,transcriber's ,notes ,obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,variations in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and punctuation remains unchanged4 ,the volume of illustrations referred to in the book is not available4 ,italics are represented thus italic4 ,,drawing ,,in ,,charcoal ,,and ,,crayon ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,students ,,and ,,schools ,,by ,,frank ,,fowler ,,author ,,of 8,,oil ,,painting10 8,a ,,hand-,,book10 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,,cassell ,,publishing ,,company #ajd #ajf ,,fourth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,copyright #ahhe ,,by ,o4 ,m4 ,,dunham ,,contents4 ,,part ,,first4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,charcoal ,,and ,,crayon ,,drawing4 #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,outfit ,,necessary ,,for ,,charcoal ,,and ,,crayon ,,drawing4 #d ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,elementary ,,practice4 #be ,,part ,,second4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,manner ,,of ,,working4 #cf ,,chapter ,v4 ,,measurement1 ,,actual ,,and ,,comparative4 #ej ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,crayon ,,portraits2 ,,hair2 ,,drapery2 ,,backgrounds4 #eh ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,charcoal ,,and ,,crayon ,,drawing ,,with ,,the ,,point2 ,,landscapes2 ,,proportions1 ,,etc4 #gd ,,appendix4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,plates4 #hb ,,prefatory ,,note4 ,this little volume1 with accompanying plates1 is designed to prepare students for the interesting study of drawing from life4 ,the general demand for a work of this kind is the occasion of its appearance4 ,,drawing ,,in ,,charcoal ,,and ,,crayon4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,charcoal ,,and ,,crayon ,,drawing4 ,in learning to draw1 charcoal is the most available material that can be used1 as1 with it1 large and striking effects are so easily and quickly produced1 while it is also adapted to the most careful work1 and may be carried on to any degree of finish4 ,another quality which renders charcoal especially of value as a medium for beginners in drawing is that it is so easily erased4 ,charcoal is used for drawing from the cast and from the human figure in all the large art schools of ,europe as well as in our own country1 and is especially adapted to sketching from nature1 as by its use most charming landscape and marine effects may be obtained4 ,,two ,,different ,,methods4 ,there are two methods of working in charcoal--one1 in which the charcoal point is used alone1 the shading being put in with lines which are not blended1 no stump1 or rubbing together of any kind being allowed4 ,this style of drawing is principally used in illustrating1 as it is more easily reproduced than those in which the stump is used4 ,full details of working in this manner will be given later4 ,the other method is that in which the charcoal is blended with a stump1 no lines being visible in the modeling4 ,this manner of drawing is that most generally employed in art schools1 and is susceptible of higher finish than the other4 ,it is also in this way that charcoal and crayon portraits are managed1 such drawings being generally finished with crayon1 and the two materials worked together4 ,this subject also will be treated at length further on4 ,as we are writing for the benefit of those who have no knowledge whatever of charcoal drawing1 we will begin at the very beginning1 and shall endeavor to omit nothing that can be of practical use to the student4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,outfit ,,necessary ,,for ,,charcoal ,,and ,,crayon ,,drawing4 ,the first thing to be provided is an easel1 which is used now entirely for drawing1 it being considered much better practice to work in an upright position than in the old-fashioned way of leaning over a table4 ,this easel may be of the simplest character1 and is made of three straight bars of pine wood jointed so as to stand upright1 with holes perforated through two of the bars about two or three inches apart4 ,through these holes pegs are stuck upon which to hold a narrow wooden tray4 ,upon this the stretcher1 drawing-board1 or portfolio is placed4 ,,drawing-,,board4 ,this board is made from any light wood1 and should measure about #bjbd inches square1 and be as thin as it can be made without warping4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,easel4 ,in place of the drawing-board1 many artists prefer to use a large pasteboard portfolio made with covers stiff enough to serve as a foundation in drawing1 while its convenience as a receptacle for the reserve sheets of paper and finished work is obvious4 ,the portfolio which is now most in use1 is generally covered with smooth mottled paper outside1 and should be large enough to hold without folding the regular sheets of charcoal paper2 #bjbd inches will be sufficient for this4 ,,the ,,paper4 ,there are a great many varieties of charcoal and crayon paper1 some smooth1 some rough4 ,for ordinary purposes1 such as making studies and life drawings1 the rough ,french charcoal paper is the best4 ,that used in the ,french schools is of two kinds2 the roughest is called the 8,michelet0 paper1 and the other is known as 8,lalanne40 ,they are1 however1 very similar in texture1 and either one will serve the purpose4 ,these come in sheets of uniform sizes1 costing from three to six cents each4 ,for more careful drawings1 such as finely finished portraits in charcoal and crayon1 a more expensive paper is to be preferred4 ,this comes in much larger sheets and should be stretched before using4 ,whatman's rough crayon paper is among the best for this purpose4 ,in all cases1 both for studies and finished portraits1 the white paper1 generally a yellow-white1 being preferable to blue-white4 ,,how ,,to ,,stretch ,,paper4 ,paper is stretched and mounted for this work in the following manner3 ,a simple frame of wood is made an inch or two wide and three-quarters of an inch or more in thickness1 according to the size of the drawing to be made4 ,this is covered with cotton cloth stretched as tight as possible and tacked all along the four sides4 ,the cloth is turned over and tacked on the outside of the stretcher1 not on the face of it1 which should present a perfectly smooth1 flat surface4 ,the paper having been cut the proper size1 that is1 large enough to turn over nearly an inch all around1 is dampened on the wrong side4 ,to do this take a clean cloth dipped in cold water1 lay the paper flat upon a table and pass the cloth rapidly all over the surface1 wetting it evenly4 ,have ready some good flour paste and put this all around the edge of the paper for about an inch4 ,now begin to spread the paper while still damp upon the cloth-covered stretcher1 starting at the bottom and working upward1 carefully smoothing out with the hands all creases or air bubbles4 ,turn over and press down the edges of the paper which have been covered with the paste1 holding them till they stick to the cloth1 and cut a ,v-shaped piece from each corner of the paper1 so that it will fold over neatly4 ,this takes time and experience to do well1 but is worth the trouble1 for crayon portraits especially4 ,for ordinary studies and drawings1 the ,michelet or ,lalanne paper fastened to the portfolio or drawing-board with thumb tacks is quite sufficient4 ,,charcoal4 ,there are many different kinds of charcoal offered by dealers4 ,all that is necessary1 however1 is a medium quality of imported charcoal1 such as the ,fusains ,venitians1 costing #cj cts4 a box of fifty sticks4 ,finer and more expensive kinds are the ,conte and ,rouget charcoal4 ,,crayon4 ,among the various manufactures of crayons that most generally preferred by artists is the ,french crayon ,cont4 ,this comes in several numbers1 and is to be had in two forms4 ,first1 the wooden pencils1 which are very convenient1 and again1 the short sticks of black crayon1 which are sold by the dozen4 ,these are much cheaper than the pencils1 and are fastened in a holder while using4 ,the ,cont crayon ,no4 #b is sufficient for all purposes1 therefore it is unnecessary to have the several different numbers so often recommended4 ,another kind of crayon is also used by some artists in addition to the stick crayon4 ,this is a fine1 black1 powdered crayon1 called the 8sauce crayon10 and comes put up in little tin cases4 ,it is very useful when large masses of dark are necessary1 and is rubbed on with a stump1 while the stick crayons and charcoal sticks are sharpened to a point before using4 ,stumps are made variously of leather1 chamois-skin and paper4 ,the most useful in charcoal and crayon drawing are the paper stumps1 which will be found to answer every purpose4 ,the paper stumps come in two forms2 first1 the gray1 rough paper stumps with points on both ends2 these are made in various sizes1 from the smallest1 which measures only about one fourth of an inch in diameter1 up to those measuring an inch and more4 ,illustration3 ,,stumps4 ,the other form of paper stump1 known as the tortillon1 is made of strips of paper rolled to a point like spills1 and sold in bundles of a dozen for a few cents4 ,some artists prefer these1 but for general purposes1 the double-pointed paper stump is the best4 ,about six of these are necessary3 two large1 two medium1 and two very small ones2 for it is always better to have a clean duplicate of each size4 ,,bread4 ,a supply of the soft part of home-made1 if possible1 or good ordinary baker's bread1 one day old1 is indispensable4 ,this should not have any butter1 or even milk1 in its composition1 otherwise it will grease the paper1 which naturally should be avoided1 as grease spots are most difficult to overcome4 ,the bread is used for rubbing out charcoal or crayon1 erasing mistakes1 and for taking out lights from a mass of dark4 ,the soft crumb is rolled between the fingers until a point is formed1 and then applied to the paper4 ,it is surprising what brilliant effects can be obtained by means of this simple process2 its full resources can only be understood by practice4 ,,the ,,rubber ,,stump4 ,this consists of a long1 narrow bar of fine artist's rubber1 ground to a point on each end4 ,it is used for rubbing out small spots in places where the bread can not be so easily managed1 and where a firmer point is needed4 ,it is also useful in modeling fine details of the features1 and in places where1 the surface of the paper being worn by rubbing1 the bread will not act satisfactorily4 ,these cost from five to ten cents each1 according to size4 ,,rags4 ,a fine1 soft cotton rag is one of the most important adjuncts to our outfit1 as it is impossible to work without one4 ,the rag is used sometimes to dust off charcoal from the paper1 and if the charcoal has not been very heavily used1 the rag is often sufficient1 neither bread nor rubber being necessary4 ,a rag is also useful when too much charcoal or crayon has been rubbed on a tone4 ,let us say1 for instance1 a shadow appears too black4 ,a soft rag is passed gently over the surface1 taking care not to rub too hard1 and the superfluous charcoal or crayon will come off1 leaving a beautiful soft tone of much lighter quality behind4 ,this tone can of course be darkened somewhat1 or worked over in any manner desired4 ,the rag is often used in sketching landscapes1 to spread a smooth1 even tint for the sky4 ,many artists prefer it to a stump for this purpose4 ,a fine1 soft cotton rag is rolled in a long1 smooth roll1 and applied lightly to the surface of the paper4 ,the charcoal may be powdered in such a case if preferred1 or for crayon drawing the 8sauce crayon0 is used4 ,,to 8,,fix0 ,,drawings4 ,charcoal will of course rub off1 and drawings become smeared and defaced if left unprotected4 ,for that reason it is customary to 8fix0 the drawing by the application of some preparation to its surface4 ,this should be done with much care1 and only the very best materials should be used for this purpose4 ,amateurs and students sometimes endeavor to manufacture fixative for themselves out of shellac and alcohol4 ,this may succeed in fixing the drawing1 but will be very liable to turn the paper yellow in time4 ,artists1 therefore1 prefer to buy an imported fixative1 which is made by a reliable manufacturer4 ,that most generally in use1 and which we have found by experience to be in every way satisfactory1 is the ,fixatif ,rouget1 which comes in good-sized glass bottles1 costing at retail fifty cents each4 ,there are two methods of fixing drawings4 ,first1 that in which the fixative is applied to the back of the drawing4 ,this is preferred by some artists2 and the ,french students1 who are only anxious to preserve their drawings1 without regard to the changing of color in the paper1 use milk1 with which they wash over the back of the drawing4 ,in cases where a large design or cartoon is made in charcoal for temporary use1 this way will answer perfectly1 being very much less expensive than the other4 ,the fixative ,meusnier1 which is imported by all dealers1 is also applied to the back of the paper with a large brush4 ,the other method1 and that generally preferred1 is to apply the fixative to the front or surface of the drawing4 ,this process should of course be managed with care1 as too much fixative will cause the charcoal to run down in streaks1 while too little will cause it to come off in spots4 ,the fixative for applying to the surface of the drawing is sprayed through a glass atomizer by blowing through one tube while the other rests in the bottle containing the liquid4 ,these atomizers are now sold by all art dealers1 and may be had from the simplest and most inexpensive kind up to those represented by quite a costly apparatus4 ,the cheapest consist of two small tubes of glass1 pointed at one end and straight at the other4 ,these are connected by two bands of metal1 which in turn are fastened together by a small hinge or pivot4 ,this is so arranged that the two tubes of glass meet at a right angle1 the small pointed ends coming in contact1 but so as to leave both orifices open4 ,one end1 as already mentioned1 is now placed in the fixative1 while through the other the breath is blown4 ,this causes the liquid to mount in the lower tube and dissolve in a cloud of spray which is so light as not to dislodge the delicate particles of the charcoal and yet will attach them firmly to the paper1 so that ordinary rubbing will not efface the drawing4 ,great care should be taken in blowing through an atomizer to make the breath as steady as possible1 avoiding short1 unequal puffs4 ,the atomizer must not be held too near to allow the particles to vaporize sufficiently1 or else the fixative will run down in streams and ruin the drawing4 ,again1 if held too far off1 it will vaporize too much1 and will fail to fix the charcoal at all4 ,the more expensive vaporizers1 while conducted on the same principle1 are supplied with air from one or sometimes two rubber globes or balls1 which have the advantage of transmitting the air in a regular stream1 and one is thus saved the fatigue of blowing with the mouth1 which1 in case of a large drawing1 becomes very tiresome4 ,these atomizers are generally made with metal tubes1 which will become clogged and useless unless washed out after using each time1 with warm water4 ,the simple glass atomizers must also be kept clean in this way1 for they are very easily broken if a pin is used to clean the openings1 and the slightest break at the joints renders them useless4 ,,outfit ,,for ,,sketching4 ,charcoal is used by artists for sketching out of doors in preference to any other material1 as by its means such quick results are obtained and large effects produced with comparative ease4 ,as one never knows how long a tramp will be necessary before the proper subject or view appears1 it is well to make every thing as compact as possible4 ,a small sketching easel which can be reduced to a thin bundle of sticks is considered indispensable by some1 but as this is rather awkward to carry1 most artists prefer a block4 ,,the ,,block1 ,,or ,,pad4 ,this consists of a number of sheets of charcoal paper1 cut exactly the same size1 laid together and pressed so as to greatly reduce the bulk of the paper in its ordinary shape4 ,these form a block or table of sufficient substance and firmness to be held comfortably upon the knees while sketching4 ,the upper leaf is used for the drawing1 and is then loosened with a penknife passed around the edges1 which are held together with a band of paper4 ,this leaf is then easily detached from the block1 and being fixed is laid aside while another drawing is commenced on the clean sheet exposed on the top of the block4 ,these blocks can be bought already prepared at any good art dealers at reasonable prices1 which vary according to the size and quality of the paper4 ,a block made of ordinary ,french charcoal paper measuring #df inches costs at retail1 #be cents4 ,a small block like this is only good for pocket sketches and notes4 ,a more useful size is #fi1 which may be obtained for #ce cents4 ,a still larger one1 measuring #ajad1 can be procured for #gj cents4 ,any thing beyond this must be made to order1 and will in that case be more expensive in proportion4 ,a small camp stool is necessary to the sketching outfit1 and this should be made as light as possible4 ,these are made in various shapes1 so as to fold up as tightly as possible1 and are provided by all dealers at from fifty cents up4 ,some are even to be found combined with the sketching easel4 ,these are very convenient1 being made in so compact a form as to occupy very little more space than either an easel or camp stool separately4 ,such an apparatus costs #e4ej at retail4 ,the small1 light folding easel for sketching1 which is only #d feet high1 costs #b4ej1 while a stool which stands upon three legs when open and folds into the shape of a thick cane can be bought for #a4jj4 ,,the ,,umbrella4 ,a sketch can not be truthful to nature and carefully studied1 with the sun shining in one's eyes or upon the paper2 it is therefore well to be provided with an umbrella4 ,the sketching umbrella is generally of creamy white or very light gray cotton4 ,it is so constructed as to be separated from the long stick upon which it is arranged when in use1 this stick itself being divided into two or more parts1 according to its length4 ,these are arranged to fit into each other firmly1 the lower end terminating in a long1 sharp iron point which is to be planted in the ground4 ,the umbrella itself is furnished with a rather short handle1 and is attached to the long staff by a movable screw joint which permits of its being arranged at any angle necessary to protect the sketcher from the sun4 ,the whole outfit complete with a waterproof gingham umbrella costs #h4jj4 ,the long folding stick is sold separately4 ,this is #f ft4 high with an adjustable joint to which any ordinary umbrella can be fastened4 ,these cost about #c4jj4 ,a long and narrow tin box with compartments completes the outfit4 ,this holds the charcoal1 crayon1 stumps1 bread1 rag and rubber4 ,the charcoal and crayon must always be kept shut up in their separate compartments1 or failing that1 in respective boxes1 as1 if allowed to knock around loosely in the box1 they will soil the stumps1 rubber and rags4 ,the paper generally used in sketching blocks is the ordinary grade of ,french charcoal paper with a rough surface already mentioned4 ,this paper comes in a variety of tints1 the most popular being the cream-white and the gray4 ,the white paper is generally preferred for serious studies involving careful drawing and correctness of value4 ,some artists1 however1 prefer to use gray or light brown paper in sketching1 as if one is skillful a very effective result may be obtained with little labor by using the local tone of the paper for the half tints1 quickly rubbing in the shadow with charcoal or crayon1 both being sometimes used4 ,the high lights are then cleverly touched in with white chalk or pastel4 ,chinese white water-color paint is sometimes substituted for the chalk in putting in such lights4 ,it has the advantage of being more permanent in one way as the chalk rubs off1 but in the course of time this white paint so used has a tendency to turn yellow1 especially if the sketch is shut up in a book or kept from the air4 ,on the other hand1 the white chalk will turn yellow if fixed1 so that the high lights must not be put in the sketch until it is all finished and fixed1 which is of course a disadvantage to the artist who wishes to study the relations of his tones as he proceeds4 ,this method will be explained at length later on4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,elementary ,,practice4 ,to those who have never had any experience whatever in drawing1 it is best to begin with straight lines4 ,this is especially necessary in the case of children1 who must first be taught to control the hand before proceeding further4 ,the next step is to draw curved lines representing half of a circle4 ,from this proceed to draw angles1 circles1 squares1 and other such simple forms in outline1 until the muscles of the hand have learned to obey the will4 ,the system we wish to teach is first to begin in this way1 then to advance gradually by copying some simple drawings1 executed in the modern method1 until the use of charcoal and crayon is thoroughly understood4 ,these drawings should be progressive1 commencing with the features in different positions1 and leading gradually to the full head1 feet1 hands1 torso1 etc41 until the full length figure is reached4 ,by this time sufficient proficiency will have been attained to enable the student to put aside copying and proceed to drawing from the cast1 when the same progressive studies should be observed until a sufficiently thorough foundation in drawing is acquired to warrant the final step of drawing from life1 which is the most difficult though the most interesting of all4 ,in view of these necessities1 a series of studies in charcoal and crayon have been prepared to accompany this volume4 ,these should be carefully copied1 according to the directions given4 ,,arrangement ,,of ,,light4 ,before beginning to draw1 whether from copies1 from the cast1 or from life1 it is most important that the room be properly lighted4 ,if possible a north light should be selected1 although that is not absolutely necessary1 it is1 however1 most generally preferred by artists1 as the light is more steady1 and less influenced by the direct rays of the sun4 ,there should be no cross light1 the light coming from one direction only2 therefore1 if there are several windows on different sides of a room1 all should be darkened while working except those on one side4 ,this light should so be arranged as to come from above rather than from below1 and if the window is a long one1 curtain off the lower part1 so that the light begins about six feet from the floor4 ,if more than one person is working in the same room1 several windows on the same side are admissible4 ,if1 however1 a studio were being built expressly for the purpose1 the ideal light would be one large1 high side window1 extending from six to ten feet along the wall1 beginning at the floor and reaching to the ceiling1 where it is joined by a skylight1 which is arranged with an adjustable curtain1 so that it may only be uncovered when needed4 ,in the same way the lower half of the window should be curtained off up to a height of six feet for ordinary purposes4 ,the whole length of the window is sometimes useful in simulating an out-of-door effect of light4 ,some famous painters have had studios built entirely of glass1 so that they could have all the advantages of working in the open air without the exposure4 ,adjustable curtains would turn the glass-house into an ordinary in-door studio1 with conventional light4 ,few of us are so fortunate as to command these conveniences1 and truth compels us to admit that they are not strictly necessary to good work4 ,as we have already stated1 the easel is now universally adopted for drawing1 as well as painting1 instead of the old methods1 which necessitated leaning over a table4 ,the plate to be copied is also placed upright1 in the same upright position that would be occupied by a cast or live model1 so that1 even in this elementary training1 the eye becomes accustomed to look naturally from the object or study being copied to the paper on the easel4 ,when preparing to draw1 the easel should be placed in front of the window and so arranged that the light will come from behind1 and fall over the left shoulder of the worker4 ,two or three sheets of charcoal paper are now firmly fastened to the portfolio or drawing-board1 which should in no case be smaller than the paper1 but even larger1 projecting at least half an inch beyond the regular-sized 8,lalanne0 or 8,michelet0 sheets4 ,to fasten the paper use ordinary flat brass-headed paper tacks1 putting one in each corner1 and one on each side between1 making six in all4 ,the two sheets of paper underneath the one used for drawing are so placed in order to make a firmer and smoother foundation than could be obtained by spreading a single sheet directly upon the hard surface of the wooden board or portfolio1 where any crack1 knot1 wrinkle1 or other imperfection would show through when rubbed with the stump4 ,this arrangement is of great importance1 and should never be neglected4 ,for the benefit of the actual beginners1 we will commence with the drawing of straight lines1 which is not nearly so easy as might be supposed4 ,,straight ,,lines4 ,the foundation of technical skill in drawing of many kinds1 notably the charcoal and crayon point1 pen and ink1 and pencil1 depends upon the power of making lines with correctness and dexterity2 and though later on1 in drawing and painting1 we learn to see only by form1 almost entirely discarding the line per se1 yet this early training of the hand often gives firmness and surety of touch to the painter's brush which might otherwise be wanting1 and is in many ways felt to be valuable4 ,to begin the practice of drawing straight lines1 first make two dots of several inches apart1 let us say1 about three inches from one point to the other4 ,let these dots at first be perpendicular1 one being directly above the other4 ,sharpen the charcoal to a point and draw it slowly from the upper to the lower point several times1 at first without actually touching the paper1 to accustom the eye to the distance2 then make the actual line between the two1 bearing lightly upon the paper and making a line of uniform thickness4 ,make these lines in rows parallel to each other and about an inch apart1 continuing the exercise until you are able to make perfectly straight upright lines4 ,the next exercise consists of drawing horizontal lines in the same manner4 ,after this1 oblique lines should be practiced1 inclining in different directions4 ,remember that no ruling1 measuring or mechanical aids of any kind are to be made use of1 the object being to train eye and hand4 ,,curved ,,lines4 ,curved lines are of course more difficult than straight for those who are entirely untrained4 ,begin to draw these by making the two dots at first as for the straight line2 connect these dots with a very light line1 and then through the center draw another line at right angles1 dividing the first exactly in two4 ,this line1 projecting from one side only1 must be exactly the same length as half the first line thus ,illustration3 ,the realisation of the instructions ,now connect the extremity of these lines with a curved line extending from one end to the middle and thence to the other end4 ,when practice has enabled the student to draw these curves correctly1 the straight lines are omitted and the curves drawn only from point to point4 ,let this simple exercise be repeated by drawing the curves in every direction4 ,when the pupil is able to draw both straight and curved lines thus with ease he has already gained an important step4 ,after this1 simple forms should be drawn in outline1 using such copies as #abj studies in freehand1 called 8,how to ,draw10 by ,chas4 ,ryan1 costing #be cents1 published by ,cassell ,company4 ,a box of blocks should next be procured1 which are sold by art dealers for the purpose1 and the student should begin with the simplest forms and draw them from nature1 in outline at first1 progressing gradually to more complicated forms4 ,the next step is shading1 which is done at first in the simplest manner4 ,the outline sketched in1 the proportions are ascertained to be correct and the shadow and light are divided into two great masses without detail and blocked in as broadly as possible1 according to the method given in the following pages4 ,learn to begin a drawing properly and the finishing will be easy enough1 being merely a matter of practice when once the manner of working is understood4 ,how often we see exposed for sale and on exhibition drawings and paintings elaborately finished of which the drawing is so faulty as to render them worthless4 ,students1 therefore1 who are thoroughly in earnest must be content to postpone all idea of finishing at first1 occupying themselves in the preliminary studies with correctness of outline and proportion only4 ,for this reason when the shadows are blocked in broadly and the drawing appears to be as nearly right as you can make it1 put it aside and take up something a little more difficult and carry it on to the same stage without endeavoring to elaborate it4 ,thus continue your practice1 always progressing until you feel fitted to begin the study of the human face and form1 which is1 as we have said1 the most difficult thing in art4 ,,part ,,second4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,manner ,,of ,,working4 ,those who have already had sufficient practice in the elementary drawing indicated in the first part1 can of course omit the foregoing pages1 and begin at once with the preparatory studies of the face and figure1 which are necessary before proceeding to drawing from the cast4 ,these studies consist of eight plates1 carefully prepared by the author1 according to the modern methods of charcoal and crayon drawing now employed in all large art schools both in ,europe and our own country4 ,by carefully copying these plates in their regular order1 the student learns the method of using charcoal and crayon1 so as to be perfectly acquainted with these materials and their resources before beginning to work from ,nature2 the design also being to familiarize the eye with the constructional drawing and proportion of the human figure beforehand1 thus materially lessening the difficulties of drawing from life4 ,the general manner of working is as follows3-- ,arrange the light1 place the easel in position1 and fasten the charcoal paper to the drawing board or portfolio in the way already described4 ,we will suppose the subject to be drawn is a head4 ,first make a small mark or dot on the paper with your charcoal1 to show where the top of the head will come4 ,a corresponding dot will indicate the bottom of the face or chin1 while a mark on each side will show the width of the head4 ,before beginning to draw a line1 these marks will suggest whether the head be properly placed on the sheet4 ,see that there be not too much space on either side1 and that the head is not too high or too low4 ,if these preliminary precautions be neglected the head may be placed most awkwardly2 too much to one side or otherwise wrong1 and the mistake not be noticed until the drawing be nearly finished4 ,the importance1 therefore1 of properly placing the head at first can not be overestimated4 ,the position being decided1 the outlines are lightly sketched in with long1 sweeping lines1 following the general direction of the head without any attention at first to details of any kind4 ,let these lines next determine the oval described by the face1 sketching at the same time the lines of the throat1 and ascertaining the action of the body in relation to the head by one or more long1 sweeping lines across the bust from shoulder to shoulder4 ,next draw a line with the charcoal point across the oval of the face where the hair meets the forehead1 one through the middle of the eyes1 one at the base of the nose1 through the center of the mouth and the lowest point of the chin4 ,these lines determine the proportions of the face1 and are drawn very lightly with the charcoal1 sharpened to a fine point1 as they are erased when the features are drawn in4 ,next proceed to place the features on these lines1 blocking them in only in their general forms at first with very little detail1 and draw these forms as squarely as possible1 seeking for angles and avoiding curves4 ,it is easy to turn angles into curves in finishing a drawing1 but if we begin with curves we have nothing to depend upon1 and the drawing loses strength1 becoming soft and weak in the end4 ,having ascertained that the features are in the right place1 go back to the outline and bring that into shape1 though without trying to finish it carefully as yet4 ,the next step is to block in the shadows in their general forms1 dividing the whole head into two distinct masses of light and shade4 ,to do this1 make a faint outline of the exact form of the shadows where they meet the light2 now fill in with charcoal all the mass of shadow within the outline1 making one flat1 even tone of dark without variation of shade4 ,to do this draw the charcoal in straight parallel lines slightly oblique1 almost touching each other1 until the whole shadow is covered4 ,no special care need be taken in putting in these lines1 as the main object is to get the paper sufficiently covered with the charcoal4 ,the largest paper stump is now used1 to unite these charcoal lines into one flat tone of dark4 ,the stump is held in the fingers1 so that about an inch of the point lies on the paper1 not merely the tip end4 ,with this the charcoal is rubbed in until no lines appear1 only one simple even tone of dark filling the outline of the shadow4 ,put in the eyes1 nose1 mouth1 etc41 and in the same way drawing the form of the general shadow first without any detail1 as already mentioned1 and putting in the flat tone with the charcoal and stump4 ,when the principal shadows are thus laid in1 look at the head from a distance and see if the proportions are correct4 ,any mistake will be easily seen in this stage1 and should be corrected at once before proceeding further4 ,to correct a line or erase the charcoal in any way1 use the crumb or soft part of stale bread4 ,this is done by taking a small piece between the fingers1 and rolling it into a little ball1 then shaping it to a point4 ,be sure the bread is not too fresh or made with butter1 as greasy bread will ruin the paper1 so that it is impossible to work nicely on it4 ,if1 however1 such a grease spot becomes evident when the drawing is somewhat advanced1 it can be remedied in the finishing1 by touching carefully with a sharp-pointed crayon1 and rubbing with a pointed rubber stump2 working with both alternately1 making fine1 small touches1 until the spot is even in tone with the rest4 ,in using the bread1 never press hard2 if the charcoal or crayon will not come off1 use the pointed rubber stump4 ,in laying in a mass of shadow1 if too much charcoal gets on the paper1 so as to become inconvenient1 wipe it off lightly and evenly with a soft cotton rag1 and if then the tone is too light1 work on it again with charcoal1 as before1 using the stump in the same way until it becomes the right tone4 ,in working heads1 life studies1 etc41 in charcoal it is the practice in all the large art schools to finish them with black crayon4 ,the crayon is not touched1 however1 until the shadows are all put in and the proportions found to be correct4 ,the whole effect being blocked in the way already described1 the crayon is taken up and the two materials used together at first1 as required1 in the following manner3 ,the outline1 which has been sketched in with charcoal1 is now very carefully drawn with a finely pointed ,cont crayon ,no4 #b4 ,first dust off the charcoal a little with a rag until the outline is quite light1 though easily seen1 and do not make the crayon outline too dark and thick4 ,next proceed to block in the hair with charcoal4 ,do this at first in the simple masses of light and shade1 rubbing in the charcoal in close lines at first1 so as to well cover the paper1 and then using the stump to make one flat1 even tone4 ,if the hair is dark1 cover the light mass with a general tone of light gray1 using the charcoal very lightly and rubbing it flat with the stump as before4 ,if the hair is light1 put in a fainter tone for the dark mass and a very delicate tone over the light mass4 ,do not attempt to see any reflected lights or small details as yet4 ,having the head now well started1 we proceed to carry it on by putting in the half tints which connect the masses of light and shadow all over the face4 ,do this with a clean1 medium-sized paper stump by dragging the charcoal from the shadow over the light4 ,do not put any new charcoal on for the half tints1 as it is very important that they be kept light at first4 ,keep a clean stump always at hand for delicate half tints1 and never use an old one4 ,the face now begins to model and look round1 and is further carried on by putting in the dark accents of shadow and taking out reflected lights with bread4 ,the features are brought into shape1 using the sharp pointed charcoal and a small stump4 ,at this stage the crayon is taken up permanently and the charcoal laid aside4 ,the ,cont crayon ,no4 #b sharpened to a fine point is rubbed all over the mass of shadow already laid in with charcoal and is then softened with the stump in the manner already described1 the charcoal and crayon together producing a beautiful quality of tone4 ,let me here mention that some artists prefer to use the sauce crayon for putting in large masses of dark1 such as shadows1 hair1 drapery1 etc4 ,the student should try both methods and use either or both1 as he may prefer4 ,the sauce crayon should be rubbed off on a small piece of charcoal paper and tacked on one side of the drawing so as to be convenient for use4 ,the point of the large stump is now rolled around in the sauce or powdered crayon thus prepared1 and is then rubbed into the shadow until the whole is covered with the crayon and presents an even dark tone4 ,the sauce crayon is only to be employed for large spaces1 and is useful in saving time1 as it takes longer to cover the surface with lines made by the crayon point4 ,still many prefer the latter4 ,the crayon point is always used in finishing up the drawing1 which is carried on by degrees4 ,the dark accents are put in the eyes1 nose1 mouth and ears1 and the small stump is used to soften the marks of the crayon1 but should not be rubbed too much4 ,if the head be rather dark in its general effect1 a very delicate gray tint should be put all over the light mass of the face4 ,this is done with a clean stump which has been used for half tints1 and the tone is put on in the same manner1 the crayon point not being used here4 ,the high lights are taken out with the bread rolled to a point1 and should be made sharp and distinct4 ,the hair is carried on in the same manner as the face1 the dark accents and details being put in with the crayon point and softened a little with the stump4 ,the half tints are developed and reflected lights taken out with bread4 ,the high lights are lastly rubbed out in the same way1 taking care always to preserve the exact form of the lights where they meet the shadows4 ,in drawing hair1 do not attempt to put in too much detail4 ,the deepest shadows and the highest lights should always be kept simple4 ,the most detail is generally seen in the half tint1 but should be very carefully studied only in the most prominent parts1 the rest being left in a suggestive way4 ,in working thus with charcoal and crayon1 there are one or two things that should be always kept in mind4 ,in the first place1 the charcoal and crayon must always be kept sharpened while drawing1 a fine point being most necessary4 ,a sharp knife should always be at hand1 and also a piece of sandpaper1 as it is very difficult to sharpen the crayons with a knife1 they break so easily4 ,always buy the best materials1 and always keep plenty on hand4 ,have a box of charcoal1 and at least half a dozen crayons1 and keep one or two clean stumps in reserve no matter how many you have already in use4 ,in rubbing on charcoal1 and before using the stump1 be sure to cover the paper well1 so that very little rubbing will spread the tone into an even mass4 ,no matter how much charcoal you get on at first1 you can always take off the superfluity with a rag2 but if there is not enough one is tempted to rub the paper too hard1 and if the surface of the paper gets roughened by too much rubbing at first1 you can never do any thing with it afterward4 ,in putting on the crayon1 however1 we must be more careful4 ,put on a little and try it with the stump2 if it does not spread well1 add more1 and so on4 ,even when dispensing entirely with the sauce crayon and using only the pointed sticks1 it is well to rub off some of the crayon on a small piece of paper and pin it up on one side of the drawing1 for using in very light tones where the point must not be employed4 ,for instance1 in covering the light side of the face with a delicate tone1 the stump is rubbed on this1 and tried first on a piece of paper before using it on the drawing4 ,never let the hand rest directly upon the drawing itself4 ,if not convenient to rest it upon the margin1 have a sheet of clean writing paper to place underneath the hand4 ,in sketching in1 or drawing long1 sweeping lines1 do not steady the hand upon the paper at all1 as one does in writing1 but try to acquire freedom of handling by practice1 resting the hand upon the paper only when absolutely necessary1 as in drawing fine details1 or when great precision is required4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,measurement1 ,,actual ,,and ,,comparative4 ,by actual measurement is meant the measurement of the object itself by holding against it a ruler or straight strip of paper1 and marking off the number of inches or exact distance from one given point to another4 ,these measurements are then compared with the drawing1 and the same distances are marked off on the paper4 ,in mechanical and architectural drawing this system of measurement is in constant use1 but in freehand drawing1 and in the method practiced by artists1 actual measurement is not allowed4 ,never measure in any way when beginning a drawing1 but strike out bravely1 resolving to depend upon the eye only1 if possible4 ,after the first outlines are put in1 and the proportions are as nearly correct as you can make them1 it is perfectly legitimate to 8prove0 a drawing by actual measurement1 if it is a copy4 ,if one is drawing from a cast1 or from life1 and it is necessary that the head be exactly the same size1 a measurement may be taken from the top of the head to the chin1 and compared with the sketch you have made4 ,beyond this no actual measurement should be allowed4 ,,comparative ,,measurement4 ,this is a very important thing in drawing from ,nature1 or objects of any kind1 and must be thoroughly understood by the student1 as without it no drawing can be made absolutely correct4 ,comparative measurements are entirely proportional4 ,the manner of taking them is as follows3 ,place yourself opposite the object to be measured1 at the same distance from which your drawing is taken4 ,let us say you are drawing the bust of ,apollo1 and wish to discover just the exact height of the whole1 also the width across the shoulders4 ,extend your arm in a perfectly straight line at right angles to the cast1 holding in your hand a long lead-pencil4 ,the pencil must be held parallel to the general direction of the cast1 neither end being allowed to swerve the slightest4 ,now1 closing one eye to concentrate the vision1 measure off with your thumb upon the pencil1 which is held crosswise1 the apparent distance from the outside of one shoulder in a direct line to the outside of the other4 ,keep your thumb tightly upon the pencil at the place measured1 and slowly turn the hand around1 keeping the arm extended at the same distance from the body1 and the eye in the same position as before4 ,the pencil is now held straight up and down1 and your object is to see how many times the distance measured off on the pencil will go into the whole length of the cast1 beginning at the top of the head and measuring down to the foot of the bust1 slowly moving the pencil downward and checking off with the eye each time the measurement is repeated4 ,in this way we can find out exactly whether the cast is just twice as long as it is wide1 or less--in other words1 the comparative proportions4 ,this kind of measurement is invaluable in out-of-door sketching1 and the eye soon becomes so trained by practice that relative proportions are compared instinctively1 and one scarcely needs to use the pencil4 ,,the ,,plumb ,,line4 ,another most valuable adjunct in drawing from life and from the cast is the plumb line4 ,this consists of a piece of strong twine with a weight on one end1 which serves to keep the string perfectly straight and steady when suspended from the hand4 ,a straight line is thus simulated which is dropped from a given point to one directly underneath1 forming one side of a triangle1 which will ascertain for us the different positions that certain other parts assume in relation to this line4 ,for instance1 we hold the plumb line so as to make a straight line from the chin of a standing figure to the ground4 ,the top and bottom of the line form two points of a triangle1 the third to be represented by the man's heel4 ,imaginary lines are now drawn through these points1 forming the triangle1 whose base determines the direction of the heel in relation to the center-line of the body4 ,in this way the balance of a figure can be accurately ascertained1 and the most difficult action correctly suggested4 ,in the actual drawing the real lines may be sketched in charcoal from point to point at the same angle determined by the plumb1 and the corrections made accordingly1 these straight lines being of course erased afterward4 ,,values4 ,the term 8value10 as understood by artists1 is used to express the comparative relation of tones to each other1 irrespective of color4 ,there may be many different colors before us all of the same value2 also1 there may be only one color used in a drawing1 yet many different values are seen1 which goes to show that we are to compare tones and not colors4 ,for example1 in drawing or painting a landscape we look at the tone of the trees against the sky and observe which is the darker4 ,if a stormy1 heavy sky is seen behind light1 feathery1 green trees we see that the sky is darker in value4 ,if1 on the contrary1 trees with dark1 rich foliage are observed to be strongly relieved against a bright1 sunny sky1 we perceive at once that the sky is lighter in value than the trees4 ,in like manner we compare the rocks with the water1 the fence with the road1 and so on1 according to the different objects to be regarded in the picture4 ,in drawing a head in charcoal or crayon it is well to establish at once the darkest value in the whole1 selecting the deepest spot of shadow with which all the other tones of dark may be compared4 ,look for instance1 at the shadow over the eye or under the nose1 which are generally very dark1 and compare it with the shadow on the cheek1 behind the ear1 or under the chin4 ,in the same way decide upon the highest light in the face4 ,say it is found upon the forehead or on the cheek bone4 ,be sure that it is the brightest spot in the face1 and then compare all the other degrees of light with this4 ,by studying in this way1 and observing the comparative variety of these tones1 we arrive at correct values4 ,this is a most important quality in art and can not be overestimated1 for upon a just appreciation of the values in a picture depends its truth4 ,this also serves to illustrate the necessity of making studies directly from nature whenever possible4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,crayon ,,portraits4 ,crayon is especially adapted to portraiture1 on account of the brilliant effects which it is capable of producing1 as well as the great softness and delicacy of finish which may be obtained by its use4 ,portraits should1 of course1 always be taken from life if possible1 though if the person be an invalid or is for any other reason unable to give many sittings1 a photograph may be used for the beginning4 ,the portrait is carried on from this until well advanced2 if one or two sittings from life can then be had in finishing1 it will be a great advantage1 especially in regard to the expression4 ,in portraits of children a photograph is frequently a great assistance1 particularly if the artist has not had much experience4 ,in all such cases1 however1 it is best to decide upon the pose1 and sketch it from life1 and then have the photograph taken in the pose you have selected4 ,in this way1 the light and shade are arranged to suit the artist1 and the pose being decided upon by him1 the portrait will have the effect of being drawn from life instead of being merely a copy from a conventional photograph4 ,in general the effect of light used by photographers is exactly the reverse of that chosen by artists4 ,it will be noticed that ordinary photographs have the greater part of the face either in shadow or covered by strong half-tints4 ,an artist1 on the contrary1 in posing a head for a portrait1 prefers exactly the opposite arrangement1 selecting broad and simple effects of light with only enough shadow to give the necessary variety and relief to the features4 ,when arranging the preliminaries for a portrait1 there are several things to be considered4 ,in the first place1 study the head carefully and see which view is most agreeable4 ,sometimes features in the same face look differently when seen from opposite directions4 ,some noses or mouths look well on one side and distorted on the other4 ,a very broad face should not be given a full front pose1 but would look better seen in three-quarter4 ,a very retreating chin must not be seen in a profile view4 ,this same pose1 however1 for a person with a cast in the eyes is preferable1 and so on4 ,after all such matters have been considered1 see that the head is not thrown up too high1 as it will make the nose look short1 while lowering the chin too much will make the nose look long4 ,a good rule is that the eyes of the sitter should be on a line with those of the artist as he sits or stands at his work4 ,the method most generally in use for crayon portraits is that described in the preceding pages1 in which the stump is used4 ,all the old-fashioned ways of stippling and hatching are seldom resorted to1 and not considered artistic4 ,in drawing a life-sized head the artist must not be too far from his subject1 the easel being placed about four or five feet distant4 ,it is well to get up and walk back occasionally1 looking at the work from a distance so as to see the general effect4 ,there are several different kinds of paper used for crayon portraits1 some artists preferring one make1 some another4 ,the ordinary 8,lalanne0 and 8,michelet0 papers used for charcoal and crayon studies are a little too rough in texture to please every body1 and do not produce quite so fine a finish as is desirable4 ,they come in too small-sized sheets for a large portrait head1 for which one wants plenty of room4 ,this1 however1 is merely a matter of taste1 that can be indulged when one has become sufficiently proficient in the work to judge for himself4 ,we will suggest that ,whatman's crayon paper is one of the most satisfactory2 this comes in large sheets1 and should be stretched before using in the manner already described4 ,a good sized stretcher for an ordinary portrait is #bjbd4 ,if more of the figure than the shoulders is to be seen1 a larger size would be better4 ,the portrait is first lightly sketched in with charcoal1 and if the student is not very proficient in drawing from life it is better to make the first sketch upon an ordinary sheet of charcoal paper4 ,when all corrections are made1 and the general proportions of the face appear to be right1 the outline is transferred to the stretcher in the following manner3-- ,take the sheet of charcoal paper on which the sketch is made1 and with a stick of charcoal 8scribble10 so to speak1 all over the back1 so that the paper is entirely covered behind your sketch4 ,now lay this sheet with the face upward on the clean stretcher1 placing it so that the head will come in exactly the right place1 neither too high nor too low4 ,fasten it with pins at the top and bottom1 so that the paper will not slip1 and then with a sharp1 hard lead-pencil carefully go over the outline1 and every important part of the face and head4 ,if the paper should move in the least the whole thing is spoiled1 therefore it is best in transferring to lay the drawing upon a table till finished4 ,remember not to rest the hand heavily upon any portion of the paper except the line to be traced1 as every touch leaves a black spot beneath4 ,on removing the sketch a perfect outline will be found upon the stretcher1 which will be a sufficient guide to the proportions and general likeness4 ,now1 with a sharply pointed charcoal stick begin to draw in the head1 following the outline1 block in the features1 massing the shadows in the face and hair4 ,do not begin to use the crayon until the general likeness is assured1 for the paper must not be roughened by too much erasing4 ,use the soft cotton rag for dusting off charcoal whenever you can1 instead of bread1 as too much rubbing with bread will grease the paper2 for very large spaces1 where erasing is necessary1 use ,faber's ,india rubber4 ,when the crayon is put on1 advance slowly1 remembering that in a portrait there is much more careful work than in an ordinary life study1 and that there are many more things to be considered than merely the drawing4 ,the likeness is to be secured1 which is sometimes a difficult thing even for those with experience4 ,this is accomplished gradually2 the student must not always expect to see the likeness in the first sketch2 it comes by degrees1 as the drawing progresses1 and it is a good rule to draw the head in exactly as you see it1 emphasizing the salient points1 no matter how ugly it may appear4 ,do not attempt to improve and modify until the drawing and general likeness are secured4 ,the expression comes last of all1 and with it the beauty4 ,if you attempt to make the face pretty at first1 you will weaken the drawing and lose the character4 ,for this reason1 many artists make it a rule never to show their portraits until finished4 ,the sitter does not understand the methods of working and is tempted to criticise1 which renders the worker timid4 ,after the head is put in with the crayon and modeled with the stump1 in the manner described in a previous chapter1 the finishing is carried on with the crayon point1 the small stump1 and the pointed rubber stump1 which is found more useful than bread at the last4 ,the animated expression is put in the eyes by dark touches in the pupil and under the lids1 while sharp lights are accented in the iris and on the eyeball4 ,the form of the under lid must be carefully studied4 ,the nose1 also1 has much to do with the expression2 especially the shape of the nostrils1 and the direction of the lines at the side of the nose running down to the mouth4 ,observe whether the nostrils droop downward at the outward edge2 this gives a serious expression2 if1 on the contrary1 the line is elevated1 it tends to give a bright and animated appearance to the face4 ,the mouth1 of course1 is of great importance1 and influences the expression more than any other feature2 when smiling1 the corners are turned upward1 and the lines or dimples are curved in an outward direction4 ,in a sad face the corners of the mouth drop downward and the lines grow straight4 ,if the student learns to look for such indications in many faces1 he will find more suggestions of importance to aid him in developing the expression4 ,without such knowledge1 he may accidentally reverse these conditions1 and work on blindly1 puzzling himself vainly to find out where he is wrong and why the expression is just the opposite of what it should be4 ,,the ,,hair4 ,in drawing the hair1 no matter how elaborate its arrangement1 it must be blocked in at first in simple flat masses of light and shade without any attempt at detail4 ,try1 however1 to give the general character of the hair in putting in the form of the shadows where they meet the light4 ,in smooth1 black hair1 the effect will be large masses of black with sharp1 clearly-defined high lights4 ,light curly hair will have much lighter tone in the shadow and much less brilliant lights4 ,after the hair is thus laid in with charcoal and the stump1 the crayon is taken up4 ,the half tints are studied and the deep accents of dark put in the shadows1 always following the outline of the form of each shadow very carefully4 ,avoid putting in a number of lines to represent hair1 as this destroys the effect and means nothing4 ,all details are expressed by carefully rendered light and shade4 ,in finishing1 the high lights are taken out with bread rolled to a point1 or if more convenient1 the india-rubber stump is used4 ,soften the hair where it touches the face1 never leaving a hard1 dark line4 ,when a tone is too dark1 it is not always necessary to use either bread or rubber1 but first try rubbing with the stump1 which may be found sufficient4 ,,backgrounds4 ,a background gives relief and importance to the head1 and should be managed with judgment4 ,in the first place1 never make the background exactly the same value as the head4 ,if the hair is light and the general effect of the face fair and delicate1 the background should be darker than the head1 though not too dark4 ,everything must be harmonious1 and a spotty appearance is to be avoided4 ,for instance1 a very light effect of hair and face with a moderately dark dress and a jetty-black background is very bad4 ,also1 a head with black hair1 white dress and very light background4 ,all violent contrasts should be avoided4 ,put the background in at first with charcoal only1 using parallel lines in one direction1 then crossing them diagonally4 ,after this take the large stump and rub these lines into one tone1 yet leaving a slight suggestion of the lines to show through4 ,put in this tone only around the shoulders and lower part of the head1 leaving the upper part of the paper bare1 or nearly so4 ,in this way try the effect1 working slowly and adding more charcoal as the tone needs to be darker4 ,when you have decided that the background has the right effect in relation to the head1 use the crayon point in the same way as the charcoal1 putting in crossed lines and rubbing them together again with the stump until a transparent effect is achieved1 which will give atmosphere and relieve the head4 ,if you get on too much crayon rub it all over with a soft rag4 ,this is an excellent thing to do occasionally1 as it softens and unites the whole while making the tone lighter4 ,sometimes in finishing1 a few touches of the rubber point may be used at the edges of the background and where it softens off at the top4 ,use the rubber in the same manner as the crayon point1 making light lines crossing obliquely4 ,remember that hardly any appearance of lines must be seen4 ,when all is done they must be so softened with stump and rag as to present almost the appearance1 at a little distance1 of an even tone4 ,in some cases the background may be carried up higher than the middle of the head1 but it is very rarely necessary to surround the whole head with it4 ,sometimes a very light tone may be put all over the paper with the large stump and rag4 ,in this case the lines are only used at the darkest part around the shoulders4 ,these matters must be determined by individual taste1 and the composition of the portrait1 as it is impossible to make general rules for every case4 ,never attempt to make landscape backgrounds or effects of drapery and still-life behind a simple portrait head4 ,every thing should be kept subordinate to the face1 which is the most important thing of all4 ,never use white chalk or crayon with the black in such portraits2 take all lights out with bread1 or leave the paper clean4 ,,drapery4 ,all drapery in a crayon portrait must be treated as simply as possible1 being regarded only as secondary in importance to the head1 which is1 of course1 the main object of interest4 ,all elaborate trimmings or pronounced fashions should be avoided4 ,different kinds of material are interpreted by carefully studying the different forms of the lights and shadows in each4 ,for instance1 black satin is rendered by large masses of black1 as black as crayon can be made with sharp1 narrow high lights1 so light as to be almost white4 ,in black silk1 the masses of dark are lighter in their general tone1 and the lights less sharp and brilliant4 ,the different colors are represented by lighter or darker tones1 as the case may be4 ,in black velvet1 the masses of dark are softer than in satin and not so jetty black1 while the lights are less brilliant and more diffused in effect1 leaving more half tints than are seen either in silk or satin4 ,in black cloths the lights are quite low in tone and the darks are not very black1 no sharp high lights are seen at all1 both light and shade taking large and simple forms4 ,white stuffs1 such as lace1 muslin1 etc41 are also kept simple in effect1 and are laid in with a very delicate tone all over the mass of light1 and the high lights are taken out with bread4 ,the shadows should also be delicate and transparent and not too dark4 ,white hair is treated in this way also1 the character of the hair being indicated by the form of the lights4 ,when there is a white cap upon the head or lace of any kind1 do not make it too prominent1 but carefully study its value in relation to the face4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,charcoal ,,and ,,crayon ,,drawing ,,with ,,the ,,point2 ,,landscapes1 ,,proportions1 ,,etc4 ,this method is principally used by artists in making drawings for illustration1 as stump drawings can not well be reproduced4 ,the manner of working is as follows3-- ,sketch in the outline with the charcoal stick1 sharpened to a point1 and then proceed to block in the shadows1 which must be drawn in with careful attention to the form1 for the reason that it is best to make a distinct outline of each mass of shadow where it meets the light4 ,these shadows are now filled in with the pointed charcoal1 used in close parallel lines until a flat1 even tone is obtained4 ,it is not necessary that these lines should be distinct1 or of exact regularity1 as in the very darkest shadows no lines at all should be seen4 ,the half tints are managed in the same way with the point1 which may be used in the direction of the features to some extent4 ,the main thing to be remembered is that no stump must be used1 nor the charcoal rubbed in any way4 ,for erasing1 bread is the best1 though rubber is sometimes found useful4 ,the crayon point is employed in exactly the same way as the charcoal1 the directions applying equally to both4 ,all drawings should be fixed as soon as finished4 ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,figure4 ,a few conventional rules for the general proportions of the face and figure may be found useful to the student in drawing from life1 and are regulated according to the standard of beauty as determined by the ,greek statues4 ,such proportions will naturally vary in individual cases1 yet are valuable as a foundation1 which may be modified when necessary4 ,the height of a well developed man is eight heads or eight times the length of his own head4 ,the height of a woman1 seven heads4 ,the human figure may be divided into four parts of equal length1 viz43 from the top of the head to the arm-pit1 thence to the middle of the body1 thence to the knees1 thence to the soles of the feet4 ,the arms extended straight out at right angles to the body will measure from finger-tip to finger-tip the length of the figure from crown of head to sole of foot4 ,the face may be divided into three parts4 ,from the top of the forehead to the root of the nose2 from there to the bottom of the nose1 thence to the bottom of the chin4 ,the ear is the length of the nose1 and its general direction is parallel to it4 ,from the top of the shoulder to the elbow measures twice the length of the face1 or one head and a half4 ,from the elbow to the wrist one head4 ,the hand measures three-quarters of a head from the tip of the middle finger to the wrist4 ,the foot measures one-sixth of the whole length of the body4 ,,landscape4 ,charcoal is a favorite medium with many artists for landscape subjects1 and it is1 as before stated1 especially useful in sketching from nature4 ,in beginning to draw a landscape in charcoal1 first sketch in lightly the horizon line1 the outlines of the trees and different objects1 in their general aspect4 ,it is always well to select a subject where there is a good effect of light and shade and sufficient variety to give interest4 ,after the composition is sketched in1 look for the large masses of shadow1 and divide the whole into two distinct masses of light and shade1 as in figure drawing4 ,the sky is covered with a light tone1 at first1 and even the masses of light are also covered with a delicate half-tint4 ,the whole drawing may be made entirely with the point if it is desired1 but the ,french artist ,allong1 who is celebrated for his charcoal landscapes1 prefers the use of the stump1 with the point in finishing4 ,if in place of the stump the finger sometimes is used to blend the charcoal1 and for rapid sketches1 this is very effective4 ,after the general masses are put in1 the details are drawn with the point1 being somewhat softened with the stump1 though in trunks of trees1 dark branches1 rocks1 etc41 the marks of the point are left unsoftened to give strength4 ,the lights are taken out with bread or rubber2 sometimes a piece of chamois skin is found useful in lightening a tone4 ,the light clouds are taken out with bread from the sky which has been covered with a half-tint1 and the dark clouds are put in with the stump or point1 according to the method employed4 ,in sketching from nature out of doors1 it is always well to adopt some prominent object as a standard of measurement2 for instance1 take a house or tree in the middle distance1 and compare this in height with objects in the background and foreground4 ,in this way your perspective1 if simple1 may be made correct without any elaborate rules4 ,objects in the distance are naturally smaller than those in the foreground1 and the exact proportions can be determined by comparative measurement4 ,in drawing a road or path1 notice that it will become narrower as it recedes into the distance4 ,for those who have never studied perspective such suggestions are useful4 ,it is very important also that the values should be carefully studied2 it is a good thing to establish the darkest spot of shadow in the whole sketch1 and compare all the other darks with it1 as already suggested in figure drawing4 ,determine also the brightest light1 and let the other lights be in their proper relation to it4 ,either crayon or charcoal1 or both1 may be used for landscapes2 it is always better to sketch in the drawing with charcoal1 even if crayon is used afterward4 ,some very good effects are produced by using crayon or charcoal on tinted paper1 either gray1 blue1 or light brown1 and1 leaving the tone of the paper for the half-tint1 put in the high lights with white chalk4 ,in such drawings the stump must not be used1 nor should the tones be rubbed or blended in any way4 ,use the crayon or charcoal point in the manner already described1 and put the lights in at the last with crisp1 strong touches4 ,as the student continues his practice he will find out the resources of these most interesting materials1 and will develop new possibilities for himself as he becomes more adept1 but it must be remembered that there is no 8royal road to learning10 and to succeed in acquiring proficiency in drawing of any kind1 requires patience and perseverance1 with constant practice4 ,,appendix4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,plates4 ,the intention of the author in presenting these plates is that the student1 by copying a series of progressive drawings1 may be prepared to study from the cast and from life4 ,for those who are entirely inexperienced1 it is much easier to learn this method from such flat copies at first1 as it not only teaches the use of the materials1 but familiarizes the student with the forms of the different features1 so that when confronted with nature he finds his difficulties considerably lessened4 ,,plate ,i4 ,this plate is intended to show the drawing of the human eye and mouth in different positions1 as well as to familiarize the student with the general form of these important features4 ,only charcoal sharpened to a point is necessary for these outlines1 which should be carefully practiced before proceeding to ,plate ,,ii4 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,this study is intended for those who have never drawn from the cast1 and have had no practice in using charcoal4 ,a4 represents the manner of beginning a drawing4 ,make a dot on the paper for the top1 and one for the bottom of the fragment to ascertain where to place the lines1 and then with a sharply pointed charcoal stick1 draw the general form of the outline in the manner shown in the plate1 without attempting any detail4 ,the shadows are then blocked in squarely with the point4 ,when the proportions are thus ascertained to be correct1 proceed to finish the drawing as is seen in ,b4 ,to do this1 rub the shadows with the stump till one flat1 even tone is obtained1 and carefully draw the outline1 turning the angles into curves4 ,this plate is for the most elementary practice in drawing1 and no further degree of finish than this should be attempted1 until the student has learned to do this much well4 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,this represents a simple study of the hand1 drawn from a cast4 ,a4 indicates the manner of laying in the study1 the curved lines being drawn to show the direction and movement of the fingers4 ,in ,b4 the stump is used in the shadows1 and the modeling is carried on further than in ,plate ,,ii41 the half-tint being added4 ,the outline is carefully finished with the pointed crayon1 which is also used in the shadows4 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,the part drawn from the cast here represented1 is laid in with charcoal1 as in ,fig4 ,a41 and then carried on in crayon as in ,fig4 ,b4 ,the outline is carefully drawn and the shadows blocked in squarely at first as usual1 and then changed with great care into the necessary correct forms4 ,it will be noticed that this study is a little further advanced than those already given1 more detail being shown1 as well as a little greater variety in the half-tints4 ,the straight lines across the base and ends of the toes serve to direct the eye to the difference between their general direction and a perfectly horizontal line4 ,,plate ,v4 ,in this plate the whole profile view of a face is given1 ,fig4 ,a4 representing the way to lay in a head4 ,the straight lines outside may be ruled1 as they have nothing to do with the drawing1 but are merely mechanical aids by which the angle of the features is determined4 ,in ,b4 the modeling of the features is carried on still further than in any of the preceding studies1 the half-tints and shadows1 however1 being still kept flat4 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,this plate gives a more difficult study in the three-quarter view of a male head4 ,in laying in the drawing1 as in ,fig4 ,a41 be careful to get the proportions as perfectly correct as possible before proceeding to carry the modeling further1 as in ,fig4 ,b4 ,this head1 though more finished than any other yet given1 purposely stops short of the final extent to which such drawings may be carried1 as the object of the author is to familiarize the student with each step by the way4 ,in the smaller touches about the eyes1 nose1 etc41 the pointed rubber stump will be found more available than bread4 ,for the large masses of shadow it would be well to rub off some sauce crayon on a small piece of drawing paper and fasten it one side of the easel1 or1 if preferred1 rub the pointed crayon on the rough paper until a sufficient quantity adheres4 ,the stump is rolled around in this until sufficient is taken up to cover the large mass of shadow4 ,the more careful work is carried on with the pointed ,cont crayon1 small stump1 and pointed rubber1 or bread1 as before explained4 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,plate ,,vii4 is intended to prepare the student for drawing the full length figure from the cast1 and should be carefully copied4 ,an excellent exercise would be to draw ,fig4 ,a4 several times first1 in order to practice the manner of beginning such a drawing2 then when this is fully mastered proceed to finish as in ,fig4 ,b41 which in this plate shows a fully completed drawing from the cast4 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,this plate represents a study of the male figure taken directly from life1 and is a most carefully finished drawing in every respect4 ,fig4 ,a4 shows the manner of beginning such a figure2 the outline is sketched in with long1 sweeping lines at first1 to determine the direction of the pose2 the proportions are noted and the outline corrected1 though drawn in angles1 the general masses of shadow being blocked in as usual4 ,in ,fig4 ,b4 the crayon and stump are taken up and the drawing is carefully carried on as shown by the plate1 until completed4 ,,the ,,end4