,transcriber's ,notes ,texts between underscores1 between equal signs and between tildes were printed as italicised1 bold face and blackletter text in the source document4 ,small capitals have been replaced with ,,all ,,capitals4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,,walker',s ,,manly ,,exercises ,,and ,,rural ,,sports4 ,,edited ,,by 8,,craven40 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,manly ,,exercises1 ,,sailing1 ,,rowing1 ,,driving1 ,,riding1 ,,hunting1 ,,racing1 ,,seating1 ,,swimming1 ,,vaulting1 ,,climbing1 ,,running1 c4 c4 ,,henry ,g4 ,,bohn1 ,,london4 ,,walker',s ,,manly ,,exercises2 ,,containing ,rowing1 ,sailing1 ,riding1 ,driving1 ,racing1 ,hunting1 ,shooting1 ,,and ,,other ,,manly ,,sports4 ,,the ,,whole ,,carefully ,,revised1 ,,or ,,written1 ,,by 8,,craven40 ,,ninth ,,edition4 ,,london3 ,h4 ,g4 ,,bohn1 ,,york ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden4 ,,mdccclv4 ,,editor',s ,,preface4 ,the publishers of the present ,edition of this popular little volume had a double purpose in entering upon the undertaking1--namely1 to offer a carefully-revised copy of ,,walker',s ,,manly ,,exercises1 and an outline of ,,rural ,,sports1 to which they serve as the best elementary introduction4 ,as the execution of that design was committed to me1 ,i can only allude to the nature of the task1 and hope that ,i have not quite failed in the enterprise4 ,this ,i may be permitted to say1--that if the publishers' desire to make the work a source of instructive and rational amusement be realized1 even to the tithe of its extent and earnestness1 the labour of his ,editor will not have been wholly without success4 ,,craven4 ,,contents4 ,,importance ,,of ,,physical ,,exercises4 ,,page ,,general ,,directions #f ,training #h ,position #ah ,extension ,motions #bj ,the ,indian ,club ,exercises #bb ,,locomotive ,,exercises4 ,,the ,,balance ,,step #bh ,,walking #bi ,general ,mechanism of ,walking #ca ,the ,slow ,walk or ,march #cb ,the ,moderate and the ,quick ,pace #cb ,the ,moderate ,pace #cc ,the ,quick ,pace #cc ,slow ,step #ce ,quick ,step #ce ,double ,march #ce ,feats in ,walking #cf ,,running #cg ,position in ,running #ch ,action in ,running #ch ,respiration #ci ,moderate ,running #ci ,rapid ,running #dj ,feats in ,running #da ,effects of ,running #da ,,leaping #db ,the ,high ,leap #db ,feats in ,high ,leaping #db ,the ,long ,leap #dd ,feats in ,long ,leaping #dd ,the ,deep ,leap #de ,the ,deep ,leap backwards from a rest on the hands #df ,,vaulting #dh ,oblique ,vaulting #dh ,straight-forward ,vaulting #di ,leaping with a ,pole #ej ,the ,high ,leap with a ,pole #ej ,the ,long ,leap with a ,pole #ed ,the ,deep ,leap with a ,pole #ee ,,balancing #ef ,position and ,action in ,balancing #ef ,turns in ,balancing #eg ,,carrying ,,weight #eg ,,throwing ,,the ,,discus #fj ,,climbing1 in all its divisions #fd ,,skating #fi ,construction of the ,skate #fi ,dress of the ,skater #gb ,preliminary and ,general ,directions #gb ,the ,ordinary ,run1 or ,inside ,edge ,forward #gc ,the ,forward ,roll1 or ,outside ,edge #ge ,figure of ,three1 or ,inside ,edge ,backward #gf ,outside ,edge ,backward #gg ,the ,back ,roll #gh ,dangers of ,skating #hj ,treatment of ,drowned ,persons #hj ,,aquatic ,,exercises ,,swimming #hb ,preparatory ,instructions #hc ,place and time for ,swimming #he ,dress #hf ,aids #hf ,cramp #hg ,entering the ,water #hh ,buoyancy in the ,water #hh ,attitude and ,action in the ,water #ia ,respiration in ,swimming #ia ,coming out of the ,water #ib ,upright ,swimming #ib ,treading ,water #ie ,back ,swimming #ie ,floating #if ,side ,swimming #ig ,plunging #ig ,diving #ih ,thrusting #ii ,springing #ii ,one-arm ,swimming #ajj ,feats in ,swimming #ajj ,,rowing1 in all its kinds #aja ,,sailing1 with notices of the ,yacht ,clubs1 and ,general ,directions #ajf ,,riding4 ,the ,horse and ,equipments #abb ,mounting and ,dismounting #abe ,the ,seat #abi ,the ,balance #aca ,the ,rein ,hold #acb ,the ,correspondence #acd ,the ,action #ace ,the ,hand #acf ,the ,aids #ach ,animations1 ,soothings1 and ,corrections #adb ,the ,walk #add ,the ,trot #adg ,road ,riding #aej ,the ,gallop #aeb ,leaping #aef ,critical ,situations #aei ,treatment of the ,horse #afe ,driving #agj ,the ,road #age ,carriages #agf ,coach ,horses #agh ,harness #ahe ,relative ,prices of ,horses #ahi ,coachmen #aic ,mounting and ,dismounting #aih ,the ,seat #aii ,starting #aii ,the ,paces #bjj ,the ,time #bja ,the ,whip #bjb ,thoroughfares1 ,passing1 c4 #bjg ,ascending and ,descending ,hills #bjh ,the ,turnings #bac ,the ,ranks in ,town #bad ,stops #bae ,accidents to ,horses #bae ,accidents to ,coaches #bag ,obstructions1 ,offences1 and ,injuries #bba ,,racing #bbc ,,hunting #bci ,,shooting #bec ,,list ,,of ,,plates4 ,,frontispiece4 ,,vignette4 ,,plates4 ,i4 ,position--,extension ,motions4 ,,ii4 to ,,vii4 ,indian ,club ,exercises4 ,,viii4 ,walking4 ,,ix4 ,running4 ,x4 ,leaping4 ,,xi4 ,vaulting4 ,,xii4 ,,xiii4 ,pole ,leaping4 ,,xiv4 ,,xv4 ,balancing4 ,,xvi4 ,carrying ,weight4 ,,xvii4 ,throwing the ,discus4 ,,xviii4 ,climbing4 ,,xix4 ,skating4 ,,xx4 ,swimming--,attitude4 ,,xxi4 ,swimming--,action of the ,hands4 ,,xxii4 ,swimming--,action of the ,feet4 ,,xxiii4 ,swimming--,buoyancy in ,water--,treading ,water4 ,,xxiv4 ,swimming--,back ,swimming4 ,,xxv4 ,swimming--,side ,swimming--,floating4 ,,xxvi4 ,swimming--,plunging4 ,,xxvii4 ,swimming--,diving4 ,,xxviii4 ,swimming--,thrusting4 ,,xxix4 ,rowing--,fig4 ,i4 ,beginning of the ,pull4 ,rowing--,fig4 ,,ii4 ,middle of the ,pull4 ,,xxx4 ,rowing--,fig4 ,i4 ,end of the ,pull4--,fig4 ,,ii4 ,return of ,sculls4 ,,xxxi4 ,fig4 ,i4 ,mariner's ,compass4--,fig4 ,,ii4 ,plan of a ,vessel's ,deck4 ,,xxxii4 ,fig4 ,i4 ,parts of a ,pleasure ,boat at ,anchor4 ,fig4 ,,ii4 ,boat before a ,light ,breeze4 ,,xxxiii4 ,fig4 ,i4 ,boat with ,breeze on ,larboard ,beam4 ,fig4 ,,ii4 ,boat close to the ,wind on ,starboard ,tack4 ,,xxxiv4 ,horse ,equipments4 ,,xxxv4 ,fig4 ,i4 ,parts of the ,horse4--,fig4 ,,ii4 ,first ,view of ,mounting4 ,,xxxvi4 ,fig4 ,i4 ,second ,view of ,mounting4--,fig4 ,,ii4 ,the ,seat4 ,,xxxvii4 ,the ,rein ,hold4 ,,xxxviii4 ,fig4 ,i4 ,the ,walk4--,fig4 ,,ii4 ,the ,stop4 ,,xxxix4 ,fig4 ,i4 ,the ,trot4--,fig4 ,,ii4 ,road ,riding4 ,,xl4 ,the ,canter4 ,,xli4 ,the ,rise in ,leaping1 ,,xlii4 ,the ,fall in ,leaping4 ,,xliii4 ,four ,horse ,harness4 ,,xliv4 ,the ,rein ,hold in ,driving4 ,illustration ,,importance ,,of ,,physical ,,exercises4 ,,education may be divided into two parts1 physical and mental4 ,of the former1 ,,exercises or ,,gymnastics are the most extensive and the earliest portion4 ,,their ,,extent is learnt by an enumeration of them1 viz41 ,walking1 ,running1 ,leaping1 ,vaulting1 ,pole-leaping1 ,balancing1 ,skating1 ,carrying1 ,climbing1 and ,swimming4 ,we have added ,throwing the ,discus2 and1 in a course of ,british ,exercises1 we think ,rowing1 ,sailing1 ,riding1 and ,driving1 would be very improperly omitted4 ,the object of these ,exercises is to strengthen the muscular system1 by subjecting it to a regular process of training1 and to teach the means of employing it most advantageously4 ,the expediency of their early acquisition is rendered evident by the first tendency of youth being directed to them1 by the rapid progress made in them1 and by the delight derived from them1 at a period when the body is incapable1 with real or solid advantage1 of higher acquirements4 ,their general utility will be questioned only by those who are not aware that the health and vigour of all the bodily organs depend on the proportioned exercise of each4 ,in active exertion1 the member exercised swells with the more frequent and more copious flow of blood1 and heat is developed in it with greater abundance2 and if we repeat the same motions many times after intervals of repose1 all the muscles exercised become permanently developed2 a perfection of action ensues in the member exercised1 which it did not previously possess1 any deformity by which it is affected is corrected1 and strength and activity are acquired4 ,that man1 therefore1 gains the most strength who engages in muscular exercises that require the application of much power1 but which are sufficiently separated by intervals of repose4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that1 in exercising particular muscles only1 the others become weak4 ,the strength of ,marshal ,saxe was sufficiently great to stop a chariot drawn at speed by four horses1 by merely seizing the wheel3 he bent pieces of silver with his fingers1 made them into boats as he would with paper1 and presented them to the ladies4 ,count ,orloff1 a ,russian general1 broke the shoe of a carriage horse in the same manner2 and there are innumerable examples of similar feats of extraordinary strength4 ,active exercises1 at the same time1 confer beauty of form2 and they even contribute to impart an elegant air and graceful manners4 ,if the exercise of a limb be continued for some time1 the member swells1 a painful sensation is experienced1 which is termed lassitude1 and a difficulty of contraction1 which is the result of it4 ,if the motion has been excessive1 and the organic elements in the member have been acted upon beyond all physiological laws1 inflammation would take place1 and its functions be performed with great difficulty1 if at all4 ,such are the effects of exercise on the locomotive system1 to all the functions of animated beings1 so long as they are exercised with moderation1 equality1 and at due intervals1 working for their own preservation4 ,of course1 the general effect of active exercises is marked in proportion to the number of parts that share in the motion1 or are brought into energetic action4 ,in general exercise1 the increase of organic action is not confined solely to the parts which are the seat of muscular contraction1 but is repeated throughout all parts of the economy1 and influences all the functions4 ,thus1 as to the vital or nutritive system1 exercises taken when digestion is not going on1 excite the digestive faculty3 taken during its progress1 they disorder that function4 ,the arterial and venous circulations become more rapid by active exercise1 which concludes by giving greater force to the tissue of the heart4 ,it is the same with respiration and calorification4 ,the same takes place with regard to nutrition1 a function which exercise increases1 not only in the muscles in movement1 as we have just seen1 but also in the bones1 ligaments1 vessels1 and nerves4 ,by inducing cutaneous exhalation1 it promotes the expulsion of injurious agents1 produces a fresh colour in persons who may have become pale through a sedentary life1 and1 to a certain extent1 renders the human constitution1 by means of habit1 proof against the action of surrounding objects4 ,the local effects of excessive action1 or those which take place in the members themselves1 are1 as before observed1 inflammation of the muscles1 rheumatism1 like that arising from cold1 and inflammation of the serous articular membranes4 ,the general effects of excessive exercise may1 in the same manner as all physical and moral stimulants1 exhaust the vital faculties too quickly1 communicate too much rigidity to the fibres1 render the vessels varicose1 bring on chronic rheumatism1 destroy the freshness of the skin1 blight the flower of youth1 and produce old age and death before the time ordained by nature4 ,ancient writers inform us that it was a rare thing to meet with athletes1 who1 having signalized themselves from their earliest youth in gymnastic combats1 were of so excellent a constitution as to be able1 when they had reached a more advanced age1 to acquire the same honours on contending for the prize with grown men4 ,aristotle assures us1 that amongst the conquerors in the ,olympic ,games1 not more than two or three at the most could be found to whom nature had granted such an advantage4 ,in relation to the mental or thinking system1 8every movement10 says ,cabanis1 8becomes in its turn the principle or occasion of new impressions1 of which the frequent repetition and the varied character must increase more and more the circle of our judgments1 or tend unceasingly to rectify them4 ,it hence follows that labour1 giving to this word the most general signification1 cannot but have an influence infinitely useful on the habits of the understanding1 and consequently also on those of the will40 ,this argument is evidently applicable to varied exercise4 ,on the contrary1 8the great division of labour1 so favourable to the perfecting of the arts1 contracts more and more the understanding of workmen40 ,exercises1 moreover1 inspire confidence in difficult situations1 and suggest resources in danger4 ,their consequent influence upon the moral conduct of man is such1 that1 by a courage which is well founded1 because it springs from a perfect knowledge of his own powers1 he is often enabled to render the most important services to others4 ,although the direct effect of exercise is not only to confer power on the muscular and other organs1 but to multiply external impressions1 and to occupy with them all the senses at once2 still minds thus disposed1 in general occupy themselves rather with objects of imagination and sentiment1 than with those which demand more complicated operation4 ,the sense of muscular power impresses determinations which1 carrying man perpetually out of himself1 scarcely permit him to dwell upon impressions transmitted to his brain4 ,the only action of that organ1 during these exercises1 seems to be limited to ordering the movements4 ,hence1 exercise1 especially taken in the open air1 amidst new and varied objects of sight1 is not favourable to reflection--to labours which demand the assemblage and concentration of all the powers of the mind4 ,it is1 on the contrary1 in the absence of external impressions1 that we become more capable of seizing many relations1 and of following a long train of purely abstract reasoning4 ,as life spent chiefly in active muscular exercises would leave in a state of repose those central organs that are subservient to the moral qualities and intellectual faculties1 ,i agree with ,seneca and ,camper1 in proscribing all such exercises1 or such degrees of exercise1 as would exhaust the mind1 and render man incapable of aptitude in science1 polite literature1 and art4 ,the cultivation of bodily strength1 in preference to every thing else1 would establish only the right of the strongest1 as it is found to exist in the origin of society4 ,to cultivate the faculties of the mind exclusively1 would produce only the weakness of sentiment or excess of passion4 ,there is1 for every individual1 a means of making all these dispositions act in harmony2 and the due blending of physical and moral education alone can produce it4 ,let it be remembered that young persons will much more easily be withdrawn from the application they ought to pay to the study of the sciences1 by insipid recreations and trifling games1 than by the fatiguing exercises necessary for their developement and the preservation of their health1 which1 however1 habit soon renders easy and delightful4 ,to what vices do not a sedentary life and the practice of gaming give rise8--whilst well-regulated exercises excite ambition to excel1 and energy in the performance of every duty4 ,the philosophers of antiquity1 such as ,aristotle and ,plato1 regarded gymnastic exercises as of vast importance1 and considered a state defective and badly organized where these exercises were not instituted4 ,colleges1 called ,gymnasia1 were therefore established everywhere1 and superintended by distinguished masters4 ,accordingly1 the illustrious men of the ,grecian and ,roman republics1 even those who shone in literature and the fine arts1 received the same physical education4 ,the gymnastic exercises which are here recommended are not intended to produce athletes1 but to strengthen the human constitution4 ,one exercise gives solidity1 another address2 and we may even say that the various kinds of exercise are sometimes opposed to each other4 ,the strongest peasant is far from being the best runner2 and the most vigorous dancer would probably be deficient in strength4 ,there is1 however1 a mean to be found in the disposition of every individual to preserve both skill and strength1 and this is what ought to be sought4 ,for this purpose1 it will suffice to practise young persons a few hours every day1 sometimes at one exercise1 and sometimes at another4 ,,general ,,directions4 ,it only remains for us to give a few directions as to the time1 place1 and circumstances of exercise4 ,the best time for the elementary exercises is when the air is cool1 as1 even in summer1 it is early in the morning1 or after the sun has declined2 and they should never immediately follow a meal4 ,the best place for these elementary exercises is a smooth grass-plat1 or a firm sandy sea-beach4 ,chasms1 stones1 and stakes1 are always dangerous4 ,at the commencement1 the coat and all unnecessary clothes should be laid aside2 and all hard or sharp things should be taken from the pockets of the remaining dress4 ,a very light covering on the head1 as a straw hat1 is best2 the shirt-collar should be open1 the breast being either exposed or thinly covered2 the waistband of the trousers should not be tight1 and the boots or shoes should have no iron about them4 ,as sudden transitions are always bad1 exercise should begin gently1 and should terminate in the same manner4 ,the left hand and arm being commonly weaker than the right1 they should be exercised till they become as strong4 ,this custom is advantageous1 not only for all military and mechanical gymnastic exercises1 but also for all their operations4 ,the being cooled too quickly is injurious4 ,therefore1 drinking when very hot1 or lying down on the cold ground1 should be carefully avoided4 ,no exertion should be carried to excess1 as that only exhausts and enfeebles the body4 ,therefore1 whenever the gymnast feels tired1 or falls behind his usual mark1 he should resume his clothes1 and walk home4 ,the moment exercise is finished1 the clothes should always be put on1 and the usual precautions adopted to prevent taking cold4 ,the necessary fittings-up of an exercising ground are a leaping stand1 a vaulting horse1 a balancing bar1 a climbing stand1 with ladders1 poles1 and ropes1 which may be seen united as simply and economically as possible1 in a subsequent sketch--7,plate ,,xviii4 ,,climbing47 ,in most exercises1 a belt or cincture is of utility2 and it seems1 in all ages1 to have been naturally employed4 ,the weakest savage1 who could not follow others in the course without panting1 would find1 by placing his hand over his abdomen1 and supporting the liver and other organs which descend into that cavity1 that he was aided in running1 and breathed more easily2 and thence he would make for himself a belt4 ,united in societies1 men would still preserve their belt1 though it might not seem particularly advantageous1 except to those whose active mode of life approached a primitive state1 such as travellers1 couriers1 and porters4 ,the ,greeks put on their belts before they commenced wrestling2 and many physicians1 both ancient and modern1 recommend the use of belts1 as being to the whole of the body1 and to the parts over which they are placed1 what the exterior sheaths or aponeuroses are to the muscles--bands which embrace and keep firm the parts over which they are placed4 ,the common belt has leathern straps1 and buckles to fasten it1 an iron ring and a pocket4 ,a double cincture for wrestling forms a very strong girth1 which is put on by pupils who are very strong1 when they wrestle4 ,these belts may be made of different sizes1 for youths of different ages3 of five or six inches for tall youths and men1 and of eight or ten inches for wrestlers4 ,their length is in proportion to the size of the person who uses them4 ,these belts are very useful in strengthening the abdominal region in running and leaping4 ,riders1 also1 should furnish themselves with belts before getting on horseback1 to prevent too violent motion of the viscera of the abdomen1 and the disorders which may result from it4 ,the use1 indeed1 of belts will by degrees prove their utility1 and they will probably be worn even externally1 without reference to physical exercises4 ,they deserve this the more1 because they give an air of lightness and elegance to the shape1 and develope the chest4 ,the most useful thing in existence is dangerous1 if improperly applied4 ,in very young persons1 the chest and abdomen have been compressed by fastening the belt too tight1 or making it too wide2 and disorders of digestion and respiration have consequently been caused by pushing in the false ribs4 ,this is an imprudence that should be avoided4 ,if the belt be too low1 it may press too much on the lower part of the belly2 if too high1 it may disorder the chest4 ,it must therefore be placed on the loins1 so as to pass over the navel2 and1 as said before1 it must not be too tight4 ,having given these ideas of the utility of belts1 and the manner of using them1 it remains only to explain the triple use of those adopted for exercises3 #ast1 they fulfil1 by their size and other circumstances1 all the conditions which render them useful2 #bnd1 a pocket serves to inclose the articles that may be wanted1 according to the class of exercises performing2 #crd1 an iron ring is intended to suspend1 by means of hooks1 any thing we wish to carry1 so as to leave the hands at liberty4 ,,training4 ,this is important in relation to various exercises to be described4 ,the art of training for athletic exercises1 or laborious exertions1 consists in purifying the body and strengthening its powers1 by certain processes1 which are now to be described4 ,the advantages of it1 however1 are not confined to pedestrians1 wrestlers1 or pugilists2 they extend to every one3 for1 were training generally introduced1 instead of medicine1 for the prevention and cure of diseases1 its beneficial consequences would assuredly prolong life1 and promote its happiness4 ,every physiologist knows that all the parts which compose the human body--solids as well as liquids--are successively absorbed and deposited4 ,hence ensues a perpetual renovation of them1 regulated by the nature of our food and general habits4 ,the health of all the parts1 and the soundness of their structure1 depend on this perpetual absorption and renovation4 ,now1 nothing so effectually as exercise excites at once absorption and secretion4 ,it accordingly promotes all the vital functions without hurrying them1 renovates all the parts1 and preserves them apt and fit for their offices4 ,it follows1 then1 that health1 vigour1 and activity1 chiefly depend upon exercise and regimen2 or1 in other words1 upon the observance of those rules which constitute the theory of training4 ,the effect has accordingly corresponded with the cause assigned in this view of the subject1 in every instance where it has been adopted2 and1 although not commonly resorted to as the means of restoring invalids to health1 there is every reason to believe that it would prove effectual in curing many obstinate diseases1 such as bilious complaints1 obesity1 gout1 and rheumatism4 ,the ,ancients entertained this opinion4 ,they were1 says a popular writer on medicine1 by no means unacquainted with or inattentive to these instruments of medicine1 although modern practitioners appear to have no idea of removing disease1 or restoring health1 but by pouring drugs into the stomach4 ,heroditus is said to have been the first who applied the exercises and regimen of the ,gymnasium to the removal of disease1 or the maintenance of health4 ,among the ,romans1 ,asclepiades carried this so far1 that he is said1 by ,celsus1 almost to have banished the use of internal remedies from his practice4 ,he was the inventor of various modes of exercise and gestation1 in ,rome4 ,in his own person1 he afforded an excellent example of the wisdom of his rules1 and the propriety of his regimen4 ,pliny tells us that1 in early life1 he made a public profession1 that he would agree to forfeit all pretensions to the name of a physician1 should he ever suffer from sickness1 or die but of old age2 and1 what is extraordinary1 he fulfilled his promise1 for he lived upwards of a century1 and at last was killed by a fall down stairs4 ,as to the locomotive system1 modern experience sufficiently proves that exercise is the most powerful strengthener of the muscles1 and of every part on which activity depends4 ,in its operation on the vital system1 training always appears to benefit the state of the lungs4 ,indeed1 one of its most striking effects is to improve the wind3 that is1 to enable a man to draw a larger inspiration1 and to hold his breath longer4 ,as to the intellectual system1 ,sir ,j4 ,sinclair observes1 that1 by training1 the mental faculties are also improved2 the attention being more ready1 and the perception more acute1 owing probably to the clearness of the stomach1 and better digestion4 ,it must1 therefore1 be admitted1 that the most beneficial consequences to general health arise from training4 ,the simplicity of the rules for it is assuredly a great recommendation to a trial of the experiment4 ,the whole process may be resolved into the following principles3--#ast1 the evacuating1 which cleanses the stomach and intestines2 #bnd1 the sweating1 which takes off the superfluities of fat and humours2 #crd1 the daily course of exercise1 which improves the wind and strengthens the muscles2 and1 lastly1 the regimen1 which nourishes and invigorates the body4 ,to those who are to engage in corporeal exercises beyond their ordinary powers1 it is indispensably necessary4 ,pedestrians1 therefore1 who are matched either against others or against time1 and pugilists who engage to fight1 must undergo the training process before they contend4 ,the issue of the contest1 if their powers be nearly equal1 will1 in a great measure1 depend upon their relative condition1 as effected by training1 at the hour of trial4 ,training was known to the ancients1 who paid much attention to the means of augmenting corporeal vigour and activity4 ,accordingly1 among the ,greeks and ,romans1 certain rules of exercise and regimen were prescribed to the candidates for gymnastic celebrity4 ,we are assured1 that1 among the ,greeks1 previously to the solemn contests at the public games1 the strictest temperance1 sobriety1 and regularity in living1 were indispensably requisite4 ,the candidates were1 at the same time1 subjected to daily exercise in the ,gymnasium1 which continued during ten months1 and which1 with the prescribed regimen1 constituted the preparatory training adopted by the athlet of ,greece4 ,among the ,romans1 the exercises of the palstra degenerated from the rank of a liberal art1 and became a profession1 which was embraced only by the lowest of mankind2 the exhibitions of the gladiators being bloody and ferocious spectacles1 which evinced the barbarous taste of the people4 ,the combatants1 however1 were regularly trained by proper exercise1 and a strict observance of regimen4 ,pure and salubrious air was deemed a chief requisite4 ,accordingly1 the principal schools of their athlet were established at ,capua and ,ravenna1 the most healthy places in ,italy2 and previous to entering on this regimen1 the men were subjected to the evacuating process1 by means of emetics1 which they preferred to purgatives4 ,in the more early stages of training1 their diet consisted of dried figs1 new cheese1 and boiled grain4 ,afterwards animal food was introduced as a part of the athletic regimen1 and pork was preferred to any other4 ,galen1 indeed1 asserts1 that pork contains more real nutriment than flesh of any other kind1 which is used as food by man4 ,this fact1 he adds1 is decidedly proved by the example of the athlet1 who1 if they live but for one day on any other kind of food1 find their vigour manifestly impaired the next4 ,the preference given to pork by the ancients1 however1 does not correspond with the practice of modern trainers1 who entirely reject it2 but in the manner of preparing the food1 they exactly agree--roasting or broiling being by both preferred to boiling1 and bread unfermented to that prepared by leaven4 ,a very small quantity of liquid was allowed to the athlet1 and this was principally water4 ,they exercised in the open air1 and became familiarized by habit to every change of the weather1 the vicissitudes of which soon ceased to affect them4 ,to exercise their patience1 and accustom them to bear pain without flinching1 they were occasionally flogged on the back with the branches of a kind of rhododendron1 till the blood flowed4 ,by diminishing the quantity of the circulating liquid1 this rough kind of cupping was also considered salutary6 as obviating the tendency to plethora or redundancy of blood1 to which they were peculiarly liable--a proof1 if true1 of the nourishing qualities of their food4 ,when the daily exercises of the athlet were finished1 they were refreshed by immersion in a tepid bath1 where the perspiration and sordes--scurf1 pustules1 or filthy adhesions--were carefully removed from the surface of the body by the use of the strygil4#a ,the skin was then diligently rubbed dry1 and again anointed with oil4 ,if thirsty1 they were permitted to drink a small quantity of warm water4 ,they then took their principal repast1 after which they used no more exercise that day4 ,they occasionally also went into the cold bath in the morning4 ,they were permitted to sleep as many hours as they chose2 and great increase of vigour1 as well as of bulk1 was supposed to be derived from long-continued and sound repose4#b ,the sexual intercourse was strictly prohibited4 #a ,for this instrument1 rough coarse cloths are adopted1 but not with advantage4 #b ,little sleep is now prescribed2 but its quantity should depend upon circumstances of fatigue1 c4 ,the manner of training among the ancients bears some resemblance to that practised by the moderns4 ,perhaps it is because their mode of living and general habits were somewhat different from those of the present age1 that a difference of treatment is now required to produce the same effects4 ,the great object of training for running or boxing matches1 is to increase the muscular strength1 and to improve the free action of the lungs1 or wind1 of the person subjected to the process4 ,seeing that the human body is so capable of being altered and renovated1 it is not surprising that the art of training should be carried to a degree of perfection almost incredible2 and that1 by certain processes1 the muscular power1 the breath 7or wind71 and the courage of man1 should be so greatly improved as to enable him to perform the most severe or laborious undertakings4 ,that such effects have been produced is unquestionable3 they are fully exemplified in the astonishing exploits of our most celebrated pedestrians and pugilists1 which are the infallible results of such preparatory discipline4 ,the skilful trainer attends to the state of the bowels1 the lungs1 and the skin2 and he uses such means as will reduce the fat1 and at the same time invigorate the muscular fibre4 ,the patient is purged by drastic medicines2 he is sweated by walking under a load of clothes1 and by lying between feather beds2 and his limbs are roughly rubbed4 ,his diet is beef or mutton3 his drink strong ale4 ,he is gradually inured to exercise1 by repeated trials in walking and running4 ,by extenuating the fat1 emptying the cellular substance1 hardening the muscular fibre1 and improving the breath1 a man of the ordinary frame may be made to fight for one hour1 with the utmost exertion of strength and courage1 or to go over one hundred miles in twenty-four hours4 ,the most effectual process for training appears to be that practised by ,captain ,barclay1 which has not only been sanctioned by professional men1 but has met with the unqualified approbation of amateurs4 ,we are here1 therefore1 almost entirely indebted to it for details4 ,according to this method1 the pedestrian1 who may be supposed in tolerable condition1 enters upon his training with a regular course of physic1 which consists of three doses4 ,glauber's salts are generally preferred2 and from one ounce and a half to two ounces are taken each time1 with an interval of four days between each dose4 ,after having gone through the course of physic1 he commences his regular exercise1 which is gradually increased as he proceeds in the training4 ,when the object in view is the accomplishment of a pedestrian match1 his regular exercise may be from twenty to twenty-four miles a day4 ,he must rise at five in the morning1 run half a mile at the top of his speed up-hill1 and then walk six miles at a moderate pace1 coming in about seven to breakfast1 which should consist of beef-steaks or mutton-chops under-done1 with stale bread and old beer4 ,after breakfast1 he must again walk six miles at a moderate pace1 and at twelve lie down in bed1 without his clothes1 for half an hour4 ,on getting up1 he must walk four miles1 and return by four to dinner1 which should also be beef-steaks or mutton-chops1 with bread and beer1 as at breakfast4 ,immediately after dinner1 he must resume his exercise1 by running half a mile at the top of his speed1 and walking six miles at a moderate pace4 ,he takes no more exercise for that day1 but retires to bed about eight2 and next morning he proceeds in the same manner4 ,animal diet1 it will be observed1 is1 according to this system1 alone prescribed1 and beef and mutton are preferred4 ,all fat and greasy substances are prohibited1 as they induce bile1 and consequently injure the stomach4 ,the lean of meat contains more nourishment than the fat2 and1 in every case1 the most substantial food is preferable to any other kind4 ,fresh meat is the most wholesome and nourishing4 ,salt1 spiceries1 and all kinds of seasonings1 with the exception of vinegar1 are prohibited4 ,the lean1 then1 of fat beef cooked in steaks1 with very little salt1 is the best2 and it should be rather under-done than otherwise4 ,mutton1 being reckoned easy of digestion1 may be occasionally given1 to vary the diet and gratify the taste4 ,the legs of fowls are also esteemed4 ,it is preferable to have the meat broiled1 as much of its nutritive quality is lost by roasting or boiling4 ,it ought to be dressed so as to remain tender and juicy2 for it is by these means that it will be easily digested1 and afford most nourishment4 ,biscuit and stale bread are the only preparations of vegetable matter which are permitted to be given2 and every thing inducing flatulency must be carefully avoided4 ,in general1 the quantity of aliment is not limited by the trainer1 but left entirely to the discretion of the pedestrian1 whose appetite should regulate him in this respect4 ,with respect to liquors1 they must be always taken cold2 and home-brewed beer1 old1 but not bottled1 is the best4 ,a little red wine1 however1 may be given to those who are not fond of malt liquor2 but never more than half a pint after dinner4 ,it is an established rule to avoid liquids as much as possible2 and no more liquor of any kind is allowed to be taken than is requisite to quench the thirst4 ,after having gone on in this regular course for three or four weeks1 the pedestrian must take a four-mile sweat1 which is produced by running four miles in flannel1 at the top of his speed4 ,immediately on returning1 a hot liquor is prescribed1 in order to promote the perspiration2 and of this he must drink one ,english pint4 ,it is termed the sweating liquor1 and is composed of one ounce of carraway seed1 half an ounce of coriander seed1 one ounce of root-liquorice1 and half an ounce of sugar-candy1 mixed with two bottles of cyder1 and boiled down to one-half4 ,he is then put to bed in his flannels1 and1 being covered with six or eight pair of blankets1 and a feather bed1 must remain in this state from twenty-five to thirty minutes1 when he is taken out1 and rubbed perfectly dry4 ,being then well wrapt in his great coat1 he walks out gently for two miles1 and returns to breakfast1 which1 on such occasions1 should consist of a roasted fowl4 ,he afterwards proceeds with his usual exercise4 ,these sweats are continued weekly1 till within a few days of the performance of the match2 or1 in other words1 he must undergo three or four of these operations4 ,if the stomach of the pedestrian be foul1 an emetic or two must be given about a week before the conclusion of the training4 ,he is now supposed to be in the highest condition4 ,besides his usual or regular exercise1 a person under training ought to employ himself1 in the intervals1 in every kind of exertion which tends to activity1 such as golf1 cricket1 bowls1 throwing quoits1 c41 so that1 during the whole day1 both body and mind may be constantly occupied4 ,although the chief parts of the system depend upon sweating1 exercise1 and feeding1 yet the object to be obtained by the pedestrian would be defeated1 if these were not adjusted each to the other1 and to his constitution4 ,the trainer1 before he proceeds to apply his theory1 should make himself acquainted with the constitution and habits of his patient1 that he maybe able to judge how far he can1 with safety1 carry on the different parts of the process4 ,the nature of the patient's disposition should also be known1 that every cause of irritation may be avoided2 for1 as it requires great patience and perseverance to undergo training1 every expedient to sooth and encourage the mind should be adopted4 ,the skilful trainer will1 moreover1 constantly study the progress of his art1 by observing the effect of its processes1 separately and in combination4 ,if a man retain his health and spirits during the process1 improve in wind1 and increase in strength1 it is certain that the object aimed at will be obtained2 but1 if otherwise1 it is to be apprehended that some defect exists1 through the unskilfulness or mismanagement of the trainer1 which ought instantly to be remedied by such alterations as the circumstances of the case may demand4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that in many instances the trainer must be guided by his judgment1 and that no fixed rules of management can1 with absolute certainty1 be depended upon1 for producing an invariable and determinate result4 ,in general1 however1 it may be calculated1 that the known rules are adequate to the purpose1 if the pedestrian strictly adhere to them1 and the trainer bestow a moderate degree of attention to his state and condition during the progress of training4 ,it is impossible to fix any precise period for the completion of the training process1 as it depends upon the previous condition of the pedestrian2 but from two to three months1 in most cases1 will be sufficient1 especially if he be in tolerable condition at the commencement1 and possessed of sufficient perseverance and courage to submit cheerfully to the privations and hardships to which he must unavoidably be subjected4 ,the criterion by which it may be known whether a man is in good condition--or1 what is the same thing1 whether he has been properly trained--is the state of the skin1 which becomes smooth1 elastic1 and well-coloured1 or transparent4 ,the flesh is also firm2 and the person trained feels himself light1 and full of spirits4 ,in the progress of the training1 his condition may also be ascertained by the effect of the sweats1 which cease to reduce his weight2 and by the manner in which he performs one mile at the top of his speed4 ,it is as difficult to run a mile at the top of one's speed as to walk a hundred2 and therefore1 if he performs this short distance well1 it may be concluded that his condition is perfect1 or that he has derived all the advantages which can possibly result from the training process4 ,a few words may be here added on the comparative strength of different races of men4 ,in order to procure some exact results on this point1 ,peron took with him on his voyage an instrument called a dynamometer1 so constructed as to indicate on a dial-plate the relative force of individuals submitted to experiment4 ,he directed his attention to the strength of the arms and of the loins1 making trial with several individuals of each of the races among whom he then was1 viz41 twelve natives of ,van ,diemen's ,land1 seventeen of ,new ,holland1 fifty-six of the ,island of ,timor1 seventeen ,frenchmen belonging to the expedition1 and fourteen ,englishmen in the colony of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,the following numbers express the mean result in each case1 but all the details are given in a tabular form in the original3-- ,strength of the ,arms4 ,strength of the ,loins4 ,kilogrammes4 ,myriagrammes4 #a4 ,van ,diemen's ,land #ej4f #b4 ,new ,holland #ej4h #aj4b #c4 ,timor #eh4g #aa4f #d4 ,french #fi4b #ae4b #e4 ,english #ga4d #af4c ,the highest numbers in the first and second class were1 respectively1 #fj and #fb2 the lowest in the ,english trials #fc1 and the highest #hc1 for the strength of the arms4 ,in the power of the loins1 the highest among the ,new ,hollanders was #ac2 the lowest of the ,english #ab4g1 and the highest #ba4c4 8,these results10 observes ,mr4 ,lawrence1 8offer the best answer to declamations on the degeneracy of civilized man4 ,the attribute of superior physical strength1 so boldly assumed by the eulogists of the savage state1 has never been questioned or doubted4 ,although we have been consoled for this supposed inferiority by an enumeration of the many precious benefits derived from civilization1 it has always been felt as a somewhat degrading disadvantage4 ,bodily strength is a concomitant of good health1 which is produced and supported by a regular supply of wholesome and nutritious food1 and by active occupation4 ,the industrious and well-fed middle classes of a civilized community may1 therefore1 be reasonably expected to surpass1 in this endowment1 the miserable savages1 who are never well-fed1 and too frequently depressed by absolute want and all other privations4 ,,position4 ,before entering into a detail of exercises1 it is necessary to attend to what is termed position4--,a standing position is the action by which we keep ourselves up4 ,indeed1 this state1 in which the body appears in repose1 is itself an exercise1 for it consists in a continued effort of many muscles2 and the explanation we shall give of it will much facilitate that of walking4 ,every one has observed that during sleep1 or a fainting fit1 the head inclines forward and falls upon the breast4 ,in this case1 it is in accordance with the laws of gravity2 for the head1 resting upon the vertebr which support it at a point of its basis which is nearer the posterior than anterior part1 cannot remain in an upright position in standing1 except by an effort of the muscles at the back of the neck3 it is the cessation of this effort that causes it to fall forward4 ,the body also is unable to remain straight without fatigue4 ,the vertebral column being placed behind1 all the viscera or parts contained by the chest and belly are suspended in front of it1 and would force it to bend forward unless strong muscular fibres held it back4 ,a proof of this may be seen in pregnant and dropsical women1 who are compelled1 in consequence of the anterior part of the body being heavier than usual1 to keep the vertebral column more fixed1 and even thrown backward4 ,the same observation may be made with regard to the pelvis1 basin1 or lowest part of the trunk1 which by its conformation would bend upon the thighs1 if not kept back by the great mass of muscular fibres that form the hips4 ,in front of the thighs1 again1 are the muscles which1 by keeping the kneepan in position1 are the means of preventing the leg from bending4 ,lastly1 the muscles forming the calves1 by contracting1 are the means of preventing the leg from bending upon the foot4 ,such is the general mechanism of the standing position4 ,it is1 therefore1 as we observed1 a concurrence of efforts3 almost all the extending muscles are in a state of contraction all the time that this position is maintained1 and the consequence is1 a fatigue which cannot be endured for any great length of time4 ,hence we see persons in a standing position rest the weight of their body1 first on one foot1 then on another1 for the purpose of procuring momentary ease to certain muscles4 ,for this reason1 also1 standing still is more fatiguing than walking1 in which the muscles are alternately contracted and extended4 ,a question of importance on this subject is1 what position of the feet affords the greatest solidity in standing8 ,we will not enter into a detail of the numerous controversies by which some have defended or repudiated the position with the toes turned forward or outward3 it will be sufficient to state the fact1 that the larger the base of support1 the firmer and more solid will the position be1 and to adopt1 as a fundamental one1 the military position1 which has been found practically the best by those who have nothing else to do but to walk4 ,the equal squareness of the shoulders and body to the front1 is the first great principle of position4 ,the heels must be in a line1 and closed2 the knees straight2 the toes turned out1 with the feet forming an angle of sixty degrees2 the arms hanging close to the body2 the elbows turned in1 and close to the sides2 the hands open to the front1 with the view of preserving the elbow in the position above described2 the little fingers lightly touching the clothing of the limbs1 with the thumb close to the forefinger2 the belly rather drawn in1 and the breast advanced1 but without constraint2 the body upright1 but inclining forward1 so that the weight of it may principally bear upon the fore part of the feet2 the head erect1 and the eyes straight to the front--7as in ,plate ,i4 fig4 #a47 ,to these brief directions ,i must add1 that1 in standing1 the whole figure should be in such a position that the ear1 shoulder1 haunch1 knee1 and ankle are all in a line2 that it must be stretched as much as possible1 by raising the back of the head1 drawing in the chin1 straightening the spine1 rising on the hips1 and extending the legs2 that the object of keeping the back thus straight is to allow of standing longer without fatigue2 that it is important to expand the chest1 and to throw the shoulders back1 with the shoulder-blades1 or scapul1 quite flat behind2 and that though1 in military instructions1 the body is thus inclined forward in standing without arms1 yet when these are assumed1 the body is immediately thrown about two inches backward1 into a nearly perpendicular position4 ,this position1 therefore1 will be modified in walking1 and especially in ordinary walking2 but it is an excellent fundamental position1 and it cannot be too accurately acquired4 ,this is the amount of the drill-sergeant's instructions as to position1 though this last part is omitted in the ,manual describing the ,field ,exercise and ,evolutions of the ,army4 ,,extension ,,motions4 ,in order to supple the figure1 open the chest1 and give freedom to the muscles1 the first three movements of the extension motions1 as laid down for the sword exercise1 are ordered to be practised4 ,it is indeed1 observed1 that too many methods cannot be used to improve the carriage1 and banish a rustic air2 but that the greatest care must be taken not to throw the body backward instead of forward1 as being contrary to every true principle of movement4 ,i accordingly here introduce these extension motions1 adding the fourth and fifth1 and prefixing to each the respective word of command1 in order that they may be the more distinctly and accurately executed4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,i ,page #bj4 ,extension ,motions4 ,attention4--,the body is to be erect1 the heels close together1 and the hands hanging down on each side4 ,first ,extension motion4--,this serves as a caution1 and the motions tend to expand the chest1 raise the head1 throw back the shoulders1 and strengthen the muscles of the back4 ,one--,bring the hands and arms to the front1 the fingers lightly touching at the points1 and the nails downwards2 then raise them in a circular direction well above the head1 the ends of the fingers still touching1 the thumbs pointing to the rear1 the elbows pressed back1 and shoulders kept down4 7,plate ,i4 fig4 #b47 ,two--,separate and extend the arms and fingers1 forcing them obliquely back1 till they come extended on a line with the shoulders2 and as they fall gradually from thence to the original position of ,attention1 endeavour1 as much as possible1 to elevate the neck and chest4 ,these two motions should be frequently practised1 with the head turned as much as possible to the right or left1 and the body kept square to the front3 this tends very materially to supple the neck1 c4 ,three--,turn the palms of the hands to the front1 pressing back the thumbs with the arms extended1 and raise them to the rear1 till they meet above the head2 the fingers pointing upwards1 with the ends of the thumbs touching4 ,four--,keep the arms and knees straight1 and bend over from the hips till the hands touch the feet1 the head being brought down in the same direction4 7,plate ,i4 fig4 #c47 ,five--,with the arms flexible and easy from the shoulders1 raise the body gradually1 so as to resume the position of ,attention4 ,the whole should be done very gradually1 so as to feel the exertion of the muscles throughout4 ,to these extension motions1 drill-sergeants1 in their instructions1 add the following3 ,one--the forearms are bent upon the arms upward and toward the body1 having the elbows depressed1 the shut hands touching on the little-finger sides1 and the knuckles upward1 the latter being raised as high as the chin1 and at the distance of about a foot before it4 7,plate ,i4 fig4 #d47 ,two--,while the arms are thrown forcibly backward1 the fore-arms are as much as possible bent upon the arms1 and the palmar sides of the wrists are turned forward and outward 7,plate ,i4 fig4 #e47 ,the two motions are to be repeatedly and rather quickly performed4 ,a modification of the same movement is performed as a separate extension motion1 but may be given in continuation1 with the numbers following these1 as words of command4 ,three--,the arms are extended at full length in front1 on a level with the shoulder1 the palms of the hands in contact4 7,plate ,i4 fig4 #f47 ,four--,thus extended1 and the palms retaining their vertical position1 the arms are thrown forcibly backward1 so that the backs of the hands may approach each other as nearly as possible4 ,these motions1 also1 are to be repeatedly and rather quickly performed4 ,another extension motion1 similarly added1 consists in swinging the right arm in a circle1 in which1 beginning from the pendent position1 the arm is carried upward in front1 by the side of the head1 and downward behind1 the object being in the latter part of this course to throw it as directly backward as possible4 ,the same is then done with the left arm4 ,lastly1 both arms are thus exercised together4 ,these motions are performed quickly4 ,,the ,,indian ,,club ,,exercise4 ,,the ,,portion ,,adopted ,,in ,,the ,,army4 #ast4 ,a club is held by the handle1 pendent on each side 7,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #a72--that in the right hand is carried over the head and left shoulder1 until it hangs perpendicularly on the right side of the spine 7,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #b72 that in the left hand is carried over the former1 in exactly the opposite direction 7,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #b71 until it hangs on the opposite side2 holding both clubs still pendent1 the hands are raised somewhat higher than the head 7,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #c72 with the clubs in the same position1 both arms are extended outward and backward 7,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #f72 they are lastly dropped into the first position4 ,all this is done slowly4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ii ,page #bb4 ,indian ,club ,exercise4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iii ,page #bb4 ,indian ,club ,exercise4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iv ,page #bb4 ,indian ,club ,exercise4 #bnd4 ,commencing from the same position1 the ends of both clubs are swung upward until they are held1 vertically and side by side1 at arm's length in front of the body1 the hands being as high as the shoulders 7,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #d72 they are next carried in the same position1 at arm's length1 and on the same level1 as far backward as possible 7,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #e72 each is then dropped backward until it hangs vertically downward 7,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #f72 and this exercise ends as the first4 ,previous1 however1 to dropping the clubs backward1 it greatly improves this exercise1 by a turn of the wrist upward and backward1 to carry the clubs into a horizontal position behind the shoulders1 so that1 if long enough1 their ends would touch 7,plate ,,iii4 fig4 #a72 next1 by a turn of the wrist outward and downward1 to carry them horizontally outward 7,plate ,,iii4 fig4 #b72 then by a turn of the wrist upward and forward1 to carry them into a horizontal position before the breast 7,plate ,,iii4 fig4 #c72 again to carry them horizontally outward2 and finally to drop them backward as already explained2 and thence to the first position4 ,all this is also done slowly4 #crd4 ,the clubs are to be swung by the sides1 first separately1 and then together1 exactly as the hands were in the last extension motion4 ,,the ,,new ,,and ,,more ,,beautiful ,,portion ,,now ,,added ,,from ,,the ,,indian ,,practice4 #ast4 ,a club is held forward and upright in each hand1 the fore-arm being placed horizontally1 by the haunch on each side 7,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #a72 both are thrown in a circle upward1 forward1 and1 by a turn of the wrist1 downward and backward1 so as to strike under the arms 7,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #b72 by an opposite movement1 both are thrown back again in a similar circle1 till they swing over the shoulders 7,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #c72 and this movement is continued as long as agreeable4 #bnd4 ,the clubs are held obliquely upward in each hand1 lying on the front of the arms 7,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #d72 that in the right hand is allowed to fall backward 7,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #e71 and swings downward1 forward to the extent of the arm1 and as high as the head 7,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #f72 the moment this club begins to return from this point1 in precisely the same direction1 to the front of the arm1 that in the left hand is allowed to drop backward1 and to perform the advancing portion of this course in the time that the other performs the returning portion1 so that each is at the same time swinging in an opposite direction4 #crd4 ,from either of the first positions now given1 the clubs are1 by a turn of the body and extension of the arms1 thrown upwards and laterally 7,plate ,v4 fig4 #a72--make1 at the extent of the arms1 and in front of the figure1 a circle in which they sweep downward by the feet and upward over the head 7,plate ,v4 fig4 #b71 and fall in a more limited curve towards the side on which they began 7,plate ,v4 fig4 #c71 in such a manner that the outer one forming a circle around the shoulder and the inner one round the head1 7both passing swiftly through the position in the last figure of the first exercise17 they return to the first position2--this is repeated to the other side2--and so on alternately4 #dth4 ,beginning from either first position1 the body being turned laterally1--for example1 to the left1 the club in the right hand is thrown upward in that direction at the full extent of the arm 7,plate ,,vi4 fig4 #a71 and makes the large circle in front and curve behind as in the last exercise 7,plate ,,vi4 fig4 #b71 while the club in the left hand makes at the same time a smaller circle in front of the head and behind the shoulders 7,plate ,,vi4 figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c71 until crossing each other before the head 7rather on the right side71 their movements are exactly reversed1 the club in the right hand performing the small circle round the head1 while that in the left performs the large one1--and these continue to be repeated to each side alternately4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,v ,page #bd4 ,indian ,club ,exercise4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vi ,page #bd4 ,indian ,club ,exercise4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vii ,page #be4 ,indian ,club ,exercise4 #eth4 ,the clubs being in either first position1 the body is turned to one side--the left for example1 and the clubs being thrown out in the same direction1 make each1 by a turn of the wrist1 a circle three times on the outer side of the outstretched arms 7,plate ,,vii4 fig4 #a73--when completing the third circle1 the clubs are thrown higher to the same side1 sweeping together in the large circle in front1 as in the second exercise1 the body similarly turning to the right2 but1 instead of forming the smaller curve behind1 both are thrown over the back 7,plate ,,vii4 fig4 #b72--;from this position the clubs are thrown in front1 which is now toward the opposite side1 and the same movements are reversed2--and so it proceeds alternately to each side4 #fth4 ,in this exercise1 the clubs are reversed1 both being pendent in front1 but the ends of their handles being upward on the thumb sides of the hands4 7,pl ,,vii4 fig4 #c47 ,the exercise consists chiefly in describing with the ends of the clubs two circles placed obliquely to each other over the head4 ,for this purpose1 the club in the right hand is1 in a sweep to that side1 first elevated behind the head1 and thence passing to the left 7,plate ,,vii4 fig4 #d71 the front1 the right 7,plate ,,vii4 fig4 #e7 behind1 7where its continuation is indicated in fig4 #e1 and completed in fig4 #f71 thus forms its circle2-- meanwhile the club in the left hand1 commencing when that in the right was behind the head1 has passed on the back of its circle to the right1 7,plate ,,vii4 fig4 #e17 while that in the right hand has passed on the front of its circle to the same side 7,plate ,,vii4 fig4 #e1 the parts performed in both being marked by complete lines1 and the parts to be done merely indicated72--and they continue1 that in the right hand by the back1 and that in the left hand by the front1 toward the left side 7,plate ,,vii4 fig4 #f71 and so on at pleasure1 circling over the head4 ,although but two-thirds of the body1 viz41 from the loins upward1 are called into operation in this exercise1 its importance must be estimated by the fact that they are precisely those requiring constant artificial practice1 being naturally most exempted from exertion4 ,as an adjunct to ,,training1 there is nothing in the whole round of gymnastic performances that will be found of more essential service than this exercise with the ,indian clubs4 ,it demands but little muscular exertion1 and such as it does require calls chiefly upon that portion of the system which it finds in a state of comparative repose4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,locomotive ,,exercises4 ,in ,walking1 the position is nearly the same as that already described under the head ,,position4 ,the head should be upright1 easy1 and capable of free motion1 right1 left1 up1 or down1 without affecting the body4 ,the body must be kept erect and square to the front1 having the breast projected1 and the stomach retracted1 though not so as to injure either freedom of respiration or ease of attitude4 ,the shoulders should be kept moderately and equally back and low2 and the arms should hang unconstrainedly by the sides4 ,the balance on the limbs must be perfect4 ,the knees straight1 and the toes turned out as described1 the weight of the body should be thrown forward1 as this facilitates progression4 ,the military position in walking does not essentially differ from this1 except in points that exclusively regard the soldier2 as that the head be kept well up1 and straight to the front1 and the eyes not turned to the right or left2 the arms and hands kept perfectly steady by the sides1 and on no account suffered to move or vibrate3 care1 however1 being taken that the hand does not cling to the thigh1 or partake in the least degree of the movement of the limb4 ,,the ,,balance ,,step4 ,the object of this is to teach the free movement of the limbs1 preserving at the same time perfect squareness of the shoulders1 with the utmost steadiness of body2 and no labour is spared to attain this first and most essential object1 which forms1 indeed1 the very foundation of good walking4 ,the instructor must be careful that a habit be not contracted of drooping or throwing back a shoulder at these motions1 which are intended practically to show the true principles of walking1 and that steadiness of body is compatible with perfect freedom in the limbs4 #a4--,,without ,,gaining ,,ground4 ,to insure precision1 the military words of command are prefixed4 ,caution--,balance step without gaining ground1 commencing with the left foot4 ,the left foot is brought gently forward with the toe at the proper angle to the left1 the foot about three inches from the ground1 the left heel in line with the toe of the right foot4 ,rear--,when steady1 the left foot is brought gently back 7without a jerk71 the left knee a little bent1 the left toe brought close to the right heel4 ,the left foot in this position will not be so flat as to the front1 as the toe will be a little depressed4 ,front--,when steady1 the word ,front will be given as above1 and repeated to the ,rear three or four times4 ,halt--,to prevent fatigue1 the word ,halt will be given1 when the left foot1 either advanced1 or to the rear1 will be brought to the right4 ,the instructor will afterwards cause the balance to be made on the left foot1 advancing and retiring the right in the same manner4 #b4--;,,gaining ,,ground ,,by ,,the ,,word 8,,forward40 ,front--,on the word ,front1 the left foot is brought gently to the front1 without a jerk2 the knee gradually straightened as the foot is brought forward1 the toe turned out a little to the left1 and remaining about three inches from the ground4 ,this posture is continued for a few seconds only in the first instance1 till practice gives steadiness in the position4 ,forward--,on this word of command1 the left foot is brought to the ground1 at about thirty inches from heel to heel1 while the right foot is raised at the same moment1 and continues extended to the rear4 ,the body remains upright1 but inclining forward2 the head erect1 and neither turned to the right nor left4 ,front--,on the word ,front1 the right foot is brought forward1 and so on4 ,,walking4 ,of all exercises1 this is the most simple and easy4 ,the weight of the body rests on one foot1 while the other is advanced2 it is then thrown upon the advanced foot1 while the other is brought forward2 and so on in succession4 ,in this mode of progression1 the slowness and equal distribution of motion is such1 that many muscles are employed in a greater or less degree2 each acts in unison with the rest2 and the whole remains compact and united4 ,hence1 the time of its movements may be quicker or slower1 without deranging the union of the parts1 or the equilibrium of the whole4 ,it is owing to these circumstances1 that walking displays so much of the character of the walker1--that it is light and gay in women and children1 steady and grave in men and elderly persons1 irregular in the nervous and irritable1 measured in the affected and formal1 brisk in the sanguine1 heavy in the phlegmatic1 and proud or humble1 bold or timid1 c41 in strict correspondence with individual character4 ,the utility of walking exceeds that of all other modes of progression4 ,while the able pedestrian is independent of stage coaches and hired horses1 he alone fully enjoys the scenes through which he passes1 and is free to dispose of his time as he pleases4 ,to counterbalance these advantages1 greater fatigue is doubtless attendant on walking3 but this fatigue is really the result of previous inactivity2 for daily exercise1 gradually increased1 by rendering walking more easy and agreeable1 and inducing its more frequent practice1 diminishes fatigue in such a degree1 that very great distances may be accomplished with pleasure1 instead of painful exertion4 ,moderate walking exercises the most agreeable influence over all the functions4 ,in relation to health1 walking accelerates respiration and circulation1 increases the temperature and cutaneous exhalation1 and excites appetite and healthful nutrition4 ,hence1 as an anonymous writer observes1 the true pedestrian1 after a walk of twenty miles1 comes in to breakfast with freshness on his countenance1 healthy blood coursing in every vein1 and vigour in every limb1 while the indolent and inactive man1 having painfully crept over a mile or two1 returns to a dinner which he cannot digest4 ,in all individuals1 walking is indispensably joined with the exercise of one or more of the external senses4 ,it receives from the cerebral faculties a powerful influence1 by which it is either accelerated or prolonged4 ,walking upon soft even ground1 at a moderate pace1 is an exercise that may be taken without inconvenience1 and even with advantage1 after a meal4 ,it is adapted for convalescents1 who are not yet allowed to take stronger exercise4 ,a firm1 yet easy and graceful walk1 is by no means common4 ,there are few men who walk well if they have not learnt to regulate their motions by the lessons of a master1 and this instruction is still more necessary for ladies4 ,having1 now1 therefore1 taken a general view of the character and utility of walking1 ,i subjoin some more particular remarks on the ,,general ,,mechanism ,,of ,,walking4 ,for the purpose of walking1 we first bear upon one leg the weight of the body1 which pressed equally on both4 ,the other leg is then raised1 and the foot quits the ground by rising from the heel to the point4 ,for that purpose1 the leg must be bent upon the thigh1 and the thigh upon the pelvis3 the foot is then carried straight forward1 at a sufficient height to clear the ground without grazing it4 ,to render it possible1 however1 to move this foot1 the haunch1 which rested with its weight upon the thigh1 must turn forward and out4 ,as soon as1 by this movement1 this foot has passed the other1 it must be extended on the leg1 and the leg upon the thigh1 and in this manner1 by the lengthening of the whole member1 and without being drawn back1 it reaches the ground at a distance in advance of the other foot1 which is more considerable according to the length of the step1 and it is placed so softly on the ground as not to jerk or shake the body in the slightest degree4 ,as soon as the foot which has been placed on the ground becomes firm1 the weight of the body is transported to the limb on that side1 and the other foot1 by a similar mechanism1 is brought forward in its turn4 ,in all walking1 the most important circumstance is1 that the body incline forward1 and that the movement of the leg and thigh spring from the haunch1 and be free and natural4 ,viewed in this way1 the feet have been well compared to the spokes of a wheel3 the weight of the body falling upon them alternately4 ,this exercise puts in action the extensors and flexors of the thighs and legs1 a great number of the muscles of the trunk1 and more or less those of the shoulder1 according to the rapidity of the pace1 and the greater or less degree of projection communicated to the arm1 which1 in this exercise1 acts as a balancer of the body1 the motion being exactly the reverse of that of the corresponding leg4 ,it draws the fluids more into the inferior than superior members3 it gives but little strength to the latter4 ,walking may be performed in three different times1--slow1 moderate1 or quick--which somewhat modify its action4 ,,the ,,slow ,,walk1 ,,or ,,march4 ,in the march1 the weight of the body is advanced from the heel to the instep1 and the toes are turned out4 ,this being done1 one foot1 the left for instance1 is advanced1 with the knee straight1 and the toe inclined to the ground1 which1 without being drawn back1 it touches before the heel1 in such a manner1 however1 that the sole1 at the conclusion of the step1 is nearly parallel with the ground1 which it next touches with its outer edge2 the right foot is then immediately raised from the inner edge of the toe1 and similarly advanced1 inclined1 and brought to the ground2 and so on in succession4 7,plate ,,viii4 figs4 #a and #b47 ,thus1 in the march1 the toe externally first touches1 and internally last leaves the ground2 and so marked is this tendency1 that1 in the stage step1 which is meant to be especially dignified1--as the posterior foot acquires an awkward flexure when the weight has been thrown on the anterior1--in order to correct this1 the former is for an instant extended1 its toe even turned backwards and outwards1 and its tip internally alone rested on the ground1 previous to its being in its turn advanced4 ,thus the toe's first touching and last leaving the ground1 is peculiarly marked in this grandest form of the march4 ,this pace should be practised until it can be firmly and gracefully performed4 ,,the ,,moderate ,,and ,,the ,,quick ,,pace4 ,these will be best understood by a reference to the pace which we have just described2 the principal difference between them being as to the advance of the weight of the body1 the turning out of the toes1 and the part of the foot which first touches and last leaves the ground4 ,we shall find that the times of these two paces require a further advance of the weight1 and suffer successively less and less of turning out the toes1 and of this extended touching with the toe1 and covering the ground with the foot4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,viii ,page #cb4 ,walking4 ,,the ,,moderate ,,pace4 ,here the weight of the body is advanced from the heel to the ball of the foot2 the toes are less turned out2 and it is no longer the toe1 but the ball of the foot1 which first touches and last leaves the ground2 its outer edge1 or the ball of the little toe1 first breaking the descent of the foot1 and its inner edge1 or the ball of the great toe1 last projecting the weight--7,plate ,,viii4 figs4 #c and #d74 ,thus1 in this step1 less of the foot may be said actively to cover the ground2 and this adoption of nearer and stronger points of support and action is essential to the increased quickness and exertion of the pace4 ,the mechanism of this pace has not been sufficiently attended to4 ,people pass from the march to the quick pace they know not how2 and hence all the awkwardness and embarrassment of their walk when their pace becomes moderate1 and the misery they endure when this pace has to be performed by them1 unaccompanied1 up the middle of a long and well-lighted room1 where the eyes of a brilliant assembly are exclusively directed to them4 ,let those who have felt this but attend to what we have here said3 the motion of the arms and of every other part depends on it4 ,,the ,,quick ,,pace4 ,here1 the weight of the body is advanced from the heel to the toes2 the toes are least turned out2 and still nearer and stronger points of support and action are chosen4 ,the outer edge of the heel first touches the ground1 and the sole of the foot projects the weight4 ,these are essential to the increased quickness of this pace--7,plate ,,viii4 figs4 #e and #f72 and it is important to remark1 as to all these paces1 that the weight is successively more thrown forward1 and the toes are successively less turned out4 ,in the grandest form of the march1 the toes1 as we have seen1 are1 in the posterior foot1 though but for a moment1 even thrown backwards2 in the moderate pace1 they have an intermediate direction2 and in the quick pace1 they are thrown more directly forward1 as in the six figures of ,plate ,,viii4 ,it is this direction of the toes1 and still more the nearer and stronger points of support and action1 namely1 the heel and sole of the foot1 which are essential to the quick pace so universally practised1 but which1 together with the great inclination of the body1 being ridiculously transferred to the moderate pace1 make unfortunate people look so awkward1 as we shall now explain4 ,the time of the moderate pace is1 as it were1 filled up by the more complicated process of the step--by the gradual and easy breaking of the descent of the foot on its outer edge1 or the ball of the little toe1 by the deliberate positing of the foot1 by its equally gradual and easy projection from its inner edge1 or the ball of the great toe4 ,the quick pace1 if its time be lengthened1 has no such filling up3 the man stumps at once down on his heel1 and could rise instantly from his sole1 but finds that1 to fill up his time1 he must pause an instant2 he feels he should do something1 and does not know what2 his hands suffer the same momentary paralysis as his feet2 he gradually becomes confused and embarrassed3 deeply sensible of this1 he at last exhibits it externally2 a smile or a titter arises1 though people do not well know at what1 but1 in short1 the man has walked like a clown1 because the mechanism of his step has not filled up its time1 or answered its purpose4 ,i trust that the mechanism and time of the three paces are here simply1 clearly1 and impressively described4 ,the following is the more imperfect1 but still useful1 military description1 with its words of command3-- ,,slow ,,step4 ,march4--,on the word ,march1 the left foot is carried thirty inches to the front1 and1 without being drawn back1 is placed softly on the ground1 so as not to jerk or shake the body3 seventy-five of these steps to be taken in a minute4 7,the recruit is ordered to be carefully trained1 and thoroughly instructed in this step1 as an essential foundation for arriving at accuracy in the paces of more celerity4 ,this is the slowest step at which troops are to move47 ,,quick ,,step4 ,the cadence of the slow pace having become perfectly habitual1 a quick time is next taught1 which is #ajh steps in a minute1 each of thirty inches1 making #bgj feet in a minute4 ,quick ,march4--,the command ,quick ,march being given with a pause between them1 the word ,quick is to be considered as a caution1 and the whole to remain perfectly steady4 ,on the word ,march1 the whole move off1 conforming to the directions already given4 7,this pace is applied generally to all movements by large as well as small bodies of troops2 and therefore the recruit is trained and thoroughly instructed in this essential part of his duty47 ,,double ,,march4 ,the directions for the march apply1 in a great degree1 to this step1 which is #aej steps in a minute1 each of thirty-six inches1 making #dej feet in a minute4 ,double ,march4--,on the word ,double ,march1 the whole step off together with the left feet1 keeping the head erect1 and the shoulders square to the front2 the knees are a little bent2 the body is more advanced than in the other marches2 the arms hang with ease down the outside of the thighs4 ,the person marching is carefully habituated to the full pace of thirty-six inches1 otherwise he gets into the habit of a short trot1 which defeats the obvious advantages of this degree of march4 ,in the army1 great advantage attends the constant use of the plummet2 and the several lengths swinging the times of the different marches in a minute1 are as follow3-- ,in4 ,hun4 ,slow time #ge steps in the minute #bd1if ,quick time #ajh #ab1jc ,double march #aej #f1bf ,a musket ball1 suspended by a string which is not subject to stretch1 and on which are marked the different required lengths1 answers the above purpose1 may be easily acquired1 and is directed to be frequently compared with an accurate standard in the adjutant's possession4 ,the length of the plummet is to be measured from the point of suspension to the centre of the ball4 ,in practising all these paces1 the pupils should also be accustomed to march upon a narrow plane1 where there is room for only one foot1 upon rough uneven ground1 and on soft ground which yields to the foot4 ,walking exercises a greater influence over the economy when it takes place on inclined planes than on a flat surface4 ,in ascending1 the effort is made in a direction directly opposed to the general tendency of heavy bodies3 the body is strongly bent1 the upper part of the trunk in advance2 the action of the posterior and anterior muscles of the thigh is considerable2 and circulation and respiration are speedily accelerated by the violence of the muscular contractions4 ,in descending1 on the contrary1 effort is requisite to keep up the body1 which tends to obey the laws of gravitation2 and to moderate the tendency of gravity to project forward in the centre1 the body is thrown back1 the sacro-spinal mass1 and the posterior muscles of the neck1 are strongly contracted1 the knees bent1 and the steps much shorter4 ,men with long flat feet1 and the heel bone little projecting1 are bad walkers4 ,,feats ,,in ,,walking4 ,the power of walking great distances without fatigue is an important matter1 in which the ,english have of late excelled4 ,a good walker will do six miles an hour1 for one hour1 on a good road4#c ,if in perfect training1 he may even do twelve miles in two hours4 ,eighteen miles in three hours is a much more doubtful affair1 though some are said to have achieved it4 #c ,seven miles in one hour are said to have been done by some4 ,a ,cork paper1 of recent date1 describes a match of ten miles in #abj minutes1 on the ,mallow and ,fermoy road1 by ,captain ,john ,t4 ,g4 ,campbell1 of the #iast 7,argyleshire7 ,regiment1 accoutred in heavy marching order of a private soldier1 viz41 with knapsack and kit1 great-coat and mess-tin1 musket1 bayonet1 and sixty rounds of ball cartridge3 total1 fifty pounds' weight4 ,heavy bets were pending on the issue4 ,the captain started at eight o'clock1 ,a4,m41 and performed this undertaking in the short time of #ajg minutes and a quarter1 thus winning the match1 and having twelve minutes and three quarters to spare4 ,at the rate of five miles an hour1 pedestrians of the first class will do forty miles in eight hours1 and perhaps fifty in ten4#d ,at the rate of four miles an hour1 a man may walk any length of time4 ,robert ,skipper walked #ajjj miles in #ajjj successive half-hours1 on the same ground ,captain ,barclay walked #ajjj miles in #ajjj successive hours4 #d ,a clever writer in ,blackwood's ,magazine says1 8,there can be no doubt that1 out of the ,british army1 on a war establishment1 ten thousand men might be chosen1 by trial1 who would compose a corps capable of marching fifty miles a day1 on actual service1 for a whole week4 ,the power of such a corps is not to be calculated3 it would far outgo cavalry40 ,in the art of walking quickly1 the circumstance perhaps most important is1 to keep the knees somewhat bent and springy4 ,,running4 8,running10 says one of our gymnasiarchs1 8only differs from walking by the rapidity of the movement40 ,this is quite incorrect4 ,running is precisely intermediate to walking and leaping2 and1 in order to pass into it from walking1 the motion must be changed4 ,a series of leaps from each foot alternately must be performed1 in order to constitute it2 the foot which is left behind quits the ground before the foot in advance is firmly fixed1 so that the centre of gravity remains uncertain in passing from one leg to the other1 which forms a series of leaps1 and renders a fall a common occurrence4 ,,position ,,in ,,running4 ,the upper part of the body is slightly inclined forward2 the head slightly thrown backward1 to counteract the gravity forward3 the breast is freely projected2 the shoulders are steady1 to give a fixed point to the auxiliary muscles of respiration3 the upper parts of the arms are kept near the sides2 the elbows are bent1 and each forms an acute angle2 the hands are shut1 with the nails turned inwards2 and the whole arms move but slightly1 in order that the muscles of respiration on the chest may be as little as possible disturbed1 and follow only the impulse communicated by other parts--7,plate ,,ix4 fig4 #a74 ,there exists1 in fact1 during the whole time of running1 a strong and permanent contraction of the muscles of the shoulder and arm1 which1 though very violent1 is less serviceable to the extended movements1 than to keep the chest immoveable1 toward which the arms are brought close1 the flexors and adductors of which are especially contracted4 ,,action ,,in ,,running4 ,at every step1 the knees are stretched out2 the legs kept as straight as possible2 the feet almost graze the ground2 the tread is neither with the mere balls of the toes1 nor with the whole sole of the foot2 and the spring is made rapidly from one foot to the other1 so that they pass each other with great velocity--7,plate ,,ix4 fig4 #b74 ,but the abdominal members are not the only ones in motion1 although it is in them that the greatest developement takes place4 ,throughout the whole time of running1 a strong and permanent contraction of the muscles of the shoulder1 arm1 and forearm takes place3 this1 though very violent1 is less for the purpose of aiding motion than of preserving the immobility of the thorax1 which is pressed upon the whole thoracic member1 whose flexors and adductors are strongly contracted4 ,the degree of velocity1 however1 must be proportioned to the length of the steps4 ,too slow and long1 as well as too quick and short1 steps1 may be equally injurious4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ix ,page #ch4 ,running4 ,,respiration4 ,speed1 and still more duration in running1 are in proportion to the developement of the lungs1 and consequently the volume of oxygen and blood which they can combine in their parenchyma at each respiratory movement4 ,thus1 of two men1 one having the abdominal members developed1 and the other possessing good lungs1 the former will run with the greatest speed for a short distance1 but if the distance be considerable1 he will soon be gained upon by the latter4 ,a runner1 after performing a certain space1 is seized with a difficulty of breathing1 long before the repetition of the contractions has produced fatigue in the abdominal members4 ,to excel1 therefore1 in running1 requires1 like walking and dancing1 a peculiar exercise4 ,as the muscular contractions depend1 for their principle of excitement1 on the respiration1 the chest should be firmly fixed1 so as both to facilitate this1 and to serve as a point of support for the efforts of the lower members4 ,the best runners are those who have the best wind1 and keep the breast dilated for the longest time4 ,during the whole time of running1 long inspirations and slow expirations are of the greatest importance2 and young persons cannot be too early accustomed to them4 ,to facilitate respiration towards the end of the race1 the upper part of the body may be leant a little forward4 ,running should cease as soon as the breath becomes very short1 and a strong perspiration takes place4 ,,moderate ,,running4 ,this is performed gently and in equal time1 and may be extended to a considerable space4 ,in practising this pace1 it is necessary to fix the distance to be run2 and this should always be proportioned to the age and strength of the runners4 ,this exercise1 more than all others1 requires to be proceeded with in a progressive manner4 ,if1 at the first trial1 you run too fast or too long a time1 it may produce spitting of blood and headache1 or aneurisms of the heart and principal vessels1 especially if the weather be dry and cold4 ,a moderately cool day may accordingly be chosen1 a distance of three hundred feet measured1 and the runners placed in a line at one end4 ,they may then start1 trot at the rate of about seven feet in a second to the opposite end1 turn1 and continue until they reach the spot whence they started4 ,frequent repetition of this is sufficient at first4 ,afterwards1 they may run over this space1 two1 three1 or four times without stopping2 and the exercise may then be limited to this4 ,it may1 on subsequent days1 be extended to five1 six1 and seven times the distance4 ,fatigue is then generally quite removed2 and the run may either be continued farther1 or the runners1 if neither heated nor winded1 may accelerate their pace4 ,they may next attempt a mile in ten minutes2 and repeat this1 till1 being gradually less and less heated1 they can either extend the distance1 or diminish the time1 in any measured proportion4 ,at this pace1 six miles may afterwards be run in an hour4 ,,rapid ,,running4 ,this is best applied to a short space in a little time4 ,three hundred feet upon an open plain will not generally be found too great4 ,at each end of this1 a cross line may be drawn1 and the runners may arrange themselves on one line1 while the umpire is placed at the other4 ,on the latter giving the signal1 the running commences1 and he who first passes him gains the race4 ,it is extremely useful always to run beyond the line at a gentler pace1 as it gradually lowers the actions of the respiratory and circulating systems4 ,running is more easy on a level surface1 but should be practised on ground of every variety3 upon long1 square1 and circular plots of ground4 ,the pupils should be accustomed to turn promptly out of the direct line--a faculty not possessed by animals1 and exceedingly useful when pursued4 ,they should also run up hill1 and particularly down1 as it is dangerous unless frequently practised4 ,,feats ,,in ,,running4 ,the practice of running may be carried to a great degree of perfection4 ,a quarter of a mile in a minute is good running2 and a mile in four minutes1 at four starts1 is excellent4 ,the mile was perhaps never run in four minutes1 but it has been done in four minutes and a half4#e #e ,half a mile was recently run in two minutes2 but it was down a fall as precipitous as a mountain's side1 and the performer was blind in the last twenty yards4--,,ed4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,a mile in five minutes is good running4 ,two miles in ten minutes is oftener failed in than accomplished4 ,four miles in twenty is said to puzzle the cleverest4 ,ten miles an hour is done by all the best runners4 ,fifteen miles in an hour and a half has never perhaps been done4 ,it is reported that ,west ran forty miles in five hours and a half4 ,this1 it is said1 was done by one individual in four hours and three quarters1 or less4 ,as to great distances1 ,rainer failed in two attempts to accomplish #ajj miles in eighteen hours4 ,west is said to have accomplished this4 ,,effects ,,of ,,running4 ,in running1 the mass of our organs is agitated by violent and constant shocks1 which succeed with rapidity2 but the abdominal members are not the only ones in motion1 although they are those in which the developement is most considerable4 ,running developes not only the abdominal members1 but has a strong influence upon the respiratory parts4 ,this exercise is particularly suited to young persons1 especially those of a lymphatic temperament4 ,it should not1 however1 be practised after meals4 ,,leaping4 ,leaping consists principally in the sudden straightening of the articulations1 performed by a strong and instantaneous contraction of the extensors1 by which the body is rapidly projected from the ground4 ,the leaping-stand consists of two moveable posts1 above six feet high1 having1 above the second foot from the ground1 holes bored through them1 at the distance of an inch from each other2 two iron pins to be placed in the holes at any height2 a cord1 at least ten feet long1 passed over these pins1 and kept straight by two sand-bags at its ends2 and weights upon the feet of the posts1 to prevent them from falling--7,plate ,x4 fig4 #a74 ,the leap over the cord is made from the side of the stand towards which the heads of the pegs are turned2 so that1 if the feet touch the cord1 it will easily and instantly fall4 ,in all kinds of leaping1 it is of great importance to draw in and retain the breath at the moment of the greatest effort1 as it gives the chest more solidity to support the rest of the members1 impels the blood into the muscular parts1 and increases their strength4 ,the hands1 also1 should be shut1 and the arms pendent4 ,the extent of the leap in height1 or horizontally1 is proportioned to the power employed1 and the practice acquired4 ,as it is performed with facility only in proportion to the strength exerted1 and the elasticity and suppleness of the articulations and muscles of the lower extremities1 much exercise is necessary to attain that degree of perfection which lessens all obstacles1 and supplies the means of clearing them without danger4 ,lightness and firmness are the qualities necessary for leaping3 every thing should be done to acquire these two qualifications1 for without them leaping is neither graceful nor safe4 ,,the ,,high ,,leap4 ,without a ,run4 ,in this1 the legs and feet are closed2 the knees are bent till the calves nearly touch the thighs2 the upper part of the body1 kept straight1 is inclined a little forward2 and the arms thrown in the direction of the leap1 which increases the impulse1 preserves the balance1 and may be useful in a fall4 7,plate ,x4 fig4 #a47 ,illustration3 ,plate ,x ,page #db4 ,leaping4 ,leaping4 ,the vertebral column1 and consequently the whole of the trunk1 being thus bent forward1 a strong contraction of the muscles preserves this bending till the moment when the leap takes place2 then1 by sudden contraction of the extensors1 the body stretches out like a bow when the string breaks1 is thus jerked forward1 and remains suspended a longer or shorter time in the air4 ,in descending1 the person should be rather inclined forward2 and the fall should take place on the fore part of the feet1 bending the knees and haunches1 to deaden the shock and descent2 for1 the direct descent in this leap1 if not thus broken1 would send its shock from the heels to the spine and head1 and might occasion injury4 ,to perpendicularity in this leap1 should be added lightness1 so that scarcely any noise from the leap should be heard4 ,this leap1 without a run1 may be practised at the height1-- #a4 ,of the knees4 #b4 ,of the middle of the thighs4 #c4 ,of the hips4 #d4 ,of the lower ribs4 ,with a ,run4 ,the run preceding the leap should never exceed ten paces1 the distance between the point of springing and the cord being equal to half the cord's height from the ground4 ,the view of the leaper should be directed first to the spot whence he is to spring2 and1 the moment he has reached that1 to the cord1 accustoming himself to spring from either foot1 and from both feet4 ,the instant the spring is made1 or 7if it be made with one foot7 immediately after1 the feet should be closed1 and the knees drawn forcibly towards the chin4 ,throughout1 flexibility and skill1 not violent exertion1 should be displayed4 ,this leap1 with a run1 may be practised at the height1-- #a4 ,of the hips4 #b4 ,of the lower ribs4 #c4 ,of the pit of the stomach4 #d4 ,of the breast4 #e4 ,of the chin4 #f4 ,of the eyes4 #g4 ,of the crown of the head4 ,feats in ,high ,leaping4 ,a good high leaper will clear five feet2 a first-rate one1 five and a half2 and an extraordinary one1 six feet4 ,ireland is mentioned as having cleared an extended cord at the height of fourteen feet4 ,another man1 it is said1 jumped to the height of seventeen feet1 which was three times the height of his own body4#f #f ,the author means1 with the aid of a spring-board4--,,ed4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,,the ,,long ,,leap4 ,without a ,run4 ,this is generally performed upon straight firm ground1 on which there are marks1 or parallel lines1 at equal distances4 ,the first of these lines is the place to leap from4 ,the leapers succeed each other1 and clear a greater number of lines according to their strength and skill4 ,here the feet are closed2 the whole weight rests upon the balls of the toes2 and the body is inclined forward4 ,both arms are then swung forward1--backward1--then drawn strongly forward1--and at the same instant the limbs1 having been bent1 are extended with the utmost possible force4 ,in performing this leap1 the hands and body must be bent forward1 especially at the end of the movement1 when the leaper alights4 ,on level ground twelve feet is a good standing leap2 and fourteen is one of comparatively rare occurrence4 ,with a ,run4 ,this leap is best executed with a run2 and we have therefore dwelt less upon the former4 ,here1 also1 the body must be inclined forward4 ,the run should be made over a piece of firm1 and not slippery ground1 to the extent of ten1 fifteen1 or twenty paces2 should consist of small steps1 increasing in quickness as they approach the point of springing2 and these should be so calculated as to bring upon the point that foot with which the leaper is accustomed to spring4 ,the spring1 as here implied1 should be performed with one foot1 and the arms thrown forcibly towards the place proposed to be reached4 ,the height as well as the length of the leap1 must be calculated2 for the leap is shortened by not springing a proper height4 7,plate ,x4 fig4 #b47 ,in the descent1 the feet are closed1 the knees bent1 the upper part of the body inclined forward1 and the toes first touch the ground1 at which moment1 a light spring1 and afterwards some short steps1 are made1 in order to avoid any sudden check4 ,in a much extended leap1 however1 alighting on the toes is impossible4 ,a sort of horizontal swing is then achieved1 by which the leaper's head is little higher than his feet1 and his whole figure is almost parallel with the ground2 and1 in this case1 to alight on the toes is impossible4 ,care must here be taken not to throw the feet so much forward as to cause the leaper to fall backward at the moment of descent4 ,the ground must be cleared1 or the leap is imperfect and unfair4 ,this leap may be practised at1-- #a4 ,double the length of the body4 #b4 ,twice and a half that length4 #c4 ,three times that length4 ,feats in ,long ,leaping4 ,on level ground1 twenty feet is a first-rate leap2 twenty-one is extraordinary2 and twenty-two is very rarely accomplished4#g ,with a run and a leap1 on a slightly inclined plane1 twenty-three feet have been done4 #g ,i have seen twenty-two feet covered forwards and backwards1 by an ,irish tailor4--,,ed4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,of the various kinds of leaps1 the first or simple leap1 which is produced principally by the extension of the abdominal members1 which impel the body either straight upwards1 in the vertical leap1 or obliquely upwards and forwards1 in the horizontal or rather parabolic leap1 requires1 in addition to the contraction of the abdominal members1 especially if the leap be executed with the feet close together1 a violent action of the muscles of the abdomen1 upper parts of the back1 anterior parts of the loins1 and of the thorax and shoulders4 ,,the ,,deep ,,leap4 ,this may be made either with or without the hands4 ,in either way1 to avoid the shock1 the body must be kept in a bent position1 and the fall be upon the balls of the toes4 ,when the hands are used1 the leaper places them in front of the feet2 and during the descent1 the weight of the body is checked by the former1 and passes in a diminished state to the latter2 so that the shock is obviated4 ,a flight of steps serves the purpose of this exercise4 ,the leaper ascends a certain number2 leaps from the side2 gradually increases the number2 and1 by practising progressively higher1 finds it easy to leap from heights which at first appalled him4 ,he afterwards combines the long and deep leaps4 ,for this purpose1 a rivulet1 which has one bank high and the opposite one low1 is very favourable4 ,children can easily take a leap of nine feet in descending4 ,,the ,,deep ,,leap ,,backwards1 ,,from ,a ,,rest ,,on ,,the ,,hands4 ,this exercise is first performed from platforms of various heights1 and from walls of various elevations4 ,the object is to lessen the shock that the legs and body experience in reaching the ground at a depth of more than six or seven feet1 and to diminish the distance if possible1 at the same time that it diminishes the violence and velocity of the fall4 ,all this is easily managed by observing the following rules4 ,suppose the pupil placed upon a platform of four or six feet in height1 he must first examine the place he is about to leap to1 so as to select the most favourable part1 free from stones and other obstacles4 ,he will then approach the extremity of the platform1 with his back towards it1 and bend his body1 placing his hands in the position shown in ,plate ,x4 fig4 #c4 ,having taken up this position securely1 he will lean his head a little forward1 raise his toes from the platform1 and remain for an instant supported by the arms4 ,the body then begins to extend1 and the legs to lengthen downward and backwards2 the arms follow this movement1 bend1 and support the body by the hands1 which have a secure resting-place on the edge of the platform1 as in ,plate ,x4 fig4 #d4 ,this descending movement is executed as slowly as possible3 the arms stretch out to their utmost length1 till the body is sustained by the last phalanx of the fingers1 or touches the ground with the feet4 ,if it does not reach the ground1 the pupil drops gently down on the tips of his toes1 bends himself1 and recovers his upright position4 ,there is another mode of descending1 when the last resting-place for the hands is the top of a counterfort1 or prop on a wall without a counterfort4 ,this consists 7see ,plate ,x4 fig4 #c7 in seizing the last hold with the right hand for instance1 and in hanging firmly by that hand1 whilst the left1 being at liberty1 is lowered and pushes back the body from the projecting stones in the walls1 to prevent injury in the descent4 ,the impulse thus given is1 however1 very trifling1 and solely to avoid hurt1 without increasing the violence of the fall1 which ought to be facilitated on reaching the ground by the rules already given4 ,by these means1 the height of a wall is relatively diminished1 for a man who hangs suspended by his arms1 has six feet less to drop than he who has his feet where he might put his hands4 ,the down leap1 unless gradually practised1 may produce ruptures of the diaphragm4 ,when1 however1 the elevation from which the leap is taken is gradually increased1 the eye becomes accustomed to measure the most extensive distances fearlessly1 at the same time that by practice the abdominal members learn to bend properly under the weight of the trunk1 and thereby preserve the organs contained in it from serious injuries4 ,in this kind of leap1 the shocks will be diminished by retaining the air in the chest1 which may be done by closing the glottis4 ,persons who have long toes1 powerful calves1 and prominent heels1 are the best adapted for leaping4 ,,vaulting4 ,in vaulting1 by a spring of the feet1 the body is raised1 and by leaning the hands upon a fixed object1 it at the same time receives1 in oblique vaulting1 a swing which facilitates the action4 ,as the inclination thus given to the body depends not merely on the feet1 but on the hands1 we have the power to guide the body in any direction4 ,this exercise is conveniently practised on the vaulting bar1 which rests upon two or three posts4 ,it may be performed with or without running4 ,the beginner may at first be allowed a run of a few paces1 ending in a preparatory spring2 and he may afterwards be allowed only a spring4 ,,oblique ,,vaulting4 ,to mount1 the vaulter must place himself in front of the bar2 make a preparatory spring with the feet close2 fix at that moment both hands upon the bar2 heave himself up1 and swing the right leg over4 ,the body1 supported by the hands1 may then easily descend into the riding position4 ,to dismount1 the vaulter1 supported by the hands1 must extend the feet1 make a little swing forward1 and a greater one backward1 so as to heave both feet behind over the bar1 and spring to the ground with them close4 ,to do this he must first clearly define to himself the place where he intends to fall4 ,then1 having placed both hands upon the bar1 he should first bend and then extend the joints1 so as to raise the body with all his strength1 and throw his legs1 kept close1 high over the bar4 7,plate ,,xi4 fig4 #a47 ,when the right hand 7if he vault to the right7 quits the bar1 the left remains1 the feet reach the ground on the opposite side1 and he falls on both feet1 with the knees projected1 and the hands ready1 if necessary1 to break the fall4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xi ,page #dh4 ,vaulting4 ,in vaulting to the right1 the left foot passes in the space which was between both the hands1 the right hand quits the bar1 and the left guides the body in the descent4 ,in vaulting to the left1 the right foot passes in the space which was between both hands1 the left hand quits the bar1 and the right guides the body in its descent4 ,as1 however1 it is difficult for beginners to vault either way1 this is not to be attempted until after sufficient practice in the way which may be easiest4 ,the vaulter may then1 with a preparatory spring1 try the following heights1-- #a4 ,that of the pit of the stomach4 #b4 ,that of a middling-sized horse4 #c4 ,his own height or more4 ,,straight-,,forward ,,vaulting4 ,for this purpose1 both hands must be placed at such distance on the bar as to give room for the feet between them2 the body should be forcibly raised2 the knees drawn up towards the breast2 and the feet brought between the hands1 without moving them from their place4 7,plate ,,xi4 fig4 #b47 ,this should be practised until it can be done easily4 ,this straight-forward vault may have three different terminations4 ,when the feet are in the space between the hands1 the vaulter may stand upright4 ,he may pass his feet to the opposite side1 whilst he seats himself4 ,he may continue the leap over the seat1 through the arms1 letting both hands go at once after the legs have passed4 ,,leaping ,,with ,a ,,pole4 ,this is a union of leaping and vaulting1 in which the vaulter1 instead of supporting himself upon a fixed object1 carries with him a pole1 which he applies to whatever spot he chooses4 ,in supporting the body by a pole during the leap1 a great deal also depends upon balancing1 as well as on the strength of the arms and legs4 ,,the ,,high ,,leap ,,with ,a ,,pole4 ,the pole prescribed for this exercise is the planed stem of a straight-grown fir1 from seven to ten feet long1 and about two inches thick at the bottom4 ,such a pole naturally diminishes towards the top2 and it is better to plane off the lower end a little4 ,care must be taken that it be sufficiently strong2 such as make a crackling noise during the leap should be immediately thrown aside4 ,the learner1 supposed to be already expert in leaping and vaulting1 may at first place himself before a small ditch1 with a pole1 which he holds in such a manner1 that the right hand be about the height of the head1 and the left about that of the hips1 and in this case he must fix it in the ditch4 7,see ,plate ,,xii4 fig4 #a47 ,he must then1 by making a spring with his left foot1 endeavour to rest the weight of his body upon the pole1 and1 thus supported1 swing himself to the opposite bank4 ,in this swing1 he passes his body by the right of the pole1 making1 at the same time1 a turn1 so that1 at the descent1 his face is directed to the place whence he leaped4 ,the faults usually committed by the beginner1 consist in his trusting to the pole the whole weight of the body2 and in losing the necessary purchase by keeping at too great a distance from it4 ,this leap cannot be made with proper force and facility unless the fixing of the pole in the ground and the spring are made exactly at the same moment4 ,to acquire this1 the learner should place himself at the distance of a moderate pace in front of the ditch2 raise the left foot and the pole together2 plant both together1 the former in the spot whence he intends making the spring1 and the latter in the ditch2 then instantly swing himself round the pole1 to the opposite bank4 ,as soon as he can easily take the proper position and balance1 he may endeavour to swing his legs higher2 and in proportion as he becomes more expert1 he must place his hands higher up the pole1 in order to have a greater swing4 ,he must afterwards make a previous run of two1 three1 or four paces1 gradually increasing in velocity2 and always taking care that the springing foot and the pole come to the ground at the same moment4 ,when this difficulty is overcome1 he may practise the exercise over the leaping-stand4 ,in leaping over the cord1 the learner must take the pole in both hands2 make a rather quick run2 conclude this with the spring1 and planting the pole at the same moment2 raise rapidly his whole body1 by means of this spring and a powerful support on the pole1 and swing over the cord2 turning his body so that1 at the descent1 his face is directed to the place whence he sprung4 ,this is a general description of the high leap2 but it is necessary to explain the parts into which it may be divided1 as follows1-- #a4 ,in the handling the pole 7,plate ,,xii4 fig4 #a71 it is immaterial1 as to the lower hand1 whether the thumb or the little finger be uppermost3 the upper hand must have the thumb upward4 ,the position of the upper hand is regulated by that of the lower one3 as this advances higher up1 the former must be proportionally raised4 ,the lower hand then must be placed at a height proportionate to that of the leap3 thus1 if the latter be six feet1 the lower hand must be at least from five and a half to six feet from the lower end of the pole4 ,the leaper is1 after a little practice1 enabled to seize the pole in the proper way1 from a mere glance at the leap4 #b4 ,the preparatory run of from twelve to fifteen paces is accelerated as the leaper approaches the cord4 ,upon this run principally depend the facility and the success of the leap4 ,as the spring can take place only with one foot1 and as this must arrive correctly at the springing place1 it is necessary that the order of the steps should be arranged so as to effect this object4 ,if the leaper should be obliged to correct himself by making a few steps1 either longer or shorter1 just before making the spring1 the leap is rendered difficult4 #c4 ,the fixing of the pole in the ground1 and the spring1 must take place at the same instant1 because by that means the upper and lower members operate together1 no power is lost1 and the swing is performed with the greatest facility4 ,the place of the pole1 however1 varies with the height of the leaps2 in leaps of about four feet1 the distance of one foot from the cord is sufficient2 in higher leaps1 it should be from one and a half to two feet4 ,the best plan is to have a small pit dug in front of the cord 7see ,plate ,,xii4 figs4 #b and #c71 and to remove the stand from it1 as the height of the leap increases2 or the stand may remain at a foot and a half from the pit1 and the learner be taught to make all the leaps from it4 ,the spring is made with one foot1 at the distance of two1 three1 four1 or five feet from the plant of the pole4 ,if the leaper keep the left hand lowest1 he must spring with the left foot1 and vice vers4 #d4 ,the swing upward is effected by the force of the spring1 the support of the lower1 and the pull of the upper hand2 but principally by the propulsion of the run1 which being suddenly modified by the fixing of the pole1 has its horizontal direction changed into a slanting ascent1 and carries the body of the leaper over the cord4 ,the leaper must carefully observe that the spring of the foot1 and the plant of the pole1 be in the direction of the preparatory run4 #e4 ,the turning of the body during the swinging upward1 is necessary4 ,when the leaper is going to spring1 he has his face turned towards the object of the leap1 as in ,plate ,,xii4 fig4 #a2 but as his feet swing1 his body turns round the pole4 ,when his feet have passed over the other side of the cord1 the head is still considerably on this side3 the leaper then appears as in fig4 #b4 ,speedily1 the middle of his body is on the other side of the cord1 and he begins the descent1 as in fig4 #c4 ,it would be impossible to descend in this position otherwise than with his face directed to the place where the leap was commenced4 #f4 ,the quitting of the pole during the leap is effected by giving it a push with one hand1 at the moment of greatest height1 and this causes it to fall on the inner side of the cord4 #g4 ,the carrying of the pole over the cord is more difficult4 ,the leaper must then raise the pole a little from the ground at the moment of beginning the descent1 and instantly elevate the lower part of it with the lowest hand1 and depress the upper part with the other2 the consequence being1 that1 at the descent1 the lower end of the pole will point upward1 and the upper end downward4 ,this should be practised first in low leaps4 ,illustration #h4 ,the descent depends entirely upon the manner in which the leap is made3 if the leap be perfect1 the descent will be so4 ,the usual fault in descending is1 that the leaper1 having passed the cord1 falls to the ground almost perpendicularly instead of obliquely4 ,in the annexed figure1 a is the place whence the spring is made1 c the section of the cord1 b the position of the leaper over it1 d his right1 and e his wrong descent4 ,the latter is faulty because it throws him so much out of balance1 that in order not to fall backward1 he must run backward to d4 ,if1 on the contrary1 he descends in proper balance to the ground1 he moves not an inch from the spot where his feet alight2 and this complete rest following the descent is the sign of a perfect leap4 ,the descent1 as already explained1 must take place upon the balls of the toes1 and with a sinking of the knees4 ,the position of the body is sufficiently explained by ,plate ,,xii4 figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c2 but many learn to swing the legs so well as to raise them1 during the highest part of the leap1 considerably above the head4 ,order of exercises in the high leap1 to be very gradually attempted3-- #a4 ,the height of the hips4 #b4 ,that of the pit of the stomach4 #c4 ,that of the chin4 #d4 ,that of the crown of the head4 #e4 ,that of the points of the fingers--that is1 as high as the latter can reach4 ,in performing these leaps1 the pole is parted with4 ,as many more may form a repetition of the preceding1 with this difference1 that the leaper carries the pole over with him4 ,a similar number may repeat the first1 except that the leaper1 between the spring and descent1 makes a complete turn round the pole1 so as again to bring his face in the direction of the leap4 ,this enlarged turn is rendered easier by leaping a little higher than the cord requires4 ,,the ,,long ,,leap ,,with ,a ,,pole4 ,this leap is the most useful1 being applicable almost everywhere2 and particularly in a country intersected with small rivers1 ditches1 c4 ,it should be first practised over a ditch about three feet deep1 eight feet broad at one end1 and about twenty-one feet at the other1 and of any convenient length4 ,in this exercise1 the pole should be rather stronger and longer than in the preceding one--depending1 however1 on the length of the leap1 and the height of the bank it is made from4 ,the usual length is from ten to thirteen feet4 ,the handling of the pole is the same as in the high leap4 ,the preparatory run is rapid1 in proportion to the length of the leap4 ,the spring takes place as in the preceding exercise4 ,the swing is also the same1 except that the curve of the leap is wider4 ,the turning of the body may likewise be similar1 but it is convenient to make only a quarter turn4 ,in the descent1 the hand presses more upon the pole2 and the feet are stretched out to reach the opposite bank1 as in ,plate ,,xiii4 fig4 #a1 in which the leaper is descending4 ,another method of leaping a river1 is to force the body up so high by the pressure of the hands 7of which one rests upon the end of the pole1 or very near it71 as to swing over the top of the pole1 and allow it to pass between the legs when descending4 7,plate ,,xiii4 fig4 #b47 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xii ,page #ed4 ,pole ,leaping4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xiii ,page #ee4 ,pole ,leaping4 ,try the following3-- #a4 ,the leap of two lengths of the body4 #b4 ,that of three lengths of the body4 #c4 ,that of four lengths of the body4 #d4 ,persons of equal strength try to outleap one another4 ,the lengths of #ah1 #bj1 #bb1 and #bd feet are frequently done by practised leapers4 ,,the ,,deep ,,leap ,,with ,a ,,pole4 ,here neither the preparatory run nor the spring occur3 there is nothing which requires the exertion of the lower members4 ,the use of the hands and arms1 however1 is peculiarly requisite1 as well as a little of the art of balancing4 ,the leaper fixes the pole1 at a convenient distance from the place where he stands1 in a chasm1 ditch1 or river1 having one bank high1 and the opposite one low4 ,seizing it with both hands in the usual way1 he slips along it lower and lower2 the whole weight of his body1 at last1 resting upon it4 ,thus1 if the depth is considerable1 as two lengths of the body1 he may slide so far down upon it1 that his head appears slanting downward4 ,in this position1 he makes a slight push against the bank1 or merely quits it1 with his feet1 which he swings by the side of the pole to the opposite bank4 ,here1 also1 the descent is performed upon the balls of the toes1 with bending of the knees4 ,the principal advantage in this leap lies in the art of supporting the body1 without tottering2 and for this purpose1 it is absolutely necessary that the feet should be stretched out far from each other1 in an angular form1 otherwise the balance might be lost4 ,the best way of practising this in an exercise ground1 is by a flight of steps4 ,to the exercise of the abdominal members1 these leaps unite a strong action of the muscles of the thorax1 arms1 and fore-arms1 and even of those of the palms of the hand4 ,the body is only half impelled by the abdominal members2 but this impulse is rendered complete by considerable effort on the part of the thoracic members4 ,the latter1 in the vertical leap1 being supported by the narrow and moveable base afforded by the pole1 assist greatly in raising the body1 and even keep it a moment suspended for the legs to pass over 7if the object to be cleared is very high7 before it allows the body to obey the force of gravity which carries it down4 ,this exercise communicates what is termed great lightness to the body1 and great suppleness--that is to say1 great relative strength of the abdominal members2 and it also developes the superior members4 ,it is good for lymphatic temperaments and young persons1 but it should not be indulged in immediately after meals4 ,it may occasion accidents of the brain and spinal marrow1 unless all the articulations are bent on returning to the ground4 ,,balancing4 ,balancing is the art of preserving the stability of the body upon a narrow or a moving surface4 ,the balancing bar consists of a round and tapering pole1 supported horizontally1 about three feet from the ground1 by upright posts1 one at its thicker extremity1 and another about the middle1 between the parts of which it may be raised or lowered by means of an iron peg passing through holes in their sides4 ,the unsupported end of the bar wavers1 of course1 when stepped upon--7,plate ,,xiv47 ,the upper surface of the bar being smooth in dry weather1 the soles of the shoes should be damped2 the ground about the bar should consist of sand1 and the exercises be cautiously performed4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xiv ,page #eg4 ,balancing4 ,,position ,,and ,,action ,,in ,,balancing4 ,in this exercise1 the head should be held up1 the body erect1 the shoulders back1 the arms extended1 the hands shut1 and the feet turned outwards4 ,at first1 the balancer may be assisted along the bar2 but he must gradually receive less and less aid1 till at last the assistant only remains by his side4 ,the pole may be mounted either from the ground or from the riding position on the beam4 ,in the latter case1 the balancer may raise the right foot1 place it flat on the beam1 with the heel near the upper part of the thigh1 and rise on the point of the foot1 carrying the weight of the body before him4 7,plate ,,xiv4 fig4 #a47 ,in this case1 the beam must not be touched with the hands2 the left leg must hang perpendicularly1 with the toe towards the ground1 and the arms be stretched forward4 ,after keeping the balance for some minutes in this position1 he must stretch the left leg out before him1 place his heel on the middle of the beam1 with the toe well turned outward1 and transfer the weight of the body from the point of the right foot to the left heel--7,plate ,,xiv4 fig4 #b74 ,these steps he must perform alternately1 till he reaches the end of the beam4 ,,turns ,,in ,,balancing4 ,when the balancer is able to walk firmly and in good position along the bar1 and to spring off whenever he may lose his balance1 he may attempt to turn round1 first at the broad1 then at the narrow end1 and to return4 ,he may next try to go backward4 ,in accomplishing this1 it is no longer the heel1 but the tip of the toes1 which receives the weight2 the leg which hangs being stretched backward1 with the hip1 knee1 and heel forming a right angle1 till the toes1 by a transverse motion1 are so placed on the middle of the beam1 that the balancer can safely transfer to them the whole weight of the body4 ,to acquire the art of passing an obstacle placed laterally1 two balancers may pass each other thus3--,they must hold one another fast by the arms1 advance breast to breast1 place each his right foot close forward to that of his comrade1 across the bar 7,plate ,,xiv4 fig4 #c71 and turn completely round each other1 by each stepping with his left foot round the right one of the other1 as in ,plate ,,xiv4 fig4 #d4 ,to acquire the art of passing an obstacle placed inferiorly1 a large stone may be laid upon the bar1 or a stick may be held before the balancer1 about the height of the knee4 7,plate ,,xiv4 fig4 #e47 ,to pass over men placed upon a beam1 the pupil or pupils who are astride in front lie down on the beam1 which they grasp firmly by passing their arms round it4 ,the pupil a 7fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,xv47 having to pass to the point on the beam marked b1 places his hands on the waistband of his comrade c3 he then leans upon his arms1 and raises his body to pass forward over his comrade1 opening his legs widely1 so as not to touch him1 till he places himself astride at c4 ,he then extends his hands and arms for a second movement1 places them at b1 and leans the body well forward1 as shown in fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,xv4 ,being thus placed1 he makes the last movement1 raises his body upon the arms to pass over his comrade's head without touching it1 which is the chief rule of this exercise1 and places himself astride upon the beam at b1 moving his hands immediately1 and extending them to rest at d4 ,this movement being finished1 he continues advancing astride1 along the beam1 over the others1 if there be any2 raises himself to an upright position1 and lies down in his turn on the beam4 ,this last attitude requires some care1 because the head must incline either to the right or left of the beam1 as shown in the plates1 and the pupil must hold tight to the beam with the arms and thighs1 which requires both skill and strength4 ,the pupil may also pass as shown in fig4 #c1 ,plate ,,xv4 ,this method is very easy for the person passing1 and indeed more so than any other2 but it is necessary that the pupil who is in the position b should have learnt to raise himself up on the beam1 or know how to advance along it underneath1 in a reversed position4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xv ,page #eh4 ,balancing4 ,it is impossible for any one who has not seen the carnivals of ,venice1 and other towns in ,italy1 to form an idea of all the difficulties that have been surmounted in the art of equilibrium4 ,to acquire the art of carrying any body1 the balancer may at first walk along the bar with his hands folded across his breast1 instead of using them to balance himself2 and he may afterwards carry bodies of various magnitudes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to this notice of the rules by which the art of ,balancing may be best acquired1 it will not be out of place to subjoin a slight outline of its importance to all who desire to arrive at excellence in any of the ,manly ,exercises4 ,motion--the source of them all--if not absolutely dependent for existence upon equilibrium1 without it would be but the infancy of action--movement tottering1 uncertain1 powerless4 ,the first effort of locomotion--the walk1 without it1 possesses neither force nor decision3 in the same ratio that a higher degree of muscular exertion is demanded1 increases the value and importance of the art which teaches how best to apply the vital energies to its service4 ,what a wise economy is to the social1 this art is to the physical system3 both serve to augment our resources1 by instructing us so to husband them that the term 8necessity0 be not known to our vocabulary4 ,while in every instance equilibrium adds greatly to physical power1 in many it stands altogether in its stead4 ,to the most casual observer of our usual sports it will be manifest that this is the case in ,skating2--the more attentive and competent will have little difficulty in tracing its effects in ,leaping1 ,vaulting1 ,swimming1 and through almost the whole catalogue4 ,it is to the later writers on horsemanship that we are indebted for the knowledge of its vital service to the equestrian4 ,the truth of their theory is proved by the fact that1 where formerly scarce a tithe of a hunting-field was found to ride to hounds1 now nine-tenths are ordinarily to be seen in good places4 --------,scouring along1 ,in pleasing hurry and confusion toss'd1 ,happy the man1 who with unrivall'd speed ,can pass his fellows4 ,,carrying ,,weight4 ,the power of raising and carrying weight is of great importance in a general view4 ,many advantages will be derived from it2 for besides strengthening the locomotive muscles1 upon which all our physical operations depend1 it will fortify also all the system and all the organs4 ,all persons1 moreover1 may find themselves under the necessity of raising and carrying a wounded or fainting person1 and may be glad to have cultivated and acquired the power necessary to perform such an act4 ,in accustoming young persons to carry burdens1 they should be taught to support what is on the back first with one hand and then with the other3 by these means the muscles are equally exercised on each side1 and acquire an equal developement4 ,these burdens1 however1 must not exceed their strength2 and they should be taught not to carry on one side in preference1 for fear of deforming the limbs4 ,there are several modes of supporting weights1 and of trying the amount of power possessed for this kind of exercise4 ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,xvi4 represents one method4 ,it consists in loading the shoulders with sacks full of articles whose weight is previously known4 ,the position of the arms and hands is such that the pupil can support a great weight3 but in this way he can walk but very slowly2 and it is therefore1 so far1 disadvantageous4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xvi ,page #fj4 ,carrying ,weight4 ,fig4 #b1 in the same plate1 supports a weight by means of a hod4 ,this is filled with balls or stones1 of which the weight is known4 ,the form of the weight is of consequence4 ,a soldier now carries with ease a knapsack full of articles1 and additional weight above it1 because the flat shape that has been lately adopted fits the body1 and lies close to the back1 as in fig4 #c1 and the centre of gravity is thus very little deranged4 ,but if the knapsack were of the old shape1 very projecting and very round1 as in fig4 #d1 the soldier would be forced to incline his body forward1 and would not be able to carry as great a weight1 nor march as long a time1 in consequence of fatigue4 ,it is for this reason1 among others1 desirable to extend the knowledge of the most simple rules of mechanics1 because these rules are serviceable in avoiding many dangers1 and diminishing the fatigue and the efforts that vacillation in the movements produces4 ,we may make use of a hook to bear boxes or bags in addition1 with the weights marked1 and thus learn the carrier's strength4 ,milo1 says history1 first carried a calf immediately after its birth1 and continued to do so every day till it had reached its full size4 ,it was said by this means that he was able to carry even the ox itself1 and afterwards throw it on the ground and kill it with his fist4 ,augustus the ,second1 ,king of ,poland1 carried a man upon his hand4 ,a man named ,roussel1 a labourer in the environs of ,lisle1 who on a smaller scale 7being but four feet ten inches in height71 was formed exactly like the ,farnese ,hercules1 raised on his shoulders a weight of eighteen hundred pounds4 ,he cleared a circle six feet in height with very little spring and one hundred-weight in each hand4 ,when seated on the ground1 he rose up without aid1 carrying two men on his arms4 ,equally astonishing in the strength of his loins1 he took up two hundred-weight leaning backwards over a chair4 8,i have seen this remarkable man10 says ,friedlander3 8the whole of his family are very strong3 his sister and brother are equally remarkable in this point40 ,it is very striking to find in him the characteristic traits with which antiquity depicted the ideal of bodily strength4 ,in the ,encyclopdia of ,krumtz1 vol4 lxxii41 we find instances of some men similar to ,roussel1 who lived at the commencement of the last century4 ,a man named ,eckenberg raised a cannon of two thousand five hundred pounds weight2 and two strong men were unable to take from him a stick that he held between his teeth4 ,in number #ddf of the ,bibliotheque ,britannique1 is to be found a report of some trials made by a ,mr4 ,shulze1 in his manufactory1 of the strength of men of different heights4 ,these trials show what influence an elevated stature has upon the vertical height to which a man can raise any weight4 ,a short man is1 in his turn1 capable of employing more force in another direction4 ,,throwing ,,the ,,discus4 ,among the ,greeks1 throwing the discus did not form part of the games till the eighteenth ,olympiad4 ,this exercise consisted in throwing1 as far as possible1 a mass of wood or stone1 but more commonly of iron or copper1 of a lenticular form4 ,from the testimony of ancient authors1 there was no mark or butt fixed1 except the spot where the discus thrown by the strongest of the discoboli alighted4 ,mercuriali has handed down to us three engravings1 in which the discus is not of the same shape4 ,the first engraving represents four discoboli in the act of throwing with the right hand a discus which is as thick at the circumference as at the centre1 which has been bored4 ,the second represents the statue of a discobolus holding a discus apparently of a spherical form1 in the left hand4 ,the third shows the arm of an athlete with a flat discus4 ,the discus in the last two engravings now mentioned1 covers the greater part of the front of the forearm2 and all that the ancients have written respecting this instrument1 tends to show that it was of enormous size and weight4 ,homer tells us1 that the athletes threw the discus either up into the air merely as a prelude to accustom their arms to it1 or horizontally when they were striving for the prize4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xvii ,page #fc4 ,throwing the ,discus4 ,to perform this exercise properly1 the thrower should not only balance the discus well on the right arm1 7supposing it to be on that arm1 as in ,plate ,,xvii4 fig4 #a72 but at the moment it leaves the hand1 he should throw the whole of the right side forward1 so that the impulse may be assisted by the weight of the whole body4--7,plate ,,xvii4 fig4 #b47 ,this exercise very much strengthens the body1 and developes1 in a particular manner1 the limb by which the discus is thrown4 ,it may be usefully employed in cases where it is desirable to remedy weakness in either of the arms2 and it is well calculated to bring up the power of the left arm to that of the right4 ,the modern quoit differs from the ancient discus only in this1 that the instrument so called is much smaller than the discus1 that its use is a mere idle pastime1 and that the object is always to throw it as close as possible to a fixed mark1 requiring more skill than strength4 ,it is evident that the discus may be heaved from above the shoulder as well as flung from below4--7,see ,plate ,,xvii4 fig4 #c47 ,no exercises can excel these for the acquirement of power4 ,they ought to be much practised with both hands4 ,a man of moderate strength will throw a pound weight of lead a distance of #adj feet1 or thereabouts4 ,silex #a #abf feet4 ,ditto #ade ,brick #afj ,,climbing4 ,climbing is the art of transporting the body in any direction1 by the aid1 in general1 both of the hands and feet4 ,the climbing-stand consists of two strong poles1 about fifteen feet high1 and from fifteen to twenty-five feet distant1 which are firmly fixed in the ground1 and support a beam strongly fastened to them4 ,one pole is two inches and a half in diameter2 the other1 which serves as a mast1 should be considerably thicker2 and both serve the purpose of climbing4 ,to the beam are attached other implements of climbing3 viz4 a ladder1 an inclined board1 a mast1 an inclined pole1 a horizontal bar1 a rope ladder1 an upright1 an inclined1 and a level rope4--7,plate ,,xviii47 ,,kinds ,,of ,,climbing4 ,climbing on fixed bodies should first be practised4 ,the ,ladder4 ,exercises on the ladder may be practised in the following ways3-- #a4 ,by ascending and descending as usual4 #b4 ,with one hand1 carrying something in the other4 #c4 ,without using the hands4 #d4 ,passing another on the front of the ladder1 or swinging to the back1 to let another pass4 ,the ,inclined ,board4 ,this should be rather rough1 about two feet broad1 and two inches thick4 ,to climb it1 it is necessary to seize both sides with the hands1 and to place the feet flat in the middle1 the inclination of the board being diminished with the progress of the pupil4 ,at first1 it may form with the ground an angle of about thirty degrees2 and the climber should not go more than half-way up4 ,this angle may gradually be augmented to a right angle1 or the direction of the board may be made perpendicular4 ,when the board is thus little or not at all inclined1 the body must be much curved inward1 and the legs thrust up1 so that the higher one is nearly even with the hand4 ,in descending1 small and quick steps are necessary4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xviii ,page #fd4 ,climbing4 ,the ,upright ,pole4 ,the upright pole should be about two inches and a half in diameter1 perfectly smooth and free from splinters4 ,the position of the climber is shown in ,plate ,,xviii4 fig4 #a1 where nothing touches the pole except the feet1 legs1 knees1 and hands4 ,he grasps as high as possible with both hands1 raises himself by bending the body and drawing his legs up the pole1 holds fast by them1 extends the body1 again grasps higher up with his hands1 and continues the same use of the legs and arms4 ,the descent is performed by sliding down with the legs1 and scarcely touching with the hands1 as in ,plate ,,xviii4 fig4 #b4 ,the ,mast4 ,this is more difficult1 as it cannot be grasped with the hands2 and it consequently should not be practised until the climber is expert in the previous exercises4 ,the position of the legs is the same as for the pole2 but1 instead of grasping the mast1 the climber lays hold of his left arm with his right hand1 or the reverse1 and clings to the mast with the whole body1 as in ,plate ,,xviii4 fig4 #c4 ,the ,slant ,pole4 ,this must be at least three inches thick2 and as1 in this exercise1 the hands bear more of the weight than in climbing the upright pole1 it should not be attempted until expertness in the other is acquired4 ,the ,horizontal1 or ,slightly ,inclined ,bar4 ,this may be about two inches wide at top1 from ten to fifteen feet long1 and supported by two posts1 respectively six and seven feet high4 ,the climber must grasp with both hands as high a part of the bar as he can reach1 and1 with arms extended1 support his own weight as long as possible4 ,he must next endeavour to bend the elbows so much1 that one shoulder remains close under the bar1 as seen in ,pl ,,xviii4 fig4 #d4 ,or he may place both hands on the same side1 and draw himself up so far as to see over it1 keeping the legs and feet close and extended4 ,he may then hang with his hands fixed on both sides1 near to each other1 having the elbows much bent1 the upper parts of the arms close to the body1 and one shoulder close under the bar2 may lower the head backwards1 and may1 at the same time1 raise the feet to touch each other over the bar4--7,pl ,,xviii4 fig4 #e47 ,in the last position1 he may move the hands one before the other1 forward or backward1 and may either slide the feet along the bar1 or alternately change them like the hands1 and retain a similar hold4 ,hanging also by the hands alone1 as in ,pl ,,xviii4 fig4 #f1 he moves them either forward or backward1 keeping the arms firm1 and the feet close and extended4 ,or he may place himself in front of the bar1 hanging by both hands1 and move laterally4 ,being likewise in front of the bar1 with his hands resting upon it1 as in ,pl ,,xviii4 fig4 #g1 he may move along the bar either to the right or left4 ,in the position of ,pl ,,xviii4 fig4 #e1 the climber may endeavour to sit upon the bar1 for instance1 on the right side1 by taking hold with the right knee-joint1 grasping firmly with the right hand1 and bringing the left armpit over the bar4 ,the riding position is thus easily obtained4 ,from the riding position1 he may1 by supporting himself with one thigh1 turn towards the front of the bar1 allowing the leg of the other side to hang down2 and he may then very easily move along the bar sideways1 by raising his body with his hands placed laterally on the bar4 ,the ,rope ,ladder4 ,this should have several rundles to spread it out1 and ought1 in all respects1 to be so constructed1 as not to twist and entangle4 ,the only difficulty here is that1 as it hangs perpendicularly1 and is flexible1 its steps are liable to be pushed forward1 and in that case1 the body is thrown into an oblique position1 and the whole weight falls on the hands4 ,to prevent this1 the climber must keep the body stretched out and upright4--7,plate ,,xviii4 fig4 #h47 ,the ,upright ,rope4 ,in this exercise1 the securing the rope may be effected in various ways4 ,in the first method1 shown in ,pl ,,xviii4 fig4 #i1 the hands and feet alone are employed4 ,the feet are crossed2 the rope passes between them1 and is held fast by their pressure2 the hands then grasp higher2 the feet are drawn up2 they are again applied to the rope2 and the same process is repeated4 ,in the second1 which is the sailor's method1 shown at ,pl ,,xviii4 fig4 #aj1 the rope passes from the hands1 generally along the right thigh1 just above the knee2 winds round the inside of the thigh1 under the knee-joint1 over the outside of the leg1 and across the instep1 whence it hangs loose2 and the climber1 by treading with the left foot upon that part of the rope where it crosses the right one1 is firmly supported4 ,this mode of climbing requires the right leg and foot to be so managed that the rope keeps its proper winding whenever it is quitted by the left foot4 ,in descending1 to prevent injury1 the hands must be lowered alternately4 ,to rest upon the upright rope1 shown in ,pl ,,xviii4 fig4 #aa1 the climber must swing the right foot round the rope1 so as to wind it three or four times round the leg2 must turn it1 by means of the left foot1 once or twice round the right one1 of which the toes are to be bent upwards2 and must tread firmly with the left foot upon the last winding4 ,or1 to obtain a more perfect rest he may lower his hands along the rope1 as in ,figure #aa1 hold with the right hand1 stoop1 grasp with the left the part of the rope below the feet1 raise it and himself again1 and wind it round his shoulders1 c41 until he is firmly supported4 ,the ,oblique ,rope4 ,the climber must fix himself to the rope1 as in ,pl ,,xviii4 fig4 #ab1 and advance the hands along it1 as already directed4 ,the feet may move along the rope alternately2 or one leg1 hanging over the rope1 may slide along it2 or1 which is best1 the sole of one foot may be laid upon the rope1 and the other leg across its instep1 so that the friction is not felt4 ,the ,level ,rope4 ,this may have its ends fastened to posts of equal heights2 and the same exercises may be performed upon it4 ,climbing ,trees4 ,in attempting this exercise1 the kind of the wood and strength of the branches must be considered4 ,summer is the best time for practising it1 as withered branches are then most easily discerned2 and even then it is best to climb low trees1 until some experience is acquired4 ,as the surface of branches is smooth1 or moist and slippery1 the hands must never for a moment be relaxed4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,skating4 ,skating is the art of balancing the body1 while1 by the impulse of each foot alternately1 it moves rapidly upon the ice4 ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,skate4 ,the wood of the skate should be slightly hollowed1 so as to adapt it to the ball of the foot2 and1 as the heel of the boot must be thick enough to admit the peg1 it may be well to lower the wood of the skate corresponding to the heel1 so as to permit the foot to regain that degree of horizontal position which it would otherwise lose by the height of the heel2 for the more of the foot that is in contact with the skate1 the more firmly will these be attached4 ,as the tread of the skate should correspond1 as nearly as possible1 with that of the foot1 the wood should be of the same length as the boot or shoe2 the irons of good steel1 and well secured in the wood4 ,these should pass beyond the screw at the heel1 nearly as far as the wood itself2 but the bow of the iron should not project much beyond the tread4 ,if the skate project much beyond the wood1 the whole foot1 and more especially its hind part1 must be raised considerably from the ice when the front or bow of the skate is brought to bear upon it2 and1 as the skater depends upon this part for the power of his stroke1 it is evident that that must be greatly diminished by the general distance of the foot from the ice4 ,in short1 if the skate be too long1 the stroke will be feeble1 and the back of the leg painfully cramped3 if it be too short1 the footing will be proportionally unsteady and tottering4 ,as the position of the person in the act of skating is never vertical1 and is sometimes very much inclined1 and as considerable exertion of the muscles of the leg is requisite to keep the ankle stiff1 this ought to be relieved by the lowness of the skates4 ,seeing1 then1 that the closer the foot is to the ice1 the less is the strain on the ankle1 it is clear that the foot ought to be brought as near to the ice as possible1 without danger of bringing the sole of the shoe in contact with it1 while traversing on the edge of the skate4 ,the best height is about three-quarters of an inch1 and the iron about a quarter of an inch thick4 ,the grooved or fluted skate1 if ever useful1 is of service only to boys1 or very light persons1 whose weight is not sufficient to catch the ice in a hard frost4 ,it certainly should never be used by a person who is heavier than a boy of thirteen or fourteen years of age usually is1 because the sharp edge too easily cuts into the ice1 and prevents figuring4 ,fluted skates1 indeed1 are even dangerous3 for the snow or ice cuttings are apt to collect and consolidate in the grooves1 till the skater is raised from the edge of his skate1 and thrown4 ,in the general inclination of the foot in skating1 no edge can have greater power than that of rectangular shape3 the tendency of its action is downwards1 cutting through rather than sliding on the surface2 and greater hold than this is unnecessary4 ,the irons of skates should be kept well and sharply ground4 ,this ought to be done across the stone1 so as to give the bottom of the skate so slight a concavity as to be imperceptible1 which insures an edge whose angle is not greater than right4 ,care must be taken that one edge is not higher than the other2 so that1 when the skate is placed upon an even surface1 it may stand quite perpendicularly4 ,the wear of the iron not being great with a beginner1 one grinding will generally last him through an ordinary winter's skating on clean ice4 ,the bottom of the iron should be a little curved2 for1 if perfectly straight1 it would be capable of describing only a straight line1 whereas the skater's progress must be circular1 because1 in order to bring the edge to bear1 the body must be inclined1 and inclination can be preserved only in circular motion4 ,this curve of the iron should be part of a circle1 whose radius is about two feet4 ,that shape enables the skater to turn his toe or heel outwards or inwards with facility4 ,a screw would have a firmer hold than a mere peg in the hole of the boot2 but1 as it is less easily removed1 skaters generally prefer the peg4 ,the skater should be careful not to bore a larger hole in the heel than is sufficient to admit the peg4 ,the more simple the fastenings of the skate the better4 ,the two straps--namely1 the cross strap over the toe1 and the heel strap--cannot be improved1 unless perhaps by passing one strap through the three bores1 and so making it serve for both4 ,illustration ,before going on the ice1 the young skater must learn to tie on the skates1 and may also learn to walk with them easily in a room1 balancing alternately on each foot4 ,,dress ,,of ,,the ,,skater4 ,a skater's dress should be as close and unincumbered as possible4 ,large skirts get entangled with his own limbs1 or those of the persons who pass near him2 and all fulness of dress is exposed to the wind4 ,loose trousers1 frocks1 and more especially great-coats1 must be avoided2 and indeed1 by wearing additional under-clothing1 they can always be dispensed with4 ,as the exercise of skating produces perspiration1 flannel next the chest1 shoulders1 and loins1 is necessary to avoid the evils produced by sudden chills in cold weather4 ,the best dress is what is called a dress-coat1 buttoned1 tight pantaloons1 and laced boots 7having the heel no higher than is necessary for the peg71 which hold the foot tightly and steadily in its place1 as well as give the best support to the ankle2 for it is of no use to draw the straps of the skate hard1 if the boot or shoe be loose4 ,,preliminary ,,and ,,general ,,directions4 ,either very rough or very smooth ice should be avoided4 ,the person who for the first time attempts to skate1 must not trust to a stick4 ,he may make a friend's hand his support1 if he require one2 but that should be soon relinquished1 in order to balance himself4 ,he will probably scramble about for half an hour or so1 till he begins to find out where the edge of his skate is4 ,the beginner must be fearless1 but not violent2 nor even in a hurry4 ,he should not let his feet get far apart1 and keep his heels still nearer together4 ,he must keep the ankle of the foot on the ice quite firm2 not attempting to gain the edge of the skate by bending it1 because the right mode of getting to either edge is by the inclination of the whole body in the direction required2 and this inclination should be made fearlessly and decisively4 ,the leg which is on the ice should be kept perfectly straight2 for1 though the knee must be somewhat bent at the time of striking1 it must be straightened as quickly as possible without any jerk4 ,the leg which is off the ice should also be kept straight1 though not stiff1 having an easy but slight play1 the toe pointing downwards1 and the heel within from six to twelve inches of the other4 ,the learner must not look down at the ice1 nor at his feet1 to see how they perform4 ,he may at first incline his body a little forward1 for safety1 but hold his head up1 and see where he goes1 his person erect1 and his face rather elevated than otherwise4 ,when once off1 he must bring both feet up together1 and strike again1 as soon as he finds himself steady enough1 rarely allowing both feet to be on the ice together4 ,the position of the arms should be easy and varied2 one being always more raised than the other1 this elevation being alternate1 and the change corresponding with that of the legs2 that is1 the right arm being raised as the right leg is put down1 and vice vers1 so that the arm and leg of the same side may not be raised together4 ,the face must be always turned in the direction of the line intended to be described4 ,hence1 in backward skating1 the head will be inclined much over the shoulder2 in forward skating1 but slightly4 ,all sudden and violent action must be avoided4 ,stopping may be caused by slightly bending the knees1 drawing the feet together1 inclining the body forward1 and pressing on the heels4 ,it may also be caused by turning short to the right or left1 the foot on the side to which we turn being rather more advanced1 and supporting part of the weight4 ,,the ,,ordinary ,,run1 ,,or ,,inside ,,edge ,,forward4 ,the first attempt of the beginner is to walk1 and this walk shortly becomes a sliding gait1 done entirely on the inside edge of the skate4 ,the first impulse is to be gained by pressing the inside edge of one skate against the ice1 and advancing with the opposite foot4 ,to effect this1 the beginner must bring the feet nearly together1 turn the left somewhat out1 place the right a little in advance and at right angles with it1 lean forward with the right shoulder1 and at the same time move the right foot onwards1 and press sharply1 or strike the ice with the inside edge of the left skate1--care being taken instantly to throw the weight on the right foot4 7,plate ,,xix4 fig4 #a47 ,while thus in motion1 the skater must bring up the left foot nearly to a level with the other1 and may for the present proceed a short way on both feet4 ,he must next place the left foot in advance in its turn1 bring the left shoulder forward1 inclining to that side1 strike from the inside edge of the right skate1 and proceed as before4 ,finally1 this motion has only to be repeated on each foot alternately1 gradually keeping the foot from which he struck longer off the ice1 till he has gained sufficient command of himself to keep it off altogether1 and is able to strike directly from one to the other1 without at any time having them both on the ice together4 ,having practised this till he has gained some degree of firmness and power1 and a command of his balance1 he may proceed to ,,the ,,forward ,,roll1 ,,or ,,outside ,,edge4 ,this is commonly reckoned the first step to figure skating1 as1 when it is once effected1 the rest follows with ease4 ,the impulse is gained in the same manner as for the ordinary run2 but1 to get on the outside edge of the right foot1 the moment that foot is in motion1 the skater must advance the left shoulder1 throw the right arm back1 look over the right shoulder1 and incline the whole person boldly and decisively on that side1 keeping the left foot suspended behind4 7,plate ,,xix4 fig4 #b47 ,as he proceeds1 he must bring the left foot past the inside of the right1 with a slight jerk1 which produces an opposing balance of the body2 the right foot must quickly press1 first on the outside of the heel1 then on the inside1 or its toe2 the left foot must be placed down in front1 before it is removed more than about eight or ten inches from the other foot2 and1 by striking outside to the left1 giving at the same moment a strong push with the inside of the right toe1 the skater passes from right to left1 inclining to the left side1 in the same manner as he did to the right4 ,he then continues to change from left to right1 and from right to left1 in the same manner4 ,at first he should not remain long upon one leg1 nor scruple occasionally to put the other down to assist2 and throughout he must keep himself erect1 leaning most on the heel4 ,the ,dutch travelling roll is done on the outside edge forward1 in the manner just represented1 except that there is described a small segment of a very large circle1 thus3 ,illustration diverging from the straight line no more than is requisite to keep the skate on its edge4 ,the cross roll or figure #h is also done on the outside edge forward4 ,this is only the completion of the circle on the outside edge2 and it is performed by crossing the legs1 and striking from the outside instead of the inside edge4 ,in order to do this1 as the skater draws to the close of the stroke on his right leg1 he must throw the left quite across it1 which will cause him to press hard on the outside of the right skate1 from which he must immediately strike1 at the same time throwing back the left arm1 and looking over the left shoulder1 to bring him well upon the outside of that skate4 ,by completing the circle in this manner on each leg1 the #h is formed3 ,illustration each circle being small1 complete1 and well-formed1 before the foot is changed4 ,the ,mercury figure is merely the outside and inside forward succeeding each other on the same leg alternately1 by which a serpentine line is described1 thus3 ,illustration ,this is skated with the force and rapidity gained by a run4 ,when the run is complete1 and the skater on the outside edge1 his person becomes quiescent1 in the attitude of ,mercury1 having the right arm advanced and much raised1 the face turned over the right shoulder1 and the left foot off the ice1 a short distance behind the other1 turned out and pointed4 ,,figure ,,of ,,three1 ,,or ,,inside ,,edge ,,backwards4 ,this figure is formed by turning from the outside edge forward to the inside edge backward on the same foot4 ,the head of the #c is formed like the half circle1 on the heel of the outside edge2 but when the half circle is complete1 the skater leans suddenly forward1 and rests on the same toe inside1 and a backward motion1 making the tail of the #c1 is the consequence4 ,the figure described by the right leg should be nearly in the form of ,no4 #a2 and on the left leg should be reversed1 and resemble ,no4 #b4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,illustration3 #b4 ,at first1 the skater should not throw himself quite so hard as hitherto on the outside forward1 in order that he may be able the more easily to change to the inside back4 ,he may also be for some time contented with much less than a semicircle before he turns4 ,having done this1 and brought the left leg nearly up to the other1 he must not pass it on in advance1 as he would to complete a circle1 but throw it gently off sidewise1 at the same moment turning the face from the right to the left shoulder1 and giving the whole person a slight inclination to the left side4 ,these motions throw the skater upon the inside of his skate2 but as the first impulse should still retain most of its force1 he continues to move on the inside back1 in a direction so little different1 that his first impulse loses little by the change4 7,plate ,,xix4 fig4 #a47 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xix ,page #gg4 ,skating4 ,if unable to change the edge by this method1 the skater may assist himself by slightly and gently swinging the arm and leg outward1 so as to incline the person to a rotatory motion4 ,this swing1 however1 must be corrected as soon as the object is attained2 and it must generally be observed that the change from edge to edge is to be effected merely by the inclination of the body1 not by swinging4 ,when the skater is able to join the ends of the #c1 so as to form one side of a circle1 then1 by striking off in the same manner1 and completing another #c1 with the left leg1 the combination of the two #c's will form an #h4 ,in the first attempts1 the #c should not be made above two feet long1 which he will acquire the power of doing almost imperceptibly4 ,he may then gradually extend the size as he advances in the art4 ,though1 in this section1 backward skating is spoken of1 the term refers to the skate only1 which in such case moves heel foremost1 but the person of the skater moves sidewise1 the face being always turned in the direction in which he is proceeding4 ,,outside ,,edge ,,backwards4 ,here the skater1 having completed the #c1 and being carried on by the first impulse1 still continues his progress in the same direction1 but on the other foot1 putting it down on its outside edge1 and continuing to go backwards slowly4 ,to accomplish this1 the skater1 after making the #c1 and placing the outside edge of his left foot on the ice1 should at once turn his face over the right shoulder1 raise his right foot from the ice1 and throw back his right arm and shoulder4 7,plate ,,xix4 fig4 #b47 ,if1 for awhile1 he is unable readily to raise that foot which has made the #c1 and leave himself on the outside of the other skate1 he may keep both down for some distance1 putting himself1 however1 in attitude of being on the outside only of one skate1 and gradually lifting the other off the ice as he acquires ability4 ,when finishing any figure1 this use of both feet backward has great convenience and beauty4 ,before venturing on the outside backward1 the skater ought to take care that the ice is clear of stones1 reeds1 c41 and also be certain of the good quality of his irons4 ,when going with great force backward1 the course may be deflected1 so as to stop by degrees2 and1 when moving slowly1 the suspended foot may be put down in a cross direction to the path4 ,such are the four movements of which alone the skate is capable3 namely1 the inside edge forward2 the outside forward2 the inside back2 and the outside back2 in which has been seen how the impulse for the first two is gained1 and how the third flows from the second1 and the fourth from the third4 ,by the combination of these elements of skating1 and the variations with which they succeed each other1 are formed all the evolutions in this art4 ,the ,double ,three is that combination in which the skates are brought from the inside back of the first three1 to the outside forward of the second4 ,here the skater1 after having completed one #c1 and being on the inside back1 must bring the whole of the left side forward1 particularly the leg1 till it is thrown almost across the right1 on which he is skating4 ,this action brings him once more to the outside forward1 from which he again turns to the inside back4 ,while he is still in motion on the second inside back of the right leg1 he must strike on the left1 and repeat the same on that4 ,it is at first enough to do two #c's perfectly and smoothly4 ,their number from one impulse may be increased as the skater gains steadiness and skill2 the art of accomplishing this being to touch as lightly as possible on each side of the skate successively1 so that the first impulse may be preserved and made the most of4 ,the ,back ,roll is a means of moving from one foot to another4 ,suppose the skater to have put himself on the outside edge back of the left leg1 with considerable impulse1 by means of the #c performed on the right1--not bearing hard on the edge1 for the object is to change it1 and take up the motion on the right foot1--this is effected by throwing the left arm and shoulder back1 and turning the face to look over them2 when1 having brought the inside of his left skate to bear on the ice1 he must immediately strike from it to the outside back of the other1 by pressing it into the ice as forcibly as he can at the toe4 ,having thus been brought to the backward roll on the right foot1 he repeats the same with it4 ,the ,back ,cross ,roll is done by changing the balance of the body1 to move from one foot to the other1 in the same manner as for the back roll4 ,the stroke is from the outside instead of the inside edge of the skate2 the edge on which he is skating not being changed1 but the right foot1 which is off the ice1 being crossed at the back of the left1 and put down1 and the stroke taken at the same moment1 from the outside edge of the left skate1 at the toe4 ,as in the back roll of both forms1 the strokes are but feeble1 the skater may1 from time to time1 renew his impulse as he finds occasion1 by commencing anew with the #c4 ,the large outside backward roll is attained by a run1 when the skater1 having gained all the impulse he can1 strikes on the outside forward of the right leg1 turns the #c1 and immediately put down the left on the outside back4 ,he then1 without further effort1 flies rapidly over the ice2 the left arm being raised1 the head turned over the right shoulder1 and the right foot turned out and pointed4 ,it must be evident1 that the elements described may be combined and varied infinitely4 ,hence waltz and quadrille skating1 c41 which may be described as combinations of #c's1 outside backwards1 c4 ,these are left to the judgment of the skater1 and his skill in the art4 ,in the ,north it is common to travel in skates on the gulfs and rivers2 and1 with a favourable wind1 they go faster than vessels4 ,it is a kind of flight1 for they only touch the ground in a very slight thin line4 ,as to feats in skating1 we are told1 that the ,frieslander1 who is generally a skilful skater1 often goes for a long time at the rate of fifteen miles an hour4 ,in #ahja1 two young women1 going thirty miles in two hours1 won the prize in a skating race at ,groningen4 ,in #ahba1 a ,lincolnshire man1 for a wager of #ajj guineas1 skated one mile within two seconds of three minutes4 ,,dangers ,,in ,,skating4 ,if the chest be irritable1 it is neither salutary nor easy to skate against the wind4 ,in countries where these exercises are general1 inflammations of the chest are very common in winter4 ,skating sometimes exposes to much danger4 ,if the skater find that he cannot get away from rotten ice1 he must crawl over it on his hands and knees1 in order to reduce his weight on the supporting points4 ,if he fall on it at length1 he must roll away from it towards ice more firm4 ,if he fall into a hole1 he must extend his arms horizontally over the edges of the unbroken ice1 and only tread water1 till a ladder or a plank is pushed towards him1 or a rope is thrown for his hold4 ,,treatment ,,recommended ,,in ,,the ,,case ,,of ,,drowned ,,persons4 ,,cautions4--#a4 ,lose no time4 #b4 ,avoid all rough usage4 #c4 ,never hold the body up by the feet4 #d4 ,nor roll the body on casks4 #e4 ,nor rub the body with salt or spirits4 #f4 ,nor inject tobacco-smoke or infusion of tobacco4 ,,restorative ,,means ,,if ,,apparently ,,drowned4--,send quickly for medical assistance2 but do not delay the following means4 ,i4 ,convey the body carefully1 with the head and shoulders supported in a raised position1 to the nearest house4 ,,ii4 ,strip the body1 and rub it dry2 then wrap it in hot blankets1 and place it in a warm bed in a warm chamber4 ,,iii4 ,wipe and cleanse the mouth and nostrils4 ,,iv4 ,in order to restore the natural warmth of the body3 #a4 ,move a heated covered warming-pan over the back and spine4 #b4 ,put bladders or bottles of hot water1 or heated bricks1 to the pit of the stomach1 the arm-pits1 between the thighs1 and to the soles of the feet4 #c4 ,foment the body with hot flannels2 but1 if possible1 #d4 ,immerse the body in a warm bath1 as hot as the hand can bear without pain1 as this is preferable to the other means for restoring warmth4 #e4 ,rub the body briskly with the hand2 do not1 however1 suspend the use of the other means at the same time4 ,v4 ,in order to restore breathing1 introduce the pipe of a common bellows 7where the apparatus of the ,society is not at hand7 into one nostril1 carefully closing the other and the mouth3 at the same time draw downwards and push gently backwards the upper part of the windpipe1 to allow a more free admission of air3 blow the bellows gently in order to inflate the lungs1 till the breast be a little raised3 the mouth and nostrils should then be set free1 and a moderate pressure should be made with the hand upon the chest4 ,repeat this process till life appears4 ,,vi4 ,electricity should be employed early by a medical assistant4 ,,vii4 ,inject into the stomach1 by means of an elastic tube and syringe1 half a pint of warm brandy and water1 or wine and water4 ,,viii4 ,apply sal-volatile or hartshorn to the nostrils4 ,,if ,,apparently ,,dead ,,from ,,intense ,,cold4--,rub the body with snow1 ice1 or cold water4 ,restore warmth by slow degrees2 and after some time1 if necessary1 employ the means recommended for the drowned4 ,in these accidents1 it is highly dangerous to apply heat too early4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,aquatic ,,exercises ,,swimming4 ,swimming1 considered with regard to the movements that it requires1 is useful in promoting great muscular strength2 but the good effects are not solely the result of the exercise that the muscles receive1 but partly of the medium in which the body is moved4 ,both the considerable increase of general force1 and the tranquillizing of the nervous system produced by swimming1 arise chiefly from this1 that the movements1 in consequence of the cold and dense medium in which they take place1 occasion no loss4#h ,it is easy to conceive of what utility swimming must be1 where the very high state of the atmospheric temperature requires inactivity in consequence of the excessive loss caused by the slightest movement4 ,it then becomes an exceedingly valuable resource1 the only one1 indeed1 by which muscular weakness can be remedied1 and the energy of the vital functions maintained4 ,we must therefore regard swimming as one of the most beneficial exercises that can be taken in summer4 #h ,the expression 8loss0 here1 is used as the result produced by increased evaporation from the pores1 consequent upon violent bodily exertion4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xx ,page #hc4 ,swimming--,attitude4 ,the ancients1 particularly the ,athenians1 regarded swimming as indispensable2 and when they wished to designate a man who was fit for nothing1 they used to say1 8he cannot even swim10 or 8he can neither read nor swim40 ,at many seaports1 the art of swimming is almost indispensable2 and the sailors' children are as familiar with the water as with the air4 ,copenhagen is perhaps the only place where sailors are trained by rules of art2 and there1 this exercise is more general and in greater perfection than elsewhere4 ,it may here be observed1 that it is not fear alone that prevents a man swimming4 ,swimming is an art that must be learnt2 and fear is only an obstacle to the learning4 ,,preparatory ,,instructions ,,as ,,to ,,attitude ,,and ,,action ,,in ,,swimming4 ,as it is on the movements of the limbs1 and a certain attitude of the body1 that the power of swimming depends1 its first principles may evidently be acquired out of the water4 ,attitude4 ,the head must be drawn back1 and the chin elevated1 the breast projected1 and the back hollowed and kept steady4 7,plate ,,xx4 figs4 #a and #b47 ,the head can scarcely be thrown too much back1 or the back too much hollowed4 ,those who do otherwise1 swim with their feet near the surface of the water1 instead of having them two or three feet deep4 ,action of the ,hands4 ,in the proper position of the hands1 the fingers must be kept close1 with the thumbs by the edge of the fore-fingers2 and the hands made concave on the inside1 though not so much as to diminish their size and power in swimming4 ,the hands1 thus formed1 should be placed just before the breast1 the wrist touching it1 and the fingers pointing forward4 7,plate ,,xxi4 fig4 #a47 ,the first elevation is formed by raising the ends of the fingers three or four inches higher than the rest of the hands4 ,the second1 by raising the outer edge of the hand two or three inches higher than the inner edge4 ,the formation of the hands1 their first position1 and their two modes of elevation1 being clearly understood1 the forward stroke is next made1 by projecting them in that direction to their utmost extent1 employing therein their first elevation1 in order to produce buoyancy1 but taking care the fingers do not break the surface of the water4 7,plate ,,xxi4 fig4 #b47 ,in the outward stroke of the hands1 the second elevation must be employed2 and1 in it1 they must sweep downward and outward as low as1 but at a distance from1 the hips1 both laterally and anteriorly4 7,plate ,,xxi4 figs4 #c and #d47 ,the retraction of the hands is effected by bringing the arms closer to the sides1 bending the elbow joints upwards and the wrists downwards1 so that the hands hang down1 while the arms are raising them to the first position1 the action of the hands being gentle and easy4 ,in the three movements just described1 one arm may be exercised at a time1 until each is accustomed to the action4 ,action of the ,feet4 ,in drawing up the legs1 the knees must be inclined inward1 and the soles of the feet outward4 7,plate ,,xxii4 fig4 #a47 ,the throwing out the feet should be to the extent of the legs1 as widely from each other as possible4 7,plate ,,xxii4 fig4 #b47 ,the bringing down the legs must be done briskly1 until they come close together4 ,in drawing up the legs1 there is a loss of power2 in throwing out the legs1 there is a gain equal to that loss2 and in bringing down the legs1 there is an evident gain4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxi ,page #hd4 ,swimming--,action of the ,hands4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxii ,page #he4 ,swimming--,action of the ,feet4 ,the arms and legs should act alternately2 the arms descending while the legs are rising--7,plate ,,xxii4 fig4 #c72 and1 oppositely1 the arms rising while the legs are descending4 7,plate ,,xxii4 fig4 #d47 ,thus the action of both is unceasingly interchanged2 and1 until great facility in this interchange is effected1 no one can swim smoothly1 or keep the body in one continued progressive motion4 ,in practising the action of the legs1 one hand may rest on the top of a chair1 while the opposite leg is exercised4 ,when both the arms and the legs are separately accustomed to the action1 the arm and leg of the same side may be exercised together4 ,,place ,,and ,,time ,,of ,,swimming4 ,place4 ,of all places for swimming1 the sea is the best2 running waters next2 and ponds the worst4 ,in these a particular spot should be chosen1 where there is not much stream1 and which is known to be safe4 ,the swimmer should make sure that the bottom is not out of his depth2 and1 on this subject1 he cannot be too cautious when he has no one with him who knows the place4 ,if capable of diving1 he should ascertain if the water be sufficiently deep for that purpose1 otherwise1 he may injure himself against the bottom4 ,the bottom should be of gravel1 or smooth stones1 and free from holes1 so that he may be in no danger of sinking in the mud or wounding the feet4 ,of weeds he must beware2 for if his feet get entangled among them1 no aid1 even if near1 may be able to extricate him4 ,time4 ,the best season of the year for swimming is during the months of ,may1 ,june1 ,july1 and ,august4 ,morning before breakfast--that is to say1 from seven till eight o'clock--is the time4 ,in the evening1 the hair is not perfectly dried1 and coryza is sometimes the consequence4 ,bathing during rain is bad1 for it chills the water1 and1 by wetting the clothes1 endangers catching cold4 ,in practising swimming during those hours of the day when the heat of the sun is felt most sensibly1 if the hair be thick1 it should be kept constantly wet2 if the head be bald1 it must be covered with a handkerchief1 and frequently wetted4 ,it is advisable not to enter the water before digestion is finished4 ,the danger in this case arises less from the violent movements which generally disorder digestion1 than from the impression produced by the medium in which these movements are executed4 ,it is not less so when very hot1 or quite cold4 ,it is wrong to enter the water in a perspiration1 however trifling it may be4 ,after violent exercises1 it is better to wash and employ friction than to bathe4 ,persons of plethoric temperament1 who are subject to periodical evacuations1 such as hemorrhoids1 or even to cutaneous eruptions1 will do well to abstain from swimming during the appearance of these affections4 ,dress4 ,every swimmer should use short drawers1 and might1 in particular places1 use canvass slippers4 ,it is even of great importance to be able to swim in jacket and trousers4 ,aids4 ,the aid of the hand is much preferable to corks or bladders1 because it can be withdrawn gradually and insensibly4 ,with this view1 a grown-up person may take the learner in his arms1 carry him into the water breast high1 place him nearly flat upon it1 support him by one hand under the breast1 and direct him as to attitude and action4 ,if the support of the hand be very gradually withdrawn1 the swimmer will1 in the course of the first ten days1 find it quite unnecessary4 ,when the aid of the hand cannot be obtained1 inflated membranes or corks may be employed4 ,the only argument for their use is1 that attitude and action may be perfected while the body is thus supported2 and that1 with some contrivance1 they also may gradually be laid aside1 though by no means so easily as the hand4 ,the best mode of employing corks is to choose a piece about a foot long1 and six or seven inches broad2 to fasten a band across the middle of it2 to place it on the back1 so that the upper end may come between the shoulder-blades1 where the edge may be rounded2 and to tie the band over the breast4 ,over this1 several other pieces of cork1 each smaller than the preceding1 may be fixed1 so that1 as the swimmer improves1 he may leave them off one by one4 ,even with all these aids1 the young swimmer should never venture out of his depth1 if he cannot swim without them4 ,cramp4 ,as to cramp1 those chiefly are liable to it who plunge into the water when they are heated1 who remain in it till they are benumbed with cold1 or who exhaust themselves by violent exercise4 ,persons subject to this affection must be careful with regard to the selection of the place where they bathe1 if they are not sufficiently skilful in swimming to vary their attitudes1 and dispense instantly with the use of the limb attacked by cramp4 ,even when this does occur1 the skilful swimmer knows how to reach the shore by the aid of the limbs which are unaffected1 while the uninstructed one is liable to be drowned4 ,if attacked in this way in the leg1 the swimmer must strike out the limb with all his strength1 thrusting the heel downward and drawing the toes upward1 notwithstanding the momentary pain it may occasion2 or he may immediately turn flat on his back1 and jerk out the affected limb in the air1 taking care not to elevate it so high as greatly to disturb the balance of the body4 ,if this does not succeed1 he must paddle ashore with his hands1 or keep himself afloat by their aid1 until assistance reach him4 ,should he even be unable to float on his back1 he must put himself in the upright position1 and keep his head above the surface by merely striking the water downward with his hands at the hips1 without any assistance from the legs4 ,,procedure ,,when ,,in ,,the ,,water1 ,,and ,,usual ,,mode ,,of ,,front ,,swimming4 ,entering the ,water4 ,instructors should never force young swimmers reluctantly to leap into the water4 ,it would be advisable for delicate persons1 especially when they intend to plunge in1 to put a little cotton steeped in oil1 and afterwards pressed1 in their ears1 before entering the water4 ,this precaution will prevent irritation of the organ of hearing4 ,in entering1 the head should be wetted first1 either by plunging in head foremost1 or by pouring water on it1 in order to prevent the pressure of the water driving up the blood into it too quickly1 and increasing congestion4 ,the swimmer should next advance1 by a clear shelving shore or bank1 where he has ascertained the depth by plumbing or otherwise1 till the water reaches his breast2 should turn towards the place of entrance2 and1 having inflated his breast1 lay it upon the water1 suffering that to rise to his chin1 the lips being closed4 ,buoyancy in the ,water4 ,the head alone is specifically heavier than salt water4 ,even the legs and arms are specifically lighter2 and the trunk is still more so4 ,thus the body cannot sink in salt water1 even if the lungs were filled1 except owing to the excessive specific gravity of the head4 ,not only the head1 but the legs and arms1 are specifically heavier than fresh water2 but still the hollowness of the trunk renders the body altogether too light to sink wholly under water1 so that some part remains above until the lungs become filled4 ,in general1 when the human body is immersed1 one-eleventh of its weight remains above the surface in fresh water1 and one-tenth in salt water4 ,in salt water1 therefore1 a person throwing himself on his back1 and extending his arms1 may easily lie so as to keep his mouth and nostrils free for breathing2 and1 by a small motion of the hand1 may prevent turning1 if he perceive any tendency to it4 ,in fresh water1 a man cannot long continue in that situation1 except by the action of his hands2 and if no such action be employed1 the legs and lower part of the body will gradually sink into an upright position1 the hollow of the breast keeping the head uppermost4 ,if1 however1 in this position1 the head be kept upright above the shoulders1 as in standing on the ground1 the immersion1 owing to the weight of the part of the head out of the water1 will reach above the mouth and nostrils1 perhaps a little above the eyes4 ,on the contrary1 in the same position1 if the head be leaned back1 so that the face is turned upwards1 the back part of the head has its weight supported by the water1 and the face will rise an inch higher at every inspiration1 and will sink as much at every expiration1 but never so low that the water can come over the mouth4 ,for all these reasons1 though the impetus given by the fall of the body into water occasions its sinking to a depth proportioned to the force of the descent1 its natural buoyancy soon impels it again to the surface1 where1 after a few oscillations up and down1 it settles with the head free4 ,unfortunately1 ignorant people stretch the arms out to grasp at anything or nothing1 and thereby keep the head under2 for the arms and head1 together exceeding in weight one-tenth of the body1 cannot remain above the surface at the same time4 ,the buoyancy of the trunk1 then and then only1 occasions the head and shoulders to sink1 the ridge of the bent back becoming the portion exposed2 and1 in this attitude1 water is swallowed1 by which the specific gravity is increased1 and the body settles to the bottom4 ,it is1 therefore1 most important to the safety of the inexperienced to be firmly convinced that the body naturally floats4 ,to satisfy the beginner of the truth of this1 ,dr4 ,franklin advises him to choose a place where clear water deepens gradually1 to walk into it till it is up to his breast1 to turn his face to the shore1 and to throw an egg into the water between him and it--so deep that he cannot fetch it up but by diving4 ,to encourage him to take it up1 he must reflect that his progress will be from deep to shallow water1 and that at any time he may1 by bringing his legs under him1 and standing on the bottom1 raise his head far above the water4 ,he must then plunge under it1 having his eyes open1 before as well as after going under2 throw himself towards the egg1 and endeavour1 by the action of his hands and feet against the water1 to get forward till within reach of it4 ,in this attempt1 he will find that the water brings him up against his inclination1 that it is not so easy to sink as he imagined1 and that he cannot1 but by force1 get down to the egg4 ,thus he feels the power of water to support him1 and learns to confide in that power2 while his endeavours to overcome it1 and reach the egg1 teach him the manner of acting on the water with his feet and hands1 as he afterwards must in swimming1 in order to support his head higher above the water1 or to go forward through it4 ,if1 then1 any person1 however unacquainted with swimming1 will hold himself perfectly still and upright1 as if standing with his head somewhat thrown back so as to rest on the surface1 his face will remain above the water1 and he will enjoy full freedom of breathing4 ,to do this most effectually1 the head must be so far thrown back that the chin is higher than the forehead1 the breast inflated1 the back quite hollow1 and the hands and arms kept under water4 ,if these directions be carefully observed1 the face will float above the water1 and the body will settle in a diagonal direction4 7,plate ,,xxiii4 fig4 #a47 ,in this case1 the only difficulty is to preserve the balance of the body4 ,this is secured1 as described by ,bernardi1 by extending the arms laterally under the surface of the water1 with the legs separated1 the one to the front and the other behind3 thus presenting resistance to any tendency of the body to incline to either side1 forward or backward4 ,this posture may be preserved any length of time4 7,plate ,,xxiii4 fig4 #b47 ,the ,abb ,paul ,moccia1 who lived in ,naples in #agfj1 perceived1 at the age of fifty1 that he could never entirely cover himself in the water4 ,he weighed three hundred pounds 7,italian weight71 but being very fat1 he lost at least thirty pounds in the water4 ,robertson had just made his experiments on the specific weight of man2 and everybody was then occupied with the ,abb1 who could walk in the water with nearly half his body out of it4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxiii ,page #ij4 ,swimming--,buoyancy in ,water4 ,swimming--,treading ,water4 ,attitude and ,action in the ,water4 ,the swimmer having1 by all the preceding means1 acquired confidence1 may now practise the instructions already given on attitude and action in swimming3 or he may first proceed with the system of ,bernardi1 which immediately follows4 ,as the former have already been given in ample detail1 there is nothing new here to be added respecting them1 except that1 while the attitude is correct1 the limbs must be exercised calmly1 and free from all hurry and trepidation1 the breath being held1 and the breast kept inflated1 while a few strokes are made4 ,in swimming in the usual way1 there is1 first1 extension1 flexion1 abduction and adduction of the members2 secondly1 almost constant dilation of the chest1 to diminish the mobility of the point of attachment of the muscles which are inserted in the elastic sides of this cavity1 and to render the body specifically lighter2 thirdly1 constant action of the muscles of the back part of the neck1 to raise the head1 which is relatively very heavy1 and to allow the air free entrance to the lungs4 ,respiration in ,swimming4 ,if the breath is drawn at the moment when the swimmer strikes out with the legs1 instead of when the body is elevated by the hands descending towards the hips1 the head partially sinks1 the face is driven against the water1 and the mouth becomes filled4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the breath is drawn when the body is elevated by the hands descending towards the hips1 when the progress of the body forward consequently ceases1 when the face is no longer driven against the water1 but is elevated above the surface1--then1 not only cannot the water enter1 but if the mouth were at other times even with1 or partly under the surface1 no water could enter it1 as the air1 at such times1 driven outward between the lips1 would effectually prevent it4 ,the breath should accordingly be expired while the body1 at the next stroke1 is sent forward by the action of the legs4 ,coming out of the ,water4 ,too much fatigue in the water weakens the strength and presence of mind necessary to avoid accidents4 ,a person who is fatigued1 and remains there without motion1 soon becomes weak and chilly4 ,as soon as he feels fatigued1 chill1 or numbed1 he should quit the water1 and dry and dress himself as quickly as possible4 ,friction1 previous to dressing1 drives the blood over every part of the body1 creates an agreeable glow1 and strengthens the joints and muscles4 ,,upright ,,swimming4 ,bernardi's ,system4 ,the principal reasons given by ,bernardi for recommending the upright position in swimming are--its conformity to the accustomed movement of the limbs2 the freedom it gives to the hands and arms1 by which any impediment may be removed1 or any offered aid readily laid hold of2 vision all around2 a much greater facility of breathing2 and lastly1 that much less of the body is exposed to the risk of being laid hold of by persons struggling in the water4 ,the less we alter our method of advancing in the water from what is habitual to us on shore1 the more easy do we find a continued exercise of it4 ,the most important consequence of this is1 that1 though a person swimming in an upright posture advances more slowly1 he is able to continue his course much longer2 and certainly nothing can be more beneficial to a swimmer than whatever tends to husband his strength1 and to enable him to remain long in the water with safety4 ,bernardi's primary object is to enable the pupil to float in an upright posture1 and to feel confidence in the buoyancy of his body4 ,he accordingly supports the pupil under the shoulders until he floats tranquilly with the head and part of the neck above the surface1 the arms being stretched out horizontally under water4 ,from time to time1 the supporting arm is removed1 but again restored1 so as never to suffer the head to sink1 which would disturb the growing confidence1 and give rise to efforts destructive of the success of the lesson4 ,in this early stage1 the unsteadiness of the body is the chief difficulty to be overcome4 ,the head is the great regulator of our movements in water4 ,its smallest inclination to either side instantly operates on the whole body2 and1 if not corrected1 throws it into a horizontal posture4 ,the pupil must1 therefore1 restore any disturbance of equilibrium by a cautious movement of the head alone in an opposite direction4 ,this first lesson being familiarized by practice1 he is taught the use of the legs and arms for balancing the body in the water4 ,one leg being stretched forward1 the other backward1 and the arms laterally1 he soon finds himself steadily sustained1 and independent of further aid in floating4 ,when these first steps have been gained1 the sweeping semicircular motion of the arms is shown4 ,this is practised slowly1 without motion forwards1 until attained with precision4 ,after this1 a slight inclination of the body from the upright position occasions its advancing4 ,the motion of striking with the legs is added in the same measured manner2 so that the pupil is not perplexed by the acquisition of more than one thing at a time4 ,in this method1 the motions of both arms and legs differ from those we have so carefully described1 only in so far as they are modified by a more upright position4 ,it is optional1 therefore1 with the reader1 to practise either method4 ,the general principles of both are now before him4 ,the upright position a little inclined backwards1 7which1 like every other change of posture1 must be done deliberately1 by the corresponding movement of the head17 reversing in this case the motion of the arms1 and striking the flat part of the foot down and a little forward1 gives the motion backward1 which is performed with greater ease than when the body is laid horizontally on the back4 ,according to this system1 ,bernardi says1 a swimmer ought at every stroke to urge himself forward a distance equal to the length of his body4 ,a good swimmer ought to make about three miles an hour4 ,a good day's journey may thus be achieved1 if the strength be used with due discretion1 and the swimmer be familiar with the various means by which it may be recruited4 ,of ,bernardi's successful practice1 he says1 8,having been appointed to instruct the youths of the ,royal ,naval ,academy of ,naples in the art of swimming1 a trial of the proficiency of the pupils took place1 under the inspection of a number of people assembled on the shore for that purpose1 on the tenth day of their instruction4 ,a twelve-oared boat attended the progress of the pupils1 from motives of precaution4 ,they swam so far out in the bay1 that at length the heads of the young men could with difficulty be discerned with the naked eye2 and the ,major ,general of ,marine1 ,forteguerri1 for whose inspection the exhibition was intended1 expressed serious apprehensions for their safety4 ,upon their return to the shore1 the young men1 however1 assured him that they felt so little exhausted as to be willing immediately to repeat the exertion40 ,an official report on the subject has also been drawn up by commission 7appointed by the ,neapolitan government71 after devoting a month to the investigation of ,bernardi's plan2 and it states as follows3 8#ast4 ,it has been established by the experience of more than a hundred persons of different bodily constitutions1 that the human body is lighter than water1 and consequently will float by nature2 but that the art of swimming must be acquired1 to render that privilege useful4 8#b;dly4 ,that ,bernardi's system is new1 in so far as it is founded on the principle of husbanding the strength1 and rendering the power of recruiting it easy4 ,the speed1 according to the new method1 is no doubt diminished2 but security is much more important than speed2 and the new plan is not exclusive of the old1 when occasions require great effort4 8#c;dly4 ,that the new method is sooner learnt than the old1 to the extent of advancing a pupil in one day as far as a month's instruction on the old plan40 ,treading ,water4 ,this differs little from the system just described4 ,as in it1 the position is upright2 but progression is obtained by the action of the legs alone4 ,there is little power in this method of swimming3 but it may be very useful in rescuing drowning persons4 ,the arms should be folded across1 below the breast1 or compressed against the hips1 and the legs employed as in front swimming1 except as to time and extent4 ,they should perform their action in half the usual time1 or two strokes should be taken in the time of one2 because1 acting perpendicularly1 each stroke would otherwise raise the swimmer too much1 and he would sink too low between the strokes1 were they not quickly to follow each other4 ,they should also work in about two-thirds of the usual space1 preserving the upper or stronger1 and omitting the lower or weaker1 part of the stroke4 ,there is1 however1 another mode of treading water1 in which the thighs are separated1 and the legs slightly bent1 or curved together1 as in a half-sitting posture4 ,here the legs are used alternately1 so that1 while one remains more contracted1 the other1 less so1 describes a circle4 ,by this method1 the swimmer does not seem to hop in the water1 but remains nearly at the same height4 ,pl ,,xxiii4 f4 #c represents both these methods1 and shows their peculiar adaptation to relieve drowning persons4 ,,back ,,swimming4 ,in swimming on the back1 the action of the thoracic member is weaker1 because the swimmer can support himself on the water without their assistance4 ,the muscular contractions take place principally in the muscles of the abdominal members1 and in those of the anterior part of the neck4 ,though little calculated for progression1 it is the easiest of all methods1 because1 much of the head being immersed1 little effort is required for support4 ,for this purpose1 the swimmer must lie down gently upon the water2 the body extended2 the head kept in a line with it1 so that the back and much of the upper part of the head may be immersed2 the head and breast must remain perfectly unagitated by the action of the legs2 the hand laid on the thighs 7,plate ,,xxiv4 fig4 #a71 and the legs employed as in front swimming1 care being taken that the knees do not rise out of the water4--7,plate ,,xxiv4 fig4 #b47 ,the arms may1 however1 be used in various ways in swimming on the back4 ,in the method called winging1 the arms are extended till in a line with each other2 they must then be struck down to the thighs1 with the palms turned in that direction1 and the thumbs inclining downward to increase the buoyancy1 7,plate ,,xxiv4 fig4 #c72 the palms must then be moved edgewise1 and the arms elevated as before 7,plate ,,xxiv4 fig4 #d72 and so on1 repeating the same actions4 ,the legs should throughout make one stroke as the arms are struck down1 and another as they are elevated4 ,the other mode1 called finning1 differs from this only in the stroke of the arms being shorter1 and made in the same time as that of the legs4 ,in back swimming1 the body should be extended after each stroke1 and long pauses made between these4 ,the act of passing from front to back1 or back to front swimming1 must always be performed immediately after throwing out the feet4 ,to turn from the breast to the back1 the legs must be raised forward1 and the head thrown backward1 until the body is in a right position4 ,to turn from the back to the breast1 the legs must be dropped1 and the body thrown forward on the breast4 ,,floating4 ,floating is properly a transition from swimming on the back4 ,to effect it1 it is necessary1 while the legs are gently exercising1 to extend the arms as far as possible beyond the head1 equidistant from1 and parallel with its sides1 but never rising above the surface2 to immerse the head rather deeply1 and elevate the chin more than the forehead2 to inflate the chest while taking this position1 and so to keep it as much as possible2 and to cease the action of the legs1 and put the feet together4 7,plate ,,xxv4 fig4 #a47 ,the swimmer will thus be able to float1 rising a little with every inspiration1 and falling with every expiration4 ,should the feet descend1 the loins may be hollowed4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxiv ,page #if4 ,swimming--,back ,swimming4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxv ,page #ig4 ,side ,swimming4 ,floating4 ,,side ,,swimming4 ,for this purpose1 the body may be turned either upon the right or left side3 the feet must perform their usual motions3 the arms also require peculiar guidance4 ,in lowering the left1 and elevating the right side1 the swimmer must strike forward with the left hand1 and sidewise with the right2 the back of the latter being front instead of upward1 and the thumb side of the hand downward to serve as an oar4 ,in turning on the right side1 the swimmer must strike out with the right hand1 and use the left as an oar4 ,in both cases1 the lower arm stretches itself out quickly1 at the same time that the feet are striking2 and the upper arm strikes at the same time that the feet are impelling1 the hand of the latter arm beginning its stroke on a level with the head4 ,while this hand is again brought forward1 and the feet are contracted1 the lower hand is drawn back towards the breast1 rather to sustain than to impel1 7,plate ,,xxv4 fig4 #b47 ,as side swimming presents to the water a smaller surface than front swimming1 it is preferable when rapidity is necessary4 ,but1 though generally adopted when it is required to pass over a short distance with rapidity1 it is much more fatiguing than the preceding methods4 ,,plunging4 ,in the leap to plunge1 the legs must be kept together1 the arms close1 and the plunge made either with the feet or the head foremost4 ,with the feet foremost they must be kept together1 and the body inclined backwards4 ,with the head foremost1 the methods vary4 ,in the deep plunge1 which is used where it is known that there is depth of water1 the swimmer has his arms outstretched1 his knees bent1 and his body leant forwards 7,plate ,,xxvi4 fig4 #a17 till the head descends nearly to the feet1 when the spine and knees are extended4 ,this plunge may be made without the slightest noise4 ,when the swimmer rises to the surface1 he must not open his mouth before previously repelling the water4 ,in the flat plunge1 which is used in shallow water1 or where the depth is unknown1 and which can be made only from a small height1 the swimmer must fling himself forwards1 in order to extend the line of the plunge as much as possible under the surface of the water2 and1 as soon as he touches it1 he must keep his head up1 his back hollow1 and his hands stretched forward1 flat and inclined upward4 ,he will thus dart forwards a considerable way close under the surface1 so that his head will reach it before the impulse ceases to operate4 7,plate ,,xxvi4 fig4 #b47 ,,diving4 ,the swimmer may prepare for diving by taking a slow and full inspiration1 letting himself sink gently into the water1 and expelling the breath by degrees1 when the heart begins to beat strongly4 ,in order to descend in diving1 the head must be bent forward upon the breast2 the back made round2 and the legs thrown out with greater vigour than usual2 but the arms and hands1 instead of being struck forward as in swimming1 must move rather backward1 or come out lower1 and pass more behind4 7,plate ,,xxvii4 fig4 #a47 ,the eyes should1 meanwhile1 be kept open1 as1 if the water be clear1 it enables the diver to ascertain its depth1 and see whatever lies at the bottom2 and1 when he has obtained a perpendicular position1 he should extend his hands like feelers4 ,to move forward1 the head must be raised1 and the back straightened a little4 ,still1 in swimming between top and bottom1 the head must be kept a little downward1 and the feet be thrown out a little higher than when swimming on the surface 7,plate ,,xxvii4 fig4 #b72 and if the swimmer thinks that he approaches too near the surface1 he must press the palms upwards4 ,to ascend1 the chin must be held up1 the back made concave1 the hands struck out high1 and brought briskly down4 7,plate ,,xxvii4 fig4 #c47 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxvi ,page #ih4 ,plunging ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxvii ,page #ih4 ,swimming--,diving4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxviii ,page #ii4 ,swimming--,thrusting4 ,,thrusting4 ,this is a transition from front swimming1 in which the attitude and motions of the feet are still the same1 but those of the hands very different4 ,one arm1 the right for instance1 is lifted entirely out of the water1 thrust forward as much as possible1 and1 when at the utmost stretch1 let fall1 with the hand hollowed1 into the water1 which it grasps or pulls towards the swimmer in its return transversely towards the opposite arm-pit4 ,while the right arm is thus stretched forth1 the left1 with the hand expanded1 describes a small circle to sustain the body 7,plate ,,xxviii4 fig4 #a72 and1 while the right arm pulls towards the swimmer1 the left1 in a widely-described circle1 is carried rapidly under the breast1 towards the hip4 7,plate ,,xxviii4 fig4 #b47 ,when the left arm has completed these movements1 it1 in its turn1 is lifted from the water1 stretched forward1 and pulled back1--the right arm describing first the smaller1 then the larger circle4 ,the feet make their movements during the describing of the larger circle4 ,the thrust requires much practice2 but1 when well acquired1 it not only relieves the swimmer1 but enables him to make great advance in the water1 and is applicable to cases where rapidity is required for a short distance4 ,,springing4 ,some swimmers1 at every stroke1 raise not only their neck and shoulders1 but breast and body1 out of the water4 ,this1 when habitual1 exhausts without any useful purpose4 ,as an occasional effort1 however1 it maybe useful in seizing objects above2 and it may then best be performed by the swimmer drawing his feet as close as possible under his body1 stretching his hands forward1 and1 with both feet and hands1 striking the water strongly1 so as to throw himself out of it as high as the hips4 ,,one-,,arm ,,swimming4 ,here the swimmer must be more erect than usual1 hold his head more backward1 and use the legs and arm more quickly and powerfully4 ,the arm1 at its full extent1 must be struck out rather across the body1 and brought down before1 and the breast kept inflated4 ,this mode of swimming is best adapted for assisting persons who are drowning1 and should be frequently practised--the learner carrying first under1 then over the water1 a weight of a few pounds4 ,in assisting drowning persons1 however1 great care should be taken to avoid being caught hold of by them4 ,they should be approached from behind1 and driven before1 or drawn after the swimmer to the shore1 by the intervention1 if possible1 of anything that may be at hand1 and if nothing be at hand1 by means of their hair2 and they should1 if possible1 be got on their backs4 ,should they attempt to seize the swimmer1 he must cast them loose immediately2 and1 if seized1 drop them to the bottom1 when they will endeavour to rise to the surface4 ,two swimmers treading water may assist a drowning person by seizing him1 one under each arm1 and carrying him along with his head above water1 and his body and limbs stretched out and motionless4 ,,feats ,,in ,,swimming4 ,men have been known to swim in their clothes a distance of #djjj feet4 ,others have performed #bbjj feet in twenty-nine minutes4 ,some learn to dive and bring out of the water burdens as heavy as a man4 ,this art1 however1 has made little if any progress from the earliest records that we possess of it4 ,leander's feat of passing from ,abydos to ,sestos was the crack performance of antiquity2 and it was the ultra achievement of ,lord ,byron1 probably one of the best swimmers of our day4--,,ed4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,,rowing4 ,,river ,,rowing1#i ,,with ,,two ,,sculls4 #i ,this should have the preference here1 because the art is best learned on the smooth water1 and in the lighter boats1 of rivers4 ,,the ,,boat4 ,it may be laid down as a general rule1 that1 in calm weather1 a light and sharp boat is preferable2 and1 in rough weather1 a heavier and broader one4 ,the learner1 however1 should not at first begin in too light a boat1 nor should he practise in rough weather1 until he gets acquainted with its management4 ,,to ,,leave ,,the ,,landing-,,place4 ,to leave the shore1 the rower should1 with the boat-hook1 shove the boat off1 head upon tide1 or opposite to the current4 ,to leave stairs1 the rower must either shove the boat off with the boat-hook1 or place the blade of the scull forward1 and perform what the ,london watermen call belaying the boat's head out from the shore1 accordingly as there is deep or shallow water4 ,this being done1 the rower sits down to his sculls4 ,these he puts in the rullocks1 and turns the concave front1 or filling of the scull1 towards the stern of the boat4 ,,the ,,seat4 ,the rower must sit a-midships on the thwart or seat of the boat1 else she will heel to the side on which he is sitting1 and much of his labour will be lost4 ,he should sit with ease to himself1 having his feet on the middle of the stretcher1 and his legs not quite extended2 but his knees1 as he rows1 should be brought down1 and his legs stretched4 ,,the ,,pull4 ,the rower should make long strokes in a heavy boat1 and shorter and quicker strokes in a light boat4 ,at the beginning of the pull1 he must1 in general1 bend his body till his head is over his knees1 and extend his arms as far aft as convenient1 that the blades of the sculls may be thrown correspondingly forward4 ,plate ,,xxix4 f4 #a4 ,with regard to the back in particular1 some think that1 if a short distance is to be rowed1 it should be bent2 and that1 if a long distance1 it is less fatiguing to keep it straight4 ,when the arms are extended as far aft1 and the blades of the sculls as far forward as convenient--which must never be so far as to jam in the rullocks--7,plate ,,xxix4 f4 #a7 the rower must dip the sculls into the water1 and pull towards him1 by at once bending the arms and the body4 ,when in the middle of the pull1 if the sculls are not short enough1 or even if the head and body are slightly turned1 one of the hands will go higher than the other2 and1 as the right is generally the stronger1 it may go above1 and the left below4 ,it is often found difficult to keep one hand clear of the other in pulling a pair of sculls4 ,this is so much the case1 indeed1 that the inexperienced frequently suffer more from the knocking and rubbing of the backs and sides of the hands against each other1 than from the friction of the handles of the oars in the palms of the hands4 ,this may be easily obviated by attending to the following advice3-- ,having seated yourself in the centre of the thwart1 with your feet close together against the centre of the stretcher1 ship your sculls1 but1 before pulling a stroke1 move your body three or four inches to the right hand1 and still retain your feet in the centre3 thus you will be sitting rather obliquely2 this will throw your right shoulder more forward1 and consequently the right hand2 and thus the hands will work perfectly clear of each other4 ,this rule1 however1 must be modified by the circumstances of river-rowing4 ,a waterman writes us as follows3--8,as to carrying one hand above the other1 my way is1 that if1 for instance1 ,i go from ,greenwich to ,blackwall against tide1 ,i keep down on the ,greenwich side1 in general look toward the shore1 and having my face over the left shoulder1 my right hand is then above4 ,if ,i go from ,greenwich to ,london1 my face is turned over the right shoulder1 and the left hand is then uppermost40 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxix ,page #ajb4 ,beginning of the ,pull4 ,middle of the ,pull4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxx ,page #ajc4 ,end of the ,pull4 ,return of the ,sculls4 7,the usual position in the middle of the pull is shown in ,plate ,,xxix4 fig4 #b47 ,the end of the pull must not take place till the elbows have approached the tops of the hips1 the hands are brought towards the chest1 and the body is thrown well back4 ,there would be a loss of power1 however1 if the hands were brought too near the chest2 and the body should not be thrown further back than it may easily and quickly recover its first position for the next stroke4--7,plate ,,xxx47 ,as the water is being delivered from the sculls1 the elbows sink1 the wrists are bent up1 and the backs of the hands are turned towards the fore-arms1 in order to feather the sculls4--7,plate ,,xxx4 fig4 #a47 ,in the return of the sculls1 the hands must remain turned up until the sculls are put into the water4--7,plate ,,xxx4 f4 #b47 ,in the middle of the return1 if the sculls are not short1 or if the head and body be turned1 one of the hands also goes higher than the other4 ,as to the degree of the immersion of the sculls4--,in the middle of the pull1 the blades must be covered by the water4 ,the learner in general dips them very deep2 but that ought to be avoided1 especially in calm weather4 ,in the whole of the return1 the tips should1 in calm weather1 be two or three inches above the water2 and1 in rough weather1 they should be higher1 in order to clear it1 as represented in the preceding ,plates4 ,the head ought throughout to be very moveable--first to one side1 then to the other1 but generally turned towards the shore when against the tide4 ,the same movements have only to be repeated1 throughout the course4 ,,the ,,tide ,,or ,,current4 ,in river-rowing1 when the tide or current is with the rower1 a learner should in general take the middle of the stream4 ,in rowing with the tide1 however1 watermen generally cut off the points1 in order to keep a straight course4 ,when the tide or current is against the rower1 he should take the sides1 preferring that side on which1 owing to the course of the river1 the current is least4 ,as there is an eddy under the points1 watermen generally1 when rounding them1 shoot the water to the next point1 and so on4 ,,to ,,turn4 ,back water with one scull1 by putting the one on the side you wish to turn to into the water1 with its concave front or filling towards you1 and pushing against it2 and at the same time pull strongly with the other scull1 until the boat's head is turned round4 ,,meeting ,,or ,,passing4 ,in meeting1 the boat which comes with the tide must get out of the way4 ,in this case1 both boats1 if close1 lay the blades of their sculls flat on the water1 lift them out of the rullocks1 and let them drift alongside4 ,each replaces them when the other has passed4 ,in passing a boat1 the rower who passes must take the outside1 unless there is ample room within1 and must also keep clear of the other's sculls or oars4 ,if one boat is crossing the water1 and another coming with the tide1 the one coming with tide must keep astern of the other1 and have a good look-out ahead4 ,,to ,,land4 ,give the boat its proper direction1 and keep its head inclining towards the tide1 and its stern will turn up or down1 as the tide runs2 unship the sculls by the manuvre directed above2 but1 instead of letting them drift alongside1 lay them in the boat1 the blades forward and the looms aft2 seize the headfast2 jump ashore2 and take two half-hitches round the post or ring4 ,,sea-,,rowing1 ,,or ,,rowing ,,in ,a ,,galley ,,on ,,the ,,river4 ,in launching a boat from the sea-beach1 when it is rough1 and there is a heavy surf1 the two bowmen must get into the boat with their oars run out2 and the other rowers follow the boat quickly in her descent2 but they should not jump in till she is quite afloat1 lest their weight might fix her on the beach1 and she might ship a sea4 ,it may happen1 that immediately on the boat floating1 a sea shall take the bow 7before the rowers are sufficiently prepared with their oars to keep her head out71 and place her broadside to the waves4 ,in this situation1 the boat is in danger of being swamped1 and the lives of those on board are in peril4 ,when thus situated1 it is best for two of the rowers to go near the bow of the boat1 and immediately force each his boat-hook or oar on the ground1 on the shore side of the boat1 as the most effectual1 safe1 and expeditious method of bringing her head again to the sea4 ,should there be more than a usual swell1 both the rowers and the sitter1 or steersman1 cannot be too particular in keeping1 throughout1 the head of the boat to the swell1 as lying broadside to a heavy sea is extremely dangerous4 ,in rowing1 each man has in general a single oar1 and sits on the opposite side of the galley from the rullock through which his oar passes4 ,the oar must consequently cross the boat1 and be held on its opposite side1 so as to clear the back of the man before4 ,it should be neither held nor pulled obliquely to the side by twisting the body1 as is practised by many1 because the muscles in that case act disadvantageously1 and are sooner fatigued4 ,the stroke must be longer in sea than in river rowing4 ,the oar must be thrown out with a heave1 caused by the simultaneous extension of the body and the arms4 ,it is still more essential to feather in sea than in river rowing4 ,the oar must be drawn back with great power1 caused by the simultaneous contraction of the body and arms2 time with the other rowers being accurately kept1 and distinctly marked4 ,when the oars are delivered from the water1 the time1 until they go into it again1 may be counted1 one1 two1 three1--when they pass through the water4 ,this time is kept by the strokesman1 or sternmost man of the rowers4 ,in landing1 the word is1 8in bow10 when the bowman or foremost man gets the boat-hook ready to clear away for the shore1 or the stairs4 ,the next word is from the coxswain1 8rowed off all10 or 8well rowed20 when all the oars are laid in1 with the blades forward1 and the boat is made fast4 ,in landing on the sea-beach1 when there is a surf1 the rowers may watch for a smooth1 and then give good way ashore1 when the bowman should instantly jump out with the headfast or penter1 and pull her up1 to avoid shipping a sea4 ,the distances run in this way are very great4 ,we have known four men1 in a short galley1 row thirty miles in four hours1 namely1 from ,dover to eight miles below ,calais1 or abreast of ,gravelines1 on the opposite coast4 ,in such a row1 a ,london waterman would have no skin left on his hands2 and a member of the ,funny ,club would1 we suppose1 have no hands left on his arms6 ,,sailing4 ,,boats1 ,,etc4 ,cutters1 owing to their excellent sailing qualities1 are much employed as packets#aj1 revenue cruisers1 smugglers1 privateers1 and in all cases requiring despatch4 ,the boats commonly employed in parties of pleasure1 c41 are also cutters4 #aj ,in the packet line1 since the general adoption of steam1 cutters are seldom if ever met with4--,,ed4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,on the size of these vessels1 however1 it is necessary to remark1 that a cutter under one hundred tons is sufficiently handy2 but1 when the size is equal to that of the larger yachts1 a strong crew is necessary1 as the spars are very heavy1 and a number of men requisite to set or shorten sail4 ,as a single-masted vessel1 in the event of springing a spar1 becomes helpless1 even large cutters are used only in short voyages1 or on the coast2 for1 in case of accident1 they can always manage to reach some harbour or anchorage to repair any damage they may sustain4 ,the peculiar qualities of beating well to windward1 and working on short tacks1 adapt cutters peculiarly for ,channel cruising4 ,although1 some years back1 large cutters were confined principally to the navy and revenue1 the ,royal ,yacht ,squadron1 in theirs1 have exceeded these not only in size1 but in beauty and sailing qualities4 ,some of the finest and fastest cutters in the world are the property of this national club2 and two of them1 the ,alarm 7,mr4 ,weld's71 and the ,arundel#aa1 7the ,duke of ,norfolk's71 measure #aic and #ahh tons4 ,the inconvenient size1 however1 of a cutter's boom and mainsail has caused the very general introduction of a ketch rig1 which1 by the addition of a mizen1 permits the boom to be dispensed with1 and reduces the mainsail considerably4 ,this rig1 indeed1 when the mizen stands well1 is elegant2 and1 if a vessel is short-handed1 it is very handy4 ,as cutter-rigged vessels1 instead of a regular mainsail1 with its boom and gaff1 have sometimes a mere spritsail1 it is necessary we should observe1 that the inferior convenience and safety of these preclude our noticing them here4 ,it is also necessary that we should explain why1 in the sequel1 we do not even refer to lugger-rigged vessels4 #aa ,the tonnage of the ,arundel is not given here according to the ,royal ,yacht ,squadron list3 there it is stated to be #baj tons4--,,ed4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,luggers are more difficult to work or manuvre2 they require a greater number of men2 their spars are so heavy that they require all hands to move them3 their decks are inevitably lumbered with spars1 c42 their canvass gets rotted from exposure2 and their expense is much greater than that of cutters4 ,they generally have two sets of lugs--large ones1 which require dipping every time they tack1 and small working lugs1 which do not require dipping1 the tack coming to the foot of the mast4 ,the latter are generally used1 except in making long reaches across the ,channel1 c4 ,a lugger1 moreover1 is seldom fit to be altered to any thing but a schooner1 not having breadth enough for one mast1 which1 after all1 is the best for beauty and speed4 ,sailing men1 indeed1 are now so perfectly aware of the inferior speed of luggers1 that we never see a lugger or schooner enter against a cutter at all near its tonnage4 ,at sea1 luggers would have a better chance2 though even there many would prefer cutters1 except in foul weather and a long reach4 ,in short1 these vessels suit only a few noblemen and gentlemen who have enough of patriotic ambition to desire to look like smugglers1 enough of delicacy to disregard the being thought dirty lubbers by their own men--some of whom are not dirty from mere taste or choice1 and enough of penetration not to discover1 that on their landing with filthy clothes and tarry hands1 every old sailor grins or laughs at their imagining1 that it was they1 and not the man at the helm1 who had kept the canvass from cracking1 or the sticks from going over the side4 ,our descriptions apply1 therefore1 to cutters alone2 and the ,plates at the end of this article illustrate the various parts therein referred to4 ,upon the ,thames1 the sailing clubs comprise the ,royal ,sailing ,society1 the ,royal ,thames ,yacht ,club1 the ,loyal ,victoria ,yacht ,club1 the ,clarence1 ,british1 ,royal ,yacht1 and several minor associations4 ,several cups and prizes are annually given during the season2 and the spirited contests between the beautiful small craft which form these fancy fleets1 are highly interesting4 ,the sailing matches on the river are of two sorts--one above1 and the other below the bridges4 ,the smaller yachts1 of from six to twenty-six tons1 are commonly entered for the former1 and a larger class for the latter1 which take place between ,greenwich and ,gravesend4 ,these national amusements appear to be rapidly gaining the first place among fashionable recreations1 and now occupy the season1 from the period when hunting ends1 till shooting begins4 ,the ,royal ,yacht ,squadron has nearly six hundred persons on its lists1 of which above one hundred are members1 and about four hundred and fifty honorary members4 ,the number of yachts is one hundred and nine#ab2 of which eighty-seven are cutters1 ten schooners1 three brigs1 four yawls1 two ships1 two ketches1 and one lugger4 ,the greater part of these vessels hail from ,cowes or ,southampton4 ,the shipping belonging to the club amounts to #gbej tons4 ,now1 a vessel of one hundred tons seldom perhaps stands the owner in less than from five to six thousand pounds1 varying from that to ten1 according to the profusion of ornamental parts1 the internal fittings1 and other contingencies4 ,at this rate1 the shipping of the club would have cost more than three millions and a half of money3 but it is impossible to speak decisively on this point1 as the first cost of the yachts varies much1 and the numerous styles of rig are attended with expenses so widely different4 ,at a moderate computation1 each vessel belonging to the club carries ten men on an average3 this gives the total number employed #ajij4 ,during the summer months1 then1 while regattas are celebrated1 it may be said that the ,royal ,yacht ,squadron alone employs more than #aajj men4 ,these1 with some few exceptions1 are discharged on the approach of winter1 and the yachts are laid up for the season1 retaining the master and one man in pay4 ,the crews thus discharged obtain employment in merchant-vessels1 or otherwise1 during the winter2 and in the middle of spring1 are generally re-shipped in the yachts in which they have previously served4 ,on these conditions1 active and industrious men of good character are generally sure of employment in the club2 and many members justly pride themselves on the high discipline1 manly bearing1 and crack appearance of their crews4 ,the situation of master1 in particular1 is one of much responsibility1 and is on all accounts respectably filled4 ,in some of the largest craft1 junior officers of the navy are found to accept this office4 ,the sailing regulations of the ,royal ,yacht ,squadron are as follow2 #ab ,as the number is constantly fluctuating1 we had better take the average at a hundred1 which will be found quite as high a one as we should be justified in suggesting4 ,first--,members entering their yachts must send the names of them to the secretary one week previous to the day of sailing1 and pay two guineas entrance at the same time4 ,second--,all vessels starting or entering must be the bon fide property of members1 as well as their spars1 sails1 boats1 c4 ,third--,each member is allowed to enter one vessel only for all prizes given by the club4 ,fourth--,cutters may carry four sails only1 viz41 mainsail1 foresail1 jib1 and gaff top-sail2 yawls1 luggers1 schooners1 and all other vessels1 in like proportion4 ,no booming out allowed4 ,fifth--,no trimming with ballast1 or shifting of ballast allowed2 and all vessels to keep their platforms down1 and bulkheads standing4 ,sixth--,vessels on the larboard tack must invariably give way to those on the starboard tack2 and in all cases where a doubt of the possibility of the vessel on the larboard tack weathering the one on the starboard tack shall exist1 the vessel on the larboard tack shall give way2 or1 if the other vessel keep her course1 and run into her1 the owner of the vessel on the larboard tack shall be compelled to pay all damages1 and forfeit his claim to the prize4 ,seventh--,vessels running on shore shall be allowed to use their own anchors and boats actually on board to get them off1 afterwards weighing anchor and hoisting the boat in2 but1 upon receiving assistance from any other vessel or vessels1 boats1 or anchors1 shall forfeit all claim to the prize4 ,eighth--,that nothing but the hand-line be used for sounding4 ,ninth--,any deviation from these rules shall subject the aggressor to forfeit all claim to the prize4 ,tenth--,if any objection be made with regard to the sailing of any other vessel in the race1 such objection must be made to the stewards1 within one hour after the vessel making the objection arrive at the starting-post4 ,eleventh--,no vessel shall be allowed to take in ballast1 or take out1 for twenty-four hours previous to starting2 and no ballast shall be thrown overboard4 ,twelfth--,vessels shall start from moorings laid down at a cable-length distance1 with their sails set2 and every vessel not exceeding one hundred tons shall carry a boat not less than ten feet long2 and vessels exceeding one hundred tons1 a boat not less than fourteen feet long4 ,thirteenth--,there shall be a member1 or honorary member1 on board each vessel4 ,fourteenth--,the time of starting may be altered by the stewards2 and all disputes that may arise are to be decided by them1 or such persons as they shall appoint4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,northern ,yacht ,club is a highly interesting society1 although its plan is not so extensive as that of the ,royal ,club4 ,it contains about three hundred and fifty members4 ,the documents for #ahcj comprise ninety-two in the ,scottish1 and ninety in the ,irish division1 with fifty-two honorary members1 in addition to ninety-three members of the ,cork ,yacht ,club1 who are also entered on the honorary lists4 ,it had1 in #ahcj1 sixty yachts1 not equal in proportion to the tonnage of the ,cowes ,club1 as smaller vessels are admitted4 ,many ,r4 ,y4 ,s4 men are found in the ,northern ,club4 ,there are many fine vessels in this club4 ,cutters1 as usual1 excel in number4 ,at the lowest computation1 the number of vessels at present employed for pleasure in this country cannot be less than from three to four hundred1 ranging in bulk from ten to three hundred and fifty tons4 ,these are variously distributed along our shores1 carrying their opulence into every port and harbour4 ,but there is another advantage arising from yacht clubs--namely1 that national spirit1 which1 to a maritime people1 is above all in worth4 ,the yacht clubs keep alive this feeling in an eminent degree4 ,,courses1 ,,etc4 ,even in describing the elementary nautical operations which such boats require1 it is necessary to lay down a position for the ,,harbour1 direction for the ,,wind1 and trip for the ,,vessel4 ,let us suppose1 then1 that the mouth of the harbour lies towards the south2 that the wind blows from the north1 with a little inclination to east1 and that we wish first to sail due south to get out of the harbour1 next direct our course eastward1 then return westward till we get abreast the mouth of the harbour1 and lastly1 northward1 to enter the harbour and come to our moorings4 ,these courses will1 with variations in the force of the wind1 illustrate every common and useful manuvre4 ,,getting ,,under ,,way4 ,ship#ac the tiller4#ad #ac ,fix in its proper place4 #ad ,the piece of wood or beam put into the head of the rudder to move it4 ,set the mainsail#ae2 hoist the throat#af nearly close up2 and half hoist the peak4#ag #ae ,unfurl it by casting the stops or gaskets off4 #af ,the foremost end of the gaff1 or that end next the mast4 #ag ,the outermost end of the gaff1 or that farthest from the mast4 ,bend#ah and haul the jib out to the bowsprit end4 #ah ,hook it to the traveller1 or ring on the bowsprit4 ,bowse the bobstay#ai and bowsprit shrouds#bj well taut4 #ai ,a rope or chain from the end of the bowsprit to half-way down the stem4 #bj ,ropes from the bowsprit end on each side to the bows4 ,hoist the jib1 and bowse it well up4 ,get the topmast stay#ba1 backstays#bb1 and rigging#bc well taut4 #ba ,a rope from the topmast head to the outer end of the bowsprit1 where it passes through a sheave or small block1 comes in by the stem head1 and is belayed or made fast 7done generally by winding several times backwards and forwards in the manner of a figure #h71 to its cleat or pin4 #bb ,ropes from the after-part of the head of the topmast to the after-part of the channels on each side4 #bc ,or shrouds--ropes from each side the top-mast head1 through the cross-tree arms1 to the fore part of the channels1 between the first and second lower shroud4 ,they are set up or hauled taut1 as are the backstays1 by means of a small tackle1 one block of which is hooked to the thimble spliced into the lower end of the shroud or backstay1 and the other to an eye-bolt in the channels4 ,hoist the foresail ready to cast#bd her when the moorings are let go4 #bd ,to turn her head in the most advantageous direction4 ,send a hand to the helm4#be #be ,this term includes both the tiller and the wheel2 but1 as the yawing motion of a small light vessel is correspondingly light and feeble1 though much quicker than that of a large vessel1 she is best without a wheel1 which is meant to gain power at the expense of time4 ,overhaul the main-sheet#bf1 and the lee#bg runner and tackle#bh2 lower the throat1 and hoist the peak of the mainsail taut#bi up4 #bf ,a rope or tackle for regulating the horizontal position of the main boom4 #bg ,the leeward or lee-side is the opposite to windward4 #bh ,a compound tackle1 used in cutter-rigged vessels1 instead of a backstay to the lower mast1 on account of its easy removal allowing the main boom to go forward1 in going large4 #bi ,the nautical way of pronouncing and writing tight4 ,hoist the gaff topsail#cj1 keeping the tack#ca to windward#cb of the peak halyards#cc1 and hauling the slack of the sheet out before you hoist the sail taut up4 #cj ,the sail above the mainsail4 ,the sheet hauls out to a small block on the outer end of the gaff4 #ca ,tack is the lowermost corner opposite to the sheet1 in all fore-and-aft sails and studding sails4 #cb ,the windward or weather side1 is that side on which the wind blows4 #cc ,the rope by which the peak of the gaff or boom1 to which the head of the mainsail is fastened1 is hoisted4 ,halyards always signifies a rope by which a sail is hoisted4 ,set the tack1 and heave the sheet well taut4 ,,before ,,the ,,wind4#cd ,with the ,main ,boom over to ,starboard4#ce #cd ,that is1 going the same way the wind blows4 ,her course is then sixteen points from the wind4 7,see ,compass47 #ce ,starboard is the right1 and larboard the left hand side1 when looking toward the head of the vessel4 ,in managing the helm1 be careful not to jibe the mainsail4 ,when a vessel is going large#cf1 the helmsman should always place himself on the weather side of the tiller1 or the side opposite to that which the main boom is over1 as his view of the vessel's head will then be unobstructed by the sails4 ,the boat now running before the wind1 haul the tack of mainsail up4 ,if the wind come dead aft1 you may flatten aft the jib and foresail sheets#cg1 or haul the foresail down to prevent chafing4 ,if the wind come at all round on the starboard quarter#ch1 slack off the boom guy#ci2 haul in the main-sheet till you get the boom a-midships#dj1 or nearly so2 port#da the helm1 and jibe the mainsail2 slack off the main-sheet again1 and hook the guy on the larboard side2 haul taut the starboard runner and tackle1 and overhaul the larboard one2 the same with the topping-lift#db2 hoist the head sails#dc1 and shift the sheets over4 #cf ,or free1 not close-hauled4 ,generally understood as having the wind abaft the beam1 or that her course is then eight points from the wind4 #cg ,ropes fast to the aftermost lower corner of the jib and foresail1 to hold them down4 ,the jib has two ropes or sheets fast to its corner1 one of which comes on each side the forestay1 for the convenience of tacking1 c4 ,the foresail has only one sheet1 which is fast to the traveller1 or ring on the horse or bar of iron1 which crosses from one gunwale to the other1 just before the mast4 #ch ,the point on either side where the side and stern meet4 #ci ,a small tackle1 one end of which is hooked to the main boom1 and the other forward1 to keep the boom from swinging4 #dj ,midway between the sides of the vessel4 #da ,instead of larboard1 when speaking of the helm1 port is the proper term1 in contrariety to starboard1 used for the sake of distinctness in directing the helmsman4 #db ,stout ropes which lead1 one from each side the main boom1 near its outer end1 through a block on its respective side the mast1 just under the cross-trees1 whence it descends about half-way1 and is connected to the deck or gunwale by a tackle4 #dc ,jib and foresail4 ,n4,b4 ,if you are obliged to jibe as above1 you must1 in the following directions for bringing the wind on your beam1 read larboard for starboard1 and vice vers4 ,,bringing ,,the ,,vessel ,,with ,,the ,,wind ,,on ,,the ,,larboard ,,beam4#dd #dd ,that is1 athwart or across the waist of the vessel1 called a-beam1 because it is in the same direction that her beams lay1 or at right angles with her keel4 ,her head is then eight points from the wind4--,the wind is said to be abaft the beam1 or before the beam1 according as the vessel's head is more or less than eight points from the wind4 ,supposing that you have not jibed1 starboard the helm a little1 and let the vessel spring her luff#de with her head to the northward4 ,slack the boom guy1 and haul in the main-sheet4 ,haul aft#df the jib-sheet1 and bowline#dg the foresail4 #de ,sail nearer to the wind4 #df ,that is1 toward the hinder part or stern4 #dg ,a rope made fast to the foremost shroud1 and passed through a thimble in the after-leach of the foresail1 then round the shroud again1 and round the sheet4 ,if she come up fast1 port the helm#dh a little1 and meet her1 then right#di it when she lays her proper course4 #dh ,always put the helm the contrary way to that which you want the vessel's head to turn4 #di ,that is1 bring it a-midships2 the same with steady4 ,hook and haul taut the lee runner and tackle4 ,you will now find it necessary to carry the helm a little a-port or a-weather4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if1 instead of directing our course eastward1 we had preferred doing so westward1 we must have jibed previous to bringing the wind on the beam1 and then the preceding operations would necessarily have been1 to a corresponding extent1 reversed4 ,,close-,,hauling ,,the ,,vessel4#ej #ej ,to haul the sheets aboard1 or more a-midships1 by which means the vessel's head will come closer to the point the wind blows from4 ,to haul the vessel to the wind1 ease the helm down#ea a little4 ,haul in the main-sheet upon the proper mark4 ,bowse the foresheet1 and haul the jib-sheet well aft4 ,bowse the runner and tackle well taut4 #ea ,to leeward4 ,the vessel is now on the wind1 plies to windward1 or is close-hauled4#eb #eb ,these terms all imply one thing1 viz41 that the vessel is sailing as near as possible to the point whence the wind blows4 ,no square-rigged vessel will sail within less than six1 and no fore-and-aft rigged vessel within less than five1 points of the wind1 to have any head-way4 ,being now apt to gripe1 or come up into the wind with a sudden jerk1 now and again1 she wall carry her helm more or less a-weather4 ,the helmsman must watch the weather-leach of the mainsail1 to prevent the vessel getting her head in the wind4 ,,tacking4#ec #ec ,to turn a vessel from one side to the other with her head toward the wind4 ,when a vessel is obliged to tack several times successively to get to windward1 she is said to be beating to windward2 when to get up or down a harbour1 channel1 c41 beating up or down1 c42 when trying to get off a lee shore1 clawing off4 ,a vessel's tacks are always to windward and forward2 and her sheets1 to leeward and aft2 whence the terms larboard or starboard tack1 meaning that she has her tacks aboard on the larboard or starboard side4 ,having got abreast or opposite the mouth of the harbour1 haul the fore bowline4 8,ready about40#ed ,put your helm up1 or to windward a little1 and let the vessel go rather off the wind1 to get good way on her2 then gently down or to leeward with it1 which is announced by the helmsman calling 8,helm's a-lee40 ,let fly the jib-sheet3 this takes off the balance of wind from her head1 and acts in concert with the helm in sweeping her stern to leeward1 or rather in allowing her head to come quicker up into the wind4 #ed ,a command that all hands are to be attentive1 and at their stations for tacking4 ,the man who attends the jib-sheet must carefully gather in the slack#ee of the one opposite to that which he let go4 ,when the jib comes over the larboard side of the stay#ef1 haul the larboard jib-sheet well aft4 ,when the mainsail is filled1 let draw the foresail4#eg ,right the helm1 and shift over the tack of the mainsail4 #ee ,or loose rope4 #ef ,the fore-stay1 or large rope from the lower mast head to the stem head1 to prevent the mast from springing when the vessel is sending deep1 or fallen into the hollow between two waves1 after pitching4 #eg ,that is1 let go the bowline which holds the sail to this1 now weather shroud4 ,it was held there till now1 that the wind might act upon it with greater power to turn the vessel1 from the time her head was about half-way round4 ,the expression is derived from its being necessary1 in larger vessels of a similar rig1 to ease the rope gradually as the sail draws it4 ,from the time the jib-sheet is let fly1 till the foresail is let draw1 the vessel is said to be in stays4 ,one hand should attend the main-sheet1 to gather in the slack till the boom is a-midships1 and then ease it off as the sail fills1 and the vessel lays over to port4 ,when the vessel is in stays1 and it is doubtful whether she will come round1 or1 in order to make her come round when she gathers stern-way1 shift the helm to the opposite side4 ,she is now about upon the starboard tack4 ,,reefing1 ,,taking ,,in ,,sail1 ,,etc4 ,haul the fore-sheet up to windward2 bowline it there1 and heave her to4 ,keep the tiller shipped1 and lash it a-lee4 ,in gaff topsail2 lower the halyards2 and haul down4 ,send a hand aloft to unbend the sheet from the sail1 and make it fast to the main halyard bolt2 and unlash the gaff topsail1 and send it down4 ,lower the main halyards and peak to the second reef cringle1 and reef the mainsail4 ,hook the reef tackle#eh to the first earing#ei2 haul upon it till the cringle#fj is close down upon the boom2 and belay the tackle4 ,pass a small gasket#fa through the tack and the first reef cringle1 and lash the two firmly together1 taking care to gather in snug the luff of the sail1 so that the leach rope belonging to it forms a sort of snake near the mast4 ,haul up the tack1 and bowse upon the weather peak line1 keeping the other part fast a-midships of the boom4 ,this will hold the belly of the sail partly to windward1 and make it easier to tie the reef-points4 ,observe to keep the foot-rope outside and under the sail4 #eh ,a small tackle formed of two hook blocks1 one of which is hooked to the under part of the boom about one third from the mast1 and the other farther aft4 ,the fall is belayed to a cleat under the boom4 #ei ,a stout rope1 one end of which is made fast to the boom at the same distance from the mast as the reef cringle to which it belongs4 ,it ascends1 passes through the cringle1 descends and passes through a sheave on the side of the boom1 then in board1 and is stopped to the boom by means of its lanyard1 or small line spliced into its end for the purpose4 ,this lanyard is also to make it fast when the sail is reefed1 and you wish to remove the tackle4 #fj ,a short loop of rope with a thimble or small ring of iron inside it1 spliced to the leach of the sail4 #fa ,a rope made by plaiting rope-yarns4 ,let one man jump upon the boom to tie the outer points so far that the rest can be tied on board4 ,let go the tack and peak line1 always keeping the ends of this fast under the boom4 ,hoist the sail taut up2 and set taut the tack tackle4 ,shift the jib to ,no4 #b4 ,overhaul the jib purchase2 let go the outhaul2 haul the jib down2 unhook the tack2 unbend the sheets2 and send the sail down below4 ,you have now got one reef in the mainsail4 ,if it come on to blow harder1 and you want a second reef1 lower the sail1 and haul on the peak line as before2 nipper the first reef-earing so as to hold it a short time2 let go the reef tackle1 and unhook it from the earing1 which make fast with its lanyard round the boom4 ,you have now got the tackle to use for the second reef4 ,proceed as for the first reef4 ,shift the jib to ,no4 #c1 and proceed as before4 ,if third1 the same1 after rigging the bowsprit4 ,take the fid#fb or bolt out of the heel of the bowsprit1 and rig the bowsprit in about one fid hole4 ,haul taut the topmast stay and bowsprit rigging4 ,bend and set the small jib in the same way as any other4 #fb ,a bar of wood or iron1 which passes horizontally through a hole in each bitt and the heel of the bowsprit1 to secure it in its place1 much in the same way that a carriage pole is secured4 ,you may want to stow the mainsail1 set the trysail1 and make her otherwise snug in proportion4 ,sway away upon the top rope2 lift the mast a little to let the man unfid it2 and lower topmast down in the slings4 ,lower the fore halyards1 and reef the foresail4 ,gather the luff of the sail up2 make the foremost reef-earing cringle fast to the tack2 shift the sheet from the clue of the sail to the after reef cringle2 and tie the points4 ,if the weather is very heavy1 haul down the stay-sail1 and tend the vessel with a tackle upon the weather jib-sheet4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when it comes fine weather again1 make sail in precisely the reverse order to that in which you shorten it4 ,continue to tack in the wind's eye till you are to windward of the harbour4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxi ,page #aai4 ,the ,mariner's ,compass4 ,plan of the ,deck4 ,,passing ,,other ,,vessels4 ,all vessels sailing before the wind keep out of the way of those upon the wind4 ,in the river ,thames1 vessels which sail with the larboard tack aboard1 keep away for those with the starboard tack aboard4 ,,bringing ,,the ,,vessel ,,into ,,harbour4 ,lower and haul down the gaff topsail4 ,let go the jib tack or outhaul#fc2 lower the jib2 and pull on the down-hauler1 to bring the traveller in4 ,haul the tack of the mainsail up2 and lower the peak4 ,down foresail4 #fc ,a rope made fast to the traveller1 to haul it out to the bowsprit end4 ,let a small boat run away the wrap to the quay4 ,lower1 and stow the mainsail4 ,unbend the jib1 and stow it below if dry and not immediately wanted1 and hook the halyards to the traveller1 close in by the stem4 ,if otherwise1 hoist upon the halyards1 and let it hang to dry if it require it1 or stop it up and down the foremost shroud4 ,haul the vessel to the moorings1 and moor properly1 putting fenders over to keep her from the quay4 ,,description ,,of ,,plate ,,xxxi4 ,fig4 #a4 ,the mariner's compass4 ,fig4 #b4 ,plan of the deck1 with the bowsprit rigged out1 c4 #a4 ,bowsprit4 #b4 #b4 ,bowsprit shrouds4 #c4 ,stem head4 #d4 ,bowsprit bitts4 #e4 ,fore hatchway4 #f4 ,windlass and bitts4 #g4 ,fore-sheet horse4 #h4 ,place of the mast4 #i4 #i4 ,channels4 #aj4 ,main hatchway4 #aa4 ,companion and binnacle4 #ab4 ,tiller4 #ac4 ,cabin skylight4 #ad4 ,rudder-head and case4 #ae4 ,taffrail4 ,,plate ,,xxxii4 fig4 #a4 ,pleasure boat1 cutter-rigged1 lying at anchor2 foresail and mainsail bent and stowed4 #a4 ,vane and spindle4 #b4 ,truck4 #c4 ,topmast4 #d4 ,cap4 #e4 ,trussel trees4 #f4 ,lower mast4 #g4 #g4 ,cross trees4 #h4 ,bowsprit4 #i4 ,gaff1 with mainsail furled4 #aj4 ,main boom4 #aa4 ,tiller4 #ab4 ,rudder4 #ac4 ,stem4 #ad4 #ad4 ,topmast shrouds4 #ae4 ,topmast backstay4 #af4 ,topmast stay4 #ag4 ,runner and tackle4 #ah4 ,traveller4 #ai4 ,channel4 #bj4 ,forestay with the foresail furled to it4 #ba4 ,bobstay4 #bb4 ,topping-lifts4 #bc4 ,topping-lift blocks4 #bd4 ,main-sheet4 #be4 #be4 ,peak halyards4 #bf4 ,jib halyards4 #bg4 ,cable4 #bh4 ,fore-sheet4 ,,plate ,,xxxii4 fig4 #b4 ,the vessel going down the harbour with all sails set1 steering south1 before a light breeze4 #a4 ,gaff topsail4 #b4 ,foresail4 #c4 ,mainsail4 #d4 ,tack tricing line4 #e4 ,peak line1 or signal halyards4 #f4 #g4 #h4 ,the #ast1 #bnd1 and #crd reefs4 #i4 #i4 #i4 ,reef-earings4 #aj4 #aj4 #aj4 ,cringles4 #aa4 ,balance reef4 #ab4 ,anchor stock4 #ac4 ,windlass4 #ad4 ,foresheet horse4 #ae4 ,main hatch4 #af4 ,companion and binnacle4 ,,plate ,,xxxiii4 fig4 #a4 ,the vessel outside the harbour1 steering east1 with a smart breeze on the larboard beam4 #a4 ,jib4 #b4 ,foresail4 #c4 ,anchor4 #d4 ,eyebolt of the bowsprit shrouds4 ,,plate ,,xxxiii4 fig4 #b4 ,the vessel trying for the harbour in a heavy gale1 close to the wind as she can lay1 on the starboard tack1 under a reefed mainsail and foresail1 bowsprit reefed1 and topmast lowered4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxii ,page #abj4 ,parts in ,pleasure ,boat at ,anchor4 ,boat before a light breeze4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxiii ,page #abj4 ,boat with a breeze on the larboard beam4 ,boat close to the wind on the ,starboard tack4 ,illustration ,,riding4 ,the general art of riding1 sometimes called mange riding1 to distinguish it from its modifications in road-riding1 hunting1 racing1 c41 teaches us to place every part of the body so that it can act upon the horse in every emergency1 shows the effect of all the aids or modes of guiding him1 and enables us to render him obedient to the slightest touch4 ,by never suffering the ascendancy to be transferred to the horse1 by in general preventing him from making all his speed1 and by exhausting him the sooner the more he exerts himself without permission1 it bestows upon the rider perfect security4 ,an intimate knowledge of this method is necessary even to our abandoning it when convenient1 to our adopting the styles1 afterwards to be described1 for more extended and rapid paces1 or for long continued riding1 to our suffering the horse to take more or less of ascendancy1 and to our1 when necessary1 easily recovering that superiority of the hand1 of which those who are ignorant of this fundamental method are less capable4 ,the recent practice has been to carry the foot rather more forward than is represented in our ,plates1 approaching in this respect1 to the ancient position1 as seen in the ,elgin marbles1 c4 ,a ,parisian bit1 which is attached to the mouth of the horse1 without a headstall1 has been lately used4 ,it is1 however1 applicable only to horses1 on account of its being retained in the mouth by means of the side tusks1 which mares do not possess4 ,it is composed of a semicircular bar of iron1 which goes under the chin1 to which its concavity applies2 while a short bar1 firmly attached to one of its ends1 passes nearly half-way through the mouth4 ,through the other end of the semicircle is a hole1 into which1 when the bit is on1 must be screwed a bolt1 similar to the one just described4 ,these two bolts1 it is easily understood1 pass behind the tusks1 and nearly meet in the centre of the mouth4#fd #fd ,,the ,,saddle 7,fig4 #a74--;a1 pommel2 b1 cantle2 c1 panel2 d1 flaps2 e1 stirrup leather2 f1 girths4 ,,bridles 7,fig4 #b7--;a1 b1 headstall with the cheekstraps2 c1 do4 of the curb2 d1 do4 of the bridoon or snaffle passing through it over the poll2 e1 nosetrap 7seldom found in any but military bridles71 f1 throatlash4 ,fig4 #c4 ,a twisted snaffle-bit4 ,fig4 #d4 ,a plain snaffle-bit4 ,fig4 #e4 ,a ,weymouth curb1 with chain and chainstrap 7a7 attached4 ,fig4 #f4 ,a common curb-bit1 with the upset in the mouthpiece4 ,,the ,,horse ,,and ,,equipments4 ,plates ,,xxxiv41 ,,xxxv4 f4 #a give better ideas of the horse and his equipments than the longest and most detailed description4 ,the reader will therefore examine them in succession4 ,we have here only to add those circumstances as to the equipment of the horse1 which could not be communicated by that otherwise briefer and more impressive method4 ,the shoes of a horse have much to do with his1 and consequently with his rider's1 comfort4 ,it is therefore important to know that he is properly shod4 ,to effect this1 the shoe should be fitted to the foot1 and not the foot to the shoe4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxiv ,page #abb4 ,horse ,equipments4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxv ,page #abb4 ,the ,parts of the ,horse4 ,first ,view of ,mounting4 ,neither heel nor frog should be pared more than merely to take off what is ragged2 for no reproduction takes place here1 as in the case of the hoof4 ,farriers ruin nearly all horses by doing otherwise4 ,indeed1 they are not to be trusted with this operation1 which1 after shoeing1 any gentleman may perform with his pocket-knife4 ,the sole of the foot must not be hollowed out1 but only the outer wall pared flat or even with the sole1 and most at the toe4 ,nor1 above all things1 ought the farrier's finishing rasp all round the edge of the horn immediately above the shoe to be permitted4 ,neither ought nails to be driven far backward towards the heel1 where the horn is softer and more sensible1 especially at the inner quarter4 ,when a horse has a high heel1 the foot1 except the frog1 may be pared flat1 but not hollowed out or opened4 ,when a horse has a low heel1 the foot should be pared only at the toes4 ,it is common to allow the fore part or toe of the hoof to grow long1 thereby throwing the horse much on his heels4 ,this position is unnatural1 because1 were the horse in a state of nature1 without shoes1 the toe1 from constant contact with the ground1 would be worn down to its proper level with the heel4 ,this growth1 then1 of the fore part of the hoof1 by throwing him on his heels1 renders them tender1 and causes lameness3 while the foot1 not being flat on the ground1 also strains the ligaments of the fetlock joint4 ,these evils may be obviated by doing as nature directs--by cutting away the toe to the proper level with the heel1 so as to allow the foot to bear flat upon the ground4 ,when a horse has a short pastern1 he should have a short shoe1 because a long one would compel him to bring his heel more backward than the unpliableness of his pastern would easily admit4 ,the saddle should be proportioned to the size of the horse4 ,before1 the bearings should be clear of the plate bone2 behind1 they should not extend further than within four inches of the hips2 and their pressure should be equal on every part intended to be touched4 ,the closer the saddle then comes the better1 if neither the weight of the rider nor settling of the panel can possibly injure the withers or chine4 ,before mounting1 the rider should examine whether the saddle1 girths1 straps1 bits1 bridle1 c41 are all good and well fixed4 ,when the saddle is on the horse1 the lowest part of the seat should rather be behind its centre1 as it is there that the weight of the body should fall1 and by that means the thighs can keep their proper position4 ,the best test of the adaptation of the seat is1 when the rider1 without stirrups or effort1 easily falls into his proper place in the saddle4 ,stirrups should not be used until the pupil is capable of riding without them4 ,their proper length is when the upper edge of the horizontal bar reaches a finger's breadth below the inner ankle-bone4 ,when the feet are in the stirrups1 the heels should be about two inches lower than the toes4 ,no more than the natural weight of the limbs should be thrown upon them4 ,it is by an accurate position1 and an easy play of the ankle and instep1 that the stirrup is retained1 so as to slip neither forward nor backward1 even if the toe be raised for a moment4 ,the position on horseback with stirrups differs from that without them only in this1 that the thigh being1 by the stirrup1 relieved from the weight of the leg and foot1 the knee is slightly bent1 and rather before the lines which these form in the position without stirrups4 ,in hussar riding1 hunting1 c41 the breadth of four fingers should intervene between the fork and the saddle when the rider stands up4 ,spurs should never be used but by an accomplished rider4 ,when it is necessary to employ them1 they should be applied a few inches behind the girth1 as low as possible1 and with the lightest touch capable of producing the effect4 ,as to the bridle1 in order to give the greatest possible ease to the snaffle1 a large and polished bit is necessary4 ,most bits are too small and long1 bend back over the bars of the horse's jaw1 work like pincers1 and cut his mouth4 ,to give the greatest degree of severity1 the bit1 while hot1 is twisted into a spiral form1 so as to present to the jaw a rough and sharp surface1 capable of pressing the bars or lips with greater or less severity4 ,the degrees of punishment which this bit is capable of inflicting are generally sufficient for all the purposes of correction4 ,it is therefore best to ride with a snaffle1 and to use a curb only occasionally when absolutely necessary4 ,in all cases1 the rider should observe that the horse is furnished with a bit proper for him4 ,if too light1 it may have the effect already described4 ,if too heavy1 it may incline him to carry the head low1 or to rest upon the hand1 which jockeys call 8making use of a fifth leg40 ,the simplest and most useful of the curb kind is the ,weymouth bit1 which consists of a strong plain mouth-piece of uniform thickness1 without any upset1 but merely a curve forwards1 to give ease to the tongue4 ,the centre of the reins should be accurately marked2 and1 when both reins are held in one hand1 and the near rein has to pass under the little finger1 and over the fore-finger1 on the outside of the off-rein1 the latter should be held about half an inch shorter1 and the centre should be brought proportionally towards the left4 ,in adjusting the bridle on the horse's head1 the headstall1 parallel to and above the cheekbone1 must have its length so regulated as to permit the mouth-piece of the curb to rest on the bars1 an inch above the lower tushes in horses1 and about two inches above the corner teeth in mares1 which have no tushes4 ,the nose-band1 lying under the snaffle headstall1 must be buckled so loosely that a finger can pass freely under it and over the horse's nose4 ,the bit of the snaffle must be higher1 but not so much so as to wrinkle the corner of the mouth4 ,the throat-lash must be buckled rather loose4 ,the mane is usually cut close under the headstall2 the finger clears any part of the foretop interfering with it2 and the remainder1 when combed smooth1 is put either over or under the front4 ,if the rider uses a curb1 he should make it a rule to hook on the chain himself2 for the quietest horse may bring his rider into danger1 if the curb hurt him4 ,the curb-chain must pass under the snaffle4 ,the rider should1 therefore1 put his right hand under the snaffle reins to take hold of the curb-chain1 and introducing two fingers of his left within the cheek of the bit1 and aiding these with his thumb1 take hold of the curb hook4 ,the end links of the curb-chain being in his right hand1 he should turn the chain to the right and under1 or as he would a screw1 till every link lies flat and smooth1 and then1 without losing a half turn1 put that link on the hook which appears to be neither tight nor slack4 ,the finger should pass between the horse's jaw and curb1 which in this case hangs down upon his under lip4 ,it is necessary also to see how it operates4 ,if the branch has liberty to move forty-five degrees1 or to a right angle1 it is the degree which is in general best4 ,if1 however1 one link of the chain confine it to thirty-five degrees1 and if one link lower give it fifty-five degrees1 then the manner of the horse's carrying his head must determine which is most proper3 if the horse naturally carry his nose high1 the branch may have fifty-five1 if he bring his nose in1 he should have thirty-five degrees4 ,if there be a chain-strap1 it must be placed so high on the branch1 that when passed through the ring in the curb-chain1 it may be buckled tight enough to prevent the horse lodging the branch on his teeth4 ,when a horse's head is steady1 when he is light in hand1 can obey its motions with ease1 and stop readily1 the bit is properly adjusted4 ,on the contrary1 if he open his mouth as if gagged1 writhe his jaws1 draw his tongue above the mouth-piece1 or thrust it out sidewise2 if he fear the impression of the bit1 have no appuy1 toss his head up and down1 carry it low1 and endeavour to force the hand1 or refuse to go forward1 or run backward1 the bit is not properly adjusted4 ,,mounting ,,and ,,dismounting4 ,in mounting1 the rider1--presenting himself rather before the horse's shoulder1 with his left breast towards that shoulder1 and with his whip or switch in his left hand1--takes1 with the right hand1 the snaffle reins in the centre2--introduces the little finger of the left hand between them from before1 the back of that hand being towards the horse's head2--places the left hand below the right on the neck of the horse1 about twelve inches from the saddle2--draws with the right hand the reins through the left1 and shortens them1 till the left has a light and equal feeling of both reins on the horse's mouth2--throws1 with the right hand1 the reins to the off side2--takes1 with the same hand1 a lock of the mane1 brings it through the left hand1 and turns it round the left thumb3--and closes the left hand firmly on the mane and reins4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxvi ,page #abg4 ,second ,view of ,mounting4 ,the ,seat4 ,the right hand1 after quitting the mane1 lays hold of the left stirrup1 the fingers being behind1 and the thumb in front of it2--the left foot is raised and put into the stirrup as far as the ball of it1 ,pl ,,xxxv f #b the right foot is then moved until the rider's face is turned to the side of the horse1 and looking across the saddle2 while the right hand is placed on the cantle1 the left knee against the saddle on the surcingle1 with the left heel drawn back1 to avoid touching the horse's side with the toe2--by a spring of the right foot from the instep1 not by any pull with the right hand1 the rider raises himself in the stirrup1 the knees firm against the saddle1 the heels together1 but drawn back a little1 and the body erect1 and partially supported by the right hand ,pl ,,xxxvi f #a the right hand moves from the cantle to the pommel1 and supports the body2--the right leg at the same time passes clearly over the horse's quarters to the off side2--the right knee closes on the saddle2 the body comes gently into it2--the left hand quits the mane1 and the right the pommel4 ,the left1 or bridle hand1 with the wrist rounded outwards1 is placed opposite the centre of the body1 and at three inches' distance from it2--the right hand is dropped by the side of the thigh2--the stirrup is taken instantly with the right foot1 without the help of hand or eye2--the clothes are adjusted2--and the whip is exchanged from the left hand to the right1 being held with the lash upwards1 but inclining a little towards the left ear of the horse1 and never leaving the right hand1 except while mounting or dismounting1--7,plate ,,xxxvi4 f4 #b47 ,the horse is to be accustomed to stand till the rider request him to move4 ,the habit of unsteadiness is acquired from grooms1 who1 on going out to water and exercise1 throw themselves over a horse from some elevation1 and give a kick to the animal even before being fairly upon it4 ,if a groom attend at mounting1 he ought not to be suffered to touch the reins1 but only that part of the bridle which comes down the cheek4 ,in dismounting1 the whip is to be returned into the left hand2--the right hand takes hold of the rein above the left2--the right foot quits the stirrup2--the left hand slides forward on the rein1 to about twelve inches from the saddle1 feeling the horse's mouth very lightly2--the right hand1 dropping the reins to the off side1 takes a lock of the mane1 brings it through the left1 and twists it round the left thumb2--the fingers of the left hand close on it2--the right hand is placed on the pommel2 the body being kept erect4 ,the body is supported with the right hand and left foot2--the right leg is1 without touching the horse's hind-quarters or the saddle1 brought gently to the near side1 with the heels close1 care being take not to bend the right knee1 lest the spur should touch the horse2--the right hand passes at the same time to the cantle1 to preserve the balance1 as in the act of mounting2--the body is gently lowered until the right toe touches the ground2--resting on the right foot1 the left stirrup is quitted1 and the left foot placed in line with the horse's hoofs2--the hands remaining as in the former motion4 ,both hands then quit their holds of the mane and cantle2--and the right hand lays hold of the snaffle rein near the ring of the bit4 ,in mounting without stirrups1--after taking up the reins1 instead of seizing the mane1 the rider lays hold of the pommel and cantle1 and1 by a spring of both legs from the insteps1 raises the body to the centre of the saddle4 ,by a second spring of both arms1 the right leg is carried over the horse1 and the rider enters his proper seat by closing the knees on the saddle1 and sliding gently into it4 ,in dismounting without stirrups1 on either side of the horse1 the rider throws the weight of the body on the hands placed on the pommel1 and1 by a spring1 raises the body out of the saddle before the leg is brought over the horse4 ,,the ,,seat4 ,the seat must be understood in an extended sense as the disposition of the various parts of the body1 in conformity with the action of the horse2 and its effect is the rider's being firm in the saddle1 when he might be otherwise thrown forward over the horse's head1 or backward over his tail4 ,the fundamental seat is that intermediate one of which all others are modifications1 and in which the rider sits when the horse is going straight forward1 without any bend in his position4 ,in describing this1 it is first necessary to consider the rider's relation to the horse4--,he must sit on that part of the animal's body which1 as he springs in his paces1 is the centre of motion3 from which1 of course1 any weight would be most difficultly shaken4 ,the place of this seat is that part of the saddle into which the rider's body would naturally slide were he to ride without stirrups4 ,this seat is to be preserved only by a proper balance of his body1 and its adaptation to even the most violent counteractions of the horse4 ,turf jockeys necessarily sit further back1 that they may employ the pulls4 ,it is necessary to consider the horseman in various parts1 and to explain their different functions3 #ast1 the lower part1 as being here the principal one1 namely1 the thighs1 with the legs as dependent on them2 #b;dly1 the upper part1 namely1 the body1 with the arms dependent on it4 ,the thighs1 from the fork to the knees1 are commonly called the immovable parts1 and upon them the whole attitude depends4 ,they must not wriggle or roll1 so as either to disturb the horse1 or render the seat loose2 but they may be relaxed when the horse hesitates to advance4 ,the legs occasionally strengthen the hold of the thighs by a grasp with the calves2 and they likewise aid1 support1 and chastise the horse4 ,the body1 from the fork upwards1 must always be in a situation to take the corresponding motion1 and preserve the balance4 ,the position of the arms is dependent on that of the body1 but they also exercise new functions4 ,as a good seat is the basis of all excellence in riding1 we shall consider these parts in detail4 ,in relation to the thighs1 the rider1 sitting in the middle of the saddle1 must rest chiefly upon their division1 vulgarly called the fork1 and very slightly upon the hips4 ,the thighs1 turned inward1 must rest flat upon the sides of the saddle1 without grasping2 for the rider's weight gives sufficient hold1 and the pressure of the thighs on the saddle would only lift him above it4 ,the knees must be stretched down and kept back1 so as to place the thighs several degrees short of a perpendicular2 but no gripe must be made with them1 unless there be danger of losing all other hold4 ,if the thighs are upon their inner or flat side in the saddle1 both the legs and the feet will be turned as they ought to be4 ,thus turned1 they must be on a line parallel to that of the rider's body1 and hang near the horse's sides1 but must not touch2 yet they may give an additional hold to the seat1 when necessary1 and the calves must act in support of the aids of the hands4 ,the heels are to be sunk1 and the toes to be raised1 and as near the horse as the heels1 which prevents the heel touching the horse4 ,as to the body4--,the head must be firm1 yet free4 ,the shoulders thrown back1 and kept square1 so that no pull of the bridle may bring them forward4 ,the chest must be advanced1 and the small of the back bent a little forward4 ,the upper parts of the arms must hang perpendicularly from the shoulders1 the lower parts at right angles with the upper1 so as to form a horizontal line from the elbow to the little finger4 ,the elbows must be lightly closed to the hips1 and1 without stiffness1 kept steady1 or they destroy the hand4 ,the wrist must be rounded a little outwards4 ,the hands should be about three inches from the body1 and from the pommel of the saddle1 and from four to six inches apart2 the thumbs and knuckles pointing towards each other1 and the finger nails towards the body4#fe #fe ,when in motion round the mange1 or the circle1 the inward hand1 or that towards which we turn1 is to be a little lower than the outward one4 ,when the rider is in the proper position on horseback without stirrups1 his nose1 breast1 knee1 and instep are nearly in a line2 and1 with stirrups1 his nose1 breast1 knee1 and toe1 are in a line4--7,pl ,,xxxvi47 ,the man and the horse throughout are to be of a piece4 ,when the horse is at liberty1 or disunited1 as it is termed1 the rider sits at his ease2 and1 as he collects and unites his horse1 so he collects and unites himself4 ,there must1 however1 be no stiffness of manner1 more than in sitting on a chair2 for it is ease and elegance which distinguish the gentleman4 ,,the ,,balance4 ,the balance in riding preserves the body from that inclination to one side or the other which even the ordinary paces of the horse1 in the trot or gallop1 would otherwise occasion4 ,it accompanies and corresponds with every motion of the animal1 without any employment of strength1 and consequently1 the rider sits so firmly that nothing can move his seat4 ,his skill consists essentially in balancing himself on the horse in such a manner as not to fetter the animal's movements4 ,to illustrate this1 if the horse work straight and upright on his legs1 the body must be in the same upright direction3 as the horse moves into a trot1 the body must be inclined a little more back2 in the gallop1 also in leaping1 or in any violent movements1 the body must chiefly be kept back2 and1 when the horse bends and leans1 as he does when on a circle1 or trotting briskly round a corner1 the body must lean similarly1 or the balance will be lost4 ,throughout the whole1 the figure must be pliant to every action of the horse2 for the balance can be maintained only by as many different positions as he is capable of working in4 ,to help his balance1 the rider must never take the slightest assistance from the reins4 ,whatever the position of the body1 the hand must be fixed1 and the reins of such a length as to feel and support the horse1 but never to hold on4 ,to acquire the balance1 the practice on circles1 or the longe1 is useful2 working equally to both hands1 and not using stirrups till the pupil has acquired the balance without them4 ,experience proves that the body1 if in the mange seat and fundamental position1 almost involuntarily takes the corresponding motion1 whether the horse stumbles1 rears1 springs forward1 or kicks4 ,,the ,,rein-,,hold4 ,there are various methods of holding the reins1 according to the style of riding1 the design of the rider1 and the propensities of horses4 ,in holding the snaffle-reins separately1 one rein passes into each hand1 between the third and fourth fingers1 and out of it over the fore-finger1 where it is held down by the thumb4--7,pl ,,xxxvii f4 #a47 ,when afterwards further advanced1 the reins are held in the left hand1 as at first taken up2 the left rein passing under the little finger1 and the right under the third finger1 both lying smooth through the hand1 the superfluous rein hanging over the first joint of the fore-finger1 and the thumb being placed upon it4#ff--7,plate ,,xxxvii4 fig4 #b47 #ff ,sometimes1 however1 the right rein is made to enter the hand from above over the fore-finger1 and crosses the left rein in the palm1 where the fingers close upon them1 a loop or bow being formed of the residue between the hand and body1 whence it hangs down4--7,plate ,,xxxvii4 fig4 #c47 ,riders should not throw their right shoulders back1 as they are apt to do1 when they first take the reins in one hand4 ,the right arm should hang by the side1 with the hand by the side of the thigh2 or1 if holding the whip1 it may be kept a little lower than the left1 in order not to obstruct the operation of the bridle4 ,we have already said1 that we think it best to ride with the snaffle alone1 and use the curb only occasionally4 ,in this case1 the curb reins may have a slide upon them1 and may hang on the pommel of the saddle1 or the horse's neck4 ,when the rider1 however1 holds the curb as well as the snaffle1 having both1 as is most usual1 in the left hand1--while the curb reins are placed as above described of the snaffle reins1 the snaffle reins are placed within them2 that is1 the left snaffle rein enters under the second1 and the right under the first finger1 and both pass up through the hand1 and out of it1 over the fore-finger1 precisely as do the curb reins1 except that they lie at first above1 then within1 and lastly1 under them4--7,plate ,,xxxvii4 fig4 #d47 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxvii ,page #acc4 ,the ,rein-hold4 ,shifting the reins should be done expertly1 without stopping the horse1 altering the pace1 breaking the time1 or looking to the hands4 ,when the snaffle reins are held in one hand1 the method of shifting from the left hand is as follows3--,turn the thumbs towards each other2 carry the right hand over the left2 in place of the little finger of the left hand1 put the fore-finger of the right hand downwards between the reins2 lay the reins smoothly down through the right hand1 and place the thumb upon the left rein between the first and second joint of the fore-finger4--7,pl ,,xxxvii4 f4 #e47 ,to shift them again into the left hand1 it is only necessary to carry the left hand over the right2 to put the little finger of the left hand downwards between the right and left reins2 to place them smoothly upward through the hand1 and to let the ends hang over the fore-finger1 as at first4--7,plate ,,xxxvii4 fig4 #f47 ,when both curb and snaffle reins are held in the usual method1 we shift them into the right hand in a similar manner1 by turning the thumbs toward each other2 carrying the right hand over the left2 putting the fore-finger of the right hand into the place of the little finger of the left2 the second finger of the right into the place of the third finger of the left2 and the third finger of the right into the place of the second finger of the left2 and laying the reins smoothly down through the right hand4-- 7,pl ,,xxxvii4 f4 #g7 ,when we shift the reins again to the left hand1 we put the fingers of the left hand into the places we took them from1 and turn the reins smoothly upward through the hand1 and over the fore-finger4--7,plate ,,xxxvii4 fig4 #h47 ,separating the reins is sometimes necessary4 ,when a horse refuses obedience to one hand1 we use two4 ,it is seldom1 however1 necessary to take more than one rein in the right hand2 and this is the right rein of the snaffle only4 ,for this purpose1 the rider turns the back of his right hand upwards1 puts the first three fingers over the snaffle rein1 receives it between his little and third fingers1 lets the superfluous end hang over the fore-finger1 with the thumb upwards1 as he does the bridle hand4 7,plate ,,xxxvii4 fig4 #i47 ,adjusting the reins is shortening or lengthening them1 wholly or partially1 as occasion may require4 ,to adjust the whole1 we take the superfluous reins that hang over the fore-finger of the left hand into the right1 so that with that hand we support the horse1 and feel every step he takes2 and we then open the fingers of the left hand so as to slip it up and down the reins smoothly and freely1 and thereby adjust them to our pleasure4 ,to shorten the curb rein1 and lengthen the snaffle1 we take in the right hand the centre of the curb rein1 that hangs over the fore-finger1 slip the whole of the reins too long1 pass the left hand down them1 and feel with the fingers whether both the curb reins are of equal length1 before we grasp with the left hand1 or quit with the right4 ,similarly1 we shorten the snaffle1 and lengthen the curb1 by taking in the right hand the centre of the snaffle that hangs over the fore-finger1 and proceeding in the same way4 ,when any single rein wants shortening1 we apply the right hand to that part which hangs over the fore-finger1 and draw it tighter4 ,when the reins are separate1 or occupy both hands1 and want adjusting1 we bring the hands together to assist each other2 remembering that the inner hand1 or that which supports the attitude the horse works in1 is not to depart from its situation1 so as to occasion any disorder1 but that the outer hand is to be brought to the inner1 for the purpose of adjusting them4 ,,the ,,correspondence4 ,to have a correct notion of the manner in which the hand operates on the horse's mouth1 it must be understood that the reins1 being held as described1 are collected to such definite length1 that bracing the muscles of the hand would rein the horse back1 and easing them permit him freely to advance2 the hand1 for preserving a medium effect on the mouth1 being only half shut1 and the knuckles near the wrist nearly open4 ,the hand1 then1 being connected to the reins1 the reins to the bit1 the bit operating in the curb on the bars1 and in the snaffle on the lips1 the rider cannot move the hand1 and scarcely even a finger1 without the horse's mouth being more or less affected4 ,this is called the ,,correspondence4 ,if1 moreover1 the hand be held steady1 as the horse advances in the trot1 the fingers will feel1 by the contraction of the reins1 a slight tug1 occasioned by the cadence of every step2 and this tug1 by means of the correspondence1 is reciprocally felt in the horse's mouth4 ,this is called the ,,appuy4 ,while this relation is preserved between the hand and mouth1 the horse is in perfect obedience to the rider1 and the hand directs him1 in any position or action1 with such ease1 that the horse seems to work by the will of the rider rather than by the power of his hand4 ,this is called the ,,support4 ,now1 the correspondence or effective communication between the hand and mouth1--the appuy1 or strength of the operation in the mouth1--the support1 or aid1 the hand gives in the position or action1--are always maintained in the mange and all united paces4 ,without these1 a horse is under no immediate control1 as in the extended gallop1 or at full speed1 where it may require a hundred yards to pull before we can stop him4 ,,the ,,action4 ,the degree of correspondence1 appuy1 and support1 depends1 in horses otherwise similar1 on the relative situation of the hand4 ,the act of raising the rider's hand increases his power2 and this1 raising the horse's head1 diminishes his power4 ,the depressing of the rider's hand1 on the contrary1 diminishes his power2 and this1 depressing the horse's head1 increases his power4 ,on these depend the unitedness or disunitedness in the action of the horse4 ,a writer on this subject 7,beranger1 we believe7 gives the following useful illustration3--8,if a garter were placed across the pupil's forehead1 and a person behind him held the two ends in a horizontal direction1 the pupil1 if he stood quite upright1 could not pull at the person's hand1 nor endure the person's hand to pull at him1 without falling or running backwards40 ,this is the situation of a horse when united4 ,accordingly1 when the pupil felt the hand severe1 or expected it to pull1 he would guard against it by bending the body1 projecting the head1 and planting one foot behind4 ,this is the situation of a horse when disunited1 or defending himself against the heaviness of the hand4 ,hence the perpetual pull of a timid rider1 or a heavy insensible hand1 cannot keep a horse united1 because the horse cannot then bear its severity4 ,thus heavy hands make hard-mouthed horses2 and hence it is in this condition that we generally find horses1 for the best broke become so1 if ridden a few times by an ignorant horseman4 ,in such cases1 the horse makes the rider support the weight both of his head and neck1 or goes on his shoulders1 and is apt to stumble4 ,if1 then1 the appuy be heavy1 from the head being carried too low1 and the horse not sufficiently united1 the rider must raise the hand1 and let the fingers1 by moving1 rather invite than compel the head1 or more properly the neck1 to rise1 for the object is to bring in the head by raising the neck1 the legs at the same time pressing the haunches under4 ,by these means1 the horse will be united1 and the appuy will be lightened4 ,should the hand1 however1 be too confining to the horse when united1 he may become so balanced on his haunches that he can neither disunite himself nor advance one step2 and1 should the rider then press him without yielding or dropping the hand1 he would compel him to rear4 ,such are the two extremes1 where the horse is disunited1 and where he is too much united4 ,the intermediate effect of the hand and heel must be acquired by practice4 ,,the ,,hand4 ,to a masterly hand1 firmness1 gentleness1 and lightness1 are very properly described as being essentially necessary4 ,firmness of the hand does not1 however1 do more than correspond exactly with the feeling in the horse's mouth1 unless the horse attempts to get the ascendancy1 to abandon that delicate correspondence producing the appuy1 and keeping him under the strictest obedience1 and to make a dull or insensible pull on the hand4 ,to frustrate these attempts1 the hand is kept firm1 and the fingers braced2 and1 should the horse plant his head low to endure this1 the fingers are moved1 the reins shaken1 c41 to raise the head and divert him from his purpose2 or1 if this be unavailing1 the hand is yielded that the reins may become slack1 and a snatch is given in an upward direction1 which will not only make him raise his head1 but will deter him from putting it down again4 ,gentleness of the hand relaxes a little of its firmness1 and mitigates the feeling between the hand and the horse's mouth1 without passing1 however1 from one extreme to another4 ,lightness of the hand lessens still more the feeling between the rider's hand and the horse's mouth1 and consists in a slight alternate feeling and easing of the bridle1 regulated by the motion of the horse2 for1 if the appuy were always in the same degree1 it would heat the mouth1 dull the feeling1 and render the horse's bars callous4 ,the rider must also distinguish whether the horse washes to disengage himself from restriction1 or wants a momentary liberty to cough1 to move if cramped1 to dislodge a fly1 c4 ,the curb1 if used1 requires always a light hand to manage it2 and the horse should never be put to do any thing in a curb at which he is not perfectly ready4 ,the curb is adapted for acting in a direct line only3 the snaffle should be used in all other cases4 ,still1 as to all these qualities1 the transitions must be gradual4 ,were the rider1 passing over that degree of restraint which is derived from the easy or gentle hand1 to go at once from a firm to a slack one1 he would deprive his horse of the support he trusted to1 and precipitate him on his shoulders4 ,on the contrary1 were he to pass from the slack to the tight rein all at once1 he would give a violent shock to the horse's mouth4 ,all the operations of the hand1 then1 should be firm1 gentle1 and light2 and in these1 the fingers and wrist alone must act4 ,certain liberties called descents of the hand1 are also taken with well-bred horses4 ,these are made three different ways3--by advancing the arm a little1 but not the shoulder1 still keeping the usual length of rein1 or by dropping the knuckles directly and at once upon the horse's neck2--by taking the reins in the right hand1 about four fingers' breadth above the left1 and letting them slide through the left1 dropping the right hand at the same time upon the horse's neck2--and by taking the end of the reins in the right hand1 quitting them entirely with the left1 and letting the end of them fall upon the horse's neck4 ,these graceful freedoms must never be used but with great caution1 when the horse is quite together1 and in hand2 and the rider1 by throwing back his body1 must counterbalance the weight of the horse upon his haunches4 ,there are still minuter rules belonging to this head2 for instance1 both snaffle reins being in one hand1 and that in the first position1--if we open the first and second fingers1 we slacken the right rein2--if we open the little finger1 we slacken the left rein2--if we shut the hand entirely1 and immediately open it again1 we lessen the tension of both reins4 ,by these methods1 we may relieve and freshen the two bars in which the feeling and appuy resides4 ,so also in the second descent of the hand4 ,while the right hand holds the reins1 we may slide the left hand up and down these in that degree of appuy which belongs to the easy and slack hand3 during which the horse will endeavour to preserve that mutual sensation between the mouth and the hand1 which makes him submit with pleasure to constraint4 ,by this play of the rein and movement of the bit to avoid pressure in one continued way1 the horse's head is kept high1 and his neck and crest are raised4 ,,the ,,guidance ,,or ,,aids4 ,the modes of guiding the horse are called aids1 because they not only direct1 but assist him to execute4 ,they also check him in acting contrarily4 ,these aids are certain positions of the hand1 body1 legs1 and sometimes of the switch or whip4 ,the hand is so far the principal of these1 that the others are sometimes called accompaniments1 as only giving power and efficacy to the hand4 ,aids of the ,hand4 ,a horse can move four different ways--forward1 to the right1 to the left1 and backward2 but he cannot perform these motions unless the hand of the rider makes four corresponding motions4 ,there are accordingly five different positions for the hand1 including the general one from which the other four proceed4 ,the five ,positions when one ,rein is held in each ,hand4 ,in the first position1 the reins pass up between the third and fourth fingers of each hand1 their ends are thrown over the fore-fingers1 the thumbs are closed on them1 and the fingers are shut3--the hands being held as already described in treating of the seat4 ,the second position consists of a slight relaxation of the preceding1 and permits the horse to advance4 ,the third position shortens the right rein rather upward1 and turns the horse to the right4 ,the fourth position shortens the left rein rather upward1 and turns the horse to the left2 and the fifth position shortens both reins1 and stops or reins the horse backwards4 ,the five ,positions when the ,reins are held in one ,hand4 ,the aids of the hand1 as forming these positions1 when the reins are held in one hand1 may be very simply given by a little extending1 or bending the wrist1 to make the horse advance1 or go backward1--and by slightly carrying the hand to the right or to the left1 and in both cases rather upward1 to make the horse turn in these directions4 ,the ,twistings of the ,bridle ,hand4 ,several modifications of the rules already given occur4 ,we do not1 however1 approve of these positions1 as they1 in a great measure1 reverse and destroy the natural aids of the hand1 by leaving the right rein slack in the turn to the right1 and the left rein slack in the turn to the left4 ,indeed1 they could not possibly be obeyed by the horse1 were it not that1 on this point1 he seems to have more understanding than his rider1 and draws his conclusions as to the latter's intentions1 not from the inconsistent action of his hand1 but from the more natural accompanying aids of his body and legs4 ,fortunately1 however1 these twistings of the bridle hand1 though always taught1 are1 we believe1 rarely practised4 ,we give these positions here1 only in compliance with custom4 ,in the first position the under surface of the fore-arm and hand forms a horizontal line from the elbow to the joint of the little finger2 the elbow is lightly closed to the hips2 the wrist is rounded2 the knuckles are kept directly above the neck of the horse1 the hand being at three inches from the body1 and as much from the pommel of the saddle2 the nails are turned towards the body1 the little finger being nearer to it than the others2 the reins1 in entering the hand1 are separated by the little finger2 and the thumb is placed flat upon them as they pass out over the fore-finger4 ,in the second position the hand is yielded to the horse by turning the nails downward1 so as to carry the thumb nearer the body1 and the little finger further from it1 yet somewhat obliquely1 for the thumb passes nearly into the place where the knuckles were in the first position1 the nails being now directly above the horse's neck4 ,this permits the horse to advance4 ,in the third position the hand1 leaving the first1 is turned upside down1 so that the thumb is carried out to the left1 and the little finger brought into the right4 ,this carries the operation of the reins nearly three inches more to the right1 by which the left reins press the neck1 the right reins are slack1 and the horse is turned to the right4 ,in the fourth position the hand1 leaving the first1 the back is turned upward1 so that the little finger is carried out to the left1 and the thumb brought in to the right4 ,this carries the operation of the reins to the left1 by which the right reins press the neck1 the left reins are slack1 and the horse is turned to the left4 ,in the fifth position1 quitting the first1 the wrist is rounded1 the nails turned upwards1 and the knuckles towards the horse's neck4 ,this stops him1 or compels him to go backward4 ,these aids1 however1 when the reins are held in one hand1 are not so effective as those where the reins are separate4 ,aids of the ,body4 ,to aid the second position of the hand1 and cause the horse to advance1 the body may be thrown a little forward1 but not so as to press heavily on his fore-parts4 ,to aid the third and fourth positions of the hand1 a mere turn of the body is sufficient4--,thus1 in entering an angle1 it is only necessary to turn the body imperceptibly toward the corner1 just as if the rider intended to go into it himself2 his body then turning to the right or left1 his hand must necessarily turn likewise1 and the leg of the side on which he turns will infallibly press against the horse1 and aid him4 ,in coming out of a corner1 it is only necessary to turn the body again1 the hand will follow it1 and the other leg1 approaching the horse1 will put his croupe into the corner1 in such a manner that it will follow the shoulders1 and be upon the same line4--,the same motion of the body is likewise necessary to turn entirely to the right or left4 ,to aid the fifth position of the hand1 and make the horse go backward1 the body must be thrown gently back1 and the hand will go with it4 ,aids of the ,legs4 ,to aid the second position of the hand1 and make the horse advance1 the legs must be closed4 ,even when a horse stands still1 the legs held near him will keep him on the watch1 and with the slightest upward motion of the bridle1 he will raise his head and show his forehead to advantage4 ,to aid the third position of the hand1 and turn to the right1 the right leg must determine the croupe to the left1 and facilitate the action of the shoulder1 which the hand had turned to the right4 ,to aid the fourth position of the hand1 and turn to the left1 the left leg must determine the croupe to the right4 ,in making a change to the right1 the left leg confines the croupe1 so that it must follow the shoulders4 ,in changing again to the left1 the right leg acts similarly4 ,to aid the fifth position of the hand1 and stop the horse1 while he is held in1 the legs must be gently brought to the sides4 ,the aids of the legs have their degrees progressively increasing1 thus3--the leg being brought nearer the side is the lightest2 placing the leg further back1 with the toe turned out1 is the next2 a touch with the calf of the leg1 is the third2 a stroke with it1 having the toe kept up firmly1 that the muscles of the leg may be hard1 is the fourth2 and the strongest is the scratch1 which1 when the legs are laid on hard without effect1 is given by dropping the toe1 when1 if the spur be properly placed1 the rowel will scratch the horse's side1 and this is succeeded by giving the spur sharply4 ,aids with the whip are also used to give greater effect to the heel4 ,these are gentle taps on the hind quarters1 and sometimes on the shoulders4 ,when given on the near side1 the hand is either applied behind the back1 with the whip held by the fingers like a pen1 the lash being downwards1 or across the bridle-hand before1 the whip being held with the lash upwards4 ,,animations1 ,,soothings1 ,,and ,,corrections4 ,animations proceed from the hand1 the leg1 the whip1 or the tongue2 those of the hand and of the legs have been described among the aids4 ,animations of the whip are mild taps to quicken the horse1 or1 if the lash is upwards1 switching it in the air4 ,those of the leg and whip threaten punishment2 and accordingly1 with sluggish horses1 both may be necessary4 ,the animation of the tongue is produced by placing the tongue flat against the roof of the mouth1 and suddenly displacing the posterior part of it by drawing the air laterally between it and the palate4 ,this noise is animating to the horse2 but1 if too much continued1 or too frequent1 its effect is destroyed4 ,soothings are the reverse of animations1 and are used to dispel the fears of horses1 and to give them confidence4 ,the voice soothes by soft and mild tones2 the hand1 by gentle patting1 or stroking3 the body and legs1 by relinquishing all unnecessary firmness1 and sitting easy4 ,a horseman should have perfect command of his temper1 as well as invincible patience and perseverance1 to make the horse comprehend and perform4 ,he must demand but little the first time2 he will be more readily obeyed the next2 and he may increase his demands as the horse improves in habit and temper4 ,corrections are given either with the spurs or switch1 or by keeping the horse in a greater degree of subjection4 ,in these a good horseman endeavours rather to work upon the mind than the body of the horse4 ,the corrections which render a horse most obedient1 and yet dishearten him least1 are not severe1 but rather oppose him by restraint1 and make him do directly the contrary4 ,if1 for example1 he do not go off readily1 or if he be sluggish1 make him go sidewise1 sometimes to one hand1 sometimes the other1 then drive him forward4--,if he go forward too fast1 moderate the aids1 and make him go backward more or less according to his conduct4--,if he be disorderly and turbulent1 walk him straight forward1 with head in and croupe out4 ,when correction is given with the whip1 it should be with strength2 the lash being upwards1 the arm lifted high1 and the whip applied behind the girths round the belly3 or it may be given forward1 over the shoulders1 between the fore-legs4 ,should the horse kick at the application of the whip to his flank or quarter1 the rider must instantly apply it smartly1 and must repeat it more sharply1 should he kick at that4 ,by this1 he may be made sensible of his fault4 ,to give a horse both spurs properly1 the rider must change the posture of his legs1 and1 bending his knee1 strike him with them at once1 quickly and firmly4 ,some horses disregard the whip1 but fly at the spurs2 others disregard the spurs1 and are terrified at the whip2 the rider consequently will apply that which is most likely to produce the desired effect4 ,when1 however1 the whip or spurs are applied two or three times sharply to restive horses without effect1 the rider must desist1 and try other methods4 ,,the ,,walk4 ,the rider should not suffer his horse to move till his clothes are adjusted1 and whip shifted1 when1 collecting his reins1 and taking one in his right hand1 he must close his legs1 to induce the horse to move slowly forward in the walk4 ,if he wish to increase the pace1 the pressure of the knees must be increased4 ,when the horse moves1 the legs must resume their former position1--the hands remain perfectly steady1--and the body yield to the movement4 ,as to character1 the walk is the pace performed with the least exertion2 only one leg at a time being off the ground1 and three on4 ,in this pace1 accordingly1 four distinct beats are marked1 as each foot comes to the ground in the following order3--first the off fore foot1 next the near hind foot1 then the near fore foot1 and lastly1 the off hind foot4#fg #fg ,the amble may perhaps be considered as a natural pace1 as most foals1 following their dams1 amble more or less to keep up with them4 ,the difference between the walk and the amble is1 that two legs of a side are raised in the latter at the same instant4 ,the perfection of the walk consists in its being an animated quick step1 measuring exact distances1 and marking a regular time1 by putting the feet flat to the ground4 ,its excellence depends on that uniting of the horse which supports his head and raises his feet1 without shortening or retarding the step2 and that animation which quickens the step and sharpens the beats without altering the time or the action4 ,in performance1 if the rider do not support the horse sufficiently1 his head will be low1 and his walk slovenly3 if he support him too much1 he will shorten his step so that he cannot walk freely4 ,if the rider do not animate him1 he will not exert himself3 if he animate him too much1 he will trot4 ,if the horse trot when the rider designs him to walk1 he will find either his hand or the degree of animation communicated by the whip1 tongue1 legs1 or bracing of the body1 too high1 and this he must instantly modify1 as well as check the horse4 7,plate ,,xxxviii4 fig #a47 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxviii ,page #ade4 ,the ,walk4 ,the ,stop4 ,turns in the ,walk4 ,turns in general should be made slowly2 and all the aids should combine in producing them4 ,in performance1 the hand to which we turn1 or inner hand1 is to be a little below the outer one1 and the inner rein held with double the force of the outer one1 which is to be exerted by the little finger pulling gently upwards and towards the body1 while the outer hand retains a steady hold of the outer rein4 ,at the same time1 the legs1 by a slight pressure with the calves1 must support the horse1 keep him up to the bridle1 make him bring his haunches under him1 and obey the leading rein4 ,the pressure of the inward leg alone would make him throw his haunches too much outwards4 ,all this is to be done in proportion to the effect meant to be produced2 and great precision and delicacy are required in the execution4 ,wheels may also be briefly noticed here4 ,a horse may wheel or turn on his own ground1 on three pivots1--on his centre1 on his fore feet1 and on his hind feet4 ,in all these1 the hand directs all before the horseman1 and the heel all behind him4 ,in wheeling on centres1 the hand and heel operate together--the hand leading the shoulder round--the leg directing the croupe1 by which means1 in going about1 the fore feet describe one half-circle1 and the hind feet another4 ,here the aids of the hand1 body1 and legs1 must exactly correspond2 and the degree of appuy must be merely such as will carry its aid into effect2 for1 if the appuy is too weak1 the horse will advance over his ground1 and if too strong1 he will retire from it4 ,on terminating the wheel or quarter circle1 the about or half-circle1 or the about and about1 or whole circle1 the hand1 the body1 and leg1 must instantly resume their proper position4 ,the wheel on the fore1 and that on the hind feet1 are still more rarely of use in common practice4 ,stops in the ,walk4 ,horses and horsemen generally stop by a gradual cessation of action1 in a time and distance which depend on circumstances4 ,as to character1 however1 the stop1 when properly performed1 is an instant cessation of advance1 without any previous indication4 ,when the stop is properly performed1 it shows the great superiority of the rider's hand over the horse4 ,it confirms him in obedience1 unites him1 supples the haunches1 and bends the houghs4 ,much mischief1 however1 may occur from a too frequent or injudicious practice of it4 ,the perfection of the stop consists in the action ceasing at the finish of a cadence1 without breaking the previous time2 and in the horse being so balanced on his haunches1 and so animated1 that1 with liberty given1 he can advance with the same rapidity as before4 ,in performance1 the time to be seized is when the first part of the cadence is coming to the ground2 so that its finish completes the stop4 ,if this is not done1 the cadence will be broken1 and the stop rendered irregular4 ,at such a moment1 the stop is performed by the rider bracing his arms to his body1 holding both reins equally and firmly1 drawing the fingers towards the body1 closing for an instant both legs1 to press the horse up to the bridle1 and throwing the body back1 with precisely such strength of all the muscles as is proportioned to the effect2 all this being done at the same instant1 and making but one motion4 ,if the rider do not close his legs1 the horse may not bring his haunches under1 the stop will be on the shoulders1 and its effect will be destroyed4 ,if1 in stopping1 a horse toss up his nose1 or force the hand1 the bridle hand must be kept low and firm1 no liberty must be given1 his neck must be pressed with the right hand till he has brought down his nose1 and immediately all his bridle may be given him4 7,plate ,,xxxviii4 fig4 #b47 ,if the horse has not readily obeyed1 he should be made to go backwards1 as a proper punishment for the fault4 ,going ,backward in the ,walk4 ,the action of the horse when he goes backward is to bend his haunches1 to have always one of his hinder legs under his belly1 on which to rest and balance himself1 and to push his croupe backward4 ,in performance1 the horse's head must be steady and right1 his body gathered up under him1 he must be upon his haunches1 and his feet be even4 ,to aid him in this1 there should be an equal and steady feeling of both reins2 the hand must be held centrically1 and kept from rising1 with the knuckles a little down1 inviting the horse to back2 the body bent a little forward1 with the belly drawn in2 and the legs gently pressing the sides of the horse1 in order to keep him up to the bridle1 and to prevent him from swerving4 ,the instant he yields to the hand1 the body and hand yield to the horse1 that he may recover his balance2 and he may then be pressed to back again4 ,if either the deviation of the hand from its centrical situation1 or any other cause1 make the croupe go off the line in an opposite direction1 the heel must support and direct him4 ,thus1 should the croupe traverse to the right1 the right leg must direct2 and1 to assist1 the hand must be carried a little to the right2 but this must be done with delicacy1 lest the croupe be thrown too much to the left4 ,here the hand and the heel change their functions2 the hand compels the action1 and the heel directs it4 ,,the ,,trot4 ,as to the character of the trot1 when we urge the horse to proceed faster than he can by moving one leg after the other in the walk1 we oblige him to take up two at a time in the trot4 ,here the off fore-foot and the near hind-foot give one beat2 and the near fore-foot and the off hind-foot give another2 so that there are two legs crosswise off the ground1 and two legs on2 the beats being sharp and quick1 in proportion to the degree of animation and extension4 ,the perfection of the trot consists in its suppleness1 giving the horse a free use of his limbs2 in its union1 distributing his labour more equally1 his fore legs having more to sustain than the hind1 especially when he is disunited1 or on the shoulders2 and in its action1 which should be true and equal1 the liberty of the fore-quarters not exceeding the hind1 nor the hind the fore--the knee being up1 the haunches bent1 springy1 and pliant1 the step measuring exact distances1 and marking a regular time4 ,in the trot1 there is a leading foot1 either right or left1 by which the corresponding side is a little more advanced than the other4 ,this leading with either foot is valuable1 as1 in horses that have not been thus suppled1 if chance or fatigue makes them change their leg for that which they are not accustomed to1 the action is stiff1 confined1 and irregular4 ,kinds of ,trot4 ,there are three kinds of trot--the extended1 the supple1 and the even4 ,in the extended trot1 the horse steps out without retaining himself1 being quite straight1 and going directly forwards4 ,in the supple trot1 at every motion he bends and plays the joints of his shoulders1 knees1 and feet4 ,in the even trot1 he makes all his limbs and joints move so equally and exactly1 that his limbs never cover more ground one than the other1 nor at one time more than at another4 ,these three kinds of trot depend upon each other4 ,we cannot pass a horse to the supple trot without having first worked him to the extended trot2 and we can never arrive at the even and equal trot without having practised the supple4 ,to pass from the extended to the supple trot1 the horse must be gently and by degrees held in4 ,when1 by exercise1 he has attained sufficient suppleness to manage his limbs readily1 he must insensibly be held in more and more1 till he is led to the equal trot4 ,the ,trot in particular4 ,in performance the rider must apply1 for an instant1 both legs to his horse's sides2 and at the same time raise the fore hand by drawing the lower finger on each side rather upwards and towards the body1 avoiding all jerks or sudden motions4 ,during the trot he must sit close to the saddle1 preserving his seat by the balance of his body1 and not by the pressure of the knees2 he must neither rise nor stand in the stirrups2 his body must incline a little backwards2 the whole figure must partake of and accompany the movements of the horse2 and he must keep the hands up in their proper situation1 steady and pliant1 preserving a due correspondence1 and just appuy4 ,if the action be too rapid1 it must be checked by strengthening the hand4 ,if the action be too slow1 it may be quickened by easing the fingers1 and giving more animation4 ,to give more animation1 and encourage the horse to put his foot out freely1 the rider must support his fore hand up1 and his haunches under1 by a touch of the fingers1 the excitement of the tongue1 the switch of the whip1 or the application of the legs1 varied so as not to lose their effect4 ,if the action be not sufficiently united1 that also must be corrected4 ,to unite the horse1 the reins must be collected1 and the head raised4 ,by bringing his haunches under him1 he may be pressed up to the bridle by the aid of the legs2 care being taken that this is not done hastily or violently4 ,he must not1 however1 be confined in the hand1 in expectation of raising him1 and fixing his head in a proper place1 as by this means his bars and mouth would soon grow callous4 ,the most certain sign of a horse's trotting well is1 that when1 in his trot1 the rider presses him a little1 he offers to gallop4 ,if the horse gallop when he ought not1 the waist should be pushed forwards toward the pommel of the saddle1 and a bend or hollow at the same time be made in the loins4 ,turns1 ,stops1 c4 in the ,trot4 ,as to turns1 seeing that the operations directed to be performed at the walk are to be practised in the trot1 nothing further need be said of them4 ,as stops are required to coincide with cadences1 it must be observed1 that the first part of the cadence in the trot is performed by the two feet that lead2 and that the conclusion of the cadence is performed by the two feet that follow1 and this should complete the stop4 ,the rider should occasionally alter the measure of the action1 by strengthening the hand1 and at the same time keeping up a sufficient degree of animation to prevent the horse from stopping4 ,he may then give him liberty1 and proceed with the same spirit as before4 ,he may make a stop2 and may even rein him back two or three steps2 in both cases keeping him so united and animated that the instant the hand gives him liberty he advances as rapidly as before4 7,plate ,,xxxix4 fig #a47 ,,road ,,riding4 ,road riding is here introduced1 because the trot is its most appropriate pace4 ,the difference between mange and road riding1 consists chiefly in a shorter seat and a shorter stirrup being used in the latter4 ,a certain freedom and ease are also admissible4 ,these1 however1 must not exceed propriety1 lead to neglect of the horse1 or risk security4 ,the hand should keep its situation and property1 though the body be turned to any extreme for the purpose of viewing or conversing2 and the body must not1 by any freedom it takes1 throw itself out of balance1 or take liberties when it cannot be done with safety4 ,when the trot is extended to an unpleasant roughness1 the jolting may be eased by rising upward and slightly forward in the stirrups4 ,the faster the horse trots1 the easier it is to rise2 for it is the action of the horse1 and not any effort of the rider1 that must raise him4 ,the foot he leads with determines that which the rider must rise to2 and1 if the horse change his foot1 he must change with him4 ,he must accordingly rise and fall with the leading foot1 rising when the leading foot is in the air1 and falling when it comes to the ground4 ,the rise and fall of the body are to be smooth1 and as regular as the beats of the feet4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxix ,page #aej4 ,the ,trot4 ,road ,riding4 ,though this is called rising in the stirrups1 no great stress or dependence is to be put on them4 ,such improper use of the stirrups causes many persons to be thrown1 by the horse shying or suddenly turning round4 ,the rising of the body must not be accompanied by any motion of the arms1 or lifting of the shoulders4 ,the hand is to be held steady as well as low1 to prevent galloping 7which the forwardness of the haunches would render inevitable if the hand were either eased or lifted71 and the reins should be of that precise length which preserves as much correspondence as possible between the hand and mouth4 ,the steadiness of the hand is also necessary for the support of the horse4 ,the slight inclination of the body permitted in road riding must not occasion any roundness in the back1 which is invariably to be hollow1 not only for appearance sake but for safety4 ,the action of the body likewise must not cause the legs to move or press the horse1 which might cause him to gallop4 ,in trotting1 the rider must pay the greatest attention to correct every propensity to lift1 hitch1 overrate1 or gallop2 and1 whenever he feels these propensities1 he must check them with the greatest nicety1 in order not to retard the horse's speed4 7,pl ,,xxxix4 f4 #b illustrates the ,seat1 c41 in ,road ,riding4#fh7 #fh ,in road riding1 the rule of taking the right hand of all you pass is well known2 but there are some exceptions1 which are thus noticed by ,mr4 ,bunbury1 in his ironical style3-- 8,in riding the road1 should a man on horseback be in your way leading another horse1 always dash by the led one2 you might otherwise set the man's horse capering1 and perhaps throw him off2 and you can get but a kick or two by observing my instructions4--,in passing a waggon1 or any tremendous equipage1 should it run pretty near a bank1 and there be but a ditch1 and an open country on the other side1 if you are on business1 and in a hurry1 dash up the bank without hesitation2 for1 should you take the other side1 and the horse shy at the carriage1 you may be carried many hundred yards out of your road2 whereas1 by a little effort of courage1 you need only graze the wheel1 fly up the bank1 and by slipping or tumbling down into the road again1 go little or nothing out of your way40 ,,the ,,gallop4 ,as to the character of the gallop1 when we press a horse in the trot beyond his capacity1 or animate him with the legs while we raise or retain him with the hand1 we compel him to lift his two fore-feet after each other1 which commences the gallop4 ,the near fore-foot is first raised from the ground2 then the off fore-foot1 which1 however1 passes the other1 and they come to the ground in the same order1 the near fore-foot making one beat1 and the off fore-foot another1 that being the most advanced or leading foot4 ,the hind feet follow in the same manner2 the near hind-foot marking a third beat1 and the off hind-foot passing forward1 and marking a fourth beat4 ,thus1 when this pace is united and true1 the feet mark a regular1 sharp1 and quick time of one1 two1 three1 four4 ,the perfection of the gallop consists in the suppleness of the limbs1 the union of the horse1 the justness of the action1 and the regularity of the time4 ,the gallop is of three kinds--that of the racer1 that of the hunter1 and that of the pleasure horse1 commonly called the canter4 ,the last of these is by far the most difficult1 as it requires skill to fore-shorten and throw the horse on his haunches4 ,in the gallop1 as in the trot1 there is a leading foot4 ,on a straight line1 it is immaterial with which fore-leg the horse leads1 provided the hind-leg of the same side follows it4 ,but to lead always with the same leg is injurious4 ,in galloping to the right1 the horse must lead with the inward or off fore-leg1 followed by the off hind-leg4 ,this action is termed true or united4--7,plate ,,xl4 #fi shows this in the canter47 ,in galloping to the left1 he must lead with the inward or near fore-leg1 followed by the near hind-leg4 ,this also is termed true or united4#gj #fi ,in galloping to the right1 if the horse lead with the off fore-leg and near hind-leg1 or if he lead with the near fore-leg and off hind-leg1 he is said to be disunited4 ,if1 in galloping to the right1 he lead with both near legs1 he is said to be false4 #gj ,in galloping to the left1 if the horse lead with the near fore-leg and off hind-leg1 or if he lead with the off fore-leg and near hind-leg1 he is said to be disunited4 ,if1 in galloping to the left1 he lead with both off legs1 he is said to be false4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xl ,page #aeb4 ,the ,canter4 ,the ,canter in particular4 ,to put the horse to the canter from rest at any spot1 or from any pace1 he must be pressed with the legs1 or animated with the tongue1 and at the same time1 by a motion of the fingers1 and a little raising of the hand1 be invited to raise the fore-legs4 ,if he do not obey this1 the animation must be increased1 and the hand kept more firm1 to prevent his trotting2 and this will constrain him to raise his fore-legs together4 ,it is also necessary to direct the foot he is to lead with4 ,that of course is the inner1 which he will readily take by putting the croupe in1 by means of the opposite thigh1 thereby enabling him to advance the inner side4 ,as the position of the horse renders necessary a corresponding position of the horseman1 it will readily be seen that whichever side the horse leads with1 the rider's thigh on that side must be rather more turned in towards the saddle1 and the hip on that side brought more forward1 and consequently that the other thigh must be a little turned outward1 and the hip brought backward2 and all this more or less in proportion to the position of the horse4 ,this turn of the hip effects a turn of the body4 ,the hands are carried with it1 and at the same time kept up1 rather above than below the elbow1 and quite steady1 that the cadence of every step1 and the support given by the hand1 may be felt4 ,the rider's head is of course to be directed to the horse's nose1 his eye glancing on the ground the horse's fore-feet go over4 ,if the horse strike off with the wrong leg1 false or disunited1 the rider1 at the first corner1 must endeavour1 by an additional feeling of the inward rein1 and application of the outward leg1 to make him change1 and lead with the proper one4 ,when he leads with the proper leg1 the hand must resume its usual position1 the rider bending him a little inwards by shortening the inward rein2 the fingers slackened1 if necessary1 to let him advance2 but the hand kept up1 and every cadence felt of the fore-feet coming to the ground4 ,there is far more skill displayed in keeping up an animated action in the canter1 at the rate of three miles an hour1 than in the gallop1 at that of twelve or fifteen4 ,if the animation fail1 or the action be not supported by the hand1 the horse will break into a trot1 particularly as the gallop is shortened or united4 ,if the action is felt to be declining1 it must be corrected instantly1 by an animating touch of the fingers1 the leg1 or the tongue4 ,the hand first discovers this declension1 and is the first to correct it4 ,when the rider can put his horse off to either hand with the proper leg1 and support the action1 he must particularly attend to its truth and union1 and try to raise it to the highest animation1 riding sometimes rapidly1 sometimes slowly1 yet always united4 ,when the gallop is disunited and extended to speed1 even though the horse is supple and just on his legs1 it loses its harmony and regularity of time4 ,the fore-legs then measure less space from each other1 and so do the hind-legs1 which makes the beats quicker in each1 and leaves a space between the beats of the fore-legs and the beats of the hind4 ,in these gallops1 it would be highly imprudent to circle or turn1 but on a very large scale4 ,turns1 ,changes1 ,stops1 c4 in the ,gallop4 ,in turning the horse to the right and left1 at a canter1 his fore-hand must be raised with the leading rein1 and the haunches pressed forward and under him3 at the same time1 the outward rein must assist to steady him1 and a pressure of the calf of the outward leg keep the haunches from falling too much out4 ,if he is turned suddenly with the inward rein only1 without lifting the fore-hand1 or applying the outward leg1 he must turn on his shoulders1 lose power to halt on his haunches1 and being twisted round unprepared1 will change to the outer leg4 ,in changing1 the operation must be performed smoothly and evenly at the same instant2 so that1 at the finish of the cadence1 the body1 hands1 thighs1 and legs of the rider are reversed1 for the horse to commence his next cadence with the contrary leg4 ,in stopping in the gallop1 the rider must seize the time when the horse's fore-feet are coming to the ground1 which is the beginning of the cadence3 and he must take care that the hind feet1 coming up to their exact distance1 and finishing the cadence1 complete the stop3 leaving the horse so balanced that he can readily set off again with the same rapidity as before4 ,besides seizing the exact time1 a due degree of power must thus be exerted1 conformably to the readiness1 obedience1 union1 or rapidity of the action2 for1 should the power be deficient1 the stop would not be properly effected2 and if it be excessive1 the horse will be overbalanced on his haunches1 and compelled consequently to move his feet after the cadence is finished4 ,till horses are ready and obedient to the stop1 it should not be attempted in violent and rapid gallops2 nor even then if they are weak1 or the rider heavy4--,in these cases1 the double arret is used4 ,the double arret is the stop completed in two cadences of the gallop1 which is far less distressing both to man and horse4 ,the body being gently thrown back1 will not make the action instantaneously cease2 but the obedience of the horse makes the effort which checks half his career in the first cadence2 and1 the body still being kept back1 he completes it in the second4 ,however1 till practised and made obedient to the stop1 he will not easily perform the double arret2 for1 in the first instance1 he must be taught to stop by compulsion2 and it is only when practice has brought him to obedience1 that he readily stops at the easy throwing back of the body4 ,the half stop is a pause in the gallop1 or the action suspended for half a second1 and then resumed again4 ,here the body is thrown back less determinately1 lest we should so overbalance the horse that he cannot readily set off again after the finish of the cadence1 which no sooner occurs than the body is brought forward1 to permit the action to go on4 ,thus the half stop is only a pause in the gallop1 and it is mostly used to effect a change from the right leg to the left1 or the opposite4 ,the cadence of the stop should be no shorter than the readiness and obedience of the horse will admit2 the half stop not quite so short2 and the two arrets still more moderate4 ,,leaping4 ,the moveable bar for leaping should be ten feet in length1 which will admit of two horses leaping abreast2 at first from one to two feet high2 and never very high4 ,as to the seat1 it should be again observed that stirrups are no security in any situation on horseback2 and those who cannot forbear pressing a weight on them1 had better have none when learning to leap4 ,an accurate balance must prevent all disturbance of the seat2 for the slightest1 whether the rider is thrown up from the saddle1 or his body falls forward1 or he gets out of balance1 is as disgraceful as falling to the ground4 ,he should sit so close as to carry a shilling under each thigh just above the knee1 one in each stirrup under the toe1 and one under his breech4 ,when any action of the horse tends to lift the rider from the saddle1 stirrups cannot keep him down4 ,bearing on the stirrup1 indeed1 must lift the rider from the saddle1 and would even loosen any hold he might take with the thighs or legs4 ,nothing but the weight of the body can press to the saddle4 ,when the action is violent1 however1 the pressure of the thighs may be employed to hold it down2 and1 when the hold of the thighs is not sufficient1 the legs may take a deeper1 and stronger hold4 ,leaps are taken standing or flying2 the first being most difficult to sit1 though always practised first1 because the slow and steady leaping of a properly managed horse gives the rider time and recollection1 and the riding-master an opportunity to direct1 and to prevent accidents4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xli ,page #aeg4 ,the ,rise in ,leaping ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xlii ,page #aeg4 ,the ,fall in ,leaping ,standing ,leap4 ,in the standing leap1 the horse first shortens1 and then extends himself4 ,readiness in the hand of the rider is therefore requisite to give the appropriate aids4 ,these1 if well timed1 assist the horse3 if otherwise1 they check or embarrass him1 and endanger both the animal and his rider4 7,plates ,,xli4 ,,xlii4 illustrate the ,leap47 ,the rider must therefore1 by a ready and fearless yielding of the bridle1 leave the horse at liberty to extend himself1 preserving his own equilibrium only by leaning forward1 as the horse rises1 and backward as he alights4 ,when he is brought to the bar1 the body is to be upright4 ,the legs are to be applied to his sides with such firmness as to keep the rider down to the saddle1 and in such a manner--viz41 perpendicularly from the knee--that the action of the body shall not loosen or disturb them4 ,the toes must be pulled up1 to make the muscles firm1 and to prevent the spur from approaching too near the horse2 and1 if necessary1 they may be turned out a little to strengthen the hold4 ,the hand must be kept in the centre1 and quite low2 and the reins not too short1 but just by the pressure of the fingers to feel the horse's mouth4 ,when at the bar1 the pressure of the legs and fingers will invite the horse to rise2 and1 as he rises1 the body comes forward and preserves its perpendicular4 ,the back must then be kept in1 and the head firm4 ,as the horse springs from his hind legs1 and proceeds in the leap1 the rider must slip his buttock under him1 and let his body go freely back1 keeping his hands down1 legs close1 and body back1 till the horse's hind legs have come to the ground4 ,the propriety of applying the legs to hold firm in the saddle is obvious4 ,the hand being kept low is essential2 and the bad consequences of raising it are numerous1 as confining the horse1 preventing the body going back1 throwing the rider forward1 c4 ,the body coming forward to preserve its perpendicular as the horse rises before1 prevents the weight of the rider from hanging on his mouth1 and checking his leap1 if not pulling him over backwards4 ,the back being hollow when the spring forward is made1 the body will of itself fall backward1 if the hand be not raised to prevent it2 and the head being firm may prevent a wrench of the neck1 or a bite of the tongue4 ,slipping the breech under gives the body more liberty to lean back1 and prevents the shock of the horse's feet meeting the ground1 from throwing it forward4 ,while the seat is thus maintained1 the hand must not be neglected4 ,in riding up to a leap1 the rider should yield the bridle to the horse1 guiding him straight to the bar at an animated pace2 halt him with a light hand1 and upon his haunches2 when he rises1 only feel the reins to prevent their becoming slack2 when he springs forward1 yield the hand without reserve2 and1 when his hind feet come to the ground1 again firmly collect him1 resume his usual position1 and move on at the former pace4 ,if the horse be too much collected previous to his leap1 he will bound1 or buck over1 as it is called4 ,if not sufficiently collected or animated1 he will probably not clear the leap4 ,the degree in which a horse should be collected and animated depends on the temperament of the animal1 and must be left to the judgment of the rider4 ,flying ,leap4 ,the flying leap is distinguished from the standing leap by its being made from any pace without a previous halt2 and although the action is quicker1 it is much easier4 ,the pace1 however1 at which the rider goes at a flying leap1 should always be moderate1 in order that the horse may not rise too soon or too late4 ,a horse who rises too far from the bar seldom clears his leap1 and risks straining by the effort to cover it2 one who rises too near is likely to strike his knees against it1 and throw his rider1 or hurt himself4 ,if a horse be indolent1 and require animation1 it is better to rouse his apathy by the spur just before his head is turned towards the leap1 than while he is running at it4 ,if he leap willingly1 let him take his own pace to it1 and he will spring from his proper distance1 and give himself due velocity4 ,twelve yards from the leap1 the rider may turn his horse to it in a trot2 he will strike into a gallop2 and1 by a stroke or two before he springs1 increase his velocity1 if he perceive that the height he has to cover requires that exertion4 ,the seat in the flying leap is exactly the same as in the standing one2 but1 as the horse keeps a more horizontal position1 it is easier4 ,the rider1 however1 must not bring his body forward at the raising of the fore legs1 because the spring from the hind legs immediately follows1 and the body not only might not get back in time1 but1 if the horse did not come fair1 or refused to take his leap1 and checked himself1 the body1 if forward1 might cause the rider to tumble over his head4 ,he should therefore keep his body upright2 take hold with his legs2 keep his hand down2 and1 as the horse springs forward1 his body is sure to take the corresponding action of leaning back1 particularly if he1 at the instant1 slip his breech under him1 and bring his waist forward with an exertion proportioned to the spring the horse makes4 ,he must also take care not to bring his body upright1 nor slacken the hold with his legs1 till after the hind feet have come to the ground4 ,in this leap1 the horse requires but little support or assistance from the hand till he is coming to the ground1 when the hand aids in bringing the body upright1 and in supporting the horse4 ,the assisting and lifting a horse over leaps may be done only by experienced riders1 and even by them only when he leaps freely and determinedly4 ,whips should not be used when the rider first practises leaping4 ,,critical ,,situations4 ,when a horse is addicted to stumbling1 rearing1 kicking and bolting1 plunging1 shying and restiveness1 the seat is maintained as in leaps2 and the arms are held firm to the body1 the hands kept up1 and the reins separate1 rather short than otherwise4 ,by these means1 the horse's head being raised1 he can with less ease either rear or kick1 because1 for such purposes1 he must have his head at liberty4 ,it is fortunate that horses which rear high seldom kick1 and vice vers4 ,on these occasions1 the first operation of the rider is to separate the reins1 c4 ,the body must be kept upright1 but flexible1 to repel every effort the horse may make2 the balance must be preserved by the muscles of the thighs2 the legs are to be kept near the horse1 but not to grasp till absolutely necessary4 ,when he lifts his fore legs1 the breech must be thrust out behind1 by which the rider is prepared if he rears4 ,as the fore feet come to the ground1 the breech must be slipped under1 which prepares for his kicking or springing forward2 the legs being then in a situation to grasp1 and the hands to keep a firm hold4 ,in all displays of vice1 the rider should first see that the saddle or girths do not pinch the horse1 that the bit does not hurt his lips by being too high in his mouth1 c4 ,stumbling4 ,by the rider pressing his legs to the horse's flanks1 and keeping up his head1 he may be made to go light on his fore legs2 and the same should be done if he actually stumble1 so as to afford him instant assistance4 ,hence it is evident that the bridle should be of such length in the hand1 that1 in case of stumbling1 the rider may be thus able to raise the horse's head by the strength of his arms and the weight of his body thrown backward4 ,if the rein be too long1 it is evident that1 in effecting this manuvre1 the rider is in danger of falling backward as the horse rises4 ,by thus pressing the legs to the horse's sides1 he may be made to keep his haunches under him in going down hill1 or may be helped on the side of a bank4 ,rearing4 ,the principal danger in rearing is the hazard of the horse's falling backwards4 ,when1 therefore1 he rises straight up1 the rider must throw his body forward1 giving him all the bridle4 ,the weight of the body will oblige him to come down2 and the moment that his fore feet are near the ground1 and before he touches it1 both the spurs must be given him as firmly and as quickly as possible4 ,another mode of subduing him is1 whenever the rider is aware of the horse's disposition to rear1 to have the reins separated2 and the instant he perceives him going to rise1 to slack one hand and bend him with the other1 keeping the hand low4 ,this compels him to move a hind leg1 and being thrown off his balance1 he necessarily comes down with his fore feet4 ,he should then be twisted round two or three times1 to convince him of the rider's superiority1 which confuses1 baffles1 and deters him from rearing to any dangerous height4 ,to break horses of this dangerous vice1 it has been sometimes expedient to leap from them1 and pull them backwards4 ,this so frightens them that they are wary of giving the opportunity again4 ,it is1 however1 an expedient to be attempted only at a particular crisis1 and by persons perfectly collected1 active1 and agile4#ga #ga ,on this subject1 an anonymous writer1 in answer to a query1 says1 8,i would advise you by no means to try the experiment in question1 either as operator yourself1 or on your own horse4 ,at all events1 pray make trial first of the following prescription1 which will in most cases be found an excellent preventive1 if not a total cure1 of the propensity complained of1 and which has the advantage over the method respecting which you inquire1 of being much easier and safer in its application1 and1 ,i may perhaps add1 surer in its effects1 and less expensive on the whole4 8,get a strong thick curb bit1 with a good deep port reversed--that is1 the curve of the mouth-piece must project towards the outside of the horse's mouth1 and not inwardly towards his throat1 as in the common port bit4 ,the thickness and exact curve of the bit should be calculated according to the size1 strength1 and hardness of mouth of the animal for which it is intended4 ,for a very hard-mouthed horse1 the bit should be made with a very deep port1 and as thin as possible1 consistently with the strength requisite4 8,in nine cases out of ten1 #a have found that confirmed rearers are tender-mouthed1 and the habit has been probably induced by their being bitted and handled too severely4 ,a martingale will be found a useful addition to the bit ,i have described4 ,its full efficacy can only be sufficiently appreciated by its being used several times1 till the horse has become in some degree accustomed to it40 ,kicking4 ,horses apt to kick1 either when they go forward or stand still1 must be kept much together1 or held in closely4 ,when this is attempted1 the hands1 though fixed1 must not pull at the horse1 if he does not attempt to force the hand1 and get his head1 but leave him at liberty to go forward4 ,if1 however1 he attempt to get his head down1 which would enable him to kick with such violence as to throw himself1 he may have the head confined up4 ,this disarms him1 and he makes a bolt from all-fours4 ,when a horse kicks1 the rider must throw the body backward4 ,it is an effective punishment to twist him round a few times for this fault4 ,if this is done towards his weak or unprepared side 7for every horse has a favourite side71 astonishment and confusion will deter him from farther contention4 ,in case of bolting1 the rider must not exert one continued pull1 but make repeated pulls until the horse obeys4 ,horses accustomed to be allowed to bear on the bit would not understand the steady pull as a signal to desist2 and some would so throw up their heads as to deprive the rider of all power without dropping his hand1 when the horse would drop his head4 ,in that case1 a second pull would find his mouth1 and thus speedily his progress might be stopped4 ,plunging4 ,in plunging1 a horse gets his head down1 cringes his tail between his quarters1 sets his back up1 swells his body to burst his girths1 and1 in this position1 kicks and plunges till his breath can be held no longer--that is1 till he makes six or eight plunges4 ,to sit these is to cure them2 and to do this1 the rider must take a firm hold with his legs1 and be mindful that the horse1 in getting his head down1 does not pull him forward4 ,there is no danger of his rearing2 and therefore the rider has only to keep his body back1 and hold firmly with his hands1 to prevent him throwing himself down4 ,shying4 ,when a horse1 either by shying or restiveness1 springs to one side1 or turns short round1 the rider's security depends on strict conformity to the rules already laid down1 as to not bearing on the stirrups2 keeping the legs near to the horse1 to be ready on these sudden and unexpected occasions to lay hold2 and yielding the body to go with him4 ,when a horse is about to fly to one side1 he may be stopped by his rider's leg being pressed on the side he would fly to1 and by keeping his head high and straight forward1 so as to prevent his looking towards the object he starts at1 unless indeed it be something you desire to accustom him to the sight of1 and then1 whether you keep his face to it throughout1 or avert it at first1 and turn it gently towards it at last1 great steadiness is necessary4 ,when he curvets irregularly1 and twists himself to and fro1 his head should be turned to one side1 or both alternately1 without permitting him to move out of the track2 and the rider's leg should be pressed against the opposite side4 ,in this case1 he cannot spring on one side1 because the pressure of the leg prevents him1 nor will he spring to the other1 because his head is turned that way1 and a horse never starts to the side to which he looks4 ,moreover1 he will not fly back from anything1 but go forward1 if both legs be pressed against his sides4 ,thus he may be made to pass a carriage or other object in a narrow road2 and here perseverance is especially necessary when the object is just reached1 or partly passed1 for if in the habit of going back and turning round when frightened1 he will certainly do so when1 if1 by the hands slackening and legs failing to press1 he discovers that you are irresolute2 and this he would probably do at the most dangerous moment1 when there was scarcely room for him to turn1 and the wheels might take him in the rear4 ,to touch his curb rein at such a moment would add to the confusion and danger4 ,restiveness4 ,the horse generally commences his attack by stopping1 turning short round1 mostly to the right hand1 as taking the rider to the greatest disadvantage4 ,he expects the rider will oppose the opposite hand1 designedly attacks the weakest1 and is so prepared against its efforts that it is vain to attempt them4 ,it must be the rider's rule never to contend with the horse on that point on which he is prepared to resist4 ,instead1 therefore1 of attempting to prevent the horse with his left hand1 the rider must attack him with his right1 turn him completely round1 so that his head is again presented the right way1 and then apply the whip4 ,if he turns round again1 the rider must still attack his unguarded side1 turn him two or three times1 and let the heel and spur1 if necessary1 assist the hand1 before he can arm or defend himself against it4 ,if he still refuse to go the right way1 the rider must take care that he go no other1 and immediately change his attack1 turning him about and reining him backward1 which the horse is easily compelled to do when he sets himself against going forward4 ,in these contests1 the rider must be collected1 and have an eye to the surrounding objects2 for restive horses try their utmost to place their riders in awkward situations1 by sidling to other horses1 carriages1 the foot-pavement1 the houses1 c4 ,in this case1 the rider1 instead of pulling him from the wall1 must bend his head to it1 by which his side next the wall is rendered concave1 and his utmost endeavours to do injury are prevented4 ,the instant1 therefore1 that the rider perceives his horse sidling to any object1 he must turn his head to that object1 and back him from it4 ,there are some horses who fix themselves like stocks1 setting all endeavours to move them at defiance4 ,there1 happily1 their defence can in no way endanger the rider4 ,it must1 however1 be converted to punishment4 ,let them stand1 make no attempt to move them1 and in a short space--frequently less than a minute--they will move of themselves4 ,when these various defences1 however1 are not powerfully set up1 the general rule is to push the horse forward2 and1 for this purpose1 at first to make use of the switch1 as it alarms him least1 for the spurs surprise a horse1 abate his courage1 and are likely to make him restive4 ,indeed1 the application of the whip or spurs1 except to shift the croupe1 or give efficacy to the hands1 is of little use2 and to repeat either1 to make a restive horse go forward1 is certainly wrong4 ,when passion possesses the rider1 it prevents that concord and unity taking place which ever should subsist between the rider and his horse4 ,he should always be disposed to amity1 and never suffer the most obstinate resistance of the horse to put him out of temper4 ,if the contest does not demand his utmost exertion of strength1 he should be able to hum a tune1 or converse with the same composure and indifference as though his horse were all obedience4 ,by these means1 the instant a horse finds himself foiled1 he desists1 having no provocation to contend farther1 and is abashed at his own weakness4 ,it is the absence of passion which1 added to cool observation1 makes the ,english the best riders and drivers in the world4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,the ,,horse4 ,stables are generally too dark and too hot4 ,they should be kept quite cool1 though without any draughts4 8,a way10 says ,de ,beranger1 in ,helps and ,hints1 8of making the most of your horses1 is to rise early in the summer1 in order to do half your day's work before the heat of the day2 for lying by the whole of the rest of the day1 not only affords a traveller time and opportunity for examining what is worthy of being seen1 but enables him to start with horses quite fresh1 and to finish the remaining stage after sunset3 not only will your horses go through their task with less labour in the cool of the evening1 but you will find them travel more freely towards a resting-place1 which darkness leads them to expect40 ,a horse ought not to be ridden a stage while in physic1 nor on the day of its coming off4 ,if he be pushed at first setting out on a journey1 or be compelled to make long stages1 or be deprived of his customary baits1 he gets jaded1 and every additional mile adds to his uneasiness4 ,moreover1 at setting out in the morning1 a well-kept horse is necessarily full of food1 and consequently1 until his great gut be properly emptied1 brisk action occasions uneasiness or pain1 which causes restlessness4 8,when ,i travel on horseback10 says the same writer1 8,i make it a rule to walk every seventh mile1 be the roads ever so level3 it affords a wonderful relief both to man and horse1 and1 instead of producing a loss of time1 helps you on4 ,when you dismount for such ends1 always slacken your girths1 slightly lift up the saddle to let a little air under it1 and teach your horse 7what he soon will learn7 to walk briskly by your side1 and keep the step with you1 taking care to hold either of the reins lightly in your hand1 and without shifting it over the horse's head4 ,your steed will soon give you demonstrations of his gratitude1 for he will be full of affectionate playfulness as he jogs along at your side1 only to be rivalled by his willingness to let you mount after you have tightened the girths again4 ,i need hardly tell you not to put your arm or wrist through a rein whilst walking or running by the side of a horse1 for it is replete with danger4 ,a good run with one hand on the horse's withers is pleasant1 and greatly removes the stiffness of the joints so frequently occasioned by much riding2 but the reins should be held between the fingers only1 and rather loosely40 ,hence1 it follows that1 although expedition be indispensable1 the horse ought not to be put on his best pace at first1 but considerably within it4 ,even this pace should be for a short space only2 the reins should be loosened2 the mouth played with2 and if he do not evacuate1 the pace may be repeated once more1--unless1 indeed1 he sweat much with the first1 which is a sign of weakness1 or that his dung is hard1 and he requires purging4 ,while on the journey1 the rider should be less attentive to his horse's nice carriage of himself1 than to his own encouragement of him1 and keeping him in good humour4 ,though generally he should raise his horse's head1 yet when he flags in consequence of a long day or hard work1 he may indulge him with bearing a little more upon the bit than he would in taking a mere airing exercise1 or afternoon's canter in the ,park4 ,keeping company with some other horseman facilitates a stage1 by the emulation it excites2 so that a dull animal1 which one can scarcely get seven miles an hour from1 will do nine or ten without fatigue when in company4 ,in road-riding1 a picker is indispensable both in winter and summer4 ,in winter1 it is necessary to relieve the sole when snow accumulates there4 ,when1 however1 the traveller knows that snow is on the ground1 he may avoid the trouble of dismounting1 by previously ordering his horse's soles to be payed over with tar1 or with tallow having no salt in it4 ,at all times1 when the roads have received fresh dressings1 a picker is indispensable1 because a loose stone is very liable to lodge in the hollow of the foot1 and is dangerously driven backwards between the frog and the shoe1 at every step the horse takes4 ,pace and length of stage must be adapted to the heat of the weather in summer1 and to the depth of the roads in winter2 both seasons having the effect of knocking up the horse4 ,in either case1 a cordial promptly administered recovers him for the prosecution of his journey4 ,the cordial readiest provided1 and which should be kept at hand by the provident traveller1 is in the form of a ball1 and composed of aniseeds1 ginger1 carraway1 of each1 powdered1 half an ounce1 and mixed up with treacle and meal to the proper consistence4 ,but good ale or porter1 from one pint to a quart1 made warm1 operates sooner1 and1 upon emergency1 is nearly as readily obtained as the ball4 ,walking a horse the last mile1 especially of a long stage1 is a practice highly beneficial4 ,as1 upon setting out1 we should not go off at the quickest pace1 so upon coming in1 we should not dash into our quarters with the perspiration streaming from each pore1 in the mild season1 nor covered over with dirt1 in consequence of the pace1 in wet weather4 ,even in winter1 the perspiration flies from a strong horse1 if in condition1 upon coming in more sheltered places1 and the practices he is then subjected to are commonly of such a nature as to cause disease in one way or another1 in embryo1 if not immediately4 ,the rider is greatly to be blamed who stands quietly by1 or hides himself in the parlour1 while his horse is brought in hot1 stripped of every thing1 and led about to cool1 in the draught of a gateway1 or has the dirt washed off by plunging him in a horse-trough or pond1 or his legs brushed in cold water in the open yard1 while pailfulls1 at the same time1 are thrown over them2 the consequence of all which is cough or colic1 bad eyes1 swelled legs1 or inflammation of some vital part1 which deprives the animal of life4 ,the horse should have a large and comfortable stall1 and without any door behind him1 a draught from which1 by blowing up his coat1 might expose him to cold4 ,on coming in1 after being coaxed to stale1 he should undergo 7in winter-time in doors7 a wisping all over with straw1 beginning at the head1 and proceeding to the neck and fore-quarters4 ,his eyes1 nostrils1 c41 should also be cleansed with a sponge1 and his ears rubbed4 ,he should1 at the same time1 have before him a lock of sweet hay1 in his rack1 or a prickle1 or the hand2 and the rider should see whether he eats or not1 whether he enjoys the wisping1 and whether he chiefly evince a desire to lie down or a craving for food4 ,the girths having been already loosened1 but the saddle still remaining on his back1 his head should be turned to the rack1 and his hind-quarters1 legs1 and belly1 sheath and fork1 wisped1 and his feet picked clean and washed4 ,after this1 the saddle should be removed by sliding it back over the croupe2 and the dressing be extended to the withers1 back1 and so completely all over the carcass1 until it is dry4 ,the saddle should be hung out1 with the inside toward the sun2 and when the pannels have been duly aired and dried1 they should be slightly beaten and well brushed4 ,if the horse refuse the first proffer of hay1 the rider may conclude that he has been pushed too much1 as to time or length4 ,if he still refuse his food1 though the dressing be finished1 he may be assured that his stomach is disordered1 and he must be cordialled4 ,in winter1 a warm mash of malt is most eligible2 but1 if not at hand1 a bran mash with an admixture of oatmeal1 and a quart of good ale1 may be given4 ,in summer1 a cordial ball will restore the tone of his stomach1 without increasing the heat of his body so much as a mash would4 ,if he is not aged1 nor inured to cordialling1 a small pail of stout water-gruel1 almost cold1 excels all other cordials1 and supersedes the necessity of watering2 he will take his supper an hour or so afterwards1 with a relish4 ,the traveller ought to look to every particular himself4--,in the next place1 let him see that his horse gets his allowance of corn1 that it be good1 and that it contain no indications of having been in a manger before2 for1 in that case1 he must wait by him until all the food is devoured4 ,dry food is alone proper to travel upon1 and oats are the best2 much hay being apt to engender flatulencies4 ,when1 however1 a very long stage is to be taken1 or it is cold1 dreary1 wet1 or windy1 a handful of crushed beans sustains him admirably1 staying by him1 and imparting vigour for a long time4 ,the horse should not be denied water often2 though too much at one time should not be given1 nor1 without its being chilled1 any immediately after being fed4 ,his feet and shoes should be looked to1 to ascertain if aught require repair1 in order that it may be furnished as soon as he has recovered from his fatigue4--,his limbs1 moreover1 should be examined all over1 for cracks1 pricked foot1 c41 and the body1 for saddle-galls1 c4 ,now1 as ever1 his dunging should be looked to4 ,even if in full condition1 having been well and regularly fed1 and as regularly worked1 he will contract a tendency to constipation2 the least ill consequence of which is defective pace1 or short step1 arising from more laboured action4 ,as the inconvenience may be suffered to last1 he sweats immoderately at the least extra exertion1 his eyes lose their wonted brightness1 his mouth becomes hot1 and his manner is languid4 ,all these evils may be prevented by timely physicking1 whenever the dung is seen to fall upon the ground without the pellets breaking4 ,even a little green food1 or a day's mashing with bran1 thin oatmeal gruel1 and the like1 will soften the dung considerably4 ,it must be remembered that these things are to be undertaken on blank days1 when the traveller is certain the horse will not be ridden a stage4 ,the following allowance per week is generally enough to keep a horse in good condition3-- ,oats4 ,beans4 ,hay4 ,for a horse of from #ad to #af hands #a bushel2 #b quarterns2 #a truss4 ,for a horse under #ad hands #a bushel2 #a quartern2 #a truss4 ,,driving4 ,among the ancients1 for more than one thousand years1 the greatest honour that could be bestowed upon a man was a sprig of the wild olive tree entwined round his brow1 for having gained a victory in the chariot-race at the ,olympic games of ,greece4 ,this sprig of olive1 moreover1 was accompanied by other marks of distinction3 the wearer of it was not only honoured with statues and inscriptions during his life-time1 but the immortal ,pindar1 or some other great poet1 was called upon to hand his name down to posterity in an ode4 ,the ,olympic games were revived1 as a religious ceremony1 by ,iphitus1 an ,elean1 about nine hundred years before ,christ4 ,they were celebrated near ,olympia1 in the territory of ,elis4 ,horse and chariot races were considered their noblest sports4 ,no one was there prevented from driving his own chariot2 and kings were often seen contending against kings4 ,the ,greeks were the most enlightened of the ancients1 and their taste in the arts has never been even rivalled4 ,what they did1 therefore1 on this occasion1 could not be considered as in bad taste2 and1 when we remember that the celebration of these pastimes outlived the laws1 customs1 and liberty of their country1 we need not say more in their vindication4 ,the honours of victory were not even confined to the brave and skilful man who won the race3 even the horses were crowned amidst the applauses of the spectators2 and in one race1 where forty chariots were broken1 the victorious one was preserved in the temple of ,apollo4 ,such being the havoc among the competitors1 it is not wonderful that ,ovid should say1 that the honour of contending for the ,olympic prize was almost equal to the winning of it4 ,sophocles modestly speaks of ten starting at the same time in the race2 but ,pindar1 availing himself1 perhaps1 of poetic licence1 makes the number forty4 ,four horses driven abreast was the usual number4 ,the length#gb of the course on which they ran did not exceed an ,english mile1 and as they had to make twenty-two turnings round the two pillars--generally1 we may suppose1 at full speed--it is not difficult to imagine what dreadful accidents must have happened4 #gb ,the ,circus ,maximus at ,rome1 in which the ,romans exhibited their chariot-races1 was an oval building of one thousand eight hundred feet in length1 and four hundred in breadth4 ,nothing indeed but the form of chariot used could have ensured safety to any one4 ,from the representations on ancient coins1 it appears to have been very low1 and only on two wheels1 somewhat resembling our curricle4 ,it had of course no springs2 and1 as there was no seat for the charioteer1 much of his skill consisted in preserving his balance1 and keeping upon his legs4 ,according to ,pausanias1 the following was the method of starting3--,the chariots entered the course according to order1 previously settled by lot1 and drew up in a line4 ,they started at a signal given1 and to him who passed the pillar at the top of the course twelve times1 and that at the bottom ten times1 in the neatest manner1 without touching it1 or overturning his chariot1 was the reward given4--,as1 however1 it was the aim of every one who started to make for this pillar1 as to a centre1 we can easily imagine the confusion there must have been in forty1 twenty1 or even ten chariots1 all rushing to one given point1 amidst the clanging of trumpets1 c4 ,the following translation of a description of a chariot-race1 from the ,electra of ,sophocles1 is worthy of a place4 8,when on the sacred day1 in order next ,came on the contest of the rapid car1 ,as o'er the ,phocian plain the orient sun ,shot his impurpled beams1 the ,pythic course ,orestes enter'd1 circled with a troop ,of charioteers1 his bold antagonists4 ,one from ,achaia came2 from ,sparta one2 ,two from the ,lybian shores1 well practised each ,to rule the whirling car3 with these the fifth1 ,orestes1 vaunting his ,thessalian mares3 tolia sent a sixth1 with youthful steeds ,in native gold arrayed3 the next in rank ,from fair ,magnesia sprang3 of ,thrace the eighth ,his snow-white coursers from ,thesprotia drove3 ,from heaven-built ,athens the ninth hero came3 ,a huge ,botian the tenth chariot filled4 ,these1 when the judges of the games by lot ,had fix'd their order1 and arranged their cars1 ,all1 at the trumpet's signal1 all at once ,burst from the barrier2 all together cheer'd ,their fiery steeds1 and shook the floating reins4 ,soon with the din of rattling cars was filled ,the sounding hippodrome1 and clouds of dust ,ascending1 tainted the fresh breath of morn4 ,now mix'd and press'd together1 on they drove1 ,nor spared the smarting lash2 impatient each ,to clear his chariot1 and outstrip the throng ,of dashing axles1 and short-blowing steeds1 ,they panted on each other's necks1 and threw ,on each contiguous yoke the milky foam4 8,but to the pillar as he nearer drew1 ,orestes1 reining-in the nearmost steed1 ,while in a larger scope1 with loosen'd reins1 ,and lash'd up to their speed1 the others flew1 ,turn'd swift around the goal his grazing wheel4 8,as yet erect1 upon their whirling orbs ,roll'd every chariot1 till the hard-mouth'd steeds ,that drew the ,thracian car1 unmaster'd1 broke ,with violence away1 and turning short1 7,when o'er the hippodrome with winged speed ,they had completed now the seventh career71 ,dash'd their wild foreheads 'gainst the ,lybian car4 ,from this one luckless chance a train of ills ,succeeding1 rudely on each other fell ,horses and charioteers1 and soon was fill'd ,with wrecks of shatter'd cars the ,phocian plain4 8,this seen1 the ,athenian1 with consummate art1 ,his course obliquely veer'd1 and1 steering wide ,with steady rein1 the wild commotion pass'd ,of tumbling chariots and tumultuous steeds4 ,next1 and1 though last1 yet full of confidence ,and hopes of victory1 ,orestes came2 ,but when he saw of his antagonists ,him only now remaining1 to his mares ,anxious he raised his stimulating voice4 ,and now with equal fronts abreast they drove1 ,now with alternate momentary pride ,beyond each other push'd their stretching steeds4 8,erect ,orestes1 and erect his car1 ,through all the number'd courses now had stood2 ,but luckless in the last1 as round the goal ,the wheeling courser turn'd1 the hither rein ,imprudent he relax'd1 and on the stone ,the shatter'd axle dashing1 from the wheels ,fell headlong2 hamper'd in the tangling reins ,the frighted mares flew diverse o'er the course4 8,the throng'd assembly1 when they saw the chief ,hurl'd from his chariot1 with compassion moved1 ,his youth deplored2 deplored him1 glorious late ,for mighty deeds1 now doom'd to mighty woes2 ,now dragg'd along the dust1 his feet in air3 ,till1 hasting to his aid1 and scarce at length ,the frantic mares restraining1 from the reins ,the charioteers released him1 and convey'd1 ,with wounds and gore disfigured1 to his friends4 ,the just ,amphictyons on the ,athenian steeds ,the ,delphic laurel solemnly conferr'd40 ,in a political view1 these games were productive of local advantages2 for1 being sacred to ,jupiter1 they protected the inhabitants of ,elis against all the calamities of war4 ,in an economical point of view1 they were of general use2 for1 as ,greece was generally short of horses1 nothing was so likely to encourage the breeding of them as the emulation thus raised among the different states4 ,the circulation of money also was not a trifling consideration2 for the olive crown was obtained at great expense4 ,by these games being celebrated at the beginning of every fifth year1 the ,greeks settled their chronology and dates2 and as they lasted a thousand years1 a great part of the traditional history of ,greece rests upon their base4 ,that the honour of the prize was above all price1 the following anecdote shows3--,a ,spartan having gained the victory at the ,olympic games with much difficulty1 was asked what he should profit by it8 8,i shall have the honour10 said he1 8of being posted before my king in battle40 ,as a further proof of the value and the moral effect of these contentions for honour1 it is stated that1 when a conqueror returned to his native city1 he made his entry through a breach in the wall--by which was implied that cities inhabited by such men had no need of walls4 ,a senator of ,rome1 indeed1 says ,gibbon1 8or even a citizen1 conscious of his dignity1 would have blushed to expose his person or his horses in a ,roman circus4 ,there1 the reins were abandoned to servile hands2 and1 if the profits of a favourite charioteer sometimes exceeded those of an advocate1 they were considered as the effect of popular extravagance1 and the high wages of a disgraceful profession40 ,the ,romans1 with more pride1 were far less intellectual than the ,greeks2 but it must still be borne in mind1 that1 inconsistently enough1 the interest taken in the charioteers of ,rome shook the very foundation of the government4 ,in modern times1 notwithstanding the sneers directed against gentlemen-coachmen and driving-clubs1 it is to them chiefly that this country is indebted for the present excellent state of the roads1 and for safe and expeditious travelling4 ,the taste for driving produced1 between men of property and those connected with the road1 an intercourse which has been productive of the best results4 ,road-makers1 and those who have the care of roads1 if they have not acted under the immediate direction of these amateur drivers1 have been greatly benefited by their advice--doubly valuable1 as proceeding from knowledge of what a road ought to be4 ,the intercourse also that has lately been carried on between proprietors of inns and of coaches1 and gentlemen fond of driving1 has greatly tended to direct the attention of the former to the accommodation and comfort of travellers4 ,the improvement in carriages--stage-coaches more especially--would never have arrived at its present height1 but for the attention and suggestions of such persons4 ,moreover1 the notice taken by gentlemen of coachmen1 who are at once skilful and who conduct themselves well1 has worked the reformation which has been of late years witnessed in that useful part of society4 ,gentleman-driving1 however1 has received a check1 very few four-in-hands being visible4 ,the ,b4 ,d4 ,c41 or ,benson ,driving ,club1 which now holds its rendezvous at the ,black ,dog1 ,bedfont1 is the only survivor of those numerous driving associations whose processions used1 some twenty years ago1 to be among the most imposing1 as well as peculiar spectacles in and about the metropolis4#gc #gc ,the reader will bear in mind that this is many years after date4 ,the ,r4,d4,c41 which is now in the 8,crescent10 promises an ascendant of no mean effulgence4--,,ed4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,,the ,,roads4 ,the excellence of our present mail-coach work reflects the highest credit on the state of our roads4 ,the hills on great roads are now cut triangularly1 so that drivers ascend nearly all of them in a trot4 ,coachmen have found out that they are gainers here1 as1 in the trot1 every horse does his share1 whereas1 very few teams are all at work together when walking4 ,as1 however1 dreadful accidents have occurred to coaches when descending hills1 a very simple expedient has been suggested1 by which these accidents may be avoided4 ,it is merely a strip of gravel1 or broken stone1 about one yard wide1 and four or five inches deep1 left on the near side of the hill1 and never suffered to bind or diminish4 ,this would afford that additional friction 7technically called a bite7 to the two near-side wheels1 so that the necessity of a drag-chain 7never to be trusted7 would be done away with1 and even in case of a hame-strap or pole-chain giving way1 one wheel-horse would be able to hold back a coach1 however heavily laden4 ,no inconvenience to the road1 it is observed1 could arise from this precaution1 as carriages ascending the hills would never be required to touch the loose gravel1 it not being on their side of the road4 ,this has been objected to1 because some of the loose stones might find their way into the middle of the road4 ,but1 admitting this might be the case1 a trifling attention on the part of the surveyor would obviate the objection4 ,a man might be employed every second or third day to rake these stones back again4 ,at the same time1 it is obvious that the neat appearance of a road is not to be put in the scale against the limbs and lives of the people4--,some more permanent contrivance than loose stones even might be found4 ,,carriages4 ,of carriages1 those with two wheels are the cheapest1 lightest1 and most expeditious2 but1 however sure-footed the horse1 and however skilful the driver1 they are comparatively dangerous vehicles4 ,as to gentlemen's carriages1 in this country1 it has justly been observed1 that the view at ,hyde ,park ,corner1 on any fine afternoon1 in the height of the ,london season1 is enough to confound any foreigner1 from whatever part of the world he may come4 ,he may there see what no other country can show him4 ,let him only sit on the rail1 near the statue1 and in the space of two hours he will see a thousand well-appointed equipages pass before him to the ,mall1 in all the pomp of aristocratic pride1 in which the horses themselves appear to partake4 ,the stream of equipages of all kinds1 barouches1 chariots1 cabriolets1 c41 and almost all got up 8regardless of expense10 flows on unbroken until it is half-past seven1 and people at last begin to think of what they still call dinner4 ,seneca tells us that such a blaze of splendour was once to be seen on the ,appian ,way4 ,it might be so--it is now to be seen nowhere but in ,london4 ,as to stage-coaches1 their form seems to have arrived at perfection4 ,it combines prodigious strength with almost incredible lightness2 many of them not weighing more than about #ah cwt41 and being kept so much nearer the ground than formerly1 they are of course considerably safer4 ,nothing1 indeed1 can be more favourable to safety than the build of modern coaches4 ,the boots being let down between the springs1 keep the load1 and consequently the centre of gravity1 low2 the wheels of many of them are secured by patent boxes2 and in every part of them the best materials are used4 ,the cost of coaches of this description is from #acj to #aej2 but they are generally hired from the maker at #b;d4 to #c;d4 per mile4 ,it is said to be the intention of ,government#gd to substitute light carriages with two horses for the present mail-coaches drawn by four4 ,on this1 a writer in the ,quarterly ,review observes1 that when the mail-coach of the present day starts from ,london for ,edinburgh1 a man may safely bet a hundred to one that she arrives to her time2 but let a light two-horse vehicle set out on the same errand1 and the betting would strangely alter4 ,it is quite a mistaken notion that a carriage is less liable to accidents for being light4 ,on the contrary1 she is more liable to them than one that is laden in proportion to her sustaining powders4 ,in the latter case1 she runs steadily along1 and is but little disturbed by any obstacle or jerk she may meet on the road3 in the former1 she is constantly on 8the jump10 as coachmen call it1 and her iron parts are very liable to snap4 #gd ,the era of rail-roads has however now arrived1 and there remains no need for such an experiment4--,,ed4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,it may in this place be observed1 that no stage-coach should be permitted to travel the road with wheels secured only by the common linchpin4 ,it is in consequence of this that innumerable accidents have happened to coaches from wheels coming off2 and in these improving and fast times1 such chances should not be allowed to exist4 ,it may not be uninteresting to the uninitiated to learn from the same clever and experienced writer how a coach is worked4 ,suppose a number of persons to enter into a contract to horse a coach eighty miles1 each proprietor having twenty miles2 in which case he is said to cover both sides of the ground1 or to and fro4 ,at the expiration of twenty-eight days a settlement takes place1 and if the gross earnings of the coach be #aj per mile1 there will be #hjj to divide between the four proprietors1 after the following charges have been deducted1 viz41 tolls1 duty to government1 mileage 7or hire of the coach to the coach-makers71 two coachmen's wages1 porters' wages1 rent or charge of booking-offices at each end1 and washing the coaches4 ,these charges may amount to #aej1 which leaves #fej to keep eighty horses1 and to pay the horse-keepers for a period of twenty-eight days1 or nearly #afj to each proprietor for the expenses of his twenty horses1 being #b per week per horse4 ,thus it appears that a fast coach properly appointed cannot pay1 unless its gross receipts amount to #aj per double mile2 and that even then the proprietor's profits depend on the luck he has with his stock4 ,,coach-,,horses4 ,a great change has lately taken place as to the ,english coach-horse2 and this is the foundation of many other accompanying changes4 ,fifty years ago1 the putting a thorough-bred horse into harness would have been deemed preposterous4 ,in the carriages of gentlemen1 the long-tailed black1 or ,cleveland bay--each one remove from the cart-horse--was the prevailing sort2 and six miles an hour was the extent of the pace4 ,now1 however1 this clumsy-barrelled1 cloddy-shouldered1 round-legged animal1 something between a coach and a dray horse1 as fat as an ox1 and1 with all his prancing at first starting1 not capable of more than six miles an hour1 and rendered useless by a day's hard work1 is no more seen2 and1 instead of him1 we find a horse as tall1 deep-chested1 rising in the withers1 slanting in the shoulders1 flat in the legs1 with more strength1 and with treble the speed4 ,the animal formerly in use cost from #cjl4 to #ejl4-- ,two hundred guineas is now an every-day price for a cabriolet horse2 and #aej guineas for a coach-horse1 for a private gentleman's work4 ,a pair of handsome coach-horses1 fit for ,london1 and well broken and bitted1 cannot be purchased under #bjj guineas2 and even job-masters often give much more for them to let out to their customers4 ,the origin of this superior kind of coach-horse is still1 however1 the ,cleveland bay1 confined principally to ,yorkshire and ,durham1 with perhaps ,lincolnshire on one side1 and ,northumberland on the other1 but difficult to be met with pure in either county4 ,cleveland indeed1 and the ,vale of ,pickering1 in the ,east ,riding of ,yorkshire1 are the best breeding counties in ,england for coach-horses1 hunters1 and hackneys4 ,when the ,cleveland mare is crossed by a three-fourth or thorough-bred horse of sufficient substance and height1 the produce is the coach-horse most in repute1 with his arched crest and high action4 ,from the same mare and the thorough-bred of sufficient height1 but not of so much substance1 we obtain the four-in-hand1 and superior curricle horse4 ,from less height and more substance1 we derive the hunter1 and better sort of hackney4 ,from the half-bred1 we have the machiner1 the poster1 and the common carriage-horse4 ,the best coach-horse is a tall1 strong1 over-sized hunter4 ,the hackney has many of the qualities of the hunter on a small scale4 ,there is some deception1 however1 even as to the best of these improved coach-horses4 ,they prance nobly through the streets1 and they are capable of more work than the old clumsy1 sluggish breed1 but still they have not the endurance that is desirable2 and a pair of poor post-horses1 at the end of the second day1 would beat them hollow4 ,in this carriage-horse1 the bending of the upper joints1 and the consequent high lifting of the feet1 are deemed an excellence1 because they add to the grandeur of his appearance2 but this is necessarily accompanied by much wear and tear of the legs and feet1 the effect of which is very soon apparent4 ,the most desirable points in the coach-horse are--substance well placed1 a deep and well-proportioned body1 bone under the knee1 and sound1 open1 tough feet4 ,one part of the old system1 however1 remains--namely1 that although little horses1 well bred1 are the fashion1 large horses are still employed in heavy work4 ,it must indeed be so4 ,horses draw by their weight1 and not by the force of their muscles1 although these1 by carrying forward the centre of gravity1 assist the application of that weight4 ,it is the weight of the animal which produces the draught1 and the power of the muscles serves to direct it4 ,the hind feet form the fulcrum of the lever by which this weight acts against a load1 and the power exerted is in proportion to the length of the lever1 if the weight remains the same4 ,large animals1 therefore1 draw more than small ones1 though they may have less muscular power1 and are unable to carry weight so well4 ,nothing can better show that horses draw by their weight than the frequent occurrence that a horse is unable to draw a cart out of a slough until a sack of corn is thrown on his back1 when he has little difficulty in doing it4 ,thus it is1 that what are technically called lobbing-goers take more weight with them than horses of better action4 ,as the application of the weight or force proceeds from the fulcrum formed by the hind feet1 good hind legs and well-spread gaskins are essential points in a coach-horse4 ,we even sometimes see that a waggon-horse1 when brought to pull1 will not touch the ground at all with his fore feet4 ,another reason why little horses are unfit for heavy work is1 that they will seldom walk and draw at the same time2 for if they walk1 they catch at their collars1 and do but little4 ,they never take anything like an even share of draught4 ,by calculations as to the mean strength of animals1 it appears that a horse drawing horizontally1 and at the rate of two miles and a half in an hour1 can work for eight hours in succession against a resistance of #bjj pounds4 ,if that pace be quadrupled1 he finds an eighth part of the time sufficient4 ,thus we can pretty nearly measure a horse's power in harness4 ,whether we are carrying supposed improvement too far1 and sacrificing strength and endurance to speed1 is a question not difficult to be resolved4 ,a horse at a pull is enabled1 by the power and direction of his muscles1 to throw a certain weight against the collar4 ,if he walk four miles in the hour1 part of the muscular energy is expended in the act of walking2 and consequently1 the power of drawing must be proportionally diminished4 ,if he trot eight miles in the hour1 more of that energy is expended in the trot1 and less remains for the draught2 but the draught continues the same1 and1 to enable him to accomplish his work1 he must exert his energies in a degree so severe and cruel1 that it must speedily wear him out4 ,hence1 there is no truth so easily proved1 or so painfully felt by the postmaster1 as that it is the pace that kills4 ,moreover1 many a horse used on our public roads is unable to employ all his natural power1 or to throw his weight into the collar1 in consequence of being tender-footed1 or lame4 ,being bought1 however1 at little price1 he is worked on the brutal principle that he may be 8whipped sound60--and so he is apparently4 ,at first he sadly halts2 but1 urged by the torture of the lash1 he acquires a peculiar mode of going4 ,the faulty limb keeps pace with the others1 but no stress or labour is thrown upon it2 and he gradually contrives to make the sound limbs perform among them all the duties of the unsound one4 ,thus he is barbarously 8whipped sound10 and cruelty is for the time undeservedly rewarded4 ,after all1 however1 what is done8 ,three legs are made to do that which was almost too much for four4 ,of course1 they are most injuriously strained1 and quickly worn out2 the general power of the animal is rapidly exhausted2 and1 at no remote time1 death releases him from his merciless persecutors4 ,happily1 art is doing what humanity refuses4 ,railroads are rendering draught comparatively easy4 ,an instance has been described of the power of a horse when assisted by art1 as exhibited near ,croydon4 ,the ,surrey iron railway being completed1 a wager was laid that a common horse could draw thirty-six tons for six miles along the road1 drawing his weight from a dead pull1 and turning it round the occasional windings of the road4 ,a numerous party assembled near ,merstham to see this4 ,twelve waggons loaded with stones1 each waggon weighing above three tons1 were chained together1 and a horse taken promiscuously from a timber cart1 was yoked to the train4 ,he started from a house near ,merstham1 and drew the chain of waggons with apparent ease almost to the turnpike at ,croydon1 a distance of six miles1 in one hour and forty-one minutes1 which is nearly at the rate of four miles an hour4 ,in the course of the journey he stopped four times1 to show that it was not by any advantage of descent that his power was facilitated2 and1 after each stoppage1 he again drew off the chain of waggons with great ease4 ,a person who had wagered on the power of the horse then desired that four more loaded waggons should be added to the cavalcade1 and with these the same horse set off again with undiminished pace4 ,still further to show the effect of the railway in facilitating motion1 the attending workmen1 to the number of fifty1 were directed to mount on the waggons1 and the horse proceeded without the least distress4 ,indeed1 there appeared to be scarcely any limit to the power of his draught4 ,after this trial1 the waggons were taken to the weighing-machine1 and it appeared that the whole weight was as follows3-- tons4 cwt4 qrs4 #ab waggons first linked together #ch #d #b #d ditto1 afterwards attached #ac #b #j ,supposed weight of fifty labourers #d #j #j ------------ #ee #f #b ------------ ,it is fortunate for breeders of horses that a perfect form is not necessary to a good coach-horse4 ,some of those1 indeed1 which the ,london dealers sell at high prices for gentlemen's work1 are such brutes1 when out of harness1 that no man would ride them for their worth4 ,the strong and lengthy shoulder1 with well-bent hind legs1 are not absolutely necessary2 and a good head and tail1 with a little high action1 are all that is essential4 ,the following are useful hints for purchasers of coach-horses3 ,no gentleman should purchase a horse without a good trial of his mouth and temper4 ,to be perfect in the first respect1 he should be what is called on the road 8a cheek horse10--that is1 should require very little curb1 should always be at play with his bit4 and yet not afraid of it1 and should have each side of his mouth alike4 ,to a gentleman's leader1 a good mouth is most essential1 and then1 the higher his courage1 the safer he is to drive4 ,with stage-coach horses1 mouth is not of so much consequence1 because they are always running home1 and there is no turning and twisting1 as in gentlemen's work1 which is often in a crowd4 ,a whistle1 or a click with the tongue1 should make a gentleman's leader spring to his collar in an instant3 one that requires the whip should be discharged4 ,with wheel horses which are steady1 and hold well1 a coachman may almost set his leaders at defiance2 but if they are otherwise1 danger is at hand4 ,it is not a bad plan to purchase wheelers out of coaches1 after they have been about six months in regular work4 ,for from sixty to eighty guineas1 the best of any man's stock may be picked2 and a sound1 well-broke coach-horse is not dear at that price4 ,the coach-horses of gentlemen should be high in flesh1 as it enhances their appearance1 and is no obstacle to pace4 ,a sound five-year-old horse1 with good legs and feet1 and driven only in harness1 will last1 on an average1 from six to ten years in gentlemen's work1 and will afterwards be very useful for other purposes4 ,the average price of horses for fast stages is about #bcl4 ,fancy teams1 and those working out of ,london1 may be rated considerably higher2 but1 taking a hundred miles of ground1 well horsed1 this is about the mark4 ,the average period of each horse's service does not exceed four years in a fast coach--perhaps scarcely so much4 ,in a slow one1 it may extend to seven4 ,in both cases1 horses are supposed to be put to the work at five or six years old4 ,the price named as the average may appear a low one2 but blemished horses find their way into coaches1 as do those of bad temper1 c4 ,as no labour1 while it lasts1 is harder than that of coach-horses in fast work1 it is wrong to purchase those which are infirm1 as many proprietors do4 ,generally speaking1 such horses are out of their work half their time1 and are certain to die in their owner's debt4 ,as the roads now are1 blind horses are less objectionable than infirm ones4 ,a blind horse that goes up to his bit is both pleasanter and safer to drive than one with good eyes that hangs away from his work4 ,blind horses1 however1 work best in the night4 ,a horse cannot be called a coach-horse unless he has good legs and feet4 ,as a wheel-horse1 he is never to be depended upon down hill1 if he has not sound limbs4 ,he cannot resist weight1 if he be weak in his joints4 ,to bad legs and feet are owing numerous accidents to coaches1 many of which the public hear nothing of4 ,if horses1 on the contrary1 have good legs and feet1 they will last1 even in the fastest work1 many years1 provided they are shod with care1 and well looked after4 ,proprietors of coaches have at length found out that it is their interest to be humane and liberal to their horses1 because the hay and corn market is not so expensive as the horse market4 ,they have1 therefore1 one horse in four always at rest2 in other words1 each horse lies still on the fourth day4 ,generally considered1 perhaps1 no animal toiling solely for the profit of man1 leads so comfortable a life as the ,english coach-horse3 he is sumptuously fed1 kindly treated1 and if he does suffer a little in his work1 he has mostly twenty-three hours in the twenty-four of perfect ease2 he is now almost a stranger to the lash1 nor do we ever see him with a broken skin4 ,no horse lives so high as a coach-horse4 ,hunters1 in the hunting season1 do not eat the quantity of corn that coach-horses do2 for the former are feverish after their work1 which is not the case with the latter1 as they become accustomed to this almost daily excitement4 ,in the language of the road1 the coach-horse's stomach is the measure of his corn--he is fed ad libitum#ge4 ,the effect of this is that he soon gathers flesh1 even in this severe work1--for there is none more severe while it lasts2 and good flesh is no obstacle to speed1 but the contrary4 #ge ,some coachmasters give their horses all manger-meat2 but this is wrong1 as it often produces indigestion and disease4 ,a certain portion of long hay is necessary4 ,it is not found1 however1 that 7barring contagious diseases7 where their owners are good judges of condition1 coach-horses are much subject to disease4 ,after a hot summer1 coach-horses are most liable to derangement2 and the month of ,october is the worst in the year for them1 in consequence of it being their moulting season4 ,coach-horses1 indeed1 are certain to sweat three days out of four1 which keeps their blood pure1 and renders almost unnecessary medicine1 of which1 in general1 they have but a small portion--perhaps less than they should have4 ,it is a mistake1 however1 that fleshy horses cannot go fast in harness2 they are more powerful in draught than thin ones2 and1 having only themselves to carry1 flesh does not injure their legs1 as in riding4 ,in a fast coach1 then1 a horse ought not to work more than four days without rest1 as he becomes leg-weary1 and wears out the sooner2 and he becomes also too highly excited4 ,a horse a mile1 reckoning only one side of the ground1 is about the proportion4 ,thus we may suppose that ten horses work the coach up and down a ten-mile stage1 which gives eight at work1 and two at rest4 ,every horse1 then1 rests the fourth day4 ,in slow1 heavy work1 however1 coach-horses will do their ground every day1 barring accidents or illness4 ,in slow work1 the average duration of coaching stock may be from six to seven years1 provided they are at first fresh1 and firm on their legs4 ,in fast work1 their time may be from three to four years1 or scarcely perhaps so much4 ,coach proprietors on a large scale should have a break for their young horses1 previous to going into regular work4 ,the practice of putting a young horse unaccustomed to harness into a coach laden with passengers is most reprehensible2 and when injury is sustained by it1 it should be visited by the severest penalties the law can inflict4 ,,harness4 ,in the manufacture of harness we have arrived at a degree of perfection1 to which the invention of the patent shining leather has mainly contributed4 ,a handsome horse well harnessed is a noble sight2 yet in no country1 except ,england1 is the art of putting a horse into harness at all understood4 ,if1 however1 our road horses were put to their coaches in the loose awkward fashion of the continental people1 we could not travel at the rate we do4 ,it is the command given over the coach-horse that enables us to do it4 ,in regard to mails1 it should be observed that the proprietors who horse them are not sufficiently attentive to the state of the harness on the ground worked by night2 whereas it should in reality be the best4 ,if anything break by daylight1 it is instantly observed2 but it is not so in the night1 as lamp-light is uncertain and treacherous4 ,in speaking of particulars1 it may be observed1 that bearing-reins are a relief to the arm of the driver1 but by no means to the horses4 ,indeed1 they materially lessen the power of horses in drawing1 become insufferable to them in a long journey1 and fatigue them much sooner than they would otherwise be4 ,not only do these reins by no means serve to keep horses up2 but they prevent their rising after having fallen4 ,when a wheel-horse has the habit of throwing up his head1 which greatly annoys the mouth of the leader before him1 a nose-martingale should be used4 ,this1 however1 is rarely sufficient4 ,indeed1 it is a bad custom to run the leader's reins through terrets over the heads of the wheelers2 for then every movement which the wheelers make with their heads1 acts powerfully on the mouths of the leaders1 whether they be good or bad4 ,if the former1 it is sometimes attended with danger3 thus1 a wheeler throws up his head1 suddenly and powerfully shortens the rein of the leader1 who is checked1 and as the wheeler goes on1 he brings the bar with force against the hocks of the leader1 which instantly flies forward1 and mischief ensues4 ,this1 perhaps1 does not last long2 but one evil only takes the place of another3 leaders soon learn to be1 from custom1 equally heedless of this check and of their driver's hand3 and their mouths become steeled by the constant tossing of the wheeler's heads4 ,it is thus that we sometimes hear of leaders choosing their own road in spite of the best efforts of good coachmen2 and so it will always be till terrets are totally abolished4 ,this may easily be done by conducting the leader's rein through the rosette in which the wheeler's outside bearing-rein1 of which we have just disapproved1 at present passes1 and thus supersede the terret4 ,terrets1 however1 are supposed to look well1 and to have the advantage of keeping the head steady4 ,to obviate their disadvantages1 therefore1 in some measure1 rollers are placed in the bottom of each terret1 over which the rein passes4 ,this1 in some degree1 obviates the evil1 as the rein no longer holds in the terret1 but slides easily1 giving the wheeler's head more freedom4 ,in all kinds of work1 a tool-box is a necessary appendage to the coach4 ,it should contain a strong screw-wrench1 wheel and spring clips1 a spring shackle or two1 with bolts and nuts1 and two chains--one for a trace1 and the other shorter1 with a ring at one end and hook at the other1 in case of a tug giving way4 ,in his pocket the coachman should have a short strap with a buckle at each end1 as in case of almost any part of the reins1 or indeed most parts of the harness breaking1 it comes into use in a moment4 ,the following are interesting extracts on this subject1 from an article in a late number of the ,quarterly ,review2 and the work quoted and referred to in the article is intitled ,bubbles from the ,brunnens of ,nassau4 8,with regard to the management of horses in harness1 perhaps the most striking feature to ,english eyes is1 that the ,germans intrust these sensible animals with the free use of their eyes4 #8,as soon as1 getting tired1 or1 as we are often apt to term it1 lazy1 they see the postilion threaten them with his whip1 they know perfectly well the limits of his patience1 and that after eight1 ten1 or twelve threats1 there will come a blow4 ,as they travel along1 one eye is always shrewdly watching the driver2 the moment he begins his slow operation of lighting his pipe1 they immediately slacken their pace1 knowing as well as ,archimedes could have proved1 that he cannot strike fire and them at the same time3 every movement in the carriage they remark2 and to any accurate observer who meets a ,german vehicle1 it must often be perfectly evident that the poor horses know and feel1 even better than himself1 that they are drawing a coachman1 three bulky baronesses1 their man and their maid1 and that to do this on a hot summer's day is no joke4' 8,now1 what is our method8 #8,in order to break-in the animal to draught1 we put a collar round his neck1 a crupper under his tail1 a pad on his back1 a strap round his belly1 with traces at his sides2 and1 lest he should see that1 though these things tickle and pinch1 they have not power to do more1 the poor intelligent creature is blinded with blinkers1 and in this fearful state of ignorance1 with a groom or two at his head1 and another at his side1 he is1 without his knowledge1 fixed to the pole and splinter-bar of a carriage4 ,if he kick1 even at a fly1 he suddenly receives a heavy punishment which he does not comprehend2 something has struck him1 and has hurt him severely2 but1 as fear magnifies all danger1 so1 for aught we know or care1 he may fancy that the splinter-bar which has cut him is some hostile animal1 and expects1 when the pole bumps against his legs1 to be again assailed in that direction4 ,admitting that in time he gets accustomed to these phenomena--becoming1 what we term1 steady in harness1 still1 to the last hour of his existence1 he does not clearly understand what it is that is hampering him1 or what is that rattling noise which is always at his heels2--the sudden sting of the whip is a pain with which he gets but too well acquainted1 yet the unde derivatur of the sensation he cannot explain--he neither knows when it is coming1 nor what it comes from4 ,if any trifling accident or even irregularity occurs--if any little harmless strap which ought to rest upon his back happens to fall to his side1 the unfortunate animal1 deprived of his eyesight1 the natural lanterns of the mind1 is instantly alarmed2 and1 though from constant heavy draught he may literally1 without metaphor1 be on his last legs1 yet if his blinkers should happen to fall off1 the sight of his own dozing master1 of his own pretty mistress1 and of his own fine yellow chariot in motion1 would scare him so dreadfully1 that off he would probably start1 and the more they all pursued him the faster would he fly6'0 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xliii ,page #ahi4 ,four ,horse ,harness4 ,,description ,,of ,,plate ,,xliii4 #a4 ,face-strap4 #b4 ,terret for the leader's rein4 #c4 ,leader's rein4 #d4 ,head-piece4 #e4 ,hame-strap4 #f4 ,bearing-rein hook4 #g4 ,winker4 #h4 ,cheek-strap4 #i4 ,nose-strap4 #aj4 ,rosette4 #aa4 ,throat-lash4 #ab4 ,bearing-rein roller4 #ac4 ,front piece1 or fore-top4 #ad4 ,bearing-rein4 #ae4 ,hames4 #af4 ,hame-tug4 #ag4 ,collar4 #ah4 ,hame-terret4 #ai4 ,wheeler's rein4 #bj4 ,crupper4 #ba4 ,pad4 #bb4 ,terret for wheeler's rein4 #bc4 ,belly-band4 #bd4 ,trace-bearer4 #be4 ,trace-buckle4 #bf4 ,trace4 #bg4 ,false belly-band4 #bh4 ,bit4 #bi4 ,swivel-hook4 #cj4 ,pole-hook4 #ca4 ,pole-chain4 #cb4 ,pole4 #cc4 ,shackle or swing-bars4 #cd4 ,tug4 #ce4 ,splinter-bar4 ,,relative ,,places ,,of ,,horses4 ,in placing horses in a team1 we speak of near and off horses4 ,the term of 8near0 is probably a borrowed one4 ,in a waggon1 the near horse is the one which is nearest the driver1 who always walks with the horses to his right hand2 and the other1 running abreast of him1 is called the off or far horse1 because he is the farthest from the driver4 ,this term indeed does not refer to coaching so well as to waggoning1 as the coachman does not walk by the side of his horses2 but many of the terms of coachmanship are drawn from the same source1 and the expression 8near0 horse seems to be among the number4 ,the word 8near0 having been thus made use of in its original acceptation1 has1 in some counties1 gradually superseded the word left1 in contradistinction to right2 as we hear occasionally of the 8near side of the road10 the 8near wheel of a carriage10 the 8near leg of a horse20 in short1 it is substituted for the word left4 ,or the term may have arisen intermediately from this3 that on the first introduction of carriages into this country there was no driving on the box1 but on the saddle1 and that hence the term 8near0 was used to distinguish the saddle-horse1 and the term 8off10 of course1 the other horse4 ,these terms were afterwards applied to the road1 where1 in meeting carriages1 according to the adage1 8,if you go to the left1 you are sure to go right2--if you go to the right you are wrong40 ,wheel-horses have the hardest place1 as they are at work up hill and down4 ,nevertheless1 if favour be shown1 it must be to the leaders1 because a tired wheeler may be dragged home2 but1 in the road phrase1 if a leader cuts it1 you are planted4 ,it is a rule always to put the freest leader on the near side1 as he is better in hand than on the other4 ,if a leader be weak1 and cannot take his bar1 the wheeler that follows him must be tied up1 and this will place him by the side of his partner4 ,leaders should be fast trotters for fast coaches2 for1 if they gallop1 the bars are never at rest1 and consequently much of the draught is lost in the angles described4 ,to a coach-horse in fast work1 wind is almost as essential as to a hunter4 ,many high-blowers1 however1 keep their time very well1 with a little attention on the part of the driver4 ,if he see them distressed1 he ought to keep them off their collar1 and let them only carry their harness for a hundred yards or so1 when they will recover1 if their condition be good4 ,they work best as night-horses2 and1 if driven in the heat of the sun1 they ought to be out of the throat-lash4 ,indeed1 a leader should never be throat-lashed in very hot weather1 if he can be driven without it4 ,many horses pull1 and are unpleasant in it1 but go temperately out of it4 ,in coach-horses1 temper is much to be regarded4 ,some contend that a horse should never know his place1--should go either wheeler or leader1 and on either side4 ,if1 however1 a horse working constantly in a coach prefer any place1 he should have it1 and he will generally pay for the indulgence4 ,some horses1 indeed1 care not where they are put--working equally well or ill in all places4 ,as to the mode of putting young horses in harness1 the best way is to put one1 for the first time1 with only one other1 which ought to be steady1 good-collared1 and quick4 ,a great deal of room should be given his head1 and he should be driven at the cheek of an easy bit1 with his pole-piece rather slack4 ,there is great want of judgment in throat-lashing a young horse--either wheeler or leader4 ,many horses go perfectly quiet as leaders1 that would never go as wheelers1 because they will not bear being confined by the pole-piece4 ,all ought to have their sides frequently changed1 particularly young ones4 ,as to horses' mouths1 some will not bear a curb-chain at all1 while the bars and chins of others are so hard1 that it is difficult to make an impression upon them2 the latter being most prevalent4 ,it is difficult1 however1 to handle a coach-horse1 particularly a leader1 whose mouth is very tender4 ,a snaffle is not safe1 as1 in case of his dropping or bolting1 it has not sufficient power to catch him up quickly1 at such a distance from the driver's hand4 ,fora gig-horse1 it may occasionally answer4 ,the usual plan then is to 8cheek him10 as it is technically called1 that is1 to put his coupling-rein to the cheek instead of the bottom of the bit4 ,should this be severe for him1 and he swing his head too much towards his partner1 his draught-rein should be put down to the bit1 which will bring him straight4 ,he should have liberty in his bearing-rein1 and his curb-chain should not be tight4 ,a check-rein to a nose-martingale is often of service in this case1 as it keeps his head steady1 and makes him face his work4 ,such horses in general work more pleasantly out of the throat-lash4 ,horses with very hard mouths require the bit with double port1 the ,chiffney bit1 or the plan of putting the curb-chain over the tongue instead of under the chin1 which in some prevents what is termed a dead mouth4 ,letting out the head of the bridle in the middle of a stage1 has also considerable effect1 as causing the bit and curb-chain to take hold in a fresh place4 ,a check-rein likewise is sometimes put to the middle link of the curb-chain1 to retain the bit in the middle of the mouth1 and to keep it alive1 as it is termed4 ,in hard pullers1 moreover1 putting the bearing-rein to the top1 and the coupling-rein to the lowest loop in the bit1 creates a counter-action1 not only making the bit more severe1 but keeping the mouth in play4 ,a hard puller is generally safest1 and more in place before the bars than at wheel2 for1 with a good pair of wheel-horses1 leaders are soon checked1 and he pulls less with a free than with a slack partner4 ,a coach-horse1 if obedient to the hand1 cannot well carry his head too high1 while a horse that goes with his head down has a mean appearance in harness4 ,the horse1 however1 that carries his head higher than his partner1 should have his coupling-rein uppermost4 ,a coach-horse should not be broken in a fast coach1 as in fast work there is no time to try his temper1 and to humour him4 ,by being put at first into quick work1 many horses get into a habit of cantering1 and never trot well afterwards4 ,a kicking wheel-horse should be put on the near side1 where he is less liable to be touched by any thing that might annoy him2 for1 on the off side1 throwing the reins on his back1 or touching his tail when getting any thing out of the boot1 may set him off1 and cause mischief4--,a kicking leader should have a ring on the reins1 for many accidents arise by a leader's getting a rein under his tail1 owing to the want of this4 ,with first-rate coachmen1 however1 this precaution is the less essential1 that they generally have their horses better in hand4 ,with horses very fresh in condition it sometimes happens1 especially in a turn1 that a wheeler kicks over his trace1 and an accident is sometimes the consequence4 ,a light hip-strap prevents this1 by taking the trace up with him when he rises4 ,in ,london1 this is particularly useful2 for1 when horses are turning short1 or in a crowd1 they frequently have their traces slack1 and therefore more easily kicked over4 ,the hip-strap looks slow1 but it is safe4 ,,coachmen4 ,of late years1 a superior class of men form our coachmen2 and for this we are mainly indebted1 first1 to the driving clubs1 and the notice taken of coachmen by men of fortune2 and1 secondly1 to the boxes being placed on springs4 ,the latter renders it a common practice for passengers to pay an extra shilling for the box-place1 whereas formerly a man would have given something to be any where else4 ,we are told that good coachmen are becoming1 in proportion to their number1 more scarce every year1 because1 owing to the fine state of the roads1 the condition of the cattle1 and the improved method of road-work1 coach-horses are so above their work1 that the assistance of the driver is seldom required4 ,when in town1 says a writer in the ,sporting ,magazine1 8,i sometimes take a peep at the mails coming up to the ,gloucester ,coffee-house2 and such a set of spoons are1 ,i should hope1 difficult to be found3 they are all legs and wings2 not one of them has his horses in hand2 and they sit on their boxes--as if they were sitting on something else40 ,certain it is that coach-work in perfection is not to be seen a hundred miles from the metropolis--seldom so far4 ,the build of coaches1 the manufacture of harness1 and the stamp and condition of horses are greatly inferior in the northern counties2 and as to the coachmen1 few that at all deserve the appellation4 ,there are few things in which knowledge of an art without execution is of less value than in driving four-in-hand2 for1 although a coachman may have knowledge1 it is possible that1 from natural awkwardness1 he may be unable to put it into practical effect with a neat and appropriate movement of his arms and hands2 and seldom is a certain propriety and neatness more required than in handling the reins and whip4 ,to make a man a good driver1 there is one requisite1 and that is1 what are called on the roads 8hands0--a nice faculty of touch4 ,no man with a hard1 heavy hand can ever make a good horseman or driver4 ,neither will a nervous man ever be safe on a coach-box1 for presence of mind and strong nerve are there very often called into action4 ,the air and manner of a coachman have been cleverly described by some periodical writers4 ,let us1 say they1 suppose the horses put to their coach1 all ready for a start--the reins thrown across the off wheel-horse's loins1 with the ends hanging upon the middle terret of his pad1 and the whip thrown across the backs of the wheelers4--,the coachman makes his appearance4 ,if he be a coachman1 a judge will immediately perceive it2 for1 as a certain philosopher observes1 8every situation in life serves for formation of character10 and none more so than a coachman's4 ,i was going to say--only let a judge see him come out of his office1 pulling on his glove2 but this ,i will say--let one see him walk round his horses1 alter a coupling-rein1 take up his whip and reins1 and mount his box1 and he will at once pronounce him a neat1 or an awkward one4--,the moment he has got his seat and made his start1 you are struck with the perfect mastership of his art--the hand just over his left thigh1 the arm without constraint1 steady1 and with a holding command1 that keeps his horses like clockwork1 yet1 to a superficial observer1 with reins quite loose4 ,so firm and compact is he1 that you seldom observe any shifting1 except perhaps to take a shorter purchase for a run down hill1 which he accomplishes with confidence and skill untinctured with imprudence4 ,in a coachman1 temper is also one of the essentials to a good workman4--,we are told of a great artist1 that1 having four 8rum ones0 to deal with1 and being unable to make them work to please him1 he threw the reins on the footboard1 and exclaimed1 8,now1 d--n your eyes1 divide it among you1 for ,i will be troubled with you no longer40 ,the impertinences of passengers sometimes increase this irritability4 ,in steam-vessels1 they adopt the plan of writing in large letters on the wheel which directs the helm1 8,do not talk to the helmsman40 ,it would be as well in some coaches to have the same rule adopted--8,do not babble to the coachman40 ,it is not possible to obtain a better idea of a good coachman than from the following account of one who is said to be the first coachman in ,england for bad horses4 8,having all his life had moderate horses--some strong and heavy1 some light and blood-like1 old hunters1 old posters1--most of the teams going and returning1--their work at the utmost stretch1 always overpowering1--having also had always1 besides difference in character1 weak horses to nurse1--this ordeal has worn him down to a pattern of patience4 ,with these1 and great weight upon severe ground1 he is steady1 easy1 very economical in thong and cord1 very light-handed and sometimes playful4--,i observed him closely1 and discovered from his remarks1 as well as from what ,i saw1 that his great secret of keeping his nags in any thing like condition1 and preserving them when apparently worn out1 is by putting them properly together1 by constantly shifting their situations1 and by the use of check-reins with remarkable judgment--by which means he brings their powers as near to equality as possible1 besides preventing the evil of boring4 ,indeed1 his horses all go light and airy2 and though at times his hold of necessity becomes powerful1 yet1 generally speaking1 he takes his load without a severe strain upon his arms4--,i own it is this particular knack which always wins me4 ,both in driving and riding1 give me the man who can accomplish his object with a light hand40 ,the duty of a coachman is apt to injure the eyes--particularly in cold blowing weather4 ,he must keep his eye forward2 and it is found that the sight cannot be fixed upon any thing beyond the head of the wheel-horses 7not so far as this1 in short men17 without raising the eyelids1 and consequently exposing the eyes to the weather4 ,six parts of cold spring water1 to one of brandy1 is a good lotion when the eyes suffer from this cause4--,coachmen should also preserve their feet and bodies from cold4 ,in very cold weather1 the chin should be protected by a shawl1 and the knees by thick cloth knee-caps4 ,in very severe weather1 the breast should be protected2 for which purpose hare-skins are now manufactured1 and are getting into use on the road4 ,a coachman ought not to drive more than seventy miles a day2 and1 if this is done at two starts1 so much the better4 ,the wearing of the frame1 under daily excitement1 must tend to produce premature old age1 and to shorten life2 and this excitement must be very considerable when a man drives a fast coach eighty or a hundred miles a day without a stop--particularly if his coach be strongly opposed4 ,coachmen who wish to keep themselves light1 take walking exercise in their hours of rest from road-work4 ,as to amateur coachmen1 it has been observed1 that if a diet were formed1 before whom gentlemen-coachmen were to be examined previous to their being considered safe1 it would not be amiss if they were put to the test of having the harness of four horses taken to pieces1 strap from strap1 and then requested to put it together again in the presence of the judges4 ,there would be no hesitation in pronouncing him safe who succeeded in this1 as his experience on the road must have been considerable4 ,how these amateurs are trusted with the reins1 coachmen are now obliged to be careful1 owing to the speed of coaches1 and the improved breed and condition of coach-horses4 ,hence1 we see fewer amateurs at work than formerly4 ,it would indeed be highly culpable in a coachman to trust the lives of passengers and his master's property to any one whom he did not know to be safe1 or even without reflecting that a man may be a very safe coachman with horses he knows1 and a very unsafe one on some roads with horses to which he is a stranger4 ,to gentlemen who wish to drive1 and are really capable of doing so1 the following is recommended as not a very bad way of doing business3--8,when travelling with a coachman ,i do not know10 says an amateur1 8,i always adopt the following plan--that is1 if ,i wish to work4 ,in the first place1 ,i never got upon a coach-box yet with any thing like half-pay about me2 such as a black handkerchief around my neck1 or in blue pantaloons2 neither do ,i think ,i ever shall4 ,i always take care to have a good deal of drag about me3--a neat pair of boots1 and knee-caps1 if cold weather3 a good drab surtout--if not a poodle2 a benjamin or two about the coach1 and a little of the spot about the neck4 ,for the first mile1 ,i always observe a strict silence1 unless broken by coachee2 but at this time he generally runs mute4 ,he is perhaps but just awake1 or is considering about his way-bill--reckoning his passengers1 thinking what he has to do on the road1 and1 if a workman1 looking over his team to see if all is right4 ,leave him alone for a short time1 and when his mind is at ease1 he will look you over as you sit beside him4 ,he will begin with your boots1 proceeding upwards to the crown of your hat1 and if he like you1 and you make a remark or two that please him1 and show you to be a judge of the art1 the first time he stops he will say--#8,now1 sir1 have you got your driving gloves on2 would you like to take 'em8'--,i am here alluding to country work1 and not to the roads near ,london40 ,coachmen's expenses on the road being heavy1 should be taken into consideration by passengers4 ,they have their horse-keepers to pay every week1 or they will not do their best for them2 and the wear and tear of their clothes is a heavy tax on their pockets4 ,they are satisfied1 however1 with one shilling under1 and two shillings for anything over1 thirty miles2 and they are well entitled to that sum--more especially when we recollect that they are liable to have empty coaches4 ,no man1 certainly1 should give them less than a shilling1 and if he often travel the same road1 his money is not ill bestowed4 ,in respectable coaches1 no great difference is now made between the fees given by in and outside passengers1 as it often happens that the latter are best able to pay4 ,guards on mail coaches are necessary appendages to the establishment2 and1 that they may be equal to their duty1 they go only moderate distances--as from sixty to eighty miles1 when they are relieved by others4 ,those on the long stages1 however1 are imposed upon by their masters2 and1 by being made to do more than they are equal to--many of them two nights up for one in bed1 are half their time asleep4 ,some go from ,london to ,exeter1 ,shrewsbury1 and other places equally distant1 without stopping more than three quarters of an hour on the road1 which1 in bad weather1 is hard enough4 ,indeed1 it is wonderful how with their means they always contrive to live4 ,guards are by no means useless appendages to stage coaches2 for no coach1 running a long distance and in the night1 should be without one2 but such guards should be provided with fire-arms in good repair4 ,setting aside the idea of highway robbery1 it is impossible that1 in the night1 a coachman can see to the luggage on his coach1--nor indeed1 can the guard1 if he be asleep1 and asleep he must be a great part of his time1 if worked in the way above stated4 ,he should not go more than one hundred miles1 and he should be paid by the proprietors4 ,but if the public should not be left to pay an armed guard1 it is monstrous that they should pay an unarmed one4 ,as to mail-guards1 government allows them only a mere pittance of a few shillings a week1 leaving the public to pay them2 whereas the public have nothing to do with them1 and it is the most impudent imposition that these servants of government should be paid by persons travelling4 ,that they carry fire-arms is true2 but it is to protect the letter-bags--property which government is paid to protect--that they would use these arms1 and not on account of passengers4 ,strictly speaking1 they have nothing to do with the passengers1 nor their luggage2 their sole duty being to protect the mail4 ,as1 therefore1 government is paid for carrying the mails1 government1 and not the public1 should pay the persons who actually do protect them4 ,,mounting ,,and ,,dismounting4 ,before getting upon the box1 a coachman should walk round his horses' heads1 to see that his curb-chains and coupling reins are right1 and1 above all1 that the tongues of his billet-buckles are secure in their holes4 ,many accidents have arisen from the want of this precaution4 ,no man is a safe coachman who does not see to these things4 ,of mounting and dismounting1 there is nothing particular to be said2 except that1 in the former1 the reins are to be taken in the right hand1 and transferred to the left as soon as the seat is reached4 ,,the ,,seat4 ,the driver should sit in the middle of the box1 quite straight towards his horses1 rather upright or backward1 than forward1 with his knees nearly straight1 and with his feet together1 toward the edge of the footboard4 ,with the exception of a pliant motion of his loins1 on any jolting of the coach1 his body should be quite at rest1 and particularly so when he hits a horse4 ,independently of appearance1 a firm seat on a box is very necessary for safety to a coachman and his passengers1 for a trifle will otherwise displace him4 ,,starting4 ,before starting1 four horses should stand clear1 or at their proper length from each other4 ,they should have some notice--a click1 or a whistle given them to move4 ,if the whip is used1 the wheelers should be touched1 as generally the ablest horses4 ,it is with coach-horses as with mankind--that where the physical strength is in the governed1 they must be humoured a little4 ,when starting1 the coachman must not pull at their heads1 but feel their mouths lightly1 or they may bolt1 throw themselves down1 or break through their harness4 ,if they are old1 and the stage commences with a descent1 they should be allowed to go a couple of hundred yards before they are put to their usual pace4 ,a young horse should be started very quietly1 making the old horse take collar first4 ,this is especially necessary if the young one is inclined to be hot1 as it will prevent his plunging4 ,a young horse should first be started in a wide space1 so that he may get off without a check4 ,if he be alarmed1 and inclined to bounce1 he should not be held hard1 and still less stopped2 for1 if so1 he may not like1 particularly if high mettled1 to start again4 ,the old horse will prevent his running far4 ,if a young horse be shy of his collar1 he should not at first be pressed to it2 as he may thereby take a dislike to it1 and become a jibber4 ,a young horse1 when first put to a coach1 should be turned to the pole very carefully1 to prevent its touching his hind quarter1 which might make him kick4 ,when he has been driven long enough to be steady1 he should be taken up in his bearing-rein1 put down lower on his bit1 and driven in a wide circle1 or figure eight--keeping the inner horse well up to his collar and bit4 ,in breaking1 he should be frequently stopped1 but not held after being pulled up1 as1 if high mettled1 it will make him restless1 and if dull1 he does not require it4 ,if1 on the contrary1 a young horse is heavy1 and not ready to start when the command is given1 he should be whipped till he answer it4 ,,the ,,paces4 ,these1 in driving1 must always be a walk or a trot--never a canter1 which1 owing to the draught1 would be equally injurious to the horse and to the carriage4 ,either of these paces1 moreover1 should be suited to the nature of the road4 ,rapid driving1 on the stones especially1 exposes a carriage to injury1 both from shocks against others1 and from those which attend its own motion4 ,however1 it is sometimes for a moment necessary1 in order to get out of the way of carts1 waggons1 c4 ,in public coaches1 the pace is often too rapid2 and1 should any passenger plead for the horses1 on the score of the excessive heat1 the coachman with the utmost sang froid replies that he must keep his time1 although the probability sometimes is1 that one or more of them may drop1 by which considerable time may be lost1 as well as reduction in force ensue for the rest of the stage4 ,horses should be more frequently watered during hot weather than they generally are2 increased perspiration renders it necessary4 ,however well pleased thoughtless people may be at going at an accelerated rate1 it is certainly hard that other passengers should be obliged to hazard their existence at the pleasure of a reckless driver1 who1 in answer to all remonstrance1 coolly answers1 he must 8keep his time40 ,something should certainly be done to prevent the cantering system#gf2 for no coach1 be it ever so well built1 can preserve its equilibrium so well when the horses are in the canter or gallop1 as when in the trot4 ,at the same time1 it is to be borne in mind1 that1 at the rate our coaches now travel1 some slight degree of it may sometimes be unavoidable1 owing to horses trotting so variably1 and its being very difficult to obtain teams every individual of which shall be able to trot through the distance at the required rate4 #gf ,there is an act which requires that all four shall not gallop together2 and many teams1 especially in the neighbourhood of town1 have one good trotter to defeat the informer1 known as the 8,act of ,parliament horse40--,,ed4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,in driving four-in-hand1 it is not every man who knows when a coach-horse is at work1 as a horse may keep a tight trace1 and yet be doing little4 ,there is1 however1 an increased tension of the horse's frame when taking weight with him1 which is the surest test1 and which never escapes a quick and experienced eye4 ,as already observed1 those called lobbing-goers take greater weight with them than horses of finer action1 provided they are equally close workers4 ,heavy draught shortens the stride of horses1 after they have been a few years at work4 ,,the ,,time4 ,in short distances1 to know precisely at what time it is necessary to start1 to arrive at any place at a certain hour1 the driver has only to ascertain the distance1 and to regulate the pace by the following table3-- #d miles an hour1 #a mile in #ae minutes4 #e ditto ditto #ab ditto #f ditto ditto #aj ditto #g ditto ditto #h ditto #h ditto ditto #g ditto #i ditto ditto #f ditto #aj ditto ditto #f ditto ,in the streets of ,london1 ten minutes at least1 in every hour1 must be allowed for stoppages4 ,,the ,,whip4 8,we are too apt10 said the late ,lord ,erskine1 8to consider animals under the domination of man in no view but that of property4 ,we should never forget that the animal over which we exercise our power has all the organs which render it susceptible of pleasure and pain4 ,it sees1 it hears1 it smells1 it tastes1 it feels with acuteness4 ,how mercifully1 then1 ought we to exercise the dominion intrusted to our care60 ,speaking to coach-horses from the box is now considered slow1 but it is not without its effect4 ,whipping1 however1 is sometimes indispensable4 ,the manufacture of four-horse whips has arrived at great perfection1 and affords employment to many hundred hands4 ,refined management of the whip is not of many years' birth2 and even now there are but few who execute this effectually and with grace4 ,there are as many ways of whipping coach-horses1 says a clever writer in the ,sporting ,magazine1 as there are horses in the coach2 and1 as there is a right and a wrong way of doing most things1 a young beginner may observe the following directions1 beginning with the wheel-horses3-- ,before a coachman hits a wheel-horse1 he should twist his thong three times round the crop of his whip1 holding the crop at that moment somewhat horizontally1 by which means the thong will twist towards the thin end of the crop1 when the thong1 being doubled1 will not exceed the length of a pair-horse thong1 and in some measure resemble it4 ,being double renders it of course more severe1 as it falls more heavily on the horse2 and by the two ends of the thong not being spread1 but close together at the time of the blow1 it falls with increased force4 ,when the off-side wheeler is struck1 the coachman's right arm should be put out from his body in the same position in which he presents it to his tailor to measure him for a coat1 but the blow should proceed entirely from the wrist4 ,the part on which the horse should be struck is about four inches behind his false belly-band1 or somewhere near the short rib on his right side4 ,the stinging part of the blow is then felt under the belly2 and1 unless he is quite beaten1 or of a sulky and bad disposition1 he seldom fails to answer it4 ,if he do not answer it here1 he must be struck before the belly-band1 when the blow falls just behind the fore-arm1 on a part on which the skin is very thin4 ,in hitting a near-wheeler1 the coachman brings his right hand exactly opposite to his face1 and1 turning the crop three times around1 as before directed1 he lets the thong fall sharply across the horse's loins three times in succession1 if he do not answer sooner1--observing that1 after the third blow1 he draws the thong obliquely across the horse's back1 by which means his arm returns to a state of rest1 and the crop falls gently across his reins1 just about his left hand1 the crop pointing a little upwards to prevent the thong getting under or touching the near wheel-horse's tail4 ,should the latter be the case1 if the driver lower his crop1 the thong will almost always get released2 but should it not1 he must let the thong loose1 and draw it out from the point4 ,when it comes up from the tail1 let the coachman throw back his crop a little to his right hand1 and the point of the thong will fall across his fingers1 when he catches it1 and puts it back into his hand4 ,it must be observed1 that1 in striking the near wheel horse1 the wrist only1 as in sword exercise1 is at work3 the body must be quite at rest2 and1 after the whip is brought to bear1 the arm must be quiet also1 until the third blow is struck4 ,there is only one other method of hitting a wheel-horse1 which is called pointing him4 ,this is done by hitting him with the point of the thong1 when loose1 just behind his shoulders1 but it is not considered neat execution4 ,if there should be a free leader before the bars it causes him to fret1 and is only to be had recourse to in emergencies--as1 for instance1 in turning round a corner1 or into a gateway1 when a leader is to be hit1 and before the coachman can recover his thong a wheel-horse requires whipping also4 ,if a wheel-horse show symptoms of vice1 as a disposition to kick1 c41 or1 in short1 if he refuse to answer either of the other calls upon his exertions1 a blow with the double thong on his ears generally brings him to his senses4 ,without great necessity1 however1 it is very reprehensible to strike a coach-horse over the ears1 the parts being very sensible4 ,it is generally supposed it is in whipping a leader that neatness of execution is more especially displayed4 ,it is1 however1 quite a mistake to suppose that it is in the power of a coachman to punish a leader with the single1 as he can a wheel-horse with the double thong4 ,no doubt1 however1 the blow from the loose thong falls very sharp1 as it falls on a tender part--the inside of the thigh4 ,as the off-leader presents himself more fully to the right hand of the coachman than his partner does1 the horse that is the less free of the two is generally put on that side4 ,there are but two ways of hitting an off-leader3 one1 by letting the thong fall gently over his neck1 or just behind his pad1 when his driver merely wishes to refresh his memory1 and let him know that he has a whip in his hand2 and the other1 when he wants to hit him sharply1 by striking him with the point of the thong just under his bar4 ,the hard hitters of the old school never conceived they had done the latter effectually1 unless they struck their horse twice at least1 if not three times1 the last stroke always ending in a draw4 ,as this word 8draw0 is peculiar to the road1 it must be explained to such as may not exactly comprehend it4 ,suppose a coachman to hit his off-leader three times4 ,the first two blows are given1 as it were1 under-handed--that is to say1 the hand is lowered so as to admit of the thong going under the bar the first two strokes4 ,when the third or last is given1 the point of the elbow is thrown outwards1 so as to incline the thong inwards1 which brings it up to the coachman's hand after the stroke1 it generally falling across his breast1 which would not be the case were it not for the draw4 ,another advantage also attends the draw3 a thong so thrown very seldom hangs in the bars1 and nothing is more uncoachman-like than to hit a leader above his bar4 ,a horse's mouth should always be felt before his coachman hits him4 ,hitting the near leader with neatness and effect is the most difficult part of the use of the whip4 ,there are two ways of doing it3 one1 by two common strokes and the draw2 and the other by a sort of back-handed stroke1 which is a very neat one1 and sufficiently severe1 but it does not bring the thong so immediately up to the coachman's hand as the drawn stroke does4 ,in the back-handed stroke1 the wrist describes an exact figure of eight1 and the arm cannot be kept1 as before1 quite still4 ,in the other method of hitting1 the coachman's arm is brought about opposite his chin1 the first two blows proceeding from the wrist alone2 but in the third1 or the draw1 the hand descends1 the elbow is thrown outwards1 and by two jerks of the arm1 which it is difficult to describe on paper1 the draw is effected1 and the thong comes1 as before stated1 across the coachman's breast1 so as to enable him to catch it instantly4 ,there is one other way of hitting a leader2 and that is1 by what is called the chop4 ,this is done by throwing out the right arm rather forward1 and with it1 of course1 the thong1 and then bringing it back sharply with the wrist inclined downwards4 ,the thong falls severely on the horse's thigh1 and comes up to the hand again1 as in the draw4 ,this is a very useful blow in a narrow confined place1 or when it is necessary to lose no time before a leader is hit2 and1 when neatly done1 has a very workman-like appearance4 ,this blow generally falls above the bar1 particularly if a horse is not at work at the time4 ,it has been said that leaders should always be hit under their bar4 ,this1 however1 cannot always be done2 for if a horse hang back from his collar1 his bar is so low that it may be difficult to get under it4 ,in this case1 however1 the blow is made to tell smartly1 as it is in the coachman's power to throw his whip into the flank1 which is a very sensible part4 ,when a leader is well up to his collar1 he always can1 and always should1 be hit under his bar4 ,should the point of the thong catch1 or1 as they say on the road1 8get hanged10 in the bars or the pole-pieces--neither of which it will do when properly drawn after the last stroke1 as the inclination of the hand in the act of drawing enables it to clear them--no violence should be used to loosen it1 or a broken crop will be the consequence4 ,on the contrary1 the arm should be thrown forward1 and the thong lightly moved1 when in a minute or two it will shake out4 ,if it be fast between the eye of the main bar and the pole-hook1 the leaders should be eased a little1 and it will get released4 ,sometimes1 however1 on a wet day1 a thong will lap round some of these things so fast as to make it necessary for the guard or some person to get down to untie it4 ,this is technically called having a bite4 ,the double thong will also sometimes hitch in the ends of the wheelers' traces1 as also in the point of the false belly-band4 ,to obviate this1 in gentlemen's harness1 these parts are always covered1 or piped1 as it is called4 ,a free leader should not be hit in a short turn1 or he may break his bar1 perhaps the pole-hook1 or even the main-bar4 ,neither should leaders be hit in going over a small bridge which is much raised1 or when the pole points upwards1 as their draught on the end of it may snap it in the futchels4 ,some drivers perpetually whip or fan their horses1 which first irritates and afterwards injures them1 by rendering them insensible to the proper aids or correction4 ,it must be observed that the whip should never be used but in case of necessity4 ,indeed1 one of the best proofs of a good coachman is to see his right arm still2 and although1 for the safety of his coach1 he ought to be able to punish a horse when he requires punishment1 yet he should1 on all accounts1 be as sparing of it as he can4 ,horses may be whipped till they become callous to whipping1 and therefore slow4 ,in the condition in which coach-horses are now kept1 a pound of ,nottingham whipcord will last a good coachman his lifetime4 ,the very act of throwing the point of the thong over the leaders' heads1 or letting it fall on their backs1 as a fisherman throws his fly upon the stream1 will set half the coach-horses in ,england1 in these days1 into a gallop4 ,,thoroughfares1 ,,passing1 c4 ,the driver should avoid passing through the great thoroughfares1 and prefer the widest of the less frequented streets which run parallel to them4 ,in ,london1 he should never go into the ,city through the ,strand1 ,fleet-street1 and ,cheapside1 between twelve and five o'clock1 if he can possibly avoid it1 as these streets are then crowded with every kind of vehicle4 ,he should also avoid going into the ,city about mid-day1 on ,mondays and ,fridays1 on account of the droves of oxen passing through the principal streets4 ,the middle of the road is safest1 especially for a loaded coach1 except under peculiar circumstances4 ,in driving four horses1 to keep them well in hand is a most material point1 both as regards their work and for the safety of the coach4 ,the track made by a coach in descending a hill shows whether the horses are properly held together or not4 ,accidents from horses taking fright1 and bolting across the road1 happen only to clumsy fellows1 of whom the list is considerable4 ,the rules for passing and meeting carriages on the road have already been given1 yet there are times when they need not be strictly adhered to1 and a little accommodation becomes expedient4 ,thus1 if one coachman has the hill in his favour--that is1 if he be going down1 and a loaded coach be coming up at the same time--he who is descending1 if he can do it with safety1 ought to give the hardest side of the road to the other coachman4 ,as to narrow spaces1 it is evident that where the bars can go the coach can go1 as they are wider than the wheels2 and consequently1 if they are cleared1 all is safe4 ,the swing-bar is an excellent invention1 as a horse works in it from either shoulder1 and therefore quite at his ease4 ,a sharp and experienced driver may calculate exactly the space sufficient to pass between two bodies at rest1 and may therefore pass with confidence and at ease4 ,as1 however1 in streets1 he must meet many carriages driven by inexperienced or intoxicated fellows1 who do not for a moment move in any direct line1 he should allow them ample room1 and proceed with the utmost caution4 ,a driver must be incessantly on the look-out1 must watch every vehicle that approaches1 and give it more room than it may seem to require4 ,,ascending ,,and ,,descending4 ,in going up hill1 it is in general best to trot up at first1 and to walk afterwards4 ,in going down hill1 it is best to keep the wheelers tight in hand1 to let the leaders just clear the bars1 and to come gently down4 ,in the latter case1 a turn of the reins of the wheel-horses may be made round the little finger4 7,plate ,,xliv4 fig4 #d47 ,although1 however1 it may be necessary to catch up wheel-horses1 and make them hold back their coach down hill1 there is nothing in which a light finger is more essential to safety4 ,the manner in which some persons haul at horses' mouths1 when descending with a load1 considerably adds to the difficulty1 by trying the strength of the tackle4 ,but this is not all3 these persons should be aware that all this force employed on their horses' mouths is so much added to the pressure of the coach2 in proportion to it is that pressure increased4 ,the horses are then drawing by their heads6 ,the objections to a locked wheel1 with a top-heavy load1 have already been stated4 ,if1 however1 with a heavy load1 and upon a smooth hard road1 a wheel must be locked1 it should be that next a ditch1 or other dangerous part4 ,in going down hill1 a coach always strikes on the side on which the wheel is not locked4 ,the coachman should therefore keep as much as possible on that side of the road on which the wheel is locked3 by crossing the road1 if he meet or have to pass any thing1 the coach will not strike2 and by holding that way1 at any time1 it will prevent overturning4 ,the coach naturally strikes in a direct line from the perch-bolt4 ,the generality of passengers know not the danger of galloping a coach1 with three tons' weight in and out1 down hill1 at the rate of twelve or fifteen miles an hour1 with no wheel locked1 the whole resistance of the wheel-horses depending on a small leather strap and buckle at the top of the hames1--these coachmen deeming it beneath their dignity to drive with breechings4 ,even thus1 however1 accidents would be much less frequent if coachmen took the precaution of pulling up their horses short1 when on the point of descending4 ,in night-work1 this is doubly useful1 because it often happens that a pole-chain is unhooked1 or a hame-strap gets loose1 without being discernible by lamp or moonlight4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xliv ,page #bjh4 ,the ,rein-hold in ,driving 8,with wheel-horses that will hold back at all1 ,i will be bound10 says a clever writer and experienced coachman1 8to take a loaded coach down most of the hills now met with on our great roads1 without a drag-chain1 provided ,i am allowed to pull up my horses at the top1 and let them take it quietly the first hundred yards4 ,this1 it may be said1 would be losing time1 but1 on the contrary1 time would be gained by it2 for1 as soon as ,i perceived ,i was master of my coach1 ,i should let her go1 and by letting my horses loose at the bottom1 ,i could spring them into a gallop1 and cheat them out of half the hill1 if there were one 7as frequently happens7 on the next portion of road4 ,this advantage1 it must be recollected1 cannot be taken if the chain be to be put on2 and ,i have therefore in my favour all the time required to put the chain on1 and to take it off again40 ,there are1 however1 some horses which no man can make to hold a loaded coach down hill4 ,of this description are1 first1 the stiff-necked one1 as he is called1 who turns his head away from his partner1 and shoulders the pole2 and1 secondly1 one who1 when he feels the weight pressing upon him1 begins to canter and jump1 as coachmen term it2 with these holding back properly is out of the question4 ,with such cattle1 the drag-chain must be had recourse to2 as well as when there is the least reason to suspect the soundness of the harness4 ,all this confirms the necessity of checking the force of a coach before descending a steep hill1 and indeed in some cases--as with bad holders--before coming upon a slight descent4 ,the term which coachmen have for this species of road1 is 8pushing ground20 and if the fall be long1 it is astonishing how the pressure of a loaded coach upon wheel horses is increased before getting to the bottom of it1 and how difficult it would be1 with wheelers not of the very best stamp1 to pull up short1 if any accident should happen4 ,young coachmen1 in descending a hill1 should take care that their leaders do not draw on the end of the pole1 which many free ones do when they find the coach coming quickly after them2 for this not only increases the pressure of the coach on the wheelers1 but1 should either of them stumble1 it must assist in bringing him down4 ,the following good and characteristic directions were given by a very experienced coachman1 to a gentleman who undertook to take his coach a journey for him1 but who1 although he knew the road well1 had never driven on it before4 8,that middle twelve miles of ground10 said he1 8is a punisher1 and you must mind what you are at with this load4 ,you have two hills to go down1 and three to go up1 in the first seven miles4 ,don't stop to put the chain on1 as they'll hold well1 and the tackle is good2 and don't let them walk up the hills1 for they are bad hands at that--you will lose a horse's draught by it1 and perhaps get hung up on one of them4 ,you must take fifty minutes to do the first seven miles1 and good work too4 ,when you get at the top of the last hill1 get down and put your near leader to the cheek1 and they'll toddle you over the last five miles in half an hour1 with all the pleasure alive40 ,the following observations on this subject from the number of the ,quarterly ,review already quoted1 are too interesting to be omitted here4 8,many years have elapsed10 he says1 8since ,i first observed that1 somehow or other1 the horses on the continent manage to pull a heavy carriage up a steep hill1 or even along a dead level1 with greater ease to themselves than our ,english horses4 ,if any unprejudiced person would only attentively remark with what little apparent fatigue three small ill-conditioned horses will draw1 not only his own carriage1 but very often that huge over-grown vehicle the ,french diligence1 or the ,german eilwagen1 ,i think he would agree with me2 but the whole equipment is so unsightly--the rope harness is so rude--the horses without blinkers look so wild--there is so much bluster with the postilion--that1 far from paying any compliment to the turn-out1 one is very much disposed at once to condemn the whole thing1 and1 not caring a straw whether such horses be fatigued or not1 to make no other remark than that in ,england one would have travelled at nearly twice the rate with one-tenth of the noise4 ,but neither the rate nor the noise is the point--our superiority in the former1 and our inferiority in the latter1 cannot be doubted4 ,the thing to account for is1 how such small1 weak horses do actually manage to draw a heavy carriage up hill with so much ease to themselves4 ,now1 in ,english1 ,french1 and ,german harness1 there exists1 as it were1 three degrees of comparison as to the manner in which the head of the horse is treated2 for1 in ,england1 it is elevated1 or borne up1 by what we call the bearing-rein1--in ,france it is left as ,nature placed it 7there being to common ,french harness no bearing-rein71--and1 in ,germany1 the head is tied down to the lower extremity of the collar1 or else the collar is so made that the animal is by it deprived of the power of raising his head4 ,now1 passing over for a moment the ,french method1 which is1 in fact1 the state of nature1 let us for a moment consider which is better--to bear a horse's head up1 as in ,england1 or to pull it downwards1 as in ,germany40 ,evidently fired with a favourite theme1 he thus proceeds3--8,in a state of nature1 the wild horse1 as every body knows 7871 has two distinct gaits or attitudes4 ,if man1 or any still wilder beast1 come suddenly upon him1 up goes his head2 and as he first stalks and then trots gently away--with ears erect1 snorting with his nose1 and proudly snuffing up the air1 as if exulting in his freedom--as one fore-leg darts before the other1 we have before us a picture of doubt1 astonishment1 and hesitation1 all of which feelings seem to rein him1 like a troop-horse1 on his haunches2 but1 attempt to pursue him1 and the moment he defies you--the moment1 determining to escape1 he shakes his head1 and lays himself to his work--how completely does he alter his attitude6 ,that instant down goes his head1 and from his ears to the tip of his tail there is in his vertebr an undulating action which seems to propel him1 which works him along1 and which1 it is evident1 you could not deprive him of without materially diminishing his speed4 ,now1 in harness1 the horse has naturally the same two gaits or attitudes1 and it is quite true that he can start away with a carriage either in the one or the other2 but the means by which he succeeds in this effort--the physical powers which he calls into action1 are essentially different3--in the one case he works by his muscles1 and in the other by his own dead1 or rather living1 weight4 ,in order to grind corn1 if any man were to erect a steam-engine over a fine1 strong1 running stream1 we should all say to him1 #8,why do you not allow your wheel to be turned by cold water instead of hot8 ,why do you not avail yourself of the weight of the water1 instead of expending your capital in converting it into the power of steam8 ,in short1 why do you not use the simple resource which ,nature has presented ready-made to your hand8' ,in the same way1 the ,german might say to us1 #8,we acknowledge a horse can drag a carriage by the power of his muscles1 but why do you not allow him to drag it by his weight8' 8,let any one observe a pair of ,english post-horses dragging a heavy weight up a hill1 and he will at once see that the poor creatures are working by their muscles1 and that it is by sheer strength that the resistance is overcome3 but how can it be otherwise2 their heads are higher than nature intended them to be1 even in walking in a state of liberty1 carrying no weight but themselves3 the balance of their bodies is therefore absolutely turned against1 instead of leaning in favour of their draught2 and if my reader will but pass his hands down the back sinews of our stage-coach or post-chaise horses1 he will soon feel 7though not so keenly as they do71 what is the cruel and fatal consequence4 ,it is true1 that in ascending a very steep hill an ,english postilion will occasionally unhook his bearing-reins2 but the jaded creatures1 trained for years to work in a false attitude1 cannot in one moment get themselves into the scientific position which the ,german horses are habitually encouraged to adopt4 ,besides this1 we are so sharp with our horses1--we keep them so constantly on the qui vive1 or1 as we term it1 in hand1 that we are always driving them from the use of their weight to the application of their sinews4 ,that the figure and attitude of a horse working by his sinews are infinitely prouder than when he is working by his weight1 7there may exist1 however1 false pride among horses as well as men71 ,i most readily admit2 and therefore1 for carriages of luxury1 where the weight bears little proportion to the powers of the noble animals employed1 ,i acknowledge that the sinews are more than sufficient2 but1 to bear up the head of a poor horse at plough1 or at any slow1 heavy work1 is1 ,i conceive1 a barbarous error1 which ought not to be persisted in4 8,whether there is most of the horse in a ,german1 or of the ,german in a horse1 is a nice point1 on which people might argue a great deal3 but the broad fact really is1 that ,germans live on more amicable terms with their horses1 and understand their dispositions infinitely better1 than the ,english2 in short1 they treat them as horses1 while we act towards them and drill them as if they were men2 and1 in case any reader should doubt that ,germans are better horse-masters than we are1 ,i beg to remind him of what is perfectly well known to the ,british army1--namely1 that in the ,peninsular war the cavalry horses of the ,german ,legion were absolutely fat1 while those of our regiments were skin1 and bone40 ,,the ,,turnings4 ,these must be regulated by the ground4 ,a good driver avoids all quick and sharp turnings4 ,in town1 it is much better to drive on a little further1 where another street may allow the ample room requisite in turning4 ,if a carriage do not pass quite across a channel without turning1 the perch must be twisted according to the descent1 because one wheel falls as that at the opposite angle rises4 ,by such a wrench1 especially when going fast1 the main or perch bolt is frequently broken1 and every part strained4 ,a loaded coach should never be turned short1 even at a slow pace1 for the coach is never safe when there is not an even bearing on the transom beds4 ,if turned short1 at a quick pace1 the higher and looser part of a coach must go over1 because all bodies put in motion by one power will proceed in a straight line1 unless compelled to change their course by some force impressed4 ,hence a horse at full speed is with difficulty turned to right or left2 and1 if he turn suddenly1 and of his own accord1 he puts his rider's horsemanship to the test4 ,so with a coach1 a sudden turn to one side the road allows the body to swag towards the other1 and the centre of gravity is lost4 ,in a turn1 a coachman must point his leaders well1 that is1 take proper ground for them to make the turn1 and let his wheelers follow them4 ,moreover1 as wheel-horses are always in haste to make the turn1 the driver must shoot them out on the opposite side1 just as he has pointed his leaders4 ,thus1 if the turn be to the right1 he must catch up his near wheel rein1 and hit his off wheel-horse2 and vice vers4 ,this will keep the head of the pole 7which he should have his eye upon7 just between the leaders1 and the wheelers will follow1 as if they were running on a straight road4 ,this will also secure him against danger1 by clearing his coach of posts1 gutters1 c4 ,no man can make a neat turn with four horses1 unless he shoot his wheelers1 at the same time that he points his leaders4 ,in turning1 the wheelers must rather be kept up1 and the leaders be tight in hand1 to avoid the corner2 for1 if the wheelers flag1 and the leaders draw1 the carriage must be brought against it4 ,,the ,,ranks ,,in ,,town4 ,these must never be broken1 either in driving through crowded streets1 or in setting down at crowded places4 ,as to admitting others into the rank1 every driver should do as he would be done by4 ,,stops4 ,it is a good plan to use horses to stop by notice1 as it may prevent accidents4 ,in pulling up1 the driver must pull the reins equally1 but rather those of the wheelers first4 ,if this is attended with difficulty1 take the wheelers' reins in the right hand1 and pull till they hang well on the breeching1 or on the pole chains1 thus increasing the leaders' draught so much that they will easily be pulled up4 ,when a young coach-horse is stopped1 it should be very gradually--allowing at least ten yards to do it in2 for1 if it be attempted to stop him short1 he will resist4 ,a careful driver will never keep his carriage standing in a great thoroughfare2 but when obliged to stop in a crowded street1 the driver should1 if possible1 avoid the spot where another carriage is stopping2 should choose as much as possible the widest part of the street2 and draw up close to the curb4 ,there is no part of stage-coach economy in which greater alteration has been made than in changing horses4 ,unless business is to be transacted--as taking fares for passengers1 setting down1 getting out parcels1 c4--the average with fast coaches is three minutes for each change4 ,,accidents1 c4 ,,to ,,horses4 ,a cantering leader1 or one that frets1 is generally mismanaged by young coachmen4 ,they are apt to pull him back1 and endeavour to get him to trot1 by the bit1 which generally fails1 or makes him even worse1 by bringing him back on his bar4 ,the right way is to pull him back by his harness2 that is1 to keep the wheelers back1 so that he may feel his collar and bit at the same time4 ,a horse that kicks ought to be taken very short in his pole-piece1 and gagged2 and1 when he begins to kick1 he should be whipped on the ears--a punishment which should never be inflicted but for vice4--,hallooing to a horse when he kicks1 has sometimes an effect4 ,a hot leader is sometimes benefited by mopping4 ,an experienced driver says1 8,i once bought a capital coach-horse for twenty-six pounds1 because no one could drive him3 and1 as he had broken two carriages1 he was the terror of the neighbourhood4 ,i mopped him1 and could drive him with the greatest safety1 either leader or at wheel40 ,in the case of a horse falling1 a periodical writer1 replying to another1 states1 8,in one of his letters on #8the ,road1' he says1 #8,if the coachman be driving with the short wheel rein1 and a horse fall beyond recovery1 he had better open his hand1 and let the reins fall out1 than run the risk of being pulled off the box4' ,with all due deference to such authority1 ,i cannot subscribe to this1 as it frequently happens that a horse falls1 is dragged along the ground for a short distance1 and recovers himself the moment the coach stops1 and then starts off at full gallop1 the other horses following his example4 ,now1 if coachee has opened his fist1 and let the reins tumble out1 and the above occurrence should take place1 ,i would certainly rather be on the top of ,cheviot than on the top of the said coach1 as the catastrophe would not be very difficult to foretell40 ,on many horses1 hot weather has a singular effect2 and1 therefore1 it often happens that a good winter horse is an indifferent summer one4 ,coach-horses are subject to many accidents1 of which one is peculiar to them--namely1 fracture of the legs in trotting on level ground4#gg ,fractures of the foot in draught-horses and others are common2 but fractures of the leg in coach-horses when trotting over level ground1 are probably caused by over-tension of the limb in the act of drawing4 ,it is said that a coach-horse's leg is more frequently broken1 when1 with a heavy load behind him1 he snatches at his collar in a turn of the road4 #gg ,when driving one of the ,birmingham fast coaches1 just entering the town of ,dunstable1 my near leader fell with her off hind-leg snapped clean in two1 held together merely by the skin4 ,on pulling up to clear her from the coach1 ,i found the cause of the accident2 a piece of flint1 shaped like a hatchet1 and with a blade as keen as a razor1 still adhering to the bone1 against which it had either been whirled by a kick from one of the other three1 or had flown upwards from the tread of the mare herself1--,,ed4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,they are also subject to an affection known by the appellation of the lick1 which greatly injures their condition4 ,in this state they lick each other's skins1 and gnaw their halters to pieces4 ,this probably proceeds from the state of the stomach1 caused by the excitement of high feeding and work4 ,it may be removed by opening or alterative medicines4 ,they are likewise subject to a kind of vertigo1 which on the road is called megrims4 ,this1 of which the immediate cause is temporary pressure on the brain1 is often brought on by running in the face of a hot sun2 and1 therefore1 horses subject to megrims ought to work at night4 ,the attack appears to come on suddenly1 though a snatching motion of the head is sometimes observed to precede it4 ,if not immediately pulled up1 the horse thus affected drops4 ,such horses should have attention paid to the state of their bowels1 and have frequent antimonial alteratives4 ,what is called 8a megrim horse0 is always dangerous1 especially near a precipice or ditch1 as1 when seized1 he rolls away from his partner1 and1 of course1 takes him with him4 ,,accidents ,,to ,,coaches1 c4 ,a necessary precaution in a gig is--never to sit with the feet under the body1 but always to have one1 if not both1 out before it4 8,i had a passenger by the side of me10 says the driver who gives this caution1 8who was sitting with his feet under his belly1 and who was consequently thrown with much violence into the road4 ,i had five miles further to drive him1 during which he took care to have his feet before him40 ,in stage-coaches1 accidents no doubt occur1 and no one will assert that the proprietors guard against them to the utmost of their power4 ,the great competition1 however1 which they have to encounter1 is a strong stimulant to their exertions on this score4 ,in some respects1 also1 the increase of pace has become the traveller's security3 coaches and harness must be of the best quality2 horses fresh and sound2 coachmen of skill and respectability can alone be employed2 and to this increased pace is owing the improvement in these men's character4 ,they have not time now for drinking1 and they come in collision with a class of persons superior to those who formerly were stage-coach passengers1 by whose example it has been impossible for them not to profit4 ,a coachman drunk on his box is now a rarity--a coachman quite sober was1 but a few years ago1 still more so4 ,on the whole1 however1 travelling by public conveyance was never so secure as it is at the present time4 ,axle-trees and springs do not often break now2 and if proprietors go to the expense1 their wheels are made secure against coming off4 ,the worst accidents1 and those which1 with the present structure of coaches1 can never be entirely provided against1 arise from broken axle-trees1 and wheels coming off on the road4 ,the guard1 therefore1 in whose department this lies1 ought to examine the axle-tree every time it is fresh greased4 ,he should also remove it once in ten days1 put a string through the bolt that receives the linch-pin1 and hang it up and cleanse it2 and he should then strike it with a hammer1 when1 if uncracked and sound1 it will ring like a bell--the coachman attending to take care that it be again properly screwed on4 ,reins also break1 though rarely1 except in those parts which run through the terrets1 the rings of the throat-lash1 or in the billets2 and attention to these would make all safe1 as far as accidents from this cause are concerned4 ,accidents happen also from want of attention to the security of the bridles4 ,the throat-lash1 therefore--particularly of the wheelers--should be as tight as can be allowed without injuring respiration4 ,there otherwise is always danger of the bridle being pulled off4 ,accidents1 moreover1 happen from galloping coach-horses down hill1 or on even ground4 ,if1 indeed1 a casualty then happen1 it must be a bad one4 ,the goodness of a road is no preservative against it3 on the contrary1 it is possible that if a coach begin to swing1 it may go over from the very circumstance of the road being so level and so smooth that there is nothing on its surface to hold the wheels to the ground4 ,if1 moreover1 there be two horses at wheel whose stride in their gallop differs much as to extent1 the unequal draught invariably sets the coach rolling1 and1 unless the pace moderate1 the fore-wheel passing over even a small stone1 may1 under such circumstances1 cause the coach to upset4 ,in respect to lateral motion1 however1 much depends upon the build of the carriage4 ,in galloping coach-horses1 if the leaders lead off with two legs1 the motion of the coach is considerably truer1 and the swing-bars are also much more at rest1 than when each horse uses the same leg4 ,it appears1 then1 that accidents to coaches are chiefly to be attributed either to the want of proper skill and care in the servants employed1 or to what is still less pardonable1 inattention on the part of their masters4 ,road-coachmen1 fortunately1 are well aware that the law looks sharply after them2 and that for neglect proved against them1 they are equally answerable to their employers1 as these are to the public4 8,if ,i were to go upon the road10 says an amateur1 8,i would be a night coachman through a well-inhabited country4 ,for six months of the year1 it is undoubtedly the pleasanter service2 and ,i never found any difference between taking rest by day or by night40 ,it is1 however1 calculated only for a man in the prime of his days1 as all his energies are required4 ,the night coachman ought to know his line of road well4 ,he must take rest regularly1 or he will be sure to become drowsy1 if he do not go to sleep4 ,he must also keep himself sober2 keep a tight hand on his horses2 keep the middle of the road2 and be sure to keep time4 ,the night coachman must cast his eye well forward1 and get out of the way of carts and waggons in time4 ,although1 by looking perpendicularly from his box or at the hedges1 if there be any1 he may always see if he be in the road1 yet if he cannot throw his eye some way before his leaders' heads1 he is going at random4 ,he will often get close to things he may meet in the road before he is aware of them2 and therefore1 as ,i have already said1 it is essential that he should be wide awake1 and have his horses well in hand4 ,chains and springs on the bars are good things for night-work1 as they prevent the leaders' traces coming off4 ,a narrow road1 sufficiently wide1 of course1 for carriages to pass with convenience--with no ditch on the side--is much the best for night-work4 ,unless when the moon is very bright1 a dark night is in favour of safe travelling4 ,when it is what coachmen term 8a clear dark10 the lamps give much better light than when the darkness approaches to grey4 ,in very wide roads1 particularly where there are no hedges to confine them1 lamplight is both weak and deceiving2 and moonlight is often glimmering and doubtful1 particularly when clouds are passing rapidly4 ,lamplight is treacherous1 both in fogs and when horses are going at a moderate pace1 with the wind just behind them2 for then the steam arising from their bodies follows them1 and necessarily obstructs the light4 ,sometimes1 from driven rain or snow1 a coachman can scarcely open his eyes so as to see the road to the extent of the light given by the lamps1 in which case a tight hand on the horses is especially necessary4 ,a heavy fog is the only thing which baffles the skill and intrepidity of our night coachmen4 ,in this case1 lamps are of no avail as to showing light forward2 and1 in the worst cases1 the only use that can be made of them is for the guard to hold one in his hand behind the coach1 by which he will be able to see whether the horses are in the road or not4 ,lamps1 however1 are always useful in case of accidents2 and1 except in very clear moonlight1 a night coach should never travel without them4 ,accidents often occur from coachmen neglecting to light their lamps in going into a town4 ,it often happens that1 when a coach comes down the road in the morning1 there may be no obstruction in the streets2 but rubbish from buildings1 stones1 or many other things1 may be thrown out by the time it comes up again at night4 ,when an accident happens to a coach1 presence of mind is much required4 ,outside passengers should never think of quitting by jumping1 from the fore part1 at least1 until she falls to the ground4 ,from the box1 indeed1 a man may get over the roof into the guard's seat1 and thence descend4 ,among the various contrivances for dragging wheels1 we may mention a very ingenious one by ,mr4 ,rapson4 ,the drag is applied to the nave of the wheel1 with a chain attached1 which is fastened to the breeching1 a small pin on each side going into the bar of the drag4 ,if one of these pins be taken out1 the wheel will be dragged1 and if both are withdrawn1 the wheels are both acted upon during the descent1 by the breech bearing against the horse4 ,illustration ,in the first of these diagrams we have a representation of the break attached to the wheel1 but inoperative1 the jointed circle separating the chain1 c1 and bolt1 b1 from the nave4 ,in the second figure1 the entire frame a1 b1 c1 is seen in direct collision with the nave1 and by its friction retarding the locked wheel4 ,this1 however1 does not occur till the breeching of the harness is drawn tight by the pressure of the carriage upon it4 ,,obstructions1 ,,offences1 ,,and ,,injuries4 ,by the #ast ,geo4 ,i4 c4 #eg1 drivers of hackney coaches are to give way to gentlemen's carriages1 under a penalty of #ajs4 ,if a carriage be obstructed by disorderly persons1 the driver should take out his pocket-book1 and let the persons guilty of this see that he is taking a note of their number2 and he should then coolly tell them that he will summon them if they do not immediately clear the way4 ,if a carriage be injured by another running against it1 the driver should ascertain whose carriage has done the mischief1 and let his coachmaker give an estimate of the charge for repairing it2 but1 before he has it done1 he should let the person who injured it see the mischief1 and pay the charge2 or1 as is the custom1 let the repair be made by the coachmaker of the party who committed the injury4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,the ,,turf4 ,it is singular that no portion of our domestic annals should be so obscure as that which relates to the early history of our first of ,national ,sports4 ,in the remotest ages of civilization 7so far at least as any existing records carry us back71 a taste for horse-racing was fostered and promoted as a social engine peculiarly adapted to rural and political purposes4 ,the ,greeks--the wisest and most polished people that the world has ever seen--carried their estimate of its importance so far1 that their chiefs not only took part in the sports of the hippodrome1 but acted as officials in the regulation of its details4 ,philip of ,macedon thought it not unbecoming the imperial crown1 that he who wore it should discharge the office of judge at the ,pythian ,games1 and his son repaid in gold every line written by ,pindar in honour of the chaplet of wild olive4#gh ,the verse of ,pindar1 and the prose of ,pausanias1 have immortalized the names of ,olympia and ,elis4 ,the latter has left us the minutest particulars of the economy of racing in his day4 ,he describes the ,olympian ,hippodrome at ,elis1 and all its gorgeous display of splendid embellishments and ingenious machinery1 with a care and prodigality of narrative that give assurance of the importance which attached to the matter delineated4 ,of the perfection to which1 in that era1 the science of the course had attained1 we need no better proof than the classification observed in the ,olympic ,games--where horses were matched according to their ages1 and prizes instituted for races between mares only 7called ,calpe74 ,it is needless1 however1 to encumber our subject with ancient lore1 by continuing these classic references4 ,enough has1 perhaps1 been already adduced to establish this point--that we possess more knowledge of the condition of racing three thousand years ago1 than we do of the state it was in three hundred years since in our native land4 #gh ,the crown given to the victors in the ,olympic games4 ,but because we are in possession of such scanty materials1 it by no means follows that the little we do know should be withheld4 ,the reader will therefore have the courtesy to look back with me to the tenth century1 and ,i promise to bring him again into the nineteenth with all convenient speed4 ,as far back1 then1 as the reign of ,athelstan 7#ibe71 we read that a present of 8running horses0 was sent to that monarch from ,france1 the gift of ,hugh ,capet4 ,as nothing however is known of the character of those animals1 we will pass on to the reign of ,william1 which affords better data4 ,at that period a nobleman 7the ,earl of ,shrewsbury7 appears to have imported several ,spanish horses for his own use4 ,now1 as the ,moors had had a footing in ,spain for several centuries prior to the ,norman conquest1 there is little doubt that the blood of the ,barb was1 in the eleventh century1 extensively diffused through that country1 and that a highly improved breed of the horse was at the time extant there4 ,here we have a reasonable era from which to date an amelioration of the indigenous race in our island4 ,a little more than a century later1 in the reign of ,henry the ,second 7#aaed71 we come to1 as far as ,i have been able to discover1 the earliest mention of racing to be found in our national records4 ,this refers to a barbarous sort of running practised upon the plain now occupied by ,smithfield1 which does not appear to have been subjected to any regulations of time or method4 ,smithfield1 indeed1 was then the great horse-mart1 and very probably the contests1 exalted by their chronicler 7,fitzstephen the monk71 to ,olympic honours1 were nothing more than exhibitions1 by rival horse-croupers1 of the mettle1 speed1 and action of their respective 8palfreys1 hackneys1 and charging-steeds40 ,still1 that horse-racing was about this time a popular pastime1 and one in which the nobles of the land were wont to take pride1 is fully established by the allusions to it that abound in the many metrical legends1 yet in existence1 composed in honour of ,richard of the ,lion ,heart4 ,these preserve the names of the coursers1 and speak of them as being valued at sums that1 allowing for the difference in the worth of money1 quite exceed any prices known in our day4 ,the domestic troubles which marked the reign of ,john1 and the succession of wars in which we were subsequently engaged1 probably interrupted the progress of this sport materially--at all events1 we do not find any of our sovereigns giving their countenance to it from ,richard to the bluff ,harry4 ,henry ,,viii4 was constitutionally disposed for manly occupations and amusements--of his moral tendencies we speak not4 ,we have it on the authority of ,challoner that he was much disposed to improve the breed of horses1 for which purpose he imported various descriptions from ,spain and ,turkey4 ,fortune1 too1 enabled his daughter ,elizabeth to do much for our native breed2 the destruction of the ,spanish ,armada having supplied us with many barbs and ,spanish-bred horses1 their descendants1 found in the vessels of that fleet which fell into the hands of ,lord ,howard of ,effingham4 ,we now come to her successor1 ,james ,i41#gi who must be considered as the founder of legitimate racing in this country4 ,he introduced the first ,arab into ,england of which we have any knowledge--that purchased by ,mr4 ,markham1 and known as the ,markham ,arabian4 ,the training system1 which has now reached such perfection1 was then practised in its various divisions of physic1 work1 sweating1 and the etcetera of stable economy2 and the weight to be carried for public prizes arranged by authority4 ,the ,roodee1 at ,chester1 was an established course in this reign1 one of the prizes being a silver bell1 of the value of ten pounds or thereabouts1 run for in five-mile heats4 ,similar prizes were also given at ,theobald's on ,enfield ,chase1 at ,croydon1 and ,gatherly1 in ,yorkshire1 whence the popular term 8bearing the bell10 no doubt1 had its origin4 ,his unfortunate son ,charles ,i4 had little opportunity of forwarding the social concerns of himself or others4 ,in his reign1 however1 the first races on record at ,newmarket were held1 and1 by a singular fatality1 to ,newmarket was he borne a prisoner to the parliamentary forces4 ,the 8civil dudgeon0 of the ,protectorate of course was not friendly to the amusements of the turf1 but1 though suspended1 they were not lost sight of4 ,mr4 ,place1 the stud-master to ,oliver ,cromwell1 imported the celebrated horse known as the ,white ,turk4 ,he was also the owner of some very capital mares1 one of which1 during the search after ,cromwell's property at the ,restoration1 he saved from destruction by hiding in a vault1 whence she took the name of the 8,coffin ,mare40 #gi ,the palace at ,newmarket was built by this monarch for the purpose of enjoying the diversion of hunting--no races having been held upon the heath till the succeeding reign4 ,with the ,restoration came the palmy days of the ,turf4 ,regular meetings were established at ,newmarket1 and various other parts of ,england2 silver cups and bowls of the value of one hundred pounds were presented as royal gifts1 and1 more than all1 the light of royal favour shone upon it in shape of ,charles the ,debonair and ,mistress ,eleanor ,gwynne4 ,william ,,iii4 had no taste for racing1 and died by a fall from his horse4 ,prince ,george of ,denmark1 on the other hand1 was warmly attached to the ,turf1 and promoted its interest by every means in his power4 ,we are indebted for many royal plates to his influence with his consort ,queen ,anne4 ,george ,i4 was no sportsman2 in his reign1 however1 the alteration in the royal plates took place1 by which a sum of one hundred guineas was substituted in their stead4 ,shortly after ,george ,,ii4 ascended the throne1 arose a morbid yearning after legislating for the ,turf4 ,some of the acts enacted were mischievous2 very many were very silly2 one was good3--8,that no plate or prize of a less value than #ej should be run for1 under a penalty of #bjj40 ,it was during this reign that the ,darley and ,godolphin ,arabians were brought into this country1--two horses from whom have descended all the most celebrated racers that adorn the annals of our turf4 ,this is the period at which the genealogy of our unrivalled thorough-bred horse then1 was naturalized1 and it is the date whence ,i think it most convenient to begin my notice of ,english racing4 ,even a notice so confined as this is beset with obscurities that few would conceive possible4 ,as an instance1 ,i will adduce the case of an old and well-informed inhabitant of ,epsom1 who some years ago published a very clever history of that place4 ,he starts somewhere about the ,conquest1 and never halts for want of materials as he goes on1 till he comes to the great stumbling-block1 concerning which he shall speak for himself3--8,when the races on ,epsom ,downs were first held periodically1 we have not been able to trace2 but we find that from the year #agcj they have been annually held in the months of ,may or ,june1 and about six weeks previous to which the hunters' stakes are occasionally run for on the ,epsom race course1 at one of which1 in #agcj1 the famous horse ,madcap won the prize1 and proved the best plate-horse in ,england40 ,to return1 however1 to the reign of ,george ,,ii41 though we find little bearing on the business of the ,turf to be gleaned from its records1 it introduces us to the great forefathers of our thorough blood1 and stirs one of the most interesting questions in our domestic natural history--the problem of the seed or origin of the ,english thorough-bred horse4 ,a brief search through the stud-book will convince the inquirer that1 almost without exception1 our great racers were and are descendants of the ,darley and ,godolphin ,arabians3 ,i use the latter term merely because its conventionality now identifies those celebrated animals4 ,they were both1 as has been stated1 imported in this reign3 the question that ,i would here investigate applies equally to each1 but1 for the sake of simplifying it1 ,i will treat it with reference to the latter only4 8,that he was a genuine ,arabian10 says the stud-book1 8his excellence as a sire is deemed sufficient proof20 a little further on we read1 8,it is remarkable that there is not a superior horse now on the ,turf without a cross of the ,godolphin ,arabian1 neither has there been for several years past40 ,the probable date of his arrival in this country was #agbe1 or thereabouts4 ,hundreds of ,arabs had preceded him as sires1 their introduction for that purpose having been a very general speculation from the time of ,charles ,i4 ,that the indigenous island breed had thereby been rendered good service1 there can be no doubt2 but that the ,turf derived any signal advantages from the importations is more than problematical4 ,are our celebrated strains of racing blood derived at all from an ,arab source1 and1 if so descended1 are they excellent consequently1 or of accident8 ,as regards the first moiety of the inquiry1 a work has just appeared in ,paris1 the production of a gentleman of some literary celebrity#hj1 relating to the genealogy of the horse so long known to us as the ,godolphin ,arabian4 ,his statements go to show that he was a pure ,barb1 presented1 with seven others1 by the ,bey of ,tunis to ,louis ,,xv41 about the year #agca4 ,all the portraits ,i have ever seen of him certainly go to strengthen this reading of his descent1 and proclaim him not of ,asiatic origin4 ,the date is an erroneous one1 as he was a sire in ,england in the year in which he is said to have reached ,france2 but we must be content with very vague data in all that concerns our subject a century ago4 ,as to the second division of the question1 after-time must furnish the means of replying to it1 if it be ever answered4 ,my bias is to a belief that there exist families of the horse in the ,east possessed of a perfection infinitely surpassing any generically inherited4 ,this ,i have attempted to demonstrate in a work upon which ,i am at present engaged1 some portion of which has been already published4#ha ,the fact 7of which ,i was made conscious by authority beyond question7 that the ,imaum of ,muscat1 one of the most powerful sovereign princes of ,india1 expended ten years of active search1 backed by the enormous bribe of ten thousand pounds1 before he could procure a descendant of a line sufficiently pure to present to ,king ,george ,,iv41 seems to establish the truth of the theory to which ,i profess being inclined4 ,all that we learn from our knowledge of the almost religious veneration with which the genealogy of the horse is treated in the ,east1 goes to the like confirmation4 8,it is remarkable that there is not a superior horse now on the turf without a cross of the ,godolphin ,arabian10 ,i leave the reader to interpret as his own reflections may lead him4 #hj ,m4 ,eugene ,sue4 #ha ,annals of the ,british ,turf1 from the ,introduction of ,eastern blood to the present ,time4 ,the first century concluded in the ,old ,sporting ,magazine4 ,shall ,i venture1 at the hazard of pursuing my theory 8ultra fines10 to offer one more example in support of it8 ,that no structural organization available to the eye1 no individual excellence in the parents1 influence1 in our raising stock1 the performances of their offspring1 are truisms taught by every stud in the kingdom4 ,all that exist among us1 descended from the great forefather of the ,turf1 are capable of producing offspring of equal pretension1 as regards the root from which they are sprung4 ,far different was the result in relation to the importations of ,eastern blood contemporary with the ,godolphin1 and the same it has been with all more recently introduced4 ,enough1 at all events1 has been adduced1 if not to prove my position1 to warrant me1 at least1 in its assumption1 as well as for offering it to the consideration of those who hold the subject to which it relates of sufficient interest to engage their attention4 ,from such speculations on the origin of the ,british racehorse1 we will turn to the annals of his exploits1--a theme more generally attractive1 though intrinsically less important4 ,here1 to begin with the early worthies of the turf1 all is as obscure as is the genealogical problem with which we have been already engaged4 ,of the performances of ,childers1 detailed1 as they are1 with all apparent microscopic observations of the seconds' hand1 ,i am convinced that we know rather worse than nothing4 ,in a recent work of more than an ordinary character on the subject to which it addresses itself 7,lawrence's ,history of the ,horse71 ,childers--,flying ,childers1 as he was designated par excellence--is stated to have been a chestnut1 whereas he was a rich bay with four white legs4 ,the same slovenly style1 no doubt1 attaches to the records of the early performances1 as well as to the more recent attempts of equestrian historians4 ,again1 the only criterion by which we can estimate them is1 when we can refer to a timed race1 because1 knowing little of the principals1 we cannot be supposed to have a better knowledge of the pretensions of their contemporaries4 ,now1 even in our day1 when all the appliances for chronometrical accuracy are so vastly improved and multiplied1 we rarely hear of the time of a race being kept at all1 even accidentally3 it is never done by authority1 or on a principle deserving of confidence4 ,we know that the taste1 in the middle of the last century1 inclined to long distances1 and repeated exertion--six and eight-mile heats being events of constant recurrence2 and yet we are required to believe that there existed at and previous to that time a flight of speed unknown to our degenerate days4 ,moreover1 by far the greater portion of the early racers were undersized1 ,galloways as the old ,calendars have them in every page2 and stride is1 save in rare exceptions1 indispensable to a high degree of swiftness4 ,in the absence of any actual data as to speed1 worthy being confided in1 it may not be inconvenient to relate a performance of one of the first-class horses of that period2 and1 by contrasting it with a match against time1 done by a contemporary hackney1 some deduction may be drawn of the qualities of the racers of that era4 ,gimcrack1 a grey horse bred in #agfj1 by ,cripple out of ,miss ,elliot1 was considered one of the best of his day4 ,in consequence of his superiority1 he was sent to ,france1 where he was matched for a large sum to do a certain distance against time4 ,whatever it was1 he was the winner1 having accomplished twenty-three miles in fifty-five minutes4 ,this was probably in #aggj4 ,in #aggh1 a foundered hackney1 aged twenty-two1 belonging to a ,mr4 ,hanks1 did twenty-two miles within the hour1 upon the high road in the neighbourhood of ,london4 ,gimcrack carried eight stone3 the weight on the hackney is not given1 but there is no reason for believing it less than eight stone2 so that one of the best race-horses of that day could only beat a broken-down hack a mile and five minutes in an hour6 ,it is a conventional fallacy to attribute to past days virtues superior to those in which were live4 ,every thing1 from the seasons to the flavour of home-brewed1 was better1 if we credit the popular voice1 8in the good old times40 ,to examine the application of this rule to the matter before us1 ,i may perhaps be permitted to borrow a leaf out of my own book1 seeing that ,i could scarce make my argument stronger in any other form of words4 8,after a careful examination of all the best authorities bearing upon the condition of the ,turf in that so emphatically called its palmiest era--the middle of the last century--,i find nothing to warrant the belief that1 as a species1 the contemporaries of ,king ,herod1 ,imperator1 ,eclipse1 ,florizel1 and ,highflyer1 possessed either speed1 power1 or symmetry1 unknown to the racer of our day4 ,at the very date to which this extraordinary excellence is ascribed1 we find the degeneracy of that particular breed the subject of legislative consideration2 and in #agdj that an ,act of ,parliament was passed1 denouncing the ,turf as the cause of the growing debasement of the breed of horses all over the kingdom1 and fixing the weights to be carried in all plates and matches at ten stone for five-year-olds1 eleven stone for six1 and twelve stone for seven-year-olds and upwards1 on pain of a penalty of #bjj1 and forfeiture of the horse4 ,it is true that this ,act was repealed soon afterwards1 through the intervention1 as it was believed1 of the ,duke of ,cumberland2 nevertheless it is manifest that there must have existed strong grounds for complaint against the system of breeding and racing before the consideration of its economy would be made a subject of ,parliamentary interference4 ,let us turn to the weights carried by two-year-olds fifty years ago1 and those common to the present period1--the former averaging from six stone to six stone six pounds1 the latter from eight stone five pounds to eight stone seven pounds1 and what evidence of degeneracy does that furnish80 ,racing1 wherever we meet it existing as a popular sport1 is the growth of a root indigenous to ,england4 ,all the appliances of civilization are carried to a higher degree of perfection among us1 in the present day1 than at any former period of our history3 the ,turf1 and all its materiel1 it cannot be doubted1 has attained a comparative condition of excellence4 ,in a nation peculiarly attached to rural sports1 that1 as matter of course1 becomes entitled to the place of honour which diffuses the greatest portion of enjoyment to the greatest number of people4 ,in this view1 racing is well entitled to the pre-eminence which it has so long claimed1 and had conceded to it2 but it prefers demands of a higher nature than its mere pleasurable results4 ,in a political sense1 it is an engine of no mean importance4 ,a state must benefit largely from an agency which exhibits its nobles promoting1 at great individual cost1 a sport in which all classes can participate equally with themselves1 and which brings together all the divisions of society for one end and purpose--social recreation4 ,where shall we seek the great moral of ,england's power and station8--,in the wealth which commerce pours upon her shares8--,in her wooden walls8--,in the skill1 learning1 and valour of her sons8 ,we can scarce study it in a more impressive page than that yearly spread before us at the great popular re-unions of ,epsom1 ,ascot1 and ,doncaster4 ,let such as love such lore1 then1 search after it where the examination will surely reward their industry3 we will take it up1 abstractedly1 as a pastime1 and in that character look into the nature and influence of its present economy4 ,as a treasury of art1 an assembly of learning1 ingenuity1 and pleasure1 our metropolis has many rivals--some superiors3 in our rural life we stand alone4 ,mainly this has been brought about by--is the consequence of--a general taste for field sports4 ,whether the cause of morality is served by horse-racing1 it is not our province to inquire4 ,an inelegant but most apropos salt-water axiom says1 8every man to his post1 and the cook to the fore-sheet40 ,mankind1 since the creation1 has set its face against all work and no play1 and will do so to the end of the chapter4 ,we are of the disciples of ,democritus2 and1 feeling in the vein1 will just touch in here1 merely in outline1 a faint sketch of a ,,derby ,,day4 ,perhaps1 with one exception alone1 none of the realities of life come up to the anticipations of them2 and what1 you ask1 is that singular deviation from the general rule8--,it is a ,,derby ,,day4 ,imagine a conglomeration of two millions of souls stirred to its penetralia1 shaken from its propriety1 morally earthquaked1 because of the necessity which annually requires that a certain portion of the mass 7say a fortieth7 should rendezvous in a neighbourhood where certain horses are to contend some two minutes and sundry seconds for certain monies1 and you arrive at a general idea of something by no means in the ordinary course4 ,the scene of this commotion is ,london1 the majority of the actors automata that make yearly one solitary diversion 7in both the word's interpretations7 from the regular cycles of their orbits4 ,but such a ,saturnalia demands a word anent its note of preparation4 ,as soon as the month dawns1 big with the catastrophe of ,epsom ,races1 straightway from ,belgrave ,square to ,shoreditch1 from the ,regent's ,park to uttermost ,rotherhithe1 forth the sackage goes that guts1 from garret to cellar1 every ,pantechnicon1 ,bazaar1 and ,repository of all and singular the wheeled conveniences and inconveniences peculiar to each4 ,anon the horse1 in all its infinite gradations1 is had in requisition1 from ,newman's choicest specimens of blood1 that devour the ,surrey highways1 to the living quadrupedal skeleton redeemed from the knacker's knife at the last ,smithfield show for fifteen shillings1 and a 8drop o' summut for luck40 ,the day arrives1 and lo6 a mighty chain of carriages1 8in linked grumbling long drawn out10 extends from the ,elephant and ,castle to the merry ,downs of ,epsom1 whitherwards we will suppose thy anxious way hath at length been achieved4 ,the moisture of travel encumbereth thy brow3 searchest thou for thy best ,bandana to relieve thee of the damp8 ,luckless wight6-- 8----,that handkerchief ,did an ,egyptian from thy pocket prig40 ,is not the tide of humanity at the flood of spring8 ,ten deep do vehicles of all kinds1 definite and undefinable1 line the course4 ,opposite and around the stand all is high-bred and aristocratic3 lower down1 leading for ,tattenham's classic corner1 you haply take your curious path4 ,what lots of pretty girls you encounter as you go6--each so lady-like and bien mise1 you would never dream of their metropolitan whereabouts1 were it not for those awful mortalities that cluster around them2 brothers1 cousins1 lovers it may be--pale shadows that haunt the glimpses of ,bow ,church--horrible illusions from ,ludgate ,hill and the ,ward of ,cheap1 with prickly frills to their linen1 swallow tails to their coats1 green velvet waistcoats1 or1 still more shocking1 similar habiliments of black satin1 whereon the indecent chain of ,mosaic grins ghastly1 like the gilding on a coffin6--faugh6 ,drawing near to the lines1 hark6 from glass coach1 britscha1 jarvey1 phaeton1 proceed various sounds of discontent4--8,cold chickens1 veal pie1 lobsters and no salt40--8,half-a-dozen bottles is all very fine1 and never no corkscrew40--8,sir1 ,i'll set that right if you'll only accommodate us with the loan of a glass2 really it's too provoking40444 ,ascend the hill1 approach the ,ring1 and hear what sums are jeopardied on the coming event6--enough to purchase half-a-score of ,german principalities2 but the warren is open1 and thither you are borne by the countless thousands who throng for a glance of the coursers on whom hang the hopes and fears of all4 ,no spot can be better adapted for the purpose to which it is assigned than the so well-known warren2 but all that nature has done man takes especial care to frustrate4 ,instead of its cool quiet alleys being kept for the tranquil preparation of animals peculiarly disposed to excitement 7their most dangerous foe at a moment when the entire possession of every faculty is of such vital consequence71 every 8dingle1 nook1 and bosky bourn0 is invaded by a horde of ravenous1 sight-seeing cockneys1 of all beasts of prey the most reckless and perverse4 ,amid this restless crowd of babbling1 cigar-smoking untameables1 the process of saddling is effected1 and1 with graceful steps1 the fiery-footed adversaries depart for the lists4 ,you reach the place of starting1 and what awaits you there8 ,order1 decorum1 and all fitting arrangement for the important essay of which it is the arena8 ,a second chaos6--all the human elements thrown together in a moral whirlpool4 ,a score of men in buckram suits 7blue linsey-wolsey71 attempting to dispose of twice as many thousands--something like barring the gates of a beleagured town with boiled carrots6 ,they draw together for the start--infinitely the most influential point in the great game to be played4 ,here all is confusion worse confounded3 the multitude opens its thousand throats of brass2 the steeds are frantic2 the jockeys 7born and bred devils from their cradle7 practise every conceivable stratagem ever hatched in ,fiendom2 and there stands one nervous old man to front the pitiless pelting1 and produce from such materials a result with which all are to be satisfied4 8,they are off60 and the old gentleman1 in his agony1 pronounces 8go10 and the fatal signal has gone forth4 ,over the hill1 adown the fall1 there is a meteoric flash1 as though a rainbow had borrowed the wings of the lightning1 and all is over6 ,the ,derby is decided--the steeds turned round--the jockeys approach the scales--,holy ,mother of ,moses6 has it entered the heart of man 7even an ,irishman7 to conceive the tearing and swearing1 the howling and screeching1 that instant rends the empyrean6 ,quick as thought a circle of bludgeons and constables is formed1 into which the horses as they arrive are received1 and against which a roaring ocean of humanity is dashing as fiercely as the vexed ,atlantic4 ,look towards the grand stand--behold whole acres of countenances uplifted to the sky1 wedged as closely as a crate of ,french eggs1 and resembling nothing as yet discovered but a monstrous dish of opened oysters6 ,the round earth is shaken1 and echo gives up the ghost--the thunder hides its diminished head1 as with the bellowings of ten thousand volcanos myriads of furious lungs crash forth1 8,,who ,,has ,,won80 ,thus whilom did ,i sing of this scene2 and with better experience1 save in the episodes of flying voltigeurs1 men 8with never no back-bones at all1 only a slip of gristle to hold head and heels together10 and epicures in cutlery1 8who swallow knives and forks for all the world like gingerbread nuts10 ,i can add nothing to the beau ideal of a ,,derby ,,day4 ,how little can they1 who first give existence to a principle1 foresee how it will operate1 and what may be its results4 ,the pastime of horse-racing1 fostered and promoted simply as a channel of amusement by the gay and thoughtless ,charles1 called into being the strongest impulse of man's nature--emulation1 and thus entailed upon this country a race of the noblest of all existing animals1 of a character apparently superior to that originally destined by nature4 ,this may be an erroneous theory1 but as yet we are unacquainted with any variety of the horse comparable to the artificial stock known as our thorough-blood4 ,the very general efforts that were made from that period by the nobles and great landed proprietors to improve by lavish outlay1 and all the appliances which it can command1 the best strains of the recently imported ,oriental blood1 towards the middle of the last century1 seem to have carried the race-horse as a species as near to perfection as his generic organization will admit4 ,true1 every year produced some few infinitely superior to their contemporaries1 but they were phenomena1--indebted to no individuality of parentage for their excellence1 and unpossessed of the faculty of endowing their descendants with similar gifts4 ,as a race1 when opposed to the indigenous horse of any quarter of the earth1 the ,english thorough-blood is universally victorious2 among the various families into which it is divided at home1 no constant succession of superiority has ever discovered itself4 ,i am aware that those who only take a superficial view of the economy of our racing system will at once pronounce against this position4 ,they will adduce the sons and daughters of ,king ,herod1 ,eclipse1 and ,highflyer2 in our day1 of ,sultan and ,emilius1 as far surpassing the ordinary run of their contemporaries4 ,but they do not bear in mind that not only did and does the progeny of these justly celebrated sires greatly outnumber that of their less favoured brothers1 but that the best mares of their respective eras were and are exclusively put to them4 ,not to travel beyond our own day for proofs1 did excellence ensure its like1 what chance would have remained to those who now and then breed a solitary nomination against the gigantic studs of ,hampton ,court1 ,riddlesworth1 or ,underly8 ,to confine the question to the present year 7#ahch71 we had evidence that not all the wealth1 skilful training1 ,sybarite care and treatment of the best of ,england's blood could produce a match for the son of one of our indifferent racers1--the despised of an ,irish tenth-rate stable1--the wonderful and the basely-abused ,harkaway4#hb ,i may be told that he was defeated here1 and by second-raters1 too1--but under what circumstances8 ,with ordinary care1 without having been subjected to actual ill-treatment1 at weight for age there was nothing of the year in ,england that could have stood any chance with him4 #hb ,this extraordinary animal is now 7,december #ahch7 advertised for sale1 his price six thousand guineas1 with this strange addition1 8that his owner 7,mr4 ,ferguson7 rides him hunting once or twice a week60 ,from these premises the deduction at which we arrive bearing upon the economy of the turf1 its nature and influence is twofold1 and admits of a very brief solution1--the first being that the day is long passed since the means of winning upon the race-course were to be obtained by breeding2 the second1 that the vast advantages still to be derived from a proper application of our thorough-blood is most strangely neglected4 ,mr4 ,bowes began his racing career by breeding a winner of the ,derby1 while the late ,duke of ,leeds1 the most extensive breeder of blood stock in the north1 toiled in vain for the ,leger till he won it with a colt bought from the tail of the plough4 ,lord ,george ,bentinck1 the best winner on the turf of modern days1 if the ,calendar be any criterion1 regards breeding racers as an expedient no man in his senses should dream of1 and1 acting upon his theory1 has put money in his purse4 ,a first-class racer1 a colt of extraordinary promise1 are each productions of chance-medley1 only to be come at by being secured where and when they can be found4 ,but if the ,turf be thus restricted in further profiting1 save as matter of hazard1 by the means which securely ministered to the success of its first speculators1 it furnishes materials from which may be moulded other distinct races1 as valuable1 each in its province1 as the flying family of the modern race-course1 now the sole representatives of our thorough-blood4 ,the ragged regiment of cock-tails will1 it is devoutly to be hoped1 speedily be disbanded2 the day soon arrive when no gentleman shall be seen bestriding the mongrel of a base-bred hackney1 scarce worthy the shafts of a costermonger's trap4 ,and first1 as is befitting1 such reform must commence with its next of kin--,,the ,,field4 ,shall this1 assuredly the second--nay1 the twin-sport of racing1 in the esteem of ,englishmen1 long continue dependent upon chance for a supply of horses for its service8 ,impossible2 the period cannot be far distant in which the ,british thorough-bred hunter will be as distinct a race1 and of as high renown1 as his progenitors were the pride of the ,turf4 ,illustration ,,hunting4 ,as the whole object of the ,manly ,exercises is not accomplished in the attainment and practice of them1 it was thought convenient that the business of their details should be succeeded by a partial notice of some of those sports of which they form the elementary process1 and which may be regarded as their ultimate 8end and aim40 ,it has been well said by my talented friend1 ,nimrod1 that all the writing in the world will not make a sportsman4 ,the pen of ,pindar1 and the pencil of ,grant1 indeed1 exhibit him in all perfection to our admiration2 but1 could they both write for the education of the student whose ambition is ,olympic fame1 they would not insure success4 ,like the poet1 he must be born1 in a manner1 to his cunning4 ,the ,exercises1 upon which ,mr4 ,walker has written1 admitted of being inculcated by methodical rules1 and acquired by a systematic routine of practice4 ,an acquaintance with them will be found of service to youth1 whatever the destination of its manhood may be2 while they are essential to the formation of a frame and character fitted for the maturity likely to be devoted to the wear and tear of our hardy ,rural ,sports4 ,driving and ,yachting1 though neither of them strictly coming within the pale of a course of physical exercises1 still are not out of place in a practical book devoted to the science of manly recreations1 because each is governed by certain rules1 which may be taught and acquired4 ,it is not so with the subjects constituting the matter on which we are at present engaged4 ,a man may out-study ,zoroaster without being one whit the better qualified for winning a fifty-pound plate1 hitting off the line of a fox that has been headed1 or bringing down his woodcock in cover2 these are arts which1 being decimated1 leave one part to theory and nine in favour of practice4 ,for this cause ,i have made my ,article on the ,turf of a character more suited to the purposes of the general reader than those of the visionary theorist1 who may fondly hope to meet1 on page traced by mortal hands1 a recipe for breeding1 training1 and managing an embryo winner of ,derby or ,leger4 ,the ,chase1 however1 admits of a certain code of general maxims3 it has1 if not limits1 at all events courses better defined than those of the ,turf1 and to the application of them by practical men of modern experience we will at once proceed4 ,assuming that a tolerable proficiency in horsemanship has been attained before the young disciple of ,diana ventures to show at all with hounds1 he will do well to dedicate the first of his novitiate to hare-hunting1 whether his future destination be that of a ,m4 ,f4 ,h41 or merely a partaker of the 8light from heaven10 dispensed by the 8noble science40 ,as this little treatise addresses itself more particularly to the latter1 it will be sufficient to point out what should be his aim in his early lessons4 ,of these1 the most essential to the formation of a good sportsman1 and the only one that will enable any man to live to the end of a severe run1 is1 that he cultivate the faculty of a quick eye to hounds4 ,with harriers he will constantly have practice in this task3 the perpetual doubles to which nine hares out of ten1 when chased1 resort1 will soon convince him of the necessity of keeping a wary look out for the line towards which the leading hounds incline4 ,he will have little difficulty in deciding with which portion of the pack1 or with which individual of it1 the scent is1 if he only observe closely when there is any indication of a check4 ,the instant a hound catches the scent1 he will see him drop his tail horizontally1 and spring to the front1 the one who has lost it elevating his1 as if engaged in questing4 ,keeping his look-out always upon the leaders1 and leaving the body of the pack to follow a similar system1 he turns his horse as he sees the chase lean1 and thus is going at his ease inside the circle1 around which others can hardly live at the best their nags can accomplish4 ,when a huntsman is coming past with hounds1--particularly at check in a lane or road1--get out of his way all you can2 the narrower the pass the greater the necessity that you give room1 or hounds must break over the fence1 and so run the risk of putting up1 or crossing the line of1 another hare3 moreover1 horses on such occasions are apt to strike out at hounds1 and it is far from pleasant to be constituted by such a casualty 8the observed of all observers40 ,in the matter of riding at fences1 with harriers you will be more enabled to suit your practice to the individual case than when you come to ride alongside fox-hounds4 ,with the former1 when any thing very cramp crosses your line1 you may 8look before you leap10 and this is no bad maxim1 whoever may choose to sneer at it4 ,let this too be an axiom from which you never depart1 as far as regards the hounds3 when you are out with the jolly dogs1 8hear and see1 and say nothing0--so shall you earn golden opinions from the field in general1 and prevent much out-pouring of wrath from the officials in particular4 ,it will serve you to bear in mind that in almost every difficulty of ground a horse can serve himself better than you can assist him4 ,i do not mean to say that in heavy1 deep galloping you should not hold him together1 and if there be a furrow or path at hand1 that you should not give him the advantage of it4 ,but in woodlands1 for instance1 where young timber has been felled1 and the surface is covered with live stubs1 give him his head3 let him pick his own way2 never touch his mouth with the bridle to guide him1 and you will find how rarely he will give a chance away4 ,thus in a rabbit warren the difficulty is doubled by the nervous man who attempts to steer his horse4 ,the biped is looking at one hole1 the quadruped at another1 and being diverted from the spot where he intended to place his foot1 puts it in where it was meant that he should not4 ,still1 however1 you may attempt it3 never charge ground of this nature without using the precaution of slacking your pace4 ,i remember a well-known bruising rider1 who thought it impossible that he could be hurt1 once trying the experiment over a warren in the neighbourhood of ,whitchurch1 in ,shropshire1 and being assured of the affirmative in the first hundred yards by the fracture of his collar-bone1 and the dislocation of a shoulder4 ,with the common run of fences1 where the grip is from you1 go faster at them than when it lies on the side you take off from4 ,when they consist of live thorns and quicks newly laid down1 take them1 whenever the chance presents itself1 aslant1 rising where the top of the thorn is laid1 as being the least capable of holding your horse's knees1 should they catch in rising at it4 ,in your noviciate it is hardly necessary to offer you any advice as to water4 ,as a general rule1 however1 it may as well be said here as elsewhere that1 in brook-jumping1 pace comes first and then judgment4 ,with a powerful impetus you get over2 should your horse blunder1 somehow--if with a fall at the other side1 no matter3 less speed enables you to pick your ground better1 but it throws all the odds on the side of a cold-bath1 should the span be wider than you calculated on1 or the bank be soft1 and let you in4 ,never take hold of your horse's head till you feel that he is safely landed2 if there is a scramble for it1 and you pull at him but an ounce1 it may turn the beam of his equipoise1 and in you go together4 ,young hands are prone to think that it is necessary to the acquisition of the reputation of a sportsman that they show in front throughout a run4 ,indeed ,i might have said this idea seems to hold with many who ought to be wiser4 ,the sooner the youthful ,nimrod discards this fallacy the better4 ,the chances are so multiplied and various against a good run that it is next to a miracle how a real clipper ever occurs4 ,from foil1 to which ground is every where exposed1 down to an infant of three years old that heads your quarry1 on every side you are beset with risk1 even with a scent4 ,without it your difficulty becomes almost an impossibility1 and that is the time when over-riding1 more fatal than all other obstacles put together1 is to be seen in its superlative degree4 ,there is your hard-rider1 par excellence1 who will be first3 the leader pulls up at a check--the nuisance passes him1 even with hounds at fault1 without a moment's care for the mischief he must do the chase1 or what he may do himself4 ,let such as this teach you that which you should avoid3 acquire in youth the way you should go1 and in your maturity you will not depart from it4 ,we now come to the matriculation of the 8noble science10 and consider the quondam novice entered to fox-hunting4 ,it would be bootless here to offer any eulogy upon a sport admitted1 by authorities allowing no question1 to be1 in a political as well as a social view1 a powerful moral engine4 ,in a letter now before me1 which ,i lately received from a gallant general1 himself a master of fox-hounds1 he ascribes to a taste for the chase that characteristic manly daring which distinguishes the officers of our service from those of any other4 ,of all field sports its claims are the most general upon the properties of manhood4 ,the tiger-hunts of the ,east may appeal more directly to the courage1 but with activity and physical endurance they have little or nothing to do4 ,but see the qualities that must combine to form the accomplished fox-hunter4 ,he must be bold1 ready1 decisive1 capable of commanding and sustaining great bodily exertion3 he must join unity of purpose to promptness of action2 capability of foreseeing events1 that he may best turn them to advantage1 with a frame and a spirit alike competent to meet and oppose undauntedly difficulties and dangers1 how and when they may assail him4 ,i would not have it supposed that ,i claim for the chase a higher station for enterprise than any other of the adventurous occupations in which we find mankind employed4 ,it would be absurd for an instant1 for example1 to compare it with that most exciting and magnificent of all the daring offices to which man has ever addressed himself--the ,south ,sea fishing4 ,but as a sport1--an act to which pleasure alone induces him1 fox-hunting has nothing at all bearing comparison with it in modern days4 ,to the present fashion of its details we will now turn our consideration4 ,i do not think it necessary here to enter into any foreign matter1 such as the nature and economy of the establishment with which the field may be taken with reference to the country hunted1 or the number of days weekly to be devoted to its business4 ,we will suppose our young ,nimrod has completed all such arrangements in a convenient fashion1 and proceed to the res gest for which he has made preparation4 ,in this hard-riding era1 it is regarded as a dashing style of going to cover1 by your aspiring tyro1 to approach it as the crow would fly4 ,if he must go thither across country1 let him1 at all events1 avoid passing through1 or riding too near any of the covers likely to be drawn during the day4 ,if they hold a good fox1 it is sure notice for him to quit1 for he is ever on the qui vive4 ,the result is1 should the hounds be thrown in1 they come upon a scent some hours old--crawl upon it over probably the cream of the country1 never come on terms with him2 and a capital day's sport is lost to a whole field by a selfish half-hour's lark4 ,arrived at the place of meeting1 he should not address himself to the master1 if he hunt his own hounds2 or1 in the other case1 to the huntsman1 notwithstanding he may be on familiar terms with them1 beyond the mere exchange of a passing civility4 ,even then1 a man1 bent upon showing a good day's sport1 has his mind sufficiently engaged on the business before him4 ,he is consulting temporary causes1 by which to be directed as to the particular cover to begin with1 and how it is to be drawn4 ,the point of wind1 the nature of the day1 the weather of the preceding week1--all must be weighed1 and brought to assist his judgment4 ,a fox well found is always the most likely to be well accounted for4 ,but if conversation with the master or huntsman be inconvenient before hounds are thrown off1 afterwards it becomes a positive impertinence4 ,it is no excuse for doing so that they are not actually engaged at the moment4 ,a huntsman1 having drawn without a find1 is probably waiting for some of his hounds2 at the same time he is debating with himself what cover he shall next try1 and how to get to it1 as the wind may affect the best lying in it for his fox4 ,he has also observed how his hounds have behaved1 and has orders to give to a whip as to the conduct of some one prone to riot2 or that a particular corner of the cover about being drawn shall be carefully watched4 ,in short1 success or failure are dependent on his management2 and how can he deliberate if he is to stand a general catechism8 ,if it be a large cover1 keep within hearing of the hounds and huntsman4 ,this can only be effected by being down wind1 and should be done without any reference to the distance round1 which it may impose4 ,of course1 it is not intended that a man should take any thing he can avoid out of his horse by galloping round a cover1 but let him keep on steadily opposite the hounds1 taking heed that he does not get so far forward as to endanger heading back the fox1 and so spoiling his own and his neighbours' sport4 ,this ,i only recommend where covers are very large1 and even then it may not be the best system4 ,in all cases where it is practicable1 ,i never throw a chance away by losing sight of hounds4 ,i remember1 some years ago1 meeting ,sir ,richard ,puleston at ,cresford village1 whence we trotted to a wood that skirts the high road to ,chester4 ,as we jogged forward1 a friend overtook me1 accosting me with1 8,you need not hurry yourself1 for they'll find nothing where they're going3 it has been beaten within an hour by a party of coursers1 who have left nothing alive on four legs within it1 you may rely40 ,in ten minutes1 the pack and field were streaming1 best pace1 after a fox found in that same coppice1 away for ,shavington1 over a country like the cream of ,leicestershire or ,northampton4 ,in fox-hunting1 depend solely upon yourself1 and keep with the pack4 ,even in going from cover to cover1 be with them4 ,circumstances frequently arise which induce a huntsman to abandon trying a place upon which he may have previously fixed2 and how often has a fox jumped out of a hedge-row in the centre of a pack trotting industriously away to look for a chance probably half a dozen miles off6 ,in windy weather1 when hounds are in cover1 unless you draw it with them1 it is two to one you never get away at all1 and ten to one against a good start4 ,i have had some experience of horses in my day1 and have ever found1 that1 of all ways of beating them1 the surest is that of trying to catch hounds4 ,laying aside the excitement and energy produced by the music1 alongside of which they go sailing away in wild delight1 it must be remembered that the pace of fox-hounds with a scent is equal to the best1 if not superior1 that any first-class hunter possesses4 ,what sort of a nag then is it1 that you can expect to catch them with ten minutes' law8 ,in calm weather1 also1 the danger of losing sight of hounds is by no means to be disregarded4 ,there are some days 7those which invariably carry the best scent7 when hounds will find1 and fly away like magic1 not one in the pack attempting to throw tongue4 ,here1 if the cover be large1 unless you have them in your eye1 the odds are you never get away2 and see what you lose--the excellence of the scent has stopped the cry3 the faster hounds go1 the less they say about it4 ,when in a large cover1 with hounds unavoidably out of sight1 depend upon your ear much rather than upon the movements of others4 ,you will constantly find men riding straight on end1 merely because the hounds were running so when they entered1 while very probably the fox has turned short1 and is already away1 with the pack at his brush1 in an opposite direction4 ,with a little patience and attention1 your ear will soon come to the knack of detecting the line of hounds in cover3 it is well worth your while to take pains to acquire this art4 ,when you have learnt it1 you will speedily find out the advantage it will confer upon your horse1 and yourself too4 ,it is by no means easy to lay down rules for that which so mainly depends upon circumstances2 but it may be convenient to offer a few examples1 upon which you may found a system for general application4 ,suppose1 for instance1 you have had a burst with your fox1 and he has reached a large cover1 in which there are strong earths1 or beyond which lies a country too open for a blown fox to set his head for4 ,if the earths are open1 in he goes1 and there is an end of him2 if stopped1 he turns1 or leans to the right or left4 ,during this time1 brief as it maybe1 you have eased your horse2 he gets his wind 7a minute1 in many cases1 will put him right after a very quick thing71 and you are fresh1 while your hard rider has been going best pace beyond the hounds1 and comes toiling after you in vain4 ,these points of practice1 however1 require good judgment1 and great promptness of action4 ,you must know well how to distinguish between a cry that grows faint and fainter1 as a failing scent leads to a final check1 and one that1 from a crash1 at once becomes almost wholly lost1 as the pack flies to their fox with a view1 or a scent breast-high4 ,you will1 no doubt1 at the commencement of your career1 hear a great deal about the influence the wind has upon the line of chase4 ,do not take all such theory for gospel4 ,i have tried my hand at a few systems of the kind1 but only found one that admitted general adoption4 ,when a fox1 on being found1 takes up wind at first1 do not ride1 though the pace be first-rate1 so as to take much out of your horse4 ,foxes constantly1 after going a mile or so up wind1 turn and head back4 ,this will let you in with a good start1 and a fresh nag2 and even should the chase hold on up wind1 you run little risk of being thrown out1 as you will have the cry to guide you1 and the puff in1 to enable you to get to them when the first brush is over4 ,one good effect of the hard riding of modern days is1 that hounds are much less meddled with by strangers than they used to be when first ,i remember fox-hunting4 ,indeed1 ,i am not sure that too much etiquette does not now exist upon that point4 ,the total disappearance of the thong to the hunting-whip seems like carrying a good thing rather too far4 ,a fox breaks probably under your horse's nose3 out comes the pack1 none of the servants are at hand1 and they run a field or two from the cover before any one stops them1 or their own mettle allows them to turn3 one crack of your whip would have saved all that4 ,one thing you can do without your thong1 but you should be very careful how you do it4 ,i allude to hallooing a fox away4 ,never attempt to lift up your voice till he is evidently bent on going1 and then give him at least a field's law1 or the odds are1 back he goes1 perhaps into the hounds' mouths4 ,when he is gone1 then clap your hand behind your ear1 and give the 8,tally-ho--away60 to the best of the lungs that are in you4 ,should he merely show for a moment outside1 and then pop in again1 give a 8,tally-ho--back60 that it maybe known where he was seen1 as well as that he is not away4 ,another service in this latter halloo is1 that all the points where it is likely he will try to break will be left clear for him4 ,if a fox is seen crossing a ride or path1 in cover1 in front of you1 pull up2 and if hounds are at check1 tally him1 as it will serve as a guide to the huntsman4 ,in drawing a cover you may give this signal1 should any fox cross you1 but if you have run him in1 be awake not to tally any but the hunted one1 or you will have few thanks for your trouble4 ,a little experience will easily teach you the difference between one just unkennelled and that which has stood any time before hounds4 ,not only will the former be sleek and unstained1 but the method of going be very dissimilar4 ,a fresh fox bounds off1 throwing his hind legs clear from him1 and his whole frame1 from the tip of his nose to that of his brush1 as straight as an arrow2 if hunted1 and at all blown or beaten1 his action is laboured1 like that of a rocking-horse1 his back is curved1 his brush drooping1 and the ears thrown back1 all the fire for which when found his eye is so remarkable1 quenched1 and exchanged for an air of cunning and subdued resolution4 ,i am far from any design of counselling you to interfere with the business of a pack of fox-hounds that you may be either in the habit of hunting with1 or one that you may merely meet by accident occasionally4 ,still there are instances in which to withhold all assistance would be to put the chance of sport in jeopardy1 and in which the true lover of the chase ought to act first and think afterwards4 ,should any casualty1 for example1 so find you that1 with hounds at fault1 you catch a halloo that the huntsman does not or cannot hear1 contrive so to place yourself between the halloo and the hounds that you may be heard by huntsman or pack1 and so lead them on the line that the halloo proceeds from4 ,i repeat1 however1 that these and similar aids must be offered with due discretion4 ,the halloo may be a false one--true1 but had you gone to make inquiries1 you1 too1 would have been out of hearing--the points of fox-hunting require temporary and local adaptation1 and a headpiece to direct all4 ,mere physical endowments will never make an accomplished fox-hunter--combined with judgment they are very excellent subsidiaries3 for him who would shine in the chase 8,orandum est1 ut sit mens sana in corpore sano40 ,in riding to hounds it will essentially serve you if you bear in mind what ninety-nine out of a hundred seem never to give a thought to1 namely1 that the pack only acts pro tanto upon the line of country which a fox is likely to take4 ,independent of the point which it is assumed he will make for1 he has a hundred other things to avoid1 as well as the enemies baying on his trail4 ,he settles his point1 but he must also get to it unseen4 ,unless beaten and all but run into1 he will give a wide berth to any thing like the habitation of man as well as man himself4 ,thus1 by keeping your eye well before you1 there is a chance that the turn hounds will take may be so far anticipated1 that you avoid riding outside of their circle4 ,it has been well said that when hounds are running1 a man ought to consider what1 under the circumstances in which things happen to be1 be would do were he the fox4 ,i cannot offer you better counsel4 ,by adopting such a principle you will be enabled to foresee a check should you detect any thing in the line that the chase is taking1 however far ahead--and if you have a knowledge of the country1 you will calculate such chances almost to a certainty4 ,in a district with which you are acquainted1 the line a fox takes when found1 will enable you to judge whether he has been before hunted1 and if he has1 the odds are he runs the same again4 ,even in cover you may fairly assume that he is accustomed to be stirred by the ring he takes1 the points he tries1 the gaps he uses in the fences1 and similar observations1 which should be the business on which you are intent from the moment the hounds are thrown in4 ,more than once it has been my good fortune to secure a clipping run for a sporting field by keeping a clear look-out upon the matter at issue1 and nothing else1 when a long series of covers drawn blank1 and such dampers1 have sent one-half of the morning's muster home1 while the other had taken to the dernier ressort of cigars and gossip4 ,as an instance of this1 several years ago1 with the ,shropshire1 when ,mr4 ,cresset ,pelham had them1 we had been at it from the hour of meeting till past three1 in ,november too1 and no luck4 ,having trotted on to our last hope for the day1 it was tried1 and pronounced--blank6 ,already twilight had commenced1 the huntsman outside the cover was blowing his horn1 the pack mustered1 and home was the order of march4 ,i had watched the gathering with care2 and1 as we were already trotting from the side of the spinny1 it struck me that an old and favourite bitch was missing4 ,i called the huntsman's attention to it4 ,there was a pause--a faint wimple was heard in the still valley--anon it opened into a cry1 8,hark to it60--the pack flew to the challenge--there was a mighty crash3 in a minute a fox broke away in sight of every man who had had the patience to await the last throw on the dice4 ,a burst of twenty minutes was the result1 without a pull from best pace2 and we turned him up in the open just as the parish lantern gave us notice to look out for squalls4 ,there exists1 in some masters of hounds1 a disposition to keep back such men as1 when hounds are in chase1 follow them through the covers they take in their line4 ,it is not my desire to inculcate disobedience to the powers that be2 but certainly ,i cannot second that principle1 either with reference to those who adopt it1 or those to whom it is intended to apply4 ,when a hunted fox has reached a cover1 not only is it the best way to cheer hounds to him1 that they should not feel themselves alone1 but also the noise made by men following them is the most likely way to make a fresh fox break1 without any of the stragglers getting on him4 ,i have seen a fox crawl into cover dead beat1 and already in the mouths of the pack4 ,the huntsman and a whip followed them--the 8whoo-whoop0 was given--the master and the rest of the field waited on the outside4 ,they remained in patience till ten minutes had elapsed4 8,surely10 said an old hand at last1 8they are doing more than baying him with all that cry4 ,hark6 it has got to the opposite side of the wood3--by heavens6 they're away with a fresh fox40 ,and so they were2 and they killed him at the end of forty minutes without a check1 and without a sight of them ever being caught1 save by the servants1 who had followed to lift the fox that had crawled dead beat into the cover4 ,i have thus attempted to sketch1 for the young disciple of the 8noble science10 a slight code of maxims of general application4 ,for the principles of practice to direct him in the constantly occurring cases1 which admit of no rule save that arising out of individual circumstances1 he must rely upon himself4 ,under this general head of ,,hunting1 ,i have not thought it necessary to enter upon any varieties of the chase1 save those of the fox and the hare4 ,stag-hunting1 as a rural sport1 is limited to a very few districts2 and for its pursuit requires only a knowledge of horsemanship1 and a quick eye to a country4 ,fox-hunting and hare-hunting ,i have treated with reference only to the points of practice which apply to the convenience of those who select them as appliances of recreation4 ,this work1 in its nature1 is rudimentary1 it professes to deal with the elements of our manly exercises1 and so far to treat of our national sports of ,,racing1 ,,hunting1 and ,,shooting4 ,its office is to instruct the beginner1 leaving the higher classes to volumes of more pretension4 ,with this view of its purpose1 ,i have brought the subject of the ,chase to the limit which ,i designed for it4 ,it is a truly manly--a noble sport4 ,long may it be cherished and fostered in our land6 ,the qualities which it calls into action are those which confer honour on manhood1--courage1 promptness1 activity1 and decision4 ,surely these are rare properties in which to exercise a youth1 and these the ,chase will engender and nourish3 while to such as require that a moral attach to every occupation of life1 it has this to recommend it1 that1 in riding to hounds1 this great truth is hourly inculcated--8,honesty is the best policy40 ,illustration ,illustration ,,shooting4 ,it is my purpose1 in the present chapter1 as in the two preceding1 to offer1 as companion to the system of exercises described in the first part of this work1 certain practical rules upon another of those popular field sports1 a knowledge of which has in all ages been considered1 in this country1 part of a gentleman's education4 ,the perfection to which we have attained in the manufacture of all the implements connected with this branch of sporting1 would make a dissertation on the materiel of shooting a piece of useless information to those for whose service these notices are intended4 ,instead1 therefore1 of filling these pages with elaborate instructions for selecting his guns1 gun-cases1 flasks1 belts1 and the whole catalogue of shooting gear1 ,i present my reader with one solitary golden maxim1 which will ensure to him the possession of a perfect apparatus1 and that eventually on the most economical terms3 ,let him go1 for every article of his equipment1 to the most celebrated artist in the item of which he has need4 ,it is true that1 compared with the scale of prices in the provinces1 the charges of the first-rate ,london gunmakers are startling things upon paper1 and so are those made by coachmakers of the same class4 ,indeed1 the same may be said of the rate of demand common to the leading dealers of the metropolis2 but he will find that finis coronat opus4 ,an economical friend of mine1 who was recently quartered in ,ireland1 ordered1 of one of the most respectable firms in ,dublin1 a travelling chariot1 the price1 with the usual et ceteras1 being two hundred and fifty pounds3 here it would have cost him three hundred1 or three hundred and twenty4 ,just as it was completed1 he was ordered home2 and his new bargain broke down with him fourteen times between ,liverpool and ,london4 ,as a contrast to this3 ,an old sporting associate1 never particularly distinguished for his thrift1 recently showed me a pair of shooting shoes1 for which he paid ,hoby two guineas1 that he has had in constant work for sixteen years6 ,no record has been preserved of the number of times they have had new bottoms4 ,the only perishable portions of these cordwaining phenomena1 however1 are their soles3 their bodies appear to be immortal4 ,to return to the appointments of the young aspirant to the honours of the trigger4 ,although ,i set out with supposing him equipped with the best double detonator that money can procure from a maker of known character1 and all other mechanical appliances for the field1 a proper management and judicious arrangement of them is by no means to be similarly obtained4 ,upon the condition of those mechanical aids his success depends1 quite as much as the adroitness to which he may arrive in the use of them4 ,whether that department be in the hands of a gamekeeper fully competent to all its details1 or there be an actual necessity for the master's eye to direct it1 a knowledge of the most approved means will be found equally essential4 ,proficiency in any art or science requires an intimacy with the whole machinery of its economy4 ,it was this conviction that made an emperor a labourer in a dockyard1 and should induce every sportsman to acquaint himself with the minutest particulars bearing upon his craft4 ,to this end ,i will give a few rules1 derived as well from personal experience as from some of the most approved authorities on the subject that have appeared in print4 ,,gun-,,cleaning4--,use cold water for the purpose of cleansing the barrel1 and finish by pouring in boiling water1 taking care to stop the touch-hole4 ,shake it up and down well1 and drain it from the muzzle1 which will clear the chamber4 ,the hot water greatly aids the process of drying1--one of the most important parts of gun-washing4 ,after the washing is concluded1 by looking down the barrel with the touch-hole open1 you will be enabled to see into the chamber1 and ascertain whether it be effectually cleared out or otherwise4 ,the foulness of the barrel of course must be the criterion by which the person employed in cleaning it will be decided4 ,should it require to be scoured1 to remove powder encrusted on its sides1 very fine sand and hot water should be used1 and care taken to rinse it out thoroughly1 at the last1 with boiling water1 to clear the chamber of anything that may have been driven into it by the washing-rod4 ,the material in ordinary use for gun-cleaning is tow1 to which there is the objection that particles are apt to become detached from it1 and lodge in the chambers4 ,to prevent any chance of this kind1 ,i would recommend the substitution of cloth1 which will be found to answer the purpose quite as well1 being at the same time free from all such hazard4 ,it is a bad habit to fall into1 that of laying by your gun loaded3 let the charge be drawn after the day's work4 ,if you have had but a few shots1 the less trouble there will be in the cleaning3 a mere hot-water rinse1 and a good drying1 will be enough4 ,should your gun contain an old charge when you go out1 do not put your faith in it3 the odds are all in favour of its hanging fire4 ,squib it off1 first drawing the shot1 and load again while the barrels are warm2 probe your touch-holes2 wipe your locks within and without2 and if you cannot command success afterwards1 you will have the satisfaction of knowing that you have taken the best course to ensure it4 ,every time you load1 observe whether your touch-hole be free3 it is but a moment's occupation1 and a certain security against a monstrous annoyance--missing fire1 probably at one of your best chances during the day4 ,in all cases of hanging or missing fire1 the seat of disease is the touch-hole or chamber1 if your cap has exploded3 to these apply the remedy4 ,i speak only with reference to detonators1 as they have now become so very universal3 of course when a flint gun is used1 the mischief may be caused by a faulty flint4 ,your last act should be1 when the day's sport is over1 before you enter the house1 to let down the springs of your locks3 the less stress you keep upon them1 the more power and elasticity they will retain4 ,this is the plan to make one lock wear out the best ,damascus barrel4 ,,powder4--,the names of most of the great manufacturers of gunpowder are now sufficient guarantee for the excellence of the article bearing their signatures4 ,purchase your supply from any respectable house1 and you will be secure that it is genuine3 beyond the label you need not seek4 ,your care1 then1 must be to preserve the original strength1 by putting it into canisters closely corked and sealed1 after first having carefully dried it1--a process for which ,colonel ,hawker gives this excellent recipe3 8,your powder should always be properly dried1 in order to do which make two or three plates very hot before the fire1 and 7first taking care to wipe them well1 lest any particle of cinder should adhere to them7 keep constantly shifting the powder from one to the other1 without allowing it to remain sufficiently long in either to cool the plate4 ,the powder will then be more effectually aired1 and more expeditiously dried1 than by the more common means of using only one plate1 which the powder1 by lying on it1 soon makes cold1 and therefore the plate requires to be two or three times heated40 ,nothing can be added to this1 save the admonition that the operation be performed at such a distance from the fire as to prevent the possibility of a spark or cinder reaching you4 ,the surest way is to dry your powder in one room1 and to heat your plates in another4 ,,shot4--,here is a division of my subject much less easily disposed of than the last4 ,the selection of shot is a question upon which many of the best authorities are at issue4 ,some deal with it only in reference to the game for which it is intended2 others consider it merely as having relation to the length and diameter of the barrel for which it is required4 ,i recommend the middle course1--medio tutissimus ibis4 ,colonel ,hawker tells us that 8it is not so much the magnitude of the pellet1 as the force with which it is driven1 that does the execution40 ,no one can accord more cheerful fealty than ,i do to the generality of that first-rate sportsman's opinions2 but ,i cannot allow my admiration to dazzle my common sense1 or to subscribe to this hypothesis4 ,with a swan-drop1 you break the leg of wild-boar or red-deer2 but could any force known to the science of projectiles accomplish it with a grain of number #i1 or dust-shot8 ,the rule should be1 to suit your number to your game--the exception1 to your gun and its calibre4 ,taking the average size at which fowling-pieces are now made1 and the general character of ,english sporting1 ,i have no hesitation in saying that there are very few instances in which number #g will not be found to answer the purposes of a day's shooting4 ,it is not the power to penetrate that fills the bag4 ,many a bird carries off a quarter of an ounce of lead in his body2 but break his wing1 and what can he do then8 ,the advocate of small shot urges the increased space which it covers1 and consequently the increased chances in favour of its hitting2 but to hit your bird1 and to bring him down1 are two very different things4 ,catch him anywhere with a good-sized pellet1 and the odds are that he comes to bag2 stuff him with dust1 and he flies away with a whole charge1 unless it has encountered a vital part4 ,it is to be remembered that ,i am not here addressing my observations to first-rate masters of the trigger1--to such professors as ,ross1 ,sutton1 or ,osbaldiston4 ,i have not deemed it necessary to go into the relative merits of shot upon such minute niceties as the increased rotatory motion of the larger pellets1 and the like4 ,in an epitomised treatise like this1 the length of my design only extends to offering the best general hints that suggest themselves to me1 as applicable to the service of the novice4 ,to such1 then1 ,i say1 in all ordinary cases1 make use of number #g3 never go higher1 for a jack-snipe will often fly away with the full of a charger of number #i in his body4 ,if1 however1 your sport lies exclusively in thick woodlands1 or where only very long shots are likely to be had1 supply yourself with numbers #b or #c2 but at the same time take care to provide a long and heavy gun1 that will throw them even1 and not in lumps and clusters4 ,,percussion ,,caps4--,detonating guns have now been so long in general use1 that the familiarity thus produced with the various properties and kinds of fulminating powders1 ensures the very general perfection to which these invaluable auxiliaries of the shooter have attained4 ,they are to be had1 of an almost uniform excellence1 at all the respectable gunmakers in town and country4 ,,wadding4--,here again is a matter on which you will find a vast variety of opinion4 ,some get rid of it altogether by adopting the new system of cartridges4 ,upon this point ,i do not wish to offer any of the results of my own limited experience4 ,i have shot with these1 and with average success--a low average ,i admit1 for ,i have no pretensions to the name of a crack4 ,they are1 however1 worth the experiment of a trial1 though ,i am disposed to believe the success or failure of it will much depend upon the accidental properties and effects of the materials submitted to the test4 ,to return to the sort of wadding which may best serve those who still adhere to the old system of mere powder and shot4 ,after enumerating the various claims of paper1 hat1 card1 and leather1 ,colonel ,hawker gives the preference to punched pasteboard1--the thickness to increase in the ratio of the diameter of the barrel4 ,the best that have ever come under my notice are ,cherry's prepared waddings1 suited to every calibre4 ,they are manufactured from felt which has undergone a process that prevents the accumulation of damp after firing1 and are to be procured at any gunmaker's for the cost of the materials in ordinary use4 ,these ,i do recommend1 and ,i am sure those who accord them a trial will have no reason to regret it4 ,they cover the powder effectually1 and offer but little resistance to the shot1 which is all that is required of wadding4 ,mr4 ,cherry would improve upon his invention by piercing the waddings intended to cover the shot1 as it would facilitate the operation of loading1 while the shooter made the distinction by carrying those for the powder in his left-hand pocket1 and those for the shot in his right4 ,,the ,,powder-,,flask4--,it is strange that1 among the many ingenious improvements effected in the implements of the shooter1 the powder-flask1 certainly the most important of all1 should have been left in its present dangerous condition4 ,i am aware that an attempt1 and a praiseworthy one1 was made some years ago by ,mr4 ,egg1 to reduce the chances of accident which the present construction of the flask involves2 but ,i ask why has not some contrivance1 without any of the old leaven in it1 been suggested and effected8 ,in the shot-belt the charger is wholly detached--where no risk1 at all events1 would follow1 were it otherwise--whereas1 when loading with powder1 the charger1 with the flask attached1 is introduced into the muzzle of the gun1 so that should it1 by any accident1 become ignited1 an explosion 7and most probably a fatal one7 of the whole ensues as matter of consequence4 ,however1 to deal with it as you find it1 with proper precaution1 when you fill your charger let back the spring gradually1 that no chance may be given away in the event of a bit of flint1 or any substance that might throw out a spark1 being struck by it4 ,never lose sight of the material which your flask contains4 ,let nothing induce you to fire with it in your hand4 ,if a chance shot offer while you are loading a discharged barrel1 throw it behind you1 if there is not time to return it to your pocket4 ,,loading4--,i have not thought it necessary to occupy any of my limited space with the shot-belt1 because it is so simple1 and at the same time so excellent in construction1 that the merest novice cannot be astray in the use of it4 ,not so is it with the important office--that of loading your gun aright1 although it is impossible to lay down any rules for it applicable to every case4 ,experience alone will enable you so to proportion your charge that you shall come at the full powers of which your gun is capable4 ,the gauge1 the length1 the weight--all must be taken into account1 and provided for4 ,for the ordinary run of fowling-pieces1 the following is a fair proportion3--,a shot-charger that holds an ounce and a half of shot may be filled to the brim with powder1 which wall serve to load with1 as also to prime3 the same measure filled up with shot will constitute your charge of lead4 ,by these proportions1 you can thus regulate the chargers of your belts and flasks4 ,against this system it is contended1 by the ultra-particular1 that it is a bad one in reference to powder1 which is manufactured without regard to weight1 only the projectile force being considered4 ,these are minuti1 however1 into which ,i do not desire to introduce the learner4 ,he will have enough to do with the more immediate affairs of preparing his nerves1 forming a judgment upon sight and distance1 and laying a foundation upon a basis of right principle and prompt performance1 without which he will have little business upon that arena to which ,i am about to introduce him1 after a long but still a necessary preface4 ,,shooting4 ,,the ,,field4--,unless where some positive mental or physical prohibition exists1 a certain degree of excellence and dexterity in every art and science is open to such as seek with care and perseverance4 ,thus1 although1 from natural causes1 every man cannot aspire to the honour of becoming a crack shot1 there is scarcely any that may not acquire the art of shooting tolerably well4 ,the sooner the essay is made1 the better the chance of its success2 and as my pupil is supposed to be in this condition1 ,i proceed1 without further introduction1 to offer such practical rules and maxims as may best serve to promote the end he should have in view--that of becoming cautious in the management1 and steady in the use of his gun4 ,the first step1 assuming the learner to be a complete novice1 will be to acquire the proper mode of putting his gun to his shoulder1 and of bringing the sight to bear upon a particular object1--the latter only to be rightly accomplished with the breech and sight on a level4 ,having attained this preliminary1 let him take a flint gun1 with a piece of wood substituted for the flint1 and practise at the object so situated1 always remembering to pull the trigger the moment the sight is on the mark--a precaution he will find the vast advantage of as he comes to apply it to flying shots4 ,after a practice so conducted till the eye ceases to flinch when the trigger is drawn1 he may begin to load with half charges1 and continue to practise at his object1 occasionally1 without his knowledge1 small charges of shot being added1 so that he shall strike his mark without the nervous excitement of feeling that he is making the attempt4 ,the great point--that of steadiness combined with self-confidence--being arrived at1 he may now try his hand at small birds2 but even after he has become adroit at these1 he has still another ordeal to go through4 ,this is the tremour at the springing of game1 whether a pack of grouse1 a covey of partridges1 or a solitary cock-pheasant1 which1 indeed1 often makes as startling a flight as either4 ,in this case1 it will serve him greatly to return to the system he began with1 and learn to cover his game without the nervous apprehension of a miss4 ,while at this practice1 he may begin to use himself to cover with both eyes open1 the advantage of which he will soon discover when he comes to quick shooting4 ,being tolerably au fait at these points of practice 7for perfection can only result from long experience1 whence come skill and judgment71 it will be necessary that he bear in mind those rules for rightly effecting his purpose when his game is moving4 ,he must shoot before an object that crosses his point of sight2 high for a bird rising in its flight1 or skimming the surface2 between the ears of hares or rabbits running in a straight line from him1--being guided1 of course1 in every case1 by the distance between him and the mark at which he aims4 ,for example1 if a bird range forty yards from him1 calculating the ordinary velocity of its speed of wing1 he may safely aim six inches before it4 ,no fixed rules1 however1 can be laid down1 where the casualties of powder1 a dull or lively-shooting gun1 high winds1 and fifty other et ceteras1 are opposed to a system4 ,one principle he may always adopt with success1 and that is1 to fix his eyes on the mark he has selected1 and fire the instant the gun is brought to bear upon it4 ,it is very difficult to say at what distance a bird may be which can be called a fair shot1 because it rests with so many contingencies4 ,forty yards are generally considered as point-blank range1 but it will often be found easier to bring down game at fifty than at thirty yards4 ,the wind1 as in cross shots1 and various operating causes--all the result of temporary accident--must be taken into account4 ,you will always have a better chance to kill long cross shots than those approaching or flying from you4 ,it is very hard to do execution upon birds with a stern-chaser1 and in coming towards you they present a surface off which shot is very apt to glance without penetrating4 ,i have said nothing about the hold of his gun most convenient for the learner to accustom himself to1 because1 in whatever manner it may be put into his hands at first1 he is sure1 ultimately1 to adopt a style of his own1 arising from natural causes1 or habits almost as forcible4 ,the nearer it is placed to the guard1 the less risk is run should a barrel burst4 ,the grasp of the stock more forward affords the greatest facility in bringing the gun to bear upon its object1 and more firmness of position4 ,while ,i am on the mechanical portion of the young shooter's acquirements1 or rather things to be acquired1 ,i do not think a better opportunity can be chosen to introduce a few hints upon a more advanced state of practice1 albeit some may1 at the time of perusing them1 be unfit to receive what may be termed finishing lessons4 ,when you are about taking a cross shot at a long range1 fire well before it1 from one to three feet1 according to the speed with which the bird is flying1 and let your gun be thrown above the object4 ,the same rule must direct you in firing at hares or rabbits1 whether it be a cross shot or one in a right line4 ,it is a most mischievous practice1 as far as regards your day's sport1 to make much noise in the field1 however strong the provocation from the disobedience of your dogs1 or any cause whatever4 ,should your pointers prove incorrigible1 ,i would rather recommend you1 when they have sprung a covey1 to cause them to be taken up1 and then walk yourself as near as you can to the spot where you saw it drop4 ,should the birds rise singly or by the brace1 continue to beat and shoot while you think one remains3 it will be time enough to look after the slain 7that cannot abscond7 when you make sure of the living4 ,this plan may also be successfully adopted when there is not scent enough to prevent the staunchest dogs from running in upon their game4 ,in marking your covey down1 remember they cannot fall so long as they continue to skim3 they cannot alight till they stop themselves1 and prepare for the pitch1 by a flapping of the wings4 ,i should not advise you to begin beating for partridges1 even in ,september1 before nine o'clock1 and then desist from it at noon4 ,from three till dusk is the golden division of the day1 at that season1 for the partridge-shooter4 ,if your ground happen to lie in the vicinity of manors that have been shot over during the day1 you will be certain to meet the remnants of scattered coveys1 of all chances the most sure to fill your game-bag4 ,with pheasants1 however1 when they are to be sought in strong covers particularly1 your system must be almost reversed4 ,as the day advances1 these birds resort to the thickest and strongest lying that the woodlands frequented by them afford4 ,when beating1 in the early morning1 after rain1 you will generally find them in the skirts of covers1 or in the hedgerows adjacent4 ,in such cases1 always contrive to place yourself between them and the strong old woods3 to these they are certain to fly1--instinct teaching them that there they are most sheltered and secure4 ,in battue-shooting1 all you have to attend to is the situation of the best opens1 and such sides of the covers intended to be beaten1 as the direction of the wind1 and the ordinary resort of the game1 point out as the most judicious stations2 but when about to engage in a single-handed day's sport1 you will require a more skilful disposition1 and closer attention to the manner of your tactics4 ,in this latter case1 your best assistant will be a steady old pointer3 one that will range near you1 work round every piece of copse and underwood1 and poke into every nook and crevice2 well broke he must be1 so as to fall at shot1 and crouch down on bringing in his birds4 ,in a treatise such as this1 it would be impossible to give even the briefest epitome of directions for the various classes of game and wild-fowl shooting4 ,before1 however1 ,i close my address to the young disciple of the trigger1 ,i will offer him a few familiar hints on a division of his craft neither the least in importance or interest1--namely1 his relation to his best ally and friend1 the dog4 ,i am not going to suggest the species best suited to general shooting1 as so very much depends upon the country to be hunted1 and the chance that may direct selection2 but whether pointer1 setter1 or spaniel1 you will find your account in making such as you intend for coadjutors in the field your ordinary associates and companions4 ,try the experiment by committing one puppy of a litter entirely to the breaker1 and retaining another 7when the general rudiments of his education have been acquired7 constantly with yourself1 and at every opportunity subjected to gentle but firm discipline1 and you will soon discover which is the better plan4 ,adopt the same system with a perfectly-made hunter--a master of his business2 and you will soon find out the difference of being served by one who1 from habit1 will be enabled to understand your looks1 and another who1 at best1 will have to puzzle out your wishes1 or require to have them announced at the hazard of flushing half the game in the parish4 ,with this parting word on the social economy of shooting1 closes the last of those notices of our ,,field ,,sports which the publisher thought it convenient to appear in this volume1 and the treatment of which he confided to me4 ,if his purpose has been fulfilled1 my desire will be accomplished1--the wish to please being our unity of design4 ,the little talent the writer possesses1 at all events will not have failed from lack of anxiety to accomplish his task3 what is writ is writ1-- 8,would it were worthier60 ,,index4 ,balance ,step3 its object to teach the ,free ,movement of the ,limbs and ,steady the ,body in ,walking1 #bh2 ,exercises1 #bh1 #bi4 ,balancing1 #ef2 ,position and ,action1 #eg2 ,turns in1 #eg2 its ,importance in all ,manly ,exercises and ,sports1 #ei4 ,belts1 ,utility of1 and manner of ,using1 #g1 #h4 ,bernardi's ,system of ,swimming1 #ib4 ,carriages3 their ,number and ,variety in ,london1 #agf2 ,brilliancy in ,hyde ,park1 #agf4 ,carrying ,weight1 #fj2 ,feats in1 #fa4 ,chase1 ,hints on the1 #bdj2 ,excitements of the1 #bdg1 #bdh2 ,drawing a ,cover1 #bdh4 ,chariot ,race1 ,poetical ,description of a1 #agb4 ,climbing1 different kinds of1 explained1 #fd-fh4 ,coaches1 ,accidents to1 #bag4 ,coach ,horses3 their ,cost1 #agh2 ,best ,breeds1 #agi2 ,strength1 #aha2 ,treatment1 #aha1 #ahb2 ,hints for ,purchasers1 #ahb2 ,harness of1 #ahe2 ,management1 in ,harness1 #ahg4 ,coachmen3 their ,qualifications and ,duties1 #aic-aie2 ,hints for ,night1 #bbj4 ,comparative ,strength of different ,races of ,men1 #ag4 ,derby ,day1 ,description of a1 #bcc-bce4 ,dog1 ,familiar ,hints for ,young ,sportsmen on the1 #bfd4 ,discus1 ,throwing the1 #fb4 ,dragging ,wheels1 #bba4 ,driving1 ,historical ,sketch of1 #agj-age2 ,mounting and ,dismounting1 #aih2 the ,seat1 #aii2 ,starting1 #aii2 the ,paces1 #bjj2 the ,time1 #bja2 the ,whip1 #bjb2 ,thoroughfares1 ,passing1 c41 in1 #bjg2 ,ascending and ,descending1 #bjh2 ,comparison of ,english and ,german ,modes of ,harnessing and1 #baa1 #bab2 ,turnings1 #bac2 ,slips1 #bae2 ,accidents in1 #bae-bag2 ,obstructions in1 #bba4 ,drowned ,persons1 ,treatment of apparently1 #hj4 ,epsom ,races1 ,notice of1 #bbg4 ,extension ,motions used in the ,sword ,exercise1 #bj4 ,fox ,hunting1 the ,qualifications required in1 #bdc-bde2 the ,huntsman not to be unnecessarily interrupted1 #bde2 ,keep with the ,pack1 #bdf2 ,rules for finding the ,hounds if out of ,sight1 #bdg2 the 8,tally ,ho60 #bdh2 ,signal in ,drawing a ,cover1 #bdh2 ,movements of the ,fox may be foreseen1 #bej2 a ,day with the ,shropshire1 #bej4 ,gig1 the ,safest ,posture when in a1 #bag4 ,guards on ,mail ,coaches1 #aig4 ,gun3 ,cleaning1 #bee2 ,loading1 #bei2 ,management of the1 in the ,field1 #bfj4 ,gymnasia of the ,greeks and ,romans1 #e4 ,harnessing1 on ,english and ,german ,modes of1 #baa4 ,head1 ,sir ,francis1 on ,harnessing ,horses in ,england1 #baj-bab4 ,horse1 ,the1 and ,equipments1 #abb2 ,animations1 ,soothings1 and ,corrections1 #adb2 ,treatment of1 #afe2 ,restiveness1 #afc2 ,relative ,places of1 #ahi2 ,accidents1 c41 to1 #bae4 ,hounds1 ,following1 #bda2 8,quick ,eye to ,hounds0 essential in the ,sportsman1 #bda4 ,hunting3 how ,proficiency may be acquired1 #bci1 #bdj2 ,riding at ,fences in1 #bda2 ,brook ,jumping in1 #bdb2 ,drawing a ,cover in1 #bdh4 ,indian ,club ,exercise1 as practised in the ,army1 #bb2 ,new ,portion1 from ,indian ,practice1 #bc-bf4 ,leaping3 how performed1 #db2 ,management of the ,breath1 #db2 the ,high ,leap with a ,run1 #db2 the ,high ,leap without a ,run1 #dc2 the ,long ,leap1 #dd2 the ,deep ,leap1 #df2 ,general ,instructions in ,leaping1 #dc-dh2 ,feats in1 #dd1 #de4 ,leaping with a ,pole3 the ,high ,leap1 #ej2 the ,long ,leap1 #ed2 the ,deep ,leap1 #ee4 ,locomotive ,exercises1 #b2 the best ,position of the ,body in1 #bg4 ,manly ,exercises and ,recreations3 their ,utility in perfecting and maturing the ,frame1 #bdj4 ,mariner's ,compass described1 #aai4 ,olympic ,games1 #bbd4 ,partridge ,shooting1 #bfc4 ,percussion ,caps1 #beh4 ,physical ,exercises3 their importance in regard to ,health1 #a-e2 a ,medium to be observed1 #e2 ,opinion of ,aristotle and ,plato on1 #e2 ,general ,directions1 #f2 ,belts useful in1 #g4 ,position of the ,body in ,standing1 #ah2 and of the ,feet in ,standing1 #ai4 ,powder1 ,col4 ,hawker's ,recipe for ,drying1 #bef2 ,flask1 the1 #bei4 ,racing in the ,reign of ,athelstan1 #bbd2 a ,popular ,pastime in ,reign of ,richard ,i4 and ,henry ,,viii41 #bbe2 ,james ,i4 the ,founder of ,legitimate ,english1 #bbf2 the ,first ,arabian introduced into ,england1 #bbf2 the ,breed of ,horses improved by1 #bcf4 ,race ,course at ,newmarket1 #bbf4 ,race ,horse3 ,question of ,origin discussed1 #bbh2 derived from ,arabian1 #bbi2 ,exploits of1 #bcj-bcb4 ,riding1 best ,position of the ,body in1 #aba2 ,horse and ,equipments1 #abb2 ,mounting and ,dismounting1 #abf2 the ,seat1 #abi2 the ,balance1 #aca2 the ,rein ,hold1 #acb2 the ,correspondence1 #acd2 the ,action1 #ace2 the ,hand1 #acg2 the ,guidance1 or ,aids1 #ach-adb2 the ,walk1 #add-adg2 the ,trot1 #adg-aej2 ,road ,riding1 #aej1 #aea2 the ,gallop1 #aeb-aef2 the ,canter1 #aec2 ,leaping1 #aef2 ,critical ,situations in1 #aei2 at ,fences in ,hunting1 #bda4 ,roads1 ,hints for ,improving1 #agf4 ,rowing3 to leave the ,landing ,place1 #aja2 the ,pull1 #aja2 the ,tide or ,current1 #ajc2 to ,turn1 ,meet1 ,pass1 and ,land1 #ajd4 ,royal ,yacht ,squadron1 #aji2 its ,sailing ,regulations1 #aaj4 ,running1 ,position of the ,body in1 #cg1 #ch2 ,action in1 #ch2 ,respiration in1 #ci2 ,moderate1 #ci2 ,rapid1 #dj2 ,feats in1 #da2 ,effects of1 #da4 ,rural ,sports patronized by the ,english1 #bcb4 ,sailing ,clubs upon the ,thames1 #ajh4 ,sailing3 ,general ,directions1 #aaa-aae2 ,tacking1 #aaf2 ,reefing1 c41 #aag-aai4 ,sea ,rowing explained1 #aje4 ,shooting ,appointments1 #bec1 #bed2 ,gun ,cleaning1 #bee2 ,powder1 #bef2 ,wadding1 #beh2 ,loading1 #bei4 ,shot1 ,directions for ,choosing1 #beg2 ,size of1 #beg4 ,skate1 ,construction of the1 #fi-ga4 ,skating1 ,instructions in1 #gb2 ,dress1 #gb2 ,dangers in1 #hj4 ,stage ,coaches1 ,cost and ,method of ,working1 #agg1 #agh4 ,strength1 ,comparative1 of different ,races of ,men1 #ag4 ,swimming3 its ,utility1 #hb1 #hc2 ,preparatory ,instructions1 #hc2 ,action of the ,hands and ,feet1 #hc1 #hd2 ,place and ,time1 #he2 ,aids in1 #hf2 ,cramp1 #hg2 ,entering the ,water1 #hh2 ,usual ,mode of ,front1 #hh-ia2 ,respiration in1 #ia2 ,upright1 #ib2 ,back1 #ie2 ,side1 #ig2 ,floating1 #if2 ,plunging1 #ig2 ,diving1 #ih2 ,thrusting1 #ii2 ,springing1 #ii2 with ,one ,arm1 #ajj2 ,feats in1 #ajj4 ,sword ,exercise1 ,first ,three ,movements of1 #bj4 ,training3 its ,importance in relation to ,health1 #i2 ,opinion of the ,ancients1 #i2 ,mental ,powers improved by1 #aj2 ,principles of1 #aj2 ,practice of the ,ancients1 #aj1 #aa2 ,modern ,practice1 #ab-af2 ,time required in1 #af4 ,turf1 ,historical ,notices of the1 #bbc-bcb4 ,vaulting explained1 #dh2 ,oblique1 #dh2 ,straight forward1 #di4 ,vessel1 ,description of the various ,parts of a3 the ,deck1 ,rigging1 ,sails1 c41 #aai1 #abj4 ,wadding for ,guns1 #beh4 ,walking3 its ,utility as an ,exercise1 #bi1 #ca2 ,general ,mechanism of1 #ca2 the ,three different ,times of-- ,slow1 #cb2 ,moderate1 #cc2 ,quick1 #cc2 ,feats in1 #cf2 ,military ,steps1 #cd-cf2 ,use of the ,balance ,step in1 #bh4 ,weight1 ,carrying1 #fj2 ,feats in1 #fa4 ,whip1 ,directions for ,using the1 in ,coach ,driving1 #bjb4 ,yacht ,club1 ,northern1 #aaa4 ,j4 ,,billing1 ,,printer ,,and ,,stereotyper1 ,,woking1 ,,surrey4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,inconsistent and archaic spelling have been retained4 ,the differences in wording and structure between the ,table of ,contents and the chapter and section headings in the text have not been standardised4 ,page #ag1 444 8offer the best answer to declamations 4443 the closing quote mark is lacking4 ,page #fd1 444 the inclination of the board being diminished with the progress of the pupil 444 possibly an error for 444 being increased with 444 or similar 7as described in the next paragraph74 ,page #fd1 #fe1 ,plate ,,xviii3 there are no reference letters in the illustration4 ,changes made3 ,footnotes and most illustrations have been moved out of text paragraphs4 ,some minor inconsistencies and obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently4 ,ditto characters in some tables and lists have been changed to the dittoed text4 ,page #eb3 444 as in ,plate ,,xvii4 fig4 #a 444 changed to 444 as in ,plate ,,xii4 fig4 #a 4444 ,page #eh3 7fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,xx47 changed to 7fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,xv47 ,page #fj3 ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,xvii4 changed to ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,xvi4 ,page #hb3 ,heading ,,aquatic ,,exercises inserted4 ,page #ajf3 coxwain changed to coxswain4 ,page #aab footnote #bc3 shouds changed to shrouds4 ,page #acb3 manege changed to mange as elsewhere4 ,page #ahi3 ,,description ,,of ,,plate ,,xlii changed to ,,description ,,of ,,plate ,,xliii4 ,page #bjh3 7,plate ,,xliii4 fig4 #d47 changed to 7,plate ,,xliv4 fig4 #d47