,a ,,brief ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,by ,,john ,,bach ,mc,m,a,s,t,e,r ,illustration3 ,,george ,,washington4 ,painted by ,rembrandt ,peale4 ,,preface ,it is not too much to assert that most of our countrymen acquire at school all the knowledge they possess of the past history of their country4 ,in view of this fact it is most desirable that a history of the ,united ,states for elementary schools should present not only the essential features of our country's progress which all should learn1 but also many things of secondary consequence which it is well for every young ,american to know4 ,in this book the text proper consists of the essentials1 and these are told in as few words as truth and fairness will permit4 ,the notes1 which form a large part of the book1 include the matters of less fundamental importance3 they may be included in the required lessons1 or may be omitted1 as the teacher thinks proper2 however1 they should at least be read4 ,some of the notes are outline biographies of men whose acts require mention in the text and who ought not to be mere names1 nor appear suddenly without any statement of their earlier careers4 ,others are intended to be fuller statements of important events briefly described or narrated in the text1 or relate to interesting events that are of only secondary importance4 ,still others call attention to the treatment of historical personages or events by our poets and novelists1 or suggest passages in standard histories that may be read with profit4 ,such suggested readings have been chosen mostly from books that are likely to be found in all school libraries4 ,much of the machinery sometimes used in history teaching--bibliographies1 extensive collateral readings1 judgment questions1 and the like--have been omitted as out of place in a brief school history4 ,better results may be obtained by having the pupils write simple narratives in their own words1 covering important periods and topics in our history3 as1 the discovery of ,america2 the exploration of our coast and continent2 the settlements that failed2 the planting of the ,english colonies2 the life of the colonists2 the struggles for possession of the country2 the causes of the ,revolution2 the material development of our country between certain dates2 and other subjects that the teacher may suggest4 ,the student who can take such broad views of our history1 and put his knowledge in his own words1 will acquire information that is not likely to be forgotten4 ,no trouble has been spared in the selection of interesting and authentic illustrations that will truly illustrate the text4 ,acknowledgment is due for permission to photograph many articles in museums and in the possession of various historical societies4 ,the reproduction of part of ,lincoln's proclamation on page #cfe is inserted by courtesy of ,david ,mc,kay1 publisher of ,lossing's ,civil ,war in ,america4 ,,john ,,bach ,mc,m,a,s,t,e,r4 ,,university ,,of ,,pennsylvania ,illustration3 ,u4 ,s4 ,,battleship4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,discovery ,,and ,,exploration ,i4 ,,the ,,new ,,world ,,found ,,ii4 ,,the ,,atlantic ,,coast ,,and ,,the ,,pacific ,,discovered ,,iii4 ,,france ,,and ,,england ,,attempt ,,to ,,settle ,,america ,,the ,,english ,,in ,,america ,,iv4 ,,the ,,english ,,on ,,the ,,chesapeake ,v4 ,,the ,,english ,,in ,,new ,,england ,,vi4 ,,the ,,middle ,,and ,,southern ,,colonies ,,vii4 ,,how ,,the ,,colonies ,,were ,,governed ,,rivals ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,viii4 ,,the ,,indians ,,ix4 ,,the ,,french ,,in ,,america ,x4 ,,wars ,,with ,,the ,,french ,,xi4 ,,the ,,french ,,driven ,,from ,,america ,,the ,,american ,,revolution ,,xii4 ,,the ,,quarrel ,,with ,,the ,,mother ,,country ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,fight ,,for ,,independence ,,begun ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,war ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,states ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,sea ,,xv4 ,,the ,,war ,,in ,,the ,,west ,,and ,,in ,,the ,,south ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,union ,,xvi4 ,,after ,,the ,,war ,,xvii4 ,,our ,,country ,,in #aghi ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,new ,,government ,,xix4 ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,country1 #aghi-ahje ,,xx4 ,,the ,,struggle ,,for ,,commercial ,,independence ,,xxi4 ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,west ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,good ,,feeling ,,xxiii4 ,,politics ,,from #ahbi ,,to #ahda ,,xxiv4 ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,country ,,from #ahbj ,,to #ahdj ,,the ,,long ,,struggle ,,against ,,slavery ,,xxv4 ,,more ,,territory ,,acquired ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,struggle ,,for ,,free ,,soil ,,xxvii4 ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,country ,,from #ahdj ,,to #ahfj ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,civil ,,war1 #ahfa-ahfc ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,civil ,,war1 #ahfc-ahfe ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,navy ,,in ,,the ,,war2 ,,life ,,in ,,war ,,times ,,xxxi4 ,,reconstruction ,,economic ,,development ,,xxxii4 ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,country ,,from #ahfj ,,to #ahhj ,,xxxiii4 ,a ,,quarter ,,century ,,of ,,struggle ,,over ,,industrial ,,questions1 #ahgb ,,to #ahig ,,xxxiv4 ,,the ,,war ,,with ,,spain1 ,,and ,,later ,,events ,,appendix ,,the ,,declaration ,,of ,,independence ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,table ,,of ,,states ,,table ,,of ,,presidents ,,index ,,list ,,of ,,colored ,,maps ,,french ,,claims1 ,,etc41 ,,in #agjj ,,eastern ,,north ,,america1 #aged ,,british ,,territory1 #agfd ,,northern ,,colonies ,,during ,,the ,,revolution--,,southern ,,colonies ,,during ,,the ,,revolution ,,the ,,united ,,states1 ,,about #aghc1 ,,showing ,,state ,,claims ,,the ,,united ,,states1 #ahje ,,the ,,united ,,states1 #ahbd ,,the ,,united ,,states1 #ahej ,,the ,,united ,,states1 #ahfa ,,the ,,west ,,in #ahgj 7,,also #ahfj ,,and #aijg7 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,and ,,its ,,outlying ,,possessions ,illustration3 ,i pledge allegiance to my ,flag and to the ,republic for which it stands2 one nation1 indivisible1 with liberty and justice for all4 ,,columbus ,behind him lay the gray ,azores1 ,behind the ,gates of ,hercules2 ,before him not the ghost of shores1 ,before him only shoreless seas4 ,the good mate said3 ,now we must pray1 ,for1 lo6 the very stars are gone4 ,brave ,admiral1 speak2 what shall ,i say8 ,why say1 ',sail on6 sail on6 and on6' ,my men grow mutinous day by day2 ,my men grow ghastly wan and weak4 ,the stout mate thought of home2 a spray ,of salt wave washed his swarthy cheek4 ,what shall ,i say1 brave ,admiral1 say1 ,if we sight naught but seas at dawn8 ,why you shall say at break of day1 ',sail on6 sail on6 sail on6 and on6' ,they sailed and sailed1 as winds might blow1 ,until at last the blanched mate said3 ,why1 now not even ,god would know ,should ,i and all my men fall dead4 ,these very winds forget their way1 ,for ,god from these dread seas is gone1 ,now speak1 brave ,admiral2 speak and say-- ,he said1 ,sail on6 sail on6 and on6 ,they sailed4 ,they sailed4 ,then spake the mate3 ,this mad sea shows its teeth to-night4 ,he curls his lips1 he lies in wait ,with lifted teeth1 as if to bite6 ,brave ,admiral1 say but one good word2 ,what shall we do when hope is gone8 ,the words leapt like a leaping sword3 ,sail on6 sail on6 sail on6 and on6 ,then1 pale and worn1 he kept his deck1 ,and peered through darkness4 ,ah1 that night ,of all dark nights6 ,and then a speck-- ,a light6 ,a light6 ,a light6 ,a light6 ,it grew1 a starlit flag unfurled6 ,it grew to be ,time's burst of dawn4 ,he gained a world2 he gave that world ,its grandest lesson3 ,on6 sail on6 --,joaquin ,miller4 ,copyrighted and published by ,the ,whitaker ,ray ,wiggin ,co4 ,san ,francisco1 ,california4 ,used by permission4 ,a ,,brief ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,new ,,world ,,found ,the ,new ,world1 of which our country is the most important part1 was discovered by ,christopher ,columbus in #adib4 ,when that great man set sail from ,spain on his voyage of discovery1 he was seeking not only unknown lands1 but a new way to eastern ,asia4 ,such a new way was badly needed4 ,,the ,,routes ,,of ,,trade4--,long before ,columbus was born1 the people of ,europe had been trading with the far ,east4 ,spices1 drugs1 and precious stones1 silks1 and other articles of luxury were brought1 partly by vessels and partly by camels1 from ,india1 the ,spice ,islands1 and ,cathay 7,china7 by various routes to ,constantinople and the cities in ,egypt and along the eastern shore of the ,mediterranean4 ,there they were traded for the copper1 tin1 and lead1 coral1 and woolens of ,europe1 and then carried to ,venice and ,genoa1 whence merchants spread them over all ,europe4 #a ,the merchants of ,genoa traded chiefly with ,constantinople1 and those of ,venice with ,egypt4 ,,the ,,turks ,,seize ,,the ,,routes ,,of ,,trade4--,while this trade was at its height1 ,asia ,minor 7from the ,black ,sea to the ,mediterranean7 was conquered by the ,turks1 the caravan routes across that country were seized1 and when ,constantinople was captured 7in #adec71 the trade of ,genoa was ruined4 ,should the ,turkish conquests be extended southward to ,egypt 7as later they were71 the prosperity of ,venice would likewise be destroyed1 and all existing trade routes to the ,orient would be in ,turkish hands4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,known ,,world ,,in #adij2 ,,routes ,,to ,,india4 ,,the ,,portuguese ,,seek ,a ,,new ,,route4--,clearly an ocean route to the ,east was needed1 and on the discovery of such a route the ,portuguese had long been hard at work4 ,fired by a desire to expand ,portugal and add to the geographical knowledge of his day1 ,prince ,henry the ,navigator sent out explorer after explorer1 who1 pushing down the coast of ,africa1 had almost reached the equator before ,prince ,henry died4 #b ,his successors continued the good work1 the equator was crossed1 and in #adhg ,dias passed the ,cape of ,good ,hope and sailed eastward till his sailors mutinied4 ,ten years later ,vasco da ,gama sailed around the end of ,africa1 up the east coast1 and on to ,india1 and brought home a cargo of eastern products4 ,a way to ,india by water was at last made known to ,europe4 #c ,illustration3 ,a ,,caravel1 ,a ,,ship ,,of ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century4 ,,columbus ,,plans ,a ,,route4--,meanwhile ,christopher ,columbus #d planned what he thought would be a shorter ocean route to the ,east4 ,he had studied all that was known of geography in his time4 ,he had carefully noted the results of recent voyages of exploration4 ,he had read the travels of ,marco ,polo #e and had learned that off the coast of ,china was a rich and wonderful island which ,polo called ,cipango4 ,he believed that the earth is a sphere1 and that ,china and ,cipango could be reached by sailing about #bejj miles due westward across the ,atlantic4 ,,columbus ,,seeks ,,aid4--,to make others think so was a hard task1 for nearly everybody believed the earth to be flat1 and several sovereigns were appealed to before one was found bold enough to help him4 ,he first applied to the king of ,portugal1 and when that failed1 to the king and queen of ,spain4 #f ,when they seemed deaf to his appeal1 he sent his brother to ,england1 and at last1 wearied with waiting1 set off for ,france4 ,then ,queen ,isabella of ,spain was persuaded to act4 ,columbus was recalled1 #g ships were provided with which to make the voyage1 and on ,friday1 the #c;d of ,august1 #adib1 the ,santa ,maria 7sahn'tah mah-ree'ah71 the ,pinta 7peen'tah71 and the ,nia 7neen'yah7 set sail from ,palos 7pah'los71 on one of the greatest voyages ever made by men4 #h ,illustration3 ,,the ,,council ,,of ,,salamanca4 ,,the ,,voyage ,,westward4--,the little fleet went first to the ,canary ,islands and thence due west across the ,sea of ,darkness1 as the ,atlantic was called4 ,the voyage was delightful1 but every sight and sound was a source of new terror to the sailors4 ,an eruption of a volcano at the ,canaries was watched with dread as an omen of evil4 ,they crossed the line of no magnetic variation1 and when the needle of the compass began to change its usual direction1 they were sure it was bewitched4 ,they entered the great ,sargasso ,sea and were frightened out of their wits by the strange expanse of floating vegetation4 ,they entered the zone of the trade winds1 and as the breeze1 day after day1 steadily wafted them westward1 the boldest feared it would be impossible to return4 ,when a mirage and flights of strange birds raised hopes that were not promptly realized1 the sailors were sure they had entered an enchanted realm4 #i ,illustration3 ,,sea ,,monsters ,,drawn ,,on ,,old ,,maps4 ,,land ,,discovered4--,columbus1 who was above such fear1 explained the unusual sights1 calmed the fears of the sailors1 hid from them the true distance sailed1 #aj and steadily pursued his way till unmistakable signs of land were seen4 ,a staff carved by hand and a branch with berries on it floated by4 ,excitement now rose high1 and a reward was promised to the man who first saw land4 ,at last1 on the night of ,october #aa1 ,columbus beheld a light moving as if carried by hand along a shore4 ,a few hours later a sailor on the ,pinta saw land distinctly1 and soon all beheld1 a few miles away1 a long1 low beach4 #aa ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,viking ,,ship ,,found ,,buried ,,in ,,norway4 ,,the ,,voyage ,,among ,,the ,,islands4--,columbus thought he had found one of the islands of the ,indies1 as the southern and eastern parts of ,asia were called4 ,dressed in scarlet and gold and followed by a band of his men bearing banners1 he landed1 fell on his knees1 and having given thanks to ,god1 took possession for ,spain and called the island ,san ,salvador 7sahn sahl-va-dor'71 which means ,holy ,savior4 ,the day was ,october #ab1 #adib1 and the island was one of the ,bahamas4 #ab ,after giving red caps1 beads1 and trinkets to the natives who crowded about him1 ,columbus set sail to explore the group and presently came in sight of the coast of ,cuba1 which he at first thought was ,cipango4 ,sailing eastward1 landing now and then to seek for gold1 he reached the eastern end of ,cuba1 and soon beheld the island of ,haiti2 this so reminded him of ,spain that he called it ,hispaniola1 or ,little ,spain4 ,,the ,,first ,,spanish ,,colony ,,in ,,the ,,new ,,world4--,when off the ,cuban shore1 the ,pinta deserted ,columbus4 ,on the coast of ,haiti the ,santa ,maria was wrecked4 ,to carry all his men back to ,spain in the little ,nina was impossible4 ,such1 therefore1 as were willing were left at ,haiti1 and founded ,la ,navidad1 the first colony of ,europeans in the ,new ,world4 #ac ,this done1 ,columbus sailed for home1 taking with him ten natives1 and specimens of the products of the lands he had discovered4 ,,the ,,voyage ,,home4--,the ,pinta was overtaken off the ,haitian coast1 but a dreadful storm parted the ships once more1 and neither again saw the other till the day when1 but a few hours apart1 they dropped anchor in the haven of ,palos1 whence they had sailed seven months before4 ,as the news spread1 the people went wild with joy4 ,the journey of ,columbus to ,barcelona was a triumphal procession4 ,at ,barcelona he was received with great ceremony by the king and queen1 and soon afterward was sent back with many ships and men to found a colony and make further explorations in the ,indies4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,west ,,indies--,,showing ,,the ,,discoveries ,,of ,,columbus4 ,,other ,,voyages ,,of ,,columbus4--,in all ,columbus made four voyages to the ,new ,world4 ,on the second 7#adic7 he discovered ,porto ,rico1 ,jamaica1 and other islands4 ,on the third 7#adih7 he saw the mainland of ,south ,america at the mouth of the ,orinoco ,river4 #ad ,on the fourth 7#aejb-d7 he sailed along the shores of ,central ,america4 ,returning to ,spain1 he died poor1 neglected1 and broken-hearted in #aejf4 #ae ,,columbus ,,believed ,,he ,,reached ,,the ,,indies4--,to his dying day ,columbus was ignorant of the fact that he had led the way to a new continent4 ,he supposed he had reached the ,indies4 ,the lands he discovered were therefore spoken of as the ,indies1 and their inhabitants were called ,indians1 a name given in time to the copper-colored natives of both ,north and ,south ,america4 ,,spain',s ,,claim ,,to ,,new-,,found ,,lands4--,one of the first results of the discoveries of ,columbus was an appeal to the ,pope for a bull securing to ,spain the heathen lands discovered2 for a bull had secured to ,portugal the discoveries of her mariners along the coast of ,africa4 ,pope ,alexander ,,vi accordingly drew a north and south line one hundred leagues west of the ,cape ,verde ,islands1 and gave to ,spain all she might discover to the west of it1 reserving to ,portugal all she might discover to the east4 ,a year later 7#adid7 ,spain and ,portugal by treaty moved the ,line of ,demarcation to three hundred and seventy leagues west of the ,cape ,verde ,islands 7map1 p4 #bj71 and on this agreement1 approved by the ,pope1 ,spain rested her claim to ,america4 ,,summary #a4 ,for many centuries before the discovery of ,america1 ,europe had been trading with the far ,east4 #b4 ,the routes of this trade were being closed by the ,turks4 #c4 ,columbus believed a new route could be found by sailing due westward from ,europe4 #d4 ,after many years of fruitless effort to secure aid to test his plan1 he obtained help from ,spain4 #e4 ,on his first voyage westward ,columbus discovered the ,bahama ,islands1 ,cuba1 and ,haiti2 on his later voyages1 various other lands about the ,caribbean ,sea4 #f4 ,in the belief that he had reached the ,indies1 the lands ,columbus found were called the ,indies1 and their inhabitants ,indians4 ,,footnotes #a ,in the ,middle ,ages1 when food was coarse and cookery poor1 cinnamon and cloves1 nutmeg and mace1 allspice1 ginger1 and pepper were highly prized for spicing ale or seasoning food4 ,but all these spices were very expensive in ,europe because they had to be brought so far from the distant ,east4 ,even pepper1 which is now used by every one1 was then a fit gift from one king to another4 ,camphor and rhubarb1 indigo1 musk1 sandalwood1 ,brazil wood1 aloes wood1 all came from the ,east4 ,muslin and damask bear the names of eastern cities whence they were first obtained4 ,in the fifteenth century the churches1 palaces1 manor houses1 and homes of rich merchants were adorned with the rugs and carpets of the ,east4 #b ,prince ,henry was the fourth son of ,john ,i1 king of ,portugal4 ,in #adai he established his home on ,cape ,st4 ,vincent1 gathered about him a body of trained seamen1 and during forty years sent out almost every year an exploring expedition4 ,his pilots discovered the ,azores and the ,madeira ,islands4 ,he died in #adfj4 ,his great work was training seamen4 ,many men afterward famous as discoverers and navigators1 as ,dias 7dee'ahss71 ,da ,gama 7dah gah'ma71 ,cabral 7ca-brahl'71 ,magellan1 and ,columbus1 served under ,henry or his successors4 ,in those days there were neither steamships nor such sailing vessels as we have4 ,for purposes of exploration the caravel was used4 ,it was from #fj to #ajj feet long1 and from #ah to #be feet broad1 and had three masts from the heads of which were swung great sails4 ,much of the steering was done by turning these sails4 ,yet it was in such little vessels that some of the most famous voyages in history were made4 #c ,these voyages were possible because of the great progress which had recently been made in the art of navigation4 ,the magnetic compass enabled seamen to set their course when the sun and stars could not be seen4 ,the astrolabe 7picture1 p4 #ce7 made it possible roughly to estimate distances from the equator1 or latitude4 ,these instruments enabled mariners to go on long voyages far from land4 ,read the account of the ,portuguese voyages in ,fiske's ,discovery of ,america1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bid-ccd4 #d ,christopher ,columbus was a native of ,genoa1 ,italy1 where he was born about #adcf4 ,he was the son of a wool comber4 ,at fourteen he began a seafaring life1 and between voyages made charts and globes4 ,about #adgj he wandered to ,portugal1 went on one or two voyages down the ,african coast1 and on another 7#adgg7 went as far north as ,iceland4 ,meantime 7#adgc7 he married a ,portuguese woman and made his home at the ,madeira ,islands2 and it was while living there that he formed the plan of finding a new route to the far ,east4 #e ,in #abga ,marco ,polo1 then a lad of seventeen1 was taken by his father and uncle from ,venice to the coast of ,persia1 and thence overland to northwestern ,china1 to a city where ,kublai ,khan held his court4 ,they were well received1 and ,marco spent many years making journeys in the khan's service4 ,in #abib they were sent to escort a royal bride for the khan from ,peking 7in ,china7 to ,tabriz1 a city in ,persia4 ,they sailed from ,china in #abib1 reached the ,persian coast in #abid1 and arrived safely at ,tabriz1 whence they returned to ,venice in #abie4 ,in #abih ,marco was captured in a war with ,genoa1 and spent about a year in prison4 ,while thus confined he prepared an account of his travels1 one of the most famous books of the ,middle ,ages4 ,he described ,china 7or ,cathay1 as it was then called71 with its great cities teeming with people1 its manufactures1 and its wealth1 told of ,tibet and ,burma1 the ,indian ,archipelago with its spice islands1 of ,java and ,sumatra1 of ,hindustan1--all from personal knowledge4 ,from hearsay he told of ,japan4 ,in the course of the next seventy-five years other travelers found their way to ,cathay and wrote about it4 ,thus before #adjj ,europe had learned of a great ocean to the east of ,cathay1 and of a wonderful island kingdom1 ,cipan'go 7,japan71 which lay off its coast4 ,all this deeply interested ,columbus1 and his copy of ,marco ,polo may still be seen with its margins full of annotations4 #f ,these sovereigns were just then engaged in the final struggle for the expulsion of the ,moors from ,spain1 so they referred the appeal to the queen's confessor1 who laid it before a body of learned men4 ,this council of ,salamanca made sport of the idea1 and tried to prove that ,columbus was wrong4 ,if the world were round1 they said1 people on the other side must walk with their heads down1 which was absurd4 ,and if a ship should sail to the undermost part1 how could it come back8 ,could a ship sail up hill8 #g ,on the way to ,france ,columbus stopped1 by good luck1 at the monastery of ,la ,rabida 7lah rah'bee-dah71 and so interested the prior1 ,juan ,perez 7hoo-ahn' pa'rath71 in his scheme1 that a messenger was sent to beg an interview for ,perez with the queen of ,spain4 ,it was granted1 and so well did ,perez plead the cause of his friend that ,columbus was summoned to court4 ,the reward ,columbus demanded for any discoveries he might make seemed too great1 and was refused4 ,thereupon1 mounting his mule1 he again set off for ,france4 ,scarcely had he started when the royal treasurer rushed into the presence of the queen and persuaded her to send a messenger to bring ,columbus back4 ,then his terms were accepted4 ,he was to be admiral of all the islands and countries he might discover1 and have a part of all the gems1 gold1 and silver found in them4 #h ,the vessels were no larger than modern yachts4 ,the ,santa ,maria was single-decked and ninety feet long4 ,the ,pinta and ,nia 7picture1 p4 #aa7 were smaller caravels1 and neither was decked amidships4 ,in #ahic reproductions of the three vessels1 full size and as exact as possible1 were sent across the sea by ,spain1 and exhibited at the ,world's ,fair in ,chicago4 #i ,the ideas of geography held by the unlearned of those days are very curious to us4 ,they believed that near the equator was a fiery zone where the sea boiled and no life existed2 that hydras1 gorgons1 chimeras1 and all sorts of horrid monsters inhabited the ,sea of ,darkness2 and that in the ,indian ,ocean was a lodestone mountain that could draw nails out of ships4 ,because of the way in which ships disappeared below the horizon1 it was believed that they went down hill1 and that if they went too far they could never get back4 #aj ,the object of ,columbus was not to let the sailors know how far they were from home4 #aa ,columbus was not the first ,european to reach the ,new ,world4 ,about six hundred years earlier1 ,vikings from ,norway settled in ,iceland1 and from the ,icelandic chronicles we learn that about #ihf ,a4,d4 ,eric the ,red planted a colony in ,greenland4 ,his son1 ,leif ,ericsson1 about #ajjj ,a4,d41 led a party south-westward to a stony country which was probably the coast of ,labrador or ,newfoundland4 ,going on southward1 they came at last to a spot where wild grapes grew4 ,to this spot1 probably on the ,new ,england coast1 ,leif gave the name ,vinland1 spent the winter there1 and in the spring went back to ,greenland with a load of timber4 ,the next year ,leif's brother sailed to ,vinland and passed two winters there4 ,in later years others went1 but none remained long1 and the land was soon forgotten4 ,iceland and ,greenland were looked upon as part of ,europe2 and the ,vikings' discoveries had no influence on ,columbus and the explorers who followed him4 ,read ,fiske's ,discovery of ,america ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #adh-bee2 and ,longfellow's ,skeleton in ,armor4 #ab ,nobody knows just which of the ,bahamas ,columbus discovered4 ,three of the group--,cat1 ,turks and ,watling--each claim the honor4 ,at present ,watling is believed to have been ,san ,salvador4 ,a good account of the voyage is given in ,irving's ,life and ,voyages of ,columbus1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,book iii1 and in ,fiske's ,discovery of ,america1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #djh-ddb4 #ac ,when ,columbus on his second voyage returned to ,hispaniola1 he found that every one of the forty colonists had perished4 ,they had been killed by the natives4 #ad ,despite the great thing he did for ,spain4 ,columbus lost favor at court4 ,evil men slandered him2 his manner of governing the new lands was falsely represented to the king and queen2 a new governor was sent out1 and ,columbus was brought back in chains4 ,though soon released1 he was never restored to his rights4 #ae ,columbus was buried at ,valladolid1 in ,spain1 but in #aeac his body was taken to a monastery at ,seville4 ,there it remained till #aecf1 when it was carried to ,santo ,domingo in ,haiti4 ,in #agif it was removed and buried with imposing ceremonies at ,havana in ,cuba4 ,in #ahih1 when ,spain was driven from ,cuba1 his bones were carried back to ,seville4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,atlantic ,,coast ,,and ,,the ,,pacific ,,discovered ,,the ,,atlantic ,,coast ,,line ,,explored4--,columbus having shown the way1 ,english1 ,spanish1 and ,portuguese explorers followed4 ,some came in search of ,china or the ,spice ,islands2 some were in quest of gold and pearls4 ,the result was the exploration of the ,atlantic coast line from ,labrador to the end of ,south ,america4 ,,some ,,famous ,,voyages4--,in #adig ,john ,cabot1 sailing from ,england1 reached ,newfoundland1 which he believed to be part of ,china4 #a ,in #adih ,john ,cabot and his son ,sebastian1 while in search of the ,spice ,islands1 sailed along the coast from ,newfoundland to what is now ,south ,carolina4 #b ,illustration3 ,,record ,,of ,,payment ,,of ,,john ,,cabot',s ,,pension ,,for #adii4 #c ,photographed from the original accounts of the ,bristol customs collectors1 now in ,westminster ,abbey1 ,london4 ,illustration3 ,,discovery ,,on ,,the ,,east ,,coast ,,of ,,america4 ,before #aejj ,spaniards in search of gold1 or pearls1 or new lands had explored the coast line from ,central ,america to ,cape ,st4 ,roque4 #d ,in #aejj ,cabral1 while on his way from ,portugal to ,india by ,da ,gama's route 7p4 #aa71 sailed so far westward that he sighted the coast of the country now called ,brazil4 ,cabral went on his way2 but sent back a ship to the king of ,portugal with the news that the new-found land lay east of the ,line of ,demarcation4 ,the king dispatched 7#aeja7 an expedition which explored the coast southward nearly as far as the mouth of the ,plata ,river4 ,,some ,,results ,,of ,,these ,,voyages4--,the results of these voyages were many and important4 ,they furnished a better knowledge of the coast2 they proved the existence of a great mass of land called the ,new ,world1 but still supposed to be a part of ,asia2 they secured ,brazil for ,portugal1 and led to the naming of our continent4 ,,why ,,the ,,new ,,world ,,was ,,called ,,america4--,in the party sent by the king of ,portugal to explore the coast of ,brazil1 was an ,italian named ,amerigo ,vespucci 7ah-ma'ree-go ves-poot'chee71 or ,americus ,vespucius1 who had twice before visited the coast of ,south ,america4 ,of these three voyages and of a fourth ,vespucius wrote accounts1 ,they were widely read1 led to the belief that he had discovered a new or fourth part of the world1 and caused a ,german professor of geography to suggest that this fourth part should be called ,america4 ,the name was applied first to what is now ,brazil1 then to all ,south ,america1 and finally also to ,north ,america1 when it was found1 long afterward1 that ,north ,america was part of the new continent and not part of ,asia4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,printed ,,suggestion ,,of ,,the ,,name ,,america4 #e ,part of a page from ,waldseemller's book ,cosmographie ,introductio1 printed in #aejg1 now in the ,lenox ,library1 ,new ,york4 ,,balboa ,,discovers ,,the ,,pacific4--,the man who led the way to the discovery that ,america was not part of ,asia was ,balbo'a4 #f ,he came to the eastern border of ,panama 7#aeaj7 with a band of ,spaniards seeking gold4 ,there they founded the town of ,darien and in time made ,balboa their commander4 ,he married the daughter of a chief1 made friends with the ,indians1 and heard from them of a great body of water across the mountains4 ,this he determined to see1 and in #aeac1 with ,indian guides and a party of ,spaniards1 made his way through dense and tangled forests and from the summit of a mountain looked down on the ,pacific ,ocean1 which he called the ,south ,sea4 ,four days later1 standing on the shore1 he waited till the rising tide came rolling in1 and then rushing into the water1 sword in hand1 he took possession of the ocean in the name of ,spain4 #g ,illustration3 ,,spanish ,,helmet ,,and ,,shirt ,,of ,,mail ,,found ,,in ,,mexico4 ,now in ,essex ,hall1 ,salem1 ,mass4 ,,the ,,pacific ,,crossed2 ,,the ,,philippines ,,discovered4--,the ,portuguese meantime1 by sailing around ,africa1 had reached the ,spice ,islands4 ,so far beyond ,india were these islands that the ,portuguese sailor ,ferdinand ,magellan took up the old idea of ,columbus1 and maintained that they could be most easily reached by sailing west4 ,to this proposition the king of ,portugal would not listen2 so ,magellan persuaded the king of ,spain to let him try2 and in #aeai set sail with five small ships4 ,he crossed the ,atlantic to the mouth of the ,plata1 and went south till storms and cold drove him into winter quarters4 #h ,in ,august1 #aebj 7early spring in the southern hemisphere71 he went on his way and entered the strait which now bears his name4 ,one of the ships had been wrecked4 ,in the strait another stole away and went home4 ,the three remaining vessels passed safely through1 and out into an ocean so quiet compared with the stormy ,atlantic that ,magellan called it the ,pacific4 ,across this the explorers sailed for five months before they came to a group of islands which ,magellan called the ,ladrones 7,spanish for robbers7 because the natives were so thievish4 #i ,ten days later they reached another group1 afterward named the ,philippines4 #aj ,on one of these islands ,magellan and many of his men were slain4 #aa ,two of the ships then went southward to the ,spice ,islands1 where they loaded with spices4 ,one now started for ,panama1 but was forced to return4 ,the other sailed around ,africa1 and in #aebb reached ,spain in safety4 ,it had sailed around the world4 ,the surviving captain was greatly honored4 ,the king ennobled him1 and on his coat of arms was a globe with the motto ,you first sailed around me4 ,illustration3 ,,magellan',s ,,ship ,,that ,,sailed ,,around ,,the ,,world4 ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,voyage4--,of all the voyages ever made by man up to that time1 this of ,magellan and his men was the greatest4 ,it gave positive proof that the earth is a sphere4 ,it revealed the vast width of the ,pacific4 ,it showed that ,america was probably not a part of ,asia1 and changed the geographical ideas of the time4 #ab ,,the ,,coast ,,of ,,florida ,,explored4--,what meantime had happened along the coast of ,north ,america8 ,in #aeac ,ponce de ,leon #ac 7pon'tha da la-on'71 a ,spaniard1 sailed northwest from ,porto ,rico in search of an island which the ,indians told him contained gold1 and in which he believed was a fountain or stream whose waters would restore youth to the old4 ,in the season of ,easter1 or ,pascua ,florida1 he came upon a land which he called ,florida4 ,ponce supposed he had found an island1 and following the coast southward went round the peninsula and far up the west coast before going back to ,porto ,rico4 #ad ,illustration3 ,,spanish ,,explorations ,,in ,,north ,,america ,,to #afjj4 ,,the ,,gulf ,,coast ,,explored4--,in #aeai another ,spaniard1 ,pineda 7pe-na'da71 sailed along the ,gulf coast from ,florida to ,mexico4 ,on the way he entered the mouth of a broad river which he named ,river of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,it was long supposed that this river was the ,mississippi2 but it is now claimed to have been the ,mobile4 ,whatever it was1 ,pineda spent six weeks in its waters1 saw many ,indian towns on its banks1 traded with the natives1 and noticed that they wore gold ornaments4 ,,the ,,expedition ,,of ,,narvaez4--,pineda's story of ,indians with gold ornaments so excited ,narvaez 7nar-vah'eth7 that he obtained leave to conquer the country1 and sailed from ,cuba with four hundred men4 ,landing on the west coast of ,florida1 he made a raid inland4 ,when he returned to the coast the ships which were sailing about watching for him were nowhere to be seen4 ,after marching westward for a month the ,spaniards built five small boats1 put to sea1 and sailing near the shore came presently to where the waters of the ,mississippi rush into the ,gulf4 ,two boats were upset by the surging waters4 ,the others reached the coast beyond1 where all save four of the ,spaniards perished4 ,,four ,,spaniards ,,cross ,,the ,,continent4--,after suffering great hardships and meeting with all sorts of adventures among the ,indians1 the four survivors1 led by ,cabeza de ,vaca 7ca-ba'tha da vah'ca71 walked across what is now ,texas1 ,new ,mexico1 ,arizona1 and ,mexico to a little ,spanish town near the ,pacific coast4 ,they had crossed the continent4 #ae ,,new ,,mexico ,,explored4--,cabeza de ,vaca had wonderful tales to relate of hunchback cows1 as he called the buffalo1 and of cities in the interior where gold and silver were plentiful and where the doorways were studded with precious stones4 #af ,excited by these tales1 the ,spanish viceroy of ,mexico sent ,fray ,marcos to gather further information4 #ag ,aided by the ,indians1 ,marcos made his way over the desert and came at last to the cities1 which were only the pueblos of the ,zui 7zoo'nyee7 ,indians in ,new ,mexico4 ,the pueblos were houses several stories high1 built of stone or of sun-dried brick1 and each large enough for several hundred ,indians to live in4 ,but ,marcos merely saw them at a distance1 for one of his followers who went in advance was killed by the ,zui1 whereupon ,marcos fled back to ,mexico4 ,illustration3 ,,pueblo1 ,,wooden ,,plow1 ,,and ,,ox ,,cart4 ,,the ,,spaniards ,,reach ,,kansas4--,marcos's reports about the seven cities of ,cibola 7see'bo-la71 as he called them1 aroused great interest1 and ,corona'do was sent with an army to conquer them4 ,marching up the east coast of the ,gulf of ,california and across ,arizona1 ,coronado came at last to the pueblos and captured them one by one4 ,he found no gold1 but did see doorways studded with the green stones of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,much disappointed1 he pushed on eastward1 and during two years wandered about over the plains of our great ,southwest and probably reached the center of what is now ,kansas4 #ah ,,de ,,soto ,,on ,,the ,,mississippi4--,as ,coronado was making his way home1 an ,indian woman escaped from his army1 and while wandering about fell in with a band of ,spaniards belonging to the army of ,de ,soto4 #ai ,de ,soto1 as governor of ,cuba1 had been authorized to conquer and hold all the territory that had been discovered by ,narvaez4 ,he set out accordingly in #aeci1 landed an army at ,tampa ,bay1 and spent three years in wandering over ,florida1 ,georgia1 ,alabama1 and ,mississippi4 ,in the spring of #aedb he crossed the ,mississippi ,river and entered ,arkansas1 and it was there that one of his bands met the ,indian woman who escaped from ,coronado's army4 ,in ,arkansas ,de ,soto died of fever1 and was buried in the ,mississippi ,river4 ,his followers then built a few boats1 floated down the river to the ,gulf1 and following the coast of ,texas came finally to the ,spanish settlements in ,mexico4 ,,the ,,french ,,on ,,the ,,coast4--,far to the northeast explorers of another ,european nation by this time were seeking a foothold4 ,when ,john ,cabot came home from his first voyage to the ,newfoundland coast1 he told such tales of cod fisheries thereabouts1 that three small ships set sail from ,england to catch fish and trade with the natives of the new-found isle4 ,portuguese and ,frenchmen followed1 and year after year visited the ,newfoundland fisheries4 ,no serious attempt was made to settle the island4 ,what ,europe wanted was a direct westward passage through ,america to ,cathay4 ,this ,john ,verrazano1 an ,italian sailing under the flag of ,france1 attempted to find1 and came to what is now the coast of ,north ,carolina4 ,there ,verrazano turned northward1 entered several bays along the coast1 sailed by the rock-bound shores of ,maine1 and when off ,newfoundland steered for ,france4 ,,the ,,french ,,on ,,the ,,st4 ,,lawrence4--,verrazano was followed 7#aecd7 by ,jacques ,cartier 7zhak car-tya'71 also in search of a passage to ,cathay4 ,reaching ,newfoundland 7map1 p4 #aad71 ,cartier passed through the strait to the north of it1 and explored a part of the gulf to the west4 ,a year later he came again1 named the gulf ,st4 ,lawrence1 and entered the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river1 which he thought was a strait leading to ,china4 ,up this river he sailed till stopped by the rapids which he named ,lachine 7,chinese74 ,near by was a high hill which he called ,mont ,real 7re-ahl'71 or ,mount ,royal4 ,at its base now stands the city of ,montreal4 #bj ,from this place the ,french went back to a steep cliff where now stands the city of ,quebec1 and1 it is believed1 spent the winter there4 ,the winter was a terrible one1 and when the ice left the river they returned to ,france 7#aecf74 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,long ,,house4 ,not discouraged1 ,cartier 7#aeda7 came a third time to plant a colony on the river4 ,but hunger1 mutiny1 and the severity of the winter brought the venture to naught4 #ba ,,no ,,settlements ,,in ,,our ,,country4--,from the first voyage of ,columbus to the expeditions of ,de ,soto1 ,coronado1 and ,cartier1 fifty years had passed4 ,the coast of the new continent had been roughly explored as far north as ,labrador on the east and ,california on the west4 ,the ,spaniards in quest of gold and silver mines had conquered and colonized the ,west ,indies1 ,mexico1 and parts of ,south ,america4 ,yet not a settlement had been made in our country4 ,many rivers and bays had been discovered2 two great expeditions had gone into the interior2 but there were no colonies on the mainland of what is now the ,united ,states4 ,,summary #a4 ,the voyage of ,columbus led to many other voyages1 prompted chiefly by a hope of finding gold4 ,they resulted in the exploration of the coast of ,america1 and may be grouped according to the parts explored1 as follows3-- #b4 ,the ,atlantic coast of ,north ,america was explored 7#adig-aece7 by ,cabot 7for ,england7--from ,newfoundland to ,south ,carolina4 ,ponce de ,leon 7for ,spain7--peninsula of ,florida4 ,verrazano 7for ,france7--from ,north ,carolina to ,newfoundland4 ,cartier 7for ,france7--,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence4 #c4 ,the ,gulf and ,caribbean coasts of ,north ,america were explored 7#aejb- #aebh7 for ,spain by ,columbus--,central ,america4 ,ponce de ,leon--west coast of ,florida4 ,pineda--from ,florida to ,mexico4 ,narvaez expedition--from ,florida to ,texas4 #d4 ,the ,atlantic coast of ,south ,america was explored 7#adih-aebj7 by ,columbus--mouth of the ,orinoco4 ,other explorers for ,spain--whole northern coast4 ,cabral 7for ,portugal7--part of eastern coast4 ,vespucius 7for ,portugal7--eastern coast nearly to the ,plata ,river4 ,magellan 7for ,spain7-- to the ,strait of ,magellan4 #e4 ,the ,pacific coast of ,america was explored 7#aeac-aedb7 for ,spain by ,balboa--part of ,panama4 ,magellan--part of the southwest coast4 ,pizarro 7note1 p4 #bc7--;from ,panama to ,peru4 ,cabrillo 7note1 p4 #bh7--;from ,mexico up the coast of ,california4 #f4 ,the ,spaniards early established colonies in the ,west ,indies1 ,south ,america1 and ,mexico2 but fifty years after ,columbus's discovery there was no settlement of ,europeans in the mainland part of the ,united ,states4 ,several ,spanish expeditions1 however1 had explored 7#aecd-aedb7 large parts of the interior3--,cabeza de ,vaca and his companions walked from ,texas to western ,mexico1 ,coronado wandered from ,mexico to ,kansas4 ,de ,soto wandered from ,florida beyond the ,mississippi ,river4 ,,footnotes #a ,this discovery made a great stir in ,bristol1 the port from which ,cabot sailed4 ,a letter written at the time states1 ,honors are heaped upon ,cabot4 ,he is called ,grand ,admiral1 he is dressed in silk1 and the ,english run after him like madmen4 ,the king gave him #aj and a pension of #bj a year4 ,a pound sterling in those days was in purchasing power quite the equal of fifty dollars in our time4 #b ,these voyages of ,cabot were not followed up at the time4 ,but in the days of ,queen ,elizabeth1 more than eighty years later1 they were made the basis of the ,english claim to a part of ,north ,america4 #c ,bristoll--,arthurus ,kemys et ,ricardus ap4 ,meryke collectores custumarum et subsidiorum regis ibidem a festo ,sancti ,michaelis ,archangeli anno ,,xiiii mo ,regis nunc usque idem festum ,sancti ,michaelis tunc proximo sequens reddunt computum de ,,mccccxxiiii li4 ,,vii ,s4 x d4 quadr4 ,de quibus4444 ,item in thesauro in una tallia pro ,johanne ,cabot1 xx li4 ,translation3 ,bristol --,arthur ,kemys and ,richard ap ,meryke1 collectors of the king's customs and subsidies there1 from ,michaelmas in the fourteenth year of this king's reign ,henry ,,vii till the same feast next following render their account of #adbd #gs4 #aj-a_/d;d44444 ,in the treasury is one tally for ,john ,cabot1 #bj4 #d ,on one of these voyages the ,spaniards saw an ,indian village built over the water on piles1 with bridges joining the houses4 ,this so reminded them of ,venice that they called it ,venezuela 7little ,venice71 a name afterward applied to a vast extent of country4 #e ,but now these parts ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa have been more widely explored1 and another fourth part has been discovered by ,americus ,vespucius 7as will appear in the following pages72 so ,i do not see why any one should rightly object to calling it ,amerige or ,america1 i4e4 land of ,americus1 after its discoverer ,americus1 a man of sagacious mind--since both ,europe and ,asia are named after women4 ,its situation and the ways of its people may be clearly understood from the four voyages of ,americus which follow4 #f ,vasco ,nuez de ,balboa had come from ,spain to ,haiti and settled down as a planter1 but when 7#aeaj7 an expedition was about to sail for ,south ,america to plant a colony near ,panama1 ,balboa longed to join it4 ,he was in debt2 so lest his creditors should prevent his going1 he had himself nailed up in a barrel and put on board one of the ships with the provisions4 #g ,in the course of expeditions along the eastern coast of ,mexico1 the ,spaniards heard of a mighty king1 ,montezuma1 who ruled many cities in the interior and had great stores of gold4 ,in #aeai ,cor'tes landed with #dej men and a few horses1 sank his ships1 and began inland one of the most wonderful marches in all history4 ,the account of the great things which he did1 of the marvelous cities he conquered1 of the strange and horrible sights he saw1 reads like fiction4 ,six days after reaching the city of ,mexico1 he seized ,montezuma and made himself the real ruler of the country2 but later the ,mexicans rose against him and he had to conquer them by hard fighting4 ,read the story of the conquest as briefly told in ,fiske's ,discovery of ,america1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bde-bic4 ,the ,spaniards also heard rumors of a golden kingdom to the southward where the ,incas ruled4 ,after preliminary voyages of exploration ,francisco ,pizarro sailed from ,panama in #aeca with #bjj men and #ej horses to conquer ,peru4 ,landing on the coast he marched inland to the camp of the ,inca1 a young man who had just seized the throne4 ,the sight of the white strangers clad in shining armor1 wielding thunder and lightning 7firearms71 and riding unearthly beasts 7horses were unknown to the ,indians71 caused wonder and dread in ,peru as it had in ,mexico4 ,the ,inca was made prisoner and hundreds of his followers were killed4 ,he offered to fill his prison room with gold as high as he could reach if ,pizarro would set him free2 the offer was accepted and in #aecc some #ae1jjj1jjj in gold was divided among the conquerors4 ,the ,inca1 however1 was put to death1 and the ,spaniards took possession of the whole country4 #h ,none of ,magellan's vessels were as large as the ,santa ,maria1 and three were smaller than the ,nia4 ,the sailors demanded that ,magellan return to ,spain4 ,when he refused1 the captains and crews of three ships mutinied1 and were put down with difficulty4 #i ,guam1 which now belongs to our country1 is one of the ,ladrones4 #aj ,the ,spaniards took possession of the ,philippines a few years later1 and in #aega founded ,manila4 ,the group was named after ,philip ,,ii of ,spain4 ,in #aeee a ,spanish navigator discovered the ,hawaiian ,islands2 but though they were put down on the early ,spanish charts1 the ,spaniards did not take possession of them4 ,indeed1 these islands were practically forgotten1 and two centuries passed before they were rediscovered by the ,english explorer1 ,captain ,cook1 in #aggh4 #aa ,magellan was a very religious man1 and after making an alliance with the king of the island of ,cebu1 he set about converting the natives to ,christianity4 ,the king1 greatly impressed by the wonders the white man did1 consented4 ,a bonfire was lighted1 the idols were thrown in1 a cross was set up1 and the natives were baptized4 ,this done1 the king called on ,magellan to help him attack the chief of a neighboring island2 but in the attack ,magellan was killed and his men put to flight4 ,this defeat so angered the king that he invited thirty ,spaniards to a feast1 massacred them1 cut down the cross1 and again turned pagan4 #ab ,read the account in ,fiske's ,discovery of ,america1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aij-baa4 #ac ,juan ,ponce de ,leon had sailed with ,columbus on his second voyage1 and had settled in ,haiti4 ,hearing that there was gold in ,porto ,rico1 he explored it for ,spain1 in #aeji was made its governor1 and in #aeaa founded the city of ,san ,juan 7sahn hoo-ahn'74 ,after he was removed from the governorship1 he obtained leave to search for the island of ,bimini4 #ad ,he now obtained authority to colonize the supposed island2 but several years passed before he was ready to make the attempt4 ,he then set off with arms1 tools1 horses1 and two hundred men1 landed on the west coast of ,florida1 lost many men in a fight with the ,indians1 and received a wound of which he died soon after in ,cuba4 #ae ,the story of this remarkable march across the continent is told in ,the ,spanish ,pioneers1 by ,c4 ,f4 ,lummis4 #af ,there was a tradition in ,europe that when the ,arabs conquered ,spain in the eighth century1 a certain bishop with a goodly following fled to some islands far out in the ,sea of ,darkness and founded seven cities4 ,when the ,spaniards came in contact with the ,indians of ,mexico1 they were told of seven caves from which the ancestors of the natives had issued1 and jumped to the conclusion that the seven caves were the seven cities2 and when ,cabeza de ,vaca came with his story of the wonderful cities of the north1 it was believed that they were the towns built by the bishop4 #ag ,at an ,indian village in ,mexico1 ,marcos heard of a country to the northward where there were seven cities with houses of two1 three1 and four stories1 and that of the chief with five4 ,on the doorsills and lintels of the best houses1 he was told1 were turquoise stones4 #ah ,read ,the ,spanish ,pioneers1 by ,c4 ,f4 ,lummis1 pp4 #gg-hh1 #aja-adc4 ,the year that ,coronado returned to ,mexico 7#aedb7 an expedition under ,cabrillo 7kah-breel'yo7 coasted from ,mexico along what is now ,california4 ,cabrillo died in ,san ,diego harbor4 #ai ,hernando de ,soto was born about #aejj in ,spain1 and when of age went to ,panama and thence to ,peru with ,pizarro4 ,in the conquest of ,peru he so distinguished himself that on returning to ,spain he was made governor of ,cuba4 #bj ,landing on this spot1 ,cartier set forth to visit the great ,indian village of ,hochelaga4 ,he found it surrounded with a palisade of tree trunks set in three rows4 ,entering the narrow gate1 he beheld some fifty long houses of sapling frames covered with bark1 each containing many fires1 one for a family4 ,from these houses came swarms of women and children1 who crowded about the visitors1 touched their beards1 and patted their faces4 ,soon the warriors came and squatted row after row around the ,french1 for whom mats were brought and laid on the ground4 ,this done1 the chief1 a paralyzed old savage1 was carried in1 and ,cartier was besought by signs to heal him1 and when ,cartier had touched him1 all the sick1 lame1 and blind in the village were brought out for treatment4 ,read ,parkman's ,pioneers of ,france in the ,new ,world1 pp4 #ahg-aic4 #ba ,as ,cartier was on his way home he stopped at the harbor of ,st4 ,johns in ,newfoundland1 a harbor then frequented by fishermen from the ,old ,world4 ,there he was met by three ships and #bjj colonists under ,roberval1 who ordered him to return4 ,but one night ,cartier slipped away in the darkness4 ,roberval went on to the site of ,quebec and there planted his colony4 ,what became of it is not known2 but that it did not last long is certain1 and many years passed before ,france repeated the attempt to gain a foothold on the great river of ,canada4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,france ,,and ,,england ,,attempt ,,to ,,settle ,,america ,,the ,,french ,,in ,,south ,,carolina4--,after the failure in ,canada twenty years passed away before the ,french again attempted to colonize4 ,then 7#aefb7 ,admiral ,coligny 7co-leen'ye71 the leader of the ,huguenots1 or ,protestants of ,france1 sought to plant a colony in ,america for his persecuted countrymen1 and sent forth an expedition under ,ribaut 7ree-bo'74 ,these ,frenchmen reached the coast of ,florida1 and turning northward came to a haven which they called ,port ,royal4 ,here they built a fort in what is now ,south ,carolina4 ,leaving thirty men to hold it1 ,ribaut sailed for ,france4 ,famine1 homesickness1 ignorance of life in a wilderness1 soon brought the colony to ruin4 ,unable to endure their hardships longer1 the colonists built a crazy boat1 #a put to sea1 and when off the ,french coast were rescued by an ,english vessel4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,settlements ,,in ,,the ,,south4 ,,the ,,french ,,in ,,florida4--,two years later 7#aefd7 ,coligny tried again1 and sent forth a colony under ,laudonnire 7lo-do-ne-air'74 ,it reached the coast of ,florida1 and a few miles up the ,st4 ,johns ,river built a fort called ,caroline in honor of the ,french ,king ,charles4 ,the next year there came more colonists under ,ribaut4 #b ,illustration3 ,,fort ,,caroline4 ,from an old print4 ,,the ,,spaniards ,,found ,,st4 ,,augustine4--,now it so happened that just at this time a ,spaniard named ,menendez 7ma-nen'deth7 had obtained leave to conquer and settle ,florida4 ,before he could set off1 news came to ,spain that the ,french were on the ,st4 ,johns ,river1 and ,menendez was sent with troops to drive them out4 ,he landed in ,florida in #aefe and built a fort which was the beginning of ,st4 ,augustine1 the first permanent settlement on the mainland part of the ,united ,states4 ,ribaut at once sailed to attack it4 ,but while he was at sea ,menendez marched overland1 took ,fort ,caroline1 and put to death every man there1 save a few who made good their escape4 #c ,,spain ,,holds ,,america4--,more than seventy years had now parsed since ,columbus made his great voyage of discovery4 ,yet1 save some ,portuguese settlements in ,brazil1 the only ,european colonies in ,america were ,spanish4 ,from ,st4 ,augustine1 around the ,gulf of ,mexico1 down ,south ,america to the ,strait of ,magellan and up the west coast to ,california1 save the foothold of ,portugal1 island and mainland belonged to ,spain4 ,and all the rest of ,north ,america she claimed4 ,,english ,,attacks ,,on ,,spain ,,in ,,the ,,new ,,world4--,so far in the sixteenth century ,england had taken little or no part in the work of discovery1 exploration1 and settlement4 ,her fishermen came to the ,banks of ,newfoundland2 but not till #aefb1 in the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 did the contact of ,england with the ,new ,world really begin4 ,then it was that ,sir ,john ,hawkins1 one of ,england's great sea kings1 went to ,africa1 loaded his ships with negroes1 sold them to planters in ,haiti1 and came home with hides and pearls4 ,such trade for one not a ,spaniard was against the law of ,spain4 ,but ,hawkins cared not1 arid came again and again4 ,when foul weather drove him into a ,mexican port1 the ,spaniards sank most of his ships1 but ,hawkins escaped with two vessels1 in one of which was ,francis ,drake4 #d ,smarting under defeat1 ,drake resolved to be avenged4 ,fitting out a little squadron at his own cost1 without leave of the queen1 ,drake 7#aegb7 sailed to the ,caribbean ,sea1 plundered ,spanish towns along the coast1 captured ,spanish ships1 and went home loaded with gold1 silver1 and merchandise4 #e ,,drake ,,sails ,,around ,,the ,,globe4--,during this raid on the ,spanish coast ,drake marched across the ,isthmus of ,panama and looked down upon ,balboa's great ,south ,sea4 ,as he looked1 he resolved to sail on it1 and in #aegg left ,england with five ships on what proved to be the greatest voyage since that of ,magellan4 ,he crossed the ,atlantic1 sailed down the coast of ,south ,america1 and entered the ,strait of ,magellan4 ,there four ships deserted1 but ,drake went on alone up the west coast1 plundering towns and capturing ,spanish vessels4 ,to return the way he came would have been dangerous1 for ,spanish cruisers lay in wait4 ,drake1 therefore1 went on up the coast in search of a passage through the continent to the ,atlantic4 ,coasting as far as southern ,oregon and finding no passage1 ,drake turned southward1 entered a harbor1 repaired his ship1 and then started westward across the ,pacific4 ,he touched at the ,philippines1 visited the ,spice ,islands1 came home by way of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and won the glory of being the first ,englishman to sail around the globe4 #f ,illustration3 ,,drake',s ,,astrolabe4 ,now in ,greenwich ,hospital1 ,london4 ,,the ,,english ,,in ,,the ,,far ,,north4--,while ,drake was on his voyage around the world1 ,martin ,frob'isher discovered ,hudson ,strait1 #g and ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert failed in an attempt to plant a colony somewhere in ,america4 ,the failure was disheartening4 ,but the return of ,drake laden with spoil aroused new interest in ,america1 and 7in #aehc7 ,gilbert led a colony to ,newfoundland4 ,disaster after disaster overtook him1 and while he was on his way home with two vessels 7all that were left of five71 one with ,gilbert on board went down at sea4 #h ,,the ,,english ,,on ,,roanoke ,,island4--,the work of colonization then passed to ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 a half-brother of ,gilbert4 ,he began by sending out a party of explorers who sailed along the coast of ,north ,carolina and brought back such a glowing description of the country that the queen named it ,virginia and ,raleigh chose it for the site of a colony4 #i ,in #aehe1 accordingly1 a party of men commanded by ,ralph ,lane were landed on ,roanoke ,island 7map1 p4 #dd74 ,but the site proved to be ill chosen1 and the ,indians were hostile4 ,the colonists were poorly fitted to live in a wilderness1 and were almost starving when ,drake1 who stopped at ,roanoke 7#aehf7 to see how they were getting on1 carried them back to ,england4 #aj ,illustration3 ,,raleigh',s ,,pipes4 ,,the ,,lost ,,colony4--,not long after ,drake sailed away with the colonists1 a party of recruits arrived with supplies4 ,finding the island deserted1 fifteen men remained to hold the place in the queen's name1 and the rest returned to ,england4 ,not disheartened by these reverses1 ,raleigh summoned some men of influence to his aid1 and 7in #aehg7 sent out a third party of settlers1 both men and women1 in charge of ,john ,white4 ,this party was to stop at ,roanoke ,island1 pick up the fifteen men there1 and then go on to ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,but for some reason the settlers were left on the island by the convoy1 and there they were forced to stay4 #aa ,illustration3 ,,indians ,,in ,a ,,dugout ,,canoe4 ,part of a drawing by ,john ,white4 ,white very soon went back to ,england for help1 in the only ship the colonists had4 ,war with ,spain prevented his return for several years1 and then only the ruins of the settlement were found on the island4 #ab ,illustration3 ,,english ,,dress1 ,,sixteenth ,,century4 ,contemporary portrait of ,raleigh and his son1 by ,zuccaro4 ,,spain ,,attacks ,,england4--,the war which prevented ,white from promptly returning to ,roanoke began in #aehe4 ,the next year1 with twenty-five ships1 ,drake attacked the possessions of ,spain in ,america1 and burned and plundered several towns4 ,in #aehg he singed the beard of the king of ,spain by burning a hundred vessels in the harbor of the ,spanish city of ,cadiz4 ,enraged by these defeats1 ,king ,philip ,,ii of ,spain determined to invade ,england and destroy that nest of sea rovers4 ,a great fleet known as the ,invincible ,armada1 carrying thirty thousand men1 was assembled and in #aehh swept into the ,english channel4 ,there the ,english1 led by ,raleigh1 #ac ,drake1 ,frobisher1 ,hawkins1 ,lane1 and all the other great sea kings1 met the ,armada1 drove it into the ,north ,sea1 and captured1 burned1 and sank many of the ships4 ,the rest fled around ,scotland1 on whose coast more were wrecked4 ,less than half the ,armada returned to ,spain4 #ad ,,the ,,english ,,explore ,,the ,,new ,,england ,,coast4--,the war lasted sixteen years longer 7till #afjd74 ,though it delayed1 it did not stop1 attempts at colonization4 ,in #afjb ,bartholomew ,gosnold1 with a colony of thirty-two men1 sailed from ,england1 saw the coast of ,maine1 turned southward1 named ,cape ,cod and the ,elizabeth ,islands1 #ae and after a short stay went home4 ,the next year ,martin ,pring came with two vessels on an exploring and trading voyage2 and in #afje ,george ,weymouth was sent out1 visited the ,kennebec ,river in ,maine1 and brought back a good report of the country4 ,,the ,,virginia ,,charter ,,of #afjf4--,peace had now been made with ,spain2 ,england had not been forced to stop her attempts to colonize in ,america2 the favorable reports of ,gosnold1 ,pring1 and ,weymouth led to the belief that colonies could be successfully planted2 and in #afjf ,king ,james ,i chartered two commercial companies to colonize ,virginia1 as the ,atlantic seaboard region was called4 ,to the first or ,london ,company was granted the right to plant a colony anywhere along the coast between #cd and #da of north latitude 7between ,cape ,fear ,river and the ,hudson74 ,to the second or ,plymouth ,company was given the right to plant a colony anywhere between #ch and #de 7between the ,potomac ,river and the ,bay of ,fundy74 ,each company was to have a tract of land one hundred miles square--fifty miles along the coast each way from the first settlement and one hundred miles inland2 and to prevent overlapping1 it was provided that the company last to settle should not locate within one hundred miles of the other company's settlement4 ,illustration3 ,,virginia4 ,,the ,,colony ,,on ,,the ,,kennebec4--,the charter having been granted1 each company set about securing emigrants4 ,to get them was not difficult1 for in ,england at that day there were many people whose condition was so desperate that they were glad to seek a new home beyond the sea4 #af ,in a few months1 therefore1 the ,plymouth ,company sent out its first party of colonists2 but the ship was seized by the ,spaniards4 ,the next year 7#afjg7 the company sent out one hundred or more settlers in two ships4 ,they landed in ,august at the mouth of the ,kennebec ,river1 and built a fort1 a church1 a storehouse1 and fifteen log cabins4 ,these men were wholly unfit for life in a wilderness1 and in ,december about half went home in the ships in which they came4 ,the others passed a dismal winter1 and when a relief ship arrived in the spring1 all went back1 and the ,plymouth ,company's attempt to colonize ended in failure4 ,,the ,,colony ,,on ,,the ,,james4--,meanwhile another band of ,englishmen 7one hundred and forty-three in number7 had been sent out by the ,london ,company to found a colony in what is now ,virginia4 ,they set sail in ,december1 #afjf1 in three ships under ,captain ,newport1 and in ,april1 #afjg1 reached the entrance of ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,sailing westward across the bay1 the ships entered a river which was named the ,james in honor of the king1 and on the bank of this river the party landed and founded ,jamestown 7map1 p4 #dd74 ,with this event began the permanent occupation of ,american soil by ,englishmen4 ,at this time1 more than a hundred years after the voyages of ,columbus1 the only other ,european settlers on the ,atlantic coast of the ,united ,states were the ,spaniards in ,florida4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,at ,,jamestown4 ,church tower as it looks to-day4 ,,summary #a4 ,the ,huguenots tried to found ,french colonies on the coast of ,south ,carolina 7#aefb7 and of ,florida 7#aefd72 but both attempts failed4 #b4 ,in #aefe all ,america1 save ,brazil1 either was in ,spanish hands1 or was claimed by ,spain and not yet occupied4 #c4 ,during the next twenty years ,english sailors began to fight ,spaniards1 ,drake sailed around the globe1 ,frobisher explored the far north1 and ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert attempted to plant a colony in ,newfoundland4 #d4 ,gilbert's half-brother ,raleigh then took up the work of colonization1 but his attempts to plant a colony at ,roanoke ,island ended in failure4 #e4 ,the attacks of ,english buccaneers on the ,american colonies of ,spain led to a war 7#aehe-afjd71 in which the most memorable event was the defeat of the ,spanish ,armada4 #f4 ,after the war two companies were chartered to plant ,english colonies in ,america4 ,the ,plymouth ,company's colony was a failure1 but in #afjg the ,london ,company founded ,jamestown4 ,,footnotes #a ,the forests supplied the trees for timbers4 ,the seams were calked with the moss that hung in clusters from the branches1 and then smeared with pitch from the pines4 ,the ,indians made them a rude sort of rope for cordage1 and for sails they sewed together bedding and shirts4 ,on the voyage home they ate their shoes and leather jerkins4 ,read ,kirk ,munroe's ,flamingo ,feather4 #b ,these men were adventurers1 not true colonists1 and little disposed to endure the toil1 hunger1 and dreariness of a life in the wilderness4 ,it was not long1 therefore1 before the boldest of them seized two little vessels and sailed away to plunder ,spaniards in the ,west ,indies4 ,famine drove them into ,havana1 where to save their necks they told what was going on in ,florida4 ,sixty-six mutineers presently seized two other vessels and turned buccaneers4 ,but the survivors were forced to return to ,fort ,caroline1 where the leaders were put to death4 #c ,some of these and many others1 who were shipwrecked with ,ribaut1 afterward surrendered and were killed4 ,as ,florida was considered ,spanish territory the ,french had no right to settle there1 so the ,french king did nothing more than protest to ,spain4 ,read the story of the ,french in ,florida as told by ,parkman1 in ,pioneers of ,france in the ,new ,world1 pp4 #bh-afb4 #d ,read ,fiske's ,old ,virginia and her ,neighbours1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ai-bj4 #e ,read ,kingsley's ,westward ,ho6 and ,barnes's ,drake and his ,yeomen4 ,on returning to ,england in #aegc1 ,drake reached ,plymouth on a ,sunday1 during church time4 ,so great was the excitement that the people left the church during the sermon1 in order to get sight of him4 #f ,on his return in #aehj ,queen ,elizabeth knighted ,drake on his own deck4 ,a chair made from the timbers of his vessel 7the ,golden ,hind7 is now at ,oxford4 ,read ,fiske's ,old ,virginia and her ,neighbours1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bf-bh4 #g ,in #aegf ,frobisher1 when in search of a northwest passage to ,china1 made his way through ,arctic ice to the bay which now bears his name4 ,two more voyages were made to the far north in search of gold4 #h ,the ships were overtaken off the ,azores by a furious gale4 ,gilbert's vessel was a very little one1 so he was urged to come aboard his larger consort2 but he refused to desert his companions1 and replied1 ,do not fear2 heaven is as near by water as by land4 #i ,queen ,elizabeth had declared she would recognize no ,spanish claim to ,american territory not founded on discovery and settlement4 ,raleigh was authorized1 therefore1 to hold by homage heathen lands1 not actually possessed and inhabited by ,christian people1 which he might discover within the next six years4 #aj ,the colonists took home some tobacco1 which at that time was greatly prized in ,england4 ,when ,columbus reached the island of ,cuba in #adib1 two of his followers1 sent on an errand into the interior1 met natives who rolled certain dried leaves into tubes1 and1 lighting one end with a firebrand1 drew the smoke into their bodies and puffed it out4 ,this was the first time that ,europeans had seen cigars smoked4 ,the ,spaniards carried tobacco to ,europe1 and its use spread rapidly4 ,there is a story to the effect that a servant entering a room one morning and seeing smoke issuing from ,raleigh's mouth1 thought he was on fire and dashed water in his face4 #aa ,on ,roanoke ,island1 ,august #ah1 #aehg1 a girl was born and named ,virginia4 ,she was the granddaughter of ,governor ,white and the daughter of ,eleanor and ,ananias ,dare1 and the first child of ,english parents born on the soil of what is now the ,united ,states4 #ab ,the settlers had agreed that if they left ,roanoke before ,white returned1 the name of the place to which they went should be cut on a tree1 and a cross added if they were in distress4 ,when ,white returned the blockhouse was in ruins1 and cut on a tree was the name of a near-by island4 ,a storm prevented the ship going thither1 and despite ,white's protests he was carried back to ,england4 ,what became of the colony1 no man knows4 #ac ,raleigh was an important figure in ,english history for many years after the failure of his ,roanoke colony4 ,when ,queen ,elizabeth died 7#afjc71 he fell into disfavor with her successor1 ,king ,james ,i4 ,he was falsely accused of treason and thrown into prison1 where he remained during twelve years4 ,there he wrote his ,history of the ,world4 ,after a short period of liberty1 ,raleigh was beheaded4 ,as he stood on the scaffold he asked for the ax1 and said1 ,this is a sharp medicine1 but a sound cure for all diseases4 #ad ,read ,fiske's ,old ,virginia and her ,neighbours1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cc-ch4 #ae ,the ,elizabeth ,islands are close to the south coast of ,massachusetts4 ,a few miles farther south ,gosnold found another small island which he named ,marthas ,vineyard4 ,later explorers by mistake shifted the name ,marthas ,vineyard to a large island near by1 and the little island which ,gosnold found is now called ,no ,mans ,land 7map1 p4 #ei74 #af ,the industrial condition of ,england was changing4 ,the end of the long war with ,spain had thrown thousands of soldiers out of employment2 the turning of plow land into sheep farms left thousands of laborers without work2 manufactures were still in too primitive a state to provide employment for all who needed it4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,english ,,on ,,the ,,chesapeake ,,life ,,at ,,jamestown4--,the colonists who landed at ,jamestown in #afjg were all men4 ,while some of them were building a fort1 ,captain ,newport1 with ,captain ,john ,smith and others1 explored the ,james ,river and visited the ,powhatan1 chief of a neighboring tribe of ,indians4 ,this done1 ,newport returned to ,england 7,june1 #afjg7 with his three ships1 leaving one hundred and five colonists to begin a struggle for life4 ,bad water1 fever1 hard labor1 the intense heat of an ,american summer1 and the scarcity of food caused such sickness that by ,september more than half the colonists were dead4 #a ,indeed1 had it not been for ,smith1 who got corn from the ,indians and directed affairs in general1 the fate of ,jamestown might have been that of ,roanoke4 #b ,as it was1 but forty were alive when ,newport returned ,in ,january1 #afjh1 with the first supply of one hundred and twenty men4 ,illustration3 ,,smith ,,in ,,slavery4 ,picture in one of his books4 ,illustration3 ,,powhatan',s ,,coat4 ,now in a museum at ,oxford4 ,,the ,,company',s ,,orders4--,newport was ordered to bring back a cargo4 ,so while some of the colonists cut down cedar and black walnut trees and made clapboards1 others loaded the ship with glittering sand which they thought was gold dust4 ,these labors drew the men away from agriculture1 and only four acres were planted with corn4 ,in ,september ,newport was back again with the second supply of seventy persons2 two of them were women4 ,this time he was ordered to crown the ,powhatan1 and to find a gold mine1 discover a passage to the ,south ,sea1 or find ,raleigh's lost colony4 ,smith laughed at these orders4 ,but they had to be obeyed2 so several parties went southward in search of the lost colony1 but found it not2 ,newport went westward beyond the falls of the ,james in search of the passage2 and the ,powhatan was duly crowned and dressed in a crimson robe4 #c ,no gold mine could be found1 so ,newport sailed for ,england with a cargo of pitch1 tar1 and clapboards4 ,,smith ,,rules ,,the ,,colony4--,by this time ,smith had become president of the council for the government of the colony4 ,he decreed that those who did not work should not eat2 and by spring his men had dug a well1 shingled the church1 put up twenty cabins1 and cleared and planted forty acres of corn4 ,yet1 despite all he could do1 the colony was on the verge of ruin when in ,august1 #afji1 seven ships landed some three hundred men1 women1 and children known as the third supply4 #d ,,jamestown ,,abandoned4--,and now matters went from bad to worse4 ,the leaders quarreled2 ,smith was injured and had to go back to ,england2 the ,indians became hostile2 food became scarce2 and when at last neither corn nor roots could be had1 the colonists began to suffer the horrors of famine4 ,during that awful winter1 long known as the starving time1 cold1 famine1 and the ,indians swept away more than four hundred4 ,when ,newport arrived in ,may1 #afaj1 only sixty famishing creatures inhabited ,jamestown4 ,to continue the colony seemed hopeless2 and going on board the ships 7,june1 #afaj71 the colonists set sail for ,england and had gone well down the ,james when they met ,lord ,delaware with three well-provisioned ships coming up4 #e ,,jamestown ,,resettled4--,lord ,delaware had come out as governor under a new charter granted to the ,london ,company in #afji4 ,this is of interest because it gave to the colony an immense domain of which we shall hear more after ,virginia became a state4 ,this domain extended from ,point ,comfort1 two hundred miles up and two hundred miles down the coast1 and then up into the land throughout from sea to sea1 west and northwest4 ,after the meeting between the departing settlers and the newcomers under ,delaware1 the whole band returned to ,jamestown and began once more the struggle for existence4 ,,prosperity ,,begins4--,delaware1 who soon went back to ,england1 left ,sir ,thomas ,dale in command1 and under him the colony began to prosper4 ,hitherto the colonists had lived as communists4 ,the company owned all the land1 and whatever food was raised was put into the public granary to be divided among the settlers1 share and share alike4 ,dale changed this system1 and the old planters were given land to cultivate for themselves4 ,the effect was magical4 ,men who were lazy when toiling as servants of the company1 become industrious when laboring for themselves1 and prosperity began in earnest4 ,more settlers soon arrived with a number of cows1 goats1 and oxen1 and the little colony began to expand4 ,when ,dale's term as acting governor ended in #afaf1 ,virginia contained six little settlements besides ,jamestown4 ,the next governor1 ,yeardley1 introduced the cultivation of tobacco1 which was now much used in ,europe and commanded a high price4 ,illustration3 ,,virginia 7from #afji to #afbd74 ,,the ,,first ,,representative ,,assembly4--,yeardley was succeeded 7#afag7 by ,argall1 who for two years ruled ,virginia with a rod of iron4 ,so harsh was his rule that the company was forced to recall him and send back ,yeardley4 ,yeardley came with instructions to summon a general assembly1 and in ,july1 #afai1 the first legislative body in ,america met in the little church at ,jamestown2 eleven boroughs were represented4 ,each sent two burgesses1 as they were called1 and these twenty-two men made the first ,house of ,burgesses1 and had power to enact laws for the colony4 #f ,,slavery ,,introduced4--,another event which makes #afai a memorable year in our history was the arrival at ,jamestown of a ,dutch ship with a cargo of ,african negroes for sale4 ,twenty were bought1 and the institution of negro slavery was planted in ,virginia4 ,this seemed quite proper1 for there were then in the colony many white slaves1 or bond servants--men bound to service for a term of years4 ,the difference between one of these and an ,african negro slave was that the white man served for a short time1 and the negro during his life4 #g ,a ,,cargo ,,of ,,maids4--,yet another event which makes #afai a notable year in ,virginian history was the arrival of a ship with ninety young women sent out by the company to become wives of the settlers4 ,the early comers to ,virginia had been adventurers1 that is1 men seeking to better their fortunes1 not intending to live and die in ,virginia1 but hoping to return to ,england in a few years rich1 or at least prosperous4 ,that the colony with such a shifting population could not prosper was certain4 ,virginia needed homes4 ,the mass of the settlers were unmarried1 and the company very wisely determined to supply them with wives4 ,the ninety young women sent over in #afai1 and others sent later1 were free to choose their own husbands3 but each man1 on marrying one of them1 had to pay one hundred and twenty pounds of tobacco for her passage to ,virginia4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,maids ,,arrive ,,in ,,virginia4 ,,the ,,charter ,,taken ,,away4--,for ,virginia the future now looked bright4 ,her tobacco found ready sale in ,england at a large profit4 ,the right to make her own laws gave promise of good government4 ,the founding of home ties could not fail to produce increased energy on the part of the settlers4 ,but trouble was brewing for the ,london ,company4 ,the king was quarreling with a part of his people1 and the company was in the hands of his opponents4 ,looking upon it as a seminary of sedition1 ,king ,james secured 7#afbd7 the destruction of the charter1 and ,virginia became a royal province4 #h ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,colony ,,in #afbd4--,the colony of ,virginia when deprived of its charter was a little community of some four thousand souls1 scattered in plantations on and near the ,james ,river4 ,let us go back to those times and visit one of the plantations4 ,the home of the planter is a wooden house with rough-hewn beams and unplaned boards1 surrounded by a high stockade4 ,near by are the farm buildings and the cabins of his bond servants4 ,his books1 his furniture1 his clothing and that of his family1 have all come from ,england4 ,so also have the farming implements and very likely the greater part of his cows and pigs4 ,on his land are fields of wheat and barley and ,indian corn2 but the chief crop is tobacco4 #i ,,effects ,,of ,,tobacco ,,planting4--,as time passed and the ,virginians found that the tobacco always brought a good price in ,england1 they made it more and more the chief crop4 ,this powerfully affected the whole character of the colony4 ,it drew to ,virginia a better class of settlers1 who came over to grow rich as planters4 ,it led the people to live almost exclusively on plantations1 and prevented the growth of large towns4 ,tobacco became the currency of the colony1 and salaries1 wages1 and debts were paid1 and taxes levied1 and wealth and income estimated1 in pounds of tobacco4 ,,few ,,roads ,,in ,,virginia4--,as there were few towns1 #aj so there were few roads4 ,the great plantations lay along the river banks4 ,it was easy1 therefore1 for a planter to go on visits of business or pleasure in a sailboat or in a barge rowed by his servants4 ,the fine rivers and the location of the plantations along their banks enabled each planter to have his own wharf1 to which came ships from ,england laden with tables1 chairs1 cutlery1 tools1 rich silks1 and cloth1 everything the planter needed for his house1 his family1 his servants1 and his plantation1 all to be paid for with casks of tobacco4 ,illustration3 ,,foundations ,,at ,,jamestown4 ,,governor ,,berkeley4--,despite the change from rule by the company to rule by the king1 ,virginia grew and prospered4 ,when ,sir ,william ,berkeley came over as governor 7in #afdb71 her ,english population was nearly fifteen thousand and her slaves three hundred1 and many of her planters were men of much wealth4 ,berkeley's first term as governor 7#afdb-afeb7 covered the period of the ,civil ,war in ,england4 ,,civil ,,war ,,in ,,england4--,when ,king ,james died 7in #afbe7 he was succeeded by ,charles ,i1 under whom the old quarrel between the king and the people1 which had caused the downfall of the ,london ,company1 was pushed into civil war4 ,in #afdb ,charles ,i took the field1 raised the royal standard1 and called all loyal subjects to its defense4 ,the ,parliament of ,england likewise raised an army1 and after varying fortunes the king was defeated1 captured1 tried for high treason1 found guilty1 and beheaded 7#afdi74 ,england then became a republic1 called the ,commonwealth4 ,,the ,,cavaliers4--,while the ,civil ,war was raging in ,england1 ,virginia 7largely because of the influence of ,governor ,berkeley7 remained loyal to the king4 ,as the war went on and the defeats of the royal army were followed by the capture of the king1 numbers of his friends1 the ,cavaliers1 fled to ,virginia4 ,after ,charles ,i was beheaded1 more than three hundred of the nobility1 gentry1 and clergy of ,england came over in one year4 ,no wonder1 then1 that the ,general ,assembly recognized the dead king's son as ,king ,charles ,,ii1 and made it treason to doubt his right to the throne4 ,because of this support of the royal cause1 ,parliament punished ,virginia by cutting off her trade1 and ordered that steps be taken to reduce her to submission4 ,a fleet was accordingly dispatched1 reached ,virginia early in #afeb1 and forced ,berkeley to hand over the government to three ,parliamentary commissioners4 ,one of them was then elected governor1 and ,virginia had almost complete self-government till #affj1 when ,england again became a kingdom1 under ,charles ,,ii4 ,,maryland1 ,,the ,,first ,,proprietary ,,colony4--,when ,virginia became crown property 7#afbd71 the king could do with it what he pleased4 ,king ,charles ,i accordingly cut off a piece and gave it to ,george ,calvert1 ,lord ,baltimore4 #aa ,this ,lord ,baltimore was a ,catholic who had tried in vain to found a settlement in ,newfoundland4 ,he died before the patent1 or deed1 was drawn for the land cut off from ,virginia1 so 7#afcb7 it was issued to his son ,cecilius1 the second ,lord ,baltimore4 ,the province lay north of the ,potomac ,river and was called ,maryland4 ,illustration3 ,,maryland ,,by ,,the ,,original ,,patent4 ,by the terms of the grant ,lord ,baltimore was to pay the king each year two arrowheads in token of homage1 and as rent was to give the king one fifth of all the gold and silver mined4 ,this done1 he was proprietor of ,maryland4 ,he might coin money1 grant titles1 make war and peace1 establish courts1 appoint judges1 and pardon criminals4 ,but he was not allowed to tax the people without their consent4 ,he had to summon a legislature to assist him in making laws1 but the laws when made did not need to be sent to the king for approval4 ,,the ,,first ,,settlers4--,the first settlement was made by a company of about twenty gentlemen and three hundred artisans and laborers4 ,they were led and accompanied by two of ,lord ,baltimore's brothers1 and by two ,catholic priests4 ,they came over in #afcd in two ships1 the ,ark and the ,dove1 and not far from the mouth of the ,potomac founded ,st4 ,marys4 ,in ,february1 #afce1 they held their first ,assembly4 ,to it came all freemen1 both landholders and artisans1 and by them a body of laws was framed and sent to the proprietor 7,lord ,baltimore7 for approval4 ,,self-,,government ,,begun4--,this was refused1 and in its place the proprietor sent over a code of laws1 which the ,assembly in its turn rejected4 ,the ,assembly then went on and framed another set of laws4 ,baltimore with rare good sense now yielded the point1 and gave his brother authority to assent to the laws made by the people1 but reserved the right to veto4 ,thus was free self-government established in ,maryland4 #ab ,,trouble ,,with ,,claiborne4--,before ,lord ,baltimore obtained his grant1 ,william ,claiborne1 of ,virginia1 had established an ,indian trading post on ,kent ,island in ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,this fell within the limits given to ,maryland2 but ,claiborne refused to acknowledge the authority of ,baltimore1 whereupon a vessel belonging to the ,kent ,island station was seized by the ,marylanders for trading without a license4 ,claiborne then sent an armed boat with thirty men to capture any vessel belonging to ,st4 ,marys4 ,this boat was itself captured1 instead2 but another fight soon occurred1 in which ,claiborne's forces beat the ,marylanders4 ,the struggle thus begun lasted for years4 #ac ,,the ,,toleration ,,act4--,the year #afdi is memorable for the passage of the ,maryland ,toleration ,act1 the first of its kind in our history4 ,this provided that no person or persons whatsoever within this province1 professing to believe in ,jesus ,christ1 shall from henceforth be any ways troubled1 molested1 or discountenanced for1 or in respect to1 his or her religion4 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,claiborne ,,trouble4--,the nine years that followed formed a stormy period for ,maryland4 ,one of the parliamentary commissioners to reduce ,virginia to obedience 7#afeb1 p4 #di7 was our old friend ,claiborne4 ,he and the new governor of ,virginia forced ,baltimore's governor to resign1 and set up a ,protestant government which repealed the ,toleration ,act and disfranchised ,roman ,catholics4 ,baltimore bade his deposed governor resume office4 ,a battle followed1 the ,protestant forces won1 and an attempt was made to destroy the rights of ,baltimore2 but the ,english government sustained him1 the ,virginians were forced to submit1 and the quarrel of more than twenty years' standing came to an end4 ,thenceforth ,virginia troubled ,maryland no more4 ,,growth ,,of ,,maryland4--,the population of the colony1 meantime1 grew rapidly4 ,pamphlets describing the colony and telling how to emigrate and acquire land were circulated in ,england4 ,many of the first comers wrote home and brought out more men1 and were thus enabled to take up more land4 ,emigrants who came with ten or twenty settlers were given manors or plantations4 ,such as came alone received farms4 ,most of the work on plantations was done by indented white servants1 both convicts and redemptioners4 #ad ,negro slavery existed in ,maryland from the beginning1 but slaves were not numerous till after #agjj4 ,illustration3 ,,hand ,,loom4 #ae ,food was abundant1 for the rivers and bay abounded with geese and ducks1 oysters and crabs1 and the woods were full of deer1 turkeys1 and wild pigeons4 ,wheat was not plentiful1 but corn was abundant1 and from it were made pone1 hominy1 and hoe-cakes4 ,,no ,,towns4--,as everybody could get land and therefore lived on manors1 plantations1 or farms1 there were practically no towns in ,maryland4 ,even ,st4 ,marys1 so late as #afgh1 was not really a town1 but a string of some thirty houses straggling for five miles along the shore4 ,the bay with its innumerable creeks1 inlets1 coves1 and river mouths1 afforded fine water communication between the farms and plantations2 and there were no roads4 ,as in ,virginia1 there was no need of shipping ports4 ,vessels came direct to manor or plantation wharf1 and exchanged ,english goods for tobacco or corn4 ,such farmers or planters as had no water communication packed their tobacco in a hogshead1 with an axle through it1 and with an ox or a horse in a pair of shafts1 or with a party of negro slaves or white servants1 rolled it to market4 ,,summary #a4 ,the struggle of the ,jamestown colony for life was a desperate one4 ,for two years it was preserved by ,captain ,john ,smith's skillful leadership1 and the frequent reinforcements and supplies sent over by the ,london ,company2 but in #afaj the settlers started to leave the country4 #b4 ,the arrival of ,lord ,delaware saved the colony4 ,he brought out news of a new charter 7#afji7 which greatly extended the domain of the company4 #c4 ,the settlers were now given land of their own1 tobacco was grown1 more settlements were planted1 and prosperity began4 #d4 ,in #afai slavery was introduced2 a shipload of young women arrived2 and a representative government was established4 #e4 ,in #afbd ,virginia became a royal colony4 #f4 ,during the ,civil ,war in ,england many ,cavaliers came to ,virginia4 #g4 ,king ,charles ,i cut off a part of ,virginia to make 7#afcb7 the proprietary colony of ,maryland4 ,the new province was given to ,lord ,baltimore1 who founded 7#afcd7 a colony at ,st4 ,marys4 #h4 ,claiborne1 a ,virginian1 denied the authority of ,baltimore1 and kept up a struggle against him for many years4 #i4 ,in both ,maryland and ,virginia the people lived on large plantations1 and there were few towns4 ,travel was mostly by water1 and there were no good roads4 ,,footnotes #a ,read ,fiske's ,old ,virginia and her ,neighbours1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #if-ih4 #b ,captain ,john ,smith was born in ,england in #aehj4 ,at an early age he was a soldier in ,france and in the ,netherlands2 then after a short stay in ,england he set off to fight the ,turks4 ,in ,france he was robbed and left for dead1 but reached ,marseilles and joined a party of pilgrims bound to the ,levant4 ,during a violent storm the pilgrims1 believing he had caused it1 threw him into the sea4 ,but he swam to an island1 and after many adventures was made a captain in the ,venetian army4 ,the ,turks captured him and sold him into slavery1 but he killed his master1 escaped to a ,russian fortress1 made his way through ,germany1 ,france1 ,spain1 and ,morocco1 and reached ,england in time to go out with the ,london ,company's colony4 ,his career in ,virginia was as adventurous as in the ,old ,world4 ,while exploring the ,chickahominy ,river he and his companions were taken by the ,indians4 ,lest they should kill him at once ,smith showed them a pocket compass with its quivering needle always pointing north4 ,they could see1 but could not touch it because of the glass4 ,supposing him a wizard1 they took him to the ,powhatan4 ,according to ,smith's account two stones were brought and ,smith's head laid upon them1 while warriors1 club in hand1 stood near by to beat out his brains4 ,but suddenly the chief's little daughter1 ,pocahontas1 rushed in and laid her head on ,smith's to shield him4 ,he was given his life and sent back to ,jamestown4 #c ,smith and ,newport visited the old chief at his village of ,werowocomoco1 took off the ,powhatan's raccoon-skin coat1 and put on the crimson robe4 ,when they told him to kneel1 he refused4 ,two men thereupon seized him by the shoulders and forced him to bend his knees1 and the crown was clapped on his head4 ,the ,powhatan then took off his old moccasins and sent them1 with his raccoon-skin coat1 to his royal brother in ,london4 #d ,they were part of a body of some five hundred in nine ships which left ,england in ,june4 ,on the way over a storm scattered the fleet2 one ship was lost1 and another bearing the leaders of the expedition was wrecked on the ,bermudas4 ,the shipwrecked colonists spent ten months building two little vessels1 in which they reached ,jamestown in ,may1 #afaj4 #e ,read ,fiske's ,old ,virginia and her ,neighbours1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aeb-aee4 #f ,the governor1 the council1 and the ,house of ,burgesses constituted the ,general ,assembly4 ,any act of the ,assembly might be vetoed by the governor1 and no law was valid till approved by the general court of the company at ,london4 ,neither was any law made by the company for the colony valid till approved by the ,assembly4 ,after #affj the ,house of ,burgesses consisted of two delegates from each county1 with one from ,jamestown4 #g ,for some years to come the slaves increased in numbers very slowly4 ,so late as #afga1 when the population of ,virginia was #dj1jjj1 there were but #bjjj slaves1 while the bond servants numbered #fjjj4 ,some of these indentured servants1 as they were called1 were persons guilty of crime in ,england1 who were sent over to ,virginia and sold for a term of years as a punishment4 ,others--the redemptioners--were men who1 in order to pay for their passage to ,virginia1 agreed to serve the owner or the captain of the ship for a certain time4 ,on reaching ,virginia the captain could sell them to the planters for the time specified2 at the end of the time they became freemen4 #h ,that is1 the unoccupied land became royal domain again1 and the king appointed the governors and controlled the colony through a committee of his privy council4 ,one unhappy result of the downfall of the ,london ,company was the defeat of a plan for establishing schools in ,virginia4 ,as early as #afba some funds were raised for a public free school1 in ,charles ,city4 ,a tract of land was also set apart in the city of ,henricus for a college1 and a rector1 or president1 was sent out to start it4 ,but he was killed by the ,indians in #afbb1 and before the company had found a successor the charter was destroyed4 ,virginia's first college--,william and ,mary--was established at ,williamsburg in #afic4 #i ,read the description of early ,virginia in ,j4 ,e4 ,cooke's ,virginia 7,american ,commonwealths ,series71 pp4 #ada-aeg2 or ,stories of the ,old ,dominion2 or ,fiske's ,old ,virginia and her ,neighbours1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bbc- #bcb4 #aj ,jamestown was long the chief town of ,virginia2 but in its best days the houses did not number more than #ge or #hj1 and the population was not more than #bej4 ,in #afgf the church1 the ,house of ,burgesses1 and the dwellings were burned during ,bacon's ,rebellion 7p4 #ie74 ,in #afgi the ,burgesses ordered ,jamestown to be rebuilt and to be the metropolis of ,virginia2 but in #afih the ,house of ,burgesses was again burned and in #afii ,williamsburg became the seat of government4 ,the ruined church tower 7p4 #dj7 is the only structure still standing in ,jamestown2 but remains of the ancient graveyard1 of a mansion built on the foundations of the old ,house of ,burgesses1 and some foundations of dwellings may also be seen4 ,the site is cared for by the ,association for the ,preservation of ,virginia ,antiquities4 #aa ,george ,calvert was the son of a ,yorkshire farmer1 was educated at ,oxford1 and went to ,parliament in #afjd4 ,becoming a favorite of ,king ,james ,i1 he was knighted in #afag1 and two years later was made principal ,secretary of ,state4 ,he became a ,roman ,catholic1 although ,catholics were then bitterly persecuted in ,england4 ,just before the king died1 he resigned office1 and received the title of ,lord ,baltimore1 the name referring to a town in ,ireland4 ,finding all public offices closed to him because he was a ,catholic1 ,baltimore resolved to seek a home in ,america4 #ab ,baltimore ordered that any colonist who came in the ,ark or ,dove and brought five men with him should have #bjjj acres of land1 subject to an annual rent of #djj pounds of wheat4 ,a settler who came in #afce could have the same amount of land if he brought ten men1 but had to pay #fjj pounds of wheat a year as rent4 ,plantations of #ajjj acres or more were manors1 and the lord of the manor could hold courts4 #ac ,claiborne's ,london partners took possession of ,kent ,island1 and acknowledged the authority of ,baltimore2 but after the ,civil ,war broke out in ,england1 ,claiborne joined forces with a half pirate named ,ingle1 and recovered the island4 ,for two years ,ingle and his crew lorded it over all ,maryland1 stealing corn1 tobacco1 cattle1 and household goods4 ,not till #afdf1 when ,calvert received aid from ,virginia1 was he able to drive out ,claiborne and ,ingle1 and recover the province4 #ad ,the redemptioners1 when their time was out and they became freemen1 received a set of tools1 clothes1 and a year's provisions from their former masters1 and fifty acres from the proprietor of the colony4 #ae ,on such looms skilled servants wove much of the cloth used on the plantation4 ,similar looms were used in all the colonies4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,english ,,in ,,new ,,england ,,new ,,england ,,named4--,while the ,london ,company was planting its colony on the ,james ,river1 the ,plymouth ,company sought to retrieve its failure on the ,kennebec 7p4 #ci74 ,in #afad ,captain ,john ,smith1 who had returned to ,england from ,jamestown1 was sent over with two ships to explore4 ,he made a map of the coast from ,maine to ,cape ,cod1 #a and called the country ,new ,england4 ,the next year ,smith led out a colony2 but a ,french fleet took him prisoner1 no settlement was made1 and five years passed before the first permanent ,english colony was planted in the ,plymouth ,company's grant--by the ,separatists4 ,illustration3 ,,smith',s ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,england ,,coast4 ,,the ,,separatists4--,to understand who these people were1 it must be remembered that during the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth the ,protestant ,episcopal ,church was the ,established ,church of ,england1 and that severe laws were passed to force all the people to attend its services4 ,but a sect arose which wished to purify the church by abolishing certain forms and ceremonies4 ,these people were called ,puritans1 #b and were divided into two sects3 #a4 ,those ,puritans who wished to purify the ,church of ,england while they remained members of it4 #b4 ,the ,independents1 or ,separatists1 who wished to separate from that church and worship ,god in their own way4 ,the ,separatists were cruelly persecuted during ,queen ,elizabeth's reign1 and afterward4 ,one band of them fled to ,holland 7in #afjh71 where they found peace2 but time passed and it became necessary for them to decide whether they should stay in ,holland and become ,dutch1 or find a home in some land where they might continue to remain ,englishmen4 ,they decided to leave ,holland1 formed a company1 and finally obtained leave from the ,london ,company to settle near the mouth of the ,delaware ,river4 ,illustration3 ,,brewster',s ,,chair4 ,now in ,pilgrim ,hall1 ,plymouth4 ,,voyage ,,of ,,the ,,mayflower4--,led by ,brewster1 ,bradford1 and ,standish1 a party of ,pilgrims sailed from ,holland in ,july1 #afbj1 in the ship ,speedwell2 were joined in ,england by a party from ,london in the ,mayflower2 and in ,august both vessels put to sea4 ,but the ,speedwell proved unseaworthy1 and all put back to ,plymouth in ,england1 where some gave up the voyage4 ,one hundred and two held fast to their purpose1 and in ,september set sail in the ,mayflower4 ,the voyage was long and stormy1 and ,november came before they sighted a sandy coast far to the northeastward of the ,delaware4 ,for a while they strove hard to go southward2 but adverse winds drove them back1 and they dropped anchor in ,cape ,cod ,bay4 #c ,,the ,,landing4--,the land here was within the territory of the ,plymouth ,company4 ,the ,pilgrims1 however1 decided to stay and get leave to settle1 but this decision displeased some of them4 ,a meeting1 therefore1 was held in the ship's cabin 7,november #ba1 #afbj71 and the ,mayflower compact1 binding all who signed it to obey such government as might be established1 was drawn up and signed by forty-one of the sixty-five men on the vessel4 ,this done1 the work of choosing a site for their homes began1 and for several weeks little parties explored the coast before one of them entered a harbor and selected a spot which ,john ,smith had named ,plymouth4 #d ,to this harbor the ,mayflower was brought1 and while the men were busy putting up rude cabins1 the women and children remained on the ship4 ,,the ,,first ,,winter was a dreadful one4 ,the ,pilgrims lived in crowded quarters1 and the effects of the voyage and the severity of the winter sent half of them to their graves before spring4 ,but the rest never faltered1 and when the ,mayflower returned to ,england in ,april1 not one of the colonists went back in her4 ,by the end of the first summer a fort had been built on a hill1 seven houses had been erected along a village street leading down from the fort to the harbor1 six and twenty acres had been cleared1 and a bountiful harvest had been gathered4 ,other ,pilgrims came over1 the neighboring ,indians kept the peace1 and the colony was soon prosperous4 ,illustration3 ,,site ,,of ,,the ,,fort ,,at ,,plymouth4 ,in the old burying ground4 ,,plymouth1 ,,or ,,the ,,old ,,colony4--,as soon as the colony was planted1 steps were taken to buy the land on which it stood4 ,the old ,plymouth ,company 7pp4 #ch1 #ci71 organized in #afjf1 was succeeded in #afbj by a new corporation called the ,council for ,new ,england1 which received a grant of all the land in ,america between #dj and #dh of north latitude4 ,from this ,council for ,new ,england1 therefore1 the ,pilgrims bought as much land as they needed4 ,the king1 however1 refused to give them a charter1 so the people of ,plymouth1 or the ,old ,colony as it came to be called1 managed their own affairs in their own way for seventy years4 ,at first the men assembled in town meeting1 made laws1 and elected officers4 ,but when the growth of the colony made such meetings unwieldy1 representative government was set up1 and each settlement sent two delegates to an assembly4 ,illustration3 ,,grave ,,of ,,miles ,,standish1 near ,plymouth4 ,,the ,,salem ,,colony4--,shortly after #afbj1 attempts were made to plant other colonies in ,new ,england4 #e ,most of them failed1 but some of the colonists made a settlement called ,naumkeag4 ,among those who watched these attempts with great interest was ,john ,white1 a ,puritan rector in ,england4 ,he believed that the time had come for the ,puritans to do what the ,separatists had done4 ,the quarrel between the king and the ,puritans was then becoming serious1 and the time seemed at hand when men who wished to worship ,god according to their conscience would have to seek a home in ,america4 ,white accordingly began to urge the planting of a ,puritan colony in ,new ,england4 ,so well did he succeed that an association was formed1 a great tract of land was obtained from the ,council for ,new ,england1 and in #afbh sixty men1 led by ,john ,endicott1 settled at ,naumkeag and changed its name to ,salem1 which means peace4 ,,the ,,massachusetts ,,bay ,,colony4--,the members of the association next secured from ,king ,charles ,i a charter which made them a corporation1 called this corporation ,the ,governor and ,company of ,massachusetts ,bay in ,new ,england1 and gave it the right to govern colonies planted on its lands4 ,more settlers with a great herd of cattle were now hurried to ,salem1 which thus became the largest colony in ,new ,england4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,early ,,new ,,england ,,colonies4 ,,the ,,great ,,puritan ,,migration4--,the same year 7#afbi7 that the charter was obtained1 twelve leading ,puritans signed an agreement to head an emigration to ,massachusetts1 provided the charter and government of the company were removed to ,new ,england4 ,one of the signers was ,john ,winthrop1 and by him in #afcj nearly a thousand ,puritans were led to ,salem4 ,thence they soon removed to a little three-hilled peninsula where they founded the town of ,boston4 ,more emigrants followed1 and before the end of #afcj seventeen ships with nearly fifteen hundred ,puritans reached ,massachusetts4 ,they settled at ,boston1 ,charlestown1 ,roxbury1 ,dorchester1 ,watertown1 and ,cambridge4 ,the charter was brought with them1 the meetings of the company were now held in the colony1 and so many of the colonists became members of the company that ,massachusetts was practically self-governing4 ,before long a representative government was established in the colony1 each town electing members of a legislature called the ,general ,court4 ,every town also had its local government carried on by town meetings2 but only church members were allowed to vote4 ,,maine ,,and ,,new ,,hampshire4--,about two years after the founding of ,plymouth1 the ,council for ,new ,england granted to ,john ,mason and ,sir ,ferdinando ,gorges 7gor'jess7 a large tract of land between the rivers ,merrimac and ,kennebec4 ,in it two settlements 7now known as ,portsmouth and ,dover7 were planted 7#afbc7 on the ,piscat'aqua ,river1 and some fishing stations on the coast farther north4 ,in #afbi the province was divided4 ,mason obtained a patent 7or deed7 for the country between the ,merrimac and the ,piscataqua1 and named it ,new ,hampshire4 ,gorges received the country between the ,piscataqua and the ,kennebec1 which was called ,maine4 ,illustration3 ,,english ,,armor4 ,now in ,essex ,hall1 ,salem4 ,,union ,,with ,,massachusetts4--,the towns on the ,piscataqua were small fishing and fur-trading stations1 and after ,mason died 7#afce7 they were left to look out for themselves4 ,with two other ,new ,hampshire towns 7,exeter and ,hampton7 they became almost independent republics4 ,they set up their own governments1 made their own laws1 and owed allegiance to nobody save the king4 ,massachusetts1 however1 claimed as her north boundary an east and west line three miles north of the source of the ,merrimac ,river4 #f ,she therefore soon annexed the four ,new ,hampshire towns1 and gave them representation in her legislature4 ,if the claim of ,massachusetts was valid in the case of the ,new ,hampshire towns1 it was equally so for those of ,maine4 ,but it was not till #afeb1 after ,gorges was dead and the settlers in ,maine 7at ,york1 ,wells1 and ,kittery7 had set up a government of their own1 that these towns were brought under her authority4 ,later 7#afgg71 ,massachusetts bought up the claim of the heirs of ,gorges1 and came into possession of the whole province4 ,illustration3 ,,roger ,,williams ,,flees ,,to ,,the ,,woods4 ,,rhode ,,island4--,among those who came to ,salem in the early days of the ,massachusetts ,bay ,colony1 was a ,puritan minister named ,roger ,williams4 #g ,but he had not been long in the colony when he said things which angered the rulers4 ,he held that all religions should be tolerated2 that all laws requiring attendance at church should be repealed2 that the land belonged to the ,indians and not to the king2 and that the settlers ought to buy it from the ,indians and not from the king4 ,for these and other sayings ,williams was ordered back to ,england4 ,but he fled to the woods1 lived with the ,indians for a winter1 and in the following summer founded ,providence 7#afcf74 #h ,and now another disturber appeared in ,boston in the person of ,anne ,hutchinson1 #i and in a little while she and her followers were driven away4 ,some of them went to ,new ,hampshire and founded ,exeter 7p4 #fj71 while others with ,anne herself went to ,rhode ,island in ,narragansett ,bay1 and founded ,portsmouth and ,newport4 ,for a time each of the little towns1 ,providence1 ,portsmouth1 and ,newport1 arranged its own affairs in its own way1 but in #afdc ,williams obtained from the ,english ,parliament a charter which united them under the name of ,the ,incorporation of ,providence ,plantations on the ,narragansett ,bay in ,new ,england4 ,,connecticut ,,founded4--,religious troubles did not end with the banishment of ,williams and ,anne ,hutchinson4 ,many persons objected to the law forbidding any but church members to vote or hold office4 ,so in #afce and #afcf numbers of people1 led by ,thomas ,hooker and others1 went out 7from ,dorchester1 ,watertown1 and ,cambridge7 and founded ,windsor1 ,wethersfield1 and ,hartford in the ,connecticut ,river valley4 ,later a party 7from ,roxbury7 settled at ,springfield4 ,for a while these four towns were part of ,massachusetts4 ,but in #afci ,windsor1 ,hartford1 and ,wethersfield adopted a constitution #aj and founded a republic which they called ,connecticut4 ,,the ,,new ,,haven ,,colony4--,as the quarrel between the ,puritans and the king was by this time very bitter1 the ,puritans continued to come to ,new ,england in large numbers4 ,some of them made settlements on ,long ,island ,sound4 ,a large band under ,john ,davenport founded ,new ,haven 7#afch74 ,next 7in #afci7 ,milford and ,guilford were started1 and then 7in #afdj7 ,stamford4 ,in #afdc the four towns joined in a sort of union and took the name ,new ,haven ,colony4 ,illustration3 ,,puritan ,,dress4 ,,the ,,united ,,colonies ,,of ,,new ,,england4--,thus there were planted in ,new ,england between #afbj and #afdc five distinct colonies1 #aa namely3 7#a7 ,plymouth1 or the ,old ,colony1 7#b7 ,massachusetts ,bay ,colony1 7#c7 ,rhode ,island1 or ,providence ,plantations1 7#d7 ,connecticut1 and 7#e7 the ,new ,haven ,colony4 ,in #afdc four of them--,plymouth1 ,massachusetts1 ,connecticut1 and ,new ,haven --united for defense against the ,indians and the ,dutch1 #ab and called their league ,the ,united ,colonies of ,new ,england4 ,this confederation maintained a successful existence for forty-one years4 ,,effect ,,of ,,the ,,civil ,,war ,,in ,,england4--,when the ,new ,england confederation was formed1 the king and the ,puritans in old ,england had come to blows1 and civil war was raging there4 ,during the next twenty years no more ,english colonies were planted in ,america4 ,war at once stopped the stream of emigrants4 ,the ,puritans in ,england remained to fight the king1 and numbers went back from ,new ,england to join the ,parliamentary army4 ,for the next fifteen years population in ,new ,england increased slowly4 ,,trade ,,and ,,commerce4--,life in the ,new ,england colonies was very unlike that in ,virginia4 ,people dwelt in villages1 cultivated small farms1 and were largely engaged in trade and commerce4 ,they bartered corn and peas1 woolen cloth1 and wampum with the ,indians for beaver skins1 which they sent to ,england to pay for articles bought from the mother country4 ,they salted cod1 dried alewives and bass1 made boards and staves for hogsheads1 and sent all these to the ,west ,indies to be exchanged for sugar1 molasses1 and other products of the tropics4 ,they built ships in the seaports where lumber was cheap1 and sold them abroad4 ,they traded with ,spain and ,portugal1 ,england1 the ,netherlands1 and ,virginia4 ,illustration3 ,,stone ,,hand ,,mill4 ,brought from ,england in #afcj and used for grinding flour4 ,now in ,essex ,hall1 ,salem1 ,mass4 ,,scarcity ,,of ,,money4--,the colonists brought little money with them1 and much of what they brought went back to ,england to pay for supplies4 ,buying and trading in ,new ,england1 therefore1 had to be done largely without gold or silver4 ,beaver skins and wampum1 bushels of corn1 produce1 cattle1 and even bullets were used as money and passed at rates fixed by law4 #ac ,in the hope of remedying the scarcity of money1 the government of ,massachusetts ordered that a mint should be set up1 and in #afeb ,spanish silver brought from the ,west ,indies was melted and coined into ,pine ,tree currency4 #ad ,illustration3 ,,spinning ,,wool4 ,,manufactures4--,that less gold and silver might go abroad for supplies1 home manufactures were encouraged by gifts of money1 by exemptions of property from taxation1 and by excusing workmen from military duty4 ,the cultivation of flax was encouraged1 children were taught to spin and weave1 and glass works1 salt works1 and iron furnaces were started4 ,illustration3 ,,yarn ,,reel4 #ae ,in ,essex ,hall1 ,salem1 ,mass4 ,on the farms utensils and furniture were generally made in the household4 ,almost everything was made of wood1 as spoons1 tankards1 pails1 firkins1 hinges for cupboard and closet doors1 latches1 plows1 and harrows4 ,every boy learned to use his jack-knife1 and could make brooms from birch trees1 bowls and dippers and bottles from gourds1 and butter paddles from red cherry4 ,the women made soap and candles1 carded wool1 spun1 wove1 bleached or dyed the linen and woolen cloth1 and made the garments for the family4 ,they knit mittens and stockings1 made straw hats and baskets1 and plucked the feathers from live geese for beds and pillows4 ,,the ,,houses4--,on the farms the houses of the early settlers were of logs1 or were framed structures covered with shingles or clapboards4 ,the tables1 chairs1 stools1 and bedsteads were of the plainest sort1 and were often made of puncheons1 that is1 of small tree trunks split in half4 ,sometimes the table would be a long board laid across two ,x supports4 ,this was the board1 around which the family sat at meals4 #af ,in the better houses in the towns the furniture was of course very much finer4 ,,the ,,villages4--,the center of village life was the meetinghouse1 or church4 ,near by was the house of the minister1 the inn or tavern1 and the dwellings of the inhabitants4 ,in early times1 if the village was on the frontier or exposed to ,indian attack it was guarded by blockhouses surrounded by a high stockade4 ,these garrison houses1 as they were called1 were of stone or logs1 with the second story projecting over the first1 and had loopholes in place of windows4 ,most of them have long since disappeared1 but a few still remain1 turned into dwellings4 ,sometimes there were three or more blockhouses in a village1 and to these when the ,indians were troublesome the farmers and their families came each night to sleep4 ,,schools4-,among the acts passed by the ,general ,court of ,massachusetts in early days were several in regard to education4 ,in #afcf four hundred pounds #ag was voted for a public school4 ,two years later1 ,john ,harvard1 a former minister1 left his library and half his fortune to this school1 and in grateful remembrance it was called ,harvard ,college4 ,thus started1 the good work went on4 ,parents and masters were by law compelled to teach their children and apprentices to read ,english1 know the important laws1 and repeat the orthodox catechism4 ,another law required every town of fifty families to maintain a school for at least six months a year1 and every town of two hundred householders a primary and a grammar school1 wherein ,latin should be taught4 ,illustration3 ,,fairbanks ,,house1 ,,near ,,boston4 ,as it looks to-day4 ,built partly in #afej4 ,,persecution ,,of ,,the ,,quakers4--,though the ,puritans suffered persecution in the ,old ,world1 they had not learned to be tolerant4 ,as we have seen1 no man could vote in ,massachusetts who was not a member of their church4 ,they drove out ,roger ,williams and ,anne ,hutchinson1 and again and again1 in later times1 banished1 or fined1 imprisoned1 and flogged men and women who wished to worship ,god in their own way4 ,when two ,quaker women arrived 7#afef71 they were sent away and a sharp law was made against their sect4 #ah ,but in spite of all persecution1 the ,quakers kept coming4 ,at last 7in #afei-fa7 three men and a woman were hanged on ,boston ,common because they returned after having once been banished4 ,plymouth and ,connecticut also enacted laws against the ,quakers4 #ai ,,connecticut ,,chartered 7#affb74--;,by this time the days of ,puritan rule in old ,england were over4 ,in #affj ,king ,charles ,,ii was placed upon the throne of his father4 ,connecticut promptly acknowledged him as king1 and sent her governor1 the younger ,john ,winthrop1 to ,london to obtain a charter4 ,he easily secured one 7in #affb7 which spread the authority of ,connecticut over the ,new ,haven ,colony1 #bj gave her a domain stretching across the continent to the ,pacific1 and established a government so liberal that the charter was kept in force till #ahah4 ,new ,haven ,colony for a time resisted2 but one by one the towns which formed the colony acknowledged the authority of ,connecticut4 ,,the ,,second ,,charter ,,of ,,rhode ,,island4--,rhode ,island1 likewise1 proclaimed the king and sought a new charter4 ,when obtained 7in #affc71 it defined her boundaries1 and provided for a form of government quite as liberal as that of ,connecticut4 ,it remained in force one hundred and seventy-nine years4 ,,the ,,new ,,colonial ,,era4--,from #afdj to #affj the ,english colonies in ,america had been left much to themselves4 ,no new colonies had been founded1 and the old ones had managed their own affairs in their own way4 ,but with ,charles ,,ii a new era opens4 ,several new colonies were soon established2 and though ,rhode ,island and ,connecticut received liberal charters1 all the colonies were soon to feel the king's control4 ,as we shall see later1 ,massachusetts was deprived of her charter2 but after a few years she received a new one 7#afia71 which united the ,plymouth ,colony1 ,massachusetts1 and ,maine in the one colony of ,massachusetts ,bay4 ,new ,hampshire1 however1 was made a separate royal province4 ,,summary #a4 ,in #afbj a body of ,separatists reached ,cape ,cod and founded ,plymouth1 the first ,english settlement north of ,virginia4 #b4 ,two years later the ,council for ,new ,england granted land to ,gorges and ,mason1 from which grew ,maine and ,new ,hampshire4 #c4 ,between #afbh and #afcj a great ,puritan migration established the colony of ,massachusetts ,bay1 which later absorbed ,maine and ,new ,hampshire4 #d4 ,religious disputes led to the expulsion of ,roger ,williams and ,anne ,hutchinson from ,massachusetts4 ,they founded towns later united 7#afdc7 as ,providence ,plantations 7,rhode ,island74 #e4 ,other religious disputes led to the migration of people who settled 7#afce-cf7 in the ,connecticut valley and founded 7#afci7 ,connecticut4 #f4 ,between #afch and #afdj other towns were planted on ,long ,island ,sound1 and four of them united 7#afdc7 and formed the ,new ,haven ,colony4 #g4 ,massachusetts1 ,plymouth1 ,connecticut1 and ,new ,haven joined in a league --the ,united ,colonies of ,new ,england 7#afdc-hd74 #h4 ,new ,haven was united with ,connecticut 7#affb71 and ,plymouth with ,massachusetts 7#afia71 while ,new ,hampshire was made a separate province2 so that after #afia the ,new ,england colonies were ,new ,hampshire1 ,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island1 and ,connecticut4 #i4 ,the ,new ,england colonists lived largely in villages4 ,they were engaged in farming1 manufacturing1 and commerce4 #aj4 ,for twenty years1 during the ,civil ,war and the ,puritan rule in ,england1 the colonies were left to themselves2 but in #affj ,charles ,,ii became king of ,england1 and a new era began in colonial affairs4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,charter ,,oak1 ,,hartford1 ,,conn4 ,from an old print4 ,,footnotes #a ,on his map ,smith gave to ,cape ,ann1 ,cape ,elizabeth1 ,charles ,river1 and ,plymouth the names they still retain4 ,cape ,cod he called ,cape ,james4 #b ,the ,puritans were important in history for many years4 ,most of the ,english people who quarreled and fought with ,king ,james and ,king ,charles were ,puritans4 ,in ,maryland it was a ,puritan army that for a time overthrew ,lord ,baltimore's government 7p4 #eb74 #c ,read ,fiske's ,beginnings of ,new ,england1 pp4 #gi-hb4 #d ,the little boat or shallop in which they intended to sail along the coast needed to be repaired1 and two weeks passed before it was ready4 ,meantime a party protected by steel caps and corselets went ashore to explore the country4 ,a few ,indians were seen in the distance1 but they fled as the ,pilgrims approached4 ,in the ruins of a hut were found some corn and an iron kettle that had once belonged to a ,european ship4 ,the corn they carried away in the kettle1 to use as seed in the spring4 ,other exploring parties1 after trips in the shallop1 pushed on over hills and through valleys covered deep with snow1 and found more deserted houses1 corn1 and many graves2 for a pestilence had lately swept off the ,indian population4 ,on the last exploring voyage1 the waves ran so high that the rudder was carried away and the explorers steered with an oar4 ,as night came on1 all sail was spread in hope of reaching shore before dark1 but the mast broke and the sail went overboard4 ,however1 they floated to an island where they landed and spent the night4 ,on the second day after1 ,monday1 ,december #ba1 the explorers reached the mainland4 ,on the beach1 half in sand and half in water1 was a large bowlder1 and on this famous ,plymouth ,rock1 it is said1 the men stepped as they went ashore4 #e ,as to the early settlements read ,fiske's ,beginnings of ,new ,england1 pp4 #ij-ie4 #f ,the ,massachusetts charter granted the land from within three miles south of the ,charles ,river1 to within three miles north of the ,merrimac ,river1 and all lands of and within the breadth aforesaid across the continent4 #g ,roger ,williams was a ,welshman1 had been educated at ,cambridge ,university in ,england1 and had some reputation as a preacher before coming to ,boston4 ,there he was welcomed as a godly minister1 and in time was called to a church in ,salem2 but was soon forced out by the ,general ,court4 ,he then went to ,plymouth1 where he made the friendship of ,mas'sasoit1 chief of the ,wam-pano'ags1 and of ,canon'icus1 chief of the ,narragansetts1 and learned their language4 ,in #afcc he returned to ,salem1 and was again made pastor of a church4 #h ,the fate of ,john ,endicott shows to what a result ,williams's teaching was supposed to lead4 ,the flag of the ,salem militia bore the red cross of ,st4 ,george4 ,endicott regarded it as a symbol of popery1 and one day publicly cut out the cross from the flag4 ,this was thought a defiance of royal authority1 and ,endicott was declared incapable of holding office for a year4 #i ,anne ,hutchinson held certain religious views on which she lectured to the women of ,boston1 and made so many converts that she split the church4 ,governor ,vane favored her1 but ,john ,winthrop opposed her teachings1 and when he became governor again she and her followers were ordered to quit the colony4 #aj ,the first written constitution made in our country1 and the first in the history of the world that was made by the people1 for the people4 ,other towns were added later1 among them ,saybrook1 which had grown up about an ,english fort built in #afce at the mouth of the ,connecticut4 #aa ,besides ,new ,hampshire1 which in #afdc was practically part of ,massachusetts2 and ,maine1 which became so a few years later4 #ab ,the ,dutch1 as we shall see in the next chapter1 had planted a colony in the ,hudson valley1 and disputed ,english possession of the ,connecticut4 #ac ,students at ,harvard ,college for many years paid their term bills with produce1 meat1 and live stock4 ,in #afdi a student paid his bill with an old cow1 and the steward of the college made separate credits for her hide1 her suet and inwards4 ,on another occasion a goat was taken and valued at #cj shillings4 ,taxes also were paid in corn and cattle4 #ad ,the coins were the shilling1 sixpence1 threepence1 and twopence4 ,on one side of each coin was stamped a rude representation of a pine tree4 #ae ,on which the yarn was wound after it was spun4 ,for a picture of the loom used in weaving1 see p4 #eb4 #af ,on the board were a saltcellar1 wooden plates or trenchers1 wooden or pewter spoons1 and knives1 but no china1 no glass4 ,forks1 it is said1 were not known even in ,england till #afjh1 and the first ever seen in ,new ,england were at ,governor ,winthrop's table in #afcb4 ,those who wished a drink of water drank from a single wooden tankard passed around the table2 or they went to the bucket and used a gourd4 #ag ,this was a large sum in those days1 and about as much as was raised by taxation in a year4 ,the ,general ,court which voted the money1 it has been said1 was the first body in which the people1 by their representatives1 ever gave their own money to found a place of education4 #ah ,the ,friends1 or ,quakers1 lived pure1 upright1 simple lives4 ,they protested against all forms and ceremonies1 and against all church government4 ,they refused to take any oaths1 to use any titles1 or to serve in war1 because they thought these things wrong4 ,they were much persecuted in ,england4 #ai ,another incident which gives us an insight into the character of these early times is the witchcraft delusion of #afib4 ,nearly everybody in those days believed in witchcraft1 and several persons in the colonies had been put to death as witches4 ,when1 therefore1 in #afib1 the children of a ,salem minister began to behave queerly and said that an ,indian slave woman had bewitched them1 they were believed4 ,but the delusion did not stop with the children4 ,in a few weeks scores of people in ,salem were accusing their neighbors of all sorts of crimes and witch orgies4 ,many declared that the witches stuck pins into them4 ,twenty persons were put to death as witches before the craze came to an end4 #bj ,the ,new ,haven ,colony was destroyed as a distinct colony because its people offended the king by sheltering ,edward ,whalley and ,william ,goffe1 two of the regicides1 or judges who sat in the tribunal that condemned ,charles ,i4 ,when they fled to ,new ,england in #affj1 a royal order for their arrest was sent over after them1 and a hot pursuit began4 ,for a month they lived in a cave1 at other times in cellars in ,milford1 ,guilford1 and ,new ,haven2 and once they hid under a bridge while their pursuers galloped past overhead4 ,after hiding in these ways about ,new ,haven for three years they went to ,hadley in ,massachusetts1 where all trace of them disappears4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,middle ,,and ,,southern ,,colonies ,,the ,,coming ,,of ,,the ,,dutch4--,we have now seen how ,english colonies were planted in the lands about ,chesapeake ,bay1 and in ,new ,england4 ,into the country lying between1 there came in #afji an intruder in the form of a little ,dutch ship called the ,half-,moon4 ,the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company had fitted her out and sent ,captain ,henry ,hudson in her to seek a northeasterly passage to ,china4 ,driven back by ice in his attempt to sail north of ,europe1 ,hudson turned westward1 and came at last to ,delaware ,bay4 ,up this the ,half-,moon went a little way1 but1 grounding on the shoals1 ,hudson turned about1 followed the coast northward1 and sailed up the river now called by his name4 ,he went as far as the site of ,albany2 then1 finding that the ,hudson was not a passage through the continent1 he returned to ,europe4 #a ,illustration3 ,,landing ,,of ,,hudson4 ,from an old print4 ,,discoveries ,,of ,,block ,,and ,,may4--,the discovery of the ,hudson gave ,holland or the ,netherlands a claim to the country it drained1 and year after year ,dutch explorers visited the region4 ,one of them1 ,adrien ,block1 7in #afad7 went through ,long ,island ,sound1 ascended the ,connecticut ,river as far as the site of ,hartford1 and sailed along the coast to a point beyond ,cape ,cod2 ,block ,island now bears his name4 ,another1 ,may1 went southward1 passed between two capes1 #b and explored ,delaware ,bay4 ,the ,dutch then claimed the country from the ,delaware to ,cape ,cod2 that is1 as far as ,may and ,block had explored4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,netherland4 ,,the ,,fur ,,trade4--,important as these discoveries were1 they interested the ,dutch far less than the prospect of a rich fur trade with the ,indians1 and in a few years ,dutch traders had four little houses on ,manhattan ,island1 and a little fort not far from the site of ,albany4 ,from it buyers went out among the ,mohawk ,indians and returned laden with the skins of beavers and other valuable furs2 and to the fort by and by the ,indians came to trade4 ,so valuable was this traffic that those engaged in it formed a company1 obtained from the ,dutch government a charter1 and for three years 7#afae- #ah7 enjoyed a monopoly of the fur trade from the ,delaware to the ,hudson4 ,,the ,,dutch ,,west ,,india ,,company4--,when the three years expired the charter was not renewed2 but a new association called the ,dutch ,west ,india ,company was chartered 7#afba7 and given great political and commercial power over ,new ,netherland1 as the ,dutch possessions in ,north ,america were now called4 ,more settlers were sent out 7in #afbc71 some to ,fort ,orange on the site of ,albany1 some to ,fort ,nassau on the ,south or ,delaware ,river1 some to the ,fresh or ,connecticut ,river1 some to ,long ,island1 and some to ,manhattan ,island1 where they founded the town of ,new ,amsterdam4 ,illustration3 ,,dutch ,,merchant 7#afbj74 ,,the ,,patroons4--,all the little ,dutch settlements were forts or strong buildings surrounded by palisades1 and were centers of the fur trade4 ,very little farming was done4 ,in order to encourage farming1 the ,west ,india ,company 7in #afbi7 offered an immense tract of land to any member of the company who should take out a colony of fifty families4 ,the estate of a ,patroon1 as such a man was called1 was to extend sixteen miles along one bank or eight miles along both banks of a river1 and back almost any distance into the country4 #c ,a number of these patroonships were established on the ,hudson4 ,,the ,,dutch ,,on ,,the ,,connecticut4--,the first attempt 7in #afbc7 of the ,dutch to build a fort on the ,connecticut failed2 for the company could not spare enough men to hold the valley4 ,but later the ,dutch returned1 nailed the arms of ,holland to a tree at the mouth of the river in token of ownership1 and 7#afcc7 built ,fort ,good ,hope where ,hartford now stands4 ,when the ,indians informed the ,english of this1 the governor of ,massachusetts bade the ,dutch begone2 and when they would not go1 built a fort higher up the river at ,windsor 7#afcc71 and another 7#afce7 at ,saybrook at the river's mouth1 so as to cut them off from ,new ,amsterdam4 ,the ,english colony of ,connecticut was now established in the valley2 but twenty years passed before ,fort ,good ,hope was taken from the ,dutch4 ,,dutch ,,and ,,swedes ,,on ,,the ,,delaware4--,the ,dutch settlers on the ,delaware were driven off by ,indians1 but a garrison was sent back to hold ,fort ,nassau4 ,meantime the ,swedes appeared on the ,delaware4 ,after the organization of the ,dutch ,west ,india ,company 7#afbc71 ,william ,usselinex of ,amsterdam went to ,sweden and urged the king to charter a similar company of ,swedish merchants4 ,a company to trade with ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america was accordingly formed4 ,some years later ,queen ,christina chartered the ,south ,company1 and in #afch a colony was sent out by this company1 the west bank of the ,delaware from its mouth to the ,schuylkill 7skool'kill7 was bought from the ,indians1 and a fort 7,christina7 was built on the site of ,wilmington4 ,the ,dutch governor at ,new ,amsterdam protested1 but for a dozen years the ,swedes remained unmolested1 and scattered their settlements along the shores of ,delaware ,river and ,bay1 and called their country ,new ,sweden4 ,alarmed at this1 ,governor ,peter ,stuyvesant 7sti've-sant7 of ,new ,netherland built a fort to cut off the ,swedes from the sea4 ,but a ,swedish war vessel captured the ,dutch fort2 whereupon ,stuyvesant sailed up the ,delaware with a fleet and army1 quietly took possession of ,new ,sweden1 and made it once more ,dutch territory 7#afee74 ,,dutch ,,rule4--,the rulers of ,new ,netherland were a director general1 or governor1 and five councilmen appointed by the ,west ,india ,company4 ,one of these governors1 ,peter ,minuit1 bought ,manhattan 7the island now covered by a part of ,new ,york city7 from the ,indians 7#afbf7 for #fj guilders1 or about #bd of our money4 #d ,,demand ,,for ,,popular ,,government4--,as population increased1 the people began to demand a share in the government2 they wished to elect four of the five councilmen4 ,a long quarrel followed1 but ,governor ,stuyvesant at last ordered the election of nine men to aid him when necessary4 #e ,,population ,,and ,,customs4--,though most of the ,new ,netherlanders were ,dutch1 there were among them also ,germans1 ,french ,huguenots1 ,english1 ,scotch1 ,jews1 ,swedes1 and as many religious sects as nationalities4 ,the ,dutch of ,new ,netherland were a jolly people1 much given to bowling and holidays4 ,they kept ,new ,year's ,day1 ,st4 ,valentine's ,day1 ,easter and ,pinkster 7,sunday1 ,monday1 and ,tuesday the seventh week after ,easter71 ,may ,day1 ,st4 ,nicholas ,day 7,december #f71 and ,christmas4 ,on ,pinkster days the whole population1 negro slaves included1 went off to the woods on picnics4 ,kirmess1 a sort of annual fair for each town1 furnished additional holidays4 ,the people rose at dawn1 dined at noon1 and supped at six4 ,in no colony were the people better housed and fed4 ,illustration3 ,,dutch ,,door ,,and ,,stoop4 ,,the ,,houses stood with their gable ends to the street1 and often a beam projected from the gable1 by means of which heavy articles might be raised to the attic4 ,the door was divided into an upper and a lower half1 and before it was a spacious stoop with seats1 where the family gathered on warm evenings4 ,within the house were huge fireplaces adorned with blue or pink tiles on which were ,bible scenes or texts1 a huge moon-faced clock1 a ,dutch ,bible1 spinning wheels1 cupboards full of ,delft plates and pewter dishes1 rush- bottom chairs1 great chests for linen and clothes1 and four-posted bedsteads with curtains1 feather beds1 and dimity coverlets1 and underneath a trundle-bed for the children4 ,a warming pan was used to take the chill off the linen sheets on cold nights4 ,in the houses of the humbler sort the furniture was plainer1 and sand on the floors did duty for carpets4 ,illustration3 ,,four-,,posted ,,bed1 ,,and ,,steps ,,used ,,in ,,getting ,,into ,,it4 ,in the ,van ,cortland ,mansion1 ,new ,york city4 ,,trade ,,and ,,commerce4--,the chief products of the colony were furs1 lumber1 wheat1 and flour4 ,the center of the fur trade was ,fort ,orange1 from which great quantities of beaver and other skins purchased from the ,indians were sent to ,new ,amsterdam2 and to this port came vessels from the ,west ,indies1 ,portugal1 and ,england1 as well as from ,holland4 ,there was scarcely any manufacturing4 ,the commercial spirit of the ,dutch overshadowed everything else1 and kept agriculture at a low stage4 ,,the ,,english ,,seize ,,new ,,netherland4--,the ,english1 who claimed the continent from ,maine to ,florida1 and from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific1 regarded the ,dutch as intruders4 ,soon after ,charles ,,ii came to the throne1 he granted the country from the ,delaware to the ,connecticut1 with ,long ,island and some other territory1 to his brother ,james1 the ,duke of ,york4 ,in #affd1 accordingly1 a fleet was sent to take possession of ,new ,amsterdam4 ,stuyvesant called out his troops and made ready to fight4 ,but the people were tired of the arbitrary rule of the ,dutch governors1 and petitioned him to yield4 ,at last he answered1 ,well1 let it be so1 but ,i would rather be carried out dead4 ,,new ,,york4--,the ,dutch flag was then lowered1 and ,new ,netherland passed into ,english hands4 ,new ,amsterdam was promptly renamed ,new ,york2 ,fort ,orange was called ,albany2 and the greater part of ,new ,netherland became the province of ,new ,york4 #f ,,government ,,of ,,new ,,york4--,the governor appointed by the ,duke of ,york drew up a code of laws known later as the ,duke's ,laws4 ,no provision was made for a legislature1 nor for town meetings1 nor for schools4 #g ,government of this sort did not please the ,english on ,long ,island and elsewhere4 ,demands were at once made for a share in the lawmaking4 ,some of the people refused to pay taxes1 and some towns to elect officers1 and sent strong protests against taxation without their consent4 ,but nearly twenty years passed before ,new ,york secured a representative legislature4 #h ,,education4--,in the schools established by the ,dutch1 the master was often the preacher or the sexton of the ,dutch church4 ,many of the ,long ,island towns were founded by ,new ,englanders1 who long kept up their ,puritan customs and methods of education4 ,but outside of ,new ,york city and a few other large towns1 there were no good schools during the early years of the ,new ,york colony4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,jersey1 ,,delaware1 ,,and ,,eastern ,,pennsylvania4 ,,new ,,jersey4--,before the ,duke of ,york had possession of his province1 he cut off the piece between the ,delaware ,river and the lower ,hudson and gave it to ,sir ,george ,carteret and ,lord ,berkeley 7#affd74 ,they named this land ,new ,jersey1 and divided it by the line shown on the map into ,east and ,west ,jersey4 ,lord ,berkeley sold his part--,west ,jersey--to some ,quakers1 and a ,quaker colony was planted at ,burlington4 ,carteret's portion--,east ,jersey-- was sold after his death to ,william ,penn #i and other ,quakers1 who had acquired ,west ,jersey also4 ,in #agjb1 however1 the proprietors gave up their right to govern1 and the two colonies were united into the one royal province of ,new ,jersey4 ,,pennsylvania4--,penn had joined the ,friends1 or ,quakers1 when a very young man4 ,the part he took in the settlement of ,new ,jersey led him to think of founding a colony where not only the ,quakers1 but any others who were persecuted1 might find a refuge1 and where he might try a holy experiment in government after his own ideas4 ,the king was therefore petitioned for a tract of land in ,america lying north of ,maryland1 and in #afha ,penn received a large block of land1 which was named ,pennsylvania1 or ,penn's ,woodland4 #aj ,illustration3 ,,charles ,,ii ,,and ,,penn4 ,,philadelphia ,,founded4--,having received his charter1 ,penn wrote an account of his province and circulated it in ,england1 ,ireland1 ,wales1 ,holland1 and ,germany4 ,in the autumn of #afha three shiploads of colonists were sent over4 ,penn himself came the next spring1 and made his way to the spot chosen for the site of ,philadelphia4 ,the land belonged to three ,swedish brothers2 so ,penn bought it1 and began the work of marking out the streets and building houses4 ,before a year went by1 ,philadelphia was a town of eighty houses4 ,,penn ,,and ,,the ,,indians4--,in dealing with the ,indians the aim of ,penn was to make them friends4 ,before coming over he sent letters to be read to them44 ,after his arrival he walked with them1 sat with them to watch their young men dance1 joined in their feasts1 and1 it is said1 planned a sort of court or jury of six whites and six ,indians to settle disputes with the natives4 ,in ,june1 #afhc1 ,penn met the ,indians and made a treaty which1 unlike most other treaties1 was kept by both parties4 ,,the ,,government ,,of ,,pennsylvania4--,as proprietor of ,pennsylvania it became the duty of ,penn to provide a government for the settlers1 which he did in the ,frame of ,government4 ,this provided for a governor appointed by the proprietor1 a legislature of two houses elected by the people1 judges partly elected by the people1 and a vote by ballot4 #aa ,in #agja ,penn granted a new constitution which kept less power for his governor1 and gave more power and rights to the legislature and the people4 ,this was called the ,charter of ,privileges1 and it remained in force as long as ,pennsylvania was a colony4 ,,the ,,territories1 ,,or ,,delaware4--,pennsylvania had no frontage on the sea1 and its boundaries were disputed by the neighboring colonies4 #ab ,to secure an outlet to the sea1 ,penn applied to the ,duke of ,york for a grant of the territory on the west bank of the ,delaware ,river to its mouth1 and was granted what is now ,delaware4 ,this region was also included in ,lord ,baltimore's grant of ,maryland1 and the dispute over it between the two proprietors was not settled till #agcb1 when the present boundary was agreed upon4 ,penn intended to add ,delaware to ,pennsylvania1 but the people of these territories1 or three lower counties1 objected1 and in #agjc secured a legislature of their own1 though they remained under the governor of ,pennsylvania4 ,illustration3 ,,penn',s ,,razor1 ,,case1 ,,and ,,hot ,,water ,,tank4 ,now in the possession of the ,pennsylvania ,historical ,society4 ,,the ,,peopling ,,of ,,pennsylvania4--,the toleration and liberality of ,penn proved so attractive to the people of the ,old ,world that emigrants came over in large numbers4 ,they came not only from ,england and ,wales1 but also from other parts of ,europe4 ,in later times thousands of ,germans settled in the middle part of the colony1 and many ,scotch-,irish 7people of ,scottish descent from northern ,ireland7 on the western frontier and along the ,maryland border4 ,as a consequence of this great migration ,pennsylvania became one of the most populous of the colonies4 ,it had many flourishing towns1 of which ,philadelphia was the largest4 ,this was a fine specimen of a genuine ,english town1 and was one of the chief cities in ,english ,america4 ,between the towns lay some of the richest farming regions in ,america4 ,the ,germans especially were fine farmers1 raised great crops1 bred fine horses1 and owned farms whose size was the wonder of all travelers4 ,the laborers were generally indentured servants or redemptioners4 ,illustration3 ,,carolina ,,by ,,the ,,grant ,,of #affe4 ,,carolina4--,when ,charles ,,ii became king in #affj1 there were only two southern colonies1 ,virginia and ,maryland4 ,between the ,english settlements in ,virginia and the ,spanish settlements in ,florida was a wide stretch of unoccupied land1 which in #affc he granted for a new colony called ,carolina in his honor4 #ac ,two groups of settlements were planted4 ,one in the north1 called the ,albemarle ,colony1 was of people from ,virginia2 the other1 in the south1 the ,carteret ,colony1 was of people from ,england1 who founded ,charleston 7#afgj74 ,john ,locke1 a famous ,english philosopher1 at the request of the proprietors drew up a form of government1 #ad but it was opposed by the colonists and never went into effect4 ,each colony1 however1 had its own governor1 who was sent out by the proprietors till #agbi1 when the proprietors surrendered their rights to the king4 ,the province of ,carolina was then formally divided into two colonies known as ,north and ,south ,carolina4 ,,life ,,in ,,north ,,carolina4--,the people of ,north ,carolina lived on small farms and owned few slaves4 ,in the towns were a few mechanics and storekeepers1 in whose hands was all the commerce of the colony4 ,they bought and sold everything1 and supplied the farms and small plantations4 ,in the northern part of the colony tobacco was grown1 in the southern part rice and indigo2 and in all parts lumber1 tar1 pitch1 and turpentine were produced4 ,herds of cattle and hogs ran wild in the woods1 bearing their owner's brands1 to alter which was a crime4 ,there were no manufactures2 all supplies were imported from ,england or the other colonies4 ,there were few roads4 ,there were no towns1 but little villages such as ,wilmington1 ,newbern1 and ,edenton1 the largest of which did not have a population of five hundred souls4 ,as in ,virginia1 the courthouses were the centers of social life1 and court days the occasion of social amusements4 ,education was scanty and poor1 and there was no printing press in the colony for a hundred years after its first settlement4 ,much of the early population of ,north ,carolina consisted of indented servants1 who1 having served out their term in ,virginia1 emigrated to ,carolina1 where land was easier to get4 ,later came ,germans from the ,rhine country1 ,scotch-,irish from the north of ,ireland1 and 7after #agde7 ,scotchmen from the ,highlands4 #ae ,,south ,,carolina4--,in ,south ,carolina1 also1 the only important occupation was planting or farming4 ,rice1 introduced about #afid1 was the chief product1 and next in importance was indigo4 ,the plantations1 as in ,virginia1 were large and lay along the coast and the banks of the rivers1 from which the crops were floated to ,charleston1 where the planters generally lived4 ,at ,charleston the crops were bought by merchants who shipped them to the ,west ,indies and to ,england1 whence was brought almost every manufactured article the people used4 ,slaves were almost the only laborers1 and formed about half the population4 ,bond servants were nearly unknown4 ,charleston1 the one city1 was well laid out and adorned with handsome churches1 public buildings1 and fine residences of rich merchants and planters4 ,illustration3 ,,charleston ,,in ,,early ,,times4 ,from an old print4 ,,the ,,pirates4--,during the early years of the two ,carolinas the coast was infested with pirates1 or1 as they called themselves1 ,brethren of the ,coast4 ,these buccaneers had formerly made their home in the ,west ,indies1 whence they sallied forth to prey on the commerce of the ,spanish colonies4 ,about the time ,charleston was founded1 ,spain and ,england wished to put them down4 ,but when the pirates were driven from their old haunts1 they found new ones in the sounds and harbors of ,carolina1 and preyed on the commerce of ,charleston till the planters turned against them and drove them off4 #af ,,georgia ,,chartered4--,the thirteenth and last of the ,english colonies in ,north ,america was chartered in #agcb4 ,at that time and long afterward1 it was the custom in ,england and the colonies to imprison people for debt1 and keep them in jail for life or until the debt was paid4 ,the sufferings of these people greatly interested ,james ,oglethorpe1 a gallant ,english soldier1 and led him to attempt something for their relief4 ,his plan was to have them released1 provided they would emigrate to ,america4 ,others aided him1 and in #agcb a company was incorporated and given the land between the ,savannah and ,altamaha rivers from their mouths to their sources1 and thence across the continent to the ,pacific4 ,the new colony was called ,georgia1 in honor of ,king ,george ,,ii4 ,the site of the new colony was chosen in order that ,georgia might occupy and hold some disputed territory1 #ag and serve as a buffer colony to protect ,charleston from attacks by the ,spaniards and the ,indians4 ,illustration3 ,,scottish ,,highlander4 ,,the ,,settlement ,,of ,,georgia4--,in #agcb ,oglethorpe with one hundred and thirty colonists sailed for ,charleston1 and after a short stay started south and founded ,savannah 7#agcc74 ,the colony was not settled entirely by released ,english debtors4 ,to it in time came people from ,new ,england and the distressed of many lands1 including ,italians1 ,germans1 and ,scottish ,highlanders4 ,oglethorpe's company controlled ,georgia twenty years2 but the colonists chafed under its rule1 so that the company finally disbanded and gave the province back to the king 7#ageb74 ,under the proprietors the people were required to manufacture silk1 plant vineyards1 and produce oil4 ,but the prosperity of ,georgia began under the royal government1 when the colony settled down to the production of rice1 lumber1 and indigo4 ,importation of slaves was forbidden by the proprietors1 but under the royal government it was allowed4 ,the towns were small1 for almost everybody lived on a small farm or plantation4 ,,summary #a4 ,while the ,english were planting the ,jamestown colony1 the ,dutch under ,hudson explored the ,hudson ,river 7#afji71 and a few years later the ,dutchmen ,may and ,block explored also ,delaware ,bay and the ,connecticut ,river4 #b4 ,the ,dutch fur trade was profitable1 and in #afba the ,dutch ,west ,india ,company was placed in control of ,new ,netherland4 #c4 ,settlements were soon attempted and patroonships created2 but the chief industry of ,new ,netherland was the fur trade4 #d4 ,in #afch a ,swedish colony1 called ,new ,sweden1 was planted on the ,delaware2 but it was seized by the ,dutch 7#afee74 #e4 ,the ,english by this time had begun to settle in ,new ,england4 ,this led to disputes1 and in #affd ,new ,netherland was seized by the ,english1 arid became a possession of the ,duke of ,york1 brother of ,king ,charles ,,ii4 #f4 ,most of the province was called ,new ,york2 but part of it was cut off and given to two noblemen1 and became the province of ,new ,jersey4 #g4 ,in #affc and #affe ,charles ,,ii made some of his friends proprietors of ,carolina1 a province later divided into ,north and ,south ,carolina4 #h4 ,in #afha ,pennsylvania was granted to ,william ,penn as a proprietary colony4 #i4 ,in order to obtain the right of access to the sea1 ,penn secured from the ,duke of ,york what is now ,delaware4 #aj4 ,the last of the colonies was ,georgia1 chartered in #agcb4 #aa4 ,education scanty and poor4 ,no printing presses for one hundred years after first settlement4 ,illustration3 ,,pounding ,,corn4 ,,footnotes #a ,henry ,hudson was an ,english seaman who twice before had made voyages to the north and northeastward for an ,english trading company4 ,stopping in ,england on his return from ,america1 ,hudson sent a report of his discovery to the ,dutch company and offered to go on another voyage to search for the northwest passage4 ,he was ordered to come to ,amsterdam1 but the ,english authorities would not let him go4 ,in #afaj he sailed again for the ,english and entered ,hudson ,bay1 where during some months his ship was locked in the ice4 ,the crew mutinied and put ,hudson1 his son1 and seven sick men adrift in an open boat1 and then sailed for ,england4 ,there the crew were imprisoned4 ,an expedition was sent in search of ,hudson1 but no trace of him was found4 #b ,one of these1 ,cape ,may1 now bears his name2 the other1 ,cape ,henlopen1 is called after a town in ,holland4 #c ,the first patroonship was ,swandale1 in what is now the state of ,delaware2 but the ,indians were troublesome1 and the estate was abandoned4 ,the second1 granted to ,michael ,pauw1 included ,staten ,island and much of what is now ,jersey ,city2 it was sold back to the company after a few years4 ,the most successful patroonship was the ,van ,rensselaer 7ren'se-ler7 estate on the ,hudson near ,albany4 ,it extended twenty-four miles along both banks of the river and ran back into the country twenty-four miles from each bank4 ,the family still occupies a small part of the estate4 #d ,new ,amsterdam was then a cluster of some thirty one-story log houses with bark roofs1 and two hundred population engaged in the fur trade4 ,the town at first grew slowly4 ,there were no such persecution and distress in ,holland as in ,england1 and therefore little inducement for men to migrate4 ,minuit was succeeded as governor by ,van ,twiller 7#afcc71 and he by ,kieft 7#afch71 during whose term all monopolies of trade were abandoned4 ,the fur trade1 heretofore limited to agents of the company1 was opened to the world1 and new inducements were offered to immigrants4 ,any farmer who would go to ,new ,netherland was carried free with his family1 and was given a farm1 with a house1 barn1 horses1 cows1 sheep1 swine1 and tools1 for a small annual rent4 #e ,from these nine men in time came an appeal to the ,dutch government to turn out the company and give the people a government of their own4 ,the first demand was refused1 but the second was partly granted2 for in #afec ,new ,amsterdam was incorporated as a city with a popular government4 #f ,read ,fiske's ,dutch and ,quaker ,colonies1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bhf-bia4 ,in #afgc1 ,england and ,holland being at war1 a ,dutch fleet recaptured ,new ,york and named it ,new ,orange1 and held it for a few months4 ,when peace was made 7#afgd7 the city was restored to the ,english1 and ,dutch rule in ,north ,america was over forever4 #g ,each town was to elect a constable and eight overseers1 with limited powers4 ,several towns were grouped into a riding1 over which presided a sheriff appointed by the governor4 ,in #afhc the ridings became counties1 and in #agjc it was ordered that the people of each town should elect members of a board of supervisors4 #h ,in #afhc ,thomas ,dongan came out as governor1 with authority to call an assembly to aid in making laws and levying taxes4 ,seventeen representatives met in ,new ,york1 enacted some laws1 and framed a ,charter of ,franchises and ,privileges4 ,the duke signed this as proprietor in #afhd2 but revoked it as ,king ,james ,,ii4 #i ,william ,penn was the son of ,sir ,william ,penn1 an admiral in the navy of the ,commonwealth and a friend of ,charles ,,ii4 ,at ,oxford young ,william ,penn was known as an athlete and a scholar and a linguist1 a reputation he maintained in after life by learning to speak ,latin1 ,french1 ,german1 ,dutch1 and ,italian4 ,after becoming a ,quaker1 he was taken from ,oxford and traveled in ,france1 ,italy1 and ,ireland1 where he was imprisoned for attending a ,quaker meeting4 ,the father at first was bitterly opposed to the religious views of the son1 but in the end became reconciled1 and on the death of the admiral 7in #afgj71 ,william ,penn inherited a fortune4 ,thenceforth all his time1 means1 and energy were devoted to the interests of the ,quakers4 ,for a short account of ,penn1 read ,fiske's ,dutch and ,quaker ,colonies1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aad-aah1 #abi-acj4 #aj ,penn intended to call his tract ,new ,wales1 but to please the king changed it to ,sylvania1 before which the king put the name ,penn1 in honor of ,penn's father4 ,the king owed ,penn's father #af1jjj1 and considered the debt paid by the land grant4 #aa ,all laws were to be proposed by the governor and the upper house2 but the lower house might reject any of them4 ,at the first meeting of the ,assembly ,penn offered a series of laws called ,the ,great ,law4 ,these provided that all religions should be tolerated2 that all landholders and taxpayers might vote and be eligible to membership in the ,assembly2 that every child of twelve should be taught some useful trade2 and that the prisons should be made houses of industry and education4 #ab ,pennsylvania extended five degrees of longitude west from the ,delaware4 ,the south boundary was to be a circle drawn at twelve miles' distance from ,newcastle northward and westward unto the beginning of the fortieth degree of northern latitude1 and then by a straight line westward4 ,this was an impossible line1 as a circle so drawn would meet neither the thirty-ninth nor the fortieth parallel4 ,maryland1 moreover1 was to extend unto that part of ,delaware ,bay on the north which lieth under the fortieth degree of north latitude4 ,penn held that the words of his grant beginning of the fortieth degree meant the thirty-ninth parallel4 ,the ,baltimores denied this and claimed to the fortieth4 ,the dispute was finally settled by a compromise line which was partly located 7#agfc-fg7 by two surveyors1 ,mason and ,dixon4 ,in later days this ,mason and ,dixon's line became the boundary between the seaboard free and slave-holding states4 ,the north boundary of ,pennsylvania was to be the beginning of the three and fortieth degree of northern latitude1 which1 according to ,penn's argument in the ,maryland case1 meant the forty- second parallel1 and on this ,new ,york insisted4 #ac ,the grant extended from the #cast to the #cfth degree of north latitude1 and from the ,atlantic to the ,south ,sea2 it was given to eight noblemen1 friends of the king4 ,in #affe strips were added on the north and on the south1 and ,carolina then extended from the parallel of #bi degrees to that of #cf degrees #cj minutes4 #ad ,this plan1 the ,grand ,model1 as it was called1 was intended to introduce a queer sort of nobility or landed aristocracy into ,america4 ,at the head of the state was to be a palatine4 ,below him in rank were proprietaries1 landgraves1 caciques1 and the leetmen or plain people4 ,read ,fiske's ,old ,virginia and her ,neighbours1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bga-bgf4 #ae ,read ,fiske's ,old ,virginia and her ,neighbours1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #caj-cai4 #af ,read ,fiske's ,old ,virginia and her ,neighbours1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cfa-cfi4 #ag ,ever since the early voyages of discovery ,spain had claimed the whole of ,north ,america1 and all of ,south ,america west of the ,line of ,demarcation4 ,but in #afgj ,spain1 by treaty1 acknowledged the right of ,england to the territory she then possessed in ,north ,america4 ,no boundaries were mentioned1 so the region between ,st4 ,augustine and the ,savannah ,river was left to be contended for in the future4 ,england1 in the charter to the proprietors of ,carolina 7#affe71 asserted her claim to the coast as far south as #bi4 ,but this was absurd2 for the parallel of #bi was south of ,st4 ,augustine1 where ,spain for a hundred years had maintained a strong fort and settlement4 ,the possessions of ,england really stopped at the ,savannah ,river1 and sixty-two years passed after the treaty with ,spain 7#afgj7 before any colony was planted south of that river4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,how ,,the ,,colonies ,,were ,,governed ,,groups ,,of ,,colonies4--,it has long been customary to group the colonies in two ways--according to their geographical location1 and according to their form of government4 ,geographically considered1 there were three groups3 7#a7 the ,eastern ,colonies1 or ,new ,england--,new ,hampshire1 ,massachusetts 7including ,plymouth and ,maine71 ,rhode ,island1 and ,connecticut2 7#b7 the ,middle ,colonies--,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,delaware2 and 7#c7 the ,southern ,colonies--,maryland1 ,virginia1 ,north and ,south ,carolina1 and ,georgia4 7,map1 p4 #acd47 ,politically considered1 there were three groups also--the charter1 the royal1 and the proprietary4 7#a7 ,the charter colonies were those whose organization was described in a charter2 namely1 ,massachusetts1 ,connecticut1 and ,rhode ,island4 7#b7 ,the royal colonies were under the immediate authority of the king and subject to his will and pleasure--,new ,hampshire1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,virginia1 ,north and ,south ,carolina1 and ,georgia4 #a 7#c7 ,in the proprietary colonies1 ,pennsylvania1 ,delaware1 and ,maryland1 authority was vested in a proprietor or proprietaries1 who owned the land1 appointed the governors1 and established the legislatures4 ,illustration3 ,,colonial ,,chair4 ,in the possession of the ,concord ,antiquarian ,society4 ,,the ,,first ,,navigation ,,act4--,it was from the king that the land grants1 the charters1 and the powers of government were obtained1 and it was to him that the colonists owed allegiance4 ,not till the passage of the ,navigation ,acts did ,parliament concern itself with the colonies4 ,the first of these acts1 the ordinance of #afea1 was intended to cut off the trade of ,holland with the colonies4 ,it provided that none but ,english or colonial ships could trade between ,england and her colonies1 or trade along the coast from port to port1 or engage in the foreign trade of the plantations4 ,,the ,,second ,,navigation ,,act was passed in #affj4 ,it provided 7#a7 that no goods should be imported or exported save in ,english or colonial ships1 and 7#b7 that certain goods #b should not be sent from the colonies anywhere except to an ,english port4 ,a third act1 passed in #affc1 required all ,european goods destined for the colonies to be first landed in ,england4 ,the purpose of these acts was to favor ,english merchants4 ,,the ,,lords ,,of ,,trade4--,that the king in person should attend to all the trade affairs of his colonies was impossible4 ,from a very early time1 therefore1 the management of trade matters was intrusted to a committee appointed by the king1 or by ,parliament during the ,civil ,war and the ,commonwealth4 ,after the restoration of the monarchy 7in #affj7 this body was known first as the ,committee for ,foreign ,plantations1 then as the ,lords of ,trade1 and finally 7after #afif7 as the ,lords of the ,board of ,trade and ,plantations4 ,it was their duty to correspond with the governors1 make recommendations1 enforce the ,navigation ,acts1 examine all colonial laws and advise the king as to which he should veto or disallow1 write the king's proclamations1 listen to complaints of merchants1--in short1 attend to everything concerning the trade and government of the colonies4 ,,the ,,colonial ,,governor4--,the most important colonial official was the governor4 ,in ,connecticut and ,rhode ,island the governor was elected by the people2 in the royal colonies and in ,massachusetts 7after #afhd7 he was appointed by the king1 and in the proprietary colonies by the proprietor with the approval of the king4 ,each governor appointed by the king recommended legislation to the assemblies1 informed the king as to the condition of the colony1 sent home copies of the laws1 and by his veto prevented the passage of laws injurious to the interests of the crown4 ,from time to time he received instructions as to what the king wished done4 ,he was commander of the militia1 and could assemble1 prorogue 7adjourn71 and dismiss the legislature of the colony4 ,illustration3 ,,colonial ,,parlor 7,,restoration74 ,,the ,,council4--,associated with the governor in every colony was a ,council of from three to twenty-eight men #c who acted as a board of advisers to the governor1 usually served as the upper house of the legislature1 and sometimes acted as the highest or supreme court of the colony4 ,,the ,,lower ,,house of the legislature1 or the ,assembly1--called by different names in some colonies1 as ,house of ,delegates1 or ,house of ,commons1--was chosen by such of the people as could vote4 ,with the governor and ,council it made the laws1 #d levied the taxes1 and appointed certain officers2 but 7except in ,rhode ,island and ,connecticut7 the laws could be vetoed by the governor1 or disallowed by the king or the proprietor4 ,there were many disputes between governor and ,assembly1 each trying to gain more power and influence in the government4 ,if the governor vetoed many laws1 the ,assembly might refuse to vote him any salary4 ,if the ,assembly would not levy taxes and pass laws as requested by the governor1 he might dismiss it and call for the election of a new one4 ,illustration3 ,,colonial ,,pewter ,,dishes4 ,,the ,,laws4--,many of the laws of colonial times seem to us cruel and severe4 ,a large number of crimes were then punishable with death4 ,for less serious offenses men and women had letters branded on their foreheads or cheeks or hands1 or sewed on their outer garments in plain sight2 or were flogged through the streets1 ducked1 stood under the gallows1 stood in the pillory1 or put in the stocks4 ,in ,new ,england it was an offense to travel or cook food or walk about the town on the ,sabbath day1 or to buy any cloth with lace on it4 ,,local ,,government was of three systems3 the town 7township7 in ,new ,england2 the county in the ,southern ,colonies2 and in the ,middle ,colonies a mixture of both4 ,,town ,,meeting4--,the affairs of a ,new ,england town were regulated at town meeting1 to which from time to time the freemen were warned1 or summoned1 by the constable4 ,to be a freeman in ,massachusetts and ,connecticut a man had to own a certain amount of property and be a member of a recognized church4 ,if a newcomer1 he had to be formally admitted to freemanship at a town meeting4 ,these meetings were presided over by a moderator chosen for the occasion1 and at them taxes were levied1 laws enacted1 and once a year officers were elected4 #e ,the principal town officers were the selectmen who managed the town's affairs between town meetings1 the constables1 overseers of the poor1 assessors1 the town clerk1 and the treasurer4 ,,the ,,county4--,in the ,south1 where plantations were numerous and where there were no towns of the ,new ,england kind1 county government prevailed4 ,the officers were appointed by the royal governor1 formed a board called the court of quarter sessions1 and levied local taxes1 made local laws1 and as a court administered justice4 ,in the ,middle ,colonies there were both town and county governments4 ,in ,new ,york1 each town 7after #agjc7 elected a supervisor1 and county affairs were managed by a board consisting of the supervisors of all the towns in the county4 ,in ,pennsylvania the county officers were elected by the voters of the whole county4 ,,no ,,representation ,,in ,,parliament4--,the colonies sent no representatives to ,parliament4 ,in certain matters that body legislated for the colonies1 as in the case of the ,navigation ,acts4 ,but unless expressly stated in the act1 no law of ,parliament applied to the colonies4 ,having no representation in ,parliament1 the colonies often sent special agents to ,london to look after their affairs1 and in later times kept agents there regularly1 one man acting for several colonies4 #f ,a ,,union ,,of ,,the ,,colonies4--,the idea of uniting the colonies for purposes of general welfare and common defense was proposed very early in their history4 ,in #afig ,penn suggested a congress of delegates from each colony4 ,a little later ,robert ,livingston of ,new ,york urged the grouping of the colonies into three provinces1 from each of which delegates should be sent to ,albany to consider measures for defense4 ,as yet1 however1 the colonies were not ready for anything of this sort4 ,,the ,,charters ,,attacked4--,the king1 on the other hand1 had attempted to unite some of the colonies in a very different way--by destroying the charters of the northern colonies and putting them under one governor4 ,the first attack was made by ,king ,charles ,,ii1 on ,massachusetts1 and after a long struggle her charter 7p4 #eh7 was taken away by the ,english courts in #afhd4 ,the charters of ,rhode ,island and ,connecticut were next annulled1 and ,king ,james ,,ii #g sent over ,edmund ,andros as governor of ,new ,england4 ,,connecticut ,,saves ,,her ,,charter4--,andros reached ,boston in #afhf1 and assumed the government of ,massachusetts and ,new ,hampshire4 #h ,he next ordered ,plymouth1 ,rhode ,island1 and ,connecticut to submit and accept annexation4 ,plymouth and ,rhode ,island did so1 but ,connecticut resisted4 ,andros therefore came to ,hartford 7#afhg71 dissolved the colonial government1 and demanded the ,connecticut charter4 ,tradition says that the ,assembly met him1 and debated the question till dusk2 candles were then lighted and the charter brought in and laid on the table2 this done1 the candles were suddenly blown out1 and when they were relighted1 the charter could not be found2 ,captain ,wadsworth of ,hartford had carried it off and hidden it in an oak tree thereafter known as the ,charter ,oak4 ,but ,andros ruled ,connecticut1 and in the following year ,new ,york and ,east and ,west ,jersey also were placed under his authority4 ,andros thus became ruler of all the provinces lying north and east of the ,delaware ,river4 #i ,his rule was tyrannical3 he abolished the legislatures1 and with the aid of appointed councilmen he made laws and levied taxes as he pleased4 ,,the ,,english ,,revolution ,,of #afhi4--;,in #afhi ,king ,james ,,ii was driven from his throne1 ,william and ,mary became king and queen of ,england1 and war broke out with ,france4 ,news of these events caused an upheaval in the colonies4 ,the people in ,boston promptly seized ,andros and put him in jail2 ,connecticut and ,rhode ,island resumed their charter governments2 the ,protestants in ,maryland overthrew the government of the proprietor and set up a new one in the name of ,william and ,mary #aj2 and in ,new ,york ,leisler raised a rebellion4 ,,massachusetts ,,rechartered4--,massachusetts sent agents to ,london to ask for the restoration of her old charter2 but instead ,william granted a new charter in #afia1 which provided that the governor should be appointed by the king4 ,plymouth and ,maine were united with ,massachusetts1 but ,new ,hampshire was made a separate royal colony4 ,the charters of ,rhode ,island and ,connecticut were confirmed1 so that they continued to elect their own governors4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,fort ,,at ,,new ,,york4 ,,leisler',s ,,rebellion4--,andros had ruled ,new ,york through a deputy named ,nicholson1 who tried to remain in control4 ,a rich merchant named ,jacob ,leisler denied the right of ,nicholson to act1 refused to pay duty on some wine he had imported1 and1 aided by the people1 seized the fort and set up a temporary government4 ,a convention was then called1 a committee of safety appointed1 and ,leisler was made commander in chief4 ,later he assumed the office of lieutenant governor4 ,when ,king ,william heard of these things1 he appointed a new governor1 and early in #afia three ships with some soldiers reached ,new ,york4 ,leisler at first refused to give up the fort2 but was soon forced to surrender1 and was finally hanged for rebellion4 #aa ,,bacon',s ,,rebellion4--,massachusetts and ,new ,york were not the first colonies in which bad government led to uprisings against a royal governor4 ,in ,virginia1 during the reign of ,charles ,,ii1 the rule of ,governor ,berkeley was selfish and tyrannical4 ,in #afgf the planters on the frontier asked for protection against ,indian attacks1 but the governor1 who was engaged in ,indian trade1 refused to send soldiers2 and when ,nathaniel ,bacon led a force of planters against the ,indians1 ,berkeley declared him a rebel1 raised a force of men1 and marched after him4 ,while ,berkeley was away1 the people in ,jamestown rose and demanded a new ,assembly and certain reforms4 ,berkeley yielded to the demands1 and was also compelled to give ,bacon a commission to fight the ,indians2 but when ,bacon was well on his way1 ,berkeley again proclaimed him a rebel1 and fled from ,jamestown4 ,bacon1 supported by most of the people1 now seized the government and sent a force to capture ,berkeley4 ,the governor and his followers defeated this force and occupied ,jamestown4 ,bacon1 who was again on the frontier1 returned1 drove ,berkeley away1 burned ,jamestown lest it should be again occupied1 and a month later died4 ,the popular uprising then subsided rapidly1 and when the king's forces arrived 7#afgg7 to restore order1 ,berkeley was in control4 #ab ,,growth ,,of ,,population4--,during the century which followed the restoration of monarchy 7#affj7 the colonies grew not only in number but also in population and in wealth4 ,in #affj there were probably #bjj1jjj people in the ,english colonies2 by #agfj there were nearly #b1jjj1jjj--;all east of the ,appalachian watershed4 ,the three great centers were ,virginia1 ,massachusetts1 and ,pennsylvania4 ,sparse as the population seems to us1 the great march across the continent had begun4 #ac ,,cities ,,and ,,towns4--,the century 7#affj-agfj7 had seen the rise of but one real city in the ,south--,charleston4 ,annapolis was a village1 ,baltimore a hamlet of a hundred souls1 ,williamsburg and ,norfolk were but towns1 and no place in ,north ,carolina was more than a country village4 ,philadelphia1 which did not exist in #affj1 had become a place of #af1jjj people in #agfj1 neat1 well-built1 and prosperous4 ,near by was ,german town1 and further west ,lancaster1 the largest inland town in all the colonies4 ,between ,philadelphia and ,new ,york there were no places larger than small villages4 ,new ,york had a population of some #ab1jjj souls2 ,boston1 the chief city in the colonies1 some #bj1jjj2 and in ,new ,england were several other towns of importance4 ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,cities4--,in the cities and large towns from ,boston to ,charleston in #agfj were many fine houses4 ,every family of wealth had costly furniture1 plenty of silver1 china1 glass1 and tapestry1 and every comfort that money could then buy4 ,the men wore broadcloth1 lace ruffles1 silk stockings1 and silver shoe buckles1 powdered their hair1 and carried swords4 ,the women dressed more elaborately in silks and brocades1 and wore towering head-dresses and ostrich plumes4 ,shopkeepers wore homespun1 workingmen and mechanics leather aprons4 ,illustration3 ,,colonial ,,sideboard1 ,,with ,,knife ,,cases1 ,,candlestick1 ,,pitchers1 ,,and ,,decanter4 ,in the possession of the ,concord ,antiquarian ,society4 ,,things ,,not ,,in ,,use ,,in #affj4--,should we make a list of what are to us the everyday conveniences of life and strike from the list the things not known in #affj1 very few would remain4 ,a business man in one of our large cities1 let us suppose1 sets off for his place of business on a rainy day4 ,he puts on a pair of rubbers1 takes an umbrella1 buys a morning newspaper1 boards a trolley car1 and when his place of business is reached1 is carried by an elevator to his office floor1 and enters a steam-heated1 electric-lighted room4 ,in #affj and for many years after1 there was not in any of the colonies a pair of rubbers1 an umbrella1 a trolley car1 a morning newspaper1 an elevator1 a steam-heated room1 #ad an electric light4 ,illustration3 ,,colonial ,,foot ,,stove4 ,the man of business sits down in a revolving chair before a rolltop desk4 ,in front of him are steel pens1 ,india rubber eraser1 blotting paper1 rubber bands1 a telephone4 ,he takes up a bundle of typewritten letters1 dictates answers to a stenographer1 sends a telegram to some one a thousand miles away1 and before returning home has received an answer4 ,in #affj there was not in all the land a stenographer1 or any of the articles mentioned2 no telephone1 no telegraph1 not even a post office4 ,,travel ,,and ,,communication4--,if business calls him from home1 he travels in comfort in a steamboat or a railway car1 and goes farther in one hour than in #affj he could have gone in two days1 for at that time there was not a steamboat1 nor a railroad1 nor even a stagecoach1 in ,north ,america4 ,men went from one colony to another by sailing vessel2 overland they traveled on horseback2 and if a wife went with her husband1 she rode behind him on a pillion4 ,the produce of the farms was drawn to the village market by ox teams4 ,illustration3 ,,traveling ,,in #affj4 ,,newspapers ,,and ,,printing4--,in #affj no newspaper or magazine of any sort was published in the colonies4 ,the first printing press in ,english ,america was set up at ,cambridge in #afcj1 and was long the only one4 ,the first newspaper in our country was the ,boston ,news ,letter1 printed in #agjd1 and there was none in ,pennsylvania till #agai1 and none south of the ,potomac till #agcb4 ,,liberty ,,of ,,the ,,press did not exist4 ,no book1 pamphlet1 or almanac could be printed without permission4 ,in #afhe1 when a printer in ,philadelphia printed something in his almanac which displeased the ,council1 he was forced to blot it out4 ,another ,philadelphia printer1 ,bradford1 offended the ,quakers by putting into his almanac something too light and airy for one that is a ,christian1 whereupon the almanac was suppressed2 and for later offenses ,bradford was thrown into jail and so harshly treated that he left the colony4 ,in ,new ,york 7#agbe7 ,bradford started the first newspaper in that colony4 ,one of his old apprentices1 ,john ,peter ,zenger1 started the second 7#agcc71 and soon called down the wrath of the governor because of some sharp attacks on his conduct4 ,copies of the newspaper were burned before the pillory1 ,zenger was put in jail1 and what began as a trial for libel ended in a great struggle for liberty of the press2 ,zenger's acquittal was the cause of great public rejoicings4 #ae ,,changes ,,between #affj ,,and #agfj4--;,by #agfj the conditions of life in the colonies had changed for the better in many respects4 ,stagecoaches had come in1 and a line ran regularly between ,new ,york and ,philadelphia4 ,post offices had been established4 ,there were printing presses and newspapers in most of the colonies1 there were public subscription libraries in ,charleston and ,philadelphia1 and six colleges scattered over the colonies from ,virginia to ,massachusetts4 ,,education4--,what we know as the public school system1 however1 did not yet exist4 ,children generally attended private schools kept by wandering teachers who were boarded around among the farmers or village folk2 and learned only to read1 write1 and cipher4 ,but a few went to the ,latin school or to college1 for which they were often prepared by clergymen4 ,,sports ,,and ,,pastimes4--,amusements in colonial days varied somewhat with the section of the country and the character of the people who had settled it4 ,corn huskings1 quilting parties1 and spinning bees were common in many colonies4 ,a house raising or a log-rolling 7a piling bee7 was a great occasion for frolic4 ,picnics1 tea parties1 and dances were common everywhere2 the men often competed in foot races1 wrestling matches1 and shooting at a mark4 ,in ,new ,england the great day for such sports was training day1 which came four times a year1 when young and old gathered on the village green to see the militia company drill4 ,in ,new ,york there were also fishing parties and tavern parties1 and much skating and coasting1 horse racing1 bull baiting1 bowling on the greens1 and in ,new ,york city balls1 concerts1 and private theatricals4 ,in ,pennsylvania vendues 7auctions71 fairs1 and cider pressing 7besides husking bees and house raisings7 were occasions for social gatherings and dances4 ,south of the ,potomac horse racing1 fox hunting1 cock fighting1 and cudgeling were common sports4 ,at the fairs there were sack and hogshead races1 bull baiting1 barbecues1 and dancing4 ,there was a theater at ,williamsburg and another in ,charleston4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,mill ,,of #afia4 ,the power was furnished by the great undershot water wheel4 ,,manufactures ,,and ,,commerce4--,little manufacturing was done in #agfj1 save for the household4 ,a few branches of manufactures--woolen goods1 felt hats1 steel--which seemed likely to flourish in the colonies were checked by acts of ,parliament1 lest they should compete with industries in ,england4 ,but shipbuilding was not molested1 and in ,new ,england and ,pennsylvania many ships were built and sold4 ,land commerce in #agfj was still confined almost entirely to the ,indian fur trade4 ,in sea-going commerce ,new ,england led1 her vessels trading not only with ,great ,britain and the ,west ,indies1 but carrying on most of the coasting trade4 ,in general the ,navigation ,acts were obeyed2 but the ,molasses ,act 7#agcc71 which levied a heavy duty on sugar or molasses from a foreign colony1 was boldly evaded4 ,the law required that all ,european goods must come by way of ,england2 but this too was evaded1 and smuggling of ,european goods was very common4 ,tobacco from ,virginia and ,north ,carolina often found its way in ,new ,england ships to forbidden ports4 ,,summary #a4 ,the ,english colonies were of three sorts--charter1 royal1 and proprietary2 but before #affj each managed its affairs much as it pleased4 #b4 ,charles ,,ii and later kings tried to rule the colonies for the benefit of the crown and of the mother country4 ,they acted through the ,lords of ,trade in ,england and through colonial governors in ,america4 #c4 ,in #afgf ,bacon led an uprising in ,virginia against ,governor ,berkeley's arbitrary rule4 #d4 ,in #afhd ,massachusetts was deprived of her charter1 and within a few years all the ,new ,england colonies1 with ,new ,york and ,new ,jersey1 were put under the tyrannical rule of ,governor ,andros4 #e4 ,when ,james ,,ii lost his throne1 ,andros was deposed1 and ,massachusetts was given a new charter 7#afia74 #f4 ,the government of each colony was managed by 7#a7 a governor elected by the people 7,rhode ,island1 ,connecticut7 or appointed by the king or by the proprietor2 7#b7 by an appointed ,council2 and 7#c7 by an ,assembly or lower house elected by the colonists4 #g4 ,local government was of three sorts3 in ,new ,england the township system prevailed2 in the ,southern ,colonies the county system2 and in the ,middle ,colonies a mixture of the two4 #h4 ,in #affj-agfj the population increased nearly tenfold2 stagecoaches1 post offices1 and newspapers were introduced2 commerce increased1 but little manufacturing was done4 ,,footnotes #a ,new ,hampshire after #afgi1 ,new ,york after #afhe 7when the ,duke of ,york became king71 ,new ,jersey after #agjb1 ,virginia after #afbd1 ,north and ,south ,carolina after #agbi1 ,georgia after #ageb4 #b ,these goods were products of the colonies and were named in the act-- such as tobacco1 sugar1 indigo1 and furs4 ,there was a long list of such enumerated goods1 as they were called4 #c ,in the royal colonies they were appointed by the crown2 in ,massachusetts1 by the ,general ,court2 in the proprietary colonies1 by the proprietor4 #d ,in ,massachusetts as early as #afcd the ,general ,court consisted of the governor1 the assistants1 and two deputies from each town4 ,during ten years they all met in one room2 but a quarrel between the assistants and the deputies led to their meeting as separate bodies4 ,for an account of this curious quarrel see ,fiske's ,beginnings of ,new ,england1 pp4 #ajf-ajh4 ,in ,connecticut and ,rhode ,island also the towns elected deputies4 ,outside of ,new ,england the delegates to the lower branch of the legislature were usually elected from counties1 but sometimes from important cities or towns4 #e ,the first government of ,plymouth ,colony was practically a town meeting4 ,the first town to set up a local government in ,massachusetts was ,dorchester 7#afcc74 ,thus started1 the system spread over all ,new ,england4 ,nothing was too petty to be acted on by the town meeting4 ,for example1 ,it is ordered that all dogs1 for the space of three weeks after the publishing hereof1 shall have one leg tied up4444 ,if a man refuse to tye up his dogs leg and he be found scraping up fish used for fertilizer in the corn field1 the owner shall pay l#bs41 besides whatever damage the dog doth4 ,the proceedings of several town meetings at ,providence are given in ,hart's ,american ,history told by ,contemporaries1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bad-bai4 #f ,penn's charter required him to keep an agent in or near ,london4 #g ,charles ,,ii died in #afhe and was succeeded by his brother1 the ,duke of ,york 7proprietor of the colony of ,new ,york71 who reigned as ,james ,,ii4 #h ,new ,hampshire1 which had been annexed by ,massachusetts in #afda1 was made a separate province in #afgi2 but during the governorship of ,andros it was again annexed4 #i ,these were ,massachusetts 7including ,maine71 ,new ,hampshire1 ,plymouth1 ,rhode ,island1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 ,east ,jersey1 and ,west ,jersey--eight in all4 ,the only other colonies then in existence were ,pennsylvania 7including ,delaware71 ,maryland1 ,virginia1 and ,carolina4 ,for an account of the attack on the ,new ,england charters1 read ,fiske's ,beginnings of ,new ,england1 pp4 #bfe-bfh4 #aj ,the ,protestant ,episcopal ,church of ,england was established in the colony 7#afib71 and sharp laws were made against ,catholics4 ,from #afia till #agae ,maryland was governed as a royal province2 but then it was given back to the fifth ,lord ,baltimore1 who was a ,protestant4 #aa ,read ,fiske's ,dutch and ,quaker ,colonies1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aii-bjh4 ,in ,leisler's ,times1 by ,elbridge ,brooks1 and ,the ,segum's ,daughter1 by ,edwin ,l4 ,bynner1 are two interesting stories based on the events of ,leisler's time4 #ab ,berkeley put so many men to death for the part they bore in the rebellion that ,king ,charles said1 ,the old fool has put to death more people in that naked country than ,i did here for the murder of my father4 ,berkeley was recalled4 ,read ,fiske's ,old ,virginia and her ,neighbours1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #dd-ie2 or the ,century ,magazine for ,july1 #ahij4 #ac ,in ,new ,hampshire settlers had moved up the valley of the ,merrimac to ,concord4 ,in ,massachusetts they had crossed the ,connecticut ,river and were well on toward the ,new ,york border 7map1 p4 #ei74 ,in ,new ,york settlement was still confined to ,long ,island1 the valley of the ,hudson1 and a few ,german settlements in the ,mohawk valley4 ,in ,pennsylvania ,germans and ,scotch-,irish had pressed into the ,susquehanna valley2 ,reading had been founded on the upper ,schuylkill1 and ,bethlehem in the valley of the ,lehigh 7map1 p4 #gh74 ,in ,virginia population had gone westward up the ,york1 the ,rappahannock1 and the ,james rivers to the foot of the ,blue ,ridge2 and ,germans and ,scotch-,irish from ,pennsylvania had entered the ,great ,valley 7map1 p4 #ej74 ,in ,north ,carolina and ,south ,carolina ,germans1 ,swiss1 ,welsh1 and ,scotch-,irish were likewise moving toward the mountains4 #ad ,houses were warmed by means of open fireplaces4 ,churches were not warmed1 even in the coldest days of winter4 ,people would bring foot stoves with them1 and men would sit with their hats1 greatcoats1 and mittens on4 #ae ,read ,fiske's ,dutch and ,quaker ,colonies1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bdh-beg4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,indians ,wherever the early explorers and settlers touched our coast1 they found the country sparsely inhabited by a race of men they called ,indians4 ,these people1 like their descendants now living in the ,west1 were a race with copper-colored skins1 straight1 jet-black hair1 black eyes1 beardless faces1 and high cheek bones4 ,,mounds ,,and ,,cliff ,,dwellings4--,who the ,indians were originally1 where they came from1 how they reached our continent1 nobody knows4 ,long before the ,europeans came1 the country was inhabited by a people1 probably the same as the ,indians1 known as mound builders4 ,their mounds1 of many sizes and shapes and intended for many purposes1 are scattered over the ,ohio and ,mississippi valleys in great numbers4 ,some are in the shape of animals1 as the famous serpent mound in ,ohio4 ,some were for defense1 some were village sites1 and others were for burial purposes4 ,illustrations3 ,,ruins ,,of ,,cliff ,,dwellings4 ,in the far ,west and ,southwest1 where the rivers had cut deep beds1 were the cliff dwellers4 ,in hollow places in the rocky cliffs which form the walls of these rivers1 in ,colorado1 ,arizona1 and ,new ,mexico1 are found to- day the remains of these cliff homes4 ,they are high above the river and difficult to reach1 and could easily be defended4 #a ,illustration3 ,,totem ,,pole ,,in ,,alaska4 ,,tribes ,,and ,,clans4--,the ,indians were divided into hundreds of tribes1 each with its own language or dialect and generally living by itself4 ,each tribe was subdivided into clans4 ,members of a clan were those who traced descent from some imaginary ancestor1 usually an animal1 as the wolf1 the fox1 the bear1 the eagle4 #b ,an ,indian inherited his right to be a wolf or a bear from his mother4 ,whatever clan she belonged to1 that was his also1 and no man could marry a woman of his own clan4 ,the civil head of a clan was a sachem2 the military heads were chiefs4 ,the sachem and the chiefs were elected or deposed1 and the affairs of the clan regulated1 by a council of all the men and women4 ,the affairs of a tribe were regulated by a council of the sachems and chiefs of the clans4 #c ,,confederacies4--,as a few clans were united in each tribe1 so some tribes united to form confederacies4 ,the greatest and most powerful of these was the league of the ,iroquois1 or ,five ,nations1 in central ,new ,york4 #d ,it was composed of the ,seneca1 ,cayuga1 ,onondaga1 ,oneida 7o-ni'da71 and ,mohawk tribes4 ,each managed its own tribal affairs1 but a council of sachems elected from the clans had charge of the affairs of the confederacy4 ,so great was the power of the league that it practically ruled all the tribes from ,hudson ,bay to ,north ,carolina1 and westward as far as ,lake ,michigan4 ,other confederacies of less power were3 the ,dakota and ,blackfeet1 west of the ,mississippi2 the ,powhatan1 in ,virginia2 and the ,creek1 the ,chickasaw1 and the ,cherokee1 in the ,south4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,hatchet ,,and ,,arrowhead1 ,,made ,,of ,,stone4 ,,hunting4--,one of the chief occupations of an ,indian man was hunting4 ,he devised traps with great skill4 ,his weapons were bows and arrows with stone heads1 stone hatchets or tomahawks1 flint spears1 and knives and clubs4 ,to use such weapons he had to get close to the animal1 and to do this disguises of animal heads and skins were generally adopted4 ,the ,indians hunted and trapped nearly all kinds of ,american animals4 ,,animals ,,and ,,implements ,,unknown ,,to ,,the ,,indians4--,before the coming of the ,europeans the ,indians had never seen horses or cows1 sheep1 hogs1 or poultry4 ,the dog was their only domesticated animal1 and in many cases the so-called dog was really a domesticated wolf4 ,neither had the ,indians ever seen firearms1 or gunpowder1 or swords1 nails1 or steel knives1 or metal pots or kettles1 glass1 wheat1 flour1 or many other articles in common use among the whites4 ,illustration3 ,,indians ,,in ,,full ,,dress4 ,,clothing4--,their clothing was of the simplest kind1 and varied1 of course1 with the climate4 ,the men usually wore a strip of deerskin around the waist1 a hunting shirt1 leggings1 moccasins on the feet1 and sometimes a deerskin over the shoulders4 ,very often they wore nothing but the strip about the waist and the moccasins4 ,these garments of deerskin were cut with much care1 sewed with fish-bone needles and sinew thread1 and ornamented with shells and quills4 ,painting the face and body was a universal custom4 ,for this purpose red and yellow ocher1 colored earths1 juices of plants1 and charcoal were used4 ,what may be called ,indian jewelry consisted of necklaces of teeth and claws of bears1 claws of eagles and hawks1 and strings of sea shells1 colored feathers1 and wampum4 ,wampum consisted of strings of beads made from sea shells1 and was highly prized and used not only for ornament1 but as ,indian money4 ,illustration3 ,,wampum4 ,,houses4--,the dwelling of many ,eastern ,indians was a wigwam1 or tent-shaped lodge4 ,it was formed of saplings set upright in the ground in the form of a circle and bent together at their tops4 ,branches wound and twisted among the saplings completed the frame1 which was covered with brush1 bark1 and leaves4 ,a group of such wigwams made a village1 which was often surrounded with a stockade of tree trunks put upright in the ground and touching one another4 ,on the ,western plains the buffalo-hunting ,indian lived during the summer in tepees1 or circular lodges made of poles tied together at the small ends and covered with buffalo skins laced together4 ,the upper end of the tepee was left open to let out the smoke of a fire built inside4 ,in winter these plains ,indians lived in earth lodges4 ,,food4--,for food the ,eastern ,indians had fish from river1 lake1 or sea1 wild turkeys1 wild pigeons1 deer and bear meat1 corn1 squashes1 pumpkins1 beans1 berries1 fruits1 and maple sugar 7which they taught the whites to make74 ,in the ,west the ,indians killed buffaloes1 antelopes1 and mountain sheep1 cut their flesh into strips1 and dried it in the sun4 #e ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,jar1 ,,of ,,baked ,,clay4 ,fish and meat were cooked by laying the fish on a framework of sticks built over a fire1 and hanging the meat on sticks before the fire4 ,corn and squashes were roasted in the ashes4 ,dried corn was also ground between stones1 mixed with water1 and baked in the ashes4 ,such as knew how to make clay pots could boil meat and vegetables4 #f ,,canoes4--,in moving from place to place the ,indians of the ,east traveled on foot or used canoes4 ,in the northern parts where birch trees were plentiful1 the canoe was of birch bark stretched over a light wooden frame1 sewed with strips of deerskin1 and smeared at the joints with spruce gum to make it watertight4 ,in the ,south tree trunks hollowed out by fire and called dugouts were used4 ,in the ,west there were bull boats made of skins stretched over wooden frames4 ,for winter travel the ,northern and ,western ,indians used snowshoes4 ,illustration3 ,,making ,a ,,dugout4 ,after the ,spaniards brought horses to the ,southwest1 herds of wild horses roamed the southwestern plains1 and in later times gave the plains ,indians a means of travel the ,eastern ,indians did not have4 ,,indian ,,trails4--,the ,eastern ,indians nevertheless often made long journeys for purposes of war or trade1 and had many well-defined trails which answered as roads4 ,thus one great trail led from the site of ,boston by way of what is now the city of ,springfield to the site of ,albany4 ,another in ,pennsylvania led from where ,philadelphia stands to the ,susquehanna1 then up the ,juniata1 over the mountains1 and to the ,allegheny ,river4 ,there were thousands of such trails scattered over the country4 ,as the ,indians always traveled in single file1 these trails were narrow paths2 they were worn to the depth of a foot or more1 and wound in and out among the trees and around great rocks4 ,as they followed watercourses and natural grades1 many of them became in after times routes used by the white man for roads and railroads4 ,along the seaboard the ,indians lived in villages and wandered about but little4 ,hunting and war parties traveled great distances1 but each tribe had its home4 ,on the great plains the ,indians wandered long distances with their women1 children1 and belongings4 ,illustrations3 ,,western ,,indians ,,traveling4 ,,work ,,and ,,play4--,the women did most of the work4 ,they built the wigwam1 cut the wood1 planted the corn1 dressed the skins1 made the clothing1 and when the band traveled1 carried the household goods4 ,the brave made bows and arrows1 built the canoe1 hunted1 fished1 and fought4 ,till a child1 or papoose1 was able to run about1 it was carefully wrapped in skins and tied to a framework of wicker which could be carried on the mother's back1 or hung on the branch of a tree out of harm's way4 ,when able to go about1 the boys were taught to shoot1 fish1 and make arrows and stone implements1 and the girls to weave or make baskets1 and do all the things they would have to do as squaws4 ,for amusement1 the ,indians ran foot races1 played football #g and lacrosse1 held corn huskings1 and had dances for all sorts of occasions1 some of them religious in character4 ,some dances occurred once a year1 as the corn dance1 the thanksgiving of the ,eastern tribes2 the sun dance of the plains ,indians2 and the fish dance by the ,indians of the ,columbia ,river country at the opening of the salmon-fishing season4 ,the departure of a war party1 the return of such a party1 the end of a successful hunt1 were always occasions for dances4 #h ,,indian ,,religion4--,the ,indians believed that every person1 every animal1 every thing had a soul1 or spirit1 or manitou4 ,the ceremonies used to get the good will of certain manitous formed the religious rites4 ,on the plains it was the buffalo manitou1 in the ,east the manitou of corn1 or sun1 or rain1 that was most feared4 ,everywhere there was a mythology1 or collection of tales of heroes who did wonderful things for the ,indians4 ,hiawatha was such a hero1 who gave them fire1 corn1 the canoe1 and other things4 #i ,,warfare4--,an ,indian war was generally a raid by a small party led by a warrior of renown4 ,such a chief1 standing beside the war post in his village1 would publicly announce the raid and call for volunteers4 ,no one was forced to go2 but those who were willing would step forward and strike the post with their tomahawks4 ,among the plains ,indians a pipe was passed around1 and all who smoked it stood pledged to go4 ,the weapons used in war were like those used in the hunt4 ,though the ,indians were brave they delighted to fight from behind trees1 to creep through the tall grass and fall upon their enemy unawares1 or to wait for him in ambush4 ,the dead and wounded were scalped4 ,captive men were generally put to death with torture2 but captive women and children were usually adopted into the tribe4 ,,indian ,,wars ,,in ,,virginia4--,the first ,europeans who came to our shores were looked on by the ,indians as superior beings1 as men from the clouds4 ,but before the settlers arrived this veneration was dispelled1 and hostility took its place4 ,thus the founders of ,jamestown had scarcely touched land when they were attacked4 ,but ,smith brought about an alliance with the ,powhatan1 and till after his death there was peace4 ,then 7#afbb71 under the lead of ,opekan'kano1 an attack was made along the whole line of settlements in ,virginia1 and in one day more than three hundred whites were massacred1 their houses burned1 and much property destroyed4 ,the blow was a terrible one2 but the colonists rallied and waged such a war against the enemy that for more than twenty years there was no great uprising4 ,but in #afdd ,opekankano 7then an old and grizzled warrior7 again led forth his tribes1 and in two days killed several hundred whites4 ,once more the settlers rallied1 swept the ,indian country1 captured ,opekankano1 and drew a boundary across which no ,indian could come without permission4 ,if he did1 he might be shot on sight4 #aj ,,early ,,indian ,,wars ,,in ,,new ,,england4--,in ,new ,england the experience of the early settlers was much the same4 ,murders by the ,pequot ,indians having become unendurable1 a little fleet was sent 7#afhf7 against them4 ,block ,island was ravaged1 and ,pequots on the mainland were killed and their corn destroyed4 ,sassacus1 sachem of the ,pequots1 thereupon sought to join the ,narragansetts with him in an attempt to drive the ,english from the country2 but ,roger ,williams persuaded the ,narragansetts to form an alliance with the ,english1 and the ,pequots began the war alone4 ,in the winter 7#afcf-cg7 the ,connecticut ,river settlements were attacked1 several men killed1 and two girls carried off4 ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,pequots4--,in ,may1 #afcg1 a force of seventy-seven colonists from ,connecticut and ,massachusetts1 led by ,john ,mason and ,john ,underhill1 marched to the ,pequot village in what is now the southeast corner of ,connecticut4 ,some ,mohicans and ,narragansetts went along2 but when they came in sight of the village1 they refused to join in the attack4 ,the village was a cluster of wigwams surrounded by a stockade1 with two narrow openings for entrance4 ,while some of the ,english guarded them1 the rest attacked the stockade1 flung torches over it1 and set the wigwams on fire4 ,of the four hundred or more ,indians in the village1 but five escaped4 ,illustration3 ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,pequots4 ,,king ,,philip',s ,,war4--,for thirty-eight years the memory of the destruction of the ,pequots kept peace in ,new ,england4 ,then ,philip1 a chief of the ,wampanoags1 took the warpath 7#afge7 and1 joined by the ,nipmucks and ,narragansetts1 sought to drive the white men from ,new ,england4 ,the war began in ,rhode ,island1 but spread into ,massachusetts1 where town after town was attacked1 and men1 women1 and children massacred4 ,roused to fury by these deeds1 a little band of men from ,massachusetts1 ,plymouth1 and ,connecticut in the dead of winter stormed the great swamp fortress of the ,narragansetts1 destroyed a thousand ,indians1 and burned the wigwams and winter supply of corn4 ,the power of the ,narragansetts was broken2 but the war went on1 and before midsummer 7#afgf7 twenty villages had been attacked by the ,nipmucks4 ,but they1 too1 were doomed2 their fighting strength was destroyed in two victories by the colonists4 ,in ,august ,philip was shot in a swamp4 ,these victories ended the war in the south1 but it broke out almost immediately in the northeast1 and raged till the summer of #afgh4 ,during these three years of war ,new ,england suffered terribly4 ,twelve towns had been utterly destroyed1 forty had been partly burned1 and a thousand men1 besides scores of women and children1 had perished4 ,as for the ,new ,england ,indians1 their power was gone forever4 #aa ,,indian ,,wars ,,in ,,new ,,netherland4--,the ,dutch in ,new ,netherland were on friendly terms with the ,iroquois1 to whom they sold fire-arms2 but the ,tappans1 ,raritans1 and other ,algonquin tribes round about ,new ,amsterdam were enemies of the ,iroquois1 and with these the ,dutch had several wars4 ,one 7#afda7 was brought on by ,governor ,kieft's attempt to tax the ,indians2 another 7#afdc-de7 by the slaughter1 one night1 of more than a hundred ,indians who had asked the ,dutch for shelter from their ,mohawk enemies4 ,many ,dutch farmers were murdered1 and a great ,indian stronghold in ,connecticut was stormed one winter night and seven hundred ,indians killed4 #ab ,after ten years of peace the ,indians rose again1 killed men in the streets of ,new ,amsterdam1 and harried ,staten ,island2 and again1 after an outbreak at ,esopus1 there were several years of war 7#afeh-fd74 ,,in ,,north ,,carolina some ,algonquin tribes conspired with the ,tuscarora tribe of ,iroquois to drive the white men from the country1 and began horrid massacres 7#agaa74 ,help came from ,south ,carolina1 and the ,tuscaroras were badly beaten4 ,but the war was renewed next year1 and then another force of white men and ,indians from ,south ,carolina stormed the ,tuscaroras' fort and broke their power4 ,the ,tuscaroras migrated to ,new ,york and were admitted to the great ,iroquois confederacy of the ,five ,nations1 which thenceforth was known as the ,six ,nations4 #ac ,,in ,,south ,,carolina4--,among the ,indians who marched to the relief of ,north ,carolina were men of the ,yam'assee tribe4 ,that they should turn against the people of ,south ,carolina was not to be expected4 ,but the ,spaniards at ,st4 ,augustine bought them with gifts1 and1 joined by ,creeks1 ,cherokees1 and others1 they began 7in #agae7 a war which lasted nearly a year and cost the lives of four hundred white men4 ,they1 too1 in the end were beaten1 and the ,yamassees fled to ,florida4 ,the story of these ,indian wars has been told not because they were wars1 but because they were the beginnings of that long and desperate struggle of the ,indian with the white man which continued down almost to our own time4 ,the march of the white man across the continent has been contested by the ,indian at every step1 and to-day there is not a state in the ,union whose soil has not at some time been reddened by the blood of both4 ,,what ,,we ,,owe ,,to ,,the ,,indian4--,the contact of the two races has greatly influenced our language1 literature1 and customs4 ,five and twenty of our states1 and hundreds of counties1 cities1 mountains1 rivers1 lakes1 and bays1 bear names derived from ,indian languages4 ,chipmunk and coyote1 moose1 opossum1 raccoon1 skunk1 woodchuck1 tarpon1 are all of ,indian origin4 ,we still use such expressions as ,indian summer1 ,indian file1 ,indian corn2 bury the hatchet1 smoke the pipe of peace4 ,to the ,indians we owe the canoe1 the snowshoe1 the toboggan1 lacrosse4 ,squanto taught the ,pilgrims how to plant corn in hills1 just as it is planted to-day1 and long before the white man came1 the ,indians ate hominy1 mush1 and succotash1 planted pumpkins and squashes1 and made maple sugar4 ,,summary #a4 ,the ,indians were divided into tribes1 and the tribes into clans4 #b4 ,each tribe had its own language or dialect1 and usually lived by itself4 #c4 ,members of a clan traced descent from some common imaginary ancestor1 usually an animal4 ,the civil head of a clan was the sachem2 the military heads were the chiefs4 #d4 ,as the clans were united into tribes1 so the tribes were in some places joined in confederacies4 #e4 ,the chief occupations of ,indian men were hunting and waging war4 #f4 ,their ways of life varied greatly with the locality in which they lived3 as in the wooded regions of the ,east or on the great plains of the ,west2 in the cold country of the ,north or in the warmer ,south4 #g4 ,the growth of white settlements1 crowding back the ,indians1 led to several notable wars in early colonial times1 in all of which the ,indians were beaten3-- ,in ,virginia3 uprisings in #afbb and in #afdd2 border war in #afgf4 ,in ,new ,england3 ,pequot ,war1 #afcf-cg2 ,king ,philip's ,war1 #afge-gh4 ,in ,new ,netherland3 several wars with ,algonquin tribes4 ,in ,north ,carolina3 ,algonquin-,tuscarora uprising1 #agaa-ac4 ,in ,south ,carolina3 ,yamassee uprising1 #agae-af4 ,,footnotes #a ,read ,fiske's ,discovery of ,america1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #he-id1 #ada-adf4 #b ,the sign or emblem of this ancestor1 called the totem1 was often painted on the clothing1 or tattooed on the body4 ,on the northwest coast1 it was carved on a tall pole1 made of a tree trunk1 which was set up before the dwelling4 #c ,scientists have grouped the ,north ,american tribes into fifty or more distinct families or groups1 each consisting of tribes whose languages were probably developed from a common tongue4 ,east of the ,mississippi most of the land was occupied by three groups3 7#a7 ,between the ,tennessee ,river and the ,gulf of ,mexico lived the ,muskho'gees 7or ,maskoki71 including the ,creek1 ,choctaw1 and ,chickasaw tribes4 7#b7 ,the ,iroquois 7ir-o-kwoi'71 ,cherokee'1 and related tribes occupied a large area surrounding ,lakes ,erie and ,ontario1 and smaller areas in the southern ,appalachians and south of the lower ,james ,river4 7#c7 ,the ,algonquins and related tribes occupied most of the country around ,lakes ,superior and ,michigan1 most of the ,ohio valley1 and the ,atlantic seaboard north of the ,james ,river1 besides much of ,canada4 #d ,read ,fiske's ,discovery of ,america1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #gb-gh4 #e ,the manner of drying was called jerking4 ,jerked meat would keep for months and was cooked as needed4 ,sometimes it was pounded between stones and mixed with fat1 and was then called pemmican4 #f ,fire for cooking and warming was started by pressing a pointed stick against a piece of wood and turning the stick around rapidly4 ,sometimes this was done by twirling it between the palms of the hands1 sometimes by wrapping the string of a little bow around the stick and moving the bow back and forth as if fiddling4 ,the revolving stick would form a fine dust which the heat caused by friction would set on fire4 #g ,a game of football is thus described3 ,likewise they have the exercise of football1 in which they only forcibly encounter with the foot to carry the ball the one from the other1 and spurn it to the goal with a kind of dexterity and swift footmanship which is the honor of it4 ,but they never strike up one another's heels1 as we do1 not accounting that praiseworthy to purchase a goal by such an advantage4 #h ,one who was with ,smith in ,virginia has left us this account of what took place when the ,powhatan was crowned 7p4 #db73 ,in a fair plain field they made a fire before which 7we were7 sitting upon a mat 7when7 suddenly amongst the woods was heard 444 a hideous noise and shouting4 ,then presently 444 thirty young women came out of the woods 444 their bodies painted some white1 some red1 some black1 some particolor1 but all differing4 ,their leader had a fair pair of buck's horns on her head1 and an otter's skin at her girdle1 and another at her arm1 a quiver of arrows at her back1 a bow and arrows in her hand4 ,the next had in her hand a sword1 another a club 444 all horned alike4444 ,these fiends with most hellish shouts and cries1 rushing from among the trees1 cast themselves in a ring about the fire1 singing and dancing4444 ,having spent near one hour on this masquerade1 as they entered in like manner they departed4 #i ,read ,longfellow's ,hiawatha4 #aj ,thirty-one years later another outbreak occurred1 and for months burning and scalping went on along the border1 till the ,indians were beaten by the men under ,nathaniel ,bacon 7p4 #id74 #aa ,read ,fiske's ,beginnings of ,new ,england1 pp4 #abh-acc1 #baa-bbf1 #bce-bcf4 #ab ,read ,fiske's ,dutch and ,quaker ,colonies1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #agg-ahj1 #ahc-ahh4 #ac ,read ,fiske's ,old ,virginia and her ,neighbours1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bih-cjd4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,french ,,in ,,america ,while ,english1 ,dutch1 and ,swedes were settling on the ,atlantic seaboard of ,north ,america1 the ,french took possession of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 the ,great ,lakes1 and the ,mississippi4 ,though the attempt of ,cartier to plant a colony on the ,st4 ,lawrence failed 7p4 #cj71 the ,french never lost interest in that part of the world1 and new attempts were made to plant colonies4 ,illustration3 ,,canada 7,,new ,,france7 ,,and ,,acadia4 ,,the ,,french ,,in ,,nova ,,scotia4--,all failed till ,de ,monts 7d'mawng7 and ,champlain 7sham-plan'7 #a came over in #afjd with two shiploads of colonists4 ,some landed on the shore of what is now ,nova ,scotia and founded ,port ,royal4 ,the others1 led by ,de ,monts1 explored the ,bay of ,fundy1 and on an island at the mouth of a river planted a colony called ,st4 ,croix4 ,the name ,st4 ,croix 7croy7 in time was given to the river which is now part of the eastern boundary of ,maine4 ,one winter in that climate was enough1 and in the spring 7#afje7 the coast from ,maine to ,massachusetts was explored in search of a better site for the colony4 ,none suited1 and1 returning to ,st4 ,croix1 ,de ,monts moved the settlers to ,port ,royal4 ,,quebec ,,founded4--,this too was abandoned for a time1 and in #afjg the colonists were back in ,france4 ,champlain1 however1 longed to be again in the ,new ,world1 and soon persuaded ,de ,monts once more to attempt colonization4 ,in #afjh1 therefore1 ,champlain with two ships sailed up the ,st4 ,lawrence and founded ,quebec4 ,here1 as was so often the case1 the first winter was a struggle for life2 when spring came1 only eight of the colonists were alive4 ,but help soon reached them1 and ,france at last had secured a permanent foothold in ,america4 ,the drainage basin of the ,st4 ,lawrence was called ,new ,france 7or ,canada72 the lands near ,port ,royal became another ,french colony1 called ,acadia4 ,,exploration ,,of ,,new ,,france4--,champlain at once made friends with the ,indians1 and in #afji went with a party of ,hurons to help fight their enemies1 the ,iroquois ,indians who dwelt in central ,new ,york4 #b ,the way was up the ,st4 ,lawrence and up a branch of that river to the lake which now bears the name of ,champlain4 ,on its western shore the expected fight took place1 and a victory1 due to the fire-arms of ,champlain and his companions1 was won for the ,hurons4 #c ,later ,champlain explored the ,ottawa ,river1 saw the waters of ,lake ,huron1 and crossed ,lake ,ontario4 ,but the real work of ,french discovery and exploration in the interior was done by ,catholic priests and missionaries4 ,,the ,,catholic ,,missionaries4--,with crucifixes and portable altars strapped on their backs1 these brave men pushed boldly into the ,indian country4 ,guided by the ,indians1 they walked through the dense forests1 paddled in birch-bark canoes1 and penetrated a wilderness where no white man had ever been4 ,they built little chapels of bark near the ,indian villages1 and labored hard to convert the red men to ,christianity4 ,it was no easy task4 ,often and often their lives were in danger4 ,some were drowned4 ,some were burned at the stake4 ,others were tomahawked4 ,but neither cold nor hunger1 nor the dangers and hardships of life in the wilderness1 could turn the priests from their good work4 ,one of them toiled for ten years among the ,indians on the ,niagara ,river and the shores of ,lake ,huron2 two others reached the outlet of ,lake ,superior2 a fourth paddled in a canoe along its south shore4 ,illustration3 ,,french ,,priest ,,and ,,indians ,,in ,,birch-,,bark ,,canoe4 ,,the ,,king',s ,,maidens4--,for fifty years after the founding of ,quebec few settlers came to ,canada4 ,then the ,french king sent over each year a hundred or more young women who were to become wives of the settlers4 #d ,besides encouraging farming1 the government tried to induce the men to engage in cod fishing and whaling2 but the only business that really nourished in ,canada was trading with the ,indians for furs4 ,,the ,,fur ,,trade4--,each year a great fair was held outside the stockade of ,montreal1 to which hundreds of ,indians came from the far western lakes4 ,they brought canoe loads of beaver skins and furs of small animals1 and exchanged them for bright-colored cloth1 beads1 blankets1 kettles1 and knives4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,and ,,fur ,,trader4 ,this great trade was a monopoly4 ,its profits could not be enjoyed by everybody4 ,numbers of hardy young men1 therefore1 took to the woods and traded with the ,indians far beyond the reach of the king's officers4 ,by so doing these wood rangers 7coureurs de bois71 as they were called1 became outlaws1 and if caught1 might be flogged and branded with a hot iron4 ,they built trading posts at many places in the ,west1 and often married ,indian women1 which went a long way to make the ,indians friends of the ,french4 #e ,,the ,,mississippi4--,when the priests and traders reached the country about ,lake ,superior and ,lake ,michigan1 they heard from the ,indians of a great river called the ,mississippi--that is1 ,big ,water or ,father of ,waters4 ,might not this1 it was asked1 be the long-sought northwest passage to the ,indies8 ,in hopes that it was1 ,father ,marquette 7mar-ket'71 a priest who had founded a mission on the ,strait of ,mackinac 7mack'i-naw7 between ,lakes ,huron and ,michigan1 and ,joliet 7zho-le-a'71 a trapper and soldier1 were sent to find the river and follow it to the sea4 ,illustration3 ,,french ,,claims1 ,,missions1 ,,and ,,trading ,,posts ,,in ,,mississippi ,,valley ,,in #agjj ,they started in the spring of #afgc with five companions in two canoes4 ,their way was from the ,strait of ,mackinac to ,green ,bay in ,wisconsin1 up the ,fox ,river1 across a portage to the ,wisconsin ,river1 and down this to the ,mississippi1 on whose waters they floated and paddled to a place probably below the mouth of the ,arkansas4 ,there the travelers stopped1 and turned back toward ,canada1 convinced that the great river #f must flow not to the ,pacific1 but to the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,illustration3 ,,marquette ,,and ,,joliet ,,at ,a ,,portage4 ,,la ,,salle ,,on ,,the ,,mississippi1 #afhb4--,the voyage of ,marquette and ,joliet was of the greatest importance to ,france4 ,yet the only man who seems to have been fully awake to its importance was ,la ,salle4 ,if the ,mississippi flowed into the ,gulf of ,mexico1 a new and boundless ,indian trade lay open to ,frenchmen4 ,but did it flow into the ,gulf8 ,that was a question ,la ,salle proposed to settle2 but three heroic attempts were made1 and two failures1 which to other men would have been disheartening1 were endured1 before he passed down the river to its mouth in #afhb4 #g ,,louisiana4--,standing on the shore of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 ,la ,salle put up a rude cross1 nailed to it the arms of ,france1 and1 in the name of the ,french king1 ,louis ,,xiv1 took formal possession of all the region drained by the ,mississippi and its branches4 ,he named the country ,louisiana4 ,la ,salle knew little of the extent of the region he thus added to the possessions of ,france in the ,new ,world4 ,but the claim was valid1 and ,louisiana stretched from the unknown sources of the ,ohio ,river and the ,appalachian ,mountains on the east1 to the unknown ,rocky ,mountains on the west1 and from the watershed of the ,great ,lakes on the north1 to the ,gulf of ,mexico on the south4 ,,la ,,salle ,,attempts ,,to ,,occupy ,,louisiana1 #afhb4--;,but the great work ,la ,salle had planned was yet to be done4 ,louisiana had to be occupied4 ,a fort was needed far up the valley of the ,mississippi to overawe the ,indians and secure the fur trade4 ,hurrying back to the ,illinois ,river1 ,la ,salle1 in ,december1 #afhb1 on the top of a steep cliff1 built a stockade and named it ,fort ,st4 ,louis4 ,a fort and city also needed to be built at the mouth of the ,mississippi to keep out the ,spaniards and afford a place whence furs floated down the river might be shipped to ,france4 ,this required the aid of the king4 ,hurrying to ,paris1 ,la ,salle persuaded ,louis ,,xiv to help him1 and was sent back with four ships to found the city4 ,,la ,,salle ,,in ,,texas1 #afhd4--;,but the little fleet missed the mouth of the river and reached the coast of ,texas4 ,there the men landed and built ,fort ,st4 ,louis of ,texas4 ,well knowing that he had passed the river1 ,la ,salle left some men at the fort1 and with the rest started on foot to find the ,mississippi--but never reached it4 ,he was murdered on the way by his own men4 ,illustration3 ,,la ,,salle',s ,,house 7,,canada7 ,,in #aijj4 ,of the men left in ,texas the ,indians killed some1 and the ,spaniards killed or captured the rest1 and the plans of this great explorer failed utterly4 #h ,,biloxi4--,la ,salle's scheme of founding a city near the mouth of the ,mississippi1 however1 was carried out by other men4 ,fear that the ,english would seize the mouth of the river led the ,french to act1 and in #afii a gallant soldier named ,iberville 7e-ber-veel'7 built a small stockade and planted a colony at ,bilox'i on the coast of what is now ,mississippi4 ,,new ,,orleans ,,founded4--,during fifteen years and more the little colony1 which was soon moved from ,biloxi to the vicinity of ,mobile 7map1 p4 #acd71 struggled on as best it could2 then steps were taken to plant a settlement on the banks of the ,mississippi1 and 7#agah7 ,bienville 7be-an-veel'7 laid the foundation of a city he called ,new ,orleans4 ,,summary #a4 ,after many failures1 a ,french colony was planted at ,port ,royal in ,acadia 7,nova ,scotia7 in #afja2 but this was abandoned for a time1 and the first permanent ,french colony was planted by ,champlain at ,quebec in #afjh4 #b4 ,from these settlements grew up the two ,french colonies called ,acadia and ,new ,france or ,canada4 #c4 ,new ,france was explored by ,champlain1 and by many brave priests4 #d4 ,marquette and ,joliet reached the ,mississippi and explored it from the ,wisconsin to the ,arkansas 7#afgc74 #e4 ,their unfinished work was taken up by ,la ,salle1 who went down the ,mississippi to the ,gulf 7#afhb71 and formally claimed for ,france all the region drained by the river and its tributaries--a vast area which he called ,louisiana4 #f4 ,occupation of the ,mississippi valley by the ,french followed2 forts and trading posts were built1 and in #agah ,new ,orleans was founded4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,indian ,,village4 ,,footnotes #a ,samuel de ,champlain 7born in #aefg7 had been a captain in the royal navy1 and had visited the ,west ,indies1 ,mexico1 and the ,isthmus of ,panama1 across which he suggested a canal should be cut4 ,in #afjc he was offered a command in a company of adventurers to ,new ,france4 ,on this voyage ,champlain went up the ,st4 ,lawrence to the site of the ,indian town called ,hochelaga by ,cartier 7p4 #cj72 but the village had disappeared4 ,returning to ,france1 he joined the party of ,de ,monts 7#afjd74 #b ,the year #afji is important in our history4 ,then it was that ,champlain fought the ,iroquois2 that the second ,virginia charter was granted2 and that ,hudson's expedition gave the ,dutch a claim to territory in the ,new ,world4 #c ,the fight with the ,iroquois took place not far from ,ticonderoga4 ,when the two parties approached1 ,champlain advanced and fired his musket4 ,the woods rang with the report1 and a chief fell dead4 ,there arose1 says ,champlain1 a yell like a thunderclap and the air was full of arrows4 ,but when another and another gun shot came from the bushes1 the ,iroquois broke and fled like deer4 ,the victory was won2 but it made the ,iroquois the lasting enemies of the ,french4 ,read ,parkman's ,pioneers of ,france in the ,new ,world1 pp4 #caj-cbd4 #d ,about #ajjj came in eight years4 ,when married1 they received each an ox1 a cow1 a pair of swine1 a pair of fowls1 two barrels of salted meat1 and eleven crowns in money4 ,read ,parkman's ,old ,regime in ,canada1 pp4 #bai-bbe4 #e ,the fur trade1 which was the life blood of ,canada1 is finely described in ,parkman's ,old ,regime in ,canada1 pp4 #cjb-cae4 #f ,marquette named the river ,immaculate ,conception4 ,he noted the abundance of fish in its waters1 the broad prairies on which grazed herds of buffalo1 and the flocks of wild turkeys in the woods4 ,on his way home he ascended the ,illinois ,river1 and crossed to ,lake ,michigan1 passing over the site where ,chicago now stands4 ,read ,mary ,hartwell ,catherwood's ,heroes of the ,middle ,west2 also ,parkman's ,la ,salle and the ,discovery of the ,great ,west1 pp4 #dh-ga2 and ,hart's ,american ,history as told by ,contemporaries1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #acf-adj4 #g ,in the first attempt he left ,fort ,frontenac1 coasted along the north shore of ,lake ,ontario1 crossed over and went up the ,niagara ,river1 and around the ,falls to ,lake ,erie4 ,there he built a vessel called the ,griffin1 which was sailed through the lakes to the northern part of ,lake ,michigan 7#afgi74 ,thence he went in canoes along the shore of ,lake ,michigan to the river ,st4 ,joseph1 where he built a fort 7,fort ,st4 ,joseph71 and then pushed on to the ,illinois ,river and 7near the present city of ,peoria7 built another called ,fort ,crvecoeur 7crav'ker74 ,there he left ,henri de ,tonty in charge of a party to build another ship1 and went back to ,canada4 ,when he returned to the ,illinois in #afhj1 on his second trip1 ,crvecoeur was in ruins1 and ,tonty and his men gone4 ,in hope of finding them ,la ,salle went down the ,illinois to the ,mississippi1 but he turned back and passed the winter on the river ,st4 ,joseph4 7,read ,parkman's description of the great town of the ,illinois and its capture by the ,iroquois1 in ,la ,salle and the ,discovery of the ,great ,west1 pp4 #bje-bae47 ,from the ,st4 ,joseph1 after another trip to ,canada1 ,la ,salle 7with ,tonty7 started westward for the third time 7late in #afha71 crossed the lake to where ,chicago now is1 went down the ,illinois and the ,mississippi1 and in ,april1 #afhb1 floated out on the waters of the ,gulf4 ,on his first expedition ,la ,salle was accompanied by ,father ,hennepin1 whom he sent down the ,illinois and up the ,mississippi4 ,but the ,sioux 7soo7 ,indians captured ,father ,hennepin1 and took him up the ,mississippi to the falls which he named ,st4 ,anthony1 now in the city of ,minneapolis4 #h ,read ,parkman's ,la ,salle1 pp4 #bge-bhh1 #cej-cee1 #cif-dje4 ,,chapter ,x ,,wars ,,with ,,the ,,french ,,king ,,william',s ,,war4--,when ,james ,,ii was driven from his throne 7p4 #ic71 he fled to ,france4 ,his quarrel with ,king ,william was taken up by ,louis ,,xiv1 and in #afhi war began between ,france and ,england4 ,the strife thus started in the ,old ,world soon spread to the ,new1 and during eight years the frontier of ,new ,england and ,new ,york was the scene of ,french and ,indian raids1 massacres1 and burning towns4 ,illustration3 ,,scene ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,wars ,,with ,,the ,,french4 ,,the ,,frontier4--,the frontier of ,english settlement consisted of a string of little towns close to the coast in ,maine and ,new ,hampshire1 and some sixty miles back from the coast in ,massachusetts2 of a second string of towns up the ,connecticut valley to central ,massachusetts2 and of a third up the ,hudson to the ,mohawk and up the ,mohawk to ,schenec'tady4 ,most of ,maine and ,new ,hampshire1 all of what is now ,vermont1 and all ,new ,york north and west of the ,mohawk was a wilderness pierced by streams which afforded the ,french and ,indians easy ways of reaching the ,english frontier4 ,the ,french frontier consisted of a few fishing towns scattered along the shores of ,acadia 7what is now ,nova ,scotia1 ,new ,brunswick1 and eastern ,maine71 arid a few settlements along the ,st4 ,lawrence to ,fort ,frontenac1 just where the river leaves ,lake ,ontario4 ,between these frontiers in ,maine and ,new ,hampshire were the ,abenaki 7ab- nahk'ee7 ,indians1 close allies of the ,french and bitter enemies of the ,english2 and in ,new ,york the ,iroquois1 allies of the ,english and enemies of the ,french since the day in #afji when ,champlain defeated them 7p4 #aae74 #a ,,the ,,french ,,attack ,,the ,,english ,,frontier4--,the governor of ,new ,france was ,count ,frontenac1 a man of action1 keen1 fiery1 and daring1 a splendid executive1 an able commander1 and well called the ,father of ,new ,france4 ,gathering his ,frenchmen and ,indians as quickly as possible1 ,frontenac formed three war parties on the ,st4 ,lawrence in the winter of #afhi-ij3 that at ,montreal was to march against ,albany2 that at ,three ,rivers was to ravage the frontier of ,new ,hampshire1 and that at ,quebec the frontier of ,maine4 ,the ,montreal party was ready first1 and made its way on snowshoes to the little palisaded village of ,schenectady1 passed through the open gates #b in a blinding storm of snow1 and in the darkness of night massacred threescore men1 women1 and children1 took captive as many more1 and left the place in ashes4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,attack ,,at ,,schenectady4 ,the second war party of ,french and ,indians left the ,st4 ,lawrence in ,january1 #afij1 spent three months struggling through the wilderness1 and in ,march fell upon the village of ,salmon ,falls1 laid it in ashes1 ravaged the farms near by1 massacred some thirty men1 women1 and children1 and carried off some fifty prisoners4 ,this deed done1 the party hurried eastward and fell in with the third party1 from ,quebec4 ,the two then attacked and captured ,fort ,loyal 7where ,portland now stands71 and massacred or captured most of the inhabitants4 ,,end ,,of ,,king ,,william',s ,,war4--,smarting under the attacks of the ,french and ,indians1 ,new ,england struck back4 ,its fleet1 with a few hundred militia under ,william ,phips1 captured and pillaged ,port ,royal1 and for a time held ,acadia4 ,a little army of troops from ,connecticut and ,new ,york marched against ,montreal1 and a fleet and army under ,phips sailed for ,quebec4 ,but the one went no farther than ,lake ,champlain1 and ,phips1 after failing in an attack on ,quebec1 returned to ,boston4 #c ,for seven years more the ,french and ,indians ravaged the frontier #d before the treaty of ,ryswick 7riz'wick7 put an end to the war in #afig4 ,,queen ,,anne',s ,,war4--,in the short interval of peace which followed1 the ,french made a settlement at ,biloxi1 as we have seen1 and founded ,detroit 7#agja74 ,in ,europe the ,french king 7,louis ,,xiv7 placed his grandson on the throne of ,spain and1 on the death of ,james ,,ii1 recognized ,james's young son as ,king ,james ,,iii of ,england4 ,for this1 war was declared by ,england in #agja4 ,the struggle which followed was known abroad as the ,war of the ,spanish ,succession1 but in our country as ,queen ,anne's ,war4 #e ,again the frontier from ,maine to ,massachusetts was the scene of ,indian raids and massacres4 ,haverhill was laid waste a second time1 #f and ,deerfield in the ,connecticut valley was burned4 ,,the ,,attack ,,on ,,deerfield was a typical ,indian raid4 ,the village1 consisting of forty-one houses strung along a road1 stood on the extreme northwestern frontier of ,massachusetts4 ,in the center of the place was a square wooden meetinghouse which1 with some of the houses1 was surrounded by a stockade eight feet high flanked on two corners by blockhouses4 #g ,late in ,february1 #agjd1 a band of ,french and ,indians from ,canada reached the town1 hid in the woods two miles away1 and just before dawn moved quietly across the frozen snow1 rushed into the village1 and1 raising the warwhoop1 beat in the house doors with ax and hatchet4 ,a few of the wretched inmates escaped half-clad to the next village1 but nine and forty men1 women1 and children were massacred1 and one hundred more were led away captives4 #h ,,end ,,of ,,queen ,,anne',s ,,war4--,as the war went on1 the ,english colonists twice attacked ,port ,royal in vain1 but on the third attack in #agaj the place was captured4 ,this time the ,english took permanent possession and renamed it ,annapolis in honor of the queen4 ,to ,acadia was given the name ,nova ,scotia4 ,encouraged by the success at ,port ,royal1 the greatest fleet ever seen1 up to that time1 in ,american waters was sent against ,quebec1 and an army of twenty-three hundred men marched by way of ,lake ,champlain to attack ,montreal4 ,but the fleet1 having lost nine ships and a thousand men in the fog at the mouth of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 returned to ,boston1 and the commander of the army1 hearing of this1 marched back to ,albany4 ,when peace was made by the treaty of ,utrecht 7u'trekt7 in #agac1 ,france was forced to give up to ,great ,britain #i ,acadia1 ,newfoundland1 and all claim to the territory drained by the rivers that flow into ,hudson ,bay 7map1 p4 #aca74 ,,the ,,french ,,build ,,forts ,,in ,,louisiana4--,thirty-one years now passed before ,france and ,great ,britain were again at war1 and in this period ,france took armed possession of the ,mississippi valley1 constructed a chain of forts from ,new ,orleans to the ,ohio1 and built ,forts ,niagara and ,crown ,point4 ,this meant that the ,french were determined to keep the ,british out of ,louisiana and ,new ,france and confine them to the seacoast4 ,but the ,french were also determined to regain ,acadia1 and on the island of ,cape ,breton they built ,louisburg1 the strongest fortress in ,america4 #aj ,,king ,,george',s ,,war4--,such was the state of affairs when in #agdd ,great ,britain and ,france again went to war4 ,as ,george ,,ii was then king of ,great ,britain1 the colonists called the strife ,king ,george's ,war4 ,the ,french now rushed down on ,nova ,scotia and attacked ,annapolis4 ,it seemed as if the whole of ,nova ,scotia would be conquered2 but instead the people of ,new ,england sent out a fleet and army and captured ,louisburg4 #aa ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,louisburg1 #agde4 ,when peace was made 7#agdh71 after two years more of fighting1 ,great ,britain gave ,louisburg back to ,france4 ,,the ,,french ,,in ,,the ,,ohio ,,valley4--,the war ended and no territory lost1 the ,french at once laid plans to shut the ,british out of the ,ohio valley1 which ,france claimed because the ,ohio ,river and its tributaries flowed into the ,mississippi4 ,in #agdi1 therefore1 a party of ,frenchmen under ,cloron 7sa-lo-rawng'7 were sent to take formal possession of that region4 #ab ,illustration3 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,lead ,,plates ,,buried ,,by ,c,,loron4 ,in the possession of the ,virginia ,historical ,society4 ,,the ,,buried ,,plates4--,paddling up the ,st4 ,lawrence and ,lake ,ontario1 these men carried their canoes around ,niagara ,falls1 coasted along ,lake ,erie to a place near ,chautauqua ,lake1 and going overland to the lake went down its outlet to the ,allegheny ,river4 ,there the men were drawn up1 the ,french king was proclaimed owner of all the region drained by the ,ohio1 and a lead plate was buried at the foot of a tree4 ,the inscription on the plate declared that the ,ohio and all the streams that entered it and the land on both sides of them belonged to ,france4 ,the party then passed down the ,allegheny to the ,ohio1 and down the ,ohio to the ,miami1 burying plates from time to time4 #ac ,,the ,,french ,,forts4--,formal possession having been taken1 the next step of the ,french was to build a log fort at ,presque ,isle 7on ,lake ,erie where the city of ,erie now is71 and also ,forts ,le ,boeuf and ,venango1 on a branch of the ,allegheny4 ,,the ,,ohio ,,company4--,but the ,english colonists likewise claimed the ,mississippi valley1 by virtue of the old sea to sea grants1 and the same year that ,cloron came down the ,allegheny1 they also prepared to take possession of the ,ohio valley in a much more serious way4 ,the ,french were burying plates and about to build forts2 the ,english were about to plant towns and make settlements4 ,already in ,pennsylvania and ,virginia population was pushing rapidly westward4 ,already ,english traders crossed the mountains and with their goods packed on horses followed the trails down the ,ohio valley1 going from village to village of the ,indians and exchanging their wares for furs4 ,illustration3 ,,early ,,fords ,,in ,,the ,,ohio ,,valley4 ,convinced that the westward movement of trade and population was favorable for a speculation in land1 some prominent men in ,virginia #ad formed the ,ohio ,company1 and obtained from the ,british king a grant of five hundred thousand acres in the ,ohio valley on condition that within seven years a hundred families should be settled on it and a fort built and garrisoned4 ,,governor ,,dinwiddie ,,alarmed--,when1 therefore1 ,governor ,dinwiddie of ,virginia heard that the ,french were building forts on the ,allegheny1 he became greatly alarmed1 and sent a messenger to demand their withdrawal4 ,but the envoy1 becoming frightened1 soon turned back4 ,clearly a man was wanted1 and ,dinwiddie selected ,george ,washington1 #ae a young man of twenty-one and an officer in the ,virginia militia4 ,,washington',s ,,first ,,public ,,service4--,washington was to find out the whereabouts of the ,french1 proceed to the ,french post1 deliver a letter to the officer in command1 and demand an answer4 ,he was also to find out how many forts the ,french had built1 how far apart they were1 how well garrisoned1 and whether they were likely to be supported from ,quebec4 ,illustration3 ,,washington ,,at ,,fort ,,le ,,boeuf4 ,having received these instructions1 ,washington made his way in the depth of winter to ,fort ,le ,boeuf1 delivered the governor's letter1 and brought back the refusal of the ,french officer to withdraw4 #af ,,fort ,,duquesne 7#aged7--;,dinwiddie now realized that the ,french held the ,allegheny1 and that if they were to be shut out of the ,ohio valley1 something had to be done at once4 ,he therefore sent a party of backwoodsmen to build a fort at the forks of the ,ohio 7where ,pittsburg now is74 ,while they were at work1 the ,french came down the ,allegheny1 captured the half-built fort1 and in place of it erected a larger one which they named ,duquesne 7doo-kan'74 ,,great ,,meadows4--,meantime ,washington had been sent with some soldiers to ,wills ,creek in western ,maryland4 ,when he heard of the capture of the fort1 he started westward1 cutting a road for wagons and cannon as he went1 and camped for a time at ,great ,meadows1 in southwestern ,pennsylvania4 ,there1 one night1 he received word from ,half ,king1 a friendly ,indian encamped with his band six miles away1 that a ,french force was hidden near at hand4 ,washington with some forty men set off at once for the ,indian camp1 and reached it at daylight4 ,a plan of attack was agreed on1 and the march begun4 ,on ,washington's approach1 the ,french flew to arms1 and a sharp fight ensued in which the ,french commander ,jumonville #ag and nine of his men were killed4 ,,fort ,,necessity4--,at ,great ,meadows ,washington now threw up an intrenchment called ,fort ,necessity4 ,some more men having reached him1 he left a few at the fort and went on westward again4 ,but he had not gone far when word came that the ,french were coming to avenge the death of ,jumonville4 ,washington therefore fell back to the fort1 where he was attacked and on ,july #d1 #aged1 was forced to surrender1 but was allowed to return to ,virginia with his men4 ,all previous wars between ,france and ,england had begun in the ,old ,world1 but now a great struggle had begun in the ,new4 ,,summary #a4 ,when ,william and ,mary became king and queen of ,england1 war with ,france followed4 ,in the colonies this was called ,king ,william's ,war 7#afhi-ig74 #b4 ,the ,french from ,canada ravaged the ,new ,england frontier and burned ,schenectady in ,new ,york4 ,the ,english colonists captured ,port ,royal1 but failed to take ,montreal and ,quebec4 #c4 ,after four years of peace 7#afig-agja71 war between ,france and ,england was renewed4 ,this was called ,queen ,anne's ,war 7#agja-ac74 #d4 ,the great event of the war was the conquest of ,acadia4 ,port ,royal was named ,annapolis2 ,acadia was called ,nova ,scotia4 #e4 ,thirty-one years of peace followed4 ,during this time the ,french occupied the ,mississippi valley1 and built the fortress of ,louisburg on ,cape ,breton ,island4 #f4 ,during ,king ,george's ,war 7#agdd-dh71 ,louisburg was captured1 but it was returned by the treaty of peace4 #g4 ,france now proceeded to occupy the ,ohio valley1 and built forts on a branch of the ,allegheny4 #h4 ,the ,british also claimed the ,ohio valley1 and started to build a fort on the site of ,pittsburg1 but were driven off by the ,french4 #i4 ,troops under ,george ,washington1 on their way toward the fort1 defeated a small ,french force1 but were themselves captured by the ,french at ,fort ,necessity 7,july #d1 #aged74 ,,footnotes #a ,it was only a few years after this defeat that the ,dutch planted their trading posts on the upper ,hudson4 ,they made friends of the ,iroquois1 and when the ,english succeeded the ,dutch1 they followed the same wise policy1 encouraged the old hatred of the ,indians for the ,french1 and inspired more than one of their raids into ,canada4 ,the ,iroquois thus became a barrier against the ,french and prevented them from coming down the ,hudson and so cutting off ,new ,england from the ,middle ,colonies4 #b ,the inhabitants1 mostly ,dutch1 had been advised to be on their guard1 but they laughed at the advice1 kept their gates open1 and1 it is said1 at one of them put two snow men as mock sentinels4 #c ,it was expected that the plunder of ,quebec would pay the cost of the expedition4 ,failure added to the debt of ,massachusetts1 and forced the colony to issue paper money or bills of credit4 ,this was the first time such money was issued by any of the colonies4 7,for picture of a bill of credit1 see p4 #bjd47 #d ,they captured1 plundered1 and burned ,york1 were beaten in an attack on ,wells1 burned houses and tomahawked a hundred people at ,durham1 and burned the farmhouses near ,haverhill4 #e ,queen ,mary died in #afid1 and ,king ,william in #agjb4 ,the crown then passed to ,anne1 sister of ,mary4 ,the war1 therefore1 was fought mostly during her reign4 #f ,read ,whittier's poem ,pentucket1 and his account in prose called ,the ,border ,war of #agjh4 #g ,formidable as was the fort1 the snow of a severe winter had been suffered to pile in drifts against the stockade till in places it nearly reached the top1 so that the stockade was no longer an obstacle to the ,french and ,indians4 #h ,read ,parkman's ,half-,century of ,conflict1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #eb-ff4 #i ,ever since the accession of ,king ,james ,i 7#afjc7 ,england and ,scotland had been under the same king1 but otherwise had been independent1 each having its own ,parliament4 ,now1 in ,queen ,anne's reign1 the two countries were united 7#agjg7 and made the one country of ,great ,britain1 with one ,parliament4 #aj ,it was during these years of peace that ,georgia was planted4 ,the ,spaniards at ,st4 ,augustine considered this an intrusion into their territory1 and protested vigorously when ,oglethorpe established a line of military posts from the ,altamaha to the ,st4 ,johns ,river4 ,when word came that ,great ,britain and ,spain were at war1 ,oglethorpe1 aided by ,british ships1 7#agdj7 attacked ,st4 ,augustine4 ,he failed to capture the city1 and the ,spaniards 7#agdb7 invaded ,georgia4 ,oglethorpe1 though greatly outnumbered1 made a gallant defense1 forced the ,spaniards to withdraw1 and 7#agdc7 a second time attacked ,st4 ,augustine1 but failed to take it4 #aa ,the expedition was undertaken without authority from the king4 ,the army was a body of raw recruits from the farms1 the shops1 lumber camps1 and fishing villages4 ,the commander--,pepperell--was chosen because of his popularity1 and knew no more about attacking a fortress than the humblest man in the ranks4 ,of cannon suitable to reduce a fortress the army had none4 ,nevertheless1 by dint of hard work and good luck1 and largely by means of many cannon captured from the ,french1 the garrison was forced to surrender4 ,read ,hawthorne's ,grandfather's ,chair1 ,part ii1 ,chap4 vii2 also ,chaps4 viii and ix4 #ab ,read ,parkman's ,montcalm and ,wolfe1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bj-cd1 for a comparison of the ,french and ,english colonies in ,america4 #ac ,one of these plates was soon found by the ,indians and sent to the governor of ,pennsylvania4 ,two more in recent years were found projecting from the banks of the ,ohio by boys while bathing or at play4 #ad ,among the members of the company were ,governor ,dinwiddie of ,virginia1 and two brothers of ,george ,washington4 #ae ,george ,washington was born on ,february #bb1 #agcb1 at ,bridges ,creek1 in ,virginia4 ,at fourteen he thought seriously of going to sea1 but became a surveyor1 and at sixteen was sent to survey part of the vast estate of ,lord ,fairfax which lay beyond the ,blue ,ridge4 ,he lived the life of a frontiersman1 slept in tents1 in cabins1 in the open1 and did his work so well that he was made a public surveyor4 ,this position gave him steady occupation for three years1 and a knowledge of woodcraft and men that stood him in good stead in time to come4 ,when he was nineteen1 his brother ,lawrence procured him an appointment as an adjutant general of ,virginia with the rank of major1 a post he held in ,october1 #agec1 when ,dinwiddie sent him1 accompanied by a famous frontiersman1 ,christopher ,gist1 to find the ,french4 #af ,on the way home ,washington left his men in charge of the horses and baggage1 put on ,indian walking dress1 and with ,christopher ,gist set off by the nearest way through the woods on foot4 ,the following day1 says ,washington1 in his account of the journey1 just after we had passed a place called ,murdering town1 444 we fell in with a party of ,french ,indians1 who had lain in wait for us4 ,one of them fired at ,mr4 ,gist or me1 not fifteen steps off1 but fortunately missed4 ,the next day they came to a river4 ,there was no way of getting over but on a raft1 444 but before we were half over we were jammed in the ice4444 ,i put out my setting pole to try and stop the raft that the ice might pass by1 when the rapidity of the stream threw it with such force against the pole1 that it jerked me out into ten feet of water1 but ,i fortunately saved myself by catching hold of one of the raft logs4 ,they were forced to swim to an island1 and next day crossed on the ice4 ,read ,parkman's ,montcalm and ,wolfe1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #acb-acf4 #ag ,the ,french claimed that ,jumonville was the bearer of a dispatch from the commander at the ,ohio1 that after the ,virginians fired twice he made a sign that he was the bearer of a letter1 that the firing ceased1 that they gathered about him and while he was reading killed him and his companions4 ,jumonville's death has therefore been called an assassination by ,french writers4 ,the story rested on false statements made by ,indians friendly to the ,french4 ,in reality1 there is ample proof that ,jumonville made no attempt to deliver any message to ,washington4 ,illustration3 ,,eastern ,,north ,,america ,,at ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,and ,,indian ,,war4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,french ,,driven ,,from ,,america ,,the ,,situation ,,in #aged4--,the ,french were now in armed possession of the ,ohio valley4 ,their chain of forts bounded the ,british colonies from ,lake ,champlain to ,fort ,duquesne4 ,unless they were dislodged1 all hope of colonial expansion westward was ended4 ,to dislodge them meant war1 and the certainty of war led to a serious attempt to unite the colonies4 ,by order of the ,lords of ,trade1 a convention of delegates from the colonies #a was held at ,albany to secure by treaty and presents the friendship of the ,six ,nations of ,indians2 it would not do to let those powerful tribes go over to the ,french in the coming war4 ,after treating with the ,indians1 the convention proceeded to consider the question whether all the colonies could not be united for defense and for the protection of their interests4 ,illustration3 ,,join1 ,,or ,,die4 ,,franklin',s ,,plan ,,of ,,union4--,one of the delegates was ,benjamin ,franklin4 ,in his newspaper1 the ,philadelphia ,gazette1 he had urged union1 and he had put this device #b at the top of an account of the capture of the ,ohio fort 7afterward ,duquesne7 by the ,french4 ,at the convention he submitted a plan of union calling for a president general and a grand council of representatives from the colonies to meet each year4 ,they were to make treaties with the ,indians1 regulate the affairs of the colonies as a whole1 levy taxes1 build forts1 and raise armies4 ,the convention adopted the plan1 but both the colonial legislatures and the ,lords of ,trade in ,london rejected it4 #c ,illustration3 ,,franklin1 ,,at ,,the ,,age ,,of #gj4 ,,the ,,five ,,points ,,of ,,attack4--,the ,french held five strongholds1 which shut the ,british out of ,new ,france and ,louisiana1 and threatened the ,english colonies4 #a4 ,louisburg threatened ,new ,england and ,nova ,scotia4 #b4 ,quebec controlled the ,st4 ,lawrence4 #c4 ,crown ,point 7and later ,ticonderoga71 on ,lake ,champlain1 guarded the water route to ,new ,york and threatened the ,hudson valley4 #d4 ,niagara guarded the portage between ,lakes ,ontario and ,erie1 and threatened ,new ,york on the west4 #e4 ,fort ,duquesne controlled the ,ohio and threatened ,pennsylvania and ,virginia4 ,the plan of the ,british was to strengthen their hold on ,nova ,scotia 7,acadia71 and to attack three of the ,french strongholds--,crown ,point1 ,niagara1 and ,fort ,duquesne--at the same time4 ,,acadia4--,late in ,may1 #agee1 therefore1 an expedition set sail from ,boston1 made its way up the ,bay of ,fundy1 captured the ,french forts at the head of that bay1 reduced all ,acadia to ,british rule1 and tendered the oath of allegiance to the ,french ,acadians4 ,this they refused to take1 whereupon they were driven on board ships at the point of the bayonet and carried off and distributed among the colonies4 #d ,illustration3 ,,forts ,,in ,,northern ,,new ,,york4 ,,crown ,,point4--,the army against ,crown ,point1 composed of troops from the four ,new ,england colonies and ,new ,york1 gathered at ,albany1 and ,forts in northern ,new ,york1 under command of ,william ,johnson #e marched to the head of ,lake ,george1 where it beat the ,french under ,dieskau 7dees'kou71 and built ,fort ,william ,henry2 but it did not reach ,crown ,point4 ,,niagara4--,a third army1 under ,general ,shirley of ,massachusetts1 likewise set out from ,albany1 and pushing across ,new ,york reached ,oswego1 when all thought of attacking ,niagara was abandoned4 ,news had come of the crushing defeat of ,braddock4 ,,braddock',s ,,defeat4--,under the belief that neither colonial officers nor colonial troops were of much account1 the mother country at the opening of the war sent over ,edward ,braddock1 one of her best officers1 and two regiments of regulars4 ,brad-dock came to ,virginia1 appointed ,washington one of his aids1 and having gathered some provincial troops1 set off from ,fort ,cumberland in ,maryland for ,fort ,duquesne4 ,the country to be traversed was a wilderness4 ,no road led through the woods1 so the troops were forced to cut one as they went slowly westward 7map1 p4 #add74 ,on ,july #i1 #agee1 when some eight miles from ,fort ,duquesne1 those in the van suddenly beheld what seemed to be an ,indian coming toward them1 but was really a ,french officer with a band of ,french and ,indians at his back4 ,the moment he saw the ,british he stopped and waved his hat in the air1 whereupon his followers disappeared in the bushes and opened fire4 ,the ,british returned the fire and stood their ground manfully1 but as they could not see their foe1 while their scarlet coats afforded a fine target1 they were shot down by scores1 lost heart1 huddled together1 and when at last ,brad-dock was forced to order a retreat1 broke and fled4 #f ,braddock was wounded just as the retreat began1 and died as the army was hurrying back to ,fort ,cumberland1 and lest the ,indians should find his grave1 he was buried in the road1 and all traces of the grave were obliterated by the troops and wagons passing over it4 ,from ,fort ,cumberland the ,british marched to ,philadelphia1 and the whole frontier was left to the mercy of the ,french and ,indians4 ,,french ,,victories4--,war parties were sent out from ,fort ,duquesne in every direction1 settlement after settlement was sacked1 and before ,november the ,indians were burning1 plundering1 massacring1 scalping within eighty miles of ,philadelphia4 ,during the two following years 7#agef-eg71 the ,french were all energy and activity1 and the ,british were hard pressed4 #g ,oswego and ,fort ,william ,henry were captured1 #h and the ,new ,york frontier was ravaged by the ,french4 ,,british ,,victories 7#ageh74--;,and now the tide turned4 ,william ,pitt1 one of the great ,englishmen of his day1 was placed at the head of public affairs in ,great ,britain1 and devoted himself with all his energy to the conduct of the war4 ,he chose better commanders1 infused enthusiasm into men and officers alike1 and the result was a series of victories4 ,a fleet of frigates and battleships1 with an army of ten thousand men1 captured ,louisburg4 ,three thousand provincials in open boats crossed ,lake ,ontario1 took ,fort ,frontenac1 and thus cut communication between ,quebec and the ,ohio4 ,a third expedition1 under ,forbes and ,washington1 marched slowly across ,pennsylvania1 to find ,fort ,duquesne in ruins and the ,french gone4 #i ,illustration3 ,,letter ,,written ,,by ,,washington',s ,,mother4 ,in the possession of the ,pennsylvania ,historical ,society ,,victories ,,of #agei4--,two of the five strongholds 7,louisburg and ,fort ,duquesne7 were now under the ,british flag1 and the next year 7#agei7 the three others met a like fate4 ,an expedition under ,prideaux 7prid'o7 and ,sir ,william ,johnson captured ,fort ,niagara2 an army under ,amherst took ,ticonderoga and ,crown ,point2 and a fleet and army led by ,wolfe1 a young officer distinguished at ,louisburg1 took ,quebec4 ,,quebec1 #agei4--,the victory at ,quebec was the greatest of the war4 ,the fortress was the strongest in ,america1 and stood on the crest of a high cliff which rose from the waters of the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,the ,french commander1 ,montcalm1 was a brave and able soldier4 ,but one night in ,september1 #agei1 the ,british general1 ,wolfe1 led his army up the steep cliff west of the city1 and in the morning formed in battle array on the ,plains of ,abraham4 ,a great battle followed4 ,both ,wolfe and ,montcalm were killed2 but the ,british won1 and ,quebec has ever since been under their flag4 ,montreal fell the next year 7#agfj71 and ,canada was conquered4 #aj ,illustration3 ,,capture ,,of ,,quebec ,,spain ,,cedes ,,florida ,,to ,,great ,,britain4--,in the spring of #agfa1 ,france made proposals of peace2 but while the negotiation was under way1 ,spain allied herself with ,france1 and was soon dragged into the war4 ,the ,british thereupon captured ,havana and ,manila 7#agfb71 and thus became for a short time masters of ,cuba and the ,philippines4 ,a few weeks later preliminary articles of peace were signed 7,november1 #agfb71 and the final 7or definitive7 treaty in #agfc4 ,spain ceded ,florida to ,great ,britain in return for ,cuba4 ,news of the capture of the ,philippines was not received till after the preliminary treaty was signed2 the islands were therefore returned without any equivalent4 #aa ,,the ,,french ,,quit ,,america4--,by the treaties of #agfb and #agfc ,france withdrew from ,america4 ,to ,great ,britain were ceded 7#a7 all of ,new ,france 7or ,canada71 ,cape ,breton ,island1 and all the near-by islands save two small ones near ,newfoundland1 and 7#b7 all of ,louisiana east of the ,mississippi save the city of ,new ,orleans and a little territory above and below the city4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,british ,,territory ,,at ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,and ,,indian ,,war4 ,to recompense ,spain for her loss in the war1 ,france ceded to her ,new ,orleans and the neighboring territory1 and all of ,louisiana west of the ,mississippi4 ,,the ,,province ,,of ,,quebec4--,the acquisition of ,new ,france made it necessary for ,great ,britain to provide for its government4 ,to do this she drew a line about the part inhabited by whites1 and established the province of ,quebec4 ,the south boundary of the new province should be carefully observed1 for it became the northern boundary of ,new ,york and ,new ,england4 ,,the ,,proclamation ,,line4--,the proclamation which created the province of ,quebec also drew a line beyond the sources of the rivers which flow into the ,atlantic from the west and northwest3 beyond this line no governor of any of the colonies was to grant land4 ,this meant that the king cut off the claims to western lands set forth in the charters of ,massachusetts1 ,connecticut1 ,virginia1 ,carolina1 and ,georgia4 ,the territory so cut off was for the present to be reserved for the ,indians4 ,,the ,,provinces ,,of ,,east ,,and ,,west ,,florida4--,the proclamation of #agfc also created two other provinces4 ,one called ,east ,florida was so much of the present state of ,florida as lies east of the ,apalachicola ,river4 ,west ,florida was all the territory received from ,spain west of the ,apalachicola4 #ab ,to ,georgia was annexed the territory between the ,st4 ,marys ,river1 the proclamation line1 and the ,altamaha4 ,,the ,,frontier4--,british settlements did not yet reach the ,allegheny ,mountains4 ,in ,new ,york they extended a short distance up the ,mohawk ,river4 ,in ,pennsylvania the little town of ,bedford1 in ,maryland ,fort ,cumberland1 and in ,virginia the ,allegheny ,mountains marked the frontier 7p4 #add74 ,,the ,,wilderness ,,routes ,,and ,,forts4--,through the wilderness lying beyond the frontier ran several lines of forts intended to protect routes of communication4 ,thus in ,new ,york the route up the ,mohawk to ,oneida ,lake and down ,oswego ,river to ,lake ,ontario was protected by ,forts ,stanwix1 ,brewerton1 and ,oswego4 ,from ,fort ,oswego the route continued by water to ,fort ,niagara at the mouth of the river of that name1 then along the ,niagara ,river and by ,lake ,erie to ,presque ,isle1 then by land to ,fort ,le ,boeuf1 then by river to ,fort ,pitt4 ,illustration3 ,,wilderness ,,routes ,,and ,,forts4 ,from ,fort ,pitt two roads led back to the frontier4 ,one leading to the ,potomac valley was that cut from ,fort ,cumberland by ,braddock 7in #agee7 and known as ,braddock's ,road4 ,the other to ,bedford on the ,pennsylvania frontier was cut by ,general ,forbes 7in #ageh74 ,along the shores of the ,great ,lakes were a few forts built by the ,french and now held by the ,british4 ,these were ,sandusky1 ,detroit1 ,mackinaw1 and ,st4 ,joseph4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,fort ,,niagara4 ,,pontiac',s ,,war4--,between this chain of forts and the ,mississippi ,river1 in the region given up by ,france1 lived many tribes of ,indians1 old friends of the ,french and bitter enemies of the ,british4 ,the old enmity was kept aflame by the ,french ,canadians1 who still carried on the fur trade with the ,indians4 #ac ,when1 therefore1 ,pontiac1 a chief of the ,ottawas1 in #agfb sent out among the ,indian nations ambassadors with the war belt of wampum1 and tomahawks stained red in token of war1 the tribes everywhere responded to the call4 #ad ,from the ,ohio and its tributaries to the upper lakes1 and southward to the mouth of the ,mississippi1 they banded against the ,british1 and early in #agfc1 led by ,pontiac1 swept down on the frontier forts4 ,detroit was attacked1 ,presque ,isle was captured1 ,le ,boeuf and ,venango were burned to the ground1 ,fort ,pitt was besieged1 and the frontier of ,pennsylvania laid waste4 ,of fourteen posts from ,mackinaw to ,oswego1 all but four were taken by the ,indians4 ,it seemed that not a settler would be left west of the ,susquehanna2 but a little army under ,colonel ,bouquet beat the ,indians1 cleared the ,pennsylvania frontier1 and relieved ,fort ,pitt in #agfc2 another army in #agfd passed along the lake shore to ,detroit and quieted the ,indians in that region1 while ,bouquet 7#agfd7 invaded the ,ohio country1 forced the tribes to submit1 and released two hundred white prisoners4 ,,summary #a4 ,the war which followed the defeat of ,washington is known as the ,french and ,indian ,war4 #b4 ,fearing that the ,french ,acadians in ,nova ,scotia would become troublesome1 the ,british dispersed them among the colonies4 #c4 ,the strongholds of the ,french were ,louisburg1 ,quebec1 ,crown ,point1 ,niagara1 and ,fort ,duquesne4 #d4 ,the first expedition against ,fort ,duquesne ended in ,braddock's defeat2 expeditions against other strongholds came to naught1 and during the early years of the war the ,french carried everything before them4 #e4 ,but when ,pitt rose to power in ,england1 the tide turned3 ,louisburg and ,fort ,duquesne were captured 7in #ageh72 ,niagara1 ,ticonderoga1 ,crown ,point1 and ,quebec were taken 7in #agei72 and ,montreal fell in #agfj4 #f4 ,spain now joined in the war1 whereupon ,great ,britain seized ,cuba and the ,philippines4 #g4 ,peace was made in #agfb-fc3 the conquests from ,spain were restored to her1 but ,florida was ceded to ,great ,britain2 and ,france gave up her possessions in ,north ,america4 #h4 ,canada1 ,cape ,breton1 and all ,louisiana east of the ,mississippi1 save ,new ,orleans and vicinity1 went to ,great ,britain4 #i4 ,new ,orleans and ,louisiana west of the ,mississippi went to ,spain4 #aj4 ,great ,britain then established the new provinces of ,quebec and ,east and ,west ,florida1 and drew the ,proclamation ,line4 #aa4 ,a great ,indian uprising1 known as ,pontiac's ,war1 followed the peace1 but was quickly put down4 ,,footnotes #a ,new ,hampshire1 ,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,maryland were the only colonies represented4 #b ,there was an old superstition that if a snake were cut into pieces and the pieces allowed to touch1 they would join and the snake would not die4 ,franklin meant that unless the separate colonies joined they would be conquered4 #c ,franklin was born in ,boston in #agjf1 the youngest son in a family of seventeen children4 ,he went to work in his father's candle shop when ten years old4 ,he was fond of reading1 and by saving what little money he could secure1 bought a few books and read them thoroughly4 ,when twelve1 he was bound apprentice to a brother who was a printer4 ,at seventeen he ran away to ,philadelphia1 where he found work in a printing office1 and in #agbi owned a newspaper of his own1 which soon became the best and most entertaining in the colonies4 ,his most famous publication is ,poor ,richard's ,almanac4 ,to this day the proverbs and common sense sayings of ,poor ,richard are constantly quoted4 ,franklin was a good citizen3 he took part in the founding of the first public library in ,philadelphia1 the formation of the first fire engine company1 and the organization of the first militia1 and he persuaded the authorities to light and pave streets and to establish a night watch4 ,he is regarded as the founder of the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,franklin was also a man of science4 ,he discovered that lightning is electricity1 invented the lightning rod1 and wrote many scientific papers4 ,he served in the legislature of ,pennsylvania1 and was made postmaster general for the colonies4 ,all these things occurred before #aged4 #d ,about six thousand were carried off4 ,nowhere were they welcome4 ,some who were taken to ,boston made their way to ,canada4 ,such as reached ,south ,carolina and ,georgia were given leave to return2 but seven little boatloads were stopped at ,boston4 ,others reached ,louisiana1 where their descendants still live4 ,a few succeeded in returning to ,acadia4 ,do not fail to read ,longfellow's poem ,evangeline1 a beautiful story founded on this removal of the ,acadians4 ,was it necessary to remove the ,acadians8 ,read ,parkman's ,montcalm and ,wolfe1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bcd-bda1 #bef-bff1 #bgf- #bhd2 read also ,the ,old ,french ,war1 ,part ii1 ,chap1 viii1 in ,hawthorne's ,grandfather's ,chair4 #e ,william ,johnson was born in ,ireland in #agae1 and came to ,america in #agch to take charge of his uncle's property in the ,mohawk valley4 ,he settled about twenty miles west of ,schenectady1 and engaged in the ,indian trade4 ,he dealt honestly with the ,indians1 learned their language1 attended their feasts1 and1 tomahawk in hand1 danced their dances in ,indian dress4 ,he even took as his wife a sister of ,brant1 a ,mohawk chief4 ,so great was his influence with the ,indians that in #agdf he was made ,commissary of ,new ,york for ,indian ,affairs4 ,in #agej he was made a member of the provincial ,council1 went to the ,albany convention in #aged1 and later was appointed a major general4 ,after the expedition against ,crown ,point he was knighted and made ,superintendent of ,indian ,affairs in ,north ,america4 ,he died in #aggd4 #f ,it is sometimes said that ,braddock fell into an ambuscade4 ,this is a mistake4 ,he was surprised because he did not send scouts ahead of his army2 but the ,indians were not in ambush4 ,braddock would not permit the troops to fight in ,indian fashion from behind trees and bushes1 but forced his men to form in platoons4 ,a part of the regulars who tried to fight behind trees ,braddock beat with his sword and forced into line4 ,some ,virginians who sought shelter behind a huge fallen tree were mistaken for the enemy and fired on4 ,in the fight and after it ,washington was most prominent4 ,twice a horse was shot under him4 ,four bullets passed through his clothes4 ,when the retreat began1 he rallied the fugitives1 and brought off the wounded ,braddock4 #g ,war between ,france and ,great ,britain was declared in ,may1 #agef4 ,in ,europe it was known as the ,seven ,years' ,war2 in ,america as the ,french and ,indian4 ,on the side of ,france were ,russia and ,austria4 ,on the side of ,great ,britain was ,frederick the ,great of ,prussia4 ,the fighting went on not only in ,america1 but in the ,west ,indies1 on the ,european ,continent1 in the ,mediterranean1 and in ,india4 #h ,when the colonial troops surrendered ,fort ,william ,henry1 the ,french commander1 ,montcalm1 agreed that they should return to their homes in safety4 ,but the ,indians1 maddened by liquor1 massacred a large number1 and carried off some six hundred prisoners4 ,montcalm finally secured the release of some four hundred4 ,cooper's novel ,the ,last of the ,mohicans treats of the war about ,lake ,george4 #i ,instead of using the road cut by ,braddock1 ,forbes chose another route1 7map1 p4 #add71 and spent much time in road making4 ,late in ,september he was still fifty miles from ,fort ,duquesne1 and decided to go into winter quarters4 ,but the ,french attacked ,forbes and were beaten2 and from some prisoners ,forbes learned that the garrison at ,fort ,duquesne was weak4 ,a picked force of men1 with ,washington and his ,virginians in the lead1 then hurried forward1 and reached the fort to find it abandoned4 ,a new stockade was built near by1 and named ,fort ,pitt1 and the place was named ,pittsburg4 #aj ,read ,parkman's ,montcalm and ,wolfe1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bhj-big4 ,the fall of ,quebec is treated in fiction in ,gilbert ,parker's ,seats of the ,mighty4 #aa ,when ,manila was captured1 all private property was saved from plunder by the promise of a ransom of #a1jjj1jjj4 ,one half was paid in money1 and the rest in bills on the ,spanish treasury4 ,spain never paid these bills4 #ab ,the north boundary was the parallel of #ca2 but in #agfd ,west ,florida was enlarged1 and the north boundary became the parallel of latitude that passes through the mouth of the ,yazoo ,river4 #ac ,they told the ,indians that the ,british would soon be driven out1 and that the ,mississippi ,river and ,canada would again be in ,french hands2 that the ,british were trying to destroy the ,indian race1 and for this purpose were building forts and making settlements4 #ad ,read ,parkman's ,conspiracy of ,pontiac2 ,kirk ,munroe's ,at ,war with ,pontiac4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,quarrel ,,with ,,the ,,mother ,,country ,the ,french and ,indian ,war gave the colonists valuable training as soldiers1 freed them from the danger of attack by their ,french neighbors1 and so made them less dependent on ,great ,britain for protection4 ,but the mother country took no account of this1 and at once began to do things which in ten years' time drove the colonies into rebellion4 ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,quarrel4--,we are often told that taxation without representation was the cause of the ,revolution4 ,it was indeed one cause1 and a very important one1 but not the only one by any means4 ,the causes of the ,revolution1 as stated in the ,declaration of ,independence1 were many1 and arose chiefly from an attempt of the mother country to 7#a7 enforce the laws concerning trade1 7#b7 quarter royal troops in the colonies1 #a and 7#c7 support the troops by taxes imposed without consent of the colonies4 ,,the ,,trade ,,laws were enacted by ,parliament between #afej and #agfd for the purpose of giving ,great ,britain a monopoly of colonial trade4 ,by their provisions-- #a4 ,no goods were to be carried from any port in ,europe to ,america unless first landed in ,england4 #b4 ,many articles of colonial production1 as tobacco1 cotton1 silk1 indigo1 furs1 rice1 sugar1 could not be sent to any country save ,england2 but lumber1 salt fish1 and provisions could be sent also to ,france1 ,spain1 or other foreign countries4 #c4 ,to help ,english wool manufacture1 the colonists were forbidden to send their woolen goods or hats to any country whatever1 or even from colony to colony4 #d4 ,to help ,english iron manufacture1 the colonists were forbidden to make steel4 #e4 ,to help the ,british ,west ,indies1 a heavy duty was laid 7in #agcc7 on sugar or molasses imported from any other than a ,british possession4 ,,smuggling4--,had these laws been rigidly enforced they would have been severe indeed1 but they could not be rigidly enforced4 ,they were openly violated1 and smuggling became so common in every colony #b that the cost of collecting the revenue was much more than the amount gathered4 ,this smuggling the ,british government now determined to end4 ,accordingly1 in #agfd1 the colonies were ordered to stop all unlawful trade1 naval vessels were stationed off the coast to seize smugglers1 and new courts1 called vice-admiralty courts1 were set up in which smugglers when caught were to be tried without a jury4 #c ,a ,,standing ,,army4--,it was further proposed to send over ten thousand regular soldiers to defend the colonies against the ,indians and against any attack that might be made by ,france or ,spain4 ,the colonists objected to the troops on the ground that they had not asked for soldiers and did not need any4 ,illustration3 ,,british ,,soldier4 ,,the ,,stamp ,,act4--,as the cost of keeping the troops would be very great1 it was decided to raise part of the money needed by a stamp tax which ,parliament enacted in #agfe4 ,the ,stamp ,act applied not only to the thirteen colonies1 but also to ,canada1 ,florida1 and the ,west ,indies1 and was to take effect on and after ,november #a1 #agfe4 #d #a4 ,every piece of vellum or paper on which was written any legal document for use in any court was to be charged with a stamp duty of from three pence to ten pounds4 #b4 ,many kinds of documents not used in court1 and newspapers1 almanacs1 etc41 were to be written or printed only on stamped paper made in ,england and sold at prices fixed by law4 ,the money raised by the stamp tax was not to be taken to ,great ,britain1 but was to be spent in the colonies in the purchase of food and supplies for the troops4 ,,the ,,colonies ,,deny ,,the ,,right ,,of ,,parliament ,,to ,,tax ,,them4--,but the colonists cared not for what use the money was intended4 ,no taxation without representation1 was their cry4 ,they cast no votes for a member of ,parliament2 therefore1 they said1 they were not represented in ,parliament4 ,not being represented1 they could not be taxed by ,parliament1 because taxes could lawfully be laid on them only by their chosen representatives4 #e ,in the opinion of the ,british people the colonists were represented in ,parliament4 ,british subjects in ,america1 it was held1 were just as much represented in the ,house of ,commons as were the people of ,manchester or ,birmingham1 neither of which sent a member to the ,house4 ,each member of the ,house represented not merely the few men who elected him1 but all the subjects of the ,british crown everywhere4 #f ,,the ,,colonies ,,resist4--,resistance to the ,stamp ,act began in ,virginia1 where the ,house of ,burgesses passed a set of resolutions written by ,patrick ,henry4 #g ,in substance they declared that the colonists were ,british subjects and were not bound to obey any law taxing them without the consent of their own legislatures4 ,illustration3 ,,patrick ,,henry ,,addressing ,,the ,,virginia ,,assembly4 ,from an old print4 ,massachusetts came next with a call for a congress of delegates from the colonies1 to meet at ,new ,york in ,october4 ,,the ,,stamp ,,act ,,congress1 #agfe4--,nine of the colonies sent delegates1 and after a session of twenty days the representatives of six signed a declaration of rights and grievances4 ,the declaration of rights set forth that a ,british subject could not be taxed unless he was represented in the legislature that imposed the tax2 that ,americans were not represented in ,parliament2 and that therefore the stamp tax was an attack on the rights of ,englishmen and the liberty of self-government4 ,the grievances complained of were trial without jury1 restrictions on trade1 taxation without representation1 and especially the stamp tax4 ,,the ,,stamp ,,distributers4--,in ,august1 #agfe1 the names of the men in ,america chosen to be the distributers or sellers of the stamps and stamped paper were made public1 and then the people began to act4 ,demands were made that the distributers should resign4 ,when they refused1 the people rose and by force compelled them to resign1 and riots occurred in the chief seaboard towns from ,new ,hampshire to ,maryland4 ,at ,boston the people broke into the house of the lieutenant governor and destroyed his fine library and papers4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pennsylvania ,,journal ,,and ,,weekly ,,advertiser ,on ,november #a1 #agfe1 the ,stamp ,act went into force1 but not a stamp or a piece of stamped paper could be had in any of the thirteen colonies4 ,some of the newspapers ceased to be printed1 the last issues appearing with black borders1 death's heads1 and obituary notices4 ,but soon all were regularly issued without stamps1 and even the courts disregarded the law4 #h ,illustration3 ,,lantern ,,used ,,at ,,celebration ,,of ,,the ,,repeal ,,of ,,the ,,stamp ,,act4 ,in the ,old ,statehouse1 ,boston4 ,,the ,,stamp ,,act ,,repealed1 #agff4--,meantime the merchants had been signing agreements not to import1 and the people not to buy1 any ,british goods for some months to come4 ,american trade with the mother country was thus cut off1 thousands of workmen in ,great ,britain were thrown out of employment1 and ,parliament was beset with petitions from ,british merchants praying for a repeal of the stamp tax4 ,to enforce the act without bloodshed was impossible4 ,in ,march1 #agff1 therefore1 ,parliament repealed the ,stamp ,act4 #i ,but at the same time it enacted another1 known as the ,declaratory ,act1 in which it declared that it had power to legislate for the colonies in all cases whatsoever4 ,,the ,,townshend ,,acts1 #agfg4--;,in their joy over the repeal of the ,stamp ,act1 the colonists gave no heed to the ,declaratory ,act4 ,but the very next year ,charles ,townshend1 then minister of finance1 persuaded ,parliament to pass several laws since known as the ,townshend ,acts4 ,one of these forbade the legislature of ,new ,york to pass any more laws until it had made provision for the royal troops quartered in ,new ,york city4 ,another laid taxes on all paints1 paper1 tea1 and certain other articles imported into the colonies4 #aj ,,the ,,colonies ,,again ,,resist4--,none of the new taxes were heavy1 but again the case was one of taxation without representation1 so the legislature of ,massachusetts sent a letter to the other colonial legislatures asking them to unite and consult for the protection of their rights4 ,this letter gave so great offense to the mother country that ,massachusetts was ordered to rescind her act1 and the governors of the other colonies to see that no notice was taken of it4 #aa ,and now the royal troops for the defense of the colonies began to arrive4 ,but ,massachusetts1 ,north ,carolina1 and ,south ,carolina refused to find them quarters1 and for such refusal the legislature of ,north ,carolina was dissolved4 ,illustration3 ,,boston ,,massacre ,,monument4 ,in ,boston ,common4 ,,the ,,boston ,,massacre4--,at ,boston the troops were received with every mark of hatred and disgust1 and for three years were subjected to every sort of insult and indignity1 which they repaid in kind4 ,the troops led riotous lives1 raced horses on ,sunday on the ,common1 played ,yankee ,doodle before the church doors1 and more than once exchanged blows with the citizens4 ,in one encounter the troops fired on the crowd1 killing five and wounding six4 ,this was the famous ,boston ,massacre1 and produced over all the land a deep impression4 #ab ,,townshend ,,acts ,,repealed1 #aggj4--,once more the resistance of the colonies-- chiefly through refusing to buy ,british goods--was successful1 and ,parliament took off all the ,townshend taxes except that on tea4 ,this import tax of three pence a pound on tea was retained in order that the right of ,parliament to tax the colonies might be asserted4 ,but the colonists stood firm2 they refused to buy tea shipped from ,great ,britain1 but smuggled it from ,holland4 #ac ,,tea ,,tax ,,juggle4--,by #aggc the refusal to buy tea from the mother country was severely felt by the ,east ,india ,company1 which had brought far more tea to ,great ,britain than it could dispose of4 ,parliament then removed the export duty of twelve pence a pound which had formerly been paid in ,great ,britain on all tea shipped to the colonies4 ,thus after paying the three- pence tax at the ,american customhouses1 the tea could be sold nine pence a pound cheaper than before4 ,,the ,,tea ,,not ,,allowed ,,to ,,be ,,sold4--,the ,east ,india ,company now quickly selected agents in the chief seaports of the colonies1 and sent shiploads of tea consigned to them for sale4 #ad ,but the colonists were tempted by cheap tea2 they were determined that ,parliament would not tax them4 ,they therefore forced the agents to resign their commissions1 and when the tea ships arrived1 took possession of them4 ,at ,philadelphia the ships were sent back to ,london4 ,at ,charleston the tea was landed and stored for three years and then seized and sold by the state of ,south ,carolina4 ,at ,annapolis the people forced the owner of a tea ship to go on board and set fire to his ship2 vessel and cargo were thus consumed4 ,at ,boston the people wished the tea sent back to ,london1 and when the authorities refused to allow this1 a party of men disguised as ,indians boarded the ships and threw the tea into the water4 #ae ,illustration3 ,,throwing ,,the ,,tea ,,overboard1 ,,boston4 ,,the ,,intolerable ,,acts4--,parliament now determined to punish the colonies1 and for this purpose enacted five laws called by the colonists the ,intolerable ,acts3-- #a4 ,the port of ,boston was shut to trade and commerce till the colony should pay for the tea destroyed4 #b4 ,the charter of ,massachusetts was altered4 #c4 ,persons who were accused of murder done in executing the laws might be taken for trial to another colony or to ,great ,britain4 #d4 ,the quartering of troops on the people was authorized4 #e4 ,the boundaries of the province of ,quebec were extended to the ,ohio and ,mississippi rivers4 ,as ,massachusetts1 ,connecticut1 and ,virginia claimed parts of this territory1 they regarded the ,quebec ,act as another act of tyranny4 #af ,,the ,,first ,,continental ,,congress4--,because of the passage of these laws1 a ,congress suggested by ,virginia and called by ,massachusetts met in ,carpenter's ,hall in ,philadelphia in ,september1 #aggd1 and issued a declaration of rights and grievances1 a petition to the king1 and addresses to the people of ,great ,britain1 to the people of ,canada1 and to the people of the colonies4 ,it also called a second ,congress to meet on ,may #aj1 #agge1 and take action on the result of the petition to the king4 ,,summary #a4 ,after the ,french and ,indian ,war ,great ,britain determined to enforce the laws of trade4 #b4 ,it also decided that the colonies should bear a part of the cost of their defense1 and for this purpose a stamp tax was levied4 #c4 ,the right of ,parliament to levy such a tax was denied by the colonists on the ground that they were not represented in ,parliament4 #d4 ,the attempt to enforce the tax led to resistance1 and a congress of the colonies 7#agfe7 issued a declaration of rights and grievances4 #e4 ,the tax was repealed in #agff1 but ,parliament at the same time asserted its right to tax4 #f4 ,the ,townshend ,acts 7#agfg7 tried to raise a revenue by import duties on goods brought into the colonies4 ,at the same time the arrival of the troops for defense of the colonies caused new trouble2 in ,boston the people and the troops came to blows 7#aggj74 #g4 ,the refusal of the colonists to buy the taxed articles led to the repeal of all the taxes except that on tea 7#aggj74 #h4 ,the colonists still refused to buy taxed tea1 whereupon ,parliament enabled the ,east ,india ,company to send over tea for sale at a lower price than before4 #i4 ,the tea was not allowed to be sold4 ,in ,boston it was destroyed4 #aj4 ,as a punishment ,parliament enacted the five ,intolerable ,acts4 #aa4 ,the ,first ,continental ,congress 7#aggd7 thereupon petitioned for redress1 and called a second ,congress to meet the next year4 ,,footnotes #a ,that is1 compel the colonists to furnish quarters--rooms or houses-- for the troops to live in4 ,read ,parkman's ,montcalm and ,wolfe1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #dci-ddj4 #b ,in order to detect and seize smugglers the crown had resorted to writs of assistance4 ,the law required that every ship bringing goods to ,america should come to some established port and that her cargo should be reported at the customhouse4 ,instead1 the smugglers would secretly land goods elsewhere4 ,if a customs officer suspected this1 he could go to court and ask for a search warrant1 stating the goods for which he was to seek and the place to be searched4 ,but this would give the smugglers warning and they could remove the goods4 ,what the officers wanted was a general warrant good for any goods in any place4 ,this writ of assistance1 as it was called1 was common in ,england1 and was issued in the colonies about #aged4 ,in #agfj ,king ,george ,,ii died1 and all writs issued in his name expired4 ,in #agfa1 therefore1 application was made to the ,superior ,court of ,massachusetts for a new writ of assistance to run in the name of ,king ,george ,,iii4 ,sixty merchants opposed the issue1 and ,james ,otis and ,oxenbridge ,thacher appeared for the merchants4 ,the speech of ,otis was a famous plea1 sometimes called the beginning of colonial resistance2 but the court granted the writ4 #c ,these acts are complained of in the ,declaration of ,independence4 ,the king is blamed ,for cutting off our trade with all parts of the world1 that is1 enforcing the trade laws2 again1 ,he has erected a multitude of new offices1 and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people1 that is to say1 the vice-admiralty judges and naval officers sworn to act as customhouse officers and seize smugglers4 ,in doing this duty these officers did harass our people4 #d ,while the ,stamp ,act was under debate in ,parliament1 ,colonel ,barr1 who fought under ,wolfe at ,louisburg1 opposed it4 ,a member had spoken of the colonists as children planted by our care1 nourished by our indulgence1 and protected by our arms4 ,they planted by your care6 said ,barr4 ,no1 your oppression planted them in ,america4 ,nourished by your indulgence6 ,they grew up by your neglect of them4 ,they protected by your arms6 ,these ,sons of ,liberty have nobly taken up arms in your defense4 ,the words ,sons of ,liberty were at once seized on1 and used in our country to designate the opponents of the stamp tax4 ,read ,the ,stamp ,act in ,hawthorne's ,grandfather's ,chair4 #e ,the colonists did not deny the right of ,parliament to regulate the trade of the whole ,british ,empire1 and to lay external taxes--customs duties--for the purpose of regulating trade4 ,but this stamp tax was an internal tax for the purpose of raising revenue4 #f ,parliament was divided then1 as now1 into two houses--the ,lords1 consisting of nobles and clergy1 and the ,commons1 consisting then of two members elected by each county and two elected by each of certain towns4 ,some change was made in the list of towns thus represented in ,parliament before the sixteenth century1 but no change had been made since1 though many of them had lost all or most of their population4 ,thus ,old ,sarum had become a green mound2 its population had all drifted away to ,salisbury4 ,a member of the ,commons1 so the story runs1 once said3 ,i am the member from ,ludgesshall4 ,i am also the population of ,ludgesshall4 ,when the sheriff's writ comes1 ,i announce the election1 attend the poll1 deposit my vote for myself1 sign the return1 and here ,i am4 ,when a town disappeared1 the landowner of the soil on which it once stood appointed the two members4 ,such towns were called rotten boroughs1 pocket boroughs1 nomination boroughs4 #g ,patrick ,henry was born in ,virginia in #agcf4 ,as a youth he was dull and indolent and gave no sign of coming greatness4 ,after two failures as a storekeeper and one as a farmer he turned in desperation to law1 read a few books1 and with difficulty passed the examination necessary for admittance to the bar4 ,henry had now found his true vocation4 ,business came to him1 and one day in #agfc he argued the weak 7but popular7 side of a case with such eloquence that he carried court and jury with him1 and it is said was carried out of the courthouse on the shoulders of the people4 ,he was now famous1 and in #agfe was elected to the ,virginia ,house of ,burgesses to represent the county in which he had lived1 just in time to take part in the proceedings on the ,stamp ,act4 ,his part was to move the resolutions and support them in a fiery and eloquent speech1 of which one passage has been preserved4 ,recalling the fate of tyrants of other times1 he exclaimed1 ,caesar had his ,brutus1 ,charles the ,first his ,cromwell1 and ,george the ,third--4 ,treason6 treason6 shouted the ,speaker4 ,treason6 treason6 shouted the members4 ,to which ,henry answered1 and ,george the ,third may profit by their example4 ,if this be treason1 make the most of it4 #h ,in ,canada and the ,west ,indies the stamp tax was not resisted1 and there stamps were used4 #i ,when ,parliament was considering the repeal1 ,benjamin ,franklin1 then in ,london as agent for ,pennsylvania and other colonies1 was called before a committee and examined as to the state of colonial affairs2 read his answers in ,hart's ,american ,history told by ,contemporaries1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #djg-daa4 ,pitt in a great speech declared1 ,the kingdom has no right to lay a tax on the colonies1 because they are unrepresented in ,parliament4 ,i rejoice that ,america has resisted4 ,edmund ,burke1 one of the greatest of ,irish orators1 took the same view4 #aj ,in the ,declaration of ,independence the king is charged with giving his assent to acts of ,parliament ,for suspending our own legislatures1 and ,for quartering large bodies of armed troops among us1 and ,for imposing taxes on us without our consent4 #aa ,for refusing to obey1 the legislature of ,massachusetts was dissolved1 as were the assemblies of ,maryland and ,georgia for having approved it1 and that of ,new ,york for refusing supplies to the royal troops1 and that of ,virginia for complaining of the treatment of ,new ,york4 ,read ,fiske's ,american ,revolution1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bh-cf1 #ci-eb4 #ab ,the two regiments of ,british troops in ,boston were now removed1 on demand of the people1 to a fort in the harbor4 ,the soldiers who fired the shots were tried for murder and acquitted1 save two who received light sentences4 #ac ,one of the vessels sent to stop smuggling was the schooner ,gaspee4 ,having run aground in ,narragansett ,bay 7,june1 #aggb71 she was boarded by a party of men in eight boats and burned4 ,the ,virginia legislature appointed a committee of correspondence1 to find out the facts regarding the destruction of the ,gaspee and to maintain a correspondence with our sister colonies4 ,this plan of a committee to inform the other colonies what was happening in ,virginia1 and obtain from them accurate information as to what they were doing1 was at once taken up by ,massachusetts and other colonies1 each of which appointed a similar committee4 ,such committees afterward proved to be the means of revolutionary organization4 ,read ,fiske's ,american ,revolution1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #gf-hj4 #ad ,parliament had given the company permission to do this4 ,the company had long possessed the monopoly of trade with the ,east ,indies1 and the sole right to bring tea from ,china to ,great ,britain4 ,before #aggc1 however1 it was obliged to sell the tea in ,great ,britain1 and the business of exporting tea to the colonies had been carried on by merchants who bought from the company4 #ae ,read ,the ,tea ,party in ,hawthorne's ,grandfather's ,chair4 #af ,all the ,intolerable ,acts are referred to in the ,declaration of ,independence4 ,see if you can find the references4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,fight ,,for ,,independence ,,begun ,,lexington1 #agge4--,when the second ,continental ,congress met 7,may #aj1 #agge71 the mother country and her colonies had come to blows4 ,the people of ,massachusetts1 fearing that this might happen1 had begun to collect and hide arms1 cannon1 and powder4 ,general ,gage1 the royal governor of ,massachusetts and commander of the ,british troops in ,boston1 was told that military supplies were concealed at ,concord1 a town some twenty miles from ,boston 7map1 p4 #afh74 ,now it happened that in ,april1 #agge1 two active patriots1 ,samuel ,adams #a and ,john ,hancock1 were at ,lexington1 a town on the road from ,boston to ,concord4 ,gage determined to strike a double blow at the patriots by sending troops to arrest ,adams and ,hancock and destroy the military stores4 ,on the evening of ,april #ah1 accordingly1 eight hundred regulars left ,boston as quietly as possible4 ,gage hoped to keep the expedition a secret1 but the patriots in ,boston1 suspecting where the troops were going1 sent off ,paul ,revere #b and ,william ,dawes to ride by different routes to ,lexington1 rousing the countryside as they went4 ,as the ,british advanced1 alarm bells1 signal guns1 and lights in the villages gave proof that their secret was out4 ,illustration3 ,,john ,,hancock',s ,,bible4 ,now in the ,old ,statehouse1 ,boston4 ,illustration3 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,lanterns ,,hung ,,in ,,the ,,belfry4 ,now in the possession of the ,concord ,antiquarian ,society4 ,the sun was rising as the first of the ,british1 under ,major ,pitcairn1 entered ,lexington and saw drawn up across the village green some fifty minutemen #c under ,captain ,john ,parker4 ,disperse1 ye villains1 cried ,pitcairn2 ye rebels1 disperse6 ,not a man moved1 whereupon the order to fire was given2 the troops hesitated to obey2 ,pitcairn fired his pistol1 and a moment later a volley from the ,british killed or wounded sixteen minutemen4 #d ,parker then gave the order to retire4 ,illustration3 ,,stone ,,on ,,village ,,green ,,at ,,lexington4 ,,the ,,concord ,,fight4--,from ,lexington the ,british went on to ,concord1 set the courthouse on fire1 spiked some cannon1 cut down the liberty pole1 and destroyed some flour4 ,meantime the minutemen1 having assembled beyond the village1 came toward the ,north ,bridge1 and the ,british who were guarding it fell back4 ,shots were exchanged1 and six minutemen were killed4 #e ,but the ,americans crossed the bridge1 drove back the ,british1 and then dispersed4 ,illustration3 ,,boston1 ,,charleston1 ,,etc4 ,about noon the ,british started for ,boston1 with hundreds of minutemen1 who had come from all quarters1 hanging on their flanks and rear1 pouring in a galling fire from behind trees and stone fences and every bit of rising ground4 ,the retreat became a flight1 and the flight would have become a rout had not reinforcements met them near ,lexington4 ,protected by this force1 the defeated ,british entered ,boston by sundown4 ,by morning the hills from ,charlestown to ,roxbury were black with minutemen1 and ,boston was in a state of siege4 ,when the ,green ,mountain ,boys heard of the fight1 they took arms1 and under ,ethan ,allen #f surprised and captured ,fort ,ticonderoga on ,lake ,champlain 7map1 p4 #afh74 ,,the ,,second ,,continental ,,congress4--,on the day that ,fort ,ticonderoga was captured 7,may #aj1 #agge71 the ,continental ,congress met at ,philadelphia4 ,it had been created1 not to govern the colonies1 nor to conduct a war1 but merely to consult concerning the public welfare1 and advise what the colonies should do4 ,but war had begun1 ,congress was forced to become a governing body1 and after a month's delay it adopted the band of patriots gathered about ,boston1 made it the ,continental army1 and appointed ,george ,washington 7then a delegate to ,congress from ,virginia7 commander in chief4 ,washington accepted the trust1 and left ,philadelphia ,june #ba1 but had not gone twenty miles when he was met by news of the battle of ,bunker ,hill4 ,,bunker ,,hill1 ,,june #ag1agge4--,since the fight at ,lexington and ,concord in ,april1 troops under ,general ,howe1 ,sir ,henry ,clinton1 and ,general ,burgoyne had arrived at ,boston and raised the number there to ten thousand4 ,gage now felt strong enough to seize the hills near ,boston1 lest the ,americans should occupy them and command the town4 ,learning of this1 the patriots determined to forestall him1 and on the night of ,june #af twelve hundred men under ,prescott were sent to fortify ,bunker ,hill in ,charlestown4 ,prescott thought best to go beyond ,bunker ,hill1 and during the night threw up a rude intrenchment on ,breeds ,hill instead4 ,illustration3 ,,drum ,,used ,,at ,,bunker ,,hill4 ,now in the possession of the ,ancient and ,honorable ,artillery ,company1 ,boston4 ,to allow batteries to be planted there would never do1 so ,gage dispatched ,howe with nearly three thousand regulars to drive away the ,americans and hold the hill4 ,coming over from ,boston in boats1 the ,british landed and marched up the hill till thirty yards from the works1 when a deadly volley mowed down the front rank and sent the rest down the hill in disorder4 ,a little time elapsed before the regulars were seen again ascending1 only to be met by a series of volleys at short range4 ,the ,british fought stubbornly1 but were once more forced to retreat1 leaving the hillside covered with dead and wounded4 ,their loss was dreadful1 but ,howe could not bear to give up the fight1 and a third time the ,british were led up the hill4 ,the powder of the ,americans was spent1 and the fight was hand to hand with stones1 butts of muskets1 anything that would serve as a weapon1 till the bayonet charges of the ,british forced the ,americans to retreat4 #g ,,washington ,,in ,,command4--,two weeks later ,washington reached ,cambridge and took formal command of the army4 ,for eight months he kept the ,british shut up in ,boston1 while he gathered guns1 powder1 and cannon1 and trained the men4 ,to the ,continental army mean time came troops from ,virginia1 ,maryland1 ,pennsylvania1 and of course from the four ,new ,england colonies1 commanded by men who were destined to rise to high positions during the war4 ,there was ,daniel ,morgan of ,virginia1 with a splendid band of sharpshooters1 and ,israel ,putnam of ,connecticut1 ,john ,stark and ,john ,sullivan of ,new ,hampshire1 ,nathanael ,greene of ,rhode ,island1 ,henry ,knox of ,boston1 ,horatio ,gates of ,virginia1 and ,benedict ,arnold and ,charles ,lee who later turned traitors4 ,,the ,,hessians4--,when ,king ,george ,,iii heard of the fight at ,bunker ,hill1 he issued a proclamation declaring the colonists rebels1 closed their ports to trade and commerce1 #h and sought to hire troops from ,russia and ,holland4 ,both refused1 whereupon he turned to some petty ,german states and hired many thousand soldiers who in our country were called ,hessians4 #i ,illustration3 ,,hessian ,,hat4 ,now in ,essex ,hall1 ,salem4 ,,canada ,,invaded4--,now that the war was really under way1 ,congress turned its attention to ,canada4 ,it was feared that the ,british governor there might take ,ticonderoga1 enter ,new ,york1 and perhaps induce the ,indians to harry the ,new ,england frontier as they did in the old ,french wars4 ,in the summer of #agge1 therefore1 two expeditions were sent against ,canada4 ,one under ,richard ,montgomery went down ,lake ,champlain from ,ticonderoga and captured ,montreal4 ,another under ,benedict ,arnold sailed from ,massachusetts to the mouth of the ,kennebec ,river1 arid forced its way through the dense woods of ,maine to ,quebec4 ,there ,montgomery joined ,arnold1 and on the night of ,december #ca1 #agge1 the ,american army in a blinding snowstorm assaulted the town4 ,montgomery fell dead while leading the attack on one side of ,quebec1 ,arnold was wounded during the attack on the other side1 and ,morgan1 who took ,arnold's place and led his men far into the town1 was cut off and captured4 ,though the attack on ,quebec failed1 the ,americans besieged the place till spring1 when they were forced to leave ,canada and find shelter at ,crown ,point4 ,,boston ,,evacuated4--,during the winter of #agge-gf1 some heavy guns were dragged over the snow on sledges from ,ticonderoga to ,boston4 ,a captured ,british vessel provided powder1 and in ,march1 #aggf1 ,washington seized ,dorchester ,heights1 fortified them1 and by so doing forced ,howe1 who had succeeded ,gage in command1 to evacuate ,boston1 ,march #ag4 ,,whigs ,,and ,,tories4--,during the excitement over the ,stamp ,act1 the ,townshend ,acts1 and the tea tax1 the people were divided into three parties4 ,those who resisted and--finally rebelled were called ,whigs1 or ,patriots1 or ,sons of ,liberty4 ,those who supported king and ,parliament were called ,tories or ,loyalists4 #aj ,between these two extremes were the great mass of the population who cared little which way the struggle ended4 ,in ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 and the ,carolinas the ,tories were numerous and active1 and when the war opened1 they raised regiments and fought for the king4 ,,fighting ,,in ,,the ,,carolinas4--,in ,january1 #aggf1 ,sir ,henry ,clinton sailed from ,boston to attack ,north ,carolina1 and a force of sixteen hundred ,tories marched toward the coast to aid4 ,but ,north ,carolina had its minutemen as well as ,massachusetts4 ,a body of them under ,colonel ,caswell met and beat the ,tories at ,moores ,creek 7,february #bg7 and so large a force of patriots had assembled when ,clinton arrived that he did not make the attack4 ,the next attempt was against ,south ,carolina4 ,late in ,june1 ,clinton with his fleet appeared before ,charleston1 and while the fleet opened fire on ,fort ,moultrie 7mol'try7 from the water1 ,clinton marched to attack it by land4 ,but the land attack failed1 the fleet was badly damaged by shot from the fort1 and the expedition sailed away to ,new ,york4 #aa ,,independence ,,necessary4--,prior to #aggf many of the colonies denied any desire for independence1 #ab but the events of this year caused a change4 ,after the battle of ,moores ,creek1 ,north ,carolina bade her delegates in ,congress vote for independence4 ,virginia1 in ,may1 ordered her delegates to propose that the ,united ,colonies be declared free and independent4 ,south ,carolina and ,georgia instructed their delegates to assent to any measure for the good of ,america4 ,rhode ,island dropped the king's name from state documents and sheriffs' writs1 and town after town in ,massachusetts voted to uphold ,congress in a declaration of independence4 ,thus encouraged1 ,congress1 in ,may1 resolved that royal authority must be suppressed1 and advised all the colonies to establish independent governments4 ,some had already done so2 the rest one by one framed written constitutions of government1 and became states4 #ac ,,independence ,,declared4--,to pretend allegiance to the king any longer was a farce4 ,congress1 therefore1 appointed ,thomas ,jefferson1 ,benjamin ,franklin1 ,john ,adams1 ,roger ,sherman1 and ,robert ,r4 ,livingston to write a declaration of independence1 and on ,july #b1 #aggf1 resolved3 ,that these ,united ,colonies are1 and of right ought to be1 free and independent ,states1 that they are absolved from all allegiance to the ,british ,crown1 and that all political connection between them and the state of ,great ,britain is1 and ought to be1 totally dissolved4 #ad ,this is the ,declaration of ,independence4 ,the document we call the ,declaration contains the reasons why independence was declared4 ,it was written by ,jefferson1 and after some changes by ,congress was adopted on ,july #d1 #aggf1 #ae and copied were ordered to be sent to the states4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,committee ,,on ,,declaration ,,of ,,independence4 ,from an old print4 ,,summary #a4 ,governor ,gage1 hearing that the people of ,massachusetts were gathering military stores1 sent troops to destroy the stores4 #b4 ,the battles at ,lexington and ,concord followed1 and ,boston was besieged4 #c4 ,the militia from the neighboring colonies gathered about ,boston4 ,they were formed into a ,continental army by ,congress1 and ,washington was appointed commander in chief4 #d4 ,the battle of ,bunker ,hill1 meantime1 took place 7,june1 #agge74 #e4 ,king ,george ,,iii now declared the colonists rebels1 shut their ports1 and sent troops from ,germany to subdue them4 #f4 ,an expedition of the patriots for the conquest of ,canada failed 7#agge- #gf74 #g4 ,but the ,british were forced to leave ,boston 7,march1 #aggf74 #h4 ,british attacks on ,north ,carolina and ,south ,carolina came to naught4 #i4 ,july #d1 #aggf1 the ,declaration of ,independence was adopted4 ,illustration3 ,,battle ,,of ,,lexington4 ,,footnotes #a ,samuel ,adams was born in ,boston in #agbb1 graduated from ,harvard ,college1 and took so active a part in town politics that he has been called the ,man of the ,town ,meeting4 ,from #agfe to #aggd he was a member of the ,massachusetts ,assembly1 and for some years its clerk4 ,he was a member of the committee sent to demand the removal of the soldiers after the massacre of #aggj1 and of that sent to demand the resignations of the men appointed to receive the tea1 and presided over the town meeting that demanded the return of the tea ships to ,england4 ,he was a member of the ,continental ,congress1 and signed the ,declaration of ,independence4 ,after the ,revolution he was lieutenant governor and then governor of ,massachusetts1 and died in #ahjc4 #b ,revere went by way of ,charlestown 7map1 p4 #afj71 first crossing the river from ,boston in a rowboat4 ,as there was danger that his boat might be stopped by the ,british warships1 two lanterns were shown from the belfry of the ,north ,church as a signal to his friends in ,charlestown2 and when he landed there at midnight1 he found the patriots astir1 ready to give the alarm if he had not appeared4 ,read ,paul ,revere's ,ride in ,longfellow's ,tales of a ,wayside ,inn4 #c ,in #aggd the ,provincial ,congress of ,massachusetts ordered one quarter of all the militiamen to be enlisted for emergency service4 ,they came to be known as minutemen1 and in #agge the ,continental ,congress recommended that one fourth part of the militia in every colony1 be selected for minutemen 444 to be ready on the shortest notice1 to march to any place where their assistance may be required4 #d ,just before the fight began ,adams and ,hancock left ,lexington and set out to attend the ,congress at ,philadelphia4 #e ,read ,emerson's ,concord ,hymn2 also ,cooper's admirable description of the day's fighting in ,lionel ,lincoln4 #f ,ethan ,allen was born in ,connecticut in #agcg1 and went to ,vermont about #agfi4 ,vermont was then claimed by ,new ,york and ,new ,hampshire1 and when ,new ,york tried to enforce her authority1 the settlers in ,new ,hampshire ,grants resisted1 and organized as the ,green ,mountain ,boys with ,allen as leader4 ,at ,fort ,ticonderoga ,allen found the garrison asleep4 ,the ,british commandant1 awakened by the noise at his door1 came out and was ordered to surrender the fort4 ,by what authority8 he asked4 ,in the name of the ,great ,jehovah and the ,continental ,congress1 said ,allen4 #g ,read ,fiske's ,american ,revolution1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #acf-adf1 and ,holmes's ,grandmother's ,story of ,bunker ,hill4 ,the ,british lost #ajed and the ,americans #ddi4 ,among the ,british dead was ,pitcairn1 who began the war at ,lexington4 ,among the ,american dead was ,dr4 ,warren1 an able leader of the ,boston patriots4 ,while the battle was raging1 ,charlestown was shelled and set on fire and four hundred houses burned4 ,later1 in ,october1 a ,british fleet entered the harbor of ,falmouth 7now ,portland in ,maine71 and burned three fourths of the houses4 ,january #a1 #aggf1 ,lord ,dunmore1 royal governor of ,virginia1 set fire to ,norfolk1 the chief city of ,virginia4 ,the fire raged for three days and reduced the place to ashes4 ,these acts are charged against the king in the ,declaration of ,independence3 ,he has plundered our seas1 ravaged our coasts1 burnt our towns1 and destroyed the lives of our people4 #h ,this is made a charge against the king in the ,declaration3 ,he has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his protection1 and waging war against us4 ,and again1 ,for cutting off our trade with all parts of the world4 #i ,the ,duke of ,brunswick1 the landgrave of ,hesse-,cassel1 and four other princes furnished the men4 ,their generals were ,riedesel 7ree'de-zel71 ,knyp-hausen 7knip'hou-zen71 ,von ,heister1 and ,donop4 ,the employment of these troops furnishes another charge against the king in the ,declaration3 ,he is1 at this time1 transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death1 desolation1 and tyranny4 ,the first detachment of ,german troops landed on ,staten ,island in ,new ,york ,bay on ,august #ae1 #aggf4 ,before the war ended1 the six petty ,german princes furnished #bi1hfg1 of whom #ab1eej never returned4 ,some #ejjj of these deserted4 #aj ,before fighting began1 the ,tories were denounced and held up as enemies to their country2 later their leaders were mobbed1 and if they held office1 were forced to resign4 ,after the battle of ,bunker ,hill1 laws of great severity were enacted against them4 ,they were disarmed1 forced to take an oath of allegiance1 proclaimed traitors1 driven into exile1 and their estates and property were confiscated4 ,at the close of the war1 fearing the anger of the ,whigs1 thousands of ,tories fled from our country to ,jamaica1 ,bermuda1 ,halifax in ,nova ,scotia1 and ,canada4 ,some #cj1jjj went from ,new ,york city in #aghb-hc1 and upward of #fj1jjj left our country during and after the war4 #aa ,while the battle was hottest1 a shot carried away the flagstaff of ,fort ,moultrie4 ,the staff and flag fell outside the fort4 ,instantly ,sergeant ,william ,jasper leaped down1 fastened the flag to the ramrod of a cannon1 climbed back1 and planted this new staff firmly on the fort4 ,a fine monument now commemorates his bravery4 #ab ,however1 many leaders in ,new ,england1 as ,samuel ,adams1 ,john ,adams1 and ,elbridge ,gerry2 in ,pennsylvania1 as ,benjamin ,rush and ,benjamin ,franklin2 in ,delaware1 as ,thomas ,mc,kean2 as ,chase of ,maryland2 ,lee1 ,henry1 ,jefferson1 ,washington1 of ,virginia2 and ,gadsden of ,south ,carolina1 favored independence4 ,in this state of affairs ,thomas ,paine1 in ,january1 #aggf1 wrote a pamphlet called ,common ,sense1 in which independence was strongly urged4 ,the effect was wonderful4 ,edition after edition was printed in many places4 ,common ,sense1 says one writer1 is read to all ranks2 and as many as read1 so many become converted4 #ac ,rhode ,island and ,connecticut did not abandon their charters1 for in these colonies the people had always elected their governors and had always been practically independent of the king4 ,connecticut did not make a constitution till #ahah1 and ,rhode ,island not till #ahdb4 #ad ,this resolution had been introduced in ,congress1 in ,june1 by ,richard ,henry ,lee of ,virginia4 ,for a fine description of the debate on independence read ,webster's ,oration on ,adams and ,jefferson4 ,why did ,john ,dickinson oppose a declaration of independence8 ,read ,fiske's ,american ,revolution1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aij-aib4 #ae ,a few copies signed by ,hancock1 president of ,congress1 and ,thomson1 the secretary1 were made public on ,july #e2 and on ,july #h one of these was read to a crowd of people in the ,statehouse yard at ,philadelphia4 ,the common idea that the ,declaration was signed at one time is erroneous4 ,the signing did not begin till ,august #b4 ,of those who signed then and afterward1 seven were not members of ,congress on ,july #d1 #aggf4 ,of those signers who were members on ,july #d1 it is known that five were absent on that day4 ,seven men who were members of ,congress on ,july #d were not members on ,august #b1 and never signed4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,northern ,,colonies ,,during ,,the ,,revolution ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,war ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,states ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,sea ,,battle ,,of ,,long ,,island4--,when ,howe sailed from ,boston 7in ,march1 #aggf71 he went to ,halifax in ,nova ,scotia4 ,but ,washington was sure ,new ,york would be attacked1 so he moved the ,continental army to that city and took position on the hills back of ,brooklyn on ,long ,island4 ,he was not mistaken1 for to ,new ,york harbor in ,june came ,general ,howe1 and in ,july ,clinton from his defeat at ,charleston1 and ,admiral ,howe #a with troops from ,england4 ,thus reinforced1 ,general ,howe landed on ,long ,island in ,august1 and drove the ,americans from their outposts1 back to ,brooklyn4 #b ,washington now expected an assault1 but ,howe remembered ,bunker ,hill and made ready to besiege the ,americans1 whereupon two nights after the battle ,washington crossed with the army to ,manhattan ,island4 #c ,,washington',s ,,retreat4--,washington left a strong force under ,putnam in the heart of ,new ,york city1 and stationed his main army along ,harlem ,heights4 ,howe crossed to ,manhattan and landed behind ,putnam1 #d who was thus forced to leave his guns and tents1 and flee to ,harlem ,heights1 where ,howe attacked ,washington the next day and was repulsed4 ,illustration3 ,,battle ,,of ,,harlem ,,heights4 ,tablet on a ,columbia ,college building1 ,new ,york city4 ,so matters stood for nearly a month1 when ,howe attempted to go around the east end of ,washington's line1 and thus forced him to retreat to ,white ,plains4 ,baffled in an attack at this place1 ,howe went back to ,new ,york and carried ,fort ,washington by storm1 taking many prisoners4 ,washington meantime had crossed the ,hudson to ,new ,jersey1 leaving ,general ,charles ,lee with seven thousand men in ,new ,york state4 ,he now ordered ,lee to join him #e2 but ,lee disobeyed1 and ,washington1 closely pursued by the ,british1 retreated across ,new ,jersey4 ,,the ,,victory ,,at ,,trenton1 ,,december #bf1 #aggf4--,on the ,pennsylvania side of the ,delaware ,river1 ,washington turned at bay1 and having at last received some renforcements1 he recrossed the ,delaware on ,christmas night in a blinding snowstorm1 marched nine miles to ,trenton1 surprised a body of ,hessians1 captured a thousand prisoners1 and went back to ,pennsylvania4 ,washington now proposed to follow up this victory with other attacks4 ,but a new difficulty arose1 for the time of service of many of the ,eastern troops would expire on ,january #a4 ,these men were therefore asked to serve six weeks longer1 and were offered a bounty of ten dollars a man4 ,illustration3 ,,morris',s ,,strong ,,box4 ,now in the possession of the ,pennsylvania ,historical ,society4 ,,robert ,,morris ,,sends ,,money4--,many agreed to serve1 but the paymaster had no money4 ,washington therefore pledged his own fortune1 and appealed to ,robert ,morris at ,philadelphia4 #f ,if it be possible1 ,sir1 he wrote1 to give us assistance1 do it2 borrow money while it can be done1 we are doing it upon our private credit4 ,morris responded at once1 and on ,new ,year's morning1 #aggg1 went from house to house1 roused his friends from their beds to borrow money from them1 and early in the day sent fifty thousand dollars4 ,,battle ,,of ,,princeton1 ,,january #c1 #aggg4--,washington crossed again to ,trenton1 whereupon ,lord ,cornwallis hurried up with a ,british army1 and shut in the ,americans between his forces and the ,delaware4 ,but ,washington slipped out1 went around ,cornwallis1 and the next morning attacked three ,british regiments at ,princeton and beat them4 ,he then took possession of the hills at ,morristown1 where he spent the rest of the winter4 ,,the ,,attempt ,,to ,,cut ,,off ,,new ,,england4--,the ,british plan for the campaign of #aggg was to seize ,lake ,champlain and the ,hudson ,river and so cut off ,new ,england from the ,middle ,states4 ,to carry out this plan1 7#a7 ,general ,burgoyne was to come down from ,canada1 7#b7 ,howe was to go up the ,hudson from ,new ,york and join ,burgoyne at ,albany1 and 7#c7 ,st4 ,leger was to go from ,lake ,ontario down the ,mohawk to ,albany4 #g ,,oriskany4--,hearing of the approach of ,st4 ,leger1 ,general ,herkimer of the ,new ,york militia gathered eight hundred men and hurried to the relief of ,fort ,stanwix4 ,near ,oriskany1 about six miles from the fort1 he fell into an ambuscade of ,british and ,indians1 and a fierce hand-to-hand fight ensued1 till the ,indians fled and the ,british1 forced to follow1 left the ,americans in possession of the field1 too weak to pursue4 ,just at this time the garrison of the fort made a sortie against part of the ,british army1 captured their camp1 and carried a quantity of supplies and their flags #h back to the fort4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,national ,,flag4 ,when news of ,oriskany reached ,schuyler1 the patriot general commanding in the north1 he called for a volunteer to lead a force to relieve ,fort ,stanwix4 ,arnold responded1 and with twelve hundred men hurried westward1 and by a clever ruse #i forced ,st4 ,leger to raise the siege and flee to ,montreal4 ,illustration3 ,,battle ,,of ,,bennington4 ,from an old print4 ,,bennington4--,burgoyne set out in ,june1 captured ,ticonderoga1 and advanced to the upper ,hudson4 ,as he came southward1 the sturdy farmers of ,vermont and ,new ,york began to gather on his flank1 and collected at ,bennington many horses and large stores of food and ammunition4 ,as ,burgoyne needed horses1 he sent a force of ,hessians to attack ,bennington4 ,but ,stark1 with his ,green ,mountain ,boys and ,new ,hampshire militia1 met the ,hessians six miles from town1 surrounded them on all sides1 beat them1 and took seven hundred prisoners and quantities of guns and some cannon 7,august #af74 ,,saratoga4--,these defeats were serious blows to ,burgoyne1 around whose army the ,americans had been gathering4 ,he decided1 however1 to fight1 crossed the ,hudson1 and about the middle of ,september attacked the ,americans at ,bemis ,heights1 and again on the same ground early in ,october4 #aj ,he was beaten in both battles and on ,october #ag was forced to surrender at ,saratoga4 ,,battle ,,of ,,brandywine4--,what1 meantime1 had ,howe been doing8 ,he should have pushed up the ,hudson to join ,burgoyne4 ,but he decided to capture ,philadelphia before going north1 and having put his army on board a fleet1 he started for that city by sea4 ,not venturing to enter the ,delaware1 he sailed up ,chesapeake ,bay and two weeks after landing found ,washington awaiting him on ,brandywine ,creek1 where 7,september #aa1 #aggg7 a battle was fought and won by the ,british4 ,among the wounded was ,marquis de ,lafayette1 #aa who earlier in the year had come from ,france to offer his services to ,congress4 ,,philadelphia ,,occupied4--,two weeks later ,howe entered ,philadelphia in triumph4 #ab ,congress had fled to ,lancaster1 and later went to ,york1 ,pennsylvania4 ,washington now attacked ,howe at ,germantown 7just north of ,philadelphia71 but was defeated and went into winter quarters at ,valley ,forge1 where the patriots suffered greatly from cold and hunger4 #ac ,illustration3 ,,at ,,valley ,,forge4 ,,result ,,of ,,the ,,campaign4--,the year's campaign was far from a failure4 #ad ,the surprise at ,trenton and the victory at ,princeton showed that ,washington was a general of the first rank4 ,the defeats at ,brandywine and ,germantown did not dishearten the army4 ,the victory at ,saratoga was one of the decisive campaigns of the world's history2 for it ruined the plans of the ,british #ae and secured us the aid of ,france4 ,,help ,,from ,,france1 #aggh4--;,in #aggf ,congress commissioned ,benjamin ,franklin1 ,arthur ,lee1 and ,silas ,deane to go to ,france and seek her help4 ,france1 smarting under the loss of ,louisiana and ,canada 7#agfc71 would gladly have helped us2 but not till the victories at ,trenton1 ,princeton1 ,oriskany1 and ,saratoga could she feel sure of the ability of the ,americans to fight4 ,then the ,french king recognized our independence1 and in ,february1 #aggh1 made with us a treaty of alliance and went to war with ,great ,britain4 ,the effect of the ,french alliance was immediate4 ,france began to fit out a fleet and army to help us4 ,hearing of this1 ,clinton1 who had succeeded ,howe in command at ,philadelphia1 left that city with his army and started for ,new ,york4 ,illustration3 ,,church ,,near ,,monmouth ,,battlefield1 ,,built ,,in #ageb4 ,,monmouth1 ,,june #bh1 #aggh4--,washington decided to pursue1 and as ,clinton1 hampered by an immense train of baggage1 moved slowly across ,new ,jersey1 he was overtaken by the ,americans at ,monmouth4 ,charles ,lee #af was to begin the attack1 and ,washington1 coming up a little later1 was to complete the defeat of the enemy4 ,but ,lee was a traitor1 and having attacked the ,british1 began a retreat which would have lost the day had not ,washington come up just in time to lead a new attack4 ,the battle raged till nightfall1 and in the darkness ,clinton slipped away and went on to ,new ,york4 ,washington now crossed the ,hudson1 encamped at ,white ,plains1 and during three years remained in that neighborhood1 constantly threatening the ,british in ,new ,york4 #ag ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,navy4--,more than three years had now passed since the fight at ,lexington1 and here let us stop and review what the ,americans had been doing at sea4 ,at the outset1 the colonists had no warships at all4 ,congress therefore 7in ,december1 #agge7 ordered thirteen armed vessels to be built at once1 bought merchant ships to serve as cruisers1 and thus created a navy of thirty vessels before the #dth of ,july1 #aggf4 #ah ,eight of the cruisers were quickly assembled at ,philadelphia1 and early in ,january1 #aggf1 ,esek ,hopkins1 commander in chief1 stepped on board of one of them and took command4 ,as he did so1 ,lieutenant ,john ,paul ,jones hoisted a yellow silk flag on which was the device of a pine tree and a coiled rattlesnake and the motto ,don't tread on me4 ,this was the first flag ever displayed on an ,american man-of-war4 ,ice delayed the departure of the squadron2 but in ,february it put to sea1 went to the ,bahama ,islands1 captured the forts on the island of ,new ,providence1 and carried off a quantity of powder and cannon4 ,,captain ,,barry4--,soon afterward another cruiser1 the sixteen-gun brig ,lexington1 ,captain ,john ,barry1 #ai fell in with a ,british armed vessel off the coast of ,virginia1 and after a sharp engagement captured her4 ,she was the first prize brought in by a commissioned officer of the ,american navy4 ,,the ,,cruisers ,,in ,,europe4--,in #aggg the cruisers carried the war into ,british ports and waters1 across the ,atlantic4 ,the ,reprisal 7which had carried ,franklin to ,france71 under ,captain ,wilkes1 in company with two other vessels1 sailed twice around ,ireland1 made fifteen prizes1 and alarmed the whole coast4 #bj ,another cruiser1 the ,revenge1 scoured ,british waters1 and when in need of repairs boldly entered a ,british port in disguise and refitted4 ,in #aggh ,john ,paul ,jones1 #ba in the ,ranger1 sailed to the ,irish ,channel1 destroyed four vessels1 set fire to the shipping in a ,british port1 fought and captured a ,british armed schooner1 sailed around ,ireland with her1 and reached ,france in safety4 ,the next year 7#aggi7 ,jones1 in the ,bonhomme ,richard 7bo-nom' re-shar'71 fell in with the ,british frigate ,serapis off the east coast of ,great ,britain1 and on a moonlight night fought one of the most desperate battles in naval history and won it4 ,illustration3 ,,gold ,,medal ,,given ,,to ,,jones4 #bb ,,the ,,frigates4--,of the thirteen frigates ordered by ,congress in #agge1 only four remained by the end of #aggh4 ,some were captured at sea1 some were destroyed to prevent their falling into ,british hands1 and one blew up while gallantly fighting4 ,of the cruisers bought in #agge1 only one remained4 ,other purchases at home and abroad were made1 but three frigates were captured and destroyed at ,charleston in #aggi1 and by the end of the year our navy was reduced to six vessels4 ,during the war #bd vessels of the navy were lost by capture1 wreck1 or destruction4 ,the ,british navy lost #ajb4 ,,the ,,privateers4--,so far we have considered only the ,american navy--the warships owned by the government4 ,congress also 7,march1 #aggf7 issued letters of marque1 or licenses to citizens to fit out armed vessels and make war on ,british ships armed or unarmed2 and the sea soon swarmed with privateers fitted out1 not only by citizens but also by the states4 ,the privateers were active throughout the war1 and took hundreds of prizes4 ,,summary #a4 ,after the ,british left ,boston1 ,washington moved his army to ,long ,island1 where he was attacked by the ,british and driven up the ,hudson to ,white ,plains4 #b4 ,later in the year 7#aggf71 ,washington crossed the ,hudson and retreated through ,new ,jersey to ,pennsylvania2 then he turned about1 won the battles of ,trenton 7,december #bf1 #aggf7 and ,princeton 7,january #c1 #aggg71 and spent the rest of the winter in ,new ,jersey4 #c4 ,the ,british plan for the campaign of #aggg was to cut off ,new ,england from the ,middle ,states2 ,burgoyne was to come down from ,canada and meet ,howe1 who was to move up the ,hudson4 #d4 ,burgoyne lost several battles1 and was forced to surrender at ,saratoga 7,october #ag1 #aggg74 #e4 ,howe put off going up the ,hudson till too late2 instead1 he defeated ,washington at ,brandywine ,creek 7,september #aa1 #aggg71 and captured ,philadelphia4 ,washington then attacked ,howe at ,germantown1 was defeated1 and spent the winter at ,valley ,forge4 #f4 ,after ,burgoyne's surrender1 ,france recognized our independence 7,february1 #aggh7 and joined us in the war4 #g4 ,fearing a ,french attack on ,new ,york1 the ,british left ,philadelphia 7,june1 #aggh72 ,washington followed and fought the battle of ,monmouth2 but the ,british went on to ,new ,york1 and for three years ,washington remained near that city4 #h4 ,congress1 in ,december1 #agge1 created a little navy2 but some of these vessels never got to sea2 others under ,hopkins and ,barry won victories during #aggf4 #i4 ,in #aggg the cruisers were sent to ,british waters and under ,wilkes and others harried ,british coasts4 #aj4 ,in #aggh ,paul ,jones sailed around ,ireland and in #aggi he won his great victory in the ,bonhomme ,richard4 ,,footnotes #a ,admiral ,howe now wrote to ,washington1 offering pardon to all persons who should desist from rebellion2 he addressed the letter to ,george ,washington1 ,esq41 and sent it under flag of truce4 ,the messenger was told there was no one in the army with that title4 ,a week later another messenger came with a paper addressed ,george ,washington1 ,esq4 etc4 etc4 ,this time he was received2 and when ,washington declined to receive the letter1 explained that etc4 etc4 meant everything4 ,indeed1 said ,washington1 they might mean anything4 ,he was determined that ,howe should recognize him as commander in chief of the ,continental army1 and not treat him as the leader of rebels4 #b ,many of the prisoners taken in this and other battles were put on board ships anchored near ,brooklyn4 ,their sufferings in these ,jersey prison ships were terrible1 and many died and were buried on the beach4 ,from these rude graves their bones from time to time were washed out4 ,at last in #ahjh they were taken up and decently buried near the ,brooklyn navy yard1 and in #ahgc were put in a vault in ,washington ,park1 ,brooklyn4 #c ,while ,washington was near ,new ,york1 a young man named ,nathan ,hale volunteered to enter the ,british lines on ,long ,island to procure information greatly needed4 ,as he was returning he was recognized by a ,tory kinsman1 was captured1 tried as a spy1 and hanged4 ,his last words were3 ,i regret that ,i have but one life to lose for my country4 #d ,when ,howe1 marching across ,manhattan ,island1 reached ,murray ,hill1 ,mrs4 ,lindley ,murray sent a servant to invite him to luncheon4 ,the army was halted1 and ,mrs4 ,murray entertained ,howe and his officers for two hours4 ,it was this delay that enabled ,putnam to escape4 #e ,charles ,lee was in general command at ,charleston during the attack on ,fort ,moultrie1 and when he joined ,washington at ,new ,york1 was thought a great officer4 ,lee was jealous1 hoped to be made commander in chief1 and purposely left ,washington to his fate4 ,later ,lee crossed to ,new ,jersey and took up his quarters at ,basking ,ridge1 not far from ,morristown1 where the ,british captured him 7,december #ac1 #aggf74 #f ,robert ,morris was born at ,liverpool1 ,england1 but came to ,philadelphia as a lad and entered on a business career1 and when the ,revolution opened1 was a man of means and influence4 ,he signed the non-importation agreement of #agfe1 and signed the ,declaration of ,independence1 and at this time 7,december1 #aggf7 was a leading member of ,congress4 ,a year later1 when the army was at ,valley ,forge1 he sent it as a gift a large quantity of food and clothing4 ,in #agha ,morris was made ,superintendent of ,finance1 and in order to supply the army in the movement against ,yorktown1 lent his notes to the amount of #a1djj1jjj4 ,in #agha he founded the ,bank of ,north ,america1 which is now the oldest bank in our country4 ,after the war ,morris was a senator from ,pennsylvania4 ,he speculated largely in ,western lands1 lost his fortune1 and from #agih to #ahjb was a prisoner for debt4 ,he died in #ahjf4 #g ,read the story of ,jane ,mc,crea in ,fiske's ,american ,revolution1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bgg-bgi4 #h ,these flags were hoisted on the fort and over them was raised the first flag of stars and stripes ever flung to the breeze4 ,congress on ,june #ad1 #aggg1 had adopted our national flag4 ,the flag at ,fort ,stanwix was made of pieces of a white shirt1 a blue jacket1 and strips of red flannel4 ,the day was ,august #f4 #i ,the story runs that several ,tory spies were captured and condemned to death1 but one named ,cuyler was spared by ,arnold on condition that he should go to the camp of ,st4 ,leger and say that ,burgoyne was captured and a great ,american army was coming to relieve ,fort ,stanwix4 ,cuyler agreed1 and having cut what seemed bullet holes in his clothes1 rushed into the ,british camp1 crying out that a large ,american army was at hand1 and that he had barely escaped with life4 ,the ,indians at once began to desert1 the panic spread to the ,british1 and the next day ,st4 ,leger was fleeing toward ,lake ,ontario4 #aj ,the second battle is often called the battle of ,stillwater4 ,shortly before this ,congress removed ,schuyler from command and gave it to ,gates1 who thus reaped the glory of the whole campaign4 ,in both battles ,arnold greatly distinguished himself4 ,he won the first fight and was wounded in the second4 #aa ,lafayette was a young ,french nobleman who1 fired by accounts of the war in ,america1 fitted out a vessel1 and despite the orders of the ,french king escaped and came to ,philadelphia1 and offered his services to ,congress4 ,with him were ,de ,kalb and eleven other officers4 ,two gallant ,polish officers1 ,pulaski and ,kosciusko1 had come over before this time4 ,kosciusko had been recommended to ,washington by ,franklin1 then in ,france2 he was made a colonel in the engineer corps and superintended the building of the ,american fortifications at ,bemis ,heights4 ,after the war he returned to ,poland1 and long afterward led the ,poles in their struggle for liberty4 #ab ,an interesting novel on this period of the war is ,dr4 ,s4 ,w4 ,mitchell's ,hugh ,wynne4 #ac ,at ,valley ,forge ,baron ,steuben joined the army4 ,he was an able ,german officer who had seen service under ,frederick the ,great of ,prussia1 and had been persuaded by the ,french ,minister of ,foreign ,affairs to come to ,america and help to organize and discipline the army4 ,he landed in ,new ,hampshire late in #aggg1 and spent the dreadful winter at ,valley ,forge in drilling the troops1 teaching them the use of the bayonet1 and organizing the army on the ,european plan4 ,after the war ,new ,york presented ,steuben with a farm of #af1jjj acres not far from ,fort ,stanwix4 ,there he died in #agid4 #ad ,certain officers and members of ,congress plotted during #aggg to have ,washington removed from the command of the army4 ,for an account of this ,conway ,cabal read ,fiske's ,american ,revolution1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cd-dc4 #ae ,great ,britain now sent over commissioners to offer liberal terms of peace1--no taxes by ,parliament1 no restrictions on trade1 no troops in ,america without consent of the colonial assemblies1 even representation in ,parliament1--but the offer was rejected4 ,why did the commissioners fail8 ,read ,fiske's ,american ,revolution1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #d-ag1 #bb-bd4 #af ,lee had been exchanged for a captured ,british general1 and came to ,valley ,forge in ,may4 ,from papers found after his death we know that while a prisoner he advised ,howe as to the best means of conquering the states4 ,for his conduct in the battle and insolence to ,washington after it1 ,lee was suspended from the army for one year1 but when he wrote an insolent letter to ,congress1 he was dismissed from the army4 #ag ,a ,french fleet of twelve ships1 under ,count d',estaing1 soon arrived near ,new ,york4 ,it might perhaps have captured the ,british fleet in the harbor2 but without making the attempt ,d',estaing went on to ,newport to attempt the capture of a ,british force which had held that place since ,december1 #aggf4 ,washington sent ,greene and ,lafayette with troops to assist him1 the ,new ,england militia turned out by thousands1 and all seemed ready for the attack1 when a ,british fleet appeared and ,d',estaing went out to meet it4 ,a storm scattered the vessels of the two squadrons1 and ,d',estaing went to ,boston for repairs1 and then to the ,west ,indies4 #ah ,six of the thirty never got to sea1 but were captured or destroyed when the ,british took ,new ,york and ,philadelphia4 ,our navy1 therefore1 may be considered at the outset to have consisted of #bd vessels1 mounting #dbb guns4 ,great ,britain at that time had #aab war vessels1 carrying #cgad guns1 and #gh of these vessels were stationed on or near our coast4 #ai ,john ,barry was a native of ,ireland4 ,he came to ,america at thirteen1 and at twenty-five was captain of a ship4 ,at the opening of the war he offered his services to ,congress1 and in ,february1 #aggf1 was given command of the ,lexington4 ,after his victory ,barry was transferred to the #bh-;gun frigate ,effingham1 and in #aggg 7while blockaded in the ,delaware71 with #bg men in four boats captured and destroyed a #aj-;gun schooner and four transports4 ,for this he was thanked by ,washington4 ,when the ,british captured ,philadelphia1 ,barry took the ,effingham up the river to save her2 but she was burned by the ,british4 ,at different times ,barry commanded several other ships1 and in #aghb1 in the ,alliance1 fought the last action of the war4 ,in #agid he was senior captain of the navy1 with the title of commodore4 ,he died in #ahjc4 #bj ,when these ships returned to ,france with the prizes1 the ,british government protested so vigorously that the ,reprisal and the ,lexington were seized and held till security was given that they would leave ,france4 ,the prizes were ordered out of port1 were taken into the offing1 and then quietly sold to ,french merchants4 ,the ,reprisal on her way home was lost at sea4 ,the ,lexington was captured and her men thrown into prison4 ,they escaped by digging a hole under the wall1 and were on board a vessel in ,london bound for ,france1 when they were discovered and sent back to prison4 ,a year later one of them1 ,richard ,dale1 escaped by walking past the guards in daylight1 dressed in a ,british uniform4 ,he never would tell how he got the uniform4 #ba ,john ,paul1 ,jr41 was born in ,scotland in #agdg4 ,he began a seafaring life when twelve years old and followed it till #aggc1 when he fell heir to a plantation in ,virginia on condition that he should take the name of ,jones4 ,thereafter he was known as ,john ,paul ,jones4 ,in #agge ,jones offered his services to ,congress1 assisted in founding our navy1 and in ,december1 #agge1 was commissioned lieutenant4 ,he died in ,paris in #agib1 but the whereabouts of his grave was long unknown4 ,in #aije1 however1 the ,united ,states ambassador to ,france 7,horace ,porter7 discovered the body of ,jones1 which was brought with due honors to the ,united ,states and deposited at the ,naval ,academy at ,annapolis4 ,porter's account of how the body was found may be read in the ,century ,magazine for ,october1 #aije4 ,jones is the hero of ,cooper's novel called ,the ,pilot4 #bb ,the wording on the medal may be translated as follows3 ,the ,american ,congress to ,john ,paul ,jones1 fleet commander--for the capture or defeat of the enemy's ships off the coast of ,scotland1 ,sept4 #bc1 #aggi4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,war ,,in ,,the ,,west ,,and ,,in ,,the ,,south ,,the ,,west4--,after ,great ,britain obtained from ,france the country between the mountains and the ,mississippi1 the ,british king1 as we have seen 7p4 #adc71 forbade settlement west of the mountains4 ,but the westward movement of population was not to be stopped by a proclamation4 ,the hardy frontiersmen gave it no heed1 and1 passing over the mountains of ,virginia and ,north ,carolina1 they hunted1 trapped1 and made settlements in the forbidden land4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,west ,,during ,,the ,,revolution4 ,,tennessee4--,thus1 in #agfi1 ,william ,bean of ,north ,carolina built a cabin on the banks of the ,watauga ,creek and began the settlement of what is now ,tennessee4 ,the next year ,james ,robertson and many others followed and dotted the valleys of the ,holston and the ,clinch with clearings and log cabins4 ,these men at first were without government of any sort1 so they formed an association and for some years governed themselves2 but in #aggf their delegates were seated in the legislature of ,north ,carolina1 and next year their settlements were organized as ,washington county in that state4 ,robertson soon 7#aggi7 led a colony further west and on the banks of the ,cumberland founded ,nashboro1 now called ,nashville4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,attacking ,a ,,frontiersman4 ,,kentucky4--,the year 7#agfi7 that ,bean went into ,tennessee1 ,daniel ,boone1 one of the great men of frontier history1 entered what is now ,kentucky4 ,others followed1 and despite ,indian wars and massacres1 ,boonesboro1 ,harrodsburg1 and ,lexington were founded before #aggg4 ,these backwoodsmen also were for a time without any government2 but in ,december1 #aggf1 ,virginia organized the region as a county with the present boundaries of ,kentucky4 #a ,,george ,,rogers ,,clark4--,in the country north of the ,ohio were a few old ,french towns1--,detroit1 ,kaskaskia1 ,vincennes1--and a few forts built by the ,french and garrisoned by the ,british1 from whom the ,indians obtained guns and powder to attack the frontier4 ,against these forts and villages ,george ,rogers ,clark1 a young ,virginian1 planned an expedition which was approved by ,patrick ,henry1 then governor of ,virginia4 ,henry could give him little aid1 but ,clark was determined to go2 and in #aggh1 with one hundred and eighty men1 left ,pittsburg in boats1 floated down the ,ohio to its mouth1 marched across the swamps and prairies of south-western ,illinois1 and took ,kaskaskia4 ,vincennes #b thereupon surrendered2 but was soon recaptured by the ,british general at ,detroit with a band of ,indians4 ,but ,clark1 after a dreadful march across country in midwinter1 attacked the fort in the dead of night1 captured it1 and then conquered the country near the ,wabash and ,illinois rivers1 and held it for ,virginia4 #c ,,spain ,,in ,,the ,,west4--,the conquest was most timely2 for in #aggi ,spain joined in the war against ,great ,britain1 seized towns and ,british forts in ,florida1 and in ,january1 #agha1 sent out from ,st4 ,louis a band of ,spaniards and ,indians who marched across ,illinois and took possession of ,fort ,st4 ,joseph in what is now southwestern ,michigan1 occupied it1 and claimed the ,northwest for ,spain4 ,,the ,,south ,,invaded4--,near the end of #aggh1 the ,british armies held strong positions at ,new ,york and ,newport1 and the ,french fleet under ,d',estaing was in the ,west ,indies4 ,the ,british therefore felt free to strike a blow at the ,south4 ,a fleet and army accordingly sailed from ,new ,york and 7,december #bi1 #aggh7 captured ,savannah4 ,georgia was then overrun1 was declared conquered1 and the royal governor was reestablished in office4 #d ,illustration3 ,,the ,,southern ,,colonies ,,during ,,the ,,revolution ,,the ,,americans ,,repulsed ,,at ,,savannah4--,governor ,rutledge of ,south ,carolina now appealed to ,d',estaing1 who at once brought his fleet from the ,west ,indies2 and ,savannah was besieged by the ,american forces under ,lincoln and the ,french under ,d',estaing4 ,after a long siege1 an assault was made on the ,british defenses 7,october1 #aggi71 in which the brave ,pulaski was slain and ,d',estaing was wounded4 ,the ,french then sailed away1 and ,lincoln fell back into ,south ,carolina4 ,,british ,,capture ,,charleston4--,hearing of this1 ,sir ,henry ,clinton and ,lord ,cornwallis sailed with ,british troops from ,new ,york 7,december1 #aggi7 to ,savannah4 ,thence the ,british marched overland to ,charleston4 ,lincoln did all he could to defend the city1 but in ,may1 #aghj1 was compelled to surrender4 ,south ,carolina was then overrun by the ,british1 and ,clinton returned to ,new ,york1 leaving ,cornwallis in command4 ,,partisan ,,leaders4--,south ,carolina now became the seat of a bitter partisan war4 ,the ,tories there clamored for revenge4 ,that no man should be neutral1 ,cornwallis ordered everyone to declare for or against the king1 and sent officers with troops about the state to enroll the royalists in the militia4 ,the whole population was thus arrayed in two hostile parties4 ,the patriots could not offer organized opposition2 but little bands of them found refuge in the woods1 swamps1 and mountain valleys1 whence they issued to attack the ,british troops and the ,tories4 ,led by ,andrew ,pickens1 ,thomas ,sumter1 and ,francis ,marion whom the ,british called the ,swamp ,fox1 they won many desperate fights4 #e ,,camden4--,congress1 however1 had not abandoned the ,south4 ,two thousand men under ,de ,kalb were marching south before the surrender of ,charleston4 ,after it1 a call for troops was made on all the states south of ,pennsylvania1 and ,general ,gates1 then called the ,hero of ,saratoga1 was sent to join ,de ,kalb and take command4 ,the most important point in the interior of ,south ,carolina was ,camden1 and against this ,gates marched his troops4 ,but he managed matters so badly that near ,camden the ,american army was beaten1 routed1 and cut to pieces by the ,british under ,cornwallis 7,august #af1 #aghj74 #f ,illustration3 ,,wayne',s ,,camp ,,kettle4 ,now in possession of the ,pennsylvania ,historical ,society4 ,,the ,,war ,,in ,,the ,,north4--,what meantime had happened in the ,north8 ,the main armies near ,new ,york had done little fighting2 but the ,british had made a number of sudden raids on the coast4 ,in #aggi ,norfolk and ,portsmouth in ,virginia1 and ,new ,haven and several other towns in ,connecticut had been attacked1 and ships and houses burned4 ,in ,new ,york1 ,clinton captured ,stony ,point2 but ,anthony ,wayne led a force of ,americans against the fort1 and at dead of night1 by one of the most brilliant assaults in the world's military history1 recaptured it 7,july1 #aggi74 #g ,illustration3 ,,at ,,west ,,point3 ,,looking ,,up ,,the ,,hudson4 ,,treason ,,of ,,arnold4--,stony ,point was one of several forts built by order of ,washington to defend the ,hudson4 ,the chief fort was at ,west ,point1 the command of which1 in ,july1 #aghj1 was given to ,arnold4 ,when the ,british left ,philadelphia in #aggh1 ,arnold was made military commander there1 and so conducted himself that he was sentenced by court-martial to be reprimanded by ,washington4 ,this censure1 added to previous unfair treatment by ,congress1 led him to seek revenge in the ruin of his country4 ,to bring this about he asked for the command of ,west ,point1 and having received it1 offered to surrender the fort to the ,british4 ,clinton's agent in the matter was ,major ,john ,andr 7an'dra71 who one day in ,september1 #aghj1 came up the river in the ,british ship ,vulture1 went ashore1 and at night met ,arnold near ,stony ,point4 ,morning came before the terms #h of surrender were arranged1 and the ,vulture having been fired on dropped down the river out of range4 ,,west ,,point ,,saved4--,thus left within the ,american lines1 ,andr crossed the river to the east shore1 and started for ,new ,york by land1 but was stopped by three ,americans1 #i searched1 and papers of great importance were found in his stockings4 ,despite an offer of his watch and money for his release1 ,andr was delivered to the nearest ,american officer1 was later tried by court-martial1 found guilty1 and sentenced to be hanged as a spy4 ,the ,american officer to whom ,andr was delivered1 not suspecting ,arnold1 sent the news to him as well as to ,washington4 ,arnold received the message first2 knowing that ,washington was at hand1 he at once procured a boat1 was rowed down the river to the ,vulture1 and escaped4 ,from then till the end of the war he served as an officer in the ,british army4 ,the disasters at ,charleston and ,camden1 and the narrow escape from disaster at ,west ,point1 made #aghj the most disheartening year of the war4 ,,kings ,,mountain4--,but the tide quickly turned4 ,after his victory at ,camden1 ,cornwallis began to invade ,north ,carolina1 and sent ,colonel ,ferguson into the ,south ,carolina highlands to enlist all the ,tories he could find4 ,as ,ferguson advanced into the hill country1 the backwoodsmen and mountaineers rallied from all sides1 and led by ,sevier1 ,shelby1 and ,williams1 surrounded him and forced him to make a stand on the summit of ,kings ,mountain1 ,october #g1 #aghj4 ,fighting in true ,indian fashion from behind every tree and rock1 they shot ,ferguson's army to pieces1 killed him1 and forced the few survivors to surrender4 ,this victory forced ,cornwallis to put off his conquest of ,north ,carolina4 ,,cowpens4--,general ,greene was now sent to replace ,gates in command of the patriot army in the ,south4 ,he was too weak to attack ,cornwallis1 but by dividing his army and securing the aid of the partisan bands he hoped to annoy the ,british with raids4 ,morgan1 who commanded one of these divisions1 was so successful that ,cornwallis sent ,tarleton with a thousand men against him4 ,morgan offered battle on the grounds known as the ,cowpens1 and there ,tarleton was routed and three fourths of his men were killed1 wounded1 or taken prisoners4 ,illustration3 ,,battle ,,of ,,the ,,cowpens4 ,,the ,,great ,,retreat4--,this victory won1 ,morgan set off to join ,greene1 with ,cornwallis himself in hot pursuit4 ,when ,greene heard the news1 he determined to draw the ,british general far northward and then fight him wherever he would be at most disadvantage4 #aj ,the retreat of the ,american army was therefore continued to the border of ,virginia4 ,,guilford ,,court ,,house4--,having received reinforcements1 ,greene turned southward and offered battle at ,guilford ,court ,house 7,march #ae1 #agha74 ,a desperate fight ensued1 and when night came1 ,greene retired1 leaving the ,british unable to follow him4 ,cornwallis had lost one quarter of his army in killed and wounded4 ,he was in the midst of a hostile country1 too weak to stay1 and unwilling to confess defeat by retreating to ,south ,carolina4 ,thus outgeneraled he hurried to ,wilmington1 where he could be aided by the ,british fleet4 ,illustration3 ,,lafayette ,,monument4 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,greene followed for a time1 and then turned into ,south ,carolina1 drove the ,british out of ,camden1 and by the #dth of ,july had reconquered half of ,south ,carolina4 ,late in ,august1 he forced the ,british back to ,eutaw ,springs1 where 7,september #h1 #agha7 a desperate battle was fought4 #aa ,the ,british troops held their ground1 but on the following night they set off for4 ,charleston1 where they remained until the end of the war4 #ab ,,yorktown4--,from ,wilmington ,cornwallis marched to southeastern ,virginia1 where a ,british force under ,benedict ,arnold joined him4 ,he then set off to capture ,lafayette1 who had been sent to defend ,virginia from ,arnold4 ,but ,lafayette retreated to the back country1 till reinforcements came4 ,when ,cornwallis could drive him no farther1 the ,british army retreated to the coast1 and fortified itself at ,yorktown4 ,in ,august ,washington received word that a large ,french fleet under ,de ,grasse was about to sail from the ,west ,indies to ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,he saw that the supreme moment had come4 ,laying aside his plan for an attack on ,new ,york1 he hurried southward1 marched his army to the head of ,chesapeake ,bay1 and then took it by ships to ,yorktown4 #ac ,the ,french fleet was already in the bay4 ,some ,french troops had joined ,lafayette1 and ,cornwallis was already surrounded when ,washington arrived4 ,the siege was now pressed with overwhelming force1 and ,cornwallis surrendered on ,october #ai1 #agha4 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,war4--,swift couriers carried the news to ,philadelphia1 where1 at the dead of night1 the people were roused from sleep by the watchman crying in the street1 ,past two o'clock and ,cornwallis is taken4 ,in the morning ,congress received the dispatches and went in solemn procession to a church to give thanks to ,god4 ,when the ,british prime minister1 ,lord ,north1 heard the news1 he exclaimed1 ,all is over2 all is over6 ,the king alone remained stubborn1 and for a while insisted on holding ,georgia1 ,charleston1 and ,new ,york4 ,but his advisers in time persuaded him to yield1 and 7,november #cj1 #aghb7 a preliminary treaty1 acknowledging the independence of the ,united ,states1 was signed at ,paris4 #ad ,the final treaty was not signed till ,september #c1 #aghc4 #ae ,illustration3 ,,washington',s ,,headquarters ,,at ,,newburgh4 ,from an old print4 ,in ,november the ,continental army was disbanded1 and in ,december1 at ,annapolis1 where ,congress was sitting1 ,washington formally surrendered his command1 and went home to ,mount ,vernon4 #af ,,summary #a4 ,despite the king's proclamation in #agfc1 frontiersmen soon crossed the mountains and settled in what is now ,kentucky and ,tennessee4 #b4 ,in the region north of the ,ohio were a few ,british forts1 some of which ,george ,rogers ,clark captured in #aggh and #aggi2 but ,fort ,st4 ,joseph in ,michigan was captured by the ,spanish4 #c4 ,at the end of #aggh the ,british began an attack on the ,southern states by capturing ,savannah4 #d4 ,georgia was then overrun4 ,the ,americans1 aided by a ,french fleet1 attacked ,savannah and were repulsed 7#aggi74 #e4 ,in #aghj1 renforced by a fleet and army from ,new ,york1 the ,british captured ,charleston and overran ,south ,carolina4 ,the ,americans under ,gates were badly beaten at ,camden2 but a ,british force was destroyed at ,kings ,mountain4 #f4 ,in the same year ,benedict ,arnold turned traitor1 and sought in vain to deliver ,west ,point to the ,british4 #g4 ,in the following year 7#agha7 our arms were generally victorious4 ,morgan won the battle of the ,cowpens2 ,greene outgeneraled ,cornwallis and then reconquered ,south ,carolina4 ,at the end of the year ,charleston and ,savannah were the only ,southern towns held by the ,british4 #h4 ,cornwallis marched into ,virginia1 and fortified himself at ,yorktown4 ,there ,washington1 aided by a ,french army and fleet1 forced him to surrender 7#agha74 #i4 ,peace was made next year1 our independence was acknowledged1 and by the end of #aghc the last ,british soldiers had left the country4 ,illustration3 ,,washington ,,and ,,lafayette ,,at ,,mount ,,vernon4 ,,footnotes #a ,about this time the settlers on the upper ,ohio ,river 7in what is now ,west ,virginia and southwestern ,pennsylvania7 became eager for statehood4 ,both ,virginia and ,pennsylvania claimed their allegiance4 ,they asked ,congress1 therefore1 for recognition as the state of ,westsylvania1 the fourteenth province of the ,american ,confederacy4 ,congress did not grant their prayer4 #b ,read ,thompson's ,alice of ,old ,vincennes4 #c ,farther east1 meantime1 a band of savages led by ,colonel ,john ,butler swept down from ,fort ,niagara1 entered ,wyoming ,valley in northeastern ,pennsylvania1 near the site of ,wilkes-,barre1 and perpetrated one of the most awful massacres in history 7,july #d1 #aggh74 7,read ,campbell's poem ,gertrude of ,wyoming74 ,a little later another band1 led by a son of ,butler1 burned the village of ,cherry ,valley in ,new ,york1 and murdered many of the inhabitants--men1 women1 and children4 ,cruelties of this sort could not go unpunished4 ,in the summer of #aggi1 therefore1 ,general ,sullivan with an army invaded the ,indian country in central ,new ,york1 burned forty ,indian villages1 destroyed their crops1 cut down their fruit trees1 and brought the ,indians to the verge of famine4 #d ,congress now put ,lincoln in command in the ,south2 but when he marched into ,georgia1 the ,british set off to attack ,charleston1 sacking houses and slaughtering cattle as they went4 ,this move forced ,lincoln to follow them1 and having been joined by ,pulaski1 he compelled the ,british to retreat4 #e ,four novels by ,simms1--,the ,partisan1 ,mellichampe1 ,katharine ,walton1 and ,the ,scout1--and ,horseshoe ,robinson1 by ,kennedy1 are famous stories relating to the ,revolution in the ,south4 ,read ,bryant's ,song of ,marion's ,men4 #f ,a large number of men were killed1 and a thousand taken prisoners4 ,among the dead was ,de ,kalb4 ,among the living was ,gates1 who fled among the first and made such haste to escape that he covered two hundred miles in four days4 #g ,the purpose of the attack on ,stony ,point was to draw the ,british from ,connecticut4 ,the capture had the desired result1 and ,stony ,point was then abandoned4 ,the fort stood on a rocky promontory with the water of the ,hudson ,river on three sides4 ,on the fourth was a morass crossed by a narrow road which at high tide was under water4 ,the country between the ,british forces in ,new ,york and the ,american army on the highlands of the ,hudson was known as the neutral ground1 and is the scene of ,cooper's great novel ,the ,spy4 #h ,the ,british were to come up the river and attack ,west ,point4 ,arnold was to man the defenses in such a way that they could easily be taken1 one at a time1 and so afford an excuse for surrendering them1 with the three thousand men under ,arnold's command4 #i ,the names of ,andr's captors were ,john ,paulding1 ,david ,williams1 and ,isaac ,van ,wart4 ,congress gave each a medal and a pension for life4 #aj ,to accomplish this ,greene sent the greater part of his army northward under ,general ,huger1 while he with a small guard hurried across country1 and took command of ,morgan's army4 ,and now a most exciting chase began4 ,cornwallis destroyed his heavy baggage that he might move as rapidly as possible1 and vainly strove to get near enough to ,greene to make him fight4 ,greene with great skill kept just out of reach and for ten days lured the ,british farther and farther north4 ,at ,guilford ,court ,house ,greene and ,morgan were joined by the main army4 ,cornwallis then proclaimed ,north ,carolina conquered1 and called on all ,loyalists to join him4 #aa ,two good works relating to these events are ,the ,forayers and ,eutaw1 by ,simms4 #ab ,while these things were happening in the ,south1 a ,french army of #fjjj men under ,rochambeau arrived at ,newport 7#aghj71 from which the ,british had withdrawn in #aggi4 ,there1 for a while1 the ,french fleet was blockaded by the ,british1 and the troops remained to aid the fleet in case of necessity4 ,the next year1 however1 this army marched across ,connecticut and joined ,washington's forces 7,july1 #agha71 and preparations were begun for an attack on ,new ,york4 #ac ,when ,clinton realized that ,washington was on the way to ,yorktown1 he sent ,arnold on a raid into ,connecticut1 in hope of forcing ,washington to return4 ,early in ,september ,arnold attacked ,new ,london1 carried one of its forts by storm1 and set tire to the town1 but was driven off by the minutemen4 #ad ,congress appointed ,benjamin ,franklin 7our minister in ,france71 ,john ,adams 7in ,holland71 ,john ,jay 7in ,spain71 ,thomas ,jefferson1 and ,henry ,laurens to negotiate the treaty4 ,jefferson's appointment came too late for him to serve2 the other four signed the treaty of #aghb1 and ,franklin1 ,adams1 and ,jay signed the treaty of #aghc4 #ae ,after the surrender of ,cornwallis1 ,washington returned with his army to the ,hudson and made his headquarters at ,newburgh4 ,in ,april1 #aghc1 a cessation of war on land and sea was formally proclaimed1 and the ,british prepared to leave ,new ,york4 ,charleston and ,savannah were evacuated in #aghb1 but ,november #be1 #aghc1 came before the last ,british soldier left ,new ,york4 ,when the troops under ,washington entered ,new ,york city1 they found a ,british flag nailed to the staff1 the halyards gone1 and the staff soaped4 ,a sailor climbed the pole by nailing on cleats1 pulled down the ,british flag1 and reeved new halyards4 ,the stars and stripes were then raised and saluted with thirteen guns4 #af ,washington refused to be paid for his services4 ,actual expenses during the war were all he would take1 and these amounted to about #gj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,about #aghc ,,showing ,,state ,,claims ,,to ,,western ,,lands ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,after ,,the ,,war ,,our ,,boundaries4--,by the treaty of #aghc our country was bounded on the north by a line 7very much as at present7 from the mouth of the ,st4 ,croix ,river in ,maine to the ,lake of the ,woods2 on the west by the ,mississippi ,river2 and on the south by the parallel of #ca north latitude from the ,mississippi to the ,apalachicola1 and then by the present south boundary of ,georgia to the sea4 #a ,but our flag did not as yet wave over every part of the country within these bounds4 ,great ,britain1 claiming that certain provisions in the treaty had been violated1 held the forts from ,lake ,champlain to ,lake ,michigan and would not withdraw her troops4 #b ,spain1 having received the ,floridas back from ,great ,britain by a treaty of #aghc1 held the forts at ,memphis1 ,baton ,rouge1 and ,vicksburg1 and much of what is now ,alabama and ,mississippi4 #c ,a ,,central ,,government4--,from #agge to #agha the states were governed1 so far as they had any general government1 by the ,continental ,congress4 ,during these years there was no written document fixing the powers of ,congress and limiting the powers of the states4 ,while the war was going on1 ,congress submitted a plan for a general government1 called ,articles of ,confederation and ,perpetual ,union2 but nearly four years passed before all the states accepted it4 ,the delay was caused by the refusal of ,maryland to approve the ,articles unless the states having sea-to-sea charters would give to ,congress1 for the public good1 the lands they claimed beyond the mountains4 #d ,congress therefore appealed to the states to cede their ,western lands4 ,if they would do this1 ,congress promised to sell the lands1 use the money to pay the debts of the ,united ,states1 and cut the region into states and admit them into the ,union at the proper time4 ,new ,york1 ,connecticut1 and ,virginia at last agreed to give up their lands northwest of the ,ohio ,river1 and on ,march #a1 #agha1 the ,maryland delegates signed the ,articles and by so doing put them in force4 #e ,,the ,,articles ,,of ,,confederation4--,in the government set up by the ,articles of ,confederation there was no ,president of the ,united ,states1 no ,supreme ,court1 no ,senate4 ,congress consisted of a single body to which each state sent at least two delegates1 and might send any number up to seven4 ,the members were elected annually1 were paid by the states they represented1 could not serve more than three years in six1 and might be recalled at any time4 ,each state cast one vote1 and nine affirmative votes were necessary to carry any important measure4 ,congress could make war and peace1 enter into treaties with foreign powers1 coin money1 contract debts in the name of the ,united ,states1 and call upon each state for its share of the general expenses4 ,,the ,,states ,,cede ,,lands4--,although three states had tendered their ,western lands when ,maryland signed the ,articles1 the conditions of cession were not at once accepted by ,congress1 and some time passed before the deeds were delivered4 ,by the year #aghf1 however1 the claims northwest of the ,ohio had been ceded by ,new ,york1 ,virginia1 #f ,massachusetts1 and ,connecticut4 #g ,south of the ,ohio1 what is now ,west ,virginia and ,kentucky still belonged to ,virginia4 ,north ,carolina offered what is now ,tennessee to ,congress in #aghd1 #h but the conditions were not then accepted1 and that territory was not turned over to ,congress till #agij4 ,the long1 narrow strip of western land owned by ,south ,carolina was ceded to ,congress in #aghg4 ,south of this was a strip owned by ,georgia1 and farther south lands long in dispute between ,georgia and ,spain and ,congress4 ,georgia did not accept her present western limits till #ahjb4 ,,migration ,,westward4--,into the country west of the mountains the people were moving in three great streams4 ,one from ,new ,england was pushing out along the ,mohawk valley into central ,new ,york2 another from ,pennsylvania and ,virginia was pouring its population into ,kentucky2 the third from ,north ,carolina was overrunning ,tennessee4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,settler',s ,,log ,,cabin4 ,for this movement the hard times which followed the ,revolution were largely the cause4 ,compared with our time1 the means of making a livelihood were few and far less remunerative4 ,great mills and factories each employing thousands of persons had no existence4 ,the imports from ,great ,britain far surpassed in value our exports2 the difference was settled in specie 7coin7 taken from the country4 ,the people were poor1 and as land in the ,west was cheap1 they left the ,east and went westward4 ,,routes ,,to ,,the ,,ohio ,,valley4--,new ,england people bound to the ,ohio valley went through ,connecticut to ,kingston1 ,new ,york1 on across ,new ,jersey to ,easton1 ,pennsylvania1 and thence to ,bedford1 where they struck the road cut years before by the troops of ,general ,forbes1 and by it went to ,pittsburg 7p4 #aid74 ,settlers from ,maryland and ,virginia went generally to ,fort ,cumberland in ,maryland1 and then on by ,brad dock's ,road to ,pittsburg1 or turned off and reached the ,monongahela at ,redstone1 or the ,ohio at ,wheeling 7map1 p4 #bja74 ,such was the rush to the ,ohio valley that each spring and summer hundreds of boats and arks left ,pittsburg and ,wheeling or ,redstone1 and floated down the ,ohio to ,maysville1 ,louisville1 and other places in ,kentucky4 #i ,the flatboat was usually twelve feet wide and forty feet long1 with high sides and a flat or slightly arched top1 and was steered1 and when necessary was rowed1 by long oars or sweeps4 ,some were arranged to carry cattle as well as household goods4 ,illustration3 ,,ohio ,,river ,,flatboat ,,of ,,about #ahdj4 ,the boat is like those used in earlier times4 ,,the ,,ohio ,,company ,,of ,,associates4--,meanwhile1 some old soldiers of ,new ,england and ,new ,jersey who had claims for bounty lands1 #aj organized the ,ohio ,company of ,associates1 and in #aghg sent an agent 7,manasseh ,cutler7 to ,new ,york1 where ,congress was sitting1 and bade him buy a great tract of land northwest of the ,ohio1 on which they might settle4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,southern ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,northwest ,,territory4 ,,the ,,ordinance ,,of #aghg4--,when ,cutler reached ,new ,york1 he found ,congress debating a measure of great importance4 ,this was an ordinance for the government of the ,northwest ,territory1 including the whole region from the ,lakes to the ,ohio1 and from ,pennsylvania to the ,mississippi4 ,when passed1 this famous ,ordinance of #aghg provided-- #a4 ,that until five thousand free white males lived in the territory1 the governing body should be a governor and three judges appointed by ,congress4 #b4 ,that when there were five thousand free white men in the territory1 they might elect a legislature and send a delegate to ,congress4 #c4 ,that slavery should not be permitted in the territory1 but that fugitive slaves should be returned4 #d4 ,that the territory should in time be cut up into not more than five1 or less than three1 states4 #e4 ,that when the population of each division numbered sixty thousand1 it should be admitted into the ,union on the same footing as the original states4 ,,ohio ,,settled4--,after the ordinance was passed1 ,cutler bought five million acres of land north of the ,ohio ,river1 and in the winter of #aghg-hh a party of young men sent out by the ,ohio ,company made their way from ,new ,england to a branch of the ,monongahela ,river4 ,there they built a great boat1 and when the ice broke up1 floated down the ,ohio to the lands of the ,ohio ,company1 where they erected a few log huts and a fort of hewn timber which they called ,campus ,martius4 ,the little settlement was called ,marietta4 #aa ,farther down the ,ohio1 on land owned by ,john ,cleve ,symmes and associates1 ,columbia and ,losantiville1 afterward called ,cincinnati1 were founded in #aghh4 ,,state ,,boundaries4--,the old charters which led to the conflicting claims to land in the ,west1 caused like disputes in the ,east4 ,massachusetts claimed a strip of country embracing western ,new ,york1 and did not settle the dispute till #aghf4 #ab ,a similar dispute between ,connecticut and ,pennsylvania was settled in #aghb4 #ac ,new ,york claimed all ,vermont as having once been part of ,new ,netherland2 but ,vermont was really an independent republic4 #ad ,in ,kentucky the people were insisting that their country be separated from ,virginia and made a state4 ,,trouble ,,with ,,spain4--,congress had trouble in trying to secure from foreign nations fair treatment for our commerce1 and was involved in a dispute over the navigation of the ,mississippi4 ,spain owned both banks at the mouth of the river1 and denied the right of ,americans to go in or out without her consent4 ,the ,spanish minister who came over in #aghe was ready to make a commercial treaty if the river was closed to navigation for twenty-five years1 and the ,eastern states were quite ready to agree to it4 ,but the people of ,kentucky and ,tennessee threatened to leave the ,union if cut off from the sea1 and no treaty was made with ,spain till #agie4 ,,the ,,weakness ,,of ,,the ,,confederation4--,the question of trade and commerce with foreign powers and between the states was very serious1 and the weakness of ,congress in this and other matters soon wrecked the ,confederation4 #a4 ,in the first place1 the ,articles of ,confederation gave ,congress no power to levy taxes of any kind4 ,money1 therefore1 could not be obtained to pay the debts of the ,united ,states1 or the annual cost of government4 #ae #b4 ,congress had no power to regulate the foreign trade4 ,as there were few articles manufactured in the country1 china1 glass1 cutlery1 edged tools1 hardware1 woolen1 linen1 and many other articles of daily use were imported from ,great ,britain4 ,as ,great ,britain took little from us1 these goods were largely paid for in specie1 which grew scarcer and scarcer each year4 ,great ,britain1 moreover1 hurt our trade by shutting our vessels out of her ,west ,indies1 and by heavy duties on ,american goods coming to her ports in ,american ships4 #af ,congress1 having no power to regulate trade1 could not retaliate by treating ,british ships in the same way4 #c4 ,congress had no power to regulate trade between the states4 ,as a consequence1 some of the states laid heavy duties on goods imported from other states4 ,retaliation followed1 and the safety of the ,union was endangered4 #d4 ,congress did not have sole power to coin money and regulate the value thereof4 ,there were1 therefore1 nearly as many kinds of paper money as there were states1 and the money issued by each state passed in others at all sorts of value1 or not at all4 ,this hindered interstate trade4 #e4 ,congress could not enforce treaties4 ,it could make treaties with other countries1 but only the states could compel the people to observe them1 and the states did not choose to do so4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,hampshire ,,colonial ,,paper ,,money4 ,similar bills were issued by the states before #aghi4 ,,congress ,,asks ,,for ,,more ,,power4--,of the defects in the ,articles of ,confederation ,congress was fully aware1 and it asked the states to amend the ,articles and give it more authority4 #ag ,to do this required the assent of all the states1 and as the consent of thirteen states could not be obtained1 the additional powers were not given to ,congress4 ,this soon brought matters to a crisis4 ,with no regulation of trade1 the purchase of more and more goods from ,british merchants made money so scarce that the states were forced to print and issue large amounts of paper bills4 ,in ,massachusetts1 when the legislature refused to issue such currency1 the debtors rose and1 led by a ,revolutionary officer named ,daniel ,shays1 prevented the courts from trying suits for the recovery of debts4 ,the governor called out troops1 and several encounters took place before a bitter winter dispersed the insurgents4 #ah ,,the ,,annapolis ,,trade ,,convention4--,in this condition of affairs1 ,virginia invited her sister states to send delegates to a convention at ,annapolis in #aghf4 ,they were to take into consideration the trade and commerce of the ,united ,states4 ,five states sent delegates1 but the convention could do nothing1 because less than half the states were present1 and because the powers of the delegates were too limited4 ,a request was therefore made by it that ,congress call a convention of the states to meet at ,philadelphia and take into consideration the situation of the ,united ,states4 ,,the ,,constitutional ,,convention4--,congress issued the call early in #aghg1 and delegates from twelve states #ai met at ,philadelphia and framed the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,washington was made president of the convention1 and among the members were many of the ablest men of the time4 #bj ,illustration3 ,,invitation ,,sent ,,by ,,washington1 ,,as ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,convention4 ,in the possession of the ,pennsylvania ,historical ,society4 ,,the ,,compromises4--,in the course of the debates in the convention great difference of opinion arose on several matters4 ,the small states wanted a ,congress of one house1 and equality of state representation4 ,the great states wanted ,historical a ,congress of two houses1 with representation in proportion to population4 ,this difference of opinion was so serious that a compromise was necessary1 and it was agreed that in one branch 7,house of ,representatives7 the people should be represented1 and in the other 7,senate7 the states4 ,the question then arose whether slaves should be counted as population4 ,the ,southern delegates said yes2 the ,northern1 no4 ,it was finally agreed that direct taxes and representatives should be apportioned according to population1 and that three fifths of the slaves should be counted as population4 ,this was the second compromise4 ,the convention agreed that ,congress should regulate foreign commerce4 ,but the ,southern members objected that by means of this power ,congress might pass navigation acts limiting trade to ,american ships1 which might raise freights on exports from the ,south4 ,many ,northern members1 on the other hand1 wanted the slave trade stopped4 ,these two matters were therefore made the basis of another compromise1 by which ,congress could pass navigation acts1 but could not prohibit the slave trade before #ahjh4 ,,the ,,constitution ,,ratified4--,when the convention had finished its work 7,september #ag1 #aghg71 the ,constitution #ba was sent to the old 7,continental7 ,congress1 which referred it to the states1 and the states1 one by one1 called on the people to elect2 delegates to conventions to ratify or reject the new plan of government4 ,in a few states it was accepted without any demand for changes4 ,in others it was vigorously opposed as likely to set up too strong a government4 ,in ,massachusetts1 ,new ,york1 and ,virginia adoption was long in doubt4 #bb ,by ,july1 #aghh1 eleven states had ratified1 and the ,constitution was in force as to these ,states4 #bc ,,establishment ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,government4--,the ,continental ,congress then appointed the first ,wednesday in ,january1 #aghi1 as the day on which electors of ,president should be chosen in the eleven states2 the first ,wednesday in ,february as the day on which the electors should meet and vote for ,president2 and the first ,wednesday in ,march 7which happened to be the #dth of ,march7 as the day when the new ,congress should assemble at ,new ,york and canvass the vote for ,president4 ,illustration3 ,,federal ,,hall1 ,,on ,,wall ,,street1 ,,new ,,york4 ,from an old print4 ,,washington ,,the ,,first ,,president4--,when ,march #d came1 neither the ,senate nor the ,house of ,representatives had a quorum1 and a month went by before the electoral votes were counted1 and ,washington and ,john ,adams declared ,president and ,vice ,president of the ,united ,states4 #bd ,some time now elapsed before ,washington could be notified of his election4 ,more time was consumed by the long journey from ,mount ,vernon to ,new ,york1 where1 on ,april #cj1 #aghi1 standing on the balcony of ,federal ,hall1 he took the oath of office in the presence of a crowd of his fellow-citizens4 ,,summary #a4 ,the treaty of peace defined the boundaries of our country2 but ,great ,britain continued to hold the forts along the north1 and ,spain to occupy the country in the southwest4 #b4 ,seven of the thirteen states claimed the country west of the mountains4 #c4 ,the other six1 especially ,maryland1 denied these claims1 and this dispute delayed the adoption of the ,articles of ,confederation till #agha4 #d4 ,by the year #aghf the lands northwest of the ,ohio had been ceded to ,congress4 #e4 ,in #aghg1 therefore1 ,congress formed the ,northwest ,territory4 #f4 ,certain states1 meantime1 were settling disputes as to their boundaries in the east4 #g4 ,we had trouble with ,spain over the right to use the lower ,mississippi ,river1 and with ,great ,britain over matters of trade4 #h4 ,six years' trial proved that the government of the ,united ,states was too weak under the ,articles of ,confederation4 #i4 ,in #aghg1 therefore1 the ,constitution was framed1 and within a year was ratified by eleven states4 #aj4 ,in #aghi ,washington and ,adams became ,president and ,vice ,president1 and government under the ,constitution began4 ,illustration3 ,,liberty ,,bell4 ,,footnotes #a ,both ,france and ,spain had tried to shut us out of the ,mississippi valley4 ,read ,fiske's ,critical ,period of ,american ,history1 pp4 #ag-be4 #b ,by the treaty of #aghc ,congress provided that all debts due ,british subjects might be recovered by law1 and that the states should be asked to pay for confiscated property of the ,loyalists4 ,but the states would not permit the recovery of the debts nor pay for the property taken from the ,loyalists4 ,great ,britain1 by holding the forts along our northern frontier1 controlled the fur trade and the ,indians1 and ruled the country about the forts4 ,these were ,dutchman's ,point1 ,point au ,fer1 ,oswegatchie1 ,oswego1 ,niagara1 ,erie1 ,detroit1 ,mackinaw4 #c ,to understand her conduct we must remember that in #agfd1 shortly after the ,french and ,indian ,war1 ,great ,britain made #cb #bh' north latitude 7through the mouth of the ,yazoo1 p4 #adc7 the north boundary of ,west ,florida2 and although ,great ,britain in her treaty with us made #ca the boundary between us and ,west ,florida1 ,spain insisted that it should be #cb #bh'4 ,spain's claim to the ,northwest1 founded on her occupation of ,fort ,st4 ,joseph 7p4 #ahc71 had not been allowed2 she was therefore the more determined to expand her claims in the ,south4 #d ,the states claiming such lands by virtue of their colonial charters were ,massachusetts1 ,connecticut1 ,virginia1 ,north and ,south ,carolina1 and ,georgia4 ,new ,york had acquired the ,iroquois title to lands in the ,west4 ,her claim conflicted with those of ,virginia1 ,connecticut1 and ,massachusetts4 ,the claims of ,connecticut and ,massachusetts covered lands included in the ,virginia claim--,maryland denied the validity of all these claims1 for these reasons3 7#a7 the ,mississippi valley belonged to ,france till #agfc2 7#b7 when ,france gave the valley east of the ,mississippi to ,great ,britain in #agfc1 it became crown land2 7#c7 in #agfc the king drew the line around the sources of the rivers flowing into the ,atlantic ,ocean1 and forbade the colonists to settle beyond that line 7p4 #adc74 #e ,the ,articles were not to go into effect till every state signed4 ,maryland was the thirteenth state to sign4 #f ,virginia reserved ownership of a large tract called the ,virginia ,military ,lands4 ,it lay in what is now ,ohio between the ,scioto and ,little ,miami rivers 7map1 p4 #bja71 and was used to pay bounties to her soldiers of the ,revolution4 #g ,connecticut reserved the ownership 7and till #ahjj the government7 of a tract #abj miles long1 west of ,pennsylvania4 ,of this ,western ,reserve of ,connecticut1 some #ejj1jjj acres were set apart in #agib for the relief of persons whose houses and farms had been burned and plundered by the ,british4 ,the rest was sold and the money used as a school fund4 #h ,when the settlers on the ,watauga 7pp4 #aha1 #ahb7 heard of this1 they became alarmed lest ,congress should not accept the cession1 and forming a new state which they called ,franklin1 applied to ,congress for admission into the ,union4 ,no attention was given to the application4 ,north ,carolina repealed the act of cession1 arranged matters with the settlers1 and in #aghg the ,franklin government dissolved4 #i ,the favorite time for the river trip was from ,february to ,may1 when there was high water in the ,ohio and its tributaries the ,allegheny and ,monongahela4 ,then the voyage from ,pittsburg to ,louisville could be made in eight or ten days4 ,an observer at ,pittsburg in #aghg saw #ej flatboats depart in six weeks4 ,another man at ,fort ,finney counted #agg passing boats with #bgjj people in eight months4 #aj ,in order to encourage enlistment in the army1 ,congress had offered to give a tract of land to each officer and man who served through the war4 ,the premium in land1 or gift1 over and above pay1 was known as land bounty4 #aa ,read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #eje- #eai4 ,all the land bought by the ,ohio ,company was not for its use4 ,a large part was for another1 known as the ,scioto ,company1 which sent an agent to ,paris and sold the land to a ,french company4 ,this1 in turn1 sold in small pieces to ,frenchmen eager to leave a country then in a state of revolution4 ,in #agij1 accordingly1 several hundred emigrants reached ,alexandria1 ,virginia1 and came on to the little square of log huts1 with a blockhouse at each corner1 which the company had built for them and named ,gallipolis4 ,most of them were city-bred artisans1 unfit for frontier life1 who suffered greatly in the wilderness4 #ab ,the land was included in the limits laid down in the charter of ,massachusetts2 but that charter was granted after the ,dutch were in actual possession of the upper ,hudson4 ,in #aghf a north and south line was drawn #hb miles west of the ,delaware4 ,ownership of the land west of that line went to ,massachusetts2 but jurisdiction over the land1 the right to govern1 was given to ,new ,york4 #ac ,connecticut1 under her sea-to-sea grant from the crown1 claimed a strip across northern ,pennsylvania1 bought some land there from the ,indians 7#aged71 and some of her people settled on the ,susquehanna in what was known as the ,wyoming ,valley 7#agfb and #agfi74 ,the dispute which followed1 first with the ,penns and then with the state of ,pennsylvania1 dragged on till a court of arbitration appointed by the ,continental ,congress decided in favor of ,pennsylvania4 #ad ,because of ,champlain's discovery of the lake which now bears his name 7p4 #aae71 the ,french claimed most of ,vermont2 on their early maps it appears as part of ,new ,france1 and as late as #agci they made settlements in it4 ,about #agej the governor of ,new ,hampshire granted land in ,vermont to settlers1 and the country began to be known as ,new ,hampshire ,grants2 but in #agfc ,new ,york claimed it as part of the region given to the ,duke of ,york in #affd4 ,this brought on a bitter dispute which was still raging when1 in #aggg1 the settlers declared ,new ,hampshire ,grants a free and independent state to be called ,new ,connecticut4 ,later the name was changed to ,vermont4 ,but the ,continental ,congress1 for fear of displeasing ,new ,york1 never recognized ,vermont as a state4 #ae ,each state was bound to pay its share of the annual expenses2 but they failed or were unable to do so4 #af ,why would not ,great ,britain make a trade treaty with us8 ,read ,fiske's ,critical ,period1 pp4 #acf-adb2 also pp4 #adb-adg1 about difficulties between the states4 #ag ,congress asked for authority to do three things3 7#a7 to levy taxes on imported goods1 and use the money so obtained to discharge the debts due to ,france1 ,holland1 and ,spain2 7#b7 to lay and collect a special tax1 and use the money to meet the annual expenses of government2 and 7#c7 to regulate trade with foreign countries4 #ah ,the story of ,shays's ,rebellion is told in fiction in ,bellamy's ,duke of ,stockbridge4 ,read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cac-cbf4 #ai ,all the states except ,rhode ,island4 #bj ,one had written the ,albany ,plan of ,union2 some had been members of the ,stamp ,act ,congress2 some had signed the ,declaration of ,independence1 or the ,articles of ,confederation2 two had been presidents and twenty-eight had been members of ,congress2 seven had been or were then governors of states4 ,in after times two 7,washington and ,madison7 became ,presidents1 one 7,elbridge ,gerry7 ,vice ,president1 four members of the ,cabinet1 two ,chief ,justices and two justices of the ,supreme ,court1 five ministers at foreign courts1 and many others senators and members of the ,house of ,representatives4 ,one1 ,franklin1 has the distinction of having signed the ,declaration of ,independence1 the treaty of alliance with ,france 7#aggh71 the treaty of peace with ,great ,britain 7#aghc71 and the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 the four great documents in our early history4 #ba ,every student should read the ,constitution1 as printed near the end of this book or elsewhere1 and should know about the three branches of government1 legislative1 executive1 and judicial2 the powers of ,congress 7,art4 ,i1 ,sec4 #h71 of the ,president 7,art4 ,i1 ,sec4 #g2 ,art4 ,,ii1 ,secs4 #b and #c71 and of the ,united ,states2 courts 7,art4 ,,iii72 the principal powers forbidden to ,congress 7,art4 ,i1 ,sec4 #i7 and to the states 7,art4 ,i1 ,sec4 #aj72 the methods of amending the ,constitution 7,art4 ,v72 the supremacy of the ,constitution 7,art4 ,,vi74 #bb ,to remove the many objections made to the new plan1 and enable the people the better to understand it1 ,hamilton1 ,madison1 and ,jay wrote a series of little essays for the press1 in which they defended the ,constitution1 explained and discussed its provisions1 and showed how closely it resembled the state constitutions4 ,these essays were called ,the ,federalist1 and1 gathered into book form 7in #aghh71 have become famous as a treatise on the ,constitution and on government4 ,those who opposed the ,constitution were called ,anti-,federalists1 and they wrote pamphlets and elaborate series of letters in the newspapers1 signed by such names as ,cato1 ,agrippa1 ,a ,countryman4 ,they declared that ,congress would overpower the states1 that the ,president would become a despot1 that the ,courts would destroy liberty2 and they insisted that amendments should be made1 guaranteeing liberty of speech1 freedom of the press1 trial by jury1 no quartering of troops in time of peace1 liberty of conscience4 ,read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #dij-dia2 #dgh-dgi4 #bc ,because the ,constitution provided that it should go into force as soon as nine states ratified it4 ,north ,carolina and ,rhode ,island did not ratify till some months later1 and1 till they did1 were not members of the new ,union4 #bd ,in three of the eleven states then in the ,union 7,pennsylvania1 ,maryland1 and ,virginia7 the presidential electors were chosen by vote of the people4 ,in ,massachusetts the voters in each congressional district voted for two candidates1 and the legislature chose one of the two1 and also two electors at large4 ,in ,new ,hampshire also the people voted for electors1 but none receiving a majority vote1 the legislature made the choice4 ,elsewhere the legislatures appointed electors2 but in ,new ,york the two branches of the legislature fell into a dispute and failed to choose any4 ,washington received the first vote of all the #fi electors1 and ,adams received #cd votes1 the next highest number4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,our ,,country ,,in #aghi ,,the ,,states4--,when ,washington became ,president1 the thirteen original states of the ,union #a were in many respects very unlike the same states in our day4 ,in some the executive was called president2 in others governor4 ,in some he had a veto2 in others he had not4 ,in some there was no senate4 ,to be a voter in those days a man had to have an estate worth a certain sum of money1 #b or a specified annual income1 or own a certain number of acres4 #c ,moreover1 to be eligible as governor or a member of a state legislature a man had to own more property than was needed to qualify him to vote4 ,in many states it was further required that officeholders should be ,protestants1 or at least ,christians1 or should believe in the existence of ,god4 ,the adoption of the ,constitution made necessary certain acts of legislation by the states4 ,they could issue no more bills of credit2 provision therefore had to be made for the redemption of those outstanding4 ,they could lay no duties on imports2 such as had laid import duties had to repeal their laws and abolish their customhouses4 ,all lighthouses1 beacons1 buoys1 maintained by individual states were surrendered to the ,united ,states1 and in other ways the states had to adjust themselves to the new government4 ,illustration3 ,,continental ,,paper ,,money4 ,,the ,,national ,,debt4--,each of the states was in debt for money and supplies used in the war2 and over the whole country hung a great debt contracted by the old ,congress4 ,part of this national debt was represented by bills of credit1 loan-office certificates1 lottery certificates1 and many other sorts of promises to pay1 which had become almost worthless4 ,this was strictly true of the bills of credit or paper money issued in great quantities by the ,continental ,congress4 #d ,besides this domestic debt owed to the people at home1 there was a foreign debt1 for ,congress had borrowed a little money from ,spain and a great deal from ,france and ,holland4 ,on this debt interest was due1 for ,congress had not been able to pay even that4 ,,the ,,money ,,of ,,the ,,country4--,the ,continental bills having long ceased to circulate1 the currency of the country consisted of paper money issued by individual states1 and the gold1 silver1 and copper coins of foreign countries4 ,these passed by such names as the ,joe or ,johannes1 the doubloon1 pistole1 moidore1 guinea1 crown1 dollar1 shilling1 sixpence1 pistareen1 penny4 ,a common coin was the ,spanish milled dollar1 which passed at different ratings in different parts of the country4 #e ,congress in #aghf adopted the dollar as a unit1 divided it into the half1 quarter1 dime1 half dime1 cent1 and half cent1 and ordered some coppers to be minted2 but very few were made by the contractor4 ,illustration3 ,,settled ,,area ,,in #agij4 ,,population4--,just how many people dwelt in our country before #agij can only be guessed at4 ,in that year they were counted for the first time1 and it was then ascertained that they numbered #c1ibi1jjj 7in the thirteen states7 of whom #gjj1jjj were slaves4 ,all save about #bjj1jjj dwelt along the seaboard1 east of the mountains2 and nearly half were between ,chesapeake ,bay and ,florida4 ,the most populous state was ,virginia2 after her1 next in order were ,massachusetts 7including ,maine71 ,pennsylvania1 ,north ,carolina1 and ,new ,york4 ,the most populous city was ,philadelphia1 after which came ,new ,york1 ,boston1 ,charleston1 and ,baltimore4 ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,cities4--,what passed for thriving cities in those days were collections of a thousand or two houses1 very few of which made any pretension to architectural beauty1 ranged along narrow streets1 none of which were sewered1 and few of which were paved or lighted even on nights when the moon did not shine4 ,during daylight a few constables kept order4 ,at night small parties of men called the night watch walked the streets4 ,each citizen was required to serve his turn on the watch or find a substitute or pay a fine4 ,he had to be a fireman and keep in his house near the front door a certain number of leather fire buckets with which at the clanging of the courthouse or market bell he would run to the burning building and take his place in the line which passed the full buckets from the nearest pump to the engine1 or in the line which passed the empty buckets from the engine back to the pump4 ,water for household use or for putting out fires came from private wells or from the town pumps4 ,there were no city water works4 ,illustration3 ,,early ,,fire ,,engine4 ,lack of good and abundant water1 lack of proper drainage1 ignorance of the laws of health1 filthy1 unpaved streets1 spread diseases of the worst sort4 ,smallpox was common4 ,yellow fever in the great cities was of almost annual occurrence1 and often raged with the violence of a plague4 ,,lack ,,of ,,conveniences4--,few appliances which increase comfort1 or promote health1 or save time or labor1 were in use4 ,not even in the homes of the rich were there cook stoves or furnaces or open grates for burning anthracite coal1 or a bath room1 or a gas jet4 ,lamps and candles afforded light by night4 ,the warming pan1 the foot stove 7p4 #ig71 and the four- posted bedstead 7p4 #gf71 with curtains to be drawn when the nights were cold1 were still essentials4 ,the boy was fortunate who did not have to break the ice in his water pail morning after morning in winter4 ,clocks and watches were luxuries for the rich4 ,the sundial was yet in use1 and when the flight of time was to be noted in hours or parts1 people resorted to the hour glass4 ,many a minister used one on ,sundays to time his preaching by1 and many a housewife to time her cooking4 #f ,illustration3 ,,hour ,,glass4 ,in ,essex ,hall1 ,salem4 ,no city had yet reached such size as to make street cars or cabs or omnibuses necessary4 ,time was less valuable than in our day4 ,the merchant kept his own books1 wrote all business letters with a quill pen1 and waited for the ink to dry or sprinkled it with sand4 ,there were no envelopes1 no postage stamps1 no letter boxes in the streets1 no collection of the mails4 ,the letter written1 the paper was carefully folded1 sealed with wax or a wafer1 addressed1 and carried to the post office1 where postage was paid in money at rates which would now seem extortionate4 ,a single sheet of paper was a single letter1 and two sheets a double letter on which double postage was paid4 ,three mails a week between ,philadelphia and ,new ,york1 and two a week between ,new ,york and ,boston1 were thought ample4 ,the post offices in the country towns consisted generally of a drawer or a few boxes in a store4 ,illustration3 ,,quills ,,as ,,sold ,,for ,,making ,,pens4 ,in ,essex ,hall1 ,salem4 ,,newspapers could not be sent by mail1 and there were few to send4 ,though the first newspaper in the colonies was printed in ,boston as early as #agjd1 the first daily newspaper in our country was issued in ,philadelphia in #aghd4 ,illustrated newspapers1 trade journals1 scientific weeklies1 illustrated magazines1 #g were unknown4 ,such newspapers as existed in #aghi were published most of them once a week1 and a few twice1 and were printed by presses worked by hand2 and no paper anywhere in our country was issued on ,sunday or sold for as little as a penny4 ,,books4--,in no city in #agij could there have been found an art gallery1 a free museum of natural history1 a school or institute of any sort where instruction in the arts and sciences was given4 ,there were many good private libraries1 but hardly any that were open to public use4 ,books were mostly imported from ,great ,britain1 or such as were sure of a ready sale were reprinted by some ,american publisher when enough subscribers were obtained to pay the cost4 ,of native authors very few had produced anything which is now read save by the curious4 #h ,,schools ,,and ,,colleges4--,in education great progress had been made4 ,there were as yet no normal schools1 no high schools1 no manual training schools1 and1 save in ,new ,england1 no approach to the free common school of to-day4 ,there were private1 parish1 and charity schools and academies in all the states4 ,in many of these a small number of children of the poor1 under certain conditions1 might receive instruction in reading1 writing1 and arithmetic4 ,but as yet the states did not have the money with which to establish a great system of free common schools4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,old-,,time ,,private ,,carriage4 ,money in aid of academies and colleges was often raised by lotteries4 ,indeed1 every one of the eight oldest colleges of that day had received such help4 #i ,in each of these the classes were smaller1 the course of instruction much simpler1 and the graduates much younger than to-day4 ,in no country of that time were the rich and well-to-do better educated than in the ,united ,states1 #aj and it is safe to say that in none was primary education--reading1 writing1 and arithmetic--more diffused among the people4 #aa ,,travel4--,to travel from one city to another in #aghi required at least as many days as it now does hours4 #ab ,the stagecoach1 horseback1 or private conveyances were the common means of land travel4 ,the roads were bad and the large rivers unbridged1 and in stormy weather or in winter the delays at the ferries were often very long4 ,breakdowns and upsets were common1 and in rainy weather a traveler by stagecoach was fortunate if he did not have to help the driver pull the wheels out of the mud4 #ac ,,the ,,inns ,,and ,,taverns1 sometimes called coffeehouses or ordinaries1 at which travelers lodged1 were designated by pictured signs or emblems hung before the door1 and were given names which had no relation to their uses1 as the ,indian ,head1 the ,crooked ,billet1 the ,green ,dragon1 the ,plow and ,harrow4 ,in these taverns dances or balls were held1 and sometimes public meetings4 ,to those in the country came sleigh-ride parties4 ,from them the stagecoaches departed1 and before their doors auctions were often held1 and in the great room within were posted public notices of all sorts4 ,illustration3 ,,sign ,,of ,,the ,,indian ,,head ,,tavern1 ,,near ,,concord1 ,,mass4 ,now in the possession of the ,concord ,antiquarian ,society4 ,,the ,,shops were designated in much the same way as the inns1 not by street numbers but by signs2 as the ,lock and ,key1 the ,lion and the ,glove1 the ,bell in ,hand1 the ,golden ,ball1 the ,three ,doves4 ,one shop is described as near a certain bake-house1 another as close by the townhouse1 another as opposite a judge's dwelling4 ,the shop was usually the front room of a little house4 ,in the rear or overhead lived the tradesman1 his family1 and his apprentice4 ,,methods ,,of ,,business4--,for his wares the tradesman took cash when he could get it1 gave short credit with good security when he had to1 and often was forced to resort to barter4 ,thus paper makers took rags for paper1 brush makers exchanged brushes for hog's bristles1 and a general shopkeeper took grain1 wood1 cheese1 butter1 in exchange for dry goods and clothing4 ,few of the modern methods of extending business1 of seeking customers1 of making the public aware of what the merchant had for sale1 existed1 even in a rude state4 ,there were no commercial travelers1 no means of widespread advertising4 ,when an advertisement had been inserted in a newspaper whose circulation was not fifteen hundred copies1 when a handbill had been posted in the markets and the coffeehouses1 the means of reaching the public were exhausted4 ,,the ,,workingman4--,what was true of the merchant was true of men in every walk in life4 ,their opportunities were few1 their labor was hard1 their comforts of life were far inferior to what is now within their reach4 ,in every great city to-day are men1 women1 and boys engaged in a hundred trades1 professions1 and occupations unknown in #agij4 ,the great corporations1 mills1 factories1 mines1 railroads1 the steamboats1 rapid transit1 the telegraph1 the telephone1 the typewriter1 the sewing machine1 the automobile1 the postal delivery service1 the police and fire departments1 the banks and trust companies1 the department stores1 and scores of other inventions and business institutions of great cities1 now giving employment to millions of human beings1 have been created since #agij4 ,the working day was from sunrise to sunset1 with one hour for breakfast and another for dinner4 ,wages were about a third what they are now1 and were less when the days were short than when they were long4 ,the redemptioner was still in demand in the ,middle ,states4 ,in the ,south almost all labor was done by slaves4 ,,slavery4--,in the ,north slavery was on the decline4 ,while still under the crown1 ,virginia and several other colonies had attempted to check slavery by forbidding the importation of more slaves1 but their laws for this purpose were disallowed by the king4 ,after #aggf the states were free to do as they pleased in the matter1 and many of them stopped the importation of slaves4 ,moreover1 before ,congress shut slavery out of the ,northwest ,territory1 the ,new ,england states and ,pennsylvania had either abolished slavery outright or provided for its extinction by gradual abolition laws4 #ad ,,industries4--,in ,new ,england the people lived on their own farms1 which they cultivated with their own hands and with the help of their children1 or engaged in codfishing1 whaling1 lumbering1 shipbuilding1 and commerce4 ,they built ships and sold them abroad1 or used them to carry away the products of ,new ,england to the ,south1 to the ports of ,france1 ,spain1 ,russia1 ,sweden1 the ,west ,indies1 and even to ,china4 ,to the ,west ,indies went horses1 cattle1 lumber1 salt fish1 and mules2 and from them came sugar1 molasses1 coffee1 indigo1 wines4 ,from ,sweden and ,russia came iron1 hemp1 and duck4 ,the ,middle ,states produced much grain and flour4 ,new ,york had lost much of her fur trade because of the ,british control of the frontier posts2 but her exports of flour1 grain1 lumber1 leather1 and what not1 in #agia1 were valued at nearly #c1jjj1jjj4 ,the people of ,pennsylvania made lumber1 linen1 flour1 paper1 iron2 built ships2 carried on a prosperous commerce with foreign lands and a good fur trade with the ,indians4 ,illustration3 ,,trading ,,canoe4 ,in ,maryland and ,virginia the staple crop was still tobacco1 but they also produced much grain and flour4 ,north ,carolina produced tar1 pitch1 resin1 turpentine1 and lumber4 ,some rice and tobacco were raised4 ,great herds of cattle and hogs ran wild4 ,in ,south ,carolina rice was the most important crop4 ,indigo1 once an important product1 had declined since the ,revolution1 and cotton was only just beginning to be grown for export4 ,from the back country came tar1 pitch1 turpentine1 and beaver1 deer1 and bear skins for export4 ,,the ,,fur ,,trade4--,the region of the ,great ,lakes1 where the ,british still held the forts on the ,american side of the boundary1 was the chief seat of the fur trade4 ,goods for ,indian use were brought from ,england to ,montreal and ,quebec1 and carried in canoes to ,oswego1 ,niagara1 ,detroit1 ,mackinaw1 ,sault ,ste4 ,marie 7map1 p4 #aid71 and thence scattered over the ,northwest4 #ae ,,summary #a4 ,in #aghi the states had governments less democratic than at present2 in general only property owners could vote and hold office4 #b4 ,the states were all in debt1 and ,congress had incurred besides a large national debt4 #c4 ,the population was less than #d1jjj1jjj1 mostly on the ,atlantic seaboard4 #d4 ,cities were few and small1 without street cars1 pavements1 water works1 gas or electric lights1 public libraries or museums1 letter carriers1 or paid firemen4 ,everywhere many of the common conveniences of modern life were unknown4 #e4 ,travel was slow and tiresome1 because there were no railroads1 steamboats1 or automobiles4 #f4 ,occupations were far fewer than now1 wages lower1 and hours of labor longer4 ,slavery had been abolished1 or was being gradually stopped1 in ,new ,england and ,pennsylvania1 but existed in all the other states2 and in the ,south nearly all the labor was done by slaves4 #g4 ,new ,englanders were engaged in farming1 fishing1 lumbering1 and commerce2 the ,middle ,states produced much wheat and flour1 and also lumber2 the ,south chiefly tobacco1 rice1 and tar1 pitch1 and turpentine4 ,,footnotes #a ,the states ratified the ,constitution on the dates given below3-- #a4 ,delaware444444444 ,dec4 #g1 #aghg #b4 ,pennsylvania44444 ,dec4 #ab1aghg #c4 ,new ,jersey4444444 ,dec4 #ah1 #aghg #d4 ,georgia4444444444 ,jan4 #b1 #aghh #e4 ,connecticut444444 ,jan4 #i1 #aghh #f4 ,massachusetts4444 ,feb4 #g1 #aghh #g4 ,maryland444444444 ,april #bh1 #aghh #h4 ,south ,carolina444 ,may #bc1 #aghh #i4 ,new ,hampshire4444 ,june #ba1 #aghh #aj4 ,virginia44444444 ,june #bf1 #aghh #aa4 ,new ,york44444444 ,july #bf1 #aghh #ab4 ,north ,carolina44 ,nov4 #ba1 #aghi #ac4 ,rhode ,island4444 ,may #bi1 #agij #b ,in ,new ,jersey any person having a freehold 7real estate owned outright or for life7 worth #ej might vote4 ,in ,new ,york each voter had to have a freehold of #bj1 or pay #dj shillings house rent and his taxes4 ,in ,massachusetts he had to have an estate of #fj1 or an income of #c from his estate4 #c ,in ,maryland #ej acres2 in ,south ,carolina #ej acres or a town lot2 in ,georgia #aj of taxable property4 #d ,when ,congress was forced to assume the conduct of the war1 money was needed to pay the troops4 ,but the ,congress then had no authority to tax either the colonies or the people1 so 7in #agge-ha7 it issued bills of credit1 or ,continental money1 of various denominations4 ,a loan office was also established in each state1 and the people were asked to loan ,congress money and receive in return loan-office certificates bearing interest and payable in three years4 ,but little money came from this source2 and the people refused to take the bills of credit at their face value4 ,the states then made them legal tender1 that is1 made them lawful money for the payment of debts4 ,but as they became more and more plentiful1 prices of everything paid for in ,continental money rose higher and higher4 ,from an old bill of ,january1 #agha1 it appears that in ,philadelphia a pair of boots cost #fjj in paper dollars2 six yards of chintz1 #ijj2 eight yards of binding1 #djj2 a skein of silk1 #aj2 and butter1 #bj a pound4 ,in ,boston at the same time sugar was #aj a pound2 beef1 #h2 and flour1 #aege a barrel4 ,to say of anything that it was not worth a continental was to say that it was utterly worthless4 #e ,in ,new ,england it was valued at six shillings2 in ,new ,york at eight2 in ,pennsylvania at seven and six pence2 in ,south ,carolina and ,georgia at four shillings and eight pence4 #f ,the hour glass consisted of two small glass bulbs joined by a small glass tube4 ,in one bulb was as much fine sand as in the course of an hour could run through the tube into the other bulb4 ,at auctions when ships or real estate were for sale it was common to measure time by burning an inch or more of candle2 that is1 the bidding would go on till a certain length of candle was consumed4 #g ,the ,massachusetts ,magazine was illustrated with occasional engravings of cities and scenery2 but it was not what we know as an illustrated magazine4 ,read a description of the newspapers of this time in ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ce-ch4 #h ,franklin is still the most popular of colonial writers4 ,his autobiography1 his ,way to ,wealth1 and many of his essays are still republished and widely read4 ,the poetry of ,philip ,freneau1 of ,john ,trumbull1 and ,francis ,hopkinson is still read by many2 but it was in political writing that our countrymen excelled4 ,no people have ever produced a finer body of political literature than that called forth by the ,revolution4 ,read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #gd-hj4 #i ,harvard1 ,william and ,mary1 ,yale1 ,princeton1 ,pennsylvania1 ,columbia1 ,brown1 and ,dartmouth4 ,in a lottery drawn in #agig for the benefit of ,brown ,university1 #ijjj tickets were sold at #f each--a total of #ed1jjj4 ,of this1 #hjjj was kept by the university1 and #df1jjj distributed in #ccbh prizes--#bjjj at #i each1 #ajjj at #ab each1 and the rest from #bj to #djjj4 #aj ,in the convention which framed the ,constitution twenty of the fifty- five men were college graduates4 ,five were graduates of ,princeton1 three of ,harvard1 three of ,yale1 three of ,william and ,mary1 two of ,pennsylvania1 one of ,king's 7now ,columbia71 and one each of ,oxford1 ,edinburgh1 and ,glasgow4 #aa ,the writings of men who were not college graduates--,washington1 ,franklin1 ,dickinson1 and many others--speak well for the character of the early schools4 #ab ,the journey from ,boston to ,new ,york by land consumed six days1 but may now be made in less than six hours4 ,new ,york was a two days' journey from ,philadelphia1 but the distance may now be traversed in two hours4 #ac ,one pair of horses usually dragged the stage eighteen miles1 when a fresh team was put on1 and if no accident happened1 the traveler would reach an inn about ten at night4 ,after a frugal meal he would betake himself to bed1 for at three the next morning1 even if it rained or snowed1 he had to make ready1 by the light of a horn lantern or a farthing candle1 for another ride of eighteen hours4 #ad ,in #aggg ,vermont forbade the slavery of men and women4 ,in #aghj ,pennsylvania passed a gradual abolition act4 ,massachusetts by her constitution declared ,all men are born free and equal1 which her courts held prohibited slavery4 ,new ,hampshire in her constitution made a similar declaration with a like result4 ,in #aghd ,connecticut and ,rhode ,island adopted gradual abolition laws1 providing that children born of a slave parent after a certain date should be free when they reached a certain age1 and that their children were never to be slaves4 ,these were states where slaves had never been much in demand1 and where the industries of the people did not depend on slave labor4 #ae ,the departure of a fleet of canoes from ,quebec or ,montreal was a fine sight4 ,the trading canoe of bark was forty-five feet long1 and carried four tons of goods4 ,the crew of eight men1 with their hats gaudy with plumes and tinsel1 their brilliant handkerchiefs tied around their throats1 their bright-colored shirts1 flaming belts1 and gayly worked moccasins1 formed a picture that can not be described4 ,when the axes1 powder1 shot1 dry goods1 and provisions were packed in the canoes1 when each voyager had hung his votive offering in the chapel of his patron saint1 a boatman of experience stepped into the bow and another into the stern of each canoe1 the crew took places between them1 and at the word the fleet glided up the ,st4 ,lawrence on its way to the ,ottawa1 and thence on to ,sault ,ste4 ,marie1 to ,grand ,portage 7near the northeast corner of what is now ,minnesota71 or to ,mackinaw4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,new ,,government ,,first ,,acts ,,of ,,congress4--,during ,washington's first term of office as ,president 7#aghi-ic71 the time of ,congress was largely taken up with the passage of laws necessary to put the new government in operation1 and to carry out the plan of the ,constitution4 ,illustration3 ,,desk ,,used ,,by ,,washington ,,while ,,president4 ,in the possession of the ,pennsylvania ,historical ,society4 ,departments of ,state1 ,treasury1 and ,war were established2 a ,supreme ,court was organized with a ,chief ,justice #a and five associates2 three ,circuits 7one for each of the three groups of states1 ,eastern1 ,middle1 and ,southern7 and thirteen ,district ,courts 7one for each state7 were created1 and provision was made for all the machinery of justice2 and twelve amendments to the ,constitution were sent out to the states1 of which ten were ratified by the requisite number of states and became a part of the ,constitution4 #b ,at the second session of ,congress provision was made1 in the ,funding ,measure1 for the assumption of the ,continental and state debts incurred during the war for independence4 #c ,the ,district of ,columbia as the permanent seat of government was located on the banks of the ,potomac1 #d and the temporary seat of government was moved from ,new ,york to ,philadelphia1 there to remain for ten years4 ,,new ,,states4--,the states of ,north ,carolina and ,rhode ,island1 having at last ratified the ,constitution1 sent representatives and senators to share in the work of ,congress during this session4 ,the quarrel between ,new ,york and ,vermont having been settled1 ,vermont was admitted in #agia2 and ,virginia having given her consent1 the people of ,kentucky were authorized to form a state constitution1 and ,kentucky entered the ,union in #agib4 #e ,,the ,,national ,,bank ,,and ,,the ,,currency4--,the funding of the debt 7proposed by ,hamilton7 was the first great financial measure adopted by ,congress4 #f ,the second 7#agia7 was the charter of the ,bank of the ,united ,states with power to establish branches in the states and to issue bank notes to be used as money4 ,the third 7#agib7 was the law providing for a national coinage and authorizing the establishment of a ,united ,states mint for making the coin4 #g ,it was ordered that whoever would bring gold or silver to the mint should receive for it the same weight of coins4 ,this was free coinage of gold and silver1 and made our standard of money bimetallic1 or of two metals2 for a debtor could choose which kind of money he would pay4 ,illustration3 ,,hamilton',s ,,tomb1 ,,new ,,york ,,city4 ,,the ,,revenue ,,laws4--,other financial measures of ,washington's first term were the tariff law1 which levied duties on imported goods1 wares1 and merchandise1 the excise or whisky tax1 and the law fixing rates of postage on letters4 #h ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,parties4--,as to the justice and wisdom of the acts of ,congress the people were divided in their opinions4 ,those who approved and supported the administration were called ,federalists1 and had for leaders ,washington1 ,john ,adams1 ,hamilton1 ,robert ,morris1 ,john ,jay1 and ,rufus ,king2 those who opposed the administration were the ,anti-,federalists1 or ,republicans1 whose great leaders were ,jefferson1 ,madison1 ,monroe1 ,gerry1 ,gallatin1 and ,randolph4 ,the ,republicans had opposed the funding and assumption measures1 the national bank1 and the excise4 ,they complained that the national debt was too large1 that the salaries of the ,president1 ,congressmen1 and officials were too high1 and that the taxes were too heavy2 and they accused the ,federalists of a fondness for monarchy and aristocracy4 ,washington opened each session of ,congress with a speech just as the king opened ,parliament1 and each branch of ,congress presented an answer just as the ,lords and ,commons did to the king4 ,nobody could go to the ,president's reception without a card of invitation4 ,the judges of the ,supreme ,court wore gowns as did ,english judges4 ,the ,senate held its daily sessions in secret1 and shut out reporters and the people4 ,all this the ,anti- ,federalists held to be unrepublican4 ,illustration3 ,,lady ,,washington',s ,,reception4 ,from an old print4 ,,the ,,election ,,of #agib4--,when the time came1 in #agib1 to elect a successor to ,washington1 there were thus two political parties4 ,both parties supported ,washington for ,president2 but the ,republicans tried hard1 though in vain1 to defeat ,adams for ,vice ,president4 ,,opposition ,,to ,,the ,,government by no means ended with the formation of parties and votes at the polls4 ,the ,assembly of ,virginia condemned the assumption of the state debts4 ,north ,carolina denounced assumption and the excise law4 ,in ,maryland a resolution declaring assumption dangerous to the rights of the states was lost by the casting vote of the ,speaker4 ,the right of ,congress to tax pleasure carriages was tested in the ,supreme ,court1 which declared the tax constitutional4 ,when that court decided 7#agic7 that a citizen of one state might sue another state1 ,virginia1 ,connecticut1 and ,massachusetts called for a constitutional amendment to prevent this1 and the ,eleventh ,amendment was proposed by ,congress 7#agid7 and declared in force in #agih4 ,the tax on whisky caused an insurrection in ,pennsylvania4 ,,the ,,whisky ,,insurrection4--,the farmers around ,pittsburg were largely engaged in distilling whisky1 refused to pay the tax1 and drove off the collectors4 ,congress thereupon 7#agid7 enacted a law to enforce the collection1 but when the marshal arrested some of the offenders1 the people rose1 drove him away1 and by force of arms prevented the execution of the law4 ,washington then called for troops from ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,jersey1 ,maryland1 and ,virginia1 and these marching across the state by a mere show of force brought the people to obedience4 ,leaders of the insurrection were arrested1 tried1 and convicted of treason1 but were pardoned by ,washington4 #i ,,the ,,indian ,,war4--,still farther west1 meantime1 a great battle had been fought with the ,indians4 ,the succession of boats loaded with emigrants floating down the ,ohio1 and the arrivals of settlers north of the river at ,marietta1 ,gallipolis1 and ,cincinnati1 had greatly excited the ,indians4 ,the coming of the whites meant the destruction of game and of fur-bearing animals1 and the pushing westward of the ,indians4 ,this the red men determined to resist1 and did so by attacking boats and killing emigrants1 and in ,january1 #agij1 they marched down on the settlement called ,big ,bottom 7northwest of ,marietta7 and swept it from the face of the earth4 ,washington sent fifteen hundred troops from ,kentucky and ,pennsylvania against the ,indians in the autumn of #agij4 ,led by ,colonel ,harmar1 the troops burned some ,indian supplies and villages1 but accomplished nothing save to enrage the ,indians yet more4 ,washington thereupon put ,general ,st4 ,clair in command1 and in the autumn of #agia ,st4 ,clair set off to build a chain of forts from ,cincinnati to ,lake ,michigan2 but the ,indians surprised him and cut his army to pieces4 ,illustration3 ,,territory ,,ceded ,,by ,,the ,,treaty ,,of ,,greenville4 ,anthony ,wayne was next placed in command1 and two years were spent in careful preparation before he began his march across what is now the state of ,ohio4 ,at the ,falls of the ,maumee 7,august1 #agid7 he met and beat the ,indians so soundly that a year later1 by the treaty of ,greenville1 a lasting peace was made with the ten great nations of the ,northwest4 ,,neutrality4--,washington's second term of office was a stormy time in foreign as well as in domestic affairs4 ,in ,february1 #agic1 the ,french ,republic declared war on ,great ,britain1 and so brought up the question1 ,which side shall the ,united ,states take8 ,washington said neither side1 and issued a proclamation of neutrality1 warning the people not to commit hostile acts in favor of either ,great ,britain or ,france4 ,the ,republicans 7and many who were ,federalists7 grew angry at this and roundly abused the ,president4 ,france1 they said1 is an old friend2 ,great ,britain1 our old enemy4 ,france helped win independence and loaned us money and sent us troops and ships2 ,great ,britain attempted to enslave us4 ,we were bound to ,france by a treaty of alliance and a treaty of commerce2 we were bound to ,great ,britain by no treaty of any kind4 ,to be neutral1 then1 was to be ungrateful to ,france4 #aj ,as a result the ,federalists were called the ,british party1 and they1 in turn1 called the ,republicans the ,french party or ,democrats4 ,illustration3 ,,washington',s ,,coach4 ,,great ,,britain ,,seizes ,,our ,,ships4--,to preserve neutrality under such conditions would have been hard enough1 but ,great ,britain made it harder still by seizing ,american merchant ships that were carrying lumber1 fish1 flour1 and provisions to the ,french ,west ,indies4 #aa ,our merchants at once appealed to ,congress for aid1 and the ,republicans attempted to retaliate on ,great ,britain in a way that might have brought on war4 ,in this they failed1 but ,congress laid an embargo for a short time1 preventing all our vessels from sailing to foreign ports2 and money was voted to build fortifications at the seaports from ,maine to ,georgia1 and for building arsenals at ,springfield 7,mass47 and ,carlisle 7,pa471 and for constructing six frigates4 #ab ,washington did not wish war1 and with the approval of the ,senate sent ,chief-,justice ,john ,jay to ,london to make a treaty of friendship and commerce with ,great ,britain4 ,,jay',s ,,treaty1 when ratified 7#agie71 was far from what was desired4 ,but it provided for the delivery of the posts on our northern frontier1 its other provisions were the best that could be had1 and it insured peace4 ,for this reason among others the treaty gave great offense to the ,republicans1 who wanted the ,united ,states to quarrel with ,great ,britain and take sides with ,france4 ,they denounced it from one end of the country to the other1 burned copies of it at mass meetings1 and hanged ,jay in effigy4 ,for the same reason1 also1 ,france took deep offense4 ,,treaty ,,with ,,spain4--,our treaty with ,great ,britain was followed by one with ,spain1 by which the vexed question of the ,mississippi was put at rest4 ,spain agreed to withdraw her troops from all her posts north of the parallel of #ca degrees4 ,she also agreed that ,new ,orleans should be a port of deposit4 ,this was of great advantage to the growing ,west1 for the farmers1 thereafter1 could float their bacon1 flour1 lumber1 etc4 down the ,ohio and the ,mississippi to ,new ,orleans and there sell it for export to the ,west ,indies or ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,last ,,page ,,of ,,the ,,autograph ,,copy ,,of ,,washington',s ,,farewell ,,address4 ,in the ,lenox ,library1 ,new ,york4 ,,the ,,election ,,of #agif4--,washington1 who had twice been elected ,president1 now declined to serve a third time1 and in ,september1 #agif1 announced his determination by publishing in a newspaper what is called his ,farewell ,address4 #ac ,there was no such thing as a national party convention in those days1 or for many years to come4 ,the ,federalists1 however1 by common consent1 selected ,john ,adams as their candidate for ,president1 and most of them supported ,thomas ,pinckney for ,vice ,president4 ,the ,republicans put forward ,thomas ,jefferson and ,aaron ,burr and others4 ,the ,french minister to our country used his influence to help the ,republican candidates2 #ad but when the election was over1 it turned out that ,adams #ae was chosen ,president and ,jefferson ,vice ,president4 ,pinckney1 the ,federalist candidate for ,vice ,president1 was defeated because he failed to receive the votes of all the ,federalist electors4 #af ,,the ,x4 ,y4 ,z4 ,,affair4--,the ,french ,directory1 a body of five men that governed the ,french ,republic1 now refused to receive a minister whom ,washington had just sent to that country 7,charles ,g4 ,pinckney74 ,this deliberate affront to the ,united ,states was denounced by ,adams in his first message to ,congress2 but he sent to ,paris a special commission composed of two ,federalists and one ,republican1 #ag in an earnest effort to keep the peace4 ,these commissioners were visited by three agents of the ,directory1 who told them that before a new treaty could be made they must give a present of #ej1jjj to each ,director1 apologize for ,adams's denunciation of ,france1 and loan a large sum 7practically pay tribute money7 to ,france4 ,in reporting this affair to ,congress the ,secretary of ,state concealed the names of the ,french agents and called them ,mr4 ,x1 ,mr4 ,y1 and ,mr4 ,z4 ,this gave the affair the name of the ,x4 ,y4 ,z4 ,mission4 ,,preparation ,,for ,,war ,,with ,,france 7#agih74--,the reading of the dispatches in ,congress caused a great change in feeling4 ,the country had been insulted1 and ,congress1 forgetting politics1 made preparations for war4 ,an army was raised and ,washington made lieutenant general4 ,the ,navy ,department was created and the first ,secretary of the ,navy appointed4 ,ships were built1 purchased1 and given to the government2 and with the cry1 ,millions for defense1 not a cent for tribute1 the people offered their services to the ,president1 and labored without pay in the erection of forts along the seaboard4 ,then was written by ,joseph ,hopkinson1 of ,philadelphia1 and sung for the first time1 our national song ,hail1 ,columbia6 #ah ,,the ,,alien ,,and ,,sedition ,,acts4--,in preparing for war1 ,congress had acted wisely4 ,but the ,federalists1 whom the trouble with ,france had placed in control of ,congress1 also passed the ,alien and ,sedition ,acts1 which aroused bitter opposition4 ,the ,alien ,acts were 7#a7 a law requiring aliens1 or foreigners1 to live in our country fourteen years before they could be naturalized and become citizens2 7#b7 a law giving the ,president power1 for the next two years1 to send out of the country any alien he thought to be dangerous to the peace of the ,united ,states2 and 7#c7 the ,alien ,enemies ,act for the expulsion1 in time of war1 of the subjects of the hostile government4 ,the ,sedition ,act provided for the punishment of persons who acted1 spoke1 or wrote in a seditious manner1 that is1 opposed the execution of any law of the ,united ,states1 or wrote1 printed1 or uttered anything with intent to defame the government of the ,united ,states or any of its officials4 ,adams did not use the power given him by the second ,alien ,act2 but the ,sedition ,act was rigorously enforced with fines and imprisonment4 ,such interference with the liberty of the press cost ,adams much of his popularity4 ,,the ,,virginia ,,and ,,kentucky ,,resolutions4--,the ,republicans were greatly excited by the ,alien and ,sedition ,acts1 and at the suggestion of ,jefferson resolutions condemning them as unconstitutional #ai and hence utterly void and of no force were passed by the legislatures of ,kentucky and ,virginia4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,enterprise4 ,seven states answered with resolutions declaring the acts constitutional4 ,whereupon1 in the following year 7#agii71 ,kentucky declared that when a state thought a law of ,congress unconstitutional1 that state might veto or nullify it1 that is1 forbid its citizens to obey it4 ,this doctrine of nullification1 as we shall see1 was later of serious importance4 ,,the ,,naval ,,war ,,with ,,france4--,meantime1 the little navy which had been so hastily prepared was sent to scour the seas around the ,french ,west ,indies1 and in a few months won many victories4 #bj ,the publication of the ,x4 ,y4 ,z4 letters created almost as much indignation in ,france as in our country1 and forced the ,directory to send word that if other commissioners came1 they would be received4 ,adams thereupon appointed three2 but when they reached ,france the ,directory had fallen from power1 ,napoleon was ruling1 and with him a new treaty was concluded in #ahjj4 ,illustration3 ,,thomas ,,jefferson4 ,,the ,,election ,,of #ahjj4--,the cost of this war made new taxes necessary1 and these1 coupled with the ,alien and ,sedition ,acts1 did much to bring about the defeat of the ,federalists4 ,their candidates for the presidency and vice presidency were ,john ,adams and ,charles ,c4 ,pinckney4 ,the ,republicans nominated ,jefferson #ba and ,aaron ,burr1 and won4 ,unfortunately ,jefferson and ,burr each received the same number of votes1 so it became the duty of the ,house of ,representatives to determine which should be ,president4 ,when the ,house elects a ,president1 each state1 no matter how many representatives it may have1 casts one vote4 ,there were then sixteen states #bb in the ,union4 ,the votes of nine1 therefore1 were necessary to elect4 ,but the ,federalists held the votes of six1 and as the representatives of two more were equally divided1 the ,federalists thought they could say who should be ,president1 and tried hard to elect ,burr4 ,finally some of them yielded and allowed the ,republicans to make ,jefferson ,president1 thus leaving ,burr to be ,vice ,president4 ,,president ,,jefferson4--,the inauguration took place on ,march #d1 #ahja1 at ,washington1 to which city the government was removed from ,philadelphia in the summer of #ahjj4 #bc ,everywhere the day was celebrated with bell ringing1 cannonading1 dinners1 and parades4 ,the people had triumphed2 the ,man of the ,people was ,president4 ,monarchy1 aristocracy1 and ,federalism1 it was said1 had received a deathblow4 ,,summary #a4 ,the first ,congress under the ,constitution passed laws establishing the executive departments and the ,united ,states courts1 and other laws necessary to put the new government in operation4 #b4 ,the debts incurred during the ,revolution were assumed and funded1 and the permanent seat of government 7after #ahjj7 was located on the ,potomac4 #c4 ,import and excise duties were laid1 a national bank was chartered1 and a mint was established for coining ,united ,states money4 #d4 ,in ,washington's second term as ,president 7#agic-ig7 there was war between ,great ,britain and ,france1 and it was with difficulty that our government succeeded in remaining neutral4 #e4 ,treaties were made with ,great ,britain and ,spain1 whereby these powers withdrew from the posts they held in our country1 the right of deposit at ,new ,orleans was secured1 and peace was preserved4 #f4 ,a five years' ,indian war in the ,northwest ,territory was ended by ,wayne's victory 7#agid7 and the treaty of ,greenville 7#agie74 #g4 ,the people of western ,pennsylvania resisted the excise tax on whisky1 but their insurrection was easily suppressed by a force of militia4 #h4 ,differences on questions of domestic and foreign policy had resulted in the growth of the ,federalist and ,republican parties1 but party organization was imperfect4 ,in #agif ,adams 7,federalist7 was elected ,president1 and ,jefferson 7,republican7 ,vice ,president4 #i4 ,the ,british treaty and the election of ,adams gave offense to the ,french government1 which made insulting demands upon our commissioners sent to that country4 ,a brief naval war in the ,french ,west ,indies was ended by a treaty made by a new ,french government in #ahjj4 #aj4 ,the passage of the ,alien and ,sedition ,acts brought out protests against them in what are called the ,virginia and ,kentucky ,resolutions of #agih-ii1 one of which claimed the right of a state to nullify an act of ,congress which it deemed unconstitutional4 #aa4 ,in the next presidential election 7#ahjj7 the ,republicans were successful2 but as ,jefferson and ,burr had each the same number of votes1 the ,house of ,representatives had to decide which should be ,president and which ,vice ,president4 ,after a long contest ,jefferson was given the higher office1 as the ,republicans had wished4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,silhouette1 ,a ,,kind ,,of ,,portrait ,,often ,,made ,,before #ahdj4 ,in the possession of the ,concord ,antiquarian ,society4 ,,footnotes #a ,washington appointed ,john ,jay the first ,chief ,justice1 and gave the newly created secretaryships of ,state1 ,treasury1 and ,war to ,thomas ,jefferson1 ,alexander ,hamilton1 and ,henry ,knox respectively4 ,these men were intended to be heads of departments2 but ,washington soon began to consult them and the ,attorney ,general on matters of state and thus made them also a body of advisers known as the ,cabinet4 ,all the ,secretaries and the ,postmaster ,general and the ,attorney ,general are now members of the ,cabinet4 #b ,these ten amendments form a sort of bill of rights1 and were intended to remove objections to the ,constitution by those who feared that the national government might encroach on the liberties of the people4 #c ,for the different kinds of debt1 see p4 #baa4 ,the ,continental money was funded at #a in government stock for #ajj in the paper money2 but the other forms of debt were assumed by the government at their face value4 ,all told1--state debts1 foreign debt1 loan-office certificates1 etc41-- these obligations amounted to about #ge1jjj1jjj4 ,to pay so large a sum in cash was impossible1 so ,congress ordered interest-bearing stock to be given in exchange for evidence of debt4 #d ,as first laid out1 the ,district of ,columbia was a square ten miles on a side1 and was partly in ,virginia and partly in ,maryland4 ,but the piece in ,virginia many years later 7#ahdf7 was given back to that state4 #e ,after these two states were admitted each was given a star and a stripe on the national flag4 ,until #ahah our flag thus had fifteen stars and fifteen stripes1 no further change being made as new states were admitted4 ,in #ahah two stripes were taken off1 the number of stars was made the same as the number of states1 and since then each new state has been represented by a new star4 #f ,alexander ,hamilton was born in #ageg on the island of ,nevis1 one of the ,british ,west ,indies4 ,he was sent to ,new ,york to be educated1 and entered ,king's ,college 7now ,columbia ,university74 ,there he became an ardent patriot1 wrote pamphlets in defense of the first ,congress1 and addressed a public meeting when but seventeen4 ,he was captain of an artillery company in #aggf1 one of ,washington's aids in #aggg-ha1 distinguished himself at ,yorktown1 and 7in #aghb7 went to ,congress4 ,he was a man of energy1 enthusiasm1 and high ideals1 was possessed of a singular genius for finance1 and believed in a vigorous national government4 ,as ,secretary of the ,treasury1 ,hamilton proposed not only the funding and assumption plans1 but the national bank and the mint4 #g ,the coins were to be the eagle or ten-dollar piece1 half eagle1 and quarter eagle of gold2 the dollar1 half1 quarter1 dime1 and half dime of silver2 and the cent and half cent of copper4 ,the mint was established at once at ,philadelphia1 and the first copper coin was struck in #agic4 ,but coinage was a slow process1 and many years passed before foreign coins ceased to circulate4 ,the accounts of ,congress were always kept in dollars and cents4 ,but the states and the people used pounds1 shillings1 pence1 and ,spanish dollars1 and it was several years before the states1 by law1 required their officers to levy taxes and keep accounts in dollars and cents 7,virginia in #agib1 ,rhode ,island and ,massachusetts in #agie1 ,new ,york and ,vermont in #agig1 ,new ,jersey in #agii74 #h ,a single letter in those days was one written on a single sheet of paper1 large or small1 and the postage on it was #f cents for any distance under #cj miles1 #h cents from #cj to #fj1 #aj cents from #fj to #ajj1 and so on to #dej miles1 above which the rate was #be cents4 ,in all our country there were but #ge post offices1 and the revenue derived from them was about #ajj1jjj a year4 #i ,read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ahi-bjd4 #aj ,good feeling toward ,france led the ,republicans to some funny extremes4 ,to address a person as ,sir1 ,mr41 ,mrs41 or ,miss was unrepublican4 ,you should say1 as in ,france1 ,citizen ,jones1 or ,citizeness ,smith4 ,tall poles with a red liberty cap on top were erected in every town where there were ,republicans2 civic feasts were held2 and ,july #ad 7the anniversary of the day the ,bastile of ,paris fell in #aghi7 was duly celebrated4 #aa ,when ,great ,britain drove ,french ships from the sea1 ,france threw open the trade with the ,french ,west ,indies to other ships4 ,but ,great ,britain had laid down a rule that no neutral could have in time of war a trade with her enemy it did not have in time of peace4 ,our merchants fell under the ban of ,great ,britain for this reason4 #ab ,these frigates were not built4 ,they were really intended for use against the ,barbary powers 7,morocco1 ,tunis1 ,algiers1 ,tripoli7 that were plundering our ,mediterranean commerce4 ,these nations of northern ,africa had long been accustomed to prey upon ,european ships and sell the crews into slavery4 ,to obtain protection against such treatment the nations of southern ,europe paid these pirates an annual tribute4 ,some of our ships and sailors were captured1 and as we had no navy with which to protect our commerce1 a treaty was made with ,algiers 7#agie7 which bound us to pay a yearly tribute of twelve thousand ,algerine sequins in maritime stores4 ,we shall see what came of this a few years later4 #ac ,in the ,farewell ,address1 besides giving notice of his retirement1 ,washington argued at length against sectional jealousy and party spirit1 and urged the promotion of institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge4 ,he disapproved of large standing armies 7overgrown military establishments71 and earnestly declared that our true policy is to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world1 especially ,european nations4 ,washington died at ,mount ,vernon1 ,december #ad1 #agii4 #ad ,he called on all ,french citizens living in the ,united ,states to wear on their hats the ,french tricolor 7blue1 white1 and red7 cockade1 and of course all the ,republican friends of ,france did the same and made it their party badge4 ,he next published in the newspapers a long letter in which he said1 in substance1 that unless the ,united ,states changed its policy toward ,france it might expect trouble4 ,this meant that unless a ,republican ,president 7,jefferson7 was elected1 there might be war between the two countries4 #ae ,john ,adams was born in ,quincy1 ,massachusetts1 in #agce4 ,he graduated from ,harvard ,college1 studied law1 and in #aggj was one of the lawyers who defended the soldiers that were tried for murder in connection with the famous ,boston ,massacre4 ,he was sent to the ,first and ,second ,continental ,congresses1 and was a member of the committee appointed to frame the ,declaration of ,independence1 and of the committee to arrange treaties with foreign powers4 ,he was for a time associated with ,franklin in the ministry to ,france2 in #aghj went as minister to ,holland2 and in #aghc was one of the signers of the treaty of peace with ,great ,britain4 ,in #aghe he was appointed the first ,united ,states minister to ,great ,britain2 and in #aghi- #ig was ,vice ,president4 #af ,adams received #ga votes1 ,jefferson #fh1 ,pinckney #ei1 ,burr #cj1 and nine other men also received votes4 ,under the original ,constitution the electors did not vote separately for ,president and ,vice ,president4 ,each cast one ballot with two names on it2 the man receiving the most votes 7if a majority of the number of electors7 was elected ,president1 and the man receiving the next highest number was elected ,vice ,president4 ,thus it happened that while the ,federalists elected the ,president1 the ,republicans elected the ,vice ,president4 #ag ,the ,federalists were ,john ,marshall and ,charles ,c4 ,pinckney4 ,elbridge ,gerry was the ,republican member4 #ah ,read the account of the popular excitement in ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cgf-chg4 #ai ,that is1 condemning them on the ground that the ,constitution did not give ,congress power to make such laws4 ,the ,virginia and ,kentucky ,resolutions are printed in full in ,mac,donald's ,select ,documents1 #aggf- #ahfa1 pp4 #adi-afj4 #bj ,one squadron that captured a number of vessels was under the command of ,captain ,john ,barry4 ,another squadron under ,captain ,truxtun captured sixty ,french privateers4 ,the ,constellation took the ,french frigate ,insurgente and beat the ,vengeance1 which escaped2 the ,enterprise captured eight privateers and recaptured four ,american merchantmen2 and the ,boston captured the ,berceau4 ,during the war eighty-four armed ,french vessels were taken by our navy4 #ba ,thomas ,jefferson was born on a ,virginia plantation ,april #ac1 #agdc1 attended ,william and ,mary ,college1 studied law1 and in #agfi became a member of the ,virginia ,house of ,burgesses4 ,he rose into notice as a defender of colonial rights1 was sent to the ,second ,continental ,congress1 and in #aggf wrote the ,declaration of ,independence4 ,between #aggf and #aghi he was a member of the ,virginia legislature1 governor of ,virginia1 member of ,congress 7#aghc-aghd71 and minister to ,france 7#aghd-aghi74 ,he was a strict constructionist of the ,constitution2 he wrote the original draft of the ,kentucky ,resolutions of #agih1 had great faith in the ability of the people to govern themselves1 and dreaded the growth of great cities and the extension of the powers of the ,supreme ,court4 ,he and ,john ,adams died the same day1 ,july #d1 #ahbf1 the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the ,declaration of ,independence4 #bb ,tennessee1 the sixteenth1 was admitted in #agif4 #bc ,a story is current that on inauguration day ,jefferson rode unattended to the ,capitol and tied his horse to the fence before entering the ,senate ,chamber and taking the oath of office4 ,the story was invented by an ,english traveler and is pure fiction4 ,the ,president walked to the ,capitol attended by militia and the crowd of supporters who came to witness the end of the contested election1 and was saluted by the guns of a company of artillery as he entered the ,senate ,chamber and again as he came out4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,country1 #aghi-ahje ,,prosperity4--,twelve years had now elapsed since the meeting at ,new ,york of the first ,congress under the ,constitution1 and they had been years of great prosperity4 ,when ,washington took the oath of office1 each state regulated its trade with foreign countries and with its neighbors in its own way1 and issued its own paper money1 which it made legal tender4 ,agriculture was in a primitive stage1 very little cotton was grown1 mining was but little practiced1 manufacture had not passed the household stage1 transportation was slow and costly1 and in all the states but three banks had been chartered4 #a ,with the establishment of a strong and vigorous government under the new ,constitution1 and the passage of the much-needed laws we have mentioned1 these conditions began to pass away4 ,now that the people had a government that could raise revenue1 pay its debts1 regulate trade with foreign nations and between the states1 enforce its laws1 and provide a uniform currency1 confidence returned4 ,men felt safe to engage in business1 and as a consequence trade and commerce revived1 and money long unused was brought out and invested4 ,banks were incorporated and their stock quickly purchased4 ,manufacturing companies were organized and mills and factories started2 a score of canals were planned and the building of several was begun2 #b turnpike companies were chartered2 lotteries #c were authorized to raise money for all sorts of public improvements1--schools1 churches1 wharves1 factories1 and bridges2 and speculation in stock and ,western land became a rage4 ,,new ,,industries4--,it was during the decade #agij-ahjj that ,slater built the first mill for working cotton yarn2 #d that ,eli ,terry began the manufacture of clocks as a business2 that sewing thread was first made in our country 7at ,pawtucket1 ,r4,i472 that ,jacob ,perkins began to make nails by machine2 that the first broom was made from broom corn2 that the first carpet mill and the first cotton mill were started2 that ,eli ,whitney invented the cotton gin2 and that the first steamboat went up and down the ,delaware4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,terry ,,clock4 ,,the ,,cotton ,,gin4--,before #agij the products of the states south of ,virginia were tar1 pitch1 lumber1 rice1 and indigo4 ,but the destruction of the indigo plants by insects year after year suggested the cultivation of some other crop1 and cotton was tried4 ,to clean it of its seeds by hand was slow and costly1 and to remove the difficulty ,eli ,whitney of ,massachusetts1 then a young man living in ,georgia1 invented a machine called the cotton gin4 #e ,then the cultivation of cotton became most profitable1 and the new industry spread rapidly in the ,south4 ,illustration3 ,,model ,,of ,,whitney',s ,,cotton ,,gin4 ,in the ,national ,museum1 ,washington4 ,,the ,,steamboat4--,the idea of driving boats through water by machinery moved by steam was an old one4 ,several men had made such experiments in our country before #agij4 #f ,but in that year ,john ,fitch put a steamboat on the ,delaware and during four months ran it regularly from ,philadelphia to ,trenton4 ,he was ahead of his time and for lack of support was forced to give up the enterprise4 ,illustration3 ,,model ,,of ,,fitch',s ,,steamboat4 ,in the ,national ,museum1 ,washington4 ,,the ,,new ,,west4--,in the western country ten years had wrought a great change4 ,good times in the commercial states and the ,indian war in the ,west had done much to keep population out of the ,northwest ,territory from #agij to #agie4 ,but from the ,south population had moved steadily over the mountains into the region south of the ,ohio ,river4 ,the new state of ,kentucky 7admitted in #agib7 grew rapidly in population4 ,north ,carolina1 after ratifying the ,constitution1 again ceded her ,western territory1 and out of this and the narrow strip ceded by ,south ,carolina1 ,congress 7#agij7 made the ,territory of the ,united ,states south of the river ,ohio4 ,but population came in such numbers that in #agif the ,north ,carolina cession was admitted as the state of ,tennessee4 ,in the far ,south1 after ,spain accepted the boundary of #ca1 ,congress established the territory of ,mississippi 7#agih71 consisting of most of the southern half of the present states of ,mississippi and ,alabama4 ,four years later ,georgia accepted her present boundaries1 and the territory of ,mississippi was then enlarged1 so as to include all the ,western lands ceded by ,south ,carolina and ,georgia 7map1 p4 #bdb74 ,,cleveland4--,jay's treaty1 by providing for the surrender of the forts along the ,great ,lakes1 opened that region to settlement1 and in #agif ,moses ,cleveland led a ,new ,england colony across ,new ,york and on the shore of ,lake ,erie laid out the town which now bears his name4 ,others followed1 and by #ahjj there were thirty-two settlements in the ,connecticut ,reserve4 ,,detroit4--,the chief town of the ,northwest was ,detroit4 ,wayne1 who saw it in #agif1 described it as a crowded mass of one- and two-story buildings separated by streets so narrow that two wagons could scarcely pass4 ,around the town was a stockade of high pickets with bastions and cannon at proper distances1 and within the stockade a kind of citadel4 ,the only entrances were through two gates defended by blockhouses at either end of a street along the river4 ,every night from sunset to sunrise the gates were shut1 and during this time no ,indian was allowed to remain in the town4 ,,indiana ,,territory4--,after ,wayne's treaty with the ,indians1 five years brought so many people into the ,northwest ,territory that in #ahjj the western part was cut off and made the separate territory of ,indiana4 #g ,not #f1jjj white people then lived in all its vast area4 ,the census of #ahjj showed that more than #e1jjj1jjj people then dwelt in our country2 of these1 nearly #djj1jjj were in the five ,western states and territories--,kentucky1 ,tennessee1 ,northwest1 ,indiana1 ,mississippi4 ,,public ,,land ,,on ,,credit4--,the same year 7#ahjj7 in which ,congress created the territory of ,indiana1 it changed the manner of selling the public lands4 ,hitherto the buyer had been obliged to pay cash4 ,after #ahjj he might buy on credit1 paying one quarter annually4 ,the effect of this was to bring settlers into the ,west in such numbers that the state of ,ohio was admitted in #ahjc1 and the territory of ,michigan formed in #ahje4 #h ,illustration3 ,,settled ,,area ,,in #ahaj4 ,,france ,,acquires ,,louisiana4--,for yet another reason the year #ahjj is a memorable one in our history4 ,when the ,french ,minister of ,foreign ,affairs heard that ,spain 7in #agie7 had agreed that #ca north latitude should be the dividing line between us and ,west ,florida1 he became alarmed4 ,he feared that our next step would be to acquire ,west ,florida1 and perhaps the country west of the ,mississippi4 ,to prevent this he asked ,spain to give ,louisiana back to ,france as ,france had given it to ,spain in #agfb 7see page #adc72 ,france would then occupy and hold it forever4 ,spain refused2 but soon after ,napoleon came into power the request was renewed in so tempting a form that ,spain yielded1 and by a secret treaty returned ,louisiana to ,france in #ahjj4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,united ,,states1 #ahje4 ,,the ,,mississippi ,,closed ,,to ,,our ,,commerce4--,the treaty for a while was kept secret2 but when it became known that ,napoleon was about to send an army to take possession of ,louisiana1 a ,spanish official at ,new ,orleans took away the right of deposit at that city and so prevented our citizens from sending their produce out of the ,mississippi ,river4 ,this was a violation of the treaty with ,spain1 and the settlers in the valley from ,pittsburg to ,natchez demanded the instant seizure of ,new ,orleans4 ,indeed1 an attempt was made in ,congress to authorize the formation of an army of fifty thousand men for this very purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cabildo1 ,,city ,,hall ,,of ,,new ,,orleans4 ,,louisiana ,,purchased1 #ahjc4--;,but ,president ,jefferson did not want war2 instead1 he obtained the consent of ,congress to offer #b1jjj1jjj for ,west ,florida and ,new ,orleans4 ,monroe was then sent to ,paris to aid ,livingston1 our minister1 in making the purchase1 and much to their surprise ,napoleon offered to sell all ,louisiana4 #i ,after some hesitation the offer was accepted4 ,the price was #ae1jjj1jjj1 of which #aa1bej1jjj was paid to ,france and #c1gej1jjj to citizens of our country who had claims against ,france4 #aj ,,the ,,boundaries ,,of ,,louisiana4--,the splendid territory thus acquired had never been given definite bounds4 ,but resting on the discoveries and explorations of ,marquette1 ,joliet1 and ,la ,salle1 ,louisiana was understood to extend westward to the ,rio ,grande and the ,rocky ,mountains1 and northward to the sources of the rivers that flowed into the ,mississippi4 ,whether the purchase included ,west ,florida was doubtful1 but we claimed it1 so that our claim extended eastward to the ,perdido ,river4 ,,the ,,territory ,,of ,,orleans4--,the country having been acquired1 it had to be governed4 ,so much of it as lay west of the ,mississippi and south of #cc north latitude1 with the city of ,new ,orleans and the region round about it1 was made the new territory of ,orleans4 ,the rest of the purchase west of the ,mississippi was called the territory of ,louisiana 7map1 p4 #bdb74 ,,louisiana ,,explored4--,when the ,louisiana purchase was made in #ahjc1 most of the country was an unknown land4 ,but in #ahjd an exploring party under ,meriwether ,lewis and ,william ,clark #aa went up the ,missouri ,river from ,st4 ,louis1 spent the winter of #ahjd-e in what is now ,north ,dakota1 crossed the ,rocky ,mountains in the summer of #ahje1 and went down the ,columbia to the ,pacific4 ,after passing a winter 7#ahje-f7 near the coast1 the party started eastward in the spring1 recrossed the mountains1 and in the autumn reached ,st4 ,louis4 ,,st4 ,,louis was then a little frontier hamlet of maybe a thousand people of all sorts--,french1 ,spanish1 ,american1 negro slaves1 and ,indians4 ,the houses were built on a bottom or terrace at the foot of a limestone cliff and arranged along a few streets with ,french names4 ,the chief occupation of the people was the fur trade1 and to them the reports brought back by ,lewis and ,clark were so exciting that the ,st4 ,louis ,fur ,company was organized to hunt and trap on the upper ,missouri4 ,illustration3 ,,branding ,,iron ,,used ,,by ,,lewis4 ,,reforms ,,in ,,the ,,states4--,during the years which had passed since the adoption of the ,federal ,constitution1 great political reforms had been made4 ,the doctrine that all men are born politically equal was being put into practice1 and the states had begun to reform their old constitutions or to adopt new ones1 abolishing religious qualifications for officeholders or voters1 #ab and doing away with the property qualifications formerly required of voters4 #ac ,some states had reformed their laws for punishing crime1 had reduced the number of crimes punishable with death from fifteen or twenty to one or two1 and had abolished whipping1 branding1 cutting off the ears1 and other cruel punishments of colonial times4 ,the right of man to life1 liberty1 and the pursuit of happiness was more fully recognized than ever before4 ,,reforms ,,in ,,the ,,federal ,,government4--,when the ,republican party came into power in #ahja1 it was pledged to make reforms to put the ship of state1 as ,jefferson said1 on the ,republican tack4 ,about a third of the important ,federalist office-holders were accordingly removed from office1 the annual speech at the opening of ,congress was abolished1 and the written message introduced--a custom followed ever since by our ,presidents4 ,internal taxes were repealed1 the army was reduced1 #ad the cost of government lessened1 and millions of dollars set aside annually for the payment of the national debt4 ,that there might never again be such a contested election as that of #ahjj1 ,congress submitted to the states an amendment to the ,constitution providing that the electors should vote for ,president and ,vice ,president on separate ballots1 and not as theretofore on the same ballot4 ,the states promptly ratified1 and as the ,twelfth ,amendment it went into force in #ahjd in time for the election of that year4 ,,jefferson ,,re,,lected4--,the ,federalist candidates for ,president and ,vice ,president in #ahjd were ,charles ,c4 ,pinckney and ,rufus ,king2 but the ,republican candidates1 ,thomas ,jefferson and ,george ,clinton1 #ae were elected by a very large majority4 ,,burr ,,kills ,,hamilton4--,vice-,president ,burr1 who had consented to be a candidate for the presidency in #ahja 7p4 #bce7 against ,jefferson1 had never been forgiven by his party1 and had ever since been a political outcast4 ,his friends in ,new ,york1 however1 nominated him for governor and tried to get the support of the ,federalists1 but ,hamilton sought to prevent this4 ,after ,burr was defeated he challenged ,hamilton to a duel 7,july1 #ahjd7 and killed him4 ,,burr',s ,,conspiracy4--,fearing arrest for murder1 ,burr fled to ,philadelphia and applied to the ,british minister for ,british help in effecting a separation of the western part of the ,united ,states from that which lies between the ,atlantic and the mountains2 for he believed the people in ,orleans territory were eager to throw off ,american rule4 ,after the end of his term as ,vice ,president 7,march #d1 #ahje7 ,burr went west and came back with a scheme for conquering a region in the southwest1 enlisted a few men in his enterprise1 assembled them at ,blennerhassets ,island in the ,ohio ,river 7a few miles below ,marietta71 and 7in ,december1 #ahjf7 started for ,new ,orleans4 ,the boats with men and arms floated down the ,ohio1 entered the ,mississippi1 and were going down that river when ,general ,james ,wilkinson1 a fellow-conspirator1 betrayed the scheme to ,jefferson4 ,burr was arrested and sent to ,virginia1 charged with levying war against the ,united ,states1 which was treason1 and with setting on foot a military expedition against the dominions of the king of ,spain1 which was a high misdemeanor4 ,of the charge of treason ,burr was acquitted2 that of high misdemeanor was sent to a court in ,ohio for trial1 and came to naught4 #af ,illustration3 ,,burr',s ,,grave ,,at ,,princeton1 ,n4 ,j4 ,,summary #a4 ,with the establishment of government under the ,constitution1 confidence was restored and prosperity began4 #b4 ,banks were chartered by the states1 some roads and canals were constructed1 and money was gathered by lotteries for all sorts of public improvements4 #c4 ,new industries were started1 and the cotton gin and other machines were invented4 #d4 ,the defeat of the ,indians1 the removal of the ,british and ,spanish from our ,western country1 and the sale of public land on credit encouraged a stream of emigrants into the ,west4 #e4 ,kentucky1 ,tennessee1 and ,ohio entered the ,union1 and the territories of ,mississippi1 ,indiana1 and ,michigan were organized4 #f4 ,the cession of ,louisiana to ,france in #ahjj1 and the closing of the ,mississippi ,river to ,americans1 led to the purchase of ,louisiana in #ahjc4 #g4 ,this great region was organized into the territories of ,orleans and ,louisiana2 and the width of the continent from ,st4 ,louis to the mouth of the ,columbia was explored by ,lewis and ,clark4 #h4 ,many reforms were made in the state and national governments tending to make them more democratic4 #i4 ,in #ahjd ,jefferson was reelected ,president1 but ,burr was not again chosen ,vice ,president4 ,having engaged in a plan for conquering a region in the southwest 7#ahjf71 ,burr was arrested for treason1 but was not condemned4 ,illustration3 ,,pioneer ,,hunter4 ,,footnotes #a ,read ,town and ,country ,life in #ahjj1 ,chap4 xii in ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,ii4 #b ,the ,middlesex from ,boston to ,lowell2 the ,dismal ,swamp in ,virginia2 the ,santee in ,south ,carolina4 #c ,in those days lotteries for public purposes were not thought wrong4 ,the ,continental ,congress and many state legislatures used them to raise revenue4 ,congress authorized one to secure money with which to improve ,washington city4 ,faneuil ,hall in ,boston and ,independence ,hall in ,philadelphia were aided by lotteries4 ,private lotteries had been forbidden by many of the colonies4 ,but the states continued to authorize lotteries for public purposes till after #ahcj1 when one by one they forbade all lotteries4 #d ,parliament in #aggd forbade any one to take away from ,england any drawing or model of any machine used in the manufacture of cotton goods4 ,no such machines were allowed in our country in colonial times4 ,in #aghg1 however1 the ,massachusetts legislature voted six tickets in the ,state ,land ,lottery to two ,scotchmen named ,burr to help them build a spinning jenny4 ,about the same time #bjj was given to a man named ,somers to help him construct a machine4 ,the models thus built were put in the ,statehouse at ,boston for anybody to copy who wished1 and mills were soon started at ,worcester1 ,beverly1 and ,providence4 ,but it was not till #agij1 when ,samuel ,slater came to ,america1 that the great ,english machines were introduced4 ,slater was familiar with them and made his from memory4 #e ,eli ,whitney was born in #agfe1 and while still a lad showed great skill in making and handling tools4 ,after graduating from ,yale ,college1 he went to reside in the family of ,general ,greene1 who had been given a plantation by ,georgia4 ,while he was making the first cotton gin1 planters came long distances to see it1 and before it was finished and patented some one broke into the building where it was and stole it4 ,in #agid he received a patent1 but he was unable to enforce his rights4 ,after a few years1 ,south ,carolina bought his right for that state1 and ,north ,carolina levied a tax on cotton gins for his benefit4 ,but the sum he received was very small4 #f ,james ,rumsey1 as early as #aghe1 had experimented with a steamboat on the ,potomac1 and about the same time ,john ,fitch built one in ,pennsylvania1 and succeeded so well that in #aghf and in #aghg one of his boats made trial trips on the ,delaware4 ,later in #aghg ,rumsey ran a steamboat on the ,potomac at the rate of four miles an hour4 #g ,not the ,indiana of to-day1 but the great region including what is now ,indiana1 ,illinois1 ,wisconsin1 and half of ,michigan and ,minnesota4 ,the settlements were ,mackinaw1 ,green ,bay1 ,prairie du ,chien1 ,cahokia1 ,belle ,fontaine1 ,l',aigle1 ,kaskaskia1 ,prairie du ,rocher1 ,fort ,massac1 and ,vincennes4 ,notice that most of these names are of ,french origin4 ,the governor was ,william ,h4 ,harrison1 afterward a ,president4 #h ,in #ahji ,illinois territory was created from the western part of ,indiana territory4 ,when the census was taken in #ahaj1 nearly #a1jjj1jjj people were living west of the ,appalachians4 #i ,read the scene between ,napoleon and his brothers over the sale of ,louisiana1 as told in ,adams's ,history of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cc-ci4 #aj ,the transfer of ,louisiana to ,france took place on ,november #cj1 #ahjc1 and the delivery to us on ,december #bj4 ,our commissioners ,william ,c4 ,c4 ,claiborne and ,james ,wilkinson met the ,french commissioner ,laussat 7lo- sah'7 in the hall of the ,cabildo 7a building still in existence1 p4 #bdc71 presented their credentials1 received the keys of the city1 and listened to ,laussat as he proclaimed ,louisiana the property of the ,united ,states4 ,this ceremony over1 the commissioners stepped out on a balcony to witness the transfer of flags4 ,the tricolor which floated from the top of a staff in the ,place d',armes 7now ,jackson ,square7 was drawn slowly down and the stars and stripes as slowly raised till the two met midway1 when both were saluted by cannon4 ,our flag was then raised to the top of the pole1 and that of ,france lowered and placed in the hands of ,laussat4 ,one hundred years later the anniversary was celebrated by repeating the same ceremony4 ,the ,federalists bitterly opposed the purchase of ,louisiana4 ,read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #fbi-fca4 ,for descriptions of life in ,louisiana1 read ,cable's ,creoles of ,louisiana1 ,the ,grandissimes1 and ,strange ,true ,stories of ,louisiana4 #aa ,both ,lewis and ,clark were ,virginians and experienced ,indian fighters4 ,on their return ,lewis was made governor of the upper ,louisiana territory1 later called ,missouri territory2 and died near ,nashville in #ahji4 ,clark was likewise a governor of ,missouri territory and later a ,superintendent of ,indian ,affairs2 he died at ,st4 ,louis in #ahch4 ,he was a younger brother of ,george ,rogers ,clark4 #ab ,pennsylvania1 ,delaware1 ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia4 #ac ,in ,pennsylvania all free male taxpayers could vote4 ,georgia and ,delaware gave the suffrage to all free white male taxpayers4 ,in ,vermont and ,kentucky there had never been a property qualification4 #ad ,in #ahjb1 however1 there was founded the ,united ,states ,military ,academy at ,west ,point4 #ae ,clinton was born in #agci1 took an active part in ,revolutionary affairs1 was chosen governor of ,new ,york in #aggg1 and was reflected every election for eighteen years4 ,he was the leader of the popular party in that state1 was twice chosen ,vice ,president of the ,united ,states1 and died in that office in #ahab4 #af ,burr's trial was conducted 7in a circuit court7 with rigid impartiality by ,chief-,justice ,john ,marshall1 one of the greatest judges our country has known4 ,as head of the ,supreme ,court for thirty-four years 7#ahja-ce71 he rendered many decisions of lasting influence4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,struggle ,,for ,,commercial ,,independence ,,war ,,with ,,tripoli4--,in his first inaugural ,jefferson announced a policy of peace1 commerce1 and friendship with all nations2 but unhappily he was not able to carry it out4 ,under treaties with ,algiers1 ,tripoli1 and ,tunis1 we had paid tribute or made presents to these powers1 to prevent them from attacking our ships4 ,in #ahjj1 however1 when ,adams sent the yearly tribute to ,algiers1 the ruler of ,tripoli demanded a large present1 and when it did not come1 declared war4 ,expecting trouble with this nest of pirates1 ,jefferson in #ahja sent over a fleet which was to blockade the coast of ,tripoli and that of any other ,barbary power that might be at war with us4 ,but four years passed1 and ,tripoli was five times bombarded before terms of peace were dictated by ,captain ,rodgers under the muzzles of his guns 7#ahje74 #a ,,great ,,britain ,,and ,,france4--,while our contest with ,tripoli was dragging along1 ,france and ,great ,britain again went to war 7#ahjc71 and our neutral rights were again attacked4 ,british cruisers captured many ,american ships on the ground that they were carrying on trade between the ports of ,france and her colonies4 ,napoleon attacked ,british commerce by decrees which closed the ports of ,europe to ,british goods1 declared a blockade of the ,british ,isles1 and made subject to capture any neutral vessels that touched at a ,british port4 ,great ,britain replied with orders in council1 blockading the ports of ,france and her allies1 and requiring all neutral vessels going to a closed port to stop at some ,british port and pay tribute4 #b ,as ,great ,britain ruled the sea1 and ,napoleon most of western ,europe1 these decrees and orders meant the ruin of our commerce4 ,against such rules of war our government protested1 claiming the right of free trade1 or the freedom of the seas1--the right of a neutral to trade with either belligerent1 provided the goods were not for use in actual war 7as guns1 powder1 and shot74 ,,our ,,sailors ,,impressed4--,but we had yet another cause of quarrel with ,great ,britain4 ,she claimed that in time of war she had a right to the services of her sailors2 that if they were on foreign ships1 they must come home and serve on her war vessels4 ,she denied that a ,british subject could become a naturalized ,american2 once a ,british subject1 always a ,british subject1 was her doctrine4 ,she stopped our vessels at sea1 examined the crews1 and seized or impressed any ,british subjects found among them-- and many ,american sailors as well4 ,against such impressment our government set up the claim of sailors' rights--denying the right of ,great ,britain to search our ships at sea or to seize sailors of any nationality while on board an ,american vessel4 ,,the ,,attack ,,on ,,the ,,chesapeake4--,before #ahje ,great ,britain confined impressment to the high seas and to her own ports4 ,after #ahje she carried it on also off our coasts and in our ports4 ,finally1 in #ahjg1 a ,british officer1 hearing that some ,british sailors were among the crew of our frigate ,chesapeake which was about to sail1 only partly equipped1 from the ,washington navy yard1 ordered the ,leopard to follow the ,chesapeake to sea and search her4 ,this was done1 and when ,commodore ,barron refused to have his vessel searched1 she was fired on by the ,leopard1 boarded1 searched1 and one ,british and three ,american sailors were taken from her deck4 #c ,illustration3 ,,the ,,chesapeake ,,surrenders ,,to ,,the ,,leopard4 ,,congress ,,retaliates4--,it was now high time for us to strike back at ,france and ,great ,britain4 ,we had either to fight for free trade and sailors' rights1 or to abandon the sea and stop all attempts to trade with ,europe and ,great ,britain4 ,jefferson chose the latter course4 ,our retaliation therefore consisted of #a4 ,the ,long ,embargo 7#ahjg-i74 #b4 ,the ,non-intercourse ,act 7#ahji74 #c4 ,macon's ,bill ,no4 #b 7#ahaj74 #d4 ,the ,declaration of ,war 7#ahab74 ,,the ,,long ,,embargo4--,late in ,december1 #ahjg1 at the request of ,jefferson1 ,congress laid an embargo and cut off all trade with foreign ports4 #d ,the restriction was so sweeping and the damage to farmers1 planters1 merchants1 shipowners1 and sailors so great1 that the law was at once evaded4 ,more stringent laws were therefore enacted1 till at last trade along the coast from port to port was made all but impossible4 ,defiance to the embargo laws became so general #e that a ,force ,act 7#ahji7 was passed1 giving the ,president authority to use the army and navy in enforcing obedience4 ,this was too much1 and such a storm of indignation arose in the ,eastern states that ,congress repealed the embargo laws 7#ahji7 and substituted ,,the ,,non-,,intercourse ,,act4--,this forbade commerce with ,great ,britain and ,france1 but allowed it with such countries as were not under ,french or ,british control4 ,if either power would repeal its orders or decrees1 the ,president was to announce this fact and renew commerce with that power4 ,just at this time the second term of ,jefferson ended1 #f and ,madison became ,president 7,march #d1 #ahji74 #h ,,the ,,erskine ,,agreement7#ahji74--;,and now the ,british minister1 ,mr4 ,erskine1 offered1 in the name of the king1 to lift the orders in council if the ,united ,states would renew trade with ,great ,britain4 ,the offer was accepted1 and the renewal of trade proclaimed4 ,but when the king heard of it1 he recalled ,erskine and disavowed the agreement1 and ,madison was forced to declare trade with ,great ,britain again suspended4 ,,macon',s ,,bill ,,no4 #b4--,non-intercourse having failed1 ,congress in #ahaj tried a new experiment1 and by ,macon's ,bill ,no4 #b 7so-called because it was the second of two bills introduced by ,mr4 ,macon7 restored trade with ,france and ,great ,britain4 ,at the same time it provided that if either power would withdraw its decrees or orders1 trade should be cut off with the other unless that power also would withdraw them4 ,napoleon now 7#ahaj7 pretended to recall his decrees1 but ,great ,britain refused to withdraw her orders in council1 whereupon in #ahaa trade was again stopped with ,great ,britain4 ,,the ,,declaration ,,of ,,war4--,and now the end had come4 ,we had either to submit tamely or to fight4 ,the people decided to fight1 and in the elections of #ahaj completely changed the character of the ,house of ,representatives4 ,a large number of new members were elected1 and the control of public affairs passed from men of the ,revolutionary period to a younger set with very different views4 ,among them were two men who rose at once to leadership and remained so for nearly forty years to come4 ,one was ,henry ,clay of ,kentucky2 #i the other was ,john ,c4 ,calhoun of ,south ,carolina4 ,clay was made speaker of the ,house of ,representatives1 and under his lead the ,house at once began preparations for war with ,great ,britain1 which was formally declared in ,june1 #ahab4 ,the causes stated by ,madison in the proclamation were 7#a7 impressing our sailors1 7#b7 sending ships to cruise off our ports and search our vessels1 7#c7 interfering with our trade by orders in council1 and 7#d7 urging the ,indians to make war on the ,western settlers4 ,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,tippecanoe4--,that the ,british had been tampering with the ,indians was believed to be proved by the preparation of many of the ,indian tribes for war4 ,from time to time some ,indian of great ability had arisen and attempted to unite the tribes in a general war upon the whites4 ,king ,philip was such a leader1 and so was ,pontiac1 and so at this time were the twin brothers ,tecumthe and the ,prophet4 ,the purpose of ,tecumthe was to unite all the tribes from the ,great ,lakes to the ,gulf of ,mexico in a general war1 to drive the whites from the ,mississippi valley4 ,after uniting many of the ,northern tribes he went south1 leaving his brother1 the ,prophet1 in command4 ,but the action of the ,prophet so alarmed ,general ,harrison1 #aj governor of ,indiana territory1 that he marched against the ,indians and beat them at the ,tippecanoe 7#ahaa74 #aa ,illustration3 ,,vicinity ,,of ,,the ,,tippecanoe ,,river4 ,,madison ,,re,,lected4--,as ,madison was willing to be a war ,president the ,republicans nominated him for a second term of the presidency1 with ,elbridge ,gerry #ab for the vice presidency4 ,the ,federalists and those opposed to war1 the peace party1 nominated ,de,witt ,clinton for ,president4 ,madison and ,gerry were elected4 #ac ,,the ,,war ,,opens4--,the war which now followed1 ,mr4 ,madison's ,war as the ,federalists called it1 was fought along the edges of our country and on the sea4 ,it may therefore be considered under four heads3-- #a4 ,war on land along the ,canadian frontier4 #b4 ,war on land along the ,atlantic seaboard4 #c4 ,war on land along the ,gulf coast4 #d4 ,war on the sea4 ,scarcely had the fighting begun when news arrived that ,great ,britain had recalled the hated orders in council1 but she would not give up the right of search and of impressment1 so the war went on1 as ,madison believed that cause enough still remained4 ,illustration3 ,,war ,,of #ahab4 ,,fighting ,,on ,,the ,,frontier1 #ahab4--,the hope of the leaders of the war party1 ,war ,hawks as the ,federalists called them1 was to capture the ,british provinces north of us and make peace at ,halifax4 ,three armies were therefore gathered along the ,canadian frontier4 ,one under ,general ,hull was to cross at ,detroit and march eastward4 ,a second under ,general ,van ,rensselaer was to cross the ,niagara ,river1 join the forces under ,hull1 capture ,york 7now ,toronto71 and then go on to ,montreal4 ,the third under ,general ,dearborn was to enter ,canada from northeastern ,new ,york1 arid meet the other troops near ,montreal4 ,the three armies were then to capture ,montreal and ,quebec and conquer ,canada4 ,but the plan failed2 ,hull was driven out of ,canada1 and surrendered at ,detroit4 ,van ,rensselaer did not get a footing in ,canada1 and ,dearborn went no farther than the northern boundary line of ,new ,york4 ,,fighting ,,on ,,the ,,frontier1 #ahac4--,the surrender of ,hull filled the people with indignation1 and a new army under ,william ,henry ,harrison was sent across the wilds of ,ohio in the dead of winter to recapture ,detroit4 ,but the ,british and ,indians attacked and captured part of the army at ,frenchtown on the ,raisin ,river1 where the ,indians massacred the prisoners4 ,they then attacked ,fort ,meigs and ,fort ,stephenson1 but were driven off4 ,,battle ,,of ,,lake ,,erie4--,meantime a young naval officer1 ,oliver ,hazard ,perry1 was hastily building at ,erie 7,presque ,isle7 a little fleet to attack the ,british1 whose fleet on ,lake ,erie had been built just as hurriedly4 ,the fight took place near the west end of the lake and ended in the capture of all the ,british ships4 #ad ,it was then that ,perry sent off to ,harrison those familiar words ,we have met the enemy and they are ours4 #ae ,,battle ,,of ,,the ,,thames4--,this signal victory gave ,perry command of ,lake ,erie and enabled him to carry ,harrison's army over to ,canada1 where1 on the ,thames ,river1 he beat the ,british and ,indians and put them to flight4 #af ,by these two victories of ,perry and ,harrison we regained all that we had lost by the surrender of ,hull4 ,on the ,new ,york frontier neither side accomplished anything decisive in #ahac1 though the public buildings at ,york 7now ,toronto7 were destroyed1 and some villages on both sides of the ,niagara ,river were burned4 ,,fighting ,,on ,,the ,,frontier1 #ahad4--;,better officers were now put in command on the ,new ,york frontier1 and during #ahad our troops under ,jacob ,brown and ,winfield ,scott captured ,fort ,erie and won the battles of ,chippewa and ,lundys ,lane4 ,but in the end the ,british drove our army out of ,canada4 ,further eastward the ,british gathered a fleet on ,lake ,champlain and sent an army to attack ,plattsburg1 but ,thomas ,macdonough utterly destroyed the fleet in ,plattsburg ,bay1 and the army was repulsed4 ,,fighting ,,along ,,the ,,seaboard4--,during #ahab and #ahac the ,british did little more than blockade our coast from ,rhode ,island to ,new ,orleans1 leaving all the east coast of ,new ,england unmolested4 #ag ,but in #ahad the entire coast was blockaded1 the eastern part of ,maine was seized and occupied1 and ,stonington in ,connecticut was bombarded4 ,,washington ,,and ,,baltimore ,,attacked4--,a fleet entered ,chesapeake ,bay and landed an army which marched to ,washington1 burned the ,capitol1 the ,president's house1 the ,treasury ,building1 and other public buildings1 #ah and with the aid of the fleet made a vain attack on ,baltimore4 ,it was during the bombardment of a fort near ,baltimore that ,francis ,scott ,key1 temporarily a prisoner with the ,british1 wrote ,the ,star-spangled ,banner4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,capitol ,,after ,,the ,,fire4 ,,fighting ,,along ,,the ,,gulf ,,coast4--,after the repulse at ,baltimore the ,british army was carried to the island of ,jamaica to join a great expedition fitting out for an attack on ,new ,orleans4 ,it was ,november before the fleet bearing the army set sail1 and ,december when the troops landed on the southeast coast of ,louisiana and started for the ,mississippi4 ,on the banks of that river1 a few miles below ,new ,orleans1 they met our forces under ,general ,andrew ,jackson drawn up behind a line of rude intrenchments1 attacked them on the #hth of ,january1 #ahae1 and were badly beaten4 ,illustration3 ,,battle ,,of ,,new ,,orleans4 ,from an old print4 ,,the ,,sea ,,fights4--,the victories won by the army were indeed important1 but those by the navy were more glorious still4 ,in years before the war ,british captains laughed at our little navy and called our ships fir- built things with a bit of striped bunting at their mastheads4 ,these fir- built things now inflicted on the ,british navy a series of defeats such as it had never before suffered from any nation4 ,illustration3 ,,naval ,,cannon ,,of #ahab4 ,before the end of #ahab the frigate ,constitution1 ,old ,ironsides as she is still popularly called1 #ai beat the ,guerrire 7gar-e-ar'7 so badly that she could not be brought to port2 the little sloop ,wasp almost shot to pieces the ,british sloop ,frolic2 #bj the frigate ,united ,states brought the ,macedonian in triumph to ,newport 7,r4,i472 #ba and the ,constitution made a wreck of the ,java4 ,illustration3 ,,cutlass4 ,in #ahac the ,hornet1 ,commander ,james ,lawrence1 so riddled the ,british sloop ,peacock that after surrendering she went down carrying with her nine of her own crew and three of the ,hornet's4 ,the brig ,enterprise1 ,william ,burrows in command1 fought the ,british brig ,boxer1 ,captain ,blythe1 off ,portland harbor1 ,maine4 ,both commanders were killed1 but the ,boxer was taken and carried into ,portland1 where ,burrows and ,blythe1 wrapped in the flags they had so well defended1 were buried in the ,eastern ,cemetery which overlooks the bay4 ,,the ,,chesapeake ,,captured4--,but we too met with defeats4 ,when ,lawrence returned home with the ,hornet1 he was given command of the ,chesapeake1 then fitting out in ,boston harbor1 and while so engaged was challenged by the commander of the ,british frigate ,shannon to come out and fight4 ,he went1 was mortally wounded1 and a second time the ,chesapeake struck to the ,british4 ,as ,lawrence was carried below he cried out1 ,don't give up the ship--keep her guns going--fight her till she sinks2 but the ,british carried her by boarding4 ,the brig ,argus1 while destroying merchantmen off the ,english coast1 was taken by the ,british brig ,pelican4 #bb ,,peace4--,quite early in the war ,russia tendered her services as mediator and they were accepted by us4 ,great ,britain declined1 but offered to treat directly if commissioners were sent to some neutral port4 ,john ,quincy ,adams1 ,henry ,clay1 ,albert ,gallatin1 ,james ,a4 ,bayard1 and ,jonathan ,russell were duly appointed1 and late in ,december1 #ahad1 signed a treaty of peace at ,ghent4 ,nothing was said in it about impressment1 search1 or orders in council1 nor indeed about any of the causes of the war4 ,nevertheless the gain was great4 ,our naval victories made us respected abroad and showed us to be the equal of any maritime power4 ,at home1 the war aroused a national feeling1 did much to consolidate the ,union1 and put an end to our old colonial dependence on ,europe4 ,thenceforth ,americans looked westward1 not eastward4 ,,the ,,hartford ,,convention4--,news of the treaty signed in ,december1 #ahad1 did not reach our country till ,february1 #ahae4 #bc ,had there been ocean steamships or cables in those days1 two famous events in our history would not have happened4 ,the battle of ,new ,orleans would not have been fought1 and the report of the ,hartford ,convention would not have been published4 ,the ,hartford ,convention was composed of ,federalist delegates from the ,new ,england states1 #bd met in ,december1 #ahad1 and held its sessions in secret4 ,but its report proposed some amendments to the ,united ,states ,constitution1 state armies to defend ,new ,england1 and the retention of a part of the federal taxes to pay the cost4 ,congress was to be asked to agree to this1 arid if it declined1 the state legislatures were to send delegates to another convention to meet in ,june1 #ahae4 #be ,when the commissioners to present these demands reached ,washington1 peace had been declared1 and they went home1 followed by the jeers of the nation4 ,,summary #a4 ,the war with ,tripoli 7#ahja-e7 ended in victory for our navy4 #b4 ,the renewal of war between ,france and ,great ,britain involved us in more serious trouble4 #c4 ,when ,france attacked ,british commerce by decrees1 ,great ,britain replied with orders in council 7#ahjf-g74 ,in these paper blockades we were the chief sufferers4 #d4 ,great ,britain claimed a right to take her subjects off ,american ships1 and while impressing many ,british sailors into her navy1 she impressed many ,americans also4 #e4 ,she sent vessels of war to our coast to search our ships1 and in #ahjg even seized sailors on board an ,american ship of war1 the ,chesapeake4 #f4 ,congress retaliated with several measures cutting off trade with ,france and ,great ,britain2 these failing1 war on ,great ,britain was declared in #ahab4 #g4 ,war on land was begun by attempts to invade ,canada from ,detroit1 ,niagara1 and northeastern ,new ,york4 ,these attempts failed1 and ,detroit was captured by the ,british4 #h4 ,in #ahac ,perry won a great naval victory on ,lake ,erie2 and the ,american soldiers1 after a reverse at ,frenchtown1 invaded ,canada and won the battle of the ,thames4 #i4 ,in #ahad the ,americans won the battles of ,chippewa and ,lundys ,lane1 but were later driven from ,canada4 ,a ,british invasion of ,new ,york met disaster at ,plattsburg ,bay4 #aj4 ,along the seaboard the ,british blockaded the entire coast1 seized the eastern part of ,maine1 took ,washington and burned the public buildings1 and attacked ,baltimore4 #aa4 ,later ,new ,orleans was attacked1 but in #ahae ,jackson won a signal victory and drove the ,british from ,louisiana4 #ab4 ,on the sea our vessels won many ship duels4 #ac4 ,peace was made in #ahad1 just as the ,new ,england ,federalists were holding their ,hartford ,convention4 ,the war resulted in strengthening the ,union and making it more respected4 ,illustration3 ,,flintlock ,,musket1 ,,such ,,as ,,was ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,war ,,of #ahab4 ,illustration3 ,,modern ,,military ,,carbine4 ,,footnotes #a ,during the war1 in #ahjc1 the frigate ,philadelphia ran on the rocks in the harbor of ,tripoli1 and was captured by the ,tripolitans4 ,the ,americans then determined to destroy her4 ,stephen ,decatur sailed into the harbor with a volunteer crew in a little vessel disguised as a fishing boat4 ,the ,tripolitans allowed the ,americans to come close1 whereupon they boarded the ,philadelphia1 drove off the pirate crew1 set the vessel on fire1 and escaped unharmed4 #b ,the ,french decrees and ,british orders in council were as follows3 7#a7 ,napoleon began 7#ahjf7 by issuing a decree closing the ports of ,hamburg and ,bremen 7which he had lately captured7 and so cutting off ,british trade with ,germany4 7#b7 ,great ,britain retaliated with an order in council 7,may1 #ahjf71 blockading the coast of ,europe from ,brest to the mouth of the river ,elbe4 7#c7 ,napoleon retaliated 7,november1 #ahjf7 with the ,berlin ,decree1 declaring the ,british ,isles in a state of blockade1 and forbidding ,english trade with any country under ,french control4 7#d7 ,great ,britain issued another order in council 7,november1 #ahjg71 commanding her naval officers to seize any neutral vessel going to any closed port in ,europe unless it first touched at a ,british port1 paid duty1 and bought a license to trade4 7#e7 ,napoleon thereupon 7,december1 #ahjg7 issued his ,milan ,decree1 authorizing the seizure of any neutral vessel that had touched at any ,british port and taken out a license4 ,read ,adams's ,history of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,chap4 #af2 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,chaps4 #d1 #e1 #f2 ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #bai-bbc1 #bdi-bej1 #bgb-bgd4 #c ,the ,british sailor was hanged at ,halifax4 ,the three ,americans were not returned till #ahab4 ,read ,maclay's ,history of the ,navy1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cje- #cjh4 #d ,the ,federalists ridiculed the embargo as the terrapin-policy2 that is1 the ,united ,states1 like a terrapin when struck1 had pulled its head and feet within its shell instead of fighting4 ,they reversed the letters so that they read o-grab-me1 and wrote the syllables backward so as to spell go-bar-'em4 #e ,read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #bgi-cch4 #g ,the people would gladly have given him a third term4 ,indeed1 the legislatures of eight states invited him to be a candidate for reflection4 ,in declining he said1 ,if some termination to the services of the ,chief ,magistrate be not fixed by the ,constitution1 or supplied by practice1 his office1 nominally four years1 will in fact become for life2 and history shows how easily that degenerates into an inheritance4 ,the examples of ,washington and ,jefferson established an unwritten law against a third term for any ,president4 #h ,james ,madison was born in ,virginia in #agea1 and educated partly at ,princeton4 ,in #aggf he was a delegate to the ,virginia convention to frame a state constitution1 was a member of the first legislature under it1 went to ,congress in #aghj-hc1 and then returned to the state legislature1 #aghd- #hg4 ,he was one of the most important members of the convention that framed the ,united ,states ,constitution4 ,after the adoption of the ,constitution1 he led the ,republican party in ,congress 7#aghi-ig74 ,he wrote the ,virginia ,resolutions of #agih1 and in #ahja-i was ,secretary of ,state under ,jefferson4 ,as the ,republican candidate for ,president in #ahjh1 he received #abb electoral votes against #dg for the ,federalist candidate ,charles ,c4 ,pinckney4 ,he died in #ahcf4 #i ,henry ,clay1 the son of a ,baptist minister1 was born in ,virginia in #aggg in a neighborhood called the ,slashes4 ,one of his boyhood duties was to ride to the mill with a bag of wheat or corn4 ,thus he earned the name of the ,mill ,boy of the ,slashes1 which in his campaigns for the presidency was used to get votes4 ,his education was received in a log- cabin schoolhouse4 ,at fourteen he was behind the counter in a store at ,richmond2 but finally began to read law1 and in #agig moved to ,kentucky to grow up with the country4 ,there he prospered greatly1 and in #ahjc was elected to the state legislature1 in #ahjf and again in #ahji-aj served as a ,united ,states senator to fill an unexpired term1 and in #ahaa entered the ,house of ,representatives4 ,from then till his death1 ,june #bi1 #aheb1 he was one of the most important men in public life2 he was ten years speaker of the ,house1 four years ,secretary of ,state1 twenty years a senator1 and three times a candidate for ,president4 ,he was a great leader and an eloquent speaker4 ,he was called the ,great ,pacificator and the ,great ,compromiser1 and one of his sayings1 ,i had rather be right than be ,president1 has become famous4 #aj ,william ,henry ,harrison was a son of ,benjamin ,harrison1 a signer of the ,declaration of ,independence4 ,he was born in ,virginia in #aggc1 served in the ,indian campaigns under ,st4 ,clair and ,wayne1 commanded ,fort ,washington on the site of ,cincinnati1 was secretary of the ,northwest ,territory1 and then delegate to ,congress1 and did much to secure the law for the sale of public land on credit4 ,he was made governor of ,indiana ,territory in #ahja1 and won great fame as a general in the ,war of #ahab4 #aa ,tecumthe's efforts in the ,south led to a war with the ,creeks in #ahac- #ad4 ,these ,indians began by capturing ,fort ,mims in what is now southern ,alabama1 and killing many people there2 but they were soon subdued by ,general ,andrew ,jackson4 ,read ,edward ,eggleston's ,roxy2 and ,eggleston and ,seelye's ,tecumseh and the ,shawnee ,prophet4 #ab ,gerry was a native of ,massachusetts and one of the delegates who refused to sign the ,constitution when it was framed in #aghg4 ,as a leading ,republican he was chosen by ,adams to represent his party on the ,x4 ,y4 ,z4 ,mission4 ,as governor of ,massachusetts he signed a bill rearranging the senatorial districts in such wise that some towns having ,federalist majorities were joined to others having greater ,republican majorities1 thus making more than a fair proportion of the districts ,republican4 ,this political fraud is called ,gerrymandering4 ,gerry died ,november #bc1 #ahad1 the second ,vice ,president to die in office4 #ac ,eighteen states cast electoral votes at this election 7#ahab74 ,the electors were chosen by popular vote in eight states1 and by vote of the legislature in ten states1 including ,louisiana 7the former territory of ,orleans71 which was admitted into the ,union ,april #h1 #ahab4 ,the admission of ,louisiana was bitterly opposed by the ,federalists4 ,for their reasons1 read a speech by ,josiah ,quincy in ,johnston's ,american ,orations1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ahj-bjd4 #ad ,perry's flagship was named the ,lawrence1 after the gallant commander of the ,chesapeake1 captured a short while before off ,boston4 ,as ,lawrence1 mortally wounded1 was carried below1 he said to his men1 ,don't give up the ship4 ,perry put at the masthead of the ,lawrence a blue pennant bearing the words ,don't give up the ship1 and fought two of the largest vessels of the enemy till every gun on his engaged side was disabled1 and but twenty men out of a hundred and three were unhurt4 ,then entering a boat with his brother and four seamen1 he was rowed to the ,niagara1 which he brought into the battle1 and with it broke the enemy's line and won4 #ae ,the story of the naval war is told in ,maclay's ,history of the ,navy1 ,part ,third2 and in ,roosevelt's ,naval ,war of #ahab4 #af ,in this battle the great ,indian leader ,tecumthe was killed4 #ag ,in ,new ,england the ruin of commerce made the war most unpopular1 and it was because of this that the ,british did not at first blockade the ,new ,england coast4 ,british goods came to ,boston1 ,salem1 and other ports in neutral ships1 or in ,british ships disguised as neutral1 and great quantities of them were carried in four-horse wagons to the ,south1 whence raw cotton was brought back to ,new ,england to be shipped abroad4 ,the ,republicans made great fun of this ox-and-horse-marine4 #ah ,for a description of the scenes in ,washington1 read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #ach-adg2 or ,adams's ,history of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,viii1 pp4 #add-aeb2 or ,memoirs of ,dolly ,madison1 ,chap4 #h4 #ai ,read ,holmes's poem ,old ,ironsides4 #bj ,this battle was fought on a clear moonlight night and was full of dramatic incidents4 ,a storm had lashed the sea into fury and the waves were running mountain high4 ,wave after wave swept the deck of the ,wasp and drenched the sailors4 ,the two sloops rolled till the muzzles of their guns dipped in the sea2 but both crews cheered heartily and fought on till1 as the ,wasp rubbed across the bow of the ,frolic1 her jib boom came in between the masts of the ,wasp4 ,a boarding party then leaped upon her bowsprit1 and as they ran down the deck were amazed to see nobody save the man at the wheel and three wounded officers4 ,as the ,british were not able to lower their flag1 ,lieutenant ,biddle of the ,wasp hauled it down4 ,scarcely had this been done when the ,british frigate ,poictiers came in sight1 and chased and overhauled the ,wasp and captured her4 #ba ,of all the ,british frigates captured during the war1 the ,macedonian was the only one brought to port4 ,the others were shot to pieces and sank or were destroyed soon after the battle4 ,the ,macedonian arrived at ,newport in ,december1 #ahab4 ,when the lieutenant bearing her flag and dispatches reached ,washington1 he was informed that a naval ball was being held in honor of the capture of the ,guerrire and another ship1 and that their flags were hanging on the wall4 ,hastening to the hotel1 he announced himself and was quickly escorted to the ballroom1 where1 with cheers and singing1 the flag of the ,macedonian was hung beside those of the other two captured vessels4 #bb ,in ,october1 #ahab1 the frigate ,essex1 ,captain ,porter in command1 sailed from ,delaware ,bay1 cruised down the east and up the west coast of ,south ,america1 and captured seven ,british vessels4 ,but she was captured near ,valparaiso by the ,british frigates ,cherub and ,phoebe in ,march1 #ahad4 ,in ,january1 #ahae1 the ,president1 ,commodore ,decatur1 was captured off ,long ,island by a ,british squadron of four vessels4 ,in ,february the ,constitution1 ,captain ,stewart1 when near ,madeira1 captured the ,cyane and the ,levant4 #bc ,some idea of the difficulty of travel and the transmission of news in those days may be gained from the fact that when the agent bearing the treaty of peace arrived at ,new1 ,york ,february #aa1 #ahae1 an express rider was sent post haste to ,boston1 at a cost of #bbe4 #bd ,the states of ,vermont and ,new ,hampshire sent no delegates to this convention2 but three delegates were appointed by certain counties in those states4 ,when ,connecticut and ,rhode ,island chose delegates1 a ,federalist newspaper published in ,boston welcomed them in an article headed ,second and ,third ,pillars of a ,new ,federal ,edifice ,reared4 ,despite the action of the ,hartford ,convention1 the fact remains that ,massachusetts contributed more than her proportionate share of money and troops for the war4 #be ,the report is printed in ,mac,donald's ,select ,documents4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,west ,,trade1 ,,commerce1 ,,and ,,the ,,fisheries4--,the treaty of #ahad did not end our troubles with ,great ,britain4 ,our ships were still shut out of her ,west ,indian ports4 ,the fort at ,astoria1 near the mouth of the ,columbia ,river1 had been seized during the war and for a time was not returned as the treaty required4 ,the authorities in ,nova ,scotia claimed that we no longer had a right to fish in ,british waters1 and seized our fishing vessels or drove them from the fishing grounds4 ,we had no trade treaty with ,great ,britain4 ,in #ahae1 therefore1 a convention was made regulating trade with ,great ,britain and her ,east ,indian colonies1 but not with her ,west ,indies2 #a in #ahag1 a very important agreement limited the navies on the ,great ,lakes2 #b and in #ahah a convention was made defending our fishing rights in ,british waters4 #c ,,banks ,,and ,,the ,,currency4--,but there were also domestic affairs which required attention4 ,when the charter of the ,bank of the ,united ,states 7p4 #bbd7 expired in #ahaa1 it was not renewed1 for the party in power denied that ,congress had authority to charter a bank4 ,a host of banks chartered by the states thereupon sprang up1 in hope of getting some of the business formerly done by the national bank and its branches4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,bank ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,in three years' time one hundred and twenty new state banks were created4 ,each issued bank notes with a promise to exchange them for specie 7gold or silver coin7 on demand4 ,in #ahad1 however1 nearly all the banks outside of ,new ,england suspended specie payment2 that is1 refused to redeem their notes in specie4 ,persons having gold and silver money then kept it1 and the only money left in circulation was the bank notes--which1 a few miles away from the place of issue1 would not pass at their face value4 #d ,business and travel were seriously interfered with1 and in order to provide the people with some kind of money which would pass at the same value everywhere1 ,congress in #ahaf chartered a second ,bank of the ,united ,states1 #e very much like the first one1 for a period of twenty years4 ,,manufactures ,,and ,,the ,,tariff4--,before the embargo days1 trade and commerce were so profitable1 because of the war in ,europe1 that manufactures were neglected4 ,almost all manufactored articles--cotton and woolen goods1 china1 glass1 edge tools1 and what not--were imported1 from ,great ,britain chiefly4 ,but the moment our foreign trade was cat off by the embargo1 manufactures sprang up1 and money hitherto put into ships and commerce was invested in mills and factories4 ,societies for the encouragement of domestic manufactures were started everywhere4 ,to wear ,american-made clothes1 walk in ,american-made shoes1 write on ,american-made paper1 and use ,american- made furniture were acts of patriotism which the people publicly pledged themselves to perform4 ,thus encouraged1 manufactories so throve and flourished that by #ahaj the value of goods made in our country each year was #agc1jjj1jjj4 ,when trade was resumed with ,great ,britain after the war1 her goods were sent over in immense quantities4 ,this hurt our manufacturers1 and therefore ,congress in #ahaf laid a tariff or tax on imported manufactures1 for the purpose of keeping the price of foreign goods high and thus protecting home manufactures4 ,,prosperity ,,of ,,the ,,country4--,despite the injury done by ,british orders1 ,french decrees1 the embargo1 non-intercourse1 and the war1 the country grew more prosperous year by year4 ,cities were growing1 new towns were being planted1 rivers were being bridged1 colleges1 #f academies1 schools1 were springing up1 several thousand miles of turnpike had been built1 and over these good roads better stagecoaches drawn by better horses carried the mail and travelers in quicker time than ever before4 ,,routes ,,to ,,the ,,west4--,goods for ,pittsburg and the ,west could now leave ,philadelphia every day in huge canvas-covered wagons drawn by four or six horses1 and were only twenty days on the road4 ,the carrying trade in this way was very great4 ,more than twelve thousand wagons came to ,pittsburg each year1 bringing goods worth several millions of dollars4 ,from ,new ,york wares and merchandise for the ,west went in sloops up the ,hudson to ,albany1 were wagoned to the falls of the ,mohawk1 where they were put into ,schenectady boats1 which were pushed by poles up the ,mohawk to ,utica4 ,thence they went by canal and river to ,oswego on ,lake ,ontario1 in sloops to ,lewiston on the ,niagara ,river1 by wagon to ,buffalo1 by sloop to ,westfield on ,lake ,erie1 by wagon to ,chautauqua ,lake1 and thence by boat down the lake and the ,allegheny ,river to ,pittsburg4 ,illustration3 ,,routes ,,from ,,philadelphia ,,and ,,new ,,york ,,to ,,the ,,west4 ,,the ,,steamboat4--,the growth of the country and the increase in travel now made the steamboat possible4 ,before #ahjg all attempts to use such boats had failed4 #g ,but when ,fulton in that year ran the ,clermont from ,new ,york to ,albany and back1 practical steam navigation began4 ,in #ahjh a line of steamboats ran up and down the ,hudson4 ,in #ahji there was one on the ,delaware1 another on the ,raritan1 and a third on ,lake ,champlain4 ,in #ahaa a steamboat went from ,pittsburg to ,new ,orleans1 and in #ahab there were steam ferryboats between what is now ,jersey ,city and ,new ,york1 and between ,philadelphia and ,camden4 #h ,illustration3 ,,an ,,early ,,ferryboat4 ,by the use of the steamboat and better roads it was possible in #ahbj to go from ,new ,york to ,philadelphia between sunrise and sunset in summer1 and from ,new ,york to ,boston in forty-eight hours1 and from ,boston to ,washington in less than five days4 ,,the ,,rush ,,to ,,the ,,west4--,after the peace in #ahae came a period of hard times4 ,great ,britain kept our ships out of her ports in the ,west ,indies4 ,france1 ,spain1 and ,holland did their own trading with their colonies4 ,demands for our products fell off1 trade and commerce declined1 thousands of people were thrown out of employment1 and another wave of emigration started westward4 ,nothing like it had ever before been known4 ,people went by tens of thousands1 building new towns and villages1 clearing the forests1 and turning the prairies into farms and gardens4 ,some went in wagons1 some on horseback2 great numbers even went on foot1 pushing their children and household goods in handcarts1 in wheelbarrows1 in little box carts on four small wheels made of plank4 #i ,once on the frontier1 the pioneer1 the mover1 the newcomer1 would secure his plot of land1 cut down a few trees1 and build a half-faced camp1--a shed with a roof of sapling and bark1 and one side open1--and in this he would live till the log cabin was finished4 ,,the ,,log ,,cabin4--,to build a log cabin the settler would fell trees of the proper size1 cut them into logs1 and with his ax notch them half through at the ends4 ,laid one on another these logs formed the four sides of the cabin4 ,openings were left for a door1 one window1 and a huge fireplace2 the cracks between the logs were filled with mud2 the roof was of hewn boards1 and the chimney of logs smeared on the inside with clay and lined at the bottom with stones4 ,greased paper did duty for glass in the window4 ,the door swung on wooden hinges and was fastened with a wooden latch on the inside1 which was raised from the outside by a leather string passed through a hole in the door4 ,some cabins had no floor but the earth2 in others the floor was of puncheons1 or planks split and hewn from trunks of trees and laid with the round side down4 #aj ,illustration3 ,,corn-,,husk ,,mop4 ,,pioneer ,,life4--,if the farm were wooded1 the first labor of the settler was to grub up the bushes1 cut down the smaller trees1 and kill the larger ones by cutting a girdle around each near the roots4 ,when the trees were felled1 the neighbors would come and help roll the logs into great piles for burning4 ,from the ashes the settler made potash2 for many years potash was one of the important exports of the country4 ,in the land thus cleared and laid open to the sun the pioneer planted his corn1 flax1 wheat1 and vegetables4 ,the corn he shelled on a gritter1 and ground in a handmill1 or pounded in a wooden mortar with a wooden pestle1 or carried on horseback to some mill perhaps fifteen miles away4 ,cooking stoves were not used4 ,game was roasted by hanging it by a leather string before an open fire4 ,all baking was done in a ,dutch oven on the hearth1 or in an out oven built1 as its name implies1 out of doors4 #aa ,deerskin in the early days1 and later tow linen1 woolens1 jeans1 and linseys1 were the chief materials for clothing till store goods became common4 #ab ,the amusements of the pioneers were like those of colonial days--shooting matches1 bear hunts1 races1 militia musters1 raisings1 log rollings1 weddings1 corn huskings1 and quilting parties4 ,illustration3 ,,breaking ,,flax4 ,,five ,,new ,,states4--,the first effect of the emigration to the ,west was such an increase of population there that five new states were admitted in five years4 ,they were ,indiana 7#ahaf71 ,mississippi 7#ahag71 ,illinois 7#ahah71 ,alabama 7#ahai71 ,missouri 7#ahba74 ,as ,louisiana 7#ahab7 and ,maine 7#ahbj7 had also been admitted by #ahba1 the ,union then included twenty-four states 7map1 p4 #bgi74 ,,power ,,of ,,the ,,west4--,a second result of this building of the ,west was an increase in its political importance4 ,the ,west in #ahae sent to ,congress #h senators and #bh members of the ,house2 after #ahbb it sent #ah senators out of #dh1 and #dg members of the ,house out of #bac4 ,illustration3 ,,trading ,,with ,a ,,river ,,merchant4 ,,trade ,,of ,,the ,,west4--,a third result was a straggle for the trade of the ,west4 ,favored by the river system1 the farmers of the ,west were able to float their produce1 on raft and flatboat1 to ,new ,orleans4 ,before the introduction of the steamboat1 navigation up the ,mississippi was all but impossible4 ,flatboats1 rafts1 barges1 broadhorns1 with their contents1 were therefore sold at ,new ,orleans1 and the money brought back to ,pittsburg or ,wheeling and there used to buy the manufactures sent from the ,eastern states4 ,but now a score of steamboats went down and up the ,mississippi and the ,ohio1 stopping at ,cincinnati1 ,louisville1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,natchez1 and a host of smaller towns1 loaded with goods obtained at ,pittsburg and ,new ,orleans4 #ac ,commercially the ,west was independent of the ,east4 ,the ,western trade of ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 and ,baltimore was seriously threatened4 ,,the ,,erie ,,canal4--,so valuable was this trade1 and so important to the ,east1 that ,new ,york in #ahag began the construction of the ,erie ,canal from ,albany to ,buffalo1 and finished it in #ahbe4 #ad ,the result1 as we shall see in a later chapter1 was far-reaching4 ,,slavery4--,a fourth result of the rush to the ,west was the rise of the question of slavery beyond the ,mississippi4 ,before the adoption of the ,constitution1 as we have seen1 slavery was forbidden or was in course of abolition in the five ,new ,england states1 in ,pennsylvania1 and in the ,northwest ,territory4 ,since the adoption of the ,constitution gradual abolition laws had been adopted in ,new ,york 7#agii7 and in ,new ,jersey 7#ahjd74 #ae ,kentucky1 ,tennessee1 ,louisiana1 ,mississippi1 and ,alabama came into the ,union as slave-holding states2 and ,ohio1 ,indiana1 and ,illinois 7besides ,vermont7 as free states4 ,so in #ahai the dividing line between the eleven free and the eleven slave states was the south boundary line of ,pennsylvania 7p4 #ha7 and the ,ohio ,river4 ,,slavery ,,beyond ,,the ,,mississippi4--,by #ahai so many people had crossed the ,mississippi and settled on the west bank and up the ,missouri that ,congress was asked to make a new territory to be called ,arkansas and a new state to be named ,missouri4 ,whether the new state was to be slave or free was not stated1 but the ,missourians owned slaves and a settlement of this matter was important for two reasons3 7#a7 there were then eleven slave and eleven free states1 and the admission of ,missouri would upset this balance in the ,senate2 7#b7 her entrance into the ,union would probably settle the policy as to slavery in the remainder of the great ,louisiana ,purchase4 ,the ,south therefore insisted that ,missouri should be a slave-holding state1 and the ,senate voted to admit her as such4 ,the ,north insisted that slavery should be abolished in ,missouri1 and the ,house of ,representatives voted to admit her as a free state4 ,as neither would yield1 the question went over to the next session of ,congress4 ,,maine4--,by that time ,maine1 which belonged to ,massachusetts1 had obtained leave to frame a constitution1 and applied for admission as a free state4 ,this afforded a chance to preserve the balance of states in the ,senate1 and ,congress accordingly passed at the same time two bills1 one to admit ,maine as a free state1 and one to authorize ,missouri to make a proslavery constitution4 ,,the ,,missouri ,,compromise1 #ahbj4--,the second of these bills embodied the ,missouri ,compromise1 or ,compromise of #ahbj1 which provided that in all the territory purchased from ,france in #ahjc and lying north of the parallel #cf #cj' there never should be slavery1 except in ,missouri 7map p4 #bgi74 #af ,this ,compromise left a great region from which free states might be made in future1 and very little for slave states4 ,we shall see the consequences of this by and by4 ,,exploration ,,of ,,the ,,west4--,west of ,missouri the country was still a wilderness overrun by ,indians1 and by buffalo and other wild animals4 ,many believed it to be almost uninhabitable4 ,pike1 who 7#ahjf-g7 marched across the plains from ,st4 ,louis to the neighborhood of ,pikes ,peak and on to the upper waters of the ,rio ,grande1 and ,long1 who 7#ahbj7 followed ,pike1 brought back dismal accounts of the country4 ,pike reported that the banks of the ,kansas1 the ,platte1 and the ,arkansas rivers might admit of a limited population1 but not the plains4 ,long said the country west of ,council ,bluffs is almost wholly unfit for cultivation1 and of course uninhabitable by people depending on agriculture1 and that beyond the ,rockies it was destined to be the abode of perfect desolation4 ,illustration3 ,,buffalo ,,running ,,away ,,from ,a ,,prairie ,,fire4 ,,the ,,great ,,american ,,desert4--,this started the belief that in the ,west was a great desert1 and for many years geographers indicated such a desert on their maps4 ,it covered most of what is now ,nebraska1 ,kansas1 and ,oklahoma1 and parts of ,texas1 ,colorado1 and ,south ,dakota4 ,one geographer 7#ahce7 declared1 a large part maybe likened to the ,great ,sahara or ,african ,desert4 ,,the ,,northwestern ,,boundary4--,when ,louisiana was purchased in #ahjc no boundary was given it on the north or west4 ,by treaty with ,great ,britain in #ahah1 the #dith parallel was made our northern boundary from the ,lake of the ,woods to the summit of the ,rocky ,mountains4 #ag ,,the ,,oregon ,,country4--,the country west of the sources of the ,missouri ,river and the ,rocky ,mountains1 the region drained by the ,columbia1 or as it was sometimes called1 the ,oregon ,river1 was claimed by both ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states4 ,as neither would yield1 it was agreed that the ,oregon country should be held jointly for a time4 #ah ,,the ,,spanish ,,boundary4--,south of ,oregon and west of the mountains lay the possessions of ,spain1 with which country in #ahai we made a treaty1 fixing the western limits of the ,louisiana ,purchase4 ,we began by claiming as far as the ,rio ,grande1 and asking for ,florida4 ,we ended by accepting the line shown on the map1 p4 #bgh1 and buying ,florida4 #ai ,,summary #a4 ,the treaty of peace in #ahad left several issues unsettled2 it was therefore followed by a trade treaty with ,great ,britain1 an agreement to limit naval power on the northern lakes1 and 7#ahah7 a treaty about fisheries in ,british waters4 #b4 ,the suspension of specie payments by the state banks during the war caused such disorder in the currency that a national bank was chartered to regulate it4 #c4 ,the embargo1 by cutting off importation of ,british goods1 encouraged home manufactures4 ,heavy importations after the war injured home manufactures1 and to help them ,congress enacted a protective tariff law4 #d4 ,despite commercial troubles and the war1 the people were prosperous4 ,new towns were founded1 travel was improved1 the steamboat was introduced1 and the ,west grew rapidly4 #e4 ,after #ahae a great wave of population poured over the ,west4 #f4 ,seven new states were admitted between #ahab and #ahba4 #g4 ,a struggle for the trade of the growing ,west led to the building of the ,erie ,canal4 #h4 ,a struggle over slavery led to the ,missouri ,compromise 7#ahbj74 #i4 ,by treaties with ,great ,britain and ,spain1 boundaries of the ,louisiana ,purchase were established1 ,florida was purchased1 and the ,oregon country was held jointly with ,great ,britain4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,old ,,stagecoach4 ,,footnotes #a ,a serious quarrel over the ,west ,indian trade now arose and was not settled till #ahcj4 ,read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,v1 pp4 #dhc-dhg4 #b ,the agreement of #ahag provided that each power might have one armed vessel on ,lake ,ontario1 two on the upper lakes1 and one on ,lake ,champlain4 ,each vessel was to have but one eighteen-pound cannon4 ,all other armed vessels were to be dismantled and no others were to be built or armed4 ,in ,europe such a water boundary between two powers would have been guarded by strong fleets and forts and many armed men4 #c ,the fishery treaty provides 7#a7 that our citizens may forever catch and dry fish on certain parts of the coasts of ,newfoundland and of ,labrador2 7#b7 that they may not catch fish within three miles of any other of the coasts of the ,british dominions in ,america2 7#c7 that our fishermen may enter the harbors on these other coasts for shelter1 or to obtain water1 or wood1 or to repair damages1 and for no other purpose whatever4 #d ,as to the straits to which people were put for small change1 read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #big-bih4 #e ,this bank had branches in the various states1 and specie could be had for its notes at any branch4 ,hence its notes passed at their face value over all the country1 and became1 like specie1 of the same value everywhere4 ,authority to charter the bank was found in the provision of the ,constitution giving ,congress power to regulate the currency4 #f ,thirty-nine of our colleges1 theological seminaries1 and universities were founded between #aghc and #ahbj4 #g ,for ,rumsey and ,fitch1 see p4 #bci4 ,william ,longstreet in #agij tried a small model steamboat on the ,savannah ,river2 and in #agid ,elijah ,ormsbee at ,providence and ,samuel ,morey on ,long ,island ,sound1 in #agif ,john ,fitch on a pond in ,new ,york city1 in #agig ,morey on the ,delaware1 in #ahjb ,oliver ,evans at ,philadelphia1 and in #ahjd and #ahjf ,john ,stevens at ,hoboken1 demonstrated that boats could be moved by steam4 ,but none had made the steamboat a practical success4 #h ,the state of ,new ,york gave ,fulton and his partner1 ,livingston1 the sole right to use steamboats on the waters of the state4 ,this monopoly was evaded by using teamboats1 on which the machinery that turned the paddle wheel was moved by six or eight horses hitched to a crank and walking round and round in a circle on the deck4 ,teamboats were used chiefly as ferryboats4 ,read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #cig-djg4 #i ,read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #cha-cid4 ,all the great highways to the ,west were crowded with bands of emigrants4 ,in nine days #bfj wagons bound for the ,west passed through one ,new ,york town4 ,at ,easton1 in ,pennsylvania1 on a favorite route from ,new ,england 7map1 p4 #aid71 #eaa wagons accompanied by #cjff persons passed in a month4 ,a tollgate keeper on another route reported #bjjj families as having passed during nine months4 ,from ,alabama1 whither people were hurrying to settle on the cotton lands1 came reports of a migration quite as large4 ,when the census of #ahbj was taken1 the returns showed that there were but #ge more people in ,delaware in #ahbj than there were in #ahaj4 ,in the city of ,charleston there were #bd1gaa people in #ahaj and #bd1ghj in #ahbj4 ,in many states along the seaboard the rate of increase of population was less during the census period #ahaj-bj than it had been before1 because of the great numbers who had left for the ,west4 #aj ,if the newcomer chose some settlement for his home1 the neighbors would gather when the logs were cut1 hold a raising1 and build his cabin in the course of one day4 ,tables1 chairs1 and other furniture were generally made by the settler with his own hands4 ,brooms and brushes were of corn husks1 and many of his utensils were cut from the trunks of trees4 ,i know of no scene more primitive1 said a ,kentucky pioneer1 than such a cabin hearth as that of my mother's4 ,in the morning a buckeye backlog1 a hickory forestick1 resting on stones1 with a johnny cake on a clean ash board1 set before the fire to bake2 a frying pan with its long handle resting on a splint-bottom chair1 and a teakettle swung from a log pole1 with myself setting the table1 or turning the meat4 ,then came the blowing of the conch-shell for father in the field1 the howling of old ,lion1 the gathering around the table1 the blessing1 the dull clatter of pewter spoons on pewter dishes1 and the talk about the crops and stock4 #aa ,for an account of the social conditions in #ahbj1 read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,chap1 xxxvii2 also ,eggleston's ,circuit ,rider1 ,cooper's ,prairie1 and ,recollections of ,life in ,ohio1 by ,w4 ,c4 ,howells4 #ab ,a story is told of an early settler who was elected to the territorial legislature of ,illinois4 ,till then he had always worn buckskin clothes1 but thinking them unbecoming a lawmaker1 he and his sons gathered hazel nuts and bartered them at the crossroads store for a few yards of blue strouding1 out of which the women of the settlement made him a coat and pantaloons4 #ac ,on the ,ohio ,river floated odd craft of many sorts4 ,there were timber rafts from the mountain streams2 pirogues built of trunks of trees2 broadhorns2 huge pointed and covered hulks carrying #ej tons of freight and floating downstream with the current and upstream by means of poles1 sails1 oars1 or ropes2 keel boats for upstream work1 with long1 narrow1 pointed bow and stern1 roofed1 manned with a crew of ten men1 and propelled with setting poles2 flatboats which went downstream with the pioneer never to come back--flat-bottomed1 box-shaped craft manned by a crew of six1 kept in the current by oars #cj feet long called sweeps and a steering oar #ej feet long at the stern4 ,those intended to go down the ,mississippi were strongly built1 roofed over1 and known as ,orleans boats4 ,kentucky flatboats for use on the ,ohio were half roofed and slighter4 ,mingled with these were arks1 galleys1 rafts1 and shanty boats of every sort1 and floating shops carrying goods1 wares1 and merchandise to every farmhouse and settlement along the river bank4 ,now it would be a floating lottery office1 where tickets were sold for pork1 grain1 or produce2 now a tinner's establishment1 where tinware was sold or mended2 now a smithy1 where horses and oxen were shod and wagons mended2 now a factory for the manufacture of axes1 scythes1 and edge tools2 now a dry- goods shop fitted up just as were such shops in the villages1 and filled with all sorts of goods and wares needed by the settlers4 #ad ,this canal was originally a ditch #d feet deep1 #dj feet wide1 and #cfc miles long4 ,the chief promoter was ,de ,witt ,clinton4 ,the opponents of the canal therefore called it in derision ,clinton's big ditch1 and declared that it could never be made a success4 ,but ,clinton and his friends carried the canal to completion1 and in #ahbe a fleet of canal boats left ,buffalo1 went through the canal1 down the ,hudson1 and out into ,new ,york ,bay4 ,there fresh water brought from ,lake ,erie in a keg was poured into the salt water of the ,atlantic4 #ae ,it was once hoped that ,southern states also would in time abolish slavery2 but as more and more land was devoted to cotton raising in the ,south1 the demand for slave labor there increased4 ,the ,south came to regard slavery as necessary for her prosperity1 and to desire its extension to more territory4 #af ,meantime ,arkansas 7#ahai7 had been organized as a slave-holding territory4 ,as ,missouri had to make a state constitution and submit it to ,congress she did not enter the ,union till #ahba4 ,the ,compromise line #cf #cj' was part of the south boundary of ,missouri and extended to the #ajjth meridian4 ,missouri did not have the present northwestern boundary till #ahcf2 compare maps on pp4 #bgi and #cca4 ,on the ,compromise read the speech of ,senator ,rufus ,king1 in ,johnston's ,american ,orations1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cc- #fb2 and that of ,senator ,pinckney1 pp4 #fc-aja4 #ag ,by the treaty with ,great ,britain in #aghc a line was to be drawn from the ,lake of the ,woods due west to the ,mississippi4 ,this was impossible1 but the difficulty was ended by the treaty of #ahah4 ,from the northwesternmost point of the ,lake of the ,woods a line 7as the treaty provides7 is drawn due south to the #dith parallel4 ,this makes a little knob on our boundary4 #ah ,we claimed it because in #agib ,captain ,gray1 in the ship ,columbia1 discovered the river1 entered1 and named it after his ship2 because in #ahje-f ,lewis and ,clark explored both its main branches and spent the winter near its mouth2 and because in #ahaa an ,american fur-trading post1 ,astoria1 was built on the banks of the ,columbia near its mouth4 ,great ,britain claimed a part of it because of explorations under ,vancouver 7#agib71 and occupation of various posts by the ,hudson's ,bay ,company4 ,at first ,oregon was the country drained by the ,columbia ,river4 ,through our treaty with ,spain1 in #ahai1 part of the #db;d parallel was made the southern boundary4 ,in #ahbd1 by treaty with ,russia1 the country which then owned ,alaska1 #ed #dj' became the northern boundary4 ,the ,rocky ,mountains were understood to be the eastern limit4 #ai ,what is called the purchase of ,florida consisted in releasing ,spain from all liability for damages of many sorts inflicted on our citizens from #agic to the date of the treaty1 and paying them ourselves2 the sum was not to exceed #e1jjj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,in #ahbd4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,good ,,feeling ,,the ,,party ,,issues4--,the issues which divided the ,federalists and the ,republicans from #agic to #ahae arose chiefly from our foreign relations4 ,neutrality1 ,french decrees1 ,british orders in council1 search1 impressment1 the embargo1 non-intercourse1 the war1 were the matters that concerned the people4 ,soon after #ahae all this changed2 ,napoleon was a prisoner at ,st4 ,helena1 ,europe was at peace1 and domestic issues began to be more important4 ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,good ,,feeling4--,the election of #ahaf1 however1 was decided chiefly on the issues of the war4 ,james ,monroe1 #a the ,republican candidate for ,president1 was elected by a very large majority over ,rufus ,king4 ,during ,monroe's term domestic issues were growing up1 but had not become national4 ,they were rather sectional4 ,party feeling subsided1 and this was so noticeable that his term was called the ,era of ,good ,feeling4 ,in this condition of affairs the ,federalist party died out1 and when ,monroe was renominated in #ahbj1 no competitor appeared4 #a ,the ,federalists presented no candidate4 ,,political ,,events4--,the chief political events of ,monroe's first term 7#ahag-ba71 as we have seen1 were the admission of several new states1 the ,compromise of #ahbj1 and the treaties of #ahah and #ahai1 with ,great ,britain and ,spain4 ,the chief political events of his second term 7#ahba-be7 were3 a dispute over the disposition of public lands in the new states2 #c a dispute over the power of ,congress to aid the building of roads and canals1 called internal improvements2 the recognition of the independence of ,south ,american colonies of ,spain2 the announcement of the ,monroe ,doctrine2 the passage of a new tariff act2 and the breaking up of the ,republican party4 ,,the ,,south ,,american ,,republics4--,in #ahjh ,napoleon invaded ,spain1 drove out the king1 and placed his brother ,joseph ,bonaparte on the throne4 ,thereupon many of the ,spanish colonies in ,america rebelled and organized themselves as republics4 ,when ,napoleon was sent to ,st4 ,helena1 the ,spanish king 7who was restored in #ahad7 brought back most of the colonies to their allegiance4 ,la ,plata1 however1 rebelled1 and was quickly followed by the others4 ,in #ahbb ,president ,monroe recognized the independence of ,la ,plata 7,argentina71 ,chile1 ,peru1 ,colombia1 ,mexico1 and ,central ,america4 ,,the ,,holy ,,alliance4--,the king of ,spain1 unable to conquer the revolted colonies1 applied for aid to the ,holy ,alliance which was formed by ,russia1 ,prussia1 ,austria1 and ,france for the purpose of maintaining monarchical government in ,europe4 ,for a while these powers did nothing1 but in #ahbc they called a conference to consider the question of restoring to ,spain her ,south ,american colonies4 ,but the ,south ,american republics had won their independence from ,spain1 and had been recognized by us as sovereign powers2 what right had other nations to combine and force them back again to the condition of colonies8 ,in his annual message 7,december1 #ahbc71 the ,president therefore took occasion to make certain announcements which have ever since been called the ,monroe ,doctrine4 #d ,illustration3 ,,an ,,old-,,time ,,sofa4 ,,the ,,monroe ,,doctrine4--,referring to the conduct of the ,holy ,alliance1 he said-- #a4 ,that the ,united ,states would not meddle in the political affairs of ,europe4 #b4 ,that ,european governments must not extend their system to any part of ,north and ,south ,america1 nor in any way seek to control the destiny of any of the nations of this hemisphere4 ,as ,russia had been attempting to plant a colony on the coast of ,california1 which was then a part of ,mexico1 the ,president announced 7as another part of the doctrine7-- #c4 ,that the ,american continents were no longer open for colonization by ,european powers4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,old-,,time ,,piano4 ,,the ,,tariff ,,of #ahbd4--;,failure of the tariff of #ahaf to shut out ,british manufactures1 the hard times of #ahai1 and the general ruin of business led to a demand for another tariff in #ahbj4 ,to this the cotton states were bitterly opposed4 ,in the ,south there were no manufacturing centers1 no great manufacturing industries of any sort4 ,the planters sold their cotton to the ,north and 7chiefly7 to ,great ,britain1 from which they bought almost all kinds of manufactured goods they used4 ,naturally1 they wanted low duties on their imported articles2 just enough tax to support the government and no more4 ,in the ,north1 especially in towns now almost wholly given up to manufactures1 as ,lynn and ,lowell and ,fall ,river and ,providence and ,cohoes and ,paterson and others2 in regions where the farmers were raising sheep for wool2 in ,pennsylvania1 where iron was mined2 and in ,kentucky1 where the hemp fields were1 people wanted domestic manufactures protected by a high tariff4 ,the struggle was a long one4 ,at each session of ,congress from #ahbj to #ahbd the question came up4 ,finally in #ahbd a new tariff for protection was enacted despite the efforts of the ,south and part of ,new ,england4 ,,breaking ,,up ,,of ,,the ,,republican ,,party4--,though the three questions of internal improvements1 the tariff1 and the use of the public lands led to bitter disputes1 they did less to break up the party harmony than the action of the leaders4 ,after the second election of ,monroe the question of his successor at once arose4 ,the people of ,tennessee nominated ,andrew ,jackson2 ,south ,carolina named the ,secretary of ,war1 ,calhoun2 ,kentucky wanted ,henry ,clay1 who had long been speaker of the ,house of ,representatives2 the ,new ,england states were for ,john ,quincy ,adams1 the ,secretary of ,state4 ,finally the usual party caucus of ,republican members of ,congress nominated ,crawford of ,georgia1 the ,secretary of the ,treasury4 ,,the ,,election ,,of #ahbd-be4--,the withdrawal of ,calhoun from the race for the presidency left in it ,adams1 ,clay1 ,crawford1 and ,jackson1 representing the four sections of the country--,northeast1 ,northwest1 ,southeast1 ,southwest4 ,as no one had a majority of the electoral votes1 it became the duty of the ,house of ,representatives to elect one from the three who had received the highest votes4 #e ,they were ,jackson1 ,adams1 and ,crawford4 ,the ,house chose ,adams1 #f who was duly inaugurated in #ahbe4 #g ,the electoral college had elected ,calhoun ,vice ,president4 #h ,,the ,,charge ,,of ,,corruption4--,the friends of ,jackson were bitterly disappointed by his defeat4 ,he was the ,man of the ,people1 had received the highest number of electoral votes 7though not a majority71 and ought1 they said1 to have been elected by the ,house4 ,that he had not been elected was due1 they claimed1 to a bargain3 ,clay was to urge his friends to vote for ,adams2 if elected1 ,adams was to make ,clay ,secretary of ,state4 ,no such bargain was ever made4 ,but after ,adams became ,president he appointed ,clay ,secretary of ,state1 and then the supporters of ,jackson were convinced that the charge was true4 ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,parties4--,the legislature of ,tennessee1 therefore1 at once renominated ,jackson1 and about him gathered all who1 for any reason1 disliked ,adams and ,clay1 all who were opposed to the tariff and internal improvements1 or wanted a man of the people for ,president4 ,they were called ,jackson men1 or ,democratic ,republicans4 ,adams1 it was well known1 would also be renominated1 as the candidate of the supporters of the tariff and internal improvements4 ,they were the ,adams men1 or ,national ,republicans4 ,thus was the once harmonious ,republican party broken into fragments1 out of which grew two distinctly new parties4 ,illustration3 ,,letter ,,written ,,by ,,jackson1 ,,then ,a ,,senator4 ,,the ,,tariff ,,of #ahbh4--,the act of #ahbd not proving satisfactory to the growers and manufacturers of wool1 a new tariff law was enacted in #ahbh4 ,so many and so high were the duties laid that the opponents of protection named the law the ,tariff of ,abominations4 ,to the cotton states it was particularly hateful1 and in memorials1 resolutions1 and protests they declared that a tariff for protection was unconstitutional1 unjust1 and oppressive4 ,they made threats of ceasing to trade with the tariff states1 and talked of nullifying1 or refusing to obey the law1 and even of leaving the ,union4 ,,the ,,election ,,of #ahbh4--;,great as was the excitement in the ,south over this new tariff law1 it produced little effect in the struggle for the presidency4 ,the campaign had really been going on for three years past and would have ended in the election of ,jackson had the tariff never existed4 ,old ,hickory1 the ,hero of ,new ,orleans1 the ,man of the ,people1 was more than ever the favorite of the hour1 and though his party was anti- tariff he carried states where the voters were deeply interested in the protection of manufactures4 ,indeed1 he received more than twice the number of electoral votes cast for ,adams4 #i ,,summary #a4 ,after the election of ,monroe 7#ahaf7 the ,federalist party died out1 the old party issues disappeared1 and ,monroe's term is known as the ,era of ,good ,feeling4 #b4 ,the ,south ,american colonies of ,spain1 having rebelled1 formed republics1 and were recognized by the ,united ,states4 ,to prevent interference with them by ,european powers1 especially by the ,holy ,alliance1 ,monroe announced the doctrine now known by his name 7#ahbc74 #c4 ,the growth of the ,west and the rise of new states brought up the question of internal improvements at national expense4 #d4 ,the growth of manufactures brought up the question of more protection and a new tariff4 ,in #ahbd a new tariff law was enacted1 in spite of the opposition of the ,south1 which had no manufactures and imported largely from ,great ,britain4 #e4 ,these issues1 which were largely sectional1 and the action of certain leaders1 split the ,republican party1 and led to the nomination of four presidential candidates in #ahbd4 #f4 ,the electors failed to choose a ,president1 but did elect a ,vice ,president4 ,adams was then elected ,president by the ,house of ,representatives4 #g4 ,a new tariff was enacted in #ahbh1 though the ,south opposed it even more strongly than the tariff of #ahbd4 #h4 ,in #ahbh ,jackson1 one of the candidates defeated in #ahbd1 was elected ,president4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,conestoga ,,wagon1 ,,such ,,as ,,was ,,in ,,use ,,about #ahbe4 ,,footnotes #a ,james ,monroe was a ,virginian1 born in #ageh2 he entered ,william and ,mary ,college1 served in the ,continental army1 was a member of the ,virginia ,assembly1 of the ,continental ,congress for three years1 and of the ,virginia convention that adopted the ,federal ,constitution in #aghh4 ,he strongly opposed the adoption of the ,constitution4 ,as ,united ,states senator 7#agij- #id71 he opposed ,washington's administration2 but was sent as minister to ,france 7#agid-if74 ,in #agii-ahjb ,monroe was governor of ,virginia1 and then was sent to ,france to aid ,livingston in the purchase of ,louisiana2 was minister to ,great ,britain #ahjd-f1 and in #ahaa-ag was ,secretary of ,state1 and in #ahad-ae acted also as ,secretary of ,war4 ,in #ahag-be he was ,president4 ,he died in #ahca4 #b ,monroe carried every state in the ,union and was entitled to every electoral vote4 ,but one elector did not vote for him1 in order that ,washington might still have the honor of being the only ,president unanimously elected4 #c ,in the new ,western states were great tracts which belonged to the ,united ,states1 and which the ,western states now asked should be given to them1 or at least be sold to them for a few cents an acre4 ,the ,east opposed this1 and asked for gifts of ,western land which they might sell so as to use the money to build roads and canals and establish free schools4 #d ,read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,v1 pp4 #bh-ed4 #e ,jackson had #ii votes1 ,adams #hd1 ,crawford #da1 and ,clay #cg4 ,the ,constitution 7,article ,,xii of the amendments7 provides that if no person have a majority of the electoral votes1 then from the persons having the highest numbers1 not exceeding three1 on the list of those voted for as ,president1 the ,house of ,representatives shall choose immediately1 by ballot1 the ,president4 #f ,by a vote of #ac states1 against #g for ,jackson1 and #d for ,crawford4 #g ,john ,quincy ,adams was born at ,braintree1 ,massachusetts1 in #agfg1 went with his father ,john ,adams to ,france1 and spent several years abroad2 then graduated from ,harvard1 studied law1 and was appointed by ,washington minister to the ,netherlands and then to ,portugal1 and in #agig to ,prussia4 ,he was a senator from ,massachusetts in #ahjc-h4 ,in #ahji ,madison sent him as minister to ,russia1 where he was when the war opened in #ahab4 ,of the five commissioners at ,ghent he was the ablest and the most conspicuous4 ,in #ahae ,madison appointed him minister to ,great ,britain1 and in #ahag he came home to be ,secretary of ,state under ,monroe4 ,in #ahca he became a member of the ,house of ,representatives and continued as such till stricken in the ,house with paralysis in ,february1 #ahdh4 #h ,john ,caldwell ,calhoun was born in ,south ,carolina in #aghb1 entered ,yale ,college in #ahjb1 studied law1 and became a lawyer at ,abbeville1 ,south ,carolina1 in #ahjg4 ,in #ahjh he went to the legislature1 and in #ahaa entered ,congress1 and was appointed chairman of the committee on foreign relations4 ,as such he wrote the report and resolutions in favor of war with ,great ,britain4 ,at this period of his career he favored a liberal construction of the ,constitution1 and supported the tariff of #ahaf1 the charter of the ,second ,bank of the ,united ,states1 and internal improvements4 ,he was ,secretary of ,war in ,monroe's ,cabinet1 and was ,vice ,president from #ahbe until #ahcb1 when he resigned and entered the ,senate1 where he remained most of the time till his death in #ahej4 #i ,this election is noteworthy also as the first in which nearly all the states chose electors by popular vote4 ,only two of the twenty-four states made the choice by vote of the legislature2 in the others the popular vote for ,jackson electors numbered #fdg1bgf and that for ,adams electors #ejh1jfd4 ,a good book on presidential elections is ,a ,history of the ,presidency1 by ,edward ,stanwood4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,politics ,,from #ahbi ,,to #ahda ,in many respects the election of ,jackson #a was an event of as much political importance as was the election of ,jefferson4 ,men hailed it as another great uprising of the people1 as another triumph of democracy4 ,they acted as if the country had been delivered from impending evil1 and hurried by thousands to ,washington to see the hero inaugurated and the era of promised reform opened4 #b ,,the ,,new ,,party4--,jackson treated the public offices as the spoils of victory1 and within a few weeks hundreds of postmasters1 collectors of revenue1 and other officeholders were turned out1 and their places given to active workers for ,jackson4 ,this spoils system was new in national politics and created immense excitement4 ,but it was nothing more than an attempt to build up a new national party in the same way that parties had already been built up in some of the states4 #c ,,jackson ,,as ,,president4--,in many respects ,jackson's administration was the most exciting the country had yet experienced4 ,never since the days of ,president ,john ,adams had party feeling run so high4 ,the vigorous personality of the ,president1 his intense sincerity1 his determination to do1 at all hazards1 just what he believed to be right1 made him devoted friends and bitter enemies and led to his administration being often called the ,reign of ,andrew ,jackson4 ,the questions with which he had to deal were of serious importance1 and on the solution of some of them hung the safety of the republic4 ,illustration3 ,,general ,,andrew ,,jackson4 ,,the ,,south ,,carolina ,,doctrine4--,such a one was the old issue of the tariff4 ,the view of the ,south as set forth by the leaders1 especially by ,calhoun of ,south ,carolina1 was that the state ought to nullify the ,tariff ,act of #ahbh because it was unconstitutional4 #d ,daniel ,webster attacked this ,south ,carolina doctrine and 7#ahcj7 argued the issue with ,senator ,hayne of ,south ,carolina4 ,the speeches of the two men in the ,senate1 the debate which followed1 and the importance of the issue1 make the occasion a famous one in our history4 ,that ,south ,carolina would go so far as actually to carry out the doctrine and nullify the tariff did not seem likely4 ,but the seriousness of ,south ,carolina alarmed the friends of the tariff1 and in #ahcb ,congress amended the act of #ahbh and reduced the duties4 ,,south ,,carolina ,,nullifies ,,the ,,tariff4--,this did not satisfy ,south ,carolina4 ,the new tariff still protected manufactures1 and it was protection that she opposed2 and in ,november1 #ahcb1 she adopted the ,ordinance of ,nullification1 which forbade any of her citizens to pay the tariff duties after ,february #a1 #ahcc4 ,when ,congress met in ,december1 #ahcb1 the great question was what to do with ,south ,carolina4 ,jackson was determined the law should be obeyed1 #e sent vessels to ,charleston harbor1 and asked for a ,force ,act to enable him to collect the revenue by force if necessary4 #f ,,the ,,great ,,debate4--,in the course of the debate on the ,force ,act1 ,calhoun 7who had resigned the vice presidency and had been elected a senator from ,south ,carolina7 explained and defended nullification and contended that it was a peaceable and lawful remedy and a proper exercise of state rights4 ,webster #g denied that the ,constitution was a mere compact1 declared that nullification and secession were rebellion1 and upheld the authority and sovereignty of the ,union4 #h ,illustration3 ,,birthplace ,,of ,,daniel ,,webster4 ,,the ,,compromise ,,of #ahcc4--;,clay meantime came forward with a compromise4 ,he proposed that the tariff of #ahcb should be reduced gradually till #ahdb1 when all duties should be twenty per cent on the value of the articles imported4 ,as such duties would not be protective1 ,calhoun and the other ,southern members accepted the plan1 and the ,compromise ,tariff was passed in ,march1 #ahcc4 #aj ,to satisfy the ,north arid uphold the authority of the government1 the ,force ,act also was passed4 ,but as ,south ,carolina repealed the ,ordinance of ,nullification there was never any need to use force4 ,,first ,,national ,,nominating ,,conventions4--,in the midst of the excitement over the tariff1 came the election of #ahcb4 ,since #ahbd1 when the ,republican party was breaking up1 presidential candidates had been nominated by state legislatures and caucuses of members of state legislatures4 ,but in #ahca the ,antimasons #aa held a convention at ,baltimore1 nominated ,william ,wirt and ,amos ,ellmaker for ,president and ,vice ,president1 and so introduced the national nominating convention4 ,the example thus set was quickly followed3 in ,december1 #ahca1 a national convention of ,national ,republicans nominated ,clay 7then a senator7 for ,president1 and ,john ,sergeant for ,vice ,president4 ,in ,may1 #ahcb1 a national convention of ,jackson men1 or ,democrats as some called them1 nominated ,martin ,van ,buren for ,vice ,president4 ,there was no need to renominate ,jackson1 for in a letter to some friends he had already declared himself a candidate1 and many state legislatures had made the nomination4 ,he was still the idol of the people and was re-elected by a greater majority than in #ahbh4 ,,the ,,bank ,,attacked4--,one of the issues in the campaign was the recharter of the ,bank of the ,united ,states1 whose charter was to expire in #ahcf4 ,jackson always hated that institution1 had attacked it in his annual messages1 and had vetoed 7#ahcb7 a recharter bill passed 7for political effect7 by ,clay and his friends in ,congress4 ,,removal ,,of ,,the ,,deposits4--,jackson therefore looked upon his reflection as a popular approval of his treatment of the bank4 ,he continued to attack it1 and in #ahcc requested the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 ,william ,duane1 to remove the deposits of government money from the bank and its branches4 ,when ,duane refused1 ,jackson turned him out of office and put in ,roger ,b4 ,taney1 who made the removal4 #ab ,the ,senate passed resolutions1 moved by ,clay1 censuring the ,president for this action2 but ,senator ,benton of ,missouri said that he would not rest till the censure was expunged4 ,expunging now became a party question2 state after state instructed its senators to vote for it1 and finally in #ahcg the ,senate ordered a black line to be drawn around the resolutions and the words ,expunged by order of the ,senate to be written across them4 ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,whig ,,party4--,the hatred which the ,national ,republicans felt for ,jackson was intense4 ,they accused him of trying to set up a despotic government1 and1 asserting that they were contending against the same kind of tyranny our forefathers fought against in the ,war of ,independence1 they called themselves ,whigs4 ,in the state elections of #ahcd the new name came into general use1 and thenceforth for many years there was a national ,whig party4 ,,the ,,antislavery ,,movement4--,the ,missouri ,compromise was supposed to have settled the issue of slavery4 ,but its effect was just the reverse4 ,antislavery agitators were aroused4 ,the antislavery newspapers grew more numerous and aggressive4 ,new antislavery societies were formed and old ones were revived and became aggressive1 and in #ahcc delegates from many of them met at ,philadelphia and formed the ,american ,antislavery ,society4 #ac ,,antislavery ,,documents4--,the field of work for the anti-slavery people was naturally the ,south4 ,that section was flooded with newspapers1 pamphlets1 pictures1 and handbills intended to stir up sentiment for instant abolition of slavery and liberation of the slaves4 ,illustration3 ,,slave ,,quarters ,,on ,a ,,southern ,,plantation4 ,against this the ,south protested1 declared such documents were likely to cause slaves to run away or rise in insurrection1 and called on the ,north to suppress them4 ,,proslavery ,,mobs4--,to stop their circulation by legal means was not possible2 so attempts were made to do it by illegal means4 ,in many ,northern cities1 as ,philadelphia1 ,new ,york1 ,boston1 ,utica1 and elsewhere1 mobs broke up the antislavery meetings4 ,in ,charleston1 ,south ,carolina1 the postmaster seized some antislavery documents and the people burned them4 ,at ,cincinnati the newspaper office of ,james ,g4 ,birney was twice sacked and his presses destroyed 7#ahcf74 ,another at ,alton1 ,illinois1 was four times attacked1 and the owner1 ,elijah ,lovejoy1 was at last killed by the mob while protecting his press4 ,,the ,,right ,,of ,,petition4--,not content with this1 the pro-slavery people attempted to pass a bill through ,congress 7#ahcf7 to exclude antislavery documents from the mails1 and even attacked the right of petition4 ,the bill to close the mails to antislavery documents failed4 ,but the attempt to exclude antislavery petitions from the ,house of ,representatives succeeded3 a ,gag ,rule was adopted which forbade any petition1 resolution1 or paper relating in any way to slavery or the abolition of slavery to be received1 and this was in force down to #ahdd4 #ad ,,our ,,country ,,out ,,of ,,debt4--,despite all this political commotion our country for years past had prospered greatly4 ,in this prosperity the government had shared4 ,its income had far exceeded its expenses1 and by using the surplus year by year to reduce the national debt it succeeded in paying the last dollar by #ahce4 ,,the ,,surplus4--,after the debt was extinguished a surplus still remained1 and was greatly increased by a sudden speculation in public lands1 so that by the middle of #ahcf the government had more than #dj1jjj1jjj of surplus money in the banks4 ,what to do with the money was a serious question1 and all sorts of uses were suggested4 ,but ,congress decided that from the surplus as it existed on ,january #a1 #ahcg1 #e1jjj1jjj should be subtracted and the remainder distributed among the states in four installments4 #ae ,,the ,,election ,,of ,,van ,,buren4--,when the time came to choose a successor to ,jackson1 a ,democratic national convention nominated ,martin ,van ,buren1 with ,richard ,m4 ,johnson for ,vice ,president4 ,the ,whigs were too disorganized to hold a national convention2 but most of them favored ,william ,henry ,harrison for ,president4 ,van ,buren was elected 7#ahcf72 but no candidate for ,vice ,president received a majority of the electoral vote4 ,the duty of choosing that officer therefore passed to the ,united ,states ,senate1 which elected ,richard ,m4 ,johnson4 ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,speculation4--,on ,march #d1 #ahcg1 ,van ,buren #af entered on a term made memorable by one of the worst panics our country has experienced4 ,from #ahcd to #ahcf was a period of wild speculation4 ,money was plentiful and easy to borrow1 and was invested in all sorts of schemes by which people expected to make fortunes4 ,millions of acres of the public land were bought and held for a rise in price4 ,real estate in the cities sold for fabulous prices4 ,cotton1 timber lands in ,maine1 railroad1 canal1 bank1 and state stocks1 and lots in ,western towns which had no existence save on paper1 all were objects of speculation4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,york ,,merchant1 #ahcg4 ,,panic ,,of #ahcg4--,money used for these purposes was borrowed largely from the state banks1 and much of it was the surplus which the government had deposited in the banks4 ,when1 therefore1 in ,january1 #ahcg1 the government drew out one quarter of its surplus to distribute among the states1 the banks were forced to stop making loans and call in some of the money they had lent4 ,this hurt business of every sort4 ,quite unexpectedly the price of cotton fell2 this ruined many4 ,business men failed by scores1 and the merchants of ,new ,york appealed to ,van ,buren to assemble ,congress and stop the further distribution of the surplus4 ,van ,buren refused1 and the banks of ,new ,york city suspended specie payment1 that is1 no longer redeemed their notes in gold and silver4 ,those in every other state followed1 and a panic swept over the country4 #ag ,,the ,,new ,,national ,,debt4--,with business at a standstill1 the national revenues fell off2 and the desperate financial state of the country forced ,van ,buren to call ,congress together in ,september4 ,by that time the third installment of the surplus had been paid to the states1 and times were harder than ever4 ,to mend matters ,congress suspended payment of the fourth installment1 and authorized the debts of the government to be paid in treasury notes4 ,this put our country again in debt1 and it has ever since remained so4 ,,political ,,discontent4--,as always happens in periods of financial distress1 hard times bred political discontent4 ,the ,whigs laid all the blame on the ,democrats1 who1 they said1 had destroyed the ,united ,states ,bank1 and by their reckless financial policy had caused the panic and the hard times4 ,whether this was true or not1 the people believed it1 and various state elections showed signs of a ,whig victory in #ahdj4 #ah ,,the ,,log-,,cabin ,,campaign4--,the ,whigs in their national convention nominated ,william ,henry ,harrison and ,john ,tyler4 ,the ,democrats renominated ,van ,buren1 but named no one for the vice presidency4 ,the antislavery people1 in hopes of drawing off from the ,whig and ,democratic parties those who were opposed to slavery1 and so making a new party1 nominated ,james ,g4 ,birney4 ,the ,whig convention did not adopt a platform1 but an ill-timed sneer at ,harrison furnished just what they needed4 ,he would1 a ,democratic newspaper said1 be more at home in a log cabin drinking cider than living in the ,white ,house as ,president4 ,the ,whigs hailed this sneer as an insult to the millions of ,americans who then lived1 or had once lived1 or whose parents had dwelt in log cabins1 and made the cabin the emblem of their party4 ,log cabins were erected in every city1 town1 and village as ,whig headquarters2 were mounted on wheels1 were drawn from place to place1 and lived in by ,whig stump speakers4 ,great mass meetings were held1 and the whole campaign became one of frolic1 song1 and torchlight processions4 #ai ,the people wanted a change4 ,harrison was an ideal popular candidate1 and ,tippecanoe #bj and ,tyler too and a ,whig ,congress were elected4 ,,death ,,of ,,harrison2 ,,tyler ,,president 7#ahda74--;,as soon as ,harrison was inaugurated1 a special session of ,congress was called to undo the work of the ,democrats4 ,but one month after inauguration day ,harrison died1 and when ,congress assembled1 ,tyler #ba was ,president4 ,,summary #a4 ,the inauguration of ,jackson was followed by the introduction of the spoils system into national politics4 #b4 ,the question of nullification was debated in the ,senate by ,webster and ,hayne4 ,under ,calhoun's leadership1 ,south ,carolina nullified the tariff of #ahcb4 ,jackson asked for a ,force ,act2 but the dispute was settled by the ,compromise of #ahcc4 #c4 ,jackson vigorously opposed the ,bank of the ,united ,states1 and after his relection he ordered the removal of the government deposits4 #d4 ,this period is notable in the history of political parties for 7#a7 the introduction of the national nominating convention1 7#b7 the rise of the ,whig party1 7#c7 the formation of the antislavery party4 #e4 ,slavery was now a national issue4 ,an attempt was made to shut antislavery documents out of the mails1 and antislavery petitions were shut out of the ,house of ,representatives4 #f4 ,financially1 ,jackson's second term is notable for 7#a7 the payment of the national debt1 7#b7 the growth of a great surplus in the treasury1 7#c7 the distribution of the surplus among the states4 #g4 ,the manner of distributing the surplus revenue among the states interrupted a period of wild speculation and brought on the panic of #ahcg4 #h4 ,van ,buren1 who succeeded ,jackson as ,president1 called a special session of ,congress2 and the fourth installment of the surplus was withheld4 #i4 ,financial distress1 hard times1 and general discontent led to a demand for a change2 and the log-cabin1 hard-cider campaign that followed ended with the election of ,harrison 7#ahdj74 ,,footnotes #a ,andrew ,jackson was born in ,waxhaw1 ,north ,carolina1 #agfg1 but always considered himself a native of ,south ,carolina1 for the place of his birth was on the border of the two states4 ,during the ,revolution a party of ,british came to the settlement where ,jackson lived4 ,an officer ordered the boy to clean his boots1 and when ,jackson refused1 struck him with a sword1 inflicting wounds on his head and arm4 ,andrew and his brothers were taken prisoners to ,camden4 ,his mother obtained his release and shortly after died while on her way to nurse the sick prisoners in ,charleston4 ,left an orphan1 ,jackson worked at saddlery1 taught school1 studied law1 and went to ,tennessee in #aghh2 was appointed a district attorney1 in #agif was the first representative to ,congress from the state of ,tennessee1 and in #agig became one of its senators4 ,in #agih-ahjd he was one of the judges of the ,tennessee supreme court4 ,his military career began in #ahac-ad1 when he beat the ,indians in the ,creek ,war4 ,in #ahad he was made a major general1 in #ahae won the battle of ,new ,orleans1 and in #ahah beat the ,seminoles in ,florida4 ,he was the first governor of the territory of ,florida4 ,he died in ,june1 #ahde4 ,read the account of ,jackson's action in the ,seminole ,war and the execution of ,arbuthnot and ,ambrister1 in ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #dci-def4 #b ,the inauguration was of the simplest kind4 ,uncovered1 on foot1 escorted by the committee in charge1 and surrounded on both sides by gigs1 wood wagons1 hacks full of women and children1 and followed by thousands of men from all parts of the country1 ,jackson walked from his hotel to the ,capitol and on the east portico took the oath of office4 ,a wild rush was then made by the people to shake his hand4 ,with difficulty the ,president reached a horse and started for the ,white ,house1 pursued by a motley concourse of people1 riding1 running helter-skelter1 striving who should first gain admittance4 ,so great was the crowd at the ,white ,house that ,jackson was pushed through the drawing room and would have been crushed against the wall had not his friends linked arms and made a barrier about him4 ,the windows had to be opened to enable the crowd to leave the room4 #c ,editors of newspapers that supported ,jackson were given office or were rewarded with public printing1 and a party press devoted to the ,president was thus established4 ,to keep both workers and newspapers posted as to the policy of the administration1 there was set up at ,washington a partisan journal for which all officeholders were expected to subscribe4 ,the ,president1 ignoring his secretaries1 turned for advice to a few party leaders whom the ,adams men nicknamed the ,kitchen ,cabinet4 #d ,calhoun maintained 7#a7 that the ,constitution is a compact or contract between the states2 7#b7 that ,congress can only exercise such power as this compact gives it2 7#c7 that when ,congress assumes power not given it1 and enacts a law it has no authority to enact1 any state may veto1 or nullify1 that law1 that is1 declare it not a law within her boundary2 7#d7 that ,congress has no authority to lay a tariff for any other purpose than to pay the debts of the ,united ,states2 7#e7 that the tariff to protect manufactures was therefore an exercise of power not granted by the ,constitution4 ,this view of the ,constitution was held by the ,southern states generally4 ,but as the two most ardent expounders of it were ,hayne and ,calhoun1 both of ,south ,carolina1 it was called the ,south ,carolina doctrine4 #e ,on the anniversary of ,jefferson's birthday1 ,april #ac1 #ahcj1 a great dinner was given in ,washington at which nullification speeches were made in response to toasts4 ,jackson was present1 and when called on for a toast offered this3 ,our ,federal ,union1 it must be preserved4 #f ,read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #aec-afc4 #g ,daniel ,webster was born in ,new ,hampshire in #aghb1 graduated from ,dartmouth1 studied law1 wrote some pamphlets1 and made several ,fourth of ,july orations1 praising the ,federal ,constitution and denouncing the embargo4 ,in #ahac he entered ,congress as a representative from ,new ,hampshire1 but lost his seat by removing to ,boston in #ahaf4 ,in #ahbc ,webster returned to ,congress as a representative from one of the ,massachusetts districts1 rose at once to a place of leadership1 and in #ahbg entered the ,united ,states ,senate4 ,by this time he was famous as an orator4 ,passages from his speeches were recited by schoolboys1 and such phrases as ,our country1 our whole country1 and nothing but our country1 ,thank ,god1 ,i1 ,i also1 am an ,american1 ,independence now1 and ,independence forever6 passed into everyday speech4 ,in his second reply to ,hayne of ,south ,carolina1 defending and explaining the ,constitution 7p4 #bij71 he closed with the words ,liberty and ,union1 now and forever1 one and inseparable4 ,in #ahcf he received the electoral vote of ,massachusetts for the presidency4 ,he was a senator for many years1 was twice ,secretary of ,state1 and died in ,october1 #aheb4 #i ,read the speeches of ,calhoun in ,johnston's ,american ,orations1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cjc-cai4 #aj ,shortly before ,february #a1 #ahcc1 the day on which nullification was to go into effect1 the ,south ,carolina leaders met and suspended the ,ordinance of ,nullification till ,march #c1 the last day of the session of ,congress4 ,this1 of course1 they had no power to do4 ,the state authorities did not think it wise to put the ordinance in force till they saw what ,congress would do with the tariff4 #aa ,in #ahbf a ,mason named ,william ,morgan1 living at ,batavia1 in western ,new ,york1 threatened to reveal the secrets of masonry4 ,but about the time his book was to appear1 he suddenly disappeared4 ,the ,masons were accused of having killed him1 and the people of western ,new ,york denounced them at public meetings as members of a society dangerous to the state4 ,a party pledged to exclude ,masons from public office was quickly formed and soon spread into ,ohio1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,new ,england1 where it became very strong4 #ab ,this so-called removal consisted in depositing the revenue1 as it was collected1 in a few state banks1 the pet banks1--instead of in the ,united ,states ,bank as before1--and gradually drawing out the money on deposit with the ,united ,states ,bank4 ,read an account of the interviews of ,jackson with committees from public meetings in ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #bjj-bjd4 #ac ,the principles of this new society1 formulated by ,william ,lloyd ,garrison1 were3 7#a7 that each state had a right to regulate slavery within its boundaries2 7#b7 that ,congress should stop the interstate slave trade2 7#c7 that ,congress should abolish slavery in the territories and in the ,district of ,columbia2 7#d7 that ,congress should admit no more slave states into the ,union4 #ad ,read ,whittier's poem ,a ,summons--,lines written on the adoption of ,pinckney's ,resolutions4 #ae ,the surplus on ,january #a1 #ahcg1 was #db1dfh1jjj4 ,the amount to be distributed therefore was #cg1dfh1jjj4 ,only three installments 7a little over #bh1jjj1jjj7 were paid4 ,for the use the states made of the money1 read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #cea- #ceh4 #af ,martin ,van ,buren was born in ,new ,york state in #aghb1 studied law1 began his political career at eighteen1 and held several offices before he was sent to the state senate in #ahab4 ,from #ahae to #ahai he was attorney general of ,new ,york1 became ,united ,states senator in #ahba1 and was reflected in #ahbg2 but resigned in #ahbh to become governor of ,new ,york4 ,jackson appointed him ,secretary of ,state in #ahbi2 but he resigned in #ahca and was sent as minister to ,great ,britain4 ,the appointment was made during a recess of the ,senate1 which later refused to confirm the appointment1 and ,van ,buren was forced to come home4 ,because of this party persecution the ,democrats nominated him for ,vice ,president in #ahcb1 and from #ahcc to #ahcg he had the pleasure of presiding over the body that had rejected him4 ,he died in #ahfb4 #ag ,specie payment was resumed in the autumn of #ahch2 but most of the banks again suspended in #ahci1 and again in #ahda4 ,read the account of the panic in ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #cih-dje4 #ah ,financial distress was not the only thing that troubled ,van ,buren's administration4 ,during #ahcg many ,canadians rebelled against misrule1 and began the ,patriot ,war in their country4 ,one of their leaders enlisted aid in ,buffalo1 and seized a ,canadian island in the ,niagara ,river4 ,the steamer ,caroline was then run between this island and the ,new ,york shore1 carrying over visitors1 and1 it was claimed1 guns and supplies4 ,this was unlawful1 and one night in ,december1 #ahcg1 a force of ,canadian government troops rowed over to the ,new ,york shore1 boarded the ,caroline1 and destroyed her2 it was a disputed question whether she was burned and sunk1 or whether she was set afire and sent over the ,falls4 ,the whole border from ,vermont to ,michigan became greatly excited over this invasion of our territory4 ,men volunteered in the ,patriot cause1 supplies and money were contributed1 guns were taken from government arsenals1 and raids were made into ,canada4 ,van ,buren sent ,general ,scott to the frontier1 did what he could to preserve peace and neutrality1 and thus made himself unpopular in the border states4 ,there was also danger of war over the disputed northern boundary of ,maine4 ,state troops were sent to the territory in dispute1 along the ,aroostook ,river 7#ahci2 map1 p4 #caf72 but ,van ,buren made an unpopular agreement with the ,british minister1 whereby the troops were withdrawn and both sides agreed not to use force4 #ai ,in the ,west1 men came to these meetings in huge canoes and wagons of all sorts1 and camped on the ground4 ,at one meeting the ground covered by the people was measured1 and allowing four to the square yard it was estimated about #hj1jjj attended4 ,dayton1 in ,ohio1 claimed #ajj1jjj at her meeting4 ,at ,bunker ,hill there were #fj1jjj4 ,in the processions1 huge balls were rolled along to the cry1 ,keep the ball a-rolling4 ,every log cabin had a barrel of hard cider and a gourd drinking cup near it4 ,on the walls were coon skins1 and the latch-string was always hanging out4 ,more than a hundred campaign songs were written and sung to popular airs4 ,every ,whig wore a log-cabin medal1 or breastpin1 or badge1 or carried a log-cabin cane4 ,read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #eej-ehh4 #bj ,the battle fought in #ahaa1 meaning ,harrison1 the victor in that battle4 ,see note on p4 #bed4 #ba ,john ,tyler was born in ,virginia in #agij and died in #ahfb4 ,at twenty- one he was elected to the legislature of ,virginia1 was elected to the ,house of ,representatives in #ahba1 and favored the admission of ,missouri as a slave state4 ,in #ahbe he became governor of ,virginia1 and in #ahbg was elected to the ,united ,states ,senate4 ,there he opposed the tariff and internal improvements1 supported ,jackson1 but condemned his proclamation to the milliners1 voted for the censure of ,jackson1 and when instructed by ,virginia to vote for expunging1 refused and resigned from the ,senate in #ahcf4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,country ,,from #ahbj ,,to #ahdj ,,population4--,when ,harrison was elected in #ahdj1 the population of our country was #ag1jjj1jjj1 spread over twenty-six states and three territories4 ,of these millions several hundred thousand had come from the ,old ,world4 ,no records of such arrivals were kept before #ahbj2 since that date careful records have been made1 and from them it appears that between #ahbj and #ahdj about #gej1jjj immigrants came to our shores4 ,they were chiefly from ,ireland1 ,england1 and ,germany4 #a ,illustration3 ,,settled ,,area ,,in #ahdj4 ,west of the mountains were over #f1jjj1jjj people2 yet but two ,western states1 ,arkansas 7#ahcf7 and ,michigan 7#ahcg71 had been admitted to the ,union since #ahba2 and but two new ,western territories1 ,wisconsin and ,iowa1 had been organized4 ,this meant that the ,western states already admitted were filling up with population4 #b ,illustration3 ,a ,,public ,,school ,,of ,,early ,,times4 ,,the ,,public ,,lands4--,the rise of new ,western states brought up the troublesome question1 ,what shall be done with the public lands8 #c ,the ,continental ,congress had pledged the country to sell the lands and use the money to pay the debt of the ,united ,states4 ,much was sold for this purpose1 but ,congress set aside one thirty-sixth part of the public domain for the use of local schools4 #d ,as the ,western states made from the public domain had received land grants for schools1 many of the ,eastern states about #ahba asked for grants in aid of their schools4 ,the ,western states objected1 and both then and in later times asked that all the public lands within their borders be given to them or sold to them for a small sum4 ,after #ahbd efforts were made by ,benton and others to reduce the price of land to actual settlers4 #e ,but ,congress did not adopt any of these measures4 ,after #ahcj1 when the public debt was nearly paid1 ,clay attempted to have the money derived from land sales distributed among all the states4 ,the question what to do with the lands was discussed year after year4 ,at last in #ahda 7while ,tyler was ,president7 ,clay's bill became a law with the proviso that the money should not be distributed if the tariff rates were increased4 ,the tariff rates were soon increased 7#ahdb71 and but one distribution was made4 ,,the ,,indians4--,another result of the filling up of the country was the crowding of the ,indians from their lands4 ,they had always been regarded as the rightful owners of the soil till their title should be extinguished by treaty4 ,many such treaties had been made1 ceding certain areas but reserving others on which the whites were not to settle4 ,but population moved westward so rapidly that it seemed best to set apart a region beyond the ,mississippi and move all the ,indians there as quickly as possible4 #f ,in #ahcd1 therefore1 such a region1 an ,indian ,country1 was created in what was later called ,indian ,territory1 and the work of removal began4 ,in the ,south this proved a hard matter4 ,in ,georgia the ,creeks and ,cherokees refused for a while to go1 and by so doing involved the federal government in serious trouble with ,georgia and with the ,indians4 ,in #ahce an attempt to move the ,seminoles from ,florida to the ,indian ,country caused a war which lasted seven years and cost millions of dollars4 #g ,,internal ,,improvements4--,another issue with which the growth of the ,west had much to do was that of government aid to roads1 canals1 and railroads4 ,much money was spent on the ,cumberland ,road2 #ah but in #ahag ,madison vetoed a bill appropriating money to be divided among the states for internal improvements1 and from that time down to ,van ,buren's day the question of the right of ,congress to use money for such purposes was constantly debated in ,congress4 #i ,illustration3 ,,the ,,national ,,road4 ,,the ,,states ,,build ,,canals ,,and ,,roads4--,all this time population was increasing1 the ,west was growing1 interstate trade was developing1 new towns and villages were springing up1 and farms increasing in number as the people moved to the new lands4 ,the need of cheap transportation became greater and greater each year1 and as ,congress would do nothing1 the states took upon themselves the work of building roads and canals4 ,what a canal could do to open up a country was shown when the ,erie ,canal was finished in #ahbe 7see p4 #bgc74 ,so many people by that time had settled along its route1 that the value of land and the wealth of the state were greatly increased4 #aj ,the merchants of ,new ,york could then send their goods up the ,hudson1 by the canal to ,buffalo1 and then to ,cleveland or ,detroit1 or by ,chautauqua ,lake and the ,allegheny to ,pittsburg1 for about one third of what it cost before the canal was opened 7maps1 pp4 #bfg1 #bgi74 ,buffalo began to grow with great rapidity1 and in a few years its trade had reached ,chicago4 ,in #ahci eight steamboats plied between these two towns4 ,a ,,trip ,,on ,a ,,canal ,,packet4--,passengers traveled on the canal in packet boats1 as they were called4 ,the hull of such a craft was eighty feet long and eleven feet wide1 and carried on its deck a long1 low house with flat roof and sloping sides4 ,in each side were a dozen or more windows with green blinds and red curtains4 ,when the weather was fine1 passengers sat on the roof1 reading1 talking1 or sewing1 till the man at the helm called ,low bridge6 when everybody would rush down the steps and into the cabin1 to come forth once more when the bridge was passed4 ,walking on the roof when the packet was crowded was impossible4 ,those who wished such exercise had to take it on the towpath4 ,three horses abreast could drag a packet boat some four miles an hour4 ,illustration3 ,,locks ,,on ,,the ,,erie ,,canal1 ,,rockport1 ,n4,y4 ,,western ,,routes4--,aroused by the success of the ,erie ,canal1 ,pennsylvania began a great highway from ,philadelphia to ,pittsburg4 ,as planned1 it was to be part canal and part turnpike over the mountains4 ,but before it was completed1 railroads came into use1 and when finished1 it was part railroad1 part canal4 ,not to be outdone by ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania1 the people of ,baltimore began the construction 7#ahbh7 of the ,baltimore and ,ohio ,railroad1 the first in the country for the carriage of passengers and freight4 #aa ,massachusetts1 alarmed at the prospect of losing her trade with the ,west1 appointed 7#ahbg7 a commission and an engineer to select a route for a railroad to join ,boston and ,albany4 ,ohio had already commenced a canal from ,cleveland to the ,ohio4 #ab ,,early ,,railroads4--,the idea of a public railroad to carry freight and passengers was of slow growth1 #ac but once it was started more and more miles were built every year1 till by #ahce twenty-two railroads were in operation4 ,the longest of them was only one hundred and thirty-six miles long2 it extended from ,charleston westward to the ,savannah ,river1 opposite ,augusta4 ,these early railroads were made of wooden beams resting on stone blocks set in the ground4 ,the upper surface of the beams1 where the wheels rested1 was protected by long strips or straps of iron spiked to the beam4 ,the spikes often worked loose1 and1 as the car passed over1 the strap would curl up and come through the bottom of the car1 making what was called a snake head4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,early ,,railroad4 ,what should be the motive power1 was a troublesome question4 ,the horse was the favorite2 it sometimes pulled the car1 and sometimes walked on a treadmill on the car4 ,sails were tried also1 and finally locomotives4 #ad ,locomotives could not climb steep grades4 ,when a hill was met with1 the road had to go around it1 or if this was not possible1 the engine had to be taken off and the cars pulled up or let down an inclined plane by means of a rope and stationary engine4 #ae ,a ,,trip ,,on ,,an ,,early ,,railroad4--,a traveler from ,philadelphia to ,pittsburg1 in #ahcf1 would set off about five o'clock in the morning for what was called the depot4 ,there his baggage would be piled on the roof of a car1 which was drawn by horses to the foot of an inclined plane on the bank of the ,schuylkill4 ,up this incline the car would be drawn by a stationary engine and rope to the top of the river bank4 ,when all the cars of the train had been pulled up in this way1 they would be coupled together and made fast to a little puffing1 wheezing locomotive without cab or brake1 whose tall smokestack sent forth volumes of wood smoke and red-hot cinders4 ,at ,lancaster 7map1 p4 #bfg7 the railroad ended1 and passengers went by stage to ,columbia on the ,susquehanna1 and then by canal packet up that river and up the ,juniata to the railroad at the foot of the mountains4 ,illustration3 ,,handbill ,,of ,a ,,philadelphia ,,transportation ,,company1 ,,of #ahce4 ,the mountains were crossed by the ,portage ,railroad1 a series of inclined planes and levels somewhat like a flight of steps4 ,at ,johnstown1 west of the ,alleghenies1 the traveler once more took a canal packet to ,pittsburg4 #af ,,the ,,west ,,builds ,,railroads ,,and ,,canals4--,prior to #ahcf most of the railroads and canals were in the ,east4 ,but in #ahcf the craze for internal improvements raged in ,indiana1 ,illinois1 and ,michigan1 and in each an elaborate system of railroads and canals was planned1 to be built by the state4 ,illinois in this way contracted a debt of #ae1jjj1jjj2 ,indiana1 #aj1jjj1jjj1 and ,michigan1 #e1jjj1jjj4 ,but scarcely was work begun on the canals and railroads when the panic of #ahcg came1 and the states were left with heavy debts and unfinished public works that could not pay the cost of operating them4 ,some defaulted in the payment of interest1 and one even repudiated her bonds which she had issued and sold to establish a great bank4 ,,the ,,mails4--,as the means of transportation improved1 the mails were carried more rapidly1 and into more distant parts of the country4 ,by #ahcg it was possible to send a letter from ,new ,york to ,washington in one day1 to ,new ,orleans in less than seven days1 to ,st4 ,louis in less than five days1 and to ,buffalo in three days2 and after #ahch mail was carried by steamships to ,england in a little over two weeks4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,savannah4 ,,ocean ,,steamships4--,in the month of ,may1 #ahai1 the steamship ,savannah left the city of that name for ,liverpool1 ,england1 and reached it in twenty-five days1 using steam most of the way4 ,she was a side- wheeler with paddle wheels so arranged that in stormy weather they could be taken in on deck4 #ag ,no other steamships crossed the ,atlantic till #ahch1 when the ,sirius reached ,new ,york in eighteen days1 and the ,great ,western in sixteen days from ,england4 ,others followed1 in #ahci the ,cunard line was founded1 and regular steam navigation of the ,atlantic was established4 ,,express4--,better means of communication made possible another convenience1 of which ,w4 ,f4 ,harnden was the originator4 ,he began in #ahci to carry packages1 bundles1 money1 and small boxes between ,new ,york and ,boston1 traveling by steamboat and railroad4 ,at first two carpetbags held all he had to carry2 but his business increased so rapidly that in #ahdj ,p4 ,b4 ,burke and ,alvin ,adams started a rival concern which became the ,adams ,express ,company4 ,illustration3 ,,carpetbag4 ,,mechanical ,,development4--,the greater use of the steamboat1 the building of railroads1 and the introduction of the steam locomotive1 were but a few signs of the marvelous industrial and mechanical development of the times4 ,the growth and extent of the country1 the opportunities for doing business on a great scale1 led to a demand for time-saving and labor-saving machinery4 ,one of the characteristics of the period #ahbj-dj1 therefore1 is the invention and introduction of such machinery4 ,boards were now planed1 and bricks pressed1 by machine4 ,it was during this period that the farmers began to give up the flail for the thrashing machine2 that paper was extensively made from straw2 that ,fairbanks invented the platform scales2 that ,colt invented the revolver2 that steel pens were made by machine2 and that a rude form of friction match was introduced4 #ah ,anthracite coal was now in use in the large towns and cities1 and grate and coal stoves were displacing open fires and wood stoves1 just as gas was displacing candles and lamps4 ,,the ,,cities ,,and ,,towns4--,the increase of manufacturing in the northeastern part of the country caused the rise of large towns given up almost exclusively to mills and factories and the homes of workmen4 #ai ,the increase of business1 trade1 and commerce1 and the arrival of thousands of immigrants each year1 led to a rapid growth of population in the seaports and chief cities of the interior4 ,this produced many changes in city life4 ,the dingy oil lamps in the streets1 lighted only when the moon did not shine1 were giving way to gas lights4 ,the constable and the night watchman with his rattle were being replaced by the policeman4 ,such had been the increase in population and area of the chief cities1 that some means of cheap transportation about the streets was needed1 and in #ahcj a line of omnibuses was started in ,new ,york city4 ,so well did it succeed that other lines were started2 and three years later omnibuses were used in ,philadelphia4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,york ,,omnibus1 #ahcj4 ,from a print of the time4 ,,the ,,workingman4--,the growth of manufactures and the building of works of internal improvement produced a demand for workmen of all sorts1 and thousands came over1 or were brought over1 from the ,old ,world4 ,the unskilled were employed on the railroads and canals2 the skilled in the mills1 factories1 and machine shops4 ,as workingmen increased in number1 trades unions were formed1 and efforts were made to secure better wages and a shorter working day4 ,in this they succeeded3 after a long series of strikes in #ahcd and #ahce the ten-hour day was adopted in ,philadelphia and ,baltimore1 and in #ahdj1 by order of ,president ,van ,buren1 went into force in all public establishments under the federal government4 ,,the ,,south4--,no such labor issues troubled the southern half of the country4 ,there the laborer was owned by the man whose lands he cultivated1 and strikes1 lockouts1 questions of wages1 and questions of hours were unknown4 ,the mills1 factories1 machine shops1 the many diversified industries of the ,northern states were unknown4 ,in the great belt of states from ,north ,carolina to the ,texas border1 the chief crop was cotton4 ,these states thus had two common bonds of union3 the maintenance of the institution of negro slavery1 and the development of a common industry4 ,as the people of the free states developed different sorts of industry1 they became less and less like the people of the ,south1 and in time the two sections were industrially two separate communities4 ,the interests of the people being different1 their opinions on great national issues were different and sectional4 ,,reforms4--,as we have seen1 a great antislavery agitation 7p2 #bic7 occurred during the period #ahbj-dj4 ,it was only one of many reform movements of the time4 ,state after state abolished imprisonment for debt1 #bj lessened the severity of laws for the punishment of crime1 extended the franchise1 #ba or right to vote1 reformed the discipline of prisons1 and established hospitals and asylums4 ,so eager were the people to reform anything that seemed to be wrong1 that they sometimes went to extremes4 #bb ,the antimasonic movement 7p4 #bib7 was such a movement for reform2 the ,owenite movement was another4 ,sylvester ,graham preaching reform in diet1 ,mrs4 ,bloomer advocating reform in woman's dress1 and ,joseph ,smith1 who founded ,mormonism1 were but so many advocates of reform of some sort4 ,owen believed that poverty came from individual ownership1 and the accumulation of more money by one man than by another4 ,he believed that people should live in communities in which everything--lands1 houses1 cattle1 products of the soil--are owned by the community2 that the individual should do his work1 but be fed1 housed1 clothed1 educated1 and amused by the community4 ,owen's teachings were well received1 and ,owenite communities were founded in many places in the ,west and in ,new ,york1 only to end in failure4 #bc ,,mormonism had better fortune4 ,joseph ,smith1 its founder1 published in #ahcj the ,book of ,mormon1 as an addition to the ,bible4 #bd ,a church was next organized1 missionaries were sent about the country1 and in #ahca the sect moved to ,kirtland in ,ohio1 and there built a temple4 ,trouble with other sects and with the people forced them to move again1 and they went to ,missouri4 ,but there1 too1 they came in conflict with the people1 were driven from one county to another1 and in #ahci-dj were driven from the state by force of arms4 ,a refuge was then found in ,illinois1 where1 on the banks of the ,mississippi1 they founded the town of ,nauvoo4 ,in spite of their wanderings they had increased in number1 and were a prosperous community4 #be ,illustration3 ,,pack ,,animals4 ,,the ,,great ,,west ,,explored4--,during the twenty years since ,major ,long's expedition1 the country beyond the ,missouri had been more fully explored4 ,in #ahbb bands of merchants at ,st4 ,louis began to trade with ,santa ,fe1 sending their goods on the backs of mules and in wagons1 thus opening up what was known as the ,santa ,fe trail4 ,one year later a trapper named ,prevost found the ,south ,pass over the ,rocky ,mountains1 and entered the ,great ,salt ,lake country4 #bf ,this was the beginning1 and year after year bands of trappers wandered over what was then ,mexican territory but is now part of our country1 from the ,great ,salt ,lake to the lower ,colorado ,river1 and from the ,rocky ,mountains to the ,pacific4 #bg ,illustration3 ,,the ,,far ,,west ,,in #ahdj4 ,between #ahcj and #ahcb ,hall ,j4 ,kelley attempted to found a colony in ,oregon1 but failed1 as did another leader1 ,nathaniel ,j4 ,wyeth4 #bh ,wyeth tried again in #ahcd1 but his settlements were not permanent4 ,a few fur traders and missionaries to the ,indians had better fortune2 but in #ahdj most of the white men in the ,oregon country were ,british fur traders4 ,it was not till #ahdb that the tide of ,american migration began to set strongly toward ,oregon2 but within a few years after that time the ,americans there greatly outnumbered the ,british4 ,,summary #a4 ,in #ahdj the population of the country was #ag1jjj1jjj1 of whom more than a third dwelt west of the ,allegheny ,mountains4 #b4 ,for twenty years there had been much discussion about the disposition of the public lands2 but ,congress did not give up the plan of selling them for the benefit of the ,united ,states4 #c4 ,as population increased1 the ,indians were pushed further and further west4 ,some went to the ,indian ,country peaceably4 ,in ,georgia and ,florida they resisted4 #d4 ,as ,congress would not sanction a general system of federal improvements1 the states built canals and railroads for themselves4 #e4 ,the success of those in the ,east encouraged the ,western states to undertake like improvements4 ,but they plunged the states into debt4 #f4 ,the period was one of great mechanical development1 and many inventions of world-wide use date from this time4 #g4 ,the growth of manufactures produced great manufacturing towns1 and the increase of artisans and mechanics led to the formation of trades unions4 #h4 ,the unrest caused by the rapid development1 of the country invited reforms of all sorts1 and many--social1 industrial1 and political--were attempted4 ,,footnotes #a ,in the early thirties much excitement was aroused by the arrival of hundreds of paupers sent over from ,england by the parishes to get rid of them4 ,but when ,congress investigated the matter1 it was found not to be so bad as represented1 though a very serious evil4 #b ,life in the ,west at this period is well described in ,eggleston's ,hoosier ,schoolmaster and ,the ,graysons4 #c ,the credit system of selling lands 7p4 #bda7 was abolished in #ahbj1 because a great many purchasers could not pay for what they bought4 #d ,the public domain is laid off in townships six miles square4 ,each township is subdivided into #cf sections one mile square1 and the sixteenth section in each township was set apart in #aghe for the use of schools in the township4 ,this provision was applied to new states erected from the public domain down to #ahdh2 in states admitted after that time both the sixteenth and the thirty-sixth sections have been set apart for this purpose4 ,in addition to this1 before #ahba1 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,illinois1 ,alabama1 ,mississippi1 and ,louisiana had each received two entire townships for the use of colleges and academies4 #e ,after the ,indian title to land was extinguished1 the land was surveyed and offered for sale at auction4 ,land which did not sell at auction could be purchased at private sale for #a4be an acre4 ,benton proposed that land which did not sell at private sale within five years should be offered at #ej cents an acre1 and if not sold1 should be given to any one who would cultivate it for three years4 #f ,an attempt to remove the ,indians in northern ,illinois and in ,wisconsin led to the ,black ,hawk ,war in #ahcb4 ,the ,indians had agreed to go west1 but when the settlers entered on their lands1 ,black ,hawk induced the ,sacs and ,foxes to resist1 and a short war was necessary to subdue them4 #g ,the leader was ,osceola1 a chief of much ability1 who perpetrated several massacres before he was captured4 ,in #ahcg he visited the1 camp of ,general ,jesup under a flag of truce1 and was seized and sent to ,fort ,moultrie1 near ,charleston1 where he died4 ,his followers were beaten 7#ahcg7 in a hard-fought battle by ,colonel ,zachary ,taylor1 but kept up the war till #ahdb4 #h ,when ,ohio was admitted 7p4 #bda71 ,congress promised to use a part of the money from the sale of land to build a road joining the ,potomac and ,ohio rivers4 ,work on the ,national ,road1 as it was called1 was started in #ahaa4 ,it began at ,cumberland on the ,potomac and reached the ,ohio at ,wheeling4 ,but ,ohio1 ,indiana1 and ,illinois demanded that the road be extended1 and in time it was built through ,columbus and ,indianapolis to ,vandalia4 ,thence it was to go to ,jefferson ,city in ,missouri2 but a dispute arose as to whether it should cross the ,mississippi at ,alton or at ,st4 ,louis1 and work on it was stopped4 #i ,jackson vetoed several bills for internal improvements1 and the hostility of his party to such a use of government money was one of the grievances of the ,whigs4 #aj ,for a description of life in central ,new ,york1 read ,my ,own ,story1 by ,j4 ,t4 ,trowbridge4 #aa ,the first railroad in our country was used in #ahjg1 at ,boston1 to carry earth from a hilltop to grade a street4 ,others1 only a few miles long1 were soon used to carry stone and coal from quarry and mine to the wharf--in #ahaj near ,philadelphia1 in #ahbf at ,quincy 7a little south of ,boston71 in #ahbg at ,mauchchunk 7,pennsylvania74 ,all of these were private roads and carried no passengers4 #ab ,while the means of travel were improving1 the inns and towns even along the great stage routes had not improved4 ,when you alight at a country tavern1 said a traveler1 it is ten to one you stand holding your horse1 bawling for the hostler while the landlord looks on4 ,once inside the tavern every man1 woman1 and child plies you with questions4 ,to get a dinner is the work of hours4 ,at night you are put into a room with a dozen others and sleep two or three in a bed4 ,in the morning you go outside to wash your face and then repair to the barroom to see your face in the only looking glass the tavern contains4 ,another traveler complains that at the best hotel in ,new ,york there was neither glass1 mug1 cup1 nor carpet1 and but one miserable rag dignified by the name of towel4 ,illustration3 ,,mansion ,,house1 #ci ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york1 ,,in #ahca4 #ac ,as early as #ahad ,john ,stevens applied to ,new ,jersey for a railroad charter1 and when it was granted1 he sought to persuade the ,new ,york ,canal ,commission to build a railroad instead of a canal4 ,in #ahbc ,pennsylvania granted ,stevens and his friends a charter to build a railroad from ,philadelphia to the ,susquehanna4 ,in #ahbe ,stevens built a circular road at ,hoboken and used a steam locomotive to show the possibility of such a means of locomotion4 ,but all these schemes were ahead of the times4 #ad ,the friends of canals bitterly opposed railroads as impractical4 ,snow1 it was said1 would block them for weeks4 ,if locomotives were used1 the sparks would make it impossible to carry hay or other things combustible4 ,the boilers would blow up as they did on steamboats4 ,canals were therefore safer and cheaper4 ,read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #hg-hi4 #ae ,almost all the early roads used this device4 ,there was one such inclined plane at ,albany2 another at ,belmont1 now in ,philadelphia2 a third on the ,paterson and ,hudson ,railroad near ,paterson2 and a fourth on the ,baltimore and ,ohio4 ,when ,pennsylvania built her railroad over the ,allegheny ,mountains1 many such planes were necessary1 so that the ,portage ,railroad1 as it was called1 was a wonder of engineering skill4 #af ,the state built the railroads1 like the canals1 as highways open to everybody4 ,at first no cars or motive power1 except at the inclined planes1 were supplied4 ,any car owner could carry passengers or freight who paid the state two cents a mile for each passenger and #d4ib for each car sent over the rails4 ,after #ahcf the state provided locomotives and charged for hauling cars4 #ag ,the captain of a schooner1 seeing her smoke1 thought she was a ship on fire and started for her1 but found she went faster with fire and smoke than we possibly could with all sails set4 ,it was then that we discovered that what we supposed a vessel on fire was nothing less than a steamboat crossing the ,western ,ocean4 ,in ,june1 when off the coast of ,ireland1 she was again mistaken for a ship on fire1 and one of the king's revenue cutters was sent to her relief and chased her for a day4 #ah ,a common form was known as the loco-foco4 ,in #ahce the ,democratic party in ,new ,york city was split into two factions1 and on the night for the nomination of candidates for office one faction got possession of the hall by using a back door4 ,but the men of the other faction drove it from the room and were proceeding to make their nominations when the gas was cut off4 ,for this the leaders were prepared1 and taking candles out of their pockets lit them with loco-foco matches4 ,the next morning a newspaper called them ,loco-,focos1 and in time the name was applied to a wing of the ,democratic party4 #ai ,good descriptions of life in ,new ,england are ,lucy ,larcom's ,new ,england ,girlhood2 ,t4 ,b4 ,aldrich's ,story of a ,bad ,boy2 and ,e4 ,e4 ,hale's ,new ,england ,boyhood4 #bj ,read ,whittier's ,prisoner for ,debt4 #ba ,in ,rhode ,island many efforts to have the franchise extended came to naught4 ,the old colonial charter was still in force1 and under it no man could vote unless he owned real estate worth #acd or renting for #g a year1 or was the eldest son of such a freeman4 ,after the ,whig victory in #ahdj1 however1 a people's party was organized1 and adopted a state constitution which extended the franchise1 and under which ,thomas ,w4 ,dorr was elected governor4 ,dorr attempted to seize the state property by force1 and establish his government2 but his party and his state officials deserted him1 and he was arrested1 tried1 found guilty of treason1 and sentenced to life imprisonment4 ,he was finally pardoned1 and in #ahdb a state constitution was regularly adopted1 and the old charter abandoned4 #bb ,in ,new ,york many people were demanding a reform in land tenure4 ,one of the great patroonships granted by the ,dutch ,west ,india ,company 7p4 #gb7 still remained in the ,van ,rensselaer family4 ,the farmers on this vast estate paid rent in produce4 ,when the patroon1 ,stephen ,van ,rensselaer1 died in #ahci1 the heir attempted to collect some overdue rents2 but the farmers assembled1 drove off the sheriff1 and so compelled the government to send militia to aid the sheriff4 ,the ,anti-rent ,war thus started dragged on till #ahdf1 during which time riots1 outrages1 some murders1 and much disorder took place4 ,again and again the militia were called out4 ,in the end the farmers were allowed to buy their farms1 and the old leasehold system was destroyed4 ,cooper's novels ,the ,redskins1 ,the ,chainbearer1 and ,satanstoe relate to these troubles4 ,so also does ,ruth ,hall's ,downrenter's ,son4 #bc ,read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,v1 pp4 #ij- #ig4 #bd ,joseph ,smith asserted that in a vision the angel of the ,lord told him to dig under a stone on a certain hill near ,palmyra1 ,new ,york1 and that on doing so he found plates of gold inscribed with unknown characters1 and two stones or crystals1 on looking through which he was enabled to translate the characters4 #be ,read ,mc,master's ,history of the ,people of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #ajb-ajg2 #ded-deh4 #bf ,in #ahbd ,w4 ,h4 ,ashley led a party from ,st4 ,louis up the ,platte ,river1 over the mountains1 and well down the ,green ,river1 and home by ,great ,salt ,lake1 the ,south ,pass1 the ,big ,horn1 the ,yellowstone1 and the ,missouri4 ,in #ahbf ,ashley and a party went through the ,south ,pass1 dragging a six-pound cannon1 the first wheeled vehicle known to have crossed the mountains north of the ,santa ,fe trail1 ,the cannon was put in a trading post on ,utah ,lake4 #bg ,in #ahbf ,jedediah ,smith with fifteen trappers went from near the ,great ,salt ,lake to the lower ,colorado ,river1 crossed to ,san ,diego1 and went up ,california and over the ,sierra ,nevada to ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,in #ahbg1 with another party1 ,smith went over the same ground to the lower ,colorado1 where the ,indians killed ten of his men and stole his property4 ,with two companions ,smith walked to ,san ,jose1 where the ,mexicans seized him4 ,at ,monterey 7mon-te-r7 an ,american ship captain secured his release1 and with a new band of followers ,smith went to a fork of the ,sacramento ,river4 ,while ,smith and his party were in ,oregon in #ahbh1 the ,indians massacred all but five of them4 ,the rest fled and ,smith went on alone to ,fort ,vancouver1 a ,british fur-trading post on the ,columbia ,river4 ,up this river ,smith went 7in the spring of #ahbi7 to the mountains1 turned southward1 and in ,august1 near the head waters of the ,snake ,river1 met two of his partners4 ,together they crossed the mountains to the source of the ,big ,horn1 and then one went on to ,st4 ,louis4 ,early in #ahcj he returned with eighty-two men and ten wagons4 ,this was the first wagon train on the ,oregon trail4 #bh ,wyeth had joined ,kelley's party2 but finding that it would not start for some time1 he withdrew1 and organized a company to trade in ,oregon1 and early in #ahcb1 with twenty-nine companions1 left ,boston1 went to ,st4 ,louis1 joined a band of trappers of the ,rocky ,mountain ,fur ,company1 and went with them to a great ,indian fair on the upper waters of the ,snake ,river4 ,there some of his companions deserted him1 as others had done along the way4 ,with the rest ,wyeth reached ,fort ,vancouver1 where the company went to pieces1 and in #ahcc ,wyeth returned to ,boston4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,more ,,territory ,,acquired ,,tyler ,,and ,,the ,,whigs ,,quarrel4--,when ,congress 7in ,may1 #ahda7 first met in ,tyler's term1 ,clay led the ,whigs in proposing measures to carry out their party principles4 ,but ,tyler vetoed their bill establishing a new national bank4 ,the ,whigs then made some changes to suit1 as they supposed1 his objections1 and sent him a bill to charter a ,fiscal ,corporation2 but this also came back with a veto2 whereupon his ,cabinet officers 7all save ,daniel ,webster1 ,secretary of ,state7 resigned1 and the ,whig members of ,congress1 in an address to the people1 read him out of the party4 ,later in his term ,tyler vetoed two tariff bills1 but finally approved a third1 known as the ,tariff of #ahdb4 ,for these uses of the veto power the ,whigs thought of impeaching him2 but did not4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,disputed ,,maine ,,boundary4 ,,webster-,,ashburton ,,treaty4--,when ,tyler's cabinet officers resigned1 ,webster remained in order to conclude a new treaty with ,great ,britain1 #a by which our present northeastern boundary was fixed from the ,st4 ,croix to the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,neither power obtained all the territory it claimed under the treaty of #aghc1 but the disputed region was divided about equally between them4 #b ,soon after the treaty was concluded ,webster resigned the secretaryship of state1 and the rupture between ,tyler and the ,whigs was complete4 ,,the ,,republic ,,of ,,texas4--,the great event of ,tyler's time was the decision to annex the republic of ,texas4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,alamo4 ,in #ahba ,mexico secured her independence of ,spain1 and about three years afterward adopted the policy of granting a great tract of land in ,texas to anybody who1 under certain conditions1 and within a certain time1 would settle a specified number of families on the grant4 ,to colonize in this way at once became popular in the ,south1 and in a few years thousands of ,american citizens were settled in ,texas4 ,for a while all went well2 but in #ahcc serious trouble began between the ,mexican government and the ,texans1 who in #ahcf declared their independence1 founded the republic of ,texas1 #c and sought admission into our ,union as a state4 ,neither ,jackson nor ,van ,buren favored annexation1 so the question dragged on till #ahdd1 when ,tyler made with ,texas a treaty of annexation and sent it to the ,senate4 ,that body refused assent4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,war ,,with ,,mexico4 ,,the ,,democrats ,,and ,,texas4--,the issue was thus forced4 ,the ,democratic national convention of #ahdd claimed that ,texas had once been ours1 #d and declared for its reannexation4 ,to please the ,northern ,democrats it also declared for the reoccupation of ,oregon up to #ed #dj'4 ,this meant that we should compel ,great ,britain to abandon all claim to that country1 and make it all ,american soil4 ,the ,democrats went into the campaign with the popular cries1 ,the reannexation of ,texas2 ,the whole of ,oregon or none2 ,texas or disunion--and elected ,polk #e after a close contest4 ,,texas ,,annexed2 ,,oregon ,,divided4--,tyler1 regarding the triumph of the ,democrats as an instruction from the people to annex ,texas1 urged ,congress to do so at once1 and in ,march1 #ahde1 a resolution for the admission of ,texas passed both houses1 and was signed by the ,president4 #f ,the resolution provided also that out of her territory four additional states might be made if ,texas should consent4 ,the boundaries were in dispute1 but in the end ,texas was held to have included all the territory from the boundary of the ,united ,states to the ,rio ,grande and a line extending due north from its source4 ,after ,texas was annexed1 notice was served on ,great ,britain that joint occupation of ,oregon must end in one year4 ,the ,british minister then proposed a boundary treaty which was concluded in a few weeks 7#ahdf74 ,the line agreed on was the #dith parallel from the ,rocky ,mountains to the ,strait of ,juan de ,fuca 7hoo-ahn' da foo'ca71 and by it to the ,pacific ,ocean 7compare maps1 pp4 #bgh and #ccj74 ,,war ,,with ,,mexico4--,mexico claimed that the real boundary of ,texas was the ,nueces 7nw'sess7 ,river4 ,when1 therefore1 ,polk 7in #ahdf7 sent ,general ,zachary ,taylor with an army to the ,rio ,grande1 the ,mexicans attacked him2 but he beat them at ,palo ,alto 7pah'lo ahl'to7 and again near by at ,resaca de la ,palma 7ra-sah'ca da lah pahl'ma71 and drove them across the ,rio ,grande4 ,when ,president ,polk heard of the first attack1 he declared that ,mexico has shed ,american blood upon ,american soil4444 ,war exists1444 and exists by the act of ,mexico herself4 ,congress promptly voted men and money for the war4 ,,monterey4--,taylor1 having crossed the ,rio ,grande1 marched to ,monterey and 7,september1 #ahdf7 attacked the city4 ,it was fortified with strong stone walls in the fashion of ,old ,world cities2 the flat-roofed houses bristled with guns2 and across every street was a barricade4 ,in three days of desperate fighting our troops forced their way into the city1 entered the buildings1 made their way from house to house by breaking through the walls or ascending to the roofs1 and reached the center of the city before the ,mexicans surrendered the town4 ,,new ,,mexico ,,and ,,california4--,immediately after the declaration of war1 ,colonel ,stephen ,w4 ,kearny with a force of men set off 7,june1 #ahdf7 by the old ,santa ,fe trail and 7,august #ah7 captured ,santa ,fe without a struggle1 established a civil government1 declared ,new ,mexico annexed to the ,united ,states1 and then started to take possession of ,california4 ,but ,california had already been conquered by the ,americans4 ,in ,june1 #ahdf1 some three hundred ,american settlers1 believing that war was imminent and fearing they would be attacked1 revolted1 adopted a flag on which was a grizzly bear1 and declared ,california an independent republic4 ,fremont1 who had been exploring in ,california1 came to their aid 7,july #e71 and two days later ,commodore ,sloat with a naval force entered ,monterey and raised the flag there4 ,in #ahdg 7,january #h1 #i7 battles were fought with the ,mexicans of ,california2 but the ,americans held the country4 ,,buena ,,vista4--,toward the close of #ahdf ,general ,winfield ,scott was put in command of the army in ,mexico1 and ordered ,taylor to send a large part of the army to meet him at ,vera ,cruz 7v'ra kroos74 ,santa ,anna1 hearing of this1 gathered #ah1jjj men and at ,buena ,vista1 in a narrow valley at the foot of the mountains1 attacked ,taylor 7,february #bc1 #ahdg74 ,the battle raged from morning to night4 ,again and again the little ,american army of #ejjj seemed certain to be overcome by the #ah1jjj ,mexicans4 ,but they fought on desperately1 and when night came1 both armies left the field4 #g ,illustration3 ,,general ,,taylor ,,at ,,buena ,,vista4 ,from an old print4 ,,the ,,march ,,to ,,mexico4--,scott landed at ,vera ,cruz in ,march1 #ahdg1 took the castle and city after a siege of fifteen days1 and about a week later set off for the city of ,mexico1 winning victory after victory on the way4 ,the heights of ,cerro ,gordo were taken by storm1 and the army of ,santa ,anna was beaten again at ,jalapa 7ha-lah'pa74 ,puebla 7pw'bla7 surrendered at ,scott's approach1 and there he waited three months4 ,but on ,august #g ,scott again started westward with #aj1jjj men1 and three days later looked down on the distant city of ,mexico surrounded by broad plains and snow-capped mountains4 ,illustration3 ,,cathedral1 ,,mexico4 ,then followed in quick succession the victory at ,contreras 7kn-tr'ras71 the storming of the heights of ,churubusco1 the victory at ,molino del ,rey 7m-lee'no del r'7 the storming of the castle of ,chapultepec' perched on a lofty rock1 and the triumphal entry into ,mexico 7,september #ad74 #h ,,the ,,terms ,,of ,,peace 7#ahdh74--,the republic of ,mexico was now a conquered nation and might have been added to our domain2 but the victors were content to retain ,upper ,california and ,new ,mexico--the region from the ,rio ,grande to the ,pacific1 and from the ,gila ,river to ,oregon 7compare maps1 pp4 #cah1 #ccj74 ,for this great territory we paid ,mexico #ae1jjj1jjj1 and in addition paid some #c1ejj1jjj of claims our citizens had against her for injury to their persons or property4 #i ,illustration3 ,,monument ,,on ,,mexican ,,boundary4 ,,shall ,,the ,,newly ,,acquired ,,territory ,,be ,,slave ,,soil ,,or ,,free8--,the treaty with ,mexico having been ratified and the territory acquired1 it became the duty of ,congress to provide the people with some ,american form of government4 ,there needed to be ,american governors1 courts1 legislatures1 customhouses1 revenue laws1 in short a complete change from the ,mexican way of governing4 ,to do this would have been easy if it had not been for the fact that 7in #ahbg7 ,mexico had abolished slavery4 ,all the territory acquired was therefore free soil2 but the ,south wished to make it slave soil4 ,the question of the hour thus became1 ,shall ,new ,mexico and ,california be slave soil or free soil8 #aj ,,the ,,presidential ,,campaign ,,of #ahdh4--,so troublesome was the issue that the two great parties tried to keep it out of politics4 ,the ,democrats in their platform in #ahdh said nothing about slavery in the new territory1 and the ,whigs made no platform4 ,this action of the two parties so displeased the antislavery ,whigs and ,wilmot ,proviso ,democrats that they held a convention1 formed the ,free-soil party1 #aa nominated ,martin ,van ,buren for ,president1 and drew away so many ,new ,york ,democrats from their party that the ,whigs carried the state and won the presidential election4 #ab ,on ,march #e1 #ahdi 7,march #d was ,sunday71 ,taylor #ac and ,fillmore #ad were inaugurated4 ,illustration3 ,,democratic ,,cartoon ,,in ,,campaign ,,of #ahdh ,,gold ,,in ,,california4--,by this time the question of slavery in the new territory was still more complicated by the discovery of gold in ,california4 ,many years before this time a ,swiss settler named ,j4 ,a4 ,sutter had obtained a grant of land in ,california1 where the city of ,sacramento now stands4 ,in #ahdh ,james ,w4 ,marshall1 while building a sawmill for ,sutter at ,coloma1 some fifty miles away from ,sutter's ,fort1 discovered gold in the mill race4 ,both ,sutter and ,marshall attempted to keep the fact secret1 but their strange actions attracted the attention of a laborer1 who also found gold4 ,then the news spread fast1 and people came by hundreds and by thousands to the gold fields4 #ae ,later in the year the news reached the ,east1 and when ,polk in his annual message confirmed the rumors1 the rush for ,california began4 ,some went by vessel around ,cape ,horn4 ,others took ships to the ,isthmus of ,panama1 crossed it on foot1 and sailed to ,san ,francisco4 ,still others hurried to the ,missouri to make the overland journey across the plains4 #af ,by ,august1 #ahdi1 some eighty thousand gold hunters1 forty-niners1 as they came to be called1 had reached the mines4 #ag ,illustration3 ,a ,,rocker4 ,,the ,,state ,,of ,,california4--,as ,congress had provided no government1 and as scarcely any could be said to exist1 the people held a convention1 made a free-state constitution1 and applied for admission into the ,union as a state4 ,,issues ,,between ,,the ,,north ,,and ,,the ,,south4--,the election of ,taylor1 and ,california's application for statehood1 brought on a crisis between the ,north and the ,south4 ,most of the people in the ,north desired no more slave states and no more slave territories1 abolition of slavery and the slave trade in the ,district of ,columbia1 and the admission of ,california as a free state4 ,the ,south opposed these things2 complained of the difficulty of capturing slaves that escaped to the free states1 and of the constant agitation of the slavery question by the abolitionists2 and demanded that the ,mexican cession be left open to slavery4 ,since #ahdj two slave-holding states1 ,florida and ,texas 7#ahde71 and two free states1 ,iowa 7#ahdf7 and ,wisconsin 7#ahdh71 had been admitted to the ,union1 making fifteen free and fifteen slave states in all2 and the ,south now opposed the admission of ,california1 partly because it would give the free states a majority in the ,senate4 ,,the ,,compromise ,,of #ahej4--;,at this stage ,henry ,clay was again sent to the ,senate4 ,he had powerfully supported two great compromise measures--the ,missouri ,compromise of #ahbj1 and the ,compromise ,tariff of #ahcc4 ,he believed that the ,union was in danger of destruction2 but that if the two parties would again compromise1 it could be saved4 ,to please the ,north he now proposed 7#a7 that ,california should be admitted as a free state1 and 7#b7 that the slave trade 7buying and selling slaves71 but not the right to own slaves1 should be abolished in the ,district of ,columbia4 ,to please the ,south he proposed 7#a7 that ,congress should pass a more stringent law for the capture of fugitive slaves1 and 7#b7 that two territories1 ,new ,mexico and ,utah1 should be formed from part of the ,mexican purchase1 with the understanding that the people in them should decide whether they should be slave soil or free4 ,this principle was called squatter sovereignty1 or popular sovereignty4 ,illustration3 ,,clay ,,addressing ,,the ,,senate ,,in #ahej4 ,from an old engraving4 ,texas claimed the ,rio ,grande as part of her west boundary4 ,but the ,united ,states claimed the part of ,new ,mexico east of the ,rio ,grande1 and both sides seemed ready to appeal to arms4 ,clay proposed that ,texas should give up her claim and be paid for so doing4 ,during three months this plan was hotly debated1 #ah and threats of secession and violence were made openly4 ,but in the end the plan was accepted3 7#a7 ,california was admitted1 7#b7 ,new ,mexico and ,utah were organized as territories open to slavery1 7#c7 ,texas took her present bounds 7see maps1 pp4 #cah1 #ccj7 and received #aj1jjj1jjj1 7#d7 a new fugitive slave law #ai was passed1 and 7#e7 the slave trade was prohibited in the ,district of ,columbia4 ,these measures together were called the ,compromise of #ahej4 ,,death ,,of ,,taylor4--,while the debate on the compromise was under way1 ,taylor died 7,july #i1 #ahej7 and ,fillmore was sworn into office as ,president for the remainder of the term4 ,,summary #a4 ,congress in #ahda passed two bills for chartering a new national bank1 but ,president ,tyler vetoed both4 ,the ,whig leaders then declared that ,tyler was not a ,whig4 #b4 ,the next year the ,webster-,ashburton treaty settled a long-standing dispute over the northeastern boundary4 #c4 ,in #ahdd the ,democrats declared for the annexation of ,texas and ,oregon1 and elected ,polk ,president4 ,congress then quickly decided to admit ,texas to the ,union4 #d4 ,war with ,mexico followed a dispute over the ,texas boundary4 ,in the course of it ,taylor won victories at ,monterey and ,buena ,vista2 ,scott made a famous march to the city of ,mexico2 and ,kearny marched to ,santa ,fe and on to ,california4 #e4 ,peace added to the ,united ,states a great tract of country acquired from ,mexico4 ,meanwhile1 the ,oregon country had been divided by treaty with ,great ,britain4 #f4 ,the acquisition of ,mexican territory brought up the question of the admission of slavery1 for the territory was free soil under ,mexican rule4 #g4 ,the opponents of extension of the slave area formed the ,free-soil party in #ahdh1 and drew off enough ,democratic votes so that the ,whigs elected ,taylor and ,fillmore4 #h4 ,meanwhile gold had been discovered in ,california1 and a wild rush for the diggings began4 #i4 ,the people in ,california formed a free-state constitution and applied for admission to the ,union4 #aj4 ,the chief political issues now centered around slavery1 and as they had to be settled1 lest the ,union be broken1 the ,whigs and ,democrats arranged the ,compromise of #ahej4 #aa4 ,this made ,california a free state1 but left the new territories of ,utah and ,new ,mexico open to slavery4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,adobe ,,ranch ,,house ,,in ,,southern ,,california4 ,,footnotes #a ,besides the long-standing dispute over the ,maine boundary1 two other matters were possible causes of war with ,great ,britain4 7#a7 ,her cruisers had been searching our vessels off the ,african coast to see if they were slavers4 7#b7 ,in the attack on the ,caroline 7p4 #big7 one ,american was killed1 and in #ahdj a ,canadian1 ,alexander ,mc,leod1 was arrested in ,new ,york and charged with the murder4 ,great ,britain now avowed responsibility for the burning of the ,caroline1 and demanded that the man should be released4 ,mc,leod1 however1 was tried and acquitted4 #b ,two other provisions of the treaty were of especial importance4 7#a7 ,in order to stop the slave trade each nation was to keep a squadron 7carrying at least eighty guns7 cruising off the coast of ,africa4 7#b7 ,it was agreed that any person who1 charged with the crime of murder1 piracy1 arson1 robbery1 or forgery1 committed in either country1 shall escape to the other1 shall if possible be seized and given up to the authorities of the country which he fled4 #c ,a war between ,mexico and ,texas followed1 and was carried on with great cruelty by the ,mexicans4 ,santa ,anna1 the president of ,mexico1 having driven some ,texans into a building called the ,alamo 7ah'la-mo71 in ,san ,antonio1 carried it by storm and ordered all of its defenders shot4 ,a band of ,texans who surrendered at ,goliad met the same fate4 ,in #ahcf1 however1 ,general ,samuel ,houston 7hu'stun7 beat the ,mexicans in the decisive battle of ,san ,jacinto4 ,the struggle of the ,texans for independence aroused sympathy in our country2 hundreds of volunteers joined their army1 and money1 arms1 and ammunition were sent them4 ,read ,a4 ,e4 ,barr's novel ,remember the ,alamo4 #d ,referring to our claim between #ahjc and #ahai 7p4 #bgf7 that the ,louisiana ,purchase extended west to the ,rio ,grande4 #e ,james ,k4 ,polk was born in ,north ,carolina in #agie1 but went with his parents to ,tennessee in #ahjf1 where in #ahbc he became a member of the legislature4 ,from #ahbd to #ahci he was a member of ,congress1 and in #ahci was elected governor of ,tennessee4 ,polk was the first presidential dark horse2 that is1 the first candidate whose nomination was unexpected and a surprise4 ,in the ,democratic national convention at ,baltimore the contest was at first between ,van ,buren and ,cass4 ,polk's name did not appear till the eighth ballot2 on the ninth the convention stampeded and ,polk received every vote4 ,when the news was spread over the country by means of railroads and stagecoaches1 many people would not believe it till confirmed by the newspapers4 ,the ,whigs nominated ,henry ,clay2 and the ,liberty party1 ,james ,g4 ,birney4 ,tyler also was renominated by his friends1 but withdrew4 #f ,read ,whittier's ,texas4 #g ,in the course of the fight a son of ,henry ,clay was killed1 and ,jefferson ,davis1 afterward ,president of the ,confederate ,states of ,america1 was wounded4 ,at one stage of the battle ,lieutenant ,crittenden was sent to demand the surrender of a ,mexican force that had been cut off2 but the ,mexican officer in command sent him blindfolded to ,santa ,anna4 ,crittenden thereupon demanded the surrender of the entire ,mexican army1 and when told that ,taylor must surrender in an hour or have his army destroyed1 replied1 ,general ,taylor never surrenders4 ,read ,whittier's ,angels of ,buena ,vista4 #h ,the war was bitterly opposed by the antislavery people of the ,north as an attempt to gain more slave territory4 ,numbers of pamphlets were written against it4 ,lincoln1 then a member of ,congress1 introduced resolutions asking the ,president to state on what spot on ,american soil blood had been shed by ,mexican troops1 and ,james ,russell ,lowell wrote his famous ,biglow ,papers4 #i ,five years later 7#ahec71 by another treaty with ,mexico1 negotiated by ,james ,gadsden1 we acquired a comparatively small tract south of the ,gila1 called the ,gadsden ,purchase 7compare maps1 pp4 #ccj1 #ceb74 ,the price was #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,the purchase was made largely because ,congress was then considering the building of a railroad to the ,pacific1 and because the route likely to be chosen went south of the ,gila4 #aj ,as early as #ahdf the ,north attempted to decide the question in favor of freedom4 ,polk had asked for #b1jjj1jjj with which to settle the boundary dispute with ,mexico1 and when the bill to appropriate the money was before the ,house1 ,david ,wilmot moved to add the proviso that all territory bought with it should be free soil4 ,the ,house passed the ,wilmot ,proviso1 but the ,senate did not2 so the bill failed4 ,the following year 7#ahdg7 a bill to give ,polk #c1jjj1jjj was introduced1 and again the proviso was added by the ,house and rejected by the ,senate4 ,then the ,house gave way1 and passed the bill2 but the acquisition of ,california and ,new ,mexico by treaty left the question still unsettled4 #aa ,their platform declared3 7#a7 that ,congress has no more power to make a slave than to make a king2 7#b7 that there must be free soil for a free people2 7#c7 that there must be no more slave states1 no more slave territories2 7#d7 that we inscribe on our banner1 ',free soil1 free speech1 free labor1 and freemen4' #ab ,the ,liberty party nominated ,john ,p4 ,hale of ,new ,hampshire1 but he withdrew in favor of ,van ,buren4 ,the ,liberty party was thus merged in the ,free-soil party1 and so disappeared from politics4 ,the ,democratic candidates for ,president and ,vice-,president were ,lewis ,cass and ,william ,o4 ,butler4 #ac ,zachary ,taylor was born in ,virginia in #aghd1 was taken to ,louisville1 ,kentucky1 while still a child1 and grew up there4 ,in #ahjh he entered the ,united ,states army as a lieutenant1 and by #ahaj had risen to be a captain4 ,for a valiant defense of ,fort ,harrison on the ,wabash1 he was made a major4 ,he further distinguished himself in the ,black ,hawk and ,seminole wars4 ,in the ,mexican ,war ,general ,taylor was a great favorite with his men1 who called him in admiration ,old ,rough and ,ready4 ,before #ahdh he had taken very little interest in politics4 ,he was nominated because of his record as a military hero4 #ad ,millard ,fillmore was born in central ,new ,york in #ahjj1 and at fourteen was apprenticed to a trade1 but studied law at odd times1 and practiced law at ,buffalo4 ,he served three terms in the state assembly1 was four times elected to ,congress1 and was once the ,whig candidate for governor4 ,in #ahdh he was nominated for the vice presidency as a strong ,whig likely to carry ,new ,york4 #ae ,laborers left the fields1 tradesmen the shops1 and seamen deserted their ships as soon as they entered port4 ,one ,california newspaper suspended its issue because editor1 typesetters1 and printer's devil had gone to the gold fields4 ,in ,june the ,star stopped for a like reason1 and ,california was without a newspaper4 ,some men made #ejjj1 #aj1jjj1 and #ae1jjj in a few days4 ,california life in the early times is described in ,kirk ,munroe's ,golden ,days of '#di1 and in ,bret ,harte's ,luck of ,roaring ,camp and ,tales of the ,argonauts4 #af ,those who crossed the plains suffered terribly1 and for many years the wrecks of their wagons1 the bones of their oxen and horses1 and the graves of many of the men were to be seen along the route4 ,this route was from ,independence in ,missouri1 up the ,platte ,river1 over the ,south ,pass1 past ,great ,salt ,lake1 and so to the diggings4 #ag ,some miners obtained gold by digging the earth1 putting it into a tin pan1 pouring on water1 and then shaking the pan so as to throw out the muddy water and leave the particles of gold4 ,others used a box mounted on rockers and called a cradle or rocker4 #ah ,read the speeches of ,calhoun and ,webster in ,johnston's ,american ,orations1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,webster's speech gave great offense in the ,north4 ,read ,mc,master's ,daniel ,webster1 pp4 #cad-cbd1 and ,whittier's poem ,ichabod4 ,the debate and its attendant scenes are well described in ,rhodes's ,history of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ajd-ahi4 #ai ,the fugitive slave law gave great offense to the ,north4 ,it provided that a runaway slave might be seized wherever found1 and brought before a ,united ,states judge or commissioner4 ,the negro could not give testimony to prove he was not a fugitive but had been kidnapped1 if such were the case4 ,all citizens were commanded1 when summoned1 to aid in the capture of a fugitive1 and1 if necessary1 in his delivery to his owner4 ,fine and imprisonment were provided for any one who harbored a fugitive or aided in his escape4 ,the law was put in execution at once1 and slave catchers1 man hunters1 as they were called1 invaded the ,north4 ,this so excited the people that many slaves when seized were rescued4 ,such rescues occurred during #ahea at ,new ,york1 ,boston1 ,syracuse1 and at ,ottawa in ,illinois4 ,read ,wilson's ,rise and ,fall of the ,slave ,power in ,america1 ,chap4 #bf4 ,in the midst of this excitement ,mrs4 ,harriet ,beecher ,stowe published her story of ,uncle ,tom's ,cabin4 ,mrs4 ,stowe's purpose was to show the institution of slavery truly just as it existed4 ,the book is rather a picture of what slavery might have been than of what slavery really was2 but it was so powerfully written that everybody read it1 and thousands of people in the ,north who hitherto cared little about the slavery issue were converted to abolitionism4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,in #ahej4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,the ,,struggle ,,for ,,free ,,soil ,,the ,,presidential ,,campaign ,,of #aheb4--,the ,compromise of #ahej was thought to be a final settlement of all the troubles that had grown out of slavery4 ,the great leaders of the ,whig and ,democratic parties solemnly pledged themselves to stand by the compromise1 and when the national conventions met in #aheb1 the two parties in their platforms made equally solemn promises4 ,the ,democrats nominated ,franklin ,pierce #a of ,new ,hampshire for ,president1 and declared they would abide by and adhere to the compromise1 and would resist all attempts at renewing1 in ,congress or out of it1 the agitation of the slavery question4 ,the ,whigs selected ,winfield ,scotland declared the compromise to be a settlement in principle of the slavery question1 and promised to do all they could to prevent further agitation of it4 ,the ,free-soilers nominated ,john ,p4 ,hale of ,new ,hampshire4 ,the refusal of the ,whig party to stand against the compromise drove many ,northern voters from its ranks4 ,pierce carried every state save four and1 ,march #d1 #ahec1 was duly inaugurated4 #b ,,the ,,slavery ,,question ,,not ,,settled4--,but ,pierce had not been many months in office when the quarrel over slavery was raging once more4 ,in ,january1 #ahed1 ,stephen ,a4 ,douglas of ,illinois introduced into the ,senate a bill to organize a new territory to be called ,nebraska4 ,every foot of it was north of #cf #cj' and was1 by the ,compromise of #ahbj 7p4 #bgd71 free soil4 ,but an attempt was made to amend the bill and declare that the ,missouri ,compromise should not apply to ,nebraska1 whereupon such bitter opposition arose that ,douglas recalled his bill and brought in another4 #c ,,kansas-,,nebraska ,,act4--,the new bill provided for the creation of two territories1 one to be called ,kansas and the other ,nebraska2 for the repeal of the ,missouri ,compromise1 thus opening the country north of #cf #cj' to slavery2 and for the adoption of the doctrine of popular sovereignty4 ,the ,free-soilers1 led by ,salmon ,p4 ,chase1 ,william ,h4 ,seward1 and ,charles ,sumner1 tried hard to defeat the bill4 ,but it passed ,congress1 and was signed by the ,president 7#ahed74 #d ,illustration3 ,,governor',s ,,mansion1 ,,kansas1 ,,in #aheg4 ,contemporary drawing4 ,,the ,,struggle ,,for ,,kansas4--,and now began a seven years' struggle between the ,free-soilers and the proslavery men for the possession of ,kansas4 ,men of both parties hurried to the territory4 #e ,the first election was for territorial delegate to ,congress1 and was carried by the proslavery party assisted by hundreds of ,missourians who entered the territory1 voted unlawfully1 and went home4 ,the second election was for members of the territorial legislature4 ,again the ,missourians swarmed over the border1 and a proslavery legislature was elected4 ,governor ,reeder set the elections aside in seven districts1 and in them other members were chosen2 but the legislature when it met turned out the seven so elected and seated the men rejected by the governor4 ,the proslavery laws of ,missouri were adopted1 and ,kansas became a slave-holding territory4 ,,the ,,topeka ,,constitution4--,unwilling to be governed by a legislature so elected1 looking on it as illegal and usurping1 the free-state men framed a state constitution at ,topeka 7#ahee71 organized a state government1 and applied to ,congress for admission into the ,union as a state4 ,the ,house of ,representatives voted to admit ,kansas1 but the ,senate would not consent1 and 7,july #d1 #ahef7 ,united ,states troops dispersed the legislature when it attempted to assemble under the ,topeka constitution4 ,kansas was a slave- holding territory for two years yet before the free-state men secured a majority in the legislature1 #f and not till #ahfa did it secure admission as a free state4 ,,personal ,,liberty ,,laws4--,in the ,east meantime the rapidly growing feeling against slavery found expression in what were called personal liberty laws1 which in time were enacted by all save two of the free states4 ,their avowed object was to prevent free negroes from being sent into slavery on the claim that they were fugitive slaves2 but they really obstructed the execution of the fugitive slave law of #ahej4 ,another sign of ,northern feeling was the sympathy now shown for the ,underground ,railroad4 ,this was not a railroad1 but a network of routes along which slaves escaping to the free states-were sent by night from one friendly house to another till they reached a place of safety1 perhaps in ,canada4 ,illustration3 ,,reception ,,at ,,the ,,white ,,house1 ,,in #aheh4 ,contemporary drawing4 ,,breaking ,,up ,,of ,,old ,,parties4--,on political parties the events of the four years #ahej-ed were serious4 ,the ,compromise of #ahej1 and the vigorous execution of the new fugitive slave law1 drove thousands of old line ,whigs from their party4 ,the deaths of ,clay and ,webster in #aheb deprived the party of its greatest leaders4 ,the ,kansas-,nebraska bill completed the ruin1 and from that time forth the party was of small political importance4 ,the ,democratic party also suffered1 and thousands left its ranks to join the ,free-soilers4 ,out of such elements in #ahed-ef was founded the new ,republican party4 #g ,,the ,,campaign ,,of #ahef4--;,at ,philadelphia1 in ,june1 #ahef1 a ,republican national convention nominated ,john ,c4 ,fremont for ,president4 ,the ,democrats nominated ,james ,buchanan4 ,a remnant of the ,whigs1 now nicknamed ,silver ,grays1 indorsed ,fillmore1 who had been nominated by the ,american1 or ,know-nothing1 party4 #h ,the ,free-soilers joined the ,republicans4 ,buchanan was elected4 #i ,,dred ,,scott ,,decision1 #aheg4--,two days after the inauguration of ,buchanan1 the ,supreme ,court made public a decision which threw the country into intense excitement4 ,a slave named ,dred ,scott had been taken by his owner from ,missouri to the free state of ,illinois and then to ,minnesota1 made free soil by the ,compromise of #ahbj4 ,when brought back to ,missouri1 ,dred ,scott sued for freedom4 ,long residence on free soil1 he claimed1 had made him free4 ,the case finally reached the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states1 which decided against him4 #aj ,but in delivering the decision1 ,chief- ,justice ,taney announced3 7#a7 that ,congress could not shut slavery out of the territories1 and 7#b7 that the ,missouri ,compromise of #ahbj was unconstitutional and void4 ,,the ,,territories ,,open ,,to ,,slavery4--,this decision confirmed all that the ,south had gained by the ,kansas-,nebraska ,act and the ,compromise of #ahej1 and also opened to slavery ,washington and ,oregon1 which were then free territories4 ,if the court supposed that its decision would end the struggle1 it was much mistaken4 ,not a year went by but some incident occurred which added to the excitement4 ,illustration3 ,,lincoln',s ,,law ,,office ,,in ,,springfield4 ,,lincoln-,,douglas ,,debate4--,in #aheh the people of ,illinois were to elect a legislature which would choose a senator to succeed ,stephen ,a4 ,douglas4 ,the ,democrats declared for ,douglas4 ,the ,republicans nominated ,abraham ,lincoln1 #aa and as the canvass proceeded the two candidates traversed the state1 holding a series of debates4 ,the questions discussed were popular sovereignty1 the ,dred ,scott decision1 and the extension of slavery into the territories1 and the debates attracted the attention of the whole country4 ,lincoln was defeated2 but his speeches gave him a national reputation4 #ab ,,john ,,brown ,,at ,,harpers ,,ferry4--,in #ahei ,john ,brown1 a lifelong enemy of slavery1 went to ,harpers ,ferry1 ,virginia1 with a little band of followers1 to stir up an insurrection and free the slaves4 ,he was captured1 tried for murder and treason1 and hanged4 ,the attempt was a wild one2 but it caused intense excitement in both the ,north and the ,south1 and added to the bitter feeling which had long existed between the two sections4 #ac ,,the ,,presidential ,,election ,,of #ahfj4--,the ,democrats were now so divided on the slavery issues that when they met in convention at ,charleston1 ,south ,carolina1 in #ahfj1 the party was rent in twain1 and no candidates were chosen4 ,later in the year the ,northern wing nominated ,stephen ,a4 ,douglas for ,president4 ,the ,southern delegates1 at a convention of their own1 selected ,john ,c4 ,breckinridge4 ,another party made up of old ,whigs and ,know-nothings nominated ,john ,bell of ,tennessee4 ,this was the ,constitutional ,union party4 ,the ,republicans #ad named ,abraham ,lincoln and carried the election4 #ae ,,summary #a4 ,the ,compromise of #ahej was supposed to settle the slavery issues1 and the two great parties pledged themselves to support it4 #b4 ,but the issues were not settled1 and in #ahed the organization of ,kansas and ,nebraska reopened the struggle4 #c4 ,the ,kansas-,nebraska bill and the contest over ,kansas split both the ,whig party and the ,democratic party1 and by the union of those who left them1 with the ,free-soilers1 the ,republican party was made1 #ahed-ef4 #d4 ,in #aheg the ,supreme ,court declared the ,missouri ,compromise unconstitutional1 and opened all territories to slavery4 #e4 ,in #aheh this decision and other slavery issues were debated by ,lincoln and ,douglas4 #f4 ,this debate made ,lincoln a national character1 and in #ahfj he was elected ,president by the ,republican party4 ,illustration3 ,,schoolhouse ,,in ,,the ,,mountains1 ,,used ,,by ,,brown ,,as ,,an ,,arsenal4 ,contemporary drawing4 ,,footnotes #a ,franklin ,pierce was born in ,new ,hampshire in #ahjd1 and died in #ahfi4 ,he began his political career in the state legislature1 went to ,congress in #ahcc1 and to the ,united ,states ,senate in #ahcg4 ,in the war with ,mexico1 ,pierce rose from the ranks to a brigadier generalship4 ,he was a bitter opponent of anti-slavery measures2 but when the ,civil ,war opened he became a ,union man4 #b ,the electoral vote was1 for ,pierce1 #bed2 for ,scott1 #db4 ,the popular vote was1 for ,pierce1 #a1fja1dgd2 for ,scott1 #a1chf1ehj2 for ,hale1 #aee1ffg4 #c ,stephen ,a4 ,douglas was born in ,vermont in #ahac1 went west in #ahcc1 was made attorney-general of ,illinois in #ahcd1 secretary of state and judge of the supreme court of ,illinois in #ahdj1 a member of ,congress in #ahdc1 and of the ,united ,states ,senate in #ahdg4 ,he was a small man1 but one of such mental power that he was called the ,little ,giant4 ,he was a candidate for the presidential nomination in the ,democratic conventions of #aheb and #ahef1 and in #ahfj was nominated by the ,northern wing of that party4 ,he was a ,union man4 #d ,for popular opinion on the ,kansas-,nebraska bill1 read ,rhodes's ,history of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #dfa-dgj4 #e ,proslavery men from ,missouri and other ,southern states founded ,atchison1 ,leavenworth1 ,lecompton1 and ,kickapoo1 in the northeastern part of ,kansas4 ,free-state men from the ,north founded ,lawrence1 ,topeka1 ,manhattan1 ,osawatomie1 in the east-central part of the territory4 #f ,in #ahef border war raged in ,kansas1 settlers were murdered1 property destroyed1 and the free-state town of ,lawrence was sacked by the proslavery men4 ,in #aheg the proslavery party made a slave-state constitution at ,lecompton and applied for admission1 and the ,senate 7#aheh7 voted to admit ,kansas under it2 but the ,house refused4 ,in #ahei the ,free- soilers made a second 7the ,wyandotte7 constitution1 under which ,kansas was admitted into the ,union 7#ahfa74 #g ,the breaking up of old parties over the slavery issues naturally brought up the question of forming a new party1 and at a meeting at ,ripon in ,wisconsin in #ahed1 it was proposed to call the new party ,republican4 ,after the passage of the ,kansas-,nebraska bill1 a thousand citizens of ,michigan signed a call for a state convention1 at which a ,republican state party was formed and a ticket nominated on which were ,whigs1 ,free-soilers1 and ,anti-,nebraska ,democrats4 ,similar fusion tickets1 as they were called1 were adopted in eight other states4 ,the success of the new party in the elections of #ahed1 and its still greater success in #ahee1 led to a call for a convention at ,pittsburg on ,washington's ,birthday1 #ahef4 ,there and then the national ,republican party was founded4 #h ,the ,american party was the outcome of a long-prevalent feeling against the election of foreign-born citizens to office4 ,at many times and at many places this feeling had produced political organizations4 ,but it was not till #aheb that a secret1 oath-bound organization1 with signs1 grips1 and passwords1 was formed and spread its membership rapidly through most of the states4 ,as its members would not tell its principles and methods1 and professed entire ignorance of them when questioned1 the ,american party was called in derision the ,know-nothings4 ,its success1 however1 was great1 and in #ahee ,know-nothing governors and legislatures were elected in eight states1 and heavy votes polled in six more4 #i ,the electoral vote was1 for ,buchanan1 #agd2 for ,frmont1 #aad2 for ,fillmore1 #h4 ,the popular vote was1 for ,buchanan1 #a1hch1afi2 for ,frmont1 #a1cda1bfd2 for ,fillmore1 #hgd1ecd4 ,james ,buchanan was born in ,pennsylvania in #agia1 was educated at school and college1 studied law1 served in the state legislature1 was five times elected to the ,house of ,representatives1 and three times to the ,senate4 ,in the ,senate he was a warm supporter of ,jackson1 and favored the annexation of ,texas under ,tyler4 ,he was ,secretary of ,state under ,polk1 and had been minister to ,great ,britain4 #aj ,the ,chief ,justice ruled that no negro whose ancestors had been brought as slaves into the ,united ,states could be a citizen2 ,scott therefore was not a citizen1 and hence could not sue in any ,united ,states court4 #aa ,abraham ,lincoln was born in ,kentucky1 ,february #ab1 #ahji1 and while still a child was taken by his parents to ,indiana4 ,the first winter was spent in a half-faced camp1 and for several years the log cabin that replaced it had neither door nor wood floor4 ,twelve months' schooling was all he ever had2 but he was fond of books and borrowed ,aesop's ,fables1 ,robinson ,crusoe1 and ,weems's ,life of ,washington1 the book in which first appeared the fabulous story of the hatchet and the cherry tree4 ,at nineteen ,lincoln went as a flatboatman to ,new ,orleans4 ,in #ahcj his father moved to ,illinois1 where ,lincoln helped build the cabin and split the rails to fence in the land1 and then went on another flatboat voyage to ,new ,orleans4 ,he became a clerk in a store in #ahca1 served as a volunteer in the ,black ,hawk ,war1 tried business and failed1 became postmaster of ,new ,salem1 which soon ceased to have a post office1 supported himself as plowman1 farm hand1 and wood cutter1 and tried surveying2 but made so many friends that in #ahcd he was sent to the legislature1 and reelected in #ahcf1 #ahch1 and #ahdj4 ,he now began the practice of law1 settled in ,springfield1 was elected to ,congress in #ahdf1 and served there one term4 #ab ,for a description of the ,lincoln-,douglas debate of #aheh1 read ,rhodes's ,history of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cad-cch4 #ac ,many persons regarded ,brown as a martyr4 ,read ,whittier's ,brown of ,ossawatomie1 or ,stedman's ,how ,old ,brown took ,harper's ,ferry4 ,read1 also1 ,rhodes's ,history of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #chc-cih4 #ad ,the platform of the ,republicans adopted in #ahfj 7at ,chicago7 sets forth3 7#a7 that the party repudiates the principles of the ,dred ,scott decision1 7#b7 that ,kansas must be admitted as a free state1 7#c7 that the territories must be free soil1 and 7#d7 that slavery in existing states should not be interfered with4 #ae ,the electoral vote was1 for ,lincoln1 #ahj2 for ,douglas1 #ab2 for ,breckinridge1 #gb2 for ,bell1 #ci4 ,the popular vote was1 for ,lincoln1 #a1hff1deb2 for ,douglas1 #a1cgf1ieg2 for ,breckinridge1 #hdi1gha2 for ,bell1 #ehh1hgi4 ,lincoln received no votes at all in ten ,southern states4 ,the popular votes were so distributed that if those for ,douglas1 ,breckinridge1 and ,bell had all been cast for one of the candidates1 ,lincoln would still have been elected ,president 7by #agc electoral votes to #acj74 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,country ,,from #ahdj ,,to #ahfj ,,population4--,in the twenty years which had elapsed since #ahdj the population of our country had risen to over #ca1jjj1jjj4 ,in ,new ,york alone there were1 in #ahfj1 about as many people as lived in the whole ,united ,states in #aghi4 ,not a little of this increase of population was due to the stream of immigrants which had been pouring into the country4 ,from a few thousand in #ahbj1 the number who came each year rose gradually to about #ajj1jjj in the year #ahdb1 and then went down again4 ,but famine in ,ireland and hard times in ,germany started another great wave of immigration1 which rose higher and higher till 7#ahed7 more than #djj1jjj people arrived in one year4 ,then once more the wave subsided1 and in #ahfa less than #ij1jjj came4 ,illustration3 ,,settled ,,area ,,in #ahfj4 ,,new ,,states ,,and ,,territories4--,though population was still moving westward1 few of our countrymen1 before the gold craze of #ahdi1 had crossed the ,missouri4 ,those who did1 went generally to ,oregon1 which was organized as a territory in #ahdh and admitted into the ,union as a state in #ahei4 ,by that time ,california 7#ahej7 and ,minnesota 7#aheh7 had also been admitted1 so that the ,union in #ahfj consisted of thirty-three states and five territories4 ,eighteen states were free1 and fifteen slave-holding4 ,the five territories were ,new ,mexico1 ,utah1 ,washington 7#ahec71 ,kansas1 and ,nebraska 7small map1 p4 #cid74 ,,city ,,life4--,about one sixth of the population in #ahfj lived in cities1 of which there were about #adj of #hjjj or more people each4 ,most of them were ugly1 dirty1 badly built1 and poorly governed4 ,the older ones1 however1 were much improved4 ,the street pump had given way to water works2 gas and plumbing were in general use2 many cities had uniformed police2 #a but the work of fighting fires was done by volunteer fire departments4 ,street cars 7drawn by horses7 now ran in all the chief cities1 omnibuses were in general use1 and in ,new ,york city the great ,central ,park1 the first of its kind in the country1 had been laid out4 ,illustrated magazines1 and weekly papers1 ,sunday newspapers1 and trade journals had been established1 and in some cities graded schools had been introduced4 #b ,,schools ,,and ,,colleges4--,in the country the district school for boys and girls was gradually being improved4 ,the larger cities of the ,north now had high schools as well as common schools1 and in a few instances separate high schools for girls4 ,between #ahdj and #ahfj eighty-two sectarian and twenty non-sectarian colleges were founded1 and the ,naval ,academy at ,annapolis was opened4 ,not even the largest college in #ahfj had #hjj students1 and in but one 7,university of ,iowa1 #ahef7 were women admitted to all departments4 ,,literature4--,public libraries were now to be found not only in the great cities1 but in most of the large towns1 and in such libraries were collections of poetry1 essays1 novels1 and histories written by ,american authors4 ,longfellow1 ,holmes1 ,lowell1 ,poe1 ,bryant1 and ,whittier among poets2 ,hawthorne1 ,irving1 ,cooper1 ,simms1 and ,poe among writers of fiction2 ,emerson and ,lowell among essayists1 were read and admired abroad as well as at home4 ,prescott1 who had lately 7#ahei7 died1 had left behind him histories of ,spain in the ,old ,world and in the ,new2 ,parkman was just beginning his story of the ,french in ,america2 ,motley had published his ,rise of the ,dutch ,republic1 and part of his ,history of the ,united ,netherlands2 ,hildreth had completed one ,history of the ,united ,states1 and ,bancroft was still at work on another4 ,near these men of the first rank stood many writers popular in their day4 ,the novels of ,kennedy1 and the poetry of ,drake1 ,halleck1 and ,willis are not yet forgotten4 ,,occupations4--,in the ,eastern states the people were engaged chiefly in fishing1 commerce1 and manufacturing2 in the ,middle states in farming1 commerce1 manufacturing1 and mining4 ,to the great coal and iron mines of ,pennsylvania were 7#ahei7 added the oil fields4 ,that petroleum existed in that state had long been known2 but it was not till ,drake drilled a well near ,titusville 7in northwestern ,pennsylvania7 and struck oil that enough was obtained to make it marketable4 ,down the ,ohio there was a great trade in bituminous coal1 and the union of the coal1 iron1 and oil trades was already making ,pittsburg a great city4 ,in the ,south little change had taken place4 ,cotton1 tobacco1 sugar1 and the products of the pine forests were still the chief sources of wealth2 mills and factories hardly existed4 ,the ,west had not only its immense farms1 but also the iron mines of upper ,michigan1 the lead mines of the upper ,mississippi and in ,missouri1 the copper mines of the ,lake ,superior country1 and the lumber industry of ,michigan and ,wisconsin4 ,through the lakes passed a great commerce4 ,california was the great gold-mining state2 but gold and silver had just been discovered near ,pikes ,peak1 and in what is now ,nevada4 ,,the ,,mormons4--,utah territory in #ahfj contained forty thousand white people1 nearly all ,mormons4 ,these people1 as we have seen1 when driven from ,missouri1 built the city called ,nauvoo in ,illinois4 ,their leaders now introduced the practice of polygamy1 and in various ways opposed the state authorities4 ,in #ahdd they came to blows with the state2 the leaders were arrested1 and while in jail ,joseph ,smith and his brother were murdered by a mob4 ,brigham ,young then became head of the church1 and in the winter of #ahdf the ,mormons1 driven from ,nauvoo1 crossed the ,mississippi and began a long march westward over the plains to ,great ,salt ,lake1 then in ,mexico4 ,there they settled down1 and when the war with ,mexico ended1 they were again in the ,united ,states4 ,when ,utah was made a territory in #ahej1 ,brigham ,young was appointed its first governor4 #c ,illustration3 ,,fort ,,union1 ,,built ,,in #ahbi ,,by ,,the ,,american ,,fur ,,company4 ,,the ,,far ,,west4--,before #ahej each new state added to the ,union had bordered an some older state2 but now ,california and ,oregon were separated from the other states by wide stretches of wilderness4 ,the ,rocky ,mountain highland and the ,great ,plains1 however1 were not entirely uninhabited4 ,over them wandered bands of ,indians mounted on fleet ponies2 white hunters and trappers1 some trapping for themselves1 some for the great fur companies2 and immense herds of buffalo1 #d and in the south herds of wild horses4 ,the streams still abounded with beaver4 ,game was everywhere1 deer1 elk1 antelope1 bears1 wild turkeys1 prairie chickens1 and on the streams wild ducks and geese4 ,here and there were villages of savage and merciless ,indians1 and the forts or trading posts of the trappers4 ,every year bands of emigrants crossed the plains and the mountains1 bound to ,utah1 ,california1 or ,oregon4 ,,proposed ,,railroad ,,to ,,the ,,pacific4--,in #ahdb ,john ,c4 ,fremont1 with ,kit ,carson as guide1 began a series of explorations which finally extended from the ,columbia to the ,colorado1 and from the ,missouri to ,california and ,oregon 7map1 p4 #cad74 #e ,men then began to urge seriously the plan of a railroad across the continent to some point on the ,pacific4 ,in #ahde ,asa ,whitney #f applied to ,congress for a grant of a strip of land from some point on ,lake ,michigan to ,puget ,sound1 and came again with like appeals in #ahdf and #ahdh4 ,by that time the ,mexican cession had been acquired1 and this with the discovery of gold in ,california gave the idea such importance that 7in #ahec7 money was finally voted by ,congress for the survey of several routes4 ,jefferson ,davis1 as ,secretary of ,war1 ordered five routes to be surveyed and 7in #ahee7 recommended the most southerly2 and the ,senate passed a bill to charter three roads4 #g ,jealousy among the states prevented the passage of the bill by the ,house4 ,in #ahfj the platforms of the ,democratic and ,republican parties declared for such a railroad4 ,,mechanical ,,improvement4--,during the period #ahdj-fj mechanical improvement was more remarkable than in earlier periods4 ,the first iron-front building was erected1 the first steam fire engine used1 wire rope manufactured1 a grain drill invented1 ,hoe's printing press with revolving type cylinders introduced1 and six inventions or discoveries of universal benefit to mankind were given to the world4 ,they were the electric telegraph1 the sewing machine1 the improved harvester1 vulcanized rubber1 the photograph1 and anaesthesia4 ,illustration3 ,,morse ,,and ,,his ,,first ,,telegraph ,,instrument4 ,,the ,,telegraph4--,seven years of struggle enabled ,samuel ,f4 ,b4 ,morse1 helped by ,alfred ,vail1 to make the electric telegraph a success1 #h and in #ahdd1 with the aid of a small appropriation by ,congress1 ,morse built a telegraph line from ,baltimore to ,washington4 #i ,further aid was asked from ,congress and refused4 #aj ,the ,magnetic ,telegraph ,company was then started4 ,new ,york and ,baltimore were connected in #ahdf1 and in ten years some forty companies were in operation in the most populous states4 ,illustration3 ,,howe',s ,,first ,,sewing ,,machine4 ,,the ,,sewing ,,machine2 ,,the ,,harvester4--,a man named ,hunt invented the lockstitch sewing machine in #ahcd2 but it was not successful1 and some time elapsed before his idea was taken up by ,elias ,howe1 who after several years of experiment 7#ahdf7 made a practical machine4 ,people were slow to use it1 but by #ahej he had so aroused the interest of inventors that seven rivals were in the field1 and to their joint labors we owe one of the most useful inventions of the century4 ,from the household the sewing machine passed into use in factories 7#ahfb71 and to-day gives employment to hundreds of thousands of people4 ,illustration3 ,,early ,,harvester4 ,from an old print4 ,what the sewing machine is to the home and the factory1 that is the reaper to the farm4 ,after many years of experiment ,cyrus ,mc,cormick invented a practical reaper and 7#ahdj7 sought to put it on the market1 but several more years passed before success was assured4 ,to-day1 greatly improved and perfected1 it is in use the world over1 and has made possible the great grain fields1 not only of our own middle ,west and ,northwest1 but of ,argentina1 ,australia1 and ,russia4 ,,vulcanized ,,rubber2 ,,photography2 ,,anaesthesia4--,the early attempts to use ,india rubber for shoes1 coats1 caps1 and wagon covers failed because in warm weather the rubber softened and emitted an offensive smell4 ,to overcome this ,goodyear labored year after year to discover a method of hardening or1 as it is called1 vulcanizing rubber4 ,even when the discovery was made and patented1 several years passed before he was sure of the process4 ,in #ahdd he succeeded and gave to the world a most useful invention4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,daguerreotype1 ,,in ,,metal ,,case1 #ahdc4 ,in #ahci a ,frenchman named ,daguerre patented a method of taking pictures by exposing to sunlight a copper plate treated with certain chemicals4 ,the exposure for each picture was some twenty minutes4 ,an ,american1 ,dr4 ,john ,w4 ,draper1 so improved the method that pictures were taken of persons in a much shorter time1 and photography was fairly started4 ,greater yet was the discovery that by breathing sulphuric ether a person can become insensible to pain and then recover consciousness4 ,the glory of the discovery has been claimed for ,dr4 ,morton and ,dr4 ,jackson1 who used it in #ahdf4 ,laughing gas 7nitrous oxide7 was used as an ansesthetic before this time by ,dr4 ,wells of ,hartford4 ,,transportation ,,improved4--,in the country east of the ,mississippi some thirty thousand miles of railroad had been built1 and direct communication opened from the ,north and ,east to ,chicago 7#ahec7 and ,new ,orleans 7#ahei74 ,for the growth of railroads between #ahej and #ahfa study the maps on pp4 #cca1 #cec4 #aa ,at first the lines between distant cities were composed of many connecting but independent roads4 ,thus between ,albany and ,buffalo there were ten such little roads2 but in #ahec they were consolidated and became the ,new ,york ,central1 and the era of the great trunk lines was fairly opened4 ,on the ocean1 steamship service between the ,old ,world and the ,new was so improved that steamships passed from ,liverpool to ,new ,york in less than twelve days4 ,better means of transportation were of benefit1 not merely to the traveler and the merchant1 but to the people generally4 ,letters could be carried faster and more cheaply1 so the rate of postage on a single letter was reduced 7#ahea7 from five or ten cents to three cents1 #ab and before #ahfj express service covered every important line of transportation4 ,,the ,,atlantic ,,cable4--,the success of the telegraph on land suggested a bold attempt to lay wires across the bed of the ocean1 and in #ahed ,cyrus ,w4 ,field of ,new ,york was asked to aid in the laying of a cable from ,st4 ,johns to ,cape ,ray1 ,newfoundland4 ,but ,field went further and formed a company to join ,newfoundland and ,ireland by cable1 and after two failures succeeded 7#aheh74 ,during three weeks all went well and some four hundred messages were sent2 then the cable ceased to work1 and eight years passed before another was laid4 ,since then many telegraph cables have been laid across the ,atlantic2 but it was not till #aijc that the first was laid across the ,pacific4 ,,foreign ,,relations4--,we have seen how during this period our country was expanded by the annexation of ,texas 7#ahde7 and by two cessions of territory from ,mexico 7#ahdh and #ahec74 ,but this was not enough to satisfy the ,south1 and attempts were made to buy ,cuba4 ,polk 7#ahdh7 offered ,spain #ajj1jjj1jjj for it4 ,filibusters tried to capture it 7in #ahea71 and ,pierce 7#ahec7 urged its annexation4 ,with this end in view our ministers to ,great ,britain1 ,france1 and ,spain met at ,ostend in ,belgium in #ahed and issued what was called the ,ostend ,manifesto4 ,this set forth that ,cuba must be annexed to protect slavery1 and if ,spain would not sell for a fair price1 then by every law1 human and divine1 we shall be justified in wresting it from ,spain if we possess the power4 ,buchanan also 7#aheh7 urged the purchase of ,cuba2 but in vain4 ,,china ,,and ,,japan4--,more pleasing to recall are our relations with ,china and ,japan4 ,our flag was first seen in ,china in #aghd1 when the trading vessel ,empress of ,china reached ,canton4 ,washington 7#agij7 appointed a consul to reside in that city1 the only one in ,china1 then open to foreign trade2 but no minister from the ,united ,states was sent to ,china till ,caleb ,gushing went in #ahdd4 ,by him our first treaty was negotiated with ,china1 under which five ports were opened to ,american trade and two very important concessions secured3 7#a7 ,american citizens charged with any criminal act were to be tried and punished only by the ,american consul4 7#b7 ,all privileges which ,china might give to any other nation were likewise to be given to the ,united ,states4 ,at that time ,japan was a hermit nation4 ,in #ahec1 however1 ,commodore ,m4 ,c4 ,perry went to that country with a fleet1 and sent to the emperor a message expressing the wish of the ,united ,states to enter into trade relations with ,japan4 ,then he sailed away2 but returned in #ahed and made a treaty 7the first entered into by ,japan7 which resulted in opening that country to the ,united ,states4 ,other nations followed1 and ,japan was thus opened to trade with the civilized world4 ,,summary #a4 ,between #ahdj and #ahfj the population increased from #ag1jjj1jjj to #ca1jjj1jjj4 #b4 ,during this period millions of immigrants had come4 #c4 ,as population continued to move westward new states and territories were formed4 #d4 ,in one of these new territories1 ,utah1 were the ,mormons who had been driven from ,illinois4 #e4 ,the rise of a new state on the ,pacific coast revived the old demand for a railroad across the plains1 and surveys were ordered4 #f4 ,east of the ,mississippi thousands of miles of railroads were built1 and the ,east1 the ,west1 and the far ,south were connected4 #g4 ,this period is marked by many great inventions and discoveries1 including the telegraph1 the sewing machine1 and the reaper4 #h4 ,it was in this period that trade relations were begun with ,china and ,japan4 ,illustration3 ,,modern ,,harvester4 ,,footnotes #a ,all the large cities were so poorly governed1 however1 that they were often the scenes of serious riots1 political1 labor1 race1 and even religious4 #b ,an unfriendly picture of the ,united ,states in #ahdb is ,dickens's ,american ,notes1 a book well worth reading4 #c ,several non-,mormon officials were sent to ,utah1 but they were not allowed to exercise any authority1 and were driven out4 ,the ,mormons formed the state of ,deseret and applied for admission into the ,union4 ,congress paid no attention to the appeal1 and 7#aheg7 ,buchanan appointed a new governor and sent troops to ,utah to uphold the ,federal authority4 ,young forbade them to enter the territory1 and dispatched an armed force that captured some of their supplies4 ,in the spring of #aheh the ,president offered pardon to all who will submit themselves to the just authority of the ,federal ,government1 and ,young and his followers did so4 #d ,an interesting account of the buffalo is given in ,a4 ,c4 ,laut's ,the ,story of the ,trapper1 pp4 #fe-hj4 ,herds of a hundred thousand were common4 ,as many as a million buffalo robes were sent east each year in the thirties and forties4 #e ,john ,c4 ,fremont was born in ,savannah1 ,georgia1 in #ahac1 and in #ahdb was ,lieutenant of ,engineers1 ,united ,states ,army4 ,in #ahdb he went up the ,platte ,river and through the ,south ,pass4 ,the next year he passed southward to ,great ,salt ,lake1 then northwestward to the ,columbia1 then southward through ,oregon to ,california1 and back by ,great ,salt ,lake to ,south ,pass in #ahdd4 ,in #ahde he crossed what is now ,nebraska and ,utah1 and reached the vicinity of ,monterey in ,california4 ,the ,mexican authorities ordered him away2 but he remained in ,california and helped to win the country during the war with ,mexico4 ,later1 he was senator from ,california1 ,republican candidate for ,president in #ahef1 and an army general during the ,civil ,war4 #f ,whitney asked for a strip sixty miles wide4 ,so much of the land as was not needed for railroad purposes was to be sold and the money used to build the road4 ,during #ahdg-di his plan was approved by the legislatures of seventeen states1 and by mass meetings of citizens or ,boards of ,trade in seventeen cities4 #g ,one from the west border of ,texas to ,california2 another from the west border of ,missouri to ,california2 and a third from the west border of ,wisconsin to the ,pacific in ,oregon or ,washington4 #h ,in #ahdb ,morse laid the first submarine telegraph in the world1 from ,governors ,island in ,new ,york harbor to ,new ,york city4 ,it consisted of a wire wound with string and coated with tar1 pitch1 and india rubber1 to prevent the electric current running off into the water4 ,it was laid on ,october #ah1 and the next morning1 while messages were being received1 the anchor of a vessel caught and destroyed the wire4 #i ,the wire was at first put in a lead tube and laid in a furrow plowed in the earth4 ,this failed2 so the wire was strung on poles4 ,one end was in the ,pratt ,st4 ,depot1 ,baltimore1 and the other in the ,supreme ,court ,chamber at ,washington4 ,the first words sent1 after the completion of the line1 were ,what hath ,god wrought4 ,two days later the ,democratic convention 7which nominated ,polk for ,president7 met at ,baltimore1 and its proceedings were reported hourly to ,washington by telegraph4 #aj ,morse offered to sell his patent to the government1 but the ,postmaster ,general reported that the telegraph was merely an interesting experiment and could never have a practical value1 so the offer was not accepted4 #aa ,the use of vast sums of money in building so many railroads1 together with overtrading and reckless speculation1 brought on a business panic in #aheg4 ,factories were closed1 banks failed1 thousands of men and women were thrown out of employment1 and for two years the country suffered from hard times4 #ab ,it was not till #ahhc that the rate was reduced to two cents4 ,before the introduction of the postage stamp1 letters were sent to the post offices1 and when the postage had been paid1 they were marked ,paid by the officials4 ,when the mails increased in volume in the large cities1 this way of doing business consumed so much time that the postmasters at ,st4 ,louis and ,new ,york sold stamps to be affixed to letters as evidence that the postage had been paid4 ,the convenience was so great that public opinion forced ,congress to authorize the post office department to furnish stamps and require the people to use them 7#ahdg74 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,eastern ,,united ,,states ,,in #ahfa4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,the ,,civil ,,war1 #ahfa-ahfc ,illustration3 ,,newspaper ,,bulletin ,,posted ,,in ,,the ,,streets ,,of ,,charleston4 ,,the ,,confederate ,,states ,,of ,,america4--,after ,lincoln's election1 the cotton states1 one by one1 passed ordinances declaring that they left the ,union4 ,first to go was ,south ,carolina 7,december #bj1 #ahfj71 and by ,february #a1 #ahfa1 ,mississippi1 ,florida1 ,alabama1 ,georgia1 ,louisiana1 and ,texas had followed4 ,on ,february #d delegates from six of these seven states met at ,montgomery1 ,alabama1 framed1 a constitution1 #a established the ,confederate ,states of ,america1 and elected ,jefferson ,davis #b and ,alexander ,h4 ,stephens provisional ,president and ,vice ,president4 ,later they were elected by the people4 ,illustration3 ,,abraham ,,lincoln4 ,photograph of #ahef4 ,illustration3 ,,jefferson ,,davis4 ,,lincoln',s ,,policy4--,president ,buchanan did nothing to prevent all this1 and such was the political situation when ,lincoln was inaugurated 7,march #d1 #ahfa74 ,his views and his policy were clearly stated in his inaugural address3 ,i have no purpose directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the states where it exists4444 ,no state on its own mere motion can lawfully get out of the ,union4444 ,the ,union is unbroken1 and to the extent of my ability ,i shall take care that the laws of the ,union be faithfully executed in all the states4444 ,in doing this there need be no bloodshed or violence1 and there shall be none unless it be forced upon the national authority4444 ,the power confided in me will be used to hold1 occupy1 and possess the property and places belonging to the government4 ,,fort ,,sumter ,,captured4--,almost all the property and places belonging to the ,united ,states government in the seven seceding states had been seized by the ,confederates4 #c ,but ,fort ,sumter in ,charleston harbor was still in ,union hands1 and to this1 ,lincoln notified the governor of ,south ,carolina1 supplies would be sent4 ,thereupon the ,confederate army already gathered in ,charleston bombarded the fort till ,major ,anderson surrendered it 7,april #ad1 #ahfa74 #d ,illustration3 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,batteries ,,that ,,bombarded ,,fort ,,sumter4 ,,the ,,war ,,opens4--,with the capture of ,fort ,sumter the war for the ,union opened in earnest4 ,on ,april #ae ,lincoln called for seventy-five thousand militia to serve for three months4 #e ,thereupon ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1 ,tennessee1 and ,arkansas seceded and joined the ,confederacy4 ,the capital of the ,confederacy was soon moved from ,montgomery to ,richmond1 ,virginia4 ,in the slave-holding states of ,delaware1 ,maryland1 ,kentucky1 and ,missouri the ,union men outnumbered the secessionists and held these states in the ,union4 ,when ,virginia seceded1 the western counties refused to leave the ,union1 and in #ahfc were admitted into the ,union as the state of ,west ,virginia4 ,,the ,,dividing ,,line4--,the first call for troops was soon followed by a second4 ,the responses to both were so prompt that by ,july #a1 #ahfa1 more than one hundred and eighty thousand ,union soldiers were under arms4 ,they were stationed at various points along a line that stretched from ,norfolk in ,virginia up the ,chesapeake ,bay and ,potomac ,river to ,harpers ,ferry1 and then across western ,virginia1 ,kentucky1 and ,missouri4 ,south of this dividing line were the ,confederate armies4 #f ,geographically this line was cut into three sections3 that in ,virginia1 that in ,kentucky1 and that in ,missouri1 ,illustration3 ,,stone ,,bridge ,,over ,,bull ,,run4 ,crossed by many fleeing ,union men4 ,,bull ,,run4--,general ,winfield ,scott was in command of the ,union army4 ,under him and in command of the troops about ,washington was ,general ,mc,dowell1 who in ,july1 #ahfa1 was sent to drive back the ,confederate line in ,virginia4 ,marching a few miles southwest1 ,mc,dowell met ,general ,beauregard near ,manassas1 and on the field of ,bull ,run was beaten and his army put to flight4 #g ,the battle taught the ,north that the war would not end in three months2 that an army of raw troops was no better than a mob2 that discipline was as necessary as patriotism4 ,thereafter men were enlisted for three years or for the war4 ,general ,george ,b4 ,mc,clellan #h was now put in command of the ,union ,army of the ,potomac1 and spent the rest of #ahfa1 and the early months of #ahfb1 in drilling his raw volunteers4 ,illustration3 ,,driving ,,back ,,the ,,confederate ,,line ,,in ,,the ,,west4 ,,confederate ,,line ,,in ,,kentucky ,,driven ,,back1 #ahfb4--;,in ,kentucky the ,confederate line stretched across the southern part of the state as shown on the map4 ,against this ,general ,thomas was sent in ,january1 #ahfb4 ,he defeated the ,confederates at ,mill ,springs near the eastern end4 ,in ,february ,general ,u4 ,s4 ,grant and ,flag-,officer ,foote were sent to attack1 by land and water1 ,forts ,donelson and ,henry near the western end of the line4 ,foote arrived first at ,fort ,henry on the ,tennessee and captured it4 ,thereupon ,grant marched across country to ,fort ,donelson on the ,cumberland1 and after three days' sharp fighting forced ,general ,buckner to surrender4 #i ,illustration3 ,,ulysses ,s4 ,,grant4 ,,shiloh ,,or ,,pittsburg ,,landing4--,the ,confederate line was now broken1 and abandoning ,nashville and ,columbus1 the ,confederates fell back toward ,corinth in ,mississippi4 ,the ,union army followed in three parts4 #a4 ,one under ,general ,curtis moved to southwestern ,missouri and won a battle at ,pea ,ridge 7,arkansas74 #b4 ,another under ,general ,pope on the banks of the ,mississippi aided ,flag- ,officer ,foote in the capture of ,island ,no4 #aj4 #aj ,the fleet then passed down the river and took ,fort ,pillow4 #c4 ,the third part under ,grant took position very near ,pittsburg ,landing1 at ,shiloh1 #aa where it was attacked and driven back4 ,but the next day1 being strongly renforced1 ,general ,grant beat the ,confederates1 who retreated to ,corinth4 ,general ,halleck now took command1 and having united the second and third parts of the army1 took ,corinth and cut off ,memphis1 which then surrendered to the fleet in the river4 ,,bragg',s ,,raid4--,and now the ,confederates turned furiously4 ,their army under ,general ,bragg1 starting from ,chattanooga1 rushed across ,tennessee and ,kentucky toward ,louisville1 but after a hot fight with ,general ,buell's army at ,perryville was forced to turn back1 and went into winter quarters at ,murfreesboro4 #ab ,illustration3 ,,northern ,,cavalryman4 ,a war-time drawing published in #ahfi4 ,there ,bragg was attacked by the ,union forces1 now under ,general ,rosecrans1 was beaten in one of the most bloody battles of the war 7,december #ca1 #ahfb1 and ,january #b1 #ahfc71 and was forced to retreat further south4 ,,new ,,orleans1 #ahfb4--;,both banks of the ,mississippi as far south as the ,arkansas were by this time in ,union hands4 #ac ,south of that river on the east bank of the ,mississippi the ,confederates still held ,vicksburg and ,port ,hudson 7maps1 pp4 #cec1 #cfh74 ,but ,new ,orleans had been captured in ,april1 #ahfb1 by a naval expedition under ,farragut2 #ad and the city was occupied by a ,union army under ,general ,butler4 #ae ,illustration3 ,,war ,,in ,,the ,,east1 #ahfb4 ,,the ,,peninsular ,,campaign1 #ahfb4--;,in the ,east the year opened with great preparation for the capture of ,richmond1 the ,confederate capital4 #a4 ,armies under ,fremont and ,banks in the ,shenandoah valley were to prevent an attack on ,washington from the west4 #b4 ,an army under ,mc,dowell was to be ready to march from ,fredericksburg to ,richmond1 when the proper time came4 #c4 ,mc,clellan was to take the largest army by water from ,washington to ,fort ,monroe1 and then march up the peninsula formed by the ,york and ,james rivers to the neighborhood of ,richmond1 where ,mc,dowell was to join him4 ,landing at the lower end of the peninsula early in ,april1 ,mc,clellan moved northward to ,yorktown1 and captured it after a long siege4 ,mc,clellan then hurried up the peninsula after the retreating enemy1 and on the way fought and won a battle at ,williamsburg4 #af ,,the ,,shenandoah ,,campaign1 #ahfb4--;,it was now expected that ,mc,dowell1 who had been guarding ,washington1 would join ,mc,clellan1 but ,general ,t4 ,j4 ,jackson #ag 7,stonewall ,jackson71 who commanded the ,confederate forces in the ,shenandoah1 rushed down the valley and drove ,banks across the ,potomac into ,maryland4 ,this success alarmed the authorities at ,washington1 and ,mc,dowell was held in northern ,virginia to protect the capital4 ,part of his troops1 with those of ,banks and ,fremont1 were dispatched against ,jackson2 but ,jackson won several battles and made good his escape4 ,illustration3 ,,thomas ,j4 ,,jackson4 ,,end ,,of ,,peninsular ,,campaign4--,though deprived of the aid of ,mc,dowell1 ,general ,mc,clellan moved westward to within eight or ten miles of ,richmond2 but the ,confederate ,general ,j4 ,e4 ,johnston now attacked him at ,fair ,oaks4 ,a few weeks later ,general ,r4 ,e4 ,lee1 #ah who had succeeded ,johnston in command1 was joined by ,jackson2 the ,confederates then attacked ,mc,clellan at ,mechanicsville and ,gaines ,mill and forced him to retreat1 fighting as he went 7,june #bf to ,july #a71 to ,harrisons ,landing on the ,james ,river4 ,there the ,union army remained till ,august1 when it went back by water to the ,potomac4 ,illustration3 ,,robert ,e4 ,,lee4 ,,lee',s ,,raid2 ,,battle ,,of ,,antietam1 #ahfb4--,the departure of the ,union army from ,harrisons ,landing left ,general ,lee free to do as he chose1 and seizing the opportunity he turned against the ,union forces under ,general ,pope1 whose army was drawn up between ,cedar ,mountain and ,fredericksburg1 on the ,rappahannock ,river4 ,stonewall ,jackson first attacked ,general ,banks at the western end of the line at ,cedar ,mountain1 and beat him4 ,jackson and ,lee then fell upon ,general ,pope on the old field of ,bull ,run1 beat him1 and forced him to fall back to ,washington1 where his army was united with that of ,mc,clellan4 #ai ,this done1 ,lee crossed the ,potomac and entered ,maryland4 ,mc,clellan attacked him at ,antietam ,creek 7,september1 #ahfb71 where a bloody battle was fought 7sometimes called the battle of ,sharpsburg74 ,lee was beaten2 but ,mc,clellan did not prevent his recrossing the ,potomac into ,virginia4 #bj ,,fredericksburg1 #ahfb4--,mc,clellan was now removed1 and ,general ,a4 ,e4 ,burnside put in command4 ,the ,confederates meantime had taken position on ,marye's ,heights on the south side of the ,rappahannock1 behind ,fredericksburg4 ,the position was impregnable2 but in ,december ,burnside attacked it and was repulsed with dreadful slaughter4 ,the two armies then went into winter quarters with the ,rappahannock between them4 ,,the ,,emancipation ,,proclamation4--,ever since the opening of the year #ahfb1 the question of slavery in the loyal states and in the territories had been constantly before ,congress4 ,in ,april ,congress abolished slavery in the ,district of ,columbia and set free the slaves there with compensation to the owners4 ,in ,june it abolished slavery in the territories and freed the slaves there without compensation to the owners1 and in ,july authorized the seizure of slaves of persons then in rebellion4 ,in ,march ,lincoln had asked ,congress to help pay for the slaves in the loyal slave states1 if these states would abolish slavery2 but neither ,congress nor the states adopted the plan4 #ba ,lincoln now determined1 as an act of war1 to free the slaves in the ,confederate states1 and when the armies of ,lee and ,mc,clellan stood face to face at ,antietam1 he decided1 if ,lee was beaten1 to issue an emancipation proclamation4 ,lee was beaten1 and on ,september #bb1 #ahfb1 the proclamation came forth declaring that on ,january #a1 #ahfc1 all persons held as slaves in any state or part of a state then in rebellion against the ,united ,states1 shall be then1 thenceforth1 and forever free4 ,the ,confederate states did not return to their allegiance1 and on ,january #a1 #ahfc1 a second proclamation was issued1 declaring the slaves within the ,confederate lines to be free men4 ,illustration3 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,autograph ,,copy ,,of ,,lincoln',s ,,proclamation ,,of ,,january #a1 #ahfc4 #a4 ,lincoln did not abolish slavery anywhere4 ,he emancipated certain slaves4 #b4 ,his proclamation did not apply to the loyal slave states--,delaware1 ,maryland1 ,west ,virginia1 ,kentucky1 ,missouri4 #c4 ,it did not apply to such ,confederate territory as the ,union armies had conquered2 namely1 ,tennessee1 seven counties in ,virginia1 and thirteen parishes in ,louisiana4 #d4 ,lincoln freed the slaves by virtue of his authority as commander in chief of the ,union armies1 and as a fit and necessary war measure4 ,,summary #a4 ,in #ahfj and #ahfa seven cotton states seceded1 formed the ,confederate ,states of ,america1 and elected ,jefferson ,davis ,president4 #b4 ,the capture of ,fort ,sumter 7,april1 #ahfa7 and ,lincoln's call for troops were followed by the secession of four more ,southern states4 #c4 ,in #ahfa an attempt was made to drive back the ,confederate line in ,virginia2 but this ended in disaster at the battle of ,bull ,run4 #d4 ,in #ahfb the ,peninsular ,campaign failed1 ,pope was defeated at ,bull ,run1 ,lee's invasion of ,maryland was ended by the battle of ,antietam1 and ,burnside met defeat at ,fredericksburg4 #e4 ,in the ,west in #ahfb the ,confederate line was forced back to northern ,mississippi1 and ,new ,orleans was captured4 ,great battles were fought at ,fort ,donelson1 ,shiloh1 ,perryville1 and ,murfreesboro4 #f4 ,on ,january #a1 #ahfc1 ,president ,lincoln declared free the slaves in the states and parts of states held by the ,confederates4 ,,footnotes #a ,the constitution of the ,confederacy was the ,constitution of the ,united ,states altered to suit conditions4 ,the ,president was to serve six years and was not to be eligible for relection2 the right to own slaves was affirmed1 but no slaves were to be imported from any foreign country except the slave-holding states of the old ,union4 ,the ,congress was forbidden to establish a tariff for protection of any branch of industry4 ,a ,supreme ,court was provided for1 but was never organized4 #b ,jefferson ,davis was born in #ahjh1 graduated from the ,military ,academy at ,west ,point in #ahbh1 served in the ,black ,hawk ,war1 resigned from the army in #ahce1 and became a cotton planter in ,mississippi4 ,in #ahde he was elected to ,congress1 but resigned to take part in the ,mexican ,war1 and was wounded at ,buena ,vista4 ,in #ahdg lie was elected a senator1 and from #ahec to #aheg was ,secretary of ,war4 ,he then returned to the ,senate1 where he was when ,mississippi seceded4 ,he died in ,new ,orleans in #ahhi4 #c ,property of the ,united ,states seized by the states was turned over to the ,confederate government4 ,thus ,louisiana gave up #ecf1jjj in specie taken from the ,united ,states customhouse and mint at ,new ,orleans4 #d ,read ,inside ,sumter in '#fa in ,battles and ,leaders of the ,civil ,war1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #fe-gc4 #e ,read ,war ,preparations in the ,north in ,battles and ,leaders of the ,civil ,war1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #he-ih2 on pp4 #adi-aei1 also1 read ,going to the ,front4 #f ,an interesting account of ,scenes in ,virginia in '#fa may be found in ,battles and ,leaders of the ,civil ,war1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #afj-aff4 #g ,the ,confederate army was more disorganized by victory than that of the ,united ,states by defeat1 says ,general ,johnston2 and no pursuit of the ,union forces was made4 ,the larger part of the men1 ,mc,dowell telegraphed to ,washington1 are a confused mob1 entirely disorganized4 ,none stopped short of the fortifications along the ,potomac1 and numbers entered ,washington4 ,read ,battles and ,leaders of the ,civil ,war1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bbi-bci4 ,i have no idea that the ,north will give it up1 wrote ,stephens1 ,vice ,president of the ,confederacy4 ,their defeat will increase their energy4 ,he was right4 #h ,george ,brinton ,mc,clellan was born in ,philadelphia in #ahbf1 graduated from ,west ,point1 served in the ,mexican ,war1 and resigned from the army in #aheg1 to become a civil engineer1 but rejoined it at the opening of the war4 ,in ,july1 #ahfa1 he conducted a successful campaign against the ,confederates in ,west ,virginia1 and his victories there were the cause of his promotion to command the ,army of the ,potomac4 ,after the battle of ,antietam 7p4 #cfc7 he took no further part in the war1 and finally resigned in #ahfd4 ,from #ahgh to #ahha he was governor of ,new ,jersey4 ,he died in #ahhe4 #i ,hiram ,ulysses ,grant was born in ,ohio in #ahbb1 and at seventeen entered ,west ,point1 where his name was registered ,ulysses ,s4 ,grant1 and as such he was ever after known4 ,he served in the ,mexican ,war1 and afterward engaged in business of various sorts till the opening of the ,civil ,war1 when he was made colonel of the ,twenty-first ,illinois ,regiment1 and then commander of the district of southeast ,missouri4 ,when ,general ,buckner1 who commanded at ,fort ,donelson1 wrote to ,grant to know what terms he would offer1 ,grant replied3 ,no terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted4 ,i propose to move immediately upon your works4 ,this won for ,grant the popular name ,unconditional ,surrender ,grant4 ,andrew ,h4 ,foote was born in ,connecticut in #ahjf1 entered the navy at sixteen1 and when the war opened1 was made flag officer of the ,western navy4 ,his gunboats were like huge rafts carrying a house with flat roof and sloping sides that came down to the water's edge4 ,the sloping sides and ends were covered with iron plates and pierced for guns2 three in the bow1 two in the stern1 and four on each side4 ,the huge wheel in the stern which drove the boat was under cover2 but the smoke stacks were unprotected4 ,foote died in #ahfc1 a rear admiral4 #aj ,the islands in the ,mississippi are numbered from the mouth of the ,ohio ,river to ,new ,orleans4 #aa ,read ,battles and ,leaders of the ,civil ,war1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #dfe-dhf4 #ab ,farther west the ,confederates attacked the ,union army at ,corinth 7,october #d71 but were defeated by ,general ,rosecrans4 #ac ,in ,january1 #ahfb1 the ,confederate line west of the ,mississippi stretched from ,belmont across southern ,missouri to ,indian ,territory2 but ,grant drove the ,confederates out of ,belmont2 ,general ,curtis1 as we have seen1 beat them at ,pea ,ridge 7in ,march71 and when the year ended1 the ,union army was in possession of northern ,arkansas4 #ad ,david ,g4 ,farragut was born in #ahja1 and when eleven years old served on the ,essex in the ,war of #ahab4 ,when his fleet started up the ,mississippi ,river1 in #ahfb1 he found his way to ,new ,orleans blocked by two forts1 ,st4 ,philip and ,jackson1 by chains across the river on hulks below ,fort ,jackson1 and by a fleet of ironclad boats above4 ,after bombarding the forts for six days1 he cut the chains1 ran by the forts1 defeated the fleet1 and went up to ,new ,orleans1 and later took ,baton ,rouge and ,natchez4 ,for the capture of ,new ,orleans he received the thanks of ,congress1 and was made a rear admiral2 for his victory in ,mobile ,bay 7p4 #cgi7 the rank of vice admiral was created for him1 and in #ahff a still higher rank1 that of admiral1 was made for him4 ,he died in #ahgj4 #ae ,when it was known in ,new ,orleans that ,farragut's fleet was coming1 the cotton in the yards and in the cotton presses was hauled on drays to the levee and burned to prevent its falling into ,union hands4 ,the capture of the city had a great effect on ,great ,britain and ,france1 both of whom the ,confederates hoped would intervene to stop the war4 ,slidell1 who was in ,france seeking recognition for the ,confederacy as an independent nation1 wrote that he had been led to believe that if ,new ,orleans had not been taken and we suffered no very serious reverses in ,virginia and ,tennessee1 our recognition would very soon have been declared4 ,read ,battles and ,leaders of the ,civil ,war1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ad-ba1ia-id4 #af ,the story of the march is interestingly told in ,recollections of a ,private1 in ,battles and ,leaders of the ,civil ,war1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ahi-aii4 #ag ,thomas ,j4 ,jackson was born in ,west ,virginia in #ahbd1 graduated from ,west ,point1 served in the ,mexican ,war1 resigned from the army1 and till #ahfa taught in the ,virginia ,state ,military ,institute at ,lexington4 ,he then joined the ,confederate army1 and for the firm stand of his brigade at ,bull ,run gained the name of ,stonewall4 #ah ,robert ,e4 ,lee was born in ,virginia in #ahjg1 a son of ,light ,horse ,harry ,lee of the ,revolutionary army4 ,he was a graduate of ,west ,point1 and served in the ,mexican ,war4 ,after ,virginia seceded he left the ,union army and was appointed a major general of ,virginia troops1 and in #ahfb became commander in chief4 ,at the end of the war he accepted the presidency of ,washington ,college 7now ,washington and ,lee ,university71 and died in ,lexington1 ,virginia1 in #ahgj4 #ai ,part of ,mc,clellan's army had joined ,pope before the second battle of ,bull ,run4 #bj ,read ,a ,woman's ,recollections of ,antietam1 in ,battles and ,leaders of the ,civil ,war1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #fhf-fie2 also ,o4 ,w4 ,holmes's ,my ,hunt after ,the ,captain4 #ba ,west ,virginia and ,missouri later 7#ahfc7 provided for gradual emancipation1 and ,maryland 7#ahfd7 adopted a constitution that abolished slavery4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,the ,,civil ,,war1 #ahfc-ahfe ,,the ,,gettysburg ,,campaign1 #ahfc4--;,after the defeat at ,fredericksburg1 ,burnside was removed1 and ,general ,hooker put in command of the ,army of the ,potomac4 ,fighting ,joe1 as ,hooker was called1 led his army of #acj1jjj men against ,lee and ,jackson1 and after a stubborn fight at ,chancellorsville 7,may #a-d1 #ahfc7 was beaten and fell back4 #a ,in ,june ,lee once more took the offensive1 rushed down the ,shenandoah valley to the ,potomac ,river1 crossed ,maryland1 and entered ,pennsylvania with the ,army of the ,potomac in hot pursuit4 ,on reaching ,maryland ,general ,hooker was removed and ,general ,meade put in command4 ,illustration3 ,,war ,,in ,,the ,,east1 #ahfc-fe4 ,on the hills at ,gettysburg1 ,pennsylvania1 the two armies met1 and there 7,july #a-c7 ,lee attacked ,meade4 ,the struggle was desperate4 ,about one fourth of the men engaged were killed or wounded4 ,but the splendid valor of the ,union army prevailed1 and ,lee was beaten and forced to return to ,virginia1 where he remained unmolested till the spring of #ahfd4 #b ,the battle of ,gettysburg ended ,lee's plan for carrying the war into the ,north1 and from the losses on that field his army never fully recovered4 #c ,illustration3 ,,battle ,,of ,,gettysburg4 ,contemporary drawing4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,vicksburg ,,campaign4 ,illustration3 ,,grant',s ,,headquarters ,,near ,,vicksburg4 ,from a recent photograph4 ,,vicksburg1 #ahfc4--;,in ,january1 #ahfc1 the ,confederates held the ,mississippi ,river only from ,vicksburg to ,port ,hudson4 ,the capture of these two towns would complete the opening of the river4 ,grant1 therefore1 determined to capture ,vicksburg4 ,the town stands on the top of a bluff which rises straight and steep from the river1 and had been so strongly fortified on the land side that to take it seemed impossible4 ,grant1 having failed in a direct advance through ,mississippi1 cut a canal across a bend in the river1 on the west bank1 hoping to divert the waters and get a passage by the town4 ,this1 too1 failed2 and he then decided to cross below ,vicksburg and attack by land4 ,to aid him1 ,admiral ,porter ran his gunboats past the town on a night in ,april and carried the army across the river4 ,landing on the east bank1 ,grant won a victory at ,port ,gibson1 and hearing that ,j4 ,e4 ,johnston was coming to help ,pemberton1 pushed in between them1 beat ,johnston1 and turning against ,pemberton drove him into ,vicksburg4 ,after a siege of seven weeks1 in which ,vicksburg suffered severely from bombardment and famine1 ,pemberton surrendered the town and army ,july #d1 #ahfc4 ,in less than a week 7,july #i7 ,port ,hudson surrendered1 the ,mississippi was opened from source to mouth1 and the ,confederacy was cut in two4 ,illustration3 ,,war ,,in ,,the ,,west1 #ahfc-fe1 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,coast4 ,,chickamauga1 #ahfc4--,while ,grant was besieging ,vicksburg1 ,rosecrans forced a ,confederate army under ,bragg to quit its position south of ,murfreesboro1 and then to leave ,chattanooga and retire into northern ,georgia4 ,there ,bragg was renforced1 and he then attacked ,rosecrans in the ,chickamauga valley 7,september #ai and #bj1 #ahfc71 where was fought one of the most desperate battles of the war4 ,the ,union right wing was driven from the field1 but the left wing under ,general ,thomas held the enemy in check and saved the army from rout4 ,by his firmness ,thomas won the name of the ,rock of ,chickamauga4 ,,chattanooga4--,rosecrans now went back to ,chattanooga4 ,bragg followed1 and1 taking position on the hills and mountains which surround the town on the east and south1 shut in the ,union army and besieged it4 ,hooker was sent from ,virginia with more troops1 ,sherman #d brought an army from ,vicksburg1 ,rosecrans was replaced by ,thomas1 and ,grant was put in command of all4 ,then matters changed4 ,the troops under ,thomas 7,november #bc7 seized some low hills at the foot of ,missionary ,ridge1 east of ,chattanooga4 ,hooker 7,november #bd7 carried the ,confederate works on ,lookout ,mountain1 southwest of the town1 in a fight often called the ,battle above the ,clouds4 ,sherman 7,november #bd and #be7 attacked the northern end of ,missionary ,ridge4 ,thomas 7,november #be7 thereupon carried the heights of ,missionary ,ridge1 and drove off the enemy4 ,bragg retreated to ,dalton in northwestern ,georgia1 where the command of his army was given to ,general ,j4 ,e4 ,johnston4 ,illustration3 ,,william ,t4 ,,sherman4 ,illustration3 ,,charging ,,up ,,missionary ,,ridge4 ,,the ,,plan ,,of ,,campaign1 #ahfd4--,the ,confederates had now but two great armies left4 ,one under ,lee was lying quietly behind the ,rappahannock and ,rapidan rivers1 protecting ,richmond2 the other under ,j4 ,e4 ,johnston #e was at ,dalton1 ,georgia4 ,the two generals chosen to lead the ,union armies against these forces were ,grant and ,sherman4 ,grant 7now lieutenant general arid in command of all the armies7 with the ,army of the ,potomac was to drive ,lee back and take ,richmond4 ,sherman with the forces under ,thomas1 ,mc,pherson1 and ,schofield was to attack ,johnston and enter ,georgia4 ,the ,union soldiers outnumbered the ,confederates4 ,illustration3 ,,joseph ,e4 ,,johnston4 ,,marching ,,through ,,georgia4--,on ,may #d1 #ahfd1 accordingly1 ,sherman moved forward against ,johnston1 flanked him out of ,dalton1 and drove him1 step by step1 through the mountains to ,atlanta4 ,johnston's retreat forced ,sherman to weaken his army by leaving guards in the rear to protect the railroads on which he depended for supplies2 ,johnston intended to attack when he could fight on equal terms4 ,but his retreat displeased ,davis1 and at ,atlanta he was replaced by ,general ,hood1 who was expected to fight at once4 ,in ,july ,hood made three furious attacks1 was repulsed1 and in ,september left ,atlanta and started northward4 ,his purpose was to draw ,sherman out of ,georgia1 but ,sherman sent ,thomas with part of the army into ,tennessee1 and after following ,hood for a while1 #f turned back to ,atlanta4 ,after partly burning the town1 ,sherman started for the seacoast in ,november1 tearing up the railroads1 burning bridges1 and living on the country as he went4 #g ,in ,december ,fort ,mc,allister was taken and ,savannah occupied4 ,illustration3 ,,rail ,,twisted ,,around ,,pole ,,by ,,sherman',s ,,men4 ,in the possession of the ,long ,island ,historical ,society4 ,,grant ,,and ,,lee ,,in ,,virginia1 #ahfd4--,on the same day in ,may1 #ahfd1 on which ,sherman set out to attack ,johnston in ,georgia1 the ,army of the ,potomac began the campaign in ,virginia4 ,general ,meade was in command2 but ,grant1 as commander in chief of all the ,union armies1 directed the campaign in person4 ,crossing the ,rapidan1 the army entered the ,wilderness1 a stretch of country covered with dense woods of oak and pine and thick undergrowth4 ,lee attacked1 and for several days the fighting was almost incessant4 ,but ,grant pushed on to ,spottsylvania ,court ,house and to ,cold ,harbor1 where bloody battles were fought2 and then went south of ,richmond and besieged ,petersburg4 #h ,,early',s ,,raid1 #ahfd4--,lee now sought to divert ,grant by an attack on ,washington1 and sent ,general ,early down the ,shenandoah valley4 ,early crossed the ,potomac1 entered ,maryland1 won a battle at the ,monocacy ,river1 and actually threatened the defenses of ,washington1 but was forced to retreat4 #i ,illustration3 ,,phillip ,h4 ,,sheridan4 ,to stop these attacks ,grant sent ,sheridan #aj into the valley1 where he defeated ,early at ,winchester and at ,fishers ,hill and again at ,cedar ,creek4 ,it was during this last battle that ,sheridan made his famous ride from ,winchester4 #aa ,,the ,,situation ,,early ,,in #ahfe4--;,by #ahfe1 ,union fleets and armies had seized many ,confederate strongholds on the coast4 ,in the ,west1 ,thomas had destroyed ,hood's army in the great battle of ,nashville 7,december1 #ahfd74 ,in the ,east1 ,grant was steadily pressing the siege of ,petersburg and ,richmond1 and ,sherman was making ready to advance northward from ,savannah4 ,the cause of the ,confederacy was so desperate that in ,february1 #ahfe1 ,alexander ,h4 ,stephens1 ,vice ,president of the ,confederate ,states1 was sent to meet ,lincoln and ,secretary ,seward and discuss terms of peace4 ,lincoln demanded three things3 the disbanding of the ,confederate armies1 the submission of the seceded states to the rule of ,congress1 and the abolition of slavery4 ,the terms were not accepted1 and the war went on4 ,,sherman ,,marches ,,northward1 #ahfe4--;,after resting for a month at ,savannah1 ,sherman started northward through ,south ,carolina1 7,february #ag7 entered ,columbia1 the capital of the state1 and forced the ,confederates to evacuate ,charleston4 ,to oppose him1 a new army was organized and put under the command of ,johnston4 ,but ,sherman pressed on1 entered ,north ,carolina1 and reached ,goldsboro in safety4 ,,the ,,surrender ,,of ,,lee1 #ahfe4--;,early in ,april1 ,lee found himself unable to hold ,richmond and ,petersburg any longer4 ,he retreated westward4 ,grant followed1 and on ,april #i1 #ahfe1 ,lee surrendered at ,appomattox ,court ,house1 seventy-five miles west of ,richmond4 #ab ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,confederacy4--,the ,confederacy then went rapidly to pieces4 ,johnston surrendered to ,sherman near ,raleigh on ,april #bf2 ,jefferson ,davis was captured at ,irwinville1 ,georgia1 on ,may #aj1 and the war on land was over4 #ac ,,reflection ,,of ,,lincoln4--,while the war was raging1 the time again came to elect a ,president and ,vice ,president4 ,the ,republicans nominated ,lincoln and ,andrew ,johnson4 ,the ,democrats selected ,general ,mc,clellan and ,george ,h4 ,pendleton4 ,lincoln and ,johnson were elected and on ,march #d1 #ahfe1 were inaugurated4 ,,death ,,of ,,lincoln4--,on the night of ,april #ad1 the fourth anniversary of the day on which ,anderson marched out of ,fort ,sumter1 while ,lincoln was seated with his wife and some friends in a box at ,ford's ,theater in ,washington1 he was shot by an actor who had stolen up behind him4 #ad ,the next morning he died1 and ,andrew ,johnson became ,president4 ,,summary #a4 ,in #ahfc1 ,lee repulsed an advance by ,hooker's army1 and invaded ,pennsylvania1 but was defeated by ,meade at ,gettysburg4 #b4 ,in the ,west1 ,grant took ,vicksburg1 and the ,mississippi was opened to the sea4 ,the ,confederates defeated ,rosecrans at ,chickamauga1 but were defeated by ,grant and other generals at ,chattanooga4 #c4 ,in #ahfd1 ,grant moved across ,virginia1 after much hard fighting1 and besieged ,petersburg and ,richmond1 and ,sherman marched across ,georgia to ,savannah4 #d4 ,in #ahfe1 ,sherman marched northward into ,north ,carolina1 and ,grant forced ,lee to leave ,richmond and surrender4 #e4 ,in #ahfd1 ,lincoln was relected4 #f4 ,in ,april1 #ahfe1 ,lincoln was assassinated and ,johnson became ,president4 ,illustration3 ,,sharpshooter',s ,,rifle ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,civil ,,war4 ,with telescope sight4 ,weight1 #cb lb4 ,,footnotes #a ,jackson was mortally wounded by a volley from his own men1 who mistook him and his escort for ,union cavalry1 in the dusk of evening of the second day at ,chancellorsville4 ,his last words were3 ,let us cross over the river and rest under the shade of the trees4 #b ,read ,the ,third ,day at ,gettysburg in ,battles and ,leaders of the ,civil ,war1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #cfi-che4 ,the field of ,gettysburg is now a national park dotted with monuments erected in memory of the dead1 and marking the positions of the regiments and spots where desperate fighting occurred4 ,near by is a national cemetery in which are interred several thousand ,union soldiers4 ,read ,president ,lincoln's beautiful ,gettysburg ,address4 #c ,with the exception of a small body of regulars1 the ,union armies were composed of volunteers4 ,when it became apparent that the war would not end in a few months1 ,congress passed a ,draft ,act3 whenever a congressional district failed to furnish the required number of volunteers1 the names of able-bodied men not already in the army were to be put into a box1 and enough names to complete the number were to be drawn out by a blindfolded man4 ,in ,july1 #ahfc1 when this was done in ,new ,york city1 a riot broke out and for several days the city was mob-ruled4 ,negroes were killed1 property was destroyed1 and the rioters were not put down till troops were sent by the government4 #d ,william ,tecumseh ,sherman was born in ,ohio in #ahbj1 graduated from ,west ,point1 and served in the ,seminole and ,mexican wars4 ,he became a banker in ,san ,francisco1 then a lawyer in ,kansas1 in #ahfj superintendent of a military school in ,louisiana1 and then president of a street car company in ,st4 ,louis4 ,in #ahfa he was appointed colonel in the regular army4 ,he fought at ,bull ,run1 was made brigadier general of volunteers1 and was transferred to the ,west1 where he rose rapidly4 ,after the war1 ,grant was made general of the army1 and ,sherman lieutenant general2 and when ,grant became ,president1 ,sherman was promoted to the rank of general4 ,he was retired in #ahhd and died in #ahia at ,new ,york4 #e ,joseph ,eggleston ,johnston was born in ,virginia in #ahjg1 graduated from ,west ,point1 and served in the ,black ,hawk1 ,seminole1 and ,mexican wars4 ,when the ,civil ,war opened1 he joined the ,confederacy1 was made a major general1 and with ,beauregard commanded at the first battle of ,bull ,run4 ,johnston was next put in charge of the operations against ,mc,clellan 7#ahfb72 but was wounded at ,fair ,oaks and succeeded by ,lee4 ,in #ahfc he was sent to relieve ,vicksburg1 but failed4 ,in #ahfd he was put in command of ,bragg's army after its defeat1 and so became opposed to ,sherman4 #f ,early in ,october ,hood had reached ,dallas on his way to ,tennessee4 ,from ,dallas he sent a division to capture a garrison and depots at ,allatoona1 commanded by ,general ,corse4 ,sherman1 who was following ,hood1 communicated with ,corse from the top of ,kenesaw ,mountain by signals2 and ,corse1 though greatly outnumbered1 held the fort and drove off the enemy4 ,on this incident was founded the popular hymn ,hold the ,fort1 for ,i am ,coming4 #g ,to destroy the railroads so they could not be quickly rebuilt1 the rails1 heated red-hot in fires made of burning ties1 were twisted around trees or telegraph poles4 ,stations1 machine shops1 cotton bales1 cotton gins and presses were burned4 ,along the line of march1 a strip of country sixty miles wide was made desolate4 #h ,while the siege of ,petersburg was under way1 a tunnel was dug and a mine exploded under a ,confederate work called ,elliott's ,salient 7,july #cj1 #ahfd74 ,as soon as the mass of flying earth1 men1 guns1 and carriages had settled1 a body of ,union troops moved forward through the break thus made in the enemy's line4 ,but the assault was badly managed4 ,the ,confederates rallied1 and the ,union forces were driven back into the crater made by the explosion1 where many were killed and #adjj captured4 #i ,on ,october #ai1 #ahfd1 ,st4 ,albans1 a town in ,vermont near the ,canadian border1 was raided by ,confederates from ,canada4 ,they seized all the horses they could find1 robbed the banks1 and escaped4 ,a little later the people of ,detroit were excited by a rumor that their city was to be raided on ,october #cj4 ,great preparations for defense were made2 but no enemy came4 #aj ,philip ,h4 ,sheridan was born at ,albany1 ,new ,york1 in #ahca1 graduated from ,west ,point1 and was in ,missouri when the war opened4 ,in #ahfb he was given a command in the cavalry1 fought in the ,west1 and before the year closed was made a brigadier and then major general for gallantry in action4 ,at ,chattanooga he led the charge up ,missionary ,ridge4 ,after the war he became lieutenant general and then general of the army1 and died in #ahhh4 #aa ,sheridan had spent the night at ,winchester1 and as he rode toward his camp at ,cedar ,creek1 he met such a crowd of wagons1 fugitives1 and wounded men that he was forced to take to the fields4 ,at ,newtown1 the streets were so crowded he could not pass through them4 ,riding around the village1 he met ,captain ,mc,kinley 7afterward ,president71 who1 says ,sheridan1 spread the news of my return through the motley throng there4 ,between ,newtown and ,middletown he met the only troops in the presence of and resisting the enemy4444 ,jumping my horse over the line of rails1 ,i rode to the crest of the elevation and 444 the men rose up from behind their barricade with cheers of recognition4 ,when he rode to another part of the field1 a line of regimental flags rose up out of the ground1 as it seemed1 to welcome me4 ,with these flags was ,colonel ,hayes 7afterward ,president74 ,hurrying to another place1 he came upon some divisions marching to the front4 ,when the men saw me1 they began cheering and took up the double-quick to the front4 ,crossing the pike1 he rode1 hat in hand1 along the entire line of infantry1 shouting1 ,we are all right4444 ,never mind1 boys1 we'll whip them yet4 ,we shall sleep in our quarters to-night4 ,and they did4 ,read ,sheridan's ,ride by ,t4 ,buchanan ,read4 #ab ,read ,battles and ,leaders of the ,civil ,war1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #gbi-gdf4 #ac ,on the flight of ,davis from ,richmond1 read ,battles and ,leaders of the ,civil ,war1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #gfb-gfg2 or the ,century ,magazine1 ,november1 #ahhc4 #ad ,after firing the shot1 the assassin waved his pistol and shouted ,sic semper tyrannis--,thus be it ever to tyrants 7the motto of the state of ,virginia7 and jumped from the box to the stage4 ,but his spur caught in an ,american flag which draped the box1 and he fell and broke his leg4 ,limping off the stage1 he fled from the theater1 mounted a horse in waiting1 and escaped to ,virginia4 ,there he was found hidden in a barn and shot4 ,the body of the ,martyr ,president was borne from ,washington to ,springfield1 by the route he took when coming to his first inauguration in #ahfa4 ,read ,walt ,whitman's poem ,my ,captain4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,the ,,navy ,,in ,,the ,,war2 ,,life ,,in ,,war ,,times ,,the ,,southern ,,coast ,,blockade4--,the naval war began with a proclamation of ,davis offering commissions to privateers1 #a and two by ,lincoln 7,april #ai and #bg1 #ahfa71 declaring the coast blockaded from ,virginia to ,texas4 ,illustration3 ,,sinking ,,the ,,petrel4 ,contemporary drawing4 ,the object of the blockade was to cut off the foreign trade of the ,southern states1 and to prevent their getting supplies of all sorts4 ,but as ,great ,britain was one of the chief consumers of ,southern cotton1 and was1 indeed1 dependent on the ,south for her supply1 it was certain that unless the blockade was made effective by many ,union ships1 cotton would be carried out of the ,southern ports1 and supplies run into them1 in spite of ,lincoln's proclamation4 ,illustration3 ,,cartoon ,,published ,,in #ahfa4 ,,running ,,the ,,blockade4--,this is just what was done4 ,goods of all sorts were brought from ,great ,britain to the city of ,nassau in the ,bahama ,islands 7map1 p4 #cec74 ,there the goods were placed on board blockade runners and started for ,wilmington in ,north ,carolina1 or for ,charleston4 ,so nicely would the voyage be timed that the vessel would be off the port some night when the moon did not shine4 ,then1 with all lights out1 the runner would dash through the line of blockading ships1 and1 if successful1 would by daylight be safe in port4 ,the cargo landed1 cotton would be taken on board2 and the first dark night1 or during a storm1 the runner1 again breaking the blockade1 would steam back to ,nassau4 ,,the ,,trent ,,affair4--,great ,britain and ,france promptly acknowledged the ,confederate ,states as belligerents4 ,this gave them the same rights in the ports of ,great ,britain and ,france as our vessels of war4 ,hoping to secure a recognition of independence from these countries1 the ,confederate government sent ,mason and ,slidell to ,europe4 ,these two commissioners ran the blockade1 went to ,havana1 and boarded the ,british mail steamship ,trent4 ,captain ,wilkes of the ,united ,states man-of-war ,san ,jacinto1 hearing of this1 stopped the ,trent and took off ,mason and ,slidell4 ,intense excitement followed in our country and in ,great ,britain1 #b which at once demanded their release and prepared for war4 ,they were released1 and the act of ,wilkes was disavowed as an exercise of the right of search which we had always resisted when exercised by ,great ,britain1 and which had been one of the causes of the ,war of #ahab4 ,,the ,,cruisers4--,while the commerce of the ,confederacy was almost destroyed by the blockade1 a fleet of ,confederate cruisers attacked the commerce of the ,union4 ,the most famous of these1 the ,florida1 ,alabama1 ,georgia1 and ,shenandoah #c were built or purchased in ,great ,britain for the ,confederacy1 and were suffered to put to sea in spite of the protests of the ,united ,states minister4 ,once on the ocean they cruised from sea to sea1 destroying every merchant vessel under our flag that came in their way4 ,illustration3 ,,shell ,,lodged ,,in ,,the ,,stern ,,post ,,of ,,the ,,kearsarge4 ,now in the ,ordnance ,museum1 ,washington ,navy ,yard4 ,one of them1 the ,alabama1 sailed the ocean unharmed for two years4 ,she cruised in the ,north ,atlantic1 in the ,gulf of ,mexico1 in the ,caribbean ,sea1 off the coast of ,brazil1 went around the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 entered the ,china ,sea1 came again around the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and by way of ,brazil and the ,azores to ,cherbourg in ,france4 ,during the cruise she destroyed over sixty merchantmen4 ,at ,cherbourg the ,alabama was found by the ,united ,states cruiser ,kearsarge1 and one ,sunday morning in ,june1 #ahfd1 the two met in battle off the coast of ,france1 and the ,alabama was sunk4 #d ,,operations ,,along ,,the ,,coast4--,besides blockading the coast1 the ,union navy captured or aided in capturing forts1 cities1 and water ways4 ,the forts at the entrance to ,pamlico ,sound and ,port ,royal were captured in #ahfa4 ,control of the waters of ,pamlico and ,albemarle #e sounds was secured in #ahfb by the capture of ,roanoke ,island1 ,elizabeth ,city1 ,newbern1 and ,fort ,macon 7map1 p4 #cfi74 ,in #ahfc ,fort ,sumter was battered down in a naval attack on ,charleston4 ,in #ahfd ,farragut led his fleet into ,mobile ,bay 7in southern ,alabama71 destroyed the ,confederate fleet1 captured the forts at the entrance to the bay1 and thus cut the city of ,mobile off from the sea4 ,in #ahfe ,fort ,fisher1 which guarded the entrance to ,cape ,fear ,river1 on which was ,wilmington1 fell before a combined attack by land and naval forces4 ,,on ,,the ,,inland ,,waters4--,on the great water ways of the ,west the notable deeds of the navy were the capture of ,fort ,henry on the ,tennessee by ,foote's flotilla 7p4 #ceh71 the capture of ,new ,orleans by ,farragut 7p4 #cfa71 and the run of ,porter's fleet past the batteries at ,vicksburg 7p4 #cfh74 ,illustration3 ,,one ,,of ,,porter',s ,,gunboats ,,passing ,,vicksburg4 ,,the ,,monitor ,,and ,,the ,,merrimac 4--,but the most famous of all the naval engagements was that of the ,monitor and the ,merrimac in #ahfb4 ,when the war opened1 there were at the navy yard at ,norfolk1 ,virginia1 a quantity of guns1 stores1 supplies1 and eleven vessels4 ,the officer in command1 fearing that they would fall into ,confederate hands1 set fire to the houses1 shops1 and vessels1 and abandoned the place4 ,one of the vessels which was burned to the water's edge and sunk was the steam frigate ,merrimac4 ,finding her hull below the water line unhurt1 the ,confederates raised the ,merrimac1 turned her into an ironclad ram1 renamed her ,virginia1 and sent her forth to destroy a squadron of ,united ,states vessels at anchor in ,hampton ,roads 7at the mouth of the ,james ,river74 ,illustration3 ,,merrimac ,,and ,,monitor4 ,steaming across the roads one day in ,march1 #ahfb1 the ,merrimac rammed and sank the ,cumberland1 #f forced the ,congress to surrender1 and set her on fire4 ,this done1 the ,merrimac withdrew1 intending to resume the work of destruction on the morrow2 for her iron armor had proved to be ample protection against the guns of the ,union ships4 ,but the next morning1 as she came near the ,minnesota1 the strangest-looking craft afloat came forth to meet her4 ,its deck was almost level with the water1 and was plated with sheets of iron4 ,in the center of the deck was an iron- plated cylinder which could be revolved by machinery1 and in this were two large guns4 ,this was the ,monitor #g which had arrived in the ,roads the night before1 and now came out from behind the ,minnesota to fight the ,merrimac4 ,during four hours the battle raged with apparently no result2 then the ,merrimac withdrew and the ,monitor took her place beside the ,minnesota4 #h ,this battle marks the doom of wooden naval vessels2 all the nations of the world were forced to build their navies anew4 ,,finances ,,of ,,the ,,war4--,four years of war on land and sea cost the people of the ,north an immense sum of money4 ,to obtain the money ,congress began 7#ahfa7 by raising the tariff on imported articles2 by taxing all incomes of more than #hjj a year2 and by levying a direct tax1 which was apportioned among the states according to their population4 #i ,but the money from these sources was not sufficient1 and 7#ahfb7 an internal revenue tax was resorted to1 and collected by stamp duties4 #aj ,even this tax did not yield enough money1 and the government was forced to borrow on the credit of the ,united ,states4 ,bonds were issued1 #aa and then ,united ,states notes1 called greenbacks1 were put in circulation and made legal tender2 that is1 everybody had to take them in payment of debts4 #ab ,,money ,,in ,,war ,,time4--,after the government began to issue paper money1 the banks suspended specie payment1 and all gold and silver coins1 including the #c1 #e1 #aj1 #be1 and #ej cent pieces1 disappeared from circulation4 ,the people were then without small change1 and for a time postage stamps and token pieces of brass and copper were used instead4 ,in ,march1 #ahfc1 however1 ,congress authorized the ,issue of #ej1jjj1jjj in paper fractional currency4 #ac ,both the greenbacks and the fractional currency were merely promises to pay money4 ,as the government did not pay on demand1 coin commanded a premium2 that is1 #ajj in gold or silver could be exchanged in the market 7down till #ahgi7 for more than #ajj in paper money4 ,,national ,,banks4--,besides the paper money issued by the government there were in circulation several thousand different kinds of state bank notes4 ,some had no value1 some a little value1 and others were good for the sums 7in greenbacks7 expressed on their faces4 ,in order to replace these notes by a sound currency having the same value everywhere1 ,congress 7#ahfc7 established the national banking system4 ,legally organized banking associations were to purchase ,united ,states bonds and deposit them with the government4 ,each bank so doing was then entitled to issue national bank notes to the value of ninety per cent #ad of the bonds it had deposited4 ,many banks accepted these terms2 but it was not till 7#ahfe7 after ,congress taxed the notes of state banks that those notes were driven out of circulation4 ,,cost ,,of ,,the ,,war4--,just what the war cost can never be fully determined4 ,hundreds of thousands of men left occupations of all sorts and joined the armies4 ,what they might have made had they stayed at home was what they lost by going to the front4 ,every loyal state1 city1 and county1 and almost every town and village1 incurred a war debt4 ,the national government during the war spent for war purposes #c1ffj1jjj1jjj4 ,to this must be added the value of our merchant ships destroyed by ,confederate cruisers2 the losses in the ,south2 and many hundred millions paid in pensions to soldiers and their widows4 ,the loss in the cities and towns burned or injured by siege and the other operations of war1 and the loss caused by the ruin of trade and commerce and the destruction of railroads1 farms1 plantations1 crops1 and private property1 can not be fully estimated1 but it was very great4 ,the most awful cost was the loss of life4 ,on the ,union side more than #cfj1jjj men were killed1 or died of wounds or of disease4 ,on the ,confederate side the number was nearly if not quite as large1 so that some #gjj1jjj men perished in the war4 ,many were young men with every prospect of a long life before them1 and their early death deprived their country of the benefit of their labor4 ,,distress ,,in ,,the ,,south4--,in the ,north the people suffered little if any real hardship4 ,in the ,south1 after the blockade became effective1 the people suffered privations4 ,not merely luxuries were given up1 but the necessaries of life became scarce4 ,thrown on their own resources1 the people resorted to all manner of makeshifts4 ,to get brine from which salt could be obtained by evaporation1 the earthen floors of smokehouses1 saturated by the dripping of bacon1 were dug up and washed1 and barrels in which salt pork had been packed were soaked in water4 ,tea and coffee ceased to be used1 and dried blackberry1 currant1 and raspberry leaves were used instead4 ,rye1 wheat1 chicory1 chestnuts roasted and ground1 did duty for coffee4 ,the spinning wheel came again into use1 and homespun clothing1 dyed with the extract of black-walnut bark1 or with wild indigo1 was generally worn4 ,as articles were scarce1 prices rose1 and then went higher and higher as the ,confederate money depreciated1 like the old ,continental money in ,revolutionary times4 ,in #ahfd ,mrs4 ,jefferson ,davis states that in ,richmond a turkey cost #fj1 a barrel of flour #cjj1 and a pair of shoes #aej4 ,no little suffering was caused for want of medicines1 #ae woolen goods1 blankets1 #af shoes1 paper1 #ag and in some of the cities even bread became scarce4 #ah ,to get food for the army the ,confederate ,congress 7#ahfc7 authorized the seizure of supplies for the troops and payment at fixed prices which were far below the market rates4 #ai ,some men made fortunes by blockade running1 smuggling from the ,north1 and speculation in stocks4 ,dwellers on the great plantations1 remote from the operations of the contending armies1 suffered not from want of food2 but the great body of the people had much to endure4 ,,summary #a4 ,the operations of the navy comprised 7#a7 the blockade of the coast of the ,confederate ,states1 7#b7 the capture of seaports1 7#c7 the pursuit and capture of ,confederate cruisers1 and 7#d7 aiding the army on the western rivers4 #b4 ,a notable feature in the naval war was the use of ironclad vessels4 ,these put an end to the wooden naval vessels1 and revolutionized the navies of the world4 #c4 ,the cost of the war in human life1 money1 and property destroyed was immense1 and can be stated only approximately4 #d4 ,in the ,south1 as the war progressed1 the hardships endured by the mass of the people caused much suffering4 ,illustration3 ,,loading ,a ,,naval ,,cannon ,,in ,,the ,,civil ,,war4 ,contemporary drawing4 ,,footnotes #a ,the first ,confederate privateer to get to sea was the ,savannah4 ,she took one prize and was captured4 ,another1 the ,beauregard1 was taken after a short cruise4 ,a third1 the ,petrel1 mistook the frigate ,st4 ,lawrence for a merchantman and attempted to take her1 but was sunk by a broadside4 ,after a year the blockade stopped privateering4 #b ,captain ,wilkes was congratulated by the ,secretary of the ,navy1 thanked by the ,house of ,representatives1 and given a grand banquet in ,boston2 and the whole country was jubilant4 ,the ,british minister at ,washington was directed to demand the liberation of the prisoners and a suitable apology for the aggression1 and if not answered in seven days1 or if unfavorably answered1 was to return to ,london at once4 #c ,early in the war an agent was sent to ,great ,britain by the ,confederate navy department to procure vessels to be used as commerce destroyers4 ,the ,florida and ,alabama were built at ,liverpool and sent to sea unarmed4 ,their guns and ammunition were sent in vessels from another ,british port4 ,the ,shenandoah was purchased at ,london 7her name was then the ,sea ,king7 and was met at ,madeira by a tender from ,liverpool with men and guns4 ,on her way to ,australia1 the ,shenandoah destroyed seven of our merchantmen4 ,she then went to ,bering ,sea and in one week captured twenty- five whalers1 most of which she destroyed4 ,this was in ,june1 #ahfe1 after the war was over4 ,in ,august a ,british ship captain informed the commander of the ,shenandoah that the ,confederacy no longer existed4 ,the ,shenandoah was then taken to ,liverpool and delivered to the ,british government1 which turned her over to the ,united ,states4 #d ,read ,battles and ,leaders of the ,civil ,war1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #fjj-fad4 #e ,in #ahfd a ,confederate ironclad ram1 the ,albemarle1 appeared on the waters of ,albemarle ,sound4 ,as no ,union war ship could harm her1 ,commander ,w4 ,b4 ,gushing planned an expedition to destroy her by a torpedo4 ,on the night of ,october #bg1 with fourteen companions in a steam launch1 he made his way to the ram1 blew her up with the torpedo1 and with one other man escaped4 ,his adventures on the way back to the fleet read like fiction1 and are told by himself in ,battles and ,leaders of the ,civil ,war1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #fcd-fdj4 #f ,the hole made in the ,cumberland by the ,merrimac was large enough for a man to enter4 ,through this the water poured in so rapidly that the sick1 wounded1 and many who were not disabled were carried down with the ship4 ,after she sank1 the flag at the masthead still waved above the water4 ,read ,longfellow's poem ,the ,cumberland4 #g ,the ,monitor was designed by ,john ,ericsson1 who was born in ,sweden in #ahjc4 ,after serving as an engineer in the ,swedish army1 he went to ,england2 and then came to our country in #ahci4 ,he was the inventor of the first practical screw propeller for steamboats1 and by his invention of the revolving turret for war vessels he completely changed naval architecture4 ,his name is connected with many great inventions4 ,he died in #ahhi4 #h ,when the ,confederates evacuated ,norfolk some months later1 the ,merrimac was blown up4 ,the ,monitor1 in ,december1 #ahfb1 went down in a storm at sea4 #i ,as the right of a ,state to secede was not acknowledged1 this direct tax of #bj1jjj1jjj was apportioned among the ,confederate as well as among the ,union states4 ,the ,confederate states1 of course1 did not pay their share4 #aj ,deeds1 mortgages1 bills of lading1 bank checks1 patent medicines1 wines1 liquors1 tobacco1 proprietary articles1 and many other things were taxed4 ,between #ahfb and #ahfe about #ghj1jjj1jjj was raised in this way4 #aa ,between ,july #a1 #ahfa1 and ,august #ca1 #ahfe1 bonds to the amount of #a1aji1jjj1jjj were issued and sold4 #ab ,the ,legal ,tender ,act1 which authorized the issue of greenbacks1 was enacted in #ahfb1 and two years later #ddi1jjj1jjj were in circulation4 ,the greenbacks could not be used to pay duties on imports or interest on the public debt1 which were payable in specie4 #ac ,this paper fractional currency consisted of small paper bills in denominations of #c1 #e1 #aj1 #ae1 #be1 and #ej cents4 ,read the account in ,rhodes's ,history of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,v1 pp4 #aia-aif4 #ad ,in #aijb changed to one hundred per cent4 #ae ,when ,sherman was in command at ,memphis1 a funeral procession was allowed to pass beyond the ,union lines4 ,the coffin1 however1 was full of medicines for the ,confederate army4 #af ,blankets were sometimes made of cow hair1 or long moss from the seaboard1 and even carpets were cut up and sent as blankets to the army4 #ag ,the newspapers of the time give evidence of the scarcity of paper4 ,some are printed on half sheets1 a few on brown paper1 and some on note paper4 #ah ,riots of women1 prompted by the high prices of food1 occurred in ,atlanta1 ,mobile1 ,richmond1 and other places4 #ai ,read ,war ,diary of a ,union ,woman in the ,south1 in the ,century ,magazine1 ,october1 #ahhi2 ,rhodes's ,history of the ,u4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,v1 pp4 #cdh-chd4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,reconstruction ,,three ,,issues4--,after the collapse of the ,confederacy1 our countrymen were called on to meet three issues arising directly from the war3-- #a4 ,the first was1 ,what shall be done to destroy the institution of slavery8 #a #b4 ,the second was1 ,what shall be done with the late ,confederate states8 #b #c4 ,the third had to do with the national debt and the currency4 ,,the ,,thirteenth ,,amendment4--,when the war ended1 slavery had been abolished in ,maryland1 ,missouri1 and ,west ,virginia1 by gradual or immediate abolition acts1 and in ,tennessee by a special emancipation act4 ,in order that it might be done away with everywhere ,congress 7in ,january1 #ahfe7 sent out to the states a ,thirteenth ,amendment to the ,constitution1 declaring slavery abolished throughout the ,united ,states4 ,in ,december1 #ahfe1 three fourths of the states having ratified1 it became part of the ,constitution1 and slavery was no more4 ,,reconstruction4--,after the death of ,lincoln1 the work of reconstruction was taken up by his successor1 ,johnson4 #c ,he recognized the governments established by loyal persons in ,tennessee1 ,virginia1 ,arkansas1 and ,louisiana4 ,for the other states he appointed provisional governors and authorized conventions to be called4 ,these conventions repudiated the ,confederate debt1 repealed the ordinances of secession1 and ratified the ,thirteenth ,amendment4 ,this done1 ,johnson considered these states as reconstructed and entitled to send senators and representatives to ,congress4 ,but ,congress thought otherwise and would not admit their senators and representatives4 ,johnson then denied the right of ,congress to legislate for the states not represented in ,congress4 ,he vetoed many bills which chiefly affected the ,south1 and in the summer of #ahff made speeches denouncing ,congress for its action4 ,,the ,,fourteenth ,,amendment4--,one measure which ,president ,johnson would have vetoed if he could1 was a ,fourteenth ,amendment to the ,constitution which ,congress proposed in #ahff4 ,ten of the former ,confederate states rejected it1 as did also four of the ,union states4 ,congress1 therefore1 in ,march1 #ahfg1 passed over the veto a ,reconstruction ,act setting forth what the states would have to do to get back into the ,union4 ,one condition was that they must ratify the ,fourteenth ,amendment2 when they had done so1 and when the amendment had become a part of the ,constitution1 they were to be readmitted4 ,,southern ,,states ,,readmitted4--,six states--,north ,carolina1 ,south ,carolina1 ,florida1 ,alabama1 ,louisiana1 and ,arkansas--submitted1 and the amendment having become a part of the ,constitution1 they were 7#ahfh7 declared again in the ,union4 ,tennessee had been readmitted in #ahff4 ,virginia1 ,mississippi and ,texas were not readmitted till #ahgj1 and ,georgia not till #ahga4 ,,the ,,debt ,,and ,,the ,,currency4--,the financial question to be settled included two parts3 ,what shall be done with the bonds 7p4 #cha78 and ,what shall be done with the paper money8 ,as to the first1 it was decided to pay the bonds as fast as possible1 #d and by #ahgc some #ejj1jjj1jjj were paid4 ,as to the second1 it was at first decided to cancel 7instead of reissuing7 the greenbacks as they came into the treasury in payment of taxes and other debts to the government4 ,but after the greenbacks in circulation had been thus reduced 7from #ddi1jjj1jjj7 to #cef1jjj1jjj1 ,congress ordered that their cancellation should stop4 ,,johnson ,,impeached4--,the ,president meantime had been impeached4 ,in ,march1 #ahfg1 ,congress passed 7over ,johnson's veto7 the ,tenure of ,office ,act1 depriving him of power to remove certain officials4 ,he might suspend them till the ,senate examined into the cause of suspension4 ,if it approved1 the officer was removed4 ,if it disapproved1 he was reinstated4 #e ,johnson soon disobeyed the law4 ,in ,august1 #ahfg1 he asked ,secretary-of-,war ,stanton to resign1 and when ,stanton refused1 suspended him4 ,the ,senate disapproved and reinstated ,stanton4 ,but ,johnson then removed him and appointed another man in his place4 ,for this act1 and for his speeches against ,congress1 the ,house impeached the ,president1 and the ,senate tried him1 for high crimes and misdemeanors4 ,he was not found guilty4 #f ,illustration3 ,,republican ,,cartoon ,,of #ahfh4 ,blood will tell3 ,the great race for the presidential sweepstakes1 between the ,western ,war ,horse ,u4 ,s4 ,grant and the ,manhattan ,donkey4 ,,grant ,,elected ,,president1 #ahfh4--;,in the midst of ,johnson's quarrel with ,congress the time came to elect his successor4 ,the ,democratic party nominated ,horatio ,seymour4 ,the ,republicans chose ,ulysses ,s4 ,grant and elected him4 ,grant's first term is memorable because of the adoption of the ,fifteenth ,amendment2 the restoration to the ,union of the last four of the former ,confederate states1 ,virginia1 ,georgia1 ,mississippi1 and ,texas2 the disorder in the ,south2 and the character of our foreign relations4 ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,amendment4--,encouraged by their success at the polls1 the ,republicans went on with the work of reconstruction1 and 7in ,february1 #ahfi7 ,congress sent out the ,fifteenth ,amendment to the ,constitution4 ,by the ,fourteenth ,amendment the states were left 7as before7 to settle for themselves who should and who should not vote4 ,but if any state denied or in any way abridged the right of any portion of its male citizens over twenty-one years old to vote1 ,congress was to reduce the number of representatives from that state in ,congress in the same proportion4 ,but now by the ,fifteenth ,amendment each state was forbidden to deprive any man of the right to vote because of his race1 color1 or previous condition of servitude4 ,in ,march1 #ahgj1 the amendment went into force1 having been ratified by a sufficient number of states4 ,,carpetbag ,,rule4--,president ,grant began his administration in troubled times4 ,the ,reconstruction ,act had secured the negro the right to vote4 ,many ,southern states were thereby given over to negro rule4 ,seeing this1 a swarm of ,northern politicians called carpetbaggers went south1 made themselves political leaders of the ignorant freedmen1 and plundered and misgoverned the states4 ,in this they were aided by a few ,southerners who supported the negro cause and were called scalawags4 ,but most of the ,southern whites were determined to stop the misgovernment2 and1 banded together in secret societies1 called by such names as ,knights of the ,white ,camelia1 and the ,ku-,klux-,klan1 they terrorized the negroes and kept them from voting4 #g ,,force ,,act4--,such intimidation was in violation of the ,fifteenth ,amendment4 ,congress therefore enacted the ,ku-,klux ,act1 or ,force ,act 7#ahga71 which prescribed fine and imprisonment for any one convicted of hindering or attempting to hinder a negro from voting1 or his vote when cast from being counted4 ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,liberal ,,republicans4--,the troubles which followed the enforcement of this act led many to think that the government had gone too far1 and a more liberal treatment of the ,south was demanded4 ,many complained that the civil service of the government was used to reward party workers1 and that fitness for office was not duly considered4 ,there was opposition to the high tariff4 ,these and other causes now split the ,republican party in the ,west and led to the formation of the ,liberal ,republican party4 ,illustration3 ,,cartoon ,,of #ahfb4 ,say1 ,missus ,mexico1 me and these other gents 'ave come to nurse you a bit4 #h ,,foreign ,,relations4--,our foreign relations since the close of the ,civil ,war present many matters of importance4 ,in #ahfg ,alaska #i was purchased from ,russia for #g1bjj1jjj4 ,at the opening of the war ,france sent troops to ,mexico1 overthrew the government1 and set up an empire with ,maximilian1 ,archduke of ,austria1 as emperor4 ,this was a violation of the ,monroe ,doctrine 7p4 #bhb74 ,when the war was over1 therefore1 troops were sent to the ,rio ,grande1 and a demand was made on ,france to recall her troops4 ,the ,french army was withdrawn1 and ,maximilian was captured by the ,mexicans and shot4 ,these things happened while ,johnson was ,president4 ,,santo ,,domingo4--,in #ahfi ,grant negotiated a treaty for the annexation of the negro republic of ,santo ,domingo1 and urged the ,senate to ratify it4 ,when the ,senate failed to do so1 he made a second appeal1 with a like result4 ,,alabama ,,claims4--,in #ahga the treaty of ,washington was signed1 by which several outstanding subjects of dispute with ,great ,britain were submitted to arbitration4 7#a7 ,chief of these were the ,alabama claims for damage to the property of our citizens by the ,confederate cruisers built or purchased in ,great ,britain4 #aj ,the five #aa arbitrators met at ,geneva in #ahgb and awarded us #ae1ejj1jjj in gold as indemnity4 7#b7 ,a dispute over the northeastern fisheries #ab was referred to a commission which met at ,halifax and awarded ,great ,britain #e1ejj1jjj4 7#c7 ,the same treaty provided that a dispute over a part of the northwest boundary should be submitted to the emperor of ,germany as arbitrator4 ,he decided in favor of our claim1 thus confirming our possession of the small ,san ,juan group of islands1 in the channel between ,vancouver and the mainland4 ,,cuba4--,in #ahfh the people of ,cuba rebelled against ,spain1 proclaimed a republic1 and began a war which lasted nearly ten years4 ,american ships were seized1 our citizens arrested2 ,american property in ,cuba was destroyed or confiscated2 and our ports were used to fit out filibusters to aid the ,cubans4 ,because of these things and the sympathy felt in our country for the ,cubans1 ,grant made offers of mediation1 which ,spain declined4 ,as the war continued1 the question of giving the ,cubans rights of belligerents1 and recognizing their independence1 was urged on ,congress4 ,while these issues were undecided1 a vessel called the ,virginius1 flying our flag1 was seized by ,spain as a filibuster1 and fifty-three of her passengers and crew were put to death 7#ahgc74 ,war seemed likely to follow2 but ,spain released the ship and survivors1 and later paid #hj1jjj to the families of the murdered men4 ,,summary #a4 ,the end of the ,civil ,war brought up several issues for settlement4 #b4 ,out of the negro problem came the ,thirteenth1 ,fourteenth1 and ,fifteenth amendments to the ,constitution4 #c4 ,out of the issue of readmitting the ,confederate states into the ,union grew a serious quarrel with ,president ,johnson4 #d4 ,congress passed the ,reconstruction ,act over ,johnson's veto 7#ahfg71 and by #ahfh seven states were back in the ,union4 #e4 ,johnson's intemperate speeches and his violation of an act of ,congress led to his impeachment and trial4 ,he was not convicted4 #f4 ,johnson was succeeded by ,grant1 in whose administration the remaining ,southern states were readmitted to the ,union2 but the condition of the ,south1 under carpetbag government1 became worse than ever1 and led to the passage of the ,force ,act4 #g4 ,our foreign relations after the end of the war are memorable for the purchase of ,alaska1 the withdrawal of the ,french from ,mexico1 the treaty with ,great ,britain for the settlement of several old issues1 the attempt of ,grant to purchase ,santo ,domingo1 and the ,virginius affair with ,spain4 ,,footnotes #a ,a closely related question was1 ,what shall be done for the negroes set free by the ,emancipation ,proclamation8 ,during the war1 as the ,union armies occupied more and more of ,confederate territory1 the number of freedmen within the lines grew to hundreds of thousands4 ,many were enlisted as soldiers1 others were settled on abandoned or confiscated lands1 and societies were organized to aid them4 ,in #ahfe1 however1 ,congress established the ,freedmen's ,bureau to care for them4 ,tracts of confiscated land were set apart to be granted in forty-acre plots1 and the bureau was to find the negroes work1 establish schools for them1 and protect them from injustice4 #b ,when the eleven ,southern states passed their ordinances of secession1 they claimed to be out of the ,union4 ,as to this there were in the ,north three different views4 7#a7 ,lincoln held that no state could secede2 that the people of the seceding states were insurgents or persons engaged in rebellion2 that when the rebellion was crushed in any state1 loyal persons could again elect senators and representatives1 and thus resume their old relations to the ,union4 7#b7 ,others held that these states had ceased to exist2 that nothing but their territory remained1 and that ,congress could do what it pleased with this territory4 7#c7 ,between these extremes were most of the ,republican leaders1 who held that these states had lost their rights under the ,constitution1 and that only ,congress could restore them to the ,union4 #c ,andrew ,johnson was born in ,north ,carolina in #ahjh4 ,he never went to school1 and when ten years old was apprenticed to a tailor4 ,when eighteen1 he went to ,tennessee1 where he married and was taught to read and write by his wife4 ,he was a man of ability1 was three years alderman and three years mayor of ,greenville1 was three times elected a member of the legislature1 six times a member of ,congress1 and twice governor of ,tennessee4 ,when the war opened1 he was a ,democratic senator from ,tennessee1 and stoutly opposed secession4 ,in #ahfb ,lincoln made him military governor of ,tennessee4 ,in #ahge he was again elected ,united ,states senator1 but died the same year4 #d ,some of these bonds 7issued after ,march1 #ahfc7 contained the provision that they should be paid in coin4 ,but others 7issued in #ahfb7 merely provided that the interest should be paid in coin4 ,now1 greenbacks were legal tender for all debts except duties on imports and interest on the bonds4 ,a demand was therefore made that the early bonds should be paid in greenbacks2 also that all government bonds 7which had been exempted from taxation7 should be taxed like other property4 ,this idea was so popular in ,ohio that it was called the ,ohio idea1 and its supporters were nicknamed ,greenbackers4 ,to put an end to this question ,congress 7#ahfi7 provided that all bonds should be paid in coin4 #e ,this ,tenure of ,office ,act was afterward repealed 7partly in #ahfi1 and partly in #ahhg74 #f ,there have been eight cases of impeachment of officers of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,house begins by sending a committee to the ,senate to impeach1 or accuse1 the officer in question4 ,the ,senate then organizes itself as a court with the ,vice ,president as the presiding officer1 and fixes the time for trial4 ,the ,house presents articles of impeachment1 or specific charges of misconduct1 and appoints a committee to take charge of its side of the case4 ,the accused is represented by lawyers1 witnesses are examined1 arguments made1 and the decision rendered by vote of the senators4 ,when a ,president is impeached1 the ,chief ,justice of the ,supreme ,court presides in place of the ,vice ,president4 #g ,read ,a ,fool's ,errand1 by ,a4 ,w4 ,tourge1 and ,red ,rock1 by ,thomas ,nelson ,page--two interesting novels describing life in the ,south during this period4 #h ,when ,france first interfered in ,mexican affairs1 it was in conjunction with ,great ,britain and ,spain1 on the pretext of aiding ,mexico to provide for her debts to these powers4 ,but when ,france proceeded to overthrow the ,mexican government1 ,great ,britain and ,spain withdrew4 #i ,soon after the purchase a few small ,alaskan islands were leased to a fur company for twenty years1 and during that time nearly #g1jjj1jjj was paid into the ,united ,states treasury as rental and royalty4 ,besides seals and fish1 much gold has been obtained in ,alaska4 #aj ,the cruisers were the ,alabama1 ,sumter1 ,shenandoah1 ,florida1 and others 7p4 #cgh74 ,we claimed that ,great ,britain had not done her duty as a neutral2 that she ought to have prevented their building1 arming1 or equipping in her ports and sailing to destroy the commerce of a friendly nation1 and that1 not having done so1 she was responsible for the damage they did4 ,we claimed damages for 7#a7 private losses by destruction of ships and cargoes2 7#b7 high rates of insurance paid by citizens2 7#c7 cost of pursuing the cruisers2 7#d7 transfer of ,american merchant ships to the ,british flag2 7#e7 prolongation of the war because of recognition of the ,confederate ,states as belligerents1 and the resulting cost to us4 ,great ,britain denied that #b1 #c1 #d1 and #e were subject to arbitration1 and it looked for a while as if the arbitration would come to naught4 ,the tribunal decided against #b1 #d1 and #e on principles of international law1 and made no award for #c4 #aa ,one was appointed by the ,president1 one by ,great ,britain1 one by the ,king of ,italy1 one by the ,president of the ,swiss ,confederation1 and one by the ,emperor of ,brazil4 ,in #agid-aijd there were fifty-seven cases submitted to arbitration1 of which twenty were with ,great ,britain4 #ab ,the question was1 whether the privilege granted citizens of the ,united ,states to catch fish in the harbors1 bays1 creeks1 and shores of the provinces of ,quebec1 ,new ,brunswick1 ,nova ,scotia1 and ,prince ,edward ,island was more valuable than the privilege granted ,british subjects to catch fish in harbors1 bays1 creeks1 and off the coast of the ,united ,states north of #ci4 ,the commission decided that it was4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,country ,,from #ahfj ,,to #ahhj ,,the ,,west4--,in #ahfj the great ,west bore little resemblance to its present appearance4 ,the only states wholly or partly west of the ,mississippi ,river were ,minnesota1 ,iowa1 ,missouri1 ,arkansas4 ,louisiana1 ,texas1 ,california1 and ,oregon4 ,kansas territory extended from ,missouri to the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,nebraska territory included the region from ,kansas to the ,british possessions1 and from ,minnesota and ,iowa to the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,new ,mexico territory stretched from ,texas to ,california1 ,utah territory from the ,rocky ,mountains to ,california1 and ,washington territory from the mountains to the ,pacific4 ,illustration3 ,,scene ,,in ,a ,,mining ,,town4 ,deadwood1 ,dakota1 in the '#gj's4 ,,gold ,,and ,,silver ,,mining4--,one decade1 however1 completely changed the ,west4 ,in #aheh gold was discovered on the eastern slope of the ,rocky ,mountains1 near ,pikes ,peak2 gold hunters rushed thither1 ,denver was founded1 and in #ahfa ,colorado was made a territory4 ,kansas1 reduced to its present limits1 was admitted as a state the same year1 and the northern part of ,nebraska territory was cut off and called ,dakota territory 7map1 p4 #ceb74 ,in #ahei silver was discovered on ,mount ,davidson 7then in western ,utah71 and population poured thither4 ,virginia ,city sprang into existence1 and in #ahfa ,nevada was made a territory and in #ahfd1 with enlarged boundaries1 was admitted into the ,union as a state4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,west4 ,precious metals were found in #ahfb in what was then eastern ,washington2 the old ,fort ,boise of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company became a thriving town1 other settlements were made1 and in #ahfc the territory of ,idaho was organized4 ,in the same year ,arizona was cut off from ,new ,mexico4 ,hardly had this been done when gold was found on the ,jefferson fork of the ,missouri ,river4 ,bannack ,city1 ,virginia ,city1 and ,helena were founded1 and in #ahfd ,montana was made a territory4 #a ,in #ahfg ,nebraska became a state1 and the next year ,wyoming territory was formed4 ,,overland ,,trails4--,when ,lincoln was inaugurated in #ahfa1 no railroad crossed the plains4 ,the horse1 the stagecoach1 the pack train1 the prairie schooner1 #b were the means of transportation1 and but few routes of travel were well defined4 ,the ,great ,salt ,lake and ,california trail1 starting in ,kansas1 followed the north branch of the ,platte ,river to the mountains1 crossed the ,south ,pass1 and went on by way of ,salt ,lake ,city to ,sacramento4 ,over this line1 once each week1 a four-horse ,concord coach #c started from each end of the route4 ,from ,independence in ,missouri another line of coaches carried the mail over the old ,santa ,fe trail to ,new ,mexico4 ,the great ,western mail route began at ,st4 ,louis1 went across ,missouri and ,arkansas1 curved southward to ,el ,paso in ,texas1 and then by way of the ,gila ,river to ,los ,angeles and ,san ,francisco2 the distance of #bgbi miles was covered in twenty-four days4 #d ,illustration3 ,,overland ,,mail ,,coach ,,starting ,,from ,,san ,,francisco ,,for ,,the ,,east ,,in #aheh4 ,contemporary drawing4 ,,pony ,,express4--,this was too slow for business men1 and in #ahfj the stage company started the ,pony ,express to carry letters on horseback from ,st4 ,joseph to ,san ,francisco4 ,mounted on a swift pony1 the rider1 a brave1 cool-headed1 picked man1 would gallop at breakneck speed to the first relay station1 jump on the back of another pony and speed away to the second1 mount a fresh horse and be off for a third4 ,at the third station he would find a fresh rider mounted1 who1 the moment the mail bags had been fastened to his horse1 would ride off to cover his three stations in as short a time as possible4 ,the riders left each end of the route twice a week or oftener4 ,the total distance1 about two thousand miles1 was passed over in ten days4 #e ,in the large cities of the ,east free delivery of letters by carriers was introduced 7#ahfc71 the postal money order system was adopted 7#ahfd71 and trials were made with postal cars in which the mail was sorted while en route4 ,,the ,,telegraph4--,meanwhile ,congress 7in ,june1 #ahfj7 incorporated the ,pacific ,telegraph ,company to build a line across the continent4 ,by ,november the line reached ,fort ,kearny1 where an operator was installed in a little sod hut4 ,by ,october1 #ahfa1 the two lines1 one building eastward from ,california1 and the other westward from ,omaha1 reached ,salt ,lake ,city4 ,the charge for a ten-word message from ,new ,york to ,salt ,lake ,city was #hg4ej4 ,when the telegraph line was finished1 the work of the ,pony ,express ended1 and all letters went by the overland stage line1 whose coaches entered every large mining center1 carrying passengers1 express matter1 and the mail4 #f ,,overland ,,freight4--,the discovery of gold in western ,kansas1 in #aheh1 and the founding of ,denver1 led to a great freight business across the plains4 ,flour1 bacon1 sugar1 coffee1 dry goods1 hardware1 furniture1 clothing1 came in immense quantities to ,omaha1 ,st4 ,joseph1 ,atchison1 ,leavenworth1 there to be hauled to the diggings4 ,atchison became a trade center4 ,there1 in the spring of #ahfj1 might have been seen hundreds of wagons1 and tons of goods piled on the levee1 and warehouses full of provisions1 boots1 shoes1 and clothing4 ,from it1 day after day1 went a score of prairie schooners drawn by horses1 mules1 or oxen4 #g ,,the ,,railroad4--,the idea of a railroad over the plains was1 as we have seen1 an old one2 but at last1 in #ahfb1 ,congress chartered two railroad companies to build across the public domain from the ,missouri ,river to ,california4 ,one1 the ,union ,pacific1 was to start at ,omaha and build westward4 ,the other1 the ,central ,pacific1 was to start in ,california and build eastward till the two met4 ,work was begun in ,november1 #ahfe1 and in ,may1 #ahfi1 the two lines were joined at ,promontory ,point1 near ,salt ,lake ,city4 ,as the railroad progressed1 the overland coaches plied between the ends of the two sections1 their runs growing shorter and shorter till1 when the road was finished1 the overland stagecoach was discontinued4 ,,the ,,homestead ,,law4--,when the ,union ,pacific and ,central ,pacific railroads were chartered1 they were given immense land grants2 #h but in the same year 7#ahfb7 the ,homestead ,law was enacted4 ,under the provisions of this law a farm of #hj or #afj acres in the public domain might be secured by any head of a family or person twenty-one years old who was a citizen of our country or had declared an intention to become such1 provided he or she would live on the farm and cultivate it for five years4 #i ,between #ahfc and #ahgj1 #ajc1jjj entries for #ab1jjj1jjj acres were made4 ,this showed that the people desired the land1 and was one reason why no more should be given to corporations4 ,,northern ,,pacific ,,railroad4--,in #ahfd ,congress had chartered a railroad for the new ,northwest1 and had given the company an immense land grant4 ,but building did not begin till #ahgj4 ,all went well till #ahgc1 when a great panic swept over the country and the road became bankrupt4 ,it then extended from ,duluth to ,bismarck4 ,two years later the company was reorganized1 and the road was finished in #ahhc4 #aj ,,wheat ,,fields ,,of ,,dakota4--,during the panic certain of the directors of the road bought great tracts of land from the company1 paying for them with the railroad bonds4 ,on some of these lands in the valley of the ,red ,river of the ,north an attempt was made to raise wheat in #ahgf4 ,it proved successful1 and the next year a wave of emigration set strongly toward ,dakota4 ,in #ahfj there were not #ejjj people in ,dakota2 in #ahgj there were but #ad1jjj1 mostly miners2 in #ahhj there were #ace1jjj4 ,,prairie ,,homes4--,these newcomers--homesteaders1 as they were often called-- broke up the prairie1 planted wheat1 raised sheep and cattle1 and lived at first in a dugout1 or hole dug in the side of a depression in the prairie4 ,this was roofed 7about the level of the prairie7 with thick boards covered with sods4 ,after a year or two in such a home the settler would build a sod house4 ,the walls1 two feet thick1 were made of sods cut like great bricks from the prairie4 ,the roof would be of boards covered with shingles or oftener with sods1 and the walls inside would sometimes be whitewashed4 ,near watercourses a few settlers found enough trees to make log cabins4 ,illustration3 ,,log ,,cabin ,,with ,,sod ,,roof4 ,,the ,,ranches4--,stretching across the country from ,montana and ,dakota to ,arizona lay the grass region1 the great ranch country1 where herds of cattle grazed and were driven to the railroads to be taken to market4 ,in later years this became also the greatest sheep-raising and wool-producing region in the ,union4 ,,buffaloes ,,and ,,indians4--,with the building of the railroads and the coming of the settlers the reckless slaughter of the buffalo and the crowding of the ,indians began4 #aa ,to-day the buffalo is as rare an animal in the ,west as in the ,east2 and after many wars and treaties with the ,indians1 they now hold less than one hundredth of the land west of the ,mississippi4 ,illustration3 ,,custer',s ,,fight4 ,,mechanical ,,progress4--,the period #ahfj to #ahhj was one of great mechanical and industrial progress4 ,during this time dynamite and the barbed-wire fence were introduced2 the compressed-air rock drill1 the typewriter1 the ,westinghouse air brake1 the ,janney car coupler1 the cable car1 the trolley systems1 the electric light1 the search light1 electric motors1 the ,bell telephone1 the phonograph1 the gas engine1 and a host of other inventions and mechanical devices were invented4 ,to satisfy the demands of trade and commerce1 great works of engineering were undertaken1 such as twenty years before could not have been attempted4 ,the jetties constructed by ,james ,b4 ,eads in the ,south ,pass at the mouth of the ,mississippi1 to force that river to keep open its own channel2 the steel-arch railroad bridge built by ,eads across the ,mississippi at ,st4 ,louis2 the ,roebling suspension bridges over the ,ohio at ,cincinnati and over the ,east ,river at ,new ,york2 and the successful laying of the ,atlantic cable 7#ahff7 by ,cyrus ,w4 ,field1 are a few of the great mechanical triumphs of this period4 ,,industrial ,,development4--,industries once carried on in the household or in small factories were conducted on a large scale by great corporations4 ,the machine for making tin cans made possible the canning industry4 ,the self- binding harvester and reaper made possible the immense grain fields of the ,west4 ,the production and refining of petroleum became an industry of great importance4 ,the great flour mills of ,minneapolis1 the iron and steel mills of ,pennsylvania1 the packing houses of ,chicago and ,kansas ,city1 and many other enterprises were the direct result of the use of machinery4 ,illustration3 ,,steel ,,mill4 ,,rise ,,of ,,great ,,corporations4--,trades and occupations1 industries of all sorts1 began to concentrate and combine1 and large corporations took the place of individuals and small companies4 ,in place of many little railroads there were now trunk lines4 #ab ,in place of many little telegraph companies1 express companies1 and oil companies there were now a few large ones4 ,illustration3 ,,settled ,,area ,,in #ahhj4 ,,immigration4--,this industrial development1 in spite of machinery1 could not have been so great were it not for the increase in population1 wealth1 the facilities of transportation1 and the great number of workingmen4 ,these were largely immigrants1 who came by hundreds of thousands year after year4 ,from about #ij1jjj in #ahfb1 the number who came each year rose to more than #dej1jjj in #ahgc2 and then fell to less than #aej1jjj in #ahgh4 ,the population of the whole country in #ahhj was #ej1jjj1jjj1 of whom more than #f1ejj1jjj were of foreign birth4 ,,summary #a4 ,the discovery of gold and silver near the ,rocky ,mountains in #aheh and later brought to that region many thousand miners4 #b4 ,their presence in that wild region made local government necessary1 and by #ahfh seven new territories were formed 7,colorado1 ,dakota1 ,nevada1 ,idaho1 ,arizona1 ,montana1 ,wyoming71 and one of them 7,nevada1 #ahfd7 was admitted into the ,union as a state4 #c4 ,means of communication with ,california and the far ,west were improved4 ,first came the ,pony ,express1 then the telegraph1 and finally the railroad4 #d4 ,the construction of the railroad across the middle of the country was followed by the building of another near the northern border4 #e4 ,railroad building1 the ,homestead ,law1 and the success of the ,dakota wheat farms1 led to the rapid development of the new ,northwest4 #f4 ,quite as noticeable is the mechanical and industrial progress of the country1 the rise of great corporations1 and the flood of immigrants that came to our shores each year4 ,,footnotes #a ,for descriptions of the wild life in the new ,northwest in the pioneer days read ,langford's ,vigilante ,days and ,ways4 #b ,a large wagon with a white canvas top4 #c ,a kind of heavy coach1 so called because first manufactured at ,concord1 ,new ,hampshire4 #d ,when the war opened and ,texas seceded1 this route was abandoned1 and after ,april1 #ahfa1 letters and passengers went from ,st4 ,joseph by way of ,salt ,lake ,city to ,california4 #e ,all letters had to be written on the thinnest paper1 and no more than twenty pounds' weight was allowed in each of the two pouches4 ,the trail was infested with road agents 7robbers71 and roving bands of ,indians were ever ready to murder and scalp2 but in summer and winter1 by day and night1 over the plains and over the mountains1 these brave men made their dangerous rides1 carrying no arms save a revolver and a knife4 ,each letter had to be inclosed in a ten-cent stamped envelope and have on it in addition for each half ounce five one-dollar stamps of the ,pony ,express ,company4 ,the story of the ,pony ,express is told in ,henry ,inman's ,great ,salt ,lake ,trail1 ,chap4 viii4 #f ,as the government had no post offices in the mining camps1 the stage company became the postmasters1 delivered the letters1 and charged twenty- five cents for each4 ,sometimes the owner of a little store in a remote mountain camp would act as postmaster1 and charge a high price for sending letters to or bringing them from the nearest stage station4 ,one such used a barrel for the letter box1 and sent the mail once a month4 ,a hole was cut in the head of the barrel1 and beside it was posted a notice which read3 ,this is a ,post ,office4 ,shove a quarter through the hole with your letter4 ,we have no use for stamps as ,i carry the mail4 #g ,the lighter articles went in wagons drawn by four or six horses or mules1 the heavier in great wagons drawn by six and eight yoke of oxen1 which made the trip to ,denver in five weeks4 ,the cost of provisions brought in this way was very great4 ,thus in #ahfe1 in ,helena1 ,montana1 flour sold for #he a sack of one hundred pounds4 ,potatoes cost fifty cents in gold a pound1 and coal oil1 at ,virginia ,city1 #aj in gold a gallon4 ,board and lodgings rose in proportion1 and it was not uncommon to see posted in the boarding houses such notices as this3 ,board with bread at meals1 #cb2 board without bread1 #bb4 ,read ,hough's ,the ,way to the ,west1 pp4 #bjj-bba4 #h ,every other section in a strip of land twenty miles wide along the entire length of the railroad4 ,the government had always been liberal in granting land to aid in the construction of roads1 canals1 and railroads1 and between #ahbg and #ahfj had given away for such purposes #bae1jjj1jjj acres4 ,had these acres been in one great tract it would have been seven times as large as ,pennsylvania4 ,in #ahfb ,congress also added to its grants for educational purposes 7p4 #cja7 by giving to each state from #ij1jjj to #iij1jjj acres of public land in aid of a college for teaching agriculture and the mechanical arts4 #i ,for conditions on which land could be secured before this1 see p4 #cjb4 #aj ,the history of the railroads across the continent is told in ,cy4 ,warman's ,story of the ,railroad2 for the ,northern ,pacific1 read pp4 #agi-aif4 #aa ,white men eager for land invaded the ,indian reservations2 acts of violence were frequent1 and shameful frauds were perpetrated by the agents of the government4 ,the ,indians1 in retaliation1 killed settlers and ran off horses1 mules1 and cattle4 ,there were uprisings of the ,sioux in ,minnesota 7#ahfb7 and in ,montana 7#ahff72 but the worst offenders were the ,apaches of ,arizona1 and against them ,general ,crook waged war in #ahgb4 ,toward the close of #ahgb the ,modocs left their reservation in ,oregon1 took refuge in the ,lava ,beds in northern ,california1 and defied the troops sent to drive them back4 ,general ,canby and several others were treacherously murdered at a conference 7#ahgc71 and a war of several months' duration followed before the ,modocs were forced to surrender4 ,in #ahgd the ,cheyennes 7she-enz'71 enraged at the slaughter of the buffaloes by the whites1 made cattle raids1 and more fighting ensued4 ,an attempt to remove the ,sioux to a new reservation led to yet another war in #ahgf1 in which ,lieutenant- ,colonel ,custer and his force of #bfb men were massacred in ,montana4 ,read ,longfellow's poem ,the ,revenge of ,rain-in-the-,face4 #ab ,thus 7#ahfi7 the ,new ,york ,central 7from ,albany to ,buffalo7 and the ,hudson ,river 7from ,new ,york to ,albany7 were combined and formed one railroad under one management from ,new ,york to ,buffalo4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,a ,,quarter ,,century ,,of ,,struggle ,,over ,,industrial ,,questions1 #ahgb ,,to #ahig ,,the ,,national ,,labor ,,party4--,the changed industrial conditions of the period #ahfj-hj affected politics1 and after #ahfh the questions which divided parties became more and more industrial and financial4 ,the rise of the national labor party and its demands shows this very strongly4 ,ever since #ahbi the workingman had been in politics in some of the states1 and had secured many reforms4 ,but no national labor congress was held till #ahfe1 after which like congresses were held each year till #ahgj1 when a national convention was called to form a ,national ,labor-,reform ,party4 ,the demands of the party thus formed 7#ahgb7 were for taxation of government bonds 7p4 #chg72 repeal of the national banking system 7p4 #chb72 an eight-hour working day2 exclusion of the ,chinese2 #a and no land grants to corporations 7p4 #cih74 ,at every presidential election since this time1 nominations have been made by one or more labor parties4 ,,the ,,prohibition ,,party4--,another party which first nominated presidential candidates in #ahgb was that of the ,prohibitionists4 ,after much agitation of temperance reform1 #b efforts were made to prohibit the sale of liquor entirely1 and between #ahea and #ahee eight states adopted prohibitory laws4 ,then the movement subsided for a while1 but in #ahfi it began again and in that year the ,national ,prohibition ,reform party was founded4 ,in #ahgb its platform called for the suppression of the sale of intoxicating liquor1 and for a long series of other reforms4 ,every four years since that time the ,prohibition party has named its candidates4 ,,grant ,,reflected4--,in #ahgb no great importance was attached to either of these parties 7the ,labor and the ,prohibition74 ,the contest lay between ,general ,grant1 the ,republican candidate for ,president1 and ,horace ,greeley1 #c the ,liberal ,republican nominee 7p4 #cij71 who was supported also by most of the ,democrats4 ,grant was elected by a large majority4 ,,the ,,panic ,,of #ahgc4--,scarcely had ,grant been reinaugurated when a serious panic swept over the country4 ,the period since the war had been one of great prosperity1 wild speculation1 and extraordinary industrial development4 ,since #ahfi some #bd1jjj miles of railroad had been built4 ,but in the midst of all this prosperity1 the city of ,chicago was almost destroyed by fire 7#ahga71 #d and the next year a large part of the city of ,boston was burned4 ,this led to a demand for money to rebuild them4 ,many speculative enterprises failed4 ,the railroads that were being built ahead of population1 in order to open up new lands1 could not sell their bonds1 and when a banker who was backing one of the railroads failed1 the panic started4 ,thousands of business men failed1 and the wages of workingmen were cut down4 ,,the ,,specie ,,payment ,,act4--,the cry was then raised for more money1 and 7in #ahgd7 ,congress attempted to increase1 or inflate1 the amount of greenbacks in circulation from #cef1jjj1jjj to #djj1jjj1jjj4 ,grant vetoed the bill4 ,what shall be done with the currency8 then became the question of the hour4 ,paper money was still circulating at less than its face value as measured in coin4 ,to make it worth face value1 ,congress 7#ahge7 decided to resume specie payment2 that is1 the fractional currency was to be called in and redeemed in #aj1 #be1 and #ej cent silver pieces2 and after ,january #a1 #ahgi1 all greenbacks were to be redeemed in specie4 ,,political ,,parties ,,in #ahgf4 #e--,this policy of resumption of specie payment did not please everybody4 ,a ,greenback party was formed1 which called for the repeal of the ,specie ,payment ,act and for the issue of more greenbacks4 ,that the presidential election would be close was certain1 and this certainty did much to lead the ,democratic and ,republican parties to take up some of the demands of the ,prohibition1 ,liberal ,republican1 and ,labor parties4 ,thus both the ,democratic and ,republican parties called for no more land grants to corporations1 and for the exclusion of the ,chinese4 ,illustration3 ,,memorial ,,hall1 ,,philadelphia4 ,,the ,,election ,,of #ahgf4--,the ,republican candidate for ,president was ,rutherford ,b4 ,hayes2 #f the ,democratic candidate was ,samuel ,j4 ,tilden4 ,the admission of ,colorado in ,august1 #ahgf1 made thirty-eight states1 casting #cfi electoral votes4 ,a candidate to be elected therefore needed at least #ahe electoral votes4 ,so close was the contest that the election of ,hayes was claimed by exactly #ahe votes4 ,this number included the votes of ,south ,carolina1 ,florida1 ,louisiana1 and ,oregon1 in each of which a dispute was raging as to whether ,republican or ,democratic electors were chosen4 ,both sets claimed to have been elected1 and both met and voted4 ,,electoral ,,commission4--,the electoral votes of the states are counted in the presence of the ,house and ,senate4 ,the question then became1 ,which of these duplicate sets shall ,congress count8 ,to determine the question an electoral commission of fifteen members was created4 #g ,it decided that the votes of the ,republican electors ,in the four states should be counted1 and ,hayes was therefore declared elected4 #h ,,end ,,of ,,carpetbag ,,governments4--,the inauguration of ,hayes was followed by the recall of ,united ,states troops from the ,south1 and the downfall of carpetbag governments in ,south ,carolina and ,louisiana4 ,during the first half of ,hayes's term the4 ,democrats had control of the ,house of ,representatives1 and during the second half1 of the ,senate as well4 ,as a result1 proposed partisan measures either failed to pass ,congress1 or were vetoed by the ,president4 ,,the ,,year #ahgg was one of great business depression4 ,a strike on the ,baltimore and ,ohio ,railroad in the summer of #ahgg spread to other railroads and became almost an industrial insurrection4 ,traffic was stopped1 millions of dollars' worth of freight cars1 machine shops1 and other property was destroyed1 and in the battles fought around ,pittsburg many lives were lost4 #i ,failures were numerous2 in #ahgh more business men failed than in the panic year #ahgc4 ,,silver ,,coinage4--,for much of this business depression the financial policy of the government was blamed1 and when ,congress assembled in #ahgg1 this policy was at once attacked4 ,an attempt to repeal the act for resuming specie payment 7p4 #djh7 was made1 but failed4 #aj ,another measure1 however1 concerning silver coinage1 was more successful4 ,congress had dropped 7#ahgc7 the silver dollar from the list of coins to be made at the mint4 #aa ,soon afterward the silver mines of ,nevada began to yield astonishingly1 and the price of silver fell4 ,this led to a demand 7by inflationists and silver-producers7 that the silver dollar should again be coined2 and in #ahgh ,congress passed 7over ,hayes's veto7 the ,bland-,allison ,act1 which required the ,secretary of the ,treasury to buy not less than #b1jjj1jjj nor more than #d1jjj1jjj worth of silver bullion each month and coin it into dollars4 #ab ,,the ,,chinese ,,must ,,go4--,another act vetoed by ,hayes was intended to stop the coming of ,chinese to our country4 ,in #ahgg an anti-,chinese movement was begun in ,san ,francisco by the workingmen led by ,dennis ,kearney4 ,open-air meetings were held1 and the demand for ,chinese exclusion was urged so vigorously that ,congress 7#ahgi7 passed an act restricting ,chinese immigration4 ,hayes vetoed this as violating our treaty with ,china1 but 7#ahhj7 negotiated a new treaty which provided that ,congress might regulate the immigration of ,chinese laborers4 ,,the ,,election ,,of #ahhj2 ,,death ,,of ,,garfield4--,in #ahhj there were again several parties1 but the contest was between the ,republicans with ,james ,a4 ,garfield #ac and ,chester ,a4 ,arthur as candidates for ,president and ,vice ,president1 and the ,democrats with ,winfield ,s4 ,hancock and ,william ,h4 ,english as leaders4 ,garfield and ,arthur were elected1 and on ,march #d1 #ahha1 were duly inaugurated4 ,four months later1 as the ,president stood in a railway station in ,washington1 a disappointed office seeker shot him in the back4 ,after his death 7,september #ai1 #ahha7 ,chester ,a4 ,arthur became ,president4 #ad ,,important ,,laws1 #ahha-he4--;,all parties had called for anti-,chinese legislation4 ,the long-desired act was accordingly passed by ,congress1 excluding the ,chinese from our country for a period of twenty years4 ,arthur vetoed it as contrary to our treaty with ,china4 ,an act suspending the immigration of ,chinese laborers for ten years was then passed and became law2 similar acts have been passed from time to time since then4 ,the ,republicans 7and ,prohibitionists7 had demanded the suppression of polygamy in ,utah and the neighboring territories4 ,another law 7the ,edmunds ,act1 #ahhb7 was therefore enacted for this end4 #ae ,the murder of ,garfield aroused a general demand for civil service reform4 ,the ,pendleton ,act 7#ahhc7 was therefore enacted to secure appointment to office on the ground of fitness1 not party service4 #af ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cruiser ,,boston4 ,,the ,,new ,,navy4--,after the close of the ,civil ,war our navy was suffered to fall into neglect and decay4 ,the thirty-seven cruisers1 all but four of which were of wood2 the fourteen single-turreted monitors built during the war2 the muzzle-loading guns1 belonged to a past age4 ,by #ahha this was fully realized and the foundation of a new and splendid navy was begun by the construction of three unarmored cruisers--the ,atlanta1 ,boston1 and ,chicago4 ,once started1 the new navy grew rapidly1 and in the course of twelve years forty-seven vessels were afloat or on the stocks4 #ag ,,new ,,reforms ,,demanded4--,meantime the wonderful development of our country caused a demand for further reforms4 ,the chief employers of labor were corporations and capitalists1 many of whom abused the power their wealth gave them4 ,they were accused of importing laborers under contract and thereby keeping wages down1 of getting special privileges from legislatures1 and of combining to fix prices to suit themselves4 ,in the campaign of #ahhd1 therefore1 these issues came to the front1 and demands were made for 7#a7 legislation against the importation of contract labor1 7#b7 regulation of interstate commerce1 especially as carried on by railways1 7#c7 government ownership of telegraphs and railways1 7#d7 reduction of the hours of labor1 7#e7 bureaus to collect and spread information as to labor4 ,illustration3 ,,grover ,,cleveland4 ,,the ,,election ,,of #ahhd4--,the ,republicans nominated ,james ,g4 ,blaine for ,president2 the ,democrats1 ,grover ,cleveland4 #ah ,the nomination of ,blaine gave offense to many ,republicans2 they took the name of ,independents and supported ,cleveland1 who was elected4 ,,important ,,laws1 #ahhe-hi4 #ai--;,as the two great parties1 ,democratic and ,republican1 had each favored the passage of certain laws demanded by the labor parties1 these reforms were now obtained4 #a4 ,an ,anti-,contract-,labor ,law 7#ahhe7 forbade any person1 company1 or corporation to bring aliens into the ,united ,states under contract to perform labor or service4 #b4 ,an ,interstate ,commerce ,act 7#ahhg7 provided for a commission whose duty it is to see that all charges for the carriage of passengers or freight are reasonable and just1 and that no unfair special rates are made for favored shippers4 #c4 ,a ,bureau of ,labor was established and put in charge of a commissioner whose duty it is to diffuse among the people of the ,united ,states useful information on subjects connected with labor4 ,such bureaus or departments already existed in many of the states4 ,,the ,,surplus4--,these old issues disposed of1 the continued growth and prosperity of our country brought up new ones4 ,for some time past the revenue of the government had so exceeded its expenses that on ,december #a1 #ahhg1 there was a surplus of #ej1jjj1jjj in the treasury4 ,six months later this had risen to #ajc1jjj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,statue ,,of ,,liberty4 ,three plans were suggested for disposing of the surplus4 ,some thought it should be distributed among the states as in #ahcg4 ,some were for buying government bonds and so reducing the national debt4 ,others urged a reduction of the annual revenue by cutting down the tariff rates4 ,the ,president in his message in #ahhg asked for such a reduction1 and in #ahhh the ,house passed a new tariff bill which the ,senate rejected4 ,,the ,,campaign ,,of #ahhh4--;,in the campaign of #ahhh1 therefore1 the tariff issue came to the front4 ,the ,democrats renominated ,grover ,cleveland for ,president1 and called for a tariff for revenue only1 and for no more revenue than was needed to pay the cost of economical government4 ,the ,republicans nominated ,benjamin ,harrison #bj on a platform favoring a protective tariff1 and elected him4 ,,new ,,states4--,both the great parties had called for the admission of new states4 ,just before the end of ,cleveland's term1 therefore1 an enabling act was passed for ,north and ,south ,dakota1 ,washington1 and ,montana1 which were accordingly admitted to the ,union a few months later 7#ahhi74 ,idaho and ,wyoming were admitted the following year 7#ahij71 and ,utah in #ahif4 ,,new ,,laws ,,of #ahij4--,the administration of affairs having again passed to the ,republican party1 it enacted the ,mc,kinley ,tariff ,law1 which slightly raised the average rate of duties2 the ,sherman ,anti-,trust ,act1 forbidding combinations to restrain trade2 and a new financial measure which also bore the name of ,senator ,sherman4 ,the law 7p4 #dji7 requiring the purchase and coinage of at least #b1jjj1jjj worth of silver bullion each month did not satisfy the silver men4 ,they wanted a free-coinage law1 giving any man the privilege of having his silver coined into dollars 7p4 #bbd74 ,as they had a majority of the ,senate1 they passed a free-coinage bill1 but the ,house rejected it4 ,a conference followed1 and the so-called ,sherman ,act was passed1 increasing the amount of silver to be bought each month by the government4 #ba ,,the ,,congressional ,,election ,,of #ahij4--,the effect of the increased tariff rates1 the ,sherman ,act1 and large expenditures by ,congress was at once apparent1 and in the congressional election of #ahij the ,republicans were beaten4 ,the ,democratic minority in the ,house of ,representatives was turned into a great majority1 and in both ,house and ,senate appeared members of a new party called the ,farmers' ,alliance4 #bb ,,presidential ,,campaign ,,of #ahib4--,the success of the ,alliance men in the election of #ahij1 and the conviction that neither the ,democrats nor the ,republicans would further all their demands1 led to a meeting of ,alliance and ,labor leaders in ,may1 #ahia1 and the formation of the ,people's ,party of the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,in #ahib this ,people's ,party1 or the ,populists1 as they were called1 nominated ,james ,b4 ,weaver for ,president1 cast a million votes1 and secured the election of four senators and eleven representatives in ,congress4 ,the ,republicans renominated ,harrison for ,president4 ,but the ,democrats secured majorities in the ,house and the ,senate1 and elected ,cleveland4 #bc ,,the ,,panic ,,of #ahic4--,when ,cleveland's second inauguration took place1 ,march #d1 #ahic1 our country had already entered a period of panic and business depression4 ,trade had fallen off4 ,money was hard to borrow4 ,foreigners who held our stocks and bonds sought to sell them1 and a great amount of gold was drawn to ,europe4 ,so bad did business conditions become that the ,president called ,congress to meet in special session in ,august to remedy matters4 ,the silver dollars coined by the government were issued and accepted by the government at their face value1 and circulated on a par with gold1 although the price of silver bullion had fallen so low that the metal in a silver dollar was worth less than seventy cents4 ,many people believed the business panic was due to fears that the government could not much longer keep the increasing volume of silver currency at par with gold4 ,therefore ,congress repealed part of the ,sherman ,act of #ahij1 so as to stop the purchase of more silver4 ,,the ,,wilson ,,tariff4--,the business revival which the majority of ,congress now expected1 did not come4 ,failures continued2 mills remained closed1 gold continued to leave the country1 and government receipts were #cd1jjj1jjj less than expenditures when the year ended4 ,by the close of the autumn of #ahic1 hundreds of thousands of people were out of employment and many in want4 ,in this condition of affairs ,congress met in regular session 7,december1 #ahic74 ,the ,democrats were in control of both branches1 and were pledged to revise the tariff4 ,a bill was therefore passed1 cutting down some of the tariff rates 7the ,wilson ,act74 #bd ,nobody expected that the revised tariff would yield enough money to meet the expenses of the government4 ,one section of the law therefore provided that all yearly incomes above #djjj should be taxed two per cent4 ,though ,congress had levied an income tax thirty years before1 its right to do so was now denied by many1 and the ,supreme ,court decided 7#ahie7 that the income tax was unconstitutional4 #be ,,australian ,,ballot4--,one great reform which must not go unnoticed was the introduction of the ,australian or secret ballot4 ,the purpose of this system of voting1 first used in ,australia1 is to enable the voter to prepare his ballot in a booth by himself and deposit it without any one knowing for whom he votes4 ,the system was first used in our country in ,massachusetts and in ,louisville1 ,kentucky1 in #ahhh4 ,so successful was it that ten states adopted it the next year1 and by #ahid it was in use in all but seven of the forty-four states4 ,,negroes ,,disfranchised4--,six of the seven were ,southern states where negroes were numerous4 ,after the fall of the carpetbag governments1 illegal means were often used to keep negroes from the polls and prevent negro domination in these states4 ,later legal methods were tried instead3 the payment of taxes1 and sometimes such an educational qualification as the ability to read1 were required of voters2 but the laws were so framed as to exclude many negroes and few whites4 ,mississippi was the first state to amend her constitution for this purpose 7#ahij71 and nearly all the ,southern states have followed her example4 #bf ,,the ,,free ,,coinage ,,issue4--,now that the treasury had ceased to buy silver1 the demand for the free coinage of silver was renewed4 ,the ,republicans in their national platform1 in #ahif1 declared against it1 whereupon thirty- four delegates from the silver states 7,idaho1 ,montana1 ,south ,dakota1 ,colorado1 ,utah1 and ,nevada7 left the convention4 ,the ,democratic party declared for free coinage1 #bg but many ,democrats 7gold ,democrats7 thereupon formed a new party1 called the ,national ,democratic1 and nominated candidates on a gold-standard platform4 ,both the great parties were thus split on the issue of free coinage of silver4 ,,the ,,campaign ,,of #ahif4--,the ,republican party nominated ,william ,mc,kinley #bh for ,president4 ,the ,democrats named ,william ,j4 ,bryan1 and he was indorsed by the ,people's party and the ,national ,silver party4 #bi ,the campaign was most exciting4 ,the country was flooded with books1 pamphlets1 handbills1 setting forth both sides of the silver issue2 ,bryan and ,mc,kinley addressed immense crowds1 and on election day #ac1ijj1jjj votes were cast4 ,mc,kinley was elected4 ,,the ,,dingley ,,tariff4--,the excitement over silver was such that in the campaign the tariff question was little considered4 ,but the ,republicans were pledged to a revision of the tariff1 and accordingly 7,july1 #ahig7 the ,dingley ,bill passed ,congress and was approved by the ,president4 ,thus in the course of seven years the change of administration from one party to the other had led to the passage of three tariff acts--the ,mc,kinley 7#ahij71 the ,wilson 7#ahid71 and the ,dingley 7#ahig74 ,,foreign ,,complications4--,it is now time to review our foreign relations during this period4 ,twice since #ahij they had brought us apparently to the verge of war4 ,,the ,,chilean ,,incident4--,in #ahia1 while the ,united ,states ship ,baltimore was in the port of ,valparaiso1 ,chile1 some sailors went on shore1 were attacked on the streets1 and one was killed and several wounded4 ,chile offered no apology and no reparation to the injured1 but instead sent an offensive note about the matter4 ,harrison1 in a message to ,congress 7#ahib71 plainly suggested war4 ,but the offensive note was withdrawn1 a proper apology was made1 and the incident ended4 ,,the ,,seal ,,fisheries4--,great ,britain and our country were long at variance over the question of ownership of seals in ,bering ,sea4 ,our purpose was to protect them from extermination by certain restrictions on seal fishing4 ,to settle our rights in the matter1 a court of arbitration was appointed and met in ,paris in #ahic4 ,the decision was against us1 but steps were taken to protect the seals from extermination4 #cj ,illustration3 ,,hawaiian ,,boats ,,with ,,outriggers4 ,,hawaii4--,just before ,harrison retired from office a revolution in the ,hawaiian ,islands drove the queen from the throne4 ,a provisional government was then established1 commissioners were dispatched to ,washington1 and a treaty for the annexation of ,hawaii to the ,united ,states was drawn up and sent to the ,senate4 ,president ,cleveland recalled the treaty and sought to have the queen restored4 ,but the ,hawaiians in control resisted and in #ahid established a republic4 ,,venezuela4--,for many years there was a dispute over the boundary line between ,british ,guiana and ,venezuela1 and in #ahie it seemed likely to involve ,venezuela in a war with ,great ,britain4 ,our government had tried to bring about a settlement by arbitration4 ,great ,britain refused to arbitrate1 and denied our right to interfere4 ,president ,cleveland insisted that under the ,monroe ,doctrine we had a right1 and in ,december1 #ahie1 asked ,congress to authorize a commission to investigate the claims of ,great ,britain4 ,this was done1 and great excitement at once arose at home and in ,great ,britain4 ,but ,great ,britain and ,venezuela soon submitted the question to arbitration4 ,,summary #a4 ,the wonderful industrial growth of our country between #ahfj and #ahhj brought up for settlement grave industrial and financial questions4 #b4 ,the failure of the two great parties to take up these questions at once1 caused the formation of many new parties1 such as the ,national ,labor1 the ,prohibition1 the ,liberal ,republican1 and the ,people's party4 #c4 ,some of their demands were enacted into laws1 as the silver coinage act1 the exclusion of the ,chinese1 the anti-contract-labor and interstate commerce acts1 the establishment of a national labor bureau1 and the antitrust act4 #d4 ,in #ahij-ig the tariff was three times revised by the ,mc,kinley1 ,wilson1 and ,dingley acts4 #e4 ,in the political world the most notable events were the contested election of #ahgf-gg2 the recall of ,united ,states troops from the ,south1 and the fall of carpetbag governments2 the assassination of ,garfield2 and the two defeats of the national ,republican ticket 7#ahhd and #ahib74 #f4 ,in the financial world the chief events were the panics of #ahgc and #ahic1 the resumption of specie payment 7#ahgi71 and the free-silver issue4 #g4 ,in the world at large we had trouble with ,chile1 ,hawaii1 and ,great ,britain4 ,,footnotes #a ,after the discovery of gold in ,california1 ,chinamen1 called coolies1 came to that state in considerable numbers4 ,but they attracted little attention till #aheb1 when the governor complained that they were sent out by ,chinese capitalists under contract1 that the gold they dug was sent to ,china1 and that they worked for wages so low that no ,american could compete with them4 ,attempts were then made to stop their importation1 especially by heavy taxes laid on them4 ,but the courts declared such taxation illegal1 and appeals were then made to ,congress for relief4 ,no action was taken2 but in #ahfh an old treaty with ,china was amended1 and to import ,chinamen without their free consent was made a penal offense4 ,this did not prevent their coming1 so the demand was made for their exclusion by act of ,congress4 #b ,in the early years of the nineteenth century liquor was a part of the workingman's wages4 ,every laborer on the farm1 in the harvest field1 every sailor1 and men employed in many of the trades1 as carpenters and masons1 demanded daily grog at the cost of the employer4 ,about #ahaj a temperance movement put an end to much of this4 ,but intemperance remained the curse of the workingman down to the days of ,van ,buren and ,tyler1 when a greater temperance movement began4 #c ,horace ,greeley was born in ,new ,hampshire in #ahaa1 and while still a lad learned the trade of printer4 ,when he went to ,new ,york in #ahca1 he was so poor that he walked the streets in search of work4 ,during the ,harrison campaign in #ahdj he edited the ,log ,cabin1 a ,whig newspaper1 and soon after the election founded the ,new ,york ,tribune4 ,in #ahdh he was elected a member of ,congress4 ,he was one of the signers of the bond which released ,jefferson ,davis from imprisonment after the ,civil ,war4 ,greeley overexerted himself in the campaign of #ahgb1 and died a few weeks after the election4 #d ,the fire is said to have been started by a cow kicking over a lamp in a small barn4 ,nearly #bbjj acres were burned over1 some #ag1dej buildings consumed1 #bjj lives were lost1 and #ih1jjj people made homeless4 #e ,the close of the first century of our national independence was the occasion of a great exposition in ,philadelphia--the first of many that have been held in our country on centennial anniversaries of great events in our history4 ,the ,philadelphia exposition was first planned as a mammoth fair for the display of the industries and arts of the ,united ,states2 but ,congress having approved the idea1 all foreign nations were invited to take part1 and thirty-three did so4 ,the main building covered some twenty acres and was devoted to the display of manufactures4 ,the exposition occupied also four other large buildings devoted to machinery1 agriculture1 etc41 of which ,horticultural ,hall and ,memorial ,hall are still standing4 #f ,rutherford ,b4 ,hayes was born in ,ohio in #ahbb1 and after graduating from ,kenyon ,college and the ,harvard ,law ,school settled at ,fremont1 ,ohio1 but soon moved to ,cincinnati4 ,at the opening of the war he joined the ,union army and by #ahfe had risen to the rank of brevet major general4 ,while still in the army1 he was elected to ,congress1 served two terms1 and was then twice elected governor of ,ohio4 ,in #ahge he was elected for a third term4 ,he died in #ahic4 #g ,the commission consisted of five senators1 five representatives1 and five justices of the ,supreme ,court2 eight were ,republicans1 and seven ,democrats4 #h ,by #ahe electoral votes against #ahd for ,tilden4 ,the popular vote at the election of #ahgf was 7according to the ,republican claim73 for ,hayes1 #d1jcc1gfh2 for ,tilden1 #d1bhe1iib2 for ,peter ,cooper 7,greenback-,labor or ,independent71 #ha1gcg2 for ,green ,clay ,smith 7,prohibition71 #iebb4 #i ,the strikers' grievances were reduction of wages1 irregular employment1 irregular payment of wages1 and forced patronage of company hotels4 ,there were riots at ,baltimore1 ,chicago1 ,reading1 and other places besides ,pittsburg2 state militia was called out to quell the disorder2 and at the request of the state governors1 ,united ,states troops were sent to ,pennsylvania1 ,maryland1 and ,west ,virginia4 #aj ,specie payment was accordingly begun on ,january #a1 #ahgi1 and then for the first time since greenbacks were made legal tender they were accepted everywhere at par with coin4 ,by the provisions of other laws1 the amount of greenbacks kept in circulation was fixed at #cdf1fha1jjj4 #aa ,the price of silver in #ahgb was such that the #dab-a_/b grains in the dollar were worth #a4jb in gold money4 ,the silver dollar was worth more as silver bullion than as money1 and was therefore little used as money4 ,this dropping of the silver dollar from the list of coins1 or ceasing to coin it1 was called the demonetization of silver4 #ab ,to carry any number of these cart-wheel dollars in the pocket would have been inconvenient1 because of their size and weight4 ,provision was therefore made that the dollars might be deposited in the ,united ,states treasury and paper silver certificates issued against them4 ,get specimens of different kinds of paper money1 read the words printed on a silver certificate1 and compare with the wording on a greenback 7,united ,states note7 and on a national bank note4 #ac ,james ,a4 ,garfield was born in ,ohio in #ahca4 ,while still a lad4 he longed to be a sailor1 and failing in this1 he became a canal boatman4 ,after a little experience as such he went back to school1 supporting himself by working as a carpenter and teaching school4 ,in #ahed he entered the junior class of ,williams ,college1 graduated in #ahef1 became a teacher in ,hiram ,institute1 was elected to the ,ohio senate in #ahei1 and joined the ,union army in #ahfa4 ,in #ahfb he was elected to ,congress1 took his seat in ,december1 #ahfc1 and continued to be a member of the ,house of ,representatives till #ahha4 #ad ,chester ,alan ,arthur was born in ,vermont in #ahcj1 graduated from ,union ,college1 became 7#ahec7 a lawyer in ,new ,york city1 and was 7#ahga-gh7 customs collector of the port of ,new ,york4 ,in #ahhj he attended the national ,republican convention as a delegate from ,new ,york1 and was one of the #cjb members of that convention who voted to the last for the renomination of ,grant4 ,after ,grant was defeated and ,garfield nominated1 ,arthur was named for the vice presidency1 in order to appease the ,stalwarts1 as the friends of ,grant were called4 #ae ,when this failed to accomplish its purpose1 ,congress 7#ahhg7 enacted another law providing heavy penalties for polygamy4 ,the ,mormon ,church then declared against the practice4 #af ,the murder of ,garfield led also to a new presidential succession law4 ,the old law provided that if both the ,president and the ,vice ,president should die1 the office should be filled temporarily by the president pro tem of the ,senate1 or if there were none1 by the speaker of the ,house of ,representatives4 ,but one ,congress expired ,march #d1 #ahha1 and the next one did not meet and elect its presiding officers till ,december2 so if ,arthur had died before then1 there would have been no one to act as ,president4 ,a new law passed in #ahhf provides that if both the presidency and the vice presidency become vacant1 the presidency shall pass to the ,secretary of ,state1 or1 if there be none1 to the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 or1 if necessary1 to the ,secretary of ,war1 ,attorney ,general1 ,postmaster ,general1 ,secretary of the ,navy1 or ,secretary of the ,interior4 #ag ,in #ahha1 ,lieutenant ,a4 ,w4 ,greely was sent to plant a station in the ,arctic regions4 ,supplies sent in #ahhb and #ahhc failed to reach him1 and alarm was felt for the safety of his party4 ,in #ahhd a rescue expedition was sent out under ,commander ,w4 ,s4 ,schley4 ,three vessels were made ready by the ,navy ,department1 and a fourth by ,great ,britain4 ,after a long search ,greely and six companions were found on the point of starvation and five were brought safely home4 ,during their stay in the ,arctic1 they had reached a point within #dcj miles of the north pole1 the farthest north any white man had then gone4 #ah ,grover ,cleveland was born in ,new ,jersey in #ahcg4 ,in #ahda his father1 a ,presbyterian minister1 removed to ,onondaga ,county1 ,new ,york1 where ,grover attended school and served as clerk in the village store4 ,later he taught for a year in the ,institute for the ,blind in ,new ,york city2 but soon began the study of law1 and settled in ,buffalo4 ,he was assistant district attorney of ,erie ,county1 sheriff and mayor of ,buffalo1 and in #ahhb1 as the ,democratic candidate for governor of ,new ,york1 carried the state by #aib1jjj plurality4 ,both when mayor and when governor he was noted for his free use of the veto power4 #ai ,in #ahhe the ,bartholdi statue of ,liberty ,enlightening the ,world was formally received at ,new ,york4 ,it was a gift from the people of ,france to the people of ,america4 ,a hundred thousand ,frenchmen contributed the money for the statue1 and the pedestal was built with money raised in the ,united ,states4 ,an island in ,new ,york harbor was chosen for the site1 and there the statue was unveiled in ,october1 #ahhf4 ,the top of ,liberty's torch is #cfe feet above low water4 ,in ,september1 #ahhf1 a severe earthquake occurred near ,charleston1 ,south ,carolina1 the vibrations of which were felt as far away as ,cape ,cod and ,milwaukee4 ,in ,charleston most of the houses were made unfit for habitation1 many persons were killed1 and some #h1jjj1jjj worth of property was destroyed4 #bj ,benjamin ,harrison1 the grandson of ,president ,william ,henry ,harrison1 was born at ,north ,bend1 ,ohio1 in #ahcc4 ,he was educated at ,miami ,university1 studied law1 settled at ,indianapolis1 and when the war opened1 was reporter to the supreme court of ,indiana4 ,joining the volunteers as a lieutenant1 he was brevetted brigadier general before the war ended4 ,in #ahha he became a senator from ,indiana4 ,he died in #aija4 #ba ,this required the ,secretary of the ,treasury to buy each month #d1ejj1jjj ounces of silver1 pay for it with treasury notes1 and redeem the notes on demand in coin4 ,after ,july #a1 #ahia1 the silver so purchased need not be coined1 but might be stored and silver certificates issued against it4 #bb ,soon after the war the farmers in the great agricultural states had formed associations under such names as the ,grange1 ,patrons of ,husbandry1 ,patrons of ,industry1 ,agricultural ,wheel1 ,farmers' ,alliance1 and others4 ,about #ahhf they began to unite1 and formed the ,national ,agricultural ,wheel and the ,farmers' ,alliance and ,cooperative ,union4 ,in #ahhi these and others were united in a convention at ,st4 ,louis into the ,farmers' ,alliance and ,industrial ,union4 #bc ,the electoral vote was3 for ,cleveland1 #bgg2 ,harrison1 #ade2 ,weaver1 #bb4 ,the popular vote was3 ,democratic1 #e1eef1edc2 ,republican1 #e1age1ehb2 ,populist1 #a1jdj1hhf2 ,prohibition1 #bee1hda2 ,socialist ,labor1 #ba1ecb4 #bd ,cleveland objected to certain features of the bill1 and refused to sign it2 but he did not veto it4 ,by the ,constitution1 if the ,president neither signs a bill nor returns it with his veto within ten days 7,sunday excepted7 after he receives it1 the bill becomes a law without his signature1 provided ,congress has not meanwhile adjourned4 ,if ,congress adjourns before the ten-day limit expires and the ,president does not sign1 then the bill does not become a law1 but is pocket vetoed4 #be ,because ,congress had made the tax uniform--the same on incomes of the same amount everywhere--instead of fixing the total amount to be raised and dividing it among the states according to population1 as required by the ,constitution in the case of direct taxes4 #bf ,the franchise has been slightly narrowed in some ,northern states by educational qualifications2 but1 on the other hand1 in four states it has been extended to women on the same terms as men--in ,wyoming 7since #ahfi71 ,colorado 7since #ahic71 ,utah 7since #ahie71 and ,idaho 7since #ahif74 ,in nearly half the states1 women can now vote in school elections4 ,in ,kansas they vote also in municipal elections4 #bg ,they demanded the free and unlimited coinage of both silver and gold at the present legal ratio of #af to #a2 that is1 that out of one pound of gold should be coined as many dollars as out of sixteen pounds of silver4 #bh ,william ,mc,kinley was born in ,ohio in #ahdc1 attended ,allegheny ,college for a short time1 then taught a district school1 and was a clerk in a country post office4 ,when the ,civil ,war opened1 he joined the army as a private in a regiment in which ,hayes was afterwards colonel1 served through the war1 and was brevetted major for gallantry at ,cedar ,creek and ,fishers ,hill4 ,the war over1 he became a lawyer1 entered politics in ,ohio1 and was elected a member of seven ,congresses4 ,from #ahib to #ahif he was governor of ,ohio4 #bi ,the ,gold ,democrats nominated ,john ,m4 ,palmer2 and the ,prohibitionists1 the ,national party1 and the ,socialist ,labor party also named candidates4 ,but none of these parties cast so many as #aej1jjj popular votes or secured any electoral votes4 #cj ,we contended that we had jurisdiction in ,bering ,sea2 that the seals rearing their young on our islands in that sea were our property2 that even though they temporarily went far out into the ,pacific ,ocean they were under our protection4 ,our revenue cutters had therefore seized ,canadian vessels taking seals in the open sea4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,the ,,war ,,with ,,spain1 ,,and ,,later ,,events ,,the ,,cuban ,,rebellion4--,in ,february1 #ahie1 the ,cubans1 for the sixth time in fifty years1 rose in rebellion against ,spain1 and attempted to form a republic4 ,these proceedings concerned us for several reasons4 ,american trade with ,cuba was interrupted2 ,american money invested in ,cuban mines1 railroads1 and plantations might be lost2 our ports were used by the ,cubans in fitting out military expeditions which our government was forced to stop at great expense2 the cruelty with which the war was waged aroused indignation4 ,during the summer of #ahig the suffering of ,cuban non- combatants was so great that our people began to send them food and medical aid4 ,illustration3 ,,cuba ,,and ,,porto ,,rico4 ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,maine4--,while our people were engaged in this humane work1 our battleship ,maine1 riding at anchor in the harbor of ,havana1 was blown up 7,february #ae1 #ahih7 and two hundred and sixty of her sailors killed4 ,war was now inevitable1 and on ,april #ai ,congress adopted a resolution demanding that ,spain should withdraw from ,cuba1 and authorizing the ,president to compel her to leave if necessary4 #a ,spain at once severed diplomatic relations1 and 7,april #ba1 #ahih7 war began4 ,,the ,,battle ,,at ,,manila ,,bay4--,a fleet which had assembled at ,key ,west sailed at once to blockade ,havana and other ports on the coast of ,cuba4 ,another under ,commodore ,dewey sailed from ,hongkong to attack the ,spanish fleet in the ,philippine ,islands4 ,dewey found it in ,manila ,bay1 where on the morning of ,may #a1 #ahih1 he attacked and destroyed it without losing a man or a ship4 ,the city of ,manila was then blockaded1 and ,general ,merritt with twenty thousand men was sent across the ,pacific to take possession of the ,philippines4 ,,blockade ,,of ,,cervera',s ,,fleet4--,meantime a second ,spanish fleet1 under ,admiral ,cervera 7thair-va'ra71 sailed from the ,cape ,verde ,islands4 ,acting ,rear-,admiral ,sampson1 with ships which had been blockading ,havana1 and ,commodore ,schley1 with a flying squadron1 went in search of ,cervera1 who1 after a long hunt1 was found in the harbor of ,santiago on the south coast of ,cuba1 and at once blockaded4 #b ,illustration3 ,,the ,,philippines4 ,,the ,,merrimac4--,the entrance to ,santiago harbor is long1 narrow1 and defended by strong forts4 ,in an attempt to make the blockade more certain1 ,lieutenant ,hobson and a volunteer crew of seven men took the collier 7coal ship7 ,merrimac well into the harbor entrance and sank her in the channel 7,june #c74 #c ,the little band were made prisoners of war and in time were exchanged4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,field ,,gun ,,near ,,santiago4 ,,battles ,,near ,,santiago4--,as the fleet of ,cervera could not be attacked by water1 it was decided to capture ,santiago and so force him to run out4 ,general ,shafter with an army was therefore sent to ,cuba1 and landed a few miles from the city 7,june #bb1 #bc71 and at once pushed forward4 ,on ,july #a the ,spanish positions on two hills1 ,el ,caney 7el ca-na'7 and ,san ,juan 7sahn hoo-ahn'71 were carried by storm4 #d ,the capture of ,santiago was now so certain that1 on ,july #c1 ,cervera's fleet dashed from the harbor and attempted to break through the blockading fleet4 ,a running sea fight followed1 and in a few hours all six of the ,spanish vessels were shattered wrecks on the coast of ,cuba4 ,not one of our ships was seriously damaged4 ,two weeks later ,general ,toral 7to-rahl'7 surrendered the city of ,santiago1 the eastern end of ,cuba1 and a large army4 ,,porto ,,rico4--,general ,miles now set off with an army to capture ,porto ,rico4 ,he landed on the south coast 7,august #a7 near ,ponce 7pon'tha71 and was pushing across the island when hostilities came to an end4 ,,peace4--,meanwhile1 the ,french minister in ,washington asked1 on behalf of ,spain1 on what terms peace would be made4 ,president ,mc,kinley stated them1 and on ,august #ab an agreement1 or protocol1 was signed4 ,this provided 7#a7 that hostilities should cease at once1 7#b7 that ,spain should withdraw from ,cuba and cede ,porto ,rico and an island in the ,ladrones to the ,united ,states1 and 7#c7 that the city and harbor of ,manila should be held by us till a treaty of peace was signed and the fate of the ,philippines settled4 #e ,the treaty was signed at ,paris1 ,december #aj1 #ahih1 and went into force upon its ratification four months later4 ,spain agreed to withdraw from ,cuba1 and to cede us ,porto ,rico1 ,guam 7one of the ,ladrone ,islands71 and the ,philippines4 ,our government agreed to pay ,spain #bj1jjj1jjj4 ,,hawaii1 meanwhile1 had steadily been seeking annexation to the ,united ,states4 ,many causes prevented it2 but during the war with ,spain the possibility of our holding the ,philippines gave importance to the ,hawaiian ,islands1 and in ,july1 #ahih1 they were annexed4 ,in #aijj they were formed into the territory of ,hawaii4 ,about the same time several other small ,pacific islands were acquired by our country4 #f ,,porto ,,rico ,,and ,,cuba4--,for ,porto ,rico1 ,congress provided a system of civil government which went into effect ,may #a1 #aijj1 and made the island a dependency1 or colony--a district governed according to special laws of ,congress1 but not forming part of our country4 #g ,illustration3 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,and ,,its ,,outlying ,,possessions4 ,when ,spain withdrew from ,cuba1 our government took control1 and after introducing many sanitary reforms1 turned the cities over to the ,cubans4 ,the people then elected delegates to a convention which formed a constitution1 and when this had been adopted and a president elected1 our troops were withdrawn1 and 7,may #bj1 #aija71 the ,cubans began to govern their island4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,philippine ,,market4 ,,war ,,in ,,the ,,philippines4--,when our forces entered ,manila 7,august1 #ahih71 native troops under ,aguinaldo 7ahg-ee-nahl'do71 who had revolted against ,spanish rule1 held ,luzon #h and most of the other islands4 ,aguinaldo now demanded that we should turn the islands over to his party1 and when this was refused1 attacked our forces in ,manila4 ,war followed2 but in battle after battle the native troops were beaten and scattered1 and in time ,aguinaldo was captured4 ,the group of islands is now governed as a dependency4 ,,war ,,in ,,china4--,the next country with which we had trouble was ,china4 ,early in #aijj members of a ,chinese society called the ,boxers began to kill ,christian natives1 missionaries1 and other foreigners4 ,the disorder soon reached ,peking1 where foreign ministers1 many ,europeans1 and ,americans were besieged in the part of the city where they were allowed to reside4 ,ships and troops were at once sent to join the forces of ,japan and the powers of ,europe in rescuing the foreigners in ,peking4 ,war was not declared2 but some battles were fought and some towns captured before ,peking was taken and ,china brought to reason4 #i ,illustration3 ,,settled ,,area ,,in #aijj4 ,,the ,,census ,,of #aijj4--;,at home in #aijj our population was counted for the twelfth time in our history and found to be #gf1jjj1jjj4 ,this census did not include the population of ,porto ,rico1 ,guam1 or the ,philippines4 ,in ,new ,york the population exceeded that of the whole ,united ,states in #ahaj2 in ,pennsylvania it was greater than that of the whole ,united ,states in #ahjj1 and ,ohio and ,illinois each had more people than the whole country in #agij4 ,,immigration4--,in #ahgi 7p4 #djc7 a great wave of immigration began and rose rapidly till nearly #hjj1jjj foreigners came in one year1 in #ahhb4 ,then the wave declined1 but for the rest of the century every year brought several hundred thousand4 ,in #aijj another great wave was rising1 and by #aije more than #a1jjj1jjj immigrants were coming every year4 ,for some years these immigrants have come mostly from southern and eastern ,europe4 ,,growth ,,of ,,cities4--,most remarkable has been the rapid growth of our cities4 ,in #agij there were but #f cities of over #hjjj inhabitants each in the ,united ,states1 and their total population was but #aca1jjj4 ,in #aijj there were #ede such cities1 and their inhabitants numbered #be1jjj1jjj-- about a third of the entire population2 #ch of these cities had each more than #ajj1jjj inhabitants4 ,by #aijf our largest city1 ,new ,york1 had more than #d1jjj1jjj people1 ,chicago had passed the #b1jjj1jjj mark1 and ,philadelphia had about #a1ejj1jjj4 ,,the ,,new ,,south4--,the census of #aijj brought out other facts of great interest4 ,for many years after #ahfj the ,south had gone backward rather than forward4 ,from #ahhj to #aijj her progress was wonderful4 ,in #ahhj she was loaded with debt1 her manufactures of little importance1 her railways dilapidated1 her banks few in number1 and her laboring population largely unemployed4 ,in #aijj her cotton mills rivaled those of ,new ,england4 ,since #ahhj her cotton crop has doubled1 her natural resources have begun to be developed1 and coal1 iron1 lumber1 cottonseed oil1 and 7in ,texas and ,louisiana7 petroleum have become important products4 ,alabama ranks high in the list of coal-producing states1 and her city of ,birmingham has become a great center of the iron and steel industry4 ,atlanta and many other ,southern cities are now important manufacturing centers4 ,with material prosperity came ability to improve the systems of public schools4 ,throughout the ,south separate schools are maintained for white and for negro children2 and great progress has been made in both4 ,,the ,,election ,,of #aijj4--,one of the signs of great prosperity in our country has always been the number of political parties4 ,in the campaign for the election of ,president and ,vice ,president in #aijj there were eleven parties1 large and small4 ,but the contest really was between the ,republicans1 who nominated ,william ,mc,kinley and ,theodore ,roosevelt1 and the ,democrats1 who nominated ,william ,j4 ,bryan and ,adlai ,e4 ,stevenson1 indorsed by the ,populist and ,silver parties4 ,illustration3 ,,theodore ,,roosevelt4 ,,mckinley ,,assassinated4--,mc,kinley and ,roosevelt were elected1 and duly inaugurated ,march #d1 #aija4 ,in that year a great ,pan-,american ,exposition was held at ,buffalo1 and while attending it in ,september1 ,mc,kinley was shot by an anarchist who1 during a public reception1 approached him as if to shake hands4 ,early on the morning of ,september #ad the ,president died1 and ,vice-,president ,roosevelt #aj succeeded to the presidency4 ,,the ,,chinese4--,in ,president ,roosevelt's first message to ,congress 7,december1 #aija7 lie dealt with many current issues4 ,one of his requests was for further legislation concerning ,chinese laborers4 ,the ,chinese ,exclusion ,act accordingly was 7#aijb7 applied to our island possessions1 and no ,chinese laborer is now allowed to enter one of them1 nor may those already there go from one group to another1 or come to any of our states4 ,,irrigation4--,another matter urged on the attention of ,congress by the ,president was the irrigation #aa of arid public lands in the ,west in order that they might be made fit for settlement4 ,great reservoirs for the storage of water should be built1 and canals to lead the water to the arid lands should be constructed at government expense1 the land so reclaimed should be kept for actual settlers1 and the cost repaid by the sale of the land4 ,congress in #aijb approved the plan1 and by law set aside the money derived from the sale of public land in thirteen states and three territories as a fund for building irrigation works4 ,the work of reclamation was begun the next year1 and by #aijg eight new towns with some #aj1jjj people existed on lands thus watered4 ,,isthmian ,,canal ,,routes4--,the project of a canal across the isthmus connecting ,north and ,south ,america1 was more than seventy-five years old4 ,but no serious attempt was made to cut a water way till a ,french company was organized in #ahgh1 spent #bfj1jjj1jjj in ten years1 and then failed4 ,another ,french company then took up the work1 and in turn laid it down for want of funds4 ,so the matter stood when the war with ,spain brought home to us the great importance of an isthmian canal4 ,then the question arose1 ,which was the better of two routes1 that by ,lake ,nicaragua1 or that across the isthmus of ,panama8 #ab ,congress 7#ahii7 sent a commission to consider this1 and it reported that both routes were feasible4 ,thereupon the ,french company offered to sell its rights and the unfinished canal for #dj1jjj1jjj1 and ,congress 7#aijb7 authorized the ,president to buy the rights and property of the ,french company1 and finish the ,panama ,canal2 or1 if ,colombia would not grant us control of the necessary strip of land1 to build one by the ,nicaragua route4 ,illustration3 ,,panama ,,canal ,,zone4 ,,the ,,panama ,,canal ,,treaty4--,in the spring of #aijc1 accordingly1 a treaty was negotiated with ,colombia for the construction of the ,panama ,canal4 ,our ,senate ratified1 but ,colombia rejected1 the treaty1 whereupon the province of ,panama 7,november1 #aijc7 seceded from ,colombia and became independent republic4 ,our government promptly recognized the new republic1 and a treaty with it was ratified 7,february1 #aijd7 by which we secured the right to dig the canal4 ,the property of the ,french company was then purchased1 and a commission appointed to superintend the work of construction4 #ac ,,the ,,alaskan ,,boundary4--,by our treaty of purchase of ,alaska1 its boundaries depended on an old treaty between ,russia and ,great ,britain4 ,when gold was discovered in ,canada in #ahga1 a dispute arose over the boundary1 and it became serious when gold was discovered in the ,klondike region in #ahif4 ,our claim placed the boundary of southeastern ,alaska thirty-five miles inland and parallel to the coast4 ,canada put it so much farther west as to give her several important ports4 ,the matter was finally submitted to arbitration1 and in #aijc the decision divided the land in dispute1 but gave us all the ports4 #ad ,,presidential ,,election ,,of #aijd4--,the campaign of #aijd was opened by the nomination by the ,republican party of ,theodore ,roosevelt and ,charles ,w4 ,fairbanks4 ,the ,democrats presented ,alton ,b4 ,parker and ,henry ,g4 ,davis1 and in the course of the summer seven other parties--the ,people's1 the ,socialist1 the ,socialist ,labor1 the ,prohibition1 the ,united ,christian1 the ,national ,liberty1 and the ,continental--nominated candidates4 ,roosevelt and ,fairbanks were elected4 #ae ,,oklahoma4--,among the demands of the ,democratic party in #aijd was that for the admission of ,oklahoma and ,indian ,territory as one state1 and of ,new ,mexico and ,arizona as separate states4 ,in #aijf ,congress authorized the people of ,oklahoma #af and ,indian ,territory to frame a constitution1 and if it were adopted by vote of the people1 the ,president was empowered to proclaim the state of ,oklahoma a member of the ,union1 which was done in #aijg4 ,the same act authorized the people of ,new ,mexico and ,arizona to vote separately on the question whether the two should form one state to be called ,arizona4 ,at the election 7in ,november1 #aijf7 a majority of the people of ,new ,mexico voted for1 and a majority of the people of ,arizona against1 joint statehood1 so the two remained separate territories4 ,,pure ,,food ,,and ,,meat ,,inspection ,,laws4--,at the same session of ,congress 7#aijf7 two other wise and greatly needed laws were enacted4 ,for years past the adulteration of food1 drugs1 medicines1 and liquors had been carried on to an extent disgraceful to our country4 ,the ,pure ,food ,act1 as it is called1 was passed to prevent the manufacture of adulterated or misbranded or poisonous or deleterious foods1 drugs1 medicines1 and liquors in the ,district of ,columbia and the territories1 or the transportation of such articles from one state to another4 ,foods and drugs entering into interstate commerce must be correctly labeled4 ,the meat inspection act requires that all meat and food products intended for sale or transportation as articles of interstate or foreign commerce1 shall be inspected by officials of the ,department of ,agriculture and marked inspected and passed4 ,all slaughtering1 packing1 and canning establishments must be inspected and their products duly labeled4 ,,intervention ,,in ,,cuba4--,as the year #aijf drew to a close1 we were once more called on to intervene in affairs in ,cuba4 ,the elections of #aije in that island had been followed by the revolt of the defeated party1 and the appearance of armed bands which threatened the chief towns and even ,havana4 ,an attempt to bring about an understanding with the rebels was repudiated by ,president ,palma1 who declared martial law and called a meeting of the ,cuban congress1 which body gave him supreme power4 ,president ,roosevelt1 under our treaty with ,cuba1 was bound to maintain in that island a government able to protect life and property4 ,secretary-of- ,war ,taft was therefore sent to ,havana to examine into affairs1 and while he was so engaged ,president ,palma resigned1 and the ,cuban congress did not elect a successor4 ,secretary ,taft then assumed the governorship of the island and held it till ,october1 when ,charles ,magoon was appointed temporary governor4 #ag ,,panic ,,of #aijg4--,the wonderful prosperity which our country had enjoyed for some years past came to a sudden end in the fall of #aijg4 ,distrust of certain banks led to a run on several in ,new ,york city4 ,when they were forced to stop paying out money1 a panic started and spread over the country1 business suffered1 and hard times came again4 ,,the ,,election ,,of #aijh4--;,during the summer of #aijh seven parties nominated candidates for ,president and ,vice ,president4 ,they were the ,republican1 ,democratic1 ,prohibition1 ,populist1 ,socialist1 ,socialist ,labor1 and ,independence4 ,the ,republicans nominated ,william ,h4 ,taft and ,james ,s4 ,sherman2 and the ,democrats1 ,william ,j4 ,bryan and ,john ,w4 ,kern4 ,taft #ah and ,sherman were elected4 ,illustration3 ,,william ,h4 ,,taft4 ,early in #aiji ,taft visited the ,canal ,zone1 with eminent engineers1 to investigate the condition of the half-finished ,panama ,canal4 ,he was inaugurated ,president on ,march #d4 ,in the selection of his cabinet officers1 and in his public addresses1 he showed a determination to avoid sectionalism and narrow partisanship4 ,one of his first acts as ,president was to convene ,congress in special session beginning ,march #ae1 for the purpose of framing a new tariff act4 ,,summary #a4 ,our foreign relations since #ahih have been most important4 ,in #ahih there was a short war with ,spain4 #b4 ,the chief events of the war were the battle of ,manila ,bay1 the sinking of the ,merrimac1 the battles near ,santiago1 the destruction of ,cervera's fleet1 the invasion of ,porto ,rico1 and the capture of ,manila4 #c4 ,peace brought us the ,philippines1 ,porto ,rico1 and ,guam1 and forced ,spain to withdraw from ,cuba4 #d4 ,cuba for awhile remained under our flag2 but in #aijb we withdrew1 and ,cuba became a republic4 ,later events forced us to intervene in #aijf4 #e4 ,in #aijj events forced us into a short war in ,china4 #f4 ,in #ahih ,hawaii was annexed1 and in #aijj was organized as a territory2 in #aijc our dispute with ,great ,britain over the ,alaskan boundary was settled2 and in #aijd a treaty with ,panama gave us the right to dig the ,panama ,canal4 #g4 ,prominent among domestic affairs since #ahih1 are the assassination of ,president ,mc,kinley 7#aija72 the ,irrigation ,act of #aijb2 the pure food and meat inspection laws of #aijf2 and the admission of the state of ,oklahoma4 ,,footnotes #a ,at the same time it was resolved1 ,that the ,united ,states hereby disclaims any disposition or intention to exercise sovereignty1 jurisdiction1 or control over said island1 except for the pacification thereof1 and asserts its determination1 when that is accomplished1 to leave the government and control of the island to its people4 #b ,when the ,maine was destroyed1 the battleship ,oregon1 then on the ,pacific coast1 was ordered to the ,atlantic seaboard4 ,making her way southward through the ,pacific1 she passed the ,strait of ,magellan1 steamed up the east coast of ,south ,america1 and after the swiftest long voyage ever made by a battleship1 took her place in the blockading fleet4 #c ,the storm of shot and shell from the forts carried away some of the ,merrimac's steering gear1 so that ,hobson was unable to sink the vessel at the spot intended4 ,the channel was still navigable4 ,read the article by ,lieutenant ,hobson in the ,century ,magazine for ,december1 #ahih to ,march1 #ahii4 #d ,among those who distinguished themselves in this campaign were ,general ,joseph ,wheeler1 an ex-,confederate cavalry leader2 and ,lieutenant-,colonel ,theodore ,roosevelt1 with his regiment of volunteers called ,rough ,riders4 #e ,the city of ,manila was captured through a combined attack by ,dewey's fleet and ,merritt's army1 ,august #ac1 before news of the protocol had been received4 #f ,our flag was raised over ,wake ,island early in #ahii4 ,part of the ,samoa group1 including ,tutuila 7too-too-e'la7 and small adjacent islands1 was acquired in #aijj by a joint treaty with ,great ,britain and ,germany2 these islands are #gg square miles in area and have #fjjj population4 ,many tiny islands in the ,pacific1 most of them rocks or coral reefs1 belong to us2 but they are of little importance1 except the ,midway ,islands1 which are occupied by a party of telegraphers in charge of a relay in the cable joining our continent with the ,philippines4 #g ,porto ,rico is a little smaller than ,connecticut1 but has a population of about one million1 of whom a third are colored4 ,the civil government consists of a governor1 an executive council of #aa members1 and a ,house of ,delegates of #ce members elected by the people4 ,the island is represented at ,washington by a resident commissioner4 #h ,the ,philippine group numbers about two thousand islands4 ,the land area is about equal to that of ,new ,england and ,new ,york2 that is1 #aae1jjj square miles4 ,luzon1 the largest1 is about the size of ,kentucky4 ,a census taken in #aijc gave a population of #g1fjj1jjj1 of whom #fjj1jjj were savages4 ,for several years the ,philippines were governed by the ,president1 first through the army1 and then through an appointed commission4 ,this commission1 with ,judge ,william ,h4 ,taft as president1 began its duties in ,june of #aijj2 but by act of ,congress 7,july #a1 #aijb7 a new plan of government has been provided for4 ,this includes a governor and a legislature of two branches1 one the ,philippine commission of eight members1 and the other an assembly chosen by the ,filipinos4 #i ,in #ahih the emperor of ,russia invited many of the nations of the world to meet and discuss the reduction of their armies and navies4 ,delegates from twenty-six nations accordingly met at the ,hague 7in ,holland7 in ,may1 #ahii1 and there discussed 7#a7 disarmament1 7#b7 revision of the laws of land and naval war1 7#c7 mediation and arbitration4 ,three covenants or agreements were made and left open for signature by the nations till #aijj4 ,one forbade the use in war of deadly gases1 of projectiles dropped from balloons1 and of bullets made to expand in the human body4 ,the second revised the laws of war1 and the third provided for a permanent court of arbitration at the ,hague1 before which cases may be brought with the consent of the nations concerned4 #aj ,theodore ,roosevelt was born in ,new ,york in #aheh1 graduated from ,harvard ,university in #ahhj1 and from #ahhb to #ahhd was a member of the legislature of ,new ,york4 ,in #ahhf he was the candidate of the ,republican party for mayor of ,new ,york city and was defeated4 ,in #ahhi he was appointed a member of the ,united ,states ,civil ,service ,commission1 but resigned in #ahie to become president of the ,new ,york city police board4 ,in #ahig he was appointed ,assistant ,secretary of the ,navy1 but when the war with ,spain opened1 resigned and organized the ,first ,united ,states ,cavalry ,volunteers1 popularly known as ,roosevelt's ,rough ,riders4 ,of this regiment he was lieutenant colonel and then colonel1 and after it was mustered out of service1 was elected governor of ,new ,york in the autumn of #ahih4 ,he is the author of many books on history1 biography1 and hunting1 besides essays and magazine articles4 #aa ,before this time many small areas had been irrigated by means of works constructed by individuals1 by companies1 and by local governments4 #ab ,in #ahbe ,central ,america invited us to build a canal by way of ,lake ,nicaragua1 and from that time forth the question was often before ,congress4 ,in ,jackson's time a commissioner was sent to examine the ,nicaragua route and that across the isthmus of ,panama4 ,after ,texas was annexed we made a treaty with ,new ,granada 7now ,colombia71 and secured the right of way or transit across the isthmus of ,panama upon any modes of communication that now exist1 or that may be hereafter constructed4 ,after the ,mexican war1 the discovery of gold in ,california1 and the expansion of our territory on the ,pacific coast1 the importance of a canal was greatly increased4 ,but ,great ,britain stepped in and practically seized control of the ,nicaragua route4 ,a crisis followed1 and in #ahej we made with ,great ,britain the ,clayton-,bulwer treaty1 by which each party was pledged never to obtain exclusive control over the said ship canal4 ,when 7in #aijj7 we practically decided to build by the ,nicaragua route1 and felt we must have exclusive control1 it became necessary to abrogate this part of the ,clayton-,bulwer treaty4 ,the ,hay-,pauncefote treaty was therefore made1 by which ,great ,britain gave up all claim to a share in the control of such a canal1 and the ,united ,states guaranteed that any isthmian canal built by us should be open to all nations on equal terms4 #ac ,in accordance with our rights under the treaty1 ,congress 7,april1 #aijd7 authorized the ,president1 as soon as he had acquired the property of the canal company and paid ,panama #aj1jjj1jjj1 to take possession of the ,canal ,zone1 a strip ten miles wide 7five miles on each side of the canal7 stretching across the isthmus and extending three marine miles from low water out into the ocean at each end4 ,on ,april #bb1 #aijd1 the property of the canal company was transferred at ,paris1 and on ,may #i the company was paid #dj1jjj1jjj2 ,panama had already been paid her #aj1jjj1jjj1 and on ,may #ai ,general ,davis1 president of the ,canal ,commission1 issued a proclamation announcing the beginning of his administration as governor of the ,canal ,zone4 #ad ,another event of #aijc was the addition of a ninth member to the ,cabinet1--the ,secretary of ,commerce and ,labor4 ,the ,secretary of ,agriculture 7#ahhi7 was the eighth member4 #ae ,by #ccf electoral votes against #adj for ,parker and ,davis4 ,the popular vote was3 ,republican1 #g1fbc1dhf2 ,democratic1 #e1jgg1iga2 ,socialist1 #djb1bhc2 ,prohibition1 #beh1ecf2 ,populist1 #aag1ahc2 ,socialist ,labor1 #ca1bdi3 all others combined1 less than #aj1jjj4 #af ,the central portion of ,indian ,territory was opened for settlement on ,april #bb1 #ahhi1 when a great rush was made for the new lands4 ,other areas were soon added1 and in #ahij ,oklahoma territory was organized4 ,it included the western half of the ,indian ,territory shown on p4 #cid4 #ag ,another event of #aijf was a great earthquake in western ,california 7,april #ah74 ,many buildings in many places were shaken down1 and most of ,san ,francisco was destroyed by fires which could not be put out because the water mains were broken by the earthquake4 ,hundreds of persons lost their lives1 and the property loss in ,san ,francisco alone was estimated at #djj1jjj1jjj4 #ah ,william ,howard ,taft was born in ,ohio1 ,september #ae1 #aheg1 graduated from ,yale1 studied law1 became judge of the ,superior ,court of ,ohio1 and ,united ,states ,circuit ,judge 7#fth ,circuit74 ,after the war with ,spain1 ,judge ,taft was made president of the ,philippine ,commission1 and in #aija first civil governor of the ,philippine ,islands4 ,in #aijd he was appointed ,secretary of ,war1 an office which he resigned after his nomination for the ,presidency4