,transcriber's ,notes ,hyphenation has been standardised4 ,the ,transcriber has constructed a #8,list of ,illustrations'1 as none was supplied4 ,page #acb -- changed possibilites to possibilities ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tower ,,bridge1 ,,london1 ,,showing ,,the ,,bascules ,,raised4 ,,engineers ,,and ,,their ,,triumphs3 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,locomotive--,,the ,,steamship--,,bridge ,,building--,,tunnel ,,making4 ,,by ,f4 ,m4 ,,holmes1 ,,author ,,of 8,,four ,,heroes ,,of ,,india10 ,,etc4 ,illustration ,,fleming ,h4 ,,revell ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,chicago ,,toronto ,publishers of ,evangelical ,literature4 ,illustration ,,preface4 ,without attempting to be exhaustive1 this little book aims at describing in a purely popular and non-technical manner some of the great achievements of engineers1 more particularly during the nineteenth century4 ,the four departments chosen have been selected not in pursuance of any comprehensive plan1 but because they present some of the more striking features of constructional effort4 ,the term ,engineering1 however1 includes the design and supervision of numerous works1 such as roads and canals1 docks and break-waters1 machinery and mining1 as well as steam-engines and steamships1 bridges and tunnels4 ,information1 in certain cases1 has been gained at first-hand1 and ,i have to acknowledge the courtesy of the managers of the ,cunard and ,white ,star ,steamship ,companies1 ,messrs4 ,maudslay1 ,sons ,field1 and others1 in supplying various particulars4 ,the narrative concerning ,henry ,bell and the steamship ,comet1 and of his connection with ,fulton1 is chiefly based on a letter from ,bell himself in the ,caledonian ,mercury in #ahaf4 ,the statement that ,mr4 ,macgregor ,laird was so largely instrumental in founding the ,british and ,american ,steam ,navigation ,company is made on the authority of his daughter1 ,miss ,eleanor ,bristow ,laird4 ,an article on 8,the ,genesis of the ,steamship10 which ,i wrote in the ,gentleman's ,magazine1 brought a letter from that lady in which she declares that her father was the prime mover in founding the ,company4 ,he had had experience1 in the ,niger ,expedition of #ahcb-cc1 of the behaviour of steamships both at sea and in the river1 and from the date of his return to ,england she asserts he advocated the establishment of steam communication between ,england and ,america1 against the active opposition of ,dr4 ,lardner and others4 8,macgregor ,laird's claim to the foremost place amongst all those 7not excepting ,brunel7 who worked for the same object10 writes ,miss ,laird1 8was clearly shown in a letter from the late ,mr4 ,archibald ,hamilton of #ag ,st4 ,helen's ,place1 ,e4,c41 to the editor of the ,shipping and ,mercantile ,gazette1 in which paper it was published on #aeth ,may1 #ahgc40 ,it is not a little curious to note how1 in many of these great undertakings1 several minds seem to have been working to the same end at about the same time4 ,it was so with ,george ,stephenson and others with regard to the locomotive1 with ,miller and ,symington1 ,bell and ,fulton1 with regard to the steamship1 with ,laird and ,brunel as regards transatlantic steam navigation1 with ,robert ,stephenson and ,william ,fairbairn as regards the tubular bridge4 ,this volume does not seek to be the special advocate of any1 or to enter into any minute details1 but simply endeavours to gather up the more salient features and weave them into a connected and popular narrative4 ,f4 ,m4 ,,holmes4 ,illustration ,,contents4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,locomotive4 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,first ,,steps1 #i ,,ii4 ,,glancing ,,backwards ,,and ,,struggling ,,forwards1 #ai ,,iii4 ,,fifteen ,,miles ,,an ,,hour1 #bh ,,iv4 ,a ,,marvel ,,of ,,mechanism1 #cf ,v4 ,a ,,mile ,a ,,minute1 #df ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,steamship4 ,i4 ,,the 8,,comet0 ,,appears1 #ec ,,ii4 ,,to ,,the ,,narrow ,,seas1 #fj ,,iii4 ,,on ,,the ,,open ,,ocean1 #fh ,,iv4 ,,the ,,ocean ,,race1 #gd ,v4 ,,before ,,the ,,furnace1 #he ,,famous ,,bridges ,,and ,,their ,,builders4 ,i4 8,,the ,,bridge ,,by ,,the ,,earthen ,,house10 #aja ,,ii4 ,a ,,new ,,idea--,,the ,,britannia ,,tubular1 #ajh ,,iii4 ,,lattice ,,and ,,suspension ,,bridges1 #aai ,,iv4 ,,the ,,greatest ,,bridge ,,in ,,the ,,world1 #abe ,v4 ,,the ,,tower ,,bridge1 #acc ,,remarkable ,,tunnels ,,and ,,their ,,construction4 ,i4 ,,how ,,brunel ,,made ,a ,,boring-,,shield1 #acg ,,ii4 ,,under ,,the ,,river1 #ada ,,iii4 ,,through ,,the ,,alps1 #adg ,,iv4 ,,under ,,water ,,again1 #aec ,illustration ,list of ,illustrations ,the ,tower ,bridge1 ,london1 showing the bascules raised4 iii ,george ,stephenson4 #aa 8,puffing ,billy10 the oldest locomotive engine in existence4 #ac ,james ,watt4 #ba ,edward ,pease4 #bg ,the compound locomotive 8,greater ,britain40 #da ,back and front view of the locomotive 8,greater ,britain40 #dd ,the 8,flying ,dutchman40 #ej ,bell's 8,comet40 #ee ,robert ,fulton4 #ei ,the ice-bound 8,britannia0 at ,boston4 #gg ,isambard ,kingdom ,brunel4 #hj ,the 8,great ,eastern40 #hc ,high and low pressure cylinders of the 8,campania's0 engines4 #hg ,the 8,campania40 #hi ,stoke ,hole4 #ic ,promenade deck of the 8,paris40 #ii ,pontypridd ,bridge4 #ajb ,the ,post ,bridge1 ,dartmoor4 #aje ,robert ,stephenson4 #aaa ,the ,britannia ,tubular ,bridge4 #aae ,victoria ,tubular ,bridge1 ,montreal4 #aag ,the ,clifton ,bridge4 #abb ,the ,brooklyn ,bridge4 #abc ,the ,forth ,bridge4 #abi ,the ,thames ,tunnel4 #adc ,boring machine used for the ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel4 #adi ,the entrance to the air-lock4 #aee ,the boring machine used in the preliminary construction of the ,english ,channel ,tunnel4 #aei ,illustration ,,engineers ,,and ,,their ,,triumphs4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,locomotive4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,first ,,steps4 8,i think ,i could make a better engine than that40 8,do you8 ,well1 some'ing's wanted2 hauling coal by horses is very expensive40 8,ay1 it is1 and ,i think an engine could do it better40 8,mr4 ,blackett's second engine burst all to pieces2 d'ye mind that80 8,how came that about80 8,tommy ,waters1 who put it together1 could not make it go1 so he got a bit fractious and said she should move4 ,he did some'ing to the safety-valve and she did begin to work1 but then she burst all to pieces40 8,ay1 ay1 but this one is an improvement40 8,it had need be4 ,even the third was a perfect plague40 8,what6 you mean ,mr4 ,blackett's third engine80 8,ay4 ,it used to draw eight or nine truck loads at about a mile an hour1 or a little less2 but it often got cranky and stood still40 8,stood still60 8,ay2 we thought she would never stick to the road1 so we had a cogged wheel to work into a rack-work rail laid along the track1 and somehow she was always getting off the rack-rail40 8,and now you find that the engine is heavy enough herself to grip the rail40 8,ay1 that was ,will ,hedley's notion2 he's a viewer at the colliery4 ,and it is a great improvement4 ,why1 that third engine1 ,i say1 was a perfect nuisance4 ,chaps used to sing out to the driver3 #8,how do you get on8'0 8#8,get on1' sez he1 #8,i don't get on2 ,i on'y get off6'0 8,it was always goin' wrong1 and horses was always having to be got out to drag it along40 8,how did ,hedley find out that a rack-rail was not needful80 8,well1 he had a framework put upon wheels and worked by windlasses which were geared to the wheels4 ,men were put to work these windlasses which set the wheels going2 and1 lo and behold1 she moved6 ,the wheels1 though smooth1 kept to the rails1 though they were smooth also1 and the framework went along without slipping4 #8,crikey6' says ,hedley1 #8no cogged wheels1 no chains1 no legs for me6 ,we can do without 'em all4 ,smooth wheels will grip smooth rails4' ,and he proved it too by several experiments40 8,then ,mr4 ,blackett had this engine built80 8,ay1 and it be1 as you say1 a great improvement4 ,but that steam blowing off there1 after it have done its work1 frights the horses on the ,wylam ,road ter'ble1 and makes it a perfect nuisance40 8,has nothing been done to alter it80 8,mr4 ,blackett has given orders to stop the engine when any horses comes along1 and the men don't like that because it loses time4 ,he thinks he is going to let the steam escape gradual like1 by blowing it off into a cask first40 8,umph6 very wasteful40 8,oh1 ay2 it be wasteful2 and many a one about here sez of ,mr4 ,blackett that a fool and his money are soon parted40 8,no10 said the first speaker1 shaking his head thoughtfully1 8,mr4 ,blackett is no fool4 ,but ,i think ,i could build a better engine than that40 ,illustration3 ,,george ,,stephenson4 ,the tone in which these words were uttered was not boastful1 but quiet and thoughtful4 8,you are ,geordie ,stephenson1 the engine-wright of the ,killingworth ,collieries1 'beant you80 8,ay2 and we have to haul coal some miles to the ,tyne where it can be shipped4 ,so you do away with all rack-work rails and all cogged wheels1 do you80 8,ay1 ay1 ,geordie1 that's so--smooth wheels on smooth rails40 ,this conversation1 imaginary though to some extent it be1 yet embodies some important facts4 ,jonathan ,foster1 ,mr4 ,blackett's engine-wright1 informed ,mr4 ,samuel ,smiles1 who mentions the circumstance in his 8,lives of the ,engineers10 that ,george ,stephenson 8declared his conviction that a much more effective engine might be made1 that should work more steadily and draw the load more effectively40 ,geordie had studied the steam-engine most diligently4 ,born at ,wylam--some eight miles distant from ,newcastle1 about thirty years previously--he had become a fireman of a steam-engine and had been wont to take it to pieces in his leisure4 ,he was now thinking over the subject of building a locomotive engine1 and he decided to see what had already been accomplished4 ,he would profit by the failures and successes of others4 ,so he went over to ,wylam to see ,mr4 ,blackett's engines1 and to ,coxlodge ,colliery to see ,mr4 ,blenkinsop's from ,leeds2 and here again it is said1 that after watching the machine haul sixteen locomotive waggons at a speed of about three miles an hour1 he expressed the opinion that 8he thought he could make a better engine than that1 to go upon legs40 ,a man named ,brunton did actually take out a patent in #ahac for doing this4 ,the legs were to work alternately1 like a living creature's4 ,the idea which seems to have troubled the early inventors of the locomotive1 was that smooth wheels would not grip smooth rails to haul along a load4 ,and it was ,blenkinsop of ,leeds who took out a patent in #ahaa for a rack-work rail into which a cog-wheel from his engine should work4 ,thus ,william ,hedley's idea of trusting to the weight of the engine to grip the rails1 and abolishing all the toothed wheels and legs and rack-work for this purpose on a fairly level rail1 was the first great step toward making the locomotive a practicable success4 ,illustration3 8,,puffing ,,billy10 ,,the ,,oldest ,,locomotive ,,engine ,,in ,,existence4 7,at present in ,south ,kensington ,museum47 ,the idea that ,stephenson invented the locomotive is a mistake4 ,but just as ,james ,watt improved the crude steam pumps and engines he found in existence1 so ,george ,stephenson of immortal memory developed and made practicable the locomotive4 ,for1 in spite of ,hedley's discovery or invention1 all locomotives were partial failures until ,stephenson took the matter in hand4 ,nevertheless1 ,william ,hedley's 8,puffing ,billy0 must be regarded as one of the first practicable railway engines ever built4 ,it is still to be seen in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 ,london4 ,patented in #ahac1 it began regular work at ,wylam in that year1 and continued in use until #ahgb4 ,it was probably this engine which ,stephenson saw when he said to ,jonathan ,foster that he could make a better1 and it was no doubt the first to work by smooth wheels on smooth rails4 ,altogether it has been looked upon as the 8father0 of the enormous number of locomotives which have followed4 ,mr4 ,blackett was a friend of ,richard ,trevithick2 and among the various inventors and improvers of the locomotive engine ,richard ,trevithick1 a tin-miner in ,cornwall1 must have a high place4 ,trevithick was a pupil of ,murdock1 who was assistant of ,james ,watt4 ,murdock had made a model successfully of a locomotive engine at ,redruth4 ,others also had attempted the same thing4 ,savery had suggested something of the kind2 ,cugnot1 a ,french engineer1 built one in ,paris about #agfc2 ,oliver ,evans1 an ,american1 made a steam carriage in #aggb2 ,william ,symington1 who did so much for the steamboat1 constructed a model of one in #aghd4 ,so that many minds had been at work on the problem4 ,but ,richard ,trevithick was really the first ,englishman who used a steam-engine on a railway4 ,he had not much money and he persuaded his cousin1 ,andrew ,vivian1 to join him in the enterprise4 ,in #ahjb they took out a patent for a steam-engine to propel carriages4 ,but before this he had made a locomotive to travel along roads1 and on ,christmas ,eve1 #ahja1 the wonderful sight could have been seen of this machine carrying passengers for the first time4 ,it is indeed believed to have been the first occasion on which passengers were conveyed by the agency of steam--the pioneer indeed of a mighty traffic4 ,the machine was taken to ,london and exhibited in certain streets1 and at length1 in #ahjh1 it was shown on ground where now1 curiously enough1 the ,euston ,station of the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway stands4 ,did any prevision of the extraordinary success of the locomotive flash across the engineer's brain8 ,before the infant century had run its course what wonderful developments of the strange new machine were to be seen on that very spot6 ,much interest was aroused by the exhibition of this machine1 and ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 a fellow ,cornishman1 is reported to have written to a friend--8,i shall soon hope to hear that the roads of ,england are the haunts of ,captain ,trevithick's dragons--a characteristic name40 ,his letter tends to show that the idea then was that the engine should run on the public roads1 and not on a specially prepared track like a railway4 ,had not this idea been modified1 and the principle of a railroad adopted1 it is hardly too much to say that the extraordinary development of the locomotive would not have followed4 ,trevithick's first engine appears to have burst4 ,at all events1 in the year #ahjc or #ahjd1 he built1 and began to run1 a locomotive on a horse tramway in ,south ,wales4 ,it appears that he had been employed to build a forge-engine here1 and thus the opportunity was presented for the trial of a machine to haul along minerals4 ,this1 it is believed1 was the first railway locomotive1 and its builder was ,richard ,trevithick4 ,the trial1 however1 was not very successful4 ,trevithick's engine was too heavy for the tramway on which it ran1 and the proprietors were not prepared to put down a stronger road4 ,furthermore1 it once alarmed the good folk1 unused then to railway accidents1 by actually running off its rail1 though only travelling at about four or five miles an hour4 ,it had to be ignominiously brought home by horses4 ,that settled the matter4 ,it became a pumping engine1 and as such answered very well4 ,in this locomotive1 however1 it should be noted ,trevithick employed a device which1 a quarter of a century later1 ,stephenson made so valuable that we might call it the very life-blood of the ,locomotive4 ,we mean the device of turning the waste steam into the funnel 7after it has done its work by driving the piston71 and thus forcing a furnace draught and increasing the fire4 ,stephenson1 however1 sent the steam through a small nozzled pipe which made of it a veritable steam-blast1 while ,trevithick1 apparently1 simply discharged the steam into the chimney4 ,disgusted it would seem by the failure1 the inventor turned his attention to other things4 ,trevithick appears to have lingered on the very brink of success1 and then turned aside4 ,another effort and he might have burst the barrier4 ,but it was not to be2 though if any one man deserve the title1 ,inventor of the ,locomotive1 that man is the ,cornish genius ,trevithick4 ,readers who may desire fuller information of ,trevithick and his inventions will find it in his 8,life0 by ,francis ,trevithick1 ,c4,e41 published in #ahgb4 ,it must be borne in mind that ,stephenson found the imaginary hindrance that smooth wheels would not grip smooth rails1 cleared away for him by ,hedley's experiment1 whereas ,trevithick had to contend against this difficulty4 ,he strove to conquer it by roughing the circumference of his wheels by projecting bolts1 so that they might grip in that way4 ,that is1 his patent provided for it1 if he did not actually carry out the plan4 ,it is very significant that this imaginary fear should have hindered the development of the locomotive4 ,the idea seems to have prevailed that1 no matter how powerful the engine1 it could not haul along very heavy loads unless special provision were made for its 8bite0 or grip of the rails4 ,another difficulty with which ,trevithick had to contend was one of cost4 ,it is said that one of his experiments failed in ,london for that reason4 ,this was apparently the locomotive for roads1 as distinct from the locomotive for rails4 ,a machine may be an academic triumph1 but the question of cost must be met if the machine is to become a commercial and industrial success4 ,mr4 ,blenkinsop of ,leeds then took out his patent in #ahaa for a rack-work rail and cogged wheel2 but before this ,mr4 ,blackett of ,wylam had obtained a plan of ,trevithick's engine and had one constructed4 ,he had met ,trevithick at ,london1 and it was as early as #ahjd that he obtained the plan4 ,the engines1 therefore1 of ,mr4 ,blackett which ,stephenson saw1 came1 so to speak1 in direct line from ,trevithick1 except that ,mr4 ,blackett's second engine was a combination of ,blenkinsop's and ,trevithick's4 ,some progress was made1 but when on that memorable day ,george ,stephenson1 the engine-wright of ,killingworth1 said1 8,i think ,i could build a better engine than that10 no very effective or economical working locomotive was in existence4 ,back therefore went ,george ,stephenson to his home4 ,he had seen what others had done1 and with his knowledge of machinery and his love for engine work he would now try what he could do4 ,would he succeed8 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,glancing ,,backwards ,,and ,,struggling ,,forwards4 8,my lord1 will you spend the money to build a ,travelling ,engine80 8,why8 what would it do80 8,haul coals to the ,tyne1 my lord4 ,the present system of hauling by horses is very costly40 8,it is4 ,but how would you manage it by a ,travelling ,engine80 ,thereupon ,george ,stephenson the engine-wright proceeded to explain4 ,in some such manner as this we can imagine that ,stephenson opened up the subject to ,lord ,ravensworth1 the chief partner in the ,killingworth ,colliery2 and he won his lordship over4 ,stephenson had already improved the colliery engines1 and ,lord ,ravensworth had formed a high opinion of his abilities4 ,so after consideration he gave the required consent4 ,now1 let us endeavour to imagine the position4 ,the steam engine1 of which the locomotive is one form1 had been invented years before4 ,the ,marquis of ,worcester made something of a steam engine which apparently was working at ,vauxhall1 ,south-west ,london1 in #afef4 ,it is said that he raised water forty feet1 and by this we may infer that his apparatus was a steam-pump4 ,he describes it in his work 8,century of ,inventions10 about #afee1 and he is generally accredited with being the inventor of the steam engine4 ,it was1 however1 a very primitive affair1 the boiler being the same vessel as that in which the steam accomplished its work4 ,captain ,savery took the next step4 ,he was the first to obtain a patent for applying steam power to machinery4 ,this was in #afih1 and he used a boiler distinct from the vessel where the steam was to exert its power4 ,savery's engines appear to have been used to drain mines4 ,his engines acted in this way--the steam was condensed in a vessel and produced a vacuum which raised the water2 then the steam pressing upon it raised it further in another receptacle4 ,an obvious improvement was the introduction of the piston4 ,this was ,papin's idea1 and he used it first in #afij4 ,six years later an engine was constructed by ,savery1 ,newcomen 7a ,devonshire man71 and ,cawley1 in which the 8beam0 was introduced1 and also the ideas of a distinct boiler separate from a cylinder in which worked a piston4 ,this machine was in operation for about seventy years4 ,the beam worked on an axle in its centre--something like a child's 8see-saw10 and one end being attached to the piston moving in the cylinder1 it was worked up and down1 the other end of the beam being fastened to the pump-rod1 which was thus alternately raised and depressed4 ,the upward movement of the piston having been effected by a rush of steam from the boiler upon its head1 the steam was cut off and cold water run in upon it from a cistern4 ,the steam was thus condensed by the water and a vacuum caused1 and the piston was pressed down by the weight of the atmosphere--of course dragging down its end of the beam1 and raising the pump-rod4 ,the steam was then turned on again and pushed up the piston1 and consequently the end of the beam also4 ,thus the engine continued to work1 the turning of the cocks to admit steam and water being performed by an attendant4 ,the engine was1 however1 made self-acting in this respect1 and ,smeaton improved this form of engine greatly4 ,the beam is still used in engines for pumping4 ,nevertheless1 improved though it became1 it was still clumsy and almost impracticable4 ,it was the genius of ,james ,watt which changed it from a slow1 awkward1 cumbrous affair into a most powerful1 practicable1 and useful machine4 ,his great improvements briefly were these3 he condensed the steam in a separate vessel from the cylinder1 and thus avoided cooling it and the consequent loss of steam power2 secondly1 he used the steam to push back the piston as well as to push it forward 7this is called the 8double-acting engine10 and is now always used72 thirdly1 he introduced the principle of using the steam expansively1 causing economy in working2 and fourthly1 he enabled a change to be made of the up and down motion of the piston into a circular motion by the introduction of the crank4 ,illustration3 ,,james ,,watt4 ,the use of the steam expansively is to stop its rush to the cylinder when the piston has only partially accomplished its stroke1 leaving the remainder of the stroke to be driven by the expansion of the steam4 ,in early engines the steam was admitted by conical valves1 worked by a rod from the beam4 ,murdock1 we may add in parenthesis1 is believed to have invented the slide-valve which came into use as locomotives were introduced1 and of which there are now numerous forms4 ,the valve is usually worked by an 8eccentric0 rod on the shaft of the engine4 ,watt was the author of many other inventions and improvements of the steam engine4 ,indeed1 although ,savery and ,newcomen and others are entitled to great praise1 it was ,watt who gave it life1 so to speak1 and made it1 in principle and essence1 very much that which we now possess4 ,there have1 indeed1 been improvements as to the boiler1 as to expansive working1 and in various details1 since his day2 but1 apart from the distinctive forms of the locomotive and the marine engine1 the machine as a whole is in principle much as ,watt left it4 ,the centre of all things in a steam engine is usually the cylinder4 ,here the piston is moved backward and forward1 and thence gives motion as required to other parts of the machine4 ,the cylinder is in fact an air-tight1 round box1 fitted with a close-fitting1 round plate of metal1 to which is fixed the piston-rod4 ,now1 it must be obvious that if the steam be admitted at one end of the cylinder it will1 as it rushes in1 push the metal plate and the piston outward1 and if this steam be cut off1 and the steam admitted to the other end of the cylinder1 it will push the metal plate and piston back again4 ,but what is to be done with the steam after it has accomplished its work8 ,it may be permitted to spurt out into the air1 or into a separate vessel1 where it may be condensed4 ,in the locomotive1 under ,stephenson's able handling1 this escape of steam was created into a steam-blast in the chimney to stimulate the fire4 ,in compound and triple-expansion engines the steam is used--or expanded1 it is called--in two or three cylinders respectively4 ,when steam is condensed1 it may be returned to the boiler as water4 ,it was the repairing of a ,newcomen engine that seems to have started ,watt on his inventions and improvements of the steam engine4 ,he was then a mathematical instrument maker at ,glasgow4 ,as a boy he had suffered from poor health1 but had been very observant and studious2 and it is said that his aunt chided him on one occasion for wasting time in playing with her tea-kettle4 ,he would watch the steam jetting from its spout1 and would count the water-drops into which the steam would condense when he held a cup over the white cloud4 ,delicate though he was in health1 he studied much1 and came1 indeed1 to make many other articles besides mathematical instruments4 ,when1 therefore1 the ,newcomen engine needed repair1 it was not unnatural that it should be brought to him4 ,it appears to have been a working model used at ,glasgow ,university4 ,he soon repaired the machine2 but1 in examining it1 he became possessed with the idea that it was very defective1 and he pondered long over the problem--,how it might be improved4 ,what was wanting in it8 ,how could the steam be condensed without cooling the cylinder8 ,suddenly1 one day1 so the story goes1 the idea struck him1 when loitering across the common with bent brows1 that if steam were elastic1 it would spurt into any vessel empty of air4 ,impatiently1 he hastened home to try the experiment4 ,he connected the cylinder of an engine with a separate vessel1 in which the air was exhausted1 and found that his idea was correct2 the steam did rush into it4 ,consequently the steam could be condensed in a separate vessel1 and the heat of the cylinder maintained and the loss of power prevented4 ,this invention seems simple enough2 yet it increased the power of an engine threefold1 and is at the root of ,watt's fame4 ,we must remember that the inventions which in process of time may appear the simplest and the most commonplace1 may be the most difficult to originate4 ,and it may fairly be urged--,if it were so very simple1 and so very obvious1 why was it not invented before8 ,the supposition is that in those days it was not so simple4 ,it is possible that the great elasticity of steam was not sufficiently understood4 ,in any case1 the discovery and its application are regarded as his greatest invention4 ,yet ten years elapsed before he constructed a real working steam engine1 and so great we may suppose were the difficulties he encountered1 including poorness of health1 that once he is reported to have exclaimed3 8,of all things in the world1 there is nothing so foolish as inventing40 ,but a brilliant triumph succeeded4 ,eventually ,watt became partner with ,mr4 ,matthew ,boulton1 and the firm of ,boulton ,watt manufactured the engine at ,soho ,ironworks1 ,birmingham4 ,mining proprietors soon discovered the value of the new machine1 and ,newcomen's engine was superseded for pumping4 ,watt continued to improve the machine1 and together with ,boulton also greatly improved the workmanship of constructing engines and machinery4 ,in a patent taken out in #aghd1 he 8described a steam locomotive02 but for some reason he did not prosecute the idea4 ,it is possible that the notion of building a special road for it to run upon did not occur to him1 or appear very practicable4 ,his work was done1 and it was a great work2 but it was left for others to develop the steam engine into forms for hauling carriages on land or propelling ships upon the sea4 ,trevithick1 ,stephenson1 and others did the one2 ,symington1 ,bell1 and others did the second4 ,watt died in #ahai1 and though so delicate in youth1 he lived to his eighty-fourth year4 ,the steam engine1 therefore1 as ,watt left it1 was practically as ,stephenson came to know it4 ,he would be acquainted with it chiefly as a pumping machine4 ,but he saw what others had done to adopt it as a locomotive1 and he now set to work4 ,stephenson's first engine did not differ very materially from some of those which had preceded it4 ,he was1 so to speak1 feeling his way4 ,the machine had a round1 wrought-iron boiler1 eight feet long1 with two upright cylinders placed on the top of it4 ,at the end of the pistons from the cylinders were cross-rods connected with cogged wheels below by other rods4 ,these cogged wheels gave motion to the wheels running on the rails by cogs not very far from the axles4 ,stephenson abandoned the cogged rail1 and adopted smooth wheels and smooth rails2 but he did not connect the driving-wheel direct with the piston1 the intervening cogged wheels being thought necessary to unite the power of the two cylinders4 ,in adopting the principle of smooth wheels on smooth rails1 it is said that ,stephenson proved by experiment that the arrangement would work satisfactorily4 ,mr4 ,smiles writes that ,robert ,stephenson informed him1 8,that his father caused a number of workmen to mount upon the wheels of a waggon moderately loaded1 and throw their entire weight upon the spokes on one side1 when he found that the waggon could thus be easily propelled forward without the wheels slipping4 ,this1 together with other experiments1 satisfied him of the expediency of adopting smooth wheels on his engine1 and it was so finished accordingly40 ,thus it may be said that this obstacle--imaginary though it largely proved to be--was cleared away from ,stephenson's first engine4 ,ten months were occupied in building the machine1 and at last came the day of its trial4 ,this was the #beth of ,july1 #ahad4 ,would it work8 ,jolting and jerking along1 it did work1 hauling eight carriages at a speed of about four or six miles an hour--as fast as a brisk man could walk4 ,then came the question--,would it prove more economical than horse-power8 ,calculations therefore were made1 and after a time it was found that 8,blucher0 as the engine was called1 though we believe its real name was 8,my ,lord10 was about as expensive as horse-power4 ,the locomotive needed something more1 some magic touch to render it less clumsy and more effective4 ,what was it8 ,then came the first great practicable improvement after the smooth wheels on smooth rails4 ,it was the steam-blast in the funnel1 by which the draught in the furnace was greatly increased4 ,indeed1 the faster the engine ran the more furiously the fire would burn1 the more rapid would be the production of steam1 and the greater the power of the engine4 ,at first ,stephenson had allowed his waste steam from the cylinders to blow off into the air4 ,so great was the nuisance caused by this arrangement that a law-suit was threatened if it were not abated4 ,what was to be done with that troublesome waste steam8 ,now1 whether ,stephenson originated the idea or adapted what ,trevithick had done1 we cannot say1 but at all events he achieved the object1 wherever he gained the idea4 ,he turned his exhaust steam through a pipe into the funnel1 and at a stroke increased the power of his engine two-fold4 ,but that expedient was not alone4 ,stephenson had watched the working of 8,blucher0 to some purpose1 and he decided to build another engine with improvements4 ,the cumbersome cog-wheels must go2 they complicated the machine terribly1 and prevented its practicability4 ,therefore in his second engine he introduced direct connection between the pistons and the wheels4 ,there were a couple of upright cylinders as before1 with cross-rods attached to the piston-ends1 and connecting rods from the end of each cross-rod1 reaching down to the wheels4 ,but to overcome the difficulty of one wheel being at some time higher than the other on the poorly constructed railway of that period1 a joint was introduced in the cross-rod1 so that if1 perchance1 the two wheels should not be always on exactly the same level1 no undue strain should be placed on the cross-rod4 ,furthermore1 the two pairs of wheels were combined first by a chain1 but afterwards by connecting rods4 ,this may be called the locomotive of #ahae1 the year in which the patent was taken out4 ,illustration3 ,,edward ,,pease4 ,the engine accomplished its work more satisfactorily than before1 and was placed daily on the rails to haul coal from the mine to the shipping point4 ,but still its economy over horse-power was not so great as to cause its wide adoption4 ,and it was still little better1 if anything1 than a mere coal haul4 ,nevertheless ,stephenson persevered4 ,he was appointed engineer to the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway--an enterprise largely promoted by ,mr4 ,edward ,pease4 ,it was opened on the #bgth of ,september1 #ahbe1 and a local paper writes as follows3-- 8,the signal being given1 the engine started off with this immense train of carriages1 and such was its velocity1 that in some parts the speed was frequently #ab miles an hour2 and at that time the number of passengers was counted to be #dej1 which1 together with the coals1 merchandise1 and carriages1 would amount to near #ij tons4 ,the engine1 with its load1 arrived at ,darlington1 a distance of #h miles1 in #fe minutes4 ,the #f waggons loaded with coals1 intended for ,darlington1 were then left behind2 and obtaining a fresh supply of water1 and arranging the procession to accommodate a band of music and numerous passengers from ,darlington1 the engine set off again1 and arrived at ,stockton in #c hours and #g minutes1 including stoppages1 the distance being nearly #ab miles40 ,stephenson became a partner in a business for constructing locomotives at ,newcastle1 and three engines were made for the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway4 ,nevertheless they appear to have been used chiefly if not almost entirely for hauling coal2 for the passenger-coach called the ,experiment was hauled by a horse1 and the journey occupied about two hours4 ,the locomotive was not even yet a brilliant success over horse-power4 ,what was to be the next step8 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,fifteen ,,miles ,,an ,,hour4 ,five hundred pounds for the best locomotive engine6 ,so ran the announcement one day in the year #ahbi4 ,the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway was nearly completed1 but yet the directors had not fully decided what power they would employ to haul along their waggons4 ,horse-power had at length been finally abandoned1 and numbers of schemes had been poured in upon the managers4 ,but the contest seemed at last to resolve itself chiefly into a rivalry between fixed and locomotive engines4 ,principally1 if not entirely1 swayed however by the arguments of ,george ,stephenson1 the directors yielded to the hint of a ,mr4 ,harrison1 and offered a #ejj prize4 ,the engine was to satisfy certain conditions4 ,its weight was not to be above six tons2 it was to burn its own smoke1 haul twenty tons at a rate of ten miles an hour1 be furnished with two safety valves1 rest on springs and on six wheels1 while its steam pressure must not be more than fifty lbs4 to the square inch4 ,the cost was not to exceed #eej4 ,stephenson1 who was the engineer of the ,railway1 decided to compete4 ,he was now in a very different position from that which he occupied when he built his second locomotive in #ahae4 ,his appointment as engineer to the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway had greatly aided his advancement1 and when it was decided to build a railway between the two busy cities of ,manchester and ,liverpool it was not unnatural that he should take part in the undertaking4 ,the idea of constructing rail1 or tram ways1 was not new4 ,railways of some kind were used in ,england about two hundred years before1 that is1 about the beginning of the seventeenth century4 ,thus ,roger ,north writes3--8,the manner of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the colliery to the river1 exactly straight and parallel2 and bulky carts are made with four rollers fitting those rails1 whereby the carriage is so easy that one horse will draw down four or five chaldron of coals1 and is an immense benefit to the coal merchants40 ,it is said that the word tramway is derived from tram1 which was wont to mean a beam of timber and also a waggon4 ,in any case1 such rough ways were introduced in mining districts1 for1 as may be readily believed1 one horse could draw twenty times the load upon them that it could on an ordinary road4 ,the old ways were first made of wood1 then of wood faced with iron1 then altogether of iron4 ,now1 in making his railway between ,liverpool and ,manchester1 ,stephenson had many difficulties to encounter4 ,he decided that the line should be as direct as possible4 ,but to accomplish this1 he would have to pierce hills1 build embankments1 raise viaducts1 and1 hardest of all1 construct a firm causeway across a treacherous bog called ,chat ,moss4 8,he will never do it10 said some of the most famous engineers of the day4 8,it is impossible60 ,impossible it certainly seemed to be4 ,chat ,moss was like a sponge1 and how was an engineer to build a solid road for heavy trains over four miles of soppy sponge6 ,a person could not trust himself upon it in safety1 and when men did venture1 they fastened flat boards to their feet1 something after the fashion of snow-shoes1 and floundered along upon them4 ,stephenson began by taking the levels of the ,moss in a similar manner4 ,boards were placed upon the spongy moss1 and a footpath of heather followed4 ,then came a temporary railroad4 ,on this ran the trucks containing the material for a permanent path1 which were pushed by boys who learned to trot along easily on the narrow rails4 ,drains were dug on either side of the proposed road1 and tar-barrels covered with clay were fitted into a sewer underneath the line in the middle of the ,moss4 ,heather1 hurdles1 tree branches1 etc41 were spread on the surface1 and in some parts an embankment of dry moss itself was laid down4 ,ton after ton of it disappeared until the directors became alarmed1 and the desperate expedient of abandoning the works was considered4 ,but ,stephenson was an ,englishman out and out4 ,he never knew when he was beaten4 8,keep on filling10 he ordered2 and in spite of all criticism and all alarm1 he kept his hundreds of navvies hard at work1 pouring in load after load of dry turf4 ,it must be borne in mind1 however1 that ,stephenson did not continue blindly at his task4 ,he had good reason for what he did4 ,his persistence was a patient1 intelligent perseverance1 and not a stupid obstinacy4 ,his main arguments seem to have been two4 ,he judged that if he constructed a sufficiently wide road1 it would float on the moss1 even as ice or a raft of wood floats on water and bears heavy weights2 and secondly1 he seems to have been animated by the idea1 that1 if necessary1 he could pour in enough solid or fairly solid stuff to reach the bottom and rise up to the surface in a hard mass4 ,both ideas seem to have been realised in different parts of the bog4 ,joy took the place of despair1 and triumph exulted over discouragement1 as at length the solid mass appeared through the surface4 ,furthermore1 the expense was found to be none so costly after all4 ,no doubt any quantity of turf could be obtained from the surrounding parts of the ,moss and dried4 ,at another part of the railway called ,parr ,moss an embankment about a mile and a-half was formed by pouring into it stone and clay from a 8cutting0 in the neighbourhood4 ,in some places twenty-five feet of earth was thus concealed beneath the ,moss4 ,the eye of the engineer had as it were pierced through the bog and seen that his solid bank was steadily being built up there4 ,before1 however1 the road across ,chat ,moss was fairly opened1 the trial of locomotives for the prize of #ejj had taken place4 ,the fateful day was the #ast day of ,october1 #ahbi1 and the competition was held at ,rainhill4 ,a grand stand was erected1 and the side of the railway was crowded4 ,thousands of spectators were present4 ,the future of the locomotive was to be decided on this momentous occasion4 ,now1 hitherto the difficulty in the locomotive had been to supply a steady and sufficient supply of steam to work the engine quickly and attain high speed and power4 ,partly1 this had been accomplished by ,stephenson's device of the steam-blast in the funnel4 ,but something more was needed4 ,that requirement was found in the tubular boiler4 ,if the long locomotive boiler were pierced with tubes from end to end1 it is clear that the amount of heating surface offered to the action of the fire would be greatly increased4 ,it was this idea which was utilised in the 8,rocket10 the engine with which ,stephenson competed at ,rainhill1 and utilised more perfectly than ever before4 ,trevithick himself seems to have invented something of the kind1 and ,m4 ,seguin1 the engineer of the ,st4 ,etienne and ,lyons ,railway utilised a similar method4 ,but ,henry ,booth1 the secretary of the railway which ,stephenson was then building1 invented a tubular boiler without1 it is said1 knowing anything of ,seguin's plan1 and ,stephenson who had already experimented in the same direction1 adopted ,booth's method4 ,at first it was a failure4 ,the boiler1 fitted with tubes through which the hot air could pass1 leaked disastrously1 and ,stephenson's son1 ,robert1 wrote to his father in despair4 ,but again ,george said 8persevere10 and he suggested a plan for conquering the difficulty4 ,again1 it was a simple1 but as the event proved1 an effective plan4 ,the copper tubes were merely to be fitted tightly to holes bored in the boiler and soldered in4 ,the heat caused the copper to expand and the result was a very strong and water-tight boiler4 ,there were twenty-five of these tubes1 each three inches in diameter1 and placed in the lower portion of the boiler1 leading from the furnace to the funnel4 ,water also surrounded the furnace4 ,further1 the nozzles of the steam-blast pipes were contracted so as to increase the power of the blast1 and consequently raise the strength of the draught to the fire4 ,illustration3 8,,the ,,rocket40 ,the cylinders were not placed at the top of the boiler1 but at the sides in a slanting direction1 one end being about level with the boiler roof4 ,they occupied a position mid-way between the old situation upright on the roof and their present position below1 or at the lower portion4 ,the pistons acted directly on the driving wheels by means of a connecting rod1 and the entire weight of the engine with water supply was but #d tons4 ,on the day of trial only four engines competed4 ,many had been constructed1 but either were not completed in time1 or for various reasons could not be exhibited4 ,the famous four were3--,the 8,novelty0 by ,messrs4 ,braithwaite and ,ericsson2 ,the 8,rocket0 by ,messrs4 ,r4 ,stephenson ,co42 ,the 8,perseverance0 by ,mr4 ,burstall2 and ,the 8,sanspareil0 by ,mr4 ,timothy ,hackworth4 ,each engine seems to have run separately1 and the length of the course was two miles4 ,the test was that the engine should run thirty miles1 backwards and forwards1 on the two mile level course1 at not less than ten miles an hour1 dragging three times its own weight4 ,the 8,novelty0 at first appears to have beaten the 8,rocket10 for she ran at times at the rate of twenty-four miles an hour2 while the first trip of the 8,rocket0 covered a dozen miles in fifty-three minutes4 ,the engineers of the 8,novelty0 used bellows to force the fire1 but on the second day these bellows gave way1 and the engine could not do its work4 ,the boiler of the 8,sanspareil0 also showed defects1 but ,stephenson's 8,rocket0 calmly stood the strain4 ,practicable as usual1 ,stephenson's work was as good in its results1 nay1 even better than before1 for he hooked the 8,rocket0 to a carriage load of thirty people1 and rushed them along at the then surprising speed of between twenty-four to thirty miles an hour4 ,mr4 ,burstall's 8,perseverance0 could not cover more than six miles an hour4 ,the competitions continued1 but the 8,novelty10 although running at the rate of twenty-four and even twenty-eight miles an hour1 broke down again and yet again2 its boiler plates appear to have gone wrong on one occasion2 while the 8,sanspareil0 also failed1 and furthermore blew a good deal of its fuel into the air because of the arrangement of its steam-blast4 ,but the more the 8,rocket0 was tried1 the more practicable and reliable the engine appeared to be4 ,on the #hth of ,october it gained a speed of #bi miles an hour1 its steam pressure being about #ej lbs4 to the square inch1 and its average speed was fifteen miles an hour--that is1 five miles an hour over the conditions required4 ,these results appear to have been accomplished with a weight of waggons of thirteen tons behind it4 ,when detached it ran at the rate of thirty-five miles an hour4 ,in short1 the 8,rocket0 was the only locomotive which fulfilled all the conditions specified for the competition1 and the prize was duly awarded to ,stephenson and ,booth4 ,the battle of the locomotive was won4 ,men could see that the machine was feasible and practicable2 that it was a new force with immense possibilities before it4 ,how have those possibilities been realised8 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,a ,,marvel ,,of ,,mechanism4 8,the time is coming when it will be cheaper for a working man to travel on a railway than to walk on foot40 ,so prophesied ,george ,stephenson some few years before his successful competition at ,rainhill2 and by his success on that fateful day1 he had brought the time appreciably nearer4 ,the directors of the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway no longer debated as to what form of traction they should adopt4 ,but ,stephenson did not rest on his laurels4 ,every new engine showed some improvement4 ,the 8,arrow0 sped over ,chat ,moss at about #bg miles an hour1 on the occasion of the first complete journey along the line1 on the #adth of ,june1 #ahcj2 and when1 on the public opening of the railway on the #aeth of ,september1 #ahcj1 ,mr4 ,william ,huskisson1 ,m4,p41 was unhappily knocked down by the 8,rocket10 ,george ,stephenson himself took the maimed body in the 8,northumbrian10 fifteen miles in twenty-five minutes--that is1 he drove the engine at the speed of thirty-six miles an hour4 ,the sad death of ,mr4 ,huskisson has often been referred to1 but we may tell the story again1 following the account given by ,mr4 ,smiles1 who had the advantage of the assistance of ,robert ,stephenson in the preparation of his biography4 ,the engines it appears halted at ,parkside1 some seventeen miles from ,liverpool1 to obtain water4 ,the 8,northumbrian10 with a carriage containing the ,duke of ,wellington and some friends1 stood on one line1 so that all the trains might pass him in review on the other4 ,mr4 ,huskisson had descended from the carriage and was standing on the rail on which the 8,rocket0 was rapidly approaching4 ,there had been some coolness between the ,duke and ,mr4 ,huskisson1 but at this time the ,duke extended his hand and ,mr4 ,huskisson hurried to grasp it1 when the bystanders cried 8,get in6 get in40 ,mr4 ,huskisson became flurried and endeavoured to go round the carriage door which was open and hung over the rail2 but while doing this1 the 8,rocket0 struck him and he fell1 his leg being doubled over the rail and immediately crushed4 ,unfortunately he died that evening at ,eccles ,parsonage4 ,this sad event cast a gloom over the otherwise rejoicing day2 but the wonderful speed at which the wounded man was conveyed1 proved a marvellous object lesson as to what the locomotive could accomplish4 ,in the 8,planet10 put upon the line shortly after the opening1 the cylinders were placed horizontally and within the fire box4 ,the engine drew eighty tons from ,liverpool to ,manchester against a strong wind in two and a-half hours1 while on another occasion with a company of voters1 it sped from ,manchester to ,liverpool1 thirty-one miles1 in an hour4 ,but next year the 8,samson10 which was still further improved1 and the wheels of which were coupled so as to secure greater grip on the rails1 hauled #aej tons at twenty miles an hour with a smaller consumption of fuel4 ,the locomotive had now become one of the wonders of the world4 ,since then its speed has been doubled4 ,but all the improvements 7with possibly one exception--that of the compound cylinder which is at present only partially in use7 have been more in details than in principles4 ,thus the #gj or #hj ton express engine1 which covers mile after mile at the rate of a mile a minute without a wheeze or a groan1 is not very different essentially from ,george ,stephenson's locomotives1 though its steam pressure is very much higher4 ,there are1 for instance1 the multitubular boiler1 the furnace surrounded by water and communicating with the boiler1 the horizontal cylinders acting directly on the driving wheels1 and the steam-blast by which the waste steam is spouted up the chimney1 creating a draught in the furnace4 ,these may be regarded as the more important of the essential principles1 although there is diversity of details1 more especially for the different work required4 ,but the steam pressure is now much greater4 ,let us glance at a typical ,english locomotive4 ,you might not think it1 but the machine has about five thousand different parts1 all put together as ,robert ,stephenson said 8as carefully as a watch40 ,at first sight you will probably not see the cylinders4 ,the tendency in many engines now seems to be to place them inside the wheels1 for it is urged that the placing of the heavier parts of the mechanism near to the centre lessens oscillation1 and protects the machinery more effectually4 ,against this1 it is said that the placing of the cylinders in that position increases the cost and the complication of the driving axle1 and renders the pistons and valves more inaccessible for the purposes of repair4 ,both forms have their advocates1 and the outside-cylinder form may be seen on the ,london and ,south-,western and some other railways1 while the inside may be seen on the ,north-,western and others4 ,the boiler is of course the long1 round body of the locomotive1 and in ,english machines it is placed on a strong plate frame4 ,then as to the driving-wheels4 ,express engines1 such as the splendid 8eight-feet singles0 of the ,great ,northern1 have often1 as the name implies1 but one large driving-wheel on either side1 and for great speeds this form is held to possess certain advantages4 ,certainly the performances of ,mr4 ,patrick ,stirling's expresses would indicate that this is the case4 ,with steam raising the safety valve at a pressure of #adj lbs4 to the square inch1 the engines will whisk a score of carriages out of ,king's ,cross up the northern height of ,london at forty miles an hour1 and then without a stop rush on to ,grantham at near sixty4 ,standing on the platform at ,king's ,cross1 with a large part of the immense driving-wheel hidden below you as it rests on the rail1 you do not realise its tremendous size4 ,yet1 let the engine-driver open the throttle1 as it is called--that is1 turn on the steam to the cylinders--and that huge wheel will revolve1 and with its neighbour on the other side1 haul after them that heavy train of carriages1 and1 gathering speed as they go1 they will soon be rushing up the incline at forty miles an hour1 and then on at sixty4 ,it is a marvel of mechanism6 ,but then the compound engines that ,mr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,webb1 the engineer of the ,north-,western1 builds for that ,company can also perform remarkable things4 ,the compound is the great modern improvement 7some engineers might doubt whether improvement be the correct word7 in the locomotive1 effecting1 it is said1 an economy of from ten to fifteen per cent4 in fuel4 ,now the compounding principle has been developed to such an extent in marine steam engines that it revolutionised steam navigation4 ,but the application of the principle has not been so great in the case of the locomotive4 ,briefly1 the principle is this--the steam is sent out from the boiler at a high pressure1 say #afj to #ahj lbs4 to the square inch1 and is used in one or in a pair of high-pressure cylinders1 and then used again1 by means of its expanding power1 in a larger1 low-pressure cylinder4 ,mr4 ,john ,nicholson1 of the ,great ,eastern ,railway1 suggested a compound locomotive before even the compound marine engine had been made1 and his design was successful2 but in #ahha ,mr4 ,webb1 of the ,north-,western1 patented a compound locomotive1 with two small high-pressure1 and one large low-pressure cylinders1 the latter twenty-six inches in diameter4 ,placed between the front wheels1 the bright boss of this cylinder may be seen in shining steel as it flies over the rails4 ,the argument is that the compound burns less fuel and is more powerful than a non-compound of the same weight2 but against this is launched the objection that the compound is more expensive to build1 to repair1 and to maintain4 ,still further it is argued1 that a fast-speeding locomotive has not the time in its hurrying life to expand its steam in the tick of time between each stroke of the piston4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,compound ,,locomotive 8,,greater ,,britain40 ,by kind permission of ,mr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,webb1 ,l4 ,n4 ,w4 ,railway4 ,mr4 ,worsdell's compounds on the ,north-,eastern ,railway have but two cylinders1 one high and the other low-pressure4 ,the one is eighteen and the other twenty-six inches across4 ,instead of the steam alternating between the two cylinders1 it all passes first to the high-pressure and then1 through a pipe in the smoke-box1 to the larger low-pressure cylinder4 ,these locomotives1 it is said1 are not under the objection alleged against the other compounds--viz41 that they have more parts1 and are more costly to build and maintain4 ,yet it is claimed for them that they are more economical and more powerful than non-compounds4 ,when doctors disagree who shall decide8 ,the cost or speed might decide2 but at present it seems doubtful on which side the balance does really fall4 ,engines of the three types have done splendid work4 ,a ,worsdell compound1 built by ,mr4 ,worsdell1 of the ,north-,eastern ,railway1 is reported to have rushed down the incline to ,berwick one day at seventy-six miles an hour for some miles at a time4 ,then the 8,greater ,britain10 a massive ,north-,western compound engine1 turned out at the ,crewe works in #ahia1 and weighing seventy-five tons1 can whirl along with ease a heavy twenty-five coach express at an average of over fifty miles an hour1 with a comparatively small consumption of fuel4 ,this locomotive was described in the ,engineer newspaper as the most remarkable that had been built in ,england for several years4 ,its axle bearings are of great length1 and its parts are very substantial1 so that it ought to keep out of the repairing shops for long spells of time4 ,it was specially planned for both fast and heavy passenger traffic to ,scotland1 and its work on its trial trip was so good that it was confidently expected it would answer expectations4 ,in working1 the engine has been found to develop great speed and power1 easily running at over fifty miles an hour with what is called a double train--viz41 twenty-five coaches1 behind it4 ,indeed1 it has run at fifty-five miles with this heavy train4 ,its stated speed ranges from thirty to fifty-five miles an hour1 with a low consumption of fuel4 ,this last is a matter of very great importance to engineers and railway directors2 and when we state that1 according to ,mr4 ,bowen ,cooke1 the ,north-,western engines altogether burn #cjie tons of coal per day1 any small saving per hour would be eagerly welcomed4 ,now1 it is claimed that the compounds have consumed about six pounds of coal per mile less than others on the same work1 and that they also haul along loads which would require two of the other type4 ,if so1 the saving in the ,north-,western coal-bill must be enormous4 ,illustration3 ,,back ,,and ,,front ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,locomotive 8,,greater ,,britain40 ,a great feature in this engine is a combustion chamber placed within the barrel of the boiler4 ,this chamber catches all the gases from the furnace1 and causes the heat generated by them to be used to the utmost for the production of steam4 ,though heavier than any engine previously built1 yet it is so made that no greater weight than usual rests upon any of the wheels1 thus throwing no extra strain on the railway or the bridges4 ,the two couples of driving-wheels are placed before the furnace1 and an additional couple of small wheels behind the furnace1 and beneath the foot-plate where the driver and fireman stand4 ,the weight therefore is evenly distributed1 with another pair of wheels to bear the burden4 ,the front wheels are fitted with the radial axle-box patented by ,mr4 ,webb1 so that1 although the engine is of great length1 yet it can speed round curves with perfect safety4 ,yet this engine1 though one of the most remarkable developments of the locomotive1 is in essence and in principle but very like the 8,rocket40 ,the difference lies in its innumerable details1 exhibiting so much engineering skill and ingenuity1 in the compound cylinders1 in higher pressure steam1 and in its marvellous power and speed combined4 ,on the other hand1 the ,great ,northern runs daily from ,grantham to ,london at fifty-three and fifty-four miles an hour average2 while it was reported in the ,engineer of the #ajth of ,march1 #ahhh1 that a ,great ,northern train from ,manchester to ,london1 when running from ,grantham to ,london1 covered one mile in forty-six seconds1 that is1 at the rate of seventy-eight and a-quarter miles an hour1 and two miles following each other were run in forty-seven seconds each1 that is1 seventy-six miles an hour4 ,we doubt1 indeed1 if any railway in the world can show regular faster daily running than some of the ,great ,northern expresses between ,london and ,grantham4 ,the average speed of their ,manchester train over this ground is slightly over fifty-four miles an hour4 ,then there are the ,great ,western expresses1 the 8,dutchman0 and the 8,zulu10 at only slightly less speeds1 to say nothing of the fine performances of the ,midland4 ,we may take it1 therefore1 that the compound locomotives1 excellent as their work has been1 have not really beaten their rivals in point of speed4 ,compounds are used largely on the ,north-,western1 the ,great ,eastern1 and the ,north-,eastern1 and should they prove to be really more economical in working1 while maintaining at least equal power and speed with their rivals1 we have no doubt but that they will prevail4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,a ,,mile ,a ,,minute4 8,the express is to be quickened1 my lord4 ,mr4 ,thompson1 the general manager1 has given instructions to that effect40 ,so spoke the station master at ,carlisle1 on the #agth of ,march1 #ahid1 to ,lord ,rosebery4 ,his lordship had very recently been appointed ,prime ,minister1 and was on his way to ,edinburgh to deliver a great public speech4 ,the train1 presumably1 was late1 or he1 through stress of business probably1 had left too little margin of time4 ,however1 by the instructions of ,mr4 ,thompson1 the general manager of the ,caledonian ,railway1 the express was accelerated1 and it rushed over #aja miles in #aje minutes1 one of the quickest locomotive runs1 we imagine1 that have ever been recorded4 ,the train arrived fifteen minutes before it was due1 and ,lord ,rosebery was enabled to keep his engagement4 ,this run was approximately at the rate of a mile a minute1 and maintained for an hour and three-quarters4 ,only some two years or so previously a somewhat similar run was made4 ,an officer of the ,guards found that he had lost the south-going mail train at ,stirling4 ,he had been on leave in ,scotland1 and was bound to report himself in ,london next morning4 ,what was he to do8 ,did he sit down and moan1 or fly to the telegraph office and endeavour to excuse himself8 ,not he4 ,he promptly engaged a special train1 which flying over the metals1 actually caught the mail at ,carlisle1 having covered #aah miles in #abf minutes2 that is1 again1 approximately a mile a minute1 and maintained for slightly over two hours4 ,now1 in order to attain high average speed1 some parts of the journey1 say very easy inclines or levels1 must be covered at a much higher rate4 ,thus1 to obtain an average of fifty-two miles an hour--which is probably the regular average of our best ,english expresses--the pace will most likely be sometimes at the rate of seventy1 or it may be seventy-six1 miles per hour4 ,the ,united ,states have claimed to run the fastest regular train4 ,this is the 8,empire ,state ,express0 of the ,new ,york ,central1 which bursts away from ,new ,york to ,buffalo1 a trip of #adj miles1 at the average rate of #eb-ab_/ajj miles per hour1 but running eighty miles at the rate of #ef miles an hour4 ,it is also said that1 in ,august1 #ahia1 a train on the ,new ,york portion of the ,reading road ran a mile in less than forty seconds1 and covered a dozen miles at an average of barely #dc seconds per mile4 ,english expresses could certainly accomplish these average speeds1 but the fact is very high speeds do not pay4 ,they wear everything to pieces4 ,then there is the coal consumption4 ,american railway engineers--according to the ,engineer newspaper--8seem to be unable to get on with less than #ajj lbs4 per square foot 7of fire grate area7 as a minimum20 while1 from the same paper1 we learn that the average rate of burning of ,mr4 ,webb's remarkable ,north-,western engine1 the 8,greater ,britain10 was but 8a little over seventy-three lbs4 per square foot per hour10 or1 altogether1 #aejj lbs4 per hour4 ,the rails also are greatly worn by continuous high speeds4 ,engineers have been equal to this difficulty1 and rails are now made of steel1 and even steel sleepers are constructed on which the rails repose4 ,but still the wear and tear1 especially to engines1 of continuous high speeds1 is very great4 ,the reason why the famous 8,race to ,edinburgh0 was stopped was doubtless because of the needless wear and tear4 ,surely an average of fifty to fifty-two miles an hour is fast enough for all ordinary purposes4 ,if greater speed can be obtained without too great a cost1 well and good2 but if not1 the public must be content4 ,nevertheless1 during that famous 8,race0 in the summer of #ahhh1 some magnificent engine work was accomplished4 ,thus1 for instance1 the ,north-,western and their partners actually ran from ,euston to ,edinburgh1 #djj miles1 in #dbg minutes4 ,then the ,great ,northern and their partners1 the ,east ,coast route1 next day covered #cic miles in #dbc minutes1 this journey including #abd miles from ,newcastle to ,edinburgh covered in #abc minutes4 ,this speed is1 of course1 more than a mile a minute1 and kept up for slightly over two hours4 ,the third-class passenger was at the root of the matter4 ,companies are finding out they must consult his convenience2 and the beginning of the 8,race0 was probably the announcement that the 8,flying ,scotchman0--the #aj o'clock morning train from ,king's ,cross--would carry third-class passengers4 ,hitherto it had beaten its rival1 the ,west ,coast route 7run by the ,north-,western and its partner1 the ,caledonian71 as to speed1 but had conveyed only first and second-class passengers4 ,thereupon the ,west ,coast announced that they would reach ,edinburgh in nine hours4 ,as this route is harder for engines--for it climbs the ,cumbrian ,hills1 and is1 moreover1 seven miles longer--this would mean faster running and harder work than its rivals4 ,the ,great ,northern1 which according to its well-deserved reputation probably tops the world for speed1 could not brook this1 so the ,east ,coast route reduced its time from nine hours to eight hours and a-half4 ,so the contest stood for about a month1 when the ,west ,coast calmly announced the same time for its journey4 ,thenceforward the blows fell thick and fast4 ,it was a battle of giants1 but fought with good temper and gentlemanly honour on both sides4 ,the ,west ,coast were arriving at ,edinburgh at half-past six4 8,the ,flying ,scotchman10 by the ,east ,coast route1 thereupon drew up in the ,scotch capital at six o'clock4 ,then the ,west ,coast ran to ,edinburgh in eight hours1 stretching away from ,euston to ,crewe1 #aeh miles in #agh minutes1 without a stop--probably the longest run without a break ever made4 ,the ,caledonian ,company1 the ,north-,western's partner1 then ran from ,carlisle to ,edinburgh1 #ajj miles1 in #ajd minutes4 ,the ,north-,western thereupon actually ran from ,preston to ,carlisle1 over the ,cumberland ,hills1 ninety miles in ninety minutes--a magnificent performance hard indeed to beat1 if1 in fact1 it ever has been really beaten2 while1 later on1 the same ,company ran from ,euston to ,crewe in #afg minutes instead of their remarkable #agh minutes a few days previously4 ,this1 with the other accelerations1 gave the ,west ,coast their record run of #djj miles in #dbg minutes of running time1 which took place on the #acth of ,august4 ,but the ,east ,coast had also accelerated1 the ,north-,eastern covering #bje miles in #bce minutes1 and the ,great ,northern rendering an equally good1 if not better1 performance1 the whole #cic miles being covered in #dbc minutes4 ,some of the miles on the ,east ,coast route sped by at the rate of seventy-six an hour4 ,to accomplish these runs the weight of trains was cut down1 and the times of stoppages reduced or abolished altogether4 ,but the expense was too great4 ,it did not really 8pay0 in convenience or in money1 and to these judgments companies must bow4 ,but considering that the ,great ,northern reaches ,grantham1 #aje miles1 in #aae minutes as a daily occurrence1 an approximate running of near a mile a minute1 and that the ,north-,western can run at an average of fifty-five miles an hour1 the locomotive has amply justified ,george ,stephenson's prophecy when he made 8,blucher10 that there was no limit to the speed of the locomotive1 provided the work could be made to stand4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,r4 ,deacon also prophesied a few years since in an ,american magazine that a hundred miles an hour would be the express speed of the future1 provided that passengers would give up luxurious cars and dining and sleeping carriages4 ,at present it seems questionable if they will do so4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,flying ,,dutchman40 ,but speed is by no means the monopoly of the ,north4 ,other companies beside the owners of the ,east and ,west ,coast routes to ,scotland can run expresses equally or almost as fast4 ,there is the 8,flying ,dutchman10 for instance1 of the ,great ,western4 ,it daily covers the #gg miles from ,london to ,swindon in #hg minutes4 ,and the tale is told by ,mr4 ,w4 ,m4 ,acworth1 on the authority of an inspector who was in charge of the train1 that a famous ,great ,western engine1 the 8,lord of the ,isles10 which was in the ,exhibition of #ahea1 actually whirled a train from ,swindon to ,london1 #gg miles in #gb minutes4 ,some of those older engines could run bravely4 ,mr4 ,acworth reports that 8a ,bristol and ,exeter tank-engine with #i feet driving wheels1 a long extinct species10 pelted down a steep incline at the speed of #hj miles an hour1 many years since1 and it has never been surpassed4 ,the fastest speed during the ,race to ,edinburgh days seems to have been #gf miles1 but perhaps the weight of the trains may have accounted for this4 ,mr4 ,acworth himself is believed to have accomplished the fastest bit of advertised journeying in the world4 ,he went down on the 8,dutchman10 and leaving ,paddington at #aa4df1 he caught the return train at ,swindon and was back at #b4de1 having covered #aed miles1 with five minutes for refreshments1 in #agg minutes4 ,the line is easier on the up journey to ,london1 and mile after mile sped by at a rate of over #fj miles an hour4 ,from #ef to #eh seconds was the chronograph's record again and again1 while on the down journey to ,swindon he records a burst of #cd miles in #cd minutes4 ,the gradients of the railway form of course a most important factor in the question of speed4 ,the ,midland has one of the hardest roads in ,england for steep slopes1 yet its magnificent engines bring its heavy trains from ,leicester1 #ii miles in #abb minutes4 ,considering the high levels the locomotives have to climb1 only to sink again to low flats1 as about the ,ouse at ,bedford1 this performance is really as fine as some of the superb running of the ,great ,northern4 ,the ,southern lines out of ,london have no long distances to cover as the ,northern1 unless it may be the ,south-,western to ,plymouth4 ,the ,south-,western to ,bournemouth and ,exeter1 and the mail trains on the ,south-,eastern1 ,chatham and ,dover1 and the ,brighton trains can also show some excellent work as regards speed4 ,the government of a large railway now has grown to something like the rule of a small state4 ,sir ,george ,findlay1 the general manager of the ,north-,western ,company1 in his evidence before the ,labour ,commission in #ahib1 deposed that the capital raised for ,british railways amounted to the vast sum of #hig millions of pounds2 that the receipts were #hj millions yearly1 that much more than half of this immense amount1 namely #dc millions1 yearly was paid in wages1 and that half-a-million of men directly or indirectly were given employment4 ,to such enormous dimensions has the railway developed4 ,and the locomotive engine is the centre and soul of it all4 ,stephenson got it1 so to speak1 on its right lines of working1 and it has run along them ever since1 until in its great capacity for speed1 its power for drawing heavy loads1 and its strength and beauty of construction it may fairly be called one of the wonders of the world4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,steamship4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the 8,,comet0 ,,appears4 8,if only people could reach the place easier1 ,i could do more business40 ,so mused ,henry ,bell of ,glasgow about the year #ahaj4 ,he was an ingenious and enterprising man1 and he had established a hotel or bathing-house at ,helensburgh on the ,clyde4 ,but he wanted more visitors1 and he puzzled his brain to discover how he could offer facilities for them to reach the place4 ,he tried boats1 worked by paddles1 propelled by hand2 but these proved a failure4 ,they had been in use years before1 though perhaps he knew it not4 ,tradition says that boats fitted with paddle wheels and worked by oxen in the boat1 were known to the ,egyptians1 but perhaps tradition is wrong4 ,the ,romans and the ,chinese also are said to have known wheel boats1 the wheels worked by men or by animals--in the case of the ,chinese apparently by men alone4 ,a similar kind of boat appears to have been tried on the ,thames in the seventeenth century2 but whether ,bell knew of these things or not1 his experiments of the same kind did not answer4 ,what was to be done8 ,he determined to build a steamboat4 ,at first sight there does not seem to be much connection between baths and steamboats1 but apparently it was the ownership of the one which led ,henry ,bell to build the other1 and to become the first man in ,great ,britain who used a steamboat for what may be called public and commercial purposes4 ,she was a queer craft4 ,her funnel was bent and was used also as a mast1 and she poured forth quantities of thick smoke4 ,but she was successful1 and laboured along at the rate of five miles an hour4 ,up and down the river she plied1 and whatever else she did1 or did not1 she made the good folk of those days understand that steam could be applied to navigation4 ,she was called the ,comet1 not because1 even in the opinion of her owner1 she resembled a blazing meteor1 but because1 to use ,bell's own words1 8she was built and finished the same year that a comet appeared in the north-west part of ,scotland40 8,whatever made you think of starting a steamship80 we can imagine a friend asking him as they stood on the bank and watched the ,comet with her paddles shaped like malt shovels1 splashing up the water4 8,partly it was ,miller's experiments1 and partly it was a letter from ,fulton4 ,you know1 ,fulton has put the ,clermont successfully on ,american waters4 ,he had been over here talking with ,symington1 who had a steamer on the ,forth and ,clyde ,canal you remember1 and he wrote to me also asking about machinery and requesting me to inquire about ,miller's boats1 and send him drawings40 8,and did you80 8,oh ay1 ,i did2 but when he replied afterwards that he had made a steamboat from the drawings though requiring some improvements1 ,i thought how absurd it was to send my opinions to other countries and not put them into practice in our own40 8,so you made the ,comet80 8,well1 ,i made a number of models before ,i was satisfied2 but when ,i was convinced the idea would work1 ,i made a contract with ,john ,wood ,co41 of ,port-,glasgow1 and they built me this boat1 which ,i fitted up with engine and paddles1 as you see4 ,john ,robertson actually set up the engine4 ,we will go aboard presently1 and you shall see her40 ,illustration3 ,,bell',s 8,,comet40 ,they did so1 and this is something of what they saw4 ,they found a small vessel1 forty feet long and ten and a-half wide1 and only about twenty-five tons burthen4 ,the furnace was bricked round1 and the boiler1 instead of being in the centre1 was seated on one side of the ship1 with the engine beside it4 ,but the funnel was bent and rose aloft in the middle1 and it answered the purpose of a mast--to carry sail4 8,but look at the machinery10 we can imagine ,bell saying to his friend4 8,we have one single cylinder1 you see4 ,the piston is attached to a crank on an axle4 ,this axle carries a big cog wheel1 which1 working two more placed on the paddle axles1 causes them to revolve40 8,and the paddles80 8,well1 you see1 we have now two sets on each side1 and each paddle is shaped something like a malt shovel2 but ,i think ,i shall alter them1 and have paddle wheels soon40 ,bell carried out his improvement1 and in a short time he did adopt the better form of paddle wheel4 ,the improved ,comet1 with a new engine1 attained six or seven miles an hour4 ,but before this1 ,mr4 ,hutchison1 a brewer1 built another boat1 bigger than the ,comet1 and her engine was of ten horse-power1 while the ,comet's was but three4 ,she travelled at an average of nine miles an hour1 and her fares were but a-third of those charged by coach4 ,the news of the steamers on the ,clyde became noised abroad1 and steamboats began to appear on other ,british rivers4 ,the success of the new venture became assured4 ,but how had it been brought about8 ,bell had referred to the labours of others1 and1 indeed1 his was not the first steamboat1 though1 doubtless1 it was the first in ,britain to ply for passengers4 ,the truth is1 that as with the locomotive1 several minds were working towards the same object4 ,and among those early steamboat seekers ,patrick ,miller1 of ,dalswinton1 and ,william ,symington1 of ,wanlockhead ,mines1 are entitled to high place4 ,indeed1 ,symington is said to have built the 8first practically successful steamboat0 in the world4 ,she was called the ,charlotte ,dundas1 and1 in #ahjb1 she tugged two barges1 together of about #adj tons1 nineteen and a-half miles1 in six hours1 with a strong wind against her4 ,she was built under the patronage of ,lord ,dundas1 and was intended to be used for towing on the ,forth and ,clyde ,canal1 but the proprietors of the canal would not adopt this new method of propulsion2 they feared that the wash from the wheels would damage the canal banks4 ,so the ,charlotte ,dundas1 successful though she was to a certain extent1 had to be beached and broken up4 ,but ,fulton and ,bell both inspected her1 and we may infer that what they saw1 influenced their subsequent action4 ,the engine of the ,charlotte ,dundas was of the 8double action0 character1 introduced by ,watt1 and it turned a crank in the paddle wheel shaft4 ,the wheel was placed at the stern2 and boats with their wheels thus placed are still made for use in particular places4 ,thus ,messrs4 ,yarrow built one in #ahib1 to voyage in the shallow rivers and lagoons on the west coast of ,africa2 the idea being that a screw-propeller would have been likely to become fouled with weeds4 ,the ,charlotte ,dundas1 we say1 has been regarded as the 8first practically successful steamboat ever built40 ,no doubt it was so1 and the credit must be largely given to ,william ,symington4 ,but his success1 and that which crowned the labours of others1 were rendered possible by the inventions and improvements of ,james ,watt4 ,others had experimented before ,symington4 ,thus1 if royal records in ,spain may be trusted1 a certain ,blasco de ,garay exhibited a steam vessel1 in #aedc1 at ,barcelona4 ,he placed a large cauldron of boiling water in the ship1 and a wheel on each side4 ,certain opinions concerning it were favourable1 and ,blasco was rewarded2 but the invention was kept secret1 and appears to have died4 ,then1 in #afee1 the ,marquis of ,worcester is said to have invented something like navigation by steam4 ,later on1 ,jonathan ,hulls took out a patent for a paddle steam vessel in #agcf2 and among others1 in ,england1 ,france1 and ,america1 the ,marquis de ,jouffroy made a steamer which was tried at ,lyons1 in #aghc4 ,then1 in #aghg1 ,patrick ,miller is said to have patented paddle wheels in ,britain4 ,miller was a retired gentleman at ,dalswinton1 in ,dumfriesshire1 who took much interest in mechanical affairs4 ,he experimented with paddle wheels1 and he also endeavoured to improve naval building4 ,at first the wheels appear to have been turned by men1 and there came a day when a double boat of ,miller's1 worked by a couple of wheels with two men to turn each wheel1 sailed with a ,custom ,house boat1 and the need of more efficient motive power to revolve the wheels became very marked4 ,then the idea of steam navigation was born1 or re-born4 ,there was a gentleman named ,taylor1 living with ,miller1 as tutor to his sons1 and he often took part in the experiments with the boats4 ,it is said that ,taylor suggested the use of steam to propel the vessel1 and that ,miller doubted its practicability4 ,however1 he decided1 at length1 to try it1 and in those summer days of #aghg the subject was much talked of at ,dalswinton4 ,taylor mentioned the matter to ,symington1 who1 it seems1 was a friend of his1 but it is not quite clear whether he had himself thought of this use of steam4 ,however1 in ,october1 #aghh1 the experiment was tried on ,dalswinton lake4 ,a boy was there who afterwards became ,lord ,brougham1 and ,robert ,burns was also there2 and1 no doubt1 the experiment was watched with much interest4 ,it appears to have been successful1 and next year a bigger boat was tried on the ,forth and ,clyde ,canal1 again with some success4 ,but whether ,mr4 ,miller thought he had now spent enough money on these experiments--and ,carlyle says ,miller 8spent his life and his estate on that adventure1 and died quasi-bankrupt and broken-hearted0--or whether he was satisfied with the results attained1 he abandoned all further effort4 ,possibly he did not see any opportunity of utilising the invention further4 ,at all events1 the development of the steamboat made practically no progress until ,symington commenced his experiments under ,lord ,dundas4 ,russell is of opinion that the invention of steam navigation was the joint production of these three men4 8,the creation of the steamship10 says he1 8appears to have been an achievement too gigantic for any single man4 ,it was produced by one of those happy combinations in which individuals are but tools1 working out each his part in a great system1 of the whole of which no single one may have comprehended all the workings40 ,illustration3 ,,robert ,,fulton4 ,to these three1 however1 must be added ,henry ,bell1 in ,britain1 and ,robert ,fulton1 in ,america4 ,they carried the great enterprise further on1 to something like assured success4 ,miller's boats had two hulls1 and the paddle wheels revolved between4 ,symington placed his wheel astern4 ,bell placed his paddles on either side4 8,ah1 she will work60 we can imagine the spectators saying1 as they watched that strange craft1 the ,charlotte ,dundas1 with her double rudder1 tugging along her barges4 8,ay1 she will work1 but the canal folk won't let her2 they think the wash from the wheels will wear away the bank60 8,then ,i will take the idea where it won't be so hindered10 said another4 8,we are not afraid of our river banks in ,america40 ,that man1 whom we imagine said this1 and who appears1 without doubt1 to have inspected the ,charlotte ,dundas1 was ,robert ,fulton1 who1 with his companion1 ,livingstone1 claim to have invented steamboats in the ,united ,states4 ,this1 then1 in brief1 seems to be the story4 ,while bearing in mind the efforts of others1 yet it would seem that ,miller1 ,taylor1 and ,symington invented steam navigation1 utilising improvements of ,watt on the steam engine2 but ,fulton1 in ,america1 and ,bell1 in ,britain1 seeing something of these experiments1 developed them to assured success4 ,what were ,fulton's adventures8 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,to ,,the ,,narrow ,,seas4 8,i should not like to risk my money in the thing40 8,nor ,i1 she will never pay40 8,i reckon she will burst up before the day is over40 8,well1 she is about to start now40 ,a few minutes more1 and the smiles on the faces of the speakers changed to expressions of astonishment4 ,the boat was actually 8walking the waters like a thing of life10 and gathering speed as she drew away from the pier4 8,why1 stranger1 this thing's going to succeed40 8,it does look so40 ,still the speakers gazed1 and still the vessel continued to glide along4 ,and shouts and applause burst from the thronging crowd around4 ,the 8thing0 was succeeding indeed4 ,they were watching the trial trip of the first practically successful steamboat in ,america1 the ,clermont4 ,fulton had been successful1 and together with his companion1 ,livingstone--after whose residence the vessel was named--had launched a satisfactory steamer in ,america1 five years before the ,comet appeared in ,britain4 ,yet the ,clermont's engines were made in ,britain by ,boulton ,watt1 and men from their works helped in mounting the machinery4 ,colden1 ,fulton's biographer1 describing this trial trip1 says3-- 8,the minds of the most incredulous were changed in a few minutes--before the boat had made the progress of a quarter of a mile the greatest unbeliever must have been converted4 ,the man who1 while he looked on the expensive machine1 thanked his stars that he had more wisdom than to waste his money on such idle schemes1 changed the expression of his features as the boat moved from the wharf and gained her speed2 his complacent smile gradually stiffened into an expression of wonder2 the jeers of the ignorant1 who had neither sense nor feeling enough to repress their contemptuous ridicule and rude jokes1 were silenced for the moment by a vulgar astonishment1 which deprived them of the power of utterance1 till the triumph of genius extorted from the incredulous multitude which crowded the shores shouts and acclamations of congratulations and applause40 ,the scene of the vessel's exploit was the famous river ,hudson1 and she came to make several trips between ,new ,york and ,albany as a passenger boat4 ,she performed the journey from ,albany to ,new ,york in thirty-two hours1 and back in thirty hours2 her average speed being five miles an hour4 ,steamers now perform the passage in about eight hours4 ,the boat caused great astonishment at the time4 ,colden says she was described by some who saw her but indistinctly at night as 8a monster moving on the water1 defying the winds and tide1 and breathing flames and smoke40 ,he states3--8,she had the most terrific appearance from other vessels which were navigating the river when she was making her passage4 ,the first steamboats1 as others yet do1 used dry pine-wood for fuel1 which sends forth a column of ignited vapour1 many feet above the flue1 and whenever the fire is stirred a galaxy of sparks fly off1 which1 in the night1 have an airy1 brilliant1 and beautiful appearance4 ,this uncommon light first attracted the attention of the crews of other vessels4 ,notwithstanding the wind and tide were adverse to its approach1 they saw1 with astonishment1 that it was rapidly coming towards them2 and when it came so near that the noise of the machinery and the paddles was heard1 the crews in some instances shrunk beneath their decks from the terrific sight2 and others left their vessels to go on shore2 while others1 again1 prostrated themselves and besought ,providence to protect them from the approach of the horrible monster which was marching on the tides1 and lighting its path by the fires which it vomited40 ,compare this with the stately passenger boats of the end of the century1 gliding along four or five times as fast1 but with little noise and less smoke1 and beaming forth brilliant electric light from every saloon window4 ,the ,clermont was #acc feet long1 #ah feet wide1 and #g feet deep4 ,the cylinder of her engine was #bd inches in diameter1 and her piston had a stroke of four feet2 her paddle wheels were at first too large1 or at all events dipped too deeply in the water4 ,when improved they appear to have been fifteen feet in diameter4 ,her engines were #ah horse-power1 and the tonnage was but #afj4 ,fulton was busily engaged in constructing steam vessels until he died in #ahae4 ,one of his efforts was the building of a steam war vessel2 and so greatly were his efforts esteemed that both ,houses of the ,united ,states ,legislature testified their respect for him by wearing mourning apparel on the occasion of his death4 ,his work was developed by ,mr4 ,r4 ,l4 ,stevens1 whose father1 indeed1 had a steamer ready1 only a few weeks after the success of the ,clermont4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,l4 ,stevens came to grasp the idea that the form of the hull of steamships could be much improved by giving them fine lines instead of full round bows4 ,stevens1 it is said1 was able to obtain a speed of thirteen miles an hour2 and he also1 it is stated1 used a different form of engine from that adopted by ,fulton4 ,the engines of those early steamboats were1 as a rule1 a sort of beam engine4 ,the famous ,comet was engined in that manner4 ,john ,robertson1 who actually set up the ,comet's engines1 lived to place them subsequently in ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,a beam1 or lever1 which worked on a pivot at its centre1 was placed between the piston on one side1 and the connecting rod--which was fastened to the crank--on the other4 ,thus1 one end of the beam1 or lever1 was attached to the piston rod1 and the other to the end of the connecting rod which drove the crank and the wheel4 ,a development apparently of this beam-engine arrangement was the side-lever engine--a form of which marine engineers were also fond4 ,the side lever seems1 in fact1 to have been a sort of double beam engine4 ,the cylinder was placed upright1 and a cross-piece was fixed to the end of the piston rod4 ,from either end of this cross-piece a rod was connected with a beam or lever on either side of the machinery below4 ,these levers worked on pivots at their centres1 and their other ends were joined by a cross-piece united by a rod to the crank-shaft above4 ,the idea in the side-lever engines appears to have been to obtain equal strength on both sides for each paddle wheel4 ,marine engineers did not apparently at first grasp the idea of a direct-acting engine--that is1 simply one connecting rod between the piston and the crank which pulled round the wheel2 perhaps the sizes and arrangements of those early steamboats did not permit of this4 ,but in the development of the locomotive1 the direct-acting engine did not appear at once4 ,in any case1 even the first vessels of the celebrated ,cunard ,line were of the cumbrous side-lever type4 ,now1 when ,fulton had made his ,clermont in #ahjg1 and ,bell had put his ,comet on the ,clyde1 some of the ,english speaking people on both sides of the ,atlantic began1 we say1 to see that there was a future before the new invention4 ,in #ahji1 the ,accommodation ploughed the waters of the great ,st4 ,lawrence1 and two years later a steamer startled the dwellers on the mighty ,mississippi4 ,the ,elizabeth also followed the ,comet on the ,clyde in #ahac4 ,she was bigger than her predecessor1 but only of thirty-three tons2 she was fifty-eight feet long1 and her engine of ten horse-power4 ,she was built by the constructors of the ,comet1 ,wood ,company1 of ,port-,glasgow1 under the direction of ,mr4 ,thompson1 who had been connected with some of ,bell's experiments4 ,the next step was the introduction of steamers on the ,thames4 ,all things gravitate to ,london1 steamboats among the rest4 ,passing by some experiments1 in which the names of a ,mr4 ,dawson and a ,mr4 ,lawrence appear1 we find that ,george ,dodd brought a steamboat from the ,clyde to the ,thames by sea1 using both sails and steam1 about the year #ahac or #ahad4 ,it is said that ,dawson had a steamer plying between ,london and ,gravesend in #ahac1 and that ,lawrence1 of ,bristol1 after using a steamer on the ,severn brought her through the canals to the ,thames1 but was obliged to take her back because of the antagonism of the watermen4 ,it is said also that the ,marjorie1 built by ,william ,denny1 of ,dumbarton1 was brought to the ,thames about #ahae in six days from ,grangemouth1 having been purchased by some ,london merchants4 ,however this may be1 the name of ,george ,dodd should take a high place1 perhaps next to that of ,bell1 for the enterprise and effort he showed in seeking to establish steam vessels4 ,his sphere was chiefly the ,thames1 though he appears to have been also animated with the idea of using them upon the sea4 ,the vessel he brought round from the ,clyde was named first the ,glasgow and afterwards the ,thames1 and was of about seventy-five tons1 with nine feet paddle-wheels1 and some fourteen or sixteen horse-power4 ,he had some rough weather in the ,irish ,sea1 and an account of the voyage is given in his book on steamboats4 ,this1 presumably in #ahac1 was the first steamship voyage at sea1 as distinguished from steamers' voyages on rivers4 ,such great progress had the introduction of steamboats made in #ahah1 that according to ,dodd there were in that year eighteen on the ,clyde1 two on the ,tay1 two at ,dundee1 two at ,cork1 two on the ,tyne1 two on the ,trent1 two on the ,mersey1 four on the ,humber1 three on the ,yare1 one on the ,avon1 the ,severn1 the ,orwell1 six on the ,forth1 and actually two intended to run from ,dublin to ,holyhead4 ,there may have been more than these1 but they seem at all events to be the chief4 ,apparently there were1 or had been1 several on the ,thames4 ,two1 the ,london and the ,richmond1 according to ,dodd's book1 were plying between ,london and ,twickenham1 and had carried #aj1jjj persons in four months4 ,no wonder the watermen were alarmed4 ,other vessels also had appeared on the royal river4 ,the ,majestic even had got as far as ,margate1 and had ventured across to ,calais4 ,the ,regent had been burned off ,whitstable1 and the ,caledonia1 which had actually two engines1 had steamed across to ,flushing4 ,dodd further designed a vessel which seems to have gone to ,margate in about seven and a-half hours1 speeding along at about ten or eleven miles an hour4 ,no wonder that ,bell could say--8,i will venture to affirm that history does not afford an instance of such rapid improvement in commerce and civilisation as that which will be effected by steam vessels40 ,the ,richmond was a little boat of #ej tons1 and #ag indicated horse-power4 ,she was engined by ,messrs4 ,maudslay ,field1 of ,london1 and presumably was the first steamer engined on the ,thames4 ,she ran from ,london to ,richmond4 ,in the next year ,messrs4 ,maudslay engined the ,regent of #aab tons and #db indicated horse-power1 and intended to ply between ,london and ,margate2 while1 in #ahag1 this famous firm engined three vessels1 including the ,quebec of #ejj tons and #ajj indicated horse-power1 intended for ,quebec and ,montreal4 ,since then they have engined hundreds of vessels1 including screw-propeller ironclads of #bj1jjj horse-power4 ,dodd1 alas1 though he worked so hard for the establishment of the steamship1 does not seem to have profited by his labour4 ,like some other ingenious men he unhappily fell into poverty4 ,the next in order of succession1 who apparently became the most prominent and among the most useful in the story of the steamship1 was ,david ,napier4 ,russell avers that from #ahah to about #ahcj he 8effected more for the improvement of steam navigation than any other man40 ,david ,napier ran the ,rob ,roy1 a steamer of #ij tons and #cj horse-power1 fitted with his own engines1 between ,greenock and ,belfast4 ,it appears that at one of the worst seasons he sailed in a vessel plying between the two ports1--sometimes taking a week to cover the journey1 afterwards made in nine hours by steam1--and eagerly watched the effect of the heaving waves on the ship as she was tossed by the storm4 ,then1 assured that there was no overwhelming difficulty for steamers1 he started the ,rob ,roy4 ,he also experimented upon the best shape of hull1 and1 without apparently any communication with ,stevens across the ,atlantic1 came to adopt a wedge-shaped bow1 instead of a rounded fore front as common in sailing ships4 ,in #ahai he put the ,talbot on the ,channel between ,dublin and ,holyhead4 ,she was built by ,wood ,company1 and was one of the most perfect vessels of the kind then constructed4 ,she had two engines of #fj horse-power combined1 and was #aej tons burthen4 ,she was followed by the ,ivanhoe1 and in #ahba steam vessels were regularly used to carry the mails4 ,gradually the length of vessels increased without the beam being proportionately widened4 ,the builders of those early boats did not at first realise the practicability and usefulness of altering the form of vessels for steamers4 ,david ,napier altered the bow1 and gradually the vessels were lengthened4 ,the idea came gradually to be grasped that as a steamer was forced forward along the line of its keel1 and not by a power exerted upon it from without and in various quarters1 its form might advantageously be changed4 ,moreover1 it would seem that the best form for steamers is also the best for fast sailers4 ,russell is of opinion 8that the fastest schooners1 cutters1 smugglers1 yachts1 and slavers0 approach more nearly to the form of the best steamers than any other class of sailing vessels4 ,however this may be1 the shape of a steamer as well as its machinery has much to do with its speed1 and ,david ,napier appears to have contributed largely to these results in ,britain4 ,steamers had now sped out from the rivers into the narrow seas around ,great ,britain4 ,the next step would be into the wide and open ocean4 ,who would venture to take it8 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,on ,,the ,,open ,,ocean4 ,why should not the ,great ,western end at ,new ,york8 ,that was ,brunel's idea1 and it had an immense effect on the establishment of transatlantic steamships4 ,brunel was the engineer of the ,great ,western ,railway1 and he audaciously desired his line to end1 not at ,bristol or ,penzance1 but1 conquering the sea1 he wished to plant his foot in the ,empire city itself4 ,still he was not the first1 nor the only one1 in the field4 ,to the ,savannah belongs the honour of being the first steamship to cross the ,atlantic4 ,yet she was not altogether a steamship4 ,mr4 ,scarborough1 of ,savannah--a port of the state of ,georgia--purchased a sailing ship of about #cjj tons and #ajj feet long1 launched her at ,new ,york in #ahah1 intending her to ply between the two places1 and had her fitted with machinery4 ,why he changed his mind and sent her to ,europe1 we cannot say4 ,apparently he could not trust to steam alone1 for the paddle wheels were so constructed that they could be folded up on deck when not in use1 and the shaft also was jointed for that purpose4 ,then in the following ,may she started forth for ,liverpool--the precursor of a mighty fleet of magnificent ships which have followed since4 ,she reached the ,mersey in twenty-five days--vessels now perform the journey in about six4 ,but she used steam on only eighteen days out of the twenty-five4 ,several times during the journey the paddle wheels were taken on deck1 this operation occupying about half-an-hour4 ,possibly this was done when the wind was very favourable for sails1 and so saved the fuel1 which was pitch-pine4 ,apparently ,mr4 ,scarborough was not satisfied with the venture1 for1 after failing to sell the ship in ,russia1 whither she voyaged1 she touched at different ports and returned home4 ,the machinery was taken out1 and she winged her way henceforth by sails alone4 ,england next did something of the same kind4 ,the ,falcon steam yacht1 a little vessel of #age tons1 voyaged to ,india in #ahbd1 mostly1 however1 by the power of sails4 ,in the next year the ,enterprize1 engined by ,messrs4 ,maudslay ,field1 made the passage by steam to ,calcutta from ,london in the net time of #ajc days--ten being used in stoppages1 and the entire voyage thus occupying #aac days4 ,she was a vessel of #ejj tons1 #abb feet keel1 and #bg feet broad1 while her engines were of #bdj indicated power4 ,then the ,royal ,william1 hailing from ,quebec1 made the transatlantic passage in #ahca1 principally by steam1 in twenty-six days4 ,in #ahce ,messrs4 ,willcox ,anderson began to run steamships to ,peninsular ports--an undertaking which blossomed out afterwards into the celebrated ,peninsular and ,oriental ,steamship ,company4 ,then in #ahch two steamships1 the ,sirius and the ,great ,western1 crossed the ,atlantic1 the latter in fourteen and a-half days4 ,brunel had had his wish1 and in #ahcf he had formed the ,great ,western ,steamship ,company1 and the vessel of the same name had been commenced4 ,others also were in the field1 notably ,messrs4 ,laird of ,birkenhead1 and the ,british and ,american ,steam ,navigation ,company was founded4 ,the ,sirius1 which had been built on the ,thames1 was purchased by them and prepared for her voyage4 ,the prime mover in this matter is said to have been ,mr4 ,macgregor ,laird4 ,he had witnessed the work of steamships in the ,niger ,expedition of #ahcb-cc both on sea and river1 and from the time of his return he advocated the establishment of steamships between ,great ,britain and ,america4 ,the ,sirius left ,cork on the #eth of ,april1 and arrived at ,new ,york eighteen days afterwards4 ,she carried seven passengers1 and close at her heels followed ,brunel's ,great ,western1 which had left ,bristol three days later4 ,the two ships were received with loud acclaim1 a vast crowd of spectators beholding their arrival4 ,the vessels proved beyond possibility of doubt that the transatlantic voyage by steamships was possible1 and1 at a stroke1 the duration of the passage was reduced by almost one-half4 ,it has since been reduced to less than a quarter4 ,the ,sirius made on an average about #afa miles a-day1 or slightly less than seven miles an hour4 ,she apparently1 however1 had been originally built for plying between ,london and ,cork2 while the ,great ,western1 which had presumably been especially built for the transatlantic traffic1 was both larger and more powerful4 ,her average speed was about #bjh miles a-day1 that is between eight and nine miles an hour2 while returning1 the speed was a little better1 averaging about #bac miles per day4 ,the return voyage of the ,sirius was also better than her outward passage4 ,the engines of the ,great ,western were side-lever1 and were built by ,messrs4 ,maudslay ,field1 of ,london4 ,the cylinders were #gc inches diameter1 and the pistons had a big stroke of seven feet4 ,the wheels' diameter was no less than #bh feet1 while the steam was generated in four boilers4 ,her tonnage was #acdj--the largest ,maudslay's had yet engined1 with #gej indicated horse-power4 ,she voyaged many times across the ,atlantic1 her fastest eastward passage being #ab days1 #g hours4 ,the variation in her coal consumption was very remarkable4 ,thus1 on her first voyage #fee tons were burnt1 but on her return journey she consumed #bfc tons less4 ,no doubt this was owing to the greater use she was able to make of the wind4 ,the proprietors of the two vessels soon began to build others4 ,the owners of the ,great ,western laid down the ,great ,britain1 and the proprietors of the ,sirius began the ,british ,queen4 ,she had paddle wheels of #ca feet diameter1 and her piston stroke was the same as the ,great ,western1 #g feet4 ,her engines were #ejj horse-power1 and her cylinders #gg inches in diameter4 ,she was #bge feet long1 #dj feet wide1 and #bg feet deep4 ,from ,portsmouth to ,new ,york she crossed in #ad days1 #h hours4 ,satisfactory as these results were1 the pecuniary returns unfortunately were not so favourable4 ,the ,great ,western1 it is said1 continued running at a loss1 but others were withdrawn4 ,something seemed wanting to make the venture a commercial success4 ,what was it8 ,meantime ,willcox ,anderson's steamers plied with remarkable regularity to the ,peninsula1 and this regularity aroused some attention4 ,the ,government of the day applied to the proprietors to submit a scheme for carrying the mails4 ,it seems that previously ,willcox ,anderson had proposed this1 but it had come to nothing4 ,the end of the matter was1 however1 that the first mail contract was signed with them1 the #bbnd of ,august1 #ahcg4 ,to carry out their bargain1 ,captain ,richard ,bourne and ,messrs4 ,willcox ,anderson founded the ,peninsula ,company1 and three years later it was expanded to the ,peninsular and ,oriental ,steam ,navigation ,company--popularly known as the ,p4 ,o4--and incorporated by ,royal ,charter4 ,the mail service was the keystone of the enterprise4 ,the first steamer1 built in #ahbi1 was the ,william ,fawcett1 a small vessel of #bjf gross tonnage1 and but #fj horse-power4 ,in #ahdb the proprietors owned the ,hindostan1 of #bjag gross tonnage1 and #ebj horse-power4 ,she was a paddle-wheel vessel1 and opened the ,indian ,mail ,service4 ,the commencement of this service marks another stage in the history of steam navigation4 ,about fifty years later the ,company owned about half-a-hundred ships1 two being of #hjjj horse-power and #gjjj tonnage4 ,some two years after the ,hindostan first steamed to ,india1 ,brunel's ,great ,britain was finished4 ,she was a very remarkable vessel1 and the wonder of her time4 ,in the first place1 she was built of iron1 and1 secondly1 she was propelled by a screw1 though at first it was intended that she should have paddle-wheels1 and the engines for these wheels had been partly made4 ,barges and light vessels had been built of iron since about #agij1 or earlier1 and the ,lairds of ,birkenhead1 among others1 had built an iron vessel about #ahbi4 ,it is said that the ,aglaia was the first iron steamer built on the ,clyde in #ahcb4 ,as for the screw-propeller1 ,john ,ericsson was successful with the ,francis ,b4 ,ogden in #ahcf1 and three years later ,sir ,francis ,pettit ,smith clearly showed1 in the vessel appropriately called the ,archimedes1 the value and the feasibility of the new system4 ,brunel1 therefore1 ever open to improvements1 combined these two alterations in the ,great ,britain4 ,it was in #ahci1 probably after ,sir ,pettit ,smith's success1 that the change was made as regards the screw for this vessel1 though the paddle-wheel engines had been begun4 ,the superiority of the screw-propeller over the paddle-wheels are said to be these3--the engines occupy less room1 and are lighter--two very important considerations4 ,then there is greater wear and tear on paddle-wheels1 and consequently the screw vessels are less expensive4 ,but most important of all1 the screw being deep in the water1 the vessel is much more suitable for ocean traffic4 ,in the heaving billows of the sea one wheel may be buried deep on one side of the ship1 and the other whirling round high in the air1 and not propelling the vessel2 whereas the screw1 being always immersed1 except possibly in severe pitching1 is more constantly efficient for the whole of the vessel4 ,nevertheless1 paddle-boats have their advantages4 ,they need less water to work in1 are started more easily1 and stopped sooner4 ,further1 it is said they are less liable to cause sea-sickness1 as they do not roll so much4 ,in a word1 the difference seems to be this3 paddle vessels are better suited as passenger boats on the shallower waters2 screw vessels for deep sea and long distance voyages1 though whether the adoption of twin-screws1--which it appears need not be immersed so deeply in the water as one screw1--will bring screw vessels into use on shallower waters remains to be seen4 ,but when the ,great ,britain was being built the greater efficiency of the screw-propeller for ocean voyages was not widely understood4 ,she was a fine vessel1 over #cbj feet long1 #ea feet wide1 and #cb feet deep4 ,her screw was successful2 but on her fourth voyage to ,new ,york she became stranded in ,dundrum ,bay1 and lay aground for nearly a year4 ,incidentally1 however1 this catastrophe seems to have given great impetus to iron shipbuilding2 for after being floated1 she was discovered to have suffered but comparatively slight damage4 ,she was seen in dock by many persons interested in shipping1 and they became impressed with the practicability and usefulness of iron for shipbuilding4 ,unfortunate ,great ,britain6 ,she passed through many vicissitudes4 ,her owners got into difficulties1 and after some alterations1 she ran to ,australia1 and at length she wheezed her way to the ,falkland ,islands1 where1 it is said1 she served as a hulk--a sorry end to a successful beginning4 ,the engines of the early screw vessels appear to have very much resembled those for paddle-wheels ships4 ,thus the ,rattler1 engined by ,messrs4 ,maudslay for the ,admiralty about the year #ahda1 had upright cylinders1 with a crank-shaft overhead and wheels to give speed to the screw4 ,in the meantime1 however1 the commercial difficulty of transatlantic steam traffic was being solved4 ,the something lacking had been supplied4 ,what was it8 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,ocean ,,race4 8,this is the very opportunity ,i have been wanting60 ,the speaker was looking at a paper setting forth that the ,british ,government were open to consider contracts for the carrying of the letters by steamships between ,great ,britain and ,america4 ,encouraged1 no doubt1 by the success attending the conveyance of the mails by similar means to the ,peninsula1 the ,government were now going farther afield4 ,the practicability of ocean steam traffic had been amply demonstrated2 but some of those early steamships did not 8pay10 and to that test1 after all1 such undertakings must come4 ,now1 the man into whose hands the circular had fallen was of great intelligence and remarkable energy4 ,he was a merchant and owner of ships1 and agent for the ,east ,india ,company at ,halifax1 ,nova ,scotia4 ,his name has since become known the wide world over4 ,it was ,samuel ,cunard4 ,apparently he had cherished the idea of establishing transatlantic steam traffic for some years--since #ahcj it is said--and now1 here was the opportunity4 ,the ,british ,government would1 of course1 give a handsome sum for carrying the mails1 and that sum would form a backbone to the enterprise4 ,over came ,cunard to ,london in #ahch4 ,mr4 ,melvill1 the secretary of the ,east ,india ,company1 gave him a letter of introduction to ,mr4 ,robert ,napier1 the eminent engineer at ,glasgow4 ,thither then went the indomitable merchant1 and was heartily welcomed4 ,napier knew ,mr4 ,george ,burns1 who was partner with ,mr4 ,david ,mac,iver in a coasting trade1 and the upshot of the matter was that capital of considerably over a quarter of a million 7#bgj1jjj7 was subscribed through ,mr4 ,burns's influence4 ,the first great step thus taken1 ,mr4 ,cunard made a good offer to the ,government1 and although another offer was made by the owners of the ,great ,western1 ,cunard got the contract1 the tender being regarded as much more favourable4 ,the subsidy was eventually #ha1jjj per annum4 ,the contract was for seven years1 and was signed by the three gentlemen mentioned--,cunard1 ,burns1 and ,mac,iver4 ,these three divided the labour4 ,cunard ruled at ,london1 ,mac,iver at ,liverpool1 and ,burns at ,glasgow4 ,napier was to engine the new vessels4 ,it was decided that their names were all to end in 8ia10 and nearly every one of the now historic fleet has rejoiced in a title of that ending4 ,there is a sailor's superstition that it is unlucky if the vessels of a fleet are not named with some uniformity2 but we doubt if the superstition influenced the ,cunard ,company4 ,in any case1 they broke another superstition by starting their first ship on a ,friday6 ,she was a mail ship1 and she had to go4 ,the ,cunard ,company meant business4 ,but about their fleet4 ,their first order was for four vessels1 all of about the same size and power4 ,the ,britannia was the first1 and her sisters were the ,caledonia1 the ,columbia1 and the ,acadia4 ,they were paddle steamers1 the value of the screw not having then been clearly and widely demonstrated1 all of them about #bjg feet long1 #ce feet broad1 #bb feet deep1 and #aaed tons burthen4 ,the engines--side-lever1 of course1 in those days--were of #gdj horse-power4 ,the boilers had return-flues1 and were heated by a dozen furnaces4 ,they would look now quite out of fashion1 like a lady's dress of a past age4 ,they appeared something like sailing ships1 with the straight funnels added4 ,the ,britannia began the service by starting from ,liverpool on the #dth of ,july1 #ahdj1 and1 attaining a speed of about #h knots per hour1 she made the passage to ,halifax in #ab days1 #aj hours1 and returned in #aj days4 ,her average consumption of fuel was about thirty-eight tons daily4 ,the ,bostonians gave the ,britannia quite an ovation4 ,a grand banquet1 followed by speeches1 celebrated the great occasion4 ,but they gave even more practical appreciation of their favour subsequently1 for when1 in the winter season1 the vessel became ice-bound in the harbour1 they cut a seven-mile passage for her through the ice1 at their own cost4 ,the ,cunarders were successful1 and the conveyance of the mails by steamship became quite established4 ,the white-winged clipper ships fought hard against the ,cunarders1 but they had to yield4 ,three years later the ,company put another vessel on the route--the ,hibernia--and in #ahde the ,cambria4 ,these were of greater size and developed a little better speed than their forerunners4 ,it has always been the policy of the owners to improve their ships as they went on building1 and even thus early that policy ruled4 ,the establishment of the ,cunard ,company marks a most important step in ocean steam navigation4 ,further1 in the same year1 #ahdj1 in which the ,cunarders began to run1 the ,pacific ,steam ,navigation ,company was established4 ,ten years later saw the foundation of the ,collins and the ,inman ,lines4 ,the ,collins1 an ,american ,line1 boasted that they would run 8the ,cunarders off the ,atlantic40 ,they were very fine vessels1 and they were the first fleet to fully adopt the upright stem and discard the bowsprit4 ,but the ,cunarders were ready for the fierce competition4 ,they had actually put on six new vessels1 and their new postal contract of #ahdg had stipulated for a weekly1 instead of a fortnightly service2 while the subsidy was much increased4 ,it was to be #agc1cdj annually instead of #ha1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,ice-,,bound 8,,britannia0 ,,at ,,boston4 ,by permission of ,the ,cunard ,steamship ,co4 ,the echoes of that fierce struggle between the ,cunarders' and the ,collins' boats have now died away1 or have been quite lost in the other clamorous cries of that wonder of the world1 the development of the transatlantic steamship traffic2 but apparently partisanship ran very high4 ,the ,collins' seem to have been slightly the faster vessels1 coming from ,america in #i days #ag hours1 but occupying nearly two more days to return4 ,alas1 disaster overtook them4 ,the ,arctic perished by collision2 the ,pacific was lost at sea1 and no one knows the story of her death1 for she was never heard of more4 ,bad management1 and extravagance surged over the remaining vessels1 and the fine ships went as old iron6 ,but the ,inman line had also begun to run1 about #ahej4 ,these ships1 like the ,great ,britain1 were built of iron and propelled by a screw4 ,the first was the ,city of ,glasgow1 and several famous 8,cities0 followed2 though years afterwards the ,inman line became the 8,american10 and the appellation 8,city0 was dropped1 the ships being simply known as ,paris1 ,new ,york1 ,berlin1 etc4 ,the ,inman line had the distinction of being the first1 apart from the ,great ,britain1 to use iron screw steamers regularly on the ,atlantic4 ,other lines soon followed1 the ,anchor1 the ,allan1 and the ,guion1 while the ,cunarders1 not to be beaten1 came along in due course with iron and screw steamers4 ,but great changes were at hand4 ,to mark these changes let us look at what may be called the culminating ship of the old type of steamers--the ,great ,eastern4 ,this historical vessel was the largest ever built4 ,she was #fhj feet long1 by #hc feet broad1 and her hull was #fj feet high1 #gj feet including bulwarks4 ,but the steam pressure of her engines was only from #ae to #be lbs4 ,she was fitted with both screw-propeller and paddle wheels4 ,her screw-propeller engines were of #djjj indicated horse-power1 and paddle of #bfjj1 but they could together work up to #aa1jjj horse-power4 ,commenced at ,millwall early in #ahed1 she was not launched until near upon four years later4 ,the launching itself was a difficult and expensive business1 costing #fj1jjj1 and only effected after various attempts extending over nearly three months4 ,the total cost of the vessel has been estimated at #gcb1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,isambard ,,kingdom ,,brunel4 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,graves ,co4 ,it will be seen at once that so large an outlay required an immense business to yield a satisfactory return1 and indeed1 financial difficulties hampered her success almost from the very commencement1 even before she was launched4 ,she was planned1 in #aheb1 by the great engineer1 ,i4 ,k4 ,brunel1 and by ,scott ,russell4 ,in the life of ,brunel by his son1 it is stated3--8,it was1 no doubt1 his connection with the ,australian ,mail ,company that led ,mr4 ,brunel to work out into practical shape the idea of a great ship for the ,indian or ,australian service40 ,the ,eastern ,steam ,navigation ,company desired a vessel to trade to ,australia and back1 large enough to carry a sufficiency of coal for the outward and homeward journey1 and yet to have space for a goodly number of passengers and a bulky amount of cargo4 ,that was the idea1 and we perhaps can hardly realise what a difficulty this question of coal carrying capacity was in those days1 before the problem had been solved by high-pressure steam boilers1 triple expansion engines1 improved condensation1 and quick passages4 ,even so great a philosopher as ,dr4 ,lardner could not believe in #ahce that a steamship could voyage from ,liverpool to ,new ,york without stopping--we presume for fresh fuel4 ,the ,great ,eastern1 therefore1 was planned to carry #ae1jjj tons of coal2 whereas now the large ,atlantic liner ,paris needs only #bgjj tons for her ,atlantic trip4 ,the difference is most striking1 for the ,paris is one of the largest steamships afloat1 but her working steam pressure is #aej lbs4 instead of the #ae or #be lbs4 of the ,great ,eastern4 ,this immense vessel was also planned to carry some #ejjj persons1 or about #ejj less if any large number were to require state-rooms1 and finally she was to convey #ejjj tons of cargo4 ,the idea of water-tight compartments was anticipated in her case1 even to the extent of longitudinal ones1 and she had half-a-dozen masts of which five were of iron4 ,when at length she was launched1 the directors' minds misgave them as to an ,australian trip1 and they determined to cross the ,atlantic instead1 for a trial voyage4 ,she started on the #hth of ,september1 #ahei1 but alas6 when off ,hastings some steam pipes burst4 ,several persons were killed and wounded1 and the voyage ended at ,portland4 ,next year she tried again and crossed in eleven days1 after which she made several voyages with success--on one occasion conveying soldiers to ,canada4 ,unfortunately for the owners1 however1 she did not pay4 ,then in #ahfe she began to be engaged in submarine telegraph work1 by which she will most likely be best remembered1 and two years later she was chartered to convey passengers from ,america to ,havre for the ,french ,exhibition1 but this scheme failed4 ,then for some years from #ahfi she was successfully engaged in cable-laying1 in the ,red ,sea1 the ,atlantic1 and the ,mediterranean1 etc41 after which she came down to be a coal hulk in #ahhd1 stationed at ,gibraltar4 ,at length she was sold for #bf1bjj at ,london1 by auction1 and was on view in the ,thames1 and also in the ,mersey4 ,at this latter river her huge sides were used as an advertising 8board0 for a ,liverpool business house4 ,again in ,november1 #ahhh1 she was sold by auction1 this time for breaking up1 and it is said that the total proceeds of the sale which lasted five days was #eh1jjj1 more than double what she had previously brought6 8,a ship before her time10 says some one1 thinking of the huge vessels of the last decade of the nineteenth century4 ,that is true1 but the immense space required for coal1 and her low-pressure engines1 had also something to do with her comparative failure4 ,the problem which the ,great ,eastern failed to solve has been met in other ways--viz41 by the use of high-pressure steam and compound1 triple-expansion and even quadruple-expansion engines4 ,that is1 the steam1 working at #aej or #afj lbs4 pressure1 instead of the #be lbs4 of the ,great ,eastern1 is passed through two1 three1 and even four cylinders respectively1 and the economy in coal consumption is astounding4 ,thus the use of triple expansion engines has brought the saving in coal down from #d lbs4 per indicated horse-power to less than #a lbs4 ,there have been many other improvements also1 such as the use of steel instead of iron1 the parts being thus stronger and yet lighter2 the circular tubular boiler enabling high-pressure steam to be economically produced and maintained2 the use of surface condensers1 by which the exhaust steam is quickly reduced to water and returned to a 8hot well0 ready for the boilers1 to be speedily again raised to high pressure steam2 and a forced draught by which the furnaces are made to roar furiously and heat the water in the boilers speedily4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,great ,,eastern40 ,but these things were not all attained in a day4 ,the introduction of the compound marine engines in #ahed-ef by ,john ,elder1 marks the first great step of the new departure4 ,in #ahef he engined vessels for the ,pacific ,steam ,navigation ,company1 on the compound principle1 which proved very satisfactory4 ,again in #ahgj1 the appearance of the ,white ,star liner ,oceanic1 marked a new development4 ,her yacht-like shape1 great length1 and general symmetry of form commenced a marked change in ,atlantic liners4 ,it was in #ahfg that ,mr4 ,t4 ,h4 ,ismay bought the interest of the managing owner of the ,white ,star line--a set of sailing clippers1 dating from the rush to the ,australian gold diggings--and began to introduce iron vessels instead of wooden clipper ships4 ,in #ahfi he established the ,oceanic ,steam ,navigation ,company--popularly known as the ,white ,star--and was later on joined by ,mr4 ,william ,imrie4 ,the ,company was started with so much wisdom and boldness that the #ajjj shares were privately taken up at once4 ,the order for the new steamers was given to ,harland ,wolff1 of ,belfast1 because1 it is said1 an influential share-holder had had satisfactory dealings with them before4 ,the ,oceanic was of #cfjj tons burthen1 and with engines of #cjjj horse-power4 ,the accommodation for first-class passengers was placed amidships1 where the motion of the vessel is said to be felt the least1 and altogether she embodied improvements which made her the type of many of the ,atlantic passenger ships since4 ,the earlier ,white ,stars were fitted with compound engines1 and reduced the passage to about #h days4 ,but when the ,white ,stars ,germanic and ,britannic appeared in #ahgg1 then a marked advance indeed was made in the ,atlantic record4 ,the ,britannic astonished the world by speeding from ,queenstown to ,new ,york in #g days1 #aj hours1 and #ej minutes1 and since then she has beaten her own record4 ,her sister ship ,germanic also did as well1 and the fierce race for the blue ribbon of the ,atlantic may be said to have begun4 ,it was even prophesied that the time across the water might be reduced to six days4 ,how has that been fulfilled8 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,before ,,the ,,furnace4 8,the record's broken again1 ,jemmy6 ,the ,white ,star has come home a couple of hours earlier60 8,she has1 has she8 ,well1 it will be the ,cunard's turn next week4 ,it's wonderful what they get out of the ,cunard's engines40 8,they do2 but ,i'm thinking the ,american's ,new ,york will be doin' the fastest bit40 8,well1 well1 it may be4 ,they're all main powerful vessels4 ,do you mind when the ,guion's ,alaska came home in #f days1 #ah hours1 #cg minutes80 8,i do1 and about ten years later1 ,i suppose1 some ships were doing it in about a day less time60 8,ay1 ay1 and ,i see they're goin' ahead down south too40 8,yes1 there's fast steaming all over the world1 ,jemmy60 8,i told you what would happen when the compound engine came into use4 ,i said1 #8,mark my words1 now they've got the compound engine1 they will go ahead'--and they have40 ,jemmy's prediction has been amply verified1 for almost every year since the compound engine came largely into use1 has witnessed a greater speed in ocean steamers4 ,and the speed has not been obtained at sacrifice of comfort4 ,on the contrary1 an ocean passenger steamer belonging to any of the great passenger lines is something like a floating palace4 ,after the ,britannic and ,germanic appeared1 line after line put forth fine vessels2 and in #ahhi was launched the ,white ,star steamer ,teutonic1 which for some time held the proud position of the fastest ship on the ,atlantic4 ,she had crossed in #e days1 #af hours1 #ca minutes4 ,the average of several trips1 both for herself and her sister ,majestic1 was #e days1 #ah hours1 #f minutes4 ,and they were run very close by the ,american liners1 ,paris and ,new ,york4 ,these four vessels were among the first propelled by twin-screws4 ,engineers began to see that it was better to use great power in two shafts and two propellers than in one4 ,in ,july1 #ahib1 the fine ,inman 7now called ,american7 liner ,paris crossed the ,atlantic in #e days1 #ae hours1 and #eh minutes1 and in ,october of the same year the same vessel steamed from ,liverpool1 touching as usual at ,queenstown1 in #f days1 #b hours1 and #bd minutes--including the time at the ,irish port4 ,this was then the quickest time on record for the entire journey4 ,from ,queenstown to ,sandy ,hook the time was #e days1 #ad hours1 and #bd minutes1 a gain of #a hour and #cd minutes on her voyage in the previous ,july4 ,her best day's run was #ecj knots4 ,the contest1 therefore1 between the two ,white ,stars and the two ,inmans has been very close1 the record time resting now with the one and then with the other4 ,but the ,cunard ,company1 not to be beaten1 put on the ,campania in #ahic1 and in ,april of that year she made the fastest maiden trip then on record1 one day indeed compassing #ede knots in the #bd hours4 ,the ,campania is #fbe feet long by #fe feet broad1 and #dc feet deep from the upper deck4 ,her gross tonnage is #ab1iej4 ,she is fitted with a cellular double bottom extending fore and aft1 and also with sixteen bulkheads1 so arranged that the vessel would float even if two1 or in some cases three1 compartments were open to the ocean4 ,she is a twin-screw vessel1 fitted with two sets of very powerful triple-expansion engines4 ,they are seated in two separate engine-rooms with a dividing bulkhead and water-tight doors4 ,each set of engines has five inverted cylinders--viz41 two high-pressure1 one intermediate1 and two low-pressure--all arranged to work on three cranks set at an angle of #abj degrees to each other4 ,her indicated horse-power is #cj1jjj4 ,the boiler-rooms are doubly cased1 the space between being fitted with nonconducting material for sound and heat4 ,illustration3 ,,high ,,and ,,low ,,pressure ,,cylinders ,,of ,,the 8,,campania',s0 ,,engines4 ,in this huge vessel four decks rise tier above tier1 beside erections on the upper deck1 known as promenade and shade decks4 ,these four principal decks are the orlop1 the lowest of all1 used for cargo1 stores1 and machinery2 the lower1 the main1 and the upper decks1 the last three being devoted entirely to passengers4 ,imagine yourself on the upper deck4 ,before you stretches the long vista of its length1 like some far-reaching walk ashore2 a circuit of the vessel four times makes a mile4 ,above rises the shade deck with the navigating apparatus1 and surrounded by the twenty lifeboats of the vessel2 above again is the captain's bridge1 where are placed the telegraph and wheel house1 while higher still is perched the crow's nest or look-out box1 on the foremast1 and about #ajj feet from the water-level4 ,give a glance1 too1 at the huge funnels1 #abj feet high1 and so large that when in the builder's yard a coach full of passengers was driven with four horses through one of them4 ,descending then1 the grand staircase1 which is sufficiently wide for six persons to walk down abreast1 and admiring the polished panelling1 the rich ,japanese paper1 and the lounges on the landings1 we enter the superb dining-saloon #ajj feet long by #fb feet broad4 ,four huge tables run almost along its length1 with smaller tables in the corners1 while the wood-carving1 carpeting1 gold decorated roof1 costly mirrors1 and upholstering in rich red velvet are of the most sumptuous description4 ,from this magnificent hall you can wander on through other apartments of great splendour1 drawing-room1 library1 smoking1 music room1 bath-rooms1 and numbers of state-rooms4 ,there are single berth1 double berth1 and three and four berth cabins--the old wooden benches for beds1 however1 being replaced by iron bed-steads throughout the ship4 ,the electric light glows everywhere1 being distributed by some fifty miles of wire4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,campania40 ,by permission of ,the ,cunard ,steamship ,co4 ,the second-class accommodation differs but in degree from the magnificence of the saloon1 while the steerage passengers are berthed on the lower deck1 but have the privilege of walking on the upper deck4 ,an additional idea of the size of the ship may be gained when we learn that the crew consists of over #dbj persons--viz41 #aij engineers1 #agi stewards1 and #ed sailing hands1 while the vessel's full complement of passengers brings up the total number of persons aboard to #afjj souls--quite a floating town indeed4 ,about five years after the birth of the ,teutonic the newspapers recorded1 in ,may1 #ahid1 that the ,lucania1 sister ship to the ,campania1 and one of the newest ,cunarders1 had performed the journey across the ,atlantic in #e days1 #ac hours1 and #bh minutes4 ,her average speed was #bb knots1 or #beg land miles per hour1 marking one of the quickest runs then ever recorded2 and about the same time came the news that the ,p4 ,o4 steamer ,himalaya had completed a mail transit from ,bombay of #ab days1 and as her voyage to ,bombay had been just over #ac days--the best outward passage--she had completed a round mail transit to ,bombay and back1 excluding stoppages1 of #be days4 ,a little later1 in the same year1 the torpedo-boat destroyer1 ,hornet1 built by ,messrs4 ,yarrow ,co41 of ,poplar1 for the ,british ,navy1 achieved1 it is said1 about #bg knots2 that is1 roughly speaking1 near to #bi or #cj miles an hour1 which speed proclaimed her to be then one of the fastest steamships in the world4 ,she was fitted with the ,yarrow water-tube boilers1 which are both light and strong1 while the consumption of coal was said to be remarkably small4 ,she has two sets of triple-expansion inverted engines4 ,again1 a short time later1 ,messrs4 ,thorneycroft1 of ,chiswick1 obtained similar results with the ,daring1 another boat of the same kind built for the ,british ,government1 and fitted with the ,thorneycroft improved water-tube boilers4 ,these1 it is claimed1 will raise steam from cold water in fifteen minutes4 ,she passed the measured mile on the ,maplin at the high speed of #bi miles an hour4 ,in the same summer a ,company put on a fine steamer for service on the ,thames and the ,english ,channel1 called ,la ,marguerite1 which developed1 it is said1 a speed of #be miles an hour1 which would make her one of the fastest passenger vessels then afloat4 ,another ,company has also a noteworthy vessel running on the ,estuary of the ,thames--viz41 the ,london ,belle1 plying from ,london ,bridge to ,clacton-on-,sea4 ,she is a triple-expansion paddle boat1 and the first river steamer fitted with three crank triple-expansion paddle engines4 ,she was built by ,denny of ,dumbarton1 and can develop a speed of #ai knots--i4e41 twenty-three statute miles per hour1 and is worked with great economy of coal consumption4 ,an example of a quadruple-expansion engine steamer may be found in the ,tantallon ,castle1 one of the newest vessels for voyaging to ,south ,africa4 ,she is #def feet long1 over #ej broad1 with a gross tonnage of #efcf4 ,she is fitted with quadruple-expansion engines of #gejj horse-power1 and the stoke holes are well ventilated by large fans speeding round with great swiftness4 ,improvements in steamship building had gone steadily on2 and it is safe to say that a pound of coal1 after the compounding principle came fully into use1 did four or five times the work it accomplished before high pressure engines were fully utilised4 ,let us enter the engine-room of a big liner1 and see for ourselves4 ,it is a triumph of engineering4 ,still1 at first1 you cannot understand anything of the complicated mass of machinery4 ,then you notice three large cylinders--for these are triple-expansion engines--with pistons shooting in and out downwards1 and attached by connecting rods to the cranks of the propeller shaft below4 ,the cranks are bent at different angles so that they can never all be in the same position at once4 ,there is a maze of machinery and shining rods1 bewildering to the uninitiated eye4 ,but you gradually notice how absolutely regular every part is in its action1 and how beautifully one part fits with another4 ,then go before the furnace2 you find yourself in front of a huge structure1 at the bottom of which is the long fire box2 above rises the heat box communicating with tubes over the furnaces1 with the water circulating between4 ,the water1 indeed1 is beneath the furnace1 about parts of the heat box1 between and above the tubes4 ,the object is1 of course1 to obtain as great heating surface as possible4 ,the tubes communicate with the funnel at their other end4 ,boilers are made of a 8mild0 steel which has1 it is said1 a most remarkable tenacity of #bh tons to the square inch4 ,consequently they are able to bear great pressure of steam4 ,illustration3 ,,stoke ,,hole4 ,hot distilled water is admitted to the boiler from the surface condenser4 ,this is a 8box10 riddled with tubes1 through which cold sea water is pumped4 ,the waste steam1 having done its work in the cylinders1 is passed into this 8box10 is condensed by touching the chilly tubes of sea water1 and can be run off or pumped to a hot cistern1 whence it is used to feed the boiler and be turned once more to steam4 ,about #djjj tons of water an hour pass through the surface condensers of a large liner when she is at full work4 ,the largest steamers require over #aej men to work the furnaces and machinery1 and the attention given is hard and unremitting4 ,in some of the fast ,atlantic greyhounds the strain is terribly severe1 especially when the sea is beginning to run high4 ,the rollers may be but #bj feet1 yet these are quite high enough even for a splendid ocean racer to contend with and yet maintain her speed4 ,now her bows are pointing sky high1 and her stern is deeply submerged2 now she takes a header plump into the trough of the sea1 and the engines race round2 the propeller is suddenly raised out of water4 ,but blow high1 or blow low1 on she goes1 and the engineers are always busy4 ,the furnaces roar with ceaseless rage4 ,for days and nights the fires are kept at glowing heat4 ,a forced blast maintains the draught2 the steam condensed back into warm water is supplied to the boilers2 half-naked men work hour after hour to rake the fires1 clean them1 pile on the fuel1 and keep the most powerful head of steam the boilers can stand4 ,when the furnace doors are opened tongues of flame leap forth1 and the heat is enough to make a man sick4 ,but with head turned away1 the stoker stirs up the fire with his huge 8slice0 or fire rake1 and cleans out the clinker clogging the bars4 ,then on go the coals6 ,one layer1 shot in from the shovel with unerring precision and skilful experience1 right at the back2 then another just in front of the first1 and so on till the long furnace is filled4 ,bang6 the furnace door clangs1 and the man reels away1 sick and exhausted1 with tingling eyes and heaving chest4 ,then coal has to be brought from the bunkers to the furnaces1 tons of it per day1 and if the ship rolls too much for the barrows to be used1 the fuel must be carried in baskets4 ,there is an engineer in charge of each stoke hole1 and two on the platform in each engine room2 as a rule1 the staff are on duty in turns--four hours out of every twelve4 ,but if the weather be bad they may have harder times4 ,no matter how hot the machinery becomes1 the engineers must not reduce speed1 except it be to prevent disaster4 ,oil is swabbed on in bucketfuls1 so to speak1 but at every thrust the polished steel may gleam dry and smoking4 ,then on goes the water1 as if there actually was a conflagration1 and meantime a mixture of oil and sulphur is dabbed on4 ,the water flies off in steam1 so hot are the bearings1 so terrific the friction of the incessant speed2 and at last1 down comes the reluctant order1 wrung out of the chief like gold from a miser--8,slow her down40 ,it is done--dampers are clapped on furnaces1 steam pressure dropped a little1 and engines reduced to half speed2 the three great cranks of the high1 intermediate1 and low pressure cylinders move round easily1 and the tremendous noise gradually sinks to a murmur1 compared with the previous rush and roar4 ,the machinery cools4 ,but when quite safe1 on is piled the speed once more1 and again the cranks fly round1 and the mighty engines work their hardest to drive the mammoth ship through the surging green rollers4 ,so superbly are these marine engines built1 and so excellently are they maintained1 being continually overhauled1 so as to be kept in the pink of perfection1 that1 as years go on1 they seem to 8warm to their work0 and do even better than at first4 ,on the completion of the #bjjth round voyage of the celebrated 8,white ,stars10 ,germanic and ,britannic1 about ,january1 #ahid1 they seemed steaming as regularly and as fast1 or faster than ever4 ,thus1 on the #aihth outward trip of the ,germanic1 in ,september1 #ahic1 she made the fastest westward passage1 but one1 she had ever accomplished4 ,during their lives1 it was said these vessels had maintained remarkable uniformity in speed1 and each vessel had steamed #bjj times #fbjj nautical miles1 that is nearly a million and a-half statute miles1 with the original engines and boilers--a performance1 in all probability1 without parallel in the world4 ,those people who care for figures may be interested in knowing that the ,britannic had been #ia1gda hours under steam1 and #he1hab hours actually under weigh4 ,her engines had made #bhj million revolutions1 and maintained an average speed of #ae knots1 or #ag statute miles an hour1 while she had burnt #djf1jjj tons of coal4 ,during their nineteen years of life the two vessels had carried #ajj1jjj saloon1 and over #bfj1jjj steerage passengers1 in safety and in comfort4 ,this is a record of which all concerned1 builders1 owners1 and working staff1 may well be proud4 ,it augurs first-class1 honest work1 and superb engineering skill4 ,since the construction of these ships1 however1 vessels surpassing them in speed have1 of course1 been built1 among which may be mentioned the same line's ,teutonic and ,majestic4 ,the well-known ,cunarders1 ,umbria and ,etruria1 have also done some very fine work1 indicating great excellence of construction4 ,thus1 on her eighty-second voyage1 the ,umbria steamed from ,queenstown to ,sandy ,hook in #e days1 #bb hours2 or1 allowing for detention through fog1 #e days1 #ah hours1 which is within three or four hours of the ,white ,stars' and ,american's time4 ,the story of the ,british warship ,calliope1 at ,samoa1 will also show how marvellously well ships' engines can be built4 ,some difficulties had arisen between the ,united ,states and ,germany as to ,samoa1 and several warships had gathered there4 ,some weeks of bad weather had occurred1 and then1 on the #aeth of ,march1 #ahhi1 the wind began to blow with tremendous force4 ,down came the top masts from the warships--taken down as a precaution2 steam was raised in the boilers in case anchors should not hold1 and spars were made secure4 ,but no man among the sailors expected such a hurricane as ensued4 ,rain fell at midnight1 and the wind increased4 ,huge waves rolled in from the ,south ,pacific1 and the vessels tugged madly at their anchor chains and pitched fearfully up and down1 like corks4 ,then the ,eber1 one of the ,german ships1 began to drag her anchors2 and the ,vandalia1 one of the ,americans1 followed suit4 ,but by their steam power they kept off a dangerous reef1 and also prevented themselves from colliding with their neighbours4 ,still higher and higher blew the hurricane1 and the rain fell with tropic severity4 ,three hours after midnight the situation had become terrible4 ,almost every vessel was dragging her anchors1 and the danger of collision was constant4 ,the scene of the occurrence was a small bay before ,apia1 the capital of ,samoa4 ,but there is a coral reef extending in front of the bay for about two miles1 and in the centre of the reef an opening about a quarter of a mile wide4 ,the ships1 therefore1 were shut up in a comparatively small space1 from which the way of escape was this gateway through the reef4 ,the tide rushed in with great rapidity1 swamping the land a hundred feet or so above high-water mark4 ,as morning dawned and wore on to-day1 the ,eber collided with the ,nipsic and then with the ,olga1 and1 finally1 was dashed by the huge waves1 like a toy1 upon the reef1 and rolled over into deep water4 ,only five men struggled to shore and were saved4 ,other sad disasters occurred2 and then1 shortly before noon1 the ,vandalia and the ,calliope were tossed perilously near together1 and also toward the dangerous reef4 ,in endeavouring to steam away1 the ,vandalia collided with the ,calliope1 and was much damaged4 ,then1 with splendid courage1 ,captain ,kane determined to steam right away to sea--to remain would but risk another collision1 or a wreck on the reef4 ,sea-room he must have at any cost6 8,lift all anchors60 was the thrilling order1 and then--8,full speed ahead60 ,round swung the vessel's head to the wind1 and though the powerful engines were working 8all they knew0 to force the ship along1 the steamer stood still1 as if aghast at being asked to break through these tremendous waves4 ,but she stood for a moment only4 ,the superb engines began to tell2 the quickly-whirling screw churned up the heavy water at the stern1 and slowly the good ship made headway through the huge billows4 ,they crashed over her stern and poured over her decks1 as if in anger at her defiance4 ,but on went the coal to her furnaces1 and the thick smoke reeled off from the funnel in volumes4 ,the strain quivered through every limb of the ship1 but her captain kept her at it1 and inch by inch she forced her way through the pounding seas4 8,this manuvre of the gallant ,british ship10 says an eye-witness1 ,mr4 ,john ,p4 ,dunning1 of the ,associated ,u4,s4 ,press1 8is regarded as one of the most daring in naval annals4 ,it was the one desperate chance offered her commander to save his vessel and the three hundred lives aboard4 ,an accident to the machinery at this critical moment would have meant certain death to all4 ,every pound of steam which the ,calliope could possibly carry was crowded on1 and down in the fire-rooms the men worked as they never had worked before4 ,to clear the harbour1 the ,calliope had to pass between the ,trenton 7an ,american warship7 and the reef1 and it required the most skilful seamanship to avoid a collision with the ,trenton1 on the one hand1 or total destruction upon the reef1 on the other4 ,the ,trenton's fires had gone out by that time1 and she lay helpless almost in the path of the ,calliope40 ,illustration3 ,,promenade ,,deck ,,of ,,the 8,,paris40 ,but the dreaded collision did not take place4 ,and as the ,calliope passed near to the ,trenton1 a great shout was given for the ,british vessel1 and the ,englishmen responded with a noble cheer4 ,captain ,kane1 who subsequently was appointed to the ,inflexible1 said afterwards3 8,those ringing cheers of the ,american flag-ship pierced deep into my heart1 and ,i shall ever remember that mighty outburst of fellow-feeling which1 ,i felt1 came from the bottom of the hearts of the gallant ,admiral and his men4 ,every man on board the ,calliope felt as ,i did2 it made us work to win4 ,i can only say1 #8,god bless ,america and her noble sailors6'0 ,the ,calliope did win4 ,her superb machinery and the fine seamanship with which she was handled were successful1 and she returned to the harbour when the storm had subsided4 ,happily the brave men of the ,trenton also survived1 though fourteen vessels were wrecked and nearly #aej lives were lost4 ,strongly and staunchly as are built the ,government ships1 many of the great liners are their equals in these respects4 ,indeed1 several of them are now retained by the ,government to be used as armed cruisers should occasion require4 ,the fittings and accommodation on many a large liner are also luxurious in the extreme4 ,there are library and smoking-room1 superb saloons and state-rooms1 drawing-rooms1 music-rooms1 and tea-rooms1 bath-rooms1 etc4 ,in short1 they are floating hotels of a most sumptuous character4 ,a modern steamship1 with its multitude of comforts and conveniences for passengers and its complexities of machinery for fast and safe steaming1 is a great triumph of engineering skill4 ,patience and forethought1 the persevering development of sound principles1 and the application of new ideas1 have all contributed to this great achievement4 ,from the ,comet to the ,campania is a marvellous development within a century4 ,and it has not been accomplished along one line1 but upon many4 ,the use of steel1 of many-tubed and strong boilers1 of high pressure steam1 which would have frightened ,henry ,bell out of his senses1 the forced draught and the surface condensers1 the screw propeller1 the direct-acting and the triple and quadruple expansion engines1 have all contributed to the noble results4 ,steamships1 with their complex1 beautiful1 and powerful machinery1 may rank among the most wonderful things that mankind has ever made4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,famous ,,bridges ,,and ,,their ,,builders4 ,,chapter ,i4 8,,the ,,bridge ,,by ,,the ,,earthen ,,house40 8,you will not try again1 surely80 8,ay1 ,i shall indeed60 8,what6 after two failures80 8,yes2 ,i see the mistakes now4 ,this bridge fell because it had too much weight on its haunches40 8,haunches6 you mean the two side-curves of the arch were too heavy40 8,ay2 you've heard the proverb no doubt that #8,an arch never sleeps4' ,that is1 should too great a weight fall on the crown or top part1 the arch will fall at the sides outwardly1 and the crown will sink2 while1 curiously enough1 if it be built with too little weight on the crown1 as this was1 the crown will be forced upwards1 and the sides will fall inwards40 8,then you mean to build your third bridge with less weight proportionately on its haunches80 8,exactly so40 8,well1 ,i wish you good luck1 friend ,edwards1 for we need a bridge sorely over the brawling ,taff40 8,you shall have it1 neighbour4 ,i shall succeed this time4 ,i have gripped the right principle at last40 ,he had indeed1 for the bridge he then built lasts to this day4 ,it was the famous ,pontypridd bridge over the ,taff on the ,llantrissant and ,merthyr road1 and was called the ,pont y du ,prydd1 or the bridge by the earthen house1 for a mud hut stood near4 ,illustration3 ,,pontypridd ,,bridge4 ,from ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,about the year #agde it was determined to build a bridge over the rushing ,taff1 and ,william ,edwards1 a self-taught mason of the country1 undertook the task4 ,the first bridge he built was of three arches1 which1 in less than three years1 was dashed away by a great flood4 ,the water rose so high as to surge over the parapet4 ,it must have been a sore disappointment to the hard worker to see his structure suddenly swept to ruins4 ,but he was a shrewd1 common-sense1 observing man1 and1 nothing daunted1 he tried again4 ,this time he determined to build one bold arch of #adj feet4 ,the object was to obviate the necessity of raising piers for more arches1 and so obstructing the water2 these former piers having caused1 or assisted in causing1 the destruction of his first bridge4 ,but the second gave way from the proportionally heavy weights on the haunches1 as ,edwards1 we imagine1 told his friend1 and once more he had to face ruins4 ,yet a third time he tried1 and the third time he was successful4 ,generations have come and gone1 the children who played about its abutments have grown grey and have passed away1 but still the country mason's bridge of #adj feet span stands its ground and serves the community4 ,he reduced the heavy weight on the sides by making openings in the spandrels--that is1 the part above the curve of the arch2 while1 instead of filling up the interior space with rubble1 he used charcoal4 ,but the arch is very steep1 and a chain and drag is kept to assist any horse when descending4 ,these bridges illustrate the principle of the arch4 ,passing by the fact that it is evidently safer to span a swelling river by a bridge of wide1 rather than of several narrow arches1 three powers or forces act on the row of stones or bricks forming the arch4 ,there is first the force that would carry the stone downward--that is1 the force of its own weight and of anything that might be placed upon it4 ,but then there are stones or bricks pressing against it on either side1 and in its turn it presses upon them4 ,when1 therefore1 every part presses equally1 one not heavier or weaker than the others1 a support for all is gained by the contiguous pressure and by the balance of forces4 ,long bridges were sometimes built in this way1 and the longest in ,england in the ,middle ,ages was at ,burton1 over the ,trent4 ,it was #aede feet long1 and had #cf arches4 ,it was not superseded till #ahfd1 when a new bridge was built4 ,in an arched bridge1 the higher it rises in proportion to the width of the arch1 the easier is its construction1 and the less is the stress upon its parts2 moreover1 any inaccuracy in design or in building is likely to be less harmful4 ,we are not surprised1 therefore1 that ,edwards1 in his third attempt1 decided upon that form4 ,one of the widest arches in the world is that of the famous ,grosvenor ,bridge at ,chester4 ,it has a span of #bjj feet1 with a rise of #db feet4 ,an arch1 however1 in the ,washington ,aqueduct extends to #bbj feet span1 while the central span in the ,southwark ,bridge1 designed by ,rennie1 is #bdj feet4 ,this last1 however1 is of cast-iron4 ,the principle of the arch1 however1 does not appear first in the history of bridge building4 ,bridges are as old as mankind2 that is1 no one knows when first men began to cross streams and chasms by placing the trunk of a tree from one side to the other1 and thus bridging the gulf4 ,then1 possibly1 the next step was to build up a pile of stones in the centre of the stream--taking the stones there by coracle or canoe--and placing a tree trunk from the side to the central heap4 ,yet another development would most likely be a simple cantilever bridge--though these early builders would not have known that ,frenchified word4 ,but they knew that after embedding a tree trunk firmly on each side of the bank so that a considerable portion should project over the stream1 they could place a third log from one end to the other1 and thus get a bridge much longer than when made of one tree trunk alone4 ,this principle1 known so long ago1 was used and immensely developed in the construction of the famous ,forth ,bridge1 one of the most remarkable structures of the nineteenth century4 ,this cantilever principle is very important in bridge building1 and it is said that there exists an ancient bridge on this principle across the ,sutlej in ,india with a span of #bjj feet4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,post ,,bridge1 ,,dartmoor4 7,an example of an early bridge1 of 8slab0 construction47 ,a further variety of early bridges was the 8slab0 bridge1 consisting of slabs of granite placed from side to side1 or from the sides of the bank to heaps of stones piled up in the stream4 ,a good example of such a bridge may be seen at 8,post ,bridge0 over the ,dart on ,dartmoor4 ,ages ago this bridge was built1 and as we study it and compare it with the modern structure not far distant1 we wonder how the ancient ,britons--if those sturdy individuals are really responsible for it--could raise and place those huge slabs of stone without engineering apparatus4 ,probably it was done with levers and rollers1 and there must have been many shoulders to the wheel in the process4 ,certainly they had plenty of granite at hand on wild ,dartmoor4 ,but passing by all these early forms of bridges--which it will be noticed are built of a few large pieces of material--it was left to the ,romans1 at all events in ,europe1 to largely adopt the arch as a principle of construction4 ,now1 here we are dealing with an altogether different principle4 ,the arch is made up of a number of comparatively small pieces of material bound together by mortar1 or cement1 or even clamps1 and by the power of gravitation4 ,we doubt if that idea is realised by half the people using the multitudinous arches abounding to-day2 yet it is true4 ,or to put it in another way1 the various parts are arranged so that they keep up each other by pressure4 ,if you take two cards1 or bricks1 or slabs of stone and lean them together at the top1 while the other ends may be far apart1 you will find they will bear a certain amount of weight4 ,here you have the principle of the arch in its simplest form2 and it may be that out of that primitive performance the arch has grown4 ,this kind of triangular arch is to be met with in ancient structures in ,great ,britain4 ,the flanks or haunches of an arch are its sides1 from the first stone to the keystone2 and the crown is its highest part2 while the central wedge-shaped piece of stone or brick is called the keystone4 ,the stones or bricks are cemented together when being built over a framework of timber1 called the centering1 and when the keystone is placed and the arch is complete it ought to remain firm4 ,but should too great a weight fall on the crown the bridge will fall outwardly at the sides1 and the crown will sink2 while1 curiously enough1 if it be built with too little weight on the crown1 it will be1 as it were1 forced upwards1 and the sides will fall inwards1 as in the case of the second of the famous ,pontypridd bridges1 which actually did this4 ,the material in the middle of the arch was less in proportion than that over the sides or 8haunches10 and these heavier weights on the sides caused the crown to be forced upwards4 ,two causes combined to make changes in bridge building4 ,these were the needs of railways and the introduction of iron as a building material4 ,the first iron bridge was constructed over the ,severn1 near an appropriately named place1 ,ironbridge1 in #aggi4 ,it had an arch of near upon a hundred feet span4 ,when1 however1 very wide span bridges were required1 the question arose of the superiority of wrought-iron over cast-iron for such structures4 ,the ,menai ,strait had to be crossed for the ,chester and ,holyhead ,railway1 and the greatest existing cast-iron span was ,rennie's ,southwark ,bridge1 where #bdj feet had been reached4 ,but over the ,conway and the ,menai ,strait1 spans of #djj feet were involved4 ,how were these yawning gulfs to be bridged8 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,a ,,new ,,idea--,,the ,,britannia ,,tubular4 8,we must cross the ,strait at the ,britannia ,rock--that is settled40 8,and where is the ,britannia ,rock80 8,nearly in mid-channel4 ,it seems placed there for the purpose40 ,and the great engineer smiled4 8,what are the distances80 8,from coast to coast the span of the ,strait is some #aajj feet1 with that rock in the centre4 ,now the problem is1 to build a bridge across that gulf of surging water strong enough to bear heavy trains at high speeds1 and sufficiently above the water to prevent any interference with navigation40 8,and how will you manage it80 8,first ,i thought of large cast-iron arches1 but they will not do4 ,i doubt if they would stand the strain2 and moreover we should impede navigation by raising scaffolding during the building4 ,at length ,i came to the idea of a tube bridge40 8,what6 a tube bridge6 ,i've never heard of it60 8,no1 it is a new idea4 ,by reconsidering a design ,i had made for a small bridge over the ,lea at ,ware in #ahda1 and thinking over the matter1 ,i came to the idea that a bridge consisting of a hollow beam or tube might solve the difficulty40 8,a huge hollow girder1 so to speak60 exclaimed his friend4 8,exactly so4 ,accordingly10 the engineer continued1 8,i had drawings prepared and calculations made1 by which to ascertain the strength of such a bridge1 and they were so satisfactory that ,i decided on attempting one40 8,it is like constructing one huge hollow beam of iron by rivetting plates together4 ,can it be done80 remarked his friend4 8,the making of the high-level bridge over the ,tyne1 in which ,i had a part--the bridge between ,newcastle and ,gateshead1 you know--was a transition between an arched bridge and a girder bridge4 ,a girder of course is a beam1 it may be of iron or wood1 and the little bridge at ,ware has been built of girders made of plates of wrought-iron rivetted together4 ,therefore1 you see1 ,i am not unused to wrought-iron girders1 and what they will bear40 8,why1 it is like a huge extension of the primitive log-bridge of our ancestors40 8,if you like10 replied the engineer1 laughing4 ,robert ,stephenson--for he it is whom we suppose to be speaking to his friend on this gigantic engineering enterprise--became satisfied by reflection that the principles involved in constructing an immense tubular beam were but a development of those commonly in use2 and ,sir ,william ,fairbairn was entrusted with the duty of experimenting as to the strength of tubes1 the directors of the ,railway ,company voting a sum of money for the purpose4 ,sir ,william1 then ,mr41 ,fairbairn concluded that rectangular tubes were the strongest1 and a model was made of the suggested bridge4 ,it proved successful1 and indicated that the tube would be able to stand the strain of a heavy train passing rapidly over it4 ,in ,september1 #ahdf1 ,mr4 ,fairbairn read a paper on the subject at the meeting of the ,british ,association at ,southampton1 as also did ,professor ,hodgkinson1 a mathematician1 who had verified ,fairbairn's experiments4 ,not long afterwards ,stephenson became satisfied that chains were not needed to assist in supporting the bridge1 and that his tubes would be strong enough to support themselves entirely between the piers4 ,work therefore went forward4 ,some #aejj men were engaged on the ,britannia ,bridge1 and the quiet shores of the ,menai ,straits resounded with the busy hum of hammers and machinery4 ,cottages of wood were built for the men1 and workshops for the punching and rivetting of the plates for the gigantic tubes4 ,the design included two abutments of masonry on either side of the ,strait1 and three towers or huge piers1 one of which1 the centre pier1 was to rise from the ,britannia ,rock1 #bcj feet high4 ,there are four spans1 two over the water of #dfj feet each1 and two of #bcj feet each over the land4 ,two tubes1 quite independent of each other1 but lying side by side1 form the bridge across4 ,each tube or beam is #aeaj feet long1 and weighs #dfhj tons4 ,its weight at one of the long spans is #aehg tons4 ,now how could these gigantic tubes be put together and raised to their positions8 ,here was a problem almost as great as the original one of the bridge itself1 and it troubled the engineer sorely4 ,illustration3 ,,robert ,,stephenson4 8,often at night10 he declared1 8,i would lie tossing about1 seeking sleep in vain4 ,the tubes filled my head4 ,i went to bed with them1 and got up with them4 ,in the gray of the morning1 when ,i looked across ,gloucester ,square1 it seemed an immense distance across to the houses on the opposite side4 ,it was nearly the same length as the span of my tubular bridge40 ,the principle adopted was to construct the shorter tubes on scaffolds in the places which they were to occupy4 ,this could be done1 for such scaffolding would not impede navigation4 ,but scaffolding could not be built for the large tubes across the great spans of water4 ,what then was to be done8 ,it was decided to build them on platforms on the shore quite close to the water1 and float them when ready on pontoons to their places between the piers1 raising them to their position by hydraulic power4 ,such a task would be hazardous enough4 ,it was first tried at ,conway1 where a similar bridge was being built by ,robert ,stephenson1 being indeed part of the same railway4 ,the ,britannia was1 however1 a much greater enterprise1 though the span of the ,conway is #djj feet4 ,the ,conway bridge1 indeed1 is but of one span1 and contains two tubes4 ,the experience at ,conway was of great benefit to the gigantic undertaking at the ,menai ,strait4 ,the floating of the first tube was to take place on the #aith of ,june1 #ahdi1 in the evening2 but owing to some of the machinery having given way1 the great event was put off to the next night4 ,the shores were crowded with spectators4 ,when the tube was finished it could be transferred to the pontoons2 for the tubes had been built at high-water mark4 ,when the pontoons were fairly afloat on this fateful evening1 they were held and guided by leading strings of mighty strength4 ,stephenson himself directed in person1 from a point of vantage at the roof of the tube4 ,thence he gave the signals which had been agreed upon1 whilst a crew of sailors1 directed by ,captain ,claxton1 manned the strange barque4 ,a pontoon is a light1 buoyant boat1 and the tube was supported on sets of these1 their speed increasing terribly as they approached their place by the towers4 ,the idea was1 as related by ,mr4 ,edwin ,clark1 ,stephenson's assistant1 that they should strike a 8butt0 properly1 underneath the ,anglesey ,tower1 8on which1 as upon a centre1 the tube was to be veered round into its position across the opening4 ,this position was determined by a twelve-inch line1 which was to be paid out to a fixed mark from the ,llanfair capstan4 ,the coils of the rope unfortunately over-rode each other upon this capstan1 so that it could not be paid out40 ,destruction seemed imminent4 ,the capstan was actually dragged from the platform1 and the tube seemed likely to be swept away4 ,then ,mr4 ,rolfe1 the captain of the capstan1 shouted to the spectators1 and threw out a spare twelve-inch rope4 ,seizing this1 the crowd1 with right good-will1 rushed it up the field1 and clung tightly to it1 checking the voyage of the mighty tube4 ,it was brought to the 8butt10 and duly turned round4 ,a recess had been left in the masonry of the tower1 and the end near the ,britannia pier was drawn into it by means of a chain4 ,the ,anglesey end followed4 ,then the tide gradually sank1 the pontoons sank with it1 and the tube subsided also to a shelf which had been made at either end4 ,the first stage was accomplished2 the mighty tube was in position to be raised4 ,shouts of rejoicing burst from the sympathetic crowds1 and the boom of cannon joined its congratulatory note at the grand success4 ,but the further stages remained4 ,at midnight the pontoons were all cleared away1 and the huge1 hollow beam hung silent over the surging water4 ,it rested on the shelves or beds prepared for it at either end4 ,the second great operation1 of course1 was to haul it up the towers to its permanent position4 ,this was to be performed by hydraulic machinery of great power1 and ,mr4 ,stephenson's instructions were to raise it a short distance at a time1 and then build under it4 ,he took every imaginable precaution against accident or failure2 and well was it that he did so1 for an accident happened which1 but for the careful building under the tube in the towers as it was raised1 would have been most calamitous4 ,the accident occurred while ,mr4 ,stephenson was absent in ,london4 ,one day1 suddenly1 while the machinery was at work raising the tube1 the bottom burst from one of the hydraulic presses1 and down fell the tube on to the bed provided for it4 ,though the fall was but nine inches1 tons weight of metal castings were crushed1 and the mighty tube itself was strained and slightly bent4 ,but it was serviceable still1 and the fact that it stood the strain so well showed its great strength4 ,it weighed some five thousand tons1 and for such an immense weight to fall even three-quarters of a foot was a very severe test4 ,but for ,stephenson's wise precaution in lifting it slowly1 and building underneath it as it was raised1 the tube would have crashed to the bottom of the water4 ,as it was1 the accident cost #ejjj2 but the tube was soon being hauled upward again4 ,in due course the others followed1 and on the #eth of ,march1 #ahej1 ,robert ,stephenson inserted the final rivet in the last tube1 and the bridge was complete4 ,he crossed over with about a thousand persons1 three locomotives whirling them along4 ,the tubes of the bridge are made of iron plates1 and at the top and bottom are a number of small cells or tubes--instead of thick iron plating--which assist in giving strength to the whole gigantic tube4 ,thus it may be said the floor and roof are tubular1 as well as the body4 ,these hollow cells appear to have been ,fairbairn's invention4 ,the size of the tube grows slightly larger at the middle by the ,britannia tower1 where externally the tubes are #cj feet high1 and #bf internally1 while they are #bb feet and #ah feet at the abutments4 ,the width is #ad feet1 #h inches externally1 and #ac feet #e inches inside4 ,at the ,britannia tower the tubes are placed solidly on their bed1 but at the abutments1 and at the land towers1 the tubes rest on roller-beds4 ,this arrangement was adopted to permit of expansion and contraction4 ,iron1 of course1 solid and unyielding as it appears1 is yet very susceptible to warmth1 and the effect of the sun's rays on this massive iron structure is very marked4 ,a rise of temperature causes it to expand in a comparatively short time1 and it is said that the tubes occasionally move two and a-half inches as the sun gleams upon them4 ,mr4 ,edwin ,clark observed the effect of the sun on the iron1 which appears in a small degree to be always moving as the temperature varies4 ,well1 therefore1 that the able engineer planned an arrangement allowing for this constant expansion and contraction of the iron mass4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,britannia ,,tubular ,,bridge4 ,the ,britannia ,bridge was a great triumph for ,robert ,stephenson4 ,he appears first to have seized the idea1 and1 assisted no doubt by ,fairbairn's experiments and by able coadjutors1 he carried it through to a successful completion4 ,he was of course the son of ,george ,stephenson1 who had done so much for the locomotive1 and according to ,smiles1 8he almost worshipped his father's memory1 and was ever ready to attribute to him the chief merit of his own achievements as an engineer40 8,it was his thorough training10 ,mr4 ,smiles once heard him remark1 8his example1 and his character1 which made me the man ,i am40 ,further1 in an address as ,president of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 in ,january1 #ahef1 he said3 8,all ,i know1 and all ,i have done is primarily due to the parent whose memory ,i cherish and revere40 ,that father had died before the ,britannia ,bridge was completed1 though he had been present at the floating of the first tube at ,conway4 ,the great engineer passed away on the #abth of ,august1 #ahdh1 at the age of sixty-seven1 and his distinguished son ,robert1 who had no children1 only survived him by eleven years4 ,but before he died he had designed1 and ,mr4 ,a4 ,m4 ,ross1 who had assisted at the ,conway ,bridge1 had assisted in carrying out the celebrated ,victoria ,tubular ,bridge over the great ,st4 ,lawrence ,river at ,montreal4 ,this bridge was for the ,grand ,trunk ,railway of ,canada1 and for immense length and vastness of proportions1 combined with magnificent strength1 is one of the wonders of the world4 ,it is five times as long as the ,britannia ,bridge1 being not far short of two miles4 ,it has a big central span of #ccj feet1 and twenty-four spans of #bdb feet4 ,the iron tubes are suspended sixty feet above the water beneath4 ,illustration3 ,,victoria ,,tubular ,,bridge1 ,,montreal4 ,one great difficulty in the problem was the ice4 ,immense quantities come down in the spring1 and to resist this enormous pressure the piers are most massive1 containing thousands of tons each of solid masonry4 ,these piers are based on the solid rock1 the two central towers being eighteen feet in width and the others fifteen feet4 ,to protect them from the ice1 huge guards made of stone blocks clamped with rivets built up in the form of an incline were placed before the piers on the up-stream side4 ,the bridge was begun in ,july1 #ahed1 and occupied four and a-half years in construction1 it being completed in ,december1 #ahei1 about two months after its designer had died4 ,gigantic though this structure is1 and great as is the honour which it reflects on ,robert ,stephenson and the resident and joint engineer ,mr4 ,ross1 yet with the exception of the remarkable and massive ice-guards to the piers1 it does not differ materially from the ,britannia and ,conway ,tubular ,bridges4 ,these were the first famous examples of the new principle4 ,why1 then1 are massive tubular bridges not more generally built8 ,because they led to another and very natural development in bridge-building1 a development whereby great strength for long spans is gained1 with1 however1 a marked saving both in labour and in material4 ,that development was the lattice bridge4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,lattice ,,and ,,suspension ,,bridges4 8,the expense of a tubular bridge would be too great40 8,but if we could get the strength without the expense40 8,what mean you80 8,by iron lattice work we could1 ,i think1 gain the stiffness and support needed1 without such great cost of labour and material4 ,in other words1 ,i propose a lattice or trellis work girder1 instead of a solid sided1 or a tubular girder40 8,that is1 you would have the sides of lattice or trellis work1 instead of solid plates80 8,exactly4 ,i would use bars of iron placed diagonally4 ,these lattice or trellis bridges are developed from the tubular bridges1 also from the loose wooden lattice bridges of ,america4 ,we make a web of iron instead of a solid sheet4 ,the same kind of structures are largely used over the wide rivers of ,india4 ,sir ,john ,mac,neill designed the first in iron1 and it was built in #ahdc on the ,dublin and ,drogheda ,railway with a span of eighty-four feet4 ,i consider they will be among the most popular bridges of the future for longish spans40 ,the engineer's prediction has come true2 for lattice bridges have undoubtedly been very widely adopted4 ,we may suppose that he was advising the directors of a proposed railway1 and we doubt not but that he carried the day4 ,a fine specimen of a lattice bridge is that across the ,thames near ,charing ,cross1 for the ,south-,eastern ,railway4 ,it has a total length of more than a quarter of a mile--viz41 #acfe feet1 and six of its nine spans are #aed feet wide4 ,two principal girders1 fourteen feet deep1 are connected transversely by other girders which carry the rails and project on the other side to support a footpath4 ,the two main girders are nearly fifty feet apart and one weighs #aij tons4 ,the sides have upper and lower booms made of plate iron connected by perpendicular bars1 between which are a couple of bars crossing each other diagonally at an angle of forty-five degrees1 and fixed to the booms by bolts of five and seven inches in diameter4 ,the old ,hungerford ,bridge stood here previously1 and its two piers of brickwork were used for the new bridge4 ,other piers are huge cylinders of cast iron ten feet across1 but fourteen feet in diameter in the ground4 ,thus they are broadly based4 ,these piers are filled with concrete and also brickwork1 and are topped with bearing-blocks of granite4 ,they are formed of plates of cast iron bolted together1 and they were sunk into the ground many feet below high-water by combined forces2 divers scooped out the mud and gravel and clay from within the cylinders2 water was pumped out and heavy weights pressed them down4 ,the piers became fixed on the ,london clay1 but when filled were heavily weighted to drive them down again1 and finally they were forced to a depth of over sixty-two feet below high-water mark4 ,but before lattice girder bridges had become so popular1 another class had come into use1 and afford some splendid specimens of engineering skill4 ,these are suspension bridges1 and1 perhaps of all kinds1 they are the most picturesque4 ,their graceful sweeps and curves yield perhaps a more pleasing sight for the eye than the solid1 rigid1 straight lines of the girder bridges4 ,it was the genius of ,thomas ,telford which gave a great impetus to this class of bridge4 ,like ,stephenson after him1 he had to bridge the surging ,menai ,straits1 but for a carriage road1 not a line of rails2 and at length1 after various plans had been suggested and abandoned1 he proposed the ,suspension ,bridge4 ,now1 in its simplest form1 a suspension bridge has been known for ages4 ,it is merely a pathway1 or even a small movable car1 suspended from a rope or ropes across a chasm4 ,ulloa describes suspension bridges built by the ,peruvians in ,south ,america4 ,four stout cables span a river1 and on these four is placed the platform of sticks and branches1 while two other ropes connected with the platform are useful as hand rails4 ,such bridges sway with the wind and move with the passenger1 but for light loads they appear to be perfectly safe4 ,in ,telford's ,menai ,bridge the carriage-way is hung from four huge chains or cables1 each chain made up of four others1 and passing over high piers4 ,the chains are anchored on the landward side1 sixty feet in pits1 and grafted by iron frames to the rocks4 ,the chains are so complex and so strong1 that parts may be removed for repair without imperilling the safety of the structure4 ,the length of the span thus gained is #efj feet1 and it is #aej feet above high-water4 ,the remainder of the bridge is composed of arches of stone1 of #eb feet span4 ,the piers from which the great span is suspended rise above the carriage-way fifty-two feet1 and are topped by blocks of cast-iron1 which can move on rollers to permit the chains passing over them to expand and contract freely with the temperature4 ,there are two carriage-roads1 and also a footpath4 ,the roads are separated by iron lattice work1 which also gives them stability and decreases vibration4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,clifton ,,bridge4 ,in its day1 this stupendous bridge was as great a wonder as its later companion over the same ,straits--the ,britannia ,tubular4 ,six years were occupied in building1 and it was opened in #ahbe4 ,why1 then1 did not ,stephenson construct a similar bridge when1 twenty years or so later1 he had to solve a similar problem8 ,the answer is1 that suspension bridges are not--or were not--considered sufficiently strong and rigid for railway work4 ,in ,america1 however1 they have been used for this purpose2 witness the famous ,niagara ,suspension ,bridge1 #b miles below the ,falls1 and with a superb span of #hbb feet2 but ,american engineers appear to stiffen the roadway considerably1 so as to distribute the stress of the rushing train over a large portion of the cable4 ,the ,niagara ,bridge is not supported by plate-link chains1 but by four immense wire cables1 stretching from cliff to cliff over the roaring rapids4 ,four thousand distinct wires make up each cable1 which pass over lofty piers1 and from them hangs the railway by numerous rods4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,brooklyn ,,bridge4 ,probably the famous ,brooklyn ,bridge is the largest suspension bridge in the world1 even as the ,clifton ,suspension ,bridge1 in ,england1 is one of the most interesting4 ,the ,brooklyn ,bridge has a magnificent central span of #aeie feet over the ,east ,river between ,brooklyn and ,new ,york2 further1 there are two land spans of #icj feet1 which1 together with the approaches1 make up a total of about a mile and a furlong4 ,the cables1 four in number1 are each composed of #ejjj steel wires1 and measure #ae inches in diameter4 ,they are anchored to solid stone structures at either end1 measuring #aai feet by #acb feet1 and weighing #fj1jjj tons2 while the towers from which the main span is suspended rise to the height of #bgf feet1 and are embedded in the ground #hj feet below high-water4 ,it has been estimated that the weight hung between these towers is nearly #gjjj tons4 ,the roadway of the bridge is divided into five thoroughfares4 ,those on the outer sides are for vehicles1 and are #ai feet wide2 the centre is for foot passengers1 and is #ae feet in width2 while the two others are for tramway traffic4 ,the bridge was opened in #ahhc1 and affords a great triumph of engineering skill4 ,much smaller1 but none the less interesting1 is the ,suspension ,bridge at ,clifton4 ,as far back as #agec1 ,alderman ,william ,vick1 of ,bristol1 left a sum of #ajjj to build a bridge at ,clifton4 ,the sum was to lie at compound interest until #aj1jjj was reached4 ,however1 the money was increased by subscriptions1 and in #ahcj an ,act of ,parliament was obtained for its construction4 ,the work coming into the hands of ,mr4 ,i4 ,k4 ,brunel1 he designed a bridge of #gjb feet span1 and #bej feet above high-water4 ,the piers and abutments were built1 but lack of cash1 which forms an obstacle to so many brilliant enterprises1 stopped the progress of the bridge for nearly fourteen years4 ,then it occurred that the ,hungerford ,suspension ,bridge was to be removed to make way for the ,charing ,cross ,railway ,bridge1 so the chains were purchased at a comparatively small cost1 and the work at ,clifton proceeded1 and was finally completed4 ,three chains on either side suspend long wrought-iron girders1 which help to stiffen the platform2 and cross girders between support the floor4 ,the chains pass over rollers on the piers1 and are ultimately anchored to plates bedded in brickwork abutting on rock4 ,the platform is hung by upright rods from the chains1 and hand-railing is used with lattice-work1 to assist in rendering it rigid4 ,the roadway1 twenty feet wide1 is made of creosoted wood1 five inches thick1 while the pathways on either side are made with wood half as thick4 ,between the piers the weight of the structure1 including the chains1 amounts to nearly a thousand tons4 ,in all these suspension bridges1 however large1 the principles are much the same4 ,the platform1 or roadway1 is hung from chains or cables1 which pass over piers and are anchored fast at the ends4 ,some are stiffened with girders and bracing to prevent undue undulation4 ,the chains take a graceful and definite curve1 that of the ,menai ,bridge dipping fifty-seven feet4 ,the strain is the greatest at the lower part1 and is increased1 should the chain be drawn flatter over the same space4 ,these bridges became widely adopted4 ,but there came a time when none of the bridges in vogue seemed to give what was required4 ,a new principle was wanted4 ,where was it to be found8 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,greatest ,,bridge ,,in ,,the ,,world4 8,have you heard the news8 ,the ,tay ,bridge is blown down60 8,yes4 ,a terrible disaster4 ,i should think they would give up their scheme of bridging the ,firth of ,forth after that40 8,not they6 ,the scheme may be altered1 but bridge it they will4 ,engineers never give in40 ,the comments of these newspaper readers were right4 ,the ,tay ,bridge1 the longest in the world1 had been blown down one wild ,december night in #ahgi1 and girders1 towers1 and the train which was rushing over it1 were suddenly hurled into the surging flood4 ,at that time a scheme was in hand to bridge the ,forth for the ,north ,british ,railway system1 and ,sir ,thomas ,bouch had proposed two suspension bridges hung by steel chains4 ,but ultimately a new design altogether was adopted1 the plan being by ,sir ,benjamin ,baker and ,sir ,john ,fowler4 ,it was the new principle--or1 rather1 a remarkable development of an old principle--for which the bridge-making world was waiting3 the principle1 namely1 of the cantilever4 ,a cantilever is1 in fact1 a bracket2 and ,sir ,benjamin ,baker has described it as such4 ,it is a strong support1 built out from a firm base1 and is like a powerful and magnified bracket upholding a shelf4 ,in the ,forth ,bridge there are two huge spans1 #agjj feet wide1 crossed by these cantilevers2 bridging channels of some #bjj feet deep4 ,the longest spans on the ,tay ,bridge were #bde feet2 it was over two miles long1 and had ninety spans4 ,it was an iron girder bridge1 and was opened on the #cast of ,may1 #ahgh4 ,not to be beaten1 however1 after the panic had subsided1 another and more stable bridge was constructed1 also a girder1 but not so high in elevation1 and sixty feet further up the river4 ,it was opened in #ahhg1 and is #aj1ggi feet long1 with #he piers1 the navigable channel being under four of the spans1 the centre spans being #bde feet wide4 ,it will be seen at once that the cantilevers at the ,forth ,bridge cover very much wider spans2 and the channel being so deep1 the impossibility of building piers will also be obvious4 ,the best place for the bridge was marked by the projection of the ,inverkeithing peninsula on the north shore1 and also the ,inchgarvie rock in the channel itself4 ,the peninsula brought the two shores together1 reducing the space to be bridged1 and the rock gave firm support for a pier4 ,still there were the two immense spans of #agjj feet to be crossed1 and the engineers decided on the cantilever principle4 ,thus1 though the ,tay ,bridge was the longest in the world1 the ,forth presented by far the greatest spans--viz41 the two main spans of #agjj feet each1 in addition to which there are two of #fge feet each1 and fifteen of #afh feet each4 ,the total length of this magnificent bridge1 which ,sir ,benjamin ,baker rightly claimed was the most wonderful in the world1 is somewhat over #a miles in length1 or #hbif feet1 including the piers1 while almost a mile is bridged by the huge and superb cantilevers4 ,this is1 perhaps1 the great marvel4 ,the clear space under the centre is no less than #aeb feet at high-water1 while the highest portion is #cfa feet above the same mark4 ,and now1 how was this great bridge constructed8 ,workshops were erected at ,south ,queensferry1 and the mammoth cantilevers were put up there piece by piece4 ,they were fitted together and then taken plate by plate to the bridge itself4 ,the shops were lit by electricity1 and furnished with appliances for bending1 cutting1 moulding1 holing1 and planing plates4 ,the workshops were surrounded by quite a maze of railways4 ,but what of the piers1 without which all these preparations would be unavailing8 ,now the foundations of piers are usually laid by means of cofferdams2 that is1 piles of timber are driven down through the water into the bed of the river close together1 and the interstices filled with clay2 or a casing of iron may be used instead4 ,the water in the enclosure thus formed can be pumped out and excavation proceeded with1 and the foundations laid4 ,cofferdams are sometimes made of iron boxes or caissons with interstices fitted with felt1 and caissons of this kind about #ab feet long and #g feet wide were used in constructing the ,victoria ,embankment on the ,thames4 ,but with certain of the piers for the ,forth ,bridge the water was too deep for timber cofferdams1 and the usual diving-bell was not sufficiently large4 ,the piers were to be of immense size1 no less than #ee feet in diameter1 and the diving-bell of ordinary size would not cover that great width4 ,huge caissons were therefore made1 #gj feet wide1 constructed of iron plates and rising in height1 according to the depth of water1 up to #aej feet4 ,the lower part of the immense caisson or tank was fitted as a water-tight division and filled with compressed air1 the object being to resist the pressure of the water4 ,two shafts communicated with this air-tight division or mining chamber1 one for the removal of the earth excavated1 and the other for the men to pass up and down4 ,the escape of the air through the shafts was prevented by the use of an air-lock1 working on the same principle as a water-lock on rivers or canals4 ,there were two doors in the lock1 one communicating with the shaft and the other with the outside air4 ,when the latter was closed and the lock filled with compressed air by opening a valve or tap1 the door of the shaft could be opened and the man could descend to his work below4 ,that work consisted chiefly of excavation in the bed of the river4 ,drills1 hydraulic cutters1 and dynamite blasting were all utilised until huge holes1 many feet below the river bed1 were hollowed out4 ,as the caisson was filled with concrete above the air-tight chamber where the men worked it was exceedingly heavy1 and sank by its own weight into the space prepared4 ,the mining chamber was lit by electricity1 and was about seven feet high4 ,the mud of the river bed was mixed with water and blown away by the compressed air which seems to have been about #cc lbs4 to the square inch4 ,the caissons were sunk down to rock or boulder clay1 and when they had reached the required distance the mining chamber was filled with concrete1 and the same material used to the level of the water2 the piers were then built up with huge stones placed in cement1 the whole forming a magnificent mass of concrete and masonry1 carried down in some cases to about #dj feet below the bed of the river4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,forth ,,bridge4 ,the three chief piers consist of groups of four columns of masonry1 each gradually tapering from #ee feet in diameter to #di feet at the top1 and about #cf feet high4 ,from these rise the huge cantilevers connected together by girders #cej feet in length4 ,the centre of these three main piers rests on the island of ,inchgarvie2 the two others are known as the ,fife and the ,queensferry piers respectively1 and are placed on the side of the deep water channels4 ,in addition to these three main piers are several others1 some in shallow water and some on land4 ,the part of the bridge which they carry is an ordinary girder of steel leading to the immense cantilevers4 ,for founding the shallow water piers1 cofferdams were used2 the caissons with compressed air chambers being for the deep water structures4 ,they were put together on shore1 launched1 floated1 steered to the desired position1 and sunk4 ,one proved cranky and turned over1 and was only brought right after much expense and difficulty4 ,the cantilevers are bolted down to each pier by numbers of huge steel ties1 #bd feet in length and #b inches in diameter1 embedded in the masonry1 there being #dh of these bolts or ties to each column4 ,and now as to these cantilevers4 ,four huge tubular shafts1 two on each side1 rise from the group of columns forming each pier1 to the height of #cej feet4 ,from these shafts1 which slope slightly inward1 project the cantilevers1 the upper and lower parts being strongly braced together by diagonal ties4 ,in shape the gigantic brackets taper towards a point1 the width decreasing as much as from #abj feet at the commencement of the piers to #cb feet at the ends4 ,the wind1 it is believed1 will be more effectually resisted by this means4 ,the cantilevers are hung back to back1 one to some extent counter-weighing the other4 ,the component parts consist of cylinders of steel or struts for resisting compression--these are the lower parts2 and ties of lattice-work made of steel plates for resisting tension1--placed above4 ,thus1 then1 from each of the three chief piers two pairs of gigantic brackets project1 each pair placed side by side and braced together1 and forming one composite cantilever jutting to the north and one to the south4 ,the rails run on sleepers placed lengthwise and fixed in troughs of steel1 so that should a train run off the line the wheels will be caught by these supports4 ,it is calculated that there are about #de1jjj tons of steel in the bridge1 and #abj1jjj cubic yards of masonry in the piers4 ,the contract price was #a1fjj1jjj1 which works out at about #bae per foot2 and the contractors1 who were able to obtain an admirable organisation of some #bjjj men to carry out the magnificent design1 were ,messrs4 ,tancred1 ,arrol1 ,co4 ,some special tools for use in the work were planned by ,sir ,william ,arrol4 ,the bridge was opened by the ,prince of ,wales on the #dth of ,march1 #ahij4 ,the success of this magnificent structure has assured the wider adoption of the cantilever principle4 ,long-span bridges1 in several cases1 have since been built on this design4 ,its engineers may claim indeed to have widened the scope and possibilities of bridge-building4 ,still1 when another bridge was wanted over the ,thames1 at a busy spot1 crowded with shipping and near the historic ,tower of ,london1 another kind of structure was adopted4 ,what was it8 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,tower ,,bridge4 8,why should they not have a drawbridge80 8,what6 ,to draw up from each bank of the river80 8,no1 ,i did not mean that exactly4 ,could they not get piers farther in towards the centre of the stream1 and let the drawbridge rise and fall from them80 8,the river is too crowded for many piers40 8,it is4 ,but ,i cannot help thinking a drawbridge--a bascule bridge as the engineers call it--is the best solution of the difficulty40 8,well1 a bridge is wanted sufficiently low to spring from the flat banks of the ,thames for foot passengers and carriage traffic1 and yet sufficiently high to permit tall ships to pass underneath40 8,and apparently these two requirements are incompatible40 8,not altogether10 remarks a third speaker4 8,you are partly right in your idea of a drawbridge4 ,that is ,sir ,horace ,jones's idea4 ,and1 further1 there is literally to be a high and also a low-level bridge2 for there are to be two levels--that is1 two roadways--one at a high1 and one at a low1 level across the middle span40 8,and is the low level to be a drawbridge--a roadway that can be drawn up to permit vessels to pass8 ,is that so80 8,exactly4 ,and this drawbridge will be in two parts1 one on either side2 they will be worked from two massive piers giving a clear span of #bjj feet in the middle of the stream1 through which span big vessels can pass4 ,the usual traffic of the river will be able to pass even when the drawbridges are down40 8,and above the bascules or drawbridges will run the high-level bridge80 8,yes1 a girder bridge for footpaths1 and people will reach it by lifts and staircases in the piers--which1 by-the-by1 will be more like huge towers4 ,these towers will also contain the machinery for raising and lowering the drawbridges40 8,and what sort of bridge will be used for the other spans--that is1 to cross the river between the piers and the shore80 8,suspension bridges2 so that the ,tower ,bridge as it will be called1 for it will cross the ,thames by the ,tower of ,london1 will embody the suspension1 the bascule 7or drawbridge71 and the girder bridge principles1 while in the centre will be two levels40 8,it promises to be a splendid piece of work40 8,it does4 ,and it is very much needed1 for the congestion of traffic on ,london ,bridge is terrible40 8,and people have often to come round a long way to reach it40 ,the promise of the ,tower ,bridge1 as set forth by these speakers1 has been amply fulfilled4 ,it is indeed a fine piece of work2 and although it does not embody any new idea1 yet in its combination and development of old principles and in its size it is very remarkable4 ,it was opened in ,june1 #ahid1 and is1 or was at the time of building1 the biggest bascule bridge in the world4 ,within its handsome ,gothic towers are steel columns of immense strength1 constituting the chief supports of the suspension bridges and of the high-level footways4 ,the architect was the late ,sir ,horace ,jones1 and the engineer ,mr4 ,j4 ,wolfe ,barry1 while the cost was1 including land1 about #a1agj1jjj4 ,the problem was to combine a low-level bridge providing for ordinary town traffic with a high level1 under which ships could pass1 and it was accomplished by a union of principles4 ,in its oldest shape the drawbridge was probably a huge piece of timber1 which was hauled up and let down by chains over the moats of castles4 ,in the ,tower ,bridge there are two of such huge 8flaps0 or leaves1 each about #ajj feet long1 one rising and falling from each pier and meeting in the centre4 ,large bascule bridges are usually constructed in this manner1 and there is an excellent specimen over the ,ouse1 for the passage of the ,north-,eastern railway2 one man at each half of the bridge can raise it in less than two minutes4 ,another fine bascule may be seen at ,copenhagen4 ,the bascules are raised and lowered by chains1 which1 in the case of the ,tower ,bridge1 are worked by superb hydraulic power from the massive pier towers4 ,when drawn up1 which is done in less than five minutes1 the bascules are even with the sides of the towers1 and full space is given for the vessels to pass4 ,the two side spans of the bridge1 crossed by the suspension bridges1 are wider than the centre1 being #bgj feet each1 and the total length of the whole bridge is #hjj feet between the abutments4 ,there are also piers on the shoreward side for carrying the chains of the suspension bridges at each extremity4 ,the massive tower piers1 sunk #bg feet below the river bed1 are built of gray granite1 and are also fitted with strong break-waters to resist the action of the tide4 ,the high-level bridges across the central span are for foot passengers1 and are #ace feet over high-water mark4 ,the bascule bridges1 when closed for vehicular traffic1 are #bi feet above high water1 while the side suspension spans are #bg feet4 ,the roadway is #ej feet wide1 which is also the width of the approaches4 ,the foot passenger traffic is never stopped1 as persons can pass by the hydraulic lifts or the stairways in the tower piers to the high-level bridges above4 ,sir ,horace ,jones died before the great work was completed1 and was succeeded by ,mr4 ,g4 ,d4 ,stevenson1 who had been his assistant4 ,sir ,william ,arrol ,co4 supplied the iron and steel1 and ,sir ,william ,armstrong the hydraulic machinery4 ,various contractors carried out different portions of the mighty work1 which occupied about eight years in building4 ,near by stands the ancient ,tower of ,london1 looking not unkindly on the great constructive effort to which it has given its name4 ,sometimes a bridge is made movable by swinging it round on a pivot instead of drawing it up on a hinge or axis2 and sometimes1 as in the case of a bridge over the ,arun for the ,brighton and ,south ,coast ,railway1 it is made to slide on wheels backwards and forwards from the abutment4 ,floating or pontoon bridges are made by placing planks on pontoons1 or boats anchored by cables4 ,the longest in the world is probably at ,calcutta1 across the ,hooghly4 ,it is #aecj feet in length1 there being twenty-eight pontoons in pairs4 ,these are of iron1 #afj feet long1 and with ends shaped like wedges2 they support a road-way of #c-;inch timbers1 forty-eight feet wide1 and raised on tressel work4 ,an opening can be made for ships by removing four pontoons and floating them clear of the passage way4 ,great bridges present some of the most remarkable triumphs of the engineer4 ,they rank beside the express locomotive and the ocean liner as among the great constructive achievements of mankind4 ,daring in design1 and bold in execution and in sweep of span1 they have been developed along several principles2 and so solidly have they been built1 so sound are the laws of their being1 that it seems as though they will live as long as the everlasting hills4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,remarkable ,,tunnels ,,and ,,their ,,construction4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,how ,,brunel ,,made ,a ,,boring-,,shield4 8,i watched the worm at work and took my idea from that tiny creature60 8,a worm6 ,was it an ordinary worm80 8,oh no1 it was the naval wood-worm--,teredo ,navalis2 it can bore its way through the hardest timber4 ,i was in a dockyard and ,i saw the movements of this animal as it cut its way through the wood1 and the idea struck me that ,i could produce some machine of the kind for successful tunnelling40 8,well1 it has been brilliantly successful40 8,i looked at the animal closely1 and found that it was covered with a couple of valvular shells in front2 these shells seem to act as a shield1 and after many attempts ,i elaborated the boring-shield which was used in hollowing out the ,thames ,tunnel40 ,this statement1 which we can imagine to have been made by ,sir ,marc ,isambard ,brunel to a friend1 is no doubt in substance quite true4 ,a writer in the 8,edinburgh ,encyclopdia0 says1 that ,sir ,m4 ,i4 ,brunel informed him1 8that the idea upon which his new plan of tunnelling is founded1 was suggested to him by the operations of the ,teredo1 a testaceous worm1 covered with a cylindrical shell1 which eats its way through the hardest wood40 ,two or three attempts had already been made to drive a tunnel under the ,thames1 but they had ended in failure4 ,in #ahbc1 ,brunel came forward with another proposal1 and he ultimately succeeded4 ,this illustrious engineer must not be confounded with his son--who was also a celebrated engineer--,isambard ,kingdom ,brunel4 ,there were two ,brunels1 father and son1 even as there were two ,stephensons1 ,george and ,robert4 ,sir ,marc ,isambard ,brunel1 the father1 whose most notable enterprise was the ,thames ,tunnel1 was a ,french farmer's son1 and after various experiences in ,france and ,america settled in ,england in #agii1 and married the daughter of ,william ,kingdom of ,plymouth4 ,he had already succeeded as an engineer so well as to be appointed chief engineer of ,new ,york1 and a scheme for manufacturing block-pulleys by machinery for vessels was accepted by the ,british ,government1 who paid him #ag1jjj for the invention4 ,he was also engaged in the construction of ,woolwich ,arsenal and ,chatham ,dockyard1 etc41 and in #ahbc he came forward with another proposal for the ,thames ,tunnel4 ,in that same year1 his son1 ,isambard ,kingdom ,brunel1 entered his father's office1 and assisted in the construction of the tunnel4 ,the son subsequently became engineer to the ,great ,western ,railway1 and designed the ,great ,western steamship4 ,but though ,brunel's proposal for the tunnel was made public in #ahbc1 the work was not actually commenced until ,march1 #ahbe4 ,it was to cross under the river from ,wapping to ,rotherhithe1 and present two archways4 ,and if you had been down by the ,rotherhithe bank of the ,thames about the latter date1 you would have been surprised to see that instead of hollowing out a shaft1 proceedings began by raising a round tower4 ,a space was traced out1 some #ej feet across1 and bricklayers began to build a circular hollow tower about #c feet thick and #db feet high4 ,this tower was strengthened by iron bars1 etc41 and then the excavation commenced within4 ,the soil was dug out and raised by an engine at the top1 which also pumped out water4 ,and as the hollow proceeded1 the great shaft or tube of masonry sank gradually into it4 ,bricklayers added to its summit until it reached a total height of #fe feet1 which in due course was sunk into the ground4 ,thus1 then1 the engineer had1 to commence with1 a strong and reliable brickwork shaft1 #c feet thick1 by which men and materials could ascend and descend in safety4 ,a smaller shaft was also sunk deeper for drainage4 ,and now the actual boring of the tunnel commenced4 ,it was to be #ch feet wide and #bb feet in height4 ,on ,new ,year's ,day1 #ahbf1 the boring-shield was placed below in the shaft4 ,the shield was composed of #cf cells1 #c cells in height and #ab in breadth1 with a workman to each4 ,the huge 8shield0 was placed before the earth to be excavated1 and a front board being removed1 the soil behind it was dug out to a specified extent1 and the board was propped against the fresh surface thus made4 ,when the boards had all been placed thus1 the cells were pushed forward into the hollow then made4 ,this was accomplished by means of screws at the top and bottom of the shield1 and which were set against the completed brickwork behind4 ,for1 while the labourers were working in front1 the bricklayers behind built up the sides and roof1 and formed the floor of the tunnel1 the soil at the roof being supported by the shield until the masons had completed their task4 ,for nine feet1 the tunnel proceeded through clay1 but then came an unwelcome change4 ,wet1 loose sand prevailed1 and the work progressed with peril for thirty-two days1 when firmer ground was reached4 ,six months passed and substantial headway was made1 the tunnel being completed to the extent of #bfj feet4 ,then1 on the #adth of ,september1 the startling intelligence came that the engineer feared the river would burst in at the next tide4 ,he had found a cavity over the shield4 ,sure enough1 at high tide1 when the river was brimming full1 the workmen heard the ominous rattle of earth falling on their shield1 while gushes of water followed4 ,so excellent were the precautions1 however1 that no disastrous effects followed1 and ,father ,thames himself rolled earth or clay into the hole and stopped it up4 ,it was a warning1 and emphasised the fear that haunted the men's minds all through the hazardous undertaking--the fear that the river would break through and drown the tunnel4 ,in ,october1 another small irruption took place1 and was successfully combated4 ,then1 in the following ,january 7#ahbg71 some clay fell1 but still no overwhelming catastrophe occurred4 ,the ground grew so moist1 however1 that it was examined on the other side4 ,that is1 the river bed was inspected by the agency of a diving-bell1 and some ominous depressions were found4 ,these were promptly filled by bags of clay4 ,it may be asked1 ,why had ,brunel not gone deeper8 ,why had he not placed a greater thickness of earth or clay between his work and the waters of the ,thames8 ,the answer is this--,he had been informed by geologists that quicksand prevailed lower down1 and the shaft that he sank for drainage below the level of the proposed tunnel1 indicated that this view might be correct4 ,in fact1 when he got down #hj feet1 the soil gave way1 and water and sand rushed upwards4 ,he was therefore apparently between the ,thames and the quicksand4 ,the ,tower ,subway1 constructed in #ahfi1 and driven through the solid ,london clay1 is1 however1 #fj feet deep where it commences at ,tower ,hill4 ,work went steadily forward at ,brunel's tunnel until the #ahth of ,may4 ,mr4 ,beamish1 the assistant engineer1 was in the cutting on that day1 and as the tide rose he observed the water increase about the shield2 clay showed itself and gravel appeared4 ,he had the clay closed up1 and went to encourage the pumpers4 ,suddenly1 before he could get into the cells1 a great rush of sludge and water drove the men out of the cells1 extinguished the lights1 floated the cement casks and boxes1 and poured forward and ever forward1 filling the tunnel with the roaring of the flood4 ,the ,thames had broken in with a vengeance this time1 and drowned the tunnel4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,under ,,the ,,river4 ,happily no one lost his life4 ,the men retreated before the advancing wave1 and as they went they met ,brunel4 ,but the great engineer could do nothing just then1 except1 like them1 to retreat4 ,the lights yet remaining flashed on the roaring water1 and then suddenly went out in darkness4 ,the foot of the staircase was reached1 and it was found thronged with the retreating workers4 ,higher and higher grew the surging flood2 ,brunel ordered great speed2 and scarcely were the men's feet off the lower stair when it was torn away4 ,on gaining the top1 cries were heard2 some calling for a rope1 others for a boat4 ,some one was below in the water6 ,brunel himself slipped down an iron rod1 another followed1 and each fastening a rope to the body of a man they found in the flood1 he was soon drawn out of danger4 ,on calling the roll1 every worker answered to his name4 ,no life was lost4 ,so far1 good2 but what was to be done now8 ,the tunnel was full of water4 ,to pump it dry was impossible1 for the tide poured in from the ,thames4 ,again the diving-bell was used1 and the hole was found in the bed of the river4 ,to stop it bags of clay1 with hazel sticks1 were employed2 and so difficult was the task that three thousand bags were utilised in the process1 and more than a month elapsed before the water was subdued4 ,two months more passed before the earth washed in was removed1 and ,brunel could examine the work4 ,he found it for the most part quite sound1 though near the shield it had been shorn of half its thickness of bricks4 ,the chain of the shield was snapped in twain1 and irons belonging to the same apparatus had been forced into the earth4 ,the men now proceeded with their task1 and exhibited a cool courage deserving of all praise4 ,earth and water frequently fell2 foul gases pervaded the stifling air1 and sometimes exploded1 or catching fire1 they would now and again dance over the water2 and again and again labourers would be carried away insensible from the poisonous atmosphere4 ,complaints1 such as skin eruptions1 sickness1 and headaches1 were common4 ,yet1 in spite of every difficulty1 the men worked on in that damp and dripping and ftid mine1 haunted ever with the dread of another flood4 ,and it came4 ,on the #abth of ,august1 #ahbh1 some fifteen months after the previous disaster1 the ground bulged out1 a large quantity fell1 and a violent rush of water followed2 one man being washed out of his cell to the wooden staging behind4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,thames ,,tunnel4 ,the flow was so great that ,brunel ordered all to retire4 ,the water rose so fast that when they had retreated a few feet it was up to their waists1 and finally ,brunel had to swim to the stairs1 and the rush of water carried him up the shaft4 ,unhappily1 about half-a-dozen lives were lost at this catastrophe1 and those who were rescued--about a dozen in number--were extricated in an exhausted or fainting state4 ,the roar of the water in the shaft made a deafening noise2 the news soon spread1 and the scene became very distressing as the relatives of the men arrived4 ,once more the hole in the bed of the ,thames had to be stopped4 ,down went the diving-bell1 but it had to descend twice before the gap was discovered4 ,it was a hole some seven feet long1 and four thousand tons of earth1 chiefly bags of clay1 were used in filling it4 ,again the tunnel was entered1 and again the intrepid engineer found the work sound4 ,but1 alas1 another difficulty had presented itself--one more difficult to conquer even than stopping up huge holes in the bed of the ,thames4 ,the tunnel was being cut by a ,company1 and its money had gone2 nay1 more1 its confidence had well nigh gone also4 ,work could not proceed without money1 and for seven years silence and desolation reigned in those unfinished halls beneath the river4 ,then the ,government agreed to advance money1 and work was again commenced4 ,but it proceeded very slowly1 some weeks less than a foot being cut1 during others again three feet nine inches4 ,the ground was in fact a fluid mud1 and the bed of the river had to be artificially formed before the excavation could proceed in comparative safety4 ,further1 the tunnel was far deeper than any other work in the neighbourhood1 and all the water drained there--a difficulty which was obviated by the construction of a shaft on the other side of the river4 ,the shield had also to be replaced4 ,it had been so battered about by the flood that another was necessary4 ,as it kept up the earth above1 and also in front1 the change was both arduous and perilous4 ,but it was accomplished without loss of life4 ,three more irruptions of water occurred3 the third in ,august1 #ahcg1 the fourth in ,november1 #ahcg1 and the fifth in ,march1 #ahch4 ,but the engineer was more prepared for ,father ,thames' unpleasant visits1 and a platform had been constructed by which the men could escape4 ,unhappily1 one life was lost1 however1 on the fourth occasion4 ,a great rush of soil also occurred in ,april1 #ahdj1 accompanied by a sinking of the shore at ,wapping over some seven hundred feet of surface4 ,happily this occurred at low tide1 and the chasm was filled with gravel and bags of clay before the river rose high4 ,at length1 on the #acth of ,august1 #ahda1 ,brunel descended the shaft at ,wapping1 and entering a small cutting1 passed through the shield in the tunnel1 amidst the cheers of the workmen4 ,after all these years of arduous toil1 of anxious solicitude1 and of hair-breadth escapes1 the end was near1 and a passage under the ,thames was cut4 ,it was not completed and open to the public1 however1 until the #beth of ,march1 #ahdc1 and then for foot passengers only4 ,the approaches for carriages remained to be constructed1 and would have been expensive works4 ,they were to be immense circular roads1 but they were never made4 ,perhaps that deficiency contributed to the commercial failure of the great engineering enterprise4 ,in any case1 the tunnel never paid2 the ,company dissolved2 and the tunnel passed over to the ,east ,london ,railway1 who run trains through it4 ,its length is #acjj feet1 while between it and the river there is a thickness of soil of some fifteen feet4 ,though a failure as a business1 yet the tunnel was a great engineering triumph4 ,it was a marvel of perseverance1 and of determined1 arduous1 skilful toil against overwhelming difficulties4 ,eighteen years passed before it was completed2 and if the seven be deducted during which the work was stopped1 still eleven remain as the period of its construction4 ,work occupying such a length of time must be costly4 ,could it be shortened8 ,would tunnel-making machinery be developed and improved so as to expedite the labour of years8 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,through ,,the ,,alps4 8,cut through the ,alps8 ,it is an impossibility2 and it would never pay60 8,yet they are about to do it4 ,sommeiller1 an engineer1 has invented1 or obtained1 a rock-boring machine which promises to lighten the labour considerably2 and then1 of course1 they will shatter great quantities of earth by explosives40 8,and what part of the ,alps80 8,through ,mont ,cenis4 ,the tunnel will be about #g miles long1 and the mountain over it will rise #edjj feet at one point40 8,and when do they expect to finish it80 8,i cannot say4 ,they will begin on the southern--that is1 the ,italian--side first1 and later on the ,french side4 ,through the tunnel will pass one of the principal routes from the ,west to the ,east40 ,this conversation1 we may suppose1 took place in #aheg1 the year when the tunnel was commenced4 ,for four years hand work was used1 though blasting was in operation from the first2 but in #ahfa drilling by machinery was brought into play1 and the rate of progress became much greater4 ,the machine was the first practical boring apparatus for rock1 and was used first in making the ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel4 ,with explosives1 as gun-cotton1 dynamite1 etc41 the time occupied in cutting tunnels has been much reduced4 ,thus the ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel occupied about thirteen years1 and cost three millions of pounds4 ,the ,st4 ,gotthard--another ,alpine subway--occupied eight years1 though it is #i miles in length2 and the ,arlberg--yet another ,alpine tunnel--a little over #f miles long1 occupied something more than three years4 ,further1 the railway of which the ,st4 ,gotthard ,tunnel forms part1 has been commercially very successful4 ,this tunnel was commenced in #ahgb and completed in #ahhj1 the same year that saw the beginning of the ,arlberg4 ,tunnels through hard rock do not always need a lining of brickwork2 but if the soil be clay1 or loose earth of any kind1 the lining of brick or stone must be brought up close to the scene of actual excavation4 ,the ,mont ,cenis is lined with stone or brick almost entirely1 about #ijj feet1 however1 being without such lining4 ,and now1 how was the actual work of tunnelling carried on8 ,it will be seen at once that the problem was quite different from that of boring fifteen feet under the ,thames1 and sometimes through watery mud4 ,in boring through mountains the quickest way of cutting and carting away rock is one of the chief points to be considered4 ,at the ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel the blasting took place by driving a series of shot holes into the soil1 all over the surface to be cut1 filling them with explosives1 and firing them simultaneously in rings4 ,such explosives may be fired by a time-fuse or by electricity1 giving the workmen ample time to escape out of reach4 ,the shaken and shattered soil can then be cleared away4 ,the blast holes in this small-shot system are about #a to #a inch in diameter1 and from #a to #g or #i feet in the rock4 ,the explosive is forced to the end of each1 and the hole is then tamped--that is1 closed with clay or sand--and fired in due time4 ,illustration3 ,,boring ,,machine ,,used ,,for ,,the ,,mont ,,cenis ,,tunnel4 ,the cutters for boring in rock are often diamond drills1 the cutting edges being furnished with a kind of diamond found in ,brazil1 of a black colour and of great hardness4 ,these are placed round the edge of a cylinder of steel1 to which iron pipes can be screwed as the edge cuts its way deeper in the rock4 ,the stuff cut out as the drill revolves finds its way through the cylinder and the piping4 ,there are1 however1 a great number of boring machines of different kinds1 hard steel sometimes taking the place of the opaque diamonds for cutting purposes4 ,the compressed air with which many of the machines are worked assisted in the ,st4 ,gotthard in the ventilation of the tunnel1 frequently a great consideration1 as the space is so small and the gas from explosions often so great4 ,the ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel marks a transition period in tunnelling4 ,during the four years that hand labour was used1 the average rate of progress was but nine inches a-day on either side2 but when the rock-drills worked by compressed air were introduced1 the speed was five times as great4 ,still further1 at the ,arlberg ,tunnel through the ,tyrolese ,alps the average rate of progress was #ijg yards per day1 and the cost #ajh per lineal yard2 while the cost of the ,mont ,cenis was #bbf per lineal yard4 ,these figures show immense progress in economy and in speed4 ,the ,st4 ,gotthard ,tunnel was begun in #ahgb1 and the machine drills were used throughout4 ,a heading was first cut about eight feet square1 and the hollow thus gained was afterwards enlarged and finally sunk to the desired level4 ,several ,ferroux drills were used1 placed on a carriage1 and an average charge of #a lbs4 of dynamite placed in the holes made4 ,after firing1 the compressed air was discharged and the shattered soil was cleared away4 ,in the ,arlberg ,tunnel a chief heading was driven1 and then shafts opened up enabling smaller headings to be driven on both hands4 ,drills worked by hydraulic power were used1 as well as drills worked by air1 and1 after the explosions1 water spray was thrown out to assist in clearing and purifying the air4 ,ventilators also were used1 which injected air at the rate of more than #hjjj cubic feet per minute4 ,speedy transit of the earth excavated and the materials for masonry were also effected1 it being estimated that some #ijj tons of earth had to be taken out of each end1 and about #cej tons of masonry had to be brought in1 every day4 ,tunnels through huge thicknesses of rock or under rivers can only be cut from the two opposite ends4 ,where possible1 however1 other shafts have been sunk along the line the subway was to take1 and thus excavation might continue at several places along the line of route1 the shafts being used for ventilation and for the conveyance of the excavated soil4 ,but the use of machine drills and of blasting explosives1 with improved appliances for ventilation1 have1 with possibly some rare exceptions1 rendered these methods obsolete4 ,according to ,pliny the tunnel for draining ,lake ,fucino was the greatest work of his day4 ,it was over #c miles long1 and cut under ,monte ,salviano4 ,forty shafts were sunk in cutting it1 also sloping galleries1 and huge copper buckets were used to carry away the earth4 ,it is stated that this tunnel--some ten feet high1 by six wide--occupied #cj1jjj men eleven years4 ,compare this with the ,arlberg1 or even the ,gotthard1 double and treble the length1 occupying much less time4 ,sir ,benjamin ,baker has calculated that the ,fucino tunnel could now be cut in eleven months4 ,gunpowder gave some advance on old ,roman methods of tunnelling4 ,the improved explosives and rock-drills have gone further4 ,even as the ,mont ,cenis shows a transition period1 so the ,arlberg may be said to emphasise a triumph of the methods then indicated4 ,so great have been the improvements of the rock-boring machinery1 of the power of the blasts1 and the speedy ventilation following the explosions1 and of the quick transit of materials1 that we shall most likely hear no more of sinking numerous shafts along the route4 ,but what of subaqueous tunnels8 ,violent explosives are hardly suitable for excavation a few feet under a turbid river4 ,what is to be done1 when cutting under a full and treacherous stream8 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,under ,,water ,,again4 8,how to cross the ,thames at ,blackwall1 far east of the ,tower ,bridge80 ,that was a problem which the citizens of ,london had to face in the latter part of the nineteenth century4 ,an immense population dwelt on either side1 and some means of easy communication became a pressing necessity4 ,should it be effected by means of a bridge1 fixed or floating1 or by means of a tunnel8 ,finally a tunnel was decided upon1 with sloping approaches on either side4 ,its entire length was to be #fbjj feet including the approaches2 but herein lay the danger and the difficulty--it was to be driven only seven feet below the bed of the river1 and through loose soil and gravel4 ,how then was this perilous task to be accomplished8 ,if the great river burst through ,brunel's fifteen feet1 would it not be much more likely to rush through this seven feet of loose soil8 ,but the engineers in charge had an appliance in hand1 which was unknown to ,brunel--viz41 a compressed air chamber1 a piece of apparatus which has facilitated several great engineering achievements1 besides the ,blackwall ,tunnel4 ,when the excavation of the tunnel was commenced1 a stout apartment was formed at the end of the cutting1 into which air was pumped until it exerted a pressure of some thirty-five pounds to a square inch1 in addition to its usual weight4 ,this is generally reckoned at an average of #adg pounds to a square inch4 ,we are so used to this pressure that we do not feel it2 but let us enter a room where the air has been much more compressed1 as in this air-chamber1 and serious consequences would be likely to ensue1 especially at first4 ,the human body1 however1 has a wonderful power of adaptability1 and after a time some men get used to the change and can work in the compressed air without injury4 ,but at first it may cause bleeding from the nose and ears1 sometimes indeed affecting the hearing more or less seriously1 and also causing great pain4 ,the reason for using this compressed air chamber was to keep out ,father ,thames4 ,the great pressure of the air resisted the great pressure of the water1 and held up the seven feet of soil between4 ,powerful engines were maintained at work to provide for the pressure of the air1 and the chamber in which the compressed air was kept was entered and left by the workmen through an 8air-lock0--that is1 a small ante-chamber having two doors1 one leading to the compressed air and the other to the ordinary atmosphere1 and neither being opened at the same time4 ,the men1 then1 worked in this compressed air chamber1 which prevented irruptions of the river4 ,but the method of excavation was also another safeguard1 both against irruptions of water and of earth4 ,in essence1 it was much the same as that pursued in boring the tunnel for the ,south ,london ,electric ,railway2 that1 however1 was through thick clay and about #aj feet in diameter1 and this was #bg feet across1 and through loose and stony stuff4 ,the shield1 instead of containing as in ,brunel's time a number of cells1 consisted of an immense iron cylinder1 weighing some #bej tons2 closed in front1 but having a door in the closed part2 the rim of the cylinder round this part having a sharp edge for cutting into the soil4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,air-,,lock4 7,men waiting to enter the ,compressed ,air-,chamber through the ,door47 ,the door being opened1 the men found themselves face to face with the earth to be excavated4 ,they cut away as well as they could1 perhaps about #b feet deep1 throwing the earth into trucks in the compressed air chamber2 these trucks would be afterwards hauled away through the air-lock by electricity1 and the huge iron cylinder would be pushed forward by means of hydraulic power4 ,twenty-eight hydraulic 8jacks0 were employed1 and they forced forward the #bej ton cylinder with its cutting edge1 when the men would resume working through the door as before4 ,behind them1 the hole of the tunnel thus cut out was being lined4 ,first1 it was built round with iron plates a couple of inches thick4 ,this plating was fixed in segments1 and formed a huge pipe a little smaller than the actual hollow in the earth4 ,through holes in the immense piping1 liquid cement was forced1 thus plugging up the space entirely between the earth and the iron1 and forming an outer ring of cement4 ,within1 the tunnel was completed by a facing of glazed tiles1 placed on a thickness of #ad inches of concrete4 ,a road-way was laid #af feet wide1 flanked by footpaths of #c feet1 #b inches1 on either side4 ,the subway is lighted by electricity1 and staircases on the banks lead down to it for foot passengers4 ,the stairways give entrance to the tunnel not far from the river1 and much nearer than the commencement of the carriage-way approaches4 ,at the northern side1 the slope down commences near the ,east ,india ,dock entrance1 and turns out of the ,east ,india ,dock ,road4 ,the slope is fairly gradual--about one in thirty-four--and it passes under the ,blackwall line of the ,great ,eastern ,railway1 and near to ,poplar ,station4 ,the part of the tunnel near to this point--that is the part between the river and the open slope--was executed by what is called 8cut and cover0 work--that is1 a huge trench was dug1 then arched in and covered over4 8,cut and cover0 work also took place on the south side2 and there1 at the foot of an immense excavation ninety feet down1 and with its sides held up by huge timbers1 might have been seen a river of water which had drained in and was being pumped up quickly by powerful machinery4 ,not far distant1 the shaft was being sunk for the staircase4 ,in principle1 the sinking of the shaft was conducted much as ,brunel's shaft at the ,thames ,tunnel1 only it was built up of iron instead of brick4 ,imagine a big gasometer with a scaffold near the top1 where men are busy building the walls higher and higher by adding on plate after plate of iron4 ,on reaching the scaffold you find that there are two great cylinders of iron1 one standing inside the other1 and concrete is being filled in between them4 ,men also are down below digging out the earth which is being swung up in iron buckets2 and as the soil is gradually removed1 the immense double iron and concrete cylinder slowly sinks by its own weight4 ,in this manner1 the great shaft was sunk nearly ninety feet1 and within it the staircase has been built1 giving entrance for foot passengers1 not far from the river4 ,thus1 on either side are sloping entrances to the tunnel1 and also1 nearer the water1 stairways of descent down great shafts4 ,engineers have also found their way beneath other great ,english rivers--the ,severn and the ,mersey4 ,much water had to be dealt with in the cutting of the ,severn ,tunnel4 ,this important work1 four and one-third miles long1 was driven in some places forty-five feet under sandstone1 and at the ,salmon ,pool--a hollow in the river bed--the tunnel was thirty feet under soil called trias marl4 ,much greater space1 therefore1 exists here between the tunnel and river than at ,blackwall4 ,but the river burst through4 ,the work was begun in #ahgc1 and completed in #ahhf4 ,six years after its commencement the tunnel was drowned1 so to speak1 for a long time by a large spring of water which burst out from limestone1 and arrangements had to be made to provide for this flood4 ,it is now conducted by a subsidiary tunnel or channel to a huge shaft1 where it is raised by pumps of sufficient strength4 ,then there was the perilous ,salmon ,pool to be dealt with4 ,the river burst through here1 and the rent had to be stopped with clay4 ,the tunnel is twenty-six feet wide by twenty feet high1 and is cut through ,pennant stone1 shale1 and marl4 ,it is lined with ,staffordshire vitrified bricks throughout--seventy-five million bricks it is estimated being used4 ,the works are ventilated by a huge fan1 and pumping continually proceeds1 something like twenty-six million gallons of water1 it is said1 being raised in the twenty-four hours4 ,the tunnel1 of which the engineers were ,messrs4 ,hawkshaw1 ,son1 ,hayter ,richardson1 and ,mr4 ,t4 ,a4 ,walker1 ,contractor1 is for the use of the ,great ,western ,railway1 and saves that ,company's ,welsh and ,irish trains to ,milford a long way round by ,gloucester4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,boring ,,machine ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,preliminary ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,channel ,,tunnel4 ,in cutting the ,mersey ,tunnel1 which was completed in #ahhf1 machinery was used for some of the work4 ,the machine bored partly to a diameter of seven feet four inches1 but hand labour had to be largely depended upon4 ,the plan pursued was to sink a shaft on either side of the river and drive a heading1 sloping upward through the sandstone to the centre2 this heading acting as a drain for any water which might appear4 ,the thickness between the arch of the tunnel and the river bed is thirty feet at its least1 and the tunnel1 which occupied about six years in construction1 and of which the engineers were ,messrs4 ,brunlees ,fox1 is provided with pumps raising some thirteen million gallons of water daily4 ,as in the case of the ,severn ,tunnel1 ventilation is provided for by huge fans4 ,a boring machine was also used in the preliminary efforts for the construction of a tunnel under the ,english ,channel4 ,holes1 seven feet across and to the length of #bjjj yards1 have been bored by a compressed air machine1 working with two arms furnished with teeth of steel4 ,the construction of the tunnel is held to be quite feasible from an engineering point of view1 and it is believed that it would pass through strata impervious to water1 such as chalk marl and grey chalk4 ,still1 the huge tunnel at ,blackwall1 which was carried out by ,mr4 ,binnie1 ,chief ,engineer of the ,london ,county ,council1 with ,mr4 ,greathead and ,sir ,benjamin ,baker as ,consulting ,engineers1 is probably one of the most daring and stupendous enterprises of the kind ever undertaken4 ,to hollow out a subway hundreds of feet long under the ,thames1 only seven feet from the bed of the great river1 and through loose gravelly soil1 was a great triumph4 ,it was achieved not by uncalculating bravery1 but by a wise combination of cool courage1 superb skill1 and admirable foresight4 ,to design effectively1 to provide for contingencies1 to be daunted by no difficulties--these qualities help to produce the ,triumphs of ,engineers1 as well as do great inventive skill1 the power of adapting principles to varying circumstances1 and high-spirited enterprise in planning and conducting noble and useful works4 ,these works may well rank among the great achievements of man's effort and the wonders of the world4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,lorimer ,,and ,,gillies1 ,,printers1 ,,edinburgh4