,,king',s ,,series ,,in ,,woodwork ,,and ,,carpentry ,,elements ,,of ,,woodwork ,,by ,,charles ,a4 ,,king ,,director ,,of ,,manual ,,training ,,eastern ,,high ,,school1 ,,bay ,,city1 ,,michigan ,illustration ,,new ,,york 3 ,,cincinnati 3 ,,chicago ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,king',s ,,series ,,in ,,woodwork ,,and ,,carpentry ,,elements ,,of ,,woodwork ,,elements ,,of ,,construction ,,constructive ,,carpentry ,,inside ,,finishing ,,handbook ,,for ,,teachers ,,copyright1 #aiaa1 ,,by ,,charles ,a4 ,,king4 ,,entered ,,at ,,stationers' ,,hall1 ,,london4 ,w4 ,p4 ,i4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,series ,this series consists of five volumes1 four of which are intended as textbooks for pupils in manual-training1 industrial1 trade1 technical1 or normal schools4 ,the fifth book of the series1 the 8,handbook in ,woodwork and ,carpentry10 is for the use of teachers and of normal students who expect to teach the subjects treated in the other four volumes4 ,of the pupils' volumes1 the first two1 8,elements of ,woodwork0 and 8,elements of ,construction10 are adapted to the needs of students in manual-training schools1 or in any institution in which elementary woodwork is taught1 whether as purely educational handwork1 or as preparatory to a high1 or trade1 school course in carpentry or vocational training4 ,the volumes 8,constructive ,carpentry0 and 8,inside ,finishing0 are planned with special reference to the students of technical1 industrial1 or trade schools1 who have passed through the work of the first two volumes1 or their equivalent4 ,the subjects treated are those which will be of greatest value to both the prospective and the finished workman4 ,for the many teachers who are obliged to follow a required course1 but who are allowed to introduce supplementary or optional models under certain conditions1 and for others who have more liberty and are able to make such changes as they see fit1 this series will be found perfectly adaptable1 regardless of the grades taught4 ,to accomplish this1 the material has been arranged by topics1 which may be used by the teacher irrespective of the sequence1 as each topic has to the greatest extent possible been treated independently4 ,the author is indebted to ,dr4 ,george ,a4 ,hubbell1 ,ph4,d41 now ,president of the ,lincoln ,memorial ,university1 for encouragement and advice in preparing for and planning the series1 and to ,george ,r4 ,swain1 ,principal of the ,eastern ,high ,school of ,bay ,city1 ,michigan1 for valuable aid in revising the manuscript4 ,acknowledgment is due various educational and trade periodicals1 and the publications of the ,united ,states ,departments of ,education and of ,forestry1 for the helpful suggestions that the author has gleaned from their pages4 ,,charles ,a4 ,,king4 ,,bay ,,city1 ,,michigan4 ,,preface ,,to ,,elements ,,of ,,woodwork ,in preparing this book1 it has been the author's purpose to present1 in as complete and concise form as possible1 the knowledge which every wood-worker should possess regarding the care and use of his tools and the material upon which he employs them4 ,whether an amateur1 apprentice1 or skilled workman1 whether a carpenter1 boat builder1 pattern maker1 or wood carver1 the elementary knowledge of the construction of tools1 of sharpening them1 and of their adjustment and manipulation is practically the same4 ,the structure of wood1 and the necessity of applying its peculiarities of grain and texture to the advantage of the work in hand1 also is the same upon all branches of woodwork4 ,while innumerable tools and cutting devices have been invented to enable the wood-worker to accomplish special results economically both as to time and material1 a study of them will prove that they all operate upon a few simple principles1 a knowledge of which is not difficult to acquire1 though skill and judgment in the application of the tools can be attained only by continuous and properly directed practice4 ,it would be both impossible and unnecessary in a book of this sort to describe these various devices1 though in a schoolroom it is a great advantage to have as many of them as practicable1 not for their use only1 but that the students may become familiar with their purposes and the applications of the fundamental principles upon which each is based4 ,the actual use of tools may be considered the ,a ,b ,c of woodwork1 as it bears the same relation to the finished product of the workman as the alphabet bears to literature1 the space between the mere mechanical facility in the use of either tools or alphabet1 being the result of the judgment1 skill1 and individuality of either the workman or the author4 ,thus1 if a student acquires the facility to use the tools described in this volume1 he will have little difficulty in using other and more complex tools2 and when he has mastered the principles of construction involved in the exercises explained in the following book of this series1 the 8,elements of ,construction10 and the correct use of the tools involved in making these1 together with their applications and combinations1 he has acquired the fundamental knowledge of all construction in wood4 ,,charles ,a4 ,,king4 ,,bay ,,city1 ,,michigan4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,,growth ,,of ,,wood4--,kinds of trees used for lumber2 ,the formation of wood2 ,tissues2 ,the medullary rays2 ,the grain in trees2 ,defects found in lumber2 ,when to cut lumber #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,lumbering ,,and ,,varieties ,,of ,,wood4--,the manufacture of lumber2 ,to saw lumber of irregular dimensions2 ,the grading of lumber2 ,the testing of lumber2 ,surveying or estimating lumber2 ,qualities of wood #ab ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,care ,,of ,,lumber4--,the piling of lumber2 ,permanent lumber ways2 ,to minimize the warping of lumber2 ,weather-dried lumber2 ,kiln-dried lumber2 ,moist air kilns2 ,induced draft kilns2 ,results of the two systems2 ,filling a kiln2 ,length of time lumber should be left in the kiln2 ,the care of kiln-dried lumber2 ,steaming wood2 ,preserving wood #de ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,tools4--,how to purchase tools2 ,benches2 ,rules2 ,the try-square2 ,the steel1 or framing1 square2 ,the bevel2 ,the gauge2 ,the hammer2 ,the hatchet2 ,the mallet2 ,saws2 ,the knife blade2 ,planes2 ,sharpening a plane2 ,the jack plane2 ,the jointer2 ,the smoothing plane2 ,the block plane2 ,the correct position2 ,chisels2 ,gouges2 ,the drawshave2 ,the spokeshave2 ,bits2 ,the bitbrace1 or stock2 ,the screwdriver2 ,compasses1 or dividers2 ,pliers2 ,the scraper2 ,edges2 ,nail sets2 ,wrenches2 ,handscrews2 ,a grindstone2 ,emery1 corundum1 carborundum2 ,whetstones2 ,files2 ,saw filing #eg ,,chapter ,v4 ,,glue ,,and ,,sandpaper4--,different kinds of glue2 ,how to use glue2 ,the testing of sandpaper2 ,how to use sandpaper #aah ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,wood ,,finishing4--,filling2 ,staining wood2 ,shellac2 ,wax finishing2 ,oil finish2 ,varnish2 ,polishing2 ,brushes #abh ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,section of ,yellow ,pine #b #b4 ,section of ,oak ,tree ,trunk #e #c4 ,defects in ,lumber #g #d4 ,felling a ,tree #ab #e4 ,cutting ,small ,branches from ,felled ,spruce #ac #f4 ,skidway of ,spruce ,logs #ad #g4 ,load of ,white ,pine ,logs #ad #h4 ,hauling ,logs by ,steel ,cable #ae #i4 ,loading ,logs from ,shedway to ,train #af #aj4 ,boom of ,logs #af #aa4 ,log ,jam #ag #ab4 ,sawmill in the ,big ,tree ,district #ah #ac4 ,circular ,saw #bj #ad4 ,double ,cut ,band ,saw #ba #ae4 ,plain1 ,slash1 or ,bastard ,sawing #bb #af4 ,four ,methods of ,quartering #bb #ag4 ,lumber ,scale #bg #ah4 ,beech and ,sugar ,maple ,forest #ca #ai4 ,white ,pine ,forest #ci #bj4 ,douglas ,spruce ,forest #da #ba4 ,red ,spruce and ,balsam ,fir ,killed by ,fire #dc #bb4 ,permanent ,lumber ,ways #df #bc4 ,warping of ,lumber #dh #bd4 ,lumber piled in ,double ,courses #di #be4 ,manual-training ,bench #eh #bf4 ,carpenter's ,bench #eh #bg4 ,two-foot1 ,four-fold ,rule #ei #bh4 ,zigzag ,rule #ei #bi4 ,position of ,try-square in ,squaring an ,edge #fj #cj4 ,use of ,two ,try-squares to see if ,piece of ,wood is 8,out of ,wind0 #fj #ca4 ,position of ,try-square when ,making ,line #fa #cb4 ,steel1 or ,framing1 ,square #fb #cc4 ,bevel and ,steel ,square #fb #cd4 ,marking ,gauge #fc #ce4 ,marking ,gauge in ,use #fd #cf4 ,claw ,hammer #fd #cg4 ,toenailing and ,tacking #fe #ch4 ,blind ,nailing and ,use of a ,nail ,set #ff #ci4 ,hatchet and ,handaxe #fg #dj4 ,mallets 7,square-faced and ,round7 #fg #da4 ,saws--,rip-1 ,cutting-off1 and ,compass1 or ,keyhole #fh #db4 ,backsaw #fi #dc4 ,use of the ,saw #ga #dd4 ,reset ,saw ,handle #gb #de4 ,knife ,blades #gb #df4 ,section of an ,iron ,plane #gc #dg4 ,result of ,using ,plane with ,improperly ,adjusted ,cap ,iron #gd #dh4 ,result of ,using ,plane with ,cap ,iron ,adjusted ,properly #gd #di4 ,setting a ,plane #gf #ej4 ,whetting and ,grinding of ,plane #gg #ea4 ,whetting or ,oilstoning the ,beveled ,side of a ,cutter #gh #eb4 ,whetting or ,oilstoning the ,plain ,side of the ,plane ,iron #gi #ec4 ,shape of ,edge of ,plane ,iron #hj #ed4 ,jack ,plane #ha #ee4 ,method of ,guiding a ,jointer #hc #ef4 ,knuckle ,joint ,block ,plane #hd #eg4 ,use of the ,block ,plane #hd #eh4 ,using ,block ,plane upon ,small ,pieces #he #ei4 ,incorrect ,use of ,jack ,plane #hf #fj4 ,beginning the ,stroke with a ,jack ,plane #hg #fa4 ,ending the ,stroke with a ,jack ,plane #hg #fb4 ,chisels #hi #fc4 ,drawshave #ij #fd4 ,spokeshave #ij #fe4 ,auger ,bit #ia #ff4 ,cross-handled ,auger #ia #fg4 ,german ,bit and ,twist ,drill #ib #fh4 ,extension ,bit and ,center ,bit #ib #fi4 ,filing an ,auger ,bit #ic #gj4 ,ratchet ,bitbrace #id #ga4 ,compasses #ie #gb4 ,calipers #ie #gc4 ,pliers #ie #gd4 ,nippers #ie #ge4 ,scraper #if #gf4 ,edges of ,scrapers #ig #gg4 ,angle of ,burnisher with ,sides of ,scraper #ig #gh4 ,method of ,grasping ,scraper for ,sharpening #ih #gi4 ,top ,views of the ,angles of the ,burnisher #ii #hj4 ,angle to be avoided in ,sharpening ,scraper #ajj #ha4 ,turning back the ,edge of a ,scraper #ajj #hb4 ,method of ,grasping the ,scraper when ,working upon a ,broad ,surface #aja #hc4 ,method of ,grasping the ,scraper when ,working within ,small ,area #aja #hd4 ,method of ,grasping the ,scraper when ,working upon an ,edge #ajb #he4 ,monkey ,wrench #ajc #hf4 ,effect of the ,unskillful ,use of a ,handscrew #ajc #hg4 ,correct ,use of ,handscrew #ajd #hh4 ,emery ,wheel ,dresser #ajf #hi4 ,jointing a ,saw #aji #ij4 ,hand ,saw ,set #aaj #ia4 ,anvil ,saw ,set #aaj #ib4 ,angle of the ,file with the ,edge of the ,saw #aaa #ic4 ,angle of the ,file with the ,sides of the ,saw #aaa #id4 ,results of ,filings as shown in ,fig4 #ic #aab #ie4 ,method of ,carrying a ,file to obtain the ,hook of a ,cutting-off ,saw #aab #if4 ,removing the ,burr after ,filing a ,saw #aac #ig4 ,use of ,sandpaper upon a ,broad ,surface #abd #ih4 ,sandpapering ,panel ,work #abf #ii4 ,method of ,grasping ,sandpaper in ,rubbing down ,shellac ,finish #acd ,,elements ,,of ,,woodwork ,,chapter ,i ,,growth ,,of ,,wood #a4 ,kinds of trees used for lumber4--7,a47 ,the classification of trees here considered is based upon the method by which the trunk1 or stem1 of a tree is formed4 ,the term exogenous is applied to outside growers1 around which a layer of wood grows each year1 and from which is cut the lumber of commerce4 ,as the wood-worker is interested mainly in trees which grow by this method1 we will do no more than mention the endogenous1 or inside-growing1 trees or plants of the nature of palm trees1 cornstalks1 etc41 in which the woody fiber is formed upon the inside of the stem4 7,b47 ,the new wood formed each year upon exogenous trees is known as the annual layer1 or ring2 the separate layers being more prominent in open-grained woods1 such as oak1 ash1 and chestnut1 than in close-grained woods1 such as maple1 cherry1 poplar1 and birch4 ,it is the difference in the character and structure of these layers which makes some woods hard and others soft1 some with open and others with close grain1 and which also1 with the coloring matter peculiar to each kind of wood1 causes its individuality and adaptability to certain uses4 7,the color and odor of wood are caused by chemical combinations1 and are not part of the substance of the wood47 ,each of these annual layers is composed of two parts1 the formation being shown in ,fig4 #a1 in which the grain of yellow pine is depicted4 ,the soft1 cellular1 or open1 grain1 a1 is formed as the sap moves upward in the spring1 and the hard1 compact grain1 b1 is formed later in the year4 ,in soft woods the open grain predominates1 while in hard woods the compact grain is more in evidence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,section ,,of ,,yellow ,,pine4 a1 soft1 cellular grain2 b1 hard1 compact grain4 ,the age of a tree may be determined by counting these annual rings upon the stump1 though a drouth during the growing season may have at some time so affected its growth as to make some layers indistinct1 rendering it impossible to be absolutely sure of the count4 ,in a young tree the annual layers are thicker than when the tree becomes more mature4 7,c47 ,the different kinds of timber which the carpenter uses are cut from deciduous1 or broad-leaf1 trees1 and from coniferous1 or needle-leaf1 trees4 ,this classification of trees is based upon the difference in the forms of their leaves1 the former kind furnishing the ash1 oak1 walnut1 beech1 birch1 and other woods that are hard to work1 as well as poplar or white wood1 linn or bass wood1 and others which are called hard woods1 not in the sense that they are hard to work1 but because their method of growth is the same4 ,the coniferous or evergreen trees furnish the cedars1 pines1 hemlocks1 spruces1 firs1 redwood1 tamarack1 cypress1 and a few other woods of the same nature4 ,these woods have a resin which is always present1 no matter how old or dry the wood may be1 which explains their superior weather-resisting qualities4 #b4 ,the formation of wood4--7,a47 ,in the spring the sap begins to flow upward1 mainly through the open cells of the cambium 7the new growth in the stem1 by which the diameter of the tree is increased71 and to some extent through the sapwood4 ,as it comes in contact with the air by means of the leaves and the green shoots of the tree1 7,b47 it gives off water and oxygen1 and absorbs carbonic acid gas from the air1 7,c47 which is formed into starch1 sugar1 oil1 etc42 this in turn becomes part of the sapwood1 and forms the compact part of the annual ring1 completing the layer for that year4 7,d47 ,the wood is formed by a deposit of matter from the sap1 which gradually thickens the cell walls until the cells are filled1 when that layer becomes a part of the heartwood1 or that part of the tree which is inclosed within the annual layers of sapwood4 7,e47 ,both the fibers and the cells of the sapwood are filled with water or sap1 which may be removed by seasoning1 but the sapwood of most trees used for building purposes is not as good lumber as the heartwood1 as it is always susceptible to moisture4 ,the exceptions to this will be mentioned elsewhere4 7,f47 ,in all unseasoned lumber from #bj to #fj per cent of its weight is moisture1 which must be evaporated before the lumber has its highest commercial value4 ,this may be done by weather drying or by artificial means1 the lumber being treated in a specially constructed kiln4 #c4 ,tissues4--7,a47 ,a tree trunk is composed of four different tissues1 viz43 #a4 ,the pith 7,fig4 #b1 a71 a cellular tissue3 this is worthless and its presence in lumber is considered a defect4 #b4 ,the wood1 which includes the heartwood 7b71 the sapwood 7c71 and the medullary rays 7g74 ,from this part of the tree the commercially valuable lumber is taken4 #c4 ,the cambium 7d71 which is a thin layer between the sapwood 7c7 and the bast 7e74 #d4 ,the bark1 which includes both the bast 7e7 and the outer bark 7f74 ,the bark of most trees is worthless1 but that of chestnut1 oak1 hemlock1 and other trees which are rich in tannic acid is used in large quantities by tanneries4 7,b47 ,the heartwood 7b71 or duramen1 of most trees is the part generally used by carpenters upon the best work4 ,it is firm1 compact1 and of the color and qualities characteristic of the wood4 7,c47 ,the sapwood 7c71 or alburnum1 is generally light-colored1 and in most building woods its presence is considered a defect1 though not in hickory1 ash1 maple1 or yellow pine1 and a few other woods2 in fact1 in these woods it is often preferred to the heartwood for many kinds of work on account of its color4 ,the alburnum is filled with the active elements of the sap1 which are deposited as the sap passes through the trees1 and in time becomes part of the duramen1 or heartwood4 ,the time required for sapwood to attain maturity ranges from thirty to one hundred years1 according to its kind and age4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,section ,,of ,,oak ,,tree ,,trunk4 a1 pith2 b1 heartwood1 or duramen2 c1 sapwood1 or alburnum2 d1 cambium2 e1 bast1 or inner bark2 f1 outer bark1 or corky layer2 g1 medullary rays1 or silver grain2 po1 plain oak2 qo1 quartered oak4 7,d47 ,outside of the sapwood 7,fig4 #b1 c7 is the cambium 7d71 which furnishes the substance upon which the life of the tree depends4 ,here1 nourished by the richest sap1 new cells are formed1 which become either sapwood or a part of the bast4 7,e47 ,at 7e7 is shown the bast or inner bark1 which is composed of a woody fiber combined with a tissue of cells4 ,this is elastic1 which allows it to expand as the wood grows beneath it4 ,outside of the bast is the bark 7f71 or outer covering1 which is of a corky nature1 and protects the delicate vital parts of the tree4 #d4 ,the medullary rays4--,every tree has medullary rays 7,fig4 #b1 g71 usually spoken of by wood-workers as the 8silver streak10 or 8silver grain40 ,these rays connect the center of the tree with the outside1 and are more prominent in such woods as oak1 beech1 and sycamore than in other woods4 ,it is to take advantage of the beauty which these medullary rays impart that so much quarter-sawed lumber is used1 though lumber sawed in this way is preferred for other reasons1 which will be discussed later4 ,in many woods these rays are so small as to be invisible to the naked eye1 as in pine1 for instance1 which has fifteen thousand to the square inch4 ,aside from adding much to the beauty of the lumber1 they also give strength2 if lumber is dried out too rapidly by artificial heat1 it is apt to check1 or crack1 upon the line of the medullary rays4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,defects ,,in ,,lumber4 a1 wind shakes or cup shakes2 b1 heart shakes2 c1 star shakes2 d1 branch broken off1 showing the method by which the annual layers gradually cover broken branches2 e1 hard knot4 #e4 ,the grain in trees4--,in open or exposed situations trees usually grow more or less gnarled or crooked1 which tends to improve the grain4 ,the strength of lumber cut from trees grown as described is impaired1 however1 as the wood is more cross-grained than that from trees which grow in the heart of a forest1 with practically the same conditions on all sides4 ,as forest trees are continually reaching up for the sunlight1 they grow taller and straighter1 which makes it possible for straighter-grained lumber to be cut from them1 and as the branches are at the top1 where they receive the sunlight and air1 there are few cross-grained places4 ,when the annual rings are large1 the grain is said to be coarse1 and if the rings are fine1 the term fine-grained is used to describe it4 ,when the direction of the fibers is nearly parallel with the sides and the edges of the board1 it is said to be straight-grained2 when the lumber is taken from a crooked tree1 it is said to be cross-grained1 as the grain follows the shape of the log1 while the board is sawed straight4 ,cross-grained lumber is the handsomer2 in this the fibers1 being at different angles with the surface of the board1 form a variety of figures1 which add much to the beauty of the wood4 #f4 ,defects found in lumber4--7,a47 ,some of the most common defects found in lumber are wind shakes1 or cup shakes 7,fig4 #c1 a71 which are cracks following the line of the porous part of the annual rings4 ,these are caused by the action of severe winds4 7,b47 ,heart shakes 7,fig4 #c1 b7 are cracks radiating from the center of the tree1 and may be found in any kind of wood1 as they are the result of deficient nutrition1 or loss of vitality4 7,c47 ,star shakes 7,fig4 #c1 c7 are caused by the shrinkage of the tree upon the outside1 which is the result of a long dry spell of intense cold1 or of the deficient action of the sap4 ,star shakes differ from heart shakes in being larger upon the outside of the tree2 the heart shakes are larger at the center4 ,shakes of all kinds are common defects and sometimes are so numerous as to make the log worthless4 7,d47 ,discolorations are caused by decay which has at some time gained a foothold1 but which the tree was sufficiently vigorous to overcome2 or they may be due to imperfect or insufficient nutrition1 which generally results in the entire tree being affected instead of small places upon the tree4 7,e47 ,timber grown in a damp1 marshy locality is generally of a poorer quality than that grown upon higher ground1 as more water is taken up by the roots than can be well assimilated1 which prevents the formation of healthy compact wood4 ,some woods are adapted to such soil1 the poplar or whitewood1 willow1 basswood1 buckeye1 and cypress being denizens of moist or swampy places4 ,trees growing where they are exposed to winds from one direction are apt to assume a spiral growth1 which renders the timber almost worthless1 as it is weak1 and twists badly in drying4 7,f47 ,trees which have lumps appearing like growths upon them are usually unhealthy4 ,these lumps1 or tumors1 may be caused by defective nutrition1 checks1 or shakes1 or by the depredations of animals or insects4 7,g47 ,clefts1 or splits1 in a tree may be caused by extreme cold1 heat1 or drouth4 ,they may extend into the tree several inches1 and while the blemish will always remain1 showing a discoloration or other defect1 nature often repairs it so that the strength of the timber is but slightly affected4 ,if these clefts are not healed1 rain may find lodgment there1 and the sap be so affected that the adjacent wood will be destroyed1 and this in time will destroy the tree4 7,h47 ,eggs of certain insects are also deposited in these clefts1 the larv of which bore into the wood and destroy it4 7,i47 ,if it were not for the birds and other natural enemies of these insects1 they would increase so rapidly that the lumber supply would be seriously affected1 and1 as it is1 there are very few trees which are not injured to some extent by wood borers4 ,the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,entomology estimates that the damage to trees by these pests amounts to at least #ajj1jjj1jjj annually4 7,k47 ,sometimes 7as at d1 ,fig4 #c7 branches die or are broken off2 this gives the elements access to the heart of the tree and usually causes a permanent injury1 as the birds and other denizens of the forest frequently dig out the rotten wood as soon as the weather has had time to do its work1 thus giving further opportunity for decay to continue its destructive action4 ,if this does not happen1 the wood will grow over the break after several years and leave a loose knot in the heart of the tree1 which will be a decided blemish when the log is made into lumber4 ,the sketch shows the endeavor of nature to repair the defect1 as the annual rings will eventually close over the break4 ,the hard knot at e1 ,fig4 #c1 is not a serious defect1 unless the wood is to be used for finish or where great strength is required4 #g4 ,when to cut lumber4--,trees which are intended for the use of wood-workers should not be felled while the sap is in motion4 ,if cut at any other time than midsummer or in winter1 the active sap is apt to sour and to cause decay4 ,owing to the scarcity of lumber1 or from avarice1 this precaution often is ignored1 and trees are felled at any time of year1 regardless of their age2 in such cases1 much of the lumber lacks the essential qualities of its kind4 ,when a tree shows signs of dying at the top1 it should be cut down1 as the quality of the lumber it contains will deteriorate rapidly4 ,,suggestive ,,exercises #a4 ,what is meant by exogenous trees8 ,in what kinds of wood are the annual layers most prominent8 ,describe the formation of annual layers4 ,what causes the difference in the degrees of hardness of wood8 ,in the color and odor of wood8 ,how may the age of a tree be determined8 ,are the broadest annual layers found in young or in old trees8 ,from what class of trees does soft wood come8 ,hard wood8 #b4 ,describe the motion of sap4 ,what forms the sapwood8 ,with what are the cells of the sapwood filled8 ,compare sapwood and heartwood4 #c4 ,describe the four different tissues in a tree4 ,describe the inner bark4 #d4 ,what are the medullary rays8 ,in what woods are they most prominent8 ,how do they affect the strength of timber8 #e4 ,what is the nature of trees which grow in exposed situations8 ,where are the straightest trees found8 ,why does the location of a tree affect the grain8 ,what is meant by coarse1 fine1 straight1 and cross-grained lumber8 #f4 ,what causes wind shakes8 ,heart shakes8 ,star shakes8 ,how may they be distinguished from each other8 ,what causes discolorations8 ,what is the usual character of timber grown upon marshy ground8 ,what woods are adapted to low ground8 ,what sometimes causes spiral growth8 ,what do lumps and excrescences upon a tree generally signify8 ,what causes clefts in trees8 ,what are the results of clefts8 ,does nature perfectly repair the cleft8 ,what is the usual result of a branch being broken off8 #g4 ,what is the per cent of moisture in green wood8 ,should very young trees be cut8 ,why8 ,how may the top of a tree show when it should be felled8 ,at what time of year should trees be cut8 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,lumbering ,,and ,,varieties ,,of ,,wood #h4 ,the manufacture of lumber4--7,a47 ,there are two distinct processes in the preparation of lumber for commercial purposes1 logging and sawing2 the former includes all the steps from felling the tree to the delivery of the logs at the sawmill2 there the logs are sawed into boards1 planks1 and timbers of certain dimensions1 which are piled and exposed to the sun and air for a sufficient time to allow a large part of the water in them to evaporate1 when the lumber is said to be 8weather dried10 and ready for shipment to the consumer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,felling ,a ,,tree4 7,b47 ,if a lumber concern desires to begin operations in one of the great forest areas1 a 8land-looker0 or 8timber-cruiser0 is sent to spy out the land1 and to report upon the probable yield of timber within certain areas1 and the conditions which would aid or retard the work of getting out the logs4 ,if the report is favorable1 the standing timber may be purchased by 8stumpage10 which means that a certain price will be paid for each thousand feet of lumber cut1 or the land may be purchased outright1 though in the early history of lumbering cases have been known where these little formalities were omitted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,cutting ,,small ,,branches ,,from ,,felled ,,spruce4 ,camps are located at convenient points throughout the boundary1 roads are made through the woods1 and foundations1 or 8skidways10 built at right angles to them1 to receive the logs as they are hauled down the 8travoy0 roads1 which are narrow trails cut through the woods at frequent distances for this purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,skidway ,,of ,,spruce ,,logs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,load ,,of ,,white ,,pine ,,logs4 7,c47 ,the above preparations completed1 the work of felling the trees is begun 7,fig4 #d72 this part of the work requires nice skill and judgment1 as it is necessary that the tree should fall so that it will cause the least damage to itself and to surrounding trees4 ,after the tree is down1 the branches are cut close to the trunk 7,fig4 #e7 and carried to one side so that they will not be in the way of the horses4 ,the trunk is then sawed into logs1 twelve1 fourteen1 sixteen1 or eighteen feet in length1 as the imperfections and the length of the tree trunk may allow4 ,longer or shorter logs are rarely cut except for special purposes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,,hauling ,,logs ,,by ,,steel ,,cable4 7,d47 ,one end of the log is placed upon a drag1 or is gripped by a pair of tongs1 and hauled to the nearest travoy road and skidway1 where it is piled 7,fig4 #f74 7,e47 ,from the skidway the logs are loaded upon trucks1 cars1 or sledges 7,fig4 #g71 and carried to the cable 7,fig4 #h71 which is a method of hauling logs used in some parts of the country1 or to the railroad 7,fig4 #i71 or floated down a river 7,fig4 #aj74 ,if either of these latter methods of transportation is employed1 the logs are generally piled upon another skidway until there is enough for a train load1 or until the conditions upon the river are favorable for them to be floated to the mill4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,,loading ,,logs ,,from ,,shedway ,,to ,,train4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,,boom ,,of ,,logs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,log ,,jam4 7,f47 ,figure #aa illustrates a jam of logs1 which is generally the most dangerous obstacle the lumberman has to face4 ,a jam usually depends upon one key log1 which1 if loosened1 will allow the jam to break instantly4 ,the work of loosening the key log is frequently done by one or two men1 who must be men of spring steel nerves and muscles1 and possessed of the highest possible skill and activity1 or they cannot hope to break a large jam and escape with their lives4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,sawmill ,,in ,,the ,,big ,,tree ,,district4 7,g47 ,the mill illustrated by ,fig4 #ab is one which receives its logs by both rail and river4 ,in this case the logs which come in by rail are rolled into the river1 as they can be more easily placed upon the chain feed of the mill4 ,in winter1 a small pond of water is heated1 in which the logs are soaked before they are taken into the mill2 this draws the frost out of them1 and allows them to be worked much more easily4 7,h47 ,there are different types of sawmills1 in which the logs are worked into commercial shapes4 ,the small enterprises use portable mills1 which are moved into the woods and located upon a tract of land1 remaining until all the desirable timber in the vicinity has been sawed1 and then moved to another locality and the process repeated4 ,large operations are conducted upon a different plan2 mills of a permanent type are erected as near the forest as practicable1 roads are built1 tracks laid1 and the logs brought from the woods by one of the methods previously illustrated2 or1 where it is feasible1 flumes are built1 and the logs floated in these to the mill4 ,in erecting a mill of this sort1 a location is selected upon a waterway if possible1 as the logs may be floated more cheaply than by any other method of transportation1 though some of the heavier woods will not float1 and have to be handled on land4 7,i47 ,the immersion of logs in water also improves the quality of the lumber1 as the action of the water upon the sap prevents to some degree the tendency to decay1 and also facilitates the seasoning of the manufactured product4 ,if the log is left in the water until it becomes water-logged1 it will sink1 and while it is not injured for many purposes1 the wood loses some of the strength which it is supposed to have4 ,in many localities1 the salvage of sunken logs has become an industry4 7,j47 ,in modern large lumbering operations1 the timber to be cut is selected by trained foresters1 thus insuring a permanent supply1 and in the near future all extensive lumbering operations will1 beyond doubt1 be conducted upon a scientific basis1 as it is apparent that unless lumbering is carried on differently than it has been in the past1 the supply for the future will be entirely inadequate for the demand4 7,k47 ,in the smaller sawmills1 the logs are usually sawed into lumber of various dimensions by a circular saw 7,fig4 #ac72 but in the larger mills1 the band saw generally is used4 ,figure #ad illustrates a double cut band sawmill1 in which it will be seen that the saw makes a cut each time the log is carried either way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,,circular ,,saw4 #i4 ,to saw lumber of irregular dimensions4--7,a47 ,besides sawing dimension timber1 joists1 scantlings1 boards1 and planks of different thicknesses are sawed1 as follows3 #a01 #a01 #a01 #b01 #b01 #c01 #c01 #d02 and thicker1 if desired4 7,b47 ,if lumber is cut again from its original dimensions1 it is said to be resawed4 ,when boards or planks of the above dimensions are dressed on both sides1 they will be about 0 thinner2 thus1 a board sawed #a0 thick will1 when seasoned and dressed1 be but 01 and a #b0 plank will be but #a0 or #a01 though still classed by their sawed dimensions4 ,thicker lumber than that above-mentioned usually comes under the head of dimension timber1 which is not used to the extent that it was formerly1 as steel and concrete are replacing it upon heavy work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,,double ,,cut ,,band ,,saw4 ,if 0 boards are wanted1 #a0 or 8five quarter0 lumber is usually resawed to furnish it1 and after resawing1 is planed upon each side to the desired thickness4 ,boards for box stock and other special purposes are sometimes sawed as thin as 04 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,plain1 ,,slash1 ,,or ,,bastard ,,sawing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,,four ,,methods ,,of ,,quartering4 7,c47 ,the method of cutting a log illustrated by ,fig4 #ae is known as plain1 slash1 or bastard sawing1 and is the cheapest way to cut logs1 both as to time and waste4 ,the log is first squared to secure a bed upon which it may lie while being sawed1 which also makes it unnecessary to run each board by the edging saw to straighten the edges4 ,the slabs at a are sawed into boards as the log is squared1 and the bark1 or 8live edges10 sawed off afterward4 ,these make an inferior grade of boards1 as they are nearly all sap1 but they are well worth saving1 if large logs are being cut4 ,in sawing dimension timber1 or 8bill stuff10 good judgment is necessary to cut a log so that the greatest amount of marketable lumber can be made from it4 ,this is done by cutting various sizes from a log1 if it will not cut all of one size without too much waste4 7,d47 ,in cutting woods which have prominent medullary rays or silver grain1 the log is sawed by one of the methods shown in ,fig4 #af1 the object being to bring the rays as nearly parallel to the surface of the board as possible1 thus giving the broad silver1 or quarter1 grain which is so highly prized4 ,the best results are obtained from sections a1 b2 this method also gives the most waste4 ,in plain sawed lumber1 the boards from the middle of the log will have the quarter grain2 these are usually culled and sold as quarter-sawed4 ,neither of these methods results in economy of time or material1 as about #be per cent of each is used in excess of that required in plain sawing2 hence1 quarter-sawed lumber is more expensive than the plain1 or bastard1 sawed4 7,e47 ,quarter-sawed lumber 7,fig4 #af7 is preferred not only on account of its handsomer grain1 but because it holds its shape better than lumber sawed in any other way1 as the annual layers are approximately square with the surface of the board4 ,as the board shrinks in the direction parallel with the annual layers1 and very little from the center to the outside of the tree1 it is obvious that there is much less shrinking and warping in quarter-sawed lumber than in that which is sawed plain4 ,the best grades of flooring are quarter-sawed1 and stand usage without the surface splintering much better than does the common plain sawed material4 ,quarter-sawed lumber is known also as 8rift-sawed10 8vertical grain10 and 8comb grained40 #aj4 ,the grading of lumber4--,custom varies somewhat in different localities as to the grading of lumber1 but there are generally four grades1 which are often subgraded into qualities suitable for various uses4 8,number #a0 lumber should be practically perfect1 though in large dimensions1 small and unimportant blemishes may be allowed4 ,these blemishes in a board are usually restricted to not more than one inch of sap1 a small sound knot1 or small discoloration1 and but one blemish to a board is allowed4 8,number #b0 lumber is generally allowed two sound knots1 an inch of sap1 and one other blemish4 8,common boards0 are allowed three or four sound knots1 but two thirds of one side must be clear stock4 8,culls10 the lowest grade1 are used only upon the cheapest work4 ,one half of the board must be usable4 ,in many cases the boards are graded by the width of clear stock which can be taken out4 ,there are tables published by the different associations of lumber manufacturers which give the gradings under which their lumber has been measured and shipped1 but as these vary from time to time no permanent list can be given4 ,the principal reason why there can be no permanent grading of lumber is that the forests from which the finest timber can be cut in marketable quantities are being destroyed faster than they can be replaced by nature4 ,in anticipation of this condition1 the ,division of ,forestry of the ,department of ,agriculture is actively engaged in organizing government forest preserves1 in educating the people1 and in promoting legislation aimed at the husbanding of our forests4 ,when we consider the abundance of high grade lumber a few years ago1 and the fabulous prices which the same grades now bring1 it is evident that this movement should have begun during the days of our grandfathers1 instead of waiting until nearly all the best lumber in the great forests east of the ,mississippi had been cut1 and inestimable damage wrought by forest fires4 #aa4 ,the testing of lumber4--7,a47 ,dry1 sound stock1 if struck with the knuckles or with a hammer1 will give a clear ringing response1 while a wet or decaying piece will give a dull response to the blow4 7,b47 ,every kind of lumber has its peculiar odor1 by which1 as well as by the grain1 the student should learn to distinguish the woods in common use4 ,this may be more easily done before the wood has been thoroughly seasoned4 ,wood in general has a sweet and pleasing odor2 if a sour or musty smell is perceptible1 it indicates that decay is present4 7,c47 ,if there is much variation in the color of timber1 or black and blue spots1 the stick is probably diseased4 7,d47 ,decay is a disease1 which may be prevented by dryness or ventilation1 and frequently may be cured by soaking the wood in water for several days1 or by steaming4 ,the disease of decay is cured also by chemical preservatives being forced into lumber by pressure2 this at the same time prevents insects from boring into the tree4 ,alternate wetting and drying will produce rot1 but most lumber1 if permanently submerged or if kept perfectly dry1 will last almost indefinitely4 ,dry rot spreads to adjoining timbers1 and even to those which have no connection with the one originally infected4 #ab4 ,surveying or estimating lumber4--7,a47 ,it is the custom to consider any board less than one inch in thickness as an inch board1 and anything over one inch is measured as so many inches and fractions of an inch4 ,for instance1 a board 0 thick is surveyed as a full inch1 while one which is sawed #a0 in thickness is estimated by obtaining its surface measure1 and increasing it by one half4 ,thus1 a plank #ab' long1 #h0 wide1 and #a0 thick would have twelve feet board measure in it4 ,in some localities there is a sliding scale of prices which varies with each quarter inch in thickness of resawed lumber1 but this is not universal4 7,b47 ,in surveying joists or scantling1 it is customary to obtain the fraction of a foot1 board measure1 for each lineal foot4 ,thus1 a piece of #b #d 7inches understood7 has two thirds of a foot for each foot in length2 a #b #f has one foot1 and a piece of #b #h has one and one third feet of lumber for each foot in length of lumber measured4 ,if a joist is #b #ab1 doubling its length gives the number of square feet1 board measure1 that the joist contains4 7,c47 ,in measuring a common board1 the widest parallel piece which can be cut from it is the width of the board being measured2 therefore the board should be surveyed at the narrowest place4 ,in measuring more expensive lumber1 it is customary to average the width of the board4 7,d47 ,in estimating all kinds of lumber in common use1 the lumber scale shown in ,fig4 #ag is used4 ,it is made of thin1 cleft hickory1 about three feet long1 with one end large enough for a suitable handle2 on the other end is a metal head1 which is held against the edge of the board while the scale is being read4 ,the length of the board is marked near the handle1 and at the end of the socket of the metal head1 as at a4 ,in using this scale1 the hooked end1 or head1 is held against the edge of the board1 as at b2 the eye follows along the same line of figures upon which the length of the board is found1 reading those figures nearest the width of the board4 ,thus1 a scale laid upon a board #af' long would1 without further measuring or calculating1 show that the board contains #ag' board measure4 ,if the board were #ab' long1 it would contain #ac'2 and if #ad' long1 by reading the middle line of figures1 the board would be seen to contain #ae'4 ,in using this scale1 it is customary to read to the nearest figure1 and when there is no difference1 to alternate between the lower and the higher figures upon different boards4 ,thus1 a board #ab' long and #h0 or #i0 wide would be read as having #i' board measure in it4 ,two boards #h0 wide1 of the same length as the above1 would be measured as having #h' and #i'1 respectively1 in their surfaces4 ,in short1 the fractions of a foot are not considered in surveying the lumber in common use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,lumber ,,scale4 #ac4 ,qualities of wood4--7,a47 ,certain kinds of wood are adapted for some purposes better than are others2 the wood-worker1 therefore1 should be familiar with the qualities which conditions demand1 and the kinds of woods which have these qualities4 ,lumber for framing should be strong and durable2 it should be cut from trees which grow to a size that will allow large dimensions to be cut from them4 ,for outside finish1 the material should be wood which will stand the weather1 can be easily worked1 and will hold its shape well4 ,timbers that are to be buried must possess the quality of durability1 and should be of sufficient strength to resist the strain which will be put upon them4 ,flooring should wear well1 hold its shape1 and be of good appearance4 ,in providing lumber for inside finish1 care should be used that it has good grain and color1 is not too soft1 and that it will hold its shape well4 ,almost any wood may be used as far as strength is concerned1 but lumber which shrinks and warps badly is unfit for finishing4 ,shingles should be of wood which will resist decay1 and which has the least tendency to warp and split4 ,boards which are to be used for siding should hold paint well1 and be as free as possible from the tendency to warp1 split1 and twist when exposed to the weather4 7,b47 ,all material used in framing a building should be weather-dried in good drying weather for at least thirty days for each inch in thickness1 and that used for inside and outside finish and floors should be thoroughly kiln-dried1 and kept in a dry place until ready for use4 ,these conditions are not always obtainable1 but if the best results are desired1 they should be followed as closely as possible4 ,the woods hereafter described comprise the principal varieties used by the wood-workers of the ,united ,states4 7,c47 ,ash 7deciduous1 or broad-leaved7 is an open-grained1 light-colored wood1 in which the porous portions of the annual rings are quite prominent1 thus making it somewhat coarse-grained4 ,it grows in the ,northern states1 and is a wood of medium weight and hardness4 ,it is tough and elastic1 the young growth being much used in the manufacture of wagons1 machinery frames1 and for similar purposes1 as it is not expensive1 quite easily worked1 and very strong4 ,it has a tendency to decay1 and is often badly infested with insects2 therefore it is not suitable for building construction or for contact with soil4 ,ash grows in forests with other broad-leaved trees1 and is plentiful in many localities4 ,there are two kinds of this wood recognized in commerce3 the white1 which is light-colored1 and the black1 which is of a brownish tinge1 though there is little difference in the grain of the two4 ,sap is not considered a defect1 but is regarded as the best part of the tree for some purposes4 ,the wood grown in the ,northern states is generally tougher than that grown farther south4 ,the wood from the older and larger trees is not so tough and hard as that from the younger growth1 and is much used for cabinet work and for interior finish4 ,it should be filled with a paste-filler1 after which it may be brought to a fine polish4 ,the wood holds its shape well and is useful for the purposes mentioned4 7,d47 ,apple 7dec47 is not used for construction1 as the proper dimensions cannot be secured1 and as it is very stubborn to work4 ,it is one of the best woods known to resist splitting1 and is much used for chisel and saw handles4 7,e47 ,basswood1 or linden 7dec471 is a soft1 porous wood1 which shrinks considerably in drying4 ,it is used for the backing of veneer work1 for drawer bottoms of the common grades of furniture1 for case backs1 and similar purposes1 and is also much used in the manufacture of spools and other small articles which are made in large quantities4 ,in building construction1 basswood is used for ceilings1 and for other work where strength is not needed1 though for use in such places it should be thoroughly seasoned1 or the joints will open4 ,if steamed1 basswood may be bent to almost any form4 ,steaming also cures to a great extent the tendency of this wood to shrink and swell4 7,f47 ,beech 7dec47 is adapted for use in places where the ability to resist a heavy strain or hard wear is necessary1 as in plane stocks1 tool handles1 and parts of machinery4 ,in building work1 it is used to some extent for flooring and for inside finishing4 ,it is used also for furniture1 though the difficulty of working it makes it more expensive than other equally desirable woods4 ,if exposed to alternations of dryness and dampness1 it decays rapidly2 if submerged1 it gives fair satisfaction4 ,beech trees are common through the ,ohio and ,mississippi valleys1 and are found to some extent in all of the states between the ,great ,lakes and the ,atlantic seaboard4 7,g47 ,birch 7dec47 is one of our most useful hard woods4 ,it is found in abundance in the broad-leaved forests of the ,eastern states and ,canada4 ,there are two varieties recognized in commerce1 the red and the white birch4 ,the former is used considerably for inside finish and for furniture4 ,it takes a stain well1 and may be made to imitate cherry or mahogany so exactly as to deceive any one but an expert4 ,when finished in its own natural color1 it is a satisfactory wood for the above uses1 but as it ages1 it turns to a muddy brown2 as it is a stubborn wood to work1 it is not popular4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,,beech ,,and ,,sugar ,,maple ,,forest4 ,canoe1 or paper1 birch is softer than the red variety1 and is used to some extent by paper pulp makers1 and for the manufacture of spools1 dowels1 and a large variety of small articles4 7,h47 ,butternut or white walnut 7dec47 has a good grain and color2 it is quite soft1 though not so easily worked as are some harder woods1 for it has a tendency to string while being dressed to a fine surface4 ,it does not absorb moisture readily1 and holds its shape under trying conditions4 ,butternut does not split easily1 takes a fine polish1 and is used considerably for furniture and for interior finish4 7,i47 ,cedar 7coniferous1 or needle-leaved7 is of two varieties1 the red and the white4 ,the former is used considerably for cooperage and veneers1 lead pencils1 and for lining moth-proof drawers and chests1 as its strong odor and bitter taste protects it from the ravages of insects4 ,the supply of red cedar is becoming limited1 and it is now too expensive for common use1 though our forefathers used it for shingles4 ,the unwise and avaricious cutting of this valuable timber and of others1 notably white and ,georgia pine1 has destroyed what would have been a supply for all time1 if the cutting had been properly controlled4 ,white cedar is much more plentiful1 and a much inferior wood2 it is used for shingles1 water tanks1 boat building1 and in the manufacture of barrels and cigar boxes4 ,it is a very durable wood1 and shrinks but little in drying4 ,it is well adapted for burying1 though not strong enough to resist a very heavy strain4 ,it grows faster than the red cedar1 and makes a larger tree4 7,j47 ,cherry 7dec47 is one of the best of our native woods4 ,it is much used for fine finish and for cabinet work1 as it holds its shape well1 if thoroughly seasoned1 and takes a fine finish4 ,its grain is of fine1 even texture1 of reddish color1 and often stained to imitate mahogany4 ,when well ebonized1 it cannot be distinguished from the genuine wood except by weight4 ,cherry is used by pattern makers for parts of patterns which are to stand rough usage4 ,the tree is found in all of the states east of ,texas1 and in the ,mississippi valley1 but it is becoming too scarce for common use4 7,k47 ,chestnut 7dec47 is a soft1 open-grained wood1 adapted to use in exposed situations4 ,it is used a great deal for inside finish1 as it will take a fine polish1 and as the figures formed by the grain make it a very handsome wood for the purpose4 ,not being a strong wood1 it will not stand a heavy strain1 and will shrink and crack badly in drying4 7,l47 ,cypress 7con47 is similar to cedar4 ,it is one of our most durable woods1 and perhaps the best we have for outside work4 ,it is used extensively for shingles2 roofs covered with cypress shingles have been known to last for more than seventy-five years4 ,the wood is light1 straight-grained1 and soft2 it is easily worked1 and holds its shape well4 ,it is to great extent taking the place of white pine in the manufacture of doors1 sash1 and blinds1 and is considered by many to be equal1 if not superior1 to that wood4 ,it is much used in building small boats1 and for use in places where it will be exposed to dampness4 ,eaves1 troughs1 and tanks made of it give better satisfaction than those made of any other woods except redwood and cedar1 which are the only woods having anti-decaying qualities equal to cypress4 ,cypress may be obtained in boards of almost any dimensions1 and if it were stronger and harder1 it would be one of our best woods for framing and finishing4 ,it is used for the latter purpose to a considerable extent1 as it has a handsome grain1 and will take a polish well2 if thoroughly seasoned1 it will hold its shape as well as any wood4 ,if it is seasoned slowly1 it does not crack to an appreciable extent1 but if forced1 it is apt to be filled with fine shakes4 ,sap is not considered a blemish4 ,cypress grows in the swamps and along the rivers of the ,southern states1 the best of it coming from those bordering on the gulf4 7,m47 ,elm 7dec47 is a moderately hard wood1 difficult to split4 ,it warps and checks to some extent in drying1 but when well seasoned it holds its shape as well as most woods in common use4 ,it is susceptible to a good polish1 and is used a great deal for interior finish and furniture1 as it takes a stain well4 ,much of the quartered oak used in the manufacture of cheap furniture grew upon an elm stump4 ,it is used largely in cooperage1 and stands contact with the soil satisfactorily4 ,the elm is found in nearly all parts of the ,united ,states1 but is more abundant east of the ,mississippi river4 7,n47 ,gum 7dec471 or1 as it is more generally known1 sweet gum1 is extensively used for interior finish upon the better class of buildings4 ,it warps and shrinks badly unless thoroughly seasoned1 in which condition it is a very satisfactory wood4 ,it is tough and strong1 cross-grained1 and of fine texture2 its color is a warm1 reddish brown1 and it finishes handsomely4 ,the gum tree grows abundantly in the ,southern states4 7,o47 ,hemlock 7con47 is found in most of the ,northern states1 and is used for scantlings1 rough boards1 under floors1 and for boarding preparatory to siding4 ,it is a fairly durable wood1 but splits easily1 and is apt to be full of wind shakes4 ,it holds nails firmly4 7,p47 ,hickory 7dec47 is the hardest native wood in common use1 and the toughest wood that we have2 it is too hard to be used for building material4 ,it is flexible1 and its principal use is for wagon and carriage work1 and for other purposes where bent wood and great strength is required4 ,as it does not split easily1 it is much used in the manufacture of tool handles4 ,it is liable to attacks from boring insects1 and these pests often destroy much valuable timber4 ,sap is not considered a defect1 and the sapwood is in fact the most desirable part of the tree1 on account of its creamy whiteness and great strength4 7,q47 ,locust 7dec47 is found in nearly all parts of the country1 and is a useful and durable wood4 ,it is much used for fence posts and1 in damp locations1 for railway ties1 and sometimes for furniture1 as it has a yellowish brown color which takes a polish well4 7,r47 ,maple 7dec47 is a heavy1 strong wood1 nearly white1 with a yellow or brownish tinge4 ,there are several kinds of maple1 but the kind generally used for commercial purposes is the sugar or rock maple4 ,it does not shrink excessively1 seasons without serious checking1 and from it a very fine surface for polishing may be obtained4 ,it is much used in places where it is exposed to wear1 as in floors1 butchers' tables1 etc41 and to a considerable extent as a cabinet wood1 and for interior finish4 ,maple does not resist decay as well as do some other woods4 ,sap is not considered a defect1 and on account of its whiteness the sapwood is often preferred to the heartwood for many uses4 ,bird's-eye maple is of this wood1 but some peculiarity in the growth of certain trees1 believed by many to be caused by woodpeckers1 has caused the tree to have what seem to be numerous small knots1 known as curls or eyes4 ,the presence of these imparts a beauty which is possessed by no other wood1 and has never been successfully imitated4 7,s47 ,mahogany 7dec47 is an imported wood1 and is much used in the finish of fine buildings and in the manufacture of fine furniture4 ,it is of a rich red color1 and has a beautiful grain and other desirable qualities which make it the finest wood for finish in use4 ,it holds its shape remarkably well1 unless it is very cross-grained1 and is in every respect an ideal cabinet wood4 ,its cost is all that prevents it from being universally used4 7,t47 ,oak 7dec47 is our best all-round native wood4 ,it is found abundantly in nearly all parts of the country1 and forms the larger part of our broad-leaved forests4 ,there are a number of species of oak1 but they are in general known to commerce as the red and the white oak4 ,nearly all these trees are cut for commercial purposes1 but the white oak is the finest4 ,the wood of some varieties of oak is so similar to the white oak that the difference cannot be distinguished after the work is finished1 therefore they are all put together and sold as a medium grade of white oak for purposes where the strength of the genuine is not required4 ,this will generally account for the difference in the grain and the color which is noticed in handling the commercial white oak4 ,red oak is a coarser wood1 and is more apt to give trouble in seasoning than white oak1 though they both have to be dried very carefully1 or there may be checks and cracks to such an extent that the wood will be ruined4 ,both the red and the white oak are used extensively in finishing and cabinet work1 but the red oak is used commonly upon the cheaper grades1 as it is easier to work4 ,the two varieties should never be used upon the same job1 unless the wood is to be stained a dark color1 as there is a marked difference in their appearance when finished4 ,white oak is much used for flooring1 quartered oak resulting in a beautiful floor1 if the work is well done4 ,oak is not a suitable wood for exposure to trying climatic conditions1 though if buried deeply1 or in water1 where there is no alteration in moisture or dryness1 it gives satisfaction4 ,white oak is used to great extent for railroad ties1 but what these are to be made of in the future is causing much speculation1 as the end of the present supply of white oak is already in sight4 7,u47 ,pine 7con47 in its different varieties is used more than any other kind of wood4 ,it is found in nearly all parts of the ,united ,states and in ,canada4 ,certain sections of the country which were once covered with virgin pine forests have1 however1 been so denuded of their wealth1 and so many of their young trees destroyed1 within a few short years1 by the depredations of lumbermen who cared more for their immediate profit than for the prospective good of the nation1 that instead of a permanent and continual supply of this valuable wood1 there are now nothing but barren hillsides1 and the moss-grown ruins of the lumber camps and sawmills by means of which this irremediable wrong was perpetrated against posterity4 ,white pine is soft1 easily worked1 and when thoroughly seasoned will hold its shape better than any other wood except mahogany4 ,for these reasons1 and on account of its adaptability to gluing1 it is used almost exclusively by pattern makers4 ,it is found in the ,northern states and in ,canada4 ,farther south is the belt in which grows the grade of pine known as 8,carolina10 the bastard or yellow pine4 ,this belt extends from the ,mississippi valley to the ,atlantic coast1 and is of a width to include ,virginia and the ,carolinas4 ,this pine is harder to work1 and has a more pronounced grain than has the white pine1 but it makes a handsome wood for interior trim1 as it is capable of a fine finish4 ,carolina pine is neither so hard nor so strong as 8,georgia0 pine1 which is also known commercially as long-leaved pine1 pitch pine1 or hard pine4 ,this wood is found from ,virginia to ,texas1 in the states bordering upon the ocean and the gulf4 ,pitch pine has a finer1 closer grain than has either of the two above described1 being much stronger and more dense4 ,this is the wood which is used for heavy timbers of large buildings1 and the above described grades should never be confused with it1 the ,carolina pine resulting in work of less strength1 for instance1 if used where the pitch pine was intended4 ,although this wood is very hard and strong1 and is the best wood for heavy construction1 as has been stated1 it should never be used in any place which is not dry and well ventilated1 as it will decay rapidly if placed in a damp location1 or where it will come in contact with the earth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,,white ,,pine ,,forest4 ,there are several varieties of pine besides those above mentioned4 ,these are generally less desirable for finish or for construction than is the white1 yellow1 or ,carolina pine1 but they are used extensively for the common work of light building1 and by box factories4 7,v47 ,poplar or whitewood 7dec47 is cut from the tulip tree1 and is found principally in the ,middle ,west and in some parts of the ,south4 ,it is of light weight and color1 with few knots1 and is soft and easily worked4 ,it is used for the common grades of cabinet work1 inside finishing1 veranda posts1 etc4 ,it takes a stain remarkably well1 and its even texture makes it a favorite with wood carvers4 ,it warps and shrinks considerably in seasoning1 and unless held in its place1 it is apt to twist4 7,w47 ,redwood 7con47 is taken from the big trees on the ,pacific slope2 it is straight-grained1 soft1 and free from knots1 and may be obtained in boards of any size which it is possible to cut4 ,it has the reputation of being one of the best woods for use in trying conditions1 or where it will be exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture4 ,it has a very coarse grain and takes a finish well1 but it is not apt to become very popular for inside finish1 as it is easily marred1 and1 although very soft1 will1 when thoroughly dry1 destroy the edge of tools quicker than many harder woods4 ,it turns to a dull1 unattractive brown as it ages1 if it is finished in its natural color4 ,it is claimed by many to be the best wood for shingles1 as it resists decay indefinitely4 ,it shrinks both ways of the grain1 and burns very slowly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,,douglas ,,spruce ,,forest4 7,x47 ,spruce 7con47 is moderately hard and strong1 and in ,new ,england is used generally for framing light buildings and for rough boarding4 ,its color is almost pure white1 and it has the valuable quality of holding nails firmly4 ,there is little difference between the heart and the sap wood1 and its texture is sometimes such that it is difficult to distinguish it from white pine4 ,it warps and twists badly in seasoning1 and on that account is not suitable for framing trusses1 unless seasoned lumber is used4 ,spruce is used also for a cheap grade of clapboards1 for flooring1 ceiling1 and laths1 and also by paper pulp manufacturers in immense quantities4 ,it is a fairly satisfactory wood for immersion1 but if exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture1 it decays rapidly4 7,y47 ,sycamore1 or buttonwood 7dec471 is found in nearly all parts of the ,mississippi valley and in the ,eastern states4 ,it is a moderately stiff and strong wood1 coarse-grained1 and quite difficult to smooth to a surface1 as the grain seems to run in all directions at once4 ,it has also a disagreeable habit of warping and twisting as it seasons1 but if well seasoned and properly handled1 it will give no more trouble than do other woods4 ,it takes a good polish1 and is a desirable wood for inside finish4 7,z47 ,walnut1 or black walnut 7dec471 is found in all the ,middle and ,eastern states4 ,it is heavy1 firm1 and strong1 of a chocolate color1 and takes a fine finish4 ,it is well adapted to inside finish and to furniture work4 ,at one time nearly all the best work was done in this wood1 but at present it is out of style1 as oak and other woods are more in favor4 ,like other varieties of our best woods1 this has been cut out1 and is now too expensive to be considered as anything but a fancy wood4 ,white walnut is described under butternut4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,red ,,spruce ,,and ,,balsam ,,fir ,,killed ,,by ,,fire4 ,,suggestive ,,exercises #h4 ,how are small lumbering operations conducted8 ,large operations8 ,what is the favorite method of bringing logs to the mill8 ,why8 ,compare the circular and the band saw as to economy4 ,why is scientific forestry a necessity8 #i4 ,what are the usual thicknesses to which planks are sawed8 ,how much thinner is dressed than sawed lumber8 ,how are boards usually sawed8 ,how should a log be sawed to get the most out of it8 ,to furnish dimension lumber8 ,describe the advantages and the methods of quarter-sawing4 ,compare plain and quarter-sawed lumber as to economy4 ,compare and give reasons for their different shrinking qualities4 ,what are the different names by which quarter-sawed lumber is known8 #aj4 ,describe and demonstrate the four grades of lumber as they are commonly graded4 #aa4 ,what will be the nature of the sound if a dry1 perfect piece of timber is struck with the knuckles8 ,a wet or decaying piece8 ,what does it usually signify if there is a great variety of color in a board8 ,how may decayed lumber be detected by its odor8 ,how may incipient decay be stopped8 ,how may decay be prevented or cured8 #ab4 ,how is lumber less than #a0 in thickness surveyed8 ,lumber over #a0 in thickness8 ,how are joists and scantlings measured8 ,to what lengths are logs sawed in the forest8 ,in surveying1 where should a common board be measured8 ,a quarter-sawed board8 ,demonstrate the use of the lumber scale4 #ac4 ,what should be the qualities of a good framing timber8 ,of timber for outside finish8 ,to be buried8 ,for floors8 ,for inside finish8 ,for shingles8 ,for siding8 ,how long should lumber be dried before using8 ,how should lumber for inside finish be cared for while waiting for use8 ,describe the qualities and the uses of the following kinds of lumber3 ash1 apple1 basswood1 beech1 birch1 butternut1 cedar1 cherry1 chestnut1 cypress1 elm1 hemlock1 hickory1 locust1 maple1 mahogany1 oak1 pine1 poplar1 spruce1 sycamore1 walnut4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,care ,,of ,,lumber #ad4 ,the piling of lumber4--7,a47 ,to the uninitiated it may seem that the piling of lumber is work upon which it is not necessary to expend much skill1 but there are few operations in which carelessness or ignorance will cause more loss to a wood-worker4 7,b47 ,the front end of a lumber pile should be higher than the back1 therefore it is a good plan to locate it upon ground which falls away to the rear1 or to build the ways which support the pile so that the water which drives into the pile will run out at the back end1 and not stand upon the boards1 as this will cause discolorations4 #ae4 ,permanent lumber ways4--,these should be built by some method similar to that shown in ,fig4 #bb4 ,it is not a good plan to lay timbers upon the ground1 as they will decay rapidly1 and there will not be sufficient room for air to circulate under the pile to allow the boards of the lower courses to dry out properly4 ,the pile is also apt to settle when the frost comes out of the ground in the spring4 ,lumber should not be stacked above wet or marshy ground2 if necessary to stack it where the weeds are of rank growth1 the latter should be kept down4 ,the ways should be built with a solid foundation1 well below the frost line1 though this is rarely done except for permanent lumber storage4 ,this is shown at a1 ,fig4 #bb1 in which it will be seen that the ways are built to stand a heavy load2 the space between the centers of the ways should be about five feet1 as multiples of this distance will accommodate any length of boards4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,permanent ,,lumber ,,ways4 #af4 ,to minimize the warping of lumber4--7,a47 ,do not place lumber piles less than one foot apart1 as it is necessary that there should be a continuous circulation of air through the pile in all directions4 7,see b1 ,fig4 #bb47 7,b47 ,lumber piles are usually four feet in width1 and should be built up with sticks of that length1 which are placed between the courses of boards4 ,it is important that these be placed directly over each other and the ways2 otherwise there will be short kinks in the boards1 as shown at c4 ,it is such carelessness as this that causes a great deal of loss4 ,in piling very expensive lumber1 the front sticks should be laid so as to project a little over the course of boards below1 and the boards of the course above should project the same distance over the stick1 in order to give the front of the pile an inclination to the front1 as shown at d1 which will allow most of the rain-water to drop clear of the boards below1 instead of running down the front and finding its way into the pile4 7,c47 ,square piles are sometimes built1 but in these the boards should be laid with large spaces between them1 to allow perfect circulation of air4 ,it is obvious that in a pile of this sort1 the boards in the center of the pile will not come in contact with the air as much as those on the outside1 and that consequently1 unless carefully piled1 the boards may be damaged by the moisture souring instead of drying out1 which usually results in decay4 7,d47 ,during the drying out process1 all boards change their form more or less1 depending upon the shape of the tree trunk1 the kind and quality of the wood1 the part of the tree from which the log was cut1 as well as its size and age1 the relation of the annual rings and medullary rays to the surfaces of the board1 the length of time since the log was cut before being made into lumber1 whether it had lain in water for several months1 and the method of piling4 ,thus it will be seen that in every stage of preparing lumber for market1 a high degree of skill and judgment is necessary to insure the best results4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,,warping ,,of ,,lumber4 ,the greatest deterioration in lumber1 after it has been cut and properly piled1 is generally due to the tendency to warp1 the cause of which is indicated in ,fig4 #bc1 and which may to great extent be minimized by skillful piling4 ,if this sketch is studied carefully1 it will be noticed that the middle board is thicker in the middle than it is at the edges1 and that the curves of its top and bottom sides are practically uniform4 ,this is because the annual layers are at nearly a right angle with the sides of the board1 which causes the board to shrink in thickness1 and very little in width4 ,this is due to the tendency of lumber shrink around1 or parallel with1 the annual layers4 ,this tendency also causes the star shakes1 as at c1 ,fig4 #c1 which is because the inner layers of the log1 being less than the outside layers in circumference1 and less exposed to the dry air1 do not shrink so fast nor so much4 ,this tendency is again illustrated in ,fig4 #bc1 in which it will be seen that because the outer annual layers shrink faster1 they cause the outside of the board1 or the part which grew toward the outside of the tree1 to become narrower1 and to assume a concave shape1 while the side nearer the center of the tree1 or the inside of the board1 becomes convex4 ,this is also the reason why boards cut near the outside of the log will shrink in width more than those cut nearer the center1 which shrink in thickness proportionately more than in width4 7,e47 ,for the purpose of taking advantage of the tendency to warp1 and applying it to its own remedy1 boards should be piled with the side which grew nearer the center of the tree uppermost4 ,this will help to correct the tendency of the board to warp1 as explained above1 as the side which would naturally assume the concave shape will be underneath1 and less likely to warp than if it were uppermost4 ,this is not generally observed in stacking common lumber1 since it needs care and judgment to do it properly1 but it should be done if valuable lumber is being handled4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,lumber ,,piled ,,in ,,double ,,courses4 ,boards of practically the same width1 if less than #g0 wide1 are sometimes stacked in double courses1 as shown in ,fig4 #bd1 the outside of the boards1 or the sides which grew nearer the outside of the tree being placed together1 thus allowing the inside of the boards1 or the sides which grew toward the center of the tree1 to receive more air than the sides which are placed together1 and therefore to dry out faster1 which will reduce the warping to a minimum4 ,after a pile is completed1 it should be covered with old boards to protect the top courses from the weather4 7,f47 ,a pile of valuable lumber should be restacked every six or eight months1 as the boards are apt to become discolored where the lumber sticks are placed2 in this rehandling1 the warped boards should be placed with the concave side underneath4 7,g47 ,if lumber is cut in winter or midsummer1 and properly cared for1 it is not apt to be injured by any rain which may drive into the pile1 if there is free circulation of air2 nor is it so liable to decay as lumber which is cut at other times of the year4 #ag4 ,weather-dried lumber4--,lumber which has been dried in the stack out of doors is not dry enough for use in the manufacture of inside finish or furniture1 as it has dried out only to the degree of moisture in the outside air4 ,if it is then worked up and placed in an artificially heated house1 the heat will cause more moisture to evaporate1 the wood to shrink1 and the joints to open4 ,for material to be used in the frames of buildings1 in wagons1 or in other places where the greatest possible strength is required1 not less than two years weather-drying is preferred1 as the material retains its full strength4 #ah4 ,kiln-dried lumber4--,lumber for furniture or for inside finish should be seasoned by the process known as 8kiln-drying40 ,this means that lumber is exposed to a temperature of from #abj to #bjj ,f4 by which the moisture is extracted and evaporated4 ,lumber thus treated is apt to be more or less weakened by the action of the heat upon the fibers of the wood1 which causes thousands of minute fractures1 and in many cases the life and the elasticity of the lumber is destroyed4 ,the results of kiln-drying depend largely upon the kiln1 and upon the skill with which the lumber is piled1 the heat applied1 and the rapidity of evaporation of the moisture regulated4 ,for these reasons1 much kiln-dried lumber is suitable for use where but little strength is required and where the color and the grain are the important points to consider4 #ai4 ,moist air kilns4--7,a47 ,there are two types of dry kilns in common use3 the natural draft1 or moist air1 kilns1 and the induced draft kilns4 ,these two types are made by different manufacturers1 nearly all of whom use certain devices of which they control the patents1 and which constitute the chief difference between their kiln and those made by other manufacturers4 7,b47 ,the moist air kilns are so constructed as to allow the freest possible circulation of the heated air1 and to provide opportunities for the moisture to be expelled in accordance with certain natural laws1 which results are obtained by a carefully planned and managed system of ventilation4 ,these kilns operate upon the principle that heated air circulating naturally through lumber will become charged to a much greater degree with moisture than if it were forced through rapidly1 as in the induced draft kilns4 ,thus1 heated air by passing slowly through a pile of lumber may become charged with moisture nearly to the dew point4 ,if the humidity of the heated air is maintained at that point1 by allowing the moisture to pass out as it accumulates1 with a small amount of heated air1 which is replaced with fresh air from the outside1 it is claimed that the boards will dry out from their centers4 7,c47 ,as the warm1 moist air which circulates through the pile will keep the outsides of the boards moist1 it will prevent case hardening1 or the hardening of the outsides of the boards4 ,this is caused by very warm dry air1 which 8cooks10 or closes the pores of the surface of the boards1 and this prevents the outsides from shrinking1 while the insides will be so badly checked and discolored as to destroy the boards4 ,after the moisture is all out of the lumber1 that held in suspension will gradually pass out of the kiln1 and the air inside will become perfectly dry4 7,d47 ,it is claimed that all kinds of lumber in common use may be put into this type of kiln perfectly green1 except oak and other very hard woods1 which should have at least thirty days' drying under good drying conditions for each inch in thickness4 ,it is also claimed that the moist air kiln is simply weather drying accelerated1--the moisture being thoroughly extracted from the lumber1 the result being the same as though it were stacked out of doors for several years1--and that the lumber has lost none of its strength1 elasticity1 or characteristic color4 7,e47 ,this method sometimes is applied by steam pipes extending between each course of boards1 and in this way the lumber is dried out very rapidly4 ,lumber used in this sort of kiln should be thoroughly weather-dried1 or otherwise the high temperature will cause it to check badly4 ,in certain forms of these kilns1 the lumber is saturated with live steam after it is piled in the kiln1 before the heat is turned on4 #bj4 ,induced draft kilns4--7,a47 ,this system of kiln-drying consists of a power-driven fan1 which forces the heated air at a high rate of speed through the spaces between and around the lumber piled in the chamber4 7,b47 ,manufacturers have different devices for extracting the moisture from the air after it has passed through the lumber piles4 ,it may be passed over condensing plates1 or through coils of pipes in which cold water is continually circulating1 both of these devices being for the purpose of extracting the moisture from the heated air4 ,if the moisture is separated from the air by condensation1 it runs away1 but if not1 a certain per cent of the heated air is expelled out of doors1 being replaced by fresh air4 ,the air in the kiln1 somewhat cooled from contact with these cooled surfaces1 is returned to the heater1 reheated1 and again forced through the kiln1 which operation is repeated continuously and automatically4 ,thus the heated air becomes charged with a small percentage of moisture each time it passes through the kiln chamber2 this moisture is extracted and the air is again heated before beginning another circuit1 instead of slow circulation which allows the heated air to become saturated with moisture before it is discharged1 as in the moist air kiln4 ,the induced draft dry kiln requires quite an expensive equipment1 as the blower and the appliance which drive it are necessary in addition to the equipment of the kiln itself1 which would be similar in either of the types of kiln described4 ,lumber to be dried in this form of kiln must be well weather-dried before it is exposed to the high temperature of the kiln4 #ba4 ,results of the two systems4--,while it is not the province of this book to pass judgment upon the results of the different methods or forms of dry kilns1 it is obvious that the induced draft kiln is the more expensive to operate1 as the expense of running the blower is avoided in the moist air system4 ,in this latter type of kiln the steam simply passes through the pipes1 the condensation being returned to the boiler to be reheated1 so the only expense is that of maintaining the fire to keep up a low pressure4 ,in the daytime1 or while the engine which furnishes the power for the plant is running1 the kilns of either type may be heated by exhaust steam4 ,many users of one or both systems seem satisfied with the results obtained from either1 while others are decided in their preference4 #bb4 ,filling a kiln4--,in doing this1 care should be used that there is plenty of room for the air to circulate freely around and through the pile--not less than #c0 between the edges of the boards horizontally and vertically1 and one foot between the lumber and the wall or adjacent pile4 ,each course of boards should be so planned as to bring the same width over those of the course below1 if possible1 in order to keep a vertical air space through the pile4 ,in some cases the kiln is filled by placing the boards edgeways4 #bc4 ,length of time lumber should be left in the kiln4--,no one should undertake to operate a kiln unless he understands perfectly the particular make of the kiln that he is handling1 for if the ventilation is not correctly regulated1 the entire charge of the kiln may become mildewed1 casehardened1 checked1 discolored1 or dried unevenly4 ,no rule can be given for the time which lumber should be left in the kiln1 as it depends upon the condition of the lumber1 temperature1 kind of lumber1 dimensions1 and ventilation4 ,generally speaking1 if the kiln is properly constructed and operated1 from two to four days for each inch in thickness of soft wood1 and from two to three times as long1 at a lower temperature1 for hard wood1 is usually enough to extract the moisture4 ,it is1 however1 best to allow the lumber to stay in the kiln1 at a moderate temperature1 from three days to two weeks after the moisture is extracted1 in order to harden and cook the solids of the sap1 as by so doing the lumber is not so liable to be influenced by moisture in the future2 this is the effect that long weather-drying accomplishes4 #bd4 ,the care of kiln-dried lumber4--,it is a common mistake to allow lumber to lie in an open shed or other place where it will absorb moisture from the atmosphere1 and still call it kiln-dried4 ,lumber of this sort should be kept in a place where heat can be applied in damp weather1 and should be stacked in a close1 compact pile1 so as to prevent the air from coming in contact with it4 #be4 ,steaming wood4--,this process makes wood pliable1 and adds to its durability by destroying the germs which may cause decay2 it also neutralizes1 to a great extent1 the effect of the presence of sap4 ,steaming or immersing wood in boiling water minimizes its tendency to shrink and swell1 and wood thus treated is not so apt to check in seasoning4 ,steamed wood loses some of its original strength on account of the effect of the high temperature upon the fibers4 #bf4 ,preserving wood4--,in order to preserve wood1 it is sometimes treated with creosote or other chemicals1 which are forced into the wood at a sufficient pressure to cause them to permeate the wood thoroughly4 ,this treatment enables the wood to resist better the elements and to keep away insects1 which do a great deal of damage1 frequently honeycombing the wood with holes1 with little or no evidence of their presence upon the outside4 ,,suggestive ,,exercises #ad4 ,what are some of the results of piling lumber carelessly8 ,should the back and the front of the lumber pile be upon the same level8 ,why8 #ae4 ,how should lumber ways be built8 ,what kind of places should be avoided in seeking a location for lumber piles8 #af4 ,should the piles be placed close to each other8 ,how wide should the piles be made8 ,what is the objection to a square pile8 ,how thick should the lumber sticks be8 ,how should they be placed8 ,what is the result if they are not carefully placed8 ,how should the sticks and the ends of the boards be placed at the front of the pile8 ,why8 ,what causes lumber to warp8 ,describe methods of piling lumber to minimize warping4 ,should a lumber pile be allowed to stand indefinitely8 ,what is the proper time to cut lumber8 ,does it injure lumber to allow a little rain to beat into the pile8 #ag4 ,what is meant by weather-dried lumber8 ,why is it not suitable for furniture and for inside finish8 ,how is this remedied8 ,for what purposes is weather-dried lumber the best8 #ah4 ,what is the chief objection to kiln-drying lumber8 #ai4 ,what are the two methods of kiln-drying8 ,describe the principle of the moist air kiln4 ,what is claimed of it8 ,how should hard wood lumber be treated before being kiln-dried8 #bj4 ,describe the induced draft system4 ,what devices are used to extract the moisture from the heated air8 ,what are the main points of difference between the two systems8 #ba4 ,what is the difference in the condition of lumber which may be put in the two forms of kilns8 ,which is the more expensive system to install and operate8 ,how do users of the two systems compare them8 #bb4 ,how should lumber be stacked in the kiln8 #bc4 ,how long should lumber generally remain in the kiln to allow the moisture to be extracted8 ,how long to insure most permanent results8 #bd4 ,how should kiln-dried lumber be cared for8 #be4 ,what is the effect of steaming wood8 #bf4 ,how is wood sometimes treated to preserve it from the elements and from insects8 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,tools #bg4 ,how to purchase tools4--7,a47 ,the quality of the tools used by the mechanic is of the greatest importance4 ,they should be selected carefully1 and while it is the poorest economy to buy anything but the best1 the best are not necessarily the most finely finished4 7,b47 ,in purchasing tools1 it is well to remember that those made especially for some dealer1 and bearing his name1 if sold for a less price than the best1 are usually not of the highest grade1 and should be shunned4 ,it is wisest to buy standard makes1 examining them carefully to be sure that there are no visible defects4 ,the temper of steel may be discovered only by use1 and any defects in the best grades of tools is made good upon complaint to the dealer4 #bh4 ,benches4--7,a47 ,figure #be shows the type of bench used in the most up-to-date carpenter and cabinet shops1 while that used by carpenters for ordinary work usually is of the type shown in ,fig4 #bf4 7,b47 ,in many manual-training schools1 the benches are of the former type1 and in the most completely equipped schools1 are fitted with locked drawers and closets for the reception of tools1 not only to keep the latter in condition for use1 but to insure that the set of tools is complete1 and to be able to place the responsibility for damage or loss4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,manual-,,training ,,bench4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,,carpenter',s ,,bench4 7,c47 ,the vises should be of the modern1 quick action design1 which1 on account of the rapidity with which they work1 are superseding the old-fashioned wooden and iron screw vises4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,,two-,,foot1 ,,four-,,fold ,,rule4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,,zigzag ,,rule4 #bi4 ,rules4--,the two-foot1 four-fold rule 7,fig4 #bg7 is the one generally used by carpenters4 ,it is made of different grades1 the more expensive makes being divided into #afths1 #hths1 #ajths1 and #abths1 and having the 81 01 81 01 81 #a01 #a81 and #c0 scales upon them4 ,although the cheaper rule is just as accurate1 it is divided usually into #hths and #afths only4 ,the form of rule shown in ,fig4 #bh is becoming quite popular1 as it is longer4 ,since rules are easily lost or broken1 many workmen have a good rule for scaling1 and a cheaper one for general work4 #cj4 ,the try-square 7,a47 consists of the beam 7,fig4 #bi1 a71 which is generally of metal-lined wood1 and the blade 7b71 which is a thin piece of steel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,,position ,,of ,,try-,,square ,,in ,,squaring ,,an ,,edge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,,use ,,of ,,two ,,try-,,squares ,,to ,,see ,,if ,,piece ,,of ,,wood ,,is 8,,out ,,of ,,wind40 7,b47 ,too much care cannot be exercised in the selection of this tool1 as one which is not perfectly true may cause much trouble4 ,to test a square1 hold the beam against a perfectly straight and square edge of a board which is wide enough to allow a knife line to be made the entire length of the blade4 ,then turn the square over1 the other side up1 and1 holding the beam against the same edge1 move the blade to the line4 ,if the jointed edge of the board and the square are perfectly accurate1 the knife line and the edge of the board will perfectly coincide4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,,position ,,of ,,try-,,square ,,when ,,making ,,line4 7,c47 ,the use of this tool in squaring an edge is shown in ,fig4 #bi4 ,the piece being squared should be in such a position that the try-square will be between the eye and the light2 in this way1 the slightest inaccuracy may be detected4 ,in ,fig4 #ca is shown the position of the try-square when used to make a line by the edge of the blade4 ,if working from the edge indicated1 hold the beam against the edge with the thumb1 and at the same time hold the blade down with one or two fingers1 using the others to steady the square in its place upon the board4 7,d47 ,two try-squares may be used to see if a piece of wood is 8out of wind0 7i sounded as in kind7 by the method indicated in ,fig4 #cj4 ,two pieces of wood known as winding sticks1 of exactly the same width and perfectly parallel1 are often used in manual-training schools for this purpose2 they are rarely used in a shop1 however1 as a workman generally will use two steel squares if the piece is too large to be sighted accurately without some aid of this sort4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,,steel1 ,,or ,,framing1 ,,square4 #ca4 ,the steel1 or framing1 square 7,fig4 #cb7 is often used as a try-square upon large work1 though its most important use is in framing1 or roof construction4 ,it is indispensable in finding the lengths and the angles of rafters1 braces1 etc4 ,its use for this purpose will be explained in 8,constructive ,carpentry40 ,the long side of the framing square is known as the 8blade10 and the short side as the 8tongue40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,,bevel ,,and ,,steel ,,square4 ,the bevel is set at an angle of #de4 #cb4 ,the bevel 7,fig4 #cc7 may be set for use in marking and testing any angle1 in the same manner that the try-square is used upon rectangular work4 ,the sketch shows the bevel and the steel square in position for setting the bevel at an angle of #de4 ,it will be noticed that the blade of the bevel rests upon the same figures upon both the blade and the tongue of the square4 #cc4 ,the gauge 7,a471 ,fig4 #cd1 is for the purpose of making lines parallel to the face or working side or edge4 ,usually it is made in four pieces3 the 8head0 7a71 which is held against the face side or edge2 the 8stick0 7bb71 upon which the head moves2 the 8thumbscrew0 7c71 which holds the head firmly in its position upon the stick2 and the 8point0 7d71 which makes the desired mark upon the wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,,marking ,,gauge4 a1 the head2 bb1 the stick2 c1 the thumbscrew2 d1 the point4 7,b47 ,a rule should be used in setting the gauge1 unless one is certain that the point is located accurately with regard to the graduations upon the stick4 ,the point should be sharpened to work with either a push or pull cut1 as at e4 7,c47 ,the gauge should be grasped as shown in ,fig4 #ce1 and generally used with a push1 though it is occasionally pulled toward the worker4 ,one should always work from the face side of the piece4 ,if the point enters the wood too deeply1 it may be set back1 or the gauge carried on the corner of the stick as indicated1 which will govern the depth of the cut4 ,do not use a dull gauge1 or one with a round point like a pencil1 as it will tear the wood1 instead of making a clean cut or scratch4 #cd4 ,the hammer 7,a47 is used by the average wood-worker more than any other tool4 ,the 8face0 7,fig4 #cf1 a7 and the 8claws0 7b7 should be tempered carefully1 as they will either bruise or bend if too soft1 or break if too hard4 ,the eye 7c7 is made longer than it is wide1 to prevent the head from turning on the handle1 and larger at the outside of the head than it is at the neck1 so that the handle may be firmly wedged in the eye or socket4 ,the neck 7d71 by extending upon the handle as it does1 adds much to the strength of the connection4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,marking ,,gauge ,,in ,,use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,,claw ,,hammer4 a1 the face2 b1 the claws2 c1 the eye2 d1 the neck2 e1 grain of neck4 ,the handle should be of young1 tough1 straight-grained hickory1 elliptical in section1 and of a size to be grasped easily4 ,the grain should be perfectly straight at the neck1 and the annual layers should show lengthwise of the ellipse at the end1 as at c4 ,the handle should be fitted and wedged1 or 8hung0 in such a way that a nail may be driven home in a flat surface without the knuckles striking1 which means that the center of the handle should be about parallel with the flat surface4 ,a line lengthwise of the head through the eye should exactly coincide with the long1 or major1 axis of the ellipse at the end of the handle1 as at gg1 or pounded fingers will result4 ,the bell-faced hammer is to be preferred to the flat-faced type1 as it will not mar the wood so badly if the nail is missed1 though more skill is required to use it4 ,upon rough work1 the bell-faced hammer will sink the nail beneath the surface without bruising the wood badly4 ,upon inside work1 the nails should be sunk beneath the surface with a nail set4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 a1 toenailing2 b1 tacking4 7,b47 ,in nailing1 the young workman should acquire the habit of grasping the handle of the hammer at the end1 as this will give greater force to the blow4 ,upon light work1 the hand will naturally slip a little toward the head4 ,nails should generally be driven in a slanting direction1 as they hold better than if driven straight4 ,when nails are driven as shown at a1 ,fig4 #cg1 it is called 8toenailing10 and when driven sufficiently to hold1 but not driven home1 as at b1 they are said to be 8tacked40 ,nails are driven this way when they are to be pulled out again1 as in stay laths1 and in fastening pieces temporarily4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,,blind ,,nailing ,,and ,,use ,,of ,a ,,nail ,,set4 ,in forcing matched boards together1 do not pound directly upon the tongue edge of the board1 but upon a waste piece of the same material1 as the tongue will be bruised so that the next board will not form a good joint4 ,care should be used that the hammer does not strike the edge of the board when the nail is driven home4 ,to guard against this1 a nail set should be used to sink the head beneath the surface1 as in ,fig4 #ch1 so that the next board will come to its place without trouble4 ,this is called 8blind nailing40 #ce4 ,the hatchet 7,a47 is used for hewing light work1 for shingling2 and as a heavy hammer1 though the face is rarely tempered to stand very heavy usage 7,fig4 #ci1 a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;a1 hatchet2 b1 hand axe4 7,for explanation1 see text47 7,b47 ,a hand axe1 or broad hatchet 7,fig4 #ci1 b71 usually is a better grade of tool than the hatchet1 and as it is of greater weight1 is better adapted for heavy work4 ,a hatchet or hand axe for general use should be sharpened as at c2 but for hewing only1 an edge like d will give the best results4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,mallets4 a1 square-faced mallet2 b1 round mallet4 #cf4 ,the mallet4--,this tool should be used upon chisel handles1 as a hammer will destroy the handle in a very short time4 ,mallets are of two shapes1 the square-faced 7,fig4 #dj1 a7 and the round mallet 7b71 the latter being preferred by many workmen as it will always strike a fair blow upon the chisel handle1 while the square-faced mallet sometimes will miss1 and inflict a painful blow upon the hand4 ,in general1 the handle of a square-faced mallet is round1 which allows the mallet to turn in the hand2 if the handle were made elliptical1 like a hammer handle1 there would be less likelihood of missing the chisel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da1 ,a4 ,,ripsaw4 dd1 view and section of setting of teeth4 ,,fig4 #da1 ,b4 ,,cutting-,,off ,,saw4 ,,fig4 #da1 ,c4 ,,compass1 ,,or ,,keyhole1 ,,saw4 ,,fig4 #da4--,,saws4 7,in each of the three varieties of saw teeth shown in ,fig4 #da1 the set of the teeth is exaggerated47 #cg4 ,saws4--7,a47 ,the saws used by the carpenter are for cutting parallel with1 or across1 the grain1 or a combination of the two1 and all are composed of two parts1 the 8handle0 and the 8blade40 ,the teeth of a ripsaw 7,fig4 #da1 ,a7 are suitable for sawing in a direction parallel with the general direction of the grain4 ,the points of different saws may be from one third to one seventh of an inch apart1 and form a series of chisels1 the cutting edges of which are filed so that they are at right angles to the sides of the blade4 ,in action1 the saw is pushed against the wood1 each tooth cutting a little deeper than the one preceding it4 ,the cutting-off saw 7,fig4 #da1 ,b7 has from six to twelve knife-pointed teeth to an inch1 the cutting edges being parallel to the sides of the blade1 and filed so that the point of the tooth is upon the side which is set beyond the side of the blade4 ,in all except the finest saws1 the teeth are set2 that is1 the points are bent a very little in such a way as to make the cut wider than the thickness of the blade1 so that the saw may cut through the wood without binding1 which it could not do if the cut were the same thickness as the blade4 ,the blades of all high grade saws are thinner upon the back than upon the cutting edge1 but if the saw is to be used upon the finest work1 this difference in the thickness of the two edges of the blade is supposed to make the setting of the saw unnecessary4 ,for general work1 it will be found that the saw will be much more efficient if it is given a set adapted to the size of the teeth1 or to the nature of the work it is expected to do4 ,the compass1 or keyhole1 saw 7,fig4 #da1 ,c7 is used where it is necessary that the saw should cut both with and across the grain4 ,it is used to start the cut for a rip- or cutting-off saw1 when a cut has to be made in the surface of a board4 ,this saw is used also in many places where it is not practicable to use a larger saw1 and for sawing curves4 ,in order to allow it to cut around curves easily1 the face1 or cutting edge1 is considerably thicker than the back1 and the blade is made of soft metal4 ,it may then be given a heavy set1 so that it will bend instead of breaking or kinking1 as it would be liable to do from the nature of its work if made of tempered steel4 ,some carpenters working upon job work1 where it is desirable to carry as few tools as possible1 have a narrow #bj0 or #bb0 saw sharpened like a compass saw1 which for ordinary work is quite satisfactory as either a cutting-off or a ripsaw1 thus making another saw unnecessary4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,,backsaw4 ,the backsaw 7,fig4 #db7 is used upon fine work2 it is filed like a cutting-off saw1 but the teeth have rather more hook1 and it often has as many as fifteen teeth to the inch1 though a twelve-tooth saw is as fine as is generally used4 ,the thick back is to stiffen the blade of the saw1 and if the latter becomes sprung1 a light blow upon the back1 as though to drive it upon the blade1 will usually straighten it4 7,b47 ,in buying a saw1 select one which is thicker upon the cutting edge than upon the back2 this allows the saw to be used upon very fine work with little or no setting4 ,see that the handle fits the hand1 and that the saw hangs to suit1 or 8feels right40 ,this is a matter concerning the balance and the weight of the tool1 which cannot be described1 but which any one accustomed to using tools will miss if a tool not possessing this quality is placed in his hand4 ,a saw blade1 unless very short and thick1 should bend so that the point may be put through the handle1 and upon being released1 instantly resume its shape4 ,it should bend evenly in proportion to the width and the gauge of the saw1 and should be as thin as the stiffness of the blade will permit1 as a saw of this sort cuts less wood1 and therefore runs with less resistance4 ,a compass saw1 being softer1 is not expected to stand the above test4 ,a #bf0 or a #bh0 blade is best for a heavy rip or cutting-off saw to be used upon coarse work2 but for fine work1 a #bb0 blade1 commonly known as a 8panel saw10 is a convenient size1 though a #bj0 or a #bd0 blade is preferred by many workmen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,,use ,,of ,,the ,,saw4 ,showing the method of using a try-square to insure accuracy4 7,c47 ,a hard saw is best for fine work1 but for general work most workmen prefer a saw of medium hardness1 as the teeth of a hard saw are apt to break in setting1 and its edge1 if it comes in contact with metal1 requires filing just about as quickly as that of a soft saw1 and is much more difficult to sharpen4 ,if always filed by an expert filer1 a hard saw is superior in every way to any other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,,reset ,,saw ,,handle4 7,d47 ,the handle of the saw should be grasped firmly by three fingers1 as in ,fig4 #dc1 with the forefinger extended along the side1 thus making more room for the three fingers1 and giving better control of the saw4 ,very little strength should be used in forcing a fine saw to cut1 as its own weight generally is sufficient2 if the saw is forced1 it will not run smoothly1 but will bind1 and if a thin board is being worked1 it is apt to split4 ,the saw should be used from the face side of the material1 so that any splinters or variation will be upon the back side and out of sight4 7,e47 ,it is the custom of some carpenters to reset the handles of their heavy saws by drilling holes through the blade so that the handle may be fastened as close to the cutting edge as possible1 as in ,fig4 #dd4 ,this brings the force of the stroke nearer the direct line of the cut1 which obviously allows a more economical application of force4 ,never leave a saw in a cut1 for if the piece of wood falls off the trestles1 the saw is apt to be broken4 7,saw-filing will be discussed later47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,,knife ,,blades4 ,a1 used by wood-worker2 ,b1 used in manual-training schools4 #ch4 ,the knife blade used by the wood-worker for general work is similar to that shown in ,fig4 #de1 at ,a4 ,that shown at ,b is the form of blade in most common use in manual-training schools1 as it is better adapted for whittling1 its shape assisting the student to some extent to prevent the knife from following the grain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,,section ,,of ,,iron ,,plane4 #a1 cutter1 iron1 or bit2 #b1 cap iron2 #c1 plane iron screw2 #d1 cap lever2 #d;a1 cam2 #e1 cap screw2 #f1 frog2 #f;a1 mouth2 #g1 ,y lever2 #h1 vertical adjusting nut2 #h;a1 vertical adjusting screw2 #i1 lateral adjustment2 #aj1 frog screws2 #aa1 handle2 #ab1 knob2 #ac1 handle bolt and nut2 #ad1 bolt knob and nut2 #ae1 handle screw2 #af1 bottom1 or stock4 #ci4 ,planes4--7,a47 ,the plane is the most complex1 as well as one of the most important1 tools which the wood-worker uses1 and a high grade of skill is necessary to keep it in order1 as well as to use it properly4 7,b47 ,the only plane in use until recent years had a wooden stock1 and the iron was adjusted by blows with a hammer2 this form of plane has changed very little since the first types were invented1 as planes of ancient times have been found which in all essentials are practically the same as those in use to-day4 7,c47 ,our modern planes are more easily adjusted and more convenient to use1 though they will do no better work than the wooden planes of our forefathers1 which are still preferred by many of the best workmen4 ,the face of an iron plane holds its shape permanently1 while it is necessary that the wooden plane should be jointed occasionally4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,,result ,,of ,,using ,,plane ,,with ,,improperly ,,adjusted ,,cap ,,iron4 7,d47 ,there are planes for every conceivable purpose1 all constructed upon the same general principle as the common bench plane which we shall discuss later4 ,these planes are adjusted by screws and levers1 which are very simple1 and any one understanding them may easily comprehend the more intricate molding or universal planes4 ,the adjustment of the modern plane may be understood by a careful study of ,fig4 #df and by comparing it with the plane itself4 ,the 8cutter10 8iron10 or 8bit0 7#a7 and the 8cap iron0 7#b7 are the essentials of the tool1 and it is upon their condition and adjustment that the efficiency of the plane depends4 ,if the cap iron is set too far from the edge of the iron1 and if the cut is made against the grain1 the shaving will not break before it leads the iron into the wood1 as shown in ,fig4 #dg4 ,if the cap iron is set somewhat less than 0 from the edge of the cutter1 according to the wood being planed1 it will break the shaving nearly as soon as it is cut1 as in ,fig4 #dh1 and will result in a smooth1 clean surface4 ,the closer the cap iron is set to the edge1 the smoother the iron will cut1 as the breaks in the shaving are thereby made shorter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,,result ,,of ,,using ,,plane ,,with ,,cap ,,iron ,,adjusted ,,properly4 ,it will be seen that the closer the bottom of the cap iron 7#b7 is set to the edge of the cutter 7#a71 the shorter the breaks will be1 as in ,fig4 #dh1 and the more smoothly the plane will cut4 ,the plane 8iron screw0 7#c7 holds the edge of the cutter 7#a7 and the bottom of the cap iron 7#b7 in their desired relation4 ,the 8cap lever0 7#d7 being pressed against the under side of the head of the 8cap screw0 7#e71 by the 8cam0 7#d;a71 holds the iron in its place1 and presses the cap iron 7#b7 firmly against the top of the cutter 7#a74 ,unless the cap iron fits the face of the cutter perfectly1 the plane will not work satisfactorily4 ,the 8frog0 7#f7 carries all the adjusting mechanism of the plane1 and may be moved backward or forward to reduce or enlarge the 8mouth0 7#f;a71 which should be no larger than is necessary to allow the shavings to pass freely4 ,the frog rarely will require readjusting after it has been properly located4 ,the 8,y lever0 7#g7 forces the plane irons 7#a and #b7 in or out simultaneously1 which governs the projection1 or 8set10 of the edge of the cutter 7#a7 beyond the face1 or 8sole0 7b7 of the 8plane stock10 and thus the thickness of the shaving which the plane will cut4 ,the 8adjusting nut0 7#h7 moves freely upon the 8screw0 7#h;a7 and operates the ,y lever 7#g74 ,the 8lateral adjustment0 7#i7 is for the purpose of forcing the iron to cut in the exact center of the width of the face 7b7 of the plane4 ,the two 8frog screws0 7#aj7 hold the frog rigidly in the position which will make the throat 7#f;a7 of the desired size4 ,the above illustrates all the adjusting mechanism2 the other parts of the plane are as follows3 8handle0 7#aa72 8knob0 7#ab72 8handle bolt0 and 8nut0 7#ac72 8knob bolt0 and 8nut0 7#ad72 8handle screw0 7#ae72 8bottom10 or 8stock0 7#af74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,setting ,a ,,plane4 ,the face1 or sole1 of the plane 7b7 must be perfectly straight1 or good work cannot be done4 ,the ends of the plane 7h and t7 are called the 8heel0 and 8toe10 respectively4 ,the 8mouth0 of the plane 7between #f;a and #b7 must be kept clear of shavings1 or it may become clogged4 7,e47 ,in setting a plane1 do not pass the fingers over the face1 or sole1 as cut fingers may result4 ,hold the plane as shown in ,fig4 #di1 and look toward the light1 when the exact projection of the cutter may be seen4 ,notice the position of the fingers of the left hand1 and that the eye glances from toe to heel4 ,this leaves the right hand free to make the adjustments4 ,this is a workmanlike way of setting a plane1 and in this1 as in all handling of tools1 awkwardness should be avoided4 #dj4 ,sharpening a plane4--7,a47 ,an important part of this process is the grinding of the cutter4 ,set the cap back about 0 from the edge of the iron1 and use it as a guide by which to grind the iron perfectly square1 as at ,a1 ,fig4 #ej4 ,the cap iron should be kept perfectly square1 and never touched except to fit it to the cutter1 or1 if it is too thick to allow the shavings to pass freely1 to file the top of it to the proper thickness4 ,if the tool is kept in order skillfully1 the cap will need care only upon rare occasions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,whetting ,,and ,,grinding ,,of ,,plane4 7,for explanation1 see text47 ,the cutter should be held firmly to the grindstone or emery wheel and kept moving from side to side to prevent wearing the stone in one place4 ,the grinding should all be done upon the beveled side of the cutter1 which should be held upon the stone at an angle of about #bj 7as at ,b1 ,fig4 #ej71 more rather than less1 as a thinner edge is apt to 8chatter10 or vibrate1 if it strikes a hard place in the wood4 ,many workmen use a rest when grinding2 this insures a true bevel4 ,any device which holds the tool firmly at the same place on the stone will do for a rest4 ,in whetting the cutter1 the screw of the cap iron should be loosened and the cap iron carried back until the screw stops at the top of the slot of the bit1 as at ,c1 ,fig4 #ej4 ,the screw is then tightened with the fingers to hold the cap in place2 this gives a better grasp of the iron1 though some workmen prefer to take the cap off entirely while whetting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,whetting ,,or ,,oilstoning ,,the ,,beveled ,,side ,,of ,a ,,cutter4 ,the bevel of the iron should be held exactly upon the surface of the oilstone1 as shown at ,c1 ,fig4 #ej1 the iron being grasped as in ,fig4 #ea4 ,keep the right wrist rigid and allow the arm to swing from the shoulder1 bending only at the elbow4 ,in this way the rocking motion may be reduced to a minimum2 this is necessary to preserve the bevel4 ,though the bevel may be maintained better by imparting a short circular motion to the plane iron1 or to any edge tool which is being sharpened1 it seems an awkward and fussy method of work1 and rarely is used by an expert workman4 ,by long practice the mechanic finds that a stroke made nearly the entire length of the stone will impart an edge quicker1 and after the knack has been acquired1 the bevel will be preserved just as well4 ,turn the whetstone end for end frequently1 and work upon the farther end1 as in this way the stone may be kept true much longer than if one place upon it is used all the time4 ,this will also minimize the danger of pulling the tool off from the nearer end of the stone1 which will generally make regrinding necessary4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,,whetting ,,or ,,oilstoning ,,the ,,plain ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,plane ,,iron4 ,when the beveled side has been whetted1 lay the face1 or the top of the iron1 perfectly flat upon the stone1 as in ,fig4 #eb1 holding it down with the fingers of the left hand1 using the right hand only to move the iron back and forth4 ,care should be used that under no circumstances is the face of the iron lifted the slightest degree from the stone4 ,at this stage of sharpening a plane iron1 the utmost care is necessary that the face of the cutter does not lose its perfectly straight surface at the edge1 as the slightest deviation from absolute accuracy at this place will prevent the cap iron from fitting properly1 which will cause endless trouble1 as the shavings will be forced between the cap and the face of the iron 7see ,c4 of this topic74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,,shape ,,of ,,edge ,,of ,,plane ,,iron4 7,b47 ,the shape of the cutting edge of the plane cutter has an important influence upon its efficiency4 ,imagine the edge divided into three equal parts3 the middle part should be perfectly straight1 or almost imperceptibly rounded2 the two outside thirds should be slightly and gradually rounded until the corners of the iron are so short that there will be no danger of their projecting below the face of the plane4 ,this gives the edge an elliptical shape1 as shown in ,fig4 #ec1 which is somewhat exaggerated1 as the shape shown is about that which would be seen if a moderately coarse jack plane were held as in ,fig4 #di4 7,c47 ,in order to insure fine work1 the cap iron must be fitted so carefully to the face and the edge of the cutter that1 if necessary1 it may be placed less than th of an inch from the cutting edge1 though this would rarely be required except upon very cross-grained wood4 ,in fitting the cap iron to the top of the cutter1 a very fine1 sharp file should be used4 ,the filing must all be done upon the under side of the cap iron1 at the places where it rests upon the face or top of the cutter2 or1 if preferred1 the cap may be very carefully bent1 but unless there is considerable fitting necessary1 and unless the joint is perfected by the use of a file1 this method is not recommended4 ,if sufficient care and skill are exercised1 a plane may be sharpened and adjusted so finely that a veneer of 4#ja0 or less in thickness of bird's-eye maple1 burl walnut1 ash1 or similar wood may be smoothed4 ,it is not wise1 however1 to spend the time necessary to keep a plane sharpened and adjusted to do this sort of work1 as a scraper and sandpaper1 or the latter alone1 is the most economical way to smooth woods of such nature4 7,d47 ,to remedy clogging of the mouth1 remove the conditions which cause it2 simply digging out the shavings is useless4 ,an improperly fitted cap iron is one of the principal causes of trouble2 the cutter may be ground so thin that when it is forced against a knot or hard place1 the iron chatters1 which allows the shavings an entrance under the cap iron4 ,in this lies the only real advantage of a wooden plane over the modern iron plane1 as in the former the iron is much thicker and stiffer4 ,the cap iron may be so thick that it causes the shavings to curl too much1 or the frog may be set too far to the front1 which will make the mouth too small4 ,this latter may be remedied by moving the frog back1 but in a wooden plane1 the mouth and the throat would have to be cut larger in order to allow the shavings to clear themselves properly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,,jack ,,plane4 #da4 ,the jack plane 7,fig4 #ed7 generally is #ae0 long1 and its ordinary use is for the purpose of roughing out a piece of wood for jointing or smoothing4 ,if it is properly sharpened1 it may be used as a smoothing plane1 or as a jointer upon small work1 as it is capable of doing as good work as any plane4 ,the jack plane generally is ground more rounding1 and the cap set farther back than in the other planes1 especially if it is to be used upon rough work4 #db4 ,the jointer4--7,a47 ,this tool is from #bj0 to #bf0 long1 and is used to straighten edges and surfaces1 or to fit them together4 ,the shape of the edge of the cutter of this plane should be but slightly elliptical1 less so than the jack plane or the smoother1 unless the two latter are fitted for doing very fine work4 7,b47 ,in using a jointer for squaring or jointing an edge1 it should be carried to one side or the other of its face as may be necessary to take advantage of the elliptically shaped edge of the cutter1 by cutting a shaving thicker on one edge than on the other1 thus making the edge of the board square with the face side4 ,to make a perfectly square edge1 the cut should be made in the center of both the iron and the width of the face of the plane4 ,the plane should be held as shown in ,fig4 #ee1 the fingers under the face of the plane1 the tops of the finger-nails touching the board lightly1 guiding the plane1 and keeping the bit cutting in one place upon its edge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,,method ,,of ,,guiding ,a ,,jointer4 #dc4 ,the smoothing plane 7,a47 is of the same type and mechanism as those described above1 though it is but #i or #aj0 long2 if satisfactory work is expected from it1 it must be kept in good order1 with the cap iron perfectly fitted4 ,for general work1 it is not necessary to spend the time to insure that the plane should be continually in readiness to work upon hard1 tough1 cross-grained wood1 as a plane to do the latter kind of work well is unnecessary upon softer or straight-grained wood4 ,for ordinary work1 the cap iron should be set from 0 to 0 from the edge of the bit1 but for the finest work1 the closer to the edge it will fit and allow a shaving to be taken1 the finer the work that may be done4 ,no wood used upon ordinary work is so cross-grained or knurly that it cannot be smoothed economically1 if a properly sharpened and adjusted plane is used4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,,knuckle ,,joint ,,block ,,plane4 7,b47 ,a smoothing plane should cut a shaving as nearly the entire width of the bit as possible1 therefore a very flat1 elliptically shaped edge must be maintained4 ,in using a plane or any kind of cutting tool1 the direction of the grain of the wood should be carefully studied1 and every advantage taken of it to facilitate the work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,,use ,,of ,,the ,,block ,,plane4 7,for explanation1 see text47 #dd4 ,the block plane 7knuckle joint cap1 ,fig4 #ef7 7,a47 is constructed upon a somewhat different principle than the planes above described1 as the adjusting nut 7a7 under the cutter at the rear end of the plane is raised or lowered to withdraw or advance the bit1 and thus govern the cut of the tool4 ,the size of the mouth is controlled by a movable section of the face at b4 ,this plane has no cap iron1 as the use for which it is intended makes it unnecessary4 ,the block plane is used across the end of the wood1 at right angles with the general direction of the grain4 ,the iron1 or cutter1 is so placed in the stock of the plane that its cutting angle is as nearly in line with the cut as possible1 with the beveled side of the iron uppermost4 ,by this method of construction1 the iron is given more stiffness to resist the chatter1 or vibration1 caused by planing end wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,,using ,,block ,,plane ,,upon ,,small ,,pieces4 7,b47 ,in using the block plane1 do not make the cuts from edge to edge1 or chips will be broken off at the corners2 instead1 plane from each edge1 and stop the stroke before the other edge is reached2 reverse the plane and work from the other direction1 as shown at ,a1 ,b1 ,fig4 #eg4 ,another and workmanlike way of using the block plane upon small pieces is shown in ,fig4 #eh4 ,work from each edge as described above1 turning the piece over for each stroke4 ,in sharpening the block plane iron1 the edge should be made slightly elliptical1 and the bevel carefully maintained4 #de4 ,the correct position4--7,a47 ,in using planes or any edge tools1 a position should be taken which will furnish sufficient resistance to the pressure required for making the cut1 as the pressure should be applied firmly and steadily4 ,with experience1 the correct position will be taken involuntarily1 but the beginner should be continually upon the watch to overcome his awkwardness4 7,b47 ,the habit of bending from the hips is acquired easily1 and the young workman should learn to work in as nearly an erect position as possible1 for if the bending of the shoulders is persisted in1 a permanent stoop will result4 ,stand facing the work and clear of the bench in order to prevent unnecessary wear of the clothing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,,incorrect ,,use ,,of ,,jack ,,plane4 7,c47 ,do not allow the plane to drop over the end of the board at either the beginning or the end of the stroke1 as indicated at ,a1 ,b1 ,fig4 #ei4 ,to prevent this1 the hand should be kept upon that part of the plane which is upon the board2 at the beginning of the stroke1 the weight should be upon the front end of the plane1 as in ,fig4 #fj1 and at the end of the stroke upon the rear end1 or upon the handle1 as in ,fig4 #fa4 ,begin and end each stroke with a lifting motion instead of allowing the plane to drop as it leaves or enters the wood4 ,the plane should be held firmly1 not rigidly2 do not allow it to jump2 this is caused generally by an attempt to take a shaving heavier than the plane should cut1 or1 if the cap iron is fitted and adjusted properly1 by a dull iron4 ,a cutter will jump or chatter if it does not fit solidly against the frog4 ,in drawing the plane back after making a stroke1 carry it upon the toe1 or upon one corner2 do not drag it flat upon its face1 as the iron is thereby dulled as much as when it is cutting1 or possibly more4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,,beginning ,,the ,,stroke ,,with ,a ,,jack ,,plane4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,,ending ,,the ,,stroke ,,with ,a ,,jack ,,plane4 7,d47 ,carry the plane parallel with the grain when it is possible1 and take no more shavings off than is necessary to attain the desired results4 ,the young workman should make a study of the grain and the peculiarities of the different kinds of lumber upon which he works1 losing no opportunity to experiment upon and compare the qualities of every available wood4 7,e47 ,in using edge tools of every kind1 little is gained1 and much is often lost1 by working with dull tools2 tools should be sharpened often and thoroughly4 ,this is of the utmost importance1 for even with the tools in the best possible order1 it will require much care and skill to do good work4 #df4 ,chisels4--7,a47 ,carpenters' chisels are used for paring and mortising2 the paring chisel should be light1 smoothly finished1 and ground with a sharper bevel than that used for mortising1 for which the heaviest chisel is none too strong4 7,b47 ,chisels are 8tanged0 or 8socket10 according to the method by which the blade and handle is joined4 ,the tanged firmer chisel 7,fig4 #fb1 ,a7 is the older form1 and is not so strong as the more recently designed socket chisel 7,b74 ,for light work1 the tanged chisel is preferred by many1 but more commonly the socket chisel is used1 as it is stiffer1 not so easily broken1 and has no shoulder to catch upon the edge of the wood when the tool is used4 ,the beveled-edge chisel 7,c7 is a favorite tool with pattern makers2 and the mortise1 or framing chisel 7,d71 is designed for heavy use4 ,a set of chisels consists of one each of the following dimensions3 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 #a01 #a01 #a01 #a01 #b04 7,c47 ,a large1 heavy chisel1 #c0 or #d0 in width1 called a 8slice0 or 8slick10 is used1 like a paring chisel1 upon heavy work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,,chisels4 ,a1 tanged firmer chisel2 ,b1 socket chisel2 ,c1 beveled-edge chisel2 ,d1 mortise1 or framing chisel4 7,d47 ,handles for paring chisels may be of any hard wood and of any convenient shape1 as these should not be pounded upon4 ,although they are occasionally used for cutting small mortises1 it is not a good practice unless the tops of the handles are protected by leather or fiber tops4 ,mortising chisels should have handles of the toughest wood obtainable1 preferably hickory1 with leather nailed with small brads upon the top to protect the wood4 ,if a leather washer is fastened to the handle by a pin or dowel1 the wood will in time pound down and the leather be broken out and destroyed1 while if braided upon the handle1 the leather may be renewed as often as necessary4 ,an iron ring1 or ferrule1 is used by many to prevent the handle from splitting1 but this will bruise the face of the mallet4 ,a hammer should never be used upon any sort of wooden handle1 or the handle will be very quickly destroyed1 but a mallet will injure it comparatively little4 ,in fitting the handle to the chisel blade1 care should be used that they are in perfect alignment1 as otherwise a sharp blow may break the blade4 7,e47 ,in sharpening a mortise chisel1 it should be ground at an angle of not less than #cj1 as a thinner edge would be apt to break upon coming in contact with a knot4 ,a paring chisel may be ground as thin as #bj1 as it does not have to stand heavy blows1 and a better edge for the purpose may thus be obtained4 ,in whetting a chisel1 the bevel must be carefully maintained1 and the back kept perfectly straight1 like the face of a plane iron1 or it will be impossible to work to a line4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--;,,drawshave4 #dg4 ,gouges may in general be described in the same way as chisels1 except that they are curved instead of flat4 ,the terms 8inside0 and 8outside10 used in describing them1 indicate whether they are ground upon the inside or the outside of the curve4 #dh4 ,the drawshave 7,fig4 #fc7 is often used in cutting curves1 in chamfering1 and for roughing out work4 ,the patent drawshave1 with folding handles1 is a safer tool to keep in the tool box1 as the edge is protected1 but it is not as satisfactory for general work as the ordinary rigid-handled tool4 ,if the latter is used1 a piece of wood should be fitted over the edge to protect both it and the hands when the tool is not in use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,,spokeshave4 #di4 ,the spokeshave 7,fig4 #fd7 should not be used in any place where a plane can be used1 but only upon concave or convex surfaces2 when used1 it maybe either pushed or pulled4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--;,,auger ,,bit4 #ej4 ,bits 7,a47 are of many different types1 the most common being the auger bit 7,fig4 #fe74 ,the use of the 8worm0 7a7 is to draw the bit into the wood1 thus making a heavy pressure upon the bit unnecessary4 ,the 8lips0 7bb7 make an incision on the wood below the cut made by the 8cutters0 7cc71 which take the shavings out and into the 8twist10 which in turn lifts them out of the hole4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,,cross-,,handled ,,auger4 7,b47 ,care should be used when boring a deep hole that the bit is removed before the shavings clog in the twist1 which will happen if the hole becomes full of shavings which cannot be lifted out4 ,should clogging occur1 do not use a great deal of strength in trying to back the bit out1 or its 8shank0 may be twisted off2 it is better to pull it out with a straight pull by means of a lever1 if sufficient strength cannot be otherwise exerted1 the pull being straight over the center of the bit from the 8chuck10 not from the head of the bitbrace4 ,after boring the hole to the desired depth1 do not turn the bit backward to remove it1 as shavings will be left in the hole1 but give it one turn back to loosen the worm1 then turn as though boring the hole deeper1 lifting under the head of the bitbrace in the meantime1 by which process the shavings will be lifted out4 ,these bits are numbered from ths to ths inch by #afths of an inch4 ,sizes larger than these are known as augers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,a1 ,german bit2 ,b1 twist drill4 7,c47 ,large auger bits generally are fitted with cross handles1 as in ,fig4 #ff1 as a bitbrace will not give sufficient leverage to make the bit cut the wood2 these are called augers4 ,the form shown is known as a 8,ford auger40 7,d47 ,the ,german bit 7,fig4 #fg1 ,a7 is used for boring small holes for screws and nails1 and has entirely supplanted the gimlet of our forefathers1 as its action is much more rapid4 ,its progression in sizes is from 0 to 0 by #cb;ds of an inch2 this tool is also called a screw bit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,a1 extension bit2 ,b1 center bit4 7,e47 ,the twist drill 7,fig4 #fg1 ,b7 is a valuable tool2 every carpenter should own an assortment of twist drills for use in places where other bits may come in contact with iron4 ,the sizes range from 0 to 0 by #cb;ds4 ,the round shank drill may be purchased in any size up to #c01 by #fdths of an inch4 7,f47 ,the extension bit 7,fig4 #fh1 ,a7 is a very convenient tool for boring a hole of any size within certain limits1 and is at times extremely valuable4 7,g47 ,the center bit 7,fig4 #fh1 ,b7 is often used in boring holes through thin material which would be apt to be split if an auger bit were used4 7,h47 ,in filing an auger bit1 it should be held as shown in ,fig4 #fi1 and a small1 fine file used on the inside of the lips and the bottom of the cutters2 in no case should the outside of the lips be sharpened1 as the size of the bit will be reduced4 ,in filing the cutter1 be sure that its under side back of the cutting edge is filed enough to clear the wood after the cutter has entered it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,,filing ,,an ,,auger ,,bit4 ,in doing this1 it should be remembered that the bit progresses into the wood as it cuts1 and unless the under side of the cutter is filed properly1 it will bear upon the wood beneath it1 back of the cutting edge1 and prevent the bit from advancing4 ,to remedy this1 be sure that the cutter is kept filed thin1 and that the under side is straight from the edge to the beginning of the twist4 7,i47 ,if the lips 7,fig4 #fe1 bb7 are filed off1 an auger bit bores into the end wood easily4 #ea4 ,the bitbrace1 or stock4--7,a47 ,this tool is used to hold the bit1 and to furnish sufficient leverage to turn the bit into the wood4 ,bitbraces are made of different sizes1 and with different devices for holding the 8tangs0 of the bits4 ,a workman should own an #h0 and a #aj0 swing bitbrace1 as it is often necessary to use different sizes or kinds of bits alternately4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,,ratchet ,,bitbrace4 7,b47 ,the ratchet bitbrace 7,fig4 #gj7 differs from the ordinary brace only in the ratchet attachment4 ,it is an indispensable tool to an up-to-date workman1 as it may be used in many places where an ordinary brace would be useless2 for general work1 however1 being heavier1 it is less convenient than the plain brace4 #eb4 ,the ,screwdriver 7,a47 is one of the most important tools in a carpenter's kit1 and to be of use should be of finely tempered steel1 for if too soft1 it will turn over1 and if too hard1 it will break4 ,the edge should be as thick as the slot of a screw will allow1 in order to have as much strength as possible4 7,b47 ,a round-handled screwdriver is not so satisfactory as one with an elliptical or polygonal handle1 as it is impossible to obtain as good a grip upon the former as upon the latter2 a round handle1 planed flat upon the two opposite sides1 is quite commonly used4 7,c47 ,ratchet screwdrivers are useful in many places where it is difficult to use two hands1 and there are patent quick-action screwdrivers on the market which are suitable only for certain kinds of light work1 as what is gained in speed is lost in power4 ,the screwdriver bit is a short screwdriver blade1 tanged to fit a bitbrace2 it is essential in doing economical work1 as screws may be driven much more rapidly than by hand1 and it is also valuable on account of its greater leverage in driving heavy screws4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,,compasses4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,,calipers4 #ec4 ,compasses1 or dividers 7,fig4 #ga71 are used to draw circles and curves1 and for spacing and scribing1 by which is meant the process of fitting a piece of wood to an uneven surface4 ,calipers 7,fig4 #gb7 are used to measure the outside of a round or oval object4 ,those shown are known as 8outside0 calipers2 8inside0 calipers1 or those used for measuring the inside of a hole1 have straight legs4 ,these tools ordinarily are not considered a part of a carpenter's kit1 as they are generally used upon work requiring more exact measurements4 ,wood-workers' tools are graded to sizes1 generally nothing finer than #afths of an inch2 hence1 the ordinary methods of measuring will usually give sufficiently accurate results4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,,pliers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,,nippers4 #ed4 ,pliers4--7,a47 ,these are indispensable little tools 7,fig4 #gc71 and every workman should own a pair4 ,those combining several tools are most useful2 cheap tools of this sort are usually worthless4 7,b47 ,nippers 7,fig4 #gd7 are made to cut wire1 but not to pull nails4 ,being tempered for cutting1 those of good quality are hard and brittle1 lacking the toughness necessary to pull nails1 for which work a cheap pair of nippers may be purchased4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,,scraper4 ,a1 ,b1 handles for scraper2 ,c1 leather palm2 ,d1 scraper plane4 #ee4 ,the scraper is one of the most useful tools in the kit of the carpenter who works upon hard wood4 ,this tool may be purchased1 or made of a very hard saw2 it must be of hard1 tough steel1 or the edge will not last4 ,a scraper should be about #c0 #e01 which is a convenient size for grasping with the hand4 ,many workmen make handles for their scrapers 7,fig4 #ge1 ,a and ,b71 but cabinet makers1 and others who use them continually1 generally prefer to use them without handles4 ,if a large surface is to be scraped1 it is well to have a handle of a leather palm 7,fig4 #ge1 ,c74 ,this is a piece of leather of suitable size and shape to protect the hand from the heat generated by the action of the scraper in cutting2 the thumb is passed through the hole1 and the broad part of the palm hangs between the scraper and the thick of the hand4 ,for scraping floors1 a scraper plane 7,fig4 #ge1 ,d7 will be found valuable1 though if much of this work is to be done1 it will be the best economy to purchase one of the forms of floor-scraping machines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--;,,edges ,,of ,,scrapers4 ,a1 beveled edge2 ,b1 square edge4 #ef4 ,edges4--,there are two forms of edges used in sharpening scrapers1--the square and the beveled edge2 in sharpening either of these1 the edge should be filed1 whetted1 and turned with a burnisher1 which imparts a wire edge1 indicated in ,fig4 #gf1 ,a and ,b1 which shows enlarged views of the two forms of edges of scrapers4 ,if the eye glances along the edge of a properly sharpened scraper1 the edge will appear slightly curved2 this edge must be given it by filing4 ,after the scraper is filed1 each corner which is to be turned must be whetted to a perfectly keen edge upon an oilstone1 as the object of sharpening a scraper is to 8turn0 this edge at an angle with the sides of the scraper4 ,illustration3 ,front ,view ,,fig4 #gg4--;,,angle ,,of ,,burnisher ,,with ,,sides ,,of ,,scraper4 ,by 8turning0 the edge of a scraper is meant pushing the particles of steel which form the corner over so that they will form a wire edge which will stand at an angle with the sides of the scraper4 ,when the edge has been skillfully turned1 it will cut like a very finely sharpened and adjusted plane1 and will work either with or against the grain without tearing the wood4 ,notice carefully the angle of the burnisher with the sides of the scraper1 as at a1 ,fig4 #gg1 and as in ,fig4 #gh1 which indicates approximately the angle at which it should be held across the edge when seen in the view illustrated of either a square or beveled-edge scraper1 the vertical lines indicating the scraper4 ,the stroke must be from the bottom1 up1 as indicated4 ,at ,a1 ,fig4 #gi1 is shown the top view of the burnisher as it makes each of the strokes in turning the edge of a square edge scraper2 notice that the burnisher swings in an angle of about #ae1 one stroke only being made at each angle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,,method ,,of ,,grasping ,,scraper ,,for ,,sharpening4 ,at ,b1 ,fig4 #gi1 is shown the method of turning the edge of a bevel edge scraper2 the student will notice that the angles are similar to those shown at ,a1 except that the first stroke is made at nearly the same angle as the bevel of the scraper4 ,an edge may often be turned at one stroke1 and more than three should rarely be necessary4 ,if more than three are made1 the edge may be turned too far1 which is worse than not being turned enough4 ,the strokes should be made in the order indicated by the figures of the angles of the burnisher2 otherwise it will be difficult to obtain satisfactory results4 ,the amount of pressure necessary to apply at this stage of the work cannot be described1 but can only be discovered by practice4 ,a steady1 moderate pressure is all that is needed1 but care should be used that the angle of the burnisher does not change during the stroke4 ,this will give an edge suitable for common counter or table tops1 hardwood floors1 and similar work1 if the skill to use the burnisher properly has been acquired4 ,the burnisher should be slightly lubricated with oil or with the end of the tongue1 as this assists it to slide over the edge of the scraper without scratching4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,,top ,,views ,,of ,,the ,,angles ,,of ,,the ,,burnisher4 ,if a scraper is to be used upon very fine work1 a different shaped edge should be made2 it should be whetted to four perfectly square and keen corners1 each of which will furnish an edge4 ,this is a more difficult method of sharpening a scraper1 but it gives four edges suitable for fine work4 ,the edge should be turned by carrying the burnisher as shown at ,a1 ,fig4 #gi1 making the strokes at the different angles in the order indicated by the numbers4 ,in sharpening any scraper1 care should be used that no strokes are made back of the square1 as stroke bc of ,fig4 #hj4 ,keep the burnisher pointing down all the time1 as indicated at a1 ,fig4 #gg1 as in this lies the chief difficulty4 ,two or three strokes should be sufficient to sharpen the scraper4 ,to turn the edge of a scraper properly1 a burnisher is necessary4 ,this tool should be made of the hardest steel1 and is often made by the workman himself of an old file1 ground perfectly smooth and polished4 ,perhaps the most satisfactory burnisher within easy reach of the wood-worker may be made from a nail set1 which may be fitted to a handle and ground to an awl point4 ,the back of a narrow chisel or gouge may be used1 though these are rather clumsy4 ,the burnishers found in stores are generally unsatisfactory1 as they are apt to be soft1 and any steel which can be cut with a file is useless as a burnisher for sharpening scrapers1 as the scraper will cut into it1 instead of turning over4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,,angle ,,to ,,be ,,avoided ,,in ,,sharpening ,,scraper4 ,if satisfactory results are not obtained1 there may be several causes3 the scraper may not be of just the right temper or texture2 the burnisher may be soft or rough2 the edge may not have been turned over evenly1 or it may have been turned over too far1 as indicated in an exaggerated way at a1 ,fig4 #hj1 which is the result of carrying the burnisher around too far1 as shown by the line bc4 ,this may be remedied by using the awl point as shown at d1 ,fig4 #ha1 holding the scraper and burnisher in about the same relative positions as indicated1 guiding the burnisher by the thumb1 which should be carried on the square edge of the scraper1 moving with the burnisher its entire length4 ,in this way the edge may be turned back to its correct angle1 when a very light touch in the usual way will generally make the desired edge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,,turning ,,back ,,the ,,edge ,,of ,a ,,scraper4 ,if either the scraper or the burnisher is not of the right texture1 throw it away1 as it is worthless4 ,if the burnisher is rough1 it may be made smooth upon an oilstone4 ,if the edge of the scraper is rough1 it may be turned back again by laying the scraper flat upon the bench1 the rough side up1 and the burnisher passed over it several times2 then proceed as with a new edge4 ,in general1 this is not so satisfactory as it is to file1 whet1 and sharpen the edge all over again1 especially if the corner has been turned several times4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,,method ,,of ,,grasping ,,the ,,scraper ,,when ,,working ,,upon ,a ,,broad ,,surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--,,method ,,of ,,grasping ,,the ,,scraper ,,when ,,working ,,within ,a ,,small ,,area4 ,though it may seem from the above explanation of the methods of sharpening scrapers that it is a very complex operation1 it will be seen that it is not a difficult matter1 if it is once worked out2 usually it requires a little time and practice to acquire the knack that will make it possible to do it surely and well4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,,method ,,of ,,grasping ,,scraper ,,when ,,working ,,upon ,,an ,,edge4 ,in using a scraper1 it may be grasped as shown in ,figs4 #hb1 #hc1 #hd1 as best suits the work being done1 and the strokes should be with the grain4 ,in using this tool1 as in the use of most others1 the easiest way generally is the most efficient4 ,as the young workman gains experience1 he will gradually acquire the correct methods to use his tools for all the various purposes within their scope4 #eg4 ,nail sets are for the purpose of 8setting0 the nails1 or for sinking them below the surface of the wood2 and to stand the hard usage to which they are subjected1 they must be very carefully tempered4 ,the best form of nail set is that which has a cupped or hollow point1 as it is not so apt to slip off of the head of the nail4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--,,monkey ,,wrench4 #eh4 ,wrenches are of many kinds and patterns and of every conceivable use1 but that known as the 8monkey10 or 8,coe's10 wrench 7,fig4 #he7 is perhaps the most convenient for general work and has not been supplanted by any of more recent invention4 #ei4 ,handscrews 7,a471 if of good material and well made1 will stand any legitimate use1 and if properly used and cared for1 will last a lifetime4 ,however1 a novice or a careless workman often destroys them rapidly by allowing the jaws to be under strain while in the position shown in ,fig4 #hf1 which will probably break the middle screw1 and perhaps both4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--;,,effect ,,of ,,the ,,unskillful ,,use ,,of ,a ,,handscrew4 7,b47 ,in using handscrews for gluing1 the jaws should be set to nearly the size of the material which is to be placed between them1 before the glue is spread4 ,in placing the handscrews upon the work1 the outside screw should be turned back so that it will not prevent the jaws from being slightly closer at the outside screw than at the points4 ,this will allow the strain which is applied in setting up the outside screw1 to bring the jaws parallel1 which is the only position in which handscrews should be allowed to remain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--;,,correct ,,use ,,of ,,handscrew4 ,in opening or closing a handscrew1 the middle screw should be held in the left hand1 and the outside screw in the right1 as in ,fig4 #hg2 the screws should then be grasped so that they will not turn in the hand and the handscrew revolved in the desired direction4 ,never put unnecessary strain upon handscrews1 nor leave them with a heavy strain upon them for a very long time4 ,if the work is well fitted1 no more strain should be used than is necessary to bring the joints well up1 and no work should be glued unless the joints fit well4 ,in any case1 the outside screw should be turned back a quarter or a half a turn after the glue has set2 this will relieve the strain1 and add much to the life of the handscrew4 ,in gluing work which requires several handscrews to hold it while the glue is setting1 the handles of the outside screws all should point one way1 which allows the work to be handled much more easily1 as the handles of the middle screws will form an even bearing upon the floor4 ,if this is not done1 the outside screws will be apt to be broken when a heavy piece of work is being glued and handled1 as the weight of the work will rest upon the screws which bear upon the floor4 7,c47 ,before using new handscrews1 the screws should be treated with beeswax and beef tallow1 or with black lead mixed with oil or with wax4 ,the latter compound is very dirty2 the former lubricates the screws perfectly4 ,the screws should be heated1 and the lubricant applied hot4 #fj4 7,a47 ,a grindstone of good quality1 from #bj0 to #bf0 in diameter1 is indispensable to a woodworking shop1 and should be used frequently1 as the efficiency of cutting tools is much increased if they are kept well ground1 and much time may be saved in whetting them4 7,b47 ,in selecting a grindstone1 be sure that it is true and round1 and of a coarse1 even grit1 which can be quite satisfactorily determined by examining several and selecting the coarsest1 as that will doubtlessly be a fast cutting stone4 7,c47 ,the stone should be carefully centered and mounted upon a frame2 the face may be kept true by means of a file or other hard steel being held against it as it revolves1 or a piece of 0 or 0 gas pipe revolved from side to side of the stone as it is turned4 ,never allow a stone to rest with one side in the water1 as it will be made softer and heavier upon that side1 and soon worn out of true4 7,d47 ,do not use one place upon the surface of the stone continually1 or a groove will quickly be worn there2 instead1 keep the tool moving from side to side4 ,if properly cared for1 a stone will hold its face indefinitely4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,,emery ,,wheel ,,dresser4 #fa4 ,emery1 corundum1 carborundum1 and other artificial abrasive wheels have in many cases supplanted the grindstone1 as they cut much more rapidly4 ,any one not accustomed to using them must be careful that the temper of the tool is not destroyed1 as the wheel runs at a high rate of speed1 and a tool in unskillful hands is easily burned4 ,to avoid this1 the tool should be held lightly but firmly against the stone1 and frequently dipped in water to cool it4 ,if an emery wheel burns badly1 it may be because it needs dressing2 for this purpose a diamond emery wheel dresser is the best1 but on account of its cost1 various devices have been patented to accomplish the same result1 one of which is illustrated in ,fig4 #hh4 #fb4 ,whetstones4--7,a47 ,these are used to give to a tool the keen edge necessary to cut wood smoothly4 ,the natural stone in most common use is the 8,washita stone10 which is quarried in the ,ozark ,mountains1 and is thought by many to be the best natural stone for the general use of the wood-worker2 it is fast cutting1 and when of the best quality is of even texture4 7,b47 ,many workmen prefer an 8,arkansas stone10 as it is finer and harder than the ,washita4 ,it is also more expensive1 however1 and is better adapted to the use of woodcarvers and engravers than to the use of wood-workers in general4 ,it is usually not so fast cutting as the best of the ,washita stones1 but a finer edge may be obtained by its use4 ,there are other natural stones1 but none so generally used as the above4 ,the purchase of a natural stone is to a great extent a lottery1 as only about one stone in ten has a perfectly even texture1 is free from cracks1 and has reasonably good cutting qualities4 7,c47 ,if a stone needs truing1 lay a piece of coarse sandpaper upon a board1 and rub the stone over it until it has been ground down4 ,the best place1 however1 to true up a whetstone is upon the horizontal stone of a marble worker2 this is a large grindstone1 several feet in diameter1 mounted on a vertical shaft1 upon which are placed pieces of marble to be ground to a flat surface4 7,d47 ,artificial oilstones1 made of emery1 corundum1 carborundum1 and other artificial abrasives1 are coming rapidly into use1 and1 as in the case of grindstones1 eventually will supplant all others in many occupations1 as they cut faster than any natural stone1 may be made of any degree of fineness1 and are of absolutely even texture4 ,they are also able to resist many accidents which would destroy a natural stone4 7,e47 ,slip stones are used to sharpen gouges and curved tools of all kinds1 and may be made in any desirable shape4 ,an oblong stone1 #h0 #b0 #a01 is the size of stone in most general use by the wood-worker1 and should be fitted into a box or piece of wood with a cover to keep it clean4 ,it may be laid either flat or on its edge1 as suits the workman1 though the stone may be kept true more easily if it is set on its edge4 7,f47 ,the use of the oilstone is described under topic #dj1 ,a4 ,the oil used should be a kind that will not gum2 its purpose is to prevent the glassiness which is caused by the friction of the tool over the stone4 ,common machine oil is used by many1 lard oil by others1 and kerosene1 or coal oil1 is claimed by many workmen to be the only oil suitable for use upon an oilstone4 ,any one of these oils will give satisfactory results1 but kerosene keeps the stone cleaner1 thereby adding to its efficiency1 and for this purpose lubricates quite as well as any of those above-mentioned4 #fc4 7,a47 ,files are used for many purposes by wood-workers4 ,an assortment consisting of #d0 and #f0 slim taper1 or three-cornered1 files2 #h0 and #aj0 flat1 or bastard1 files2 #h01 #aj01 and #ab0 round files2 and #h0 and #ab0 half round wood files and rasps should be in every carpenter's kit4 ,the #d0 slim taper files should be used upon the finer saws1 and the #f0 upon the coarser ones1 though the latter are used by some workmen for both saws4 ,upon jobbing work1 it is necessary to have a few warding and knife files to use upon keys and odd jobs1 and also to sharpen bits4 ,files and rasps are made of every shape and size1 and for every purpose4 ,wood files usually are tempered to stand lead or soft brass1 and should never be used upon anything harder4 ,in drawing a file back between the cuts1 do not allow it to drag1 as it is injured thereby about as much as when it is cutting4 7,b47 ,there are a great many other tools and appliances used by the wood-worker with which the workman should be familiar1 but it is not necessary to describe them1 as the above-mentioned are the most essential tools common to all forms of woodworking4 ,there is no important principle involved in the construction1 care1 and use of woodworking tools which is not discussed in this chapter1 and the student who becomes thoroughly familiar with the matter treated will have little trouble in learning to handle other tools4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,,jointing ,a ,,saw4 #fd4 ,saw filing4--7,a47 ,this is an accomplishment which every young wood-worker should master1 as its possession will save expense and inconvenience1 and add much to his efficiency as a workman4 7,b47 ,the first step in sharpening a saw is to examine the edge carefully to see if the teeth are of an even length2 if they are not1 they should be jointed4 ,this is done by using a flat file held perfectly square in a block1 as shown in ,fig4 #hi4 ,one or two light strokes usually will be enough to make all the teeth of the same length4 ,the edge of the saw should round slightly in the middle1 say about 0 for a #bd0 or a #bf0 saw4 ,if the edge is perfectly straight1 it should not be jointed to this shape at once1 but a little at each time for several filings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--;,,hand ,,saw ,,set4 7,c47 ,after jointing the saw1 be sure that it is properly set4 ,this may be done by a saw set1 of which there are several patterns in use2 these are all of two types1 the hand set 7,fig4 #ij71 and the anvil set 7,fig4 #ia74 ,either of these forms is efficient1 but as it is more convenient1 the hand set is more commonly used4 ,do not give the saw too much set1 or it will not cut smoothly1 but will break the wood badly on the back side of the cut2 there is also greater danger of breaking the teeth1 and as more wood is cut out1 more muscle must be applied4 ,the point of the teeth only should be set1 and care should be used that the blade of the saw is not sprung1 which will be apt to result from setting the teeth too far from the point4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--;,,anvil ,,saw ,,set4 ,a saw to be used upon green lumber should have coarser teeth and more set than one which is to be used upon thoroughly dry1 seasoned wood4 ,a panel saw intended for use upon fine finishing work usually is ground so thin upon the back that it needs little or no set4 ,some workmen set a saw so heavily that it will do for several filings2 while this is satisfactory for a soft saw to be used upon common work1 it is not a good plan to treat a fine1 hard saw this way1 though the latter may be touched up once or twice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,,angle ,,of ,,the ,,file ,,with ,,the ,,edge ,,of ,,the ,,saw4 7,d47 ,in filing1 it is important that the file should be carried at the same angle the entire length of both sides of the blade4 ,for a cutting-off saw1 the file should be carried at an angle with the side of the blade of from #fj for soft wood to #gj for hard wood1 as shown in ,fig4 #ib2 and for general work1 at an angle about halfway between the two4 ,the file may be carried horizontally1 as at aa1 ,fig4 #ic1 which makes all the teeth of the same size2 as at ,a1 ,fig4 #id2 or it may be carried as at bb1 ,fig4 #ic1 which will make the teeth of the shape shown at ,b1 ,fig4 #id4 ,the latter method is preferred by many workmen1 as it allows the file to run more smoothly1 thus lengthening its life a little4 ,there is no difference in the efficiency of the saws filed by these methods1 but if filed as at bb1 ,fig4 #ic1 it is more difficult to keep the teeth of the same size1 and to make a good-looking job4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--;,,angle ,,of ,,the ,,file ,,with ,,the ,,sides ,,of ,,the ,,saw4 ,in filing a cutting-off saw1 the top of the file should be held more or less slantingly1 as shown in ,fig4 #ie1 according to the hook which it is desired that the teeth shall have4 ,the more hook a saw has1 the faster it will cut1 but the cut will be rougher in proportion4 ,experience is necessary to discover just the right angles at which the file should be held2 after considerable practice1 the file will naturally drop into the correct position4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4--,,results ,,of ,,filings ,,as ,,at aa ,,and bb1 ,,fig4 #ic4 ,file every tooth upon each side of the saw to a perfect point1 one half of the filing being done from each side2 file the entire length from one side1 then reverse the saw and file from the other side4 ,this cannot always be the exclusive practice if a saw is in very bad shape1 because if the teeth are of uneven sizes1 care must be used1 and more filed from some teeth than from others4 ,it may1 in such a case1 be necessary to go over the saw two or three times1 but it should be done very carefully1 so that the bevel of the teeth may be preserved and their length kept the same4 ,observe each tooth1 and press toward the point or the handle of the saw1 as may be necessary4 ,the file should be carried with its point toward the point of the saw1 filing the cutting or the front side of the tooth of the farther side of the saw1 and the back of the tooth next ahead on the nearer side with the same stroke4 ,if the point of the saw is carried toward the handle of the saw1 it makes the teeth chatter1 and upon a hard saw1 may make them break4 ,it also causes an excruciating noise1 and shortens the life of a file1 as the continuous chatter against its teeth will soon break them1 and destroy the file4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,,method ,,of ,,carrying ,a ,,file ,,to ,,obtain ,,the ,,hook ,,of ,a ,,cutting-,,off ,,saw4 ,a ripsaw requires more set than a cutting-off saw1 and if1 as usual1 the file is carried square with the blade both ways1 the saw may be filed from one side4 ,after a saw is filed1 it should be laid upon a perfectly flat surface1 and given a light touch with a flat file or a whetstone1 to remove the burr caused by the file1 as in ,fig4 #if4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,,removing ,,the ,,burr ,,after ,,filing ,a ,,saw4 ,the teeth of the compass saw should be a combination of the rip- and the cutting-off saw1 as it does the work of both as occasion requires4 ,the teeth should be nearly as hooking as those of a ripsaw1 and the front teeth filed at an angle of about #hj with the side of the saw4 ,in filing the back of the teeth1 the hand should be carried a little lower than horizontal4 ,figure #da1 ,c1 shows three views of the teeth of a compass saw4 ,,suggestive ,,exercises #bg4 ,what should be the quality of all mechanics' tools8 ,is a good1 serviceable tool always finely finished8 ,are tools made especially for some dealer always reliable8 ,what is the safest method to follow in buying tools8 ,how may the efficiency of a tool be known8 #bh4 ,describe two forms of benches4 ,describe a modern vise4 #bi4 ,describe the rule in common use4 #cj4 ,for what is the try-square used8 ,why should special care be used in purchasing one8 ,how may a square be tested8 #ca4 ,compare the steel square and the try-square4 #cb4 ,describe the bevel and its use4 #cc4 ,for what is the gauge used8 ,should the graduations of the gauge be depended upon in setting it8 ,what special form of gauge is useful8 #cd4 ,what will be the result if the head of a hammer is not properly tempered8 ,why is the eye shaped as it is8 ,how is the handle fastened to the head8 ,describe the wood necessary for a hammer handle4 ,how should a hammer be hung8 ,how should nails be driven so that they will hold the best8 ,what should be guarded against in driving up ceiling or matched boards8 ,how and why should nail heads be sunk below the joint surface8 #ce4 ,for what is a hatchet used8 ,describe two ways of sharpening a hatchet4 #cf4 ,what is the principal use of a mallet8 ,describe and compare two forms of mallets4 #cg4 ,what are the two parts of a saw8 ,describe the use of a ripsaw4 ,after what tool is it modeled8 ,after what tool are the teeth of a cutting-off saw modeled8 ,what kind of saw combines the teeth of both8 ,for what is it used8 ,why is it made of softer metal than are other saws8 ,describe a saw adapted to jobbing work4 ,describe the backsaw4 ,how can the blade be straightened if it is sprung8 ,what kind of saw is used for fine work8 ,how should the thickness of the back of a saw compare with its cutting edge8 ,what is gained by this8 ,what test should the blade of a high-grade saw be able to stand8 ,what are the best sizes for saws8 ,compare the practical features of a hard and a medium hand saw4 ,how should a saw be held8 ,how much force should be used upon a saw8 ,how do some workmen change the handles of their saws to make the saws run more easily8 #ch4 ,describe the knife commonly used by the wood-worker4 ,why is the form of blade used in manual-training schools more suitable for whittling than the form used by the wood-worker8 #ci4 ,compare the old-fashioned and the modern planes4 ,describe the mechanism of the modern plane and its action4 ,what should be the condition of the face of a plane8 ,how should a plane be held so that one may see the adjustment of the cutter8 #dj4 ,of what use is the cap iron in grinding a plane bit8 ,how may a grindstone be prevented from wearing unevenly8 ,upon which side of the bit should all the grinding be done8 ,at what angle should it be ground8 ,what is the objection to grinding a bit too thin8 ,where should the cap iron be while whetting8 ,how should the bevel of the bit be held upon the stone8 ,describe the correct action of the arm while whetting4 ,how should the whetstone be prevented from wearing unevenly8 ,what motion should be avoided in whetting8 ,what is the correct shape of the edge of a plane iron8 ,what is the use of the cap iron8 ,what is apt to result if the cap iron is too thick8 #da4 ,what plane is used generally for rough work8 ,in what way does the edge of its iron differ from that of other planes8 #db4 ,what plane is used for straightening edges and surfaces8 ,what should be the shape of the edge of the iron of this plane8 ,how should a plane be carried to joint an edge square8 #dc4 ,what plane is used in smoothing fine work8 ,what should be the position of the cap in smoothing hard1 cross-grained wood8 ,how should edge tools of all kinds be used in relation to the grain8 #dd4 ,compare the construction and the use of the block plane with the above planes4 #de4 ,what position should be taken when at work with edge tools of any sort8 ,should the workman bend from his hips or from his shoulders8 ,what should be guarded against at the beginning and the end of the strokes of a plane8 ,is it ever economy to work with dull tools8 ,how should a plane be drawn back after a stroke8 #df4 ,what are the two forms of chisels8 ,describe the peculiarities and uses of each4 ,describe a durable form of chisel handle4 ,should a mallet or hammer be used in pounding upon a chisel handle8 ,why8 ,describe and give reasons for the difference in the grinding of the paring and the mortising chisel4 ,describe a set of chisels4 ,what is a slice1 or slick8 #dg4 ,describe a gouge4 ,what is the difference between an inside and an outside gouge8 #dh4 ,describe the form and uses of a drawshave4 ,compare the utility of the rigid- and the folding-handled drawshaves4 ,how should the edge of a rigid-handled drawshave be protected8 #di4 ,describe the form and the use of a spokeshave4 #ej4 ,what is the form of bit in most common use8 ,describe the different parts of an auger bit and their functions4 ,how may the clogging of a bit be prevented8 ,if a bit should become clogged in a hole1 how should it be drawn out8 ,describe the form and the use of a ,german bit2 of a twist drill2 of an extension bit2 of a center bit4 ,describe the method of sharpening a bit4 ,demonstrate4 ,what part of a bit should never be filed8 ,why8 #ea4 ,describe the form and the use of bitbraces4 ,describe the ratchet brace4 ,which is the more convenient brace for common use8 #eb4 ,what should be the shape and the temper of the point of a screwdriver8 ,what should be the shape of the handle8 ,what is the value of a screwdriver bit8 #ec4 ,describe the use of compasses2 of calipers4 #ed4 ,describe the use of pliers4 ,what is a good form for common use8 ,should wire-cutting nippers be used to pull nails8 ,why8 #ee4 ,for what is a scraper used8 ,what is the best size for a scraper8 ,describe handles for scrapers4 ,describe a leather palm and its use4 #ef4 ,describe a burnisher4 ,how should a scraper be sharpened for rough work8 ,for fine work8 ,how may a burnisher be used when the edge of the scraper has been turned over too far1 or when the edge is not sufficiently keen8 ,how should the scraper be used in relation to the grain8 #eg4 ,describe the best form of nail set4 #eh4 ,what is the form of wrench in most common use8 #ei4 ,how long ought handscrews to last8 ,what should be the position of the jaws when in use8 ,which screw should be set first8 ,how should handscrews be treated to make them work more easily8 #fj4 ,what are the characteristics of a good grindstone8 ,how should a grindstone be trued8 #fa4 ,compare emery wheels and grindstones4 ,what should be guarded against in the use of an emery wheel8 #fb4 ,why is it necessary to use a whetstone8 ,what kind of stone is commonly used8 ,what is a finer kind of stone8 ,compare the two kinds4 ,how may whetstones be trued8 ,what kind of stones are coming into use8 ,compare the wearing qualities of stones laid flat and edgeways4 ,what forms of stones are used for gouges8 ,what kinds of oils are used for oil or whetstones8 #fc4 ,what kinds of files are used for saw filing8 ,describe the files generally used by wood-workers4 ,describe wood rasps and files4 #fd4 ,describe the jointing of a saw4 ,what should be the shape of the cutting edge of a saw8 ,describe the purpose1 and demonstrate the process1 of setting a saw4 ,compare the set of saws for coarse and fine work4 ,at what angle with the sides of the blade should a file be carried in filing a cutting-off saw8 ,compare the results of carrying the file horizontally and with an upward inclination4 ,at what angle with the sides of the blade should the file be carried in filing a ripsaw8 ,if the saw is in bad shape1 should the attempt be made to bring it to a finished point when going over it the first time8 ,what should be the direction of the point of the file while it is cutting8 ,compare the set of the ripsaw and that of the cutting-off saw4 ,compare the teeth of the compass saw with those of others4 ,,chapter ,v ,,glue ,,and ,,sandpaper #fe4 ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,glue4--7,a47 ,wood-workers use both liquid and sheet or stick glue1 but as the former requires little skill in its use1 we will deal principally with the latter1 which is made of hides1 sinews1 bones1 and waste material of slaughterhouses4 ,different grades of glue are made of various kinds of refuse1 but the processes of treating them all are similar4 7,b47 ,the material from which glue is to be made is steeped in lime water at low temperature1 or subjected to a chemical treatment for a sufficient time to separate the fat from the fiber4 ,the latter is then washed in clean water and boiled down to gelatin1 which is spread upon wires to dry and harden1 when it is ready for use4 7,c47 ,ground glue makes up more readily than that which comes in sheets1 and therefore is preferred by many workmen4 ,it is frequently adulterated1 but if made upon honor1 it is as good as the glue from which it is made1 and does not deteriorate unless kept for a long time in a damp place4 ,as it is not possible to apply certain tests to ground glue which may be used upon that in sheets or sticks1 many workmen prefer not to use it unless sure of its quality4 7,d47 ,the highest-priced glue is not always the best for all purposes1 and a dealer who handles different grades can generally advise which should be used1 though the medium grade in common use is usually satisfactory for general work4 7,e47 ,it is impossible to give infallible rules for testing glue in the stick1 or to say that glue should be of any special color1 or that it should be either transparent or opaque2 but1 in general1 glue suitable for ordinary work will be of a reddish1 yellowish1 or light brownish color1 clear and transparent1 and not offensive to either taste or smell1 though some of the best makes of glue are absolutely opaque4 ,good glue will swell in cold water1 but will not dissolve until it has nearly reached the boiling point4 ,it will also absorb more water than will poor glue1 and is therefore more economical4 ,any test which depends upon the brittleness or dryness of the glue is not reliable1 as a somewhat damp1 good glue will not stand this test as well as a poor glue that is very dry4 ,if conditions are the same1 and comparison is possible1 it is fairly safe to assume that if a good glue is cut with a sharp knife1 a hard1 elastic shaving will result1 while a poor glue will give a shaving which is extremely brittle1 and will break into little pieces4 ,a safe way to test glue is to prepare a number of pieces of the same kind of wood1 #a0 square and about #ab0 long1 fit them perfectly end to end in pairs1 and glue as many of them together as there are samples of glue to be tested4 ,after the glue is thoroughly hard1 clamp one of the pieces of each pair to a bench top1 with the joint coinciding with the edge4 ,hang a pail about #aj0 from the joint on the piece which projects over the edge of the bench1 and allow sand to run into it slowly1 until the joint breaks4 ,repeat this process with each pair which has been glued up1 and the amount of sand necessary to break the joint will furnish a basis of comparison between the different varieties of glue tested4 7,f47 ,glue should be soaked in cold or lukewarm water before being put into a glue pot1 which should be a double vessel1 with the glue in the inside pot1 and the hot water or steam in the outer jacket4 ,in making up glue1 it should be brought to the boiling point until melted1 and then removed from the heat1 for if kept continually hot1 it loses much of its strength by being cooked too much1 as this makes continual thinning necessary4 ,if time will not permit1 the preliminary soaking may be dispensed with1 and the hard glue put at once in the hot water1 in which case it must be stirred frequently while melting1 or it will form a mass4 ,if the water boils out of the outside kettle1 and the glue burns1 throw it away1 as it is worthless4 ,glue should be thinned with cold water1 after which it should be allowed to become thoroughly heated before using2 in the shops1 this is not always done1 as there may not be time to allow the glue to become heated again2 therefore it is quite the common custom to thin the glue with hot water4 7,g47 ,paint brushes1 or other brushes in which the bristles are set in glue1 are not suitable for use in hot glue1 and those made especially for this purpose should be purchased4 ,for very small brushes1 a strip of basswood bark may be soaked and pounded about half an inch from the end2 these are satisfactory for small work4 #ff4 ,how to use glue4--7,a47 ,glue should be used as hot as possible1 and of about the consistency of cream4 ,the pieces to be glued should be heated thoroughly and the gluing done in a warm room4 7,b47 ,in factories1 where it is possible1 the gluing is done in a specially fitted room which contains all necessary appliances4 ,vertical and horizontal coils of steam pipes surround the room1 both to furnish heat for the room1 and for the purpose of heating the material to be glued1 which should be so hot that the hand cannot rest upon it for more than a few seconds4 ,in a room of this sort1 the temperature is maintained at from #aaj to #acj ,f4 7,c47 ,if the best possible results are wanted1 a scratch plane should be used4 ,this is a tool similar to a smoother1 only its cutter is nearly vertical1 and it has teeth like a fine saw which will scratch the wood1 thus giving a better hold for the glue4 7,d47 ,it is important that all clamps1 handscrews1 and other appliances which are likely to be needed should be set as nearly as possible the desired size1 and so arranged as to be reached easily1 for when the glue is applied1 there should not be the slightest hesitation or delay in getting the work together and the clamps on4 ,the utmost speed and surety of motion is absolutely necessary in using hot glue2 therefore everything during the process of the work should be foreseen and provision made for it before the glue is applied1 for if the glue is even slightly chilled1 the work will not be so well done1 and the efficiency of the glue will be greatly diminished4 ,a novice should never attempt more than the simplest work1 unless working with a competent man4 7,e47 ,the glue should be spread rapidly and evenly with a brush of suitable size1--a large one for broad surfaces and a small one for small work4 ,glue should not be thrown about wastefully2 enough should be used to cover the surface completely but not thickly4 7,f47 ,in using handscrews1 it is of the greatest importance that the jaws be kept parallel as described in ,topic #ei2 care must be used that more strain is not placed upon the handscrews and clamps than is necessary to bring the joint together4 7,g47 ,cold or liquid glue has supplanted hot glue in furniture repairing1 gluing up intricate work1 and in places where it is impracticable to use hot glue either on account of its setting too rapidly1 or where heat is not available4 ,liquid glue does not hold as well nor as permanently as hot glue when properly used1 but for many kinds of work it is perfectly satisfactory4 7,h47 ,in gluing rosewood1 or other woods of a greasy nature1 the glue should be thinned with vinegar1 which will cut the grease4 ,another method of making glue hold on wood of this sort is to chalk both members of the joint thoroughly1 and let it stand for two or three hours1 when it should be wiped off4 ,this absorbs the grease on the surface of the wood1 which allows the glue to take hold4 ,in all gluing1 do not allow the bare hand to touch the joint any more than necessary1 as the grease and perspiration will prevent the best results from being obtained4 #fg4 ,the testing of sandpaper4--7,a47 ,sandpaper is made by covering paper with a thin layer of glue1 over which is spread evenly a layer of ground flint or glass2 over this is spread another coating of glue1 which firmly fastens the sand to the paper4 7,b47 ,in buying sandpaper1 pass the finger over it to see if the sand is firmly fastened4 ,be sure that the paper is neither flimsy nor brittle4 ,coarse particles of sand are sometimes found upon sandpaper which renders it worthless2 these can be detected only by use1 unless they are very prominent4 #fh4 ,how to use sandpaper4--7,a47 ,sandpaper is made in numbers1 #jj1 #j1 1 #a1 #a1 #b1 #b1 #c4 ,numbers #jj and #j are very fine1 and are used in rubbing down shellac and varnish4 ,numbers and #a are used in sandpapering mahogany and other fancy woods1 and number #a is used upon all building finish but the finest2 the coarser numbers are used upon floors1 outside finish1 and other coarse work which is to be painted1 though for a very nice floor1 #a is used1 rarely anything finer4 ,it is a fallacy to think that the finer the sandpaper used1 the finer the job will be1 since upon some kinds of woods fine sandpaper will make a glassy surface in spots which will not take the finish like the rest of the work4 ,sandpapering is as apt to detract from the work as it is to improve it1 for unless used very skillfully1 the character of angles and small surfaces will be changed1 though it may seem that the damage is so slight as to be imperceptible4 ,in using sandpaper1 the workman should guard against rounding off square corners or destroying the form of surfaces2 a raw corner1 however1 should be removed with a few light1 careful strokes1 as a perfectly sharp corner will always be more or less ragged4 ,the one who knows will always notice the omissions of details of this sort1 and will attribute such imperfections to lack of skill or knowledge on the part of the workman4 ,it is for the one who knows1 that all work should be done--not for the casual observer--and these apparently insignificant details1 rather than the part of the work which may seem of more importance1 form the basis by which one workman judges the work of another4 ,in nothing do small things count more than in making or destroying a workman's reputation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,,use ,,of ,,sandpaper ,,upon ,a ,,broad ,,surface4 7,b47 ,keep the sandpaper dry1 and stored in a dry place1 as moisture softens the glue so that the sand may be easily rubbed off4 ,in handling sandpaper1 care should be taken that the sanded sides are not rubbed together4 7,c47 ,in preparing to sandpaper a flat surface1 or for general work1 a sheet of sandpaper should be torn in halves the short way of the paper1 and one half should be folded back to back1 and held 7not tacked7 around the block with the hand1 as in ,fig4 #ig4 ,the act of grasping the block for the work will hold the sandpaper1 and any device for holding the sandpaper on the block is worthless1 being considered by the workman as a mark of the novice4 ,the block should be about #c0 #d0 01 and may be made of wood1 cork1 fiber1 or any material which suits the taste of the workman4 ,if there is much sandpapering of moldings to be done1 it is best to make blocks which will fit the contour of them1 as it is very hard on the hands to do this work for very long at a time1 though nothing has ever been invented which fits irregular forms as well as the fingers4 ,a piece of sandpaper should never be used on a piece of work until all the cutting by edge tools has been done1 as the particles of sand will enter the grain of the wood1 and any edge tools used upon it afterward will be quickly dulled4 ,do not use a piece of sandpaper so large that any part of it will not be under perfect control1 as loose ends will scratch the wood1 and it has an awkward and unworkmanlike appearance4 ,always work parallel with the grain1 and be sure that all plane marks and rough places are thoroughly rubbed down4 ,in order to do this well1 it is often necessary to use considerable muscle4 ,this part of the work calls for good judgment1 for unless sandpapered enough1 there will be places which will show when the finish is spread on the work1 though they may have been invisible before4 ,no one can tell as well as the workman himself when sufficient sandpapering has been done1 though it may be evident to any one who knows the signs whether or not the work has been done judiciously4 ,upon a coarse job it is usually allowable1 and sometimes desirable1 to sandpaper across the grain1 especially if the work is to be painted4 ,in order to impress it upon the student1 we will repeat that too much care cannot be taken in the use of sandpaper1 for much oftener will an amateur injure a piece of work than improve it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--,,sandpapering ,,panel ,,work4 7,for explanation1 see text47 7,d47 ,in sandpapering panel work1 as in ,fig4 #ih1 the panels 7a7 should be smoothed1 scraped1 and sandpapered1 and the edges of the stiles 7b71 rails 7d71 and muntins 7e7 should be treated the same way before the panel work is put together2 an exception to this in regard to the panels may be made if the panel frame is constructed in such a way as to allow the panels to be put in place after it is together1 in which case the panels may be smoothed at any time4 ,upon very fine work the panels are sometimes polished before being put in place1 as it is difficult for the finisher to work into the corners after the panels are in place4 ,after the faces of the stiles1 rails1 and muntins have been planed and scraped1 they should be sandpapered in the order named1 working with the sandpaper over a sharp-cornered block close to the edges of the pieces1 being careful not to drag the paper over the face of the pieces which join at right angles4 ,the stiles1 rails1 and muntins should be sandpapered in the order in which they are mentioned4 ,if the sandpaper runs over the rails a little when sandpapering the muntins1 or over the stiles when sanding the rails1 it will do no harm1 as a couple of light1 careful strokes parallel with the grain will be sufficient to remove any scratches which may be made4 ,in sanding mahogany1 or any wood of which the grain rubs up1 make the strokes in one direction only1 instead of back and forth4 ,sometimes wax is rubbed in to hold the grain down upon cheap work1 but this is not recommended1 as that place will not take the stain or the finish like the rest of the wood4 ,a very thin coat of shellac is used for the same purpose2 this is less objectionable1 but should be avoided if possible4 ,,suggestive ,,exercises #fe4 ,of what material is glue made8 ,describe briefly the process of making glue4 ,what kind of glue is best for general work8 ,is ground glue always reliable8 ,what is the chief advantage in its use8 ,is high-priced glue always the best for all purposes8 ,what should be the appearance of good glue8 ,how should it act in cold water8 ,when cut with a knife8 ,when broken8 ,compare the amount of water absorbed by a good and a poor glue4 ,how should a glue pot be constructed8 ,what will be the result if the glue pot boils dry8 ,describe brushes suitable for use in gluing4 ,what kind of bark makes a good brush for small work8 ,how is it prepared for use8 #ff4 ,describe the condition of glue when ready for use4 ,what tool is used to increase the strength of the joint8 ,in preparing for gluing1 what preparations should be made8 ,how should wood be treated for use in gluing up wood of a greasy nature8 #fg4 ,describe the manufacture of sandpaper4 ,what is used for sand8 ,how select sandpaper8 #fh4 ,for what kind of work is sandpaper numbers #jj and #j used8 ,numbers #a_/b and #a8 ,what number of sandpaper is used upon general work8 ,what will be the result if sandpaper is kept in a damp place1 or becomes wet8 ,what should be the size of the piece of sandpaper used upon flat surfaces1 and for general work8 ,how should moldings be sandpapered8 ,what should be guarded against in working around sharp corners8 ,should sandpaper be carried with or across the grain8 ,what exceptions8 ,how should panel work be sandpapered8 ,how should panels and the edges of stiles1 rails1 and muntins be treated before gluing up8 ,how should sandpaper be used upon grain which rubs up8 ,how are panels sometimes treated upon fine work8 ,why8 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,wood ,,finishing #fi4 ,filling4--7,a47 ,after wood has been smoothed and made ready to receive the finish1 it is prepared by filling1 by which is meant the process of filling the grain so that the finish itself will not soak in4 ,this1 if well done1 makes it possible to do as good a job of finishing with two or three coats as could be done on some kinds of wood with from five to eight coats without the filling4 ,open-grained woods1 such as oak1 ash1 etc41 especially need filling1 as before the process of filling was discovered1 the open grain1 or cellular part of the wood1 had to be filled by shellac1 or other expensive material1 before there was a surface suitable to receive the polish4 7,b47 ,there are two forms of filler--the paste1 which is for use upon open-grained woods1 and the liquid1 which is adapted to filling the pores of close-grained woods like pine1 poplar1 cherry1 etc41 and which takes the place of one coat of the more expensive shellac or other finish4 ,the paste may be purchased ready-made1 and colored to suit the taste1 or it may be made by using whiting1 silex1 or corn starch1 and any dry colors necessary to secure the desired stain4 ,the ingredients should be well ground1 and thoroughly mixed with boiled linseed oil to a thick paste2 to this should be added as much japan drier as there is of the oil1 or one quarter as much as there is of the paste4 ,the whole may then be thinned with turpentine1 benzine1 or gasolene to a consistency which will allow it to be spread easily1 but it should still be quite thick4 7,c47 ,filler need not be spread very smoothly1 but the surface of the wood must be covered1 and the filling thoroughly worked into the grain4 ,after this has been done1 the wood should be allowed to stand a few minutes1 until the filler has become dull or powdery1 and seems to stick to the wood if rubbed lightly with the finger1 when it should be rubbed off with shavings or excelsior1 rubbing across the grain wherever possible4 ,do not use cloth until cleaning up after the filler is all off1 as it is more apt to take the filling out of the grain than either excelsior or shavings4 ,the corners should be cleaned out with a sharp stick1 after which the work should stand for several hours1 or over night1 before the finish is applied1 as otherwise the moisture in the filler may cause the finish to bubble4 ,care should be used that the filling does not stand too long before rubbing off1 or it will be very difficult to remove it2 hence1 it is best not to spread any more than can be cleaned off before it gets too hard4 ,be sure that there is enough filling mixed to do the job before any is applied1 as it is difficult to match colors4 7,d47 ,liquid filling should be spread as smoothly and as evenly as possible1 as the laps will be apt to show through the finish which is spread over it4 #gj4 ,staining wood 7,a47 is for the purpose of imparting some other than the natural color to the wood4 7,b47 ,in finishing open-grained woods1 a stain often is used which will color the wood before it is filled1 though upon general work1 it is the custom to color the stain only4 ,this does not make the work all of one color1 as the cells of the wood will retain more filling than will the harder part of the grain4 ,by this method the quarter grain may be made more prominent4 ,if an open-grained wood is being treated1 it should be filled after being stained4 ,close-grained woods are ready for the finish as soon as the stain has dried4 ,stains which will do the work satisfactorily may be made of various chemicals4 ,there are also many satisfactory stains upon the market1 which can be purchased in as small packages as desired1 offering the student a large range of colors from which to select4 7,c47 ,stains for close-grained woods may be made by mixing dry colors with turpentine or benzine1 and a little boiled oil and japan to bind the color4 ,these stains should be applied the same as the filler1 but not allowed to become so hard before cleaning off1 or there will be light places rubbed in the finish4 ,the rubbing or cleaning off should be done with a soft cloth1 care being used that there are no places left uncleaned1 especially in the corners1 as the finish will make them muddy4 7,d47 ,a very good old cherry stain may be made by mixing ,venetian red and rose pink until the desired shade is produced4 7,e47 ,black walnut may be imitated by mixing burnt umber with turpentine1 oil1 and japan1 and if a reddish tinge is desired1 a little burnt sienna may be added2 this is a much better color than can be produced by umber alone4 ,asphaltum1 thinned to the desired color1 makes a good walnut stain4 7,f47 ,many of the best stains are mixed with water as a vehicle1 as a depth and brilliancy of color may be obtained which is impossible with any stain that has oil in it4 ,the objection to using water is that the grain of the wood is lifted by the moisture1 and has to be sanded smooth before it can be finished4 ,even with this serious objection1 water stains are used extensively upon the best work4 7,g47 ,the rich mahogany stain which is so much admired may be made by mixing the same colors as mentioned in 7,d471 and adding carmine until the desired color is obtained4 ,an oil stain will not give the best results1 therefore a water stain should be used1 with a piece of gum arabic about twice the size of a pea dissolved in a pint or less of the stain for a binder1 or about the same proportion of mucilage4 ,this stain should be cleaned off the same as the oil stain above described4 7,h47 ,cherry may be darkened by applying nitric acid2 other woods may be darkened or aged by using ammonia1 potash1 or a strong solution of tobacco or coffee4 ,nitrate of silver1 if exposed to the sunlight1 gives a beautiful brown4 7,i47 ,a rich brown may be produced by using equal parts of permanganate of potash and sulphate of magnesia1 dissolved in water2 as many coats as desired may be applied1 sanding with number #jj sandpaper between the coats4 ,better results are obtained if the stain is applied hot4 7,j47 ,a beautiful green of any intensity may be produced by mixing verdigris and indigo in hot vinegar1 and applying hot4 ,several coats may be necessary1 sanding between the coats4 ,the indigo should be used cautiously1 or the green may have too much of a bluish cast4 7,k47 ,a rich brownish black may be obtained by using a solution of logwood 7pulverized7 and sulphate of iron1 applied in coats in the order named4 ,each solution should be hot4 7,l47 ,ebony may be obtained by giving any close-grained wood1 cherry preferred1 a coat of sulphate of iron1 using a weak solution1 and after that has dried and been sanded1 a coat of solution of nutgalls4 ,if the iron is too strong1 a white efflorescence will appear1 which in open-grained woods will bring out the grain in strong relief4 ,if this is objectionable1 the grain should be filled with a black filler4 7,m47 ,shellac 7see #ga1 ,a47 and boneblack1 if well mixed1 make an ebony finish which is often used upon common work2 black varnish sometimes is used the same as black shellac1 but for the best work these are not satisfactory1 as they do not strike into the wood to the same extent as do acid1 turpentine1 or water stain4 #ga4 ,shellac4--7,a47 ,this is a product of ,africa and ,south ,america4 ,it is the combination of a secretion of the female of a small insect and the sap of a tree1 in the bark of which the insect deposits its eggs4 ,the gum thus formed is gathered1 and after passing through various refining processes becomes the shellac known to commerce4 ,it is cut or dissolved by either wood or grain alcohol1 when it is ready for use4 ,some of the best furniture is finished with shellac1 and unless continuously exposed to moisture or hard usage1 the finish is practically everlasting4 7,b47 ,shellac finish does not crack as varnish is liable to1 neither does its luster dim by exposure to the various gases present in every house1 which are due to domestic causes1 though most varnishes will do this after some years4 ,upon ordinary work1 two coats of shellac may be satisfactory1 though three coats generally will improve the work sufficiently to make it advisable to apply the extra coat4 ,shellac should not be laid in too thick coats1 or it will pit badly in drying1 and make work in rubbing to a surface1 which can be avoided if moderately thin coats are spread1 though perhaps the greatest advantage in laying thin coats is that the wood may be covered more evenly1 and there will be fewer runs and laps visible4 ,shellac should always be laid with quick strokes1 never working over a place already covered2 for this work1 use a brush as large as possible to do the work without clumsiness4 7,c47 ,in applying shellac finish1 one coat is laid upon the other1 each coat being rubbed down with number #jj sandpaper1 or with pulverized pumice stone before the next coat is spread4 ,for this purpose1 a sheet of sandpaper should be cut into eighths1 and one of these pieces folded in the center of its long dimension1 and held in the hand as shown in ,fig4 #ii1 which keeps its edges from scratching the surface4 ,if it is desired to rub the shellac down to a surface with pumice stone1 it should be applied with hair-cloth1 or with harness maker's felt1 moistened with oil or water2 but for ordinary work1 sandpaper will give satisfaction1 and as it is more convenient1 it is much used4 ,if the best results are desired1 the last coat should be rubbed with pumice stone and sweet oil1 applied as above1 though boiled oil is satisfactory2 and for ordinary work1 number #jj sandpaper is used1 though it is liable to show scratches4 ,after the rubbing is done1 the oil should be wiped off with a soft rag1 and very fine rotten stone dusted on and polished with a clean1 soft cloth4 ,many finishers use the palm of the hand in putting on the finishing touches4 ,if a dead1 or mat1 finish is desired1 the final rubbing should be done with water1 used sparingly1 as oil imparts a high gloss1 if the work is well done4 7,d47 ,care should be used on any kind of work upon which waste or oily rags are used2 these rags should be gathered and burned unless they are wanted again soon1 in which case they may be spread out separately2 since1 if crushed together and thrown1 as they often are1 into a waste box1 they furnish the necessary conditions for a case of spontaneous combustion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--,,method ,,of ,,grasping ,,sandpaper ,,in ,,rubbing ,,down ,,shellac ,,finish4 7,e47 ,the gloss upon dried shellac and varnishes of all kinds is very showy1 and lacks the finish and the texture of a rubbed finish4 ,moreover1 any dust settling upon moist varnish is held1 giving the surface an effect of countless minute points2 rubbing removes these1 and gives the smooth1 glossy surface desired upon most work4 ,upon the most artistic furniture1 a gloss1 which is the result of a built-up polish1 is not considered good taste2 the use of muscle and a very little oil1 applied at intervals during a term of years1 gives a polish and a beauty which can be obtained by no other method1 and it is to attain this ideal in a few days that so many varieties of finish exist4 7,f47 ,in rubbing1 be sure that the corners are not rubbed through1 as the pressure will naturally be more upon the corners than upon a broad surface4 ,this may be avoided by using care that the pressure is not applied so as to bear on the corner2 grasp the rubbing material in such a way that no loose edges will be beyond control1 as in ,fig4 #ii1 or the finish may be badly scratched2 this applies especially to the corners4 ,the rubbing should always be in the direction parallel with the grain of the wood4 7,g47 ,if the finish is rubbed through to the wood1 it may be repolished or patched by sandpapering the bare wood with fine sandpaper1 and staining it to bring it to the same condition as the rest of the wood before the first coat of finish was applied4 ,using the same finishing material as the finish of the rest of the piece1 lay a very thin coat1 a little larger than the place to be patched1 being careful to avoid a ridge at the edge of the patch4 ,this ridge may be drawn out by a small camel's-hair brush1 and the patch left until thoroughly dried2 then apply another patch a little larger than the first one1 treating the edge as in the first patch4 ,continue this until the finish is built up to the same thickness as that of which it is a part4 ,this should be rubbed very carefully to bring it to the same finish as the rest of the surface1 using care not to rub through the old finish at the edge of the patch4 ,as it is the corners which are most liable to be rubbed through1 this process will not generally be difficult of application2 all that is necessary to secure a successful patch is to use care at each step1 and not to hurry the drying of the different patches4 #gb4 ,wax finishing is a good method of finishing any kind of hard or dark-colored wood2 7,a47 it does not give as satisfactory results1 however1 as do some other methods of finishing1 upon soft or light-colored wood4 ,there are a number of different kinds of wax finishes which can be purchased in almost any desired quantity1 7,b47 but an economical and satisfactory wax finish may be made by dissolving as much pulverized resin as may be picked up on a cent in a half pint of turpentine or gasolene heated in a water or steam double vessel4 ,after this is clear1 cut up and add a piece of beeswax as large as a thimble1 and allow the finish to simmer slowly1 until it is clear1 when it is ready for use4 ,this may be mixed in larger quantities by using the same proportions4 ,if placed in an air-tight vessel1 it will keep indefinitely4 7,c47 ,this finish should be applied hot1 with a brush1 as smoothly and as evenly as possible1 and allowed to stand until it has become quite hard1 when it should be polished with a soft rag which is free from lint4 ,as many coats as desired may be applied1 each coat being treated in the same way1 and adding to the beauty of the finish4 ,another method of applying this finish1 and which gives satisfactory results upon broad surfaces1 is to make a pad of a rag1 and rub the wax on the wood1 rubbing until it is dry4 ,this is not as satisfactory as it is to use a brush upon work where there are many corners to finish around4 ,one of the advantages of this wax finish is that it may be brightened if it becomes dim by going over it with a soft cloth1 or it may be renewed and improved by another coat at slight expense and little trouble4 ,this is also a satisfactory method of finishing a dark floor made of a wood which will not splinter when it is rubbed4 #gc4 7,a47 ,oil finish is perhaps the most simple way to finish a piece of furniture2 it is best adapted to hard1 dark woods4 ,the material is made by mixing a quarter of a pint of turpentine with seven eighths of a quart of boiled linseed oil4 ,it should be spread evenly over the surface to be finished1 and should stand until as much of it as will1 has soaked into the wood1 when the surface should be brought to a finish by rubbing4 ,this will require muscle1 as the finish should stand about ten hours1 during which time a thin film or skin will form1 which must be removed by rubbing4 ,only a soft rag1 free from lint1 should be used1 and be sure that the folds of the cloth do not leave their marks upon the surface4 ,rub with the grain4 7,b47 ,oil finish is a very durable finish1 easily taken care of1 and is used to some extent in finishing the most artistic furniture1 being especially adapted to finishing mahogany4 ,it has a character peculiarly its own1 and exposure to moisture and heat affects it less than almost any other form of finish4 ,as it should be occasionally oiled1 it improves with age and care4 ,this finish was used in olden times1 and the care of generations gives a polish attainable by no other method4 #gd4 ,varnish forms the finish which is used most commonly upon all grades and kinds of work4 7,a47 ,the different grades are made of various vegetable gums and resins1 cut in turpentine and mixed with boiled oil4 ,a cheap grade of varnish or hard oil may be made by boiling resin1 turpentine1 and boiled oil together4 ,other gums may be treated the same way2 the varnish used upon the best work1 for instance1 is made from copal1 a vegetable product of the tropics4 ,by a very careful process of boiling1 straining1 and ripening1 extending over months1 copal is made into the product which is used so extensively upon furniture finishing1 carriages1 etc4 7,b47 ,varnish should be applied in a room heated to about #hj ,f41 the dust should be laid by sprinkling1 and there should be no drafts of air1 nor flies or other insects to light upon it1 if the best results are desired4 7,c47 ,in flowing varnish1 instead of laying a thin coat as in shellac1 a thick coat should be applied4 ,this may be done by using a thick1 heavy brush2 some prefer a heavy1 round brush1 and others think they can obtain the best results from a broad1 flat brush4 ,the finer the hairs1 the better the results obtained4 ,the brush must be taken up full of varnish1 enough to cover the entire surface1 if possible1 and spread or flowed very quickly4 ,the brush should then be wiped out in the varnish pot4 ,with the brush thus dried1 go over the surface1 picking up all that the brush will absorb2 wipe this out in the pot1 and repeat the operation until nothing is left but a thin film of varnish4 ,if this is done properly1 it will prevent all runs and streaks which result from unskillful workmanship4 ,when this coat is thoroughly dried1 rub with number #jj sandpaper1 pulverized pumice stone1 or a smooth block of pumice stone 7carriage painter's method71 and repeat the process until the desired body of varnish is obtained4 ,rub down last coat with oil and polish4 ,allow as much time between last coats as possible1 as the harder the varnish is1 the better and more durable the work will be when completed4 #ge4 ,polishing4--,this term applies to the process by which a polish is built up by rubbing1 or 8ragging0 as workmen sometimes call it4 ,the piece to be polished should receive two or three coats of shellac or varnish1 which should be rubbed down to a surface1 when it is ready for the polish4 ,to make a pad of convenient size for polishing1 fold a piece of old1 soft cloth1 free from lint1 and fill it with cotton waste2 or the end of a roll of cloth may be covered by the piece which is to do the actual polishing4 ,provide a cup of moderately thin shellac and another of boiled oil1 of which about one quarter is turpentine2 or better1 a cup of sweet oil without turpentine4 ,dip the pad into the oil and allow it to soak in completely1 then do the same with the shellac4 ,now dip the pad again into the shellac1 and with the finger put on a single drop of oil1 and rub lightly upon the work1 with a circular motion1 or if the work is large enough1 the stroke may be longer4 ,if the work is done with a straight stroke1 do not stop at the end of the stroke1 as the instant between the end of one stroke and the beginning of the return may be enough to allow the shellac to stick and make a hole in the surface1 which will be difficult to repair2 begin and end the stroke with a sweeping motion4 ,the idea of this method of polishing is to bring the shellac to a polish1 using as little oil as possible for lubricating1 as the less oil used1 the better will be the polish4 #gf4 ,brushes4--7,a47 ,if brushes are to be used for stain or for filling1 a cheap brush of any suitable size will do1 a flat brush being preferred upon ordinary work4 ,for shellac and varnish1 the finer the brush1 the better the results usually obtained4 ,ordinarily it is the best practice to use as large a brush as the nature of the work will permit1 as it will hold more1 and cover more surface1 than a smaller brush1 and have fewer 8laps40 ,chisel-pointed1 flat brushes1 from #a0 to #b0 in width1 will be found satisfactory for the work of schools and amateurs1 but upon professional work1 brushes from #c0 to #e0 often are used4 7,b47 ,the care of the brushes is an important part of the work of those who use them1 as neglect or carelessness may destroy a valuable brush overnight4 ,unless a brush is going to be used again the next day1 it is always best to clean it thoroughly4 ,if a stain1 filling1 paint1 or varnish brush1 use gasolene or turpentine1 but if a shellac brush1 use wood alcohol1 cleaning off all the small particles4 ,to obtain the best results1 all brushes should be washed in hot1 soapy water1 and afterward rinsed in clean water2 in general1 however1 this latter precaution may be dispensed with1 unless the brushes are to be laid away indefinitely4 ,unless the above precautions have been taken1 care should be taken that shellac and varnish brushes are not changed from one to the other4 ,never allow a brush to stand on its side for more than a few minutes at a time1 as a wrong direction is easily given the bristles1 and the brushes may be quickly destroyed by a little carelessness or negligence4 ,old brushes1 well broken in and cared for1 will give better results than new brushes2 therefore they should be treated with every possible consideration4 ,varnish brushes often are left in the varnish pot1 and if they are hung up so that they will not rest upon their bristles1 this is the best way to keep them when they are in almost constant daily use4 ,,suggestive ,,exercises #fi4 ,why is wood filler used8 ,describe paste filler4 ,describe the process of spreading filler and of rubbing it off4 ,describe liquid filler and the process of spreading it4 #gj4 ,why do we stain wood8 ,what is the difference in the results of staining and filling and of filling alone8 ,how may stains for open-grained woods be mixed and used8 ,describe a simple cherry or mahogany stain4 ,describe black walnut stain4 ,what is the objection to a water stain8 ,how may a rich mahogany stain be mixed8 ,how may woods be darkened8 ,describe the composition of a rich brown stain2 of a good green stain2 of a brownish black4 ,describe ebonizing4 ,for what purposes are shellac and lampblack and black varnish used8 #ga4 ,of what does shellac finish consist8 ,what is the source of supply of shellac8 ,compare shellac and copal varnish4 ,demonstrate the application of shellac4 ,are thin or thick coats of shellac the better8 ,why is rubbing down necessary8 ,demonstrate4 ,what precautions should be taken in regard to oily rags8 ,why8 ,what should be guarded against in rubbing8 ,what is a convenient size for a piece of sandpaper8 ,describe and demonstrate patching4 #gb4 ,describe the preparation of wax finish4 ,describe and demonstrate two methods of applying wax finish4 #gc4 ,describe oil finish and its application4 ,describe its qualities4 #gd4 ,describe briefly the manufacture of varnish4 ,describe ideal conditions for flowing varnish4 ,describe and demonstrate the method of flowing varnish4 #ge4 ,describe and demonstrate the process of polishing4 #gf4 ,describe the kinds of brushes suitable for different kinds of work4 ,how should brushes be cleaned8 ,what should be the general treatment of a brush8 ,how may varnish brushes be kept ready for use8 ,,index ,age of tree1 #b4 ,alburnum1 see ,sapwood4 ,annual layer1 formation of1 #a1 #b1 #c2 covering over breaks1 #i1 #aj2 in quarter-sawed lumber1 #bc2 shrinking around1 #dh4 ,apple wood1 description of1 #bi4 ,arkansas stone1 #ajf4 ,ash1 description of1 #bh4 ,auger1 cross-handled1 #ia4 ,auger bit1 described1 #ia2 filing of1 #ib1 #ic4 ,axe1 hand1 described1 #ff4 ,backsaw1 described1 #fi4 ,balsam fir1 illustrated1 #dc4 ,band saw1 #ai4 ,bark1 of tree trunk1 #d1 #e1 #f4 ,basswood 7or linden71 description of1 #bi4 ,bast1 of tree trunk1 #d1 #e1 #f4 ,bastard sawing1 #bb4 ,beech1 description of1 #cj1 #ca4 ,bell-faced hammer1 described1 #fe4 ,benches1 types of1 described1 #eg-ei4 ,bevel1 described1 #fb4 ,bill stuff1 sawing of1 #bb4 ,birch1 description of1 #cj1 #cb4 ,bird's-eye maple1 description of1 #cf4 ,bitbrace1 or stock1 described1 #ic2 ratchet1 described1 #id4 ,bits1 described1 #ij4 ,black walnut1 see ,walnut4 ,black walnut stain1 #acj4 ,blemishes1 in grading lumber1 #bc1 #bd4 ,blind nailing1 described1 #ff4 ,block plane1 description and use of1 #hd4 ,boards1 sawing of1 to dimension1 #bj2 surveying or estimating of1 #be2 measuring of1 #bf2 for siding1 #bh2 piling of1 #dh1 #di4 ,brushes1 for gluing1 #abj2 for staining and filling1 #adj4 ,burnisher1 use of1 in sharpening scraper1 #ig-ajj4 ,butternut 7or white walnut71 description of1 #cb4 ,buttonwood1 see ,sycamore4 ,cable1 hauling logs by1 #ae4 ,calipers1 described1 #ie4 ,cam1 of plane1 #gc1 #ge4 ,cambium1 of tree trunk1 #d1 #e1 #f4 ,canoe birch1 #cb4 ,cap iron1 of plane1 use of1 #gd4 ,cap screw1 of plane1 use of1 #gc1 #ge4 ,carborundum1 as grindstone1 #ajf2 as oilstone1 #ajg4 ,carpenter's bench1 #eg1 #eh4 ,cedar1 description of1 #cb4 ,cellular grain of wood1 #b4 ,center bit1 described1 #ib4 ,checking1 or cracking1 of lumber1 #f1 #h4 ,cherry1 description of1 #cb2 stain1 #acj2 how to darken1 #aca4 ,chestnut1 description of1 #cc4 ,chisels1 described1 #hh4 ,circular saw1 #ai1 #bj4 ,claw hammer1 described1 #fd4 ,clefts1 or splits1 #i4 ,close-grained woods1 filling of1 #abh2 staining of1 #acj4 ,coarse-grained lumber1 #h4 ,color of wood1 #b1 #be4 ,comb-grained lumber1 #bc4 ,common boards1 grading of1 #bf2 measuring of1 #bf4 ,compass 7or keyhole7 saw1 described1 #fh2 filing of1 #aac4 ,compasses1 or dividers1 described1 #ie4 ,coniferous trees1 #b1 #c4 ,corundum1 as grindstone1 #ajf2 as oilstone1 #ajg4 ,cross-grained lumber1 #h4 ,culls1 #bd4 ,cup shakes1 #g1 #h4 ,cutting-off saw1 described1 #fh2 filing of1 #aaa4 ,cypress1 description of1 #cc4 ,decay of tree1 how prevented1 #be4 ,deciduous trees1 #b4 ,defects in lumber1 #g-aj4 ,dimension timber1 sawing of1 #bj1 #bb4 ,discolorations in lumber1 #i1 #bd4 ,dividers1 see ,compasses4 ,drawshave1 described1 #ij4 ,duramen1 see ,heartwood4 ,ebony stain1 #acb4 ,edge1 squaring an1 with try-square1 #fj1 #fa4 ,edges1 square and beveled1 #ig4 ,elm1 description of1 #cd4 ,emery1 as grindstone1 #ajf2 as oilstone1 #ajg4 ,emery wheel1 use of1 in sharpening a plane1 #gg4 ,endogenous trees1 #a4 ,estimating lumber1 #be4 ,exogenous trees1 #a4 ,extension bit1 described1 #ib4 ,files1 description and use of1 #ajh-aac4 ,filler1 how to make1 #abh2 how to spread1 #abi4 ,fine-grained lumber1 #h4 ,finishing woods1 #abh-ada4 ,flooring1 best grades of1 #bc1 #bh4 ,framing1 lumber for1 #bg1 #bh1 #ej4 ,framing square1 #fb4 ,gauge1 description and use of1 #fc1 #fd4 ,german bit1 described1 #ib4 ,glue1 different kinds of1 #aah2 testing of1 #aai2 how to use1 #abj-abb4 ,gouges1 described1 #ij4 ,grading of lumber1 #bc4 ,grain of woods1 cause of1 #a1 #b1 #f1 #g2 kinds of1 #h4 ,see also ,close-grained1 etc4 ,grindstone1 use of1 in sharpening a plane1 #gg2 described1 #aje4 ,ground glue1 #aah4 ,gum 7sweet gum71 description of1 #cd4 ,hammer1 described1 #fc4 ,handscrews1 use of1 #ajc-aje1 #abb4 ,hard wood1 cause of1 #a1 #b4 ,hatchet1 described1 #ff4 ,hemlock1 description of1 #ce4 ,heart shakes1 #g1 #h4 ,heartwood1 formation of1 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,hickory1 description of1 #ce4 ,insects1 injurious to trees1 #aj1 #be4 ,inside finish1 lumber for1 #bh4 ,jack plane1 described1 #ha2 use of1 #hf-hh4 ,jointer1 described1 #hb4 ,jointing a saw1 #aji4 ,joists or scantling1 surveying of1 #bf4 ,keyhole saw1 see ,compass saw4 ,kiln1 filling a1 #ec2 length of time lumber should be left in1 #ed4 ,kiln-dried lumber1 #bh1 #ej-ed4 ,kilns1 moist air1 #ej2 induced draft1 #eb4 ,knife blades1 described1 #gb4 ,linden1 see ,basswood4 ,liquid filler1 #abh4 ,locust1 description of1 #ce4 ,logging1 #ab-ai4 ,lumber1 unseasoned1 #c2 checking1 or cracking of1 #f2 defects in1 #g1 #h2 grain of1 #a1 #b1 #f1 #g1 #h2 when to cut1 #aj2 manufacture of1 #ab-bc2 grading of1 #bc1 #bd2 testing of1 #bd1 #be2 surveying or estimating of1 #be-bg2 piling of1 #de-di2 weather-dried1 #di2 kiln-dried1 #ej-ed4 ,see also special subjects4 ,lumbering1 processes of1 #ab4 ,mahogany1 description of1 #cf2 sanding of1 #abf2 stain1 #aca4 ,mallets1 described1 #fg4 ,manual-training bench1 #eg1 #eh4 ,maple1 description of1 #ce2 sugar maple1 illustrated1 #ca4 ,medullary rays1 #d1 #e1 #f2 sawing woods having1 #bb4 ,moist air1 or natural draft1 kilns1 #ej4 ,moisture1 in lumber1 #d4 ,moldings1 sandpapering of1 #abe4 ,monkey wrench1 #ajc4 ,nail set1 use of1 #ff1 #ajb2 burnisher made from1 #ii4 ,nailing1 described1 #fe1 #ff4 ,nippers1 described1 #ie4 ,oak1 tree trunk1 section of1 #e2 plain and quartered1 #e2 description of1 #cf4 ,odor of wood1 #b1 #be4 ,oil finish1 #acg4 ,oilstones1 artificial1 use of1 #ajg4 ,open-grained woods1 filling of1 #abh2 staining of1 #abi4 8,out of wind10 #fj1 #fa4 ,outside finish1 lumber for1 #bg1 #bh4 ,panel work1 sandpapering1 #abf4 ,paper birch1 #cb4 ,paste filler1 #abh4 ,piling of lumber1 #de-di4 ,pine1 yellow1 section of1 #b2 description of different varieties of1 #cf4 ,pine logs1 load of white1 #ad4 ,pith1 of tree trunk1 #d1 #e4 ,plain sawing1 #bb4 ,plane1 adjusting mechanism of1 #gc-ge2 other parts of1 #ge1 #gf2 sharpening a1 #gf-ha4 ,planes1 description and use of1 #gb-hh4 ,pliers1 described1 #ie4 ,polishing1 #aci4 ,poplar 7or whitewood71 description of1 #dj4 ,position1 in using tools1 #he4 ,preserving wood1 #ee4 ,prices1 sliding scale of1 #bf4 ,quarter-sawed lumber1 #bb1 #bc1 #dh4 ,ratchet bitbrace1 described1 #id4 ,ratchet screwdrivers1 described1 #id4 ,redwood1 description of1 #dj4 ,rift-sawed lumber1 #bc4 ,ripsaw1 described1 #fg2 filing of1 #aab4 ,rule1 use of1 in setting gauge1 #fc4 ,rules1 fourfold and zigzag1 described1 #ei4 ,sandpaper1 testing of1 #abb2 how to use1 #abc-abg4 ,see also ,finishing4 ,sap1 motion of1 #c2 allowed1 in grading lumber1 #bc4 ,sapwood1 formation of1 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,saw filing1 described1 #aji-aac4 ,saw handle1 reset1 #gb4 ,saw set1 hand and anvil1 described1 #aaj4 ,sawing of lumber1 #ab1 #ah-bc4 ,sawmills1 types of1 #ah4 ,saws1 description and use of1 #fg-gb4 ,scale used in measuring lumber1 #bf1 #bg4 ,scraper1 description of1 #if2 sharpening of1 #ig-ajb4 ,scratch plane1 for use in gluing1 #aba4 ,screwdriver1 described1 #id4 ,shellac1 use of1 #acb-acf4 ,shingles1 quality of1 #bh4 ,shrinking of lumber1 quarter-sawed1 #bc1 #dh4 ,silver grain1 #e1 #f1 #bb4 ,skidways1 use of1 #ac-ag4 ,slash sawing1 #bb4 ,slip stones1 use of1 #ajg4 ,smoothing plane1 described1 #hb4 ,soft wood1 cause of1 #a1 #b4 ,spokeshave1 described1 #ij4 ,spruce1 cutting of1 #ac1 #ad 7figs4 #e1 #f72 description of1 #dj4 ,staining wood1 #abi-acb4 ,star shakes1 #g1 #h1 #dh4 ,steaming wood1 #ee4 ,steel1 or framing1 square1 #fb4 ,stock1 see ,bitbrace4 ,straight-grained lumber1 #h4 ,stumpage1 explanation of1 #ac4 ,sugar maple forest1 #ca4 ,surveying of lumber1 #be4 ,sycamore 7or buttonwood71 description of1 #db4 ,tacking1 described1 #fe4 ,testing of lumber1 #bd4 ,timbers to be buried1 quality of1 #bh4 ,toenailing1 described1 #fe4 ,tools1 how to purchase1 #eg2 description and use of1 #eg-ajh4 ,travoy road1 #ac1 #ae4 ,tree trunk1 tissues of1 #d4 ,trees1 kinds of1 used for lumber1 #a1 #b2 annual layer of1 #a2 grain of1 #a1 #b1 #f1 #g1 #h2 age of1 #b2 defects in1 #h-aj2 when to cut1 #aj2 felling of1 #ab-ae2 decay of1 #be4 ,see also special subjects4 ,try-square1 description and use of1 #ei-fb1 #ga4 ,twist drill1 described1 #ib4 ,varnish1 #acg4 ,vertical-grained lumber1 #bc4 ,vises1 on benches1 #ei4 ,walnut1 black1 description of1 #db2 white1 see ,butternut4 ,walnut stain1 black1 #acj4 ,warping of lumber1 #dh4 ,washita stone1 #ajf4 ,waste1 care in use of1 #acd4 ,wax finishing1 #acf4 ,ways1 permanent lumber1 #de4 ,weather-dried lumber1 #ab1 #bh1 #di4 ,whetstones1 description and use of1 #ajf4 ,whetting and grinding of plane1 #gg-hj4 ,whitewood1 see ,poplar4 ,wind shakes1 or cup shakes1 #g1 #h4 ,winding sticks1 #fa4 ,wood1 growth of1 #a-aa2 grain of1 #a1 #b2 color of1 #b1 #d2 odor of1 #b2 soft and hard1 #a1 #b2 qualities of1 #bg-bi2 varieties of1 #bi-db2 steaming1 #ee2 preserving1 #ee2 filling grain of1 #abh2 staining1 #abi4 ,see also special subjects4 ,wrenches1 described1 #ajc4 ,,vocational ,,education ,by ,,john ,m4 ,,gillette1 ,professor of ,sociology in the ,state ,university of ,north ,dakota #a4jj ,in this volume is presented for teachers1 superintendents1 and teachers' reading circles an illuminating discussion of the present general movement for vocational education4 ,by this phrase is meant not only industrial education2 but all the training courses needed to meet the practical demands of life4 ,the author explains at some length the principles1 demands1 and methods of vocational education2 he states the grounds upon which hopes of success may reasonably rest2 he indicates some actual results gained by schools conducted on more practical lines2 and he points out others which would follow upon the reorganization of our educational system in general4 ,the vocationalizing of the schools has regard to the constitution1 inclination and ability of the individual1 and is intended to give him suitable training for his niche in life1 to show him how he can make the most of himself and in what line he can prove himself most productive to society4 ,at the same time1 this scheme of education does not ignore the informational1 the cultural1 and the disciplinary aspects--it insists that the individual be fitted for good citizenship4 ,the introduction of vocational education into the public school system of the ,united ,states1 with the curriculum adapted to the chief kinds of occupation belonging to each community1 will mean greater development and power for the country4 ,from vocational education1 introduced to meet the differing community needs1 will result greater efficiency and better appreciation of the schools1 increased attendance of pupils1 greater compensation for teachers1 greater productiveness1 higher wages1 and improved society4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,an ,,elementary ,,text-,,book ,,of ,,theoretical ,,mechanics ,by ,,george ,a4 ,,merrill1 ,b4,s41 ,principal of the ,california ,school of ,mechanical ,arts1 and ,director of the ,wilmerding ,school of ,industrial ,arts1 ,san ,francisco #a4ej ,,merrill',s ,,mechanics is intended for the upper classes in secondary schools1 and for the two lower classes in college4 ,only a knowledge of elementary algebra1 plane geometry1 and plane trigonometry is required for a thorough comprehension of the work4 ,by presenting only the most important principles and methods1 the book overcomes many of the difficulties now encountered by students in collegiate courses who take up the study of analytic mechanics1 without previously having covered it in a more elementary form4 ,it treats the subject without the use of the calculus1 and consequently does not bewilder the beginner with much algebraic matter1 which obscures the chief principles4 ,the book is written from the standpoint of the student in the manner that experience has proved to be the one most easily grasped4 ,therefore1 beyond a constant endeavor to abide by the fundamental precepts of teaching1 no one method of presentation has been used to the exclusion of others4 ,the few necessary experiments are suggested and outlined1 but a more complete laboratory course can easily be supplied by the instructor4 ,the explanation of each topic is followed by a few well-chosen examples to fix and apply the principles involved4 ,a number of pages are devoted to the static treatment of force1 with emphasis on the idea of action and reaction4 ,four-place tables of the natural trigonometric functions are included4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,elements ,,of ,,descriptive ,,geometry ,by ,,albert ,e4 ,,church1 ,,ll4,d41 late ,professor of ,mathematics1 ,united ,states ,military ,academy1 and ,,george ,m4 ,,bartlett1 ,m4,a41 ,instructor in ,descriptive ,geometry and ,mechanism1 ,university of ,michigan4 #b4be ,part ,i4 ,orthographic ,projections4 #a4ge ,this is a modern treatment of descriptive geometry with applications to spherical projections1 shades and shadows1 perspective1 and isometric projections1 for the use of technical schools and colleges4 ,though based upon ,professor ,church's ,descriptive ,geometry1 and retaining as much as possible the original lucidity and conciseness1 this work differs from it quite widely4 ,among the salient features of the book are the following3 ,the figures and text are included in the same volume1 each figure being placed beside the corresponding text2 ,general cases are preferred to special ones2 ,a sufficient number of problems are solved in the third angle to familiarize the student with its use2 ,a treatment of the profile plane of projection is introduced2 ,many exercises for practice have been introduced2 ,several new problems have been added2 ,the old figures have been redrawn1 and many of them have been improved2 ,several of the more difficult elementary problems have been illustrated by pictorial views2 ,in the treatment of curved surfaces1 all problems relating to single-curved surfaces are taken up first1 then those relating to warped surfaces1 and finally those relating to surfaces of revolution4 ,experience proves this order to be a logical one1 as the procedure is from the simple to the more complex4 ,also the student is more quickly prepared for work on intersections and developments4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,descriptive ,,catalogue ,,of ,,high ,,school ,,and ,,college ,,text-,,books ,published ,complete and in ,sections ,we issue a ,catalogue of ,high ,school and ,college ,text-,books1 which we have tried to make as valuable and as useful to teachers as possible4 ,in this catalogue are set forth briefly and clearly the scope and leading characteristics of each of our best text-books4 ,in most cases there are also given testimonials from well-known teachers1 which have been selected quite as much for their descriptive qualities as for their value as commendations4 ,for the convenience of teachers this ,catalogue is also published in separate sections treating of the various branches of study4 ,these pamphlets are entitled3 ,english1 ,mathematics1 ,history and ,political ,science1 ,science1 ,modern ,languages1 ,ancient ,languages1 and ,philosophy and ,education4 ,in addition we have a single pamphlet devoted to ,newest ,books in every subject4 ,teachers seeking the newest and best books for their classes are invited to send for our ,complete ,high ,school and ,college ,catalogue1 or for such sections as may be of greatest interest4 ,copies of our price lists1 or of special circulars1 in which these books are described at greater length than the space limitations of the catalogue permit1 will be mailed to any address on request4 ,all correspondence should be addressed to the nearest of the following offices of the company3 ,new ,york1 ,cincinnati1 ,chicago1 ,boston1 ,atlanta1 ,san ,francisco4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,italics are shown thus3 sloping4 ,small capitals have been capitalised4 ,variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained4 ,perceived typographical errors have been changed4