1 )\t any advantage to our k ( 8 true #gi con/itution4 ,we may1 x is said1 ass]t man to h a faculty ( walk+1 ( /&+1 ( brea?+1 ( speak+2 b :at1 x is ask$1 is ga9$ by su* ass]tions8 ,to ?is ,i reply1 t we und\bt$ly h su* faculties z ^? j nam$2 t x is by no means unimportant to consid] !m2 & t ! ma9 "q 9 su* cases is1 :e!r !y are sep>ate & indep5d5t faculties1 or complex & d]ivative ones2 &1 if ! latt] be ! case1 :at are ! simple & orig9al faculties by ! comb9ation ( :i* ! o!rs are produc$4 ,9 walk+1 /&+1 brea?+1 = in/ance1 a great "p ( ! op]ation c be r$uc$ to "o s+le faculty2 ! volunt>y ex]cise ( our muscles4 ,b 9 brea?+ ?is does n appe> to be ! :ole ( ! process4 ,! op]ation is1 9 "p at lea/1 involunt>y2 & x has be5 held t !re is a c]ta9 sympa!tic action ( ! n]ves1 9 addition to ! volunt>y ag5cy :i* !y transmit1 :i* is ess5tial to ! function4 ,to det]m9e :e!r or no ?is sympa!tic faculty is real & di/9ct1 & if s1 :at are its laws & limits1 is c]ta9ly a highly philosophical inquiry1 & well des]v+ ! att5tion :i* has be5 be/[$ ^u x by em95t physiologi/s4 ,& j ( ! same nature are ! inquiries ) respect to man's intellectual con/itution1 on :i* we propose to ent]4 ,= in/ance1 man has a faculty ( appreh5d+ "t1 & a faculty ( reckon+ numb]s3 are ^! di/9ct1 or is "o faculty d]iv$ f ! o!r8 ,to analyze ! v>i\s comb9ations ( our ideas & obs]vations into ! orig9al faculties :i* !y involve2 to %[ t ^! faculties are orig9al1 & n capable ( fur!r analysis3 to po9t out ! *>act]s :i* m>k ^! faculties & lead to ! mo/ important features ( our k2--^! are ! k9d ( rese>*es on :i* we h n[ to ent]1 & ^!1 we tru/1 w be f\nd to be f> f idle or useless p>ts ( our plan4 ,if we succe$ 9 su* attempts1 x w appe> t x is by no means a frivol\s or sup]flu\s /ep to di/+ui% sep>ate faculties 9 ! m9d4 ,if we d n le>n mu* by be+ told t we h a faculty #hj ( =m+ ! idea ( space1 we at lea/1 by su* a comm5cem5t1 circumscribe a c]ta9 portion ( ! field ( our inve/igations1 :i*1 we %all aft]w>ds endeav\r to %[1 requires & rew>ds a special exam9ation4 ,& ?\gh we %all ?us h to sep>ate ! doma9 ( our philosophy into _m prov9ces1 ^! are1 z we tru/ x w appe>1 nei!r arbitr>ily assign$1 nor vague 9 _! limits1 nor inf9ite 9 numb]4 #ha ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,( ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,sci5ces4 ,,we proce$1 9 ! ensu+ ,books1 to ! clos] exam9ation ( a consid]able numb] ( ^? ,fundam5tal ,ideas on :i* ! sci5ces1 hi!rto mo/ successfully cultivat$1 are f\nd$4 ,9 ?is task1 our objects w be to expla9 & analyze su* ,ideas s z to br+ into view ! ,def9itions & ,axioms1 or o!r =ms1 9 :i* we may clo! ! conditions to :i* our speculative k is subject$4 ,i %all also try to prove1 = "s ( ^! ,ideas 9 p>ticul>1 :at has be5 already urg$ respect+ !m 9 g5]al1 t !y are n d]iv$ f obs]vation1 b necess>ily impose _! conditions ^u t k ( :i* obs]vation supplies ! mat]ials4 ,i %all fur!r1 9 "s cases1 endeav\r to trace ! hi/ory ( ^! ,ideas z !y h successively come into notice 9 ! progress ( sci5ce2 ! gradual developm5t by :i* !y h arriv$ at _! due purity & cle>ness2 &1 z a necess>y "p ( su* a hi/ory1 ,i %all give a view ( "s ( ! pr9cipal controv]sies :i* h tak5 place ) reg>d to ea* portion ( k4 ,an exposition & discussion ( ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas ( ea* ,sci5ce may1 ) great propriety1 be t]m$ ! ,,philosophy ,,( su* ,,sci5ce4 ,^! ideas conta9 9 !mselves ! elem5ts ( ^? tru?s :i* ! sci5ce discov]s & enunciates2 & 9 ! progress ( ! sci5ces1 bo? 9 ! _w at l>ge & 9 ! m9d ( ea* individual /ud5t1 ! mo/ important /eps consi/ 9 appreh5d+ ^! ideas cle>ly1 & 9 br++ !m into accordance ) ! obs]v$ facts4 ,i %all1 !re=e1 9 a s]ies ( ,books1 #hb treat ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,pure ,sci5ces1 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,me*anical ,sci5ces1 ! ,philosophy ( ,*emi/ry1 & ! l1 & %all analyze & exam9e ! ideas :i* ^! sci5ces respectively involve4 ,9 ?is und]tak+1 inevitably some:at long1 & involv+ _m deep & subtle discussions1 ,i %all take1 z a *>t ( ! c\ntry be=e me1 by :i* my c\rse is to be guid$1 ! s*eme ( ! sci5ces :i* ,i 0 l$ to =m by travell+ ov] ! hi/ory ( ea* 9 ord]#ha4 ,ea* ( ! sci5ces ( :i* ,i !n n>rat$ ! progress1 dep5ds ^u sev]al ( ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas ( :i* ,i h to speak3 "s ( ^! ,ideas are peculi> to "o field ( speculation1 o!rs are common to m4 ,a previ\s enum]ation ( ,ideas ?us collect$ may s]ve bo? to %[ ! c\rse & limits ( ?is "p ( our plan1 & ! v>iety ( int]e/ :i* x (f]s4 ,note #ha3 ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,i %all1 !n1 successively1 h to speak ,( ! ,ideas :i* are ! f\ndation ( ,geometry & ,ari?metic1 7& :i* also regulate all sci5ces dep5d+ ^u ^!1 z ,a/ronomy & ,me*anics27 namely1 ! ,ideas ( ,space1 ,"t1 & ,numb] 7,book ,,ii473 ,( ! ,ideas on :i* ! ,me*anical ,sci5ces 7z ,me*anics1 ,hydro/atics1 ,physical ,a/ronomy7 m peculi>ly re/2 ! ideas ( ,=ce & ,matt]1 or r ! idea ( ,cause1 :i* is ! basis ( ^! 7,book ,,iii473 ,( ! ,ideas :i* ! ,second>y ,me*anical ,sci5ces 7,ac\/ics1 ,optics1 & ,!rmotics7 involve2 namely1 ! ,ideas ( ! ,ext]nality ( objects1 & ( ! ,m$ia by :i* we p]ceive _! qualities 7,book ,,iv473 ,( ! ,ideas :i* are ! basis ( ,me*anico-*emical & ,*emical ,sci5ce2 ,pol>ity1 ,*emical ,aff9ity1 & ,sub/ance2 & ! ,idea ( ,symmetry1 a necess>y "p ( ! ,philosophy ( ,cry/allography 7,books ,v4 ,,vi473 ,( ! ,ideas on :i* ! ,classificatory ,sci5ces proce$ 7,m9]alogy1 ,botany1 & ,zoology72 namely1 #hc ! ,ideas ( ,resemblance1 & ( its gradations1 & ( ,natural ,aff9ity 7,books ,,vii4 ,,viii473 ,f9ally1 ( ^? ,ideas on :i* ! ,physiological ,sci5ces are f\nd$2 ! ,ideas ( sep>ate ,vital ,p[]s1 su* z ,assimilation & ,irritability2 & ! ,idea ( ,f9al ,cause 7,book ,,ix473 ,we h1 besides ^!1 ! ,paltiological ,sci5ces1 :i* proce$ ma9ly on ! conception ( ,hi/orical ,causation 7,book ,x473 ,x is pla9 t :5 we h proce$$ s f> z ?is1 we h advanc$ to ! v]ge ( ^? speculations :i* h to d ) m9d z well z body4 ,! ext5sion ( our philosophy to su* a field1 if x c be ju/ly s ext5d$1 w be "o ( ! mo/ important results ( our rese>*es2 b on t v acc\nt we mu/ fully /udy ! lessons :i* we le>n 9 ^? fields ( speculation :]e our doctr9es are mo/ secure1 be=e we v5ture into a region :]e our pr9ciples w appe> to be m prec>i\s1 & :]e !y are inevitably less precise4 ,we n[ proce$ to ! exam9ation ( ! above ,ideas1 & to su* essays t[>ds ! philosophy ( ea* ,sci5ce z ?is c\rse ( inve/igation may sugge/4 #he ,,book ,,ii4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,pure ,,sci5ces4 ,! way 9 :i* we are l$ to reg>d human k is l ! way 9 :i* ,cop]nicus 0 l$ to reg>d ! heav5s4 ,:5 ! explanation ( ! cele/ial motions c\ld n be made to g "r s long z he assum$ t all ! ho/ ( />s turns r\nd ! spectator1 he tri$ :e!r x w\ld n answ] bett] if he made ! spectator turn1 & left ! />s at re/4 ,we may make a simil> trial 9 ,metaphysics1 z to our way ( look+ at objects4 ,if our view ( !m mu/ be gov]n$ altoge!r by ! prop]ties ( ! objects !mselves1 ,i see n h[ man c "k any?+ ab\t !m priori4 ,b if ! ?+1 z an object ( ! s5ses1 is regulat$ by ! con/itution ( our p[] ( kn[+1 ,i c v readily repres5t to myself ?is possibility4 ,,kant1 ,kritik d4 ,r4 ,v4 ,pref4 #hg ,,book ,,ii4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,pure ,,sci5ces4 ,! pr9cipal "q discuss$ 9 ! la/ ,book 0 ?is 7see *aps4 ,v4 & ,,vi473 ,h[ are necess>y & univ]sal tru?s possible8 ,& ! answ] !n giv5 03 t ! necessity & univ]sality ( tru?s are d]iv$ f ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas :i* !y involve4 ,& we proce$ 9 ?is ,book to exemplify ?is doctr9e 9 ! case ( ! tru?s ( ,geometry & ,ari?metic1 :i* d]ive _! necessity & univ]sality f ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas ( ,space1 & ,"t1 or ,numb]4 ,! "q ?us exam9$ is t :i* ,kant und]took to deal ) 9 8 celebrat$ "w1 ,kritik d] re95 ,v]nunft 7,exam9ation ( ! ,pure ,reason73 & our solution ( ! ,problem1 s f> z ! ,ideas ( ,space & ,"t are conc]n$1 agrees 9 ! ma9 ) 84 ,! argum5ts conta9$ 9 *apt]s ,,ii4 & 9999,,vii4 ( ?is ,book1 are ! lead+ argum5ts respect+ ,space & ,"t1 9 ,kant's ,kritik4 ,kant1 h[ev]1 in/ead ( call+ ,space & ,"t ,ideas1 calls !m ! necess>y ,=ms ( our exp]i5ce1 z ,i h /at$ 9 ! text4 ,b ?\gh ,i h adopt$ ,kant's argum5ts z to ,space & ,"t1 all t foll[s 9 ! succe$+ ,books1 ) reg>d to o!r ,ideas1 has no resemblance to any doctr9es ( ,kant or 8 s*ool 7) ! exception1 p]haps1 ( "s ( ! views on ! ,idea ( ,cause74 ,! nature & "* ( ! o!r ,sci5tific ,ideas :i* ,i h exam9$1 9 ! succe$+ ,books1 h be5 e/abli%$ by an analysis ( ! hi/ory ( ! sev]al ,sci5ces to :i* ^? ,ideas are ess5tial1 & an exam9ation ( ! writ+s ( ! pr9cipal discov]]s 9 ^? ,sci5ces4 #hh ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,( ,,! ,,pure ,,sci5ces4 #a4 ,,all ext]nal objects & ev5ts :i* we c contemplate are view$ z hav+ relations ( ,space1 ,"t1 & ,numb]2 & are subject to ! g5]al conditions :i* ^! ,ideas impose1 z well z to ! p>ticul> laws :i* belong to ea* class ( objects & occurr5ces4 ,! special laws ( nature1 consid]$ "u ! v>i\s aspects :i* con/itute ! diff]5t sci5ces1 are obta9$ by a mix$ ref]5ce to ,exp]i5ce & to ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas ( ea* sci5ce4 ,b besides ! sci5ces ?us =m$ by ! aid ( special exp]i5ce1 ! conditions :i* fl[ f ^? m compreh5sive ideas fir/ m5tion$1 ,space1 ,"t1 & ,numb]1 con/itute a body ( sci5ce1 applicable to objects & *anges ( all k9ds1 & d$uc$ )\t recurr5ce be+ _h to any obs]vation 9 p>ticul>4 ,^! sci5ces1 ?us unfold$ out ( ideas alone1 unmix$ ) any ref]5ce to ! ph5om5a ( matt]1 are h5ce t]m$ ,pure ,sci5ces4 ,! pr9cipal sci5ces ( ?is class are ,geometry1 ,!oretical ,ari?metic1 & ,algebra consid]$ 9 its mo/ g5]al s5se1 z ! inve/igation ( ! relations ( space & numb] by means ( g5]al symbols4 #b4 ,^! ,pure ,sci5ces 7 n includ$ 9 our survey ( ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ces1 because !y are n inductive sci5ces4 ,_! progress has n consi/$ 9 collect+ laws f ph5om5a1 true !ories f obs]v$ facts1 & m g5]al f m limit$ laws2 b 9 trac+ ! consequ5ces ( ! ideas !mselves1 & 9 detect+ ! mo/ g5]al & intimate analogies & connexions :i* prevail #hi among su* conceptions z are d]ivable f ! ideas4 ,^! sci5ces h no pr9ciples besides def9itions & axioms1 & no process ( pro( b d$uction2 ?is process1 h[ev]1 assum+ "h a mo/ rem>kable "*2 & exhibit+ a comb9ation ( simplicity & complexity1 ( rig\r & g5]ality1 q unp>allel$ 9 o!r subjects4 #c4 ,! univ]sality ( ! tru?s1 & ! rig\r ( ! demon/rations ( ^! pure sci5ces1 attract$ att5tion 9 ! e>lie/ times2 & x 0 p]ceiv$ t !y (f]$ an ex]cise & a discipl9e ( ! intellectual faculties1 9 a =m peculi>ly free f admixture ( extrane\s elem5ts4 ,!y 7 /r5u\sly cultivat$ by ! ,greeks1 bo? ) a view to su* a discipl9e1 & f ! love ( speculative tru? :i* prevail$ among t p3 & ! "n ma!matics1 by :i* !y are designat$1 indicates ?is _! "* ( discipl9al /udies4 #d4 ,z has already be5 said1 ! ideas :i* ^! sci5ces involve ext5d to all ! objects & *anges :i* we obs]ve 9 ! ext]nal _w2 & h5ce ! consid]ation ( ma!matical relations =ms a l>ge portion ( _m ( ! sci5ces :i* treat ( ! ph5om5a & laws ( ext]nal nature1 z ,a/ronomy1 ,optics1 & ,me*anics4 ,su* sci5ces are h5ce (t5 t]m$ ,mix$ ,ma!matics1 ! relations ( space & numb] be+1 9 ^! bran*es ( k1 comb9$ ) pr9ciples collect$ f special obs]vation2 :ile ,geometry1 ,algebra1 & ! l subjects1 :i* involve no result ( exp]i5ce1 are call$ ,pure ,ma!matics4 #e4 ,space1 "t1 & numb]1 may be conceiv$ z =ms by :i* ! k d]iv$ f our s5sations is m\ld$1 & :i* are indep5d5t ( ! diff]5ces 9 ! matt] ( our k1 aris+ f ! s5sations !mselves4 ,h5ce ! sci5ces :i* h ^! ideas = _! subject may be t]m$ ,=mal ,sci5ces4 ,9 ?is po9t ( view1 !y are di/+ui%$ f sci5ces 9 :i*1 besides ^! m]e =mal laws by :i* appe>ances are correct$1 we endeav\r to apply to ! ph5om5a ! idea ( cause1 #ij or "s ( ! o!r ideas :i* p5etrate fur!r into ! pr9ciples ( nature4 ,we h ?us1 9 ! ,hi/ory1 di/+ui%$ ,=mal ,a/ronomy & ,=mal ,optics f ,physical ,a/ronomy & ,physical ,optics4 ,we n[ proce$ to our exam9ation ( ! ,ideas :i* con/itute ! f\ndation ( ^! =mal or pure ma!matical sci5ces1 beg9n+ ) ! ,idea ( ,space4 #ia ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,space4 #a4 ,,by speak+ ( space z an ,idea1 ,i int5d to imply1 z has already be5 /at$1 t ! appreh5sion ( objects z exi/+ 9 space1 & ( ! relations ( position1 c41 prevail+ among !m1 is n a consequ5ce ( exp]i5ce1 b a result ( a peculi> con/itution & activity ( ! m9d1 :i* is indep5d5t ( all exp]i5ce 9 its orig91 ?\gh con/antly comb9$ ) exp]i5ce 9 its ex]cise4 ,t ! idea ( space is ?us indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce1 has already be5 po9t$ out 9 speak+ ( ideas 9 g5]al3 b x may be useful to illu/rate ! doctr9e fur!r 9 ?is p>ticul> case4 ,i ass]t1 !n1 t space is n a notion obta9$ by exp]i5ce4 ,exp]i5ce gives u in=mation conc]n+ ?+s )\t u3 b our appreh5d+ !m z )\t u1 takes = grant$ _! exi/5ce 9 space4 ,exp]i5ce acqua9ts u :at are ! =m1 position1 magnitude ( p>ticul> objects3 b t !y h =m1 position1 magnitude1 presupposes t !y are 9 space4 ,we _c d]ive f appe>ances1 by ! way ( obs]vation1 ! habit ( repres5t+ ?+s to ourselves z 9 space2 = no s+le act ( obs]vation is possible any o!rwise ?an by beg9n+ ) su* a repres5tation1 & conceiv+ objects z already exi/+ 9 space4 #b4 ,t our mode ( repres5t+ space to ourselves is n d]iv$ f exp]i5ce1 is cle> also f ?is3 t ?r\gh ?is mode ( repres5tation we arrive at propositions :i* are rigor\sly univ]sal & necess>y4 ,propositions ( su* a k9d c\ld n possibly be obta9$ f exp]i5ce2 = exp]i5ce c #ib only tea* u by a limit$ numb] ( examples1 & !re=e c nev] securely e/abli% a univ]sal proposition3 & aga91 exp]i5ce c only in=m u t any?+ is s1 & c nev] prove t x mu/ be s4 ,t two sides ( a triangle are great] ?an ! ?ird is a univ]sal & necess>y geometrical tru?3 x is true ( all triangles2 x is true 9 su* a way t ! contr>y _c be conceiv$4 ,exp]i5ce c\ld n prove su* a proposition4 ,& exp]i5ce has n prov$ x2 = p]haps no man ev] made ! trial z a means ( remov+ d\bts3 & no trial c\ld1 9 fact1 add 9 ! smalle/ degree to ! c]ta9ty ( ?is tru?4 ,to seek = pro( ( geometrical propositions by an appeal to obs]vation proves no?+ 9 reality1 except t ! p]son :o has rec\rse to su* gr\nds has no due appreh5sion ( ! nature ( geometrical demon/ration4 ,we h he>d ( p]sons :o conv9c$ !mselves by measurem5t t ! geometrical rule respect+ ! squ>es on ! sides ( a "r-angl$ triangle 0 true3 b ^! 7 p]sons ^: m9ds _h be5 engross$ by practical habits1 & 9 :om ! speculative developm5t ( ! idea ( space _h be5 /ifl$ by o!r employm5ts4 ,! practical trial ( ! rule may illu/rate1 b _c prove x4 ,! rule w ( c\rse be confirm$ by su* trial1 because :at is true 9 g5]al is true 9 p>ticul>3 b ! rule _c be prov$ f any numb] ( trials1 = no accumulation ( p>ticul> cases makes up a univ]sal case4 ,to all p]sons :o c see ! =ce ( any pro(1 ! geometrical rule above ref]r$ to is z evid5t1 & its evid5ce z indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce1 z ! ass]tion t sixte5 & n9e make tw5ty-five4 ,at ! same "t1 ! tru? ( ! geometrical rule is q indep5d5t ( num]ical tru?s1 & results f ! relations ( space alone4 ,?is c\ld n be if our appreh5sion ( ! relations ( space 7 ! fruit ( exp]i5ce3 = exp]i5ce has no elem5t f :i* su* tru? & su* pro( c\ld arise4 #c4 ,?us ! exi/5ce ( necess>y tru?s1 su* z ^? ( geometry1 proves t ! idea ( space f #ic :i* !y fl[ is n d]iv$ f exp]i5ce4 ,su* tru?s are inconceivable on ! supposition ( _! be+ collect$ f obs]vation2 = ! impressions ( s5se include no evid5ce ( necessity4 ,b we c readily und]/& ! necess>y "* ( su* tru?s1 if we conceive t !re are c]ta9 necess>y conditions "u :i* alone ! m9d receives ! impressions ( s5se4 ,s9ce ^! conditions reside 9 ! con/itution ( ! m9d1 & apply to e p]ception ( an object to :i* ! m9d c atta91 we easily see t _! rules mu/ include1 n only all t has be51 b all t c be1 matt] ( exp]i5ce4 ,our s5sations c ea* convey no in=mation except ab\t itself2 ea* c conta9 no trace ( ano!r additional s5sation2 & ?us no relation & connexion betwe5 two s5sations c be giv5 by ! s5sations !mselves4 ,b ! mode 9 :i* ! m9d p]ceives ^! impressions z objects1 may & w introduce necess>y relations among !m3 & ?us by conceiv+ ! idea ( space to be a condition ( p]ception 9 ! m9d1 we c conceive ! exi/5ce ( necess>y tru?s1 :i* apply to all p]ceiv$ objects4 #d4 ,if we consid] ! impressions ( s5se z ! m]e mat]ials ( our exp]i5ce1 su* mat]ials may be accumulat$ 9 any quantity & 9 any ord]4 ,b if we suppose t ?is matt] has a c]ta9 =m giv5 x1 9 ! act ( be+ accept$ by ! m9d1 we c und]/& h[ x is t ^! mat]ials are subject to inevitable rules2--h[ no?+ c be p]ceiv$ exempt f ! relations :i* belong to su* a =m4 ,& s9ce !re are su* tru?s applicable to our exp]i5ce1 & aris+ f ! nature ( space1 we may ?us consid] space z a =m :i* ! mat]ials giv5 by exp]i5ce necess>ily assume 9 ! m9d2 z an arrangem5t d]iv$ f ! p]ceiv+ m9d1 & n f ! s5sations alone4 #e4 ,?us ?is phrase1--t space is a =m belong+ to our p]ceptive p[]1--may be employ$ to express t we _c p]ceive objects z 9 space1 )\t an op]ation ( ! m9d z well z ( ! s5ses--)\t active z well z passive faculties4 ,?is phrase1 h[ev]1 #id is n necess>y to ! exposition ( our doctr9es4 ,:e!r we call ! conception ( space a ,condition ( p]ception1 a ,=m ( p]ception1 or an ,idea1 or by any o!r t]m1 x is some?+ orig9ally inh]5t 9 ! m9d p]ceiv+1 & n 9 ! objects p]ceiv$4 ,& x is because ! appreh5sion ( all objects is ?us subject$ to c]ta9 m5tal conditions1 =ms or ideas1 t our k involves c]ta9 inviolable relations & necess>y tru?s4 ,! pr9ciples ( su* tru?s1 s f> z !y reg>d space1 are d]iv$ f ! idea ( space1 & we mu/ endeav\r to exhibit su* pr9ciples 9 _! g5]al =m4 ,b be=e we d ?is1 we may notice "s ( ! conditions :i* belong1 n to our ,ideas 9 g5]al1 b to ?is ,idea ( ,space 9 p>ticul>4 #ie ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,( ,,"s ,,peculi>ities ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,space4 #a4 ,,"s ( ! ,ideas :i* we %all h to exam9e involve conceptions ( c]ta9 relations ( objects1 z ! idea ( ,cause & ( ,lik5ess2 & may appe> to be sugge/$ by exp]i5ce1 enabl+ u to ab/ract ?is g5]al relation f p>ticul> cases4 ,b x w be se5 t ,space is n su* a g5]al conception ( a relation4 ,= we d n speak ( ,spaces z we speak ( ,causes & ,lik5esses1 b ( ,space4 ,& :5 we speak ( spaces1 we und]/& by ! expression1 p>ts ( "o & ! same id5tical ev]y:]e-ext5d$ ,space4 ,we conceive a univ]sal ,space2 :i* is n made up ( ^! p>tial spaces z its compon5t p>ts1 = x w\ld rema9 if ^! 7 tak5 away2 & ^! _c be conceiv$ )\t presuppos+ absolute space4 ,absolute ,space is ess5tially "o2 & ! complication :i* exi/s 9 x1 & ! conception ( v>i\s spaces1 dep5ds m]ely ^u b\nd>ies4 ,space mu/1 !re=e1 be1 z we h said1 n a g5]al conception ab/ract$ f p>ticul>s1 b a univ]sal mode ( repres5tation1 altoge!r indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce4 #b4 ,space is inf9ite4 ,we repres5t x to ourselves z an inf9itely great magnitude4 ,su* an idea z t ( ,lik5ess or ,cause1 is1 no d\bt1 f\nd 9 an inf9ite numb] ( p>ticul> cases1 & s f> includes ^! cases4 ,b ^! ideas d n include an inf9ite numb] ( cases z p>ts ( an inf9ite :ole4 ,:5 we say t all bodies & p>tial spaces exi/ 9 inf9ite space1 we use an expression :i* is n appli$ 9 ! same s5se to any cases except ^? ( ,space & ,"t4 #if #c4 ,:at is "h said may appe> to be a d5ial ( ! real exi/5ce ( space4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t we d n d5y1 b di/9ctly ass]t1 ! exi/5ce ( space z a real & necess>y condition ( all objects p]ceiv$2 & t we n only all[ t objects are se5 ext]nal to u1 b we f\nd ^u ! fact ( _! be+ s se51 our view ( ! nature ( space4 ,if1 h[ev]1 x be said t we d5y ! reality ( space z an object or ?+1 ?is is true4 ,nor does x appe> easy to ma9ta9 t space exi/s z a ?+1 :5 x is consid]$ t ?is ?+ is inf9ite 9 all its dim5sions2 &1 moreov]1 t x is a ?+1 :i*1 be+ no?+ 9 itself1 exi/s only t o!r ?+s may exi/ 9 x4 ,& ^? :o ma9ta9 ! real exi/5ce ( space1 mu/ also ma9ta9 ! real exi/5ce ( "t 9 ! same s5se4 ,n[ two inf9ite ?+s1 ?us really exi/+1 & yet exi/+ only z o!r ?+s exi/ 9 !m1 are notions s extravagant t we are driv5 to "s o!r mode ( expla9+ ! /ate ( ! matt]4 #d4 ,?us space is n an object ( :i* we p]ceive ! prop]ties1 b a =m ( our p]ception2 n a ?+ :i* affects our s5ses1 b an idea to :i* we con=m ! impressions ( s5se4 ,& its peculi>ities appe> to dep5d ^u ?is1 t x is n only a =m ( s5sation1 b ( intuition2 t 9 ref]5ce to space1 we n only p]ceive b contemplate objects4 ,we see objects 9 space1 side by side1 ext]ior to ea* o!r2 space1 & objects 9 s f> z !y occupy space1 h p>ts ext]ior to o!r p>ts2 & h ! :ole ?us made up by ! juxtaposition ( p>ts4 ,?is mode ( appreh5sion belongs only to ! ideas ( space & "t4 ,space & ,"t are made up ( p>ts1 b ,cause & ,lik5ess are n appreh5d$ z made up ( p>ts4 ,& ! t]m intuition 79 its rigor\s s5se7 is applicable only to t mode ( contemplation 9 :i* we ?us look at objects z made up ( p>ts1 & appreh5d ! relations ( ^? p>ts at ! same "t & by ! same act by :i* we appreh5d ! objects !mselves4 #e4 ,z we h said1 space limit$ by b\nd>ies #ig gives rise to v>i\s conceptions :i* we h (t5 to consid]4 ,?us limit$1 space assumes =m or figure2 & ! v>iety ( conceptions ?us br\ght "u our notice is inf9ite4 ,we h e possible =m ( l9e1 /raight l9e1 & curve2 & ( curves an endless numb]2--circles1 p>abolas1 hyp]bolas1 spirals1 helices4 ,we h plane surfaces ( v>i\s %apes1--p>allelograms1 polygons1 ellipses2 & we h solid figures1--cubes1 cones1 cyl9d]s1 sph]es1 sph]oids1 & s on4 ,all ^! h _! v>i\s prop]ties1 dep5d+ on ! relations ( _! b\nd>ies2 & ! inve/igation ( _! prop]ties =ms ! bus9ess ( ! sci5ce ( ,geometry4 #f4 ,space has ?ree dim5sions1 or directions 9 :i* x may be measur$2 x _c h m or few]4 ,! simple/ measurem5t is t ( a /raight l9e1 :i* has l5g? alone4 ,a surface has bo? l5g? & bread?3 & solid space has l5g?1 bread?1 & ?ickness or dep?4 ,! orig9 ( su* a diff]5ce ( dim5sions w be se5 if we reflect t ea* portion ( space has a b\nd>y1 & is ext5d$ bo? 9 ! direction 9 :i* its b\nd>y ext5ds1 & also 9 a direction f its b\nd>y2 = o!rwise x w\ld n be a b\nd>y4 ,a po9t has no dim5sions4 ,a l9e has b "o dim5sion1--! di/ance f its b\nd>y1 or its l5g?4 ,a plane1 b\nd$ by a /raight l9e1 has ! dim5sion :i* belongs to ?is l9e1 & also has ano!r dim5sion aris+ f ! di/ance ( its p>ts f ?is b\nd>y l9e2 & ?is may be call$ bread?4 ,a solid1 b\nd$ by a plane1 has ! dim5sions :i* ?is plane has2 & has also a ?ird dim5sion1 :i* we may call height or dep?1 z we consid] ! solid ext5d$ above or bel[ ! plane2 or ?ickness1 if we omit all consid]ation ( up & d[n4 ,& no space c h any dim5sions :i* are n resoluble into ^! ?ree4 ,we may n[ proce$ to consid] ! mode 9 :i* ! idea ( space is employ$ 9 ! =mation ( ,geometry4 #ih ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,def9itions ,,& ,,axioms ,,:i* ,,relate ,,to ,,space4 #a4 ,,! relations ( space h be5 appreh5d$ ) peculi> di/9ctness & cle>ness f ! v fir/ unfold+ ( man's speculative p[]s4 ,?is 0 a consequ5ce ( ! circum/ance :i* we h j notic$1 t ! simple/ ( ^! relations1 & ^? on :i* ! o!rs dep5d1 are se5 by intuition4 ,h5ce1 z soon z m5 7 l$ to speculate conc]n+ ! relations ( space1 !y assum$ j pr9ciples1 & obta9$ true results4 ,x is said t ! sci5ce ( geometry _h its orig9 9 ,egypt1 be=e ! dawn ( ! ,greek philosophy3 b ! k ( ! e>ly ,egyptians 7exclusive ( _! my?ology7 appe>s to h be5 purely practical2 &1 probably1 _! geometry consi/$ only 9 "s maxims ( l&-measur+1 :i* is :at ! t]m implies4 ,! ,greeks ( ! "t ( ,plato1 _h1 h[ev]1 n only possess$ !mselves ( _m ( ! mo/ rem>kable elem5t>y !orems ( ! sci5ce2 b _h1 9 sev]al in/ances1 rea*$ ! b\nd>y ( ! sci5ce 9 its elem5t>y =m2 z :5 !y propos$ to !mselves ! problems ( d\bl+ ! cube & squ>+ ! circle4 ,b ! d$uction ( ^! !orems by a sy/ematic process1 & ! prim>y exhibition ( ! simple/ pr9ciples involv$ 9 ! idea ( space1 :i* su* a d$uction requires1 did n take place1 s f> z we are aw>e1 till a p]iod some:at lat]4 ,! ,elem5ts ( ,geometry ( ,euclid1 9 :i* ?is task 0 p]=m$1 are to ?is day ! /&>d "w on ! subject3 ! au?or ( ?is "w taught ma!matics ) great applause at ,alex&ria1 9 ! reign ( ,ptolemy ,lagus1 #ii ab\t #bhj ye>s be=e ,*ri/4 ,! pr9ciples :i* ,euclid makes ! basis ( 8 sy/em h be5 v little simplifi$ s9ce 8 "t2 & all ! essays & controv]sies :i* be> ^u ^! pr9ciples1 h _h a ref]5ce to ! =m 9 :i* !y are /at$ by him4 #b4 ,def9itions4--,! fir/ pr9ciples ( ,euclid's geometry are1 z ! fir/ pr9ciples ( any sy/em ( geometry mu/ be1 def9itions & axioms respect+ ! v>i\s ideal conceptions :i* he introduces2 z /raight l9es1 p>allel l9es1 angles1 circles1 & ! l4 ,b x is to be obs]v$ t ^! def9itions & axioms are v f> f be+ arbitr>y hypo!ses & assumptions4 ,!y h _! orig9 9 ! idea ( space1 & are m]ely modes ( exhibit+ t idea 9 su* a mann] z to make x af=d gr\nds ( d$uctive reason+4 ,! axioms are necess>y consequ5ces ( ! conceptions respect+ :i* !y are ass]t$2 & ! def9itions are no less necess>y limitations ( conceptions2 n requisite 9 ord] to arrive at ?is or t consequ5ce2 b necess>y 9 ord] t x may be possible to draw any consequ5ces1 & to e/abli% any g5]al tru?s4 ,= example1 if we re/ ! end ( "o /raight /aff ^u ! middle ( ano!r /raight /aff1 & move ! fir/ /aff into v>i\s positions1 we1 by s do+1 alt] ! angles :i* ! fir/ /aff makes ) ! o!r to ! "r h& & to ! left4 ,b if we place ! /aff 9 t special position 9 :i* ^! two angles are equal1 ea* ( !m is a "r angle1 accord+ to ,euclid2 & ?is is ! def9ition ( a "r angle1 except t ,euclid employs ! ab/ract conception ( /raight l9es1 in/ead ( speak+1 z we h done1 ( /aves4 ,b ?is selection ( ! case 9 :i* ! two angles are equal is n a m]e act ( caprice2 z x might h be5 if he _h select$ a case 9 :i* ^! angles are unequal 9 any proportion4 ,= ! consequ5ces :i* c be drawn conc]n+ ! cases ( unequal angles1 d n lead to g5]al tru?s1 )\t "s ref]5ce to t peculi> case 9 :i* ! angles are equal3 & ?us x becomes necess>y to #ajj s+le out & def9e t special case1 m>k+ x by a special phrase4 ,& ?is def9ition n only gives complete & di/9ct k :at a "r angle is1 to any "o :o c =m ! conception ( an angle 9 g5]al2 b also supplies a pr9ciple f :i* all ! prop]ties ( "r angles may be d$uc$4 #c4 ,axioms4--,) reg>d to o!r conceptions also1 z circles1 squ>es1 & ! l1 x is possible to lay d[n def9itions :i* are a suffici5t basis = our reason+1 s f> z su* figures are conc]n$4 ,b1 besides ^! def9itions1 x has be5 f\nd necess>y to introduce c]ta9 axioms among ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( geometry4 ,^! are ( ! simple/ "*2 = in/ance1 t two /raight l9es _c cut ea* o!r 9 m ?an "o po9t1 & an axiom conc]n+ p>allel l9es4 ,l ! def9itions1 ^! axioms fl[ f ! ,idea ( ,space1 & pres5t t idea "u v>i\s aspects4 ,!y are diff]5t f ! def9itions2 nor c ! def9itions be made to take ! place ( ! axioms 9 ! reason+ by :i* elem5t>y geometrical prop]ties are e/abli%$4 ,= example1 ! def9ition ( p>allel /raight l9es is1 t !y are su* z1 h[ev] f> cont9u$1 c nev] meet3 b1 9 ord] to reason conc]n+ su* l9es1 we mu/ fur!r adopt "s axiom respect+ !m3 = example1 we may v conv5i5tly take ?is axiom2 t two /raight l9es :i* cut "o ano!r are n bo? ( !m p>allel to a ?ird /raight l9e#ab4 ,! def9ition & ! axiom are se5 to be insep>ably connect$ by our intuition ( ! prop]ties ( space2 b ! axiom _c be prov$ f ! def9ition1 by any rigor\s d$uctive demon/ration4 ,& if we 7 to take any o!r def9ition ( two p>allel /raight l9es1 7z t !y are bo? p]p5dicul> to a ?ird /raight l9e17 we %\ld /ill1 at "s po9t or o!r ( our progress1 fall 9 ) ! same difficulty ( demon/ratively e/abli%+ _! prop]ties )\t "s fur!r assumption4 ,note #ab3 ,?is axiom is simpl] & m conv5i5t ?an t ( ,euclid4 ,x is employ$ by ! late ,pr(essor ,playfair 9 8 ,geometry4 #aja #d4 ,?us ! elem5t>y prop]ties ( figures1 :i* are ! basis ( our geometry1 are necess>y results ( our ,idea ( ,space2 & are connect$ ) ea* o!r by ! nature ( t idea1 & n m]ely by our hypo!ses & con/ructions4 ,def9itions & axioms mu/ be comb9$1 9 ord] to express ?is idea s f> z ! purposes ( demon/rative reason+ require4 ,^! v]bal enunciations ( ! results ( ! idea _c be made to dep5d on ea* o!r by logical consequ5ce2 b h a mutual dep5d5ce ( a m intimate k9d1 :i* words _c fully convey4 ,x is n possible to resolve ^! tru?s into c]ta9 hypo!ses1 ( :i* all ! re/ %all be ! necess>y logical consequ5ce4 ,! necessity is n hypo!tical1 b intuitive4 ,! axioms require n to be grant$1 b to be se54 ,if any "o 7 to ass5t to !m )\t see+ !m to be true1 8 ass5t w\ld be ( no avail = purposes ( reason+3 = he w\ld be also unable to see 9 :at cases !y might be appli$4 ,! cle> possession ( ! ,idea ( ,space is ! fir/ requisite = all geometrical reason+2 & ?is cle>ness ( idea may be te/$ by exam9+ :e!r ! axioms (f] !mselves to ! m9d z evid5t4 #e4 ,! necessity ( ideas add$ to s5sations1 9 ord] to produce k1 has (t5 be5 ov]look$ or d5i$ 9 mod]n times4 ,! gr\nd ( necess>y tru? :i* ideas supply be+ ?us lo/1 x 0 conceiv$ t !re /ill rema9$ a gr\nd ( necessity 9 def9itions2--t we might h necess>y tru?s1 by ass]t+ especially :at ! def9ition implicitly involv$ 9 g5]al4 ,x 0 held1 also1 t ?is 0 ! case 9 geometry3--t all ! prop]ties ( a circle1 = in/ance1 7 implicitly conta9$ 9 ! def9ition ( a circle4 ,t ?is alone is n ! gr\nd ( ! necessity ( ! tru?s :i* reg>d ! circle1--t we c\ld n 9 ?is way unfold a def9ition into proportions1 )\t possess+ an intuition ( ! relations to :i* ! def9ition l$1--has already be5 %[n4 ,b ! insuffici5cy ( ! above acc\nt ( ! gr\nds ( necess>y geometrical tru? appe>$ 9 ano!r way also4 ,x 0 f\nd impossible to lay #ajb d[n a sy/em ( def9itions out ( :i* alone ! :ole ( geometrical tru? c\ld be evolv$4 ,x 0 f\nd t axioms c\ld n be sup]s$$4 ,no def9ition ( a /raight l9e c\ld be giv5 :i* r5d]$ ! axiom conc]n+ /raight l9es sup]flu\s4 ,& ?us x appe>$ t ! s\rce ( geometrical tru?s 0 n def9ition alone2 & we f9d 9 ?is result a confirmation ( ! doctr9e :i* we are "h urg+1 t ?is s\rce ( tru? is to be f\nd 9 ! =m or conditions ( our p]ception2--9 ! idea :i* we unavoidably comb9e ) ! impressions ( s5se2--9 ! activity1 & n 9 ! passivity ( ! m9d#bb4 ,note #bb3 ,i =m]ly /at$ views simil> to ^! 9 "s ',rem>ks' app5d$ to a "w :i* ,i t]m$ ,! ,me*anical ,euclid1 publi%$ 9 #ahcg4 ,^! ,rem>ks1 s f> z !y be> ^u ! "q "h discuss$1 7 notic$ & controv]t$ 9 ,no4 #ace ( ! ,ed9burgh ,review4 ,z an exam9ation ( ! review]'s objections may s]ve fur!r to illu/rate ! subject1 ,i %all annex to ?is *apt] an answ] to ! article to :i* ,i h ref]r$4 #f4 ,?is w appe> fur!r :5 we come to consid] ! mode 9 :i* we ex]cise our obs]vation ^u ! relations ( space4 ,b we may1 9 ! fir/ place1 make a rem>k :i* t5ds to %[ ! connexion betwe5 our conception ( a /raight l9e1 & ! axiom :i* is made ! f\ndation ( our reason+s conc]n+ space4 ,! axiom is ?is2--t two /raight l9es1 :i* h bo? _! ends jo9$1 _c h ! int]v5+ p>ts sep>at$ s z to inclose a space4 ,! necessity ( ?is axiom is ( exactly ! same k9d z ! necessity ( ! def9ition ( a "r angle1 ( :i* we h already spok54 ,= z ! l9e /&+ on ano!r makes "r angles :5 x makes ! angles on ! two sides ( x equal2 s a l9e is a /raight l9e :5 x makes ! two portions ( space1 on ! two sides ( x1 simil>4 ,& z !re is only a s+le position ( ! l9e fir/ m5tion$1 :i* c make ! angles equal1 s !re is only a s+le =m ( a l9e :i* c make ! spaces ne> ! l9e simil> on "o side & on ! o!r3 & #ajc !re=e !re _c be two /raight l9es1 su* z ! axiom describes1 :i*1 betwe5 ! same limits1 give two diff]5t b\nd>ies to space ?us sep>at$4 ,& ?us we see a reason = ! axiom4 ,p]haps ?is view may be fur!r elucidat$ if we take a leaf ( pap]1 d\ble x1 & crease ! fold$ edge4 ,we %all ?us obta9 a /raight l9e at ! fold$ edge2 & ?is l9e divides ! surface ( ! pap]1 z x 0 orig9ally spread out1 into two simil> spaces4 ,& t ^! spaces are simil> s f> z ! fold :i* sep>ates !m is conc]n$1 appe>s f ?is2--t ^! two p>ts co9cide :5 ! pap] is d\bl$4 ,& ?us a fold 9 a %eet ( pap] at ! same "t illu/rates ! def9ition ( a /raight l9e accord+ to ! above view1 & confirms ! axiom t two su* l9es _c inclose a space4 ,if ! sep>ation ( ! two p>ts ( space 7 made by any o!r ?an a /raight l9e2 if1 = in/ance1 ! pap] 7 cut by a concave l9e2 !n1 on turn+ "o ( ! p>ts ov]1 x is easy to see t ! edge ( "o "p be+ concave "o way1 & ! edge ( ! o!r "p concave ! o!r way1 ^! two l9es w\ld enclose a space4 ,& ea* ( !m w\ld divide ! :ole space into two portions :i* 7 n simil>2 = "o portion w\ld h a concave edge1 & ! o!r a convex edge4 ,betwe5 any two po9ts1 !re might be innum]able l9es drawn1 "s1 convex "o way1 & "s1 convex ! o!r way2 b ! /raight l9e is ! l9e :i* is n convex ei!r "o way or ! o!r2 x is ! s+le m$ium /&>d f :i* ! o!rs may deviate 9 opposite directions4 ,su* consid]ations z ^! %[ suffici5tly t ! s+l5ess ( ! /raight l9e :i* connects any two po9ts is a result ( our fundam5tal conceptions ( space4 ,b yet ! above conceptions ( ! simil> =m ( ! two p>ts ( space on ! two sides ( a l9e1 & ( ! =m ( a l9e :i* is int]m$iate among all o!r =ms1 are ( s vague a nature1 t !y _c fitly be made ! basis ( our elem5t>y geometry2 & !y are f> m conv5i5tly replac$1 z !y h be5 9 almo/ all treatises ( #ajd geometry1 by ! axiom1 t two /raight l9es _c inclose a space4 #g4 ,b we may rem>k t1 9 :at prec$es1 we h consid]$ space only "u "o ( its aspects3--z a plane4 ,! %eet ( pap] :i* we assum$ 9 ord] to illu/rate ! nature ( a /raight l9e1 0 suppos$ to be p]fectly plane or flat3 = o!rwise1 by fold+ x1 we might obta9 a l9e n /raight4 ,n[ ?is assumption ( a plane appe>s to take = grant$ t v conception ( a /raight l9e :i* ! %eet 0 employ$ to illu/rate2 = ! def9ition ( a plane giv5 9 ! ,elem5ts ( ,geometry is1 t x is a surface on :i* lie all /raight l9es drawn f "o po9t ( ! surface to ano!r4 ,& ?us ! explanation above giv5 ( ! nature ( a /raight l9e1--t x divides a plane space into simil> portions on ea* side1--appe>s to be imp]fect or nugatory4 ,to ?is we reply1 t ! explanation mu/ be r5d]$ complete & valid by d]iv+ ! conception ( a plane f consid]ations ( ! same k9d z ^? :i* we employ$ = a /raight l9e4 ,any portion ( solid space may be divid$ into two portions by surfaces pass+ ?r\gh any giv5 l9e or b\nd>ies4 ,& ^! surfaces may be convex ei!r on "o side or on ! o!r1 & !y admit ( innum]able *anges f be+ convex on "o side to be+ convex on ! o!r 9 any degree4 ,s long z ! surface is convex ei!r way1 ! two portions ( space :i* x sep>ates are n simil>1 "o hav+ a convex & ! o!r a concave b\nd>y4 ,b !re is a c]ta9 int]m$iate position ( ! surface1 9 :i* position ! two portions ( space :i* x divides h _! b\nd>ies exactly simil>4 ,9 ?is position1 ! surface is nei!r convex nor concave1 b plane4 ,& ?us a plane surface is det]m9$ by ?is condition--( its be+ t s+le surface :i* is ! int]m$iate =m among all convex & concave surfaces by :i* solid space c be divid$1--& ( its sep>at+ su* space into two portions1 ( :i* ! b\nd>ies1 ?\gh !y are ! same surface 9 two opposite positions1 are exactly simil>4 #aje ,?us a plane is ! simple/ & mo/ symmetrical b\nd>y by :i* a solid c be divid$2 & a /raight l9e is ! simple/ & mo/ symmetrical b\nd>y by :i* a plane c be sep>at$4 ,^! conceptions are obta9$ by consid]+ ! b\nd>ies ( an int]m9able space1 capable ( imag9>y division 9 e direction4 ,& z a limit$ space may be sep>at$ into two p>ts by a plane1 & a plane aga9 sep>at$ into two p>ts by a /raight l9e1 s a l9e is divid$ into two portions by a po9t1 :i* is ! common b\nd>y ( ! two portions2 ! end ( ! "o & ! beg9n+ ( ! o!r portion hav+ itself no magnitude1 =m1 or p>ts4 #h4 ,! geometrical prop]ties ( planes & solids are d$ucible f ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ! ,elem5ts1 )\t any new axioms2 ! def9ition ( a plane above quot$1--t all /raight l9es jo9+ its po9ts lie 9 ! plane1--be+ a suffici5t basis = all reason+ ^u ^! subjects4 ,& ?us1 ! views :i* we h pres5t$ ( ! nature ( space be+ v]bally express$ by means ( c]ta9 def9itions & axioms1 become ! gr\ndwork ( a long s]ies ( d$uctive reason+1 by :i* is e/abli%$ a v l>ge & curi\s collection ( tru?s1 namely1 ! :ole sci5ce ( ,elem5t>y ,plane & ,solid ,geometry4 ,?is sci5ce is "o ( indisp5sable use & con/ant ref]5ce1 = e /ud5t ( ! laws ( nature2 = ! relations ( space & numb] are ! alphabet 9 :i* ^? laws are writt54 ,b besides ! int]e/ & importance ( ?is k9d :i* geometry possesses1 x has a great & peculi> value = all :o wi% to und]/& ! f\ndations ( human k1 & ! me?ods by :i* x is acquir$4 ,= ! /ud5t ( geometry acquires1 ) a degree ( insight & cle>ness :i* ! unma!matical read] c b feebly imag9e1 a conviction t !re are necess>y tru?s1 _m ( !m ( a v complex & /rik+ "*2 & t a few ( ! mo/ simple & self-evid5t tru?s :i* x is possible = ! m9d ( man to appreh5d1 may1 by sy/ematic d$uction1 lead to ! mo/ remote & unexpect$ results4 #ajf ,9 pursu+ su* philosophical rese>*es z t 9 :i* we are n[ engag$1 x is ( great advantage to ! speculator to h cultivat$ to "s ext5t ! /udy ( geometry2 s9ce by ?is /udy he may become fully aw>e ( su* features 9 human k z ^? :i* we h m5tion$4 ,by ! aid ( ! lesson ?us le>n$ f ! contemplation ( geometrical tru?s1 we h be5 endeav\riug to e/abli% ^? fur!r doctr9es2--t ^! tru?s are b diff]5t aspects ( ! same ,fundam5tal ,idea1 & t ! gr\nds ( ! necessity :i* ^! tru?s possess reside 9 ! ,idea f :i* !y fl[1 ?is ,idea n be+ a d]ivative result ( exp]i5ce1 b its prim>y rule4 ,:5 ! read] has obta9$ a cle> & satisfactory view ( ^! doctr9es1 s f> z !y are applicable to our k conc]n+ space1 he has1 we may tru/1 ov]come ! ma9 difficulty :i* w occur 9 foll[+ ! c\rse ( ! speculations n[ pres5t$ to him4 ,he is !n prep>$ to g =w>ds ) u2 to see ov] h[ wide a field ! same doctr9es are applicable3 & h[ ri* & v>i\s a h>ve/ ( k spr+s f ^! seem+ly scanty pr9ciples4 ,b be=e we quit ! subject n[ "u our consid]ation1 we %all endeav\r to answ] "s objections :i* h be5 made to ! views "h pres5t$2 & %all attempt to illu/rate fur!r ! active p[]s :i* we h ascrib$ to ! m9d4 #ajg ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,( ,,"s ,,objections ,,:i* ,,h ,,be5 ,,made ,,to ,,! ,,doctr9es ,,/at$ ,,9 ,,! ,,previ\s ,,*apt]4#cb ,note #cb3 ,9 ord] to r5d] ! pres5t *apt] m intelligible1 x may be prop] to /ate briefly ! argum5ts :i* gave occasion to ! review4 ,aft] notic+ ,/ew>t's ass]tions1 t ! c]ta9ty ( ma!matical reason+ arises f its dep5d+ ^u def9itions1 & t ma!matical tru? is hypo!tical2 ,i urg$1--t no "o has yet be5 able to con/ruct a sy/em ( ma!matical tru?s by ! aid ( def9itions alone2 t a def9ition w\ld n be admissible or applicable except x agre$ ) a di/9ct conception 9 ! m9d2 t ! def9itions :i* we employ 9 ma!matics are n arbitr>y or hypo!tical1 b necess>y def9itions2 t if ,/ew>t _h tak5 z 8 examples ( axioms ! peculi> geometrical axioms1 8 ass]tions w\ld h be5 obvi\sly errone\s2 & t ! real f\ndation ( ! tru?s ( ma!matics is ! ,idea ( ,space1 :i* may be express$ 7= purposes ( demon/ration7 p>tly by def9itions & p>tly by axioms4 ,,! ,ed9burgh ,review1 ,no4 cxxxv41 conta9s a critique on a "w t]m$ ,! ,me*anical ,euclid1 9 :i* op9ions 7 deliv]$ to ne>ly ! same effect z "s ( ^? /at$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 & h]eaft] 9 ,*apt] xi4 ,al?\gh ,i believe t !re are no argum5ts us$ by ! review] to :i* ! answ]s w n sugge/ !mselves 9 ! m9d ( any "o :o has read ) att5tion :at has be5 said 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s 7except1 p]haps1 "o or two rem>ks :i* h ref]5ce to me*anical ideas71 x may s]ve to illu/rate ! subject if ,i reply to ! objections directly1 tak+ !m z ! review] has /at$ !m4 ,i4 ,i _h diss5t$ f ,/ew>t's ass]tion t ma!matical tru? is hypo!tical1 or dep5ds ^u arbitr>y def9itions2 s9ce we und]/& by an #ajh hypo!sis a supposition1 n only :i* we may make1 b may ab/a9 f mak+1 or may replace by a diff]5t supposition2 :]eas ! def9itions & hypo!ses ( geometry are necess>ily su* z !y are1 & _c be alt]$ or exclud$4 ,! review] 7p4 #hd7 in=ms u t he und]/&s ,/ew>t1 :5 he speaks ( hypo!ses & def9itions be+ ! f\ndation ( geometry1 to speak ( ! hypo!sis t real objects correspond to our geometrical def9itions4 ',if a cry/al be an exact hexah$ron1 ! geometrical prop]ties ( ! hexah$ron may be pr$icat$ ( t cry/al4' ,to ?is ,i reply1--t su* hypo!ses z ?is are ! gr\nds ( our applications ( geometrical tru?s to real objects1 b c 9 no way be said to be ! f\ndation ( ! tru?s !mselves2--t ,i d n ?9k t ! s5se :i* ! review] gives 0 ,/ew>t's mean+2--b t if x 01 ?is view ( ! use ( ma!matics does n at all affect ! "q :i* bo? he & ,i propos$ to discuss1 :i* 01 ! gr\nd ( ma!matical c]ta9ty4 ,i may add1 t :e!r a cry/al be an exact hexah$ron1 is a matt] ( obs]vation & measurem5t1 n ( def9ition4 ,i ?9k ! read] c h no difficulty 9 see+ h[ little my doctr9e is affect$ by ! connexion on :i* ! review] ?us insi/s4 ,i h ass]t$ t ! proposition :i* affirms ! squ>e on ! diagonal ( a rectangle to be equal to ! squ>es on two sides1 does n re/ ^u arbitr>y hypo!ses2 ! objector answ]s1 t ! proposition t ! squ>e on ! diagonal ( ?is page is equal to ! squ>es on ! sides1 dep5ds ^u ! arbitr>y hypo!sis t ! page is a rectangle4 ,ev5 if ?is fact 7 a matt] ( arbitr>y hypo!sis1 :at c\ld x h to d ) ! g5]al geometrical proposition8 ,h[ c\ld a s+le fact1 obs]v$ or hypo!tical1 affect a univ]sal & necess>y tru?1 :i* w\ld be equally true if ! fact 7 false8 ,if !re be no?+ arbitr>y or hypo!tical 9 geometry till we come to su* /eps 9 its application1 x is pla9 t ! tru?s !mselves are n hypo!tical2 :i* is ! "q = u to decide4 #aji #b4 ,! review] !n 7p4 #he7 consid]s ! doctr9e t axioms z well z def9itions are ! f\ndations ( geometry2 & "h he /rangely n>r[s & confuses ! discussion by mak+ himself ! advocate ( ,/ew>t1 in/ead ( argu+ ! "q itself4 ,i _h ass]t$ t "s axioms are necess>y z ! f\ndations ( ma!matical reason+1 9 addition to ! def9itions4 ,if ,/ew>t did n int5d to discuss ?is "q1 ,i _h no conc]n ) :at he _h said ab\t axioms4 ,b ,i _h e reason to believe t ?is 0 ! "q :i* ,/ew>t did int5d to discuss4 ,i conceive !re is no d\bt t he int5d$ to give an op9ion ^u ! gr\nds ( ma!matical reason+ 9 g5]al4 ,= he beg9s 8 discussions 7,elem5ts1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ch7 by conte/+ ,reid's op9ion on ?is subject1 :i* is /at$ g5]ally2 & he ref]s aga9 to ! same subject1 ass]t+ 9 g5]al t]ms1 t ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ma!matics are n axioms b def9itions4 ,if1 !n1 aft]w>ds1 he made 8 pro( n>r[] ?an 8 ass]tion2--if hav+ decl>$ t no axioms are necess>y1 he aft]w>ds limit$ himself to %[+ t sev5 out ( twelve ( ,euclid's axioms are b>r5 truisms1 x 0 no conc]n ( m9e to conte/ ?is ass]tion1 :i* left my !sis unt\*$4 ,i _h ass]t$ t ! prop] geometrical axioms 7t two /raight l9es _c inclose a space1 & ! axiom ab\t p>allel l9es7 are indisp5sable 9 geometry4 ,:at acc\nt ! review] gives ( ^! axioms we %all soon see2 b if ,/ew>t all[$ !m to be axioms necess>y to geometrical reason+1 he ov]turn$ 8 own ass]tion z to ! f\ndations ( su* reason+2 & if he said no?+ decisive ab\t ^! axioms1 :i* are ! po9ts on :i* ! battle mu/ turn1 he left 8 ass]tion altoge!r unprov$2 nor 0 x necess>y = me to pursue ! w> into a b>r5 & unimportant corn]1 :5 ! metropolis 0 surr5d]$4 ,! review]'s exultation t ,i h n conte/$ ! fir/ sev5 axioms is an amus+ example ( ! self-complac5t zeal ( advocacy4 #c4 ,b let u turn to ! mat]ial po9t1--! prop] geometrical axioms4 ,:at is ! review]'s acc\nt ( #aaj ^!8 ,:i* side ( ! alt]native does he adopt8 ,d !y dep5d ^u ! def9itions1 & is he prep>$ to %[ ! dep5d5ce8 ,or are !y sup]flu\s1 & c he erect ! /ructure ( geometry )\t _! aid8 ,"o ( ^! two c\rses1 x w\ld seem1 he mu/ take4 ,= we bo? beg9 by ass]t+ ! excell5ce ( geometry z an example ( demon/rat$ tru?4 ,x is precisely ?is attribute :i* gives an int]e/ to our pres5t inquiry4 ,h[1 !n1 does ! review] expla9 ?is excell5ce on 8 views8 ,h[ does he reckon ! f\ndation c\rses ( ! edifice :i* we agree 9 consid]+ z a p]fect example ( intellectual build+8 ,i presume ,i may take1 z 8 answ] to ?is "q1 8 hypo!tical /atem5t ( :at ,/ew>t w\ld h said 7p4 #hg71 on ! supposition t !re _h be51 among ! f\ndations ( geometry1 self-evid5t indemon/rable tru?s3 al?\gh x is c]ta9ly /range t ! review] %\ld n v5ture to make up 8 m9d z to ! tru? or falsehood ( ?is supposition4 ,if !re 7 su* tru?s !y w\ld be1 he says1 'legitimate filiations' ( ! def9itions4 ,!y w\ld be involv$ 9 ! def9itions4 ,& aga9 he speaks ( ! f\ndation ( ! geometrical doctr9e ( p>allels z a flaw1 & z a tru? :i* requires1 b has n receiv$ demon/ration4 ,& yet aga91 he tells u t ea* ( ^! suppos$ axioms 7,euclid's twelf?1 = in/ance7 is 'm]ely an indication ( ! po9t at :i* geometry fails to p]=m t :i* x und]takes to p]=m' 7p4 #ia72 & t 9 reality h] tru?s are n yet demon/rat$4 ,! am\nt ( ?is is1 t ! geometrical axioms are to be held to be legitimate filiations ( ! def9itions1 because ?\gh c]ta9ly true1 !y _c be prov$ f ! def9itions2 t !y are involv$ 9 ! def9itions1 al?\gh !y _c be evolv$ out ( !m2 & t r ?an admit t !y h any o!r orig9 ?an ! def9itions1 we are to proclaim t geometry has fail$ to p]=m :at %e und]takes to p]=m4 ,to ?is ,i reply--t ,i _c und]/& :at is meant by 'legitimate filiations' ( pr9ciples1 if ! #aaa phrase d n mean consequ5ces ( su* pr9ciples e/abli%$ by rigor\s & =mal demon/rations2--t ! review]1 if he claims any real signification = 8 phrase1 mu/ sub/antiate ! mean+ ( x by su* a demon/ration2 he mu/ e/abli% 8 'legitimate filiation' by a g5ealogical table 9 a satisfactory =m4 ,:5 ?is _c be done1 to ass]t1 not)/&+1 t ! propositions are involv$ 9 ! def9itions1 is a m]e begg+ ! "q2 & to excuse ?is defect by say+ t geometry fails to p]=m :at %e has promis$1 is to calumniate ! "* ( t sci5ce :i* we pr(ess to make our /&>d1 r ?an ab&on an arbitr>y & unprov$ ass]tion respect+ ! real gr\nds ( h] excell5ce4 ,i add1 fur!r1 t if ! doctr9e ( p>allel l9es1 or any o!r geometrical doctr9e ( :i* we see ! tru?1 ) ! mo/ p]fect insight ( its necessity1 h n hi!rto receiv$ demon/ration to ! satisfaction ( any s*ool ( reason]s1 ! defect mu/ arise f _! errone\s views ( ! nature ( demon/rations1 & ! gr\nds ( ma!matical c]ta9ty4 #d4 ,i conceive1 !n1 t ! review] has fail$ altoge!r to disprove ! doctr9e t ! axioms ( geometry are necess>y z a "p ( ! f\ndations ( ! sci5ce4 ,i _h ass]t$ fur!r t ^! axioms supply :at ! def9itions leave defici5t2 & t !y1 along ) def9itions1 s]ve to pres5t ! idea ( space "u su* aspects t we c reason logically conc]n+ x4 ,to ?is ! review] opposes 7p4 #if7 ! common op9ion t a p]fect def9ition is a complete explanation ( a "n1 & t ! te/ ( its p]fection is1 t we may sub/itute ! def9ition = ! "n :]ev] x occurs4 ,i reply1 t my doctr9e1 t a def9ition expresses a "p1 b n ! :ole1 ( ! ess5tial *>act]s ( an idea1 is c]ta9ly at v>iance ) an op9ion sometimes ma9ta9$1 t a def9ition m]ely expla9s a ^w1 & %\ld expla9 x s fully t x may always replace x4 ,! error ( ?is common op9ion may1 ,i ?9k1 be %[n f consid]ations su* z ^!2--t if #aab we und]take to expla9 "o ^w by sev]al1 we may be call$ ^u1 on ! same gr\nd1 to expla9 ea* ( ^! sev]al by o!rs1 & t 9 ?is way we c rea* no limit nor re/+-place2--t 9 po9t ( fact1 x is n f\nd to lead to cle>ness1 b to obscurity1 :5 9 ! discussion ( g5]al pr9ciples1 we ?us sub/itute def9itions = s+le t]ms2--t ev5 if ?is be done1 we _c reason )\t conceiv+ :at ! t]ms mean2--& t1 9 do+ ?is1 ! relations ( our conceptions1 & n ! arbitr>y equival5ce ( two =ms ( expression1 are ! f\ndations ( our reason+4 #e4 ,! review] conceives t "s ( ! s-call$ axioms are really def9itions4 ,! axiom1 t 'magnitudes :i* co9cide ) ea* o!r1 t is1 :i* fill ! same space1 are equal1' is a def9ition ( geometrical equality3 ! axiom1 t '! :ole is great] ?an its "p1' is a def9ition ( :ole & "p4 ,b surely !re are v s]i\s objections to ?is view4 ,x w\ld seem m natural to say1 if ! =m] axiom is a def9ition ( ! ^w equal1 t ! latt] is a def9ition ( ! ^w great]4 ,& h[ c "o %ort phrase def9e two t]ms8 ,if ,i say1 '! heat ( summ] is great] ?an ! heat ( w9t]1' does ?is ass]tion def9e any?+1 ?\gh ! proposition is p]fectly intelligible & di/9ct8 ,i ?9k1 !n1 t ?is attempt to r$uce ^! axioms to def9itions is q unt5able4 #f4 ,i h /at$ t a def9ition c be ( no use1 except we c conceive ! possibility & tru? ( ! prop]ty connect$ ) x2 & t if we d conceive ?is1 we may rightly beg9 our reason+s by /at+ ! prop]ty z an axiom2 :i* ,euclid does1 9 ! case ( /raight l9es & ( p>allels4 ,! review] inquires 7p4 #ib71 :e!r ,i am prep>$ to ext5d ?is doctr9e to ! case ( circles1 = :i* ! reason+ is usually re/$ ^u ! def9ition2--:e!r ,i w\ld replace ?is def9ition by an axiom1 ass]t+ ! possibility ( su* a circle4 ,to ?is ,i might reply1 t x is n at all incumb5t ^u me to ass5t to su* a *ange2 = ,i h all along /at$ t x is indiff]5t #aac :e!r ! fundam5tal prop]ties f :i* we reason be exhibit$ z def9itions or z axioms1 provid$ ! necessity be cle>ly se54 ,b ,i am ready to decl>e t ,i ?9k ! =m ( our geometry w\ld be n at all ! worse1 if1 in/ead ( ! usual def9ition ( a circle1--'t x is a figure conta9$ by "o l9e1 :i* is call$ ! circumf]5ce1 & :i* is su*1 t all /raight l9es drawn f a c]ta9 po9t )9 ! circumf]5ce are equal to "o ano!r1'--we 7 to sub/itute an axiom & a def9ition1 z foll[s3-- ,axiom4 ,if a l9e be drawn s z to be at e po9t equally di/ant f a c]ta9 po9t1 ?is l9e w return into itself or w be "o l9e includ+ a space4 ,def9ition4 ,! space is call$ a circle1 ! l9e ! circumf]5ce1 & ! po9t ! c5t]4 ,& ?is be+ done1 x w\ld be true1 z ! review] rem>ks1 t geometry _c /ir "o /ep )\t re/+ on an axiom4 ,& ,i d n at all hesitate to say1 t ! above axiom1 express$ or und]/ood1 is no less necess>y ?an ! def9ition1 & is tacitly assum$ 9 e proposition into :i* circles ent]4 #g4 ,i h1 ,i ?9k1 n[ dispos$ ( ! pr9cipal objections :i* be> ^u ! prop] axioms ( geometry4 ,! pr9ciples :i* are /at$ z ! fir/ sev5 axioms ( ,euclid's ,elem5ts1 ne$ n1 z ,i h said1 be "h discuss$4 ,!y are pr9ciples :i* ref]1 n to ,space 9 p>ticul>1 b to ,quantity 9 g5]al3 su*1 = in/ance1 z ^!2 ',if equals be add$ to equals ! :oles are equal2'--',if equals be tak5 f equals ! rema9d]s are equal4' ,b ,i w make an obs]vation or two ^u !m be=e ,i proce$4 ,bo? ,locke & ,/ew>t h spok5 ( ^! axioms z b>r5 truisms3 z propositions f :i* x is n possible to d$uce a s+le inf]5ce3 & ! review] ass]ts t !y are n fir/ pr9ciples1 b laws ( ?\ght 7p4 #hh74 ,to ?is la/ expression ,i am #aad will+ to ass5t2 b ,i w\ld add1 t n only ^!1 b all ! pr9ciples :i* express ! fundam5tal conditions ( our k1 may ) equal propriety be t]m$ laws ( ?\ght2 = ^! pr9ciples dep5d ^u our ideas1 & regulate ! active op]ations ( ! m9d1 by :i* coh]5ce & connexion are giv5 to its passive impressions4 ,b ! ass]tion t no conclusions c be drawn f simple axioms1 or laws ( human ?\ght1 :i* reg>d quantity1 is by no means true4 ,! :ole ( ari?metic1--= in/ance1 ! rules = ! multiplication & division ( l>ge numb]s1 ! rule = f9d+ a common measure1 &1 9 %ort1 a va/ body ( !ory respect+ numb]s1--re/s ^u no o!r f\ndation ?an su* axioms z h be5 j notic$1 t if equals be add$ to equals ! :oles w be equal4 ,& ev5 :5 ,locke's ass]tion1 t f ^! axioms no tru?s c be d$uc$1 is modifi$ by ,/ew>t & ! review]1 & limit$ to geometrical tru?s1 x is h>dly t5able 7al?\gh1 9 fact1 x matt]s little to our argum5t :e!r x is or no74 ,= ! great] "p ( ! ,sev5? ,book ( ,euclid's ,elem5ts1 7on ,comm5surable & ,incomm5surable ,quantities17 & ! ,fif? ,book1 7on ,proportion17 dep5d ^u ^! axioms1 ) ! addition only ( ! def9ition or axiom 7= x may be /at$ ei!r way7 :i* expresses ! idea ( proportionality 9 numb]s4 ,s t ! attempt to disprove ! necessity & use ( axioms1 z pr9ciples ( reason+1 fails ev5 :5 we take ^? in/ances :i* ! oppon5ts consid] z ! m manife/ly fav\rable to _! doctr9e4 #h4 ,b p]haps ! "q may h already sugge/$ itself to ! read]'s m9d1 ( :at use c x be =mally to /ate su* pr9ciples z ^!1 7= example1 t if equals be add$ to equals ! :oles are equal17 s9ce1 :e!r /at$ or no1 !y w be assum$ 9 our reason+8 ,& h[ c su* pr9ciples be said to be necess>y1 :5 our pro( proce$s equally well )\t any ref]5ce to !m8 ,& ! answ] is1 t x is precisely because ^! are ! #aae common pr9ciples ( reason+1 :i* we naturally employ )\t specially contemplat+ !m1 t !y require to be sep>at$ f ! o!r /eps & =mally /at$1 :5 we analyse ! demon/rations :i* we h obta9$4 ,9 e m5tal process _m pr9ciples are comb9$ & abbreviat$1 & ?us 9 "s measure conceal$ & obscur$4 ,9 analys+ ^! processes1 ! comb9ation mu/ be resolv$1 & ! abbreviation exp&$1 & ?us ! appe>ance is pres5t$ ( a p$antic & sup]flu\s =mality4 ,b t :i* is sup]flu\s = pro(1 is necess>y = ! analysis ( pro(4 ,9 ord] to exhibit ! conditions ( demon/ration di/9ctly1 !y mu/ be exhibit$ =mally4 ,9 ! same mann]1 9 demon/ration we d n usually express e /ep 9 ! =m ( a syllogism1 b we see ! gr\nds ( ! conclusiv5ess ( a demon/ration1 by resolv+ x into syllogisms4 ,nei!r axioms nor syllogisms are necess>y = conviction2 b !y are necess>y to display ! conditions "u :i* conviction becomes inevitable4 ,! application ( a s+le "o ( ! axioms j spok5 ( is s m9ute a /ep 9 ! pro(1 t x appe>s p$antic to give x a m>k$ place2 b ! v ess5ce ( demon/ration consi/s 9 ?is1 t x is compos$ ( an indissoluble succession ( su* m9ute /eps4 ,! admirable circum/ance is1 t by ! accumulation ( su* app>5tly imp]ceptible advances1 we c 9 ! end make s va/ & s sure a progress4 ,! complet5ess ( ! analysis ( our k appe>s 9 ! smallness ( ! elem5ts into :i* x is ?us resolv$4 ,! m9ut5ess ( any ( ^! elem5ts ( tru?1 ( axioms = in/ance1 does n prev5t _! be+ z ess5tial z o!rs :i* are m obvi\s4 ,& any attempt to assume "o k9d ( elem5t only1 :5 ! c\rse ( our analysis br+s be=e u two or m k9ds1 is altoge!r unphilosophical4 ,axioms & def9itions are ! proximate con/itu5t pr9ciples ( our demon/rations2 & ! intimate bond :i* connects toge!r a def9ition & an axiom on ! same subject is n truly express$ #aaf by ass]t+ ! latt] to be d]iv$ f ! =m]4 ,?is bond ( connexion exi/s 9 ! m9d ( ! reason]1 9 8 conception ( t to :i* bo? def9ition & axiom ref]1 & consequ5tly 9 ! g5]al ,fundam5tal ,idea ( :i* t conception is a modification4 #aag ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,( ,,! ,,p]ception ,,( ,,space4 #a4 ,,accord+ to ! views above expla9$1 c]ta9 ( ! impressions ( our s5ses convey to u ! p]ception ( objects z exi/+ 9 space2 inasmu* z by ! con/itution ( our m9ds we _c receive ^? impressions o!rwise ?an 9 a c]ta9 =m1 involv+ su* a mann] ( exi/5ce4 ,b ! "q des]ves to be ask$1 ,:at are ! impressions ( s5se by :i* we ?us become acqua9t$ ) space & its relations8 ,& z we h se5 t ?is idea ( space implies an act ( ! m9d z well z an impression on ! s5se1 :at manife/ations d we f9d ( ?is activity ( ! m9d1 9 our obs]vation ( ! ext]nal _w8 ,x is evid5t t sight & t\* are ! s5ses by :i* ! relations ( space are p]ceiv$1 pr9cipally or entirely4 ,x does n appe> t an od\r1 or a feel+ ( w>m? or cold1 w\ld1 indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce1 sugge/ to u ! conception ( a space surr\nd+ u4 ,b :5 we see objects1 we see t !y are ext5d$ & occupy space2 :5 we t\* !m1 we feel t !y are 9 a space 9 :i* we also are4 ,we h be=e our eyes any object1 = in/ance1 a bo>d cov]$ ) geometrical diagrams2 & we di/9ctly p]ceive1 by vision1 ^? l9es ( :i* ! relations are ! subjects ( our ma!matical reason+4 ,aga91 we see be=e u a solid object1 a cubical box = in/ance2 we see t x is )9 rea*2 we /ret* out ! h& & p]ceive by ! t\* t x has sides1 edges1 corn]s1 :i* we _h already p]ceiv$ by vision4 #aah #b4 ,probably mo/ p]sons d n g5]ally appreh5d t !re is any mat]ial diff]5ce 9 ^! two cases2--t !re are any diff]5t acts ( m9d conc]n$ 9 p]ceiv+ by sight a ma!matical diagram ^u pap]1 & a solid cube ly+ on a table4 ,yet x is n difficult to %[ t1 9 ! latt] case at lea/1 ! p]ception ( ! %ape ( ! object is n imm$iate4 ,a v little att5tion tea*es u t !re is an act ( judgm5t z well z a m]e impression ( s5se requisite1 9 ord] t we may see any solid object4 ,= !re is no visible appe>ance :i* is insep>ably connect$ ) solidity4 ,if a picture ( a cube be rightly drawn1 9 p]spective & skilfully %ad$1 ! impression ^u ! s5se is ! same z if x 7 a real cube4 ,! picture may be mi/ak5 = a solid object4 ,b x is cle> t1 9 ?is case1 ! solidity is giv5 to ! object by an act ( m5tal judgm5t4 ,all t is se5 is outl9e & %ade1 figures & col\rs on a flat bo>d4 ,! solid angles & edges1 ! relation ( ! faces ( ! figure by :i* !y =m a cube1 are matt]s ( inf]5ce4 ,?is1 :i* is evid5t 9 ! case ( ! pictur$ cube1 is true 9 all vision :atev]4 ,we see a sc5e be=e u on :i* are v>i\s figures & col\rs1 b ! eye _c see m4 ,x sees l5g? & bread?1 b no ?ird dim5sion4 ,9 ord] to "k t !re are solids1 we mu/ inf] z well z see4 ,& ?is we d readily & con/antly2 s famili>ly1 inde$1 t we d n p]ceive ! op]ation4 ,yet we may detect ?is lat5t process 9 _m ways2 = in/ance1 by att5d+ to cases 9 :i* ! habit ( draw+ su* inf]5ces misleads u4 ,mo/ p]sons h exp]i5c$ ?is delusion 9 look+ at a sc5e 9 a !atre1 & especially t k9d ( sc5e :i* is call$ a diorama1 :5 ! int]ior ( a build+ is repres5t$4 ,9 ^! cases1 ! p]spective repres5tations ( ! v>i\s memb]s ( ! ar*itecture & decoration impress u almo/ irresi/ibly ) ! conviction t we h be=e u a space ( great ext5t & complex =m1 in/ead ( a flat pa9t$ canvass4 ,"h1 at lea/1 ! space is our own creation2 b yet "h1 x is #aai manife/ly creat$ by ! same act ( ?\ght z if we 7 really 9 ! palace or ! ca!dral ( :i* ! halls & aisles ?us seem to inclose u4 ,& ! act by :i* we ?us create space ( ?ree dim5sions out ( visible ext5t ( l5g? & bread?1 is con/antly & imp]ceptibly go+ on4 ,we are p]petually int]pret+ 9 ?is mann] ! language ( ! visible _w4 ,f ! appe>ances ( ?+s :i* we directly see1 we are con/antly inf]r+ t :i* we _c directly see1--_! di/ance f u1 & ! position ( _! p>ts4 #c4 ,! *>act]s :i* we ?us int]pret are v>i\s4 ,!y are1 = in/ance1 ! visible =ms1 col\rs1 & %ades ( ! p>ts1 und]/ood accord+ to ! maxims ( p]spective2 7= ( p]spective e "o has a practical k1 z e "o has ( gramm>27 ! ef=t by :i* we fix bo? our eyes on ! same object1 & adju/ ea* eye to di/9ct vision2 & ! l4 ,! "r int]pretation ( ! in=mation :i* su* circum/ances give u respect+ ! true =ms & di/ances ( ?+s1 is gradually le>n$2 ! lesson be+ begun 9 our e>lie/ infancy1 & inculcat$ ^u u e h\r dur+ :i* we use our eyes4 ,! complet5ess ) :i* ! lesson is ma/]$ is truly admirable2 = we =get t our conclusion is obta9$ indirectly1 & mi/ake a judgm5t on evid5ce = an intuitive p]ception4 ,we see ! bread? ( ! /reet1 z cle>ly & readily z we see ! h\se on ! o!r side ( x2 & we see ! h\se to be squ>e1 h[ev] obliquely x be pres5t$ to u4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 by no means ?r[s any d\bt or difficulty on ! doctr9e t 9 all ^! cases we d int]pret & inf]4 ,! rapidity ( ! process1 & ! unconsci\sness ( ! ef=t1 are n m rem>kable 9 ?is case ?an !y are :5 we und]/& ! mean+ ( ! spee* :i* we he>1 or ( ! book :i* we read4 ,9 ^! latt] cases we m]ely he> noises or see black m>ks2 b we make1 out ( ^! elem5ts1 ?\ght & feel+1 )\t be+ aw>e ( ! act by :i* we d s4 ,& by an exactly simil> process we see a v>i\sly-col\r$ #abj expanse1 & collect f x a space occupi$ by solid objects4 ,9 bo? cases ! act ( int]pretation is become s habitual t we c h>dly /op %ort at ! m]e impression ( s5se4 #d4 ,b yet !re are v>i\s ways 9 :i* we may satisfy ourselves t ^! two p>ts ( ! process ( see+ objects are di/9ct4 ,to sep>ate ^! op]ations is precisely ! task :i* ! arti/ has to execute1 9 mak+ a draw+ ( :at he sees4 ,he has to recov] ! consci\sness ( 8 real & g5u9e s5sations1 & to disc]n ! l9es ( objects z !y appe>4 ,?is at fir/ he f9ds difficult2 = he is tempt$ to draw :at he kn[s ( ! =ms ( visible objects1 & n :at he sees3 b z he improves 9 8 art1 he le>ns to put on pap] :at he sees only1 sep>at$ f :at he inf]s1 9 ord] t ?us ! inf]5ce1 & ) x a conception l t ( ! reality1 may be left to ! spectator4 ,& ?us ! natural process ( vision is ! habit ( see+ t :i* _c be se52 & ! difficulty ( ! art ( draw+ consi/s 9 le>n+ n to see m ?an is visible4 #e4 ,b aga92 ev5 9 ! simple/ draw+ we exhibit some?+ :i* we d n see4 ,h[ev] slight is our repres5tation ( objects1 x conta9s some?+ :i* we create = ourselves4 ,= we draw an outl9e4 ,n[ an outl9e has no exi/5ce 9 nature4 ,!re are no visible l9es pres5t$ to ! eye by a gr\p ( figures4 ,we sep>ate ea* figure f ! re/1 & ! b\nd>y by :i* we d ?is is ! outl9e ( ! figure2 & ! l may be said ( ea* memb] ( e figure4 ,a pa9t] ( our own times has made ?is rem>k 9 a "w ^u 8 art#db3 ',! effect :i* natural objects produce ^u our s5se ( vision is t ( a numb] ( p>ts1 or di/9ct masses ( =m & col\r1 & n ( l9es4 ,b :5 we endeav\r to repres5t by pa9t+ ! objects :i* are be=e u1 or :i* inv5tion supplies to our m9ds1 #aba ! fir/ & ! simple/ means we resort to is ?is picture1 by :i* we sep>ate ! =m ( ea* object f ^? t surr\nd x1 m>k+ its b\nd>y1 ! extreme ext5t ( its dim5sions 9 e direction1 z impress$ on our vision3 & ?is is t]m$ draw+ its outl9e4' ,note #db3 ,phillips ,on ,pa9t+4 #f4 ,aga91 !re are o!r ways 9 :i* we see cle> manife/ations ( ! act ( ?\ght by :i* we assign to ! p>ts ( objects _! relations 9 space1 ! impressions ( s5se be+ m]ely subs]vi5t to ?is act4 ,if we look at a m$al ?r\gh a glass :i* inv]ts x1 we see ! figures ^u x become concave depressions in/ead ( project+ convexities2 = ! light :i* illum9ates ! ne>] side ( ! convexity w be transf]r$ to ! opposite side by ! app>5t inv]sion ( ! m$al1 & w ?us imply a holl[ 9 :i* ! side ne>e/ ! light ga!rs ! %ade4 ,"h our decision z to :i* "p is ne>e/ to u1 has ref]5ce to ! side f :i* ! light comes4 ,9 o!r cases ! decision is m spontane\s4 ,if we draw black outl9es1 su* z repres5t ! edges ( a cube se5 9 p]spective1 c]ta9 ( ! l9es w cross ea* o!r2 & we may make ?is cube appe> to assume two diff]5t positions1 by det]m9+ 9 our own m9d t ! l9es :i* belong to "o end ( ! cube %all be und]/ood to be be=e or to be beh9d ^? :i* !y cross4 ,"h an act ( ! w1 op]at+ ^u ! same s5sible image1 gives u two cubes1 occupy+ two entirely diff]5t positions4 ,aga91 _m p]sons may h obs]v$ t :5 a w9dmill 9 motion at a di/ance f u1 7s t ! outl9e ( ! sails only is se517 /&s obliquely to ! eye1 we may1 by an ef=t ( ?\ght1 make ! obliquity assume "o or ! o!r ( two positions2 & z we d ?is1 ! sails1 :i* 9 "o in/ance appe> to turn f "r to left1 9 ! o!r case turn f left to "r4 ,a p]son a little famili> ) ?is m5tal ef=t1 c inv]t ! motion z (t5 z he pleases1 s long z ! conditions ( =m & light d n (f] a manife/ contradiction to ei!r position4 #abb4 ,?us we h ^! abundant & v>i\s manife/ations ( ! activity ( ! m9d1 9 ! process by :i* we collect f vision ! relations ( solid space ( ?ree dim5sions4 ,b we mu/ fur!r make "s rem>ks on ! process by :i* we p]ceive m]e visible figure2 & also1 on ! mode 9 :i* we p]ceive ! relations ( space by ! t\*2 & fir/1 ( ! latt] subject4 #g4 ,! op9ion above illu/rat$1 t our sight does n give u a direct k ( ! relations ( solid space1 & t ?is k is acquir$ only by an inf]5ce ( ! m9d1 0 fir/ cle>ly taught by ! celebrat$ ,bi%op ,b]keley#eb1 & is a doctr9e n[ g5]ally ass5t$ to by metaphysical speculators4 ,note #eb3 ,!ory ( ,vision4 ,b does ! s5se ( t\* give u directly a k ( space8 ,?is is a "q :i* has attract$ consid]able notice 9 rec5t times2 & new light has be5 ?r[n ^u x 9 a degree :i* is v rem>kable1 :5 we consid] t ! philosophy ( p]ception has be5 a prom95t subject ( inquiry f ! e>lie/ times4 ,two philosoph]s1 advanc+ to ?is inquiry f diff]5t sides1 ! "o a metaphysician1 ! o!r a physiologi/1 h indep5d5tly arriv$ at ! conviction t ! long curr5t op9ion1 accord+ to :i* we acquire a k ( space by ! s5se ( t\*1 is errone\s4 ,& ! doctr9e :i* !y tea* in/ead ( ! anci5t err\r1 has a v important be>+ ^u ! pr9ciple :i* we are endeav\r+ to e/abli%1--t our k ( space & its prop]ties is d]iv$ r f ! active op]ations ?an f ! passive impressions ( ! p]cipi5t m9d4 ,und\bt$ly ! p]suasion t we acquire a k ( =m by ! t\* is v obvi\sly sugge/$ by our common habits4 ,if we wi% to "k ! =m ( any body 9 ! d>k1 or to correct ! impressions convey$ by sight1 :5 we suspect !m to be false1 we h only1 x seems to u1 at lea/ at fir/1 to /ret* =? ! h& & t\* ! object2 & we le>n its #abc %ape )1 no *ance ( err\r4 ,9 ^! cases1 =m appe>s to be z imm$iate a p]ception ( ! s5se ( t\*1 z col\r is ( ! s5se ( sight4 #h4 ,b is ?is p]ception really ! result ( ! passive s5se ( t\* m]ely8 ,aga9/ su* an op9ion ,dr4 ,br[n1 ! metaphysician ( :om ,i speak1 urges#fb t ! feel+ ( t\* alone1 :5 any object is appli$ to ! h&1 or any o!r "p ( ! body1 c no m convey ! conception ( =m or ext5sion1 ?an ! s5sation ( an od\r or a ta/e c d1 except we h already "s k ( ! relative position ( ! p>ts ( our bodies2 t is1 except we are already 9 possession ( an idea ( space1 & h1 9 our m9ds1 ref]r$ our limbs to _! positions2 :i* is to suppose ! conception ( =m already acquir$4 ,note #fb3 ,lectures1 ,vol4 i4 p4 #dei1 7#ahbd74 #i4 ,by :at faculty !n d we orig9ally acquire our conceptions ( ! relations ( position8 ,br[n answ]s by ! muscul> s5se2 t is1 by ! consci\s ex]tions ( ! v>i\s muscles by :i* we move our limbs4 ,:5 we feel out ! =m & position ( bodies by ! h&1 our k is acquir$1 n by ! m]e t\* ( ! body1 b by p]ceiv+ ! c\rse ! f+]s mu/ take 9 ord] to foll[ ! surface ( ! body1 or to pass f "o body to ano!r4 ,we are consci\s ( ! slighte/ ( ! volitions by :i* we ?us feel out =m & place2 we "k :e!r we move ! f+] to ! "r or left1 up or d[n1 to u or f u1 ?r\gh a l>ge or a small space2 & all ^! consci\s acts are b\nd toge!r & regulat$ 9 our m9ds by an idea ( an ext5d$ space 9 :i* !y are p]=m$4 ,t ?is idea ( space is n borr[$ f ! sight1 & transf]r$ to ! muscul> feel+s by habit1 is evid5t4 ,= a man born bl9d c feel out 8 way ) 8 /aff1 & has 8 conceptions ( position det]m9$ by ! conditions ( space1 no less ?an "o :o has ! use ( 8 eyes4 ,& ! muscul> consci\sness :i* reveals to u ! position ( objects & p>ts ( objects1 #abd :5 we feel !m out by means ( ! h&1 %[s itself 9 a ?\s& o!r ways1 & 9 all our limbs3 = our habits ( /&+1 walk+1 & all o!r attitudes & motions1 are regulat$ by our feel+ ( our position & t ( surr\nd+ objects4 ,& ?us1 we _c t\* any object )\t le>n+ some?+ respect+ its position2 n t ! s5se ( t\* directly conveys su* k2 b we h already le>nt1 f ! muscul> s5se1 con/antly ex]cis$1 ! position ( ! limb :i* ! object ?us t\*es4 #aj4 ,! ju/ice ( ?is di/9ction w1 ,i ?9k1 be ass5t$ to by all p]sons :o att5d /eadily to ! process itself1 & might be ma9ta9$ by _m =cible reasons4 ,p]haps "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ evid5ces 9 its fav\r is t1 z ,i h already intimat$1 x is ! op9ion to :i* ano!r di/+ui%$ philosoph]1 ,sir ,*>les ,bell1 has be5 l$1 reason+ entirely ^u physiological pr9ciples4 ,f 8 rese>*es x result$ t besides ! n]ves :i* convey ! impulse ( ! w f ! bra9 to ! muscle1 by :i* e motion ( our limbs is produc$1 !re is ano!r set ( n]ves :i* c>ry back to ! bra9 a s5se ( ! condition ( ! muscle1 & ?us regulate its activity2 & give u ! consci\sness ( our position & relation to surr\nd+ objects4 ,! motion ( ! h& & f+]s1 or ! consci\sness ( ?is motion1 mu/ be comb9$ ) ! s5se ( t\* prop]ly s call$1 9 ord] to make an inlet to ! k ( su* relations4 ,?is consci\sness ( muscul> ex]tion1 :i* he has call$ a six? s5se#gb1 is our guide1 ,sir ,c4 ,bell %[s1 9 ! common practical gov]nm5t ( our motions2 & he /ates t hav+ giv5 ?is explanation ( p]ception z a physiological doctr9e1 he _h aft]w>ds ) satisfaction se5 x confirm$ by ,dr4 ,br[n's speculations4 ,note #gb3 ,bridgewat] ,treatise1 p4 #aie4 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbf1 ,pt4 ii4 p4 #afg4 #aa4 ,?us x appe>s t our consci\sness ( ! relations ( space is insep>ably & fundam5tally connect$ ) our own actions 9 space4 ,we p]ceive #abe only :ile we act2 our s5sations require to be int]pret$ by our volitions4 ,! appreh5sion ( ext5sion & figure is f> f be+ a process 9 :i* we are in]t & passive4 ,we draw l9es ) our f+]s2 we con/ruct surfaces by curv+ our h&s2 we g5]ate spaces by ! motion ( our arms4 ,:5 ! geomet] bids u =m l9es1 or surfaces1 or solids by motion1 he int5ds 8 injunction to be tak5 z hypo!tical only2 we ne$ only conceive su* motions4 ,b yet ?is hypo!sis repres5ts truly ! orig9 ( our k2 we p]ceive spaces by motion at fir/1 z we conceive spaces by motion aft]w>ds3--or if n always by actual motion1 at lea/ by pot5tial4 ,if we p]ceive ! l5g? ( a /aff by hold+ its two ends 9 our two h&s )\t runn+ ! f+] along x1 ?is is because by habitual motion we h already acquir$ a measure ( ! di/ance ( our h&s 9 any attitude ( :i* we are consci\s4 ,ev5 9 ! simple/ case1 our p]ceptions are d]iv$ n f ! t\*1 b f ! six? s5se2 & ?is six? s5se at lea/1 :atev] may be ! case ) ! o!r five1 implies an active m9d along ) ! passive s5se4 #ab4 ,^u att5tive consid]ation1 x w be cle> t a l>ge portion ( ! p]ceptions respect+ space :i* appe> at fir/ to be obta9$ by sight alone1 are1 9 fact1 acquir$ by means ( ?is six? s5se4 ,?us we consid] ! visible sky z a s+le surface surr\nd+ u & return+ into itself1 & ?us =m+ a hemisph]e4 ,b su* a mode ( conceiv+ an object ( vision c\ld nev] h occurr$ to u1 if we _h n be5 able to turn our heads1 to foll[ ?is surface1 to pursue x till we f9d x return+ into itself4 ,& :5 we h done ?is1 we necess>ily pres5t x to ourselves z a concave inclosure )9 :i* we are4 ,! s5se ( sight alone1 )\t ! p[] ( muscul> motion1 c\ld n h l$ u to view ! sky z a vault or hemisph]e4 ,"u su* circum/ances1 we %\ld h p]ceiv$ only :at 0 pres5t$ to ! eye 9 "o position2 & if diff]5t appe>ances _h be5 pres5t$ 9 succession1 we c\ld #abf n h connect$ !m z p>ts ( ! same picture1 = want ( any p]ception ( _! relative position4 ,!y w\ld h be5 s _m deta*$ & incoh]5t visual s5sations4 ,! muscul> s5se connects _! p>ts into a :ole1 mak+ !m to be only diff]5t portions ( "o univ]sal sc5e#hb4 ,note #hb3 ,x has be5 object$ to ?is view t we might obta9 a conception ( ! sky z a hemisph]e1 by be+ ourselves turn$ r\nd1 7z on a music-/ool1 = in/ance17 & ?us see+ 9 succession all p>ts ( ! sky4 ,b ?is ass]tion ,i conceive to be errone\s4 ,by be+ ?us turn$ r\nd1 we %\ld see a numb] ( pictures :i* we %\ld put toge!r z p>ts ( a plane picture2 & :5 we came r\nd to ! orig9al po9t1 we %\ld h no possible means ( decid+ t x 0 ! same po9t3 x w\ld appe> only z a repetition ( ! picture4 ,t sight1 ( itself1 c give u only a plane picture1 ! doctr9e ( ,b]keley1 appe>s to be indisputable2 &1 no less s1 ! doctr9e t x is ! consci\sness ( our own action 9 space :i* puts toge!r ^! pictures s t !y cov] ! surface ( a solid body4 ,we c see l5g? & bread? ) our eyes1 b we mu/ ?ru/ out our arm t[>ds ! flat surface1 9 ord] t we may1 9 our ?\ghts1 comb9e a ?ird dim5sion ) ! o!r two4 #ac4 ,^! consid]ations po9t out ! fallacy ( a v curi\s repres5tation made by ,dr4 ,reid1 ( ! convictions to :i* man w\ld be l$1 if he possess$ vision )\t ! s5se ( t\*4 ,to illu/rate ?is subject1 ,reid uses ! fiction ( a nation :om he t]ms ! ,idom5ians1 :o h no s5se except t ( sight4 ,he describes _! notions ( ! relations ( space z be+ entirely diff]5t f ours4 ,! axioms ( _! geometry are q contradictory to our axioms4 ,= example1 x is held to be self-evid5t among !m t two /raight l9es :i* int]sect ea* o!r once1 mu/ int]sect a second "t2 t ! ?ree angles ( any triangle are great] ?an two "r angles2 & ! l4 ,^! p>adoxes are obta9$ by trac+ ! relations ( l9es on ! surface ( a concave sph]e1 :i* surr\nds ! spectator1 & on :i* all visible appe>ances may be suppos$ to be pres5t$ to him4 ,b f :at is said above x appe>s t ! notion ( su* a sph]e1 & su* a connexion ( visible objects :i* are se5 9 diff]5t #abg directions1 _c be arriv$ at by sight alone4 ,:5 ! spectator comb9es 9 8 conception ! relations ( long-drawn l9es & l>ge figures1 z he sees !m by turn+ 8 head to ! "r & to ! left1 upw>ds & d[nw>ds1 he ceases to be an ,idom5ian4 ,& ?us our conceptions ( ! prop]ties ( space1 d]iv$ ?r\gh ! ex]cise ( "o mode ( p]ception1 are n at v>iance ) ^? obta9$ 9 ano!r way2 b all su* conceptions1 h[ev] produc$ or sugge/$1 are 9 h>mony ) ea* o!r2 be+1 z has already be5 said1 only diff]5t aspects ( ! same idea4 #ad4 ,if our p]ceptions ( ! position ( objects ar\nd u d n dep5d on ! s5se ( vision alone1 b on ! muscul> feel+ br\ght into play :5 we turn our head1 x w obvi\sly foll[ t ! same is true :5 we turn ! eye in/ead ( ! head4 ,& ?us we may le>n ! =m ( objects1 n by look+ at !m ) a fix$ gaze1 b by foll[+ ! b\nd>y ( !m ) ! eye4 ,:ile ! head is held p]fectly /ill1 ! eye c rove along ! outl9es ( visible objects1 scrut9ize ea* po9t 9 succession1 & leap f "o po9t to ano!r2 ea* su* act be+ accompani$ by a muscul> consci\sness :i* makes u aw>e ( ! direction 9 :i* ! look is travell+4 ,& we may ?us ga!r in=mation conc]n+ ! figures & places :i* we trace out ) ! visual ray1 z ! bl9d man le>ns ! =ms ( ?+s :i* he traces out ) 8 /aff1 be+ consci\s ( ! motions ( 8 h&4 #ae4 ,?is view ( ! mode 9 :i* ! eye p]ceives position1 :i* is ?us support$ by ! analogy ( o!r memb]s employ$ = ! same purpose1 is fur!r confirm$ by ,sir ,*>les ,bell by physiological reasons4 ,he tea*es u t#ib :5 an object is se5 we employ two s5ses3 !re is an impression on ! ret9a2 b we receive also ! idea ( position or relation 9 space1 :i* x is n ! (fice ( ! ret9a to give1 by our consci\sness ( ! ef=ts ( ! volunt>y #abh muscles ( ! eye3 & he has trac$ 9 detail ! c\rse ( ! n]ves by :i* ^! muscles convey _! in=mation4 ,! con/ant se>*+ motion ( ! eye1 z he t]ms x#ajb1 is ! means by :i* we become aw>e ( ! position ( objects ab\t u4 ,note #ib3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbc4 ,on ! ,motions ( ! ,eye4 ,note #ajb3 ,bridgewat] ,treatise1 p4 #bhb4 ,i h adopt$1 9 writ+ ! above1 ! views & expressions ( ,sir ,*>les ,bell4 ,! ess5tial "p ( ! doctr9e !re pres5t$ is1 t ! eye con/antly makes ef=ts to turn1 s t ! image ( an object to :i* our att5tion is drawn1 %all fall ^u a c]ta9 p>ticul> po9t ( ! ret9a2 & t :5 ! image falls ^u any o!r po9t1 ! eye turns away f ?is oblique into ! direct position4 ,o!r writ]s h ma9ta9$ t ! eye ?us turns n because ! po9t on :i* ! image falls 9 direct vision is ! mo/ s5sible po9t1 b t x is ! po9t ( greate/ di/9ctness ( vision4 ,!y urge t a small />1 :i* disappe>s :5 ! eye is turn$ full ^u x1 may (t5 be se5 by look+ a little away f x3 & h5ce1 !y inf] t ! p>ts ( ! ret9a remov$ f ! spot ( direct vision1 are m s5sible ?an x is4 ,! facts are v curi\s1 h[ev] !y be expla9$1 b !y d n di/urb ! doctr9e deliv]$ 9 ! text4 #af4 ,x is n to our pres5t purpose to foll[ ! physiology ( ?is subject2 b we may notice t ,sir ,c4 ,bell has exam9$ ! special circum/ances :i* belong to ?is op]ation ( ! eye4 ,we le>n f him t ! p>ticul> po9t ( ! eye :i* ?us traces ! =ms ( visible objects is a "p ( ! ret9a :i* has be5 t]m$ ! s5sible spot2 be+ t "p :i* is mo/ di/9ctly s5sible to ! impressions ( light & col\r4 ,?is "p1 inde$1 is n a spot ( def9ite size & =m1 = x appe>s t proce$+ f a c]ta9 po9t ( ! ret9a1 ! di/9ct s5sibility dim9i%es on e side by degrees4 ,& ! se>*+ motion ( ! eye arises f ! desire :i* we in/9ctively feel ( receiv+ ^u ! s5sible spot ! image ( ! object to :i* ! att5tion is direct$4 ,we are uneasy & impati5t till ! eye is turn$ s t ?is is effect$4 ,& z our att5tion is transf]r$ f po9t to po9t ( ! sc5e be=e u1 ! eye1 & ?is po9t ( ! eye 9 p>ticul>1 travel along ) ! ?\ghts2 & ! muscul> s5se1 :i* tells u ( ^! movem5ts ( ! organ ( #abi vision1 conveys to u a k ( ! =ms & places :i* we ?us successively survey4 #ag4 ,h[ mu* ( activity !re is 9 ! process by :i* we p]ceive ! outl9es ( objects appe>s fur!r f ! language by :i* we describe _! =ms4 ,we apply to !m n m]ely adjectives ( =m1 b v]bs ( motion4 ,an abrupt hill />ts out ( ! pla92 a beautiful figure has a glid+ outl9e4 ,we h ,! w9dy summit1 wild & high1 ,r\ghly ru%+ on ! sky4 ,^! t]ms express ! c\rse ( ! eye z x foll[s ! l9es by :i* su* =ms are b\nd$ & m>k$4 ,9 l mann] ano!r mod]n poet#aab says ( ,soracte1 t x ,f out ! pla9 ,heaves l a long-swept wave ab\t to break1 ,& on ! curl hangs paus+4 ,note #aab3 ,byron1 ,*4 ,h>4 vi4 /4 #ge4 ,?us ! muscul> s5se1 :i* is insep>ably connect$ ) an act orig9at+ 9 our own m9d1 n only gives u all t portion ( our p]ceptions ( space 9 :i* we use ! s5se ( t\*1 b also1 at lea/ 9 a great measure1 ano!r l>ge portion ( su* p]ceptions1 9 :i* we employ ! s5se ( sight4 ,z we h be=e se5 t our k ( solid space & its prop]ties is n conceivable 9 any o!r way ?an z ! result ( a m5tal act1 gov]n$ by conditions dep5d+ on its own nature2 s x n[ appe>s t our p]ceptions ( visible figure are n obta9$ )\t an act p]=m$ "u ! same conditions4 ,! s5sations ( t\* & sight are subord9at$ to an idea :i* is ! basis ( our speculative k conc]n+ space & its relations2 & ?is same idea is disclos$ to our consci\sness by its practically regulat+ our int]c\rse ) ! ext]nal _w4 ,by consid]ations su* z h be5 adduc$ & ref]r$ to1 x is prov$ beyond d\bt1 t 9 a great #acj numb] ( cases our k ( =m & position is acquir$ f ! muscul> s5se1 & n f sight directly3--= in/ance1 9 all cases 9 :i* we h be=e u objects s l>ge & prospects s ext5sive t we _c see ! :ole ( !m 9 "o position ( ! eye#abb4 ,note #abb3 ,! expression 9 ! fir/ edition 0 'l>ge objects & ext5sive spaces4' ,9 ! text z n[ giv51 ,i /ate a def9ite size & ext5t1 )9 :i* ! sight by itself c judge ( position & figure4 ,! doctr9e1 t we require ! assi/ance ( ! muscul> s5se to enable u to p]ceive space ( ?ree dim5sions1 is n at all inconsi/5t ) ?is o!r doctr9e1 t )9 ! space :i* is se5 by ! fix$ eye1 we p]ceive ! relative positions ( po9ts directly by vision1 & t1 consequ5tly1 we h a p]ception ( visible figure4 ,sir ,*>les ,bell has said1 7,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbc1 p4 #aha17 ',x appe>s to me t ! utmo/ +5uity w be at a loss to devise an explanation ( t p[] by :i* ! eye becomes acqua9t$ ) ! position & relation ( objects1 if ! s5se ( muscul> activity be exclud$ :i* accompanies ! motion ( ! eyeball4' ,b surely we %\ld h no difficulty 9 p]ceiv+ ! relation ( ! sides & angles ( a small triangle1 plac$ be=e ! eye1 ev5 if ! muscles ( ! eyeball 7 sev]$4 ,?is subject is resum$ b4 iv4 c4 ii4 sect4 #aa4 ,we n[ quit ! consid]ation ( ! prop]ties ( ,space1 & consid] ! ,idea ( ,"t4 #aca ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,"t4 #a4 ,,respect+ ! ,idea ( ,"t1 we may make sev]al ( ! same rem>ks :i* we made conc]n+ ! idea ( space1 9 ord] to %[ t x is n borr[$ f exp]i5ce1 b is a bond ( connexion among ! impressions ( s5se1 d]iv$ f a peculi> activity ( ! m9d1 & =m+ a f\ndation bo? ( our exp]i5ce & ( our speculative k4 ,"t is n a notion obta9$ by exp]i5ce4 ,exp]i5ce1 t is1 ! impressions ( s5se & our consci\sness ( our ?\ghts1 gives u v>i\s p]ceptions2 & diff]5t successive p]ceptions consid]$ toge!r exemplify ! notion ( *ange4 ,b ?is v connexion ( diff]5t p]ceptions1--?is successiv5ess1--presupposes t ! p]ceptions exi/ 9 "t4 ,t ?+s happ5 ei!r toge!r1 or "o aft] ! o!r1 is intelligible only by assum+ "t z ! condition "u :i* !y are pres5t$ to u4 ,?us "t is a necess>y condition 9 ! pres5tation ( all occurr5ces to our m9ds4 ,we _c conceive ?is condition to be tak5 away4 ,we c conceive "t to g on :ile no?+ happ5s 9 x2 b we _c conceive any?+ to happ5 :ile "t does n g on4 ,x is cle> f ?is t "t is n an impression d]iv$ f exp]i5ce1 9 ! same mann] 9 :i* we d]ive f exp]i5ce our in=mation conc]n+ ! objects :i* exi/1 & ! occurr5ces :i* take place 9 "t4 ,! objects ( exp]i5ce c easily be conceiv$ to be1 or n to be3--to be abs5t z well z pres5t4 ,"t always is1 & always is #acb pres5t1 & ev5 9 our ?\ghts we _c =m ! contr>y supposition4 #b4 ,?us "t is some?+ di/9ct f ! matt] or sub/ance ( our exp]i5ce1 & may be consid]$ z a necess>y =m :i* t matt] 7! exp]i5ce ( *ange7 mu/ assume1 9 ord] to be an object ( contemplation to ! m9d4 ,"t is "o ( ! necess>y conditions "u :i* we appreh5d ! in=mation :i* our s5ses & consci\sness give u4 ,by consid]+ "t z a =m :i* belongs to our p[] ( appreh5d+ occurr5ces & *anges1 & "u :i* alone all su* exp]i5ce c be accept$ by ! m9d1 we expla9 ! necessity1 :i* we f9d to exi/1 ( conceiv+ all su* *anges z happ5+ 9 "t2 & we ?us see t "t is n a prop]ty p]ceiv$ z exi/+ 9 objects1 or z convey$ to u by our s5ses2 b a condition impress$ ^u our k by ! con/itution ( ! m9d itself2 involv+ an act ( ?\ght z well z an impression ( s5se4 #c4 ,we %[$ t space is an idea ( ! m9d1 or =m ( our p]ceiv+ p[]1 indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce1 by po9t+ out t we possess necess>y & univ]sal tru?s conc]n+ ! relations ( space1 :i* c\ld nev] be giv5 by means ( exp]i5ce2 b ( :i* ! necessity is readily conceivable1 if we suppose !m to h = _! basis ! con/itution ( ! m9d4 ,!re exi/ also respect+ numb]1 _m tru?s absolutely necess>y1 entirely indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce & ant]ior to x2 & s f> z ! conception ( numb] dep5ds ^u ! idea ( "t1 ! same argum5t might be us$ to %[ t ! idea ( "t is n d]iv$ f exp]i5ce1 b is a result ( ! native activity ( ! m9d3 b we %all def] all views ( ?is k9d till we come to ! consid]ation ( ,numb]4 #d4 ,"s p]sons h suppos$ t we obta9 ! notion ( "t f ! p]ception ( motion4 ,b x is cle> t ! p]ception ( motion1 t is1 *ange ( place1 presupposes ! conception ( "t1 & is n capable ( be+ pres5t$ to ! m9d 9 any o!r #acc way4 ,if we contemplate ! same body z be+ 9 diff]5t places at diff]5t times1 & connect ^! obs]vations1 we h ! conception ( motion1 :i* ?us presupposes ! necess>y conditions t exi/5ce 9 "t implies4 ,& ?us we see t x is possible !re %\ld be necess>y tru?s conc]n+ all ,motion1 & consequ5tly1 conc]n+ ^? motions :i* are ! objects ( exp]i5ce2 b t ! s\rce ( ?is necessity is ! ,ideas ( ,"t & ,space1 :i*1 be+ univ]sal conditions ( k resid+ 9 ! m9d1 af=d a f\ndation = necess>y tru?s4 #acd ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,( ,,"s ,,peculi>ities ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,"t4 #a4 ,,! ,idea ( ,"t1 l ! ,idea ( ,space1 (f]s to our notice "s *>act]s :i* d n belong to our fundam5tal ideas g5]ally1 b :i* are des]v+ ( rem>k4 ,^! *>act]s are1 9 "s respects1 closely simil> ) reg>d to ,"t & to ,space1 :ile1 9 o!r respects1 ! peculi>ities ( ^! two ideas are widely diff]5t4 ,we %all po9t out "s ( ^! *>act]s4 ,"t is n a g5]al ab/ract notion collect$ f exp]i5ce2 z1 = example1 a c]ta9 g5]al conception ( ! relations ( ?+s4 ,= we d n consid] p>ticul> times z examples ( ,"t 9 g5]al1 7z we consid] p>ticul> causes to be examples ( ,cause17 b we conceive all p>ticul> times to be p>ts ( a s+le & endless ,"t4 ,?is cont9ually-fl[+ & endless "t is :at (f]s itself to u :5 we contemplate any s]ies ( occurr5ces4 ,all actual & possible times exi/ z ,p>ts1 9 ?is orig9al & g5]al ,"t4 ,& s9ce all p>ticul> times are consid]$ z d]ivable f "t 9 g5]al1 x is manife/ t ! notion ( "t 9 g5]al _c be d]iv$ f ! notions ( p>ticul> times4 ,! notion ( "t 9 g5]al is !re=e n a g5]al conception ga!r$ f exp]i5ce4 #b4 ,"t is inf9ite4 ,s9ce all actual & possible times exi/ 9 ! g5]al c\rse ( "t1 ?is g5]al "t mu/ be inf9ite4 ,all limitation m]ely divides1 & does n t]m9ate1 ! ext5t ( absolute "t4 ,"t has no beg9n+ & no end2 b ! beg9n+ & ! end ( e o!r exi/5ce takes place 9 x4 #c4 ,"t1 l space1 is n only a =m ( p]ception1 b ( intuition4 ,we contemplate ev5ts z #ace tak+ place 9 "t4 ,we consid] its p>ts z add$ to "o ano!r1 & ev5ts z fill+ a l>g] or small] ext5t ( su* p>ts4 ,! "t :i* any ev5t takes up is ! sum ( all su* p>ts1 & ! relation ( ! same to "t is fully und]/ood :5 we c cle>ly see :at portions ( "t x occupies1 & :at x does n4 ,?us ! relation ( kn[n occurr5ces to "t is p]ceiv$ by intuition2 & "t is a =m ( intuition ( ! ext]nal _w4 #d4 ,"t is conceiv$ z a quantity ( "o dim5sion2 x has great analogy ) a l9e1 b none at all ) a surface or solid4 ,"t may be consid]$ z consi/+ ( a s]ies ( in/ants1 :i* are be=e & aft] "o ano!r2 & !y h no o!r relation ?an ?is1 ( be=e & aft]4 ,j ! same w\ld be ! case ) a s]ies ( po9ts tak5 along a l9e2 ea* w\ld be aft] ^? on "o side ( x1 & be=e ^? on ano!r4 ,inde$ ! analogy betwe5 "t1 & space ( "o dim5sion1 is s close1 t ! same t]ms are appli$ to bo? ideas1 & we h>dly "k to :i* !y orig9ally belong4 ,times & l9es are alike call$ long & %ort2 we speak ( ! beg9n+ & end ( a l9e2 ( a po9t ( "t1 & ( ! limits ( a portion ( duration4 #e4 ,b1 z has be5 said1 !re is no?+ 9 "t :i* corresponds to m ?an "o dim5sion 9 space1 & h5ce no?+ :i* has any obvi\s analogy ) figure4 ,"t resembles a l9e indef9itely ext5d$ bo? ways2 all p>tial times are portions ( ?is l9e2 & no mode ( conceiv+ "t sugge/s to u a l9e mak+ any angle ) ! orig9al l9e1 or any o!r comb9ation :i* might give rise to figures ( any k9d4 ,! analogy betwe5 "t & space1 :i* 9 _m circum/ances is s cle>1 "h disappe>s altoge!r4 ,spaces ( two & ( ?ree dim5sions1 planes & solids1 h no?+ to :i* we c comp>e !m 9 ! conceptions aris+ out ( "t4 #f4 ,z figure is a conception solely appropriate to space1 !re is also a conception :i* peculi>ly belongs to "t1 namely1 ! conception ( recurr5ce ( times simil>ly m>k$2 or1 z x may be t]m$1 #acf rhy?m1 us+ ?is ^w 9 a g5]al s5se4 ,! t]m rhy?m is mo/ commonly us$ to designate ! recurr5ce ( times m>k$ by ! syllables ( a v]se1 or ! notes ( a melody3 b x is easy to see t ! g5]al conception ( su* a recurr5ce does n dep5d on ! mode 9 :i* x is impress$ ^u ! s5se4 ,! =ms ( su* recurr5ce are innum]able4 ,?us 9 su* a l9e z ,qudrup$nte putrm sonit quatit ngula cmpum1 we h alt]nately "o long or =cible syllable1 & two %ort or light ones1 recurr+ ov] & ov]4 ,9 l mann] 9 our own language1 9 ! l9e ,at ! clse ( ! dy :5 ! hmlet is /ill1 we h two light & "o /rong syllable repeat$ f\r times ov]4 ,su* repetition is ! ess5ce ( v]sification4 ,! same k9d ( rhy?m is "o ( ! ma9 elem5ts ( music1 ) ?is diff]5ce only1 t 9 music ! =cible syllables are made s = ! purposes ( rhy?m by _! l5g? only or pr9cipally2 = example1 if ei!r ( ! above l9es 7 imitat$ by a melody 9 ! mo/ simple & obvi\s mann]1 ea* /rong syllable w\ld occupy exactly twice z mu* "t z two ( ! weak] ones4 ,some?+ v analog\s to su* rhy?m may be trac$ 9 o!r p>ts ( poetry & art1 :i* we ne$ n "h dwell ^u4 ,b 9 ref]5ce to our pres5t subject1 we may rem>k t by ! introduction ( su* rhy?m1 ! fl[ ( "t1 :i* appe>s o!rwise s p]fectly simple & homog5e\s1 admits ( an inf9ite numb] ( v>i$ yet regul> modes ( progress4 ,all ! k9ds ( v]sification :i* occur 9 all languages1 & ! /ill m v>i$ =ms ( recurr5ce ( notes ( diff]5t l5g?s1 :i* are he>d 9 all ! v>i$ /ra9s ( melodies1 are only examples ( su* modifications1 or configurations z we may call !m1 ( "t4 ,!y involve relations ( v>i\s portions ( "t1 z figures involve relations ( v>i\s portions ( space4 ,b yet ! analogy betwe5 rhy?m & figure is by no means v close2 = 9 rhy?m we h relations ( quantity alone 9 ! p>ts ( "t1 :]eas 9 figure we h #acg relations n only ( quantity1 b ( a k9d altoge!r diff]5t1--namely1 ( position4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a repetition ( simil> elem5ts1 :i* does n necess>ily occur 9 figures1 is q ess5tial 9 ord] to impress ^u u t measur$ progress ( "t ( :i* we "h speak4 ,& ?us ! ideas ( "t & space h ea* its peculi> & exclusive relations2 position & figure belong+ only to space1 :ile repetition & rhy?m are appropriate to "t4 #g4 ,"o ( ! simple/ =ms ( recurr5ce is alt]nation1 z :5 we h alt]nate /rong & slight syllables4 ,= in/ance1-- ,awke1 arse1 or b = v] fll'n4 ,or )\t any subord9ation1 z :5 we reckon numb]s1 & call !m 9 succession1 odd1 ev51 odd1 ev54 #h4 ,b ! simple/ ( all =ms ( recurr5ce is t :i* has no v>iety2--9 :i* a s]ies ( units1 ea* consid]$ z exactly simil> to ! re/1 succe$ ea* o!r2 z "o1 "o1 "o1 & s on4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 we are l$ to consid] ea* unit ) ref]5ce to all t h prec$$2 & ?us ! s]ies "o1 "o1 "o1 & s =?1 becomes "o1 two1 ?ree1 f\r1 five1 & s on2 a s]ies ) :i* all are famili>1 & :i* may be cont9u$ )\t limit4 ,we ?us collect f t repetition ( :i* "t admits1 ! conception ( ,numb]4 #i4 ,! relations ( position & figure are ! subject ( ! sci5ce ( geometry2 & are1 z we h already said1 trac$ into a v rem>kable & ext5sive body ( tru?s1 :i* re/s = its f\ndations on axioms involv$ 9 ! ,idea ( ,space4 ,!re is1 9 l mann]1 a sci5ce ( great complexity & ext5t1 :i* has its f\ndation 9 ! ,idea ( ,"t4 ,b ?is sci5ce1 z x is usually pursu$1 applies only to ! conception ( ,numb]1 :i* is1 z we h said1 ! simple/ result ( repetition4 ,?is sci5ce is ,!oretical ,ari?metic1 or ! speculative doctr9e ( ! prop]ties & relations ( numb]s2 & we mu/ say a few words conc]n+ ! pr9ciples :i* x is requisite to assume z ! basis ( ?is sci5ce4 #ach ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,( ,,! ,,axioms ,,:i* ,,relate ,,to ,,numb]4 #a4 ,,! f\ndations ( our speculative k ( ! relations & prop]ties ( ,numb]1 z well z ( ,space1 are conta9$ 9 ! mode 9 :i* we repres5t to ourselves ! magnitudes :i* are ! subjects ( our reason+s4 ,to express ^! f\ndations 9 axioms 9 ! case ( numb]1 is a matt] requir+ "s consid]ation1 = ! same reason z 9 ! case ( geometry2 t is1 because ^! axioms are pr9ciples :i* we assume z true1 )\t be+ aw>e t we h made any assumption2 & we _c1 )\t c>eful scrut9y1 det]m9e :5 we h /at$1 9 ! =m ( axioms1 all t is necess>y = ! =mation ( ! sci5ce1 & no m ?an is necess>y4 ,we w1 h[ev]1 attempt to detect ! pr9ciples :i* really mu/ =m ! basis ( !oretical ari?metic4 #b4 ,:y is x t ?ree & two are equal to f\r & "o8 ,because if we look at five ?+s ( any k9d1 we see t x is s4 ,! five are f\r & "o2 !y are also ?ree & two4 ,! tru? ( our ass]tion is involv$ 9 our be+ able to conceive ! numb] five at all4 ,we p]ceive ?is tru? by intuition1 = we _c see1 or imag9e we see1 five ?+s1 )\t p]ceiv+ also t ! ass]tion above /at$ is true4 ,b h[ d we /ate 9 words ?is fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! doctr9e ( numb]s8 ,let u consid] a v simple case4 ,if we wi% to %[ t sev5 & two are equal to f\r & five1 we say t sev5 are f\r & ?ree1 !re=e sev5 & two are f\r & ?ree & two2 & because ?ree & two are #aci five1 ?is is f\r & five4 ,ma!matical reason]s ju/ify ! fir/ inf]5ce 7m>k$ by ! conjunctive ^w !re=e71 by say+ t ,:5 equals are add$ to equals ! :oles are equal1 & t ?us1 s9ce sev5 is equal to ?ree & f\r1 if we add two to bo?1 sev5 & two are equal to f\r & ?ree & two4 #c4 ,su* axioms z ?is1 t :5 equals are add$ to equals ! :oles are equal1 are1 9 fact1 expressions ( ! g5]al condition ( intuition1 by :i* a :ole is contemplat$ z made up ( p>ts1 & z id5tical ) ! aggregate ( ! p>ts4 ,& a yet m g5]al =m 9 :i* we might m adequately express ?is condition ( intuition w\ld be ?is2 t ',two magnitudes are equal :5 !y c be divid$ into p>ts :i* are equal1 ea* to ea*4' ,?us 9 ! above example1 sev5 & two are equal to f\r & five1 because ea* ( ! two sums c be divid$ into ! p>ts1 f\r1 ?ree1 & two4 #d4 ,9 all ^! cases1 a p]son :o _h nev] se5 su* axioms enunciat$ 9 a v]bal =m w\ld employ ! same reason+ z a practis$ ma!matician1 9 ord] to satisfy himself t ! proposition 0 true4 ,! /eps ( ! reason+1 be+ se5 to be true by intuition1 w\ld c>ry an entire conviction1 :e!r or n ! argum5t 7 made v]bally complete4 ,h5ce ! axioms may appe> sup]flu\s1 & on ?is acc\nt su* axioms h (t5 be5 spok5 contemptu\sly (1 z empty & b>r5 ass]tions4 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 al?\gh !y _c supply ! defici5cy ( ! cle> intuition ( numb] & space 9 ! reason] himself1 & al?\gh :5 he possesses su* a faculty1 he w reason rightly if he h nev] he>d ( su* axioms1 !y /ill h _! place prop]ly at ! beg9n+ ( our treatises on ! sci5ce ( quantity2 s9ce !y express1 z simply z words c express1 ^? conditions ( ! intuition ( magnitudes on :i* all reason+ conc]n+ quantity mu/ be bas$2 & are necess>y :5 we want1 n only to see ! tru? ( ! elem5t>y reason+s on ^! subjects1 b to put su* reason+s 9 a =mal & logical %ape4 #adj #e4 ,we h consid]$ ! above-m5tion$ axioms z ! basis ( all ari?metical op]ations ( ! nature ( addition4 ,b x is easily se5 t ! same pr9ciple may be c>ri$ into o!r cases2 z = in/ance1 multiplication1 :i* is m]ely a repeat$ addition1 & admits ( ! same k9d ( evid5ce4 ,?us five times ?ree are equal to ?ree times five2 :y is ?is8 ,if we arrange fifte5 ?+s 9 five r[s ( ?ree1 x is se5 by look+1 or by imag9>y look+1 :i* is intuition1 t !y may also be tak5 z ?ree r[s ( five4 ,& ?us ! pr9ciple t ^? :oles are equal :i* c be resolv$ into ! same p>tial magnitudes1 is imm$iately applicable 9 ?is z 9 ! o!r case4 #f4 ,we may proce$ to high] numb]s1 & may f9d ourselves oblig$ to use artificial nom5clature & notation 9 ord] to repres5t & reckon !m2 b ! reason+ 9 ^! cases also is /ill ! same4 ,& ! usual artifice by :i* our reason+ 9 su* in/ances is assi/$ is1 t ! numb] :i* is ! root ( our scale ( notation 7:i* is t5 9 our usual sy/em71 is alt]nately sep>at$ into p>ts & treat$ z a s+le ?+4 ,?us #dg & #ce are #hb2 = #dg is f\r t5s & sev52 #ce is ?ree t5s & five2 :5ce #dg & #ce are sev5 t5s & twelve2 t is1 #g t5s1 #a t51 & #b2 :i* is #h t5s & #b1 or #hb4 ,! l reason+ is applicable 9 o!r cases4 ,& s9ce ! mo/ remote & complex prop]ties ( numb]s are obta9$ by a prolongation ( a c\rse ( reason+ exactly simil> to t by :i* we ?us e/abli% ! mo/ elem5t>y propositions1 we h1 9 ! pr9ciples j notic$1 ! f\ndation ( ! :ole ( ,!oretical ,ari?metic4 #ada ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,( ,,! ,,p]ception ,,( ,,"t ,,& ,,numb]4 #a4 ,,our p]ception ( ! passage ( "t involves a s]ies ( acts ( memory4 ,?is is easily se5 & ass5t$ to1 :5 l>ge int]vals ( "t & a complex tra9 ( occurr5ces are conc]n$4 ,b s9ce memory is requisite 9 ord] to appreh5d "t 9 su* cases1 we _c d\bt t ! same faculty mu/ be conc]n$ 9 ! %orte/ & simple/ cases ( succession2 = x w h>dly be ma9ta9$ t ! process by :i* we contemplate ! progress ( "t is diff]5t1 :5 small1 & :5 l>ge int]vals are conc]n$4 ,if memory be absolutely requisite to connect two ev5ts :i* beg9 & end a day1 & to p]ceive a tract ( "t betwe5 !m1 x mu/ be equally indisp5sable to connect ! beg9n+ & end ( a m9ute1 or a second2 ?\gh 9 ?is case ! ef=t may be small]1 & consequ5tly m easily ov]look$4 ,9 common cases1 we are unconsci\s ( ! act ( ?\ght by :i* we recollect ! prec$+ in/ant1 ?\gh we p]ceive ! ef=t :5 we recollect "s di/ant ev5t4 ,& ?is is analog\s to :at happ5s 9 o!r in/ances4 ,?us1 we walk )\t be+ consci\s ( ! volitions by :i* we move our muscles2 b1 9 ord] to leap1 a di/9ct & manife/ ex]tion ( ! same muscles is necess>y4 ,yet no "o w d\bt t we walk z well z leap by an act ( ! w ex]t$ ?r\gh ! muscles2 & 9 l mann]1 our consci\sness ( small z well z l>ge int]vals ( "t involves some?+ ( ! nature ( an act ( memory4 #b4 ,b ?is con/ant & almo/ imp]ceptible k9d ( memory1 by :i* we connect ! beg9n+ & #adb end ( ea* in/ant z x passes1 may v fitly be di/+ui%$ 9 common cases f manife/ acts ( recollection1 al?\gh x may be difficult or impossible to sep>ate ! two op]ations 9 g5]al4 ,?is p]petual & lat5t k9d ( memory may be t]m$ a s5se ( successiv5ess2 & mu/ be consid]$ z an int]nal s5se by :i* we p]ceive ourselves exi/+ 9 "t1 mu* 9 ! same way z by our ext]nal & muscul> s5se we p]ceive ourselves exi/+ 9 space4 ,& bo? our int]nal ?\ghts & feel+s1 & ! ev5ts :i* take place ar\nd u1 are appreh5d$ z objects ( ?is int]nal s5se1 & ?us z tak+ place 9 "t4 #c4 ,9 ! same mann] 9 :i* our int]pretation ( ! notices ( ! muscul> s5se implies ! p[] ( mov+ our limbs1 & ( t\*+ at w ?is object or t2 our appreh5sion ( ! relations ( "t1 by means ( ! int]nal s5se ( successiv5ess1 implies a p[] ( recall+ :at has pa/1 & ( reta9+ :at is pass+4 ,we are able to seize ! occurr5ces :i* h j tak5 place1 & to hold !m fa/ 9 our m9ds s z m5tally to measure _! di/ance 9 "t f occurr5ces n[ pres5t4 ,& ?us1 ?is s5se ( successiv5ess1 l ! muscul> s5se ) :i* we h comp>$ x1 implies activity ( ! m9d itself1 & is n a s5se passively receiv+ impressions4 #d4 ,! conception ( ,numb] appe>s to require ! ex]cise ( ! same s5se ( succession4 ,at fir/ sight1 inde$1 we seem to appreh5d ,numb] )\t any act ( memory1 or any ref]5ce to "t3 = example1 we look at a horse1 & see t 8 legs are f\r2 & ?is we seem to d at once1 )\t reckon+ !m4 ,b x is n difficult to see t ?is seem+ in/antane\sness ( ! p]ception ( small numb]s is an illusion4 ,?is resembles ! _m o!r cases 9 :i* we p]=m %ort & easy acts s rapidly & famili>ly t we are unconsci\s ( !m2 z 9 ! acts ( see+1 & ( articulat+ our words4 ,& ?is is ! m manife/1 s9ce we beg9 our acqua9tance ) numb] by c\nt+ ev5 ! #adc smalle/ numb]s4 ,*ildr5 & v rude savages mu/ use an ef=t to reckon ev5 _! five f+]s1 & f9d a difficulty 9 go+ fur!r4 ,& p]sons h be5 kn[n :o 7 able by habit1 or by a peculi> natural aptitude1 to c\nt by doz5s z rapidly z common p]sons c by units4 ,we may conclude1 !re=e1 t :5 we appe> to cat* a small numb] by a s+le glance ( ! eye1 we d 9 fact c\nt ! units ( x 9 a regul>1 ?\gh v brief succession4 ,to c\nt requires an act ( memory4 ,( ?is we are s5sible :5 we c\nt v sl[ly1 z :5 we reckon ! /rokes ( a *ur*-clock2 = 9 su* a case we may =get 9 ! int]vals ( ! /rokes1 & misc\nt4 ,n[ x w n be d\bt$ t ! nature ( ! process 9 c\nt+ is ! same :e!r we c\nt fa/ or sl[4 ,!re is no def9ite spe$ ( reckon+ at :i* ! faculties :i* x requires are *ang$2 & !re=e memory1 :i* is requisite 9 "s cases1 mu/ be s 9 all#acb4 ,note #acb3 ,i h consid]$ ,numb] z involv+ ! ex]cise ( ! s5se ( succession1 because ,i _c draw any l9e betwe5 ^? cases ( l>ge numb]s1 9 :i*1 ! process ( c\nt+ be+ p]=m$1 !re is a manife/ appreh5sion ( succession2 & ^? cases ( small numb]s1 9 :i* we seem to see ! numb] at "o glance4 ,b if any "o holds ,numb] to be appreh5d$ by a direct act ( intuition1 z ,space & ,"t are1 ?is view w n di/urb ! o!r doctr9es deliv]$ 9 ! text4 ,! act ( c\nt+1 7"o1 two1 ?ree1 & s on17 is ! f\ndation ( all our k ( numb]4 ,! intuition ( ! relations ( numb] involves ?is act ( c\nt+2 =1 z we h j se51 ! conception ( numb] _c be obta9$ 9 any o!r way4 ,& ?us ! :ole ( !oretical ari?metic dep5ds ^u an act ( ! m9d1 & ^u ! conditions :i* ! ex]cise ( t act implies4 ,^! h be5 already expla9$ 9 ! la/ *apt]4 #e4 ,b if ! appreh5sion ( numb] be accompani$ by an act ( ! m9d1 ! appreh5sion ( rhy?m is s /ill m cle>ly4 ,all ! =ms ( v]sification & ! measures ( melodies are ! creations ( man1 :o ?us realizes 9 words & s\nds ! #add =ms ( recurr5ce :i* rise )9 8 own m9d4 ,:5 we he> 9 a quiet sc5e any rapidly-repeat$ s\nd1 z ^? made by ! hamm] ( ! smi? or ! saw ( ! c>p5t]1 e "o kn[s h[ ins5sibly we ?r[ ^! noises into a rhy?mical =m 9 our own appreh5sion4 ,we d ?is ev5 )\t any sugge/ion f ! s\nds !mselves4 ,= in/ance1 if ! beats ( a clock or wat* be ev] s exactly alike1 we /ill reckon !m alt]nately tick-tack1 tick-tack4 ,t ?is is ! case1 may be prov$ by tak+ a wat* or clock ( su* a con/ruction t ! return+ sw+ ( ! p5dulum is sil5t1 & 9 :i* !re=e all ! beats are rigor\sly alike3 we %all f9d ourselves /ill reckon+ its s\nds z tick-tack4 ,9 ?is in/ance x is manife/ t ! rhy?m is entirely ( our own mak+4 ,9 melodies1 also1 & 9 v]ses 9 :i* ! rhy?m is complex1 obscure & difficult1 we p]ceive some?+ is requir$ on our "p2 = we are (t5 incapable ( contribut+ our %>e1 & ?us lose ! s5se ( ! measure altoge!r4 ,& :5 we consid] su* cases1 & att5d to :at passes )9 u :5 we cat* ! measure1 ev5 ( ! simple/ & be/-kn[n air1 we %all no long] d\bt t an act ( our own ?\ghts is requisite 9 su* cases1 z well z impressions on ! s5se4 ,& ?us ! conception ( ?is peculi> modification ( "t1 :i* we h call$ rhy?m1 l all ! o!r views :i* we h tak5 ( ! subject1 %[s t we mu/1 9 ord] to =m su* conceptions1 supply a c]ta9 idea by our own ?\ghts1 z well z m]ely receive by s5ses1 :e!r ext]nal or int]nal1 ! impressions ( appe>ances & collections ( appe>ances4 #ade ,,note ,,to ,,*apt] ,x4 ,i ,,h 9 ! la/ t5 *apt]s describ$ ,space1 ,"t1 & ,numb] by v>i\s expressions1 all int5d$ to po9t out _! (fice z exemplify+ ! ,ideal ,elem5t ( human k4 ,i h call$ !m ,fundam5tal ,ideas2 ,=ms ( ,p]ception2 ,=ms ( ,intuition2 & p]haps o!r names4 ,i might add yet o!r phrases4 ,i might say t ! prop]ties ( ,space1 ,"t1 & ,numb] are ,laws ( ! ,m9d's ,activity 9 appreh5d+ :at is4 ,= ! m9d _c appreh5d any ?+ or ev5t except con=mably to ! prop]ties ( space1 "t1 & numb]4 ,x is n only t x does n1 b x c n3 & ?is impossibility %[s t ! law is a law ( ! m9d1 & n ( objects extrane\s to ! m9d4 ,x is usual = "s ( ^? :o reject ! doctr9es "h pres5t$ to say t ! axioms ( geometry1 & ( o!r sci5ces1 are obta9$ by ,induction f facts con/antly pres5t$ by exp]i5ce4 ,b ,i d n see h[ ,induction c prove t a proposition mu/ be true4 ,! only intelligible usage ( ! ^w ,induction appe>s to me to be1 t 9 :i* x is appli$ to a proposition :i*1 be+ sep>able f ! facts 9 our appreh5sion1 & be+ comp>$ ) !m1 is se5 to agree ) !m4 ,b 9 ! cases n[ spok5 (1 ! proposition is n sep>able f ! facts4 ,we _c inf] by induction t two /raight l9es _c inclose a space1 because we _c contemplate special cases ( two l9es inclos+ a space1 9 :i* x rema9s to be det]m9$ :e!r or n ! proposition1 t bo? are /raight1 is true4 ,i d n d5y t ! activity ( ! m9d by :i* x p]ceives objects & ev5ts z relat$ accord+ to ! laws ( space1 "t1 & numb]1 is awak5$ & develop$ by be+ con/antly ex]cis$2 & t we _c imag9e a /age ( human exi/5ce 9 :i* ! p[]s h n be5 awak5$ & #adf develop$ by su* ex]cise4 ,9 ?is way1 exp]i5ce & obs]vation are necess>y conditions & pr]equisites ( our appreh5sion ( geometrical 7& o!r7 axioms4 ,we _c see ! tru? ( ^! axioms )\t "s exp]i5ce1 because we _c see any ?+1 or be human be+s1 )\t "s exp]i5ce4 ,?is might be express$ by say+ t su* tru?s are acquir$ necess>ily 9 ! c\rse ( all exp]i5ce2 b ,i ?9k x is v undesirable to apply1 to su* a case1 ! ^w ,induction1 ( :i* x is s important to u to keep ! sci5tific mean+ free f confusion4 ,induction _c give demon/rative pro(s1 z ,i h already /at$ 9 ,book #a4 ,c4 i4 sect4 #c1 & !re=e _c be ! gr\nd ( necess>y tru?s4 ,ano!r expression :i* may be us$ to describe ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas "h spok5 ( is sugge/$ by ! language ( a v pr(\nd & acute ,review ( ! =m] edition4 ,! ,review] holds t we pass f special exp]i5ces to univ]sal tru?s 9 virtue ( '! inductive prop5sity--! irresi/ible impulse ( ! m9d to g5]alize ad inf9itum4' ,i h already giv5 reasons :y ,i _c adopt ! =m] expression2 b ,i d n see :y space1 "t1 numb]1 cause1 & ! re/1 may n be t]m$ diff]5t =ms ( ! impulse ( ! m9d to g5]alize4 ,b if we put toge!r all ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas z results ( ! ,g5]aliz+ ,impulse1 we mu/ /ill sep>ate !m z diff]5t modes ( action ( t ,impulse1 %[+ !mselves 9 v>i\s *>act]i/ic ways 9 ! axioms & modes ( reason+ :i* belong to diff]5t sci5ces4 ,! ,g5]aliz+ ,impulse 9 "o case proce$s accord+ to ! ,idea ( ,space2 9 ano!r1 accord+ to ! ,idea ( ,me*anical ,cause2 & s 9 o!r subjects4 #adg ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,( ,,ma!matical ,,reason+4 #a4 ,discursive ,reason+4--,,we h ?us se5 t our notions ( space1 "t1 & _! modifications1 necess>ily involve a c]ta9 activity ( ! m9d2 & t ! conditions ( ?is activity =m ! f\ndations ( ^? sci5ces :i* h ! relations ( space1 "t1 & numb]1 = _! object4 ,^u ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ?us e/abli%$1 ! v>i\s sci5ces :i* are includ$ 9 ! t]m ,pure ,ma!matics1 7,geometry1 ,algebra1 ,trigonometry1 ,conic ,sections1 & ! re/ ( ! ,high] ,geometry1 ! ,diff]5tial ,calculus1 & ! l17 are built up by a s]ies ( reason+s4 ,^! reason+s are subject to ! rules ( ,logic1 z we h already rem>k$2 nor is x necess>y "h to dwell long on ! nature & rules ( su* processes4 ,b we may "h notice t su* processes are t]m$ discursive1 9 opposition to ! op]ations by :i* we acquire our fundam5tal pr9ciples1 :i* are1 z we h se51 intuitive4 ,?is opposition 0 =m]ly v famili> to our writ]s2 z ,milton1-- 4 4 4 ,?us ! s\l reason receives1 ,discursive or intuitive4--,p>adise ,lo/1 v4 #dch4 ,= 9 su* reason+s we obta9 our conclusions1 n by look+ at our conceptions /eadily 9 "o view1 :i* is intuition1 b by pass+ f "o view to ano!r1 l ^? :o run f place to place 7discursus74 ,?us a /raight l9e may be at ! same "t a side ( a triangle & a radius ( a circle3 & 9 ! fir/ proposition ( ,euclid a l9e is consid]$1 fir/ 9 "o ( ^! relations1 & !n 9 ! o!r1 & ?us ! sides ( a c]ta9 triangle are prov$ to be equal4 ,& by ?is 'disc\rse ( reason1' z by our old] #adh writ]s x 0 t]m$1 we set =? f ^? axioms :i* we p]ceive by intuition1 travel securely ov] a va/ & v>i$ region1 & become possess$ ( a copi\s /ore ( ma!matical tru?s4 #b4 ,te*nical ,t]ms ( ,reason+4--,! reason+ ( ma!matics1 ?us proce$+ f a few simple pr9ciples to _m tru?s1 is conduct$ accord+ to ! rules ( ,logic4 ,if x be necess>y1 ma!matical pro(s may be r$uc$ to logical =ms1 & express$ 9 ,syllogisms1 consi/+ ( major1 m9or1 & conclusion4 ,b 9 mo/ cases ! syllogism is ( t k9d :i* is call$ by logical writ]s an ,en?ymeme2 a ^w :i* implies some?+ exi/+ 9 ! ?\ghts only1 & :i* designates a syllogism 9 :i* "o ( ! premises is und]/ood1 & n express$4 ,?us we say 9 a ma!matical pro(1 'because ! po9t ,c is ! c5t] ( ! circle ,,ab1 ,,ac is equal to ,,bc2' n /at+ ! major1--t all l9es drawn f ! c5t] ( a circle to ! circumf]5ce are equal2 or introduc+ x only by a transi5t ref]5ce to ! def9ition ( a circle4 ,b ! en?ymeme is s con/antly us$ 9 all habitual =ms ( reason+1 t x does n occur to u z be+ any?+ peculi> 9 ma!matical works4 ,! propositions :i* are prov$ to be g5]ally true are t]m$ ,!orems3 b :5 any?+ is requir$ to be done1 z to draw a l9e or a circle "u giv5 conditions1 ?is proposition is a ,problem4 ,a !orem requires demon/ration2 a problem1 solution4 ,& = bo? purposes ! ma!matician usually makes a ,con/ruction4 ,he directs u to draw c]ta9 l9es1 circles1 or o!r curves1 on :i* is to be f\nd$ 8 demon/ration t 8 !orem is true1 or t 8 problem is solv$4 ,sometimes1 too1 he e/abli%es "s ,lemma1 or prep>atory proposition1 be=e he proce$s to 8 ma9 task2 & (t5 he d$uces f 8 demon/ration "s conclusion 9 addition to t :i* 0 ! pr(ess$ object ( 8 proposition2 & ?is is t]m$ a ,coroll>y4 ,^! te*nical t]ms are not$ "h1 n z be+ v important1 b 9 ord] t !y may n s\nd #adi /range & un9telligible if we %\ld h occasion to use "s ( !m4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o te*nical di/9ction m peculi>1 & m important4 #c4 ,geometrical ,analysis & ,syn!sis4--,9 geometrical reason+ su* z we h describ$1 we introduce at e /ep "s new consid]ation2 & x is by comb9+ all ^! consid]ations1 t we arrive at ! conclusion1 t is1 ! demon/ration ( ! proposition4 ,ea* /ep t5ds to ! f9al result1 by exhibit+ "s "p ( ! figure "u a new relation4 ,to :at we h already prov$1 is add$ some?+ m2 & h5ce ?is process is call$ ,syn!sis1 or putt+ toge!r4 ,! pro( fl[s on1 receiv+ at e turn new contributions f diff]5t qu>t]s2 l a riv] f$ & augm5t$ by _m tribut>y /reams4 ,& ea* ( ^! tribut>ies fl[s f "s def9ition or axiom z its f\nta91 or is itself =m$ by ! union ( small] rivulets :i* h s\rces ( ?is k9d4 ,9 desc5d+ along its c\rse1 ! syn!tical pro( ga!rs all ^! accessions into "o common trunk1 ! proposition f9ally prov$4 ,b we may proce$ 9 a diff]5t mann]4 ,we may beg9 f ! =m$ riv]1 & asc5d to its s\rces4 ,we may take ! proposition ( :i* we require a pro(1 & may exam9e :at ! supposition ( its tru? implies4 ,if ?is be true1 !n some?+ else may be se5 to be true2 & f ?is1 some?+ else1 & s on4 ,we may (t51 9 ?is way1 discov] ( :at simpl] propositions our !orem or solution is comp\nd$1 & may resolve ^! 9 succession1 till we come to "s proposition :i* is obvi\s4 ,?is is geometrical ,analysis4 ,hav+ succe$$ 9 ?is analytical process1 we may inv]t x2 & may desc5d aga9 f ! simple & kn[n propositions1 to ! pro( ( a !orem1 or ! solution ( a problem1 :i* 0 our />t+-place4 ,?is process resembles1 z we h said1 trac+ a riv] to its s\rces4 ,z we asc5d ! /ream1 we p]petually meet ) bifurcations2 & "s sagacity is ne$$ to enable u to see :i*1 9 ea* case1 is ! ma9 /ream3 b if we proce$ 9 our rese>*1 we #aej exhau/ ! unexplor$ valleys1 & f9ally obta9 a cle> k ( ! place :5ce ! wat]s fl[4 ,analytical is sometimes conf\nd$ ) symbolical reason+1 on :i* subject we %all make a rem>k 9 ! next *apt]4 ,! object ( t *apt] is to notice c]ta9 o!r fundam5tal pr9ciples & ideas1 n includ$ 9 ^? hi!rto spok5 (1 :i* we f9d ?r[n 9 our way z we proce$ 9 our ma!matical speculations4 ,x w\ld deta9 u too long1 & involve u 9 subtle & te*nical disquisitions1 to exam9e fully ! gr\nds ( ^! pr9ciples2 b ! ,ma!matics hold s important a place 9 relation to ! inductive sci5ces1 t ,i %all briefly notice ! lead+ ideas :i* ! ult]ior progress ( ! subject involves4 #aea ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,( ,,! ,,f\ndations ,,( ,,! ,,high] ,,ma!matics4 #a4 ,! ,idea ( a ,limit4--,,! g5]al tru?s conc]n+ relations ( space :i* dep5d ^u ! axioms & def9itions conta9$ 9 ,euclid's ,elem5ts1 & :i* involve only prop]ties ( /raight l9es & circles1 are t]m$ ,elem5t>y ,geometry3 all beyond ?is belongs to ! ,high] ,geometry4 ,to ?is latt] prov9ce app]ta91 = example1 all propositions respect+ ! l5g?s ( any portions ( curve l9es2 = ^! _c be obta9$ by means ( ! pr9ciples ( ! ,elem5ts alone4 ,"h !n we mu/ ask to :at o!r pr9ciples ! geomet] has rec\rse1 & f :at s\rce ^! are drawn4 ,is !re any orig9 ( geometrical tru? :i* we h n yet explor$8 ,! ,idea ( a ,limit supplies a new mode ( e/abli%+ ma!matical tru?s4 ,?us ) reg>d to ! l5g? ( any portion ( a curve1 a problem :i* we h j m5tion$2 a curve is n made up ( /raight l9es1 & !re=e we _c by means ( any ( ! doctr9es ( elem5t>y geometry measure ! l5g? ( any curve4 ,b we may make up a figure ne>ly resembl+ any curve by putt+ toge!r _m %ort /raight l9es1 j z a polygonal build+ ( v _m sides may ne>ly resemble a circul> room4 ,& 9 ord] to approa* ne>] & ne>] to ! curve1 we may make ! sides m & m small1 m & m num]\s4 ,we may !n possibly f9d "s mode ( measurem5t1 "s relation ( ^! small l9es to o!r l9es1 :i* is n di/urb$ by ! multiplication ( ! sides1 h[ev] f> x be c>ri$4 ,& ?us1 we may d :at is equival5t to measur+ ! curve itself2 = by multiply+ ! #aeb sides we may approa* m & m closely to ! curve till no appreciable diff]5ce rema9s4 ,! curve l9e is ! ,limit ( ! polygon2 & 9 ?is process we proce$ on ! ,axiom1 t ',:at is true up to ! ,limit is true at ! ,limit4' ,?is mode ( conceiv+ ma!matical magnitudes is ( wide ext5t & use2 = e curve may be consid]$ z ! limit ( "s polygon2 e v>i$ magnitude1 z ! limit ( "s aggregate ( simpl] =ms2 & ?us ! relations ( ! elem5t>y figures enable u to advance to ! prop]ties ( ! mo/ complex cases4 ,a ,limit is a peculi> & fundam5tal conception1 ! use ( :i* 9 prov+ ! propositions ( ! ,high] ,geometry _c be sup]s$$ by any comb9ation ( o!r hypo!ses & def9itions#adb4 ,! axiom j notic$1 t :at is true up to ! limit is true at ! limit1 is involv$ 9 ! v conception ( a ,limit3 & ?is pr9ciple1 ) its consequ5ces1 leads to all ! results :i* =m ! subject ( ! high] ma!matics1 :e!r prov$ by ! consid]ation ( evanesc5t triangles1 by ! processes ( ! ,diff]5tial ,calculus1 or 9 any o!r way4 ,note #adb3 ,?is ass]tion _c be fully prov$ & illu/rat$ )\t a ref]5ce to ma!matical reason+s :i* w\ld n be g5]ally intelligible4 ,i h %[n ! tru? ( ! ass]tion 9 my ,?\ghts on ! ,/udy ( ,ma!matics1 annex$ to ! ,pr9ciples ( ,engli% ,univ]sity ,education4 ,! pro( is ( ?is k9d3--,! ultimate equality ( an arc ( a curve & ! correspond+ p]iph]y ( a polygon1 :5 ! sides ( ! polygon are indef9itely increas$ 9 numb]1 is evid5t4 ,b ?is tru? _c be prov$ f any o!r axiom4 ,= if we take ! suppos$ axiom1 t a curve is always less ?an ! includ+ brok5 l9e1 ?is is n true1 except ) a condition2 & 9 trac+ ! import ( ?is condition1 we f9d its necessity becomes evid5t only :5 we introduce a ref]5ce to a ,limit4 ,& ! same is ! case if we attempt to sup]s$e ! notion ( a ,limit 9 prov+ any o!r simple & evid5t proposition 9 :i* t notion is involv$4 ,!re=e ^! evid5t tru?s are self-evid5t1 9 virtue ( ! ,idea ( a ,limit4 ,! anci5ts did n expressly introduce ?is conception ( a ,limit into _! ma!matical reason+s2 al?\gh 9 ! application ( :at is t]m$ ! #aec ,me?od ( ,exhau/ions1 79 :i* !y %[ h[ to exhau/ ! diff]5ce betwe5 a polygon & a curve1 or ! l17 !y 7 9 fact proce$+ ^u an obscure appreh5sion ( pr9ciples equival5t to ^? ( ! ,me?od ( ,limits4 ,yet ! necess>y fundam5tal pr9ciple n hav+1 9 _! "t1 be5 cle>ly develop$1 _! reason+s 7 bo? ne$lessly intricate & imp]fectly satisfactory4 ,moreov] !y 7 l$ to put 9 ! place ( axioms1 assumptions :i* 7 by no means self-evid5t2 z :5 ,ar*im$es assum$1 = ! basis ( 8 measure ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! circle1 ! proposition t a circul> arc is necess>ily less ?an two l9es :i* inclose x1 jo9+ its extremities4 ,! reason+s ( ! old] ma!maticians1 :i* pr(ess$ to proce$ ^u su* assumptions1 l$ to true results 9 reality1 only because !y 7 guid$ by a lat5t ref]5ce to ! limit+ case ( su* assumptions4 ,& ?is lat5t employm5t ( ! conception ( a ,limit1 reappe>$ 9 v>i\s =ms dur+ ! e>ly p]iod ( mod]n ma!matics2 z = example1 9 ! ,me?od ( ,indivisibles ( ,cavall]i1 & ! ,*>act]i/ic ,triangle ( ,b>r[2 till at la/1 ,newton di/9ctly ref]r$ su* reason+s to ! conception ( a ,limit1 & e/abli%$ ! fundam5tal pr9ciples & processes :i* t conception introduces1 ) a di/9ctness & exactness :i* requir$ little improvem5t to make x z unimpea*able z ! demon/rations ( geometry4 ,& :5 su* processes z ,newton ?us d$uc$ f ! conception ( a ,limit1 are repres5t$ by means ( g5]al algebraical symbols in/ead ( geometrical diagrams1 we h !n be=e u ! ,me?od ( ,fluxions1 or ! ,diff]5tial ,calculus2 a mode ( treat+ ma!matical problems ju/ly consid]$ z ! pr9cipal weapon by :i* ! spl5did triumphs ( mod]n ma!matics h be5 a*iev$4 #b4 ,! ,use ( ,g5]al ,symbols4--,! employm5t ( algebraical symbols1 ( :i* we h j spok51 has be5 ano!r ( ! ma9 in/rum5ts to :i* ! successes ( mod]n ma!matics are ow+4 ,& "h aga9 ! processes by :i* we obta9 our #aed results dep5d = _! evid5ce ^u a fundam5tal conception1--! conception ( arbitr>y symbols z ! ,signs ( quantity & its relations2 & ^u a correspond+ axiom1 t ',! int]pretation ( su* symbols mu/ be p]fectly g5]al4' ,9 ?is case1 z 9 ! la/1 x 0 only by degrees t ma!maticians 7 l$ to a j appreh5sion ( ! gr\nds ( _! reason+4 ,= symbols 7 at fir/ us$ only to repres5t numb]s consid]$ ) reg>d to _! num]ical prop]ties2 & ?us ! sci5ce ( ,algebra 0 =m$4 ,b x 0 f\nd1 ev5 9 cases belong+ to common algebra1 t ! symbols (t5 admitt$ ( an int]pretation :i* w5t beyond ! limits ( ! problem1 & :i* yet 0 n unmean+1 s9ce x po9t$ out a "q closely analog\s to ! "q propos$4 ,?is 0 ! case1 = example1 :5 ! answ] 0 a negative quantity2 = :5 ,desc>tes _h introduc$ ! mode ( repres5t+ curves by means ( algebraical relations among ! symbols ( ! co-ord9ates1 or di/ances ( ea* ( _! po9ts f fix$ l9es1 x 0 f\nd t negative quantities mu/ be dealt ) z n less truly significant ?an positive ones4 ,& z ! rese>*es ( ma!maticians proce$$1 o!r cases also 7 f\nd1 9 :i* ! symbols1 al?\gh de/itute ( mean+ accord+ to ! orig9al conv5tions ( _! in/itution1 /ill po9t$ out tru?s :i* c\ld be v]ifi$ 9 o!r ways2 z 9 ! cases 9 :i* :at are call$ impossible quantities occur4 ,su* processes may usually be confirm$ ^u o!r pr9ciples1 & ! tru? 9 "q may be e/abli%$ by means ( a demon/ration 9 :i* no su* seem+ fallacies defeat ! reason+4 ,b x has also be5 %[n 9 _m su* cases1 t ! process 9 :i* "s ( ! /eps appe> to be )\t real mean+1 does 9 fact involve a valid pro( ( ! proposition4 ,& :at we h "h to rem>k is1 t ?is is n true accid5tally or p>tially only1 b t ! results ( sy/ematic symbolical reason+ mu/ always express g5]al tru?s1 by _! nature2 & d n1 = _! ju/ification1 require ea* ( ! /eps ( ! process to repres5t #aee "s def9ite op]ation ^u quantity4 ,! absolute univ]sality ( ! int]pretation ( symbols is ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( _! use4 ,?is has be5 %[n v ably by ,dr4 ,peacock 9 8 ,algebra4 ,he has !re illu/rat$1 9 a v>iety ( ways1 ?is pr9ciple3 t ',if g5]al symbols express an id5tity :5 !y are suppos$ to be ( any special nature1 !y mu/ also express an id5tity :5 !y are g5]al 9 _! nature4' ,& ?us1 ?is univ]sality ( symbols is a pr9ciple 9 addition to ^? we h already notic$2 & is a pr9ciple ( ! greate/ importance 9 ! =mation ( ma!matical sci5ce1 accord+ to ! wide g5]ality :i* su* sci5ce has 9 mod]n times assum$4 #c4 ,connexion ( ,symbols & ,analysis4--,s9ce 9 our symbolical reason+ our symbols ?us reason = u1 we d n necess>ily "h1 z 9 geometrical reason+1 g on add+ c>efully "o kn[n tru? to ano!r1 till we rea* ! desir$ result4 ,on ! contr>y1 if we h a !orem to prove or a problem to solve :i* c be br\ght "u ! doma9 ( our symbols1 we may at once /ate ! giv5 b unprov$ tru?1 or ! giv5 comb9ation ( unkn[n quantities1 9 its symbolical =m4 ,aft] ?is fir/ process1 we may !n proce$ to trace1 by means ( our symbols1 :at o!r tru? is involv$ 9 ! "o j /at$1 or :at ! unkn[n symbols mu/ signify2 resolv+ /ep by /ep ! symbolical ass]tion ) :i* we began1 into o!rs m fitt$ = our purpose4 ,! =m] process is a k9d ( syn!sis1 ! latt] is t]m$ analysis4 ,& al?\gh symbolical reason+ does n necess>ily imply su* analysis2 yet ! connexion is s famili>1 t ! t]m analysis is frequ5tly us$ to designate symbolical reason+4 #aef ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,motion4 #a4 ,pure ,me*anism4--,,! doctr9e ( ,motion1 ( :i* we h "h to speak1 is t 9 :i* motion is consid]$ q indep5d5tly ( its cause1 =ce2 = all consid]ation ( =ce belongs to a class ( ideas entirely diff]5t f ^? ) :i* we are "h conc]n$4 ,9 ?is view x may be t]m$ ! pure doctr9e ( motion1 s9ce x has to d solely ) space & "t1 :i* are ! subjects ( pure ma!matics4 7,see c4 i4 ( ?is book47 ,al?\gh ! doctr9e ( motion 9 connexion ) =ce1 :i* is ! subject ( me*anics1 is by f> ! mo/ important =m 9 :i* ! consid]ation ( motion ent]s into ! =mation ( our sci5ces1 ! ,pure ,doctr9e ( ,motion1 :i* treats ( space1 "t1 & velocity1 might be foll[$ out s z to give rise to a v consid]able & curi\s body ( sci5ce4 ,su* a sci5ce is ! sci5ce ( ,me*anism1 indep5d5t ( =ce1 & consid]$ z ! solution ( a problem :i* may be ?us enunciat$3 ',to communicate any giv5 motion f a fir/ mov] to a giv5 body4' ,! sci5ce :i* %\ld h = its object to solve all ! v>i\s cases into :i* ?is problem w\ld ramify1 might be t]m$ ,pure ,me*anism1 9 contradi/9ction to ,me*anics ,prop]1 or ,ma*9]y1 9 :i* ,=ce is tak5 into consid]ation4 ,! great] "p ( ! ma*9es :i* h be5 con/ruct$ = use 9 manufactures h be5 practical solutions ( "s ( ! cases ( ?is problem4 ,we h also important contributions to su* a sci5ce 9 ! works ( ,ma!maticians2 = example1 ! v>i\s inve/igations & demon/rations :i* h be5 publi%$ respect+ ! =m ( ! ,tee? #aeg ( ,:eels1 & ,mr4 ,babbage's memoir#aeb on ! ,language ( ,ma*9]y4 ,!re are also sev]al works :i* conta9 collections ( ! me*anical contrivances :i* h be5 inv5t$ = ! purpose ( transmitt+ & modify+ motion1 & ^! works may be consid]$ z treatises on ! sci5ce ( ,pure ,me*anism4 ,b ?is sci5ce has n yet be5 r$uc$ to ! sy/ematic simplicity :i* is desirable1 nor inde$ g5]ally recogniz$ z a sep>ate sci5ce4 ,x has be5 conf\nd$1 "u ! common "n ( ,me*anics1 ) ! o!r 9999sci5ce1 ,me*anics ,prop]1 or ,ma*9]y1 :i* consid]s ! effect ( =ce transmitt$ by ,me*anism f "o "p ( a mat]ial comb9ation to ano!r4 ,= example1 ! ,me*anical ,p[]s1 z !y are usually t]m$1 7! ,lev]1 ! ,:eel & ,axle1 ! ,incl9$ ,plane1 ! ,w$ge1 & ! ,screw17 h almo/ always be5 treat$ ) ref]5ce to ! relation betwe5 ! ,p[] & ! ,weight1 & n prim>ily z a mode ( *ang+ ! velocity & k9d ( ! motion4 ,! sci5ce ( pure motion has n g5]ally be5 sep>at$ f ! sci5ce ( motion view$ ) ref]5ce to its causes4 ,note #aeb3 ,on a ,me?od ( express+ by ,signs ! action ( ,ma*9]y4 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbf1 p4 #bej4 ,rec5tly1 inde$1 ! necessity ( su* a sep>ation has be5 se5 by ^? :o h tak5 a philosophical view ( sci5ce4 ,?us ?is necessity has be5 urg$ by ,m4 ,ampre1 9 8 ,essai sur la ,philosophie des ,sci5ces 7#ahcd73 ',long1' he says1 7p4 #ej17 'be=e ,i employ$ myself ^u ! pres5t "w1 ,i _h rem>k$ t x is usual to omit1 9 ! beg9n+ ( all books treat+ ( sci5ces :i* reg>d motion & =ce1 c]ta9 consid]ations :i*1 duly develop$1 mu/ con/itute a special sci5ce3 ( :i* sci5ce c]ta9 p>ts h be5 treat$ (1 ei!r 9 memoirs or 9 special works2 su*1 = example1 z t ( ,c>not ^u ,motion consid]$ ,geometrically1 & ! essay ( ,lanz & ,betanc\rt ^u ! ,composition ( ,ma*9es4' ,he !n proce$s to describe ?is sci5ce ne>ly z we h #aeh done1 & proposes to t]m x ,k9ematics 7,c9matique71 f 1 motion4 #b4 ,=mal ,a/ronomy4--,i %all n attempt "h fur!r to develop ! =m :i* su* a sci5ce mu/ assume4 ,b ,i may notice "o v l>ge prov9ce :i* belongs to x4 ,:5 m5 _h asc]ta9$ ! app>5t motions ( ! sun1 moon1 & />s1 to a mod]ate degree ( regul>ity & accuracy1 !y tri$ to conceive 9 _! m9ds "s me*anism by :i* ^! motions might be produc$2 & ?us !y 9 fact propos$ to !mselves a v ext5sive problem 9 ,k9ematics4 ,?is1 inde$1 0 ! view orig9ally ent]ta9$ ( ! nature ( ! sci5ce ( a/ronomy4 ,?us ,plato 9 ! sev5? ,book ( 8 ,republic#afb1 speaks ( a/ronomy z ! doctr9e ( ! motion ( solids1 mean+ !reby1 sph]es4 ,& ! same 0 a prop] description ( ! sci5ce till ! "t ( ,kepl]1 & ev5 lat]3 = ,kepl] endeav\r$ 9 va9 to conjo9 ) ! k ( ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 ^? true me*anical conceptions :i* conv]t$ =mal into physical a/ronomy#agb4 ,note #afb3 ,p4 #ebh4 ,note #agb3 ,hi/4 ,induc4 ,sc4 ii4 #acj4 ,! a/ronomy ( ! anci5ts admitt$ none b uni=m circul> motions1 & c\ld !re=e be completely cultivat$ by ! aid ( _! elem5t>y geometry4 ,b ! pure sci5ce ( motion might be ext5d$ to all motions1 h[ev] v>i$ z to ! spe$ or ! pa? ( ! mov+ body4 ,9 ?is =m x mu/ dep5d ^u ! doctr9e ( limits2 & ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( its reason+s w\ld be ?is3 ,t velocity is measur$ by ! ,limit ( ! space describ$1 consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ! "t 9 :i* x is describ$4 ,i %all n fur!r pursue ?is subject2 & 9 ord] to complete :at ,i h to say respect+ ! ,pure ,sci5ces1 ,i h only a few words to add respect+ _! be>+ on ,inductive ,sci5ce 9 g5]al4 #aei ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,( ,,! ,,application ,,( ,,ma!matics ,,to ,,! ,,inductive ,,sci5ces4 #a4 ,,all objects 9 ! _w :i* c be made ! subjects ( our contemplation are subord9ate to ! conditions ( ,space1 ,"t1 & ,numb]2 & on ?is acc\nt1 ! doctr9es ( pure ma!matics h mo/ num]\s & ext5sive applications 9 e dep>tm5t ( our inve/igations ( nature4 ,& !re is a peculi>ity 9 ^! ,ideas1 :i* has caus$ ! ma!matical sci5ces to be1 9 all cases1 ! fir/ successful ef=ts ( ! awak5+ speculative p[]s ( nations at ! comm5cem5t ( _! intellectual progress4 ,conceptions d]iv$ f ^! ,ideas are1 f ! v fir/1 p]fectly precise & cle>1 s z to be fit elem5ts ( sci5tific tru?s4 ,?is is n ! case ) ! o!r conceptions :i* =m ! subjects ( sci5tific inquiries4 ,! conception ( /atical =ce1 = in/ance1 0 nev] pres5t$ 9 a di/9ct =m till ! works ( ,ar*im$es appe>$3 ! conception ( accel]at+ =ce 0 confus$1 9 ! m9d ( ,kepl] & 8 contempor>ies1 & only became cle> en\gh = purposes ( s\nd sci5tific reason+ 9 ! succe$+ c5tury3 ! j conception ( *emical composition ( elem5ts gradually1 9 mod]n times1 em]g$ f ! errone\s & vague notions ( ! anci5ts4 ,if we take works publi%$ on su* subjects be=e ! epo* :5 ! f\ndations ( ! true sci5ce 7 laid1 we f9d ! k n only small1 b wor?less4 ,! writ]s did n see any evid5ce 9 :at we n[ consid] z ! axioms ( ! sci5ce2 nor any inconsi/5cy :]e we n[ see self-contradiction4 ,b ?is 0 nev] ! case ) speculations conc]n+ #afj space & numb]4 ,f _! fir/ rise1 ^! 7 true z f> z !y w5t4 ,! ,geometry & ,ari?metic ( ! ,greeks & ,indians1 ev5 9 _! fir/ & mo/ scanty =m1 conta9$ none b true propositions4 ,m5's intuitions ^u ^! subjects nev] all[$ !m to slide into error & confusion2 & ! tru?s to :i* !y 7 l$ by ! fir/ ef=ts ( _! faculties1 s employ$1 =m "p ( ! pres5t /ock ( our ma!matical k4 #b4 ,b we are "h n s mu* conc]n$ ) ma!matics 9 _! pure =m1 z ) _! application to ! ph5om5a & laws ( nature4 ,& "h also ! v e>lie/ hi/ory ( civilization pres5ts to u "s ( ! mo/ rem>kable examples ( man's success 9 8 attempts to atta9 to sci5ce4 ,space & "t1 position & motion1 gov]n all visible objects2 b by f> ! mo/ conspicu\s examples ( ! relations :i* arise out ( su* elem5ts1 are display$ by ! ev]-mov+ lum9>ies ( ! sky1 :i* measure days1 & mon?s1 & ye>s1 by _! motions1 & man's place on ! e>? by _! position4 ,h5ce ! sci5ces ( space & numb] 7 f ! fir/ cultivat$ ) peculi> ref]5ce to ,a/ronomy4 ,i h else:]e#ahb quot$ ,plato's rem>k1--t x is absurd to call ! sci5ce ( ! relations ( space geometry1 ! measure ( ! e>?1 s9ce its mo/ important (fice is to be f\nd 9 its application to ! heav5s4 ,& on o!r occasions also x appe>s h[ /rongly he1 :o may be consid]$ z ! repres5tative ( ! sci5tific & speculative t5d5cies ( 8 "t & c\ntry1 _h be5 impress$ ) ! conviction1 t ! =mation ( a sci5ce ( ! cele/ial motions mu/ dep5d entirely ^u ! progress ( ma!matics4 ,9 ! ,epilogue to ! ,dialogue on ! ,laws#aib1 he decl>es ma!matical k to be ! fir/ & ma9 requisite = ! a/ronom]1 & describes ! portions ( x :i* he holds necess>y = a/ronomical speculators to cultivate4 ,^! seem to be1 ,plane ,geometry1 ,!oretical ,ari?metic1 ! ,application ( ,ari?metic #afa to planes & to solids1 & f9ally ! doctr9e ( ,h>monics4 ,inde$ ! bias ( ,plato appe>s to be r to consid] ma!matics z ! ess5ce ( ! sci5ce ( a/ronomy1 ?an z its in/rum5t2 & he seems dispos$1 9 ?is z 9 o!r ?+s1 to disp>age obs]vation1 & to aspire aft] a sci5ce f\nd$ ^u demon/ration alone4 ',an a/ronom]1' he says 9 ! same place1 'mu/ n be l ,hesiod & p]sons ( t k9d1 ^: a/ronomy consi/s 9 not+ ! sett+s & ris+s ( ! />s2 b he mu/ be "o :o und]/&s ! revolutions ( ! cele/ial sph]es1 ea* p]=m+ its prop] cycle4' ,note #ahb3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 iii4 c4 ii4 ,note #aib3 ,ep9omis1 p4 #iij4 ,a l>ge portion ( ! ma!matics ( ! ,greeks1 s long z _! sci5tific activity cont9u$1 0 direct$ t[>ds ,a/ronomy4 ,besides _m curi\s propositions ( plane & solid ,geometry1 to :i* _! a/ronom]s 7 l$1 _! ,ari?metic1 ?\gh v inconv5i5t 9 its fundam5tal assumptions 7z be+ sexagesimal n decimal71 0 cultivat$ to a great ext5t2 & ! sci5ce ( ,trigonometry1 9 :i* problems conc]n+ ! relations ( space 7 resolv$ by means ( tables ( num]ical results previ\sly obta9$1 0 creat$4 ,m5elaus ( ,alex&ria wrote six ,books on ,*ords1 probably conta9+ me?ods ( calculat+ ,tables ( ^! quantities2 su* ,tables 7 famili>ly us$ by ! lat] ,greek a/ronom]s4 ,! same au?or also wrote ?ree ,books on ,sph]ical ,trigonometry1 :i* are /ill extant4 #c4 ,! ,greeks1 h[ev]1 9 ! fir/ vig\r ( _! pursuit ( ma!matical tru?1 at ! "t ( ,plato & soon aft]1 _h by no means conf9$ !mselves to ^? propositions :i* _h a visible be>+ on ! ph5om5a ( nature2 b _h foll[$ out _m beautiful tra9s ( rese>*1 conc]n+ v>i\s k9ds ( figures1 = ! sake ( _! beauty alone2 z = in/ance 9 _! doctr9e ( ,conic ,sections1 ( :i* curves !y _h discov]$ all ! pr9cipal prop]ties4 ,b x is curi\s to rem>k1 t ^! inve/igations1 ?us pursu$ at fir/ z m]e matt]s ( curiosity & intellectual gratification1 7 de/9$1 two ?\s& ye>s lat]1 to play a v important "p 9 #afb e/abli%+ t sy/em ( ! cele/ial motions :i* succe$$ ! ,platonic s*eme ( cycles & epicycles4 ,if ! prop]ties ( ! conic sections _h n be5 demon/rat$ by ! ,greeks1 & ?us r5d]$ famili> to ! ma!maticians ( succe$+ ages1 ,kepl] w\ld probably n h be5 able to discov] ^? laws respect+ ! orbits & motions ( ! planets :i* 7 ! occasion ( ! greate/ revolution t ev] happ5$ 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 #d4 ,! ,arabians1 :o1 z ,i h else:]e said1 add$ little ( _! own to ! /ores ( sci5ce :i* !y receiv$ f ! ,greeks1 did h[ev] make "s v important contributions 9 ^? portions ( pure ma!matics :i* are subs]vi5t to a/ronomy4 ,_! adoption ( ! ,indian mode ( computation by means ( ! ,t5 ,digits1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #j1 & by ! me?od ( ,local ,values1 in/ead ( ! cumbr\s sexagesimal ari?metic ( ! ,greeks1 0 an improvem5t by :i* ! conv5i5ce & facility ( num]ical calculations 7 immeasurably augm5t$4 ,! ,arabians also r5d]$ sev]al ( ! processes ( trigonometry mu* m commodi\s1 by us+ ! ,s9e ( an arc in/ead ( ! ,*ord2 an improvem5t :i* ,albategnius appe>s to claim = himself#bjb2 & by employ+ also ! ,tang5ts ( arcs1 or1 z !y call$ !m#bab1 upright %ad[s4 ,note #bjb3 ,delambre1 ,a/41 ,m4 ,a41 p4 #ab4 ,note #bab3 ,ibid4 p4 #ag4 #e4 ,! con/ant application ( ma!matical k to ! rese>*es ( ,a/ronomy1 & ! mutual influ5ce ( ea* sci5ce on ! progress ( ! o!r1 has be5 /ill m conspicu\s 9 mod]n times4 ,newton's ,me?od ( ,prime & ,ultimate ,ratios1 :i* we h already notic$ z ! fir/ correct exposition ( ! doctr9e ( a ,limit1 is /at$ 9 a s]ies ( ,lemmas1 or prep>atory !orems1 prefix$ to 8 ,treatise on ! ,sy/em ( ! ,_w4 ,bo? ! prop]ties ( curve l9es & ! doctr9es conc]n+ =ce & motion1 :i* he _h to e/abli%1 requir$ t ! common ma!matical processes %\ld be me?odiz$ & ext5d$4 ,if ,newton _h n be5 a mo/ #afc exp]t & inv5tive ma!matician1 z well z a pr(\nd & philosophical ?9k]1 he c\ld nev] h made any "o ( ^? va/ /rides 9 discov]y ( :i* ! rapid succession 9 8 "w /rikes u ) wond]#bbb4 ,& if we see t ! great task begun by him1 goes on m sl[ly 9 ! h&s ( 8 imm$iate successors1 & l+]s a little be=e its full completion1 we p]ceive t ?is arises1 9 a great measure1 f ! defect ( ! ma!matical me?ods !n us$4 ,newton's syn!tical modes ( inve/igation1 z we h else:]e obs]v$1 7 an in/rum5t#bcb1 p[]ful inde$ 9 8 mighty h&1 b too pond]\s = o!r p]sons to employ ) effect4 ,! c\ntrym5 ( ,newton clung to x ! longe/1 out ( v5]ation = _! ma/]2 & ,engli% cultivators ( physical a/ronomy 71 on t v acc\nt1 left beh9d ! progress ( ma!matical sci5ce 9 ,france & ,g]many1 by a wide int]val1 :i* !y h only rec5tly recov]$4 ,on ! ,cont95t1 ! advantages (f]$ by a famili> use ( symbols1 & by att5tion to _! symmetry & o!r relations1 7 accept$ )\t res]ve4 ,9 ?is mann] ! ,diff]5tial ,calculus ( ,leibnitz1 :i* 0 9 its orig9 & signification id5tical ) ! ,me?od ( ,fluxions ( ,newton1 soon surpass$ its rival 9 ! ext5t & g5]ality ( its application to problems4 ,?is ,calculus 0 appli$ to ! sci5ce ( me*anics1 to :i* x1 along ) ! symmetrical use ( co-ord9ates1 gave a new =m2 = x 0 soon se5 t ! mo/ difficult problems might 9 g5]al be r$uc$ to f9d+ integrals1 :i* is ! reciprocal process ( t by :i* diff]5tials are f\nd2 s t all difficulties ( physical a/ronomy 7 r$uc$ to difficulties ( symbolical calculation1 ^!1 inde$1 be+ (t5 suffici5tly /ubborn4 ,clairaut1 ,eul]1 & ,d',alemb]t employ$ ! increas$ res\rces ( ma!matical sci5ce ^u ! ,!ory ( ! ,moon1 & o!r que/ions relative to ! sy/em ( ! _w2 & ?us began to pursue su* inquiries 9 ! c\rse 9 :i* ma!maticians #afd are /ill lab\r+ up to ! pres5t day4 ,?is c\rse 0 n )\t its *ecks & p]plexities4 ,we h else:]e quot$#bdb ,clairaut's expression :5 he _h obta9$ ! v complex diff]5tial equations :i* conta9 ! solution ( ! problem ( ! moon's motion3 ',n[ integrate !m :o c6' ,b 9 no v long "t !y 7 integrat$1 at lea/ approximately2 & ! me?ods ( approximation h s9ce !n be5 improv$2 s t n[1 ) a due exp5diture ( lab\r1 !y may be c>ri$ to any ext5t :i* is ?\ght desirable4 ,if ! me?ods ( a/ronomical obs]vation %\ld h]eaft] rea* a high] degree ( exactness ?an !y n[ pr(ess1 s t irregul>ities 9 ! motions ( ! sun1 moon1 & planets1 %all be detect$ :i* at pres5t escape u1 ! ma!matical "p ( ! !ory ( univ]sal gravitation is 9 su* a condition t x c soon be br\ght into comp>ison ) ! newly-obs]v$ facts4 ,inde$ at pres5t ! ma!matical !ory is 9 advance ( su* obs]vations4 ,x c v5ture to sugge/ :at may aft]w>ds be detect$1 z well z to expla9 :at has already be5 obs]v$4 ,?is has happ5$ rec5tly2 = ,pr(essor ,airy has calculat$ ! law & am\nt ( an inequality dep5d+ ^u ! mutual attraction ( ! ,e>? & ,v5us2 ( :i* inequality 7s small is x17 x rema9s to be det]m9$ :e!r its effect c be trac$ 9 ! s]ies ( a/ronomical obs]vations4 ,note #bbb3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 vii4 c4 ii4 ,note #bcb3 ,ibid4 p4 #age4 ,note #bdb3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 vi4 c4 vi4 sect4 #g4 #f4 ,z ! influ5ce ( ma!matics ^u ! progress ( a/ronomy is ?us se5 9 ! cases 9 :i* !ory & obs]vation confirm ea* o!r1 s ?is influ5ce appe>s 9 ano!r way1 9 ! v few cases 9 :i* ! facts h n be5 fully r$uc$ to an agreem5t ) !ory4 ,! mo/ conspicu\s case ( ?is k9d is ! /ate ( our k ( ! ,tides4 ,?is is a portion ( a/ronomy3 = ! ,newtonian !ory ass]ts ^! curi\s ph5om5a to be ! result ( ! attraction ( ! sun & moon4 ,nor c !re be any d\bt t ?is is true1 z a g5]al /atem5t2 yet ! subject is up to ! pres5t "t a blot #afe on ! p]fection ( ! !ory ( univ]sal gravitation2 = we are v f> f be+ able 9 ?is1 z 9 ! o!r p>ts ( a/ronomy1 to %[ t !ory w exactly acc\nt = ! "t1 & magnitude1 & all o!r circum/ances ( ! ph5om5on at e place on ! e>?'s surface4 ,& :at is ! portion ( our ma!matics :i* is connect$ ) ?is solit>y signal defect 9 a/ronomy8 ,x is ! ma!matics ( ! ,motion ( ,fluids2 a portion 9 :i* extremely little progress has be5 made1 & 9 :i* all ! m g5]al problems ( ! subject h hi!rto rema9$ entirely insoluble4 ,! attempts ( ! greate/ ma!maticians1 ,newton1 ,maclaur91 ,b]n\lli1 ,clairaut1 ,laplace1 to ma/] su* que/ions1 all involve "s gratuit\s assumption1 :i* is introduc$ because ! problem _c o!rwise be ma!matically dealt )3 ^! assumptions confess$ly r5d] ! result defective1 & h[ defective1 x is h>d to say4 ,& x 0 probably precisely ! abs5ce ( a !ory :i* c\ld be reasonably expect$ to agree ) ! obs]vations1 :i* made ,obs]vations ( ?is v curi\s ph5om5on1 ! ,tides1 to be s mu* neglect$ z till v rec5tly !y 74 ,( late ye>s su* obs]vations h be5 pursu$1 & _! results h be5 resolv$ into empirical laws1 s t ! rules ( ! ph5om5a h be5 asc]ta9$1 al?\gh ! dep5d5ce ( ^! rules ^u ! lun> & sol> =ces has n be5 %[n4 ,"h !n we h a portion ( our k relat+ to facts und\bt$ly dep5d5t ^u univ]sal gravitation1 9 :i* ,obs]vation has out/ripp$ ,!ory 9 h] progress1 & is compell$ to wait till h] usual companion ov]takes h]4 ,?is is a position ( :i* ,ma!matical ,!ory has usually be5 v impati5t1 & we may expect t %e w be no less s 9 ! pres5t in/ance4 #g4 ,x w\ld be easy to %[ f ! hi/ory ( o!r sci5ces1 = example1 ,me*anics & ,optics1 h[ ess5tial ! cultivation ( pure ma!matics has be5 to _! progress4 ,! p>abola 0 already famili> among ma!maticians :5 ,galileo discov]$ t x 0 ! !oretical pa? ( a ,projectile2 & ! #aff ext5sion & g5]alization ( ! ,laws ( ,motion c\ld nev] h be5 effect$1 unless ! ,diff]5tial & ,integral ,calculus _h be5 at h&1 ready to trace ! results ( e hypo!sis :i* c\ld be made4 ,d',alemb]t's mode ( express+ ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion 9 its mo/ g5]al =m#beb1 if x did n prove ! law1 at lea/ r$uc$ ! application ( x to analytical processes :i* c\ld be p]=m$ 9 mo/ ( ^? cases 9 :i* !y 7 ne$$4 ,9 _m in/ances ! dem&s ( me*anical sci5ce sugge/$ ! ext5sion ( ! me?ods ( pure analysis4 ,! problem ( ,vibrat+ ,/r+s gave rise to ! ,calculus ( ,p>tial ,diff]5ces1 :i* 0 /ill fur!r /imulat$ by its application to ! motions ( fluids & o!r me*anical problems4 ,& we h 9 ! writ+s ( ,lagrange & ,laplace o!r in/ances equally rem>kable ( new analytical me?ods1 to :i* me*anical problems1 & especially cosmical problems1 h giv5 occasion4 ,note #beb3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 vi4 c4 vi4 sect4 #g4 #h4 ,! progress ( ,optics z a sci5ce has1 9 l mann]1 be5 ?r\gh\t dep5d5t ^u ! progress ( pure ma!matics4 ,! fir/ rise ( ,geometry 0 foll[$ by "s advances1 slight ones no d\bt1 9 ! doctr9e ( ,reflection & 9 ,p]spective4 ,! law ( ,refraction 0 trac$ to its consequ5ces by means ( ,trigonometry1 :i* inde$ 0 requisite to express ! law 9 a simple =m4 ,! /eps made 9 ,optical sci5ce by ,desc>tes1 ,newton1 ,eul]1 & ,huygh5s1 requir$ ! geometrical skill :i* ^? philosoph]s possess$4 ,& if ,"y & ,fresnel _h n be51 ea* 9 8 peculi> way1 p]sons ( em95t ma!matical end[m5ts1 !y w\ld n h be5 able to br+ ! ,!ory ( ,undulations & ,int]f]5ces into a condition 9 :i* x c\ld be te/$ by exp]im5ts4 ,we may see h[ unexpect$ly recondite p>ts ( pure ma!matics may be> ^u physical sci5ce1 by call+ to m9d a circum/ance already notic$ 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5ce#bfb2--t ,fresnel obta9$ "o ( ! #afg mo/ curi\s confirmations ( ! !ory 7! laws ( ,circul> ,pol>ization by reflection7 ?r\gh an int]pretation ( an algebraical expression1 :i*1 accord+ to ! orig9al conv5tional mean+ ( ! symbols1 involv$ an impossible quantity4 ,we h already rem>k$1 t 9 virtue ( ! pr9ciple ( ! g5]ality ( symbolical language1 su* an int]pretation may (t5 po9t out "s real & important analogy4 ,note #bfb3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 ix4 c4 xiii4 sect4 #b4 #i4 ,f ?is rapid sket* x may be se5 h[ important an (fice 9 promot+ ! progress ( ! physical sci5ces belongs to ma!matics4 ,inde$ 9 ! progress ( _m sci5ces1 e /ep has be5 s intimately connect$ ) "s advance 9 ma!matics1 t we c h>dly be surpris$ if "s p]sons h consid]$ ma!matical reason+ to be ! mo/ ess5tial "p ( su* sci5ces2 & h ov]look$ ! o!r elem5ts :i* ent] into _! =mation4 ,h[ errone\s ?is view is we %all be/ see by turn+ our att5tion to ! o!r ,ideas besides ^? ( space1 numb]1 & motion1 :i* ent] into "s ( ! mo/ conspicu\s & admir$ portions ( :at is t]m$ exact sci5ce2 & by %[+ t ! cle> & di/9ct developm5t ( su* ,ideas is q z necess>y to ! progress ( exact & real k z an acqua9tance ) ari?metic & geometry4 #afi ,,book ,,iii4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,me*anical ,,sci5ces4 ,,x is only because we subject tra9s ( ph5om5a1 t is1 all *ange :atev]1 to ! law ( causality--to ! relation ( cause & effect--t exp]i5ce or empirical k becomes possible4 ,,kant1 ,kr4 d4 ,r4 ,v4 #aa ,?4 #a ,ab?4 #aa ,bu*4 #b ,haupt4 ,quicquid premit vel trahit alt]um1 tantundem ab eo premitur vel trahitur 444 ,si corpus aliquod 9 corpus aliud imp+5s motum ejus vi su quomodocunque mutav]it1 idem quoque vicissim 9 motu proprio e&em mutationem 9 p>tem contr>iam vi alt]ius 7ob qualitatem pressionis1 mutu7 subibit 444 ,obt9et etiam hc ,lex 9 attractionibus4 ,,newton1 ,pr9cip4 ad init4 #aga ,,book ,,iii4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,me*anical ,,sci5ces4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,( ,,! ,,me*anical ,,sci5ces4 ,,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ces1 t class ( :i* we "h speak occupies a conspicu\s & important place2 com+ into notice imm$iately aft] ^? p>ts ( ,a/ronomy :i* require = _! cultivation m]ely ! ideas ( space1 "t1 motion1 & numb]4 ,x appe>s f our ,hi/ory1 t c]ta9 tru?s conc]n+ ! equilibrium ( bodies 7 e/abli%$ by ,ar*im$es2--t1 aft] a long int]val ( inactivity1 8 pr9ciples 7 ext5d$ & pursu$ fur!r 9 mod]n times3--& t to ^! doctr9es conc]n+ equilibrium & ! =ces :i* produce x1 7:i* con/itute ! sci5ce ,/atics17 7 add$ _m o!r doctr9es conc]n+ ! motions ( bodies1 consid]$ also z produc$ by =ces1 & ?us ! sci5ce ( ,dynamics 0 produc$4 ,! assemblage ( ^! sci5ces composes ! prov9ce ( ,me*anics4 ,moreov]1 philosoph]s h lab\r$ to make out ! laws ( ! equilibrium ( fluid z well z solid bodies2 & h5ce has aris5 ! sci5ce ( ,hydro/atics4 ,& ! doctr9es ( ,me*anics h be5 f\nd to h a mo/ rem>kable be>+ ^u ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies2 ) ref]5ce to :i*1 inde$1 !y 7 at fir/ pr9cipally /udi$4 ,! explanation ( ^? cosmical facts by means ( me*anical #agb pr9ciples & _! consequ5ces1 =ms ! sci5ce ( ,physical ,a/ronomy4 ,^! are ! pr9cipal examples ( me*anical sci5ce2 al?\gh "s o!r portions ( ,physics1 z ,magnetism & ,electrodynamics1 introduce me*anical doctr9es v l>gely into _! speculations4 ,n[ 9 all ^! sci5ces we h to consid] ,=ces4 ,9 all me*anical reason+s =ces ent]1 ei!r z produc+ motion1 or z prev5t$ f do+ s by o!r =ces4 ,?us =ce1 9 its mo/ g5]al s5se1 is ! cause ( motion1 or ( t5d5cy to motion2 & 9 ord] to discov] ! pr9ciples on :i* ! me*anical sci5ces truly re/1 we mu/ exam9e ! nature & orig9 ( our k ( ,causes4 ,9 ^! sci5ces1 h[ev]1 we h n to deal ) ,cause 9 its m g5]al acceptation1 9 :i* x applies to all k9ds ( ag5cy1 mat]ial or immat]ial2--to ! influ5ce ( ?\ght & w1 z well z ( bodily pressure & attractive =ce4 ,our bus9ess at pres5t is only ) su* causes z imm$iately op]ate ^u matt]4 ,we %all nev]!less1 9 ! fir/ place1 consid] ! nature ( ,cause 9 its mo/ g5]al =m2 & aft]w>ds n>r[ our speculations s z to direct !m specially to ! me*anical sci5ces4 #agc ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,cause4 #a4 ,,we see 9 ! _w ar\nd u a con/ant succession ( causes & effects connect$ ) ea* o!r4 ,! laws ( ?is connexion we le>n 9 a great measure f exp]i5ce1 by obs]vation ( ! occurr5ces :i* pres5t !mselves to our notice1 succe$+ "o ano!r4 ,b 9 do+ ?is1 & 9 att5d+ to ?is succession ( appe>ances1 ( :i* we are aw>e by means ( our s5ses1 we supply f our own m9ds ! ,idea ( ,cause4 ,?is ,idea1 z we h already %[n ) respect to o!r ,ideas1 is n d]iv$ f exp]i5ce1 b has its orig9 9 ! m9d itself2--is introduc$ into our exp]i5ce by ! active1 & n by ! passive "p ( our nature4 ,by ,cause we mean "s quality1 p[]1 or efficacy1 by :i* a /ate ( ?+s produces a succe$+ /ate4 ,?us ! motion ( bodies f re/ is produc$ by a cause :i* we call ,=ce3 & 9 ! p>ticul> case 9 :i* bodies fall to ! e>?1 ?is =ce is t]m$ ,gravity4 ,9 ^! cases1 ! ,conceptions ( ,=ce & ,gravity receive _! mean+ f ! ,idea ( ,cause :i* !y involve3 = ,=ce is conceiv$ z ! ,cause ( ,motion4 ,t ?is ,idea ( ,cause is n d]iv$ f exp]i5ce1 we prove 7z 9 =m] cases7 by ?is consid]ation3 t we c make ass]tions1 involv+ ?is idea1 :i* are rigor\sly necess>y & univ]sal2 :]eas k d]iv$ f exp]i5ce c only be true z f> z exp]i5ce goes1 & c nev] conta9 9 itself any evid5ce :atev] ( its necessity4 ,we ass]t t ',e ev5t mu/ h a cause3' & ?is proposition we "k to be true1 n only probably1 & g5]ally1 & z f> z we c see3 #agd b we _c suppose x to be false 9 any s+le in/ance4 ,we are z c]ta9 ( x z ( ! tru?s ( ari?metic or geometry4 ,we _c d\bt t x mu/ apply to all ev5ts pa/ & future1 9 e "p ( ! univ]se1 j z truly z to ^? occurr5ces :i* we h ourselves obs]v$4 ,:at causes produce :at effects2--:at is ! cause ( any p>ticul> ev5t2--:at w be ! effect ( any peculi> process2--^! are po9ts on :i* exp]i5ce may enlight5 u4 ,obs]vation & exp]i5ce may be requisite1 to enable u to judge respect+ su* matt]s4 ,b t e ev5t has "s cause1 ,exp]i5ce _c prove any m ?an %e c disprove4 ,%e c add no?+ to ! evid5ce ( ! tru?1 h[ev] (t5 %e may exemplify x4 ,?is doctr9e1 !n1 _c h be5 acquir$ by h] tea*+2 & ! ,idea ( ,cause1 :i* ! doctr9e involves1 & on :i* x dep5ds1 _c h come into our m9ds f ! region ( obs]vation4 #b4 ,t we d1 9 fact1 apply ! ,idea ( ,cause 9 a m ext5sive mann] ?an c\ld be ju/ifi$1 if x 7 d]iv$ f exp]i5ce only1 is easily %[n4 ,= f ! pr9ciple t ev]y?+ mu/ h a cause1 we n only reason conc]n+ ! succession ( ! ev5ts :i* occur 9 ! progress ( ! _w1 & :i* =m ! c\rse ( exp]i5ce2 b we inf] t ! _w itself mu/ h a cause2--t ! *a9 ( ev5ts connect$ by common causation1 mu/ h a ,fir/ ,cause ( a nature diff]5t f ! ev5ts !mselves4 ,?is we are entitl$ to d1 if our ,idea ( ,cause be indep5d5t (1 & sup]ior to1 exp]i5ce3 b if we h no ,idea ( ,cause except su* z we ga!r f exp]i5ce1 ?is reason+ is altoge!r baseless & unmean+4 #c4 ,aga92 by ! use ( our p[]s ( obs]vation1 we are aw>e ( a succession ( appe>ances & ev5ts4 ,b none ( our s5ses or p[]s ( ext]nal obs]vation c detect 9 ^! appe>ances ! p[] or quality :i* we call ,cause4 ,cause is t :i* connects "o ev5t ) ano!r2 b no s5se or p]ception discloses to u1 or c disclose1 any connexion #age among ! ev5ts :i* we obs]ve4 ,we see t "o occurr5ce foll[s ano!r1 b we c nev] see any?+ :i* %[s t "o occurr5ce mu/ foll[ ano!r4 ,we h already notic$#ac1 t ?is tru? has be5 urg$ by metaphysicians 9 mod]n times1 & g5]ally ass5t$ to by ^? :o exam9e c>efully ! connexion ( _! own ?\ghts4 ,! argum5ts are1 inde$1 obvi\s en\gh4 ,"o ball /rikes ano!r & causes x to move =w>ds4 ,b by :at compulsion8 ,:]e is ! necessity8 ,if ! m9d c see any circum/ance 9 ?is case :i* makes ! result inevitable1 let ?is circum/ance be po9t$ out4 ,b1 9 fact1 !re is no su* discov]able necessity2 = we c conceive ?is ev5t n to take place at all4 ,! /ruck ball may /& /ill1 = aught we c see4 ',b ! laws ( motion w n all[ x to d s4' ,d\btless !y w n4 ,b ! laws ( motion are le>nt f exp]i5ce1 & !re=e c prove no necessity4 ,:y %\ld n ! laws ( motion be o!r ?an !y are8 ,are !y necess>ily true8 ,t !y are necess>ily su* z d actually regulate ! impact ( bodies1 is at lea/ no obvi\s tru?2 & !re=e ?is necessity _c be1 9 common m9ds1 ! gr\nd ( connect+ ! impact ( "o ball ) ! motion ( ano!r4 ,& assur$ly1 if ?is fail1 no o!r gr\nd ( su* necess>y connexion c be %[n4 ,9 ?is case1 !n1 ! ev5ts are n se5 to be necess>ily connect$4 ,b if ?is case1 :]e "o ball moves ano!r by impulse1 be n an in/ance ( ev5ts exhibit+ a necess>y connexion1 we %all look 9 va9 = any example ( su* a connexion4 ,!re is1 !n1 no case 9 :i* ev5ts c be obs]v$ to be necess>ily connect$3 our idea ( causation1 :i* implies t ! ev5t is necess>ily connect$ ) ! cause1 _c be d]iv$ f obs]vation4 ,note #ac3 ,book #c4 *ap4 ii4 #d4 ,b x may be said1 we h n any su* ,idea ( ,cause1 imply+ necess>y connexion ) effect1 & a quality by :i* ?is connexion is produc$4 #agf ,we see no?+ b ! succession ( ev5ts2 & by cause we mean no?+ b a c]ta9 succession ( ev5ts2--namely1 a con/ant1 unv>y+ succession4 ,cause & effect are only two ev5ts ( :i* ! second inv>iably foll[s ! fir/4 ,we delude ourselves :5 we imag9e t our idea ( causation involves any?+ m4 ,to ?is ,i reply by ask+1 :at !n is ! mean+ ( ! maxim above quot$1 & all[$ by all to be univ]sally & necess>ily true1 t e ev5t mu/ h a cause8 ,let u put ?is maxim into ! language ( ! explanation j notic$2 & x becomes ?is3--',e ev5t mu/ h a c]ta9 o!r ev5t inv>iably prec$+ x4' ,b :y mu/ x8 ,:]e is ! necessity8 ,:y mu/ l ev5ts always be prec$$ by l1 except s f> z o!r ev5ts int]f]e8 ,t !re is su* a necessity1 no "o c d\bt4 ,all w all[ t if a /one asc5d because x is ?r[n upw>ds 9 "o case1 a /one :i* asc5ds 9 ano!r case has also be5 ?r[n upw>ds1 or has und]gone "s equival5t op]ation4 ,all w all[ t 9 ?is s5se1 e k9d ( ev5t mu/ h "s o!r specific k9d ( ev5t prec$+ x4 ,b ?is turn ( m5's ?\ghts %[s t !y see 9 ev5ts a connexion :i* is n m]e succession4 ,!y see 9 cause & effect1 n m]ely :at does1 (t5 or always1 prec$e & foll[1 b :at mu/ prec$e & foll[4 ,! ev5ts are n only conjo9$1 !y are connect$4 ,! cause is m ?an ! prelude1 ! effect is m ?an ! sequel1 ( ! fact4 ,! cause is conceiv$ n z a m]e occasion2 x is a p[]1 an efficacy1 :i* has a real op]ation4 #e4 ,?us we h drawn f ! maxim1 t ,e ,effect mu/ h a ,cause1 argum5ts to %[ t we h an ,idea ( ,cause :i* is n borr[$ f exp]i5ce1 & :i* involves m ?an m]e succession4 ,simil> argum5ts might be d]iv$ f any o!r maxims ( univ]sal & necess>y validity1 :i* we c obta9 conc]n+ ,cause3 z1 = example1 ! maxims t ,causes are measur$ by _! ,effects1 & t ,reaction is equal & opposite to #agg ,action4 ,^! maxims we %all soon h to exam9e2 b we may obs]ve "h1 t ! necess>y tru? :i* belongs to !m1 %[s t !y1 & ! ,ideas :i* !y involve1 are n ! m]e fruits ( obs]vation2 :ile _! mean+1 includ+1 z x does1 some?+ q diff]5t f ! m]e conception ( succession ( ev5ts1 proves t su* a conception is f> f conta9+ ! :ole import & signification ( our ,idea ( ,cause4 ,! progress ( ! op9ions ( philosoph]s on ! po9ts discuss$ 9 ?is *apt]1 has be5 "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable p>ts ( ! hi/ory ( ,metaphysics 9 mod]n times3 & ,i %all !re=e briefly notice "s ( its features4 #agh ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,mod]n ,,op9ions ,,respect+ ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,cause4 #a4 ,,t[>ds ! end ( ! sev5te5? c5tury !re exi/$ 9 ! m9ds ( _m ( ! mo/ vigor\s & active speculators ( ! ,european lit]>y _w1 a /rong t5d5cy to ascribe ! :ole ( our ,k to ! tea*+ ( ,exp]i5ce4 ,?is t5d5cy1 ) its consequ5ces1 includ+ among !m ! reaction :i* 0 produc$ :5 ! t5et _h be5 pu%$ to a l5g? manife/ly absurd1 has ex]cis$ a v p[]ful influ5ce ^u ! progress ( metaphysical doctr9es up to ! pres5t "t4 ,i proce$ to notice "s ( ! mo/ prom95t ( ! op9ions :i* h ?us obta9$ preval5ce among philosoph]s1 s f> z ! ,idea ( ,cause is conc]n$4 ,locke 0 "o ( ! metaphysicians :o produc$ ! greate/ effect 9 diffus+ ?is op9ion1 ( ! exclusive dep5d5ce ( our k ^u exp]i5ce4 ,agreeably to ?is g5]al sy/em1 he taught#bc t our ideas ( ,cause & ,effect are got f obs]vation ( ! ?+s ab\t u4 ,yet not)/&+ ?is t5et ( 81 he endeav\r$ /ill to employ ^! ideas 9 reason+ on subjects :i* are f> beyond all limits ( exp]i5ce3 = he pr(ess$ to prove1 f our idea ( ,causation1 ! exi/5ce ( ! ,deity#cc4 ,note #bc3 ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+1 b4 ii4 c4 xxvi4 ,note #cc3 ,b4 iv4 c4 x4 ,hume notic$ ?is obvi\s inconsi/5cy2 b decl>$ himself unable to discov] any rem$y = a defect s fatal to ! mo/ important p>ts ( our k4 ,he c\ld see1 9 our belief ( ! succession ( cause & effect1 no?+ b ! habit ( associat+ 9 our m9ds :at _h (t5 be5 #agi associat$ 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,he !re=e ma9ta9$ t we c\ld n1 ) logical propriety1 ext5d our belief ( su* a succession to cases entirely di/9ct f all ^? ( :i* our exp]i5ce consi/$4 ,we see1 he said1 an actual conjunction ( two ev5ts2 b we c 9 no way detect a necess>y connexion2 & !re=e we h no means ( inf]r+ cause f effect1 or effect f cause#dc4 ,! only way 9 :i* we recognize ,cause & ,effect 9 ! field ( our exp]i5ce1 is z an unfail+ ,sequ5ce3 we look 9 va9 = any?+ :i* c assure u ( an infallible ,consequ5ce4 ,& s9ce exp]i5ce is ! only s\rce ( our k1 we _c ) any ju/ice ass]t t ! _w 9 :i* we live mu/ necess>ily h _h a cause4 ,note #dc3 ,hume's ,phil4 ( ! ,human ,m9d1 vol4 i4 p4 #id4 #b4 ,?is doctr9e1 tak5 9 conjunction ) ! kn[n skepticism ( its au?or on religi\s po9ts1 produc$ a consid]able f]m5tation 9 ! speculative _w4 ,! solution ( ! difficulty ?us ?r[n be=e philosoph]s1 0 by no means obvi\s4 ,x 0 va9 to endeav\r to f9d 9 exp]i5ce any o!r prop]ty ( a ,cause1 ?an a con/ant sequ5ce ( ! effect4 ,yet x 0 equally va9 to try to p]suade m5 t !y _h no idea ( ,cause2 or ev5 to %ake _! belief 9 ! cog5cy ( ! famili> argum5ts conc]n+ ! necessity ( an orig9al cause ( all t is & happ5s4 ,accord+ly ^! ho/ile & app>5tly irreconcilable doctr9es1--! indisp5sable necessity ( a cause ( e ev5t1 & ! impossibility ( our kn[+ su* a necessity1--7 at la/ all[$ to encamp side by side4 ,reid1 ,beattie1 & o!rs1 =m$ "o p>ty1 :o %[$ h[ widely & con/antly ! idea ( a cause p]vades all ! processes ( ! human m9d3 :ile ano!r sect1 includ+ ,br[n1 & app>5tly ,/ew>t1 ma9ta9$ t ?is idea is always capable ( be+ resolv$ into a con/ant sequ5ce2 & ^! latt] reason]s tri$ to obviate ! dang]\s & %ock+ inf]5ces :i* "s p]sons might try to draw f _! op9ion1 by decl>+ ! #ahj maxim t ,e ev5t mu/ h a cause1 to be an in/9ctive law ( belief1 or a fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! human m9d#ec4 ,note #ec3 ,/ew>t's ,active ,p[]s1 vol4 i4 p4 #cdg4 ,br[ne's ,lectures1 vol4 i4 p4 #aae4 #c4 ,:ile ?is s]ies ( discussions 0 go+ on 9 ,brita91 a great metaphysical g5ius 9 ,g]many 0 unravell+ ! p]plexity 9 ano!r way4 ,kant's speculations orig9at$1 z he in=ms u1 9 ! tra9s ( ?\ght to :i* ,hume's writ+s gave rise2 & ! ,kritik d] ,re95 ,v]nunft1 or ,exam9ation ( ! ,pure ,reason1 0 publi%$ 9 #aghg1 ) ! view ( %[+ ! true nature ( our k4 ,kant's solution ( ! difficulties j m5tion$ diff]s mat]ially f t above /at$4 ,accord+ to ,br[n#fc1 succession obs]v$ & cause inf]r$1--! memory ( pa/ conjunctions ( ev5ts & ! belief ( simil> future conjunctions1--are facts1 indep5d5t1 s f> z we c discov]1 b insep>ably comb9$ by a law ( our m5tal nature4 ,accord+ to ,kant1 causality is an insep>able condition ( our exp]i5ce3 a connexion 9 ev5ts is requisite to our appreh5d+ !m z ev5ts4 ,future occurr5ces mu/ be connect$ by causation z ! pa/ h be51 because we _c ?9k ( pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 )\t su* connexion4 ,we _c fix ! m9d ^u occurr5ces1 )\t includ+ ^! occurr5ces 9 a s]ies ( causes & effects4 ,! relation ( ,causation is a condition "u :i* we ?9k ( ev5ts1 z ! relations ( space are a condition "u :i* we see objects4 ,note #fc3 ,lectures1 vol4 i4 p4 #aad4 #d4 ,on a subject s ab/ruse1 x is n easy to make our di/9ctions v cle>4 ,"s ( ,br[n's illu/rations appe> to approa* v ne> to ! doctr9e ( ,kant4 ,?us he says#gc1 ',! =m ( bodies is ! relation ( _! elem5ts to ea* o!r 9 space1--! p[] ( bodies is _! relation to ea* o!r 9 "t4' ,yet not)/&+ su* approximations 9 expression1 ! ,kantian doctr9e appe>s to be diff]5t f #aha ! views ( ,/ew>t & ,br[n1 z commonly und]/ood4 ,accord+ to ! ,scot* philosoph]s1 ! cause & ! effect are two ?+s1 connect$ 9 our m9ds by a law ( our nature4 ,b ?is view requires u to suppose t we c conceive ! law to be abs5t1 & ! c\rse ( ev5ts to be unconnect$4 ,if we c und]/& :at is ! special =ce ( ?is law1 we mu/ be able to imag9e :at ! case w\ld be if ! law 7 non-exi/+4 ,we mu/ be able to conceive a m9d :i* does n connect effects ) causes4 ,! ,kantian doctr9e1 on ! o!r h&1 tea*es t we _c imag9e ev5ts lib]at$ f ! connexion ( cause & effect3 ?is connexion is a condition ( our conceiv+ any real occurr5ces3 we _c ?9k ( a real sequ5ce ( ?+s1 except z involv+ ! op]ation ( causes4 ,9 ! ,scot* sy/em1 ! pa/ & ! future are 9 _! nature indep5d5t1 b b\nd toge!r by a rule2 9 ! ,g]man sy/em1 !y %>e 9 a common nature & mutual relation1 by ! act ( ?\ght :i* makes !m pa/ & future4 ,9 ! =m] doctr9e cause is a tie :i* b9ds2 9 ! latt] x is a "* :i* p]vades & %apes ev5ts4 ,! ,scot* metaphysicians only ass]t ! univ]sality ( ! relation2 ! ,g]man attempts fur!r to expla9 its necessity4 ,note #gc3 ,lectures1 vol4 i4 p4 #abg4 ,?is be+ ! /ate ( ! case1 su* illu/rations z t ( ,dr4 ,br[n quot$ above1 9 :i* he repres5ts cause z a relation ( ! same k9d ) =m1 d n appe> exactly to fit 8 op9ions4 ,c ! relations ( figure be prop]ly said to be connect$ ) ea* o!r by a law ( our nature1 or a t5d5cy ( our m5tal con/itution8 ,c we ascribe x to a law ( our ?\ghts1 t we believe ! ?ree angles ( a triangle to be equal to two "r angles8 ,if s1 we mu/ give ! same reason = our belief t two /raight l9es _c inclose a space2 or t ?ree & two are five4 ,b w any "o ref] u to an ultimate law ( our con/itution = ! belief t ?ree & two are five8 ,d we n see t !y are s1 z pla9ly z we see t !y are ?ree & two8 ,c we imag9e laws ( our con/itution aboli%$1 s t ?ree & two %all #ahb make some?+ diff]5t f five2--s t an inclos$ space %all lie betwe5 two /raight l9es2--s t ! ?ree angles ( a plane triangle %all be great] ?an two "r angles8 ,we _c conceive ?is4 ,if ! numb]s are ?ree & two2 if ! l9es are /raight2 if ! triangle is a rectil9e> triangle1 ! consequ5ces are inevitable4 ,we _c ev5 imag9e ! contr>y4 ,we d n want a law to direct t ?+s %\ld be :at !y are4 ,! relation1 !n1 ( cause & effect1 be+ ( ! same k9d z ! necess>y relations ( figure & numb]1 is n prop]ly spok5 ( z e/abli%$ 9 our m9ds by a special law ( our con/itution3 = we reject t loose & inappropriate phraseology :i* speaks ( ! relations ( figure & numb] z 'det]m9$ by laws ( belief4' #e4 ,9 ! pres5t "w1 we accept & adopt1 z ! basis ( our inquiry conc]n+ our k1 ! exi/5ce ( necess>y tru?s conc]n+ causes1 z !re exi/ necess>y tru?s conc]n+ figure & numb]4 ,we f9d su* tru?s univ]sally e/abli%$ & ass5t$ to among ! cultivators ( sci5ce1 & among speculative m5 9 g5]al4 ,all me*anicians agree t reaction is equal & opposite to action1 bo? :5 "o body presses ano!r1 & :5 "o body communicates motion to ano!r4 ,all reason]s jo9 9 ! ass]tion1 n only t e obs]v$ *ange ( motion has _h a cause1 b t e *ange ( motion mu/ h a cause4 ,"h we h c]ta9 portions ( sub/antial & und\bt$ k4 ,n[ ! ess5tial po9t 9 ! view :i* we mu/ take ( ! idea ( cause is ?is1--t our view mu/ be su* z to =m a solid basis = our k4 ,we h1 9 ! ,me*anical ,sci5ces1 c]ta9 univ]sal & necess>y tru?s on ! subject ( causes4 ,n[ any view :i* ref]s our belief 9 causation to m]e exp]i5ce or habit1 _c expla9 ! possibility ( su* necess>y tru?s1 s9ce exp]i5ce & habit c nev] lead to a p]ception ( necess>y connexion4 ,b a view :i* tea*es u to ackn[l$ge axioms conc]n+ cause1 z we ackn[l$ge axioms #ahc conc]n+ space1 w lead u to look ^u ! sci5ce ( me*anics z equally c]ta9 & univ]sal ) ! sci5ce ( geometry2 & w ?us mat]ially affect our judgm5t conc]n+ ! nature & claims ( our sci5tific k4 ,axioms conc]n+ ,cause1 or conc]n+ ,=ce1 :i* z we %all see1 is a modification ( ,cause1 w fl[ f an ,idea ( ,cause1 j z axioms conc]n+ space & numb] fl[ f ! ideas ( space & numb] or "t4 ,& ?us ! propositions :i* con/itute ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics prove t we possess an idea ( cause1 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* ! propositions ( geometry & ari?metic prove our possession ( ! ideas ( space & ( "t or numb]4 #f4 ,! idea ( cause1 l ! ideas ( space & "t1 is a "p ( ! active p[]s ( ! m9d4 ,! relation ( cause & effect is a relation or condition "u :i* ev5ts are appreh5d$1 :i* relation is n giv5 by obs]vation1 b suppli$ by ! m9d itself4 ,accord+ to ! views :i* expla9 our appreh5sion ( cause by ref]5ce to habit1 or to a suppos$ law ( our m5tal nature1 causal connexion is a consequ5ce ( ag5cies :i* ! m9d passively obeys2 b accord+ to ! view to :i* we are l$1 ?is connexion is a result ( faculties :i* ! m9d actively ex]cises4 ,& ?us ! relation ( cause & effect is a condition ( our appreh5d+ successive ev5ts1 a "p ( ! m9d's con/ant & univ]sal activity1 a s\rce ( necess>y tru?s2 or1 to sum all ?is 9 "o phrase1 a ,fundam5tal ,idea4 #ahd ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,axioms ,,:i* ,,relate ,,to ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,cause4 #a4 ,causes are ab/ract ,conceptions4--,,we h n[ to express1 z well z we c1 ! fundam5tal "* ( t ,idea ( ,cause ( :i* we h j prov$ ! exi/5ce4 ,?is may be done1 at lea/ = purposes ( reason+1 9 ?is z 9 =m] in/ances1 by means ( axioms4 ,i %all /ate ! pr9cipal axioms :i* belong to ?is subject1 ref]r+ ! read] to 8 own ?\ghts = ! axiomatic evid5ce :i* belongs to !m4 ,b ,i mu/ fir/ obs]ve1 t 9 ord] to express g5]al & ab/ract tru?s conc]n+ cause & effect1 ^! t]ms1 cause & effect1 mu/ be und]/ood 9 a g5]al & ab/ract mann]4 ,:5 "o ev5t gives rise to ano!r1 ! fir/ ev5t is1 9 common language1 (t5 call$ ! cause1 & ! second ! effect4 ,?us ! meet+ ( two billi>d-balls may be said to be ! cause ( "o ( !m turn+ aside out ( ! pa? 9 :i* x 0 mov+4 ,= our pres5t purposes1 h[ev]1 we mu/ n apply ! t]m cause to su* occurr5ces z ?is meet+ & turn+1 b to a c]ta9 conception1 =ce1 ab/ract$ f all su* special ev5ts1 & consid]$ z a quality or prop]ty by :i* "o body affects ! motion ( ! o!r4 ,& 9 l mann] 9 o!r cases1 cause is to be conceiv$ z "s ab/ract quality1 p[]1 or efficacy1 by :i* *ange is produc$2 a quality n id5tical ) ! ev5ts1 b disclos$ by means ( !m4 ,n only is ?is ab/ract mode ( conceiv+ =ce & cause useful 9 express+ ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( sci5ce2 b x supplies u ) ! only mode by :i* su* pr9ciples c be #ahe /at$ 9 a g5]al mann]1 & made to lead to sub/antial tru? & real k4 ,und]/&+ cause1 !re=e1 9 ?is s5se1 we proce$ to our ,axioms4 #b4 ,fir/ ,axiom4 ,no?+ c take place )\t a ,cause4 ,e ev5t1 ( :atev] k9d1 mu/ h a cause 9 ! s5se ( ! t]m :i* we h j indicat$2 & t x mu/1 is a univ]sal & necess>y proposition to :i* we irresi/ibly ass5t z soon z x is und]/ood4 ,we believe ea* appe>ance to come into exi/5ce1--we conceive e *ange to take place1--n only ) some?+ prec$+ x1 b some?+ by :i* x is made to be :at x is4 ,an effect )\t a cause2--an ev5t )\t a prec$+ condition involv+ ! efficacy by :i* ! ev5t is produc$2--are suppositions :i* we _c = a mom5t admit4 ,t ! connexion ( effect ) cause is univ]sal & necess>y1 is a univ]sal & con/ant conviction ( mank9d4 ,x p]si/s 9 ! m9ds ( all m51 undi/urb$ by all ! assaults ( sophi/ry & skepticism2 &1 z we h se5 9 ! la/ *apt]1 rema9s un%ak51 ev5 :5 its f\ndations seem to be ru9$4 ,?is axiom expresses1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 our ,idea ( ,cause2 & :5 t idea is cle>ly appreh5d$1 ! axiom requires no pro(1 & inde$ admits ( none :i* makes x m evid5t4 ,t not)/&+ its simplicity1 x is ( use 9 our speculations1 we %all h]eaft] see2 b 9 ! fir/ place1 we mu/ consid] ! o!r axioms belong+ to ?is subject4 #c4 ,second ,axiom4 ,effects are proportional to _! ,causes1 & ,causes are measur$ by _! ,effects4 ,we h already said t cause is t quality or p[]1 9 ! circum/ances ( ea* case1 by :i* ! effect is produc$2 & ?is p[]1 an ab/ract prop]ty ( ! condition ( ?+s to :i* x belongs1 c 9 no way fall directly "u ! cognizance ( ! s5ses4 ,cause1 ( :atev] k9d1 is n appreh5d$ z includ+ objects & ev5ts :i* %>e its nature by be+ co-ext5sive ) c]ta9 portions ( x1 z space & "t are4 ,x _c !re=e1 l !m1 be #ahf measur$ by repetition ( its own p>ts1 z space is measur$ by repetition ( in*es1 & "t by repetition ( m9utes4 ,causes may be great] or less2 z1 = in/ance1 ! =ce ( a man is great] ?an ! =ce ( a *ild4 ,b h[ mu* is ! "o great] ?an ! o!r8 ,h[ are we to comp>e ! ab/ract conception1 =ce1 9 su* cases z ^!8 ,to ?is1 ! obvi\s & only answ] is1 t we mu/ comp>e causes by means ( _! effects2--t we mu/ comp>e =ce by some?+ :i* =ce c d4 ,! *ild c lift "o fagot2 ! man c lift t5 su* fagots3 we h "h a means ( comp>ison4 ,& :e!r or n ! rule is to be appli$ 9 ?is mann]1 t is1 by ! numb] ( ?+s op]at$ on1 7a "q :i* we %all h to consid] h]eaft]17 x is cle> t ?is =m ( rule1 namely1 a ref]5ce to "s effect or o!r z our measure1 is ! "r1 because ! only possible =m4 ,! cause det]m9es ! effect4 ,! cause be+ ! same1 ! effect mu/ be ! same4 ,! connexion ( ! two is gov]n$ by a fix$ & inviolable rule4 ,x admits ( no ambiguity4 ,e degree ( int5sity 9 ! cause has "s peculi> modification ( ! effect correspond+ to x4 ,h5ce ! effect is an unfail+ index ( ! am\nt ( ! cause2 & if x be a measurable effect1 gives a measure ( ! cause4 ,we c h no o!r measure2 b we ne$ no o!r1 = ?is is exact1 suffici5t & complete4 ,x may be said1 t v>i\s effects are produc$ by ! same cause4 ,! sun's heat melts wax & exp&s quicksilv]4 ,! =ce ( gravity causes bodies to move d[nw>ds if !y are free1 & to press d[n ^u _! supports if !y are support$4 ,:i* ( ! effects is to be tak5 z ! measure ( heat1 or ( gravity1 9 ^! cases8 ,to ?is we reply1 t if we _h m]ely diff]5t /ates ( ! same cause to comp>e1 any ( ! effects might be tak54 ,! sun's heat on diff]5t days might be measur$ by ! expansion ( quicksilv]1 or by ! quantity ( wax melt$4 ,! =ce ( gravity1 if x 7 diff]5t at diff]5t places1 might be measur$ by ! spaces ?r\gh :i* a giv5 weight w\ld b5d an ela/ic #ahg support1 or by ! spaces ?r\gh :i* a body w\ld fall 9 a giv5 "t4 ,all ^! measures are consi/5t ) ! g5]al "* ( our idea ( cause4 #d4 ,limitation ( ! ,second ,axiom4--,b !re may be circum/ances 9 ! nature ( ! case :i* may fur!r det]m9e ! k9d ( effect :i* we mu/ take = ! measure ( ! cause4 ,= example1 if causes are conceiv$ to be ( su* a nature z to be capable ( addition1 ! effects tak5 z _! measure mu/ con=m to ?is condition4 ,?is is ! case ) me*anical causes4 ,! weights ( two bodies are ! causes ( ! pressure :i* !y ex]t d[nw>ds2 & ^! weights are capable ( addition4 ,! weight ( ! two is ! sum ( ! weight ( ea*4 ,we are !re=e n at lib]ty to say t weights %all be measur$ by ! spaces ?r\gh :i* !y b5d a c]ta9 ela/ic support1 except we h fir/ asc]ta9$ t ! :ole weight b5ds x ?r\gh a space equal to ! sum ( ! inflections produc$ by ! sep>ate weights4 ,)\t ?is precaution1 we might obta9 inconsi/5t results4 ,two weights1 ea* ( ! magnitude #c z measur$ by _! effects1 might1 if we took ! inflections ( a spr+ = ! effects1 be toge!r equal to #e or to #g by ! same k9d ( measurem5t4 ,= ! inflection produc$ by two weights ( #c might1 = aught we c see be=eh&1 be m or less ?an twice z great z ! inflection produc$ by "o weight ( #c4 ,t =ces are capable ( addition1 is a condition :i* limits1 &1 z we %all see1 9 "s cases rigor\sly fixes1 ! k9d ( effects :i* are to be tak5 z _! measures4 ,causes :i* are ?us capable ( addition are to be measur$ by ! repeat$ addition ( equal quantities4 ,two su* causes are equal to ea* o!r :5 !y produce exactly ! same effect4 ,s f> our axiom is appli$ directly4 ,b ^! two causes c be add$ toge!r2 & be+ ?us add$1 !y are d\ble ( "o ( !m2 & ! cause compos$ by addition ( ?ree su*1 is ?ree times z great z ! fir/2 & s on = any measure :atev]4 ,by ?is means1 & by ?is #ahh means only1 we h a complete & consi/5t measure ( ^? causes :i* are s conceiv$ z to be subject to ?is condition ( be+ add$ & multipli$4 ,causes are1 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 to be und]/ood 9 ! wide/ s5se ( ! t]m2 & ! axiom n[ "u our consid]ation applies to !m1 :5ev] !y are ( su* a nature z to admit ( any measure at all4 ,b ! cases :i* we h m p>ticul>ly 9 view are me*anical causes1 ! causes ( ! motion & ( ! equilibrium ( bodies4 ,9 ^! cases1 =ces are conceiv$ z capable ( addition2 & :at has be5 said ( ! measure ( causes 9 su* cases1 applies peculi>ly to me*anical =ces4 ,two weights1 plac$ toge!r1 may be consid]$ z a s+le weight1 equal to ! sum ( ! two4 ,two pressures1 pu%+ a body 9 ! same direction at ! same po9t1 are id5tical 9 all respects ) "s s+le pressure1 _! sum1 pu%+ 9 l mann]2 & ?is is true :e!r or n !y put ! body 9 motion4 ,9 ! cases ( me*anical =ces1 !re=e1 we take "s c]ta9 effect1 velocity g5]at$ or weight support$1 :i* may fix ! unit ( =ce2 & we !n measure all o!r =ces by ! successive repetition ( ?is unit1 z we measure all spaces by ! successive repetition ( our unit ( l9eal measure4 ,b ^! /eps 9 ! =mation ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics w be fur!r expla9$1 :5 we come to foll[ our axioms conc]n+ cause into _! application 9 t sci5ce4 ,at pres5t we h1 p]haps1 suffici5tly expla9$ ! axiom t causes are measur$ by _! effects1 & we n[ proce$ to a ?ird axiom1 also ( great importance4 #e4 ,?ird ,axiom4 ,reaction is equal & opposite to ,action4 ,9 ! case ( me*anical =ces1 ! action ( a cause (t5 takes place by an op]ation ( "o body ^u ano!r2 & 9 ?is case1 ! action is always & inevitably accompani$ by an opposite action4 ,if ,i press a /one ) my h&1 ! /one presses my h& 9 return4 ,if "o ball /rike ano!r & put x 9 motion1 ! second ball dim9i%es ! motion ( #ahi ! fir/4 ,9 ^! cases ! op]ation is mutual2 ! ,action is accompani$ by a ,reaction4 ,& 9 all su* cases ! ,reaction is a =ce ( exactly ! same nature z ! ,action1 ex]t$ 9 an opposite direction4 ,a pressure ex]t$ ^u a body at re/ is resi/$ & balanc$ by ano!r pressure2 :5 ! pressure ( "o body puts ano!r 9 motion1 ! body1 ?\gh x yields to ! =ce1 nev]!less ex]ts ^u ! press+ body a =ce l t :i* x suff]s4 ,n[ ! axiom ass]ts fur!r1 t ?is ,reaction is equal1 z well z opposite1 to ! ,action4 ,= ! ,reaction is an effect ( ! ,action1 & is det]m9$ by x4 ,& s9ce ! two1 ,action & ,reaction1 are =ces ( ! same nature1 ea* may be consid]$ z cause & z effect2 & !y mu/1 !re=e1 det]m9e ea* o!r by a common rule4 ,b ?is consid]ation leads necess>ily to _! equality3 = s9ce ! rule is mutual1 if we c\ld = an in/ant suppose ! ,reaction to be less ?an ! ,action1 we mu/1 by ! same rule1 suppose ! ,action to be less ?an ! ,reaction4 ,& ?us ,action & ,reaction1 9 e su* case1 are rigor\sly equal to ea* o!r4 ,x is easily se5 t ?is axiom is n a proposition :i* is1 or c be1 prov$ by exp]i5ce2 b t its tru? is ant]ior to special obs]vation1 & dep5ds on our conception ( ,action & ,reaction4 ,l our o!r axioms1 ?is has its s\rce 9 an ,idea2 namely1 ! ,idea ( ,cause1 "u t p>ticul> condition 9 :i* cause & effect are mutual4 ,! necess>y & univ]sal tru? :i* we _c help ascrib+ to ! axiom1 %[s t x is n d]iv$ f ! /ores ( exp]i5ce1 :i* c nev] conta9 tru?s ( ?is "*4 ,accord+ly1 x 0 ass]t$ ) equal confid5ce & g5]ality by ^? :o did n ref] to exp]i5ce = _! pr9ciples1 & by ^? :o did4 ,leonicus ,tomu1 a comm5tator ( ,ari/otle1 ^: "w 0 publi%$ 9 #aeeb1 & !re=e at a p]iod :5 no "r op9ions conc]n+ me*anical reaction 7 curr5t1 at lea/ 9 8 s*ool1 says1 9 8 rem>ks on ! ,au?or's ,que/ions conc]n+ ! communication ( motion1 t ',reaction is equal & #aij contr>y to ,action4' ,! same pr9ciple 0 tak5 = grant$ by all p>ties1 9 all ! controv]sies conc]n+ ! prop] measure ( =ce1 ( :i* we %all h to speak3 & w\ld be rigor\sly true1 z a law ( motion1 :i*ev] ( ! rival int]pretations ( ! measure ( ! t]m ',action' we 7 to take4 #f4 ,ext5t ( ! ,?ird ,axiom4--,x may naturally be ask$ :e!r ?is ?ird ,axiom respect+ causation ext5ds to any o!r cases ?an ^? ( me*anical action1 s9ce ! notion ( ,cause 9 g5]al has c]ta9ly a mu* wid] ext5t4 ,= in/ance1 :5 a hot body heats a cold "o1 is !re necess>ily an equal reaction ( ! second body ^u ! fir/8 ,does ! sn[ball cool ! boy's h& exactly z mu* z ! h& heats ! sn[8 ,to ?is we reply1 t1 9 e case 9 :i* "o body acts ^u ano!r by its physical qualities1 !re mu/ be "s reaction4 ,no body c affect ano!r )\t be+ itself also affect$4 ,b 9 any physical *ange ! action ex]t$ is an ab/ract t]m :i* may be v>i\sly und]/ood4 ,! hot h& may melt a cool body1 or may w>m x3 :i* k9d ( effect is to be tak5 z action8 ,?is rema9s to be det]m9$ by o!r consid]ations4 ,9 all cases ( physical *ange produc$ by "o body 9 ano!r1 x is g5]ally possible to assume su* a mean+ ( action1 t ! reaction %all be ( ! same nature z ! action2 & :5 ?is is done1 ! ?ird axiom ( causation1 t reaction is equal to action1 is univ]sally true4 ,?us if a hot body heat a cold "o1 ! *ange may be conceiv$ z ! transf] ( a c]ta9 sub/ance1 heat or caloric1 f ! fir/ body to ! second4 ,on ?is supposition1 ! fir/ body loses j z mu* heat z ! o!r ga9s2 action & reaction are equal4 ,b if ! reaction be ( a diff]5t k9d to ! action we c no long] apply ! axiom4 ,if a hot body melt a cold "o1 ! latt] cools ! =m]3 "h1 !n1 is reaction2 b s long z ! action & reaction are /at$ 9 ?is =m1 we _c ass]t any equality betwe5 !m4 ,9 treat+ ( ! second>y me*anical sci5ces1 we #aia %all see fur!r 9 :at way we may conceive ! physical action ( "o body ^u ano!r1 s t ! same axioms :i* are ! basis ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics %all apply to *anges n at fir/ sight manife/ly me*anical4 ,! ?ree axioms ( causation :i* we h n[ /at$ are ! fundam5tal maxims ( all reason+ conc]n+ causes z to _! quantities2 & x w be %[n 9 ! sequel t ^! axioms =m ! basis ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics1 det]m9+ its =m1 ext5t1 & c]ta9ty4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 9 ! fir/ place1 consid] h[ we acquire ^? conceptions ^u :i* ! axioms n[ e/abli%$ are to be employ$4 #b;d ,ed4 ,! ,axiom t ,reaction is equal & opposite to ,action1 may appe> to be at v>iance ) a maxim conc]n+ ,cause :i* is commonly curr5t2 namely1 t ! ',cause prec$es ,effect1 & ,effect foll[s ,cause4' ,= x may be said1 if ,a1 ! ,action1 & ,r1 ! ,reaction1 c be consid]$ z mutually ! cause ( ea* o!r1 ,a mu/ prec$e ,r1 & yet mu/ foll[ x1 :i* is impossible4 ,b to ?is ,i reply1 t 9 ^? cases ( direct ,causation to :i* ! maxim applies1 ! ,cause & ,effect are n successive1 b simultane\s4 ,if ,i press aga9/ "s ob/acle1 ! ob/acle resi/s & returns ! pressure at ! in/ant x is ex]t$1 n aft] any int]val ( "t1 h[ev] small4 ,! common maxim1 t ! effect foll[s ! cause1 has aris5 f ! practice ( consid]+1 z examples ( cause & effect1 n in/antane\s =ces or causes1 & ! in/antane\s *anges :i* !y produce2 b tak+1 in/ead ( ?is latt]1 ! cumulative effects produc$ 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 & comp>$ ) l results occurr+ )\t ! action ( ! cause4 ,?us1 if we alt] ! l5g? ( a clock-p5dulum1 ?is *ange produces1 z its effect1 a subsequ5t *ange ( rate 9 ! clock3 because ! rate is measur$ by ! accumulat$ effects ( ! p5dulum's gravity1 be=e & aft] ! *ange4 ,b ! p5dulum produces its me*anical effect ^u ! escapem5t1 at ! mom5t ( its contact1 & ea* :eel ^u ! next1 at ! mom5t ( its contact4 ,z has #aib be5 said 9 a ,review ( ?is "w1 ',! "t lo/ 9 cases ( indirect physical causation is consum$ 9 ! movem5ts :i* take place among ! p>ts ( ! me*anism 9 action1 by :i* ! active =ces s trans=m$ into mom5tum are transport$ ov] int]vals ( space to new po9ts ( action1 ! motion ( matt] 9 su* cases be+ reg>d$ z a m]e c>ri] ( =ce4' 7,qu>t]ly ,rev4 ,no4 cxxxv4 p4 #bab47 ,?is subject ,i h fur!r treat$ 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,cambridge ,philosophical ,society1 vol4 vii4 "p iii4 ,9 ?is ,?ird ,edition ,i add ?is discussion4 ,discussion ( ! ,"q3--,are ,cause & ,effect successive or simultane\s8 ,i ,,h at v>i\s times laid be=e ?is ,society diss]tations on ! metaphysical gr\nds & elem5ts ( our k1 & especially on ! f\ndations ( ! sci5ce ( me*anics4 ,z ^! speculations h n fail$ to excite "s att5tion1 bo? "h & else:]e1 ,i am tempt$ to br+ =w>d 9 ! same mann] "s additional disquisitions ( ! same k9d4 ,inde$1 ! imm$iate occasion ( ! pres5t memoir is ( itself an evid5ce t su* subjects are n suppos$ to be )\t _! int]e/ = ! g5]al read]2 = ,i am l$ to ! views & reason+s :i* ,i am n[ ab\t to lay be=e ! ,society1 by "s rem>ks 9 "o ( our mo/ popul> ,reviews1 7,! ,qu>t]ly ,review1 ,article on ! ,hi/ory & ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 ,june #ahda74 ,a writ] ( s+ul> acut5ess & compreh5siv5ess ( view has !re made rem>ks ^u ! doctr9es :i* ,i _h deliv]$ 9 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 :i* rem>ks appe> to me 9 ! highe/ degree in/ructive & philosophical4 ,i am n1 h[ev]1 go+ "h to discuss fully ! doctr9es conta9$ 9 ?is critique4 ,) respect to its g5]al t5d5cy1 ,i w only obs]ve1 t ! au?or does n accept1 9 ! =m 9 :i* ,i _h giv5 x1 ! acc\nt ( ! orig9 & gr\nd ( necess>y & univ]sal tru?s4 ,i _h /at$ t our k is d]iv$ f ,s5sations & ,ideas2 & t ,ideas1 :i* are ! conditions ( p]ception1 su* z space1 "t1 lik5ess1 cause1 make univ]sal & necess>y k possible2 :]eas1 if k 7 d]iv$ f ,s5sation alone1 x c\ld n h ^? *>act]s4 ,i h moreov] #aic enum]at$ a long s]ies ( ,fundam5tal ,ideas z ! bases ( a correspond+ s]ies ( sci5ces1 ( :i* sci5ces ,i h %[n also1 by an hi/orical survey1 t !y claim to possess univ]sal tru?s1 & h _! claims all[$4 ,i h gone fur!r3 = ,i h /at$ ! ,axioms :i* fl[ f ^! ,fundam5tal ,ideas1 & :i* are ! logical gr\nds ( necessity & univ]sality 9 ! tru?s ( ea* sci5ce1 :5 ! sci5ce is pres5t$ 9 ! =m ( a demon/rat$ sy/em4 ,! ,review] does n ass5t to ?is doctr9e1 nor to ! argum5t by :i* x is support$2 namely1 t ,exp]i5ce _c lead to univ]sal tru?s1 except by means ( a univ]sal ,idea suppli$ by ! m9d1 & infus$ into ! p>ticul> facts :i* obs]vation m9i/]s4 ,he consid]s t ! exi/5ce ( univ]sal tru?s 9 our k may be expla9$ o!rwise4 ,he holds t x is a suffici5t acc\nt ( ! matt] to say t we pass f special exp]i5ce to univ]sal tru? 9 virtue ( '! inductive prop5sity--! irresi/ible impulse ( ! m9d to g5]alize ad inf9itum4' ,i %all n "h dwell ^u v /rong reasons :i* may be assign$1 z ,i conceive1 = n accept+ ?is z a full & satisfactory explanation ( ! difficulty4 ,in/ead ( do+ s1 ,i %all "h cont5t myself ) rem>k+1 t ev5 if we adopt ! ,review]'s expressions1 we mu/ /ill cont5d t !re are diff]5t =ms ( ! impulse ( ! m9d to g5]alize1 correspond+ to ea* ( ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas ( our sy/em4 ,^! ,fundam5tal ,ideas1 if !y be no?+ else1 mu/ at lea/ be accept$ z a classification ( ! modes ( action ( ! ,inductive ,prop5sity1--z s _m diff]5t pa?s & t5d5cies ( ! ,g5]aliz+ ,impulse3 & ! ,axioms :i* ,i h /at$ z ! express results ( ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas1 & z ! /eps by :i* ^? ,ideas make univ]sal tru?s possible1 are /ill no less wor?y ( notice1 if !y are /at$ z ! results ( our ,g5]aliz+ ,impulse2 & z ! /eps by :i* t ,impulse1 9 its _m v>i\s =ms1 makes univ]sal tru?s possible4 ,! ,g5]aliz+ ,impulse 9 t op]ation by :i* x leads u to ! ,axioms ( ,geometry1 & to ^? ( ,me*anics1 takes v diff]5t c\rses2 & ^! c\rses may well des]ve to be sep>ately /udi$4 ,& p]haps1 ev5 if we accept ?is view ( ! philosophy ( our k1 no simpl] or cle>] way c be f\nd ( describ+ & di/+ui%+ ^! fundam5tally diff]5t op]ations ( ! ,inductive ,prop5sity1 ?an by say+1 #aid t 9 ! "o case x proce$s accord+ to ! ,idea ( ,space1 9 ano!r accord+ to ! ,idea ( ,me*anical ,cause2 & ! l phraseology may be employ$ = all ! o!r cases4 ,?is !n be+ und]/ood1 my pres5t object is to consid] "s v rem>kable1 &1 z appe>s to me1 novel views ( ! ,idea ( ,cause :i* ! ,review] prop\nds4 ,& ^! may be be/ br\ght "u our discussion by consid]+ !m z an attempt to solve ! "q1 ,:e!r1 accord+ to our fundam5tal appreh5sions ( ! relation ( ,cause & ,effect1 effect foll[s cause 9 ! ord] ( "t1 or is simultane\s ) x4 ,at fir/ sight1 ?is "q may seem to be completely decid$ by our fundam5tal convictions respect+ cause & effect1 & by ! axioms :i* h be5 prop\nd$ by almo/ all writ]s1 & h obta9$ univ]sal curr5cy among reason]s on ?is subject4 ,t ! cause mu/ prec$e ! effect1--t ! effect mu/ foll[ ! cause1--are1 x might seem1 self-evid5t tru?s1 assum$ & ass5t$ to by all p]sons 9 all reason+s 9 :i* ^? notions occur4 ,su* a doctr9e is commonly ass]t$ 9 g5]al t]ms1 & seems to be v]ifi$ 9 all ! applications ( ! idea ( cause4 ,a heavy body produces motion by its weight2 ! motion produc$ is subsequ5t 9 "t to ! pressure :i* ! weight ex]ts4 ,9 a ma*9e1 bodies pu% or /rike ea* o!r1 & s produce a s]ies ( motions2 ea* motion1 9 ?is case1 is ! result ( ! motions & configurations :i* h prec$$ x4 ,! :ole s]ies ( su* motions employs "t2 & ?is "t is fill$ up & measur$ by ! s]ies ( causes & effects1 ! effects be+1 9 _! turn1 causes ( o!r effects4 ,?is is ! common mode ( appreh5d+ ! univ]sal c\rse ( ev5ts1 9 :i* ! *a9 ( causation1 & ! progress ( "t1 are contemplat$ z ea* ! necess>y condition & accompanim5t ( ! o!r4 ,b ?is1 ! ,critic rem>ks1 is n true 9 direct causation4 ',if ! antec$5ce & consequ5ce 9 "q be und]/ood z ! int]position ( an int]val ( "t1 h[ev] small1 betwe5 ! action ( ! cause & ! production ( ! effect1 we reg>d x z inadmissible4 ,9 ! production ( motion by =ce1 = in/ance1 ?\gh ! effect be cumulative ) cont9u$ ex]tion ( ! cause1 yet ea* elem5t>y or individual action is1 to our appreh5sion1 in/ant] accompani$ ) its correspond+ increm5t ( mom5tum 9 ! body mov$4 ,9 all dynamical #aie reason+s no "o has ev] ?\ght ( int]pos+ an in/ant ( "t betwe5 ! action & its result+ mom5tum2 nor does x appe> necess>y4' ,?is is s evid5t1 t x appe>s /range x %\ld h ! air ( novelty2 yet1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 ! matt] has nev] be=e be5 put 9 ! same po9t ( view4 ,b ?is be+ ! case1 ! "q occurs1 h[ x is t "t seems to be employ$ 9 ! progress f cause to effect8 ,h[ is x t ! op9ion ( ! effect be+ subsequ5t to ! cause has g5]ally obta9$8 ,& to ?is ! ,critic's answ] is obvi\s3--x is s 9 cases ( indirect or ( cumulative effect4 ,if a ball ,a /rikes ano!r1 ,b1 & puts x 9 motion1 & ,b /rikes ,c1 & puts x 9 motion1 ,a's impact may be consid]$ z ! cause1 ?\gh n ! direct cause1 ( ,c's motion4 ,n[ "t1 namely ! "t ( ,b's motion aft] x is /ruck by ,a1 & be=e x /rikes ,c1 int]v5es betwe5 ,a's impact & ! beg9n+ ( ,c's motion3 t is1 betwe5 ! cause & its effect4 ,9 ?is s5se1 ! effect is subsequ5t to ! cause4 ,aga91 if a body be put 9 motion by a s]ies ( impulses act+ at f9ite int]vals ( "t1 all 9 ! same direction1 ! motion at ! end ( all ^! int]vals is ! effect ( all ! impulses1 & exi/s aft] !y h all act$4 ,x is ! accumulat$ effect1 & subsequ5t to ea* sep>ate action ( ! cause4 ,b 9 ?is case1 ea* impulse produces its effect in/antane\sly1 & ! "t is employ$1 n 9 ! transition f any cause to its effect1 b 9 ! int]vals betwe5 ! action ( ! sev]al causes1 dur+ :i* int]vals ! body goes on ) ! velocity already communicat$ to x4 ,9 ea* impulse1 =ce produces motion3 & ! motion goes on till a new *ange takes place1 by ! same k9d ( action4 ,! =ce may be said1 9 ! language employ$ by ! ,critic1 to be trans=m$ into mom5tum2 & 9 ! successive impulses1 successive portions ( =ce are ?us trans=m$2 :ile 9 ! int]v5+ int]vals1 ! =ce ?us trans=m$ into mom5tum is c>ri$ by ! body f "o place to ano!r1 :]e a new *ange awaits x4 ',! cause is absorb$ & trans=m$ into effect1 & !re9 treasur$ up4' ,h5ce1 z ! ,writ] says1 ',! "t lo/ 9 cases ( indirect physical causation is t consum$ 9 ! movem5ts :i* take place among ! p>ts ( ! me*anism set 9 action1 by :i* ! active =ces s trans=m$ into me*anism are transport$ ov] int]vals ( space to new po9ts ( action1 ! motion ( matt] 9 su* cases be+ #aif reg>d$ z a m]e c>ri] ( =ce'3--& :5 =ce is directly c\nt]act$ by =ce1 _! mutual de/ruction mu/ be conceiv$1 z ! ,review] says1 to be in/antane\s4 ,we c !re=e h>dly resi/ 8 conclusion1 t m5 h be5 misl$ 9 assum+ sequ5ce z a feature 9 ! relation ( cause & effect2 & we may readily ass5t to 8 sugge/ion1 t sequ5ce1 :5 obs]v$1 is to be held z a sure indication ( indirect action1 accompani$ ) a movem5t ( p>ts4 ,b yet if we turn = a mom5t to o!r k9ds ( causation1 we seem to be compell$ at e /ep to recognize ! tru? ( ! usual maxim ^u ?is subject1 t effects are subsequ5t to causes4 ,is n poison1 tak5 at a c]ta9 mom5t1 ! cause ( disord] & dea? :i* foll[ at a subsequ5t p]iod8 ,is n a man's e>ly prud5ce (t5 ! cause ( 8 prosp]ity 9 lat] life1 & 8 folly1 ?\gh = a mom5t x may produce gratification1 f9ally ! cause ( 8 ru98 ,& ev5 9 ! case ( me*anism1 if1 9 a clock :i* goes rightly1 we alt] ! l5g? ( ! p5dulum1 is n ?is alt]ation ! cause ( an alt]ation :i* aft]w>ds takes place 9 ! rate ( ! clock's go+8 ,are n all ^!1 & innum]able o!r cases1 in/ances 9 :i* ! usual notion ( ! effect foll[+ ! cause is v]ifi$8 & are !y n irreconcileable ) ! new doctr9e ( cause & effect be+ simultane\s8 ,9 ord] to dis5tangle ?is app>5t confusion1 let u fir/ consid] ! case la/ m5tion$1 ( a clock1 9 :i* "s alt]ation is made :i* affects ! rate ( go+4 ,s long z ! p>ts ( ! clock rema9 unalt]$1 its rate w rema9 unalt]$2 & any "p :i* is consid]$ z capable ( alt]ation1 may be consid]$ z1 if we please1 ! cause ( ! unalt]$ rate1 by be+ itself unalt]$4 ,b we d n usually introduce ! positive idea ( cause1 to correspond ) ?is negation ( *ange4 ,if we speak ( ! rate z unalt]$1 we may also say t x is s because !re is no cause ( alt]ation4 ,! /eady rate is ! indication ( ! abs5ce ( any cause ( alt]ation2 & ! rate ( go+ measures ! progress ( "t1 9 a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* causes ( *ange are ?us exclud$4 ,if an alt]ation takes place 9 any "p ( ! clock1 once = all1 ! rate is alt]$2 b ! new rate is /eady z ! old rate 01 &1 l x1 measures ! uni=m progress ( "t4 ,b ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! new rate & ! old is occasion$ by #aig ! diff]5ce ( ! p>ts ( ! clock2 & ! new rate may v prop]ly be said to be caus$ by ! *ange ( ! p>ts1 & to be subsequ5t to x3 = x does prevail aft] ! *ange1 & does n prevail be=e4 ,b h[ is ?is view to be reconcil$ ) ! "o j quot$ f ! ,review]1 &1 z x appe>$1 satisfactorily prov$ by him2 accord+ to :i* all me*anical effects are simultane\s ) _! causes1 & n subsequ5t to !m8 ,we h "h ! two views 9 close contact1 & 9 seem+ opposition4 ,9 ! go+ ( a clock1 ! p>ts are 9 motion2 & ^! motions are det]m9$ by =ces aris+ f ! =m & connexion ( ! p>ts ( ! me*anism4 ,ea* ( ! =ces ?us ex]t$ at any in/ant produces its effect at ! same in/ant2 & ?us1 s f> z ! t]m cause ref]s to su* in/antane\s =ces1 ! cause & ! effect are simultane\s4 ,b if su* in/antane\s =ces act at successive int]vals ( "t1 ! motion dur+ ea* int]val is unalt]$1 & by its uni=m progress measures ! progress ( "t4 ,& ?us ! motion ( ! ma*9e consi/s ( a s]ies ( int]vals1 dur+ ea* ( :i* ! motion is uni=m1 & measures ! "t2 sep>at$ f ea* o!r by a s]ies ( *anges1 at ea* ( :i* ! *ange measures ! in/antane\s =ce1 & is simultane\s ) x4 ,& if1 9 ?is case1 we suppose1 at any po9t ( "t1 ! in/antane\s =ces to cease1 ! succession ( !m be+ t]m9at$1 f t po9t ( "t ! motion w\ld be uni=m4 ,& s9ce ! rate ( ! motion 9 ea* int]val ( "t is det]m9$ by ! in/antane\s =ce :i* la/ act$ & by ! prec$+ motion1 ! rate ( ! motion 9 ea* int]val ( "t is det]m9$ by all ! prec$+ in/antane\s =ces4 ,h5ce1 :5 ! s]ies ( in/antane\s =ces /ops1 ! rate at :i* ! motion goes on p]man5tly1 f t po9t ( "t1 is det]m9$ by ! antec$5t s]ies ( su* =ces1 :i* s]ies may be consid]$ z an aggregate cause2 & h5ce x appe>s1 t ! p]man5t effect is det]m9$ by ! aggregate cause2 & 9 ?is s5se ! effect is subsequ5t to ! cause4 ,?us we obta91 9 ?is case1 a solution ( ! difficulty :i* is plac$ be=e u4 ,! in/antane\s effect or *ange is simultane\s ) ! in/antane\s =ce or cause by :i* x is #aih produc$4 ,b if we consid] a s]ies ( su* in/antane\s =ces z a s+le aggregate cause1 & ! f9al condition z a p]man5t effect ( ?is cause1 ! effect is subsequ5t to ! cause4 ,9 ?is case1 ! cause is imm$iately succe$$ by ! effect4 ,! cause acts 9 "t3 ! effect goes on 9 "t4 ,! times occupi$ by ! cause & by ! effect succe$ ea* o!r1 ! "o end+ at ! po9t ( "t at :i* ! o!r beg9s4 ,b ! "t :i* ! cause occupies is really compos$ ( a s]ies ( in/ants ( uni=m motion int]pos$ betwe5 in/antane\s =ces2 & dur+ ! "t t ?is s]ies ( causes is go+ on1 to make up ! aggregate cause1 a s]ies ( effects is go+ on to make up ! f9al effect4 ,!re is a progressive cause & a progressive effect :i* g on toge!r1 & occupy ! same f9ite "t2 & ?is simultane\s progression is compos$ ( all ! simultane\s in/antane\s /eps ( cause & effect4 ,! aggregate cause is ! sum ( ! progression ( causes2 ! f9al effect is ! la/ t]m ( ! progression ( effects4 ,at ea* /ep1 z ! ,review] says1 cause is trans=m$ into effect2 & x is treasur$ up 9 ! results dur+ ! int]m$iate int]vals2 & ! "t occupi$ is n ! "t :i* int]v5es betwe5 cause & effect at ea* /ep1 b ! "t :i* int]v5es betwe5 ^! trans=mations4 ,i h suppos$ =ces to act at di/9ct in/ants1 & to cease to act 9 ! int]vals betwe52 & !n1 ! aggregate ( su* int]vals to make up a f9ite "t1 dur+ :i* an aggregate =ce acts4 ,b if ! action ( ! =ce be rigor\sly cont9u\s1 x w easily be se5 t all ! consequ5ces z to cause & effect w be ! same2 ! discont9u\s action be+ m]ely ! usual artifice by :i*1 9 ma!matical reason+s1 we obta9 results respect+ cont9u\s *anges4 ,x w /ill be true1 t ! uni=m motion :i* takes place aft] a cont9u\s =ce has act$1 is ! effect subsequ5t to ! cause2 :ile ! *ange :i* takes place at any in/ant by ! action ( ! =ce1 is ! in/antane\s effect simultane\s ) ! cause4 ,x may be object$1 t ?is solution does n appe> imm$iately to apply3 = ! motion ( a clock is n uni=m dur+ any portion ( ! "t4 ,! p>ts move by int]vals ( v>i$ motion & ( re/2 or by oscillations backw>ds & =w>ds2 & ! succession ( =ces :i* acts dur+ any #aii oscillation1 or any cycle ( motion1 is repeat$ dur+ ! succe$+ oscillation or cycle1 & s on indef9itely2 & if an alt]ation be made 9 ! p>ts1 x is n a *ange once = all1 b recurs 9 its op]ation 9 e cycle ( ! motion4 ,b x w be f\nd t ?is circum/ance does n prev5t ! same explanation f be+ /ill applicable ) a slight modification4 ,in/ead ( uni=m motion 9 ! int]vals ( causation1 we %all h to speak ( /eady go+3 & in/ead ( consid]+ all ! =ces :i* affect ! motion z causes ( *ange ( uni=m motion1 we %all h to speak ( *anges 9 ! p>ts ( ! me*anism z causes ( *ange ( rate ( go+4 ,) ?is modification1 x w /ill be true1 t any in/antane\s cause produces its in/antane\s effect simultane\sly1 :ile ! p]man5t effect is subsequ5t to ! *ange :i* is its cause4 ,! /eady go+ ( ! clock is assum$ z a normal condition1 9 :i* x measures ! progress ( "t2 & 9 ?is assumption1 ! notion ( cause & effect is n br\ght into view4 ,b a /eady rate ?us d5ot+ ! mean passage ( "t1 a *ange 9 ! rate indicates a cause ( *ange4 ,! *ange ( rate1 z an in/antane\s transition f "o rate to ano!r1 is simultane\s ) ! *ange 9 ! p>ts4 ,b !n ! *ang$ rate z a cont9u$ condition 9 :i*1 no new *ange sup]v5+1 ! rate aga9 measures ! progress ( "t1 is subsequ5t to ! *ange ( p>ts1 = x beg9s :5 t ends1 & cont9ues :5 ! progress ( t has ceas$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ?is be a satisfactory solution ( ! difficulty 9 ! case ( me*anism1 h[ %all we apply ! same views to ! o!r cases8 ,gr[?1 ! effect ( food1 is subsequ5t to ! act ( tak+ food2 disord]1 ! effect ( poison1 is subsequ5t to ! introduction ( poison into ! sy/em4 ,c we say t ! animal w\ld cont9ue un*ang$ if x 7 n to take food2 & t food is ! cause ( a *ange1 namely1 ( gr[?8 ,?is is manife/ly false2 = if ! animal 7 n to take food1 x w\ld soon p]i%4 ,b ! analogy ( ! =m] case1 ( ! clock1 w enable u to avoid ?is p]plexity4 ,z we assum$ a /eady rate ( go+ 9 ! clock to be ! measure ( "t :5 we consid]$ ! effect ( me*anism1 s we assume a /eady rate ( action 9 ! animal functions to be ! measure ( ! progress ( "t :5 we consid] ! causes :i* act ^u ! #bjj developm5t & heal? ( animals4 ,dige/ion1 & ( c\rse nutrition1 are a "p ( ?is normal condition2 !y are involv$ 9 ! /eady go+ ( ! animal me*anism1 & we mu/ suppose ^! functions to g regul>ly on1 9 ord] t ! animal may pres]ve its "* ( animal4 ,food & dige/ion may be consid]$ z causes ( ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( ! animal1 9 ! same way 9 :i* ! =m ( ! p>ts ( a clock is ! cause ( ! /eady go+ ( a clock4 ,& :5 we come to consid] causes ( *ange1 ?is k9d ( causation1 :i* produces a normal condition ( ?+s1 m]ely measur+ ! fl[ ( "t1 is left out ( our acc\nt4 ,we c conceive an uni=m condition ( animal exi/5ce1 ! animal nei!r gr[+ nor wa/+4 ,?is be+ tak5 z ! normal condition1 any deviation f ?is condition indicates a cause1 & is tak5 z ! evid5ce & measure ( ! cause ( *ange4 ,& ?us1 9 a gr[+ animal1 ! food p>tly keeps ! animal 9 cont9u$ animal exi/5ce1 & p>tly1 & 9 addition to ?is1 causes its gr[?4 ,food1 9 ! =m] view1 is always circulat+ 9 ! sy/em1 & is suppos$ to be uni=mly adm9i/]$2 ! cycles ( nutrition be+ m]g$ 9 ! notion ( uni=m exi/5ce1 z ! oscillations ( ! p5dulum 9 a clock are m]g$ 9 ! notion ( uni=m go+2 & ! elem5t>y /eps ( nutrition :i* are1 9 ?is view1 suppos$ to take place at ea* in/ant1 produce _! in/antane\s effect1 = !y are requisite 9 ! cycle ( animal processes :i* goes on f in/ant to in/ant4 ,b on ! o!r h&1 9 consid]+ gr[?1 we comp>e ! /ate ( an animal ) a prec$+ /ate1 & consid] ! nutrim5t tak5 9 ! int]v5+ "t z ! cause ( ! *ange3 h5ce ?is nutrim5t1 z an aggregate1 is consid]$ z ! cause ( gr[? ( ! animal2 & 9 ?is view ! effect is subsequ5t to ! cause4 ,b yet "h1 z 9 ! case ( me*anism1 ! progressive effect is simultane\s1 /ep by /ep1 ) ! progressive cause4 ,!re is a s]ies ( op]ations2 z = in/ance1 intussusception1 dige/ion1 assimilation1 gr[?3 ea* ( ^! is a progressive op]ation2 & 9 ! progress ( ea* op]ation1 ! /eps ( ! effect & ! in/antane\s =ces are simultane\s4 ,b ! end ( "o op]ation is ! beg9n+ ( ! next1 or at lea/ 9 "p1 & h5ce we h "t occupi$ by ! succession4 ,! end ( intussusception is ! beg9n+ ( dige/ion1 ! end ( dige/ion ! beg9n+ ( assimilation1 #bja & s on4 ,^! aggregate effects succe$ ea* o!r2 & h5ce gr[? is subsequ5t to ! tak+ ( food2 ?\gh ea* in/antane\s =ce ( animal life1 no less ?an ( me*anism1 produces an effect simultane\s ) its action4 ,ea* ( ^! sep>ate op]ations is an aggregate op]ation1 & occupies "t2 & ea* aggregate effect is a condition ( ! action ( ! cause 9 ! next op]ation4 ,aga92 if an animal 9 a p]man5t condition1 nei!r wax+ nor wa/+1 may be tak5 z ! normal /ate 9 :i* ! functions ( life measure "t1 9 ord] t we may consid] gr[? z an effect1 to be ref]r$ to food z cause2 we may1 = o!r purposes1 consid]1 z ! normal condition1 an animal wax+ & !n wa/+1 accord+ to ! usual law ( animal life3 & we mu/ take ?is1 ! heal?y progress ( an animal1 z our normal condition1 if we h to consid] causes :i* produce disease4 ,if we h to ref] ! morbid condition ( an animal to ! influ5ce ( poison1 = example1 we mu/ consid] h[ f> ! condition deviates f :at x w\ld h be5 if ! poison _h n be5 tak5 into ! frame4 ,! usual progress ( ! animal functions includ+ its gr[?1 is ! measure ( "t2 ! deviation f ?is usual progress is ! indication ( cause2 & ! effect ( ! poison is subsequ5t to ! cause1 because ! poison acts ?r\gh ! cycle ( ! animal functions j m5tion$1 :i* occupies "t2 & because ! tak+ ! poison into ! sy/em1 n any subsequ5t action ( ! animal =ces 9 ! sy/em1 is consid]$ z ! ev5t :i* we mu/ contemplate z a cause4 ,to resume ! analogy ( ! clock3 ! rate ( ! clock is alt]$ by alt]+ ! p>ts2 b ?is alt]ation itself may occupy "t2 z if we alt] ! rate ( a clock by apply+ a drop ( acid1 :i* gradually eats (f a "p ( ! p5dulum1 ! corrosion1 z an aggregate effect1 occupies "t2 & ! rates be=e & aft] ! *ange are sep>at$ by ?is "t4 ,b ! application ( ! drop is ! cause2 & ?us1 9 ?is case ! f9al effect is subsequ5t to ! cause1 ?\gh "h1 z 9 ! case ( me*anism1 ! in/antane\s =ces always produce a simultane\s effect4 ,?us we h 9 e case a uni=m /ate1 or a /ate :i* is consid]$ z uni=m1 or at lea/ normal2 & :i* is tak5 z ! indication & measure ( "t2 & we h also *ange1 #bjb :i* is contemplat$ z a deviation f uni=mity1 & is tak5 z ! indication & measure ( cause4 ,! uni=m /ate may be "o :i* nev] exi/s1 be+ purely imag9>y2 z ! case 9 :i* no =ces act2 & ! case 9 :i* animal functions g on p]man5tly1 ! animal nei!r gr[+ nor wa/+4 ,! normal /ate may also be a /ate 9 :i* *ange is con/antly tak+ place1 z1 9 fact1 ev5 a /ate ( motion is a /ate ( *ange2 su* /ates also are1 9 a fur!r s5se1 t ( a clock go+ by />ts1 & t ( an animal con/antly gr[+3 9 ^! cases ! *anges are all m]g$ 9 a wid] view ( uni=mity1 s t ^! are tak5 z ! normal /ates4 ,& 9 all ^! cases1 successive *anges :i* take place are sep>at$ by int]vals ( "t1 measur$ by ! normal progress2 & ea* *ange is produc$ by "s simultane\s in/antane\s cause4 ,b tak+ ! cause 9 a l>g] s5se1 we gr\p ^! in/antane\s causes1 & p]haps omit 9 our contemplation "s ( ! int]v5+ int]vals2 & ?us assign ! cause to a prec$+1 & ! effect to a succe$+ "t4 ,i may obs]ve fur!r1 z a coroll>y f :at has be5 said1 t ! measure ( "t is diff]5t1 :5 we consid] diff]5t k9ds ( causation2 & 9 ea* case1 is homog5e\s ) ! *anges :i* causation effects4 ,9 ! consid]ation ( me*anical causes1 we measure "t by me*anical *anges2--by uni=m motion1 or uni=m succession ( cycles ( motion2 by ! rotation ( a :eel1 or ! oscillation ( a p5dulum4 ,b if we h to consid] physiological *anges1 ! progress ( "t is physiologically measur$2--by ! normal progress ( vital op]ations2 by ! circulation1 dige/ion or developm5t ( ! organiz$ body2 by ! pulse1 or by ! gr[?4 ,^! diff]5t measures ( "t give to "t1 s f> z x is exhibit$ by facts & ev5ts1 a diff]5t "* 9 ! diff]5t cases4 ,ph5om5al "t has a diff]5t nature & ess5ce accord+ to ! k9d ( ! *anges :i* we consid]1 & :i* gives u our sole ph5om5al indication ( cause4 ,i fe> t ,i am travell+ into matt]s too ab/ruse & metaphysical = ! occasion3 b be=e ,i conclude1 ,i w pres5t "o o!r aspect ( ! subject4 ,9 /at+ ! difficulty1 ,i ref]r$ to cases ( moral z well z physical causation2 z :5 prud5ce produces prosp]ity1 or #bjc :5 folly produces ru94 ,x may be ask$1 :e!r we are "h to apply ! same explanation2--:e!r we are to assume a normal condition ( human exi/5ce1 9 :i* nei!r prud5ce nor folly are display$1 nei!r prosp]ity nor adv]sity produc$2--:e!r we are to conceive ! progress ( su* a /ate to measure ! progress ( "t1 & deviations f x to d5ote causes ( ! k9d m5tion$4 ,x may be ask$ fur!r1 :e!r1 if we d make ?is supposition1 we c resolve ! influ5ce ( su* causes z prud5ce or imprud5ce into in/antane\s acts1 :i* produce _! effects imm$iately3 & :i* occupy "t only by be+ sep>at$ by int]vals ( ! inactive normal moral condition4 ,to ?is ,i mu/ "h reply1 t ! discussion ( su* que/ions w\ld c>ry me too f>1 & w\ld involve speculations n includ$ )9 ! ackn[l$g$ doma9 ( ?is ,society1 f :i* ,i !re=e ab/a94 ,b ,i may say1 be=e quitt+ ! subject1 t ,i d n ?9k ! suppositions above sugge/$ are unt5able2 & t 9 ord] to include moral causation "u ! maxims ( causation 9 g5]al1 we mu/ necess>ily make "s su* hypo!sis4 ,! peculi>ity ( t k9d ( causation :i* ! w & ! "* ex]t1 & :i* is ex]t$ ^u ! w & ! "*1 w\ld make ?is case f> m complex & difficult ?an ^? already consid]$2 b1 at ! same "t1 w\ld (f] u ! means ( expla9+ :at may seem h>%1 9 ! above analogy4 ,= in/ance1 we %\ld h to assume su* a maxim z ?is3 t 9 moral causation1 "t is n to be measur$ by ! fl[ ( me*anical or physiological ev5ts2--n by ! clock1 or by ! pulse4 ,moral causation has its own clock1 its own pulse1 9 ! progress ( man's moral be+2 & by ?is measure ( "t is ! relation ( moral cause & effect to be def9$4 ,t 9 e/imat+ moral causation1 ! progress ( "t is necess>ily e/imat$ by moral *anges1 & n by ma*9]y1--by ! progress ( ev5ts1 & n by ! go+ ( ! clock1--is a tru? famili> z a practical maxim to all :o give _! ?\ghts to dramatic or n>rative fictions4 ,:o feels any ?+ incongru\s or extravagantly hurri$ 9 ! progress ( ev5ts 9 t great exhibition ( moral causation1 ! trag$y ( ,o!llo8 ,if we 7 ask$ :at "t ^? va/ & t]rible #bjd & complex *anges ( ! be+ & feel+s ( ! *>act]s occupy1 we %\ld say1 t1 measur$ on its own scale1 ! ev5t is ( great ext5t2--t ! transaction is ( consid]able magnitude 9 all ways4 ,b if1 ) previ\s critics1 we look into ! progress ( "t by ! day & ! h\r--:at is ! measure ( ?is hi/ory8 ,=ty-eight h\rs4 #bje ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,( ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,our ,,conceptions ,,( ,,=ce ,,& ,,matt]4 #a4 ,=ce4--,,:5 ! faculties ( obs]vation & ?\ght are develop$ 9 man1 ! idea ( causation is appli$ to ^? *anges :i* we see & feel 9 ! /ate ( re/ & motion ( bodies ar\nd u4 ,& :5 our ab/ract conceptions are ?us =m$ & nam$1 we adopt ! t]m ,=ce1 & use x to d5ote t prop]ty :i* is ! cause ( motion produc$1 *ang$1 or prev5t$4 ,?is conception is1 x w\ld seem1 ma9ly & prim>ily sugge/$ by our consci\sness ( ! ex]tions by :i* we put bodies 9 motion4 ,! ,lat9 & ,greek words = ,=ce1 ,vis1 1 7 probably1 l all ab/ract t]ms1 d]iv$ at fir/ f "s s5sible object4 ,! orig9al mean+ ( ! ,greek ^w 0 a muscle or t5don4 ,its fir/ application z an ab/ract t]m is accord+ly to muscul> =ce3 ' ' 1 ' 4 ,!n ,ajax a f> heavi] /one upheav$1 ,he :irl$ x1 & impress+ ,=ce int5se ,^u ! mass1 dismi/ x4 ,! prop]ty by :i* bodies affect ea* o!r's motions1 0 naturally lik5$ to t en]gy :i* we ex]t ^u !m ) simil> effect3 & ?us ! lab\r+ horse1 ! ru%+ torr5t1 ! desc5d+ weight1 ! ela/ic b[1 7 said to ex]t =ce4 #bjf ,hom]#hc speaks ( ! =ce ( ! riv]1 2 & ,hesiod#ic ( ! =ce ( ! nor? w9d1 4 ,note #hc3 ,il4 xxi4 ,note #ic3 ,op4 et ,d4 ,?us man's g5]al notion ( =ce 0 probably fir/ sugge/$ by 8 muscul> ex]tions1 t is1 by an act dep5d+ ^u t muscul> s5se1 to :i*1 z we h already se51 ! p]ception ( space is ma9ly due4 ,& ?is be+ ! case1 x w be easily und]/ood t ! ,direction ( ! =ce ?us ex]t$ is p]ceiv$ by ! muscul> s5se1 at ! same "t t ! =ce itself is p]ceiv$2 & t ! direction ( any o!r =ce is und]/ood by comp>ison ) =ce :i* man mu/ ex]t to produce ! same effect1 9 ! same mann] z =ce itself is s und]/ood4 ,?is ab/ract notion ( ,=ce long rema9$ 9 a v vague & obscure condition1 z may be se5 by ref]r+ to ! ,hi/ory = ! failures ( attempts at a sci5ce ( =ce & motion1 made by ! anci5ts & _! comm5tators 9 ! middle ages4 ,by degrees1 9 mod]n times1 we see ! sci5tific faculty revive4 ,! conception ( ,=ce becomes s f> di/9ct & precise t x c be reason$ ^u 9 a consi/5t mann]1 ) demon/rat$ consequ5ces2 & a g5u9e sci5ce ( ,me*anics comes into exi/5ce4 ,! f\ndations ( ?is sci5ce are to be f\nd 9 ! ,axioms conc]n+ causation :i* we h already /at$2 ^! axioms be+ int]pret$ & fix$ 9 _! application by a con/ant ref]5ce to obs]v$ facts1 z we %all %[4 ,b we mu/1 9 ! fir/ place1 consid] fur!r ^? prim>y processes ( obs]vation by :i* we acquire ! fir/ mat]ials ( ?\ght on su* subjects4 #b4 ,matt]4--,! conception ( ,=ce1 z we h said1 arises ) our consci\sness ( our own muscul> ex]tions4 ,b we _c imag9e su* ex]tions )\t also imag9+ "s bodily sub/ance aga9/ :i* !y are ex]cis$4 ,if we press1 we press some?+3 if we ?ru/ or ?r[1 !re mu/ be some?+ #bjg to resi/ ! ?ru/ or to receive ! impulse4 ,)\t body1 muscul> =ce _c be ex]t$1 & =ce 9 g5]al is n conceivable4 ,?us ,=ce _c exi/ )\t ,body on :i* x acts4 ,! two conceptions1 ,=ce & ,matt]1 are co-exi/5t & correlative4 ,=ce implies resi/ance2 & ! =ce is effective only :5 ! resi/ance is call$ into play4 ,if we grasp a /one1 we h no hold ( x till ! clos+ ( ! h& is resi/$ by ! solid texture ( ! /one4 ,if we pu% op5 a gate1 we mu/ surm\nt ! opposition :i* x ex]ts :ile turn+ on its h+es4 ,h[ev] slight ! resi/ance be1 !re mu/ be "s resi/ance1 or !re w\ld be no =ce4 ,if we imag9e a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* objects d n resi/ our t\*1 !y mu/ also cease to be influ5c$ by our /r5g?4 ,su* a /ate ( ?+s we sometimes imag9e 9 our dreams2 & su* are ! poetical pictures ( ! regions inhabit$ by disembodi$ spirits4 ,9 ^!1 ! figures :i* appe> are conspicu\s to ! eye1 b impalpable l %ad[ or smoke2 & z !y d n resi/ ! corporeal impressions1 s nei!r d !y obey !m4 ,! spectator tries 9 va9 to /rike or to grasp !m4 ,et ni docta comes t5ues s9e corpore vitas ,admoneat volit>e cav sub imag9e =m1 ,irruat ac fru/ra f]ro div]b]et umbras4 ,! ,sibyl w>ns him t !re r\nd him fly ,bodiless ?+s1 b sub/ance to ! eye2 ,else _h he pi]c$ ^? %apes ) life-l face1 ,& smitt51 fi]ce1 ! unresi/+ space4 ,neque illum ,pr5santem nequicquam umbras et multa vol5tem ,dic]e1 pret]ea vidit4 ,he grasps h] =m1 & clut*es b ! %ade4 ,su* may be ! circum/ances ( ! unreal _w ( dreams1 or ( poetical fancies approa*+ to dreams3 = 9 ^! worlds our imag9>y p]ceptions are b\nd by no rigid conditions ( =ce & reaction4 ,9 #bjh su* cases1 ! m9d ca/s (f ! empire ( ! idea ( cause1 z x ca/s (f ev5 ! /ill m famili> sway ( ! ideas ( space & "t4 ,b ! "* ( ! mat]ial _w 9 :i* we live :5 awake is1 t we h at e in/ant & at e place1 =ce op]at+ on matt] & matt] resi/+ =ce4 #c4 ,solidity4--,f our consci\sness ( muscul> ex]tion1 we d]ive1 z we h se51 ! conception ( =ce1 & ) t also ! conception ( matt]4 ,we h already %[n1 9 a =m] *apt]1 t ! same "p ( our frame1 ! muscul> sy/em1 is ! organ by :i* we p]ceive ext5sion & ! relations ( space4 ,?us ! same organ gives u ! p]ception ( body z resi/+ =ce1 & z occupy+ space2 & by comb9+ ^! conditions we h ! conception ( solid ext5d$ bodies4 ,9 reality1 ?is resi/ance is inevitably pres5t$ to our notice 9 ! v facts f :i* we collect ! notion ( ext5sion4 ,= ! action ( ! h& & arm by :i* we foll[ ! =ms ( objects1 implies t we apply our f+]s to _! surface2 & we are /opp$ !re by ! resi/ance :i* ! body (f]s4 ,?is resi/ance is precisely t :i* is requisite 9 ord] to make u consci\s ( cur muscul> ef=t#ajc4 ,nei!r t\*1 nor any o!r m]e passive s5sation1 c\ld produce ! p]ception ( ext5t1 z we h already urg$3 nor c\ld ! muscul> s5se lead to su* a p]ception1 except ! ext5sion ( ! muscles 7 felt to be resi/$4 ,& ?us ! p]ception ( resi/ance ent]s ! m9d along ) ! p]ception ( ext5d$ bodies4 ,all ! objects ) :i* we h to d are n only ext5d$ b solid4 ,note #ajc3 ,br[n's ,lectures1 i4 #dff4 ,?is s5se ( ! t]m solidity1 7! g5]al prop]ty ( all matt]17 is diff]5t to t 9 :i* we oppose solidity to fluidity4 ,we may avoid ambiguity by oppos+ rigid to fluid bodies4 ,by solid bodies1 z we n[ speak ( !m1 we mean only su* z resi/ ! pressure :i* we ex]t1 s long z _! p>ts cont9ue 9 _! places4 ,by fluid bodies1 we mean ^? #bji ^: p>ts are1 by a slight pressure1 remov$ out ( _! places4 ,a drop ( wat] ceases to prev5t ! contact ( our two h&s1 n by ceas+ to h solidity 9 ?is s5se1 b by be+ ?ru/ out ( ! way4 ,if x c\ld rema9 9 its place1 x c\ld n cease to ex]cise its resi/ance to our pressure1 except by ceas+ to be matt] altoge!r4 ,! p]ception ( solidity1 l ! p]ception ( ext5sion1 implies an act ( ! m9d1 z well z an impression ( ! s5ses3 z ! p]ception ( ext5sion implies ! idea ( space1 s ! p]ception ( solidity implies ! idea ( action & reaction4 ,t an ,idea is involv$ 9 our k on ?is subject1 appe>s1 z 9 o!r in/ances1 f ?is consid]ation1 t ! convictions ( p]sons1 ev5 ( ^? :o all[ ( no gr\nd ( k b exp]i5ce1 d 9 fact g f> beyond ! possible limits ( exp]i5ce4 ,?us ,locke says#aac1 t '! bodies :i* we daily h&le h9d] by an insurm\ntable =ce ! approa* ( ! p>ts ( our h&s t press !m4' ,n[ x is manife/ t our obs]vation c nev] g to ?is l5g?4 ,by our s5ses we c only p]ceive t bodies resi/ ! greate/ actual =ces t we ex]t ^u !m4 ,b our conception ( =ce c>ries u fur!r3 & s9ce1 s long z ! body is !re to receive ! action ( ! =ce1 x mu/ suff] ! :ole ( t action1 & mu/ react z mu* z x suff]s3 x is !re=e true1 t s long z ! body rema9s !re1 ! =ce :i* is ex]t$ ^u x c nev] surm\nt ! resi/ance :i* ! body ex]cises4 ,& ?us ?is doctr9e1 t bodies resi/ ! intrusion ( o!r bodies by an insurm\ntable =ce1 is1 9 fact1 a consequ5ce ( ! axiom t ! reaction is always equal to ! action4 ,note #aac3 ,essay1 b4 ii4 c4 #d4 #d4 ,in]tia4--,b ?is pr9ciple ( ! equality ( action & reaction appe>s also 9 ano!r way4 ,n only :5 we ex]t =ce ^u bodies at re/1 b :51 by our ex]tions1 we put !m 9 motion1 !y react4 ,if we set a l>ge /one 9 motion1 ! /one #baj resi/s2 = ! op]ation requires an ef=t4 ,by increas+ ! ef=t1 we c increase ! effect1 t is1 ! motion produc$2 b ! resi/ance /ill rema9s4 ,& ! great] ! /one mov$1 ! great] is ! ef=t requisite to move x4 ,!re is1 9 e case1 a resi/ance to motion1 :i* %[s itself1 n 9 prev5t+ ! motion1 b 9 a reciprocal =ce1 ex]t$ backw>ds ^u ! ag5t by :i* ! motion is produc$4 ,& ?is resi/ance resides 9 ea* portion ( matt]1 = x is increas$ z we add "o portion ( matt] to ano!r4 ,we c pu% a light boat rapidly ?r\gh ! wat]2 b we may g on increas+ its freight1 till we are b>ely able to /ir x4 ,?is prop]ty ( matt]1 !n1 by :i* x resi/s ! reception ( motion1 or r by :i* x reacts & requires an adequate =ce 9 ord] t any motion may result1 is call$ its in]tness1 or in]tia4 ,t matt] has su* a prop]ty1 is a conviction fl[+ f t idea ( a reaction equal & opposite to ! action1 :i* ! conception ( all =ce involves4 ,by :at laws ?is in]tia dep5ds on ! magnitude1 =m1 & mat]ial ( ! body1 mu/ be ! subject ( our consid]ation h]eaft]4 ,b t matt] has ?is in]tia1 9 virtue ( :i*1 z ! matt] is great]1 ! velocity :i* ! same ef=t c communicate to x is less1 is a pr9ciple insep>able f ! notion ( matt] itself4 ,h]mann says t ,kepl] fir/ introduc$ ?is 'mo/ significant' in]tia4 ,:e!r x is to be f\nd 9 e>li] writ]s ,i "k n2 ,kepl] c]ta9ly does use x famili>ly 9 ^? attempts to assign physical reasons = ! motions ( ! planets :i* 7 among ! ma9 occasions ( ! discov]y ( ! true laws ( me*anics4 ,he assumes ! sl[ness ( ! motions ( ! planets to increase1 7o!r causes rema9+ ! same17 z ! in]tia increases2 & ?\gh1 ev5 9 ?is assumption1 !re is an err\r involv$1 7if we adopt t int]pretation ( ! t]m in]tia to :i* subsequ5t rese>*es l$17 ! introduction ( su* a ^w 0 "o /ep 9 det]m9+ & express+ ^? laws ( motion :i* dep5d on ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! equality ( action & reaction4 #baa #e4 ,we h ?us se51 ,i tru/ 9 a satisfactory mann]1 ! orig9 ( our conceptions ( ,=ce1 ,matt]1 ,solidity1 & ,in]tness4 ,x has appe>$ t ! organ by :i* we obta9 su* conceptions is t v muscul> frame1 :i* is ! ma9 in/rum5t ( our p]ceptions ( space2 b t1 besides bodily s5sations1 ^! ideal conceptions1 l all ! o!rs :i* we h hi!rto consid]$1 involve also an habitual activity ( ! m9d1 giv+ to our s5sations a mean+ :i* !y c\ld n o!rwise possess4 ,& among ! ideas ?us br\ght into play1 is an idea ( action ) an equal & opposite reaction1 :i* =ms a f\ndation = univ]sal tru?s to be h]eaft] e/abli%$ respect+ ! conceptions ?us obta9$4 ,we mu/ n[ endeav\r to trace 9 :at mann] ^! fundam5tal pr9ciples & conceptions are unfold$ by means ( obs]vation & reason+1 till !y become an ext5sive yet indisputable sci5ce4 #bab ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,( ,,! ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,/atics4 #a4 ,object ( ! ,*apt]4--,,9 ! pres5t & ! succe$+ *apt]s we h to %[ h[ ! g5]al axioms ( ,causation enable u to con/ruct ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics4 ,we h to consid] ^! axioms z m\ld+ !mselves1 9 ! fir/ place1 into c]ta9 fundam5tal me*anical pr9ciples1 :i* are ( evid5t & necess>y tru? 9 virtue ( _! dep5d5ce ^u ! g5]al axioms ( ,causation2 & ?us z =m+ a f\ndation = ! :ole /ructure ( ! sci5ce2--a sy/em ( tru?s no less necess>y ?an ! fundam5tal pr9ciples1 because d]iv$ f ^! by rigor\s demon/ration4 ,?is acc\nt ( ! con/ruction ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics1 h[ev] g5]ally treat$1 _c be o!rwise ?an te*nical 9 its details1 & w probably be imp]fectly und]/ood by any "o n acqua9t$ ) ,me*anics z a ma!matical sci5ce4 ,i _c omit ?is portion ( my survey )\t r5d]+ my "w incomplete2 b ,i may rem>k t ! ma9 purpose ( x is to prove1 9 a m p>ticul> mann]1 :at ,i h already decl>$ 9 g5]al1 t !re are1 9 ,me*anics no less ?an 9 ,geometry1 fundam5tal pr9ciples ( axiomatic evid5ce & necessity2--t ^! pr9ciples d]ive _! axiomatic "* f ! ,idea :i* !y involve1 namely1 ! ,idea ( ,cause2--& t ?r\gh ! comb9ation ( pr9ciples ( ?is k9d1 ! :ole sci5ce ( ,me*anics1 includ+ its mo/ complex & remote results1 exi/s z a body ( solid & univ]sal tru?s4 #bac #b4 ,/atics & ,dynamics4--,we mu/ fir/ turn our att5tion to a te*nical di/9ction ( ,me*anics into two portions1 accord+ z ! =ces ab\t :i* we reason produce re/1 or motion2 ! =m] portion is t]m$ ,/atics1 ! latt] ,dynamics4 ,if a /one fall1 or a weight put a ma*9e 9 motion1 ! problem belongs to ,dynamics2 b if ! /one re/ ^u ! gr\nd1 or a weight be m]ely support$ by a ma*9e1 )\t be+ rais$ high]1 ! "q is "o ( ,/atics4 #c4 ,equilibrium4--,9 ,/atics1 =ces balance ea* o!r1 or keep ea* o!r 9 equilibrium4 ,& =ces :i* directly balance ea* o!r1 or keep ea* o!r 9 equilibrium1 are necess>ily & manife/ly equal4 ,if we see two boys pull at two ends ( a rope s t nei!r ( !m 9 ! smalle/ degree prevails ov] ! o!r1 we h a case 9 :i* two =ces are 9 equilibrium4 ,! two =ces are evid5tly equal1 & are a /atical exemplification ( action & reaction1 su* z are spok5 ( 9 ! ?ird axiom conc]n+ causes4 ,n[ ! same exemplification occurs 9 e case ( equilibrium4 ,no po9t or body c be kept at re/ except 9 virtue ( oppos+ =ces act+ ^u x2 & ^! =ces mu/ always be equal 9 _! opposite effect4 ,:5 a /one lies on ! floor1 ! weight ( ! /one d[nw>ds is oppos$ & balanc$ by an equal pressure ( ! floor upw>ds4 ,if ! /one re/s on a slope1 its t5d5cy to slide is c\nt]act$ by "s equal & opposite =ce1 aris+1 x may be1 f ! resi/ance :i* ! slop+ gr\nd opposes to any motion along its surface4 ,e case ( re/ is a case ( equilibrium3 e case ( equilibrium is a case ( equal & opposite =ces4 ,! mo/ complex frame-"w on :i* weights are support$1 z ! ro( ( a build+1 or ! cordage ( a ma*9e1 are /ill examples ( equilibrium4 ,9 su* cases we may h _m =ces all comb9+ to balance ea* o!r2 & ! equilibrium w dep5d on v>i\s conditions ( direction & magnitude among ! =ces4 ,& 9 ord] to und]/& :at are ^! conditions1 we mu/ ask1 9 ! fir/ place1 :at #bad we und]/& by ! magnitude ( su* =ces2--:at is ! measure ( /atical =ces4 #d4 ,measure ( ,/atical ,=ces4--,at fir/ we might expect1 p]haps1 t s9ce /atical =ces come "u ! g5]al notion ( ,cause1 ! mode ( measur+ !m w\ld be d]iv$ f ! second axiom ( ,causation1 t causes are measur$ by _! effects4 ,b we f9d t ! application ( ?is axiom is controll$ by ! limitation :i* we notic$1 aft] /at+ t axiom2 namely1 ! condition t ! causes %all be capable ( addition4 ,fur!r1 z we h se51 a /atical =ce produces no o!r effect ?an ?is1 t x balances "s o!r /atical =ce2 & h5ce ! measure ( /atical =ces is necess>ily dep5d5t ^u _! balanc+1 t is1 ^u ! equality ( action & reaction4 ,t /atical =ces are capable ( addition is involv$ 9 our conception ( su* =ces4 ,:5 two m5 pull at a rope 9 ! same direction1 ! =ces :i* !y ex]t are add$ toge!r4 ,:5 two heavy bodies are put into a basket susp5d$ by a /r+1 _! weights are add$1 & ! sum is support$ by ! /r+4 ,comb9+ ^! consid]ations1 x w appe> t ! measure ( /atical =ces is necess>ily giv5 at once by ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! equality ( action & reaction4 ,s9ce two opposite =ces :i* balance ea* o!r are equal1 ea* =ce is measur$ by t :i* x balances2 & s9ce =ces are capable ( addition1 a =ce ( any magnitude is measur$ by add+ toge!r a prop] numb] ( su* equal =ces4 ,?us a heavy body :i*1 app5d$ to "s c]ta9 ela/ic bran* ( a tree1 w\ld b5d x d[n ?r\gh "o in*1 may be tak5 z a unit ( weight4 ,!n if we remove ?is fir/ body1 & f9d a second heavy body :i* w also b5d ! bran* ?r\gh ! same space1 ?is is also a unit ( weight2 & 9 l mann] we might g on to a ?ird & a f\r? equal body2 & add+ toge!r ! two1 or ! ?ree1 or ! f\r heavy bodies1 we h a =ce twice1 or ?ree times1 or f\r times ! unit ( weight4 ,& ) #bae su* a collection ( heavy bodies1 or weights1 we c readily measure all o!r =ces2 = ! same pr9ciple ( ! equality ( action & reaction leads at once to ?is maxim1 t any /atical =ce is measur$ by ! weight :i* x w\ld support4 ,z has be5 said1 x might at fir/ h be5 suppos$ t we %\ld h to apply1 9 ?is case1 ! axiom t causes are measur$ by _! effects 9 ano!r mann]2 t ?us1 if t body 7 a unit ( weight :i* b5t ! b\gh ( a tree ?r\gh "o in*1 t body w\ld be two units :i* b5t x ?r\gh two in*es1 & s on4 ,b1 z we h already /at$1 ! measures ( weight mu/ be subject to ?is condition1 t !y are susceptible ( be+ add$3 & !re=e we _c take ! deflexion ( ! b\gh = our measure1 till we h asc]ta9$1 t :i* exp]i5ce alone c tea* u1 t "u ! burd5 ( two equal weights1 ! deflexion w be twice z great z x is ) "o weight1 :i* is n true1 or at lea/ is nei!r obvi\sly nor necess>ily true4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 all o!r cases1 al?\gh causes mu/ be measur$ by _! effects1 we le>n f exp]i5ce only h[ ! effects are to be int]pret$1 s z to give a true & consi/5t measure4 ,) reg>d1 h[ev]1 to ! measure ( /atical =ce1 & ( weight1 no difficulty really occurr$ to philosoph]s f ! "t :5 !y fir/ began to speculate on su* subjects2 = x 0 easily se5 t if we take any uni=m mat]ial1 z wood1 or /one1 or iron1 portions ( ?is :i* are geometrically equal1 mu/ also be equal 9 /atical effect2 s9ce ?is 0 impli$ 9 ! v hypo!sis ( a uni=m mat]ial ,& a body t5 times z l>ge z ano!r ( ! same sub/ance1 w be ( t5 times ! weight4 ,b be=e m5 c\ld e/abli% by reason+ ! conditions "u :i* weights w\ld be 9 equilibrium1 "s o!r pr9ciples 7 ne$$ 9 addition to ! m]e measure ( =ces4 ,! pr9ciples introduc$ = ?is purpose /ill result$ f ! conception ( equal action & reaction2 b x requir$ no small cle>ness ( ?\ght to select !m rightly1 & to employ !m #baf successfully4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 0 done1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 by ! ,greeks2 & ! treatise ( ,ar*im$es ,on ! ,c5t] ( ,gravity1 is f\nd$ on pr9ciples :i* may /ill be consid]$ z ! g5u9e basis ( /atical reason+4 ,i %all make a few rem>ks on ! mo/ important pr9ciple among ^? :i* ,ar*im$es ?us employs4 #e4 ,! ,c5t] ( ,gravity4--,! mo/ important ( ! pr9ciples :i* ent] into ! demon/ration ( ,ar*im$es is ?is3 t ,e body has a c5t] ( gravity2 mean+ by ! c5t] ( gravity1 a po9t at :i* ! :ole matt] ( ! body may be suppos$ to be collect$1 to all int5ts & purposes ( /atical reason+4 ,?is pr9ciple has be5 put 9 v>i\s =ms by succe$+ writ]s3 = in/ance1 x has be5 ?\ght suffici5t to assume a case mu* simpl] ?an ! g5]al "o2 & to ass]t t two equal bodies h _! c5t] ( gravity 9 ! po9t midway betwe5 !m4 ,x is to be obs]v$1 t ?is ass]tion n only implies t ! two bodies w balance ^u a support plac$ at t midway po9t1 b also1 t !y w ex]cise1 ^u su* a support1 a pressure equal to _! sum2 = ?is po9t be+ ! c5t] ( gravity1 ! :ole matt] ( ! two bodies may be conceiv$ to be collect$ !re1 & !re=e ! :ole weight w press !re4 ,& ?us ! pr9ciple 9 "q am\nts to ?is1 t :5 two equal heavy bodies are support$ on ! middle po9t betwe5 !m1 ! pressure ^u ! support is equal to ! sum ( ! weights ( ! bodies4 ,a cle> und]/&+ ( ! nature & gr\nds ( ?is pr9ciple is ( great consequ5ce3 = 9 x we h ! f\ndation ( a l>ge portion ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics4 ,& if ?is pr9ciple c be %[n to be necess>ily true1 9 virtue ( our ,fundam5tal ,ideas1 we c h>dly d\bt t !re exi/ _m o!r tru?s ( ! same k9d1 & t no s\nd view ( ! evid5ce & ext5t ( human k c be obta9$1 s long z we mi/ake ! nature ( ^!1 its fir/ pr9ciples4 #bag ,! above pr9ciple1 t ! pressure on ! support is equal to ! sum ( ! bodies support$1 is (t5 /at$ z an axiom 9 ! outset ( books on ,me*anics4 ,& ?is appe>s to be ! true place & "* ( ?is pr9ciple1 9 accordance ) ! reason+s :i* we h already urg$4 ,! axiom dep5ds ^u our conception ( action & reaction4 ,t ! two weights are support$1 implies t ! support+ =ce mu/ be equal to ! =ce or weight support$4 ,9 ord] fur!r to %[ ! f\ndation ( ?is pr9ciple1 we may ask ! "q3--,if x be n an axiom1 d]iv+ its tru? f ! fundam5tal conception ( equal action & reaction1 :i* equilibrium always implies1 :at is ! orig9 ( its c]ta9ty8 ,! pr9ciple is nev] = an in/ant d5i$ or que/ion$3 x is tak5 = grant$1 ev5 be=e x is /at$4 ,no "o w d\bt t x is n only true1 b true ) ! same rig\r & univ]sality z ! axioms ( ,geometry4 ,w x be said1 t x is borr[$ f exp]i5ce8 ,exp]i5ce c\ld nev] prove a pr9ciple to be univ]sally & rigor\sly true4 ,moreov]1 :5 f exp]i5ce we prove a proposition to possess great exactness & g5]ality1 we approa* by degrees to ?is pro(3 ! conviction becomes /rong]1 ! tru? m secure1 z we accumulate trials4 ,b no?+ ( ?is k9d is ! case 9 ! in/ance be=e u4 ,!re is no gradation f less to great] c]ta9ty2--no hesitation :i* prec$es confid5ce4 ,f ! fir/1 we "k t ! axiom is exactly & c]ta9ly true4 ,9 ord] to be conv9c$ ( x1 we d n require _m trials1 b m]ely a cle> und]/&+ ( ! ass]tion itself4 ,b 9 fact1 n only are trials n necess>y to ! pro(1 b !y d n /r5g!n x4 ,probably no "o ev] made a trial = ! purpose ( %[+ t ! pressure ^u ! support is equal to ! sum ( ! two weights4 ,c]ta9ly no p]son ) cle> me*anical conceptions ev] want$ su* a trial to conv9ce him ( ! tru?2 or ?\ght ! tru? cle>] aft] ! trial _h be5 made4 ,if to su* a p]son1 an #bah exp]im5t 7 %[n :i* seem$ to contradict ! pr9ciple1 8 conclusion w\ld be1 n t ! pr9ciple 0 d\btful1 b t ! app>atus 0 out ( ord]4 ,no?+ c be less l collect+ tru? f exp]i5ce ?an ?is4 ,we ma9ta91 !n1 t ?is equality ( me*anical action & reaction1 is "o ( ! pr9ciples :i* d n fl[ f1 b regulate our exp]i5ce4 ,to ?is pr9ciple1 ! facts :i* we obs]ve mu/ con=m2 & we _c help int]pret+ !m 9 su* a mann] t !y %all be exemplifications ( ! pr9ciple4 ,a me*anical pressure n accompani$ by an equal & opposite pressure1 c no m be giv5 by exp]i5ce1 ?an two unequal "r angles4 ,) ! supposition ( su* inequalities1 space ceases to be space1 =ce ceases to be =ce1 matt] ceases to be matt]4 ,& ?is equality ( action & reaction1 consid]$ 9 ! case 9 :i* two bodies are connect$ s z to act on a s+le support1 leads to ! axiom :i* we h /at$ above1 & :i* is "o ( ! ma9 f\ndations ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics4 #b;d ed4 ,to ! doctr9e t me*anical pr9ciples1 su* z ! "o "h "u consid]ation 7t ! pressure on ! po9t ( support is equal to ! sum ( ! weights71 are d]iv$ f our ,ideas1 & d n fl[ f b regulate our exp]i5ce1 objections are naturally made by ^? :o ass]t all our k to be d]iv$ f exp]i5ce4 ,h[1 !y ask1 c we "k ! prop]ties ( pressures1 lev]s & ! l1 except f exp]i5ce8 ,:at b exp]i5ce c possibly in=m u t a =ce appli$ transv]sely to a lev] w h any t5d5cy to turn ! lev] on its c5t]8 ,?is _c be1 except we suppose 9 ! lev] t5acity1 rigidity & ! l1 :i* are qualities kn[n only by exp]i5ce4 ,& x is obvi\s t ?is l9e ( argum5t might be c>ri$ on ?r\gh ! :ole subject4 ,my answ] to ?is objection is a rem>k ( ! same k9d z "o :i* ,i h made respect+ ! ,ideas ( ,space1 ,"t1 & ,numb]1 9 ! la/ ,book4 ,! m9d1 9 appreh5d+ ev5ts z causes #bai & effects1 is gov]n$ by ,laws ( its own ,activity2 & ^! ,laws gov]n ! results ( ! m9d's action2 & make ^! results con=m to ! ,axioms ( ,causation4 ,b ?is activity ( ! m9d is awak5$ & develop$ by be+ ex]cis$2 & 9 deal+ ) ! examples ( cause & effect "h spok5 (1 7namely1 pressure & resi/ance1 =ce & motion17 ! m9d's activity is necess>ily gov]n$ also by ! bodily p[]s ( p]ception & action4 ,we are human be+s only 9 s f> z we h exi/$ 9 space & "t2 & ( our human faculties1 develop$ by our exi/5ce 9 space & "t1 space & "t are necess>y conditions4 ,9 l mann]1 we are human be+s only 9 s f> z we h bodies1 & bodily organs2 & our bodies necess>ily imply mat]ial objects ext]nal to u4 ,& h5ce our human faculties1 develop$ by our bodily exi/5ce 9 a mat]ial _w1 h ! conditions ( matt] = _! necess>y ,laws4 ,i h already said 7*ap4 v47 t our conception ( ,=ce arises ) our consci\sness ( our own muscul> ex]tions2--t ,=ce _c be conceiv$ )\t ,resi/ance to ex]cise itself ^u2--& t ?is resi/ance is suppli$ by ,matt]4 ,& ?us ! conception ( ,matt]1 & ( ! mo/ g5]al modes 9 :i* ,matt] receives1 resi/s1 & transmits =ce1 are p>ts ( our con/itution :i*1 ?\gh awak5$ & unfold$ by our be+ 9 a mat]ial _w1 are n di/+ui%able f ! orig9al /ructure ( ! m9d4 ,i d n ascribe to ! m9d innate ,ideas--,ideas :i* x w\ld h1 ev5 if x _h no int]c\rse ) ! _w ( space1 "t1 & matt]2 because we _c imag9e a m9d 9 su* a /ate4 ,b ,i attempt to po9t out & classify ^? ,conditions ( all ,exp]i5ce1 to :i* ! int]c\rse ( all m9ds ) ! mat]ial _w has necess>ily giv5 rise 9 all4 ,tru?s ?us necess>ily acquir$ 9 ! c\rse ( all exp]i5ce1 _c be said to be le>nt f exp]i5ce1 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* p>ticul> facts1 at def9ite times1 are le>nt f exp]i5ce--le>nt by "s p]sons & n by o!rs--le>nt ) m or less ( c]ta9ty4 ,^! latt] special tru?s ( #bbj exp]i5ce w be v important subjects ( our consid]ation2 b our :ole *ance ( discuss+ !m ) any pr(it dep5ds ^u our keep+ !m di/9ct f ! necess>y & univ]sal conditions ( exp]i5ce4 ,"h1 z ev]y:]e1 we mu/ keep 9 view ! fundam5tal anti!sis ( ,ideas & ,facts4 #f4 ,oblique ,=ces4--,by ! aid ( ! above axiom & a few o!rs1 ! ,greeks made "s progress 9 ! sci5ce ( ,/atics4 ,b aft] a %ort advance1 !y arriv$ at ano!r difficulty1 t ( ,oblique ,=ces1 :i* !y nev] ov]came2 & :i* no ma!matician ma/]$ till mod]n times4 ,! unpubli%$ manuscripts ( ,leon>do da ,v9ci1 writt5 9 ! fifte5? c5tury1 & ! works ( ,/ev9us & ,galileo1 9 ! sixte5?1 are ! places 9 :i* we f9d ! fir/ solid gr\nds ( reason+ on ! subject ( =ces act+ obliquely to ea* o!r4 ,& f t p]iod1 ma!maticians1 hav+ ?us become possess$ ( all ! me*anical pr9ciples :i* are requisite 9 problems respect+ equilibrium1 soon fram$ a complete sci5ce ( ,/atics4 ,succe$+ writ]s pres5t$ ?is sci5ce 9 =ms v>i\sly modifi$2 = x 0 f\nd1 9 ,me*anics z 9 ,geometry1 t v>i\s propositions might be tak5 z ! />t+ po9ts2 & t ! collection ( tru?s :i* x 0 ! me*anician's bus9ess to include 9 8 c\rse1 might ?us be trav]s$ by v>i\s r\tes1 ea* pa? (f]+ a s]ies ( satisfactory demon/rations4 ,! fundam5tal conceptions ( =ce & resi/ance1 l ^? ( space & numb]1 c\ld be contemplat$ "u diff]5t aspects1 ea* ( :i* might be made ! basis ( axioms1 or ( pr9ciples employ$ z axioms4 ,h5ce ! gr\nds ( ! tru? ( ,/atics may be /at$ 9 v>i\s ways2 & x w\ld be a task ( "s l5g? to exam9e all ^! completely1 & to trace !m to _! ,fundam5tal ,ideas4 ,?is ,i %all n und]take "h to d2 b ! philosophical importance ( ! subject makes x prop] to (f] a few rem>ks on "s ( ! ma9 pr9ciples involv$ 9 ! diff]5t modes ( pres5t+ ,/atics z a rigor\sly demon/rat$ sci5ce4 #bba #g4 ,a ,=ce may be suppos$ to act at any ,po9t ( its ,direction4--,x has be5 /at$ 9 ! hi/ory ( ,me*anics#abc1 t ,leon>do da ,v9ci & ,galileo obta9$ ! true measure ( ! effect ( oblique =ces1 by reason+s :i* 71 9 sub/ance1 ! same4 ,! pr9ciple ( ^! reason+s is t express$ at ! head ( ?is p>agraph2 & :5 we h a little accu/om$ ourselves to contemplate our conceptions ( =ce1 & its action on matt]1 9 an ab/ract mann]1 we %all h no difficulty 9 ass5t+ to ! pr9ciple 9 ?is g5]al =m4 ,b x may1 p]haps1 be m obvi\s at fir/ 9 a special case4 ,note #abc3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 vi4 c4 i4 sect4 #b4 ,if we suppose a :eel1 moveable ab\t its axis1 & c>ry+ ) x 9 its motion a weight1 7z1 = example1 "o ( ! :eels by means ( :i* ! l>ge bells ( a *ur* are rung17 ?is weight may be support$ by means ( a rope 7n pass+ along ! circumf]5ce ( ! :eel1 z is usual 9 ! case ( bells17 b fa/5$ to "o ( ! spokes ( ! :eel4 ,n[ ! pr9ciple :i* is enunciat$ above ass]ts1 t if ! rope pass 9 a /raight l9e across sev]al ( ! spokes ( ! :eel1 x makes no diff]5ce 9 ! me*anical effect ( ! =ce appli$1 = ! purpose ( putt+ ! bell 9 motion1 to :i* ( ^! spokes ! rope is fa/5$4 ,9 ea* case1 ! fa/5+ ( ! rope to ! :eel m]ely s]ves to enable ! =ce to produce motion ab\t ! c5t]2 & s long z ! =ce acts 9 ! same l9e1 ! effect is ! same1 at :atev] po9t ( ! rope ! l9e ( action f9i%es4 ,?is axiom v readily aids u 9 e/imat+ ! effect ( oblique =ces4 ,= :5 a =ce acts on "o ( ! arms ( a lev] at any oblique angle1 we suppose ano!r arm project+ f ! c5t] ( motion1 l ano!r spoke ( ! same :eel1 s situat$ t x is p]p5dicul> to ! =ce4 ,?is arm we may1 ) ,leon>do1 call ! virtual lev]2 =1 by ! axiom1 we may suppose ! =ce to act :]e ! l9e ( its direction meets ?is arm2 & ?us we r$uce ! case #bbb to t 9 :i* ! =ce acts p]p5dicul>ly on ! arm4 ,! gr\nd ( ?is axiom is1 t matt]1 9 ,/atics1 is necess>ily conceiv$ z transmitt+ =ce4 ,t =ce c be transmitt$ f "o place to ano!r1 by means ( matt]2--t we c pu% ) a rod1 pull ) a rope1--are suppositions impli$ 9 our conceptions ( =ce & matt]4 ,matt] is1 z we h said1 t :i* receives ! impression ( =ce1 & ! modes j m5tion$1 are ! simple/ ways 9 :i* t impression op]ates4 ,& s9ce1 9 any ( ^! cases1 ! =ce might be resi/$ by a reaction equal to ! =ce itself1 ! reaction 9 ea* case w\ld be equal1 &1 !re=e1 ! action 9 ea* case is necess>ily equal2 & ?us ! =ces mu/ be transmitt$1 f "o po9t to ano!r1 )\t increase or dim9ution4 ,?is prop]ty ( matt]1 ( transmitt+ ! action ( =ce1 is ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,we h ! coh]5ce ( a rope :i* enables u to pull1 & ! rigidity ( a /aff1 :i* enables u to pu% ) x 9 ! direction ( its l5g?2 & aga91 ! same /aff has a rigidity ( ano!r k9d1 9 virtue ( :i* we c use x z a lev]2 t is1 a rigidity to resi/ flexure1 & to transmit ! =ce :i* turns a body r\nd a fulcrum4 ,!re is1 fur!r1 ! rigidity by :i* a solid body resi/s twi/+4 ,( ^! k9ds ( rigidity1 ! fir/ is t to :i* our axiom ref]s2 b 9 ord] to complete ! li/ ( ! elem5t>y pr9ciples ( ,/atics1 we ought also to lay d[n axioms respect+ ! o!r k9ds ( rigidity#acc4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 ,i %all n "h /ate1 z !y d n involve any new pr9ciple4 ,l ! "o j consid]$1 !y =m "p ( our fundam5tal conception ( matt]2 !y are n ! results ( any exp]i5ce1 b are ! hypo!ses to :i* we are irresi/ibly l$1 :5 we w\ld lib]ate our reason+s conc]n+ =ce & matt] f a dep5d5ce on ! special results ( exp]i5ce4 ,we _c ev5 #bbc conceive 7t is1 if we h any cle> me*anical conceptions at all7 ! =ce ex]t$ by ! po9t ( a /aff & resi/+ ! =ce :i* we /eadily impress on ! head ( x1 to be diff]5t f ! impress$ =ce4 ,note #acc3 ,su* axioms are giv5 9 a little "w 7,! ,me*anical ,euclid7 :i* ,i publi%$ on ! ,elem5ts ( ,me*anics4 #h4 ,=ces may h equival5t ,=ces sub/itut$ = !m4 ,! ,p>allelogram ( ,=ces4--,x has already be5 obs]v$1 t 9 ord] to prove ! doctr9es ( ,/atics1 we may take v>i\s pr9ciples z our />t+ po9ts1 & may /ill f9d a c\rse ( demon/ration by :i* ! lead+ propositions belong+ to ! subject may be e/abli%$4 ,?us1 in/ead ( beg9n+ our reason+s1 z 9 ! la/ section we suppos$ !m to comm5ce1 ) ! case 9 :i* =ces act ^u diff]5t po9ts ( ! same body 9 ! same l9e ( =ce1 & c\nt]act ea* o!r 9 virtue ( ! int]v5+ matt] by :i* ! effect ( =ce is transf]r$ f "o po9t to ano!r2 we may suppose diff]5t =ces to act at ! same po9t1 & may ?us comm5ce our reason+s ) a case 9 :i* we h to contemplate =ce1 )\t hav+ to take into our acc\nt ! resi/ance or rigidity ( matt]4 ,two /atical =ces1 ?us act+ at a ma!matical po9t1 are equival5t1 9 all respects1 to "s s+le =ce act+ at ! same po9t2 & w\ld be kept 9 equilibrium by a =ce equal & opposite to t s+le =ce4 ,& ! rule by :i* ! s+le =ce is d]iv$ f ! two1 is commonly t]m$ ! p>allelogram ( =ces2 ! proposition be+ ?is1--,t if ! two =ces be repres5t$ 9 magnitude & direction by ! two sides ( a p>allelogram1 ! result+ =ce w be repres5t$ 9 ! same mann] by ! diagonal ( ! p>allelogram4 ,?is proposition has v frequ5tly be5 made1 by mod]n writ]s1 ! comm5cem5t ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics3 a position = :i*1 by its simplicity1 x is well suit$2 al?\gh1 9 ord] to d$uce f x ! o!r elem5t>y propositions ( ! sci5ce1 z1 = in/ance1 ^? respect+ ! lev]1 we require ! axiom /at$ 9 ! la/ section4 #i4 ,! ,p>allelogram ( ,=ces is a necess>y ,tru?4--,9 ! s]ies ( discussions 9 :i* we are #bbd "h engag$1 our ma9 bus9ess is to asc]ta9 ! nature & gr\nds ( ! c]ta9ty ( sci5tific tru?s4 ,we h1 !re=e1 to ask :e!r ?is proposition1 ! p>allelogram ( =ces1 be a necess>y tru?2 & if s1 on :at gr\nds its necessity ultimately re/s4 ,we %all f9d t ?is1 l ! o!r fundam5tal doctr9es ( ,/atics1 ju/ly claim a demon/rative c]ta9ty4 ,daniel ,b]n\lli1 9 #agbf1 gave ! fir/ pro( ( ?is important proposition on pure /atical pr9ciples2 & ?us1 z he says#adc1 'prov$ t /atical !orems are n less necess>ily true ?an geometrical are4' ,if we exam9e ?is pro( ( ,b]n\lli1 9 ord] to discov] :at are ! pr9ciples on :i* x re/s1 we %all f9d t ! reason+ employs 9 its progress su* axioms z ?is2--,t if f =ces :i* are 9 equilibrium at a po9t be tak5 away o!r =ces :i* are 9 equilibrium at ! same po9t1 ! rema9d] w be 9 equilibrium2 & g5]ally2--,t if =ces c be resolv$ into o!r equival5t =ces1 ^! may be sep>at$1 gr\p$1 & recomb9$1 9 any new mann]1 & ! result w /ill be id5tical ) :at x 0 at fir/4 ,?us 9 ,b]n\lli's pro(1 ! two =ces to be comp\nd$ are repres5t$ by ,p & ,q2 ,p is resolv$ into two o!r =ces1 ,x & ,u2 & ,q into two o!rs1 ,y & ,v1 "u c]ta9 conditions4 ,x is !n assum$ t ^! =ces may be gr\p$ into ! pairs ,x1 ,y1 & ,u1 ,v3 & :5 x has be5 %[n t ,x & ,y are 9 equilibrium1 !y may1 by :at has be5 said1 be remov$1 & ! =ces1 ,p1 ,q1 are equival5t to ,u1 ,v2 :i*1 be+ 9 ! same direction by ! c\rse ( ! con/ruction1 h a result equal to _! sum4 ,note #adc3 ,comm4 ,petrop4 vol4 i4 ,x is cle> t ! pr9ciples "h assum$ are g5u9e axioms1 dep5d+ ^u our conception ( ! nature ( equival5ce ( =ces1 & ^u _! be+ capable ( addition & composition4 ,if ! =ces1 ,p1 ,q1 be equival5t to =ces ,x1 ,u1 ,y1 ,v1 !y are equival5t to ^! =ces add$ & comp\nd$ 9 any ord]2 j z a geometrical figure is1 by our conception ( #bbe space1 equival5t to its p>ts add$ toge!r 9 any ord]4 ,! appreh5sion ( =ces z hav+ magnitude1 z made up ( p>ts1 z capable ( composition1 leads to su* axioms 9 ,/atics1 9 ! same mann] z ! l appreh5sion ( space leads to ! axioms ( ,geometry4 ,& ?us ! tru?s ( ,/atics1 re/+ ^u su* f\ndations1 are indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce 9 ! same mann] 9 :i* geometrical tru?s are s4 ,! pro( ( ! p>allelogram ( =ces ?us giv5 by ,daniel ,b]n\lli1 z x 0 ! fir/1 is also "o ( ! mo/ simple pro(s ( t proposition :i* h be5 devis$ up to ! pres5t day4 ,_m o!r demon/rations1 h[ev]1 h be5 giv5 ( ! same proposition4 ,jacobi1 a ,g]man ma!matician1 has collect$ & exam9$ eighte5 ( ^!#aec4 ,!y all dep5d ei!r ^u su* pr9ciples z h j be5 /at$2 ,t =ces may 9 e way be replac$ by ^? :i* are equival5t to !m2--or else ^u ^? previ\sly /at$1 ! doctr9e ( ! lev]1 & ! transf] ( a =ce f "o po9t to ano!r ( its direction4 ,9 ei!r case1 !y are necess>y results ( our /atical conceptions1 indep5d5t ( any obs]v$ laws ( motion1 & inde$1 ( ! conception ( actual motion altoge!r4 ,note #aec3 ,^! are by ! foll[+ ma!maticians2 ,d4 ,b]n\lli 7#agbf72 ,lamb]t 7#agga72 ,sc>ella 7#agef72 ,v59i 7#agfd72 ,araldi 7#ahjf72 ,wa*t] 7#ahae72 ,kae/n]2 ,m>9i2 ,eytelwe92 ,salimb5i2 ,du*ayla2 two diff]5t pro(s by ,fonc5ex 7#agfj72 ?ree by ,d',alemb]t2 & ^? ( ,laplace & ,m4 ,poisson4 ,!re is ano!r class ( alleg$ pro(s ( ! p>allelogram ( =ces1 :i* involve ! consid]ation ( ! motion produc$ by ! =ces4 ,b su* reason+s are1 9 fact1 altoge!r irrelevant to ! subject ( ,/atics4 ,9 t sci5ce1 =ces are n measur$ by ! motion :i* !y produce1 b by ! =ces :i* !y w balance1 z we h already se54 ,! comb9ation ( two =ces employ$ 9 produc+ motion 9 ! same body1 ei!r simultane\sly or successively1 #bbf belongs to t "p ( ,me*anics :i* has motion = its subject1 & is to be consid]$ 9 treat+ ( ! laws ( motion4 ,! composition ( motion1 7z :5 a man moves 9 a %ip :ile ! %ip moves ?r\gh ! wat]17 has con/antly be5 conf\nd$ ) ! composition ( =ce4 ,b ?\gh x has be5 done by v em95t ma!maticians1 x is q necess>y = u to keep ! two subjects di/9ct1 9 ord] to see ! real nature ( ! evid5ce ( tru? 9 ei!r case4 ,! conditions ( equilibrium ( two =ces on a lev]1 or ( ?ree =ces at a po9t1 c be e/abli%$ )\t any ref]5ce :atev] to any motions :i* ! =ces might1 "u o!r circum/ances1 produce4 ,& because ?is c be done1 to d s is ! only sci5tific proc$ure4 ,to prove su* propositions by any o!r c\rse1 w\ld be to support tru? by extrane\s & inconclusive reasons2 :i* w\ld be =eign to our purpose1 s9ce we seek n only k1 b ! gr\nds ( our k4 #aj4 ,! ,c5t] ( gravity seeks ! l[e/ place4--,! pr9ciples :i* we h already m5tion$ af=d a suffici5t basis = ! sci5ce ( ,/atics 9 its mo/ ext5sive & v>i$ applications2 & ! conditions ( equilibrium ( ! mo/ complex comb9ations ( ma*9]y may be d$uc$ f ^! pr9ciples ) a rig\r n inf]ior to t ( geometry4 ,b 9 "s ( ! m complex cases1 ! results ( long tra9s ( reason+ may be =ese51 9 virtue ( c]ta9 maxims :i* appe> to u self-evid5t1 al?\gh x may n be easy to trace ! exact dep5d5ce ( ^! maxims ^u our fundam5tal conceptions ( =ce & matt]4 ,( ?is nature is ! maxim n[ /at$2--,t 9 any comb9ation ( matt] any h[ support$1 ! ,c5t] ( ,gravity w desc5d into ! l[e/ position :i* ! connexion ( ! p>ts all[s x to assume by desc5d+4 ,x is easily se5 t ?is maxim c>ries to a mu* great] ext5t ! pr9ciple :i* ! ,greek ma!maticians assum$1 t e body has a ,c5t] ( ,gravity1 t is1 a po9t 9 :i*1 if ! :ole matt] ( ! body be collect$1 ! effect w rema9 un*ang$4 ,= ! ,greeks ass]t$ ?is ( a #bbg s+le rigid mass only2 :]eas1 9 ! maxim n[ "u our notice1 x is ass]t$ ( any masses1 connect$ by /r+s1 rods1 jo9ts1 or 9 any mann]4 ,we h already se5 t m mod]n writ]s on me*anics1 desir\s ( assum+ z fundam5tal no wid] pr9ciples ?an are absolutely necess>y1 h n adopt$ ! ,greek axiom 9 all its g5]ality1 b h only ass]t$ t two equal weights h a c5t] ( gravity midway betwe5 !m4 ,yet ! pr9ciple t e body1 h[ev] irregul>1 has a c5t] ( gravity1 & w be support$ if t c5t] is support$1 & n o!rwise1 is s f> evid5t1 t x might be employ$ z a fundam5tal tru?1 if we c\ld n resolve x into any simpl] tru?s3 &1 hi/orically speak+1 x 0 assum$ z evid5t by ! ,greeks4 ,9 l mann] ! /ill wid] pr9ciple1 t a collection ( bodies1 z1 = in/ance1 a flexible *a9 hang+ ^u "o or m supports1 has a c5t] ( gravity2 & t ?is po9t w desc5d to ! l[e/ possible situation1 z a s+le body w\ld d1 has be5 adopt$ at v>i\s p]iods 9 ! hi/ory ( me*anics2 & especially at conjunctures :5 ma!matical philosoph]s h _h new & difficult problems to cont5d )4 ,= 9 almo/ e in/ance x has only be5 by repeat$ /ruggles t philosoph]s h r$uc$ ! solution ( su* problems to a cle> dep5d5ce ^u ! mo/ simple axioms4 #aa4 ,/ev9us's ,pro( = ,oblique ,=ces4--,we h an example ( ?is mode ( deal+ ) problems1 9 ,/ev9us's mode ( reason+ conc]n+ ! ,incl9$ ,plane2 :i*1 z we h /at$ 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,me*anics1 0 ! fir/ correct publi%$ solution ( t problem4 ,/ev9us supposes a loop ( *a91 or a loop ( /r+ load$ ) a s]ies ( equal balls at equal di/ances1 to hang ov] ! ,incl9$ ,plane2 & 8 reason+ proce$s ^u ?is assumption1--,t su* a loop s hang+ w f9d a c]ta9 position 9 :i* x w re/3 = o!rwise1 says he#afc1 its motion mu/ g on = ev]1 :i* is absurd4 ,x may be ask$ h[ #bbh ?is absurdity ( a p]petual motion appe>s2 & x w p]haps be add$1 t al?\gh ! impossibility ( a ma*9e ) su* a condition may be prov$ z a remote result ( me*anical pr9ciples1 ?is impossibility c h>dly be itself recogniz$ z a self-evid5t tru?4 ,b to ?is we may reply1 t ! impossibility is really evid5t 9 ! case contemplat$ by ,/ev9us2 = we _c conceive a loop ( *a9 to g on ?r\gh all et]nity1 slid+ r\nd & r\nd ^u its support1 by ! effect ( its own weight4 ,& ! gr\nd ( our conviction t ?is _c be1 seems to be ?is consid]ation2 t :5 ! *a9 moves by ! effect ( its weight1 we consid] its motion z ! result ( an ef=t to rea* "s c]ta9 position1 9 :i* x c re/2 j z a s+le ball 9 a b[l moves till x comes to re/ at ! l[e/ po9t ( ! b[l4 ,su* an effect ( weight 9 ! *a91 we may repres5t to ourselves by conceiv+ all ! matt] ( ! *a9 to be collect$ 9 "o s+le po9t1 & ?is s+le heavy po9t to hang f ! support 9 "s way or o!r1 s z fitly to repres5t ! mode ( support ( ! *a94 ,9 :atev] mann] ?is heavy po9t 7! c5t] ( gravity ( ! *a97 be support$ & controll$ 9 its movem5ts1 !re w /ill be "s position ( re/ :i* x w seek & f9d4 ,& ?us !re w be "s correspond+ position ( re/ = ! *a92 & ! int]m9able %ift+ f "o position to ano!r1 ) no disposition to re/ 9 any position1 _c exi/4 ,note #afc3 ,/ev94 ,/atique1 livre i4 prop4 #ai4 ,?us ! demon/ration ( ! prop]ty ( ! ,incl9$ ,plane by ,/ev9us1 dep5ds ^u a pr9ciple :i*1 ?\gh f> f be+ ! simple/ ( ^? to :i* ! case c be r$uc$1 is /ill bo? true & evid5t3 & ! evid5ce ( ?is pr9ciple1 dep5d+ ^u ! assumption ( a c5t] ( gravity1 is ( ! same nature z ! evid5ce ( ! ,greek /atical demon/rations1 ! e>lie/ real advances 9 ! sci5ce4 #ab4 ,pr9ciple ( ,virtual ,velocities4--,we h ref]r$ above to an ass]tion (t5 made1 t we may1 f ! simple pr9ciples ( ,me*anics1 demon/rate ! impossibility ( a p]petual motion4 ,9 reality1 #bbi h[ev]1 ! simple/ pro( ( t impossibility1 9 a ma*9e act$ ^u by weight only1 arises f ! v maxim above /at$1 t ! c5t] ( gravity seeks & f9ds ! l[e/ place2 or f "s simil> proposition4 ,= if1 z is done by _m writ]s1 we pr(ess to prove ! impossibility ( a p]petual motion by means ( t proposition :i* includes ! conditions ( equilibrium1 & is call$ ! ,pr9ciple ( ,virtual ,velocities#agc1 we are "u ! necessity ( fir/ prov+ 9 a g5]al mann] t pr9ciple4 ,& if ?is be done by a m]e enum]ation ( cases1 7z by tak+ ^? five cases :i* are call$ ! ,me*anical ,p[]s17 !re may rema9 "s d\bts :e!r ! enum]ation ( possible me*anical comb9ations be complete4 ,accord+ly1 "s writ]s h attempt$ indep5d5t & g5]al pro(s ( ! ,pr9ciple ( ,virtual ,velocities2 & ^! pro(s re/ ^u assumptions ( ! same nature z t n[ "u notice4 ,?is is1 = example1 ! case ) ,lagrange's pro(1 :i* dep5ds ^u :at he calls ! ,pr9ciple ( ,pulleys4 ,= ?is pr9ciple is1--,t a weight any h[ support$1 z by a /r+ pass+ r\nd any numb] ( pulleys any h[ plac$1 w be at re/ !n only1 :5 x _c get l[] by any small motion ( ! pulleys4 ,& ?us ! maxim t a weight w desc5d if x c1 is assum$ z ! basis ( ?is pro(4 ,note #agc3 ,see ,hi/4 ,ind ,sc4 b4 vi4 c4 ii4 sect4 #d4 ,!re is1 z we h said1 no ne$ to assume su* pr9ciples z ^! = ! f\ndation ( our me*anical sci5ce4 ,b x is1 on v>i\s acc\nts1 useful to direct our att5tion to ^? cases 9 :i* tru?s1 appreh5d$ at fir/ 9 a complex & d]ivative =m1 h aft]w>ds be5 r$uc$ to _! simpl] elem5ts2--9 :i*1 also1 sagaci\s & inv5tive m5 h fix$ ^u ^? tru?s z self-evid5t1 :i* n[ appe> to u only c]ta9 9 virtue ( demon/ration4 ,9 ^! cases we c h>dly d\bt t su* m5 7 l$ to ass]t ! doctr9es :i* !y discov]$1 n by any caprici\s conjecture ( arbitr>y selection1 b by hav+ a ke5] & deep] insight ?an o!r p]sons #bcj into ! relations :i* 7 ! object ( _! contemplation2 & 9 ! sci5ce n[ spok5 (1 !y 7 l$ to _! assumptions by possess+ cle>ly & di/9ctly ! conceptions ( me*anical cause & effect1--action & reaction1--=ce1 & ! nature ( its op]ation4 #ac4 ,fluids press ,equally 9 all ,directions4--,! doctr9es :i* conc]n ! equilibrium ( fluids dep5d on pr9ciples no less c]ta9 & simple ?an ^? :i* ref] to ! equilibrium ( solid bodies2 & ! ,greeks1 :o1 z we h se51 obta9$ a cle> view ( "s ( ! pr9ciples ( ,/atics1 also made a beg9n+ 9 ! k9dr$ subject ( ,hydro/atics4 ,we /ill possess a treatise ( ,ar*im$es ,on ,float+ ,bodies1 :i* conta9s correct solutions ( sev]al problems belong+ to ?is subject1 & ( "s :i* are by no means easy4 ,9 ?is treatise1 ! fundam5tal assumption is ( ?is k9d3 ',let x be assum$ t ! nature ( a fluid is su*1 t ! p>ts :i* are less press$ yield to ^? :i* are m press$4' ,9 ?is assumption or axiom x is impli$ t a pressure ex]t$ ^u a fluid 9 "o direction produces a pressure 9 ano!r direction2 ?us1 ! weight ( ! fluid :i* arises f a d[nw>d =ce produces a lat]al pressure aga9/ ! sides ( ! conta9+ vessel4 ,n only does ! pressure ?us div]ge f its orig9al direction into all o!r directions1 b ! pressure is 9 all directions exactly equal1 an equal ext5t ( ! fluid be+ tak54 ,?is pr9ciple1 :i* 0 involv$ 9 ! reason+ ( ,ar*im$es1 is /ill to ! pres5t day ! basis ( all hydro/atical treatises1 & is express$1 z above1 by say+ t fluids press equally 9 all directions4 ,conc]n+ ?is1 z conc]n+ previ\sly-notic$ pr9ciples1 we h to ask :e!r x c rightly be said to be d]iv$ f exp]i5ce4 ,& to ?is ! answ] mu/ /ill be1 z 9 ! =m] cases1 t ! proposition is n "o borr[$ f exp]i5ce 9 any usual or exact s5se ( ! phrase4 ,i w endeav\r to illu/rate ?is4 ,!re are _m elem5t>y propositions 9 physics1 our k ( :i* #bca indisputably dep5ds ^u exp]i5ce2 & 9 ^! cases !re is no difficulty 9 see+ ! evid5ce ( ?is dep5d5ce4 ,9 su* cases1 ! exp]im5ts :i* prove ! law are prom95tly /at$ 9 treatises ^u ! subject3 !y are giv5 ) exact measures1 & ) an acc\nt ( ! means by :i* err\rs 7 avoid$3 ! exp]im5ts ( m rec5t times h ei!r r5d]$ m c]ta9 ! law orig9ally ass]t$1 or h po9t$ out "s correction ( x z requisite3 & ! names1 bo? ( ! discov]]s ( ! law & ( its subsequ5t re=m]s1 are well kn[n4 ,= in/ance1 ! proposition t ',! ela/ic =ce ( air v>ies z ! d5sity1' 0 fir/ prov$ by ,boyle1 by means ( op]ations ( :i* ! detail is giv5 9 8 ,def5ce ( 8 ,pneumatical ,exp]im5ts#ahc2 & by 9999,m>iotte 9 8 ,trait de l'quilibre des ,liquides1 f :om x has g5]ally be5 t]m$ ,m>iotte's law4 ,aft] be+ confirm$ by _m o!r exp]im5t]s1 ?is law 0 suspect$ to be slightly inaccurate1 & a commission ( ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces 0 appo9t$1 consi/+ ( sev]al di/+ui%$ philosoph]s#aic1 to asc]ta9 ! tru? or falsehood ( ?is suspicion4 ,! result ( _! inve/igations appe>$ to be1 t ! law is exact1 z ne>ly z ! inevitable inaccuracies ( ma*9]y & measures w all[ u to judge4 ,"h we h an example ( a law :i* is ( ! simple/ k9d & =m2 & :i* yet is n all[$ to re/ ^u its simplicity or app>5t probability1 b is rigor\sly te/$ by exp]i5ce4 ,9 ?is case1 ! ass]tion1 t ! law dep5ds ^u exp]i5ce1 conta9s a ref]5ce to pla9 & notori\s passages 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,note #ahc3 ,%aw's ,boyle1 ,vol4 ii4 p4 #fga4 ,note #aic3 ,! memb]s 7 ,prony1 ,arago1 ,ampre1 ,gir>d1 & ,dulong4 ,! exp]im5ts 7 ext5d$ to a pressure ( tw5ty-sev5 atmosph]es2 & 9 no in/ance did ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! obs]v$ & calculat$ ela/icity am\nt to "o-hundr$? ( ! :ole2 nor did ! diff]5ce appe> to increase ) ! increase ( pressure4--,fe*n]1 ,rep]torium1 i4 #aaj4 ,n[ ) reg>d to ! pr9ciple t fluids press equally 9 all directions1 ! case is altoge!r diff]5t4 #bcb ,x is1 inde$1 (t5 ass]t$ 9 works on hydro/atics1 t ! pr9ciple is collect$ f exp]i5ce1 & sometimes a few exp]im5ts are describ$ z exhibit+ its effect2 b ^! are su* z to illu/rate & expla91 r ?an to prove1 ! tru? ( ! pr9ciple3 !y are nev] relat$ to h be5 made ) t exactness ( precaution & measurem5t1 or t frequ5cy ( repetition1 :i* are necess>y to e/abli% a purely exp]im5tal tru?4 ,nor did su* exp]im5ts occur z important /eps 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,x does n appe> t ,ar*im$es ?\ght exp]im5t necess>y to confirm ! tru? ( ! law z he employ$ x3 on ! contr>y1 he /ates x 9 exactly ! same %ape z ! axioms :i* he employs 9 /atics1 & ev5 9 geometry2 namely1 z an assumption4 ,nor does any intellig5t /ud5t ( ! subject f9d any difficulty 9 ass5t+ to ?is fundam5tal pr9ciple ( hydro/atics z soon z x is prop\nd$ to him4 ,exp]im5t 0 n requisite = its discov]y2 exp]im5t is n necess>y = its pro( at pres5t2 & we may add1 t exp]im5t1 ?\gh x may make ! proposition ! m readily intelligible1 c add no?+ to our conviction ( its tru? :5 x is once und]/ood4 #ad4 ,f\ndation ( ! above ,axiom4--,b x w naturally be ask$1 ,:at !n is ! gr\nd ( our conviction ( ?is doctr9e ( ! equal pressure ( a fluid 9 all directions8 ,& to ?is ,i reply1 t ! reasons ( ?is conviction are involv$ 9 our idea ( a fluid1 :i* is consid]$ z matt]1 & !re=e z capable ( receiv+1 resi/+1 & transmitt+ =ce accord+ to ! g5]al conception ( matt]2 & :i* is also consid]$ z matt] :i* has its p>ts p]fectly moveable among "o ano!r4 ,= x foll[s f ^! suppositions1 t if ! fluid be conf9$1 a pressure :i* ?ru/s 9 "o side ( ! conta9+ vessel1 may cause any o!r side to bulge outw>ds1 if !re be a "p ( ! surface :i* has n /r5g? to resi/ ?is pressure f )94 ,& t ?is pressure1 :5 ?us transf]r$ into a direction diff]5t f ! orig9al "o1 is n alt]$ 9 int5sity1 #bcc dep5ds ^u ?is consid]ation2 t any diff]5ce 9 ! two pressures w\ld be consid]$ z a defect ( p]fect fluidity1 s9ce ! fluidity w\ld be /ill m complete1 if ?is entire & undim9i%$ transmission ( pressure 9 all directions 7 suppos$4 ,if1 = in/ance1 ! lat]al pressure 7 less ?an ! v]tical1 ?is c\ld be conceiv$ no o!r way ?an z indicat+ "s rigidity or adhesion ( ! p>ts ( ! fluid4 ,:5 ! fluidity is p]fect1 ! two pressures :i* act 9 ! two diff]5t p>ts ( ! fluid exactly balance ea* o!r3 !y are ! action & ! reaction2 & mu/ h5ce be equal by ! same necessity z two directly opposite =ces 9 /atics4 ,b x may be urg$1 t ev5 if we grant t ?is conception ( a p]fect fluid1 z a body :i* has its p>ts p]fectly moveable among ea* o!r1 leads u necess>ily to ! pr9ciple ( ! equality ( hydro/atic pressure 9 all directions1 /ill ?is conception itself is obta9$ f exp]i5ce1 or sugge/$ by obs]vation4 ,& to ?is we may reply1 t ! conception ( a fluid1 z contemplat$ 9 me*anical !ory1 _c be said to be d]iv$ f exp]i5ce1 except 9 ! same mann] z ! conception ( a solid & rigid body may be said to be acquir$ by exp]i5ce4 ,= if we imag9e a vessel full ( small1 smoo? sph]ical balls1 su* a collection ( balls w\ld approa* to ! nature ( a fluid1 9 hav+ its p>ts moveable among ea* o!r2 & w\ld approa* to p]fect fluidity1 z ! balls became smoo!r & small]4 ,& su* a collection ( balls w\ld also possess ! /atical prop]ties ( a fluid2 = x w\ld transmit pressure out ( a v]tical into a lat]al 7or any o!r7 direction1 9 ! same mann] z a fluid w\ld d4 ,& ?us a collection ( solid bodies has ! same prop]ty :i* a fluid has2 & ! sci5ce ( ,hydro/atics borr[s f exp]i5ce no pr9ciples beyond ^? :i* are involv$ 9 ! sci5ce ( ,/atics respect+ solids4 ,& s9ce 9 ?is latt] portion ( sci5ce1 z we h already se51 none ( ! pr9ciples dep5d = _! evid5ce ^u any special exp]i5ce1 ! doctr9es ( ,hydro/atics also are n #bcd prov$ by exp]i5ce1 b h a necess>y tru? borr[$ f ! relations ( our ideas4 ,x is h>dly to be expect$ t ! above reason+ w1 at fir/ sight1 produce conviction 9 ! m9d ( ! read]1 except he h1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 acqua9t$ himself ) ! elem5t>y doctr9es ( ! sci5ce ( ,hydro/atics z usually deliv]$2 & h foll[$1 ) cle> & /eady appreh5sion1 "s ( ! tra9s ( reason+ by :i* ! pressures ( fluids are det]m9$2 z1 = in/ance1 ! explanation ( :at is call$ ! ,hydro/atic ,p>adox4 ,! necessity ( su* a discipl9e 9 ord] t ! read] may ent] fully into ?is "p ( our speculations1 naturally r5d]s !m less popul>2 b ?is disadvantage is inevitable 9 our plan4 ,we _c expect to ?r[ light ^u philosophy by means ( ! advances :i* h be5 made 9 ! ma!matical & physical sci5ces1 except we really und]/& ! doctr9es :i* h be5 firmly e/abli%$ 9 ^? sci5ces4 ,?is prep>ation = philosophiz+ may be some:at labori\s2 b su* lab\r is necess>y if we w\ld pursue speculative tru? ) all ! advantages :i* ! pres5t condition ( human k places )9 our rea*4 ,we may add1 t ! consequ5ces to :i* we are direct$ by ! prec$+ op9ions1 are ( v great importance 9 _! be>+ ^u our g5]al views respect+ human k4 ,i tru/ to be able to %[1 t "s important di/9ctions are illu/rat$1 "s p]plex+ p>adoxes solv$1 & "s l>ge anticipations ( ! future ext5sion ( our k sugge/$1 by means ( ! conclusions to :i* ! prec$+ discussions h conduct$ u4 ,b be=e ,i proce$ to ^! g5]al topics1 ,i mu/ consid] ! f\ndations ( "s ( ! rema9+ portions ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics4 #bce ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,( ,,! ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,dynamics4 #a4 ,,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,me*anics1 ,i h trac$ ! /eps by :i* ! ?ree ,laws ( ,motion & ! o!r pr9ciples ( me*anics 7 discov]$1 e/abli%$1 & ext5d$ to ! wide/ g5]ality ( =m & application4 ,we h1 9 ^! laws1 examples ( pr9ciples :i* 71 hi/orically speak+1 obta9$ by ref]5ce to exp]i5ce4 ,be>+ 9 m9d ! object & ! result ( ! prec$+ discussions1 we _c b turn ) mu* int]e/ to exam9e ^! portions ( sci5ce2 to inquire :e!r !re be any real diff]5ce 9 ! gr\nds & nature betwe5 ! k ?us obta9$1 & ^? tru?s :i* we h already contemplat$2 & :i*1 z we h se51 conta9 _! own evid5ce1 & d n require pro( f exp]im5t4 #b4 ,! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion4--,! fir/ law ( motion is1 t ,:5 a body moves n act$ ^u by any =ce1 x w g on p]petually 9 a /raight l9e1 & ) a uni=m velocity4 ,n[ :at is ! real gr\nd ( our ass5t to ?is proposition8 ,t x is n at fir/ sight a self-evid5t tru?1 appe>s to be cle>2 s9ce f ! "t ( ,ari/otle to t ( ,galileo ! opposite ass]tion 0 held to be true2 & x 0 believ$ t all bodies 9 motion _h1 by _! own nature1 a con/ant t5d5cy to move m & m sl[ly1 s z to /op at la/4 ,?is belief1 inde$1 is probably ev5 n[ ent]ta9$ by mo/ p]sons1 till _! att5tion is fix$ ^u ! argum5ts by :i* ! fir/ law ( motion is e/abli%$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n difficult to lead any p]son ( a speculative habit #bcf ( ?\ght to see t ! ret>dation :i* con/antly takes place 9 ! motion ( all bodies :5 left to !mselves1 is1 9 reality1 ! effect ( extrane\s =ces :i* de/roy ! velocity4 ,a top ceases to sp9 because ! friction aga9/ ! gr\nd & ! resi/ance ( ! air gradually dim9i% its motion1 & n because its motion has any int]nal pr9ciple ( decay or fatigue4 ,?is may be %[n1 & 01 9 fact1 %[n by ,hooke be=e ! ,royal ,society1 at ! "t :5 ! laws ( motion 7 /ill "u discussion1 by means ( exp]im5ts 9 :i* ! weight ( ! top is increas$1 & ! resi/ance to motion (f]$ by its support1 is dim9i%$2 = by su* contrivances its motion is made to cont9ue mu* long] ?an x w\ld o!rwise d4 ,& by exp]im5ts ( ?is nature1 al?\gh we c nev] remove ! :ole ( ! ext]nal imp$im5ts to cont9u$ motion1 & al?\gh1 consequ5tly1 !re w always be "s ret>dation2 & an end ( ! motion ( a body left to itself1 h[ev] long x may be delay$1 mu/ at la/ come2 yet we c e/abli% a conviction t if all resi/ance c\ld be remov$1 !re w\ld be no dim9ution ( velocity1 & ?us ! motion w\ld g on = ev]4 ,if we call to m9d ! axioms :i* we =m]ly /at$1 z conta9+ ! mo/ important conditions involv$ 9 ! idea ( ,cause1 x w be se5 t our conviction 9 ?is case dep5ds ^u ! fir/ axiom ( ,causation1 t no?+ c happ5 )\t a cause4 ,e *ange 9 ! velocity ( ! mov+ body mu/ h a cause2 & if ! *ange c1 9 any mann]1 be ref]r$ to ! pres5ce ( o!r bodies1 ^! are said to ex]t =ce ^u ! mov+ body3 & ! conception ( =ce is ?us evolv$ f ! g5]al idea ( cause4 ,=ce is any cause :i* has motion1 or *ange ( motion1 = its effect2 & ?us1 all ! *ange ( velocity ( a body :i* c be ref]r$ to extrane\s bodies1--z ! air :i* surr\nds x1 or ! support on :i* x re/s1--is consid]$ z ! effect ( =ces2 & ?is consid]ation is look$ ^u z expla9+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! motion :i* really takes places 9 ! exp]im5t1 & t motion #bcg :i*1 z ! law ass]ts1 w\ld take place if ! body 7 n act$ on by any =ces4 ,?us ! tru? ( ! fir/ law ( motion dep5ds ^u ! axiom t no *ange c take place )\t a cause2 & foll[s f ! def9ition ( =ce1 if we suppose t !re c be none b an ext]nal cause ( *ange4 ,b 9 ord] to e/abli% ! law1 x 0 necess>y fur!r to be assur$ t !re is no int]nal cause ( *ange ( velocity belong+ to all matt] :atev]1 & op]at+ 9 su* a mann] t ! m]e progress ( "t is suffici5t to produce a dim9ution ( velocity 9 all mov+ bodies4 ,x appe>s f ! hi/ory ( me*anical sci5ce1 t ?is latt] /ep requir$ a ref]5ce to obs]vation & exp]im5t2 & t ! fir/ law ( motion is s f>1 hi/orically at lea/1 dep5d5t ^u our exp]i5ce4 ,b not)/&+ ?is hi/orical evid5ce ( ! ne$ :i* we h ( a ref]5ce to obs]v$ facts1 9 ord] to place ?is fir/ law ( motion out ( d\bt1 x has be5 ma9ta9$ by v em95t ma!maticians & philosoph]s1 t ! law is1 9 tru?1 evid5t ( itself1 & does n really re/ ^u exp]im5tal pro(4 ,su*1 = example1 is ! op9ion ( d',alemb]t#bjc1 :o (f]s :at is call$ an priori pro( ( ?is law2 t is1 a demon/ration d]iv$ f our ideas alone4 ,:5 a body is put 9 motion1 ei!r1 he says1 ! cause :i* puts x 9 motion at fir/1 suffices to make x move "o foot1 or ! cont9u$ action ( ! cause dur+ ?is foot is requisite = ! motion4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 ! same reason :i* made ! body proce$ to ! end ( ! fir/ foot w hold = its go+ on ?r\gh a second1 a ?ird1 a f\r? foot1 & s on = any numb]4 ,9 ! second case1 ! same reason :i* made ! =ce cont9ue to act dur+ ! fir/ foot1 w hold = its act+1 & !re=e = ! body mov+ dur+ ea* succe$+ foot4 ,& ?us ! body1 once beg9n+ to move1 mu/ g on mov+ = ev]4 ,note #bjc3 ,dynamique4 #bch ,x is obvi\s t we might reply to ?is argum5t1 t ! reasons = ! body proce$+ dur+ ea* succe$+ foot may n necess>ily be all ! same2 = among ^! reasons may be ! "t :i* has elaps$2 & ?us ! velocity may und]go a *ange z ! "t proce$s3 & we require obs]vation to in=m u t x does n d s4 ,pr(essor ,playfair has pres5t$ ne>ly ! same argum5t1 al?\gh 9 a diff]5t & m ma!matical =m#bac4 ,if ! velocity *ange1 says he1 x mu/ *ange accord+ to "s expression ( calculation dep5d+ ^u ! "t1 or1 9 ma!matical language1 mu/ be a function ( ! "t4 ,if ! velocity dim9i% z ! "t increases1 ?is may be express$ by /at+ ! velocity 9 ea* case z a c]ta9 numb]1 f :i* ano!r quantity1 or t]m1 increas+ z ! "t increases1 is subtract$4 ,b1 ,playfair adds1 !re is no condition involv$ 9 ! nature ( ! case1 by :i* ! coeffici5ts1 or numb]s :i* are to be employ$1 along ) ! numb] repres5t+ ! "t1 9 calculat+ ?is second t]m1 c be det]m9$ to be ( "o magnitude r ?an ( any o!r4 ,!re=e he inf]s !re c be no su* coeffici5ts1 & t ! velocity is 9 ea* case equal to "s con/ant numb]1 indep5d5t ( ! "t2 & is !re=e ! same = all times4 ,note #bac3 ,outl9es ( ,natural ,philosophy1 p4 #bf4 ,9 reply to ?is we may obs]ve1 t ! circum/ance ( our n see+ 9 ! nature ( ! case any?+ :i* det]m9es = u ! coeffici5ts above spok5 (1 _c prove t !y h n "s c]ta9 value 9 nature4 ,we d n see 9 ! nature ( ! case any?+ :i* %\ld det]m9e a body to fall sixte5 feet 9 a second ( "t1 r ?an "o foot or "o hundr$ feet3 yet 9 fact ! space ?us run ?r\gh by fall+ bodies is det]m9$ to a c]ta9 magnitude4 ,x w\ld be easy to assign a ma!matical expression = ! velocity ( a body1 imply+ t "o-hundr$? ( ! velocity1 or any o!r #bci fraction1 is lo/ 9 ea* second#bbc3 & :]e is ! absurdity ( suppos+ su* an expression really to repres5t ! velocity8 ,note #bbc3 ,?is w\ld be ! case1 if1 t be+ ! numb] ( seconds elaps$1 & ,c "s con/ant quantity1 ! velocity 7 express$ by ?is ma!matical =mula1 ,c7#ii_/ajj7t4 ,mo/ mod]n writ]s on me*anics h embrac$ ! opposite op9ion1 & h ascrib$ our k ( ?is fir/ law ( motion to exp]i5ce4 ,?us ,m4 ,poisson1 "o ( ! mo/ em95t ( ! ma!maticians :o h writt5 on ?is subject1 says#bcc1 ,we _c affirm priori t ! velocity communicat$ to a body w n become sl[] & sl[] ( itself1 & end by be+ entirely ext+ui%$4 ,x is only by exp]i5ce & induction t ?is "q c be decid$4 ,note #bcc3 ,poisson1 ,dynamique1 ed4 #b1 art4 #aac4 ,yet x _c be d5i$ t !re is mu* =ce 9 ^? argum5ts by :i* x is attempt$ to %[ t ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion1 su* z we f9d x1 is m consonant to our conceptions ?an any o!r w\ld be4 ,! ,law1 z x exi/s1 is ! mo/ simple t we c conceive4 ,in/ead ( hav+ to det]m9e by exp]im5ts :at is ! law ( ! natural *ange ( velocity1 we f9d ! ,law to be t x does n *ange at all4 ,to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ! ,law dep5ds ^u ! evid5t axiom1 t no *ange c take place )\t a cause4 ,b ! "q fur!r occurs1 :e!r ! m]e lapse ( "t may n be a cause ( *ange ( velocity4 ,9 ord] to ensure ?is1 we h rec\rse to exp]im5t2 & ! result is t "t alone does n produce any su* *ange4 ,9 addition to ! conditions ( *ange :i* we collect f our own ,ideas1 we ask ( ,exp]i5ce :at o!r conditions & circum/ances %e has to (f]2 & ! answ] is1 t %e c po9t out none2 ,:5 we h remov$ ! alt]ations :i* ext]nal causes1 9 our v conception ( !m1 occasion1 !re are no long] any alt]ations4 ,in/ead ( hav+ to guide ourselves #bdj by exp]i5ce1 we le>n t on ?is subject %e has no?+ to tell u4 ,in/ead ( hav+ to take into acc\nt a numb] ( circum/ances1 we f9d t we h only to reject all circum/ances4 ,! velocity ( a body rema9s unalt]$ by "t alone1 ( :atev] k9d ! body itself be4 ,b ! doctr9e t "t alone is n a cause ( *ange ( velocity 9 any body is fur!r recomm5d$ to u by ?is consid]ation2--t "t is conceiv$ by u n z a cause1 b only z a condition ( o!r causes produc+ _! effects4 ,causes op]ate 9 "t2 b x is only :5 ! cause exi/s1 t ! lapse ( "t c give rise to alt]ations4 ,:5 !re=e all ext]nal causes ( *ange ( velocity are suppos$ to be remov$1 ! velocity mu/ cont9ue id5tical ) itself1 :atev] ! "t :i* elapses4 ,an et]nity ( negation c produce no positive result4 ,?us1 ?\gh ! discov]y ( ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion 0 made1 hi/orically speak+1 by means ( exp]im5t1 we h n[ atta9$ a po9t ( view 9 :i* we see t x might h be5 c]ta9ly kn[n to be true indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce4 ,?is law 9 its ultimate =m1 :5 completely simplifi$ & /eadily contemplat$1 assumes ! "* ( a self-evid5t tru?4 ,we %all f9d ! same process to take place 9 o!r in/ances4 ,& ?is feature 9 ! progress ( sci5ce w h]eaft] be f\nd to sugge/ v important views ) reg>d bo? to ! nature & prospects ( our k4 #c4 ,gravity is a ,uni=m ,=ce4--,we %all f9d obs]vations ( ! same k9d (f]+ !mselves 9 a mann] m or less obvi\s1 ) reg>d to ! o!r pr9ciples ( ,dynamics4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! laws accord+ to :i* bodies fall d[nw>ds by ! common action ( gravity1 has already be5 notic$ 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,me*anics#bdc1 z "o ( ! e>lie/ positive advances 9 ! doctr9e ( motion4 ,^! laws 7 fir/ rightly /at$ by ,galileo1 & #bda e/abli%$ by reason+ & by exp]im5t1 n )\t diss5t & controv]sy4 ,! am\nt ( ^! doctr9es is ?is3 ,t gravity is a uni=m accel]at+ =ce2 su* a uni=m =ce hav+ ?is = its "*1 t x makes ! velocity increase 9 exact proportion to ! "t ( motion4 ,! relation :i* ! spaces describ$ by ! body be> to ! times 9 :i* !y are describ$1 is obta9$ by ma!matical d$uction f ?is def9ition ( ! =ce4 ,note #bdc3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 vi4 c4 ii4 sect4 #b4 ,! cle> ,def9ition ( a uni=m accel]at+ =ce1 & ! ,proposition t gravity is su* a =ce1 7 co-ord9ate & contempor>y /eps 9 ?is discov]y4 ,9 def9+ accel]at+ =ce1 ref]5ce1 tacit or express1 0 necess>ily made to ! second ( ! g5]al axioms respect+ causation1--,t causes are measur$ by _! effects4 ,=ce1 9 ! cases n[ "u our notice1 is conceiv$ to be1 z we h already /at$1 7p4 #bcf17 any cause :i*1 act+ f )\t1 *anges ! motion ( a body4 ,x mu/1 !re=e1 9 ?is acceptation1 be measur$ by ! magnitude ( ! *anges :i* are produc$4 ,b 9 :at mann] ! *anges ( motion are to be employ$ z ! measures ( =ce1 is le>nt f obs]vation ( ! facts :i* we see tak+ place 9 ! _w4 ,exp]i5ce int]prets ! axiom ( causation1 f :i* o!rwise we c\ld n d$uce any real k4 ,we may assume1 9 virtue ( our g5]al conceptions ( =ce1 t "u ! same circum/ances1 a great] *ange ( motion implies a great] =ce produc+ x2 b :at are we to expect :5 ! circum/ances *ange8 ,! weight ( a body makes x fall f re/ at fir/1 & causes x to move m quickly z x desc5ds l[]4 ,we may express ?is by say+1 t gravity1 ! univ]sal =ce :i* makes all t]re/rial bodies fall :5 n support$1 by its cont9u\s action fir/ gives velocity to ! body :5 x has none1 & aft]w>ds adds velocity to t :i* ! body already has4 ,b h[ is ! velocity add$ proportion$ to ! velocity :i* already exi/s8 ,=ce act+ on a body at re/1 & on a body 9 motion1 appe>s "u v diff]5t #bdb conditions2--h[ are ! effects relat$8 ,let ! =ce be conceiv$ to be 9 bo? cases ! same1 s9ce =ce is conceiv$ to dep5d ^u ! extrane\s bodies1 & n ^u ! condition ( ! mov+ mass itself4 ,b ! =ce be+ ! same1 ! effects may /ill be diff]5t4 ,x is at fir/ sight conceivable t ! body1 act$ ^u by ! same gravity1 may receive a less addition ( velocity :5 x is already mov+ 9 ! direction 9 :i* ?is gravity impels x2 = if we ourselves pu% a body =w>ds1 we c produce little additional effect ^u x :5 x is already mov+ rapidly away f u4 ,may x n be true1 9 l mann]1 t al?\gh gravity be always ! same =ce1 its effect dep5ds ^u ! velocity :i* ! body "u its influ5ce already possesses8 ,obs]vation & reason+ comb9$1 z we h said1 enabl$ ,galileo to answ] ^! que/ions4 ,he ass]t$ & prov$ t we may consi/5tly & prop]ly measure a =ce by ! velocity :i* is by x g5]at$ 9 a body1 9 "s c]ta9 "t1 z "o second2 & fur!r1 t if we adopt ?is measure1 gravity w be a =ce ( ! same value "u all circum/ances ( ! body :i* x affects2 s9ce x appe>$ t1 9 fact1 a fall+ body does receive equal increm5ts ( velocity 9 equal times f fir/ to la/4 ,if x be ask$ :e!r we c\ld h kn[n1 ant]ior to1 or indep5d5t (1 exp]im5t1 t gravity is a uni=m =ce 9 ! s5se ?us impos$ ^u ! t]m2 x appe>s cle> t we mu/ reply1 t we c\ld n h atta9$ to su* k1 s9ce o!r laws ( ! motion ( bodies d[nw>ds are easily conceivable1 & no?+ b obs]vation c\ld in=m u t "o ( ^! laws does n prevail 9 fact4 ,inde$1 we may add1 t ! ass]tion t ! =ce ( gravity is uni=m1 is s f> f be+ self-evid5t1 t x is n ev5 true2 = gravity v>ies accord+ to ! di/ance f ! c5t] ( ! e>?2 & al?\gh ?is v>iation is s small z to be1 9 ! case ( fall+ bodies1 imp]ceptible1 x negatives ! rigor\s uni=mity ( ! =ce z completely1 ?\gh #bdc n to ! same ext5t1 z if ! weight ( a body dim9i%$ 9 a m>k$ degree1 :5 x 0 c>ri$ f ! l[] to ! upp] room ( a h\se4 ,x _c1 !n1 be a tru? indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce1 t gravity is uni=m4 ,yet1 9 fact1 ! ass]tion t gravity is uni=m 0 ass5t$ to1 n only be=e x 0 prov$1 b ev5 be=e x 0 cle>ly und]/ood4 ,x 0 readily grant$ by all1 t bodies :i* fall freely are uni=mly accel]at$2 b :ile "s held ! op9ion j /at$1 t uni=mly accel]at$ motion is t 9 :i* ! velocity increases 9 proportion to ! "t1 o!rs ma9ta9$1 t t is uni=mly accel]at$ motion1 9 :i* ! velocity increases 9 proportion to ! space2 s t1 = example1 a body 9 fall+ v]tically ?r\gh tw5ty feet %\ld acquire twice z great a velocity z "o :i* falls ?r\gh t5 feet4 ,^! two op9ions are bo? put =w>d by ! int]locutors ( ,galileo's ,dialogue on ?is subject#bec4 ,& ! latt] supposition is reject$1 ! au?or %[+1 n t x is inconsi/5t ) exp]i5ce1 b t x is impossible 9 itself3 inasmu* z x w\ld inevitably lead to ! conclusion1 t ! fall ?r\gh a l>ge & a small v]tical space w\ld occupy exactly ! same "t4 ,note #bec3 ,dialogo1 iii4 p4 #ie4 ,inde$1 ,galileo assumes 8 def9ition ( uni=mly accel]at$ motion z "o :i* is suffici5tly recomm5d$ by its own simplicity4 ',if we att5d c>efully1' he says1 'we %all f9d t no mode ( increase ( velocity is m simple ?an t :i* adds equal increm5ts 9 equal times4 ,:i* we may easily und]/& if we consid] ! close aff9ity ( "t & motion3 = z ! uni=mity ( motion is def9$ by ! equality ( spaces describ$ 9 equal times1 s we may conceive ! uni=mity ( accel]ation to exi/ :5 equal velocities are add$ 9 equal times4' ,galileo's mode ( support+ 8 op9ion1 t bodies fall+ by ! action ( gravity are ?us uni=mly #bdd accel]at$1 consi/s1 9 ! fir/ place1 9 adduc+ ! maxim t nature always employs ! mo/ simple means#bfc4 ,b he is f> f consid]+ ?is a decisive argum5t4 ',i1' says "o ( 8 speak]s1 'z x w\ld be v unreasonable 9 me to ga9say ?is or any o!r def9ition :i* any au?or may please to make1 s9ce !y are all arbitr>y1 may /ill1 )\t (f5ce1 d\bt :e!r su* a def9ition1 conceiv$ & admitt$ 9 ! ab/ract1 fits1 agrees1 & is v]ifi$ 9 t k9d ( accel]at$ motion :i* bodies h :5 !y desc5d naturally4' ,note #bfc3 ,dialogo1 iii4 p4 #ia4 ,! exp]im5tal pro( t bodies1 :5 !y fall d[nw>ds1 are uni=mly accel]at$1 is 7by ,galileo7 d]iv$ f ! incl9$ plane2 & !re=e assumes ! proposition1 t if su* uni=m accel]ation prevail 9 v]tical motion1 x w also hold :5 a body is compell$ to describe an oblique rectil9e> pa?4 ,?is proposition may be %[n to be true1 if 7assum+ by anticipation ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion1 ( :i* we %all %ortly h to speak17 we introduce ! conception ( a uni=m /atical =ce z ! cause ( uni=m accel]ation4 ,= ! =ce on ! incl9$ plane be>s a con/ant proportion to ! v]tical =ce1 & ?is proportion is kn[n f /atical consid]ations4 ,b 9 ! "w ( :i* we are speak+1 ,galileo does n introduce ?is ab/ract conception ( =ce z ! f\ndation ( 8 doctr9es4 ,in/ead ( ?is1 he proposes1 z a po/ulate suffici5tly evid5t to be made ! basis ( 8 reason+s1 ,t bodies :i* desc5d d[n incl9$ planes ( diff]5t incl9ations1 b ( ! same v]tical height1 all acquire ! same velocity#bgc4 ,b :5 ?is po/ulate has be5 prop\nd$ by "o ( ! p]sons ( ! dialogue1 ano!r int]locutor says1 ',y disc\rse v probably2 b besides ?is likelihood1 ,i wi% to augm5t ! probability s f>1 t x %all be almo/ z complete z a necess>y demon/ration4' ,he !n proce$s to describe a v +5i\s & simple exp]im5t1 :i* %[s t :5 a body is made to sw+ upw>ds at ! end ( #bde a /r+1 x atta9s to ! same height1 :atev] is ! pa? x foll[s1 s long z x />ts f ! l[e/ po9t ) ! same velocity4 ,& ?us ,galileo's po/ulate is exp]im5tally confirm$1 s f> z ! =ce ( gravity c be tak5 z an example ( ! =ces :i* ! po/ulate contemplates3 & conv]sely1 gravity is prov$ to be a uni=m =ce1 s f> z x c be consid]$ cle> t ! po/ulate is true ( uni=m =ces4 ,note #bgfc3 ,dialogo1 iii4 p4 #cf4 ,:5 we h introduc$ ! conception & def9ition ( accel]at+ =ce1 ,galileo's po/ulate1 t bodies desc5d+ d[n incl9$ planes ( ! same v]tical height1 acquire ! same velocity1 may1 by a few /eps ( reason+1 be demon/rat$ to be true ( uni=m =ces3 & ?us ! pro( t gravity1 ei!r 9 v]tical or oblique motion1 is a uni=m =ce1 is confirm$ by ! exp]im5t above m5tion$2 z x also is1 on l gr\nds1 by _m o!r exp]im5ts1 made ^u incl9$ planes & p5dulums4 ,?us ! propriety ( ,galileo's conception ( a uni=m =ce1 & ! doctr9e t gravity is a uni=m =ce1 7 confirm$ by ! same reason+s & exp]im5ts4 ,we may make "h two rem>ks2 ,fir/1 t ! conception1 :5 e/abli%$ & rightly /at$1 appe>s s simple z h>dly to require exp]im5tal pro(2 a rem>k :i* we h already made ) reg>d to ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion3 & ,second1 t ! discov]y ( ! real law ( nature 0 made by assum+ propositions :i*1 )\t fur!r pro(1 we %\ld consid] z v prec>i\s1 & z f> less obvi\s1 z well z less evid5t1 ?an ! law ( nature 9 its simple =m4 #d4 ,! ,second ,law ( ,motion4--,:5 a body1 in/ead ( fall+ d[nw>ds f re/1 is ?r[n 9 any direction1 x describes a curve l9e1 till its motion is /opp$4 ,9 ?is1 & 9 all o!r cases 9 :i* a body describes a curv$ pa? 9 free space1 its motion is det]m9$ by ! ,second ,law ( ,motion4 ,! law1 9 its g5]al =m1 is z foll[s3--,:5 a body is ?us ca/ =? & act$ ^u by a =ce 9 a direction #bdf transv]se to its motion1 ! result is1 ,t !re is comb9$ ) ! motion ) :i* ! body is ?r[n1 ano!r motion1 exactly ! same z t :i* ! same =ce w\ld h communicat$ to a body at re/4 ,x w readily be und]/ood t ! basis ( ?is law is ! axiom already /at$1 t effects are measur$ by _! causes4 ,9 virtue ( ?is axiom1 ! effect ( gravity act+ ^u a body 9 a direction transv]se to its motion1 mu/ measure ! accel]ative or deflective =ce ( gravity "u ^? circum/ances4 ,if ?is effect v>y ) ! v>y+ velocity & direction ( ! body ?us act$ ^u1 ! deflective =ce ( gravity also w v>y ) ^? circum/ances4 ,! m simple supposition is1 t ! deflective =ce ( gravity is ! same1 :atev] be ! velocity & direction ( ! body :i* is subject$ to its influ5ce3 & ?is is ! supposition :i* we f9d to be v]ifi$ by facts4 ,= example1 a ball let fall f ! top ( a %ip's upright ma/1 :5 %e is sail+ /eadily =w>d1 w fall at ! foot ( ! ma/1 j z if x 7 let fall :ile ! %ip 7 at re/2 ?us %[+ t ! motion :i* gravity gives to ! ball is comp\nd$ ) ! horizontal motion :i* ! ball %>es ) ! %ip f ! fir/4 ,?is g5]al & simple conception ( motions z comp\nd$ ) "o ano!r1 repres5ts1 x is prov$1 ! mann] 9 :i* ! motion produc$ by gravity modifies any o!r motion :i* ! body may previ\sly h _h4 ,! discussions :i* t]m9at$ 9 ! g5]al reception ( ?is ,second ,law ( ,motion among me*anical writ]s1 7 mu* mix$ up ) ! argum5ts = & aga9/ ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 :i* sy/em repres5t$ ! e>? z revolv+ ^u its axis4 ,= ! obvi\s argum5t aga9/ ?is sy/em 01 t if ea* po9t ( ! e>?'s surface 7 ?us 9 motion f we/ to ea/1 a /one dropt f ! top ( a t[] w\ld be left beh9d1 ! t[] mov+ away f x3 & ! answ] 01 t by ?is law ( motion1 ! /one w\ld h ! e>?'s motion impress$ ^u x1 z well z t motion :i* w\ld #bdg arise f its gravity to ! e>?2 & t ! motion ( ! /one relative to ! t[] w\ld ?us be ! same z if bo? e>? & t[] 7 at re/4 ,galileo fur!r urg$1 z a presumption 9 fav\r ( ! op9ion t ! two motions1--! circul> motion aris+ f ! rotation ( ! e>?1 & ! d[nw>d motion aris+ f ! gravity ( ! /one1 w\ld be comp\nd$ 9 ! way we h describ$1 7nei!r ( !m di/urb+ or dim9i%+ ! o!r17--t ! fir/ motion 0 9 its own nature n liable to any *ange or dim9ution#bhc1 z we le>n f ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion4 ,nor 0 ! subject lightly dismiss$4 ,! exp]im5t ( ! /one let fall f ! top ( ! ma/ 0 made 9 v>i\s =ms by ,gass5di2 & 9 8 ,epi/le1 ,de ,motu impresso a ,motore translato1 ! rule n[ 9 "q is support$ by ref]5ce to ^! exp]im5ts4 ,9 ?is mann]1 ! g5]al tru?1 ! ,second ,law ( ,motion1 0 e/abli%$ completely & beyond dispute4 ,note #bhc3 ,dialogo1 ii4 p4 #aad4 ,b :5 ?is law _h be5 prov$ to be true 9 a g5]al s5se1 ) su* accuracy z rude exp]im5ts1 l ^? ( ,galileo & ,gass5di1 w\ld admit1 x /ill rema9$ to be asc]ta9$ 7suppos+ our k ( ! law to be ! result ( exp]i5ce alone17 :e!r x 7 true ) t precise & rigor\s exactness :i* m ref9$ modes ( exp]im5t+ c\ld te/4 ,we s will+ly believe 9 ! simplicity ( laws ( nature1 t ! rigor\s accuracy ( su* a law1 kn[n to be at lea/ approximately true1 0 tak5 = grant$1 till "s gr\nd = suspect+ ! contr>y %\ld appe>4 ,yet calculations h n be5 want+ :i* might confirm ! law z true to ! la/ degree ( accuracy4 ,laplace relates 7,sy/4 du ,monde1 livre iv4 *ap4 #af17 t at "o "t he _h conceiv$ x possible t ! effect ( gravity ^u ! moon might be slightly modifi$ by ! moon's direction & velocity2 & t 9 ?is way an explanation might be f\nd = ! moon's accel]ation 7a deviation ( h] obs]v$ f h] calculat$ place1 :i* long #bdh p]plex$ ma!maticians74 ,b x 0 aft] "s "t discov]$ t ?is feature 9 ! moon's motion arose f ano!r cause2 & ! second law ( motion 0 confirm$ z true 9 ! mo/ rigor\s s5se4 ,?us we see t al?\gh !re 7 argum5ts :i* might be urg$ 9 fav\r ( ?is law1 f\nd$ ^u ! necess>y relations ( ideas1 m5 became conv9c$ ( its tru? only :5 x 0 v]ifi$ & confirm$ by actual exp]im5t4 ,b yet 9 ?is case aga91 z 9 ! =m] ones1 :5 ! law _h be5 e/abli%$ beyond d\bt or "q1 m5 7 v ready to believe t x 0 n a m]e result ( obs]vation1--t ! tru? :i* x conta9$ 0 n d]iv$ f exp]i5ce1--t x might h be5 assum$ z true 9 virtue ( reason+s ant]ior to exp]i5ce1--& t exp]im5ts s]v$ only to make ! law m pla9 & intelligible1 z visible diagrams 9 geometry s]ve to illu/rate geometrical tru?s2 our k n be+ 7!y deem$7 9 me*anics1 any m ?an 9 geometry1 borr[$ f ! s5ses4 ,x 0 ?\ght by _m to be self-evid5t1 t ! effect ( a =ce 9 any direction _c be increas$ or dim9i%$ by any motion transv]se to ! direction ( ! =ce :i* ! body may h at ! same "t3 or1 to express x o!rwise1 t if ! motion ( ! body be comp\nd$ ( a horizontal & v]tical motion1 ! v]tical motion alone w be affect$ by ! v]tical =ce4 ,?is pr9ciple1 inde$1 n only has appe>$ evid5t to _m p]sons1 b ev5 at ! pres5t day is assum$ z an axiom by _m ( ! mo/ em95t ma!maticians4 ,x is1 = example1 s employ$ 9 ! ,mcanique ,cle/e ( ,laplace1 :i* may be look$ ^u z ! /&>d ( ma!matical me*anics 9 our "t2 & 9 ! ,mcanique ,analytique ( ,lagrange1 ! mo/ consummate example :i* has appe>$ ( subtilty ( ?\ght on su* subjects1 z well z ( p[] ( ma!matical g5]alization#bic4 ,& #bdi ?us we h "h ano!r example ( t circum/ance :i* we h already notic$ 9 speak+ ( ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion1 7,art4 #b ( ?is *apt]17 & ( ! ,law t ,gravity is a uni=m ,=ce1 7,art4 #c72 namely1 t ! law1 ?\gh hi/orically e/abli%$ by exp]im5ts1 appe>s1 :5 once discov]$ & r$uc$ to its mo/ simple & g5]al =m1 to be self-evid5t4 ,i am ! m desir\s ( draw+ att5tion to ?is feature 9 v>i\s portions ( ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 inasmu* z x w be f\nd to lead to "s v ext5sive & important views1 h]eaft] to be consid]$4 ,note #bic3 ,i may obs]ve t ! rule t we may comp\nd motions1 z ! ,law supposes1 is involv$ 9 ! /ep ( resolv+ !m2 :i* is done 9 ! passage to :i* ,i ref]4 7,mc4 ,analyt4 ptie4 i4 sect4 i4 art4 #c4 p4 #bbe47 ',si on conoit que le m\vem5t d'un corps et les =ces qui le sollicit5t soi5t decomposes suivant trois lignes droites p]p5diculaires entre elles1 on p\rra considr] sp>m5t les m\vem5s et les =ces relatives *acun de ces trois directions4 ,c> cause de la p]p5dicul>it des directions il e/ visible que *acun de ces m\vem5s p>tiels peut tre reg>d comme indp5dant des deux autres1 et qu'il ne peut recevoir d'altration que de la "p de la =ce qui agit dans la direction de ce m\vem5t2 l'on peut conclure que ces trois m\vem5s doiv5t suivre1 *acun en p>ticuli]1 les lois des m\vem5s rectilignes acclrs ou ret>ds p> les =ces donnes4' ,laplace makes ! same assumption 9 effect1 7,mc4 ,cl4 p4 i4 liv4 i4 art4 #g71 by resolv+ ! =ces :i* act ^u a po9t 9 ?ree rectangul> directions1 & reason+ sep>ately conc]n+ ea* direction4 ,b 9 8 mode ( treat+ ! subject is involv$ a pr9ciple :i* belongs to ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion1 namely1 ! doctr9e t ! velocity is z ! =ce1 ( :i* we %all h to speak else:]e4 #e4 ,! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion4--,we h1 9 ! def9ition ( ,accel]at+ ,=ce1 a measure ( ,=ces1 s f> z !y are conc]n$ 9 produc+ motion4 ,we _h be=e1 9 speak+ ( ! pr9ciples ( /atics1 def9$ ! measure ( ,=ces or ,pressures1 s f> z !y are employ$ 9 produc+ equilibrium4 ,b ^! two aspects ( ,=ce are closely connect$2 & we require a law :i* %all lay d[n ! rule ( _! connexion4 ,by ! same k9d ( muscul> ex]tion by :i* we c support a heavy /one1 we c also put x 9 motion4 ,! "q !n occurs1 h[ is ! rate & mann] ( its motion det]m9$8 ,! answ] to ?is "q is conta9$ 9 ! ,?ird ,law #bej ( ,motion1 & x is to ?is effect3 t ! ,mom5tum :i* any pressure produces 9 ! mass 9 a giv5 "t is proportional to ! pressure4 ,by ,mom5tum is meant ! product ( ! numb]s :i* express ! velocity & ! mass ( ! body3 & h5ce1 if ! mass ( ! body be ! same 9 ! in/ances :i* we comp>e1 ! rule is1--,t ! velocity is z ! =ce :i* produces x2 & ?is is "o ( ! simple/ ways ( express+ ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion4 ,9 agreem5t ) our g5]al plan1 we h to ask1 ,:at is ! gr\nd ( ?is rule8 ,:at is ! simple/ & mo/ satisfactory =m to :i* we c r$uce ! pro( ( x8 ,or1 to take an in/ance2 if a d\ble pressure be ex]t$ aga9/ a giv5 mass1 s dispos$ z to be capable ( motion1 :y mu/ x produce twice ! velocity 9 ! same "t8 ,to answ] ?is "q1 suppose ! d\ble pressure to be resolv$ into two s+le pressures3 "o ( ^! w produce a c]ta9 velocity2 & ! "q is1 :y an equal pressure1 act+ ^u ! same mass1 w produce an equal velocity 9 addition to ! =m]8 ,or1 /at+ ! matt] o!rwise1 ! "q is1 :y ea* ( ! two =ces w produce its sep>ate effect1 unalt]$ by ! simultane\s action ( ! o!r =ce8 ,?is /atem5t ( ! case makes x seem to approa* v ne> to su* cases z are includ$ 9 ! ,second ,law ( ,motion1 & !re=e x might appe> t ?is ,?ird ,law has no gr\nds di/9ct f ! ,second4 ,b x mu/ be recollect$ t ! ^w =ce has a diff]5t mean+ 9 ?is case & 9 t2 9 ?is place x signifies pressure2 9 ! /atem5t ( ! ,second ,law its import 0 accel]ative or deflective =ce1 measur$ by ! velocity or deflexion g5]at$4 ,& ?us ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion1 s f> z our reason+s yet g1 appe>s to re/ on a f\ndation diff]5t f ! ,second4 ,accord+ly1 t "p ( ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion :i* we are n[ consid]+1 t ! velocity g5]at$ is z ! =ce1 0 obta9$1 9 fact1 by a sep>ate tra9 ( rese>*4 ,! fir/ exemplification ( ?is #bea law :i* 0 /udi$ by ma!maticians1 0 ! motion ( bodies ^u incl9$ planes3 = ! =ce :i* urges a body d[n an incl9$ plane is kn[n by /atics1 & h5ce ! velocity ( its desc5t 0 to be det]m9$4 ,galileo orig9ally#cjc 9 8 attempts to solve ?is problem ( ! desc5t ( a body d[n an incl9$ plane1 did n proce$ f ! pr9ciple :i* we h /at$1 7! det]m9ation ( ! =ce :i* acts d[n ! incl9$ plane f /atical consid]ations17 obvi\s z x may seem2 b assum$1 z we h already se51 a proposition app>5tly f> m prec>i\s2--namely1 t a body slid+ d[n a smoo? incl9$ plane acquires always ! same velocity1 s long z ! v]tical height fall5 ?r\gh is ! same4 ,& ?is conjecture 7= at fir/ x 0 no?+ m ?an a conjecture7 he confirm$ by an +5i\s exp]im5t2 9 :i* bodies acquir$ or lo/ ! same velocity by desc5d+ or asc5d+ ?r\gh ! same height1 al?\gh _! pa?s 7 diff]5t 9 o!r respects4 ,note #cjc3 ,dial4 della ,sc4 ,nuov4 iii4 p4 #if4 ,see ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sci4 b4 vi4 c4 ii4 sect4 #e4 ,?is 0 ! =m 9 :i* ! doctr9e ( ! motion ( bodies d[n incl9$ planes 0 at fir/ pres5t$ 9 ,galileo's ,dialogues on ! ,sci5ce ( ,motion4 ,b 8 disciple ,viviani 0 dissatisfi$ ) ! assumption ?us introduc$2 & 9 succe$+ editions ( ! ,dialogues1 ! app>5t *asm 9 ! reason+ 0 mu* n>r[$1 by mak+ ! pro( dep5d ^u a pr9ciple ne>ly id5tical ) ! ?ird law ( motion z we h j /at$ x4 ,9 ! pro( ?us add$1 ',we are agre$1' says ! int]locutor#cac1 't 9 a mov+ body ! impetus1 en]gy1 mom5tum1 or prop5sion to motion1 is z great z is ! =ce or lea/ resi/ance :i* suffices to su/a9 x2' & ! impetus or mom5tum1 9 ! c\rse ( ! pro(1 be+ tak5 to be z ! velocity produc$ 9 a giv5 "t1 x is manife/ t ! pr9ciple s /at$ am\nts to ?is2 t ! velocity produc$ is z ! /atical =ce4 ,& ?us ?is law ( motion appe>s1 #beb 9 ! s*ool ( ,galileo1 to h be5 sugge/$ & e/abli%$ at fir/ by exp]im5t1 b aft]w>ds confirm$ & demon/rat$ by priori consid]ations4 ,note #cac3 ,dialogo1 p4 #ajd4 ,we see1 9 ! above reason+1 a numb] ( ab/ract t]ms introduc$ :i* are n1 at fir/ at lea/1 v di/9ctly def9$1 z impetus1 mom5tum1 c4 ,( ^!1 mom5tum has be5 select$1 to express t quantity :i*1 9 a mov+ body1 measures ! /atical =ce impress$ ^u ! body4 ,?is quantity is1 z we h j se51 proportional to ! velocity 9 a giv5 body4 ,x is also1 9 diff]5t bodies1 proportional to ! mass ( ! body4 ,?is "p ( ! ?ird law ( motion foll[s f our conception ( matt] 9 g5]al z consi/+ ( p>ts capable ( addition4 ,a d\ble pressure mu/ be requir$ to produce ! same velocity 9 a d\ble mass2 = if ! mass be halv$1 ea* half w require an equal pressure2 & ! addition1 bo? ( ! pressures & ( ! masses1 w take place )\t di/urb+ ! effects4 ,! measure ( ! quantity ( matt] ( a body consid]$ z affect+ ! velocity :i* pressure produces 9 ! body1 is t]m$ its in]tia1 z we h already /at$ 7c4 v474 ,in]tia is ! prop]ty by :i* a l>ge mass ( matt] requires a great] =ce ?an a small mass1 to give x an equal velocity4 ,x belongs to ea* portion ( matt]2 & portions ( in]tia are add$ :5ev] portions ( matt] are add$4 ,h5ce in]tia is z ! quantity ( matt]2 :i* is only ano!r way ( express+ ?is ?ird law ( motion1 s f> z quantity ( matt] is conc]n$4 ,b h[ d we "k ! quantity ( matt] ( a body8 ,we may reply1 t we take ! weight z ! measure ( ! quantity ( matt]3 b we may !n be aga9 ask$1 h[ x appe>s t ! weight is proportional to ! in]tia2 :i* x mu/ be1 9 ord] t ! quantity ( matt] may be proportional to bo? "o & ! o!r4 ,we answ]1 t ?is appe>s to be true exp]im5tally1 because all bodies fall ) equal velocities by gravity1 :5 ! kn[n causes ( diff]5ce are remov$4 ,! obs]vations ( fall+ #bec bodies1 inde$1 are n susceptible ( mu* exactness3 b exp]im5ts lead+ to ! same result1 & capable ( great precision1 7 made ^u p5dulums by ,newton2 z he relates 9 8 ,pr9cipia1 ,book ,,iii4 prop4 #f4 ,!y all agre$1 he says1 ) p]fect accuracy3 & ?us ! weight & ! in]tia are proportional 9 all cases1 & !re=e ea* proportional to ! quantity ( matt] z measur$ by ! o!r4 ,! conception ( in]tia1 z we h already se5 9 *apt] ,v41 involves ! notion ( action & reaction2 & ?us ! laws :i* involve in]tia dep5d ^u ! idea ( mutual causation4 ,! rule1 t ! velocity is z ! =ce1 dep5ds ^u ! pr9ciple ( causation1 t ! effect is proportional to ! cause2 ! effect be+ "h s e/imat$ z to be consi/5t bo? ) ! o!r laws ( motion & ) exp]im5t4 ,b "h1 z 9 o!r cases1 ! "q occurs aga92 ,is exp]im5t really requisite = ! pro( ( ?is law8 ,if we look to au?orities1 we %all be n a little emb>rass$ to decide4 ,d',alemb]t is aga9/ ! necessity ( exp]im5tal pro(4 ',:y1' says he#cbc1 '%\ld we h rec\rse to ?is pr9ciple employ$1 at ! pres5t day1 by ev]ybody1 t ! =ce is proportional to ! velocity8 444 a pr9ciple re/+ solely ^u ?is vague & obscure axiom1 t ! effect is proportional to ! cause4 ,we %all n exam9e "h1' he adds1 'if ?is pr9ciple is necess>ily true2 we %all only av[ t ! pro(s :i* h hi!rto be5 adduc$ d n appe> to u unexceptionable3 nor %all we1 ) "s geomet]s1 adopt x z a purely cont+5t tru?2 :i* w\ld be to ru9 ! c]ta9ty ( me*anics1 & to r$uce x to be no?+ m ?an an exp]im5tal sci5ce4 ,we %all cont5t ourselves ) obs]v+1' he proce$s1 't c]ta9 or d\btful1 cle> or obscure1 x is useless 9 me*anics1 & consequ5tly ought to be bani%$ f ! sci5ce4' ,?\gh ,d',alemb]t rejects ! ?ird law ( motion 9 ?is =m1 he accepts "o ( #bed equival5t import1 :i* appe>s to him to possess axiomatic c]ta9ty2 & ?is proc$ure is 9 consi/5ce ) ! c\rse :i* he takes1 ( claim+ = ! sci5ce ( me*anics m ?an m]e exp]im5tal tru?4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,laplace consid]s ?is ?ird law z e/abli%$ by exp]im5t4 ',is ! =ce1' he says'#ccc1 'proportion$ to ! velocity8 ,?is1' he replies1 'we _c "k priori1 see+ t we are 9 ignorance ( ! nature ( mov+ =ce3 we mu/ !re=e1 = ?is purpose1 recur to exp]i5ce2 = all :i* is n a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! few data we h respect+ ! nature ( ?+s1 is1 = u1 only a result ( obs]vation4' ,& aga9 he says#cdc1 ',"h1 !n1 we h two laws ( motion1--! law ( in]tia ! fir/ law ( motion1 & ! law ( ! =ce proportional to ! velocity1--:i* are giv5 by obs]vation4 ,!y are ! mo/ natural & ! mo/ simple laws :i* we c imag9e1 & )\t d\bt !y fl[ f ! v nature ( matt]2 b ?is nature be+ unkn[n1 !y are1 = u1 only obs]v$ facts3 ! only ones1 h[ev]1 :i* ,me*anics borr[s f exp]i5ce4' ,note #cbc3 ,dynamique1 ,pref4 p4 x4 ,note #ccc3 ,mc4 ,cl4 p4 #ae4 ,note #cdc3 p4 #ah4 ,x w appe>1 ,i ?9k1 f ! views giv5 9 ?is & sev]al o!r p>ts ( ! pres5t "w1 t we _c ) ju/ice say t we h v 'few data respect+ ! nature ( ?+s1' 9 speculat+ conc]n+ ! laws ( ! univ]se2 s9ce all ! consequ5ces :i* fl[ f ! relations ( our fundam5tal ideas1 necess>ily regulate our k ( ?+s1 s f> z we h any su* k4 ,nor c we say t ! nature ( matt] is unkn[n to u1 9 any s5se 9 :i* we c conceive k z possible4 ,! nature ( matt] is no m unkn[n ?an ! nature ( space or ( numb]4 ,9 our conception ( matt]1 z ( space & ( numb]1 are involv$ c]ta9 relations1 :i* are ! necess>y gr\ndwork ( our k2 & any?+ :i* is indep5d5t ( ^! relations1 is n unkn[n1 b inconceivable4 #bee ,x mu/ be already cle> to ! read]1 f ! phraseology employ$ by ^! two em95t ma!maticians1 t ! "q respect+ ! =mation ( ! ?ird law ( motion c only be solv$ by a c>eful consid]ation ( :at we mean by obs]vation & exp]i5ce1 nature & matt]4 ,b x w probably be g5]ally all[$1 t1 tak+ into acc\nt ! explanations already (f]$ ( ! necess>y conditions ( exp]i5ce & ( ! conception ( in]tia1 ?is law ( motion1 t ! in]tia is z ! quantity ( matt]1 is almo/ or altoge!r self-evid5t4 #f4 ,action & ,reaction are ,equal 9 ,mov+ ,bodies4--,:5 we h to consid] bodies z act+ ^u "o ano!r1 & influ5c+ ea* o!r's motions1 ! ?ird law ( motion is /ill appli$2 b along ) ?is1 we also employ ! g5]al pr9ciple t action & reaction are equal & opposite4 ,action & reaction are "h to be und]/ood z mom5tum produc$ & de/roy$1 accord+ to ! measure ( action e/abli%$ by ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion3 & ! cases 9 :i* ?is pr9ciple is ?us employ$ =m s l>ge a portion ( ^? 9 :i* ! ?ird law ( motion is us$1 t "s writ]s 7,newton at ! head ( !m7 h /at$ ! equality ( action & reaction z ! ?ird law ( motion4 ,! ?ird law ( motion be+ once e/abli%$1 ! equality ( action & reaction1 9 ! s5se ( mom5tum ga9$ & lo/1 necess>ily foll[s4 ,?us1 if a weight hang+ by a /r+ ov] ! edge ( a smoo? level table draw ano!r weight along ! table1 ! hang+ weight moves m sl[ly ?an x w\ld d if n s connect$1 & ?us loses velocity by ! connexion2 :ile ! o!r weight ga9s by ! connexion all ! velocity :i* x has1 = if left to itself x w\ld re/4 ,& ! pressures :i* re/ra9 ! desc5t ( ! fir/ body & accel]ate ! motion ( ! second1 are equal at all in/ants ( "t1 = ea* ( ^! pressures is ! t5sion ( ! /r+3 & h5ce1 by ! ?ird law ( motion1 ! mom5tum ga9$ by ! "o body1 & ! mom5tum lo/ by ! o!r 9 virtue ( ! action ( ?is /r+1 are equal4 ,& simil> #bef reason+ may be employ$ 9 any o!r case :]e bodies are connect$4 ,! case :]e "o body does n pu% or draw1 b /rikes ano!r1 appe>$ at fir/ to me*anical reason]s to be ( a diff]5t nature f ! o!rs2 b a little consid]ation 0 suffici5t to %[ t a bl[ is1 9 fact1 only a %ort & viol5t pressure2 & t1 !re=e1 ! g5]al rule ( ! equality ( mom5tum lo/ & ga9$ applies to ?is z well z to ! o!r cases4 ,?us1 9 ord] to det]m9e ! case ( ! direct action ( bodies ^u "o ano!r1 we require no new law ( motion4 ,! equality ( action & reaction1 :i* ent]s necess>ily into e conception ( me*anical op]ation1 comb9$ ) ! measure ( action z giv5 by ! ?ird law ( motion1 enables u to trace ! consequ5ces ( e case1 :e!r ( pressure or ( impact4 #g4 ,d',alemb]t's ,pr9ciple4--,b :at w be ! result :5 bodies d n act directly ^u ea* o!r1 b are indirectly connect$ 9 any way by lev]s1 /r+s1 pulleys1 or 9 any o!r mann]1 s t "o "p ( ! sy/em has a me*anical advantage ov] ano!r8 ,! result mu/ /ill be det]m9$ by ! pr9ciple t action & reaction balance ea* o!r4 ,! action & reaction1 be+ pressures 9 "o s5se1 mu/ balance ea* o!r by ! laws ( /atics1 = ^! laws det]m9e ! equilibrium ( pressure4 ,n[ action & reaction1 accord+ to _! measures 9 ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion1 are mom5tum ga9$ & lo/1 :5 ! action is direct2 & except ! indirect action introduce "s modification ( ! law1 !y mu/ h ! same measure /ill4 ,b1 9 fact1 we _c well conceive any modification ( ! law to take place 9 ?is case2 = direct action is only "o 7! ultimate7 case ( indirect action4 ,?us if two heavy bodies act at diff]5t po9ts ( a lev]1 ! action ( ea* on ! o!r is indirect2 b if ! two po9ts come toge!r1 ! action becomes direct4 ,h5ce ! rule mu/ be t :i* we h already /at$2 = if ! rule 7 false = indirect action1 x w\ld #beg also be false = direct action1 = :i* case we h %[n x to be true4 ,& ?us we obta9 ! g5]al pr9ciple1 t 9 any sy/em ( bodies :i* act on ea* o!r1 action & reaction1 e/imat$ by mom5tum ga9$ & lo/1 balance ea* o!r accord+ to ! laws ( equilibrium4 ,?is pr9ciple1 :i* is s g5]al z to supply a key to ! solution ( all possible me*anical problems1 is commonly call$ ,d',alemb]t's ,pr9ciple4 ,! exp]im5tal pro(s :i* conv9c$ m5 ( ! tru? ( ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion 71 _m or mo/ ( !m1 pro(s ( ! law 9 ?is ext5d$ s5se4 ,& ?us ! pro( ( ,d',alemb]t's ,pr9ciple1 bo? f ! idea ( me*anical action & f exp]i5ce1 is includ$ 9 ! pro( ( ! law already /at$4 #h4 ,connexion ( ,dynamical & ,/atical ,pr9ciples4--,! pr9ciple ( equilibrium ( ,d',alemb]t j /at$1 is ! law :i* he w\ld sub/itute = ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion2 & he w\ld ?us remove ! necessity = an indep5d5t pro( ( t law4 ,9 l mann]1 ! ,second ,law ( ,motion is by "s writ]s d]iv$ f ! pr9ciple ( ! composition ( /atical =ces2 & !y w\ld ?us sup]s$e ! necessity ( a ref]5ce to exp]im5t 9 t case4 ,laplace takes ?is c\rse1 & ?us1 z we h se51 re/s only ! ,fir/ & ,?ird ,law ( ,motion ^u exp]i5ce4 ,newton1 on ! o!r h&1 recognizes ! same connexion ( propositions1 b = a diff]5t purpose2 = he d]ives ! composition ( /atical =ces f ! ,second ,law ( ,motion4 ,! close connexion ( ^! ?ree pr9ciples1 ! composition ( 7/atical7 =ces1 ! composition ( 7accel]at+7 =ces ) velocities1 & ! measure ( 7mov+7 =ces by velocities1 _c be d5i$2 yet x appe>s to be by no means easy to sup]s$e ! necessity ( indep5d5t pro(s ( ! la/ two ( ^! pr9ciples4 ,bo? may be prov$ or illu/rat$ by exp]im5t3 & ! exp]im5ts :i* prove ! "o are diff]5t f ^? :i* e/abli% ! o!r4 ,= example1 x appe>s by easy calculations1 t :5 we apply our pr9ciples to ! oscillations ( a p5dulum1 #beh ! ,second ,law is prov$ by ! fact1 t ! oscillations take place at ! same rate 9 an ea/ & we/1 & 9 a nor? & s\? direction3 "u ! same circum/ances1 ! ,?ird ,law is prov$ by our f9d+ t ! "t ( a small oscillation is proportional to ! squ>e root ( ! l5g? ( a p5dulum2 & simil> diff]5ces might be po9t$ out 9 o!r exp]im5ts1 z to _! be>+ ^u ! "o law or ! o!r4 #i4 ,me*anical ,pr9ciples become gradually m simple & m evid5t4--,i w aga9 po9t out 9 g5]al two circum/ances :i* ,i h already notic$ 9 p>ticul> cases ( ! laws ( motion4--,tru?s are (t5 at fir/ assum$ 9 a =m :i* is f> f be+ ! mo/ obvi\s or simple2--& tru?s once discov]$ are gradually simplifi$1 s z to assume ! appe>ance ( self-evid5t tru?s4 ,! =m] circum/ance is exemplifi$ 9 sev]al ( ! in/ances :i* we h _h to consid]4 ,! assumption1 t a p]petual motion is impossible1 prec$$ ! k ( ! fir/ law ( motion4 ,! assum$ equality ( ! velocities acquir$ d[n two incl9$ planes ( ! same height1 0 aft]w>ds r$uc$ to ! ?ird law ( motion by ,galileo himself4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory#cec1 we h not$ ,huygh5s's assumption ( ! equality ( ! actual desc5t & pot5tial asc5t ( ! c5t] ( gravity3 ?is 0 aft]w>ds r$uc$ by ,h]man & ! ,b]n\llis1 to ! /atical equival5ce ( ! solicitations ( gravity & ! vic>i\s solicitations ( ! effective =ces :i* act on ea* po9t2 & f9ally to ! pr9ciple ( ,d',alemb]t1 :i* ass]ts t ! motions ga9$ & lo/ balance ea* o!r4 ,note #cec3 ,b4 vi4 c4 v4 sect4 #b4 ,?is e>ly ass]tion ( pr9ciples :i* n[ appe> nei!r obvi\s nor self-evid5t1 is n to be consid]$ z a gr\ndless assumption on ! "p ( ! discov]]s by :om x 0 made4 ,on ! contr>y1 x is evid5ce ( ! deep sagacity & cle> ?\ght :i* 7 #bei requisite 9 ord] to make su* discov]ies4 ,= ^! results are really rigor\s consequ5ces ( ! laws ( motion 9 _! simple/ =m3 & ! evid5ce ( !m 0 probably pres5t1 ?\gh undevelop$1 9 ! m9ds ( ! discov]]s4 ,we are told ( geometrical /ud5ts1 :o1 by a peculi> aptitude ( m9d1 p]ceiv$ ! evid5ce ( "s ( ! m advanc$ propositions ( geometry )\t go+ ?r\gh ! introductory /eps4 ,we mu/ suppose a simil> aptitude = me*anical reason+s1 :i*1 exi/+ 9 ! m9ds ( ,/ev9us1 ,galileo1 ,newton1 & ,huygh5s1 l$ !m to make ^? assumptions :i* f9ally resolv$ !mselves into ! laws ( motion4 ,we may obs]ve fur!r1 t ! simplicity & evid5ce :i* ! laws ( me*anics h at l5g? assum$1 are mu* fav\r$ by ! usage ( words among ! be/ writ]s on su* subjects4 ,t]ms :i* orig9ally1 & be=e ! laws ( motion 7 fully kn[n1 7 us$ 9 a v vague & fluctuat+ s5se1 7 aft]w>ds limit$ & r5d]$ precise1 s t ass]tions :i* at fir/ appe> id5tical propositions become di/9ct & important pr9ciples4 ,?us =ce1 motion1 mom5tum1 are t]ms :i* 7 employ$1 ?\gh 9 a loose mann]1 f ! v outset ( me*anical speculation4 ,& s long z ^! words reta9$ ! vagu5ess ( common language1 x w\ld h be5 a useless & b>r5 truism to say t '! mom5tum is proportional to ! =ce1' or t 'a body loses z mu* motion z x communicates to ano!r4' ,b :5 'mom5tum' & 'quantity ( motion' are def9$ to mean ! product ( mass & velocity1 ^! two propositions imm$iately become di/9ct /atem5ts ( ! ?ird law ( motion & its consequ5ces4 ,9 l mann]1 ! ass]tion t 'gravity is a uni=m =ce' 0 ass5t$ to1 be=e x 0 settl$ :at a uni=m =ce 02 b ?is ass]tion only became significant & useful :5 t po9t _h be5 prop]ly det]m9$4 ,! /atem5t t ':5 diff]5t motions are communicat$ to ! same body _! effects are #bfj comp\nd$1' becomes ! second law ( motion1 :5 we def9e :at composition ( motions is4 ,& ! same process may be obs]v$ 9 o!r cases4 ,& ?us we see h[ well ! =m :i* sci5ce ultimately assumes is adapt$ to simplify k4 ,! def9itions :i* are adopt$1 & ! t]ms :i* become curr5t 9 precise s5ses1 produce a complete h>mony betwe5 ! matt] & ! =m ( our k2 s t tru?s :i* 7 at fir/ unexpect$ & recondite1 became famili> phrases1 & aft] a few g5]ations s\nd1 ev5 to common e>s1 l id5tical propositions4 #aj4 ,controv]sy ( ! ,measure ( ,=ce4--,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,me*anics#cfc1 we h giv5 an acc\nt ( ! controv]sy :i*1 = "s "t1 occupi$ ! ma!maticians ( ,europe1 :e!r ! =ces ( bodies 9 motion %\ld be reckon$ proportional to ! velocity1 or to ! squ>e ( ! velocity4 ,we ne$ n "h recall ! ev5ts ( ?is dispute2 b we may rem>k1 t its hi/ory1 z a metaphysical controv]sy1 is rem>kable 9 ?is respect1 t x has be5 f9ally & completely settl$2 = x is n[ agre$ among ma!maticians t bo? sides 7 "r1 & t ! results ( me*anical action may be express$ ) equal correctness by means ( mom5tum & ( vis viva4 ,x is1 9 "o s5se1 z ,d',alemb]t has said#cgc1 a dispute ab\t words2 b we are n to inf] t1 on t acc\nt1 x 0 frivol\s or useless2 = su* disputes are "o pr9cipal means ( r$uc+ ! pr9ciples ( our #bfa k to _! utmo/ simplicity & cle>ness4 ,! t]ms :i* are employ$ 9 ! sci5ce ( me*anics are n[ lib]at$ = ev]1 9 ! m9ds ( ma!maticians1 f t ambiguity :i* 0 ! battlegr\nd 9 ! w> ( ! vis viva4 ,note #cfc3 ,b4 vi4 c4 v4 sect4 #b4 ,note #cgc3 ,d',alemb]t has also rem>k$ 7,dynamique1 ,pref4 xxi47 t ?is controv]sy '%[s h[ little ju/ice & precision !re is 9 ! pret5d$ axiom t causes are proportional to _! effects4' ,b ?is reflection is by no means well f\nd$4 ,= s9ce bo? measures are true1 x appe>s t causes may be ju/ly measur$ by _! effects1 ev5 :5 v diff]5t k9ds ( effects are tak54 ,t ! axiom does n po9t out "o precise measure1 till illu/rat$ by exp]i5ce or by o!r consid]ations1 we grant3 b ! same ?+ occurs 9 ! application ( o!r axioms also4 ,b we may obs]ve t ! real reason ( ?is controv]sy 0 exactly t t5d5cy :i* we h be5 notic+2--! disposition ( man to assume 9 8 speculations c]ta9 g5]al propositions z true1 & to fix ! s5se ( t]ms s t !y %all fall 9 ) ?is tru?4 ,x 0 agre$1 on all h&s1 t 9 ! mutual action ( bodies ! same quantity ( =ce is always pres]v$2 & ! "q 01 by :i* ( ! two measures ?is rule c\ld be/ be v]ifi$4 ,we see1 !re=e1 t ! dispute 0 n conc]n+ a def9ition m]ely1 b conc]n+ a def9ition comb9$ ) a g5]al proposition4 ,su* a "q may be readily conceiv$ to h be5 by no means unimportant2 & we may rem>k1 9 pass+1 t su* controv]sies1 al?\gh !y are commonly aft]w>ds /igmatiz$ z qu>rels ab\t words & def9itions1 are1 9 reality1 ev5ts ( consid]able consequ5ce 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce2 s9ce !y dissipate all ambiguity & vagu5ess 9 ! use ( t]ms1 & br+ into view ! conditions "u :i* ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( our k c be mo/ cle>ly & simply pres5t$4 ,x is wor? our :ile to pause = a mom5t on ! prospect t we h ?us obta9$1 ( ! advance ( k1 z exemplifi$ 9 ! hi/ory ( ,me*anics4 ,! g5]al trans=mation ( our views f vague to def9ite1 f complex to simple1 f unexpect$ discov]ies to self-evid5t tru?s1 f seem+ contradictions to id5tical propositions1 is v rem>kable1 b x is by no means peculi> to our subject4 ,! same circum/ances1 m or less prom95t1 m or less develop$1 appe> 9 ! hi/ory ( o!r sci5ces1 accord+ to ! po9t ( advance :i* ea* has rea*$4 ,!y be> ^u v important doctr9es respect+ ! prospects1 ! #bfb limits1 & ! v nature ( our k4 ,& ?\gh ^! doctr9es require to be consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ! :ole body ( sci5ce1 yet ! peculi> mann] 9 :i* !y are illu/rat$ by ! survey ( ! hi/ory ( ,me*anics1 on :i* we h j be5 engag$1 appe>s to make ?is a conv5i5t place = introduc+ !m to ! read]4 #bfc ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,( ,,! ,,p>adox ,,( ,,univ]sal ,,propositions ,,obta9$ ,,f ,,exp]i5ce4 #a4 ,,x 0 =m]ly /at$#chc t exp]i5ce _c e/abli% any univ]sal or necess>y tru?s4 ,! numb] ( trials :i* we c make ( any proposition is necess>ily limit$1 & obs]vation alone _c give u any gr\nd ( ext5d+ ! inf]5ce to untri$ cases4 ,obs]v$ facts h no visible bond ( necess>y connexion1 & no ex]cise ( our s5ses c enable u to discov] su* connexion4 ,we c nev] acquire f a m]e obs]vation ( facts1 ! "r to ass]t t a proposition is true 9 all cases1 & t x c\ld n be o!rwise ?an we f9d x to be4 ,note #chc3 ,b4 i4 c4 iv4 ,( ,exp]i5ce ,yet1 z we h j se5 9 ! hi/ory ( ! laws ( motion1 we may g on collect+ our k f obs]vation1 & enl>g+ & simplify+ x1 till x approa*es or atta9s to complete univ]sality & seem+ necessity4 ,:e!r ! laws ( motion1 z we n[ "k !m1 c be rigor\sly trac$ to an absolute necessity 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 we h n v5tur$ absolutely to pron\nce4 ,b we h se5 t "s ( ! mo/ acute & pr(\nd ma!maticians h believ$ t1 = ^! laws ( motion1 or "s ( !m1 !re 0 su* a demon/rable necessity compell+ !m to be su* z !y are1 & no o!r4 ,mo/ ( ^? :o h c>efully /udi$ ! pr9ciples ( ,me*anics w all[ t "s at lea/ ( ! prim>y laws ( motion approa* v ne> to ?is "* ( necess>y tru?2 & w confess t x w\ld be difficult to imag9e any o!r consi/5t #bfd s*eme ( fundam5tal pr9ciples4 ,& almo/ all ma!maticians w all[ to ^! laws an absolute univ]sality2 s t we may apply !m )\t scruple or misgiv+1 9 cases ! mo/ remote f ^? to :i* our exp]i5ce has ext5d$4 ,:at a/ronom] w\ld fe> to ref] to ! kn[n laws ( motion1 9 reason+ conc]n+ ! d\ble />s2 al?\gh ^! objects are at an immeasurably remote di/ance f t sol> sy/em :i* has be5 ! only field ( our obs]vation ( me*anical facts8 ,:at philosoph]1 9 speculat+ respect+ a magnetic fluid1 or a lum9if]\s e!r1 w\ld hesitate to apply to x ! me*anical pr9ciples :i* are applicable to fluids ( kn[n me*anical prop]ties8 ,:5 we ass]t t ! quantity ( motion 9 ! _w _c be increas$ or dim9i%$ by ! mutual actions ( bodies1 does n e ma!matician feel conv9c$ t x w\ld be an unphilosophical re/riction to limit ?is proposition to su* modes ( action z we h tri$8 ,yet no "o c d\bt t1 9 hi/orical fact1 ^! laws 7 collect$ f exp]i5ce4 ,t su* is ! case1 is no matt] ( conjecture4 ,we "k ! "t1 ! p]sons1 ! circum/ances1 belong+ to ea* /ep ( ea* discov]y4 ,i h1 9 ! ,hi/ory1 giv5 an acc\nt ( ^! discov]ies2 & 9 ! previ\s *apt]s ( ! pres5t "w1 ,i h fur!r exam9$ ! nature & ! import ( ! pr9ciples :i* 7 ?us br\ght to light4 ,"h1 !n1 is an app>5t contradiction4 ,exp]i5ce1 x w\ld seem1 has done t :i* we _h prov$ t %e _c d4 ,%e has l$ m5 to propositions1 univ]sal at lea/1 & to pr9ciples :i* appe> to "s p]sons necess>y4 ,:at is ! explanation ( ?is contradiction1 ! solution ( ?is p>adox8 ,is x true t ,exp]i5ce c reveal to u univ]sal & necess>y tru?s8 ,does %e possess "s secret virtue1 "s unsuspect$ p[]1 by :i* %e c detect connexions & consequ5ces :i* we h decl>$ to be out ( h] sph]e8 ,c %e see m ?an m]e appe>ances1 & obs]ve m ?an m]e facts8 ,c #bfe %e p5etrate1 9 "s way1 to ! nature ( ?+s8--desc5d bel[ ! surface ( ph5om5a to _! causes & orig9s1 s z to be able to say :at c & :at c n be2--:at occurr5ces are p>tial1 & :at univ]sal8 ,if ?is be s1 we h inde$ mi/ak5 h] "* & p[]s2 & ! :ole c\rse ( our reason+ becomes prec>i\s & obscure4 ,b1 !n1 :5 we return ^u our pa? we _c f9d ! po9t at :i* we deviat$1 we _c detect ! false /ep 9 our d$uction4 ,x /ill seems t by exp]i5ce1 /rictly s call$1 we _c discov] necess>y & univ]sal tru?s4 ,our s5ses c give u no evid5ce ( a necess>y connexion 9 ph5om5a4 ,our obs]vation mu/ be limit$1 & _c te/ify conc]n+ any?+ :i* is beyond its limits4 ,a g5]al view ( our faculties appe>s to prove x to be impossible t m5 %\ld d :at ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ce ( me*anics %[s t !y h done4 #b4 ,b 9 ord] to try to solve ?is ,p>adox1 let u aga9 ref] to ! ,hi/ory ( ,me*anics4 ,9 ! cases belong+ to t sci5ce1 9 :i* propositions ( ! mo/ unque/ionable univ]sality1 & mo/ approa*+ to ! "* ( necess>y tru?s1 7z1 = in/ance1 ! laws ( motion17 h be5 arriv$ at1 :at is ! s\rce ( ! axiomatic "* :i* ! propositions ?us assume8 ,! answ] to ?is "q w1 we may hope1 ?r[ "s light on ! p]plexity 9 :i* we appe> to be involv$4 ,n[ ! answ] to ?is inquiry is1 t ! laws ( motion borr[ _! axiomatic "* f _! be+ m]ely int]pretations ( ! ,axioms ( ,causation4 ,^? axioms1 be+ exhibitions ( ! ,idea ( ,cause "u v>i\s aspects1 are ( ! mo/ rigor\s univ]sality & necessity4 ,& s f> z ! laws ( motion are exemplifications ( ^? axioms1 ^! laws mu/ be no less univ]sal & necess>y4 ,h[ ^! axioms are to be und]/ood2--9 :at s5se cause & effect1 action & reaction1 are to be tak51 exp]i5ce & obs]vation did1 9 fact1 tea* inquir]s on ?is subject2 & )\t ?is tea*+1 ! laws ( motion c\ld nev] h be5 di/9ctly kn[n4 ,if two =ces #bff act toge!r1 ea* mu/ produce its effect1 by ! axiom ( causation2 &1 !re=e1 ! effects ( ! sep>ate =ces mu/ be comp\nd$4 ,b a long c\rse ( discussion & exp]im5t mu/ in/ruct m5 ( :at k9d ?is composition ( =ces is4 ,aga92 action & reaction mu/ be equal2 b mu* ?\ght & "s trial 7 ne$$ to %[ :at action & reaction are4 ,^? metaphysicians :o enunciat$ ,laws ( motion )\t ref]5ce to exp]i5ce1 prop\nd$ only su* laws z 7 vague & inapplicable4 ,b yet ^! p]sons manife/$ ! inde/ructible conviction1 belong+ to man's speculative nature1 t !re exi/ ,laws ( motion1 t is1 univ]sal =mul1 connect+ ! causes & effects :5 motion takes place4 ,^? me*anicians1 aga91 :o1 obs]v$ facts involv+ equilibrium & motion1 & /at$ "s n>r[ rules1 )\t attempt+ to asc5d to any univ]sal & simple pr9ciple1 obta9$ laws no less b>r5 & useless ?an ! metaphysicians2 = !y c\ld n tell 9 :at new cases1 or :e!r 9 any1 _! laws w\ld be v]ifi$2--!y ne$$ a m g5]al rule1 to %[ !m ! limits ( ! rule !y _h discov]$4 ,!y w5t wrong 9 ea* attempt to solve a new problem1 because _! int]pretation ( ! t]ms ( ! axioms1 ?\gh true1 p]haps1 9 c]ta9 cases1 0 n "r 9 g5]al4 ,?us ,pappus err$ 9 attempt+ to int]pret z a case ( ! lev]1 ! problem ( support+ a weight ^u an incl9$ plane2 ?us ,ari/otle err$ 9 int]pret+ ! doctr9e t ! weight ( bodies is ! cause ( _! fall2 ?us ,kepl] err$ 9 int]pret+ ! rule t ! velocity ( bodies dep5ds ^u ! =ce2 ?us ,b]n\lli#cic err$ 9 int]pret+ ! equality ( action & reaction ^u a lev] 9 motion4 ,9 ea* ( ^! in/ances1 true doctr9es1 already e/abli%$1 7:e!r by exp]im5t or o!rwise17 7 errone\sly appli$4 ,& ! error 0 correct$ by fur!r reflection1 :i* po9t$ out t ano!r mode ( int]pretation 0 requisite1 9 ord] t ! axiom #bfg :i*1 0 appeal$ to 9 ea* case might reta9 its =ce 9 ! mo/ g5]al s5se4 ,& 9 ! reason+s :i* avoid$ or correct$ su* errors1 & :i* l$ to sub/antial g5]al tru?s1 ! object ( ! speculator always 0 to give to ! ackn[l$g$ maxims :i* ! ,idea ( ,cause sugge/$1 su* a signification z %\ld be consi/5t ) _! univ]sal validity4 ,! rule 0 n accept$ z p>ticul> at ! outset1 & aft]w>ds g5]aliz$ m & m widely2 b f ! v fir/1 ! univ]sality ( ! rule 0 assum$1 & ! "q 01 h[ x %\ld be und]/ood s z to be univ]sally true4 ,at e /age ( speculation1 ! law 0 reg>d$ z a g5]al law4 ,?is 0 n an aspect :i* x gradually acquir$1 by ! accumulat+ contributions ( exp]i5ce1 b a feature ( its orig9al & native "*4 ,:at %\ld happ5 univ]sally1 exp]i5ce might be ne$$ to %[3 b t :at happ5$ %\ld happ5 univ]sally1 0 impli$ 9 ! nature ( k4 ,! univ]sality ( ! laws ( motion 0 n ga!r$ f exp]i5ce1 h[ev] mu* ! laws !mselves might be s4 ,note #cic3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 vi4 c4 v4 sect4 #b4 #c4 ,?us we obta9 ! solution ( our ,p>adox1 s f> z ! case be=e u is conc]n$4 ,! laws ( motion borr[ _! =m f ! ,idea ( ,causation1 ?\gh _! matt] may be giv5 by exp]i5ce3 & h5ce !y possess a univ]sality :i* exp]i5ce _c give4 ,!y are c]ta9ly & univ]sally valid2 & ! only "q = obs]vation to decide is1 h[ !y are to be und]/ood4 ,!y are l g5]al ma!matical =mul1 :i* are kn[n to be true1 ev5 :ile we are ignorant :at are ! unkn[n quantities :i* !y involve4 ,x mu/ be all[$1 on ! o!r h&1 t s long z ^! =mul are n int]pret$ by a real /udy ( nature1 !y are n only useless b prejudicial2 fill+ m5's m9ds ) vague g5]al t]ms1 empty maxims1 & un9telligible ab/ractions1 :i* !y mi/ake = k4 ,( su* p]v]sion ( ! speculative prop5sities ( man's nature1 ! _w has se5 too mu* 9 all ages4 ,yet we mu/ n1 on t acc\nt1 despise ^! =ms ( #bfh tru?1 s9ce )\t !m1 no g5]al k is possible4 ,)\t g5]al t]ms1 & maxims1 & ab/ractions1 we c h no sci5ce1 no speculation2 h>dly1 inde$1 consi/5t ?\ght or ! ex]cise ( reason4 ,! c\rse ( real k is1 to obta9 f ?\ght & exp]i5ce ! "r int]pretation ( our g5]al t]ms1 ! real import ( our maxims1 ! true g5]alizations :i* our ab/ractions involve4 #d4 ,if x be ask$1 ,h[ ,exp]i5ce is able to tea* u to int]pret aright ! g5]al t]ms :i* ! ,axioms ( ,causation involve2--:5ce %e d]ives ! light :i* %e is to ?r[ on ^! g5]al notions2 ! answ] is obvi\s2--namely1 t ! relations ( causation are ! conditions ( ,exp]i5ce2--t ! g5]al notions are exemplifi$ 9 ! p>ticul> cases ( :i* %e takes cognizance4 ,! ev5ts :i* take place ab\t u1 & :i* are ! objects ( our obs]vation1 we _c conceive o!rwise ?an z subject to ! laws ( cause & effect4 ,e ev5t mu/ h a cause2--,e effect mu/ be det]m9$ by its cause2--^! maxims are true ( ! ph5om5a :i* =m ! mat]ials ( our exp]i5ce4 ,x is precisely to !m1 t ^! tru?s apply4 ,x is 9 ! _w :i* we h be=e our eyes1 t ^! propositions are univ]sally v]ifi$2 & x is !re=e by ! obs]vation ( :at we see1 t we mu/ le>n h[ ^! propositions are to be und]/ood4 ,e fact1 e exp]im5t1 is an example ( ^! /atem5ts2 & x is !re=e by att5tion to & famili>ity ) facts & exp]im5ts1 t we le>n ! signification ( ! expressions 9 :i* ! /atem5ts are made2 j z 9 any o!r case we le>n ! import ( language by obs]v+ ! mann] 9 :i* x is appli$ 9 kn[n cases4 ,exp]i5ce is ! int]pret] ( nature2 x be+ und]/ood t %e is to make h] int]pretation 9 t compreh5sive phraseology :i* is ! g5u9e language ( sci5ce4 #e4 ,we may return = an in/ant to ! objection1 t exp]i5ce _c give u g5]al tru?s1 s9ce1 aft] any numb] ( trials confirm+ a rule1 we may = aught we c =esee1 h "o :i* violates ! #bfi rule4 ,:5 we h se5 a ?\s& /ones fall to ! gr\nd1 we may see "o :i* does n fall "u ! same app>5t circum/ances4 ,h[ !n1 x is ask$1 c exp]i5ce tea* u t all /ones1 rigor\sly speak+1 w fall if unsupport$8 ,& to ?is we reply1 t x is n true t we c conceive "o /one to be susp5d$ 9 ! air1 :ile a ?\s& o!rs fall1 )\t believ+ "s peculi> cause to support x2 & t1 !re=e1 su* a supposition =ms no exception to ! law1 t gravity is a =ce by :i* all bodies are urg$ d[nw>ds4 ,und\bt$ly we c conceive a body1 :5 dropt or ?r[n1 to move 9 a l9e q diff]5t f o!r bodies3 ?us a c]ta9 missile#djc us$ by ! natives ( ,au/ralia1 & lately br\ght to ?is c\ntry1 :5 ?r[n f ! h& 9 a prop] mann]1 describes a curve1 & returns to ! place f :5ce x 0 ?r[n4 ,b did any "o1 !re=e1 ev5 = an in/ant suppose t ! laws ( motion are diff]5t = ?is & = o!r bodies8 ,on ! contr>y1 0 n e p]son ( a speculative turn imm$iately l$ to inquire h[ x 0 t ! kn[n causes :i* modify motion1 ! resi/ance ( ! air & ! o!r causes1 produc$ 9 ?is in/ance s peculi> an effect8 ,& if ! motion _h be5 /ill m unacc\ntable1 x w\ld n h occasion$ any unc]ta9ty :e!r x 7 consi/5t ) ! ag5cy ( gravity & ! laws ( motion4 ,if a body sudd5ly alt] its direction1 or move 9 any o!r unexpect$ mann]1 we nev] d\bt t !re is a cause ( ! *ange4 ,we may cont9ue q ignorant ( ! nature ( ?is cause1 b ?is ignorance nev] occasions a mom5t's d\bt t ! cause exi/s & is exactly suit$ to ! effect4 ,& ?us exp]i5ce c prove or discov] to u g5]al rules1 b %e c nev] prove t g5]al rules d n exi/4 ,anomalies1 exceptions1 unexpla9$ ph5om5a1 may rem9d u t we h mu* /ill to le>n1 b !y c nev] make u suppose t tru?s are n univ]sal4 ,we may obs]ve facts t %[ u we h n fully #bgj und]/ood ! mean+ ( our g5]al laws1 b we c nev] f9d facts :i* %[ our laws to h no mean+4 ,our exp]i5ce is b\nd 9 by ! limits ( cause & effect1 & c give u no in=mation conc]n+ any region :]e t relation does n prevail4 ,! :ole s]ies ( ext]nal occurr5ces & objects1 ?r\gh all "t & space1 exi/s only1 & is conceiv$ only1 z subject to ?is relation2 & !re=e we endeav\r 9 va9 to imag9e to ourselves :5 & :]e & h[ exceptions to ?is relation may occur4 ,! assumption ( ! connexion ( cause & effect is ess5tial to our exp]i5ce1 z ! recognition ( ! maxims :i* express ?is connexion is ess5tial to our k4 ,note #djc3 ,call$ ! ,bo-me-rang4 #f4 ,i h ?us endeav\r$ to expla9 9 "s measure h[1 at lea/ 9 ! field ( our me*anical k1 exp]i5ce c discov] univ]sal tru?s1 ?\gh %e _c give !m _! univ]sality2 & h[ su* tru?s1 ?\gh borr[+ _! =m f our ideas1 _c be und]/ood except by ! actual /udy ( ext]nal nature4 ,& ?us ) reg>d to ! laws ( motion1 & o!r fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ,me*anics1 ! analysis ( our ideas & ! hi/ory ( ! progress ( ! sci5ce well illu/rate ea* o!r4 ,if ! p>adox ( ! discov]y ( univ]sal tru?s by exp]i5ce be ?us solv$ 9 "o in/ance1 a mu* wid] "q (f]s itself to u2--,h[ f> ! difficulty1 & h[ f> ! solution1 are applicable to o!r subjects4 ,x is easy to see t ?is "q involves mo/ grave & ext5sive doctr9es ) reg>d to ! :ole compass ( human k3 & ! views to :i* we h be5 l$ 9 ! pres5t ,book ( ?is "w are1 we tru/1 fitt$ to ?r[ mu* light ^u ! g5]al aspect ( ! subject4 ,b aft] discussions s ab/ract1 & p]haps obscure1 z ^? 9 :i* we h be5 engag$ = "s *apt]s1 ,i will+ly po/pone to a future occasion an inve/igation :i* may p]haps appe> to mo/ read]s m recondite & difficult /ill4 ,& we h1 9 fact1 _m o!r special fields ( k to survey1 be=e we are l$ by ! ord] ( our subject1 to #bga ^? g5]al que/ions & doctr9es1 ^? anti!ses br\ght into view & aga9 resolv$1 :i* a view ( ! :ole t]ritory ( human k sugge/s1 & by :i* ! nature & conditions ( k are exhibit$4 ,be=e we quit ! subject ( me*anical sci5ce we %all make a few rem>ks on ano!r doctr9e :i* =ms "p ( ! e/abli%$ tru?s ( ! sci5ce1 namely1 ! doctr9e ( univ]sal gravitation4 #bgb ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,( ,,! ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,univ]sal ,,gravitation4 ,,! doctr9e ( univ]sal gravitation is a feature ( s mu* importance 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce t we %all n pass x by )\t a few rem>ks on ! nature & evid5ce ( ! doctr9e4 #a4 ,to a c]ta9 ext5t ! doctr9e ( ! attraction ( bodies accord+ to ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance1 exhibits 9 its progress among m5 ! same g5]al features :i* we h notic$ 9 ! hi/ory ( ! laws ( motion4 ,?is doctr9e 0 ma9ta9$ priori on ! gr\nd ( its simplicity1 & 0 ass]t$ positively1 ev5 be=e x 0 cle>ly und]/ood3--not)/&+ ?is anticipation1 its e/abli%m5t on ! gr\nd ( facts 0 a task ( va/ lab\r & sagacity3--:5 x _h be5 s e/abli%$ 9 a g5]al way1 !re occurr$ at lat] p]iods1 an occasional suspicion t x might be approximately true only3--^! suspicions l$ to fur!r rese>*es1 :i* %[$ ! rule to be rigor\sly exact3--& at pres5t !re are ma!maticians :o ma9ta91 n only t x is true1 b t x is a necess>y prop]ty ( matt]4 ,a v few words on ea* ( ^! po9ts w suffice4 #b4 ,i h %[n 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5ce#dac1 t ! attraction ( ! sun accord+ to ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance1 _h be5 div9$ by ,bullialdus1 ,hooke1 ,halley1 & o!rs1 be=e x 0 prov$ by ,newton4 ,probably ! reason :i* sugge/$ ?is conjecture 01 t gravity might be consid]$ #bgc z a sort ( emanation2 & t ?us1 l light or any o!r effect diffus$ f a c5t]1 x mu/ foll[ ! law j /at$1 ! efficacy ( ! =ce be+ weak5$ 9 rec$+ f ! c5t]1 exactly 9 proportion to ! space ?r\gh :i* x is diffus$4 ,x _c be d5i$ t su* a view appe>s to be /rongly recomm5d$ by analogy4 ,note #dac3 ,b4 vii4 c4 i4 ,:5 x _h be5 prov$ by ,newton t ! planets 7 really reta9$ 9 _! elliptical orbits by a c5tral =ce1 8 calculations also %[$ t ! above-/at$ law ( ! =ce mu/ be at lea/ v approximately correct1 s9ce o!rwise ! aphelia ( ! orbits c\ld n be s ne>ly at re/ z !y 74 ,yet :5 x seem$ z if ! motion ( ! moon's apogee c\ld n be acc\nt$ = )\t "s new supposition1 ! priori argum5t 9 fav\r ( ! inv]se squ>e did n prev5t ,clairaut f try+ ! hypo!sis ( a small t]m add$ to t :i* express$ ! anci5t law3 b :51 9 ord] to te/ ! accuracy ( ?is hypo!sis1 ! calculation ( ! motion ( ! moon's apogee 0 pu%$ to a great] degree ( exactness ?an _h be5 obta9$ be=e1 x 0 f\nd t ! new t]m vani%$ ( itself2 & t ! inv]se squ>e n[ acc\nt$ = ! :ole ( ! motion4 ,& ?us1 z 9 ! case ( ! second law ( motion1 ! mo/ scrupul\s exam9ation t]m9at$ 9 %[+ ! simple/ rule to be rigor\sly true4 #c4 ,simil> ev5ts occurr$ 9 ! hi/ory ( ano!r "p ( ! law ( gravitation3 namely1 t ! attraction is proportional to ! quantity ( matt] attract$4 ,?is "p ( ! law may also be ?us /at$1 ,t ! weight ( bodies aris+ f gravity is proportional to _! in]tia2 & ?us1 t ! accel]at+ =ce on all bodies "u ! same circum/ances is ! same4 ,newton made exp]im5ts :i* prov$ ?is ) reg>d to t]re/rial bodies2 = he f\nd t1 at ! end ( equal /r+s1 balls ( all sub/ances1 gold1 silv]1 lead1 glass1 wood1 c41 oscillat$ 9 equal times#dbc4 ,b a few ye>s ago1 d\bts #bgd arose among ! ,g]man a/ronom]s :e!r ?is law 0 rigor\sly true ) reg>d to ! planet>y bodies4 ,"s calculations appe>$ to prove1 t ! attraction ( ,jupit] z %[n by ! p]turbations :i* he produces 9 ! small planets ,juno1 ,ve/a1 & ,pallas1 0 diff]5t f ! attraction :i* he ex]ts on 8 own satellites4 ,nor did !re appe> to ^! philosoph]s any?+ inconceivable 9 ! supposition t ! attraction ( a planet might be ?us elective4 ,b :5 ,mr4 ,airy obta9$ a m exact det]m9ation ( ! mass ( ,jupit]1 z indicat$ by 8 effect on 8 satellites1 x 0 f\nd t ?is suspicion 0 unf\nd$2 & t !re 01 9 ?is case1 no exception to ! univ]sality ( ! rule1 t ?is cosmical attraction is 9 ! proportion ( ! attract$ mass4 ,note #dbc3 ,pr94 lib4 iii4 prop4 #f4 #d4 ,aga93 :5 x _h ?us be5 %[n t a mutual attraction ( p>ts1 accord+ to ! law above m5tion$1 prevail$ ?r\gh\t ! ext5t ( ! sol> sy/em1 x might /ill be d\bt$ :e!r ! same law ext5d$ to o!r regions ( ! univ]se4 ,x might h be5 p]haps imag9$ t ea* fix$ /> _h its peculi> law ( =ce4 ,b ! exam9ation ( ! motions ( d\ble />s ab\t ea* o!r1 by ! two ,h]s*els & o!rs1 appe>s to %[ t ^! bodies describe ellipses z ! planets d2 & ?us ext5ds ! law ( ! inv]se squ>es to p>ts ( ! univ]se immeasurably di/ant f ! :ole sol> sy/em4 #e4 ,s9ce e d\bt :i* has be5 rais$ ) reg>d to ! univ]sality & accuracy ( ! law ( gravitation1 has ?us end$ 9 confirm+ ! rule1 x is n surpriz+ t m5's m9ds %\ld h return$ ) additional =ce to ^? views :i* _h at fir/ repres5t$ ! law z a necess>y tru?1 capable ( be+ e/abli%$ by reason alone4 ,:5 x _h be5 prov$ by ,newton t gravity is really a univ]sal attribute ( matt] z f> z we c le>n1 8 pupils 7 n cont5t )\t ma9ta9+ x to be an ess5tial quality4 ,?is is ! doctr9e held by ,cotes 9 ! preface to ! second edition ( ! ,pr9cipia 7#agab73 #bge ',gravity1' he says1 'is a prim>y quality ( bodies1 z ext5sion1 mobility1 & imp5etrability are4' ,b ,newton himself by no means w5t s f>4 ,9 8 second ,lett] to ,b5tley 7#afic71 he says1 ',y sometimes speak ( gravity z ess5tial & inh]5t to matt]2 pray d n ascribe t notion to me4 ,! cause ( gravity1' he adds1 ',i d n pret5d to "k1 & w\ld take m "t to consid] ( x4' ,cotes ma9ta9s 8 op9ion by urg+1 t we le>n by exp]i5ce t all bodies possess gravity1 & t we d n le>n 9 any o!r way t !y are ext5d$1 moveable1 or solid4 ,b we h already se51 t ! ideas ( space1 "t1 & reaction1 on :i* dep5d ext5sion1 mobility1 & solidity1 are n results1 b conditions1 ( exp]i5ce4 ,we _c conceive a body except z ext5d$2 we _c conceive x to ex]t me*anical action except ) "s k9d ( solidity4 ,b s f> z our conceptions ( body h hi!rto be5 develop$1 we f9d no difficulty 9 conceiv+ two bodies :i* d n attract ea* o!r4 #f4 ,newton lays d[n1 9 ! second edition ( ! ,pr9cipia1 ?is ',rule ( ,philosophiz+' 7book iii472 t ',! qualities ( bodies :i* _c be made m or less int5se1 & :i* belong to all bodies on :i* we are able to make exp]im5ts1 are to be held to be qualities ( all bodies 9 g5]al4' ,& ?is ,rule is cit$ 9 ! six? ,proposition ( ! ,?ird ,book ( ! ,pr9cipia1 7,cor4 #b17 9 ord] to prove t gravity1 proportional to ! quantity ( matt]1 may be ass]t$ to be a quality ( all bodies univ]sally4 ,b we may rem>k t a ,rule ( ,philosophiz+1 itself ( prec>i\s au?ority1 _c au?orize u 9 ascrib+ univ]sality to an empirical result4 ,geometrical & /atical prop]ties are se5 to be necess>y1 & !re=e univ]sal3 b ,newton appe>s dispos$ to ass]t a l univ]sality ( gravity1 q unconnect$ ) any necessity4 ,x w\ld be a v inadequate /atem5t1 inde$ a false repres5tation1 ( /atical tru?1 if we 7 to say1 t because e body :i* has hi!rto be5 tri$ has be5 f\nd to h a c5t] ( gravity1 we v5ture to ass]t t all bodies :atev] #bgf h a c5t] ( gravity4 ,& if we are ev] able to ass]t ! absolute univ]sality ( ! law ( gravitation1 we %all h to re/ ?is tru? ^u ! cle>] developm5t ( our ideas ( matt] & =ce2 n ^u a ,rule ( ,philosophiz+1 :i*1 till o!rwise prov$1 mu/ be a m]e rule ( prud5ce1 & :i* ! oppon5t may refuse to admit4 #g4 ,o!r p]sons1 in/ead ( ass]t+ gravity to be 9 its own nature ess5tial to matt]1 h made hypo!ses conc]n+ "s me*anism or o!r1 by :i* ?is mutual attraction ( bodies is produc$#dcc4 ,?us ! ,c>tesians ascrib$ to a vortex ! t5d5cy ( bodies to a c5t]2 ,newton himself seems to h be5 dispos$ to ref] ?is t5d5cy to ! ela/icity ( an e!r2 ,le ,sage prop\nd$ a curi\s hypo!sis1 9 :i* ?is attraction is acc\nt$ = by ! impulse ( inf9ite /reams ( p>ticles fl[+ con/antly ?r\gh ! univ]se 9 all directions4 ,9 ^! speculations1 ! =ce ( gravity is resolv$ into ! pressure or impulse ( solids or fluids4 ,on ! o!r h&1 hypo!ses h be5 prop\nd$1 9 :i* ! solidity1 & o!r physical qualities ( bodies1 h be5 expla9$ by repres5t+ ! bodies z a collection ( po9ts1 f :i* po9ts1 repulsive1 z well z attractive1 =ces emanate4 ,?is view ( ! con/itution ( bodies 0 ma9ta9$ & develop$ by ,boscovi*1 & is h5ce t]m$ ',boscovi*'s ,!ory3' & ! discussion ( x w m prop]ly come "u our review at a future p]iod1 :5 we speak ( ! "q :e!r bodies are made up ( atoms4 ,b we may obs]ve1 t ,newton himself appe>s to h incl9$1 z 8 foll[]s c]ta9ly did1 to ?is mode ( contemplat+ ! physical prop]ties ( bodies4 ,9 8 ,preface to ! ,pr9cipia1 aft] speak+ ( ! c5tral =ces :i* are exhibit$ 9 cosmical ph5om5a1 he says3 ',w\ld t we c\ld d]ive ! o!r ph5om5a ( ,nature f me*anical pr9ciples by ! same mode ( reason+4 ,= _m ?+s move me #bgg s t ,i suspect all ^! ph5om5a may dep5d ^u c]ta9 =ces1 by :i* ! p>ticles ( bodies1 ?r\gh causes n yet kn[n1 are ei!r impell$ to ea* o!r & coh]e accord+ to regul> figures1 or are repell$ & rec$e f ea* o!r3 :i* =ces be+ unkn[n1 philosoph]s h hi!rto made _! attempts ^u nature 9 va94' ,note #dcc3 ,see ,v9ce1 ,obs]vations on ! ,hypo!sis respect+ ,gravitation1 & ! ,critique ( t "w1 ,ed9b4 ,rev4 vol4 xiii4 #h4 ,b bo? ^! hypo!ses2--t by :i* cohesion & solidity are r$uc$ to attractive & repulsive =ces1 & t by :i* attraction is r$uc$ to ! impulse & pressure ( m$ia2--are hi!rto m]ely modes ( repres5t+ me*anical laws ( nature2 & _c1 ei!r ( !m1 be ass]t$ z possess+ any evid5t tru? or p]emptory au?ority to ! exclusion ( ! o!r4 ,?is consid]ation may enable u to e/imate ! real weight ( ! difficulty felt 9 ass5t+ to ! mutual attraction ( bodies n 9 contact ) ea* o!r2 = x is (t5 urg$ t ?is attraction ( bodies at a di/ance is an absurd supposition4 ,! doctr9e is (t5 ?us /igmatiz$1 bo? by popul> & by le>n$ writ]s4 ,x 0 long receiv$ z a maxim 9 philosophy 7z ,monboddo in=ms u#ddc71 t a body _c act :]e x is n1 any m ?an :5 x is n4 ,b to ?is we reply1 t "t is a necess>y condition ( our conception ( causation1 9 a diff]5t mann] f space4 ,! action ( =ce c only be conceiv$ z tak+ place 9 a succession ( mom5ts1 9 ea* ( :i* cause & effect imm$iately succe$ ea* o!r3 & ?us ! int]val ( "t betwe5 a cause & its remote effect is fill$ up by a cont9u\s succession ( ev5ts connect$ by ! same *a9 ( causation4 ,b 9 space1 !re is no su* visible necessity ( cont9uity2 ! action & reaction may take place at a di/ance f ea* o!r2 all t is necess>y be+ t !y be equal & opposite4 ,note #ddc3 ,anci5t ,metaphysics1 vol4 ii4 p4 #age4 ,und\bt$ly ! exi/5ce ( attraction is r5d]$ m acceptable to common appreh5sion by suppos+ #bgh "s int]m$iate ma*9]y1--a cord1 or rod1 or fluid1--by :i* ! =ces may be convey$ f "o po9t to ano!r4 ,b su* images are r fitt$ to satisfy ^? prejudices :i* arise f ! e>li] application ( our ideas ( =ce1 ?an to exhibit ! real nature ( ^? ideas4 ,if we suppose two bodies to pull ea* o!r by means ( a rod or cord1 we only suppose1 9 addition to ^? equal & opposite =ces act+ ^u ! two bodies1 7:i* =ces are alone ess5tial to mutual attraction7 a c]ta9 p[] ( resi/+ transv]se pressure at e po9t ( ! int]m$iate l9e3 :i* additional supposition is entirely useless1 & q unconnect$ ) ! ess5tial conditions ( ! case4 ,:5 ! ,newtonians 7 accus$ ( introduc+ into philosophy an unkn[n cause :i* !y t]m$ attraction1 !y ju/ly repli$ t !y knew z mu* respect+ attraction z _! oppon5ts did ab\t impulse4 ,9 ea* case we h a k ( ! conception 9 "q s f> z we cle>ly appreh5d x "u ! conditions ( ^? axioms ( me*anical causation :i* =m ! basis ( our sci5ce on su* subjects4 ,hav+ ?us exam9$ ! degree ( c]ta9ty & g5]ality to :i* our k ( ! law ( univ]sal gravitation has be5 c>ri$1 by ! progress ( me*anical discov]y & speculation up to ! pres5t "t1 we might proce$ to ! o!r bran*es ( sci5ce1 & exam9e 9 l mann] _! gr\nds & conditions4 ,b be=e we d ?is1 x w be wor? our :ile to att5d = a mom5t to ! effect :i* ! progress ( me*anical ideas among ma!maticians & me*anical philosoph]s has produc$ ^u ! m9ds ( o!r p]sons1 :o %>e only 9 an indirect & d]ivative mann] 9 ! influ5ce ( sci5ce4 #bgi ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,( ,,! ,,g5]al ,,diffusion ,,( ,,cle> ,,me*anical ,,ideas4 #a4 ,,we h se5 h[ ! progress ( k ^u ! subject ( motion & =ce has produc$1 9 ! c\rse ( ! _w's hi/ory1 a great *ange 9 ! m9ds ( acute & speculative m52 s t su* p]sons c n[ reason ) p]fect /ead9ess & precision ^u subjects on :i*1 at fir/1 _! ?\ghts 7 vague & confus$2 & c appreh5d1 z tru?s ( complete c]ta9ty & evid5ce1 laws :i* x requir$ great lab\r & "t to discov]4 ,?is complete developm5t & cle> manife/ation ( me*anical ideas has tak5 place only among ma!maticians & philosoph]s4 ,b yet a progress ( ?\ght ^u su* subjects1--an advance f ! obscure to ! cle>1 & f err\r to tru?1--may be trac$ 9 ! _w at l>ge1 & among ^? :o h n directly cultivat$ ! exact sci5ces4 ,?is diffus$ & collat]al influ5ce ( sci5ce manife/s itself1 al?\gh 9 a wav]+ & fluctuat+ mann]1 by v>i\s indications1 at v>i\s p]iods ( lit]>y hi/ory4 ,! op9ions & reason+s :i* are put =? ^u me*anical subjects1 & above all1 ! adoption1 into common language1 ( t]ms & phrases belong+ to ! preval5t me*anical sy/ems1 exhibit to u ! mo/ pr(\nd discov]ies & speculations ( philosoph]s 9 _! effect ^u m common & famili> tra9s ( ?\ght4 ,?is effect is by no means unimportant1 & we %all po9t out "s examples ( su* indications z we h m5tion$4 #b4 ,! discov]ies ( ! anci5ts 9 speculative me*anics 71 z we h se51 v scanty2 & #bhj h>dly ext5d$ _! influ5ce to ! unma!matical _w4 ,yet ! famili> use ( ! t]m 'c5t] ( gravity' pres]v$ & sugge/$ ! mo/ important "p ( :at ! ,greeks _h to tea*4 ,! o!r phrases :i* !y employ$1 z mom5tum1 en]gy1 virtue1 =ce1 & ! l1 nev] _h any exact mean+1 ev5 among ma!maticians2 & !re=e nev]1 9 ! anci5t _w1 became ! means ( sugge/+ j habits ( ?\ght4 ,i h po9t$ out1 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5ce1 sev]al circum/ances :i* appe> to d5ote ! g5]al confusion ( ideas :i* prevail$ ^u me*anical subjects dur+ ! times ( ! ,roman empire4 ,i h !re tak5 z "o ( ! examples ( ?is confusion1 ! fable n>rat$ by ,pl9y & o!rs conc]n+ ! e*9es1 a small fi%1 :i* 0 said to /op a %ip m]ely by /ick+ to x#dec4 ,?is /ory 0 adduc$ z betray+ ! abs5ce ( any /eady appreh5sion ( ! equality ( action & reaction2 s9ce ! fi%1 except x _h "s immoveable ob/acle to hold by1 mu/ be pull$ =w>d by ! %ip1 z mu* z x pull$ ! %ip backw>d4 ,if ! writ]s :o speak ( ?is wond] _h %[n any p]ception ( ! necessity ( a reaction1 ei!r produc$ by ! rapid motion ( ! fi%'s f9s 9 ! wat]1 or 9 any o!r way1 !y w\ld n be *>geable ) ?is confusion ( ?\ght2 b f _! expressions x is1 ,i ?9k1 evid5t t !y saw no su* necessity#dfc4 ,_! idea ( me*anical action 0 n suffici5tly di/9ct to enable !m to see ! absurdity ( #bha suppos+ an int5se pressure ) no ob/acle = x to ex]t itself aga9/4 ,note #dec3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 iv4 c4 i4 sect4 #b4 ,note #dfc3 ,see ,pr(4 ,p[ell1 ,on ! ,nature & ,evid5ce ( ! ,laws ( ,motion4 ,reports ( ! ,a%molean ,society4 ,ox=d4 #ahcg4 ,pr(essor ,p[ell has made an objection to my use ( ?is in/ance ( confusion ( ?\ght2 ! rem>k 9 ! text seems to me to ju/ify :at ,i said 9 ! ,hi/ory4 ,z an evid5ce t ! fi% 0 n suppos$ to produce its effect by its muscul> p[] act+ on ! wat]1 we may take :at ,pl9y says1 ,nat4 ,hi/4 xxxii4 #a1 ',domat mundi rabiem1 nullo suo labore2 non ret95do1 aut alio modo quam adhr5do3' & also :at he /ates 9 ano!r place 7ix4 #da71 t :5 x is pres]v$ 9 pickle1 x may be us$ 9 recov]+ gold :i* has fall5 into a deep well4 ,all ?is implies adhesion alone1 ) no conception ( reaction4 #c4 ,we may trace1 9 m mod]n times also1 indications ( a g5]al ignorance ( me*anical tru?s4 ,?us ! phrase ( %oot+ at an object 'po9t-blank1' implies ! belief t a cannon-ball describes a pa? ( :i* ! fir/ portion is a /raight l9e4 ,?is err\r 0 correct$ by ! true me*anical pr9ciples :i* ,galileo & 8 foll[]s br\ght to light2 b ^! pr9ciples made _! way to popul> notice1 pr9cipally 9 consequ5ce ( _! application to ! motions ( ! sol> sy/em1 & to ! controv]sies :i* took place respect+ ^? motions4 ,?us by f> ! mo/ p[]ful argum5t aga9/ ! reception ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em ( ! univ]se1 0 t ( ^? :o ask$1 ,:y a /one dropt f a t[] 0 n left beh9d by ! motion ( ! e>?8 ,! answ] to ?is "q1 n[ univ]sally famili>1 involves a ref]5ce to ! true doctr9e ( ! composition ( motions4 ,aga92 ,kepl]'s p]sev]+ & /r5u\s attempts#dgc to frame a physical !ory ( ! univ]se 7 fru/rat$ by 8 ignorance ( ! fir/ law ( motion1 :i* in=ms u t a body w reta9 its velocity )\t any ma9ta9+ =ce4 ,he proce$$ ^u ! supposition t ! sun's =ce 0 requisite to keep up ! motion ( ! planets1 z well z to deflect & modify x2 & he 0 ?us l$ to a sy/em :i* repres5t$ ! sun z c>ry+ r\nd ! planets 9 _! orbits by means ( a vortex1 produc$ by 8 revolution4 ,! same neglect ( ! laws ( motion presid$ 9 ! =mation ( ,desc>tes' sy/em ( vortices4 ,al?\gh ,desc>tes _h enunciat$ 9 words ! laws ( motion1 he & 8 foll[]s %[$ t !y _h n ! practical habit ( ref]r+ to ^! me*anical pr9ciples2 & d>$ n tru/ ! planets to move 9 free space )\t "s surr\nd+ ma*9]y to support !m#dhc4 ,note #dgc3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 v4 c4 iv4 & b4 vii4 c4 i4 ,note #dhc3 ,i h1 9 ! ,hi/ory1 appli$ to ,desc>tes ! "* :i* ,bacon gives to ,ari/otle1 ',audax simul et pavidus3' ?\gh he 0 bold en\gh to enunciate ! laws ( motion )\t kn[+ !m aright1 he _h n ! c\rage to leave ! planets to describe _! orbits by ! ag5cy ( ^? laws1 )\t ! ma*9]y ( contact4 #bhb #d4 ,:5 at la/ ma!maticians1 foll[+ ,newton1 _h v5tur$ to consid] ! motion ( ea* planet z a me*anical problem n diff]5t 9 its nature f ! motion ( a /one ca/ f ! h&2 & :5 ! solution ( ?is problem & its imm5se consequ5ces _h become matt]s ( g5]al notoriety & int]e/2 ! new views introduc$1 z is usual1 new t]ms1 :i* soon became ext5sively curr5t4 ,we meet ) su* phrases z 'fly+ (f 9 ! tang5t1' & 'deflexion f ! tang5t2' ) anti!ses betwe5 'c5tripetal' & 'c5trifugal =ce1' or betwe5 'projectile' & 'c5tral =ce4' ',c5t]s ( =ce1' 'di/urb+ =ces1' 'p]turbations1' & 'p]turbations ( high] ord]s1' are n unfrequ5tly spok5 (3 & ! expression 'to gravitate1' & ! t]m 'univ]sal gravitation1' acquir$ a p]man5t place 9 ! language4 ,yet = a long "t1 & ev5 up to ! pres5t day1 we f9d _m indications t false & confus$ appreh5sions on su* subjects are by no means extirpat$4 ,argum5ts are urg$ aga9/ ! me*anical sy/em ( ! univ]se1 imply+ 9 ! oppon5ts an abs5ce ( all cle> me*anical notions4 ,_m ( ?is class ( writ]s retrograde to ,kepl]'s po9t ( view4 ,?is is1 = example1 ! case ) ,"l ,monboddo1 :o1 argu+ on ! assumption t =ce is requisite to ma9ta91 z well z to deflect motion1 produc$ a s]ies ( attacks ^u ! ,newtonian philosophy2 :i* he ins]t$ 9 8 ,anci5t ,metaphysics1 publi%$ 9 #aggi & ! succe$+ ye>s4 ,?is writ] 7l ,kepl]71 measures =ce by ! velocity :i* ! body has#dic1 n by t :i* x ga9s4 ,su* a use ( language w\ld prev5t our obta9+ any laws ( motion at all4 ,accord+ly1 ! au?or1 9 ! v next page to t :i* ,i h j quot$1 ab&ons ?is measure ( =ce1 &1 9 curvil9e> motion1 measures #bhc =ce by '! fall f ! extremity ( ! arc4' ,aga92 9 8 objections to ! receiv$ !ory1 he d5ies t curvil9e> motion is comp\nd$1 al?\gh 8 own mode ( consid]+ su* motion assumes ?is composition 9 ! only way 9 :i* x 0 ev] int5d$ by ma!maticians4 ,_m m in/ances might be adduc$ to %[ t a want ( cultivation ( ! me*anical ideas r5d]$ ?is philosoph] incapable ( judg+ ( a me*anical sy/em4 ,note #dic3 ,anc4 ,met4 vol4 ii4 b4 v4 c4 vi4 p4 #dac4 ,! foll[+ extract f ! ,anci5t ,metaphysics1 may be suffici5t to %[ ! value ( ! au?or's criticism on ! subjects ( :i* we are n[ speak+4 ,8 object is to prove t !re d n exi/ a c5tripetal & a c5trifugal =ce 9 ! case ( elliptical motion4 ',let any man move 9 a circul> or elliptical l9e describ$ to him2 & he w f9d no t5d5cy 9 himself ei!r to ! c5t] or f x1 mu* less bo?4 ,if inde$ he attempt to make ! motion ) great velocity1 or if he d x c>elessly & inatt5tively1 he may g out ( ! l9e1 ei!r t[>ds ! c5t] or f x3 b ?is is to be ascrib$1 n to ! nature ( ! motion1 b to our infirmity2 or p]haps to ! animal =m1 :i* is m fitt$ = progressive motion 9 a "r l9e ?an = any k9d ( curvil9e> motion4 ,b ?is is n ! case ) a sph]e or sph]oid1 :i* is equally adapt$ to motion 9 all directions#ejc4' ,we ne$ h>dly rem9d ! read] t ! mann] 9 :i* a man runn+ r\nd a small circle1 f9ds x necess>y to lean inw>ds1 9 ord] t !re may be a c5tripetal incl9ation to c\nt]act ! c5trifugal =ce1 is a /&>d example ( our me*anical doctr9es2 & ?is fact 7q famili> 9 practice z well z !ory7 is 9 direct contradiction ( ,"l ,monboddo's ass]tion4 ,note #ejc3 ,anc4 ,met4 vol4 i4 b4 ii4 c4 #ai1 p4 #bfd4 #e4 ,a simil> abs5ce ( di/9ct me*anical ?\ght appe>s 9 "s ( ! mo/ celebrat$ metaphysicians ( ,g]many4 ,i h else:]e not$#eac ! op9ion express$ by ,hegel1 t ! glory :i* belongs to #bhd ,kepl] has be5 unju/ly transf]r$ to ,newton2 & ,i h sugge/$1 z ! explanation ( ?is mode ( ?9k+1 t ,hegel himself1 9 ! k ( me*anical tru?1 _h n advanc$ beyond ,kepl]'s po9t ( view4 ,p]sons :o possess conceptions ( space & numb]1 b :o h n le>nt to deal ) ideas ( =ce & causation1 may see m value 9 ! discov]ies ( ,kepl] ?an 9 ^? ( ,newton4 ,ano!r exemplification ( ?is /ate ( m9d may be f\nd 9 ,pr(essor ,s*ell+'s speculations2 = in/ance1 9 8 ,lectures on ! ,me?od ( ,academical ,/udy4 ,9 ! twelf? ,lecture1 on ! /udy ( ,physics & ,*emi/ry1 he says1 7p4 #bff17 ',:at ! ma!matical natural philosophy has done = ! k ( ! laws ( ! univ]se s9ce ! "t t !y 7 discov]$ by 8 7,kepl]'s7 godlike g5ius1 is1 z is well kn[n1 ?is3 x has attempt$ a con/ruction ( ^? laws :i*1 accord+ to its f\ndations1 is altoge!r empirical4 ,we may assume x z a g5]al rule1 t 9 any propos$ con/ruction1 t :i* is n a pure g5]al =m _c h any sci5tific import or tru?4 ,! f\ndation f :i* ! c5trifugal motion ( ! bodies ( ! _w is d]iv$1 is no necess>y =m1 x is an empirical fact4 ,! ,newtonian attractive =ce1 ev5 if x be a necess>y assumption = a m]ely reflective view ( ! subject1 is /ill ( no significance = ! ,reason1 :i* recognizes only absolute relations4 ,! gr\nds ( ! ,kepl]ian laws c be d]iv$1 )\t any empirical app5dage1 purely f ! doctr9e ( ,ideas1 & ( ! two ,unities1 :i* are 9 !mselves "o ,unity1 & 9 virtue ( :i* ea* be+1 :ile x is absolute 9 itself1 is at ! same "t 9 ! absolute1 & reciprocally4' ,note #eac3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 vii4 c4 ii4 sect4 #e4 ,x w be obs]v$1 t 9 ?is passage our me*anical laws are object$ to because !y are n necess>y results ( our ideas2 :i*1 h[ev]1 z we h se51 accord+ to ! op9ion ( "s em95t me*anical philosoph]s1 !y are4 ,b to assume ?is evid5t necessity z a condition ( e advance 9 sci5ce1 is to mi/ake ! la/1 p]haps unatta9able /ep1 = ! fir/1 :i* lies be=e our feet4 ,&1 #bhe )\t inquir+ fur!r ab\t '! ,doctr9e ( ! two ,unities1' or ! mann] 9 :i* f t doctr9e we may d$uce ! ,kepl]ian laws1 we may be well conv9c$ t su* a doctr9e _c supply any suffici5t reason to induce u to quit ! inductive pa? by :i* all sci5tific tru? up to ! pres5t "t has be5 acquir$4 #f4 ,b )\t go+ to s*ools ( philosophy oppos$ to ! ,inductive ,s*ool1 we may f9d _m loose & vague habits ( ?9k+ on me*anical subjects among ! common classes ( read]s & reason]s4 ,& !re are "s famili> modes ( employ+ ! phraseology ( me*anical sci5ce1 :i* are1 9 a c]ta9 degree1 *>geable ) inaccuracy1 & may produce or p]petuate confusion4 ,among su* cases we may m5tion ! way 9 :i* ! c5tripetal & c5trifugal =ces1 & also ! projectile & c5tral =ces ( ! planets1 are (t5 comp>$ or oppos$4 ,su* anti!ses sometimes proce$ ^u ! false notion t ! two memb]s ( ^! pairs ( =ces are ( ! same k9d3 :]eas on ! contr>y ! projectile =ce is a hypo!tical impulsive =ce :i* may1 at "s =m] p]iod1 h caus$ ! motion to beg92 :ile ! c5tral =ce is an actual =ce1 :i* mu/ act cont9u\sly & dur+ ! :ole "t ( ! motion1 9 ord] t ! motion may g on 9 ! curve4 ,9 ! same mann] ! c5trifugal =ce is n a di/9ct =ce 9 a /rict s5se1 b only a c]ta9 result ( ! fir/ law ( motion1 measur$ by ! portion ( c5tripetal =ce :i* c\nt]acts x4 ,comp>isons ( quantities s het]og5e\s imply confusion ( ?\ght1 & (t5 sugge/ baseless speculations & imag9$ re=ms ( ! receiv$ op9ions4 #g4 ,i might po9t out o!r t]ms & maxims1 9 addition to ^? already m5tion$1 :i*1 ?\gh =m]ly employ$ 9 a loose & vague mann]1 are n[ accurately und]/ood & employ$ by all j ?9k]s2 & ?us secure & diffuse a "r und]/&+ ( me*anical tru?s4 ,su* are mom5tum1 in]tia1 quantity ( matt]1 quantity ( motion2 t =ce is proportional to its effects2 t action & #bhf reaction are equal2 t :at is ga9$ 9 =ce by ma*9]y is lo/ 9 "t2 t ! quantity ( motion 9 ! _w _c be ei!r increas$ or dim9i%$4 ,:5 ! expression ( ! tru? ?us becomes easy & simple1 cle> & conv9c+1 ! mean+s giv5 to words & phrases by discov]]s glide into ! habitual texture ( m5's reason+s1 & ! effect ( ! e/abli%m5t ( true me*anical pr9ciples is felt f> f ! s*ool ( ! me*anician4 ,if ^! t]ms & maxims are und]/ood ) tol]able cle>ness1 !y c>ry ! influ5ce ( tru? to ^? :o h no direct access to its s\rces4 ,_m an extravagant project 9 practical ma*9]y1 & _m a wild hypo!sis 9 speculative physics1 has be5 repress$ by ! g5]al curr5cy ( su* maxims z we h j quot$4 #h4 ,inde$ s famili> & evid5t are ! elem5t>y tru?s ( me*anics :5 express$ 9 ?is simple =m1 t !y are receiv$ z truisms2 & m5 are dispos$ to look back ) surprise & scorn at ! speculations :i* 7 c>ri$ on 9 neglect ( !m4 ,! mo/ sup]ficial reason] ( mod]n times ?9ks himself entitl$ to speak ) contempt & ridicule ( ,kepl]'s hypo!sis conc]n+ ! physical causes ( ! cele/ial motions3 & gives himself cr$it = intellectual sup]iority1 because he sees1 z self-evid5t1 :at su* a man c\ld n discov] at all4 ,x is well = su* a p]son to recollect1 t ! real cause ( 8 sup]ior insight is n ! pre-em95ce ( 8 faculties1 b ! successful lab\rs ( ^? :o h prec$$ him4 ,! language :i* he has le>nt to use unconsci\sly1 has be5 adapt$ to1 & m\ld$ on1 asc]ta9$ tru?s4 ,:5 he talks famili>ly ( accel]at+ =ces & deflexions f ! tang5t1 he is assum+ t :i* ,kepl] did n "k1 & :i* x co/ ,galileo & 8 disciples s mu* lab\r & ?\ght to e/abli%4 ,language is (t5 call$ an in/rum5t ( ?\ght2 b x is also ! nutrim5t ( ?\ght2 or r1 x is ! atmosph]e 9 :i* ?\ght lives3 a m$ium ess5tial to ! activity ( our speculative p[]1 al?\gh invisible #bhg & imp]ceptible 9 its op]ation2 & an elem5t modify+1 by its qualities & *anges1 ! gr[? & complexion ( ! faculties :i* x fe$s4 ,9 ?is way ! influ5ce ( prec$+ discov]ies ^u subsequ5t ones1 ( ! pa/ ^u ! pres5t1 is mo/ p5etrat+ & univ]sal1 ?\gh mo/ subtle & difficult to trace4 ,! mo/ famili> words & phrases are connect$ by imp]ceptible ties ) ! reason+s & discov]ies ( =m] m5 & di/ant times4 ,_! k is an insep>able "p ( ours2 ! pres5t g5]ation inh]its & uses ! sci5tific weal? ( all ! pa/4 ,& ?is is ! =tune1 n only ( ! great & ri* 9 ! intellectual _w3 ( ^? :o h ! key to ! anci5t /oreh\ses1 & :o h accumulat$ treasures ( _! own2--b ! humble/ inquir]1 :ile he puts 8 reason+s into words1 b5efits by ! lab\rs ( ! greate/ discov]]s4 ,:5 he c\nts 8 little weal?1 he f9ds t he has 9 8 h&s co9s :i* be> ! image & sup]scription ( anci5t & mod]n intellectual dyna/ies2 & t 9 virtue ( ?is possession1 acquisitions are 9 8 p[]1 solid k )9 8 rea*1 :i* none c\ld ev] h atta9$ to1 if x 7 n t ! gold ( tru?1 once dug out ( ! m9e1 circulates m & m widely among mank9d4 #i4 ,hav+ s fully exam9$1 9 ! prec$+ in/ances1 ! nature ( ! progress ( ?\ght :i* sci5ce implies1 bo? among ! peculi> cultivators ( sci5ce1 & 9 t wid] _w ( g5]al culture :i* receives only an indirect influ5ce f sci5tific discov]ies1 we %all n f9d x necess>y to g into ! same ext5t ( detail ) reg>d to ! o!r prov9ces ( human k4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,me*anical ,sci5ces1 we h endeav\r$ to %[1 n only t ,ideas are requisite 9 ord] to =m into a sci5ce ! ,facts :i* nature (f]s to u1 b t we c advance1 almo/ or q1 to a complete id5tification ( ! ,facts ) ! ,ideas4 ,9 ! sci5ces to :i* we n[ proce$1 we %all n seek to fill up ! *asm by :i* ,facts & ,ideas are sep>at$2 b we %all endeav\r to detect ! ,ideas :i* our #bhh k involves1 to %[ h[ ess5tial ^! are2 & 9 "s respects to trace ! mode 9 :i* !y h be5 gradually develop$ among m54 #aj4 ,! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 _! laws1 _! causes1 are among ! subjects ( ! fir/ division ( ! ,me*anical ,sci5ces2 & ( ^! sci5ces we =m]ly sket*$ ! hi/ory1 & h n[ endeav\r$ to exhibit ! philosophy4 ,if we 7 to take any o!r class ( motions1 _! laws & causes might give rise to sci5ces :i* w\ld be me*anical sci5ces 9 exactly ! same s5se 9 :i* ,physical ,a/ronomy is s4 ,! ph5om5a ( magnets1 ( electrical bodies1 ( galvanical app>atus1 seem to =m obvi\s mat]ials = su* sci5ces2 & if !y 7 s treat$1 ! philosophy ( su* bran*es ( k w\ld naturally come "u our consid]ation at ?is po9t ( our progress4 ,b on look+ m att5tively at ! sci5ces ( ,electricity1 ,magnetism1 & ,galvanism1 we discov] cog5t reasons = transf]r+ !m to ano!r "p ( our arrangem5t2 we f9d x advisable to associate !m ) ,*emi/ry1 & to discuss _! pr9ciples :5 we c connect !m ) ! pr9ciples ( *emical sci5ce4 ,= ?\gh ! fir/ /eps & n>r[] g5]alizations ( ^! sci5ces dep5d ^u me*anical ideas1 ! highe/ laws & wide/ g5]alizations :i* we c rea* respect+ !m1 involve *emical relations4 ,! progress ( ^! portions ( k is 9 "s respects opposite to ! progress ( ,physical ,a/ronomy4 ,9 ?is1 we beg9 ) ph5om5a :i* appe> to indicate peculi> & v>i\s qualities 9 ! bodies :i* we consid]1 7namely1 ! heav5ly bodies17 & we f9d 9 ! end t all ^! qualities resolve !mselves into "o common me*anical prop]ty1 :i* exi/s alike 9 all bodies & p>ts ( bodies4 ,on ! contr>y1 9 /udy+ magnetical & electrical laws1 we appe> at fir/ to h a s+le ext5sive ph5om5on1 attraction & repulsion3 b 9 our attempts to g5]alize ?is ph5om5on1 we f9d t x is gov]n$ by conditions dep5d+ ^u some?+ q sep>ate f ! bodies !mselves1 ^u #bhi ! pres5ce & di/ribution ( peculi> & transitory ag5cies2 &1 s f> z we c discov]1 ! g5]al laws ( ^! ag5cies are ( a *emical nature1 & are br\ght into action by peculi> prop]ties ( special sub/ances4 ,9 cosmical ph5om5a1 ev]y?+1 9 proportion z x is ref]r$ to me*anical pr9ciples1 t5ds to simplicity1--to p]man5t uni=m =ces1--to "o common1 positive1 prop]ty4 ,9 magnetical & electrical appe>ances1 on ! contr>y1 ! application ( me*anical pr9ciples leads only to a new complexity1 :i* requires a new explanation2 & ?is explanation involves *angeable & v>i\s =ces1--gradations & oppositions ( qualities4 ,! doctr9e ( ! univ]sal gravitation ( matt] is a simple & ultimate tru?1 9 :i* ! m9d c acquiesce & repose4 ,we rank gravity among ! me*anical attributes ( matt]1 & we see no necessity to d]ive x f any ult]ior prop]ties4 ,gravity belongs to matt]1 indep5d5t ( any conditions4 ,b ! conditions ( magnetic or electrical activity require inve/igation z mu* z ! laws ( _! action4 ,( ^! conditions no m]e me*anical explanation c be giv52 we are compell$ to take along ) u *emical prop]ties & relations also3 & ?us magnetism1 electricity1 galvanism1 are me*anico-*emical sci5ces4 #aa4 ,be=e consid]+ ^!1 !re=e1 ,i %all treat ( :at ,i %all call ,second>y ,me*anical ,sci5ces2 by :i* expression ,i mean ! sci5ces dep5d+ ^u c]ta9 qualities :i* our s5ses discov] to u 9 bodies2--,optics1 :i* has visible ph5om5a = its subject2 ,ac\/ics1 ! sci5ce ( he>+2 ! doctr9e ( ,heat1 a quality :i* our t\* recognizes3 to ?is la/ sci5ce ,i %all take ! lib]ty ( sometimes giv+ ! "n ,!rmotics1 analog\s to ! names ( ! o!r two4 ,if our k ( ! ph5om5a ( ,smell & ,ta/e _h be5 successfully cultivat$ & sy/ematiz$1 ! pres5t "p ( our "w w\ld be ! place = ! philosophical discussion ( ^? s5sations z ! subjects ( sci5ce4 ,! bran*es ( k ?us gr\p$ 9 "o class involve common ,fundam5tal ,ideas1 f :i* #bij _! pr9ciples are d]iv$ 9 a mode analog\s1 at lea/ 9 a c]ta9 degree1 to ! mode 9 :i* ! pr9ciples ( ! me*anical sci5ces are d]iv$ f ! fundam5tal ideas ( causation & reaction4 ,we proce$ n[ to consid] ^! ,fundam5tal ,ideas1 _! nature1 developm5t1 & consequ5ces4 #bia ,,book ,,iv4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,second>y ,,me*anical ,,sci5ces4 ' 1 ' 1 ' 4 ' 1 4 1 1 4 ' 1 ' 1 ' ' 1 4 ,,ari/ot4 ,de ,anima1 ,,ii4 #g4 #bic ,,book ,,iv4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,second>y ,,me*anical ,,sci5ces4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,a ,,m$ium ,,z ,,commonly ,,employ$4 #a4 ,( ,prim>y & ,second>y ,qualities4--,,9 ! same way 9 :i* ! me*anical sci5ces dep5d ^u ! ,idea ( ,cause1 & h _! pr9ciples regulat$ by ! developm5t ( t ,idea1 x w be f\nd t ! sci5ces :i* h = _! subject ,s\nd1 ,light1 & ,heat1 dep5d = _! pr9ciples ^u ! ,fundam5tal ,idea ( ,m$ia by means ( :i* we p]ceive ^? qualities4 ,l ! idea ( cause1 ?is idea ( a m$ium is unavoidably employ$1 m or less di/9ctly1 9 ! common1 unsci5tific op]ations ( ! und]/&+2 & is recogniz$ z an express pr9ciple 9 ! e>lie/ speculative essays ( man4 ,b "h also1 z 9 ! case ( ! me*anical sci5ces1 ! developm5t ( ! idea1 & ! e/abli%m5t ( ! sci5tific tru?s :i* dep5d ^u x1 0 ! bus9ess ( a succe$+ p]iod1 & 0 only execut$ by means ( long & labori\s rese>*es1 conduct$ ) a con/ant ref]5ce to exp]im5t & obs]vation4 ,among ! mo/ prom95t manife/ations ( ! influ5ce ( ! idea ( a m$ium ( :i* we h n[ to speak1 is ! di/9ction ( ! qualities ( bodies into prim>y1 & second>y qualities4 ,?is di/9ction has #bid be5 con/antly spok5 ( 9 mod]n times3 yet x has (t5 be5 a subject ( discussion among metaphysicians :e!r !re be really su* a di/9ction1 & :at ! true diff]5ce is4 ,locke /ates x ?us#ad3 ,orig9al or ,prim>y qualities ( bodies are 'su* z are utt]ly insep>able f ! body 9 :at e/ate soev] x may be1--su* z s5se con/antly f9ds 9 e p>ticle ( matt] :i* has bulk en\gh to be p]ceiv$1 & ! m9d f9ds insep>able f e p>ticle ( matt]1 ?\gh less ?an to make itself s+ly p]ceiv$ by our s5ses3' & he enum]ates !m z solidity1 ext5sion1 figure1 motion or re/1 & numb]4 ,second>y qualities1 on ! o!r h&1 are su* ':i* 9 tru? are no?+ 9 ! objects !mselves1 b p[]s to produce v>i\s s5sations 9 u by _! prim>y qualities1 i4e4 by ! bulk1 figure1 texture1 & motion ( _! ins5sible p>ts1 z col\rs1 s\nds1 ta/es1 c4' ,note #ad3 ,essay1 b4 ii4 *4 viii4 s4 #i1 #aj4 ,dr4 ,reid#bd1 reconsid]+ ?is subject1 puts ! diff]5ce 9 ano!r way4 ,!re is1 he says1 a real f\ndation = ! di/9ction ( ,prim>y & ,second>y qualities1 & x is ?is3 ',t our s5ses give u a direct & di/9ct notion ( ! prim>y qualities1 & in=m u :at !y are 9 !mselves2 b ( ! second>y qualities1 our s5ses give u only a relative & obscure notion4 ,!y in=m u only t !y are qualities t affect u 9 a c]ta9 mann]1 t is1 produce 9 u a c]ta9 s5sation2 b z to :at !y are 9 !mselves1 our s5ses leave u 9 ! d>k4' ,note #bd3 ,essays1 b4 ii4 c4 xvii4 ,dr4 ,br[n#cd /ates ! di/9ction some:at o!rwise4 ,we give ! "n ( ,matt]1 he obs]ves1 to t :i* has ext5sion & resi/ance3 ^!1 !re=e1 are ,prim>y qualities ( matt]1 because !y compose our def9ition ( x4 ,all o!r qualities are ,second>y1 s9ce !y are ascrib$ to bodies only because we f9d !m associat$ ) ! prim>y qualities :i* =m our notion ( ^? bodies4 ,note #cd3 ,lectures1 ii4 #ab4 #bie ,x is n necess>y to criticize v /rictly ^! v>i\s di/9ctions4 ,if x 71 x w\ld be easy to f9d objections to !m4 ,?us ,locke1 x may be obs]v$1 does n po9t out any reason = believ+ t 8 second>y qualities are produc$ by ! prim>y4 ,h[ are we to le>n t ! col\r ( a rose arises f ! bulk1 figure1 texture1 & motion ( its p>ticles8 ,c]ta9ly our s5ses d n tea* u ?is2 & 9 :at o!r way1 on ,locke's pr9ciples1 c we le>n x8 ,reid's /atem5t is n m free f ! same objection4 ,h[ does x appe> t our notion ( ,w>m? is relative to our own s5sations m ?an our notion ( ,solidity8 ,& if we take ,br[n's acc\nt1 we may /ill ask :e!r our selection ( c]ta9 qualities to =m our idea & def9ition ( ,matt] be arbitr>y & )\t reason8 ,if x be1 h[ c x make a real di/9ction8 if x be n1 :at is ! reason8 ,i d n press ^! objections1 because ,i believe t any ( ! above acc\nts ( ! di/9ction ( ,prim>y & ,second>y qualities is "r 9 ! ma91 h[ev] imp]fect x may be4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 su* qualities z ,ext5sion & ,solidity on ! "o h&1 & ,col\r or ,fragrance on ! o!r1 is ass5t$ to by all1 ) a conviction s firm & inde/ructible1 t !re mu/ be "s fundam5tal pr9ciple at ! bottom ( ! belief1 h[ev] difficult x may be to clo! ! pr9ciple 9 words4 ,t successive ef=ts to express ! real nature ( ! diff]5ce 7 made by m5 s cle>-sight$ & acute z ^? :om ,i h quot$1 ev5 if none ( !m are satisfactory1 %[s h[ /rong & h[ deeply-seat$ is ! p]ception ( tru? :i* impels u to su* attempts4 ,! mo/ obvi\s mode ( /at+ ! diff]5ce ( ,prim>y & ,second>y qualities1 z x naturally (f]s itself to speculative m9ds1 appe>s to be t employ$ by ,locke1 slightly modifi$4 ,c]ta9 ( ! qualities ( bodies1 z _! bulk1 figure1 & motion1 are p]ceiv$ imm$iately 9 ! bodies !mselves4 ,c]ta9 o!r qualities z s\nd1 col\r1 heat1 are #bif p]ceiv$ by means ( "s m$ium4 ,our conviction t ?is is ! case is spontane\s & irresi/ible2 & ?is diff]5ce ( qualities imm$iately & m$iately p]ceiv$ is ! di/9ction ( ,prim>y & ,second>y qualities4 ,we proce$ fur!r to exam9e ?is conviction4 #b4 ,! ,idea ( ,ext]nality4--,9 reason+ conc]n+ ! ,second>y ,qualities ( bodies1 we are l$ to assume ! bodies to be ext]nal to u1 & to be p]ceiv$ by means ( "s ,m$ium int]m$iate betwe5 u & !m4 ,^! assumptions are fundam5tal conditions ( p]ception1 insep>able f p]ception ev5 9 ?\ght4 ,t objects are ext]nal to u1 t !y are )\t u1 t !y h outness1 is z cle> z x is t ^! words h any mean+ at all4 ,?is conviction is1 inde$1 involv$ 9 ! ex]cise ( t faculty by :i* we p]ceive all ?+s z exi/+ 9 space2 = by ?is faculty we place ourselves & o!r objects 9 "o common space1 & ?us !y are ext]ior to u4 ,x may be rem>k$ t ?is appreh5sion ( objects z ext]nal to u1 al?\gh x assumes ! idea ( space1 is f> f be+ impli$ 9 ! idea ( space4 ,! objects :i* we contemplate are consid]$ z exi/+ 9 space1 & by t means become inve/$ ) c]ta9 mutual relations ( position2 b :5 we consid] !m z exi/+ )\t u1 we make ! additional /ep ( suppos+ ourselves & ! objects to exi/ 9 "o common space4 ,! "q respect+ ! ,ideal ,!ory ( ,b]keley has be5 mix$ up ) ! recognition ( ?is condition ( ! ext]nality ( objects4 ,t philosoph] ma9ta9$1 z is well kn[n1 t ! p]ceptible qualities ( bodies h no exi/5ce except 9 a p]ceiv+ m9d4 ,?is sy/em has (t5 be5 und]/ood z if he _h imag9$ ! _w to be a k9d ( optical illusion1 l ! images :i* we see :5 we %ut our eyes1 appe>+ to be )\t u1 ?\gh !y are only 9 our organs2 & ?us ?is ,ideal ,sy/em has be5 oppos$ to a belief 9 an ext]nal _w4 ,9 tru?1 h[ev]1 no su* opposition exi/s4 ,! ,ideal ,sy/em is an attempt to expla9 ! #big m5tal process ( p]ception1 & to get ov] ! difficulty ( m9d be+ affect$ by matt]4 ,b ! au?or ( t sy/em did n d5y t objects 7 p]ceiv$ "u ! conditions ( space & me*anical causation2--t !y 7 ext]nal & mat]ial s f> z ^? words describe p]ceptible qualities4 ,b]keley's sy/em1 h[ev] vision>y or errone\s1 did n prev5t 8 ent]ta9+ views z j1 conc]n+ optics or ac\/ics1 z if he _h held any o!r doctr9e ( ! nature ( p]ception4 ,b :5 ,b]keley's !ory 0 und]/ood z a d5ial ( ! exi/5ce ( objects )\t u1 h[ 0 x answ]$8 ,if we exam9e ! answ]s :i* are giv5 by ,reid & o!r philosoph]s to ?is hypo!sis1 x w be f\nd t !y am\nt to ?is3 t objects are )\t u1 s9ce we p]ceive t !y are s2 t we p]ceive !m to be ext]nal1 by ! same act by :i* we p]ceive !m to be objects4 ,& ?us1 9 ?is /age ( philosophical inquiry1 ! ext]nality ( objects is recogniz$ z "o ( ! inevitable conditions ( our p]ception ( !m2 & h5ce ! ,idea ( ,ext]nality is adopt$ z "o ( ! necess>y f\ndations ( all reason+ conc]n+ all objects :atev]4 #c4 ,s5sation by a ,m$ium4--,objects1 z we h j se51 are necess>ily appreh5d$ z )\t u2 & 9 g5]al1 z remov$ f u by a great or small di/ance4 ,yet !y affect our bodily s5ses2 & ?is leads u irresi/ibly to ! conviction t !y are p]ceiv$ by means ( some?+ int]m$iate4 ,vision1 or he>+1 or smell1 or ! w>m? ( a fire1 mu/ be communicat$ to u by "s ,m$ium ( ,s5sation4 ,?is unavoidable belief appe>s 9 all attempts1 ! e>lie/ & ! late/ alike1 to speculate ^u su* subjects4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ,ari/otle says#dd1 ',see+ takes place 9 virtue ( "s action :i* ! s5ti5t organ suff]s3 n[ x _c suff] action f ! col\r ( ! object directly3 ! only rema9+ possible case !n is1 t x is act$ ^u by an #bih int]v5+ ,m$ium2 !re mu/ !n be an int]v5+ ,m$ium4' ',& ! same may be said1' he adds1 'conc]n+ s\nd+ & odor\s bodies2 = ^! d n produce s5sation by t\*+ ! s5ti5t organ1 b ! int]v5+ ,m$ium is act$ on by ! s\nd or ! smell1 & ! prop] organ1 by ! ,m$ium 444 ,9 s\nd ! ,m$ium is air2 9 smell we h no "n = x4' ,9 ! s5se ( ta/e1 ! necessity ( a ,m$ium is n at fir/ s obvi\sly se51 because ! object ta/$ is br\ght into contact ) ! organ2 b a little att5tion conv9ces u t ! ta/e ( a solid body c only be p]ceiv$ :5 x is convey$ 9 "s liquid vehicle4 ,till ! fruit is cru%$1 & till its juices are press$ out1 we d n di/+ui% its flav\r4 ,9 ! case ( heat1 x is /ill m cle> t we are compell$ to suppose "s invisible fluid1 or o!r means ( communication1 betwe5 ! di/ant body :i* w>ms u & ourselves4 ,note #dd3 4 ii4 #g4 ,see ! motto to ?is ,book4 ,x may appe> to "s p]sons t ! assumption ( an int]m$ium betwe5 ! object p]ceiv$ & ! s5ti5t organ results f ! pr9ciples :i* =m ! basis ( our me*anical reason+s1--t e *ange mu/ h a cause1 & t bodies c act ^u ea* o!r only by contact4 ,x _c be d5i$ t ?is pr9ciple does (f] itself v naturally z ! gr\nd ( our belief 9 m$ia ( s5sation2 & x appe>s to be ref]r$ to = ?is purpose by ,ari/otle 9 ! passage quot$ above4 ,b yet we _c b ask1 ,does ! pr9ciple1 t matt] produces its effect by contact only1 manife/ly apply "h8 ,:5 we s apply x1 we include s5sation among ! effects :i* mat]ial contact produces2--a case s diff]5t f any m]ely me*anical effect1 t ! pr9ciple1 s employ$1 appe>s to acquire a new signification4 ,may we n1 !n1 r say t we h "h a new axiom1--,t s5sation implies a mat]ial cause imm$iately act+ on ! organ1--?an a new application ( our =m] proposition1--,t all me*anical *ange implies contact8 ,! solution ( ?is d\bt is n ( any mat]ial consequ5ce to our reason+s2 = :atev] be ! #bii gr\nd ( ! assumption1 x is c]ta9 t we d assume ! exi/5ce ( m$ia by :i* ! s5sations ( sight1 he>+1 & ! l1 are produc$2 & x w be se5 %ortly t pr9ciples insep>ably connect$ ) ?is assumption are ! basis ( ! sci5ces n[ be=e u4 ,?is assumption makes its appe>ance 9 ! physical doctr9es ( all ! s*ools ( philosophy4 ,x is exhibit$ p]haps mo/ prom95tly 9 ! t5ets ( ! ,epicureans1 :o 7 mat]iali/s1 & ext5d$ to all k9ds ( causation ! axiom ( ! exi/5ce ( a corporeal me*anism by :i* alone ! effect is produc$4 ,?us1 accord+ to !m1 vision is produc$ by c]ta9 images or mat]ial films :i* fl[ f ! object1 /rike ^u ! eyes1 & s become s5sible4 ,?is op9ion is urg$ ) great detail & e>ne/ness by ,lucretius1 ! poetical expositor ( ! ,epicurean cre$ among ! ,romans4 ,8 fundam5tal conviction ( ! necessity ( a mat]ial m$ium is obvi\sly ! basis ( 8 reason+1 ?\gh he attempts to %[ ! exi/5ce ( su* a m$ium by facts4 ,?us he argues#ed1 t by %\t+ l\d we make ! ?roat sore2 :i* %[s1 he says1 t ! voice mu/ be mat]ial1 s t x c hurt ! passage 9 com+ out4 ,haud igitur dubium e/ qu9 voces v]baque con/5t ,corporeis e pr9cipiis ut ld]e poss9t4 ,note #ed3 ,de ,r]um ,natur1 ,lib4 iv4 #ebi4 #d4 ,! ,process ( ,p]ception ( ,second>y ,qualities4--,! lik5esses or repres5tatives ( objects by :i* !y affect our s5ses 7 call$ by "s writ]s species1 or s5sible species1 a t]m :i* cont9u$ 9 use till ! revival ( sci5ce4 ,x may be obs]v$ t ! conception ( ^! species z films ca/ (f f ! object1 & reta9+ its %ape1 0 diff]5t1 z we h se51 f ! view :i* ,ari/otle took1 ?\gh x has sometimes be5 call$ ! ,p]ipatetic doctr9e#fd4 ,we may add t ! expression 0 latt]ly appli$ to express ! supposition ( an emanation ( any k9d1 & impli$ little #cjj m ?an t supposition ( a ,m$ium ( :i* we are n[ speak+4 ,?us ,bacon1 aft] review+ ! ph5om5a ( s\nd1 says#gd1 ',vid5tur motus soni fi]i p] species spirituales3 ita enim loqu5dum donec c]tius quippiam inv5iatur4' ,note #fd3 ,br[n1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ih4 ,note #gd3 ,hi/4 ,son4 et ,aud4 vol4 ix4 p4 #hg4 ,?\gh ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( sev]al sci5ces dep5d ^u ! assumption ( a ,m$ium ( ,p]ception1 ^! pr9ciples d n at all dep5d ^u any special view ( ! ,process ( our p]ceptions4 ,! me*anism ( t process is a curi\s subject ( consid]ation2 b x belongs to physiology1 m prop]ly ?an ei!r to metaphysics1 or to ^? bran*es ( physics ( :i* we are n[ speak+4 ,! g5]al nature ( ! process is ! same = all ! s5ses4 ,! object affects ! appropriate int]m$ium2 ! m$ium1 ?r\gh ! prop] organ1 ! eye1 ! e>1 ! nose1 affects ! n]ves ( ! p>ticul> s5se2 &1 by ^!1 9 "s way1 ! s5sation is convey$ to ! m9d1 ,b to treat ! impression ^u ! n]ves z ! act ( s5sation :i* we h to consid]1 w\ld be to mi/ake our object1 :i* is n ! con/itution ( ! human body1 b ( ! human m9d4 ,x w\ld be to mi/ake "o l9k ( ! *a9 = ! p[] :i* holds ! end ( ! *a94 ,no anatomical analysis ( ! corporeal conditions ( vision1 or he>+1 or feel+ w>m1 is necess>y to ! sci5ces ( ,optics1 or ,ac\/ics1 or ,!rmotics4 ,n only is ?is physiological rese>* an extrane\s "p ( our subject1 b a p>tial pursuit ( su* a rese>* may mislead ! inquir]4 ,we p]ceive objects by means ( c]ta9 m$ia1 & by means ( c]ta9 impressions on ! n]ves3 b we _c ) propriety say t we p]ceive ei!r ! m$ia or ! impressions on ! n]ves4 ,:at p]son 9 ! act ( see+ is consci\s ( ! little col\r$ spaces on ! ret9a8 or ( ! motions ( ! bones ( ! auditory app>atus :il/ he is he>+8 ,surely1 no "o4 ,?is may appe> obvi\s en\gh1 & yet a writ] ( no common acut5ess1 ,dr4 ,br[n1 has put =? sev]al #cja v /range op9ions1 all re/+ ^u ! doctr9e t ! col\r$ spaces on ! ret9a are ! objects :i* we p]ceive2 & !re are "s suppos$ difficulties & p>adoxes on ! same subject :i* h become q celebrat$ 7z upright vision ) inv]t$ images71 aris+ f ! same confusion ( ?\ght4 ,z ! consid]ation ( ! difficulties :i* h aris5 respect+ ! ,philosophy ( ,p]ception may s]ve /ill fur!r to illu/rate ! pr9ciples on :i* we necess>ily reason respect+ ! second>y qualities ( bodies1 ,i %all "h devote a few pages to t subject4 #cjb ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,on ,,peculi>ities ,,9 ,,! ,,p]ceptions ,,( ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,s5ses4 #a4 ,,we _c d\bt t we p]ceive all second>y qualities by means ( imm$iate impressions made1 ?r\gh ! prop] m$ium ( s5sation1 ^u our organs4 ,h5ce all ! s5ses are sometimes vaguely spok5 ( z modifications ( ! s5se ( feel+4 ,x w1 h[ev]1 be se51 on reflection1 t ?is mode ( speak+ id5tifies 9 words ?+s :i* 9 our conceptions h no?+ 9 common4 ,no impression on ! organs ( t\* c be conceiv$ z hav+ any resemblance to col\r or smell4 ,no ef=t1 no +5uity1 c enable u to describe ! impressions ( "o s5se 9 t]ms borr[$ f ano!r4 ,! s5ses h1 h[ev]1 ea* its peculi> p[]s1 & ^! p[]s may be 9 "s respects comp>$1 s z to %[ _! lead+ resemblances & diff]5ces1 & ! *>act]i/ic privileges & laws ( ea*4 ,?is is :at we %all d z briefly z possible4 ,,sect4 ,i4--,pr]ogatives ( ,sight4 ,,! sight di/+ui%es col\rs1 z ! he>+ di/+ui%es tones2 ! sight e/imates degrees ( brightness1 ! e>1 degrees ( l\dness2 b ) sev]al resemblances1 !re are mo/ rem>kable diff]5ces betwe5 ^! two s5ses4 #b4 ,position4--,! sight has ?is peculi> pr]ogative1 t x appreh5ds ! place ( its objects directly & prim>ily4 ,we see :]e an object is at ! same in/ant t we see :at x is4 ,if we see two objects1 we see _! relative position4 ,we _c help #cjc p]ceiv+ t "o is above or bel[1 to ! "r or to ! left ( ! o!r1 if we p]ceive !m at all4 ,!re is no?+ correspond+ to ?is 9 s\nd4 ,:5 we he> a noise1 we d n necess>ily assign a place to x4 ,x may easily happ5 t we _c tell f :i* side a ?und]-clap comes4 ,& ?\gh we (t5 c judge 9 :at direction a voice is he>d1 ?is is a matt] ( second>y impression1 & ( inf]5ce f concomitant circum/ances1 n a prim>y fact ( s5sation4 ,! judgm5ts :i* we =m conc]n+ ! position ( s\nd+ bodies are obta9$ by ! consci\s or unconsci\s comp>ison ( ! impressions made on ! two e>s1 & on ! bones ( ! head 9 g5]al2 !y are n insep>able conditions ( he>+4 ,we may he> s\nds1 & be unc]ta9 :e!r !y are 'above1 ar\nd1 or und]nea?6' b ! mom5t any?+ visible appe>s1 h[ev] unexpect$1 we c say1 'see :]e x comes6' ,s9ce we c see ! relative position ( ?+s1 we c see figure1 :i* is b ! relative position ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! b\nd>y ( ! object4 ,& ?us ! :ole visible _w exhibits to u a sc5e ( v>i\s %apes1 col\r$ & %ad$ accord+ to _! =m & position1 b ea* hav+ relations ( position to all ! re/2 & altoge!r1 entirely fill+ up ! :ole range :i* ! eye c comm&4 #c4 ,di/ance4--,! di/ance ( objects f u is no matt] ( imm$iate p]ception1 b is a judgm5t & inf]5ce =m$ f our s5sations1 9 some?+ ( ! same way z our judgm5t ( position by ! e>1 ?\gh m precise4 ,t ?is is s1 0 mo/ di/9ctly %[n by ,b]keley1 9 8 ,new ,!ory ( ,vision4 ,! elem5ts on :i* we =m our judgm5t are1 ! ef=t by :i* we fix bo? eyes on ! same object1 ! ef=t by :i* we adju/ ea* eye to di/9ct vision1 & ! kn[n =ms1 col\rs1 & p>ts ( objects1 z comp>$ ) _! appe>ance4 ,! "r int]pretation ( ! in=mation :i* ^! circum/ances give u respect+ ! true di/ances & =ms ( ?+s1 is gradually le>nt by exp]i5ce1 ! lesson be+ begun 9 our e>lie/ infancy1 & inculcat$ ^u u e h\r dur+ :i* we #cjd use our eyes4 ,! complet5ess ) :i* ! lesson is le>nt is truly admirable2 = we =get t our conclusion is obta9$ indirectly1 & mi/ake a judgm5t on evid5ce = an intuitive p]ception4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n m surpriz+ ?an ! rapidity & unconsci\sness ( ef=t ) :i* we und]/& ! mean+ ( ! spee* t we he>1 or ! book t we read4 ,9 bo? cases1 ! habit ( int]pretation is become z famili> z ! act ( p]ception4 ,& ?is is ! case ) reg>d to vision4 ,we see ! bread? ( ! /reet z cle>ly & readily z we see ! h\se on ! o!r side ( x4 ,we see ! h\se to be squ>e1 h[ev] obliquely x be pres5t$ to u4 ,inde$ ! difficulty is1 to recov] ! consci\sness ( our real & orig9al s5sations2--to discov] :at is ! app>5t relation ( ! l9es :i* appe> be=e u4 ,z we h already said1 7book ii4 *ap4 #f7 9 ! common process ( vision we suppose ourselves to see t :i* _c be se52 & :5 we w\ld make a picture ( an object1 ! difficulty is to repres5t :at is visible & no m4 ,b p]fect z is our habit ( int]pret+ :at we p]ceive1 we c\ld n int]pret if we did n p]ceive4 ,if ! eye did n appreh5d visible position1 x c\ld n inf] actual position1 :i* is collect$ f visible position z a consequ5ce3 if we did n see app>5t figure1 we c\ld n arrive at any op9ion conc]n+ real =m4 ,! p]ception ( place1 :i* is ! pr]ogative ( ! eye1 is ! basis ( all its o!r sup]iority4 ,! precision ) :i* ! eye c judge ( app>5t position is rem>kable4 ,if we _h be=e u two />s di/ant f ea* o!r by "o-tw5tie? ( ! moon's diamet]1 we c\ld easily decide ! app>5t direction ( ! "o f ! o!r1 z above or bel[1 to ! "r or left4 ,yet eight millions ( />s might be plac$ 9 ! visible hemisph]e ( ! sky at su* di/ances f ea* o!r2 & ?us ! eye w\ld recognize ! relative position 9 a portion ( its range n great] ?an "o eight-million? ( ! :ole4 ,su* is ! accuracy ( ! s5se ( vision 9 ?is #cje respect2 &1 inde$1 we might ) tru? h /at$ x mu* high]4 ,our judgm5t ( ! position ( di/ant objects 9 a l&scape dep5ds ^u features f> m m9ute ?an ! magnitude we h "h describ$4 ,z our object is to po9t out pr9cipally ! diff]5ces ( ! s5ses1 we d n dwell ^u ! delicacy ) :i* we di/+ui% t9ts & %ades1 b proce$ to ano!r s5se4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,pr]ogatives ( ,he>+4 ,,! s5se ( he>+ has two rem>kable pr]ogatives2 x c p]ceive a def9ite & peculi> relation betwe5 c]ta9 tones1 & x c cle>ly p]ceive two tones toge!r2 9 bo? ^! circum/ances x is di/+ui%$ f vision1 & f ! o!r s5ses4 #d4 ,musical int]vals4--,we p]ceive t two tones h1 or h n1 c]ta9 def9ite relations to ea* o!r1 :i* we call ,concords3 "o s\nd is a ,fif?1 an ,octave1 c41 above ! o!r4 ,& :5 ?is is ! case1 our p]ception ( ! relation is extremely precise4 ,x is easy to p]ceive :5 a fif? is out ( tune by "o-tw5tie? ( a tone2 t is1 by "o-sev5tie? ( itself4 ,to ?is !re is no?+ analog\s 9 vision4 ,col\rs h c]ta9 vague relations to "o ano!r2 !y look well toge!r1 by contra/ or by resemblance2 b ?is is an indef9ite1 & 9 mo/ cases a casual & v>iable feel+4 ,! relation ( complem5t>y col\rs to "o ano!r1 z ( r$ to gre51 is some:at m def9ite2 b /ill1 has no?+ ( ! exactness & peculi>ity :i* belongs to a musical concord4 ,9 ! case ( ! two s\nds1 !re is an exact po9t at :i* ! relation obta9s2 :5 by alt]+ "o note we pass ?is po9t1 ! concord does n gradually fade away1 b in/antly becomes a discord2 & if we g fur!r /ill1 we obta9 ano!r concord ( q a diff]5t "*4 ,we le>n f ! !ory ( s\nd t concords occur :5 ! times ( vibration ( ! notes h exact simple ratios2 an octave has ^! times z #a to #cjf #b2 a fif?1 z #b to #c4 ,accord+ to ! undulatory !ory ( light1 su* ratios occur 9 col\rs1 yet ! eye is n affect$ by !m 9 any peculi> way4 ,! times ( ! undulations ( c]ta9 r$ & c]ta9 violet rays are z #b to #c1 b we d n p]ceive any peculi> h>mony or connexion betwe5 ^? col\rs4 #e4 ,*ords4--,aga91 ! e> has ?is pr]ogative1 t x c appreh5d two notes toge!r1 yet di/9ct4 ,if two notes1 di/ant by a fif? f ea* o!r1 are s\nd$ on two w9d in/rum5ts1 bo? !y & _! musical relation are cle>ly p]ceiv$4 ,!re is n a mixture1 b a concord1 a musical int]val4 ,9 col\rs1 ! case is o!rwise4 ,if blue & yell[ fall on ! same spot1 !y =m gre52 ! col\r is simple to ! eye2 x c no m be decompos$ by ! vision ?an if x 7 ! simple gre5 ( ! prismatic spectrum3 x is impossible = u1 by sight1 to tell :e!r x is s or n4 ,^! are v rem>kable diff]5ces ( ! two s5ses3 two col\rs c be comp\nd$ into an app>5tly simple "o2 two s\nds _c3 col\rs pass into ea* o!r by gradations & int]m$iate t9ts2 s\nds pass f "o concord to ano!r by no gradations3 ! mo/ intol]able discord is t :i* is ne> a concord4 ,we %all h]eaft] see h[ ^! diff]5ces affect ! scales ( s\nd & ( col\r4 #f4 ,rhy?m4--,we might rem>k1 t z we see objects 9 space1 we he> s\nds 9 "t2 & t we ?us introduce an arrangem5t among s\nds :i* has sev]al analogies ) ! arrangem5t ( objects 9 space4 ,b ! conception ( "t does n seem to be peculi>ly connect$ ) ! s5se ( he>+2 a faculty ( appreh5d+ tone & "t1 or 9 musical phraseology tune & rhy?m1 are c]ta9ly v di/9ct4 ,i %all n1 !re=e1 "h dwell ^u su* analogies4 ,! o!r ,s5ses h n any peculi> pr]ogatives1 at lea/ none :i* be> on ! =mation ( sci5ce4 ,i may1 h[ev]1 notice1 9 ! feel+ ( heat1 ?is circum/ance2 t x pres5ts u ) two opposites1 heat & cold1 :i* graduate into ea* o!r4 ,?is #cjg is n q peculi>1 = vision also exhibits to u :ite & black1 :i* are cle>ly opposites1 & :i* pass into ea* o!r by ! %ades ( gray4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,! ,p>adoxes ( ,vision4 #g4 ,fir/ ,p>adox ( ,vision4 ,upright ,vision4--,all our s5ses appe> to h ?is 9 common2 ,t !y act by means ( organs1 9 :i* a bundle ( n]ves receives ! impression ( ! appropriate m$ium ( ! s5se4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( ^! organs !re are great diff]5ces & peculi>ities1 correspond+1 9 "p at lea/1 to ! diff]5ces 9 ! in=mation giv54 ,moreov]1 9 "s cases1 z we h not$ 9 ! case ( audible position & visible di/ance1 t :i* seems to be a p]ception is really a judgm5t f\nd$ on p]ceptions ( :i* we are n directly aw>e4 ,x w be se51 !re=e1 t ) respect to ! peculi> p[]s ( ea* s5se1 x may be ask$2--:e!r !y c be expla9$ by ! con/ruction ( ! peculi> organ2--:e!r !y are acquir$ judgm5ts & n direct p]ceptions2--or :e!r !y are inexplicable 9 ei!r ( ^! ways1 & _c1 at pres5t at lea/1 be resolv$ into any?+ b conditions ( ! intellectual act ( p]ception4 ,two ( ^! que/ions ) reg>d to vision1 h be5 mu* discuss$ by psy*ological writ]s3 ! cause ( our see+ objects upright by inv]t$ images on ! ret9a2 & ( our see+ s+le ) two su* images4 ,physiologi/s h v completely expla9$ ! exquisitely beautiful me*anism ( ! eye1 consid]$ z analog\s to an optical in/rum5t2 & x is indisputable t by means ( c]ta9 transp>5t l5ses & hum\rs1 an inv]t$ image ( ! objects :i* are look$ at is =m$ ^u ! ret9a1 or f9e net-"w ( n]ve1 ) :i* ! back ( ! eye is l9$4 ,we _c d\bt t ! impression ?us produc$ on ^! n]ves is ess5tial to ! act ( vision2 & s f> z we consid] ! n]ves #cjh !mselves to feel or p]ceive by contact1 we may say t !y p]ceive ?is image1 or ! affections ( light :i* x indicates4 ,b we _c ) any propriety say t we p]ceive1 or t our m9d p]ceives1 ?is image2 = we are n consci\s ( x1 & none b anatomi/s are aw>e ( its exi/5ce3 we p]ceive by means ( x4 ,a difficulty has be5 rais$1 & dwelt ^u 9 a mo/ unacc\ntable mann]1 aris+ f ! neglect ( ?is obvi\s di/9ction4 ,x has be5 ask$1 h[ is x t we see an object1 a man = in/ance1 upright1 :5 ! imm$iate object ( our s5sation1 ! image ( ! man on our ret9a1 is inv]t$8 ,to ?is we mu/ answ]1 t we see him upright because ! image is inv]t$2 t ! inv]t$ image is ! necess>y means ( see+ an upright object4 ,?is is grant$1 & :]e !n is ! difficulty8 ,p]haps x may be put ?us3 ,h[ is x t we d n judge ! man to be inv]t$1 s9ce ! s5sible image is s8 ,to ?is we may reply1 t we h no notion ( upright or inv]t$1 except t :i* is f\nd$ on exp]i5ce1 & t all our exp]i5ce1 )\t exception1 mu/ h taught u t su* a s5sible image belongs to a man :o is 9 an upright position4 ,inde$1 ! contr>y judgm5t is n conceivable2 a man is upright ^: head is upw>ds & 8 feet d[nw>ds4 ,b :at are ! s5sible images ( upw>ds & d[nw>ds8 ,:atev] be our /&>d ( up & d[n1 ! s5sible repres5tation ( up w be an image mov+ on ! ret9a t[>ds ! l[] side1 & ! s5sible repres5tation ( d[n w be a motion t[>ds ! upp] side4 ,! head ( ! man's image is t[>ds ! image ( ! sky1 its feet are t[>ds ! image ( ! gr\nd2 h[ !n %\ld x appe> o!rwise ?an upright8 ,d we expect t ! :ole _w %\ld appe> inv]t$8 ,be x s3 b if ! :ole be inv]t$1 h[ is ! relation ( ! p>ts alt]$8 ,d we expect t we %\ld ?9k our own p]sons 9 p>ticul>8 ,?is _c be1 = we look at !m z we d at o!r objects4 ,d we expect t ?+s %\ld appe> to fall #cji upw>ds8 ,surely n4 ,= :at d we "k ( upw>ds1 except t x is ! direction 9 :i* bodies d n fall8 ,9 %ort1 ! :ole ( ?is difficulty1 ?\gh x has 9 no small degree emb>rass$ metaphysicians1 appe>s to result f a v palpable confusion ( ideas2 f an attempt at comp>ison ( :at we see1 ) t :i* ! ret9a feels1 z if !y 7 sep>ately pres5table4 ,x is a suffici5t explanation to say1 t we d n see ! image on ! ret9a1 b see by means ( x4 ,! p]plexity does n require mu* m skill to dis5tangle1 ?an x does to see t a ^w writt5 9 black ink1 may signify :ite#hd4 ,note #hd3 ,! explanation ( our see+ objects erect :5 ! image is inv]t$ has be5 put v simply1 by say+1 ',we call t ! l[] end ( an object :i* is next ! gr\nd4' ,! obs]v] _c look into 8 own eye2 he kn[s by exp]i5ce :at k9d ( image corresponds to a man 9 an upright position4 ,! anatomi/ tells him t ?is image is inv]t$3 b ?is does n di/urb ! process ( judg+ by exp]i5ce4 ,x does n appe> :y any "o %\ld be p]plex$ at ! notion ( see+ objects erect by means ( inv]t$ images1 r ?an at ! notion ( see+ objects l>ge by means ( small images2 or cubical & pyramidal1 by means ( images on a sph]ical surface2 or gre5 & r$1 by means ( images on a black surface4 ,inde$ "s p]sons h contriv$ to p]plex !mselves ) ^! latt] que/ions1 z well z ! fir/4 ,! above explanation is n at all affect$1 z to its sub/ance1 if we adopt ,sir ,david ,brew/]'s expression1 & say t ! l9e ( visible direction is a l9e pass+ ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ! sph]ical surface ( ! ret9a1 & !re=e ( c\rse p]p5dicul> to ! surface4 ,9 speak+ ( '! inv]t$ image1' x has always be5 suppos$ to be det]m9$ by su* l9es2 & ?\gh ! po9t :]e !y int]sect may n h be5 asc]ta9$ ) exactness by previ\s physiologi/s1 ! philosophical view ( ! matt] 0 n 9 any degree vitiat$ by ?is imp]fection4 #h4 ,second ,p>adox ( ,vision4 ,s+le ,vision4--7#a47 ,small or ,di/ant ,objects4--,! o!r difficulty1 :y ) two images on ! ret9a we see only "o object1 is ( a mu* m real & important k9d4 ,?is effect is manife/ly limit$ by c]ta9 circum/ances ( a v precise nature2 = if we direct our eyes at an object :i* is v ne> ! eye1 we see #caj all o!r objects d\ble4 ,! fact is n1 !re=e1 t we are incapable ( receiv+ two impressions f ! two images1 b t1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 ! two impressions =m "o4 ,a little att5tion %[s u t ^! conditions are1 t ) bo? eyes we %\ld look at ! same object2 & aga91 we f9d t to look at an object ) ei!r eye1 is to direct ! eye s t ! image falls on or ne> a p>ticul> po9t ab\t ! middle ( ! ret9a4 ,?us ^! middle po9ts 9 ! two ret9as correspond1 & we see an image s+le :5 ! two images fall on ! correspond+ po9ts4 ,aga91 z ea* eye judges ( position1 & z ! two eyes judge simil>ly1 an object w be se5 9 ! same place by "o eye & by ! o!r1 :5 ! two images :i* x produces are simil>ly situat$ ) reg>d to ! correspond+ po9ts ( ! ret9a#id4 ,note #id3 ,! explanation ( s+le vision ) two eyes may be put 9 ano!r =m4 ,ea* eye judges imm$iately ( ! relative position ( all objects )9 ! field ( its direct vision4 ,!re=e :5 we look ) bo? eyes at a di/ant prospect 7s di/ant t ! di/ance betwe5 ! eyes is small 9 comp>ison7 ! two prospects1 be+ simil> collections ( =ms1 w co9cide altoge!r1 if a correspond+ po9t 9 "o & 9 ! o!r co9cide4 ,if ?is be ! case1 ! two images ( e object w fall ^u correspond+ po9ts ( ! ret9a1 & w appe> s+le4 ,if ! two prospects se5 by ! two eyes d n exactly co9cide1 9 consequ5ce ( ne>ness ( ! objects1 or di/ortion ( ! eyes1 b if !y ne>ly co9cide1 ! /rong] image ( an object absorbs ! weak]1 & ! object is se5 s+le2 yet modifi$ by ! comb9ation1 z w be se5 :5 we speak ( ! s+le vision ( ne> objects4 ,:5 ! two images ( an object are consid]ably ap>t1 we see x d\ble4 ,?is explanation is n diff]5t 9 sub/ance f ! "o giv5 9 ! text2 b p]haps x is bett] to avoid ! ass]tion t ! law ( correspond+ po9ts is 'a di/9ct & orig9al pr9ciple ( our con/itution1' z ,i _h /at$ 9 ! fir/ edition4 ,! simpl] mode ( /at+ ! law ( our con/itution appe>s to be to say1 t ea* eye det]m9es simil>ly ! position ( objects2 & t :5 ! positions ( an object1 z se5 by ! two eyes1 co9cide 7or ne>ly co9cide7 ! object is se5 s+le4 ,?is is ! ,law ( ,s+le ,vision1 at lea/ s f> z reg>ds small objects2 namely1 objects s small t 9 contemplat+ !m we consid] _! position only1 #caa & n _! solid dim5sions4 ,s+le vision 9 su* cases is a result ( ! law ( vision simply3 & x is a mi/ake to call 91 z "s h done1 ! influ5ce ( habit & ( acquir$ judgm5ts1 9 ord] to det]m9e ! result 9 su* cases4 ,to ascribe ! app>5t s+l5ess ( objects to ! impressions ( vision correct$ by ! exp]i5ce ( t\*#ajd1 w\ld be to ass]t t a p]son :o _h n be5 9 ! habit ( h&l+ :at he saw1 w\ld see all objects d\ble2 & also1 to ass]t t a p]son beg9n+ ) ! d\ble _w :i* vision ?us (f]s to him1 w\ld1 by ! cont9u$ habit ( h&l+ objects1 gradually & at la/ le>n to see !m s+le4 ,b all ! facts ( ! case %[ su* suppositions to be utt]ly fanta/ical4 ,no "o c1 9 ?is case1 g back f ! habitual judgm5t ( ! s+l5ess ( objects1 to ! orig9al & direct p]ception ( _! d\bl5ess1 z ! draughtsman goes back f judgm5ts to p]ception1 9 repres5t+ solid di/ances & =ms by means ( p]spective pictures4 ,no "o c po9t out any case 9 :i* ! habit is imp]fectly =m$2 ev5 *ildr5 ( ! mo/ t5d] age look at an object ) bo? eyes1 & see x z "o4 ,note #ajd3 ,see ,br[n1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ha4 ,9 cases :5 ! eyes are di/ort$ 79 squ9t+71 "o eye only is us$1 or if bo? are employ$1 !re is d\ble vision2 & ?us any d]angem5t ( ! correspond5ce ( motion 9 ! two eyes w produce d\ble-sight$ness4 ,br[n is "o ( ^?#aad :o ass]t t two images sugge/ a s+le object because we h always f\nd two images to belong to a s+le object4 ,he urges z an illu/ration1 t ! two words 'he conqu]$1' by cu/om excite exactly ! same notion z ! "o ,lat9 ^w 'vicit2' & ?us t two visual images1 by ! effect ( habit1 produce ! same belief ( a s+le object z "o tactual impression4 ,b 9 ord] to make ?is pret5d$ illu/ration ( any value1 x ought to be true t :5 a p]son has ?or\ghly le>nt ! ,lat9 language1 he c no long] di/+ui% #cab any sep>ate mean+ 9 'he' & 9 'conqu]$4' ,we c by no ef=t p]ceive ! d\ble s5sation1 :5 we look at ! object ) ! two eyes4 ,^? :o squ9t1 le>n by habit to see objects s+le3 b ! habit :i* !y acquire is t ( att5d+ to ! impressions ( "o eye only at once1 n ( comb9+ ! two impressions4 ,x is obvi\s1 t if ea* eye spreads be=e u ! same visible sc5e1 ) ! same objects & ! same relations ( place1 !n1 if "o object 9 ea* sc5e co9cide1 ! :ole ( ! two visible impressions w be co9cid5t4 ,& "h ! rem>kable circum/ance is1 t n only ea* eye judges = itself ( ! relations ( position :i* come )9 its field ( view2 b t !re is a sup]ior & m compreh5sive faculty :i* comb9es & comp>es ! two fields ( view2 :i* ass]ts or d5ies _! co9cid5ce2 :i* contemplates1 z 9 a relative position to "o ano!r1 ^! two visible worlds1 9 :i* all o!r relative position is giv54 ,?is p[] ( confront+ two sets ( visible images & figur$ spaces be=e a purely intellectual tribunal1 is "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable circum/ances 9 ! s5se ( vision4 ,note #aad3 ,lectures1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ha4 #i4 7#b47 ,ne> ,objects4--,we h hi!rto spok5 ( ! s+l5ess ( objects ^: images occupy correspond+ positions on ! ret9a ( ! two eyes4 ,b "h occurs a difficulty4 ,if an object ( mod]ate size1 a small ?ick book = example1 be held at a little di/ance f ! eyes1 x produces an image on ! ret9a ( ea* eye2 & ^! two images are p]spective repres5tations ( ! book f diff]5t po9ts ( view1 7! positions ( ! two eyes17 & are !re=e ( diff]5t =ms4 ,h5ce ! two images _c occupy correspond+ po9ts ( ! ret9a ?r\gh\t _! :ole ext5t4 ,if ! c5tral p>ts ( ! two images occupy correspond+ po9ts1 ! b\nd>ies ( ! two wall n correspond4 ,h[ is x !n consi/5t ) ! law above /at$ t 9 ?is case ! object appe>s s+le8 ,x may be obs]v$1 t ! two images 9 su* a case w diff] mo/ widely :5 ! object is n a #cac m]e surface1 b a solid4 ,if a book1 = example1 be held ) "o ( its upright edges t[>ds ! face1 ! "r eye w see "o side m directly ?an ! left eye1 & ! left eye w see ano!r side m directly1 & ! outl9e ( ! two images ^u ! two ret9as w exhibit ?is diff]5ce4 ,& x may be fur!r obs]v$1 t ?is diff]5ce 9 ! images receiv$ by ! two eyes1 is a pla9 & demon/rative evid5ce ( ! solidity ( ! object se52 s9ce no?+ b a solid object c\ld 7)\t "s special contrivance7 produce ^! diff]5t =ms ( ! images 9 ! two eyes4 ,h5ce ! abs5ce ( exact co9cid5ce 9 ! two images on ! ret9a is ! necess>y condition ( ! solidity ( ! object se51 & mu/ be "o ( ! indications by means ( :i* our vision appreh5ds an object z solid4 ,& t ?is is s1 ,mr4 ,:eat/one has prov$ exp]im5tally1 by means ( "s mo/ +5i\s & /rik+ contrivances4 ,he has devis$#abd an in/rum5t 7! /]eoscope7 by :i* two images 7drawn 9 outl9e7 diff]+ exactly z mu* z ! two images ( a solid body se5 ne> ! face w\ld diff]1 are convey$1 "o to "o eye1 & ! o!r to ! o!r4 ,& x is f\nd t :5 ?is is effect$1 ! object :i* ! images repres5t is n only se5 s+le1 b is appreh5d$ z solid ) a cle>ness & reality ( conviction q di/9ct f any impression :i* a m]e p]spective repres5tation c give4 ,note #abd3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahci4 ,at ! same "t x is f\nd t ! object is !n only appreh5d$ z s+le :5 ! two images are su* z are capable ( be+ excit$ by "o s+le object plac$ 9 solid space1 & se5 by ! two eyes4 ,if ! images diff] m or o!rwise ?an ?is condition all[s1 ! result is1 t bo? are se51 _! l9es cross+ & int]f]+ ) "o ano!r4 ,x may be obs]v$1 too1 t if an object be ( su* l>ge size z n to be tak5 9 by a s+le glance ( ! eyes1 x is no long] appreh5d$ z s+le by a direct act ( p]ception2 b its p>ts are look$ at #cad sep>ately & successively1 & ! impressions ?us obta9$ are put toge!r by a succe$+ act ( ! m9d4 ,h5ce ! objects :i* are directly se5 z solid1 w be ( mod]ate size2 9 :i* case x is n difficult to %[ t ! outl9es ( ! two images w diff] f ea* o!r only slightly4 ,h5ce we are l$ to ! foll[+1 z ! ,law ( ,s+le ,vision = ne> objects3--,:5 ! two images 9 ! two eyes are situat$ 7"p = "p7 ne>ly1 b n exactly1 ^u correspond+ po9ts1 ! object is appreh5d$ z s+le1 if ! two images are su* z are or w\ld be giv5 by a s+le solid object se5 by ! two eyes sep>ately3 & 9 ?is case ! object is necess>ily appreh5d$ z solid4 ,?is law ( vision does n contradict t /at$ above = di/ant objects3 = :5 an object is remov$ to a consid]able di/ance1 ! images 9 ! two eyes co9cide exactly1 & ! object is se5 z s+le1 ?\gh )\t any direct appreh5sion ( its solidity4 ,! fir/ law is a special case ( ! second4 ,"u ! condition ( exactly correspond+ po9ts1 we h ! p]ception ( s+l5ess1 b no evid5ce ( solidity4 ,"u ! condition ( ne>ly correspond+ po9ts1 we may h ! p]ception ( s+l5ess1 & ) x1 ( solidity4 ,we h be=e not$ x z an important feature 9 our visual p]ception1 t :ile we h two di/9ct impressions ^u ! s5se1 :i* we c contemplate sep>ately & alt]nately1 7! impressions on ! two eyes17 we h a high] p]ceptive faculty :i* c recognize ^! two impressions1 exactly simil> to ea* o!r1 z only two images ( "o & ! same assemblage ( objects4 ,b we n[ see t ! faculty by :i* we p]ceive visible objects c d mu* m ?an ?is3--x c n only unite two impressions1 & recognize !m z belong+ to "o object 9 virtue ( _! co9cid5ce1 b x c also unite & id5tify !m1 ev5 :5 !y d n exactly co9cide4 ,x c correct & adju/ _! small diff]5ce1 s t !y are bo? appreh5d$ z repres5tations ( ! same figure4 ,x c inf] f !m a real =m1 n #cae agree+ ) ei!r ( !m2 & a solid space1 :i* !y are q incapable ( exemplify+4 ,! visual faculty decides :e!r or n ! two ocul> images c be pictures ( ! same solid object1 & if !y c1 x und\bt+ly & necess>ily accepts !m z be+ s4 ,?is faculty op]ates z if x _h ! p[] ( call+ be=e x all possible solid figures1 & ( asc]ta9+ by trial :e!r any ( ^? w1 at ! same "t1 fit bo? ! outl9es :i* are giv5 by ! s5se4 ,x assumes ! reality ( solid space1 &1 if x be possible1 reconciles ! appe>ances ) t reality4 ,& ?us an activity ( ! m9d ( a v rem>kable & peculi> k9d is ex]cis$ 9 ! mo/ common act ( see+4 #aj4 ,x may be said t ?is doctr9e1 ( su* a visual faculty z has be5 describ$1 is v vague & obscure1 s9ce we are n told :at are its limits4 ,x adju/s & corrects figures :i* ne>ly co9cide1 s z to id5tify !m4 ,b h[ ne>ly1 x may be ask$1 mu/ ! figures approa* ea* o!r1 9 ord] t ?is adju/m5t may be possible8 ,:at discrepance r5d]s impossible ! reconcilem5t ( :i* we speak8 ,is x n impossible to give a def9ite answ] to ^! que/ions1 & !re=e impossible to lay d[n def9itely su* laws ( vision z we h /at$8 ,to ?is ,i reply1 t ! indef9it5ess ?us object$ to u1 is no new difficulty1 b "o ) :i* philosoph]s are famili>1 & to :i* !y are already reconcil$4 ,x is1 9 fact1 no o!r ?an ! indef9it5ess ( ! limits ( di/9ct vision4 ,h[ ne> to ! face mu/ an object be br\ght1 s t we %all cease to see x di/9ctly8 ,! di/ance1 x w be answ]$1 is indef9ite3 x is diff]5t = diff]5t p]sons2 & = ! same p]son1 x v>ies ) ! degree ( ef=t1 att5tion1 & habit4 ,b ?is indef9it5ess is only ! indef9it5ess1 9 ano!r =m1 ( ! deviation ( ! two ocul> images f "o ano!r3 & 9 reply to ! "q conc]n+ !m we mu/ /ill say1 z be=e1 t 9 d\btful cases1 ! p[] ( appreh5d+ an object z s+le1 :5 ?is c be done1 w v>y ) ef=t1 att5tion1 & habit4 ,! assumption #caf t ! app>5t object exi/s z a real figure1 9 real space1 is to be v]ifi$1 if possible2 b1 9 extreme cases1 f ! unfitness ( ! po9t ( view1 or f any o!r cause ( visual confusion or deception1 ! exi/5ce ( a real object correspond+ to ! appe>ance may be d\btful2 z 9 any o!r k9d ( p]ception x may be d\btful :e!r our s5ses1 "u disadvantage\s circum/ances1 give u true in=mation4 ,! vagu5ess ( ! limits1 !n1 )9 :i* ?is visual faculty c be successfully ex]cis$1 is no valid argum5t aga9/ ! exi/5ce ( ! faculty1 or ! tru? ( ! law :i* we h /at$ conc]n+ its action4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,! ,p]ception ( ,visible ,figure4 #aa4 ,visible ,figure4--,!re is "o t5et on ! subject ( vision :i* appe>s to me s extravagant & unphilosophical1 t ,i %\ld n h ?\ght x necess>y to notice x1 if x _h n be5 rec5tly promulgat$ by a writ] ( great acut5ess 9 a book :i* has obta9$1 = a metaphysical "w1 consid]able circulation4 ,i speak ( ,br[n's op9ion#acd t we h no imm$iate p]ception ( visible figure4 ,i confess myself unable to compreh5d fully ! doctr9e :i* he w\ld sub/itute 9 ! place ( ! "o commonly receiv$4 ,he /ates x ?us#add3 ',:5 ! simple affection ( sight is bl5d$ ) ! ideas ( sugge/ion ^? aris+ f t\*1 c4 9 :at are t]m$ ! acquir$ p]ceptions ( vision1 z1 = example1 9 ! p]ception ( a sph]e1 x is col\r only :i* is bl5d$ ) ! l>ge convexity1 & n a small col\r$ plane4' ,! doctr9e :i* ,br[n ass]ts 9 ?is & simil> passages1 appe>s to be1 t we d n by vision p]ceive bo? col\r & figure2 b t ! col\r :i* we see is bl5d$ ) ! figure :i* we le>n ! exi/5ce ( by o!r means1 z by t\*4 ,b if ?is 7 possible :5 we c call 9 o!r p]ceptions1 h[ is x possible :5 we _c or d n t\* ! object8 #cag ,:y does ! moon appe> r\nd1 gibb\s1 or horn$8 ,:at s5se besides vision sugge/s to u ! idea ( h] figure8 ,& ev5 9 objects :i* we c rea*1 :at is t circum/ance 9 ! s5se ( vision :i* sugge/s to u t ! col\r belongs to ! sph]e1 except t we see ! col\r :]e we see ! sph]e8 ,if we d n see figure1 we d n see position2 = figure is ! relative position ( ! p>ts ( a b\nd>y4 ,if we d n see position1 :y d we ascribe ! yell[ col\r to ! sph]e on our left1 r ?an to ! cube on our "r8 ,we associate ! col\r ) ! object1 says ,dr4 ,br[n2 b if 8 op9ion 7 true1 we c\ld n associate two col\rs ) two objects1 = we c\ld n appreh5d ! col\rs z occupy+ two diff]5t places4 ,note #acd3 ,lectures1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hb4 ,note #add3 ,ib4 vol4 ii4 p4 #ij4 ,! :ole ( ,br[n's reason+ on ?is subject is s irreconcilable ) ! fir/ facts ( vision1 t x is difficult to conceive h[ x c\ld proce$ f a p]son :o has reason$ ) great acut5ess conc]n+ t\*4 ,9 ord] to prove 8 ass]tion1 he und]takes to exam9e ! only reasons :i*1 he says#aed1 he c imag9e = believ+ ! imm$iate p]ception ( visible figure3 7#a7 ,t x is absolutely impossible1 9 our pres5t s5sations ( sight1 to sep>ate col\r f ext5sion2 & 7#b7 ,t !re are1 9 fact1 figures on ! ret9a correspond+ to ! app>5t figures ( objects4 ,note #aed3 ,lectures1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hc4 ,on ! subject ( ! fir/ reason1 he says1 t ! figure :i* we p]ceive z associat$ ) col\r1 is ! real1 & n ! app>5t figure4 ',is !re1' he asks1 '! slighte/ consci\sness ( a p]ception ( visible figure1 correspond+ to ! affect$ portion ( ! ret9a8' ,to :i*1 ?\gh he seems to ?9k an affirmative answ] impossible1 we _c hesitate to reply1 t !re is und\bt$ly su* a consci\sness2 t ?\gh obscur$ by be+ made ! gr\nd ( habitual inf]5ce z to ! real figure1 ?is consci\sness is con/antly ref]r$ to by ! draughtsman1 & easily recall$ by any "o4 ,we may sep>ate col\r1 he says #cah aga9#afd1 f ! figures on ! ret9a1 z we may sep>ate x f l5g?1 bread?1 & ?ickness1 :i* we d n see4 ,b ?is is altoge!r false3 we _c sep>ate col\r f l5g?1 bread?1 & ?ickness1 9 any o!r way1 ?an by transf]r+ x to ! visible figure :i* we d see4 ,he _c1 he all[s1 sep>ate ! col\r f ! visible =m ( ! trunk ( a l>ge oak2 b j z little1 he ?9ks1 c he sep>ate x f ! convex mass ( ! trunk1 :i* 7x is all[$ on all h&s7 he does n imm$iately see4 ,b 9 ?is he is mi/ak53 = if he 7 to make a picture ( ! oak1 he w\ld sep>ate ! col\r f ! convex %ape1 :i* he does n imitate1 b he c\ld n sep>ate x f ! visible figure1 :i* he does imitate2 & he w\ld !n p]ceive t ! fact t he has n an imm$iate p]ception ( ! convex =m1 is necess>ily connect$ ) ! fact t he has an imm$iate p]ception ( ! app>5t figure2 s f> is ! rejection ( imm$iate p]ception 9 ! =m] case f be+ a reason = reject+ x 9 ! latt]4 ,note #afd3 ,lectures1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hd4 ,aga91 ) reg>d to ! second argum5t4 ,x does n1 he says1 foll[1 t because a c]ta9 figur$ portion ( ! ret9a is affect$ by light1 we %\ld see su* a figure2 = if a c]ta9 figur$ portion ( ! olfactory organ 7 affect$ by od\rs1 we %\ld n acquire by smell any p]ception ( su* figure#agd4 ,?is is m]ely to say1 t because we d n p]ceive position & figure by "o s5se1 we _c d s by ano!r s5se4 ,b ?is aga9 is altoge!r errone\s4 ,x is an (fice ( our sight to in=m u ( position1 & consequ5tly ( figure2 = ?is purpose1 ! organ is s con/ruct$ t ! position ( ! object det]m9es ! position ( ! po9t ( ! ret9a affect$4 ,!re is no?+ ( ?is k9d 9 ! organ ( smell2 objects 9 diff]5t positions & ( diff]5t =ms d n affect diff]5t p>ts ( ! olfactory n]ve1 or portions ( diff]5t %ape4 ,diff]5t objects1 remote f ea* o!r1 if p]ceiv$ by smell1 affect ! same #cai "p ( ! olfactory organs4 ,?is is all q intelligible2 = x is n ! (fice ( smell to in=m u ( position4 ,( :at use or mean+ w\ld be ! curi\s & complex /ructure ( ! eye1 if x gave u only su* vague & w&]+ notions ( ! col\rs & =ms ( ! fl[]s 9 a g>d51 z we receive f _! od\rs :5 we walk among !m bl9dfold8 ,x is1 z we h said1 ! pr]ogative ( vision to appreh5d position3 ! places ( objects on ! ret9a give ?is in=mation4 ,we d n suppose t ! affection ( a c]ta9 %ape ( n]v\s expanse w necess>ily & 9 all cases give u ! impression ( figure2 b we "k t 9 vision x does2 & x is cle> t if we did n acquire our acqua9tance ) visible figure 9 ?is way1 we c\ld n acquire x 9 any way#ahd4 ,note #agd3 ,ib4 p4 #hg4 ,note #ahd3 ,:5 ,br[n says fur!r 7p4 #hg71 t we c inde$ %[ ! image 9 ! dissect$ eye2 b t 'x is n 9 ! dissect$ eye t vision takes place2' x is difficult to see :at 8 drift is4 ,does he d\bt t !re is an image =m$ 9 ! liv+ z completely z 9 ! dissect$ eye8 ,! :ole ( ?is /range mi/ake ( ,br[n's appe>s to arise f ! fault already notic$2--t ( consid]+ ! image on ! ret9a z ! object in/ead ( ! means ( vision4 ,?is inde$ is :at he says3 '! true object ( vision is n ! di/ant body itself1 b ! light t has rea*$ ! expansive t]m9ation ( ! optic n]ve#aid4' ,ev5 if ?is 7 s1 we d n see :y we %\ld n p]ceive ! position ( ! impression on ?is exp&$ n]ve4 ,b z we h already said1 ! impression on ! n]ve is ! means ( vision1 & enables u to assign a place1 or at lea/ a direction1 to ! object f :i* ! light proce$s1 & ?us makes vision possible4 ,br[n1 inde$1 pursues 8 own peculi> view till he involves ! subject 9 utt] confusion4 ,?us he says#bjd1 ',accord+ to ! common !ory t figure c be p]ceiv$ by ! eye1 a visible sph]e is at once to my p]ception convex & plane2 & if ! sph]e be a "o1 x is p]ceiv$ at once to be a sph]e ( #cbj _m feet 9 diamet]1 & a plane circul> surface ( ! diamet] ( a qu>t] ( an in*4' ,x is easy to d$uce ^! & great] absurdities1 if we proce$ on 8 /range & baseless supposition t ! object & ! image on ! ret9a are bo? p]ceiv$4 ,b :o is consci\s ( ! image on ! ret9a 9 any o!r way ?an z he sees ! object by means ( x8 ,note #aid3 ,lectures1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eg4 ,note #bjd3 ,ib4 vol4 ii4 p4 #hi4 ,br[n seems to h imag9$ t he 0 analys+ ! p]ception ( figure '9 ! same mann] 9 :i* ,b]keley _h analyz$ ! p]ception ( di/ance4 ,he ought to h recollect$ t su* an und]tak+1 to be successful1 requir$ him to %[ :at elem5ts he analyz$ x into4 ,b]keley analyz$ ! p]ception ( real figure into ! int]pretation ( visible figure accord+ to c]ta9 rules :i* he di/9ctly /at$4 ,br[n analyzes ! p]ception ( visible figure into no elem5ts4 ,b]keley says1 t we d n directly p]ceive di/ance1 b t we p]ceive some?+ else1 f :i* we inf] di/ance1 namely1 visible figure & col\r1 & our own ef=ts 9 see+2 ,br[n says1 t we d n see figure1 b inf] x2 :at !n d we see1 :i* we inf] x f8 ,to ?is he (f]s no answ]4 ,he ass]ts ! seem+ p]ception ( visible figure to be a result ( 'association2'--( 'sugge/ion4' ,b :at mean+ c we atta* to ?is8 ,sugge/ion requires some?+ :i* sugge/s2 & n a h9t is giv5 :at x is :i* sugge/s position4 ,association implies two ?+s associat$2 :at is ! s5sation :i* we associate ) =m8 ,:at is t visual p]ception :i* is n figure1 & :i* we mi/ake = figure8 ,:at p]ception is x t sugge/s a squ>e to ! eye8 ,:at impressions are ^? :i* h be5 associat$ ) a visible triangle1 s t ! revival ( ! impressions revives ! notion ( ! triangle8 ,br[n has n[h]e po9t$ out su* p]ceptions & impressions2 nor inde$ 0 x possible = him to d s2 = ! only visual p]ceptions :i* he all[s to rema91 ^? ( col\r1 mo/ assur$ly d n sugge/ visible figures by _! diff]5ces2 r$ is n associat$ ) squ>e r ?an ) r\nd1 or ) r\nd r ?an squ>e4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! #cba eye1 con/ruct$ 9 a v complex & wond]ful mann] 9 ord] t x may give to u directly ! p]ception ( position z well z ( col\r1 has x = "o ( its pr]ogatives to give u ?is in=mation2 & ! p]ception ( ! relative position ( ea* "p ( ! visible b\nd>y ( an object con/itutes ! p]ception ( its app>5t figure2 :i* faculty we _c d5y to ! eye )\t reject+ ! pla9 & con/ant evid5ce ( our s5ses1 mak+ ! me*anism ( ! eye unmean+1 conf\nd+ ! object ) ! means ( vision1 & r5d]+ ! m5tal process ( vision utt]ly un9telligible4 ,hav+ suffici5tly discuss$ ! processes ( p]ception1 ,i n[ return to ! consid]ation ( ! ,ideas :i* ^! processes assume4 #cbb ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,successive ,,attempts ,,at ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,a ,,m$ium4 #a4 ,,9 :at prec$es1 we h %[n by v>i\s consid]ations t we necess>ily & univ]sally assume ! p]ception ( second>y qualities to take place by means ( a m$ium int]jac5t betwe5 ! object & ! p]son p]ceiv+4 ,p]ception is affect$ by v>i\s peculi>ities1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! quality p]ceiv$3 b 9 all cases a m$ium is equally ess5tial to ! process4 ,?is pr9ciple1 :i*1 z we h se51 is accept$ z evid5t by ! common und]/&+ ( mank9d1 is confirm$ by all additional reflection & discipl9e ( ! m9d1 & is ! f\ndation ( all ! !ories :i* h be5 propos$ conc]n+ ! processes by :i* ! p]ception takes place1 & conc]n+ ! modifications ( ! qualities ?us p]ceiv$4 ,! m$ium1 & ! mode 9 :i* ! impression is convey$ ?r\gh ! m$ium1 seem to be diff]5t = diff]5t qualities2 b ! exi/5ce ( ! m$ium leads to c]ta9 necess>y conditions or alt]natives1 :i* h successively made _! appe>ance 9 sci5ce1 9 ! c\rse ( ! attempts ( m5 to !orize conc]n+ ! pr9cipal second>y qualities1 s\nd1 light1 & heat4 ,we mu/ n[ po9t out "s ( ! ways1 at fir/ imp]fect & errone\s1 9 :i* ! consequ5ces ( ! fundam5tal assumption 7 trac$4 #b4 ,s\nd4--,9 all cases ! m$ium ( s5sation1 :atev] x is1 is suppos$ to produce ! effect ( convey+ second>y qualities to our p]ception by means ( its prim>y qualities4 ,x 0 conceiv$ to op]ate #cbc by ! size1 =m1 & motion ( its p>ts4 ,?is is a fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! class ( sci5ces ( :i* we h at pres5t to speak4 ,x 0 assum$ f ! fir/1 z we h se5 9 ! passage lately quot$ f ,ari/otle#bad1 t 9 ! conveyance ( s\nd1 ! m$ium ( communication 0 ! air4 ,b al?\gh ! fir/ !ori/s 7 "r s f>1 t circum/ance did n prev5t _! go+ entirely wrong :5 !y _h fur!r to det]m9e ! nature ( ! process4 ,x 0 conceiv$ by ,ari/otle t ! air act$ aft] ! mann] ( a rigid body2--l a /aff1 :i*1 receiv+ an impulse at "o end1 transmits x to ! o!r4 ,n[ ?is is altoge!r an errone\s view ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! air conveys ! impulse by :i* s\nd is p]ceiv$4 ,an approa* 0 made to ! true view ( ?is process1 by assimilat+ x to ! diffusion ( ! little circul> waves :i* are produc$ on ! surface ( /ill wat] :5 a /one is dropt into x4 ,^! little waves beg9 f ! po9t ?us di/urb$1 & run outw>ds1 exp&+ on e side1 9 conc5tric circles1 till !y are lo/4 ,! propagation ( s\nd ?r\gh ! air f ! po9t :]e x is produc$1 0 comp>$ by ,vitruvius to ?is diffusion ( circul> waves 9 wat]2 & ?us ! notion ( a propagation ( impulse by ! waves ( a fluid 0 introduc$1 9 ! place ( ! =m] notion ( ! impulse ( an unyield+ body4 ,note #bad3 ,supr4 p4 #big4 ,b ?\gh1 tak+ an enl>g$ view ( ! nature ( ! progress ( a wave1 ?is is a j repres5tation ( ! motion ( air 9 convey+ s\nd1 we _c suppose t ! process 01 at ! p]iod ( :i* we speak1 rightly und]/ood4 ,= ! waves ( wat] 7 contemplat$ only z affect+ ! surface ( ! wat]2 & z ! air has no surface1 ! communication mu/ take place by means ( an int]nal motion1 :i* c be> only a remote & obscure resemblance to ! waves :i* we see4 ,& ev5 ) reg>d to ! waves ( wat]1 ! me*anism by :i* !y are #cbd produc$ & transf]r$ 0 n at all und]/ood2 s t ! comp>ison employ$ by ,vitruvius mu/ be consid]$ r z a loose analogy ?an z an exact sci5tific explanation4 ,no correct acc\nt ( su* motions 0 giv51 till ! =mation ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics 9 mod]n times _h enabl$ philosoph]s to und]/& m di/9ctly ! mode 9 :i* motion is propagat$ ?r\gh a fluid1 & to disc]n ! =ces :i* ! process calls into play1 s z to cont9ue ! motion once begun4 ,newton introduc$ into ?is subject ! exact & rigor\s conception ( an ,undulation1 :i* is ! true key to ! explanation ( impulses convey$ ?r\gh a fluid4 ,ev5 at ! pres5t day1 ! "r appreh5sion ( ! nature ( an ,undulation transmitt$ ?r\gh a fluid is f\nd to be v difficult = all p]sons except ^? ^: m9ds h be5 duly discipl9$ by ma!matical /udies4 ,:5 we see a wave run along ! surface ( wat]1 we are apt to imag9e at fir/ t a portion ( ! fluid is transf]r$ bodily f "o place to ano!r4 ,b ) a little consid]ation we may easily satisfy ourselves t ?is is n s3 = if we look at a field ( /&+ corn1 :5 a breeze bl[s ov] x1 we see waves l ^? ( wat] run along its surface4 ,yet x is cle> t 9 ?is case ! sep>ate /alks ( corn only b5d backw>ds & =w>ds1 & no portion ( ! gra9 is really convey$ f "o "p ( ! field to ! o!r4 ,?is is obvi\s ev5 to popul> appreh5sion4 ,! poet speaks ( 4 4 4 4 ,! rye1 ,t /oops its head :5 :irlw9ds rave ,& spr+s aga9 9 eddy+ wave ,z ea* wild gu/ sweeps by4 ,ea* p>ticle ( ! mass 9 succession has a small motion backw>ds & =w>ds2 & by ?is means a l>ge ridge made by _m su* p>ticles runs along ! mass to any di/ance4 ,?is is ! true conception ( an undulation 9 g5]al4 ,?us1 :5 an ,undulation is propagat$ 9 a fluid1 x is n matt]1 b =m1 :i* is transmitt$ f #cbe "o place to ano!r4 ,! p>ticles along ! l9e ( ea* wave assume a c]ta9 arrangem5t1 & ?is arrangem5t passes f "o "p to ano!r1 ! p>ticles *ang+ _! places only )9 n>r[ limits1 s z to l5d !mselves successively to ! arrangem5ts by :i* ! successive waves1 & ! int]vals betwe5 ! waves1 are =m$4 ,:5 su* an ,undulation is propagat$ ?r\gh air1 ! wave is compos$1 n1 z 9 wat]1 ( p>ticles :i* are high] ?an ! re/1 b ( p>ticles :i* are clos] to ea* o!r ?an ! re/4 ,! wave is n a ridge ( elevation1 b a l9e ( cond5sation2 & z 9 wat] we h alt]nately elevat$ & depress$ l9es1 we h 9 air l9es alt]nately cond5s$ & r>efi$4 ,& ! motion ( ! p>ticles is n1 z 9 wat]1 up & d[n1 9 a direction transv]se to t ( ! wave :i* runs =w>ds2 9 ! motion ( an undulation ?r\gh air ! motion ( ea* p>ticle is alt]nately =w>ds & backw>ds1 :ile ! motion ( ! undulation is con/antly =w>ds4 ,?is precise & detail$ acc\nt ( ! ,undulatory ,motion ( air by :i* s\nd is transmitt$ 0 fir/ giv5 by ,newton4 ,he fur!r attempt$ to det]m9e ! motions ( ! sep>ate p>ticles1 & to po9t out ! =ce by :i* ea* p>ticle affects ! next1 s z to cont9ue ! progress ( ! undulation once begun4 ,! motions ( ea* p>ticle mu/ be oscillatory2 he assum$ ! oscillations to be gov]n$ by ! simple/ law ( oscillation :i* _h come "u ! notice ( ma!maticians1 7t ( small vibrations ( a p5dulum27 & he prov$ t 9 ?is mann] ! =ces :i* are call$ into play by ! contraction & expansion ( ! p>ts ( ! ela/ic fluid are su* z ! cont9uance ( ! motion requires4 ,newton's pro( ( ! exact law ( ,oscillatory ,motion ( ! arial p>ticles 0 n consid]$ satisfactory by succe$+ ma!maticians2 = x 0 f\nd t ! same result1 ! developm5t ( =ces adequate to cont9ue ! motion1 w\ld foll[ if any o!r law ( ! motion 7 assum$4 ,cram] prov$ ?is by a sort ( p>ody on ,newton's pro(1 9 :i*1 by ! #cbf alt]ation ( a few phrases 9 ?is =mula ( demon/ration1 x 0 made to e/abli% an entirely diff]5t conclusion4 ,b ! g5]al conception ( an ,undulation z pres5t$ by ,newton 01 z f its manife/ me*anical tru? x c\ld n fail to be1 accept$ by all ma!maticians2 & 9 proportion z ! me?ods ( calculat+ ! motions ( fluids 7 fur!r improv$1 ! necess>y consequ5ces ( ?is conception1 9 ! communication ( s\nd ?r\gh air1 7 trac$ by unexceptionable reason+4 ,?is 0 especially done by ,eul] & ,lagrange1 ^: memoirs on su* motions ( fluids are "s ( ! mo/ admirable examples :i* exi/1 ( ref9$ ma!matical me?ods appli$ to ! solution ( difficult me*anical problems4 ,b ! great /ep 9 ! =mation ( ! !ory ( s\nd 0 und\bt$ly t :i* we h notic$1 ! introduction ( ! ,conception ( an ,undulation su* z we h attempt$ to describe x3--a /ate1 condition1 or arrangem5t ( ! p>ticles ( a fluid1 :i* is transf]r$ f "o "p ( space to ano!r by means ( small motions ( ! p>ticles1 altoge!r di/9ct f ! movem5t ( ! ,undulation itself4 ,?is is a conception :i* is n obvi\s to common appreh5sion4 ,x appe>s p>adoxical at fir/ sight to speak ( a l>ge wave 7z ! tide-wave7 runn+ up a riv] at ! rate ( tw5ty miles an h\r1 :ile ! /ream ( ! riv] is all ! :ile fl[+ d[nw>ds4 ,yet ?is is a v common fact4 ,& ! conception ( su* a motion mu/ be fully ma/]$ by all :o w\ld reason rightly conc]n+ ! me*anical transmission ( impressions ?r\gh a m$ium4 ,we h describ$ ! motion ( s\nd z produc$ by small motions ( ! p>ticle =w>ds & backw>ds1 :ile ! waves1 or cond5s$ & r>efi$ l9es1 move con/antly =w>ds4 ,x may be ask$ :at "r we h to suppose ! motion to be ( ?is k9d1 s9ce :5 s\nd is he>d1 no su* motions ( ! p>ticles ( air c be obs]v$1 ev5 by ref9$ me?ods ( obs]vation4 ,?us ,bacon decl>es himself aga9/ ! hypo!sis ( su* a vibration1 s9ce1 z he rem>ks1 x #cbg _c be p]ceiv$ 9 any visible impression ^u ! flame ( a c&le4 ,& to ?is we reply1 t ! supposition ( ?is ,vibration is made 9 virtue ( a pr9ciple :i* is involv$ 9 ! orig9al assumption ( a m$ium2 namely1 ,t a ,m$ium1 9 convey+ ,second>y qualities1 op]ates by means ( its ,prim>y qualities1 ! bulk1 figure1 motion1 & o!r me*anical prop]ties ( its p>ts4 ,?is is an ,axiom belong+ to ! ,idea ( a ,m$ium4 ,9 virtue ( ?is axiom x is demon/rable t ! motion ( ! air1 :5 any h[ di/urb$1 mu/ be su* z is suppos$ 9 our ac\/ical reason+s4 ,= ! ela/icity ( ! p>ts ( ! air1 call$ into play by its expansion & contraction1 lead1 by a me*anical necessity1 to su* a motion z we h describ$4 ,we may add t1 by prop] contrivances1 ?is motion may be made p]ceptible 9 its visible effects4 ,?us ! !ory ( s\nd1 z an impression convey$ ?r\gh air1 is e/abli%$ ^u evid5t g5]al pr9ciples1 al?\gh ! ma!matical calculations :i* are requisite to inve/igate its consequ5ces are1 "s ( !m1 ( a v recondite k9d4 #c4 ,light4--,! e>ly attempts to expla9 ,vision repres5t$ x z p]=m$ by means ( mat]ial rays proce$+ f ! eye1 by ! help ( :i* ! eye felt out ! =m & o!r visible qualities ( an object1 z a bl9d man might d ) 8 /aff4 ,b ?is op9ion c\ld n keep its gr\nd long3 = x did n ev5 expla9 ! fact t light is necess>y to vision4 ,light1 z a peculi> m$ium1 0 next assum$ z ! ma*9]y ( vision2 b ! mode 9 :i* ! impression 0 convey$ ?r\gh ! m$ium 0 left undet]m9$1 & no advance 0 made t[>ds s\nd !ory1 on t subject1 by ! anci5ts4 ,9 mod]n times1 :5 ! preval5t philosophy began to assume a me*anical turn 7z 9 ! !ories ( ,desc>tes71 light 0 conceiv$ to be a mat]ial sub/ance :i* is emitt$ f lum9\s bodies1 & :i* is also convey$ f all bodies to ! eye1 s z to r5d] !m visible4 ,! v>i\s *anges ( direction by :i* ! rays ( light are affect$1 7reflection1 #cbh refraction1 c417 ,desc>tes expla9$1 by consid]+ ! p>ticles ( light z small globules1 :i* *ange _! direction :5 !y imp+e ^u o!r bodies1 accord+ to ! laws ( ,me*anics4 ,newton1 ) a mu* m pr(\nd k ( ,me*anics ?an ,desc>tes possess$1 adopt$1 9 ! mo/ mature ( 8 speculations1 ne>ly ! same view ( ! nature ( light2 & endeav\r$ to %[ t reflection1 refraction1 & o!r prop]ties ( light1 might be expla9$ z ! effects :i* c]ta9 =ces1 emanat+ f ! p>ticles ( bodies1 produce ^u ! lum9if]\s globules4 ,b ?\gh "s ( ! prop]ties ( light c\ld ?us be acc\nt$ = by ! assumption ( p>ticles emitt$ f lum9\s bodies1 & reflect$ or refract$ by =ces1 o!r prop]ties came into view :i* w\ld n admit ( ! same explanation4 ,! ph5om5a ( diffraction 7! fr+es :i* accompany %ad[s7 c\ld nev] be truly repres5t$ by su* an hypo!sis1 9 spite ( _m attempts :i* 7 made4 ,& ! col\rs ( ?9 plates1 :i* %[ ! rays ( light to be affect$ by an alt]nation ( two diff]5t conditions at small int]vals along _! l5g?1 l$ ,newton himself to incl9e1 (t5 & /rongly1 to "s hypo!sis ( undulation4 ,! d\ble refraction ( ,icel& sp>1 a ph5om5on 9 itself v complex1 c\ld1 x 0 f\nd by ,huygh5s1 be express$ ) great simplicity by a c]ta9 hypo!sis ( undulations4 ,two hypo!ses ( ! nature ( ! lum9if]\s m$ium 7 ?us br\ght "u consid]ation2 ! "o repres5t+ ,light z ,matt] emitt$ f ! lum9\s object1 ! o!r1 z ,undulations propagat$ ?r\gh a fluid4 ,^! two hypo!ses rema9$ 9 pres5ce ( ea* o!r dur+ ! :ole ( ! la/ c5tury1 nei!r ( !m ga9+ any mat]ial advantage ov] ! o!r1 ?\gh ! great] "p ( ma!maticians1 foll[+ ,newton1 embrac$ ! emission !ory4 ,b at ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury1 an additional class ( ph5om5a1 ^? ( ! int]f]5ce ( two rays ( light1 7 br\ght "u #cbi consid]ation by ,dr4 ,"y2 & ^! ph5om5a 7 /rongly 9 fav\r ( ! undulatory !ory1 :ile !y 7 irreconcilable ) ! hypo!sis ( emission4 ,if x _h n be5 = ! orig9al bias ( ,newton & 8 s*ool to ! o!r side1 !re c be little d\bt t f ?is p]iod light z well z s\nd w\ld h be5 suppos$ to be propagat$ by undulations2 al?\gh 9 ?is case x 0 necess>y to assume z ! vehicle ( su* undulations a special m$ium or e!r4 ,sev]al po9ts ( ! ph5om5a ( vision no d\bt rema9$ unexpla9$ by ! undulatory !ory1 z absorption1 & ! natural col\rs ( bodies2 b su* facts1 ?\gh !y did n confirm1 did n evid5tly contradict ! !ory ( a ,lum9if]\s ,e!r2 & ! facts :i* su* a !ory did expla91 x expla9$ ) s+ul> happ9ess & accuracy4 ,b be=e ?is ,undulatory ,!ory c\ld be g5]ally accept$1 x 0 pres5t$ 9 an entirely new po9t ( view by be+ comb9$ ) ! facts ( pol>ization4 ,! g5]al idea ( pol>ization mu/ be illu/rat$ h]eaft]2 b we may "h rem>k t ,"y & ,fresnel1 :o _h adopt$ ! undulatory !ory1 aft] be+ emb>rass$ = "s "t by ! new facts :i* 7 ?us pres5t$ to _! notice1 at la/ saw t ^! facts might be expla9$ by conceiv+ ! vibrations to be transv]se to ! ray1 ! motions ( ! p>ticles be+ n backw>ds & =w>ds 9 ! l9e 9 :i* ! impulse travels1 b to ! "r & left ( t l9e4 ,?is conception ( transv]se vibrations1 ?\gh q un=ese51 _h no?+ 9 x :i* 0 at all difficult to reconcile ) ! g5]al notion ( an undulation4 ,we h describ$ an undulation1 or wave1 z a c]ta9 condition or arrangem5t ( ! p>ticles ( ! fluid successively transf]r$ f "o "p ( space to ano!r3 & x is easily conceivable t ?is arrangem5t or wave may be produc$ by a lat]al transf] ( ! p>ticles f _! quiesc5t positions4 ,?is conception ( transv]se vibrations be+ accept$1 x 0 f\nd t ! explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( pol>ization & ( ^? ( int]f]5ce l$ to ! same !ory #ccj ) a correspond5ce truly wond]ful2 & ?is co9cid5ce 9 ! views1 collect$ f two q di/9ct classes ( ph5om5a1 0 ju/ly consid]$ z an almo/ demon/rative evid5ce ( ! tru? ( ?is undulatory !ory4 ,x rema9$ to be consid]$ :e!r ! doctr9e ( transv]se vibrations 9 a fluid c\ld be reconcil$ ) ! pr9ciples ( ,me*anics4 ,& x 0 f\nd t by mak+ c]ta9 suppositions1 9 :i* no inh]5t improbability exi/$1 ! hypo!sis ( transv]se vibrations w\ld expla9 ! laws1 bo? ( int]f]5ce & ( pol>ization ( light1 9 air & 9 cry/als ( all k9ds1 ) a surpriz+ f]tility & fidelity4 ,?us ! ,undulatory ,!ory ( ,light1 l ! ,undulatory ,!ory ( ,s\nd1 is recomm5d$ by its con=mity to ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! ,second>y ,me*anical ,sci5ces1 t ! m$ium mu/ be suppos$ to transmit its peculi> impulses accord+ to ! laws ( ,me*anics4 ,al?\gh no "o _h previ\sly dreamt ( qualities be+ convey$ ?r\gh a m$ium by su* a process1 yet :5 x is once sugge/$ z ! only mode ( expla9+ "s ( ! ph5om5a1 !re is no?+ to prev5t our accept+ x entirely1 z a satisfactory !ory = all ! kn[n laws ( ,light4 #d4 ,heat4--,) reg>d to ,heat z ) reg>d to ,light1 a fluid m$ium 0 necess>ily assum$ z ! vehicle ( ! prop]ty4 ,dur+ ! la/ c5tury1 ?is m$ium 0 suppos$ to be an emitt$ fluid4 ,& _m ( ! asc]ta9$ ,laws ( ,heat1 ^? :i* prevail ) reg>d to its radiation m especially1 7 well expla9$ by ?is hypo!sis#bbd4 ,o!r effects ( heat1 h[ev]1 z = in/ance lat5t heat#bcd1 & ! *ange ( consi/5ce ( bodies#bdd1 7 n satisfactorily br\ght into connexion ) ! hypo!sis2 :ile #cca conduction#bed1 :i* at fir/ did n appe> to result f ! fundam5tal assumption1 0 to a c]ta9 ext5t expla9$ z int]nal radiation4 ,note #bbd3 ,see ! ,acc\nt ( ! ,!ory ( ,ex*anges1 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 x4 c4 i4 sect4 #b4 ,note #bcd3 ,ib4 c4 ii4 sect4 #c4 ,note #bdd3 ,ib4 c4 ii4 sect4 #b4 ,note #bed3 ,ib4 c4 i4 sect4 #g4 ,b x 0 by no means cle> t an ,undulatory ,!ory ( ,heat might n be made to expla9 ^! ph5om5a equally well4 ,sev]al philosoph]s incl9$ to su* a !ory2 & f9ally1 ,ampre %[$ t ! doctr9e t ! heat ( a body consi/s 9 ! undulations ( its p>ticles propagat$ by means ( ! undulations ( a m$ium1 might be s adju/$ z to expla9 all :i* ! !ory ( emission c\ld expla91 & moreov] to acc\nt = facts & laws :i* 7 out ( ! rea* ( t !ory4 ,ab\t ! same "t x 0 discov]$ by ,pr(4 ,=bes & ,m4 ,nobili t radiant heat is1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 pol>iz$4 ,n[ pol>ization _h be5 mo/ satisfactorily expla9$ by means ( transv]se undulations 9 ! case ( light2 :ile all attempts to modify ! emission !ory s z to include pol>ization 9 x1 _h be5 f\nd ineffectual4 ,h5ce ?is discov]y 0 ju/ly consid]$ z l5d+ great c\nt5ance to ! op9ion t ,heat consi/s 9 ! vibrations ( its prop] m$ium4 ,b :at is ?is m$ium8 ,is x ! same by :i* ! impressions ( ,light are convey$8 ,?is is a difficult "q2 or r x is "o :i* we _c at pres5t hope to answ] ) c]ta9ty4 ,no d\bt ! connexion betwe5 ,light & ,heat is s intimate & con/ant1 t we c h>dly refra9 f consid]+ !m z affections ( ! same m$ium4 ,b in/ead ( attempt+ to erect our sy/ems on su* loose & g5]al views ( connexion1 x is r ! bus9ess ( ! philosoph]s ( ! pres5t day to det]m9e ! laws ( ! op]ation ( heat1 & its real relation to light1 9 ord] t we may aft]w>ds be able to connect ! !ories ( ! two qualities4 ,p]haps 9 a m advanc$ /ate ( our k we may be able to /ate x z an ,axiom1 t two ,second>y ,qualities1 :i* are intimately connect$ 9 _! causes & effects1 mu/ be affections ( ! same ,m$ium4 #ccb ,b at pres5t x does n appe> safe to proce$ ^u su* a pr9ciple1 al?\gh _m writ]s1 9 _! speculations bo? conc]n+ ,light & ,heat1 & conc]n+ o!r prop]ties1 h n hesitat$ to d s4 ,"s o!r consequ5ces foll[ f ! ,idea ( a ,m$ium :i* mu/ be ! subject ( ano!r *apt]4 #ccc ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,measure ,,( ,,second>y ,,qualities4 ,,sect4 ,i4--,scales ( ,qualities 9 g5]al4 ,,! ultimate object ( our inve/igation 9 ea* ( ! ,second>y ,me*anical ,sci5ces1 is ! nature ( ! processes by :i* ! special impressions ( s\nd1 light1 & heat1 are convey$1 & ! modifications ( :i* ^! processes are susceptible4 ,& ( ?is inve/igation1 z we h se51 ! necess>y basis is ! pr9ciple1 t ^! impressions are transmitt$ by means ( a m$ium4 ,b be=e we arrive at ?is ultimate object1 we may f9d x necess>y to occupy ourselves ) sev]al int]m$iate objects3 be=e we discov] ! cause1 x may be necess>y to det]m9e ! laws ( ! ph5om5a4 ,ev5 if we _c imm$iately asc]ta9 ! me*anism ( light or heat1 x may /ill be int]e/+ & important to arrange & measure ! effects :i* we obs]ve4 ,! idea ( a ,m$ium affects our proce$+ 9 ?is rese>* also4 ,we _c measure ,second>y qualities 9 ! same mann] 9 :i* we measure ,prim>y qualities1 by a m]e addition ( p>ts4 ,!re is ?is lead+ & rem>kable diff]5ce1 t :ile bo? classes ( qualities are susceptible ( *anges ( magnitude1 prim>y qualities increase by addition ( ext5sion1 second>y1 by augm5tation ( int5sity4 ,a space is d\bl$ :5 ano!r equal space is plac$ by its side2 "o weight jo9$ to ano!r makes up ! sum ( ! two4 ,b :5 "o degree ( w>m? is comb9$ ) ano!r1 or "o %ade ( r$ col\r ) ano!r1 we _c 9 l mann] talk ( ! sum4 ,! compon5t p>ts d n evid5tly reta9 _! #ccd sep>ate exi/5ce2 we _c sep>ate a /rong gre5 col\r into two weak] ones1 z we c sep>ate a l>ge =ce into two small]4 ,! increase is absorb$ into ! previ\s am\nt1 & is no long] 9 evid5ce z a "p ( ! :ole4 ,& ?is is ! diff]5ce :i* has giv5 bir? to ! two words ext5d$1 & int5se4 ,t is ext5d$ :i* has 'p>tes extra p>tes1' p>ts outside ( p>ts3 t is int5se :i* becomes /rong] by "s indirect & unapp>5t increase ( ag5cy1 l ! /ret*+ ( ! int]nal spr+s ( a ma*9e1 z ! t]m int5se implies4 ,ext5d$ magnitudes c at w be resolv$ into ! p>ts ( :i* !y 7 orig9ally compos$1 or any o!r :i* ! nature ( _! ext5sion admits2 _! proportion is app>5t2 !y are directly & at once subject to ! relations ( numb]4 ,int5sive magnitudes _c be resolv$ into small] magnitudes2 we c see t !y diff]1 b we _c tell 9 :at proportion2 we h no direct measure ( _! quantity4 ,h[ _m times hott] ?an blood is boil+ wat]8 ,! answ] _c be giv5 by ! aid ( our feel+s ( heat alone4 ,! diff]5ce1 z we h said1 is connect$ ) ! fundam5tal pr9ciple t we d n p]ceive ,second>y qualities directly1 b ?r\gh a ,m$ium4 ,we h no natural appreh5sion ( light1 or s\nd1 or heat1 z !y exi/ 9 ! bodies f :i* !y proce$1 b only z !y affect our organs4 ,we c only measure !m1 !re=e1 by "s ,scale suppli$ by _! effects4 ,& ?us :ile ext5d$ magnitudes1 z space1 "t1 are measurable directly & ( !mselves2 int5sive magnitudes1 z brightness1 l\dness1 heat1 are measurable only by artificial means & conv5tional scales4 ,space1 "t1 measure !mselves3 ! repetition ( a small] space1 or "t1 :ile x composes a l>g] "o1 measures x4 ,b = light & heat we mu/ h ,photomet]s & ,!rmomet]s1 :i* measure some?+ :i* is assum$ to be an indication ( ! quality 9 "q4 ,9 ! "o case1 ! mode ( apply+ ! measure1 & ! mean+ ( ! numb] result+1 are se5 by intuition2 9 ! #cce o!r1 !y are consequ5ces ( assumption & reason+4 ,9 ! "o case1 !y are ,units1 ( :i* ! ext5sion is made up2 9 ! o!r1 !y are ,degrees by :i* ! int5sity asc5ds4 #b4 ,:5 we discov] any prop]ty 9 a s5sible quality1 :i* at once ref]s u to numb] or space1 we readily take ?is prop]ty z a measure2 & ?us we make a transition f quality to quantity4 ,?us ,ptolemy 9 ! ?ird *apt] ( ! ,fir/ ,book ( 8 ,h>monics beg9s ?us3 ',z to ! diff]5ces :i* exi/ 9 s\nds bo? 9 quality & 9 quantity1 if we consid] t diff]5ce :i* ref]s to ! acut5ess & grav5ess1 we _c at once tell to :i* ( ! above two classes x belongs1 till we h consid]$ ! causes ( su* symptoms4' ,b at ! end ( ! *apt]1 hav+ satisfi$ himself t grave s\nds result f ! magnitude ( ! /r+ or pipe1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 he inf]s1 ',?us ! diff]5ce ( acute & grave appe>s to be a diff]5ce ( quantity4' ,9 ! same mann]1 9 ord] to =m ,second>y ,me*anical ,sci5ces respect+ any ( ! o!r prop]ties ( bodies1 we mu/ r$uce ^! prop]ties to a dep5d5ce ^u quantity1 & ?us make !m subject to measurem5t4 ,we _c obta9 any sci5tial tru?s respect+ ! comp>ison ( s5sible qualities1 till we h discov]$ measures & scales ( ! qualities :i* we h to consid]2 & accord+ly1 "s ( ! mo/ important /eps 9 su* sci5ces h be5 ! e/abli%m5t ( su* measures & scales1 & ! inv5tion ( ! requisite in/rum5ts4 ,! =mation ( ! ma!matical sci5ces :i* re/ ^u ! measures ( ! int5sity ( s5sible qualities took place ma9ly 9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,p]haps we may consid] ,lamb]t1 a ma!matician :o resid$ 9 ,switz]l&1 & publi%$ ab\t #agej1 z ! p]son :o fir/ cle>ly felt ! importance ( e/abli%+ su* sci5ces4 ,8 ,photometry1 ,pyrometry1 & ,hygrometry1 are examples ( ! sy/ematic r$uction ( s5sible qualities 7light1 heat1 moi/ure7 to modes ( num]ical measurem5t4 #ccf ,we n[ proce$ to speak ( su* modes ( measurem5t ) reg>d to ! mo/ obvi\s prop]ties ( bodies4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,! ,musical ,scale4 #c4 ,,! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,h>monic ,canon1 t is1 ( a ,scale & ,measure ( ! musical place ( notes1 9 ! relation ( high & l[1 0 ! fir/ /ep 9 ! sci5ce ( ,h>monics4 ,! p]ception ( ! diff]5ces & relations ( musical s\nds is ! (fice ( ! s5se ( he>+2 b ^! relations are fix$1 & r5d]$ accurately recognizable by artificial means4 ',inde$1 9 all ! s5ses1' z ,ptolemy truly says 9 ! op5+ ( 8 ,h>monics1 '! s5se discov]s :at is approximately true1 & receives accuracy f ano!r qu>t]3 ! reason receives ! approximately-true f ano!r qu>t]1 & discov]s ! accurate tru?4' ,we c h no measures ( s5sible qualities :i* d n ultimately ref] to ! s5se2--:e!r !y d ?is imm$iately1 z :5 we ref] ,col\rs to an assum$ ,/&>d2 or m$iately1 z :5 we measure ,heat by ,expansion1 hav+ previ\sly f\nd by an appeal to s5se t ! expansion increases ) ! heat4 ,su* relations ( s5sible qualities _c be describ$ 9 words1 & c only be appreh5d$ by _! appropriate faculty4 ,! faculty by :i* ! relations ( s\nds are appreh5d$ is a musical e> 9 ! l>ge/ acceptation ( ! t]m4 ,9 ?is signification ! faculty is ne>ly univ]sal among m52 = all p]sons h musical e>s suffici5tly delicate to und]/& & to imitate ! modulations correspond+ to v>i\s emotions 9 speak+2 :i* modulations dep5d ^u ! succession ( acut] & grav] tones4 ,^! are ! relations n[ spok5 (1 & ^! are pla9ly p]ceiv$ by p]sons :o h v imp]fect musical e>s1 accord+ to ! common use ( ! phrase4 ,b ! relations ( tones :i* occur 9 speak+ are some:at indef9ite2 & 9 =m+ t musical scale :i* is ! basis ( our sci5ce ^u ! subject1 we #ccg take ! mo/ def9ite & m>k$ ( su* relations ( notes2 su* z occur1 n 9 speak+ b 9 s++4 ,^? musical relations ( two s\nds :i* we call ! octave1 ! fif?1 ! f\r?1 ! ?ird1 are recogniz$ aft] a %ort famili>ity ) !m4 ,^! *ords or int]vals are p]ceiv$ to h ea* a peculi> "*1 :i* sep>ates !m f ! relations ( two s\nds tak5 at r&om1 & makes x easy to "k !m :5 sung or play$ on an in/rum5t2 & = mo/ p]sons1 n difficult to s+ ! s\nds 9 succession exactly1 or ne>ly correct4 ,^! musical relations1 or concords1 !n1 are ! gr\ndwork ( our musical s]ies ( s\nds4 ,b h[ are we to "n ^! indescribable s5sible *>act]s8 h[ to ref]1 ) un]r+ accuracy1 to a type :i* exi/s only 9 our own p]ceptions8 ,we mu/ h = ?is purpose a ,scale & a ,/&>d4 ,! ,musical ,scale is a s]ies ( eight notes1 asc5d+ by c]ta9 /eps f ! fir/ or key-note to ! octave above x1 ea* ( ! notes be+ fix$ by su* di/+ui%able musical relations z we h spok5 ( above4 ,we may call ^! notes ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,a1 ,b1 c2 & we may !n say t ,g is det]m9$ by its be+ a fif? above ,c2 ,d by its be+ a f\r? bel[ ,g2 ,e by its be+ a ?ird above ,c2 & simil>ly ( ! re/4 ,x w be recollect$ t ! t]ms a fif?1 a f\r?1 a ?ird1 h hi!rto be5 introduc$ z express+ c]ta9 simple & indescribable musical relations among s\nds1 :i* might h be5 indicat$ by any o!r names4 ,?us we might call ! fif? ! dom9ant1 & ! f\r? ! subdom9ant1 z is done 9 "o "p ( musical sci5ce4 ,b ! names we h us$1 :i* are ! common ones1 are 9 fact d]iv$ f ! numb] ( notes :i* ^! int]vals include 9 ! scale obta9$ 9 ! above mann]4 ,! notes1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 be+ five1 ! int]val f ,c to ,g is a fif?1 & s ( ! re/4 ,! fixation ( ?is scale gave ! means ( describ+ exactly any note :i* occurs 9 ! scale1 & ! me?od is easily applicable to notes above & bel[ ?is range2 = 9 a s]ies ( s\nds high] or l[] by an octave ?an #cch ?is /&>d s]ies1 ! e> discov]s a recurr5ce ( ! same relations s exact1 t a p]son may sometimes imag9e he is produc+ ! same notes z ano!r :5 he is s++ ! same air an octave high]4 ,h5ce ! next eight notes may be conv5i5tly d5ot$ by a repetition ( ! same lett]s1 z ! fir/2 ?us1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,a1 ,b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 g1 a1 b2 & x is easy to devise a cont9uation ( su* cycles4 ,& o!r admissible notes are designat$ by a fur!r modification ( ! /&>d ones1 z by mak+ ea* note flat or %>p2 :i* modification x is n necess>y "h to consid]1 s9ce our object is only to %[ h[ a /&>d is atta9able1 & h[ x s]ves ! ends ( sci5ce4 ,we may obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t ! above is n an exact acc\nt ( ! fir/1 or e>ly ,greek scale2 = t scale 0 f\nd$ on a prim>y division ( ! int]val ( two octaves 7! extreme range :i* x admitt$7 into five tetra*ords1 ea* tetra*ord includ+ ! int]val ( a f\r?4 ,all ! notes ( ?is s]ies _h diff]5t names borr[$ f ?is division#bfd2 ?us mese 0 ! middle or key-note2 ! note bel[ x 0 li*anos mesn1 ! next bel[ 0 p>ypate mesn1 ! next l[]1 hypate mesn4 ,! fif? above mese 0 nete diazeugm5n1 ! octave 0 nete hyp]boln4 ,note #bfd3 ,burney's ,hi/ory ( ,music1 vol4 i4 p4 #bh4 #d4 ,b suppos+ a complete sy/em ( su* d5om9ations e/abli%$1 h[ c\ld x be ) c]ta9ty & rig\r appli$8 ,! human e> is fallible1 ! organs ( voice imp]fectly ob$i5t2 if ?is 7 n s1 !re w\ld be no su* ?+ z a good e> or a good voice4 ,:at means c be devis$ ( f9d+ at w a p]fect concord1 a fif? or a f\r?8 ,or suppos+ su* concords fix$ by an ackn[l$g$ au?ority1 h[ c !y be ref]r$ to1 & ! au?ority adduc$8 ,h[ c we enact a ,/&>d ( s\nds8 ,a ,/&>d 0 discov]$ 9 ! ,mono*ord4 ,a musical /r+ prop]ly /ret*$1 may be made to produce diff]5t notes1 9 proportion z we int]cept a long] or %ort] portion1 & make ?is portion #cci vibrate4 ,! relation ( ! l5g? ( ! /r+s :i* ?us s\nd ! two notes ,g & ,c is fix$ & con/ant1 & ! same is true ( all o!r notes4 ,h5ce ! musical int]val ( any notes ( :i* we "k ! places 9 ! musical scale1 may be reproduc$ by measur+ ! l5g?s ( /r+ :i* are kn[n to give !m4 ,if ,c be ( ! l5g? #ahj1 ,d is #afj1 ,e is #add1 ,f is #ace1 ,g is #abj2 & ?us ! musical relations are r$uc$ to num]ical relations1 & ! mono*ord is a complete & p]fect ,tonomet]4 ,we h "h tak5 ! l5g? ( ! /r+ z ! measure ( ! tone3 b we may obs]ve t !re is 9 u a necess>y t5d5cy to assume t ! gr\nd ( ?is measure is to be s\ght 9 "s ult]ior cause2 & :5 we consid] ! matt] fur!r1 we f9d ?is cause 9 ! frequ5cy ( ^! vibrations ( ! /r+4 ,! tru? t ! same note mu/ result f ! same frequ5cy ( vibration is readily ass5t$ to on a slight sugge/ion ( exp]i5ce4 ,?us ,m]s5ne#bgd1 :5 he und]takes to det]m9e ! frequ5cy ( vibrations ( a giv5 s\nd1 says ',suppon5dum e/ quoscunque n]vos et quaslibet *ordas unisonum faci5tes eundem effic]e num]um recursuum eodem vel equali tempore1 quod p]petu con/at exp]i5ti4' ,& he proce$s to apply x to cases :]e exp]i5ce c\ld n v]ify ?is ass]tion1 or at lea/ _h n v]ifi$ x1 z to t ( pipes4 ,note #bgd3 ,h>monia1 lib4 ii4 prop4 #ai4 ,! pursuit ( ^! num]ical relations ( tones =ms ! sci5ce ( ,h>monics2 ( :i* "h we d n pret5d to give an acc\nt1 b only to %[1 h[ ! inv5tion ( a ,scale & ,nom5clature1 a ,/&>d & ,measure ( ! tone ( s\nds1 is its necess>y basis4 ,we w !re=e n[ proce$ to speak ( ano!r subject2 col\r4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,scales ( ,col\r4 #e4 ,! ,prismatic ,scale ( ,col\r4--,a ,,scale ( ,col\r mu/ dep5d orig9ally ^u diff]5ces #cdj disc]nible by ! eye1 z a scale ( notes dep5ds on diff]5ces p]ceiv$ by ! e>4 ,9 "o respect ! difficulty is great] 9 ! case ( ! visible qualities1 = !re are no relations ( col\r :i* ! eye peculi>ly s+les out & di/+ui%es1 z ! e> selects & di/+ui%es an octave or a fif?4 ,h5ce we are compell$ to take an arbitr>y scale2 & we h to f9d "o :i* is fix$1 & :i* includes a prop] collection ( col\rs4 ,! prismatic spectrum1 or col\r$ image produc$ :5 a small beam ( light passes obliquely ?r\gh any transp>5t surface 7z ! surface ( a prism ( glass17 (f]s an obvi\s ,/&>d z f> z x is applicable4 ,accord+ly col\rs h1 = v>i\s purposes1 be5 designat$ by _! place 9 ! spectrum1 ev] s9ce ! "t ( ,newton2 & we h ?us a means ( ref]r+ to su* col\rs z are includ$ 9 ! s]ies r$1 orange1 yell[1 gre51 blue1 violet1 indigo1 & ! int]m$iate t9ts4 ,b ?is scale is n capable ( num]ical precision4 ,if ! spectrum c\ld be exactly def9$ z to its extremities1 & if ^! col\rs occupi$ always ! same proportional "p ( x1 we might describe any col\r 9 ! above s]ies by ! measure ( its position4 ,b ! fact is o!rwise4 ,! spectrum is too indef9ite 9 its b\nd>ies to af=d any di/9ct po9t f :i* we may comm5ce our measures2 & moreov] ! spectra produc$ by diff]5t transp>5t bodies diff] f ea* o!r4 ,newton _h suppos$ t ! spectrum & its p>ts 7 ! same1 s long z ! refraction 0 ! same2 b 8 successors discov]$ t1 ) ! same am\nt ( refraction 9 diff]5t k9ds ( glass1 !re are diff]5t magnitudes ( ! spectrum2 & :at is /ill worse ) ref]5ce to our pres5t purpose1 t ! spectra f diff]5t glasses h ! col\rs di/ribut$ 9 diff]5t proportions4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to make ! spectrum ! scale ( col\r1 we mu/ assume "s fix$ sub/ance2 = in/ance1 we may take wat]1 & ?us a s]ies approa*+ to ! col\rs ( ! ra9b[ w be our /&>d4 ,b we %\ld /ill h an extreme difficulty 9 apply+ su* a rule4 ,! di/9ctions ( #cda col\r :i* ! t]ms ( common language express1 are n us$ ) p]fect unanimity or ) rigor\s precision4 ,:at "o p]son calls blui% gre5 ano!r calls gre5i% blue4 ,nobody c say :at is ! precise b\nd>y betwe5 r$ & orange4 ,?us ! prismatic scale ( col\r 0 incapable ( ma!matical exactness1 & ?is inconv5i5ce 0 felt up to our own times4 ,b ?is difficulty 0 remov$ by a curi\s discov]y ( ,wolla/on & ,fraunh(]2 :o f\nd t !re are1 9 ! sol> spectrum1 c]ta9 f9e black ,l9es :i* occupy a def9ite place 9 ! s]ies ( col\rs1 & c be obs]v$ ) p]fect precision4 ,we h n[ no unc]ta9ty z to :at col\r$ light we are speak+ (1 :5 we describe x z t "p ( ! spectrum 9 :i* ,fraunh(]'s ,l9e ,c or ,d occurs4 ,& ?us1 by ?is discov]y1 ! prismatic spectrum ( sunlight became1 = c]ta9 purposes1 an exact ,*romatomet]4 #f4 ,newton's ,scale ( ,col\rs4--,/ill1 su* a /&>d1 ?\gh def9ite1 is arbitr>y & seem+ly anomal\s4 ,! l9es ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 c41 ( ,fraunh(]'s spectrum are di/ribut$ )\t any app>5t ord] or law2 & we d n1 9 ?is way1 obta9 num]ical measures1 :i* is :at1 9 all cases1 we desire to h4 ,ano!r discov]y ( ,newton1 h[ev]1 gives u a spectrum conta9+ ! same col\rs z ! prismatic spectrum1 b produc$ 9 ano!r way1 s t ! col\rs h a num]ical relation4 ,i speak ( ! laws ( ! ,col\rs ( ,?9 ,plates4 ,! little ra9b[s :i* we sometimes see 9 ! cracks ( brok5 glass are gov]n$ by fix$ & simple laws4 ,! k9d ( col\r produc$ at any po9t dep5ds on ! ?ickness ( ! ?9 plate ( air includ$ 9 ! fissure4 ,if ! ?ickness be eight-million?s ( an in*1 ! col\r is orange1 if fifte5-million?s ( an in*1 we h gre51 & s on2 & ?us ^! numb]s1 :i* succe$ ea* o!r 9 a regul> ord] f r$ to indigo1 give a num]ical measure ( ea* col\r2 :i* measure1 :5 we pursue ! subject1 we f9d is "o ( ! bases ( all optical !ory4 ,! s]ies ( col\rs obta9$ f plates ( air ( gradually increas+ ?ickness is call$ #cdb ,newton's ,scale ( ,col\rs2 b we may obs]ve t ?is is n precisely :at we are "h speak+ (1 a scale ( simple col\rs2 x is a s]ies produc$ by c]ta9 comb9ations1 result+ f ! repetition ( ! fir/ spectrum1 & is ma9ly useful z a /&>d = simil> ph5om5a1 & n = col\r 9 g5]al4 ,! real scale ( col\r is to be f\nd1 z we h said1 9 ! numb]s :i* express ! ?ickness ( ! produc+ film2--9 ! l5g? ( a fit 9 ,newton's phraseology1 or ! l5g? ( an undulation 9 ! mod]n !ory4 #g4 ,scales ( ,impure ,col\rs4--,! /&>ds j spok5 ( include 7ma9ly at lea/7 only pure & simple col\rs2 & h[ev] complete ^! /&>ds may be = c]ta9 objects ( ! sci5ce ( optics1 !y are insuffici5t = o!r purposes4 ,!y d n enable u to put 9 _! place mix$ & impure col\rs4 ,& !re is1 9 ! case ( col\r1 a difficulty already notic$1 :i* does n occur 9 ! case ( s\nd2 two notes1 :5 s\nd$ toge!r1 are n necess>ily he>d z "o2 !y are recogniz$ z /ill two1 & z =m+ a concord or a discord4 ,b two col\rs =m a s+le col\r2 & ! eye _c1 9 any way1 di/+ui% betwe5 a gre5 comp\nd ( blue & yell[1 & ! simple1 undecomposable gre5 ( ! spectrum4 ,by composition ( ?ree or m col\rs1 innum]able new col\rs may be g5]at$ :i* =m no "p ( ! prismatic s]ies2 & by su* compositions is wov5 ! inf9itely v>i$ web ( col\r :i* =ms ! clo?+ ( nature4 ,h[ are we to classify & arrange all ! possible col\rs ( objects1 s t ea* %all h a place & "n8 ,h[ %all we f9d a *romatomet] = impure z well z = pure col\r8 ,?\gh no optical inve/igations h dep5d$ on a scale ( impure col\rs1 su* a scale has be5 want$ & inv5t$ = o!r purposes2 = in/ance1 9 ord] to id5tify & describe objects ( natural hi/ory4 ,n to speak ( e>li] essays1 we may notice ,w]n]'s ,nom5clature ( ,col\rs1 devis$ = ! purpose ( describ+ m9]als4 ,?is scale ( col\r 0 f> sup]ior to any :i* _h previ\sly be5 promulgat$4 #cdc ,x 01 inde$1 arbitr>y 9 ! selection ( its degrees1 & 9 a great measure 9 _! arrangem5t2 & ! col\rs 7 describ$ by ! usual t]ms1 ?\gh g5]ally ) "s add$ di/9ction2 z blacki% gre51 blui% gre51 apple-gre51 em]ald-gre54 ,b ! great m]it ( ! scale 0 its giv+ a fix$ conv5tional mean+ to ^! t]ms1 s t !y lo/ mu* ( _! usual vagu5ess4 ,?us apple-gre5 did n mean ! col\r ( any gre5 apple casually tak52 b a c]ta9 def9ite col\r :i* ! /ud5t 0 to be> 9 m9d1 :e!r or n he _h ev] se5 an apple ( t exact hue4 ,! words 7 n a description1 b a record ( ! col\r3 ! memory 0 to reta9 a s5sation1 n a "n4 ,! imp]fection ( ! sy/em 7aris+ f its arbitr>y =m7 0 its incomplet5ess3 h[ev] well x s]v$ = ! ref]5ce ( ! col\rs :i* x did conta91 x 0 applicable to no o!rs2 & ?us ?\gh ,w]n]'s enum]ation ext5d$ to m ?an a hundr$ col\rs1 !re occur 9 nature a /ill great] numb] :i* _c be exactly describ$ by means ( x4 ,9 su* cases ! unclass$ col\r is1 by ! ,w]n]ians1 def9$ by /at+ x z int]m$iate betwe5 two o!rs3 ?us we h an object describ$ z betwe5 em]ald-gre5 & grass-gre54 ,! eye is capable ( p]ceiv+ a gradation f "o col\r to ano!r2 su* z may be produc$ by a gradual mixture 9 v>i\s ways4 ,& if we image to ourselves su* a mixture1 we c comp>e ) x a giv5 col\r4 ,b 9 employ+ ?is me?od we h no?+ to tell u 9 :at "p ( ! scale we mu/ seek = an approximation to our unclass$ col\r4 ,we h no rule = discov]+ :]e we are to look = ! b\nd>ies ( ! def9ition ( a col\r :i* ! ,w]n]ian s]ies does n supply4 ,= x is n always betwe5 contigu\s memb]s ( ! s]ies t ! undescrib$ col\r is f\nd4 ,if we place em]ald-gre5 betwe5 apple-gre5 & grass-gre51 we may yet h a col\r int]m$iate betwe5 em]ald-gre5 & leek-gre52 &1 9 fact1 ! ,w]n]ian s]ies ( col\rs is de/itute #cdd ( a pr9ciple ( self-arrangem5t & gradation2 & is ?us necess>ily & incurably imp]fect4 #h4 ,we %\ld h a complete ,scale ( ,col\rs1 if we c\ld =m a s]ies includ+ all col\rs1 & arrang$ s t ea* col\r 0 int]m$iate 9 its t9t betwe5 ! adjac5t t]ms ( ! s]ies2 = !n1 :e!r we took _m or few ( ! /eps ( ! s]ies = our /&>d t]ms1 ! re/ c\ld be suppli$ by ! law ( cont9uity2 & any giv5 col\r w\ld ei!r correspond to "o ( ! /eps ( our scale or fall betwe5 two int]m$iate ones4 ,! inv5tion ( a ,*romatomet] = ,impure ,col\rs1 !re=e1 requires t we %\ld be able to =m all possible col\rs by su* int]m$iation 9 a sy/ematic mann]2 t is1 by ! mixture or comb9ation ( c]ta9 elem5t>y col\rs accord+ to a simple rule3 & we are l$ to ask :e!r su* a process has be5 %[n to be possible4 ,! col\rs ( ! prismatic spectrum obvi\sly d =m a cont9u\s s]ies2 gre5 is int]m$iate betwe5 its neighb\rs yell[ & blue1 orange betwe5 r$ & yell[2 & if we suppose ! two ends ( ! spectrum b5t r\nd to meet ea* o!r1 s t ! arrangem5t ( ! col\rs may be circul>1 ! violet & indigo w f9d _! appropriate place betwe5 ! blue & r$4 ,& all ! int]jac5t t9ts ( ! spectrum1 z well z ! ones j nam$1 w result f su* an arrangem5t4 ,?us all ! pure col\rs are produc$ by comb9ations two & two ( ?ree prim>y col\rs1 ,r$1 ,yell[1 & ,blue3 & ! "q sugge/s itself :e!r ^! ?ree are n really ! only ,prim>y ,col\rs1 & :e!r all ! impure col\rs d n arise f mixtures ( ! ?ree 9 v>i\s proportions4 ,!re are v>i\s modes 9 :i* ?is sugge/ion may be appli$ to ! con/ruction ( a scale ( col\rs2 b ! simple/1 & ! "o :i* appe>s really to v]ify ! conjecture t all possible col\rs may be s exhibit$1 is ! foll[+4 ,a c]ta9 comb9ation ( r$1 yell[1 & blue1 w produce black1 or pure grey1 & :5 dilut$1 w give all ! %ades ( grey :i* int]v5e betwe5 #cde black & :ite4 ,by add+ v>i\s %ades ( grey1 !n1 to pure col\rs1 we may obta9 all ! possible t]n>y comb9ations ( r$1 yell[1 & blue2 & 9 ?is way x is f\nd t we exhau/ ! range ( col\rs4 ,?us ! circle ( pure col\rs ( :i* we h spok5 may be accompani$ by sev]al o!r circles1 9 :i* ^! col\rs are t+$ ) a less or great] %ade ( grey2 & 9 ?is mann] x is f\nd t we h a p]fect *romatomet]2 e possible col\r be+ exhibit$ ei!r exactly or by means ( approximate & contigu\s limits4 ,! arrangem5t ( col\rs has be5 br\ght into ?is f9al & complete =m by ,m4 ,m]ime1 ^: ,*romatic ,scale is publi%$ by ,m4 ,mirbel 9 8 ,elem5ts ( ,botany4 ,we may obs]ve t su* a /&>d af=ds u a num]ical expon5t = e col\r by means ( ! proportions ( ! ?ree prim>y col\rs :i* compose x2 or1 express+ ! same result o!rwise1 by means ( ! pure col\r :i* is involv$1 & ! proportion ( grey by :i* x is r5d]$ impure4 ,9 su* a scale ! fundam5tal elem5ts w\ld be ! precise t9ts ( r$1 yell[1 & blue :i* are f\nd or assum$ to be prim>y2 ! num]ical expon5ts ( ea* col\r w\ld dep5d ^u ! arbitr>y numb] ( degrees :i* we int]pose betwe5 ea* two prim>y col\rs2 & betwe5 ea* pure col\r & absolute blackness4 ,no su* num]ical scale has1 h[ev]1 z yet1 obta9$ g5]al acceptation#bhd4 ,note #bhd3 ,! ref]5ce to ,fraunh(]'s ,l9es1 z a means ( det]m9+ ! place ( a col\r 9 ! prismatic s]ies1 has be5 object$ to1 because1 z is ass]t$1 ! col\rs :i* are 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ea* l9e v>y ) ! position ( ! sun1 /ate ( ! atmosph]e & ! l4 ,x is v evid5t t col\r$ light refract$ by ! prism w n give ! same spectrum z :ite light4 ,! spectrum giv5 by :ite light is ( c\rse ! "o "h meant4 ,x is an usual practice ( optical exp]im5t]s to ref] to ! col\rs ( su* a spectrum1 def9+ !m by ,fraunh(]'s ,l9es4 ,i d n "k :e!r x ne$s explanation t ! 'fir/ spectrum' 9 ,newton's r+s is a r+ ( ! prismatic col\rs4 ,i h n _h an opportunity ( consult+ ,lamb]t's ,photometria1 sive de m5sura et gradibus lum9is1 colorum1 et umbr1 publi%$ 9 #agfj1 nor ,may]'s ,comm5tatio de ,aff9itate ,colorum1 7#ageh71 9 :i*1 ,i believe1 he describes a *romatomet]4 ,! pres5t "w is n int5d$ to be complete z a hi/ory2 & ,i hope ,i h giv5 suffici5t hi/orical detail to answ] its philosophical purpose4 #cdf ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,scales ( ,light4 #i4 ,photomet]4--,,ano!r in/rum5t mu* ne$$ 9 optical rese>*es is a ,photomet]1 a measure ( ! int5sity ( light4 ,9 ?is case1 also1 ! organ ( s5se1 ! eye1 is ! ultimate judge2 nor has any effect ( light1 z light1 yet be5 discov]$ :i* we c sub/itute = su* a judgm5t4 ,all in/rum5ts1 su* z t ( ,leslie1 :i* employ ! heat+ effect ( light1 or at lea/ all t h hi!rto be5 propos$1 are inadmissible z photomet]s4 ,b ?\gh ! eye c judge ( two surfaces illum9at$ by light ( ! same col\r1 & c det]m9e :5 !y are equally bright1 or :i* is ! bright]1 ! eye c by no means decide at sight ! proportion ( illum9ation4 ,h[ mu* 9 su* judgm5ts we are affect$ by contra/1 is easily se5 :5 we consid] h[ diff]5t is ! app>5t brightness ( ! moon at mid-day & at midnight1 ?\gh ! light :i* we receive f h] is1 9 fact1 ! same at bo? p]iods4 ,9 ord] to apply a scale 9 ?is case1 we mu/ take advantage ( ! kn[n num]ical relations ( light4 ,we are c]ta9 t if all o!r illum9ation be exclud$1 two equal lum9>ies1 "u ! same circum/ances1 w produce an illum9ation twice z great z "o does2 & we c easily prove1 f ma!matical consid]ations1 t if light be n enfeebl$ by ! m$ium ?r\gh :i* x passes1 ! illum9ation on a giv5 surface w dim9i% z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance ( ! lum9>y increases4 ,if1 !re=e1 we c by tak+ a fraction ?us kn[n ( ! illum9at+ effect ( "o lum9>y1 make x equal to ! total effect ( ano!r1 ( :i* equality ! eye is a compet5t judge1 we comp>e ! effects ( ! two lum9>ies4 ,9 ord] to make ?is comp>ison we may1 ) ,rum=d1 look at ! %ad[s ( ! same object made by ! two lights1 #cdg or ) ,rit*ie1 we may view ! brightness produc$ on two contigu\s surfaces1 fram+ an app>atus s t ! equality may be br\ght ab\t by prop] adju/m5t2 & ?us a measure w become practicable4 ,or we may employ o!r me?ods z 0 done by ,wolla/on#bid1 :o r$uc$ ! light ( ! sun by obs]v+ x z reflect$ f a bright globule1 & ?us f\nd ! light ( ! sun to be #aj1jjj1jjj1jjj times t ( ,sirius1 ! brighte/ fix$ />4 ,all ^! me?ods are inaccurate1 ev5 z me?ods ( comp>ison2 & d n (f] any fix$ or conv5i5t num]ical /&>d2 b none bett] h yet be5 devis$#cjd4 ,note #bid3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbj1 p4 #ai4 ,note #cjd3 ,improv$ ,photomet]s h be5 devis$ by ,pr(essor ,:eat/one1 ,pr(essor ,pott]1 & ,pr(essor ,/e9heil2 b !y dep5d ^u pr9ciples simil> to ^? m5tion$ 9 ! text4 #aj4 ,cyanomet]4--,z we ?us measure ! brightness ( a col\rless light1 we may measure ! int5sity ( any p>ticul> col\r 9 ! same way2 t is1 by apply+ a /&>d exhibit+ ! gradations ( ! col\r 9 "q till we f9d a %ade :i* is se5 to agree ) ! propos$ object4 ,su* an in/rum5t we h 9 ! ,cyanomet]1 :i* 0 inv5t$ by ,saussure = ! purpose ( measur+ ! int5sity ( ! blue col\r ( ! sky4 ,we may introduce into su* an in/rum5t a num]ical scale1 b ! numb]s 9 su* a scale w be altoge!r arbitr>y4 ,,sect4 ,v4--,scales ( ,heat4 #aa4 ,!rmomet]s4--,,:5 we proce$ to ! s5sation ( heat1 & seek a measure ( t quality1 we f9d1 at fir/ sight1 new difficulties4 ,our s5sations ( ?is k9d are m fluctuat+ ?an ^? ( vision2 = we "k t ! same object may feel w>m to "o h& & cold to ano!r at ! same in/ant1 if ! h&s h be5 previ\sly cool$ & w>m$ respectively4 ,nor c we obta9 "h1 z 9 ! case ( light1 self-evid5t num]ical relations ( ! heat communicat$ 9 giv5 circum/ances2 = we "k t ! #cdh effect s produc$ w dep5d on ! w>m? ( ! body to be heat$1 z well z on t ( ! s\rce ( heat2 ! summ] sun1 :i* w>ms our bodies1 w n augm5t ! heat ( a r$-hot iron4 ,! cause ( ! diff]5ce ( ^! cases is1 t bodies d n receive ! :ole ( _! heat1 z !y receive ! :ole ( _! light1 f ! imm$iate influ5ce ( obvi\s ext]nal ag5ts4 ,!re is no readily-discov]$ absolute cold1 correspond+ to ! absolute d>kness :i* we c easily produce or imag9e4 ,h5ce we %\ld be greatly at a loss to devise a ,!rmomet]1 if we did n f9d an indirect effect ( heat suffici5tly con/ant & measurable to answ] ?is purpose4 ,we discov]1 h[ev]1 su* an effect 9 ! expansion ( bodies by ! effect ( heat4 #ab4 ,_m obvi\s ph5om5a %[ t air1 "u giv5 circum/ances1 exp&s by ! effect ( heat2 ! same is se5 to be true ( liquids1 z ( wat]1 & _s ( w9e2 & ! prop]ty is f\nd to belong also to ! metallic fluid1 quicksilv]4 ,a m c>eful exam9ation %[$ t ! increase ( bulk 9 "s ( ^! bodies by increase ( ,heat 0 a fact ( a nature suffici5tly con/ant & regul> to af=d a means ( measur+ t previ\sly intangible quality2 & ! ,!rmomet] 0 inv5t$4 ,!re 71 h[ev]1 _m difficulties to ov]come1 & _m po9ts to settle1 be=e ?is in/rum5t 0 fit = ! purposes ( sci5ce4 ,an explanation ( ! way 9 :i* ?is 0 done necess>ily includes an important *apt] ( ! hi/ory ( ,!rmotics4 ,we mu/ n[1 !re=e1 briefly notice hi/orically ! progress ( ! ,!rmomet]4 ,! lead+ /eps ( ?is progress1 aft] ! fir/ inv5tion ( ! in/rum5t1 7--,! e/abli%m5t ( fix$ po9ts 9 ! !rmometric scale--,! comp>ison ( ! scales ( diff]5t sub/ances--,& ! reconcilem5t ( ^! diff]5ces by "s me?od ( int]pret+ !m z indications ( ! absolute quantity ( heat4 #ac4 ,x w\ld occupy too mu* space to give 9 detail ! hi/ory ( ! successive attempts by :i* #cdi ^! /eps 7 effect$4 ,a !rmomet] is describ$ by ,bacon "u ! title ,vitrum ,cal5d>e2 ?is 0 an air !rmomet]4 ,newton us$ a !rmomet] ( l9se$ oil1 & he p]ceiv$ t ! fir/ /ep requisite to give value to su* an in/rum5t 0 to fix its scale2 accord+ly he propos$ 8 ,scala ,graduum ,caloris#cad4 ,b :5 !rmomet]s ( diff]5t liquids 7 comp>$1 x appe>$1 f _! discrepancies1 t ?is fixation ( ! scale ( heat 0 m difficult ?an _h be5 suppos$4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 effect$4 ,newton _h tak5 freez+ wat]1 or r ?aw+ sn[1 z ! z]o ( 8 scale1 :i* is really a fix$ po9t2 ,halley & ,amontons discov]$ 79 #afic & #agjb7 t ! heat ( boil+ wat] is ano!r fix$ po9t2 & ,daniel ,gabriel ,fahr5heit1 ( ,dantzig1 by c>efully apply+ ^! two /&>d po9ts1 produc$1 ab\t #agad1 !rmomet]s1 :i* 7 con/antly consi/5t ) ea* o!r4 ,?is result 0 mu* admir$ at ! "t1 & 01 9 fact1 ! solution ( ! problem j /at$1 ! fixation ( ! scale ( heat4 ,note #cad3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #agja4 #ad4 ,b ! scale ?us obta9$ is a conv5tional n a natural scale4 ,x dep5ds ^u ! fluid employ$ = ! !rmomet]4 ,! progress ( expansion f ! heat ( freez+ to t ( boil+ wat] is diff]5t = m]cury1 oil1 wat]1 _s ( w9e1 air4 ,a degree ( heat :i* is half-way betwe5 ^! two /&>d po9ts accord+ to a m]curial !rmomet]1 w be bel[ ! half-way po9t 9 a _s !rmomet]1 & above x 9 an air !rmomet]4 ,ea* liquid has its own m>* 9 ! c\rse ( its expansion4 ,deluc & o!rs comp>$ ! m>*es ( v>i\s liquids1 & ?us made :at we may call a concordance ( !rmomet]s ( v>i\s k9ds4 #ae4 ,"h ! "q fur!r occurs3 ,is !re n "s natural measure ( ! degrees ( heat8 ,x appe>s c]ta9 t !re mu/ be su* a measure1 & t by means ( x all ! scales ( diff]5t liquids mu/ be reconcil$4 ,yet ?is does n seem to h occurr$ at once to m5's m9ds4 ,deluc1 9 speak+ #cej ( ! rese>*es :i* we h j m5tion$1 says#cbd1 ',:5 ,i und]took ^! exp]im5ts1 x nev] once came into my ?\ghts t !y c\ld conduct me ) any probability to a table ( real degrees ( heat4 ,b hope gr[s ) success1 & desire ) hope4' ,accord+ly he pursu$ ?is inquiry = a long c\rse ( ye>s4 ,note #cbd3 ,modif4 de l',atmosph4 #aghb1 p4 #cjc4 ,:at are ! pr9ciples by :i* we are to be guid$ to ! true measure ( heat8 ,"h1 z 9 all ! sci5ces ( ?is class1 we h ! g5]al pr9ciple1 t ! second>y quality1 ,heat1 mu/ be suppos$ to be p]ceiv$ 9 "s way by a mat]ial ,m$ium or ,fluid4 ,if we take t :i* is1 p]haps1 ! simple/ =m ( ?is hypo!sis1 t ! heat dep5ds ^u ! quantity ( ?is fluid1 or ,caloric1 :i* is pres5t1 we %all f9d t we are l$ to propositions :i* may s]ve z a f\ndation = a natural measure ( heat4 ,! ,me?od ( ,mixtures is "o example ( su* a result4 ,if we mix toge!r two p9ts ( wat]1 "o hot & "o cold1 is x n manife/ t ! temp]ature ( ! mixture mu/ be midway betwe5 ! two8 ,ea* ( ! two portions br+s ) x its own heat4 ,! :ole heat1 or caloric1 ( ! mixture is ! sum ( ! two2 & ! heat ( ea* half mu/ be ! half ( ?is sum1 & !re=e its temp]ature mu/ be int]m$iate betwe5 ! temp]atures ( ! equal portions :i* 7 mix$4 ,deluc made exp]im5ts f\nd$ ^u ?is pr9ciple1 & 0 l$ by !m to conclude t '! dilatations ( m]cury foll[ an accel]at$ m>* = successive equal augm5tations ( heat4' ,b !re are v>i\s circum/ances :i* prev5t ?is me?od ( mixtures f be+ s satisfactory z at fir/ sight x seems to promise to be4 ,! diff]5t capacities = heat ( diff]5t sub/ances1 & ev5 ( ! same sub/ance at diff]5t temp]atures1 introduce mu* difficulty into ! exp]im5ts2 & ?is pa? ( inquiry has n yet l$ to a satisfactory result4 #cea #af4 ,ano!r mode ( inquir+ into ! natural measure ( heat is to seek x by rese>*es on ! law ( cool+ ( hot bodies4 ,if we assume t ! process ( cool+ ( hot bodies consi/s 9 a c]ta9 mat]ial heat fly+ (f1 we may1 by means ( c]ta9 probable hypo!ses1 det]m9e ma!matically ! law accord+ to :i* ! temp]ature decreases z "t goes on2 & we may assume t to be ! true measure ( temp]ature :i* gives to ! exp]im5tal law ( cool+ ! mo/ simple & probable =m4 ,x appe>s evid5t f ! mo/ obvi\s conceptions :i* we c =m ( ! mann] 9 :i* a body p>ts ) its sup]abundant heat1 t ! hott] a body is1 ! fa/] x cools2 ?\gh x is n cle> )\t exp]im5t1 by :at law ! rate ( cool+ w dep5d ^u ! heat ( ! body4 ,newton took = grant$ ! mo/ simple & seem+ly natural law ( ?is dep5d5ce3 he suppos$ ! rate ( cool+ to be proportional to ! temp]ature1 & f ?is supposition he c\ld d$uce ! temp]ature ( a hot iron1 calculat+ f ! orig9al temp]ature & ! "t dur+ :i* x _h be5 cool+4 ,by calculation f\nd$ on su* a basis1 he graduat$ 8 !rmomet]4 #ag4 ,b a little fur!r consid]ation %[$ t ! rate ( cool+ ( a hot body dep5d$ ^u ! temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ bodies1 z well z ^u its own temp]ature4 ,prevo/'s ,!ory ( ,ex*anges#ccd 0 prop\nd$ ) a view ( expla9+ ?is dep5d5ce1 & 0 g5]ally accept$4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 all bodies radiate heat to "o ano!r1 & are ?us con/antly giv+ & receiv+ heat2 & a body :i* is hott] ?an surr\nd+ bodies1 cools itself1 & w>ms ! surr\nd+1 bodies1 by an ex*ange ( heat = heat1 9 :i* !y are ! ga9]s4 ,h5ce if be ! temp]ature ( ! bodies1 or ( ! space1 by :i* ! hot body is surr\nd$1 & t ! temp]ature ( ! hot body1 ! rate ( cool+ w dep5d #ceb ^u ! excess ( ! radiation = a temp]ature t1 above ! radiation = a temp]ature 4 ,note #ccd3 ,re*]*es sur la ,*aleur1 #agia4 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 x4 c4 i4 sect4 #b4 ,accord+ly1 9 ! admirable rese>*es ( ,,mm4 ,dulong & ,petit ^u ! cool+ ( bodies1 x 0 assum$ t ! rate ( cool+ ( ! hot body 0 repres5t$ by ! excess ( ,f7 t7 above ,f772 :]e ,f repres5t$ "s ma!matical function1 t is1 "s expression obta9$ by ari?metical op]ations f ! temp]atures t & 2 al?\gh :at ^! op]ations are to be1 0 left undecid$1 & 0 9 fact det]m9$ by ! exp]im5ts4 ,& ! result ( _! inve/igations 01 t ! function is ( ?is k9d3 :5 ! temp]ature increases by equal int]vals1 ! function increases 9 a cont9u$ geometric proportion#cdd4 ,?is 01 9 fact1 ! same law :i* _h be5 assum$ by ,newton & o!rs1 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t !y _h neglect$ ! t]m :i* dep5ds ^u ! temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ space4 ,note #cdd3 ,! =mula = ! rate ( cool+ is ma7 t7 - ma1 :]e ! quantity m dep5ds ^u ! nature ( ! body1 ! /ate ( its surface1 & o!r circum/ances4--,ann4 ,*im4 vii4 #aej4 #ah4 ,?is law falls 9 s well ) ! be/ conceptions we c =m ( ! me*anism ( cool+ ^u ! supposition ( a radiant fluid caloric1 t x gives great probability to ! scale ( temp]ature on :i* ! simplicity ( ! result dep5ds4 ,n[ ! temp]atures 9 ! =mul j ref]r$ to 7 express$ by means ( ! air !rmomet]4 ,h5ce ,,mm4 ,dulong & ,petit ju/ly /ate1 t :ile all diff]5t sub/ances employ$ z !rmomet]s give diff]5t laws ( !rmotical ph5om5a1 _! own success 9 obta9+ simple & g5]al laws by means ( ! air !rmomet]1 is a /rong recomm5dation ( t z ! natural scale ( heat4 ,!y add#ced1 ',! well-kn[n uni=mity ( ! pr9cipal physical prop]ties ( all gases1 & especially ! p]fect id5tity ( _! laws ( dilatation by heat1 a v important discov]y ( #cec ,dalton & ,gay ,lussac#cfd1 make x v probable t 9 ?is class ( bodies ! di/urb+ causes h n ! same influ5ce z 9 solids & liquids2 & consequ5tly t ! *anges ( bulk produc$ by ! action ( heat are "h 9 a m imm$iate dep5d5ce on ! =ce :i* produces !m4' ,note #ced3 ,annales de ,*imie1 vii4 #aec4 ,note #cfd3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 x4 c4 ii4 sect4 #a4 #ai4 ,/ill we _c consid] ?is po9t z settl$ till we obta9 a m complete !oretical insight into ! nature ( heat itself4 ,if x be true t heat consi/s 9 ! vibrations ( a fluid1 !n1 al?\gh1 z ,ampre has %[n#cgd1 ! laws ( radiation w1 on ma!matical gr\nds1 be ! same z !y are on ! hypo!sis ( emission1 we _c consid] ! natural scale ( heat z det]m9$1 till we h discov]$ "s means ( measur+ ! calorif]\s vibrations z we measure lum9if]\s vibrations4 ,we %all only "k :at ! quantity ( heat is :5 we "k :at heat itself is2--:5 we h obta9$ a !ory :i* satisfactorily expla9s ! mann] 9 :i* ! sub/ance or m$ium ( heat produces its effects4 ,:5 we see h[ radiation & conduction1 dilatation & liquefaction1 are all produc$ by me*anical *anges ( ! same fluid1 we %all !n see :at ! nature ( t *ange is :i* dilatation really measures1 & :at relation x be>s to any m prop] /&>d ( heat4 ,note #cgd3 ,ib4 c4 iv4 ,we may add1 t :ile our !rmotical !ory is /ill s imp]fect z x is1 all attempts to div9e ! true nature ( ! relation betwe5 light & heat are premature1 & mu/ be 9 ! highe/ degree insecure & vision>y4 ,speculations 9 :i*1 f ! g5]al assumption ( a calorif]\s & lum9if]\s m$ium1 & f a few facts arbitr>ily select$ & loosely analys$1 a g5]al !ory ( light & heat is ass]t$1 are entirely =eign to ! c\rse ( inductive sci5ce1 & _c lead to any /able & sub/antial tru?4 #bj4 ,o!r ,in/rum5ts = measur+ ,heat4--,x does n belong to our pres5t purpose to speak ( #ced in/rum5ts ( :i* ! object is to measure1 n s5sible qualities1 b "s effect or modification ( ! cause by :i* su* qualities are produc$3 su*1 = in/ance1 are ! ,calorimet]1 employ$ by ,lavoisi] & ,laplace1 9 ord] to comp>e ! ,specific ,heat ( diff]5t sub/ances2 & ! ,act9omet]1 inv5t$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 9 ord] to det]m9e ! effect ( ! ,sun's ,rays by means ( ! heat :i* !y communicate 9 a giv5 "t2 :i* effect is1 z may readily be suppos$1 v diff]5t "u diff]5t circum/ances ( atmosph]e & position4 ,! laws ( su* effects may be valuable contributions to our k ( heat1 b ! int]pretation ( !m mu/ dep5d on a previ\s k ( ! relations :i* temp]ature be>s to heat1 accord+ to ! views j expla9$4 ,,sect4 ,,vi4--,scales ( o!r ,qualities4 #ba4 ,,be=e quitt+ ! subject ( ! measures ( s5sible qualities1 we may obs]ve t !re are sev]al o!r su* qualities = :i* x w\ld be necess>y to h scales & means ( measur+1 9 ord] to make any approa* to sci5ce on su* subjects4 ,?is is true1 = in/ance1 ( ,ta/es & ,smells4 ,inde$ "s attempts h be5 made t[>ds a classification ( ! ,ta/es ( sapid sub/ances1 b ^! h n yet assum$ any satisfactory or sy/ematic "*2 & ,i am n aw>e t any in/rum5t has be5 sugge/$ = measur+ ei!r ! ,flav\r or ! ,od\r ( bodies :i* possess su* qualities4 #bb4 ,quality ( ,s\nds4--,! same is true ( t k9d ( diff]5ce 9 s\nds :i* is peculi>ly t]m$ _! ,quality2 t "* by :i*1 = in/ance1 ! s\nd ( a flute diff]s f t ( a hautbois1 :5 ! note is ! same2 or a woman's voice f a boy's4 #bc4 ,articulate ,s\nds4--,!re is also 9 s\nds ano!r diff]5ce1 ( :i* ! nature is /ill obscure1 b 9 r$uc+ :i* to rule1 & consequ5tly to measure1 "s progress has nev]!less be5 made4 #cee ,i speak ( ! diff]5ces ( s\nd consid]$ z articulate4 ,classifications ( ! s\nds ( ! usual alphabets h be5 frequ5tly propos$2 = in/ance1 t :i* arranges ! ,consonants 9 ! foll[+ gr\ps13 ,%>p4 ,flat4 ,%>p ,aspirate4 ,flat ,aspirate4 ,nasal4 p b ph 7f7 bh 7v7 m k g 7h>d7 kh gh ng t d ? 7%>p7 ? 7flat7 n s z % zh ,x is easily p]ceiv$ t ! relations ( ! s\nds 9 ea* ( ^! horizontal l9es are analog\s2 & accord+ly ! rules ( d]ivation & modification ( words 9 sev]al languages proce$ ^u su* analogies4 ,9 ! same mann] ! ,v[els may be arrang$ 9 an ord] dep5d+ on _! s\nd4 ,b to make su* arrangem5ts fix$ & indisputable1 we ought to "k ! me*anism by :i* su* modifications are caus$4 ,in/rum5ts h be5 inv5t$ by :i* "s ( ^! s\nds c be imitat$2 & if su* in/rum5ts c\ld be made to produce ! above s]ies ( articulate s\nds1 by connect$ & regul> processes1 we %\ld f9d1 9 ! process1 a measure ( ! s\nd produc$4 ,?is has be5 9 a great degree effect$ = ! ,v[els by ,pr(essor ,willis's artificial mode ( imitat+ !m4 ,= he f9ds t if a musical re$ be made to s\nd ?r\gh a cyl9drical pipe1 we obta9 by gradually l5g!n+ ! cyl9drical pipe1 ! s]ies ( v[els ,i1 ,e1 ,a1 ,o1 ,u1 ) int]m$iate s\nds#chd4 ,9 ?is in/rum5t1 !n1 ! l5g? ( ! pipe w\ld det]m9e ! v[el1 & might be us$ num]ically to express x4 ,su* an in/rum5t s employ$ w\ld be a measure ( v[el quality1 & might be call$ a ,ph?ongomet]4 ,note #chd3 ,camb4 ,trans4 vol4 iii4 p4 #bci4 ,our bus9ess at pres5t1 h[ev]1 is n ) in/rum5ts :i* might be devis$ = measur+ s5sible qualities1 b ) ^? :i* h be5 s us$1 & h ?us be5 ! basis ( ! sci5ces 9 :i* #cef su* qualities are treat$ (2 & ?is we h n[ done suffici5tly = our pres5t purpose4 #bd4 ,!re is ano!r ,idea :i*1 ?\gh hi!rto v vaguely ent]ta9$1 has _h consid]able influ5ce 9 ! =mation1 bo? ( ! sci5ces spok5 ( 9 ! pres5t ,book1 & on o!rs :i* w h]eaft] come "u our notice3 namely1 ! ,idea ( ,pol>ity4 ,?is ,idea w be ! subject ( ! ensu+ ,book4 ,& al?\gh ?is ,idea =ms a "p ( ! basis ( v>i\s o!r ext5sive portions ( sci5ce1 z ,optics & ,*emi/ry1 x occupies s peculi>ly conspicu\s a place 9 speculations belong+ to :at ,i h t]m$ ! ,me*anico-,*emical ,sci5ces1 7,magnetism & ,electricity17 t ,i %all designate ! discussion ( ! ,idea ( ,pol>ity z ! ,philosophy ( ^? ,sci5ces4 #ceg ,,book ,v4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,me*anico-,,*emical ,,sci5ces4 ,en donnant ces cts le nom de poles1 j'appel]ai pol>isation la modification qui donne la lumire des proprits relatives ces poles4 ,j'ai t>d jusqu' prs5t admettre ce t]me dans la description des phnomnes physiques dont il e/ "q2 je n'ai pas os l'introduire dans les mmoires o j'ai publi mes d]nires expri5ces2 mais les v>its qu'(fre ce n\veau phnomne1 et la difficult de les dcrire1 me =c5t admettre cette n\velle expression1 qui signifie simplem5t la modification que la lumire a subie en acqurant de n\velles proprits qui ne sont pas relatives la direction du rayon1 mais seulem5t ses cts considrs angles droits et dans un plan p]p5diculaire sa direction4 ,malus 7#ahaa71 ,mm4 de ,in/4 tom4 xi4 p4 #ajf4 #cei ,,book ,v4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,me*anico-,,*emical ,,sci5ces4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,attempts ,,at ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,pol>ity4 #a4 ,,9 "s ( ! me*anical sci5ces1 z ,magnetism & ,optics1 ! ph5om5a are f\nd to dep5d ^u position 7! position ( ! magnet1 or ( ! ray ( light17 9 a peculi> alt]nate mann]4 ,?is dep5d5ce1 z x 0 fir/ appreh5d$1 0 repres5t$ by means ( c]ta9 conceptions ( space & =ce1 z = in/ance by consid]+ ! two ,poles ( a magnet4 ,b 9 all su* modes ( repres5t+ ^! alt]nations by ! conceptions borr[$ f o!r ideas1 a clos] exam9ation detect$ some?+ sup]flu\s & some?+ defective2 & 9 proportion z ! view :i* philosoph]s took ( ?is relation 0 gradually purifi$ f ^! incongru\s elem5ts1 & 0 r5d]$ m g5]al & ab/ract by ! discov]y ( analog\s prop]ties 9 new cases1 x 0 p]ceiv$ t ! relation c\ld n be adequately appreh5d$ )\t consid]+ x z involv+ a peculi> & indep5d5t ,idea1 :i* we may designate by ! t]m ,pol>ity4 ,we %all trace "s ( ! =ms 9 :i* ?is ,idea has manife/$ itself 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,9 do+ s we %all n beg91 z 9 o!r ,books ( ?is "w we h done1 by speak+ ( ! notion z x is #cfj employ$ 9 common use3 = ! relation ( ,pol>ity is ( s ab/ract & te*nical a nature1 t x is n employ$1 at lea/ 9 any di/9ct & obvi\s mann]1 on any ord9>y or practical occasions4 ,! idea belongs peculi>ly to ! region ( speculation3 9 p]sons ( common habits ( ?\ght x is probably almo/ or q undevelop$2 & ev5 mo/ ( ^? ^: m9ds h be5 long occupi$ by sci5ce1 f9d a difficulty 9 appreh5d+ x 9 its full g5]ality & ab/raction1 & /ript ( all irrelevant hypo!sis4 #b4 ,magnetism4--,! "n & ! notion ( ,poles 7 fir/ adopt$ 9 ! case ( a magnet4 ,if we h two magnets1 _! extremities attract & repel ea* o!r alt]natively4 ,if ! fir/ end ( ! "o attract ! fir/ end ( ! o!r1 x repels ! second end1 & conv]sely4 ,9 ord] to express ?is rule conv5i5tly1 ! two ends ( ea* magnet are call$ ! nor? pole & ! s\? pole respectively1 ! d5om9ations be+ borr[$ f ! poles ( ! e>? & heav5s4 ',^! poles1' z ,gilb]t says#ae1 'regulate ! motions ( ! cele/ial sph]es & ( ! e>?4 ,9 l mann] ! magnet has its poles1 a nor!rn & a s\!rn "o2 c]ta9 & det]m9$ po9ts con/itut$ by nature 9 ! /one1 ! prim>y t]ms ( its motions & effects1 ! limits & gov]nors ( _m actions & virtues4' ,note #ae3 ,de ,magn4 lib4 i4 c4 iii4 ,! nature ( ! opposition ( prop]ties ( :i* we speak may be /at$ ?us3 ,! ,nor? pole ( "o magnet attracts ! ,s\? pole ( ano!r magnet4 ,! ,nor? pole ( "o magnet repels ! ,nor? pole ( ano!r magnet4 ,! ,s\? pole ( "o magnet repels ! ,s\? pole ( ano!r magnet4 ,! ,s\? pole ( "o magnet attracts ! ,nor? pole ( ano!r magnet4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! contr>iety ( position :i* is indicat$ by putt+ ! ,s\? pole = ! ,nor? pole 9 ei!r magnet1 is accompani$ by ! #cfa opposition ( me*anical effect :i* is express$ by *ang+ attraction into repulsion & repulsion into attraction3 & ?us we h ! g5]al feature ( ,pol>ity1--,a contra/ ( prop]ties correspond+ to a contra/ ( positions4 #c4 ,electricity4--,:5 ! ph5om5a ( ,electricity came to be /udi$1 x appe>$ t !y involv$ relations 9 "s respects ,analog\s to ^? ( magnetism4 ,two k9ds ( electricity 7 di/+ui%$1 ! positive & ! negative2 & x appe>$ t two bodies electriz$ positively1 or two electriz$ negatively1 repell$ ea* o!r1 l two nor? or two s\? magnetic poles2 :ile a positively & a negatively electriz$ body attract$ ea* o!r1 l ! nor? & s\? poles ( two magnets4 ,9 conductors ( an oblong =m1 ! electricity c\ld easily be made to di/ribute itself s t "o end %\ld be positively & "o end negatively electriz$2 & !n su* conductors act$ on ea* o!r exactly z magnets w\ld d4 ,b 9 conductors1 h[ev] electriz$1 !re is no peculi> po9t :i* c p]man5tly be consid]$ z ! pole4 ,! di/ribution ( electricity 9 ! conductor dep5ds ^u ext]nal circum/ances3 & ?us1 al?\gh ! ph5om5a (f] ! g5]al "* ( pol>ity--alt]native results correspond+ to alt]native positions1--!y _c be ref]r$ to poles4 ,"s o!r mode ( repres5t+ ! =ces mu/ be adopt$ ?an t :i* makes !m emanate f p]man5t po9ts z 9 a magnet4 ,! ph5om5a ( attraction & repulsion 9 electriz$ bodies 7 conv5i5tly repres5t$ by means ( ! hypo!sis ( two electric fluids1 a positive & a negative "o1 :i* 7 suppos$ to be di/ribut$ 9 ! bodies4 ,( ^! fluids1 x 0 suppos$ t ea* repell$ its own p>ts & attract$ ^? ( ! opposite fluid3 & x 0 f\nd t ?is hypo!sis expla9$ all ! obvi\s laws ( electric action4 ,"h !n we h ! ph5om5a ( pol>ization expla9$ by a new k9d ( ma*9]y3--two opposite fluids #cfb di/ribut$ 9 bodies1 & supply+ !m1 s to speak1 ) _! pol> =ces4 ,?is hypo!sis n only expla9s electrical attraction1 b also ! electrical sp>k3 namely1 ?us3 :5 two bodies1 ( :i* ! neighb\r+ surfaces are *>g$ ) ! two opposite fluids1 approa* ne> to ea* o!r1 ! mutual attraction ( ! fluids becomes m & m int5se1 till at la/ ! excess ( fluid on ! "o body breaks ?r\gh ! air & ru%es to ! o!r body1 9 a =m accompani$ by light & noise4 ,:5 ?is transf] has tak5 place1 ! attraction ceases1 ! positive & ! negative fluid hav+ neutraliz$ ea* o!r4 ,_! ef=t 0 to unite2 & ?is union be+ effect$1 !re is no long] any =ce 9 action4 ,bodies 9 _! natural unexcit$ condition may be consid]$ z occupi$ by a comb9ation ( ! two fluids3 & h5ce we see h[ ! production ( ei!r k9d ( electricity is necess>ily accompani$ ) ! production ( an equival5t am\nt ( ! opposite k9d4 #d4 ,voltaic ,electricity4--,su* is ! case 9 ,frankl9ic electricity1--t :i* is excit$ by ! common electrical ma*9e4 ,9 /udy+ ,voltaic electricity1 we are l$ to ! conviction t ! fluid :i* is 9 a condition ( mom5t>y equilibrium 9 electriz$ conductors1 exi/s 9 ! /ate ( a ,curr5t 9 ! voltaic circuit4 ,& "h we f9d pol> relations ( a new k9d exi/+ among ! =ces4 ,two voltaic ,curr5ts attract ea* o!r :5 !y are mov+ 9 ! same1 & repel ea* o!r :5 !y are mov+ 9 opposite1 directions4 ,b we f9d1 9 addition to ^!1 o!r pol> relations ( a m ab/ruse k9d1 & :i* ! supposition ( two fluids does n s readily expla94 ,= in/ance1 if su* fluids exi/$1 di/9ct f ea* o!r1 x might be expect$ t x w\ld be possible to exhibit "o ( !m sep>ate f ! o!r4 ,yet 9 all ! ph5om5a ( electromotive curr5ts1 we attempt 9 va9 to obta9 "o k9d ( electricity sep>ately4 ',i h n1' says ,mr4 ,f>aday#be1 'be5 able to f9d a #cfc s+le fact :i* c\ld be adduc$ to prove ! !ory ( two electricities r ?an "o1 9 electric curr5ts2 or1 admitt+ ! hypo!sis ( two electricities1 h ,i be5 able to p]ceive ! slighte/ gr\nds t "o electricity c be m p[]ful ?an ! o!r1 or t x c be pres5t )\t ! o!r1 or t x c be v>i$ or 9 ! slighte/ degree affect$ )\t a correspond+ v>iation 9 ! o!r4' ',?us1' he adds1 '! pol> "* ( ! p[]s is rigor\s & complete4' ,?us1 we too may rem>k1 all ! sup]flu\s & prec>i\s p>ts gradually drop (f f ! hypo!sis :i* we devise 9 ord] to repres5t pol> ph5om5a2 & ! ab/ract notion ( ,pol>ity--( equal & opposite p[]s call$ into exi/5ce by a common condition--rema9s un9cumb]$ ) extrane\s ma*9]y4 ,note #be3 ,rese>*es1 #eaf4 #e4 ,light4--,ano!r v important example ( ! application ( ! ,idea ( ,pol>ity is t suppli$ by ! discov]y ( ! pol>ization ( light4 ,a ray ( light may1 by v>i\s processes1 be modifi$1 s t x has diff]5t prop]ties accord+ to its diff]5t sides1 al?\gh ?is diff]5ce is n p]ceptible by any common effects4 ,if1 = in/ance1 a ray ?us modifi$1 pass p]p5dicul>ly ?r\gh a circul> glass1 & fall ^u ! eye1 we may turn ! glass r\nd & r\nd 9 its frame1 & we %all make no diff]5ce 9 ! brightness ( ! spot :i* we see4 ,b if1 in/ead ( a glass1 we look ?r\gh a longitud9al slice ( t\rmal9e1 ! spot is alt]nately d>k & bright z we turn ! cry/al ?r\gh successive quadrants4 ,"h we h a contra/ ( ,prop]ties 7d>k & bright7 correspond+ to a contra/ ( positions1 7! position ( a l9e ea/ & we/ be+ contra/$ ) ! position nor? & s\?17 :i*1 z we h said1 is ! g5]al "* ( ,pol>ity4 ,x 0 ) a view ( express+ ?is "* t ! t]m ,pol>ization 0 orig9ally introduc$4 ,malus 0 =c$ by 8 discov]ies into ! use ( ?is expression4 ',we f9d1' he says1 9 #ahaa1 't light acquires prop]ties :i* are relative only to ! sides ( ! ray1--:i* are ! same = ! nor? & s\? sides ( ! ray1 7us+ #cfd ! po9ts ( ! compass = description's sake only17 & :i* are diff]5t :5 we g f ! nor? & s\? to ! ea/ or to ! we/ sides ( ! ray4 ,i %all give ! "n ( poles to ^! sides ( ! ray1 & %all call pol>ization ! modification :i* gives to light ^! prop]ties relative to ^! poles4 ,i h put (f hi!rto ! admission ( ?is t]m into ! description ( ! physical ph5om5a ) :i* we h to d3 ,i did n d>e to introduce x into ! ,memoirs 9 :i* ,i publi%$ my la/ obs]vations3 b ! v>iety ( =ms 9 :i* ?is new ph5om5on appe>s1 & ! difficulty ( describ+ !m1 compel me to admit ?is new expression2 :i* signifies simply ! modification :i* light has und]gone 9 acquir+ new prop]ties :i* are n relative to ! direction ( ! ray1 b only to its sides consid]$ at "r angles to ea* o!r1 & 9 a plane p]p5dicul> to its direction4' ,! !ory :i* repres5ts light z an emission ( p>ticles 0 9 vogue at ! "t :5 ,malus publi%$ 8 discov]ies2 & "s ( 8 foll[]s 9 optical rese>* conceiv$ t ! ph5om5a :i* he ?us describ$ r5d]$ x necess>y to ascribe poles & an axis to ea* p>ticle ( light4 ,on ?is hypo!sis1 light w\ld be pol>iz$ :5 ! axes ( all ! p>ticles 7 9 ! same direction3 &1 mak+ su* a supposition1 x may easily be conceiv$ capable ( transmission ?r\gh a cry/al ^: axis is p>allel to t ( ! lum9\s p>ticles1 & intransmissible :5 ! axis ( ! cry/al is 9 a position transv]se to t ( ! p>ticles4 ,! hypo!sis ( p>ticles possess+ poles is a rude & arbitr>y assumption1 9 ?is z 9 o!r cases2 b x s]ves to convey ! g5]al notion ( pol>ity1 :i* is ! ess5tial feature ( ! ph5om5a4 ,! t]m 'pol>ization ( light has sometimes be5 compla9$ ( 9 mod]n times z hypo!tical & obscure4 ,b ! real cause ( obscurity 01 t ! ,idea ( ,pol>ity 01 till lately1 v imp]fectly develop$ 9 m5's m9ds4 ,z we h se51 ! g5]al notion ( ,pol>ity1--opposite prop]ties 9 opposite #cfe directions1--exactly describes ! "* ( ! optical ph5om5a to :i* ! t]m is appli$4 ,x is to be recollect$ t 9 optics we nev] speak ( ! poles1 b ( ! plane ( pol>ization ( a ray4 ,! ^w sides1 :i* ,newton & ,malus h us$1 nei!r ( !m appe>s to h be5 satisfi$ )2 ,newton1 9 employ+ x1 _h rec\rse to ! /range ,gallicism ( speak+ ( ! coa/ ( usual & ( unusual refraction ( a cry/al4 ,! mod]n !ory ( optics repres5ts ! plane ( pol>ization ( light z dep5d+1 n on ! position 9 :i* ! axes ( ! lum9if]\s p>ticles lie1 b on ! direction ( ^? transv]se vibrations 9 :i* light consi/s4 ,?is !ory is1 z we h /at$ 9 ! ,hi/ory1 recomm5d$ by an extraord9>y s]ies ( successes 9 acc\nt+ = ! ph5om5a4 ,& ?is hypo!sis ( transv]se vibrations %[s u ano!r me*anical mode1 7besides ! hypo!sis ( p>ticles ) axes17 by :i* we may repres5t ! pol>ity ( a ray4 ,b we may rem>k t ! g5]al notion ( ,pol>ity1 z appli$ to light 9 su* cases1 w\ld subsi/1 ev5 if ! undulatory !ory 7 reject$4 ,! idea is1 z we h be=e said1 indep5d5t ( all hypo!tical ma*9]y4 ,i ne$ n "h ref] to ! v>i\s ways 9 :i* light may be pol>iz$2 z1 = in/ance1 by be+ reflect$ f ! surface ( wat]1 or ( glass1 at c]ta9 angles1 by be+ transmitt$1 ?r\gh cry/als1 & 9 o!r ways4 ,9 all cases ! modification produc$1 ! pol>ization1 is id5tically ! same prop]ty4 ,nor ne$ ,i m5tion ! v>i\s k9ds ( ph5om5a :i* appe> z contra/s 9 ! result2 = ^! are n m]ely light & d>k1 or :ite & black1 b r$ & gre51 & g5]ally1 a col\r & its complem5t>y col\r1 exhibit$ 9 _m complex & v>i$ configurations4 ,^! multipli$ modes 9 :i* pol>iz$ light pres5ts itself add no?+ to ! orig9al conception ( ,pol>ization3 & ,i %all !re=e pass on to ano!r subject4 #f4 ,cry/allization4--,bodies :i* are p]fectly cry/alliz$ exhibit ! mo/ complete regul>ity & #cff symmetry ( =m2 & ?is regul>ity n only appe>s 9 _! outw>d %ape1 b p]vades _! :ole texture1 & manife/s itself 9 _! cleavage1 _! transp>5cy1 & 9 ! uni=m & det]m9ate optical prop]ties :i* exi/ 9 e "p1 ev5 9 ! smalle/ fragm5t ( ! mass4 ,if we conceive cry/als z compos$ ( p>ticles1 we mu/ suppose ^! p>ticles to be arrang$ 9 ! mo/ regul> mann]2 = example1 if we suppose ea* p>ticle to h an axis1 we mu/ suppose all ^! axes to be p>allel2 = ! direction ( ! axis ( ! p>ticles is indicat$ by ! physical & optical prop]ties ( ! cry/al1 & !re=e ?is direction mu/ be ! same = e portion ( ! cry/al4 ,?is p>allelism ( ! axes ( ! p>ticles may be conceiv$ to result f ! circum/ance ( ea* p>ticle hav+ poles1 ! opposite poles attract+ ea* o!r4 ,9 virtue ( =ces act+ z ?is hypo!sis assumes1 a collection ( small magnetic p>ticles w\ld arrange !mselves 9 p>allel positions2 & su* a collection ( magnetic p>ticles (f]s a sort ( image ( a cry/al4 ,?us we are l$ to conceive ! p>ticles ( cry/als z pol>iz$1 & z det]m9$ 9 _! cry/all9e positions by pol> =ces4 ,?is mode ( appreh5d+ ! con/itution ( cry/als has be5 adopt$ by "s ( our mo/ em95t philosoph]s4 ,?us ,b]zelius says#ce1 ',x is demon/rat$1 t ! regul> =ms ( bodies presuppose an ef=t ( _! atoms to t\* ea* o!r by pref]5ce 9 c]ta9 po9ts2 t is1 !y are f\nd$ ^u a ,pol>ity2'--he adds1 'a pol>ity :i* c be no o!r ?an an electric or magnetic pol>ity4' ,9 ?is latt] clause we h ! id5tity ( diff]5t k9ds ( pol>ity ass]t$2 a pr9ciple :i* we %all speak ( 9 ! next *apt]4 ,b we may rem>k1 t ev5 )\t dwell+ ^u ?is connexion1 any notion :i* we c =m ( ! /ructure ( ,cry/als necess>ily involves ! idea ( ,pol>ity4 ,:e!r ?is pol>ity necess>ily requires u to believe cry/als to be compos$ ( ,atoms :i* ex]t an ef=t to t\* #cfg ea* o!r 9 c]ta9 po9ts by pref]5ce1 is ano!r "q4 ,&1 9 agreem5t ) :at has be5 said respect+ o!r k9ds ( pol>ity1 we %all probably f9d1 on a m pr(\nd exam9ation ( ! subject1 t :ile ! ,idea ( ,pol>ity is ess5tial1 ! ma*9]y by :i* x is ?us express$ is prec>i\s & sup]flu\s4 ,note #ce3 ,essay on ! ,!ory ( ,*emical ,prop]ties1 #ahbj1 p4 #aac4 #g4 ,*emical ,aff9ity4--,we %all h1 9 ! next ,book1 to speak ( ,*emical ,aff9ity at "s l5g?2 b s9ce ! ultimate views to :i* philosoph]s h be5 l$1 induce !m to consid] ! =ces ( ,aff9ity z ,pol> ,=ces1 we mu/ enum]ate ^! among ! examples ( ,pol>ity4 ,9 *emical processes1 opposites t5d to unite1 & to neutralize ea* o!r by _! union4 ,?us an acid or an alkali comb9e ) vehem5ce1 & =m a comp\nd1 a neutral salt1 :i* is nei!r acid nor alkal9e4 ,?is conception ( contr>iety & mutual neutralization1 involves ! ,idea ( ,pol>ity4 ,9 ! conception z ent]ta9$ by ! e>li] *emi/s1 ! ,idea ent]s v obscurely3 b 9 ! attempts :i* h m rec5tly be5 made to connect ?is relation 7( acid & base71 ) o!r relations1 ! *emical elem5ts h be5 conceiv$ z compos$ ( p>ticles :i* possess poles2 l poles repell+1 & unlike attract+ ea* o!r1 z !y d 9 magnetic & electric ph5om5a4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 a rude & arbitr>y way ( express+ ,pol>ity1 &1 z may be easily %[n1 involves _m difficulties :i* d n belong to ! ,idea itself4 ,mr4 ,f>aday1 :o has be5 l$ by 8 rese>*es to a conviction ( ! pol> nature ( ! =ces ( *emical aff9ity1 has express$ _! "* 9 a m g5]al mann]1 & )\t any ( ! ma*9]y ( p>ticles indu$ ) poles4 ,accord+ to 8 view1 *emical syn!sis & analysis mu/ always be conceiv$ z tak+ place 9 virtue ( equal & opposite =ces1 by :i* ! p>ticles are unit$ or sep>at$4 ,^! =ces1 by ! v circum/ance ( _! be+ pol>1 may be transf]r$ f po9t to po9t4 ,= if we conceive a /r+ ( p>ticles1 & if ! positive =ce ( ! fir/ p>ticle #cfh be lib]at$ & br\ght into action1 its negative =ce also mu/ be set free3 ?is negative =ce neutralizes ! positive =ce ( ! next p>ticle1 & !re=e ! negative =ce ( ?is p>ticle 7be=e employ$ 9 neutraliz+ its positive =ce7 is set free3 ?is is 9 ! same way transf]r$ to ! next p>ticle1 & s on4 ,& ?us we h a positive =ce active at "o extremity ( a l9e ( p>ticles1 correspond+ to a negative =ce at ! o!r extremity1 all ! int]m$iate p>ticles reciprocally neutraliz+ ea* o!r's action4 ,?is conception ( ! transf] ( *emical action 0 inde$ at an e>li] p]iod introduc$ by ,grot?us#de1 & confirm$ by ,davy4 ,b 9 ,mr4 ,f>aday's h&s we see x dive/$ ( all t is sup]flu\s1 & spok5 (1 n z a l9e ( p>ticles1 b z 'an axis ( p[]1 hav+ at e po9t contr>y =ces1 exactly equal1 9 opposite directions4' ,note #de3 ,,dumas1 ,leons sur la ,philosophie ,*imique1 p4 #dja4 #h4 ,g5]al ,rem>ks4--,?us1 z we see1 ! notion ( ,pol>ity is applicable to _m l>ge classes ( ph5om5a4 ,yet ! ,idea 9 a di/9ct & g5]al =m is only ( late gr[? among philosoph]s4 ,x has gradually be5 ab/ract$ & ref9$ f _m extrane\s hypo!ses :i* 7 at fir/ suppos$ to be ess5tial to x4 ,we h notic$ "s ( ^! hypo!ses2--z ! poles ( a body2 ! poles ( ! p>ticles ( a fluid2 two opposite fluids2 a s+le fluid 9 excess & defect2 transv]se vibrations4 ,to ^! o!rs might be add$4 ,?us ,dr4 ,pr\t#ee assumes t ! pol>ity ( molecules results f _! rotation on _! axes1 ! opposite motions ( contigu\s molecules be+ ! cause ( opposite 7positive & negative7 pol>ities4 ,note #ee3 ,bridgewat] ,treatise1 p4 #eei4 ,b none ( ^! hypo!ses c be prov$ by ! fact ( ,pol>ity alone2 & !y h be5 9 succession reject$ :5 !y _h be5 assum$ on t gr\nd4 ,?us ,davy1 9 #ahbf1 speak+ ( *emical =ces says#fe1 ',9 assum+ ! idea ( two e!real1 subtile1 ela/ic #cfi fluids1 attractive ( ! p>ticles ( ea* o!r1 & repulsive z to _! own p>ticles1 capable ( comb9+ 9 diff]5t proportions ) bodies1 & accord+ to _! proportions giv+ !m _! specific qualities & r5d]+ !m equival5t masses1 x w\ld be natural to ref] ! action ( ! poles to ! repulsions ( ! sub/ances comb9$ ) ! excess ( "o fluid1 & ! attractions ( ^? unit$ to ! excess ( ! o!r fluid2 & a hi/ory ( ! ph5om5a1 n unsatisfactory to ! reason1 might 9 ?is way be made out4 ,b z x is possible likewise to take an entirely diff]5t view ( ! subject1 on ! idea ( ! dep5d5ce ( ! results ^u ! prim>y attractive p[]s ( ! p>ts ( ! comb9ation on a s+le subtile fluid1 ,i %all n ent] into any discussion on ?is obscure "p ( ! !ory4' ,:i* ( ^! !ories w be/ repres5t ! case1 w dep5d ^u ! consid]ation ( o!r facts1 9 comb9ation ) ! pol> ph5om5a1 z we see 9 ! hi/ory ( optical !ory4 ,9 l mann] ,mr4 ,f>aday prov$ by exp]im5t#ge ! err\r ( all !ories :i* ascribe electro-*emical decomposition to ! attraction ( ! poles ( ! voltaic batt]y4 ,note #fe3 ,phil4 ,tr4 #ahbf1 p4 #dae4 ,note #ge3 ,rese>*es1 p4 #die1 c4 ,9 ord] t !y may di/9ctly image to !mselves ! ,idea ( ,pol>ity1 m5 clo! x 9 "s ( ! =ms ( ma*9]y above spok5 (2 yet e new attempt %[s !m ! unnecess>y difficulties 9 :i* !y ?us involve !mselves4 ,b on ! o!r h& x is difficult to appreh5d ?is ,idea dive/$ ( all ma*9]y2 & to ent]ta9 x 9 su* a =m t x %all apply at ! same "t to magnetism & electricity1 galvanism & *emi/ry1 cry/all9e /ructure & light4 ,! ,idea ( ,pol>ity becomes mo/ pure & g5u9e1 :5 we entirely reject ! conception ( ,poles1 z ,f>aday has taught u to d 9 consid]+ electro-*emical decomposition2 b x is only by degrees & by ef=t t we c rea* ?is po9t ( ab/raction & g5]ality4 #cgj #i4 ,!re is "o o!r rem>k :i* we may "h make4 ,x 0 a maxim commonly receiv$ 9 ! anci5t s*ools ( philosophy1 t ',l attracts ,l3' b z we h se51 ! univ]sal maxim ( ,pol> ,ph5om5a is1 t ,l repels ,l1 & attracts ,unlike4 ,! nor? pole attracts ! s\? pole1 ! positive fluid attracts ! negative fluid2 opposite elem5ts ru% toge!r2 opposite motions r$uce ea* o!r to re/4 ,! p]man5t & /able c\rse ( ?+s is t :i* results f ! balance & neutralization ( contr>y t5d5cies4 ,nature is con/antly lab\r+ aft] repose by ! effect ( su* t5d5cies2 & s f> z ,pol> ,=ces ent] into h] economy1 %e seeks h>mony by means ( discord1 & unity by opposition4 ,al?\gh ! ,idea ( ,pol>ity is z yet some:at vague & obscure1 ev5 9 ! m9ds ( ! cultivators ( physical sci5ce1 x has nev]!less giv5 bir? to "s g5]al pr9ciples :i* h be5 accept$ z evid5t1 & h _h great influ5ce on ! progress ( sci5ce4 ,^! we %all n[ consid]4 #cga ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,! ,,connexion ,,( ,,pol>ities4 #a4 ,,x has appe>$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt] t 9 cases 9 :i* ! ph5om5a sugge/ to u ! idea ( ,pol>ity1 we are also l$ to assume "s mat]ial ma*9]y z ! mode 9 :i* ! pol> =ces are ex]t$4 ,we assume1 = in/ance1 globul> p>ticles :i* possess poles1 or ! vibrations ( a fluid1 or two fluids attract+ ea* o!r2 9 e case1 9 %ort1 "s hypo!sis by :i* ! exi/5ce & op]ation ( ! ,pol>ity is embodi$ 9 geometrical & me*anical prop]ties ( a m$ium2 nor is x possible = u to avoid proce$+ ^u ! conviction t "s su* hypo!sis mu/ be true2 al?\gh ! nature ( ! connexion betwe5 ! me*anism & ! ph5om5a mu/ /ill be indef9ite & arbitr>y4 ,b s9ce ea* class ( ,pol> ,ph5om5a is ?us ref]r$ to an ult]ior cause1 ( :i* we "k no m ?an t x has a pol> "*1 x foll[s t diff]5t ,pol>ities may result f ! same cause manife/+ its pol> "* "u diff]5t aspects4 ,tak+1 = example1 ! hypo!sis ( globul> p>ticles1 if electricity result f an action dep5d5t ^u ! poles ( ea* globule1 magnetism may dep5d ^u an action 9 ! equator ( ea* globule2 or tak+ ! supposition ( transv]se vibrations1 if pol>iz$ light result directly f su* vibrations1 cry/allization may h ref]5ce to ! axes ( ! ela/icity ( ! m$ium by :i* ! vibrations are r5d]$ transv]se1--s f> z ! pol> "* only ( ! ph5om5a is to be acc\nt$ =4 ,i say ?is may be s1 9 s f> only z ! pol> "* ( ! ph5om5a is conc]n$2 = :e!r ! relation ( #cgb electricity to magnetism1 or ( cry/all9e =ces to light1 c really be expla9$ by su* hypo!ses1 rema9s to be det]m9$ by ! facts !mselves4 ,b s9ce ! fir/ necess>y feature ( ! hypo!sis is1 t x %all give pol>ity1 & s9ce an hypo!sis :i* does ?is1 may1 by its ma!matical relations1 give pol>ities ( diff]5t k9ds & 9 diff]5t directions1 any two co-exi/5t k9ds ( pol>ity may result f ! same cause1 manife/+ itself 9 v>i\s mann]s4 ,! conclusion to :i* we are l$ by ^! g5]al consid]ations is1 t two co-exi/+ classes ( pol> ph5om5a may be effects ( ! same cause4 ,b ^? :o h /udi$ su* ph5om5a m deeply & att5tively h1 9 mo/ or 9 all cases1 arriv$ at ! conviction t ! v>i\s k9ds ( ,pol>ity 9 su* cases mu/ be connect$ & fundam5tally id5tical4 ,z ?is conviction has ex]cis$ a great influ5ce1 bo? ^u ! discov]ies ( new facts & ^u ! !oretical speculations ( mod]n philosoph]s1 & has be5 put =w>d by "s writ]s z a univ]sal pr9ciple ( sci5ce1 ,i w consid] "s ( ! cases 9 :i* x has be5 ?us appli$4 #b4 ,connexion ( ,magnetic & ,electric ,pol>ity4--,! pol> ph5om5a ( electricity & magnetism are cle>ly analog\s 9 _! laws3 & obvi\s facts %[$ at an e>ly p]iod t !re 0 "s connexion betwe5 ! two ag5cies4 ,attempts 7 made to e/abli% an evid5t & def9ite relation betwe5 ! two k9ds ( =ce1 :i* attempts proce$$ ^u ! pr9ciple n[ "u consid]ation2--namely1 t 9 su* cases1 ! two k9ds ( ,pol>ity mu/ be connect$4 ,pr(essor r/$1 ( ,cop5hag51 0 "o ( ^? :o made _m trials f\nd$ ^u ?is conviction3 yet all ^! 7 long unsuccessful4 ,at l5g?1 9 #ahbj1 he discov]$ t a galvanic curr5t1 pass+ at "r angles ne> to a magnetic ne$le1 ex]cises ^u x a p[]ful deflect+ =ce4 ,! connexion once detect$ betwe5 magnetism & galvanism 0 soon recogniz$ z con/ant & univ]sal4 ,x 0 repres5t$ 9 diff]5t hypo!tical modes by diff]5t p]sons2 "s consid]+ ! galvanic #cgc curr5t z ! primitive axis1 & ! magnet z con/itut$ ( galvanic curr5ts pass+ r\nd x at "r angles to ! magnetic axis2 :ile o!rs conceiv$ ! magnetic axis z ! primitive "o1 & ! electric curr5t z imply+ a magnetic curr5t r\nd ! wire4 ,s f> z _m ( ! g5]al relations ( ^! two k9ds ( =ce 7 conc]n$1 ei!r mode ( repres5tation s]v$ to express !m2 & ?us ! assumption t ! two ,pol>ities1 ! magnetic & ! electric1 7 fundam5tally id5tical1 0 v]ifi$1 s f> z ! ph5om5a ( magnetic attraction1 & ! l1 7 conc]n$4 ,i ne$ n "h m5tion h[ ?is 0 fur!r confirm$ by ! exp]im5ts 9 :i*1 by means ( ! =ces ?us br\ght into view1 a galvanic wire 0 made to revolve r\nd a magnet1 & a magnet r\nd a galvanic wire2--9 :i* artificial magnets 7 con/ruct$ ( coils ( galvanic wire2--& f9ally1 9 :i* ! galvanic sp>k 0 obta9$ f ! magnet4 ,! id5tity :i* sagaci\s speculators _h div9$ ev5 be=e x 0 discov]$1 & :i* !y _h se5 to be univ]sal z soon z x 0 br\ght to light1 0 completely manife/$ 9 e imag9able =m4 ,! relation ( ! electric & magnetic ,pol>ities 0 f\nd to be1 t !y 7 transv]se to ea* o!r1 & ?is relation exhibit$ "u v>i\s conditions ( =m & position ( ! app>atus1 gave rise to v curi\s & unexpect$ p]plexities4 ,! degree ( complication :i* ?is relation may occasion1 may be judg$ ( f ! numb] ( con/ructions & modes ( conception (f]$ by r/$1 ,wolla/on1 ,f>aday1 & o!rs1 = ! purpose ( fram+ a te*nical memory ( ! results4 ,! magnetic pol>ity gives u ! nor? & s\? poles ( ! ne$le2 ! electric pol>ity makes ! curr5t positive & negative2 & ^! pairs ( opposites are connect$ by relations ( situation1 z above & bel[1 "r & left2 & give rise to ! result+ motion ( ! ne$le "o way or ! o!r4 #cgd #c4 ,ampre1 by fram+ 8 hypo!ses ( ! action ( voltaic curr5ts & ! con/itution ( magnets1 r$uc$ all ^! te*nical rules to rigor\s d$uctions f "o g5]al pr9ciple4 ,& ?us ! vague & obscure p]suasion t !re mu/ be "s connexion betwe5 ,electricity & ,magnetism1 s long an idle & b>r5 conjecture1 0 unfold$ into a complete !ory1 accord+ to :i* magnetic & electromotive actions are only two diff]5t manife/ations ( ! same =ces2 & all ! above-m5tion$ complex relations ( pol>ities are r$uc$ to "o s+le pol>ity1 t ( ! electro-dynamic curr5t4 #d4 ,z ! ,idea ( ,pol>ity 0 ?us firmly e/abli%$ & cle>ly develop$1 x became an in/rum5t ( reason+4 ,?us x l$ ,ampre to ma9ta9 t ! orig9al or elem5t>y =ces 9 electro-dynamic action c\ld n be z ,m4 ,biot ?\ght !y 71 a /atical c\ple1 b mu/ be directly opposite to ea* o!r4 ,! same idea enabl$ ,mr4 ,f>aday to c>ry on ) confid5ce su* reason+s z ! foll[+#he3 ',no o!r kn[n p[] has l direction ) t ex]t$ betwe5 an electric curr5t & a magnetic pole2 x is tang5tial1 :ile all o!r =ces act+ at a di/ance are direct4 ,h5ce if a magnetic pole on "o side ( a revolv+ plate foll[ its c\rse by reason ( its ob$i5ce to ! tang5tial =ce ex]t$ ^u x by ! v curr5t ( electricity :i* x has itself caus$2 a simil> pole on ! o!r side ( ! plate %\ld imm$iately set x free f ?is =ce2 = ! curr5ts :i* h to be =m$ by ! two poles are 9 contr>y directions4' ,& 9 ,article #aaad ( 8 ,rese>*es1 ! same em95t philosoph] inf]s t if electricity & magnetism are consid]$ z ! results ( a peculi> ag5t or condition1 ex]t$ 9 det]m9ate directions p]p5dicul> to ea* o!r1 "o mu/ be by "s means conv]tible into ! o!r2 & ?is he 0 aft]w>ds able to prove to be ! case 9 fact4 ,note #he3 ,rese>*es1 #bdd4 #cge ,?us ! pr9ciple t ! ,co-exi/5t ,pol>ities ( magnetism & electricity are connect$ & fundam5tally id5tical1 is n only true1 b is f> f be+ ei!r vague or b>r54 ,x has be5 a f]tile s\rce bo? ( !ories :i* h1 at pres5t1 a v great probability1 & ( ! discov]y ( new & /rik+ facts4 ,we proce$ to consid] o!r simil> cases4 #e4 ,connexion ( ,electrical & ,*emical ,pol>ities4--,! doctr9e t ! *emical =ces by :i* ! elem5ts ( bodies are held toge!r or sep>at$1 are id5tical ) ! pol> =ces ( electricity1 is a great discov]y ( mod]n times2 s great & s rec5t1 inde$1 t probably m5 ( sci5ce 9 g5]al h h>dly yet obta9$ a cle> view & firm hold ( ?is tru?4 ,?is doctr9e is n[1 h[ev]1 entirely e/abli%$ 9 ! m9ds ( ! mo/ pr(\nd & philosophical *emi/s ( our "t4 ,! complete developm5t & confirmation ( ?is z ( o!r great tru?s1 0 prec$$ by m vague & confus$ op9ions gradually t5d+ to ?is po9t2 & ! progress ( ?\ght & ( rese>* 0 impell$ & guid$1 9 ?is z 9 simil> cases1 by ! p]suasion t ^! co-exi/5t pol>ities c\ld n fail to be closely connect$ ) ea* o!r4 ,:ile ! ultimate & exact !ory to :i* previ\s incomplete & transitory !ories t5d$ is /ill s new & s unfamili>1 x mu/ ne$s be a matt] ( difficulty & responsibility = a common read] to describe ! /eps by :i* tru? has advanc$ f po9t to po9t4 ,i %all1 !re=e1 9 do+ ?is1 guide myself ma9ly by ! hi/orical sket*es ( ! progress ( ?is great !ory1 :i*1 =tunately = u1 h be5 giv5 u by ! two philosoph]s :o h play$ by f> ! mo/ important p>ts 9 ! discov]y1 ,davy & ,f>aday4 ,x w be obs]v$ t we are conc]n$ "h ) ! progress ( !ory1 & n ( exp]im5t1 except s f> z x is confirmatory ( !ory4 ,9 ,davy's ,memoir#ie ( #ahbf1 on ! ,relations ( ,electrical & #cgf ,*emical ,*anges1 he gives ! hi/orical details to :i* ,i h allud$4 ,already 9 #ahjb he _h conjectur$ t all *emical decompositions might be pol>4 ,9 #ahjf he attempt$ to confirm ?is conjecture1 & succe$$1 to 8 own satisfaction1 9 e/abli%+#aje t ! comb9ations & decompositions by electricity 7 ref]able to ! law ( electrical attractions & repulsions2 & advanc$ ! hypo!sis 7z he calls x71 t *emical & electrical attractions 7 produc$ by ! same cause1 act+ 9 "o case on p>ticles1 9 ! o!r on masses4 ,?is hypo!sis 0 mo/ /rik+ly confirm$ by ! au?or's be+ able to use electrical ag5cy z a m p[]ful means ( *emical decomposition ?an any :i* _h yet be5 appli$4 ',believ+1' he adds1 't our philosophical sy/ems are exce$+ly imp]fect1 ,i nev] atta*$ mu* importance to ?is hypo!sis2 b hav+ =m$ x aft] a copi\s induction ( facts1 & hav+ ga9$ by ! application ( x a numb] ( practical results1 & consid]+ myself z mu* ! au?or ( x z ,i 0 ( ! decomposition ( ! alkalies1 & hav+ develop$ x 9 an elem5t>y "w z f> z ! pres5t /ate ( *emi/ry seem$ to all[1 ,i h nev]1' he says1 'criticis$ or exam9$ ! mann] 9 :i* diff]5t au?ors h adopt$ or expla9$ x1 cont5t$1 if 9 ! h&s ( o!rs1 x assi/$ ! arrangem5ts ( *emi/ry or m9]alogy1 or became an in/rum5t ( discov]y4' ,:5 ! doctr9e _h f\nd an ext5sive acceptance among *emi/s1 attempts 7 made to %[ t x _h be5 ass]t$ by e>li] writ]s3 & ?\gh ,davy ju/ly d5ies all value to ^! pret5d$ anticipations1 !y s]ve to %[1 h[ev] dimly1 ! work+ ( t conviction ( ! ,connexion ( ,co-exi/5t ,prop]ties :i* all along presid$ 9 m5's m9ds dur+ ?is c\rse ( inve/igation4 ',ritt] & ,w9t]l h be5 quot$1' ,davy says#aae1 'among o!r p]sons1 z hav+ imag9$ or anticipat$ ! relation betwe5 electrical p[]s & *emical aff9ities be=e ! discov]y ( ! pile #cgg ( ,volta4 ,b :oev] w read ) att5tion ,ritt]'s ,evid5ce t ,galvanic action exi/s 9 organis$ nature1 & 9999,w9t]l's ,prolusiones ad ,*emiam sculi decimi noni1 w f9d no?+ to ju/ify ?is op9ion4' ,he !n ref]s to ! ,qu]ies ( ,newton at ! end ( 8 ,optics4 ',^!1' he says1 'conta9 m gr& & speculative views t might be br\ght to be> ^u ?is "q ?an any f\nd 9 ! works ( mod]n electricians2 b x is v unju/ to ! exp]im5tali/s :o by ! labori\s application ( new in/rum5ts1 h discov]$ novel facts & analogies1 to ref] !m to any su* suppositions z t all attractions1 *emical1 electrical1 magnetical1 & gravitative1 may dep5d ^u ! same cause4' ,x is p]fectly true1 t su* vague op9ions1 ?\gh aris+ f t t5d5cy to g5]alize :i* is ! ess5ce ( sci5ce1 are ( no value except s f> z !y are bo? r5d]$ intelligible1 & confirm$ by exp]im5tal rese>*4 ,note #ie3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbf1 p4 #chc4 ,note #aje3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbf1 p4 #chi4 ,note #aae3 ,ibid4 p4 #chd4 ,! ph5om5a ( *emical decomposition by means ( ! voltaic pile1 h[ev]1 l$ o!r p]sons to views v simil> to ^? ( ,davy4 ,?us ,grot?us 9 #ahjeabe publi%$ an hypo!sis ( ! same k9d4 ',! pile ( ,volta1' he says1 'is an electrical magnet1 ( :i* ea* elem5t1 t is1 ea* pair ( plates1 has a positive & a negative pole4 ,! consid]ation ( ?is pol>ity sugge/$ to me ! idea t a simil> pol>ity may come into play betwe5 ! elem5t>y p>ticles ( wat] :5 act$ ^u by ! same electrical ag5t2 & ,i av[ t ?is ?\ght 0 = me a fla% ( light4' ,note #abe3 ,ann4 ,*im4 lxviii4 #ed4 #f4 ,! ?\ght1 h[ev]1 ?\gh ?us br\ght into be+1 0 v f> f be+ z yet fre$ f vagu5ess1 sup]fluities1 & err\rs4 ,i h else:]e notic$#ace ,f>aday's rem>k on ,davy's celebrat$ ,memoir ( #ahjf2 t '! mode ( action by :i* ! effects take place is /at$ v g5]ally1 s g5]ally1 inde$1 t probably a doz5 precise s*emes ( electro-*emical action might be drawn up1 diff]+ #cgh ess5tially f ea* o!r1 yet all agree+ ) ! /atem5t !re giv54' ,:5 ,davy & o!rs proce$$ to give a little m def9it5ess & precision to ! /atem5t ( _! views1 !y soon introduc$ into ! !ory features :i* x 0 aft]w>ds f\nd necess>y to ab&on4 ,?us#ade bo? ,davy1 ,grot?us1 ,riffault1 & ,*ompr1 ascrib$ electrical decomposition to ! action ( ! poles1 & "s ( !m ev5 pret5d$ to assign ! proportion 9 :i* ! =ce ( ! pole dim9i%es z ! di/ance f x increases4 ,f>aday1 z ,i h already /at$1 %[$ t ! pol>ity mu/ be consid]$ z resid+ n only 9 :at _h till !n be5 call$ ! poles1 b at e po9t ( ! circuit4 ,he ascrib$#aee electro-*emical decomposition to int]nal =ces1 resid+ 9 ! p>ticles ( ! matt] "u decomposition1 n to ext]nal =ces1 ex]t$ by ! poles4 ,h5ce he %ortly aft]w>ds#afe propos$ to reject ! ^w poles altoge!r1 & to employ in/ead1 ! t]m electrode1 mean+ ! doors or passages 7( :atev] surface =m$7 by :i* ! decompos$ elem5ts pass out4 ,:at h be5 call$ ! positive & negative poles he fur!r t]m$ ! ,anode & ,ca?ode2 & he introduc$ "s o!r *anges 9 nom5clature connect$ ) ^!4 ,he !n1 z ,i h relat$ 9 ! ,hi/ory#age1 inv5t$ ! ,volta-electromet]1 :i* enabl$ him to measure ! quantity ( voltaic action1 & ?is he f\nd to be id5tical ) ! quantity ( *emical aff9ity2 & he 0 ?us l$ to ! cle>e/ view ( ! tru? t[>ds :i* he & 8 pr$ecessors _h s long be5 travell+1 t electrical & *emical =ces are id5tical#ahe4 ,note #ace3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xiv4 c4 ix4 sect4 #a4 ,note #ade3 ,see ,f>aday's ,hi/orical ,sket*1 ,rese>*es1 #dha-dib4 ,note #aee3 ,art4 #ebd4 ,note #afe3 ,9 #ahcd4 ,elev5? ,s]ies ( ,rese>*es4 ,art4 #ffb4 ,note #age3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xiv4 c4 ix4 sect4 #b4 ,note #ahe3 ,arts4 #iae1 #iaf1 #iag4 #g4 ,x w1 p]haps1 be said t ?is beautiful tra9 ( discov]y 0 entirely due to exp]im5t1 & n to any priori conviction t co-exi/5t pol>ities #cgi mu/ be connect$4 ,i tru/ ,i h suffici5tly /at$ t su* an priori pr9ciple c\ld n be prov$1 nor ev5 und]/ood1 )\t a mo/ labori\s & enlight5$ use ( exp]im5t2 b yet ,i ?9k t ! doctr9e1 :5 once fully unfold$1 exhibit$ cle>ly1 & e/abli%$ z true1 takes possession ( ! m9d ) a m entire conviction ( its c]ta9ty & univ]sality1 9 virtue ( ! pr9ciple we are n[ consid]+4 ,:5 ! !ory has assum$ s simple a =m1 x appe>s to d]ive imm5se probability 7to say ! lea/7 f its simplicity4 ,l ! laws ( motion1 :5 /at$ 9 its mo/ g5]al =m1 x appe>s to c>ry ) x its own evid5ce4 ,& ?us ?is great !ory borr[s some?+ ( its "* f ! ,ideas :i* x involves1 z well z f ! ,exp]im5ts by :i* x 0 e/abli%$4 #h4 ,we may f9d 9 _m ( ,mr4 ,f>aday's subsequ5t reason+s1 cle> evid5ce t ?is idea ( ! ,connexion ( ,pol>ities1 z n[ develop$1 is n limit$ 9 its application to facts already kn[n exp]im5tally1 b1 l o!r ideas1 det]m9es ! philosoph]'s rese>*es into ! unkn[n1 & gives u ! =m ( k ev5 be=e we possess ! matt]4 ,?us1 he says1 9 8 ,?irte5? ,s]ies#aie1 ',i h long s\ght1 & /ill seek1 = an effect or condition :i* %all be to /atical electricity :at magnetic =ce is to curr5t electricity2 = z ! l9es ( dis*>ge are associat$ ) a c]ta9 transv]se effect1 s x appe>$ to me impossible b t ! l9es ( t5sion or ( inductive action1 :i* ( necessity prec$e ! dis*>ge1 %\ld also h _! correspond5t transv]se condition or effect4' ,o!r simil> passages might be f\nd4 ,note #aie3 ,art4 #afeh4 ,i w n[ consid] ano!r case to :i* we may apply ! ,pr9ciple ( ,connect$ ,pol>ities4 #i4 ,connexion ( ,*emical & ,cry/all9e ,pol>ities4--,! close connexion betwe5 ! ,*emical ,aff9ity & ! ,cry/all9e ,attraction ( elem5ts _c be ov]look$4 ,bodies nev] cry/allize b :5 _! elem5ts comb9e *emically2 & solid bodies :i* #chj comb9e1 :5 !y d x mo/ completely & exactly1 also cry/allize4 ,! =ces :i* hold toge!r ! elem5ts ( a cry/al ( alum are ! same =ces :i* make x a cry/al4 ,!re is no di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! two sets ( =ces4 ,bo? *emical & cry/all9e =ces are pol>1 z we /at$ 9 ! la/ *apt]2 b ! pol>ity 9 ! two cases is ( a diff]5t k9d4 ,! pol>ity ( *emical =ces is !n put 9 ! mo/ di/9ct =m1 :5 x is id5tifi$ ) electrical pol>ity2 ! pol>ity ( ! p>ticles ( cry/als has ref]5ce to _! geometrical =m4 ,& x is cle> t ^! two k9ds ( pol>ity mu/ be connect$4 ,accord+ly1 ,b]zelius expressly ass]ts#bje ! necess>y id5tity ( ^! two pol>ities4 ',! regul> =ms ( bodies suppose a pol>ity :i* c be no o!r ?an an electric or magnetic pol>ity4' ,?is be+ s seem+ly inevitable1 we might expect to f9d ! electric =ces manife/+ "s relation to ! def9ite directions ( cry/all9e =ms4 ,mr4 ,f>aday tri$1 b 9 va91 to detect "s su* relation4 ,he attempt$ to asc]ta9#bae :e!r a cube ( rock cry/al transmitt$ ! electrical =ce ( t5sion ) diff]5t int5sity along & across ! axis ( ! cry/al4 ,9 ! fir/ specim5 !re seem$ to be "s diff]5ce2 b 9 o!r exp]im5ts1 made bo? ) rock cry/al & ) calc sp>1 ?is diff]5ce disappe>$4 ,al?\gh !re=e we may v5ture to ass]t t !re mu/ be "s v close connexion betwe5 electrical & cry/all9e =ces1 we are1 z yet1 q ignorant :at ! nature ( ! connexion is1 & 9 :at k9d ( ph5om5a x w manife/ itself4 ,note #bje3 ,essay on ,*emical ,prop4 #aac4 ,note #bae3 ,rese>*es4 ,art4 #afhi4 #aj4 ,connexion ( ,cry/all9e & ,optical ,pol>ities4--,cry/als pres5t to u optical ph5om5a :i* h a manife/ly pol> "*4 ,! d\ble refraction1 bo? ( uniaxal & ( biaxal cry/als1 is always accompani$ ) opposite pol>ization ( ! two rays2 & 9 ?is & 9 o!r ways light is pol>iz$ 9 directions dep5d5t ^u ! axes ( ! cry/all9e =m1 t is1 on ! directions ( ! pol>ities ( ! #cha cry/all9e p>ticles4 ,! id5tity ( ^! two k9ds ( pol>ity 7cry/all9e & optical7 is too obvi\s to ne$ insi/+ on2 & x is n necess>y = u "h to decide by :at hypo!sis ?is id5tity may mo/ prop]ly be repres5t$4 ,we may h]eaft] p]haps f9d ourselves ju/ifi$ 9 consid]+ ! cry/all9e =ces z det]m9+ ! ela/icity ( ! lum9if]\s e!r to be diff]5t 9 diff]5t directions )9 ! cry/al1 & ?us z det]m9+ ! refraction & pol>ization ( ! light :i* ! cry/al transmits4 ,b at pres5t we m]ely note ?is case z an additional example ( ! manife/ connexion & fundam5tal id5tity ( two co-exi/5t pol>ities4 #aa4 ,connexion ( ,pol>ities 9 g5]al4--,?us we f9d t ! ,connexion ( diff]5t k9ds ( ,pol>ities1 magnetic1 electric1 *emical1 cry/all9e1 & optical1 is c]ta9 z a tru? ( exp]im5tal sci5ce4 ,we h attempt$ to %[ fur!r t 9 ! m9ds ( sev]al ( ! mo/ em95t discov]]s & philosoph]s1 su* a conviction is some?+ m ?an a m]e empirical result3 x is a pr9ciple :i* has regulat$ _! rese>*es :ile x 0 /ill b obscurely se5 & imp]fectly unfold$1 & has giv5 to _! !ories a "* ( g5]ality & self-evid5ce :i* exp]i5ce alone _c be/[4 ,x w1 p]haps1 be said t ^! doctr9es1--t sci5tific rese>*es may usefully be direct$ by pr9ciples 9 !mselves vague & obscure2--t !ories may h an evid5ce sup]ior to & ant]ior to exp]i5ce2--are doctr9es 9 ! highe/ degree dang]\s1 & utt]ly at v>iance ) ! s\nde/ maxims ( mod]n times respect+ ! cultivation ( sci5ce4 ,9 ! ju/ice & wisdom ( ?is caution ,i entirely agree3 & al?\gh ,i h %[n t ?is pr9ciple ( ! ,connexion ( ,pol>ities1 rightly int]pret$ & e/abli%$ 9 ea* case by exp]im5t1 involves pr(\nd & compreh5sive tru?s2 ,i ?9k x no less important to rem>k t1 at lea/ 9 ! pres5t /age ( our k1 we c make no use ( ?is pr9ciple )\t tak+ c>e1 at e /ep1 to det]m9e by #chb cle> & decisive exp]im5ts1 its prop] mean+ & application4 ,all endeav\rs to proce$ o!rwise h l$1 & mu/ lead1 to ignorance & confusion4 ,attempts to d$uce f our b>e ,idea ( ,pol>ity1 & our fundam5tal convictions respect+ ! connexion ( pol>ities1 !ories conc]n+ ! =ces :i* really exi/ 9 nature1 c h>dly h any o!r result ?an to bewild] m5's m9ds1 & to misdirect _! ef=ts4 ,s f>1 inde$1 z ?is p]suasion ( a connexion among app>5tly diff]5t k9ds ( ag5cies1 impels m51 engag$ 9 ! pursuit ( k1 to collect obs]vations1 to multiply1 repeat1 & v>y exp]im5ts1 & to contemplate ! result ( ^! 9 all aspects & relations1 x may be an occasion ( ! mo/ important discov]ies4 ,accord+ly we f9d t ! great laws ( ph5om5a :i* gov]n ! motions ( ! planets ab\t ! sun1 7 fir/ discov]$ by ,kepl]1 9 consequ5ce ( 8 scrut9iz+ ! record$ obs]vations ) an int5se conviction ( ! exi/5ce ( geometrical & ari?metical h>monies 9 ! sol> sy/em4 ,p]haps we may consid] ! discov]y ( ! connexion ( magnetism & electricity by ,pr(essor r/$ 9 #ahbj1 z an example some:at ( ! same k9d2 = he also 0 a believ] 9 c]ta9 compreh5sive b undef9$ relations among ! prop]ties ( bodies2 & 9 consequ5ce ( su* views ent]ta9$ great admiration = ! ,prologue to ! ,*emi/ry ( ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury1 ( ,w9t]l1 already m5tion$4 ,m4 r/$1 9 #ahjc1 publi%$ a summ>y ( ?is "w2 & 9 s do+1 prais$ ! views ( ,w9t]l z f> m pr(\nd & compreh5sive ?an ^? ( ,lavoisi]4 ,soon aft]w>ds a ,review ( ?is publication appe>$ 9 ,france#bbe1 9 :i* x 0 spok5 ( z a "w only fit = ! d>k ages1 & z ! indication ( a sect :i* _h = "s "t 'ravag$ ,g]many1' & inundat$ t c\ntry ) extravagant & un9telligible my/icism4 ,x 01 !re=e1 a k9d ( triumph to ,m4 r/$ to be1 aft] #chc "s ye>s' lab\r1 ! au?or ( "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable & f]tile physical discov]ies ( 8 "t4 ,note #bbe3 ,ann4 ,*im41 ,tom4 #a4 7#ahjd71 p4 #aia4 #ab4 ,x 0 n inde$ )\t "s reason t c]ta9 ( ! ,g]man philosoph]s 7 accus$ ( deal+ 9 doctr9es va/ & pr(\nd 9 _! aspect1 b1 9 reality1 indef9ite1 ambigu\s1 & inapplicable4 ,& ! mo/ prom95t ( su* doctr9es _h ref]5ce to ! pr9ciple n[ "u our consid]ation2 !y repres5t$ ! prop]ties ( bodies z consi/+ 9 c]ta9 pol>ities1 & pr(ess$ to d$uce1 f ! v nature ( ?+s1 ) little or no ref]5ce to exp]im5t1 ! exi/5ce & connexion ( ^! pol>ities4 ,?us ,s*ell+1 9 8 ,ideas t[>ds a ,philosophy ( ,nature1 publi%$ 9 #ahjc1 says#bce1 ',magnetism is ! univ]sal act ( inve/+ ,multiplicity ) ,unity2 b ! univ]sal =m ( ! r$uction ( ,multiplicity to ,unity is ! ,l9e1 pure ,longitud9al ,ext5sion3 h5ce ,magnetism is det]m9ation ( pure ,longitud9al ,ext5sion2 & z ?is manife/s itself by absolute ,cohesion1 ,magnetism is ! det]m9ation ( absolute ,cohesion4' ,& z ,magnetism 01 by su* reason+1 conceiv$ to be prov$ z a univ]sal prop]ty ( matt]1 ,s*ell+ ass]t$ x to be a confirmation ( 8 views :5 x 0 discov]$ t o!r bodies besides iron are magnetic4 ,9 l mann] he us$ su* expressions z ! foll[+#bde3 ',! ?reefold "* ( ! ,univ]sal1 ! ,p>ticul>1 & ! ,indiff]5ce ( ! two1--z express$ 9 _! ,id5tity1 is ,magnetism1 z express$ 9 _! ,diff]5ce1 is ,electricity1 & z express$ 9 ! ,totality1 is ,*emical ,process4 ,?us ^! =ms are only "o =m2 & ! ,*emical ,process is a m]e transf] ( ! ?ree ,po9ts ( ,magnetism into ! ,triangle ( ,*emi/ry4' ,note #bce3 ,p4 #bbc4 ,note #bde3 ,p4 #dhf4 ,x 0 v natural t ! *emi/s %\ld refuse to ackn[l$ge1 9 ?is fanciful & vague language1 7deliv]$1 h[ev]1 x is to be recollect$1 9 #ahjc17 an anticipation ( ,davy's doctr9e ( ! id5tity ( electrical & *emical =ces1 or ( r/$'s #chd electro-magnetic ag5cy4 ,yet x 0 p]haps no less natural t ! au?or ( su* ass]tions %\ld look ^u e great /ep 9 ! electro-*emical !ory z an illu/ration ( 8 own doctr9es4 ,accord+ly we f9d ,s*ell+ welcom+1 ) a due s5se ( _! importance1 ! discov]ies ( ,f>aday4 ,:5 he he>d ( ! exp]im5t 9 :i* electricity 0 produc$ f common magnetism1 he fa/5$ ) en?usiasm ^u ! discov]y1 ev5 be=e he knew any ( its details1 & proclaim$ x at a public meet+ ( a sci5tific body#bee z "o ( ! mo/ important advances ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,we h 7he ?us reason$7 ?ree effects ( pol> =ces2--,electro-*emical ,decomposition1 ,electrical ,action1 ,magnetism4 ,volta & ,davy _h confirm$ exp]im5tally ! id5tity ( ! two =m] ag5cies3 r/$ %[$ t a clos$ voltaic circuit acquir$ magnetic prop]ties3 b 9 ord] to exhibit ! id5tity ( electric & magnetic action x 0 requisite t electric =ces %\ld be extricat$ f magnetic4 ,?is great /ep ,f>aday1 he rem>k$1 _h made1 9 produc+ ! electric sp>k by means ( magnets4 ,note #bee3 ,ueb] ,f>aday's ,neue/e ,entdeckung4 ,mn*54 #ahcb4 #ac4 ,al?\gh conjectures & ass]tions ( ! k9d ?us put =? by ,s*ell+ involve a p]suasion ( ! p]vad+ influ5ce & connexion ( pol>ities1 :i* p]suasion has already be5 confirm$ 9 _m in/ances1 !y involve ?is pr9ciple 9 a mann] s vague & ambigu\s t x c r>ely1 9 su* a =m1 be ( any use or value4 ,su* views ( pol>ity c nev] tea* u 9 :at cases we are & 9 :at we are n expect$ to f9d pol> relations2 & inde$ t5d r to diffuse error & confusion1 ?an to promote k4 ,accord+ly we _c be surpriz$ to f9d su* doctr9es put =w>d by _! au?ors z an evid5ce ( ! small value & small necessity ( exp]im5tal sci5ce4 ,?is is done by ! celebrat$ metaphysician ,hegel1 9 8 ,encyclopdia#bfe4 ',s9ce1' #che says he1 '! plane ( incid5ce & ( reflection 9 simple reflection is ! same plane1 :5 a second reflector is introduc$ :i* fur!r di/ributes ! illum9ation reflect$ f ! fir/1 ! position ( ! fir/ plane ) respect to ! second plane1 conta9+ ! direction ( ! fir/ reflection & ( ! second1 has its influ5ce ^u ! position1 illum9ation or d>k5+ ( ! object z x appe>s by ! second reflection4 ,?is influ5ce mu/ be ! /ronge/ :5 ! two planes are :at we mu/ call negatively relat$ to ea* o!r3--t is1 :5 !y are at "r angles4' ',b1' he adds1 ':5 m5 inf] 7z ,malus has done7 f ! modification :i* is produc$ by ?is situation1 9 ! illum9ation ( ! reflection1 t ! molecules ( light 9 !mselves1 t is1 on _! diff]5t sides1 possess diff]5t physical en]gies2 & :5 on ?is f\ndation1 along ) ! ph5om5a ( entoptical col\rs !re) connect$1 a wide labyr9? ( ! mo/ complex !ory is erect$2 we h !n "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable examples ( ! inf]5ces ( physics f exp]im5t4' ,if ,hegel's reason+ prove any?+1 x mu/ prove t pol>ization always accompanies reflection "u su* circum/ances z he describes3 yet all physical philosoph]s "k t 9 ! case ( metals1 9 :i* ! reflection is mo/ complete1 light is n completely pol>iz$ at any angle2 & t 9 o!r sub/ances ! pol>ization dep5ds ^u v>i\s circum/ances :i* %[ h[ idle & inapplicable is ! acc\nt :i* he ?us gives ( ! prop]ty4 ,8 self-complac5t rem>k ab\t ! inf]5ces ( physics f exp]im5t1 is int5d$ to recomm5d by comp>ison 8 own me?od ( consid]+ ! nature ( '?+s 9 !mselves2' a mode ( obta9+ physical tru? :i* _h be5 m ?an exhau/$ by ,ari/otle1 & out ( :i* no new attempts h extract$ any?+ ( value s9ce 8 "t4 ,note #bfe3 ,sec4 #bgh4 #ad4 ,?us ! g5]al conclusion to :i* we are l$ on ?is subject1 is1 t ! p]suasion ( ! exi/5ce & ,connexion or ,id5tity ( v>i\s ,pol>ities 9 nature1 al?\gh v naturally admitt$1 & 9 _m #chf cases int]pret$ & confirm$ by obs]v$ facts1 is ( itself1 s f> z we at pres5t possess x1 a v insecure guide to sci5tific doctr9es4 ,:5 x is all[$ to dictate our !ories1 in/ead ( animat+ & ext5d+ our exp]im5tal rese>*es1 x leads only to err\r1 confusion1 obscurity1 & my/icism4 ,?is ,fif? ,book1 on ! subject ( ,pol>ities1 is a %ort "o comp>$ ) mo/ ( ! o!rs4 ,?is arises 9 a great measure f ! circum/ance t ! ,idea ( ,pol>ity has only rec5tly be5 appreh5d$ & appli$1 ) any great degree ( cle>ness1 among physical philosoph]s2 & is ev5 yet probably ent]ta9$ 9 an obscure & ambigu\s mann] by mo/ exp]im5tal inquir]s4 ,i h be5 desir\s ( n attempt+ to br+ =w>d any doctr9es ^u ! subject1 except su* z h be5 fully illu/rat$ & exemplifi$ by ! ackn[l$g$ progress ( ! physical sci5ces4 ,if ,i _h be5 will+ to discuss ! v>i\s speculations :i* h be5 publi%$ respect+ ! univ]sal preval5ce ( ,pol>ities 9 ! univ]se1 & _! results 9 e prov9ce ( nature1 ,i might easily h pres5t$ ?is subject 9 a m ext5d$ =m2 b ?is w\ld n h be5 consi/5t ) my plan ( trac+ ! influ5ce ( sci5tific ,ideas only s f> z !y h really aid$ 9 disclos+ & develop+ sci5tific tru?s4 ,& z ! influ5ce ( ?is ,idea is cle>ly di/+ui%able bo? f ^? :i* prec$e & ^? :i* foll[1 9 ! "* ( ! sci5ces to :i* x gives rise1 & z x appe>s likely to be h]eaft] ( great ext5t & consequ5ce1 x seem$ bett] to treat ( x 9 a sep>ate ,book1 al?\gh ( a brevity disproportion$ to ! re/4 ,,end ,,( ,,vol4 ,i4 ,cambridge3 ,pr9t$ at ! ,univ]sity ,press4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,ideas4 ,,volume ,,ii4 ,cambridge2 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,c4 ,j4 ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,ideas4 ,,by ,,william ,,:ewell1 ,d4,d41 ,,ma/] ,,( ,,tr9ity ,,college1 ,,cambridge1 ,,& ,,correspond+ ,,memb] ,,( ,,! ,,in/itute ,,( ,,france4 ,,be+ ,,! ,,fir/ ,,"p ,,( ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,inductive ,,sci5ces4 ,,! ,,?ird ,,edition4 ,,9 ,,two ,,volumes4 ,i ,i,i ,i ,,volume ,,ii4 ,,london3 ,,john ,w4 ,,p>k] ,,& ,,son1 ,,we/ ,,/r&4 #aheh4 ,,cont5ts ,,( ,,! ,,second ,,volume4 ,,book ,,vi4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,*emi/ry4 ,,page ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,conceive ,,elem5t>y ,,composition #c ,art4 #a4 ,fundam5tal ,ideas ( ,*emi/ry4 #b4 ,elem5ts4 #c4 ,d ,comp\nds resemble _! ,elem5ts8 #d4 ,! ,?ree ,pr9ciples4 #e4 ,a ,mod]n ,err\r4 #f4 ,are ,comp\nds det]m9$ by ! ,figure ( ,elem5ts8 #g4 ,cry/all9e ,=m dep5ds on ,figure ( ,elem5ts4 #h4 ,are ,comp\nds det]m9$ by ,me*anical ,attraction ( ,elem5ts8 #i4 ,newton's foll[]s4 #aj4 ,imp]fection ( _! ,hypo!ses4 ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,,e/abli%m5t ,,& ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,*emical ,,aff9ity #ae ,art4 #a4 ,e>ly ,*emi/s4 #b4 ,*emical ,aff9ity4 #c4 ,aff9ity or ,attraction8 #d4 ,aff9ity pref]able4 #e4 ,analysis is possible4 vi #f4 ,aff9ity is ,elective4 #g4 ,controv]sy on ?is4 #h4 ,aff9ity is ,def9ite4 #i4 ,are ^! ,pr9ciples necess>ily true8 #aj4 ,composition det]m9es ,prop]ties4 #aa4 ,comp>ison on ?is subject4 #ab4 ,composition det]m9es ,cry/all9e ,=m4 ,,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,sub/ance #bi ,art4 #a4 ,inde/ructibility ( ,sub/ance4 #b4 ,! ,idea ( ,sub/ance4 #c4 ,locke's ,d5ial ( ,sub/ance4 #d4 ,is all ,sub/ance heavy8 ,note on ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton's objections #cg ,,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,sub/ance ,,9 ,,*emi/ry #ci ,art4 #a4 ,a ,body is ,equal to its ,elem5ts4 #b4 ,lavoisi]4 #c4 ,are !re ,impond]able ,elem5ts8 #d4 ,f>aday's views4 #e4 ,composition ( ,wat]4 #f4 ,heat 9 ,*emi/ry4 ,,*ap4 ,v4 ,,! ,,atomic ,,!ory #dh ,art4 #a4 ,! ,!ory on ,*emical ,gr\nds4 #b4 ,hypo!sis ( ,atoms4 #c4 ,its ,*emical ,difficulties4 #d4 ,gr\nds ( ! ,atomic ,doctr9e4 #e4 ,anci5t ,atomi/s4 #f4 ,francis ,bacon4 #g4 ,mod]n ,atomi/s4 #h4 ,argum5ts = & aga9/4 #i4 ,boscovi*'s ,!ory4 #aj4 ,molecul> ,hypo!sis4 #aa4 ,poisson's ,inf]5ce4 #ab4 ,wolla/on's ,argum5t4 #ac4 ,prop]ties are ,p]man5t4 vii ,,book ,,vii4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,morphology1 ,,includ+ ,,cry/allography4 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,,explication ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,symmetry #fg ,art4 #a4 ,symmetry1 :at4 #b4 ,k9ds ( ,symmetry4 #c4 ,examples 9 ,nature4 #d4 ,vegetables & ,animals4 #e4 ,symmetry a ,fundam5tal ,idea4 #f4 ,result ( ,symmetry4 ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,symmetry ,,to ,,cry/als #ge ,art4 #a4 ',fundam5tal ,=ms4' #b4 ,_! use4 #c4 ',sy/ems ( ,cry/allization4' #d4 ,cleavage4 #e4 ,o!r ,prop]ties4 ,,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,,speculations ,,f\nd$ ,,^u ,,! ,,symmetry ,,( ,,cry/als #hj ,art4 #a4 ,integrant ,molecules4 #b4 ,difficulties ( ! ,!ory4 #c4 ,m]it ( ! ,!ory4 #d4 ,wolla/on's ,hypo!sis4 #e4 ,maxim = su* ,hypo!ses4 #f4 ,dalton's ,hypo!sis4 #g4 ,ampre's ,hypo!sis4 #h4 ,difficulty ( su* ,hypo!ses4 #i4 ,isomorphism4 viii ,,book ,,viii4 ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,classificatory ,,sci5ces4 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,lik5ess ,,z ,,gov]n+ ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,common ,,names #ie ,art4 #a4 ,object ( ! ,*apt]4 #b4 ,unity ( ! ,individual4 #c4 ,condition ( ,unity4 #d4 ,k9ds4 #e4 ,n made by ,def9itions4 #f4 ,condition ( ! ,use ( ,t]ms4 #g4 ,t]ms may h diff]5t ,uses4 #h4 ,gradation ( ,k9ds4 #i4 ,*>act]s ( ,k9ds4 #aj4 ,difficulty ( ,def9itions4 #aa4 ',! ,five ,words4' ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,me?ods ,,( ,,natural ,,hi/ory1 ,,z ,,regulat$ ,,by ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,lik5ess #ajh ,sect4 ,i4 ,natural ,hi/ory 9 ,g5]al4 ,art4 #a4 ,idea ( ,lik5ess 9 ,natural ,hi/ory4 #b4 ,condition ( its ,use4 ,sect4 ,,ii4 ,t]m9ology4 ,art4 #c4 ,mean+ ( ! ^w4 ,sect4 ,,iii4 ,! ,plan ( ! ,sy/em4 ,art4 #d4 ,its ,mean+4 #e4 ,lat5t ,ref]5ce to ,natural ,aff9ity4 #f4 ,natural ,classes4 #g4 ,artificial ,classes4 #h4 ,are ,g5]a ,natural8 #i4 ,natural ,hi/ory & ,ma!matics4 #aj4 ,natural ,gr\ps giv5 by ,type1 n by ,def9ition4 #aa4 ,physiography4 #ab4 ,artificial & ,natural ,sy/ems4 ix ,sect4 ,,iv4 ,me?ods ( fram+ ,natural ,sy/ems4 ,art4 #ac4 ,me?od ( ,bl9d ,trial4 #ad4 ,me?od ( ,g5]al ,comp>ison4 ,sect4 ,v4 ,gradation ( ,gr\ps4 ,art4 #ae4 ,s]ies ( ,subdivisions4 #af4 ,:at is a ,species8 #ag4 ,! words ',species' & ',g5us4' #ah4 ,v>ieties4 ,races4 ,sect4 ,,vi4 ,nom5clature4 ,art4 #ai4 ,b9>y ,nom5clature4 ,sect4 ,,vii4 ,diagnosis4 ,art4 #bj4 ,*>act]i/ick & ,sy/ematick4 ,,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,natural ,,hi/ory ,,me?od ,,to ,,m9]alogy #ach ,art4 #a4 ,mohs's ,sy/em4 #b4 ,8 ',*>act]i/ick4' #c4 ,m9]al ,species n yet well fix$4 #d4 ,ord]s ( ,m9]als4 #e4 ,nom5clature ( ,m9]als4 #f4 ,m4 ,neck]'s ',rgne ,m9]al4' #g4 ,inconv5i5ce ( tak+ a ,*emical ,basis ( ,m9]al ,sy/ems4 #h4 ,relation ( ,natural ,hi/ory & ,*emi/ry4 #i4 ,:at is a ,m9]alogical ,individual8 #aj4 ,a well-=m$ ,cry/al is an ,individual4 #aa4 ,n ! ,integrant ,molecules1 #ab4 ,nor ! ,cleavage ,=ms4 #ac4 ,comp\nd ,cry/als are n ,individuals4 #ad4 ,cry/all9e ,=ms are suffici5tly complete = ?is4 #ae4 ,includ+ aggregate ,masses4 #af4 ,d ,artificial ,cry/als belong to ,m9]alogy8 #ag4 ,! ,m9]alogical ,individual ext5ds z f> z ! same ,cry/all9e ,axes ext5d4 #ah4 ,artificial ,cry/als d belong to ,m9]alogy3 x #ai4 ,_c be exclud$4 #bj4 ,species to be det]m9$ by ! ,cry/all9e ,p[]4 #ba4 ,second>y ,d]ivative ,=ms are ,v>ieties3 #bb4 ,are n ,species1 z ,m4 ,neck] holds4 ,,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,natural ,,aff9ity #aei ,art4 #a4 ,! ,idea ( ,aff9ity #b4 ,is n to be made out by ,arbitr>y ,rules4 #c4 ,functions ( ,liv+ ?+s are _m1 #d4 ,b all lead to ! same arrangem5t4 #e4 ,?is is ,cuvi]'s pr9ciple3 #f4 ,& ,dec&olle's4 #g4 ,is ?is applicable to ,inorganic ,bodies8 #h4 ,yes2 by ! agreem5t ( ,physical & ,*emical ,arrangem5t4 ,,book ,,ix4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,biology4 ,,*ap4 #a4 ,,analogy ,,( ,,biology ,,) ,,o!r ,,sci5ces4 #afi ,art4 #a4 ,biology involves ! ,idea ( ,life4 #b4 ,?is ,idea to be hi/orically trac$4 #c4 ,! ,idea at fir/ express$ by means ( o!r ,ideas4 #d4 ,my/ical1 ,me*anical1 ,*emical1 & ,vital ,fluid ,hypo!ses4 ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,,successive ,,biological ,,hypo!ses #agd ,sect4 ,i4 ,! ,my/ical ,s*ool4 ,sect4 ,,ii4 ,! ,iatro*emical ,s*ool4 ,sect4 ,,iii4 ,! ,iatroma!matical ,s*ool4 ,sect4 ,,iv4 ,! ,vital ,fluid ,s*ool4 ,sect4 ,v4 ,! ,psy*ical ,s*ool4 xi ,,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,analyse ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,life #aie ,art4 #a4 ,def9itions ( ,life1 #b4 ,by ,/ahl1 ,humboldt1 ,kant4 #c4 ,def9ition ( ,organization by ,kant4 #d4 ,life is a ,sy/em ( ,functions4 #e4 ,bi*at4 ,sum ( ,functions4 #f4 ,use ( ,def9ition4 #g4 ,cuvi]'s view4 #h4 ,classifications ( ,functions4 #i4 ,vital1 ,natural1 & ,animal ,functions4 #aj4 ,bi*at4 ,organic & ,animal ,life4 #aa4 ,use ( ?is ,classification4 ,,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,=m ,,ideas ,,( ,,sep>ate ,,vital ,,=ces1 ,,& ,,fir/1 ,,( ,,assimilation ,,& ,,secretion #bjc ,sect4 ,i4 ,c\rse ( ,biological ,rese>*4 ,art4 #a4 ,obs]vation & ,new ,conceptions4 ,sect4 ,,ii4 ,attempts to =m a di/9ct ,conception ( ,assimilation & ,secretion4 ,art4 #b4 ,! ,anci5ts4 #c4 ,buffon4 ,int]ior ,m\ld4 #d4 ,defect ( ?is view4 #e4 ,cuvi]4 ,life a ,vortex4 #f4 ,defect ( ?is view4 #g4 ,s*ell+4 ,matt] & ,=m4 #h4 ,life a con/ant ,=m ( circulat+ ,matt]1 c4 ,sect4 ,,iii4 ,attempts to conceive ! ,=ces ( ,assimilation & ,secretion4 ,art4 #i4 ,assimilation is a ,vital ,=ce4 #aj4 ,! "n ',assimilation4' #aa4 ,sev]al processes involv$ 9 ,assimilation4 #ab4 ,absorption4 ,endosmose4 #ac4 ,absorption involves a ,vital ,=ce4 #ad4 ,secretion4 ,gl&s4 #ae4 ,motions ( ,vital ,fluids4 xii ,sect4 ,,iv4 ,attempts to conceive ! ,process ( ,g5]ation4 ,art4 #af4 ',reproduction' figuratively us$ = ,g5]ation4 #ag4 ,nutrition diff]5t f #ah4 ,g5]ation4 #ai4 ,g5]ations successively includ$4 #bj4 ,pre-exi/5ce ( ,g]ms4 #ba4 ,difficulty ( ?is view4 #bb4 ,communication ( ,vital ,=ces4 #bc4 ,close simil>ity ( ,nutrition & ,g5]ation4 #bd4 ,! ,id5tity ( ! two ,processes exemplifi$4 ,,*ap4 ,v4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,=m ,,ideas ,,( ,,sep>ate ,,vital ,,=ces1 cont9u$4--,,volunt>y ,,motion4 #bbb ,art4 #a4 ,volunt>y ,motion "o ( ! animal ,functions4 #b4 ,progressive k ( x4 #c4 ,n]v\s ,fluid n electric4 #d4 ,irritability4 ,glisson4 #e4 ,hall]4 #f4 ,contractility4 #g4 ,organic ,s5sibility & ,contractility n sep>able4 #h4 ,improp]ly describ$ by ,bi*at4 #i4 ,br[n4 #aj4 ,contractility a peculi> ,p[]4 #aa4 ,cuvi]'s view4 #ab4 ,elem5t>y contractile ,action4 #ac4 ,/r5g? ( ,muscul> ,fibre4 #ad4 ,s5sations become ,p]ceptions #ae4 ,by means ( ,ideas2 #af4 ,& lead to ,muscul> ,actions4 #ag4 ,volition comes betwe5 ,p]ception & ,action4 #ah4 ,transition to ,psy*ology1 #ai4 ,a c5t] is introduc$4 #bj4 ,! c5tral consci\sness may be obscure4 #ba4 ,reflex ,muscul> ,action4 #bb4 ,in/9ct4 #bc4 ,difficulty ( conceiv+ ,in/9ct4 #bd4 ,in/9ct oppos$ to ,insight4 xiii ,,*ap4 ,,vi4 ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,f9al ,,causes #bci ,art4 #a4 ,organization4 ,p>ts are ,ends & ,means4 #b4 ,n m]ely mutually dep5d5t4 #c4 ,n m]ely mutually ,cause & ,effect4 #d4 ,notion ( ,end n d]iv$ f ,facts4 #e4 ,?is notion has regulat$ ,physiology4 #f4 ,notion ( ,design comes f )94 #g4 ,design n und]/ood by ,savages4 #h4 ,design oppos$ to ,morphology4 #i4 ,impression ( ,design :5 fre%4 #aj4 ,ackn[l$gem5t ( an ,end by adv]se ,physiologi/s4 #aa4 ,?is includ$ 9 ! ,notion ( ,disease4 #ab4 ,x belongs to organiz$ ,creatures only4 #ac4 ,! t]m ,f9al ,cause4 #ad4 ,law & ,design4 #ae4 ,f9al ,causes & ,morphology4 #af4 ,expressions ( physiological ,ends4 #ag4 ,! ,conditions ( ,exi/5ce4 #ah4 ,! ass]t$ presumption ( ,teleology4 #ai4 ,f9al ,causes 9 o!r subjects4 #bj4 ,transition to ,paltiology4 ,,book ,x4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,pal,,tiology4 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,,( ,,pal,,tiological ,,sci5ces ,,9 ,,g5]al4 #beg ,art4 #a4 ,description ( ,paltiology4 #b4 ,its ,memb]s4 #c4 ,o!r ,memb]s4 #d4 ,connexion ( ! :ole subject4 #e4 ,we %all take ,mat]ial ,sci5ces only2 #f4 ,b ^! are connect$ ) o!rs4 ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,,( ,,! ,,?ree ,,memb]s ,,( ,a ,,pal,,tiological ,,sci5ce #bfc ,art4 #a4 ,divisions ( su* ,sci5ces4 #b4 ,! ,/udy ( ,causes4 #c4 tiology4 xiv #d4 ,ph5om5ology requires ,classification4 ,ph5om5al ,geology4 #e4 ,ph5om5al ,uranology4 #f4 ,ph5om5al ,geography ( ,plants & ,animals4 #g4 ,ph5om5al ,glossology4 #h4 ,! ,/udy ( ,ph5om5a leads to ,!ory4 #i4 ,no s\nd ,!ory )\t tiology4 #aj4 ,causes 9 ,paltiology4 #aa4 ,v>i\s k9ds ( ,cause4 #ab4 ,hypo!tical ,ord] ( ,paltiological ,causes4 #ac4 ,mode ( ,cultivat+ tiology3--,9 ,geology3 #ad4 ,9 ! ,geography ( ,plants & ,animals3 #ae4 ,9 ,languages4 #af4 ,con/ruction ( ,!ories4 #ag4 ,no s\nd ,paltiological ,!ory yet extant4 ,,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,,( ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,cata/rophes ,,& ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,uni=mity #bhd ,art4 #a4 ,doctr9e ( ,cata/rophes4 #b4 ,doctr9e ( ,uni=mity4 #c4 ,is ,uni=mity probable a priori8 #d4 ,cycle ( ,uni=mity indef9ite4 #e4 ,uni=mit>ian ,argum5ts are ,negative only4 #f4 ,uni=mity 9 ! ,organic ,_w4 #g4 ,orig9 ( ! pres5t ,organic ,_w4 #h4 ,nebul> ,orig9 ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em4 #i4 ,orig9 ( ,languages4 #aj4 ,no ,natural ,orig9 discov]able4 ,,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,tradition ,,to ,,pal,,tiology #big ,art4 #a4 ,importance ( ,tradition4 #b4 ,connexion ( ,tradition & ,sci5ce4 #c4 ,natural & ,provid5tial ,hi/ory ( ! ,_w4 #d4 ,! ,sacr$ ,n>rative4 #e4 ,difficulties 9 int]pret+ ! ,sacr$ ,n>rative4 #f4 ,su* ,difficulties inevitable4 #g4 ,sci5ce tells u no?+ conc]n+ ,creation4 xv #h4 ,sci5tific views1 :5 famili>1 d n di/urb ! au?ority ( ,scripture4 #i4 ,:5 %\ld ,old ,int]pretations be giv5 up8 #aj4 ,9 :at ,_s %\ld ! ,*ange be accept$8 #aa4 ,9 :at ,_s %\ld ! ,*ange be urg$8 #ab4 ,duty ( ,mutual =be>ance4 #ac4 ,case ( ,galileo4 ,,*ap4 ,v4 ,,( ,,! ,,conception ,,( ,a ,,fir/ ,,cause #caf ,art4 #a4 ,! ,orig9 ( ?+s is n naturally discov]able2 #b4 ,yet has always be5 s\ght aft]4 #c4 ,!re mu/ be a ,fir/ ,cause4 #d4 ,?is is an ,axiom4 #e4 ,involv$ 9 ! pro( ( a ,deity4 #f4 ,! m9d is n satisfi$ )\t x4 #g4 ,! ,:ole ,c\rse ( ,nature mu/ h a ,cause4 #h4 ,necess>y ,exi/5ce ( ,god4 #i4 ,=ms ( ! ,pro(4 #aj4 ,idea ( a ,fir/ ,cause is ,necess>y4 #aa4 ,conception ( a ,fir/ ,cause4 #ab4 ,! ,fir/ ,cause 9 all ,sci5ces is ! same4 #ac4 ,we are ?us l$ to ,moral ,subjects4 ,conclusion ( ?is ,hi/ory4 #a ,,book ,,vi4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,*emi/ry4 ,a ,,philosoph] 0 ask$3--,h[ mu* does smoke weigh8 ,he answ]$3 ,subtract f ! weight ( ! fuel ! weight ( ! a%es1 & ?\ ha/ ! weight ( ! smoke4 ,?us he assum$ z incontrov]tible t1 ev5 9 ! fire1 ! ,sub/ance does n p]i%1 only its ,=m und]goes a *ange4 ,9 l mann] ! proposition1 ,no?+ c come ( ,no?+ 0 only ano!r consequ5ce ( ! ,pr9ciple ( ,p]man5ce1 or r ( ! ,pr9ciple ( ! ,endur+ ,exi/5ce ( ! same subject ) diff]5t appe>ances4 ,kant1 ,kritik d4 r4 ,v]n4 #c ,,book ,,vi4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,*emi/ry4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,conceive ,,elem5t>y ,,composition4 #a4 ,,we h n[ to br+ into view1 if possible1 ! ,ideas & ,g5]al ,pr9ciples :i* are involv$ 9 ,*emi/ry1--! sci5ce ( ! composition ( bodies4 ,= 9 ?is z 9 o!r p>ts ( human k1 we %all f9d t !re are c]ta9 ,ideas1 deeply seat$ 9 ! m9d1 ?\gh %ap$ & unfold$ by ext]nal obs]vation1 :i* are necess>y conditions ( ! exi/5ce ( su* a sci5ce4 ,^! ,ideas x is1 :i* impel man to su* a k ( ! ,composition ( bodies1 :i* give mean+ to facts exhibit+ ?is composition1 & univ]sality to special tru?s discov]$ by exp]i5ce4 ,^! are ! ,ideas ( ,elem5t & ( ,sub/ance4 ,unlike ! ,idea ( ,pol>ity1 ( :i* we treat$ 9 ! la/ ,book1 ^! ,ideas h be5 curr5t 9 m5's m9ds f v e>ly times1 & =m$ ! subject ( "s ( ! fir/ speculations ( philosoph]s4 ,x happ5$ h[ev]1 z might h be5 expect$1 t 9 ! fir/ attempts !y 7 n cle>ly di/+ui%$ f o!r notions1 & 7 appreh5d$ & appli$ 9 an obscure & confus$ mann]4 ,we _c bett] exhibit ! peculi> "* & mean+ ( ^! ,ideas ?an by trac+ ! =m :i* !y h assum$ #d & ! efficacy :i* !y h ex]t$ 9 ^! successive essays4 ,?is1 !re=e1 ,i %all endeav\r to d1 beg9n+ ) ! ,idea ( ,elem5t4 #b4 ,t bodies are compos$ or made up ( c]ta9 p>ts1 elem5ts1 or pr9ciples1 is a conception :i* has exi/$ 9 m5's m9ds f ! beg9n+ ( ! fir/ attempts at speculative k4 ,! doctr9e ( ! ,f\r ,elem5ts1 ,e>?1 ,air1 ,fire & ,wat]1 ( :i* all ?+s 9 ! univ]se 7 suppos$ to be con/itut$1 is "o ( ! e>lie/ =ms 9 :i* ?is conception 0 sy/ematiz$2 & ?is doctr9e is /at$ by v>i\s au?ors to h exi/$ z e>ly z ! times ( ! anci5t ,egyptians#af4 ,! words usually employ$ by ,greek writ]s to express ^! elem5ts are a pr9ciple or beg9n+1 & 1 :i* probably meant a lett] 7( a ^w7 be=e x meant an elem5t ( a comp\nd4 ,= ! resolution ( a ^w into its lett]s is und\bt$ly a rem>kable in/ance ( a successful analysis p]=m$ at an e>ly /age ( man's hi/ory2 & might v naturally supply a metaphor to d5ote ! analysis ( sub/ances into _! intimate p>ts1 :5 m5 began to contemplate su* an analysis z a subject ( speculation4 ,! ,lat9 ^w elem5tum itself1 ?\gh by its =m x appe>s to be a d]ivative ab/ract t]m1 comes f "s root n[ obsolete2 probably#bf f a ^w signify+ to gr[ or spr+ up4 ,note #af3 ,gilb]t's ,phys4 #a4 i4 c4 iii4 ,note #bf3 ,vossius 9 voce4 ,conjecto esse ab antiqua voco eleo pro oleo1 id e/ cresco3 a qua signiflcatione proles1 suboles1 adolesc5s3 ut ab juratum1 juram5tum2 ab adjutum1 adjum5tum3 sic ab eletum1 elem5tum3 quia inde omnia crescunt ac nascuntur4 ,! mode 9 :i* elem5ts =m ! comp\nd bodies & det]m9e _! prop]ties 0 at fir/1 z might be expect$1 vaguely & v>i\sly conceiv$4 ,x w1 ,i tru/1 h]eaft] be made cle> to ! read] t ! relation ( ! elem5ts to ! comp\nd involves a peculi> & appropriate ,fundam5tal ,idea1 n susceptible ( be+ correctly repres5t$ by any comp>ison or comb9ation ( o!r ideas1 & guid+ u to cle> & def9ite results only :5 x is illu/rat$ #e & n\ri%$ by an abundant supply ( exp]im5tal facts4 ,b at fir/ ! peculi> & special notion :i* is requir$ 9 a j conception ( ! con/itution ( bodies 0 nei!r disc]n$ nor suspect$2 & up to a v late p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry1 m5 w5t on attempt+ to appreh5d ! con/itution ( bodies m cle>ly by sub/itut+ = ?is obscure & recondite idea ( ,elem5t>y ,composition1 "s o!r idea m obvi\s1 m lum9\s1 & m famili>1 su* z ! ideas ( ,resemblance1 ,position1 & me*anical ,=ce4 ,we %all briefly speak ( "s ( ^! attempts1 & ( ! err\rs :i* 7 ?us introduc$ into speculations on ! relations ( elem5ts & comp\nds4 #c4 ,comp\nds assum$ to resemble _! ,elem5ts4--,! fir/ notion 0 t comp\nds d]ive _! qualities f _! elem5ts by resemblance3--!y are hot 9 virtue ( a hot elem5t1 heavy 9 virtue ( a heavy elem5t1 & s on4 ,9 ?is way ! doctr9e ( ! f\r elem5ts 0 fram$2 = e body is ei!r hot or cold1 moi/ or dry2 & by comb9+ ^! qualities 9 all possible ways1 m5 devis$ f\r elem5t>y sub/ances1 z has be5 /at$ 9 ! ,hi/ory#cf4 ,note #cf3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 i4 c4 ii4 sec4 #b4 ,?is assumption ( ! d]ivation ( ! qualities ( bodies f simil> qualities 9 ! elem5ts 01 z we %all see1 altoge!r baseless & unphilosophical1 yet x prevail$ long & univ]sally4 ,x 0 ! f\ndation ( m$ic9e = a long p]iod1 bo? 9 ,europe & ,asia2 disord]s be+ divid$ into hot1 cold1 & ! l2 & rem$ies be+ arrang$ accord+ to simil> di/9ctions4 ,_m read]s w recollect1 p]haps1 ! /ory#df ( ! indignation :i* ! ,p]sian physicians felt t[>ds ! ,european1 :5 he und]took to cure ! ill effects ( cucumb] ^u ! pati5t1 by means ( m]curial m$ic9e3 = cucumb]1 :i* is cold1 c\ld n be c\nt]act$1 !y ma9ta9$1 by m]cury1 :i* 9 _! classification is cold also4 ,simil> views ( ! op]ation ( m$ic9es might #f easily be trac$ 9 our own c\ntry4 ,a mom5t's reflection may conv9ce u t :5 drugs ( any k9d are subject$ to ! *emi/ry ( ! human /oma* & ?us made to op]ate on ! human frame1 x is utt]ly impossible to =m ! mo/ remote conjecture :at ! result w be1 f any su* vague notions ( _! qualities z ! common use ( our s5ses c give4 ,& 9 l mann] ! common op]ations ( *emi/ry give rise1 9 almo/ e in/ance1 to products :i* be> no resemblance to ! mat]ials employ$4 ,! results ( ! furnace1 ! alembic1 ! mixture1 frequ5tly h no visible lik5ess to ! +r$i5ts op]at$ ^u4 ,iron becomes /eel by ! addition ( a little *>coal2 b :at visible trace ( ! *>coal is pres5t$ by ! metal ?us modifi$8 ,! mo/ beautiful col\rs are giv5 to glass & e>!nw>e by m9ute portions ( ! ores ( black or d+y metals1 z iron & manganese4 ,! work] 9 metal1 ! pa9t]1 ! dy]1 ! v9tn]1 ! brew]1 all ! artisans 9 %ort :o deal ) practical *emi/ry1 are able to tea* ! speculative *emi/ t x is an utt] mi/ake to expect t ! qualities ( ! elem5ts %all be /ill discov]able1 9 an unalt]$ =m1 9 ! comp\nd4 ,?is fir/ rude notion ( an elem5t1 t x det]m9es ! prop]ties ( bodies by resemblance1 mu/ be utt]ly reject$ & ab&on$ be=e we c make any advance t[>ds a true appreh5sion ( ! con/itution ( bodies4 ,note #df3 ,see ,hadji ,baba4 #d4 ,?is /ep accord+ly 0 made1 :5 ! hypo!sis ( ! f\r elem5ts 0 giv5 up1 & ! doctr9e ( ! ?ree ,pr9ciples1 ,salt1 ,sulphur1 & ,m]cury1 0 sub/itut$ 9 its place4 ,= 9 mak+ ?is *ange1 z ,i h rem>k$ 9 ! ,hi/ory#ef1 ! real advance 0 ! ackn[l$gm5t ( ! *anges1 produc$ by ! *emi/'s op]ations1 z results to be acc\nt$ = by ! union & sep>ation ( sub/antial elem5ts1 h[ev] great ! *anges1 & h[ev] unlike ! product might be to ! mat]ials4 ,& ?is /ep once made1 *emi/s w5t on con/antly #g advanc+ t[>ds a tru] view ( ! nature ( an elem5t1 & consequ5tly1 t[>ds a m satisfactory !ory ( *emical op]ations4 ,note #ef3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 iv4 c4 #a4 #e4 ,yet we may1 ,i ?9k1 note "o in/ance1 ev5 9 ! works ( em95t mod]n *emi/s1 9 :i* ?is maxim1 t we h no "r to expect any resemblance betwe5 ! elem5ts & ! comp\nd1 is lo/ sight (4 ,i speak ( c]ta9 classifications ( m9]al sub/ances4 ,b]zelius1 9 8 ,sy/em ( ,m9]al ,arrangem5t1 places sulphur next to ! sulphurets4 ,b surely ?is is an err\r1 involv+ ! anci5t assumption ( ! resemblance ( elem5ts & comp\nds2 z if we 7 to expect ! sulphurets to be> a resemblance to sulphur4 ,all classifications are int5d$ to br+ toge!r ?+s resembl+ ea* o!r3 ! sulphurets ( metals h c]ta9 g5]al resemblances to ea* o!r :i* make !m a tol]ably di/9ct1 well det]m9$1 class ( bodies4 ,b sulphur has no resemblances ) ^!1 & no analogies ) !m1 ei!r 9 physical or ev5 9 *emical prop]ties4 ,x is a simple body2 & bo? its resemblances & its analogies direct u to place x along ) o!r simple bodies1 7sel5ium1 & phosphorus17 :i*1 unit$ ) metals1 produce comp\nds n v diff]5t f ! sulphurets4 ,sulphur _c be1 nor approa* to be+1 a sulphuret2 we mu/ n conf\nd :at x is ) :at x makes4 ,sulphur has its prop] influ5ce 9 det]m9+ ! prop]ties ( ! comp\nd into :i* x ent]s2 b x does n d ?is accord+ to resemblance ( qualities1 or accord+ to any pr9ciple :i* prop]ly leads to prop9quity 9 classification4 #f4 ,comp\nds assum$ to be det]m9$ by ! ,figure ( ,elem5ts4--,i pass ov] ! fanciful modes ( repres5t+ *emical *anges :i* 7 employ$ by ! ,al*emi/s2 = ^! /range inv5tions did little 9 lead+ m5 t[>ds a ju/] view ( ! relations ( elem5ts to comp\nds4 ,i proce$ = an in/ant to ! attempt to sub/itute ano!r obvi\s conception = ! /ill obscure notion ( elem5t>y composition4 ,x 0 imag9$ t all ! prop]ties ( bodies & _! mutual op]ations might be #h acc\nt$ = by suppos+ !m con/itut$ ( p>ticles ( v>i\s =ms1 r\nd or angul>1 po9t$ or hook$1 /raight or spiral4 ,?is is a v anci5t hypo!sis1 & a fav\rite "o ) _m casual speculators 9 all ages4 ,?us ,lucretius und]takes to expla9 :y w9e passes rapidly ?r\gh a sieve & oil sl[ly1 by tell+ u t ! latt] sub/ance has its p>ticles ei!r l>g] ?an ^? ( ! o!r1 or m hook$ & int]wov5 toge!r4 ,& he acc\nts = ! diff]5ce ( sweet & bitt] by suppos+ ! p>ticles 9 ! =m] case to be r\nd & smoo?1 9 ! latt] %>p & jagg$#ff4 ,simil> assumptions prevail$ 9 mod]n times on ! revival ( ! me*anical philosophy1 & con/itute a l>ge "p ( ! physical s*emes ( ,desc>tes & ,gass5di4 ,!y 7 also adopt$ to a consid]able ext5t by ! *emi/s4 ,acids 7 )\t hesitation assum$ to consi/ ( %>p po9t$ p>ticles2 :i*1 ',i hope1' ,lem]y says#gf1 'no "o w dispute1 see+ e "o's exp]i5ce does demon/rate x3 he ne$s b ta/e an acid to be satisfi$ ( x1 = x pricks ! tongue l any?+ ke5 & f9ely cut4' ,su* an assumption is n only altoge!r gratuit\s & useless1 b appe>s to be f\nd$ 9 "s degree ^u a confusion 9 ! metaphorical & lit]al use ( su* words z ke5 & %>p4 ,! assumption once made1 x 0 easy to accommodate x1 9 a mann] equally arbitr>y1 to o!r facts4 ',a demon/rative & conv9c+ pro( t an acid does consi/ ( po9t$ p>ts is1 t n only all acid salts d cry/allize into edges1 b all dissolutions ( diff]5t ?+s1 caus$ by acid liquors1 d assume ?is figure 9 _! cry/allization4 ,^! cry/als consi/ ( po9ts diff]+ bo? 9 l5g? & bigness "o f ano!r1 & ?is div]sity mu/ be attribut$ to ! ke5] or blunt] edges ( ! diff]5t sorts ( acids3 & s likewise ?is diff]5ce ( ! po9ts 9 subtilty is ! cause t "o acid c p5etrate & dissolve ) "o sort ( mixt1 t ano!r c't r>ify at all3 ,?us v9eg> dissolves lead1 #i :i* aqua =tis c't3 aqua =tis dissolves quicksilv]1 :i* v9eg> w n t\*2 aqua regalis dissolves gold1 :5as aqua =tis _c m$dle ) x2 on ! contr>y1 aqua =tis dissolves silv]1 b c d no?+ ) gold1 & s ( ! re/4' ,note #ff3 ,de ,r]um ,natura1 ii4 #cij sqq4 ,note #gf3 ,*emi/ry1 p4 #be4 ,! lead+ fact ( ! vehem5t comb9ation & complete union ( acid & alkali readily sugge/$ a fit =m = ! p>ticles ( ! latt] class ( sub/ances4 ',?is effect1' ,lem]y adds1 'may make u reasonably conjecture t an alkali is a t]re/ri\s & solid matt] ^: =ms are figur$ aft] su* a mann] t ! acid po9ts ent]+ 9 d /rike & divide :atev] opposes _! motion4' ,& 9 a l _s are ! speculations 9 ,dr4 ,mead's ,me*anical ,acc\nt ( ,poisons 7#agde74 ,?us he expla9s ! poison\s effect ( corrosive sublimate ( m]cury by say+#hf t ! p>ticles ( ! salt are a k9d ( lamell or blades to :i* ! m]cury gives an additional weight4 ,if resublim$ ) ?ree-f\r?s ! quantity ( m]cury1 x loses its corrosiv5ess1 7becom+ calomel17 :i* arises f ?is1 t 9 sublimation '! cry/all9e blades are divid$ e "t m & m by ! =ce ( ! fire3' & '! brok5 pieces ( ! cry/als unit+ into little masses ( diff]+ figures f _! =m] make1 ^? cutt+ po9ts are n[ s mu* small] t !y _c make w\nds deep en\gh to be equally mis*iev\s & deadly3 & !re=e d only vellicate & twit* ! s5sible membranes ( ! /oma*4' ,note #hf3 ,p4 #aii4 #g4 ,among all ?is v fanciful & gratuit\s assumption we may notice "o true pr9ciple cle>ly introduc$1 namely1 t ! suppositions :i* we make respect+ ! =ms ( ! elem5t>y p>ticles ( bodies & _! mode ( comb9ation mu/ be su* z to expla9 ! facts ( cry/allization1 z well z ( m]e *emical *ange4 ,?is pr9ciple we %all h]eaft] h occasion to insi/ ^u fur!r4 ,i n[ proce$ to consid] a m ref9$ =m ( assumption respect+ ! con/itution ( bodies1 yet #aj /ill "o 9 :i* a va9 attempt is made to sub/itute = ! peculi> idea ( *emical composition a m famili> me*anical conception4 #h4 ,comp\nds assum$ to be det]m9$ by ! ,me*anical ,attraction ( ! ,elem5ts4--,:51 9 consequ5ce ( ! inve/igations & discov]ies ( ,newton & 8 pr$ecessors1 ! conception ( me*anical =ce _h become cle> & famili>1 s f> z ! action ( ext]nal =ces ^u a body 0 conc]n$1 x 0 v natural t ! ma!maticians :o _h pursu$ ?is tra9 ( speculation %\ld attempt to apply ! same conception to t mutual action ( ! int]nal p>ts ( a body by :i* !y are held toge!r4 ,newton himself _h po9t$ ! way to ?is attempt4 ,9 ! ,preface to ! ,pr9cipia1 aft] speak+ ( :at he has done 9 calculat+ ! effects ( =ces ^u ! planets1 satellites1 e41 he adds1 ',w\ld x 7 p]mitt$ u to d$uce ! o!r ph5om5a ( nature f me*anical pr9ciples by ! same k9d ( reason+4 ,= _m ?+s move me to suspect t all ^! ph5om5a dep5d ^u c]ta9 =ces1 by :i* ! p>ticles ( bodies1 ?r\gh causes n yet kn[n1 are ei!r urg$ t[>ds ea* o!r1 & coh]e accord+ to regul> figures1 or are repell$ & rec$e f ea* o!r2 :i* =ces be+ unkn[n1 philosoph]s h hi!rto made _! attempts ^u nature 9 va94' ,! same ?\ght is at a lat] p]iod foll[$ out fur!r 9 "o ( ! ,qu]ies at ! end ( ! ,opticks#if4 ',h n ! small p>ticles ( bodies c]ta9 ,p[]s1 ,virtues1 or ,=ces1 by :i* !y act at a di/ance1 n only ^u ! rays ( light = reflect+1 refract+ & inflect+ !m1 b also ^u "o ano!r = produc+ a great "p ( ! ph5om5a ( nature8' ,& a little fur!r on he proce$s to apply ?is expressly to *emical *anges4 ',:5 ,salt ( ,t>t> runs p] deliquium or z we n[ express x1 deliquesces is n ?is done by an attraction betwe5 ! p>ticles ( ! ,salt ( ,t>t> & ! p>ticles ( ! wat] :i* float 9 ! air 9 #aa ! =m ( vap\rs8 ,& :y does n common salt1 or saltpetre1 or vitriol1 run p] deliquium1 b = want ( su* an attraction8 or :y does n ,salt ( ,t>t> draw m wat] out ( ! air ?an 9 a c]ta9 proportion to its quantity1 b = want ( an attractive =ce aft] x is saturat$ ) wat]8' ,he goes on to put a great numb] ( simil> cases1 all t5d+ to ! same po9t1 t *emical comb9ations _c be conceiv$ 9 any o!r way ?an z an attraction ( p>ticles4 ,note #if3 ,qu]y #ca4 #i4 ,succe$+ speculators 9 8 s*ool attempt$ to foll[ out ?is view4 ,dr4 ,fr5d1 ( ,*ri/ ,*ur*1 9 #agaj1 publi%$ 8 ,prlectiones ,*ymic1 9 quibus omne f]e ,op]ationes ,*ymic ad v]a ,pr9cipia ex ipsius ,natur ,legibus r$iguntur4 ,oxonii habit4 ,?is book is d$icat$ to ,newton1 & 9 ! d$ication1 ! promise ( advantage to *emi/ry f ! influ5ce ( ! ,newtonian discov]ies is spok5 ( some:at l>gely1--mu* m l>gely1 inde$1 ?an has yet be5 ju/ifi$ by ! sequel4 ,aft] decl>+ 9 /rong t]ms t ! only prospect ( improv+ sci5ce consi/s 9 foll[+ ! foot/eps ( ,newton1 ! au?or adds1 ',t =ce ( attraction1 ( :i* y fir/ s successfully trac$ ! influ5ce 9 ! heav5ly bodies1 op]ates 9 ! mo/ m9ute corpuscles1 z y long ago h9t$ 9 y\r ,pr9cipia1 & h lately pla9ly %[n 9 y\r ,opticks2 & ?is =ce we are only j beg9n+ to p]ceive & to /udy4 ,"u ^! circum/ances ,i h be5 desir\s ( try+ :at is ! result ( ?is view 9 *emi/ry4' ,! "w op5s =mally en\gh1 ) a /atem5t ( g5]al me*anical pr9ciples1 ( :i* ! mo/ peculi> are ^!3--',t !re exi/s an attractive =ce by :i* p>ticles :5 at v small di/ances f ea* o!r1 are drawn toge!r2--t ?is =ce is diff]5t1 accord+ to ! diff]5t figure & d5sity ( ! p>ticles2--t ! =ce may be great] on "o side ( a p>ticle ?an on ! o!r2--t ! =ce by :i* p>ticles coh]e toge!r arises f attraction1 & is v>i\sly modifi$ accord+ to ! quantity ( contacts4' ,b ^! pr9ciples are n #ab appli$ 9 any def9ite mann] to ! explanation ( specific ph5om5a4 ,he attempts1 inde$1 ! "q ( special solv5ts#ajf4 ,:y does aqua =tis dissolve silv] & n gold1 :ile aqua regia dissolves gold & n silv]8 :i*1 he says1 is ! mo/ difficult "q 9 *emi/ry1 & :i* is c]ta9ly a fundam5tal "q 9 ! =mation ( *emical !ory4 ,he solves x by c]ta9 assumptions respect+ ! =ces ( attraction ( ! p>ticles1 & also ! diamet] ( ! p>ticles ( ! acids & ! pores ( ! metals1 all :i* suppositions are gratuit\s4 ,note #ajf3 ,p4 #ed4 #aj4 ,we may obs]ve fur!r1 t by speak+1 z ,i h /at$ t he does1 ( ! figure ( p>ticles1 he mixes toge!r ! assumption ( ! la/ section ) ! "o :i* we are consid]+ 9 ?is4 ,?is comb9ation is v unphilosophical1 or1 to say ! lea/1 v insuffici5t1 s9ce x makes a new hypo!sis necess>y4 ,if a body be compos$ ( cubical p>ticles1 held toge!r by _! mutual attraction1 by :at =ce are ! p>ts ( ea* cube held toge!r8 ,9 ord] to und]/& _! /ructure1 we are oblig$ aga9 to assume a cohesive =ce ( ! second ord]1 b9d+ toge!r ! p>ticles ( ea* p>ticle4 ,& !re=e ,newton himself says#aaf1 v ju/ly1 ',! p>ts ( all homog5eal h>d bodies :i* fully t\* ea* o!r1 /ick toge!r v /rongly3 & = expla9+ h[ ?is is1 "s h inv5t$ hook$ atoms1 :i* is begg+ ! "q4' ,= 7he means to imply17 h[ d ! p>ts ( ! hook /ick toge!r8 ,note #aaf3 ,opticks1 p4 #cfd4 ,! same rem>k is applicable to all hypo!ses 9 :i* p>ticles ( a complex /ructure are assum$ z ! con/itu5ts ( bodies3 = :ile we suppose bodies & _! kn[n prop]ties to result f ! mutual actions ( ^! p>ticles1 we are compell$ to suppose ! p>ts ( ea* p>ticle to be held toge!r by =ces /ill m difficult to conceive1 s9ce !y are disclos$ only by ! prop]ties ( ^! p>ticles1 :i* z yet are unkn[n4 ,yet ,newton himself has n ab/a9$ f su* hypo!ses3 ?us he says#abf1 ',a p>ticle ( #ac a salt may be comp>$ to a *aos1 be+ d5se1 h>d1 dry1 & e>?y 9 ! c5t]1 & moi/ & wat]y 9 ! circumf]5ce4' ,note #abf3 ,opticks1 p4 #cfb4 ,s9ce ,newton's "t ! use ( ! t]m attraction1 z express+ ! cause ( ! union ( ! *emical elem5ts ( bodies1 has be5 famili>ly cont9u$2 & has1 no d\bt1 be5 accompani$ 9 ! m9ds ( _m p]sons ) an obscure notion t *emical attraction is1 9 "s way1 a k9d ( me*anical attraction ( ! p>ticles ( bodies4 ,yet ! doctr9e t *emical 'attraction' & me*anical attraction are =ces ( ! same k9d has nev]1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 be5 work$ out into a sy/em ( *emical !ory2 nor ev5 appli$ ) any di/9ctness z an explanation ( any p>ticul> *emical ph5om5a4 ,any su* attempt1 inde$1 c\ld only t5d to br+ m cle>ly into view ! entire inadequacy ( su* a mode ( explanation4 ,= ! lead+ ph5om5a ( *emi/ry are all ( su* a nature t no me*anical comb9ation c s]ve to express !m1 )\t an imm5se accumulation ( additional hypo!ses4 ,if we take z our problem ! *anges ( col\r1 transp>5cy1 texture1 ta/e1 od\r1 produc$ by small *anges 9 ! +r$i5ts1 h[ c we expect to give a me*anical acc\nt ( ^!1 till we c give a me*anical acc\nt ( col\r1 transp>5cy1 texture1 ta/e1 od\r1 !mselves8 ,& if our me*anical hypo!sis ( ! elem5t>y con/itution ( bodies does n expla9 su* ph5om5a z ^? *anges1 :at c x expla91 or :at c be ! value ( x8 ,i d n "h insi/ ^u a rem>k :i* w aft]w>ds come be=e u1 t ev5 cry/all9e =m1 a ph5om5on ( a f> m obvi\sly me*anical nature ?an ^? j allud$ to1 has nev] yet be5 9 any degree expla9$ by su* assumptions z ?is1 t bodies consi/ ( elem5t>y p>ticles ex]t+ =ces ( ! same nature z ! c5tral =ces :i* we contemplate 9 ,me*anics4 ,:5 !re=e ,newton asks1 ',:5 "s /ones1 z sp> ( lead1 dissolv$ 9 prop] m5/ruums1 become salts1 d n ^! ?+s %[ t salts are dry e>? & wat]y acid unit$ by attraction8' we may #ad answ]1 t ?is mode ( expression appe>s to be int5d$ to id5tify *emical comb9ation ) me*anical attraction2--t !re w\ld be no objection to any su* id5tification1 if we c\ld1 9 t way1 expla91 or ev5 classify well1 a collection ( *emical facts2 b t ?is has nev] yet be5 done by ! help ( su* expressions4 ,till "s advance ( ?is k9d c be po9t$ out1 we mu/ necess>ily consid] ! p[] :i* produces *emical comb9ation z a peculi> pr9ciple1 a special relation ( ! elem5ts1 n rightly express$ 9 me*anical t]ms4 ,& we n[ proce$ to consid] ?is relation "u ! "n by :i* x is mo/ famili>ly kn[n4 #ae ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,e/abli%m5t ,,& ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,*emical ,,aff9ity4 #a4 ,,! e>li] *emi/s did n commonly involve !mselves 9 ! confusion into :i* ! me*anical philosoph]s ran1 ( comp>+ *emical to me*anical =ces4 ,_! att5tion 0 engag$1 & _! ideas 7 m\ld$1 by _! own pursuits4 ,!y saw t ! connexion ( elem5ts & comp\nds ) :i* !y _h to deal1 0 a peculi> relation :i* mu/ be /udi$ directly2 & :i* mu/ be und]/ood1 if und]/ood at all1 9 itself1 & n by comp>ison ) a diff]5t class ( relations4 ,at diff]5t p]iods ( ! progress ( *emi/ry1 ! conception ( ?is relation1 /ill vague & obscure1 0 express$ 9 v>i\s mann]s2 & at la/ ?is conception 0 clo!d 9 tol]ably consi/5t phraseology1 & ! pr9ciples :i* x involv$ 71 by ! unit$ =ce ( ?\ght & exp]im5t1 br\ght into view4 #b4 ,! p[] by :i* ! elem5ts ( bodies comb9e *emically1 be+1 z we h se51 a peculi> ag5cy1 diff]5t f m]e me*anical connexion or attraction1 x is desirable to h x designat$ by a di/9ct & peculi> "n2 & ! t]m ,aff9ity has be5 employ$ = t purpose by mo/ mod]n *emi/s4 ,! ^w 'aff9ity' 9 common language means1 sometimes resemblance1 & sometimes relation%ip & ties ( family4 ,x is f ! latt] s5se t ! metaphor is borr[$ :5 we speak ( '*emical aff9ity4' ,by ! employm5t ( ?is t]m we d n indicate a resemblance1 b a disposition to unite4 ,us+ ! ^w 9 a common unsci5tific mann]1 we might say t *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e1 h a great #af natural aff9ity ) ea* o!r1 = !re are consid]able resemblances & analogies among !m2 b ^! bodies h v little *emical ,aff9ity = ea* o!r4 ,! use ( ! ^w 9 ! =m] s5se1 ( resemblance1 c be trac$ 9 e>li] *emi/s2 b ! ^w does n appe> to h acquir$ its peculi> *emical mean+ till aft] ,bo]haave's "t4 ,bo]haave1 h[ev]1 is ! writ] 9 :om we fir/ f9d a due appreh5sion ( ! peculi>ity & importance ( ! ,idea :i* x n[ expresses4 ,:5 we make a *emical solution#acf1 he says1 n only are ! p>ticles ( ! dissolv$ body sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 b !y are closely unit$ to ! p>ticles ( ! solv5t4 ,:5 aqua regia dissolves gold1 d y n see1 he says to 8 he>]s1 t !re mu/ be betwe5 ea* p>ticle ( ! solv5t & ( ! metal1 a mutual virtue by :i* ea* loves1 unites )1 & holds ! o!r 7amat1 unit1 ret9et78 ,! op9ion previ\sly preval5t _h be5 t ! solv5t m]ely sep>ates ! p>ts ( ! body dissolv$3 & mo/ philosoph]s _h conceiv$ ?is sep>ation z p]=m$ by me*anical op]ations ( ! p>ticles1 resembl+1 = in/ance1 ! op]ation ( w$ges break+ up a block ( timb]4 ,b ,bo]haave =cibly & e>ne/ly po9ts out ! insuffici5cy ( ! conception4 ,?is1 he says1 does n acc\nt = :at we see4 ,we h n only a sep>ation1 b a new comb9ation4 ,!re is a =ce by :i* ! p>ticles ( ! solv5t associate to !mselves ! p>ts dissolv$1 n a =ce by :i* !y repel & dissev] !m4 ,we are "h to imag9e n me*anical action1 n viol5t impulse1 n antipa?y1 b love1 at lea/ if love be ! desire ( unit+4 7,non igitur hic etiam actiones me*anic1 non propulsiones viol5t1 non inimiciti cogit&1 s$ amiciti1 si amor dic5dus copul cupido47 ,! novelty ( ?is view is evid5c$ by ! mode 9 :i* he apologizes = introduc+ x4 ',fateor1 p>adoxa hc ass]tio4' ,to ,bo]haave1 !re=e1 7especially consid]+ 8 great influ5ce z a tea*] ( *emi/ry17 we may #ag assign ! m]it ( fir/ diffus+ a prop] view ( ,*emical ,aff9ity z a peculi> =ce1 ! orig9 ( almo/ all *emical *anges & op]ations4 ,note #acf3 ,elem5ta ,*emi1 ,lugd4 ,bat4 #agcb1 p4 #fgg4 #c4 ,to ,bo]haave is usually assign$ also ! cr$it ( introduc+ ! ^w ',aff9ity' among *emi/s2 b ,i d n f9d t ! ^w is (t5 us$ by him 9 ?is s5se2 p]haps n at all#adf4 ,b h[ev] ?is may be1 ! t]m is1 on _m acc\nts1 well wor?y to be pres]v$1 z ,i %all endeav\r to %[4 ,o!r t]ms 7 us$ 9 ! same s5se dur+ ! e>ly "p ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,?us :5 ,ge(froy1 9 #agah1 laid be=e ! ,academy ( ,p>is 8 ,tables ( ,aff9ities1 :i* p]haps did m ?an any o!r ev5t to fix ! ,idea ( ,aff9ity1 he t]m$ !m ',tables ( ! ,relations ( ,bodies2' ',tables des ,rapports3' speak+ h[ev]1 also1 ( _! 'disposition to unite1' & us+ o!r phrases ( ! same import4 ,note #adf3 ,see ,dumas1 ,leons de ,phil4 ,*im4 p4 #cfd4 ,rees' ,cyclopdia1 ,art4 ,*emi/ry4 ,9 ! passage ( ,bo]haave to :i* ,i ref] above1 aff9itas is r oppos$ to1 ?an id5tifi$ )1 *emical comb9ation4 ,:51 he says1 ! p>ts ( ! body to be dissolv$ are dissev]$ by ! solv5t1 :y d !y rema9 unit$ to ! p>ticles ( ! solv5t1 & :y d n r bo? ! p>ticles ( ! solv5t & ( ! dissolv$ body collect into homog5e\s bodies by _! aff9ity8 'd5uo se aff9itate su natur colligant 9 corpora homog5ea8' ,& ! answ] is1 because !y possess ano!r =ce :i* c\nt]acts ?is aff9ity ( homog5e\s p>ticles1 & makes comp\nds ( diff]5t elem5ts4 ,aff9ity1 9 *emi/ry1 n[ means ! t5d5cy ( diff]5t k9ds ( matt] to unite3 b x appe>s1 z ,i h said1 to h acquir$ ?is s5se s9ce ,bo]haave's "t4 ,! t]m attraction1 hav+ be5 recomm5d$ by ,newton z a fit ^w to designate ! =ce :i* produces *emical comb9ation1 cont9u$ 9 great fav\r 9 ,engl&1 :]e ! ,newtonian philosophy 0 look$ ^u z applicable to e bran* ( sci5ce4 ,9 ,france1 on ! contr>y1 :]e ,desc>tes /ill reign$ triumphant1 'attraction1' ! wat*-^w ( ! enemy1 0 a s\nd nev] utt]$ b ) dislike & suspicion4 ,9 #agah 79 ! notice ( ,ge(froy's ,table17 ! ,secret>y ( ! ,academy1 aft] po9t+ out "s ( ! peculi> circum/ances ( *emical #ah comb9ations1 says1 ',sympa?ies & attractions w\ld suit well "h1 if !re 7 su* ?+s1' ',les sympa?ies1 les attractions convi5droi5t bi5 ici1 si elles tai5t quelque *ose4' ,& at a lat] p]iod1 9 #agca1 hav+ to write ! loge ( ,ge(froy aft] 8 dea?1 he says1 ',he gave1 9 #agah1 a s+ul> sy/em1 & a ,table ( ,aff9ities1 or ,relations ( ! diff]5t sub/ances 9 *emi/ry4 ,^! aff9ities gave an eas9ess to "s p]sons1 :o fe>$ t !y 7 attractions 9 disguise1 & all ! m dang]\s 9 consequ5ce ( ! s$uctive =ms :i* clev] p h contriv$ to give !m4 ,x 0 f\nd 9 ! sequel t ?is scruple might be got ov]4' ,?is is ! e>lie/ publi%$ in/ance1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 9 :i* ! ^w ',aff9ity' is di/9ctly us$ = ! cause ( *emical composition2 & tak+ into acc\nt ! circum/ances1 ! ^w appe>s to h be5 adopt$ 9 ,france 9 ord] to avoid ! ^w attraction1 :i* _h ! ta9t ( ,newtonianism4 ,accord+ly we f9d ! ^w aff9it employ$ 9 ! works ( ,fr5* *emi/s f ?is "t4 ,?us1 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,fr5* ,academy = #agdf1 9 a pap] ( ,macqu]'s ^u ,ars5ic1 he says#aef1 ',on peut facilem5t r5dre raison de ces ph5omnes p> le moy5 des aff9its que les diffr5s sub/ances qui entr5t dans ces comb9aisons1 ont les uns avec les autres3' & he proce$s to expla9 ! facts by ref]5ce to ,ge(froy's ,table4 ,& 9 ,macqu]'s ,elem5ts ( ,*emi/ry1 :i* appe>$ a few ye>s lat]1 ! ',aff9ity ( ,composition' is treat$ ( z a lead+ "p ( ! subject1 mu* 9 ! same way z has be5 practis$ 9 su* books up to ! pres5t "t4 ,f ?is p]iod1 ! ^w appe>s to h become famili> to all ,european *emi/s 9 ! s5se ( :i* we are n[ speak+4 ,?us1 9 ! ye> #ageh1 ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces at ,r\5 (f]$ a prize = ! be/ diss]tation on ,aff9ity4 ,! prize 0 %>$ betwe5 ,m4 ,limb\rg ( ,!ux1 ne> ,liege1 & ,m4 ,le ,sage #ai ( ,g5eva#aff4 ,ab\t ! same "t o!r p]sons 7,manh]r#agf1 ,nicolai#ahf1 & o!rs7 wrote on ! same subject1 employ+ ! same "n4 ,note #aef3 ,a4 ,p4 #agdf1 p4 #bja4 ,note #aff3 ,?omson's ,*emi/ry1 iii4 #aj4 ,limb\rg's ,diss]tation 0 publi%$ at ,liege1 9 #agfa2 & ,le ,sage's at ,g5eva4 ,note #agf3 ,diss]tatio de ,aff9itate ,corporum4 ,v9dob4 #agfb4 ,note #ahf3 ,progr4 ,i4 ,,ii4 de ,aff9itate ,corporum ,*imica4 ,j54 #agge1 #aggf4 ,nev]!less1 9 #agge1 ! ,sw$i% *emi/ ,b]gman1 pursu+ /ill fur!r ?is subject ( ,*emical ,aff9ities1 & ! expression ( !m by means ( ,tables1 return$ aga9 to ! old ,newtonian t]m2 & designat$ ! disposition ( a body to comb9e ) "o r ?an ano!r ( two o!rs z ,elective ,attraction4 ,& z 8 "w on ,elective ,attractions _h great circulation & great influ5ce1 ?is phrase has obta9$ a foot+ by ! side ( ,aff9ity1 & bo? "o & ! o!r are n[ 9 common use among *emi/s4 #d4 ,i h said above t ! t]m ,aff9ity is wor?y ( be+ reta9$ z a te*nical t]m4 ,if we use ! ^w attraction 9 ?is case1 we id5tify or comp>e *emical ) me*anical attraction2 f :i* id5tification & comp>ison1 z ,i h already rem>k$1 no "o has yet be5 able to extract ! means ( express+ any s+le sci5tific tru?4 ,if su* an id5tification or comp>ison be n int5d$1 ! use ( ! same ^w 9 two diff]5t s5ses c only lead to confusion2 & ! prop] c\rse1 recomm5d$ by all ! be/ analogies ( sci5tific hi/ory1 is to adopt a peculi> t]m = t peculi> relation on :i* *emical composition dep5ds4 ,! ^w ,aff9ity1 ev5 if x 7 n rigor\sly prop] accord+ to its common mean+1 /ill1 be+ simple1 famili>1 & well e/abli%$ 9 ?is v usage1 is mu* to be pref]r$ be=e any o!r4 ,b fur!r1 !re are "s analogies drawn f ! common mean+ ( ?is ^w1 :i* appe> to recomm5d x z suitable = ! (fice :i* x has to dis*>ge4 ,= common me*anical attractions & #bj repulsions1 ! =ces by :i* "o body consid]$ z a :ole acts ^u ano!r ext]nal to x1 are1 z we h said1 to be di/+ui%$ f ^? m intimate ties by :i* ! p>ts ( ea* body are held toge!r4 ,n[ ?is diff]5ce is impli$1 if we comp>e ! =m] relations1 ! attractions & repulsions1 to alliances & w>s betwe5 ,/ates1 & ! latt]1 ! int]nal union ( p>ticles1 to ^? bonds ( aff9ity :i* connect ! citiz5s ( ! same /ate ) "o ano!r1 & especially to ! ties ( ,family4 ,we h se5 t ,bo]haave comp>es ! union ( two elem5ts ( a comp\nd to _! m>riage2 'we mu/ all[1' says an em95t *emi/ ( our own "t#aif1 't !re is "s tru? 9 ?is poetical comp>ison4' ,x conta9s ?is tru?1--t ! two become "o to mo/ int5ts & purposes1 & t ! ,unit ?us =m$ 7! ,family7 is n a m]e juxtaposition ( ! compon5t p>ts4 ,& ?us ! ,idea ( ,aff9ity z ! peculi> pr9ciple ( *emical composition1 is e/abli%$ among *emi/s1 & designat$ by a famili> & appropriate "n4 ,note #aif3 ,dumas1 ,leons de ,phil4 ,*im4 p4 #cfc4 #e4 ,analysis is possible4--,we mu/1 h[ev]1 endeav\r to obta9 a fur!r insight into ?is ,idea1 ?us fix$ & nam$4 ,we mu/ endeav\r to extricate1 if n f ! ,idea itself1 f ! processes by :i* x has obta9$ acceptation & curr5cy among *emi/s1 "s pr9ciples :i* may def9e its application1 "s additional specialities 9 ! relations :i* x implies4 ,?is we %all proce$ to d4 ,! ,idea ( ,aff9ity1 z already expla9$1 implies a disposition to comb9e4 ,b ?is comb9ation is to be und]/ood z admitt+ also ( a possibility ( sep>ation4 ,syn!sis implies ,analysis z conceivable3 or to recur to ! image :i* we h already us$1 ,divorce is possible :5 ! ,m>riage has tak5 place4 ,t !re is ?is possibility1 is a conviction impli$ 9 all ! rese>*es ( *emi/s1 ev] s9ce ! true notion ( composition began to pr$om9ate 9 _! inve/igations4 ,"o ( ! fir/ p]sons :o cle>ly #ba express$ ?is conviction 0 ,may[1 an ,engli% physician1 :o publi%$ 8 ,m$ico-,physical ,tracts 9 #afgd4 ,! fir/ ( !m ,de ,sale-,nitro et ,spiritu ,nitro-,a]io1 conta9s a cle> enunciation ( ?is pr9ciple4 ,aft] %[+ h[1 9 ! comb9ations ( opposite elem5ts1 z acid & alkali1 _! prop]ties entirely disappe>1 & a new sub/ance is =m$ n at all resembl+ ei!r ( ! +r$i5ts1 he adds#bjf1 ',al?\gh ^! salts ?us mix$ appe> to be de/roy$ x is /ill possible = !m to be sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 ) _! p[]s /ill entire4' ,he proce$s to exemplify ?is1 & illu/rates x by ! same image :i* ,i h already allud$ to3 ',salia acida a salibus volatilibus disc$unt1 ut cum sale fixo t>t>i1 tanquam sponso magis idoneo1 conjugium /rictius ineunt4' ,?is idea ( a syn!sis :i* left a complete analysis /ill possible1 0 oppos$ to a notion previ\sly curr5t1 t :5 two het]og5e\s bodies unit$ toge!r & =m$ a ?ird body1 ! two con/itu5ts 7 entirely de/roy$1 & ! result =m$ out ( _! ru9s#baf4 ,& ?is conception ( ,syn!sis & ,analysis1 z processes :i* are possible successively & alt]nately1 & ea* ( :i* supposes ! possibility ( ! o!r1 has be5 ! fundam5tal & regulative pr9ciple ( ! op]ations & speculations ( analytical *emi/ry f ! "t ( ,may[ to ! pres5t day4 ,note #bjf3 ,cap4 xiv4 p4 #bcc4 ,note #baf3 ,?omson's ,*emi/ry1 iii4 #h4 #f4 ,aff9ity is ,elective4--,:5 ! idea ( *emical aff9ity1 or disposition to unite1 0 br\ght into view by ! exp]im5ts & reason+s ( *emi/s1 !y f\nd x necess>y to consid] ?is disposition z elective2--ea* elem5t *ose "o r ?an ano!r ( ! elem5ts :i* 7 pres5t$ to x1 & quitt$ its union ) "o to unite ) ano!r :i* x pref]r$4 ,?is has already appe>$ 9 ! passage j quot$ f ,may[4 ,he adds 9 ! same /ra91 ',i h no d\bt t fix$ salts *oose "o acid r ?an ano!r1 9 ord] t !y may coalesce ) x #bb 9 a m intimate union4'--',nullus dubito salia fixa acidum unum pr aliis elig]e1 ut cum eodem arctiore unione coalescant4' ,! same ?\ght is express$ & exemplifi$ by o!r *emi/s3 !y notice innum]able cases 9 :i*1 :5 an +r$i5t is comb9$ ) a liquid1 if a new sub/ance be imm]s$ :i* has a great] aff9ity = ! liquid1 ! liquid comb9es ) ! new sub/ance by election1 & ! =m] 9999+r$i5t is precipitat$4 ,?us ,/ahl says#bbf1 ',9 _s ( nitre dissolve silv]2 put 9 copp] & ! silv] is ?r[n d[n2 put 9 iron & ! copp] goes d[n2 put 9 z9c1 ! iron precipitates2 put 9 volatile alkali1 ! z9c is sep>at$2 put 9 fix$ alkali1 ! volatile quits its hold4'--,z may be se5 9 ?is example1 we h 9 su* cases1 n only a pref]5ce1 b a long gradation ( pref]5ces4 ,! _s ( nitre w comb9e ) silv]1 b x pref]s copp]2 pref]s iron m2 z9c /ill m2 volatile alkali yet m2 fix$ alkali ! mo/4 ,note #bbf3 ,zymote*nia1 #afig1 p4 #aag4 ,! same ?+ 0 prov$ to obta9 ) reg>d to ea* elem5t2 & :5 ?is 0 asc]ta9$1 x became ! object ( *emi/s to express ^! degrees ( pref]5ce1 by li/s 9 :i* sub/ances 7 arrang$ accord+ to _! disposition to unite ) ano!r sub/ance4 ,9 ?is mann] 0 =m$ ,ge(froy's ,table ( ,aff9ities 7#agah71 :i* we h already m5tion$4 ,?is ,table 0 fur!r improv$ by o!r writ]s1 z ,gell]t 7#agea7 & ,limb\rg 7#agfa74 ,f9ally ,b]gman improv$ ^! ,tables /ill fur!r1 tak+ into acc\nt n only ! ord] ( aff9ities ( ea* elem5t = o!rs1 b ! sum ( ! t5d5cies to unite ( ea* two elem5ts1 :i* sum1 he held1 det]m9$ ! result+ comb9ation :5 sev]al elem5ts 7 9 contact ) ea* o!r4 #g4 ,z we h /at$ 9 ! ,hi/ory#bcf1 :5 ! doctr9e ( elective aff9ities _h assum$ ?is v def9ite & sy/ematic =m1 x 0 assail$ by ,b]?ollet1 :o ma9ta9$1 9 8 ,essai de ,/atique #bc ,*imique1 7#ahjc17 t *emical aff9ities are n elective3--t1 :5 v>i\s elem5ts are br\ght toge!r1 _! comb9ations d n dep5d ^u ! k9d ( elem5ts alone1 b ^u ! quantity ( ea* :i* is pres5t1 t :i* is mo/ abundant always ent]+ mo/ l>gely into ! result+ comp\nds4 ,x may seem /range t x %\ld be possible1 at s late a p]iod ( ! sci5ce1 to ?r[ d\bt ^u a doctr9e :i* _h presid$ ov] & direct$ its progress s long4 ,pr\/ answ]$ ,b]?ollet1 & aga9 ma9ta9$ t *emical aff9ity is elective4 ,i h1 9 ! ,hi/ory1 giv5 ! judgm5t ( ,b]zelius ^u ?is controv]sy4 ',b]?ollet1' he says1 'def5d$ himself ) an acut5ess :i* makes ! read] hesitate 9 8 judgm5t2 b ! great mass ( facts f9ally decid$ ! po9t 9 fav\r ( ,pr\/4' ,i may "h add ! op9ion pron\nc$ ^u ?is subject by ,dr4 ,turn]#bdf3 ',b]gman err$ 9 suppos+ ! result ( ! *emical action to be 9 e case ow+ to elective aff9ity = ?is p[] is modifi$ 9 its effects by v>i\s circum/ances3 b ,b]?ollet ran into ! opposite extreme 9 decl>+ t ! effects =m]ly ascrib$ to t p[] are nev] produc$ by x4 ,t *emical attraction is ex]t$ betwe5 diff]5t bodies ) diff]5t degrees ( en]gy1 is1 ,i appreh5d1 indisputable4' ,& he !n proce$s to give _m in/ances ( diff]5ces 9 aff9ity :i* _c be acc\nt$ = by ! op]ation ( any modify+ causes4 ,/ill m rec5tly1 ,m4 ,dumas has tak5 a review ( ?is controv]sy2 &1 speak+ ) en?usiasm ( ! "w ( ,b]?ollet1 z "o :i* _h be5 ( ine/imable s]vice to himself 9 8 e>ly /udy ( *emi/ry1 he appe>s at fir/ dispos$ to aw>d to him ! victory 9 ?is dispute4 ,b 8 f9al v]dict leaves undamag$ ! g5]al pr9ciple n[ "u our consid]ation1 t *emical aff9ity is elective4 ',= my own "p1' he says#bef1 ',i will+ly admit ! notions ( ,b]?ollet :5 we h to d ) acids or #bd ) bases1 ( :i* ! en]gy is ne>ly equal3 b :5 bodies endu$ ) v en]getic aff9ities are 9 pres5ce ( o!r bodies ( :i* ! aff9ities are v feeble1 ,i propose to adopt ! foll[+ rule3 ,9 a solution1 ev]y?+ rema9+ dissolv$1 ! /rong aff9ities satisfy !mselves1 leav+ ! weak aff9ities to arrange matt]s ) "o ano!r4 ,! /rong acids take ! /rong bases1 & ! weak acids c only unite ) ! weak bases4 ,! kn[n facts are p]fectly 9 accordance ) ?is practical rule4' ,x is obvi\s t ?is recognition ( a di/9ction betwe5 /rong & weak aff9ities1 :i* op]ates to su* an ext5t z to det]m9e entirely ! result1 is a complete ackn[l$gem5t ( ! ,elective nature ( ,aff9ity1 z f> z any p]son acqua9t$ ) *emical op]ations c\ld cont5d = x4 ,= x mu/ be all[$ by all1 t solubility1 & o!r collat]al circum/ances1 influ5ce ! c\rse ( *emical comb9ations1 s9ce !y det]m9e :e!r or n !re %all take place t contact ( elem5ts )\t :i* aff9ity _c possibly op]ate4 ,note #bcf3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xiv4 c4 iii4 ,note #bdf3 ,*emi/ry1 p4 #aii4 #f? edition4 ,note #bef3 ,leons de ,philosophie ,*imique1 p4 #chf4 #h4 ,aff9ity is ,def9ite z to quantity4--,9 proportion z *emi/s obta9$ a cle>] view ( ! products ( ! laboratory z results ( ! composition ( elem5ts1 !y saw m & m cle>ly t ^! results 7 def9ite2 t "o elem5t n only pref]r$ to comb9e ) ano!r ( a c]ta9 k9d1 b also w\ld comb9e ) x to a c]ta9 ext5t & no fur!r1 ?us giv+ to ! result n an accid5tal & v>iable1 b a fix$ & con/ant "*4 ,?us salts be+ consid]$ z ! result ( ! comb9ation ( two opposite pr9ciples1 acid & alkali1 & be+ t]m$ neutral :5 ^! pr9ciples exactly balanc$ ea* o!r1 ,r\elle 7:o 0 ,royal ,pr(essor at ,p>is 9 #agdb7 admits ( neutral salts ) excess ( acid1 neutral salts ) excess ( base1 & p]fect neutral salts4 ,beaume ma9ta9$#bff aga9/ him t !re 7 no salts except ^? p]fectly neutral1 ! o!r classes be+ ! results ( mixture & imp]fect #be comb9ation4 ,b ?is "q 0 n adequately treat$ till *emi/s made e exp]im5t ) ! balance 9 _! h&s4 ,:5 ?is 0 done1 !y soon discov]$ t1 9 ea* neutral salt1 ! proportional weights ( ! +r$i5ts :i* compos$ x 7 always ! same4 ,?is 0 asc]ta9$ by ,w5zel1 ^: ,doctr9e ( ! ,aff9ities ( ,bodies appe>$ 9 #aggg4 ,he n only asc]ta9$ t ! proportions ( elem5ts 9 neutral *emical comp\nds are def9ite1 b also t !y are reciprocal2 t is1 7to express 8 results 9 a mann] n[ employ$ by *emi/s71 t if ,a1 a c]ta9 weight ( a c]ta9 acid1 neutralize m1 a c]ta9 weight ( a c]ta9 base1 & ,b1 a c]ta9 weight ( a c]ta9 o!r acid1 neutralize n1 a c]ta9 weight ( a c]ta9 o!r base2 ! comp\nd ( ,a & n w also be neutral2 z also t ( ,b & m4 ,! same views 7 aga9 pres5t$ by ,ri*t] 9 #agib1 9 8 ,pr9ciples ( ! ,measure ( ,*emical ,elem5ts4 ,& along ) ^! facts1 t ( ! comb9ation ( elem5ts 9 multiple proportions be+ also tak5 into acc\nt1 ! f\ndations ( ! ,atomic ,!ory 7 laid2 & t ,!ory 0 prop\nd$ 9 #ahjc by ,mr4 ,dalton4 ,t !ory1 h[ev]1 re/s ^u ! ,idea ( ,sub/ance1 z well z ^u t ,idea ( ,*emical ,aff9ity :i* we are "h consid]+2 & ! discussion ( its evid5ce & tru? mu/ be = ! pres5t def]r$4 ,note #bff3 ,dumas1 ,phil4 ,*im4 p4 #aih4 #i4 ,! two pr9ciples j expla9$1--t ,aff9ity is ,def9ite z to ! ,k9d1 & z to ! ,quantity ( ! elem5ts :i* x unites1--h "h be5 /at$ z results ( exp]im5tal inve/igation4 ,t !y c\ld nev] h be5 cle>ly und]/ood1 & !re=e nev] firmly e/abli%$1 )\t labori\s & exact exp]im5ts1 is c]ta92 b yet we may v5ture to say t be+ once fully kn[n1 !y may seem to ?\ghtful m5 to possess an evid5ce beyond t ( m]e exp]im5t4 ,= h[1 9 fact1 c we conceive comb9ations1 o!rwise ?an z def9ite 9 k9d & quantity8 ,if we 7 to suppose ea* elem5t ready to comb9e ) any o!r indiff]5tly1 & indiff]5tly 9 any quantity1 we %\ld h a _w 9 #bf :i* all w\ld be confusion & indef9it5ess4 ,!re w\ld be no fix$ k9ds ( bodies4 ,salts1 & /ones1 & ores1 w\ld approa* to & graduate into ea* o!r by ins5sible degrees4 ,in/ead ( ?is1 we "k t ! _w consi/s ( bodies di/+ui%able f ea* o!r by def9ite diff]5ces1 capable ( be+ classifi$ & nam$1 & ( hav+ g5]al propositions ass]t$ conc]n+ !m4 ,& z we _c conceive a _w 9 :i* ?is %\ld n be ! case1 x w\ld appe> t we _c conceive a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* ! laws ( ! comb9ation ( elem5ts %\ld n be ( t def9ite & measur$ k9d :i* we h above ass]t$4 ,?is w1 p]haps1 appe> m cle>ly by /at+ our fundam5tal convictions respect+ *emical composition 9 ano!r =m1 :i* ,i %all1 !re=e1 proce$ to d4 #aj4 ,*emical ,composition det]m9es ,physical ,prop]ties4--,h[ev] obscure & incomplete may be our conception ( ! int]nal p[]s by :i* ! ultimate p>ticles ( bodies are held toge!r1 x involves1 at lea/1 ?is conviction3--t ^! p[]s are :at det]m9e bodies to be bodies1 & !re=e conta9 ! reason ( all ! prop]ties :i*1 z bodies1 !y possess4 ,! =ces by :i* ! p>ticles ( a body are held toge!r1 also cause x to be h>d or s(t1 heavy or light1 opake or transp>5t1 black or r$2 = if ^! =ces are n ! cause ( ^! peculi>ities1 :at c be ! cause8 ,by ! v supposition :i* we make respect+ ^! =ces1 !y include all ! relations by :i* ! p>ts are comb9$ into a :ole1 & !re=e !y1 & !y only1 mu/ det]m9e all ! attributes ( ! :ole4 ,! f\ndation ( all our speculations respect+ ! intimate con/itution ( bodies mu/ be ?is pr9ciple1 t _! composition det]m9es _! prop]ties4 ,accord+ly we f9d our *emi/s reason+ f ?is pr9ciple ) great confid5ce1 ev5 9 d\btful cases4 ,?us ,davy1 9 8 rese>*es conc]n+ ! diamond1 says3 ',t "s *emical diff]5ce mu/ exi/ betwe5 ! h>de/ & mo/ beautiful ( ! #bg gems & *>coal1 betwe5 a non-conductor & a conductor ( electricity1 x is sc>cely possible to d\bt3 & x seems reasonable to expect t a v ref9$ or p]fect *emi/ry w confirm ! analogies ( nature2 & %[ t bodies _c be ! same 9 _! composition or *emical nature1 & yet totally diff]5t 9 _! *emical prop]ties4' ,x is obvi\s t ! pr9ciple "h assum$ is s f> f be+ a m]e result ( exp]i5ce1 t x is "h appeal$ to to prove t all previ\s results ( exp]i5ce on ?is subject mu/ be incomplete & inaccurate2 & t !re mu/ be "s *emical diff]5ce betwe5 *>coal & diamond1 ?\gh none _h hi!rto be5 detect$4 #aa4 ,9 :at mann]1 accord+ to :at rule1 ! *emical composition %all det]m9e ! k9d ( ! sub/ance1 we _c reasonably expect to det]m9e by m]e conjecture or assumption1 )\t a /udi\s exam9ation ( natural bodies & artificial comp\nds4 ,yet ev5 9 ! mo/ rec5t times1 & among m5 ( sci5ce1 we f9d t an assumption ( ! mo/ arbitr>y "* has 9 "o case be5 mix$ up ) ?is indisputable pr9ciple1 t ! elem5t>y composition det]m9es ! k9d ( ! sub/ance4 ,9 ! classification ( m9]als1 "o s*ool ( m9]alogi/s h rightly tak5 x z _! fundam5tal pr9ciple t ! *emical composition %all decide ! position ( ! m9]al 9 ! sy/em4 ,b !y h app5d$ to ?is pr9ciple1 arbitr>ily & unju/ifiably1 ! maxim t ! elem5t :i* is l>ge/ 9 quantity %all fix ! class ( ! sub/ance4 ,to make su* an assumption is to r5\nce1 at once1 all hope ( fram+ a sy/em :i* %all be gov]n$ by ! resemblances ( ! ?+s classifi$2 = h[ c we possibly "k be=eh& t fifty-five p] c5t1 ( iron %all give a sub/ance its pr$om9ant prop]ties1 & t =ty-five p] c5t1 %all n8 ,accord+ly1 ! sy/ems ( m9]alogical arrangem5t :i* h be5 attempt$ 9 ?is way1 7^? ( ,hay1 ,phillips1 & o!rs17 h be5 f\nd inconsi/5t ) !mselves1 ambigu\s1 & incapable ( lead+ to any g5]al tru?s4 #bh #ab4 ,*emical ,composition & ,cry/all9e ,=m correspond4--,?us ! physical prop]ties ( bodies dep5d ^u _! *emical composition1 b 9 a mann] :i* a g5]al exam9ation ( bodies ) ref]5ce to _! prop]ties & _! composition c alone det]m9e4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 v5ture to ass]t fur!r1 t ! m def9ite ! prop]ties are1 ! m di/9ct may we expect to f9d ?is dep5d5ce4 ,n[ ! mo/ def9ite ( ! prop]ties ( bodies are ^? con/ant prop]ties :i* involve relations ( space2 t is1 _! figure4 ,we speak n1 h[ev]1 ( t ext]nal figure1 d]iv$ f ext]nal circum/ances1 :i*1 s f> f be+ con/ant & def9ite1 is altoge!r casual & arbitr>y2 b ( t figure :i* arises f _! int]nal texture1 & :i* %[s itself n only 9 ! regul> =ms :i* !y spontane\sly assume1 b 9 ! disposition ( ! p>ts to sep>ate 9 def9ite directions1 & no o!rs4 ,9 %ort1 ! mo/ def9ite ( ! prop]ties ( p]fect *emical comp\nds is _! cry/all9e /ructure2 & !re=e x is evid5t t ! cry/all9e /ructure ( ea* body1 & ! =ms :i* x affects1 mu/ be 9 a mo/ intimate dep5d5ce ^u its *emical composition4 ,"h aga9 we are l$ to ! br9k ( ano!r !ory2--t ( cry/all9e /ructure1 :i* has excit$ great int]e/ among philosoph]s ev] s9ce ! "t ( ,hay4 ,b ?is !ory involves1 besides t idea ( *emical composition ) :i* we are "h conc]n$1 o!r conceptions1 :i* ent] into ! relations ( figure4 ,^! conceptions1 gov]n$ pr9cipally by ! ,idea ( ,symmetry1 mu/ be unfold$ & exam9$ be=e we c v5ture to discuss any !ory ( cry/allization3 & we %all proce$ to d ?is z soon z we h fir/ duly consid]$ ! ,idea ( ,sub/ance & its consequ5ces4 #bi ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,sub/ance4 #a4 ,axiom ( ! ,inde/ructibility ( ,sub/ance4--,,we n[ come to an ,idea ( :i* ! hi/ory is v diff]5t f ^? ( :i* we h lately be5 speak+4 ,in/ead ( be+ gradually & rec5tly br\ght into a cle> light1 z has be5 ! case ) ! ,ideas ( ,pol>ity & ,aff9ity1 ! ,idea ( ,sub/ance has be5 ent]ta9$ 9 a di/9ct =m f ! fir/ p]iods ( ,european speculation4 ,t ?is is s1 is prov$ by our f9d+ a pr9ciple dep5d+ ^u ?is ,idea curr5t z an axiom among ! e>ly philosoph]s ( ,greece3--namely1 t no?+ c be produc$ out ( no?+4 ,su* an axiom1 m fully /at$1 am\nts to ?is3 t ! sub/ance ( :i* a body consi/s is incapable ( be+ dim9i%$ 7& consequ5tly incapable ( be+ augm5t$7 9 quantity1 :atev] app>5t *anges x may und]go4 ,its =ms1 its di/ribution1 its qualities1 may v>y1 b ! sub/ance itself is id5tically ! same "u all ^! v>iations4 ,! axiom j spok5 ( 0 ! great pr9ciple ( ! physical philosophy ( ! ,epicurean s*ool1 z x mu/ be ( e m]ely mat]ial philosophy4 ,! read] ( ,lucretius w recollect ! emphasis ) :i* x is repeat$ly ass]t$ 9 8 poem3 ,e nilo nil gigni1 9 nilum nil posse rev]ti2 ,n\ght comes ( n\ght1 nor ought returns to n\ght4 ,^? :o engag$ 9 ^! e>ly attempts at physical speculation 7 naturally mu* pleas$ ) ! cle>ness :i* 0 giv5 to _! notions ( *ange1 composition1 & decomposition1 by keep+ /eadily hold ( ! ,idea ( ,sub/ance1 z m>k$ by ?is #cj fundam5tal axiom4 ,nor has its au?ority ev] ceas$ to be ackn[l$g$4 ,a philosoph] 0 ask$#bgf1 ,:at is ! weight ( smoke8 ,he answ]$1 ',subtract ! weight ( ! a%es f ! weight ( ! wood :i* is burnt1 & y h ! weight ( ! smoke4' ,?is reply w\ld be ass5t$ to by all2 & x assumes z inconte/able t ev5 "u ! action ( fire1 ! mat]ial1 ! sub/ance1 does n p]i%1 b only *anges its =m4 ,note #bgf3 ,kant1 ,kritik d] ,r4 ,v4 p4 #afg4 ,?is pr9ciple ( ! inde/ructibility ( sub/ance might easily be trac$ 9 _m reason+s & rese>*es1 anci5t & mod]n4 ,= in/ance1 :5 ! *emi/ works ) ! retort1 he places ! body on :i* he op]ates 9 "o "p ( an inclos$ cavity1 :i*1 by its b5d+s & communications1 sep>ates at ! same "t t x conf9es1 ! products :i* result f ! action ( fire3 & he assumes t ?is process is an analysis ( ! body into its +r$i5ts1 n a creation ( any?+ :i* did n exi/ be=e1 or a de/ruction ( any?+ :i* previ\sly exi/$4 ,& he assumes fur!r1 t ! total quantity ( ! sub/ance ?us analys$ is ! sum ( ! quantities ( its +r$i5ts4 ,?is pr9ciple is ! v basis ( *emical speculation1 z we %all h]eaft] expla9 m fully4 #b4 ,! ,idea ( ,sub/ance4--,! axiom above spok5 ( dep5ds ^u ! ,idea ( ,sub/ance1 :i* is involv$ 9 all our views ( ext]nal objects4 ,we unavoidably assume t ! qualities & prop]ties :i* we obs]ve are prop]ties ( ?+s2--t ! adjective implies a sub/antive2--t !re is1 besides ! ext]nal *>act]s ( ?+s1 some?+ ( :i* !y are ! *>act]s4 ,an apple :i* is r$1 & r\nd1 & h>d1 is n m]ely r$ness1 & r\ndness1 & h>dness3 ^! circum/ances may all alt] :ile ! apple rema9s ! same apple4 ,beh9d or "u ! appe>ances :i* we see1 we conceive some?+ ( :i* we ?9k2 or1 to use ! metaphor :i* obta9$ curr5cy among ! anci5t philosoph]s1 ! #ca attributes & qualities :i* we obs]ve are support$ by & inh]5t 9 some?+3 & ?is some?+ is h5ce call$ a sub/ratum or sub/ance1--t :i* /&s b5ea? ! app>5t qualities & supports !m4 ,t we h su* an ,idea1 us+ ! t]m ',idea' 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ,i h employ$ x ?r\gh\t ^! disquisitions1 is evid5t f :at has be5 already said4 ,! ,axiom ( ! ,inde/ructibility ( ,sub/ance proves ! exi/5ce ( ! ,idea ( ,sub/ance1 j z ! ,axioms ( ,geometry & ,ari?metic prove ! exi/5ce ( ! ,ideas ( ,space & ,numb]4 ,9 ! case ( ,sub/ance1 z ( space or numb]1 ! ideas _c be said to be borr[$ f exp]i5ce1 = ! axioms h an au?ority ( a f> m compreh5sive & demon/rative "* ?an any :i* exp]i5ce c be/[4 ,! axiom t no?+ c be produc$ f no?+ & no?+ de/roy$1 is s f> f be+ a result ( exp]i5ce1 t x is app>5tly contradict$ by ! mo/ obvi\s obs]vation4 ,x has1 at fir/1 ! air ( a p>adox2 & by ^? :o ref] to x1 x is famili>ly employ$ to %[ h[ fallaci\s common obs]vation is4 ,! ass]tion is usually made 9 ?is =m2--t no?+ is creat$ & no?+ annihilat$1 not)/&+ t ! common c\rse ( our exp]i5ce appe>s to %[ ! contr>y4 ,! pr9ciple is n an empirical1 b a necess>y & univ]sal tru?2--is collect$1 n f ! evid5ce ( our s5ses1 b f ! op]ation ( our ideas4 ,& ?us ! univ]sal & undisput$ au?ority ( ! axiom proves ! exi/5ce ( ! ,idea ( ,sub/ance4 #c4 ,locke's ,d5ial ( ! ,idea ( ,sub/ance4--,i %all n attempt to review ! v>i\s op9ions :i* h be5 promulgat$ respect+ ?is ,idea3 b x may be wor? our :ile to notice briefly ! "p :i* x play$ 9 ! great controv]sy conc]n+ ! orig9 ( our ideas :i* ,locke's ,essay occasion$4 ,locke's object 0 to disprove ! exi/5ce ( all ideas n d]iv$ f ,s5sation or ,reflection3 & s9ce ! idea ( sub/ance z di/9ct f ext]nal qualities1 is #cb manife/ly n d]iv$ directly f s5sation1 nor by any v obvi\s or di/9ct process f reflection1 ,locke 0 dispos$ to exclude ! idea z mu* z possible4 ,accord+ly1 9 8 argum5tation aga9/ ,innate ,ideas#bhf1 he says pla9ly1 '! idea ( sub/ance1 :i* we nei!r h nor c h by s5sation or reflection4' ,& ! inf]5ce :i* he draws is1 't we h no su* cle> idea at all4' ,:at !n1 x may be ask$1 d we mean by ! ^w sub/ance8 ,?is also he answ]s1 ?\gh some:at /rangely1 ',we signify no?+ by ! ^w sub/ance1 b only an unc]ta9 supposition ( we "k n :at1 i4 e4 ( some?+ :]e( we h no p>ticul> di/9ct positive idea1 :i* we take to be ! sub/ratum1 or support1 ( ^? ideas we "k4' ,t :ile he indulg$ 9 ?is tautological ass]tion ( our ignorance & unc]ta9ty1 he %\ld /ill h be5 compell$ to ackn[l$ge t ! ^w sub/ance _h "s mean+1 & %\ld h be5 driv5 to expla9 x by ! id5tical metaphors ( 'sub/ratum' & 'support1' is a curi\s pro( h[ impossible x is entirely to reject ?is idea4 ,note #bhf3 ,essay1 b4 i4 c4 iv4 s4 #ah4 ,b z we h already se51 ! supposition ( ! exi/5ce ( sub/ance is s f> f be+ unc]ta91 t x c>ries ) x irresi/ible conviction1 & sub/ance is necess>ily conceiv$ z some?+ :i* _c be produc$ or de/roy$4 ,x may be easily suppos$1 !re=e1 t :5 ! controv]sy betwe5 ,locke & 8 assailants came to ?is po9t1 he w\ld be 9 "s difficulty4 ,&1 inde$1 ?\gh ) 8 accu/om$ skill 9 controv]sy1 he manag$ to reta9 a triumphant tone1 he 0 driv5 f 8 ma9 po9ts4 ,?us he repels ! *>ge t he took ! be+ ( sub/ance to be d\btful#bif4 ,he says1 ',hav+ ev]y:]e affirm$ & built ^u x t man is a sub/ance1 ,i _c be suppos$ to "q or d\bt ( ! be+ ( sub/ance1 till ,i c "q or d\bt ( my own be+4' ,he attempts to make a /& by say+ t be+ ( ?+s does n dep5d ^u our #cc ideas2 b if he _h be5 ask$ h[1 )\t hav+ an idea ( sub/ance1 he knew sub/ance to be1 x is difficult to conceive :at answ] he c\ld h made4 ,aga91 he _h said t our idea ( sub/ance arises f our 'accu/om+ ourselves to suppose' a sub/ratum ( qualities4 ,^u ?is 8 adv]s>y1 ,bi%op ,/ill+fleet1 v prop]ly asks1 ,is ?is cu/om gr\nd$ ^u true reason or no8 ,to :i* ,locke replies1 t x is gr\nd$ ^u ?is3 ,t we _c conceive h[ simple ideas ( s5sible qualities %\ld subsi/ alone2 & !re=e we suppose !m to exi/ 91 & to be support$ by "s common subject1 :i* support we d5ote by ! "n sub/ance4 ,?us he all[s1 n only t we necess>ily assume ! reality ( sub/ance1 b t we _c conceive qualities )\t sub/ance2 :i* are concessions s ample z almo/ to include all t any advocate = ! ,idea ( ,sub/ance ne$ desire4 ,note #bif3 ,essay1 b4 ii4 c4 ii4 & ,fir/ ,lett] to ! ,bi%op ( ,worce/]4 ,p]haps ,locke1 & ! adh]5ts ( ,locke1 9 d5y+ t we h an idea ( sub/ance 9 g5]al1 7 lat5tly influ5c$ by f9d+ t !y c\ld n1 by any ef=t ( m9d1 call up any image :i* c\ld be consid]$ z an image ( sub/ance 9 g5]al4 ,t 9 ?is s5se we h no idea ( sub/ance1 is pla9 en\gh2 b 9 ! same s5se we h no idea ( space 9 g5]al1 or ( "t1 or numb]1 or cause1 or resemblance4 ,yet we c]ta9ly h su* a p[] ( repres5t+ to our m9ds space1 "t1 numb]1 cause1 resemblance1 z to arrive at num]\s tru?s by means ( su* repres5tations4 ,^! g5]al repres5tations ,i h all along call$ ,ideas1 nor c ,i discov] any m appropriate ^w2 & 9 ?is s5se1 we h also1 z has n[ be5 %[n1 an ,idea ( ,sub/ance4 #d4 ,is all ,mat]ial ,sub/ance heavy8--,! pr9ciple t ! quantity ( ! sub/ance ( any body rema9s un*ang$ by our op]ations ^u x1 is1 z we h said1 ( univ]sal validity4 ,b !n ! "q occurs1 h[ are we to asc]ta9 ! quantity ( sub/ance1 & ?us1 to apply ! pr9ciple 9 p>ticul> cases4 ,9 ! case above m5tion$1 :]e #cd smoke 0 to be weigh$1 x 0 manife/ly assum$ t ! quantity ( ! sub/ance might be kn[n by its weight2 & t ! total quantity be+ un*ang$1 ! total weight also w\ld rema9 ! same4 ,n[ on :at gr\nds d we make ?is assumption8 ,is all mat]ial sub/ance heavy8 & if we c ass]t ?is to be s1 on :at gr\nds does ! tru? ( ! ass]tion re/8 ,^! are n idle que/ions ( b>r5 curiosity2 = 9 ! hi/ory ( t sci5ce 7,*emi/ry7 to :i* ! ,idea ( ,sub/ance is pr9cipally applicable1 no?+ less ?an ! fate ( a compreh5sive & long e/abli%$ !ory 7! ,phlogi/on !ory7 dep5d$ ^u ! decision ( ?is "q4 ,:5 x 0 urg$ t ! r$uction ( a metal f a calc9$ to a metallic =m c\ld n consi/ 9 ! addition ( phlogi/on1 because ! metal 0 light] ?an ! calx _h be52 x 0 repli$ by "s1 t ?is 0 n conclusive1 = t phlogi/on 0 a pr9ciple ( levity1 dim9i%+ ! weight ( ! body to :i* x 0 add$4 ,?is reply 01 h[ev]1 reject$ by all ! s\nd] philosoph]s1 & ! =ce ( ! argum5t f9ally ackn[l$g$4 ,b :y 0 ?is sugge/ion ( a sub/ance hav+ no weight1 or hav+ absolute levity1 repudiat$ by ! mo/ reflective reason]s8 ,x is assum$1 x appe>s1 t all matt] mu/ be heavy2 :at is ! gr\nd ( ?is assumption8 ,! gr\nd ( su* an assumption appe>s to be ! foll[+4 ,our idea ( sub/ance includes 9 x ?is3--t sub/ance is a quantity capable ( addition2 & ?us capable ( mak+ up1 by composition1 a sum equal to all its p>ts4 ,b sub/ance1 & ! quantity ( sub/ance1 c be kn[n to u only by its attributes & qualities4 ,& ! qualities :i* are capable con/antly & indef9itely ( increase & dim9ution by increase & dim9ution ( ! p>ts1 mu/ be conceiv$ insep>able f ! sub/ance4 ,= ! qualities1 if removable f ! sub/ance at all1 mu/ be removable by "s op]ation p]=m$ ^u ! sub/ance2 & by ! idea ( sub/ance1 all su* op]ations are only equival5t to sep>ation1 junction1 & union ( p>ts4 ,h5ce ^? *>act]s #ce :i* ?us univ]sally increase & dim9i% by addition & subtraction ( ! ?+s !mselves1 belong to ! sub/ance ( ! ?+s4 ,!y are measures ( its quantity1 & are n m]ely its sep>able qualities4 ,! weight ( bodies is su* a "*4 ,h[ev] we comp\nd or divide bodies1 we comp\nd & divide _! weight 9 ! same mann]4 ,we may dismemb] a body into ! m9ute/ p>ts2 b ! sum ( ! weights ( ! p>ts is always equal to ! :ole weight ( ! body4 ,! weight ( a body c be 9 no way increas$ or dim9i%$1 except by add+ some?+ to x or tak+ some?+ f x4 ,if we bake a brick1 we d n conceive t ! *ange ( col\r or ( h>dness1 implies t any?+ has be5 creat$ or de/roy$4 ,x may easily be t ! p>ts h only assum$ a new arrangem5t2 b if ! brick h lo/ weight1 we suppose t some?+ 7moi/ure = in/ance7 has be5 remov$ else:]e4 ,?us weight is appreh5d$ z ess5tial to matt]4 ,9 consid]+ ! dismemb]m5t or analysis ( bodies1 we assume t !re mu/ be "s crit]ion ( ! quantity ( sub/ance2 & ?is crit]ion c possess no o!r prop]ties ?an _! weight possesses4 ,if we assume an elem5t :i* has no weight1 or ! weight ( :i* is negative1 z "s ( ! def5d]s ( phlogi/on attempt$ to d1 we put an end to all speculation on su* subjects4 ,= if weight is n ! crit]ion ( ! quantity ( "o elem5t1 phlogi/on = in/ance1 :y is weight ! crit]ion ( ! quantity ( any o!r elem5t8 ,we may1 by ! same "r1 assume any o!r real or imag9>y elem5t to h levity in/ead ( gravity2 or to h a peculi> int5sity ( gravity :i* makes its weight no index ( its quantity4 ,9 %ort1 if we d ?is1 we deprive ( all possibility ( application our notions ( elem5t1 analysis1 & composition2 & violate ! po/ulates on :i* ! que/ions are prop\nd$ :i* we ?us attempt to decide4 ,we mu/1 !n1 take a con/ant & quantitative prop]ty ( matt]1 su* z weight is1 to be an index #cf ( ! quantity ( matt] or ( sub/ance to :i* x belongs4 ,i d n "h speak ( ! "q :i* has sometimes be5 propos$1 :e!r ! weight or ! in]tia ( bodies be ! m prop] measure ( ! quantity ( matt]4 ,= ! measure ( in]tia is regulat$ by ! same assumption z t ( sub/ance3--t ! quantity ( ! :ole mu/ be equal to ! quantity ( all ! p>ts3 & in]tia is measur$ by weight1 = ! same reason t sub/ance is s4 ,hav+ ?us e/abli%$ ! c]ta9ty1 & asc]ta9$ ! int]pretation ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciple :i* ! ,idea ( ,sub/ance involves1 we are prep>$ to consid] its application 9 ! sci5ce ^u :i* x has a peculi> be>+4 #cg ,,note ,,to ,,*apt] ,,iii4 #crd ,ed4--,,! doctr9e "h prop\nd$1 t ,all ,matt] is ,heavy1 has be5 oppos$ by ,sir ,william ,hamilton ( ,ed9burgh4 7,works ( ,reid1 note1 p4 #hec47 ,?is writ] is a man ( unque/ionable acut5ess & ( v ext5sive read+2 b 8 acut5ess %[s itself 9 b>r5 ontological di/9ctions1 :i* appe> to me to be ( ! same "* z ! speculations ( ! em95t ,s*oolm5 ( ! mo/ /]ile p]iods ( ! d>k ages4 ,t he %\ld h no conception ( progressive or inductive sci5ce is n wond]ful1 :5 we recollect t he holds1 z an important "p ( 8 philosophy1 t ! /udy ( ma!matics p]v]ts & obscures ! m9d4 ,b x may be ( "s int]e/ to consid] 8 objections to ! doctr9e "h ma9ta9$4 ,he says1 #a/1 t our reason+ assumes t we mu/ necess>ily h x 9 our p[] to asc]ta9 ! ,quantity ( ,matt]2 :]eas ?is may be a problem out ( ! rea* ( human det]m9ation4 ,to ?is ,i reply1 t my reason+ does assume t !re is a sci5ce1 or sci5ces1 :i* make ass]tions conc]n+ ! ,quantity ( ,matt]3 ,me*anics & ,*emi/ry are su* sci5ces4 ,my ass]tion is1 t to make su* sci5ces possible1 ,quantity ( ,matt] mu/ be proportional to ,weight4 ,if my oppon5t d5y t ,me*anics & ,*emi/ry c exi/ z sci5ces1 he may invalidate my pro(2 b n o!rwise4 #b4 ,he says t !re are two conceivable ways ( e/imat+ ! ,quantity ( ,matt]3 by ! ,space occupi$1 & by ! ,weight or ,in]tia2 & t ,i assume ! second measure gratuit\sly4 ,to :i* ,i reply1 t ! mo/ elem5t>y /eps 9 ,me*anics & 9 ,*emi/ry contradict ! notion t #ch ! ,quantity ( ,matt] is proportionate to ! ,space4 ,!y proce$ necess>ily on a di/9ction betwe5 ,space & ,matt]3--betwe5 m]e ,ext5sion & mat]ial ,sub/ance4 #c4 ,he all[s t we _c make ! ,ext5sion ( a body ! measure ( ! ,quantity ( ,matt]1 because1 he says1 we d n "k if '! compress+ =ce' is su* z to produce '! close/ compression4' ,t is1 he assumes a compress+ =ce1 assumes a close/ compression1 assumes a peculi> 7& v improbable7 atomic hypo!sis2 & all ?is to supply a reason :y we are n to believe ! fir/ simple pr9ciple ( ,me*anics & ,*emi/ry4 #d4 ,he speaks ( 'a s]ies ( app>5t fluids 7z ,light or its vehicle1 ! ,calorific1 ! ,electro-galvanic1 & ,magnetic ag5ts7 :i* we c nei!r d5ude ( _! "* ( sub/ance1 nor clo! ) ! attribute ( weight4' ,to :i* my reply is1 t precisely because ,i _c 'clo!' ^! ag5ts ) ! attribute ( ,weight1 ,i d 'd5ude !m ( ! "* ( ,sub/ance4' ,!y are n sub/ances1 b ag5cies4 ,^! ,impond]able ,ag5ts are n prop]ly call$ ',impond]able ,fluids4' ,?is ,i conceive t ,i h prov$2 & ! pro( is n %ak5 by d5y+ ! conclusion )\t %[+ any defect 9 ! reason+4 #e4 ,f9ally1 my critic speaks ab\t 'a logical canon1' & ab\t 'a crit]ion ( tru?1 subjectively necess>y & objectively c]ta92' :i* matt]s ,i %all n wa/e ! read]'s "t by discuss+4 #ci ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,sub/ance ,,9 ,,*emi/ry4 #a4 ,a ,body is ,equal to ! ,sum ( its ,elem5ts4--,,f ! e>lie/ p]iods ( *emi/ry ! balance has be5 famili>ly us$ to det]m9e ! proportions ( ! +r$i5ts & ( ! comp\nd2 & soon aft] ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1 ?is practice 0 s /udi\sly foll[$1 t ,w5zel & ,ri*t] 7 !reby l$ to ! doctr9e ( ,def9ite ,proportions4 ,b yet ! full value & significance ( ! balance1 z an indisp5sable in/rum5t 9 *emical rese>*es1 0 n und]/ood till ! gase\s1 z well z solid & fluid +r$i5ts 7 tak5 into ! acc\nt4 ,:5 ?is 0 done1 x 0 f\nd t ! pr9ciple1 t ! :ole is equal to ! sum ( its p>ts1 ( :i*1 z we h se51 ! necess>y tru?1 9 su* cases1 fl[s f ! idea ( sub/ance1 c\ld be appli$ 9 ! mo/ rigor\s mann]4 ,& conv]sely1 x 0 f\nd t by ! use ( ! balance1 ! *emi/ c\ld decide1 9 d\btful cases1 :i* 0 a :ole1 & :i* 7 p>ts4 ,= *emi/ry consid]s all ! *anges :i* belong to h] prov9ce z compositions & decompositions ( elem5ts2 b /ill ! "q may occur1 :e!r an obs]v$ *ange be ! "o or ! o!r4 ,h[ c we di/+ui% :e!r ! process :i* we contemplate be composition or decomposition8--:e!r ! new body be =m$ by addition ( a new1 or subtraction ( an old elem5t8 ,aga92 9 ! case ( decomposition1 we may inquire1 ,:at are ! ultimate limits ( our analysis8 ,if we decomp\nd bodies into o!rs m & m simple1 h[ f> c we c>ry ?is succession #dj ( processes8 ,h[ f> c we proce$ 9 ! road ( analysis8 ,& 9 our actual c\rse1 :at evid5ce h we t our progress1 z f> z x has gone1 has c>ri$ u f ! m complex to ! m simple8 ,to ?is we reply1 t ! crit]ion :i* enables u to di/+ui%1 decid$ly & f9ally1 :e!r our process h be5 a m]e analysis ( ! propos$ body into its +r$i5ts1 or a syn!sis ( "s ( !m ) "s new elem5t1 is ! pr9ciple /at$ above1 t ! weight ( ! :ole is equal to ! weight ( all ! p>ts4 ,& no process ( *emical analysis or syn!sis c be consid]$ complete till x has be5 v]ifi$ by ?is fact2--by f9d+ t ! weight ( ! comp\nd is ! weight ( its suppos$ +r$i5ts2 or1 t if !re be an elem5t :i* we ?9k we h deta*$ f ! :ole1 its loss is betray$ by a correspond+ dim9ution ( weight4 ,i h already notic$ :at an important "p ?is pr9ciple has play$ 9 ! great *emical controv]sy :i* end$ 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! oxyg5 !ory4 ,! calc9ation ( a metal 0 decid$ to be ! union ( oxyg5 ) ! metal1 & n ! sep>ation ( phlogi/on f x1 because x 0 f\nd t 9 ! process ( calc9ation1 ! weight ( ! metal increas$1 & increas$ exactly z mu* z ! weight ( ambi5t air dim9i%$4 ,:5 oxyg5 & hydrog5 7 explod$ toge!r1 & a small quantity ( wat] 0 produc$1 x 0 held t ?is 0 really a syn!sis ( wat]1 because1 :5 v great c>e 0 tak5 ) ! process1 ! weight ( ! wat] :i* result$ 0 equal to ! weight ( ! gases :i* disappe>$4 #b4 ,lavoisi]4--,x 0 :5 gases came to be consid]$ z ent]+ l>gely into ! composition ( liquid & solid bodies1 t extreme accuracy 9 weigh+ 0 se5 to be s necess>y to ! true und]/&+ ( *emical processes4 ,x 0 9 ?is mann] discov]$ by ,lavoisi] & 8 contempor>ies t oxyg5 con/itutes a l>ge +r$i5t ( calc9$ metals1 ( acids1 & ( wat]4 ,a c\ntryman ( ,lavoisi]#cjf #da has n only giv5 mo/ j praise to t great philosoph] = hav+ con/antly te/$ all 8 processes by a c>eful & skilful use ( ! balance1 b has also claim$ = him ! m]it ( hav+ introduc$ ! maxim1 t 9 *emical op]ations no?+ is creat$ & no?+ lo/4 ,b ,i ?9k x is impossible to d5y t ?is maxim is assum$ 9 all ! attempts at analysis made by 8 contempor>ies1 z well z by him4 ,?is maxim is inde$ includ$ 9 any cle> notion ( analysis3 x c\ld n be ! result ( ! rese>*es ( any "o *emi/1 b 0 ! gov]n+ pr9ciple ( ! reason+s ( all4 ,lavoisi]1 h[ev]1 employ$ ?is pr9ciple ) peculi> assiduity & skill4 ,9 apply+ x1 he does n conf9e himself to m]e additions & subtractions ( ! quantities ( +r$i5ts2 b (t5 obta9s 8 results by m complex processes4 ,9 "o ( 8 inve/igations he says1 ',i may consid] ! +r$i5ts :i* are br\ght toge!r1 & ! result :i* is obta9$ z an algebraical equation2 & if ,i successively suppose ea* ( ! quantities ( ?is equation to be unkn[n1 ,i c obta9 its value f ! re/3 & ?us ,i c rectify ! exp]im5t by ! calculation1 & ! calculation by ! exp]im5t4 ,i h (t5 tak5 advantage ( ?is me?od1 9 ord] to correct ! fir/ results ( my exp]im5ts1 & to direct me 9 repeat+ !m ) prop] precautions4' ,note #cjf3 ,m4 ,dumas1 ,leons de la ,philosophie ,*imique4 #ahcg4 p4 #aeg4 ,! maxim1 t ! :ole is equal to ! sum ( all its p>ts1 is ?us capable ( mo/ important & v>i$ employm5t 9 *emi/ry4 ,b x may be appli$ 9 ano!r =m to ! exclusion ( a class ( speculations :i* are (t5 put =w>ds4 #c4 ,maxim respect+ ,impond]able ,elem5ts4--,sev]al ( ! ph5om5a :i* belong to bodies1 z heat1 light1 electricity1 magnetism1 h be5 expla9$ hypo!tically by assum+ ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 fluids2 b ^! fluids h nev] be5 %[n to h weight4 ,h5ce su* hypo!tical fluids h be5 t]m$ impond]able elem5ts4 ,x is h[ev] pla91 t s long z ^! fluids appe> to be )\t weight1 !y are n elem5ts ( bodies 9 ! same #db s5se z ^? elem5ts ( :i* we h hi!rto be5 speak+4 ,inde$ we may ) good reason d\bt :e!r ^? ph5om5a dep5d ^u transf]able fluids at all4 ,we h se5 /rong reason to believe t light is n matt]1 b only motion2 & ! same ?+ appe>s to be probable ) reg>d to heat4 ,nor is x at all inconceivable t a simil> hypo!sis respect+ electricity & magnetism %\ld h]eaft] be f\nd t5able4 ,n[ if heat1 light1 & ^? o!r ag5ts1 be n matt]1 !y are n elem5ts 9 su* a s5se z to be includ$ 9 ! pr9ciple ref]r$ to above1 ,t ! body is equal to ! sum ( its elem5ts4 ,consequ5tly ! maxim j /at$1 t 9 *emical op]ations no?+ is creat$1 no?+ annihilat$1 does n apply to ,light & ,heat4 ,!y are n ?+s4 ,& :e!r heat c be produc$ :]e !re 0 no heat be=e1 & light /ruck out f d>kness1 ! ideas ( :i* we are at pres5t treat+ d n enable u to say4 ,9 reason+ respect+ *emical syn!sis & analysis !re=e1 we %all only make confusion by attempt+ to include 9 our conception ! ,light & ,heat :i* are produc$ & de/roy$4 ,su* ph5om5a may be v prop] subjects ( /udy1 z inde$ !y und\bt$ly are2 b !y _c be /udi$ to advantage by consid]+ !m z %>+ ! nature ( composition & decomposition4 ,aga93 9 all attempts to expla9 ! processes ( nature1 ! prop] c\rse is1 fir/ to measure ! facts ) precision1 & !n to endeav\r to und]/& _! cause4 ,n[ ! facts ( *emical composition & decomposition1 ! weights ( ! +r$i5ts & ( ! comp\nds1 are facts measurable ) ! utmo/ precision & c]ta9ty4 ,b x is f> o!rwise ) ! light & heat :i* accompany *emical processes4 ,:5 combu/ion1 deflagration1 explosion1 takes place1 h[ c we measure ! light or ! heat8 ,ev5 9 cases ( m tranquil action1 ?\gh we c apply ! !rmomet]1 :at does ! !rmomet] tell u respect+ ! quantity ( ! heat8 ,s9ce !n we h no measure :i* is ( any value z #dc reg>ds su* circum/ances 9 *emical *anges1 if we attempt to acc\nt = ^! ph5om5a on *emical pr9ciples1 we introduce1 into inve/igations 9 !mselves p]fectly precise & ma!matically rigor\s1 ano!r class ( reason+s1 vague & insecure1 ( :i* ! only possible effect is to vitiate ! :ole reason+1 & to make our conclusions inevitably errone\s4 ,we are l$ !n to ?is maxim3 t impond]able fluids are n to be admitt$ z *emical elem5ts ( bodies#caf4 ,note #caf3 ,see ! answ] to ,sir ,william ,hamilton's objections1 at ! end ( ! la/ *apt]4 ,s9ce we are ?us w>n$ by a s\nd view ( ! nature ( sci5ce1 f consid]+ *emical aff9ity z hav+ any hold ^u impond]able elem5ts1 we are manife/ly /ill m decisively prohibit$ f suppos+ me*anical impulse or pressure to h any effect ^u su* elem5ts4 ,to make ?is supposition1 is to connect ! mo/ subtle & incorporeal objects :i* we "k 9 nature by ! mo/ gross mat]ial ties4 ,?is rem>k seems to be applicable to ,m4 ,poisson's hypo!sis t ! electric fluid is reta9$ at ! surface ( bodies by ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 #d4 ,x appe>s1 ,i ?9k1 t our be/ & mo/ philosophical *emi/s h proce$$ ^u ?is pr9ciple 9 _! inve/igations4 ,9 reason+ conc]n+ ! con/itution ( bodies & ! int]pretation ( *emical *anges1 ! attempts to include 9 ^! int]pretations ! heat or cold produc$1 by ! addition or subtraction ( a c]ta9 hypo!tical 'caloric1' h become m & m r>e among m5 ( sci5ce4 ,su* /atem5ts1 & ! explanations (t5 put =w>ds ( ! light & heat :i* appe> "u v>i\s circum/ances 9 ! =m ( fire1 mu/ be consid]$ z uness5tial p>ts ( any s\nd !ory4 ,accord+ly we f9d ,mr4 ,f>aday gradually rel9qui%+ su* views4 ,9 ,janu>y1 #ahcd1 he speaks g5]ally ( an hypo!sis ( ?is k9d#cbf3 ',i _c refra9 f recall+ "h ! beautiful idea put =?1 ,i believe by ,b]zelius1 9 8 developm5t ( 8 views ( ! electro-*emical !ory ( aff9ity1 t ! heat & light evolv$ dur+ cases ( p[]ful comb9ation #dd are ! consequ5ce ( ! electric dis*>ge :i* is at t mom5t tak+ place4' ,b 9 ,april ( ! same ye>#ccf1 he obs]ves1 t 9 ! comb9ation ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 to produce wat]1 electric p[]s to a mo/ enorm\s am\nt are = ! "t active1 b t ! flame :i* is produc$ gives b feeble traces ( su* p[]s4 ',su* ph5om5a1' !re=e1 he adds1 'may n1 _c1 be tak5 z evid5ces ( ! nature ( ! action2 b are m]ely incid5tal results1 incomp>ably small 9 relation to ! =ces conc]n$1 & supply+ no in=mation ( ! way 9 :i* ! p>ticles are active on ea* o!r1 or 9 :i* _! =ces are f9ally arrang$4' ,note #cbf3 ,rese>*es1 #hgj4 ,note #ccf3 ,rese>*es1 #ifj4 ,9 pursuance ( ?is maxim1 we mu/ consid] z an uness5tial "p ( ! oxyg5 !ory t portion ( x1 mu* insi/$ ^u by its au?or at ! "t1 9 :i* :5 sulphur1 = in/ance1 comb9$ ) oxyg5 to produce sulphuric acid1 ! combu/ion 0 acc\nt$ = by means ( ! caloric :i* 0 suppos$ to be lib]at$ f its comb9ation ) oxyg54 #e4 ,controv]sy ( ! ,composition ( ,wat]4--,!re is ano!r controv]sy ( our times to :i* we may ) great propriety apply ! maxim n[ be=e u4 ,aft] ! glory ( hav+ fir/ giv5 a true view ( ! composition ( wat] _h long re/$ tranquilly ^u ! names ( ,cav5di% & ,lavoisi]1 a claim 0 made 9 fav\r ( ,james ,watt z ! real au?or ( ?is discov]y by 8 son1 7,mr ,j4 ,watt17 & 8 eulogi/1 7,m4 ,arago#cdf74 ,x is n to our purpose "h to discuss ! v>i\s que/ions :i* h aris5 on ?is subject respect+ priority ( publication1 & respect+ ! translation ( op9ions publi%$ at "o "t into ! language ( ano!r p]iod4 ,b if we look at ,watt's own /atem5t ( 8 views1 giv5 soon aft] ^? ( ,cav5di% _h be5 publi%$1 we %all p]ceive t x is m>k$ by a violation ( ?is maxim3 we %all f9d t he does admit impond]able fluids #de z *emical elem5ts2 & ?us %[s a vagu5ess & confusion 9 8 idea ( *emical composition4 ,) su* imp]fection 9 8 views1 x is n surpris+ t ,watt1 n only did n anticipate1 b did n appreh5d q precisely ! discov]y ( ,cav5di% & ,lavoisi]4 ,watt's /atem5t ( 8 views is z foll[s#cef3--';,are we n au?oriz$ to conclude t wat] is compos$ ( dephlogi/icat$ air & phlogi/on depriv$ ( "p ( _! lat5t or elem5t>y heat2 t dephlogi/icat$ or pure air is compos$ ( wat] depriv$ ( its phlogi/on & unit$ to elem5t>y heat & light2 & t ! latt] are conta9$ 9 x 9 a lat5t /ate1 s z n to be s5sible to ! !rmomet] or to ! eye2 & if light be only a modification ( heat1 or a circum/ance att5d+ x1 or a compon5t "p ( ! inflammable air1 !n pure or dephlogi/icat$ air is compos$ ( wat] depriv$ ( its phlogi/on & unit$ to elem5t>y heat8' ,note #cdf3 loge de ,james ,watt1 ,annuaire du ,bur4 des ,long4 #ahci4 ,note #cef3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #aghd1 p4 #ccb4 ,:5 we comp>e ?is d\btful & hypo!tical /atem5t1 involv+ s mu* t is extrane\s & het]og5e\s1 ) ! conclusion ( ,cav5di%1 9 :i* !re is no?+ hypo!tical or sup]flu\s1 we may confid5tly ass5t to ! decision :i* has be5 pron\nc$ by "o#cff ( our own "t 9 fav\r ( ,cav5di%4 ,& we may ) pleasure recognize1 9 ?is enlight5$ umpire1 a due appreciation ( ! value ( ! maxim on :i* we are n[ insi/+4 ',cav5di%1' says ,mr4 ,v]non ,h>c\rt1 'p>$ (f #df f ! hypo!ses _! !ories ( combu/ion1 & aff9ities ( impond]able = pond]able matt]1 z complicat+ *emical ) physical consid]ations4' ,note #cff3 ,! ,rev4 ,w4 ,v]non ,h>c\rt1 ,address to ! ,briti% ,association1 #ahci4--,s9ce ! fir/ edition ( ?is "w 0 publi%$1 & also s9ce ! second edition ( ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 ,mr4 ,watt's correspond5ce be>+ ^u ! "q ( ! ,composition ( ,wat] has be5 publi%$ by ,mr4 ,muirhead4 ,i d n f9d1 9 ?is publication1 any reason = )draw+ :at ,i h /at$ 9 ! text above3 b ) ref]5ce to ! /atem5t 9 ! ,hi/ory1 x appe>s t ,mr4 ,cav5di%'s claim to ! discov]y 0 n unconte/$ 9 8 own "t4 ,mr4 ,watt _h look$ at ! composition ( wat]1 z a problem to be solv$1 p]haps m di/9ctly ?an ,mr4 ,cav5di% _h done2 & he conceiv$ himself wrong$ by ,mr4 ,cav5di%'s putt+ =w>ds 8 exp]im5t z ! fir/ solution ( ?is problem4 #f4 ,relation ( ,heat to ,*emi/ry4--,b :ile we ?us condemn ! attempts to expla9 ! !rmotical ph5om5a ( *emical processes by means ( *emical consid]ations1 x may be ask$ if we are altoge!r to r5\nce ! hope ( und]/&+ su* ph5om5a8 ,x is pla91 x may be said1 t heat g5]at$ 9 *emical *anges is always a v important circum/ance1 & c sometimes be measur$1 & p]haps r$uc$ to laws2 are we prohibit$ f speculat+ conc]n+ ! causes ( su* circum/ances & su* laws8 ,& to ?is we reply1 t we may prop]ly attempt to connect *emical ) !rmotical processes1 s f> z we h obta9$ a cle> & probable view ( ! nature ( ! !rmotical processes4 ,:5 our !ory ( ,!rmotics is tol]ably complete & c]ta91 we may ) propriety und]take to connect x ) our !ory ( ,*emi/ry4 ,b at pres5t we are n f> en\gh advanc$ 9 our k ( heat to make ?is attempt ) any hope ( success4 ,we c h>dly expect to und]/& ! "p :i* heat plays 9 ! union ( two bodies1 :5 we _c z yet compreh5d 9 :at mann] x produces ! liquefaction or vaporization ( "o body4 ,we _c look to acc\nt = ,gay ,lussac & ,dalton's ,law1 t all gases exp& equally by heat1 till we le>n h[ heat causes a gas to exp&4 ,we _c hope to see ! gr\nds ( ,dulong & ,petit's ,law1 t ! specific heat ( all atoms is ! same1 till we "k mu* m1 n only ab\t atoms1 b ab\t specific heat4 ,we h z yet no !rmotical !ory :i* ev5 pr(esses to acc\nt = all ! prom95t facts ( ! subject#cgf3 & ! !ories :i* h be5 propos$ are ( ! mo/ div]se k9d4 ,laplace assumes p>ticles ( bodies surr\nd$ by atmosph]es ( caloric#chf2 ,cau*y makes heat consi/ 9 longitud9al vibrations ( ! e!r ( :i* transv]se vibrations #dg produce light3 9 ,ampre's !ory#cif1 heat consi/s 9 ! vibrations ( ! p>ticles ( bodies4 ,& s long z we h no?+ m c]ta9 9 our conceptions ( heat ?an ! alt]native ( ^! & o!r prec>i\s hypo!ses1 h[ c we expect to arrive at any real k1 by connect+ ! results ( su* hypo!ses ) ! speculations ( ,*emi/ry1 ( :i* sci5ce ! !ory is at lea/ equally obscure8 ,note #cgf3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sci4 b4 x4 c4 #d4 ,note #chf3 ,ib4 ,note #cif3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sci4 b4 x4 c4 #d4 ,! l>ge/ attempts at *emical !ory h be5 made 9 ! =m ( ! ,atomic ,!ory1 to :i* ,i h j _h occasion to allude4 ,i mu/1 !re=e1 be=e quitt+ ! subject1 say a few words respect+ ?is !ory4 #dh ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,atomic ,,!ory4 #a4 ,! ,atomic ,!ory consid]$ on ,*emical ,gr\nds4--,,we h already se5 t ! comb9ations :i* result f *emical aff9ity are def9ite1 a c]ta9 quantity ( "o +r$i5t unit+1 n ) an unc]ta91 b ) a c]ta9 quantity ( ano!r +r$i5t4 ,b x 0 f\nd1 9 addition to ?is pr9ciple1 t "o +r$i5t w\ld (t5 unite ) ano!r 9 diff]5t proportions1 & t1 9 su* cases1 ^! proportions are multiples "o ( ano!r4 ,9 ! ?ree salts =m$ by potassa ) oxalic acid1 ! quantities ( acid :i* comb9e ) ! same quantity ( alkali are exactly 9 ! proportion ( ! numb]s #a1 #b1 #d4 ,& ! same rule ( ! exi/5ce ( multiple proportions is f\nd to obta9 9 o!r cases4 ,x is obvi\s t su* results w be acc\nt$ =1 if we suppose t ! base & ! acid consi/ ea* ( num]\s def9ite equal p>ticles1 & t ! =mation ( ! salts above m5tion$ consi/s 9 ! comb9ation ( "o p>ticle ( ! base ) "o p>ticle ( acid1 ) two p>ticles ( acid1 & ) f\r p>ticles ( acid1 respectively4 ,b fur!r2 z we h already /at$1 *emical aff9ity is n only def9ite1 b reciprocal4 ,! proportions ( potassa & soda :i* =m neutral salts be+ #eij & #cia 9 "o case1 !y are s 9 all cases4 ,^! numb]s repres5t proportions ( weight 9 :i* ! two bases1 potassa & soda1 ent] into analog\s comb9ations2 #eij ( potassa is equival5t to #cia ( soda4 ,^! facts ) reg>d to comb9ation are /ill express$ by ! above supposition ( equal p>ticles1 assum+ t ! weights ( a #di p>ticle ( potassa & ( soda are 9 ! proportion ( #eij to #cia4 ,b we pursue our analysis fur!r4 ,we f9d t potassa is a comp\nd ( a metallic base1 potassium1 & ( oxyg51 9 ! proportion ( #dij to #ajj2 we suppose1 !n1 t ! p>ticle ( potassa consi/s ( a p>ticle ( potassium & a p>ticle ( oxyg52 & ^! latt] p>ticles1 s9ce we see no pres5t ne$ to suppose !m divid$1 potassium & oxyg5 be+ simple bodies1 we may call atoms1 & assume to be indivisible4 ,& by suppos+ all simple bodies to consi/ ( su* atoms1 & comp\nds to be =m$ by ! union ( two1 or ?ree1 or m ( su* atoms1 we expla9 ! occurr5ce ( def9ite & multiple proportions1 & we con/ruct ! ,atomic ,!ory4 #b4 ,hypo!sis ( ,atoms4--,s f> z ! assumption ( su* atoms z we h spok5 ( s]ves to express ^? laws ( *emical composition :i* we h ref]r$ to1 x is a cle> & useful g5]alization4 ,b if ! ,atomic ,!ory be put =w>ds 7& its au?or1 ,dr4 ,dalton1 appe>s to h put x =w>ds ) su* an int5tion17 z ass]t+ t *emical elem5ts are really compos$ ( atoms1 t is1 ( su* p>ticles n fur!r divisible1 we _c avoid rem>k+1 t = su* a conclusion1 *emical rese>* has n af=d$1 nor c af=d1 any satisfactory evid5ce :atev]4 ,! smalle/ obs]vable quantities ( +r$i5ts1 z well z ! l>ge/1 comb9e accord+ to ! laws ( proportions & equival5ce :i* h be5 cit$ above4 ,h[ are we to d$uce f su* facts any inf]5ce ) reg>d to ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 smalle/ possible p>ticles8 ,! ,!ory1 :5 dogmatically taught z a physical tru?1 ass]ts t all obs]vable quantities ( elem5ts are compos$ ( proportional numb]s ( p>ticles :i* c no fur!r be subdivid$2 b all :i* obs]vation tea*es u is1 t if !re be su* p>ticles1 !y are small] ?an ! smalle/ obs]vable quantities4 ,9 *emical exp]im5t1 at lea/1 !re is n ! slighte/ positive evid5ce = ! exi/5ce ( su* atoms4 ,! assumption ( indivisible p>ticles1 small] ?an ! smalle/ #ej obs]vable1 :i* comb9e1 p>ticle ) p>ticle1 w expla9 ! ph5om5a2 b ! assumption ( p>ticles be>+ ?is proportion1 b n possess+ ! prop]ty ( indivisibility1 w expla9 ! ph5om5a at lea/ equally well4 ,! decision ( ! "q1 !re=e1 :e!r ! ,atomic ,hypo!sis be ! prop] way ( conceiv+ ! *emical comb9ations ( sub/ances1 mu/ dep5d1 n ^u *emical facts1 b ^u our conception ( ,sub/ance4 ,9 ?is s5se ! "q is an anci5t & curi\s controv]sy1 & we %all h]eaft] h to make "s rem>ks ^u x4 #c4 ,*emical ,difficulties ( ! ,hypo!sis4--,b be=e do+ ?is1 we may obs]ve t !re is no small difficulty 9 reconcil+ ?is hypo!sis ) ! facts ( *emi/ry4 ,accord+ to ! !ory1 all salts1 comp\nd$ ( an acid & a base1 are analog\s 9 _! atomic con/itution2 & ! numb] ( atoms 9 "o su* comp\nd be+ kn[n or assum$1 ! numb] ( atoms 9 o!r salts may be det]m9$4 ,b :5 we proce$ 9 ?is c\rse ( reason+ to o!r bodies1 z metals1 we f9d ourselves involv$ 9 difficulties4 ,! protoxide ( iron is a base :i*1 accord+ to all analogy1 mu/ consi/ ( "o atom ( iron & "o ( oxyg53 b ! p]oxide ( iron is also a base1 & x appe>s by ! analysis ( ?is sub/ance t x mu/ consi/ ( two-?irds ( an atom ( iron & "o atom ( oxyg54 ,"h1 !n1 our indivisible atoms mu/ be divisible1 ev5 ^u *emical gr\nds4 ,& if we attempt to evade ?is difficulty by mak+ ! p]oxide ( iron consi/ ( two atoms ( iron & ?ree ( oxyg51 we h to make a correspond+ alt]ation 9 ! !oretical con/itution ( all bodies analog\s to ! protoxide2 & ?us we ov]turn ! v f\ndation ( ! !ory4 ,*emical facts1 !re=e1 n only d n prove ! ,atomic ,!ory z a physical tru?1 b !y are n1 accord+ to any modification yet devis$ ( ! !ory1 reconcileable ) its s*eme4 ,ne>ly ! same conclusions result f ! attempts to employ ! ,atomic ,hypo!sis 9 express+ ano!r important *emical law2--! law ( ! #ea comb9ations ( gases accord+ to def9ite proportions ( _! volumes1 exp]im5tally e/abli%$ by ,gay ,lussac#djf4 ,9 ord] to acc\nt = ?is law1 x has be5 v plausibly sugge/$ t all gases1 "u ! same pressure1 conta9 an equal numb] ( atoms 9 ! same space2 & t :5 !y comb9e1 !y unite atom to atom4 ,?us "o volume ( *lor9e unites ) "o volume ( hydrog51 & =ms hydro*loric acid#daf4 ,b !n ?is hydro*loric acid occupies ! space ( ! two volumes2 & !re=e ! prop] numb] ( p>ticles _c be suppli$1 & ! uni=m di/ribution ( atoms 9 all gases ma9ta9$1 )\t divid+ into two ea* ( ! comp\nd p>ticles1 con/itut$ ( an atom ( *lor9e & an atom ( hydrog54 ,& ?us 9 ?is case1 also1 ! ,atomic ,!ory becomes unt5able if x be und]/ood to imply ! indivisibility ( ! atoms4 ,note #djf3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xiv4 c4 #h4 ,note #daf3 ,dumas1 ,phil4 ,*im4 #bfc4 ,9 all ^! attempts to obta9 di/9ct physical conception ( *emical union by ! aid ( ! ,atomic ,hypo!sis1 ! atoms are conceiv$ to be associat$ by c]ta9 =ces ( ! nature ( me*anical attractions4 ,b we h already se5#dbf t no su* mode ( conception c at all expla9 or express ! facts ( *emical comb9ation2 & !re=e x is n wond]ful t :5 ! ,atomic ,!ory attempts to give an acc\nt ( *emical relations by contemplat+ !m "u su* an aspect1 ! facts on :i* x gr\nds itself %\ld be f\nd n to au?orize its positive doctr9es2 & t :5 ^! doctr9es are tri$ ^u ! g5]al range ( *emical obs]vation1 !y %\ld prove incapable ( ev5 express+1 )\t self-contradiction1 ! laws ( ph5om5a4 ,note #dbf3 ,see ,*apt] ,i4 ( ?is book4 #d4 ,gr\nds ( ! ,atomic ,doctr9e4--,yet ! doctr9e ( atoms1 or ( sub/ance z compos$ ( indivisible p>ticles1 has 9 all ages _h great hold ^u ! m9ds ( physical speculators2 nor w\ld ?is doctr9e ev] h sugge/$ itself s readily1 or h be5 ma9ta9$ s t5aci\sly1 z ! true mode ( #eb conceiv+ *emical comb9ations1 if x _h n be5 already famili> to ! m9ds ( ^? :o endeav\r to obta9 a g5]al view ( ! con/itution ( nature4 ,! gr\nds ( ! assumption ( ! atomic /ructure ( sub/ance are to be f\nd r 9 ! idea ( sub/ance itself1 ?an 9 ! exp]im5tal laws ( *emical aff9ity4 ,& ! "q ( ! exi/5ce ( atoms1 ?us dep5d+ ^u an idea :i* has be5 ! subject ( contemplation f ! v infancy ( philosophy1 has be5 discuss$ 9 all ages ) int]e/ & +5uity4 ,on ?is v acc\nt x is unlikely t ! "q1 s f> z x be>s ^u *emi/ry1 %\ld admit ( any cle> & f9al solution4 ,/ill x w be in/ructive to look back at "s ( ! op9ions :i* h be5 deliv]$ respect+ ?is doctr9e4 #e4 ,anci5t ,preval5ce ( ! ,atomic ,doctr9e4--,! doctr9e t matt] consi/s ( m9ute1 simple1 indivisible1 inde/ructible p>ticles z its ultimate elem5ts1 has be5 curr5t 9 all ages & c\ntries1 :5ev] ! t5d5cy ( man to wide & subtle speculations has be5 active4 ,i ne$ n attempt to trace ! hi/ory ( ?is op9ion 9 ! s*ools ( ,greece & ,italy4 ,x 0 ! lead+ feature 9 ! physical t5ets ( ! ,epicureans1 & 0 adopt$ by _! ,roman disciples1 z ! poem ( ,lucretius copi\sly %[s u4 ,! same t5et _h be5 held at /ill e>li] p]iods1 9 =ms m or less def9ite1 by o!r philosoph]s4 ,x is ascrib$ to ,democritus1 & is said to h be5 by him d]iv$ f ,leucippus4 ,b ?is doctr9e is f\nd also1 we are told#dcf1 among ! speculations ( ano!r intellectual & acute race1 ! ,h9doos4 ,accord+ to "s ( _! philosophical writ]s1 ! ultimate elem5ts ( matt] are atoms1 ( :i* x is prov$ by c]ta9 reason+s1 t !y are ea* "o-six? ( "o ( ! motes t float 9 ! sunbeam4 ,note #dcf3 ,by ,mr4 ,colebrook4 ,asiatic ,res4 #ahbd4 ,?is e>ly preval5ce ( controv]sies ( ! wide/ & deepe/ k9d1 :i* ev5 9 our day rema9 undecid$1 has 9 x no?+ :i* ne$ surprize u2 or1 at lea/1 x has 9 x no?+ :i* is n 9 con=mity #ec ) ! g5]al c\rse ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,z soon z any ideas are cle>ly possess$ by ! human m9d1 its activity & acut5ess 9 reason+ ^u !m are su*1 t ! fundam5tal anti!ses & ultimate difficulties :i* belong to !m are soon br\ght into view4 ,! ,greek & ,indian philosoph]s _h ma/]$ completely ! ,idea ( ,space1 & possess$ ! ,idea ( ,sub/ance 9 tol]able di/9ctness4 ,!y 71 !re=e1 q ready1 ) _! lively & subtle m9ds1 to discuss ! "q ( ! f9ite & inf9ite divisibility ( matt]1 s f> z x involv$ only ! ideas ( space & ( sub/ance1 & ?is accord+ly !y did ) great +5uity & p]sev]ance4 ,b ! ideas ( ,space & ( ,sub/ance are f> f be+ suffici5t to enable m5 to =m a complete g5]al view ( ! con/itution ( matt]4 ,we mu/ add to ^! ideas1 t ( me*anical ,=ce ) its antagoni/ ,resi/ance1 & t ( ! ,aff9ity ( "o k9d ( matt] = ano!r4 ,n[ ! =m] ( ^! ideas ! anci5ts possess$ 9 a v obscure & confus$ mann]2 & ( ! latt] !y _h no appreh5sion :atev]4 ,!y made vague assumptions respect+ ! impact & pressure ( atoms on ea* o!r2 b ( _! mutual attraction & repulsion !y nev] _h any conception1 except ( ! mo/ dim & wav]+ k9d2 & ( an aff9ity diff]5t f m]e local union !y did n ev5 dream4 ,_! speculations conc]n+ atoms1 !re=e1 c h no value = u1 except z a "p ( ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,if _! doctr9es appe> to u to approa* ne> to ! conclusions ( our mod]n philosophy1 x mu/ be because our mod]n philosophy is t philosophy :i* has n fully pr(it$ by ! additional light :i* ! exp]im5ts & m$itations ( lat] times h ?r[n ^u ! con/itution ( matt]4 #f4 ,bacon4--,/ill1 :5 mod]n philosoph]s look ^u ! ,atomic ,!ory ( ! anci5ts 9 a g5]al po9t ( view m]ely1 )\t consid]+ ! special conditions :i* su* a !ory mu/ fulfil1 9 ord] to repres5t ! discov]ies ( mod]n times1 !y are #ed dispos$ to reg>d x ) admiration4 ,accord+ly we f9d ,francis ,bacon /rongly express+ su* a feel+4 ,! ,atomic ,!ory is select$ & dwelt ^u by him z ! *a9 :i* connects ! be/ p>ts ( ! physical philosophy ( ! anci5t & ! mod]n _w4 ,among 8 works is a rem>kable diss]tation ,on ! ,philosophy ( ,democritus1 ,p>m5ides1 & ,telesius3 ! la/ m5tion$ ( :om 0 "o ( ! reviv]s ( physical sci5ce 9 mod]n times4 ,9 ?is "w he speaks ( ! atomic doctr9e ( ,democritus z a fav\rable example ( ! ex]tions ( ! undiscipl9$ intellect4 ',hc ipsa placita1 quamvis paulo em5datiora1 talia sunt qualia esse possunt illa qu ab intellectu sibi p]misso1 nec cont95t] et gradatim sublevato1 pr(ecta vid5tur4'--',^! doctr9es1 ?us 9 an anci5t fable pres5t$ 9 a bett] =m1 are su* glimpses ( tru? z c be obta9$ by ! intellect left to its own natural impulses1 & n asc5d+ by successive & connect$ /eps1' z ! ,baconian philosophy directs4 ',accord+ly1' he adds1 '! doctr9e ( ,atoms1 f its go+ a /ep beyond ! p]iod 9 :i* x 0 advanc$1 0 ridicul$ by ! vulg>1 & sev]ely h&l$ 9 ! disputations ( ! le>n$1 not)/&+ ! pr(\nd acqua9tance ) physical sci5ce by :i* its au?or 0 all[$ to be di/+ui%$1 & f :i* he acquir$ ! "* ( a magician4' ',h[ev]1' he cont9ues1 'nei!r ! ho/ility ( ,ari/otle1 ) all 8 skill & vig\r 9 disputation1 7?\gh1 l ! ,ottoman sultans1 he lab\r$ to de/roy all 8 bro!r philosoph]s t he might re/ undisput$ ma/] ( ! ?rone ( sci5ce17 nor ! maje/ic & l(ty au?ority ( ,plato1 c\ld effect ! subv]sion ( ! doctr9e ( ,democritus4 ,& :ile ! op9ions ( ,plato & ,ari/otle 7 rehe>s$ ) l\d declamation & pr(essorial pomp 9 ! s*ools1 ?is ( ,democritus 0 always held 9 high hon\r by ^? ( a deep] wisdom1 :o foll[$ 9 sil5ce a sev]] pa? ( contemplation4 ,9 ! days ( ,roman speculation x kept its gr\nd & its fav\r2 ,cic]o ev]y:]e speaks ( its au?or ) ! #ee greate/ praise2 & ,juv5al1 :o1 l poets 9 g5]al1 probably express$ ! prevail+ judgm5t ( 8 "t1 proclaims 8 m]it z a noble exception to ! g5]al /upidity ( 8 c\ntrym54 4 4 4 4 ,cujus prud5tia mon/rat ,magnos posse viros et magna exempla daturos ,v]vecum 9 patri crassoque sub a]e nasci4 ',! de/ruction ( ?is philosophy 0 n effect$ by ,ari/otle & ,plato1 b by ,g5s]ic & ,attila1 & _! b>b>ians4 ,= !n1 :5 human k _h suff]$ %ipwreck1 ^? fragm5ts ( ! ,ari/otelian & ,platonic philosophy float$ on ! surface l ?+s ( "s light] & empti] sort1 & s 7 pres]v$2 :ile m solid matt]s w5t to ! bottom1 & 7 almo/ lo/ 9 oblivion4' #g4 ,mod]n ,preval5ce ( ! ,atomic ,doctr9e4--,x is our bus9ess "h to consid] ! doctr9e ( ,atoms only 9 its be>+ ^u exi/+ physical sci5ces1 & ,i mu/ !re=e ab/a9 f trac+ ! v>i\s manife/ations ( x 9 ! s*emes ( hypo!tical cosmologi/s2--its place among ! vortices ( ,desc>tes1 its exhibition 9 ! monads ( ,leibnitz4 ,i w1 h[ev]1 quote a passage f ,newton to %[ ! hold x _h ^u 8 m9d4 ,at ! close ( 8 ,opticks he says1 ',all ^! ?+s be+ consid]$1 x seems probable to me t ,god1 9 ! beg9n+1 =m$ matt] 9 solid1 massy1 h>d1 imp5etrable1 moveable p>ticles1 ( su* sizes & figures1 & ) su* o!r prop]ties1 & 9 su* proportions to space1 z mo/ conduc$ to ! end = :i* ,he =m$ !m2 & t ! primitive p>ticles1 be+ solids1 are incomp>ably h>d] ?an any por\s bodies comp\nd$ ( !m1 ev5 s v h>d z nev] to we> or break 9 pieces2 no ord9>y p[] be+ able to divide :at ,god _h made "o 9 ! fir/ creation4 ,:ile ! p>ticles cont9ue entire1 !y may compose bodies ( "o & ! same nature & texture 9 all ages3 b %\ld !y we> away or break 9 pieces1 ! nature ( ?+s dep5d+ on !m w\ld be *ang$4 ,wat] & e>? compos$ #ef ( old worn p>ticles & fragm5ts ( p>ticles w\ld n be ( ! same nature & texture n[ ) wat] & e>? compos$ ( entire p>ticles 9 ! beg9n+4 ,& !re=e t nature may be la/+1 ! *anges ( corporeal ?+s are to be plac$ only 9 ! v>i\s sep>ations & new associations & motions ( ^! p]man5t p>ticles2 comp\nd$ bodies be+ apt to break1 n 9 ! mid/ ( solid p>ticles1 b :]e ^? p>ticles are laid toge!r & only t\* 9 a few po9ts4' ,we %all h]eaft] see h[ ext5sively ! atomic doctr9e has prevail$ among /ill m rec5t philosoph]s4 ,n only h ! *emi/s assum$ x z ! fitte/ =m = exhibit+ ! pr9ciples ( multiple proportions2 b ! physical ma!maticians1 z ,laplace & ,poisson1 h made x ! basis ( _! !ories ( heat1 electricity1 capill>y action2 & ! cry/allograph]s h be5 suppos$ to h e/abli%$ bo? ! exi/5ce & ! arrangem5t ( su* ultimate molecules4 ,9 ! way 9 :i* x has be5 employ$ by su* writ]s1 ! hypo!sis ( ultimate p>ticles has be5 ( great use1 & is und\bt$ly p]missible4 ,b :5 we w\ld ass]t ?is !ory1 n z a conv5i5t hypo!sis = ! expression or calculation ( ! laws ( nature1 b z a philosophical tru? respect+ ! con/itution ( ! univ]se1 we f9d ourselves *eck$ by difficulties ( reason+ :i* we _c ov]come1 z well z by conflict+ ph5om5a :i* we _c reconcile4 ,i w attempt to /ate briefly ! oppos+ argum5ts on ?is "q4 #h4 ,argum5ts = & aga9/ ,atoms4--,! lead+ argum5ts on ! two sides ( ! "q1 9 _! mo/ g5]al =m1 may be /at$ z foll[s3 ,= ! ,atomic ,doctr9e4--,! appe>ances :i* nature pres5ts are comp\nd$ ( _m p>ts1 b if we g on resolv+ ! l>g] p>ts into small]1 & s on successively1 we mu/ at la/ come to some?+ simple4 ,= t :i* is comp\nd c be s no o!rwise ?an by composition ( :at is simple2 & if we suppose all composition to be remov$1 :i* #eg hypo!tically we may d1 !re c rema9 no?+ b a numb] ( simple sub/ances1 capable ( composition1 b !mselves n comp\nd$4 ,t is1 matt] be+ dissolv$1 resolves itself into atoms4 ,aga9/ ! ,atomic ,doctr9e4--,space is divisible )\t limit1 z may be prov$ by ,geometry2 & matt] occupies space1 !re=e matt] is divisible )\t limit1 & no portion ( matt] is indivisible1 or an atom4 ,& to ! argum5t on ! o!r side j /at$1 x is repli$ t we _c ev5 hypo!tically dive/ a body ( composition1 if by composition we mean ! relation ( po9t to po9t 9 space4 ,h[ev] small be a p>ticle1 x is comp\nd$ ( p>ts hav+ relation 9 space4 ,! ,atomi/s urge aga91 t if matt] be inf9itely divisible1 a f9ite body consi/s ( an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts1 :i* is a contradiction4 ,to ?is x is repli$1 t ! f9ite body consi/s ( an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* ! p>ts are inf9itely small1 :i* is no contradiction4 ,b ! oppon5ts ( ! ,atomi/s n only rebut1 b retort ?is argum5t drawn f ! notion ( inf9ity4 ,y\r atoms1 !y say1 are indivisible by any f9ite =ce2 !re=e !y are inf9itely h>d2 & ?us y\r f9ite p>ticles possess inf9ite prop]ties4 ,to ?is ! ,atomi/s are wont to reply1 t !y d n mean ! h>dness ( _! p>ticles to be inf9ite1 b only s great z to resi/ all usual natural =ces4 ,b "h x is pla9 t _! position becomes unt5able2 =1 9 ! fir/ place1 _! assumption ( ?is precise degree ( h>dness 9 ! p>ticles is altoge!r gratuit\s2 & 9 ! next place1 if x 7 grant$1 su* p>ticles are n atoms1 s9ce 9 ! next mom5t ! =ces ( nature may be augm5t$ s z to divide ! p>ticle1 ?\gh hi!rto undivid$4 ,su* are ! argum5ts = & aga9/ ! ,atomic ,!ory 9 its orig9al =m4 ,b :5 ^! atoms are conceiv$1 z !y h be5 by ,newton1 & commonly by 8 foll[]s1 to be solid1 h>d p>ticles ex]t+ attractive & repulsive =ces1 a new set ( #eh argum5ts come into play4 ,( ^!1 ! pr9cipal "o may be ?us /at$3 ,accord+ to ! ,atomic ,!ory ?us modifi$1 ! prop]ties ( bodies dep5d ^u ! attractions & repulsions ( ! p>ticles4 ,!re=e1 among o!r prop]ties ( bodies1 _! h>dness dep5ds ^u su* =ces4 ,b if ! h>dness ( ! bodies dep5ds ^u ! =ces1 ! repulsion1 = in/ance1 ( ! p>ticles1 ^u :at does ! h>dness ( ! p>ticles dep5d8 :at progress d we make 9 expla9+ ! prop]ties ( bodies1 :5 we assume ! same prop]ties 9 our explanation8 & to :at purpose d we assume t ! p>ticles are h>d8 #i4 ,transition to ,boscovi*'s ,!ory4--,to ?is difficulty x does n appe> easy to (f] any reply4 ,b if ! h>dness & solidity ( ! p>ticles be giv5 up z an incongru\s & unt5able app5dage to ! ,newtonian view ( ! ,atomic ,!ory1 we are l$ to ! !ory ( ,boscovi*1 accord+ to :i* matt] consi/s n ( solid p>ticles1 b ( m]e ma!matical c5t]s ( =ce4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 ea* body is compos$ ( a numb] ( geometrical po9ts f :i* emanate =ces1 foll[+ c]ta9 ma!matical laws 9 virtue ( :i* ! =ces become1 at c]ta9 small di/ances attractive1 at c]ta9 o!r di/ances repulsive1 & at great] di/ances attractive aga94 ,f ^! =ces ( ! po9ts arise ! cohesion ( ! p>ts ( ! same body1 ! resi/ance :i* x ex]ts aga9/ ! pressure ( ano!r body1 & f9ally ! attraction ( gravitation :i* x ex]ts ^u bodies at a di/ance4 ,?is !ory is at lea/ a homog5e\s & consi/5t !ory1 & x is probable t x may be us$ z an in/rum5t = inve/igat+ & express+ true laws ( nature2 al?\gh1 z we h already said1 ! attempt to id5tify ! =ces by :i* ! p>ticles ( bodies are b\nd toge!r ) me*anical attraction1 appe>s to be a confusion ( two sep>ate ideas#ddf4 ,note #ddf3 ',boscovi*'s ,!ory1' t all bodies may be consid]$ z consi/+ ( a m]e collection ( c5t]s ( =ces1 may be s conceiv$ z possibly to involve an explanation ( all ! p[]s :i* _! p>ts ex]t1 7su* p[]s1 namely1 z ^? :i* produce optical1 !rmotical & *emical ph5om5a27 b ?is !ory _c supply an explanation ( ! me*anical prop]ties ( a body z a :ole1 especially ( its in]tia4 ,a collection ( m]e c5t]s ( =ce c h no in]tia4 ,if two bodies are consid]$ z two collections ( c5t]s ( =ce1 ! "o attract+ ! o!r1 !re is 9 ?is view no?+ to limit or det]m9e ! velocity ) :i* ! "o body w approa* ! o!r4 ,a _w compos$ ( su* bodies is n a mat]ial _w3 = matt] 7z we h already se5 9 book iii4 *apt] v47 implies n only =ce1 b some?+ :i* resi/s ! action ( =ce4 #ei #aj4 ,use ( ! ,molecul> ,hypo!sis4--,9 ?is =m1 repres5t+ matt] z a collection ( molecules or c5t]s ( =ce1 ! ,atomic ,!ory has be5 abundantly employ$ 9 mod]n times z an hypo!sis on :i* calculations respect+ ! elem5t>y =ces ( bodies might be conduct$4 ,:5 ?us employ$ x is to be consid]$ z express+ ! pr9ciple t ! prop]ties ( bodies dep5d ^u =ces emanat+ f immovable po9ts ( _! mass4 ,?is view ( ! way 9 :i* ! prop]ties ( bodies are to be treat$ by ! me*anical philosoph] 0 introduc$ by ,newton1 & 0 a natural sequel to ! success :i* he _h obta9$ by reason+ conc]n+ c5tral =ces on a l>ge scale4 ,i h already quot$ 8 ,preface to ! ,pr9cipia1 9 :i* he says1 ',_m ?+s induce me to believe t ! re/ ( ! ph5om5a ( nature1 z well z ^? ( a/ronomy1 may dep5d ^u c]ta9 =ces by :i* ! p>ticles ( bodies1 9 virtue ( causes n yet kn[n1 are urg$ t[>ds ea* o!r & coh]e 9 regul> figures1 or are mutually repell$ & rec$e2 & philosoph]s1 kn[+ no?+ ( ^! =ces1 h hi!rto fail$ 9 _! exam9ation ( nature4' ,s9ce ! "t ( ,newton1 ?is l9e ( speculation has be5 foll[$ ) great assiduity1 & by "s ma!maticians ) great success4 ,9 p>ticul> ,laplace has %[n t ! hypo!sis may1 9 _m in/ances1 be made a mu* clos] repres5tation ( nature1 if we suppose ! =ces ex]t$ by ! p>ticles to decrease s rapidly ) ! increas+ di/ance f !m1 t #fj ! =ce is f9ite only at di/ances imp]ceptible to our s5ses1 & vani%es at all remot] po9ts4 ,he has taught ! me?od ( express+ & calculat+ su* =ces1 & he & o!r ma!maticians ( 8 s*ool h appli$ ?is me?od to _m ( ! mo/ important que/ions ( physics2 z capill>y action1 ! ela/icity ( solids1 ! conduction & radiation ( heat4 ,! explanation ( _m app>5tly unconnect$ & curi\s obs]v$ facts by ^! ma!matical !ories gives a /rong assurance t its ess5tial pr9ciples are true4 ,b x mu/ be obs]v$ t ! actual con/itution ( bodies z compos$ ( di/9ct & sep>ate p>ticles is by no means prov$ by ^! co9cid5ces4 ,! assumption1 9 ! reason+1 ( c]ta9 c5t]s ( =ce act+ at a di/ance1 is to be consid]$ z no?+ m ?an a me?od ( r$uc+ to calculation t view ( ! con/itution ( bodies :i* supposes t !y ex]t =ce at e po9t4 ,x is a ma!matical artifice ( ! same k9d z ! hypo!tical division ( a body into inf9itesimal p>ts1 9 ord] to f9d its c5t] ( gravity2 & no m implies a physical reality ?an t hypo!sis does4 #aa4 ,poisson's ,inf]5ce4--,:51 !re=e1 ,m4 ,poisson1 9 8 views ( ,capill>y ,action1 treats ?is hypo!tical di/ribution ( c5t]s ( =ce z if x 7 a physical fact1 & blames ,laplace = n tak+ acc\nt ( _! diff]5t di/ribution at ! surface ( ! fluid & bel[ x#def1 he appe>s to pu% ! claims ( ! molecul> hypo!sis too f>4 ,! only gr\nd = ! assumption ( sep>ate c5t]s1 is t we c ?us expla9 ! action ( ! :ole mass4 ,! int]vals betwe5 ! c5t]s n[h]e ent] into ?is explanation3 & !re=e we c h no reason = assum+ ^! int]vals diff]5t 9 "o "p ( ! fluid & 9 ! o!r4 ,m4 ,poisson ass]ts t ! d5sity ( ! fluid dim9i%es :5 we approa* v ne> ! surface2 b he all[s t ?is dim9ution is n detect$ by exp]im5t1 & t ! =mul on #fa 8 supposition1 s f> z ! results g1 are id5tical ) ^? ( ,laplace4 ,x is cle>1 !n1 t 8 doctr9e consi/s m]ely 9 ! ass]tion ( ! necess>y tru? ( a "p ( ! hypo!sis :i* _c be put to ! te/ ( exp]im5t4 ,x is true1 t s long z we h be=e u ! hypo!sis ( sep>ate c5t]s1 ! p>ticles v ne> ! surface are n 9 a condition symmetrical ) t ( ! o!rs3 b x is also true t ?is hypo!sis is only a /ep ( calculation4 ,!re results1 at "o p]iod ( ! process ( d$uction1 a /ratum ( small] d5sity at ! surface ( ! fluid2 b at a succe$+ po9t ( ! reason+ ! ?ickness ( ?is /ratum vani%es2 x has no physical exi/5ce4 ,note #def3 ,poisson1 ,?orie de l',action ,capillaire4 ,?us ! molecul> hypo!sis1 z us$ 9 su* cases1 does n diff] f ! doctr9e ( =ces act+ at e po9t ( ! mass2 & ?is pr9ciple1 :i* is common to bo? ! opposite views1 is ! true "p ( ea*4 #ab4 ,wolla/on's ,argum5t4--,an attempt has be5 made 9 ano!r case1 b dep5d+ on ne>ly ! same argum5ts1 to br+ ! doctr9e ( ultimate atoms to ! te/ ( obs]vation4 ,9 ! case ( ! air1 we "k t !re is a dim9ution ( d5sity 9 approa*+ ! upp] surface ( ! atmosph]e1 if x h a surface3 b x is held by "s t except we all[ ! doctr9e ( ultimate molecules1 x w n be b\nd$ by any surface1 b w ext5d to an inf9ite di/ance4 ,?is is ! reason+ ( ,wolla/on#dff4 ',if air consi/s ( any ultimate p>ticles no long] divisible1 !n mu/ ! expansion ( ! m$ium compos$ ( !m cease at t di/ance :]e ! =ce ( gravity d[nw>ds is equal to ! resi/ance aris+ f ! repulsive =ce ( ! m$ium4' ,b if !re be no su* ultimate p>ticles1 e /ratum w require a /ratum beyond x to prev5t by its weight a fur!r expansion1 & ?us ! atmosph]e #fb mu/ ext5d to an inf9ite di/ance4 ,& ,wolla/on conceiv$ t he c\ld le>n f obs]vation :e!r ! atmosph]e 0 ?us diffus$ ?r\gh all space2 = if s1 x mu/1 he argu$1 be accumulat$ ab\t ! l>g] bodies ( ! sy/em1 z ,jupit] & ! ,sun1 by ! law ( univ]sal gravitation2 & ! exi/5ce ( an atmosph]e ab\t ^! bodies1 might1 he rem>k$1 be detect$ by its effects 9 produc+ refraction4 ,8 result is1 t 'all ! ph5om5a accord entirely ) ! supposition t ! e>?'s atmosph]e is ( f9ite ext5t1 limit$ by ! weight ( ultimate atoms ( def9ite magnitude1 no long] divisible by repulsion ( _! p>ts4' ,note #dff3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbb1 p4 #hi4 ,a v little reflection w %[ u t su* a l9e ( reason+ _c lead to any result4 ,= we "k no?+ ( ! law :i* connects ! d5sity ) ! compress+ =ce1 9 air s extremely r>e z we mu/ suppose x to be ne> ! b\nd>y ( ! atmosph]e4 ,n[ !re are possible laws ( dep5d5ce ( ! d5sity ^u ! compress+ =ce su* t ! atmosph]e w\ld t]m9ate 9 virtue ( ! law )\t any assumption ( atoms4 ,?is may be prov$ by ma!matical reason+4 ,if we suppose ! d5sity ( air to be z ! squ>e root ( ! compress+ =ce1 x w foll[ t at ! v limits ( ! atmosph]e1 ! /rata ( equal ?ickness may obs]ve 9 _! d5sities su* a law ( proportion z is express$ by ! numb]s #g1 #e1 #c1 #adgf4 ,note #dgf3 ,= ! compress+ =ce on ea* be+ z ! :ole weight beyond x1 x w be = ! f\r highe/ /rata1 #af1 #i1 #d & #a1 ( :i* ! squ>e roots are z #d1 #c1 #b1 #a1 or1 z #h1 #f1 #d1 #b2 & ?\gh ^! numb]s are n exactly z ! d5sities #g1 #e1 #c1 #a1 ^? :o are a little acqua9t$ ) ma!matical reason+1 w see t ! diff]5ce arises f tak+ s small a numb] ( /rata4 ,if we 7 to make ! /rata indef9itely ?91 z to avoid error we ought to d1 ! co9cid5ce w\ld be exact2 & ?us1 accord+ to ?is law1 ! s]ies ( /rata t]m9ates z we asc5d1 )\t any consid]ation ( atoms4 ,if x be ask$ h[1 on ?is hypo!sis1 ! d5sity ( ! highe/ /ratum c be z #a1 s9ce !re is #fc no?+ to compress x1 we answ] t ! upp] "p ( ! highe/ /ratum compresses ! l[]1 & t ! d5sity dim9i%es cont9ually to ! surface1 s t ! ne$ ( compression & ! compress+ weight vani% toge!r4 ,! fallacy ( conclud+ t because ! height ( ! atmosph]e is f9ite1 ! weight ( ! highe/ /ratum mu/ be f9ite1 is j ! same z ! fallacy ( ^? :o conclude t :5 we project a body v]tically upw>ds1 because x occupies only a f9ite "t 9 asc5d+ to ! highe/ po9t1 ! velocity at ! la/ in/ant ( ! asc5t mu/ be f9ite4 ,= x might be said1 if ! la/ velocity ( asc5t be n f9ite1 h[ c ! body describe ! la/ p>ticle ( space 9 a f9ite "t8 & ! answ] is1 t !re is no la/ f9ite p>ticle ( space1 & !re=e no la/ f9ite velocity4 #ac4 ,p]man5ce ( ,prop]ties ( ,bodies4--,we h already se5 t1 9 expla9+ ! prop]ties ( matt] z we f9d !m 9 nature1 ! assumption ( solid1 h>d1 inde/ructible p>ticles is ( no use or value4 ,b we may rem>k1 be=e quitt+ ! subject1 t ,newton appe>s to h _h ano!r reason = assum+ su* p>ticles1 & "o well wor?y ( notice4 ,he wi%$ to express1 by means ( ?is hypo!sis1 ! doctr9e t ! laws ( nature d n alt] ) ! c\rse ( "t4 ,?is we h already se5 9 ! quotation f ,newton4 ',! ultimate p>ticles ( matt] are inde/ructible1 unalt]able1 imp5etrable2 = if !y c\ld break or we>1 ! /ructure ( mat]ial bodies n[ w\ld be diff]5t f t :i* x 0 :5 ! p>ticles 7 new4' ,no philosoph] w d5y ! tru? :i* is ?us convey$ by ! ass]tion ( atoms2 b x is obvi\sly equally easy = a p]son :o rejects ! atomic view1 to /ate ?is tru? by say+ t ! =ces :i* matt] ex]ts d n v>y ) "t1 b h[ev] modifi$ by ! new modifications ( its =m1 are always unimpair$ 9 quantity1 & capable ( be+ re/or$ to _! =m] mode ( action4 #fd ,we n[ proce$ to speculations 9 :i* ! fundam5tal conceptions may1 p]haps1 be express$1 at lea/ 9 "s cases1 by means ( ! arrangem5t ( atoms2 b 9 :i* ! philosophy ( ! subject appe>s to require a ref]5ce to a new ,fundam5tal ,idea4 #fe ,,book ,,vii4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,morphology1 ,,includ+ ,,cry/allography4 ,,cry/allization exhibits to u ! effects ( ! natural arrangem5t ( ! ultimate p>ticles ( v>i\s comp\nd bodies2 b we are sc>cely yet suffici5tly acqua9t$ ) *emical syn!sis & analysis to und]/& ! rationale ( ?is process4 ,! rhomboidal =m may arise f ! prop] position ( #d1 #f1 #h or #i globul> p>ticles1 ! cubic =m f #h p>ticles1 ! triangul> =m f #c1 #f or #aj p>ticles1 ! hexah$ral prism f #g p>ticles1 c4 ,p]haps1 9 due "t we may be enabl$ to asc]ta9 ! numb] & ord] ( elem5t>y p>ticles1 con/itut+ any giv5 comp\nd elem5t1 & f t det]m9e ! figure :i* x w pref] on cry/allization1 & vice v]s4 ,,john ,,dalton1 ,*emical ,philosophy 7#ahjh71 p4 #baj4 #fg ,,book ,,vii4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,morphology1 ,,includ+ ,,cry/allography4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,explication ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,symmetry4 #a4 ,,we h se5 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ces1 t ! pr9ciple :i* ,i h !re t]m$#ag ! ,pr9ciple ( ,develop$ & ,metamorphos$ ,symmetry1 has be5 ext5sively appli$ 9 botany & physiology1 & has giv5 rise to a prov9ce ( sci5ce t]m$ ,morphology4 ,9 ord] to und]/& cle>ly ?is pr9ciple1 x is necess>y to obta9 a cle> idea ( ! ,symmetry ( :i* we ?us speak4 ,b ?is ,idea ( ,symmetry is applicable 9 ! inorganic1 z well z 9 ! organic k+doms ( nature2 x is pres5t$ to our eyes 9 ! =ms ( m9]als1 z well z ( fl[]s & animals2 we mu/1 !re=e1 take x "u our consid]ation "h1 9 ord] t we may complete our view ( ,m9]alogy1 :i*1 z ,i h repeat$ly said1 is an ess5tial "p ( ,*emical sci5ce4 ,i %all accord+ly endeav\r to unfold ! ,idea ( ,symmetry ) :i* we "h h to d4 ,note #ag3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xvii4 c4 vi4 ,x w ( c\rse be und]/ood t by ! t]m ,symmetry ,i "h int5d1 n t m indef9ite attribute ( =m :i* belongs to ! doma9 ( ! f9e arts1 z :5 we speak ( ! 'symmetry' ( an edifice #fh or ( a sculptur$ figure1 b a c]ta9 def9ite relation or prop]ty1 no less rigor\s & precise ?an o!r relations ( numb] & position1 :i* is ?us "o ( ! sure guides ( ! sci5tific faculty1 & "o ( ! bases ( our exact sci5ce4 #b4 ,9 ord] to expla9 :at ,symmetry is 9 ?is s5se1 let ! read] recollect t ! bodies ( animals consi/ ( two equal & simil> sets ( memb]s1 ! "r & ! left side2--t "s fl[]s consi/ ( ?ree or ( five equal sets ( organs1 simil>ly & regul>ly dispos$1 z ! iris has ?ree /raight petals1 & ?ree reflex$ ones1 alt]nately dispos$1 ! rose has five equal & simil> sepals ( ! calyx1 & alt]nate ) ^!1 z _m petals ( ! corolla4 ,?is ord]ly & exactly simil> di/ribution ( two1 or ?ree1 or five1 or any o!r numb] ( p>ts1 is ,symmetry2 & accord+ to its v>i\s modifications1 ! =ms ?us det]m9$ are said to be symmetrical ) v>i\s numb]s ( memb]s4 ,! classification ( ^! diff]5t k9ds ( symmetry has be5 mo/ att5d$ to 9 ,cry/allography1 9 :i* sci5ce x is ! highe/ & mo/ g5]al pr9ciple by :i* ! classes ( =ms are gov]n$4 ,)\t ent]+ f> into ! te*nicalities ( ! subject1 we may po9t out "s ( ! features ( su* classes4 ,illu/ration ,! fir/ ( ! figures 7#a7 9 ! m>g9 may repres5t ! summit ( a cry/al z x appe>s to an eye look+ directly d[n ^u x2 ! c5t] ( ! figure repres5ts ! summit ( a pyramid1 & ! spaces ( v>i\s =ms :i* div]ge f ?is po9t repres5t slop+ sides ( ! pyramid4 ,n[ x w be obs]v$ t ! figure consi/s ( ?ree portions exactly simil> to "o ano!r1 & t ea* "p or memb] is repeat$ 9 ea* ( ^! portions4 ,! faces1 or pairs ( faces1 are repeat$ 9 ?rees1 ) exactly simil> =ms & angles4 ,?is figure is said to be ?ree-memb]$1 or to h triangul> symmetry4 ,! same k9d ( #fi symmetry may exi/ 9 a fl[]1 z pres5t$ 9 ! accompany+ figure1 & does1 9 fact1 occur 9 a l>ge class ( fl[]s1 z = example1 all ! lily tribe4 ,! next pair ( figures 7#b7 h f\r equal & simil> portions1 & h _! memb]s or pairs ( memb]s f\r times repeat$4 ,su* figures are t]m$ f\r-memb]$1 & are said to h squ>e or tetragonal symmetry4 ,! p5tagonal symmetry1 =m$ by five simil> memb]s1 is repres5t$ 9 ! next figures 7#c74 ,x occurs abundantly 9 ! vegetable _w1 b nev] among cry/als2 = ! p5tagonal figures :i* cry/als sometimes assume1 are nev] exactly regul>4 ,b !re is /ill ano!r k9d ( symmetry 7#d7 9 :i* ! opposite ends are exactly simil> to ea* o!r & also ! opposite sides2 ?is is oblong1 or two-&-two-memb]$ symmetry4 ,& f9ally1 we h ! case ( simple symmetry 7#e7 9 :i* ! two sides ( ! object are exactly alike 79 opposite positions7 )\t any fur!r repetition4 ,illu/ration #c4 ,^! diff]5t k9ds ( symmetry occur 9 v>i\s ways 9 ! animal1 vegetable1 & m9]al k+dom4 ,v]tebrate animals h a "r & a #gj left side exactly alike1 & ?us possess simple symmetry4 ,! same k9d ( symmetry 7simple symmetry7 occurs v l>gely 9 ! =ms ( vegetables1 z 9 mo/ leaves1 9 papilionace\s1 p]sonate1 & labiate fl[]s4 ,among m9]als1 cry/als :i* possess ?is symmetry are call$ oblique-prismatic1 & are ( v frequ5t occurr5ce4 ,! oblong1 or two-&-two-memb]$ symmetry belongs to "r-prismatic cry/als2 & may be se5 9 crucif]\s fl[]s1 = ?\gh ^! are cross-%ap$1 ! cross has two long] & two %ort] arms1 or pairs ( arms4 ,! squ>e or tetragonal symmetry occurs 9 cry/als abundantly2 to ! vegetable _w x appe>s to be less cong5ial2 = ?\gh !re are fl[]s ) f\r exactly simil> & regul>ly-dispos$ petals1 z ! h]b ,p>is 7,p>is quadrifolia71 ^! fl[]s appe>1 f v>i\s circum/ances1 to be deviations f ! usual type ( vegetable =ms4 ,! trigonal1 or ?ree-memb]$ symmetry is f\nd abundantly bo? 9 plants & 9 cry/als1 :ile ! p5tagonal symmetry1 on ! o!r h&1 ?\gh by f> ! mo/ common among fl[]s1 n[h]e occurs 9 m9]als1 & does n appe> to be a possible =m ( cry/als4 ,?is p5tagonal =m fur!r occurs 9 ! animal k+dom1 :i* ! oblong1 triangul>1 & squ>e =ms d n4 ,_m ( ,cuvi]'s radiate animals appe> 9 ?is p5tagonal =m1 z e*9i & p5tacr9ites1 :i* latt] h h5ce _! "n4 #d4 ,! regul>1 or z !y may be call$1 ! normal types ( ! vegetable _w appe> to be ! =ms :i* possess triangul> & p5tagonal symmetry2 f ^! ! o!rs may be conceiv$ to be d]iv$1 by trans=mations result+ f ! expansion ( "o or m p>ts4 ,?us x is manife/ t if 9 a ?ree-memb]$ or five-memb]$ fl[]1 "o ( ! petals be exp&$ m ?an ! o!r1 x is imm$iately r$uc$ f p5tagonal or trigonal1 to simple symmetry4 ,& ! oblong or two-&-two-memb]$ symmetry ( ! fl[]s ( crucif]\s plants1 79 :i* ! /am5s are f\r l>ge & two small ones1 arrang$ 9 regul> opposition17 is held by botani/s to result #ga f a normal =m ) t5 /am5s2 ,me9ecke expla9+ ?is by adhesion1 & ,spr5gel by ! metamorphosis ( ! /am5s into petals#bg4 ,note #bg3 ,spr5gel1 ,ges*4 d4 ,bot4 ii4 #cjd4 ,x is easy to see t ^! v>i\s k9ds ( symmetry include relations bo? ( =m & ( numb]1 b m especially ( ! latt] k9d2 & z ?is symmetry is (t5 an important "* 9 v>i\s classes ( natural objects1 su* classes h (t5 curi\s num]ical prop]ties4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable & ext5sive ( ^! is ! di/9ction :i* prevails betwe5 monocotyl$on\s & dicotyl$on\s plants2 ! numb] ?ree be+ ! gr\nd ( ! symmetry ( ! =m]1 & ! numb] five1 ( ! latt]4 ,?us liliace\s & bulb\s plants1 & ! l1 h fl[]s ( ?ree or six petals1 & ! o!r organs foll[ ! same numb]s3 :ile ! va/ majority ( plants are p5t&r\s1 & ) _! five /am5s h also _! o!r p>ts 9 fives4 ,?is great num]ical di/9ction correspond+ to a lead+ diff]5ce ( physiological /ructure _c b be consid]$ z a highly curi\s fact 9 phytology4 ,su* prop]ties ( numb]s1 ?us connect$ 9 an incompreh5sible mann] ) fundam5tal & ext5sive laws ( nature1 give to numb]s an appe>ance ( my/]i\s importance & efficacy4 ,we le>n f hi/ory h[ /rongly ! /udy ( su* prop]ties1 z !y are exhibit$ by ! ph5om5a ( ! heav5s1 took possession ( ! m9d ( ,kepl]2 p]haps x 0 ?is :i*1 at an e>li] p]iod1 contribut$ 9 no small degree to ! num]ical my/icism ( ! ,py?agoreans 9 antiquity1 & ( ! ,arabians & o!rs 9 ! middle ages4 ,9 cry/allography1 numb]s are ! prim>y *>act]s 9 :i* ! prop]ties ( sub/ances are express$2--!y appe>1 fir/1 9 t classification ( =ms :i* dep5ds on ! degree ( symmetry1 t is1 ^u ! numb] ( correspond5cies2 & next1 9 ! laws ( d]ivation1 :i*1 = ! mo/ "p1 appe> to be common 9 _! occurr5ce 9 proportion to ! num]ical simplicity ( _! expression4 ,b ! manife/ation #gb ( a gov]n+ num]ical relation 9 ! organic _w /rikes u z m unexpect$2 & ! selection ( ! numb] five z ! index ( ! symmetry ( dicotyl$on\s plants & radiat$ animals1 7a numb] :i* is n[h]e symmetrically produc$ 9 inorganic bodies17 makes ?is a new & rem>kable illu/ration ( ! con/ancy ( num]ical relations4 ,we may obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t ! mom5t "o ( ^! radiate animals has "o ( its five memb]s exp&$1 or 9 any way peculi>ly modifi$1 7z happ5s among ! e*9i71 x is r$uc$ to ! common type ( animals simply symmetrical1 ) a "r & left side4 #e4 ,x is n necess>y to attempt to enum]ate all ! k9ds ( ,symmetry1 s9ce our object is only to expla9 :at ,symmetry is1 & = ?is purpose en\gh has probably be5 said already4 ,x w be se51 z soon z ! notion ( ,symmetry 9 g5]al is well appreh5d$1 t x is or includes a peculi> ,fundam5tal ,idea1 n capable ( be+ resolv$ into any ( ! ideas hi!rto exam9$4 ,x may be said1 p]haps1 t ! ,idea ( ,symmetry is a modification or d]ivative ( our ideas ( space & numb]2--t a symmetrical %ape is "o :i* consi/s ( p>ts exactly simil>1 repeat$ a c]ta9 numb] ( times1 & plac$ s z to correspond ) ea* o!r4 ,b on fur!r reflection x w be se5 t ?is repetition & correspond5ce ( p>ts 9 symmetrical figures are some?+ peculi>2 = x is n any repetition or any correspond5ce ( p>ts to :i* we %\ld give ! "n ( symmetry1 9 ! mann] 9 :i* we are n[ us+ ! t]m4 ,symmetrical arrangem5ts may1 no d\bt1 be conc]n$ ) space & position1 "t & numb]2 b !re appe>s to be impli$ 9 !m a ,fundam5tal ,idea ( regul>ity1 ( complet5ess1 ( complex simplicity1 :i* is n a m]e modification ( o!r ideas4 #f4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n necess>y1 9 ?is & 9 simil> cases1 to det]m9e :e!r ! idea :i* we h be=e u be a peculi> & indep5d5t ,fundam5tal ,idea or a modification ( o!r ideas1 provid$ we cle>ly p]ceive ! evid5ce ( ^? ,axioms by #gc means ( :i* ! ,idea is appli$ 9 sci5tific reason+s4 ,n[ 9 ! application ( ! ,idea ( ,symmetry to cry/allography1 phytology & zoology1 we mu/ h ?is idea embodi$ 9 "s pr9ciple :i* ass]ts m ?an a m]e geometrical or num]ical accordance ( memb]s4 ,we mu/ h x involv$ 9 "s vital or productive action1 9 ord] t x may connect & expla9 ! facts ( ! organic _w4 ,nor is x difficult to enunciate su* a pr9ciple4 ,we may /ate x 9 ?is mann]4 ,all ! symmetrical memb]s ( a natural product are1 "u l circum/ances1 alike affect$ by ! natural =mative p[]4 ,! p>ts :i* we h t]m$ symmetrical1 resemble ea* o!r1 n only 9 _! =m & position1 b also 9 ! mann] 9 :i* !y are produc$ & modifi$ by natural causes4 ,& ?is pr9ciple we assume to be necess>ily true1 h[ev] unkn[n & inconceivable may be ! causes :i* det]m9e ! ph5om5a4 ,?us x has n yet be5 f\nd possible to discov] or repres5t to ourselves1 9 any intelligible mann]1 ! =ces by :i* ! v>i\s faces ( a cry/al are consequ5t ^u its prim>y =m3 = ! hypo!sis ( _! be+ built up ( integrant molecules1 z ,hay held1 _c be made satisfactory4 ,b ?\gh ! me*anism ( cry/als is /ill obscure1 !re is no d\bt z to ! pr9ciple :i* regulates _! modifications4 ,! :ole ( cry/allography re/s ^u ?is pr9ciple1 t if "o ( ! prim>y planes or axes be modifi$ 9 any mann]1 all ! symmetrical planes & axes mu/ be modifi$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,& ?\gh accid5tal me*anical or o!r causes may int]f]e ) ! actual exhibition ( su* faces1 we d n ! less assume _! cry/allographical reality1 z inevitably impli$ 9 ! law ( symmetry ( ! cry/al#cg4 ,& we apply simil> consid]ations to organiz$ be+s4 ,we assume t 9 a regul> fl[]1 ea* ( ! simil> #gd memb]s has ! same organization & simil> p[]s ( developem5t2 & h5ce if among ^! simil> p>ts "s are mu* less develop$ ?an o!rs1 we consid] !m z abortive2 & if we wi% to remove d\bts z to :at are symmetrical memb]s 9 su* a case1 we make ! inquiry by trac+ ! anatomy ( ^! memb]s1 or by foll[+ !m 9 _! e>li] /ates ( developem5t1 or 9 cases :]e _! capabilities are magnifi$ by mon/rosity or o!rwise4 ,! p[] ( developem5t may be modifi$ by ext]nal causes1 & ?us we may pass f "o k9d ( symmetry to ano!r2 z we h already rem>k$4 ,?us a regul> fl[] ) p5tagonal symmetry1 gr[+ on a lat]al bran*1 has "o petal ne>e/ to ! axis ( ! plant3 if ?is petal be m or less exp&$ ?an ! o!rs1 ! p5tagonal symmetry is int]f]$ )1 & ! fl[] may *ange to a symmetry ( ano!r k9d4 ,b x is easy to see t all su* conceptions ( expansion1 abortion1 & any o!r k9d ( metamorphosis1 g ^u ! supposition ( id5tical faculties & t5d5cies 9 ea* simil> memb]1 9 s f> z su* t5d5cies h any relation to ! symmetry4 ,& ?us ! pr9ciple we h /at$ above is ! basis ( t :i*1 9 ! ,hi/ory1 we t]m$ ! ,pr9ciple ( ,develop$ & ,metamorphos$ ,symmetry4 ,note #cg3 ,"s cry/all9e =ms1 in/ead ( be+ holoh$ral 7provid$ ) _! :ole numb] ( faces71 are hemih$ral 7provid$ ) only half _! numb] ( faces74 ,b 9 ^! hemih$ral =ms ! half ( ! faces are /ill symmetrically suppress$4 ,we %all n at pres5t pursue ! o!r applications ( ?is ,idea ( ,symmetry1 b we %all consid] "s ( ! results ( its introduction into ,cry/allography4 #ge ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,symmetry ,,to ,,cry/als4 #a4 ,,m9]als & o!r bodies ( def9ite *emical composition (t5 exhibit t m>k$ regul>ity ( =m & /ructure :i* we designate by t]m+ !m ,cry/als2 & 9 su* cry/als1 :5 we duly /udy !m1 we p]ceive ! v>i\s k9ds ( symmetry ( :i* we h spok5 9 ! previ\s *apt]4 ,& ! diff]5t k9ds ( symmetry :i* we h !re describ$ are n[ usually di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r1 by writ]s on cry/allography4 ,inde$ x is ma9ly to su* writ]s t we are indebt$ = a s\nd & consi/5t classification ( ! k9ds & degrees ( symmetry ( :i* =ms are capable4 ,b ?is classification 0 by no means inv5t$ z soon z m9]alogi/s appli$ !mselves to ! /udy ( cry/als4 ,^! fir/ attempts to arrange cry/all9e =ms 7 v imp]fect2 ^?1 = example1 ( ,l9nu1 ,w]n]1 ,rom de ,lisle1 & ,hay4 ,! essays ( ^! writ]s impli$ a classification at once defective & sup]flu\s4 ,!y r$uc$ all cry/als to "o or o!r ( c]ta9 fundam5tal =ms2 & ?is proc$ure might h be5 a p]fectly good me?od ( divid+ cry/all9e =ms into classes1 if ! fundam5tal =ms _h be5 select$ s z to exemplify ! diff]5t k9ds ( symmetry4 ,b ?is 0 n ! case4 ,hay's fundam5tal or 'primitive' =ms1 71 = in/ance1 ! foll[+3 ! p>allelepip$1 ! octah$ron1 ! tetrah$ron1 ! regul> hexagonal prism1 ! rhombic dodecah$ron1 & ! d\ble hexagonal pyramid4 ,( ^!1 ! octah$ron1 ! tetrah$ron1 ! rhombic dodecah$ron1 all belong to ! #gf same k9d ( symmetry 7! ,,tessul> sy/ems72 also ! hexagonal prism & ! hexagonal pyramid bo? belong to ! ,,rhombic sy/em2 :ile ! p>allelepip$ is s employ$ z to include all k9ds ( symmetry4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 to be recollect$ t ,hay1 9 8 selection ( primitive =ms1 n only _h an eye to ! ext]nal =m ( ! cry/al & to its degree & k9d ( regul>ity1 b also made 8 classification ) an especial ref]5ce to ! cleavage ( ! m9]al1 :i* he consid]$ z a prim>y elem5t 9 cry/all9e analysis4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ! cleavage ( a cry/al is "o ( its mo/ important *>act]s3 x is a relation ( =m belong+ to ! int]ior1 :i* is to be att5d$ to no less ?an ! =m ( ! ext]ior4 ,b /ill1 ! cleavage is to be reg>d$ only z det]m9+ ! degree ( geometrical symmetry ( ! body1 & n z def9+ a special geometrical figure to :i* ! body mu/ be ref]r$4 ,to h look$ ^u x 9 ! latt] light1 0 a mi/ake ( ! e>li] cry/allographic speculators1 on :i* we %all %ortly h to rem>k4 #b4 ,i h said t ! ref]5ce ( cry/als to ,primitive ,=ms might h be5 well employ$ z a mode ( express+ a j classification ( !m4 ,?is foll[s z a consequ5ce f ! application ( ! ,pr9ciple /at$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 t all symmetrical memb]s are alike affect$4 ,?us we may take an upright triangul> prism z ! repres5tative ( ! rhombic sy/em1 & if we !n suppose "o ( ! upp] edges to be cut (f1 or truncat$1 we mu/1 by ! ,pr9ciple ( ,symmetry1 suppose ! o!r two upp] edges to be truncat$ 9 precisely ! same mann]4 ,by ?is truncation we may obta9 ! upp] "p ( a rhomboh$ron2 & by truncations ( ! same k9d1 symmetrically affect+ all ! analog\s p>ts ( ! figure1 we may obta9 any o!r =m possess+ ?ree-memb]$ symmetry4 ,& ! same is true ( any ( ! o!r k9ds ( symmetry1 provid$ we make a prop] selection ( a fundam5tal =m4 ,& ?is 0 really ! me?od employ$ by ,deme/e1 ,w]n]1 & ,rom de ,lisle4 ,!y #gg assum$ a ,primitive ,=m1 & !n conceiv$ o!r =ms1 su* z !y f\nd 9 nature1 to be d]iv$ f ! ,primitive ,=m by truncation ( ! edges1 acum9ation ( ! corn]s1 & ! l processes4 ,?is mode ( conception 0 a p]fectly j & legitimate expression ( ! g5]al ,idea ( ,symmetry4 #c4 ,! true view ( ! degrees ( symmetry 01 z ,i h already said1 imp$$ by ! attempts :i* ,hay & o!rs made to arrive at primitive =ms by ! light :i* cleavage 0 suppos$ to ?r[ ^u ! /ructure ( m9]als4 ,at la/1 h[ev]1 9 ,g]many1 z ,i h n>rat$ 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,m9]alogy#dg1 ,weiss & ,mohs introduc$ a classification ( =ms imply+ a m philosophical pr9ciple1 divid+ ! =ms into ,sy/ems2 :i*1 employ+ ! t]ms ( ! latt] writ]1 we %all call ! tessul>1 ! pyramidal or squ>e pyramidal1 ! prismatic or oblong1 & ! rhomboh$ral sy/ems4 ,note #dg3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xv4 c4 iv4 ,( ^! =ms1 ! ?ree latt] may be at once ref]r$ to ^? k9ds ( symmetry ( :i* we h spok5 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,! rhomboh$ral sy/em has triangul> symmetry1 or is ?ree-memb]$3 ! pyramidal has squ>e symmetry1 or is f\r-memb]$3 ! prismatic has oblong symmetry1 & is two-&-two-memb]$4 ,b ! k9ds ( symmetry :i* 7 spok5 ( 9 ! =m] *apt]1 d n exhau/ ! idea :5 appli$ to m9]als4 ,= ! symmetry :i* 0 !re expla9$ 0 su* only z c be exhibit$ on a surface1 :]eas ! =ms ( cry/als are solid4 ,n only h ! "r & left p>ts ( ! upp] surface ( a cry/al relations to ea* o!r2 b ! upp] surface & ! lat]al faces ( ! cry/al h also _! relations2 !y may be diff]5t1 or !y may be alike4 ,if we take a cube1 & hold x s t f\r ( its faces are v]tical1 n only are all ^! f\r sides exactly simil>1 s z to give squ>e symmetry2 b also we may turn ! cube1 s t any "o ( ^! f\r sides %all become ! top1 & /ill ! f\r sides :i* are ?us made v]tical1 ?\gh #gh n ! same :i* 7 v]tical be=e1 are /ill p]fectly symmetrical4 ,?us ?is cubical figure possesses m ?an squ>e symmetry4 ,x possesses squ>e symmetry 9 a v]tical z well z 9 a horizontal s5se4 ,x possesses a symmetry :i* has ! same relation to a cube :i* f\r-memb]$ symmetry has to a squ>e4 ,& ?is k9d ( symmetry is t]m$ ! cubical or tessul> symmetry4 ,all ! o!r k9ds ( symmetry h ref]5ce to an axis1 ab\t :i* ! correspond+ p>ts are dispos$2 b 9 tessul> symmetry ! horizontal & v]tical axes are also symmetrical1 or int]*angeable2 & ?us ! figure may be said to h no axis at all4 #d4 ,x has already be5 repeat$ly /at$ t1 by ! v idea ( symmetry1 all ! incid5ts ( =m mu/ affect alike all ! correspond+ p>ts4 ,n[ 9 cry/als we h1 among ^! incid5ts1 n only ext]nal figure1 b cleavage1 :i* may be consid]$ z int]nal figure4 ,cleavage1 !n1 mu/ con=m to ! degree ( symmetry ( ! figure4 ,accord+ly cleavage1 no less ?an =m1 is to be att5d$ to 9 det]m9+ to :at sy/em a m9]al belongs4 ,if a cry/al 7 to occur z a squ>e prism or pyramid1 x w\ld n on t acc\nt necess>ily belong to ! squ>e pyramidal sy/em4 ,if x 7 f\nd t x 0 cleavable p>allel to "o side ( ! prism1 b n 9 ! transv]se direction1 x has only oblong symmetry2 & ! equality ( ! sides :i* makes x squ>e is only accid5tal4 ,?us no cleavage is admissible 9 any sy/em ( cry/allization :i* does n agree ) ! degree ( symmetry ( ! sy/em4 ,on ! o!r h&1 any cleavage :i* is consi/5t ) ! symmetry ( ! sy/em1 is 7hypo!tically at lea/7 all[able4 ,?us 9 ! oblong prismatic sy/em we may h a cleavage p>allel to "o side only ( ! prism2 or p>allel to bo?1 b ( diff]5t di/9ctness2 or p>allel to ! two diagonals ( ! prism b ( ! same di/9ctness2 or we may h bo? ^! cleavages toge!r4 ,9 ! rhomboh$ral sy/em1 ! cleavage may be p>allel to ! sides ( ! rhomboh$ron1 z 9 ,calc #gi ,sp>3 or1 9 ! same sy/em1 ! cleavage1 in/ead ( be+ ?us oblique to ! axis1 may be along ! axis 9 ^? directions :i* make equal angles ) ea* o!r3 ?is cleavage easily gives ei!r a triangul> or a hexagonal prism4 ,aga91 9 ! tessul> sy/em1 ! cleavage may be p>allel to ! surface ( ! cube1 :i* is ?us readily sep>able into o!r cubes1 z 9 ,gal5a2 or ! cleavage may be su* z to cut (f ! solid angle ( ! cube1 & s9ce !re are eight ( ^!1 su* cleavage gives u an octah$ron1 :i*1 h[ev]1 may be r$uc$ to a tetrah$ron1 by reject+ all p>allel faces1 z be+ m]e repetitions ( ! same cleavage2 ?is is ! case ) ,fluor ,sp>3 or ! cube ( ! tessul> sy/em may be cleavable 9 planes :i* truncate all ! edges ( ! cube2 & z ^! are twelve1 we ?us obta9 ! dodecah$ron ) rhombic faces3 ?is occurs 9 ,z9c ,bl5de4 ,& ?us we see ! orig9 ( ,hay's v>i\s primitive =ms1 ! tetrah$ron1 octah$ron1 & rhombic dodecah$ron1 all belong+ to ! tessul> sy/em3--!y are1 9 fact1 diff]5t cleavage =ms ( t sy/em4 #e4 ,i d n dwell ^u o!r incid5ts ( cry/als :i* h ref]5ce to =m1 nor ^u ! lu/re1 smoo?ness1 & /riation ( ! surfaces4 ,to all su* incid5ts ! g5]al pr9ciple applies1 t simil> p>ts are simil>ly affect$2 & h5ce1 if any p>ts are f\nd to be con/antly & def9itely diff]5t f o!r p>ts ( ! same sort1 !y are n simil> p>ts2 & ! symmetry is to be int]pret$ ) ref]5ce to ?is diff]5ce4 ,we h n[ to consid] ! inf]5ces :i* h be5 drawn f ^! incid5ts ( cry/allization1 ) reg>d to ! intimate /ructure ( bodies4 #hj ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,speculations ,,f\nd$ ,,^u ,,! ,,symmetry ,,( ,,cry/als4 #a4 ,,:5 a cry/al1 z1 = in/ance1 a cry/al ( ,gal5a1 7sulphuret ( lead17 is readily divisible into small] cubes1 & ^! into small] ones1 & s on )\t limit1 x is v natural to repres5t to ourselves ! orig9al cube z really consi/+ ( small cubical elem5ts2 & to imag9e t x is a philosophical acc\nt ( ! physical /ructure ( su* a sub/ance to say t x is made up ( cubical molecules4 ,& :5 ! ,gal5a cry/al has ext]nally ! =m ( a cube1 !re is no difficulty 9 su* a conception2 = ! surface ( ! cry/al is also conceiv$ z made up ( ! surfaces ( its cubical molecules4 ,we conceive ! cry/al s con/itut$1 z we conceive a wall built ( bricks4 ,b if1 z (t5 happ5s1 ! ,gal5a cry/al be an octah$ron1 a fur!r consid]ation is requisite 9 ord] to und]/& its /ructure1 pursu+ /ill ! same hypo!sis4 ,! m9]al is /ill1 z 9 ! o!r case1 readily cleavable into small cubes1 hav+ _! corn]s turn$ to ! faces ( ! octah$ron4 ,!re=e ^! faces c no long] be conceiv$ z made up ( ! faces ( cubical elem5ts ( :i* ! :ole is con/itut$4 ,if we suppose a pile ( su* small cubes to be closely built toge!r1 b ) decreas+ wid? above1 s z to =m a pyramid1 ! face ( su* a pyramid w no long] be plane2 x w consi/ ( a great numb] ( ! corn]s or edges ( ! small elem5t>y cubes4 ,x w\ld appe> at fir/ sight1 !re=e1 t su* a face _c repres5t ! smoo? poli%$ surface ( a cry/al4 #ha ,b :5 we come to look m closely1 ?is difficulty disappe>s4 ,= h[ l>ge are ^! elem5t>y cubes8 ,we _c tell1 ev5 suppos+ !y really h any size4 ,b we "k t !y mu/ be1 at any rate1 v small2 s small z to be inappreciable by our s5ses1 = our s5ses f9d no limit to ! divisibility ( m9]als by cleavage4 ,h5ce ! surface ( ! pyramid above describ$ w\ld n consi/ ( visible corn]s or edges1 b w\ld be r\gh5$ by specks ( imp]ceptible size2 or r1 by suppos+ ^! specks to become /ill small]1 ! r\ghness becomes smoo?ness4 ,& ?us we may h a cry/al ) a smoo? surface1 made up ( small cubes 9 su* a mann] t _! surfaces are all oblique to ! surface ( ! cry/al4 ,hay1 /ruck by "s in/ances 9 :i* ! supposition ( su* a /ructure ( cry/als appe>$ to acc\nt happily = sev]al ( _! relations & prop]ties1 adopt$ & prop\nd$ x z a g5]al !ory4 ,! small elem5ts1 ( :i* he suppos$ cry/als to be ?us built up1 he t]m$ integrant molecules4 ,! =m ( ^! molecules might or might n be ! same z ! primitive =m ) :i* 8 con/ruction 0 suppos$ to beg92 b !re 01 at any rate1 a close connexion betwe5 ^! =ms1 s9ce bo? ( !m 7 f\nd$ on ! cleavage ( ! m9]al4 ,! t5et t cry/als are con/itut$ 9 ! mann] :i* ,i h be5 describ+1 ,i %all call ! ,!ory ( ,integrant ,molecules1 & ,i h n[ to make "s rem>ks on ! gr\nds ( ?is !ory4 #b4 ,9 ! case ( :i* ,i h spok51 ! m9]al us$ z ! example1 ,gal5a1 readily splits into cubes1 & cubes are easily plac$ toge!r s z to fit ea* o!r1 & fill ! space :i* !y occupy4 ,! same is ! case 9 ! m9]al :i* sugge/$ to ,hay 8 !ory1 namely1 ,calc ,sp>4 ,! cry/als ( ?is sub/ance are readily divisible into rhomboh$rons1 a =m l a brick ) oblique angles2 & su* bricks c be built toge!r s z to produce cry/als ( all ! imm5se v>ieties ( =m :i* ,calc ,sp> pres5ts4 ,?is k9d ( masonry is equally possible 9 _m o!r #hb m9]als2 b z we g ?r\gh ! m9]al k+dom 9 our survey1 we soon f9d cases :i* (f] difficulties4 ,"s m9]als cleave only 9 two directions1 "s 9 "o only2 9 su* cases we _c by cleavage obta9 an integrant molecule ( def9ite =m2 "o ( its dim5sions1 at lea/1 mu/ rema9 indet]m9ate & arbitr>y4 ,aga91 9 "s in/ances1 we h m ?an ?ree diff]5t planes ( cleavage1 z 9 ,fluor ,sp>1 :]e we h f\r4 ,! solid1 b\nd$ by f\r planes1 is a tetrah$ron2 or if we take f\r pairs ( p>allel faces1 an octah$ron4 ,b if we attempt to take ei!r ( ^! =ms = our integrant molecule1 we are met by ?is difficulty3 t a collection ( su* =ms w n fill space4 ,p]haps ?is difficulty w be m readily conceiv$ by ! g5]al read] if x be contemplat$ ) ref]5ce to plane figures4 ,x w readily be se5 t a numb] ( equal squ>es may be put toge!r s z to fill ! space :i* !y occupy2 b if we take a numb] ( equal regul> octagons1 we may easily conv9ce ourselves t no possible arrangem5t c make !m cov] a flat space )\t leav+ blank spots betwe54 ,9 l mann] octah$rons or tetrah$rons _c be arrang$ 9 solid space s z to fill x4 ,!y necess>ily leave vacancies4 ,h5ce ! /ructure ( ,fluor ,sp>1 & simil> cry/als1 0 a s]i\s ob/acle 9 ! way ( ! !ory ( integrant molecules4 ,t !ory _h be5 adopt$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance because portions ( ! cry/al1 obta9$ by cleavage1 c\ld be built up into a solid mass2 b ?is gr\nd ( ! !ory fail$ altoge!r 9 su* in/ances z ,i h describ$1 & h5ce ! !ory1 ev5 ^u ! repres5tations ( its adh]5ts1 _h no long] any claim to ass5t4 ,! doctr9e ( ,integral ,molecules1 h[ev]1 0 by no means giv5 up at once1 ev5 9 su* in/ances4 ,9 ?is & 9 o!r subjects1 we may obs]ve t a !ory1 once con/ruct$ & c>ri$ into detail1 has su* a hold ^u ! m9ds ( ^? :o h be5 9 ! habit ( apply+ x1 t !y w attempt to uphold x by introduc+ suppositions inconsi/5t ) #hc ! orig9al f\ndations ( ! !ory4 ,?us ^? :o ass]t ! ,atomic ,!ory1 reconcile x ) facts by tak+ ! halves ( atoms2 & ?us ! ,!ory ( ,integrant ,molecules 0 ma9ta9$ = ,fluor ,sp>1 by repres5t+ ! elem5t>y octah$rons ( :i* cry/als are built up1 z t\*+ ea* o!r only by ! edges4 ,! contact ( surface ) surface among/ integrant molecules _h be5 ! fir/ basis ( ! !ory2 b ?is supposition be+ "h inapplicable1 0 replac$ by "o :i* made ! !ory no long] a repres5tation ( ! facts 7! cleavages71 b a m]e geometrical con/ruction4 ,al?\gh1 h[ev]1 ! inapplicability ( ! !ory to su* cases 0 ?us1 9 "s degree1 disguis$ to ! disciples ( ,hay1 x 0 pla9 t1 9 ! face ( su* difficulties1 ! ,!ory ( ,integrant ,molecules c\ld n hold its place z a philosophical tru?4 ,b x /ill answ]$ ! purpose 7a v valuable "o1 & "o to :i* cry/allography is mu* indebt$17 ( an in/rum5t = calculat+ ! geometrical relations ( ! p>ts ( cry/als to ea* o!r3 = ! integrant molecules 7 suppos$ to be plac$ lay] above lay]1 ea* lay] z we asc5d1 decreas+ by a c]ta9 numb] ( molecules & r[s ( molecules2 & ! calculation ( ^! laws ( decrem5t 01 9 fact1 ! be/ mode !n kn[n ( det]m9+ ! positions ( ! faces4 ,! ,!ory ( ,decrem5ts s]v$ to express & to det]m9e1 9 a great numb] ( ! mo/ obvi\s cases1 ! laws ( ph5om5a 9 cry/all9e =ms1 ?\gh ! ,!ory ( ,integrant ,molecules c\ld n be ma9ta9$ z a j view ( ! /ructure ( cry/als4 #c4 ,! ,!ory ( ,integrant ,molecules1 h[ev]1 involv$ ?is j & important pr9ciple3 t a true view ( ! intimate /ructure ( cry/als mu/ include & expla9 ! facts ( cry/allization1 t is1 cry/all9e =m & cleavage2 & t x mu/ take ^! into acc\nt1 accord+ to _! degree ( ,symmetry4 ,s f> all !ories conc]n+ ! elem5ts ( cry/als mu/ agree4 ,& x 0 soon se5 t ?is 01 9 reality1 all t _h be5 e/abli%$ by ! inve/igations ( ,hay & 8 s*ool4 ,i h already1 9 ! #hd ,hi/ory1 quot$ ,weiss's reflections on mak+ ?is /ep4 ',:5 9 #ahji1' he says#eg1 ',i publi%$ my ,diss]tation1 ,i %>$ ! common op9ion z to ! necessity ( ! assumption1 & ! reality ( ! exi/5ce ( a primitive =m1 at lea/ 9 a s5se n v diff]5t f ! usual s5se ( ! expression4' ,he !n proce$s to relate t he s\ght a gr\nd = su* an op9ion1 indep5d5t ( ! doctr9e ( ,atoms1 :i* he1 9 common ) a great numb] ( philosoph]s ( t "t 9 8 own c\ntry1 0 dispos$ to reject1 incl9+ to believe t ! prop]ties ( bodies 7 det]m9$ by ,=ces :i* act$ 9 !m1 & n by ,molecules ( :i* !y 7 compos$4 ,he adds1 t 9 pursu+ ?is tra9 ( ?\ght1 he f\nd1 't out ( 8 ,primitive ,=ms !re 0 gradually unfold$ to 8 h&s t :i* really gov]ns !m1 & is n affect$ by _! casual fluctuations2 namely1 ! ,fundam5tal ,relations ( _! ,dim5sions1' or z we n[ may call !m1 ,axes ( ,symmetry4 ,) ref]5ce to ^! ,axes1 he f\nd1 z he goes on to say1 t 'a multiplicity ( int]nal ,oppositions1 necess>ily & mutually int]dep5d5t1 are develop$ 9 ! cry/all9e mass1 ea* ,relation hav+ its own ,pol>ity2 s t ! ,cry/all9e ,"* is co-ext5sive ) ^! ,pol>ities4' ,! "* ( ^! pol>ities1 :e!r manife/$ 9 cry/all9e faces1 cleavage1 or any o!r incid5ts ( cry/allization1 is necess>ily display$ 9 ! degree & k9d ( ,symmetry :i* ! cry/al possesses3 & ?us ?is ,symmetry1 9 all our speculations conc]n+ ! /ructure ( cry/als1 necess>ily takes ! place ( t enum]ation ( ,primitive ,=ms :i* 7 reject$ z inconsi/5t ) obs]v$ facts1 & de/itute ( s\nd sci5tific pr9ciple4 ,note #eg3 ,acad4 ,b]l94 #ahaf1 p4 #cjg4 ,i may j notice "h :at ,i h /at$ 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,m9]alogy#fg1 t ! di/9ction ( sy/ems ( cry/allization1 z introduc$ by ,weiss & ,mohs1 0 /rik+ly confirm$ by ,sir ,david ,brew/]'s discov]ies respect+ ! optical prop]ties ( m9]als4 #he ,! spl5did ph5om5a :i* 7 produc$ by pass+ pol>iz$ light ?r\gh cry/als1 7 f\nd to v>y accord+ z ! cry/als 7 ( ! ,rhomboh$ral1 ,squ>e ,pyramidal1 ,oblong ,prismatic1 or ,tessul> ,sy/em4 ,! ,optical ,symmetry exactly correspond$ ) ! ,geometrical ,symmetry4 ,9 ! two =m] ,sy/ems 7 cry/als uniaxal 9 respect ( _! optical prop]ties2 ! oblong prismatic1 0 biaxal2 :ile 9 ! tessul>1 ! want ( a pr$om9ant axis prev5t$ ! ph5om5a "h spok5 ( f occurr+ at all4 ,! optical exp]im5ts mu/ h l$1 & w\ld h l$1 to a classification ( cry/als into ! above sy/ems or some?+ ne>ly equival5t1 ev5 _h !y n be5 already s arrang$ by att5tion to _! =ms4 ,note #fg3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xv4 c4 v4 #d4 ,:ile 9 ,g]many ,weiss & ,mohs ) _! disciples1 7 gradually reject+ :at 0 sup]flu\s 9 ! previ\s cry/allographical hypo!ses1 philosoph]s 9 ,engl& 7 also try+ to repres5t to !mselves ! con/itution ( cry/als 9 a mann] :i* %\ld be free f ! obvi\sly arbitr>y & unt5able fictions ( ! ,hayian s*ool4 ,^! attempts1 h[ev]1 7 n cr[n$ ) mu* success4 ,"o mode ( repres5t+ ! /ructure ( cry/als :i* sugge/$ itself1 0 to reject ! polyh$ral =ms :i* ,hay gave to 8 integrant molecules1 & to conceive ! elem5ts ( cry/als z sph]es1 ! prop]ties ( ! cry/al be+ det]m9$ n by ! surfaces1 b by ! position ( ! elem5ts4 ,?is 0 done by ,wolla/on1 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #ahac4 ,he appli$ ?is view to ! tessul> sy/em1 9 :i*1 inde$1 ! application is n difficult2 & he %[$ t octah$ral & tetrah$ral figures may be d$uc$ f symmetrical arrangem5ts ( equal sph]ules4 ,b ?\gh 9 do+ ?is1 he manife/$ a p]ception ( ! conditions ( ! problem1 he appe>$ to lose 8 hold on ! real "q :5 he tri$ to pass on to o!r sy/ems ( cry/allization4 ,= he acc\nt$ = ! rhomboh$ral sy/em by suppos+ ! sph]es *ang$ into sph]oids4 ,su* a proc$ure involv$ him 9 a gratuit\s & useless hypo!sis3 = to :at purpose d we introduce ! #hf arrangem5t ( atoms 7in/ead ( _! figure17 z a mode ( expla9+ ! symmetry ( ! cry/allization1 :5 at ! next /ep we ascribe to ! atom1 by an arbitr>y fiction1 a symmetry ( figure ( ! same k9d z t :i* we h to expla98 ,x is j z easy1 & z all[able1 to assume an elem5t>y rhomboh$ron1 z to assume elem5t>y sph]oids1 ( :i* ! rhomboh$rons are con/ruct$4 #e4 ,_m hypo!ses ( ! same k9d might be adduc$1 devis$ bo? by m9]alogi/s & *emi/s4 ,b almo/ all su* speculations h be5 pursu$ ) a mo/ surpris+ neglect ( ! pr9ciple :i* obvi\sly is ! only s\nd basis on :i* !y c proce$4 ,! pr9ciple is ?is3--t ,all hypo!ses conc]n+ ! arrangem5t ( ! elem5t>y atoms ( bodies 9 space mu/ be con/ruct$ ) ref]5ce to ! g5]al facts ( cry/allization4 ,! tru? & importance ( ?is pr9ciple c admit ( no d\bt4 ,= if we make any hypo!sis conc]n+ ! mode ( connexion ( ! elem5t>y p>ticles ( bodies1 ?is mu/ be done ) ! view ( repres5t+ to ourselves ! =ces :i* connect !m1 & ! results ( ^! =ces z manife/$ 9 ! prop]ties ( ! bodies4 ,n[ ! =ces :i* connect ! p>ticles ( bodies s z to make !m cry/all9e1 are manife/ly *emical =ces4 ,x is only def9ite *emical comp\nds :i* cry/allize2 & 9 cry/als ! =ce ( cohesion by :i* ! p>ticles are held toge!r _c 9 any way be di/+ui%$ or sep>at$ f ! *emical =ce by :i* _! elem5ts are comb9$4 ,! elem5ts are und]/ood to be comb9$1 precisely because ! result is a def9ite1 app>5tly homog5e\s sub/ance4 ,! prop]ties ( ! comp\nd bodies dep5d ^u ! elem5ts & _! mode ( comb9ation2 =1 9 fact1 ^! include ev]y?+ on :i* !y c dep5d4 ,!re are no o!r circum/ances ?an ^! :i* c affect ! prop]ties ( a body4 ,!re=e all ^? prop]ties :i* h ref]5ce to space1 namely1 ! cry/all9e prop]ties1 _c dep5d ^u any?+ else ?an ! arrangem5t ( ! elem5t>y molecules 9 space4 ,^! #hg prop]ties are ! facts :i* any hypo!sis ( ! arrangem5t ( molecules mu/ expla91 or at lea/ r5d] conceivable2 & all su* hypo!ses1 all con/ructions ( bodies by suppos$ arrangem5ts ( molecules1 c h no o!r philosophical object ?an to acc\nt = facts ( ?is k9d4 ,if !y d n d ?is1 !y are m]e arbitr>y geometrical fictions1 :i* _c be 9 any degree confirm$ or au?oris$ by an exam9ation ( nature1 & are !re=e n des]v+ ( any reg>d4 #f4 ,^? philosoph]s :o h endeav\r$ to repres5t ! mode 9 :i* bodies are con/ruct$ by ! comb9ation ( _! *emical atoms1 h (t5 und]tak5 to %[1 n only t ! atoms are comb9$1 b also 9 :at positions & configurations !y are comb9$4 ,& x is truly rem>kable1 z ,i h already said1 t !y h done ?is1 almo/ 9 e in/ance1 )\t any consid]ation ( ! cry/all9e "* ( ! result+ comb9ations2 f :i* alone we receive any light z to ! relation ( _! elem5ts 9 space4 ,?us ,dr4 ,dalton1 9 8 ,elem5ts ( ,*emi/ry1 9 :i* he gave to ! _w ! ,atomic ,!ory z a repres5tation ( ! doctr9e ( def9ite & multiple proportions1 also publi%$ a l>ge collection ( ,diagrams1 exhibit+ :at he conceiv$ to be ! configuration ( ! atoms 9 a great numb] ( ! mo/ common comb9ations ( *emical elem5ts4 ,n[ ^! hypo!tical diagrams d n 9 any way correspond1 z to ! nature ( _! symmetry1 ) ! comp\nds1 z we f9d !m display+ _! symmetry :5 !y occur cry/alliz$4 ,c>bonate ( lime has 9 reality a triangul> symmetry1 s9ce x belongs to ! rhomboh$ral sy/em2 ,dr4 ,dalton's c>bonate ( lime w\ld be an oblique rhombic prism or pyramid4 ,sulphate ( b>yta is really two-&-two memb]$2 ,dr4 ,dalton's diagram makes x two-&-"o memb]$4 ,alum is really octah$ral or tessul>2 b accord+ to ! diagram x c\ld n be s1 s9ce ! two ends ( ! atom are n symmetrical4 ,& ! same want ( correspond5ce betwe5 ! facts & ! hypo!sis runs ?r\gh ! :ole #hh sy/em4 ,x ne$ n surprise u t ! !oretical arrangem5t ( atoms does n expla9 ! facts ( cry/allization2 = to produce su* an explanation w\ld be a second /ep 9 sci5ce q z great z ! fir/1 ! discov]y ( ! atomic !ory 9 its *emical s5se4 ,b we may all[ ourselves to be surpris$ t an utt] discrepance betwe5 all ! facts ( cry/allization & ! figures assum$ 9 ! !ory1 did n sugge/ any d\bt z to ! s\ndness ( ! mode ( philosophiz+ by :i* ?is "p ( ! !ory 0 con/ruct$4 #g4 ,"s little accordance betwe5 ! hypo!tical arrangem5ts ( *emical atoms & ! facts ( cry/allization1 does appe> to h be5 arriv$ at by "s ( ! !ori/s to :om we "h ref]1 al?\gh by no means en\gh to %[ a due conviction ( ! importance ( ! pr9ciple /at$ above4 ,?us ,wolla/on1 9 ! ,essay above notic$1 aft] %[+ t a symmetrical arrangem5t ( equal sph]ules w\ld give rise to octah$ral & o!r tessul> figures1 rem>ks1 v prop]ly1 t ! metals1 :i* are simple bodies1 cry/allize 9 su* =ms4 ,m4 ,ampre#gg also1 9 #ahad1 publi%$ a brief acc\nt ( an hypo!sis ( a some:at simil> nature1 & /at$ himself to h develop$ ?is speculation 9 a ,memoir :i* has n yet1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 be5 publi%$4 ,9 ?is notice he conceives bodies to be comp\nd$ ( molecules1 :i*1 arrang$ 9 a polyh$ral =m1 con/itute p>ticles4 ,^! repres5tative =ms ( ! p>ticles dep5d on *emical laws4 ,?us ! p>ticles ( oxyg51 ( hydrog51 & ( azote1 are compos$ ea* ( f\r molecules4 ,h5ce x is collect$ t ! p>ticles ( nitr\s gas are compos$ ( two molecules ( oxyg5 & two ( azote2 & simil> conclusions are drawn respect+ o!r sub/ances4 ,^! conclusions1 ?\gh express$ by means ( ! polyh$rons ?us introduc$1 are support$ by *emical1 r ?an by cry/allographical comp>isons4 ,! au?or does1 inde$1 appeal to ! cry/allization ( sal #hi ammoniac z an argum5t#hg2 b z all ! =ms :i* he introduces appe> to belong to ! tessul> sy/em ( cry/allization1 !re is1 9 8 reason+s1 no?+ di/9ctive2 & !re=e no?+1 cry/allographically speak+1 ( any weight on ! side ( ?is !ory4 ,note #gg3 ,ann4 de ,*imie1 tom4 xc4 p4 #dc4 ,note #hg3 ,ann4 de ,*imie1 tom4 xc4 p4 #hc4 #h4 ,any hypo!sis :i* %\ld introduce any pr9ciple ( *emical ord] among ! actual =ms ( m9]als1 w\ld well des]ve att5tion4 ,at fir/ sight1 no?+ c appe> m anomal\s ?an ! =ms :i* occur4 ,we h1 inde$1 "o broad fact1 :i* has an enc\rag+ aspect1 ! tessul> =ms 9 :i* ! pure metals cry/allize4 ,! highe/ degree ( *emical & ( geometrical simplicity co9cide3 irregul>ity disappe>s precisely :]e x is exclud$ by ! consid]ation above /at$1 t ! symmetry ( *emical composition mu/ det]m9e ! symmetry ( cry/all9e =m#ig4 ,note #ig3 ,inasmu* z ?is law1 t ! simple metals cry/allize 9 tessul> =ms1 is ! mo/ signal example ( t connexion betwe5 ! *emical nature ( a body & its cry/all9e =m1 ,i 9 ! =m] ,edition /at$ x ) z mu* g5]ality z ,i c\ld f9d any gr\nd =1 & ,i %\ld h be5 glad if ,i c\ld h add$ confirmation ( ! law1 d]iv$ f lat] obs]vations4 ,b ! mo/ rec5t inve/igations ( cry/allograph]s appe> to h af=d$ exceptions r ?an examples ( ! rule4 ,ars5ic & ,tellurium are said to be rhomboh$ral4 ,antimony1 /at$ by ,hay to be octah$ral 7& !re=e tessul>71 has be5 f\nd by m mod]n obs]v]s to be rhomboh$ral4 ,t9 has be5 obta9$ by ,pr(essor ,mill] 9 beautiful cry/als belong+ to ! pyramidal sy/em4 ,pr(essor ,ngg]a? has obs]v$ 9 ,z9c1 aft] cool+ f fusion1 hexagonal cleavage1 r5d]+ x probable t ! m9]al cry/alliz$ 9 rhomboh$rons hav+ _! axes v]tical1 l ice4 ,g4 ,rose conceives x highly probable t ,osmium & ,iridium are rhomboh$ral4 7,pogg5dorf4 ,bd4 liv47 ,b all ! m p]fect metals are tessul>2 namely1 ,gold1 ,silv]1 ,m]cury1 ,plat9um1 ,iron1 ,copp]2 also ,bismu? 8 ,p]haps ! obs]vation 9 :i* ! cry/allization ( ,z9c is affect$ by its position is1 on t v acc\nt1 no suffici5t evid5ce ( its free cry/allization4 ,we c h>dly conceive a collection ( p]fectly simple1 simil> p>ticles to cry/allize s z to h "o pre-em95t axis1 )\t "s extrane\s action affect+ !m4 ,b if we g on to any o!r class ( cry/all9e =ms1 we soon f9d ourselves lo/ 9 our attempts to #ij foll[ any ?read ( ord]4 ,we h inde$ _m l>ge gr\ps connect$ by obvi\s analogies2 z ! rhomboh$ral c>bonates ( lime1 magnesia1 iron1 manganese2--! prismatic c>bonates & sulphates ( lime1 b>yta1 /rontia1 lead4 ,b ev5 9 ^!1 we _c =m any plausible hypo!sis ( ! arrangem5t ( ! elem5ts2 & 9 o!r cases to :i* we naturally turn1 we c f9d no?+ b confusion4 ,= in/ance1 if we exam9e ! oxides ( metals3--^? ( iron are rhomboh$ral & tessul>2 ^? ( copp]1 tessul>2 ^? ( t91 ( titanium1 ( manganese1 squ>e pyramidal2 ^? ( antimony1 prismatic2 & we h o!r =ms = o!r sub/ances4 ,x may be add$1 t if we take acc\nt ( ! optical prop]ties :i*1 z we h already /at$1 h con/ant relations to ! cry/all9e =ms1 ! confusion is /ill fur!r increas$2 = ! optical dim5sions v>y 9 am\nt1 ?\gh n 9 symmetry1 :]e *emi/ry c trace no diff]5ce ( composition4 #i4 ,we w n quit ! subject1 h[ev]1 )\t notic+ ! mu* m promis+ aspect :i* x has assum$ by ! detection ( su* gr\ps z are ref]r$ to 9 ! la/ article2 or 9 o!r words1 by ,mits*]li*'s discov]y ( ,isomorphism4 ,accord+ to t discov]y1 !re are v>i\s elem5ts :i* may take ! place ( ea* o!r 9 cry/all9e bodies1 ei!r )\t any alt]ation ( ! cry/all9e =m1 or at mo/ ) only a slight alt]ation ( its dim5sions4 ,su* a gr\p ( elem5ts we h 9 ! e>?s lime & magnesia1 ! protoxides ( iron & manganese3 = ! c>bonates ( all ^! bases occur cry/alliz$ 9 =ms ( ! rhomboh$ral sy/em1 ! *>act]i/ic angle be+ ne>ly ! same 9 all4 ,n[ lime & magnesia1 by ! discov]ies ( mod]n *emi/ry1 are really oxides ( metals2 & !re=e all ^! c>bonates h a simil> *emical con/itution1 :ile !y h also a simil> cry/all9e =m4 ,:e!r or no we c devise any arrangem5t ( molecules by :i* ?is connexion ( ! *emical & ! geometrical prop]ty c be repres5t$1 we _c help #ia consid]+ ! connexion z an extremely important fact 9 ! con/itution ( bodies2 & su* facts are m likely ?an any o!r to give u "s intelligible view ( ! relations ( ! ultimate p>ts ( bodies4 ,! same may be said ( all ! o!r isomorph\s or plesiomorph\s gr\ps#ajg4 ,= in/ance1 we h a numb] ( m9]als :i* belong to ! same sy/em ( cry/allization1 b 9 :i* ! *emical composition appe>s at fir/ sight to be v v>i\s3 namely1 sp9elle1 pleona/e1 gahnite1 frankl9ite1 *romic iron oxide1 magnetic iron oxide3 b ,abi* has %[n t all ^! may be r$uc$ to a common *emical =mula2--!y are bioxides ( "o set ( bases1 comb9$ ) trioxides ( ano!r set4 ,p]haps "s ma!matician may be able to devise "s geometrical arrangem5t ( su* a gr\p ( elem5ts :i* may possess ! prop]ties ( ! tessul> sy/em4 ,hypo!tical arrangem5ts ( atoms1 ?us express+ bo? ! *emical & ! cry/all9e symmetry :i* we "k to belong to ! sub/ance1 w\ld be valuable /eps 9 analytical sci5ce2 & :5 !y _h be5 duly v]ifi$1 ! hypo!ses might easily be dive/$ ( _! atomic "*4 ,note #ajg3 ,see ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xv4 c4 vi4 ,?us1 z we h already said1 m9]alogy1 und]/ood 9 its wid] s5se1 z ! c\nt]p>t ( *emi/ry1 has = "o ( its ma9 objects to discov] ^? ,relations ( ! ,elem5ts ( bodies :i* h ref]5ce to ,space4 ,9 ?is rese>*1 ! f\ndation ( all s\nd speculation is ! k9d & degree ( ,symmetry ( =m :i* we f9d 9 def9ite *emical comp\nds3 & ! problem at pres5t be=e ! inquir] is1 to devise su* arrangem5ts ( molecules z %all answ] ! conditions alike ( ,*emi/ry & ( ,cry/allography4 ,we n[ proce$ to ! ,classificatory ,sci5ces1 ( :i* ,m9]alogy is "o1 ?\gh hi!rto by f> ! lea/ successful4 #ic ,,book ,,viii4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,classificatory ,,sci5ces4 ,,:]e a c]ta9 app>5t diff]5ce betwe5 ?+s 7al?\gh p]haps 9 itself ( little mom5t7 answ]s to we "k n :at numb] ( o!r diff]5ces1 p]vad+ n only _! kn[n prop]ties b prop]ties yet undiscov]$1 x is n optional b imp]ative to recognise ?is diff]5ce z ! f\ndation ( a specific di/9ction4 ,,john ,s4 ,,mill1 ,sy/em ( ,logic1 b4 #a1 *4 vii4 #d4 #ie ,,book ,,viii4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,classificatory ,,sci5ces4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,lik5ess ,,z ,,gov]n+ ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,common ,,names4 #a4 ,object ( ! ,*apt]4--,,n only ! ,classificatory ,sci5ces1 b ! application ( names to ?+s 9 ! rude/ & mo/ unsci5tific mann]1 dep5ds ^u our appreh5d+ !m z l ea* o!r4 ,we mu/ !re=e endeav\r to trace ! influ5ce & op]ation ( ! ,idea ( ,lik5ess 9 ! common use ( language1 be=e we speak ( ! conditions "u :i* x acquires its utmo/ exactness & efficacy4 ,x w be my object to %[ 9 ?is1 z 9 previ\s cases1 t ! impressions ( s5se are appreh5d$ by acts ( ! m9d2 & t ^! m5tal acts necess>ily imply c]ta9 relations :i* may be made ! subjects ( speculative reason+4 ,we %all h1 if we c1 to seize & br+ into cle> view ! pr9ciples :i* ! relation ( l & unlike involves1 & ! mode 9 :i* ^! pr9ciples h be5 develop$4 #b4 ,unity ( ! ,individual4--,b be=e we c att5d to sev]al ?+s z l or unlike1 we mu/ be able to appreh5d ea* ( ^! by itself z "o ?+4 #if ,x may at fir/ sight p]haps appe> t ?is appreh5sion results imm$iately f ! impressions on our s5ses1 )\t any act ( our ?\ghts4 ,a v little att5tion1 h[ev]1 enables u to see t ?us to s+le out special objects requires a m5tal op]ation z well z a s5sation4 ,h[1 = example1 )\t an ex]tion ( m5tal activity1 c we see "o tree1 9 a =e/ :]e !re are _m8 ,we h1 spread be=e u1 a collection ( col\rs & =ms1 gre5 & br[n1 d>k & light1 irregul> & /raight3 ?is is all t s5sation gives or c give4 ,b we associate "o br[n trunk ) "o portion ( ! gre5 mass1 exclud+ ! re/1 al?\gh ! neighb\r+ leaves are bo? ne>] 9 contiguity & m simil> 9 appe>ance ?an is ! /em4 ,we ?us h be=e u "o tree2 b ?is unity is giv5 by ! m9d itself4 ,we see ! gre5 & ! br[n1 b we mu/ make ! tree be=e we c see x4 ,t ?is composition ( our s5sations s z to =m "o ?+ implies an act ( our own1 w p]haps be m readily all[$1 if we once m turn our att5tion to ! mann] 9 :i* we sometimes attempt to imitate & record ! objects ( sight1 by draw+4 ,:5 we d ?is1 z we h already obs]v$1 we m>k ?is unity ( ea* object1 by draw+ a l9e to sep>ate ! p>ts :i* we include f ^? :i* we exclude2--an ,outl9e4 ,?is l9e corresponds to no?+ :i* we see2 ! beg9n] 9 draw+ has great difficulty 9 disc]n+ x2 he has 9 fact to make x4 ,x is1 z has be5 said by a pa9t] ( our own "t#ah1 a fiction3 b x is a fiction employ$ to m>k a real act ( ! m9d2 to designate ! s+l5ess ( ! object 9 our conception4 ,z we h said else:]e1 we see l9es1 b especially outl9es1 by m5tally draw+ !m ourselves4 ,note #ah3 ,phillips ,on ,pa9t+1--,design4 ,! same act ( conception :i* ! outl9e ?us repres5ts & commemorates 9 visible objects1--! same comb9ation ( s5sible impressions into a unit1--is ex]cis$ also ) reg>d to ! objects ( all #ig our s5ses3 & ! s+l5ess ?us giv5 to ea* object1 is a necess>y prelim9>y to its be+ nam$ or repres5t$ 9 any o!r way4 ,b x may be said1 ,is x !n by an arbitr>y act ( our own t we put toge!r ! bran*es ( ! same tree1 or ! limbs ( ! same animal8 ,h we equally ! p[] & ! "r to make ! bran* ( ! fir a "p ( ! neighb\r+ oak8 ,c we include 9 ! outl9e ( a man any object ) :i* he happ5s to be 9 contact8 ,su* suppositions are manife/ly absurd4 ,& ! answ] is1 t ?\gh we give unity to objects by an act ( ?\ght1 x is n by an arbitr>y act2 b by a process subject to c]ta9 conditions2--to conditions :i* exclude su* incongru\s comb9ations z h j be5 spok5 (4 ,:at are ^! conditions :i* regulate our appreh5sion ( an object z "o8--:i* det]m9e :at portion ( our impressions does1 & :at portion does n belong to ! same ?+8 #c4 ,condition ( ,unity4--,i reply1 t ! prim>y & fundam5tal condition is1 t we mu/ be able to make intelligible ass]tions respect+ ! object1 & to ent]ta9 t belief ( :i* ass]tions are ! exposition4 ,a tree gr[s1 %$s its leaves 9 autumn1 & buds aga9 9 ! spr+1 waves 9 ! w9d1 or falls be=e ! /orm4 ,& to ! tree belong all ^? p>ts :i* mu/ be includ$ 9 ord] t su* decl>ations1 & ! ?\ght :i* !y convey1 %all h a coh]5t & p]man5t mean+4 ,^? are its bran*es :i* wave & fall ) its trunk2 ^? are its leaves :i* gr[ on its bran*es4 ,! p]man5t connexions :i* we obs]ve1--p]man5t1 among unconnect$ *anges :i* affect ! surr\nd+ appe>ances1--are :at we b9d toge!r z belong+ to "o object4 ,?is p]man5ce is ! condition ( our conceiv+ ! object z "o4 ,! connect$ *anges may always be describ$ by means ( ass]tions2 & ! connexion is se5 9 ! id5tity ( ! subject ( successive pr$ications2 9 ! possibility ( apply+ _m v]bs to "o sub/antive4 ,we may #ih !re=e express ! condition ( ! unity ( an object to be ?is3 t ass]tions conc]n+ ! object %all be possible3 or r we %\ld say1 t ! acts ( belief :i* su* ass]tions enunciate %all be possible4 ,x may seem to be sup]flu\s to put 9 a =m s ab/ract & remote1 ! gr\nds ( a process app>5tly s simple z our conceiv+ an object to be "o4 ,b ! same condition to :i* we h ?us be5 l$1 z ! ess5tial pr9ciple ( ! unity ( objects1 namely1 t propositions %all be possible1 w repeat$ly occur 9 ! pres5t *apt]2 & x may s]ve to illu/rate our views1 to %[ t ?is condition p]vades ev5 ! simple/ cases4 #d4 ,k9ds4--,! m5tal syn!sis ( :i* we h ?us spok51 gives u our k ( individual ?+s2 x enables me to appreh5d t p>ticul> tree or man :i* ,i n[ see1 or1 by ! help ( memory1 ! tree or ! man ,i saw ye/]day4 ,b ! k ) :i* we h ma9ly "h to d is n a k ( individuals b ( k9ds2 ( su* classes z are indicat$ by common names4 ,we h to make ass]tions conc]n+ a tree or a man 9 g5]al1 )\t reg>d+ :at is peculi> to ?is man or t tree4 ,n[ x is cle> t c]ta9 individual objects are all call$ man1 or all call$ tree1 9 virtue ( "s resemblance :i* !y h4 ,if we _h n ! p[] ( p]ceiv+ 9 ! appe>ances ar\nd u1 lik5ess & unlik5ess1 we c\ld n consid] objects z di/ribut$ into k9ds at all4 ,! impressions ( s5se w\ld ?rong ^u u1 b be+ uncomp>$ ) ea* o!r1 !y w\ld fl[ away l ! waves ( ! sea1 & ea* vani% f our contemplation :5 ! s5sation fad$4 ,t we d appreh5d surr\nd+ objects z belong+ to p]man5t k9ds1 z be+ m5 & horses1 oaks & roses1 arises f our hav+ ! idea ( lik5ess1 & f our apply+ x habitually1 & s f> z su* a classification requires4 ,n only c we employ ! idea ( lik5ess 9 ?is mann]1 b we apply x incessantly & univ]sally to #ii ! :ole mass & tra9 ( our s5sations4 ,= we h no ext]nal s5sations to :i* we _c apply "s language or o!r2 & all language necess>ily implies recognition ( resemblances4 ,we _c call an object gre5 or r\nd )\t comp>+ 9 our ?\ghts its col\r or its %ape1 ) a %ape & a col\r se5 9 o!r objects4 ,all our s5sations1 !re=e1 )\t any exception ( k9d or "t1 are subject to ?is con/ant process ( classification2 & ! idea ( lik5ess is p]petually op]at+ to di/ribute !m into k9ds1 at lea/ s f> z ! use ( language requires4 ,we come !n aga9 to ! "q1 ,^u :at pr9ciple1 "u :at conditions1 is ! ,idea ( ,lik5ess ?us op]ative8 ,:at are ! limits ( ! classes ?us =m$8 ,:]e does t simil>ity end1 :i* induces & entitles u to call a ?+ a tree8 ,:at univ]sal rule is !re = ! application ( common names1 s t we may n apply !m wrongly8 #e4 ,n made by ,def9itions4--,p]haps "s "o might expect 9 answ] to ^! inquiries a def9ition or a s]ies ( def9itions2--might imag9e t "s description ( a tree might be giv5 :i* might %[ :5 ! t]m 0 applicable & :5 x 0 n2 & t we might con/ruct a body ( rules to :i* su* descriptions mu/ con=m4 ,b on consid]ation x w be cle> t ! real solution ( our difficulty _c be obta9$ 9 su* a mann]4 ,= fir/2 su* descriptions mu/ be giv5 9 words1 & mu/ !re=e suppose t we h already satisfi$ ourselves h[ words are to be us$4 ,if we def9e a tree to be 'a liv+ ?+ )\t ! p[] ( volunt>y motion1' we %all be call$ ^u to def9e 'a liv+ ?+2' & x is manife/ t ?is r5ewal ( ! dem& = def9ition might be repeat$ indef9itely2 &1 !re=e1 we _c 9 ?is way come to a f9al pr9ciple4 ,& 9 ! next place1 mo/ ( ^? :o use language1 ev5 ) great precision & consi/5cy1 w\ld f9d x difficult or impossible to give good def9itions ev5 ( a few ( ! g5]al names :i* !y use2 & !re=e _! practice _c be regulat$ by any #ajj tacit ref]5ce to su* def9itions4 ,t def9itions ( t]ms are ( great use & importance 9 _! "r place1 we %all soon see2 b _! place is n to regulate ! use ( common language4 ,:at !n1 once m1 is ?is regulative pr9ciple8 ,:at rules d m5 foll[ 9 ! use ( words1 s z commonly to avoid confusion & ambiguity8 ,h[ d !y come to und]/& ea* o!r s well z !y ord9>ily d1 respect+ ! limits ( classes nev] def9$1 & :i* !y _c def9e8 ,:at is ! common ,conv5tion1 or ,condition to :i* !y con=m8 #f4 ,condition ( ! ,use ( ,t]ms4--,to ?is we reply1 t ! ,condition :i* regulates ! use ( language1 is1 t x %all be capable ( be+ us$2--t is1 t g5]al ass]tions %all be possible4 ,! t]m tree is applicable z f> z x is useful 9 express+ our k conc]n+ trees3--?us we "k t trees are fix$ 9 ! gr\nd1 h a solid /em1 bran*es1 leaves1 & _m o!r prop]ties4 ,) reg>d to all ! objects :i* surr\nd u1 we h an imm5se /ore ( k ( su* prop]ties1 & we employ ! names ( ! objects 9 su* a mann] z enables u to express ^! prop]ties4 ,b ! connexion ( su* prop]ties is v>iable & indef9ite4 ,"s prop]ties are con/antly comb9$1 o!rs occasionally only4 ,! leaves ( diff]5t oaks resemble ea* o!r1 ! bran*es resemble f> less1 & may diff] v widely4 ,! t]m oak does n enable u to say t all oaks h /raight bran*es or all crook$4 ,t]ms c only express prop]ties z f> z !y are con/ant4 ,n only1 !re=e1 ! accumulation ( a va/ mass ( k ( ! prop]ties & attributes ( objects1 b also an obs]vation ( ! habitual connexion ( su* prop]ties is ne$$1 to direct u to ! consi/5t application ( t]ms3--to enable u to apply !m s z to express tru?s4 ,b "h aga9 we are l>gely provid$ ) ! requisite k & obs]vation by ! common c\rse ( our exi/5ce4 ,! un9t]mitt+ /ream ( exp]i5ce supplies u ) an incalculable #aja am\nt ( su* obs]v$ connexions4 ,all m5 h obs]v$ t ! associations ( ! same =m ( leaves are m con/ant ?an ( ! same =m ( bran*es2--t ?\gh p]sons walk 9 diff]5t attitudes1 none g on all f\rs2 & ?us ! t]m oak is s appli$ z to include ^? cases 9 :i* ! leaves are alike 9 =m ?\gh ! bran*es be unlike2 & ?\gh we %\ld refuse to apply ! t]m man to a class ( creatures :i* habitually & )\t compulsion us$ f\r legs1 we make no scruple ( affix+ x to p]sons ( v diff]5t figures4 ,! :ole ( human exp]i5ce be+ compos$ ( su* obs]v$ connexions1 we h ?us mat]ials ev5 = ! imm5se multiplicity ( names :i* human language conta9s2 all :i* names are1 z we h said1 regulat$ 9 _! application by ! condition ( _! express+ su* exp]i5ce4 ,?us amid ! c\ntless comb9ations ( prop]ties & divisions ( classes :i* ! /ructure ( language implies1 sc>cely any are arbitr>y or caprici\s4 ,a ^w :i* express$ a m]e wanton collection ( unconnect$ attributes c\ld h>dly be call$ a ^w2 = ( su* a collection ( prop]ties no tru? c\ld be ass]t$1 & ! ^w w\ld disappe>1 = want ( "s occasion on :i* x c\ld be us$4 ,?\gh mu* ( ! fabric ( language appe>s1 n unnaturally1 fanta/ical & purely conv5tional1 x is 9 fact o!rwise4 ,! associations & di/9ctions ( phraseology are n m fanciful ?an is requisite to make !m correspond to ! app>5t caprices ( nature or ( ?\ght2 & ?\gh mu* 9 language may be call$ conv5tional1 ! conv5tions exi/ = ! sake ( express+ "s tru? or op9ion1 & n = _! own sake4 ,! pr9ciple1 t ! condition ( ! use ( t]ms is ! possibility ( g5]al1 intelligible1 consi/5t ass]tions1 is true 9 ! mo/ complete & ext5sive s5se4 #g4 ,t]ms may h diff]5t ,uses4--,! ,t]ms ) :i* we are "h mo/ conc]n$ are ,names ( ,classes ( natural objects2 & :5 we say t ! pr9ciple & ! limit ( su* ,names are _! use 9 express+ propositions conc]n+ ! classes1 x is #ajb cle> t mu* w dep5d on ! k9d ( propositions :i* we ma9ly h to express3 & t ! same "n may h diff]5t limits1 accord+ to ! purpose we h 9 view4 ,= example1 is ! :ale prop]ly includ$ 9 ! g5]al t]m fi%8 ,:5 m5 are conc]n$ 9 cat*+ m>9e animals1 ! ma9 features ( ! process are ! same h[ev] ! animals may diff]2 h5ce :ales are class$ ) fi%es1 & we speak ( ! :ale-fi%]y4 ,b if we look at ! analogies ( organization1 we f9d t1 accord+ to ^!1 ! :ale is cle>ly n a fi%1 b a bea/1 7conf9+ ?is t]m1 = ! sake ( di/9ctness1 to suckl+ bea/s or mammals74 ,9 ,natural ,hi/ory1 !re=e1 ! :ale is n includ$ among fi%4 ,! indef9ite & miscellane\s propositions :i* language is employ$ to enunciate 9 ! c\rse ( common practical life1 are replac$ by a m coh]5t & sy/ematic collection ( prop]ties1 :5 we come to aim at sci5tific k4 ,b we %all h]eaft] consid] ! pr9ciple ( ! classifications ( ,natural ,hi/ory2 our pres5t subject is ! application ( ! ,idea ( ,lik5ess 9 common practice & common language4 #h4 ,gradation ( ,k9ds4--,common names1 !n1 include _m individuals associat$ 9 virtue ( resemblances1 & ( p]man5tly connect$ prop]ties2 & su* names are applicable z f> z !y s]ve to express su* prop]ties4 ,^! collections ( individuals are t]m$ ,k9ds1 ,sorts1 ,classes4 ,b ?is association ( p>ticul>s is capable ( degrees4 ,z individuals by _! resemblances =m ,k9ds1 s k9ds ( ?+s1 ?\gh diff]5t1 may resemble ea* o!r s z to be aga9 associat$ 9 a high] ,class2 & !re may be sev]al successive /eps ( su* classification4 ,man1 horse1 tree1 /one1 are ea* a "n ( a ,k9d2 b animal includes ! two fir/ & excludes ! o!rs2 liv+ ?+ is a t]m :i* includes animal & tree b n /one2 body includes all ! f\r4 ,& su* a subord9ation ( k9ds may be trac$ v widely 9 ! arrangem5ts ( language4 #ajc ,! condition ( ! use ( ! wid] is ! same z t ( ! n>r[] ,names ( ,classes2--!y are good z f> z !y s]ve to express true propositions4 ,9 common language1 ?\gh su* an ord] ( g5]ality may 9 a v>iety ( in/ances be easily disc]n$1 x is n sy/ematically & ext5sively ref]r$ to2 b ?is subord9ation & graduat$ compreh5siv5ess is ! ess5ce ( ! me?ods & nom5clatures ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 z we %all soon h to %[4 ,b su* subord9ation is n )\t its use1 ev5 9 common cases1 & :5 x is express$ 9 ! t]ms ( common language4 ,?us organiz$ body is a t]m :i* includes plants & animals2 animal includes bea/s1 birds1 fi%es2 bea/ includes horses & dogs2 dogs1 aga91 are greyh\nds1 spaniels1 t]ri]s4 #i4 ,*>act]s ( ,k9ds4--,n[ :5 we h su* a ,s]ies ( ,names & ,classes1 we f9d t we take = grant$ irresi/ibly t ea* class has "s ,"* :i* di/+ui%es x f o!r classes includ$ 9 ! sup]ior division4 ,we ask :at k9d ( bea/ a dog is2 :at k9d ( animal a bea/ is2 & we assume t su* que/ions admit ( answ]2--t ea* k9d has "s m>k or m>ks by :i* x may be describ$4 ,& su* descriptions may be giv53 an animal is an organiz$ body hav+ s5sation & volition2 man is a reasonable animal4 ,:e!r or no we ass5t to ! exactness ( ^! def9itions1 we all[ ! propriety ( _! =m4 ,if we ma9ta9 ^! def9itions to be wrong1 we mu/ believe "s o!rs to be "r1 h[ev] difficult x may be to hit ^u !m4 ,we ent]ta9 a conviction t !re mu/ be1 among ?+s s class$ & nam$1 a possibility ( def9+ ea*4 ,n[ :at is ! f\ndation ( ?is po/ulate8 ,:at is ! gr\nd ( ?is assumption1 t !re mu/ exi/ a def9ition :i* we h nev] se51 & :i* p]haps no "o has se5 9 a satisfactory =m8 ,! k ( ?is def9ition is by no means necess>y to our us+ ! ^w ) propriety2 = any "o c make true ass]tions ab\t dogs1 b :o c def9e a #ajd dog8 ,& yet if ! def9ition be n necess>y to enable u to use ! ^w1 :y is x necess>y at all8 ,i all[ t we possess an inde/ructible conviction t !re mu/ be su* a "* ( ea* k9d z w supply a def9ition2 b ,i ask1 on :at ?is conviction re/s4 ,i reply1 t our p]suasion t !re mu/ ne$s be *>act]i/ic m>ks by :i* ?+s c be def9$ 9 words1 is f\nd$ on ! assumption ( ! necess>y possibility ( reason+4 ,! ref]5ce ( any object or conception to its class )\t def9ition1 may give u a p]suasion t x %>es ! prop]ties ( its class1 b su* class+ does n enable u to reason ^u ^? prop]ties4 ,:5 we consid] man z an animal1 we ascribe to him 9 ?\ght ! appetites1 desires1 affections1 :i* we habitually include 9 our notion ( animal3 b except we h express$ ^! 9 "s def9ition or ackn[l$g$ description ( ! t]m animal1 we c make no use ( ! p]suasion 9 ratioc9ation4 ,b if we h describ$ animals z 'be+ impell$ to action by appetites & passions1' we c n only ?9k1 b say1 'man is an animal1 & !re=e he is impell$ to act by appetites & passions4' ,& if we add a fur!r def9ition1 t 'man is a reasonable animal1' & if x appe> t 'reason implies con=mity to a rule ( action1' we c !n fur!r inf] t man's nature is to con=m ! results ( animal appetite & passion to a rule ( action4 ,! possibility ( pursu+ any su* tra9 ( reason+ z ?is1 dep5ds on ! def9itions1 ( animal & ( man1 :i* we h introduc$2 & ! possibility ( reason+ conc]n+ ! objects ar\nd u be+ inevitably assum$ by u f ! con/itution ( our nature1 we assume consequ5tly ! possibility ( su* def9itions z may ?us =m "p ( our d$uction1 & ! exi/5ce ( su* def9+ *>act]s4 #aj4 ,difficulty ( ,def9itions4--,b ?\gh m5 are1 on su* gr\nds1 l$ to make con/ant & importunate dem&s = def9itions ( ! t]ms :i* !y employ 9 _! speculations1 !y are1 9 fact1 f> #aje f be+ able to c>ry into complete effect ! po/ulate on :i* !y proce$1 t !y mu/ be able to f9d def9itions :i* by logical consequ5ce %all lead to ! tru?s !y seek4 ,! po/ulate ov]looks ! process by :i* our classes ( ?+s are =m$ & our names appli$4 ,?is process consi/+1 z we h already said1 9 obs]v+ p]man5t connexions ( prop]ties1 & 9 fix+ !m by ! attribution ( names1 is ( ! nature ( ! process ( ,induction1 ( :i* we %all aft]w>ds h to speak4 ,& ! po/ulate is s f> true1 t ?is process ( induction be+ once p]=m$1 its result may usually be express$ by means ( a few def9itions1 & may ?us lead by a d$uction to a tra9 ( real tru?s4 ,b 9 ! subjects :]e we pr9cipally f9d su* a subord9ation ( classes z we h spok5 (1 ?is process ( d$uction is r>ely ( mu* prom95ce3 = example1 9 ! bran*es ( natural hi/ory4 ,yet x is 9 ^! subjects t ! exi/5ce & importance ( ^! *>act]i/ic m>ks1 :i* we h spok5 (1 pr9cipally comes into view4 ,9 treat+ ( ^! m>ks1 h[ev]1 we ent] ^u me?ods :i* are te*nical & sci5tific1 n popul> & common4 ,& be=e we make ?is transition1 we h a rem>k to make on ! mann] 9 :i* writ]s1 )\t ref]5ce to physics or natural hi/ory1 h spok5 ( k9ds1 _! subord9ation1 & _! m>ks4 #aa4 ',! ,five ,words4'--,^! ?+s1--! ,nature & ,relations ( ,classes1--71 9 fact1 ! subjects ( m9ute & te*nical treatm5t by ! logicians ( ! s*ool ( ,ari/otle4 ,porphyry wrote an ,introduction to ! ,categories ( t philosoph]1 :i* is entitl$ ,on ! ,five ,words4 ,! ',five ,words' are ,g5us1 ,species1 ,diff]5ce1 ,prop]ty1 ,accid5t4 ,g5us & ,species are sup]ior & inf]ior classes1 & are /at$#bh to be capable ( repeat$ subord9ation4 ,! 'mo/ #ajf g5]al ,g5us' is ! wide/ class2 ! 'mo/ special ,species' ! n>r[e/4 ,betwe5 ^! are int]m$iate classes1 :i* are ,g5]a ) reg>d to ^? bel[1 & ,species ) reg>d to ^? above !m4 ,?us ,be+ is ! mo/ g5]al ,g5us2 "u ?is is ,body2 "u ,body is ,liv+ ,body2 "u ?is aga9 ,animal2 "u ,animal is ,rational ,animal1 or ,man2 "u ,man are ,socrates & ,plato1 & o!r individual m54 ,note #bh3 ,porphyr4 ,isagog4 c4 #bc4 ,! ,diff]5ce is t :i* is add$ to ! g5us to make ! species2 ?us ,rational is ! ,diff]5ce by :i* ! g5us ,animal is made ! species ,man2 ! ,diff]5ce 9 ?is ,te*nical s5se is ! ',specific1' or species-mak+ ,diff]5ce#ch4 ,x =ms ! ,def9ition = ! purposes ( logic1 & corresponds to ! ',"*' 7specific or g5]ic7 ( ! ,natural ,hi/orians4 ,inde$ sev]al ( !m1 z1 = in/ance1 ,l9nu1 9 8 ,philosophia ,botanica1 always call ^! ,*>act]s ! ,diff]5ce1 by a traditional application ( ! ,p]ipatetic t]ms ( art4 ,note #ch3 4 ,( ! o!r two words1 ! ,prop]ty is t :i* ?\gh n employ$ 9 def9+ ! class1 belongs to e "p ( x#dh3 x is1 ',:at happ5s to all ! class1 to x alone1 & at all times2 z to be capable ( laugh+ is a ,prop]ty ( man4' ,note #dh3 ,isagog4 c4 #d ,! ,accid5t is t :i* may be pres5t & abs5t )\t ! de/ruction ( ! subject1 z to sleep is an ,accid5t 7a ?+ :i* happ5s7 to man4 ,i ne$ n dwell fur!r on ?is sy/em ( te*nicalities4 ,! mo/ rem>kable po9ts 9 x are ^? :i* ,i h already notic$2 ! doctr9e ( ! successive ,subord9ation ( g5]a1 & ! fix+ att5tion ^u ! ,specific ,diff]5ce4 ,^! doctr9es1 ?\gh inv5t$ 9 ord] to make reason+ m sy/ematic1 & at a p]iod ant]ior to ! exi/5ce ( any ,classificatory ,sci5ce1 h1 by a curi\s contra/ ) ! int5tions ( _! f\nd]s1 be5 ( sc>cely #ajg any use 9 sci5ces ( ,reason+1 b h be5 amply appli$ & develop$ 9 ! ,natural ,hi/ory :i* arose 9 lat] times4 ,we mu/ n[ treat ( ! pr9ciples on :i* ?is sci5ce 7,natural ,hi/ory7 proce$s1 & expla9 :at peculi> & te*nical processes x employs 9 addition to ^? ( common ?\ght & common language4 #ajh ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,me?ods ,,( ,,natural ,,hi/ory1 ,,z ,,regulat$ ,,by ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,lik5ess4 ,,sect4 ,i4--,natural ,hi/ory 9 g5]al4 #a4 ,idea ( ,lik5ess 9 ,natural ,hi/ory4--,,! v>i\s bran*es ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 9 s f> z !y are classificatory sci5ces m]ely1 & d n dep5d ^u physiological views1 re/ ^u ! same ,idea ( ,lik5ess :i* is ! gr\nd ( ! application ( ! names1 m or less g5]al1 ( common language4 ,b ! nature ( sci5ce requires t1 = h] purposes1 ?is ,idea %\ld be appli$ 9 a m exact & rig\r\s mann] ?an 9 its common & popul> employm5t2 j z occurs ) reg>d to ! o!r ,ideas on :i* sci5ce is f\nd$2--= in/ance1 z ! idea ( space gives rise1 9 popul> use1 to ! relations impli$ 9 ! prepositions & adjectives :i* ref] to position & =m1 & 9 its sci5tific developm5t gives rise to ! m precise relations ( geometry4 ,! way 9 :i* ! ,idea ( ,lik5ess has be5 appli$1 s z to lead to ! con/ruction ( a sci5ce1 is be/ se5 9 ,botany3 =1 9 ! ,classification ( ,animals1 we are inevitably guid$ by a consid]ation ( ! function ( p>ts2 t is1 by an idea ( purpose1 & n ( lik5ess m]ely3 & 9 ,m9]alogy1 ! attempts at classification on ! pr9ciples ( ,natural ,hi/ory h be5 hi!rto v imp]fectly successful4 ,b 9 ,botany we h an example ( a bran* ( k 9 :i* sy/ematic classification has be5 effect$ ) great beauty & advantage2 & 9 :i* ! peculi>ities & pr9ciples on :i* su* #aji classification mu/ dep5d h be5 c>efully /udi$4 ,_m ( ! pr9cipal botani/s1 z ,l9nu1 ,adanson1 ,dec&olle1 h n only practically appli$1 b h !oretically enunciat$1 :at !y held to be ! s\nd maxims ( classificatory sci5ce3 & h ?us enabl$ u to place be=e ! read] ) confid5ce ! philosophy ( ?is k9d ( sci5ce4 #b4 ,condition ( its ,use4--,we may beg9 by rem>k+ t ! ,idea ( ,lik5ess1 9 its sy/ematic employm5t1 is gov]n$ by ! same pr9ciple :i* we h already spok5 ( z regulat+ ! di/ribution ( ?+s into k9ds1 & ! assignm5t ( names 9 unsy/ematic ?\ght & spee*2 namely1 ! condition t g5]al propositions %all be possible4 ,b z 9 ?is case ! propositions are to be ( a sci5tific =m & exactness1 ! lik5ess mu/ be treat$ ) a correspond+ precision2 & its consequ5ces trac$ by /eady & di/9ct processes4 ,naturali/s mu/1 = _! purposes1 employ ! resemblances ( objects 9 a te*nical mann]4 ,?is te*nical process may be consid]$ z consi/+ ( ?ree /eps2--,! fixation ( ! resemblances2 ,! use ( !m 9 mak+ a classification2 ,! means ( apply+ ! classification4 ,^! ?ree /eps may be spok5 ( z ! ,t]m9ology1 ! ,plan ( ! ,sy/em1 & ! ,s*eme ( ! ,*>act]s4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,t]m9ology4#eh ,note #eh3 ,dec&olle & o!rs use ! t]m ,glossology in/ead ( ,t]m9ology1 to avoid ! blemi% ( a ^w comp\nd$ ( two p>ts tak5 f diff]5t languages4 ,! conv5i5ce ( treat+ ! t]m9ation ology 7& a few o!r p>ts ( comp\nds7 z n re/rict$ to ,greek comb9ations1 is s great1 t ,i %all v5ture1 9 ^! cases1 to disreg>d ?is philological scruple4 #c4 ,t]m9ology signifies ! collection ( t]ms1 or te*nical words1 :i* belong to ! sci5ce4 ,b 9 fix+ ! mean+ ( ! t]ms1 at lea/ ( ! descriptive t]ms1 we necess>ily fix1 at ! same "t1 ! p]ceptions & notions :i* ! t]ms are to #aaj convey2 & ?us ! ,t]m9ology ( a classificatory sci5ce exhibits ! elem5ts ( its sub/ance z well z ( its language4 ,a l>ge b indisp5sable "p ( ! /udy ( botany 7& ( m9]alogy & zoology also17 consi/s 9 ! acquisition ( ! peculi> vocabul>y ( ! sci5ce4 ,! mean+ ( te*nical t]ms c be fix$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance only by conv5tion1 & c be made intelligible only by pres5t+ to ! s5ses t :i* ! t]ms are to signify4 ,! k ( a col\r by its "n c only be taught ?r\gh ! eye4 ,no description c convey to a he>] :at we mean by apple-gre5 or ,fr5* grey4 ,x might1 p]haps1 be suppos$ t1 9 ! fir/ example1 ! t]m apple1 ref]r+ to s famili> an object1 suffici5tly sugge/s ! col\r int5d$4 ,b x may easily be se5 t ?is is n true2 = apples are ( _m diff]5t hues ( gre51 & x is only by a conv5tional selection t we c appropriate ! t]m to "o special %ade4 ,:5 ?is appropriation is once made1 ! t]m ref]s to ! s5sation1 & n to ! p>ts ( ?is t]m2 = ^! ent] into ! comp\nd m]ely z a help to ! memory1 :e!r ! sugge/ion be a natural connexion z 9 'apple-gre51' or a casual "o z 9 ',fr5* grey4' ,9 ord] to d]ive due advantage f te*nical t]ms ( ?is k9d1 !y mu/ be associat$ imm$iately ) ! p]ception to :i* !y belong2 & n connect$ ) x ?r\gh ! vague usages ( common language4 ,! memory mu/ reta9 ! s5sation2 & ! te*nical ^w mu/ be und]/ood z directly z ! mo/ famili> ^w1 & m di/9ctly4 ,:5 we f9d su* t]ms z t9-:ite or p9*beck-br[n1 ! metallic col\r s d5ot$ ought to />t up 9 our memory )\t delay or se>*4 ,?is1 :i* x is mo/ important to recollect ) respect to ! simpl] prop]ties ( bodies1 z col\r & =m1 is no less true ) respect to m comp\nd notions4 ,9 all cases ! t]m is fix$ to a peculi> mean+ by conv5tion2 & ! /ud5t1 9 ord] to use ! ^w1 mu/ be completely famili> ) ! conv5tion1 s t he has no ne$ to frame #aaa conjectures f ! ^w itself4 ,su* conjectures w\ld always be insecure1 & (t5 errone\s4 ,?us ! t]m papilionace\s1 appli$ to a fl[]1 is employ$ to indicate1 n only a resemblance to a butt]fly1 b a resemblance aris+ f five petals ( a c]ta9 peculi> %ape & arrangem5t2 & ev5 if ! resemblance to a butt]fly 7 mu* /rong] ?an x is 9 su* cases1 yet if x 7 produc$ 9 a diff]5t way1 z1 = example1 by "o petal1 or two only1 in/ead ( a '/&>d1' two 'w+s1' & a 'keel' consi/+ ( two p>ts m or less unit$ into "o1 we %\ld no long] be ju/ifi$ 9 speak+ ( x z a 'papilionace\s' fl[]4 ,! =mation ( an exact & ext5sive descriptive language = botany has be5 execut$ ) a degree ( skill & felicity1 :i*1 be=e x 0 atta9$1 c\ld h>dly h be5 dreamt ( z atta9able4 ,e "p ( a plant has be5 nam$2 & ! =m ( e "p1 ev5 ! mo/ m9ute1 has _h a l>ge assemblage ( descriptive t]ms appropriat$ to x1 by means ( :i* ! botani/ c convey & receive k ( =m & /ructure1 z exactly z if ea* m9ute "p 7 pres5t$ to him va/ly magnifi$4 ,?is acquisition 0 "p ( ! ,l9nan ,re=m1 ( :i* we h spok5 9 ! ,hi/ory4 ',t\rne=t1' says ,dec&olle#fh1 'appe>s to h be5 ! fir/ :o really p]ceiv$ ! utility ( fix+ ! s5se ( t]ms 9 su* a way z always to employ ! same ^w 9 ! same s5se1 & always to express ! same idea by ! same ^w2 b x 0 ,l9nu :o really creat$ & fix$ ?is botanical language1 & ?is is 8 faire/ claim to glory1 = by ?is fixation ( language he has %$ cle>ness & precision ov] all p>ts ( ! sci5ce4' ,note #fh3 ,!or4 ,elem4 p4 #cbg4 ,x is n necess>y "h to give any detail$ acc\nt ( ! t]ms ( botany4 ,! fundam5tal ones h be5 gradually introduc$1 z ! p>ts ( plants 7 m c>efully & m9utely exam9$4 ,?us ! fl[] 0 successively di/+ui%$ into ! calyx1 #aab ! corolla1 ! /am5s1 & ! pi/ils3 ! sections ( ! corolla 7 t]m$ petals by ,columna2 ^? ( ! calyx 7 call$ sepals by ,neck]#gh4 ,sometimes t]ms ( great] g5]ality 7 devis$2 z p]ian? to include ! calyx & corolla1 :e!r "o or bo? ( ^! 7 pres5t#hh2 p]ic>p = ! "p inclos+ ! gra91 ( :atev] k9d x be1 fruit1 nut1 pod1 c4 ,& x may easily be imag9$ t descriptive t]ms may1 by def9ition & comb9ation1 become v num]\s & di/9ct4 ,?us leaves may be call$ p9natifid#ih1 p9natip>tite1 p9natisect1 p9natilobate1 palmatifid1 palmatip>tite1 c41 & ea* ( ^! words designates diff]5t comb9ations ( ! modes & ext5t ( ! divisions ( ! leaf ) ! divisions ( its outl9e4 ,9 "s cases arbitr>y num]ical relations are introduc$ into ! def9ition3 ?us a leaf is call$ bilobate#ajh :5 x is divid$ into two p>ts by a not*2 b if ! not* g to ! middle ( its l5g?1 x is bifid2 if x g ne> ! base ( ! leaf1 x is bip>tite2 if to ! base1 x is bisect4 ,?us1 too1 a pod ( a crucif]\s plant is a silica#aah if x be f\r times z long z x is broad1 b if x be %ort] ?an ?is x is a silicula4 ,su* t]ms be+ e/abli%$1 ! =m ( ! v complex leaf or frond ( a f]n is exactly convey$ by ! foll[+ phrase3 'fronds rigid p9nate1 p9n recurv$ subunilat]al p9natifid1 ! segm5ts l9e> undivid$ or bifid sp9uloso-s]rate#abh4' ,note #gh3 ,dec&olle1 #cbi ,note #hh3 ,= ?is ,erh>t & ,dec&olle use ,p]igone4 ,note #ih3 ,dec4 #cah4 ,note #ajh3 ,ib4 #dic4 ,note #aah3 ,ib4 #dbb4 ,note #abh3 ,hook]1 ,brit4 ,flo4 p4 #deg4 ,hym5ophyllum ,wilsoni1 ,scotti% filmy-f]n1 abundant 9 ! highl&s ( ,scotl& & ab\t ,kill>ney4 ,o!r *>act]s1 z well z =m1 are convey$ ) ! l precision3 ,col\r by means ( a classifi$ scale ( col\rs1 z we h se5 9 speak+ ( ! ,measures ( ,second>y ,qualities2 to :i*1 h[ev]1 we mu/ add1 t ! naturali/ employs arbitr>y names1 7su* z we h already quot$17 & n m]e num]ical expon5ts1 to indicate a c]ta9 numb] ( #aac select$ col\rs4 ,?is 0 done ) mo/ precision by ,w]n]1 & 8 scale ( col\rs is /ill ! mo/ usual /&>d ( naturali/s4 ,w]n] also introduc$ a m exact t]m9ology ) reg>d to o!r *>act]s :i* are important 9 m9]alogy1 z lu/re1 h>dness4 ,b ,mohs improv$ ^u ?is /ep by giv+ a num]ical scale ( h>dness1 9 :i* talc is #a1 gypsum #b1 calc sp> #c1 & s on1 z we h already expla9$ 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,m9]alogy4 ,"s prop]ties1 z specific gravity1 by _! def9ition give at once a num]ical measure2 & o!rs1 z cry/all9e =m1 require a v consid]able array ( ma!matical calculation & reason+1 to po9t out _! relations & gradations4 ,9 all cases ! features ( lik5ess 9 ! objects mu/ be rightly appreh5d$1 9 ord] to _! be+ express$ by a di/9ct t]m9ology4 ,?us no t]ms c\ld describe cry/als = any purpose ( natural hi/ory1 till x 0 discov]$ t 9 a class ( m9]als ! proportion ( ! faces might v>y1 :ile ! angle rema9$ ! same4 ,nor c\ld cry/als be describ$ s z to di/+ui% species1 till x 0 f\nd t ! d]iv$ & primitive =ms are connect$ by v simple relations ( space & numb]4 ,! discov]y ( ! mode 9 :i* *>act]s mu/ be appreh5d$ s t !y may be consid]$ z fix$ = a class1 is an important /ep 9 ! progress ( ea* bran* ( ,natural ,hi/ory2 & h5ce we h _h1 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,m9]alogy & ,botany1 to di/+ui% z important & em95t p]sons ^? :o made su* discov]ies1 ,rom de ,lisle & ,hay1 ,cesalp9us & ,gesn]4 ,by ! cont9u$ progress ( t k ( m9]als1 plants1 & o!r natural objects1 9 :i* su* p]sons made ! mo/ di/9ct & m>k$ /eps1 b :i* has be5 con/antly advanc+ 9 a m gradual & imp]ceptible mann]1 ! mo/ important & ess5tial features ( simil>ity & dissimil>ity 9 su* objects h be5 select$1 arrang$1 & fitt$ ) names2 & we h ?us 9 su* dep>tm5ts1 sy/ems ( ,t]m9ology :i* fix our att5tion ^u ! resemblances :i* x is prop] to consid]1 & #aad enable u to convey !m 9 words4 ,we h n[ to speak ( ! mode 9 :i* su* resemblances h be5 employ$ 9 ! con/ruction ( a ,sy/ematic ,classification4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4 ,! ,plan ( ! ,sy/em4 #d4 ,! collection ( s\nd views & maxims by :i* ! resemblances ( natural objects are appli$ s z to =m a sci5tific classification1 is a dep>tm5t ( ! philosophy ( natural hi/ory :i* has be5 t]m$ by "s writ]s 7z ,dec&olle71 ,taxonomy1 z conta9+ ! ,laws ( ! ,taxis 7arrangem5t74 ,by "s ,g]mans ?is has be5 d5om9at$ ,sy/ematik2 if we c\ld n[ =m a new sub/antive aft] ! analogy ( ! words ,logick1 ,rhetorick1 & ! l1 we might call x ,sy/ematick4 ,b ?\gh our ,engli% writ]s commonly use ! expression ,sy/ematical ,botany = ! ,botany ( ,classification1 !y appe> to pref] ! t]m ,diataxis = ! me?od ( con/ruct+ ! classification4 ,! rules ( su* a bran* ( sci5ce are curi\s & in/ructive4 ,9 fram+ a ,classification ( objects we mu/ att5d to _! resemblances & diff]5ces4 ,b "h ! "q occurs1 to :at resemblances & diff]5ces8 = a diff]5t selection ( ! po9ts ( resemblance w\ld give diff]5t results3 a plant frequ5tly agrees 9 leaves ) "o gr\p ( plants1 9 fl[]s ) ano!r4 ,:i* set ( *>act]s are we to take z our guide8 ,! view already giv5 ( ! regulative pr9ciple ( all classification1 namely1 t x mu/ enable u to ass]t true & g5]al propositions1 w obvi\sly occur z applicable "h4 ,! object ( a sci5tific ,classification is to enable u to enunciate sci5tific tru?s3 we mu/ !re=e classify accord+ to ^? resemblances ( objects 7plants or any o!rs7 :i* br+ to light su* tru?s4 ,b ?is reply to ! inquiry1 ',on :at *>act]s ( resemblance we are to f\nd our sy/em1' is /ill too g5]al & vague to be satisfactory4 ,x c>ries u1 #aae h[ev]1 z f> z ?is2--t s9ce ! tru?s we are to att5d to are sci5tific tru?s1 gov]n$ by precise & homog5e\s relations1 we mu/ n f\nd our sci5tific ,classification on casual1 indef9ite1 & unconnect$ consid]ations4 ,we mu/ n1 = in/ance1 be satisfi$ ) divid+ plants1 z ,dioscorides does1 into aromatic1 escul5t1 m$ic9al & v9\s2 or ev5 ) ! long preval5t di/ribution into trees1 %rubs1 & h]bs2 s9ce 9 ^! subdivisions !re is no consi/5t pr9ciple4 #e4 ,lat5t ,ref]5ce to ,natural ,aff9ity4--,b !re may be sev]al k9ds ( tru?s1 all exact & coh]5t1 :i* may be discov]$ conc]n+ plants or any o!r natural objects2 & if ?is %\ld be ! case1 our rule leaves u /ill at a loss 9 :at mann] our classification is to be con/ruct$4 ,&1 hi/orically speak+1 a mu* m s]i\s inconv5i5ce has be5 ?is2--t ! task ( classification ( plants 0 necess>ily p]=m$ :5 ! g5]al laws ( _! =m & nature 7 v little kn[n2 or r1 :5 ! exi/5ce ( su* laws 0 only j beg9n+ to be disc]n$4 ,ev5 up to ! pres5t day1 ! g5]al propositions :i* botani/s are able to ass]t conc]n+ ! /ructure & prop]ties ( plants1 are extremely imp]fect & obscure4 ,we are ?us l$ to ?is conclusion3--t ! ,idea ( ,lik5ess c\ld n be appli$ s z to give rise to a sci5tific ,classification ( plants1 till consid]able progress 0 made 9 /udy+ ! g5]al relations ( vegetable =m & life2 & t ! selection ( ! resemblances :i* %\ld be tak5 into acc\nt1 mu/ dep5d ^u ! nature ( ! relations :i* 7 !n br\ght into view4 ,b ?is am\nts to say+ t1 9 ! consid]ation ( ! ,classification ( vegetables1 o!r ,ideas mu/ be call$ into action z well z ! ,idea ( ,lik5ess4 ,! additional g5]al views to :i* ! m intimate /udy ( plants leads1 mu/ dep5d1 l all g5]al tru?s1 ^u "s regulat+ ,idea :i* gives unity to scatt]$ facts4 ,no progress c\ld be made 9 botanical k )\t ! #aaf op]ation ( su* pr9ciples3 & su* additional ,ideas mu/ be employ$1 besides ^? ( m]e lik5ess & unlik5ess1 9 ord] to po9t out t ,classification :i* has a real sci5tific value4 ,accord+ly1 9 ! classificatory sci5ces1 ,ideas o!r ?an ,lik5ess d make _! appe>ance4 ,su* ,ideas 9 botany h influ5c$ ! progress ( ! sci5ce1 ev5 be=e !y h be5 cle>ly br\ght into view4 ,we h especially ! ,idea ( ,aff9ity1 :i* is ! basis ( all ,natural ,sy/ems ( ,classification1 & :i* we %all consid] 9 a succe$+ *apt]4 ,! assumption t !re is a ,natural ,sy/em1 an assumption made by all philosophical botani/s1 implies a belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( ,natural ,aff9ity1 & is c>ri$ into effect by means ( pr9ciples :i* are involv$ 9 t ,idea4 ,b z ! =mation ( all sy/ems ( classification mu/ involve1 9 a great degree1 ! ,idea ( ,resemblance & ,diff]5ce1 ,i %all fir/ consid] ! effect ( t ,idea1 be=e ,i treat specially ( ,natural ,aff9ity4 #f4 ,natural ,classes4--,_m attempts 7 made to classify vegetables be=e ! rules :i* gov]n a natural sy/em 7 cle>ly appreh5d$4 ,botani/s agree 9 e/eem+ "s *>act]s z ( m value ?an o!rs1 be=e !y _h agre$ ^u any g5]al rules or pr9ciples = e/imat+ ! relative importance ( ! *>act]s4 ,!y 7 conv9c$ ( ! necessity ( add+ o!r consid]ations to t ( ,resemblance1 )\t see+ cle>ly :at ^! o!rs ought to be4 ,!y aim$ at a ,natural ,classification1 )\t kn[+ di/9ctly 9 :at mann] x 0 to be ,natural4 ,! attempts to =m ,natural ,classes1 !re=e1 9 ! fir/ "p ( _! hi/ory1 belong to ! ,idea ( ,lik5ess1 ?\gh obscurely modifi$1 ev5 f an e>ly p]iod1 by ! ,ideas ( ,aff9ity1 & ev5 ( ,function & ( ,developm5t4 ,h5ce ,natural ,classes may1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 be treat$ ( 9 ?is place4 ,natural ,classes are oppos$ to ,artificial ,classes :i* are und]/ood to be regulat$ by an assum$ #aag "*4 ,yet no classes c be s absolutely ,artificial 9 ?is s5se1 z to be fram$ ^u *>act]s arbitr>ily assum$2 = in/ance1 no "o w\ld speak ( a class ( %rubs def9$ by ! circum/ance ( ea* hav+ a hundr$ leaves3 = ( su* a class no ass]tion c\ld be made1 & !re=e ! class c\ld nev] come "u our notice4 ,9 :at s5se !n are ,artificial ,classes to be und]/ood1 z oppos$ to ,natural8 #g4 ,artificial ,classes4--,to ?is "q1 ! foll[+ is ! answ]4 ,:5 ,natural ,classes ( a c]ta9 small ext5t h be5 =m$1 a sy/em may be devis$ :i* %all be regulat$ by a few select$ *>act]s1 & :i* %all n dissev] ^! small ,natural ,classes1 b con=m to !m z f> z !y g4 ,if ^! select$ *>act]s be !n made absolute & imp]ative1 & if we ab&on all attempt to obta9 ,natural ,classes ( any high] ord] & wid] ext5t1 we =m an ,artificial ,sy/em4 ,?us 9 ! ,l9nan ,sy/em ( ,botanical ,classification1 x is assum$ t c]ta9 natural gr\ps1 namely1 ,species & ,g5]a1 are e/abli%$2 x is conceiv$1 moreov]1 t ! division ( ,classes accord+ to ! numb] ( /am5s & ( pi/ils does n violate ! natural connexions ( ,species & ,g5]a4 ,?is arrangem5t1 accord+ to ! numb] ( /am5s & pi/ils1 7fur!r modifi$ 9 c]ta9 cases by o!r consid]ations17 is !n made ! gr\nd ( all ! high] divisions ( plants1 & ?us we h an ,artificial ,sy/em4 ,x has be5 object$ to ?is view1 t ! ,l9nan ,artificial ,sy/em does n 9 all cases respect ! b\nd>ies ( g5]a1 b w\ld1 if rigor\sly appli$1 di/ribute ! species ( ! same g5us into diff]5t artificial classes2 x w\ld divide1 = in/ance1 ! g5]a ,val]iana1 ,g]anium#ach1 c4 ,to ?is we mu/ reply1 t s f> z ! ,l9nan ,sy/em does ?is1 x is an imp]fect ,artificial ,sy/em4 ,its great m]it is 9 its mak+ su* a disjunction 9 comp>atively s #aah few cases2 & 9 ! artificial *>act]s be+1 = ! mo/ "p1 obvi\s & easily appli$4 ,note #ach3 ,dec&4 ,!or4 ,elem4 p4 #de4 #h4 ,are ,g5]a ,natural8--,x has be5 object$ also t ,g5]a are n ,natural gr\ps4 ,l9nu ass]ts 9 ! mo/ positive mann] t !y are#adh4 ,on :i* ,adanson obs]ves#aeh1 ',i "k n h[ any ,botani/ c ma9ta9 su* a !sis3 t :i* is c]ta9 is1 t up to ! pres5t "t no "o has be5 able to prove x1 nor to give an exact def9ition ( a natural g5us1 b only ( an artificial4' ,he !n br+s sev]al argum5ts to confirm ?is view4 ,note #adh3 ,phil4 ,bot4 ,art4 #afe4 ,note #aeh3 ,famille de ,ph4 ,pref4 cv4 ,b we are to obs]ve1 9 answ] to ?is1 t ,adanson improp]ly conf\nds ! recognition ( ! exi/5ce ( a natural gr\p ) ! inv5tion ( a te*nical m>k or def9ition ( x4 ,g5]a are gr\ps ( species associat$ 9 virtue ( natural aff9ity1 ( g5]al resemblance1 ( real prop9quity3 ( su* gr\ps1 c]ta9 select$ *>act]s1 "o or few1 may usually be discov]$1 by :i* ! species may be ref]r$ to _! gr\ps4 ,^! ,artificial *>act]s d n con/itute1 b indicate ! g5us3 !y are ! ,diagnosis1 n ! basis ( ! ,diataxis3 & !y are always subject to be reject$1 & to h o!rs sub/itut$ = !m1 :5 !y violate ! natural connexion ( species :i* a m9ute & enl>g$ /udy discov]s4 ,x is1 !re=e1 no pro( t ,g5]a are n ,natural1 to say t _! artificial *>act]s are diff]5t 9 diff]5t sy/ems4 ,su* *>act]s are only diff]5t attempts to conf9e ! v>iety ( nature )9 ! limits ( def9ition4 ,nor is x suffici5t to say t ^! gr\ps !mselves are diff]5t 9 diff]5t writ]s2 t "s botani/s make g5]a :at o!rs make only species2 z ,p$icul>is1 ,rh9an?us1 ,euphrasia1 ,antirrh9um#afh4 ,?is discrepancy %[s only t ! natural arrangem5t is n yet completely kn[n1 ev5 9 ! small] gr\ps2 a conclusion to :i* we ne$ n refuse our ass5t4 ,b 9 #aai opposition to ^! negatives1 ! mann] 9 :i* ,g5]a h be5 e/abli%$ proves t !y are regulat$ by ! pr9ciple ( be+ natural1 & by t alone4 ,= !y are n =m$ accord+ to any priori rule4 ,! ,botani/ does n take any select$ or arbitr>y "p or p>ts ( ! plants1 & m>%al 8 g5]a accord+ to ! diff]5ces ( ?is "p4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! divisions ( g5]a are sometimes made by means ( ! fl[]2 sometimes by means ( ! fruit3 ! an!rs1 ! /am5s1 ! se$s1 ! p]ic>p1 & ! mo/ v>i$ features ( ^! p>ts1 are us$ 9 ! mo/ miscellane\s & unsy/ematic mann]4 ,l9nu has inde$ laid d[n a maxim t ! *>act]i/ic diff]5ces ( g5]a mu/ reside 9 ! fructification#agh3 b ,adanson has ju/ly rem>k$#ahh1 t an arbitr>y re/riction l ?is makes ! gr\ps artificial3 & t 9 "s families o!r *>act]s are m ess5tial ?an ^? ( ! fructification2 z ! leaves 9 ! families ( ,ap>9e & ,legum9os1 & ! disposition ( ! fl[]s 9 ,labiat4 ,& ,naturali/s are s f> f ?9k+ x suffici5t to di/ribute species into g5]a by arbitr>y m>ks1 t we f9d !m 9 _m cases lam5t+ ! abs5ce ( good natural m>ks3 z 9 ! families ( ,umbellif]1 :]e ,l9nu decl>$ t any "o :o c\ld f9d good *>act]s ( g5]a w\ld des]ve great admiration1 & :]e x is only ( late t good *>act]s h be5 discov]$ & ! arrangem5t settl$#aih by means pr9cipally ( ! ribs ( ! fruit#bjh4 ,note #afh3 ,adanson1 p4 cvi4 ,note #agh3 ,phil4 ,bot4 ,art4 #afb4 ,note #ahh3 ,adanson1 ,pref4 p4 cxx4 ,note #aih3 ,l9dley1 ,nat4 ,sy/4 p4 #e4 ,note #bjh3 ,9 l mann] we f9d ,cuvi] say+ ( ,rondelet t he has 'un s5tim5t trs vrai des g5res4' ,hi/4 ,i*?4 p4 #ci4 ,x is ?us cle> t ,g5]a are n e/abli%$ on any assum$ or preconceiv$ basis4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! pr9ciple :i* regulates botani/s :5 !y try to fix g5]a8 ,:at is ! arrangem5t :i* !y ?us wi% =1 )\t be+ able to hit ^u x8 ,:at is ! t5d5cy :i* ?us drives !m f ! corolla to ! an!rs1 f ! fl[] to ! fruit1 #abj f ! fructification to ! leaves8 ,x is pla9 t !y seek some?+1 n ( _! own devis+ & creat+2--n any?+ m]ely conv5tional & sy/ematic2 b some?+ :i* !y conceive to exi/ 9 ! relations ( ! plants !mselves2--some?+ :i* is )\t ! m9d1 n )92--9 nature1 n 9 art2--9 %ort1 a ,natural ,ord]4 ,?us ! regulative pr9ciple ( a ,g5us1 or ( any o!r natural gr\p is1 t x is1 or is suppos$ to be1 natural4 ,& by ref]5ce to ?is pr9ciple z our guide1 we %all be able to und]/& ! mean+ ( t indef9it5ess & indecision :i* we frequ5tly f9d 9 ! descriptions ( su* gr\ps1 & :i* mu/ appe> s /range & inconsi/5t to any "o :o does n suppose ^! descriptions to assume any deep] gr\nd ( connexion ?an an arbitr>y *oice ( ! botani/4 ,?us 9 ! family ( ! ,rose-tree1 we are told t ! ovules are v r>ely erect#bah1 ! /igmata are usually simple4 ,( :at use1 x might be ask$1 c su* loose acc\nts be8 ,to :i* ! answ] is1 t !y are n ins]t$ 9 ord] to di/+ui% ! species1 b 9 ord] to describe ! family1 & ! total relations ( ! ovules & ( ! /igmata ( ! family are bett] kn[n by ?is g5]al /atem5t4 ,a simil> obs]vation may be made ) reg>d to ! ,anomalies ( ea* gr\p1 :i* occur s commonly1 t ,mr4 ,l9dley1 9 8 ,introduction to ! ,natural ,sy/em ( ,botany1 makes ! ',anomalies' an article 9 ea* ,family4 ,?us1 "p ( ! "* ( ! ,rosace is t !y h alt]nate /ipulate leaves1 & t ! album5 is oblit]at$3 b yet 9 ,l[ea1 "o ( ! g5]a ( ?is family1 ! /ipul are abs5t2 & ! album5 is pres5t 9 ano!r1 ,neillia4 ,?is implies1 z we h already se51 t ! artificial "* 7or diagnosis z ,mr4 ,l9dley calls x7 is imp]fect4 ,x is1 ?\gh v ne>ly1 yet n exactly1 comm5surate ) ! natural gr\p3 & h5ce1 9 c]ta9 cases1 ?is "* is made to yield to ! g5]al weight ( natural aff9ities4 ,note #bah3 ,l9dley1 ,nat4 ,sy/4 p4 #ha4 #aba #i4 ,diff]5ce ( ,natural ,hi/ory & ,ma!matics4--,^! views1--( classes det]m9$ by *>act]s :i* _c be express$ 9 words1--( propositions :i* /ate1 n :at happ5s 9 all cases1 b only usually1--( p>ticul>s :i* are includ$ 9 a class ?\gh !y transgress ! def9ition ( x1 may v probably surprise ! read]4 ,!y are s contr>y to _m ( ! receiv$ op9ions respect+ ! use ( def9itions & ! nature ( sci5tific propositions1 t !y w probably appe> to _m p]sons highly illogical & unphilosophical4 ,b a disposition to su* a judgm5t arises 9 a great measure f ?is2--t ! ma!matical & ma!matico-physical sci5ces h1 9 a great degree1 det]m9$ m5's views ( ! g5]al nature & =m ( sci5tific tru?2 :ile ,natural ,hi/ory has n yet _h "t or opportunity to ex]t its due influ5ce ^u ! curr5t habits ( philosophiz+4 ,! app>5t indef9it5ess & inconsi/5cy ( ! classifications & def9itions ( ,natural ,hi/ory belongs1 9 a f> high] degree1 to all o!r except ma!matical speculations3 & ! modes 9 :i* approximations to exact di/9ctions & g5]al tru?s h be5 made 9 ,natural ,hi/ory1 may be wor?y our att5tion1 ev5 = ! light !y ?r[ ^u ! be/ modes ( pursu+ tru? ( all k9ds4 #aj4 ,natural ,gr\ps giv5 by ,type n by ,def9ition4--,! fur!r developm5t ( ?is sugge/ion mu/ be consid]$ h]eaft]4 ,b we may "h obs]ve1 t ?\gh 9 a ,natural ,gr\p ( objects a def9ition c no long] be ( any use z a regulative pr9ciple1 classes are n1 !re=e1 left q loose1 )\t any c]ta9 /&>d or guide4 ,! class is /eadily fix$1 ?\gh n precisely limit$2 x is giv51 ?\gh n circumscrib$2 x is det]m9$1 n by a b\nd>y l9e )\t1 b by a c5tral po9t )92 n by :at x /rictly excludes1 b by :at x em95tly includes2 by an example1 n by a precept2 9 %ort1 in/ead ( ,def9ition we h a ,type = our director4 ,a ,type is an example ( any class1 = in/ance1 a species ( a g5us1 :i* is consid]$ z em95tly #abb possess+ ! *>act]s ( ! class4 ,all ! species :i* h a great] aff9ity ) ?is ,type-species ?an ) any o!rs1 =m ! g5us1 & are rang$ ab\t x1 deviat+ f x 9 v>i\s directions & diff]5t degrees4 ,?us a g5us may consi/ ( sev]al species1 :i* approa* v ne> ! type1 & ( :i* ! claim to a place ) x is obvi\s2 :ile !re may be o!r species :i* /raggle fur!r f ?is c5tral knot1 & :i* yet are cle>ly m connect$ ) x ?an ) any o!r4 ,& ev5 if !re %\ld be "s species ( :i* ! place is dubi\s1 & :i* appe> to be equally b\nd by two g5]ic types1 x is easily se5 t ?is w\ld n de/roy ! reality ( ! g5]ic gr\ps1 any m ?an ! scatt]$ trees ( ! int]v5+ pla9 prev5t our speak+ intelligibly ( ! di/9ct =e/s ( two sep>ate hills4 ,! ,type-species ( e g5us1 ! ,type-g5us ( e family1 is1 !n1 "o :i* possesses all ! *>act]s & prop]ties ( ! g5us 9 a m>k$ & prom95t mann]4 ,! ,type ( ! ,rose family has alt]nate /ipulate leaves1 wants ! album51 has ! ovules n erect1 has ! /igmata simple1 & besides ^! features1 :i* di/+ui% x f ! exceptions or v>ieties ( its class1 x has ! features :i* make x prom95t 9 its class4 ,x is "o ( ^? :i* possess cle>ly sev]al lead+ attributes2 & ?us1 ?\gh we _c say ( any "o g5us t x mu/ be ! ,type ( ! family1 or ( any "o species t x mu/ be ! ,type ( ! g5us1 we are /ill n :olly to seek3 ! ,type mu/ be connect$ by _m aff9ities ) mo/ ( ! o!rs ( its gr\p2 x mu/ be ne> ! c5t] ( ! cr[d1 & n "o ( ! /raggl]s4 #aa4 ,x has already be5 repeat$ly /at$1 z ! great rule ( all classification1 t ! classification mu/ s]ve to ass]t g5]al propositions4 ,x may be ask$ :at propositions we are able to enunciate by means ( su* classifications z we are n[ treat+ (4 ,& ! answ] is1 t ! collect$ k ( ! *>act]s1 habits1 prop]ties1 organization1 & #abc functions ( ^! gr\ps & families1 z x is f\nd 9 ! be/ botanical works1 & z x exi/s 9 ! m9ds ( ! be/ botani/s1 exhibits to u ! propositions :i* con/itute ! sci5ce1 & to ! expression ( :i* ! classification is to s]ve4 ,all t is n /rictly def9ition1 t is1 all t is n artificial "*1 9 ! descriptions ( su* classes1 is a /atem5t ( tru?s1 m or less g5]al1 m or less precise1 b mak+ up1 toge!r1 ! positive k :i* con/itutes ! sci5ce4 ,z we h said1 ! consid]ation ( ! prop]ties ( plants 9 ord] to =m a sy/em ( classification1 has be5 t]m$ ,taxonomy1 or ! ,sy/ematick ( ,botany2 all ! p>ts ( ! descriptions1 :i*1 tak+ ! sy/em = grant$1 convey additional in=mation1 are t]m$ ! ,physiography ( ! sci5ce2 & ! same t]ms may be appli$ 9 ! o!r bran*es ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 #ab4 ,artificial & ,natural ,sy/ems4--,if ,i h succe$$ 9 mak+ x app>5t t an artificial sy/em ( *>act]s necess>ily implies natural classes :i* are n sev]$ by ! artificial m>ks1 we %all n[ be able to comp>e ! nature & objects ( ! ,artificial & ,natural ,sy/ems2 po9ts on :i* mu* has be5 writt5 9 rec5t times4 ,! ,artificial ,sy/em is "o :i* is1 or pr(esses to be1 entirely f\nd$ ^u m>ks select$ accord+ to ! condition :i* has be5 /at$1 ( n violat+ c]ta9 n>r[ natural gr\ps2 namely 9 ! ,l9nan sy/em1 ! natural g5]a ( plants4 ,! m>ks :i* =m ! basis ( ! sy/em1 be+ ?us select$1 are appli$ rigor\sly & univ]sally )\t any fur!r reg>d to any o!r *>act]s or indications ( aff9ity4 ,?us 9 ! ,l9nan sy/em1 :i* dep5ds ma9ly on ! numb] ( male organs or /am5s1 & on ! numb] ( female organs or /yles1 ! l>ge/ divisions1 or ! ,classes1 are arrang$ accord+ to ! numb] ( ! /am5s1 & are mon&ria1 di&ria1 tri&ria1 tetr&ria1 p5t&ria1 hex&ria1 & s on3 ! names be+ =m$ ( ! ,greek num]ical words1 & ( ! ^w :i* implies male4 ,& ! ,ord]s ( ea* ( ^! ,classes are #abd di/+ui%$ by ! numb] ( /yles1 & are call$ monogynia1 digynia1 trigynia1 & s on1 ! t]m9ation ( ^! words mean+ female4 ,& s f> z ?is num]ical division & subdivision g on1 ! sy/em is a rigor\s sy/em1 & /rictly artificial4 ,b ! condition t ! artificial sy/em %all leave c]ta9 natural aff9ities unt\*$1 makes x impossible to g ?r\gh ! vegetable k+dom by a me?od ( m]e num]ation ( /am5s & /yles4 ,! di/9ction ( fl[]s ) tw5ty & ) ?irty /am5s is n a fix$ di/9ction3 fl[]s ( "o & ! same k9d1 z roses1 h1 "s few] ?an ! =m]1 "s m ?an ! latt] numb]4 ,! ,artificial ,sy/em1 !re=e1 mu/ be modifi$4 ,& !re are v>i\s relations ( connexion & proportion among ! /am9a :i* are m p]man5t & important ?an _! m]e numb]4 ,?us fl[]s ) two long] & two %ort] /am5s are n plac$ 9 ! class tetr&ria1 b are made a sep>ate class didynamia2 ^? ) f\r long] & two %ort] are 9 l mann] tetradynamia1 n hex&ria2 ^? 9 9999:i* ! filam5ts are b\nd into two bundles are diadelphia4 ,all ^! & o!r classes are deviations f ! plan ( ! e>li] ,classes1 & are s f> defects ( ! artificial sy/em2 b !y are deviations requisite 9 ord] t ! sy/em may leave a basis ( natural gr\ps1 )\t :i* x w\ld n be a ,sy/em ( ,vegetables4 ,& z ! division is /ill f\nd$ on "s prop]ties ( ! /am5s1 x comb9es n ill ) t "p ( ! sy/em :i* dep5ds on ! numb] ( !m4 ,! ,classes fram$ 9 virtue ( ^! v>i\s consid]ations make up an ,artificial ,sy/em :i* is tol]ably coh]5t4 ',b s9ce ! ,artificial ,sy/em ?us reg>ds natural gr\ps1 9 :at does x diff] f a ,natural ,sy/em8' ,x diff]s 9 ?is3--,t ?\gh x all[s c]ta9 subord9ate natural gr\ps1 x m]ely all[s ^!1 & does n endeav\r to asc5d to any wid] natural gr\ps4 ,x takes all ! high] divisions ( its s*eme f its artificial *>act]s1 its /am5s & pi/ils1 )\t look+ to any natural aff9ities4 ,x #abe accepts natural ,g5]a1 b x does n seek natural ,families1 or ,ord]s1 or ,classes4 ,x assumes natural gr\ps1 b does n inve/igate any2 x =ms wid] & high] gr\ps1 b pr(esses to frame !m arbitr>ily4 ,b !n1 on ! o!r h&1 ! "q occurs1 ',?is be+ ! case1 :at c be ! use ( ! ,artificial ,sy/em8' ,if its *>act]s1 9 ! high] /ages ( classification1 be arbitr>y1 h[ c x lead u to ! natural relations ( plants8 ,& ! answ] is1 t x does s 9 virtue ( ! orig9al condition1 t !re %all be c]ta9 natural relations :i* ! artificial sy/em %all n transgress2 & t its use arises f ! facility ) :i* we c foll[ ! artificial arrangem5t z f> z x goes4 ,we c c\nt ! /am5s & pi/ils1 & ?us we "k ! ,class & ,ord] ( our plant2 & we h !n to discov] its ,g5us & ,species by means less symmetrical b m natural4 ,! ,artificial ,sy/em1 ?\gh arbitr>y 9 a c]ta9 degree1 br+s u to a ,class 9 :i* ! :ole ( ea* ,g5us is conta9$1 & !re we c f9d ! prop] ,g5us by a suitable me?od ( seek+4 ,no ,artificial ,sy/em c conduct u into ! extreme ( detail1 b x c place u 9 a situation :]e ! detail is )9 our rea*4 ,we _c f9d ! h\se ( a =eign fri5d by its latitude & longitude2 b we may be enabl$1 by a k ( ! latitude & longitude1 to f9d ! city 9 :i* he dwells1 or at lea/ ! isl&2 & we !n c rea* 8 abode by foll[+ ! road or explor+ ! locality4 ,! ,artificial ,sy/em is su* a me?od ( travell+ by latitude & longitude2 ! ,natural ,sy/em is t :i* is guid$ by a k ( ! c\ntry4 ,! ,natural ,sy/em1 !n1 is t :i* endeav\rs to arrange by ! natural aff9ities ( objects2 & m especially1 :i* attempts to asc5d f ! l[] natural gr\ps to ! high]2 z = example f g5]a to natural families1 ord]s1 & classes4 ,b z we h already h9t$1 ^! expressions ( natural aff9ities1 natural gr\ps1 & ! l1 :5 #abf consid]$ 9 ref]5ce to ! idea ( resemblance alone1 )\t /udy+ analogy or function1 are v vague & obscure4 ,we mu/ notice "s ( ! attempts :i* 7 made "u ! op]ation ( ?is imp]fect view ( ! subject4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,modes ( fram+ ,natural ,sy/ems4 #ac4 ,dec&olle#bbh di/+ui%es ! attempts at ,natural ,classifications into ?ree sorts3 ^? ( bl9d trial 7ttonnem5t71 ^? ( g5]al comp>ison1 & ^? ( subord9ation ( *>act]s4 ,! two =m] d n dep5d di/9ctly ^u any pr9ciple1 except resemblance2 ! ?ird ref]s u to o!r views1 & mu/ be consid]$ 9 a future *apt]4 ,note #bbh3 ,!or4 ,elem4 art #da4 ,me?od ( ,bl9d ,trial4--,! notion ( ! exi/5ce ( natural classes dep5d5t on ! g5]al resemblance ( plants1--( an aff9ity %[+ itself 9 diff]5t p>ts & v>i\s ways1--?\gh necess>ily some:at vague & obscure1 0 act$ ^u at an e>ly p]iod1 z we h se5 9 ! =mation ( g5]a2 & 0 enunciat$ 9 g5]al t]ms soon aft]4 ,?us ,magnolius#bch says t he disc]ns 9 plants an aff9ity1 by means ( :i* !y may be arrang$ 9 families3 ',yet x is impossible to obta9 f ! fructification alone ! ,*>act]s ( ^! families2 & ,i h !re=e *os5 ^? p>ts ( plants 9 :i* ! pr9cipal *>act]i/ic m>ks are f\nd1 z ! root1 ! /em1 ! fl[]1 ! se$4 ,9 "s plants !re is ev5 a c]ta9 resemblance2 an aff9ity :i* does n consi/ 9 ! p>ts consid]$ sep>ately1 b 9 _! totality2 an aff9ity :i* may be felt b n express$2 z we see 9 ! families ( agrimonies & c9quefoils1 :i* e botani/ w judge to be relat$1 ?\gh !y diff] by _! roots1 _! leaves1 _! fl[]s1 & _! se$s4' ,note #bch3 ,dec4 ,!or4 ,elem4 art4 #db4 ,petri ,magnoli1 ,prodromus ,hi/4 ,g54 ,plant4 #afhi4 #abg ,?is obscure feel+ ( a resemblance on ! :ole1 an aff9ity ( an indef9ite k9d1 appe>s fifty ye>s lat] 9 ,l9nu's attempts4 ',9 ! ,natural ,classification1' he says#bdh1 'no priori rule c be admitt$1 no "p ( ! fructification c be tak5 exclusively into consid]ation2 b only ! simple symmetry ( all its p>ts4' ,h5ce ?\gh he propos$ ,natural ,families1 & ev5 /at$ ! =mation ( su* ,families to be ! fir/ & la/ object ( all ,me?ods1 he nev] gave ! ,*>act]s ( ^? gr\ps1 or connect$ !m by any me?od4 ,he ev5 decl>$ x to be impossible to lay d[n su* a sy/em ( *>act]s4 ,?is p]suasion 0 ! result ( 8 hav+ refus$ to admit into 8 m9d any ,idea m pr(\nd ?an t notion ( ,resemblance ( :i* he _h made s mu* & su* successful use2 he w\ld n attempt to unravel ! ,ideas ( ,symmetry & ( ,function on :i* ! cle> e/abli%m5t ( natural relations mu/ dep5d4 ,he ev5 despis$ ! /udy ( ! inn] organization ( plants2 & reckon$#beh ! ,anatomici1 :o /udi$ ! anatomy & physiology ( plants & ! laws ( vegetation1 among ! ,botanophili1 ! m]e amateurs ( 8 sci5ce4 ,note #bdh3 ,dec4 ,!or4 ,elem4 art #db4 ,note #beh3 ,phil4 ,bot4 s4 #dd4 ,! same notion ( g5]al resemblance & aff9ity1 accompani$ ) ! same vagu5ess1 is to be f\nd 9 ! writ] :o lea/ p>ticipat$ 9 ! g5]al admiration ( ,l9nu1 ,buffon4 ,?\gh x 0 9 a great measure 8 love ( high] views :i* made him dislike :at he consid]$ ! p$antry ( ! ,sw$i% s*ool1 he does n seem to h obta9$ a cle>] sight ( ! pr9ciple ( ! natural me?od ?an 8 rival1 except t he did n re/rict 8 ,*>act]s to ! fructification4 ,?+s mu/ be arrang$ by _! resemblances & diff]5ces1 7he says 9 #agejbfh17 'b ! resemblances & diff]5ces mu/ be tak5 n f "o "p b f ! :ole2 & we mu/ att5d to ! =m1 ! size1 ! habit1 ! numb] & position ( ! p>ts1 ev5 ! sub/ance #abh ( ! "p2 & we mu/ make use ( ^! elem5ts 9 great] or small] numb]1 z we h ne$4' ,note #bfh3 ,adanson1 p4 clvi4 ,buffon1 ,hi/4 ,nat4 t4 i4 p4 #ba4 #ad4 ,me?od ( ,g5]al ,comp>ison4--,a c\ntryman ( ,buffon1 :o %>$ ) him 8 depreciat+ e/imate ( ! ,l9nan sy/em1 & 8 wi% to f\nd a natural sy/em ^u a broad] basis1 0 ,adanson2 & he inv5t$ an +5i\s me?od ( app>5tly avoid+ ! vagu5ess ( ! practice ( foll[+ ! g5]al feel+ ( resemblance4 ,?is me?od consi/$ 9 mak+ _m ,artificial ,sy/ems1 9 ea* ( :i* plants 7 arrang$ by "s "o "p2 & !n collect+ ^? plants :i* came ne> ea* o!r 9 ! greate/ numb] ( ^? ,artificial ,sy/ems1 z plants naturally ! mo/ relat$4 ,adanson gives an acc\nt#bgh ( ! mann] 9 :i* ?is sy/em arose 9 8 m9d4 ,he _h gone to ,s5egal1 animat$ by an int5se zeal = natural hi/ory2 & !re1 amid ! luxuriant vegetation ( ! torrid zone1 he f\nd t ! me?ods ( ,l9nu & ,t\rne=t fail$ him altoge!r z means ( arrang+ 8 new botanical treasures4 ,he 0 driv5 to seek a new sy/em4 ',= ?is purpose1' he says1 ',i exam9$ plants 9 all _! p>ts1 )\t omitt+ any1 f ! roots to ! embryo1 ! fold+ ( ! leaves 9 ! bud1 _! mode ( %ea?+#bhh1 ! situation & fold+ ( ! embryo & ( its radicle 9 ! se$1 relatively to ! fruit2 9 %ort1 a numb] ( p>ticul>s :i* few botani/s notice4 ,i made 9 ! fir/ place a complete description ( ea* plant1 putt+ ea* ( its p>ts 9 sep>ate articles1 9 all its details2 :5 new species occurr$ ,i put d[n ! po9ts 9 :i* !y diff]$1 omitt+ ^? 9 :i* !y agre$4 ,by means ( ! aggregate ( ^! comp>ative descriptions1 ,i p]ceiv$ t plants arrang$ !mselves into classes or families :i* c\ld n be artificial or arbitr>y1 n be+ f\nd$ ^u "o or two p>ts1 :i* might *ange at c]ta9 limits1 b on all ! p>ts2 s t ! disproportion ( "o ( ^! p>ts 0 correct$ & balanc$ by ! introduction ( ano!r4' ,?us ! pr9ciple ( ,resemblance #abi 0 to suffice = ! g5]al arrangem5t1 n by means ( a new pr9ciple1 z ,symmetry or ,organization1 :i* %\ld regulate its application1 b by a num]ation ( ! peculi>ities 9 :i* ! resemblance consi/$4 ,note #bgh3 ,pref4 p4 clvii4 ,note #bhh3 ',leur manire de s'enga9]4' ,! lab\r :i* ,adanson und]w5t 9 ! execution ( ?is ?\ght 0 imm5se4 ,by tak+ ea* ,organ1 & consid]+ its situation1 figure1 numb]1 c41 he fram$ sixty-five ,artificial ,sy/ems2 & collect$ 8 ,natural ,families by a num]ical comb9ation ( ^!4 ,= example1 8 sixty-fif? ,artificial ,sy/em#bih is t :i* dep5ds ^u ! situation ( ! ,ov>y ) reg>d to ! ,fl[]2 accord+ to ?is sy/em he frames t5 ,artificial ,classes1 includ+ n9ety-?ree ,sections3 & ( ^! ,sections ! result+ ,natural ,arrangem5t reta9s ?irty-five1 above "o-?ird3 ! same e/imate is appli$ 9 o!r cases4 ,note #bih3 ,adanson1 ,pref4 p4 cccxii4 ,b ?is attempt to make ,numb] supply ! defects :i* ! vague notion ( ,resemblance introduces1 h[ev] +5i\s1 mu/ end 9 failure4 ,=1 z ,dec&olle obs]ves#cjh1 x supposes t we "k1 n only all ! ,organs ( plants1 b all ! po9ts ( view 9 :i* x is possible to consid] !m2 & ev5 if ?is assumption 7 true1 :i* x is n1 & mu/ long be v f> f be+1 ! pr9ciple is altoge!r vici\s2 = x supposes t all ^! po9ts ( view1 & all ! result+ artificial sy/ems are ( equal importance3--a supposition manife/ly errone\s4 ,we are ?us l$ back to ! consid]ation ( ! ,relative ,importance ( ,organs & _! qualities1 z a basis = ! classification ( plants1 :i* no ,artificial ,me?od c sup]s$e2 & ?us we f9d ! necessity ( att5d+ to some?+ besides m]e ext]nal & deta*$ ,resemblance4 ,! me?od ( ,g5]al ,comp>ison _c1 any m ?an ! me?od ( ,bl9d ,trial1 lead u1 ) any c]ta9ty or cle>ness1 to ! ,natural ,me?od4 ,adanson's ,families are held by ! be/ botani/s to be1 = ! great] "p1 ,natural2 b 8 hypo!ses are unf\nd$2 & 8 success is #acj probably m due to ! dim feel+ ( ,aff9ity1 by :i* he 0 unconsci\sly guid$1 ?an to ! help he d]iv$ f 8 num]ical processes4 ,note #cjh3 ,dec4 ,!or4 ,elem4 p4 #fg4 ,9 a succe$+ *apt] ,i %all treat ( t ,natural ,aff9ity on :i* a ,natural ,sy/em mu/ really be f\nd$4 ,b be=e proce$+ to ?is high] subject1 we mu/ say a few words on "s ( ! o!r p>ts ( ! philosophy ( ,natural ,hi/ory1--! ,gradation ( ,gr\ps1 ! ,nom5clature1 ! ,diagnosis1 & ! application ( ! me?ods to o!r subjects4 ,,sect4 ,v4--,gradation ( ,gr\ps4 #ae4 ,x has be5 already notic$ 7la/ *apt]17 t ev5 t vague application ( ! idea ( resemblance :i* gives rise to ! t]ms ( common language1 introduces a subord9ation ( classes1 z man1 animal1 body1 sub/ance4 ,su* a subord9ation appe>s 9 a m precise =m :5 we employ ?is idea 9 a sci5tific mann] z we d 9 ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,we h !n a s]ies ( divisions1 ea* inclusive ( ! l[] ones1 :i* are express$ by v>i\s metaphors 9 diff]5t writ]s4 ,?us "s h gone z f> z eight t]ms ( ! s]ies#cah1 & h tak51 = ! mo/ "p1 milit>y names = !m2 z ,ho/s1 ,legions1 ,phalanxes1 ,c5turies1 ,cohorts1 ,sections1 ,g5]a1 ,species4 ,b ! mo/ receiv$ s]ies is ,classes1 ,ord]s1 ,g5]a1 & ,species2 9 :i*1 h[ev]1 we (t5 h o!r t]ms int]polat$1 z ,sub-g5]a1 or ,sections ( g5]a4 ,! expressions ,family & ,tribe1 are commonly appropriat$ to natural gr\ps2 & we speak ( ! ,vegetable1 ,animal1 ,m9]al ,k+dom2 b ! o!r metaphors ( ,prov9ces1 ,di/ricts1 c41 :i* ?is sugge/s1 h n be5 commonly us$#cbh4 ,note #cah3 ,adanson1 p4 cvi4 ,note #cbh3 ,sub-,k+dom has rec5tly be5 employ$ by "s naturali/s4 ,x w ( c\rse be und]/ood t ea* asc5d+ /ep ( classification is d$uc$ by ! same process f ! "o bel[4 ,a ,g5us is a collection ( ,species :i* resemble ea* o!r m ?an !y #aca resemble o!r species2 an ,ord] is a collection ( ,g5]a hav+1 9 l mann]1 ! fir/ degree ( resemblance1 & s on4 ,h[ close or h[ wide ! ,degrees ( ,resemblance are1 mu/ dep5d ^u ! nature ( ! objects comp>$1 & _c possibly be prescrib$ be=eh&4 ,h5ce ! same t]m1 ,class & ,ord] = in/ance1 may imply1 9 diff]5t prov9ces ( nature1 v diff]5t degrees ( resemblance4 ,! ,classes ( ,animals are ,insects1 ,birds1 ,fi%1 ,bea/s1 c4 ,! ,ord]s ( ,bea/s are ,rum9ants1 ,t>digrades1 ,plantigrades1 c4 ,! two ,classes ( ,plants 7accord+ to ! ,natural ,ord]#cch7 are ,vascul> & ,cellul>1 ! latt] hav+ nei!r sexes1 fl[]s1 nor spiral vessels4 ,! ,vascul> ,plants are divid$ into ,ord]s1 z ,umbellif]1 ,ranunculace1 c42 b betwe5 ?is ,class & its ,ord]s are int]pos$ two o!r /eps3--two ,sub-classes1 ,dicotyl$on\s & ,monocotyl$on\s1 & two ,tribes ( ea*3 ,angiosp]mi1 ,gymnosp]mi ( ! fir/2 & ,petaloide1 ,glumaci ( ! second4 ,su* int]polations are modifications ( ! g5]al =mula ( subord9ation1 = ! purpose ( accommodat+ x to ! mo/ prom95t natural aff9ities4 ,note #cch3 ,l9dley4 #af4 ,species4--,z we h already se5 9 trac+ ! pr9ciples ( ! ,natural ,me?od1 :5 by ! intimate /udy ( plants we seek to give fixity & def9it5ess to ! notion ( resemblance & aff9ity on :i* all ^! divisions dep5d1 we are l$ to ! /udy ( ,organization & ,analogy4 ,b we make a ref]5ce to physiological conditions ev5 f ! fir/1 ) reg>d to ! l[e/ /ep ( our arrangem5t1 ! ,species2 = we consid] x a pro( ( ! impropriety ( sep>at+ two ,species1 if x be %[n t !y c by any c\rse ( propagation1 culture1 & treatm5t1 ! "o pass into ! o!r4 ,x is 9 ?is way1 = example1 t x has be5 suppos$ to be e/abli%$ t ! common ,primrose1 ,oxlip1 ,polyan?us1 & ,c[slip1 are all ! same species4 ,plants :i* ?us1 9 virtue ( ext]nal circum/ances1 z soil1 #acb exposure1 climate1 exhibit diff]5ces :i* may disappe> by *ang+ ! circum/ances1 are call$ ,v>ieties ( ! species4 ,& ?us we _c say t a ,species is a collection ( individuals :i* possess ! ,fir/ ,degree ( ,resemblance2 = x is cle> t a primrose resembles ano!r primrose m ?an x does a c[slip2 b ?is resemblance only con/itutes a ,v>iety4 ,& we f9d t we mu/ necess>ily include 9 our conception ( ,species1 ! notion ( propagation f ! same /ock4 ,& ?us a ,species has be5 well def9$#cdh3 ',! collection ( ! individuals desc5d$ f "o ano!r1 or f common p>5ts1 & ( ^? :i* resemble ^! z mu* z ^! resemble ea* o!r4' ,& ?us ! sexual doctr9e ( plants1 or r ! consid]ation ( !m z ?+s :i* propagate _! k9d1 7:e!r by se$1 %oot1 or 9 any o!r way17 is at ! basis ( our classifications4 ,note #cdh3 ,cuv4 ,rgne ,animal1 p4 #ai4 #ag4 ,! ,fir/ p]man5t ,degree ( ,resemblance among organiz$ be+s is ?us t :i* dep5ds on ?is relation ( g5]ation1 & we might expect t ! gr\ps :i* are connect$ by ?is relation w\ld d]ive _! names f ! notion ( g5]ation4 ,x is curi\s t bo? 9 ,greek & ,lat9 languages & 9 our own1 ! words :i* h ?is orig9 71 g5us1 k9d17 d n1 9 ! phraseology ( sci5ce at lea/1 d5ote ! ne>e/ degree ( relation%ip1 b h o!r t]ms subord9ate to !m1 :i* appe> etymologically to indicate a m]e resemblance ( appe>ance 71 species1 sort72 & ^! latt] t]ms are appropriat$ to ! gr\ps result+ f propagation4 ,probably ! reason ( ?is is1 t ! =m] t]ms 7g5us1 c47 _h be5 appli$ s widely & loosely be=e ! sci5tific fixation ( t]ms1 t to conf9e !m to :at we call species w\ld h be5 to re/rict !m 9 a mann] too unusual to be conv5i5t4 #ah4 ,v>ieties4 ,races4--,! ,species1 z we h said1 is ! collection ( individuals :i* resemble ea* o!r z mu* z d ! (fspr+ ( a common #acc /ock4 ,b )9 ! limits ( ?is b\nd>y1 !re are (t5 obs]vable diff]5ces p]man5t en\gh to attract our notice1 ?\gh capable ( be+ oblit]at$ by mixture 9 ! c\rse ( g5]ation4 ,su* diff]5t gr\ps are call$ ,v>ieties4 ,?us ! ,primrose & ,c[slip1 z has be5 /at$ above1 are f\nd to be v>ieties ( ! same plant2 ! ,poodle & ! ,greyh\nd are well m>k$ v>ieties ( ! species dog4 ,su* diff]5ces are h]$it>y1 & x may be long d\btful :e!r su* h]$it>y diff]5ces are v>ieties only1 or diff]5t species4 ,9 su* cases ! t]m ,race has be5 appli$4 ,,sect4 ,,vi4--,nom5clature4 #ai4 ,! ,nom5clature ( any bran* ( ,natural ,hi/ory is ! collection ( names ( all its species2 :i*1 :5 !y become extremely num]\s1 requires "s artifice to make x possible to recollect or apply !m4 ,! kn[n species ( plants1 = example1 7 #aj1jjj at ! "t ( ,l9nu1 & are n[ probably #fj1jjj4 ,x w\ld be useless to endeav\r to frame & employ sep>ate names = ea* ( ^! species4 ,! division ( ! objects into a subord9at$ sy/em ( classification enables u to introduce a ,nom5clature :i* does n require ?is enorm\s numb] ( names4 ,! artifice employ$ to avoid ?is inconv5i5ce is to "n a ,species by means ( two 7or x might be m7 /eps ( ! successive division4 ,?us 9 ,botany1 ea* ( ! g5]a has its "n1 & ! species are m>k$ by ! addition ( "s epi!t to ! "n ( ! g5us4 ,9 ?is mann] ab\t #a1gjj g5]ic names1 ) a mod]ate numb] ( specific names1 7 f\nd by ,l9nu suffici5t to designate ) precision all ! species ( vegetables kn[n at 8 "t4 ,& ?is ,b9>y ,me?od ( ,nom5clature has be5 f\nd s conv5i5t t x has be5 univ]sally adopt$ 9 e o!r dep>tm5t ( ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( organiz$ be+s4 ,_m o!r modes ( ,nom5clature h be5 tri$1 b no o!r has at all tak5 root4 ,l9nu himself #acd appe>s at fir/ to h int5d$ m>k+ ea* species by ! ,g5]ic ,"n accompani$ by a *>act]i/ic ,descriptive ,phrase2 & to h propos$ ! employm5t ( a trivial ,specific ,"n1 z he t]m$ x1 only z a me?od ( occasional conv5i5ce4 ,! use ( ^! trivial names1 has1 h[ev]1 become univ]sal1 z we h said1 & is by _m p]sons consid]$ ! greate/ improvem5t introduc$ at ! ,l9nan re=m4 ,bo? ,l9nu & o!r writ]s 7z ,adanson7 h giv5 _m maxims ) a view ( regulat+ ! selection ( g5]ic & specific names4 ,! maxims ( ,l9nu 7 int5d$ z mu* z possible to exclude b>b>ism & confusion1 & h1 ^u ! :ole1 be5 g5]ally adopt$2 ?\gh _m ( !m 7 object$ to by 8 contempor>ies 7,adanson & o!rs#ceh71 z caprici\s or unnecess>y innovations4 ,_m ( ! names1 introduc$ by ,l9nu1 c]ta9ly appe> fanciful en\gh3 ?us he gives ! "n ( ,bauh9ia to a plant ) leaves 9 pairs1 because ! ,bauh9s 7 a pair ( bro!rs2 ,bani/]ia is ! "n ( a climb+ plant1 9 hon\r ( ,bani/]1 :o travell$ among m\nta9s4 ,b su* names1 once e/abli%$ by adequate au?ority1 lose all _! inconv5i5ce1 & easily become p]man5t2 & h5ce ! reasonabl5ess ( ! ,l9nan rule#cfh1 t z su* a p]petuation ( ! names ( p]sons by ! names ( plants is ! only hon\r botani/s h to be/[1 x ought to be us$ ) c>e & caution4 ,note #ceh3 ,pp4 cxxix4 clxxii4 ,note #cfh3 ,phil ,bot4 s4 #bci4 ,! g5]ic "n mu/1 z ,l9nu says1 be fix$#cgh be=e we attempt to =m a specific "n2 '! latt] )\t ! =m] is l ! clapp] )\t ! bell4' ,! "n ( ! g5us be+ e/abli%$1 ! species may be m>k$ by add+ to x 'a s+le ^w tak5 at w f any qu>t]2' t is1 n involv+ a description or any ess5tial prop]ty ( ! plant1 b a casual or arbitr>y appellation#chh4 ,?us ! #ace v>i\s species ( ,hi]acium#cih are ,hi]acium ,alp9um1 ,h4 ,hall]i1 ,h4 ,pilosella1 ,h4 dubium1 ,h4 murorum1 c4 :]e we see h[ diff]5t may be ! k9d ( orig9 ( ! words4 ,note #cgh3 ,ib4 s4 #bbb4 ,note #chh3 ,ib4 s4 #bfj4 ,note #cih3 ,hook]1 ,fl4 ,scot4 #bbh4 ,attempts h be5 made at v>i\s times to =m ! "n ( species f ^? ( g5]a 9 "s m symmetrical mann]4 ,?us "s h numb]$ ! species ( g5us1 #a1 #b1 #c1 c42 b ?is me?od is liable to ! inconv5i5ces1 fir/1 t x (f]s no?+ = ! memory to take hold (2 & second1 t if a new species int]m$iate betwe5 #a & #b1 #b & #c1 c41 be discov]$1 x _c be put 9 its place4 ,x has also be5 propos$ to m>k ! species by alt]+ ! t]m9ation ( ! g5us4 ,?us ,adanson#djh1 d5ot+ a g5us by ! "n ,fonna 7,ly*nidea71 conceiv$ he might m>k five ( its species by alt]+ ! la/ v[el1 ,fonna1 ,fonna-e1 ,fonna-i1 ,fonna-o1 ,fonna-u2 !n o!rs by ,fonna-ha1 ,fonna-ka1 & s on4 ,?is c\rse w\ld be liable to ! same evils :i* h be5 notic$ z belong+ to ! num]ical me?od4 ,note #djh3 ,pref4 clxxvi4 ,! names ( plants 7& ! same is true ( animals7 h 9 common practice be5 b9>y only1 consi/+ ( a g5]ic & a specific "n4 ,! ,class & ,ord] h n be5 admitt$ to =m "p ( ! appellation ( ! species4 ,inde$ x is easy to see t a "n :i* mu/ be id5tical 9 s _m in/ances z t ( an ,ord] w\ld be1 w\ld be felt z sup]flu\s & burd5some4 ,accord+ly1 ,l9nu makes x a precept#dah1 t ! "n ( ! ,class & ! ,ord] mu/ n be express$ b und]/ood3 & h5ce1 he says1 ,roy51 :o took ,lilium = ! "n ( a ,class1 rightly reject$ x z a g5]ic "n1 & sub/itut$ ,lirium1 ) ! ,greek t]m9ation4 ,note #dah3 ,phil4 ,bot4 s4 #bae4 ,yet we mu/ n too p]emptorily assume su* maxims z ^! to be univ]sal = all classificatory sci5ces4 ,x is v possible t x may be f\nd advisable to use ?ree t]ms1 t ( ord]1 g5us & #acf species1 9 designat+ m9]als1 z is done 9 ,mohs's nom5clature2 = example1 ,rhomboh$ral ,calc ,haloide1 ,p>atom\s ,hal ,b>yte4 ,x is possible also t x may be f\nd useful 9 ! same sci5ce to m>k "s ( ! /eps ( classification by ! t]m9ation4 ,?us x has be5 propos$ to conf9e ! t]m9ation ite to ! ,ord] ,silicides ( ,naumann1 z ,apophyllite1 ,/ilbite1 ,leucite1 c41 & to use names ( diff]5t =m 9 o!r ord]s1 z ,talc ,sp> = ,br5n]ite1 ,pyramidal ,titanium ,oxide = ,octah$rite4 ,"s su* me?od appe>s to be ! mo/ likely to give u a tol]able m9]alogical nom5clature4 ,,sect4 ,,vii4--,diagnosis4 #bj4 ,g]man ,naturali/s speak ( a "p ( ! g5]al me?od :i* !y call ! ,*>act]i/ik ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 & :i* is di/+ui%$ f ! ,sy/ematik ( ! sci5ce4 ,! ,sy/ematick arranges ! objects by means ( all _! resemblances1 ! ,*>act]i/ick enables u to detect _! place 9 ! arrangem5t by means ( a few ( _! *>act]s4 ,:at ^! *>act]s are to be1 mu/ be discov]$ by obs]vation ( ! gr\ps & divisions ( ! sy/em :5 !y are =m$4 ,to con/ruct a collection ( su* *>act]s z %all be cle> & fix$1 is a useful1 & g5]ally a difficult task2 = !re is usually no app>5t connexion betwe5 ! m>ks :i* are us$ 9 discrim9at+ ! gr\ps1 & ! nature ( ! gr\ps !mselves4 ,!y are assum$ only because ! naturali/1 ext5sively & exactly acqua9t$ ) ! gr\ps & ! prop]ties ( ! objects :i* compose !m1 sees1 by a survey ( ! field1 t ^! m>ks divide x prop]ly4 ,! ,*>act]i/ick has be5 t]m$ by "s ,engli% ,botani/s ! ,diagnosis ( plants2 a ^w :i* we may conv5i5tly adopt4 ,! ,diagnosis ( any g5us or species is diff]5t accord+ to ! sy/em we foll[4 ,?us 9 ! ,l9nan ,sy/em ! ,diagnosis ( ! ,rose is 9 ! fir/ place giv5 by its ,class & ,ord]3 x is #acg ,icos&r\s1 & ,polygyn\s2 & !n ! ,g5]ic ,di/9ction is t ! calyx is five-cleft1 ! tube urceolate1 includ+ _m hairy a*5ia1 ! receptacle vill\s#dbh4 ,9 ! ,natural ,sy/em ! ,rose-,tribe are di/+ui%$ z be+#dch ',polypetal\s dicotyl$ons1 ) lat]al /yles1 sup]ior simple ov>ia1 regul> p]igyn\s /am5s1 exalbum9\s def9ite se$s1 & alt]nate /ipulate leaves4' ,& ! true ,roses are fur!r di/+ui%$ by hav+ ',nuts1 num]\s1 hairy1 t]m9at$ by ! p]si/5t lat]al /yle & inclos$ )9 ! fle%y tube ( ! calyx1' c4 ,note #dbh3 ,l9dley1 ,nat4 ,sy/4 p4 #adi4 ,note #dch3 ,ib4 pp4 #ha1 #c4 ,x w be obs]v$ t 9 a rigor\s ,artificial ,sy/em ! ,sy/ematick co9cides ) ! ,*>act]i/ick2 ! ,diataxis ) ! ,diagnosis2 ! reason :y a plant is put 9 a division is id5tical ) ! mode by :i* x is kn[n to be 9 ! division4 ,! ,rose is 9 ! class icos&ria1 because x has _m /am5s ins]t$ 9 ! calyx2 & :5 we see su* a set ( /am5s we imm$iately "k ! class4 ,b ?is is n ! case ) ! ,diagnosis ( ,natural ,families4 ,?us ! g5]a ,lamium & ,galeopsis 7,dead ,nettle & ,hemp ,nettle7 are ea* =m$ into a sep>ate gr\p 9 virtue ( _! g5]al resemblances & diff]5ces1 & n because ! =m] has "o too? on ea* side ( ! l[] lip1 & ! latt] a not* 9 its upp] lip1 ?\gh !y are di/+ui%$ by ^! m>ks4 ,?us s f> z our ,sy/ems are natural1 7:i*1 z we h %[n1 all sy/ems to a c]ta9 ext5t mu/ be71 ! ,*>act]i/ick is di/9ct bo? f a ,natural & an ,artificial ,sy/em2 & is1 9 fact1 an ,artificial ,key to a ,natural ,sy/em4 ,z be+ ,artificial1 x takes z few *>act]s z possible2 z be+ ,natural1 its *>act]s are n select$ by any g5]al or prescrib$ rule1 b foll[ ! natural aff9ities4 ,! ,botani/s :o h made any /eps 9 ! =mation ( a natural me?od ( plants s9ce ,l9nu1 h all attempt$ to give a ,diagnosis correspond+ to ! ,diataxis ( _! me?od4 #ach ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,natural ,,hi/ory ,,me?od ,,to ,,m9]alogy4 #a4 ,,! philosophy ( ! ,sci5ces ( ,classification has _h great light ?r[n ^u x by discussions conc]n+ ! me?ods :i* are us$ 9 ,botany3 = t sci5ce is "o ( ! mo/ complete examples :i* c be conceiv$ ( ! consi/5t & successful application ( ! pr9ciples & ideas ( ,classification2 & ?is application has be5 made 9 g5]al )\t giv+ rise to any v />tl+ p>adoxes1 or disclos+ any insurm\ntable difficulties4 ,b ! discussions conc]n+ me?ods ( ,m9]alogical ,classification h be5 in/ructive = q a diff]5t reason3 !y h br\ght into view ! b\nd>ies & ! difficulties ( ! process ( ,classification2 & h pres5t$ examples 9 :i* e possible mode ( classify+ appe>$ to involve inextricable contradictions4 ,i w notice "s ( ! po9ts ( ?is k9d :i* dem& our att5tion1 ref]r+ to ! works publi%$ rec5tly by sev]al m9]alogi/s4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,m9]alogy we notic$ ! attempt made by ,mohs & o!r ,g]mans to apply to m9]als a me?od ( arrangem5t simil> to t :i* has be5 s successfully employ$ = plants4 ,! survey :i* we h n[ tak5 ( ! gr\nds ( t me?od w po9t out "s ( ! reasons ( ! v imp]fect success ( ?is attempt4 ,we h already said t ! ,t]m9ology ( ,m9]alogy 0 mat]ially re=m$ by ,w]n]2 & includ+ 9 ?is bran* ( ! subject 7z we mu/ d7 ! ,cry/allography ( lat] writ]s1 x may be consid]$ z to a great ext5t complete4 ,( ! attempts at a ,natural arrangem5t1 t ( ,mohs appe>s to proce$ by ! #aci me?od ( bl9d trial1 ! undef9able p]ception ( relation%ip1 by :i* ! e>lie/ attempts at a ,natural ,arrangem5t ( plants 7 made4 ,brei?aupt h[ev]1 has made 7?\gh ,i d n "k t he has publi%$7 an essay 9 a mode :i* corresponds v ne>ly to ,adanson's process ( multipli$ comp>isons4 ,hav+ asc]ta9$ ! specific gravity & h>dness ( all ! species ( m9]als1 he arrang$ !m 9 a table1 repres5t+ by two l9es at "r angles to ea* o!r ^! two num]ical quantities4 ,?us all m9]als 7 di/ribut$ accord+ to two co-ord9ates repres5t+ specific gravity & h>dness4 ,he conceiv$ t ! gr\ps :i* 7 ?us br\ght toge!r 7 natural gr\ps4 ,on bo? ^! me?ods1 & on all simil> ones1 we might obs]ve1 t 9 m9]als z 9 plants1 ! m]e g5]al notion ( ,lik5ess _c lead u to a real arrangem5t3 ?is notion requires to h precision & aim giv5 x by "s o!r relation2--by ! relation ( ,*emical ,composition 9 m9]als1 z by ! relation ( ,organic ,function 9 vegetables4 ,! physical & cry/allographical prop]ties ( m9]als mu/ be /udi$ ) ref]5ce to _! con/itution2 & !y mu/ be arrang$ into ,gr\ps :i* h "s common ,*emical ,"*1 be=e we c consid] any advance z made t[>ds a ,natural ,arrangem5t4 ,9 reality1 x happ5s 9 ,m9]alogy z x happ5$ 9 ,botany1 t ^? speculators are regulat$ by an obscure p]ception ( ?is ult]ior relation1 :o d n pr(ess to be regulat$ by x4 ,sev]al ( ! ,ord]s ( ,mohs h really great unity ( *emical "*1 & ?us h good evid5ce ( _! be+ really ,natural ,ord]s4 #b4 ,suppos+ ! ,diataxis ( m9]als ?us obta9$1 ,mohs attempt$ ! ,diagnosis2 & 8 ,*>act]i/ick ( ! ,m9]al ,k+dom1 publi%$ 9 ,dresd51 9 #ahbj1 0 ! fir/ public indication ( 8 hav+ con/ruct$ a sy/em4 ,f ! nature ( a ,*>act]i/ick1 x is necess>ily brief1 & )\t any o/5sible pr9ciple2 b its importance 0 duly appreciat$ by ! au?or's c\ntrym54 ,s9ce t #adj "t1 _m attempts h be5 made at improv$ arrangem5ts ( m9]als1 b none1 ,i ?9k1 7except p]haps t ( ,brei?aupt17 pr(ess+ to proce$ rigor\sly on ! pr9ciples ( ,natural ,hi/ory2--to arrange by means ( ext]nal *>act]s1 neglect+ altoge!r1 or r po/pon+1 ! consid]ation ( *emical prop]ties4 ,by relax+ f ?is rig\r1 h[ev]1 & by comb9+ physical & *emical consid]ations1 arrangem5ts h be5 obta9$ 7= example1 t ( ,naumann17 :i* appe> m likely ?an ! "o ( ,mohs to be approximations to an ultimate really natural sy/em4 ,naumann's ,classes are ,hydrolytes1 ,haloides1 ,silicides1 ,metal ,oxides1 ,metals1 ,sulphurides1 ,an?racides1 ) subdivisions ( ,ord]s1 z ,anhydr\s unmetallic ,silicides4 ,x may be rem>k$ t ! designations ( ^! are mo/ly *emical4 ,z we h obs]v$ already1 ,*emi/ry1 & ,m9]alogy 9 its l>ge/ s5se1 are ea* ! necess>y supplem5t ( ! o!r4 ,if ,*emi/ry furni% ! ,nom5clature1 ,m9]alogy mu/ supply ! ,physiography3 if ! ,arrangem5t be f\nd$ on ,ext]nal ,*>act]s & ! ,names be indep5d5t ( ,*emi/ry1 ! *emical composition ( ea* species is an important sci5tific ,tru? respect+ x4 #c4 ,! inquiry may actually occur1 :e!r any subord9ation ( gr\ps 9 ! m9]al k+dom has really be5 made out4 ,! anci5t *emical arrangem5ts1 = in/ance1 t ( ,hay1 ?\gh pr(ess+ to di/ribute m9]als accord+ to ,classes1 ,ord]s1 ,g5]a1 & ,species1 7 n only arbitr>y1 b inapplicable2 = ! fir/ po/ulate ( any me?od1 t ! species %\ld h con/ant *>act]s ( unity & diff]5ce1 0 n satisfi$4 ,x 0 n asc]ta9$ t c>bonate ( lime 0 really di/+ui%able 9 all cases f c>bonate ( magnesia1 or ( iron2 yet ^! species 7 plac$ 9 remote p>ts ( ! sy/em3 & ! above c>bonates made j s _m species2 al?\gh1 if !y 7 di/9ct f "o ano!r at all1 !y 7 fur!r di/+ui%able into additional species4 ,ev5 n[1 we may1 p]haps1 say t ! limits ( m9]alogical species1 & _! laws ( fixity1 are #ada n yet cle>ly se54 ,= ! discov]ies ( ! isomorph\s relations & ( ! optical prop]ties ( m9]als h r %[n u 9 :at direction ! object lies1 ?an l$ u to ! goal4 ,x is cle> t1 9 ! m9]al k+dom1 ! ,def9ition ( ,species1 borr[$ f ! laws ( ! cont9uation ( ! k9d1 :i* holds ?r\gh\t ! organic _w1 fails u altoge!r1 & mu/ be replac$ by "s o!r condition3 nor is x difficult to see t ! def9ite atomic relations ( ! *emical con/itu5ts1 & ! def9ite cry/all9e angle1 mu/ supply ! pr9ciples ( ! ,specific ,id5tity = m9]als4 ,yet ! exact limits ( def9it5ess 9 bo? ^! cases 7:5 we admit ! effect ( me*anical mixtures1 c47 h n yet be5 completely dis5tangl$4 ,moreov]1 any arbitr>y assumption 7z ! all[ance ( a c]ta9 p]-c5tage ( mixture1 or a c]ta9 small deviation 9 ! angle17 is altoge!r contr>y to ! philosophy ( ! ,natural ,sy/em1 & c lead to no /able views4 ,x is only by labori\s1 ext5sive1 & m9ute rese>*1 t we c hope to atta9 to any solid basis ( arrangem5t4 #d4 ,/ill1 ?\gh !re are _m d\bts respect+ m9]alogical species1 a l>ge numb] ( su* species are s f> fix$ t !y may be suppos$ capable ( be+ unit$ "u ! high] divisions ( a sy/em ) approximate tru?4 ,( ^! high] divisions1 ^? :i* h be5 t]m$ ,ord]s appe> to t5d to some?+ l a fix$ *emical "*4 ,?us ! ,haloids ( ,naumann1 & mo/ly ^? ( ,mohs1 are comb9ations ( an oxide ) an acid1 & ?us resemble ,salts1 :5ce _! "n4 ,! ,silicides conta9 mo/ ( ,mohs's ,spa?s3 & ! ,ord]s ,pyrites1 ,glance1 & ,bl5de1 are common to ,naumann & ,mohs2 be+ e/abli%$ by ! latt] on a diff]5ce ( ext]nal "*1 :i* diff]5ce is1 inde$1 v manife/2 & be+ includ$ by ! =m] 9 "o *emical ,class1 ,sulphurides4 ,! di/9ctions ( ,hydr\s & ,anhydr\s1 ,metallic & ,unmetallic1 are1 ( c\rse1 *emical di/9ctions1 b occur z ! diff]5ces ( ,ord]s 9 ,naumann's mix$ sy/em4 #adb ,we may obs]ve t "s ,fr5* writ]s1 foll[+ ,hay's la/ edition1 use1 in/ead ( metallic & unmetallic1 autopside metallic & het]opside metallic2 mean+ by ?is phraseology to ackn[l$ge ! discov]y t e>?s1 etc41 are metallic1 ?\gh !y d n appe> to be s1 :ile metals bo? are & appe> metallic4 ,b ?is seems to be a ref9em5t n only useless b absurd4 ,= :at is ga9$ by add+ ! ^w metallic1 :i* is common to all1 & !re=e makes no di/9ction8 ,if c]ta9 metals are di/+ui%$ by _! appe>+ to be metals1 ?is appe>ance is a reason = giv+ !m ! peculi> "n1 metals4 ,no?+ is ga9$ by fir/ br++ e>?s & metals toge!r1 & !n imm$iately sep>at+ !m aga9 by new & inconv5i5t names4 ,no proposition c be express$ bett] by call+ e>?s1 het]opside metallic sub/ances1 & !re=e su* nom5clature is to be reject$4 ,grant+1 !n1 t ! ,ord]s ( ! be/ rec5t m9]alogical sy/ems approximate to natural gr\ps1 we are l$ to ask :e!r ! same c be said ( ! ,g5]a ( ! ,natural ,hi/ory sy/ems1 su* z ^? ( ,mohs & ,brei?aupt4 ,& "h ,i mu/ confess t ,i see no pr9ciple 9 ^! ,g5]a2 ,i h fail$ to appreh5d ! conceptions by ! application ( :i* !y h be5 con/ruct$3 ,i %all !re=e n pass any fur!r judgm5t ^u !m4 ,! subord9ation ( ,m9]alogical ,species to ,ord]s is a manife/ ga9 to sci5ce3 9 ! int]position ( ,g5]a ,i see no?+ b a s\rce ( confusion4 #e4 ,9 ,m9]alogy1 z 9 o!r bran*es ( natural hi/ory1 a re=m$ arrangem5t ought to give rise to a re=m$ ,nom5clature2 & = ?is1 !re is m occasion at pres5t 9 ,m9]alogy ?an !re 0 9 ,botany at ! wor/ p]iod1 at lea/ z f> z ! ext5t ( ! subject all[s4 ,! *>act]s ( m9]als are mu* m dimly & unfrequ5tly develop$ ?an ^? ( plants2 h5ce arbitr>y *emical arrangem5ts1 :i* c\ld n lead to any natural gr\ps1 & !re=e n to any good names1 prevail$ till rec5tly2 & ?is /ate ( ?+s produc$ an an>*y #adc 9 :i* e man did :at seem$ "r 9 8 own eyes1--propos$ species )\t any asc]ta9$ di/9ction1 & )\t a ?\ght ( subord9ation1 & gave !m arbitr>y names2 & ?us ) only ab\t two or ?ree hundr$ kn[n species1 we h ?\s&s ^u ?\s&s ( names1 ( anomal\s =m & unc]ta9 application4 ,mohs has attempt$ to re=m ! ,nom5clature ( ! subject 9 a mode consi/5t ) 8 attempt to re=m ! ,sy/em4 ,9 do+ ?is1 he has fatally transgress$ a rule always insi/$ ^u by ! legislators ( ,botany1 ( alt]+ usual names z little z possible2 & 8 names are bo? s novel & s cumbr\s1 t !y appe> to h little *ance ( p]man5t curr5cy4 ,!y are1 p]haps1 m unwieldy ?an !y ne$ to be1 by ref]r+1 z we h said1 to ?ree ( ! /eps ( 8 classification1 ! ,species1 ,g5us1 & ,ord]4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 ass]t confid5tly1 f ! :ole analogy ( natural hi/ory1 t no good names c be f\nd :i* d n ref] to at lea/ two t]ms ( ! arrangem5t4 ,?is rule has be5 practically adopt$ to a great ext5t by ,naumann1 :o gives to mo/ ( 8 ,haloids ! "n ,sp>1 z ,calc sp>1 ,iron sp>1 c42 to all 8 ,oxides ! t]m9al ^w ,erz 7,ore72 & to ! species ( ! ord]s ,kies 7,pyrites71 ,glance1 & ,bl5de1 ^! names4 ,x has also be5 !oretically ass5t$ to by ,beudant1 :o proposes t we %\ld say silicate /ilbite1 silicate *abasie2 c>bonate calcaire1 c>bonate )]ite2 sulphate c\p]ose1 c4 ,"o great difficulty 9 ?is case w\ld arise f ! great numb] ( silicides2 x is n likely t any names w\ld obta9 a foot+ :i* tack$ ! t]m silicide to ano!r ^w = ea* ( ^! species4 ,! artifice :i* ,i h propos$1 9 ord] to obviate ?is difficulty1 is t we %\ld make ! names ( ! silicides1 & ^? alone1 end 9 ite or lite1 :i* a l>ge proportion ( !m d already4 ,by ?is & a few simil> contrivances1 we might1 ,i conceive1 )\t any inconv5i5t *ange1 introduce into ,m9]alogy a sy/ematic nom5clature4 #add #f4 ,i %all n[ proce$ to make a few rem>ks on a "w on ,m9]alogy m rec5t ?an ^? :i* ,i h above notic$1 & writt5 ) express ref]5ce to su* difficulties z ,i h be5 discuss+4 ,i allude to ! treatise ( ,m4 ,neck]1 ,le ,rgne ,m9]al ram5 aux ,me?ods d',hi/oire ,naturelle#ddh1 :i* also conta9s v>i\s diss]tations on ! ,philosophy ( ,classification 9 g5]al1 & its application to ,m9]alogy 9 p>ticul>4 ,note #ddh3 ,p>is1 #ahce4 ,m4 ,neck] rem>ks v ju/ly1 t ,m9]alogy1 z x has hi!rto be5 treat$1 diff]s f all o!r bran*es ( ,natural ,hi/ory 9 ?is3--t :ile x is inve/$ ) all ! =ms ( ! sci5ces ( classification1--,classes1 ,divisions1 ,g5]a1 & ! l1--! prop]ties ( ^? bodies to :i* ! m9]alogical /ud5t's att5tion is direct$ h no be>+ :atev] on ! classification4 ,a p]son1 he rem>ks#deh1 might be p]fectly well acqua9t$ ) all ! *>act]s ( m9]als :i* ,w]n] or ,hay exam9$ s c>efully1 & might yet be q unable to assign to any m9]al its place 9 ! divisions ( _! me?ods4 ,!re is#dfh a complete sep>ation betwe5 ! /udy ( m9]alogical *>act]s & ! recognition ( ! "n & sy/ematic place ( a m9]al4 ,^? :o "k m9]alogy well1 may "k m9]als ill1 or h>dly at all2 ! sy/emati/ may be 9 su* k va/ly inf]ior to ! m9]al-deal] or ! m9]4 ,9 ?is respect !re is a complete contra/ betwe5 ?is sci5ce & o!r classificatory sci5ces4 ,note #deh3 ,rgne ,m9]al1 p4 #c4 ,note #dfh3 ,ib4 p4 #h4 ,aga91 9 ! be/-kn[n sy/ems ( ,m9]alogy1 7z ^? ( ,w]n] & ,hay174 ! bodies :i* are gr\p$ toge!r z belong+ to ! same division1 h n1 z !y h 9 o!r classificatory sci5ces1 any resemblance4 ,! diff]5t memb]s ( ! l>g] classes are unit$ by ! common possession ( "s ab/ract prop]ty1--z1 t !y all conta9 iron4 ,?is is a prop]ty to :i* no common circum/ance 9 ! bodies !mselves corresponds4 ,:at is !re common to ! m9]als nam$ oxidul\s iron1 sulphuret #ade ( iron1 c>bonate ( iron1 sulphate ( iron1 except t !y all conta9 iron8 ,& :5 we h class$ ^! bodies toge!r1 :at g5]al ass]tion c we make conc]n+ !m1 except t :i* is ! gr\nd ( our classification1 t !y conta9 iron8 ,!y h no?+ 9 common ) iron or ) ea* o!r 9 any o!r way4 ,aga91 z ^! classes h no g5]al prop]ties1 all ! prop]ties are p>ticul> to ! species2 & ! descriptions ( ^! necess>ily become bo? t$i\sly long1 & inconv5i5tly insulat$4 #g4 ,^! inconv5i5ces arise f mak+ ,*emical ,composition ! basis ( ,m9]alogical ,classification )\t giv+ ,*emical ,analysis ! fir/ place among ,m9]al ,prop]ties4 ,%all we1 !n1 correct ?is omission1 s f> z x has affect$ m9]alogical sy/ems8 ,%all we tea* ! /ud5t ! *emical analysis ( m9]als1 & !n direct him to classify !m accord+ to ! results ( 8 analysis#dgh8 ,note #dgh3 ,rgne ,m9]al1 p4 #ah4 ,b :y %\ld we d ?is8 ,to :at purpose1 or on :at gr\nd1 d we arrange ! results ( *emical analysis accord+ to ! =ms & subord9ation ( natural hi/ory8 ,is n ,*emi/ry a sci5ce di/9ct f ,natural ,hi/ory8 ,are n ! sci5ces oppos$8 ,is n natural hi/ory conf9$ to organic bodies8 ,c m]e *emical elem5ts & _! comb9ations be1 ) any propriety or consi/5cy1 arrang$ into ,species1 ,g5]a1 & ,families8 ,:at is ! pr9ciple on :i* g5]a & species dep5d8 ,d n ,species imply ,individuals8 ,:at is an ,individual 9 ! case ( a *emical sub/ance8 #h4 ,we ?us f9d "s ( ! wide/ & deepe/ que/ions ( ! philosophy ( classification br\ght "u our consid]ation :5 we w\ld provide a me?od = ! classification ( m9]als4 ,! answ]s to ^! que/ions are giv5 by ,m4 ,neck]2 & ,i %all /ate "s ( 8 op9ions2 tak+ ! lib]ty ( add+ su* rem>ks z are sugge/$ by ref]r+ ! subject #adf to ^? pr9ciples :i* h already be5 e/abli%$ 9 ?is "w4 ,m4 ,neck] ass]ts#dhh t ! di/9ctions ( diff]5t ,sci5ces dep5d1 n on ! objects !y consid]1 b on ! diff]5t & indep5d5t po9ts ( view on :i* !y proce$4 ,ea* sci5ce has its logic1 t is1 its mode ( apply+ ! g5]al rules ( human reason to its own special case4 ,x has be5 said by "s#dih1 t 9 m9]als1 natural hi/ory & *emi/ry contemplate common objects1 & ?us =m a s+le sci5ce4 ,b d *emi/ry & natural hi/ory consid] m9]als 9 ! same po9t ( view8 ,note #dhh3 ,rgne ,m9]al1 p4 #bc4 ,note #dih3 ,ib4 p4 #bg4 ,! answ] is1 t !y d n4 ,physics & ,*emi/ry consid] ! prop]ties ( bodies 9 an ab/ract mann]2 z1 _! composition1 _! elem5ts1 _! mutual actions1 ) ! laws ( ^!2 _! =ces1 z attraction1 aff9ity2 all :i* objects are ab/ract ideas4 ,9 ^! cases we h no?+ to d ) bodies !mselves1 b z ! vehicles ( ! p[]s & prop]ties :i* we contemplate4 ,natural ,hi/ory1 on ! o!r h&1 has to d ) natural bodies3 _! prop]ties are n consid]$ ab/ract$ly1 b only z *>act]s4 ,if ! prop]ties are ab/ract$1 x is b = a mom5t4 ,natural hi/ory has to describe & class bodies z !y are4 ,all :i* _c be p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses1 belongs n to its doma91 z molecules1 atoms1 elem5ts4 ,natural hi/ory#ejh may h rec\rse to physics or *emi/ry 9 ord] to recognize ^? prop]ties ( bodies :i* s]ve z *>act]s2 b natural hi/ory is n1 on t acc\nt1 physics or *emi/ry4 ,classification is ! ess5tial bus9ess ( ! natural hi/orian#eah1 to :i* task *emi/ry & physics are only in/rum5tal1 & ! fur!r acc\nt ( prop]ties only complem5t>y4 ,note #ejh3 ,ib4 p4 #cg4 ,note #eah3 ,ib4 p4 #da4 ,x has be5 said1 9 support ( ! doctr9e t *emi/ry & m9]alogy are id5tical1 t *emi/ry does n neglect ext]nal *>act]s4 ',! *emi/ 9 #adg describ+ sulphur1 m5tions its col\r1 ta/e1 od\r1 h>dness1 transp>5ce1 cry/all9e =m1 specific gravity2 h[ does he !n diff] f ! m9]alogi/8' ,b to ?is x is repli$1 t ^! notices ( ! ext]nal *>act]s ( ?is or any sub/ance are introduc$ 9 *emi/ry m]ely z conv5i5t m>ks ( recognition2 :]eas !y are ess5tial 9 m9]alogy4 ,if we _h tak5 ! acc\nt giv5 ( sev]al sub/ances in/ead ( "o1 we %\ld h se5 t ! *emi/ & ! naturali/ consid] !m 9 ways altoge!r diff]5t4 ,! *emi/ w make x 8 bus9ess to discov] ! mutual action ( ! sub/ances2 he w comb9e !m1 =m new products1 det]m9e ! proportions ( ! elem5ts4 ,! m9]alogi/ w divide ! sub/ances into gr\ps accord+ to _! prop]ties1 & !n subdivide ^! gr\ps1 till he ref]s ea* sub/ance to its species4 ,ext]ior & physical *>act]s are m]ely accessory & subord9ate = ! *emi/2 *emi/ry is m]ely in/rum5tal = ! m9]alogi/4 ,?is view agrees ) t to :i* we h be5 l$ by our previ\s reason+s2 & may1 accord+ to our pr9ciples1 be express$ briefly by say+1 t ! ,idea :i* ,*emi/ry has to apply is ! ,idea ( ,elem5t>y ,composition1 :ile ,natural ,hi/ory applies ! ,idea ( ,graduat$ ,resemblances1 & ?us p]=ms ! task ( classification4 #i4 ,! "q occurs#ebh1 :e!r ,natural ,hi/ory c be appli$ to ,inorganic ,sub/ances8 ,& ! answ] to ?is "q is1 t x c be appli$1 if !re are su* ?+s z inorganic individuals1 s9ce ! resemblances & diff]5ces ) :i* natural hi/ory has to d are ! resemblances & diff]5ces ( individuals4 ,note #ebh3 ,rgne ,m9]al1 p4 #df4 ,:at is an ,individual8 ,x c]ta9ly is n t :i* is s simple t x _c be divid$4 ,individual animals are compos$ ( _m p>ts4 ,b if we exam9e1 we %all f9d t our ,idea ( an ,individual is1 t x is a :ole compos$ ( p>ts1 :i* #adh are n simil> to ! :ole1 & h n an indep5d5t exi/5ce1 :ile ! :ole has an indep5d5t exi/5ce & a def9ite =m#ech4 ,note #ech3 ,rgne ,m9]al1 p4 #eb4 ,:at !n is ! ,m9]alogical ,individual8 ,at fir/1 :ile m9]als 7 /udi$ = _! use1 ! mo/ preci\s ( ! sub/ances :i* !y conta9$ 0 look$ ^u z ! *>act]i/ic ( ! m9]al4 ,! smalle/ trace ( silv] made a m9]al an ore ( silv]4 ,?us =ms & prop]ties 7 disreg>d$1 & sub/ance 0 consid]$ z id5tical ) m9]al4 ,& h5ce#edh ,daub5ton refus$ to recognize species 9 ! m9]al k+dom1 because he recogniz$ no individuals4 ,he propos$ to call sorts :at we call species4 ,9 ?is way ( consid]+ m9]als1 !re are no individuals4 ,note #edh3 ,ib4 p4 #ed4 #aj4 ,b /ill ?is is n satisfactory3 = if we take a well-=m$ & di/9ct cry/al1 ?is cle>ly is an individual#eeh4 ,note #eeh3 ,ib4 p4 #ef4 ,x may be object$1 t ! cry/al is divisible 7accord+ to ! !ory ( cry/allography7 into small] solids2 t ^! small solids are really ! simple objects2 & t actual cry/als are =m$ by comb9ations ( ^! molecules accord+ to c]ta9 laws4 ,b1 z we h already said1 an individual is su*1 n because x _c be divid$1 b because x _c be divid$ into p>ts simil> to ! :ole4 ,z to ! division ( ! =m into its compon5t laws1 ?is is an ab/ract proce$+1 =eign to natural hi/ory#efh4 ,!re=e !re is s f> no?+ to prev5t a cry/al f be+ an individual4 ,note #efh3 ,ib4 p4 #eh4 #aa4 ,we _c 7,m4 ,neck] goes on to rem>k7 consid] ! ,integrant ,molecules z individuals4 ,^! are useful ab/ractions1 b ab/ractions only1 :i* we mu/ n deal ) z real objects4 ,hay himself w>ns u#egh t 8 doctr9e ( increm5ts is a purely ab/ract conception1 & t nature1 9 fact1 foll[s a diff]5t process4 ,accord+ly1 ,weiss & ,mohs express laws id5tical ) ^? ( ,hay1 )\t ev5 #adi speak+ ( molecules2 & ,wolla/on & ,davy h deem$ x probable t ! molecules are n polyh$rons1 b sph]es or sph]oids4 ,su* m]e creations ( ! m9d c nev] be treat$ z individuals4 ,if ! maxim ( natural hi/ory1--t ! ,species is a collection ( ,individuals--be appli$ s z to make ^? individuals m]e ab/ractions2 or if1 in/ead ( ,individuals1 we take su* an ab/raction z ,sub/ance or ,matt]1 ! c\rse ( natural hi/ory is altoge!r violat$4 ,& yet ?is err\r has hi!rto g5]ally prevail$2 & m9]alogi/s h classifi$1 n ?+s1 b ab/ract ideas#ehh4 ,note #egh3 ,ib4 p4 #fa4 ,note #ehh3 ,rgne ,m9]al1 p4 #fg4 #ab4 ,b x may be said#eih1 w n ! small solids obta9$ by ,cleavage bett] answ] ! idea ( individuals8 ,to ?is x is repli$1 t ^! small solids h no indep5d5t exi/5ce4 ,!y are only ! result ( a mode ( division4 ,!y are nev] f\nd sep>ate & indep5d5t4 ,! second>y =ms :i* !y compose are det]m9$ by v>i\s circum/ances 7! nature ( ! solution1 c472 & ! cleavage :i* produces ^! small solids is only "o result among _m1 f ! cry/all9e =ces#fjh4 ,note #eih3 ,ib4 p4 #fi4 ,note #fjh3 ,ib4 p4 #ga4 ,?us nei!r ,integrant ,molecules1 nor ,solids obta9$ by ,cleavage1 c be su* m9]alogical ,individuals z ! _s ( natural hi/ory requires4 ,h5ce x appe>s t we mu/ take ! real ,cry/als = ,individuals#fah4 ,note #fah3 ,ib4 p4 #gc4 #ac4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 reject cry/als 7g5]ally l>ge ones7 :i* are obvi\sly =m$ ( sev]al small] ones ( a simil> =m 7z occurs s (t5 9 qu>tz & calc sp>74 ,we mu/ also di/+ui% cases 9 :i* a l>ge regul> =m is compos$ ( small] b diff]5t regul> =ms 7z octah$rons ( fluor sp> made up ( cubes74 ,"h ! small compon5t =ms are ! individuals4 ,also we mu/ notice ! cases#fbh 9 :i* we h a natural cry/al1 simil> to ! prim>y =m4 ,"h ! face w %[ :e!r #aej ! body is a result obta9$ by cleavage or a natural individual4 ,note #fbh3 ,ib4 p4 #ge4 #ad4 ,x w be object$#fch1 t ! cry/all9e =m ought n to be made ! dom9ant "* 9 m9]alogy1 s9ce x r>ely occurs p]fect4 ,to ?is x is repli$1 t ev5 if ! application ( ! pr9ciple be difficult1 /ill x has be5 %[n to be ! only true pr9ciple1 & !re=e we h no alt]native4 ,b fur!r#fdh1 x is n true t amorph\s sub/ances are m num]\s ?an cry/als4 ,9 ,leonh>d's ,manual ( ,oryctognosy1 !re are #cgg m9]al sub/ances4 ,( ^!1 #bha h a cry/all9e /ructure1 & #if only h n be5 f\nd 9 a regul> =m4 ,note #fch3 ,rgne ,m9]al1 p4 #gi4 ,note #fdh3 ,ib4 p4 #hb4 ,aga91 ! #bha cry/all9e =ms h ea* its v>ieties1 "s ( :i* are cry/all9e1 & "s are n s4 ,n[ ! cry/all9e v>ieties am\nt to #adec1 & ! uncry/all9e to #ahf only4 ,?us m9]alogy1 accord+ to ! view ( x "h pres5t$1 has a suffici5tly wide field#feh4 ,note #feh3 ,ib4 p4 #hd4 #ae4 ,x w be object$#ffh1 t accord+ to ?is mode ( proce$+1 we mu/ reject f our sy/em all non-cry/all9e m9]als4 ,b we reply1 t if ! mass be compos$ ( cry/als1 ! size ( ! cry/als makes no diff]5ce4 ,n[ lamell> & o!r compact masses are v g5]ally gr\ps ( cry/als 9 v>i\s positions4 ,individuals mutilat$ & mix$ toge!r are n ! less individuals2 & !re=e su* masses may be treat$ z objects ( natural hi/ory4 ,note #ffh3 ,ib4 p4 #hf4 ,if we _c ref] all rocks to cry/all9e species1 ^? :i* elude our me?od may appe> z an app5dix1 correspond+ to ^? plants :i* botani/s call g5]a inc]t s$is#fgh4 ,note #fgh3 ,ib4 p4 #ia4 ,b ^! g5]a & species w (t5 be aft]w>ds remov$ into ! cry/all9e "p ( ! sy/em1 by be+ id5tifi$ ) cry/all9e species4 ,?us pyrope1 c41 h be5 ref]r$ to g>net1 & basalt1 #aea wacke1 c41 to comp\nd rocks4 ,?us ve9s ( ,dol]ite1 visibly compos$ ( two or ?ree elem5ts1 pass to an app>5tly simple /ate by becom+ f9e-gra9$#fhh4 ,note #fhh3 ,rgne ,m9]al1 p4 #ic4 #af4 ,f9ally#fih1 we h to ask1 are artificial cry/als to ent] into our classification8 ,m4 ,neck] answ]s1 ,no2 because !y are ! result ( art1 l mules1 me/izos1 hybrids1 & ! l4 ,note #fih3 ,ib4 p4 #ie4 #ag4 ,^u ^! op9ions1 we may obs]ve1 t !y appe> to be1 9 ! ma91 consi/5t ) ! s\nde/ philosophy4 ,t ea* natural cry/al is an individual1 is a doctr9e :i* is ! only basis ( ,m9]alogy z a ,natural ,hi/orical ,sci5ce2 yet ! imp]fections & confus$ unions ( cry/als make ?is pr9ciple difficult to apply4 ,p]haps x may be express$ 9 a m precise mann] by ref]r+ to ! cry/all9e =ces1 & to ! axes by :i* _! op]ation is det]m9$1 r ?an to ! ext]nal =m4 ,t portion ( a m9]al sub/ance is a m9]alogical individual :i* is det]m9$ by cry/all9e =ces act+ to ! same axes4 ,9 ?is way we avoid ! difficulty aris+ f ! abs5ce ( faces1 & enable ourselves to use ei!r cleavage1 or optical prop]ties1 or any o!rs1 z indications ( ! id5tity ( ! individual4 ,! individual ext5ds s f> z ! pol> =ces ext5d by :i* cry/all9e =m is det]m9$1 :e!r or n ^? =ces produce _! full effect1 namely1 a p]fectly circumscrib$ polyh$ron4 #ah4 ,!re is only "o mat]ial po9t on :i* our pr9ciples lead u to diff] f ,m4 ,neck]2--! propriety ( includ+ artificial cry/als 9 our m9]alogical classification4 ,to exclude !m1 z he does1 is a conclusion s entirely at v>iance ) ! :ole c\rse ( 8 own reason+s1 t x is difficult to conceive t he w\ld p]si/ 9 8 conclusion1 if 8 att5tion 7 drawn to ! "q m /eadily4 ,=1 z he ju/ly says#gjh1 ea* sci5ce has its appropriate doma91 det]m9$ by its peculi> po9t ( view4 ,n[ artificial & natural cry/als are consid]$ 9 ! same po9t ( view1 7namely1 ) ref]5ce to #aeb cry/all9e1 physical1 & optical prop]ties1 z subs]vi5t to classification17 & ought1 !re=e1 to belong to ! same sci5ce4 ,aga91 he says#gah1 t ,*emi/ry w\ld reject z useless all notice ( ! physical prop]ties & ext]nal *>act]s ( sub/ances1 if a special sci5ce 7 to take *>ge ( ! description & classification ( ^! products4 ,b su* a special sci5ce mu/ be ,m9]alogy2 = we _c well make "o sci5ce ( ! classification ( natural1 & ano!r ( t ( artificial sub/ances3 or if we d1 ! two sci5ces w be id5tical 9 me?od & pr9ciples1 & w ext5d ov] ea* o!r's b\nd>ies1 s t x w be nei!r useful nor possible to di/+ui% !m4 ,aga91 ,m4 ,neck]'s own reason+s on ! selection ( ! individual 9 m9]alogy are support$ by well *os5 examples#gbh2 b ^! examples are tak5 f artificial salts2 z1 = in/ance1 common salt cry/alliz+ 9 diff]5t mixtures4 ,aga91 ! analogy ( mules & me/izos1 z products ( art1 ) *emical comp\nds1 is n j4 ,*emical comp\nds correspond r to natural species1 propagat$ by man "u ! mo/ natural circum/ances1 9 ord] t he may /udy ! laws ( _! production#gch4 ,note #gjh3 ,ib4 p4 #bc4 ,note #gah3 ,rgne ,m9]al1 p4 #cf4 ,note #gbh3 ,ib4 p4 #ga4 ,note #gch3 ,we may rem>k t ,m4 ,neck]1 9 8 own arrangem5t ( m9]als1 ins]ts among 8 species ,iron & ,lead1 :i* d n occur ,native4 #ai4 ,b ! decisive argum5t aga9/ ! sep>ation ( natural & artificial cry/als 9 our s*emes ( classification is1 t we _c make su* a sep>ation4 ,sub/ances :i* 7 long kn[n only z ! products ( ! laboratory1 are (t5 discov]$1 aft] a "t1 9 natural deposits4 ,are ! cry/als :i* are f\nd 9 a =gott5 retort or solution to be consid]$ z belong+ to a diff]5t sci5ce f ^? :i* occur 9 a des]t$ m9e8 ,& are ! cry/als :i* are produc$ :]e man has turn$ a /ream ( wat] or air out ( its c\rse1 to be sep>at$ f natural cry/als1 :5 ! composition1 gr[?1 & prop]ties1 are exactly ! same 9 bo?8 ,& aga93 ,h[ _m natural cry/als c we already produce by #aec syn!sis6 ,h[ _m m may we hope to imitate h]eaft]6 ,m4 ,neck] himself /ates#gdh1 t ,mits*]li* f\nd1 9 ! scori ( ! m9es ( ,sw$5 & ,g]many1 artificial m9]als hav+ ! same composition & ! same cry/all9e =m ) natural m9]als3 z silicates ( iron1 lime1 & magnesia1 agree+ ) ,p]idot2 bisilicate ( iron1 lime1 & magnesia1 agree+ ) ,pyrox5e2 r$ oxide ( copp]2 oxide ( z9c2 protoxide ( iron 7f] oxydul72 sulphurets ( iron1 z9c1 lead2 ars5iuret ( nickel2 black mica4 ,^! 7 accid5tal results ( fusion4 ,b ,m4 ,b]?i]1 by br++ toge!r ! elem5ts 9 prop] quantities1 has succe$$ 9 compos+ simil> m9]als1 & has ?us obta9$ artificial silicates1 ) ! same =ms & ! same *>act]s z natural silicates4 ,o!r *emi/s 7,m4 ,haldat1 ,m4 ,becqu]el7 h1 9 l mann]1 obta9$1 by artificial processes1 o!r cry/als1 kn[n previ\sly z occurr+ naturally4 ,h[ are ^! cry/als1 ?us id5tical ) natural m9]als1 to be remov$ out ( ! doma9 ( m9]alogy1 & transf]r$ to a sci5ce :i* %all classify artificial cry/als only8 ,if ?is be done1 ! m9]alogi/ w n be able to classify any specim5 till he has human te/imony :e!r x 0 f\nd naturally occurr+ or produc$ by *emical art4 ,or is ! o!r alt]native to be tak51 & are ^! cry/als to be giv5 up to m9]alogy because !y occur naturally also8 ,b :at c be m unphilosophical ?an to ref] to sep>ate sci5ces ! results ( *emical processes closely alli$1 & all b id5tical8 ,! *emi/ con/ructs bisilicates1 & ^! are classifi$ by ! m9]alogi/3 b if he con/ructs a trisilicate1 x belongs to ano!r sci5ce4 ,all ^! intol]able incongruities are avoid$ by ackn[l$g+ t artificial1 z well z natural1 cry/als belong to ! doma9 ( m9]alogy4 ,x is1 9 fact1 ! "n only ( ,m9]alogy :i* appe>s to discov] any inconsi/5cy 9 ?is mode ( proce$+4 ,m9]alogy is ! #aed repres5tative ( a sci5ce :i* has a wid] (fice ?an m9]alogi/s fir/ contemplat$2 b :i* mu/ exi/1 9 ord] t ! body ( sci5ce may be complete4 ,!re mu/1 z we h already said1 be a ,sci5ce1 ! object ( :i* is to classify bodies by _! physical *>act]s1 9 ord] t we may h "s means ( ass]t+ *emical tru?s conc]n+ bodies2 "s language 9 :i* we may express ! propositions :i* *emical analysis discov]s4 ,& ?is ,sci5ce w h its object prescrib$1 n by any accid5tal or arbitr>y diff]5ce ( ! /ory belong+ to ea* specim52--n by kn[+ :e!r ! specim5 0 f\nd 9 ! m9e or 9 ! laboratory2 produc$ by attempt+ to imitate nature1 or to d viol5ce to h]3--b w h its c\rse det]m9$ by its own "*4 ,! range & b\nd>ies ( ?is ,sci5ce w be regulat$ by ! ,ideas ) :i* x deals4 ,l all o!r sci5ces1 x mu/ ext5d to ev]y?+ to :i* its pr9ciples apply4 ,! limits ( ! prov9ce :i* x includes are fix$ by ! consid]ation t x mu/ be a connect$ :ole4 ,no previ\s def9ition1 no hi/orical accid5t1 no casual phrase1 c at all /& 9 ! way ( philosophical consi/5cy2--c make ?is ,sci5ce exclude :at t includes1 or oblige x to admit :at t rejects4 ,& ?us1 :atev] we call our ,sci5ce2--:e!r we t]m x ,ext]nal ,*emi/ry1 ,m9]alogy1 ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,inorganic ,bodies2--s9ce x c be no?+ b ! ,sci5ce ( ! ,classification ( ,inorganic ,bodies ( def9ite =ms & prop]ties1 x mu/ classify all su* bodies1 :e!r or n !y be m9]als1 & :e!r or n !y be natural4 ,note #gdh3 ,rgne ,m9]al1 p4 #aea4 #bj4 ,9 ! application ( ! pr9ciples ( classification to m9]als1 ! "q occurs1 ,:at are to be consid]$ z m9]al ,species8 ,by ,species we are to und]/&1 accord+ to ! usage ( o!r p>ts ( natural hi/ory1 ! l[e/ /ep ( our subord9ate divisions2--! mo/ limit$ ( ! gr\ps :i* h def9ite di/9ctions4 ,:at def9ite di/9ctions ( gr\ps ( objects ( any k9d really occur 9 nature1 is to be le>nt f an exam9ation ( nature3 & ! #aee result ( our inquiries w be "s g5]al pr9ciple :i* connects ! memb]s ( ea* gr\p1 & di/+ui%es ! memb]s ( gr\ps :i*1 ?\gh contigu\s1 are diff]5t4 ,9 ! classification ( organiz$ bodies1 ! rule :i* ?us presides ov] ! =mation ( ,species is ! pr9ciple ( reproduction4 ,^? animals & ^? plants are ( ! same ,species :i* are produc$ f a common /ock1 or :i* resemble ea* o!r z mu* z ! prog5y ( a common /ock4 ,accord+ly 9 practice1 if any que/ions arise :e!r two v>ieties ( =m 9 organic ?+s be ( ! same or diff]5t species1 x is settl$ by ref]5ce to ! fact ( reproduction2 & :5 x is asc]ta9$ t ! two =ms come )9 ! habitual & regul> limits ( a common circle ( reproduction1 !y are held to be ( ! same species4 ,n[ 9 cry/als1 ?is pr9ciple ( reproduction disappe>s altoge!r1 & ! basis ( ! =mation ( species mu/ be s\ght else:]e4 ,we mu/ h "s o!r pr9ciple to replace ! reproduction :i* belongs only to organic life4 ,?is pr9ciple w be1 we may expect1 "o :i* secures ! p]man5ce & regul>ity ( m9]al =ms1 z ! reproductive p[] does ( animal & vegetable4 ,su* a pr9ciple is ! ,p[] ( ,cry/allization4 ,! =ces ( :i* solidity1 cohesion1 & cry/allization are ! result1 are ^? :i* give to m9]als _! p]man5t exi/5ce & _! physical prop]ties2 & ev] s9ce ! discov]y ( ! di/9ctions ( ,cry/all9e ,=ms & ,cry/all9e ,sy/ems1 x is c]ta9 t ?is =ce di/+ui%es gr\ps ( cry/als 9 ! mo/ precise & def9ite mann]4 ,! rhomboh$ral c>bonates ( lime & ( iron1 = in/ance1 are di/+ui%$ exactly by ! angles ( _! rhomboh$rons4 ,& if1 9 ! case ( any propos$ cry/al1 we %\ld d\bt to :i* k9d ! specim5 belongs1 ! measurem5t ( ! angles ( cleavage w\ld at once decide ! "q4 ,! pr9ciple ( ,cry/allization !re=e appe>s1 f analogy1 to be exactly fitt$ to take ! place ( ! pr9ciple ( organic ,g5]ation4 ,! =ces :i* make ! individual p]man5t & its prop]ties def9ite1 "h /& 9 ! place ( ! =ces #aef :i* pres]ve ! race1 :ile individuals are g5]at$ & die4 #ba4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 ! diff]5t ,modifications ( ! same cry/all9e =m w\ld be ,v>ieties only ( ! same ,species4 ,all ! v>i\s solids1 = example1 :i* are produc$ by ! diff]5t laws ( d]ivation ( rhomboh$ral c>bonate ( lime1 w\ld fall )9 ! same ,species4 ,& ?is appe>s to be requir$ by ! g5]al analogy ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,= ^! diff]5ces ( =m1 produc$ by ! laws ( cry/all9e d]ivation1 are n def9ite4 ,! faces :i* are add$ to "o =m 9 ord] to produce ano!r1 may be ( any size1 small or l>ge1 & ?us ! cry/al :i* repres5ts "o modification passes by ins5sible degrees to ano!r4 ,! =ms ( calc sp>1 :i* we call dog-too? sp>1 cannon sp>1 nail-head sp>1 & ! l1 appe> at fir/1 no d\bt1 di/9ct en\gh2 b s d ! races ( dogs4 ,& we f9d1 9 ! m9]al z 9 ! animal1 t ! di/9ction is oblit]at$ by tak+ su* int]m$iate /eps z really occur4 ,& if a fragm5t ( any ( ^! cry/als is giv5 u1 we c det]m9e t x is rhomboh$ral c>bonate ( lime2 b x is n possible1 9 g5]al1 to det]m9e to :i* ( ! k9ds ( cry/als x has belong$4 #bb4 ,not)/&+ ^! consid]ations1 ,m4 ,neck] has tak5 = 8 basis ( m9]al species#geh ! ,second>y ,modifications1 & n ! ,prim>y ,=ms4 ,?us cubical gal5a1 octah$ral gal5a1 & tri=m gal5a1 are1 ) him1 ?ree species ( cry/als4 ,note #geh3 ,rgne ,m9]al1 p4 #cif4 ,on ?is ,i h to obs]ve1 z ,i h already done1 t on ?is pr9ciple we h no def9ite di/9ction ( species2 = ^! =ms may & d pass into ea* o!r3 among cubo-octah$rons ( gal5a occur cubes & octah$rons1 z "o face or ano!r vani%es1 & ! transition is ins5sible4 ,we %all1 on ?is pr9ciple1 f9d almo/ always ?ree or f\r species 9 ! same tuft ( cry/als2 = almo/ e individual 9 su* assemblages may exhibit a diff]5t comb9ation ( #aeg second>y faces4 ,aga91 9 cases :]e ! second>y laws are num]\s1 x w\ld be impracticable to enum]ate all _! comb9ations1 & impossible !re=e to give a li/ ( species4 ,accord+ly ,m4 ,neck]#gfh gives sev5ty-"o ,species ( spa? calcaire1 & !n says1 ',n\s n'avons pas num] la dixime p>tie des espces connues de ce g5re1 qui se mont5t plus de huit c5ts4' ,aga91 9 _m sub/ances1 ( :i* few cry/als are f\nd1 e new specim5 w\ld be a new species2 if inde$ x 7 p]fect en\gh to be ref]r$ to a species at all4 ,b f a specim5 )\t p]fect ext]nal =m1 h[ev] p]fect 9 cry/all9e "*1 al?\gh ev]y?+ else might be kn[n1--angles1 optical prop]ties1 physical prop]ties1 & *emical con/itution1--! species c\ld n be det]m9$4 ,?us ,m4 ,neck] says#ggh ( ! micas1 ',quant aux espces propre *aque g5re1 la lacune s]a presque complte2 c> jusqu'ici les cri/aux enti]s de ,mica et de ,talc n'ont pas t =t communs4' ,note #gfh3 ,rgne ,m9]al1 p4 #cfd4 ,note #ggh3 ,ib4 ii4 #dad4 ,^! inconv5i5ces arise f neglect+ ! lead+ rule ( natural hi/ory1 t ! pr$om9ant pr9ciple ( ! exi/5ce ( an object mu/ det]m9e ! ,species2 :e!r ?is pr9ciple be ,reproduction op]at+ = ,developm5t1 or ,cry/allization op]at+ = ,p]man5ce ( =m4 ,we may add to ! above /atem5t ( inconv5i5ces ?is2--t if ,m4 ,neck]'s view ( m9]alogical species be adopt$1 ! di/9ction ( ,species is vague & indef9ite1 :ile t ( ,g5]a is p]fectly precise & rigor\s2--an aspect ( ! sy/em entirely at v>iance ) o!r p>ts ( ,natural ,hi/ory2 = 9 all ^! ! ,species is a m def9ite gr\p ?an ! ,g5us4 ,?is result foll[s1 z has already be5 said1 f ,m4 ,neck]'s wi% to h individuals m>k$ by ext]nal =m4 ,if1 in/ead ( ?is1 we are cont5t$ to take = an individual t portion ( a mass1 ( :atev] =m1 :i* is connect$ by ! cont9u\s influ5ce ( ! same cry/all9e =ces1 by :atev] incid5ts ^! =ces may be manife/$1 7z cleavage1 #aeh physical & optical prop]ties1 & ! l17 our mode ( proce$+ avoids all ! above inconv5i5ces1 applies alike to ! mo/ p]fect & mo/ imp]fect specim5s1 & gives a result agreeable to ! g5]al analogy ( natural hi/ory1 & ! rules ( its me?ods#ghh4 ,note #ghh3 ,i w n aga9 ent] into ! subject ( ,nom5clature2 b ,i may rem>k t ,m4 ,neck] has adopt$ 7i4 #dae7 ! ,nom5clature ( ,beudant1 lat9iz+ ! names1 & ?us conv]t+ ea* into a s+le ^w4 ,he has also introduc$1 besides ! names ( ,g5]a1 names ( ,families tak5 f ! typical ,g5us4 ,?us ! ,family ( ,c>bonidi5s conta9s ! foll[+ g5]a3 ,calcispa?um1 ,magnesispa?um1 ,dolomispa?um1 ,f]rispa?um1 c41 ,mala*ita1 ,azuria1 ,gaylusacia4 ,i n[ quit ! subject ( m]e ,resemblance1 & proce$ to treat ( t natural aff9ity :i* ,natural ,sy/ems ( ,classification = organic bodies mu/ involve4 #aei ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,natural ,,aff9ity4 #a4 ,,9 ! ,second ,*apt] ( ?is ,book x 0 %[n t al?\gh ! ,classificatory ,sci5ces proce$ o/5sibly ^u ! ,idea ( ,resemblance z _! ma9 f\ndation1 !y necess>ily take = grant$ 9 ! c\rse ( _! progress a fur!r ,idea ( ,natural ,aff9ity4 ,?is appe>$#gih by a g5]al consid]ation ( ! nature ( ,sci5ce1 by ! recognition ( natural species & g5]a1 ev5 9 ,artificial ,sy/ems ( ,classification#hjh1 & by ! 9999attempts ( botani/s to =m a ,natural ,sy/em4 ,x fur!r appe>$ t among ! processes by :i* endeav\rs h be5 made to frame a ,natural ,sy/em1 "s1 z ! me?od ( ,bl9d ,trial & ! me?od ( ,g5]al ,comp>ison1 h be5 altoge!r unsuccessful1 be+ f\nd$ only ^u a collection ( resemblances1 casual 9 ! "o case & arbitr>y 9 ! o!r4 ,9 nei!r ( ^! processes is !re employ$ any g5]al pr9ciple by :i* we may be def9itely direct$ z to :at resemblances we %\ld employ1 or by :i* ! result at :i* we arrive may be v]ifi$ & confirm$4 ,our object 9 ! pres5t *apt] is to %[ t ! ,idea ( ,natural ,aff9ity supplies u ) a pr9ciple :i* may answ] su* purposes4 ,note #gih3 ,art4 #e4 ,note #hjh3 ,art4 #g4 ,i %all fir/ consid] ! ,idea ( ,aff9ity z exemplifi$ 9 organiz$ be+s4 ,9 do+ ?is1 we may appe> to take = grant$ ,ideas :i* h n yet come "u our discussion1 z ! ,ideas ( ,organization1 & ,vital ,function2 b x w be f\nd t ! pr9ciple to :i* we are l$ is indep5d5t ( ^! additional ,ideas4 #afj #b4 ,we h already se5 t ! attempts to discov] ! divisions :i* result f ?is ,natural ,aff9ity h l$ to ! consid]ation ( ! ,subord9ation ( ,*>act]s4 ,x is easy to see t "s organs are m ess5tial ?an o!rs to ! exi/5ce ( an organiz$ be+2 ! organs ( nutrition1 = example1 m ess5tial ?an ^? ( locomotion4 ,b at ! same "t x is cle> t any arbitr>y assumption ( a c]ta9 scale ( relative values ( diff]5t k9ds ( *>act]s w lead only to an ,artificial ,sy/em4 ,?is w happ51 if1 = example1 we beg9 by decl>+ ! nutritive to be sup]ior 9 importance to ! reproductive functions4 ,x is cle> t ?is relation ( importance ( organs & functions mu/ be collect$ by ! /udy ( ! organiz$ be+s2 & _c be det]m9$ priori1 )\t depriv+ u ( all "r to expect a g5]al accordance betwe5 our sy/em & ! arrangem5t ( nature4 ,we see1 !re=e1 t our notion ( ,natural ,aff9ity involves 9 x ?is consequ5ce2--t x is n to be made out by an arbitr>y subord9ation ( *>act]s4 #c4 ,! functions & actions ( liv+ ?+s :i* we sep>ate f ea* o!r 9 our consid]ation1 _c be sev]$ 9 nature4 ,ea* function is ess5tial2 ,life implies a collection ( movem5ts1 & ceases :5 any ( ^! movem5ts is /opp$4 ,a *ange 9 ! organization subs]vi5t to "o set ( functions may lead necess>ily to a *ange 9 ! organization belong+ to o!rs4 ,we c (t5 see ?is necess>y connexion2 & f a comp>ison ( ! =ms ( organiz$ be+s1--f ! way 9 :i* _! /ructure *anges 9 pass+ f "o class to ano!r1 we are l$ to ! conviction t !re is "s g5]al pr9ciple :i* connects & graduates all su* *anges4 ,:5 ! circulatory sy/em *anges1 ! n]v\s sy/em *anges also3 :5 ! mode ( locomotion *anges1 ! respiration is also modifi$4 #d4 ,^! correspond+ *anges may be consid]$ z ways 9 :i* ! liv+ ?+ is fitt$ to its mode ( life2 z m>ks ( adaptation to a purpose2 or1 z x has be5 o!rwise express$1 z results ( ! #afa conditions ( exi/5ce4 ,b at ! pres5t mom5t1 we put =w>d ^! correspond5cies 9 a diff]5t light4 ,we adduce !m z illu/rations ( :at we mean by ,aff9ity1 & :at we consid] z ! t5d5cy ( a ,natural ,classification4 ,x has sometimes be5 ass]t$ t if we 7 to classify any ( ! dep>tm5ts ( organiz$ nature by means ( "o function1 & !n by means ( ano!r1 ! two classifications1 if ea* /rictly consi/5t ) itself1 w\ld be consi/5t ) ea* o!r4 ,su* an ass]tion is p]haps m ?an we are entitl$ to make ) confid5ce2 b x %[s v well :at is meant by ,aff9ity4 ,! disposition to believe su* a g5]al id5tity ( all p>tial natural classifications1 %[s h[ readily we fix ^u ! notion ( ,aff9ity1 z a g5]al result ( ! causes :i* det]m9e ! =ms ( liv+ ?+s4 ,:5 ^! causes or pr9ciples1 ( :atev] nature !y are conceiv$ to be1 v>y s z to modify "o "p ( ! organization ( ! be+1 !y also modify ano!r3 & ?us ! gr\ps :i* exhibit ?is v>iation ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( =m1 are ! same1 :e!r ! manife/ation ( ! *ange be s\ght 9 "o "p or 9 ano!r ( ! organiz$ /ructure4 ,! gr\ps ?us =m$ are relat$ by ,aff9ity2 & 9 proportion z we f9d ! evid5ce ( m functions & m organs to ! propriety ( our gr\ps1 we are m & m satisfi$ t !y are ,natural ,classes4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 t our ,idea ( ,aff9ity involves ! conviction ( ! ,co9cid5ce ( natural arrangem5ts =m$ on diff]5t functions2 & ?is1 r ?an ! pr9ciple ( ! ,subord9ation ( "s *>act]s to o!rs1 is ! true gr\nd ( ! natural me?od ( ,classification4 #e4 ,= example1 ,cuvi]1 aft] speak+ ( ! ,subord9ation ( ,*>act]s z ! guide :i* he int5ds to foll[ 9 8 arrangem5t ( animals1 int]prets ?is pr9ciple 9 su* a mann]#hah z to make x agree ne>ly ) ! "o j /at$3 ',9 pursuance ( :at has be5 said on me?ods 9 g5]al1 we n[ require to #afb "k :at *>act]s 9 animals are ! mo/ influ5tial1 & !re=e ^? :i* mu/ be made ! gr\nds ( ! prim>y divisions4' ',^!1' he says1 'x is cle> mu/ be ^? :i* are tak5 f ! animal functions2--s5sation & motion3'--,b h[ does he confirm ?is8 ,n by %[+ t ! animal functions are indep5d5t (1 or pr$om9ant ov]1 ! vegetative1 b by obs]v+ t !y foll[ ! same gradations4 ',obs]vation1' he cont9ues1 'confirms ?is view1 by %[+ t ! degrees ( developm5t & complication ( ! animal functions agree ) ^? ( ! vegetative4 ,! he>t & ! organs ( ! circulation are a sort ( c5t] = ! vegetative functions1 z ! bra9 & ! trunk ( ! n]v\s sy/em are = ! animal functions4 ,n[ we see ^! two sy/ems desc5d 9 ! scale1 & disappe> ! "o ) ! o!r4 ,9 ! l[e/ animals1 :5 !re are no long] any di/9ct n]ves1 !re are also no long] di/9ct fibres1 & ! organs ( dige/ion are simply holl[$ out 9 ! homog5e\s mass ( ! body4 ,! muscul> sy/em disappe>s ev5 be=e ! n]v\s1 9 insects2 b 9 g5]al ! di/ribution ( ! m$ull>y masses corresponds to t ( ! muscul> in/rum5ts2 a sp9al cord1 on :i* knots or ganglions repres5t s _m bra9s1 corresponds to a body divid$ into num]\s r+s & support$ on pairs ( memb]s plac$ at diff]5t po9ts ( ! l5g?1 & s on4 ,note #hah3 ,rgne ,animal1 p4 #ee4 ',?is correspond5ce ( ! g5]al =ms :i* result f ! arrangem5t ( ! motive organs1 f ! di/ribution ( ! n]v\s masses1 & f ! en]gy ( ! circulatory sy/em1 mu/ !re=e =m ! gr\nd ( ! fir/ great sections by :i* we divide ! animal k+dom4' #f4 ,dec&olle takes ! same view4 ,!re mu/ be1 he says1 an equilibrium ( ! diff]5t functions#hbh4 ,& he exemplifies ?is by ! case ( ! di/9ction ( monocotyl$on\s & dicotyl$on\s plants1 :i* be+ at fir/ e/abli%$ by means ( ! organs ( #afc reproduction1 0 aft]w>ds f\nd to co9cide ) ! di/9ction ( endog5\s & exog5\s1 :i* dep5ds on ! process ( nutrition4 ',?us1' he adds1 '! natural classes f\nd$ on "o ( ! great functions ( ! vegetable are necess>ily ! same z ^? :i* are f\nd$ ^u ! o!r function2 & ,i f9d "h a v useful crit]ion to asc]ta9 :e!r a class is natural3 namely1 9 ord] to ann\nce t x is s1 x mu/ be arriv$ at by ! two roads :i* vegetable organization pres5ts4 ,?us ,i affirm1' he says1 't ! division ( monocotyl$ons f dicotyl$ons1 & ! di/9ction ( ,gram9e f ,cyp]ace1 are real1 because 9 ^! cases1 ,i arrive at ! same result by ! reproductive & ! nutritive organs2 :ile ! di/9ction ( monopetal\s & polypetal\s1 ( ,rhodorace & ,eric9e1 appe>s to me artificial1 because ,i c arrive at x only by ! reproductive organs4' ,note #hbh3 ,!or4 ,elem4 p4 #gi4 ,?us ! ,correspond5ce ( ! indications ( diff]5t functions is ! crit]ion ( ,natural ,classes2 & ?is correspond5ce may be consid]$ z "o ( ! be/ & mo/ *>act]i/ic m>ks ( ! fundam5tal ,idea ( ,aff9ity4 ,& ! ,maxim by :i* all ,sy/ems pr(ess+ to be natural mu/ be te/$ is ?is3--t ! arrangem5t obta9$ f "o set ( *>act]s co9cides ) ! arrangem5t obta9$ f ano!r set4 ,?is ,idea ( ,aff9ity1 z a natural connexion among v>i\s species1 ( :i* connexion all p>ticul> resemblances are indications1 has pr9cipally influ5c$ ! attempts at classify+ ! animal k+dom4 ,! reason :y ! classification 9 ?is bran* ( ,natural ,hi/ory has be5 m easy & c]ta9 ?an t ( ! vegetable _w is1 z ,dec&olle says#hch1 t besides ! functions ( nutrition & reproduction1 :i* animals h 9 common ) plants1 !y h also 9 addition ! function ( s5sation2 & ?us h a new means ( v]ification & concordance4 ,b we may add1 z a fur!r reason1 t ! functions ( #afd animals are necess>ily mu* m obvi\s & intelligible to u ?an ^? ( vegetables1 f _! cle> resemblance to ! op]ations :i* take place 9 our own bodies1 to :i* our att5tion has necess>ily be5 /rongly direct$4 ,note #hch3 ,!or4 ,elem4 p4 #hj4 #g4 ,! "q "h (f]s itself1 :e!r ?is ,idea ( ,natural ,aff9ity is applicable to inorganic z well z to organic bodies2--:e!r !re be ,natural ,aff9ities among ,m9]als4 ,& to ?is we are n[ enabl$ to reply by consid]+ :e!r or n ! pr9ciple j /at$ is applicable 9 su* cases4 ,& ! conclusion to :i* our pr9ciple leads u is1--t !re are su* ,natural ,aff9ities among ,m9]als1 s9ce !re are diff]5t sets ( *>act]s :i* may be tak51 7& h by diff]5t writ]s be5 tak517 z ! basis ( classification4 ,! h>dness1 specific gravity1 col\r1 lu/re1 cry/allization1 & o!r ext]nal *>act]s1 z !y are t]m$1 =m "o body ( prop]ties accord+ to :i* m9]als may be classifi$2 z has 9 fact be5 done by ,mohs1 ,brei?aupt1 & o!rs4 ,! *emical con/itution ( ! sub/ances1 on ! o!r h&1 may be made ! pr9ciple ( _! arrangem5t1 z 0 done by ,hay1 & m rec5tly1 & on a diff]5t s*eme1 by ,b]zelius4 ,:i* ( ^! is ! true & natural classification8 ,to ?is we answ]1 t ea* ( ^! arrangem5ts is true & natural1 !n1 & !n only1 :5 x co9cides ) ! o!r4 ,an arrangem5t by ext]nal *>act]s :i* gives u classes possess+ a common *emical "*2--a *emical ord] :i* br+s toge!r l & sep>ates unlike m9]als2--su* classifications h ! evid5ce ( tru? 9 _! agreem5t ) "o ano!r4 ,e classification ( m9]als :i* does n aim at & t5d to su* a result1 is s f> m]ely arbitr>y2 & _c be subs]vi5t to ! expression ( g5]al *emical & m9]alogical tru?s1 :i* is ! prop] purpose ( su* a classification4 #h4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,m9]alogy ,i h relat$ ! advances :i* h be5 made among m9]alogi/s & *emi/s 9 mod]n times t[>ds a ,sy/em #afe possess+ ?is "* ( tru?4 ,i h !re describ$ ! mix$ sy/ems ( ,w]n] & ,hay2--! attempt made by ,mohs to =m a pure ,natural ,hi/ory sy/em2--! fir/ & second attempt ( ,b]zelius to =m a pure *emical sy/em2 & ! failure ( bo? ^! attempts4 ,b ! di/9ct sep>ation ( ! two elem5ts ( :i* sci5ce requires ! co9cid5ce ?rew a v useful light ^u ! subject2 & ! succe$+ mix$ sy/ems1 su* z t ( ,naumann1 approa*$ mu* ne>] to ! true conditions ( ! problem ?an any ( ! prec$+ ones _h done4 ,?us1 z ,i h /at$1 sev]al ( ,naumann's gr\ps h bo? a common *emical "* & great ext]nal resemblances4 ,su* are 8 ,anhydr\s ,unmetallic ,haloids--8 ,anhydr\s ,metallic ,haloids--,hydr\s ,metallic ,haloids--,oxides ( metals--,pyrites--,glances-- ,bl5des4 ,! exi/5ce ( su* gr\ps %[s t we may hope ultimately to obta9 a classification ( m9]als :i* %all be bo? *emically significant1 & agreeable to ! me?ods ( ,natural ,hi/ory3 al?\gh :5 we consid] h[ v imp]fect z yet our k ( ! *emical composition ( m9]als is1 we c h>dly flatt] ourselves t we %all arrive at su* a result v soon4 ,we h ?us se5 t 9 ,m9]alogy1 z well z 9 ! sci5ces :i* treat ( organiz$ bodies1 we may apply ! ,idea ( ,natural ,aff9ity2 ( :i* ! fundam5tal maxim is1 t arrangem5ts obta9$ f diff]5t sets ( *>act]s mu/ co9cide4 ,s9ce ! notion ( ,aff9ity is ?us applicable to inorganic z well z to organic bodies1 x is pla9 t x is n a m]e modification ( ! ,idea ( ,organization or ,function1 al?\gh x may 9 "s ( its aspects appe> to approa* ne> to ^! o!r ,ideas4 ,b ^! ,ideas1 or o!rs :i* are ! f\ndation ( !m1 necess>ily ent] 9 a v prom95t & fundam5tal mann] into all ! o!r p>ts ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,to ! consid]ation ( ^!1 !re=e1 we %all n[ proce$4 #afg ,,book ,,ix4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,biology4 ,,la vie e/ donc un ,,t\rbillon plus ou mo9s rapide1 plus ou mo9s compliqu1 dont la direction e/ con/ante1 et qui entra9e t\j\rs des molecules de mmes sorts1 mais o les molecules individuelles entr5t et d'o elles sort5t cont9uellem5t1 de manire que la ,=me du corps vivant lui e/ plus ess5tielle que sa ,matire4 ,tant que ce m\vem5t subsi/e1 le corps o il s'ex]ce e/ vivant2 il vit4 ,lorsque le m\vem5t s'arrte sans ret\r1 le corps meurt4 ,,cuvi]1 ,rgne ,animal1 s4 #ab4 ,i ,,rememb]1 ^u ask+ our fam\s ,h>vey1 :at induc$ him to ?9k ( a circulation ( ! blood1 he said1 t obs]v+ ! valves 9 ! ve9s ( _m p>ts ( ! body1 s plac$ z to give a free passage to ! blood t[>ds ! he>t1 b to oppose ! passage ( ! v5al blood ! contr>y way1 he imag9$ t s provid5t a cause z nature _h n ?us plac$ s _m valves )\t design2 & z no design seem$ m probable ?an t ! blood c\ld n well1 because ( ! int]pos+ valves1 be s5t by ! ve9s to ! limbs1 x %\ld be s5t ?r\gh ! art]ies & return ?r\gh ! ve9s :5 valves did n oppose its c\rse t way4 ,,boyle1 ,on ! ,f9al ,causes ( ,natural ,?+s4 ,on ! ,proposition3 ',tis (t5 all[able = a naturali/1 f ! manife/ & apposite uses ( ! p>ts ( animal bodies1 to collect "s ( ! p>ticul> ends = :i* ! ,creator design$ !m3 & 9 "s cases we may1 f ! kn[n nature & /ructure ( ! p>ts1 draw p>ticul> conjectures ab\t ! p>ticul> (fices ( !m4 #afi ,,book ,,ix4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,biology4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,analogy ,,( ,,biology ,,) ,,o!r ,,sci5ces4 #a4 ,,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ces1 aft] treat+ ( ! ,sci5ces ( ,classification1 we proce$$ to :at are !re t]m$ ! ,organical ,sci5ces1 includ+ 9 ?is t]m ,physiology & ,comp>ative ,anatomy4 ,a peculi> feature 9 ?is gr\p ( sci5ces is t !y involve ! notion ( liv+ ?+s4 ,! notion ( ,life1 h[ev] vague & obscure x may be 9 m5's m9ds1 is appreh5d$ z a peculi> ,idea1 n resolvable into any o!r ,ideas1 su*1 = in/ance1 z ,matt] & ,motion4 ,! sep>ation betwe5 liv+ creatures & in]t matt]1 betwe5 organiz$ & unorganiz$ be+s1 is conceiv$ z a positive & insurm\ntable b>ri]4 ,! two classes ( objects are consid]$ z ( a di/9ct k9d1 produc$ & pres]v$ by diff]5t =ces4 ,:e!r ! ,idea ( ,life is really ?us orig9al & fundam5tal1 & :e!r1 if s1 x be "o ,idea only1 or involve sev]al1 x mu/ be ! prov9ce ( true philosophy to det]m9e4 ,:at we %all "h (f] may be consid]$ z an attempt to contribute some?+ to ! det]m9ation ( ^! que/ions2 b we %all p]haps be able to make x appe> t sci5ce is at pres5t only 9 ! c\rse ( its progress t[>ds a complete solution ( su* problems4 ,s9ce ! ma9 feature ( ^? sci5ces ( :i* we h n[ to exam9e ! philosophy is1 t !y #agj involve ! ,idea ( ,life1 x w\ld be desirable to h !m designat$ by a "n expressive ( t circum/ance4 ,! ^w ,physiology1 by :i* !y h mo/ commonly be5 describ$1 means ! ,sci5ce ( ,nature2 & ?\gh x w\ld be easy to expla91 by ref]5ce to hi/ory1 ! tra9 ( ?\ght by :i* ! ^w 0 latt]ly re/rict$ to ,liv+ ,nature1 x is pla9 t ! "n is1 etymologically speak+1 loose & improp]4 ,! t]m ,biology1 :i* means exactly :at we wi% to express1 ! ,sci5ce ( ,life1 has (t5 be5 us$1 & has ( late become n uncommon among good w9t]s4 ,i %all !re=e v5ture to employ x1 9 mo/ cases1 r ?an ! ^w ,physiology4 #b4 ,z ,i h already intimat$1 "o ma9 inquiry belong+ to ! ,philosophy ( ,biology1 is conc]n+ ! ,fundam5tal ,idea or ,ideas :i* ! sci5ce involves4 ,if we look back at ! c\rse & ! results ( our disquisitions respect+ o!r sci5ces 9 ?is "w1 & assume1 z we may philosophically d1 t !re w be "s g5]al analogy betwe5 ^? sci5ces & ?is1 9 _! developm5t & progress1 we %all be enabl$ to anticipate 9 "s measure ! nature ( ! view :i* we %all n[ h to take4 ,we h se5 t 9 o!r subjects ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas on :i* sci5ce dep5d$1 & ! ,conceptions d]iv$ f ^!1 7 at fir/ vague1 obscure1 & confus$2--t by gradual /eps1 by a con/ant union ( ?\ght & obs]vation1 ^! conceptions become m & m cle>1 m & m def9ite2--& t :5 !y approa*$ complete di/9ctness & precision1 !re 7 made great positive discov]ies into :i* ^! conceptions ent]$2 & ?us ! new precision ( ?\ght 0 fix$ & p]petuat$ 9 "s conspicu\s & la/+ tru?s4 ,?us we h se5 h[ ! fir/ confus$ me*anical conceptions 7,=ce1 & ! l17 71 f "t to "t1 gr[+ cle>]1 d[n to ! epo* ( ,newton2--h[ true conceptions ( ,g5]a & ( wid] classes1 gradually unfold$ !mselves among ! botani/s ( ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies2--h[ ! idea ( ,sub/ance became /eady en\gh to gov]n ! #aga !ories ( *emi/s only at ! epo* ( ,lavoisi]2--h[ ! ,idea ( ,pol>ity1 al?\gh (t5 us$ by physici/s & *emi/s1 is ev5 n[ some:at vague & indi/9ct 9 ! m9ds ( ! great] "p ( speculators4 ,9 l mann] we may expect to f9d t ! ,idea ( ,life1 if inde$ t be ! gov]n+ ,idea ( ! ,sci5ce :i* treats ( ,liv+ ,?+s1 w be f\nd to h be5 gradually approa*+ t[>ds a di/9ct & def9ite =m among ! physiologi/s ( all ages up to ! pres5t day4 ,& if ?is be ! case1 x may n be consid]$ sup]flu\s1 ) ref]5ce to s int]e/+ a subject1 if we employ "s space 9 trac+ hi/orically ! /eps ( ?is progress2--! *anges by :i* ! orig9ally loose notion ( ,life1 or ( ,vital ,p[]s1 became m ne>ly an ,idea suit$ to ! purposes ( sci5ce4 #c4 ,b we may safely c>ry ?is analogy betwe5 ,biology & o!r sci5ces some:at fur!r4 ,we h se51 9 o!r sci5ces1 t :ile m5 9 _! speculations 7 ?us t5d+ t[>ds a c]ta9 peculi> ,idea1 b be=e !y z yet saw cle>ly t x 0 peculi> & indep5d5t1 !y naturally & inevitably clo!d _! speculations 9 conceptions borr[$ f "s o!r extrane\s idea4 ,& ! unsatisfactor9ess ( all su* attempts1 & ! necess>y consequ5ce ( ?is1 a con/ant alt]ation & succession ( su* inappropriate hypo!ses1 7 indications & aids ( ! progress :i* 0 go+ on t[>ds a m g5u9e =m ( ! sci5ce4 ,= in/ance1 we h se5 t 9 *emi/ry1 s long z m5 refus$ to recognize a peculi> & di/9ct k9d ( p[] 9 ! ,aff9ity :i* b9ds toge!r ! elem5ts ( bodies1 !y fram$ to !mselves a s]ies ( hypo!ses1 ea* con/ruct$ accord+ to ! preval5t ideas ( ! "t1 by :i* !y tri$ to repres5t ! relation ( ! comp\nd to ! +r$i5ts3--fir/1 suppos+ t ! elem5ts be/[$ ^u ! :ole qualities resembl+ _! own3--!n giv+ up ?is supposition1 & imag9+ t ! prop]ties ( ! body dep5d$ ^u ! %ape ( ! compon5t p>ticles2--!n1 z _! view exp&$1 assum+ t x 0 #agb n ! %ape1 b ! me*anical =ces ( ! p>ticles :i* gave ! body its attributes2--& f9ally acquiesc+ 91 or r reluctantly admitt+1 ! idea ( ,aff9ity1 conceiv$ z a peculi> p[]1 diff]5t n only f mat]ial contact1 b f any me*anical or dynamical attraction4 ,n[ we _c b ?9k x v natural1 if we f9d t ! hi/ory ( ,biology (f]s a s]ies ( occurr5ces ( ! same nature4 ,! notions ( ,life 9 g5]al1 or ( any ,vital ,functions or ,vital ,=ces 9 p>ticul>1 are obvi\sly v loose & vague z !y exi/ 9 ! m9ds ( mo/ m54 ,! discrepancies & controv]sies respect+ ! def9itions ( all su* t]ms1 :i* are f\nd 9 all works on physiology1 af=d u abundant evid5ce t ^! notions are n1 at lea/ n g5]ally1 appreh5d$ ) complete cle>ness & /ead9ess4 ,we %all !re=e f9d approa*es & advances1 int]m$iate /eps1 gradually lead+ up to ! greate/ degree ( di/9ctness :i* has yet be5 atta9$4 ,& 9 ^? /ages ( imp]fect appreh5sion 9 :i* ! notions ( ,life & ( ,vital ,p[]s are /ill too loose & un=m$ to be appli$ indep5d5tly1 we may expect to f9d !m support$ & embodi$ by means ( hypo!ses borr[$ f o!r subjects1 & ?us1 made s di/9ct & sub/antial z to supply at lea/ a tempor>y possibility ( sci5tific reason+ ^u ! laws ( life4 #d4 ,= example1 if we suppose t m5 beg9 to speculate ^u ! prop]ties ( liv+ ?+s1 n ackn[l$g+ a peculi> ,vital ,p[]1 b mak+ use successively ( ! k suppli$ by ! /udy ( o!r subjects1 we may easily imag9e a s]ies ( hypo!ses along :i* !y w\ld pass4 ,!y w\ld probably1 fir/1 9 ?is z 9 o!r sci5ces1 h _! ?\ghts occupi$ by vague & my/ical notions 9 :i* mat]ial & spiritual ag5cy1 natural & sup]natural ev5ts1 7 mix$ toge!r )\t discrim9ation1 & )\t any cle> notion at all4 ,b z !y acquir$ a m g5u9e p]ception ( ! nature ( 9999k1 !y w\ld naturally try to expla9 vital motions & processes by means ( #agc su* =ces z !y _h le>nt ! exi/5ce ( f o!r sci5ces4 ,!y might fir/ h a me*anical hypo!sis1 9 :i* ! me*anical ,=ces ( ! solids & fluids :i* compose organiz$ bodies %\ld be ref]r$ to1 z ! mo/ important influ5ces 9 ! process ( life4 ,!y might !n att5d to ! actions :i* ! fluids ex]cise 9 virtue ( _! ,aff9ity1 & might ?us =m a *emical !ory4 ,:5 !y _h prov$ ! insuffici5ce ( ^! hypo!ses1 borr[$ f ! p[]s :i* matt] exhibits 9 o!r cases1 !y might ?9k !mselves au?oriz$ to assume "s peculi> p[] or ag5cy1 /ill mat]ial1 & ?us !y w\ld h ! hypo!sis ( a ,vital ,fluid4 ,& if !y 7 driv5 to reject ?is1 !y might ?9k t !re 0 no res\rce b to assume an immat]ial pr9ciple ( life1 & ?us !y w\ld arrive at ! doctr9e ( an ,animal ,s\l4 ,n[1 ?r\gh ! cycle ( hypo!ses :i* we h ?us suppos$1 physiology has actually pass$4 ,! conclusions to :i* ! mo/ philosophical m9ds h be5 l$ by a survey ( ?is progress is1 t by ! failure ( all ^! !ories1 m5 h exhau/$ ?is pa? ( inquiry1 & %[n t sci5tific tru? is to be s\ght 9 "s o!r mann]4 ,b be=e ,i proce$ fur!r to illu/rate ?is result1 x w be prop]1 z ,i h already /at$1 to exhibit hi/orically ! v>i\s hypo!ses :i* ,i h describ$4 ,9 do+ ?is ,i %all pr9cipally foll[ ! ,hi/ory ( ,m$ic9e ( ,spr5gel4 ,x is only by tak+ = my guide a physiologi/ ( ackn[l$g$ sci5ce & judgm5t1 t ,i c hope1 on su* a subject1 to avoid err\rs ( detail4 ,i proce$ n[ to give 9 succession an acc\nt ( ! ,my/ical1 ! ,iatro*emical1 ! ,iatroma!matical1 & ! ,vital-,fluid ,s*ools2 & f9ally ( ! ,psy*ical ,s*ool1 :o hold ! ,vital ,p[]s to be d]iv$ f ! ,s\l 7,psy*e74 #agd ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,successive ,,biological ,,hypo!ses4 ,,sect4 ,i4--,! ,my/ical ,s*ool4 ,,9 ord] to abbreviate z mu* z c conv5i5tly be done ! hi/orical view :i* ,i h n[ to take1 ,i %all altoge!r pass ov] ! physiological speculations ( ! anci5ts1 & beg9 my survey ) ! g5]al revival ( sci5ce 9 mod]n times4 ,we ne$ n dwell long on ! fanta/ical & unsub/antial doctr9es conc]n+ physiology :i* prevail$ 9 ! sixte5? c5tury1 & :i* fl[$ 9 a great measure f ! f]tile b ill-regulat$ imag9ations ( ! cultivators ( ,al*emy & ,magic4 ,"o ( ! prom95t doctors ( ?is s*ool is ! celebrat$ ,p>acelsus1 ^: doctr9es conta9$ a comb9ation ( biblical int]pretations1 vision>y religi\s notions1 fanciful analogies1 & bold exp]im5ts 9 practical m$ic9e4 ,! op9ion ( a close b my/ical resemblance ( p>ts betwe5 ! univ]se & ! human body1--! ,macrocosm & ! ,microcosm1--z ^! two ?+s1 ?us comp>$1 7 t]m$1 _h probably come d[n f ! ,neoplatoni/s2 x 0 adopt$ by ! ,p>acelsi/s#ai1 & connect$ ) v>i\s a/rological dreams & cabbali/ic riddles4 ,a succession ( lat] ,p>acelsi/s#bi1 ,rosicrucians1 & o!r fanatics ( ! same k9d1 cont9u$ into ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,^u _! notions 0 f\nd$ ! pret5sion ( cur+ w\nds by a sympa!tic p[d]1 :i* ,sir ,k5elm ,digby1 among o!rs1 ass]t$2 :ile animal magnetism1 & ! transf] ( diseases f "o p]son to ano!r#ci1 7 ma9ta9$ by o!rs ( ?is #age s*ool4 ,!y held1 too1 ! doctr9es ( a/ral bodies correspond+ to ea* t]re/rial body2 & ( ! signatures ( plants1 t is1 c]ta9 features 9 _! ext]nal =m by :i* _! virtues might be kn[n4 ,h[ little advantage or progress real physiology c\ld d]ive f speculations ( ?is k9d may be se5 f ?is1 t _! t5d5cy 0 to oblit]ate ! di/9ction betwe5 liv+ & lifeless ?+s3 accord+ to ,p>acelsus1 all ?+s are alive1 eat1 dr9k1 & excrete2 ev5 m9]als & fluids#di4 ,accord+ to him & 8 s*ool1 besides mat]ial & immat]ial be+s1 !re are elem5t>y ,_ss :i* hold an int]m$iate place1 ,sylvans1 ,nymphs1 ,gnomes1 ,salam&]s1 c4 by ^: ag5cy v>i\s processes ( en*antm5t may be a*iev$1 & ?+s app>5tly sup]natural expla9$4 ,?us ?is spirituali/ s*eme dealt ) a _w ( its own by means ( fanciful inv5tions & my/ical visions1 in/ead ( mak+ any /ep 9 ! /udy ( nature4 ,note #ai3 ,spr4 iii4 #def4 ,note #bi3 ,ib4 iv4 #bgj4 ,note #ci3 ,ib4 iv4 #bgf4 ,note #di3 ,spr4 iii4 #deh4 ,p>ac4 ,de ,vita ,r]um ,naturalium1 p4 #hhi4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 "o ( ! mo/ fanta/ical ( ! inv5tions ( ,p>acelsus may be consid]$ z indicat+ a p]ception ( a peculi> "* 9 ! vital p[]s4 ,accord+ to him1 ! bus9ess ( dige/ion is p]=m$ by a c]ta9 demon :om he calls ,ar*u1 :o has 8 abode 9 ! /oma*1 & :o1 by means ( 8 al*emical processes1 sep>ates ! nutritive f ! h>mful "p ( our food1 & makes x capable ( assimilation#ei4 ,?is fanciful notion 0 aft]w>ds adopt$ & exp&$ by ,van ,helmont#fi4 ,accord+ to him ! /oma* & sple5 are bo? "u ! direction ( ?is ,ma/]-_s1 & ^! two organs =m a sort ( ,duumvirate 9 ! body4 ,note #ei3 ,ib4 iii4 #dfh4 ,note #fi3 ,ib4 iv4 #cjb4 ,b ?\gh we may see 9 su* writ]s occasional gleams ( physiological ?\ght1 ! abs5ce ( def9ite physical relations 9 ! speculations ?us promulgat$ 0 necess>ily intol]able to m5 ( s\nd und]/&+ & sci5tific t5d5cies4 ,su* m5 naturally took hold ( t "p ( ! ph5om5a ( life :i* c\ld be mo/ di/9ctly conceiv$1 & #agf :i* c\ld be app>5tly expla9$ by means ( ! sci5ces !n cultivat$2 & ?is 0 ! "p :i* appe>$ to be r$ucible to *emical conceptions & doctr9es4 ,x w readily be suppos$ t ! processes ( *emi/ry h a consid]able be>+ ^u physiological processes1 & might1 till _! range 0 limit$ by a s\nd inve/igation1 be suppos$ to h /ill m ?an !y really _h2 & ?us a ,physiology 0 =m$ :i* dep5d$ ma9ly ^u ,*emi/ry1 & ! s*ool :i* held ?is doctr9e has be5 call$ ! ,iatro*emical ,s*ool4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,! ,iatro*emical ,s*ool4 ,t all physical prop]ties1 & !re=e *emical relations1 h a mat]ial influ5ce on physiological results1 0 already recogniz$1 ?\gh dimly1 9 ! ,gal5ic doctr9e ( ! 'f\r elem5t>y qualities4' ,b at ! "t ( ,p>acelsus1 *emical action 0 m di/9ctly ?an be=e sep>at$ f o!r k9ds ( physical action2 & !re=e a physiological doctr9e1 f\nd$ ^u *emi/ry1 & fre$ f ! extravagance & my/icism ( ! ,p>acelsi/s1 0 a v promis+ pa? ( speculation4 ,&rew ,libavius#gi ( ,halle1 9 ,saxony1 ,physician & ,tea*] 9 ! ,gymnasium at ,kob]g1 is po9t$ out by ,spr5gel z ! p]son :o began to cultivate *emi/ry1 z di/9ct f ! !osophic fantasies ( 8 pr$ecessors2 & ,angelus ,sala ( ,vi5na#hi1 z 8 successor4 ,! latt] has ! laudable di/9ction ( hav+ reject$ ! preval5t conceits ab\t a potable gold1 a univ]sal m$ic9e1 & ! l#ii4 ,9 ,g]many already at ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury a peculi> *air ( ,*ymiatria 0 already creat$ at ,m>purg3 & _m 9 v>i\s places pursu$ ! same /udies1 till1 9 ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 we come to ,lem]y#aji1 ! pr9cipal re=m] ( ph>maceutical *emi/ry4 ,b we are n "h s mu* conc]n$ #agg ) ! practical z ) ! !oretical p>ts ( ,iatro*emi/ry2 & h5ce we pass on to ,sylvius#aai & 8 sy/em4 ,note #gi3 ,spr4 iii4 #eej4 ,note #hi3 ,ib4 iv4 #bha4 ,note #ii3 ,ib4 iv4 #bhc4 ,note #aji3 ,ib4 iv4 #bia4 ,note #aai3 ,spr4 iv4 #ccf4 ,! op9ion t *emi/ry _h an important be>+ ^u physiology did n1 h[ev]1 beg9 ) ,sylvius4 ,p>acelsus1 among 8 extravagant absurdities1 did "s s]vice to m$ic9e by draw+ att5tion to ?is important tru?4 ,he us$#abi *emical pr9ciples = ! explanation ( p>ticul> diseases3 mo/ or all diseases accord+ to him1 arise f ! eff]vesc5ce ( salts1 f ! combu/ion ( sulphur1 or f ! coagulation ( m]cury4 ,8 m$ic9es 7 *emical prep>ations2 & x 0#aci an und5iable advantage ( ! ,p>acelsian doctr9e t *emi/ry ?us became indisp5sable to ! physician4 ,we /ill reta9 a remnant ( ! *emical nom5clature ( ,p>acelsus 9 ! t]m t>t>1 d5ot+ ! /ony concretion :i* =ms on ! tee?#adi4 ,accord+ to him !re is a c]ta9 sub/ance1 ! basis ( all diseases :i* arise f a ?ick5+ ( ! juices & a collection ( e>?y matt]2 & ?is sub/ance he calls ,t>t>us1 because 'x burns l ! fire ( hell4' ,helmont1 ! successor ( ,p>acelsus 9 _m absurdities1 also foll[$ him 9 ! attempt to give a *emical acc\nt1 h[ev] loose & wild1 ( ! functions ( ! human body2 & is by ,spr5gel consid]$1 ) all 8 extravagancies1 z a m]itori\s & important discov]]4 ,! notion ( ! f]m5tation ( fluids#aei1 & ( ! arial product !nce result+1 to :i* he gave ! "n ( ,gas1 =ms an important "p ( 8 doctr9es2 & ( ! six dige/ions :i* he assumes1 ! fir/ prep>es an acid1 :i* is neutraliz$ by ! gall :5 x rea*es ! duod5um1 & ?is con/itutes ! second dige/ion4 ,note #abi3 ,ib4 iii4 #dgb4 ,note #aci3 ,ib4 iii4 #dhb4 ,note #adi3 ,ib4 iii4 #dge4 ,note #aei3 ,vol4 v4 #cae4 ,i h already1 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry#afi1 /at$1 t ! doctr9e ( ! opposition ( acid & alkali1 ! great /ep :i* !oretical *emi/ry owes to ,sylvius1 0 fir/ br\ght into view z a physiological #agh t5et1 al?\gh we _h !n to trace its consequ5ces 9 ano!r sci5ce4 ,! explanation ( all ! functions ( ! animal sy/em1 bo? heal?y & morbid1 by means ( ?is & o!r *emical doctr9es1 & ! prescription ( me?ods ( cure f\nd$ ^u su* explanations1 =m ! s*eme ( ! iatro*emical s*ool2 a s*ool :i* almo/ engross$ ! fav\r ( ,european physicians dur+ ! great] "p ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,note #afi3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xiii4 c4 #b4 ,sylvius taught m$ic9e at ,leyd51 f ! ye> #afeh1 ) s mu* success1 t ,bo]haave alone surpass$ him#agi4 ,8 notions1 al?\gh he piqu$ himself on _! orig9ality1 7 manife/ly sugge/$ 9 no small degree 7z all su* suppos$ novelties are7 by ! speculations ( 8 pr$ecessors1 & ! _s ( ! times4 ,l ,helmont#ahi1 he consid]s dige/ion z consi/+ 9 a f]m5tation2 b he /ates x m def9itely z ! eff]vesc5ce ( an acid1 suppli$ by ! saliva & ! pancreatic juice1 ) ! alkali ( ! gall4 ,by v>i\s o!r hypo!tical processes1 all ( a *emical nature1 ! blood becomes a collection ( v>i\s juices1 :i* are ! subjects ( ! speculations ( ! iatro*emi/s1 to ! entire neglect ( ! solid p>ts ( ! body4 ,diseases 7 acc\nt$ = by a suppos$ preval5ce ( "o or ! o!r ( ! acrid pr9ciples1 ! acid or ! alkal9e3 & ,sylvius#aii 0 bold en\gh to f\nd ^u ^! hypo!ses practical me?ods ( cure1 :i* 7 9 ! highe/ degree mis*iev\s4 ,note #agi3 ,spr4 iv4 #ccf4 ,note #ahi3 ,ib4 #cch4 ,note #aii3 ,ib4 iv4 #cde4 ,! ,sylvian doctr9e 0 (t5 comb9$ ) "s ( ! notions ( ! ,c>tesian sy/em ( philosophy2 b ?is mixture ,i %all n notice1 s9ce my pres5t object is to trace ! hi/ory ( a m]e *emical physiology z "o ( ! unsuccessful attempts at a philosophy ( life4 ,) v>i\s modifications1 ?is doctr9e 0 diffus$ ov] ,europe4 ,x gave rise to sev]al controv]sies1 :i* turn$ ^u ! que/ions ( ! novelty ( ! doctr9e1 & ! use ( *emical rem$ies to :i* x po9t$1 z well z ^u its #agi !oretical tru?4 ,we ne$ n dwell long ^u ^! controv]sies1 al?\gh !y 7 c>ri$ on ) no small vehem5ce 9 _! "t4 ,?us ! s*ool ( ,p>is oppos$ all innovation1 rema9$ true to ! ,gal5ic dogmatism1 & decl>$ itself e>ne/ly aga9/ all comb9ation ( *emi/ry ) m$ic9e2 & ev5 aga9/ ! *emical prep>ation ( m$icam5ts4 ,guy ,pat91 a celebrat$ & le>n$ pr(essor ( t day1 decl>es#bji t ! *emi/s are no bett] ?an =g]s1 & ought to be puni%$ z su*4 ,! use ( antimonial m$ic9es 0 a ma9 po9t ( dispute betwe5 ! iatro*emi/s & _! oppon5ts2 ,pat9 ma9ta9$ t m m5 _h be5 de/roy$ by antimony ?an by ! ?irty ye>s' w> ( ,g]many2 & endeav\r$ to sub/antiate ?is ass]tion by collect+ all su* cases 9 8 ,m>tyrologium ,antimonii4 ,x mu/ h be5 a sev]e bl[ to ,pat9 :5#bai 9 #afff1 ! ,doctors ( ! ,faculty ( ,p>is1 assembl$ by comm& ( ! p>liam5t1 decl>$1 by a majority ( n9ety-two voices1 t ! use ( antimonial m$ic9es 0 all[able & laudable1 & :5 all attempts to set aside ?is decision fail$4 ,note #bji3 ,spr4 #cdi4 ,note #bai3 ,ib4 iv4 #cej4 ,flor5tius ,s*uyl ( ,leyd5 s\ght to recomm5d ! iatro*emical doctr9es1 by ma9ta9+ t !y 7 to be f\nd 9 ! ,hippocratic writ+s2 nor 0 x difficult to give a *emical int]pretation ( ! humoral pa?ology ( ! anci5ts4 ,! ,italian#bbi physicians also1 = ! mo/ "p1 took ?is l9e1 & attempt$ to %[ ! agreem5t ( ! pr9ciples ( ! anci5t s*ool ( m$ic9e ) ! new *emical notions4 ,?is1 inde$1 is ! usual mann] 9 :i* ! diffusion ( new !oretical ideas becomes univ]sal4 ,note #bbi3 ,ib4 #cfh4 ,! progress ( ! *emical s*ool ( m$ic9e 9 ,engl&#bci requires our m especial notice4 ,willis 0 ! mo/ celebrat$ *ampion ( ?is sect4 ,he assum$1 b ) modifications ( 8 own1 ! ?ree ,p>acelsian pr9ciples1 ,salt1 ,sulphur1 & ,m]cury2 consid]$ dige/ion z ! effect ( an acid1 & #ahj expla9$ o!r p>ts ( ! animal economy by di/illation1 f]m5tation1 & ! l4 ,all diseases arise f ! want ( ! requisite f]m5t2 & ! physician1 he says#bdi1 may be comp>$ to a v9tn]1 s9ce bo? ! "o & ! o!r h to take c>e t ! necess>y f]m5tations g on1 t no =eign matt] mixes itself ) ! w9e ( life1 to int]rupt or d]ange ^? op]ations4 ,9 ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 m$ic9e _h rea*$ a po9t 9 :i* ! life ( ! animal body 0 consid]$ z m]ely a *emical process2 ! wi% to expla9 ev]y?+ on kn[n pr9ciples left no recogniz$ diff]5ce betwe5 organiz$ & unorganiz$ bodies1 & diseases 7 treat$ accord+ to ?is delusive notion4 ,! condition ( *emi/ry itself dur+ ?is p]iod1 ?\gh n "o ( brilliant progress1 0 suffici5tly /able & fl\ri%+ to give a plausibility to any speculation :i* 0 f\nd$ on *emical pr9ciples2 & ! real influ5ce ( ^! pr9ciples 9 ! animal frame c\ld n be d5i$4 ,note #bci3 ,ib4 #cec4 ,note #bdi3 ,spr4 #ced4 ,! iatro*emi/s 7 at fir/ resi/$1 z we h se51 by ! adh]5ts ( ! anci5t s*ools2 !y 7 attack$ on v>i\s gr\nds1 & f9ally depos$ f !m asc5dancy by ano!r sect1 :i* we h to speak (1 z ! iatroma!matical1 or me*anical s*ool4 ,?is sect 0 no less unsatisfactory & errone\s 9 its positive doctr9es ?an ! *emi/s _h be52 = ! animal frame is no m a m]e ma*9e ?an a m]e laboratory3 b x promot$ ! cause ( tru?1 by detect+ & expos+ ! insuffici5t explanations & unprov$ ass]tions ( ! reign+ !ory4 ,boyle 0 "o ( ! p]sons :o fir/ rais$ d\bts aga9/ ! curr5t *emical doctr9es ( 8 "t1 z we h else:]e not$2 b 8 objections _h no peculi> physiological import4 ,h]man ,com+#bei1 ! mo/ le>n$ physician ( 8 "t1 a contempor>y ) ,sylvius1 took a view m p]t95t to our pres5t object2 = he n only reject$ ! al*emical #aha & h]metical m$ic9es1 b taught expressly t *emi/ry1 9 its !n exi/+ condition1 0 bett] fitt$ to be ( use 9 ! practice ( ph>macy1 ?an 9 ! !ories ( physiology & pa?ology4 ,he made ! important ass]tion1 also1 t *emical pr9ciples d n pre-exi/ z su* 9 ! animal body2 & t !re are high] p[]s :i* op]ate 9 ! organic _w1 & :i* d n dep5d on ! =m & mixture ( matt]4 ,note #bei3 ,ib4 iv4 #cfa4 ,attempts 7 made to prove ! acid & alkal9e nature ( ! fluids ( ! human body by means ( exp]im5ts1 z by ,john ,viridet ( ,g5eva#bfi1 & by ,raimond ,vieuss5s#bgi1 ! latt] ( :om ma9ta9$ t he _h extract$ an acid f ! blood1 & detect$ a f]m5t 9 ! /oma*4 ,9 opposition to him1 ,hecquet1 a disciple ( ! iatroma!matical s*ool1 endeav\r$ to prove t dige/ion 0 p]=m$1 n by means ( f]m5tation1 b by trituration4 ,hecquet's own op9ions _c be def5d$2 b 8 objections to ! *emical doctr9es1 & 8 ass]tion ( ! diff]5ce ( *emical & organical processes1 are evid5ces ( j ?\ght#bhi4 ,note #bfi3 ,spr4 iv4 #cbi4 ,note #bgi3 ,ib4 #cej1 7#agae74 ,note #bhi3 ,ib4 #dja4 ,! mo/ important oppon5ts ( ! iatro*emical s*ool 7 ,pitcairn 9 ,engl&1 ,bohn & ,h(fman 9 ,g]many1 & ,bo]haave 9 ,holl&4 ,^! em95t physicians1 ab\t ! end ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 argu$ on ! same gr\nds ( obs]vation1 t dige/ion is n f]m5tation1 & t ! ,sylvian acc\nts ( ! orig9 ( diseases by means ( acid & alkali are false4 ,! argum5ts & au?ority ( ^! & o!r p]sons f9ally ga9$ an asc5dancy 9 ! m$ical _w1 & soon aft] ?is p]iod we may consid] ! reign ( ! *emical s*ool ( physiology z pa/4 ,9 fact1 ! attempts to prove its ass]tions exp]im5tally 7 ( ! feeble/ k9d1 & x _h no solid basis on :i* x c\ld re/1 s z to resi/ ! %ock ( ! next hypo!sis :i* ! progress ( ! physical sci5ces might impel aga9/ x4 ,we may1 !re=e1 n[ consid] ! op9ion ( ! m]e #ahb *emical nature ( ! vital processes z disprov$1 & we proce$ next to notice ! hi/ory ( ano!r unsuccessful essay to r$uce vital actions to kn[n actions ( ano!r k9d4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,! ,iatroma!matical ,s*ool4 ,9 ! fir/ ,section ( ?is *apt]1 we enum]at$ ! biological hypo!ses :i* at fir/ pres5t !mselves1 z ! my/ical1 ! me*anical1 ! *emical4 ,we might h expect$ t !y %\ld occur to m5's m9ds 9 ! ord] ?us /at$3 & 9 fact !y did s2 = ! physiology ( ! anci5t mat]iali/s1 z ,democritus & ,lucretius1 is me*anical s f> z x is at all di/9ct 9 its views1 & ?us ! me*anical prec$$ ! *emical doctr9e4 ,b 9 mod]n times1 ! fluid or *emical physiology 0 develop$ be=e ! solid or me*anical3 ( :i* ! reason appe>s to h be5 ?is2--t ,me*anics & ,*emi/ry began to assume a sci5tific "* ab\t ! same "t2 & t ( ! two1 ,*emi/ry n only appe>$ at fir/ sight m applicable to ! functions ( ! body1 because all ! m rapid *anges appe> to be connect$ ) modifications ( ! fluids ( ! animal sy/em1 b also1 by its wid] range ( facts & m indef9ite pr9ciples1 af=d$ a bett] tempor>y refuge = ! m9d :5 p]plex$ by ! difficulties & my/]ies :i* spr+ out ( ! speculations conc]n+ life4 ,b if ,*emi/ry 0 ?us at fir/ a m invit+ field = ! physiologi/1 ,me*anics soon became m attractive 9 virtue ( ! spl5did results obta9$ by ! s*ools ( ,galileo & ,newton4 ,& :5 ! insuffici5cy ( *emical physiology 0 discov]$ by trial1 z we h se5 x 01 ! hope naturally arose1 t ! me*anical pr9ciples :i* _h expla9$ s _m ( ! ph5om5a ( ! ext]nal univ]se might also be f\nd1 applicable to ! small] _w ( mat]ial life2--t ! microcosm z well z ! macrocosm might h its me*anical pr9ciples4 ,f ?is hope sprung ! #ahc ,iatroma!matical ,s*ool1 or s*ool ( ,me*anical ,physiologi/s4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 divide ?is s*ool into two p>ts1 ! ,italian1 & ! ,c>tesio-,newtonian sect4 ,! =m] employ$ !mselves 9 calculat+ & analys+ a numb] ( ! prop]ties ( ! animal frame :i* are und\bt$ly me*anical2 ! latt]1 some:at intoxicat$ by ! suppos$ triumphs ( ! corpuscul> philosophy1 endeav\r$ to ext5d ^! to physiology1 & = ?is purpose introduc$ into ! subject _m arbitr>y & baseless hypo!ses4 ,i w v briefly m5tion "s ( ! writ]s ( bo? ^! sects4 ,! ma9 po9ts to :i* ! ,italian or g5u9e ,me*anical ,physiologi/s att5d$1 7 ! application ( me*anical calculations to ! =ce ( ! muscles1 & ( hydraulical reason+s to ! motion ( ! fluids ( ! animal sy/em4 ,! success ) :i* ,galileo & 8 disciples _h pursu$ ^! bran*es ( me*anical philosophy1 & ! asc5dancy :i* !y _h obta9$1 fir/ 9 ,italy1 & !n 9 o!r l&s1 made su* speculations highly int]e/+4 ,borelli may be consid]$ z ! fir/ great "n 9 8 l9e1 & 8 book1 ,de ,motu ,animalium1 7,opus ,po/humum1 ,rom1 #afhj17 is ev5 n[ a v in/ructive treatise on ! =ces & action ( ! bones & muscles4 ,?is1 c]ta9ly "o ( ! mo/ valuable portions ( me*anical physiology1 has n ev5 yet be5 s fully develop$ z x des]ves1 al?\gh ,john ,b]n\lli#bii & 8 son ,daniel#cji appli$ to x ! res\rces ( analysis1 & ,pemb]ton#cai 9 ,engl&1 pursu$ ! same subject4 ,o!r ( ^! me*anico-physiological problems consi/$ 9 ref]r+ ! pressure ( ! blood & ( ! brea? to hydro/atical pr9ciples4 ,9 ?is mann] ,borelli 0 l$ to ass]t t ! muscles ( ! he>t ex]t a =ce ( #ahj1jjj p\nds#cbi4 ,b a little lat]1 ,keill r$uc$ ?is =ce #ahd to a few ounces#cci4 ,keill & o!rs attempt$ to det]m9e1 on simil> pr9ciples1 ! velocity ( ! blood2 we ne$ n notice ! controv]sies :i* ?us arose1 s9ce !re is n involv$ 9 !m any peculi> physiological pr9ciple4 ,note #bii3 ,de ,motu ,musculorum4 ,note #cji3 ,act4 ,acad4 ,petrop4 ,note #cai3 ,c\rse ( ,physiology1 #aggc4 ,note #cbi3 ,spr4 iv4 #aaj4 ,note #cci3 ,spr4 iv4 #ddc4 ,! peculi> "* ( ! iatroma!matical s*ool1 z an attempt at physiological !ory1 is m manife/ 9 its o!r section1 :i* we h call$ ! ,c>tesio-,newtonian4 ,! ,c>tesian sy/em pret5d$ to acc\nt = ! appe>ances & *anges ( bodies by means ( ! size1 figure1 & motion ( _! m9ute p>ticles4 ,& ?\gh ?is sy/em 9 its progress t[>ds ! intellectual empire ( ,europe 0 sudd5ly ov]turn$ by ! rise ( ! ,newtonian philosophy1 ^! corpuscul> doctr9es r ga9$ ?an lo/ by ! revolution2 = ! ,newtonian philosophy enl>g$ ! p[]s ( ! corpuscul> hypo!sis1 by add+ ! effects ( ! attractive & repulsive =ces ( p>ticles to ^? ( _! =m & motion4 ,by ?is means1 al?\gh ,newton's discov]ies did n 9 fact augm5t ! probability ( ! corpuscul> hypo!sis1 !y s f> increas$ its plausibility1 t ?is hypo!sis f\nd fav\r bo? ) ,newton himself & 8 contempor>ies1 no less ?an x _h done ) ! ,c>tesians4 ,! attempt to apply ?is corpuscul> hypo!sis to physiology 0 made by ,des ,c>tes himself4 ,! g5]al "* ( su* speculations may easily be guess$#cdi4 ,! secretions are effect$ by ! organs op]at+ aft] ! mann] ( sieves4 ,b\nd p>ticles pass ?r\gh cyl9drical tubes1 pyramidal ones ?r\gh triangul> pores1 cubical p>ticles ?r\gh squ>e ap]tures1 & ?us diff]5t k9ds ( matt] are sep>at$4 ,simil> speculations 7 pursu$ by o!r ma!maticians3 ! v>i\s diamet] ( ! vessels#cei1 _! curvatures1 folds1 & angles1 7 made subjects ( calculation4 ,bell9i1 ,donzell9i1 ,gulielm9i1 9 ,italy2 ,p]rault1 ,dod>t1 9 ,france2 ,cole1 ,keill1 ,jur91 9 ,engl&1 7 ! pr9cipal cultivators ( su* /udies4 #ahe ,9 ! e>li] "p ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 physiological !ori/s consid]$ x z almo/ self-evid5t t _! sci5ce requir$ !m to reason conc]n+ ! size & %ape ( ! p>ticles ( ! fluids1 ! diamet] & =m ( ! invisible vessels4 ,su* 01 = in/ance1 ! op9ion ( ,*eyne#cfi1 :o held t acute fev]s arise f ! ob/ruction ( ! gl&s1 :i* occasions a m vehem5t motion ( ! blood4 ,mead1 ! physician ( ! ,k+1 & ! fri5d ( ,newton1 9 l mann] expla9$ ! effects ( poisons by hypo!ses conc]n+ ! =m ( _! p>ticles#cgi1 z we h already se5 9 speak+ ( *emi/ry4 ,note #cdi3 ,ib4 #cbi4 ,note #cei3 ,ib4 #dcb4 ,note #cfi3 ,spr4 iv4 #bbc4 ,note #cgi3 ,me*anical ,acc\nt ( ,poisons1 #agjb4 ,x is n necess>y = u to dwell long] on ?is subject1 or to po9t out ! total insuffici5cy ( ! m]e me*anical physiology4 ,! iatro*emi/s _h neglect$ ! effect ( ! solids ( ! liv+ frame2 ! iatroma!maticians att5d$ only to ^!#chi4 ,& ev5 ^! 7 consid]$ only z canals1 z cords1 z lev]s1 z lifeless ma*9es4 ,^! reason]s nev] look$ = any p[]s ( a high] ord] ?an ! cohesion1 ! resi/ance1 ! gravity1 ! attraction1 :i* op]ate 9 in]t matt]4 ,if ! *emical s*ool assimilat$ ! physician to a v9tn] or brew]1 ! me*anical physiologi/s made him an hydraulic eng9e]2 &1 9 fact1 sev]al ( ! iatroma!maticians 7 at ! same "t tea*]s ( eng9e]+ & ( m$ic9e4 ,note #chi3 ,spr4 iv4 #dai4 ,sev]al ( ! reason]s ( ?is s*ool comb9$ *emical ) _! me*anical pr9ciples2 b x w\ld ?r[ no additional light ^u ! subject to give any acc\nt ( ^!1 & ,i %all !re=e g on to speak ( ! next =m ( ! attempt to expla9 ! processes ( life4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,! ,vital-,fluid ,s*ool4 ,i speak "h1 n ( t op9ion :i* assumes "s k9d ( fluid or e!r z ! means ( #ahf communication along ! n]ves 9 p>ticul>1 b ( ! hypo!sis t all ! peculi> functions ( life dep5d ^u "s subtile e!real sub/ance diffus$ ?r\gh ! frame2--n ( a ,n]v\s ,fluid1 b ( a ,vital ,fluid4 ,aga91 ,i di/+ui% ?is op9ion f ! doctr9e ( an immat]ial vital p[] or pr9ciple1 an ,animal ,s\l1 :i* w be ! subject ( ! next ,section3 nor is ?is di/9ction insignificant2 = a mat]ial elem5t1 h[ev] subtile1 h[ev] mu* spiritualiz$1 mu/ /ill act ev]y:]e accord+ to ! same laws2 :]eas we d n conceive an immat]ial _s or s\l to be subject to ?is necessity4 ,! iatroma!matical s*ool c\ld expla9 to _! own satisfaction h[ motions1 once begun1 7 transf]r$ & modifi$2 b 9 _m organs ( ! liv+ frame !re seem$ to be a p[] ( beg9n+ motion1 :i* is beyond all m]e me*anical action4 ,?is l$ to ! assumption ( a ,pr9ciple ( a high] k9d1 ?\gh /ill mat]ial4 ,su* a ,pr9ciple 0 ass]t$ by ,fr$]ick ,h(fmann1 :o 0 born at ,halle1 9 #affjcii1 & became ,pr(essor ( ,m$ic9e at ! newly e/abli%$ ,univ]sity !re 9 #afid4 ,accord+ to him#dji1 ! reason ( ! great] activity ( organiz$ bodies lies 9 ! influ5ce ( a mat]ial sub/ance ( extreme subtilty1 volatility1 & en]gy4 ,?is is1 he holds1 no o!r ?an ! ,e!r1 :i*1 diffus$ ?r\gh all nature1 produces 9 plants ! bud1 ! secretion & motion ( ! juices1 & is sep>at$ f ! blood & lodg$ 9 ! bra9 ( animals#dai4 ,f ?is1 act+ ?r\gh ! n]ves1 mu/ be d]iv$ all ! actions ( ! organs 9 ! animal frame2 = :5 ! influ5ce ( ! n]ve ^u ! muscle ceases1 muscul> motion ceases also4 ,note #cii3 ,spr4 v4 #bed4 ,note #dji3 ,ib4 v4 #beg4 ,note #dai3 ,de ,diff]5ti ,organismi et ,me*anismi1 pp4 #dh1 #fg4 ,! mode ( op]ation ( ?is vital fluid 01 h[ev]1 by no means /eadily appreh5d$ by ,h(fmann & 8 foll[]s4 ,its op]ations are s f> me*anical#dbi t all effects are r$uc$ to motion1 yet !y #ahg _c be expla9$ accord+ to kn[n me*anical laws4 ,at "o "t ! effects are said to take place accord+ to laws ( a ,high] ,me*anics :i* are /ill to be discov]$#dci4 ,at ano!r "t1 9 complete contradiction ( ! g5]al _s ( ! sy/em1 metaphysical conceptions are introduc$3 ea* p>ticle ( ! vital fluid is said to h a det]m9$ idea ( ! :ole me*anism & organism#ddi1 & accord+ to ?is1 x =ms ! body & pres]ves x by its motion4 ,by means ( ?is fluid ! s\l op]ates ^u ! body1 & ! in/9cts & ! passions h _! s\rce 9 ?is mat]ial s5sitive s\l4 ,?is attribution ( ideas to ! p>ticles ( ! fluid is less unacc\ntable :5 we recollect t some?+ ( ! same k9d is admitt$ into ,leibnitz's sy/em1 ^: ,monads h also ideas4 ,note #dbi3 ,spr4 v4 #bfb1 #c4 ,note #dci3 ,h(fmann1 ,opp4 ,vol4 v4 p4 #abc4 ,note #ddi3 ,de ,diff4 ,organ4 et ,me*an4 p4 #ha4 ,not)/&+ its inconsi/5cies1 ,h(fmann's sy/em 0 receiv$ ) v g5]al fav\r bo? 9 ,g]many & 9 ! re/ ( ,europe2 ! m s1 inasmu* z x fell 9 v well ) ! philosophy bo? ( ,leibnitz & ( ,newton4 ,! ,newtonians 7 g5]ally incl9$ to id5tify ! ,vital ,fluid ) ! ,e!r1 ( :i* _! ma/] 0 s /rongly dispos$ to assume ! exi/5ce3 & inde$ he himself sugge/$ ?is id5tification4 ,:5 ! discov]ies made respect+ ,electricity 9 ! c\rse ( ! eighte5? c5tury _h famili>iz$ m5 ) ! notion ( a p]vad+ subtile ag5t1 invisible1 intangible1 yet produc+ v p[]ful effects 9 e "p ( nature1 physiologi/s also caught at ! sugge/ion ( su* an ag5t1 & tri$1 by borr[+ or imitat+ x1 to aid ! imp]fection ( _! notions ( ! vital p[]s4 ,! ,vital ,pr9ciple#dei 0 imag9$ to be a sub/ance ( ! same k9d1 by "s to be ! same sub/ance1 ) ! ,electric ,fluid4 ,by its ag5cy all ^! processes 9 organiz$ bodies 7 acc\nt$ = :i* _c be #ahh expla9$ by me*anical or *emical laws1 z ! secretion ( v>i\s matt]s 7te>s1 milk1 bile1 c47 f an homog5e\s fluid1 ! blood2 ! production ( animal heat1 dige/ion1 & ! l4 ,accord+ to ,john ,hunt]1 ?is att5uat$ sub/ance p]vad$ ! blood itself1 z well z ! solid organic frame2 & ! *anges :i* take place 9 ! blood :i* has fl[$ out ( ! ve9s into a bas9 are expla9$ by say+ t x is1 = a "t1 till ?is vital fluid evaporates1 truly alive4 ,note #dei3 ,pri*>d1 ,on ! ,doctr9e ( a ,vital ,pr9ciple1 p4 #ab4 ,! notion ( a ,vital ,fluid appe>s also to be fav\rably look$ ^u by ,cuvi]2 al?\gh ) him ?is doctr9e is ma9ly put =w>ds 9 ! =m ( a ,n]v\s ,fluid4 ,yet 9 ! foll[+ passage he ext5ds ! op]ation ( su* an ag5t to all ! vital functions#dfi3 ',we h only to suppose t all ! m$ull>y & n]v\s p>ts produce ! ,n]v\s ,ag5t1 & t !y alone conduct x2 t is1 t x c only be transmitt$ by !m1 & t x is *ang$ or consum$ by _! actions4 ,!n ev]y?+ appe>s simple4 ,a deta*$ portion ( muscle pres]ves = "s "t its irritability1 on acc\nt ( ! portion ( n]ve :i* always adh]es to x4 ,! s5sibility & ! irritability reciprocally exhau/ ea* o!r by _! ex]cise1 because !y *ange or consume ! same ag5t4 ,all ! int]ior motions ( dige/ion1 secretion1 excretion1 p>ticipate 9 ?is exhau/ion1 or may produce x4 ,all local excitation ( ! n]ves br+s ?i!r m blood by augm5t+ ! irritability ( ! art]ies1 & ! afflux ( blood augm5ts ! real s5sibility by augm5t+ ! production ( ! n]v\s ag5t4 ,h5ce ! pleasures ( titillations1 ! pa9s ( inflammation4 ,! p>ticul> s5sations increase 9 ! same mann] & by ! same causes2 & ! imag9ation ex]cises1 7/ill by means ( ! n]ves17 ^u ! int]nal fibres ( ! art]ies or o!r p>ts1 & ?r\gh !m on ! s5sations1 an action analog\s to t ( ! w ^u ! volunt>y motions4 ,z ea* ext]ior s5se is exclusively dispos$ #ahi to admit ! sub/ances :i* x is to p]ceive1 s ea* int]ior organ1 secretory or o!r1 is also m excitable by "s "o ag5t ?an by ano!r3 & h5ce arises :at has be5 call$ ! prop] s5sibility or prop] life ( ! organs2 & ! influ5ce ( specifics :i*1 introduc$ into ! g5]al circulation1 affect only c]ta9 p>ts4 ,9 f9e1 if ! n]v\s ag5t _c become s5sible to u1 ! reason is t all s5sation requires t ?is ag5t %\ld be alt]$ 9 "s way or o!r2 & x _c alt] itself4 ,note #dfi3 ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,nat4 depuis #aghi1 i4 #bad4 ',su* is ! summ>y idea :i* we may at pres5t =m ( ! mutual & g5]al work+ ( ! vital p[]s 9 animals4' ,aga9/ ! doctr9e ( a ,vital ,fluid z "o uni=m mat]ial ag5t p]vad+ ! organic frame1 an argum5t has be5 /at$ :i* po9ts out extremely well ! philosophical objection to su* an hypo!sis#dgi4 ,if ! ,vital ,pr9ciple be ! same 9 all p>ts ( ! body1 h[ does x happ51 x is ask$1 t ! secretions are s diff]5t8 ,h[ d ! p>ticles 9 ! blood1 sep>at$ f _! old comp\nds & unit$ into new ones1 "u ! same influ5ce1 give orig9 to all ! diff]5t fluids :i* are produc$ by ! gl&s8 ,! liv] secretes bile1 ! lacrymal gl&1 te>s1 & s on4 ,is ! ,vital ,pr9ciple diff]5t 9 all ^! organs8 ,to ass]t ?is1 is to multiply nom9al pr9ciples )\t limit1 & )\t any advance 9 ! explanation ( facts4 ,is ! ,vital ,pr9ciple ! same1 b its op]ation modifi$ by ! /ructure ( ! organ8 ,we h !n two unkn[n causes1 ! ,vital ,pr9ciple & ! ,organic ,/ructure1 to acc\nt1 = ! effect4 ,by su* a multiplication ( hypo!ses no?+ is ga9$4 ,we may z well say at once1 t ! /ructure ( ! organ1 act+ by laws yet unkn[n1 is ! cause ( ! peculi> secretion4 ,x is z easy to imag9e ?is /ructure act+ to produce ! :ole effect1 z x is to imag9e x modify+ ! activity ( ano!r ag5t4 ,?us ! hypo!sis ( ! ,vital ,fluid 9 ?is =m expla9s no?+1 & does n 9 any #aij way help onw>ds ! progress ( real biological k4 ,note #dgi3 ,pri*>d1 ,on a ,vital ,pr9ciple1 p4 #ih4 ,! hypo!sis ( an immat]ial vital pr9ciple mu/ n[ be consid]$4 ,,sect4 ,v4--,! ,psy*ical ,s*ool4 ,! doctr9e ( an ,animal ,s\l z ! pr9ciple :i* makes ! op]ations ( organic diff]5t f ^? ( inorganic matt]1 is q di/9ct f1 & we may say indep5d5t (1 ! doctr9e ( ! s\l z ! intellig5t1 moral1 responsible "p ( man's nature4 ,x is ! =m] doctr9e alone ( :i* we h "h to speak1 & ^? :o ?us hold ! exi/5ce ( an immat]ial ag5t z ! cause ( ! ph5om5a ( life1 ,i t]m ! ,psy*ical ,s*ool4 ,su* a view ( ! con/itution ( liv+ ?+s is v anci5t4 ,= in/ance1 ,ari/otle's ,treatise ',on ! ,s\l1' goes entirely ^u ! supposition t ! ,s\l is ! cause ( motion1 & he arrives at ! conclusion t !re are diff]5t p>ts 9 ! ,s\l2 ! nutritive or vegetative1 ! s5sitive1 & ! rational#dhi4 ,note #dhi3 ,ari/otle4 1 ii4 #b4 ,b ?is doctr9e is m in/ructive to u1 :5 x appe>s z ! antagoni/ ( o!r op9ions conc]n+ ! nature ( life4 ,9 ?is =m x comes be=e u z promulgat$ by ,/ahl1 :om we h already notic$ z "o ( ! great discov]]s 9 *emi/ry4 ,born 9 ! same ye> z ,h(fmann1 & appo9t$ at 8 sugge/ion pr(essor at ! same "t 9 ! same new univ]sity ( ,halle1 he soon publi%$ a rival physiological !ory4 ,9 a lett] to ,lucas ,s*rck1 ! presid5t ( ! ,academy ( ,naturali/s1 he describes ! mann] 9 :i* he 0 l$ to =m a sy/em = himself#dii4 ,educat$ 9 ! t5ets ( ,sylvius & ,willis1 accord+ to :i* all diseases are d]iv$ f ! acidity ( ! fluids1 ,/ahl1 :5 a "y /ud5t1 (t5 wond]$ h[ ^! fluids1 s liable to be pollut$ & corrupt$1 are s wond]fully pres]v$ ?r\gh innum]able ext]nal influ5ces1 & seem to #aia be f> less affect$ by ^! ?an by age1 con/itution1 passion4 ,no mat]ial cause c\ld1 he ?\ght1 produce su* effects4 ,no att5tion to me*anism or *emi/ry alone c\ld tea* u ! true nature & laws ( organization4 ,note #dii3 ,spr4 v4 #cjc4 ,s f> z ,/ahl recogniz$ ! influ5ce1 9 liv+ bodies1 ( some?+ beyond ! range ( me*anics & *emi/ry1 !re c be no d\bt ( ! s\nd philosophy ( 8 views2 b :5 he proce$s to f\nd a positive sy/em ( physiology1 8 t5ets become m prec>i\s4 ,! basis ( 8 !ory is ?is#eji3 ! body has1 z body1 no p[] to move itself1 & mu/ always be put 9 motion by immat]ial sub/ances4 ,all motion is a spiritual act#eai4 ,! s\rce ( all activity 9 ! organic body1 f :i* its pres]vation1 ! p]man5cy ( its composition1 & all its o!r functions proce$1 is an immat]ial be+1 :i* ,/ahl calls ! ,s\l2 because1 z he says1 :5 ! effects are s simil>1 he w n multiply p[]s )\t necessity4 ,( ?is pr9ciple1 he says1 z ! ,hippocratians said ( ,nature1 t 'x does )\t tea*+ :at x ought to d#ebi1' & does x ')\t consid]ation#eci4' ,^! anci5t t5ets ,/ahl int]prets 9 su* a mann] t ev5 ! involunt>y motions proce$ f ! s\l1 ?\gh )\t reflection or cle> consci\sness4 ,x is inde$ evid5t1 t !re are _m cu/om>y motions & s5sations :i* are p]fectly rational1 yet n ! objects ( di/9ct consci\sness3 & ?us in/9ctive motions1 & ^? ( :i* we are q unconsci\s1 may /ill be connect$ ) reason4 ,! que/ions :i* 9 ?is view (f] !mselves1 z1 h[ ! s\l passes f ! "m to ! *ild1 he dismisses z unpr(itable#edi4 ,he consid]s nutrition & secretion z ! "w ( ! s\l4 ,! corpuscul> !ory & ! doctr9e ( animal spirits #aib are1 he rightly obs]ves1 m]e hypo!ses1 :i* are arbitr>y 9 _! "*1 & only %ift ! difficulty4 ,=1 if ! animal spirits are n matt]1 h[ c !y expla9 ! action ( an immat]ial sub/ance on ! body2 & if !y are matt]1 h[ are !y !mselves act$ on8 ,note #eji3 ,spr4 v4 #cjh ,note #eai3 ,ib4 v4 #cad4 ,note #ebi3 ,/ahl1 4 ,note #eci3 4 ,note #edi3 ,?is 0 ( c\rse an obvi\s problem4 ,h>vey1 ,on ,g5]ation ,ex]cise #bg1 p4 #adh1 tea*es1 ',t ! egg is n ! production ( ! womb1 b ( ! s\l4' ,?is doctr9e ( ! action ( ! s\l on ! body1 0 accept$ by _m p]sons1 especially by ! iatroma!maticians1 :o c\ld n b feel ! insuffici5cy ( _! sy/em )\t "s su* supplem5t3 su* 7 ,*eyne & ,mead4 ,9 ,g]many1 ,/ahl's disciples 9 physiology 7 = ! mo/ "p inconsid]able p]sons#eei4 ,sev]al ,engli%m5 :o speculat$ conc]n+ ! metaphysics z well z ! physiology ( ,s5sation & ,motion1 incl9$ to ?is psy*ical view1 z ,port]field & ,:ytt4 ,among ! ,fr5*1 ,boissi] de ,sauvages 0 ! mo/ zeal\s def5d] ( ! ,/ahlian sy/em4 ,actions1 he says#efi1 :i* belong to ! pres]vation ( life are det]m9$ by a moral n a me*anical necessity4 ,!y proce$ f ! s\l1 b _c be controll$ by x1 z ! />t+ f fe>1 or ! trembl+ at dang]4 ,unz]1 a physician at ,altona#egi1 0 also a philosophical ,/ahlian#ehi4 ,note #eei3 ,spr4 v4 #cci1 c4 ,note #efi3 ,ib4 #ceh4 ,note #egi3 ,a4,d4 #agii ,note #ehi3 ,spr4 v4 #cfj4 ,we ne$ n dwell on ! opposition :i* 0 (f]$ to ?is !ory1 fir/ by ,h(fmann1 & aft]w>ds by ,hall]4 ,! =m] ( ^! _h promulgat$1 z we h se51 ! rival !ory ( a ,n]v\s ,fluid1 ! latt] 0 ! pr9cipal ass]tor ( ! doctr9e ( ,irritability1 an important !ory on :i* we may aft]w>ds h to t\*4 ,hall]'s animosity aga9/ ! ,/ahlian hypo!sis is a rem>kable feature 9 "o :o is 9 g5]al s tol]ant 9 8 judgm5t ( op9ions4 ,8 argum5ts are tak5 f ! abs5ce ( ! control ( ! w ov] ! vital actions1 f ! want ( consci\sness accompany+ ^! actions1 f ! uni=mity ( !m 9 diff]5t conditions ( ! m9d1 & f ! small s5sibility ( #aic ! he>t :i* is ! s\rce ( ! vital actions4 ,^! objections1 & ! too decid$ di/9ction :i* ,hall] made betwe5 volunt>y & involunt>y muscles1 7 v satisfactorily answ]$ by ,:ytt & ,platn]4 ,9 p>ticul> x 0 urg$ t ! in/9ctive actions ( brutes are inexplicable by means ( me*anism1 & may be comp>$ ) ! necess>y vital actions ( ! human body4 ,nei!r k9d are accid5tal1 nei!r k9d are volunt>y1 bo? are p]=m$ )\t reflection4 ,)\t trac+ fur!r ! progress ( ! ,psy*ical ,doctr9e1 ,i %all borr[ a few reflections ^u x f ,spr5gel#eii3-- ',:5 ! oppon5ts ( ! ,/ahlian sy/em repeat incessantly t ! assumption ( a psy*ical cause 9 corporeal effects is a metaphysical speculation :i* does n belong to m$ic9e1 !y talk to no purpose4 ,! /ates ( ! s\l are objects ( our int]nal exp]i5ce1 & int]e/ ! physician too ne>ly to all[ him to neglect !m4 ,! innum]able unconsci\s ef=ts ( ! s\l1 ! p[]ful & daily effects ( ! passions ^u ! body1 too (t5 put to confusion ^? :o w\ld expel into ! region ( metaphysics ! dispositions ( ! m9d4 ,! connexion ( our k ( ! s\l1 z ga!r$ f exp]i5ce1 ) our k ( ! human body1 is f> clos] ?an ! me*anical & *emical physiologi/s suspect4 ,note #eii3 ,spr4 v4 #chc4 ',! /ronge/ objection aga9/ ! psy*ical sy/em1 & "o :i* has nev] be5 suffici5tly answ]$ by any ( its advocates1 is ! univ]sality ( organic effects 9 ! vegetable k+dom4 ,! comp>ison ( ! physiology ( plants ) ! physiology ( animals puts ! latt] 9 its true light4 ,)\t absolutely trifl+ ) ! ^w s\l1 we _c possibly d]ive f a s\l ! organic op]ations ( vegetables4 ,b j z little c we1 z "s ,/ahlians h done1 draw a %>p l9e betwe5 plants & animals1 & ascribe ! processes ( ! =m] to m]e me*anism1 :ile #aid we d]ive ! op]ations ( ! latt] f an intellectual pr9ciple4 ,n to m5tion t su* a l9e is n possible1 ! rise ( ! sap & ! alt]ation ( ! fluids ( plants _c be d]iv$ entirely f mat]ial causes z _! highe/ orig94' ,?us1 ,i may add1 ?is psy*ical !ory1 h[ev] difficult to def5d 9 its detail1 does 9 its g5]alities express "s important tru?s respect+ ! vital p[]s4 ,x n only1 l ! la/ !ory1 gives unity to ! liv+ body1 b x m>ks1 m cle>ly ?an any o!r !ory1 ! wide int]val :i* sep>ates me*anical & *emical f vital action1 & fixes our att5tion ^u ! new p[]s :i* ! consid]ation ( life compels u to assume4 ,x n only rem9ds u t ^! p[]s are elevat$ above ! kn[n laws ( ! mat]ial _w1 b also t !y are closely connect$ ) ! _w ( ?\ght & feel+1 ( w & reason2 & ?us x c>ries u1 9 a mann] 9 :i* none ( ! prec$+ !ories h done1 to a true conception ( a liv+1 consci\s1 s5ti5t1 active individual4 ,at ! same "t we _c b all[ t ! life ( plants & ( ! l[] ord]s ( animals %[s u v cle>ly t1 9 ord] to arrive at any s\nd & consi/5t k respect+ life1 we mu/ =m "s conception ( x f :i* all ! high] attributes :i* ! t]m 's\l' involves1 are utt]ly & c>efully exclud$2 & !re=e we _c b come to ! conclusion t ! psy*ical s*ool are "r ma9ly 9 ?is2 t 9 ascrib+ ! functions ( life to a s\l1 !y m>k /rongly & ju/ly ! impossibility ( ascrib+ !m to any kn[n attributes ( body4 #aie ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,analyse ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,life4 #a4 ,def9itions ( ,life4--,,we h se5 9 ! prec$+ *apt] t all attempts to obta9 a di/9ct conception ( ! nature ( ,life 9 g5]al h end$ 9 failure1 & produc$ no?+ beyond a negative result4 ,& ! conjecture may n[ naturally occur1 t ! cause ( ?is failure resides 9 an errone\s mode ( prop\nd+ to ourselves ! problem4 ,in/ead ( contemplat+ ,life z a s+le ,idea1 x may p]haps be prop] to sep>ate x into sev]al compon5t notions3 in/ead ( seek+ = "o cause ( all vital op]ations1 x may be well to look at ! sep>ate vital functions1 & to seek _! causes4 ,:5 ! view ( ?is possibility op5s ^u u1 h[ %all we endeav\r to v]ify x1 & to take advantage ( x8 ,let u1 z "o obvi\s c\rse1 take "s ( ! attempts :i* h be5 made to def9e ,life1 & let u see :e!r !y appe> to (f] to u any analysis ( ! idea into compon5t p>ts4 ,su* def9itions1 :5 !y proce$ f m5 ( philosophical m9ds1 are ! ultimate result ( a long c\rse ( ?\ght & obs]vation2 & by no means des]ve to be slight$ z arbitr>y selections ( conditions1 or empty =ms ( words4 #b4 ,life has be5 def9$ by ,/ahl#fji1 ',! condition by :i* a body resi/s a natural t5d5cy to *emical *anges1 su* z putrefaction4' ,9 l mann]1 ,m4 von ,humboldt#fai def9es liv+ bodies to be '^? :i*1 not)/&+ ! con/ant op]ation #aif ( causes t5d+ to *ange _! =m1 are h9d]$ by a c]ta9 inw>d p[] f und]go+ su* *ange4' ,! fir/ ( ^! def9itions am\nts only to ! ass]tion1 t vital processes are n *emical2 a negative result1 :i* we may accept z true1 b :i* is1 z we h se51 a b>r5 tru?4 ,! second appe>s to be1 9 its import1 id5tical ) ! fir/4 ,an inw>d pr9ciple c only be und]/ood z di/+ui%$ f kn[n ext]nal p[]s1 su* z me*anical & *emical ag5cies4 ,or if1 by an int]nal pr9ciple1 we mean su* a pr9ciple z t ( :i* we are consci\s )9 ourselves1 we ascribe a s\l to all liv+ ?+s3 an hypo!sis :i* we h se5 is n m effective ?an ! =m] 9 promot+ ! progress ( biological sci5ce4 ,ne>ly ! same criticism applies to su* def9itions z t ( ,kant3 t ',life is an int]nal faculty produc+ *ange1 motion1 & action4' ,note #fji3 ,treviranus1 ,biologie1 p4 #ai4 ,/ahlii1 9999,!or4 ,m$4 p4 #bed4 ,note #fai3 ,aphorism5 aus d4 ,*em4 ,physiol4 d] ,pflanz51 s4 #a4 ,o!r def9itions ref] u1 n to "s prop]ty resid+ 9 ! :ole ( an organiz$ mass1 b to ! connexion & relation ( its p>ts4 ,?us ,m4 von ,humboldt#fbi has giv5 ano!r def9ition ( a liv+ body3 t 'x is a :ole ^: p>ts1 arbitr>ily sep>at$1 no long] resi/ *emical *anges4' ,b ?is additional ass]tion conc]n+ ! p>ts1 adds no?+ ( any value to ! def9ition ( ! :ole4 ,& 9 "s ( ! l[] k9ds ( plants & animals x is h>dly true z a fact4 ,note #fbi3 ,v]su*e b] die g]eitzte ,muskel und ,n]v5fs]1 b4 ii4 p4 #dcc4 #c4 ,ano!r def9ition#fci places ! "* ( ,life 9 'motions s]viceable to ! body mov$4' ,to ?is x has be5 object$#fdi1 t1 on ?is def9ition1 ! e>? & ! planets are liv+ bodies4 ,p]haps x w\ld be m philosophical to object to ! introduction ( s loose a notion z t ( a prop]ty be+ s]viceable to a body4 ,we might also add1 t if we speak ( all vital functions z motions1 we make an assumption q unau?oriz$1 & probably false4 ,note #fci3 ,erh>d1 ,rs*laub's ,magaz9 d] ,heilkunde1 b4 i4 /4 #a4 p4 #fi4 ,note #fdi3 ,treviranus1 ,biologie1 p4 #da4 #aig ,o!r def9itions ref] ! idea ( ,life to ! idea ( ,organization4 ',life is ! activity ( matt] accord+ to laws ( organization#fei4' ,we are !n naturally l$ to ask1 ,:at is ,organization8 ,9 reply to ?is is giv5 u ! ,kantian def9ition ( ,organization1 :i* ,i h already quot$ else:]e#ffi1 ',an organiz$ product ( nature is t 9 :i* all ! p>ts are mutually ends & means#fgi4' ,t ?is def9ition involves exact fundam5tal ideas1 & is capable ( be+ made ! basis ( s\nd k1 ,i %all h]eaft] endeav\r to %[4 ,b ,i may obs]ve t su* a def9ition leads u some:at fur!r4 ,if ! p>ts ( organiz$ bodies are kn[n to be means to c]ta9 ends1 ?is mu/ be kn[n because !y fulfil ^! ends1 & produce c]ta9 effects by ! op]ation ( a c]ta9 cause or causes4 ,! "q !n recurs1 :at is ! cause :i* produces su* effects z take place 9 organiz$ or liv+ bodies8 & ?is is id5tical ) ! problem ( :i* 9 ! la/ *apt] we trac$ ! hi/ory1 & relat$ ! failure ( physiologi/s 9 all attempts at its solution4 ,note #fei3 ,s*mid1 ,physiologie1 b4 ii4 p4 #bgd4 ,note #ffi3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xvii4 c4 viii4 s4 #b4 ,note #fgi3 ,kant1 ,ur!ilskraft1 p4 #bif4 #d4 ,b :at has be5 j said sugge/s to u t x may be an improvem5t to put our problem 9 ano!r %ape3--n to take = grant$ t ! cause ( all vital processes is "o1 b to suppose t !re may be sev]al sep>ate causes at "w 9 a liv+ body4 ,if ?is be s1 life is no long] "o k9d ( activity1 b sev]al4 ,we h a numb] ( op]ations :i* are someh[ b\nd toge!r1 & life is ! totality ( all ^!3 9 %ort1 life is n "o ,function1 b a ,sy/em ( ,functions4 #e4 ,we are ?us br\ght v ne> to ! celebrat$ def9ition ( life giv5 by ,bi*at#fhi3 ',life is ! sum ( ! functions by :i* dea? is resi/$4' ,b ^u ! def9ition ?us /at$1 we may v5ture to obs]ve2--fir/1 t ! introduction ( ! notion ( #aih dea? 9 ord] to def9e ! notion ( life appe>s to be unphilosophical4 ,we may m naturally def9e dea? ) ref]5ce to life1 z ! cessation ( life2 or at lea/ we may consid] life & dea? z correlative & int]dep5d5t notions4 ,aga91 ! ^w 'sum1' us$ 9 ! way 9 :i* x "h occurs1 appe>s to be likely to convey an errone\s conception1 z if ! functions "h spok5 ( 7 simply add$ to ea* o!r1 & connect$ by co-exi/5ce4 ,x is pla9 t our idea ( life involves m ?an ?is3 ! functions are all cle>ly connect$1 & mutually dep5d on ea* o!r2 nutrition1 circulation1 locomotion1 reproduction1--ea* has its influ5ce ^u all ! o!rs4 ,^! functions n m]ely co-exi/1 b exi/ ) _m mutual relations & connexions2 !y are cont9u$ s z to =m1 n m]ely a sum1 b a sy/em4 ,& ?us we are l$ to modify ,bi*at's def9ition1 & to say t ,life is ! sy/em ( vital functions4 ,note #fhi3 ,physiological ,rese>*es on ,life & ,dea?4 #f4 ,b x w be object$ t by su* a def9ition we expla9 no?+3 ! notion ( vital functions1 x may be said1 involves ! idea ( life1 & ?us br+s u r\nd aga9 to our />t+-po9t4 ,or if n1 at lea/ x is z necess>y to def9e ,vital ,functions z to def9e ,life itself1 s t we h made little progress 9 our task4 ,to ?is we reply1 t if any "o seeks1 ^u su* subjects1 "s ultimate & indep5d5t def9ition f :i* he c1 by m]e reason+1 d$uce a s]ies ( conclusions1 he seeks t :i* _c be f\nd4 ,9 ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 a ,def9ition does n =m ! basis ( reason+1 b po9ts out ! c\rse ( inve/igation4 ,! def9ition mu/ include words2 & ! mean+ ( ^! words mu/ be s\ght 9 ! progress & results ( obs]vations1 z ,i h else:]e said#fii4 ',! mean+ ( words is to be s\ght 9 ! progress ( ?\ght2 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce is our diction>y2 ! /eps ( sci5tific induction are our def9itions4' ,x w appe>1 ,i ?9k1 t x is m easy = u to =m an idea ( a sep>ate ,function ( ! #aii animal frame1 z ,nutrition or ,reproduction1 ?an to compreh5d ,life 9 g5]al "u any s+le idea4 ,& :5 we say t ,life is a sy/em ( ,vital ,functions1 we are ( c\rse direct$ to /udy ^! functions sep>ately1 & 7z 9 all o!r subjects ( sci5tific rese>*7 to endeav\r to =m ( !m su* cle> & def9ite ideas z may enable u to discov] _! laws4 ,note #fii3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xiii4 c4 ix4 #g4 ,! view to :i* we are ?us l$1 ( ! mo/ promis+ mode ( conduct+ ! rese>*es ( ,biology1 is "o :i* ! greate/ & mo/ philosophical physiologi/s ( mod]n times h adopt$4 ,?us ,cuvi] consid]s ?is z ! true (fice ( physiology at pres5t4 ',x belongs to mod]n times1' he says1 'to =m a j classification ( ! vital ph5om5a2 ! task ( ! pres5t "t is to analyse ! =ces :i* belong to ea* organic elem5t1 & ^u ! zeal & activity :i* are giv5 to ?is task1 dep5ds1 accord+ to my judgm5t1 ! =tune ( physiology#gji4' ,?is classification ( ! ph5om5a ( life involves1 ( c\rse1 a di/9ction & arrangem5t ( ! vital functions2 & ! inve/igation ( ! p[]s by :i* ^! functions are c>ri$ on1 is a natural sequel to su* a classification4 ,note #gji3 ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,nat4 dep4 #aghi1 i4 #bah4 #h4 ,classification ( ,functions4--,attempts to classify ! ,vital ,functions ( man 7 made at an e>ly p]iod1 & h be5 repeat$ 9 great numb] up to mod]n times4 ,! task ( classification is expos$ to ! same difficulties1 & gov]n$ by ! same conditions1 9 ?is z 9 o!r subjects4 ,"h1 z 9 ! case ( o!r ?+s1 !re may be _m classifications :i* are mod]ately good & natural1 b !re is only "o :i* is ! be/ & ! true natural sy/em4 ,"h1 z 9 o!r cases1 "o classification br+s into view "o set ( relations2 ano!r1 ano!r2 & ea* may be valuable = its special purpose4 ,"h1 z 9 o!r cases1 ! classes may be well con/itut$1 ?\gh ! b\nd>y l9es :i* divide !m be some:at indi/9ct1 & ! ord] d\btful4 ,"h1 #bjj z 9 o!r cases1 we may h approa*$ to ! natural classification )\t hav+ atta9$ x2 & "h1 z 9 o!r cases1 to def9e our classes is ! la/ & h>de/ ( our problems4 #i4 ,! mo/ anci5t classification ( ! ,functions ( liv+ ?+s#gai1 is ! division ( !m into ,vital1 ,natural1 & ,animal4 ,! ,vital ,functions are ^? :i* _c be int]rupt$ )\t loss ( life1 z ,circulation1 ,respiration1 & ,n]v\s ,communication4 ,! ,natural ,functions are ^? :i* )\t ! int]v5tion ( ! w op]ate on _! prop] occasions to pres]ve ! bodies ( animals2 !y are ,dige/ion1 ,absorption1 ,nutrition2 to :i* 0 add$ ,g5]ation4 ,! ,animal ,functions are ^? :i* involve p]ception & w1 by :i* ! animal is di/+ui%$ f ! vegetable2 !y are ,s5sibility1 ,locomotion1 & ,voice4 ,note #gai3 ,dict4 des ,sci5ces ,nat4 art4 ,fonctions4 ,! two great gr\nds ( ?is division1 ! di/9ction ( functions :i* op]ate cont9ually1 & ^? :i* op]ate occasionally2 & aga91 ! di/9ction ( functions :i* involve s5sation & volunt>y motion f ^? :i* d n2 are truly ( fundam5tal importance1 & gave a real value to ?is classification4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 liable to obvi\s objections3 namely1 ,fir/1 t ! names ( ! classes 7 ill *os52 = all ! functions are natural1 all are vital3 ,second1 t ! l9es ( dem>cation betwe5 ! classes are indef9ite & ambigu\s2 ,respiration is a vital function1 z be+ cont9ually necess>y to life2 b x is also a natural function1 s9ce x occurs 9 ! =mation ( ! nutritive fluid1 & an animal function1 s9ce x dep5ds 9 "p on ! w4 ,b ^! objections 7 n fatal1 = a classification may be really s\nd & philosophical1 ?\gh its b\nd>y l9es are vague1 & its nom5clature ill select$4 ,! division ( ! functions we h m5tion$ kept its gr\nd long2 or 0 employ$ ) a subdivision ( "o class1 s z to make !m f\r2 ! vital1 natural1 animal & sexual functions4 #bja #aj4 ,i pass ov] _m int]m$iate attempts to classify ! functions1 & proce$ to t ( ,bi*at z t :i* is1 ,i believe1 ! "o mo/ g5]ally ass5t$ to 9 mod]n times4 ,! lead+ pr9ciple 9 ! s*eme ( ?is celebrat$ physiologi/ is ! di/9ction betwe5 organic & animal life4 ,?is sep>ation is ne>ly id5tical ) ! "o j notic$ betwe5 ! vital & animal functions2 b ,bi*at1 by ! contra/s :i* he po9t$ out betwe5 ^! classes ( functions1 gave a decid$ prom95ce & p]man5ce to ! di/9ction4 ,! ,organic ,life1 :i* 9 animals is analog\s to ! life ( vegetables1 & ! ,animal ,life1 :i* implies s5sation & volunt>y motion1 h ea* its sy/em ( organs4 ,! c5t] ( ! animal life is ! bra91 ( ! organic life1 ! he>t4 ,! =m] is c>ri$ on by a symmetrical1 ! latt]1 by an unsymmetrical sy/em ( organs3 ! =m] produces int]mitt+1 ! latt] cont9u\s actions3 &1 9 addition to ^!1 o!r diff]5ces are po9t$ out4 ,?is di/9ction ( ! two lives1 be+ ?us e/abli%$1 ea* is subdivid$ into two ord]s ( ,functions4 ,! ,animal ,functions are passive1 z ,s5sation3 or active1 z ,locomotion & ,voice2 aga91 ! ,organic ,functions are ^? ( ,composition1 :i* are conc]n$ 9 tak+ matt] into ! sy/em2 ,dige/ion1 ,absorption1 ,respiration1 ,circulation1 ,assimilation2 & ^? ( ,decomposition1 :i* reject ! mat]ials :5 !y h dis*>g$ _! (fice 9 ! sy/em2 & ^! are aga91 ,absorption1 ,circulation1 & ,secretion4 ,to ^! are add$ ,calorification1 or ! production ( animal heat4 ,x appe>s1 f :at has be5 said1 t ,absorption & ,circulation 7& we may add ,assimilation & ,secretion1 :i* are difficult to sep>ate17 belong alike to ! processes ( composition & decomposition2 nor 9 tru?1 c we1 ) any rig\r1 sep>ate ! c5tripetal & c5trifugal movem5ts 9 t vortex :i*1 z we %all see1 is an apt image ( organic life4 ,sev]al objections h be5 made to ?is classification3 & 9 p>ticul>1 to ! t]ms ?us employ$4 ,x has be5 ass]t$ to be a p]v]sion ( language to #bjb ascribe to animals two lives1 & to call ! high] faculties 9 man1 p]ception & volition1 ! animal functions4 ,b1 z we h already said1 :5 a classification is really good1 su* objections1 :i* be> only ^u ! mode 9 :i* x is pres5t$1 are by no means fatal3 & x is g5]ally ackn[l$g$ by all ! mo/ philosophical cultivators ( biology1 t ?is arrangem5t ( ! functions is bett] suit$ to ! purposes ( ! sci5ce ?an ^? :i* prec$$ x4 #aa4 ,b accord+ to ! pr9ciples :i* we h already laid d[n1 ! solidity ( su* a classification is to be v]ifi$ by its s]v+ z a useful guide 9 biological rese>*es4 ,if ! arrangem5t :i* we h expla9$ be really f\nd$ 9 natural relations1 x w be f\nd t 9 proportion z physiologi/s h /udi$ ! sep>ate functions above enum]at$1 _! ideas ( ^! functions1 & ( ! p[]s by :i* !y are c>ri$ on1 h become m & m cle>2--h t5d$ m & m to ! "* ( exact & rigor\s sci5ce4 ,to exam9e h[ f> ?is has be5 ! case ) reg>d to all ! sep>ate functions1 w\ld be to attempt to e/imate ! value ( all ! pr9cipal physiological speculations ( mod]n times2 a task f> too va/ & too ardu\s = any "o to und]take :o has n devot$ 8 life to su* /udies4 ,b x may prop]ly come )9 ! compass ( our pres5t plan to %[ h[1 ) reg>d to ! broad] l9es ( ! above classification1 !re has be5 su* a progress z we h above describ$1 f m loose & inaccurate notions ( "s ( ! vital functions to m def9ite & precise ideas4 ,?is ,i %all attempt to po9t out 9 "o or two in/ances4 #bjc ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,=m ,,ideas ,,( ,,sep>ate ,,vital ,,=ces1 ,,& ,,fir/ ,,( ,,assimilation ,,& ,,secretion4 ,,sect4 ,i4--,c\rse ( ,biological ,rese>*4 #a4 ,,x is to be obs]v$ t at pres5t ,i d n speak ( ! progress ( our k ) reg>d to ! detail ( ! processes :i* take place 9 ! human body1 b ( ! approa* made to "s di/9ct ,idea ( ! specially vital "p ( ea* process4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,physiology1 x has be5 se5#gbi t all ! great discov]ies made respect+ ! organs & motions ( ! animal frame h be5 foll[$ by speculations & hypo!ses connect$ ) su* discov]ies4 ,! discov]y ( ! circulation ( ! blood l$ to !ories ( animal heat2 ! discov]y ( ! motion ( ! *yle l$ to !ories ( dige/ion2 ! close exam9ation ( ! process ( reproduction 9 plants & animals l$ to !ories ( g5]ation4 ,9 all ^! cases1 ! discov]y br\ght to light "s portion ( ! process :i* 0 me*anical or *emical1 b x also1 9 ea* in/ance1 s]v$ to %[ t ! process 0 some?+ m ?an me*anical or *emical4 ,! !ory attempt$ to expla9 ! process by ! application ( kn[n causes2 b !re always rema9$ "s "p ( x :i* mu/ unavoidably be ref]r$ to an unkn[n cause4 ,b ?\gh unkn[n1 su* a cause 0 n a hopeless object ( /udy4 ,z ! vital functions became bett] & bett] und]/ood1 x 0 se5 m & m cle>ly at :at precise po9ts ( ! process x 0 necess>y to assume a peculi> vital en]gy1 & :at sort ( prop]ties #bjd ?is en]gy mu/ be conceiv$ to possess4 ,x 0 p]ceiv$ :]e1 9 :at mann]1 9 :at degree1 me*anical & *emical ag5cies 7 modifi$1 ov]-rul$1 or c\nt]act$1 by ag5cies :i* mu/ be hyp]me*anical & hyp]*emical4 ,& ?us ! discov]ies made 9 anatomy by a labori\s exam9ation ( facts1 po9t$ out ! necessity ( introduc+ new ideas1 9 ord] t ! facts might be intelligible4 ,obs]vation taught mu*2 & among o!r ?+s1 %e taught t !re 0 some?+ :i* c\ld n be obs]v$1 b :i* mu/1 if possible1 be conceiv$4 ,i %all notice a few in/ances ( ?is4 ,note #gbi3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xvii4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,attempts to =m a di/9ct ,conception ( ,assimilation & ,secretion4 #b4 ,! ,anci5ts4--,t plants & animals gr[ by tak+ into _! sub/ance matt] previ\sly extrane\s1 is obvi\s to all3 b z soon z we attempt to conceive ?is process di/9ctly 9 detail1 we f9d t x involves no inconsid]able my/]y4 ,h[ does ! same food become blood & fle%1 bone & hair8 ,p]haps ! e>lie/ attempt to expla9 ?is my/]y1 is t record$ by ,lucretius#gci z ! op9ion ( ,anaxagoras1 t food conta9s "s bony1 "s fle%y p>ticles1 "s ( blood1 & s on4 ,we might1 on ?is supposition1 conceive t ! me*anism ( ! body appropriates ea* k9d ( p>ticle to its suitable place4 ,note #gci3 ,lucr4 i4 #hee4 ,nunc et ,anaxagor scrutemur 4 ,b x is easy to refute ?is essay at philosophiz+ 7z ,lucretius refutes x7 by rem>k+ t we d n f9d milk 9 grass1 or blood 9 fruit1 ?\gh su* food gives su* products 9 cattle & 9 m54 ,9 opposition to ?is ',homoiom]eia1' ! op9ion t is =c$ ^u u by ! facts is1 t ! process ( nutrition is n a selection m]ely1 b an assimilation2 ! organiz$ sy/em does n f9d1 b make1 ! additions to its /ructure4 #bje #c4 ,buffon4--,?is notion ( assimilation may be v>i\sly express$ & illu/rat$2 & all t we c d "h1 9 ord] to %[ ! progress ( ?\ght1 is to adduce ! speculations ( ^? writ]s :o h be5 mo/ successful 9 seiz+ & m>k+ its peculi> "*4 ,buffon may be tak5 z an example ( ! philosophy ( 8 "t on ?is subject4 ',! body ( ! animal1' says he#gdi1 'is a k9d ( int]ior m\ld1 9 :i* ! matt] subs]vi5t to its increase is modell$ & assimilat$ to ! :ole1 9 su* a way t1 )\t occasion+ any *ange 9 ! ord] & proportion ( ! p>ts1 !re results an augm5tation 9 ea* "p tak5 sep>ately4 ,?is increase1 ?is developm5t1 if we w\ld h a cle> idea ( x1 h[ c we obta9 x1 except by consid]+ ! body ( ! animal1 & ea* ( ! p>ts :i* is to be develop$1 z s _m int]ior m\lds :i* only receive ! accessory matt] 9 ! ord] :i* results f ! position ( all _! p>ts8 ,?is developm5t _c take place1 z p]sons sometimes p]suade !mselves1 by an addition to ! outside2 on ! contr>y1 x goes on by an intimate susception :i* p5etrates ! mass2 =1 9 ! "p ?us develop$1 ! size increases 9 all p>ts proportionally1 s t ! new matt] mu/ p5etrate x 9 all its dim5sions3 & x is q necess>y t ?is p5etration ( sub/ance mu/ take place 9 a c]ta9 ord]1 & accord+ to a c]ta9 measure2 = if ?is 7 n s1 "s p>ts w\ld develope !mselves m ?an o!rs4 ,n[ :at c !re be :i* %all prescribe su* a rule to ! accessory matt] except ! int]ior m\ld8' ,note #gdi3 ,hi/4 ,nat4 b4 i4 c4 iii4 ,to speak ( a m\ld simply1 w\ld convey a co>se me*anical notion1 :i* c\ld n be receiv$ z any useful contribution to physiological speculation4 ,b ?is int]ior m\ld is1 ( c\rse1 to be und]/ood figuratively1 n z an assemblage ( cavities1 b z a collection ( laws1 %ap+1 direct+1 & modify+ ! new matt]2 giv+ x n only =m1 b motion #bjf & activity1 su* z belong to ! p>ts ( an organic be+4 #d4 ,x mu/ be all[$1 h[ev]1 t ev5 ) ?is explanation1 ! comp>ison is v loose & insuffici5t4 ,a m\ld may be p]mitt$ to mean a collection ( laws1 b /ill x c convey no conception except t ( laws regulat$ by relations ( space2 & su* a conception is v pla9ly q inadequate to ! purpose4 ,:at c we conceive ( ! int]ior m\ld by :i* *yle is sep>at$ f ! alim5ts at ! pores ( ! lacteals1 or te>s secret$ 9 ! lacrymatory gl&8 ,an additional objection to ?is mode ( expression ( ,buffon is1 t x sugge/s to u only a s+le m>k$ *ange 9 ! assimilat$ matt]1 n a cont9u\s s]ies ( *anges4 ,yet ! animal fluids & o!r sub/ances are1 9 fact1 und]go+ a con/ant s]ies ( *anges4 ,food becomes *yme1 & *yme becomes *yle2 *yle is p\r$ into ! blood2 f ! blood secretions take place1 z ! bile2 ! bile is p\r$ into ! dige/ive canal1 & a portion ( ! matt] previ\sly introduc$ is reject$ out ( ! sy/em4 ,"h we mu/ h a s]ies ( 'int]ior m\lds2' & ^! mu/ impress matt] at its ejection f ! organic sy/em z well z at its reception4 ,b1 moreov]1 x is probable t none ( ! above trans=mations are q abrupt4 ,*ange is go+ on betwe5 ! beg9n+ & ! end ( ea* /age ( ! nutritive circulation4 ,to express ! laws ( ?is cont9u\s *ange1 ! image ( an int]ior m\ld is q unsuit$4 ,we mu/ seek a bett] mode ( conception4 #e4 ,vegetable & animal nutrition is1 z we h said1 a con/ant circulation4 ,! matt] s assum$ is n all reta9$3 a p]petual subtraction accompanies a p]petual addition4 ,!re is an excretion z well z an intussusception4 ,! matt] :i* is assum$ by ! liv+ creature is reta9$ only = a :ile1 & is !n p>t$ )4 ,! individual is ! same1 b its p>ts are 9 a p]petual flux3 !y come & g4 ,= a "t ! matt] :i* belongs to ! organic body is b\nd to x by c]ta9 laws3 b be=e x is ?us b\nd1 & #bjg aft] x is loose1 ?is matt] may circulate ab\t ! univ]se 9 any o!r =m4 ,life consi/s 9 a p]man5t influ5ce ov] a p]petually *ang+ set ( p>ticles4 ,cuvi]4--,?is condition also has be5 happily express$1 by means ( a comp>ison1 by ano!r great naturali/4 ',if1' says ,cuvi]#gei1 'if1 9 ord] to obta9 a j idea ( ! ess5ce ( life1 we consid] x 9 ! be+s :]e its effects are mo/ simple1 we %all soon p]ceive t x consi/s 9 ! faculty :i* belongs to c]ta9 bodily comb9ations to cont9ue dur+ a det]m9ate "t "u a det]m9ate =m2 con/antly attract+ into _! composition a "p ( ! surr\nd+ sub/ances1 & giv+ up 9 return "s "p ( _! own sub/ance4 ,note #gei3 ,rgne ,animal1 i4 #aa4 ',life is ?us a vortex1 m or less rapid1 m or less complex1 :i* has a con/ant direction1 & :i* always c>ries along its /ream p>ticles ( ! same k9ds2 b 9 :i* ! individual p>ticles are con/antly ent]+ 9 & dep>t+ out2 s t ! =m ( ! liv+ body is m ess5tial to x ?an its matt]4 ',s long z ?is motion subsi/s1 ! body 9 :i* x takes place is alive2 x lives4 ,:5 ! motion /ops f9ally1 ! body dies4 ,aft] dea?1 ! elem5ts :i* compose ! body1 giv5 up to ! ord9>y *emical aff9ities1 soon sep>ate1 & ! body :i* 0 alive is dissolv$4' ,?is notion ( a vortex#gfi :i* is p]man5t :ile ! matt] :i* composes x con/antly *anges1--( peculi> =ces :i* act 9 ?is vortex s long z x exi/s1 & :i* give place to *emical =ces :5 #bjh ! circulatory motion ceases1--appe>s to express "s ( ! lead+ conditions ( ! assimilative p[] ( liv+ ?+s 9 a simple & g5]al mann]1 & ?us t5ds to give di/9ctness to ! notion ( ?is vital function4 ,note #gfi3 ,! def9ition ( life giv5 by ,m4 de ,bla9ville appe>s to me n to diff] ess5tially f t ( ,cuvi]3 ',un corps vivant e/ une sorte de foy] *imique o il-y-a t\s mom5s apport de n\velles molecules et d"p de molecules anci5nes2 o la composition n'e/ jamais fixe 7si ce n'e/ d'un c]ta9 nombre de p>ties v]itablem5t mortes ou en dept71 mais t\j\rs p\r a9si dire 9 nisu1 d'o m\vem5t plus ou mo9s l5t et quelquefois *aleur4'--,pr9cipes d',anat4 #ahbb1 t4 i4 p4 #af4 #f4 ,b we may obs]ve t ?is notion ( a ,vortex is /ill insuffici5t4 ,p>ticles are n only tak5 into ! sy/em & circulat$ ?r\gh x = a "t1 b1 z we h se51 !y are alt]$ 9 "* 9 a mann] to u un9telligible1 bo? at _! fir/ admission into ! sy/em & at e p]iod ( _! progress ?r\gh x4 ,9 ! vortex ea* p>ticle is con/antly trans=m$ :ile x :irls4 ,x may be said1 p]haps1 t ?is trans=mation ( ! k9ds ( matt] may be conceiv$ to be m]ely a new arrangem5t ( _! p>ticles1 & t ?us all ! *anges :i* take place 9 ! circulat+ sub/ances are m]ely s _m additional w9d+s 9 ! c\rse ( ! :irl+ curr5t4 ,b to say ?is1 is to take = grant$ ! atomic hypo!sis 9 its rude/ =m4 ,:at "r h we to assume t blood & te>s1 bile & milk1 consi/ ( l p>ticles ( matt] diff]5tly arrang$8 ,:at c arrangem5t1 a m]e relation ( space1 d t[>ds expla9+ su* diff]5ces8 ,is n ! insuffici5cy1 ! absurdity ( su* an assumption prov$ by ! :ole c\rse ( sci5ce8 ,are n ev5 *emical *anges1 accord+ to ! be/ views hi!rto obta9$1 some?+ m ?an a m]e new arrangem5t ( p>ticles8 ,& are n vital z mu* beyond *emical1 z *emical are beyond geometrical modifications8 ,x is n en\gh1 !n1 to conceive life z a vortex4 ,! p>ticles :i* are tak5 into ! organic frame d m ?an circulate !re4 ,!y are1 at e po9t ( _! circulation1 act$ ^u by laws ( an unkn[n k9d1 *ang+ ! nature ( ! sub/ance :i* !y compose4 ,life is a vortex 9 :i* vital =ces act at e po9t ( ! /ream3 x is n only a curr5t ( :irl+ matt]1 b a cycle ( recurr+ p[]s4 #g4 ,matt] & ,=m4--,?is image ( a vortex is closely connect$ ) ! repres5tation ( life (f]$ #bji u by writ]s ( a v diff]5t s*ool4 ,9 ,s*ell+'s ,lectures on ,academic ,/udy1 he takes a survey ( ! v>i\s bran*es ( human k1 det]m9+ accord+ to 8 own pr9ciples ! %ape :i* ea* sci5ce mu/ necess>ily assume4 ,! peculi> "* ( organization1 accord+ to him#ggi1 is t ! matt] is only an accid5t ( ! ?+ itself1 & ! organization consi/s 9 ,=m alone4 ,b ?is ,=m1 by its v opposition to ,matt]1 ceases to be indep5d5t ( x1 & is only ideally sep>able4 ,9 organization1 !re=e1 sub/ance & accid5t1 matt] & =m1 are completely id5tical#ghi4 ,?is notion1 t 9 organization ! ,=m is ess5tial & ! ,matt] accid5tal1 or1 9 o!r words1 t ! ,=m is p]man5t & ! ,matt] fluctuat+ & transitory1 agrees1 if tak5 9 ! grosse/ s5se ( matt] & =m1 ) ,cuvi]'s image ( a ,vortex4 ,9 a :irlpool1 or 9 a wat]fall1 ! =m rema9s1 ! matt] con/antly passes away & is r5ew$4 ,b we h already se5#gii t 9 metaphysical speculations 9 :i* matt] & =m are oppos$1 ! ^w =m is us$ 9 a f> m ext5sive s5se ?an t :i* d5otes a relation ( space4 ,x may inde$ designate any *ange :i* matt] c und]go2 & we may v all[ably say t food & blood are ! same matt] "u diff]5t =ms4 ,h5ce if we ass]t t ,life is a con/ant ,=m ( a circulat+ ,matt]1 we express ,cuvi]'s notion 9 a mode free f ! false sugge/ion :i* ',vortex' conveys4 ,note #ggi3 ,lect4 xiii4 p4 #bhh4 ,note #ghi3 ,i h n translat$ ,s*ell+'s words1 b giv5 _! import z f> z ,i c\ld4 ,note #gii3 ,book i4 #h4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 /ill add some?+ to ?is acc\nt ( life4 ,! circulat+ p>ts ( ! sy/em n only circulate1 b !y =m ! non-circulat+ p>ts4 ,or r1 !re are no non-circulat+ p>ts3 all portions ( ! frame circulate m or less rapidly4 ,! food :i* we take circulates rapidly 9 ! fluids1 m sl[ly 9 ! fle%1 /ill m sl[ly 9 ! bones2 b 9 all ^! p>ts x is tak5 into ! sy/em1 #baj reta9$ !re = "s "t1 & f9ally replac$ by o!r matt]4 ,b :ile x rema9s 9 ! body1 x ex]cises ^u ! o!r circulat+ p>ts ! p[]s by :i* _! motion is produc$4 ,nutrim5t =ms & supports ! organs1 & ! organs c>ry fre% nutrim5t to its de/9ation4 ,! peculi> =ces ( ! liv+ body1 & its peculi> /ructure1 are ?us connect$ 9 an indescribable mann]4 ,! =ces produce ! /ructure2 ! /ructure1 aga91 is requisite = ! ex]tion ( ! =ces4 ,! ,idea ( an ,organic or ,liv+ ,be+ includes ?is peculi> condition--t its con/ruction & p[]s are su*1 t x con/antly appropriates to itself new portions ( sub/ance :i*1 s appropriat$1 become indi/+ui%able p>ts ( ! :ole1 & s]ve to c>ry on subsequ5tly ! same functions by :i* !y 7 assimilat$4 ,& ?us ,organic ,life is a con/ant ,=m ( a circulat+ ,matt]1 9 :i* ! ,matt] & ! ,=m det]m9e ea* o!r by peculi> laws 7t is1 by ,vital ,=ces74 ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,attempts to conceive ! =ces ( ,assimilation & ,secretion4 #i4 ,i h already /at$ t 9 our attempts to obta9 cle> & sci5tific ,ideas ( ,vital ,=ces1 we h1 9 ! fir/ place1 to seek to und]/& ! c\rse ( *ange & motion 9 ea* function1 s z to see at :at po9ts ( ! process peculi> causes come into play2 & next1 to endeav\r to obta9 "s insight into ! peculi> "* & attributes ( ^! causes4 ,hav+ spok5 ( ! fir/ "p ( ?is mode ( inve/igation 9 reg>d to ! g5]al nutrition ( organic bodies1 ,i mu/ n[ say a few words on ! second "p4 ,! ,=ces "h spok5 ( are ,vital ,=ces4 ,f :at has be5 said1 we may see 9 "s measure ! di/9ction betwe5 =ces ( ?is k9d & me*anical or *emical =ces2 ! latt] t5d con/antly to produce a f9al condition1 aft] :i* !re is no fur!r cause ( *ange3 me*anical =ces t5d to produce equilibrium2 *emical =ces t5d to produce #baa composition or decomposition2 & ?is po9t once rea*$1 ! matt] 9 :i* ^! =ces reside is altoge!r in]t4 ,b an organic body t5ds to a con/ant motion1 & ! highe/ activity ( organic =ces %[s itself 9 cont9u\s *ange4 ,aga91 9 me*anical & *emical =ces1 ! =ce ( any aggregate is ! sum ( ! =ces ( all ! p>ts3 ! sum ( ! =ces corresponds to ! sum ( ! matt]4 ,b 9 organic bodies1 ! am\nt ( effect does n dep5d on ! matt]1 b on ! =m3 ! p>ticles lose _! sep>ate en]gy1 9 ord] to %>e 9 t ( ! sy/em2 !y are n add$1 !y are assimilat$4 #aj4 ,x is difficult to say :e!r any?+ has be5 ga9$ to sci5ce by ! v>i\s attempts to assign a fix$ "n to ! vital =ce :i* is ?us ! imm$iate cause ( ,assimilation4 ,x has be5 call$ ,organic ,attraction or ,vital ,attraction1 ,organic ,aff9ity or ,vital ,aff9ity1 be+ ?us comp>$ ) me*anical ,attraction or *emical ,aff9ity4 ,b1 p]haps1 z ! process is c]ta9ly nei!r me*anical nor *emical1 x is desirable to appropriate to x a peculi> "n2 & ! "n ,assimilation1 or ,organic ,assimilation1 by ! usage ( good biological writ]s1 is g5]ally employ$ = ?is purpose1 & may be tak5 z ! /&>d "n ( ?is ,vital ,=ce4 ,to illu/rate ?is1 ,i w quote a passage f ! excell5t ,elem5ts ( ,physiology ( ,pr(essor ,mll]4 ',9 ! process ( nutrition is exemplifi$ ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( organic assimilation4 ,ea* elem5t>y p>ticle ( an organ attracts simil> p>ticles f ! blood1 & by ! *anges x produces 9 !m1 causes !m to p>ticipate 9 ! vital pr9ciple ( ! organ itself4 ,n]ves take up n]v\s sub/ance1 muscles1 muscul> sub/ance3 ev5 morbid /ructures h ! assimilat+ p[]2 w>ts 9 ! sk9 gr[ ) _! own peculi> /ructure2 9 an ulc]1 ! base & bord] are n\ri%$ 9 a way con=mable to ! mode ( action & secretion det]m9$ by ! disease4' #aa4 ,! ,=ce ( ,organic ,assimilation spok5 ( 9 ! la/ p>agraph d5otes peculi>ly ! =ce by :i* ea* organ appropriates to itself a "p ( ! #bab nutrim5t receiv$ into ! sy/em1 & ?us is ma9ta9$ & augm5t$ ) ! gr[? ( ! :ole4 ,b ! gr[? ( ! solid p>ts is only "o portion ( ! function ( nutrition2 besides ?is1 we mu/ consid] ! motion & *anges ( ! fluids1 & mu/ ask :at k9d ( =ces may be conceiv$ to produce ^!4 ,:at are ! p[]s by :i* *yle is absorb$ f ! food1 by :i* bile is secret$ f ! blood1 by :i* ! circulat+ motion ( ^! & all o!r fluids ( ! body are con/antly ma9ta9$8 ,to ! que/ions1--,:at are ! =ces by :i* absorption1 secretion1 & ! vital motions1 ( fluids are produc$8--no satisfactory answ] has be5 return$4 ,yet /ill "s /eps h be5 made1 :i* x may be in/ructive to po9t out4 #ab4 ,9 ,absorption x w\ld appe> t a "p ( ! ag5cy is inorganic2 = n only dead membranes1 b inorganic sub/ances1 absorb fluids1 & ev5 absorb !m ) elective =ces1 accord+ to ! +r$i5ts1 ( ! fluid4 ,a =ce :i* is ( ?is k9d1 & :i* has be5 t]m$ ,endosmose1 has be5 f\nd to produce v curi\s effects4 ,:5 a membrane sep>ates two fluids1 hold+ 9 solution diff]5t +r$i5ts1 ! fluids pass ?r\gh ! membrane 9 an imp]ceptible mann]1 & mix or ex*ange _! elem5ts4 ,! =ce :i* produces ^! effects is capable ( balanc+ a v consid]able pressure4 ,x appe>s1 moreov]1 to dep5d1 at lea/ among o!r causes1 ^u attractions op]at+ betwe5 ! elem5ts ( ! solids & ! fluids1 z well z betwe5 ! diff]5t fluids2 & ?is =ce1 ?\gh ?us app>5tly ( a me*anical & *emical nature1 probably has consid]able influ5ce 9 vital ph5om5a4 #ac4 ,b /ill1 ?\gh ,endosmose may acc\nt 9 "p = absorption 9 "s cases1 x is c]ta9 t !re is "s o!r vital =ce at "w 9 ?is process4 ,!re mu/ be1 z ,mll] says#hji1 'an organic attraction ( a k9d hi!rto unkn[n4' ',if absorption1' he adds#hai1 is to be expla9$ 9 a mann] analog\s to #bac ! laws ( endosmose1 x mu/ be suppos$ t a *emical aff9ity1 result+ f ! vital process itself1 is ex]t$ betwe5 ! *yme 9 ! inte/9es & ! *yle 9 ! lacteals1 by :i* ! *yle is enabl$ to attract ! *yme )\t be+ itself attract$ by x4 ,b su* aff9ity or attraction w\ld be ( a vital nature1 s9ce x does n exi/ aft] dea?4' ,note #hji3 ,physiology1 p4 #bii4 ,note #hai3 ,ib4 p4 #cja4 #ad4 ,if ! =ce ( absorption be ?us my/]i\s 9 its nature1 ! =ce ( ,secretion is /ill m s4 ,9 ?is case we h an organ fill$ ) a f9e net-"w ( blood-vessels1 & 9 ! cavities ( "s gl&1 or op5 "p1 we h a new fluid =m$1 ( a k9d altoge!r diff]5t f ! blood itself4 ,x is easily %[n t ?is _c be expla9$ by any action ( pores or capill>y tubes4 ,b :at conception c we =m ( ! =ces by :i* su* a *ange is produc$8 ,"h1 aga91 ,i %all borr[ ! expressions ( ,mll]1 z pres5t+ ! la/ result ( mod]n physiology4 ,he says#hbi1 ',! m probable supposition is1 t by virtue ( imbibition1 or ! g5]al organic porosity1 ! fluid portion ( ! blood becomes diffus$ ?r\gh ! tissue ( ! secret+ organ2 t ! ext]nal surface ( ! gl&ul> canals ex]ts a *emical attraction on ! elem5ts ( ! fluid1 infus+ into !m at ! same "t a t5d5cy to unite 9 new comb9ations2 & !n repels !m 9 a mann] :i* is c]ta9ly q inexplicable1 t[>ds ! inn] surface ( ! secret+ membrane1 or gl&ul> canals4' ',al?\gh q unsupport$ by facts1' he adds1 '?is !ory ( attraction & repulsion is n )\t its analogy 9 physical ph5om5a2 & x w\ld appe> t v simil> p[]s effect ! elim9ation ( ! fluid 9 secretion1 & cause x to be tak5 up by ! lymphatics 9 absorption4' ,he else:]e says#hci1 ',absorption seems to dep5d on an attraction ! nature ( :i* is unkn[n1 b ( :i* ! v c\nt]p>t1 z x 71 takes place 9 secretion2 ! fluids alt]$ by ! secret+ action be+ repell$ t[>ds ! free side or op5 surface only ( ! #bad secret+ membranes1 & !n press$ =w>ds by ! successive portions ( ! fluids secret$4' ,note #hbi3 ,physiology1 p4 #dfd4 ,note #hci3 ,ib4 p4 #cja4 #ae4 ,) reg>d to ! =ces :i* produce ! ,motion ( absorb$ or secret$ fluids along _! de/9$ c\rse1 x may be se51 f ! la/ quot$ s5t5ce1 t ! same vital =ce :i* *anges ! nature1 also produces ! movem5t ( ! sub/ance4 ,! fluids are press$ =w>ds by ! successive portions absorb$ or secret$4 ,t ?is is ! sole cause1 or at lea/ a v p[]ful cause1 ( ! motion ( ! nutritive fluids 9 organic bodies1 is easily %[n by exp]i5ce4 ,x is f\nd#hdi t ! organs :i* effect ! asc5t ( ! sap 9 trees dur+ ! spr+ are ! t]m9al p>ts ( ! roots2 t ! :ole =ce by :i* ! sap is impell$ upw>ds is ! vis a t]go1 z x has be5 call$1 ! =ce pu%+ f beh9d1 ex]t$ 9 ! roots4 ,& ?us ! =ce :i* produces ?is motion is ex]t$ exactly at ^? po9ts :]e ! organic body selects f ! contigu\s mass ^? p>ticles :i* x absorbs & appropriates4 ,& ! same may mo/ probably be tak5 = ! cause ( ! motion ( ! lymph & *yle2 at lea/1 ,mll] says#hei t no o!r motive p[] has be5 detect$ :i* impels ^? fluids 9 _! c\rse4 ,note #hdi3 ,mll]1 p4 #cjj4 ,note #hei3 ,ib4 p4 #bed4 ,?us1 ?\gh we mu/ confess ! ,vital ,=ce conc]n$ 9 ,assimilation & ,secretion to be unkn[n 9 its nature1 we /ill obta9 a view ( "s ( ! attributes :i* x involves4 ,x has me*anical efficacy1 produc+ motions1 (t5 su* z w\ld require great me*anical =ce4 ,b x ex]ts at ! same po9t bo? an attraction & a repulsion1 attract+ matt] on "o side1 & repell+ x on ! o!r2 & 9 ?is circum/ance x diff]s entirely f me*anical =ces4 ,aga91 x is n only me*anical b *emical1 produc+ a complete *ange 9 ! nature ( ! sub/ance on :i* x acts2 to :i* we mu/ add t ! *anges produc$ by ! vital =ces are su* z1 = ! mo/ "p1 our artificial *emi/ry #bae _c imitate4 ,b1 aga91 by ! action ( ! vital =ce at any po9t ( an organ1 n only are fluids made to pass1 & *ang$ z !y pass1 b ! organ itself is ma9ta9$ & /r5g!n$1 s z to cont9ue or to increase its op]ation3 & ?us ! vital en]gy supports its activity by its action1 & is augm5t$ by be+ ex]t$4 ,we h ?us endeav\r$ to obta9 a view ( "s ( ! peculi> *>act]s :i* belong to ! ,=ce ( ,organic ,assimilation2--! ,=ce by :i* life is kept up1 conceiv$ 9 ! mo/ elem5t>y =m to :i* we c r$uce x by obs]vation & contemplation4 ,x appe>s t x is a =ce :i* n only produces motion & *emical *ange1 b also vitalizes ! matt] on :i* x acts1 giv+ to x ! p[] ( produc+ l *anges on o!r matt]1 & s on indef9itely4 ,x n only circulates ! p>ticles ( matt]1 b puts !m 9 a /ream ( :i* ! fl[ is developm5t z well z movem5t4 ,! =ce ( ,organic ,assimilation be+ ?us conceiv$1 x becomes in/ructive to comp>e x ) ! =ce conc]n$ 9 ,g5]ation1 :i* we %all !re=e endeav\r to d4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,attempts to conceive ! ,process ( ,g5]ation4 #af4 ,at fir/ sight ! function ( ,nutrition appe>s v diff]5t f ! function ( ,g5]ation4 ,9 ! =m] case we h m]ely ! exi/+ organs ma9ta9$ or enl>g$1 & _! action cont9u$2 9 ! latt]1 we h a new individual produc$ & extricat$ f ! p>5t4 ,! t]m ,reproduction has1 no d\bt1 be5 appli$1 by diff]5t writ]s1 to bo? ^! functions2--to ! processes by :i* an organ :5 mutilat$1 is re/or$ by ! =ces ( ! liv+ body1 & to ! process by :i* a new g5]ation ( individuals is produc$ :i* may be consid]$ z tak+ ! place ( ! old g5]ation1 z ^! are gradually remov$ by dea?4 ,b ^! are obvi\sly diff]5t s5ses ( ! ^w4 ,9 ! latt] case1 ! #baf t]m ,reproduction is figuratively us$2 = ! same individuals are n reproduc$2 b ! species is kept up by ! propagation ( new individuals1 z 9 nutrition ! organ is kept up by ! assimilation ( new matt]4 ,to escape ambiguity1 ,i %all avoid us+ ! t]m ,reproduction 9 ! s5se ( ,propagation4 #ag4 ,9 ,nutrition1 z we h se51 ! matt]1 :i* f be+ at fir/ extrane\s1 is appropriat$ by ! liv+ sy/em1 & direct$ to ! su/5tation ( ! organs1 und]goes a s]ies ( *anges ( :i* ! detail eludes our obs]vation & appreh5sion4 ,! nutrim5t :i* we receive contributes to ! gr[? ( fle% & bone1 visc]a & organs ( s5se4 ,b we _c trace 9 its gradual *anges a visible prep>ation = its f9al (fice4 ,! portion ( matt] :i* is de/9$ to repair ! wa/e ( ! eye or ! sk91 is n f\nd assum+ a lik5ess to ! p>ts ( ! eye or ! /ructure ( ! sk91 z x comes ne> ! place :]e x is m\ld$ into its ultimate =m4 ,! new p>ts are ins9uat$ among ! old ones1 9 an obscure & imp]ceptible matt]4 ,we c trace _! progress only by _! effects4 ,! organs are n\ri%$1 & t is almo/ all we c le>n3 we _c discov] h[ ?is is done4 ,we _c foll[ nature ?r\gh a s]ies ( manife/ prep>ations & processes to ?is result4 #ah4 ,9 ,g5]ation ! case is q diff]5t4 ,! "y be+ is =m$ gradually & by a s]ies ( di/+ui%able processes4 ,x is includ$ )9 ! p>5t be=e x is extrud$1 & approa*es m or less to ! lik5ess ( ! p>5t be=e x is deta*$4 ,:ile x is /ill an embryo1 x %>es 9 ! nutrim5t :i* circulates ?r\gh ! sy/em ( ! "m2 b its de/9ation is already cle>4 ,:ile ! new & ! old p>ts1 9 e o!r portion ( ! "m1 are undi/+ui%ably mix$ toge!r1 ?is new "p1 ! ftus1 is cle>ly di/9ct f ! re/ ( ! sy/em1 & becomes rapidly m & m s1 z ! "t goes on4 ,& ?us !re is =m$1 n a new "p1 b a new :ole2 x is n an organ :i* is kept up1 b an (fspr+ :i* is prep>$4 ,! prog5y is #bag includ$ 9 ! p>5t1 & is gradually fitt$ to be sep>at$ f x4 ,! "y is at fir/ only ! developm5t ( a "p ( ! organization ( ! "m2--( a g]m1 an ovule4 ,b x is n develop$ l o!r organs1 reta9+ its g5]al =m4 ,x does n become m]ely a l>g] bud1 a l>g] ovule2 x is entirely *ang$2 x becomes--f a bud--a blossom1 a fl[]1 a fruit1 a se$2 f an ovule x becomes an egg1 a *ick1 a bird2 or x may be1 a ftus1 a *ild4 ,! orig9al rudim5t is n m]ely n\ri%$1 b unfold$ & trans=m$ ?r\gh ! mo/ m>k$ & remote *anges1 gradually t5d+ to ! =m ( ! new individual4 #ai4 ,b ?is is n all4 ,! ftus is1 z we h said1 a developm5t ( a portion ( ! "m's organization4 ,b ! ftus 7suppos+ x female7 is a lik5ess ( ! "m4 ,! "m1 ev5 be=e conception1 conta9s )9 h]self ! g]ms ( h] prog5y2 ! female ftus1 !re=e1 at a c]ta9 /age ( developm5t1 w conta9 also ! g]ms ( possible prog5y2 & ?us we may h ! g]ms ( future g5]ations1 pre-exi/+ & includ$ successively )9 "o ano!r4 ,& ?is /ate ( ?+s1 :i* ?us sugge/s itself to u z possible1 is f\nd to be ! case 9 facts :i* obs]vation supplies4 ,anatomi/s h trac$ ovules 9 ! unborn ftus1 & ?us we h ?ree g5]ations includ$ "o )9 ano!r4 #bj4 ,suppos+ we 7 to /op "h1 ! process ( propagation might appe> to be altoge!r diff]5t f t ( nutrition4 ,! latt]1 z we h se51 may be 9 "s measure illu/rat$ by ! image ( a vortex2 ! =m] has be5 repres5t$ by ! image ( a s]ies ( g]ms1 %ea!d "o )9 ano!r successively1 & ?is )\t any limit4 ,?is view ( ! subject has be5 t]m$ ! doctr9e ( ! ,pre-exi/5ce ( g]ms2 & has be5 designat$ by ,g]man writ]s by a t]m ',e9s*a*telungs-!orie' descriptive ( ! successive %ea?+ ( :i* ,i h spok54 ,imitat+ ?is t]m1 we may call x ! ,!ory ( successive inclusion4 ,x has always _h _m #bah adh]5ts2 & has be51 p]haps1 up to ! pres5t "t1 ! mo/ curr5t op9ion on ! subject ( g5]ation4 ,cuvi] incl9es to ?is op9ion#hfi4 ',fix$ =ms p]petuat+ !mselves by g5]ation di/+ui% ! species ( liv+ ?+s4 ,^! =ms d n produce !mselves1 d n *ange !mselves4 ,life supposes !m to exi/ already2 its flame c be light$ only 9 organization previ\sly prep>$2 & ! mo/ pr(\nd m$itations & ! mo/ delicate rese>*es t]m9ate alike 9 ! my/]y ( ! pre-exi/5ce ( g]ms4' ,note #hfi3 ,rgne ,animal1 p4 #bj4 #ba4 ,yet ?is doctr9e is full ( difficulty4 ,x is1 z ,cuvi] says1 a my/]i\s view ( ! subject2--s my/]i\s1 t x c h>dly be accept$ by u1 :o seek di/9ct conceptions z ! basis ( our philosophy4 ,c x be true1 n only t ! g]m ( ! (fspr+ is orig9ally includ$ 9 ! p>5t1 b also ! g]ms ( its prog5y1 & s on )\t limit3--s t ea* fruitful individual conta9s 9 itself an inf9ite collection ( future possible individuals2--a res]ve ( inf9ite succe$+ g5]ations8 ,?is is h>d to admit4 ,h we no alt]native8 ,:at is ! opposite doctr9e8 #bb4 ,! opposite doctr9e des]ves at lea/ "s notice4 ,x ext5ds1 to ! production ( a new individual1 ! conception ( gr[? by nutrition4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 we suppose propagation to take place1 n z 9 ! view j spok5 (1 by inclusion & extrusion1 b by assimilation & developm5t2--n by ! mat]ial pre-exi/5ce ( g]ms1 b by ! communication ( vital =ces to new matt]4 ,?is op9ion appe>s to be ent]ta9$ by "s ( ! mo/ em95t physiologi/s ( ! pres5t "t4 ,?us1 ,mll] says1 ',! organic =ce is also creative4 ,! organic =ce :i* resides 9 ! :ole1 & on :i* ! exi/5ce ( ea* "p dep5ds1 has also ! prop]ty ( g5]at+1 f organic matt]1 ! p>ts necess>y to ! :ole4' ,life1 he adds1 is n m]ely a h>mony ( ! #bai p>ts4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! h>moni\s action ( ! p>ts subsi/s only by ! influ5ce ( a =ce p]vad+ all p>ts ( ! body4 ',?is =ce exi/s be=e ! h>moniz+ p>ts1 :i* are 9 fact =m$ by x dur+ ! developm5t ( ! embryo4' ,& aga92 ',! creative =ce exi/s 9 ! g]m1 & creates 9 x ! ess5tial =ce ( ! future animal4 ,! g]m is pot5tially ! :ole animal3 dur+ ! developm5t ( ! g]m ! p>ts :i* con/itute ! actual :ole are produc$4' #bc4 ,9 ?is view1 we ext5d to ! reproduction ( an individual ! same conception ( organic assimilation :i* we h already arriv$ at1 z ! be/ notion we c =m ( ! =ce by :i* ! reproduction & su/5tation ( p>ts takes place4 ,& is n su* an ext5sion really v consi/5t8 ,if a liv+ ?+ c appropriate to itself extrane\s matt]1 inve/ x ) its own functions1 & ?us put x 9 ! /ream ( con/ant developm5t1 may we n conceive ! developm5t ( a new :ole to take place 9 ?is way z well z ( a "p8 ,if ! organiz$ be+ c infuse into new matt] its vital =ces1 is !re any contradiction 9 suppos+ ?is infusion to take place 9 ! full measure :i* is requisite = ! production ( a new individual8 ,! =ce ( organic assimilation is transf]r$ to ! v matt] on :i* x acts2 x may be transf]r$ s t ! op]ation ( ! =ces produces n only an organ1 b a sy/em ( organs4 #bd4 ,?is id5tification ( ! =ces :i* op]ate 9 ,nutrition & ,g5]ation may at fir/ seem =c$ & obscure1 9 consequ5ce ( ! v /rong app>5t diff]5ces ( ! two processes :i* we h already notic$4 ,b ?is defect 9 ! doctr9e is rem$i$ by ! consid]ation ( :at may be consid]$ z int]m$iate cases4 ,x is n true t1 9 ! nutrition ( special organs1 ! matt] is always convey$ to its ultimate de/9ation )\t be+ on its way m\ld$ into ! =m :i* x is f9ally to be>1 z ! embryo is m\ld$ into ! =m ( ! #bbj future individual4 ,on ! contr>y1 !re are cases 9 :i* ! wa/e ( ! organs is suppli$ by ! gr[? ( new ones1 :i* are prep>$ & =m$ be=e !y are us$1 j z ! (fspr+ is prep>$ & =m$ be=e x is sep>at$ f ! p>5t4 ,?is is ! case ) ! tee? ( _m animals1 & especially ) ! tee? ( animals ( ! crocodile k9d4 ,"y tee? gr[ ne> ! root ( ! old ones1 l buds on ! /em ( a plant2 & z ^! become fully develop$1 !y take ! place ( ! p>5t too? :5 t dies & is ca/ away4 ,& ^! new tee? 9 _! turn are succe$$ by o!rs :i* g]m9ate f !m4 ,sev]al g5]ations ( su* tee?1 x is said z _m z f\r1 h be5 detect$ by anatomi/s1 visibly exi/+ at ! same "t2 j z sev]al g5]ations ( g]ms ( individuals h be51 z we already /at$1 obs]v$ includ$ 9 "o ano!r4 ,b ?is case ( ! tee? appe>s to %[ v /rik+ly h[ insuffici5t su* obs]vations are to e/abli% ! doctr9e ( successive inclusion1 or ( ! pre-exi/5ce ( g]ms4 ,are we to suppose t e crocodile's too? includes 9 itself ! g]ms ( an inf9ite numb] ( possible tee?1 z 9 ! !ory ( pre-exi/+ g]ms e individual includes an inf9ite numb] ( individuals8 ,if ?is be true ( tee?1 we mu/ suppose t organ to foll[ laws entirely diff]5t f almo/ e o!r organ2 = no "o w\ld apply to ! o!r organs 9 g5]al su* a !ory ( reproduction4 ,b if su* a !ory be n ma9ta9$ respect+ ! tee?1 h[ c we ma9ta9 ! !ory ( ! pre-exi/+ g]ms ( individuals1 :i* has no recomm5dation except t ( acc\nt+ = exactly ! same ph5om5a8 ,x w\ld seem1 !n1 t we are1 by ! close/ consid]ation ( ! subject1 l$ to conceive ! =ces by :i* g5]ation is produc$1 z =ces :i* vitalize c]ta9 portions ( matt]1 & ?us prep>e !m = developm5t accord+ to organic =ms2 & ?us ! conception ( ?is ,g5]ative ,=ce is id5tifi$ ) ! conception ( ! ,=ce ( ,organic ,assimilation1 to #bba :i* we 7 l$ by ! consid]ation ( ! process ( nutrition4 ,i %all n attempt to give fur!r di/9ctness & fixity to ?is conception ( "o ( ! vital =ces2 b ,i %all proce$ to exemplify ! same analysis ( life by "s rem>ks ^u ano!r ,vital ,process1 & ! ,=ces ( :i* x exhibits ! op]ation4 #bbb ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,=m ,,ideas ,,( ,,sep>ate ,,vital ,,=ces1 cont9u$4--,,volunt>y ,,motion4 #a4 ,,we =m]ly notic$ ! di/9ctions ( organic & animal functions1 organic & animal =ces1 z "o ( ! mo/ m>k$ di/9ctions to :i* physiologi/s h be5 l$ 9 _! analysis ( ! vital p[]s4 ,i h n[ tak5 "o ( ! =m]1 ! organic class ( functions1 namely1 ,nutrition2 & h endeav\r$ to po9t out 9 "s measure ! peculi> nature ( ! vital =ces by :i* ?is function is c>ri$ on4 ,x may s]ve to %[ ! ext5t & ! difficulty ( ?is subject1 if1 be=e quitt+ x1 ,i (f] a few rem>ks sugge/$ by a function belong+ to ! o!r class1 ! animal functions4 ,?is ,i %all briefly d ) respect to ,volunt>y ,motion4 #b4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,physiology1 ,i h already relat$ ! progress ( ! rese>*es by :i* ! organs employ$ 9 volunt>y motion became kn[n to anatomi/s4 ,x 0 asc]ta9$ to ! satisfaction ( all physiologi/s1 t ! imm$iate ag5ts 9 su* motion are ! muscles2 t ! muscles are 9 "s way contract$1 :5 ! n]ves convey to !m ! ag5cy ( ! w2 & t ?us ! limbs are mov$4 ,x 0 asc]ta9$1 also1 t ! n]ves convey s5sations f ! organs ( s5se inw>ds1 s z to make ^! s5sations ! object ( ! animal's consci\sness4 ,9 man & ! high] animals1 ^! impressions ^u ! n]ves are all convey$ to "o int]nal organ1 ! bra92 & f ?is organ all impressions ( ! w appe> to proce$2 & ?us ! bra9 is #bbc ! c5t] ( animal life1 t[>ds :i* s5sations conv]ge1 & f :i* volitions div]ge4 ,b ?is be+ ! process1 we are l$ to inquire h[ f> we c obta9 any k1 or =m any conception1 ( ! vital =ces by means ( :i* ! process is c>ri$ on4 ,& "h ,i h fur!r /at$ 9 ! ,hi/ory#hgi1 t ! transf] ( s5sations & volitions along ! n]ves 0 (t5 repres5t$ z consi/+ 9 ! motion ( a ,n]v\s ,fluid4 ,i h relat$ t ! hypo!sis ( su* a fluid1 convey+ its impressions ei!r by motions ( translation or ( vibration1 0 c\nt5anc$ by _m great names1 z ,newton1 ,hall]1 & ev5 ,cuvi]4 ,b ,i h v5tur$ to express my d\bt :e!r ?is hypo!sis c h mu* value3 '=1' ,i h said1 '?is pr9ciple _c be me*anical1 *emical1 or physical1 & !re=e _c be bett] und]/ood by embody+ x 9 a fluid4 ,! difficulty we h 9 conceiv+ :at ! =ce is1 is n got rid ( by expla9+ ! ma*9]y by :i* x is transf]r$4' ,note #hgi3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xvii4 c4 v4 s4 #b4 #c4 ,i may add1 t no succe$+ biological rese>*es appe> to h dim9i%$ ! =ce ( ^! consid]ations4 ,9 mod]n times1 attempts h repeat$ly be5 made to id5tify ! n]v\s fluid ) electricity or galvanism4 ,b ^! attempts h n be5 satisfactory or conclusive ( ! tru? ( su* an id5tity3 & ,pr(essor ,mll] probably speaks ! judgm5t ( ! mo/ judici\s physiologi/s1 :5 he /ates x z 8 op9ion1 aft] exam9+ ! evid5ce#hhi1 ',t ! vital actions ( ! n]ves are n att5d$ ) ! developm5t ( any galvanic curr5ts :i* our in/rum5ts c detect2 & t ! laws ( action ( ! n]v\s pr9ciple are totally diff]5t f ^? ( electricity4' ,note #hhi3 ,elem4 ,phys4 p4 #fdj4 ,t ! p[]s by :i* ! n]ves are ! in/rum5ts ( s5sation1 & ! muscles ( motion1 are vital end[m5ts1 incapable ( be+ express$ or expla9$ by any comp>ison ) me*anical1 *emical1 & electrical =ces1 is ! result :i* we %\ld #bbd expect to f9d1 judg+ f ! :ole analogy ( sci5ce2 & :i* ?us is confirm$ by ! hi/ory ( physiology up to ! pres5t "t4 ,we naturally1 !n1 turn to inquire :e!r su* peculi> vital p[]s h be5 br\ght into view ) any di/9ctness & cle>ness4 #d4 ,! prop]ty by :i* muscles1 "u prop] /imulation1 contract & produce motion1 has be5 t]m$ ,irritability or ,contractility2 ! prop]ty by :i* n]ves are susceptible ( _! appropriate impressions has be5 t]m$ ,s5sibility4 ,a v few words on ea* ( ^! subjects mu/ suffice4 ,irritability4--,i h1 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,physiology#hii1 notic$ t ,glisson1 a ,cambridge pr(essor1 di/+ui%$ ! ,irritation ( muscles z a peculi> prop]ty1 diff]5t f any m]ely me*anical or physical action4 ,i h m5tion$1 also1 t he divides ,irritation into natural1 vital1 & animal2 & po9ts out1 ?\gh briefly1 ! graduat$ diff]5ces ( ,irritability 9 diff]5t organs4 ,al?\gh ^! op9ions did n at fir/ attract mu* notice1 ab\t sev5ty ye>s aft]w>ds att5tion 0 p[]fully call$ to ?is vital =ce1 ,irritability1 by ,hall]4 ,i %all borr[ ,spr5gel's reflections on ?is subject4 ,note #hii3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xvii4 c4 v4 ',hi!rto m5 _h be5 l$ to see m & m cle>ly t ! cause ( ! bodily functions1 ! fundam5tal p[] ( ! animal frame1 is n to be s\ght 9 ! me*anism1 & /ill less 9 ! mixture ( ! p>ts4 ,9 ?is conviction1 !y _h _h rec\rse p>tly to ! q sup]s5su\s pr9ciple ( ! ,s\l1 p>tly to ! half-mat]ial pr9ciple ( ! ,animal ,spirits1 9 ord] to expla9 ! bodily motions4 ,glisson alone saw ! necessity ( assum+ an ,orig9al ,p[] 9 ! fibres1 :i*1 indep5d5t ( ! influ5ce ( ! animal spirits1 %\ld produce contraction 9 !m4 ,& ,gort] fir/ held t ?is ,orig9al ,p[] 0 n to be conf9$ to ! muscles1 b to be ext5d$ to all p>ts ( ! liv+ body4 #bbe ',b z yet ! laws ( ?is ,p[] 7 n kn[n1 nor _h m5 come to an und]/&+ :e!r x 7 fully di/9ct f ! ela/icity ( ! p>ts1 or by :at causes x 0 put 9 action4 ,!y _h nei!r in/itut$ obs]vations nor exp]im5ts :i* e/abli%$ its relation to o!r assum$ =ces ( ! body4 ,!re 0 /ill want+ a det]m9ation ( ! peculi> seat ( ?is p[]1 & exp]im5ts to trace its gradual diff]5ces 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 ,9 addition to o!r causes1 ! necessity ( ! assumption ( su* a p[] 0 felt ! m1 9 consequ5ce ( ! preval5ce ( ,leibnitz's doctr9e ( ! activity ( matt]2 b x 0 an occult quality1 & rema9$ s till ,hall]1 by num]\s exp]im5ts & solid obs]vations1 plac$ 9 a cle> light ! peculi>ities ( ! p[]s ( ! animal body4' #e4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 ,hall] did m 9 ! way ( det]m9+ exp]im5tally ! limits & details ( ! application ( ?is idea ( ,irritability z a peculi> attribute1 ?an 9 develop+ ! ,idea itself4 ,9 t way 8 m]its 7 great4 ,z e>ly z ! ye> #agci1 he publi%$ 8 op9ion ^u ,irritability z ! cause ( muscul> motion1 :i* he promulgat$ aga9 9 #agdc4 ,b f ! ye> #agdg he 0 m att5tive to ! peculi>ities ( ,irritability1 & its diff]5ce f ! effect ( ! n]ves4 ,9 ! fir/ edition ( 8 ,physiology1 :i* appe>$ 9 #agdg1 he di/+ui%$ ?ree k9ds ( ,=ce 9 muscles1--! ,dead ,=ce1 ! ,innate ,=ce1 & ! ,n]v\s ,p[]4 ,! fir/ is id5tical ) ! ela/ic =ce ( dead matt]1 & rema9s ev5 aft] dea?4 ,! innate =ce cont9ues only a %ort "t aft] dea?1 & discloses itself especially by alt]nate oscillations2 ! motions :i* arise f ?is are mu* m lively ?an ^? :i* arise f m]e ela/icity3 !y are n excit$ by t5sion1 nor by pressure1 nor by any me*anical alt]ation1 b only by irritation4 ,! n]v\s =ce ( ! muscle is imp>t$ to x f )\t by ! n]ves2 x pres]ves ! irritability1 :i* _c long subsi/ )\t ! influ5ce ( ! n]v\s =ce1 b is n id5tical ) x4 #bbf ,9 ! ye> #ageb1 ,hall] laid be=e ! ,society ( ,gtt+5 ! result ( "o hundr$ & n9ety exp]im5ts2 f :i* x appe>s to :at p>ts ( ! animal sy/em ,irritability & ,n]v\s ,p[] belong4 ,^! ,i ne$ n enum]ate4 ,he also inve/igat$ ) c>e its gradations 9 ^? p>ts :i* d possess x4 ,?us ! he>t possesses x 9 ! highe/ degree1 & o!r organs foll[ 9 _! ord]4 #f4 ,hall]'s doctr9e 01 t !re resides 9 ! muscles a peculi> vital p[] by :i* !y contract1 & t ?is p[] is di/9ct f ! attributes ( ! n]ves4 ,& ?is doctr9e has be5 accept$ by ! be/ physiologi/s ( mod]n times4 ,b ?is di/9ction ( ! irritability ( ! muscles f ! s5sibility ( ! n]ves became some:at cle>] by giv+ to ! =m] attribute ! "n ( ,contractility4 ,?is accord+ly 0 done2 x is1 = example1 ! phraseology us$ by ,bi*at4 ,by speak+ ( animal s5sibility & animal contractility1 ! passive & ! active elem5t ( ! processes ( animal life are cle>ly sep>at$ & oppos$ to ea* o!r4 ,! s5sations :i* we feel1 & ! muscul> action :i* we ex]t1 may be closely & insep>ably connect$1 yet /ill !y are cle>ly di/+ui%able4 ,we c easily 9 our appreh5sion sep>ate ! titillation felt 9 ! nose on tak+ snuff1 f ! action ( ! muscles 9 sneez+2 or ! p]ception ( an object fall+ t[>ds ! eye1 f ! ex]tion :i* %uts ! eye-lid2 al?\gh 9 ^! cases ! passive & active "p ( ! process are almo/ or q insep>able 9 fact4 ,& ?is cle> sep>ation ( ! active f ! passive p[] is some?+1 x w\ld seem1 peculi> to ! ,animal ,vital ,p[]s2 x is a "* by :i* !y diff]1 n only f me*anical1 *emical1 & all o!r m]ely physical =ces1 b ev5 f ,organic ,vital ,p[]s4 #g4 ,b ?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,animal & ! ,organic ,vital ,p[]s requires to be fur!r insi/$ ^u1 = x appe>s to h be5 ov]look$ or d5i$ by v em95t physiologi/s4 ,= in/ance1 ,bi*at classifies ! ,vital ,p[]s z ,animal ,s5sibility1 #bbg ,animal ,contractility1 ,organic ,s5sibility1 ,organic ,contractility4 ,n[ ! view :i* sugge/s itself to u1 9 agreem5t ) :at has be5 said1 is ?is3--t ?\gh ,animal ,s5sibility & ,animal ,contractility are cle>ly & c]ta9ly di/9ct1 ,organic ,s5sibility & ,organic ,contractility are nei!r sep>able 9 fact nor 9 our conception1 b toge!r make up a s+le ,vital ,p[]4 ,t !y are n sep>able 9 fact is1 inde$1 ackn[l$g$ by ,bi*at himself4 ',! organic contractility1' he says#iji1 'c nev] be sep>at$ f ! s5sibility ( ! same k9d2 ! reaction ( ! excret+ tubes is imm$iately connect$ ) ! action :i* ! secret$ fluids ex]cise ^u !m3 ! contraction ( ! he>t mu/ necess>ily succe$ ! influx ( ! blood into x4' ,x is n wond]ful1 !re=e1 t x %\ld h happ5$1 z he compla9s1 t 'au?ors h by no means sep>at$ ^! two ?+s1 ei!r 9 _! consid]ation or 9 language4' ,we _c avoid ask+1 ,are ,organic ,s5sibility & ,organic ,contractility really any?+ m ?an two diff]5t aspects ( ! same ?+1 l action & reaction 9 me*anics1 :i* are only two ways ( consid]+ ! action :i* takes place at a po9t2 or l ! positive & negative electricities1 :i*1 z we h se51 always co-exi/ & correspond to ea* o!r8 ,note #iji3 ,life & ,dea?1 p4 #id4 #h4 ,b we may obs]ve1 moreov]1 t ,bi*at1 by 8 use ( ! t]m ,contractility1 includes 9 x p[]s to :i* x _c ) any propriety be appli$4 ,:y %\ld we suppose t ! vital p[]s ( absorption1 secretion1 assimilation1 are ( su* a nature t ! "n contractility may be employ$ to describe !m8 ,we h se51 9 ! la/ *apt]1 t ! mo/ c>eful /udy ( ^! p[]s leads u to conceive !m 9 a mann] altoge!r remov$ f any notion ( contraction4 ,is x n !n an abuse ( language :i* _c possibly lead to any?+ b #bbh confusion1 to write ?us#iai3 ',! ins5sible organic contractility is t1 by virtue ( :i* ! excret+ tubes react ^u _! respective fluids1 ! secret+ organs ^u ! blood :i* fl[s into !m1 ! p>ts :]e nutrition is p]=m$ ^u ! nutritive juices1 & ! lymphatics ^u ! sub/ances :i* excite _! op5 extremities'8 ,9 ! same mann] he ascribes#ibi to ! peculi> s5sibility ( ea* organ ! peculi>ity ( its products & op]ations4 ,an increas$ absorption is produc$ by an increas$ susceptibility ( ! 'absorb5t orifices4' ,& ?us1 9 ?is view1 ea* organic p[] may be contemplat$ ei!r z s5sibility or z contractility1 & may be suppos$ to be r5d]$ m int5se by magnify+ ei!r ( ^! its aspects2 al?\gh1 9 fact1 nei!r c be conceiv$ to be increas$ )\t an exactly comm5surate increase ( ! o!r4 ,note #iai3 ,life & ,dea?1 p4 #ie4 ,note #ibi3 ,ib4 p4 #ij4 #i4 ,?is op9ion1 unf\nd$ z x ?us appe>s to be1 t all ! diff]5t organic vital p[]s are m]ely diff]5t k9ds ( ,contractility or ,excitability1 0 connect$ ) ! doctr9es ( ,br[n & 8 foll[]s1 :i* 7 s celebrat$ 9 ! la/ c5tury1 t all diseases arise f increase or f dim9ution ( ! ,vital ,=ce4 ,! consid]ations :i* h already (f]$ !mselves w\ld lead u to ass5t to ! judgm5t :i* ,cuvi] has pron\nc$ ^u ?is sy/em4 ',! !ory ( excitation1' he says1 's celebrat$ 9 ^! lat] times by its influ5ce ^u pa?ology & !rapeutick1 is at bottom only a modification ( t1 9 :i*1 includ+ "u a common "n ,s5sibility & ,irritability1' & we may add1 apply+ ?is "n to all ! ,vital ,p[]s1 '! speculator takes refuge 9 an ab/raction s wide1 t if1 by x1 he simplifies m$ic9e1 he by x annihilates all positive physiology#ici4' ,note #ici3 ,hi/4 des ,sc4 ,nat4 depuis #aghi1 i4 #bai4 #aj4 ,! sep>ation ( ! n]v\s influ5ce & ! muscul> irritability1 al?\gh x has l$ to _m highly in/ructive speculations1 is n )\t its #bbi difficulties1 :5 view$ ) ref]5ce to ! ,idea ( ,vital ,p[]4 ,if ! irritability ( ea* muscle reside 9 ! muscle itself1 h[ does x diff] f a m]e me*anical =ce1 z ela/icity8 ,b1 9 po9t ( fact1 x is c]ta9 t ! muscul> irritability ( ! animal body is n an attribute ( ! muscle itself indep5d5t ( its connexion ) ! sy/em4 ,no muscle1 or o!r "p1 remov$ f ! body1 long pres]ves its irritability4 ,?is p[] _c subsi/ p]man5tly1 except 9 connexion ) an organic :ole4 ,?is condition peculi>ly con/itutes irritability a liv+ =ce3 & ?is condition w\ld be satisfi$ by consid]+ ! =ce z d]iv$ f ! n]v\s sy/em2 b x appe>s t ?\gh ! n]v\s sy/em has ! mo/ important influ5ce ^u all vital actions1 ! muscul> irritability mu/ ne$s be consid]$ z some?+ di/9ct4 ,& ?us ! ,irritability or ,contractility ( ! muscle is a peculi> end[m5t ( ! texture1 b x is at ! same "t an end[m5t :i* c only co-exi/ ) life2 x is1 9 %ort1 a peculi> ,vital ,p[]4 #aa4 ,?is necessity ( ! union ( ! muscle ) ! :ole n]v\s sy/em1 9 ord] t x may possess irritability1 0 ! mean+ ( ! true "p ( ,/ahl's psy*ical doctr9e2 & ! reason :y he & 8 adh]5ts p]si/$ 9 ass]t+ ! p[] ( ! s\l ev5 ov] involunt>y motions4 ,?is doctr9e 0 ! s\rce ( mu* controv]sy 9 lat] times4 ',b1' says ,cuvi]#idi1 '?is opposition ( op9ion may be reconcil$ by ! intimate union ( ! n]v\s sub/ance ) ! fibre & ! o!r contractile organic elem5ts1 & by _! reciprocal action2--doctr9es :i* _h be5 pres5t$ ) s mu* probability by physiologi/s ( ! ,scot* s*ool1 b :i* 7 elevat$ above ! rank ( hypo!ses only by ! obs]vations ( m rec5t times4 ,note #idi3 ,hi/4 des ,sc4 ,nat4 depuis #aghi1 i4 #bac4 ',! fibre does n contract by itself1 b by ! influ5ce ( ! n]v\s filam5ts1 :i* are always unit$ ) x4 ,! *ange :i* produces ! #bcj contraction _c take place )\t ! concurr5ce ( bo? ^! sub/ances2 & x is fur!r necess>y t x %\ld be occasion$ ea* "t by an ext]ior cause1 by a /imulant4 ',! ,w is "o ( ^! /imulants2 b x only excites ! ,irritability1 x does n con/itute x2 = 9 ! case ( p]sons p>alytic f apoplexy1 ! ,irritability rema9s1 ?\gh ! p[] ( ! ,w ov] x is gone4 ,?us irritability dep5ds 9 "p on ! n]ve1 b n on ! s5sibility3 ?is la/ is ano!r prop]ty1 /ill m admirable & occult ?an ! irritability2 b x is only "o among sev]al functions ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,x w\ld be an abuse ( words to ext5d ?is d5om9ation to functions unaccompani$ by p]ception4' #ab4 ,suppos+1 !n1 t ,contractility is e/abli%$ z a peculi> ,vital ,p[] resid+ 9 ! muscles1 we may ask :e!r we c trace ) any fur!r exactness ! seat & nature ( ?is p[]4 ,x w\ld be unsuitable to ! nature ( ! pres5t "w to dwell ^u ! anatomical discussions be>+ ^u ?is po9t4 ,i w only rem>k t "s anatomi/s ma9ta9#iei t muscles are contract$ by ^? fibres assum+ a zigzag =m1 :i* at fir/ 7 /raight4 ,o!rs 7,pr(essor ,ow5 & ,dr4 ,a4 ,?ompson7 d\bt ! accuracy ( ?is obs]vation2 & conceive t ! muscul> fibre becomes %ort] & ?ick]1 b does n deviate f a "r l9e4 ,we may rem>k t ! latt] k9d ( action appe>s to be m elem5t>y 9 its nature4 ,we c1 z a matt] ( geometry1 conceive a /raight l9e ?r[n into a zigzag %ape by muscul> contractions tak+ place betwe5 remote p>ts ( x2 b x is difficult to conceive by :at elem5t>y mode ( action a /raight fibre c\ld b5d itself at c]ta9 po9ts1 & at c]ta9 po9ts only2 s9ce ! elem5t>y =ce mu/ act at e po9t ( ! fibre1 & n at c]ta9 select$ po9ts4 ,note #iei3 ,mll]1 ,elem4 ,phys4 p4 #hhg4 #ac4 ,a circum/ance :i* rem>kably m>ks ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! vital =ce ( ,contractility1 #bca inh]5t 9 muscles1 & any m]ely dead or me*anical =ce1 is ?is2 t 9 assum+ _! contractile /ate1 muscles ex]t a t5sion :i* !y c\ld n !mselves support or convey if n /r5g!n$ by _! vital irritability4 ,!y are capable ( rais+ weights by _! ex]tion1 :i* w te> !m asund] :5 ! p[] ( contraction is lo/ by dea?4 ,?is has induc$ ,cuvi] & o!r physiologi/s#ifi to believe 't 9 ! mom5t ( action1 ! p>ticles t compose a fibre1 n only approa* t[>ds ea* o!r longitud9ally1 b t _! cohesive attraction becomes in/antane\sly mu* great] ?an x 0 be=e3 = )\t su* an increase ( cohesive =ce1 ! t5d5cy to %ort5 c\ld n1 z x w\ld appe>1 prev5t ! fibre f be+ torn4' ,we see "h ! difficulty1 or r ! impossibility1 ( conceiv+ muscul> contractility z a m]e me*anical =ce2 & p]haps !re is little hope ( any advantage by call+ 9 ! aid ( *emical hypo!sis to solve ! me*anical difficulty4 ,cuvi] conjectures t a sudd5 *ange 9 ! *emical composition may ?us s quickly & p[]fully augm5t ! cohesion4 ,b we may ask1 are n a *emical syn!sis & analysis1 sudd5ly p]=m$ by a m]e act ( ! w1 z difficult to conceive z a sudd5 increase & decrease ( me*anical p[] directly produc$ by ! same cause8 ,note #ifi3 ,pri*>d1 ,vital ,pr94 p4 #abf4 #ad4 ,s5sibility4 ,! n]ves are ! organs & *annels ( ,s5sibility4 ,by means ( !m we receive our s5sations1 :e!r ( m]e pleasure & pa91 or ( qualities :i* we ascribe to ext]nal objects1 z a bitt] ta/e1 a sweet od\r1 a %rill s\nd1 a r$ col\r1 a h>d or a hot feel+ ( t\*4 ,"s ( ^! s5sations are b obscurely ! objects ( our consci\sness2 z = example ! feel+ :i* our feet h ( ! gr\nd1 or ! sight :i* our eyes h ( neighb\r+ objects1 :5 we walk 9 a rev]ie4 ,9 ^! cases ! s5sations1 ?\gh obscure1 exi/2 = !y #bcb s]ve to balance & guide u z we walk4 ,9 o!r cases1 our s5sations are di/9ctly & directly ! objects ( our att5tion4 ,b our ,s5sations1 z we h already said1 we ascribe z ,qualities to ext]nal objects4 ,by our s5ses we p]ceive objects1 & ?us our s5sations become p]ceptions4 ,we h n only ! s5sation ( r\nd1 purple1 & gre51 repeat$ & v>i$1 b ! p]ception ( a bun* ( grapes p>tly ripe & p>tly unripe4 ,we h n only s5sations ( noise & ( v>i\sly-col\r$ specks rapidly *ang+ _! places1 b we h p]ceptions1 by s\nd & sight1 ( a /one roll+ d[n ! hill & cru%+ ! %rubs 9 its pa?4 ,we sc>cely ev] dwell ^u our ,s5sations2 our ?\ghts are employ$ ^u ,objects4 ,we reg>d ! impressions ^u our n]ves1 n = :at !y are1 b = :at !y tell u4 ,b 9 :at ,language d ! impressions ^u ! n]ves ?us speak to u ( an ext]nal _w1--( ! =ms & qualities & actions ( objects8 ,h[ is x t by ! aid ( our n]v\s sy/em we become acqua9t$ n only ) impressions b ) ?+s2 t we le>n n only ! relation ( objects to u1 b to "o ano!r8 #ae4 ,x has be5 %[n at "s l5g? 9 ! previ\s ,books1 t ! mode 9 :i* ,s5sations are connect$ 9 our m9ds s z to convey to u ! k ( ,objects & _! ,relations1 is by be+ contemplat$ ) ref]5ce to ,ideas4 ,our ,s5sations1 connect$ by ! ,idea ( ,space1 become ,figures2 connect$ by ! ,idea ( ,"t1 !y become ,causes & ,effects2 connect$ by ! ,idea ( ,resemblance1 !y become ,individuals & ,k9ds2 connect$ by ! ,idea ( ,organization1 !y become ,liv+ ,?+s4 ,x has be5 %[n t )\t ^! ,ideas !re c be no connexion among our s5sations1 & !re=e no p]ception ( ,figure1 ,action1 ,k9d1 or 9 %ort1 ( bodies "u any aspect :atev]4 ,s5sations are ! rude ,matt] ( our p]ceptions2 & are no?+1 except s f> z !y h ,=m giv5 !m by ,ideas4 #bcc ,b ?us m\ld$ by our ,ideas1 ,s5sation becomes ! s\rce ( an endless /ore ( important ,k ( e possible k9d4 #af4 ,b "o ( ! mo/ obvi\s uses ( our p]ceptions & our k is to direct our ,actions4 ,x is suitable to ! condition ( our be+ t :5 we p]ceive a bun* ( grapes1 we %\ld be able to pluck & eat ! ripe ones2 t :5 we p]ceive a /one ru%+ d[n ! side ( a hill1 we %\ld be able to move s z to avoid x4 ,& ?is mu/ be done by mov+ our limbs2 9 %ort1 by ! use ( our muscles4 ,& ?us ,s5sation leads1 n directly1 b ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ,ideas1 to muscul> ,contraction4 ,i say t s5sation & ,muscul> action are 9 su* cases connect$ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ,ideas4 ,= :5 we proce$ to pluck ! grape :i* we see1 ! s5sation does n det]m9e ! motion ( ! h& by any necess>y geometrical or me*anical conditions1 z an impression made ^u a ma*9e det]m9es its motions2 b ! p]ception leads u to /ret* =? ! h& to t "p ( space1 :]ev] x is1 :]e we "k t ! grape is2 & ?is1 n 9 any det]m9ate pa?1 b1 x may be1 avoid+ or remov+ int]v5+ ob/acles1 :i* we also p]ceive4 ,!re is 9 e su* case a connexion betwe5 ! s5sation & ! result+ action1 n ( a mat]ial b ( a m5tal k9d4 ,! cause & ! effect are b\nd toge!r1 n by physical b by intellectual ties4 #ag4 ,& ?us 9 su* cases1 betwe5 ! two vital op]ations1 ,s5sation & ,muscul> ,action1 !re int]v5es1 z an int]m$iate /ep1 ,p]ception or ,k1 :i* is n m]ely vital b ideal4 ,b ?is is n all2 !re is /ill ano!r m5tal "p ( ! process :i* may be readily di/+ui%$ f t :i* we h describ$4 ,an act ( ! ,w1 a ,volition1 is t1 9 ! ,m9d1 :i* imm$iately det]m9es ! action ( ! ,muscles ( ! ,body4 ,& ?us ,w int]v5es betwe5 ,k & ,action2 & ! cycle ( op]ations :i* take place :5 animals act ) ref]5ce to ext]nal objects is #bcd ?is3--,s5sation1 ,p]ception1 ,volition1 ,muscul> ,contraction4 #ah4 ,to attempt fur!r to analyse ! m5tal "p ( ?is cycle does n belong to ! pres5t "p ( our "w4 ,b we may rem>k "h1 z we h already rem>k$ 9 ! ,hi/ory#igi1 h[ irresi/ibly we are l$ by physiological rese>*es into ! doma9 ( ?\ght & m9d4 ,we pass f ! body to ! s\l1 f physics to metaphysics2 f biology to psy*ology2 f ?+s to p]sons2 f n\ns to pron\ns4 ,i h !re notic$ ! mann] 9 :i* ,cuvi] expresses ?is transition by ! introduction ( ! pron\n3 ',! impression ( ext]nal objects ^u ! ,,me1 ! production ( a s5sation1 ( an image1 is a my/]y imp5etrable to our ?\ghts4' ,note #igi3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xvii4 c4 v4 s4 #b4 #ai4 ,b to return to ! m]ely biological "p ( our speculations4 ,we h arriv$1 x w be p]ceiv$1 at ?is result3 t 9 animal actions !re int]v5es betwe5 ! two t]ms ( ,s5sation & ,muscul> ,contraction1 an int]m$iate process2 :i* may be describ$ z a communication to & f a ,c5t]4 ,! ,c5t] is ! seat ( ! s5ti5t & vol5t faculties1 & is ( a hyp]physical nature4 ,b ! exi/5ce ( su* a ,c5t] z a necess>y elem5t 9 ! functions ( ! animal life is a tru? :i* is important 9 biology4 ,?is inde$ may be tak5 z ! peculi> "* ( animal1 z di/+ui%$ f m]ely organic p[]s4 ,accord+ly1 x is s /at$ by ,bi*at4 ,= al?\gh he sup]flu\sly1 z ,i h tri$ to %[1 introduces into 8 li/ ( vital p[]s an organic s5sibility1 he /ill draws ! di/9ction ( :i* ,i h spok52 '9 ! animal life1 ,s5sibility is ! faculty ( receiv+ an ,impression plus t ( ref]r+ x to a common ,c5t]#ihi4' ,note #ihi3 ,life & ,dea?1 p4 #hd4 #bj4 ,b s9ce ,s5sibility & ,contractility are ?us connect$ by ref]5ce to a common ,c5t]1 we may ask1 be=e quitt+ ! subject1 :at are ! diff]5t =ms :i* ?is ref]5ce assumes8 ,is ! connexion #bce always att5d$ by ! di/9ct /eps ( ,k & ,w1--by a cle> act ( consci\sness1 z 9 ! case :i* we h tak51 ( pluck+ a grape2 or may ^! /eps become obscure1 or vani% altoge!r8 ,we ne$ n fur!r illu/rate ! consci\s connexion4 ,su* actions z we h describ$ are call$ volunt>y actions4 ,9 extreme cases1 ! m5tal "p ( ! process is obvi\s en\gh4 ,b we may gradually pass f ^! to cases 9 :i* ! m5tal op]ation is m & m obscure4 ,9 walk+1 9 speak+1 9 eat+1 9 brea?+1 our muscul> ex]tions are direct$ by our s5sations & p]ceptions3 yet 9 su* processes1 h[ dimly are we consci\s ( p]ceptive & directive p[]6 ,h[ ! m9d %\ld be able to ex]cise su* a p[]1 & yet %\ld be sc>cely or n at all consci\s ( its ex]cise1 is a v curi\s problem4 ,b 9 all or 9 mo/ ( ! in/ances j m5tion$1 ! solution ( ?is problem appe>s to dep5d ^u psy*ological r ?an biological pr9ciples1 & !re=e does n belong to ?is place4 #ba4 ,b 9 cases at ! o!r extreme 7unconsci\s actions7 ! m5tal "p ( ! op]ation vani%es altoge!r4 ,9 _m animals1 ev5 aft] decapitation1 ! limbs %r9k :5 irritat$4 ,! motions ( ! iris are det]m9$ by ! influ5ce ( light on our eyes1 )\t our be+ aw>e ( ! motions4 ,"h ,s5sations produce ,motions1 b ) no trace ( int]v5+ ,p]ception or ,w4 ,! ,s5sation appe>s to be reflect$ back f ! c5tral elem5t ( animal life1 9 ! =m ( a ,muscul> ,contraction2 b 9 ?is case ! ,s5sation is n modifi$ or regulat$ by any ,idea4 ,^! reflect$ motions h no ref]5ce to relations ( space or =ce among surr\nd+ objects4 ,!y are bl9d & involunt>y1 l ! movem5ts ( convulsion1 dep5d+ = direction & am\nt only on ! position & circum/ances ( ! limb itself ) its muscles4 ,"h ! ,c5tre f :i* ! reflection takes place is m]ely animal1 n intellectual4 ,9 ?is case "s physiologi/s h d\bt$ :e!r ! reflection ( ! s5sation 9 ! =m ( a muscul> #bcf contraction does really take place f ! ,c5t]2 & h conceiv$ t s5sorial impressions might affect motor n]ves )\t any communication ) ! n]v\s ,c5t]4 ,b on ?is subject we may1 ,i conceive1 ) safety adopt ! decision ( ,pr(essor ,mll]1 delib]ately giv5 aft] a c>eful exam9ation ( ! subject3 ',:5 impressions made by ! action ( ext]nal /imuli on s5sitive n]ves give rise to motions 9 o!r p>ts1 ^! motions are nev] ! result ( ! direct reaction ( ! s5sitive & motor fibres ( ! n]ves on ea* o!r2 ! irritation is convey$ by ! s5sitive fibres to ! bra9 & sp9al cord1 & is by ^! communicat$ to ! motor fibres4' #bb4 ,?us we h two extreme cases ( ! connexion ( s5sation ) muscul> action2 9 "o ( :i* ! connexion cle>ly is1 & 9 ! o!r x z cle>ly is n1 det]m9$ by relations ( ,ideas1 9 its transit ?r\gh ! n]v\s ,c5t]4 ,!re is ano!r highly curi\s case /&+ int]m$iate betwe5 ^! two1 & extremely difficult to ref] to ei!r4 ,i speak ( ! case ( ,in/9ct4 ,in/9ct leads to actions :i* are su* z if !y 7 det]m9$ by ,ideas4 ,! lamb foll[s its "m by in/9ct2 b ! motions by :i* x does ?is1 ! special muscul> ex]tions1 dep5d entirely ^u ! geometrical & me*anical relations ( ext]nal bodies1 z ! =m ( ! gr\nd1 & ! =ce ( ! w9d4 ,! contractions ( ! muscles :i* are requisite 9 ord] t ! creature may obey its in/9ct1 v>y ) e v>iation ( ^! ext]nal conditions2--are n det]m9$ by any rule or necessity1 b by prop]ties ( ,space & ,=ce4 ,?us ! action is n gov]n$ by ,s5sations directly1 b by s5sations m\ld$ by ,ideas4 ,& ! same is ! case ) o!r cases ( in/9ct4 ,! dog hunts by in/9ct2 b he hunts c]ta9 k9ds ( animals m]ely1 ?us %[+ t 8 in/9ct acts accord+ to ,resemblances & ,diff]5ces2 he crosses ! field repeat$ly to f9d ! track ( 8 prey by sc5t2 ?us recogniz+ ! relations ( ,space ) ref]5ce to ! track2 he leaps1 adju/+ 8 ,=ce to #bcg ! di/ance & height ( ! leap ) me*anical precision2 & ?us he practically recognizes ! ,ideas ( ,resemblance1 ,space1 & ,=ce4 ,b h animals su* ,ideas8 ,9 any prop] s5se 9 :i* we c speak ( possess+ ,ideas1 x appe>s pla9 t !y h n4 ,animals _c1 at any "t1 be said prop]ly to possess ideas1 = ideas imply ! possibility ( speculative k4 #bc4 ,b ev5 if we all[ to animals only ! practical possession ( ,ideas1 we h /ill a great difficulty rema9+4 ,9 ! case ( man1 8 ideas are unfold$ gradually by 8 int]c\rse ) ! ext]nal _w4 ,! *ild le>ns to di/+ui% =ms & positions by a repeat$ & incessant use ( 8 h&s & eyes2 he le>ns to walk1 to run1 to leap1 by sl[ & labori\s degrees2 he di/+ui%es "o man f ano!r1 & "o animal f ano!r1 only aft] repeat$ mi/akes4 ,nor c we conceive ?is to be o!rwise4 ,h[ %\ld ! *ild "k at once :at muscles he is to ex]t 9 ord] to t\* ) 8 h& a c]ta9 visible object8 ,h[ %\ld he "k :at muscles to ex]t t he may /& & n fall1 till he has tri$ (t58 ,h[ %\ld he le>n to direct 8 att5tion to ! diff]5ces ( diff]5t faces & p]sons1 till he is r\s$ by "s memory1 or hope :i* implies memory8 ,x seems to u z if ! s5sations c\ld n1 )\t consid]able practice1 be rightly ref]r$ to ,ideas ( ,space1 ,=ce1 ,resemblance1 & ! l4 ,yet t :i* ?us appe>s impossible1 is 9 fact done by animals4 ,! lamb almo/ imm$iately aft] its bir? foll[s its "m1 accommodat+ ! actions ( its muscles to ! =m ( ! gr\nd4 ,! *ick1 j escap$ f ! %ell1 picks up a m9ute insect1 direct+ its beak ) ! greate/ accuracy4 ,ev5 ! human infant seeks ! brea/ & ex]ts its muscles 9 suck+1 almo/ z soon z x is born4 ,h5ce1 !n1 we see t ,in/9ct produces at once actions regulat$ by ,ideas1 or1 at lea/1 :i* take place z if !y 7 regulat$ by ,ideas2 al?\gh ! ,ideas _c h be5 develop$ by ex]cise1 & only appe> to exi/ s f> z su* actions are conc]n$4 #bch #bd4 ,! t]m ,in/9ct may prop]ly be oppos$ to ,insight4 ,! =m] implies an inw>d pr9ciple ( action1 implant$ )9 a creature & practically impell+ x1 b n capable ( be+ develop$ into a subject ( contemplation4 ,:ile ! in/9ctive actions ( animals are direct$ by su* a pr9ciple1 ! delib]ate actions ( man are gov]n$ by insight3 he c contemplate ! ideal relations on :i* ! result ( 8 action dep5ds4 ,he c 9 8 m9d map ! pa? he w foll[1 & e/imate ! =ce he w ex]t1 & class ! objects he has to deal )1 & det]m9e 8 actions by ! relations :i* he ?us has pres5t to 8 m9d4 ,he ?us possesses ,ideas n only practically1 b speculatively4 ,& kn[+ t ! ,ideas by :i* he commonly directs 8 actions1 ,space1 ,cause1 ,resemblance1 & ! l1 h be5 develop$ to t degree ( cle>ness 9 :i* he possesses !m by ! assidu\s ex]cise ( ! s5ses & ! m9d f ! e>lie/ /age ( infancy1 & t ^! ,ideas are capable ( be+ /ill fur!r unfold$ into long tra9s ( speculative tru?1 he is unable to conceive ! mann] 9 :i* animals possess su* ,ideas z _! in/9ctive actions disclose3--,ideas :i* nei!r require to be unfold$ nor admit ( unfold+2 :i* are adequate = practical purposes )\t any previ\s ex]cise1 & inadequate = speculative purposes ) :atev] lab\r cultivat$4 ,i h v5tur$ to make ^! few rem>ks on ,in/9ct s9ce x may1 p]haps1 ju/ly be consid]$ z ! la/ prov9ce ( ,biology1 :]e we rea* ! b\nd>y l9e ( ,psy*ology4 ,i h n[1 be=e quitt+ ?is subject1 only "o o!r pr9ciple to speak (4 #bci ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,f9al ,,causes4 #a4 ,,by an exam9ation ( ^? notions :i* ent] into all our reason+s & judgm5ts on liv+ ?+s1 x appe>$ t we conceive animal life z a vortex or cycle ( mov+ matt] 9 :i* ! =m ( ! vortex det]m9es ! motions1 & ^! motions aga9 support ! =m ( ! vortex3 ! /ation>y p>ts circulate ! fluids1 & ! fluids n\ri% ! p]man5t p>ts4 ,ea* portion m9i/]s to ! o!rs1 ea* dep5ds ^u ! o!r4 ,! p>ts make up ! :ole1 b ! exi/5ce ( ! :ole is ess5tial to ! pres]vation ( ! p>ts4 ,b p>ts exi/+ "u su* conditions are organs1 & ! :ole is organiz$4 ,?is is ! fundam5tal conception ( organization4 ',organiz$ be+s1' says ! physiologi/#iii1 'are compos$ ( a numb] ( ess5tial & mutually dep5d5t p>ts4' ',an organiz$ product ( nature1' says ! great metaphysician#ajji1 'is t 9 :i* all ! p>ts are mutually ends & means4' ,note #iii3 ,mll]1 ,elem4 p4 #ah4 ,note #ajji3 ,kant1 ,ur!ilskraft1 p4 #bif4 #b4 ,x w be obs]v$ t we d n cont5t ourselves ) say+ t 9 su* a :ole1 all ! p>ts are mutually dep5d5t4 ,?is might be true ev5 ( a me*anical /ructure2 x w\ld be easy to imag9e a framework 9 :i* ea* "p %\ld be necess>y to ! support ( ea* ( ! o!rs2 = example1 an ar* ( sev]al /ones4 ,b 9 su* a /ructure1 ! p>ts h no prop]ties :i* !y d]ive f ! :ole4 ,!y are beams or /ones :5 sep>ate2 !y are no m :5 jo9$4 ,b ! same is n ! case 9 an organiz$ :ole4 ,! limb ( an animal sep>at$ #bdj f ! body1 loses ! prop]ties ( a limb1 & soon ceases to reta9 ev5 its =m4 #c4 ,nor d we cont5t ourselves ) say+ t ! p>ts are mutually causes & effects4 ,?is is ! case 9 ma*9]y4 ,9 a clock1 ! p5dulum by means ( ! escapem5t causes ! desc5t ( ! weight1 ! weight by ! same escapem5t keeps up ! motion ( ! p5dulum4 ,b ?+s ( ?is k9d may happ5 by accid5t4 ,/ones slide f a rock d[n ! side ( a hill & cause x to be smoo?2 ! smoo?ness ( ! slope causes /ones /ill to slide4 ,yet no "o w\ld call su* a slide an organiz$ sy/em4 ,! sy/em is organiz$1 :5 ! effects :i* take place among ! p>ts are ess5tial to our conception ( ! :ole2 :5 ! :ole w\ld n be a :ole1 nor ! p>ts1 p>ts1 except ^! effects 7 produc$2 :5 ! effects n only happ5 9 fact1 b are includ$ 9 ! idea ( ! object2 :5 !y are n only se51 b =ese52 n only expect$1 b int5d$3 9 %ort :51 in/ead ( be+ causes & effects1 !y are ends & means1 z !y are t]m$ 9 ! above def9ition4 ,?us we necess>ily include1 9 our ,idea ( ,organization1 ! notion ( an ,end1 a ,purpose1 a ,design2 or1 to use ano!r phrase :i* has be5 peculi>ly appropriat$ 9 ?is case1 a ,f9al ,cause4 ,?is idea ( a ,f9al ,cause is an ess5tial condition 9 ord] to ! pursu+ our rese>*es respect+ organiz$ bodies4 #d4 ,?is ,idea ( ,f9al ,cause is n d$uc$ f ! ph5om5a by reason+1 b is assum$ z ! only condition "u :i* we c reason on su* subjects at all4 ,we d n d$uce ! ,idea ( ,space1 or ,"t1 or effici5t ,cause f ! ph5om5a ab\t u1 b necess>ily look at ph5om5a z subord9ate to ^! ,ideas f ! beg9n+ ( our reason+4 ,x is true1 our ideas ( relations ( ,space1 & ,"t1 & ,=ce1 may become mu* m cle> by our famili>iz+ ourselves ) p>ticul> ph5om5a3 b /ill1 ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas are n g5]at$1 b unfold$2 n extract$ f ! ext]nal _w1 b evolv$ f ! _w )94 ,9 l mann]1 9 ! contemplation ( organic /ructures1 we consid] #bda ea* "p z subs]vi5t to "s use1 & we _c /udy ! /ructure z organic )\t su* a conception4 ,?is notion ( adaptation1--?is ,idea ( an ,end1--may become mu* m cle> & impressive by see+ x exemplifi$ 9 p>ticul> cases4 ,b /ill1 ?\gh sugge/$ & evok$ by special cases1 x is n furni%$ by !m4 ,if x be n suppli$ by ! m9d itself1 x c nev] be logically d$uc$ f ! ph5om5a4 ,x is n a portion ( ! facts :i* we /udy1 b x is a pr9ciple :i* connects1 includes1 & r5d]s !m intelligible2 z our o!r ,fundam5tal ,ideas d ! classes ( facts to :i* !y respectively apply4 #e4 ,?is has already be5 confirm$ by ref]5ce to fact2 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,physiology1 ,i h %[n t ^? :o /udi$ ! /ructure ( animals 7 irresi/ibly l$ to ! conviction t ! p>ts ( ?is /ructure h ea* its end or purpose2--t ea* memb] & organ n m]ely produces a c]ta9 effect or answ]s a c]ta9 use1 b is s fram$ z to impress u ) ! p]suasion t x 0 con/ruct$ = t use3--t x 0 int5d$ to produce ! effect4 ,x 0 !re se5 t ?is p]suasion 0 repeat$ly express$ 9 ! mo/ emphatic mann] by ,gal52--t x direct$ ! rese>*es & l$ to ! discov]ies ( ,h>vey2--t x has always be5 dwelt ^u z a fav\rite contemplation1 & foll[$ z a c]ta9 guide1 by ! be/ anatomi/s2--& t x is inculcat$ by ! physiologi/s ( ! pr(\nde/ views & mo/ ext5sive k ( our own "t4 ,all ^! p]sons h deem$ x a mo/ c]ta9 & important pr9ciple ( physiology1 t 9 e organiz$ /ructure1 plant or animal1 ea* intelligible "p has its allott$ (fice3--ea* organ is design$ = its appropriate function3--t nature1 9 ^! cases1 produces no?+ 9 va93 t1 9 %ort1 ea* portion ( ! :ole arrangem5t has its f9al cause2 an ,end to :i* x is adapt$1 & 9 ?is ,end1 ! reason t x is :]e & :at x is4 #f4 ,?is ,notion ( ,design 9 organiz$ bodies mu/1 ,i say1 be suppli$ by ! /ud5t ( organization out ( 8 own m9d3 a tru? :i* w become cle>] if #bdb we att5d to ! mo/ conspicu\s & ackn[l$g$ in/ances ( design4 ,! /ructure ( ! ,eye1 9 :i* ! p>ts are curi\sly adju/$ s z to produce a di/9ct image on ! ret9a1 z 9 an optical in/rum5t2--! ,tro*le> ,muscle ( ! eye1 9 :i* ! t5don passes r\nd a support & turns back1 l a rope r\nd a pulley2--! prospective contrivances = ! pres]vation ( animals1 provid$ long be=e !y are want$1 z ! ,milk ( ! "m1 ! ,tee? ( ! *ild1 ! ,eyes & ,lungs ( ! ftus3--^! arrangem5ts1 & innum]able o!rs1 call up 9 u a p]suasion t ,design has ent]$ into ! plan ( animal =m & progress4 ,& if we br+ 9 our m9ds ?is conception ( ,design1 no?+ c m fully squ>e ) & fit x1 ?an su* in/ances z ^!4 ,b if we did n already possess ! ,idea ( ,design2--if we _h n _h our notion ( me*anical contrivance awak5$ by inspection ( optical in/rum5ts1 or pulleys1 or 9 "s o!r way3--if we _h nev] be5 consci\s ourselves ( provid+ = ! future2--if ?is 7 ! case1 we c\ld n recognize contrivance & prospectiv5ess 9 su* in/ances z we h ref]r$ to4 ,! facts are1 inde$1 admirably 9 accordance ) ^! conceptions1 :5 ! two are br\ght toge!r3 b ! facts & ! conceptions come toge!r f diff]5t qu>t]s--f )\t & f )94 #g4 ,we may fur!r illu/rate ?is po9t by ref]r+ to ! relations ( travell]s :o tell u t :5 consummate examples ( human me*anical contrivance h be5 set be=e savages1 !y h appe>$ incapable ( appreh5d+ !m z pro(s ( design4 ,?is %[s t 9 su* cases ! ,idea ( ,design _h n be5 develop$ 9 ! m9ds ( ! p :o 7 ?us un9tellig5t3 b x no m proves t su* an idea does n naturally & necess>ily arise1 9 ! progress ( m5's m9ds1 ?an ! confus$ mann] 9 :i* ! same savages appreh5d ! relations ( space1 or numb]1 or cause1 proves t ^! ideas d n naturally belong to _! intellects4 ,all m5 h ^! ideas2 & x is because !y #bdc _c help ref]r+ _! s5sations to su* ideas1 t !y appreh5d ! _w z exi/+ 9 "t & space1 & z a s]ies ( causes & effects4 ,x w\ld be v errone\s to say t ! belief ( su* tru?s is obta9$ by logical reason+ f facts4 ,& 9 l mann] we _c logically d$uce design f ! contemplation ( organic /ructures2 al?\gh x is impossible = u1 :5 ! facts are cle>ly be=e u1 n to f9d a ref]5ce to design op]at+ 9 our m9ds4 #h4 ,aga92 ! evid5ce ( ! doctr9e ( ,f9al ,causes z a fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ,biology may be obscur$ & weak5$ 9 "s m9ds by ! con/ant habit ( view+ ?is doctr9e ) suspicion z unphilosophical & at v>iance ) ,morphology4 ,by *]i%+ su* views1 x is probable t _m p]sons1 physiologi/s & o!rs1 h gradually br\ght !mselves to suppose t _m or mo/ ( ! arrangem5ts :i* are famili>ly adduc$ z in/ances ( design may be acc\nt$ =1 or expla9$ away2--t !re is a c]ta9 degree ( prejudice & n>r[ness ( compreh5sion 9 t lively admiration ( ! adaptation ( means to ends :i* common m9ds d]ive f ! spectacle ( organic arrangem5ts4 ,& yet1 ev5 9 p]sons accu/om$ to ^! views1 ! /rong & natural influ5ce ( ! ,idea ( a ,f9al ,cause1 ! spontane\s recognition ( ! relation ( ,means to an ,end z ! assumption :i* makes organic arrangem5ts intelligible1 breaks =? :5 we br+ be=e !m a new case1 ) reg>d to :i* _! g5u9e convictions h n yet be5 modifi$ by _! intellectual habits4 ,i w (f]1 z an example :i* may s]ve to illu/rate ?is1 ! discov]ies rec5tly made ) reg>d to ! process ( ,suckl+ 9 ! ,kang>oo4 ,9 ! case ( ?is1 z ( o!r p\*$ animals1 ! "y animal is remov$1 :ile v small & imp]fectly =m$1 f ! womb to ! p\*1 9 :i* ! teats are1 & is !re plac$ ) its lips aga9/ "o ( ! nipples4 ,b ! "y animal tak5 altoge!r is n s l>ge z ! nipple1 & is !re=e incapable ( suck+ aft] ! mann] ( common mammals4 ,"h is a difficulty3 #bdd h[ is x ov]come8--,by an appropriate contrivance3 ! nipple1 :i* 9 common mammals is n furni%$ ) any muscle1 is 9 ! kang>oo provid$ ) a p[]ful extrusory muscle by :i* ! "m c inject ! milk into ! m\? ( h] (fspr+4 ,& aga92 9 ord] to give atta*m5t to ?is muscle !re is a bone :i* is n f\nd 9 animals ( o!r k9ds4 ,b ?is mode ( solv+ ! problem ( suckl+ s small a creature introduces ano!r difficulty4 ,if ! milk is inject$ into ! m\? ( ! "y "o1 )\t any action ( its own muscles1 :at is to prev5t ! fluid ent]+ ! w9dpipe & produc+ suffocation8 ,h[ is ?is dang] avoid$8--,by ano!r appropriate contrivance3 !re is a funnel 9 ! back ( ! ?roat by :i* ! air passage is completely sep>at$ f ! passage = nutrim5t1 & ! inject$ milk passes 9 a divid$ /ream on ea* side ( ! l>ynx to ! sophagus#ajai4 ,& z if to %[ t ?is app>atus is really =m$ ) a view to ! wants ( ! "y "o1 ! /ructure alt]s 9 ! c\rse ( ! animal's gr[?2 & ! funnel1 no long] ne$$1 is modifi$ & disappe>s4 ,note #ajai3 ,mr4 ,ow51 9 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcd1 p4 #cdh4 ,) reg>d to ?is & simil> examples1 ! rem>k :i* ,i w\ld urge is ?is3--t no "o1 h[ev] prejudic$ or unphilosophical he may 9 g5]al deem ! ref]5ce to ,f9al ,causes1 c1 at ! fir/ impression1 help reg>d+ ?is curi\s sy/em ( arrangem5t z ! ,means to an ,end4 ,s contemplat$1 x becomes significant1 intelligible1 admirable3 )\t su* a pr9ciple1 x is an unmean+ complexity1 a collection ( contradictions1 produc+ an almo/ impossible result by a port5t\s conflict ( *ances4 ,! p>ts ( ?is app>atus _c h produc$ "o ano!r3 "o "p is 9 ! "m2 ano!r "p 9 ! "y "o3 )\t _! h>mony !y c\ld n be effective2 b no?+ except design c op]ate to make !m h>moni\s4 ,!y are int5d$ to "w toge!r2 & we _c resi/ ! conviction ( ?is int5tion :5 ! facts fir/ come be=e u4 ,p]haps #bde !re may h]eaft] be physiologi/s :o1 trac+ ! gradual developm5t ( ! p>ts ( :i* we h spok51 & ! analogies :i* connect !m ) ! /ructures ( o!r animals1 may ?9k t ?is developm5t1 ^! analogies1 acc\nt = ! con=mation we h describ$2 & may h5ce ?9k lightly ( ! explanation d]iv$ f ! ref]5ce to ,f9al ,causes4 ,yet surely x is cle>1 on a calm consid]ation ( ! subject1 t ! latt] explanation is n di/urb$ by ! =m]2 & t ! obs]v]'s fir/ impression1 t ?is is 'an irrefragable evid5ce ( creative =esight#ajbi1' c nev] be oblit]at$2 h[ev] mu* x may be obscur$ 9 ! m9ds ( ^? :o confuse ?is view by mix+ x ) o!rs :i* are utt]ly het]og5e\s to x1 & !re=e _c be contradictory4 ,note #ajbi3 ,mr4 ,ow51 9 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcd1 p4 #cdi4 #i4 ,i h else:]e#ajci rem>k$ h[ physiologi/s1 :o ?us look ) suspicion & dislike ^u ! introduction ( ,f9al ,causes into physiology1 h /ill be5 unable to exclude f _! speculations causes ( ?is k9d4 ,?us ,cabanis says#ajdi1 ',i reg>d ) ! great ,bacon1 ! philosophy ( ,f9al ,causes z /]ile2 b ,i h else:]e ackn[l$g$ t x 0 v difficult = ! mo/ cauti\s man nev] to h rec\rse to !m 9 8 explanations4' ,accord+ly1 he says1 ',! p>tisans ( ,f9al ,causes n[h]e f9d argum5ts s /rong 9 fav\r ( _! way ( look+ at nature z 9 ! laws :i* preside & ! circum/ances ( all k9ds :i* concur 9 ! reproduction ( liv+ races4 ,9 no case d ! means employ$ appe> s cle>ly relative to ! end4' ,& x w\ld be easy to f9d simil> ackn[l$gm5ts1 express or virtual1 9 o!r writ]s ( ! same k9d4 ,?us ,bi*at1 aft] not+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! organic s5sibility by :i* ! organs are made to p]=m _! (fices1 & ! animal s5sibility ( :i* ! #bdf n]v\s c5t] is ! seat1 says#ajei1 ',no d\bt x w be ask$1 :y'--t is1 z we %all see1 = :at end--'! organs ( int]nal life h receiv$ f nature an inf]ior degree ( s5sibility only1 & :y !y d n transmit to ! bra9 ! impressions :i* !y receive1 :ile all ! acts ( ! animal life imply ?is transmission8 ,! reason is simply ?is1 t all ! ph5om5a :i* e/abli% our connexions ) surr\nd+ objects ought to be1 & are 9 fact1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! ,w2 :ile all ^? :i* s]ve = ! purpose ( assimilation only1 escape1 & ought inde$ to escape1 su* influ5ce4' ,! reason "h assign$ is ! ,f9al ,cause2 :i*1 z ,bi*at ju/ly says1 we _c help ask+ =4 ,note #ajci3 ,bridgewat] ,treatise1 p4 #ceb4 ,note #ajdi3 ,rapports du ,physique et du ,moral1 i4 #bii4 ,note #ajei3 ,life & ,dea?1 7trans47 p4 #cb4 #aj4 ,aga92 ,i may quote f ! writ] la/ m5tion$ ano!r rem>k1 :i* %[s t 9 ! organical sci5ces1 & 9 !m alone1 ! ,idea ( =ces z ,means act+ to an ,end1 is inevitably assum$ & ackn[l$g$ z ( supreme au?ority4 ,9 ,biology alone1 obs]ves ,bi*at#ajfi1 h we to contemplate ! /ate ( ,disease4 ',physiology is to ! movem5ts ( liv+ bodies1 :at a/ronomy1 dynamics1 hydraulics1 e41 are to ^? ( in]t matt]3 b ^! latt] sci5ces h no bran*es :i* correspond to !m z ,pa?ology corresponds to ,physiology4 ,= ! same reason all notion ( a ,m$icam5t is repugnant to ! physical sci5ces4 ,a ,m$icam5t has = its object to br+ ! prop]ties ( ! sy/em back to _! ,natural ,type2 b ! physical prop]ties nev] dep>t f ?is ,type1 & h no ne$ to be br\ght back to x3 & ?us !re is no?+ 9 ! physical sci5ces :i* holds ! place ( ,!rapeutick 9 ,physiology4' ,or1 z we might express x o!rwise1 ( in]t =ces we h no conception ( :at !y ought to d1 except :at !y d4 ,! =ces ( gravity1 ela/icity1 aff9ity1 nev] act 9 a diseas$ mann]2 we nev] conceive !m z fail+ 9 _! purpose2 = we d n conceive !m z hav+ any purpose :i* is answ]$ by "o mode ( _! action r ?an #bdg ano!r4 ,b ) organical =ces ! case is diff]5t2 !y are necess>ily conceiv$ z act+ = ! pres]vation & developm5t ( ! sy/em 9 :i* !y reside4 ,if !y d n d ?is1 !y fail1 !y are d]ang$1 diseas$4 ,!y h = _! object to con=m ! liv+ be+ to a c]ta9 type2 & if !y cause or all[ x to deviate f ?is type1 _! action is di/ort$1 morbid1 contr>y to ! ends ( nature4 ,& ?us ?is conception ( organiz$ be+s z susceptible ( disease1 implies ! recognition ( a /ate ( heal?1 & ( ! organs & ! vital =ces z means = pres]v+ ?is normal condition4 ,! /ate ( heal?1 & ( p]petual developm5t1 is necess>ily contemplat$ z ! ,f9al ,cause ( ! processes & p[]s ) :i* ! diff]5t p>ts ( plants & animals are end[$4 ,note #ajfi3 ,anatomie ,gnrale1 i4 liii4 #aa4 ,?is ,idea ( a ,f9al ,cause is applicable z a fundam5tal & regulative idea to our speculations conc]n+ organiz$ creatures only4 ,t !re is a purpose 9 _m o!r p>ts ( ! creation1 we f9d abundant reason to believe1 f ! arrangem5ts & laws :i* prevail ar\nd u4 ,b ?is p]suasion is n to be all[$ to regulate & direct our reason+s ) reg>d to inorganic matt]1 ( :i* conception ! relation ( means & end =ms no ess5tial "p4 ,9 m]e ,physics1 ,f9al ,causes1 z ,bacon has obs]v$1 are n to be admitt$ z a pr9ciple ( reason+4 ,b 9 ! organical sci5ces1 ! assumption ( design & purpose 9 e "p ( e :ole1 t is1 ! p]vad+ idea ( ,f9al ,cause1 is ! basis ( s\nd reason+ & ! s\rce ( true doctr9e4 #ab4 ,! ,idea ( ,f9al ,cause1 ( end1 purpose1 design1 int5tion1 is altoge!r diff]5t f ! ,idea ( ,cause1 z ,effici5t ,cause1 :i* we =m]ly _h to consid]2 & on ?is acc\nt ! use ( ! ^w ,cause 9 ?is phrase has be5 object$ to4 ,if ! idea be cle>ly ent]ta9$ & /eadily appli$1 ! ^w is a "q ( subord9ate importance4 ,! t]m ,f9al ,cause has be5 long famili>ly us$1 & appe>s n likely to lead to confusion4 #bdh #ac4 ,! consid]ation ( ,f9al ,causes1 bo? 9 physiology & 9 o!r subjects1 has at all times attract$ mu* att5tion1 9 consequ5ce ( its be>+ ^u ! belief ( an ,intellig5t ,au?or ( ! ,univ]se4 ,i d n int5d1 9 ?is place1 to pursue ! subject f> 9 ?is view3 b !re is "o anti!sis ( op9ion1 already notic$ 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,physiology1 on :i* ,i w aga9 make a few rem>ks#ajgi4 ,note #ajgi3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xvii4 c4 viii4 ,on ! ,doctr9e ( ,f9al ,causes 9 ,physiology4 ,x has appe>$ to "s p]sons t ! m]e aspect ( ord] & symmetry 9 ! works ( nature--! contemplation ( compreh5sive & consi/5t law--is suffici5t to lead u to ! conception ( a design & intellig5ce produc+ ! ord] & c>ry+ into effect ! law4 ,)\t "h attempt+ to decide :e!r ?is is true1 we may disc]n1 aft] :at has be5 said1 t ! conception ( ,design1 arriv$ at 9 ?is mann]1 is altoge!r diff]5t f t ,idea ( ,design :i* is sugge/$ to u by organiz$ bodies1 & :i* we describe z ! doctr9e ( ,f9al ,causes4 ,! regul> =m ( a cry/al1 :atev] beautiful symmetry x may exhibit1 :atev] g5]al laws x may exemplify1 does n prove design 9 ! same mann] 9 :i* design is prov$ by ! provisions = ! pres]vation & gr[? ( ! se$s ( plants1 & ( ! "y ( animals4 ,! law ( univ]sal gravitation1 h[ev] wide & simple1 does n impress u ) ! belief ( a purpose1 z does t prop5sity by :i* ! two sexes ( ea* animal are br\ght toge!r4 ,if x c\ld be %[n t ! symmetrical /ructure ( a fl[] results f laws ( ! same k9d z ^? :i* det]m9e ! regul> =ms ( cry/als1 or ! motions ( ! planets1 ! discov]y might be v /rik+ & important1 b x w\ld n at all come "u our idea ( ,f9al ,cause4 #ad4 ,accord+ly1 !re h be51 9 mod]n times1 two diff]5t s*ools ( physiologi/s1 ! "o proce$+ ^u ! idea ( ,f9al ,causes1 ! o!r s*ool #bdi seek+ 9 ! realm ( organiz$ bodies wide laws & analogies f :i* t idea is exclud$4 ,all ! great biologi/s ( prec$+ times1 & "s ( ! greate/ ( mod]n times1 h belong$ to ! =m] s*ool2 & especially ,cuvi]1 :o may be consid]$ z ! head ( x4 ,x 0 solely by ! assidu\s application ( ?is pr9ciple ( ,f9al ,cause1 z he himself con/antly decl>$1 t he 0 enabl$ to make ! discov]ies :i* h r5d]$ 8 "n s illu/ri\s1 & :i* conta9 a f> l>g] portion ( important anatomical & biological tru? ?an x ev] be=e fell to ! lot ( "o man to contribute to ! sci5ce4 ,! op9ions :i* h be5 put 9 opposition to ! pr9ciple ( ,f9al ,causes h1 = ! mo/ "p1 be5 /at$ vaguely & ambigu\sly4 ,among ! mo/ def9ite ( su* pr9ciples1 is t :i*1 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ! subject1 ,i h t]m$ ! ,pr9ciple ( ,metamorphos$ & ,develop$ ,symmetry1 ^u :i* has be5 f\nd$ ! sci5ce ( ,morphology4 ,! reality & importance ( ?is pr9ciple are n to be d5i$ by u3 we h %[n h[ !y are prov$ by its application 9 v>i\s sci5ces1 & especially 9 botany4 ,b ^? advocates ( ?is pr9ciple :o h plac$ x 9 anti!sis to ! doctr9e ( ,f9al ,causes1 h1 by ?is means1 done f> m inju/ice to _! own fav\rite doctr9e ?an damage to ! "o :i* !y oppos$4 ,! adaptation ( ! bones ( ! skeleton to ! muscles1 ! provision ( fulcrums1 project+ processes1 *annels1 s t ! motions & =ces %all be su* z ! ne$s ( life require1 _c possibly become less /rik+ & conv9c+1 f any discov]y ( g5]al analogies ( "o animal frame ) ano!r1 or ( laws connect+ ! developm5t ( diff]5t p>ts4 ,:5ev] su* laws are discov]$1 we c only consid] !m z ! means ( produc+ t adaptation :i* we s mu* admire4 ,our conviction t ! ,arti/ works intellig5tly1 is n de/roy$1 ?\gh x may be modifi$ & transf]r$1 :5 we obta9 a sight ( 8 tools4 ,our discov]y ( laws _c contradict our p]suasion ( ends2 our ,morphology _c prejudice our ,teleology4 #bej #ae4 ,! irresi/ible & con/ant appreh5sion ( a purpose 9 ! =ms & functions ( animals has introduc$ into ! writ+s ( speculators on ^! subjects v>i\s =ms ( expression1 m or less precise1 m or less figurative2 z1 t 'animals are fram$ ) a view to ! "p :i* !y h to play2'--t 'nature does no?+ 9 va92' t '%e employs ! be/ means = h] ends2' & ! l4 ,h[ev] metaphorical or inexact any ( ^! phrases may be 9 p>ticul>1 yet tak5 altoge!r1 !y convey1 cle>ly & def9itely en\gh to preclude any s]i\s err\r1 a pr9ciple ( ! mo/ pr(\nd reality & ( ! highe/ importance 9 ! organical sci5ces4 ,b "s adh]5ts ( ! morphological s*ool ( :i* #a h spok5 reject1 & ev5 ridicule1 all su* modes ( expression4 ',i "k no?+1' says ,m4 ,ge(froy ,sa9t ,hilaire1 '( animals :i* h to play a "p 9 nature4 ,i _c make ( nature an intellig5t be+ :o does no?+ 9 va92 :o acts by ! %orte/ mode2 :o does all = ! be/4' ,! philosoph]s ( ?is s*ool1 !re=e1 d n1 x w\ld seem1 feel any ( ! admiration :i* is irresi/ibly excit$ 9 all ! re/ ( mank9d at ! contemplation ( ! v>i\s & wond]ful adaptations = ! pres]vation1 ! enjoym5t1 ! cont9uation ( ! creatures :i* p ! globe2--at ! survey ( ! me*anical contrivances1 ! *emical ag5cies1 ! prospective arrangem5ts1 ! comp5sations1 ! m9ute adaptations1 ! compreh5sive int]dep5d5cies1 :i* zoology & physiology h br\ght into view1 m & m1 ! fur!r _! rese>*es h be5 c>ri$4 ,yet ! cle> & deep-seat$ conviction ( ! reality ( ^! provisions1 :i* ! /udy ( anatomy produces 9 its mo/ pr(\nd & accurate cultivators1 _c be %ak5 by any objections to ! metaphors or t]ms 9 :i* ?is conviction is clo!d4 ,9 reg>d to ! ,idea ( a ,purpose 9 organization1 z 9 reg>d to any o!r idea1 we _c fully express our mean+ by phrases borr[$ f any extrane\s s\rce2 b t impossibility arises precisely f ! circum/ance ( its be+ a ,fundam5tal ,idea :i* is inevitably assum$ 9 our #bea repres5tation ( ea* special fact4 ,! same objection has be5 made to ! idea ( me*anical =ce1 on acc\nt ( its be+ (t5 express$ 9 metaphorical language2 = writ]s h spok5 ( an en]gy1 ef=t1 or solicitation to motion2 & bodies h be5 said to be animat$ by a =ce4 ,su* language1 x has be5 urg$1 implies volition1 & ! act ( animat$ be+s4 ,b ! idea ( ,=ce z di/9ct f m]e motion1--z ! ,cause ( motion1 or ( t5d5cy to motion1--is n on t acc\nt less real4 ,we endeav\r 9 va9 to conduct our me*anical reason+s )\t ! aid ( ?is idea1 & mu/ express x z we c4 ,j z little c we reason conc]n+ organiz$ be+s )\t assum+ t ea* "p has its function1 ea* function its purpose2 & s f> z our phrases imply ?is1 !y w n mislead u1 h[ev] inexact1 or h[ev] figurative !y be4 #af4 ,! doctr9e ( a purpose 9 ,organization has be5 sometimes call$ ! doctr9e ( ! ,conditions ( ,exi/5ce2 & has be5 /at$ z tea*+ t ea* animal mu/ be s fram$ z to conta9 9 its /ructure ! ,conditions :i* its exi/5ce requires4 ,:5 express$ 9 ?is mann]1 x has giv5 rise to ! objection1 t x m]ely (f]s an id5tical proposition2 s9ce no animal c exi/ )\t su* conditions4 ,b 9 reality1 su* expressions z ^? j quot$ give an inadequate /atem5t ( ! ,pr9ciple ( a ,f9al ,cause4 ,= we discov] 9 innum]able cases1 arrangem5ts 9 an animal1 ( :i* we see1 inde$1 t !y are subs]vi5t to its well be+2 b ! nature ( :i* we nev] %\ld h be5 able at all to conjecture1 f consid]+ :at 0 necess>y to its exi/5ce1 & :i* /rike u1 no less by _! unexpect$ness ?an by _! adaptation3 s f> are !y f be+ pres5t$ by any p]ceptible necessity4 ,:o w\ld v5ture to say t ! tro*le> muscle1 or ! p[] ( articulate spee*1 mu/ occur 9 man1 because !y are ! necess>y conditions ( 8 exi/5ce8 ,:51 inde$1 ! g5]al s*eme & mode ( be+ ( an animal are kn[n1 ! exp]t & pr(\nd anatomi/ c reason conc]n+ ! proportions & #beb =m ( its v>i\s p>ts & organs1 & prove 9 "s measure :at _! relations mu/ be4 ,we c ass]t1 ) ,cuvi]1 t c]ta9 =ms ( ! visc]a require c]ta9 =ms ( ! tee?1 c]ta9 =ms ( ! limbs1 c]ta9 p[]s ( ! s5ses4 ,b 9 all ?is1 ! functions ( self-nutrition & dige/ion are suppos$ already exi/+ z ends3 & x be+ tak5 = grant$1 z ! only conceivable basis ( reason+1 t ! organs are means to ^! ends1 we may discov] :at modifications ( ^! organs are necess>ily relat$ to & connect$ ) ea* o!r4 ,in/ead ( t]m+ ?is rule ( speculation m]ely '! ,pr9ciple ( ! ,conditions ( ,exi/5ce1' we might t]m x '! ,pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( organs z ,means adapt$ to animal exi/5ce z _! ,end4' ,& h[ f> ?is pr9ciple is f be+ a m]e b>r5 truism1 ! extraord9>y discov]ies made by ! great ass]tor ( ! pr9ciple1 & univ]sally ass5t$ to by naturali/s1 abundantly prove4 ,! va/ ext9ct creation :i* is recall$ to life 9 ,cuvi]'s great "w1 ! ,ossem5s ,fossiles1 _c be ! consequ5ce ( a m]e id5tical proposition4 #ag4 ,x has be5 object$1 also1 t ! doctr9e ( ,f9al ,causes supposes u to be acqua9t$ ) ! int5tions ( ! ,creator2 :i*1 x is ins9uat$1 is a mo/ presumptu\s & irrational basis = our reason+s4 ,b !re c be no?+ presumptu\s or irrational 9 reason+ on t basis1 :i* if we reject1 we _c reason at all4 ,if m5 really c disc]n1 & _c help disc]n+1 a design 9 c]ta9 portions ( ! works ( creation1 ?is p]ception is ! s\nde/ & mo/ satisfactory gr\nd = ! convictions to :i* x leads4 ,! ,ideas :i* we necess>ily employ 9 ! contemplation ( ! _w ar\nd u1 af=d u ! only natural means ( =m+ any conception ( ! ,creator & ,gov]nor ( ! ,univ]se2 & if we are by su* means enabl$ to elevate our ?\ghts1 h[ev] inadequately1 t[>ds ,him1 :]e is ! presumption ( do+ s8 or r1 :]e is ! wisdom ( refus+ to op5 our m9ds to contemplations s animat+ & elevat+1 & yet #bec s entirely conv9c+8 ,we possess ! ideas ( ,"t & ,space1 "u :i* all ! objects ( ! univ]se pres5t !mselves to u2 & 9 virtue ( ^! ideas ?us possess$1 we believe ! ,creator to be et]nal & omnipot5t4 ,:5 we f9d t we1 9 l mann]1 possess ! idea ( a ,design 9 ,creation1 & t ) reg>d to ourselves1 & creatures m or less resembl+ ourselves1 we _c b contemplate _! con/itution "u ?is idea1 we _c ab/a9 f ascrib+ to ! ,creator ! inf9ite pr(undity & ext5t ( design to :i* all ^! special in/ances belong z p>ts ( a :ole4 #ah4 ,i h "h consid]$ ,design z manife/ 9 organization only3 = 9 t field ( speculation x is =c$ ^u u z conta9$ 9 all ! ph5om5a1 & z ! only mode ( our und]/&+ !m4 ,! exi/5ce ( ,f9al ,causes has (t5 be5 po9t$ out 9 o!r portions ( ! creation2--= in/ance1 9 ! app>5t adaptations ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! e>? & ( ! sol> sy/em to ea* o!r & to organiz$ be+s4 ,9 ^! prov9ces ( speculation1 h[ev]1 ! pr9ciple ( ,f9al ,causes is no long] ! basis & guide1 b ! sequel & result ( our physical reason+s4 ,if 9 look+ at ! univ]se1 we foll[ ! wide/ analogies ( :i* we obta9 a view1 we see1 h[ev] dimly1 reason to believe t all its laws are adapt$ to ea* o!r1 & int5d$ to "w toge!r = ! b5efit ( its organic population1 & = ! g5]al welf>e ( its rational t5ants4 ,on ?is subject1 h[ev]1 n imm$iately includ$ 9 ! pr9ciple ( ,f9al ,causes z "h /at$1 ,i %all n dwell4 ,i w only make ?is rem>k2 t ! ass]tion appe>s to be q unf\nd$1 t z sci5ce advances f po9t to po9t1 ,f9al ,causes rec$e be=e x1 & disappe> "o aft] ! o!r4 ,! pr9ciple ( design *anges its mode ( application inde$1 b x loses none ( its =ce4 ,we no long] consid] p>ticul> facts z produc$ by special int]positions1 b we consid] design z exhibit$ 9 ! e/abli%m5t & adju/m5t ( ! laws by :i* p>ticul> facts are produc$4 ,we d n look ^u ea* p>ticul> #bed cl\d z br\ght ne> u t x may drop fatness on our fields2 b ! g5]al adaptation ( ! laws ( heat1 & air1 & moi/ure1 to ! promotion ( vegetation1 does n become d\btful4 ,we d n consid] ! sun z less int5d$ to w>m & vivify ! tribes ( plants & animals1 because we f9d t1 in/ead ( revolv+ r\nd ! e>? z an att5dant1 ! e>? along ) o!r planets revolves r\nd him4 ,we are r1 by ! discov]y ( ! g5]al laws ( nature1 l$ into a sc5e ( wid] design1 ( deep] contrivance1 ( m compreh5sive adju/m5ts4 ,f9al causes1 if !y appe> driv5 fur!r f u by su* an ext5sion ( our views1 embrace u only ) a va/] & m maje/ic circuit3 in/ead ( a few ?reads' connect+ "s deta*$ objects1 !y become a /up5d\s net-"w1 :i* is w\nd r\nd & r\nd ! univ]sal frame ( ?+s4 #ai4 ,i n[ quit ! subject ( ,biology1 & ) x ! circle ( sci5ces dep5d+ ^u sep>ate orig9al ,ideas & p]man5t relations4 ,if f ! g5]al relations :i* p]man5tly prevail & con/antly recur among ! objects ar\nd u1 we turn to ! inquiry ( :at has actually happ5$1--if f ,sci5ce we turn to ,hi/ory1--we f9d ourselves 9 a new field4 ,9 ?is region ( speculation we c r>ely obta9 a complete & sci5tific view ( ! connexion betwe5 objects & ev5ts4 ,! pa/ ,hi/ory ( ,man1 ( ! ,arts1 ( ,languages1 ( ! ,e>?1 ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em1 (f]s a va/ s]ies ( problems1 ( :i* p]haps n "o has be5 rigor\sly solv$4 ,/ill1 man1 z 8 speculative p[]s unfold !mselves1 _c b feel prompt$ & invit$ to employ 8 ?\ghts ev5 on ^! problems4 ,he _c b wi% & endeav\r to und]/& ! connexion betwe5 ! successive l9ks ( su* *a9s ( ev5ts4 ,he attempts to =m a ,sci5ce :i* %all be applicable to ea* ( ^! ,hi/ories2 & ?us he beg9s to con/ruct ! class ( sci5ces to :i* ,i n[1 9 ! la/ place1 proce$4 #bee ,,book ,x4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,pal,,tiology4 4 1 1 1 1 4 ,,/rabo1 ,geogr4 #a4 p4 #ed4 ,,x is !re=e1 n s mu* :at ^! =ms ( ! e>? actually are1 z :at !y are cont9ually becom+1 t we h to obs]ve2 nor is x possible ?us to obs]ve !m )\t an in/9ctive ref]5ce to ! fir/ /ate out ( :i* !y h be5 br\ght4444 ,yet to su* que/ions cont9ually sugge/+ !mselves1 x is nev] possible to give a complete answ]4 ,= a c]ta9 di/ance1 ! pa/ "w ( exi/+ =ces c be trac$2 b !n gradually ! mi/ ga!rs1 & ! foot/eps ( m gigantic ag5cies are traceable 9 ! d>kness2 & /ill z we endeav\r to p5etrate fur!r & fur!r into dep>t$ "t1 ! ?und] ( ! ,almighty p[] s\nds l\d] & l\d]1 & ! cl\ds ga!r broad] & m fe>fully1 until at la/ ! ,s9ai ( ! _w is se5 altoge!r ^u a smoke1 & ! f5ce ( its foot is rea*$1 :]e none c break ?r\gh4 ,,rusk91 ,mod]n ,pa9t]s1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #adc4 #beg ,,book ,x4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,pal,,tiology4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,( ,,pal,,tiological ,,sci5ces ,,9 ,,g5]al4 #a4 ,i ,,h already /at$ 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ces#aaj1 t ! class ( ,sci5ces :i* ,i designate z ,paltiological are ^? 9 :i* ! object is to asc5d f ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s to a m anci5t condition1 f :i* ! pres5t is d]iv$ by intelligible causes4 ,z conspicu\s examples ( ?is class we may take ,geology1 ,glossology or ,comp>ative ,philology1 & ,comp>ative ,ar*ology4 ,^! prov9ces ( k might p]haps be intelligibly describ$ z ,hi/ories2 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,e>?1--! ,hi/ory ( ,languages1--! ,hi/ory ( ,arts4 ,b ^! phrases w\ld n fully describe ! sci5ces we h 9 view2 = ! object to :i* we n[ suppose _! inve/igations to be direct$ is1 n m]ely to asc]ta9 :at ! s]ies ( ev5ts has be51 z 9 ! common =ms ( ,hi/ory1 b also h[ x has be5 br\ght ab\t4 ,^! sci5ces are to treat ( causes z well z ( effects4 ,su* rese>*es might be t]m$ ,philosophical ,hi/ory2 or1 9 ord] to m>k m di/9ctly t ! causes ( ev5ts are ! lead+ object ( att5tion1 tiological ,hi/ory4 ,b s9ce #beh x w be m conv5i5t to describe ?is class ( sci5ces by a s+le appellation1 ,i h tak5 ! lib]ty ( propos+ to call !m#baj ! ,paltiological ,sci5ces4 ,note #aaj3 ,b4 xviii4 ,introd4 ,note #baj3 ,a philological writ]1 9 a v int]e/+ "w 7,mr4 ,donaldson1 9 8 ,new ,cratylus1 p4 #ab71 expresses 8 dislike ( ?is ^w1 & sugge/s t ,i mu/ mean pal-tiological4 ,i ?9k ! ^w is m likely to obta9 curr5cy 9 ! m compact & euphoni\s =m 9 :i* ,i h us$ x4 ,x has be5 adopt$ by ,mr4 ,w9n+1 9 8 ,manual ( ,comp>ative ,philology1 & m rec5tly1 by o!r writ]s4 ,:ile ,palontology describes ! be+s :i* h liv$ 9 =m] ages )\t inve/igat+ _! causes1 & tiology treats ( causes )\t di/+ui%+ hi/orical f me*anical causation2 ,paltiology is a comb9ation ( ! two sci5ces2 explor+1 by means ( ! second1 ! ph5om5a pres5t$ by ! fir/4 ,! portions ( k :i* ,i include 9 ?is t]m are palontological tiological sci5ces4 #b4 ,all ^! sci5ces are connect$ by ?is bond2--t !y all endeav\r to asc5d to a pa/ /ate1 by consid]+ :at is ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s1 & :at are ! causes ( *ange4 ,geology exam9es ! exi/+ appe>ance ( ! mat]ials :i* =m ! e>?1 inf]s f !m previ\s conditions1 & speculates conc]n+ ! =ces by :i* "o condition has be5 made to succe$ ano!r4 ,ano!r sci5ce1 cultivat$ ) great zeal & success 9 mod]n times1 comp>es ! languages ( diff]5t c\ntries & nations1 & by an exam9ation ( _! mat]ials & /ructure1 endeav\rs to det]m9e _! desc5t f "o ano!r3 ?is sci5ce has be5 t]m$ ,comp>ative ,philology1 or ,e?nography2 & by ! ,fr5*1 ,l+ui/ique1 a ^w :i* we might imitate 9 ord] to h a s+le "n = ! sci5ce1 b ! ,greek d]ivative ,glossology appe>s to be m conv5i5t 9 its =m4 ,! progress ( ! ,arts 7,ar*itecture & ! l72--h[ "o /age ( ! culture produc$ ano!r2 & h[ f> we c trace _! mature/ & mo/ complete condition to _! e>lie/ =m 9 v>i\s nations2--are problems ( great int]e/ belong+ to ano!r subject1 :i* we may = ! pres5t t]m #bei ,comp>ative ,ar*ology4 ,i h already notic$1 9 ! ,hi/ory#caj h[ ! rese>*es into ! orig9 ( natural objects1 & ^? relat+ to works ( art1 pass by slight gradations into ea* o!r2 h[ ! exam9ation ( ! *anges :i* h affect$ an anci5t temple or =tress1 h>b\r or riv]1 may conc]n alike ! geologi/ & ! antiqu>y4 ,cuvi]'s ass]tion t ! geologi/ is an antiqu>y ( a new ord]1 is p]fectly correct1 = bo? are paltiologi/s4 ,note #caj3 ,b4 xviii4 ,introd4 #c4 ,we are v f> f hav+ exhau/$1 by ?is enum]ation1 ! class ( sci5ces :i* are ?us connect$4 ,we may easily po9t out _m o!r subjects ( speculation ( ! same k9d4 ,z we may look back t[>ds ! fir/ condition ( our planet1 we may 9 l mann] turn our ?\ghts t[>ds ! fir/ condition ( ! sol> sy/em1 & try :e!r we c disc]n any traces ( an ord] ( ?+s antec$5t to t :i* is n[ e/abli%$2 & if we f9d1 z "s great ma!maticians h conceiv$1 indications ( an e>li] /ate 9 :i* ! planets 7 n yet ga!r$ into _! pres5t =ms1 we h1 9 ! pursuit ( ?is tra9 ( rese>*1 a paltiological portion ( ,a/ronomy4 ,aga91 z we may inquire h[ languages1 & h[ man1 h be5 diffus$ ov] ! e>?'s surface f place to place1 we may make ! l inquiry ) reg>d to ! races ( plants & animals1 f\nd+ our inf]5ces ^u ! exi/+ geographical di/ribution ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms3 & ?us ! ,geography ( ,plants & ( ,animals also becomes a portion ( ,paltiology4 ,aga91 z we c 9 "s measure trace ! progress ( ,arts f nation to nation & f age to age1 we c also pursue a simil> inve/igation ) respect to ! progress ( ,my?ology1 ( ,poetry1 ( ,gov]nm5t1 ( ,law4 ,?us ! philosophical hi/ory ( ! human race1 view$ ) ref]5ce to ^! subjects1 if x c give rise to k s exact z to be prop]ly call$ ,sci5ce1 w supply ,sci5ces belong+ to ! class ,i am n[ to consid]4 #bfj #d4 ,x is n an arbitr>y & useless proce$+ to con/ruct su* a ,class ( ,sci5ces4 ,= wide & v>i\s z _! subjects are1 x w be f\nd t !y h all c]ta9 pr9ciples1 maxims1 & rules ( proc$ure 9 common2 & ?us may reflect light ^u ea* o!r by be+ treat$ ( toge!r4 ,inde$ x w1 ,i tru/1 appe>1 t we may by su* a juxtaposition ( diff]5t speculations1 obta9 mo/ salut>y lessons4 ,& que/ions1 :i*1 :5 view$ z !y fir/ pres5t !mselves "u ! aspect ( a special sci5ce1 di/urb & al>m m5's m9ds1 may p]haps be contemplat$ m calmly1 z well z m cle>ly1 :5 !y are consid]$ z g5]al problems ( paltiology4 #e4 ,x w at once occur to ! read] t1 if we include 9 ! circuit ( our classification su* subjects z h be5 m5tion$1--politics & law1 my?ology & poetry1--we are travell+ v f> beyond ! mat]ial sci5ces )9 ^: limits we at ! outset propos$ to conf9e our discussion ( pr9ciples4 ,b we %all rema9 fai?ful to our orig9al plan2 & = t purpose %all conf9e ourselves1 9 ?is "w1 to ^? paltiological sci5ces :i* deal ) mat]ial ?+s4 ,x is true1 t ! g5]al pr9ciples & maxims :i* regulate ^! sci5ces apply also to inve/igations ( a p>allel k9d respect+ ! products :i* result f man's imag9ative & social end[m5ts4 ,b al?\gh !re may be a simil>ity 9 ! g5]al =m ( su* portions ( k1 _! mat]ials are s diff]5t f ^? ) :i* we h be5 hi!rto deal+1 t we _c hope to take !m into our pres5t acc\nt ) any pr(it4 ,language1 ,gov]nm5t1 ,law1 ,poetry1 ,art1 embrace a numb] ( peculi> ,fundam5tal ,ideas1 hi!rto n t\*$ ^u 9 ! disquisitions 9 :i* we h be5 engag$2 & mo/ ( !m involv$ 9 f> great] p]plexity & ambiguity1 ! subject ( controv]sies f> m vehem5t1 ?an ! ,ideas we h hi!rto be5 exam9+4 ,we mu/ !re=e avoid re/+ any "p ( our philosophy ^u sci5ces1 or suppos$ sci5ces1 :i* treat ( su* subjects4 ,to att5d to ?is caution1 #bfa is ! only way 9 :i* we c secure ! advantage we propos$ to ourselves at ! outset1 ( tak+1 z ! basis ( our speculations1 none b sy/ems ( undisput$ tru?s1 cle>ly und]/ood & express$#daj4 ,we h already said t we mu/1 kn[+ly & volunt>ily1 resign t liveli] & w>m] int]e/ :i* doctr9es on subjects ( ,polity or ,art possess1 & cont5t ourselves ) ! cold tru?s ( ! mat]ial sci5ces1 9 ord] t we may avoid hav+ ! v f\ndations ( our philosophy involv$ 9 controv]sy1 d\bt1 & obscurity4 ,note #daj3 ,see ,introd4 p4 #i4 #f4 ,we may rem>k1 h[ev]1 t ! necessity ( reject+ f our survey a l>ge portion ( ! rese>*es :i* ! g5]al notion ( ,paltiology includes1 sugge/s "o consid]ation :i* adds to ! int]e/ ( our task4 ,we began our inquiry ) ! tru/ t any s\nd views :i* we %\ld be able to obta9 respect+ ! nature ( ,tru? 9 ! physical sci5ces1 & ! mode ( discov]+ x1 mu/ also t5d to ?r[ light ^u ! nature & prospects ( k ( all o!r k9ds2--mu/ be useful to u 9 moral1 political1 & philological rese>*es4 ,we /at$ ?is z a confid5t anticipation2 & ! evid5ce ( ! ju/ice ( our belief already beg9s to appe>4 ,we h se51 9 ! la/ ,book1 t biology leads u to psy*ology1 if we *oose to foll[ ! pa?2 & ?us ! passage f ! mat]ial to ! immat]ial has already unfold$ itself at "o po9t2 & we n[ p]ceive t !re are sev]al l>ge prov9ces ( speculation :i* conc]n subjects belong+ to man's immat]ial nature1 & :i* are gov]n$ by ! same laws z sci5ces altoge!r physical4 ,x is n our bus9ess "h to dwell on ! prospects :i* our philosophy ?us op5s to our contemplation2 b we may all[ ourselves1 9 ?is la/ /age ( our pilgrimage among ! f\ndations ( ! physical sci5ces1 to be *e]$ & animat$ by ! ray #bfb t ?us beams ^u u1 h[ev] dimly1 f a high] & bright] region4 ,b 9 our reason+s & examples we %all ma9ly conf9e ourselves to ! physical sci5ces2 & = ! mo/ "p to ,geology1 :i* 9 ! ,hi/ory ,i h put =w>ds z ! be/ repres5tative ( ! ,paltiological ,sci5ces4 #bfc ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,! ,,?ree ,,memb]s ,,( ,a ,,pal,,tiological ,,sci5ce4 #a4 ,divisions ( su* ,sci5ces4--,,9 ea* ( ! ,sci5ces ( ?is class we consid] "s p>ticul> ord] ( ph5om5a n[ exi/+3--f our k ( ! causes ( *ange among su* ph5om5a1 we endeav\r to inf] ! causes :i* h made ?is ord] ( ?+s :at x is3--we asc5d 9 ?is mann] to "s previ\s /age ( su* ph5om5a2--& f t1 by a simil> c\rse ( inf]5ce1 to a /ill e>li] /age1 & to its causes4 ,h5ce x w be se5 t ea* su* sci5ce w consi/ ( two p>ts1--! k ( ! ,ph5om5a1 & ! k ( _! ,causes4 ,& su* a division is1 9 fact1 g5]ally recogniz$ 9 su* sci5ces3 ?us we h ,hi/ory1 & ! ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory2 we h ,comp>ison ( ,languages1 & ! ,!ories ( ! ,orig9 & ,progress ( ,language2 we h ,descriptive ,geology1 & ,!oretical or ,physical ,geology4 ,9 all ^! cases1 ! relation betwe5 ! two p>ts 9 ^! sev]al prov9ces ( k is ne>ly ! same2 & x may1 on "s occasions at lea/1 be useful to express ! di/9ction 9 a uni=m or g5]al mann]4 ,! inve/igation ( ,causes has be5 t]m$ tiology by philosophical writ]s1 & ?is t]m we may use1 9 contradi/9ction to ! m]e ,ph5om5ology ( ea* su* dep>tm5t ( k4 ,& ?us we %\ld h ,ph5om5al ,geology & tiological ,geology1 = ! two divisions ( ! sci5ce :i* we h above t]m$ ,descriptive & ,!oretical ,geology4 #b4 ,! ,/udy ( ,causes4--,b our k respect+ ! causes :i* actually h produc$ any #bfd ord] ( ph5om5a mu/ be arriv$ at by asc]ta9+ :at ! causes ( *ange 9 su* matt]s c d4 ,9 ord] to le>n1 = example1 :at %>e e>?quakes1 & volcanoes1 & ! beat+ ( ! ocean aga9/ its %ores1 ought to h 9 our ,!ory ( ,geology1 we mu/ make out :at effects ^! ag5ts ( *ange are able to produce4 ,& ?is mu/ be done1 n ha/ily1 or unsy/ematically1 b 9 a c>eful & connect$ mann]2 9 %ort1 ?is /udy ( ! causes ( *ange 9 ea* ord] ( ph5om5a mu/ become a di/9ct body ( ,sci5ce1 :i* mu/ include a l>ge am\nt ( k1 bo? compreh5sive & precise1 be=e x c be appli$ to ! con/ruction ( a !ory4 ,we mu/ h an tiology correspond+ to ea* ord] ( ph5om5a4 #c4 tiology4--,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,geology1 ,i h spok5 ( ! necessity = su* an tiology ) reg>d to geological ph5om5a3 ?is necessity ,i h comp>$ ) t :i*1 at ! "t ( ,kepl]1 requir$ ! =mation ( a sep>ate sci5ce ( ,dynamics 7! doctr9e ( ! ,causes ( ,motion71 be=e ,physical ,a/ronomy c\ld gr[ out ( ,ph5om5al ,a/ronomy4 ,9 pursuance ( ?is analogy1 ,i h !re giv5 ! "n ( ,geological ,dynamics to ! sci5ce :i* treats ( ! causes ( geological *ange 9 g5]al4 ,b1 z ,i h !re intimat$1 9 a l>ge portion ( ! subject ! *anges are s utt]ly diff]5t 9 _! nature f any modification ( motion1 t ! t]m ,dynamics1 s appli$1 s\nds h>% & /range4 ,= 9 ?is sci5ce we h to treat1 n only ( ! subt]rane\s =ces by :i* p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ are %ak51 elevat$1 or ruptur$1 b also ( ! causes :i* may *ange ! climate ( a portion ( ! e>?'s surface1 mak+ a c\ntry hott] or cold] ?an 9 =m] ages2 aga91 we h to treat ( ! causes :i* modify ! =ms & habits ( animals & vegetables1 & ( ! ext5t to :i* ! effects ( su* causes c proce$2 :e!r1 = in/ance1 !y c ext+ui% old species & produce new4 ,^! & o!r simil> inve/igations w\ld n be naturally includ$ 9 ! notion ( ,dynamics2 & !re=e x #bfe might p]haps be bett] to use ! t]m tiology :5 we wi% to gr\p toge!r all ^? rese>*es :i* h x = _! object to det]m9e ! laws ( su* *anges4 ,9 ! same mann] ! ,comp>ison & ,hi/ory ( ,languages1 if x is to lead to any /able & exact k1 mu/ h app5d$ to x an tiology1 :i* aims at det]m9+ ! nature & ! am\nt ( ! causes :i* really d produce *anges 9 language2 z colonization1 conque/1 ! mixture ( races1 civilization1 lit]ature1 & ! l4 ,& ! same rule applies to all sci5ces ( ?is class4 ,we %all n[ make a few rem>ks on ! *>act]i/ics ( su* bran*es ( sci5ce z ^? to :i* we are l$ by ! above consid]ations4 #d4 ,ph5om5ology requires ,classification4 ,ph5om5al ,geology4--,! ,ph5om5al portions ( ea* sci5ce imply ,classification1 = no description ( a l>ge & v>i$ mass ( ph5om5a c be useful or intelligible )\t classification4 ,a repres5tation ( ph5om5a1 9 ord] to answ] ! purposes ( sci5ce1 mu/ be sy/ematic4 ,accord+ly1 9 giv+ ! ,hi/ory ( ,descriptive or ,ph5om5al ,geology1 ,i h call$ x ,sy/ematic ,geology1 j z ,classificatory ,botany is t]m$ ,sy/ematic ,botany4 ,moreov]1 z we h already se51 ,classification c nev] be an arbitr>y process1 b always implies "s natural connexion among ! objects ( ! same ,class2 = if ?is connexion did n exi/1 ! ,classes c\ld n be made ! subjects ( any true ass]tion4 ,yet ?\gh ! classes ( ph5om5a :i* our sy/em ackn[l$ges mu/ be su* z already exi/ 9 nature1 ! discov]y ( ^! classes is1 = ! mo/ "p1 v f> f obvi\s or easy4 ,to detect ! true pr9ciples ( ,natural ,classes1 & to select m>ks by :i* ^! may be recogniz$1 are /eps :i* require g5ius & good =tune1 & :i* fall to ! lot only ( ! mo/ em95t p]sons 9 ea* sci5ce4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory1 ,i h po9t$ out ,w]n]1 ,william ,smi?1 & ,cuvi]1 z ! ?ree great au?ors ( ,sy/ematic ,geology ( ,europe4 ,! mode ( classify+ ! mat]ials ( ! e>?'s surface :i* 0 f\nd1 by ^! philosoph]s1 fitt$ to #bff enunciate su* g5]al facts z came "u _! notice1 0 to consid] ! rocks & o!r mat]ials z divid$ into successive lay]s or /rata1 sup]impos$ "o on ano!r1 & v>i\sly incl9$ & brok54 ,! ,g]man geologi/ di/+ui%$ 8 /rata = ! mo/ "p by _! m9]alogical "*2 ! o!r two1 by ! rema9s ( animals & plants :i* ! rocks conta9$4 ,aft] a beg9n+ _h ?us be5 made 9 giv+ a g5u9e sci5tific =m to ph5om5al geology1 o!r /eps foll[$ 9 rapid succession1 z has already be5 relat$ 9 ! ,hi/ory#eaj4 ,! ,classification ( ! ,/rata 0 fix$ by a suitable ,nom5clature4 ,attempts 7 made to apply to o!r c\ntries ! ord] ( /rata :i* _h be5 f\nd to prevail 9 t fir/ /udi$3 & 9 ?is mann] x 0 asc]ta9$ :at rocks 9 di/ant regions are ! synonyms1 or ,equival5ts#faj1--( ea* o!r4 ,! k ?us collect$ & sy/ematiz$ 0 exhibit$ 9 ! =m ( ,geological ,maps4 ,note #eaj3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xviii4 c4 iii4 ,note #faj3 ,ib4 sect4 #d4 ,moreov]1 among ! ph5om5a ( geology we h ,laws ( ,nature z well z ,classes4 ,! g5]al =m ( m\nta9-*a9s2 ! relations ( ! direction & incl9ation ( diff]5t *a9s to ea* o!r2 ! g5]al features ( m9]al ve9s1 faults1 & fissures2 ! preval5t *>act]s ( slaty cleavage2--7 ! subjects ( laws e/abli%$1 or suppos$ to be e/abli%$1 by ext5sive obs]vation ( facts4 ,9 l mann] ! organic fossils discov]$ 9 ! /rata 7 f\nd to foll[ c]ta9 laws ) ref]5ce to ! climate :i* !y appe>$ to h liv$ 92 & ! evid5ce :i* !y gave ( a regul> zoological developm5t4 ,& ?us1 by ! assidu\s lab\rs ( _m accompli%$ & active philosoph]s1 ,descriptive or ,ph5om5al ,geology 0 c>ri$ t[>ds a /ate ( complet5ess4 #e4 ,ph5om5al ,uranography4--,9 l mann] 9 o!r paltiological rese>*es1 z soon z !y approa* to an exact & sci5tific =m1 we f9d ! necessity ( con/ruct+ 9 ! fir/ place a sci5ce ( #bfg classification & exact description1 by means ( :i* ! ph5om5a may be correctly repres5t$ & comp>$2 & ( obta9+ by ?is /ep a solid basis = an inquiry into ! causes :i* h produc$ !m4 ,?us ! ,paltiology ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em has1 9 rec5t times1 drawn ! att5tion ( speculators2 & a hypo!sis has be5 />t$1 t our sun & 8 att5dant planets h be5 produc$ by ! cond5sation ( a mass ( diffus$ matt]1 su* z t :i* con/itutes ! nebul\s pat*es :i* we obs]ve 9 ! />ry heav5s4 ,b ! sage/ & mo/ enlight5$ a/ronom]s h n fail$ to ackn[l$ge1 t to v]ify or to disprove ?is conjecture1 mu/ be ! "w ( _m ages ( obs]vation & ?\ght4 ,!y h p]ceiv$ also t ! fir/ /ep ( ! lab\r requisite = ! advancem5t ( ?is portion ( sci5ce mu/ be to obta9 & to record ! mo/ exact k at pres5t )9 our rea*1 respect+ ! ph5om5a ( ^! nebul1 ) :i* we ?us comp>e our own sy/em2 &1 z a necess>y elem5t ( su* k1 !y h se5 ! importance ( a classification ( ^! objects1 & ( o!rs1 su* z ,d\ble ,/>s1 ( ! same k9d4 ,sir ,william ,h]s*el1 :o fir/ p]ceiv$ ! be>+ ( ! ph5om5a ( nebul ^u ! hi/ory ( ! sol> sy/em1 made ! obs]vation ( su* objects 8 bus9ess1 ) truly admirable zeal & skill2 & 9 ! acc\nt ( ! results ( 8 lab\rs1 gave a classification ( ,nebul2 sep>at+ !m into1 fir/1 ,clu/]s ( ,/>s2 second1 ,resolvable ,nebul2 ?ird1 ,prop] ,nebul2 f\r?1 ,planet>y ,nebul2 fif?1 ,/ell> ,nebul2 six?1 ,nebul\s ,/>s#gaj4 ,& s9ce1 9 ord] to obta9 f ^! remote appe>ances1 any probable k respect+ our own sy/em1 we mu/ discov] :e!r !y und]go any *anges 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 he devot$ himself to ! task ( =m+ a record ( _! numb] & appe>ance 9 8 own "t1 t ?us ! a/ronom]s ( succe$+ g5]ations might h a #bfh def9ite & exact /&>d ) :i* to comp>e _! obs]vations4 ,/ill1 ?is task w\ld h be5 execut$ only = t "p ( ! heav5s :i* is visible 9 ?is c\ntry1 if ?is ,hipp>*us ( ! ,nebul & ,d\ble ,/>s _h n left beh9d him a son :o inh]it$ all 8 fa!r's zeal & m ?an 8 fa!r's k4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el 9 #ahcc w5t to ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope to complete :at ,sir ,william ,h]s*el left want+2 & 9 ! c\rse ( five ye>s obs]v$ ) c>e all ! nebul & d\ble />s ( ! ,s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,?is great ,h]s*elian ,survey ( ! ,heav5s1 ! completion ( :i* is ! noble/ monum5t ev] erect$ by a son to a fa!r1 mu/ necess>ily be1 to all ages1 ! basis ( all speculations conc]n+ ! hi/ory & orig9 ( ! sol> sy/em2 & has complet$1 s f> z at pres5t x c be complet$1 ! ph5om5al portion ( ,a/ronomical ,paltiology4 ,note #gaj3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #aghf & #aghi1 & ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el's ,a/ronomy1 ,art4 #faf4 #f4 ,ph5om5al ,geography ( ,plants & ,animals4--,aga91 !re is ano!r ,paltiological ,sci5ce1 closely connect$ ) ! speculations =c$ ^u ! geologi/ by ! organic fossils :i* he discov]s imb$d$ 9 ! /rata ( ! e>?2--namely1 ! ,sci5ce :i* has = its object ! ,causes ( ! ,diffusion & ,di/ribution ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( ,plants & ,animals4 ,& ! sci5ce also has = its fir/ portion & indisp5sable f\ndation a description & classification ( ! exi/+ ph5om5a4 ,su* portions ( sci5ce h rec5tly be5 cultivat$ ) great zeal & success1 "u ! titles ( ! ,geography ( ,plants1 & ! ,geography ( ,animals4 ,& ! results ( ! inquiries ?us und]tak5 h assum$ a def9ite & sci5tific =m by lead+ to a division ( ! e>?'s surface into a c]ta9 numb] ( botanical & zoological ,prov9ces1 ea* prov9ce occupi$ by its own peculi> vegetable & animal population4 ,we f9d1 too1 9 ! c\rse ( ^! inve/igations1 v>i\s g5]al laws ( ! ph5om5a (f]$ to our notice2 su*1 = in/ance1 z ?is3--t ! diff]5ce ( ! animals orig9ally occupy+ ea* prov9ce1 :i* is cle> & entire = ! high] ord]s ( #bfi animals & plants1 becomes m d\btful & indi/9ct :5 we desc5d to ! l[] k9ds ( organizations2 z ,infusoria & ,zoophytes#haj 9 ! animal k+dom1 ,grasses & ,mosses among vegetables4 ,aga91 o!r laws discov]$ by ^? :o h /udi$ ! geography ( plants are ^!3--t c\ntries sep>at$ f ea* o!r by wide tracts ( sea1 z ! opposite %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 ! isl&s ( ! ,indian & ,pacific ,oceans1 h usually mu* t is common 9 _! vegetation3--& aga91 t 9 p>allel climates1 analog\s tribes replace ea* o!r4 ,x w\ld be easy to adduce o!r laws1 b ^? already /at$ may s]ve to %[ ! great ext5t ( ! portions ( k :i* h j be5 m5tion$1 ev5 consid]$ z m]ely ,sci5ces ( ,ph5om5a4 ,note #haj3 ,pri*>d1 ,rese>*es into ! ,physical ,hi/ory ( ,mank9d1 i4 #ee1 #bh4 #g4 ,ph5om5al ,glossology4--,x is n my purpose 9 ! pres5t "w to borr[ my lead+ illu/rations f any portions ( k b ^? :i* are conc]n$ ) ! /udy ( mat]ial nature2 & ,i %all1 !re=e1 n dwell ^u a bran* ( rese>*1 s+ul>ly int]e/+1 & closely connect$ ) ! "o j m5tion$1 b deal+ ) relations ( ?\ght r ?an ( ?+s2--,i mean ! ,paltiology ( ,language2--! !ory1 s f> z ! facts enable u to =m a !ory1 ( ! causes :i* h l$ to ! resemblances & diff]5ces ( human spee* 9 v>i\s regions & v>i\s ages4 ,?is1 inde$1 w\ld be only a portion ( ! /udy ( ! hi/ory & orig9 ( ! diffusion ( animals1 if we 7 to include man among ! animals ^: disp]sion we ?us inve/igate2 = language is "o ( ! mo/ cle> & imp]i%able records ( ! e>ly ev5ts 9 ! c>e] ( ! human race4 ,b ! peculi> nature ( ! faculty ( spee*1 & ! ideas :i* ! use ( x involves1 make x prop] to treat ,glossology z a di/9ct sci5ce4 ,& ( ?is sci5ce1 ! fir/ "p mu/ necess>ily be1 z 9 ! o!r sci5ces ( ?is ord]1 a #bgj classification & comp>ison ( languages gov]n$ 9 _m respects by ! same rules1 & pres5t+ ! same 9999difficulties1 z o!r sci5ces ( classification4 ,su*1 accord+ly1 has be5 ! proc$ure ( ! mo/ philosophical glossologi/s4 ,!y h be5 l$ to ?r[ ! languages ( ! e>? into c]ta9 l>ge classes or ,families1 accord+ to v>i\s k9ds ( resemblance2 z ! ,semitic ,family1 to :i* belong ,hebrew1 ,arabic1 ,*aldean1 ,syrian1 ,pho5ician1 ,e?iopian1 & ! l2 ! ,indo-,european1 :i* includes ,sanskrit1 ,p]sian1 ,greek1 ,lat91 & ,g]man2 ! ,monosyllabic languages1 ,*9ese1 ,tibetan1 ,birman1 ,siamese2 ! ,polysyn!tic languages1 a class includ+ mo/ ( ! ,nor?-,am]ican ,indian dialects2 & o!rs4 ,& ?is "w ( classification has be5 ! result ( ! lab\r & /udy ( _m v pr(\nd l+ui/s1 & has advanc$ gradually f /ep to /ep4 ,?us ! ,indo-,european ,family 0 fir/ =m$ on an obs]vation ( ! co9cid5ces betwe5 ,sanskrit1 ,greek1 & ,lat92 b x 0 soon f\nd to include ! ,teutonic languages1 & m rec5tly ,dr4 ,pri*>d#iaj has %[n beyond d\bt t ! ,celtic mu/ be includ$ 9 ! same ,family4 ,o!r g5]al resemblances & diff]5ces ( languages h be5 m>k$ by appropriate t]ms3 ?us ,augu/ von ,s*legel has d5om9at$ !m syn!tical & analytical1 accord+ z !y =m _! conjugations & decl5sions by auxili>y v]bs & prepositions1 or by *anges 9 ! ^w itself3 & ! polysyn!tic languages are s nam$ by ,m4 ,duponceau1 9 consequ5ce ( _! /ill m complex mode ( inflexion4 ,nor are !re want+1 9 ?is sci5ce also1 g5]al laws ( ph5om5a2 su*1 = in/ance1 is ! curi\s rule ( ! int]*ange ( consonants 9 ! cognate words ( ,greek1 ,go?ic1 & ,g]man1 :i* has be5 discov]$ by ,james ,grimm4 ,all ^! rem>kable portions ( k1 & ! great works :i* h appe>$ on ,glossology1 su*1 = example1 z ! ,mi?ridates ( ,adelung & ,vat]1 conta91 = _! l>ge/1 & #bga hi!rto probably _! mo/ valuable "p1 ! ph5om5al portion ( ! sci5ce1 ! comp>ison ( languages z !y n[ are4 ,& beyond all d\bt1 until we h br\ght ?is ,comp>ative ,philology to a consid]able degree ( complet5ess1 all our speculations respect+ ! causes :i* h op]at$ to produce ! languages ( ! e>? mu/ be idle & unsub/antial dreams4 ,note #iaj3 ,dr ,pri*>d1 ,on ! ,ea/]n ,orig9 ( ! ,celtic ,nations4 #ahca4 ,?us 9 all ,paltiological ,sci5ces1 9 all attempts to trace back ! hi/ory & discov] ! orig9 ( ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s1 ! portion ( ! sci5ce :i* mu/ fir/ be =m$ is t :i* classifies ! ph5om5a1 & discov]s g5]al laws prevail+ among !m4 ,:5 ?is "w is p]=m$1 & n till !n1 we may beg9 to speculate successfully conc]n+ causes1 & to make "s progress 9 our attempts to g back to an orig94 ,we mu/ h a ,ph5om5al sci5ce prep>atory to ea* tiological "o4 #h4 ,! ,/udy ( ,ph5om5a leads to ,!ory4--,z we h j said1 we _c1 9 any subject1 speculate successfully conc]n+ ! causes ( ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s1 till we h obta9$ a tol]ably complete & sy/ematic view ( ! ph5om5a4 ,yet 9 reality m5 h n 9 any in/ance wait$ = ?is complet5ess & sy/em 9 _! k ( facts be=e !y h begun to =m !ories4 ,nor 0 x natural1 consid]+ ! speculative prop5sities ( ! human m9d1 & h[ incessantly x is endeav\r+ to apply ! ,idea ( ,cause1 t x %\ld ?us re/ra9 itself4 ,i h already notic$ ?is 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,geology4 ',:ile we h be5 giv+ an acc\nt1' x is !re said1 '( ! objects ) :i* ,descriptive ,geology is occupi$1 x mu/ h be5 felt h[ difficult x is1 9 contemplat+ su* facts1 to conf9e ourselves to description & classification4 ,conjectures & reason+s respect+ ! causes ( ! ph5om5a =ce !mselves ^u u at e /ep2 & ev5 influ5ce our classification & nom5clature4 ,our ,descriptive ,geology impels u to con/ruct a ,physical ,geology4' ,& ! same is ! case ) reg>d to ! o!r subjects :i* ,i h m5tion$4 ,! m]e #bgb consid]ation ( ! diff]5t degrees ( cond5sation ( diff]5t ,nebul l$ ,h]s*el & ,laplace to contemplate ! hypo!sis t our sol> sy/em is a cond5s$ ,nebula4 ,imm$iately ^u ! division ( ! e>?'s surface into botanical & zoological prov9ces1 & ev5 at an e>li] p]iod1 ! opposite hypo!ses ( ! ,orig9 ( all ! animals ( ea* k9d f a s+le pair1 & ( _! orig9al diffusion all ov] ! e>?1 7 "u discussion4 ,& ! consid]ation ( ! families ( languages irresi/ibly l$ to speculations conc]n+ ! ,families ( ! e>lie/ human inhabitants ( ! e>?4 ,9 all cases ! contemplation ( a v few ph5om5a1 ! discov]y ( a v few /eps 9 ! hi/ory1 made m5 wi% = & attempt to =m a !ory ( ! hi/ory f ! v beg9n+ ( ?+s4 #i4 ,no s\nd ,!ory )\t tiology4--,b ?\gh man is ?us impell$ by ! natural prop5sities ( 8 intellect to trace ea* ord] ( ?+s to its causes1 he does n at fir/ disc]n ! only sure way ( obta9+ su* k3 he does n suspect h[ mu* lab\r & h[ mu* me?od are requisite = success 9 ?is und]tak+3 he is n aw>e t = ea* ord] ( ph5om5a he mu/ con/ruct1 by ! accumulat$ results ( multipli$ obs]vation & di/9ct ?\ght1 a sep>ate iology4 ,?us1 z ,i h else:]e rem>k$#ajaj1 :5 m5 _h = ! fir/ "t become acqua9t$ ) "s ( ! lead+ ph5om5a ( ,geology1 & _h proce$$ to speculate conc]n+ ! pa/ *anges & revolutions by :i* su* results _h be5 produc$1 !y =?) suppos$ !mselves able to judge :at w\ld be ! effects ( any ( ! obvi\s ag5ts ( *ange1 z ,wat] or ,volcanic ,fire4 ,x did n at fir/ occur to !m to suspect t _! common & extemporane\s judgm5t on su* po9ts 0 by no means suffici5t = s\nd k4 ,!y did n =esee t1 be=e !y c\ld det]m9e :at %>e ^! or any o!r causes _h _h 9 produc+ ! pres5t condition ( ! e>?1 !y mu/ create #bgc a special sci5ce ^: object %\ld be to e/imate ! g5]al laws & effects ( su* assum$ causes2--t be=e !y c\ld obta9 any s\nd ,geological ,!ory1 !y mu/ c>efully cultivate ,geological tiology4 ,note #ajaj3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xviii4 c4 v4 sect4 #a4 ,! same disposition to proce$ imm$iately f ! facts to ! !ory1 )\t con/ruct+1 z an int]m$iate /ep1 a ,sci5ce ( ,causes1 might be po9t$ out 9 ! o!r sci5ces ( ?is ord]4 ,b 9 all ( !m ?is err\r has be5 correct$ by ! failures to :i* x l$4 ,x soon appe>$1 = in/ance1 t a m c>eful inquiry into ! effects :i* climate1 food1 habit & circum/ances c produce 9 animals1 0 requisite 9 ord] to det]m9e h[ ! div]sities ( animals 9 diff]5t c\ntries h orig9at$4 ,! tiology ( ,animal ,life 7if we may be all[$ to give ?is "n to t /udy ( su* causes ( *ange :i* is at pres5t s zeal\sly cultivat$1 & :i* yet has no di/9ctive designation1 except s f> z x co9cides ) ! ,organic ,geological ,dynamics ( our ,hi/ory7 is n[ p]ceiv$ to be a necess>y portion ( all attempts to con/ruct a hi/ory ( ! e>? & its inhabitants4 #aj4 ,cause1 9 ,paltiology4--,we are ?us l$ to contemplate a class ( ,sci5ces :i* are comm5c$ ) ! /udy ( ,causes4 ,we h already consid]$ sci5ces :i* dep5d$ ma9ly ^u ! ,idea ( ,cause1 namely1 ! ,me*anical ,sci5ces4 ,b x is obvi\s t ! ,idea ( ,cause 9 ! rese>*es n[ "u our consid]ation mu/ be employ$ 9 a v diff]5t way f t 9 :i* we appli$ x =m]ly4 ,=ce is ! ,cause ( motion1 because =ce at all times & "u all circum/ances1 if n c\nt]act$1 produces motion2 b ! ,cause ( ! pres5t condition & elevation ( ! ,alps1 :atev] x 01 0 manife/$ 9 a s]ies ( ev5ts ( :i* ea* happ5$ b once1 & occupi$ its prop] place 9 ! s]ies ( "t4 ,! =m] is me*anical1 ! latt] hi/orical1 cause4 ,9 our pres5t inve/igations1 we consid] ! ev5ts :i* we contemplate1 ( :atev] ord] !y be1 z =m+ a *a9 :i* is ext5d$ #bgd f ! beg9n+ ( ?+s d[n to ! pres5t "t2 & ! causes ( :i* we n[ speak are ^? :i* connect ! successive l9ks ( ?is *a94 ,e occurr5ce :i* has tak5 place 9 ! hi/ory ( ! sol> sy/em1 or ! e>?1 or its vegetable & animal creation1 or man1 has be5 at ! same "t effect & cause2--! effect ( :at prec$$1 ! cause ( :at succe$$4 ,by be+ effect & cause1 x has occupi$ "s c]ta9 portion ( "t2 & ! times :i* h ?us be5 occupi$ by effects & causes1 summ$ up & tak5 altoge!r1 make up ! total ( ,pa/ ,"t4 ,! ,pa/ has be5 a s]ies ( ev5ts connect$ by ?is hi/orical causation1 & ! ,pres5t is ! la/ t]m ( ?is s]ies4 ,! problem 9 ! ,paltiological ,sci5ces1 ) :i* we are "h conc]n$1 is1 to det]m9e ! mann] 9 :i* ea* t]m is d]iv$ f ! prec$+1 & ?us1 if possible1 to calculate backw>ds to ! orig9 ( ! s]ies4 #aa4 ,v>i\s k9ds ( ,cause4--,^? modes by :i* "o t]m 9 ! natural s]ies ( ev5ts is d]iv$ f ano!r1--! =ms ( hi/orical causation1--! k9ds ( connexion betwe5 ! l9ks ( ! inf9ite *a9 ( "t1--are v v>i\s2 nor ne$ we attempt to enum]ate !m4 ,b ^! k9ds ( causation be+ di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r1 & sep>ately /udi$1 ea* becomes ! subject ( a sep>ate tiology4 ,?us ! causes ( *ange 9 ! e>?'s surface1 resid+ 9 ! elem5ts1 fire & wat]1 =m ! ma9 subject ( ,geological tiology4 ,! tiology ( ! vegetable & animal k+doms inve/igates ! causes by :i* ! =ms & di/ribution ( species ( plants & animals are affect$4 ,! /udy ( causes 9 ,glossology leads to an tiology ( ,language1 :i* %all di/+ui%1 analyse1 & e/imate ! causes by :i* c]ta9 *anges are produc$ 9 ! languages ( nations2 9 l mann] we may expect to h an tiology ( ,art1 :i* %all scrut9ise ! influ5ces by :i* ! v>i\s =ms ( art h ea* giv5 bir? to its successor3 by :i*1 = example1 !re h be5 br\ght into be+ ^? v>i\s =ms ( ar*itecture :i* we t]m ,egyptian1 #bge ,doric1 ,ionic1 ,roman1 ,byzant9e1 ,romanesque1 ,go?ic1 ,italian1 ,elizabe?an4 ,x is easily se5 by ?is slight survey h[ manifold & div]se are ! k9ds ( cause :i* ! ,paltiological ,sci5ces br+ "u our consid]ation4 ,b 9 ea* ( ^? sci5ces we %all obta9 solid & complete sy/ems ( k1 only s f> z we /udy1 ) /eady ?\ght & c>eful obs]vation1 t peculi> k9d ( cause :i* is appropriate to ! ph5om5a "u our consid]ation4 #ab4 ,hypo!tical ,ord] ( ,paltiological ,causes4--,! v>i\s k9ds ( hi/orical cause are n only connect$ ) ea* o!r by _! common be>+ ^u ! hi/orical sci5ces1 b !y =m a k9d ( progression :i* we may repres5t to ourselves z hav+ act$ 9 succession 9 ! hypo!tical hi/ory ( ! e>? & its inhabitants4 ,?us assum+1 m]ely z a mom5t>y hypo!sis1 ! orig9 ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em by ! cond5sation ( a ,nebula1 we h to contemplate1 fir/1 ! causes by :i* ! lum9\s inc&esc5t diffus$ mass ( :i* a nebula is suppos$ to be con/itut$1 is gradually cond5s$1 cool$1 collect$ into def9ite masses1 solidifi$1 & ea* portion made to revolve ab\t its axis1 & ! :ole to travel ab\t ano!r body4 ,we h no difficulty 9 ascrib+ ! globul> =m ( ea* mass to ! mutual attraction ( its p>ticles3 b :5 ?is =m 0 once assum$1 & cov]$ ) a solid cru/1 are !re1 we may ask1 9 ! con/itution ( su* a body1 any causes at "w by :i* ! cru/ might be aga9 brok5 up & portions ( x displac$1 & cov]$ ) o!r matt]8 ,aga91 if we c ?us expla9 ! orig9 ( ! ,e>?1 c we ) l success acc\nt = ! pres5ce ( ! ,atmosph]e & ! ,wat]s ( e>? & ocean8 ,suppos+ ?is done1 we h !n to consid] by :at causes su* a body c\ld become /ock$ ) vegetable & animal ,life2 = !re h n be5 want+ p]sons1 extravagant speculators1 no d\bt1 :o h conceiv$ t ev5 ?is ev5t 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w might be ! "w ( natural causes4 ,suppos+ an orig9 giv5 to life #bgf ^u our e>?1 we h !n1 br\ght be=e u by geological obs]vations1 a s]ies ( diff]5t =ms ( vegetable & animal exi/5ce2 occurr+ 9 diff]5t /rata1 &1 z ! ph5om5a appe> irresi/ibly to prove1 exi/+ at successive p]iods3 & we are compell$ to inquire :at c h be5 ! causes by :i* ! =ms ( ea* p]iod h pass$ into ^? ( ! next4 ,we f9d1 too1 t /rata1 :i* mu/ h be5 at fir/ horizontal & cont9u\s1 h und]gone enorm\s dislocations & ruptures1 & we h to consid] ! possible effect ( aque\s & volcanic causes to produce su* *anges 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,we are ?us l$ to ! causes :i* h produc$ ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s on ! e>?2 & ^! are causes to :i* we may hypo!tically ascribe1 n only ! =m & position ( ! in]t mat]ials ( ! e>?1 b also ! nature & di/ribution ( its animal & vegetable population4 ,man too1 no less ?an o!r animals1 is affect$ by ! op]ation ( su* causes z we h ref]r$ to1 & mu/1 !re=e1 be includ$ 9 su* speculations4 ,b man's hi/ory only beg9s1 :]e t ( o!r animals ends1 ) 8 m]e exi/5ce4 ,!y are /ation>y1 he is progressive4 ,o!r species ( animals1 once br\ght into be+1 cont9ue ! same ?r\gh all ages2 man is *ang+1 f age to age1 8 language1 8 ?\ghts1 8 works4 ,yet ev5 ^! *anges are b\nd toge!r by laws ( causation2 & ^! causes too may become objects ( sci5tific /udy4 ,& su* causes1 ?\gh n to be dwelt ^u n[1 s9ce we p]mit ourselves to f\nd our philosophy ^u ! mat]ial sci5ces only1 mu/ /ill1 :5 treat$ sci5tifically1 fall )9 ! pr9ciples ( our philosophy1 & mu/ be gov]n$ by ! same g5]al rules to :i* all sci5ce is subject4 ,& ?us we are l$ by a close & natural connexion1 ?r\gh a s]ies ( causes1 ext5d+ f ^? :i* regulate ! imp]ceptible *anges ( ! remote/ nebul 9 ! heav5s1 to ^? :i* det]m9e ! div]sities ( language1 ! mutations ( art1 & ev5 ! progress ( civilization1 polity1 & lit]ature4 #bgg ,:ile ,i h be5 speak+ ( ?is suppos$ s]ies ( ev5ts1 includ+ 9 its c\rse ! =mation ( ! e>?1 ! introduction ( animal & vegetable life1 & ! revolutions by :i* "o collection ( species has succe$$ ano!r1 x mu/ n be =gott51 t ?\gh ,i h ?us hypo!tically spok5 ( ^! ev5ts z occurr+ by =ce ( natural causes1 ?is has be5 done only t ! true efficacy ( su* causes might be br\ght "u our consid]ation & made ! subject ( sci5tific exam9ation4 ,x may be f\nd1 t su* occurr5ces z ^! are q inexplicable by ! aid ( any natural causes ) :i* we are acqua9t$2 & ?us1 ! result ( our inve/igations1 conduct$ ) /rict reg>d to sci5tific pr9ciples1 may be1 t we mu/ ei!r contemplate sup]natural influ5ces z "p ( ! pa/ s]ies ( ev5ts1 or decl>e ourselves altoge!r unable to =m ?is s]ies into a connect$ *a94 #ac4 ,mode ( ,cultivat+ tiology3--,9 ,geology4--,9 :at mann]1 x may be ask$1 is tiology1 ) reg>d to ea* subject su* z we h enum]at$1 to be cultivat$8 ,9 ord] to answ] ?is "q1 we mu/1 accord+ to our me?od ( proce$+1 take ! mo/ successful & complete examples :i* we possess ( su* portions ( sci5ce4 ,b 9 tru?1 we c z yet ref] to few examples ( ?is k9d4 ,9 ,geology1 x is only v rec5tly1 & pr9cipally ?r\gh ! example & influ5ce ( ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 t ! tiology has be5 deta*$ f ! descriptive portion ( ! sci5ce2 & cultivat$ ) direct att5tion3 9 o!r sci5ces ! sep>ation has h>dly yet be5 made4 ,b if we exam9e :at has already be5 done 9 ,geological tiology1 or z 9 ! ,hi/ory x is t]m$1 ,geological ,dynamics1 we %all f9d a numb] ( diff]5t k9ds ( inve/igation :i*1 by ! aid ( our g5]al pr9ciples respect+ ! =mation ( sci5ces1 may suffice to supply v useful sugge/ions = tiology 9 g5]al4 ,9 ,geological tiology1 causes h be5 /udi$1 9 _m in/ances1 by att5d+ to _! action 9 ! ph5om5a ( ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s1 & by inf]r+ #bgh f ?is ! nature & ext5t ( ! action :i* !y may h ex]cis$ 9 =m] times4 ,?is has be5 done1 = example1 by ,von ,h(f1 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 & o!rs1 ) reg>d to ! op]ations ( riv]s1 seas1 spr+s1 glaci]s1 & o!r aque\s causes ( *ange1 ,aga91 ! same c\rse has be5 foll[$ by ! same philosoph]s ) respect to volcanoes1 e>?quakes1 & o!r viol5t ag5ts4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell has attempt$ to %[1 too1 t !re take place1 9 our own "t1 n only viol5t agitations1 b sl[ motions ( p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/1 ( ! same k9d & ord] ) ^? :i* h assi/$ 9 produc+ all ant]ior *anges4 ,b :ile we ?us seek in/ruction 9 ! ph5om5a ( ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s1 we are l$ to ! "q1 ,:at are ! limits ( ?is 'pres5t' p]iod8 ,= in/ance1 among ! curr5ts ( lava :i* we trace z "p ( ! %ores ( ,italy & ,sicily1 :i* %all we select z belong+ to ! exi/+ ord] ( ?+s8 ,9 go+ backw>ds 9 "t1 :]e %all we draw ! l9e8 & :y at su* p>ticul> po9t8 ,^! que/ions are important1 = our e/imate ( ! efficacy ( kn[n causes w v>y ) ! ext5t ( ! effects :i* we ascribe to !m4 ,h5ce ! mode 9 :i* we gr\p toge!r rocks is n only a /ep 9 geological classification1 b is also important to tiology4 ,?us1 :5 ! va/ masses ( trap rocks 9 ! ,we/]n ,isles ( ,scotl& & 9 o!r c\ntries1 :i* _h be5 ma9ta9$ by ! ,w]n]ians to be ( aque\s orig91 71 pr9cipally by ! sagacity & indu/ry ( ,maccullo*1 id5tifi$ z to _! nature ) ! products ( rec5t volcanoes1 ! am\nt ( effect :i* might ju/ifiably be ascrib$ to volcanic ag5cy 0 mat]ially ext5d$4 ,9 o!r cases1 in/ead ( obs]v+ ! curr5t effects ( our geological causes1 we h to e/imate ! results f :at we "k ( ! causes !mselves2 z :51 ) ,h]s*el1 we calculate ! alt]ations 9 ! temp]ature ( ! e>? :i* a/ronomical *anges may possibly produce2 or :51 ) ,f\ri]1 we try to calculate ! rate ( cool+ ( ! e>?'s #bgi surface1 on ! hypo!sis ( an inc&esc5t c5tral mass4 ,9 o!r cases1 aga91 we are n able to calculate ! effects ( our causes rigor\sly1 b e/imate !m z well z we c2 p>tly by physical reason+s1 & p>tly by comp>ison ) su* analog\s cases z we c f9d 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s4 ,?us ,sir ,*>les ,lyell inf]s ! *ange ( climate :i* w\ld result if l& 7 transf]r$ f ! neighb\rhood ( ! poles to t ( ! equator1 by reason+s on ! p[] ( l& & wat] to conta9 & communicate heat1 support$ by a ref]5ce to ! diff]5t actual climates ( places1 ly+ "u ! same latitude1 b "u diff]5t conditions z to ! di/ribution ( l& & wat]4 ,?us our tiology is con/ruct$ p>tly f calculation & reason+1 p>tly f ph5om5a4 ,b we may obs]ve t :5 we reason f ph5om5a to causes1 we usually d s by v>i\s /eps2 (t5 asc5d+ f ph5om5a to m]e laws ( ph5om5a1 be=e we c v5ture to connect ! ph5om5on confid5tly ) its cause4 ,?us ! law ( subt]ranean heat1 t x increases 9 desc5d+ bel[ ! surface1 is n[ well e/abli%$1 al?\gh ! doctr9e :i* ascribes ?is effect to a c5tral heat is n univ]sally ass5t$ to4 #ad4 ,9 ! ,geography ( ,plants & ,animals4--,we may f9d 9 o!r subjects also1 consid]able contributions t[>ds tiology1 ?\gh n z yet a complete ,sy/em ( ,sci5ce4 ,! tiology ( ,vegetables & ,animals1 inde$1 has be5 /udi$ ) great zeal 9 mod]n times1 z an ess5tial prep>ative to geological !ory2 = h[ c we decide :e!r any assum$ causes h produc$ ! succession ( species :i* we f9d 9 ! e>?'s /rata1 except we "k :at effect ( ?is k9d giv5 causes c produce8 ,accord+ly1 we f9d 9 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell's ,treatise on ,geology ! mo/ complete discussion ( su* que/ions z belong to ^! subjects3--= example1 ! "q :e!r species c be transmut$ into o!r species by ! long-cont9u$ influ5ce ( ext]nal causes1 z climate1 food1 dome/ication1 comb9$ ) int]nal #bhj causes1 z habits1 appet5cies1 progressive t5d5cies4 ,we may obs]ve1 too1 t z we h br\ght be=e u1 ! inquiry :at *ange diff]5ce ( climate c produce 9 any species1 we h also ! inv]se problem1 h[ f> a diff]5t developm5t ( ! species1 or a diff]5t collection ( species1 proves a diff]5ce ( climate4 ,9 ! same way1 ! geologi/ ( ! pres5t day consid]s ! "q1 :e!r1 9 virtue ( causes n[ 9 action1 species are f "t to "t ext+ui%$2 & 9 l mann]1 ! geologi/s ( an e>li] p]iod discuss$ ! "q1 n[ long completely decid$1 :e!r fossil species 9 g5]al are really ext9ct species4 #ae4 ,9 ,languages4--,ev5 ) ref]5ce to ! tiology ( ,language1 al?\gh ?is bran* ( sci5ce has h>dly be5 consid]$ sep>ately f ! glossological inve/igations 9 :i* x is employ$ or assum$ to be employ$1 x might p]haps be possible to po9t out causes or conditions ( *ange :i*1 be+ g5]al 9 _! nature1 mu/ op]ate ^u all languages alike4 ,*anges made = ! sake ( euphony :5 words are modifi$ & comb9$1 occur 9 all dialects4 ,:o c d\bt t su* *anges ( consonants z ^? by :i* ! ,greek roots become ,go?ic1 & ! ,go?ic1 ,g]man1 h = _! cause "s g5]al pr9ciple 9 ! pronunciation ( ea* language8 ,aga91 we might attempt to decide o!r que/ions ( no small int]e/4 ,h ! t]m9ations ( v]bs aris5 f ! accretion ( pron\ns2 or1 on ! o!r h&1 does ! modification ( a v]b imply a simpl] m5tal process ?an ! insulation ( a pron\n1 z ,adam ,smi? has ma9ta9$8 ,aga91 :5 ! language ( a nation is *ang$ by ! invasion & p]man5t mixture ( an enemy ( diff]5t spee*1 is x g5]ally true t x is *ang$ f a syn!tic to an analytical /ructure8 ,i w m5tion only "o m ( ^! wide & g5]al glossological inquiries4 ,is x true1 z ,dr4 ,pri*>d has sugge/$#aaaj1 t languages h become m p]man5t z we come d[n #bha t[>ds lat] times8 ,may we ju/ifiably suppose1 ) him1 t 9 ! v e>lie/ times1 nations1 :5 !y _h sep>at$ f "o /ock1 might lose all traces ( ?is common orig9 out ( _! languages1 ?\gh reta9+ /rong evid5ces ( x 9 _! my?ology1 social =ms1 & arts1 z appe>s to be ! case ) ! anci5t ,egyptians & ! ,indians#abaj4 ,note #aaaj3 ,rese>*es1 ii4 #bba4 ,note #abaj3 ,rese>*es1 ii4 #aib4 ,l>ge que/ions ( ?is nature _c be treat$ pr(itably 9 any o!r way ?an by an assidu\s /udy ( ! mo/ v>i$ =ms ( liv+ & dead languages4 ,b on ! o!r h&1 ! /udy ( languages %\ld be prosecut$ n only by a direct comp>ison ( "o ) ano!r1 b also ) a view to ! =mation ( a sci5ce ( causes & g5]al pr9ciples1 embrac+ su* discussions z ,i h po9t$ out4 ,x is only :5 su* a sci5ce has be5 =m$1 t we c hope to obta9 any solid & c]ta9 results 9 ! ,paltiology ( ,language2--to det]m9e1 ) any degree ( sub/antial pro(1 :at is ! real evid5ce :i* ! wond]ful faculty ( spee*1 "u its pres5t developm5ts & =ms1 be>s to ! ev5ts :i* h tak5 place 9 its own hi/ory1 & 9 ! hi/ory ( man s9ce 8 fir/ orig94 #af4 ,con/ruction ( ,!ories4--,:5 we h ?us obta9$1 ) ref]5ce to any su* subject z ^? we h "h spok5 (1 ^! two portions ( sci5ce1 a ,sy/ematic ,description ( ! ,facts1 & a rigor\s ,analysis ( ! ,causes1--! ,ph5om5ology & ! tiology ( ! subject1--we are prep>$ = ! ?ird memb] :i* completes ! sci5ce1 ! ,!ory ( ! actual facts4 ,we c !n take a view ( ! ev5ts :i* really h happ5$1 disc]n+ _! connexion1 int]pret+ _! evid5ce1 supply+ f ! context ! p>ts :i* are unapp>5t4 ,we c acc\nt = kn[n facts by intelligible causes2 we c inf] lat5t facts f manife/ effects1 s z to obta9 a di/9ct insight into ! :ole hi/ory ( ev5ts up to ! pres5t "t1 & to see ! la/ result ( ! :ole 9 ! pres5t condition ( ?+s4 #bhb ,! t]m ,!ory1 :5 rigor\sly employ$ 9 su* sci5ces z ^? :i* we "h consid]1 be>s ne>ly ! s5se :i* ,i h adopt$3 x implies a consi/5t & sy/ematic view ( ! actual facts1 comb9$ ) a true appreh5sion ( _! connexion & causes4 ,?us if we speak ( 'a ,!ory ( ,m\nt ,etna1' or 'a ,!ory ( ! ,p>is ,bas91' we mean a connect$ & intelligible view ( ! ev5ts by :i* ! rocks 9 ^! localities h come into _! pres5t condition4 ,und\bt$ly ! t]m ,!ory has (t5 be5 us$ 9 a loos] s5se2 & m5 h put =? ',!ories ( ! ,e>?1' :i*1 in/ead ( includ+ ! :ole mass ( actual geological facts & _! causes1 only assign$1 9 a vague mann]1 "s causes by :i* "s few ph5om5a might1 x 0 conceiv$1 be acc\nt$ =4 ,p]haps ! portion ( our ,paltiological ,sci5ces :i* we n[ wi% to designate1 w\ld be m g5]ally und]/ood if we 7 to describe x z ,!oretical or ,philosophical ,hi/ory2 z :5 we talk ( '! ,!oretical ,hi/ory ( ,ar*itecture1' or '! ,philosophical ,hi/ory ( ,language4' ,& 9 ! same mann] we might speak ( ! ,!oretical ,hi/ory ( ! ,animal & ,vegetable ,k+doms2 mean+1 a di/9ct acc\nt ( ! ev5ts :i* h produc$ ! pres5t di/ribution ( species & families4 ,b by :atev] phrase we describe ?is portion ( sci5ce1 x is pla9 t su* a ,!ory1 su* a ,!oretical ,hi/ory1 mu/ result f ! application ( causes well und]/ood to facts well asc]ta9$4 ,& if ! t]m ,!ory be "h employ$1 we mu/ recollect t x is to be und]/ood1 n 9 its n>r[] s5se z oppos$ to facts1 b 9 its wid] signification1 z includ+ all kn[n facts & diff]+ f !m only 9 introduc+ among !m pr9ciples ( intelligible connexion4 ,! ,!ories ( :i* we n[ speak are true ,!ories1 precisely because !y are id5tical ) ! total sy/em ( ! ,facts4 #ag4 ,no s\nd ,paltiological ,!ory yet extant4--,x is n to disp>age unju/ly ! pres5t /ate ( sci5ce1 to say t z yet no su* !ory exi/s on any subject4 ',!ories ( ! ,e>?' h be5 #bhc repeat$ly publi%$2 b :5 we consid] t ev5 ! facts ( geology h be5 obs]v$ only on a small portion ( ! e>?'s surface1 & ev5 )9 ^? n>r[ b\nds v imp]fectly /udi$1 we %all be able to judge h[ impossible x is t geologi/s %\ld h yet obta9$ a well-e/abli%$ ,!oretical ,hi/ory ( ! *anges :i* h tak5 place 9 ! cru/ ( ! t]re/rial globe f its fir/ orig94 ,accord+ly1 ,i h v5tur$ 9 my ,hi/ory to designate ! mo/ prom95t ( ! ,!ories :i* h hi!rto prevail$ z premature geological !ories#acaj3 & we %all soon see t geological !ory has n advanc$ beyond a few conjectures1 & t its cultivators are at pres5t ma9ly occupi$ ) a controv]sy 9 :i* ! two extreme hypo!ses :i* fir/ (f] !mselves to m5's m9ds are oppos$ to ea* o!r4 ,& if we h no !oretical ,hi/ory ( ! ,e>? :i* m]its any confid5ce1 /ill less h we any !oretical ,hi/ory ( ,language1 or ( ! ,arts1 :i* we c consid] z satisfactory4 ,! ,!oretical ,hi/ory ( ! ,vegetable & ,animal ,k+doms is closely connect$ ) t ( ! ,e>? on :i* !y subsi/1 & mu/ foll[ ! =tunes ( ,geology4 ,& ?us we may v5ture to say t no ,paltiological ,sci5ce1 z yet1 possesses all its ?ree memb]s4 ,inde$ mo/ ( !m are v f> f hav+ complet$ & sy/ematiz$ _! ,ph5om5ology3 9 all1 ! cultivation ( tiology is b j begun1 or is n begun2 9 all1 ! ,!ory mu/ rew>d ! ex]tions ( future1 probably ( di/ant1 g5]ations4 ,note #acaj3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xviii4 c4 vii4 sect4 #c4 ,b 9 ! mean "t we may d]ive "s in/ruction f ! comp>ison ( ! two antagoni/ hypo!ses ( :i* ,i h spok54 #bhd ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,( ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,cata/rophes ,,& ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,uni=mity4 #a4 ,doctr9e ( ,cata/rophes4--,i ,,h already %[n1 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,geology1 t ! attempts to frame a !ory ( ! e>? h br\ght into view two completely opposite op9ions3--"o1 :i* repres5ts ! c\rse ( nature z uni=m ?r\gh all ages1 ! causes :i* produce *ange hav+ _h ! same int5sity 9 =m] times :i* !y h at ! pres5t day2--! o!r op9ion1 :i* sees1 9 ! pres5t condition ( ?+s1 evid5ces ( cata/rophes2--*anges ( a m sweep+ k9d1 & produc$ by m p[]ful ag5cies ?an ^? :i* occur 9 rec5t times4 ,geologi/s :o held ! latt] op9ion1 ma9ta9$ t ! =ces :i* h elevat$ ! ,alps or ! ,&es to _! pres5t height c\ld n h be5 any =ces :i* are n[ 9 action3 !y po9t$ to va/ masses ( /rata hundr$s ( miles long1 ?\s&s ( feet ?ick1 ?r[n into highly-incl9$ positions1 fractur$1 dislocat$1 cru%$3 !y rem>k$ t ^u ! %att]$ edges ( su* /rata !y f\nd enorm\s accumulations ( fragm5ts & rubbi%1 r\nd$ by ! action ( wat]1 s z to d5ote ages ( viol5t aque\s action3 !y conceiv$ t !y saw in/ances 9 :i* :ole m\nta9s ( rock 9 a /ate ( igne\s fusion1 mu/ h bur/ ! e>?'s cru/ f bel[3 !y f\nd t 9 ! c\rse ( ! revolutions by :i* "o /ratum ( rock 0 plac$ ^u ano!r1 ! :ole collection ( animal species :i* t5ant$ ! e>? & ! seas _h be5 remov$1 & a new set ( liv+ ?+s introduc$ 9 its place3 f9ally1 !y f\nd1 above all ! /rata1 #bhe va/ masses ( s& & gravel conta9+ bones ( animals1 & app>5tly ! "w ( a mighty deluge4 ,) all ^! pro(s be=e _! eyes1 !y ?\ght x impossible n to judge t ! ag5ts ( *ange by :i* ! _w 0 urg$ f "o condition to ano!r till x rea*$ its pres5t /ate mu/ h be5 m viol5t1 m p[]ful1 ?an any :i* we see at "w ar\nd u4 ,!y conceiv$ t ! evid5ce ( 'cata/rophes' 0 irresi/ible4 #b4 ,doctr9e ( ,uni=mity4--,i ne$ n "h repeat ! n>rative 7giv5 9 ! ,hi/ory#adaj7 ( ! process by :i* ?is =midable array ( pro(s 01 9 ! m9ds ( "s em95t geologi/s1 weak5$1 & at la/ ov]come4 ,?is 0 done by %[+ t ! sudd5 breaks 9 ! succession ( /rata 7 app>5t only1 ! discont9uity ( ! s]ies :i* occurr$ 9 "o c\ntry be+ remov$ by t]ms int]pos$ 9 ano!r locality3--by urg+ t ! total effect produc$ by exi/+ causes1 tak+ into acc\nt ! accumulat$ result ( long p]iods1 is f> great] ?an a casual speculator w\ld ?9k possible3--by mak+ x appe> t !re are 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w evid5ces ( a sl[ & imp]ceptible ris+ ( ! l& s9ce x 0 ! habitation ( n[ exi/+ species3--by prov+ t x is n univ]sally true t ! /rata sep>at$ 9 "t by suppos$ cata/rophes conta9 di/9ct species ( animals3--by po9t+ out ! limit$ fields ( ! suppos$ diluvial action3--& f9ally1 by rem>k+ t ?\gh ! creation ( species is a my/]y1 ! ext9ction ( species is go+ on 9 our own day4 ,hypo!ses 7 sugge/$1 too1 by :i* x 0 conceiv$ t ! *ange ( climate might be expla9$1 :i*1 z ! consid]ation ( ! fossil rema9s seem$ to %[1 mu/ h tak5 place betwe5 ! anci5t & ! mod]n times4 ,9 ?is mann] ! :ole evid5ce ( cata/rophes 0 expla9$ away3 ! notion ( a s]ies ( p>oxysms ( viol5ce 9 ! causes ( *ange 0 repres5t$ z a delusion aris+ f our #bhf contemplat+ %ort p]iods only1 9 ! action ( pres5t causes3 l5g? ( "t 0 call$ 9 to take ! place ( int5sity ( =ce3 & x 0 decl>$ t ,geology ne$ n despair ( acc\nt+ = ! revolutions ( ! e>?1 z ,a/ronomy acc\nts = ! revolutions ( ! heav5s1 by ! univ]sal action ( causes :i* are close at h& to u1 op]at+ ?r\gh "t & space )\t v>iation or decay4 ,note #adaj3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xviii4 c4 viii4 sect4 #b4 ,an antagonism ( op9ions1 some:at ( ! same k9d z ?is1 w be f\nd to manife/ itself 9 ! o!r ,paltiological ,sci5ces z well z 9 ,geology2 & x w be in/ructive to endeav\r to balance ^! opposite doctr9es4 ,i w m5tion "s ( ! consid]ations :i* be> ^u ! subject 9 its g5]al =m4 #c4 ,is ,uni=mity probable priori8--,! doctr9e ( ,uni=mity 9 ! c\rse ( nature has sometimes be5 repres5t$ by its adh]5ts z possess+ a great degree ( priori probability4 ,x is highly unphilosophical1 x has be5 urg$1 to assume t ! causes ( ! geological ev5ts ( =m] times 7 ( a diff]5t k9d f causes n[ 9 action1 if causes ( ?is latt] k9d c 9 any way be made to expla9 ! facts4 ,! analogy ( all o!r sci5ces compels u1 x 0 said1 to expla9 ph5om5a by kn[n1 n by unkn[n1 causes4 ,& on ^! gr\nds ! geological tea*] recomm5d$#aeaj 'an e>ne/ & pati5t endeav\r to reconcile ! indications ( =m] *ange ) ! evid5ce ( gradual mutations n[ 9 progress4' ,note #aeaj3 ,lyell1 #d? ed4 b4 iv4 c4 i4 p4 #cbh4 ,b on ?is we may rem>k1 t if by kn[n causes we mean causes act+ ) ! same int5sity :i* !y h _h dur+ hi/orical times1 ! re/riction is altoge!r arbitr>y & gr\ndless4 ,let x be grant$1 = in/ance1 t _m p>ts ( ! e>?'s surface are n[ und]go+ an imp]ceptible rise4 ,x is n pret5d$ t ! rate ( ?is elevation is rigor\sly uni=m2 :at1 !n1 are ! limits ( its velocity8 ,:y may x n increase s z to assume t "* ( viol5ce :i* we may t]m a #bhg cata/rophe ) ref]5ce to all *anges hi!rto record$8 ,:y may n ! rate ( elevation be su* t we may conceive ! /rata to assume sudd5ly a position ne>ly v]tical8 ,& is x1 9 fact1 easy to conceive a position ( /rata ne>ly v]tical1 a position :i* occurs s frequ5tly1 to be gradually assum$8 ,9 cases :]e ! /rata are ne>ly v]tical1 z 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 & hundr$s ( o!r places1 or :]e !y are actually inv]t$1 z sometimes occurs1 are n ! causes :i* h produc$ ! effect z truly kn[n causes1 z ^? :i* h rais$ ! coa/s :]e we trace ! =m] bea* 9 an elevat$ t]race8 ,if ! latt] case proves sl[ elevation1 does n ! =m] case prove rapid elevation8 ,9 nei!r case h we any measure ( ! "t employ$ 9 ! *ange2 b does n ! v nature ( ! results enable u to disc]n1 t if "o 0 gradual1 ! o!r 0 comp>atively sudd58 ,! causes :i* are n[ elevat+ a portion ( ,sc&9avia c be call$ kn[n causes1 only because we "k ! effect4 ,are n ! causes :i* h elevat$ ! ,alps & ! ,&es kn[n causes 9 ! same s5se8 ,we "k no?+ 9 ei!r case :i* conf9es ! int5sity ( ! =ce )9 any limit1 or prescribes to x any law ( uni=mity4 ,:y1 !n1 %\ld we make a m]it ( cramp+ our speculations by su* assumptions8 ,:e!r ! causes ( *ange d act uni=mly2--:e!r !y oscillate only )9 n>r[ limits2--:e!r _! int5sity 9 =m] times 0 ne>ly ! same z x n[ is2--^! are precisely ! que/ions :i* we wi% ,sci5ce to answ] to u imp>tially & truly3 :]e is !n ! wisdom ( 'an e>ne/ & pati5t endeav\r' to secure an affirmative reply8 ,?us ,i conceive t ! ass]tion ( an priori claim to probability & philosophical _s 9 fav\r ( ! doctr9e ( uni=mity1 is q unt5able4 ,we mu/ le>n f an exam9ation ( all ! facts1 & n f any assumption ( our own1 :e!r ! c\rse ( nature be uni=m4 ,! limit ( int5sity be+ really unkn[n1 cata/rophes are j z probable #bhh z uni=mity4 ,if a volcano may repose = a ?\s& ye>s1 & !n break out & de/roy a city2 :y may n ano!r volcano repose = t5 ?\s& ye>s1 & !n de/roy a cont95t2 or if a cont95t1 :y n ! :ole habitable surface ( ! e>?8 #d4 ,cycle ( ,uni=mity indef9ite4--,b ?is argum5t may be put 9 ano!r =m4 ,:5 x is said t ! c\rse ( nature is uni=m1 ! ass]tion is n int5d$ to exclude c]ta9 small] v>iations ( viol5ce & re/1 su* z we h j spok5 (2--alt]nations ( activity & repose 9 volcanoes2 or e>?quakes1 deluges1 & /orms1 int]pos$ 9 a m tranquil /ate ( ?+s4 ,) reg>d to su* occurr5ces1 t]rible z !y appe> at ! "t1 !y may n mu* affect ! av]age rate ( *ange2 !re may be a cycle1 ?\gh an irregul> "o1 ( rapid & sl[ *ange2 & if su* cycles g on succe$+ ea* o!r1 we may /ill call ! ord] ( nature uni=m1 not)/&+ ! p]iods ( viol5ce :i* x involves4 ,! maximum & m9imum int5sities ( ! =ces ( mutation alt]nate ) "o ano!r2 & we may e/imate ! av]age c\rse ( nature z t :i* corresponds to some?+ betwe5 ! two extremes4 ,b if we ?us attempt to ma9ta9 ! uni=mity ( nature by repres5t+ x z a s]ies ( cycles1 we f9d t we _c discov]1 9 ?is conception1 any solid gr\nd = exclud+ cata/rophes4 ,:at is ! l5g? ( t cycle1 ! repetition ( :i* con/itutes uni=mity8 ,:at int]val f ! maximum to ! m9imum does x admit (8 ,we may take = our cycle a hundr$ or a ?\s& ye>s1 b evid5tly su* a proce$+ is altoge!r arbitr>y4 ,we may m>k our cycles by ! greate/ kn[n p>oxysms ( volcanic & t]remotive ag5cy1 b ?is proc$ure is no less indef9ite & inconclusive ?an ! o!r4 ,b fur!r2 s9ce ! cycle 9 :i* viol5ce & repose alt]nate is ?us indef9ite 9 its l5g? & 9 its range ( activity1 :at gr\nd h we = assum+ m ?an "o su* cycle1 ext5d+ f ! orig9 ( ?+s to ! pres5t "t8 ,:y may we n suppose ! maximum =ce ( ! causes ( *ange #bhi to h tak5 place at ! e>lie/ p]iod1 & ! t5d5cy t[>ds ! m9imum to h gone on ev] s9ce8 ,or in/ead ( only "o cycle1 !re may h be5 sev]al1 b ( su* l5g? t our hi/orical p]iod =ms a portion only ( ! la/2--! feeble/ portion ( ! late/ cycle4 ,& ?us viol5ce & repose may alt]nate ^u a scale ( "t & int5sity s l>ge1 t man's exp]i5ce supplies no evid5ce enabl+ him to e/imate ! am\nt4 ,! c\rse ( ?+s is uni=m1 to an ,intellig5ce :i* c embrace ! succession ( sev]al cycles1 b x is cata/rophic to ! contemplation ( man1 ^: survey c grasp a "p only ( "o cycle4 ,& ?us ! hypo!sis ( uni=mity1 s9ce x _c exclude degrees ( *ange1 nor limit ! range ( ^! degrees1 nor def9e ! int]val ( _! recurr5ce1 _c possess any ess5tial simplicity :i*1 previ\s to inquiry1 gives x a claim ^u our ass5t sup]ior to t ( ! opposite cata/rophic hypo!sis4 #e4 ,uni=mit>ian ,argum5ts are ,negative only4--,!re is an opposite t5d5cy 9 ! mode ( ma9ta9+ ! cata/rophi/ & ! uni=mit>ian op9ions1 :i* dep5ds ^u _! fundam5tal pr9ciples1 & %[s itself 9 all ! controv]sies betwe5 !m4 ,! ,cata/rophi/ is affirmative1 ! ,uni=mit>ian is negative 9 8 ass]tions3 ! =m] is con/antly attempt+ to con/ruct a !ory2 ! latt] delights 9 demoli%+ all !ories4 ,! "o is con/antly br++ fre% evid5ce ( "s great pa/ ev5t1 or s]ies ( ev5ts1 ( a /rik+ & def9ite k9d2 8 antagoni/ is at e /ep expla9+ away ! evid5ce1 & %[+ t x proves no?+4 ,"o geologi/ adduces 8 pro(s ( a va/ univ]sal deluge2 b ano!r endeav\rs to %[ t ! pro(s d n e/abli% ei!r ! univ]sality or ! va/ness ( su* an ev5t4 ,! incl9$ brok5 edges ( a c]ta9 =mation1 cov]$ ) _! own fragm5ts1 b5ea? sup]jac5t horizontal deposits1 are at "o "t suppos$ to prove a cata/rophic break+ up ( ! e>li] /rata2 b ?is op9ion is controv]t$ by %[+ t ! same =mations1 :5 pursu$ into o!r c\ntries1 #bij exhibit a uni=m gradation f ! l[] to ! upp]1 ) no trace ( viol5ce4 ,ext5sive & l(ty elevations ( ! coa/1 cont95ts ( igne\s rock1 at fir/ appe> to indicate op]ations f> m gigantic ?an ^? :i* n[ occur2 b attempts are soon made to %[ t "t only is want+ to enable ! pres5t age to rival ! pa/ 9 ! production ( su* *anges4 ,ea* new fact adduc$ by ! cata/rophi/ is at fir/ /rik+ & app>5tly conv9c+2 b z x becomes famili>1 x /rikes ! imag9ation less p[]fully2 & ! uni=mit>ian1 con/antly lab\r+ to produce "s imitation ( x by ! ma*9]y :i* he has s well /udi$1 at la/ 9 e case seems to himself to succe$1 s f> z to de/roy ! effect ( 8 oppon5t's evid5ce4 ,?is is s ) reg>d to m remote1 z well z ) reg>d to imm$iate evid5ces ( *ange4 ,:5 x is asc]ta9$ t 9 e "p ( ! e>?'s cru/ ! temp]ature increases z we desc5d bel[ ! surface1 at fir/ ?is fact seems to indicate a c5tral heat3 & a c5tral heat naturally sugge/s an e>li] /ate ( ! mass1 9 :i* x 0 inc&esc5t1 & f :i* x is n[ cool+4 ,b ?is orig9al inc&esc5ce ( ! globe ( ! e>? is manife/ly an entire violation ( ! pres5t c\rse ( ?+s2 x belongs to ! cata/rophi/ view1 & ! advocates ( uni=mity h to expla9 x away4 ,accord+ly1 "o ( !m holds t ?is increase ( heat 9 desc5d+ bel[ ! surface may v possibly n g on all ! way to ! c5t]4 ,! heat :i* increases at fir/ z we desc5d1 may1 he conceives1 aft]w>ds decrease2 & he sugge/s causes :i* may h produc$ su* a succession ( hott] & cold] %ells )9 ! mass ( ! e>?4 ,i h m5tion$ ?is sugge/ion 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,geology2 & h giv5 my reasons = believ+ x altoge!r unt5able#afaj4 ,o!r p]sons also1 desir\s ( reconcil+ ?is subt]rane\s heat ) ! t5et ( uni=mity1 h #bia (f]$ ano!r sugge/ion3--t ! w>m? or inc&esc5ce ( ! int]ior p>ts ( ! e>? does n arise out ( an orig9ally hot condition f :i* x is gradually cool+1 b results f *emical action con/antly go+ on among ! mat]ials ( ! e>?'s sub/ance4 ,& ?us new attempts are p]petually mak+1 to escape f ! cog5cy ( ! reason+s :i* s5d u t[>ds an orig9al /ate ( ?+s diff]5t f ! pres5t4 ,^? :o !orize conc]n+ an orig9 g on build+ up ! fabric ( _! speculations1 :ile ^? :o ?9k su* !ories unphilosophical1 ev] & anon dig away ! f\ndation ( ?is /ructure4 ,z we h already said1 ! uni=mit>ian's doctr9es are a collection ( negatives4 ,note #afaj3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xviii4 c4 v4 sect4 #e1 & note4 ,?is is s entirely ! case1 t ! uni=mit>ian w\ld = ! mo/ "p %r9k f ma9ta9+ z positive t5ets ! explanations :i* he s will+ly uses z in/rum5ts ( controv]sy4 ,he puts =w>d 8 sugge/ions z difficulties1 b he w n /& by !m z doctr9es4 ,& ?is is 9 accordance ) 8 g5]al t5d5cy2 = any ( 8 hypo!ses1 if insi/$ ^u z positive !ories1 w\ld be f\nd inconsi/5t ) ! ass]tion ( uni=mity4 ,= example1 ! nebul> hypo!sis appe>s to give to ! hi/ory ( ! heav5s an aspect :i* oblit]ates all special acts ( creation1 =1 accord+ to t hypo!sis1 new planet>y sy/ems are con/antly =m+2 b :5 ass]t$ z ! orig9 ( our own sol> sy/em1 x br+s ) x an orig9al inc&esc5ce1 & an orig9 ( ! organic _w4 ,& if1 in/ead ( us+ ! *emical !ory ( subt]rane\s heat to neutralize ! evid5ce ( orig9al inc&esc5ce1 we ass]t x z a positive t5et1 we c no long] ma9ta9 ! inf9ite pa/ duration ( ! e>?2 = *emical =ces1 z well z me*anical1 t5d to equilibrium2 & t condition once atta9$1 _! efficacy ceases4 ,*emical aff9ities t5d to =m new comp\nds2 & ?\gh1 :5 _m & v>i\s elem5ts are m+l$ toge!r1 ! play ( syn!sis & analysis may g on = a long "t1 x mu/ at la/ end4 ,if1 = in/ance1 a l>ge portion ( ! e>?'s mass 7 orig9ally pure potassium1 we #bib c imag9e viol5t igne\s action to g on s long z any "p rema9$ unoxidiz$2 b :5 ! oxidation ( ! :ole has once tak5 place1 ?is action mu/ be at an end2 = !re is 9 ! hypo!sis no ag5cy :i* c reproduce ! deoxidiz$ metal4 ,?us a p]petual motion is impossible 9 *emi/ry1 z x is 9 me*anics2 & a !ory ( con/ant *ange cont9u$ ?r\gh inf9ite "t1 is unt5able :5 ass]t$ ^u *emical1 no less ?an ^u me*anical pr9ciples4 ,& ?us ! ,skepticism ( ! uni=mit>ian is ( =ce only s long z x is employ$ aga9/ ! ,dogmatism ( ! cata/rophi/4 ,:5 ! ,d\bts are erect$ into ,dogmas1 !y are no long] consi/5t ) ! t5et ( ,uni=mity4 ,:5 ! ,negations become ,affirmations1 ! ,negation ( an ,orig9 vani%es also4 #f4 ,uni=mity 9 ! ,organic ,_w4--,9 speak+ ( ! viol5t & sudd5 *anges :i* con/itute cata/rophes1 our ?\ghts naturally turn at fir/ to great me*anical & physical effects2--ruptures & displacem5ts ( /rata2 ext5sive subm]sions & em]sions ( l&2 rapid *anges ( temp]ature4 ,b ! cata/rophes :i* we h to consid] 9 geology affect ! organic z well z ! inorganic _w4 ,! sudd5 ext9ction ( "o collection ( species1 & ! introduction ( ano!r 9 _! place1 is a ,cata/rophe1 ev5 if unaccompani$ by me*anical viol5ce4 ,accord+ly1 ! antagonism ( ! cata/rophi/ & uni=mit>ian s*ools has %[n itself 9 ?is dep>tm5t ( ! subject1 z well z 9 ! o!r4 ,:5 geologi/s _h fir/ discov]$ t ! successive /rata are ea* di/+ui%$ by appropriate organic fossils1 !y assum$ at once t ea* ( ^! collections ( liv+ ?+s belong$ to a sep>ate creation4 ,b ?is conclusion1 z ,i h already said1 ,sir ,c4 ,lyell has attempt$ to invalidate1 by prov+ t 9 ! exi/+ ord] ( ?+s1 "s species become ext9ct2 & by sugge/+ x z possible1 t 9 ! same ord]1 x may be true t new species are f "t to "t produc$1 ev5 9 ! pres5t c\rse ( nature4 ,& 9 ?is1 z 9 ! o!r "p ( ! subject1 he calls 9 #bic ! aid ( va/ p]iods ( "t1 9 ord] t ! viol5ce ( ! *anges may be s(t5$ d[n3 & he appe>s dispos$ to believe t ! actual ext9ction & creation ( species may be s sl[ z to excite no m notice ?an x has hi!rto obta9$2 & yet may be rapid en\gh1 consid]+ ! imm5sity ( geological p]iods1 to produce su* a succession ( diff]5t collections ( species z we f9d 9 ! /rata ( ! e>?'s surface4 #g4 ,orig9 ( ! pres5t ,organic ,_w4--,! la/ great ev5t 9 ! hi/ory ( ! vegetable & animal k+doms 0 t by :i* _! v>i\s tribes 7 plac$ 9 _! pres5t seats4 ,& we may =m v>i\s hypo!ses ) reg>d to ! sudd5 or gradual mann] 9 :i* we may suppose ?is di/ribution to h tak5 place4 ,we may assume t at ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s1 a /ock ( ea* species 0 plac$ 9 ! vegetable or animal prov9ce to :i* x belongs1 by "s cause out ( ! common ord] ( nature2 or we may take a uni=mit>ian view ( ! subject1 & suppose t ! prov9ces ( ! organic _w d]iv$ _! population f "s ant]ior /ate ( ?+s by ! op]ation ( natural causes4 ,no?+ has be5 po9t$ out 9 ! exi/+ ord] ( ?+s :i* has any analogy or resemblance1 ( any valid k9d1 to t creative en]gy :i* mu/ be ex]t$ 9 ! production ( a new species4 ,& to assume ! introduction ( new species z 'a "p ( ! ord] ( nature1' )\t po9t+ out any natural fact ) :i* su* an ev5t c be class$1 w\ld be to reject creation by an arbitr>y act4 ,h5ce1 ev5 on natural gr\nds1 ! mo/ intelligible view ( ! hi/ory ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms seems to be1 t ea* p]iod :i* is m>k$ by a di/9ct collection ( species =ms a cycle2 & t at ! beg9n+ ( ea* su* cycle a creative p[] 0 ex]t$1 ( a k9d to :i* !re 0 no?+ at all analog\s 9 ! succe$+ "p ( ! same cycle4 ,if x be urg$ t 9 "s cases ! same species1 or ! same g5us1 runs ?r\gh two geological =mations1 #bid :i* mu/1 on o!r gr\nds1 be ref]r$ to diff]5t cycles ( creative en]gy1 we may reply t ! creation ( _m new species does n imply ! ext9ction ( all ! old ones4 ,?us we are l$ by our reason+s to ?is view1 t ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s 0 comm5c$ by an act ( creative p[] entirely diff]5t to any ag5cy :i* has be5 ex]t$ s9ce4 ,none ( ! influ5ces :i* h modifi$ ! pres5t races ( animals & plants s9ce !y 7 plac$ 9 _! habitations on ! e>?'s surface c h _h any efficacy 9 produc+ !m at fir/4 ,we are necess>ily driv5 to assume1 z ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t cycle ( organic nature1 an ev5t n includ$ 9 ! c\rse ( nature4 ,& we may rem>k t ?is necessity is ! m cog5t1 precisely because o!r cycles h prec$$ ! pres5t4 #h4 ,nebul> ,orig9 ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em4--,if we attempt to apply ! same anti!sis ( op9ion 7! doctr9es ( ,cata/rophe & ,uni=mity7 to ! o!r subjects ( paltiological sci5ces1 we %all be l$ to simil> conclusions4 ,?us1 if we turn our att5tion to ,a/ronomical ,paltiology1 we p]ceive t ! ,nebul> ,hypo!sis has a uni=mit>ian t5d5cy4 ,accord+ to ?is hypo!sis ! =mation ( ?is our sy/em ( sun1 planets1 & satellites1 0 a process ( ! same k9d z ^? :i* are /ill go+ on 9 ! heav5s4 ,"o aft] ano!r1 nebul cond5se into sep>ate masses1 :i* beg9 to revolve ab\t ea* o!r by me*anical necessity1 & =m sy/ems ( :i* our sol> sy/em is a f9i%$ example4 ,b we may rem>k1 t ! uni=mit>ian doctr9e on ?is subject re/s on mo/ un/able f\ndations4 ,we h z yet only v vague & imp]fect reason+s to %[ t by su* cond5sation a mat]ial sy/em su* z ours c\ld result2 & ! introduction ( organiz$ be+s into su* a mat]ial sy/em is utt]ly out ( ! rea* ( our philosophy4 ,"h aga91 !re=e1 we are l$ to reg>d ! pres5t ord] ( ! _w z po9t+ t[>ds an orig9 altoge!r ( a diff]5t k9d f any?+ :i* our mat]ial sci5ce c grasp4 #bie #i4 ,orig9 ( ,languages4--,we may v5ture to say t we %\ld be l$ to ! same conclusion once m1 if we 7 to take into our consid]ation ^? paltiological sci5ces :i* are beyond ! doma9 ( matt]2 = in/ance1 ! ,hi/ory ( ,languages4 ,we may expla9 _m ( ! diff]5ces & *anges :i* we become acqua9t$ )1 by ref]r+ to ! action ( causes ( *ange :i* /ill op]ate4 ,b :at glossologi/ w v5ture to decl>e t ! efficacy ( su* causes has be5 uni=m2--t ! influ5ces :i* m\ld a language1 or make "o language diff] f o!rs ( ! same /ock1 op]at$ =m]ly ) no m efficacy ?an !y ex]cise n[4 ',:]e1' z has else:]e be5 ask$1 'd we n[ f9d a language 9 ! process ( =mation1 unfold+ itself 9 inflexions1 t]m9ations1 *anges ( v[els by grammatical relations1 su* z *>act]ise ! olde/ kn[n languages8' ,aga91 z ano!r pro( h[ little ! hi/ory ( languages sugge/s to ! philosophical glossologi/ ! p]suasion ( a uni=m action ( ! causes ( *ange1 ,i may ref] to ! conjecture ( ,dr4 ,pri*>d1 t ! v>ieties ( language produc$ by ! sep>ation ( "o /ock into sev]al1 h be5 great] & great] z we g backw>ds 9 hi/ory3--t#agaj ! =mation ( si/] dialects f a common language 7z ! ,sc&9avian1 ,g]man1 & ,saxon dialects f ! ,teutonic1 or ! ,gaelic1 ,erse & ,wel% f ! ,celtic7 belongs to ! fir/ mill5nium be=e ! ,*ri/ian era2 :ile ! =mation ( cognate languages ( ! same family1 z ! ,sanskrit1 ,lat91 ,greek & ,go?ic1 mu/ be plac$ at lea/ two ?\s& ye>s be=e t era2 & at a /ill e>li] p]iod took place ! sep>ation ( ! great families !mselves1 ! ,indo-,european1 ,semitic1 & o!rs1 9 :i* x is n[ difficult to trace ! features ( a common orig94 ,no hypo!sis except "o ( ?is k9d w expla9 ! exi/5ce ( ! families1 gr\ps1 & dialects ( languages1 :i* we f9d 9 exi/5ce4 ,yet ?is is an entirely diff]5t view f t :i* #bif ! hypo!sis ( ! uni=m progress ( *ange w\ld give4 ,& ?us1 9 ! e>lie/ /ages ( man's c>e]1 ! revolutions ( language mu/ h be51 ev5 by ! evid5ce ( ! !oretical hi/ory ( language itself1 ( an ord] altoge!r diff]5t f any :i* h tak5 place )9 ! rec5t hi/ory ( man4 ,& we may add1 t z ! e>ly /ages ( ! progress ( language mu/ h be5 widely diff]5t f ^? lat] ones ( :i* we c 9 "s measure trace ! natural causes1 we _c place ! orig9 ( language 9 any po9t ( view 9 :i* x comes "u ! jurisdiction ( natural causation at all4 ,note #agaj3 ,rese>*es1 ii4 #bbd4 #aj4 ,no ,natural ,orig9 discov]able4--,we are ?us l$ by a survey ( sev]al ( ! paltiological sci5ces to a confirmation ( ! pr9ciple =m]ly ass]t$#ahaj1 ,t 9 no paltiological sci5ce has man be5 able to arrive at a beg9n+ :i* is homog5e\s ) ! kn[n c\rse ( ev5ts4 ,we c 9 su* sci5ces (t5 g v f> back2--det]m9e _m ( ! remote circum/ances ( ! pa/ s]ies ( ev5ts2--asc5d to a po9t :i* seems to be ne> ! orig92--& limit ! hypo!ses respect+ ! orig9 itself3 b philosoph]s nev] h demon/rat$1 &1 s f> z we c judge1 probably nev] w be able to demon/rate1 :at 0 t primitive /ate ( ?+s f :i* ! progressive c\rse ( ! _w took its fir/ dep>ture4 ,9 all ^! pa?s ( rese>*1 :5 we travel f> backw>ds1 ! aspect ( ! e>li] portions becomes v diff]5t f t ( ! advanc$ "p on :i* we n[ /&2 b 9 all cases ! pa? is lo/ 9 obscurity z x is trac$ backw>ds t[>ds its />t+-po9t3 x becomes n only invisible1 b unimag9able2 x is n only an int]ruption1 b an abyss1 :i* int]poses itself betwe5 u & any intelligible beg9n+ ( ?+s4 ,note #ahaj3 ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 b4 xviii4 c4 vi4 sect #e4 #big ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,tradition ,,to ,,pal,,tiology4 #a4 ,importance ( ,tradition4--,,s9ce ! ,paltiological ,sci5ces h x = _! bus9ess to /udy ! tra9 ( pa/ ev5ts produc$ by natural causes d[n to ! pres5t "t1 ! k conc]n+ su* ev5ts :i* is suppli$ by ! remembrance & records ( man1 9 :atev] =m1 mu/ h an important be>+ ^u ^! sci5ces4 ,all *anges 9 ! condition & ext5t ( l& & sea1 :i* h tak5 place )9 man's obs]vation1 all effects ( deluges1 sea-waves1 riv]s1 spr+s1 volcanoes1 e>?quakes1 & ! l1 :i* come )9 ! rea* ( human hi/ory1 h a /rong int]e/ = ! paltiologi/4 ,nor is he less conc]n$ 9 all record$ in/ances ( ! modification ( ! =ms & habits ( plants & animals1 by ! op]ations ( man1 or by transf] f "o l& to ano!r4 ,& :5 we come to ! ,paltiology ( ,language1 ( ,art1 ( ,civilization1 we f9d our subject /ill m closely connect$ ) hi/ory2 = 9 tru? ^! are hi/orical1 no less ?an paltiological inve/igations4 ,b1 conf9+ ourselves at pres5t to ! mat]ial sci5ces1 we may obs]ve t ?\gh ! importance ( ! in=mation :i* tradition gives u1 9 ! sci5ces n[ "u our consid]ation1 z1 = in/ance1 geology1 has long be5 tacitly recognis$2 yet x is only rec5tly t geologi/s h employ$ !mselves 9 collect+ _! hi/orical facts ^u su* a scale & ) su* compreh5sive views z are requir$ by ! int]e/ & use ( collections ( ?is k9d4 ,! ,essay ( ,von #bih ,h(f#aiaj1 ,on ! ,natural ,alt]ations 9 ! ,surface ( ! ,e>? :i* are prov$ by ,tradition1 0 ! "w :i* fir/ op5$ ! eyes ( geologi/s to ! ext5t & importance ( ?is k9d ( inve/igation4 ,s9ce t "t ! same pa? ( rese>* has be5 pursu$ ) great p]sev]ance by o!rs1 especially by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell2 & is n[ ju/ly consid]$ z an ess5tial portion ( ,geology4 ,note #aiaj3 ,vol4 i4 #ahbb2 vol4 ii4 #ahbd4 #b4 ,connexion ( ,tradition & ,sci5ce4--,ev5ts :i* we might naturally expect to h "s be>+ on geology1 are n>rat$ 9 ! hi/orical writ+s :i*1 ev5 on m]e human gr\nds1 h ! /ronge/ claim to our respect z records ( ! e>ly hi/ory ( ! _w1 & are confirm$ by ! traditions ( v>i\s nations all ov] ! globe2 namely1 ! =mation ( ! e>? & ( its population1 & a subsequ5t deluge4 ,x has be5 made a matt] ( controv]sy h[ ! n>rative ( ^! ev5ts is to be und]/ood1 s z to make x agree ) ! facts :i* an exam9ation ( ! e>?'s surface & ( its vegetable & animal population discloses to u4 ,su* controv]sies1 :5 !y are consid]$ z m]ely ar*ological1 may occur 9 any ( ! paltiological sci5ces4 ,we may h to comp>e & to reconcile ! evid5ce ( exi/+ ph5om5a ) t ( hi/orical tradition4 ,b "u "s circum/ances ?is process ( conciliation may assume an int]e/ ( ano!r k9d1 on :i* we w make a few rem>ks4 #c4 ,natural & ,provid5tial ,hi/ory ( ! ,_w4--,we may contemplate ! exi/5ce ( man ^u ! e>?1 8 orig9 & 8 progress1 9 ! same mann] z we contemplate ! exi/5ce ( any o!r race ( animals2 namely1 9 a purely paltiological view4 ,we may consid] h[ f> our k ( laws ( causation enables u to expla9 8 diffusion & migration1 8 diff]5ces & resemblances1 8 actions & works4 ,& ?is is ! view ( man z a memb] ( ! ,natural ,c\rse ( ,?+s4 #bii ,b man1 at ! same "t ! contemplator & ! subject ( 8 own contemplation1 end[$ ) faculties & p[]s :i* make him a be+ ( a diff]5t nature f o!r animals1 _c help reg>d+ 8 own actions & enjoym5ts1 8 recollections & 8 hopes1 "u an aspect q diff]5t f any t we h yet _h pres5t$ to u4 ,we h be5 endeav\r+ to place 9 a cle> light ! ,fundam5tal ,ideas1 su* z t ( ,cause1 on :i* dep5ds our k ( ! natural c\rse ( ?+s4 ,b !re are o!r ,ideas to :i* man necess>ily ref]s 8 actions2 he is l$ by 8 nature1 n only to consid] 8 own actions1 & ^? ( 8 fell[-m51 z spr++ out ( ?is or t cause1 lead+ to ?is or t mat]ial result2 b also z good or bad1 z :at !y ought or ought n to be4 ,he has ,ideas ( moral relations z well z ^? ,ideas ( mat]ial relations ) :i* we h hi!rto be5 occupi$4 ,he is a moral z well z a natural ag5t4 ,contemplat+ himself & ! _w ar\nd him by ! light ( 8 ,moral ,ideas1 man is l$ to ! conviction t 8 moral faculties 7 be/[$ ^u him by design & = a purpose2 t he is ! subject ( a ,moral ,gov]nm5t2 t ! c\rse ( ! _w is direct$ by ! ,p[] :i* gov]ns x1 to ! unfold+ & p]fect+ ( man's moral nature2 t ?is guidance may be trac$ 9 ! c>e] ( individuals & ( ! _w2 t !re is a ,provid5tial z well z a ,natural ,c\rse ( ,?+s4 ,yet ?is view is beset by no small difficulties4 ,! full developm5t ( man's moral faculties2--! p]fection ( 8 nature up to ! measure ( 8 own ideas2--! adaptation ( 8 moral be+ to an ultimate de/9ation1 by its transit ?r\gh a _w full ( moral evil1 9 :i* evil ea* p]son has 8 %>e2--are effects = :i* ! economy ( ! _w appe>s to conta9 no adequate provision4 ,man1 ?\gh aw>e ( 8 moral nature1 & ready to believe 9 an ultimate de/9ation ( purity & bless$ness1 is too feeble to resi/ ! temptation ( evil1 & too helpless to re/ore 8 purity :5 once lo/4 ,he _c b look = #cjj "s confirmation ( t provid5tial ord] :i* he has begun to believe2 "s provision = ^? defici5cies 9 8 moral condition :i* he has begun to feel4 ,he looks at ! hi/ory ( ! _w1 & he f9ds t at a c]ta9 p]iod x (f]s to him ! promise ( :at he seeks4 ,:5 ! natural p[]s ( man _h be5 develop$ to _! full ext5t1 & 7 beg9n+ to exhibit symptoms ( decay2--:5 ! intellectual progress ( ! _w appe>$ to h rea*$ its limit1 )\t supply+ man's moral ne$s2--we f9d ! great ,epo* 9 ! ,provid5tial ,hi/ory ( ! _w4 ,we f9d ! ann\ncem5t ( a ,disp5sation by :i* man's defici5cies %all be suppli$ & 8 aspirations fulfill$3 we f9d a provision = ! purification1 ! support1 & ! ultimate beatification ( ^? :o use ! provid$ means4 ,& ?us ! provid5tial c\rse ( ! _w becomes consi/5t & intelligible4 #d4 ,! ,sacr$ ,n>rative4--,b ) ! new ,disp5sation1 we receive1 n only an acc\nt ( its own s*eme & hi/ory1 b also a writt5 n>rative ( ! provid5tial c\rse ( ! _w f ! e>lie/ times1 & ev5 f its fir/ creation4 ,?is n>rative is recogniz$ & au?oriz$ by ! new disp5sation1 & accr$it$ by "s ( ! same evid5ces z ! disp5sation itself4 ,t ! exi/5ce ( su* a sacr$ n>rative %\ld be a "p ( ! provid5tial ord] ( ?+s1 _c b appe> natural2 b1 naturally also1 ! /udy ( x leads to "s difficulties4 ,! ,sacr$ ,n>rative 9 "s ( its e>lie/ portions speaks ( natural objects & occurr5ces respect+ !m4 ,9 ! v beg9n+ ( ! c\rse ( ! _w1 we may readily believe 7inde$1 z we h se5 9 ! la/ *apt]1 our sci5tific rese>*es lead u to believe7 t su* occurr5ces 7 v diff]5t f any?+ :i* n[ takes place2--diff]5t to an ext5t & 9 a mann] :i* we _c e/imate4 ,n[ ! n>rative mu/ speak ( objects & occurr5ces 9 ! words & phrases :i* h d]iv$ _! mean+ f _! application to ! exi/+ natural /ate ( ?+s4 ,:5 appli$ to an initial #cja sup]natural /ate !re=e1 ^! words & phrases _c help be+ to u obscure & my/]i\s1 p]haps ambigu\s & seem+ly contradictory4 #e4 ,difficulties 9 int]pret+ ! ,sacr$ ,n>rative4--,! moral & provid5tial relations ( man's condition are s mu* m important to him ?an m]e natural relations1 t at fir/ we may well suppose he w accept ! ,sacr$ ,n>rative1 z n only unque/ionable 9 its true import1 b also z a guide 9 8 views ev5 ( m]e natural ?+s4 ,he w try to modify ! conceptions :i* he ent]ta9s ( objects & _! prop]ties1 s t ! ,sacr$ ,n>rative ( ! sup]natural condition %all reta9 ! fir/ mean+ :i* he _h put ^u x 9 virtue ( 8 own habits 9 ! usage ( language4 ,b man is s con/itut$ t he _c p]si/ 9 ?is proc$ure4 ,! p[]s & t5d5cies ( 8 intellect are su* t he _c help try+ to atta9 true conceptions ( objects & _! prop]ties by ! /udy ( ?+s !mselves4 ,= in/ance1 :5 he at fir/ read ( a firmam5t divid+ ! wat]s above f ! wat]s bel[1 he p]haps conceiv$ a transp>5t floor 9 ! skies1 on :i* ! sup]ior wat]s re/$1 :i* desc5d 9 ra92 b z 8 obs]vations & 8 reason+s satisfi$ him t su* a floor c\ld n exi/1 he became will+ to all[ 7z ,/4 ,augu/9e all[$7 t ! wat]s above ! firmam5t are 9 a /ate ( vap\r4 ,& 9 l mann] 9 o!r subjects1 m51 z _! views ( nature became m di/9ct & precise1 modifi$1 s f> z x 0 necess>y = consi/5cy's sake1 _! fir/ rude int]pretations ( ! ,sacr$ ,n>rative2 s t1 )\t 9 any degree los+ its import z a view ( ! provid5tial c\rse ( ! _w1 x %\ld be s conceiv$ z n to contradict :at !y knew ( ! natural ord] ( ?+s4 ,b ?is accommodation 0 n always made )\t pa9ful /ruggles & angry controv]sies4 ,:5 m5 _h conceiv$ ! occurr5ces ( ! ,sacr$ ,n>rative 9 a p>ticul> mann]1 !y c\ld n readily & will+ly adopt a new mode ( conception2 & all attempts to recomm5d to !m su* novelties1 !y #cjb resi/$ z attacks ^u ! sacr$ness ( ! ,n>rative4 ,!y _h clo!d _! belief ( ! work+s ( ,provid5ce 9 c]ta9 images2 & !y clung to ^? images ) ! p]suasion t1 )\t !m1 _! belief c\ld n subsi/4 ,?us !y imag9$ to !mselves t ! e>? 0 a flat floor1 solidly & broadly laid = ! conv5i5ce ( man2 & !y felt z if ! k9dness ( ,provid5ce 0 disp>ag$1 :5 x 0 ma9ta9$ t ! e>? 0 a globe held toge!r only by ! mutual attraction ( its p>ts4 ,! mo/ memorable in/ance ( a /ruggle ( ?is k9d is to be f\nd 9 ! circum/ances :i* att5d$ ! introduction ( ! ,helioc5tric ,!ory ( ,cop]nicus to g5]al acceptance4 ,on ?is controv]sy ,i h already made "s rem>ks 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5ce#bjaj1 & h attempt$ to draw f x "s lessons :i* may be useful to u :5 any simil> conflict ( op9ions may occur4 ,i w "h add a few reflections ) a simil> view4 ,note #bjaj3 ,b4 v4 c4 iii4 sect4 #d4 #f4 ,su* difficulties inevitable4--,9 ! fir/ place1 ,i rem>k t su* modifications ( ! curr5t int]pretation ( ! words ( ,scripture appe> to be an inevitable consequ5ce ( ! progressive "* ( ,natural ,sci5ce4 ,sci5ce is con/antly tea*+ u to describe kn[n facts 9 new language2 b ! language ( ,scripture is always ! same4 ,& n only s1 b ! language ( ,scripture is necess>ily adapt$ to ! common /ate ( man's intellectual developm5t1 9 :i* he is suppos$ n to be possess$ ( sci5ce4 ,h5ce ! phrases us$ by ,scripture are precisely ^? :i* sci5ce soon tea*es man to consid] z inaccurate4 ,yet !y are n1 on t acc\nt1 ! less fitt$ = _! prop] purpose3 = if any t]ms _h be5 us$1 adapt$ to a m advanc$ /ate ( k1 !y mu/ h be5 un9telligible among ^? to :om ! ,scripture 0 fir/ address$4 ,if ! ,jews _h be5 told t wat] exi/$ 9 ! cl\ds 9 small drops1 !y w\ld h m>vell$ t x did #cjc n con/antly desc5d2 & to h expla9$ ! reason ( ?is1 w\ld h be5 to tea* ,atmology 9 ! sacr$ writ+s4 ,if !y _h read 9 _! ,scripture t ! e>? 0 a sph]e1 :5 x appe>$ to be a pla91 !y w\ld only h be5 di/urb$ 9 _! ?\ghts or driv5 to "s wild & baseless imag9ations1 by a decl>ation to !m s /range4 ,if ! ,div9e ,speak]1 in/ead ( say+ t he w\ld set 8 b[ 9 ! cl\ds1 _h be5 made to decl>e t he w\ld give to wat] ! prop]ty ( refract+ diff]5t col\rs at diff]5t angles1 h[ utt]ly unmean+ to ! he>]s w\ld ! words h be56 ,& 9 ^! cases1 ! expressions1 be+ un9telligible1 />tl+1 & bewild]+1 w\ld h be5 su* z t5d$ to unfit ! ,sacr$ ,n>rative = its place 9 ! provid5tial disp5sation ( ! _w4 ,accord+ly1 9 ! great controv]sy :i* took place 9 ,galileo's "t betwe5 ! def5d]s ( ! !n cu/om>y int]pretations ( ,scripture1 & ! ass]tors ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em ( ! univ]se1 :5 ! innovators 7 upbraid$ ) ma9ta9+ op9ions contr>y to ,scripture1 !y repli$ t ,scripture 0 n int5d$ to tea* m5 a/ronomy1 & t x express$ ! acts ( div9e p[] 9 images :i* 7 suit$ to ! ideas ( unsci5tific m54 ,to speak ( ! ris+ & sett+ & travell+ ( ! sun1 ( ! fixity & ( ! f\ndations ( ! e>?1 0 to use ! only language :i* w\ld h made ! ,sacr$ ,n>rative intelligible4 ,to extract f ^! & ! l expressions doctr9es ( sci5ce1 01 !y decl>$1 9 ! highe/ degree unju/ifiable2 & su* a c\rse c\ld lead1 !y held1 to no result b a weak5+ ( ! au?ority ( ,scripture 9 proportion z its cr$it 0 id5tifi$ ) t ( ^! modes ( apply+ x4 ,& ?is judgm5t has s9ce be5 g5]ally ass5t$ to by ^? :o mo/ rev]5ce & value ! /udy ( ! designs ( ,provid5ce z well z t ( ! works ( nature4 #g4 ,sci5ce tells u no?+ conc]n+ ,creation4--,o!r app>5t difficulties arise f ! acc\nts giv5 9 ! ,scripture ( ! fir/ orig9 ( ! _w #cjd 9 :i* we live3 = example1 ,light is repres5t$ z creat$ be=e ! ,sun4 ,) reg>d to difficulties ( ?is k9d1 x appe>s t we may d]ive "s in/ruction f ! result to :i* we 7 l$ 9 ! la/ *apt]2--namely1 t 9 ! sci5ces :i* trace ! progress ( natural occurr5ces1 we c 9 no case g back to an orig91 b 9 e in/ance appe> to f9d ourselves sep>at$ f x by a /ate ( ?+s1 & an ord] ( ev5ts1 ( a k9d altoge!r diff]5t f ^? :i* come "u our exp]i5ce4 ,! ?read ( induction respect+ ! natural c\rse ( ! _w snaps 9 our f+]s1 :5 we try to asc]ta9 :]e its beg9n+ is4 ,s9ce1 !n1 sci5ce c tea* u no?+ positive respect+ ! beg9n+ ( ?+s1 %e c nei!r contradict nor confirm :at is taught by ,scripture on t subject2 & ?us1 z x is unwor?y timidity 9 ! lov] ( ,scripture to fe> contradiction1 s is x ungr\nd$ presumption to look = confirmation1 9 su* cases4 ,! provid5tial hi/ory ( ! _w has its own beg9n+1 & its own evid5ce2 & we c only r5d] ! sy/em insecure1 by mak+ x lean on our mat]ial sci5ces4 ,if any "o 7 to sugge/ t ! nebul> hypo!sis c\nt5ances ! ,scripture hi/ory ( ! =mation ( ?is sy/em1 by %[+ h[ ! lum9\s matt] ( ! sun might exi/ previ\s to ! sun itself1 we %\ld act wisely 9 reject+ su* an attempt to weave toge!r ^! two het]og5e\s ?reads2--! "o a "p ( a provid5tial s*eme1 ! o!r a fragm5t ( a physical speculation4 ,we %all be/ le>n ^? lessons ( ! true philosophy ( sci5ce :i* x is our object to collect1 by att5d+ to portions ( sci5ce :i* h gone ?r\gh su* crises z we are n[ consid]+2 nor is x requisite1 = ?is purpose1 to br+ =w>ds any subjects :i* are /ill "u discussion4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be m5tion$ t su* maxims z we are n[ endeav\r+ to e/abli%1 & ! "o be=e u 9 p>ticul>1 be> ) a peculi> =ce ^u ^? ,paltiological ,sci5ces ( :i* we h be5 treat+ 9 ! pres5t ,book4 #cje #h4 ,sci5tific views1 :5 famili>1 d n di/urb ! au?ority ( ,scripture4--,!re is ano!r reflection :i* may s]ve to console & enc\rage u 9 ! pa9ful /ruggles :i* ?us take place1 betwe5 ^? :o ma9ta9 int]pretations ( ,scripture already preval5t & ^? :o cont5d = su* new ones z ! new discov]ies ( sci5ce require4 ,x is ?is2--t ?\gh ! new op9ion is resi/$ by "o p>ty z some?+ de/ructive ( ! cr$it ( ,scripture & ! rev]5ce :i* is its due1 yet1 9 fact1 :5 ! new int]pretation has be5 g5]ally e/abli%$ & incorporat$ ) m5's curr5t ?\ghts1 x ceases to di/urb _! views ( ! au?ority ( ! ,scripture or ( ! tru? ( its tea*+4 ,:5 ! language ( ,scripture1 inve/$ ) its new mean+1 has become famili> to m51 x is f\nd t ! ideas :i* x calls up are q z reconcileable z ! =m] ones 71 ) ! mo/ entire acceptance ( ! provid5tial disp5sation4 ,& :5 ?is has be5 f\nd to be ! case1 all cultivat$ p]sons look back ) surprise at ! mi/ake ( ^? :o ?\ght t ! ess5ce ( ! revelation 0 involv$ 9 _! own arbitr>y v]sion ( "s collat]al circum/ance 9 ! reveal$ n>rative4 ,at ! pres5t day1 we c h>dly conceive h[ reasonable m5 c\ld ev] h imag9$ t religi\s reflections on ! /ability ( ! e>?1 & ! beauty & use ( ! lum9>ies :i* revolve r\nd x1 w\ld be int]f]$ ) by an ackn[l$gm5t t ?is re/ & motion are app>5t only#baaj4 ,& ?us ! au?ority ( revelation is n %ak5 by any *anges introduc$ by ! progress ( sci5ce 9 ! mode ( int]pret+ expressions :i* describe physical objects & occurr5ces2 provid$ ! new int]pretation is admitt$ at a prop] season1 & 9 a prop] _s2 s z to s(t51 z mu* z possible1 bo? ! public controv]sies & ! private scruples :i* almo/ inevitably accompany su* an alt]ation4 ,note #baaj3 ,i h "h borr[$ a s5t5ce or two f my own ,hi/ory4 #i4 ,:5 %\ld old ,int]pretations be giv5 up8--,b ! "q !n occurs1 ,:at is ! prop] #cjf season = a religi\s & enlight5$ comm5tator to make su* a *ange 9 ! curr5t int]pretation ( sacr$ ,scripture8 ,at :at p]iod ought ! e/abli%$ exposition ( a passage to be giv5 up1 & a new mode ( und]/&+ ! passage1 su* z is1 or seems to be1 requir$ by new discov]ies respect+ ! laws ( nature1 accept$ 9 its place8 ,x is pla91 t to introduce su* an alt]ation lightly & ha/ily w\ld be a proc$ure fraught ) inconv5i5ce2 = if ! *ange 7 made 9 su* a mann]1 x might be aft]w>ds discov]$ t x _h be5 adopt$ )\t suffici5t reason1 & t x 0 necess>y to re9/ate ! old exposition4 ,& ! m9ds ( ! read]s ( ,scripture1 always to a c]ta9 ext5t & = a "t di/urb$ by ! subv]sion ( _! long-e/abli%$ notions1 w\ld be di/ress$ )\t any ne$1 & might be s]i\sly unsettl$4 ,:ile1 on ! o!r h&1 a too protract$ & ob/9ate resi/ance to ! innovation1 on ! "p ( ! scriptural expositors1 w\ld t5d to id5tify1 at lea/ 9 ! m9ds ( _m1 ! au?ority ( ! ,scripture ) ! tru? ( ! exposition2 & !re=e w\ld br+ discr$it ^u ! reveal$ ^w1 :5 ! e/abli%$ int]pretation 0 f9ally prov$ to be unt5able4 ,a rule on ?is subject1 prop\nd$ by "s ( ! mo/ enlight5$ dignit>ies ( ! ,roman ,ca?olic *ur*1 on ! occasion ( ! great ,cop]nican controv]sy begun by ,galileo1 seems well wor?y ( our att5tion4 ,! foll[+ 0 ! op9ion giv5 by ,c>d9al ,bell>m9e at ! "t3--',:5 a demon/ration %all be f\nd to e/abli% ! e>?'s motion1 x w be prop] to int]pret ! sacr$ ,scriptures o!rwise ?an !y h hi!rto be5 int]pret$ 9 ^? passages :]e m5tion is made ( ! /ability ( ! e>? & movem5t ( ! heav5s4' ,?is appe>s to be a judici\s & reasonable maxim = su* cases 9 g5]al4 ,s long z ! suppos$ sci5tific discov]y is d\btful1 ! exposition ( ! mean+ ( ,scripture giv5 by comm5tators ( e/abli%$ cr$it is n wantonly to be di/urb$3 b :5 a sci5tific !ory1 irreconcileable ) ?is anci5t #cjg int]pretation1 is cle>ly prov$1 we mu/ give up ! int]pretation1 & seek "s new mode ( und]/&+ ! passage 9 "q1 by means ( :i* x may be consi/5t ) :at we "k2 = if x be n1 our conception ( ! ?+s s describ$ is no long] consi/5t ) itself4 ,x may be said t ?is rule is indef9ite1 = :o %all decide :5 a new !ory is completely demon/rat$1 & ! old int]pretation become unt5able8 ,b to ?is we may reply1 t if ! rule be ass5t$ to1 its application w n be v difficult4 ,= :5 m5 h admitt$ z a g5]al rule1 t ! curr5t int]pretations ( scriptural expressions respect+ natural objects & ev5ts may possibly require1 & 9 "s cases c]ta9ly w require1 to be ab&on$1 & new ones admitt$1 !y w h>dly all[ !mselves to cont5d = su* int]pretations z if !y 7 ess5tial p>ts ( revelation2 & w look ^u ! *ange ( exposition1 :e!r x come soon] or lat]1 )\t al>m or ang]4 ,& :5 m5 l5d !mselves to ! progress ( tru? 9 ?is _s1 x is n ( any mat]ial importance at :at p]iod a new & satisfactory int]pretation ( ! scriptural difficulty is f\nd2 s9ce a sci5tific exactness 9 our appreh5sion ( ! mean+ ( su* passages z are n[ ref]r$ to is v f> f be+ ess5tial to our full acceptance ( revelation4 #aj4 ,9 :at ,_s %\ld ! ,*ange be accept$8--,/ill ^! revolutions 9 scriptural int]pretation mu/ always h 9 !m some?+ :i* di/resses & di/urbs religi\s communities4 ,& su* uneasy feel+s w take a diff]5t %ape1 accord+ z ! community ackn[l$ges or rejects a p>am\nt int]pretative au?ority 9 its religi\s lead]s4 ,9 ! case 9 :i* ! int]pretation ( ! ,*ur* is b9d+ ^u all its memb]s1 ! m placid m9ds re/ 9 peace ^u ! anci5t exposition1 till ! spiritual au?orities ann\nce t ! "t = ! adoption ( a new view has arriv$2 b 9 ^! circum/ances1 ! m /irr+ & inquisitive m9ds1 :i* _c refra9 f ! pursuit ( new tru?s #cjh & exact conceptions1 are l$ to op9ions :i*1 be+ contr>y to ^? ( ! ,*ur*1 are held to be s9ful4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! religi\s con/itution ( ! community all[ & enc\rage ea* man to /udy & int]pret = himself ! ,sacr$ ,writ+s1 we are met by evils ( ano!r k9d4 ,9 ?is case1 al?\gh1 by ! un=c$ influ5ce ( admir$ comm5tators1 !re may prevail a g5]al agreem5t 9 ! usual int]pretation ( difficult passages1 yet z ea* read] ( ! ,scripture looks ^u ! s5se :i* he has adopt$ z be+ 8 own int]pretation1 he ma9ta9s x1 n ) ! tranquil acquiesc5ce ( "o :o has deposit$ 8 judgm5t 9 ! h&s ( 8 ,*ur*1 b ) ! ke5ness & /r5u\sness ( self-love4 ,9 su* a /ate ( ?+s1 ?\gh no judicial sev]ities c be employ$ aga9/ ! innovators1 !re may arise m angry controv]sies ?an 9 ! o!r case4 ,x is impossible to ov]look ! lesson :i* "h (f]s itself1 t x is 9 ! highe/ degree unwise 9 ! fri5ds ( religion1 :e!r individuals or communities1 unnecess>ily to emb>k _! cr$it 9 expositions ( ,scripture on matt]s :i* app]ta9 to natural ,sci5ce4 ,by deliv]+ physical doctr9es z ! tea*+ ( revelation1 religion may lose mu*1 b _c ga9 any?+4 ,?is maxim ( practical wisdom has (t5 be5 urg$ by ,*ri/ian writ]s4 ,?us ,/4 ,augu/9e says#bbaj3 ',9 obscure matt]s & ?+s f> remov$ f our s5ses1 if we read any?+1 ev5 9 ! div9e ,scripture1 :i* may produce div]se op9ions )\t damag+ ! fai? :i* we *]i%1 let u n ru% headlong by positive ass]tion to ei!r ! "o op9ion or ! o!r2 le/1 :5 a m ?or\gh discussion has %[n ! op9ion :i* we _h adopt$ to be false1 our fai? may fall ) x3 & we %\ld be f\nd cont5d+1 n = ! doctr9e ( ! sacr$ ,scriptures1 b = our own2 endeav\r+ to make our doctr9e to be t ( ! ,scriptures1 in/ead ( tak+ ! doctr9e ( ! ,scriptures to be ours4' ,& 9 ne>ly ! same _s1 at ! #cji "t ( ! ,cop]nican controv]sy1 x 0 ?\ght prop] to app5d to ! "w ( ,cop]nicus a po/il1 to say t ! "w 0 writt5 to acc\nt = ! ph5om5a1 & t p mu/ n run on bl9dly & condemn ei!r ( ! opposite op9ions4 ,ev5 :5 ! ,inquisition1 9 #afaf1 ?\ght itself compell$ to pron\nce a decision ^u ?is subject1 ! v]dict 0 deliv]$ 9 v mod]ate language2--t '! doctr9e ( ! e>?'s motion appe>$ to be contr>y to ,scripture3' & yet1 mod]ate z ?is expression is1 x has be5 blam$ by judici\s memb]s ( ! ,roman *ur* z decid+ a po9t su* z religi\s au?orities ought n to pret5d to decide2 & has br\ght ^u t *ur* no ord9>y weight ( g5]al condemnation4 ,kepl] po9t$ out1 9 8 lively mann]1 ! imprud5ce ( employ+ ! =ce ( religi\s au?orities on su* subjects3 ,acies dolabr 9 f]rum illisa1 po/ea nec 9 lignum valet amplius4 ,capiat hoc cujus int]e/4 ',if y w try to *op iron1 ! axe becomes unable to cut ev5 wood4 ,i w>n ^? :om x conc]ns4' ,note #bbaj3 ,lib4 i4 de ,g5esi1 cap4 xviii4 #aa4 ,9 :at ,_s %\ld ! ,*ange be urg$8--,b :ile we ?us endeav\r to %[ 9 :at mann] ! int]pret]s ( ,scripture may mo/ safely & mo/ prop]ly accept ! discov]ies ( sci5ce1 we mu/ n =get t !re may be err\rs committ$ on ! o!r side also2 & t m5 ( sci5ce1 9 br++ =w>d views :i* may = a "t di/urb ! m9ds ( lov]s ( ,scripture1 %\ld consid] !mselves z b\nd by /rict rules ( c&\r1 mod]ation1 & prud5ce4 ,int5tionally to make _! suppos$ discov]ies a means ( discr$it+1 contradict+1 or slight+ ! sacr$ ,scriptures1 or ! au?ority ( religion1 is 9 !m unp>donable4 ,z m5 :o make ! sci5ce ( ,tru? ! bus9ess ( _! lives1 & are p]suad$ ( h] g5u9e sup]iority1 & c]ta9 ( h] ultimate triumph1 !y are peculi>ly b\nd to urge h] claims 9 a calm & temp]ate _s2 n =gett+ t !re are o!r k9ds ( tru? besides t :i* !y peculi>ly /udy4 ,!y may prop]ly reject au?ority 9 matt]s ( sci5ce2 b !y are to leave #caj x its prop] (fice 9 matt]s ( religion4 ,i may "h aga9 quote ,kepl]'s expressions3 ',9 ,!ology we balance au?orities1 9 ,philosophy we weigh reasons4 ,a holy man 0 ,lactantius :o d5i$ t ! e>? 0 r\nd2 a holy man 0 ,augu/9e1 :o grant$ ! rotundity1 b d5i$ ! antipodes2 a holy ?+ to me is ! ,inquisition1 :i* all[s ! smallness ( ! e>?1 b d5ies its motion2 b m holy to me is ,tru?2 & h5ce ,i prove1 f philosophy1 t ! e>? is r\nd1 & inhabit$ on e side1 ( small size1 & 9 motion among ! />s1--& ?is ,i d ) no disrespect to ! ,doctors4' ,i ! m will+ly quote su* a passage f ,kepl]1 because ! entire +5u\sness & s9c]e piety ( 8 "* does n all[ u to suspect him 9 any?+ ( hypocrisy or lat5t irony4 ,t simil> pr(essions ( respect may be made ironically1 we h a not$ example 9 ! celebrat$ ,introduction to ,galileo's ,dialogue on ! ,cop]nican ,sy/em2 probably ! "p :i* 0 mo/ (f5sive to ! au?orities4 ',"s ye>s ago1' he beg9s1 'a :olesome edict 0 promulgat$ at ,rome1 :i*1 9 ord] to *eck ! p]il\s sc&als ( ! pres5t age1 impos$ sil5ce ^u ! ,py?agorean op9ion ( ! mobility ( ! e>?4 ,!re 7 n want+1' he proce$s1 'p]sons :o ra%ly ass]t$ t ?is decree 0 ! result1 n ( a judici\s inquiry1 b ( passion ill-in=m$2 & compla9ts 7 he>d t c\ncillors1 utt]ly unacqua9t$ ) a/ronomical obs]vation1 ought n to be all[$1 ) _! sudd5 prohibitions1 to clip ! w+s ( speculative intellects4 ,at ! he>+ ( ra% lam5tations l ^!1 my zeal c\ld n keep sil5ce4' ,& he !n goes on to say1 t he wi%es1 9 8 ,dialogue1 to %[ t ! subject _h be5 fully exam9$ at ,rome4 ,"h ! irony is q transp>5t1 & ! s>casm gl>+ly obvi\s4 ,i ?9k we may v5ture to say t ?is is n ! temp] 9 :i* sci5tific que/ions %\ld be treat$2 al?\gh by "s1 p]haps1 ! prohibition ( public discussion may be consid]$ z ju/ify+ any evasion :i* is likely to pass unpuni%$4 #caa #ab4 ,duty ( ,mutual ,=be>ance4--,we may add1 z a fur!r reason = mutual =be>ance 9 su* cases1 t ! true int]e/s ( bo? p>ties are ! same4 ,! man ( sci5ce is conc]n$1 no less ?an any o!r p]son1 9 ! tru? & import ( ! div9e disp5sation2 ! religi\s man1 no less ?an ! man ( sci5ce1 is1 by ! nature ( 8 intellect1 incapable ( believ+ two contradictory decl>ations4 ,h5ce !y h bo? alike a ne$ = und]/&+ ! ,scripture 9 "s way 9 :i* x %all be consi/5t ) _! und]/&+ ( nature4 ,x is = _! common advantage to conciliate1 z ,kepl] says1 ! f+] & ! tongue ( ,god1 8 works & 8 ^w4 ,& !y may f9d abundant reason to be> ) ea* o!r1 ev5 if !y %\ld adopt = ?is purpose diff]5t int]pretations1 ea* f9d+ "o satisfactory to himself2 or if any "o %\ld decl9e employ+ 8 ?\ghts on su* subjects at all4 ,i h else:]e#bcaj quot$ a passage f ,kepl]#bdaj :i* appe>s to me writt5 9 a mo/ suitable _s3 ',i besee* my read] t1 n unm9dful ( ! div9e goodness be/[$ ^u man1 he d ) me praise & celebrate ! wisdom ( ! ,creator1 :i* ,i op5 to him f a m inw>d explication ( ! =m ( ! _w1 f a se>*+ ( causes1 f a detection ( ! err\rs ( vision2 & t ?us n only 9 ! firmness & /ability ( ! e>? may we p]ceive ) gratitude ! pres]vation ( all liv+ ?+s 9 nature z ! gift ( ,god3 b also t 9 its motion1 s recondite1 s admirable1 we may ackn[l$ge ! wisdom ( ! ,creator4 ,b :oev] is too dull to receive ?is sci5ce1 or too weak to believe ! ,cop]nican sy/em )\t h>m to 8 piety1 him1 ,i say1 ,i advise t1 leav+ ! s*ool ( a/ronomy1 & condemn+1 if s he please1 any doctr9es ( ! philosoph]s1 he foll[ 8 own pa?1 & desi/ f ?is w&]+ ?r\gh ! univ]se2 & t1 lift+ up 8 natural eyes1 ) :i* alone he c see1 #cab he p\r himself out f 8 own he>t 9 wor%ip ( ,god ! ,creator1 be+ c]ta9 t he gives no less wor%ip to ,god ?an ! a/ronom]1 to :om ,god has giv5 to see m cle>ly ) 8 inw>d eyes1 & :o1 f :at he has himself discov]$1 bo? c & w glorify ,god4' ,note #bcaj3 ,bridgewat] ,tr4 p4 #cad4 ,note #bdaj3 ,com4 ,/ell4 ,m>t4 ,introd4 #ac4 ,case ( ,galileo4--,i may p]haps v5ture "h to make a rem>k or two ^u ?is subject ) ref]5ce to a *>ge br\ght aga9/ a c]ta9 portion ( ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,compla9t has be5 made#beaj t ! "* ( ! ,roman *ur*1 z %[n 9 its behavi\r t[>ds ,galileo1 is misrepres5t$ 9 ! acc\nt giv5 ( x 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy4 ,x is ass]t$ t ,galileo provok$ ! condemnation he incurr$2 fir/1 by p]t9aci\sly dem&+ ! ass5t ( ! ecclesia/ical au?orities to 8 op9ion ( ! consi/5cy ( ! ,cop]nican doctr9e ) ,scripture2 & aft]w>ds by contumaci\sly1 &1 z we h se51 contumeli\sly violat+ ! sil5ce :i* ! ,*ur* _h enjo9$ ^u him4 ,x is fur!r decl>$ t ! /atem5t :i* repres5ts x z ! habit ( ! ,roman *ur* to dogmatize on po9ts ( natural sci5ce is unf\nd$2 z well z ! op9ion t 9 consequ5ce ( ?is habit1 new sci5tific tru?s 7 promulgat$ less boldly 9 ,italy ?an 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,i %all reply v briefly on ^! subjects2 = ! decision ( !m is by no means requisite 9 ord] to e/abli% ! doctr9es to :i* ,i h be5 l$ 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 nor1 ,i hope1 to satisfy my read] t my views h be5 collect$ f an imp>tial consid]ation ( sci5tific hi/ory4 ,note #beaj3 ,dubl9 ,review1 ,no4 ix4 ,july1 #ahch1 p4 #gb4 ,) reg>d to ,galileo1 ,i d n ?9k x c be d5i$ t he obtrud$ 8 op9ions ^u ! ecclesia/ical au?orities 9 an unnecess>y & imprud5t mann]4 ,he 0 ( an ard5t "*1 /rongly conv9c$ himself1 & urg$ on /ill m by ! conviction :i* he produc$ among 8 disciples1 & #cac ?us he became impati5t = ! triumph ( tru?4 ,?is judgm5t ( him has rec5tly be5 deliv]$ by v>i\s indep5d5t au?orities1 & has und\bt$ly consid]able f\ndation#bfaj4 ,z to ! "q :e!r au?ority 9 matt]s ( natural sci5ce 7 habitually claim$ by ! au?orities ( ! ,*ur* ( ,rome1 ,i h to all[ t ,i _c produce in/ances :i* e/abli% su* a habit4 ,we1 :o h be5 accu/om$ to h daily be=e our eyes ! ,monition :i* ! ,romi% editors ( ,newton ?\ght x necess>y to prefix--,ct]um latis a summo ,pontifice contra telluris motum ,decretis1 nos obsequi pr(itemur--7 n likely to conjecture t ?is 0 a solit>y in/ance ( ! int]position ( ! ,papal au?ority on su* subjects4 ,b al?\gh x w\ld be easy to f9d decl>ations ( h]esy deliv]$ by ,romi% ,univ]sities1 & writ]s ( great au?ority1 aga9/ t5ets belong+ to ! natural sci5ces1 ,i am n aw>e t any o!r case c be adduc$ 9 :i* ! ,*ur* or ! ,pope c be %[n to h pron\nc$ su* a s5t5ce4 ,i am well cont5t$ to ackn[l$ge ?is2 = ,i %\ld be f> m gratifi$ by f9d+ myself compell$ to hold up ! sev5te5? c5tury z a model = ! n9ete5? 9 ?is respect1 ?an by hav+ to s[ enmity betwe5 ! admir]s ( ! pa/ & ! pres5t ?r\gh any disp>ag+ contra/#bgaj4 ,note #bfaj3 ,besides ! ,dubl9 ,review1 ,i may quote ! ,ed9burgh ,review1 :i* ,i suppose w n be ?\ght likely to h a bias 9 fav\r ( ! ex]cise ( ecclesia/ical au?ority 9 matt]s ( sci5ce2 ?\gh c]ta9ly !re is a pu]ility 9 ! critic's phraseology :i* does n add to ! weight ( 8 judgm5t4 ',galileo contriv$ to surr\nd ! tru? ) e v>iety ( ob/ruction4 ,! tide ( k1 :i* _h hi!rto advanc$ 9 peace1 he cre/$ ) angry break]s1 & he involv$ 9 its surf bo? 8 fri5ds & 8 foes4'--,ed4 ,rev4 ,no4 cxxiii4 p4 #abf4 ,note #bgaj3 ,i may add t ! mo/ c&id ( ! adh]5ts ( ! ,*ur* ( ,rome condemn ! assumption ( au?ority 9 matt]s ( sci5ce1 made1 9 ?is "o in/ance at lea/1 by ! ecclesia/ical tribunals4 ,! au?or ( ! ,ages ( ,fai? 7book viii4 p4 #bdh71 says1 ',a ,congregation1 x is to be lam5t$1 decl>$ ! new sy/em to be oppos$ to ,scripture1 & !re=e h]etical4' #cad ,) respect to ! attempt made 9 my ,hi/ory to *>act]ize ! intellectual habits ( ,italy z produc$ by h] religi\s condition1--c]ta9ly x w\ld ill become any /ud5t ( ! hi/ory ( sci5ce to speak slight+ly ( t c\ntry1 always ! "m ( sci5ces1 always ready to cat* ! dawn & hail ! ris+ ( any new light ( k4 ,b ,i ?9k our admiration ( ?is activity & acut5ess ( m9d is by no means inconsi/5t ) ! op9ion1 t new tru?s 7 promulgat$ m boldly beyond ! ,alps1 & t ! subtilty ( ! ,italian intellect lov$ to ins9uate :at ! r\gh ,g]man bluntly ass]t$4 ,( ! dec5t duplicity ) :i* =bidd5 op9ions 7 h&l$1 ! review] himself gives u in/ances1 :5 he boa/s ( ! lib]ality ) :i* ,cop]nican pr(essors 7 plac$ 9 important /ations by ! ecclesia/ical au?orities1 soon aft] ! doctr9e ( ! motion ( ! e>? _h be5 decl>$ by ! same au?orities to be contr>y to ,scripture4 ,& 9 ! same _s is ! process ( dem&+ f ,galileo a public & (ficial recantation ( op9ions :i* he _h repeat$ly be5 told by 8 ecclesia/ical sup]iors he might hold z mu* z he pleas$4 ,i ?9k x is easy to believe t among p]sons s little c>eful to reconcile public pr(ession ) private conviction1 (ficial decorum 0 all t 0 dem&$4 ,:5 ,galileo _h made 8 r5unciation ( ! e>?'s motion on 8 knees1 he rose & said1 z we are told1 ,e pur si muove--'& yet x does move4' ,?is is sometimes repres5t$ z ! h]oic soliloquy ( a m9d *]i%+ its conviction ( ! tru?1 9 spite ( p]secution2 ,i ?9k we may m naturally conceive x utt]$ z a playful epigram 9 ! e> ( a c>d9al's secret>y1 ) a full k t x w\ld be imm$iately repeat$ to 8 ma/]#bhaj4 ,note #bhaj3 ,i h some:at fur!r discuss$ ! case ( ,galileo 9 ! lat] editions ( ! ,hi/ory1 book v4 *ap4 iii4 sect4 #d4 ,besides ! ,ideas involv$ 9 ! mat]ial sci5ces1 #cae ( :i* we h already exam9$ ! pr9cipal ones1 !re is "o ,idea or ,conception :i* our ,sci5ces d n inde$ include1 b to :i* !y n obscurely po9t2 & ! importance ( ?is ,idea w make x prop] to speak ( x1 ?\gh ?is mu/ be done v briefly4 #caf ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,( ,,! ,,conception ,,( ,a ,,fir/ ,,cause4 #a4 ,,at ! end ( ! la/ *apt] b "o1 we 7 l$ to ?is result1--t we _c1 9 any ( ! ,paltiological ,sci5ces1 asc5d to a beg9n+ :i* is ( ! same nature z ! exi/+ cause ( ev5ts1 & :i* dep5ds ^u causes t are /ill 9 op]ation4 ,philosoph]s nev] h demon/rat$1 & probably nev] w be able to demon/rate1 :at 0 ! orig9al condition ( ! sol> sy/em1 ( ! e>?1 ( ! vegetable & animal worlds1 ( languages1 ( arts4 ,on all ^! subjects ! c\rse ( inve/igation1 foll[$ backw>ds z f> z our mat]ials all[ u to pursue x1 ends at la/ 9 an imp5etrable gloom4 ,we /ra9 our eyes 9 va9 :5 we try1 by our natural faculties1 to disc]n an orig94 #b4 ,yet speculative m5 h be5 con/antly employ$ 9 attempts to arrive at t :i* ?us seems to be plac$ out ( _! rea*4 ,! ,orig9 ( ,languages1 ! ,orig9 ( ! pres5t ,di/ribution ( ,plants & ,animals1 ! ,orig9 ( ! ,e>?1 h be5 common subjects ( dilig5t & p]sev]+ inquiry4 ,inde$ inquiries respect+ su* subjects h be51 at lea/ till lately1 ! usual =m :i* ,paltiological rese>*es h assum$4 ,cosmogony1 ! ,orig9 ( ! ,_w1 ( :i*1 9 su* speculations1 ! e>? 0 consid]$ z a pr9cipal "p1 has be5 a fav\rite /udy bo? ( anci5t & ( mod]n times3 & mo/ ( ! attempts at ,geology previ\s to ! pres5t p]iod h be5 ,cosmogonies or ,geogonies1 r ?an t m g5u9e sci5ce :i* we h endeav\r$ to del9eate4 ,aga93 ,glossology1 ?\gh n[ an ext5sive body ( solid k1 0 #cag ma9ly br\ght into be+ by inquiries conc]n+ ! ,orig9al ,language spok5 by m52 & ! nature ( ! fir/ sep>ation & diffusion ( languages1 ! fir/ peopl+ ( ! e>? by man & by animals1 7 long s\ght aft] ) ard5t curiosity1 al?\gh ( c\rse ) ref]5ce to ! au?ority ( ! ,scriptures1 z well z ! evid5ce ( natural ph5om5a4 ,inde$ ! int]e/ ( su* inquiries ev5 yet is f> f be+ ext+ui%$4 ,! disposition to explore ! pa/ 9 ! hope ( f9d+1 by ! light ( natural reason+ z well z by ! aid ( revelation1 ! orig9 ( ! pres5t c\rse ( ?+s1 appe>s to be unconqu]able4 ',:at 0 ! beg9n+8' is a "q :i* ! human race _c desi/ f p]petually ask+4 ,& no failure 9 obta9+ a satisfactory answ] c prev5t inquisitive spirits f aga9 & aga9 repeat+ ! inquiry1 al?\gh ! blank abyss into :i* x is utt]$ does n ev5 return an e*o4 #c4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! reason ( an attempt s p]t9aci\s yet s fruitless8 ,by :at motive are we impell$ ?us con/antly to seek :at we c nev] f9d8 ,:y are ! err\r ( our conjectures1 ! futility ( our reason+s1 ! prec>i\sness ( our int]pretations1 ov] & ov] aga9 prov$ to u 9 va98 ,:y is x impossible = u to acquiesce 9 our ignorance & to rel9qui% ! inquiry8 ,:y _c we cont5t ourselves ) exam9+ ^? l9ks ( ! *a9 ( causes :i* are ne>e/ to u1--^? 9 :i* ! connexion is intelligible & cle>2 in/ead ( fix+ our att5tion ^u ^? remote portions :]e we c no long] e/imate its coh]5ce8 ,9 %ort1 :y did n m5 f ! fir/ take = ! subject ( _! speculations ! ,c\rse ( ,nature r ?an ! ,orig9 ( ,?+s8 ,to ?is we reply1 t 9 do+ :at !y h ?us done1 9 seek+ :at !y h s\ght1 m5 are impell$ by an intellectual necessity4 ,!y _c conceive a ,s]ies ( connect$ occurr5ces )\t a ,comm5cem5t2 !y _c help suppos+ a cause = ! ,:ole1 z well z a cause = ea* "p2 !y _c be satisfi$ ) a succession ( causes )\t #cah assum+ a ,fir/ ,cause4 ,su* an assumption is necess>ily impress$ ^u our m9ds by our contemplation ( a s]ies ( causes & effects2 t !re mu/ be a ,fir/ ,cause1 is accept$ by all intellig5t reason]s z an ,axiom3 & l o!r ,axioms1 its tru? is necess>ily impli$ 9 ! ,idea :i* x involves4 #d4 ,! evid5ce ( ?is axiom may be illu/rat$ 9 sev]al ways4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! axiom is assum$ 9 ! argum5t usually (f]$ to prove ! exi/5ce ( ! ,deity4 ,s9ce1 x is said1 ! _w n[ exi/s1 & s9ce no?+ _c produce some?+1 some?+ mu/ h exi/$ f et]nity4 ,?is ,some?+ is ! ,fir/ ,cause3 x is ,god4 ,n[ :at ,i h to rem>k "h is ?is3--! conclusiv5ess ( ?is argum5t1 z a pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( "o indep5d5t1 immutable ,deity1 dep5ds entirely ^u ! assumption ( ! axiom above /at$4 ,! ,_w1 a 9999s]ies ( causes & effects1 exi/s3 !re=e !re mu/ be1 n only ?is s]ies ( causes & effects1 b also a ,fir/ ,cause4 ,x w be easily se51 t )\t ! axiom1 t 9 e s]ies ( causes & effects !re mu/ be a ,fir/ ,cause1 ! reason+ is altoge!r inconclusive4 #e4 ,or to put ! matt] o!rwise3 ,! argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( ! ,deity 0 /at$ ?us3 ,some?+ exi/s1 !re=e some?+ mu/ h exi/$ f et]nity4 ',grant$1' ! oppon5t might say2 'b ?is some?+ :i* has exi/$ f et]nity1 :y may x n be ?is v s]ies ( causes & effects :i* is n[ go+ on1 & :i* appe>s to conta9 9 itself no indication ( beg9n+ or end8' ,& ?us1 )\t ! assumption ( ! necessity ( a ,fir/ ,cause1 ! =ce ( ! argum5t may be resi/$4 #f4 ,b1 x may be ask$1 h[ d ^? :o h writt5 to prove ! exi/5ce ( ! ,deity reply to su* an objection z ! "o j /at$8 ,x is natural to suppose t1 on a subject s int]e/+ & s long discuss$1 all ! obvi\s argum5ts ) _! replies1 h be5 fully br\ght into view4 ,:at is ! result 9 ?is case8 #cai ,! pr9cipal modes ( reply+ to ! above objection1 t ! s]ies ( causes & effects :i* n[ exi/s1 may h exi/$ f et]nity1 appe> to be ^!4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 our m9ds _c be satisfi$ ) a s]ies ( successive1 dep5d5t1 causes & effects1 )\t some?+ fir/ & indep5d5t4 ,we pass f effect to cause1 & f t to a high] cause1 9 se>* ( some?+ on :i* ! m9d c re/2 b if we c d no?+ b repeat ?is process1 !re is no use 9 x4 ,we move our limbs1 b make no advance4 ,our "q is n answ]$1 b evad$4 ,! m9d _c acquiesce 9 ! de/9y ?us pres5t$ to x1 ( be+ ref]r$ f ev5t to ev5t1 f object to object1 along an int]m9able vi/a ( causation & "t4 ,n[ ?is mode ( /at+ ! reply1--to say t ! m9d _c ?us be satisfi$1 appe>s to be equival5t to say+ t ! m9d is consci\s ( a ,pr9ciple1 9 virtue ( :i* su* a view z ?is mu/ be reject$2--! m9d takes refuge 9 ! assumption ( a ,fir/ ,cause1 f an employm5t inconsi/5t ) its own nature4 #g4 ,or aga91 we may avoid ! objection1 by putt+ ! argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( a ,deity 9 ?is =m3 ,! s]ies ( causes & effects :i* we call ! _w1 or ! c\rse ( nature1 may be consid]$ z a :ole1 & ?is :ole mu/ h a cause ( its exi/5ce4 ,! :ole collection ( objects & ev5ts may be compreh5d$ z a s+le effect1 & ( ?is effect !re mu/ be a cause4 ,?is ,cause ( ! ,univ]se mu/ be sup]ior to1 & indep5d5t ( ! special ev5ts1 :i*1 happ5+ 9 "t1 make up ! univ]se ( :i* ,he is ! cause4 ,he mu/ exi/ & ex]cise causation1 be=e ^! ev5ts c beg93 ,he mu/ be ! ,fir/ ,cause4 ,al?\gh ! argum5t is "h some:at modifi$ 9 =m1 ! sub/ance is ! same z be=e4 ,= ! assumption t we may consid] ! :ole s]ies ( causes & effects z a s+le effect1 is equival5t to ! assumption t besides p>tial causes we mu/ h a ,fir/ ,cause4 ,& ?us ! ,idea ( a ,fir/ ,cause1 & #cbj ! axiom :i* ass]ts its necessity1 are recogniz$ 9 ! usual argum5tation on ?is subject4 #h4 ,?is ,idea ( a ,fir/ ,cause1 & ! pr9ciple involv$ 9 ! ,idea1 h be5 ! subject ( discussion 9 ano!r mann]4 ,z we h already said1 we assume z an axiom t a ,fir/ ,cause mu/ exi/2 & we ass]t t ,god1 ! ,fir/ ,cause1 exi/s et]nal & immutable1 by ! necessity :i* ! axiom implies4 ,h5ce ,god is said to exi/ necess>ily2--to be a necess>ily exi/+ be+4 ,& :5 ?is necess>y exi/5ce ( ,god _h be5 spok5 (1 x soon began to be contemplat$ z a suffici5t reason1 & z an absolute demon/ration ( ,8 exi/5ce2 )\t any ne$ ( ref]r+ to ! _w z an effect1 9 ord] to arrive at ,god z ! cause4 ,& ?us m5 conceiv$ t !y _h obta9$ a pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ,deity1 priori1 f ,ideas1 z well z po/]iori1 f ,effects4 #i4 ,?us1 ,?omas ,aqu9as employs ?is reason+ to prove ! et]nity ( ,god#biaj3 ',oportet pon]e aliquod primum necess>ium quod e/ p] se ipsum necess>ium2 et hoc e/ ,deus1 cum sit prima causa ut dictum e/3 igitur ,deus t]nus e/1 cum omne necess>ium p] se sit t]num4' ,x is true t ! s*oolm5 nev] pr(ess$ to be able to prove ! exi/5ce ( ! ,deity priori3 b !y made use ( ?is conception ( necess>y exi/5ce 9 a mann] :i* approa*$ v ne> to su* an attempt4 ,?us ,su>ez#cjaj discusses ! "q1 ',utrum aliquo modo possit priori demon/r>i ,deum esse4' ,& resolves ! "q 9 ?is mann]3 ',ad hunc ergo modum dic5dum e/3 ,demon/rato po/]iori ,deum esse ens necess>ium et a se1 ex hoc attributo posse priori demon/r>i prt] illud non posse esse aliud ens necess>ium et a se1 et consequ5t] demon/r>i ,deum esse4' ,note #biaj3 ,aqu94 ,cont4 ,g5til4 lib4 i4 c4 xiv4 p4 #ba4 ,note #cjaj3 ,metaphys4 tom4 ii4 disp4 xxix4 sect4 #c1 p4 #bh4 ,b 9 mod]n times attempts 7 made by ,desc>tes & ,samuel ,cl>ke1 to prove ! ,div9e #cba exi/5ce at once priori1 f ! conception ( necess>y exi/5ce2 :i*1 x 0 argu$1 c\ld n subsi/ )\t actual exi/5ce4 ,?is argum5tation 0 acutely & sev]ely criticis$ by ,dr4 ,wat]l&4 #aj4 ,)\t dwell+ ^u a subject1 ! discussion ( :i* does n ent] into ! design ( ! pres5t "w1 ,i may rem>k t ! "q :e!r an priori pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( a ,fir/ ,cause be possible1 is a "q conc]n+ ! nature ( our ,ideas1 & ! evid5ce ( ! axioms :i* !y involve1 ( ! same k9d z _m que/ions :i* we h already _h to discuss4 ,is our ,conception or ,idea ( a ,fir/ ,cause ga!r$ f ! effects we see ar\nd u8 ,x is pla9 t we mu/ answ]1 "h z 9 o!r cases1 t ! ,idea is n extract$ f ! ph5om5a1 b assum$ 9 ord] t ! ph5om5a may become intelligible to ! m9d2--t ! ,idea is a necess>y "o1 inasmu* z x does n dep5d ^u obs]vation = its evid5ce2 b t x dep5ds ^u obs]vation = its developm5t1 s9ce )\t "s obs]vation1 we _c conceive ! m9d to be cognizant ( ! relation ( causation at all4 ,9 ?is respect1 h[ev]1 ! ,idea ( a ,fir/ ,cause is no less necess>y ?an ! ideas ( ,space1 or ,"t1 or ,cause 9 g5]al4 ,& :e!r we call ! reason+ d]iv$ f su* a necessity an argum5t priori or po/]iori1 9 ei!r case x possesses ! g5u9e "* ( demon/ration1 be+ f\nd$ ^u axioms :i* comm& univ]sal ass5t4 #aa4 ,i h1 h[ev]1 spok5 ( our ,conception r ?an ( our ,idea ( a ,fir/ ,cause2 = ! notion ( a ,fir/ ,cause appe>s to be r a modification ( ! ,fundam5tal ,idea ( ,cause1 :i* 0 =m]ly discuss$1 ?an a sep>ate & peculi> ,idea4 ,& ! ,axiom1 t !re mu/ be a ,fir/ ,cause1 is recognis$ by mo/ p]sons z an application ( ! g5]al ,axiom ( ,causation1 t e effect mu/ h a ,cause2 ?is latt] ,axiom be+ appli$ to ! ,_w1 consid]$ 9 its totality1 z a s+le ,effect4 ,?is di/9ction1 h[ev]1 betwe5 an ,idea & a ,conception1 is ( no mat]ial consequ5ce to our argum5t2 provid$ we #cbb all[ ! maxim1 t !re mu/ be a ,fir/ ,cause1 to be necess>ily & evid5tly true2 :e!r x be ?\ght bett] to speak ( x z an indep5d5t ,axiom1 or to consid] x z d]iv$ f ! g5]al ,axiom ( ,causation4 #ab4 ,?us we necess>ily inf] a ,fir/ ,cause1 al?\gh ! ,paltiological ,sci5ces only po9t t[>ds x1 & d n lead u to x4 ,b ,i mu/ obs]ve fur!r2 t 9 ea* ( ! s]ies ( ev5ts :i* =m ! subject ( ,paltiological rese>*1 ! ,fir/ ,cause is ! same4 ,)\t "h re/+ ^u reason+ f\nd$ ^u our ,conception ( a ,fir/ ,cause1 ,i may rem>k t ?is id5tity is prov$ by ! close connexion ( all ! bran*es ( natural sci5ce1 & ! way 9 :i* ! causes & ! ev5ts ( ea* are int]wov5 ) ^? :i* belong to ! o!rs4 ,we mu/ ne$s believe t ! ,fir/ ,cause :i* produc$ ! e>? & its atmosph]e is also ! ,cause ( ! plants :i* clo! its surface2 t ! ,fir/ ,cause ( ! vegetable & ( ! animal _w are ! same2 t ! ,fir/ ,cause :i* produc$ light produc$ also eyes2 t ! ,fir/ ,cause :i* produc$ air & organs ( articulation produc$ also language & ! faculties by :i* language is r5d]$ possible3 & if ^? faculties1 !n also all man's o!r faculties2--! p[]s by :i*1 z we h said1 he disc]ns "r & wrong1 & recognises a provid5tial z well z a natural c\rse ( ?+s4 ,nor c we ?9k o!rwise ?an t ! ,be+ :o gave ^! faculties1 be/[$ !m = "s purpose2--be/[$ !m = t purpose :i* alone is compatible ) _! nature3--! purpose1 namely1 ( guid+ & elevat+ man 9 8 pres5t c>e]1 & ( prep>+ him = ano!r /ate ( be+ to :i* !y irresi/ibly direct 8 hopes4 ,& ?us1 al?\gh1 z we h said1 no "o ( ! ,paltiological ,sci5ces c be trac$ cont9u\sly to an ,orig91 yet !y n only ea* po9t to an ,orig91 b all to ! same ,orig94 ,_! l9es are brok5 inde$1 z !y run backw>ds into ! e>ly p]iods ( ! _w1 b yet !y all appe> to conv]ge to ! same invisible po9t4 ,& #cbc ?is po9t1 ?us indicat$ by ! natural c\rse ( ?+s1 c be no o!r ?an t :i* is disclos$ to u z ! />t+-po9t ( ! provid5tial c\rse ( ! _w2 = we are p]suad$ by su* reasons z h j be5 h9t$1 t ! ,creator ( ! natural _w c be no o!r ?an ! ,au?or & ,gov]nor & ,judge ( ! moral & spiritual _w4 #ac4 ,?us we are l$1 by our mat]ial ,sci5ces1 & especially by ! ,paltiological class ( !m1 to ! bord]s ( a high] region1 & to a po9t ( view f :i* we h a prospect ( o!r prov9ces ( k2--to contemplations 9 :i* o!r faculties ( man are conc]n$ besides 8 intellectual1 o!r int]e/s involv$ besides ^? ( speculation4 ,on ^! x does n belong to our pres5t plan to dwell3 b ev5 su* a brief glance z we h tak5 ( ! connexion ( mat]ial ) moral speculations may n be useless1 s9ce x may s]ve to %[ t ! pr9ciples ( tru? :i* we are n[ labori\sly collect+ among ! results ( ! physical sci5ces1 may possibly f9d "s application 9 ^? p>ts ( k t[>ds :i* m5 mo/ naturally look ) deep] int]e/ & m s]i\s rev]5ce4 ,we h be5 employ$ hi!rto 9 exam9+ ! mat]ials ( k1 ,facts & ,ideas2--,facts 9 our =m] ,hi/ory1 & ,ideas 9 ! pres5t ,hi/ory4 ,we h dwelt at l5g? on ?is latt] elem5t2 inasmu* z ! consid]ation ( x is1 on v>i\s acc\nts1 & especially at ! pres5t "t1 by f> ! mo/ important1 hav+ hi!rto be5 lea/ di/9ctly att5d$ to z a special elem5t ( sci5tific k4 ,!re /ill rema9s an important task1 ) a view to :i* we h und]tak5 ?is survey ( ! pa/ c\rse ( human ?\ght & discov]y3--namely1 ! task ( det]m9+ ! processes by :i* ^! mat]ials may actually be made to con/itute k4 #cbd ,we h survey$ ! /ones :i* lie be=e u1 p>tly built & p>tly ready = build+3 we h f\nd !m exactly squ>$1 & (t5 curi\sly cov]$ ) significant imag]y & important inscriptions4 ,we h n[ to discov] h[ !y may be/ be fitt$ into _! places1 & cem5t$ toge!r1 s t ris+ /age above /age1 !y may gr[ at la/ into t fair & l(ty temple ( ,tru?1 = :i* we _c d\bt t !y 7 int5d$ by ! ,great ,ar*itect4 ,?is task1 ! description ( ! processes by :i* ,sci5tific ,tru? is discov]$ & e/abli%$1 we %all1 z has already be5 said1 entitle1 9 ref]5ce to previ\s attempts ( ! same k9d1 ,novum ,organum ,r5ovatum4 ,,end ,,( ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,cambridge3 ,pr9t$ at ! ,univ]sity ,press4 ,transcrib]'s ,note ,:ewell publi%$ ! fir/ edition ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces 9 #ahdj1 z a companion to ! #ahcg ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,revis$ second editions ( bo? works appe>$ 9 #ahdg4 ,! ?ird editions saw a major re%ap+ ( ! ,philosophy3 a two volume ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas 7#aheh - ! pres5t text1 rely+ ^u res\rces k9dly provid$ by ! ,int]net ,ar*ive71 ,novum ,organon ,r5ovatum 7#aheh71 & ,on ! ,philosophy ( ,discov]y3 *apt]s hi/orical & critical 7#ahfj - already 9 ,project ,gut5b]g's collection3 #eaee74 ,! pres5t text has comb9$ ! two volumes into "o cont9u\s text4 ,footnotes are numb]$ by ,book & m>k$ mn :]e m ! numb] ( ! note )9 ! ,book1 & n ! numb] ( ! ,book4 ,9 ! orig9al1 notes 7 numb]$ by *apt]4 ,page numb]s appe> 9 1 or :]e !re is no pr9t$ numb]2 :]e a ^w 0 hyph5at$ across pages ! numb] has be5 plac$ be=e ! ^w4 ,sup]scripts are m>k$ ) 4 ,!re is "o significant problem to report4 ,= ,book ,,ix *apt] ,,vi1 ! ,table ( ,cont5ts li/s #bj articles1 b ! actual text has only #ai numb]$ p>agraphs4 ,! text v]sion leaves ?is inconsi/5cy unt\*$2 9 ! htm v]sion1 a correction has be5 made by numb]+ ! p>agraph beg9n+ on p4 #bdd z #i1 & r5umb]+ ^? t foll[1 !reby mat*+ ! descriptions 9 ! ,table ( ,cont5ts4 ,o!r corrections to ! text are m>k$ ) 9999 & are li/$ bel[4 ,location ,text ( pr9t$ edition ,em5dation ,vol4 #a p4 #ga conlcusion conclusion p4 #hg vi4 vii4 p4 #aeg sci5ces sci5ce note #ac ,book #a4 *ap4 xii4 ,book #c4 *ap4 ii4 p4 #bca ,m>riotte ,m>iotte p4 #cgg ,w9t]'s ,w9t]l's ,vol4 #b p4 #bb +$i5t +r$i5t p4 #abd wi* :i* p4 #aei attemps attempts p4 #agb kn[lege k note #fji ,_!4 ,!or4 p4 #bgj dfficulties difficulties p4 #cah s]i\s s]ies