,transcriber's ,notes3 #a4 chch ,chinese character4 chch #b #b ,chinese ,characters1 etc4 #b4 ,items marked wth an asterisk 79973 ,pieces mentioned here from the ,british ,museum collection4 #c4 ,the items marked with two asterisks 799997 are stated to have been copied from old specimens in the palace collections4 ,,chinese ,,pottery ,,and ,,porcelain ,this ,edition is limited to #aejj copies1 of which this is ,no4 #ffi ,illustration3 ,covered ,jar or ,potiche1 painted with coloured enamels on the biscuit4 ,eight petal-shaped panels with flowering plants1 birds and insects on the sides2 with a band of smaller petals below enclosing lotus flowers1 and borders of red wave pattern and floral sprays4 ,base unglazed4 ,early part of the ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb7 ,height #be inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,,chinese ,,pottery ,,and ,,porcelain ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,potter',s ,,art ,,in ,,china ,,from ,,primitive ,,times ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,day ,,by ,r4 ,l4 ,,hobson1 ,b4,a4 ,assistant in the ,department of ,british and ,medival ,antiquities and ,ethnography1 ,british ,museum4 ,author of the 8,catalogne of the ,collection of ,english ,pottery in the ,department of ,british and ,medival ,antiquities of the ,british ,museum02 8,porcelain3 ,oriental1 ,continental1 and ,british02 8,worcester ,porcelain02 etc2 and ,joint ,author of 8,marks on ,pottery40 ,forty ,plates1 in ,colour and ,ninety-six in ,black and ,white ,,vol4 ,,ii ,ming and ,ch'ing ,porcelain ,,cassell ,,and ,,company1 ,,ltd ,london1 ,new ,york1 ,toronto and ,melbourne #aiae ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page #a4 ,,the ,,ming chch ,,dynasty1 #acfh-afdd ,a4,d4 #a #b4 ,,hs,,an ,t chch #b 7#adbf-adce7 #g #c4 ,,ch',,ng ,,hua chch #b 7#adfe-adhg7 ,,and ,,other ,,reigns #bb #d4 ,,chia ,,ching chch #b 7#aebb-aeff7 ,,and ,,lung ,,ch',,ing chch #b 7#aefg-aegb7 #cd #e4 ,,wan ,,li chch #b 7#aegc-afai7 ,,and ,,other ,,reigns #eh #f4 ,,the ,,technique ,,of ,,the ,,ming ,,porcelain #ia #g4 ,,miscellaneous ,,porcelain ,,factories #ajg #h4 ,,the ,,ch',,ing chch ,,dynasty1 #afdd-aiaj #aag #i4 ,k',,ang ,,hsi ,,blue ,,and ,,white #abh #aj4 ,k',,ang ,,hsi ,,polychrome ,,porcelains #ade #aa4 ,k',,ang ,,hsi ,,monochromes #agf #ab4 ,,yung ,,ch,,ng chch #b ,,period 7#agbc-agce7 #bjj #ac4 ,,ch',,ien ,,lung chch #b 7#agcf-agie7 #bbg #ad4 ,,european ,,influences ,,in ,,the ,,ch',,ing ,,dynasty #bej #ae4 ,,nineteenth ,,century ,,porcelains #bfb #af4 ,,porcelain ,,shapes ,,in ,,the ,,ch',,ing ,,dynasty #bgb #ag4 ,,motives ,,of ,,the ,,decoration #bhj #ah4 ,,forgeries ,,and ,,imitations #cjd ,,list ,,of ,,plates ,,covered ,,jar ,,or ,,potiche 7,colour7 ,frontispiece ,painted with coloured enamels on the biscuit4 ,eight petal-shaped panels with flowering plants1 birds and insects on the sides2 with a band of smaller petals below enclosing lotus flowers1 and borders of red wave pattern and floral sprays4 ,base unglazed4 ,early part of the ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb74 ,british ,museum4 ,,plate ,,facing ,,page #ei4 ,,white ,,eggshell ,,porcelain ,,bowl ,,with ,,imperial ,,dragons ,,faintly ,,traced ,,in ,,white ,,slip ,,under ,,the ,,glaze #d ,mark of the ,yung ,lo period 7#adjc-adbd71 incised in the centre in archaic characters4 ,fig4 #a4--;,exterior4 ,fig4 #b4--;,interior view4 ,british ,museum4 #fj4 ,,reputed ,,hs,,an ,t ,,porcelain #h ,fig4 #a4--;,flask with blue decoration1 reputed to be ,hsan ,t period4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,brush rest4 787 ,chang ,ch'ien on a log raft2 partly biscuit4 ,inscribed with a stanza of verse and the ,hsan ,t mark4 ,grandidier ,collection4 #fa4 ,,porcelain ,,with san ts'ai ,,glazes ,,on ,,the ,,biscuit #h ,fig4 #a4--,wine jar with pierced casing1 the ,taoist ,immortals paying court to the ,god of ,longevity1 turquoise blue ground4 ,fifteenth century4,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,screen with design in relief1 horsemen on a mountain path1 dark blue ground4 ,about #aejj4 ,benson ,collection4 #fb4 ,,barrel-,,shaped ,,garden ,,seat 7,colour7 #af ,porcelain with coloured glazes on the biscuit1 the designs outlined in slender fillets of clay4 ,a lotus scroll between an upper band of clouds and a lower band of horses in flying gallop and sea waves4 ,lion-mask handles4 ,about #aejj ,a4,d4 ,british ,museum4 #fc4 ,,baluster ,,vase #bd ,with designs in raised outline1 filled in with coloured glazes on the biscuit2 dark violet blue background4 ,about #aejj4 ,grandidier ,collection 7,louvre74 #fd4 ,,fifteenth ,,century ,,polychrome ,,porcelain #bd ,fig4 #a4--,vase with grey crackle and peony scrolls in blue and enamels4 ,ch'ng ,hua mark4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with turquoise ground and bands of floral pattern and winged dragons incised in outline and coloured green1 yellow and aubergine4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,box with bands of ju-i clouds and pierced floral scrolls2 turquoise and yellow glazes in dark blue ground4 ,grandidier ,collection4 #fe4 ,,ming san ts'ai ,,porcelain #bd ,fig4 #a4--,vase with winged dragons1 san ts'ai glazes on the biscuit1 dark blue ground4 ,dedicatory inscription on the neck1 including the words 8,ming ,dynasty40 ,cloisonn handles4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,figure of ,kuan-yin1 turquoise1 green and aubergine glazes1 dark blue rockwork4 ,fifteenth century4 ,grandidier ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase with lotus scrolls1 transparent glazes in three colours4 ,late ,ming4 ,grandidier ,collection4 #ff4 ,,porcelain ,,with ,,ch,,ng ,t ,,mark #cb ,fig4 #a4--,slop bowl with full-face dragons holding shou characters1 in underglaze blue in a yellow enamel ground4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with engraved cloud designs in transparent coloured glazes on the biscuit1 green ground4 ,charteris ,collection4 #fg4 ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,,porcelain4 ,sixteenth ,century #cb ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl with ,hsan ,t mark4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,covered bowl with fish design4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,bottle1 peasant on ox4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #d4--;,bottle with lotus scrolls in mottled blue4 ,alexander ,collection4 #fh4 ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,,porcelain4 ,sixteenth ,century #dj ,fig4 #a4--,perfume vase1 lions and balls of brocade4 ,v4 and ,a4 ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,double gourd vase1 square in the lower part4 ,eight ,immortals paying court to the ,god of ,longevity1 panels of children 7wa wa74 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,bottle with medallions of ch'i-lin and incised fret pattern between4 ,late ,ming4 ,halsey ,collection4 #fi4 ,,sixteenth ,,century ,,porcelain #dj ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl of blue and white porcelain with silver gilt mount of ,elizabethan period4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,covered jar1 painted in dark underglaze blue with red1 green and yellow enamels2 fishes and water plants4 ,chia ,ching mark4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 #gj4 ,,porcelain ,,with ,,chia ,,ching ,,mark #dj ,fig4 #a4--;,box with incised ,imperial dragons and lotus scrolls2 turquoise and dark violet glazes on the biscuit4 ,v4 and ,a4 ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with ,imperial dragons in clouds1 painted in yellow in an iron red ground4 ,cologne ,museum4 #ga4 ,,sixteenth ,,century ,,porcelain #dj ,figs4 #a and #b4--,two ewers in the ,dresden ,collection1 with transparent green1 aubergine and turquoise glazes on the biscuit1 traces of gilding4 ,in form of a phnix1 and of a crayfish4 ,fig4 #c4--;,bowl with flight of storks in a lotus scroll1 enamels on the biscuit1 green1 aubergine and white in a yellow ground4 ,chia ,ching mark4 ,alexander ,collection4 #gb4 ,,vase ,,with ,,imperial ,,five-,,clawed ,,dragons ,,in ,,cloud ,,scrolls ,,over ,,sea ,,waves 7,colour7 #df ,band of lotus scrolls on the shoulder4 ,painted in dark ,mohammedan blue4 ,mark on the neck1 of the ,chia ,ching period 7#aebb-aeff7 in six characters4 ,v4 ,a4 ,museum4 #gc4 ,,two ,,bowls ,,with ,,the ,,chia ,,ching ,,mark 7#aebb-aeff71 ,,with ,,designs ,,outlined ,,in ,,brown ,,and ,,washed ,,in ,,with ,,colours ,,in ,,monochrome ,,grounds 7,colour7 #ej ,fig4 #a4--,with peach sprays in a yellow ground4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,with phnixes 7feng-huang7 flying among scrolls of mu-tan peony4 ,cumberbatch ,collection4 #gd4 ,,two ,,bowls ,,with ,,gilt ,,designs ,,on ,a ,,monochrome ,,ground4 ,,probably ,,chia ,,ching ,,period 7#aebb-aeff7 7,colour7 #ed ,fig4 #a4--,with lotus scroll with etched details on a ground of iron red 7fan hung7 outside4 ,inside is figure of a man holding a branch of cassia1 a symbol of literary success1 painted in underglaze blue4 ,mark in blue1 tan kuei 7red cassia74 ,fig4 #b4--,with similar design on ground of emerald green enamel4 ,mark in blue in the form of a coin or cash with the characters ch'ang ming fu kuei 78long life1 riches and honours074 #ge4 ,,ming ,,porcelain #fd ,fig4 #a4--,tripod ,bowl with raised peony scrolls in enamel colours4 ,wan ,li mark4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,blue and white ,bowl1 ,chia ,ching period4 ,mark1 ,wan ku ch'ang ch'un 78a myriad antiquities and enduring spring074 ,kunstgewerbe ,museum1 ,berlin4 ,fig4 #c4--;,ewer with white slip ch'i-lin on a blue ground4 ,wan ,li period4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #d4--;,gourd-shaped ,vase with winged dragons and fairy flowers1 raised outlines and coloured glazes on the biscuit4 ,sixteenth century4 ,salting ,collection4 #gf4 ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,,porcelain4 ,sixteenth ,century #fd ,fig4 #a4--,vase with monster handles1 archaic dragons4 ,halsey ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,hexagonal ,bottle1 white in blue designs4 ,mark1 a hare4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,bottle with 8garlic mouth10 stork and lotus scrolls1 white in blue4 ,salting ,collection4 ,fig4 #d4--,vase 7mei p'ing71 ,imperial dragon and scrolls4 ,wan ,li mark on the shoulder4 ,coltart ,collection4 #gg4 ,,two ,,examples ,,of ,,ming ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,,porcelain ,,in ,,the ,,british ,,museum 7,colour7 #gb ,fig4 #a4--;,ewer of thin1 crisp porcelain with foliate mouth and rustic spout with leaf attachments4 ,panels of figure subjects and landscapes on the body3 8rat and vine0 pattern on the neck and a band of hexagon diaper enclosing a cash symbol4 ,latter half of the sixteenth century4 ,fig4 #b4--,octagonal ,stand1 perhaps for artist's colours4 ,on the sides are scenes from the life of a sage4 ,borders of ju-i pattern and gadroons4 ,on the top are lions sporting with brocade balls4 ,painted in deep ,mohammedan blue4 ,mark of the ,chia ,ching period 7#aebb-aeff74 #gh4 ,,porcelain ,,with ,,pierced 7,,ling ,,lung7 ,,designs ,,and ,,biscuit ,,reliefs4 ,late ,ming #gd ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl with ,eight ,immortals and pierced swastika fret4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bowl with blue phnix medallions1 pierced trellis work and characters4 ,wan ,li mark4 ,hippisley ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,covered ,bowl with blue and white landscapes and biscuit reliefs of ,eight ,immortals4 ,grandidier ,collection4 #gi4 ,,wan ,,li ,,polychrome ,,porcelain #hj ,fig4 #a4--,vase 7mei p'ing7 with engraved design1 green in a yellow ground1 ,imperial dragons in clouds1 rocks and wave border4 ,wan ,li mark4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle with pierced casing1 phnix design1 etc41 painted in underglaze blue and enamels2 cloisonn enamel neck4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,covered ,jar1 plum blossoms and symbols in a wave pattern ground1 coloured enamels in an aubergine background4 ,british ,museum4 #hj4 ,,covered ,,jar ,,or ,,potiche 7,colour7 #hd ,painted in iron red and green enamels1 with a family scene in a garden1 and brocade borders of ju-i pattern1 peony scrolls1 etc4 ,sixteenth century4 ,salting ,collection1 ,v4 ,a4 ,museum4 #ha4 ,,beaker-,,shaped ,,vase ,,of ,,bronze ,,form 7,colour7 #hh ,with dragon and phnix designs painted in underglaze blue1 and red1 green and yellow enamels3 background of fairy flowers 7pao hsiang hua7 and borders of 8rock and wave0 pattern4 ,mark of the ,wan ,li period 7#aegc-afai7 in six characters on the neck4 ,an ,imperial piece4 ,british ,museum4 #hb4 ,,late ,,ming ,,porcelain #ij ,fig4 #a4--;,jar of ,wan ,li period1 enamelled4 ,mark1 a hare4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bowl with ,eight ,immortals in relief1 coloured glazes on the biscuit4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,figs4 #c1 #d and #e4--;,blue and white porcelain1 early seventeenth century4 ,british ,museum4 #hc4 ,,vase #ij ,with blue and white decoration of rockery1 phnixes1 and flowering shrubs4 ,found in ,india4 ,late ,ming period4 ,halsey ,collection4 #hd4 ,,vase ,,of ,,baluster ,,form ,,with ,,small ,,mouth 7mei p'ing74 7,colour7 #if ,porcelain with coloured glazes on the biscuit1 the designs outlined in slender fillets of clay4 ,a meeting of sages in a landscape beneath an ancient pine tree1 the design above their heads representing the mountain mist4 ,on the shoulders are large ju-i shaped lappets enclosing lotus sprays1 with pendent jewels between2 fungus 7ling chih7 designs on the neck4 ,yellow glaze under the base4 ,a late example of this style of ware1 probably seventeenth century4 ,salting ,collection1 ,v4 ,a4 ,museum4 #he4 ,,vase 7,colour7 #ajd ,with crackled greenish grey glaze coated on the exterior with transparent apple green enamel3 the base unglazed4 ,probably sixteenth century4 ,british ,museum4 #hf4 ,,fukien ,,porcelain4 ,ming ,dynasty #aab ,fig4 #a4--;,figure of ,kuan-yin with boy attendant4 ,ivory white4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle with prunus sprigs in relief1 the glaze crackled all over and stained a brownish tint4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,figure of ,bodhidharma crossing the ,yangtze on a reed4 ,ivory white4 ,salting ,collection1 ,v4 ,a4 ,museum4 #hg4 ,,ivory ,,white ,,fukien ,,porcelain #aab ,fig4 #a4--,libation ,cup4 ,about #agjj4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,cup with sixteenth century mount4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,incense ,vase and ,stand4 ,about #agjj4 ,british ,museum4 #hh4 ,,two ,,examples ,,of ,,the ,,underglaze ,,red 7chi hung7,,of ,,the ,k',,ang ,,hsi ,,period 7#affb-agbb71 ,,sometimes ,,called lang yao4 7,colour7 #abj ,fig4 #a4--;,bottle-shaped ,vase of dagoba form with minutely crackled sang-de-buf glaze with passages of cherry red4 ,the glaze ends in an even roll short of the base rim1 and that under the base is stone-coloured and crackled4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle-shaped ,vase with crackled underglaze red of deep crushed strawberry tint4 ,the glaze under the base is pale green crackled4 ,alexander ,collection4 #hi4 ,,three ,,examples ,,of ,k',,ang ,,hsi ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,,porcelain ,,in ,,the ,,british ,,museum 7,colour7 #acb ,fig4 #a4--;,ewer with leaf-shaped panels of floral arabesques1 white in blue1 enclosed by a mosaic pattern in blue and white3 stiff plantain leaves on the neck and cover4 ,silver mount with thumb-piece4 ,fig4 #b4--;,deep ,bowl with cover1 painted with 8tiger-lily0 scrolls4 ,mark1 a leaf4 ,fig4 #c4--,sprinkler with panels of lotus arabesques1 white in blue1 and ju-i shaped border patterns4 ,a diaper of small blossoms on the neck4 ,mark1 a leaf4 #ij4 ,,covered ,,jar ,,for ,,new ,,year ,,gifts 7,colour7 #ach ,with design of blossoming prunus 7mei hua7 sprays in a ground of deep sapphire blue which is reticulated with lines suggesting ice cracks2 dentate border on the shoulders4 ,v4 ,a4 ,museum4 #ia4 ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,k',,ang ,,hsi ,,porcelain #adb ,fig4 #a4--,triple ,gourd ,vase1 white in blue designs of archaic dragons and scrolls of season flowers4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,beaker1 white magnolia design slightly raised1 with blue background4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #c4--8;,grenadier ,vase10 panels with the ,paragons of ,filial ,piety4 ,dresden ,collection4 #ib4 ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,k',,ang ,,hsi ,,porcelain #adb ,fig4 #a4--,sprinkler with lotus design4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle with biscuit handles1 design of graceful ladies 7mei jn74 ,fitzwilliam ,museum 7formerly ,d4 ,g4 ,rossetti ,collection74 ,fig4 #c4--;,bottle with handles copied from ,venetian glass4 ,british ,museum4 #ic4 ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,,porcelain #adb ,fig4 #a4--,tazza with ,sanskrit characters4 ,ch'ien ,lung mark4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--,water ,pot1 butterfly and flowers1 steatitic porcelain4 ,wan ,li mark4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,bowl1 steatitic porcelain4 ,immortals on a log raft4 ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,british ,museum4 #id4 ,,porcelain ,,decorated ,,in ,,enamels ,,on ,,the ,,biscuit #adb ,fig4 #a4--;,ewer in form of the character ,shou 7,longevity72 blue and white panel with figure designs4 ,early ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,salting ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,ink ,palette1 dated #cast year of ,k'ang ,hsi 7#afib ,a4,d474 ,british ,museum4 #ie4 ,,two ,,examples ,,of ,,porcelain1 ,,painted ,,with ,,coloured ,,enamels ,,on ,,the ,,biscuit1 ,,the ,,details ,,of ,,the ,,designs ,,being ,,first ,,traced ,,in ,,brown4 ,k',,ang ,,hsi ,,period 7#affb-agbb7 7,colour7 #aej ,fig4 #a4--,one of a pair of ,buddhistic ,lions1 sometimes called ,dogs of ,fo4 ,this is apparently the lioness1 with her cub3 the lion has a ball of brocade under his paw4 ,on the head is the character wang 7prince71 which is more usual on the tiger of ,chinese art4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle-shaped ,vase and ,stand moulded in bamboo pattern and decorated with floral brocade designs and diapers4 ,cope ,bequest1 ,v4 ,a4 ,museum4 #if4 ,,vase ,,of ,,baluster ,,form ,,painted ,,in ,,coloured ,,enamels ,,on ,,the ,,biscuit 7,colour7 #aed ,the design1 which is outlined in brown1 consists of a beautifully drawn prunus 7mei hua7 tree in blossom and hovering birds1 besides a rockery and smaller plants of bamboo1 etc41 set in a ground of mottled green4 ,ch'ng ,hua mark1 but ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb74 ,british ,museum4 #ig4 ,,square ,,vase 7,colour7 #aef ,with pendulous body and high neck slightly expanding towards the top3 two handles in the form of archaic lizard-like dragons 7chih lung71 and a pyramidal base4 ,porcelain painted with coloured enamels on the biscuit1 with scenes representing ,immortals on a log raft approaching ,mount ,p'eng-lai in the ,taoist ,paradise4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb74 ,british ,museum4 #ih4 ,k',,ang ,,hsi ,,porcelain ,,with ,,on-,,biscuit ,,decoration4 ,dresden ,collection #afj ,fig4 #a4--,teapot in form of a lotus seed-pod1 enamels on the biscuit4 ,fig4 #b4--;,hanging ,perfume ,vase1 reticulated1 enamels on the biscuit4 ,fig4 #c4--,ornament in form of a ,junk1 transparent san ts'ai glazes4 #ii4 ,k',,ang ,,hsi ,,porcelain ,,with ,,on-,,biscuit ,,decoration #afj ,fig4 #a4--;,ewer with black enamel ground1 lion handle4 ,cope ,bequest1 ,v4 ,a4 ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,figure of the ,taoist ,immortal1 ,ho ,hsien ,ku1 transparent san ts'ai glazes4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase and ,stand1 enamelled on the biscuit4 ,cope ,bequest4 #ajj4 ,,screen ,,with ,,porcelain ,,plaque1 ,,painted ,,in ,,enamels ,,on ,,the ,,biscuit #afj ,light green background4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb74 ,in the ,collection of the ,hon4 ,e4 ,evan ,charteris4 #aja4 ,,vase ,,with ,,panels ,,of ,,landscapes ,,and po ku symbols in famille verte ,,enamels #afj ,in a ground of underglaze blue trellis pattern4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb74 ,dresden ,collection4 #ajb4 ,,two ,,dishes ,,of ,,famille ,,verte ,,porcelain ,,in ,,the ,,dresden ,,collection4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb7 #afj ,fig4 #a4--,with birds on a flowering branch1 brocade borders4 ,artist's signature in the field4 ,fig4 #b4--,with ladies on a garden terrace4 #ajc4 ,,club-,,shaped 7rouleau7 ,,vase 7,colour7 #aff ,finely painted in famille verte enamels with panel designs in a ground of chrysanthemum scrolls in iron red2 brocade borders4 ,last part of the ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb74 ,salting ,collection1 ,v4 ,a4 ,museum4 #ajd4 ,,three ,,examples ,,of ,k',,ang ,,hsi famille verte ,,porcelain #afh ,fig4 #a4--,square ,vase with scene of floating cups on the river2 inscription with cyclical date #agjc ,a4,d42 shou characters on the neck4 ,hippisley ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,lantern1 with river scenes4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,covered ,jar of rouleau shape1 peony scrolls in iron red ground1 brocade borders4 ,dresden ,collection4 #aje4 ,,covered ,,jar ,,painted ,,in famille verte ,,enamels #afh ,with brocade ground and panel with an elephant 7the symbol of ,great ,peace74 ,lion on cover4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb74 ,dresden ,collection4 #ajf4 ,k',,ang ,,hsi famille verte ,,porcelain4 ,alexander ,collection #afh ,fig4 #a4--;,dish with rockery1 peonies1 etc41 birds and insects4 ,fig4 #b4--8,stem ,cup0 with vine pattern4 #ajg4 ,famille verte ,,porcelain ,,made ,,for ,,export ,,to ,,europe4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb74 ,british ,museum #afh ,fig4 #a4--,vase with 8sea monster0 7hai shou74 ,fig4 #b4--;,dish with basket of flowers4 ,mark1 a leaf4 ,fig4 #c4--;,covered ,jar with ch'i-lin and fng-huang 7phnix74 #ajh4 ,,dish ,,painted ,,in ,,underglaze ,,blue ,,and famille verte ,,enamels4 7,colour7 #agb ,in the centre1 a five-clawed dragon rising from waves in pursuit of a pearl4 ,deep border in 8,imari0 style with cloud-shaped compartments with chrysanthemum and prunus designs in a blue ground1 separated by close lotus scrolls reserved in an iron red ground in which are three book symbols4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb74 ,alexander ,collection4 #aji4 ,,figure ,,of ,,shou ,,lao1 ,,taoist ,,god ,,of ,,longevity #agf ,porcelain painted with famille verte enamels4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb74 ,salting ,collection1 ,v4 ,a4 ,museum4 #aaj4 ,,two ,,examples ,,of ,,the 8,,powder ,,blue0 7ch'ui ch'ing7 ,,porcelain ,,of ,,the ,k',,ang ,,hsi ,,period 7#affb-agbb7 ,,in ,,the ,,victoria ,,and ,,albert ,,museum 7,colour7 #ahb ,fig #a4--;,bottle of gourd shape with slender neck3 powder blue ground with gilt designs from the ,hundred ,antiques 7po ku7 and borders of ju-i pattern1 formal flowers and plantain leaves4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle-shaped ,vase with famille verte panels of rockwork and flowers reserved in a powder blue ground4 ,salting ,collection4 #aaa4 ,,two ,,examples ,,of ,,single-,,colour ,,porcelain ,,in ,,the ,,salting ,,collection 7,,victoria ,,and ,,albert ,,museum74 7,colour7 #ahf ,fig4 #a4--;,bottle-shaped ,vase of porcelain with landscape design lightly engraved in relief under a turquoise blue glaze4 ,early eighteenth century4 ,fig4 #b4--,water vessel for the writing table of the form known as ,t'ai-po tsun after the poet ,li ,t'ai-po4 ,porcelain with faintly engraved dragon medallions under a peach bloom glaze2 the neck cut down and fitted with a metal collar4 ,mark in blue of the ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb7 in six characters4 #aab4 ,,three ,,figures ,,of ,,birds1 ,,late ,k',,ang ,,hsi ,,porcelain1 ,,with ,,coloured ,,enamels ,,on ,,the ,,biscuit #aib ,fig4 #a4--,stork4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,hawk4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,cock4 ,british ,museum4 #aac4 ,,porcelain ,,delicately ,,painted ,,in ,,thin famille verte ,,enamels4 ,about #agbj #aib ,fig4 #a4--;,dish with figures of ,hsi ,wang ,mu and attendant4 ,ch'ng ,hua mark4 ,hippisley ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bowl with the ,eight ,immortals4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 #aad4 ,,hanging ,,vase ,,with ,,openwork ,,sides1 ,,for ,,perfumed ,,flowers #aib ,porcelain painted in late famille verte enamels4 ,about #agbj4 ,blackwood frame4 ,cumberbatch ,collection4 #aae4 ,,vase ,,of ,,baluster ,,form 7,colour7 #bjf ,with ornament in white slip and underglaze red and blue in a celadon green ground3 rockery1 and birds on a flowering prunus tree4 ,yung ,chng period 7#agbc-agce74 ,alexander ,collection4 #aaf4 ,,yung ,,ch,,ng ,,porcelain #bjh ,fig4 #a4--;,imperial ,rice ,bowl with design of playing children 7wa wa71 engraved outlines filled in with green in a yellow ground1 transparent glazes on the biscuit4 ,yung ,chng mark4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,blue and ,white ,vase with fungus 7ling chih7 designs in ,hsan ,t style4 ,cologne ,museum4 #aag4 ,,yung ,,ch,,ng ,,porcelain #bjh ,fig4 #a4--,vase with prunus design in underglaze red and blue4 ,c4 ,h4 ,read ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,imperial ,vase with phnix and peony design in pale famille verte enamels over underglaze blue outlines4 ,v4 ,a4 ,museum4 #aah4 ,,early ,,eighteenth ,,century ,,enamels #bjh ,fig4 #a4--,plate painted at ,canton in famille rose enamels 7yang ts'ai 8foreign colouring074 ,yung ,chng period4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,arrow ,stand1 painted in late famille verte enamels4 ,about #agbj4 ,v4 ,a4 ,museum4 #aai4 ,,yung ,,ch,,ng ,,porcelain1 ,,painted ,,at ,,canton ,,with ,,famille ,,rose ,,enamels4 ,british ,museum4 #bjh ,fig4 #a4--8,seven border0 ,plate4 ,fig4 #b4--;,eggshell ,cup and ,saucer with painter's marks4 ,fig4 #c4--;,eggshell ,plate with vine border4 ,fig4 #d4--;,armorial ,plate with arms of ,leake ,okeover4 ,transition enamels1 about #agbc4 #abj4 ,,covered ,,jar ,,or ,,potiche1 ,,painted ,,in famille rose ,,or 8,,foreign ,,colours0 7yang ts'ai7 ,,with ,,baskets ,,of ,,flowers 7,colour7 #bbb ,deep borders of ruby red enamel broken by small panels and floral designs4 ,on the cover is a lion coloured with enamels on the biscuit4 ,from a set of five vases and beakers in the ,collection of ,lady ,wantage4 ,late ,yung ,chng period 7#agbc-agce74 #aba4 ,,two ,,beakers ,,and ,a ,,jar ,,from ,,sets ,,of ,,five1 famille rose ,,enamels4 ,late ,yung ,chng porcelain #bbd ,fig4 #a4--;,beaker with 8harlequin0 ground4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,jar with dark blue glaze gilt and leaf-shaped reserves4 ,burdett-,coutts ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,beaker with fan and picture-scroll panels1 etc41 in a deep ruby pink ground4 ,wantage ,collection4 #abb4 ,,white ,,porcelain ,,with ,,designs ,,in ,,low ,,relief #bcb ,fig4 #a4--,vase1 peony scroll1 ju-i border1 etc4 ,ch'ien ,lung period4 ,o4 ,raphael ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle with 8garlic mouth10 ,imperial dragons in clouds4 ,creamy crackled glaze imitating ,ting ware4 ,early eighteenth century4 ,salting ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase with design of three rams1 symbolising ,spring4 ,ch'ien ,lung period4 ,w4 ,burton ,collection4 #abc4 ,,eighteenth ,,century ,,glazes 7,colour7 #bcf ,fig4 #a4--,square ,vase with tubular handles1 and apricot-shaped medallions on front and back4 ,flamb red glaze4 ,ch'ien ,lung period 7#agcf-agie74 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle-shaped ,vase with deep blue 7ta ch'ing7 glaze3 unglazed base4 ,early eighteenth century4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase with fine iron red enamel 7mo hung7 on the exterior4 ,ch'ien ,lung period 7#agcf-agie74 ,salting ,collection1 ,v4 ,a4 ,museum4 #abd4 ,,miscellaneous ,,porcelains #bdj ,fig4 #a4--,magnolia ,vase with flamb glaze of crackled lavender with red and blue streaks4 ,ch'ien ,lung period4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle with elephant handles1 yellow1 purple1 green1 and white glazes on the biscuit4 ,ch'ien ,lung period4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #c4--;,dish with fruit design in lustrous transparent glazes on the biscuit1 covering a faintly etched dragon pattern4 ,k'ang ,hsi mark4 ,british ,museum4 #abe4 ,,ch',,ien ,,lung ,,wares4 ,hippisley ,collection #bdj ,fig4 #a4--;,brush ,pot of enamelled ,ku-yeh-hsan glass4 ,ch'ien ,lung mark4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle1 porcelain painted in ,ku-yeh style1 after a picture by the ,ch'ing artist ,wang ,shih-mei4 ,fig4 #c4--;,imperial ,presentation ,cup marked hs hua t'ang chih tsng4 ,fig4 #d4--,medallion ,vase1 brocade ground with bats in clouds1 etc4 ,ch'ien ,lung mark4 #abf4 ,,vase ,,with 8,,hundred ,,flower0 ,,design ,,in famille rose ,,enamels4 #bdj ,ch'ien ,lung period 7#agcf-agie74 ,grandidier ,collection1 ,louvre4 #abg4 ,,vase ,,painted ,,in ,,mixed ,,enamels4 ,,the ,,hundred ,,deer4 #bdj ,late ,ch'ien ,lung period4 ,grandidier ,collection1 ,louvre #abh4 ,,ch',,ien ,,lung ,,porcelain4 ,british ,museum #bdh ,fig4 #a4--,vase with 8rice grain0 ground and blue and white design4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with 8lacework0 designs4 ,ch'ien ,lung mark4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase with the ,seven ,worthies of the ,bamboo ,grove in lac burgaut4 ,fig4 #d4--,vase with 8robin's egg0 glaze4 #abi4 ,,octagonal ,,vase ,,and ,,cover1 ,,painted ,,in famille rose ,,enamels #bdh ,ch'ien ,lung period 7#agcf-agie74 ,one of a pair in the ,collection of ,dr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,cumberbatch4 #acj4 ,,vase ,,with ,,pear-,,shaped ,,body ,,and ,,wide ,,mouth2 ,,tubular ,,handles 7,colour7 #bed ,porcelain with delicate clair de lune glaze recalling the pale blue tint of some of the finer ,sung celadons4 ,about #ahjj4 ,british ,museum4 #aca4 ,,eighteenth ,,century ,,painted ,,porcelain #bfd ,fig4 #a4--,plate painted in black and gold1 ,european figures in a ,chinese interior4 ,yung ,chng period4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,dish with floral scrolls in famille rose enamels in a ground of black enamel diapered with green foliage scrolls4 ,ch'ien ,lung period4 ,wantage ,collection4 #acb4 ,vase painted in mixed enamels1 an ,imperial park and a bevy of ladies #bfd ,deep ruby pink borders with coloured floral scrolls and symbols4 ,ch'ien ,lung mark4 ,about #agij4 ,wantage ,collection4 #acc4 ,,late famille rose ,,enamels #bhj ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl painted in soft enamels1 attendants of ,hsi ,wang ,mu in boats4 ,mark1 ,shn t t'ang chih4 ,tao ,kuang period4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,imperial ,fish ,bowl with five dragons ascending and descending1 borders of wave pattern1 ju-i pattern1 etc41 famille rose enamels4 ,late eighteenth century4 ,burdett-,coutts ,collection4 #acd4 ,,porcelain ,,snuff ,,bottles4 ,eighteenth ,century4 ,british ,museum #bhj ,fig4 #a4--,subject from the drama1 black ground4 ,yung ,chng mark4 ,fig4 #b4--;,battle of demons1 underglaze blue and red4 ,mark1 ,yung-lo t'ang4 ,fig4 #c4--;,blue and white 8steatitic0 ware4 ,fig4 #d4--;,crackled cream white ting glaze1 pierced casing with pine1 bamboo and prunus4 ,fig4 #e4--8,steatitic0 ware with ,hundred ,antiques design in coloured relief4 ,chia ,ch'ing mark4 ,,chinese ,,pottery ,,and ,,porcelain ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,ming chch ,,dynasty1 #acfh-afdd ,a4,d4 ,as we have already discussed1 so far as our imperfect knowledge permits1 the various potteries which are scattered over the length and breadth of ,china1 we can now concentrate our attention on the rising importance of ,ching-t ,chn4 ,from the beginning of the ,ming dynasty1 ,ching-t ,chn may be said to have become the ceramic metropolis of the empire1 all the other potteries sinking to provincial status4 ,so far as ,western collections1 at any rate1 are concerned1 it is not too much to say that #ij per cent4 of the post-,yan porcelains were made in this great pottery town4 ,what happened there in the stormy years which saw the overthrow of the ,mongol dynasty and the rise of the native ,ming is unknown to us1 and1 indeed1 it is scarcely likely to have been of much interest4 ,the ,imperial factories were closed1 and did not open till #acfi1 or1 according to some accounts1 #acih4a ,if we follow the ,ching-t ,chn ,t'ao lu1 which1 as its name implies1 should be well informed on the history of the place1 a factory was built in #acfi at the foot of the ,jewel ,hill to supply ,imperial porcelain 7kuan tz'71 and in the reign of ,hung ,wu 7#acfh-acih7 there were at least twenty kilns in various parts of the town working in the ,imperial service4 ,they included kilns for the large dragon bowls1 kilns for blue 7or green7 ware 7ch'ing yao71 8wind and fire0#b kilns1 seggar kilns for making the cases for the fine porcelain1 and lan kuang kilns1 which ,julien renders fours flammes tendues4 ,the last expression implies that the heat was raised in these kilns by means of a kind of bellows 7kuang7 which admitted air to the furnace1 and ,bushell's rendering1 8blue and yellow enamel furnaces10 ignores an essential part of both the characters#c used in the original4 ,from this time onward there is no lack of information on the nature of the ,imperial wares made during the various reigns1 but it must be remembered that the ,chinese descriptions are in almost every case confined to the ,imperial porcelains1 and we are left to assume that the productions of the numerous private kilns followed the same lines1 though in the earlier periods1 at any rate1 we are told that they were inferior in quality and finish4 ,the ,hung ,wu chch #b palace porcelain1 as described in the ,t'ao lu1 was of fine1 unctuous clay and potted thin4 ,the ware was left for a whole year to dry1 then put upon the lathe and turned thin1 and then glazed and fired4 ,if there was any fault in the glaze1 the piece was ground down on the lathe1 reglazed and refired4 8,consequently the glaze was lustrous 7jung7 like massed lard40 ,these phrases are now so trite that one is tempted to regard them as mere ,chinese conventionalities1 but there is no doubt that the material used in the ,ming period 7which1 as we shall see presently1 gave out in the later reigns7 was of peculiar excellence4 ,the raw edge of the base rim of early specimens does1 in fact1 reveal a beautiful white body of exceedingly fine grain and smooth texture1 so fat and unctuous that one might almost expect to squeeze moisture out of it4 ,the best ware1 we are told1 was white1 but other kinds are mentioned4 ,a short contemporary notice in the ,ko ku yao lun1#d written in #achg1 says1 8,of modern wares 7made at ,ching-t ,chn7 the good examples with white colour and lustrous are very highly valued4 ,there are1 besides1 ch'ing#e 7blue or green7 and black 7hei7 wares with gilding1 including wine pots and wine cups of great charm40 ,such pieces may exist in ,western collections1 but they remain unidentified1 and though there are several specimens with the ,hung ,wu mark to be seen in museums1 few have the appearance of ,ming porcelain at all4 ,there is1 however1 a dish in the ,british ,museum which certainly belongs to the ,ming dynasty1 even if it is a century later than the mark implies4 ,the body is refined and white1 though the finish is rather rough1 with pits and raised spots here and there in the glaze and grit adhering to the foot rim2 but it is painted with a free touch in a bright blue1 recalling the ,mohammedan blue in colour1 the central subject a landscape1 and the sides and rim divided into panels of floral and formal ornament4 ,it must be allowed that the style of the painting is advanced for this early period1 including as it does white designs reserved in blue ground as well as the ordinary blue painting on a white ground4 ,yung ,lo chch #b 7#adjc-adbd7 ,the usual formul are employed by the ,t'ao lu in describing the ,imperial ware of this reign4 ,it was made of plastic clay and refined material1 and though1 as a rule1 the porcelain was thick1 there were some exceedingly thin varieties known as t'o t'ai#f or 8bodiless0 porcelains4 ,besides the plain white specimens1 there were others engraved with a point#g or coated with vivid red 7hsien hung74 ,the ,po wu yao lan1#h reputed a high authority on ,ming porcelains and written in the third decade of the seventeenth century1 adds 8blue and white0 to the list and gives further details of the wares4 ,the passage is worth quoting in full1 and runs as follows3 8,in the reign of ,yung ,lo were made the cups which fit in the palm of the hand1#i with broad mouth1 contracted waist1 sandy 7sha7 foot1 and polished base4 ,inside were drawn two lions rolling balls4 ,inside1 too1 in seal characters1 was written ,ta ,ming ,yung ,lo nien chih#aj in six characters1 or sometimes in four#aa only1 as fine as grains of rice4 ,these are the highest class4 ,those with mandarin ducks1 or floral decoration inside1 are all second quality4 ,the cups are decorated outside with blue ornaments of a very deep colour1 and their shape and make are very refined and beautiful and in a traditional style4 ,their price1 too1 is very high4 ,as for the modern imitations1 they are coarse in style and make1 with foot and base burnt 7brown71 and though their form has some resemblance 7to the old71 they are not worthy of admiration40 ,as may be imagined1 ,yung ,lo porcelain is not common to-day1 and the few specimens which exist in our collections are not enough to make us realise the full import of these descriptions4 ,there are1 however1 several types which bear closely on the subject1 some being actually of the period and others in the ,yung ,lo style4 ,a fair sample of the ordinary body and glaze of the time is seen in the white porcelain bricks of which the lower story of the famous ,nanking pagoda was built4 ,several of these are in the ,british ,museum1 and they show a white compact body of close but granular fracture2 the glazed face is a pure1 solid-looking white1 and the unglazed sides show a smooth1 fine-grained ware which has assumed a pinkish red tinge in the firing4 ,the coarser porcelains of the period would1 no doubt1 have similar characteristics in body and glaze4 ,the finer wares are exemplified by the white bowls1 of wonderful thinness and transparency1 with decoration engraved in the body or traced in delicate white slip under the glaze and scarcely visible except as a transparency4 ,considering the fragility of these delicate wares and the distant date of the ,yung ,lo period1 it is surprising how many are to be seen in ,western collections4 ,indeed1 it is hard to believe that more than a very few of these can be genuine ,yung ,lo productions1 and as we know that the fine white 8egg shell0 porcelain was made throughout the ,ming period and copied with great skill in the earlier reigns of the last dynasty1 it is not necessary to assume that every bowl of the ,yung ,lo type dates back to the first decades of the fifteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ei4--,white ,eggshell ,porcelain ,bowl with ,imperial dragons faintly traced in white slip under the glaze4 ,mark of the ,yung ,lo period 7#adjc-adbd7 incised in the centre in archaic characters4 #a4 ,exterior4 #b4 ,interior view4 ,diameter #h inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,it is wellnigh impossible to reproduce adequately these white porcelains1 but ,plate #ei illustrates the well-known example in the ,franks ,collection1 which has long been accepted as a genuine ,yung ,lo specimen4 ,it represents the ya shou pei in form1 with wide mouth and small foot--the contracted waist of the ,po wu yao lan2 the foot rim is bare at the edge1 but not otherwise sandy1 and the base is glazed over1 which may be the sense in which the word 8polished0#ab is used in the ,po wu yao lan4 ,the ware is so thin and transparent that it seems to consist of glaze alone1 as though the body had been pared away to vanishing point before the glaze was applied--in short1 it is t'o t'ai or 8bodiless40 ,when held to the light it has a greenish transparency and the colour of melting snow1 and there is revealed on the sides a delicate but exquisitely drawn design of five-clawed ,imperial dragons in white slip 7not etched1 as has too often been stated71 showing up like the water-mark in paper4 ,on the bottom inside is the date-mark of the period etched with a point in four archaic characters 7see vol4 i1 p4 #bac74 ,a more refined and delicate ceramic work could hardly be imagined4 ,close to this bowl in the ,franks ,collection there are two smaller bowls or1 rather1 cups which in many ways answer more nearly the description of the ya shou pei1#ac though they are thick in substance and of coarser make4 ,they have straight spreading sides1 wide at the mouth1 with foliate rim1 and contracted at the foot4 ,the foot rim is bare of glaze1 but the base is covered4 ,they are of an impure white ware with surface rather pitted1 and inside is a lotus design traced in white slip under the glaze and repeated in radiating compartments4 ,these are perhaps a product of the private factories4 ,the same form is observed among the blue and white porcelain in two small cups1 which are painted in blue with a landscape on the exterior and with bands of curled scrolls inside and the ,yung ,lo mark in four characters4 ,the base is unglazed1 and though they are undoubtedly intended to represent a ,yung ,lo type1 these not uncommon bowls can hardly be older than the last dynasty4 ,another blue and white bowl in the ,franks ,collection has the ,yung ,lo mark and the scroll decoration inside1 and on the exterior a long poem by ,su ,shih1 covering most of the surface4 ,it is painted in a grey blue1 and the ware1 though coarse1 has the appearance of ,ming manufacture1 perhaps one of the late ,ming copies which are mentioned without honour in the ,po wu yao lan4 ,it is1 however1 of the ordinary rounded form4#ad ,hsiang ,yan-p'ien illustrates in his ,album one ,yung ,lo specimen1 a low cylindrical bowl of the 8bodiless0 kind1 8thin as paper10 with a very delicate dragon and phnix design1 which is seen when the bowl is held to the light and carefully inspected4 ,this style of ornament is described as an hua 7secret decoration71 but it is not stated whether1 in this case1 it was engraved in the paste or traced in white slip4 ,the mention of 8fresh red0 7hsien hung71 which seems to have been used on the ,yung ,lo porcelain as well as in the succeeding ,hsan ,t period1 brings to mind a familiar type of small bowl with slight designs in blue inside1 often a figure of a boy at play1 the exterior being coated with a fine coral red1 over which are lotus scrolls in gold4 ,there are several in the ,british ,museum1 and one1 with a sixteenth-century silver mount1 was exhibited at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #aiaj4ae ,the term hsien hung is certainly used for an underglaze copper red on the ,hsan ,t porcelain1 and it is doubtful whether it can have been loosely applied to an overglaze iron red on the earlier ware4 ,for the bowls to which ,i refer have an iron red decoration1 though it is sometimes wonderfully translucent and1 being heavily fluxed1 looks like a red glaze instead of merely an overglaze enamel 7see ,plate #gd74 ,several of these red bowls have the ,yung ,lo mark1 others have merely marks of commendation or good wish4 ,their form is characteristic of the ,ming period1 and the base is sometimes convex at the bottom1 sometimes concave4 ,they vary considerably in quality1 the red in some cases being a translucent and rather pale coral tint1 and in others a thick1 opaque brick red4 ,probably they vary in date as well1 the former type being the earlier and better4 ,it is exemplified by an interesting specimen in the ,franks ,collection marked tan kuei 7red cassia71 which indicates its destination as a present to a literary aspirant1 the red cassia being a symbol of literary success4 ,this piece has1 moreover1 a stamped leather box of ,european--probably ,venetian--make1 which is not later than the sixteenth century4 ,this1 if any of these bowls1 belongs to the ,yung ,lo period1 but it will be seen presently that the iron red was used as an inferior but more workable substitute for the underglaze red in the later ,ming reigns1 and1 it must be added1 these bowls are strangely numerous for a fifteenth-century porcelain4 ,that they are a ,yung ,lo type1 however1 there is little doubt1 for this red and gold decoration 7kinrande of the ,japanese7 is the adopted style which won for the clever ,kioto potter1 ,zengoro ,hozen1 the art name ,ei raku1 i4e4 ,yung ,lo in ,japanese4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,hs,,an ,t chch #b 7#adbf-adce7 ,in this short reign1 which ,chinese writers regard as the most brilliant period of their porcelain industry1 the number of kilns occupied with the ,imperial orders had increased to fifty-eight1 the majority of them being outside the ,imperial factory and distributed among the private factories4 ,according to the ,t'ao lu1#af the clay used at this time was red and the ware like cinnabar1 a statement which is difficult to reconcile with the glowing description of the jade-like white altar cups and other exquisite objects for which the reign was celebrated4 ,it is1 of course1 possible that a dark coloured body was employed in some of the wares1 as was done at other periods1 or it may be that the words are hyperbolically used to describe a porcelain of which the exposed parts of the body assumed a red colour in the firing4 ,this latter peculiarity is noticeable on specimens of later ,ming porcelain1 particularly the blue and white of the ,chia ,ching period4 ,but in any case a red biscuit cannot have been invariable or even characteristic of the period1 for no mention is made of such a feature in the ,po wu yao lan1 which gives by far the fullest account of the ,hsan ,t porcelain4 ,the description in the ,po wu yao lan1#ag which seems to have been generally accepted1 and certainly was largely borrowed by subsequent ,chinese works1 may be freely rendered as follows3 8,among the wares of the ,hsan ,t period there are stem-cups#ah decorated with red fish4 ,for these they used a powder made of red precious stones from the ,west to paint the fish forms1 and from the body there rose up in relief in the firing the precious brilliance of the fresh red ravishing the eye4 ,the brown and blackish colours which resulted from imperfect firing of the red are inferior4 ,there were also blue decorated wares1 such as stem-cups with dragon pine and plum designs1 wine stem-cups with figure subjects#ai and lotus designs1 small cinnabar pots and large bowls in colour red like the sun1 but with white mouth rim1 pickle pots and small pots with basket covers and handles in the form of bamboo joints1 all of which things were unknown in ancient times4 ,again1 there were beautiful objects of a useful kind1 all small and cleverly made with finely and accurately drawn designs4 ,the incense vases1 trays and dishes#bj were made in large numbers1 and belong to a common class4 ,the flat-sided jars with basket covers1 and the ornamented round pots with flanged#ba mouth for preserving honey1 are very beautiful and mostly decorated in colours 7wu ts'ai74 ,the white cups1 which have the character t'an 7altar7 engraved inside the bowl1 are what are known as 'altar cups4' ,the material of these things is refined and the ware thick1 and the form beautiful enough to be used as elegant vases in the true scholar's room4 ,there are besides white cups for tea with rounded body1#bb convex#bc base1 thread-like foot1 bright and lustrous like jade1 and with very finely engraved#bd dragon and phnix designs which are scarcely inferior to the altar cups4 ,at the bottom the characters ta ming hsan t nien chih#be are secretly engraved in the paste1 and the texture of the glaze is uneven1 like orange peel4#bf ,how can even ,ting porcelain compare with these8 ,truly they are the most excellent porcelains of this reign1 and unfortunately there have not been many to be seen since then4 ,again1 there are the beautiful barrel-shaped seats1 some with openwork ground1 the designs filled in with colours 7wu ts'ai71 gorgeous as cloud brocades1 others with solid ground filled in with colours in engraved floral designs1 so beautiful and brilliant as to dazzle the eye2 both sorts have a deep green 7ch'ing7 background4 ,others have blue 7lan7 ground1 filled in with designs in colours 7wu ts'ai71 like ornament carved in cobalt blue 7shih ch'ing1 lit4 stone blue74 ,there is also blue decoration on a white ground and crackled grounds like ice4 ,the form and ornament of these various types do not seem to have been known before this period40 ,illustration3 ,plate #fj4--,reputed ,hsan ,t ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--;,flask with blue decoration1 reputed to be ,hsan ,t period4 ,height #c inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,brush ,rest4 787 ,chang ,ch'ien on a log raft2 partly biscuit4 ,inscribed with a stanza of verse and the ,hsan ,t mark4 ,length #f inches4 ,grandidier ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,plate #fa4--,porcelain with san ts'ai glazes on the biscuit4 ,fig4 #a4--,wine ,jar with pierced casing1 the ,taoist ,immortals paying court to the ,god of ,longevity1 turquoise blue ground4 ,fifteenth century4 ,height #aa inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,screen with design in relief1 horsemen on a mountain path1 dark blue ground4 ,about #aejj4 ,height #ad inches4 ,benson ,collection4 ,it will be seen from the above that the ,hsan ,t porcelains included a fine white1 blue and white and polychrome painted wares1 underglaze red painted wares1 and crackle4 ,the last mentioned is further specified in the ,ch'ing pi tsang as having 8eel's blood lines10#bg and almost rivalling the ,kuan and ,ju wares4 ,the ware was thick and strong1 and the glaze had the peculiar undulating appearance 7variously compared to chicken skin1 orange peel1 millet grains1 or a wind ruffled surface7 which was deliberately produced on the eighteenth century porcelains4 ,another surface peculiarity shared by the ,hsan ,t and ,yung ,lo wares was 8palm eye0 7tsung yen7 markings1 which ,bushell explains as holes in the glaze due to air bubbles4 ,it is hard to see how these can have been other than a defect4 ,probably both these and the orange peel effects were purely fortuitous at this time4 ,of the various types which we have enumerated1 the white wares need little comment4 ,the glaze was no doubt thick and lustrous like mutton fat jade1 and though ,hsiang in his ,album usually describes the white of his examples as 8white like driven snow10 it is worthy of note that in good imitations of the ware particular care seems to have been given to impart a distinct greenish tint to the glaze4 ,the honours of the period appear to have been shared by the 8blue and white0 and red painted wares4 ,out of twenty examples illustrated in ,hsiang's ,album1 no fewer than twelve are decorated chiefly in red1 either covering the whole or a large part of the surface or painted in designs1 among which three fishes occur with monotonous frequency4 ,the red in every case is called chi hung1 and it is usually qualified by the illuminating comparison with 8ape's blood10 and in one case it is even redder than that6 ,the expression chi hung has evidently been handed down by oral traditions1 for there is no sort of agreement among ,chinese writers on the form of the first character4 ,the ,t'ao lu uses the character chch1 which means 8sacrificial10 and ,bushell#bh explains this 8as the colour of the sacrificial cups which were employed by the ,emperor in the worship of the ,sun40 ,hsiang uses the character chch which means 8massed1 accumulated40 ,and others use the character chch which means 8sky clearing10 and is also applied to blue in the sense of the 8blue of the sky after rain40 ,in the oft quoted list of the ,yung ,chng porcelains we find the item1 8,imitations of ,hsan chi hung wares1 including two kinds1 hsien hung 7fresh red7 and pao shih hung 7ruby red740 ,there can be little doubt that both these were shades of underglaze red derived from copper oxide1 a colour with which we are quite familiar from the eighteenth century and later examples4 ,for in another context we find the hsien hung contrasted with fan hung1 which is the usual term for overglaze iron red1 and the description already given of the application of pao shih hung leaves no doubt whatever that it was an underglaze colour4 ,the two terms are probably fanciful names for two variations of the same colour1 or perhaps for two different applications of it1 for we know that it was used as a pigment for brushwork as well as in the form of a ground colour incorporated in the glaze4 ,the secret of the colour seems to have been well kept1 and the general impression prevailing outside the factories was that its tint and brilliancy were due to powdered rubies1 the red precious stone from the ,west which gave the name to the pao shih hung4#bi ,it is known that in some cases such stones as cornelian 7ma nao7 have been incorporated in the porcelain glazes in ,china to increase the limpidity of the glaze4 ,this is reputed to have happened in the case of the ,ju yao1 but neither cornelian nor ruby could serve in any way as a colouring agent1 as their colour would be dissipated in the heat of the furnace4 ,the real colouring agent of the chi hung is protoxide of copper4 ,if there were nothing else to prove this1 it would be clear from the fact hinted in the ,po wu yao lan that the failures came out a brownish or blackish tint4 ,this colour has always proved a difficult one to manage1 and in the early part of the last dynasty1 when it was freely used after the manner of the ,hsan ,t potters1 the results were most unequal1 varying from a fine blood red to maroon and brown1 and even to a blackish tint4 ,the peculiar merits of the ,hsan ,t red were probably due in some measure to the clay of which the ware was composed1 and which contained some natural ingredient favourable to the development of the red4 ,at any rate1 we are told#cj that in the ,chia ,ching period 7#aebb-aeff7 8the earth used for the hsien hung ran short40 ,among the favourite designs#ca expressed in the ,hsan ,t red were three fishes1 three fruits1#cb three funguses1 and the character fu 7happiness7 repeated five times4#cc ,all these are mentioned among the ,yung ,chng imitations4 ,a good idea of the fish design is given by a cylindrical vase in the ,franks ,collection1 which is plain except for two fishes in underglaze red of good colour1 and rising in slight relief in the glaze4 ,the glaze itself is of that faint celadon green which was apparently regarded as a necessary feature of the ,hsan ,t copies1 and which incidentally seems to be favourable to the development of the copper red4 ,the sang de buf red of the last dynasty is avowedly a revival of the ,hsan ,t red in its use as a glaze colour4 ,indeed1 certain varieties of the sang de buf class are still distinguished as chi hung4 ,the large bowls1 8red as the sun and white at the mouth rim10 as mentioned in the ,po wu yao lan1 have a counterpart in the large bowl of the last dynasty with sang de buf glaze1 which1 flowing downwards1 usually left a colourless white band at the mouth4 ,the ,hsan ,t period extended only to ten years1 and specimens of ,hsan red are excessively rare to-day1 even in ,china4 ,it is doubtful if a genuine specimen exists outside the ,middle ,kingdom1 but with the help of the old ,chinese descriptions and the clever imitations of a later date1#cd there is no difficulty in imagining the vivid splendours of the 8precious stone red0 of this brilliant period4 ,among the 8blue and white0 wares of all periods1 the ,hsan ,t porcelain is unanimously voted the first place by ,chinese writers1 and its excellence is ascribed principally to the superior quality of an imported mineral variously described as su-ni-p'o1 su-p'o-ni and su-ma-ni4 ,these outlandish names are1 no doubt1 attempts to render in ,chinese the foreign name of the material1 which was itself probably the name of the place or people whence it was exported4 ,there is little doubt that this mysterious substance was the same species as the ,mohammedan blue 7hui hui ch'ing7 of the following century4 ,indeed1 this latter name is applied to it in ,hsiang's ,album4 ,the ,mohammedan blue was obtained from ,arab traders1 and its use for painting on pottery had been familiar in the ,near ,east1 in ,persia and ,syria for instance1 at least as early as the twelfth century4#ce ,the su-ni-p'o blue was no doubt imported in the form of mineral cobalt1 and though there was no lack of this mineral in the neighbourhood of ,ching-t ,chn1 the foreign material was of superior quality4 ,it was1 however1 not only expensive but unsuited for use in a pure state4 ,if applied by itself1 it had a tendency to run in the firing1 and it was necessary to blend it with proportions of the native mineral varying from one in ten for the finest quality to four in six for the medium quality4 ,the native mineral used by itself tended to be heavy and dull in tone1 owing to its inability to stand the intense heat of the kiln1 and was only employed alone on the coarser wares4 ,the supply of ,mohammedan blue was uncertain and spasmodic4 ,it ceased to arrive at the end of the ,hsan ,t period1 and it was not renewed till the next century 7see p4 #bi74 ,its nature1 too1 seems to have varied1 for we are expressly told that the ,hsan ,t blue was pale in tone while the ,mohammedan blue of the sixteenth century was dark4 ,possibly1 however1 this was not so much due to the nature of the material as to the method of its application1 for ,chinese writers are by no means unanimous about the paleness of the ,hsan ,t blue4 ,the ,ch'ing pi ts'ang1 for instance1 states that 8they used su-p'o-ni blue and painted designs of dragons1 phnixes1 flowers1 birds1 insects1 fish and similar forms1 deep and thickly heaped and piled and very lovely40 ,authentic specimens of ,hsan ,t blue and white are virtually unknown1 but the mark of the period is one of the commonest on ,chinese porcelain of relatively modern date4 ,in most cases this spurious dating means nothing more than that the period named was one of high repute2 but there is a type of blue and white1 usually bearing the period mark of ,hsan ,t1 which is so mannered and characteristic that one feels the certainty that this really represents one kind at least of the ,hsan porcelain4 ,it is usually decorated in close floral scrolls1 and the blue is light dappled with darker shades1 which are often literally 8heaped and piled0 7tui t'o7 over the paler substratum4 ,i have seen examples of this style belonging to various periods1 mostly eighteenth century1 but some certainly late ,ming#cf 7see ,plate #fg1 ,fig4 #d74 ,seven examples of ,hsan blue and white porcelain are figured in ,hsiang's ,album1#cg comprising an ink pallet1 a vase shaped like a section of bamboo1 a goose-shaped wine jar1 a vase with an elephant on the cover1 a tea cup1 a sacrificial vessel1 and a lamp with four nozzles4 ,in five of these the blue is confined to slight pencilled borders1 merely serving to set off the white ground1 which is compared to driven snow4 ,the glaze is rich and thick1 and of uneven surface1 rising in slight tubercles likened to 8grains of millet40 ,this is the 8orange skin0 glaze4 ,the blue in each case is hui hu#ch ta ch'ing 7deep ,mohammedan blue74 ,of the two remaining instances1 one is painted with a dragon in clouds1 and the other with 8dragon pines10 and in the latter case the glaze is described as 8lustrous like mutton fat jade10 and the blue as 8of intensity and brilliance to dazzle the eye40 ,the impression conveyed by all these examples is that they represent a type quite different from that described as 8heaped and piled10 a type in which delicate pencilling was the desideratum1 the designs being slight and giving full play to the white porcelain ground4 ,it is1 in fact1 far closer in style to the delicately painted ,japanese ,hirado porcelain than to the familiar ,chinese blue and white of the ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,plate #fj illustrates a little flask-shaped vase in the ,franks ,collection1 which purports to be a specimen of ,hsan ,t blue and white porcelain4 ,it has a thick1 8mutton fat0 glaze of faint greenish tinge1 and is decorated with a freely drawn peach bough in underglaze blue which has not developed uniformly in the firing4 ,the colour in places is deep1 soft and brilliant1 but elsewhere it has assumed too dark a hue4#ci ,its certificate is engraved in ,chinese fashion on the box into which it has been carefully fitted--hsan tz' pao yeh p'ing1 8precious moon vase of ,hsan porcelain0--attested by the signature ,tz-ching1 the studio name of none other than ,hsiang ,yan-p'ien1 whose ,album has been so often quoted4 ,without attaching too much weight to this inscription1 which is a matter easily arranged by the ,chinese1 there is nothing in the appearance of this quite unpretentious little vase which is inconsistent with an early ,ming origin4 ,on the same plate is a brush rest in form of a log raft1 on which is a seated figure1 probably the celebrated ,chang-,ch'ien1 floating down the ,yellow ,river4 ,the design recalls a rare silver cup of the ,yan dynasty1 which was illustrated in the ,burlington ,magazine 7,december1 #aiab74 ,here the material is porcelain biscuit with details glazed and touched with blue1 and the nien hao of ,hsan ,t is visible on the upper part of the log beside two lines of poetry4 ,whether this brush rest really belongs to the period indicated or not1 it is a rare and interesting specimen4 ,two other possible examples of ,hsan ,t blue and white are described on p4 #cb4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #fb ,barrel shaped ,garden ,seat3 porcelain with coloured glazes on the biscuit1 the designs outlined in slender fillets of clay4 ,a lotus scroll between an upper band of clouds and a lower band of horses in flying gallop and sea waves4 ,lion mask handles4 ,about #aejj ,a4,d4 ,height #ad inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,as to the other types of ,hsan ware named in the ,po wu yao lan1 with one exception ,i can find no exact counterpart of them in existing specimens1 though parts of the descriptions are illustrated by examples of apparently later date4 ,thus the form of the white tea cups1 8with rounded body1 convex base1 and thread-like foot10 is seen in such bowls as ,fig4 #a of ,plate #gd1 which is proved by its mount to be not later than the sixteenth century4 ,other examples of these bowls will be discussed later4 ,they are characterised by a convexity in the centre which cannot be shown in reproductions4 ,the secret decoration 7an hua7 consists of designs faintly traced usually with a sharp-pointed instrument in the body and under the glaze4 ,there is an excellent example of this in a high-footed cup in the ,franks ,collection which has the ,hsan ,t mark1 the usual faintly greenish glaze1 beneath which is a delicately etched lotus scroll so fine that it might easily be overlooked and is quite impossible to reproduce by photographic methods4 ,it is1 no doubt1 an early eighteenth-century copy of ,hsan ware4 ,the one exception mentioned above is the type represented by the 8barrel-shaped seats40 ,the description of these leaves no room for doubt that they belonged to a fairly familiar class of ,ming ware1 whose strength and solidity has preserved it in considerable quantity where the more delicate porcelains have disappeared4 ,plate #fb gives a good idea of the ,ming barrel-shaped garden seat1 8with solid ground filled in with colours in engraved floral designs40 ,the other kind1 8with openwork ground1 the designs filled in with colours 7wu ts'ai71 gorgeous as cloud brocades10 must have been in the style of ,plate #fa4 ,these styles of decoration are more familiar to us on potiche-shaped wine jars and high-shouldered vases than on garden seats1 but the type is one and the same4 ,quite a series of these vessels was exhibited at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #aiaj1 and they are fully described in the catalogue4 ,some had an outer casing in openwork2 others had the designs outlined in raised threads of clay1 which contained the colours like the ribbons of cloisonn enamel#dj2 in others1 again1 the patterns were incised with a point4 ,the common feature of all of them was that the details of the pattern were defined by some emphatic method of outlining which served at the same time to limit the flow of the colours4 ,the colours themselves consist of glazes containing a considerable proportion of lead1 and tinted in the usual fashion with metallic oxides4 ,they include a deep violet blue 7sometimes varying to black or brown71 leaf green1 turquoise1 yellow1#da and a colourless glaze or a white slip which served as white colour1 though at times the white was represented merely by leaving the unglazed body or biscuit to appear4 ,these coloured glazes differ from the on-glaze painted enamels in that they are applied direct to the body of the ware1 and are fired at a relatively high temperature in the cooler parts of the great kiln1 a circumstance expressed by the ,french in the concise phrase1 couleurs de demi-grand feu4#db ,the central ornament consisted chiefly of figures of sages or deities in rocky landscape1 or seated under pine trees amid clouds1 dragons in clouds1 or beautiful lotus designs2 and these were contained by various borders1 such as floral scrolls1 gadroons1 ju-i head patterns1 fungus scrolls1 and symbols hanging in jewelled pendants4 ,as a rule1 the larger areas of these vases are invested with a ground colour and the design filled in with contrasting tints4 ,sometimes the scheme of decoration includes several bands of ornament1 and in this case--as on ,plate #fb--more than one ground colour is used4 ,the ,po wu yao lan speaks of green 7ch'ing7 and dark blue 7lan7 grounds1 and existing specimens indicate that the dark violet blue was the commonest ground colour4 ,next to this1 turquoise blue is the most frequently seen2 but besides these there is a dark variety of the violet which is almost black1 and another which is dark brown1 both of which colours are based on cobaltiferous oxide of manganese4 ,it has already been observed that this type of decoration was frequently used on a pottery body as well as on porcelain4 ,the question of the antiquity of the above method of polychrome decoration is complicated by the contradictory accounts which ,dr4 ,bushell has given of a very celebrated example1 the statuette of the goddess ,kuan-yin in the temple named ,pao kuo ss at ,peking4 ,the following reference to this image occurs in the ,t'ung ya1 published in the reign of ,ch'ung ,chng 7#afbe-afdc73 8,the ,chn ,chou transmutation wares 7yao pien7 are not uncommon to-day4 ,the ,kuan-yin in the ,pao kuo ss is a yao pien40 ,dr4 ,bushell1 who visited the temple several times1 gives a minute description of the image1 which contains the following passage#dc3 8,the figure is loosely wrapped in flowing drapery of purest and bluest turquoise tint1 with the wide sleeves of the robe bordered with black and turned back in front to show the yellow lining2 the upper part of the cloak is extended up behind over the head in the form of a plaited hood1 which is also lined with canary yellow40 ,to the ordinary reader1 such a description would be conclusive4 ,a fine example of ,ming porcelain1 he would say1 decorated with the typical coloured glazes on the biscuit4 ,bushell's comment1 however1 is that the 8colours are of the same type as those of the finest flower pots and saucers of the ,chn ,chou porcelain of the ,sung dynasty40 ,it should be said that the temple bonzes insist that they can trace the origin of the image back to the thirteenth century4 ,if these are indeed the typical ,chn ,chou glazes1 then all our previous information on that factory1 including ,bushell's own contributions1 is worthless4 ,in another work1#dd however1 the same writer states that it 7the image in question7 is 8really enamelled in 'five colours'--turquoise1 yellow1 crimson1 red brown and black40 ,this is precisely what we should have expected1 and it can only be imagined that ,bushell in the other passage was influenced by the statement in the ,t'ung ya that it was a furnace transmutation piece1 a statement probably based on the superstition that it was a miraculous likeness of the goddess1 who herself descended into the kiln and moulded its features4 ,as to the other temple tradition1 that it was made in the thirteenth century1 it is not necessary to take that any more seriously than the myth concerning its miraculous origin1 which derives from the same source4 ,it is hardly necessary to state that all the existing specimens of this class 7and they are fairly numerous7 do not belong to the ,hsan ,t period4 ,indeed1 it is unlikely that more than a very small percentage of them were made in this short reign4 ,whether the style survived the ,ming dynasty is an open question2 but it is safe to assume that it was largely used in the sixteenth century4 ,the discussion of this group of polychrome porcelain leads naturally to the vexed question of the introduction of enamel painting over the glaze4 ,by the latter ,i mean the painting of designs on the finished white glaze in vitrifiable enamels1 which were subsequently fixed in the gentle heat of the muffle kiln 7lu7--couleurs de petit feu1 as the ,french have named them4 ,no help can be got from the phraseology of the ,chinese1 for they use wu ts'ai or wu s 7lit4 five colours7 indifferently for all kinds of polychrome decoration1 regardless of the number of colours involved or the mode of application4 ,there is1 however1 no room for doubt that the delicate enamel painting1 for which the reign of ,ch'ng ,hua 7#adfe-adhg7 was celebrated1 was executed with the brush over the fired glaze4 ,it is inconceivable that the small1 eggshell wine cups with peony flowers and a hen and chicken 8instinct with life and movement0 could have been limned by any other method4 ,if this is the case1 then what could the ,chinese writers mean when they contrasted the wu ts'ai ornament of the ,hsan ,t and ,ch'ng ,hua periods1 but that the same process of painting was in use in both reigns8 ,the ,ch'ng ,hua colours were more artistic because they were thin and delicately graded1 while the ,hsan ,t wu ts'ai were too thickly applied4#de ,for this reason1 if for no other1 we may rightly infer that painting in on-glaze enamels was practised in the ,hsan ,t period1 if1 indeed1 it had not been long in use4#df ,there is another and an intermediate method of polychrome decoration in which the low-fired enamels 7de petit feu7 are applied direct to the biscuit1 as in the case of the demi-grand feu colours1 but with the difference that they are fixed in the muffle kiln4 ,this method was much employed on the late ,ming and early ,ch'ing porcelains1 and it will be discussed later2 but it is mentioned here because there are several apparent examples of it in ,hsiang's ,album1 one#dg of which is dated ,hsan ,t4 ,the example in question is a model of the celebrated ,nanking pagoda1 and it is described as wu ts'ai1 the structure being white1 the roofs green1 the rails red1 and the doors yellow1 while the date is painted in blue4 ,i have hesitated to assume that this is intended to represent an on-glaze painted piece1 though there is much in the description to indicate such a conclusion2 but it is certainly either this or a member of the class under discussion1 viz4 decorated in enamels of the muffle kiln applied to the biscuit4#dh ,in either case it proves the knowledge of vitrifiable enamels at this period to all who accept the evidence of ,hsiang's ,album4 ,examples of ,hsan ,t polychrome porcelain enumerated in the ,t'ao shuo included wine pots in the form of peaches1 pomegranates1 double gourds1 a pair of mandarin ducks and geese2 washing dishes 7for brushes7 of 8gong-shaped outline10 with moulded fish and water-weeds1 with sunflowers and with lizards2 and lamp brackets1 8rain-lamps10 vessels for holding bird's food1 and cricket#di pots 7see vol4 i1 p4 #ahh74 ,specimens of on-glaze painted porcelain with the ,hsan ,t mark are common enough1 but ,i have not yet seen one which could be accepted without reserve4 ,perhaps the nearest to the period is a specimen in the ,franks ,collection1 a box made of the lower part of a square vase which had been broken and cut down4 ,it was fitted with a finely designed bronze cover in ,japan1 and it is strongly painted in underglaze blue and the usual green1 yellow1 red and purple on-glaze enamels4 ,the mark is in a fine dark blue1 and the porcelain has all the character of a ,ming specimen4 ,there is1 in the same collection1 a dish of a different type1 but with the ,hsan ,t mark in ,mohammedan blue and other evidences of ,ming origin4 ,the glaze is of a faintly greenish white and of considerable thickness and lustre1 and the design consists of lotus scrolls in gold4 ,painting in gold in the ,hsan ,t period is mentioned in the ,t'ao shuo#ej in connection with the pots for holding the fighting crickets alluded to above4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,ch',,ng ,,hua chch #b 7#adfe-adhg7 ,,and ,,other ,,reigns ,the ,ch'ng ,hua porcelain shares with that of the ,hsan ,t period the honours of the ,ming dynasty1 and ,chinese writers are divided on the relative merits of the two4 ,unfortunately1 no material remains on which we might base a verdict of our own1 but we may safely accept the summing up which the ,po wu yao lan1 the premier authority on early ,ming wares1 gives as follows#ea3 8,in my opinion1 the blue and white porcelain of the ,ch'ng ,hua period does not equal that of the ,hsan ,t1 while the polychrome of the ,hsan period does not equal that of the 'model#eb emperor's' reign4 ,the reason is that the blue of the ,hsan ware was su-ni-p'o#ec blue1 whereas afterward it was all exhausted1 and in the ,ch'ng ,hua period only the ordinary blue was used4 ,on the other hand1 the polychrome 7wu ts'ai7 decoration on the ,hsan ware was deep and thick1 heaped and piled1 and consequently not very beautiful2 while on the polychrome wares of the ,ch'ng ,hua period the colours used were thin and subdued1#ed and gave the impression of a picture40#ee ,elsewhere we read that the ,hsan ,t porcelain was thick1 the ,ch'ng ,hua thin1 and that the blue of the ,hsan blue and white was pale1 that of the ,ch'ng ,hua dark2 but on this latter point there are many differences of opinion1 and among the wares made at the ,imperial factory in the ,yung ,chng period we are told that there were 8copies of ,ch'ng ,hua porcelain with designs pencilled in pale blue 7tan ch'ing740#ef ,the only types of ,ch'ng ,hua porcelain considered worthy of mention by ,chinese writers are the polychrome1 the blue and white1 and the red monochrome1 though doubtless the other methods of previous reigns were still used4 ,stress is laid on the excellence of the designs which were supplied by artists in the palace1#eg and on the fine quality of the colours used1 and an interesting list of patterns is given in the ,t'ao shuo1#eh which includes the following3 #a4 ,stem-cups 7pa pei71 with high foot1 flattened bowl1 and spreading mouth2 decorated in colours with a grape-vine pattern4 8,among the highest class of ,ch'ng ,hua porcelain these are unsurpassed1 and in workmanship they far excel the ,hsan ,t cups40 ,such is the verdict of the ,po wu yao lan1 but they are only known to us by later imitations4 ,a poor illustration of one of these is given in ,hsiang's ,album1#ei and we are told in the accompanying text that the glaze is fn pai1 8white like rice powder10 while the decoration1 a band of oblique vine clusters and tendrils1 is merely described as wu ts'ai 7polychrome71 but it is obviously too slight to be executed by any other method than painting with enamels on the glaze4 ,the price paid for this cup is stated as one hundred taels 7or ounces7 of silver4 #b4 ,chicken cups 7chi kang71 shaped like the flat-bottomed1 steep-sided1 and wide-mouthed fish bowls 7kang71 and painted in colours with a hen and chickens beneath a flowering plant4 ,a valuable commentary on ,ch'ng ,hua porcelains is given by a late seventeenth-century writer in notes appended to various odes 7e4g4 on a 8chicken cup0 and on a ,chn ,chou vase74 ,the writer is ,kao ,tan-jn1 who also called himself ,kao ,chiang-ts'un1 the name appended to a long dissertation on a ,yan dynasty silver wine cup1 which now belongs to ,sir ,robert ,biddulph and was figured in the ,burlington ,magazine4#fj 8,ch'ng ,hua wine cups10 he tells us1 8include a great variety of sorts4 ,all are of clever workmanship and decoration1 and are delicately coloured in dark and light shades4 ,the porcelain is lustrous and clear1 but strong4 ,the chicken cups are painted with a mu tan peony1 and below it a hen and chicken1 which seem to live and move40 ,another writer#fa of the same period states that he frequented the fair at the ,tz'-in temple in the capital1 where porcelain bowls were exhibited1 and rich men came to buy4 ,for ,wan ,li porcelain the usual price was a few taels of silver2 for ,hsan ,t and ,ch'ng ,hua marked specimens two to five times that amount2 but 8chicken cups0 could not be bought for less than a hundred taels1 and yet those who had the means did not hesitate to buy1 and porcelain realised higher prices than jade4 ,an illustration in ,hsiang's ,album#fb gives a poor idea of one of these porcelain gems1 which is described as having the sides thin as a cicada's wing1 and so translucent that the fingernail could be seen through them4 ,the design1 a hen and chicken beside a cock's-comb plant growing near a rock1 is said to have been in the style of a celebrated ,sung artist4 ,the painting is in 8applied colours 7fu s71 thick and thin10 and apparently yellow1 green1 aubergine and brown4 ,like that of the grape-vine cup1 it is evidently in enamels on the glaze4 #c4 ,ruby red bowls 7pao shao wan7#fc and cinnabar red dishes 7chu sha p'an74 ,these were1 no doubt1 the same as the 8precious stone red 7pao shih hung7 and cinnabar bowls red as the sun10 described in the chapter on ,hsan ,t porcelain4 ,kao ,chiang-ts'un remarks on these that 8among the ,ch'ng wares are chicken cups1 ruby red bowls1 and cinnabar dishes1 very cleverly made1 and fine1 and more costly than ,sung porcelain40 #d4 ,wine cups with figure subjects and lotuses4 #e4 8,blue and white0 7ch'ing hua7 wine cups1 thin as paper4 #f4 ,small cups with plants and insects 7ts'ao ch'ung74#fd #g4 ,shallow cups with the five sacrificial altar vessels 7wu kung yang74 #h4 ,small plates for chopsticks1 painted in colours4 #i4 ,incense boxes4 #aj4 ,all manner of small jars4 ,all these varieties are mentioned in the ,po wu yao lan1 which gives the place of honour to the grape-vine stem-cups4 ,the only kind specifically described as blue and white is ,no4 #e1 and the inference is that the other types were usually polychrome4 ,illustration3 ,plate #fc4--;,baluster ,vase ,with designs in raised outline1 filled in with coloured glazes on the biscuit2 dark violet blue background4 ,about #aejj4 ,height #ad inches4 ,grandidier ,collection 7,louvre74 ,illustration3 ,plate #fd4--;,fifteenth-century ,polychrome ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--,vase with grey crackle and peony scrolls in blue and enamels4 ,ch'ng ,hua mark4 ,height #af inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with turquoise ground and bands of floral pattern and winged dragons incised in outline and coloured green1 yellow and aubergine4 ,height #bb inches4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,box with bands of ju-i clouds and pierced floral scrolls2 turquoise and yellow glazes in dark blue ground4 ,diameter #aj inches4 ,grandidier ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,plate #fe4--,ming san ts'ai ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--,vase with winged dragons1 san ts'ai glazes on the biscuit1 dark blue ground4 ,dedicatory inscription on the neck1 including the words 8,ming dynasty40 ,cloisonn handles4 ,height #bb inches4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,figure of ,kuan-yin1 turquoise1 green and aubergine glazes1 dark blue rockwork4 ,fifteenth century4 ,height #bh inches4 ,grandidier ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase with lotus scrolls1 transparent glazes in three colours4 ,late ,ming4 ,height #bj inches4 ,grandidier ,collection4 ,the following designs are enumerated and explained by ,kao ,chiang-ts'un in the valuable commentary which has already been mentioned3-- #aa4 ,wine cups with the design known as 8the high-flaming candle lighting up red beauty10 explained as a beautiful damsel holding a candle to light up hai-t'ang 7cherry apple7 blossoms4 #ab4 ,brocade heap pattern#fe2 explained as 8sprays of flowers and fruit massed 7tui7 on all sides40#ff #ac4 ,cups with swings1 with dragon boats1 with famous scholars and with children4 ,the swings1 we are told1 represent men and women#fg playing with swings 7ch'iu ch'ien73 the dragon boats represent the dragon boat races#fh2 the famous scholar 7kao shih7 cups have on one side ,chou ,mao-shu1 lover of the lotus1 and on the other ,t'ao ,yan-ming sitting before a chrysanthemum plant2 the children 7wa wa7 consist of five small children playing together4#fi #ad4 ,cups with grape-vines on a trellis1 fragrant plants1 fish and weeds1 gourds1 aubergine fruit1 the ,eight ,buddhist ,emblems 7pa chi hsiang71 yu po lo flowers1 and ,indian lotus 7hsi fan lien7 designs4 ,none of these need explanation except the ,buddhist ,emblems1 which are described on p4 #bih1 and the yu po lo1 which is generally explained as a transcription of the ,sanskrit utpala1 8the dark blue lotus40 ,though the reader will probably not have the opportunity of identifying these designs on ,ch'ng ,hua porcelain1 they will help him in the description of later wares on which these same motives not infrequently occur4 ,the nine illustrations#gj of ,ch'ng ,hua porcelain in ,hsiang's ,album1 for the most part feebly drawn and badly coloured1 form an absurd commentary on the glowing descriptions in the text4 ,their chief interest lies in their bearing on the question of polychrome painting4 ,in some cases the designs have all the appearance of on-glaze enamels2 in others they suggest transparent glazes or enamels on the biscuit4 ,the colours used are green1 yellow and aubergine brown1 the san ts'ai or 8three colours10 notwithstanding which the decoration is classed under the general term wu ts'ai 7lit4 five colours71 or polychrome4 ,the phrases used to describe the colouring include wu ts'ai1 fu s1 t'ien yu1 of which fu s#ga means 8applied colours10 which might equally suggest on-glaze enamels or on-biscuit colours1 and t'ien yu#gb decidedly suggests on-biscuit colouring4 ,on the other hand1 in one case#gc we are expressly told that the 8colour of the glaze is lustrous white and the painting upon it#gd consists of geese1 etc410 an unequivocal description of on-glaze painting4 ,though the ,ch'ng ,hua mark is one of the commonest on ,chinese porcelain1 genuine examples of ,ch'ng ,hua porcelain are virtually unknown in ,western collections4 ,the ,imperial wares of the period were rare and highly valued in ,china in the sixteenth century1 and we can hardly hope to obtain them in ,europe to-day2 but there must be many survivors from the wares produced by the private kilns at the time1 and possibly some few examples are awaiting identification in our collections4 ,unfortunately1 the promiscuous use of the mark on later wares1 the confused accounts of the blue in the 8blue and white10 and the conflicting theories on the polychrome decoration1 have all helped to render identifications difficult to make and easy to dispute4 ,the covered cake box in the ,bushell collection1 figured by ,cosmo ,monkhouse#ge as a ,ch'ng ,hua specimen1 is closely paralleled in make and style of decoration by a beaker-shaped brush pot in the ,franks ,collection4#gf ,both are delicately pencilled in pale blue2 both have a peculiar brown staining in parts of the glaze and a slight warp in the foot rim4 ,in the ,british ,museum piece1 however1 the foot rim is grooved at the sides to fit a wooden stand1 a feature which was not usual before the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 and something in the style of the drawing is rather suggestive of ,japanese work4 ,there is1 however1 another specimen in the ,franks ,collection#gg which is certainly ,chinese of the ,ming dynasty1 and possibly of the ,ch'ng ,hua period1 of which it bears the mark4 ,it is a vase of baluster form1 thick and strongly built1 with great weight of clay at the foot1 and unfortunately1 like so many of the early polychrome vases which have come from ,china in recent years1 it is cut down at the neck4 ,it has a greyish crackled glaze1 painted with a floral scroll design1 outlined in brown black pigment and washed in with leaf green1 yellow1 manganese purple and bluish green enamels1 which are supplemented by a little underglaze blue1 and the mark is in four characters in blue in a sunk panel under the base4 ,though too clumsy to belong to any of the groups of ,imperial wares described in the ,po wu yao lan1 this vase is certainly an old piece1 and possibly the production of one of the private factories of the ,ch'ng ,hua period4 ,in the ,eumorfopoulos and ,benson ,collections#gh there are a few examples of these massive-footed vases1 most of them unfortunately incomplete above1 decorated in polychrome glazes with engraved or relief-edged designs1 but not1 as a rule1 in on-glaze enamels4 ,these are clearly among our earliest examples of polychrome porcelain1 and we should expect to find here1 if anywhere1 specimens of the coloured porcelain of the fifteenth century4 ,see ,plate #fd4 ,though the fifteenth century was distinguished by two brilliant periods1 there are considerable gaps in the ceramic annals of the time4 ,the reign of the ,emperor ,chng ,t'ung1#gi who succeeded to the throne in #adcf1 was troubled by wars1 and in his first year the directorate of the ,imperial factory was abolished2 and1 as soldiers had to be levied1 relief was given by stopping the manufacture of porcelain for the palace4 ,in #addi this emperor was actually taken captive by the ,mongols1 and his brother1 who took his place from #adej to #adef under the title of ,ching ,t'ai1#hj reduced the customary supplies of palace wares in #aded by one third4 ,the reign of ,ching ,t'ai is celebrated for cloisonn enamel on metal4 ,in #adeg1 when ,chng ,t'ung was released and returned to the throne under the title of ,t'ien ,shun#ha 7#adeg-adfd71 the ,imperial factory was re-established1 and the care of it again entrusted to a palace eunuch4 ,there are no records1 however1 of the wares made in these periods1 though we may assume that the private factories continued in operation even when work at the ,imperial pottery was suspended4 ,the directorship was again abolished in #adhf1 and porcelain is not mentioned in the official records until the end of the reign of ,hung ,chih#hb 7#adhh-aeje74 ,in ,hsiang's ,album#hc we are told that the pale yellow of the ,hung ,chih period was highly prized1 and that the polychrome wares vied with those of the reign of ,ch'ng ,hua4 ,four examples are given3 an incense burner1 a cup moulded in sunflower design1 and a spirit jar 7all yellow71 besides a gourd-shaped wine pot with yellow ground and accessories in green and brown1 apparently coloured glazes or enamels applied to the biscuit4 ,the yellow glazes are described as pale yellow 7chiao#hd huang71 and likened to the colour of steamed chestnuts 7chng li#he7 or the sunflower 7k'uei hua#hf74 ,the yellow colour is of old standing in ,chinese ceramics4 ,we have found it on ,t'ang pottery1 in the mi s of the ,sung period1 in the blackish yellow of the ,yan ware made at ,hu-t'ien1 and in the early ,ming porcelains4 ,peroxide of iron or antimony are the usual metallic bases of the colour1 and it was used either in high-fired glazes or in enamels of the muffle stove4 ,the yellow for which the ,hung ,chih period was noted was a yellow glaze1 applied direct to the biscuit1 or added as an overglaze to the ordinary white porcelain4 ,when applied to the biscuit it assumes a fuller and browner tint than when backed by a white glaze4 ,these yellow glazes often have a slightly mottled or stippled look1 the colour appearing as minute particles of yellow held in suspension in the glaze4 ,marked examples1 purporting to be ,hung ,chih yellow1 are occasionally seen1 but the most convincing specimen is a saucer dish in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 of good quality porcelain1 with a soft rich yellow glaze and the ,hung ,chih mark under the base in blue4 ,part of its existence was spent in ,persia1 where it was inscribed in ,arabic with the date #ajba ,a4,h41 which corresponds to #afaa ,a4,d4 ,a beautiful seated figure of the goddess ,kuan-yin in the ,pierpont ,morgan ,collection1 not unlike ,plate #fe1 ,fig4 #b1 but smaller1 is decorated with yellow1 green and aubergine glazes on the biscuit1 and bears a date in the ,hung ,chih period which corresponds to #aejb4 ,a dish of fine white porcelain with the ,hung ,chih mark is in the ,british ,museum1 and examples of the blue and white of the period may be seen in the celebrated ,trenchard bowls4 ,these last are the earliest known arrivals in the way of ,chinese porcelain in this country1 and they were given by ,philip of ,austria1 ,king of ,castile1 to ,sir ,thomas ,trenchard in #aejf4 ,one of them is illustrated in ,gulland's ,chinese ,porcelain1#hg with a description written by ,mr4 ,winthrop after a personal inspection4 ,the decoration consists of floral scrolls outside and a fish medallion surrounded by four fishes inside4 ,the account of the colour1 however1 is not very flattering3 8,one of the bowls bore this decoration very distinctly traced in blackish cobalt1 while the other bowl had a very washed-out and faded appearance40 ,the ware itself is described as 8rather greyish40 ,probably these bowls were made for the export trade1 and need not necessarily be regarded as typical of the ,hung ,chih blue and white4 ,chng ,t chch #b 7#aejf-aeba7 ,the reign of ,chng ,t1 though not mentioned in the ,po wu yao lan and but briefly noticed in the ,t'ao shuo1 must have been an important period in the history of ,chinese porcelain4 ,the y ch'i ch'ang 7,imperial ware factory7 was rebuilt#hh and the direct supervision of a palace eunuch renewed4 ,the porcelain1 we are told in the ,t'ao lu1 was chiefly blue painted and polychrome1 the finest being in the underglaze red known as chi hung4 ,an important factor in the blue decoration was the arrival of fresh supplies of the ,mohammedan blue4#hi ,the story is that the governor of ,yunnan obtained a supply of this hui ch'ing from a foreign country1 and that it was used at first melted down with stone for making imitation jewels4 ,it was worth twice its weight in gold4 ,when1 however1 it was found that it would endure the heat of the kiln1 orders were given for its use in porcelain decoration1 and its colour was found to be 8antique and splendid40 ,hence the great esteem in which the blue and white of the period was held4#ij ,the merit of this new ,mohammedan blue was its deep colour1 and the choicest kind was known as 8,buddha's head blue0 7,fo t'ou ch'ing74 ,its use at this period was not confined to the ,imperial factory1 for we read that the workmen stole it and sold it to the private manufacturers4 ,in the following reign a method of weighing the material was instituted1 which put an end to this pilfering4 ,some account has already been given#ia of this material and its use in combination with the commoner native mineral blue4 ,it was1 no doubt1 the blue used on ,persian1 ,syrian and ,egyptian pottery of the period exported by the ,arab traders4 ,one of the oldest routes#ib followed by ,western traders with ,china was by river 7probably the ,irrawady7 from the coast of ,pegu1 reaching ,yung-ch'ang1 in ,yunnan1 and so into ,china proper4 ,this will explain the opportunities enjoyed by the viceroy of ,yunnan4 ,there were1 of course1 other lines of communication between ,china and ,western ,asia by sea and land1 and a considerable interchange of ideas had passed between ,china and ,persia for several centuries1 so that reflex influences are traceable in the pottery of both countries4 ,painting in still black under a turquoise blue glaze is one of the oldest ,persian methods of ceramic decoration1 and we have seen that it was closely paralleled on the ,tz' ,chou wares 7vol4 i1 p4 #ajc74 ,it is related that a thousand ,chinese artificers were transplanted to ,persia by ,hulagu ,khan 7#abec-abfd71 and it is probable that they included potters4 ,at any rate1 the ,chinese dragon and phnix appear on the ,persian lustred tiles of the fourteenth century4 ,at a later date ,shah ,abbas 7#aehe-afbg7 settled some ,chinese potters in ,ispahan4 ,meanwhile1 quantities of ,chinese porcelain had been traded in the ,near ,east1 where it was closely copied by the ,persian1 ,syrian and ,egyptian potters in the sixteenth century4 ,the ,persian pottery and soft porcelain of this time so closely imitates the ,chinese blue and white that in some cases a very minute inspection is required to detect the difference1 and nothing is commoner than to find ,persian ware of this type straying into collections of ,chinese porcelain4#ic ,conversely1 the ,persian taste is strongly reflected in some of the ,chinese decorations1 not only where it is directly studied on the wares destined for export to ,persia1 but in the floral scrolls on the ,imperial wares of the ,ming period4 ,the expressions hui hui hua 7,mohammedan ornament or flowers7 and hui hui wn 7,mohammedan designs7 occur in the descriptions of the porcelain forwarded to the palace1 and there can be little doubt that they refer to floral arabesque designs in a broad sense1 though it would1 of course1 be possible to narrow the meaning to the medallions of ,arabic writing not infrequently seen on ,chinese porcelain1 which was apparently made for the use of some of the numerous ,mohammedans in ,china4 ,an interesting series of this last-mentioned type is exhibited in the ,british ,museum along with a number of bronzes similarly ornamented4 ,many of these are of early date1 and five of the porcelains bear the ,chng ,t mark and unquestionably belong to that period4 ,these comprise a pair of vases with spherical tops which are hollow and pierced with five holes1 in form resembling the peculiar ,chinese hat stands2 the lower part of a cut-down vase1 square in form2 an ink slab with cover1 and a brush rest in the form of a conventional range of hills4 ,the body in each case is a beautiful white material1 though thickly constructed1 and the glaze1 which is thick and of a faint greenish tinge1 has in three of these five pieces been affected by some accident of the firing1 which has left its surface dull and shrivelled in places like wrinkled skin4#id ,the designs are similar throughout--medallions with ,arabic writing surrounded by formal lotus scrolls or cloud-scroll designs1 strongly outlined and filled in with thin uneven washes of a beautiful soft ,mohammedan blue4 ,the glaze being thick and bubbly gives the brush strokes a hazy outline1 and the blue shows that tendency to run in the firing which we are told was a peculiarity of the ,mohammedan blue if not sufficiently diluted with the native mineral cobalt4 ,the inscriptions are mainly pious ,moslem texts1 but on the cover of the ink slab is the appropriate legend1 8,strive for excellence in penmanship1 for it is one of the keys of livelihood10 and on the brush rest is the ,persian word ,khma-dn 7pen rest74 ,in the same case are three cylindrical vases1 apparently brush pots1 decorated in the same style but unmarked4 ,one has dark ,mohammedan blue and probably belongs to the next reign4 ,the other two1 ,i venture to think1 are earlier4 ,they are both of the same type of ware1 a fine white material1 which takes a brownish red tinge in the exposed parts1 and the glaze1 which is thick and of a soft greenish tint1 has a tendency to scale off at the edges4 ,the bases are unglazed and show the marks of a circular support4 ,the larger piece is remarkably thick in the wall1 and has a light but vivid blue of the ,mohammedan sort2 the smaller piece is not quite so stoutly proportioned1 but the blue is peculiarly soft1 deep1 and beautiful1 though it has run badly into the glaze1 and where it has run it has changed to a dark indigo4#ie ,one would say that this is the ,mohammedan blue1 almost pure2 and if1 as ,i have suggested1 these two specimens are earlier types1 they can only belong to the ,hsan ,t period4 ,another blue and white example with ,chng ,t mark in the ,british ,museum is of thinner make and finer grain2 but1 as it is a saucer-dish1 this refinement was only to be expected4 ,it is painted in a fine bold style1 worthy of the best ,ming traditions1 with dragons in lotus scrolls1 but the blue is duller and greyer in tone than on the pieces just described4 ,two specimens of ,chng ,t ware are figured in ,hsiang's ,album1#if one a tripod libation cup of bronze form and the other a lamp supported by a tortoise1 and the glaze of both is 8deep yellow1 like steamed chestnuts40 ,illustration3 ,plate #ff4--,porcelain with ,chng ,t mark4 ,fig4 #a4--,slop ,bowl with full-face dragons holding shou characters1 in underglaze blue in a yellow enamel ground4 ,height #c inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with engraved cloud designs in transparent coloured glazes on the biscuit1 green ground4 ,height #h inches4 ,charteris ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,plate #fg4--;,blue and ,white ,porcelain4 ,sixteenth ,century4 ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl with ,hsan ,t mark4 ,diameter #d inches4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,covered ,bowl with fish design4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,bottle1 peasant on an ox4 ,height #h inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #d4--;,bottle with lotus scrolls in mottled blue4 ,height #i inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,the ,chng ,t mark is far from common1 but it occurs persistently on certain types of polychrome porcelain4 ,one is a saucer-dish with carved dragon designs under a white glaze1 the depressions of the carving and a few surrounding details being washed over with light green enamel4 ,the design consists of a circular medallion in the centre enclosing a dragon among clouds1 and two dragons on the outside1 the space between them faintly etched with sea waves4 ,the ware is usually thin and refined4 ,these dishes are not uncommon1 and it is difficult to imagine that they can all belong to such an early period4 ,on the other hand1 one also meets with copies of the same design with the ,ch'ien ,lung mark 7#agcf-agie71 which display unmistakable difference in quality4 ,another type has the same green dragon design with engraved outlines set in a yellow ground1 and in most cases its antiquity is open to the same doubts4 ,it is certain1 however1 that these pieces represent a style which was in vogue in the ,chng ,t period4 ,a small vase of this kind was the only piece with the ,chng ,t mark in the exhibition at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #aiaj1ig and it had the appearance of a ,ming specimen4 ,a good example of this ,chng ,t polychrome belonging to the ,hon4 ,evan ,charteris is illustrated in ,fig4 #b of ,plate #ff4 ,it has the designs etched in outline1 filled in with transparent green1 yellow and aubergine glazes1 the three colours or san ts'ai of the ,chinese2 and the ,chng ,t mark is seen on the neck4#ih ,and a square bowl in the ,british ,museum1 similar in body and glaze to the blue and white specimens with ,arabic inscriptions1 is painted in fine blue on the exterior with dragons holding ,shou 7longevity7 characters in their claws1 the background filled in with a rich transparent yellow enamel4 ,this piece 7,plate #ff1 ,fig4 #a7 has the mark of ,chng ,t in four characters painted in ,mohammedan blue1 and is clearly a genuine specimen4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,chia ,,ching chch #b 7#aebb-aeff7 ,,and ,,lung ,,ch',,ing chch #b 7#aefg-aegb7 ,the ,imperial potteries at ,ching-t ,chn were busy in the long reign of ,chia ,ching1 grandson of ,ch'ng ,hua1 under the supervision of one of the prefects of the circuit who took charge in place of the palace eunuch of previous reigns4 ,chinese accounts of the porcelain of this important period1 summarised in the ,t'ao shuo1 include passages from the late ,ming and therefore almost contemporary works1 the ,shih wu kan chu and the ,po wu yao lan4 ,in the former we are told that the ,mohammedan blue was largely used1 but that the material for the 8fresh red0 7hsien hung7#ii was exhausted1 and that the method of producing the red colour was no longer the same as of old1 the potters being capable only of making the overglaze iron red called fan hung4 ,the ,po wu yao lan gives a more intimate description of the ware1 and the passage#ajj--the last in that work on the subject of porcelain--may be rendered as follows3-- 8,chia ,ching porcelain includes blue-decorated and polychrome wares of every description2 but unfortunately the clay brought to the place from the neighbouring sources in ,jao ,chou gradually deteriorated1 and when we compare these two classes of porcelain with the similar productions of the earlier periods of the dynasty the 7,chia ,ching7 wares do not equal the latter4 ,there are small white bowls 7ou7 inscribed inside with the character ch'a chch #a 7tea71 the character chiu chch #a 7wine71 or the characters tsao t'ang chch #b 7decoction of dates71 or chiang t'ang#aja chch #b 7decoction of ginger72 these are the sacrificial altar vessels regularly used by the ,emperor ,shih ,tsung 7i4e4 ,chia ,ching71 and they are called white altar cups1 though in form and material they are far from equalling the ,hsan ,t vessels4 ,the ,chia ,ching shallow wine cups with rimmed mouth1#ajb convex centre1#ajc and foot with base rim1#ajd decorated outside in three colours with fish design1 and the small vermilion boxes1 no bigger than a 8cash10 are the gems of the period4 ,as for the small boxes beautifully painted with blue ornament1 ,i fear that the ,imperial factories of after times will not be able to produce the like4 ,those who have them prize them as gems40 ,a few supplementary comments in the ,t'ao shuo further inform us that the ,mohammedan blue of the ,chia ,ching period was preferred very dark 7in contrast with the pale blue of the ,hsan ,t porcelain71 that it was very lovely1 and that supplies of this blue arrived providentially at the time when the 8fresh red0 failed#aje2 and also that the supplies of earth from ,ma-ts'ang were daily diminishing till they were nearly exhausted1 and consequently the material of the ware was far from equalling that of the ,hsan ,t period4 ,the ,t'ao lu adds practically nothing to the above statements4 ,fortunately1 there are still to be found a fair number of authentic specimens of ,chia ,ching porcelain1 but before considering these in the light of the ,chinese descriptions1 it will be helpful as well as extremely interesting to glance at the lists of actual porcelain vessels supplied to the palace at this time4 ,from the eighth year of this reign1 the annual accounts of the palace porcelains have been preserved in the ,annals of ,fou-liang1 from which they were copied in the provincial topographies4 ,two of these lists 7for the years #aedf and #aeed7 are quoted by ,bushell1#ajf and a general summary of them is given in the ,t'ao shuo4#ajg ,to quote them in full here would take too much space1 but the following notes may be useful to the reader1 who1 with his knowledge of the later porcelains1 should have no difficulty in reconstructing for himself the general appearance of the court wares of the time4 ,the actual objects#ajh supplied consisted chiefly of fish bowls 7kang71 covered and uncovered jars 7kuan71 of which some were octagonal1 bowls 7wan71 dinner bowls 7shan wan7 of larger size1 saucer dishes 7tieh7 and round dishes 7p'an71 tea cups 7ch'a chung71 tea cups 7ou71 wine cups 7chiu chan71 and libation cups 7cheh7 with hill-shaped saucers 7shan p'an7 to support their three feet1 various vases 7p'ing71 slender ovoid jars for wine 7t'an71 ewers or wine pots 7hu p'ing71 and wine seas 7chiu hai7 or large bowls4 ,a large number of complete dinner-table sets 7cho ch'i7 occur in one of the lists1 and we learn from the ,t'ao shuo that uniform sets with the same pattern and colours throughout were an innovation of the ,ming dynasty4 ,a set#aji comprised #bg pieces1 including #e fruit dishes 7kuo tieh71 #e food dishes 7ts'ai tieh71 #e bowls 7wan71 #e vegetable dishes 7yn tieh71 #c tea cups 7ch'a chung71 #a wine cup 7chiu chan71 #a wine saucer 7chiu tieh71 #a slop receptacle 7cha tou71 and #a vinegar cruse 7ts'u chiu74 ,the slop receptacle appears to have been a square bowl used for the remnants of food 7see ,plate #ff1 ,fig4 #a74 ,the sacrificial vessels of the period included tazza-shaped bowls and dishes 7pien tou p'an71 large wine jars 7t'ai tsun71 with swelling body and monster masks for handles1 8rhinoceros0 jars 7hsi tsun7 in the form of a rhinoceros carrying a vase on its back1 besides various dishes1 plates1 cups1 and bowls of undefined form4 ,the decorations are grouped in six headings3-- 7#a7 ,blue and white 7ch'ing hua pai ti1 blue ornament on a white ground71 which is by far the largest4 7#b7 ,blue ware1 which included blue bowls 7ch'ing wan71 sky-blue bowls 7t'ien ch'ing wan71 and turquoise bowls 7ts'ui ch'ing wan74 ,in some cases the ware is described as plain blue monochrome1 and in one item it is 8best blue monochrome0 7t'ou ch'ing su71 while in others there are designs engraved under the glaze 7an hua74 ,in others1 again1 ornament such as dragons and sea waves is mentioned without specifying how it was executed4 ,such ornament may have been etched with a point in the blue surface1#aaj or pencilled in darker blue on a blue background or reserved in white in a blue ground4 ,another kind is more fully described as 8round dishes of pure blue 7shun ch'ing7 with dragons and sea waves inside1 and on the exterior a background of dense cloud scrolls#aaa with a gilt#aab decoration of three lions and dragons40 ,bushell#aac speaks of the 8beautiful mottled blue ground for which this reign is also remarkable10 and which1 he says1 was produced by the usual blend of ,mohammedan and native blue suspended in water4 7#c7 ,wares which were white inside and blue outside4 7#d7 ,white ware1 plain#aad or with engraved designs under the glaze 7an hua1 lit4 secret ornament74 7#e7 ,ware with brown glaze in two varieties1 tz chin 7golden brown71 and chin huang 7golden yellow71 with dragon designs engraved under the glaze4 ,these are the well-known lustrous brown glazes1 the former of dark coffee brown shade1 and the latter a light golden brown4 7#f7 ,ware with mixed colours 7tsa s71 which included bowls and dishes decorated in iron red#aae 7fan hung7 instead of the 8fresh red0 7hsien hung72 others with emerald green colour 7ts'ui l s72 bowls with phnixes and flowers of ,paradise in yellow in a blue ground2 cups with blue cloud and dragon designs in a yellow ground2 boxes with dragon and phnix designs engraved under a yellow glaze2 dishes with design of a pair of dragons and clouds in yellow within a golden brown 7tz chin7 ground2 and globular bowls with embossed#aaf ornament in a single-coloured ground4 ,to these types ,bushell adds from other similar lists crackled ware 7sui ch'i71 tea cups of 8greenish white porcelain0 7ch'ing pai tz'71 which seems to be a pale celadon1 and large fish bowls with pea green 7tou ch'ing7 glaze4 ,the source of the designs of the porcelain is clearly indicated in the following passage in the ,t'ao shuo#aag3 8,porcelain enamelled in colours was painted in imitation of the fashion of brocaded silks1 and we have consequently the names of blue ground1 yellow ground1 and brown gold 7tz chin7 ground4 ,the designs used to decorate it were also similar1 and included dragons in motion 7tsou lung71 clouds and phnixes1 ch'i-lin1 lions1 mandarin ducks1 myriads of gold pieces1 dragon medallions 7p'an lung1 lit4 coiled dragons71 pairs of phnixes1 peacocks1 sacred storks1 the fungus of longevity1 the large lion in his lair1 wild geese in clouds with their double nests1 large crested waves1 phnixes in the clouds1 the son-producing lily1 the hundred flowers1 phnixes flying through flowers1 the band of ,eight ,taoist ,immortals1 dragons pursuing pearls1 lions playing with embroidered balls1 water weeds1 and sporting fishes4 ,these are the names of ancient brocades1 all of which the potters have reproduced more or less accurately in the designs and colouring of their porcelain40 ,the following analysis of the designs named in the ,chia ,ching lists will show that the blue and white painters of the period took their inspiration from the same source3-- ,floral ,motives4 ,celestial flowers 7t'ien hua71 supporting the characters shou shan fu hai chch #d1 8longevity of the hills and happiness 7inexhaustible as7 the sea40 ,flowers of the four seasons 7the tree peony for spring1 lotus for summer1 chrysanthemum for autumn1 and prunus for winter74 ,flowering and other plants 7hua ts'ao74 ,the myriad-flowering wistaria 7wan hua t'ng74 ,the water chestnut 7ling74 ,the pine1 bamboo1 and plum4 ,floral medallions 7t'uan hua74 ,indian lotus 7hsi fan lien74 ,knots of lotus 7chieh tz lien#aah74 ,interlacing sprays of lotus supporting the ,eight ,precious ,symbols or the ,eight ,buddhist ,emblems4#aai ,branches of ling chih#abj fungus supporting the ,eight ,precious ,symbols4 ,ling chih fungus and season flowers4 ,lotus flowers1 fishes1 and water weeds4 ,floral arabesques 7hui hui hua74 ,flowers of ,paradise 7pao hsiang hua7 chch #c4 ,the celestial flowers and the flowers of ,paradise are no doubt similar designs of idealised flowers in scrolls or groups4#aba ,the pao hsiang hua1 which is given in ,giles's ,dictionary as 8the rose10 is rendered by ,bushell 8flowers of ,paradise0 or 8fairy flowers40 ,judging by the designs with this name in ,chinese works1 and also from the fact that the rose is a very rare motive on ,chinese wares before the ,ch'ing dynasty1 whereas the pao hsiang hua is one of the commonest in the ,ming lists1 ,bushell's rendering is probably correct in the present context4 ,animal ,motives1 mythical or otherwise4 ,dragons1 represented as pursuing jewels 7kan chu72 grasping jewels 7k'ung chu72 in clouds2 emerging from water2 in bamboo foliage and fungus plants2 among water chestnut flowers2 among scrolls of ,indian lotus2 emerging from sea waves and holding up the ,eight ,trigrams 7pa kua72 holding up the characters fu chch 7happiness7 or shou chch 7longevity71 as on ,fig4 #a of ,plate #ff4 ,dragons of antique form4 ,these are the lizard-like creatures 7ch'ih7 with bifid tail which occur so often in old bronzes and jades4 ,dragon medallions 7t'uan lung74 ,nine dragons and flowers4 ,dragons and phnixes moving through flowers4 ,dragon1 and phnixes with other birds4 ,phnixes flying through flowers4 ,a pair of phnixes4 ,lions#abb rolling balls of brocade4 ,flying lions4 ,hoary#abc lions and dragons4 ,storks in clouds4 ,peacocks 7k'ung ch'iao7 and mu-tan peonies4 ,birds flying in clouds4 ,fish and water weeds4 ,four fishes4#abd ,human ,motives4 ,children 7wa wa7 playing4 ,three divine beings 7hsien7 compounding the elixir of ,immortality4 ,two or four ,immortals4 ,the ,eight ,immortals 7pa hsien7 crossing the sea2 or paying court to the god of ,longevity 7p'ng shou71 or congratulating him 7ch'ing shou74 ,a group of divine beings 7hsien7 paying court to the god of ,longevity4 ,two designs of doubtful meaning may be added here3 7#a7 8,jars decorated with chiang hsia pa chn10#abe a phrase which means 8the eight elegant 7scholars7 of ,chiang-hsia 7i4e4 below the river710 but has been translated by ,bushell1 using a variant reading1#abf as 8the eight horses of ,mu ,wang40 ,the latter rendering ignores the presence of chiang hsia1 and the former1 though a correct reading of the original1 is not explained in any work of reference to which ,i have had access4 7#b7 8,bowls with man ti ch'iao10 lit4 8graceful 7designs7 filling the ground40 ,the meaning of ch'iao is the difficulty1 and ,bushell in one translation#abg has rendered it 8graceful sprays of flowers10 which sorts well with rest of the phrase1 but in another#abh he has assumed that it means 8graceful beauties0 in reference to the well-known design of tall1 slender girls1 which the ,dutch collectors named lange lijsen 7see ,plate #ib1 ,fig4 #b74 ,the latter rendering1 however1 goes badly with man ti1 8filling the ground10 which is certainly more applicable to some close design1 such as floral scroll work4 ,this is1 however1 a good example of the difficulty of translating the ,chinese texts1 where so much is left to the imagination1 and consequently there is so much room for differences of opinion4 ,illustration3 ,plate #fh4--;,blue and ,white ,porcelain4 ,sixteenth ,century4 ,fig4 #a4--,perfume ,vase1 lions and balls of brocade4 ,height #h inches4 ,v4 ,a4 ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4 ,double ,gourd ,vase1 square in the lower part4 ,eight ,immortals paying court to the ,god of ,longevity1 panels of children 7wa wa74 ,height #ba inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,bottle with medallions of ch'i-lin and incised fret pattern between4 ,late ,ming4 ,height #i inches4 ,halsey ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,plate #fi4--,sixteenth ,century ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl of blue and white porcelain with silver gilt mount of ,elizabethan period4 ,height #c inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,covered ,jar1 painted in dark underglaze blue with red1 green and yellow enamels2 fishes and water plants4 ,chia ,ching mark4 ,height #ag inches4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,plate #gj4--,porcelain with ,chia ,ching mark4 ,fig4 #a4--;,box with incised ,imperial dragons and lotus scrolls2 turquoise and dark violet glazes on the biscuit4 ,diameter #i inches4 ,v4 ,a4 ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with ,imperial dragons in clouds1 painted in yellow in an iron red ground4 ,height #h inches4 ,cologne ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ga4--,sixteenth ,century ,porcelain4 ,figs4 #a and #b4--,two ,ewers in the ,dresden ,collection1 with transparent green1 aubergine and turquoise glazes on the biscuit1 traces of gilding4 ,in form of a phnix 7height #aa inches71 and of a crayfish 7height #h inches74 ,fig4 #c4--;,bowl with flight of storks in a lotus scroll1 enamels on the biscuit1 green1 aubergine and white in a yellow ground4 ,chia ,ching mark4 ,diameter #g inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,emblematic ,motives4 ,heaven and ,earth1 and the six cardinal points 7ch'ien k'un liu ho#abi71 or 8emblems of the six cardinal points of the ,universe40 ,ch'ien and k'un are the male and female principles which are represented by ,heaven and ,earth1 and together make up the ,universe4 ,the identification of these emblems is obscure4 ,they might simply be the ,eight ,trigrams 7pa kua71 which are explained next1 for two of these are known as ch'ien and k'un1 and together with the remaining six they are arranged so as to make up eight points of the compass4 ,but in that case1 why not simply say pa kua as elsewhere8 ,on the other hand1 we know that certain emblems were used in the ,chou dynasty#acj in the worship of the six points of the ,universe1 viz4 a round tablet with pierced centre 7pi7 of bluish jade for ,heaven2 a yellow jade tube with square exterior 7ts'ung7 for ,earth2 a green tablet 7kuei71 oblong with pointed top1 for the ,east2 a red tablet 7chang71 oblong and knife-shaped1 for the ,south2 a white tablet1 in the shape of a tiger 7hu71 for the ,west2 and a black jade piece of flat semicircular form 7huang7 for the ,north4 ,all these objects are illustrated in ,laufer's ,jade1 but as they have not1 to my knowledge1 appeared together in porcelain decoration1 the question must for the present be left open4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the pa-kua chch #b or ,eight ,trigrams1 supported by dragons or by waves and flames4 ,these are eight combinations of triple lines4 ,in the first the lines are unbroken1 and in the last they are all divided at the centre1 the intermediate figures consisting of different permutations of broken and unbroken lines 7see p4 #bij74 ,these eight diagrams1 by which certain ,chinese philosophers explained all the phenomena of ,nature1 are supposed to have been constructed by the legendary ,emperor ,fu ,hsi 7,b4,c4 #bheb7 from a plan revealed to him on the back of the 8dragon horse0 7lung ma7 which rose from the ,yellow ,river4#aca ,among other things1 they are used to designate the points of the compass1 one arrangement making the first figure represent the ,south 7also designated ch'ienchch or ,heaven71 and the last figure the ,north 7also designated k'unchch or ,earth71 the remaining figures representing ,south-,west1 ,west1 ,north-,west1 ,north-,east1 ,east1 and ,south-,east4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the pa pao chch #b1 or ,eight ,precious ,symbols1 supported by fungus sprays4 ,these are usually represented by 7#a7 a sphere or jewel1 which seems to have originally been the sun disc2 7#b7 a circle enclosing a square1 which suggests the copper coin called a 8cash02 7#c7 an open lozenge1 symbol of victory or success2 7#d7 a musical stone 7ch'ing72 7#e7 a pair of books2 7#f7 a pair of rhinoceros horns 7cups72 7#g7 a lozenge-shaped picture 7hua72 7#h7 a leaf of the artemisia1 a plant of good omen1 which dispels sickness4 7,see p4 #bii47 99 99 99 99 99 ,the pa chi hsiang chch #c1 or ,eight ,buddhist ,symbols1 supported on lotus scrolls4 ,these symbols1 which appeared among the auspicious signs on the foot of ,buddha1 comprise 7#a7 the wheel 7chakra71 which is sometimes replaced by the hanging bell2 7#b7 the shell trumpet of ,victory2 7#c7 the umbrella of state2 7#d7 the canopy2 7#e7 the lotus flower2 7#f7 the vase2 7#g7 the pair of fish1 emblems of fertility2 7#h7 the angular knot 7representing the entrails71 symbol of longevity4 7,see p4 #bih47 ,the hundred forms of the character shou 7longevity7--pai shou tz'4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ju-i sceptres and phnix medallions4 ,the ju-i chch #b 78as you wish07 sceptre brings fulfilment of wishes1 and is a symbol of longevity 7see vol4 i41 p4 #bbg74 ,the head of the ju-i1 which has a strong resemblance to the conventional form of the ling chih fungus1 is often used in borders and formal patterns variously described as 8ju-i head patterns10 8cloud-scroll patterns10 or 8ju-i cloud patterns40 ,close ground patterns of propitious clouds 7yung hsiang yn ti74 ,cloud designs are propitious because they symbolise the fertilising rain1 and they are commonly represented by conventional scrolls as well as by the more obvious cloud patterns4 99 99 99 99 99 ,crested sea waves 7chiang ya hai shui74 ,chiang ya chch #b 7lit4 ginger shoots7 is rendered by ,bushell 8crested waves10 the metaphor being apparently suggested by the curling tops of the young plant4 ,cups decorated#acb with the characters fu shou k'ang ning chch #d 7happiness1 long life1 peace1 and tranquillity74 ,a blue and white vase with these characters in medallions framed by cloud scrolls on the shoulders is shown on ,plate #fh4 ,miscellaneous ,motives4 ,the waterfalls of ,pa ,shan chch #b in the province of ,szechuan4 ,gold weighing-scales 7ch'ng chin chch #b74 ,a design named san yang k'ai t'ai chch #d1 a phrase alluding to the 8revivifying power of spring10 and said by ,bushell to be symbolised by three rams4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #b of ,plate #abb4 ,the mark of the ,chia ,ching period1 though not so freely used as those of ,hsan ,t and ,ch'ng ,hua1 has been a favourite with ,japanese copyists1 whose imitations have often proved dangerously clever4 ,still1 there are enough genuine specimens in public and private collections in ,england to provide a fair representation of the ware4 ,in studying these the blue and white will be found to vary widely1 both in body material and in the colour of the blue1 according to the quality of the objects4 ,plate #gg illustrates a remarkably good example of the dark but vivid ,mohammedan blue on a pure white ware of fine close grain with clear glaze4 ,the design1 which consists of scenes from the life of a sage1 perhaps ,confucius himself1 is painted in typical ,ming style1 and bordered by ju-i cloud scrolls and formal brocade patterns4 ,the ,chia ,ching blue is often darker#acc and heavier than here1 resembling thick patches of violet ink1 to use ,mr4 ,perzynski's phrase4 ,this powerful blue is well shown in the large vase given by ,mr4 ,a4 ,burman to the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum 7,plate #gb71 and by a fine ewer in ,case #bb in the same gallery4 ,the latter has an accidentally crackled glaze on the body with brownish tint1 due1 no doubt1 to staining4 ,on the other hand1 a large double-gourd vase in the ,british ,museum1 heavily made 7probably for export71 is painted with the eighteen ,arhats1 or ,buddhist apostles1 in a dull greyish blue1 which would certainly have been assigned to the ,wan ,li period were it not for the ,chia ,ching mark4 ,this is1 no doubt1 the native cobalt without any admixture of ,mohammedan blue4 ,the body material in these specimens varies scarcely less than the blue4 ,in the colour stand on ,plate #gg the ware is a pure clean white1 both in body and glaze4 ,on other specimens--particularly the large1 heavily built jars and vases made for export to ,india and ,persia--the ware is of coarser grain1 and the glaze of grey or greenish tone4 ,the tendency of the ,ming biscuit to assume a reddish tinge where exposed to the fire is exaggerated on some of these large jars1 so that the exposed parts at the base and foot rim are sometimes a dark reddish brown4 ,doubtless the clay from different mines varied considerably1 and the less pure materials would be used on these relatively coarse productions4 ,on the other hand1 the better class of dish and bowl made for service at the table is usually of clean white ware1 potted thin and neatly finished1 and differing but little in refinement from the choice porcelains of the eighteenth century4 ,such are the dragon dish described on p4 #cb and the polychrome saucers which will be mentioned presently4 ,the export trade with ,western ,asia and ,egypt1 both by sea and land1 must have been of considerable dimensions in the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,broken pieces of ,chinese blue and white are found on all the excavated sites in the ,near ,east1 and the influence of the ,chinese porcelain is clearly seen in the blue1 or blue and brown1 painted faience made in ,persia1 ,syria1 and ,egypt in the sixteenth century4 ,the reflex influence of ,persia on the ,chinese wares has already been noted1 and it is clear that ,persian taste was studied by the makers of the dishes1 bottles1 pipes1 and other objects with birds and animals in foliage and floral scrolls of decidedly ,persian flavour1 which are still frequently found in the ,near ,east4 ,it was this type of ,chinese porcelain which inspired ,italian maiolica potters in their decoration alla porcellana1 as well as the decorators of the ,medici or ,florentine porcelain1 the first ,european porcelain of any note4 ,franesco ,maria1 the patron of the ,medici porcelain1 died in #aehg1 and as little1 if any1 of the ware was made after his death1 the rare surviving examples may be safely taken as reflecting1 where any ,chinese influence is apparent1 the influence of the mid-sixteenth century porcelains4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #gb ,vase with ,imperial five-clawed dragons in cloud scrolls over sea waves3 band of lotus scrolls on the shoulder4 ,painted in dark ,mohammedan blue4 ,mark on the neck1 of the ,chia ,ching period 7#aebb-aeff7 in six characters4 ,height #ba inches4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,an interesting series of ,ming blue and white export wares collected in ,india was lent to the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #aiaj by ,mrs4 ,halsey4 ,it included a few ,chia ,ching specimens1 and among them a melon-shaped jar with lotus scrolls in the dark blue of the period4 ,this melon form has been popular with the ,chinese potters from ,t'ang times1 and it occurs fairly often in the ,ming export porcelains4 ,a companion piece1 for instance1 at the same exhibition was decorated with handsome pine1 bamboo1 and plum designs4 ,others1 again1 are appropriately ornamented with a melon vine pattern1 a gourd vine1 or a grape vine with a squirrel-like animal on the branches4 ,the drawing of these pieces is usually rough but vigorous1 the form is good1 and the blue as a rule soft and pleasing2 and though entirely wanting in the superfine finish of the choice ,k'ang ,hsi blue and white1 they have a decorative value which has been sadly underrated4 ,the polychrome porcelains of the ,chia ,ching period are rarer than the blue and white1 but still a fair number of types are represented in ,english collections4 ,of the colours applied direct to the biscuit the early glazes of the demi-grand feu--turquoise1 aubergine violet1 green and yellow--were doubtless applied as in the previous century to the large wine jars1 vases and figures in the round4 ,an unusual specimen of this class is the marked ,chia ,ching cake box in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 illustrated on ,plate #gj4 ,the design--,imperial dragons among floral scrolls--is traced with a point in the paste and covered with a delicate turquoise glaze1 the background being filled with violet aubergine4 ,similarly engraved designs coloured by washes of transparent glazes in the three colours--green1 yellow and aubergine brown--are found with the ,chia ,ching mark as with that of ,chng ,t1 and ,plate #gc illustrates two singularly beautiful bowls with designs outlined in brown and washed in with transparent glazes4 ,the one has flowering branches of prunus1 peach and pomegranate in white1 green and aubergine in a yellow ground1 and the other phnixes and floral scrolls in yellow1 green and white in a ground of pale aubergine4 ,both have the ,chia ,ching mark4 ,fig4 #b of ,plate #ga is another member of the same group1 with a beautiful design of cranes and lotus scrolls in a yellow ground4 ,there are1 besides1 examples of these yellow and aubergine glazes in monochrome4 ,a good specimen of the latter with ,chia ,ching mark in the ,british ,museum has fine transparent aubergine glaze with iridescent surface1 the colour pleasantly graded1 which contrasts with the uniform smooth glaze and trim finish of a ,ch'ien ,lung example near to it4 ,two interesting ewers in the ,dresden collection 7,figs4 #a and #b of ,plate #ga7 probably belong to this period1 or at any rate to the sixteenth century4 ,they are fantastically shaped to represent a phnix and a lobster1 and are decorated with green1 yellow1 aubergine and a little turquoise applied direct to the biscuit4 ,parts of the surface have been lightly coated with gilding1 which has almost entirely disappeared4 ,these pieces are mentioned in an inventory of #afdj1 and a lobster ewer precisely similar was included in the collection made by ,philipp ,hainhofer in the early years of the seventeenth century4#acd ,among the examples of on-glaze enamels of this period are those in which the coral red derived from iron oxide 7fan hung7 is the most conspicuous colour4 ,this red is often highly iridescent1 displaying soft ruby reflections like ,persian lustre2 at other times it is richly fluxed1 and has a peculiarly vitreous and almost sticky appearance4 ,the former effect is well seen in a small saucer in the ,british ,museum1 which has a wide border of deep lustrous red surrounding a medallion with lions and a brocade ball in green4 ,the latter is seen on a square1 covered vase in the same case1 decorated on each side with full-faced dragons in red and the usual cloud accessories in inconspicuous touches of green and yellow4 ,the yellow enamel of the period is often of an impure1 brownish tint and rather thickly applied1 but these peculiarities of both yellow and red continued in the ,wan ,li period4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #gc ,two ,bowls with the ,chia ,ching mark 7#aebb-aeff71 with designs outlined in brown and washed in with colours in monochrome grounds4 ,fig4 #a with peach sprays in a yellow ground4 ,diameter #h inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #b with phnixes 7fng-huang7 flying among scrolls of mu-tan peony4 ,diameter #g inches4 ,cumberbatch ,collection4 ,the combination of enamel colours with underglaze blue1 which was so largely used in the ,wan ,li period as to be generally known by the name ,wan li wu ts'ai 7,wan ,li polychrome71 is not unknown on ,chia ,ching wares4 ,the wide-mouthed jar1 for instance1 from the collection of ,mr4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy#ace 7,plate #fi1 ,fig4 #b7 is decorated with a design of fish among water plants in deep ,chia ,ching blue combined with green1 yellow and iron red enamels2 and a small bottle-shaped vase in the ,british ,museum has the same blue combined with on-glaze red1 green1 yellow and aubergine1 the design being fish1 waves1 and water plants4 ,the greens of this and the ,wan ,li period include various shades--bright leaf green1 pale emerald1 and a bluish green#acf which seems to be peculiar to the late ,ming period4 ,a box in the collection of ,dr4 ,c4 ,seligmann has a dragon design reserved in a blue ground and washed over with yellow enamel1 on which in turn are details traced in iron red2 and another peculiar type of ,chia ,ching polychrome in the ,pierpont ,morgan ,collection 7,cat4 ,no4 #hhb7 is a tea cup with blue ,imperial dragons inside1 8on the outside deep yellow glaze with decoration in brownish red of intensely luminous tone1 derived from iron1 lightly brushed on the yellow ground3 the decoration consists of a procession of boys carrying vases of flowers round the sides of the cup with addition of a scroll of foliage encircling the rim40 ,both these specimens have the ,chia ,ching mark4 ,allusion has already been made 7p4 #f7 to a type of bowl which belongs to the ,ming period1 though opinions differ as to the exact part of that dynasty to which it should be assigned4 ,the bowls vary slightly in form1 but the most usual kind is that shown on ,plate #gd with well rounded sides4 ,a common feature1 which does not appear in the photograph1 is a convex centre4 ,others1 again1 are shallow with concave base1 but no foot rim4 ,the decoration of those in the ,british ,museum includes 7#a7 a coral red exterior with gilt designs as described on p4 #f1 combined with slight underglaze blue interior ornament1 7#b7 a beautiful pale emerald green exterior similarly gilt1 with or without blue ornament inside1 and 7#c7 a single specimen with white slip traceries in faint relief under the glaze inside1 the outside enamelled with turquoise blue medallions and set with cabochon jewels in ,persia or ,india4 ,there are similar bowls in the ,dresden collection1 with pale sky blue glaze on the exterior4 ,as already noted1 one or two of the red bowls have the ,yung ,lo mark1 but1 as a rule1 they are marked with phrases of commendation or good wish1#acg such as tan kuei 7red cassia1 emblem of literary success71 wan fu yu t'ung 7may infinite happiness embrace all your affairs67 ,two of them are known to have sixteenth-century ,european mounts1 viz4 the red bowl mentioned on p4 #f1 and a green specimen in the ,british ,museum4#ach ,without denying the possibility of some of the red examples dating back to the ,yung ,lo period1 the conclusion is almost irresistible that we have here in one case the fan hung decoration which replaced the hsien hung in the ,chia ,ching period1 and in another the ts'ui l 7emerald green71 named among the colours of the ,imperial ,chia ,ching porcelains4 ,the ,chia ,ching monochromes already mentioned include white1 blue1 sky blue1 lustrous brown1 turquoise1 green1 yellow1 and aubergine1 with or without designs engraved in the paste 7an hua74 ,none of these call for any further comment1 unless it be the distinction between blue and sky blue of the ,imperial wares4 ,the former1 no doubt1 resulted from the ,mohammedan blue 7blended with native cobalt7 mixed with the glaze1 and must have been a fine blue of slightly violet tone3 the latter was apparently the lavender-tinted blue which goes by the name of sky blue on the more modern porcelains4 ,we read in more than one passage in the ,chinese works that the imitation of the classical porcelains of ,hsan ,t and ,ch'ng ,hua was practised in the ,chia ,ching period1 and the name of a private potter who excelled in this kind of work has been preserved4 ,a note on this artist1 given in the ,t'ao lu#aci under the heading ,ts'ui kung#adj yao1 or ,wares of ,mr4 ,ts'ui1 may be rendered as follows3-- 8,in the ,chia ,ching and ,lung ,ch'ing periods there lived a man who was clever at making porcelain 7t'ao74 ,he was famed for imitations of the wares in the traditional style and make of the ,hsan ,t and ,ch'ng ,hua periods1 and in his time he enjoyed the highest reputation4 ,the name given to his wares was ,mr4 ,ts'ui's porcelain 7ts'ui kung yao tz'71 and they were eagerly sought in all parts of the empire4 ,as for the shape of his cups 7ch'ien71 when compared with the ,hsan and ,ch'ng specimens#ada they differed in size but displayed the same skill and perfection of design4 ,in the blue and polychrome wares his colours were all like the originals4 ,his were1 in fact1 the cream of the porcelains made in the private factories 7min t'ao740 ,illustration3 ,,plate #gd ,two ,bowls in the ,british ,museum with gilt designs on a monochrome ground4 ,probably ,chia ,ching period 7#aebb-aeff7 ,fig4 #a with lotus scroll with etched details on a ground of iron red 7fan hung7 outside4 ,inside is figure of a man holding a branch of cassia1 a symbol of literary success1 painted in underglaze blue4 ,mark in blue1 tan kuei 7red cassia47 ,diameter #d inches4 ,fig4 #b with similar design on ground of emerald green enamel4 ,mark in blue in the form of a coin or cash with the characters ch'ang ming fu kuei 7long life1 riches and honours674 ,diameter #d inches4 ,it is interesting to note that the imitation of the early ,ming porcelains began as soon as this1 and we may infer from the usual ,chinese procedure that the marks of the ,hsan ,t and ,ch'ng ,hua periods were duly affixed to these clever copies4 ,lung ,ch'ing chch #b 7#aefg-aegb7 ,we read in the ,t'ao shuo#adb that the ,imperial factory was re-established in the sixth year of this reign 7#aegb71 and placed under the care of the assistant prefects of the district4 ,this would seem to imply that for the greater part of this brief period the ,imperial works had been in abeyance4 ,be this as it may1 there was no falling off in the quantity of porcelain commanded for the ,court1 and the extravagant and burdensome demands evoked a protest from ,hs ,ch'ih1 the president of the ,censorate1#adc in #aega4 ,it was urged among other things that the secret of the copper red colour 7hsien hung7 had been lost1 and that the potters should be allowed to use the iron red 7fan hung7 in its place3 that the size and form of the large fish bowls which were ordered made their manufacture almost impossible3 that the designs for the polychrome 7wu ts'ai7 painting were too elaborate1 and that square boxes made in three tiers were a novelty difficult to construct4 ,fire and flood had devastated ,ching-t ,chn1 and many of the workmen had fled1 and he 7the president7 begged that a large reduction should be made in the palace orders4 ,we are not told whether this memorial to the emperor had the desired effect4 ,in the case of the next emperor a similar protest resulted in a large reduction of the demands4 ,but the document discloses several interesting facts1 and among other things we learn that the designs for some of the ware and for the coloured decoration were still sent from the palace as in the days of ,ch'ng ,hua4 ,the official lists of porcelain actually supplied to the ,court of ,lung ,ch'ing have been briefly summarised in the ,t'ao shuo#add2 but they do not include any new forms1 and the motives of decoration were in the main similar to those recorded in the ,chia ,ching lists4 ,the following1 however1 may be added to the summary in the previous chapter3-- ,the y tsan hua1 rendered in ,giles's ,dictionary as the 8tuberose10 by ,bushell as the 8iris40 ,clumps of chrysanthemum flowers4 ,interlacing scrolls of mu-tan peony4 ,ch'ang ch'un 7long spring7 flowers1 identified by ,bushell with the 8jasmine40 ,a 8joyous meeting10 symbolised according to ,bushell by a pair of magpies4 ,the ,tartar pheasant 7chai chih74 ,the season flowers supporting the characters chch #d ch'ien k'un ch'ing t'ai1 8,heaven and earth fair and fruitful60 ,monsters 7shou7 in sea waves4 ,flying fish4 ,historical scenes 7ku shih71 as well as genre subjects 7jn wu74 ,children playing with branches of flowers4 ,this last design occurs both in the form of belts of foliage scrolls1 among which are semi-nude boys1 and of medallions with a boy holding a branch1 on blue and white and polychrome wares of the late ,ming period4 ,but it is a design of considerable antiquity1 and it is found engraved on the early ,corean bowls which1 no doubt1 borrowed from ,sung originals4 ,though all these designs are given under the general heading of blue and white1 we may infer that the polychrome which is occasionally mentioned was used in combination with the blue4 ,thus the mention of 8phnixes in red clouds flying through flowers10 of 8nine red dragons in blue waves10 and of 8a pair of dragons in red clouds10 recalls actual specimens which ,i have seen of ,lung ,ch'ing and ,wan ,li boxes with designs of blue dragons moving through clouds touched in with iron red4 ,again1 where the blue designs are supplemented with 8curling waves and plum blossoms in polychrome 7wu ts'ai710 one thinks of the well-known pattern of conventional waves on which blossom and symbols are floating1 as on ,plate #gi4 ,other types of decoration mentioned are yellow grounds and white glaze1 both with dragon designs engraved under the glaze 7an hua71 peacocks and mu-tan peonies in gilding1 and moulded ornament4 ,a specific example of the last are the lions which served as knobs on the covers of the ovoid wine jars 7t'an74 ,the author of the ,t'ao shuo pays a handsome tribute to the skill of the late ,ming potters4 8,we find10 he says1 8that the porcelain of the ,ming dynasty daily increased in excellence till we come to the reigns of ,lung ,ch'ing and ,wan ,li1 when there was nothing that could not be made40 ,at the same time he finds fault with a particular kind of decoration which was encouraged by the degraded and licentious tastes of the ,emperor ,lung ,ch'ing1 and seems to have only too frequently marred the porcelain of the period4#ade ,the rare examples of marked ,lung ,ch'ing porcelain in our collections do not call for special comment1 and the unmarked specimens will hardly be distinguished from the productions of the succeeding ,wan ,li period4 ,there are1 however1 two boxes in the ,british ,museum which may be regarded as characteristic specimens of the ,imperial blue and white porcelains4 ,both are strongly made with thick but fine-grained body material and a glaze of slightly greenish tone2 and the designs are boldly sketched in strong outline and washed in with a dark indigo blue4 ,one is a square box with four compartments decorated with five-clawed dragons in cloud scrolls1 extended or coiled in medallions according as space demanded2 and the other is oblong and rectangular1 and painted on the sides 7the cover is missing7 with scenes of family life 7jn wu74 ,in both cases the base is unglazed except for a sunk medallion in which the six characters of the ,lung ,ch'ing mark are finely painted in blue4 ,,chapter ,v ,,wan ,,li chch #b 7#aegc-afai7 ,,and ,,other ,,reigns ,the long reign of ,wan ,li1 the last important period of the ,ming dynasty1 is certainly the best represented in ,european collections1 a circumstance due to the ceramic activity of the time not less than to its nearness to our own age4 ,in the first year of the reign orders were given that one of the sub-prefects of ,jao-chou ,fu should be permanently stationed at ,ching-t ,chn to supervise the ,imperial factory4 ,it appears that he proved a stern taskmaster1 and at the same time that the potters were severely burdened by excessive demands from the palace4 ,the picture drawn by the censor in the previous reign of the afflicted condition of the potters1 and the story told elsewhere#adf how they had made intercession daily in the temple of the god that the ,imperial orders might be merciful1 are fitting preface to the tale of the dragon bowls told as follows by ,t'ang ,ying1#adg the director of the factory in the first half of the eighteenth century4 8,by the west wall of the ,ancestral-tablet ,hall of the spirit who protects the potters is a dragon fish bowl 7lung kang74 ,it is three feet in diameter and two feet high1 with a fierce frieze of dragons in blue and a wave pattern below4 ,the sides and the mouth are perfect1 but the bottom is wanting4 ,it was made in the ,wan ,li period of the ,ming4 ,previously these fish bowls had presented great difficulty in the making1 and had not succeeded1 and the superintendent had increased his severity4 ,thereupon the divine ,t'ung took pity on his fellow potters1 and served them by alone laying down his life4 ,he plunged into the fire1 and the bowls came out perfect4 ,this fish bowl was damaged after it had been finished and selected 7for palace use71 and for a long time it remained abandoned in a corner of the office4 ,but when ,i saw it ,i sent a double-yoked cart and men to lift it1 and it was brought to the side of the ,ancestral-tablet ,hall of the god1 where it adorns a high platform1 and sacrifice is offered4 ,the vessel's perfect glaze is the god's fat and blood2 the body material is the god's body and flesh2 and the blue of the decoration1 with the brilliant lustre of gems1 is the essence of the god's pure spirit40 ,the deification of ,t'ung was a simple matter to the ,chinese1 who habitually worship before the tablets of their ancestors2 but he seems to have become the genius of the place1 and in this capacity to have superseded another canonised potter named ,chao1#adh who had been worshipped at ,ching-t ,chn since #adbe4 ,to add to the difficulties experienced by the potters in satisfactorily fulfilling the ,imperial demands1 it had been reported in #aehc that the supplies of earth from ,ma-ts'ang were practically worked out1 and though good material was found at ,wu-mn-t'o1 which is also in the district of ,fu-liang1 the distance for transport was greater1 and as the price was not correspondingly raised the supply from this source was difficult to maintain4 ,consequently we are not surprised to learn that in this same year another memorial was forwarded to the emperor by one of the supervising censors1 ,wang ,ching-min1 asking for alleviation of the palace orders1 and protesting specifically against the demands for candlesticks1 screens1 brush handles1 and chess apparatus as unnecessarily extravagant4 ,it was urged at the same time that blue decoration should be substituted for polychrome1 and that pierced work 7ling lung7 should not be required1 the objection to both these processes being that they were difficult to execute and meretricious in effect4 ,it is stated in the ,t'ao lu#adi that the supply of ,mohammedan blue had ceased completely in the reign of ,wan ,li1 and that on the other hand the chi hung or underglaze copper red was made1 though it was not equal in quality to the hsien hung or pao shih hung#aej of the earlier periods4 ,both these assertions are based on the somewhat uncertain authority of the ,t'ang shih ss k'ao1 and though the truth of the second is shown by existing specimens1 the first is only partially true1 for there are marked examples of ,mohammedan blue in the ,british ,museum and probably elsewhere4 ,either there were supplies of the ,mohammedan material in hand at the beginning of the reign1 or they continued to arrive for part at least of the period4 ,the lists of porcelain supplied to the ,court of ,wan ,li may be consulted with advantage1 and the extracts from those of the previous reigns may be supplemented by the following1 which1 though not necessarily new forms and designs1 do not appear in the ,chia ,ching and ,lung ,ch'ing records3-- ,forms4 ,trays for wine cups 7pei p'an74#aea ,beaker-shaped#aeb vases 7hu p'ing chch #b74 ,flat-backed wall vases in the form of a double gourd split vertically4 ,chess boards 7ch'i p'an74 ,hanging oil lamps#b 7ch'ing t'ai chch #b74 ,pricket candlesticks 7chu t'ai74 ,see ,cat4 ,b4 ,f4 ,a41 #aiaj1 ,e #f3 a pricket candlestick with cloud and dragon designs in blue and the ,wan ,li mark4 ,jars for candle snuff 7chien chu kuan74 ,screens 7p'ing74 ,brush handles 7pi kuan74 ,brush rests 7pi chia74 ,brush pots 7pi ch'ung74 ,apparently the cylindrical jars usually known as pi t'ung4 ,fan cases 7shan hsia74 ,water droppers for the ink pallet 7yen shui ti74 ,betel-nut boxes 7pin lang lu74 ,handkerchief boxes 7chin lu74 ,hat boxes 7kuan lu74 ,cool seats 7liang tun71 for garden use in summer4 ,motives for ,painted ,decoration4 ,floral1 etc43 ,lily flowers 7hsan hua74 ,hibiscus 7kuei7 flowers on a brocade ground4 ,round medallions of season flowers4 ,flower designs broken by medallions of landscape4 ,marsh plants4 ,sections of water melons 7hsi kua pan74 ,foreign pomegranates2 sometimes tied with fillets4 ,the sacred peach4 ,medallions of peach boughs with the seal character shou 7longevity74 ,apricot 7hsing7 foliage4 ,pine pattern brocade4 ,ginseng 7hsien74 ,hemp-leaved 7ma yeh7 ,indian lotus4 ,borders of bamboo foliage and branching prunus4 ,grape-vine borders4 ,animals1 etc43 ,monsters3 variously described as hai shou 7sea monsters7 and i shou 7strange monsters74 ,nine blue monsters in red waves4 ,strange monsters attending the celestial dragon4 ,sea horses4 ,full-faced dragons 7chng mien lung74 ,see ,plate #ff4 ,medallions of archaic dragons 7ch'ih7 and tigers4 ,ascending and descending dragons4 ,couchant1 or squatting 7tun7 dragons4 ,flying dragons4 ,the hundred dragons4 ,the hundred storks4 ,the hundred deer4 7,as in the 8,hundred ,shou ,characters0 and other similar phrases1 the 8hundred0 is merely an indefinite numerative signifying a large number47 ,elephants with vases of jewels 7of ,buddhistic significance74 ,water birds in lotus plants4 ,six cranes1 8symbolising the cardinal points of the universe0 7liu ho ch'ien k'un74 ,phnixes among the season flowers4 ,bees hovering round plum blossom4 ,human3 ,men and women 7shih n74 ,medallions with boys pulling down 7branches of7 cassia 7p'an kuei74 ,the picture of the ,hundred ,boys4 ,fu1 ,lu1 ,shou 7,happiness1 ,rank1 and ,longevity74 ,it is not stated whether the characters only are intended1 or1 as is more probable1 the three ,taoist deities who distribute these blessings4 ,emblematic ,motives and ,inscriptions4 ,the eight ,buddhist emblems1 bound with fillets 7kuan t'ao74 ,ju-i sceptres bound with fillets4 ,ju-i cloud borders 7ju i yn pien74 ,midsummer holiday symbols 7tuan yang chieh74 ,explained by ,bushell as sprigs of acorns and artemisia hung up on the fifth day of the fifth moon4 ,emblems of ,longevity 7shou tai71 e4g4 gourd1 peach1 fungus1 pine1 bamboo1 crane1 deer4 ,the 8monad symbol0 7hun yan71 which is apparently another name for the yin yang1 and the ,eight ,trigrams4 ,see p4 #bij4 ,lozenge symbols of victory 7fang shng74 8,the four lights worshipping the star of ,longevity0 7ss yang p'ng shou74 ,spiral 7hui chch #a7 patterns4 ,sanskrit invocations 7chn yen tz'74 ,see ,plate #ic4 ,ancient writings found at ,lo-yang 7lo shu74 ,lo-yang 7the modern ,honan ,fu7 was the capital of the ,eastern ,han 7#be-bbj ,a4,d474 ,inscriptions in antique seal characters 7chuan74 ,dragons holding up the characters chch #d yung pao wan shou 7ever insuring endless longevity72 and chch #f yung pao hung fu ch'i t'ien 7ever insuring great happiness equalling ,heaven74 ,borders inscribed chch #d fu ju tung hai 7happiness like the eastern sea72 and chch #h fng t'iao y shun t'ien hsia t'ai p'ing 7favouring winds and seasonable rain3 great peace throughout the empire74 8,a symbolical head with hair dressed in four puffs0#aec bearing the characters chch #d yung pao ch'ang ch'un 7ever insuring long spring74 ,taoist deities holding the characters chch #h wan ku ch'ang ch'un ss hai lai ch'ao 7through myriads of ages long spring2 tribute coming from the four seas72 or the same sentiment with yung pao 7ever insuring7 in place of wan ku4 ,dragons in clouds holding the characters chch #b shng shou1 the emperor's birthday4 ,miscellaneous4 ,representations of ancient coins 7ku lao ch'ien74 ,landscapes 7shan shui74 ,necklaces 7ying lo chch #b74 ,jewel mountains in the sea waves 7pao shan hai shui74 ,this is1 no doubt1 the familiar border pattern of conventional waves with conical rocks standing up at regular intervals4 ,round medallions 7ho tz1 lit4 boxes7 in brocade grounds4 ,most of these designs are given under the heading of 8blue and white10 though1 as in the ,lung ,ch'ing list1 the blue is in many cases supplemented by colour or by other forms of decoration such as patterns engraved in the body 7an hua71 and 8designs on a blue ground10 the nature of them not explained1 but no doubt similar to those described on p4 #fa4 ,the method of reserving the decoration in white in a blue ground 7ch'ing ti pai hua7 is specifically mentioned under the heading of 8mixed decorations40 ,the supplementary decoration consists of on-glaze enamels mixed with the underglaze blue2 bowls with coloured exterior and blue and white inside or vice versa2 yellow grounds with designs engraved under the glaze2 gilded fishes among polychrome water weeds1 and other gilded patterns2 curling waves in polychrome and plum blossoms2 red dragons in blue waves1 the red either under or over the glaze2 relief designs 7ting chuang#aed7 and pierced work 7ling lung#aee74 ,the 8mixed colours0 included garden seats with lotus designs1 etc41 in polychrome 7wu ts'ai7 and with aubergine brown 7tz7 lotus decoration in a monochrome yellow ground2 tea cups with dragons in fairy flowers engraved under a yellow glaze2 yellow ground with polychrome 7wu ts'ai7 decoration2 banquet dishes1 white inside1 the outside decorated with dragons and clouds in red1 green1 yellow1 and aubergine4 ,the custom of minutely subdividing the work in the porcelain factories so that even the decoration of a single piece was parcelled out among several painters existed in the ,ming dynasty1 though perhaps not carried so far as in the after periods4 ,it is clear that under such a system the individuality of the artists was completely lost1 and we never hear the name of any potter or painter who worked at the ,imperial factory4 ,in the private factories probably the division of labour was less rigorous1 and it is certain that many of the specimens were decorated by a single brush4 ,but even so1 signatures of potters or painters are almost unknown2 and only one or two private potters of conspicuous merit at the end of the ,ming period are mentioned by name in the ,chinese books4 ,mr4 ,ts'ui1 for instance1 has already been mentioned in the chapter on the ,chia ,ching period1 and three others occur in the annals of the ,wan ,li period4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ge4--,ming ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--,tripod ,bowl with raised peony scrolls in enamel colours4 ,wan ,li mark4 ,height #e inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,blue and white ,bowl1 ,chia ,ching period4 ,mark1 ,wan ku ch'ang ch'un 78,a myriad antiquities and enduring spring6074 ,height #c inches4 ,kunstgewerbe ,museum1 ,berlin4 ,fig4 #c4--;,ewer with white slip ch'i-lin on a blue ground4 ,wan ,li period4 ,height #i inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #d4--;,gourd-shaped ,vase with winged dragons and fairy flowers1 raised outlines and coloured glazes on the biscuit4 ,sixteenth century4 ,height #h inches4 ,salting ,collection4 ,of these1 the most interesting personality was ,hao ,shih-chiu1#aef scholar1 painter1 poet1 and potter1 who signed his wares with the fanciful name ,hu yin tao jn#aeg 7,taoist hidden in a tea pot71 to show that he 8put his soul0 into the making of his pots4 ,he lived1 we are told1#aeh in exaggerated simplicity1 in hut1 with a mat for a door and a broken jar for a window2 but he was so celebrated as a man of talent and culture that his hut was frequented by the literati1 who capped his verses and admired his wares4 ,the latter were of great refinement and exquisitely beautiful1 and his white 8egg shell0#aei wine cups were so delicate as to weigh less than a gramme4#afj ,no less famous were his red wine cups1 bright as vermilion1 the colour floating in the glaze like red clouds4 ,they were named liu hsia chan#afa 7lit4 floating red cloud cups71 which has been poetically rendered by ,bushell as 8dawn-red wine cups0 and 8liquid dawn cups10 and were evidently one of the reds of the chi hung class produced by copper oxide in the glaze1 like the beautiful wine cups with clouded maroon red glaze of the early eighteenth century4 ,all these wares were eagerly sought by connoisseurs throughout the ,chinese empire4 8,there were also elegantly formed pots 7hu71 in colour pale green1 like ,kuan and ,ko wares1 but without the ice crackle1 and golden brown#afb tea pots with reddish tinge1 imitating the contemporary wares of the ,ch'n family at ,yi-hsing1 engraved underneath with the four characters1 ,hu yin tao jn40 ,the 8red cloud0 cups are eulogised by the poet ,li ,jih-hua in a verse addressed to their maker as fit to be 8started from the orchid pavilion to float down the nine-bend river40#afc ,illustration3 ,plate #gf4--;,blue and ,white ,porcelain4 ,sixteenth ,century4 ,fig4 #a4--,vase with monster handles1 archaic dragons4 ,height #aj inches4 ,halsey ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,hexagonal ,bottle1 white in blue designs4 ,mark1 a hare4 ,height #aa inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,bottle with 8garlic mouth10 stork and lotus scrolls1 white in blue4 ,height #aa inches4 ,salting ,collection4 ,fig4 #d4--,vase 7mei p'ing71 ,imperial dragon and scrolls4 ,wan ,li mark on the shoulder4 ,height #ae inches4 ,coltart ,collection4 ,the two other potters of this period whose names have survived are ,ou of ,yi-hsing fame 7vol4 i41 p4 #aha7 and ,chou ,tan-ch'an1 whose wonderful imitations of ,sung ,ting ware have been described in vol4 i41 p4 #id4 ,many clever imitations of this latter porcelain were made at ,ching-t ,chn in the ,wan ,li period1 and a special material1 ch'ing-t'ien#afd stone1 was employed for the purpose2 but the followers of ,ch'ou ,tan-ch'an were not so successful as their master1 and their wares are described as over-elaborate in decoration and quite inferior to ,ch'ou's productions4 ,there was one type1 however1 which is specially mentioned1 the oblong rectangular boxes made to hold seal-vermilion4 ,these are described in a sixteenth-century work#afe as either pure white or painted in blue1 and usually six or seven inches long4 ,they are accorded a paragraph in the ,t'ao shuo#aff under the heading of fang ting or 8imitation ,ting ware10 and they were probably of that soft-looking1 creamy white crackled ware to which ,western collectors have given the misleading name of 8soft paste40#afg ,another private manufacture specially mentioned in the ,t'ao lu#afh was located in a street called ,hsiao nan chch #b where1 we are told1 8they made wares of small size only1 like a squatting frog1 and called for that reason frog wares 7ha ma#afi yao74 ,though coarse1 they were of correct form2 the material was yellowish1 but the body of the ware was thin2 and though small1 the vessels were strong4 ,one kind of bowl was white in colour with a tinge of blue 7tai ch'ing71 and decorated in blue with a single orchid spray or bamboo leaves2 and even those which had no painted design had one or two rings of blue at the mouth4 ,these were called 8white rice vessels0 7pai fan ch'i74 ,there were1 besides1 bowls with wide mouths and flattened rims 7p'ieh t'an7#agj but shallow1 and pure white1 imitating the ,sung bowls4 ,all these wares had a great vogue1 both at the time and at the beginning of the present 7i4e4 the ,ch'ing7 dynasty40 ,out of the comparatively large number of ,wan ,li porcelains in ,european collections the majority are blue and white4 ,this is only to be expected1 having regard to the preponderance of this style of decoration in the ,imperial lists1 and also to the fact that it was found easiest of all processes to execute4 ,in fact1 the censor pleading on behalf of the potters in #aehc asks that this style may be substituted for the more exacting polychrome and pierced work4 ,it has already been mentioned that the supplies of ,mohammedan blue apparently came to an end early in the reign1 but there are enough examples of this colour associated with the ,wan ,li mark to show that it was used for part at least of the period4 ,one of these is a well-potted bowl of fine white porcelain1 entirely covered with ,sanskrit characters 7chn yen tz'71 in the ,british ,museum2 and another piece99 is a dish moulded in the form of an open lotus flower with petals in relief1 and in the centre a single ,sanskrit character4 ,both are painted in a clear and vivid ,mohammedan blue1 and have the ,wan ,li mark under the base4 ,a dark violet blue1 closely akin to the typical ,chia ,ching colour but with a touch of indigo1 occurs on two dishes199 decorated with a pair of fishes among aquatic plants and bearing the four characters of the ,wan ,li mark surrounding a cartouche1 which contains the felicitous legend1 8,virtue1 culture1 and enduring spring0 7see vol4 i41 p4 #bbe74 ,an intense but more vivid violet blue1 which betrays something of the ,mohammedan blend1 is seen on a ewer99 of ,persian form1 decorated with a ch'i-lin reclining before a strangely ,italian-looking fountain4 ,the ware of this piece1 though thick1 is of fine grain1 and the glaze has a faint greenish tinge1 and its mark1 a hare1#aga 7see vol4 i41 p4 #bbg7 occurs on several other examples of varying quality1 but all of late ,ming character4 ,another group of marked ,wan ,li ware1 comprising bowls and dishes with trim neat finish and obviously destined for table use1 has a soft-looking glaze1 often much worn1 but1 even in the less used parts1 with a peculiar smoothness of surface which is1 no doubt1 largely due to age4 ,there are three examples of this group in the ,british ,museum1 all painted in the same soft1 dark indigo-tinged blue4 ,one is a bowl with baskets of season flowers round the exterior1 insects1 and a border of dragon and phnix pattern2 while inside is a blue medallion with a full-face dragon reserved in white4 ,the other two are dishes with figure subjects and gourd vine borders1 which are interesting because the painting shows signs of a transition state1 part being in flat ,ming washes1 and part showing the marbled effect which was afterwards characteristic of the ,k'ang ,hsi blue and white4 ,in striking contrast with this smooth1 soft-surfaced ware is a vase99 of square1 beaker shape1 and details which indicate a form derived from bronze4 ,though evidently an ,imperial piece1 it is of strong1 heavy build1 with a hard thick glaze of greenish tinge1 so full of minute bubbles as to spread in places a veritable fog over the blue decoration beneath4 ,the design1 consisting of a dragon and phnix among sprays of 787 lily1 with rock and wave borders1 is repeated in all the spaces1 and below the lip in front is the ,wan ,li mark extended in a single line4 ,a similar vase199 but with polychrome decoration1 illustrated on ,plate #ha1 will serve to show the form and design4 ,both are fine1 decorative objects1 in a strong1 rugged style1 which takes no account of small fire-flaws and slight imperfections in the glaze4 ,the same strong1 hard body and glaze is seen again on three flat1 narrow-rimmed dishes199 which are conspicuous for unusual borders1 two having a large checker and the third a chevron pattern1 in addition to a thin blue line on either side of the edge4 ,sand adhering to the foot rim and faint radiating lines scored in the base are indications of rough finish1 and they are clearly all the work of a private factory perhaps catering for the export trade4 ,a variety of boxes figured in the ,imperial lists1 destined for holding incense1 vermilion1 chess pieces1 handkerchiefs1 caps1 sweetmeats1 cakes1 etc4 ,a fair number of these have survived and found their way into ,western collections4 ,round1 square1 oblong with rounded ends1 and sometimes furnished with interior compartments1 they are usually decorated with dragon designs in dark blue1 occasionally tricked out with touches of iron red2 but miscellaneous subjects also occur in their decoration1 as in a fine example exhibited at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #aiaj1agb which has figure subjects on the cover and a landscape with waterfall1 probably from a picture of the celebrated mountain scenery in ,szechuan4 ,sometimes the covers of these boxes are perforated as though to allow some perfume to escape4 ,other interesting late ,ming porcelains in the same exhibition were a pricket candlestick with cloud and dragon ornament and the ,wan ,li mark2 a curious perfume vase 7,plate #fh1 ,fig4 #a71 which illustrates the design of lions sporting with balls of brocade1 an unmarked piece which might even be as early as ,chia ,ching2 and a wide-mouthed vase lent by the ,ashmolean ,museum1 ,oxford1 with the familiar design of fantastic lions moving among peonies and formal scrolls on the body and panels of flowers separated by trellis diaper on the shoulder4 ,the last is a type which is not uncommon1 but this particular example is interesting because it belonged to one of the oldest collections in ,england1 presented to the ,oxford ,museum by ,john ,tradescant1 and mostly collected before #afbg4 ,the export trade with ,western ,asia was in full swing in the reign of ,wan ,li1 and the ,portuguese traders had already made their way to the ,far ,east and brought back ,chinese porcelain for ,european use4 ,that it was1 however1 still a rare material in ,england seems to be indicated by the sumptuous silver-gilt mounts in which stray specimens were enshrined4 ,several of these mounted specimens still exist1 and seven of them were seen at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,exhibition1 #aiaj1agc the date of the mounts being about #aehj-aeij4 ,taken1 as they may fairly be1 as typical specimens1 they show on the whole a porcelain of indifferent quality1 with all the defects and virtues of export ware--the summary finish of skilful potters who worked with good material but for an uncritical public1 and rapid1 bold draughtsmanship in an ordinary quality of blue usually of greyish or indigo tint4 ,the most finished specimen was a bowl from the ,pierpont ,morgan ,collection1 with a design of phnixes and lotus scrolls finely drawn in blue of good quality4 ,unlike the others1 it had a reign mark 7that of ,wan ,li71 and probably it was made at the ,imperial factory4 ,a bottle mounted as a ewer from the same collection had a scale pattern on the neck1 flowering plants and birds on the body1 and a saucer dish was painted in the centre with a typical late ,ming landscape1 with mountains1 pine trees1 pagoda1 a pleasure boat1 and sundry figures4 ,the blue of this last piece was of fair quality but rather dull1 and it had a double ring under the base void of mark4 ,another bowl had on the exterior panel designs with deer in white reserved in a blue ground1 in a style somewhat similar to that of the bottle illustrated on ,plate #gf1 ,fig4 #c4 ,there is a bowl in the ,british ,museum1 mounted with silver-gilt foot and winged caryatid handles of about #aehj 7,plate #fi1 ,fig4 #a74 ,the porcelain is of fine white material with thick lustrous glaze of slightly bluish tint and 8pinholed0 here and there2 and the design painted in blue with a faint tinge of indigo consists of a vase with a lotus flower and a lotus leaf and three egrets1 in a medallion inside and four times repeated on the exterior4 ,this is clearly an early ,wan ,li specimen1 if1 indeed1 it is not actually as old as ,chia ,ching4 ,the most remarkable collection of ,chinese export porcelain is illustrated by ,professor ,sarre#agd from a photograph which he was able to make of the ,chini-hane or porcelain house attached to the mosque of ,ardebil1 in ,persia4 ,ranged on the floor are some five hundred specimens--jars1 vases1 ewers1 and stacks of plates1 bowls and dishes1 many of which had formerly occupied niches in the walls of the building erected by ,shah ,abbas the ,great#age 7#aehg-afbh74 ,unfortunately1 the conditions were not favourable to photography1 and the picture1 valuable as it is1 only permits a clear view of the nearer objects1 the rest being out of focus and represented by mere shadows of themselves4 ,they are1 we are told1 mainly blue and white1 but with a sprinkling of coloured pieces1 and it is clear from the picture that they belong to various periods of the ,ming dynasty1 mostly to the later part4 ,they include1 no doubt1 presents from the ,chinese ,court1#agf besides the porcelains which came in the ordinary way of trade1 and we recognise a large vase almost identical with the fine ,chia ,ching specimen on ,plate #gb3 a small-mouthed1 baluster-shaped vase1 similar in form and decoration to a marked ,wan ,li specimen in the ,pierpont ,morgan ,collection#agg2 a bowl with lotus scrolls in blotchy blue1 recalling the style of ,plate #fg1 ,fig4 #d2 a ewer with the curious fountain design described on p4 #fg2 besides a number of the ordinary late ,ming export types and some celadon jars and bulb bowls of a slightly earlier period4 ,some of the pots1 we are told1 are almost a metre in height4 ,among the tantalising forms in the indistinct background are some large covered jars with a series of loop-handles on the shoulders1 such as are found in ,borneo and the ,east ,indies 7see vol4 i41 p4 #ahi74 ,one of the most attractive types of late ,ming export porcelain1 and at the same time the most easily recognised1 consists of ewers1 bowls1 and dishes of thin1 crisp porcelain with characteristic designs in pale1 pure blue of silvery tone2 see ,plate #gg1 ,fig4 #a4 ,the ware is of fine1 white1 unctuous material with a tendency 7not very marked7 to turn brown at the foot rim and in parts where the glaze is wanting4 ,the glaze partakes of the faintly greenish tinge common to ,ming wares1 but it is clear and of high lustre4 ,here1 again1 a little sand or grit occasionally adhering to the foot rim and radiating lines lightly scored in the base indicate a summary finish which detracts from the artistic effect no more than the obviously rapid though skilful brushwork of the decoration4 ,sharply moulded forms and crinkled borders1 admirably suited to this thin crisp material1 give additional play to the lustrous glaze1 and the general feeling of the ware is well expressed by ,mr4 ,f4 ,perzynski#agh in his excellent study of the late ,ming blue and white porcelains1 in which he remarks that 8the artists of this group have used thin1 brittle material more like flexible metal than porcelain40 ,the designs as shown in the illustration are typical of the ware4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #gg ,two examples of ,ming ,blue and ,white ,porcelain in the ,british ,museum ,fig4 #a4--;,ewer of thin1 crisp porcelain with foliate mouth and rustic spout with leaf attachments4 ,panels of figure subjects and landscapes on the body3 8rat and vine0 pattern on the neck and a band of hexagon diaper enclosing a cash symbol4 ,latter half of the sixteenth century4 ,height #g inches4 ,fig4 #b4--,octagonal stand perhaps for artist's colours4 ,on the sides are scenes from the life of a sage2 borders of ju-i pattern and gadroons4 ,on the top are lions sporting with brocade balls4 ,painted in deep ,mohammedan blue4 ,mark of the ,chia ,ching period 7#aebb-aeff74 ,diameter #d inches4 ,a freely drawn figure of a man or woman usually in garden surroundings1 standing before a fantastic rock or seated by a table and a picture-screen often form the leading motive1 though this is varied by landscape1 floral compositions1 spirited drawings of birds 7an eagle on a rock1 geese in a marsh1 a singing bird on a bough71 or a large cicada on a stone among plants and grasses4 ,the borders of dishes and the exteriors of bowls are divided into radiating compartments 7often with the divisions lightly moulded7 filled with figures1 plant designs1 symbols1 and the like1 and separated by narrow bands with pendent jewels and tasselled cords1 which form perhaps the most constant characteristics of the group4 ,small passages of brocade diapers with swastika fret1 hexagon and matting patterns1 are used to fill up the spaces4 ,the finer examples of this group are of admirable delicacy both in colour and design2 but the type lasted well into the seventeenth century and became coarse and vulgarised4 ,it appears in a debased form in the large dishes which were made in quantity for the ,persian and ,indian markets1 overloaded with crudely drawn brocade diapers and painted in dull indigo blue1 which is often badly fired and verges on black4 ,the central designs on these dishes1 deer in a forest1 birds in marsh1 etc41 usually betray strong ,persian influence4 ,i am not aware of any specimens of this group1 either of the earlier or the more debased kinds which bear date-marks1 but still a clear indication of the period is given by various circumstances4 ,a bowl in the ,national ,museum at ,munich is credibly stated to have belonged to ,william ,v41 ,duke of ,bavaria 7#aegi-aeig71agi and a beautiful specimen1 also a bowl1 with silver-gilt mount of about #aehe1 is illustrated by ,mr4 ,perzynski4#ahj ,the characteristic designs of this ware are commonplace on the ,persian pottery of the early seventeenth century1 and a ,persian blue and white ewer in the ,british ,museum1 which is dated #afaf1 clearly reflects the same style4 ,the shallow dishes with moulded sides are frequently reproduced in the still-life pictures by the ,dutch masters of the seventeenth century1 from whose work many precious hints may be taken by the student of ceramics4 ,to give one instance only1 there are two such pictures#aha in the ,dresden ,gallery from the brush of ,frans ,snyders 7#aegi-afeg74 ,we shall have occasion later on to discuss more fully another kind of blue and white porcelain for which the ,chinese and ,american collectors show a marked partiality1 and which has received the unfortunate title1 8soft paste10 from the latter4 ,it has an opaque body1 often of earthy appearance1 and a glaze which looks soft and is usually crackled1 and the ware is usually of small dimensions1 such as the ,chinese literatus delighted to see in his study1 and beautifully painted with miniature-like touches1 every stroke of the brush clear and distinct4 ,ming marks--,hsan ,t1 ,ch'ng ,hua1 etc4--are not uncommon on this ware1 and there is no doubt that it was in use from the early reigns of the dynasty1 but the style has been so faithfully preserved by the potters of the eighteenth century that it is wellnigh impossible to distinguish the different periods4 ,a dainty specimen with the ,wan ,li mark illustrated in ,fig4 #b of ,plate #ic will serve to show the delicacy and refinement of this exquisite porcelain4 ,at the same time it should be mentioned that the imitation ,ting wares described on p4 #if1 vol4 i41 when painted in blue1 are included in this group4 ,illustration3 ,plate #gh4--,porcelain with pierced 7ling lung7 designs and biscuit reliefs4 ,late ,ming4 ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl with ,eight ,immortals and pierced swastika fret4 ,diameter #c inches4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bowl with blue phnix medallions1 pierced trellis work and characters4 ,wan ,li mark4 ,height #b inches4 ,hippisley ,collection4 ,fig #c4--;,covered ,bowl with blue and white landscapes and biscuit reliefs of ,eight ,immortals4 ,height #f inches4 ,grandidier ,collection4 ,two interesting kinds of decoration mentioned in the ,wan ,li list#ahb are frequently found in combination with blue and white2 these are relief 7ting chuang or tui hua7 and pierced work 7ling lung74 ,though both have been seen in various forms on the earlier wares1 they occur at this period in a fashion which challenges special attention4 ,i allude particularly to the small bowls with or without covers1 decorated on the sides with unglazed 7or 8biscuit07 figures in detached relief1 or with delicately perforated fretwork1 or with a combination of both4 ,the catalogue#ahc of the ,pierpont ,morgan ,collection illustrates two covered bowls of the first type with the ,eight ,immortals in four pairs symmetrically arranged on the sides1 and a 8biscuit0 lion on the cover doing duty for a handle4 ,a similar bowl1 formerly in the ,nightingale ,collection1 had the same relief decoration and painted designs in the typical grey blue of the ,wan ,li period2 and ,fig4 #c of ,plate #gh represents an excellent example from the ,grandidier collection4 ,the ,chinese were in the habit of daubing these biscuit reliefs 7just as they did the unglazed details of statuettes7 with a red pigment which served as a medium for oil gilding1 but as neither of these coatings was fired they have worn away or been cleaned off in the majority of cases4 ,in the ,rijks ,museum1 ,amsterdam1 is a picture#ahd by ,van ,streeck 7#afcb-afgh71 which shows one of these covered bowls with the biscuit reliefs coloured red1 and ,mr4 ,perzynski#ahe alludes to another in a still-life by ,willem ,kalf 7#afcj-afic7 in the ,kaiser ,frederick ,museum1 ,berlin1 with the figures both coloured#ahf and gilt4 ,an excellent example of the second kind of decoration is illustrated by ,fig4 #b of ,plate #gh1 one of a set of four bowls in the ,hippisley ,collection1 with phnix medallions and other decoration in a fine grey blue1 the spaces filled with perforated designs of the utmost delicacy1 veritable 8devil's work10 to borrow a ,chinese term for workmanship which shows almost superhuman skill4 ,the small pierced medallions contain the characters fu1 shou1 k'ang1 ning#ahg 7happiness1 longevity1 peace1 and tranquillity71 and under the base are the six characters of the ,wan ,li mark4 ,a line cut in the glaze 7before firing7 at the lip and on the base-rim seems to have been designed to give a firm hold to a metal mount1 a use to which it has been actually put in one case2 and in another the glazing of the mark under the base has been omitted with the result that it has come from the kiln black instead of blue4 ,the third kind which combines the reliefs and the pierced ornament is illustrated by ,fig4 #a of ,plate #gh4 ,the reliefs of these medallions are small and very delicately modelled1 and the subjects are various1 including human and animal figures1 birds and floral compositions2 the borders are often traced in liquid clay1 which is left in unglazed relief4 ,an example in the ,british ,museum has an interior lining washed with blue to serve as a backing for the pierced work1 and it is painted inside with dragon designs in ,wan ,li grey blue4 ,it bears a mark which occurs on other late ,ming porcelains1 y tang chia ch'i 7beautiful vessel for the ,jade ,hall74#ahh ,examples of this same pierced and relief work in white1 without the supplementary blue designs1 though rare1 are yet to be seen in several collections4 ,if marked at all they usually bear the apocryphal date of ,ch'ng ,hua1 but an example in the ,marsden ,perry collection1 ,providence1 ,u4,s4,a41 has the ,t'ien ,ch'i 7#afba-afbg7 date under the base1 which no doubt represents the true period of its manufacture4 ,this intricate ling lung work1 which the ,wan ,li censor deprecated as too difficult and elaborate1 has been perpetuated1 though it was probably never more beautifully executed than in the late ,ming period4 ,the later examples are mostly characterised by larger perforations1 which were easier to manage4 ,there are several references to the pierced and relief decorations in the lists of porcelain supplied to the ,court of ,wan ,li1 e4g4 8brush rests with sea waves and three dragons in relief over pierced designs1 and landscapes10 8landscape medallions among pierced work10 and 8sacred fungus carved in openwork1 and figures of ancient cash40 ,in the finer examples of pierced work the most frequent design is the fret or key pattern often interwoven with the four-legged symbol known as the swastika1 which commonly serves in ,chinese for the character wan 7ten thousand71 carrying a suggested wish for 8long life10 as expressed in the phrase wan sui 7,jap4 banzai71 ten thousand years4 ,the pierced patterns are carved out of the porcelain body when the ware has been dried to a 8leather-tough0 consistency1 and the manipulative skill exercised in the cutting and handling of the still plastic material is almost superhuman4 ,similar tours de force distinguish the ,japanese ,hirado porcelain1 and ,owen's work in our own ,worcester ware exhibits extraordinary skill1 but ,i doubt if anything finer in this style has ever been made than the ling lung bowls of the late ,ming potters4 ,another form of decoration which1 if not actually included in the ling lung category1 is at any rate closely allied to it1 is the fretwork cut deeply into the body of the ware without actually perforating it1 the hollows of the pattern being generally left without glaze4 ,this ornament is used in borders or to fill the spaces between blue and white medallions after the manner of the pierced fretwork1 and it was evidently contemporaneous with the latter1 viz4 dating from the late ,ming period onwards 7,plate #fh1 ,fig4 #c74 ,it will be convenient here to consider another type of decoration which was probably in use in the early periods of the ,ming dynasty1 certainly in the reign of ,wan ,li1 and which has continued to modern times4 ,this is the decoration in white clay varying in thickness from substantial reliefs to translucent brush work in thin slip or liquid clay1 which allows the colour of the background to appear through it4 ,the designs are painted or modelled in white against dark or light-coloured grounds of various shades--lustrous coffee brown 7tz chin71 deep blue1 slaty blue1 lavender1 celadon1 plain white1 and crackled creamy white--and they are usually slight and artistically executed4 ,the process1 which is the same in principle as in the modern pte sur pte1 consisted of first covering the ground with colouring matter1 then tracing the design in white slip 7i4e4 liquid clay7 or building it up with strips of clay modelled with a wet brush1 and finally covering it with a colourless glaze4 ,in this case the white design has a covering of glaze4 ,when a celadon green ground is used the design is applied direct to the biscuit and the celadon glaze covers the whole1 but being quite transparent it does not obscure the white slip beneath4 ,sometimes1 however1 as in ,fig4 #c of ,plate #ge1 the design is unglazed and stands out in a dry white 8biscuit40 ,elaborate and beautiful examples of slip decoration were made in the ,k'ang ,hsi and later periods1 and ,pre d',entrecolles1 writing in #agbb1 describes their manufacture1 stating that steatite and gypsum were used to form the white slip4#ahi ,the ,ming specimens are usually of heavier make and less graceful form1 and distinguished by simplicity and strength of design1 the backgrounds being usually lustrous brown or different shades of blue4 ,they consist commonly of bottles1 jars1 flower pots1 bulb bowls1 dishes1 and narghili bowls1 and many of them were clearly made for export to ,persia and ,india1 where they are still to be found4 ,on rare examples the slip decoration is combined with passages of blue and white4 ,there is little to guide us to the dating of these wares1 and marks are exceptional4#aij ,there is1 however1 a flower pot in the ,british ,museum with white design of ch'i-lin on a brown ground which has the late ,ming mark y t'ang chia ch'i#aia2 and a specimen with an ,elizabethan metal mount was exhibited at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #aiaj4aib ,these are1 no doubt1 of ,ching-t ,chn make2 but there is a curious specimen in the ,british ,museum which seems to be of provincial manufacture4 ,it is a dish with slaty blue ground and plant designs with curious feathery foliage traced with considerable delicacy4 ,the border of running floral scroll has the flowers outlined in dots1 and the whole execution of the piece is as distinctive as the strange coarse base which shows a brown-red biscuit and heavy accretions of sand and grit at the foot rim4 ,the same base and the same peculiarities of design appeared on a similar dish with celadon glaze exhibited by ,mrs4 ,halsey at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #aiaj1aic and in the ,british ,museum there are other dishes clearly of the same make1 but with 7#a7 crackled grey white glaze and coarsely painted blue decoration1 and 7#b7 with greenish white glaze and enamelled designs in iron red and the ,ming blue green4 ,it is clear that we have to deal here with the productions of one factory1 and though we have no direct clue to its identity1 it certainly catered for the export trade to ,india and the islands2 for the enamelled dishes of this type have been found in ,sumatra4 ,mrs4 ,halsey's dish came from ,india1 and fragments of the blue and enamelled types were found in the ruins of the palace at ,bijapur1#aid which was destroyed by ,aurungzebe in #afhf4 ,probably the factory was situated in ,fukien or ,kuangtung1 where it would be in direct touch with the southern export trade1 and the style of the existing specimens points to the late ,ming as the period of its activity4 ,the process of marbling or 8graining0 has been tried by potters all the world over1 and the ,chinese were no exceptions4 ,the effect is produced either by slips of two or more coloured clays worked about on the surface1 or by blending layers of clays in two or more colours 7usually brown and white7 in the actual body4 ,early examples of this marbling occur among the ,t'ang wares1 and ,mr4 ,eumorfopoulos has examples of the ,ming and later periods4 ,one of these1 a figure with finely crackled buff glaze and passages of brown and white marbling in front and on the back1 has an incised inscription1 stating that it was modelled by ,ch'n ,wn-ching in the year #aeig4aie ,the use of underglaze red in the ,wan ,li period has already been mentioned 7p4 #ei71 and though ,chinese writers classed it as chi hung they would not admit it to an equality with the brilliant reds of the fifteenth century4#aif ,where red is named in the lists of ,imperial porcelains we are left in doubt as to its nature1 whether under or over the glaze2 but there are two little shallow bowls in the ,british ,museum with a curious sponged blue associated with indifferent underglaze red painting1 which bear the late ,ming mark y t'ang chia ch'i4#aig ,a bowl of lotus flower pattern1 similar in form to that described on p4 #ff1 but deeper1 and painted with similar designs in pale underglaze red1 though bearing the ,ch'ng ,hua mark1 seems to belong to the late ,ming period4 ,the ,wan ,li polychromes will naturally include continuations of the early ,ming types1 such as the large jars with decoration in raised outline1 pierced or carved and filled in with glazes of the demi-grand feu--turquoise1 violet purple1 green and yellow--wares with flat washes of the same turquoise and purple1 incised designs filled in with transparent glazes of the three colours 7san ts'ai71 green1 yellow and aubergine1 and1 what is probably more truly characteristic of this period1 combinations of the first and last styles4 ,a good example of the transparent colours over incised designs is ,fig4 #a of ,plate #gi1 a vase of the form known as mei p'ing with green ,imperial dragons in a yellow ground and the ,wan ,li mark4 ,all three of the san ts'ai colours were also used separately as monochromes with or without engraved designs under the glaze1 a striking example in the ,pierpont ,morgan ,collection being a vase with dragon handles and engraved designs under a brilliant iridescent green glaze1 8which appears like gold in the sunlight40#aih ,but though these types persisted1 they would no doubt be gradually superseded by simpler and more effective methods of pictorial decoration in painted outline on the biscuit1 filled in with washes of transparent enamels in the same three colours4 ,these softer enamels1 which contained a high proportion of lead and could be fired at the relatively low temperature of the muffle kiln1 must have been used to a considerable extent in the late ,ming period1 though their full development belongs to the reign of ,k'ang ,hsi1 and there will always be a difficulty in separating the examples of these two periods1 whether the colours be laid on in broad undefined washes1 as on certain figures and on the 8tiger skin0 bowls and dishes1 or brushed over a design carefully outlined in brown or black pigment4 ,there is one species of the latter family with a ground of formal wave pattern usually washed with green and studded with floating plum blossoms1 in which are galloping sea horses or symbols1 or both1 reserved and washed with the remaining two colours1 or with a faintly greenish flux1 almost colourless1 which does duty for white4 ,this species is almost always described as ,ming2 and with some reason1 for the sea wave and plum blossom pattern is mentioned in the ,wan ,li lists as in polychrome combined with blue decoration4 ,but the danger of assuming a specimen to be ,ming because it exhibits a design which occurred on ,ming porcelain is shown by an ink pallet in the ,british ,museum1 which is dated in the thirty-first year of ,k'ang ,hsi1 i4e4 #afib4 ,this important piece 7,plate #id1 ,fig4 #b7 is decorated in enamels on the biscuit over black outlines with the wave and plum blossom pattern1 the same yellow trellis diaper which appears on the base of the vase in ,plate #ig1 and other diaper patterns which occur on so many of the so-called ,ming figures4 ,this piece is1 in fact1 a standing rebuke to those careless classifiers who ascribe all on-biscuit enamel indiscriminately to the ,ming period1 and ,i am strongly of opinion that most of the dishes1#aii bowls1 ewers1 cups and saucers1 and vases with the wave and plum blossom pattern and horses1 etc41 in which a strong green enamel gives the dominating tint1 belong rather to the ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,the same kind of decoration is sometimes found applied to glazed porcelain1 as on ,fig4 #c of ,plate #gi1 a covered potiche-shaped vase in the ,british ,museum with the design of 8jewel mountains and sea waves10 with floating blossoms1 and pa pao#bjj symbols in green1 yellow and white in an aubergine ground1 supplemented by a few plain rings in underglaze blue4 ,the style of this vase and the quality of the paste suggest that it really does belong to the late ,ming period4 ,illustration3 ,plate #gi4--,wan ,li ,polychrome ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--,vase 7mei p'ing7 with engraved design1 green in a yellow ground1 ,imperial dragons in clouds1 rock and wave border4 ,wan ,li mark4 ,height #ae inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle with pierced casing1 phnix design1 etc41 painted in underglaze blue and enamels2 cloisonn enamel neck4 ,height #bc inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,covered ,jar1 plum blossoms and symbols in a wave pattern ground1 coloured enamels in an aubergine background4 ,height #ae inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,the use of enamels over the glaze was greatly extended in the ,wan ,li period1 though practically all the types in vogue at this time can be paralleled in the ,chia ,ching porcelain1 and1 indeed1 have been discussed under that heading4 ,there is the red family in which the dominant colour is an iron red1 either of curiously sticky appearance and dark coral tint or with the surface dissolved in a lustrous iridescence4 ,yellow1 usually a dark impure colour1 though sometimes washed on extremely thin and consequently light and transparent1 and transparent greens1 which vary from leaf tint to emerald and bluish greens1 occur in insignificant quantity4 ,this red family is well illustrated by a splendid covered jar in the ,salting ,collection 7,plate #hj71 and by three marked specimens in the ,british ,museum1 an ink screen1 a bowl1 and a circular stand4 ,it also occurs on another significant piece in the latter collection1 a dish admirably copying the ,ming style but marked ,shn t t'ang po ku chih#bja 7antique made for the ,shn-t ,hall71 a palace mark of the ,tao ,kuang period 7#ahba-ahej74 ,it should be added that this colour scheme#bjb is frequently seen on the coarsely made and roughly decorated jars and dishes with designs of lions in peony scrolls1 etc41 no doubt made in large quantities for export to ,india and ,persia4 ,they are not uncommon to-day1 and in spite of their obvious lack of finish they possess certain decorative qualities1 due chiefly to the mellow red1 which are not to be despised4 ,but the characteristic polychrome of the period1 the ,wan ,li wu ts'ai1 combines enamelled decoration with underglaze blue1 and this again can be divided into two distinctive groups4 ,one of these is exemplified by ,plate #ha1 an ,imperial vase shaped after a bronze model and of the same massive build as its fellow in blue and white1 which was described on p4 #fg4 ,here the underglaze blue is supplemented by the green1 the impure yellow and the sticky coral red of the period1 and the subject as on the blue and white example consists of dragons and phnixes among floral scrolls with borders of rock and wave pattern4 ,the object of the decorator seems to have been to distract the eye from the underlying ware1 as if he were conscious of its relative inferiority1 and the effect of this close design1 evenly divided between the blue and the enamels1 is rather checkered when viewed from a distance4 ,but both form and decoration are characteristic of the ,wan ,li ,imperial vases1 as is shown by kindred specimens1 notably by a tall vase in the ,pierpont ,morgan ,collection1 of which the design is similar and the form even more metal-like1 having on the lower part the projecting dentate ribs seen on square bronze and cloisonn beakers of the ,ming dynasty4 ,two other marked examples of this colour scheme1 from which the absence of aubergine is noteworthy1 are 7#a7 a ewer in the ,british ,museum with full-face dragons on the neck supporting the characters wan shou 7endless longevity7 and with floral sprays on a lobed body1 and 7#b7 a straight-sided box with moulded six-foil elevation1 painted on each face with a screen before which is a fantastic animal on a stand1 and a monkey1 dog and cat in garden surroundings4 ,the second--and perhaps the more familiar--group of ,wan ,li wu ts'ai is illustrated by ,fig4 #a of ,plate #hb1 on which all the colours1 including aubergine1 are represented in company with the underglaze blue4 ,there is no longer the same patchy effect1 because the blue is more evenly balanced by broader washes of the enamel colours1 particularly the greens4 ,the design of this particular example is a figure subject taken from ,chinese history 7shih wu71 supplemented by a brocade band of floral scroll work on the shoulder and formal patterns on the neck and above the base4 ,the former and the latter positions are commonly occupied in these vases by a band of stiff leaves and a border of false gadroons1 both alternately blue and coloured4 ,the stiff leaves in this instance are replaced by floral sprays1 and the coloured designs are outlined in a red brown pigment4 ,the mark under the base is the 8hare10 which has already been noticed on examples of late ,ming blue and white4#bjc ,another late ,ming mark1 y t'ang chia ch'i1#bjd occurs on a dish in the ,british ,museum1 with design of the ,eight ,immortals paying court to the god of ,longevity 7pa hsien p'ng shou71 painted in the same style but with a predominance of underglaze blue4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #hj ,covered ,jar or potiche4 ,painted in iron red and green enamels1 with a family scene in a garden1 and brocade borders of ju-i pattern1 peony scrolls1 etc4 ,sixteenth century4 ,height #ag inches4 ,salting ,collection 7,victoria and ,albert ,museum74 ,but it is not necessary to multiply instances1 for the type is well known1 and must have survived for a long period4 ,indeed1 many competent authorities assign the bulk of this kind of porcelain to the ,yung ,chng period 7#agbc-agce72 and it is undoubtedly true that imitations of ,wan ,li polychrome were made at this time1 for they are specifically mentioned in the ,yung ,chng list of ,imperial wares4#bje ,but ,i am inclined to think that the number of these late attributions has been exaggerated1 and that they do not take sufficiently into account the interval of forty-two years between the reigns of ,wan ,li and ,k'ang ,hsi4 ,it was a distracted time when the potters must have depended largely upon their foreign trade in default of ,imperial orders1 and it is probable that much of this ware1 characterised by strong1 rather coarse make1 greyish glaze and boldly executed decoration in the ,wan ,li colour scheme1 belongs to this intermediate period4 ,the vases usually have the flat unglazed base which characterises the blue and white of this time4#bjf ,two handsome beakers1 with figure subjects and borders of the peach1 pomegranate and citron1 and a beautiful jar with phnix beside a rock and flowering shrubs1 in the ,british ,museum1 seem to belong to this period1 but there are numerous other examples1 many of which are coarse and crude1 and obviously made wholesale for the export trade4 ,among the various examples of ,wan ,li polychrome exhibited at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #aiaj1 there was one which calls for special mention1 a box#bjg with panels of floral designs surrounded by fruit and diaper patterns in the usual colours of the wu ts'ai1 with the addition of an overglaze blue enamel4 ,it is true that this blue enamel was clearly of an experimental nature and far from successful1 but its presence on this marked and indubitable ,wan ,li specimen is noteworthy4 ,for it has long been an article of faith with collectors that this blue enamel does not antedate the ,ch'ing dynasty1 being1 in fact1 a characteristic feature of the ,k'ang ,hsi famille verte porcelain4 ,the rule still remains an excellent one1 and this solitary exception only serves to emphasise its general truth1 showing as it does that so far the attempts at a blue enamel were a failure4 ,but at the same time the discovery is a warning against a too rigid application of those useful rules of thumb1 based on the generalisation from what must1 after all1 be a limited number of instances4 ,marked examples of ,wan ,li monochromes are rarely seen1 but we may assume that the glazes in use in the previous reigns continued to be made--blue1 lavender1 turquoise1 violet and aubergine brown1 yellow in various shades1 leaf green1 emerald green1 apple green1 celadon1 coffee brown1 and golden brown--besides the more or less accidental effects in the mottled and flamb glazes4 ,the plain white bowls of the period had a high reputation1#bjh and a good specimen in the ,british ,museum1 though far from equalling the ,yung ,lo bowl 7,plate #ei71 is nevertheless a thing of beauty4 ,the white wares of the ,ting type made at this time have been already discussed4#bji ,the monochrome surfaces were not infrequently relieved by carved or etched designs under the glaze1 but it must be confessed that monochromes are exceedingly difficult to date4 ,particular colours and particular processes continued in use for long periods1 and the distinctions between the productions of one reign and the next1 or even between those of the late ,ming and the early ,ch'ing dynasties1 are often almost unseizable4 ,at best these differences consist in minute peculiarities of form and potting1 in the texture of the body and glaze1 and the finish of the base1 which are only learnt by close study of actual specimens and by training the eye to the general character of the wares until the perception of the ,ming style becomes instinctive4 ,but something further will be said on this subject in the chapter on ,ming technique4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ha ,beaker-shaped ,vase of bronze form1 with dragon and phnix designs painted in underglaze blue1 and red1 green and yellow enamels3 background of fairy flowers 7pao hsiang hua7 and borders of 8rock and wave0 pattern4 ,mark of the ,wan ,li period 7#aegc-afai7 in six characters on the neck4 ,an ,imperial piece4 ,carved wood stand with cloud pattern4 ,height #ah inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,,the ,,last ,,of ,,the ,,mings ,t'ai ,ch'ang chch #b 7#afbj7 ,t'ien ,ch'i chch #b 7#afba-afbg7 ,ch'ung ,chng chch #b 7#afbh-afdc7 ,chinese ceramic history1 based on the official records1 is silent on the subject of the three last ,ming reigns1 and we are left to infer that during the death struggles of the old dynasty and the establishment of the ,manchu ,tartars on the throne work at the ,imperial factory was virtually suspended4 ,the few existing specimens which bear the marks of ,t'ien ,ch'i and ,ch'ung ,chng 7the ,t'ai ,ch'ang mark is apparently unrepresented7 are of little merit4 ,a barrel-shaped incense vase with floral scrolls and a large bowl with four-clawed dragons of the former date in the ,british ,museum are painted the one in dull greyish blue1 and the other in a bright but rather garish tint of the same colour2 both have a coarse body material with blisters and pitting in the glaze1 and the painting of the designs is devoid of any distinction4 ,similarly1 a polychrome saucer dish with the same mark and in the same collection1 decorated with an engraved dragon design filled in with purple glaze in a green ground1 carries on the early tradition of that type of ,ming polychrome1 but the ware is coarse1 the design crudely drawn1 and the colours impure4#baj ,from the same unflattering characteristics another dish in the ,british ,museum1 with large patches of the three on-biscuit colours--green1 yellow and aubergine--may be recognised as of the ,t'ien ,ch'i make4 ,this is a specimen of the so-called tiger skin ware1 of which ,k'ang ,hsi and later examples are known--a ware which1 even in the best-finished specimens with underglaze engraved designs1 is more curious than beautiful4 ,on the other hand1 one of the delicate bowls with biscuit figures in high relief1 already described 7p4 #ge71 proves that the potters of the ,t'ien ,ch'i period were still capable of skilful work when occasion demanded4 ,a pair of wine cups in the ,british ,museum1 with freely drawn designs of geese and rice plants in pale greyish blue under a greyish glaze1 are the solitary representatives of the ,ch'ung ,chng mark4 ,in the absence of ,imperial patronage1 and with the inevitable trade depression which followed in the wake of the fierce dynastic struggle1 it was fortunate for the ,ching-t ,chn potters that a large trade with ,european countries was developing4 ,the ,portuguese and ,spanish had already established trading connections with the ,chinese1 and the other ,continental nations--notably the ,dutch--were now serious competitors4 ,the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company was an extensive importer of blue and white porcelain1 and we have already discussed one type of blue and white which figures frequently in the ,dutch pictures of the seventeenth century4 ,there is another group of blue and white which can be definitely assigned to this period of dynastic transition1 between #afbj-affb4 ,a comparative study of the various blue and white types had already led to the placing of this ware in the middle of the seventeenth century1 and ,mr4 ,perzynski1 in those excellent articles#baa to which we have already alluded1 has set out the characteristics of this ware at some length1 with a series of illustrations which culminate in a dated example4 ,there will be no difficulty in finding a few specimens of this type in any large collection of blue and white4 ,it is recognised by a bright blue of slightly violet tint under a glaze often hazy with minute bubbles1 which suggested to ,mr4 ,perzynski the picturesque simile of 8violets in milk40 ,other more tangible characteristics appear in the designs1 which commonly consist of a figure subject--a warrior or sage and attendant--in a mountain scene bordered by a wall of rocks with pine trees and swirling mist1 drawn in a very mannered style and probably from some stock pattern4 ,other common features are patches of herbage rendered by pot-hook-like strokes1 formal floral designs of a peculiar kind1 such as the tulip-like flower on the neck of ,fig4 #d of ,plate #hb2 the band of floral scroll work on the shoulder of the same piece is also characteristic4 ,in many of the forms1 such as cylindrical vases and beakers1 the base is flat and unglazed1 and reveals a good white body1 and ,european influence is apparent in some of the shapes1 such as the jugs and tankards4 ,as for the dating of this group1 an early example of the style of painting in the ,salting ,collection#bab has a silver mount of the early seventeenth century1 and a tankard of typical ,german form in the ,hamburg ,museum has a silver cover dated #afdb4bac ,there is1 besides1 a curious piece in the ,british ,museum1 the decoration of which has strong affinities to this group4 ,it is a bottle with flattened circular body and tall1 tapering neck1 with landscape and figures on one side and on the other a ,european design copied from the reverse of a ,spanish dollar1 and surrounded by a strap-work border4 ,the dollar1 from a numismatic point of view1 might have been made equally well for ,philip ,,ii4 7#aeef-aeih71 ,philip ,,iv4 7#afba-affe71 or ,charles ,,ii4 7#affe-agjj71 but there can be little doubt from the style of the ware that it belonged to one of the two earlier reigns4 ,a comparison of the ware and the blue of this group leads to the placing of the fairly familiar type illustrated by ,figs4 #c and #e of ,plate #hb in the same intermediate period1 and similarly certain specimens of polychrome1 with underglaze blue and the usual enamels1 display the characteristic body and blue painting1 and even some of the decorative mannerisms4 ,these specimens1 particularly when of beaker form1 are often finished off with a band of ornament engraved under the glaze4 ,illustration3 ,plate #hb4--,late ,ming ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a--;,jar of ,wan ,li period1 enamelled4 ,mark1 a hare4 ,height #i inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4 ,bowl with ,eight ,immortals in relief1 coloured glazes on the biscuit4 ,height #c inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,figs4 #c1 #d and #e4--;,blue and white porcelain1 early seventeenth century4 ,height of ,fig4 #e1 #ag inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,plate #hc4--,vase ,with blue and white decoration of rockery1 phnixes1 and flowering shrubs4 ,found in ,india4 ,late ,ming period4 ,height #bb inches4 ,halsey ,collection4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,technique ,,of ,,the ,,ming ,,porcelain ,although the processes involved in the various kinds of decoration and in the different wares have been discussed in their several places1 a short summary of those employed in the manufacture of the ,ching-t ,chn porcelain during the ,ming period will be found convenient4 ,the bulk of the materials required were found in the surrounding districts1 if not actually in the ,fou-liang ,hsien4 ,the best kaolin 7or porcelain earth7 was mined in the ,ma-ts'ang mountains until the end of the sixteenth century1 when the supply was exhausted and recourse was had to another deposit at ,wu-mn-t'o4 ,the quality of the ,wu-mn-t'o kaolin was first-rate1 but as the cost of transport was greater and the manager of the ,imperial factory refused to pay a proportionately higher price1 very little was obtained4 ,the material for the large dragon bowls1 and presumably for the other vessels of abnormal size1 was obtained from ,y-kan and ,wu-yan and mixed with powdered stone 7shih mo7 from the ,hu-t'ien district4 ,other kaolins1 brought from ,po-yang ,hsien and the surrounding parts1 were used by the private potters1 not being sufficiently fine for the ,imperial wares4 ,the porcelain stone1 which combined with the kaolin to form the two principal ingredients of true porcelain1 came from the neighbourhoods of ,y-kan and ,wu-yan1 where it was pounded and purified in mills worked by the water power of the mountains1 arriving at ,ching-t ,chn in the form of briquettes4 ,hence the name petuntse1#bad which1 like kaolin1 has passed into our own language1 and the term shih mo 7powdered stone7 used above4 ,the glaze earth 7yu t'u7 in various qualities was supplied from different places4 ,thus the ,ch'ang-ling material was used for the blue or green 7ch'ing7 and the yellow glazes1 the ,yi-k'ng for the pure white porcelain1 and the ,t'ao-shu-mu for white porcelain and for 8blue and white40 ,this glazing material was softened with varying quantities of ashes of lime burnt with ferns or other frondage4 ,neither time nor toil was spared in the preparation of the ,imperial porcelains1 and according to the ,t'ung-ya#bae the vessels were1 at one time at any rate1 dried for a whole year after they had been shaped and before finishing them off on the lathe4 ,when finished off on the lathe they were glazed and dried1 and if there were any inequalities in the covering they were glazed again4 ,furthermore1 if any fault appeared after firing they were put on the lathe1 ground smooth1 and reglazed and refired4 ,it was not the usual custom with ,chinese potters to harden the ware with a slight preliminary firing before proceeding to decorate and apply the glaze1 and consequently such processes as underglaze painting in blue1 embossing1 etc41 were undergone while the body was still relatively soft and required exceedingly careful handling4 ,the glaze was applied in several ways--by dipping in a tub of glazing liquid 7i4e4 glaze material finely levigated and mixed with water71 by painting the glaze on with a brush1 or by blowing it on from a bamboo tube1 the end of which was covered with a piece of tightly stretched gauze4 ,one of the last operations was the finishing off of the foot1 which was hollowed out and trimmed and the mark added 7if it was to be in blue1 as was usually the case7 and covered with a spray of glaze4 ,to the connoisseur the finish of the foot is full of meaning4 ,it is here he gets a glimpse of the body which emerges at the raw edge of the rim1 and by feeling it he can tell whether the material is finely levigated or coarse-grained4 ,the foot rim of the ,ming porcelains is plainly finished without the beading or grooves of the ,k'ang ,hsi wares1 which were evidently designed to fit a stand#baf2 and the raw edge discloses a ware which is almost always of fine white texture and close grain 7often almost unctuous to the touch71 though the actual surface generally assumes a brownish tinge in the heat of the kiln4 ,the base is often unglazed in the case of large jars and vases1 rarely in the cups1 bowls1 dishes1 or wine pots1 except among the coarser types of export porcelain4 ,a little sand or grit adhering to the foot rim and radiating lines under the base caused by a jerky movement of the lathe are signs of hasty finish1 which occur not infrequently on the export wares4 ,the importance of the foot in the eyes of the ,chinese collector may be judged from the following extract from the ,shih ch'ing jih cha#bag3-- 8,distinguish porcelain by the vessel's foot4 ,the ,yung ,lo 'press-hand' bowls have a glazed bottom but a sandy foot2 ,hsan ware altar cups have 'cauldron'#bah bottom 7i4e4 convex beneath7 and wire-like foot2 ,chia ,ching ware flat cups decorated with fish have a 'loaf' centre#bai 7i4e4 convex inside7 and rounded foot4 ,all porcelain vessels issue from the kiln with bottoms and feet which can testify to the fashion of the firing40 ,it is not always easy unaided by illustration to interpret the ,chinese metaphors1 but it is a matter of observation that many of the ,sung bowls1 for instance1 have a conical finish under the base1 and that the same pointed finish appears on some of the early ,ming types1 such as the red bowls with ,yung ,lo mark4 ,the 8loaf centre0 of the ,chia ,ching bowls seems to refer to the convexity described on p4 #ce4 ,the blue and white conical bowls with ,yung ,lo mark 7see p4 #f7 have1 as a rule1 a small glazed base and a relatively wide unglazed foot rim4 ,but this digression on the nether peculiarities of the different wares has led us away from the subject of glaze4 ,the proverbial thickness and solidity of the early ,ming glazes1 which are likened to 8massed lard10 are due to the piling up of successive coatings of glaze to ensure a perfect covering for the body1 and the same process was responsible for the undulating appearance of the surface1 which rose up in small rounded elevations 8like grains of millet0 and displayed corresponding depressions4#bbj ,this uneven effect1 due to an excess of glaze1 was much prized by the ,chinese connoisseurs1 who gave it descriptive names like 8millet markings10 8chicken skin10 or 8orange peel10 and the potters of later periods imitated it freely and often to excess4 ,porcelain glazes are rarely dead white1 and1 speaking generally1 it may be said that the qualifying tint in the ,ming period was greenish4 ,indeed1 this is the prevailing tone of ,chinese glazes1 but it is perhaps accentuated by the thickness of the ,ming glaze4 ,this greenish tinge is most noticeable when the ware is ornamented with delicate traceries in pure white clay or slip under the glaze4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #hd ,vase of baluster form with small mouth 7mei p'ing74 ,porcelain with coloured glazes on the biscuit1 the designs outlined in slender fillets of clay4 ,a meeting of sages in a landscape beneath an ancient pine tree1 the design above their heads representing the mountain mist4 ,on the shoulders are large ju-i shaped lappets enclosing lotus sprays1 with pendent jewels between3 fungus 7ling chih7 designs on the neck4 ,yellow glaze under the base4 ,a late example of this style of ware1 probably seventeenth century4 ,height #aa inches4 ,salting ,collection 7,victoria and ,albert ,museum74 ,as for the shape of the various ,ming wares1 much has already been said in reference to the various lists of ,imperial porcelains1 more particularly with regard to the household wares such as dishes1 bowls1 wine pots1 boxes1 etc4 ,no precise description1 however1 is given in these lists of the actual forms of the vases1 and we have to look elsewhere for these4 ,there are1 however1 extracts from books on vases#bba and on the implements of the scholar's table in the ,t'ao shuo and the ,t'ao lu1 in which a large number of shapes are enumerated4 ,observation of actual specimens shows that bronze and metal work supplied the models for the more elaborate forms which would be made1 partly or wholly1 in moulds4 ,these metallic forms1 so much affected by the ,chinese literatus1 though displaying great cleverness in workmanship and elaboration of detail1 are not so pleasing to the unprejudiced ,western eye as the simple wheel-made forms of which the ,chinese potter was a perfect master4 ,of the latter1 the most common in ,ming porcelains are the potiche-shaped covered jar 7,plate #hj7 and the high-shouldered baluster vase with small neck and narrow mouth 7,plate #hd71 which was known as mei p'ing or prunus jar from its suitability for holding a flowering branch of that decorative flower4 ,next to these1 the most familiar ,ming forms are the massive and often clumsy vases of double gourd shape1 or with a square body and gourd-shaped neck1 bottles with tapering neck and globular body1 ovoid jars1 melon-shaped pots with lobed sides1 jars with rounded body and short narrow neck1 all of which occur in the export wares4 ,these are1 as a rule1 strongly built and of good white material1 and if the shoulders are contracted 7as is nearly always the case7 they are made in two sections1 or more in the case of the double forms1 with no pains taken to conceal the seam4 ,indeed1 elaborate finish had no part in the construction of these strong1 rugged forms1 which are matched by the bold design and free drawing of the decoration4 ,i may add that sets of vases hardly come within the ,ming period4 ,they are an un-,chinese idea1 and evolved in response to ,european demands4 ,the mantelpiece sets of five 7three covered jars and two beakers7 are a development of the mid-seventeenth century when the ,dutch traders commanded the market4 ,the ,chinese altar-set of five ritual utensils is the nearest approach to a uniform set1 consisting as it did of an incense burner1 two flower vases1 and two pricket candlesticks1 often with the same decoration throughout4 ,the ,ming bowls vary considerably in form1 from the wide-mouthed1 small-footed bowl 7p'ieh7 of the early period to the rounded forms1 such as ,fig4 #a of ,plate #gd4 ,in some cases the sides are moulded in compartments1 and the rims sharply everted4 ,others again are very shallow1 with hollow base and no foot rim2 others follow the shape of the ,buddhist alms bowl with rounded sides and contracted mouth2 and there are large bowls for gold-fish 7y kang71 usually with straight sides slightly expanding towards the upper part and broad flat rims1 cisterns1 hot-water bowls with double bottom and plug hole beneath1 square bowls 7,plate #ff1 ,fig4 #a7 for scraps and slops1 and large vessels1 probably of punch-bowl form1 known as 8wine seas40 ,the commonest type of ,chinese dish is saucer-shaped1 but they had also flat plates bounded by straight sides and a narrow rim1 which has no relation to the broad1 canted rim of the ,european plate constructed to carry salt and condiments4 ,the ,chinese use porcelain plaques for inlaying in furniture and screens1 or mounting as pictures1 and there are1 besides1 many objects of purely native design1 such as barrel-shaped garden seats for summer use1 cool pillows1 and hat stands with spherical top and tall1 slender stems4 ,but it was only natural that when they began to cater for the foreign market many foreign forms should have crept in1 such as the ,persian ewer with pear-shaped body1 long elegant handle and spout1 the latter usually joined to the neck by an ornamental stay3 the hookah bowl3 weights with wide base and ball-shaped tops for keeping down ,indian mats1 etc41 when3 spread on the ground2 and at the end of the ,ming period a few ,european shapes1 such as jugs and tankards4 ,in the ,ch'ing dynasty ,european forms were made wholesale4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in considering the colours used in the decoration1 we naturally take first the limited number which were developed in the full heat of the porcelain furnace1 the couleurs de grand feu of the ,french classification4 ,these were either incorporated in the glazing material or painted on the porcelain body and protected by the glaze4 ,chief among them was blue1 which we have already discussed in its various qualities4 ,the ,mohammedan blue--the su-ni-p'o of the ,hsan ,t period and the hui hui ch'ing of the reigns of ,chng ,t and ,chia ,ching--was an imported material of pre-eminent quality but of uncertain supply4 ,it was supplemented--and1 indeed1 usually blended--with the native mineral#bbb which was found in several places4 ,thus the po-t'ang blue 7so called from a place name7 was found in the district of ,lo-p'ing ,hsien in the ,jao-chou ,fu2 but the mines were closed after a riot in the ,chia ,ching period1 and its place was taken by a blue known as shih-tz ch'ing 7stone1 or mineral1 blue7 from the prefecture of ,jui-chou in ,kiangsi4 ,according to ,bushell#bbc the po-t'ang blue was very dark in colour1 and it was sometimes known as ,fo t'ou ch'ing 7,buddha's head blue7 from the traditional colour of the hair of ,buddha4 ,another material used for painting porcelain was the hei ch shih 7black red mineral7 from ,hsin-chien in ,lu-ling1 which was also called wu ming tz4 ,it was evidently a cobaltiferous ore of manganese and a blue-producing mineral1 doubtless the same as the wu ming i 7nameless wonder71 which we have already found in use as a name for cobalt4 ,much confusion exists1 in ,chinese works1 on the subject of these blues1 and it is stated in one place that the 8,buddha head blue0 was a variety of the wu ming i1 which would make the po t'ang blue and the wu ming i and the wu ming tz one and the same thing4 ,in effect they were the same species of mineral1 and the local distinctions are of no account at the present day except in so far as they explain the variety of tints in the ,ming blue and white4 ,it is1 however1 interesting to learn from a note on ,mohammedan blue in the ,k'ang ,hsi ,encyclopdia that the native mineral1 when carefully prepared1 was very like the ,mohammedan blue in tint4 ,all these blues were used either for painting under the glaze or for mixing with the glaze to form ground colours or monochromes1 which varied widely in tint1 according to the quantity and quality of the cobalt1 from dark violet blue 7chi ch'ing7 through pale and dark shades of the ordinary blue colour to slaty blue and lavender4 ,some of them--notably the lavender and the dark violet blue--are often associated with crackle1 being used as an overglaze covering a greyish white crackled porcelain4 ,this treatment of the surface is well illustrated by a small covered jar in the ,british ,museum with a dark violet blue apparently uncrackled but covering a crackled glaze4 ,two lavender blue bowls in the ,hippisley ,collection with the ,chng ,t mark are similarly crackled4 ,other ,ming blue monochromes are a small pot found in ,borneo and now in the ,british ,museum with a dark blue of the ordinary tint used in painted wares1 and a wine pot in the same collection with dragon spout and handle of a peculiar slaty lavender tint strewn with black specks1 the colour evidently due to a strain of manganese in the cobalt4 ,next in importance to the blue is the underglaze red derived from copper1 which was discussed at length in connection with the ,hsan ,t porcelains4#bbd ,its various tints1 described as hsien hung 7fresh red71 pao shih hung 7ruby red71 and cinnabar bowls 8red as the sun10 are1 we may be sure1 more or less accidental varieties of the capricious copper red4 ,the same mineral produced the sang de buf1 maroon and liver reds1 and probably the peach bloom#bbe of the ,k'ang ,hsi and later porcelains4 ,other colours incorporated in the high-fired glaze in the ,ming period are the pea green 7tou ch'ing7 or celadon1 and the lustrous brown 7tz chin7 which varied from coffee colour to that of old gold4 ,both of these groups derived their tint from iron oxide1 carried in the medium of ferruginous earth4 ,the use of two or more of these coloured glazes on one piece is a type of polychrome which was doubtless used on the ,ming as on the later porcelains4 ,the glazes fired at a lower temperature1 in the cooler parts of the great kiln1 and known for that reason as couleurs de demi-grand feu1 include turquoise 7ts'ui s71 made from a preparation of old copper 7ku t'ung7 and nitre2 bright yellow 7chin huang71 composed of #a oz4 of antimony mixed with #af oz4 of pulverised lead2 bright green 7chin l71 composed of #a oz4 of pulverised copper1 #f oz4 of powdered quartz and #af oz4 of pulverised lead2 purple 7tz s71 composed of #a oz4 of cobaltiferous ore of manganese1 #f oz4 of powdered quartz and #af oz4 of pulverised lead4 ,these colours1 melting as they did at a lower temperature than that required to vitrify the porcelain body1 had to be applied to an already fired porcelain 8biscuit40#bbf ,the irregular construction of the ,chinese kilns resulted in a great variety of firing conditions1 of which the ,chinese potter made good use2 so that1 by a judicious arrangement of the wares1 glazes which required a comparatively low temperature were fired in the same kiln as those which needed the same heat as the porcelain body itself4 ,the glazes just enumerated are familiar from the large covered jars1 vases1 garden seats1 etc41 with designs raised1 carved1 or pierced in outline1 many of which date from the fifteenth century4#bbg ,their manufacture continued throughout the ,ming period1 both in porcelain and pottery1 and in the latter1 at any rate1 continued into the ,ch'ing dynasty4 ,another group of glazes applied likewise to the biscuit and fired in the temperate parts of the kiln differs from the last mentioned in its greater translucency4#bbh ,these are the san ts'ai or three colours1 viz4 green1 yellow and aubergine1 all of which contain a considerable proportion of lead1 and differ little in appearance from the on-glaze enamels of the muffle kiln4 ,they were used either as monochromes1 plain or covering incised designs1 or in combination to wash over the spaces between the outlines of a pattern which had been incised or painted on the biscuit4 ,finally1 the enamels of the ,wan li wu ts'ai1#bbi overglaze colours used in addition to underglaze blue1 were composed of a vitreous flux coloured with a minute quantity of metallic oxide4 ,the flux1 being a glass containing a high percentage of lead1 was fusible at such a low temperature that it was not possible to fire them in the large kiln4 ,consequently these enamels were painted on to the finished glaze1 a process which greatly increased the freedom of design1 and fired in a small 8muffle0 or enameller's kiln1 where the requisite heat to melt the flux and fix the colours could be easily obtained4 ,though the ,t'ao shuo1 in the section dealing with ,ming technique1 makes a general allusion to painting in colours on the glaze1 the only specific reference to any colour of the muffle kiln1 excepting gold1 is to the red obtained from sulphate of iron 7fan hung s74 ,this1 we are told1 was made with #a oz4 of calcined sulphate of iron 7ch'ing fan7 and #e oz4 of carbonate of lead1 mixed with ,canton ox-glue to make it adhere to the porcelain before it was fired4 ,this is the iron red1 the rouge de fer of the ,french1 which varies in tint from orange or coral to deep brick red1 and in texture from an impalpable film almost to the consistency of a glaze1 according to the quantity of lead flux used with it4 ,on the older wares it is often deeply iridescent and lustrous1 owing to the decomposition of the lead flux4 ,this fan hung is the colour which the ,chia ,ching potters were fain to substitute for the underglaze copper red 7chi hung7 when the usual material for that highly prized colour had come to an end1 and difficulty was experienced in finding an effective substitute4 ,the remaining colours of the on-glaze palette are more obviously enamels2 that is to say1 glassy compounds2 and as they were1 in accordance with ,chinese custom1 very lightly charged with colouring matter1 it was necessary to pile them on thickly where depth of colour was required4 ,hence the thickly encrusted appearance of much of the ,chinese enamelled porcelain4 ,the ,wan ,li enamels consisted of transparent greens of several shades 7all derived from copper71 including a very blue green which seems to have been peculiar to the ,ming palette1 yellow 7from antimony7 pale and clear or brownish and rather opaque1 and transparent aubergine1 a colour derived from manganese and varying in tint from purple to brown4 ,two thin dry pigments--one an iron red and the other a brown black colour derived from manganese--were used for drawing outlines2 and the brown black was also used in masses with a coating of transparent green to form a green black colour1 the same which is so highly prized on the famille noire porcelains of the ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,as for the blue enamel of the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 it can hardly be said to have existed before the end of the ,ming dynasty4#bcj ,gilding1 which was apparently in use throughout#bca the ,ming period1 was applied to the finished porcelain and fired in the muffle kiln4 ,the gold leaf1 combined with one-tenth by weight of carbonate of lead1 was mixed with gum and painted on with a brush4 ,the effect1 as seen on the red and green bowls 7,plate #gd71 was light and filmy1 and though the gold often has the unsubstantial appearance of size-gilding1 in reality it adheres firmly#bcb and is not easily scratched4 ,of the other processes described in the ,t'ao shuo1#bcc embossed 7tui chch7 decoration was effected by applying strips or shavings of the body material and working them into form with a wet brush4 ,some of the more delicate traceries1 in scarcely perceptible relief1 are painted in white slip4 ,engraved 7chui chch7 decoration was effected by carving with an iron graving-tool on the body while it was still soft4 ,and so1 too1 with the openwork 7ling lung71 which has already been described4#bcd ,all these processes were in use in one form or another from the earliest reigns of the ,ming dynasty1 and some of them1 at any rate1 have been encountered on the ,sung wares4 ,high reliefs1 such as the figures on the bowls described on p4 #gd1 would be separately modelled and 8luted0 on by means of liquid clay2 and1 as already noted1 these reliefs were often left in the biscuit state1 though at times we find them covered with coloured glazes4 ,it is hardly necessary to add that the same processes were applied to pottery1 and that the reliefs took many other forms besides figures1 e4g4 dragon designs1 foliage1 scrollwork1 symbols1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #he ,vase with crackled greenish grey glaze coated on the exterior with transparent apple green enamel3 the base unglazed4 ,probably sixteenth century4 ,height #ad inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,the crackled glazes of the ,sung period were still made1 though the ,ming tendency was to substitute painted decoration for monochrome2 and we have already noted the crackled blue and lavender in which a second glaze is added to a grey white crackle4 ,this process is particularly noticeable in the 8apple green0 monochromes 7,plate #he71 both of the ,ming and ,ch'ing dynasties1 in which a green overglaze itself uncrackled is washed on to a crackled stone grey porcelain4 ,the green is often carried down over the slightly browned biscuit of the foot rim1 forming a band of brown4 ,but this1 so far from being a peculiarity of the ,ming technique1 is much more conspicuous on the porcelains of the early eighteenth century1 when it was the constant practice to dress the foot rim of the crackled wares with a brown ferruginous earth in imitation of the 8iron foot0 of their ,sung prototypes4 ,the work at the ,imperial factory#bce was divided between twenty-three departments1 nine of which were occupied with accessories1 such as the making of ropes and barrels1 general carpentry1 and even boat building4 ,five separate departments were employed in making the large bowls1 the wine cups1 the plates1 the large round dishes1 and the tea cups2 another in preparing the 8paste0 or body material1 and another in making the 8seggars0 or fireclay cases in which the ware was packed in the kiln4 ,five more were occupied in the details of decoration1 viz4 the mark and seal department1 the department for engraving designs1 the department for sketching designs1 the department for writing1 and the department for colouring4 ,it does not appear that the work of decoration was so minutely subdivided in the ,ming period as in later times1 when we are told that a piece of porcelain might pass through more than seventy hands2 but it is clear1 at least1 that the outlining and filling in of the designs were conducted in separate sheds4 ,this is1 indeed1 self-apparent from the ,ming blue and white porcelains1 the designs of which are characterised by strong and clear outlines filled in with flat washes of colour4 ,with regard to the actual designs1 we are told that in the ,ch'ng ,hua period they were drawn by the best artists at the ,court1 and from another passage#bcf it is clear that the practice of sending the patterns from the palace continued in later reigns as well4 ,such designs would no doubt accumulate1 and probably they were collected together from time to time and issued in the form of pattern books4#bcg ,another method in which the painters of ,ming blue and white were served with patterns is related in the ,t'ao shuo#bch3--8;,for painting in blue1 the artists were collected each day at dawn and at noon1 and the colour for painting was distributed among them4 ,two men of good character were first selected1 the larger pieces of porcelain being given to one1 the smaller pieces to the other2 and when they had finished their painting1 the amount of the material used was calculated before the things were taken to the furnace to be baked4 ,if the results were satisfactory1 then the pieces were given as models to the other painters1 and in the rest of the pieces painted1 the quantity of the colour used and the depth of the tint was required to be in exact accordance with these models40 ,there was little scope for originality or individual effort under this system1 where everything1 even to the amount of material used1 was strictly prescribed4 ,to translate their model with feeling and accuracy was the best that could be expected from the rank and file4 ,but with the manual skill and patient industry for which the ,chinese are proverbial1 and the good taste which prevailed in the direction of the work1 it was a system admirably suited to the task1 and it unquestionably led to excellent results4 ,as to the systems in use in the private factories we have no information1 but we may fairly assume that their processes were much the same2 and that1 not having the benefit of the designs sent from ,court1 they were more dependent upon the pattern books and stock designs more or less remotely connected with the work of famous painters4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,miscellaneous ,,porcelain ,,factories ,although from the ,ming period onwards our interest is almost entirely centred in ,ching-t ,chn1 there were other factories which cannot be altogether ignored4 ,a certain number have already been mentioned at the end of the first volume1 our scanty information being drawn chiefly from the pottery section of the ,k'ang ,hsi ,encyclopdia4 ,the same monumental work includes in another part#bci a discourse on porcelain 7tz' ch'i71 in which several additional factories are named4 ,the passage in question is prefaced by a quotation from the ,tien hung k'ai wu1 a late-seventeenth century manual1 in which we are told that the white earth 7o t'u#bdj7 necessary for the manufacture of fine and elegant ware was found in ,china in five or six places only#bda3 viz4 at ,ting ,chou1 in the ,chn-ting ,fu in ,chih-li1 at ,hua-ting ,chou in the ,ping-liang ,fu in ,shensi1 at ,p'ing-ting ,chou in the ,t'ai-yan ,fu in ,shansi1 and at ,y ,chou in the ,k'ai-fng ,fu in ,honan1 in the north2 and at ,t-hua ,hsien in the ,ch'an-chou ,fu in ,fukien1 at ,wu-yan ,hsien and ,ch'i-mn ,hsien in the ,hui-chou ,fu1 in ,anhui1 in the south4 ,as to the wares made in these localities1 we are told that the porcelains of the ,chn-ting and ,k'ai-fng districts were generally yellow and dull and without the jewel-like brilliancy1 and that all put together were not equal to the ,jao ,chou ware4 ,it would appear1 then1 that the ,ting ,chou factories so noted in ,sung times were still extant1 though they had lost their importance4 ,for the rest1 the ,ch'i-mn district supplied ,ching-t ,chn with the raw material1 the ,t-hua wares will be discussed presently1 and we have no information about the productions 7if any7 of the other localities4 ,the province of ,fukien apparently contained several factories besides the important centre at ,t-hua4 ,the ,annals of ,ch'an-chou ,fu 7celebrated as a trading port in the ,middle ,ages71 for instance1 are quoted with reference to a porcelain 7tz' ch'i7 manufacture at ,tz'-tsao in the ,chin-chiang ,hsien1 and three other places in the district of ,an-ch'i are named as producers of white porcelain which was inferior to that of ,jao ,chou4 ,similarly1 the ,annals of ,shao-wu ,fu1 on the north-east border of the province1 allude to white porcelain made at three places1#bdb the factory at ,t'ai-ming in ,an-jen being the best1 but all were far from equalling the ,jao ,chou ware4 ,the district of ,wn-chou ,fu 7formerly in the south of ,fukien but now transferred to northern ,chekiang7 was noted for pottery in the distant days of the ,chin dynasty 7#bfe-dai ,a4,d471 and for the 8bowls of ,eastern ,ou40#bdc ,of its subsequent ceramic history we have no information1 but there is an interesting specimen in the ,british ,museum which seems to bear on the question4 ,it is an incense burner in the form of a seated figure of the god of ,longevity on a deer1 skilfully modelled in strong white porcelain and painted in a good blue in the ,ming style2 and on the box in which it came was a note to the effect that it is ,wn-chou ware4 ,if there is any truth in this legend 7and it would be quite pointless if untrue71 then a blue and white porcelain in the style of the better class of ,ming export ware was made at ,wn-chou4 ,another interesting specimen in the same museum1 which should also be mentioned here1 is a bottle with wide straight neck1 of fine white ware thickly potted1 with soft1 smooth-worn glaze painted in a greyish blue with a medley of flowers1 fruit1 insects1 and symbols1 completed by borders of ju-i heads and stiff leaves4 ,it is marked under the base in a fine violet blue1 fu fan chih ts'ao1 which1 rendered 8made on the borders of ,fukien10 might refer to the factories at ,shao-wu ,fu or even ,wn-chou ,fu4 ,this is another piece which has many affinities with the late ,ming export blue and white4 ,but the ,fukien porcelain par excellence is a white ware of distinctive character and great beauty which was and still is made at ,t-hua ,hsien1 in the central part of the province4#bdd ,this is the blanc de ,chine of the ,french writers and the modern ,chien yao of the ,chinese1 but to be carefully distinguished from the ancient ,chien yao with mottled black glaze which was made in the ,sung dynasty at ,chien-yang in the north of the province4#bde ,the ,t'ao lu#bdf informs us that the porcelain industry at ,t-hua began in the ,ming dynasty1 that the cups and bowls usually had a spreading rim1 that the ware was known as pai tz' 7white porcelain71 that it was rich and lustrous but1 as a rule1 thick1 and that the images of ,buddha were very beautiful4 ,this condensed account is supplemented by a few remarks in the ,k'ang ,hsi ,encyclopdia1#bdg from which we gather that the material for the ware was mined in the hills behind the ,ch'ng monastery and that it was very carefully prepared1 but if the porcelain was worked thin it was liable to lose shape in the kiln1 and if it was too thick it was liable to crack4 ,at first it was very expensive1 but by the time of writing 7about #agjj7 it was widely distributed and no longer dear4 ,t-hua porcelain is1 in fact1 a fine white1 highly vitrified material1 as a rule very translucent and covered with a soft-looking1 mellow glaze which blends so intimately with the body that they seem to be part and parcel of one another4 ,the glaze varies in tone from ivory or cream white to the colour of skim milk1 and its texture may be aptly described by the homely comparison with blancmange4 ,when the ivory colour is suffused by a faint rosy tinge1 it is specially prized2 but ,i can find no reason for supposing that the cream white and milk white tints represent different periods of the ware4 ,on the contrary1 there is good evidence to show that they were made concurrently4 ,as the ware is with few exceptions plain white or white decorated with incised1 impressed1 moulded1 or applied ornaments of a rather formal and often archaic character1 there will always be a difficulty in determining the date of the finer specimens1 viz4 whether they are ,ming or early ,ch'ing4 ,the nature of the ware itself is a most uncertain guide1 for one of the most beautiful examples of the material which ,i have seen is a figure of a ,european soldier which cannot be older than #afej4 ,i need hardly say that owners of ,fukien porcelain1 particularly of the figures1 habitually give themselves the benefit of this ever present doubt1 and that these pieces are usually listed in sale catalogues as ,ming or early ,ming according to taste4 ,this attitude is fundamentally illogical1 for the ware is still made at the present day1 and the ,ming specimens in modern collections are likely to be the exception1 and not1 as optimistic owners would lead one to suppose1 the rule4 ,but in any case it will be more convenient to deal with the ware as a whole in the present chapter than to attempt the difficult task of treating its different periods separately1 even though the bulk of our examples belong to the ,ch'ing dynasty4 ,t-hua porcelain can be conveniently studied in the ,british ,museum1 where there is a fairly representative collection comprising more than a hundred specimens4 ,it includes a number of the figures for which the factories were specially noted1 of deities and sages such as ,kuan-yin1 goddess of ,mercy2 ,kuan-y1 god of ,war2 ,bodhidharma1 the ,buddhist apostle2 ,manjusri1 of the ,buddhist ,trinity2 ,hsi-wang-mu1 the ,taoist queen of the west2 the ,taoist ,immortals2 besides small groups representing romantic or mythological subjects such as ,wang ,chih watching the two spirits of the pole stars playing chess4 ,but the favourite subject of the ,t-hua modeller was the beautiful and gracious figure of ,kuan-yin1 represented in various poses as standing on a cloud base with flowing robes1 seated in contemplation on a rocky pedestal1 or enthroned between her two attributes1 the dove--which often carries a necklace of pearls--and the vase of nectar1 while at her feet on either side stand two diminutive figures representing#bdh her follower ,lung ,n 7the dragon maid71 holding a pearl1 and the devoted comrade of her earthly adventures ,chn ,tsai4 ,the ,kuan-yin of this group is reputed to have been the daughter of a legendary eastern ,king named ,miao-chuang1 but other accounts make the deity a ,chinese version of the ,buddhist ,avalokitesvara1 and it is certain that her representations as the ,kuan-yin with eleven heads and again with a 8thousand0 hands reflect ,indian traditions4 ,in the latter manifestations the sex of the deity is left in doubt1 but there can be no question on that head when she is represented with a babe in her arms as 8,kuan-yin the ,maternal10 to whom childless women pray1 a figure strangely resembling our images of the ,virgin and ,child4 ,indeed1 we are told#bdi that the ,japanese converts to ,christianity in the sixteenth century adopted the ,kuan-yin figure as a ,madonna1 and that there is in the ,imperial ,museum in the ,ueno ,park1 ,tokio1 a remarkable collection of these images among the ,christian relics4 ,there is1 however1 another deity with whom this ,kuan-yin may easily be confounded1 viz4 the ,japanese ,kichimojin1 also 8the ,maternal10 the ,sanskrit ,hriti1 who was once the devourer of infants but was converted by ,sakyamuni and was afterwards worshipped as the protector of children4 ,this deity figures in ,japanese pictorial art as a 8female holding a peach and nursing in her bosom an infant1 whose hands are folded in prayer4 ,in front stand two nude children1 one of whom grasps a peach1 the other a branch of bamboo40#bej ,among the ,t-hua porcelains in the ,british ,museum are no fewer than nine specimens--groups1 figures1 or ornamental structures--with figures in ,european costumes which date from the middle to the end of the seventeenth century4 ,one1 a soldier apparently ,dutch1 about #afej1 is well modelled in deliciously mellow and translucent cream white porcelain4 ,most of the others are more roughly designed1 and vary in tint from cream to milk white4 ,it is said that the natives of the ,fukien province are among the most superstitious of the ,chinese1 and ,bushell#bea sees a reflection of this religious temperament in the nature of the ,t-hua wares4 ,if this is so1 they must have had exalted opinions of their ,european visitors1 whom they often furnish with the attributes of ,chinese divinities1 representing them in positions and poses which seem to caricature native deities and sages4 ,there is1 for instance1 an ornament in form of a mountain retreat with a shrine in which is seated a figure in a three-cornered ,european hat and a ,buddha-like attitude4 ,another group consists of a ,european mounted on a ch'i-lin1 posing as an ,arhat1 and another of a ,european standing on a dragon's head which would symbolise to the ,chinese the attainment of the highest literary honours4 ,there are1 besides1 in the ,british ,museum collection figures of animals and birds1 the ,buddhist lion1 the cock1 the hawk1 or the parrot1 mostly fitted with tubes to hold incense sticks2 and there are a pair of well modelled figures of ,chou dogs4 ,as for the vessels of ,t-hua porcelain1 they consist chiefly of incense vases and incense burners1 libation cups shaped after bronze or rhinoceros horn models1 brush pots1 wine cups1 water vessels for the study table and the like 7often beautifully modelled in the form of lotus leaves or flowers71 boxes1 tea and wine pots1 cups and bowls1 and more rarely vases4 ,an extensive trade was done with the ,european merchants1 whose influence is apparent in many of the wares1 such as coffee cups with handles1 mugs of cylindrical form or globular with straight ribbed necks in ,german style1 and 8barber-surgeons' bowls0 with flat pierced handles copied from silver models4 ,indeed1 the superficially ,european appearance of some of these pieces has led serious students to mistake them for early ,meissen porcelain and even for that nebulous porcelain supposed to have been made by ,john ,dwight1 of ,fulham1 at the end of the seventeenth century4 ,pre d',entrecolles#beb incidentally mentions the fact that some ,ching-t ,chn potters had in the past removed to ,fukien in the hope of making profits out of the ,european traders at ,amoy1 and that they had taken their plant and even their materials with them1 but that the enterprise was a failure4 ,conversely1 the influence of the ,t-hua wares is obvious in many of the early ,european porcelains1 such as those made at ,meissen1 ,st4 ,cloud1 ,bow1 and ,chelsea1 which were often closely modelled on the ,fukien white4 ,there is1 indeed1 a striking similarity between the creamy soft-paste porcelain of ,st4 ,cloud and the creamy variety of the blanc de chine1 both having the same mellow1 melting appearance in the glaze4 ,illustration3 ,plate #hf4--;,fukien ,porcelain1 ,ming ,dynasty4 ,fig #a4--;,figure of ,kuan-yin with boy attendant4 ,ivory white4 ,height #aj inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle with prunus sprigs in relief1 the glaze crackled all over and stained a brownish tint4 ,height #i inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,figure of ,bodhidharma crossing the ,yangtze on a reed4 ,ivory white4 ,height #g inches4 ,salting ,collection 7,v4 ,a4 ,museum74 ,illustration3 ,plate #hg4--;,ivory ,white ,fukien ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--,libation ,cup4 ,about #agjj4 ,length #c inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,cup with sixteenth-century mount4 ,height #b inches4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,incense ,vase and ,stand4 ,about #agjj4 ,diameter #f inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,it would be possible to guess from these ,european copies1 if we had no other means1 the character of the ,t-hua porcelain of the ,k'ang ,hsi period with its quaintly moulded forms1 its relief decoration of prunus sprigs1 figures of ,immortals1 deer1 etc41 the only conspicuously absent type being the incised#bec ornament which was unsuited to the ,european ware4 ,but there is no lack of actual specimens of the period of active export which extended from about #afej-agej4 ,naturally they vary greatly in quality1 which depends on the purity and translucence of the ware whether it be cream or milk white1 and on the soft aspect and rich lustre of the glaze4 ,a large series1 which may be taken as representative of the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 was collected by ,augustus the ,strong1 and is still to be seen at the ,johanneum at ,dresden2 or1 rather1 part of it is still there1 for much of that historic collection was given away or pilfered from time to time1 and many specimens with the ,dresden catalogue numbers engraved are now to be found in our own museums4 ,many of the figures at ,dresden have evidently been coated with a kind of black paint1 which probably served as a medium for oil gilding1 but this unfired colouring has worn away1 and only traces now remain4 ,occasionally one finds among the ,t-hua wares a specimen with dry appearance and crazed or discoloured glaze1 defects due to faulty firing or to burial in damp soil4 ,such pieces are surprising in a ware with such apparent homogeneity of body and glaze1 and the crazed examples might be easily mistaken for one of the t'u ting 7or earthy ,ting ware7 types4 ,as to the history of the factories1 it is expressly stated in the ,t'ao lu that they were started in the ,ming dynasty4 ,no account need be taken of the few legendary specimens to which tradition assigns an earlier origin than this1 such as the so-called flute of ,yoshitsune1 a twelfth-century hero of ,japan1 and the incense burner in ,st4 ,mark's1 ,venice1 which is reputed to have been brought from ,china by ,marco ,polo4 ,the latter is of the same model as ,fig4 #c of ,plate #hg1 perhaps from the same mould1 and ,i have seen at least half a dozen others in ,london4 ,a third piece which was long regarded as a document is the jewelled white plate in the ,dresden collection1 supposed to have been brought back from ,syria by a ,crusader in the twelfth century4 ,the story is no doubt apocryphal1 but in any case it has no real bearing on the question1 for the plate is not ,fukien ware but a specimen of white ,ching-t ,chn porcelain with a 8shop mark0 in underglaze blue4 ,it has been set with jewels in ,india or ,persia1 like a sixteenth-century bowl in the ,british ,museum1 but the 8,crusader plate0 is probably a century later4 ,brinkley#bed asserts1 without giving any authority1 that the ,t-hua industry was virtually discontinued at the end of the eighteenth century1 and revived in recent years4 ,the latter part of the statement is unquestionably true1 for we have the eye-witness of a missionary#bee who visited the place about #ahhj and describes the manufactory as the most extensive of its kind in ,fukien--8pottery1 pottery everywhere1 in the fields1 in the streets1 in the shops4 ,in the open air children are painting the cups4 ,each artist paints with his own colour and his own few strokes1 whether a leaf1 a tree1 a man's dress or beard1 and passes it over to his neighbour1 who in turn applies his brush to paint what is his share in the decoration40 ,unfortunately there is no reason to suppose that the writer made his observations with an expert eye which would make a distinction between pottery and porcelain1 but in any case it is certain that he found a vast ceramic industry in full blast at ,t-hua4 ,with reference to the modern ware ,brinkley says#bef3 8,a considerable number of specimens are now produced and palmed off upon unwary collectors4 ,but the amateur can easily avoid such deceptions if he remembers that in genuine pieces of ivory white the ware is always translucid when held up to the light1 a property which1 if not entirely absent1 is only possessed in a comparatively slight degree by the modern product4 ,the general quality of the glaze and the technique of a piece should be sufficient guides1 but if any doubt remains an examination of the base of the specimens will probably dispel it4 ,in the old ware the bottom of a vase or bowl1 though carefully finished1 is left uncovered1 whereas the modern potter is fond of hiding his inferior pte by roughly overspreading it with a coat of glaze40 ,probably these observations are in the main correct1 but experience shows that relative opacity and glazed bases are by no means confined to modern wares4 ,still1 if the collector aims at acquiring pieces of good colour1 whether cream or milk white1 with translucent body1 pure glaze and sharp modelling1 he is not likely to go far astray4 ,the description quoted above of the painting of modern ,fukien ware is interesting in view of the common assertion that the ,t-hua white porcelain was never painted4 ,this assertion is probably based on a passage in the first letter of ,pre d',entrecolles3 8,celle 7i4e4 la porcelaine7 de ,fou-kien est d'un blanc de neige qui n'a nul clat et qui n'est point mlang de couleurs40 ,on the other hand1 a distinct reference is made to the painting in colours in a modern ,chinese work4#beg ,unfortunately1 the question has been complicated by the existence of many pieces of ,fukien white which have been enamelled in ,europe4 ,in the first half of the eighteenth century in ,holland1 ,germany1 and elsewhere1 there were decorators busy enamelling white porcelain of whatever kind they could get1 and the blanc de chine offered a ready subject for this treatment4 ,the decoration thus added was usually in ,oriental taste1 and might be confused with indifferent ,chinese work4 ,many of these pieces are in the ,british ,museum4 ,on the other hand1 there are in the same collection two cups with roughly painted floral designs in green and red which are obviously ,chinese1 though they might well have been painted in the mechanical method described by ,mr4 ,dukes1 which was probably traditional4 ,mr4 ,eumorfopoulos possesses several good examples of this painted ,fukien ware1 one of which may be described to show the style of painting affected4 ,it is executed in leaf green1 lustrous red1 and the turquoise green which we associate with the ,wan ,li period1 and the form--a double-bottomed bowl--is likewise reminiscent of the ,ming dynasty4 ,the ,japanese1 whose traditions have often proved most misleading1 have frequently classed the ,fukien white as ,corean porcelain 7haku-gorai or white ,corean71 probably because specimens reached them from the ,corean ports4 ,in the ,british ,museum1 for instance1 there is a beautiful white incense vase1 formerly in the collection of ,mr4 ,ninagawa of ,tokio1 and labelled by him as 8,corean porcelain1 #ejj years old40 ,it has all the characteristics of the finest cream white ,fukien ware of late ,ming or ,k'ang ,hsi period1 and if this piece is ,corean1 then ,i do not believe that even the subtle perception of the ,japanese could find any difference between ,corean and ,fukien white4 ,it is only right to add that other ,japanese experts have pronounced it ,chinese4 ,incidentally1 ,i may mention that the base of this vase is glazed4 ,marks were occasionally used by the ,t-hua potters1 either incised or stamped in seal form1#beh on the bottoms of cups and other vessels1 and on the backs of figures4 ,reign marks are rare1 but apocryphal dates of the ,hsan ,t period occasionally occur1 as on a figure of ,li ,t'ieh-kua in the ,british ,museum4 ,others consist of potters' marks too often illegible because the thick glaze has filled up the hollows of the stamps1 fanciful seal marks1 frets1 whorls1 and occasionally the swastika symbol4 ,a few examples are given in vol4 i41 p4 #bbb4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,ch',,ing chch ,,dynasty1 #afdd-aiaj ,the reigns of the ,manchu chieftains ,t'ien ,ming1 ,t'ien ,tsung1 and ,ts'ung ,t 7#afaf-afdc7 are included in the chronology of the ,ch'ing or ,pure ,dynasty1 but it is more usual to reckon that period from #afdd1 when the ,emperor ,shun ,chih chch #b was firmly established on the throne after the suicide of the last of the ,mings4 ,little is known of the ceramic history of the seventeen years during which ,shun ,chih occupied the throne4 ,the official records which deal only with the ,imperial factory are almost silent1 and when they do speak it is merely to chronicle failures4 ,it is clear1 however1 that the ,imperial factory at ,ching-t ,chn had again been opened2 for orders were sent in #afed for a supply of large 8dragon bowls0 for the palace gardens4 ,they were to be #b feet high1 #c feet in diameter1 #c inches thick at the sides1 and #e inches at the bottom4 ,for four years the potters wrestled with this difficult order without success4 ,this time there was no 8divine ,t'ung0 to purchase success by a holocaust of himself2 and eventually the ,emperor was persuaded to withdraw the command4 ,no better fortune attended an order given in #afei for oblong plaques 7#c feet by #b feet1 and #c inches thick7 which were intended for veranda partitions4 ,beyond these two negative items there is no information of the reign of ,shun ,chih in the ,chinese books1 and the porcelain itself is scarcely more illuminating1 for authentic marked examples of this period are virtually unknown4 ,a figure already mentioned as bearing the date #afej belongs rather to the pottery section1 but it shows that the traditions of the ,ming glazes of the demi-grand feu were still kept alive4 ,the blue and white and the polychrome made in the private factories at this time have been discussed with the transition wares 7pp4 #hi and #ij71 and for the rest we can only assume that the ,shun ,chih porcelains are not to be distinguished from those of the last ,ming reigns on the one hand1 and those of the early years of ,k'ang ,hsi on the other4 ,reflecting on the insignificance of the ,shun ,chih porcelains1 one is tempted to ask how it is that the celebrated ,lang ,t'ing-tso1 whose name is usually associated with the beautiful ,lang yao of the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 did not succeed in raising the wares of this period to a more conspicuous level4 ,lang ,t'ing-tso was governor of ,kiangsi from #afed and viceroy of ,kiangsi and ,kiangnan from #afef-affa and again from #affe-affh4 ,his name is mentioned 7according to ,bushell1#bei at any rate1 for ,i have not been able to verify the statement7 in connection with the efforts to make the dragon bowls for the palace in #afed2 but we shall return to this point in discussing the ,lang yao4 ,meanwhile1 we pass to the reign of ,k'ang ,hsi chch #b 7#affb-agbb71 the beginning of what is to most ,european collectors the greatest period of ,chinese porcelain1 a period which may be roughly dated from #affb-ahjj4 ,chinese literary opinion gives the preference to the ,sung and ,ming dynasties1 but if monetary value is any indication the modern ,chinese collector appreciates the finer ,ch'ing porcelains as highly as the ,european connoisseur4 ,these latter wares have1 at any rate1 the advantage of being easily accessible to the ,western student1 and they are not difficult to obtain provided one is ready to pay the high price which their excellence commands4 ,it will be no exaggeration to say that three quarters of the best specimens of ,chinese porcelain in our collections belong to this prolific period1 and they may be seen in endless variety in the museums and private galleries of ,europe and ,america1 nowhere perhaps better than in ,london itself4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #hh ,two examples of the underglaze red 7chi hung7 of the ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb71 sometimes called lang yao ,fig4 #a4--;,bottle-shaped ,vase of dagoba form with minutely crackled sang-de-buf glaze with passages of cherry red4 ,the glaze ends in an even roll short of the base rim1 and that under the base is stone-coloured and crackled4 ,height #h inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle-shaped ,vase with crackled underglaze red of deep crushed strawberry tint4 ,the glaze under the base is pale green1 crackled4 ,height #aj inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,with regard to the porcelains made in the early years of ,k'ang ,hsi there is very little information1 and their special excellence has been assumed mainly on the supposition that the ,viceroy ,lang ,t'ing-tso exercised a beneficent influence on the wares of this period4 ,he is reputed to have been sponsor of the ,lang yao1 which in the ordinary acceptation of the term#bfj includes the beautiful sang de buf red1 an apple green crackle1 and perhaps a cognate crackled green glaze on which are painted designs in famille verte enamels4 ,the explanation of the term lang yao is far from clear1 and1 as already hinted1 the connection of the viceroy ,lang ,t'ing-tso with this or any other of the ,k'ang ,hsi porcelains is by no means established4 ,bushell#bfa accepted the derivation of ,lang yao from the first part of the viceroy's name as representing the best of several ,chinese theories1 and on the supposition that 8the ceramic production of this time has retained the name of the viceroy1 in the same way as the names of ,ts'ang ,ying-hsan1 ,nien ,hsi-yao1 and ,t'ang ,ying1 who were in turn superintendents of the ,imperial potteries1 were afterwards given to the ,ts'ang yao1 ,nien yao1 and ,t'ang yao40 ,there are many objections to this reasoning4 ,in the first place1 ,lang ,t'ing-tso was viceroy of the two provinces of ,kiangsi and ,kiangnan for three or four years only 7#affe-affh7 during the reign of ,k'ang ,hsi1 and it was only in his capacity as viceroy of ,kiangsi that he would have been concerned with ,ching-t ,chn1 even supposing that the man who had charge of two large provinces could find time to devote himself to the details of ceramic manufactures4 ,secondly1 it is nowhere recorded that ,lang ,t'ing-tso was concerned in any way with the direction of the potteries1 so that there is in this respect no parallel between him and the directors ,ts'ang1 ,nien1 and ,t'ang4 ,thirdly1 the history of ,ch'ing-t ,chn as given in the ,t'ao lu1 and the history of ,chinese porcelain as given in the ,t'ao shuo1 make no mention whatever of lang yao or of ,lang ,t'ing-tso1 while the former takes special notice of the wares of ,ts'ang1 ,nien1 and ,t'ang1 and the latter discusses ,t'ang's work at some length4 ,had so important a person as the viceroy of two provinces been connected with the invention or perfection of such celebrated wares as the lang yao1 the occurrence would hardly have escaped the notice of the ,chinese chronicler4 ,there are other attempts to explain the name lang yao4 ,in the catalogue of ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,mitford's collection#bfb it is stated that 8the ,lang family were a family of famous potters who possessed the secret of this peculiar glaze and paste4 ,they became extinct about the year #afaj40 ,bushell#bfc dismisses this with the comment that 8the family is apocryphal and the porcelain antedated10 and in the same passage gives an alternative theory1 viz4 8this name has been derived by some ,chinese of less weight from that of ,lang ,shih-ning1 an artist protg of the ,jesuits1#bfd who also lived in the reign of ,k'ang ,hsi1 and whose pictures are still appreciated40 ,the evidence for all these versions seems to be equally defective4 ,they are1 in fact1 mere assertions1 and the reader can take his choice of any of them1 provided he does not insist on ,mr4 ,mitford's date 7anterior to #afaj71 for all authorities are now agreed that the lang yao is a ,k'ang ,hsi production4 ,the fact is that the name has been handed down without any explanation1 and the current theories are of comparatively modern construction4 ,the secret of the lang yao consisted in the first instance in the knowledge of means to produce a brilliant red glaze from copper oxide4 ,it was not a new discovery1 but merely a revival of the wonderful 8precious stone0 red of the early ,ming period4#bfe ,the supplies of some essential ingredient for this colour had failed in the ,chia ,ching period1#bff and the secret of the true colour had been temporarily lost4 ,this secret was now recovered probably by a potter of the name of ,lang1 and that name has been associated with it ever since4 ,so far from the lang yao being limited to the early part of the reign of ,k'ang ,hsi or to the few years when ,lang ,t'ing-tso might have been concerned with it1 there can be little doubt that the sang de buf red or red lang yao is the special colour described in detail by ,pre d',entrecolles in #agab1 and again in #agbb under the significant name of yu li hung1 or 8red in the glaze40 ,the reader can judge for himself from the description given in the second letter#bfg3 8,this red inside the glaze is made with granulated red copper and the powder of a certain stone or pebble of a reddish colour4 ,a ,christian doctor told me that this stone was a kind of alum1 used in medicine4 ,the whole is pounded in a mortar and mixed with a boy's urine and the ordinary porcelain glaze2 but ,i have not been able to ascertain the quantities of the ingredients1 for those in possession of the secret take good care not to divulge it4 ,this mixture is applied to the porcelain before it is fired and no other glaze is used2 but care has to be taken that the red colour does not run to the bottom of the vase during the firing4 ,they tell me that when they intend to apply this red to porcelain they do not use porcelain stone 7petuntse7 in the body1 but they use in its place1 mixed with the porcelain earth 7kaolin71 a yellow clay prepared in the same manner as the petuntse4 ,probably it is a kind of clay specially suited to receive this colour40 ,would that the worthy father had named the possessors of the secret6 ,had it been a ,jesuit family1 is it likely that he would not have said so8 ,but here1 at any rate1 is not only such an accurate description of the manufacture of the sang de buf red that little need be added to it1 but also a valuable commentary on the obscure passages in which the allusion is made to the brilliant red of the ,hsan ,t and other early ,ming periods4 ,for what is the reddish stone or pebble but the 8red precious stone from the ,west10 which played a mysterious part in the pao shih hung of the ,hsan ,t period8 ,chinese tradition has imagined this stone to have been the ruby1 on the impossible assumption that the red colour of the glaze was derived from the red of the ruby4 ,but it was1 in all probability1 cornaline 7the ma nao used in the ,sung porcelain of ,ju ,chou7 or amethystine quartz1 and its only function would have been to increase the brilliancy and transparence of the glaze1 the red colour being entirely due to copper oxide4 ,it is interesting1 too1 to note that the composition of the porcelain body was varied to suit this red colour1 and that a yellow clay was substituted for the porcelain stone1 in view of the alleged difficulties in obtaining the proper 8earth for the fresh red 7hsien hung70 in the ,chia ,ching period4 ,in a similar manner a more earthy composition was found to be more sympathetic than the pure white porcelain to some of the other monochromes1 as may be observed in existing specimens of turquoise blue4 ,the lang yao1 then1 is the chi hung of the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 the brilliant blood red commonly known by the ,french name sang de buf1 and to-day it is one of the most precious monochromes4 ,a choice example illustrated on ,plate #hh shows the changing tints from a brilliant cherry red below the shoulder to the massed blood red where the fluescent glaze has formed thickly above the base4 ,the colour flowing down has left an even white band round the mouth1 and has settled in thick coagulations on the flat parts of the shoulders and again above the base2 but in spite of its apparent fluidity the glaze has stopped in an even line without overrunning the base4 ,the glaze under the base is of pale buff tone and crackled1 and a careful examination of the surface generally shows that a faint crackle extends over the whole piece4 ,the glaze1 moreover1 is full of minute bubbles and consequently much pinholed1 and the red colour has the appearance of lying on the body in a dust of minute particles which the glaze has dragged downward in its flow and spread out in a continuous mass1 but where the colour and the glaze have run thick the particles reappear in the form of a distinct mottling or dappling4 ,to obtain the best colour from the copper oxide in this glaze it was necessary to regulate the firing to a nicety1 the margin between success and failure being exceedingly small4 ,naturally1 too1 the results varied widely in quality and tone2 but the permanent characteristics of the ,k'ang ,hsi sang de buf are 7#a7 a brilliant red varying in depth and sometimes entirely lost in places1#bfh but always red and without any of the grey or grey blue streaks which emerge on the flamb red and the modern imitations of the sang de buf2 7#b7 the faint crackle of the glaze2 7#c7 the stopping of the glaze at the foot rim4 ,the colour of the glaze under the base and in the interior of vases varied from green or buff crackle to plain white4 ,the secret of this glaze1 which ,pre d',entrecolles tells us was carefully guarded1 seems to have been lost altogether about the end of the ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,later attempts to obtain the same effects1 though often successful in producing large areas of brilliant red1 are usually more or less streaked with alien tints such as grey or bluish grey1 and are almost invariably marred by the inability of the later potters to control the flow of the glaze which overruns the foot rim and consequently has to be ground off4 ,but it is highly probable that the modern potter will yet surmount these difficulties1 and ,i have actually seen a large bowl of modern make in which the ox-blood red was successfully achieved on the exterior 7the interior was relatively poor71 and the flow of the glaze had been stopped along the foot rim except in one or two small places where the grinding was cleverly masked4 ,so that it behoves the collector to be on his guard4 ,fig4 #b of ,plate #hh shows another type of red1 also classed as lang yao1 which has the same peculiarities of texture as the sang de buf1 but the colour is more of a crushed-strawberry tint1 and has in a more marked degree that thickly stippled appearance which suggests that the colour mixture has been blown on to the ware through gauze4 ,this is probably the ch'ui hung or souffl red mentioned by ,pre d',entrecolles in connection with the yu li hung4 ,the same glaze is often found on bowls1 the colour varying much in depth and the base being usually covered with a crackled green glaze beneath4 ,this crackled green is a very distinctive glaze1 highly translucent and full of bubbles1 like the red lang yao1 and it is sometimes found covering the entire surface of a vase or bowl and serving as a background for paintings in famille verte enamels4 ,it seems1 in fact1 to be the true green lang yao1 and one is tempted to ask if it was not in reality intended to be a sang de buf red glaze from which a lack of oxygen or some other accident of the kiln has dispelled all the red1 leaving a green which is one of the many hues produced by copper oxide under suitable conditions4 ,these conditions might well be present in such an enclosed space as the foot of a bowl2 and if they happened to affect the whole of the piece1 what more natural than to trick out the failure with a gay adornment of enamel colours8 ,on the other hand1 what is commonly known as green lang yao is the brilliant emerald or apple green crackle which has already been discussed on p4 #ajb4 ,but why this colour should be connected in any way with the ,lang or any particular family is a mystery4 ,the method of producing it is transparently obvious--a green enamel laid over a stone-coloured crackle2 and there are examples of all periods from the ,ming down to modern times4 ,indeed1 the modern specimens are only distinguished with the greatest difficulty from the old4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to return to the history of the period from which we digressed to discuss the lang yao1 the progress of the reviving industry suffered a rude set-back between #afgd-afgh when the ,imperial factory was destroyed during the rebellion of ,wu ,san-kuei1 viceroy of ,yunnan4 ,it is improbable that up to this time any notable development had taken place in the manufacture of porcelain1 and those who think to flatter a specimen by suggesting that it is 8very early ,k'ang ,hsi0 are likely to be paying a doubtful compliment4 ,when1 however1 peace was restored and the factory rebuilt1 a veritable renaissance of the porcelain industry began4 ,in #afhjbfi an official of the ,imperial household was sent to reside at the factory and to superintend the work2 and we are told in the ,t'ao shuo#bgj that 8previously to this the first-class workmen had been levied from the different districts of ,jao ,chou2 but now all this forced labour was stopped1 and as each manufactory was started the artisans were collected and materials provided1 the expenses being defrayed from the ,imperial exchequer and the money paid when due1 in accordance with the market prices4 ,even the expenses for carriage were not required from the different districts4 ,none of the proper duties of the local officers were interfered with2 both the officials and the common people enjoyed the benefit1 and the processes of manufacture were all much improved40 ,the success of this new movement was assured by the appointment in #afhb of ,ts'ang ,ying-hsan chch #c to the control of the ,imperial works4 ,we are not told how long this distinguished person retained the directorship1 but his merits are clearly indicated in the encomiums of a subsequent director1 the celebrated ,t'ang ,ying4 ,in his 8,history of the ,god of the ,furnace ,blast10 the latter states that when ,ts'ang was in charge of the factory the god laid his finger on the designs and protected the porcelain in the kiln1 so that it naturally came out perfect4 ,unfortunately1 the notice of ,ts'ang's work in the ,t'ao lu#bga is in the conventional style1 and extremely meagre4 ,the earth used1 we are told1 was unctuous1 the material lustrous and thin4 ,every kind of colour was made1 but the snake-skin green 7sh p'i l71 the eel yellow 7shan y huang71 the 787 turquoise 7chch #b chi ts'ui71 and the 8spotted yellow0 7chch #c huang pan tien7 were the most beautiful4 ,the monochrome 7chiao7#bgb yellow1 the monochrome brown or purple 7tz71 the monochrome green1 the souffl 7ch'ui7 red and the souffl blue1 were also beautiful4 ,the ,imperial factory under the administration of ,t'ang-ying imitated these glaze colours4 ,most of these colours explain themselves4 ,the souffl red is no doubt the same as the ch'ui hung described by ,pre d',entrecolles and discussed above with the so-called lang yao4 ,the souffl blue will be no other than the familiar 8powder blue40 ,but the 8spotted yellow0 is an ambiguous term1 for the ,chinese huang pan tien#bgc might mean a yellow glaze spotted with some other colour1 a mottled yellow1 or even a glaze with yellow spots like that of a rare vase in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection1 which has a brown black glaze flecked with greenish yellow spots4 ,bushell identified the spotted yellow glaze with the 8tiger skin10 with its patches of green1 yellow and aubergine glazes applied to the biscuit1 which in the finer specimens is etched with dragon designs4#bgd ,this is practically all the direct information which the ,chinese annals supply on the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 but in contrast with this strange reticence we have a delightful account of the industry at ,ching-t ,chn during this important time in the two oft-quoted letters#bge written by the ,jesuit father1 d',entrecolles1 in #agab and #agbb4 ,the worthy father's work lay among the potters themselves1 and his information was derived from first-hand observation and from the notes supplied by his potter converts1 with whatever help he was able to extract from the ,annals of ,fou-liang and similar native books4 ,no subsequent writer has enjoyed such a favoured position1 and as his observations have been laid under heavy contribution ever since1 no apology is necessary for frequent reference to them in these pages4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,k',,ang ,,hsi ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,western collectors have agreed to give the place of honour to the ,k'ang ,hsi blue and white4 ,the ,ming wares of the same kind1 mainly from lack of adequate representation1 have not yet been fully appreciated2 and in the post-,k'ang ,hsi periods the blue and white took an inferior status1 owing to the growing popularity of enamelled wares4 ,the peculiar virtues of the ,k'ang ,hsi blue and white are due to simple causes4 ,blue was still regarded as the best medium for painted designs1 and the demand for it1 both in ,china and abroad1 was enormous4 ,the body material was formed of carefully selected clay and stone1 thoroughly levigated and freed from all impurities4 ,no pains were spared in the preparation of the blue1 which was refined over and over again until the very quintessence had been extracted from the cobaltiferous ore4 ,naturally this process was costly1 and the finest cobalt was never used quite pure2 even on the most expensive wares it was blended with a proportion of the lower grades of the mineral1 and this proportion was increased according to the intended quality of the porcelain4 ,but the choicest blue and white of this period was unsurpassed in the purity and perfection of the porcelain1 in the depth and lustre of the blue1 and in the subtle harmony between the colour and the white porcelain background2 and the high standard thus established served to raise the quality of the manufacture in general4 ,vast quantities of this blue and white were shipped to ,europe by the ,dutch and the other ,east ,india companies1 who sent extensive orders to ,ching-t ,chn4 ,it need hardly be said that this export porcelain varied widely in quality1 but it included at this time wares of the highest class4 ,indeed1 in looking through our large collections there are surprisingly few examples of the choice ,k'ang ,hsi blue and white which cannot be included in the export class1 as indicated by the half-,europeanised forms of plates1 jugs1 tankards1 and other vessels1 and by the fact that the vases are made in sets of five4 ,but considering that it was made to suit purchasers of such varied tastes and means1 it is surprising how little of this ,k'ang ,hsi porcelain is bad4 ,even the roughest specimens have a style and a quality not found on later wares1 and all have an unquestionable value as decoration4 ,it would be futile to attempt to describe exhaustively the different kinds of ,k'ang ,hsi blue and white and the innumerable patterns with which they are decorated4 ,we must confine our descriptions to a few type specimens1 but first it will be useful to give the points of a choice example4 ,such a vessel1 whatever its nature1 will be potted with perfect skill1 its form well proportioned and true4 ,the surface will be smooth1 because the material is thoroughly refined and the piece has been carefully trimmed or finished on the lathe1 and finally all remaining inequalities have been smoothed away with a moist feather brush before the glazing4 ,the ware will be clean and white1 and the glaze#bgf pure1 limpid1 and lustrous1 but with that faint suspicion of green which is rarely absent from ,chinese porcelain4 ,the general effect of the body and glaze combined is a solid white like well set curds4 ,the base1 to which the connoisseur looks for guidance1 is deeply cut and washed in the centre with glaze which reaches about half-way down the sides of the foot rim4 ,this patch of glaze is usually pinholed1 as though the nemesis of absolute perfection had to be placated by a few flaws in this inconspicuous part4 ,the rim itself is carefully trimmed1 and in many cases grooved or beaded1 as though to fit a wooden stand1#bgg and the unglazed edge reveals a smooth1 close-grained biscuit whose fine white material is often superficially tinged with brown in the heat of the furnace4 ,the decoration is carefully painted in a pure sapphire blue of great depth and fire1 and singularly free from any strain of red or purple--a quality of blue only obtained by the most elaborate process of refining4 ,the designs1 as on the ,ming porcelains1 are first drawn in outline2 but1 unlike the strong ,ming outlines1 these are so faint as to be practically unobserved2 and the colour is filled in1 not in flat washes1 as on the ,ming blue and white1 but in graded depths of pulsating blue4 ,this procedure is clearly shown by two interesting bowls in the ,british ,museum4 ,they are identical in form and were intended to match in pattern2 but in one the design 7the ,eight ,immortals of the ,wine ,cup7 is completed1 while on the other it remains in outline only1 giving us a wonderful illustration of the beautiful firm touch with which the artists traced these faint outlines4 ,the work of decoration was systematically subdivided in the ,chinese factory1 and ,pre d',entrecolles tells us that 8one workman is solely occupied with the ring which one sees on the border of the ware2 another outlines the flowers1 which a third paints2 one does the water and the mountains1 another the birds and animals40#bgh ,whatever the advantages and disadvantages of this divided labour1 the designs on the blue and white were admirably chosen to show off the fine qualities of the colour2 and it is to the blue that the collector looks first4 ,the distinction between the various qualities of blue hardly admit of verbal definition4 ,it can only be learnt by comparing the actual specimens1 and by training the eye to distinguish the best from the second best4 ,the patterns are not always blue on a white ground4 ,many of the most beautiful results were obtained by reserving the design in white in a blue ground1 and both styles are often combined on the same piece4 ,the second is fairly common on the ,k'ang ,hsi porcelains1 being specially suited to the lambrequins1 arabesques1 and formal patterns which were a favourite decoration at this time4 ,see ,plates #hi and #ia4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #hi ,three examples of ,k'ang ,hsi ,blue and ,white ,porcelain in the ,british ,museum ,fig4 #a4--;,ewer with leaf-shaped panels of floral arabesques1 white in blue1 enclosed by a mosaic pattern in blue and white3 stiff plantain leaves on the neck and cover4 ,silver mount with thumb-piece4 ,height #g inches4 ,fig4 #b4--;,deep bowl with cover1 painted with 8tiger-lily0 scrolls4 ,mark1 a leaf4 ,height #g inches4 ,fig4 #c4--,sprinkler with panels of lotus arabesques1 white in blue1 and ju-i shaped border patterns4 ,a diaper of small blossoms on the neck4 ,mark1 a leaf4 ,height #g inches4 ,the choicest materials were lavished on the porcelains with these formal designs1 which consisted now of bands of ju-i shaped lappets#bgi filled with arabesque foliage1 forming an upper and lower border1 between which are floral sprays1 now of a belt of three or four palmette-like designs1 similarly ornamented1 and linked together round the centre of a vase or bottle2 of large1 stiff1 leaf-shaped medallions borrowed1 like the patterns which fill them1 from ancient bronzes1 and of ogre-head designs from a similar source2 of successive belts of arabesque scrolls and dragon designs covering cylindrical jars2 of a mosaic of small blossoms1 or of network diapers recalling the pattern of a crackled porcelain4 ,the white on blue process is constant in a well known decoration in which archaic dragons1 floral arabesques1 roses or peonies are arranged in 8admired disorder0 over the whole surface of a cylinder vase or a triple gourd1 as on ,plate #ia4 ,sometimes the roses occupy the greater part of the design1 and among them are small oval or round blank medallions1 which have earned for the pattern the name of 8rose and ticket40 ,this type of ware is represented in almost every variety in the ,dresden collection1 and there are examples of the 8rose and ticket0 jars in the ,porzellan-zimmer of the ,charlottenburg ,palace4 ,both these collections are mainly composed of the export porcelain sent from ,china in the last decades of the seventeenth century1 and the latter is practically limited to the presents made by the ,english ,east ,india ,company to ,queen ,sophia ,charlotte of ,prussia 7#afhh-agje74 ,the white on blue patterns are also freely used in combination with blue and white to form borders and to fill in the ground between panels4 ,as for the blue on white designs1 they are legion4 ,there are the old ,ming favourites such as the ,court scenes1 historical and mythological subjects1 pictorial designs1 such as ladies looking at the garden flowers by candlelight4#bhj ,there are landscapes after ,sung and ,ming paintings1 the usual dragon and phnix patterns1 animal1 bird1 and fish designs1 lions and mythical creatures1 the familiar group of a bird 7either a phnix or a golden pheasant7 on a rock beside which are peony1 magnolia1 and other flowering plants4 ,panel decoration1 too1 is frequent1 the panels sometimes petal-shaped and emphasised by lightly moulded outlines1 or again mirror-shaped1 circular1 fan-shaped1 leaf-shaped1 oval1 square1 etc41 and surrounded by diapers and 8white in blue0 designs4 ,the reserves are suitably filled with figure subjects from romance1 history1 or family life1 mythical subjects such as the adventures of ,taoist sages1 the story of ,wang ,chi watching the game of chess1 ,tung-fang ,so and his peaches1 or1 if numerical sequences are needed1 with the ,four ,accomplishments 7painting1 calligraphy1 music and chess71 the flowers of the ,four ,seasons1 the ,eight ,taoist ,immortals1 the ,eight ,immortals of the ,wine ,cup1 etc4 ,another favourite panel design is a group of vases1 furniture1 and symbolical objects from the comprehensive series known as the ,hundred ,antiques4#bha ,sometimes the whole surface of a vase is divided into rows of petal-shaped compartments filled with floral designs1 figure subjects1 birds and flowers or landscapes4 ,plate #ia1 ,fig4 #c1 from a set of five1 is one of the large vases in the ,dresden collection which1 tradition says1 were obtained by ,augustus the ,strong from the ,king of ,prussia in exchange for a regiment of dragoons4 ,it is decorated with panels illustrating the stories of the ,twenty-four ,paragons of ,filial ,piety4 ,some of the purely floral patterns strike perhaps a more distinctive note4 ,the 8aster pattern10 for instance1 is a design of stiff1 radiating1 aster-like flowers usually in a dark tone of blue and displayed on saucer dishes or deep covered bowls4 ,some of the specimens of this class appear to be a little earlier than ,k'ang ,hsi4 ,the so-called 8tiger-lily0 pattern illustrated by ,fig4 #b of ,plate #hi is usually associated with deep cylindrical covered bowls of fine material and painted in the choicest blue4 ,a beaker 7,plate #ia1 ,fig4 #b7 shows a characteristic treatment of the magnolia1 parts of the blossoms being lightly sculptured in relief and the white petals set off by a foil of blue clouding4 ,it evidently belongs to a set of five 7three covered jars and two beakers7 made as a garniture de chemine for the ,european market4 ,the squat-bodied bottle 7,plate #ib1 ,fig4 #a7 illustrates a familiar treatment of the lotus design1 with a large blossom filling the front of the body4 ,but perhaps the noblest of all ,chinese blue and white patterns is the prunus design 7often miscalled hawthorn7 illustrated by ,plate #ij1 a covered vase once in the ,orrock ,collection and now in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,the form is that of the well-known ginger jar1 but these lovely specimens were intended for no banal uses4 ,they were filled with fragrant tea or some other suitable gift1 and sent1 like the round cake boxes1 by the ,chinese to their friends at the ,new ,year1 but it was not intended that the jars or boxes should be kept by the recipients of the compliment4 ,the ,new ,year falls in ,china from three to seven weeks later than in our calendar1 and it was seasonable to decorate these jars with sprays and petals of the flowering prunus fallen on the ice1 which was already cracked and about to dissolve4 ,the design is symbolic of the passing of winter and the coming of spring2 and the vibrating depths of the pure sapphire blue broken by a network of lines simulating ice cracks form a lovely setting for the graceful prunus sprays reserved in the pure curd-like white of the ware4 ,the prunus pattern has been applied to every conceivable form1 whether to cover the whole surface or to serve as secondary ornament in the border of a design or on the rim of a plate1 and the prunus jar appears in all qualities of blue and on porcelain good and bad1 old and new4 ,the graceful sprays have become stereotyped and the whole design vulgarised in many instances2 and in some cases the blossoms are distributed symmetrically on a marbled blue ground as a mere pattern4 ,but nothing can stale the beauty of the choice ,k'ang ,hsi originals1 on which the finest materials and the purest1 deepest blue were lavished4 ,the amateur should find no difficulty in distinguishing these from their decadent descendants4 ,the freshness of the drawing1 the pure quality of the blue1 and the excellence of body1 glaze1 and potting are unmistakable4 ,the old examples have the low rim round the mouth unglazed where the rounded cap-shaped cover fitted1 and the design on the shoulders is finished off with a narrow border of dentate pattern4 ,the original covers are extremely rare1 and in most cases have been replaced with later substitutes in porcelain or carved wood4 ,there are1 besides1 a number of types specially prevalent among the export porcelains1 some purely ,chinese in origin1 others showing ,european influence4 ,take1 for example1 the well-known saucer dish with mounted figures of a man and a woman hunting a hare--a subject usually known as the 8love chase0--a free and spirited design1 rather sketchily painted in pale silvery blue4 ,the porcelain itself is scarcely less characteristic1 a thin1 crisp ware1 often moulded on the sides with petal-shaped compartments1 and in many ways recalling the earlier type described on p4 #gj4 ,it is1 however1 distinguished from the latter class by slight differences in tone and finish which can only be learnt by comparison of actual specimens4 ,it is1 moreover1 almost always marked with a nien hao in six characters1 whereas marks on the other type are virtually unknown4 ,the nien hao is usually that of ,ch'ng ,hua1 but an occasional example with the ,k'ang ,hsi mark gives the true date of the ware4 ,a quantity of this porcelain was brought up by divers from wrecks of old ,east ,indiamen in ,table ,bay1 among which was the ,haarlem1 lost in #afdh1bhb though most of the ships were wrecked at later dates4 ,it is a thin and sharply moulded ware1 often pure eggshell1 and the blue varies from the pale silvery tint to vivid sapphire4 ,the usual forms are of a utilitarian kind--plates1 saucer dishes1 cups and saucers1 small vases and bottles1 jugs1 tankards1 and the like--and the designs are not confined to the 8love chase10 but include other figure subjects 7e4g4 a warrior on horseback carrying off a lady1#bhc and various scenes from romance and family life71 floral designs1 deer1 phnixes1 fish1 birds1 etc41 and perhaps most often the tall female figures1 standing beside flowering shrubs or pots of flowers1 which are vulgarly known as 8long ,elizas10 after the ,dutch lange lijsen 7see ,plate #ib1 ,fig4 #b74 ,graceful ladies 7mei jn7 are familiar motives in ,chinese decoration1 but this particular type1 usually consisting of isolated figures in small panels or separated from each other by a shrub or flowerpot1 and standing in a stereotyped pose1 are1 ,i think1#bhd peculiar to the export wares of the last half of the seventeenth century4 ,this same type of thin1 crisply moulded porcelain was also painted with similar designs in famille verte enamels over the glaze4 ,it has a great variety of marks1 the commonest being the apocryphal ,ch'ng ,hua date-mark1 while others are marks of commendation1#bhe such as ch'i chn ju y 7a rare gem like jade71 y 7jade71 ya 7elegant71 and various hall-marks4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ij ,covered ,jar for ,new ,year gifts1 with design of blossoming prunus 7mei hua7 sprays in a ground of deep sapphire blue1 which is reticulated with lines suggesting ice cracks3 dentate border on the shoulders ,height #aj inches4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,yet another group of superior quality is obviously connected with the ,european trade by a peculiar mark 7see vol4 i41 p4 #bbh7 resembling the letter ,c or ,g4 ,it is most commonly represented by pairs of bottles with globular body and tall1 tapering neck1 decorated with flowing scrolls of curious rosette-like flowers1 a design stated with much probability to have been copied from ,dutch delft4 ,as the ,dutch design in question had evidently been based on a ,chinese original1 the peculiar nature of the flowers explains itself4 ,there are other instances of patterns bandied in this way between the ,far ,east and the ,west4 ,the same peculiar floral scroll appears in famille verte associated with the same mark2 and the same ,g mark occurs on two rare bottles in the collection of ,mr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,j4 ,drucker1 which have blue and white painting on the neck and famille verte designs in the finest enamels on the body4 ,a deep bowl in the ,eumorfopoulos collection with famille verte panels of symbols from the ,hundred ,antiques1 and a ground of green 8prunus0 pattern1 bears the same mark4 ,neither of these last examples can be even remotely connected with ,dutch influence1 so that we may dismiss the suggestion that the letter in the mark is intended to be a ,d1 standing for ,d7elft71 for this reason quite apart from the fact that such a mark on ,delft ware is non-existent4 ,i imagine that the true explanation is that this peculiar mark is a merchant's sign placed by order on the goods made for some particular trader4 ,a close copy of the 8wing handles0 of ,venetian glass on certain blue and white bottles 7,plate #ib1 ,fig4 #c71 the appearance of ,prince of ,wales's feathers in the border of a plate and of an heraldic eagle in the well of a salt cellar1 no less than many forms obviously ,western in origin1 further emphasise the close relations between the ,ching-t ,chn potters and ,european traders4#bhf ,an immense quantity of indifferent blue and white was made for the ,european table services1 and summarily decorated with baskets of flowers1 the usual flowering plant designs1 close patterns of small blossoms1 floral scrolls with large1 meaningless flowers1 ivy scrolls1 passion flowers1 and numerous stereotyped designs1 such as dragons in sea waves1 prunus pattern borders1 pine tree and stork1 a garden fence with rockery and flowering shrubs1 groups from the ,hundred ,antiques1 a parrot on a tree stump1 etc4 ,the blue of these pieces is usually rather dull and heavy1 but the ware has the characteristic appearance of ,k'ang ,hsi porcelain1 and was evidently made for the most part about the year #agjj4 ,if marked at all1 the marks are usually symbols1 such as the double fish1 the lozenge1 the leaf1 a tripod vase1 and a strange form of the character shou known as the 8spider mark0 7see vol4 i41 p4 #bbe74 ,the plates are often edged with lustrous brown glaze to prevent that chipping and scaling to which the ,chinese glaze was specially liable on projecting parts of the ware4#bhg ,something has already been said#bhh of another very distinctive class of blue and white for which the misleading name of 8soft paste0 has been widely adopted4 ,the term is of ,american origin and has been too readily accepted1 for it is not only inaccurate as a description1 but is already current in ,europe for a totally different ware1 which it describes with greater exactitude1 viz4 the artificial1 glassy porcelains made at ,svres and ,chelsea and other factories1 chiefly in ,france and ,england1 in the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,in actual fact the ,chinese ware to which the term 8soft paste0 is applied has an intensely hard body4 ,the glaze1 however1 which is softer than that of the ordinary porcelain1 contains a proportion of lead1 and if not actually crackled from the first becomes so in use1 the crackle lines being usually irregular and undecided4 ,a detailed description of the manufacture of this ware is given by ,pre d',entrecolles1#bhi though he is probably at fault in supposing that its chief ingredient was a recent discovery in #agbb4 ,it was made1 he says1 with a mineral called hua shih 7in place of kaolin71 a stone of glutinous and soapy nature1 and almost certainly corresponding to the steatite or 8soapy rock0 which was used by the old ,english porcelain makers at ,bristol1 ,worcester and ,liverpool4 8,the porcelain made with hua shih10 to quote ,pre d',entrecolles1 8is rare and far more expensive than the other porcelain4 ,it has an extremely fine grain2 and for purposes of painting1 when compared with ordinary porcelain1 it is almost as vellum to paper4 ,moreover1 this ware is surprisingly light to anyone accustomed to handle the other kinds2 it is also far more fragile than the ordinary1 and there is difficulty in finding the exact temperature for its firing4 ,some of the potters do not use hua shih for the body of the ware1 but content themselves with making a diluted slip into which they dip their porcelain when dry1 so as to give it a coating of soapstone before it is painted and glazed4 ,by this means it acquires a certain degree of beauty40 ,the preparation of the hua shih is also described1 but it is much the same as that of the kaolin1 and the composition of the steatitic body is given as eight parts of hua shih to two of porcelain stone 7petuntse74 ,there are1 then1 two kinds of steatitic porcelain1 one with the body actually composed of hua shih and the other with a mere surface dressing of this material4 ,the former is light to handle1 and opaque2 and the body has a dry1 earthy appearance1 though it is of fine grain and unctuous to touch4 ,it is variously named by the ,chinese#bij sha-t'ai 7sand bodied7 and chiang-t'ai 7paste bodied71 and when the glaze is crackled it is further described as k'ai pien 7crackled74 ,the painting on the steatitic porcelain differs in style from that of the ordinary blue and white of this period4 ,it is executed with delicate touches like miniature painting1 and every stroke of the brush tells1 the effects being produced by fine lines rather than by graded washes4 ,the ware1 being costly to make1 is usually painted by skilful artists and in the finest blue4 ,fig4 #c1 of ,plate #ic1 is an excellent example of the pure steatitic ware1 an incense bowl in the ,franks collection1 of which the base and a large part of the interior is unglazed and affords a good opportunity for the study of the body material4 ,the glaze is thin and faintly crackled1 and the design--,hsi ,wang ,mu and the ,taoist ,immortals--is delicately drawn in light1 clear blue4 ,the second type1 which has only a dressing of steatite over the ordinary body1 has neither the same lightness nor the opacity of the true steatitic ware1 but it has the same soft white surface1 and is painted in the same style of line drawing4 ,there are1 besides1 other opaque and crackled wares painted in underglaze blue1 which are also described as 8soft paste10 and1 indeed1 deserve the name far more than the steatitic porcelain4 ,the creamy1 crackled copies of old ,ting wares1 for instance1 made with ch'ing tien stone1#bia are occasionally enriched with blue designs2 and the ordinary stone-coloured crackle with buff staining is also painted at times with underglaze blue1#bib or with blue designs on pads of white clay in a crackled ground4 ,on the other hand1 there are numerous wares of the ,yung ,chng and ,ch'ien ,lung periods which are probably composed in part1 at least1 of steatite4 ,they are usually opaque1 and the surface is sometimes dead white1 sometimes creamy and often undulating like orange peel1 and in addition to blue decoration1 enamel painting is not infrequent on these later types4 ,the purely steatitic porcelains are generally of small size1 which was appropriate to the style of painting as well as to the expensive nature of the material4 ,the furniture of the scholar's table1 with its tiny flower vases for a single blossom1 its brush washers and water vessels of fanciful forms1 its pigment boxes1 etc41 were suitable objects for the material1 and many of these little crackled porcelains are veritable gems4 ,snuff bottles are another appropriate article1 and a representative collection of snuff bottles will show better than anything the great variety of these mixed wares and so-called 8soft pastes40 ,it has been already observed that crackled blue and white porcelain of the steatitic kind is found with the date marks of ,ming ,emperors1 and there can be little doubt that it was made from early ,ming times1 but as the style of painting seems to have known no change it will be always difficult to distinguish the early specimens4 ,it is safe to assume that almost all the specimens in ,western collections belong to the ,ch'ing dynasty1 a few to the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 but the bulk of the better examples to the reigns of ,yung ,chng and ,ch'ien ,lung4 ,modern copies of the older wares also abound4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ia4--;,blue and ,white ,k'ang ,hsi ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--,triple ,gourd ,vase1 white in blue designs of archaic dragons and scrolls of season flowers4 ,height #cf inches4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,beaker1 white magnolia design slightly raised1 with blue background4 ,height #ah inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #c4--8;,grenadier ,vase10 panels with the ,paragons of ,filial ,piety4 ,height #dd inches4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ib4--;,blue and ,white ,k'ang ,hsi ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--,sprinkler with lotus design4 ,height #f inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle with biscuit handles1 design of graceful ladies 7mei jen74 ,height #aa inches4 ,fitzwilliam ,museum 7formerly ,d4 ,g4 ,rosetti ,collection74 ,fig4 #c4--;,bottle with handles copied from ,venetian glass4 ,height #f inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ic4--;,blue and ,white ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--,tazza with ,sanskrit characters4 ,ch'ien ,lung mark4 ,height #d inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--,water ,pot1 butterfly and flowers1 steatitic porcelain4 ,wan ,li mark4 ,height #a inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,bowl1 steatitic porcelain4 ,immortals on a log raft4 ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,diameter #e inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,plate #id4--,porcelain decorated in enamels on the biscuit4 ,fig4 #a4--;,ewer in form of the character ,shou 7,longevity72 blue and white panel with figure designs4 ,early ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,height #h inches4 ,salting ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,ink ,palette1 dated #cast year of ,k'ang ,hsi 7#afib ,a4,d474 ,length #e inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,an interesting passage in the first letter#bic of ,pre d',entrecolles describes a curious kind of porcelain1 of which the secret had already been lost4 ,it was known as chia ch'ing or 8blue put in press10 and it was said that the blue designs on the cups so treated were only visible when the vessel was filled with water4 ,the method of the manufacture is described as follows3 8,the porcelain to be so decorated had to be very thin2 when it was dry1 a rather strong blue was applied1 not to the exterior in the usual manner1 but on the interior to the sides4 ,the design usually consisted of fish1 as being specially appropriate to appear when the cup was filled with water4 ,when the colour was dry a light coating of slip1 made with the body material1 was applied1 and this coating enclosed the blue between two layers of clay4 ,when this coating was dry1 glaze was sprinkled inside the cup1 and shortly afterwards the porcelain was placed on the wheel4 ,as the body had been strengthened on the interior1 the potter proceeded to pare it down outside as fine as possible without actually penetrating to the colour4 ,the exterior was then glazed by immersion4 ,when completely dry it was fired in the ordinary furnace4 ,the work is extremely delicate1 and requires a dexterity which the ,chinese seem no longer to possess4 ,still1 they try from time to time to recover the secret of this magical painting1 but without success4 ,one of them told me recently that he had made a fresh attempt1 and had almost succeeded40 ,no example of this mysterious porcelain is known to exist1 and it is probable that the whole story is based on some ill-grounded tradition4 ,it is true that water will bring out the faded design on certain old potteries1 but this is due to the action of the water in restoring transparency to a soft decayed glaze4 ,but how the water or any other liquid could affect the transparency of a hard1 impenetrable porcelain glaze1 still less influence the colour concealed beneath a layer of clay and glaze1 is far from clear4 ,indeed1 the whole story savours of the 8tall tales0 quoted in chap4 x4 of vol4 i4 ,but perhaps it will not be inappropriate to mention here another peculiar type of blue and white1 which1 if we may judge by the early date mark usually placed upon it1 throws back to some older model4 ,the design1 usually a dragon1 is delicately traced with a needle point on the body of the ware1 and a little cobalt blue is dusted into the incisions4#bid ,the glaze is then applied1 and when the piece is fired and finished the dragon design appears faintly 8tattooed0 in pale blue4 ,the effect is light and delicate1 but of small decorative value1 and the few examples which ,i have seen are redeemed from insignificance by a peculiarly beautiful body of pure glassy porcelain4 ,they bear an apocryphal ,ch'ng ,hua mark1 but evidently belong to the first half of the eighteenth century1 to the ,yung ,chng1 or perhaps the late ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,,chapter ,x ,k',,ang ,,hsi ,,polychrome ,,porcelains ,broadly speaking1 the polychrome porcelains of the ,ming and ,k'ang ,hsi periods are the same in principle1 though they differ widely in style and execution4 ,the general types continued1 and the first to be considered is that in which all the colours are fired in the high temperature of the large kiln1 comprising underglaze blue and underglaze red1 and certain slips and coloured glazes4 ,conspicuous among the last is a pale golden brown commonly known as ,nanking yellow1 which is found in narrow bands or in broad washes1 dividing or surrounding blue designs1 and is specially common on the bottles1 sprinklers1 gourd-shaped vases1 and small jars exported to ,europe in the last half of the seventeenth century4 ,the golden brown also darkens into coffee brown1 and in some cases it alternates in bands with buff crackle and pale celadon green4 ,a deep olive brown glaze is sometimes found as a background for ornament in moulded reliefs which are touched with underglaze blue and red4 ,a fine vase of this type is in the ,salting ,collection1 and a good example was given by ,mr4 ,andrew ,burman to the ,british ,museum4 ,both seem to be designed after bronze models4 ,but the central colour of this group is undoubtedly the underglaze red4 ,derived from copper it is closely akin to the red of the chi hung glaze1 and both were conspicuous on the ,hsan ,t porcelain1 both fell into disuse in the later ,ming periods1 and both were revived in the reign of ,k'ang ,hsi4 ,i have seen two examples of this colour in combination with underglaze blue bearing the hall mark chung-ho-t'ang1 and cyclical dates corresponding to #afga and #afgb respectively4 ,in neither of these pieces1 however1 was the red very successful1 and probably the better ,k'ang ,hsi specimens belong to a later period of the reign4 ,it was1 however1 always a difficult colour to fire1 and examples in which the red is perfectly developed are rare4 ,as a rule1 it tends to assume a maroon or dark reddish brown tint4 ,nor is the method of its application always the same4 ,sometimes it is painted on in clean1 crisp brush strokes2 at others it is piled up in thick washes which flow in the firing and assume some of the qualities and the colour of sang de buf red1 even displaying occasional crackle2 on other pieces again a 8peach bloom0 tint is developed4#bie ,on two of the best examples in the ,franks ,collection1 where a deep blood red is combined with a fine quality of blue1 it is noteworthy that the surface of the white glaze has a peculiar dull lustre4 ,this1 ,i understand1 is due to 8sulphuring0 in the kiln1 a condition which1 whether accidental or intentional1 is certainly favourable to the red colour4 ,it is also noticeable that the red is particularly successful under a glaze which is faintly tinged with celadon green such as is often used on imitations of ,ming porcelains1 and it was no doubt this consideration which led to the frequent use of celadon green in this group4 ,the celadon is used either as a ground colour for the whole piece or in parts only of the design1 and the addition of white slip further strengthened the palette4 ,with these colours some exquisite effects have been compassed in such designs as birds on prunus boughs and storks among lotus plants1 the main design being in blue1 the blossoms in white slip slightly raised and touched with red1 and the background plain white1 celadon green 7,plate #aae71 and sometimes pale lavender blue4 ,the celadon and pale lavender vases with this decoration were favourites with the ,french in the eighteenth century1 and many sets of vases and beakers in this style have been furnished with sumptuous ormolu mounts by the ,french goldsmiths4 ,the painting in underglaze red1 which was revived in the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 continued with success in the succeeding reigns of ,yung ,chng and ,ch'ien ,lung 7indeed it has not ceased to this day71 but the bulk of the finer examples in our collections seem to belong to the late ,k'ang ,hsi and the ,yung ,chng periods4 ,the underglaze red is used alone as well as in combination1 and some of its most successful effects are found on small objects like colour boxes and snuff bottles4 ,the black or brown pigment used for outlining designs under the softer enamel colours such as green and yellow1 though in one sense an underglaze colour1 does not belong to this group4 ,from this group of polychrome porcelain we pass to another in which the colour is given by washes of various glazes4 ,a few of the high-fired glazes are employed for this purpose1 especially blue in combination with celadon green and white1 and a few clay slips1 of which the commonest is a dressing of brown clay applied without any glaze and producing an iron-coloured surface4 ,the most familiar members of this group are small ,taoist figures of rough but vivacious modelling with draperies glazed blue1 celadon and white1#bif and the base unglazed and slightly browned in the firing4 ,collectors are tempted to regard these figures as late or modern productions1 but examples in the ,dresden collection prove that this technique was employed in the ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,in the same collection there are numbers of small toy figures1 such as monkeys1 oxen1 grotesque human forms1 etc41 sometimes serving as whistles or as water-droppers4 ,they are made of coarse porcelain or stoneware with a thin dressing of brown ferruginous clay1 and touches of high-fired glazes4 ,the appearance of these1 too1 is so modern that we realise with feelings of surprise that they formed part of the collection of ,augustus the ,strong4 ,the polychrome porcelain coloured with glazes of the demi-grand feu 7i4e4 glazes fired in the more temperate parts of the large kiln7 has been discussed in the chapters on the ,ming period4#big ,the group characterised by green1 turquoise and aubergine violet1 semi-opaque1 and minutely crackled is not conspicuous among ,k'ang ,hsi porcelains2 indeed it seems to have virtually ceased with the ,ming dynasty4 ,the individual colours1 however1 were still used as monochromes2 in combination they are chiefly represented by aubergine violet and turquoise in broad washes on such objects as peach-shaped wine pots1 ,buddhist lions with joss-stick holders attached1 parrots1 and similar ornaments4 ,the other three-colour group1 composed of transparent green1 yellow and aubergine purple glazes1 usually associated with designs finely etched with a metal point on the body1 were freely used in the ,k'ang ,hsi and ,yung ,chng periods in imitation of ,ming prototypes4 ,such specimens are often characterised by extreme neatness of workmanship and technical perfection of the ware4 ,the best-known examples are thin1 beautifully potted rice bowls1 with slightly everted rim1 and a design of five-clawed ,imperial dragons traced with a point and filled in with a colour contrasting with that of the ground1 e4g4 green on yellow1 or green on aubergine1 all the possible changes being rung on the three colours4 ,being ,imperial wares these bowls are usually marked with the nien hao of their period1 but such is the trimness of their make that collectors are tempted to regard them as specimens of a later reign4 ,but here again the ,dresden collection gives important evidence1 for it contains a bowl of this class with dragons in a remarkable purplish black colour 7probably an accidental variety of the aubergine7 in a yellow ground4 ,it bears the mark of the ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,the application of similar plumbo-alcaline glazes to a commoner type of porcelain is described by ,pre d',entrecolles#bih3--8,there is a kind of coloured porcelain which is sold at a lower rate than the enamelled ware just described4444 ,the material required for this work need not be so fine4 ,vessels which have already been baked in the great furnace without glaze1 and consequently white and lustreless1 are coloured by immersion in a bowl filled with the colouring preparation if they are intended to be monochrome4 ,but if they are required to be polychrome like the objects called hoam lou houan1#bii which are divided into kinds of panels1 one green1 one yellow1 etc41 the colours are laid on with a large brush4 ,this is all that need be done to this type of porcelain1 except that after the firing a little vermilion is applied to certain parts such as the beaks of birds1 etc4 ,this vermilion1 however1 is not fired1 as it would evaporate in the kiln1 and consequently it does not last4 ,when the various colours have been applied1 the porcelain is refired in the great furnace with the other wares which have not yet been baked2 but care is taken to place it at the bottom of the furnace and below the vent-hole where the fire is less fierce2 otherwise the great heat would destroy the colours40 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ie ,two examples of ,porcelain painted with coloured enamels on the biscuit1 the details of the designs being first traced in brown4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb7 ,fig4 #a4--,one of a pair of ,buddhistic ,lions1 sometimes called ,dogs of ,fo4 ,this is apparently the lioness1 with her cub3 the lion has a ball of brocade under his paw4 ,on the head is the character wang 7prince7 which is more usual on the tiger of ,chinese art4 ,height #ah inches4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle-shaped ,vase and ,stand moulded in bamboo pattern and decorated with floral brocade designs and diapers4 ,height #h inches4 ,cope ,bequest 7,victoria ,albert ,museum74 ,in this interesting passage1 written in #agbb1 we have a precise account of the manufacture of one of the types of porcelain which have been indiscriminately assigned to the ,ming period4 ,this on-biscuit polychrome was undoubtedly made in the ,ming dynasty1 but in view of d',entrecolles' description it will be safe to assume that1 unless there is some very good evidence to the contrary1 the examples in our collections are not older than ,k'ang ,hsi4 ,the type is easily identified from the above quotation1 and there is a little group of the wares in the ,british ,museum1 mostly small figures and ornaments with washes of green1 brownish yellow and aubergine purple applied direct to the biscuit1 and on some of the unglazed details the unfired vermilion still adheres4 ,these coloured glazes are compounded with powdered flint1 lead1 saltpetre1 and colouring oxides1 and the porcelain belongs to the comprehensive group of san ts'ai or three-colour ware1 although the three colours--green1 yellow and aubergine--are supplemented by a black formed of brown black pigment under one of the translucent glazes and a white which d',entrecolles describes#cjj as composed of ounce of powdered flint to every ounce of white lead4 ,this last forms the thin1 iridescent film often of a faintly greenish tinge1 which serves as white on these three-colour porcelains4 ,in rare cases also a violet blue enamel is added to the colour scheme4 ,a characteristic of this particular type is the absence of any painted outlines4 ,the colours are merely broad washes bounded by the flow of the glaze1 and this style of polychrome is best suited to figures and moulded ornamental pieces1 in which the details of the design form natural lines of demarcation for the glazes4 ,on a flat surface this method of coloration is only suited to such patchy patterns as the so-called tiger skin and the tortoiseshell wares4 ,the ,dresden collection is peculiarly rich in this kind of san ts'ai1 but though two or three of the specimens 7,plate #ga1 ,figs4 #a and #b7 differing considerably from the rest1 are clearly of the ,ming period1 the great majority are undoubtedly contemporaneous with the forming of the collection1 viz4 of the ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,the latter include numerous figures1 human and animal1 and ornaments such as the junk on ,plate #ih1 besides some complicated structures of rocks and shrines and grottos1 peopled with tiny images and human figures4 ,to this group belong such specimens as the 8brinjal bowls10 with everted rim and slight floral designs engraved in outline and filled in with coloured glaze in a ground of aubergine 7brinjal7 purple4 ,there are similar specimens with green ground1 and both types are frequently classed with ,ming wares4 ,some of them may indeed belong to the late ,ming period1#cja but those with finer finish are certainly ,k'ang ,hsi4 ,they are usually marked with rough1 undecipherable seal marks in blue1 which are commonly known as shop marks4 ,some of the figures of deities1 birds and animals1 besides the small ornamental objects such as brush-washers in the form of lotus leaves and little water vessels for the writing table are of very high quality1 skilfully modelled and of material far finer than that described by d',entrecolles4 ,fig4 #b1 ,plate #ii1 a statuette of ,ho ,hsien-ku1 one of the ,eight ,immortals1 is an example4 ,the flesh is in white biscuit1 showing the fine grain of the porcelain1 white to-day1 though possibly it was originally coloured with unfired pigment and gilt as was often the case4 ,the glazes on this finer quality of ware1 especially the green and the aubergine1 are peculiarly smooth and sleek1 and the yellow is fuller and browner than on the kindred ware1 enamelled on the biscuit1 which we now proceed to investigate4 ,the ,french term1 maill sur biscuit1 is used somewhat broadly to cover the coloured glazes just described1 as well as the enamels proper of the muffle kiln4 ,we shall try to confine the expression1 8on-biscuit enamels10 to the softer1 verifiable enamels which are fired at a lower temperature and in a smaller kiln or muffle4 ,these are1 in fact1 the same enamels as are used in the ordinary famille verte porcelain painted over the finished glaze1 but when applied direct to the biscuit they have a slightly darker and mellower tone1 the background of biscuit reflecting less light than the glittering white glaze4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #if ,vase of baluster form painted in coloured enamels on the biscuit4 ,the design1 which is outlined in brown1 consists of a beautifully drawn prunus 7mei hua7 tree in blossom and hovering birds1 beside a rockery and smaller plants of bamboo1 etc41 set in a ground of mottled green4 ,ch'ng ,hua mark but ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb7 ,height #af inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,though the colour scheme of this group is substantially the same as that of the san ts'ai glazes1 and though the enamels when used in wide areas are not always easily distinguished from the glazes1 the former do1 in fact1 differ in containing more lead1 being actually softer and more liable to acquire crackle and iridescence1 and in some cases there are appreciable differences in tint4 ,the yellow enamel1 for instance1 is as a rule paler1 and even when of a dark tint it has a muddy tone wanting in the fullness and strength of the yellow glaze2 the green enamel varies widely in tone from the glaze1 and includes1 besides1 several fresh shades1 among which is a soft apple green of great beauty2 and the aubergine is less claret coloured and often of a decidedly pinkish tone4 ,but perhaps the most distinctive feature of this san ts'ai of the muffle kiln is the careful tracing of the design in a brown black pigment on the biscuit4 ,the transparent enamels are washed on over these black outlines1 and give appropriate colours without obscuring the design which is already complete in itself4#cjb ,the same brown black pigment#cjc is also used over wide areas1 laid on thickly and washed with transparent green to form the fine green black which is so highly prized4 ,like so much of the porcelain with coloured ornament applied to the biscuit this large group has been indiscriminately assigned to the ,ming dynasty4 ,the lack of documentary evidence has made it difficult to combat this obvious fallacy1 obvious because the form and style of decoration of the finest specimens are purely ,k'ang ,hsi in taste and feeling2 but1 while fully recognising that the scheme of decoration was not a new one1 but had been in use in the ,ming porcelains1 ,i would point a warning finger again#cjd to the ink slab in the ,british ,museum with its design of aubergine plum blossoms on conventional green waves1 its borders of lozenge and hexagon diaper1 all enamelled on the biscuit1 and in the characteristic style habitually described as ,ming in sale catalogues1 but actually dated #afib4 ,another consideration is the quantity of these pieces in the ,dresden collection which consists mainly of ,k'ang ,hsi wares1 and the presence of several examples 7e4g4 bamboo vases such as ,fig4 #b of ,plate #ie7 in the rooms of the ,charlottenburg ,palace1 which were furnished mainly with presents made by the ,british ,east ,india ,company to ,queen ,sophia ,charlotte 7#affh-agje74 ,marks are rare on this group1 as a whole1 though they occur fairly frequently on the large vases1 the commonest being the date mark of the ,ch'ng ,hua period4 ,no one would1 however1 seriously argue a fifteenth century date from this mark which is far more common than any other on ,k'ang ,hsi porcelain2 and ,i have actually seen the ,k'ang ,hsi mark on one or two specimens which appeared to be perfectly genuine4 ,curiously enough the ,k'ang ,hsi mark is more often a sign of a modern imitation1 but this in view of the perverse methods of marking ,chinese porcelain is in itself evidence that the modern copyist regards the reign of ,k'ang ,hsi as the best period of manufacture for this style of ware4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ig ,square ,vase with pendulous body and high neck slightly expanding towards the top3 two handles in the form of archaic lizard-like dragons 7chih lung71 and a pyramidal base4 ,porcelain painted with coloured enamels on the biscuit1 with scenes representing ,immortals on a log raft approaching ,mount ,p'ng-lai in the ,taoist ,paradise4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb7 ,height #bj inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,the noblest examples of this group1 and perhaps the finest of all ,chinese polychromes1 are the splendid vases with designs reserved in grounds of green black1 yellow or leaf green4 ,plates #if1 #ig and ,frontispiece will serve to illustrate the colours and at the same time some of the favourite forms#cje of these sumptuous pieces1 the baluster vase1 and the square vase with pendulous body1 pyramidal base1 and two handles usually of archaic dragon form4 ,the favourite design for the decoration of these forms is the flowering prunus tree1 beside a rockery with a few bright plumaged birds in the branches1 one of the most familiar and at the same time most beautiful of ,chinese patterns 7see ,plate #if74 ,the flowers of the four seasons--peony1 lotus1 chrysanthemum and prunus--form a beautiful decoration for the four sides of another favourite form1 a tall vase of square elevation with sides lightly tapering downwards1 rounded shoulders1 arid circular neck1 slightly flaring at the mouth4 ,the specimens illustrated are in the ,british ,museum1 but there is a wonderful series of these lordly vases in the ,salting ,collection1 and in the ,pierpont ,morgan and ,altmann ,collections in ,new ,york4 ,to-day they are rare1 and change hands at enormous prices4 ,consequently all manner of imitations abound1 ,european and ,oriental1 the modern ,chinese work in this style being often highly successful4 ,but the most insidious copies are the deliberate frauds in which old ,k'ang ,hsi vases are stripped of a relatively cheap form of decoration1 the glaze and colour being removed by grinding1 and furnished with a cleverly enamelled design in colours on the biscuit4 ,the actual colours are often excellent1 and as the ware seen at the base is the genuine ,k'ang ,hsi porcelain even the experienced connoisseur may be deceived at first1 though probably his misgivings will be aroused by something in the drawing which betrays the copyist1 and a searching examination of the surface will reveal some traces of the sinister treatment to which it has been subjected or the tell-tale marks1 such as black specks or burns1 left on the foot rim by the process of refiring4 ,there is much truth besides in the saying that things 8look their age10 and artificial signs of wear imparted by friction and rubbing with sand or grit are not difficult for the experienced eye to detect4 ,as already noted1 the black of the precious black-ground vases1 the famille noire as they are sometimes called1 is formed by overlaying a dull black pigment with washes of transparent green enamel4 ,the result is a rich greenish black1 the enamel imparting life and fire to the dull pigment2 and as the green is fluxed with lead it tends to become iridescent1 giving an additional green reflet to the black surface4 ,the modern potters have learnt to impart an iridescence to their enamels1 and one often sees a strong lustre on specimens which are clearly 8hot from the kiln02 but these enamels have a sticky appearance differing widely from the mellow lustre which partial decay has spread over the ,k'ang ,hsi colours4 ,it will be found1 besides1 that the shapes of the modern copies are wanting in the grace and feeling of the originals4 ,this type of porcelain enamelled on the biscuit is particularly well suited to statuettes and ornamental objects of complex form4 ,the details of the biscuit remain sharp and clear1 and there is no thick white glaze to soften the projections and fill up the cavities1 for the washes of transparent enamel are too slight to obscure the modelling4 ,consequently we find in this style of ware all the familiar ,chinese figures1 the ,buddhist and ,taoist deities1 demigods1 and sages1 which1 like our own madonnas and saints1 mostly conform to well established conventions1 differing mainly in their size1 the quality of their finish1 the form of their bases or pedestals1 and the details of the surface colouring4 ,of these the figures of ,kuan-yin#cjf are the most frequent and the most attractive1 the compassionate goddess with sweet pensive face1 mounted on a lotus pedestal or a rocky throne and sometimes canopied with a cloak which serves as a hood and a covering for her back and shoulders4 ,she has moreover a long flowing robe open at the neck1 and displaying a jewelled necklace on her bare bosom4 ,there are1 besides1 the god of ,longevity3 the ,eight ,immortals3 ,tung-fang ,so with his stolen peaches3 the star-gods of ,longevity1 ,rank1 and ,happiness3 the twin genii of ,mirth and ,harmony3 ,kuan-ti1 the god of ,war1 on a throne or on horseback3 ,lao-tz on his ox3 the demon-like ,kuei ,hsing1 and the dignified ,wn ,ch'ang1 gods of ,literature2 and all the throng4 ,there are a few animal forms such as the horse1 the ox1 the elephant1 the mythical ch'i-lin1 and most common of all the ,buddhist lions 7sometimes called the dogs of ,fo71 usually in pairs1 one with a cub1 and the other playing with a ball of brocade1 mounted on an oblong base1 to which is attached1 in the smaller sizes at any rate1 a tube for holding incense sticks4 ,other familiar objects are four-footed or tripod stands for manuscript rolls1 boxes for brushes colours1 etc41 ink screens1 water pots of fanciful shape for the writing table1 picture plaques 7,plate #ajj71 supper sets made up of a number of small trays which fit together in the form of a lotus flower#cjg or a rosette1 perforated boxes and hanging vases for fragrant flowers 7,fig4 #b of ,plate #ih71 8butterfly cages10 and 8cricket boxes40 ,another well-known specimen represents the famous ,t'ang poet1 ,li ,t'ai-po1 the ,horace of ,china1 reclining in drunken stupor against a half overturned wine jar1 the whole serving as a water vessel for the writing table4 ,instances of the combination of on-glaze and on-biscuit enamels in the same piece also occur4 ,thus on the splendid black-ground potiche in the ,franks ,collection 7,frontispiece7 passages of white glaze have been inserted to receive the coral red colour which apparently could not be applied to the biscuit4 ,and conversely in the ordinary famille verte decoration on the glaze there are sometimes inserted small areas of on-biscuit enamels on borders1 handles1 base ornaments1 etc4 ,such combinations give an excellent opportunity for observing the contrast between the softer1 fuller tints on the biscuit and the brighter1 more jewel-like enamels on the white glaze4 ,in rare instances we find passages of blue and white decoration associated with the on-biscuit enamels as on the curious ewer illustrated by ,fig4 #a of ,plate #id4 ,blue and white is similarly combined with decoration in coloured glazes on the biscuit in a late ,ming jar in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum 7,case #i1 ,no4 #dcif-eg74 ,illustration3 ,plate #ih4--,k'ang ,hsi ,porcelain with on-biscuit decoration4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,fig4 #a4--,teapot in form of a lotus seed-pod1 enamels on the biscuit4 ,height #b inches4 ,fig4 #b4--;,hanging ,perfume ,vase1 reticulated1 enamels on the biscuit4 ,height #c inches4 ,fig4 #c4--,ornament in form of a junk1 transparent san ts'ai glazes4 ,height #aa inches4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ii4--,k'ang ,hsi ,porcelain with on-biscuit decoration4 ,fig4 #a4--;,ewer with black enamel ground1 lion handle4 ,height #h inches4 ,cope ,bequest 7,v4 ,a4 ,museum74 ,fig4 #b4--;,figure of the ,taoist ,immortal1 ,ho ,hsien ,ku1 transparent san ts'ai glazes4 ,height #aj inches4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase and ,stand1 enamelled on the biscuit4 ,height #h inches4 ,cope ,bequest4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ajj4--,screen with ,porcelain ,plaque1 painted in enamels on the biscuit4 ,light green background4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb74 ,total height #bb inches4 ,in the ,collection of the ,hon4 ,e4 ,evan ,charteris4 ,illustration3 ,plate #aja4--,vase with panels of landscapes and po ku symbols in famille verte enamels ,in a ground of underglaze blue trellis pattern4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb74 ,height #cb inches4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ajb4--,two ,dishes of famille verte ,porcelain in the ,dresden ,collection4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb74 ,fig4 #a4--,with birds on a flowering branch1 brocade borders4 ,artist's signature in the field4 ,diameter #af inches4 ,fig4 #b4--,with ladies on a garden terrace4 ,diameter #ba inches4 ,the familiar phrase1 famille verte1 was first used by ,jacquemart as a class name for the enamelled porcelains on which green plays a leading part4 ,according to this definition it should include the ,wan li wu ts'ai1 the ,ming enamelled porcelain1 as well as much of the on-biscuit enamelled wares1 in addition to the typical ,k'ang ,hsi enamelled porcelain to which usage has specially consecrated the term4 ,a direct descendant of the ,wan li wu ts'ai1 the famille verte includes the combinations of underglaze blue with the translucent on-glaze enamels green1 yellow1 and aubergine1 and the coral red 7derived from iron71 the ,french rouge de fer1 which is so thin that it resembles a pigment rather than a vitreous enamel4 ,add to these the brown black pigment1 which is used to trace the outlines of the design and with a covering of green to form the green black1 and we have one type of famille verte which differs in no essential from the ,wan ,li prototype4 ,it is1 in fact1 no easy matter to find the line which divides the two groups4 ,the nature of the ware and the style of the painting are the best guides2 and the study of the ,k'ang ,hsi blue and white will be a great help in this delicate task4 ,but the real ,k'ang ,hsi famille verte1 which we might call the ,k'ang hsi wu ts'ai1 is distinguished by the addition of an overglaze blue enamel which enhanced the brilliancy of the colour scheme1 and at the same time removed the necessity of using underglaze and overglaze colours together4#cjh ,it is not to be supposed1 however1 that the underglaze blue disappeared entirely from the group4 ,the old types were always dear to the ,chinese mind1 and there were frequent revivals of these in addition to the special wares1#cji such as the 8,chinese ,imari10 in which this kind of blue was essential4 ,there are indeed examples of both blues on the same pieces4 ,the history of this overglaze blue enamel has already#caj been partially discussed1 and evidence has been given of its tentative use in the ,wan ,li porcelain4 ,a passage in the second letter of ,pre d',entrecolles#caa actually places its invention about the year #agjj1 but the worthy father's chronology 7based no doubt chiefly on hearsay7 is often at fault4 ,it is fairly certain1 however1 that the blue enamel was not used to any extent before the ,ch'ing dynasty1 owing no doubt to the fact that it had not been satisfactorily made until that date4 ,a beautiful enamel of violet blue tone1 it is an important factor of the famille verte decoration1 and the merits of a vase or dish are often decided on the purity and brilliance of this colour alone4 ,there is1 however1 something in the nature of the enamel which seems to affect the surrounding glaze2 at any rate1 it is often ringed about by a kind of halo of dull lustre1 reflecting faint rainbow tints to a distance of perhaps an inch from the edge of the blue4 ,it is as though an exhalation from the blue enamel deposited a thin film of lustre on the glaze1 and it is a very frequent occurrence1 though not always in the same conspicuous degree4 ,collectors who are ever looking for a sign have been tempted to hail its presence as a sure proof of antiquity4 ,but it is by no means constant on the old famille verte1 and it has yet to be proved that the same enamel will not produce a similar effect on the modern glaze4 ,in view of the appreciation of famille verte porcelain at the present day a contemporary criticism will be of interest4 ,d',entrecolles in his first letter1#cab referring to 8porcelain painted with landscapes in a medley of almost all the colours heightened with gilding10 says3 8,they are very beautiful1 if one pays a high price1 but the ordinary wares of this kind are not to be compared with blue and white40 ,and again1#cac following an exact description of painting with enamel colours on the finished glaze and of the subsequent refiring of the ware1 we read3 8,sometimes the painting is intentionally reserved for the second firing2 at other times they only use the second firing to conceal defects in the porcelain1 applying the colours to the faulty places4 ,this porcelain1 which is loaded with colour1 is not to the taste of a good many people4 ,as a rule one can feel inequalities on the surface of this kind of porcelain1 whether due to the clumsiness of the workmen1 to the exigencies of light and shade in the painting1 or to the desire to conceal defects in the body of the ware40 ,the tenor of these criticisms will not be endorsed by the modern collector of ,k'ang ,hsi porcelain4 ,famille verte porcelain is enthusiastically sought1 and even indifferent specimens command a high price1 while the really choice examples can only be purchased by the wealthy4 ,as to the inequalities on the surface1 the second of the three reasons hazarded by d',entrecolles is nearest the truth4 ,the enamels used by the ,chinese porcelain painter contain a remarkably small percentage of colouring oxide1 and one of the characteristics of famille verte colours is their transparency4 ,to obtain full tones and the contrast between light and shade 7even to the limited extent to which the ,chinese use this convention7 it was necessary to pile up the layers of colour at the risk of unduly thickening the enamel4 ,but the connoisseur of to-day finds nothing amiss in these jewel-like incrustations of colour1 so long as the enamels are pure and bright1 and have not scaled off or suffered too severely from the wear to which their prominent surface is exposed4 ,it seems#cad that when the porcelain was destined to receive on-glaze enamels 7without any underglaze blue7 a special glazing mixture was used in which only one part of the softening element#cae was combined with thirteen of the ordinary glazing fluid4 ,this glaze was very white and strong1 and too opaque to do justice to an underglaze blue4 ,there is a reference in the first letter of ,pre d',entrecolles to a white colour which was used on the 8porcelain painted in various colours40 ,it was fluxed with lead like the other enamel colours1 and it was also used mixed with the latter to modify their tint4 ,in fact there can be little doubt that it was arsenical white1 an opaque white familiar on the ,yung ,chng and ,ch'ien ,lung porcelains1 and prominent in the famille rose palette1 but not usually suspected of such an early appearance as #agab1 the date of the letter in question4 ,the designs of the famille verte porcelain1 like those on the blue and white1 are first traced in outline and then filled in with washes of colour4 ,the outlines are in a dry dull pigment of red or brown black tint1 inconspicuous in itself1 but acquiring prominence when covered with transparent enamel4 ,m4 ,grandidier tried to formulate certain rules for these outlines which1 if reliable1 would simplify greatly the task of dating the porcelains4 ,on ,ming ware1 he said1 the outlines were blue2 on ,k'ang ,hsi wares the face and body outlines were red1 those of the vestments and other objects black4 ,unfortunately the first of these generalisations is wholly wrong1 and the second pointless1 because only partly right4 ,omitting the underglaze blue as foreign to this particular group of famille verte under discussion1 the colours consist of dark leaf green often of a mottled appearance1 a beautiful light apple green1 which is characteristic of the ,k'ang ,hsi wares just as the blue green is of the sixteenth century polychrome1 an aubergine colour 7derived from manganese7 which varies from purple brown to rosy purple1 a yellow of varying purity and usually of brownish tone1 a green black formed of the brown black pigment under washes of transparent green1 a blue enamel of violet tone1 and the thin iron red4 ,the blue enamel and the red are sometimes omitted1 leaving a soft harmony of green1 aubergine and yellow in which green plays the chief part4 ,a little gilding is often used to heighten parts of the design4 ,as for the shapes of the famille verte porcelain1 they are substantially the same as those of the blue and white and call for no further comment4 ,the designs1 too1 of the painted decoration are clearly derived from the same sources as those in the blue and white1 viz4 books of stock patterns1 pictures1 illustrations of history and romance1 and of such other subjects as happened to be specially appropriate or of general interest4 ,to take a single instance of a pictorial design1 the familiar rockery and flowering plants 7peony1 magnolia1 etc47 and a gay-plumaged pheasant lends itself to effective treatment in enamel colours4 ,it is taken from a picture1 probably ,sung in origin1 but there are many repetitions of it in pictorial art1 one of which by the ,ming painter ,wang-yu is in the ,british ,museum collection4#caf ,the original is said to have been painted by the ,emperor ,hui ,tsung in the beginning of the twelfth century4 ,another familiar design--quails and millet--is reputed to have been painted by the same ,imperial artist4 ,a good instance of the kind of illustrated book which supplied the porcelain decorator with designs is the ,y chih kng chih t'u 7,album of ,ploughing and ,weaving1 compiled by ,imperial order71 which deals with the cultivation of rice and silk in some forty illustrations4 ,it was first issued in the reign of ,k'ang ,hsi1 and there are copies of the original and of several later editions in the ,british ,museum4 ,a specimen of famille rose porcelain in the ,franks ,collection is decorated with a scene from this work1 and in the ,andrew ,burman ,collection there are two famille verte dishes with designs from the same source4 ,in the ,burdett ,coutts ,collection1 again1 there is a polygonal bowl with subjects on each side representing the various stages of cotton cultivation1 evidently borrowed from an analogous work4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ajc ,club-shaped 7rouleau7 ,vase finely painted in famille verte enamels with panel designs in a ground of chrysanthemum scrolls in iron red2 brocade borders4 ,last part of the ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb7 ,height #ag inches4 ,salting ,collection 7,victoria and ,albert ,museum74 ,signatures and seals of the artist usually attached to a stanza of verse1 or a few phrases which allude to the subject1 are often found in the field of the pictorial designs4 ,fig4 #a of ,plate #ajb1 for instance1 belongs to a series of beautiful dishes in the ,dresden collection1 which display the same seal--apparently#cag wan shih ch 7myriad rocks retreat71 the studio name not1 ,i think1 of the porcelain painter but of the artist whose picture was copied on the porcelain4 ,there are numerous examples of similar seals in the field of the design1 and we shall return to the subject later in a place where important issues turn on the solution of the problem which it raises4#cah ,the types of famille verte porcelain are extremely numerous1 almost as varied as those of the blue and white 7p4 #acf74 ,like the latter they include much that was obviously made for ,european consumption1 and most of the groups which were singled out from the mass of blue and white for special description can be paralleled in the famille verte4 ,the thin1 crisp1 moulded ware with petal-shaped panels and lobed borders1 the group with the 8,g0 mark1 and many other types are found with the same peculiarities of paste and glaze1 and even the same design painted in on-glaze enamels4 ,as in the case of the blue and white1 the quality of this export ware varies widely1 and the individual specimens will be judged by the drawing of the designs and the purity and fire of the enamels4 ,a few of the more striking types are illustrated on ,plates #ajc and #ajd4 ,perhaps the most sumptuous effects of this colour scheme are displayed in the vases decorated with panel designs surrounded by rich diapers borrowed from silk brocades4 ,a favourite brocade pattern consists of single blossoms or floral sprays woven into a ground of transparent green covering a powder of small brown dots4 ,this dotted green ground is commonly known as 8frog's spawn10 and another diaper of small circles under a similar green enamel is easily recognised under the name of 8fish roe40 ,but the variety of these ground patterns is great1 and in spite of their prosaic nomenclature they render in a singularly effective manner the soft splendour of the ,chinese brocades4 ,in dating the famille verte porcelains the collector will find his study of the blue and white of great assistance4 ,there is1 for instance1 the well-known type of export ware--sets of vases with complex moulding1 and dishes and plates1 etc41 with petal-shaped lobes on the sides or borders4 ,the central design of the decoration commonly consists of ch'i lin1 and phnix1 sea monsters 7hai shou71 storks or ducks beside a flowering tree or some such familiar pattern2 and the surrounding petal-shaped panels are filled each with a growing flower1 or a vignette of bird and plant1 plant and insect1 or even a small landscape4 ,these bright but often perfunctorily painted wares are paralleled in the early ,k'ang ,hsi blue and white4 ,they are among the first ,chinese polychrome porcelains to be copied by the ,european potters4 ,see ,plate #ajg4 ,in the purely native wares the early ,ch'ing famille verte is distinguished by strong and rather emphatic colouring1 the energy of the drawing and the breadth of design which recall the late ,ming polychromes4 ,the zenith of this style of decoration was reached about #agjj1 say between #afhb and #agaj4 ,this is the period of the magnificent vases with panel designs in brocaded grounds1 or with crowded figure subjects1 ,court scenes1 and the like1 filling large areas of the surface1 such vases as may be seen in the splendid series of the ,salting ,collection or in the ,grandidier ,collection in the ,louvre4 ,they are probably children of the great renaissance which began under the auspices of ,ts'ang ,ying-hsan4 ,dated examples are extremely rare1 and consequently the square vase on ,plate #ajd assumes unusual importance on account of the cyclical date which occurs in the long inscription1 8the #bith day of the #ith moon of the kuei mo year10 which we can hardly doubt is #agjc4 ,incidentally another side of this vase illustrates the celebrated scene of the wine cups started from the 8orchid arbour to float down the nine-bend river40#cai ,another example with a cyclical date 7the year hsin mao1 and no doubt #agaa7 is a globular water bottle 8of the highest quality and technique1 decorated with transparent luminous enamels of great beauty and delicacy10 in the ,pierpont ,morgan ,collection4#cbj ,but in this case the date is attached to a verse in the field of the decoration1 and it may belong to the design rather than to the porcelain4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ajd4--,three ,examples of ,k'ang ,hsi famille verte ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--,square ,vase with scene of floating cups on the river2 inscription with cyclical date #agjc ,a4,d42 shou characters on the neck4 ,height #ah inches4 ,hippisley ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,lantern with river scenes4 ,height #ac inches4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,covered ,jar of rouleau shape1 peony scrolls in iron red ground1 brocade borders4 ,height #bb inches4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,plate #aje4--;,covered ,jar painted in famille verte enamels ,with brocade ground and panel with an elephant 7the symbol of ,great ,peace74 ,lion on cover4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb74 ,height #ba inches4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ajf4--,k'ang ,hsi famille verte ,porcelain4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #a4--;,dish with rockery1 peonies1 etc41 birds and insects4 ,diameter #af inches4 ,fig4 #b4--8,stem ,cup0 with vine pattern4 ,height #e inches4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ajg4--;,famille verte ,porcelain made for export to ,europe4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb74 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #a4--,vase with 8sea monster0 7hai shou74 ,fig4 #b4--;,dish with basket of flowers4 ,mark1 a leaf4 ,diameter #aa inches4 ,fig4 #c4--;,covered ,jar with ch'i-lin and fng-huang 7phnix74 ,the lateness of this latter date and the use of the word 8delicacy0 in the description of the piece lead us naturally to that peculiarly refined type of late famille verte in which the ware is of eggshell thinness1 the painting extremely dainty and delicate1 and the colours rather pale but of perfect purity4 ,such are the well-known 8birthday plates0 with the reign mark of ,k'ang ,hsi on the back and the birthday salutation in seal characters on the border3 wan shou wu chiang--8a myriad longevities without ending60 ,they are reputed to have been made for the ,emperor's sixtieth birthday which fell in the year #agac1 but the story is supported by no evidence of any kind1 and they would have been equally appropriate for any ,imperial birthday4 ,the character of these wares is more suggestive of the ,yung ,chng period1 and it is probable that they belong to the extreme limit of the long reign of ,k'ang ,hsi4 ,to this period then we shall assign these and the whole group of kindred porcelains1 the plates with designs similar to those of the 8birthday plates10 but without the inscribed border1 the small eggshell plates with one or two figures painted in the same delicate style1 others with a single spray of some flowering shrub almost ,japanese in its daintiness1 and occasional bowls and vases with decoration of the same character4 ,see ,plate #aac4 ,for extreme delicacy of treatment is by no means a feature of the ,k'ang ,hsi famille verte in general1 in which the ,ming spirit with its boldness and vigour still breathed4 ,it is rather a late development in the decadence of the ware1 heralding the more effeminate beauty of the famille rose1 and were it not for the evidence of the birthday plates ,i believe many connoisseurs would be tempted to ascribe these delicate porcelains to a much later reign4 ,such1 however1 is the evolution of the famille verte during the sixty years of the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 from the strong colours and forceful ,ming-like designs of the earlier specimens to the mature perfection of the splendid wares made about #agjj1 and thence by a process of ultra-refinement to the later types in which breadth of treatment gives place to prettiness and the strong thick enamels to thinner washes of clear1 delicate tints4 ,these thin transparent colours continued in use2 indeed1 they are a feature of a special type of enamelling which will be discussed with the ,yung ,chng wares2 but the pure famille verte may be said to have come to an end with the last years of the reign of ,k'ang ,hsi4 ,later reproductions of course exist1 for no style of decoration is ever wholly extinct in ,chinese art1 but they are merely revivals of an old style1 which even before the end of the ,k'ang ,hsi period had reached the stage of transition to another family4 ,the opaque enamels of the famille rose palette had already begun to assert themselves4 ,timid intruders at first--a touch of opaque pink1 a little opaque yellow and arsenical white breaking in upon the old harmony of transparent tints--they gradually thrust the famille verte enamels into a subsidiary position1 and in the succeeding reigns rose pinks entirely dominate the field4 ,a word must be said of the use of the famille verte painting in combination with other types of decoration1 in the subordinate position of border patterns or more prominently in panel designs4 ,exquisite effects are obtained by the latter in a ground of coral red1 or where a brilliant powder blue field is broken by shapely panels with flowering plants and birds and other familiar vehicles for famille verte colouring4 ,occasionally we find the enamels actually painted over a powder blue or an ordinary blue glaze1 but the combination is more peculiar than attractive2 for the underlying colour kills the transparent enamels1 and the enamels destroy the lustre of the blue ground4 ,indeed1 it is probable that in many cases these freak decorations were intended to hide a faulty background4 ,a similar painting over the crackled green lang yao glaze has already been described1 and it occurs over the grey white crackles1 and rarely but with much distinction1 over a pale celadon glaze4 ,but perhaps the most effective combination of this kind is that in which a pale lustrous brown or ,nanking yellow is the ground colour4 ,the quiet and refined effects of this union are well exhibited by a small group of vases1 bowls1 and dishes in the ,salting ,collection4 ,something has already been said of the use of underglaze blue in combination with famille verte enamels4 ,the blue is either an integral part of the general design as in the ,wan ,li 8five colour0 scheme1 or it forms a distinct decoration by itself1 apart from the enamels1 though sharing the same surface4 ,the latter use is exemplified by a pair of bottles in the ,salting ,collection which have blue patterns on the neck and famille verte decoration on the body1 consisting of landscape panels surrounded by brocade patterns4#cba ,but the great drawback to this union of underglaze and overglaze colours is usually apparent4 ,the blue was liable to suffer in the subsequent firings necessitated by the enamels1 even though those firings took place at a relatively low temperature4 ,probably the potter would not expose his finest blue to such risks1 but at any rate the blue of this mixed decoration is rarely of first-rate quality4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ajh ,dish painted in underglaze blue and famille verte enamels4 ,in the centre1 a five-clawed dragon rising from waves in pursuit of a pearl4 ,deep border in 8,imari0 style with cloud-shaped compartments with chrysanthemum and prunus designs in a blue ground1 separated by close lotus scrolls reserved in an iron red ground in which are three book symbols4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb7 ,diameter #ai inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,there is one group of porcelain which combines the underglaze blue with on-glaze enamels1 and which deserves special notice if only because it has been recently favoured with particular attention by collectors4 ,this is what we are pleased to call 8,chinese ,imari40 ,our ceramic nomenclature has never been noted for its accuracy1 and like good conservatives we hold firmly to the old names which have been handed down from days when geography was not studied1 and from ancestors who were satisfied with old ,indian china1 or ,gombroon ware1 as names for ,chinese porcelain4 ,so ,meissen porcelain is still ,dresden1 the blue and white of ,ching-t ,chn is ,old ,nanking1 ,chinese export porcelain painted at ,canton with pink roses is ,lowestoft1 and the ware made at ,arita1 province of ,hizen1 in ,japan1 is ,imari1 because that is the name of the seaport from which it was shipped4 ,in fact1 there are many shops where you cannot make yourself understood in these matters unless you call the wares by the wrong name4 ,the ,arita porcelain in question1 this so-called ,imari1 was made from the middle of the seventeenth century onwards1 and it must have competed seriously with the export wares of ,ching-t ,chn4 ,at any rate1 it was brought to ,europe in large consignments by the ,dutch traders1 who enjoyed the privilege of a trading station on the island of ,deshima1 after the less politic ,portuguese had been driven out of ,nagasaki in #afcb4 ,for the moment we are specially concerned with two types of ,arita ware4 ,the first is distinguished by slight but artistic decoration in vivid enamels of the famille verte1 supplemented by gilding and occasionally by underglaze blue4 ,favourite designs are a banded hedge1 prunus tree1 a ,chinese boy and a tiger or phnix2 two quails in millet beside a flowering prunus2 simple flowering sprays or branches coiled in circular medallions2 or only a few scattered blossoms4 ,whatever the nature of the design1 it was artistically displayed1 and in such a manner as to enhance without concealing the fine white porcelain4 ,this is what the old catalogues call the premire qualit colorie de ,japon1 and a very popular ware it was in eighteenth century ,europe1 when it was closely copied on the early productions of the ,st4 ,cloud1 ,chantilly1 ,meissen1 ,chelsea1 and other porcelain factories4 ,to-day it is commonly known as ,kakiemon ware1 because its very distinctive style of decoration is traditionally supposed to have been started by a potter named ,kakiemon1 who1 with another man of ,arita1 learned the secret of enamelling on porcelain from a ,chinese merchant about the year #afdf4 ,the second type was made entirely for the ,european trade1 and it is distinguished by large masses of dark1 cloudy blue set off by a soft ,indian red 7derived from oxide of iron7 and gilding4 ,these colours are supplemented by touches of green1 yellow1 and aubergine enamels1 and occasionally by a brownish black4 ,the ware itself is heavy1 coarse and greyish1 but its rough aspect is well concealed by irregular and confused designs of asymmetrical panels surrounded by mixed brocade patterns4 ,the panels often contain ,chinese figures1 phnixes1 lions1 floral designs of chrysanthemums1 peony and prunus1 a basket of flowers1 rough landscapes or garden views4 ,they are medleys of half-,chinese1 half-,japanese motives1 a riot of incoherent patterns1 but not without broad decorative effect thanks to the bold masses of red1 blue and gold4 ,such is the typical 8,old ,imari40 ,there is1 however1 a finer and more ,japanese variety of the same group which is distinguished by free use of the chrysanthemum rosette1 and the ,imperial kiri 7paulonia imperialis71 and by panels of diaper pattern and floral designs alternating and counter-changed in colour1 the grounds now red1 now blue1 and now gold4 ,the same colour scheme prevailed in this sub-group1 and the dark blue was usually netted over with gold designs4 ,it was no doubt the success which these wares met in ,european commerce that induced the ,chinese to take a lesson from their pupils1 and to adopt the 8,imari0 style4 ,at any rate1 they did copy all these types1 sometimes very closely1 sometimes only in part4 ,thus in some cases the actual ,japanese patterns as well as the colour scheme are carefully reproduced1 in others the ,japanese colour scheme is employed on ,chinese patterns or vice versa1 and1 again1 there are cases in which passages of ,japanese ornament are inserted in purely ,chinese surroundings4 ,but whether pure or diluted the ,japanese style is unmistakable to those who have once learnt to know its peculiarities1 of which masses of blue covered with gilt patterns and the prominence of red and gold are the most conspicuous4 ,there will1 of course1 always be a few specimens the nationality of which will be difficult to decide1 but to anyone familiar with ,chinese and ,japanese porcelain the distinction between the ,chinese 8,imari0 and its island prototype is1 as a rule1 a simple matter4 ,the ,chinese porcelain is thinner and crisper1 its glaze has the smooth oily sheen and faintly greenish tint which are peculiar to ,chinese wares1 and the raw edge of the base rim is slightly browned4 ,the ,japanese porcelain1 on the other hand1 is whiter in the ,kakiemon ware1 greyer and coarser in the 8,old ,imari10 and the glaze in both cases has the peculiar bubbled and 8muslin-like0 texture which is a ,japanese characteristic4 ,the ,japanese underglaze blue is dark and muddy in tone1 the ,chinese bright1 and purer1 and the other colours differ1 though not perhaps so emphatically4 ,the iron red of the ,chinese1 for instance1 is thinner and usually lighter in tone than the soft ,indian red or thick sealing-wax colour of the ,japanese2 and to those who are deeply versed in ,oriental art there is always the more subtle and less definable distinction1 the difference between the ,chinese and ,japanese touch and feeling4 ,plate #ajh is a fine specimen which shows the blend of ,chinese motives and the ,japanese colouring4 ,the general character of the ,chinese 8,imari0 is that of the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 to which most of the existing specimens will be assigned2 but it is clear that the ,chinese continued to use ,japanese models in the succeeding reign1 for the last three items in the ,imperial list of porcelain made in the ,yung ,chng period comprise wares 8decorated in gold and in silver in the style of the ,japanese40#cbb ,,chapter ,,xi ,k',,ang ,,hsi ,,monochromes ,in passing to the ,k'ang ,hsi monochromes we enter a large field with boundaries ill defined4 ,many of the colours are legacies from the ,ming potters1 and most of them were handed on to after generations2 some indeed have enjoyed an unbroken descent to the present day4 ,consequently there are few things more difficult in the study of ,chinese porcelain than the dating of single-colour wares4 ,in some cases the origin of a particular glaze has been recorded1 and within certain limits the style of the piece will guide us in assessing its age2 but how often must we be content with some such non-committal phrase as 8early eighteenth century10 which embraces the late ,k'ang ,hsi1 the ,yung ,chng and the early ,ch'ien ,lung periods8 ,on the other hand1 the careful student observes certain points of style and finish1 certain slight peculiarities of form which are distinctive of the different periods1 and on these indefinite signs he is able to classify the doubtful specimens4 ,to the inexpert his methods may seem arbitrary and mysterious1 but his principles1 though not easy to enunciate1 are sound nevertheless4 ,illustration3 ,plate #aji4--;,figure of ,shou ,lao1 ,taoist ,god of ,longevity4 ,porcelain painted with famille verte enamels4 ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb74 ,height #ag inches4 ,salting ,collection 7,v4 ,a4 ,museum74 ,we have already had occasion to discuss a few of the ,k'ang ,hsi monochromes in dealing with the question of lang yao4 ,but besides the sang de buf there is another rare and costly red to which the ,americans have given the expressive name of 8peach bloom40 ,since their first acquaintance with this colour in the last half of the nineteenth century1#cbc ,american collectors have been enamoured of it1 and as they have never hesitated to pay vast sums for good specimens1 most of the fine 8peach blooms0 have found their way to the ,united ,states1 and choice examples are rare in ,england4 8,the prevailing shade10 to quote from ,bushell's description1 8is a pale red1 becoming pink in some parts1 in others mottled with russet spots1 displayed upon a background of light green celadon tint4 ,the last colour occasionally comes out more prominently1 and deepens into clouds of bright apple green tint40 ,the ,chinese1 in comparing the colour1 have thought of the apple rather than the peach2 it is p'in-kuo hung 7apple red71 and the markings on it are p'in-kuo ch'ing 7apple green71 and mei kuei tz 7rose crimson74 ,another ,chinese name for the colour is chiang-tou hung 7bean red71 in allusion to the small ,chinese kidney-bean with its variegated pink colour and brown spots4 ,it is generally supposed that1 like the sang de buf1 the 8peach bloom0 owes its hue to copper oxide1 and that all the accessory tints1 the russet brown and apple green1 are due to happy accidents befalling the same colouring medium in the changeful atmosphere of the kiln4#cbd ,this precious glaze is usually found on small objects such as water pots and brush washers for the writing table 7see ,plate #aaacbe71 and snuff bottles1 and a few small elegantly formed flower vases of bottle shape1 with high shoulders and slender neck1 the body sometimes moulded in chrysanthemum petal design1 or1 again1 on vases of slender1 graceful1 ovoid form1 with bodies tapering downwards1 and the mouth rim slightly flaring4 ,in every case the bottom of the vessel shows a fine white-glazed porcelain with unctuous paste1 and the ,k'ang ,hsi mark in six blue characters written in a delicate but very mannered calligraphy1 which seems to be peculiar to this type of ware1 and to a few choice clair de lune and celadon vases of similar form and make4 ,the colour in the peach bloom glaze1 as in the sang de buf1 is sometimes fired out and fades into white or leaves a pale olive green surface with only a few spots of brown or pink to bear witness to the original intention of the potter4 ,the glaze is sometimes crackled and occasionally it runs down in a thick crystalline mass at the base of the vessel4 ,needless to say this costly porcelain has claimed the earnest attention of the modern imitator4 ,the first real success was achieved by a ,japanese potter at the end of the last century4 ,he was able to make admirable copies of the colour1 but failed to reproduce adequately the paste and glaze of the originals4 ,i am told that he was persuaded to transfer his secret to ,china1 and with the ,chinese body his imitations were completely successful4 ,the latter part of the story is based on hearsay1 and is given as such2 but it is certain that there are exceedingly clever modern copies of the old peach blooms in the market2 otherwise how could an inexpert collector in ,china bring home half a dozen peach blooms bought at bargain prices8 ,the copper red used in painting underglaze designs#cbf will sometimes develop a peach bloom colour1 and there is a vase in the ,british ,museum with parti-coloured glaze in large patches of blue1 celadon1 and a copper red which has broken into the characteristic tints of the peach bloom vases4 ,another red of copper origin allied to the sang de buf and the peach bloom1 and at times verging on both1 is the maroon red1 which ranges from crimson to a deep liver colour4 ,there are wine cups of this colour whose glaze clouded with deep crimson recalls the 8dawn red0 of the wine cups made by ,hao ,shih-chiu4#cbg ,sometimes the red covers part only of the surface1 shading off into the white glaze4 ,the finer specimens have either a crimson or a pinkish tinge1 but far more often the glaze has issued from the kiln with a dull liver tint4 ,naturally the value of the specimens varies widely with the beauty of the colour4 ,the pinker shades approach within measurable distance of the pink of the peach bloom1 and they are often classed with the latter by their proud owners2 but the colour is usually uniform1 and lacks the bursts of russet brown and green which variegate the true peach bloom1 and the basis of the maroon is a pure white glaze without the celadon tints which seem to underlie the peach bloom4 ,it may be added that the maroon red glaze is usually uncrackled4 ,as to the overglaze red1 which is known by the names of mo hung 7painted red7 and ts'ai hung 7enamel red71 it is the colour derived from iron1 and it was used both as one of the enamels of the famille verte palette and as a monochrome4 ,in both capacities it figured on ,ming porcelain1 and was fully discussed in that connection4 ,on ,k'ang ,hsi wares it varied in tone from dark brick red to a light orange1 according to the density of the pigment1 and in texture from a thin dry film to a lustrous enamel1 according to the quantity of fluxing material#cbh combined with it4 ,among the richly fluxed varieties is a fine tomato colour of light1 translucent tone4 ,sometimes the iron red is found as sole medium for painted designs1 as on a rouleau vase in the ,salting collection1 but more commonly it serves as a ground colour between panels of enamelled ornament 7,plate #ajc71 or in border passages4 ,in these last two positions it is usually of a light orange shade1 and broken by floral scrolls reserved in white4 ,a dark shade of the same pigment is also used in diapers of curled scrolls1 forming a groundwork for enamelled decoration4 ,there are besides beautiful examples of a pure red monochrome formed of this colour1 but ,i have only met with these among the later wares4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the blue monochromes include a large number of glazes varying in depth and shade with the quality and quantity of the cobalt which is mingled with the glazing material4 ,these are chiao ch'ing 7blue monochrome glazes71 and they are all high-fired colours4 ,they include the chi ch'ing#cbi or deep sky blue1 whose darker shades are also named ta ch'ing 7gros bleu71 the slaty blue1 the pale clear blue1#ccj the dark and light lavender shades1 and the faintly tinted clair de lune or 8moon white0 7yeh pai71 in which the amount of cobalt used must have been infinitesimal4 ,but it would be useless to attempt to catalogue the innumerable shades of blue1 which must have varied with every fresh mixture of colour and glaze and every fresh firing4 ,there is1 however1 another group materially different from the ordinary blue glazes4 ,in this the colour was applied direct to the body1 as in blue and white painting1 and a colourless glaze subsequently added1 with the natural result that the blue seems to be incorporated with the body of the ware rather than with the glaze4 ,there were several ways of applying the colour1 each producing a slightly different effect4 ,the cobalt powder could be mixed with water1 and washed on smoothly with a brush1 or dabbed on with a sponge to give a marbled appearance1 or it could be projected on to the moistened surface in a dry powder1 through gauze stretched across the end of a bamboo tube4 ,the result of the last process was an infinity of minute specks of blue1 a massing of innumerable points of colour4 ,this is the well-known 8powder blue10 the bleu souffl1 or blown blue described by ,pre d',entrecolles in his second letter#cca3 8,as for the souffl blue called tsoui tsim 7ch'ui ch'ing71 the finest blue1 prepared in the manner which ,i have described1 is used4 ,this is blown on to the vase1 and when it is dry the ordinary glaze is applied either alone or mixed with tsoui yeou 7sui yu71 if crackle#ccb is required40 ,we are further told that as on the blue and white a glaze softened with a considerable proportion of lime was necessary for the perfection of the colour4 ,the 8powder blue0 seems to have been a new invention in the ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,under the name of ch'ui ch'ing 7blown blue7 it figures in the ,t'ao lu#ccc among the triumphs of ,ts'ang ,ying-hsan's directorate4 ,it is certainly a singularly beautiful colour effect1 and worthy of the homage it has received from collectors and ceramic historians4 ,though the blue used was as a rule of the finest quality1 it varied much in intensity and tone with the nature of the cobalt and amount applied4 ,probably the majority of collectors would give the palm to the darker shades1 but tastes differ1 and the lighter tones when the blue is pure sapphire have found whole-hearted admirers4 ,a notable feature of the powder blue is its surprising brilliancy in artificial light1 when most other porcelain colours suffer eclipse4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #aaj ,two examples of 8,powder ,blue0 7ch'ui ch'ing7 ,porcelain of the ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb71 in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum ,fig4 #a4--;,bottle of gourd shape with slender neck3 powder blue ground with gilt designs from the ,hundred ,antiques 7po ku7 and borders of ju-i pattern1 formal flowers and plantain leaves4 ,height #g inches4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle-shaped ,vase with famille verte panels of rockwork and flowers reserved in a powder blue ground4 ,height #g inches4 ,salting ,collection4 ,it was used indifferently as a simple monochrome or as a ground in which panel decoration was reserved1 the panels painted in famille verte enamels or in blue and white2 and in both cases the blue surface was usually embellished with light traceries in gold4 ,plate #aaj illustrates both types4 ,both are highly prized by collectors1 and change hands at high prices when of the good quality which is usual on the ,k'ang ,hsi specimens4 ,we have already noted#ccd the occasional decoration of the powder blue ground with designs in famille verte enamels1 and ,pre d',entrecolles#cce records another process of ornamentation which was applied to all the blue grounds of this group1 viz4 the washed1 the sponged1 and the powder blues3 8,there are workmen who trace designs with the point of a long needle on this blue whether souffl or otherwise2 the needle removes as many little specks of dry blue as are necessary to form the design2 then the glaze is put on40 ,from this precise description it is easy to recognise this simple but effective decoration4 ,there are two examples in the ,british ,museum with dragon designs etched in this fashion1 the one in a washed blue1 and the other in a sponged blue ground4 ,the pattern appears in white outline where the blue has been removed by the needle and the porcelain body exposed4 ,long usage has given sanction to the term 8mazarine blue40 ,it was applied to the dark blue ground colour of eighteenth century ,english porcelain1 and in the contemporary catalogues the name 8mazareen0 was given to any kind of deep blue from the mottled violet of ,chelsea to the powdery gros bleu of ,worcester4 ,in reference to ,chinese porcelain it is used to-day with similar freedom for the ta ch'ing or dark sky blue and for the powder blue4 ,assuming that the phrase derives from the famous ,cardinal ,mazarin1 it cannot in its original sense have had any reference to powder blue1 for the ,cardinal died in #affa1 and1 if he had a weakness for blue monochrome1 it must have been for some variety of the chiao ch'ing or blue glazes proper which were current at the end of the ,ming and the beginning of the ,ch'ing dynasties4 ,at the present day it is impossible to guess the true shade of mazarine blue1 and we must be content to regard it as a phrase connoting a deep blue monochrome the exact definition of which has gone beyond recall4#ccf ,the ,k'ang ,hsi mark is sometimes found on porcelain coated with a very dark purplish blue glaze with soft looking surface and minute crackle4 ,it is apparently one of those glazes which are fired in the temperate parts of the kiln1 and its use is more frequent on porcelains of a slightly later period4 ,finally1 the turquoise blue1 variously named fei ts'ui 7kingfisher blue7 and k'ung ch'iao l 7peacock green71 was freely used as a monochrome on figures and ornamental wares4 ,it is a colour which descends from ,ming times1 and whose use has continued unchecked to the present day1 so that it is often extremely difficult to give a precise date to any particular specimen1 especially if the object happens to be of archaic form1 a copy of an old bronze or the like4 ,its nature has already been discussed#ccg among the ,ming glazes1 and one can only say that the ,k'ang ,hsi pieces have all the virtues of the ,k'ang ,hsi manufacture--fine material1 good potting1 shapely form1 and beautiful quality of colour4 ,the tint varies widely from the soft turquoise blue of kingfisher feathers to a deep turquoise green1 and some of the most attractive specimens are mottled or spotted with patches of greenish black4 ,the glaze is always minutely crackled1 and has sufficient transparency to allow engraved or carved designs on the body to be visible4 ,it is a colour which develops well on an earthen body1 and the potters often mixed coarse clay with the ware which was intended to receive the turquoise glaze2 but this1 ,i think1 was mainly practised after the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 and the ,k'ang ,hsi specimens will1 as a rule1 be found to have a pure white porcelain basis4 ,as in the ,ming wares1 the turquoise sometimes shares the field with an aubergine purple of violet tone1 both colours being of the demi-grand feu4 ,the purple is also used as a monochrome4 ,there are1 in fact1 two aubergine purple monochromes1 the one a thick and relatively opaque colour sometimes full of minute points as though it had been blown on like the powder blue1 the other a thin transparent 7and often iridescent7 glaze of browner tone4 ,both are derived from cobaltiferous ore of manganese1 both have descended from the ,ming period1 and have already been discussed as monochromes and as colours applied to the biscuit4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #aaa ,two examples of ,single-colour ,porcelain in the ,salting ,collection 7,victoria and ,albert ,museum7 ,fig4 #a4--;,bottle-shaped ,vase of ,porcelain with landscape design lightly engraved in relief under a turquoise blue glaze4 ,early eighteenth century4 ,height #h inches4 ,fig4 #b4--,water ,vessel for the ,writing ,table of the form known as ,t'ai-po tsun after the poet ,li ,t'ai-po4 ,porcelain with faintly engraved dragon medallions under a peach bloom glaze2 the neck cut down and fitted with a metal collar4 ,mark in blue of the ,k'ang ,hsi period 7#affb-agbb7 in six characters4 ,height #b inches4 ,the cobaltiferous ore of manganese is the same material which is used to give a blue colour1 but in this case the manganese is removed1 and the cobalt rendered as pure as possible4 ,for the manganese if in excess produces a purplish brown1 and its presence in however small a quantity gives the blue a purple or violet strain4 ,by the simple method of graduating the amount of manganese which was allowed to remain with the cobalt the potters were able to obtain many intermediate shades between dark blue and purple for their monochrome glazes4 ,the green monochromes are scarcely less numerous than the blue4 ,there are the transparent greens of apple or leaf green shades whether even or mottled1 which have been described among the glazes applied to the biscuit and among the enamels of the famille verte4 ,these were used as monochromes and ground colours2 and closely akin to them are 7#a7 the cucumber green 7kua p'i l71 in which a yellowish leaf green is heavily mottled with darker tints1 and 7#b7 the snake skin green 7sh p'i l71 a deep transparent green with iridescent surface1 one of the colours for which the directorate of ,ts'ang ,ying-hsan was celebrated4 ,there are good examples of both in the ,salting ,collection1 but it would be useless to reproduce them except in colour4 ,there are the apple and emerald green crackles 7in both cases a green glaze overlying a grey or stone-coloured crackle71 but these have already been discussed4#cch ,a somewhat similar technique characterises the series of semi-opaque and crackled green glazes of camelia leaf1 myrtle1 spinach1 light and dark sage1 dull emerald and several intermediate tints4 ,these are soft-looking glazes with small but very regular crackle1#cci and their surface often has a 8satiny0 sheen which recalls the ,yi-hsing glazes4 ,they are evidently glazes of the demi-grand feu1 and the colouring agent is doubtless copper1 though apparently modified with other ingredients4 ,how far this particular group was used in the ,k'ang ,hsi period is hard to say4 ,most of the specimens which ,i have seen give me the impression of a later make1 but as there are a few which might come within the ,k'ang ,hsi limits ,i have taken this opportunity to discuss them4 ,there is one specimen of a rare green in the ,british ,museum to which ,i cannot recall a parallel4 ,it is a bowl with the ordinary white glaze1 but covered on the exterior with a very bright yellowish green1 like the young grass with the sun shining on it4 ,it is1 perhaps1 rather in the nature of an enamel than a glaze1 but the ware has the appearance of age and should belong to the early part of the ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,most of the green glazes are low fired1 melting in the temperature of the demi-grand feu and the muffle kiln4 ,the high-fired greens are those of celadon class4 ,there is the lang yao#cdj green1 which has been discussed under that heading1 a crackled glaze1 in colour intermediate between apple green and the sea green celadon1 and with a surface texture hazy with bubbles like the sang de buf1 to which it is a near relation4 ,this soft and beautiful colour has been described as a 8copper celadon10 and though ,dr4 ,bushell refuses his blessing on the name it seems to me a particularly happy expression4 ,for the colour apparently results from the same copper medium which under slightly different firing conditions produces the sang de buf red and at the same time its tint approaches very nearly to the typical celadon green4 ,the true celadon glaze was freely employed on the early ,ch'ing porcelains1 especially on those of ,k'ang ,hsi and ,yung ,chng periods4 ,it is a beautiful pale olive or sea green colour1 made light by the pure white porcelain beneath which its transparent nature permits to shine through4 ,compared with the ,sung celadons as we know them1#cda the ,ch'ing dynasty ware is thinner in material and glaze1 wanting in the peculiar solidity of appearance of the ancient wares2 the body is whiter and finer1 and the base is usually white with the ordinary porcelain glaze4 ,there is1 moreover1 no 8brown mouth and iron foot10 unless indeed this feature has been deliberately added by means of a dressing of ferruginous clay1 a make-up which is too obvious to deceive the initiated4 ,there were1 however1 some careful imitations of the ancient celadons made at this time and got up with the appearance of antiquity1 but these were exceptional productions4#cdb ,pre d',entrecolles1 writing in #agbb1 alludes to the ,k'ang ,hsi celadon in the following terms#cdc3--8;,i was shown this year for the first time a kind of porcelain which is now in fashion2 its colour verges on olive and they call it long tsiven4 ,i saw some which was called tsim ko 7ch'ing kuo71 the name of a fruit which closely resembles the olive40 ,the long tsiven is clearly a transliteration of the characters which we write ,lung-ch'an1 the generic name of the old celadons2 but it is odd that ,pre d',entrecolles should not have seen copies of this glaze before #agbb1 for its use must have been continuous at ,ching-t ,chn from very early times1 and we have found reference to it in various periods of the ,ming dynasty4 ,it is evident1 however1 that the colour was enjoying a fresh burst of popularity just at this time4 ,d',entrecolles gives a few further notes which concern its composition4 ,his recipe is substantially the same as that given in ,chinese works1 viz4 a mixture of ferruginous earth1 which would contribute a percentage of iron oxide1 with the ordinary glaze4#cdd ,he also states that sui yu 7crackle glaze7 was added if a crackled surface was required1 and there are numerous examples of this kind of ware to be seen4 ,the most familiar are the vases with crackled celadon or grey green glaze interrupted by bands of biscuit carved with formal patterns and stained to an iron colour with a dressing of ferruginous earth4 ,monster heads with rings 7loose or otherwise7 serve as twin handles on these vases1 which are designed after bronze models4 ,these crackled celadons are evidently fashioned after an old model1 but they have been largely imitated in modern times1 and almost every pawnbroker's window displays a set of execrable copies 7often further decorated in underglaze blue7 which are invariably furnished with the ,ch'ng ,hua mark incised on a square brown panel under the base4 ,the yellow monochromes of the ,k'ang ,hsi period are mostly descendants of the ,ming yellows4 ,there is the pale yellow applied over a white glaze reproducing the yellow of 8husked chestnuts10 for which the ,hung ,chih 7q4v47 porcelains were celebrated2 and there is a fuller yellow1 usually of browner shade1 applied direct to the biscuit4 ,yellow is one of the ,imperial colours1 the usual tint being a full deep colour like the yolk of a hen's egg1 and the ,imperial wares are commonly distinguished by five-clawed dragons engraved under the glaze4 ,other glazes#cde used on the services made for the ,emperor are the purplish brown 7aubergine7 and the bright green of camelia leaf tint1 which with the yellow make up the san ts'ai or three colours4 ,in fact the precise shades of these colours are those used on finer types of three-colour porcelain#cdf with transparent glazes fired in the temperate part of the great kiln4 ,all these glazes tend to become iridescent with age4 ,the colouring medium of the pale yellow is antimony combined with a proportion of lead1 and iron oxide is added to give the glaze an orange or brown tinge4#cdg ,it is noticeable that the yellow applied to the biscuit is usually browner in tone4 ,this is the nature1 if we may judge from the excellent coloured illustrations in the ,walters catalogue1#cdh of the eel yellow 7shan y huang71 a brownish colour of clouded smoky appearance1 and one of the few glazes named in the ,t'ao lu as a speciality of the directorate of ,ts'ang ,ying-hsan4 ,the other yellow associated with the name of ,ts'ang is the 8spotted yellow0 7huang pan t'ien71 discussed on p4 #abg4 ,its identification is uncertain1 and ,brinkley describes it as 8stoneware with a dark olive green glaze with yellow speckles10 while ,bushell 7,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #cag7 regards it as a 8tiger skin0 glaze with large patches of yellow and green enamel1 the same as the huang l tien 7yellow and green spotted71 which he quotes from another context4 ,all these varieties belong to the couleurs de demi-grand feu2 but there are besides several varieties of yellow enamels fired in the muffle kiln4 ,of these the transparent yellow was used as a ground colour in the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 but the opaque varieties1 such as the lemon yellow1 etc41 belong rather to a later period4 ,among the latter ,i should include the crackled mustard yellow1 though examples of it have often been assigned to the ,k'ang ,hsi and even earlier reigns4 ,there is1 for instance1 a bottle-shaped vase with two elephant handles in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 which ,bushell#cdi regarded as a specimen of the old mi-s 78millet colour07 glaze of the ,sung dynasty4 ,a careful examination shows that this crackled brownish yellow is made in much the same fashion as the apple green and the sage green crackles1 viz4 a yellow glaze or enamel overlying a stone-coloured crackle4 ,this is not a ,sung technique1 but rather an imitative method belonging perhaps to the ,yung ,chng period1 when old glazes and archaic shapes were reproduced with wonderful skill and truth4 ,there is a solitary specimen of a high-fired glaze of pale buff yellow colour in the ,british ,museum1 which perhaps should be ranked with the yellow monochromes1 though its appearance suggests an exceptional effect of the pale tz chin or 8,nanking yellow0 glaze4 ,and a rare vase in the ,peters ,collection has a minutely crackled brownish yellow glaze clouded with dark olive in bold markings like those of tortoiseshell4 ,another ,ming monochrome freely used in the ,k'ang ,hsi period is the lustrous brown 7tz chin71 formed like the celadon by mixing ferruginous earth called tz chin shih with the ordinary glaze4 ,presumably the quantity of this material was greater in the brown glaze than in the celadon4 ,pre d',entrecolles describes this glaze in its diverse shades of bronze1 coffee and dead-leaf brown1 but he makes the curious error of proclaiming it a new invention in #agbb4cej ,he also refers to its use on the exterior of white cups and as a ground colour in which white panels were reserved4 8,on a cup or vase10 he tells us1 8which one wished to glaze with brown1 a round or square of damped paper was applied in one or two places2 after the glaze had been laid on1 the paper was peeled off1 and the unglazed space was painted in red or blue4 ,this dry1 the usual glaze was applied to the reserve by blowing or by some other method4 ,some of the potters fill the blank spaces with a ground of blue or black1 with a view to adding gilt designs after the first firing40 ,there were other methods of decorating these panels1 and perhaps the most familiar is that in which the early famille rose enamels were employed4 ,this combination of brown ground with panels of floral designs in thick opaque rose red1 yellow1 white and green was a favourite with the ,dutch exporters4 ,in fact this ware is still called ,batavian1 the old catalogue name derived from the ,dutch ,east ,indian settlement of ,batavia1 which was an entrepot for far-,eastern merchandise4 ,the date of the ,batavian porcelain is clearly indicated by the transition enamels as late ,k'ang ,hsi4 ,the tz chin brown was used as a monochrome in all its various shades from dark coffee colour to pale golden brown1 and the lighter and more transparent shades were sometimes laid over engraved decoration4 ,in the ,british ,museum there are two candlesticks1 the stems of which with dragon designs in full relief are in an intensely dark tz chin glaze1 so dark1 indeed1 that the tops have been exactly matched in the deep brown ware made by ,bttger of ,dresden about #agaj1 the latter polished on the lathe to simulate the lustrous surface of the ,chinese glaze4 ,in the same collection are two saucer dishes of dark tz chin glaze of fine quality painted with slight floral designs in silver4#cea ,this kind of decoration must have been singularly effective in its original state1 but the silver does not stand the test of time1 and though it still firmly adheres its surface has turned black4 ,an unusual effect is seen on a vase in the ,peters collection which has a lustrous coffee brown glaze passing into olive and clouded with black2 and a very rare specimen in the same collection has a 8leopard skin0 glaze of translucent olive brown with large mottling of opaque coffee brown4 ,the latter piece bears the ,wan ,li mark4 ,the lightest shade of this colour is what has been described as ,nanking yellow4#ceb ,it is used as a monochrome or as a ground colour with panels usually of famille verte enamels1 and sometimes with enamelled decoration applied over the brown glaze itself4 ,it is clear that the sui yu or crackle glaze was sometimes mixed with the tz chin1 for we find many examples of beautiful lustrous brown crackle4 ,they have1 however1 in many cases an adventitious tinge of grey or green1 for which the crackle glaze is perhaps responsible4 ,a near relation to the tz chin 7brown gold7 glaze is the wu chin 7black gold71 a lustrous black glaze obtained by mixing a little impure cobaltiferous ore of manganese 7or coarse blue material#cec7 with the tz chin glaze4 ,like the latter the black is an intensely hard glaze fired in the full heat of the great kiln1 and it has a lustrous metallic surface which earned for it the name of 8mirror black40#ced ,this glaze seems to have really been a ,k'ang ,hsi innovation1#cee and possibly it was a confusion with this fact which led d',entrecolles into his erroneous statement about the date of the lustrous brown4 ,illustration3 ,plate #aab4--,three figures of ,birds1 late ,k'ang ,hsi ,porcelain1 with coloured enamels on the biscuit4 ,fig4 #a4--,stork4 ,height #ag inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,hawk4 ,height #aj inches4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,cock4 ,height #ac inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,plate #aac4--,porcelain delicately painted in thin famille verte enamels4 ,about #agbj4 ,fig4 #a4--;,dish with figures of ,hsi ,wang ,mu and attendant4 ,ch'ng ,hua mark4 ,diameter #f inches4 ,hippisley ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bowl with the ,eight ,immortals4 ,diameter #h inches4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,plate #aad4--;,hanging ,vase with openwork sides1 for perfumed flowers4 ,cumberbatch ,collection4 ,porcelain painted in late famille verte enamels4 ,about #agbj4 ,blackwood frame4 ,total height #ag inches4 ,the mirror black is usually a monochrome tricked out with gilt traceries1 but as in the case of the powder blue the light ,chinese gilding is usually worn away1 and often its quondam presence can now only be detected by a faint oily film which appears when the porcelain is held obliquely to the light4 ,it is a common practice to have this lost gilding replaced by modern work4 ,there are several large vases of triple-gourd form in the ,charlottenburg ,palace with the upper and lower lobes coated with gilt mirror black1 and the central bulb enamelled with famille verte colours2 and another use of the glaze as panel decoration in a lustrous brown ground has already been noted in an extract from ,pre d',entrecolles2 it is also found on rare specimens as a background for panels of famille verte enamelling4 ,but its most effective use is as a pure monochrome only relieved by faint gilding1 and some of the choicest ,k'ang ,hsi specimens have soft brown reflexions in the lustre of the surface4 ,another and probably a later type of mirror black is a thick lacquer-like glaze with signs of minute crackle4 ,there is a type of glaze which1 though variegated with many tints1 still belongs to the category of monochromes4 ,this is the flamb1 to use the suggestive ,french term which implies a surface shot with flame-like streaks of varying colour4 ,this capricious colouring1 the result of some chance action of the fire upon copper oxide in the glaze1 had long been known to the ,chinese potters4 ,it appeared on the ,chn ,chou wares of the ,sung and ,yan dynasties1 and it must have occurred many times on the ,ming copper monochromes2 but up to the end of the ,k'ang ,hsi period it seems to have been still more or less accidental on the ,ching-t ,chn porcelain1 if we can believe the circumstantial account written by ,pre d',entrecolles in the year #agbbcef3--8;,i have been shown one of the porcelains which are called yao pien1 or transmutation4 ,this transmutation takes place in the kiln1 and results from defective or excessive firing1 or perhaps from other circumstances which are not easy to guess4 ,this specimen which1 according to the workman's idea1 is a failure and the child of pure chance1 is none the less beautiful1 and none the less valued4 ,the potter had set out to make vases of souffl red4 ,a hundred pieces were entirely spoilt1 and the specimen in question came from the kiln with the appearance of a sort of agate4 ,were they but willing to take the risk and the expense of successive experiments1 the potters would eventually discover the secret of making with certainty that which chance has produced in this solitary case4 ,this is the way they learnt to make porcelain with the brilliant black glaze called ou kim 7wu chin72 the caprice of the kiln determined this research1 and the result was successful40 ,it is interesting to read how this specimen of flamb resulted from the misfiring of a copper red glaze1 no doubt a sang de buf2 for in the most common type of flamb red 7see ,plate #abc1 ,fig4 #a7 passages of rich sang de buf emerge from the welter of mingled grey1 blue and purple tints4 ,the last part of d',entrecolles' note was prophetic1 for in the succeeding reigns the potters were able to produce the flamb glaze at will4 ,there are1 besides1 many other strangely coloured glazes which can only be explained as misfired monochromes of the grand feu1 those of mulberry colour1 slaty purple1 and the like1 most of which were probably intended for maroon or liver red1 but were altered by some caprice of the fire4 ,but it would be useless to enumerate these erratic tints1 which are easily recognised by their divergence from the normal ceramic colours4 ,the ,french have always been partial to monochrome porcelains4 ,in the eighteenth century they bought them eagerly to decorate their hotels and chteaux1 and enshrined them in costly metal mounts4 ,but as the style of the mounting1 rococo in the early part of the century1 neo-classical in the latter part1 was designed to match the furniture of the period1 the oriental shapes were often sacrificed to the ,european fashion4 ,dark blue and celadon green were favourite colours1 if we may judge by surviving examples1 and to-day enormous prices are paid for ,chinese monochromes fitted with ,french ormolu mounts by the ,court goldsmiths1 such as ,gouthire1 ,caffieri1 and the rest4#ceg ,but these richly mounted pieces have more interest as furniture and metal work1 and the ceramophile regards them askance for their foreign and incongruous trappings1 which disturb the pure enjoyment of the porcelain4#ceh ,it remains to consider the white porcelain1 that is to say the porcelain which was intended to remain white and undecorated with any form of colouring4 ,white was the colour used by the ,court in times of mourning1 and large services of white porcelain were made for the ,emperor on these occasions4 ,but it is not to be supposed that all the beautiful white wares were made solely for this purpose4#cei ,they have always been highly esteemed by the ,chinese from the early ,ming times1 when the ,yung ,lo bowls and the white altar cups of ,hsan ,t were celebrated among porcelains1 down to the present day4 ,many exquisite whites were made in the early reigns of the ,ch'ing dynasty1 and as with so many of the perennial monochromes their exact dating is full of difficulty4 ,we are not concerned here with the blanc de chine or white porcelain of ,t-hua in ,fukien1 which has already been discussed1 but with the white of ,ching-t ,chn1 the glaze of which is distinguished from the former by its harder appearance1 and its bluish or greenish tinge4 ,the latter was made to perfection in the ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,having no colours to distract the eye from surface blemishes1 nothing short of absolute purity could satisfy the critic4 ,in choice specimens the paste was fine1 white and unctuous1 the glaze clear1 flawless1 and of oily lustre1#cfj the form was elegant and the potting true4 ,such pieces without blemish or flaw are the very flower of porcelain1 whether they be of eggshell thinness 7t'o t'ai71 half eggshell 7pan t'o t'ai71 or of the substance of ordinary wares4 ,but though innocent of colour the white porcelain was rarely without decoration4 ,the finest ,imperial services were usually delicately etched under the glaze with scarcely visible dragon designs4 ,other kinds have the ornament strongly cut1 such as the eggshell cups and saucers with patterns of hibiscus1 lotus1 or chrysanthemum petals firmly outlined1 or the vases with full-bodied designs in low relief obtained by carving away the ground surrounding the pattern4#cfa ,others have faint traceries or thickly painted patterns in white slip1 in steatite1#cfb or in fibrous gypsum under the glaze4 ,a fuller relief was obtained by pressing in deeply cut moulds or by applying strips and shavings of the body clay1 and working them into designs with a wet brush after the manner of the modern pte sur pte4 ,there are still higher reliefs in ,k'ang ,hsi porcelain1 figures1 and symbolical ornaments1 formed separately in moulds and 8luted0 on to the ware with liquid clay1 but these generally appeared on the enamelled wares1 and are themselves coloured4 ,the applied reliefs on the white wares are usually in unglazed biscuit1 and there are1 besides1 pierced and channelled patterns1 but these processes have been fully described among the late ,ming wares1#cfc and nothing further need be said of them1 except that they were employed with supreme skill and refinement by the ,k'ang ,hsi potters4 ,pre d',entrecolles#cfd alludes to these perforated wares in the following passage3--8,they make here 7i4e4 at ,ching-t ,chn7 another kind of porcelain which ,i have never yet seen4 ,it is all pierced jour like fretwork1 and inside is a cup to hold the liquid4 ,the cup and the fretwork are all in one piece40 ,wares of various kinds with solid inner lining and pierced outer casing are not uncommon in ,chinese porcelain and pottery4 ,sometimes1 however1 the cups are completed without the inner shell1 like ,fig4 #b1 of ,plate #gh1 which could be fitted with a silver lining if required to hold liquid4 ,objects entirely biscuit are exceptional4 ,there are1 however1 two small ,buddhistic figures1 and two lions of this class in the ,british ,museum1 and curiously enough both are stamped with potter's marks1 which is itself a rare occurrence on porcelain4 ,the former bear the name of ,chang ,ming-kao and the latter of ,ch'n ,mu-chih 7see vol4 i41 page #bbc74 ,bushell#cfe tells us that the ,chinese call biscuit porcelain fan tz' 7turned porcelain71 a quaint conception which implies that the ware is turned inside out1 as though the glaze were inside1 and the body out2 and this illusion is occasionally kept up by applying a touch of glaze inside the mouth of the unglazed vessel4 ,biscuit porcelain is specially suitable for figure modelling1 because the sharpness of the details remains unobscured by glaze4 ,it has been largely employed in ,european porcelain factories for this purpose1 but the ,chinese seem to have been prejudiced against this exclusive use of the material4 ,as a rule they reserve it for the fleshy parts of their figures1 giving the draperies a coating of glaze or of enamel or both4 ,a rare example of the use of biscuit is illustrated in the catalogue of the ,walters ,collection 7,o4 ,c4 ,a41 ,plate ,,xxix471 a white bottle with a dragon carved out of the glaze and left in biscuit4 ,the white wares so far described were made of the ordinary porcelain body and glaze1 but there is another group of whites which is ranked with the so-called 8soft pastes40 ,this is a creamy1 opaque and often earthy-looking ware1 the glaze of which is almost always crackled4 ,it is in fact an imitation of the old ,ting yao 7q4v471 and its soft-looking surface and warm creamy tone are seen to perfection in small vases1 snuff bottles1 and ornamental wares4 ,indeed1 the elegantly shaped and finely potted vessels of this soft1 ivory crackle are among the gems of the period4 ,crackle is a feature which is common to many of the monochromes1 and incidental mention has frequently been made of it in the preceding pages4 ,it is essentially a ,chinese phenomenon1 dating back to the ,sung dynasty1 and there are various accounts of the methods employed to produce it4 ,we are speaking of the intentional crackle which is clearly defined and usually accentuated by some colouring matter rubbed into the cracks1 as opposed to the accidental crazing which appears sooner or later on most of the glazes of the demi grand feu1 and on many low-fired enamels4 ,one crackling process used by the ,sung potters has been described on p4 #ii1 vol4 i4 ,another method is mentioned in the ,k'ang ,hsi ,encyclopdia1#cff viz4 to heat the unglazed ware as much as possible in the sun1 then plunge it into pure water4 ,by this means a crackle was produced on the ware after the firing4 ,but the normal process in the ,ch'ing dynasty seems to have been to mix a certain ingredient with the glaze which produced a crackle when fired4 ,there are constant references to this ingredient under the name of sui yu 7crackle glaze7 in the letters of ,pre d',entrecolles in connection with various monochromes1 and in the first letter1#cfg the following definite account appears3--8,it is to be observed that when no other glaze but that composed of white pebbles#cfh is added to the porcelain1 the ware turns out to be of a special kind known as tsoui ki 7sui ch'i crackled ware74 ,it is marbled all over and split up in every direction into a infinite number of veins4 ,at a distance it might be taken for broken porcelain1 all the fragments of which have remained in place4 ,it is like mosaic work4 ,the colour produced by this glaze is a slightly ashen white40 ,the effect of this ingredient of the glaze whatever its composition may have been is easily understood4 ,all porcelain and pottery undergoes a considerable amount of contraction--from loss of moisture1 etc4--in the kiln1 and to obtain a perfectly even glaze it is necessary that the contraction of the glaze should be the same as that of the body4 ,clearly this ingredient caused the glaze to contract to a greater extent than the body1 and so to split up into minute fissures4 ,the ,chinese were able to control to a great extent the size and nature of the crackle1 as is shown by the appearance of alternate bands of large and small crackle on the same piece4 ,the methods of colouring the crackle include rubbing red ochre1 ink1 and decoction of tea leaves into the cracks before the ware was quite cool4 ,another method is described by ,bushell 7,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #eaa7 by which a white crackled ware was stained pink or crimson4 ,the vessel was held in the fire in an iron cage until thoroughly heated1 and then water mixed with gold-pink colouring matter was blown on to it4 ,this1 however1 is a later process4 ,most of the monochrome glazes are occasionally crackled1 but the most characteristic colours of the crackle glazes are the greyish white 7the blanc un peu cendr of ,pre d',entrecolles71 and light buff1 which were probably intended to recall the ash colour 7hui s7 and the millet colour 7mi s7 of the ,sung ,ko yao4 ,some of the light buff or 8oatmeal0 crackles of the early ,ch'ing period are peculiarly refined and beautiful4 ,though this has seemed a favourable opportunity for discussing crackle glazes it is not to be supposed that they were a speciality of the ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,they are common to every age since the ,sung dynasty1 and probably they were never made in such abundance and with such care as in the ,yung ,chng and early ,ch'ien ,lung periods4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,yung ,,ch,,ng chch #b ,,period 7#agbc-agce7 ,the ,emperor1 ,k'ang ,hsi1 was succeeded by his son1 who reigned from #agbc-agce under the title ,yung ,chng4 ,the interest which the new ruler had taken as a prince in ceramic manufactures is proved by a passage in the first letter 7written in #agab7 of ,pre d',entrecolles in which he instances among remarkable examples of the potter's skill a 8great porcelain lamp made in one piece1 through which a torch gave light to a whole room4 ,this work was ordered seven or eight years ago by the ,crown ,prince40 ,we are further told that the same prince had ordered the manufacture of various musical instruments in porcelain4 ,these could not all be made1 but the most successful were flutes and flageolets1 and a set of chimes made of nine small1 round and slightly concave plaques1 which hung in a frame1 and were played with drum-sticks4 ,apparently the ,emperor continued to take an intimate interest in the industry after he had ascended the throne1 for he commanded his brother the prince of ,yi to announce personally to ,t'ang ,ying his appointment at ,ching-t ,chn in #agbh4 ,at the beginning of the reign the direction of the ,imperial factory was in the hands of ,nien ,hsi-yao1#cfi who1 in his capacity of inspector of customs at ,huai-an ,fu1#cgj dispensed the funds for the ,imperial porcelain4 ,a brief note in the ,t'ao lu1#cga under the heading 8,nien ware of the ,yung ,chng period10 sums up in the usual compressed style of ,chinese ceramic writers the character of the porcelain made at this time4 ,the duty of ,nien1 inspector of customs at ,huai-an ,fu1 we read1 was to select the materials1 and to see that the porcelain was furnished to the ,imperial orders4 ,the ware was extremely refined and elegant4 ,the coloured porcelains were sent twice monthly to ,nien at the ,customs1 and forwarded by him to the ,emperor4 ,among the vases 7cho ch'i7 many were of egg colour1 and of rounded form1 lustrous and pure white like silver4 ,they combined blue and coloured decoration1 and some had painted1 engraved1 etched1 or pierced ornament all ingeniously fashioned4 ,imitation of the antique and invention of novelties1 these were truly the established principles of ,nien4 ,the interesting list of wares made at the ,imperial factory which is given in detail on pp4 #bbc-bbf supplies a full commentary on this meagre notice1 illustrating the types which are merely hinted in the ,t'ao lu and specifying the particular kinds of antiques which were reproduced and many of the new processes invented in this reign4 ,with regard to the last1 however1 it appears that the chief credit was due to ,nien's gifted assistant1 ,t'ang ,ying4 ,most of the actual processes1 such as carving1 engraving1 piercing jour1 embossing in high and low relief1 blowing on of the glazes1 painting in enamels1 in gold and in silver1#cgb have already been described in previous chapters4 ,indeed we may assume that all the science of the ,k'ang ,hsi potters was inherited by their successors in the ,yung ,chng period1 and we need only concern ourselves with the novelties and the specialities of the period4 ,a few words should be said first about the ware itself4 ,necessary variations in the appearance of the ,ching-t ,chn porcelain1 which were due to purely natural causes such as the use of clays of varying qualities or those from different localities1 have been noted from time to time4 ,these differences are generally quite obvious and they explain themselves4 ,but apart from these there are numerous instances in which the potters have deliberately departed from the normal recipes in order to obtain some special effect4 ,thus we saw that the ch'ing-tien stone was introduced into the body in imitations of the opaque and rather earthy-looking white ,ting ,chou ware2 hua shih 7steatite7 was used for another type of opaque porcelain which offered a vellum-like surface to the blue painter2 and coarse1 impure clays were found of great service in the imitation of the dark-coloured body of the antique wares4 ,many other modifications appear in the porcelain of the first half of the eighteenth century4 ,there is1 for instance1 a very dead white ware1 soft looking1 but translucent1 which occurs on some of the choicer examples of armorial porcelain4#cgc ,there are several specimens of this in the ,british ,museum1 one of which bears the early date1 #agjb1 while others belong to the ,yung ,chng period4 ,again there is the highly vitreous ware evolved by ,t'ang ,ying to imitate the opaque glass of ,ku-yeh-hsan2 but that will be discussed later4#cgd ,these special bodies were mainly employed for articles of small size and ornamental design1 and they can be studied in all their varieties in a representative collection of snuff bottles4 ,the ,chinese potters lavished all their skill on these dainty little objects4 ,not only do they include every kind of ware1 crackled or plain1 translucent or opaque1 but they illustrate in miniature every variety of decoration--monochrome1 painted1 carved1 moulded1 incised1 pierced and embossed4 ,probably the choicest snuff bottles were made in the ,yung ,chng and ,ch'ien ,lung periods2 but the ,chinese have never ceased to delight in them1 and many beautiful examples were manufactured in the nineteenth century1 particularly in the ,tao ,kuang period4 ,the ordinary ,yung ,chng porcelain differs but little from that of the previous reign1 though it tends to assume a whiter appearance1 and the green tinge of the glaze is less marked4 ,moreover1 a change is noticeable in the finish of the base rim of vases and bowls4 ,bevelling of the edge is less common1 and gives place to a rounded or angular finish1 the foot rim being often almost symbol3 ,v-shaped2 while the slight tinge of brown around the raw edge1 which is usual on ,k'ang ,hsi wares1 is often entirely absent4 ,the actual potting of the porcelain displays a wonderful degree of manipulative skill1 and the forms1 though highly finished1 are not lacking in vigour4 ,they are1 in fact1 a happy mean between the strong1 free lines of the ,k'ang ,hsi and the meticulous finish of the later ,ch'ien ,lung porcelains4 ,the verdict of the ,t'ao lu1 8extremely refined and elegant10 is fully justified by the porcelain itself no less than by its decoration4 ,not the least deserving of this praise1 though mainly made for export1 is the important group discussed on page #bji1 viz4 the saucer dishes1 plates1 tea and coffee wares1 etc41 of delicate white porcelain1 painted1 apparently at ,canton1 in the famille rose enamels4 ,it is an 8eggshell0 porcelain1 white1 thin1 and beautifully finished1 and the dainty little conical or bell-shaped tea cups1 though without handles1 are the perfection of table ware4 ,this kind of 8eggshell0 is easily distinguished from the ,ming type1 which is greener in tone and has the appearance of melting snow by transmitted light4 ,the ,yung ,chng period is not conspicuous for blue and white porcelain4 ,the perfection of the famille rose colours and the growing demand for enamelled wares seem to have withdrawn the attention of the potters from their old speciality4 ,marked examples of ,yung ,chng blue and white are so uncommon that it is difficult to estimate the merits of the ware from them4 ,a saucer dish in the ,british ,museum shows the familiar pattern of a prunus spray reserved in white in a marbled blue ground2 but though the ware itself preserves much of the ,k'ang ,hsi character1 the blue is dull and grey1 and wanting in the vivacity and depth of the old models4 ,one would say that little care had been spent on the refining of the blue1 and without the old perfection of material the ,k'ang ,hsi style1 with its broad washes of colour1 was doomed to failure4 ,considerations of this sort may have led the painters to abandon the washes in favour of pencilling in fine lines1 a method apparent on the armorial porcelain which can be dated to this period4 ,such a treatment of the blue was admirably suited to small objects4 ,indeed it was the usual style of decoration on the steatitic porcelain1 of which many excellent examples belonging to this time are to be found among the snuff bottles1 vermilion boxes1 and the small1 artistic furniture of the writing table4 ,on large specimens the effect is thin and weak4 ,on the other hand the ,yung ,chng potters1 who excelled in reproducing the antique1 were most successful in their imitation of the old ,ming blue and whites4 ,the ,imperial list#cge includes such items as 8reproductions of the pale blue painted designs of ,ch'ng ,hua10 and of the dark blue of ,chia ,ching4 ,an interesting example of a ,ming reproduction is a bowl in the ,british ,museum1 which is painted on the exterior with the old design of ladies walking in a garden by candle light4#cgf ,in spite of its ,yung ,chng mark this piece is obviously a copy of a ,ming model4 ,the porcelain is white and thick1 and the glaze1 which is of greenish tint1 has a peculiar soft-looking surface1 while the blue design inside is of characteristic ,ming colour1 though that of the exterior is scarcely so successful4 ,another type much copied at this period as well as in the succeeding reign is that in which the blue is mottled and blotched with darker spots1 a type discussed among the early ,ming wares4#cgg ,and similarly such specimens as ,fig4 #b of ,plate #aaf1 which bears a ,hsan ,t mark1 doubtless belong to this period of imitative manufacture4 ,it is of thick1 solid build with smooth1 soft-looking glaze1 whose bubbled texture gives the blue a hazy appearance4 ,painting in underglaze red alone1 or in combination with underglaze blue1 was freely practised in the reign of ,yung ,chng1 and probably most of the fine examples of this type in our collections belong to this and the succeeding reign 7,fig4 #a1 ,plate #aag74 ,there is a good example with the ,yung ,chng mark in the ,british ,museum1 a vase of 8pilgrim-bottle0 form with central design of the three emblematic fruits--peach1 pomegranate1 and finger citron1 symbols of the ,three ,abundances of ,years1 ,sons and ,happiness4 ,the fruits are in a soft underglaze red1 verging on the peach-bloom tint1 and the foliage1 together with the borders and accessory designs1 are pencilled in dark blue4 ,the ,imperial list alludes to this decoration under the heading of 8red in the glaze0 7yu li hung71 including 7#a7 red used alone for painted designs1 and 7#b7 red foliage combined with blue flowers4#cgh ,examples of both these styles are frequent in large and small objects1 and especially in the decoration of snuff bottles1 which often bear the ,yung ,chng mark4 ,they are1 however1 by no means confined to the ,yung ,chng period1 but have continued in uninterrupted use to the present day4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #aae ,vase of baluster form with ornament in white slip and underglaze red and blue in a celadon green ground3 rockery and birds on a flowering prunus tree4 ,yung ,chng period 7#agbc-agce7 ,height #ae inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,other references in the list#cgi to underglaze red painting include designs of three fishes1#chj three fruits1 three funguses1 and five bats 7for the five blessings7 in the ,hsan ,t style1 red in a white ground2 and the same red designs in a celadon green ground1 the latter combination being a novelty of the previous reign4 ,plate #aae is a choice example of the underglaze colours in a celadon ground2 and similar designs in a pale lavender blue ground1 besides other combinations of the same colours1 coloured slips1 and high-fired glazes which form the polychrome decoration of the grand feu have been already discussed on p4 #adf4 ,they belong to the ,yung ,chng and ,ch'ien ,lung periods no less than to the ,k'ang ,hsi4 ,of the other kinds of polychrome1 the porcelain with glazes of the demi-grand feu1 and enamels of the muffle kiln in the three colours1 green1 yellow1 and aubergine1 was still made4 ,it is hardly likely that the manufacture#cha which ,pre d',entrecolles describes in #agbb ceased immediately1 and we know that the finer types with engraved designs and transparent glazes in the three colours were made to perfection at the ,imperial factory4 ,fig4 #a of ,plate #aaf illustrates a bowl of this kind with the ,yung ,chng mark and1 to judge from its exquisite quality1 an ,imperial piece4 ,the ornament is in green1 in a full yellow ground4 ,this type of decoration is a legacy from the ,ming dynasty1 and doubtless many of the saucer dishes1 bowls1 etc41 with ,chng ,t marks1 but with all the trimness and neatness of the ,yung ,chng wares1 belong to the latter period4 ,one variety is actually specified in the ,imperial list#chb viz4 8reproductions of porcelain with incised green decoration in a monochrome yellow ground40 ,as for the on-glaze enamels of the muffle kiln the old famille verte colour scheme was to a great and increasing extent supplanted by the famille rose4 ,it survived1 however1 in certain modified forms--in the delicately painted wares1 for example1 usually of eggshell thinness and decorated in thin1 clear1 transparent enamels1 such as were described in connection with the late ,k'ang ,hsi 8birthday plates 0 7see ,plate #aac74 ,and again the same colours were employed in a special type of decoration which seems to have originated in the ,yung ,chng period1 though it was freely used in later reigns4 ,in this the design was carefully traced in pale blue outlines under the glaze1 and filled in with light uniform washes of transparent enamels on the glaze4 ,the effect is delicate and refined1 though somewhat weak in comparison with the full1 iridescent colours and broad washes of the older famille verte4 ,possibly this style of decoration was intended to reproduce the traditional refinement of the ,ch'ng ,hua cups4 ,the ,imperial list#chc includes 8reproductions of ,ch'ng ,hua polychrome 7wu ts'ai710 and four exquisite eggshell wine cups in the ,hippisley ,collection which bear the ,ch'ng ,hua mark1 are painted in this fashion4#chd ,similarly in the ,bushell collection there are some beautiful reproductions of the ,ch'ng ,hua 8stem-cups10 with grape vine patterns1 etc41 which are no doubt of the same origin4 ,larger work in the same style is illustrated by a fine vase in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum with a phnix design which suggests an ,imperial destination 7,plate #aag74 ,illustration3 ,plate #aaf4--,yung ,chng ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--;,imperial ,rice ,bowl with design of playing children 7wa wa71 engraved outlines filled in with green in a yellow ground1 transparent glazes on the biscuit4 ,yung ,chng mark4 ,diameter #f inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,blue and white ,vase with fungus 7ling chih7 designs in ,hsan ,t style4 ,height #g inches4 ,cologne ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,plate #aag4--,yung ,chng ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--,vase with prunus design in underglaze red and blue4 ,height #ae inches4 ,c4 ,h4 ,read ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,imperial ,vase with phnix and peony design in pale famille verte enamels over underglaze blue outlines4 ,height #be inches4 ,v4 ,a4 ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,plate #aah4--;,early ,eighteenth ,century ,enamels4 ,fig4#a--,plate painted at ,canton in famille rose enamels 7yang ts'ai1 8foreign colouring074 ,yung ,chng period4 ,diameter #ba inches4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,arrow ,stand1 painted in late famille verte enamels4 ,about #agbj4 ,height #ai inches4 ,v4 ,a4 ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,plate #aai4--,yung ,chng ,porcelain1 painted at ,canton with famille rose enamels4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #a4--8,seven border0 ,plate4 ,diameter #h inches4 ,fig4 #b4--;,eggshell ,cup and ,saucer with painter's marks 7see p4 #bab74 ,diameter of saucer1 #d inches4 ,fig4 #c4--;,eggshell ,plate with vine border4 ,diameter #h inches4 ,fig4 #d4--;,armorial ,plate with arms of ,leake ,okeover4 ,transition enamels1 about #agbc4 ,diameter #h inches4 ,thirdly1 there are the reproductions of the enamelled porcelain of the ,chng ,t and ,wan ,li periods#che 7q4v471 characterised1 no doubt1 by the combination of underglaze blue and overglaze enamels4 ,we have already seen#chf from the note on ,nien yao in the ,t'ao lu that this combination was conspicuous at this period1 and it is probable that much of the 8five colour0 porcelain in late ,ming style should be dated no further back than the ,yung ,chng revival4 ,other types of ,ming coloured wares reproduced at this time were 8porcelain with ornament in ,hsan ,t style in a yellow ground10#chg which seems to mean underglaze blue designs with the ground filled in with yellow enamel--a not unfamiliar type--and porcelain with designs painted in iron red 7ts'ai hung7 8reproduced from old pieces40#chh ,but the most prominent feature of the enamelled porcelains of this time is the rapid development of the famille rose colours4 ,we have already noted the first signs of their coming in the thick rose pink and opaque white1 which made their appearance in the latter years of ,k'ang ,hsi4 ,the group derives its name from its most conspicuous members1 a series of rose pinks graduating from pale rose to deep crimson1 all derived from gold1 the use of which as a colouring agent for vitreous enamel was only at this period mastered by the ,chinese potters4 ,it includes besides a number of other colours distinguished from those of the famille verte palette by their relative opacity4 ,they display1 moreover1 a far wider range of tints1 owing to scientific blending of the various enamels and to the judicious use of the opaque white to modify the positive colours4 ,most of the opaque colours have considerable body1 and stand out on the porcelain like a rich incrustation1 and they are laid on not in broad washes1 but with careful brush strokes and miniature-like touches4 ,the famille rose colours are known to the ,chinese as juan ts'ai 78soft colours10 as opposed to the ying ts'ai1 or hard colours of the famille verte71 fn ts'ai 7pale colours71 or yang ts'ai 7foreign colours74 ,their foreign origin is generally admitted1 and ,t'ang ,ying in the seventeenth of his descriptions of the processes of manufacture alludes to them under the heading1 8,decorating the round ware and vases with foreign colouring40#chi ,painting the white porcelain in polychrome 7wu ts'ai7 after the manner of the ,europeans 7hsi yang71 he tells us1 is called foreign colouring1 and he adds that the colours employed are the same as those used for enamels on metal 7fo lang74 ,taking this statement with the note on 8foreign coloured wares0 in the ,imperial list1#cij where reference is made to painting on enamels 7fa lang7 8landscapes and figure scenes1 flowering plants and birds10 it is evident that fa lang is used here not in the usual sense of cloisonn enamel1 but for the painted enamels on copper which we distinguish as ,canton enamels4 ,these1 we are told elsewhere1#cia were first made in the kingdom of ,ku-li1 which is washed by the ,western sea4 ,ku-li is identified as ,calicut1 but it does not necessarily follow that the ,chinese associated the origin of the painted enamels with ,india4 ,the expression was probably used quite vaguely in reference to ,european goods which came by way of ,india1 and does not really conflict with the other phrase1 hsi yang 7,western foreigners71 which is always rendered 8,europeans40 ,there is quite a number of references to the foreign or ,european colours in the ,imperial list1#cib e4g4 8porcelain in yellow after the ,european style10 which ,bushell considers to be the lemon yellow which originated in this reign2 8porcelain in purple brown 7tz7 after the ,european style02 8,european red-coloured wares10 i4e4 rose pink2 8,european green-coloured wares10 which ,bushell explains as pale bluish green or eau de nil enamel2 and 8,european black 7wu chin7 wares40 ,in fact the words1 8foreign or ,european10 seem to be practically synonymous with 8opaque enamel40#cic ,the most complete display of the foreign colouring is given by a special group of porcelain which is painted in a characteristic and mannered style4 ,it is best known as 8eggshell0 or 8ruby-back0 porcelain1 from the fact that it is usually very thin and translucent and beautifully potted1 and that the exterior of the dishes and plates is often coated with a gold pink enamel varying from pale ruby pink to deep crimson4 ,it usually consists of saucer-shaped dishes1 plates1 and tea and coffee wares1 obviously intended for ,european use4 ,occasionally there are vases and lanterns of exquisite lightness and translucency1 but the vase forms usually required a more substantial construction1 and such specimens as ,plate #abj1 are strongly built1 though decorated in the same style as the eggshell wares4 ,the decoration of these porcelains is scarcely less distinctive than their colouring4 ,the central design usually consists of one of the following3 a ,chinese interior with figures of ladies and children1 groups of vases and furniture1 baskets of flowers and dishes of fruit1 a pheasant on a rock1 two quails and growing flowers1 a cock and peonies1 etc42 and these designs are enclosed by rich borders1 sometimes totalling as many as seven in number1 composed of hexagon and square1 lozenge1 trellis or matting diapers1 in varying colours1 and broken by small irregular panels of flowers or archaic dragons4 ,there are1 of course1 many other kinds of decoration on these wares4 ,sometimes the whole design is executed in opaque blue enamel1 sometimes it is black and gold4 ,on some the borders are simpler1 merely delicately gilt patterns2 on others they are ruby pink1 plain or broken by enamelled sprays4 ,on the vase forms the ruby either covers the entire ground or is broken1 as in ,plate #aba1 ,fig4 #c1 by fan-shaped or picture-shaped panels with polychrome designs4 ,the painting is1 as a rule1 very finely and carefully executed1 but almost always in a distinctive style which is closely paralleled by the ,canton enamels4 ,indeed1 it is impossible to resist the conclusion that much of this ware was actually decorated in the enamelling establishments at ,canton1 the porcelain itself being sent in the white from ,ching-t ,chn4 ,the same designs are found on both the porcelain and the enamels1 and there is one instance at least of an artist whose paintings were used on both materials1 as is testified by his signature4 ,this is the painter whose art-name is ,pai shih shan jn 7hermit of the white rock71 or in a shortened form1 ,pai-shih 7see vol4 i41 p4 #bbc74 ,he was evidently a ,cantonese1 for one of his designs on a saucer in the ,british ,museum is inscribed ,ling nan hui ch 7a ,canton picture71 the subject being a vase of flowers and a basket of fruit4 ,his signature is also attached to a dish with cock and peonies in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1#cid and to a similar design figured by ,jacquemart1#cie which also bears the date corresponding to #agbd4 ,it occurs1 besides1 fairly frequently on ,canton enamels1 though in this case usually attached to landscape designs4 ,in all these instances1 however1 it is placed in the field of the design appended1 as a rule1 to a stanza of verse or a descriptive sentence4 ,this is a usual position for the signature of a painter on silk or paper1 and we can hardly be wrong in inferring that ,pai-shih was the artist whose designs were copied on the wares1 perhaps one who was specially employed to design for the enamellers1 rather than an actual pot-painter or enameller4 ,the proper place for the signature of the latter is underneath the ware1 on the base2 and here we find on a cup and saucer in the ,british ,museum the name apparently of the real decorator whose painting is not to be distinguished from that on the piece with the ,pai-shih signature1 just mentioned as in the same collection4 ,under the saucer 7,plate #aai1 ,fig4 #b7 is the seal ,y fng yang lin1 i4e4 ,yang ,lin of ,y-fng1 an old name for the town of ,k'un-shan2 and under the cup is the seal ,yu chai 7quiet pavilion71 which is no doubt the studio name of ,yang-lin4#cif ,k'un-shan ,hsien is situated between ,su-chou and ,shanghai1 in the province of ,kiangsu1 and we are to understand that ,yang-lin was either a native of ,k'un-shan or that he resided there--more probably the former1 for his work is typical of the ,canton enamellers4 ,it is1 however1 probable enough that there were decorating establishments working for the ,european markets in the neighbourhood of ,shanghai as well as at ,canton1 just as there are still decorating kilns not only at ,ching-t ,chn but 8at the other towns on the river40#cig ,it is highly probable that the brushwork of the ,canton enamellers1 like the enamels themselves1 was copied at ,ching-t ,chn1 and even that some of the enamellers migrated thither4 ,a tankard among the armorial porcelain in the ,british ,museum1 bearing the arms of ,yorke and ,cocks1 combines a few touches of underglaze blue with passages of famille rose decoration in the ,canton style4 ,the blue can only have been applied at the place of manufacture1 and as no porcelain of this kind was actually made at ,canton1 it is evident that the piece was made and decorated elsewhere 7which can only mean at ,ching-t ,chn71 unless we assume the improbable alternative that the tankard travelled from the factory1 bare save for a faintly outlined shield with a saltire in blue1 to be finished off at ,canton4 ,needless to say there is much famille rose porcelain in which the ,cantonese style is not apparent1 and this we assume without hesitation to have been decorated at ,ching-t ,chn4 ,it only remains to say a few words on the dating of the famille rose wares and for this we must return to the ruby-back porcelains4 ,dated pieces are rare1 but the ,british ,museum is fortunate in possessing a few documentary specimens4 ,the most interesting of these is a bowl with pale ruby enamel covering the exterior1 and a dainty spray of flowers in famille rose enamels inside4 ,it is marked in blue under the glaze with the cyclical date 8made in the hsin chou year recurring0 7see p4 #bac74 ,the only year to which this can be referred is #agba1 when the hsin chou year came round for the second time in the long reign of ,k'ang ,hsi4#cih ,it is of course possible that this bowl was not enamelled in the year of its manufacture1 but there are two other pieces in the same case1 an octagonal plate with ruby border and a dish1 both with the mark of the ,dresden collection1 and therefore not later than the early years of ,yung ,chng4 ,a fourth document is a ruby-back saucer dish delicately painted with a lady and boys1 vases and furniture in typical style1 which has the mark of the ,yung ,chng period4 ,unfortunately it is no longer possible to regard the year #agbd1 to which the signature ,pai-shih is attached on the plate mentioned above1 as conclusive evidence of the date of decoration4#cii ,it is certainly the date of the design1 and it is probable enough that the porcelain was painted within a few years of the original picture1 but beyond that no further inferences can be drawn4#djj ,the ,yorke-,cocks tankard1 however1 to which we have also alluded1 must for heraldic reasons have been painted between the years #agbj and #agcc2 and there is an eggshell cup and saucer in the ,british ,museum painted in rose pink and other enamels of this type1 with the arms of the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company and the date #agbh4 ,from this cumulative evidence it is clear that the manufacture of eggshell dishes and services with famille rose enamels in the ,canton style and with 8ruby backs0 was in full swing in the ,yung ,chng period1 and the general tendency to label them all ,ch'ien ,lung errs on the side of excessive caution4 ,passing from this particular group1 which was affected by special influences1 the general character of the ,yung ,chng enamelled decoration is one of great refinement in design and execution4 ,the over-elaboration and the overcrowding which are observable on the later ,ch'ien ,lung famille rose are absent at this period4 ,the tendency was on the contrary towards elegant and restrained effects1 such as a flowering spray thrown artistically across the field1 birds on a bough and other graceful designs which left plenty of scope for the fine quality of the white background4 ,it is this nicely balanced decoration coupled with the delicacy of the painting and the beautiful finish of the porcelain itself1 which gives the ,yung ,chng enamelled wares their singular distinction and charm4 ,there are still a few special types of painted wares to be noticed before passing to the monochromes4 ,one of these is named in the ,imperial list1#dja under the heading 8,porcelain painted in ink 7ts'ai shui mo710 a figurative expression1 for ,indian ink could not stand the heat even of the enamelling kiln1 and could never have served as a true ceramic pigment4 ,the material used was a dry black or brown black pigment derived from manganese1 and closely allied to the pigment which had long served in a subordinate position for tracing outlines4 ,evidently this material was now greatly improved1 and could be used for complete designs which resembled drawings in ,indian ink or in sepia4 ,it is certain1 however1 that the ,chinese1 whose methods were necessarily empirical1 had first experimented with actual ink1 for ,pre d',entrecolles wrote in #agbbdjb--8;an attempt made to paint in black some vases with the finest ,chinese ink met with no success4 ,when the porcelain had been fired1 it turned out white4 ,the particles of this black had not sufficient body1 and were dissipated by the action of the fire2 or rather they had not the strength to penetrate the layer of glaze or to produce a colour differing from the plain glaze40 ,between that date and about #agcj when the ,imperial list was drawn up1 the secret of the proper pigment seems to have been mastered1 and we find the black designs effectively used on ,yung ,chng eggshell and other wares1 alone or brightened by a little gilding4 ,among other uses it was found to be admirably suited for copying the effect of ,european prints and line engravings1 a tour de force in which the proverbial patience and imitative skill of the ,chinese are well exemplified4 ,another effect sometimes mistaken for black painting is produced by silvered designs which become rapidly discoloured2 but it is generally possible to see a slight metallic sheen even on the blackened silver if the porcelain is held obliquely to the light4 ,another refined and unobtrusive decoration was effected by pencilling in pale iron red supplemented with gilding4 ,there is a large series of this red and gold porcelain in the ,dresden collection1 and it seems to belong to the late ,k'ang ,hsi or the ,yung ,chng period4 ,another telling combination1 including black1 red and gold1 dates from this time4 ,the black and gold variety is well illustrated by an interesting plate in the ,british ,museum which represents ,european figures in early eighteenth-century costume in a ,chinese interior 7,plate #aca1 ,fig4 #a74 ,the ,imperial list#djc alludes to the use of silver and gold both to cover the entire surface like a monochrome 7mo yin and mo chin71 and in painted designs 7miao yin and miao chin74#djd ,three of these decorations are said to have been in ,japanese style1 but the precise significance of this is not clear4 ,gilding was freely used in combination with red and blue1 and especially over the blue1 on ,arita porcelain1 but the application of it does not seem to differ from the ordinary ,chinese gilding4 ,the one feature common to the ,chinese and ,japanese gilding is its lightness and restraint as compared with the heavy gilding of ,european porcelains4 ,plate #abe illustrates a peculiar ware which belongs in part to the reign of ,yung ,chng and in part to that of ,ch'ien ,lung4 ,it attempts to reproduce the soft colouring on the enamelled glass made by ,hu1#dje whose studio-name was ,ku-yeh-hsan 78ancient moon pavilion074 ,a small brush holder#djf of this glass is shown on ,fig4 #abe1 an opaque white material1 not unlike our old ,bristol glass1 delicately painted in famille rose colours with groups of the ,seven ,worthies of the ,bamboo ,grove4 ,it is said that#djg the ,emperor admired the soft colouring on this ware1 and expressed a wish to see the same effect produced in porcelain4 ,t'ang ,ying thereupon set out to solve the problem by making a highly vitreous body with glassy glaze on which the enamels assumed the soft tints of the original model4 ,this type of porcelain1 known as fang ku yeh hsan 78imitation of ,ku-yeh-hsan071 is greatly prized4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,hippisley has described a small group in the catalogue of his collection from which ,i have been permitted to illustrate an example 7,plate #abe74 ,mr4 ,hippisley states that the earlier specimens of the glass are marked with the four characters ta ch'ing nien chih 7made in the great ,ch'ing period71 the reign name ,yung ,chng being omitted2 the later pieces1 of which the brush pot in our illustration is one1 have the ,ch'ien ,lung mark in four characters4 ,bushell#djh has figured a yellow glazed snuff bottle with the actual mark ,ku yeh hsan chih 7see vol4 i4 p4 #bai74 ,the reigns of ,yung ,chng and ,ch'ien ,lung were prolific in monochromes4 ,never since the ,sung dynasty had these wares been produced in such quantity1 and the tale of the glazes was swollen to an unprecedented extent by the accumulated traditions of the past centuries1 and by the inventive genius of ,t'ang ,ying4 ,it is scarcely practicable to attempt to distinguish very closely between the ,yung ,chng monochromes and those of the early years of ,ch'ien ,lung4 ,the activities of ,t'ang-ying extended from #agbh-agdi1 and we are expressly told that many of the types enumerated in the ,imperial list were his inventions1 besides which there was nothing made by the potters of the past which he could not reproduce4 ,to enumerate all the colours now used would be merely to repeat what has been said under the heading of monochrome porcelain in the previous chapters4 ,moreover1 the ,imperial list given on page #bbc serves to draw attention to the principal types1 and it is only necessary here to supplement it with a few comments4 ,a special feature of the time was the reproduction of the glazes made in the classical periods of the ,sung and ,ming dynasties1 and in many cases these copies were based on originals lent to the factory from the ,imperial collections4 ,thus the ,ju1 ,kuan1 ,ko1 ,lung-chan1 ,tung-ch'ing1 ,chn and ,ting wares1 all the specialities of the ,sung dynasty1 are included in the list1 and though one type of ,kuan glaze is specifically stated to have been laid on a white porcelain body1 many of the others1 we read1 were provided with special bodies imitating the copper-and iron-coloured wares of antiquity4 ,but experience shows that in the majority of cases the potters were content to simulate the 8brown mouth and iron foot0 of the dark-bodied ,sung wares by dressing the mouth and the exposed part of the base with ferruginous clay4 ,this is observable on the lavender crackles which imitate the ,kuan1 and the stone grey crackles of the ,ko type1 by which the ,sung originals were until recent years represented in most ,western collections4 ,in other cases coarse clays of impure colour1 and even earthenware bodies were used in the reproductions4 ,the admirable imitations of the mottled and flamb ,chn glazes which were apparently a special triumph of ,t'ang-ying appear both on a white porcelain which had to be carefully concealed by the coloured glazes1 and on a soft earthenware body4 ,both these kinds are found with the ,yung ,chng mark stamped in the paste1 and so correct are the glaze effects that even collectors of considerable experience have been deceived by specimens from which the mark in question has been ground away4 ,in addition to the copies of the high-fired ,chn glazes1 there was the 8,chn glaze of the muffle kiln0 7lu chn yu7 which is described as something between the glaze applied to the ,yi-hsing stoneware and the ,kuangtung glazes4 ,the items immediately following this information in the ,imperial list#dji make it clear that the writer refers to the glazes of ,ou on the ,yi-hsing pottery1 and to the blue mottled glazes of the ,canton stoneware4 ,the enamel which most closely answers to the description of this ,chn glaze of the muffle kiln#daj is that illustrated in ,fig4 #d of ,plate #abh1 a vase with dark-coloured foot rim1 and an opaque greenish blue enamel flecked with dark ruby pink4 ,this enamel varies considerably in appearance according to the preponderance of the red or the blue in the combination2 but it is an enamel of the muffle kiln and its markings recall the dappled ,chn glazes4 ,i have1 moreover1 seen this glaze actually applied to a teapot of ,yi-hsing red stoneware4 ,this glaze seems to belong to a type1 which was largely developed in the ,ch'ien ,lung period1 of glazes resembling if not actually imitating the mottled surface of certain birds' eggs1 e4g4 the robin1 the lark1 the sparrow1 etc4 ,in these instances one colour seems to have been powdered or blown on to another1 the commonest kind having a powdering of ruby pink on pale blue or green4 ,this glaze differs from the ,chn glaze1 described above1 only in the size of the pink specks4 ,it was probably in experimenting for the effect of the flamb ,chn glazes that ,t'ang ,ying acquired the mastery of the furnace transmutations 7yao pien7 which made it possible for him and his successors to produce at will the variegated glazes4 ,these had been described by ,pre d',entrecolles a few years earlier as accidental effects in his time1 but the ,french father already foresaw the day when they would be brought under control4 ,of the celebrated ,ting ,chou wares only the fine ivory white ,ting 7fn ting7 was copied at the ,imperial factory2 but this does not preclude the reproduction of the other kind1 the creamy crackled t'u-ting1 in the other potteries4 ,there are1 at any rate1 many lovely porcelains in both styles which appear to belong to the ,yung ,chng and early ,ch'ien ,lung periods4 ,coloured glazes with crackle and crackled grey-white of the ,ko type were made in great quantity1 and most of the choicer crackles in our collections1 especially those of antique appearance but on a white and neatly finished porcelain body1 date from this time4 ,the reproductions of ,ming monochromes include the underglaze red and the purplish blue as in the previous reign1 and the eggshell and pure white of the ,yung ,lo and ,hsan ,t periods4 ,the purplish blue or chi ch'ing of this time is illustrated by a large dish in the ,british ,museum which is further enriched with gilding4 ,it is covered with a splendid deep blue of slightly reddish tinge1 varying depth and rather stippled appearance1 and it was found in ,turkey1 where this colour has been much prized4 ,turquoise green1 aubergine purple and yellow of the demi-grand feu1 and the lustrous brown 7tz chin7 in two shades1 brown and yellow1 are all mentioned in the ,imperial list as used with or without engraved and carved designs under the glaze4 ,as for the ,k'ang ,hsi porcelains it may be assumed that practically all their glaze colours were now reproduced4 ,a few only are specified in the list1 eel yellow1 snake-skin green1 spotted yellow1 souffl red1 souffl blue 7powder blue7 and mirror black 7wu chin74 ,the term souffl red may refer to the underglaze red from copper or the overglaze iron red4 ,the latter is further subdivided into mo hung or ta hung1 the deep red of ,ming origin1 and the tsao'rh hung or jujube red1 a softer and more vitreous#daa variety of the same colour which ,dr4 ,bushell considered to have originated in the ,yung ,chng period4 ,on the souffl red under the glaze we may quote ,bushell's remarks#dab3 8,two of the colours especially characteristic of the ,nien yao or ',nien porcelain' of this epoch are the clair de lune or yeh pai1 and the bright souffl copper red40 ,the latter is further described on a vase in the ,walters collection 8exhibiting the characteristic monochrome glaze of bright ruby red tint1 and stippled surface4 ,the souffl glaze is applied over the whole surface with the exception of a panel of irregular outline reserved on one side1 where it is shaded off so that the red fades gradually into a nearly white ground40 ,this panel was afterwards filled in with a design in overglaze enamels4 ,a tazza in the ,british ,museum has this same red covering three-quarters of the exterior1 and fading into the white ground4 ,this red also occurs in its beautiful translucent ruby tints on a pair of small wine cups in the same collection1 and on a set of larger cups belonging to ,mr4 ,eumorfopoulos4 ,one would say it was the 8liquid dawn0 tint of the celebrated wine cups of the late ,ming potter1 ,hao ,shih-chiu4 ,the clair de lune or moon white 7yeh pai71 an exquisite glaze of palest blue1 is illustrated on ,plate #acj4 ,it is often faintly tinged with lavender which bears out its description in the ,imperial list#dac3 8,this colour somewhat resembles the ,ta ,kuan glaze1 but the body of the ware is white4 ,the glaze is without crackle1 and there are two shades--pale and dark40 ,the ,kuan glaze1 it should be explained1 was characterised by a reddish tinge4 ,in addition to the foreign colours which were capable of being used as monochromes as well as in painted designs1 there are a few other new glazes named in the ,imperial list4 ,the fa ch'ing 7cloisonn blue7 which 8resulted from recent experiments to match0 the deep blue of the enamellers on copper1 is identified by ,bushell with the dark sapphire blue known as pao shih lan 7precious stone blue74 ,it was1 we are told1 darker and bluer than the purplish chi ch'ing1 and it had not the orange peel and palm eye markings of the latter4 ,it has1 however1 a faint crackle1 and is apparently a glaze of the demi-grand feu4 ,we learn elsewhere that this cloisonn blue was one of ,t'ang-ying's inventions4 ,among the yellows are 8porcelain with yellow after the ,european style0 which is identified by ,bushell with the opaque lemon yellow enamel introduced at this time1 and there are two kinds of mi s 7millet colour7 glazes1#dad pale and dark1 which we are told 8differed from the ,sung mi s40 ,bushell's explanation of the term mi s given in ,monkhouse's ,chinese ,porcelain1#dae traverses his rendering of the terms as rice colour in other books3 8,the ,chinese term used here is mi s1 which ,julien first translated couleur du riz1 and thereby misled us all4 ,it really refers to the colour 7s7 of the yellow millet 7huang mi71 not of rice 7pai mi74 ,mi s in ,chinese silks is a full primrose yellow2 in ,chinese ceramic glazes it often deepens from that tint to a dull mustard colour when the materials are less pure4 ,it has often been wondered why the old 8mustard crackle0 of collectors is apparently never alluded to in 8,l',histoire des ,porcelaines de ,king-t-chin40 ,it is necessary to substitute yellow for 8rice coloured0 in the text generally1 remembering always that a paler tone is indicated than that of the ,imperial yellow1 which ,mr4 ,monkhouse justly likens to the yolk of an egg40 ,in ,giles's ,dictionary mi s is rendered 8straw colour1 the colour of yellow millet10 and all my inquiries among ,chinese collectors as to the tint of the mi s glaze have led to the same conclusion4 ,one of the ,chinese experts indicated a bowl with pale straw yellow glaze of the ,k'ang ,hsi period as an example of mi s1 and this ,i take to be the mi s which 8differed from the ,sung colour10 being1 in fact1 an ordinary yellow glaze1 following the type made in the ,ming dynasty1 and entirely different in technique from the ,sung glazes4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #abj ,covered ,jar or potiche painted in famille rose or 8foreign colours0 7yang ts'ai7 with baskets of flowers3 deep borders of ruby red enamel broken by small panels and floral designs4 ,on the cover is a lion coloured with enamels on the biscuit4 ,from a set of five vases and beakers in the collection of ,lady ,wantage4 ,late ,yung ,chng period 7#agbc-agce7 ,height #cd inches4 ,the precise nature of the ,sung mi s which is included among the ,ko yao1 ,chn yao and ,hsiang-hu wares reproduced by the ,yung ,chng potters according to the ,imperial list is a little doubtful4 ,possibly one type was illustrated by the 8shallow bowl with spout3 grey stoneware with opaque glaze of pale sulphur yellow10 which ,mr4 ,alexander exhibited at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #aiaj4daf ,another is indicated in the ,pierpont ,morgan collection#dag in a 8shallow bowl with greenish yellow crackled glaze10 apparently of the type found occasionally in ,borneo1 where such wares are still treasured by the ,dyaks4 ,the vase in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum which is figured by ,monkhouse 7op4 cit41 ,fig4 #bb7 as a specimen of old mi s1 appears for reasons already given#dah to be a ,yung ,chng reproduction of this type4 ,the 8mustard yellow0 which ,bushell included under the description mi s is an opaque crackled enamel which can hardly have originated before the ,yung ,chng period1 and it is possible that it resulted from an attempt to reproduce the old ,sung mi s crackle4 ,the following list of the decorations used at the ,imperial factory was compiled by ,hsieh ,min1 the governor of the province of ,kiangsi from #agbi to #agcd4dai ,it was translated by ,bushell in his ,oriental ,ceramic ,art2 but reference has been made to it so often in these pages1 and its importance is so obvious1 that no apology is necessary for giving it in full4 ,the following version is taken from the ,chiang hsi t'ung chih1 bk4 #ic1 fols4 #aa to #ac1 and in most cases ,bushell's rendering has been followed3-- #a4 ,glazes of the ,ta ,kuan period 7i4e4 ,sung ,kuan yao7 on an 8iron0 body1 including moon white 7yeh pai71 pale blue or green 7fn ch'ing7 and deep green 7ta l749999 #b4 ,ko glaze on an 8iron0 body1 including millet colour 7mi s7 and fn ch'ing49999 #c4 ,ju glaze without crackle on a 8copper0 body3 the glaze colours copied from a cat's food basin of the ,sung dynasty1 and a dish for washing brushes moulded with a human face4 #d4 ,ju glaze with fish-roe crackle on a 8copper0 body49999 #e4 ,white ,ting glaze4 ,only the fn ,ting was copied1 and not the t'u ,ting4 #f4 ,chn glazes4 ,nine varieties are given1 of which five were copied from old palace pieces and four from newly acquired specimens2 see p4 #jjj4 #g4 ,reproductions of the chi hung red of the ,hsan ,t period3 including fresh red 7hsien hung7 and ruby red 7pao shih hung74 #h4 ,reproductions of the deep violet blue 7chi ch'ing7 of the ,hsan ,t period4 ,this glaze is deep and reddish 7nng hung71 and has orange peel markings and palm eyes4 #i4 ,reproductions of the glazes of the ,imperial factory3 including eel yellow 7shan y huang71 snake-skin green 7sh p'i l71 and spotted yellow 7huang pan tien74 #aj4 ,lung-ch'an glazes3 including pale and dark shades4 #aa4 ,tung-ch'ing glazes3 including pale and dark1 shades4 #ab4 ,reproductions of the ,sung millet-coloured 7mi s7 glaze3 copied in form and colour from the fragmentary wares dug up at ,hsiang ,hu 7q4v474 #ac4 ,sung pale green 7fn ch'ing7 glaze3 copied from wares found at the same time as the last4 #ad4 ,reproduction of 8oil green0 7yu l7 glaze3 8copied from an old transmutation 7yao pien7 ware like green jade 7pi y71 with brilliant colour broken by variegated passages and of antique elegance40 #ae4 ,the ,chn glaze of the muffle stove 7lu chn74 8,the colour is between that of the ,kuangtung wares and the ,yi-hsing applied glaze#dbj2 and in the ornamental markings 7hua wn7 and the transmutation tints of the flowing glaze it surpasses them40 #af4 ,ou's glazes1 with red and blue markings4 #ag4 ,blue mottled 7ch'ing tien7 glazes3 copied from old ,kuang yao4 #ah4 ,moon white 7yeh pai7 glazes4 8,the colour somewhat resembles the ,ta ,kuan glaze1 but the body of the ware is white4 ,the glaze is without crackle1 and there are two shades--pale and dark40 #ai4 ,reproductions of the ruby red 7pao shao7 of ,hsan ,t3 in decoration consisting of 7#a7 three fishes1 7#b7 three fruits1 7#c7 three funguses1 or 7#d7 the five ,happinesses 7symbolised by five bats74 #bj4 ,reproductions of the ,lung-ch'an glaze with ruby red decoration of the types just enumerated4 8,this is a new style of the reigning dynasty40 #ba4 ,turquoise 7fei ts'ui7 glazes4 ,copying three sorts1 7#a7 pure turquoise1 7#b7 blue flecked1 and 7#c7 gold flecked 7chin tien74#dba #bb4 ,souffl red 7ch'ui hung7 glaze4 #bc4 ,souffl blue 7ch'ui ch'ing7 glaze4 #bd4 ,reproductions of ,yung ,lo porcelain3 eggshell 7t'o t'ai71 pure white with engraved 7chui7 or embossed 7kung7 designs4 #be4 ,copies of ,wan ,li and ,chng ,t enamelled 7wu ts'ai7 porcelain4 #bf4 ,copies of ,ch'ng ,hua enamelled 7wu ts'ai7 porcelain4 #bg4 ,porcelain with ornament in ,hsan ,t style in a yellow ground4 #bh4 ,cloisonn blue 7fa ch'ing7 glaze4#dbb 8,this glaze is the result of recent attempts to match this colour 7i4e4 the deep blue of the cloisonn enamels74 ,as compared with the deep and reddish chi ch'ing1 it is darker and more vividly blue 7ts'ui71 and it has no orange peel or palm eye markings40 #bi4 ,reproductions of ,european wares with lifelike designs carved and engraved4 8,sets of the five sacrificial utensils1 dishes1 plates1 vases1 and boxes and the like are also decorated with coloured pictures in ,european style40 ,illustration3 ,plate #aba4--,two ,beakers and a ,jar from sets of five1 famille rose enamels4 ,late ,yung ,chng ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--;,beaker with 8harlequin0 ground4 ,height #ae inches4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,jar with dark blue glaze gilt and leaf-shaped reserves4 ,height #ba inches4 ,burdett-,coutts ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,beaker with fan and picture-scroll panels1 etc41 in a deep ruby pink ground4 ,height #ad inches4 ,wantage ,collection4 #cj4 ,reproductions of wares with incised green decoration in a yellow glaze 7chiao huang74 #ca4 ,reproductions of yellow-glazed wares3 including plain and with incised ornament4 #cb4 ,reproductions of purple brown 7tz7 glazed wares3 including plain and with incised ornament4 #cc4 ,porcelain with engraved ornament3 including all kinds of glazes4 #cd4 ,porcelain with embossed 7tui7 ornament3 including all kinds of glazes4 #ce4 ,painted red 7mo#dbc hung73 copying old specimens4 #cf4 ,red decoration 7ts'ai hung73 copying old specimens4 #cg4 ,porcelain in yellow after the ,european style4#dbd #ch4 ,porcelain in purple brown 7tz7 after the ,european style4 #ci4 ,silvered 7mo yin7 porcelain4 #dj4 ,porcelain painted in ink 7shui mo73 see p4 #bad4 #da4 ,reproductions of the pure white 7t'ien pai7#dbe porcelain of the ,hsan ,t period3 including a variety of wares thick and thin1 large and small4 #db4 ,reproductions of ,chia ,ching wares with blue designs4 #dc4 ,reproductions of ,ch'ng ,hua pale painted 7tan miao7 blue designs4 #dd4 ,millet colour 7mi s7 glazes4 8,differing from the ,sung millet colour40 ,in two shades1 dark and light4 #de4 ,porcelain with red in the glaze 7yu li hung73 including 7#a7 painted designs exclusively in red1 7#b7 the combination of blue foliage and red flowers4#dbf #df4 ,reproductions of lustrous brown 7tz chin7 glaze3 including two varieties1 brown and yellow4 #dg4 ,porcelains with yellow glaze 7chiao huang7 decorated in enamels 7wu ts'ai74 8,this is the result of recent experiments40 #dh4 ,reproductions of green-glazed porcelain3 including that with plain ground and with engraved ornament4 #di4 ,wares with foreign colours 7yang ts'ai74 8,in the new copies of the ,western style of painting in enamels 7fa-lang7 the landscapes and figure scenes1 the flowering plants and birds are without exception of supernatural beauty and finish40#dbg #ej4 ,porcelain with embossed ornament 7kung hua73 including all kinds of glazes4 #ea4 ,porcelain with ,european 7hsi yang7 red colour4 #eb4 ,reproductions of wu chin 7mirror black7 glazes3 including those with black ground and white designs and those with black ground and gilding4 #ec4 ,porcelain with ,european green colour4 #ed4 ,european wu chin 7mirror black7 wares4 #ee4 ,gilt 7mo chin7 porcelain3 copying the ,japanese4 #ef4 ,gilt 7miao chin7#dbh porcelain3 copying the ,japanese4 #eg4 ,silvered 7miao yin7 porcelain3 copying the ,japanese4 #eh4 ,large jars 7ta kang7 with ,imperial factory 7ch'ang kuan7 glazes4 8,dimensions3 diameter1 at the mouth1 #c ft4 #d or #e in4 to #d ft42 height1 #a ft4 #g or #h in4 to #b ft4 ,glaze colours1 7#a7 eel yellow1 7#b7 cucumber 7kua p'i7 green1 and 7#c7 yellow and green mottled 7huang l tien740 ,this last item1 which is not included in ,bushell's list1 appears to be almost a repetition of ,no4 #i1 with slightly different phrasing4 ,huang l tien1 which is used instead of the difficult phrase huang pan tien1 may perhaps be taken as a gloss on the latter1 indicating that the spots in the mottled yellow were green4 ,in this case it would appear that the 8spotted yellow0 was a sort of tiger skin glaze1 consisting of dabs of green and yellow 7and perhaps aubergine as well74 ,bushell interpreted it in this sense4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,ch',,ien ,,lung chch #b 7#agcf-agie7 ,the brief reign of ,yung ,chng was followed by that of his son1 who ruled under the title of ,ch'ien ,lung for a full cycle of sixty years1 at the end of which he abdicated in accordance with his vow that he would not outreign his grandfather1 ,k'ang ,hsi4 ,ch'ien ,lung was a devotee of the arts1 and they flourished greatly under his long and peaceful sway4 ,he was himself a collector1 and the catalogue of the ,imperial bronzes compiled under his orders is a classic work2 but more than that1 he was personally skilful in the art of calligraphy1 which ranks in ,china as high as painting2 and he was a voluminous poet4 ,it is no uncommon thing to find his compositions engraved or painted on porcelain and other artistic materials4 ,bushell#dbi quotes an example from a snuff bottle in the ,walters ,collection2 there is a bowl for washing wine cups in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection with a descriptive verse engraved underneath1 and entitled1 8,imperial ,poem of ,ch'ien ,lung02 and a beautiful coral red bowl in the ,british ,museum has a similar effusion pencilled in gold in the interior4 ,his interest in the ceramic art is further proved by the command given in #agdc to ,t'ang ,ying to compose a description of the various processes of manufacture as a commentary on twenty pictures of the industry which belonged to the palace collections2 and one of the earliest acts of his reign was to appoint the same celebrated ceramist in #agcf to succeed ,nien ,hsi-yao in the control of the customs at ,huai-an ,fu1 a post which involved the supreme control of the ,imperial porcelain manufacture4 ,there is little doubt that ,t'ang ,ying#dcj was the most distinguished of all the men who held this post4 ,he is1 at any rate1 the one whose achievements have been most fully recorded4 ,he was himself a prolific writer1 and a volume of his collected works has been published with a preface by ,li ,ch-lai4 ,his autobiography is incorporated in the ,chiang hsi t'ung chih2 his twenty descriptions of the processes of porcelain manufacture are quoted in the ,t'ao shuo and the ,t'ao lu1 and in themselves form a valuable treatise on ,chinese porcelain2 and before taking up his post at ,huai-an ,fu in #agcf he collected together1 for the benefit of his successors at ,ching-t ,chn1 the accumulated notes and memoranda of eight years4 ,this last work is known as the ,t'ao ch'ng shih yu kao 78,draughts of ,instructions on the ,manufacture of ,porcelain071 and the preface#dca quoted in the ,annals of ,fou-liang furnishes some interesting details concerning ,tang's labours4 ,we learn1 for instance1 that when he was appointed to the factory at ,ching-t ,chn in #agbh1 he was 8unacquainted with the finer details of the porcelain manufacture in the province of ,kiangsi10 having never been there before4 ,he worked with heart and strength1 however1 sleeping and eating with the workmen during a voluntary apprenticeship of three years1 until in #agca 8he had conquered his ignorance of the materials and processes of firing1 and although he could not claim familiarity with all the laws of transformation1 his knowledge was much increased40 ,the commissionership of the customs was transferred in #agci from ,huai-an ,fu to ,kiu-kiang1 which is close to the point of junction between the ,po-yang ,lake and the ,yangtze1 and considerably nearer to the ,imperial factory at ,ching-t ,chn1 the control of which remained in ,t'ang's hands until #agdi4 ,the ,ching-t ,chn ,t'ao lu#dcb is almost verbose on the subject of ,t'ang's achievements4 ,he had a profound knowledge1 it tells us1 of the properties of the different kinds of clay and of the action of the fire upon them1 and he took every care in the selection of proper materials1 so that his wares were all exquisite1 lustrous1 and of perfect purity4 ,in imitating the celebrated wares of antiquity he never failed to make an exact copy1 and in the imitation of all sorts of famous glazes there were none which he could not cleverly reproduce4 ,there was1 in fact1 nothing that he could not successfully accomplish4 ,furthermore1 his novelties#dcc included porcelains with the following glazes and colours3 foreign purple 7yang tz71 cloisonn blue 7fa ch'ing71 silvering 7mo yin71 painting in ink black 7ts'ai shui mo71 foreign black 7yang wu chin71 painting in the style of the enamels on copper 7fa lang71 foreign colouring in a black ground 7yang ts'ai wu chin71 white designs in a black ground 7hei ti pai hua71 gilding on a black ground 7hei ti miao chin71 sky blue 7t'ien lan71 and transmutation glazes 7yao pien74 ,the clay used was white1 rich 7jang7 and refined1 and the body of the porcelain1 whether thick or thin1 was always unctuous 7ni74 ,the ,imperial wares attained their greatest perfection at this time4 ,the preface to ,t'ang's collected works1 which is quoted in the same passage1 singles out as special triumphs of his genius the revival of the manufacture of the old dragon fish bowls 7lung kang7 and of the ,chn yao1 and the production of the turquoise and rose 7mei kuei7 colours in 8new tints and rare beauty40 ,it is obvious from these passages that ,t'ang was responsible for many of the types enumerated in ,hsieh ,min's list in the preceding chapter1 not only among the reproductions of antiques but among the new inventions of the period1 such as the cloisonn blue1 foreign purple1 silvering1 painting in ink black1 and foreign black4 ,it follows1 then1 that these novelties could not have been made much before #agcj1 for ,t'ang was still at that time occupied chiefly with learning the potter's art4 ,it is equally certain that he continued to make a specialty of imitating the older wares during the reign of ,ch'ien ,lung1 so that we may regard the best period of these reproductions as extending from #agcj-agej4 ,in reading the list of ,t'ang's innovations the reader will perhaps be puzzled by the varieties of black decoration which are included4 ,before attempting to explain them it will be best to review the different kinds of black found on ,chinese porcelain of the ,ch'ing dynasty4 ,there is the high-fired black glaze1 with hard shining surface likened to that of a mirror and usually enriched with gilt traceries4 ,this is the original wu chin described by ,pre d',entrecolles4#dcd ,the other blacks are all low-fired colours of the muffle kiln applied over the glaze and ranking with the enamel colours4 ,they include at least five varieties3 7#a7 ,the dry black pigment1 derived from cobaltiferous ore of manganese1 applied like the iron red without any glassy flux4 7#b7 ,the same pigment washed over with a transparent green enamel4 ,this is the iridescent greenish black of the famille verte1 and it continued in use along with the famille rose colours in the ,yung ,chng and ,ch'ien ,lung periods and onwards to modern times4 7#c7 ,a black enamel in which the same elements--manganese black and copper green--are compounded together4 ,this is the modern wu chin1 of which a sample in the ,svres ,museum 7from the collection of ,m4 ,itier7 was described by ,julien#dce as 8noir mat2 minerai de manganese cobaltifre et oxyde de cuivre avec cruse40 ,it appears on modern ,chinese porcelain as a sticky greenish black enamel1 inferior in depth and softness to the old composite black of the famille verte2 but for all that1 this is the yang wu chin 7foreign black7 of the ,yung ,chng and ,ch'ien ,lung periods4 ,in the days of ,t'ang ,ying it was a far superior colour4 7#d7 ,a mottled greenish black occurs as a monochrome and as a ground colour with reserved discs enamelled with famille rose colours on the exterior of two bowls in the ,british ,museum1 both of which have the cyclical date1 wu ch'n1 under the base1 indicating the year #agdh or #ahjh1 probably the latter4 7#e7 ,an enamel of similar texture but of a purplish black colour is used on a snuff bottle in the same collection to surround a figure design in underglaze blue4 ,this piece has the ,yung ,chng mark in red1 but from its general character appears to be of later date4 ,in the list of ,t'ang's innovations there is yang wu chin 7foreign black71 which is doubtless the same as the hsi yang wu chin 7,european black7 of ,hsieh ,min's list4 ,it is clear that this is something different from the old green black of the famille verte porcelain1 and we can hardly be wrong in identifying it with the wu chin enamel described above in ,no4 #c4 ,compared with the original mirror black wu chin glaze this enamel has a dull surface1 and we can only infer that the term wu chin had already lost its special sense of metallic black1 and was now used merely as a general term for black4 ,assuming this inference to be correct1 the term yang ts'ai wu chin 7foreign painting in a black ground7 should mean simply famille rose colours surrounded by a black enamel ground of the type of either ,no4 #b or ,no4 #c4 ,it is1 of course1 possible that the wu chin here is the old mirror black glaze on which enamelling in famille rose colours would be perfectly feasible2 but ,i do not know of any example1 whereas there is no lack of choice porcelains answering to the alternative description4 ,the two remaining types1 hei ti pai hua 7white decoration in a black ground7 and hei ti miao chin 7black ground gilt71 apparently leave the nature of the black undefined1 but as the expressions appear verbatim in the note attached to ,no4 #eb of ,hsieh ,min's list1 which is 8reproductions of wu chin glaze10 we must regard the black in this case1 too1 as of the wu chin type4 ,the black ground with gilding can hardly refer to anything but the well-known mirror black glaze with gilt designs2 and the white designs in black ground is equally clearly identified with a somewhat rarer type of porcelain in which the pattern is reserved in white in a ground of black enamel of the type of ,no4 #c4 ,there are two snuff bottles in the ,british ,museum respectively decorated with 8rat and vine10 and figure subjects white with slight black shading and reserved in a sticky black enamel ground4 ,both these are of the ,tao ,kuang period1 but there are earlier and larger examples elsewhere with a black ground of finer quality4 ,such a decoration is scarcely possible with anything but an enamel black1 and though there is some inconsistency in the grouping of an enamel and a glaze together in ,hsieh ,min's list1 they were apparently both regarded as 8reproductions0 of the old mirror black wu chin4 ,out of the remaining innovations ascribed to ,t'ang's directorate1 the fa ch'ing 7cloisonn or enamel blue7 and the fa long hua fa 7painting in the style of the enamels on copper7 have already been described in connection with ,hsieh ,min's list4 ,the latter expression occurs verbatim in the note attached in the ,annals of ,fou-liang#dcf to ,no4 #di of the list1 which is 8porcelain with foreign colouring10 and it clearly refers to the free painting on the ,canton enamels for reasons already given4#dcg ,it is true that fa lang 7like fo lang1 fu lang1 and fa lan1 all phrases suggestive of foreign and ,western origin7 is commonly used in reference to cloisonn enamel1 but the idea of copying on porcelain 8landscapes1 figure subjects1 flowering plants1 and birds0 from cloisonn enamels is preposterous to anyone who is familiar with the cramped and restricted nature of work bounded by cloisons4 ,it is a pity that ,bushell has confused the issue by rendering this particular passage 8painting in the style of cloisonn enamel0 in his ,oriental ,ceramic ,art4#dch ,but1 it will be objected1 the painting in foreign colours has been already shown to have been in full swing some years before ,t'ang's appointment at ,ching-t ,chn4 ,the inconsistency is only apparent1 however1 for it is only claimed that ,t'ang introduced this style of painting on the ,imperial porcelain1 and it may--and indeed must--have been practised in the enamelling establishments at ,canton and elsewhere for some time before4 ,indeed1 when one comes to consider the list of ,t'ang innovations which we have discussed so far1 they are mainly concerned with the adaptation of various foreign colours and of processes already in use in the previous reign4 ,of those which remain1 the t'ien lan or sky blue may perhaps be identified with a light blue verging on the tint of turquoise1 a high-fired glaze found occasionally in the ,ch'ien ,lung monochromes4 ,but probably the greatest of ,t'ang's achievements was the mastery of the yao pien or furnace transmutation glazes1 which were a matter of chance as late as the end of the ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,these are the variegated or flamb glazes in which a deep red of sang de buf tint is transformed into a mass of streaks and mottlings in which blue1 grey1 crimson1 brown and green seem to be struggling together for pre-eminence4 ,all these tints spring from one colouring agent--copper oxide--and they are called into being by a sudden change of the atmosphere of the kiln1 caused by the admission of wood smoke at the critical moment and the consequent consumption of the oxygen4 ,without the transformation the glaze would be a sang de buf red1 and in many cases the change is only partial1 and large areas of the deep red remain4 ,fig4 #a of ,plate #abc illustrates a small but characteristic specimen of the ,ch'ien ,lung flamb4 ,it will be found that in contrast with the ,k'ang ,hsi sang de buf these later glazes are more fluescent1 and the excess of glaze overrunning the base has been removed by grinding4 ,illustration3 ,plate #abb4--,white ,porcelain with designs in low relief4 ,fig4 #a4--,vase1 peony scroll1 ju-i border1 etc4 ,ch'ien ,lung period4 ,height #g inches4 ,o4 ,raphael ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle with 8garlic mouth10 ,imperial dragons in clouds4 ,creamy crackled glaze imitating ,ting ware4 ,early eighteenth century4 ,height #i inches4 ,salting ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase with design of three rams1 symbolising ,spring4 ,ch'ien ,lung period4 ,height #c inches4 ,w4 ,burton ,collection4 ,another development of the yao pien at this time is the use of a separate 8transmutation0 glaze which could be added in large or small patches over another glaze1 and which assumed1 when fired1 the usual flamb appearance4 ,when judiciously applied the effect of this superadded flamb was very effective1 but it is often used in a capricious fashion1 with results rather curious than beautiful4 ,there are1 for instance1 examples of blue and white vases being wholly or partially coated with flamb1 which have little interest except as evidence that the potters could now produce the variegated effect at will and in more ways than one4 ,the use of double glazes to produce new and curious effects is characteristic of the period4 ,the second glaze was applied in various ways by blowing1 flecking1 or painting it over the first4 ,the ,chn glaze of the muffle kiln belongs to this type if it has1 as ,i think1 been correctly identified with the blue green dappled with crimson on ,fig4 #d of ,plate #abh2 and the bird's egg glazes mentioned on p4 #bag belong to the same class4#dci ,others of a similar appearance1 though not necessarily of the same technique1 are the tea dust 7ch'a yeh mo7 and iron rust 7t'ieh hsiu74 ,the tea dust glaze has a scum of dull tea green specks over an ochreous brown or bronze green glaze1 applied either to the biscuit or over an ordinary white glazed porcelain2 and it seems to have been a speciality of the ,ch'ien ,lung period1 though there are known specimens with the ,yung ,chng mark and many fine examples were made in later reigns4 ,but neither this glaze nor double glazes in general are inventions of this time4 ,it would be more correct to speak of them as revivals1 for the early ,japanese tea jars1 which are based on ,chinese originals1 illustrate the principle of the double glaze1 and there are specimens of stoneware as old as the ,sung if not the ,t'ang dynasty1 with dark olive glaze flecked with tea green1 and scarcely distinguishable from the ,ch'ien ,lung tea dust4 ,it is stated on the authority of ,m4 ,billequin 7see ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #eah7 that a 8sumptuary law was made restricting the use of the tea dust glaze to the ,emperor1 to evade which collectors used to paint their specimens with imaginary cracks1#ddj and even to put in actual rivets to make them appear broken40 ,the iron rust is a dark lustrous brown glaze strewn with metallic specks 7due to excess of iron71 and in the best examples clouded with passages of deep red4 ,but these are only two examples of skill displayed by the ,ch'ien ,lung potters in imitating artistic effects in other materials4 ,special success was attained in reproducing the many tints of old bronze and its metallic surface4 ,bright-coloured patina was suggested by touches of flamb1 and the effects of gilding or gold and silver inlay were rendered by the gilder's brush4 ,the appearance of inlaid enamels was skilfully copied4 8,in fact10 to quote from the ,t'ao shuo1#dda 8among all the works of art in carved gold1 embossed silver1 chiselled stone1 lacquer1 mother-of-pearl1 bamboo and wood1 gourd and shell1 there is not one that is not now#ddb produced in porcelain1 a perfect copy of the original piece40 ,nor is this statement much exaggerated1 for ,i have seen numerous examples in which grained wood1 red lacquer1 green jade1 bronze1 and even mille fiori glass have been so closely copied that their real nature was not detected without close inspection4 ,reverting to ,t'ang's achievements1 we find special mention made of the reproductions of ,chn yao which have been already discussed in detail1#ddc and of the revived manufacture of the large dragon fish bowls4 ,the latter are the great bowls which caused such distress among the potters in the ,wan ,li period4 ,they are described in the ,t'ao lu#ddd as being fired in specially constructed kilns1 and requiring no less than nineteen days to complete their baking4 ,the largest size is said to have measured #f ft4#dde in height1 with a thickness of #e in4 in the wall1 one of them occupying an entire kiln4 ,the old ,ming dragon bowl found by ,t'ang ,ying#ddf at the factory was one of the smaller sizes1 and measured #c ft4 in diameter and #b ft4 in height4 ,they were intended for the palace gardens for keeping gold-fish or growing water-lilies1 and the usual decoration consisted of ,imperial dragons4 ,they are variously described as lung kang 7dragon bowls71 y kang 7fish bowls71 and ta kang 7great bowls74 ,illustration3 ,,plate #abc ,eighteenth ,century ,glazes ,fig4 #a4--,square ,vase with tubular handles1 and apricot-shaped medallions on front and back4 ,flamb red glaze4 ,ch'ien ,lung period 7#agcf-agie74 ,height #f inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle-shaped ,vase with deep blue 7ta ch'ing7 glaze3 unglazed base4 ,early eighteenth century4 ,height #ae inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase with fine iron red enamel 7mo hung7 on the exterior4 ,ch'ien ,lung period 7#agcf-agie74 ,height #e inches4 ,salting ,collection 7,v4 ,a4 ,museum74 ,owing to the tremendous difficulty of firing these huge vessels the order for their supply in the reign of ,shun ,chih was eventually cancelled1 and no attempt was made to resume their manufacture until ,t'ang's directorate4 ,the usual fish bowl of the ,k'ang ,hsi period is a much smaller object1 measuring about #bj in4 7,english7 in diameter by #a ft4 in height2 but from the note appended to ,hsieh ,min's list in the ,chiang hsi t'ung chih on the ,imperial ta kang1 it appears that already 7about #agcj7 the manufacture had been resumed on the old scale1#ddg for the dimensions of those described are given as from #c ft4 #d or #e in4 to #d ft4 in diameter at the mouth1 and from #a ft4 #g or #h in4 to #b ft4 in height4 ,an example of intermediate size is given on ,plate #acc1 one of a pair in the ,burdett-,coutts ,collection measuring #bf in4 in diameter by #bj in4 in height4 ,it remains to notice two glaze colours to which ,t'ang ,ying appears to have paid special attention3 the fei ts'ui 7turquoise7 and the mei kuei 7rose colour74 ,the former has already been dealt with in connection with ,ming1 ,k'ang ,hsi1 and ,yung ,chng porcelain1 and it is only necessary to add that it occurs in singularly beautiful quality on the ,ch'ien ,lung porcelains1 often on vases of antique bronze form1 but fashioned with the unmistakable 8slickness0 of the ,ch'ien ,lung imitations4 ,occasionally this glaze covers a body of reddish colour due to admixture of some coarser clay1 which seems to have assisted the development of the colour1 and it is worthy of note that there are modern imitations on an earthen body made at the tile works near ,peking which1 thanks to the fine quality of their colour1 are liable to be passed off as old4 ,i have noticed that ,ch'ien ,lung monochrome vases--especially those which have colours of the demi-grand feu like the turquoise--are often unglazed under the base4 ,the foot is very deeply cut1 and the biscuit is bare or skinned over with a mere film of vitreous matter1 which seems to be an accidental deposit4 ,the mei kuei is the colour of the red rose 7mei kuei hua71 and it is obviously to be identified with the rose carmines derived from gold which were discussed in the last chapter4 ,these tints are found in considerable variety in the early ,ch'ien ,lung porcelains1 from deep crimson and scarlet or rouge red to pale pink1 and they are used as monochromes1 ground colours1 and in painted decoration4 ,a superb example of their use as ground colour was illustrated on the border of ,plate #abj1 which is probably a ,yung ,chng piece4 ,among the gold red monochromes of the the ,ch'ien ,lung period one of the most striking is a dark ruby pink with uneven surface of the 8orange peel0 type4 ,mr4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy has a remarkable series of these monochromes in his collection4 ,speaking generally1 the ,ch'ien ,lung monochromes repeat the types in vogue in the previous reigns of the dynasty with greater or less success4 ,among the greens1 the opaque1 crackled glazes of pea1 apple1 sage1 emerald1 and camellia leaf tints described on p4 #ahg were a speciality of the time1 and the snake-skin and cucumber tints were also made with success4 ,there were1 besides1 beautiful celadon glazes of the grand feu1 and an opaque enamel of pale bluish green eau de nil tint4 ,underglaze copper red was used both for monochromes and painted wares1 but with the exception of the liver or maroon colour the former had not the distinction of the ,k'ang ,hsi sang de buf or the ,yung ,chng souffl red4 ,there is a jug-shaped ewer with pointed spout in the ,british ,museum which has a fluescent glaze of light liver red deepening into crimson1 and known in ,japan as toko4 ,it has the ,hsan ,t mark1 but ,i have seen exactly similar specimens with the mark of ,ch'ien ,lung1 to which period this colour evidently belongs4 ,on the other hand1 great improvement is observable in the overglaze coral red monochrome derived from iron1 whether it be the thin lustrous film of the mo hung or the richly fluxed 8jujube0 red which attains the depth and fullness of glaze4 ,fig4 #c1 ,plate #abc1 is a worthy example of the iron red monochrome of the period4 ,as a thick1 even and opaque colour this enamel was used in small pieces which wonderfully simulate the appearance of red cinnabar lacquer4 ,an endless variety of blue glazes were used1 the pure blue in dark and light shades1 souffl or plain1 the purplish blues and violets1 the lavenders and clair de lunes4 ,these are mainly high-fired glazes1 but a favourite blue of this period is a deep purplish blue of soft1 fluescent appearance and minutely crackled texture which is evidently a glaze of the demi-grand feu4 ,the 8temple of heaven0 blue is of this nature1 though of a purer and more sapphire tint4 ,it is the colour of the ritual vessels used in the worship of heaven and of the tiles with which the temple was roofed4 ,another variety of this glaze has the same tint1 but is harder and of a bubbly1 pinholed texture1 apparently a high-fired colour4 ,the t'ien ch'ing 7sky blue7 has already been mentioned--a lighter colour between lavender and turquoise4 ,and among the blue enamels which were sometimes used as monochromes at this time is an opaque deep blue of intense lapis lazuli tone4 ,among the yellows1 in addition to the transparent glazes of the older type1 there are opaque enamels1 including the lemon yellow with rough granular texture1 the waxen#ddh sulphur yellow which often displays lustrous patches1 and the crackled mustard yellow4 ,among the purples and browns there are few changes to note1 though much of the greenish brown crackle probably belongs to this time2 and there is little to be said about the white wares except that both the true porcelain1 whether eggshell or otherwise1 and the opaque crackled wares of the ,ting yao type were still made with exquisite refinement and finish4 ,the uneven glaze surface1 happily compared to 8orange peel10 was much affected on the ,ch'ien ,lung whites in common with many other wares of the time4 ,but there were many new enamel monochromes formed by blending the famille rose colours1 shades of opaque pink1 lavender1 ,french grey1 and green1 which are sometimes delicately engraved with close scroll patterns all over the surface1 a type which is known by the clumsy name of graviata4 ,these enamel grounds are often interrupted by medallions with underglaze blue or enamelled designs1 as on the vase illustrated in ,plate #abe1 ,fig4 #d1 and on the so-called ,peking bowls2 or1 again1 they are broken by reserved floral designs which are daintily coloured in famille rose enamels4 ,but we are already drifting from the monochromes into the painted porcelains of the period1 and we shall return to the ,peking bowls presently4 ,with regard to the ,ch'ien ,lung blue and white1 little need be added to what was said of this kind of ware in the last chapter4 ,it was still made in considerable quantity1 and ,t'ang ,ying1 in his twenty descriptions of the manufacture of porcelain1 supplies a commentary to three pictures#ddi dealing with the 8collection of the blue material10 8the selection of the mineral10 and 8the painting of the round ware in blue40 ,from these we learn that large services were made in blue and white1 and the decoration was still rigidly subdivided1 one set of painters being reserved for the outlining of the designs and another for filling them in1 while the plain blue rings were put on by the workman who finished the ware on the polishing wheel1 and the inscriptions1 marks and seals were added by skilful calligraphers4 ,the blue material was now obtained in the province of ,chkiang1 and close attention was paid to the selection of the best mineral4 ,there was one kind of blue 8called onion sprouts1 which makes very clearly defined strokes1 and does not run in the fire1 and this must be used for the most delicate pieces40 ,this latter colour is to be looked for on the small steatitic porcelains and the fine eggshell cups4 ,in common with the other ,ch'ien ,lung types1 the blue and white vases are often of archaic bronze form1 and decorated with bronze patterns such as borders of stiff leaves1 dragon feet and ogre heads4 ,another favourite ornament is a close pattern of floral scrolls studded with lotus or peony flowers1 often finely drawn but inclined to be small and fussy4 ,these scrolls are commonly executed in the blotchy blue described on p4 #ac1 and the darker shades are often thickly heaped up in palpable relief with a marked tendency to run into drops4 ,on the other hand1 one sometimes finds the individual brush strokes1 as it were1 bitten into the porcelain body1 and almost suggesting scratched lines4 ,both peculiarities1 the thick fluescent blue and the deep brush strokes1 are observable on a small vase of unusually glassy porcelain in the ,franks ,collection4 ,two other pieces in the same collection may be quoted4 ,one is a tazza or high-footed bowl with a band of ,sanskrit characters and deep borders of close lotus scrolls1 very delicately drawn in a soft pure blue1 to which a heavily bubbled glaze has given a hazy appearance4 ,this piece 7,plate #ic1 ,fig4 #a7 has the six characters of the ,ch'ien ,lung seal-mark in a single line inside the foot4 ,the other is a jar which bears the cyclical date corresponding to #aghd4 ,like the last1 it has a decoration of ,buddhistic import1 viz4 the four characters chch #d t'ien chu n po 7propitious waves from ,india71 each enclosed by formal cloud devices4 ,it is painted in a soft but rather opaque blue1 and the glaze is again of bubbly texture4 ,illustration3 ,plate #abd4--,miscellaneous ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--,magnolia ,vase with flamb glaze of crackled lavender with red and blue streaks4 ,ch'ien ,lung period4 ,height #g inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle with elephant handles1 yellow1 purple1 green and white glazes on the biscuit4 ,ch'ien ,lung period4 ,height #h inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #c4--;,dish with fruit design in lustrous transparent glazes on the biscuit1 covering a faintly etched dragon pattern4 ,k'ang ,hsi mark4 ,diameter #i inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,plate #abe4--;,ch'ien ,lung ,wares4 ,hippisley ,collection4 ,fig4 #a4--;,brush ,pot of enamelled ,ku-yeh-hsan glass4 ,ch'ien ,lung mark4 ,height #b inches4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle1 porcelain painted in ,ku-yeh style1 after a picture by the ,ch'ing artist ,wang ,shih-mei4 ,height #g inches4 ,fig4 #c4--;,imperial ,presentation ,cup marked hs hua t'ang chih tsng4 ,height #b inches4 ,fig4 #d4--,medallion ,vase1 brocade ground with bats in clouds1 etc4 ,ch'ien ,lung mark4 ,height #g inches4 ,illustration3 ,plate #abf4--,vase with 8,hundred ,flower0 design in famille rose enamels4 ,ch'ien ,lung period 7#agcf-agie74 ,height #ai inches4 ,grandidier ,collection 7,the ,louvre74 ,illustration3 ,plate #abg4--,vase painted in mixed enamels4 ,the ,hundred ,deer4 ,grandidier ,collection 7,louvre74 ,late ,ch'ien ,lung period4 ,height #ah inches4 ,in the commoner types of ,ch'ien ,lung blue and white1 the blue is usually of a dullish indigo tint1 wanting in life and fire4 ,there is1 in fact1 none of the character of the ,k'ang ,hsi ware2 the broad washes1 the clear trembling sapphire1 and the subtle harmony existing between the glaze and blue1 are all missing4 ,moreover1 the decoration1 with its careful brushwork and neat finish1 has none of the freedom and breadth of the older types4 ,on the whole1 it is small wonder that the collector finds little to arouse enthusiasm in the blue and white of this period1 if we except the steatitic#dej or 8soft pastes10 which are eagerly acquired4 ,underglaze red painting1 and the same in combination with blue or with high-fired glazes and coloured slips1 celadon1 white1 golden brown1 olive brown and coffee brown1 were perpetuated from the previous reigns2 and underglaze blue designs are found accompanied by yellow or coral red enamel grounds in old ,ming style1 and even by famille rose painting4 ,decoration in transparent glazes of three colours--green1 yellow and aubergine--applied direct to the biscuit is not common on ,ch'ien ,lung porcelain1 but when used it displays the characteristic neatness and finish of the period4 ,i suspect that many of the trim rice bowls with neatly everted mouth rim and dragon designs etched in outline and filled in with aubergine in a green ground1 yellow in an aubergine1 or the other combinations of the three colours1 belong to this reign1 in spite of the ,k'ang ,hsi mark under the base4 ,at any rate1 the body1 glaze and form can be exactly paralleled in other bowls which have a ,ch'ien ,lung mark4 ,this criticism applies equally to a striking group of porcelain of which ,fig4 #c of ,plate #abd is an example4 ,it consists of bowls and dishes1 so much alike in decoration that one might suppose all existing examples to be parts of some large service4 ,the body is delicately engraved with five-clawed dragons pursuing pearls1 and somewhat inconsequently over these are painted large and boldly designed flowering sprays 7rose1 peony1 etc47 or fruiting pomegranate branches with black outlines filled in with fine1 transparent aubergine1 full yellow and green in light and dark shades4 ,the remaining ground space is coated with the thin greenish wash which does duty for white in this colour scheme1 but in these particular pieces it is unusually lustrous and iridescent4 ,in fact1 on the back of a dish in the ,british ,museum it has developed patches of golden lustre of quite a metallic appearance and similar to those noted on the sulphur yellow monochrome described on p4 #bci4 ,this lustrous appearance1 however1 is probably no more than an exaggerated iridescence1 for there is no reason to suppose that the ,chinese ever used metallic lustre of the ,persian or ,european kind4#dea ,this group of porcelain always bears the ,k'ang ,hsi mark1 but a comparison with the bowls of later date1 both in material and in the general finish of the ware and the style of the colouring1 irresistibly argues a later period of manufacture1 unless1 indeed1 we admit that the ,imperial bowls of the late ,k'ang ,hsi and the ,ch'ien ,lung periods are not to be differentiated4 ,the finish of these wares1 in fact1 compares more closely with that of the finer ,tao ,kuang bowls than with the recognised types of ,k'ang ,hsi porcelain4 ,another kind of on-biscuit decoration of the ,ch'ien ,lung--and perhaps the ,yung ,chng--period is best described from a concrete example1 viz41 ,fig4 #b of ,plate #abd1 a pear-shaped bottle in the ,british ,museum with sides moulded in shallow lobes1 an overlapping frill or collar with scalloped outline on the neck1 and above this two handles in shape of elephants' heads4 ,the ground colour is a deep brownish yellow relieved by borders of stiff leaves with incised outline filled in with smooth emerald green2 and the collar and handles are white with cloud scroll borders of pale aubergine edged with blue4 ,the general colouring1 as well as the form of this vase1 is closely paralleled in fine pottery of the same period4 ,it may be added that famille rose enamels are sometimes used in on-biscuit polychrome decoration1 but the effect is not specially pleasing4 ,some of the opaque colours serving as monochromes are also applied in this way1 but here the absence of a white glaze beneath is scarcely noticeable1 owing to the thickness and opacity of the enamels4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but all the other forms of polychrome decoration at this period must yield 7numerically1 at any rate7 to the on-glaze painting in famille rose enamels1 or1 as the ,chinese have named them1 8foreign colours40 ,the nature of these has been fully discussed1 but there is no doubt that their application was widely extended in the ,ch'ien ,lung period1 and one point of difference1 at least1 is observable in their technique1 viz4 the mixing of the tints in the actual design so as to produce the ,european effect of shading4 ,by this means the graded tints in the petals of a flower1 and the stratified surface of rocks and mountains1 are suggestively rendered4 ,it would be impossible to enumerate the endless varieties of design employed in this large group4 ,contrasting the decoration of his own time with that of the ,ming porcelain1 the author of the ,t'ao shuo1#deb which was published in #aggd1 says3 8,porcelain painted in colours excelled in the ,ming dynasty1 the majority of the patterns being derived from embroidery and brocaded satins1 three or four only out of each ten being from nature and copies of antiques4 ,in modern porcelain1 out of ten designs you will get four of foreign colouring1 three taken from nature1 two copies of antiques1 one from embroidery or satin brocade40 ,in their ordinary acceptation the terms are not mutually exclusive1 and the last three types might be1 and indeed are1 all expressed in foreign colouring2 but presumably the writer refers especially to that kind of 8foreign colouring0 which was directly based on the ,canton enamels and is illustrated in the ruby-back eggshell dishes4 ,the designs taken from nature would include figure subjects representing personages and interiors1 landscapes1 growing flowers and fruit1 and the like1 good examples of which are shown on ,plates #abf and #abg4 ,the one represents the 8,hundred ,flowers10 the vase being1 as it were1 one great bouquet and the flowers being drawn naturalistically enough to be individually recognised4 ,the other recalls the celebrated picture of the 8,hundred ,deer0 by the late ,ming artist1 ,wn ,chng-ming4#dec ,the copies of antiques would comprise bronze patterns and designs borrowed from old porcelain1 examples of which are not uncommon4 ,and the brocade patterns1 in spite of the low proportion assigned to them in the ,t'ao shuo1 occur in relatively large numbers in ,western collections4 ,they mostly consist of flowers or close floral scrolls in colour1 and reserved in a monochrome ground of yellow1 blue1 pink1 etc4 ,this is the characteristic ,ch'ien ,lung scroll work which is used both in borders and over large areas such as the exterior of a bowl or the body of a vase4 ,the reserved pattern1 highly coloured and winding through a ground of solid opaque enamel1 suggests analogy with the scroll grounds of the contemporary cloisonn enamel2 but this incidental likeness has nothing to do with the question of 8painting in fa lang style10 which was discussed among ,t'ang's innovations4 ,the finer ,ch'ien ,lung porcelains1 and especially those enamelled with brocade designs1 are frequently finished off with a coating of opaque bluish green enamel inside the mouth and under the base1 a square panel being reserved for the mark4 ,needless to say1 with all this weight of enamelling little or nothing is seen of the porcelain itself1 the fine quality of which is only indicated by the neatness of the form and the elegance of the finish4 ,the green black which was discussed earlier in the chapter is used with striking effect1 both in company with famille rose colours 7as on ,fig4 #b of ,plate #aca7 and without them4 ,an effective decoration of the latter kind is shown on a beautiful bottle-shaped vase with wide1 spreading mouth in the ,salting ,collection1 which is covered with close floral scrolls reserved in a ground of black pigment1 the whole surface being washed over with transparent green4 ,the result is a peculiarly soft and rich decoration of green scrolls in a green black ground4 ,nor was the iron red--a colour much employed in monochromes at this time--neglected in the painted wares4 ,indeed1 it occurs as the sole pigment on many pieces1 and on others it forms a solid brick red or stippled souffl ground for floral reserves1 medallions and panels of famille rose enamelling4 ,among the opaque enamels a few shades of blue are similarly used1 while the others1 as already mentioned1 form plain or engraved backgrounds for floral reserves and panel decoration as on ,fig4 #b of ,plate #abe1 and on the ,peking bowls4 ,the latter are so named not because they were made at ,peking1 but because the specimens acquired by ,western collectors have been chiefly obtained from that source4 ,many of them have the ,ch'ien ,lung mark1 and their ground colours comprise a variety of pinks1 yellow1 green1 ,french grey1 dark blue1 slaty blue1 amaranth1 lavender1 bluish green1#ded delicate greenish white and coral red4 ,the medallions on the bowls--usually four in number--are commonly decorated with growing flowers1 such as the flowers of the four seasons in polychrome enamels1 while others have figure subjects1 frequently ,european figures in landscape setting and with ,chinese attributes1 such as a ju-i or ling-chih fungus4 ,the finish of these bowls is extremely fine1 and they are well worthy of the ,imperial use to which they were mostly destined4 ,the mention of a delicate greenish white enamel on these medallion bowls reminds us that this colour is used with exquisite effect for borders of floral design1 or even for the main decoration of tea and coffee wares2 and there is a little plate in the ,british ,museum with ,ch'ien ,lung mark on which it appears with a peculiar chilled or shrivelled surface as a background for painted designs in iron red4 ,there is a large class of enamelled porcelain1 doubtless made chiefly for export1 which found its way into our country houses in the last half of the eighteenth century4 ,it is painted with panels of figure subjects in which rose pink and iron red are uncompromisingly blended1 and the space surrounding the panels is filled with composite designs of blue and white with passages of pink scale diaper or feathery gilt scrolls broken by small vignettes in which a bird on a bough1 insects1 growing plants or fragments of landscape are painted in camaieu pink1 red or sepia4 ,in some cases the panels are framed with low1 moulded reliefs1 which extend into the border spaces1 and the groundwork in these parts is powdered with tiny raised dots4 ,the wares include large punch bowls1 bottle-shaped ewers with their basins1 and sets of five vases1 two of which are beakers and three covered jars with lion knobs1 ovoid or square1 and sometimes of eggshell thinness4 ,others again have their panels enclosed by wreaths of flowers and foliage or 8rat and vine pattern0 in full relief1 and many of them have a glaze of lumpy1 8orange peel0 texture4 ,the name 8,mandarin0 has been given to these wares because the central figure subjects usually contain personages in official dress2 and the large punch bowls brought back by the tea-merchants are included in this group1 though the mandarin figures in the panels are in this case often replaced by ,european subjects4 ,elaborately moulded and pierced ornament coloured in famille rose enamels often appears on the table ware of this period1 a familiar example being the lotus services in which the motive of the pink lotus flower is expressed partly by moulding and partly by painting1 the tendrils and buds being utilised for feet and handles2 and there are elegant famille rose teapots which have outer casings with panels of prunus1 bamboo and pine carved in openwork in the style of the ,yi-hsing pottery4 ,gilding was1 of course1 freely employed1 and1 to a lesser extent1 silvering4 ,elaborate gilt patterns are found covering dark blue1 powder blue1 lustrous black1 bronze green1 pale celadon1 and iron red monochrome grounds2 and the finer enamelled vases and bowls are often finished off with gilt edging1 which does not seem to have been much used before this period1 though traces of gilding are sometimes seen on the lustrous brown edges of the older plates and bowls4 ,the manual dexterity of the ,ch'ien ,lung potters is shown in openwork carving and pierced designs on lanterns1 perfume boxes1 insect cages1 spill vases1 etc41 but more especially on the amazing vases with free-working belts1 revolving necks1 or decorated inner linings which can be turned round behind a pierced outer casing1 chains with movable links1 and similar tours de force4 ,there are1 beside1 two types of ornament dating from this period which demand no little manual skill4 ,these are the lacework and rice grain4 ,in the former the design is deeply incised in the body and the whole covered with a pale celadon green glaze1 and it is usually applied to small vases and tazza-shaped cups1 the pattern consisting of close and intricate ,ch'ien ,lung scrollwork4 ,the resultant effect is of a very delicate green lace pattern1 which appears as a partial transparency when held to the light 7,plate #abh1 ,fig4 #b74 ,the rice-grain ornament carries the same idea a step farther1 for the incised pattern is cut right through the body1 leaving small perforations to be filled up by the transparent glaze4 ,only small incisions could be made1 and these generally took the lenticular form which the ,french have likened to grains of rice 7,plate #abh1 ,fig4 #a74 ,the patterns made in this fashion are naturally limited4 ,star-shaped designs or flowers with radiating petals are the commonest1 though occasionally the transparencies are made to conform to the lines of painted decoration and even of dragon patterns4 ,both ordinary and steatitic porcelain are used for this treatment2 and the ware is either plain white or embellished with underglaze blue borders and designs1 and occasionally with enamels4 ,the effect is light and graceful1 especially when transmitted light gives proper play to the transparencies4 ,as to the antiquity of this decoration in ,china1 ,i can find no evidence of its existence before the eighteenth century1 and ,i am inclined to think it was even then a late development4 ,there are two cups in the ,hippisley ,collection with apocryphal ,hsan ,t dates1 but the majority of marked examples are ,ch'ien ,lung or later4 ,out of fourteen pieces in the ,franks ,collection five have the ,ch'ien ,lung mark1 two have palace marks of the ,tao ,kuang period1#dee and one has a long inscription stating that it was made by ,wang ,shng-,kao in the fourth month of #agih4def ,the rest are unmarked4 ,the manufacture continues to the present day1 and the same process has been freely used in ,japan1 where it is called hotaru-de1 or firefly decoration4 ,in this type of ornament the ,chinese were long forestalled by the potters of ,western ,asia1 for the rice-grain transparencies were used with exquisite effect in ,persia and ,syria in the twelfth century if not considerably earlier4 ,it remains to mention a species of decoration which is not strictly ceramic4 ,it consists of coating the porcelain biscuit with black lacquer in which are inlaid designs in mother-of-pearl1 the lac burgaut of the ,french 7,plate #abh1 ,fig4 #c74 ,this porcelain is known by the ,french name of porcelaine laque burgaute1 and it seems to have been originally a product of the ,ch'ien ,lung period2 at any rate1 ,i can find no evidence of its existence before the eighteenth century4 ,in the ,ch'ien ,lung period ,chinese porcelain reaches the high-water mark of technical perfection4 ,the mastery of the material is complete4 ,but for all that the art is already in its decline4 ,by the middle of the reign it is already overripe1 and towards the end it shows sure signs of decay4 ,at its best the decoration is more ingenious than original1 and more pretty than artistic4 ,at its worst it is cloying and tiresome4 ,the ware itself is perfectly refined and pure1 but colder than the ,k'ang ,hsi porcelain4 ,the famille rose painting is unequalled at its best for daintiness and finish1 but the broken tints and miniature touches cannot compare in decorative value with the stronger and broader effects of the ,ming and ,k'ang ,hsi brushwork4 ,the potting is almost perfect1 but the forms are wanting in spontaneity2 and the endless imitation of bronze shapes becomes wearisome1 partly because the intricate forms of cast metal are not naturally suited to the ceramic material1 and partly because the elaborate finish of the ,ch'ien ,lung wares makes the imitation of the antique unconvincing4 ,in detail the wares are marvels of neatness and finish1 but the general impression is of an artificial elegance from which the eye gladly turns to the vigorous beauty of the earlier and less sophisticated types4 ,illustration3 ,plate #abh4--;,ch'ien ,lung ,porcelain4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #a4--,vase with 8rice grain0 ground and blue and white design4 ,height #g inches4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with 8lacework0 designs4 ,ch'ien ,lung mark4 ,height #g inches4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase with the ,seven ,worthies of the ,bamboo ,grove in lac burgaut4 ,height #ad inches4 ,fig4 #d4--,vase with 8robin's egg0 glaze4 ,height #d inches4 ,illustration3 ,plate #abi4--,octagonal ,vase and ,cover1 painted in famille rose enamels4 ,ch'ien ,lung period 7#agcf-agie74 ,height #ce inches4 ,one of a pair in the ,collection of ,dr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,cumberbatch4 ,as already mentioned1 ,t'ang ,ying was commanded by the ,emperor in #agdc to arrange and explain twenty pictures of the manufacture of porcelain which were sent to him from the palace4 ,in twelve days he completed the descriptions which have since been incorporated in various books on porcelain1 including the ,t'ao shuo and the ,t'ao lu4 ,they have been translated by ,julien#deg and by ,bushell1#deh and as most of their facts have been embodied in the previous pages1 it would be superfluous to give a verbatim translation of them4 ,the following summary1 however1 will give the drift of them1 and ,bushell's translation of the ,t'ao shuo can be consulted for a full rendering4 ,illustration ,i4--,,collection ,,of ,,the ,,stones ,,and ,,fabrication ,,of ,,the ,,paste4 ,the porcelain stone 7petuntse7 was obtained at this time from ,ch'i-mn1 in the province of ,kiangnan4 8,that of pure colour and fine texture is used in the manufacture of bowls and vases of eggshell 7t'o-t'ai71 pure white 7t'ien pai71 and blue and white porcelain40 ,other earths1 including kaolin1 were mined within the limits of ,jao-chou ,fu4 ,,ii4--,,washing ,,and ,,purification ,,of ,,the ,,paste4 ,,iii4--,,burning ,,the ,,ashes ,,and ,,preparing ,,the ,,glaze4 ,the ashes of burnt lime and ferns were mixed with petuntse in varying proportions to form the glazing material4 ,,iv4--,,manufacture ,,of ,,seggars4 ,the seggars1 or fireclay cases1 by which the porcelain was protected in the kiln were made of a coarse clay from ,li-ch'un1 near ,ching-t ,chn1 and we are told that the seggar-makers also manufactured rough bowls for the use of the workmen from the same material4 ,v4--,,preparing ,,the ,,moulds ,,for ,,the ,,round ,,ware4 ,,vi4--,,fashioning ,,the ,,round ,,ware ,,on ,,the ,,wheel4 ,,vii4--,,fabrication ,,of ,,the ,,vases 7cho ch'i74 ,,viii4--,,collection ,,of ,,the ,,blue ,,colour4 ,the mineral was obtained at this time from ,shao-hsing and ,chin-hua in ,chkiang4 ,,ix4--,,selection ,,of ,,the ,,blue ,,material4 ,x4--,,moulding ,,the ,,paste ,,and ,,grinding ,,the ,,colours4 ,,xi4--,,painting ,,the ,,round ,,ware ,,in ,,blue4 ,,xii4--,,fabrication ,,and ,,decoration ,,of ,,vases4 ,,xiii4--,,dipping ,,the ,,ware ,,into ,,the ,,glaze ,,or ,,blowing ,,the ,,glaze ,,on ,,to ,,it4 ,three methods of glazing are described3 the old method of painting the glaze on with goat's-hair brush2 dipping the ware into a large jar of glaze2 and blowing on the glaze with a bamboo tube covered at the end with gauze4 ,,xiv4--,,turning ,,the ,,unbaked ,,ware ,,and ,,hollowing ,,out ,,the ,,foot4 ,this turning or polishing was done on a wheel4 ,for convenience of handling the foot of the vessel was left with a lump of clay adhering until all the processes1 except firing1 were complete2 the foot was then trimmed and hollowed out1 and the mark painted underneath4 ,,xv4--,,putting ,,the ,,finished ,,ware ,,into ,,the ,,kiln4 ,,xvi4--,,opening ,,the ,,kiln ,,when ,,the ,,ware ,,is ,,baked4 ,,xvii4--,,decorating ,,the ,,round ,,ware ,,and ,,vases ,,in ,,foreign ,,colouring4 ,see p4 #bdb4 ,,xviii4--,,the ,,open ,,stove ,,and ,,the ,,closed ,,stove4 ,two types of small kiln used to fire the on-glaze enamels4 ,,xix4--,,wrapping ,,in ,,straw ,,and ,,packing ,,in ,,casks4 ,,xx4--,,worshipping ,,the ,,god ,,and ,,offering ,,sacrifice4 ,there are a few illustrations appended to the ,t'ao lu which cover much the same field1 but they are roughly drawn4 ,a much better set of coloured pictures is exhibited in frames in the ,franks ,collection in the ,british ,museum1 showing most of the processes described by ,t'ang4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,european ,,influences ,,in ,,the ,,ch',,ing ,,dynasty ,hitherto the references to ,european influence on ,chinese porcelain have been of an incidental nature4 ,but the use of ,western designs on the porcelains of the ,ch'ing dynasty1 and especially in the eighteenth century1 attained such large proportions that it is necessary to treat the wares so decorated as a class apart4 ,a highly instructive collection of this type of porcelain is exhibited in the ,british ,museum1 where it has been subdivided in groups illustrating porcelain painted in ,china with ,european armorial designs1 porcelain painted in ,china after pictures1 engravings and other patterns of ,european origin1 ,european forms in ,chinese porcelain1 and1 lastly1 ,chinese porcelain decorated in ,europe4 ,the un-,chinese nature of these decorations1 which is apparent at the first glance1 justifies their segregation4 ,indeed1 the foreign features are in many cases so conspicuous that it is small wonder if in days when little was known of ,chinese ceramic history these wares were often attributed to ,european manufacture4 ,we now know so much of the intercourse between ,china and ,europe in the past1 and of the enormous trade carried on by the various ,east ,india companies1 that no surprise is felt at the idea of orders for table services sent out to ,china with armorial and other designs for their decoration4 ,not that anyone whose eye was really trained to appreciate the peculiarities of ,chinese porcelain could ever mistake the nature of these wares4 ,the paste and glaze are1 with few exceptions1 uncompromisingly ,chinese1 no matter how closely the decorator with his proverbial genius for imitation may have rendered the ,european design4 ,and even here1 if the ,oriental touch is not betrayed in some detail1 the ,chinese colours and gilding will disclose themselves to the initiate4 ,it is hardly necessary here to allude to the absurd notion that any of this group was made at the little ,english factory of ,lowestoft4 ,if an error which has once had currency is ever completely dissipated1 ,chaffers's great blunder on the subject of ,chinese armorial porcelain should be forgotten by now4 ,but it is high time that those who are fully aware of the facts of the case should abandon the equally stupid and wholly illogical expression1 8,oriental ,lowestoft10 not for ,lowestoft porcelain decorated in ,chinese style1 which would be reasonable enough1 but 7save the mark67 for ,chinese porcelain decorated with ,european designs4 ,as if1 indeed1 an insignificant ,suffolk pottery1 which made no enamelled porcelain#dei until about #aggj1 had any influence on the decoration of a ,chinese ware which was distributed all over ,europe during the whole of the century4 ,the ,european style of flower painting and the ,european border patterns were used by the ,chinese decorators on this class of ware in the last half of the century1 but they were the patterns which originated at ,meissen and ,svres1 and which were adopted and developed at ,chelsea1 ,derby and ,worcester4 ,any of these wares might have found their way to ,china and served as models to the ,canton decorators1 but the likelihood of ,lowestoft porcelain exerting any appreciable influence in the ,far ,east is simply laughable4 ,but to return to the subject of this chapter1 the actual ,european shapes found in ,chinese porcelain can be dismissed in a few words4 ,there are a few figures1 such as the well known pair reputed to represent ,louis ,,xiv4 and his queen4 ,these are of ,k'ang ,hsi type1 and decorated with enamels on the biscuit4 ,and there are numerous groups or single figures of the same period in the white ,fukien porcelain1 discussed on p4 #aaa4 ,a few vase forms1 copied apparently from ,italian wares and belonging to a slightly later date1 and a curious pedestal in the ,british ,museum1 modelled in the form of a tree trunk with two ,cupids in full relief near the top1 are purely ,western4#dfj ,needless to say1 the bulk of the useful ware1 being intended for ,european consumption1 was made after ,european models1 which speak for themselves4 ,much might be written on the painted designs of this class if space permitted1 but we must be content with citing a few typical instances1 most of which may be seen in the ,franks ,collection4 ,to the ,k'ang ,hsi period belong some curious imitations of ,dutch ,delft1 in which even the potter's marks are copied1 the designs having been1 oddly enough1 borrowed in the first instance from ,oriental wares by the ,dutch potters4 ,there are the so-called 8,keyser cups10 tall1 covered cups with saucers1 painted in blue with kneeling figures surrounding a king and queen1 who probably represent ,st4 ,louis of ,france and his consort2 and in the border is the inscription1 ,l',,empire ,,de ,,la ,,vertu ,,est ,,estabi ,,jusq',,au ,,bout ,,de ,l',,uners4 ,another cup has a design of a ship and a syren1 with legend1 ,,gardes ,,vous ,,de ,,la ,,syrene2 and there are small plates with the siege of ,rotterdam#dfa copied in blue from a ,dutch engraving4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #acj ,vase with pear-shaped body and wide mouth2 tubular handles4 ,porcelain with delicate clair de lune glaze recalling the pale blue tint of some of the finer ,sung celadons4 ,about #ahjj ,height #g inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,but the group which probably commands the greatest interest is that known as 8,jesuit china10 decorated with subjects bearing on the ,christian religion4 ,the earliest examples are painted in underglaze blue1 the ,christian designs being accompanied by ordinary ,chinese ornaments4 ,an early 7to judge from the general style of the piece1 late ,ming7 example is a pear-shaped ewer1 with elongated spout and handle1 in the ,kunstgewerbe ,museum1 ,berlin4 ,on the side is the sacred monogram ,,ihs1 surrounded by formal ornament1 and it has been plausibly suggested that the little vessel had been used for ,communion purposes4 ,a bowl with fungus mark in the ,franks ,collection has a ,crucifixion on the exterior1 framed in a pattern of cloud-scrolls1 and inside with truly ,chinese tolerance is painted a ,buddhist pearl symbol in flames and clouds4 ,a cup in the same series with the 8jade0 mark#dfb has a ,crucifixion half lost among the surrounding arabesque scrolls4 ,these two are of the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 and were probably made with the pieces to which ,pre d',entrecolles#dfc alludes1 in his letter dated #agab1 as follows3 8,from the debris at a large emporium they brought me a little plate which ,i treasure more than the finest porcelain made during the last thousand years4 ,in the centre of the plate is painted a crucifix between the ,virgin and ,st4 ,john1 and ,i am told that this kind of porcelain was shipped sometimes to ,japan1 but that this commerce came to an end sixteen or seventeen years ago4 ,apparently the ,japanese ,christians took advantage of this manufacture at the time of the persecution to obtain pictures of our mysteries1 and these wares1 mingled with others in the crates1 eluded the vigilance of the enemies of our religion4 ,this pious artifice was no doubt eventually discovered and rendered useless by more stringent investigation1 and that is why the manufacture of this kind of ware has ceased at ,ching-t ,chn40 ,these early types1 which are rare to-day1 have a special interest because they were decorated at ,ching-t ,chn1 and their general style indicates that they were made for ,oriental use4 ,after an interval of some years the ,jesuit china reappeared in a more sophisticated form1 probably the work of ,canton decorators4 ,the designs1 various ,biblical scenes1 are copied in black and gold from ,european engravings1 and they occur on plates with rims1 tea and coffee services1 and other articles of ,european use4 ,the earliest may date from the ,yung ,chng period1 but they are mostly ,ch'ien ,lung1 and the same designs are occasionally executed in enamel colours4 ,in addition to the ,christian china there are plates and dishes decorated with rings of ,koranic inscriptions in ,arabic1 surrounding magic squares1 and destined for the ,mussulman markets4 ,the ,franks ,collection includes1 besides1 numerous examples of profane subjects#dfd copied in black or in colours from ,european engravings and designs4 ,a striking instance of the patient skill of the ,chinese copyist is given by two large plates completely covered with the designs--the ,triumph of ,mordecai and ,achilles dipped in the ,styx--copied line for line1 apparently1 from ,le ,sueur's engravings4 ,the effect of the fine lines and cross-hatching is perfectly rendered1 and one would say at first that they had been transfer-printed if this process had ever been used by the ,chinese4 ,it is amusing1 too1 to find ,english topical and political subjects rendered on ,chinese porcelain1 mugs and punch bowls1 with busts of the ,duke of ,cumberland1 ,prince ,charles ,edward1 and ,john ,wilkes with appropriate inscriptions4 ,there are1 too1 satirical pictures in the style of ,hogarth1 and a few popular but not overrefined subjects which gain an additional drollery from the obviously ,chinese rendering of the figures4 ,many large punch bowls still survive decorated to suit their owner's tastes1 with a full-rigged ship for the sea captain1 a hunting scene for the master of hounds1 and agricultural designs for the farmer1 often proudly inscribed with the name of the destined possessor and the date of the order4 ,the ,chinese touch is usually betrayed in these inscriptions1 which are obviously reproduced mechanically1 and with no compunction felt for a letter here and there inverted or misplaced4 ,these porcelains with ,european pictorial designs are1 as a rule1 more curious than beautiful1 but it cannot be denied that the next group with ,european coats of arms emblazoned in the centre is often highly decorative4 ,this is particularly true of the earlier examples in which the shields of arms are not disproportionately large1 and are surrounded with tasteful ,chinese designs4 ,the heraldry is carefully copied and1 as a rule1 the tinctures are correct4 ,in the older specimens the blue is usually under the glaze1 and from this1 and from the nature of the surrounding decoration in famille verte or transition colours1 one may assume that the pieces in question were decorated at ,ching-t ,chn4 ,from the middle of the ,yung ,chng period onwards a large and constantly increasing proportion of the ware was decorated at ,canton1 in the enamelling establishments which were in close touch with the ,european merchants1 and from this time ,european designs begin to encroach on the field of the decoration4 ,finally1 in the last decades of the century the ,chinese armorial porcelain is decorated in purely ,european style4 ,an important though belated witness to the ,canton origin of this decoration is a plate in the ,franks ,collection with the arms of ,chadwick in the centre1 a band of ,derby blue1 and a trefoil border on the rim1 and on the reverse in black the legend1 ,canton in ,china1 #bdth ,jany1 #agia4 ,side by side with this armorial porcelain1 and apparently also decorated at ,canton1 there was painted a large quantity of table ware for ,western use with half-,european designs in which small pink rose-sprays are conspicuous4 ,these are the cheaper kinds of useful ware which are found everywhere in ,europe1 and must have formed a large percentage of the export trade in the last half of the eighteenth century4 ,the decoration1 though usually slight and perfunctory1 is quite inoffensive and suitable to the purpose of the ware4 ,but to return to the armorial porcelain3 apart from its heraldic and decorative value1 it is often important to the student of ,chinese ceramics1 because there are specimens which can be dated very precisely from the armorial bearings and other internal evidence4 ,in the ,british ,museum series there are some twenty pieces belonging to the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 including an early underglaze blue painted dish with arms of ,talbot1 and one or two specimens of pure famille verte1 including the plate dated #agjb1 which has already been mentioned as being of a peculiar white and glassy-looking ware4 ,there are examples with underglaze blue and enamel decoration in the ,chinese ,imari style1 and there is a very distinctive group which can be dated armorially#dfe to the late ,k'ang ,hsi and early ,yung ,chng period4 ,these latter pieces are usually decorated with a shield of arms in the centre in enamel colours1 with or without underglaze blue2 the sides are filled with a band of close floral scrolls or brocade diaper in red and gold1 broken by small reserves containing flowers and symbols2 on the rim are similar groups of flowers and symbols and a narrow border of red and gold scrolls2 and on the reverse are a few floral sprays in red4 ,the enamels are of the transition kind1 famille verte with occasional touches of rose pink and opaque yellow4 ,the porcelain is the crisp1 sonorous1 well potted ware with shining oily glaze of ,k'ang ,hsi type1 and the accessory ornament is of purely ,chinese character4 ,a border of trefoil cusps1 not unlike the strawberry leaves of the heraldic crown1 but traceable to a ,chinese origin1 makes its first appearance on this group4 ,it is a common feature of subsequent armorial wares1 like the narrow border of chain pattern which seems to have come into use about #agcj4 ,dated specimens of ,yung ,chng armorial1 with painting in the 8foreign colours10 have been already described4#dff ,other examples of this period have the decoration in underglaze blue outlines washed with thin transparent colours1 in black pencilling and in black and gold4 ,the border patterns of lacework1 vine scrolls1 bamboos wreathed with foliage and flowers1 and fine floral scrolls1 are often beautifully executed in delicate gilding or in brown and gold4 ,in the ,ch'ien ,lung period there was an ever-increasing tendency to displace the ,chinese patterns in favour of ,european ornament4 ,about the middle of the century small bouquets and scattered floral sprays in the well-known ,meissen style of painting made their appearance1 and the gradual invasion of the border patterns by ,european motives is apparent4 ,it may be of interest to note a few of the latter as they occur on dated specimens3 #a4 ,light feathery scrolls1 gilt or in colours3 first half of ,ch'ien ,lung period4 #b4 ,rococo ornaments combined with floral patterns3 first half of ,ch'ien ,lung period4 #c4 ,large shell-like ornaments and scroll edged frames of lattice work1 loosely strung together3 early ,ch'ien ,lung period4 #d4 ,similar motives with more elaborate framework1 enclosing diapers1 and interrupted by four peacocks at regular intervals and generally black and gold3 about #agdj to #agfj4 #e4 ,black and brown hexagon diaper1 edged with dragon arabesques in gold3 an early type of border1 but lasting as late as #aghj4 #f4 ,composite borders with diapers1 symbols1 flowers1 etc41 and sometimes including butterflies1 half ,chinese and half ,european3 on specimens ranging from #agfe to #ahbj4 ,this last border pattern was adopted at ,coalport and in other ,english factories to surround the willow pattern4#dfg ,in the last decades of the century1 such purely ,european borders as the swags of flowers used at ,bow and ,bristol1 floral and laurel wreaths and husk festoons2 the pink scale patterns of ,meissen2 ribbons and dotted lines winding through a floral band1 feather scrolls1 etc41 of ,svres origin1 and afterwards adopted at ,worcester1 ,bristol1 ,lowestoft and elsewhere in ,england2 blue with gilt edges and gilt stars1 as on the ,derby borders1 which also derive from ,svres2 and the corn-flower sprigs of the ,french hard-paste porcelains4 ,a conspicuous feature of the ,ch'ien ,lung export porcelain in general is the use of a thin1 washy pink in place of the thick carmine of the early famille rose4 ,this is a colour common to ,european porcelain of the period1 and it may have been suggested to the ,chinese by specimens of ,western wares4 ,we may1 perhaps1 note here a design of ,oriental figures 7as on the ,mandarin porcelain7 in pink and red surrounded by borders of pink scale diaper1 broken by small panels of ornament4 ,it has no connection with the armorial group1 but it has apparently been bandied back and forward from ,east to ,west4 ,based on a ,chinese original1 it was largely copied on ,english porcelain1 such as ,worcester1 ,lowestoft1 etc41 and apparently services of the ,english make found their way east and were copied again at some coast factory1 or even in ,japan1 for the export trade4 ,much of this hybrid ware is found in ,australia and on the east coast of ,africa1 and though the material and the colours are obviously ,oriental1 the drawing of the faces reflects a ,european touch4 ,the porcelain is coarse and greyish1 and the decoration roughly executed1 probably in the first decades of the nineteenth century4 ,the trade in ,chinese armorial porcelain seems to have gradually died out in the nineteenth century1 for reasons which are not far to seek4 ,as far as ,england was concerned1 the improvements in the manufacture both of porcelain and fine earthenware changed her position from that of a consumer to that of a producer4 ,in addition to which1 a high protective duty must have adversely affected the import trade1 for we read#dfh in the notes of ,enoch ,wood1 the ,staffordshire potter1 that alarm was felt in #ahjc in the potteries at the 8proposed reduction of #ei #hs4 #f;d4 per cent4 from the duty on the importation of ,oriental porcelain1 leaving it at #ej per cent40 ,not the least interesting part of the ,franks ,collection is the section devoted to ,chinese porcelain decorated in ,europe4 ,in the early years of the eighteenth century a number of enamelling establishments appeared in ,holland and in other countries where glass and pottery were decorated in the enamel colours which were then coming into play4 ,as the supply of home-made porcelain was as yet practically non-existent1 the enamellers had to look for this material in the ,oriental market4 ,chinese porcelains with slight decoration1 plain white wares1 or those mainly decorated with incised and carved design under the glaze1 and white ,fukien porcelain offered the most suitable surface2 and these we find treated by ,dutch enamellers with the decoration then in vogue among the ,delft potters4 ,in the ,british ,museum there are plates with portraits of ,dutch celebrities1 with designs satirising ,john ,law's bubble1 and even with ,japanese and ,chinese patterns1 especially those which the ,delft potters were in the habit of copying from the 8old ,imari40 ,thus we find the curious phenomenon of ,chinese porcelain decorated in ,europe with ,oriental patterns1 and1 as may be imagined1 these pieces have caused much perplexity to collectors4 ,they are1 however1 to be recognised by the inferior quality of the enamels and the stiff drawing of the copyists4 ,in the case of the ,fukien porcelain with relief ornament1 the decorators often confined themselves to touching the raised pattern with colour4 ,as a rule1 these added decorations are crude and unsightly1 but there were artists of great skill among the ,german chambrelans 7as these unattached enamellers were called71 such men as ,ignatius ,bottengruber and ,preussler of ,breslau1#dfi who flourished about #agbj to #agcj4 ,their designs of figures1 mythical subjects1 etc41 enclosed by baroque scrollwork1 were skilfully executed in camaieu red or black1 heightened with gilding1 and their work1 which is very mannered and distinctive1 is highly prized at the present day4 ,occasionally we find the handiwork of the ,dutch lapidary on ,chinese porcelains1 a design of birds and floral scrolls being cut through a dark blue or brown glaze into the white biscuit4 ,about the middle of the eighteenth century a more legitimate material was found for the ,european decorator in small quantities of ,chinese porcelain sent over 8in the white40 ,regular supplies in this state must have been forwarded from ,ching-t ,chn to ,canton for the enamellers there1 and1 no doubt1 the ,european merchants were able to secure a small amount of this4 ,thus it was that ,chinese porcelain is occasionally found with decoration by artists whose touch is recognised on ,chelsea and other wares4 ,it is not necessary to assume that such pieces were painted in the ,chelsea factory4 ,that may have been the case1 but we know of important enamelling establishments1 such as ,duesbury's in ,london1 where ,chelsea1 ,bow and ,worcester porcelains obtained in the white were decorated to order4 ,it is probable that the painters trained in this work afterwards passed into the porcelain factories4 ,there are rare examples of ,chinese porcelain with transfer prints executed at ,battersea or even at ,worcester1 and apparently one or two pieces have had inscriptions added at ,lowestoft2 but1 after all1 this group of decorated ,oriental is a very small one1 and the specimens painted in the style of any particular ,english factory except ,chelsea could be counted on one's fingers4 ,no doubt the same proceedings were repeated in various parts of the ,continent1 and there are certainly specimens decorated in the ,meissen style1 and in one piece in the ,franks ,collection the ,meissen mark has been added4 ,but besides this more or less legitimate treatment of ,chinese porcelain1 there is a large group of hideously disfigured wares known by the expressive name of 8clobbered china40 ,on these pieces ,chinese underglaze decoration has been 8improved0 by the addition of green1 yellow1 red1 and other enamels and gilding1 which fill up the white spaces between the ,chinese painting and even encroach on the blue designs themselves4 ,this malpractice dates from the early years of the eighteenth century1 and we find even choice specimens of ,k'ang ,hsi blue and white among the victims4 ,possibly there was a reaction at this time against the ,chinese blue and white with which the ,dutch traders had flooded the country1 but it is pitiful to find nowadays a fine vase or bottle of this ware plastered with meaningless daubs of inferior colour4 ,strange to say1 the clobberer became an established institution1 and he was at work in ,london in the last century1 and maybe he is not yet extinct2 and1 stranger still1 his wretched handiwork has been actually taken as a model for decoration in ,english potteries1 even to the ridiculous travesties of ,oriental marks which he often added as the last insult to the porcelain he had defaced4 ,as a rule1 the clobbered decoration occurs on blue and white and follows more or less the lines of the original1 though it is at once betrayed by its clumsiness and the wretched quality of the enamels used4 ,occasionally the clobberer was more ambitious1 as on a bottle in the ,british ,museum decorated with three spirited monsters in underglaze red4 ,into this admirably spaced design the clobberer has inserted graceless trees and three ridiculous figures in classical dress standing in ,jack-the-giant-killer attitudes with brandished swords over the ,chinese creatures4 ,the effect is laughable1 but it was vandal's work to deal in this way with choice ,k'ang ,hsi porcelain4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,nineteenth ,,century ,,porcelains ,chia ,ch'ing chch #b 7#agif-ahbj7 ,there is little to distinguish the porcelain of this reign from that of ,ch'ien ,lung4 ,the old traditions were followed and the high standard of technical skill was maintained to a great extent1 though in the absence of original ideas the natural tendency was towards a gradual decline4 ,the blue and white is a mere echo of the ,ch'ien ,lung blue and white1 as is shown by a square jar in the ,franks ,collection1 which bears the date corresponding to #ahai4 ,another dated specimen in the same collection is a little bowl with design of the 8,eight ,ambassadors of the ,tribes of ,man0 mounted on strange beasts1 painted in thin garish blue under a bubbly glaze4 ,there are well-finished monochromes of the ,ch'ien ,lung type1 conspicuous among which is an intense brick red 7derived from iron71 which has all the depth and solidity of a glaze4 ,the enamelled wares are in no way inferior to their late ,ch'ien ,lung models1 and the medallion bowls with engraved enamel grounds are particularly choice4 ,plate #acb1 a richly decorated vase belonging to the ,lady ,wantage1 illustrates a type common to both periods4 ,the design of ladies of the harem in an ,imperial pleasure ground is carefully painted in mixed colours and enclosed by rich borders of dark ruby pink enamel1 brocaded with polychrome floral scrolls4 ,another vase in the same collection 7marked ,chia ,ch'ing7 has a movable inner lining and pierced outer shell richly enamelled in the same style4 ,the blue green enamel of the ,ch'ien ,lung porcelain was freely used to finish off the base and mouth of the vases of this time4 ,bushell#dgj describes as a speciality of the ,chia ,ch'ing period1 vases with elaborate scrollwork of various kinds in underglaze blue enhanced by a richly gilded background2 and the mark of this reign will be found on many of the choicer snuff bottles1 including those sumptuous little vessels with richly carved and pierced outer casing as finely tooled as ,su ,chou or ,peking lacquer4 ,we have already seen that rice-grain decoration was effectively used at this time1 and no doubt many specimens of the kindred 8lacework0 were also made4 ,in fact in a general classification of ,chinese porcelain it would be almost superfluous to separate the ,chia ,ch'ing from the ,ch'ien ,lung groups4 ,tao ,kuang chch #b 7#ahba-ahej7 ,the reign of ,tao ,kuang is the last period of which collectors of ,chinese ceramics take any account4 ,it is true that the general deterioration which was already remarked in the previous reign became more and more conspicuous towards the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,it seemed as though the wells of inspiration in ,china had dried up and the bankrupt arts continued to exist only by virtue of their past4 ,curiously enough the same wave of decadence was felt all the world over at this period1 and if we compare the porcelain of ,tao ,kuang with the contemporary ,english and ,continental productions we must confess that the decadence of ,china was ,augustan beside the early ,victorian art4 ,the ,tao ,kuang porcelain in the main is saved from utter banality by the high traditions on which it was grounded and by the innate skill of the ,chinese potters4 ,indeed there are not a few out of the numerous specimens of this period in our collections which have a certain individuality and distinction entitling them to a place beside the eighteenth-century wares4 ,but1 speaking generally1 the porcelain is a weak edition of the ,yung ,chng types4 ,the forms are correct but mechanical1 the monochromes are mere understudies of the fine old colours1 and the enamels are of exaggerated softness and weak in general effect4 ,there are numerous marked specimens of all varieties in the ,franks ,collection4 ,these include a blue and white vase with bronze designs of ogre heads1 etc41 in the ,k'ang ,hsi style1 but painted in pale1 lifeless grey blue1 and a bowl with lotus designs and symbols surrounding four medallions with the characters shan kao shui ch'ang#dga neatly painted in the same weak blue and signed by ,wen ,lang-shan in the year #ahdg4 ,among the monochromes is a dignified vase of bronze form with deep turquoise glaze dated #ahdd1 besides coffee brown bowls1 full yellow bowls1 vases with curiously bubbled glaze of dark liver red1 and a coral red jar and cover4 ,there is also a large bowl with 8tiger skin0 glaze patched with yellow1 green1 aubergine and white4 ,all of these pieces are lacking in quality and distinction1 though ,i have seen far superior specimens of lemon yellow monochrome and tea dust glaze4 ,the enamelled wares are much more attractive1 and many of the rice bowls are prettily decorated in soft colours4 ,the ,peking or medallion bowls1 for instance1 are little if anything below the standard of previous reigns1 and in addition to the medallions in engraved enamel grounds of pink1 green1 grey1 etc41 outside1 the interior is often painted in underglaze blue4 ,there are tasteful bowls with white bamboo designs reserved in a ground of coral red1 and there are dishes with blackthorn boughs with pink blossom in a white ground4 ,the ,yung ,chng style of underglaze blue outlines with washes of thin-transparent enamels was also affected1 but the most characteristic enamelling of the period is executed in a mixture of transparent and opaque enamels1 a blend of famille verte and famille rose4 ,this colouring1 soft and subdued1 but often rather sickly in tone1 is frequently seen on bowls and tea wares with ,taoist subjects1 such as the ,eight ,immortals1 the fairy attendants of ,hsi ,wang ,mu in boats1 or the goddess herself on a phnix passing over the sea to the t'ien t'ang or cloud-wrapt pavilions of ,paradise1 preceded by a stork with a peach of longevity in its beak4 ,the sea is usually rendered by a conventional wave pattern delicately engraved in greenish white1 and sometimes the ground of the design is washed with the same thin1 lustrous1 greenish white1 which was remarked on a group of porcelains described on page #aea4 ,the porcelain of these bowls has a white1 if rather chalky1 body and a greenish white glaze of exaggerated oily sheen1 and of the minutely bubbled1 8muslin-like0 texture which is common to ,japanese porcelains4 ,but the ordinary ,tao ,kuang wares are of poor material1 greyish in tone and coarser in grain1 with the same peculiarities in the texture of the glaze in an exaggerated degree4 ,illustration3 ,plate #aca4--;,eighteenth ,century ,painted ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--,plate painted in black and gold1 ,european figures in a ,chinese interior4 ,yung ,chng period4 ,diameter #i inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,dish with floral scrolls in famille rose enamels in a ground of black enamel diapered with green foliage scrolls4 ,ch'ien ,lung period4 ,diameter #bc inches4 ,wantage ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,plate #acb4--,vase painted in mixed enamels1 an ,imperial park and a bevy of ladies4 ,wantage ,collection4 ,deep ruby pink borders with coloured floral scrolls and symbols4 ,ch'ien ,lung mark4 ,about #agij4 ,height #cj inches4 ,a typical example of the fine ,tao ,kuang rice bowl with ,taoist design in the ,franks ,collection1 delicately painted in mixed colours1 which recall the ,ku-yeh-hsan ware of the early ,ch'ien ,lung period1 has the palace mark1 ,shn t t'ang1#dgb in red under the base4 ,a specimen with this mark in the ,hippisley ,collection#dgc is inscribed with a poem by the ,emperor ,tao ,kuang1 definitely fixing the date of this hall mark1 which is found on choice porcelains made for ,imperial use4 ,it occurs on a vase of fine workmanship in the ,british ,museum1 decorated with polychrome five-clawed dragons in a lavender enamel ground1 of which the base and interior are coated with blue green enamel2 and we have already#dgd commented on an interesting dish with archaic designs in ,ming red and green1 which is explained in the mark as an 8imitation of the antique made for the ,shn-t ,hall40 ,it is worthy of note that most of the porcelain with hall and studio marks in red belong to the nineteenth century1 chiefly to the ,tao ,kuang period4 ,several of these marks are figured and explained on p4 #bbj 7vol4 i471 but it may be useful if we describe here a few of the specimens on which they occur4 ,the hall mark1 ,ch'ng t t'ang1 appears on a shallow bowl in the ,franks ,collection painted inside with a coiled dragon in green and a border of bats in red1 while outside is a landscape carefully painted in mixed colours in a style similar to ,plate #abe1 ,fig4 #c4 ,the latter has the ,imperial hall mark1 ,hs hua t'ang1 with addition of the word tsng 7for presentation71 and it has besides an inscription proclaiming that it is the 8cup of him who departed as ,general and returned as ,grand ,secretary0 7ch'u chiang ju hsiang chih pei74 ,it is painted with a scene in the palace grounds with the ,emperor receiving a military officer4#dge ,a pretty bowl in the ,franks ,collection with rockery1 flowering plants1 fungus1 etc41 in colours has the palace mark1 ss pu t'ang2 and there are two saucer dishes with ,buddhist decoration of palmettes in cruciform arrangement1 and a border of ,sanskrit characters painted in underglaze blue with washes of transparent enamels marked respectively ,ts'ai jun t'ang1 and ,ts'ai hua t'ang 7hall of brilliant colours and hall of brilliant decoration71 which are probably synonymous4 ,a distinctive group of porcelain1 which seems to belong to the ,tao ,kuang period1 consists of small boxes and of vases with landscapes and similar elaborate ornament deeply carved in the manner of red lacquer4 ,the surface is usually covered with an opaque green or yellow monochrome enamel1 but occasionally it is left in white biscuit4 ,these pieces have almost always a maker's mark1 such as ,wang ,ping-jung1 ,wang ,tso-t'ing 7see vol4 i41 p4 #bbc71 and probably come from one factory4 ,bushell#dgf also alludes to white unglazed porcelain made at this time1 and recalling the ,english ,parian ware4 ,it is chiefly seen on small objects for the writing table4 ,the collector will always be glad to secure specimens of the palace porcelains of the ,tao ,kuang period1 and of the smaller objects on which the weakness of the colouring is not noticeable4 ,there are1 for instance1 many exquisite snuff bottles with the mark of this reign1 with carved1 monochrome and enamelled ornament4 ,on the other hand quantities of these little objects coarsely manufactured and sketchily decorated were made at this time1 and among them the crude specimens with a floral spray on one side1 a line of verse in grass characters on the other1 and a granulated border coated with opaque yellowish or bluish green enamel1 whose supposed discovery in ancient ,egyptian tombs made a sensation some sixty years ago4 ,it is not difficult to guess how these objects traded among the ,arabs found their way into the tombs which were in course of excavation1 but for a time they were believed to prove the existence of ,chinese porcelain in the second millennium before ,christ4#dgg ,three other types of indifferent ware may be mentioned here in passing4 ,they belong to the middle of the nineteenth century1 and in part at least to the ,tao ,kuang period4 ,one is painted with a large pink peony and foliage in a bright green enamel ground2 the second has cut flowers1 butterflies and insects in strong rose colours on a celadon green glaze2 and the third has rectangular panels with crowded figure subjects in red and pink enclosed by a brocade pattern of flowers1 fruit and insects as in the second type4 ,this third class is often represented by large and rather clumsily shaped vases with two handles of conventionalised dragon form1 and the border patterns are sometimes backed with gilding2 but it also occurs in quite recent manufacture in tea and toilet services made for the export trade4 ,the porcelain in all these cases is of a rough1 coarse-grained make1 and the reader might have been spared a description of them were it not that in spite of their inferior quality they are the subject of frequent inquiries4 ,hsien ,fng chch #b 7#ahea-ahfa7 ,in the third year of ,hsien ,fng the ,t'ai p'ing rebels captured ,ching-t ,chn and burnt down the ,imperial factory1 which was not rebuilt till #ahfd4 ,the potters themselves were killed or scattered2 and1 naturally1 marked examples of this reign are scarce4 ,such1 however1 as do exist are of little account1 and may be regarded as continuations of the ,tao ,kuang manufacture4 ,bushell#dgh mentions vases of good form painted in soft colours with nine five-clawed dragons on a white background1 which is etched in the paste with scrolled waves1 and a dinner service of bowls1 cups and saucer dishes painted in colours with processional figures of the eighteen ,lohan4 ,and in the ,british ,museum there is a large globular bowl on a high foot painted with green dragon designs and a bowl with medallions of lanterns and vases separated by lotus ornament1 neither of which are in any way different from the ,tao ,kuang wares4 ,no doubt a good deal of porcelain was made at the private factories even during this troubled period1 but the specimens which ,i have seen are not worthy of description4 ,t'ung ,chih chch #b 7#ahfb-ahgc7 ,when the ,t'ai p'ing rebels had been expelled from the province of ,kiangsi by the celebrated viceroy1 ,li ,hung-chang1 in #ahfd1 the ,imperial factory was rebuilt on the old lines by the new director1 ,ts'ai ,chin-ch'ing4 ,in the same year a list of the porcelain forwarded to the ,emperor was drawn up1 and it is published in the ,chiang hsi t'ung chih#dgi immediately after ,hsieh ,min's list4 ,it consists mainly of bowls1 wine and tea cups1 saucer dishes and plates classified as yan ch'i 7round ware71 and a few vases under the general heading1 cho ch'i2 and though there is little originality in the designs1 lists of this kind are so rare and so instructive that ,i have no hesitation in giving it in full below1 following ,bushell's#dhj renderings in most cases4 ,actual examples of ,t'ung ,chih porcelain are not inspiring4 ,those in the ,british ,museum include a covered bowl with coloured sprays in a ground of red diaper2 a bowl with enamelled sprays on a pale brown 7tz chin7 glaze2 a saucer with dragons etched under a transparent green glaze1 the exterior in unglazed biscuit painted in black2 a cup with red dragons in a ground of black enamel and the cyclical date #ahfh2 a low1 octagonal bowl with the ,eight ,trigrams in relief outside1 the interior of this and of the preceding specimen as well being coated with blue green enamel2 and a basin enamelled with the ,eight ,ambassadors of the ,tribes of ,man4 ,the most favourable specimen of the ware in the same collection is a carefully painted wedding bowl with canary yellow ground and medallions of appropriate symbols1 the peach-and dragon-headed staff of longevity1 the double fish symbol of conjugal felicity1 and the group of pencil brush1 cake of ink and ju-i sceptre forming the rebus pi ting ju i1 8may things be as you wish40 ,,list ,,of ,,imperial ,,porcelains ,,supplied ,,in ,,the ,,third ,,year ,,of ,t',,ung ,,chih 7#ahfd7 ,,vases 7cho ch'i7 #a4 ,quadrangular vases with apricot medallions and two tubular handles with ,chn glaze4 ,for the shape see ,plate #abc1 and for the glaze see p4 #a4 #b4 ,vases of the same form with ,ko glaze4 #c4 ,quadrangular vases with the ,eight ,trigrams 7pa kua71 and ,ko glaze4 ,the form is quadrangular body with round neck and foot1 moulded in relief with the trigrams2 for the ,ko glaze see vol4 i41 p4 #ga4 #d4 ,vases in form of jade ewers 7y hu ch'un7 with chi hung 7or copper red7 glaze4 #e4 ,vases of the same form1 with blue and white decoration and raised threads4 ,bushell explains that the surface is divided into patterns or sections by raised rings4 #f4 ,vases of the same form1 with blue and white decoration with balcony 7lan kan74 ,bushell explains1 8garden scenes enclosed by railings40 #g4 ,paper-beater 7chih ch'ui7 vases with the t'ai chi symbol and the glaze of the ,imperial factory decorated in colours4 ,the form is the club-shape or rouleau2 and the symbol is apparently the yin-yang1 the ,confucian symbol for the ,absolute4 #h4 ,quadrangular vase with elephant symbol of great peace 7t'ai ping yu hsiang1 a rebus meaning 8augury of great peace074 ,these are apparently square vases with two handles in form of elephant 7hsiang7 heads4 ,,round ,,wares 7yan ch'i7 #i4 ,medium-sized bowls with dragons in purple brown 7tz74 #aj4 ,medium-sized bowls with chi hung glaze4 #aa4 ,large bowls 7wan7 with ,indian lotus 7hsi lien7 in blue4 #ab4 ,five-inch dishes 7p'an71 similarly decorated4 #ac4 ,medium-sized bowls with storks and ,eight ,trigrams 7pa kua74 #ad4 ,wine cups with narcissus flowers 7shui hsien hua7 in enamels4 #ae4 ,wine cups with spreading rim painted with dragons in red4 #af4 ,dishes 7p'an7 a foot in diameter decorated in blue with a pair of dragons filling the surface4 #ag4 ,soup bowls 7t'ang wan7 with incised dragons under a dark yellow monochrome glaze4 ,these1 according to ,bushell1 are smaller and shallower than rice bowls4 #ah4 ,medium-sized bowls1 barrel shaped1 with dragons engraved under a yellow monochrome glaze4 #ai4 ,yellow monochrome tea cups4 #bj4 ,medium-sized bowls with dragons engraved under a yellow monochrome glaze4 #ba4 ,medium-sized bowls with the three fruits in groups 7pan tz#dha7 painted in blue4 ,the fruits are peach1 pomegranate and finger citron4 #bb4 ,soup bowls with expanding rim and dragons incised under yellow monochrome glaze4 #bc4 ,six-inch bowls with a pair of dragons in blue4 #bd4 ,one-foot dishes painted in blue with silkworm scrolls 7ts'an wn7 and longevity characters4 #be4 ,tea cups decorated in blue with mu hsi flowers 7a small variety of the olea fragrans74 #bf4 ,medium-sized bowls with precious lotus in enamel colours4 #bg4 ,tea cups with white bamboo on a painted red ground4 #bh4 ,six-inch dishes painted in blue with the 8three friends0 7san yu7 and figure subjects4 ,the three friends in floral language are the pine1 bamboo and prunus4 ,it is also a name given to the group of ,confucius1 ,buddha1 and ,lao-tz1 who are often represented examining a picture scroll or standing in conversation4 #bi4 ,tea dishes 7ch'a p'an7 with a pair of dragons in blue4 ,bushell describes these as 8little trays with upright borders1 of oblong1 four-lobed1 and fluted outline40 ,they must in fact have closely resembled the old teapot stands of ,european services4 #cj4 ,six-inch dishes with green dragons on a ground of engraved water-pattern painted in colour4 #ca4 ,one-foot dishes painted in blue with archaic phnixes 7k'uei fng74 ,these designs are ornaments of bird form1 terminating in scrolls such as appear on ancient bronzes4 #cb4 ,nine-inch dishes with blue ground and dragons in clouds painted in yellow4 #cc4 ,medium-sized bowls with pure white glaze and ruby red 7pao shao7 phnix medallions4 #cd4 ,tea cups with dragons and clouds painted in yellow in a blue ground4 #ce4 ,six-inch dishes with chi hung 7copper red7 glaze4 #cf4 ,medium-sized bowls with chi ch'ing 7deep violet blue7 glaze4 #cg4 ,nine-inch dishes with chi hung glaze4 #ch4 ,soup bowls1 barrel shaped1 with lustrous brown glaze4 #ci4 ,medium-sized bowls with red phnix medallions in a celadon 7tung ch'ing7 glaze4 #dj4 ,nine-inch dishes with silkworm scrolls and ju-i#dhb ornament in enamel colours4 #da4 ,tea cups enamelled in colours with mandarin ducks and lotus flowers4 #db4 ,tea bowls 7ch'a wan7 with chi ch'ing glaze4 #dc4 ,tea bowls decorated in colours with the pa pao 7eight attributes of the ,taoist ,immortals2 see p4 #bhg74 #dd4 ,large bowls with the ,eight ,immortals in blue on red enamelled waves4 #de4 ,medium-sized bowls1 blue and white inside1 and with coloured lotus flowers outside4 #df4 ,bowls with the ,eight ,buddhist symbols of happy augury 7pa chi hsiang74 #dg4 ,porcelain bowls with green designs and peach yellow ground4 #dh4 ,five-inch dishes with purple and green dragons in a yellow monochrome ground4 #di4 ,three-inch platters with similar ornament4 #ej4 ,soup bowls of the fourth size 7ss hao7 with green monochrome glaze4 #ea4 ,five-inch dishes with phnixes in clouds4 #eb4 ,medium-sized bowls with dragons and phnixes among flowers in coloured enamels4 #ec4 ,four-inch platters 7tieh7 with purple and green dragons in yellow monochrome ground4 #ed4 ,nine-inch dishes painted in colours with the eight ,buddhist symbols among flowers4 #ee4 ,large bowls painted in colours with archaic phnixes 7k'uei fng7 among flowers4 ,kuang ,hs chch #b 7#ahge-aiji7 ,marked examples of this modern ware in the ,franks ,collection include a saucer with coloured sprays in a cloudy pink enamel ground2 a covered cup with spout decorated in red with cartouches of seal characters accompanied by translations in the ordinary script1 and a dish with blackthorn bough and pink blossoms in ,tao ,kuang style4 ,in every case the ware is coarse-grained and rough to the touch1 while the glaze is of the lustrous surface and 8musliny0 texture1 which is characteristic of the nineteenth century porcelains2 and the painting is mechanical and devoid of any distinction4 ,there are two little saucers of better quality both in material and painting1 with stork and lotus designs in mixed enamels and marks#dhc which show that they are palace pieces made for the ,empress ,dowager4 ,but the collector's interest in ,kuang ,hs porcelain is of a negative kind4 ,when it is frankly marked he sees and avoids it4 ,but the ,chinese potters towards the close of the century evidently recovered some part of the skill which the ravages of the ,t'ai p'ing rebels seemed to have effectually dissipated2 for they succeeded in making many excellent sang de buf reds and crackled emerald green monochromes which have deceived collectors of experience4 ,even the best1 however1 of these wares should be recognised by inferiority of form and material1 and in the case of red the fluescent glaze will be found in the modern pieces to have overrun the foot rim1 necessitating grinding of the base rim4 ,there are also fair imitations of the ,k'ang ,hsi blue and white and the enamelled vases of famille verte or on-biscuit colours1 and even of the fine black and green grounds4 ,but here again the inferior biscuit1 the lack of grace in the form and the stiffness of the designs will be at once observed by the trained eye4 ,when marked most of these imitations have the nien hao of ,k'ang ,hsi1 and this is almost invariable on the modern blue and white4 ,there is1 of course1 a great quantity of modern porcelain1 chiefly enamelled and blue and white1 made for the export trade and sold at prices which compete successfully with those of the ,european wares4 ,it is chiefly in the style of the ,k'ang ,hsi and ,ch'ien ,lung wares1 and is marked accordingly2 but the ware is coarse-grained1 and the decorations summary1 and there is no excuse for mistaking these obvious reproductions for anything but what they are and1 in fact1 what they pretend to be4 ,the brief reign of ,hsan ,t'ung chch #b 7#aiji-aiaa7 is a blank so far as ceramic history is concerned2 and with the fall of the ,ch'ing dynasty in #aiab the ,imperial works ceased its activity1 and it remains to be seen whether ,ching-t ,chn will again have the advantage of a state factory to set a standard for the industry in general4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,porcelain ,,shapes ,,in ,,the ,,ch',,ing ,,dynasty ,a considerable number of the forms which ,chinese porcelain assumes have been described in the chapters dealing with the ,ming wares2 but these may be usefully supplemented by a rapid survey of those employed by the potters of the ,ch'ing dynasty4 ,the latter will1 of course1 include many of the former because the ,chinese delight in reproducing the older types4 ,the brief summary of the eighteenth-century porcelain forms given in the opening pages of the ,t'ao shuo#dhd begins in the correct style with the reproductions of the ancient ritual vessels tsun1 lei1 yi1 ting1 yu and cho4 ,these are all bronze forms1 tsun being applied to wine vessels1 lei to vases ornamented with the meander pattern known as 8cloud and thunder0 scrolls1#dhe yi to bowl-shaped vessels without feet1 ting to cauldrons with three or four legs and two handles1 yu to wine jars with covers1 and large loop handles for suspension1 and cho to libation cups of helmet and other shapes4 ,the bronze forms are commonly decorated with bronze patterns such as the key-fret1 archaic dragon and phnix scrolls1 cicada pattern1 ogre heads and bands of stiff 7banana7 leaves1 either painted1 moulded1 engraved1 or carved in relief2 and the complicated bronze shapes are usually fashioned in moulds1 and in many cases furnished with ring handles attached to monster heads4 ,another ritual type manufactured in porcelain as well as bronze is the altar set of five pieces 7wu kung71 which consists of a ting or tripod incense vase1 two flower vases1 and two pricket candlesticks4 ,a humbler altar set was composed of a single censer or a tazza-shaped cup 7,plate #ic1 ,fig4 #a7 for flowers1 and a pair of lions on stands fitted with tubes for holding sticks of incense4 ,the bronze forms have always been used by the ,chinese potters1 but they were specially affected in the archaising period of ,ch'ien ,lung4 ,in the ,western judgment1 however1 which is unbiased by the associations of these antique forms1 the true pottery shapes1 made on the wheel1 will appear far more attractive2 for nothing can surpass the simple rounded forms which sprang to life beneath the deft fingers of the ,chinese thrower4 ,their simplicity1 grace1 and perfect suitability for their intended uses have commended them as models to the ,western potter far more congenial than the cold perfection of the ,greek vases4 ,naturally they vary in quality with the skill and taste of the individual1 but a high level of manual skill ruled among the ,chinese potters1 and their wheel-work rarely fails to please4 ,it would be useless to attempt to exhaust all the varieties of wheel-made forms4 ,many of them are due to slight alterations of line according to the caprice of the thrower4 ,it will be enough to enumerate the principal types and to note a few of the more significant changes which came in at ascertained periods4 ,by comparing the illustrations in different parts of this book1 and better still1 by comparing the specimens in some well classified collection1 the reader will soon learn to notice the periodical changes of shape4 ,to take the familiar bottle-shaped vases as an instance1 there is probably no shape on which more numerous changes have been rung1 nor one which is more susceptible to the individual touch2 and yet the trained eye will generally distinguish the ,k'ang ,hsi bottle from the later forms1 though the distinction is often more subtle than that which separates the typical ,k'ang ,hsi form 7,plate #abc1 ,fig4 #b7 from that with depressed body and straight wide neck 7,plate #abh1 ,fig4 #c71 which is characteristic of the ,ch'ien ,lung period4 ,the ,k'ang ,hsi bottles vary in themselves in length and slenderness of neck1 and in the form of the body1 which may be globular1 ovoid1 barrel shaped or pear shaped4 ,again they are often of double or even triple gourd shape1 or plain with a bulbous swelling on the upper part of the neck or actually at the mouth4 ,the last variety are called 8garlic-shaped0 bottles by the ,chinese4 ,the normal types are used to hold a single spray or a flowering branch1 but there are others with slender necks tapering to a point which are designed for sprinkling perfumes and are generally known as sprinklers4 ,of flower vases there are numerous varieties3 egg-shaped vases2 baluster-shaped vases with spreading mouth2 high-shouldered vases with small mouth1 the mei p'ing of the ,ming period2 beakers 7ku7 with slender body1 swelling belt in the middle and flaring mouth2 the so-called yen yen vase with ovoid body and high neck with trumpet mouth1#dhf which is used for some of the choicest ,k'ang ,hsi decorations 7,plate #aja72 the ,kuan yin#dhg vase of ovoid form with short neck and spreading mouth2 the cylindrical vase with short straight neck and spreading mouth 7,plate #ajc71 called by the ,french rouleau and by the ,chinese 8paper-beater0 7chih ch'ui p'ing71 whence our name 8club-shaped40 ,a smaller form of the same is known to the ,chinese as yu ch'ui p'ing 7oil-beater vase74 ,there is besides the wide oval jar or potiche with dome-shaped cover 7tsun71 and the more slender form known as t'an1 which often has a lion or ch'i-lin on the cover serving as a knob2 the tall cylinder to hold arrows and the low cylinder for brushes1 and numerous pots and jars for various uses4 ,most of these rounded forms have counterparts among the square and polygonal vases which are made in moulds or built up by the difficult process of joining together flat bats of clay4 ,the square vases made by the latter method were a source of much trouble to the potters owing to the danger of imperfect jointing or of warping in the kiln4 ,fig4 #a of ,plate #ajd illustrates an effective type of the square vase with gracefully tapering body1 the four sides of which are so often appropriately decorated with the flowers of the four seasons4 ,occasionally the angles are flattened1 giving an irregular octagonal form4 ,another form selected for sumptuous decoration is the square vase with pendulous body and two dragon handles figured on ,plate #ig2 and another is the arrow stand and square tube with deeply socketed stand and railed border 7,plate #aah74 ,the pilgrim bottle supplies an effective model with a flattened circular body1 small neck and foot1 and loops on the periphery to carry a cord4 ,these loops tended to disappear when the form had lost its first significance and was only regarded as a vase4 ,the list of ,imperial wares made in the reign of ,t'ung ,chih includes vases for divining rods of square form with low round neck and base1 ornamented with pa kua designs in relief2 vases with apricot medallions and tubular handles like ,fig4 #a of ,plate #abc4 ,other familiar types are the bag-shaped vases with the mouth tied with silk1 melon and gourd forms1 and the vase shaped like a double fish erect on its tail or a single fish rising from waves4 ,to quote a few of the types named in the ,t'ao shuo#dhh3--8;,for holding flowers there are vases from two or three inches to five or six feet high1 round like a hu1 round and swelling below like a gallbladder 7tan71 round and with spreading mouth and contracted below like a tsun1 with flat sides and full angles like a ku1 upright like bamboo joints1 square like a corn measure 7tou71 with contracted mouth and flattened sides1 with square and round flutings1 and cut in halves with flat backs for hanging on walls40 ,for pot-pourri and for fragrant flowers to perfume the rooms various covered jars were provided1 hanging vases with reticulated sides 7,plate #aad71 and boxes with perforated covers4 ,for growing plants there were deep flower pots and shallow bulb bowls1 and the large and small fish bowls were used for growing water-lilies as well as for keeping gold-fish2 and shallow bowls were apparently used as arenas for fighting crickets4#dhi ,as for the vessels in which the crickets were kept1 various suggestions have been made in reference to the 8cricket pots0 mentioned in ,chinese books1 and the name is sometimes given to reticulated vases and boxes2 but we are told that the cricket prefers a damp dwelling1 and that their pots were consequently made as a rule of absorbent earthenware4 ,there is a snuff bottle decorated with crickets in the ,british ,museum1 and one is represented perched on an overturned pot from which he has apparently escaped1 the lid having fallen off4 ,this pot is of ordinary ovoid jar form apparently ornamented with incised fret pattern4 ,the apparatus of the library table is peculiarly ,chinese2 and as calligraphy and painting were regarded as among the highest accomplishments1 so the potter lavished on the implements of the writer his most ingenious fancies and his most beautiful workmanship4 ,there were porcelain handles for the pencil brush called pi kuan2 a brush rest 7pi ko7 of many fanciful forms 7see ,fig4 #c of ,plate #fj7 of which a miniature range of hills was the commonest2 a bed 7pi ch'uang7 for it to lie down on1 and a cylindrical jar 7pi t'ung7 for it to stand up in2 vessels called hsi to wash it in1 usually of shallow bowl form or shaped like crinkled lotus leaves or in some such dainty design4 ,there were rests for the writer's wrist and paper weights of fantastic form4 ,for the ink 7mo71 there is the pallet 7mo yen7 for rubbing 7,plate #id1 ,fig4 #b71 and a bed for the ink-cake 7mo ch'uang71 a screen 7yen p'ing7 behind which it was rubbed1 small water pots 7shui ch'ng7 in innumerable shapes and served by a tiny ladle1 and water droppers 7shui ti7 of quaint and ingenious designs4#dij ,there were rollers for picture scrolls 7hua chou7 with porcelain ends1 and stands for books in the form of small elegantly shaped tables with three or four legs often beautifully painted in enamels on the biscuit4 ,with these is the incense-burning apparatus which consists of incense box 7hsiang ho71 the vase to hold the tiny tongs and shovel used for the charcoal and incense1 and the urn or burner 7shao hsiang lu74 ,the last appears in very varied shapes1 of which the most usual is the tripod cauldron 7ting7 with upright ear-handles4 ,others take the purely fantastic form of figures of animals1 birds and even human beings with open mouth or nostrils to emit the smoke4 ,tiny vases for a single flower are usually placed upon the writing table1 the furniture of which is completed by seals 7yin71 which are commonly modelled after ,han dynasty jades with handles in form of camels1 tortoises1 dragons1 tigers1 etc41 and small boxes to contain the seal vermilion 7yin s ch'ih74 ,other porcelain objects which combined use and ornament were plaques 7pan7 for screens and slabs for inlaying in pillows1 beds1 couches and verandah partitions2 actual pillows of oblong or semicircular shape with concave surface1 the inside hollow and capable of being filled with fragrant herbs2 bowls1 shaped like the ,buddhist alms bowl1 for holding black and white chess pieces1 and the other requisites for chess 7wei-ch'i7 or g4 ,with regard to the plaques1 we learn that the ,emperor ,shun ,chih gave an order in #afei for oblong plaques #c feet by #b feet and #c inches in thickness1 but these like the large fish bowls were beyond the powers of the potters at that time4 ,indeed ,pre d',entrecolles tells us that in #agab1 the date of his first letter1#dia the potters had much difficulty in executing the orders given by the ,european merchants for plaques for table tops1 etc41 and that the largest practicable size was only about a foot square4 ,no advantage was obtained by giving them additional thickness to prevent the fatal warping in the kiln1 and it was found better to make the two faces in separate slabs united by cross pieces4 ,bushell points out that these double plaques were frequently sawn apart and mounted in screens1 etc41 as separate panels4 ,the complete plaque is usually decorated on one side with a figure subject and on the other with flowers4 ,we should mention also among miscellaneous objects the beautiful hanging lanterns of eggshell thinness or perforated in openwork patterns2 the barrel-shaped garden seats2 the curious hat stands1 a sphere on top of a tall stem or a little box mounted on long curved legs1 the top in either case being hollow and perforated to hold perfumes or ice or charcoal according to the season2 boxes of all kinds2 small personal ornaments such as hair-pins1 ear-rings1 girdle-clasps1 rosary beads1 thumb rings1 fingernail covers1 tubes for mandarin feathers1 buttons and pendants2 the little bottles or flasks originally intended for drugs but afterwards consecrated to snuff when the ,spaniards or ,portuguese had introduced the tobacco plant into ,china at the end of the sixteenth century2 and finally the ornamental heads of opium pipes made chiefly in pottery4 ,for household use the ,t'ao shuo enumerates rice spoons1 tea spoons 7ch'a shih71 sets of chop sticks1 vessels for holding candle snuffs1 wax pots1 vinegar droppers1 washing basins 7tsao p'n71 pricket candle sticks 7tng ting71 pillows 7chn71 square and round1 tubs 7p'n ang71 jars 7wng7 with small mouth1 alms bowls 7po7 with globular body and contracted mouth1 plates 7tieh71 and bowls 7wan72 and for tea and wine parties and dinner services1 tea pots1 wine vessels1 bowls1 and dishes of every sort4 ,bowls 7wan7 are found in many sizes and shapes1 the commonest being the small rice bowl2 the shallower type was used for soup 7t'ang wan74 ,there are deep bowls with covers which might almost be described as jars1 and there are tea bowls with covers used for infusing tea in the absence of a tea pot4 ,in drinking from these it was usual to tilt the cover very slightly so as to leave only a narrow egress for the tea and to prevent the leaves accompanying it4 ,when a tea pot was used1 the liquid was served in a tea cup 7ch'a chung7 of tall upright form without handle#dib or cover4 ,the ,chinese cup is not furnished with a saucer in ,european style1 but there are straight-edged trays which serve a similar purpose1 holding one or more cups1 and the old tea bowls and wine cups used to be provided with a circular stand with hollow ring in which the base of the cup could be inserted4 ,the tea pot itself does not seem to be older than the ,ming dynasty1 and before that time tea bowls only had been used1 the vessels with spouts and handles being reserved for wine and other liquids4 ,a tiny bowl is the usual form of wine cup1 but beside these there are goblets with deep bowl1 and the shallow-bowled tazze with high stems1 like the early ,ming 8stem cups40 ,for ceremonial purposes1 the wedding cups and libation cups were shaped after bronze ritual vessels or rhinoceros horn cups2 and wine cups for ordinary use sometimes take the ornamental form of a lotus leaf or a flower4 ,the commonest form of wine ewer is the ,persian type with pear-shaped body1 long graceful handle and spout4 ,others take fanciful forms like that of a peach or aubergine fruit1 a gourd or melon4 ,the peach-shaped ewer with opening under the base is the original of our ,cadogan tea pot1 and we need be surprised at nothing in ,chinese art when we find this same principle and practically the same form in a ewer of ,t'ang date in the ,eumorfopoulos collection4 ,the tall cylindrical ewers with body jointed like a bamboo1 and the front shaped at the top like a tiara1 are used for sweet syrups4 ,the ,chinese dish is for the most part saucer-shaped4 ,when over half a foot in diameter it is called p'an1 the smaller dishes or platters being named tieh4 ,there are large dishes for fragrant fruits to perfume the room1 and lotus-leaf shaped dishes for sweetmeats and various small trays of fanciful form for the dinner table2 and there are the 8supper sets0 consisting of a varying number of ornamental trays which can be used separately1 or joined together to form a pattern suggesting a lotus or some other many-petalled flower4 ,in addition to the native ,chinese forms there is a host of specialised objects made for export and designed in foreign taste2 such as the deep bowls with pagoda covers for ,siam2 weights to hold down the corners of a mat for ,india1 in form like a door knob mounted on a circular base2 narghili bowls and ewers for ,persia1 besides the bottle-shaped pipes with mammiform mouthpieces1 which sometimes take animal or bird forms such as those of the elephant or phnix2 round covered dishes for ,turkey2 and all the familiar objects to meet ,european requirements4 ,the sets of five vases 7three covered jars and two beakers7 are a purely ,european garniture intended for the mantelpiece or the sideboard4 ,there are1 besides1 all manner of figures--human1 animal1 or mythical--but they belong rather to the chapter on ornamental motives4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,motives ,,of ,,the ,,decoration ,chinese decoration1 its motives and its meaning1 might form the subject for a substantial and very interesting volume4 ,but it can only be treated here in a summary fashion by enumerating a few of the motives which occur most frequently in porcelain4 ,the designs on the earlier wares have already been discussed in the chapters dealing with the ,ming and the preceding periods1 but in view of the conservatism of the ,chinese artists a certain amount of repetition will be inevitable in discussing the ornament of the ,ch'ing dynasty porcelain4 ,if we except some of the hybrid designs on the export wares which were made for people unfamiliar with ,chinese thought1 we may assume that there is a meaning in all ,chinese decoration apart from its ornamental intention2 and this applies not only to the central motives but also as a rule to the subsidiary ornament such as borders and formal patterns4 ,consequently it is clear that a study of this inner meaning is a necessary condition for the full appreciation of the decorated porcelain4 ,figure subjects and symbolical ornaments probably require the most explanation for the ,western student2 but unfortunately the former are often so difficult to identify that we have to be content with general headings such as court scenes1 military scenes1 dramatic subjects1 illustrations of romance1 etc4 ,possibly to the unusually well-read native most of these scenes would recall some known story1 but the ,european can only hope to identify one here and there by a lucky chance4 ,he can1 of course1 take a book of ,chinese legends and by the exercise of a little imagination find a story for every scene2 but such methods are not to be recommended1 and it is infinitely preferable to give the design no label at all unless the identification is fully established4 ,that at least leaves the question open4 ,illustration3 ,plate #acc4--,late famille rose ,enamels4 ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl painted in soft enamels1 attendants of ,hsi ,wang ,mu in boats4 ,mark1 ,shn t t'ang chih4 ,tao ,kuang period4 ,diameter #f inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--;,imperial ,fish ,bowl with five dragons ascending and descending1 borders of wave pattern1 ju-i pattern1 etc41 famille rose enamels4 ,late eighteenth century4 ,height #bj inches4 ,burdett-,coutts ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,plate #acd4--,porcelain ,snuff ,bottles4 ,eighteenth ,century4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #a4--,subject from the drama1 black ground4 ,yung ,chng mark4 ,height #b inches4 ,fig4 #b4--;,battle of demons1 underglaze blue and red4 ,mark1 ,yung-lo t'ang4 ,height #c inches4 ,fig4 #c4--;,blue and white 8steatitic0 ware4 ,height #b inches4 ,fig4 #d4--;,crackled cream white ting glaze1 pierced casing with pine1 bamboo and prunus4 ,height #c inches4 ,fig4 #e4--8,steatitic0 ware with ,hundred ,antiques design in coloured relief4 ,chia ,ch'ing mark4 ,height #b inches4 ,these scenes from history and romance were favourite subjects with the ,k'ang ,hsi decorators of blue and white and famille verte porcelains4 ,to instance a few types3 the scene of the half-legendary ,yao with his cavalcade coming to greet the ,emperor ,shun who is engaged1 like the ,roman ,cincinnatus1 in ploughing2 the episodes of the three heroes of the ,han dynasty1 ,chang ,liang1 ,ch'n ,p'ing and ,han ,hsin#dic2 the heroes of the romantic period of the ,three ,kingdoms 7#bba-bfe ,a4,d47 whose stories may be compared with those of our knights of the ,round ,table2 the stories of brigands in the reign of ,hui ,tsung of the ,sung dynasty4#did ,the story of ,su ,wu1 the faithful minister of ,han ,wu ,ti1 tending cattle in captivity among the ,hiung-nu1 is depicted on a bowl in the ,british ,museum1 and a dish in the same collection shows an emperor 7perhaps ,kao ,tsu1 the first of the ,t'ang dynasty7 surrounded by his captains4 ,processional scenes and subjects illustrating the life and customs of the times1 peaceful domestic scenes with interiors of house or garden peopled by women and children1 are more common in the famille rose period when the warlike tastes of the ,manchus had already been softened by a long period of peace4 ,a civil procession and a military procession sometimes balance each other on two vases1 the one being the wn p'ing 7civil vase71 and the other the wu p'ing 7military vase74 ,a mock dragon-procession formed by children at play is a not uncommon motive4 ,indeed playing children 7wa wa7 have been from the earliest times a subject frequently and most sympathetically depicted on ,chinese porcelain4 ,a historical child-scene is that in which the boy ,ss-ma ,kuang broke the huge fish bowl with a stone to let out the water and save his drowning companion4 ,there are many motives intended to appeal to the ,chinese literatus1 and specially suited to ornament the furniture of the writing table4 ,symposia of literary personages1 for instance1 make an appropriate design for a brush pot1 or again1 the meeting of the celebrated coteries1 the ,seven ,worthies of the ,bamboo ,grove who lived in the third century1 and the worthies of the ,orchid ,pavilion1 including the famous calligrapher1 ,wang ,hsi-chih1 who met in the fourth century to drink wine1 cap verses1 and set their cups floating down the 8nine-bend river0 7see ,plate #ajd1 ,fig4 #a74 ,the ,horace of ,china1 ,li ,t'ai-po1 the great ,t'ang poet1 is represented in drunken slumber leaning against an overturned wine jar or receiving the ministrations of the ,emperor and his court4 ,he also figures among the ,eight ,immortals of the ,wine ,cup1 a suitable subject for an octagonal bowl4 ,poets1 painters1 and sages are often seen in mountain landscapes contemplating the beauties of ,nature2 two sages meeting on a mountain side is a frequent subject and is known as the 8happy meeting10 or again1 it is a single sage1 with attendant carrying a bowl1 book1 and fan1 or sometimes bringing an offering of a goose4 ,in rare instances these figures can be identified with ,chinese worthies such as ,chiang ,tz-ya1 who sits fishing on a river bank1 or ,chu ,mai-ch'n1 the wood-cutter1 reading as he walks with his faggots on his back4 ,the stories of the ,twenty-four ,paragons of ,filial ,piety provide a complete series of popular subjects1 which may be seen in the panels of ,plate #ia1 ,fig4 #c4 ,women are represented by the ,virtuous ,heroines2 by celebrated beauties such as ,yang ,kuei-fei1 consort of the ,t'ang ruler ,ming ,huang1#die and ,hsi ,shih1 the ,chinese ,delilah who was the undoing of ,fu ,ch'ai1 prince of ,wu1 in the fifth century ,b4,c42 by the poetess ,tan ,hui-pan1 and by a hundred nameless figures which occur in genre designs1 and by the idealised beauties1 mei jn 7graceful ladies71 which the ,dutch ungallantly dubbed with the name of lange lijsen or long ,elizas4 ,the domestic occupations of a lady form another series of subjects for polygonal vessels2 and women are sometimes seen engaged in the ,four ,subjects of ,study--,poetry1 ,rites1 ,history1 and ,music--or in the ,four ,liberal ,accomplishments--,writing1 ,painting1 ,music1 and ,checkers--but the groups who make up these scenes are more often composed of men4 ,the game of checkers or g1 which is so often loosely rendered chess1#dif is wei ch'i the 8surrounding game10 a favourite ,chinese amusement1 which figures in two well-known subjects of porcelain decoration4 ,one of these is the legend of ,wang ,chih1 the ,taoist patriarch1 watching the game played by two old men1 the spirits of the ,pole ,stars1 in a mountain retreat2 the other is the story of the general ,hsieh ,an1 who refused to allow the news of an important victory to disturb his game4 ,ladies of the court picking lotus flowers from boats on an ornamental lake in the presence of the ,emperor and ,empress represent the annual ,lotus ,fte at ,peking1 and there are numerous scenes in the ,imperial pleasure grounds in which bevies of ladies from the harem are depicted4 ,the ,eight ,ambassadors of the ,tribes of ,man1 the barbarian nations from the eight points of the compass1 form a processional subject suitable for the exterior of bowls and cups4 ,the ambassadors are grotesquely drawn figures1 sometimes mounted on strange beasts1 and carrying gifts as tribute to the ,emperor4 ,dreams and visions are depicted in the usual ,oriental manner by a cloud issuing from the dreamer's head and expanding into a scene which represents the subject of the dream4 ,thus the youthful scholar is seen asleep with a vision of his future dignity floating above his head4 ,divine apparitions are differentiated by the presence of clouds around or below the main figures4 ,deities and deified mortals are favourite subjects for porcelain decoration as well as for figures and groups modelled in the round4 ,the three principal ,chinese religions--,confucianism1 ,buddhism1 and ,taoism--exist side by side with perfect mutual toleration4 ,indeed the principles of the one are in many cases incorporated in the others4 ,buddhist and ,taoist emblems are freely mingled in decorative art1 and the three founders--,confucius1 ,buddha1 and ,lao-tz--are grouped together in friendly conversation or examining a scroll on which is drawn the ,yin-yang symbol of the duality of ,nature4#dig ,confucianism is the religious or rather philosophical system officially recognised in ,china1 but its adherents are chiefly among the literati4 ,though it inculcates ancestor-worship1 it is not in itself concerned with an after life1 and it contains few romantic superstitions calculated to fire the popular imagination or to suggest motives for decorative art4 ,confucius himself is frequently represented both in painting and sculpture1 and his meeting with ,lao-tz is familiar in pictorial art4 ,confucianism recognises certain canonised mortals1 the logical outcome of ancestor-worship1 and among these the best known in art is ,kuan ,y1 a warrior famous at the end of the ,han dynasty1 who was not1 however1 canonised until the ,sung period1 and only in #aeid raised to the rank of a god 7of ,war7 under the title of ,kuan ,ti4 ,it is reasonable to suppose that most of the numerous statuettes of this popular deity were made after the latter date4 ,he is usually represented as a dignified personage with flowing beard seated in full armour with right hand raised in a speaking attitude2 but he figures also on horseback or beside his charger1 and with his faithful squires--,chou ,ts'ang1 who carries a halberd1 and ,kuan ,p'ing1 his own son4 ,occasionally he is seen seated with a book in his hand1 in which case he is regarded as a literary rather than a military power4 ,the gods of ,literature have a very large following in ,china1 where scholarship has been the key to office for upwards of two thousand years1 the chief deity of the cult being ,wn ,ch'ang1 or in full1 ,wn ,ch'ang ti chn4 ,he is the star god who resides in one of the groups of the ,great ,bear1 a dignified bearded figure in mandarin dress seated with folded hands or mounted on a mule4 ,a lesser but more popular divinity is the demon-faced ,k'uei ,hsing1 who was canonised in the fourteenth century4 ,originally a scholar1 who though successful in the examinations was refused office on the ground of his preternatural ugliness1 he threw himself in despair into the ,yangtze and was carried up to heaven on a fish-dragon4 ,he is easily recognised as a demon-like person1 poised with one foot on the head of a fish-dragon 7y lung7 which is emerging from waves4 ,he brandishes triumphantly in his hands a pencil brush and a cake of ink4#dih ,the fish-dragon is itself a symbol of literary aspiration1 from the legend that when the salmon come every year up the river to the famous falls of ,lung-mn 7the dragon gate71 those which succeed in leaping up the falls are transformed into fish-dragons4 ,this metamorphosis of the fish as it emerges from the water into the dragon is a favourite motive for porcelain decoration4 ,buddhism1 which was officially recognised in ,china by the ,emperor ,ming ,ti in #fg ,a4,d41 had a far-reaching influence over the arts of sculpture and painting1 and the revolution which it worked in the greater arts was naturally reflected in the lesser handicrafts4 ,buddhistic motives appear early in the ,chinese pottery1 and in the period with which we are at present concerned1 the ,buddhist religion supplied a great number of motives for the porcelain painter and the figure modeller4 ,sakyamuni himself is depicted or sculptured in various poses3 7#a7 ,as an infant standing on the lotus and proclaiming his birth2 7#b7 as an ascetic returning from his fast in the mountains2 7#c7 seated cross-legged on a lotus throne with right hand raised in teaching attitude1 the most frequent representation2 7#d7 recumbent on a lotus pillow1 in ,nirvana2 7#e7 in the ,buddhist ,trinity holding the alms bowl or patra between the ,bodhisattvas ,manjusri and ,samantabhadra4 ,these two last when represented singly are usually mounted1 ,manjusri on a lion1 and ,samantabhadra on an elephant4 ,but by far the most popular figure of the ,buddhist theogony in ,china is ,kuan-yin1 the ,compassionate1 and ,kuan-yin1 the ,maternal2 in the latter capacity she holds a child in her arms and displays a wonderful likeness to our images of the ,virgin4 ,but a full account of her has been given on p4 #aaj1 and need not be repeated4 ,next in popularity perhaps is the jolly monk with the hempen bag1 ,pu-tai ,ho-shang1 a semi-nude1 corpulent person1 with smiling face1 and a large bag full of the 8precious things40 ,he is also a great favourite in ,japan1 where he is known as ,hotei1 and worshipped as the god of ,contentment4 ,by the ,chinese he is also regarded as ,mi-lo ,fo1 the ,maitreya or coming ,buddha1 and he has been added by them to the list of ,arhats or apostles of ,buddha4 ,he is often represented surrounded by playful children to whom he is devoted4 ,the ,arhats1 or ,lohan1 are all known by their several attributes1 but in porcelain decoration they usually appear in groups consisting of the whole or a large part of their number1 which1 originally sixteen1 was increased in ,china to eighteen by the inclusion of ,ho-shang and ,dharmatrata4 ,the latter is a long-haired individual who carries a vase and a fly whisk in his hands and a bundle of books on his back while he sits gazing at a small image of ,buddha4 ,he is not to be confused with ,tamo1 the ,indian ,bodhidharma1 the first ,chinese patriarch1 who came to ,lo-yang and remained there in contemplation for nine years4 ,the legend is that after his death 7about #ecj ,a4,d47 he was seen returning to ,india wrapped in his shroud and carrying one shoe in his hand1 the other having been left behind in his tomb4 ,this is the guise in which he frequently appears in art 7,plate #hf71 and he is often depicted crossing the ,yangtze on a reed4 ,many of the symbolical ornaments on porcelain have a ,buddhistic significance1 such as the eight emblems 7see p4 #bih71 the crossed dorjes or thunderbolts of ,vajrapani1#dii the ,buddhist jewel in a leaf-shaped halo of flames2 and ,sanskrit characters of sacred import are used as decoration for bowls and dishes1 made no doubt for the use of the faithful4 ,the principal animals associated with ,buddhist designs are the elephant1 who carries the jewel vase on his back1 the white horse 7pai ma71 who brought the ,buddhist scriptures across the desert from ,india1 the hare1 who offered himself as food to ,buddha1 and the ,chinese lion who1 under the name of the 8dog of ,fo0 7,buddha71 acts as guardian of ,buddhist temples and images4 ,but the religion which has taken the greatest hold on ,chinese imagination and which consequently has supplied the largest number of motives for their decorative art is undoubtedly ,taoism4 ,as originally taught by ,lao-tz1 a contemporary of ,confucius1 in the sixth century ,b4,c41 the doctrine of ,tao 7the ,way7 pointed to abstraction from worldly cares and freedom from mental perturbation as the highest good4 ,but just as the later but closely analogous doctrine of ,epicurus degenerated into the cult of pleasure1 so the true teaching of ,lao-tz was afterwards lost among the adventitious beliefs and superstitions which were grafted on to it by his followers4 ,the secret of transmuting metals into gold and of compounding the elixir of life became the chief preoccupations of the ,taoist sages1 the latter quest appealing particularly to the ,chinese with their proverbial worship of longevity2 and a host of legends grew up concerning mortals who won immortality by discovering the elixir1 about fairies and the denizens of the ,shou ,shan or ,hills of ,longevity1 about the ,isles of the ,blessed and the palace of ,hsi ,wang ,mu in the ,k'un-lun mountains4 ,it is this later and more popular phase of ,taoism which figures so largely in porcelain decoration4 ,lao-tz is represented as a venerable old man with bald1 protuberant forehead1 who rides upon an ox1 the same in features as the god of ,longevity1 ,shou ,lao1 who is in fact regarded as his disembodied spirit4 ,shou ,lao1 however1 is more commonly shown enthroned upon a rocky platform in the ,hills of ,longevity1 holding in one hand a curious knotted staff1 to which are attached rolls of writing1 and in the other a peach1 and surrounded by his special attributes1 the spotted deer1 the stork1 and the ling chih fungus4 ,thus seated he receives homage from the ,eight ,immortals and the other ,taoist genii or hsien1 who are as numerous as the fairies of our countryside4 ,other designs represent ,shou ,lao riding on a deer or flying on the back of a stork1 or simply standing with his staff and peach1 his robes embroidered with seal forms of the character shou 7longevity74 ,in this last posture he is often grouped with two other popular deities1 one in mandarin robes and official hat holding a ju-i sceptre1 which fulfils every wish1 and the other also in official robes but holding a babe who reaches out for a peach in his other hand4 ,together they form the ,taoist triad1 ,shou-hsing1 ,lu-hsing1 and ,fu-hsing1 star-gods 7hsing7 of ,longevity1 ,preferment1 and ,happiness4 ,fu-hsing in addition has sometimes two boy attendants carrying respectively a lotus and a hand-organ4 ,the ,eight ,taoist ,immortals 7pa hsien7 are3-- #a4 ,chung-li ,ch'an1 also known as ,han ,chung-li1 represented as a fat man1 half-draped1 who holds a ling chih fungus in one hand and a fly-whisk or fan in the other4 #b4 ,l ,tung-pin1 a figure of martial aspect armed with a sword to slay dragons and evil spirits4 ,he is the patron of barbers4 #c4 ,li ,t'ieh-kuai1 ,li with the iron crutch1 a lame beggar with a crutch and pilgrim's gourd from which issue clouds and apparitions4 ,he is patron of astrologers and magicians4 #d4 ,ts'ao ,kuo-ch'iu1 in official robes1 wearing a winged hat1 and carrying a pair of castanets4 ,he is patron of mummers and actors4 #e4 ,lan ,ts'ai-ho1 of uncertain sex1 carrying a hoe and a basket of flowers4 ,patron of gardeners and florists4 #f4 ,chang ,kuo ,lao1 the necromancer with the magic mule1 of which he kept a picture folded up in his wallet4 ,he would make the beast materialise from the picture by spurting water on to it2 and at other times he would conjure it out of a gourd4 ,his attribute is a musical instrument consisting of a drum and a pair of rods4 ,he is patron of artists and calligraphers1 and ranks as one of the gods of ,literature4 #g4 ,han ,hsiang ,tz1 who gained admission to the ,taoist paradise and climbed the peach-tree of ,immortality4 ,he is shown as a young man playing on a flute1 and is specially worshipped by musicians4 #h4 ,ho ,hsien ,ku1 a maiden who wears a cloak of mug-wort leaves and carries a lotus4 ,she is patroness of housewives4 ,the ,immortals are commonly represented in a group paying court to ,shou ,lao1 or crossing the sea on the backs of various strange creatures or other supernatural conveyances on their way to the ,islands of ,paradise4 ,grouped in pairs they lend themselves to the decoration of quadrangular objects4 ,other frequenters of the ,shou ,shan are the twin genii#ejj of ,union and ,harmony 7ho ho rh hsien71 an inseparable pair1 depicted as ragged mendicants with staff and broom1 or as smiling boyish figures1 the one with a lotus and the other holding a ,pandora box of blessings1 from which a cloud is seen to rise2 ,tung-fang ,so1 who stole the peaches of ,hsi ,wang ,mu and acquired thereby a longevity of nine thousand years1 is represented as a smiling bearded old man1 not unlike ,shou ,lao himself1 carrying an enormous peach1 or as a boy with a peach to recall his youthful exploit4 ,liu ,han1 with his familiar three-legged toad1 a wild-looking person1 who waves a string of cash in the air1 and very closely resembles the ,japanese ,gama ,sennin 7the ,hou ,hsien ,shng of ,china72 ,wang ,tz-ch'iao1 who rides on a crane playing a flute1 and ,huang ,an1 the hermit1 whose steed is a tortoise4 ,the god of ,alchemy is figured1 according to the identification of a statuette in the ,muse ,guimet1 as a tall1 draped person with beard and moustaches flowing down in five long wisps1 a leaf-shaped fan in his left hand1 and beside him a small figure of a devotee who holds up a book with questioning gesture4 ,the ,queen of the ,genii is ,hsi ,wang ,mu 7,queen ,mother of the ,west74 ,her home is in the ,k'un-lun mountains1 and the peach tree of ,longevity grows in her gardens4 ,in the tenth century ,b4,c41 the ,emperor ,mu ,wang is reputed to have visited her palace1 and the reception forms a pleasing subject for the artist1 as does also her return visit paid to the ,emperor ,wu ,ti of the ,han dynasty4 ,she also figures frequently on porcelain with her fair attendants crossing the sea on a raft1 flying on the back of a phnix or standing with a female attendant who carries a dish of peaches4 ,her messengers are blue-winged birds like the doves of ,venus1 who carry the fruit of longevity to favoured beings4 ,with her attendant phnix she presents a strong analogy with ,juno and her peacock2 and her ,western habitat has favoured the theories which would connect her with ,grco-,roman mythology1 though her consort ,hsi ,wang ,fu 7,king ,father of the ,west and a personage obviously invented ad hoc7 is quite insignificant and has nothing in common with the cloud-compelling ,jove4 ,there is a female figure which is scarcely distinguishable from one of the attendants of ,hsi ,wang ,mu on the one hand and from ,lan ,ts'ai-ho on the other4 ,this is the ,flower ,fairy 7,hua hsien7 who carries a basket of flowers suspended from a hoe4 ,and there are besides numerous magicians of more or less repute1 such as ,chang ,chiu-ko1 who is seen transforming pieces cut from his scanty garments into butterflies2 and a host of nameless hsien of local fame who figure in mountain retreats1 such as the ,ss hao or four hoary hermits4#eja ,the animals connected with ,taoist lore include the eight fabulous horses of ,mu ,wang which brought him to the palace of ,hsi ,wang ,mu4 ,they are usually seen at pasture frisking about in wild gambols4 ,the deer1 the familiar of ,shou ,lao1 is depicted usually with a ling chih fungus in his mouth2 the toad and hare live in the moon where they pound the elixir of immortality2 and the tortoise develops a long bushy tail after a thousand years of existence4 ,all these are suggestive of longevity1 as is also the crane and a number of flowers1 fruits and trees such as the pine1 bamboo and prunus 7the three friends71 the chrysanthemum1 the willow1 the peach1 the gourd1 and more especially the ling chih fungus1 the polyporus lucidus1 which was originally an emblem of good luck1 but afterwards of longevity4 ,the head of the ling chih closely resembles#ejb that of the familiar ju-i sceptre which grants every wish1 an auspicious object commonly seen in the hands of ,taoist genii2 and the same form occurs in a decorative border 7see ,plate #gg1 ,fig4 #b7 which is variously known as the ju-i head border1 the ju-i cloud border1 or the cloud-scroll border1 the conventional cloud being commonly rolled up in this form4 ,it will also be found that formal ornaments1 pendants and lambrequins often take the form of the ju-i head in ,chinese decoration4 ,the attributes of the ,eight ,immortals occur among the many symbols used in porcelain ornament2 and among the landscapes will be found the gardens of ,hsi ,wang ,mu and ,mount ,p'ng-lai1#ejc one of the three islands of the blessed1 situated in the ocean east of ,china4 ,here the fountain of life flows in a perpetual stream3 8the pine1 the bamboo1 the plum1 the peach1 and the fungus of longevity grow for ever on its shores2 and the long-haired tortoise disports in its rocky inlets1 and the white crane builds her nest on the limbs of its everlasting pines40#ejd ,presumably1 too1 the ,shou ,shan is situated on this delectable island2 and perhaps also the heavenly pavilion 7t'ien t'ang71 which appears among clouds as the goal to which a crane is often seen guiding some of the ,taoist genii4 ,possibly1 too1 the conventional border of swirling waves punctuated by conical rocks carries a suggestion of the rocky islands of paradise rising from the sea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,the ,yin-yang and ,pa-kua ,there are besides many primitive beliefs traceable for the most part to ,nature-worship1 which prevailed in ,china long before the days of ,confucius1 ,lao-tz or ,buddha4 ,some of these have been incorporated in the later religious systems1 especially in that of ,taoism1 which was ready to adopt any form of demonology4 ,the oldest system is that expounded by the legendary ,fu ,hsi1 in which the phenomena of ,nature were explained by reference to the mystic diagrams revealed to him on the back of a dragon horse 7lung ma7 which rose from the ,yellow ,river4 ,these are the pa-kua or eight trigrams formed by the permutations of three lines1 broken and unbroken1 as in ,fig4 #a4 ,a more common arrangement of them is according to the points of the compass1 and enclosing another ancient device1 the ,yin-yang1 a circle bisected by a wavy line1 which symbolises the duality of ,nature1 yin being the female and yang the male element4 ,demons abound in ,chinese superstitions1 and the demon face appears early in art on the ancient bronzes1 from which it was sometimes borrowed by the porcelain decorator4 ,this is the face of the t'ao t'ieh 7the gluttonous ogre7 supposed originally to have represented the demon of the storm1 and as such appropriately appearing against a background of 8cloud and thunder0 pattern1 as the key-fret is called by the ,chinese4 ,afterwards the t'ao t'ieh seems to have been regarded1 on homopathic principles1 as a warning against greed4 ,demons also appear in complete form in certain battle scenes and conflicts1 such as the combat of the demons of the water and of air which proceeds in front of a group of ,chinese dignitaries seated in the ,kin-shan temple on the ,yangtze river 7see ,plate #acd1 ,fig4 #b74 ,the sky and the stars of course contribute their quota of divinities4 ,beside the ,taoist star-gods of ,longevity1 ,honours and ,happiness1 there is the ,jade ,emperor or supreme lord of the universe1 ,y wang shang ti1 who is represented in mandarin dress holding a ju-i sceptre and closely resembling ,lu ,hsing1 the star-god of ,honours4 ,there is1 too1 the goddess of the ,moon with a butterfly ornamenting the front of her robes1 and a mirror in her right hand1 besides the other denizens of the moon--,liu ,han1 the moon-hare and the moon-toad4 ,a cassia tree also grows in the moon1 and the 8cassia of the moon0 is a symbol of literary success4 ,the ,sun is represented as a disc on which is a three-legged bird2 and it is probable that the sun-disc is represented also in the so-called 8pearl0#eje which is pursued or grasped by dragons2 but this idea of the power of the storm threatening the sun was lost sight of in later art1 and 8a dragon pursuing a pearl0 was considered a sufficient description of the motive4 ,a curious scene depicting a mandarin shooting arrows at a dog in the sky alludes to the dog who devours the sun and so causes the eclipse4 ,the zodiacal animals are named on p4 #baa 7vol4 i71 and the four points of the compass are symbolised by the azure dragon for the ,east1 the white tiger for the ,west1 the black tortoise for the ,north1 and the red bird for the ,south4 ,the romance of two stars is embodied in the story of the ,spinning ,maiden 7,chih ,n7 and her lover1 the ,cowherd 7,ch'ien ,niu71 who are separated for all the year save on one night when the 8magpies fill up the ,milky ,way and enable the ,spinning ,damsel to cross over40 ,chang ,ch'ien1 the celebrated minister of ,han ,wu-ti1 was one of the first great travellers of ,china1 and among the legends which grew around his exploits is one which makes him ascend the ,milky ,way and meet the ,spinning ,damsel herself4 ,this story arose because he was reputed to have discovered the source of the ,yellow ,river1 which had hitherto been supposed to rise in heaven1 being in fact a continuation of the ,milky ,way4 ,chang ,ch'ien is sometimes represented in ,chinese art as floating on a log-raft on the ,yellow ,river1 and carrying in his hand a shuttle given to him by the ,spinning ,maiden4#ejf ,the poet ,li ,t'ai-po is also figured in the same kind of craft1 but he is distinguished by a book in place of the shuttle4 ,motives borrowed from the animal world are frequent on porcelain1 though they represent to a large extent mythical creatures1 first and foremost of which is the dragon4 ,we need not enter into the conflicting theories as to the origin of the ,chinese dragon4 ,whether he sprang from some prehistoric monster whose remains had come to light1 or was evolved from the crocodile1 he appears in any case to have belonged to ,nature-worship as the power of the storm and the bringer of fertilising rain4 ,there1 are1 however1 various kinds of dragons--those of the air1 the sea1 the earth--and the monster takes many different forms in ,chinese art4 ,the archaic types borrowed by the porcelain decorators from ancient bronzes and jades are the k'uei lung chch #b or one-legged dragon1 and the ch'ih lung chch #b1 the former a tapir-like creature which is said to have been1 like the t'ao t'ieh1 a warning against greed1#ejg the latter a smooth1 hornless reptile of lizard-like form with divided tail1 who is also described as a mang4 ,but the dragon 7lung7 par excellence is a formidable monster with 8bearded1 scowling head1 straight horns1 a scaly1 serpentine body1 with four feet armed with claws1 a line of bristling dorsal spines1 and flames proceeding from the hips and shoulders40 ,such is the creature painted by the great master of dragon painting1 ,chang ,sng-yu1 of the sixth century1 and as such he is the emblem of ,imperial power and the device of the ,emperor4 ,the ,imperial dragon in the art of the last two dynasties has been distinguished by five claws on each of his four feet#ejh2 the four-clawed dragon was painted on wares destined for personages of lesser rank4 ,the dragons are usually depicted flying in clouds1 and pursuing the disc or pearl1 which was discussed above1 or rising from waves4 ,nine dragons form a decoration specially reserved for the ,emperor2 and on the palace porcelain the dragon and the phnix 7fng7 frequently appear together as emblems of the ,emperor and ,empress4 ,the fng-huang1#eji a phnix-like bird1 is usually shown with the 8head of a pheasant and the beak of a swallow1 a long flexible neck1 plumage of many gorgeous colours1 a flowing tail between that of an argus pheasant and a peacock1 and long claws pointed backward as it flies40 ,it is the special emblem of the ,empress4 ,in archaic designs there is a k'uei fng or one-legged phnix1 a bird-like creature terminating in scrolls1 which1 like the corresponding k'uei lung1 occasionally appears in porcelain designs4 ,another bird-like creature scarcely distinguishable from the fng is the luan2 the former being based1 as it is said1 on the peacock of ,india1 and the latter on the argus pheasant4 ,another creature of dual nature is the ch'i lin1 commonly called the kylin1 which consists of the male 7ch'i7 and the female 7lin74 ,it is in itself a composite animal with the 8body of a deer1 with the slender legs and divided hoofs2 the head resembles that of a dragon1 the tail is curled and bushy1 like that of the conventional lion1 and the shoulders are adorned with the flame-like attributes of its divine nature4 ,it is said to attain the age of a thousand years1 to be the noblest form of animal creation1 and the emblem of perfect good2 and to tread so lightly as to leave no footprints1 and so carefully as to crush no living creature40 ,its appearance was the sign of the coming of a virtuous ruler4 ,it is important to note that the ch'i lin is quite distinct from the ,chinese lion1 and is also to be carefully separated from the other chimera-like creatures known in ,chinese art under the general title hai shou or sea monsters4 ,the lion in ,chinese art 7shih or shih tz1 the ,japanese shishi71 though of qualified ferocity in appearance1 is in reality a peaceful1 docile creature who expends his energy on a ball of silk brocade1 the streamers from which he holds in his massive jaws4 ,in general aspect 7,plate #ie71 in his tufts of hair and his bushy tail1 he closely resembles the ,peking spaniel1 who is in fact called after him the lion dog 7shih tz kou74 ,he is usually represented in pairs1 the one with one foot on a ball of brocade1 and the other1 presumably the lioness1 with a cub4 ,the larger lion figures are placed as guardians by the gates of ,buddhist temples1 from which function the lion has earned the name of 8dog of ,fo0 7i4e4 ,buddha72 the smaller sizes1 usually mounted on an oblong base with a tube attached to hold an incense-stick1 have a place on the domestic altar4 ,another mythical creature not unlike the lion is the pi hsieh of archaic art which is supposed to ward off evil spirits4#eaj ,the king of beasts in ,china is the tiger 7hu71 whose forehead is marked by ,nature with the character wang chch 7prince74 ,he is the solar animal1 the lord of the mountains1 and the chief of all quadrupeds4 ,the white tiger represents the western quadrant and the autumn2 and images of tigers in ancient times served many purposes1 such as guarding the graves of the dead and summoning the living to battle4 ,in addition to the sea monsters there are sea horses1 who speed at a flying gallop over waves2 and there are the pai ma and lung ma and the eight horses of ,mu ,wang1 already described1 to represent the horse in art4 ,the deer is a ,taoist emblem of longevity1 and also in its name lu suggests the auspicious word lu 7preferment72 and there is a fabulous one-horned creature distinct from the ch'i lin1 and known as the t'ien lu or deer of heaven4 ,rams are sometimes represented as personifying the revivifying powers of spring2 and the monkey occasionally figures in decoration1 his name hou suggesting another word hou1 which means to expect 7office71 and providing an appropriate design for presentation to a candidate in the ,state examinations4 ,another motive suitable for the same purpose is the fish leaping from waves1 which has been already explained2 and fish in general are cleverly depicted by the porcelain decorators swimming among water plants4 ,the fish has always been a favourite motive in ,china1 and in ancient art it appears to have symbolised power and rank4 ,the double fish is one of the ,buddhist emblems1 and also symbolises conjugal felicity4 ,the tortoise has already been mentioned among the emblems of longevity4 ,birds are drawn with wonderful skill and spirit by ,chinese artists1 and they provide a frequent motive both for the painter and figure modeller4 ,the crane is the companion of ,shou ,lao and a symbol of long life2 a pair of mandarin ducks suggest conjugal affection2 egrets among lotus plants1 geese1 and wild duck in marshy landscapes also pleased the ,chinese fancy4 ,the magpie is an emblem of happiness1 and two magpies foretell a happy meeting2 the cock is the bird of fame1 and he is often associated with the peony1 which is the fu kuei flower1 to suggest the phrase kung ming 7fame71 fu kuei 7riches and honours674 ,there are other birds which are associated with special trees and flowers2 the pheasant is often seen perched on a rock beside the peony and magnolia2 partridges and quails go with millet2 swallows with the willow2 sparrows on the prunus1 and so on4 ,a comprehensive group represents the 8hundred birds0 paying court to the phnix4 ,the bat is a symbol of happiness from its name fu having the same sound as fu 7happiness74 ,among insects1 the cicada 7at one time regarded as a symbol of life renewed after death7 is a very ancient motive2 and the praying mantis who catches the cicada is an emblem of courage and perseverance4#eaa ,fighting crickets are the fighting cocks of ,china1 and supply a sporting motive for the decorator2 and butterflies frequently occur with floral designs or in the decoration known as the ,hundred ,butterflies1 which covers the entire surface of the vessel with butterflies and insects4 ,flower painting is another forte of the ,chinese decorator1 and some of the most beautiful porcelain designs are floral4 ,conventional flowers appear in scrolls1 and running designs1 especially the lotus and peony scrolls and the scrolls of 8fairy flowers10 the pao hsiang hua of the ,ming blue and white4 ,but the most attractive designs are the more naturalistic pictures of flowering plants and shrubs1 or of floral bouquets in baskets or vases4 ,the flowers on ,chinese porcelain are supple1 free1 and graceful2 and1 though true enough to nature to be easily identified1 are never of the stiff copy-book order which the ,european porcelain painter affected at one unhappy period4 ,a long list of the ,chinese porcelain flowers given by ,bushell includes the orchid 7lan71 rose1 jasmine1 olea fragrans1 pyrus japonica1 gardenia1 syringa1 several kinds of peony1 magnolia 7y lan71 iris1 hydrangea1 hibiscus1 begonia1 pink and water fairy flower 7narcissus tazetta74 ,many more no doubt can be identified1 for the ,chinese are great cultivators as they are great lovers of flowers4 ,in fact1 the word hua chch flowery is synonymous with ,chinese1 and chung hua chch #b is ,china4 ,plate #abf is an example of the ,hundred ,flower design1 known by the ,french name mille fleurs1 in which the ground of the vase is a mass of naturalistic flowers so that the porcelain looks like a bouquet4 ,there are special flowers for the months#eab3--7a7 ,peach 7t'ao7 for ,february1 7#b7 ,tree ,peony 7mu tan7 for ,march1 7#c7 ,double ,cherry 7ying t'ao7 for ,april1 7#d7 ,magnolia 7y lan7 for ,may1 7#e7 ,pomegranate 7shih liu7 for ,june1 7#f7 ,lotus 7lien hua7 for ,july1 7#g7 ,pear 7hai t'ang7 for ,august1 7#h7 ,mallow 7ch'iu k'uei7 for ,september1 7#i7 ,chrysanthemum 7ch7 for ,october1 7#aj7 ,gardenia 7chih hua7 for ,november1 7#aa7 ,poppy 7ying su7 for ,december1 7#ab7 ,prunus 7mei hua7 for ,january4 ,from these are selected four to represent the seasons--mu-tan peony for spring1 lotus for summer1 chrysanthemum for autumn1 and prunus for winter--which supply charming motives for panel decoration or for the sides of quadrangular vases4 ,the chrysanthemum besides is associated with its admirer ,t'ao ,yan-ming1 and the lotus with ,chou ,mao-shu and the poet ,li ,t'ai-po4 ,but as a rule the floral designs carry some hidden meaning1 the flowers being grouped so as to suggest some felicitous phrase by a play on their names4#eac ,the peony we have seen to be the fu kuei 7riches and honours7 flower2 the chrysanthemum1 as ,dr4 ,laufer has suggested1 being the flower of the ninth 7chiu7 month1 may connote longevity through the word chiu 7long-enduring72 the prunus 7mei hua7 carries the obvious suggestion of mei 7beautiful71 and instances might easily be multiplied4 ,among the trees1 the cassia suggests literary honours1 the willow longevity1 as also the pine1 bamboo and plum1 who are called the 8three friends10#ead faithful even in the 8winter of our discontent40 ,among the fruits the gourd is an emblem both of long life and of fertility1 and the three fruits 7san kuo7--peach1 pomegranate and finger citron--symbolise the ,three ,abundances of ,years1 ,sons and ,happiness4 ,the orange is a symbol of good luck1 and no doubt the others which occur less frequently contain similar suggestions4 ,landscape 7shan shui7 is one of the four main divisions of ,chinese pictorial art1 and it is well represented in porcelain decoration4 ,the ,sung and ,ming masters provided designs which were freely copied1 and views of the beauty spots of ,china and of the celebrated parks and pleasure grounds were frequently used4 ,it is one of these landscapes which the ,english potters borrowed for the familiar 8willow pattern0 design1 and the sentimental tale which some fanciful writer has attached to the pattern is a mere afterthought4 ,figure subjects and landscapes are combined in many designs1 such as the meeting of sages1 romantic incidents1 besides the more homely motives of field work1 fishing1 rustics returning from the plough mounted on their oxen1 and the like4 ,the four seasons1 too1 are represented in landscape with appropriate accessories1 such as blossoming peach trees in a mountain scene for spring1 a lake scene with lotus gatherers for summer1 a swollen river and autumn tints for autumn1 and a snowstorm for winter4 ,a great variety of symbols and emblematical devices appear in the porcelain decoration of all periods1 whether interwoven with the designs1 grouped in panels1 or placed under the base in lieu of a mark4 ,bushell#eae classifies the most familiar of them under the following headings3-- #a4 ,symbols of ,ancient ,chinese ,lore3 ,pa-kua and ,yin-yang 7see p4 #bij72 ,pa yin 7eight musical instruments72 ,shih rh chang 7twelve ornaments embroidered upon sacrificial robes74 #b4 ,buddhist symbols3 ,pa chi hsiang 7eight emblems of happy augury74 ,ch'i pao 7seven paraphernalia of the chakravartin or universal sovereign74 #c4 ,taoist symbols3 ,pa an hsien 7attributes of the ,eight ,immortals74 #d4 ,the ,hundred ,antiques 7,po ku74 ,pa pao 7the ,eight ,precious ,objects74 ,the pa-kua 7eight trigrams7 and the ,yin-yang symbol of the duality of ,nature have been described4 ,the eight musical instruments are3 7#a7 ,ch'ing1 the sounding stone1 a sort of gong usually in form of a mason's square4 ,it forms a rebus for ch'ing 7good luck74 7#b7 ,chung1 the bell4 7#c7 ,ch'in1 the lute4 7#d7 ,ti1 the flute4 7#e7 ,chu1 the box1 with a metal hammer inside4 7#f7 ,ku1 the drum4 7#g7 ,shng1 the reed organ4 7#h7 ,hsan1 the ocarina1 a cone with six holes4 ,the twelve chang or ancient embroidery ornaments are3 7#a7 ,jih1 the ,sun1 a disc in which is a three-legged bird1 and sometimes1 the character jih chch4 7#b7 ,yeh1 the moon2 a disc with hare1 toad and cassia tree1 and sometimes the character yeh chch4 7#c7 ,hsing ch'n1 the stars3 represented by three stars connected by straight lines4 7#d7 ,shan1 mountains4 7#e7 ,lung1 dragons4 7#f7 ,hua ch'ung1 the 8flowery creature10 the pheasant4 7#g7 ,tsung yi1 the temple vessels3 one with a tiger design and the other with a monkey4 7#h7 ,tsao1 aquatic grass4 7#i7 ,huo1 fire4 7#aj7 ,fn mi1 grains of rice4 7#aa7 ,fu1 an axe4 7#ab7 ,fu1 a symbol of distinction#eaf 7see vol4 i41 p4 #bbg74 ,the ,eight ,happy ,omens 7pa chi hsiang7 were among the signs on the sole of ,buddha's foot4 ,they are usually drawn with flowing fillets attached 7,fig4 #b71 and they are as follows3 7#a7 ,lun1 the wheel or chakra1 sometimes replaced by the bell 7chung74 7#b7 ,lo1 the shell4 7#c7 ,san1 the ,state umbrella4 7#d7 ,kai1 the canopy4 7#e7 ,hua1 the 7lotus7 flower4 7#f7 ,p'ing1 the vase4 7#g7 ,y1 the fish2 a pair of them4#eag 7#h7 ,ch'ang1 the angular knot representing the entrails2 an emblem of longevity4#eah ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,the ,pa chi hsiang ,the ,seven ,gems 7ch'i pao7 are3 7#a7 ,chin lun1 the golden wheel4 7#b7 ,y n1 the jade-like girl4 7#c7 ,ma1 the horse4 7#d7 ,hsiang1 the elephant4 7#e7 ,chu ts'ang shn1 divine guardian of the treasury4 7#f7 ,chu ping ch'n1 general in command of the army4 7#g7 ,ju i chu the jewels which fulfil every wish2 a bundle of jewelled wands bound round with a cord4 ,the ,pa an hsien1 ,attributes of the ,eight ,immortals1 as detailed above 7p4 #bhg71 are3 7#a7 ,shan1 the fan of ,chung-li ,ch'an4 7#b7 ,chien1 the sword of ,l ,tung-pin4 7#c7 ,hu lu1 the gourd of ,li ,t'ieh-kuai4 7#d7 ,pan1 the castanets of ,ts'ao ,kuo-chiu4 7#e7 ,hua lan1 the basket of flowers of ,lan ,ts'ai-ho4 7#f7 ,yu ku1 the bamboo tube and rods of ,chang ,kuo ,lao4 7#g7 ,ti1 the flute of ,han ,hsiang ,tz4 7#h7 ,lien hua1 the lotus flower of ,ho ,hsien ,ku4 ,the ,po ku1 or ,hundred ,antiques1 is1 as its name implies1 a comprehensive group including all manner of symbols and symbolical ornaments1 which were frequently grouped together in panel decoration4 ,bushell#eai describes two typical panels on specimens in the ,walters collection4 ,one contained the apparatus of the scholar and painter1 viz4 books on tables1 brushes in vases1 water pots and scroll pictures1 all enveloped with waving fillets mingled with tasselled wands and double diamonds1 which are symbols of literary success4 ,the other contained a tall vase with peonies2 a low vase with peacock feather1 an emblem of high rank2 a lion-shaped censer on a four-legged stand1 the incense smoke from which rises in form of a pair of storks2 a set of incense-burning implements1 a bundle of scroll pictures1 a ju-i sceptre1 a musical stone1 a sword1 and a paper weight4 ,a favourite set of ,po-ku emblems is the ,pa pao 7,fig4 #c7 or ,eight ,precious ,objects3 7#a7 ,chu1 the pearl1 which grants every wish4 7#b7 ,ch'ien1 the 8cash10 a copper coin used to symbolise wealth4 7#c7 ,lozenge1 or picture 7hua74 7#d7 ,fang shng1 the open lozenge1 symbol of victory4#ebj 7#e7 ,ch'ing1 the musical stone4 7#f7 ,shu1 a pair of books4 7#g7 ,cheh1 a pair of horn-like objects4 7#h7 ,ai yeh1 the leaf of the artemisia1 fragrant plant of good omen and a preventative of disease4 ,a branch of coral1 a silver ingot1 a pencil brush and cake of ink are common emblems2 and the swastika occurs both by itself 7vol4 i41 p4 #bbg7 or interwoven with the character shou 7vol4 i41 p4 #bbg71 or even as a fret or diaper pattern4 ,the swastika is a world-wide symbol2 in ,china it is called wan1 and used as a synonym for wan 7ten thousand71 and as such it is regarded as a symbol of wan shou 7endless longevity74 ,a lyre wrapped in an embroidered case1 a chess-or g-board with round boxes for the white and black pieces1 a pair of books1 and a pair of scroll pictures symbolise the 8four elegant accomplishments10 ch'in1 ch'i1 shu1 hua 7music1 chess1 writing and painting74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,the ,pa pao ,the figurative aspect of ,chinese decoration has been repeatedly noticed1 and occasional examples of direct play upon words or rebus devices have been given incidentally4 ,the ,chinese language is peculiarly suited for punning allusions1 one sound having to do duty for many characters2 but it is obvious that a fair knowledge of the characters is required for reading these rebus designs4 ,there is1 however1 a certain number of stock allusions with which the collector can easily make himself familiar4 ,the commonest of these is perhaps the bat 7fu7 which symbolises happiness 7also pronounced fu in ,chinese74 ,the ,five ,blessings 7wu fu71 which consist of longevity1 riches1 peacefulness and serenity1 love of virtue and an end crowning the life1 are suggested by five bats2 and a further rebus is formed of red bats among cloud scrolls1 reading hung fu ch'i t'ien1 8great happiness equally heaven0 7t'ien72 hung being the sound of the character for 8great1 vast10 as well as for red1 and red being1 so to speak1 the colour of happiness in ,chinese eyes4 ,other common rebus designs are suggested by such words as lu 7deer71 lu 7preferment72 y 7fish71 y 7abundance72 ch'ing 7sounding stone71 ch'ing 7good luck72 ch'ang 7the intestinal knot71 ch'ang 7long72 and the composition of the rebus phrase often includes such ideas as lien 7lotus71 lien 7connect1 combine72 tieh 7butterfly71 tieh 7to double74 ,but almost every sound in the ,chinese spoken language represents a considerable number of characters1 and it would be possible with a little ingenuity to extract several rebus sentences out of any complicated decoration4 ,it is well to remember1 however1 that most of the ordinary allusions have reference to some good wish or felicitous phrase bearing on the five blessings1 on the three abundances or on literary success4 ,to quote a few further instances3 the design of nine 7chiu7 lions 7shih7 sporting with balls 7ch7 of brocade has been read#eba chiu shih t'ung ch1 8a family of nine sons living together40 ,an elephant 7hsiang7 carrying a vase 7p'ing7 on its back 7pei7 is read#ebb hsiang pei tai p'ing1 8,peace 7p'ing7 rules in the north 7pei740 ,a tub full of green wheat is read#ebc i t'ung ta ch'ing1 8the whole empire 7owns7 the great ,ch'ing dynasty40 ,three crabs holding reeds is read#ebd san p'ang hsieh ch'uan lu1 8three generations gaining the first class at the metropolitan examinations40 ,two pigeons perched on a willow tree is read#ebe rh pa 7k'o7 t'eng t'1 8at eighteen to be successful in examinations40 ,a group of three objects consisting of a pencil brush 7pi71 a cake of ink 7ting7 and a ju-i sceptre crossed one over the other 7,fig4 #d71 occurs both in the field of the decoration and as a mark under the base4 ,it is a pure rebus1 reading pi ting ju i1 may things be fixed 7ting7 as you wish 7ju i1 lit4 according to your idea74 ,another obvious rebus which occurs as a mark 7,fig4 #e7 consists of two peaches and a bat 7double longevity and happiness71 and floral designs are very commonly arranged so as to suggest rebus phrases4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e ,but the ,chinese decorator did not always express himself in riddles4 ,inscriptions are frequent on all forms of decorative work1 as is only natural in a country where calligraphy ranks among the highest branches of art4 ,to the foreign eye ,chinese writing will not perhaps appear so ornamental as the beautiful ,neshky characters which were freely used for decorative purposes on ,persian wares2 but for all that1 its decorative qualities are undeniable1 and to the ,chinese who worship the written character it is a most attractive kind of ornament4 ,sometimes the surface of a vessel is almost entirely occupied by a long inscription treating of the ware or of the decoration which occupies the remaining part2 but more often the writing is limited to an epigram or a few lines of verse4 ,the characters as a rule are ranged in columns and read from top to bottom1 the columns being taken from left to right2 and rhyming verse is written in lines of three1 five or seven characters each4 ,the inscriptions are often attested by the name or the seal of the author4 ,the ,emperor ,ch'ien ,lung1 a prolific writer of verses1 indited many short poems on the motives of porcelain decoration1 and these have been copied on subsequent pieces4 ,as for the style of writing1 the ordinary script is the k'ai shu1 which dates from the ,chin dynasty 7#bfe-dai ,a4,d471 but there are besides many inscriptions in which the archaic seal characters chuan tz are employed1 or at least hybrid modern forms of them2 and there is the cursive script1 known as ts'ao shu or grass characters1 which is said to have been invented in the first century ,b4,c4 ,the seal and the grass characters are often extremely difficult to translate1 and require a special study1 which even highly educated ,chinese do not profess to have mastered4 ,single characters and phrases of auspicious meaning in both seal form and in the ordinary script occur in the decoration and also in the place of the mark4 ,many instances have already been noted in the chapters dealing with ,ming porcelains1 such as fu kuei k'ang ning 7riches1 honours1 peace and serenity71 ch'ang ming fu kuei 7long life1 riches and honours71 etc41 see vol4 i41 p4 #bbe4 ,the most frequent of these characters is shou 7longevity71 which is written in a great variety of fanciful forms1 mostly of the seal type4 ,the 8hundred forms of shou0 sometimes constitute the sole decoration of a vase2 and as already observed#ebf the swastika 7wan7 is sometimes combined with the circular form of the seal character shou to make the wan shou symbol of ten thousand longevities4 ,fu 7happiness7 and lu 7preferment7 also occur1 though less frequently4 ,buddhistic inscriptions are usually in ,sanskrit characters1 but we find occasional phrases such as ,tien chu en po chch #d 7propitious waves from ,india7 and ,fo ming ch'ang jih chch #d 7the ever bright ,buddha7 in ordinary script or seal1 one character in each of four medallions2 and the sacred name of ,o mi t'o fo chch #d1 ,amida ,buddha1 similarly applied1 would serve as a charm against evil4 ,in addition to the central designs1 there is a number of secondary ornaments which round off the decoration of a piece of porcelain4 ,chief of these are the border patterns1 of which a few favourites may be exemplified4 ,at the head of the list comes the ,greek key-fret or meander 7see ,plate #ab1 ,fig4 #a71 which1 like the swastika1 is of world-wide use4 ,on the ancient bronze this pattern was freely used both in borders and as a diaper background1 and it is described by ,chinese archologists as the 8cloud and thunder pattern40 ,it is sometimes varied by the inclusion of the swastika1 in which case it is known as the swastika fret4 ,another bronze pattern freely borrowed by the porcelain decoration is the border of stiff plantain leaves which appears appropriately on the neck or stem of an upright vase 7see ,plate #hi1 ,fig4 #a74 ,the border of small 8,s0 shaped scrolls is apparently derived from silkworm cocoons2 but the curled scrolls and another scroll pattern with more elaborate curves are intended to suggest clouds4 ,a further development of the cloud pattern is scarcely distinguishable from the ju-i head border 7see ,plate #gg1 ,fig4 #b74 ,indeed the terms1 8connected cloud0 pattern1 ju-i cloud pattern1 and ju-i head pattern1 are used almost interchangeably by ,chinese archologists4 ,conventional waves are represented by a kind of shaded scale pattern or a diaper of spiral coils1 and the more naturalistic 8crested wave0 border1 punctuated by conical rocks1 has already been mentioned4 ,there are besides narrow borders of zig-zag pattern with diagonal hatching1 and the ordinary diaper designs1 in addition to the familiar gadroons and arcaded borders4 ,the wider borders are usually borrowed from brocade patterns with geometrical or floral ornament1 broken by three or four oblong panels containing symbols or sprays of flowers2 and when a similar scheme is followed in some of the narrow edgings1 the flowers are unhesitatingly cut in half1 as though the pattern were just a thin strip taken from a piece of brocade4 ,a few special borders have been described on the pages dealing with armorial porcelain1#ebg among which were the well-known 8rat and vine0 or 8vine and squirrel0 pattern 7see ,plate #aai1 ,fig4 #c71 reputed to have first appeared on a picture by the ,sung artist1 ,ming ,yan-chang4#ebh ,a rare border formed of red bats side by side occurs on a few plates of fine porcelain which are usually assigned to the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 but are probably much later4 ,on the whole1 the ,chinese border patterns are comparatively few in number1 being in fact a small selection of well-tried designs admirably suited to fill the spaces required and to occupy the positions assigned to them on the different porcelain forms4 ,as to the sources from which these and the other designs described in this chapter were borrowed by the porcelain decorator1 we can only speak in general terms4 ,ancient bronze vessels1 metal mirrors1 carved jades1 stamped cakes of ink1 embroideries1 brocades1 handkerchiefs1 and illustrated books no doubt provided the greater part of them4 ,the purely pictorial subjects would be based on the paintings in silk and paper which the ,chinese arrange in four chief categories3 7#a7 figures 7jn wu717#b7 landscape 7shan shui717#c7 nature subjects 7hua niao1 lit4 flowers and birds71 and 7#d7 miscellaneous designs 7tsa hua74 ,selections of desirable designs from various sources were no doubt arranged in pattern books1 and issued to the porcelain painters4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,forgeries ,,and ,,imitations ,with their intense veneration for the antique1 it is only natural that the ,chinese should excel in imitative work1 and a great deal of ingenuity has been quite legitimately exercised by them in this direction4 ,the amateur will sometimes have difficulty in distinguishing the clever copies from the originals1 but in most cases the material and the finish of the work frankly belong to a later period1 and sometimes all doubt is removed at once by a mark indicating the true period of manufacture4 ,but the collector has to be on his guard against a very different kind of article1 the spurious antique and the old piece which has been 8improved0 by the addition of more elaborate decoration or by an inscription which1 if genuine1 would give it historic importance4 ,the latter kind of embellishment is specially common on the early potteries of the ,han and ,t'ang periods4 ,genuine specimens taken from excavated tombs have often been furnished with dates and dedicatory legends cut into the body of the ware and then doctored1 to give the appearance of contemporary incisions4 ,but a careful examination of the edges of the channelled lines will show that they have been cut subsequently to the firing of the ware1 when the clay was already hard4 ,had the inscription been cut when the pot was made1 it would have been incised in a soft unfired substance1 like the writing of a stylus in wax1 and the edges of the lines would be forced up and slightly bulging2 and if the ware is glazed1 some of the glaze will be found in the hollows of the inscription4 ,there are1 besides1 minor frauds in the nature of repairs4 ,pieces of old pottery1 for instance1 are fitted into a broken ,han jar2 the lost heads and limbs of ,t'ang figures are replaced from other broken specimens1 and defective parts are made up in plaster4 ,such additions are often carefully concealed by daubs of clay similar to that with which the buried specimen had become encrusted4 ,further than this1 ,han and ,t'ang figures have been recently manufactured in their entirety1 and mention has already been made 7,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bg7 of a factory at ,honan ,fu1 where figures and vases with streaked and mottled glazes1 fantastic ewers with phnix-spouts and wing-like excrescences1 and the like1 are made with indifferent skill4 ,the collector of ,sung and ,yan wares1 too1 has many difficulties to surmount4 ,the fine imitations made from the ,yung ,chng period onwards1 both in pottery and porcelain1 fortunately are often marked2 but sometimes the mark has been carefully removed by grinding1 and the scar made up to look like the natural surface4 ,the imitative wares made in ,kuangtung1 at ,yi-hsing1 and in various ,japanese factories have been already discussed in the sections concerned2 and there is pottery with lavender blue1 8old turquoise0 and splashed glazes resembling the ,chn types1 but made at the present day in ,honan and elsewhere1 which is likely to deceive the beginner4 ,the commonest kind has a buff earthen body which is usually washed with a dull brown clay on the exposed parts4 ,but such obstacles as these add zest to the collector's sport1 and they are not really hard to surmount if a careful study be made of the character of authentic specimens4 ,the eye can be easily trained to the peculiarities both of the originals and of the various imitative types1 and no one who is prepared to take a little trouble need be afraid of attacking this fascinating part of ,chinese ceramics4 ,the ,t'ao lu#ebi quotes an interesting note on the repairing of antique wares3 8,in the ,chu ming yao it is stated with regard to old porcelain 7tz'71 such as 7incense-7 vessels which are wanting in handles or feet1 and vases damaged at the mouth and edge1 that men take old porcelain to patch the old1 adding a glazing preparation1 and giving the piece one firing4 ,when finished it is like an old piece1 and all uniform1 except that the patched part is dull in colour4 ,but still people prefer these specimens to modern wares4 ,if the process of blowing the glaze on to 7the joint of the repair7 is used in patching old wares1 the patch is still more difficult to trace4 ,as for specimens with flaws 7mao71 ,i am told that on the ,tiger ,hill in ,su-chou there are menders who have earned the name of chin 7close-fitters740 ,the collector knows only too well that there are 8close-fitters0 in ,europe as well as in ,china4 ,apart from the numerous instances in which early ,ming marks#ecj have been indiscriminately added to later wares1 the careful copies and imitations of true ,ming types are comparatively few4 ,among the imitative triumphs of the ,yung ,chng potters a few specialties are named1 such as blue and white of the ,hsan ,t and the ,chia ,ching periods1 and the enamelled decoration of the ,ch'ng ,hua and ,wan ,li1 but reference has already been made to these in their respective chapters4 ,the modern ,chinese potters make indifferent reproductions of ,ming types2 and the most dangerous are those of the ,japanese1 who from the eighteenth century onward seem to have taken the sixteenth century ,chinese porcelains as their model4 ,the ,chia ,ching and ,wan ,li marks are common on these reproductions1 which often catch the tone and spirit of the ,ming ware with disquieting exactitude4 ,a well-trained eye and a knowledge of the peculiarities of ,japanese workmanship are the only protection against this type of imitation4 ,the high esteem in which the ,k'ang ,hsi porcelains are now held has naturally invited imitation and fraud4 ,the ordinary modern specimen with a spurious ,k'ang ,hsi mark is1 as a rule1 feeble and harmless1 and even the better class of ,chinese and ,japanese imitations of the blue and white and enamelled porcelains of this period are1 as a rule1 so wide of the mark as to deceive only the inexperienced4 ,many frauds1 however1 have been perpetrated with ,french copies of famille verte1 of famille rose 8ruby-back0 dishes1 and of vases with armorial decoration4 ,these are cleverly made1 but the expert will see at once that the colours and the drawing lack the true ,oriental quality1 and that the ware itself is too white and cold4 ,clever copies of ,oriental porcelain1 especially of the famille rose1 have also been made at ,herend1 in ,hungary4 ,but perhaps the most dangerous ,continental copies are some of the ,french-made monochromes of dark blue and lavender colours1 with or without crackle1 fitted with ormolu mounts in eighteenth century style1 which conceal the tell-tale base4 ,monochromes are1 as a rule1 the most difficult porcelains to date1 and the well-made modern ,chinese and ,japanese sang de buf1 apple green1 and peach bloom are liable to cause trouble1 especially when the surface has been carefully rubbed and given the appearance of wear and usage4 ,the expert looks to the truth of the form1 the finish of the base1 and the character of the clay exposed at the foot rim1 and judges if in these points the piece comes up to the proper standard4 ,but without doubt the most insidious of all the fraudulent wares are those which have been redecorated4 ,i do not refer to the clobbered#eca and retouched polychromes or to the powder blue and mirror black on which the gilding has been renewed1 but to the devilish ingenuity which takes a piece of lightly decorated ,k'ang ,hsi porcelain1 removes the enamelling1 and even the whole glaze if the original ornament has been in underglaze blue1 and then proceeds to clothe the denuded surface in a new and resplendent garb of rich enamel4 ,naturally1 it is the most sumptuous style of decoration which is affected in these frauds1 such as the prunus tree and birds in a ground of black1 green1 or yellow enamel on the biscuit2 and the drawing1 execution and colours are often surprisingly good4 ,the enormous value of this type of vase1 if successful1 repays the expense and trouble involved in the truquage2 and the connoisseur who looks at the base for guidance is disarmed because that critical part has been undisturbed1 and has all the points of a thoroughbred ,k'ang ,hsi piece4 ,if1 however1 his suspicion has been aroused by something unconvincing in the design or draughtsmanship1 he will probably find upon minute examination some indication of the fraud1 some trace of the grinding off of the glaze which the enamels have failed to cover1 suspicious passages at the edge of the lip where the old and new surfaces join1 or traces of blackening here and there which are rarely absent from a refired piece4 ,but if the work is really successful1 and no ingenuity or skill is spared to make it so1 his suspicions may not be aroused until too late4 ,frauds of this kind belong to the most costly types1 and concern the wealthy buyers4 ,the poorer collectors have to deal with small deceits1 the adding of a famille verte border to a bowl or dish1 the retouching of defective ornament1 the rubbing of modern surfaces to give them fictitious signs of wear1 the staining of new wares with tobacco juice1 and other devices easily detected by those who are forewarned4 ,against all these dangers1 whether they be from wilful frauds or from innocent imitations1 ,i can only repeat that the collector's sole defence is experience and a well-trained eye4 ,,index ,accomplishments1 ,four1 ii4 #acc1 #bhb1 #bii ,adams1 ,h41 ii4 #acf ,akahada1 i4 #abc ,alamgir1 ii4 #ac ,alchemy1 god of1 ii4 #bhh ,alexander ,collection1 i4 #ea1 #ef1 #eg1 #fh1 #aae1 #aba1 #abe2 ii4 #di1 #aai1 #aga1 #bje1 #bbj ,alms bowl1 ii4 #bhe ,altar cups1 ii4 #g1 #h1 #ce1 #ic ,altar sets1 i4 #bjf2 ii4 #bgb ,ambassadors of the ,tribes of ,man1 eight1 ii4 #bfb1 #bfh1 #bhc ,amida ,buddha1 ii4 #cjb ,amoy1 i4 #ahd1 #bjb2 ii4 #aab ,ancestor worship1 ii4 #bhc ,anderson1 ,w41 ii4 #aaa1 #bha1 #cjc ,an hua 7secret decoration71 ii4 #f1 #h1 #ag1 #cg1 #eb1 #ef1 #fc ,animal forms1 ii4 #aei ,animal motives1 ii4 #bib ,annals of ,fou-liang1 i4 #ada1 #aec1 #aee2 ii4 #ce1 #bbh1 #bca ,annals of ,han ,dynasty1 i4 #add ,annals of the ,sui ,dynasty1 i4 #adc ,anthropological ,museum at ,petrograd1 i4 #aja ,antiques1 the ,hundred1 ii4 #acd1 #aha1 #big1 #bih 8,ant tracks10 i4 #aag ,arabesques1 ii4 #acj1 #aca1 #acc ,arabic writing1 ii4 #ca ,architectural pottery1 i4 #bja1 #bje1 #bjf ,ardebil1 ii4 #fi ,arhats1 i4 #ce2 ii4 #dc1 #bhe ,arita1 ii4 #agc ,armorial porcelain1 ii4 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bea1 #bef1 #beg1 #beh ,arrow cylinder1 ii4 #bgd ,ary de ,milde1 i4 #agh ,ash colour1 see ,hui s4 8,ashes of roses10 ii4 #abd ,ashmolean ,museum1 ,oxford1 i1 #aic2 ii4 #fh ,astbury ware1 i4 #agh ,aster pattern1 ii4 #acd ,attiret1 i4 #bje ,augustus the ,strong1 i4 xxiii1 #agh2 ii4 #aac1 #acd 8,awns10 i4 #ib 8,baba ghouri10 i4 #hg ,bahr1 ,a4 ,w41 i4 #cb1 #abd1 #aga ,bamboo grove1 ii4 #bjh1 #bae1 #bha ,bamboo pattern1 ii4 #adi1 #bfd1 #bfi ,bamboo thread brush marks1 i4 #ib ,barrel-shaped seats1 ii4 #h1 #ae1 #ag1 #ig1 #bgg ,basket of flowers1 ii4 #fg ,batavian porcelain1 ii4 #aia ,bats1 five1 ii4 #aa1 #bjd1 #bbd1 #bie1 #cjj1 #cja ,battersea1 ii4 #bfj ,bear1 the1 i4 #ab ,bell1 ,hamilton1 i4 #aad ,benson ,collection1 i4 #ef1 #ajd1 #afi2 ii4 #bg ,biddulph1 ,sir ,r41 ii4 #bc ,bijapur1 i4 #hg2 ii4 #gh ,billequin1 ,m41 ii4 #bcc ,binyon1 ,l41 i4 #dd2 ii4 #bdb ,bird1 the red1 i4 #bj1 #ef ,birds1 ii4 #bid ,birds1 the ,hundred1 ii4 #bie 8,birthday plates10 ii4 #afi1 #bjg ,birthday1 the ,emperor's1 ii4 #fc ,biscuit1 ii4 #ah1 #ge1 #gg1 #ajj1 #aif1 #aig ,biscuit figures in high relief1 ii4 #hi ,black and gold decoration1 ii4 #bae ,black1 brown1 ii4 #aee ,black1 famille rose1 ii4 #baj ,black glaze1 varieties of1 ii4 #aef1 #aei1 #aib1 #bbi ,black ground gilt1 ii4 #bca ,black ground1 white decoration in1 ii4 #bca ,black1 mirror1 ii4 #aib1 #aic1 #bah1 #bbf1 #bcj ,black ,rock ,hill1 i4 #af ,blackthorn1 ii4 #bfd ,black ,warrior1 the1 i4 #bj ,blanc de ,chine1 ii4 #aji1 #aab ,blessings1 five1 ii4 #cjj 8,blue and white10 i4 #afd2 ii4 #c1 #h1 #i1 #aa1 #ac1 #bd1 #bf1 #bi1 #cf1 #ch1 #dg1 #ef1 #hi1 #ib1 #bjc1 #bci1 #bdj1 #bfc1 #bfh1 #bga ,blue and white1 ,k'ang ,hsi1 ii4 #fg1 #abh-add ,blue and white porcelain1 ,ming1 ii4 #aje ,blue1 cloisonn1 ii4 #bai1 #bbj1 #bbd1 #bbi1 #bca ,blue1 lapis lazuli1 ii4 #bci ,blue1 mazarine1 ii4 #ahc ,blue1 mottled1 ii4 #bjd 8,blue of the sky after rain10 i4 #da1 #db1 #eb1 #ed1 #fb2 ii4 #aj1 #agi ,blue painting on ,sung wares1 i4 #ii1 #ajd1 #aeh ,blue1 powder1 ii4 #abg1 #agj1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahc1 #bah ,blue 8put in press10 ii4 #adc ,blue1 ritual significance of1 ii4 #aie ,blue1 scratched1 ii4 #add ,blue1 sky1 ii4 #bcb1 #bch ,blue1 souffl1 ii4 #abg1 #ahj1 #bah1 #bbd ,blue1 sponged1 ii4 #ahj1 #ahc ,blue1 ,temple of ,heaven1 ii4 #bch ,blue1 turquoise1 ii4 #ii1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #bbi1 #bcg ,bock1 ,carl1 i4 #hg ,bodhidharma1 ii4 #aaj1 #bhe ,book stands1 ii4 #bgf ,border patterns1 ii4 #fg1 #beg1 #beh1 #cjb ,borneo1 i4 #fh1 #hg1 #ii1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aic2 ii4 #gj1 #ii1 #bbc ,brschmann1 ,herr ,ernst1 i4 #h ,bottengruber1 ii4 #bfj ,bttger ware1 i4 #agh2 ii4 #aib ,bow1 ii4 #aab1 #beh1 #bfj ,bowls1 ii4 #bgg ,bowls1 alms1 ii4 #bhe ,bowls1 brinjal1 ii4 #aea ,bowls1 bulb1 i4 #aji1 #aaj1 #aad ,bowls1 double-bottomed1 ii4 #aae ,bowls1 fish1 ii4 #cf1 #ei1 #aag1 #bbi1 #bcd1 #bge1 #bha ,bowls1 hookah1 ii4 #ig ,bowls1 medallion1 ii4 #bfd ,bowls1 ,ming1 ii4 #ig ,bowls1 narghili1 ii4 #gg1 #bgh ,bowls1 ,peking1 ii4 #bci1 #bdd1 #bfd ,bowls1 ,polynesian khava1 i4 #abi ,bowls1 8press-hand10 ii4 #ic ,bowls1 rice1 ii4 #adh ,bowls1 soup1 ii4 #bfi ,bowls1 swordgrass1 i4 #aaj ,bowls1 tea1 ii4 #e1 #bgh ,bowls1 wedding1 ii4 #bfh ,boxes1 ii4 #ef1 #eg1 #fj1 #fh1 #he1 #afj1 #bdf1 #bfe1 #bge1 #bgf1 #bhh ,boy holding a branch1 ii4 #eg ,boys1 ,hundred1 ii4 #fb ,boys in branches1 design of1 i4 #he1 #aej ,branches1 the ,twelve1 i4 #baj ,bretschneider1 i4 #fb ,bricks1 i4 #bja1 #bjb1 #bje ,brighton ,museum1 i4 #aic ,brinjal bowls1 ii4 #aea ,brinkley1 ,f41 i4 #ig1 #ajb1 #ajd1 #aca1 #afc1 #afh1 #aga1 #agd1 #age1 #agf1 #aij2 ii4 #aaa1 #aac1 #aad1 #aij ,bristol1 ii4 #ada1 #beh ,british ,museum1 passim ,brocade designs1 ii4 #ch1 #afe1 #afg1 #agj1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #cjc ,bronze forms1 ii4 #bgb ,bronze patterns1 ii4 #bdj1 #bdc1 #bdg ,brooke1 ,lieutenant1 i4 #aj ,brown1 coffee1 i4 #ajc 8,brown mouth and iron foot10 i4 #fj1 #fa1 #ff1 #fh1 #gb1 #gh1 #hc2 ii4 #ahh1 #bag ,brush pot1 ii4 #cb1 #fj ,brush rest1 ii4 #ad1 #fj1 #gf1 #bge ,brush washers1 i4 #afe 8,buccaro10 i4 #abj1 #agh1 #aha ,buddha1 ii4 #dj ,buddhism1 i4 #f1 #cf2 ii4 #bhd ,buddhist emblems1 eight1 ii4 #be1 #ch1 #db1 #bih ,bulb bowls1 i4 #aji1 #aaj1 #aad ,burdett-,coutts ,collection1 ii4 #afd ,burial customs1 i4 #ad ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club ,exhibition1 catalogue of1 i4 #ajd1 #aad1 #acj1 #adi1 #aej1 #afg1 #aic1 #bji2 ii4 #f1 #bg1 #cc1 #fj1 #fh1 #gg1 #gh1 #he ,burlington ,magazine1 i4 #ab1 #cd1 #ej1 #fh1 #gb1 #gi1 #hh1 #ajb1 #ajf1 #abc1 #afc1 #afh1 #aga2 ii4 #ad1 #ag1 #bc1 #gj1 #gc1 #ge1 #hi1 #ij1 #aje1 #bji1 #bab1 #bac1 #bib ,burman1 ,a41 ii4 #dc1 #ade1 #afd ,burton1 ,w41 i4 #dg1 #di1 #ej1 #aed2 ii4 #abg ,burton and ,hobson1 ii4 #bdg ,bushell1 ,s4 ,w41 i4 xviii1 #a1 #ci1 #ej1 #ed1 #ee1 #fh1 #ajb1 #ajd1 #adj1 #adc1 #ade1 #aed1 #aei1 #afj1 #afb1 #afe1 #afh1 #bjf1 #bah2 ii4 #a1 #b1 #h1 #ah1 #ai1 #bb1 #bf1 #ce1 #ci1 #dj1 #db1 #dc1 #aba1 #agf1 #ahh1 #aij1 #aif1 #bab1 #bbc1 #bdb1 #bdh1 #bfg ,butterflies1 ii4 #bff1 #bhi1 #bie ,butterfly cages1 ii4 #afj ,cadogan ,teapot1 ii4 #bgh ,caffieri1 ii4 #aid ,cairo1 i4 #hg ,calicut1 ii4 #bji ,candle design1 ii4 #be1 #acc1 #bjc ,candlesticks1 ii4 #bgb ,canton1 i4 #aff1 #ahd1 #ahh2 ii4 #bjb1 #bab1 #bea1 #bfj ,canton ,chn1 i4 #abg1 #agb ,canton enamels1 i4 #aff1 #afg2 ii4 #bji1 #baa1 #bdc ,canton merchants1 ii4 #adj ,canton1 porcelain decorated at1 ii4 #baa1 #bef ,canton ware1 i4 #afg1 #aga1 #agb1 #agi1 #aij1 #aic1 #aid1 #aih ,cash1 ii4 #gf1 #bhh ,cassia tree1 ii4 #bia1 #bif ,castiglione1 i4 #bje ,catalogue of ,boston ,exhibition1 i4 #ajd ,catalogue of ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club ,exhibition1 ,see ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club4 ,catalogue of ,loan ,exhibition1 ,new ,york1 i4 #aaj1 #abd ,catalogue of ,morgan ,collection1 i4 #adj ,celadon1 i4 #cb1 #ci1 #df1 #ed1 #gf1 #gg1 #hj1 #ha1 #hd1 #he1 #hg1 #hh1 #aad2 ii4 #gg1 #adf1 #ahh1 #bff1 #bgj ,celadon1 brownish1 i4 #he ,celadon1 ,corean1 i4 #ea ,celadon1 inlaid1 i4 #hd ,celadon1 ,japanese1 i4 #he ,celadon1 ,ming1 i4 #ha ,celadon1 ,siamese1 i4 #hh ,celadon1 spotted1 i4 #hj ,celadon1 ,sung1 i4 #ha ,celadon wares1 traffic in1 i4 #hh ,celadonfrage1 i4 #hf ,ch'a ,ching1 i4 #cg1 #dj ,cha no yu1 i4 #aca ,ch'a ,su1 i4 #ic ,ch'a yeh mo1 ii4 #bcc ,chadwick1 arms of1 ii4 #bef ,ch'ai ware1 i4 #dj1 #da1 #db1 #dh1 #di1 #ej1 #eb1 #ed1 #abd ,chain pattern border1 ii4 #beg ,chalfant1 ,f4 ,h41 i4 #d ,chambrelans1 ii4 #bfj ,chang1 potter1 i4 #aje ,chang brothers1 i4 #fg1 #gf ,chang ,ch'ien1 i4 #f2 ii4 #ad1 #bia1 #bib ,chang ,chiu-ko1 ii4 #bhi ,ch'ang ming fu kuei1 ii4 #ec ,ch'ang nan chih1 i4 #aef ,chang-kuo ,lao1 ii4 #bhd ,chang ,sng-yu1 ii4 #bib ,chang wu chih1 ii4 #id ,chang yao1 i4 #gg ,chang ,ying-wn1 i4 #da1 #fj ,ch'ang-chou ,chn1 i4 #bjb ,ch'ang-nan1 i4 #de ,chang-t ,fu1 i4 #aja1 #aje ,chantilly1 ii4 #agc ,chao1 ii4 #ei ,chao family1 i4 #ajg ,chao ,ju-kua1 i4 #hf1 #ahh1 #ahi ,chao-ch'ing ,fu1 i4 #agb ,ch'ao-chou ,fu1 i4 #ahd ,characters1 grass1 ii4 #cja ,characters1 ,sanskrit1 ii4 #ff1 #bdj1 #bhf1 #cjb ,characters1 seal1 i4 #bjh1 #bji2 ii4 #cja ,characters1 the ,hundred ,shou1 ii4 #fa ,charles ,edward1 ,prince1 ii4 #bee ,charlotte1 ,queen of ,prussia1 ii4 #acc1 #aee ,charlottenberg ,palace1 ii4 #ij1 #acc1 #aee1 #aic ,charteris1 ,hon4 ,e41 ii4 #cc ,chavannes1 ,prof4 ,e41 i4 #g1 #ag ,chelsea1 ii4 #aab1 #adj1 #agc1 #ahc1 #bea1 #bfj ,ch'n ,chn1 i4 #age ,ch'n ,chung-mei1 i4 #age1 #agf ,ch'n-lin1 i4 #hb ,chn ,tsai1 ii4 #aaj ,ch'n ,wn-ching1 ii4 #gh ,chng ,chou1 i4 #dj ,chng ,ho1 ii4 #ab ,ch'ng ,hua mark1 ii4 #aee1 #ahi1 #beb ,ch'ng ,hua wares1 ii4 #bb-bi1 #bjc1 #bjg1 #bbd1 #bbe ,ch'ng ni1 i4 #fa ,ch'ng t t'ang1 ii4 #bfe ,ch'ng ,t wares1 ii4 #bi-cc1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bbd ,chng ,t'ung1 ii4 #bg1 #bh ,chng tz t'ung1 the1 i4 #ae ,ch'ng-tu1 i4 #ac1 #aii ,chn-ting ,fu1 i4 #ec1 #hi1 #id1 #aef1 #aii2 ii4 #ajg ,chess1 ii4 #bgf1 #bhb ,chi ,ch'ing 7dark violet blue71 ii4 #ii1 #bah1 #bai1 #bbc1 #bgj ,chi ,chou ware1 i4 #ga1 #ih1 #aeg ,chi hung 7red71 ii4 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #bi1 #ei1 #gi1 #aja1 #aah1 #abc1 #ade1 #bbc1 #bfh ,ch'i sung t'ang shih hsiao lu1 i4 #cg ,chia ,ching wares1 ii4 #aa1 #cd-ee1 #bjc1 #bbe ,chia ,ch'ing wares1 ii4 #bfb1 #bfc ,chiang hsia pa chn1 ii4 #dj ,ch'iang hsi t'ung chih1 i4 #ec1 #fj1 #aah1 #ada1 #aec1 #aed1 #aei1 #aha2 ii4 #bbc1 #bbh1 #bcg1 #bfg ,chiang1 ,memoirs of1 i4 #ib1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj1 #afa1 #afb1 #afc1 #afd2 ii4 #bj ,chiang-t'ai1 ii4 #ada ,chiang t'ang1 ii4 #cd ,chicago1 i4 #adf ,chicken cups1 ii4 xvii1 #bc1 #bd1 #bf ,ch'ien family1 i4 #ch ,ch'ien k'un ch'ing t'ai1 ii4 #ef ,ch'ien ,lung1 i4 #ca2 ii4 #cc1 #bbg-bdi ,ch'ien ,lung1 ,imperial poems of1 ii4 #bbg1 #cja ,ch'ien ,lung monochromes1 ii4 #baf ,ch'ien ,niu1 ii4 #bia ,chien yao1 i4 #h1 #ca1 #ic1 #id1 #ajc1 #acj-ace2 ii4 #aji ,chien-an1 i4 #acj1 #aca ,chien-ning ,fu1 i4 #acj1 #acb1 #acc2 ii4 #bia ,chien-yang1 i4 #acj1 #afd2 ii4 #aji ,chih lung1 ii4 #aeg1 #bib ,ch'i-hsia-lei-k'ao1 i4 #fg ,chih-t'ien1 i4 #acf ,children playing with branches of flowers design1 ii4 #ef ,children 7wa wa71 ii4 #dj1 #bha ,ch'i-lin1 ii4 #fg1 #bic ,ch'i-lin reclining before fountain1 ii4 #fg ,chin dynasty1 i4 #af ,chin huang 7golden yellow71 ii4 #cg ,chin l1 ii4 #cd ,ch'in ting ku chin t'u shu chi ch'ng1 i4 #abg1 #ahg ,ch'in ying wn1 i4 #aac ,chinese and ,japanese porcelain1 the distinction between1 ii4 #agd ,chinese ,commercial ,guide1 i4 #ahd1 #ahg ,chinese porcelain decorated in ,europe1 ii4 #bei ,ch'ing1 i4 #af1 #da1 #df1 #eb1 #fj ,ch'ing pi tsa chih1 i4 #ch ,ch'ing pi ts'ang1 i4 #da1 #ec1 #ed1 #fj1 #gg1 #gi1 #ib1 #ic1 #aji2 ii4 #i1 #aa1 #ac ,ch'ing po tsa chih1 i4 #eb1 #if1 #ig1 #aeg ,ching ,t'ai1 ii4 #bg ,ch'ing tien1 ii4 #adb1 #bja ,ch'ing ts'ung1 i4 #fb ,ch'ing tz'1 i4 #df ,ch'ing ware1 i4 #gf ,ch'ing wei t'ang1 ii4 #bdg ,ch'ing yi lu1 i4 #aca ,ching-t ,chn1 i4 xv1 #dj1 #de1 #ga1 #hc1 #hd1 #hi1 #ib1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #ii1 #aji1 #aai1 #abj1 #adg1 #aeb1 #afb2 ii4 #a1 #ab1 #bab1 #bbh ,ching-t ,chn t'ao lu1 passim ,ch'ing-yn1 ii4 #ajh ,chini-hane1 ii4 #fi ,chin-shih1 i4 #afg ,chin-ts'un1 i4 #gf1 #hj ,chipped edges of plates1 ii4 #adj ,chiu1 wine1 ii4 #cd ,cho kng lu1 i4 #ee1 #fj1 #fa1 #ff1 #aji1 #acd ,chou dynasty1 i4 #c1 #dd2 ii4 #da ,chou1 ,hui1 i4 #aeg ,chou kao-ch'i1 i4 #agd ,chou ,mao-shu1 ii4 #be1 #bif ,chou ,tan-ch'an1 i4 #id1 #ie1 #if2 ii4 #fe ,chou ,ts'ang1 ii4 #bhd ,chrome tin1 ii4 #agg ,chrysanthemum plant1 ii4 #be1 #bif ,ch'an-chou ,fu1 i4 #hf1 #ahh2 ii4 #ajh ,ch chai tsa chi1 i4 #ih ,ch' ,chih-kao1 i4 #bja ,chu fan chih1 i4 #hf ,chu ,hsi1 i4 #bj ,chu ,mai-chn1 ii4 #bhb ,chu ming yao1 ii4 #cje ,ch pao shan1 i4 #bjb ,chu shih ch1 ii4 #afg ,ch' yao1 i4 #gf1 #hj ,ch'-,chou ,fu1 i4 #gf1 #gg1 #hj1 #hc1 #bja ,ch'ui ch'ing1 ii4 #ahj1 #aha ,ch'ui hung1 ii4 #abe ,chn chou1 i4 #agi1 #aih ,ch'un fng t'ang sui pi1 i4 #gg ,chn glaze of the muffle kiln1 i1 #abj1 #agg2 ii4 #bag ,chn-t'ai1 i4 #aji ,chn wares1 i4 #da1 #db1 #dh1 #fb1 #aji-acj1 #aeg1 #afg1 #agi1 #aha2 ii4 #ah1 #ai1 #id1 #bbj1 #bbi ,ch'ung ,chn1 ii4 #hf ,chung-ho-t'ang1 ii4 #ade ,church1 ,sir ,a41 i4 #afg ,ch'-yang ,hsien1 i4 #aii ,cicada1 ii4 #gc1 #bie ,cicerone1 i4 #hg ,citron dishes1 ii4 #h ,civil and military vases1 ii4 #bha ,clair de lune1 i4 #fj2 ii4 #agi1 #bai1 #beb ,clays1 ferruginous1 i4 #hj 8,clobbered china10 ii4 #bfa ,clennell1 ,w4 ,j41 i4 #aee1 #aef ,cloisonn blue1 ii4 #bai1 #bbj ,cloisonn enamels1 i4 #afg2 ii4 #ag1 #hb1 #bji1 #bcb1 #bdc ,cloud and thunder pattern1 ii4 #bgb1 #bij1 #cjb ,cloud pattern1 ii4 #cjb 8,cloud scroll10 i4 #aac2 ii4 #db ,club shaped1 ii4 #bgd ,cobalt1 ii4 #ab1 #ih ,cochin ,china1 i4 #add ,cock1 ii4 #bid ,cole1 ,fay-,cooper1 i4 #hg1 #ahi ,colouring agents1 i4 #di ,colours1 famille verte1 ii4 #afc ,colours1 foreign1 ii4 #bba1 #bbe1 #bbi1 #bcb1 #bdb1 #bdc ,colours iridescent1 ii4 #bda1 #bfd ,colours1 mixed1 ii4 #bfd1 #bga ,combed patterns1 i4 #he1 #aej ,confucius1 i4 #g1 #ah1 #gi2 ii4 #dj1 #dc1 #bhc ,constantinople1 i4 #hg ,convex centre1 bowls with1 ii4 #ea ,cope ,bequest1 ii4 #adi ,copper oxide1 i4 #aah1 #acg2 ii4 #aj1 #agg1 #bcb ,copper red1 ii4 #f1 #aa1 #ee ,coral red1 ii1 #f1 #dh1 #ea ,corea1 i4 #ci1 #acd1 #adh1 #aej1 #aea ,corean design1 i4 #cd1 #ajg2 ii4 #ef ,corean wares1 i4 #ci1 #db1 #ed1 #ei1 #hd1 #he1 #ajb1 #ajg1 #adi1 #aej1 #aea2 ii4 #aae ,cornaline1 i4 #ec2 ii4 #abc ,cornelian1 ii4 #aj ,cornflower sprigs1 ii4 #beh ,corpse pillows1 i4 #aje ,cotton cultivation1 ii4 #afd ,couleurs de demi grand feu1 ii4 #ah1 #bj ,couleurs de grand feu1 ii4 #ih ,couleurs de petit feu1 ii4 #bj 8,crab's claw0 crackle i4 #ec1 #fj1 #fg1 #if ,crab-shell green1 i4 #aag ,cracked specimens1 ii4 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,tradescant ,collection1 i1 #aic2 ii4 #fh ,trading station1 i4 #hf ,transfer prints1 ii4 #bfj ,transition enamels1 ii4 #beg ,translucent porcelain1 i4 #adh ,transmutation ware1 i4 #acg1 #aef1 #age2 ii4 #ah1 #aib1 #bah1 #bcb ,trenchard bowls1 ii4 #bi ,trigrams1 ,eight1 ii4 #ci1 #da1 #fb1 #bfh1 #bij ,trumpeter service1 ii4 #bee ,ts'ai1 i4 #aih ,ts'ai ,chin-ch'ing1 ii4 #bfg ,t'sai-hsiang1 i4 #aca ,ts'ai hua t'ang1 ii4 #bfe ,ts'ai hung1 ii4 #agi ,ts'ai jun t'ang1 ii4 #bfe ,ts'ang yao1 ii4 #aba ,ts'ang ,ying-hsan1 ii1 #aba1 #abf1 #afh1 #ahj1 #ahg1 #aij ,ts'ao-chao1 i4 #dj ,ts'ao ,chiung1 i4 #ge ,tsao'rh hung1 ii4 #bah ,tsao t'ang1 ii4 #cd ,ts'ao tien yu chi1 ii4 #eh ,tso ,ch'uan1 the1 i4 #b ,tsou1 i4 #ig1 #ahh ,tsou ,hsien1 i4 #bja ,ts'ui1 i4 #gg2 ii4 #afa ,ts'ui kung yao1 ii4 #eb ,ts'ui1 ,mr41 ii4 #eb1 #fd ,ts'ui s1 i4 #cg ,ts'ung ,t1 ii4 #aaf ,ts'ung ts'ui1 i4 #aji ,tu1 i4 #dj1 #adg ,tu shu1 i4 #gf1 #aff1 #bja2 ii4 #aig ,t'u ss wn1 i4 #aac ,t'u ting1 i4 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #id1 #ig1 #ih1 #ace1 #afd1 #afh1 #aij2 ii4 #aac1 #bah ,tu ,y1 i4 #af ,tu-chiu1 i4 #ie ,t'u k'uai1 i4 #bg ,tu kung t'an tsan1 i4 #fb ,tulip-like flower pattern1 ii4 #ij ,tun-huang1 i4 #bh ,t'ung1 ii4 #eh1 #ei1 #aag ,t'ung ,chih1 ii4 #bfg ,tung ch'ing1 i4 #dh1 #ge2 ii4 #ahi ,t'ung-chou ,fu1 i4 #aii ,tung-fang ,so1 ii4 #acc1 #aei1 #bhh ,tung-han1 i4 #agf ,tung hsiang t'ang1 i4 #aih ,tung-p'o1 i4 #acg ,tung ya1 ii4 #ah1 #ai1 #ib ,tung ware1 i4 #ff1 #hb ,turfan1 i4 #af1 #bc1 #ca1 #cf1 #aja1 #ajg1 #acj1 #acd1 #adi ,turkestan1 i4 #hf1 #aic ,turkey1 ii4 #bah1 #bgi ,twelve embroidery ornaments1 ii4 #big ,tz' 7porcelain71 i4 #adj1 #ada1 #adb ,tz 7purple71 i4 #ic1 #aji ,tz chin 7golden brown71 ii4 #cg1 #ch1 #fe1 #ii1 #aia1 #aib ,tz-ching1 ii4 #ad ,tz' ,chou ware1 i4 #df1 #ia1 #aja-ajh1 #abh1 #acc1 #ace1 #adi1 #aff1 #aic1 #aih1 #bah2 ii4 #cj ,tz'-jn ,temple1 ii4 #bc ,tz' stone1 i4 #aja1 #ajg1 #adg ,tz' t'ai 7,chn ware71 i4 #aaj1 #aac1 #abc1 #abh ,tz'-tsao1 ii4 #ajh ,urfe1 d'1 ,honor1 i4 #gh ,ushaktal1 i4 #acd ,vaidurya1 i4 #add ,vajrapani1 ii4 #bhf ,van ,eenhorn1 i4 #agh ,vase organ1 i4 #ach ,vases1 bottle shaped1 ii4 #bgc ,vases1 civil and military1 ii4 #bha ,vases1 divining rod1 ii4 #bgd ,vases1 flower1 ii4 #bgc1 #bge ,vases1 perfume1 ii4 #fh ,vases1 square1 ii4 #bgd ,vash-shahri1 i4 #acj1 #acd ,venetian glass1 ii4 #aci ,vermilion boxes1 ii4 #ce ,vermilion pigment1 ii4 #adh ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 passim ,violet blue1 dark1 ii4 #ii ,virgin and ,child1 images of1 ii4 #aaa1 #bhe ,virtuous ,heroines1 ii4 #bhb ,voretzsch1 i4 #bjf ,wa wa7children71 ii4 #be1 #bha ,wall of ,china1 great1 i4 #e ,wall vases1 ii4 #bge ,walters ,collection1 ii4 #bbg ,wan1 ii4 #gf ,wan fu yu t'ung1 ii4 #ea ,wan ku ch'ang ch'un ss hai lai chao1 ii4 #fb ,wan ,li wares1 ii4 #bd1 #eg1 #eh-ha1 #afa1 #bjh1 #bbd ,wan ,li wu ts'ai1 ii4 #dh1 #ha1 #hb1 #ajj1 #afj ,wan shih ch1 ii4 #afg ,wan shou1 ii4 #hb ,wan shou am chiang1 ii4 #afi ,wang ,ch'iao1 ii4 #bhh ,wang ,chih1 ii4 #aaj1 #acc1 #bhb ,wang ,ching-min1 ii4 #ei ,wang ,hsi ,chih1 ii4 #bha ,wang ,ping-jung1 ii4 #bff ,wang ,shng-kao1 ii4 #bdg ,wang ,shih-chng1 i4 #bja ,wang-tso1 i4 #dj ,wang ,tso-t'ing1 ii4 #bff ,wang ,wei1 i4 #bc ,wang-yu1 ii4 #afd ,wantage ,collection1 ,lady1 ii4 #bba1 #bfb ,warham bowl1 i4 #hh ,warner1 ,langdon1 i4 #cf ,water droppers1 ii4 #bgf ,waterfall1 ii4 #fh ,water pots1 ii4 #bgf ,wave and rock pattern1 ii4 #fc ,wave pattern1 i4 #acg2 ii4 #ef1 #cjb ,waves and plum blossoms design1 ii4 #ef1 #fc1 #hj1 #aee ,wedding bowl1 ii4 #bfh ,wei1 i4 #bg ,wei ch'i1 ii4 #bhb ,wei dynasty1 i4 #af ,wei ,hsien1 i4 #ajc1 #ajd ,weights1 ii4 #ig ,well-head1 i4 #ab ,wells ,williams1 ,s41 i4 #agb1 #ahd ,wn1 ,prince1 i4 #be ,wn 7,sung minister71 i4 #ii ,wn ,ch'ang1 ii4 #aei1 #bhd ,wn ,chng-ming1 ii4 #bdc ,wn-chou1 i4 #adc2 ii4 #ajh ,wn fang ss k'ao1 i4 #fj ,wn ,lang-shan1 ii4 #bfc ,wn p'ing7civil vase7 and wu p'ing 7military vase71 ii4 #bha ,wn-wang censers1 i4 #id ,west1 symbol of1 ii4 #da ,wheel1 potter's1 i4 #b ,whieldon wares1 i4 #be1 #cc ,whitechapel ,art ,gallery1 ii4 #bcc 8,white earth village10 i4 #ig ,white earth1 where found1 ii4 #ajg ,white in blue ground design1 ii4 #acj ,white porcelain1 ii4 #aie ,white slip1 ii4 #e ,white ware1 dead1 ii4 #bja ,wilkes1 ,john1 ii4 #bee ,williams1 ,mrs41 i4 #aaj1 #abc ,willow1 ii4 #bif ,willow pattern1 ii4 #beh1 #bif ,wine cup1 ii4 #bgh ,wine ,cup1 ,eight ,immortals of the1 ii4 #bhb ,wine pot1 i4 #afa1 #afb ,winter ,palace1 i1 #bje ,winthrop1 ,mr41 ii4 #bi ,wolfsbourg1 de1 ii4 #bfj ,wood1 ,enoch1 ii4 #bei ,worcester1 i4 #ahg2 ii4 #gf1 #acf1 #ada1 #ahc1 #bea1 #beh1 #bei1 #bfj ,wu chn1 ii4 #bcj ,wu chin1 ii4 #aib1 #aic1 #baj1 #bah1 #bbf1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bca ,wu-ch'ing ,hsien1 i4 #bjj1 #bjb ,wu chou1 i4 #dj ,wu fu1 ii4 #aa ,wu ,i-shan1 i4 #age ,wu kung yang1 ii4 #bd ,wu lao1 ii4 #bhc ,wu-mn-t'o1 ii4 #ei1 #ia ,wu ming tz1 ii4 #ab1 #ih ,wu ming yi1 i4 #ahg2 ii4 #ab1 #ih ,wu-ni wares1 i4 #fa1 #ff1 #fg1 #acc1 #acd1 #afd ,wu ,san-kuei1 i4 #aed2 ii4 #abe ,wu s1 i4 #afb2 ii4 #bj ,wu ,tao-tz1 i4 #bc1 #acg ,wu ,ti1 i4 #g1 #aa1 #ae2 ii4 #bhh ,wu ts'ai 78decorated in five colours071 ii4 #h1 #i1 #ag1 #bj1 #bb1 #bc1 #bf1 #ee1 #fc ,yacut1 i4 #hg ,ya ku ch'ing pao shih1 i4 #fb ,ya shou pei1 ii4 #c1 #d1 #e ,yang-,chiang1 i4 #hd1 #aff1 #agb ,yang-hsien ming hu hsi1 i4 #aci1 #agd1 #agf ,yang ,kuei-fei1 ii4 #bhb ,yang ts'ai 7foreign colours71 ii4 #bji1 #bbe ,yangtze1 i4 #hi ,yang tz' ware1 i4 #aff1 #afg ,yao1 i4 #adb ,yao1 ii4 #bha ,yao1 district of1 i4 #ee1 #ef ,yao ,niang1 i4 #bd ,yao pien1 i4 #acg1 #aci1 #aeg1 #age2 ii4 #ah1 #aic1 #bah1 #bbd1 #bcb ,yeh-chih1 i4 #ee ,yellow1 eel1 ii4 #abg1 #aij1 #bah1 #bbc ,yellow1 ,european style1 ii4 #bbj ,yellow1 mustard1 ii4 #aij1 #bbc ,yellow1 ,nanking1 ii4 #ade1 #agj1 #aia1 #aib ,yellow1 ritual significance of1 ii4 #aie ,yellow1 spotted1 ii4 #abf1 #abg1 #aij1 #bah1 #bbc1 #bbf ,yellow1 sulphur1 ii4 #bbj1 #bci ,yellow ware1 i4 #afj1 #afc1 #ahg2 ii4 #bh1 #aij1 #bci ,yen-shn ,chn1 i1 #bjj ,yen ,shih-ku1 i4 #add ,yen yen vase1 ii4 #aef ,yesdijird1 i4 #cd ,yetts1 ,dr41 ii4 #bib ,yi1 ,prince of1 ii4 #bjj ,yi-chn1 i4 #bjj1 #bjb ,yi ,hsien1 i4 #bja ,yi-hsing1 ii4 #fe1 #ahg ,yi-hsing ,chn1 i4 #abj1 #agi ,yi-hsing wares1 i4 xv1 #abj1 #abc1 #abg1 #aga1 #agb1 #agd-ahc1 #ahh1 #aij1 #aih2 ii4 #bag1 #bbd1 #bde ,yin hua1 i4 #ia1 #afa ,yin ,yang1 ii4 #fb1 #bfh1 #bhc1 #bij ,yin yang tsa tsu1 the1 i4 #ai ,yo ,chou1 i4 #dj1 #aii ,yo fu tsa lu1 i4 #ci ,yorke and ,cocks1 arms of1 ii4 #bab1 #bac ,yoshitsune1 flute of1 ii4 #aac ,yu chai1 ii4 #bab ,y chih kng chih t'u1 ii4 #afd ,y ,chou1 i4 #aji1 #abd1 #abh1 #adg2 ii4 #ajg ,y fng yang lin1 ii4 #bab ,y-hang ,hsien1 i4 #fg ,y-hang wares1 i4 #ff1 #acd ,y lan1 i4 #ec ,yu li hung1 ii4 #abb1 #abe1 #bjd1 #bbe ,yu l1 ii4 #bbd ,yu po lo1 ii4 #be ,y t'ang chia ch'i mark1 i4 #bah2 ii4 #ge1 #gg1 #gi1 #hb ,yu t'u 7glaze earth71 ii4 #ia ,yu-tz ,hsien1 i4 #ig ,y wang shang ti1 ii4 #bia ,y-yao1 i4 #ch ,yan chai pi hng1 i4 #ee ,yan ,ming ,yan1 i4 #bje ,yan tz'1 i4 #aaj1 #abd1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #afd ,yan wares1 i4 #da1 #ej1 #aee1 #aei-afe ,yeh ,chou1 i4 xvi1 #ag1 #cg1 #ch1 #ci1 #dj1 #ed ,yeh pai1 ii4 #bbd ,yeh ware1 i4 #ei ,yuima1 the1 i4 #cf ,yn hsien tsa chi1 i4 #ach ,yn-mn1 i4 xvi ,yn shih chai pi t'an1 i4 #ia1 #ie ,yn tsao1 i4 #hc ,yung-ch'ang1 ii4 #cj ,yung ,chng1 i4 #de ,yung ,chng imitations1 i4 #aag1 #aai1 #abj2 ii4 #aa1 #dc1 #hb ,yung ,chng list1 i4 #abj ,yung ,chng mark1 ii4 #bag ,yung ,chng monochromes1 ii4 #baf ,yung ,chng wares1 ii4 #afi1 #bjj-bbf ,yung-,chou1 i4 #acf ,yung-ho ,chn1 i4 #ih1 #ii ,yung ,lo bowl1 ii4 #hf ,yung ,lo wares1 ii4 #c-f1 #i1 #ab1 #bbd ,yunnan1 ii4 #bi ,zanzibar1 i4 #hf1 #hg ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 the1 i4 #h ,zengoro ,hozen1 ii4 #f ,zimmermann1 ,e41 i4 #hg1 #ade2 ii4 #e ,zinc1 i4 #afh1 #ahb ,,printed ,,by ,,cassell ,,company1 ,,limited1 ,,la ,,belle ,,sauvage1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 ,f #ae4aae ,,footnotes3 #a ,see vol4 i1 p4 #aec4 #b fng huo4 ,bushell renders 8blast furnaces40 #c chch #b lan kuang1 lit4 8burn tube40 ,omitting the radical chch 7huo1 fire7 in both cases1 ,bushell takes the characters as lan 7blue7 and huang 7yellow74 ,possibly ,bushell's edition had variant readings4 #d ,bk4 vii41 fol4 #be recto4 #e ,or1 perhaps1 8greenish black10 taking the two words together4 #f chch #b lit4 8omit body40 ,a slightly thicker porcelain is known as pan t'o t'ai1 or 8half bodiless40 #g chch #b ts'ai chui4 ,these words seem to have been taken to mean 8decorated with an awl02 but they are better translated separately to mean 8bright coloured0 and 87engraved with7 an awl10 the suggestion being that ts'ai refers to enamelled porcelain4 #h ,bk4 ii41 fol4 #h verso4 #i chch #c ,ya shou pei1 lit4 8press hand cups40 #aj 8,made in the ,yung ,lo period of the great ,ming dynasty40 #aa ,the reading in the ,british ,museum copy is chch pai 7white71 which seems to be an error for hch ss 7four73 taken as it stands1 it would mean written in white slip4 #ab chch hua1 lit4 8slippery40 ,the meanings include 8polished1 smooth1 ground10 etc41 from which it will be seen that the word could equally refer to a glazed surface or an unglazed surface which had been polished on the wheel4 #ac ,this conical form of bowl was by no means new in the ,ming period4 ,in fact1 we are told in the ,t'ao shuo that it is the p'ieh of the ,sung dynasty1 the old form of tea bowl4 ,see vol4 i1 p4 #age4 #ad ,there are several others of this type in ,continental museums2 cf4 ,zimmermann1 op4 cit4 ,plate #bc4 #ae ,cat41 ,f #f4 #af ,bk4 v41 fol4 #e4 #ag ,bk4 ii41 fol4 #h4 #ah pa pei1 lit4 handle cups4 ,this type1 as illustrated in ,hsiang's ,album 7op4 cit41 ,no4 #ed7 is a shallow cup or tazza on a tall stem which was grasped by the hand4 #ai ,an example of the figure subjects on ,hsan ,t blue and white is given in the ,t'ao shuo1 8teacups decorated with figures armed with light silk fans striking at flying fire-flies02 see ,bushell's translation1 op4 cit41 p4 #acf4 #bj 8,citron dishes0 are specially mentioned in the ,wn chn hng ch'ang wu chi 7,t'ao lu1 bk4 viii41 fol4 #d74 #ba ,ch'ang k'ou1 lit4 8shed mouth40 #bb ,lit4 8pot-bellied40 #bc ,lit4 8cauldron 7fu7 base40 #bd an hua1 secret decoration 7see p4 #f74 #be 8,made in the ,hsan ,t period of the great ,ming dynasty40 #bf ,lit4 8orange-peel markings 7ch p'i wn7 rise in the glaze40 #bg i4e4 red lines coloured by rubbing ochre into the cracks4 ,see vol4 i1 p4 #ii4 #bh ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #cga4 #bi ,unfortunately the term pao shih hung has been loosely applied in modern times to the iron red4 ,see ,julien1 op4 cit41 p4 #ia note3 8,among the colours for porcelain painting which ,m4 ,itier brought from ,china and offered to the ,svres factory1 there is one called pao shih hung1 which1 from ,m4 ,salvtat's analysis1 is nothing else but oxide of iron with a flux40 ,in other words1 it is a material which should have been labelled fan hung4 ,this careless terminology has led to much confusion4 #cj ,t'ao lu1 bk4 v41 fol4 #g recto4 #ca ,the ,ch'ing pi tsang mentions 8designs of flowers1 birds1 fish and insects1 and such like forms0 as typical ornaments on the red painted ,hsan porcelain4 #cb ,the three fruits 7san kuo7 are the peach1 pomegranate1 and finger citron1 which typify the ,three ,abundances of years1 sons and happiness4 #cc ,wu fu4 ,this may1 however1 be emblematically rendered by five bats1 the bat 7fu7 being a common rebus for fu 7happiness74 #cd ,see p4 #abb4 #ce ,according to ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #acj1 8cobalt blue1 as we learn from the official annals of the ,sung dynasty 7,sung shih1 bk4 #dij1 fol4 #ab71 was brought to ,china by the ,arabs under the name of wu ming yi40 ,this takes it back to the tenth century4 ,wu ming yi 7nameless rarity7 was afterwards used as a general name for cobalt blue1 and was applied to the native mineral4 ,the name was sometimes varied to wu ming tz4 ,though we are not expressly told the source of the su-ni-p'o blue1 it is easily guessed4 ,for the ,ming ,annals 7bk4 #cbe7 state that among the objects brought as tribute by envoys from ,sumatra were 8precious stones1 agate1 crystal1 carbonate of copper1 rhinoceros horn1 and chch #c hui hui ch'ing 7,mohammedan blue740 ,see ,w4 ,p4 ,groeneveldt1 ,verhandelingen van het ,bataviaasch ,genootschap van ,kunsten en ,wetenschappen1 vol4 xxxix41 p4 #ib4 ,these envoys arrived in #adbf1 #adcj1 #adcc1 #adcd1 and for the last time in #adhf4 ,sumatra was a meeting-place of the traders from ,east and ,west1 and no doubt the ,mohammedan blue was brought thither by ,arab merchants4 ,possibly some of the mineral was brought back by the celebrated eunuch ,chng ,ho1 who led an expedition to ,sumatra in the ,yung ,lo period4 ,see also p4 #cj4 #cf ,see ,cat4 ,b4 ,f4 ,a41 #aiaj1 ,l #bc2 a pilgrim bottle belonging to ,mrs4 ,halsey1 inscribed after export to ,india with the word ,alamgir1 a name of the famous ,aurungzib4 ,cf4 also the fine cylindrical vase in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum 7,case #b71 with floral scrolls in this type of blue combined with underglaze red1 and the ,hsan ,t mark4 #cg ,op4 cit41 ,nos4 #i1 #ca1 #cg1 #ci1 #dh1 #fi and #hc4 #ch ,hui hu is a variant for hui hui 7,mohammedan74 #ci ,probably due to over-firing4 #dj ,on the parallelism between this type of porcelain decoration and cloisonn enamel1 see ,burlington ,magazine1 ,september1 #aiab1 p4 #cbj4 ,it is worthy of note that missing parts of these vases1 such as neck rim or handles1 are often replaced by cloisonn enamel on metal1 which is so like the surrounding porcelain that the repairs are often overlooked4 #da ,the yellow of this group is usually of a dull1 impure tint1 but there is a small jar in the ,peters ,collection in ,new ,york on which the yellow is exceptionally pure and brilliant1 and almost of lemon colour4 #db ,in these cases the porcelain would be first fired without glaze and the colours added when it was in what is called the 8biscuit0 state4 ,in the blue and white ware1 on the other hand1 and the bulk of ,chinese glazed porcelain1 body and glaze were baked together in one firing4 #dc ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #aeb4 #dd ,translation of the ,t'ao shuo1 op4 cit41 p4 #ea4 #de ,this is the verdict of the ,po wu yao lan1 and it is repeated in the ,t'ao lu1 see ,bushell1 op4 cit41 p4 #fj4 #df ,painted decoration is mentioned in ,chiang's ,memoir of the ,yan dynasty 7see vol4 i1 p4 #afj71 but without any particulars2 and the ,ko ku yao lun speaks of wu s decoration of a coarse kind at the end of the ,yan period 7see vol4 i1 p4 #afa74 ,the latter may1 of course1 refer to the use of coloured glazes4 #dg ,op4 cit41 fig4 #gg4 #dh ,the application of these enamels in large washes puts them practically in the category of glazes1 but for the sake of clearness it is best to keep the terminology distinct4 ,after all1 the difference between a high-fired glaze which is applied to the biscuit and a low-fired enamel applied in the same way is only one of degree1 but if we use the term enamel or enamel-glaze for the colours fired in the muffle kiln as distinct from those fired in the porcelain kiln1 it will save further explanations4 #di ,a late ,ming writer quoted in the ,t'ao lu 7bk4 viii41 fol4 #ah7 says1 8,at the present day ,hsan ware cricket pots are still very greatly treasured4 ,their price is not less than that of ,hsan ,ho pots of the ,sung dynasty40 #ej ,bushell1 op4 cit41 p4 #adj4 #ea ,po wu yao lan1 bk4 ii41 fol4 #i verso4 #eb chch hsien4 ,the emperor ,ch'ng ,hua was canonised as ,hsien ,tsung4 #ec ,see p4 #ab4 #ed chch #b ch'ien tan4 ,the ,t'ao shuo1 quoting this passage1 uses a variant reading1 ch'ien shn chch1 which ,bushell renders 8whether light or dark40 #ee yu hua i1 lit4 8have the picture idea40 #ef ,see ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #che4 #eg ,see ,hsiang's ,album1 op4 cit41 fig4 #ch4 #eh ,bk4 vi41 fols4 #g-i1 and ,bushell's translation1 op4 cit41 pp4 #ada-c4 #ei ,op4 cit41 fig4 #ee4 #fj ,burlington ,magazine1 ,december1 #aiab1 pp4 #aec-h4 #fa ,the author of the ,p'u shu t'ing chi 7,memoirs of the ,pavilion for ,sunning ,books71 quoted in the ,t'ao shuo1 loc4 cit4 #fb ,op4 cit41 fig4 #fd4 #fc ,bushell 7,t'ao shuo1 p4 #adb7 gives the misleading version1 8bowls enamelled with jewels0 and 8jewel-enamelled bowls10 omitting in his translation the note in the text which explains their true meaning as pao shih hung or ruby red4 #fd chch #b ts'ao ch'ung can equally well mean 8plants and insects0 or 8grass insects10 i4e4 grasshoppers4 ,in fact1 ,julien translated the phrase in the latter sense4 #fe ,chin hui tui1 lit4 brocade ash-heaps4 #ff ,not as ,bushell 7,t'ao shuo1 op4 cit41 p4 #adc71 8medallions of flower sprays and fruits painted on the four sides02 ss mien 7lit4 four sides7 being a common phrase for 8on all sides0 does not necessarily imply a quadrangular object4 #fg ,shih n1 strangely rendered by ,bushell 8a party of young girls40 #fh ,the dragon boats raced on the rivers and were carried in procession through the streets on the festival of the fifth day of the fifth month4 ,see ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 ,annales du ,muse ,guimet1 vol4 xi41 p4 #cdf4 ,a design of children playing at dragon boat processions is occasionally seen in later porcelain decoration4 #fi ,cf4 the favourite design of children under a pine-tree on ,japanese ,hirado porcelain4 #gj ,op4 cit41 figs4 #ch1 #di1 #ee1 #ef1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff and #gf4 #ga chch #b ,bushell has translated it 8diffused colours10 but fu is also used for 8applying externally0 in the medicinal sense1 which seems specially appropriate here4 #gb chch #b1 lit4 8fill up 7with7 glaze10 the colour of the glaze being specified in each case4 ,cf4 lan ti t'ien hua wu ts'ai 7blue ground filled up with polychrome painting71 a phrase used to describe the decoration of the barrel-shaped garden seats of the ,hsan ,t period4 ,see p4 #ag4 #gc ,fig4 #fc1 a cup in form like the chicken cups 7chi kang74 #gd chch #b ch'i shang4 #ge ,op4 cit41 ,plate ii4 #gf ,see ,e4 ,dillon1 ,porcelain1 ,plate xviii4 #gg ,see ,e4 ,dillon1 ,porcelain1 ,plate vii4 #gh ,see ,cat1 ,b4 ,f4 ,a41 #aiaj1 ,h #ba1 ,i #g4 #gi chch #b #hj chch #b #ha chch #b4 #hb chch #b4 #hc ,op4 cit41 ,no4 #db4 #hd chch1 delicate1 beautiful4 #he chch #b4 #hf chch #b4 #hg ,vol4 ii41 p4 #bgg4 #hh ,see vol4 i1 p4 #aed4 #hi ,see p4 #ab4 #ij ,this account is quoted from the ,shih wu kan chu1 published in #aeia4 #ia ,see p4 #ab4 #ib ,see ,hirth1 ,china and the ,roman ,orient1 p4 #agi4 #ic ,the converse is equally true1 and ,chinese porcelain of this kind is frequently classed among ,persian wares4 ,indeed1 there are not a few who would argue that these true porcelains of the hard-paste type were actually made in ,persia4 ,no evidence has been produced to support this wholly unnecessary theory beyond the facts which ,i have mentioned in this passage1 and the debated specimens which ,i have had the opportunity to examine were all of a kind which no one trained in ,chinese ceramics could possibly mistake for anything but ,chinese porcelain4 #id ,this peculiarity occurs on a tripod incense vase in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection1 which in other respects resembles this little group1 but it is a peculiarity not confined to the ,chng ,t porcelain1 for ,i have occasionally found it on much later wares4 #ie ,a somewhat similar effect is seen on the little flask ascribed to the ,hsan ,t period4 ,see p4 #ad4 #if ,op4 cit41 ,nos4 #eb and #hj4 ,these are the latest specimens which are given by ,hsiang ,yan-p#8ien4 #ig ,cat41 ,h #h4 #ih ,a similar vase is in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 #ii chch #c hsien hung t'u1 lit4 8the earth for the fresh red10 an expression which would naturally refer to the clay used in making ware of this particular colour1 though ,bushell has preferred to take it in reference to the mineral used to produce the colour itself4 ,see p4 #abc4 #ajj ,bk4 ii41 fol4 #aj4 #aja ,a ,ming writer quoted in the ,t'ao lu1 bk4 viii41 fol4 #d1 adds that these cups were marked under the base chch #b chin lu 7golden seal71 chch #b ta chiao 7great sacrifice71 chch #b t'an yung 7altar use74 #ajb ,ch'ing k'ou1 lit4 mouth like a gong or sounding stone4 #ajc ,man hsin1 lit4 loaf-shaped centre4 #ajd ,yan tsu1 lit4 foot with outer border4 #aje ,an extract from the ,i ,chih 7quoted in the ,t'ao lu1 bk4 viii41 fol4 #ad7 states that 8in the #bfth year of ,chia ,ching1 the emperor demanded that vessels should be made with 'fresh red' 7hsien hung7 decoration2 they were difficult to make successfully1 and ,hs ,chn of the ,imperial ,censorate1 memorialised the throne1 requesting that red from sulphate of iron 7fan hung7 be used instead40 ,a memorial of similar tenor was sent to the emperor by ,hs ,ch'ih in the succeeding reign4 #ajf ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 pp4 #bbc-f4 #ajg ,bk4 vi41 fols4 #i-ae4 ,see also ,bushell's translation op4 cit41 pp4 #ade-ea1 and ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 loc4 cit4 #ajh ,some idea of the quantity supplied may be gathered from the following items in the list for the year #aedf3 #cjj fish bowls1 #a1jjj covered jars1 #bb1jjj bowls1 #ca1jjj round dishes 7p'an71 #ah1djj wine cups4 #aji ,see ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #bbf4 #aaj ,there are examples of this work in the ,british ,museum1 in which the blue seems to have been sponged on or washed on1 and the decoration picked out with a needlepoint1 and then the whole covered with a colourless glaze4 #aaa hsiang yn1 lit4 felicitous clouds4 #aab chch #b t'ieh chin1 lit4 stuck-on gold4 #aac ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #bba4 #aad chch #b t'ien pai1 a phrase frequently used in this sense1 though it is not quite obvious how it derives this meaning from its literal sense of 8sweet white40 #aae ,see p4 #cd4 ,the fan hung is an overglaze colour of coral tint1 derived from oxide of iron2 the hsien hung is an underglaze red derived from oxide of copper4 #aaf jang hua1 lit4 8abundant or luxuriant ornament40 ,embossed is ,bushell's rendering4 #aag ,see ,bushell's translation1 op4 cit41 p4 #aea4 #aah chch #c4 #aai ,see p4 #bih4 #abj chch #b ling chih1 a species of agaric1 at first regarded as an emblem of good luck1 and afterwards as a ,taoist emblem of immortality4 #aba ,see ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #efc4 #abb chch #b shih tz4 ,the mythical lion is a fantastic animal with the playful qualities of the ,pekingese spaniel1 which it resembles in features4 ,in fact the latter is called the lion dog 7shih tz k'ou71 and the former is often loosely named the 8dog of ,fo 7,buddha710 because he is the usual guardian of ,buddhist temples and images4 #abc chch ts'ang1 azure or hoary4 #abd ,named by ,bushell mackerel1 carp41 marbled perch1 and another4 #abe chch #d4 #abf chch chn1 a fleet horse4 #abg ,translation of the ,t'ao shuo 7p4 #ade74 #abh ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #bbg4 #abi chch #d4 #acj ,see ,laufer1 ,jade1 p4 #abj4 #aca ,see ,mayers1 part ii41 p4 #cce4 #acb hua chch4 ,bushell 7,t'ao shuo1 p4 #adf7 has rendered this with 8flowers and inscriptions1 etc40 ,in many cases in these lists it is almost impossible to say whether the word hua has the sense of flowers or merely decoration4 ,the present passage fu shou k'ang ning hua chung seems to demand the second interpretation4 #acc ,this dark blue ,chia ,ching ware was carefully copied at the ,imperial factory in the ,yung ,chng period4 ,see p4 #bjc4 #acd ,see ,j4 ,bttger1 ,philipp ,hainhofer und der ,kunstschrank ,gustav ,adolfs in ,upsala1 ,stockholm1 #aiji1 ,plate #ga4 ,the same interesting collection includes a marked ,wan ,li dish with cloud and stork pattern in underglaze blue1 two cups1 and a set of ,indian lacquer dishes with centres made of the characteristic ,chinese export porcelain described on p4 #gj4 #ace ,cat ,b4 ,f4 ,a41 ,d #ag4 #acf ,a good example of this colouring is a large bowl with ,chia ,ching mark in the ,kunstgewerbe ,museum1 ,berlin4 #acg ,see vol4 i1 p4 #bbe4 #ach ,figured in ,f4 ,dillon1 ,porcelain1 ,plate v4 #aci ,bk4 v41 fol4 #i recto4 #adj chch #b4 ,ts'ui is a fairly common name4 ,it occurs as a mark on a small figure of an infant in creamy white ware of ,ting type in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection2 but it is highly improbable that this piece has anything to do with the ,mr4 ,ts'ui here in question4 #ada ,the ,ming ch'n shih pi chou chai y t'an1 quoted in the ,t'ao lu1 bk4 viii41 fol4 #d1 says1 8,when we come to ,chia ,ching ware then there are also imitations of both ,hsan ,t and ,ch'ng ,hua types 7they even are said to excel them74 ,but ,mr4 ,ts'ui's ware is honoured in addition1 though its price is negligible1 being only one-tenth of that of ,hsan and ,ch'ng wares40 #adb ,bk4 iii41 fol4 #g4 #adc ,see ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #bce4 #add ,bk4 vi41 fol4 #af1 and ,bushell's translation1 p4 #aeb4 #ade ,see ,ming ch'n shih pi chou chai y t'an 7quoted in ,t'ao lu1 bk4 viii41 cf4 #d verso73 8,for ,mu ,tsung 7i4e4 ,lung ,ch'ing7 loved sensuality1 and therefore orders were given to make this kind of thing2 but as a matter of fact ',spring painting' began in the picture house of ,prince ,kuang ,chan of the ,han dynasty44440 #adf ,see ,t'ao lu1 bk4 viii41 fols4 #aj and #aa1 quoting from the ,ts'ao t'ien yu chi4 #adg ,t'ang ying lung kang chi1 quoted in the ,t'ao lu1 bk4 viii41 fols4 #aa and #ab4 #adh ,chao was supposed to have displayed superhuman skill in the manufacture of pottery in the ,chin dynasty 7#bfe-dai ,a4,d474 #adi ,bk4 v41 fol4 #h4 #aej ,for explanation of these terms1 see p4 #aj4 #aea ,bushell's rendering1 8cups and saucers10 is misleading if not verbally incorrect4 #aeb ,these are ,bushell's renderings4 #aec chch #c ss hs t'ou1 a phrase which would more usually refer to the beard than the hair of the head4 ,the above rendering is ,bushell's4 #aed chch #b4 #aee chch #b4 #aef chch #c4 #aeg chch #d4 ,there is an allusion in this name to the story of ,hu ,kung1 a magician of the third and fourth centuries1 who was credited with marvellous healing powers4 ,every night he disappeared1 and it was found at length that he was in the habit of retiring into a hollow gourd which hung from the door post4 ,see ,a4 ,e4 ,hippisley1 ,catalogue of a ,collection of ,chinese ,porcelains1 ,smithsonian ,institute1 ,washington1 #aijj4 ,hao's porcelain is also known as ,hu kung yao 7the ware of ,mr4 ,pots74 #aeh ,see ,t'ao lu1 bk4 v41 fol4 #aj1 and bk4 viii41 fol4 #g1 and ,t'ao shuo1 bk4 vi41 fol4 #bf4 #aei chch #b luan mu1 8the curtain inside the egg10 which conveys the idea of extreme tenuity better than the most usual expression1 8egg shell0 porcelain4 #afj ,half a chu4 #afa chch #c4 #afb ,tz chin4 ,golden brown with reddish tinge 7tz chin tai chu71 accurately describes one kind of stoneware tea pots made at ,yi-hsing 7p4 #agg72 but it is not stated whether ,hao's imitations were in stoneware or porcelain4 #afc ,an allusion to the celebrated orchid pavilion at ,kuei-chi1 in ,chkiang1 the meeting place of a coterie of scholars in the fourth century4 ,the scene in which they floated their wine cups on the river has been popularised in pictorial art4 ,see ,plate #ajd ,fig4 #a4 #afd chch #b4 #afe ,the ,k'ao p'an y shih4 #aff ,bk4 vi41 fol4 #af recto4 #afg ,see p4 #adj4 #afh ,bk4 v41 fol4 #aj verso1 under the heading1 ,hsiao nan yao 7,little ,south ,street wares74 #afi chch #b1 apparently referring to the size of the vessels and not necessarily implying that they were shaped like a frog4 ,on the other hand1 small water vessels in the form of a frog have been made in ,china from the ,sung period onwards4 #agj chch #b4 #aga ,a similar ewer in ,dr4 ,seligmann's collection is marked with one of the trigrams of the pa kua4 #agb ,cat41 ,l #bd4 #agc ,cat41 ,e #ai-be4 #agd ,denkmler ,persischer ,baukunst1 ,plate lii41 ,text p4 #da and ,fig4 #dd4 #age ,the same emperor showed his appreciation for ,chinese ceramics by importing a number of ,chinese potters into ,persia4 ,see p4 #cj4 #agf ,it is recorded that the ,emperor ,wan ,li sent presents of large porcelain jars to the ,mogul ,emperor1 and it is likely that similar presents had arrived at the ,persian ,court4 #agg ,cat41 ,case ,x1 ,no4 #bde1 and ,plate xv4 #agh ,burlington ,magazine1 ,october1 #aiaj1 p4 #dj4 #agi ,see ,franks ,catalogue1 ,no4 #gfc4 #ahj ,burlington ,magazine1 ,march1 #aiac1 p4 #caj4 ,see also ,hainhofer und der ,kunstschrank ,gustav ,adolfs1 op4 cit41 ,plate #fi1 where a set of dishes of ,india lacquer is illustrated1 each mounted in the centre with a roundel of this type of porcelain4 ,these dishes are mentioned in a letter dated #afbh4 #aha ,numbered #aaia and #aaib4 ,a number of other painters who have introduced these ,chinese porcelains into their work are named by ,mr4 ,perzynski 7,burlington ,magazine1 ,december1 #aiaj1 p4 #afi74 #ahb ,see p4 #fc4 #ahc ,c #e-g4 #ahd ,cat41 ,no4 #aab;,d4 #ahe ,burlington ,magazine1 ,december1 #aiaj1 p4 #afi4 #ahf ,the figures sometimes stand out against a background coloured with washes of green1 yellow and aubergine glaze4 ,see ,plate #hb1 ,fig4 #b4 #ahg ,see p4 #dc4 #ahh ,see vol4 i41 p4 #bah4 #ahi ,see p4 #aif4 #aij ,i have seen occasional specimens with the ,wan ,li mark4 #aia ,see vol4 i41 p4 #bah4 #aib ,cat41 ,j #ba4 #aic ,cat41 ,a #cc4 ,in the ,lymans ,collection in ,boston there are several examples of this ware1 including specimens with dark and light coffee brown grounds and a jar in blue and white4 #aid ,a collection of these is in the ,british ,museum1 and they include many types of late ,ming export porcelains4 #aie ,cat4 ,b4 ,f4 ,a41 ,k #cg4 #aif ,a jar with vertical bands of ornament in a misty underglaze red of pale tint in the ,eumorfopoulos collection probably belongs to this period4 ,though technically unsuccessful1 the general effect of the bold red-painted design is most attractive4 #aig ,see vol4 i41 p4 #bah4 #aih ,cat41 ,j #af4 #aii ,there is a whole case full of them in the celebrated ,dresden collection1 a fact which is strongly in favour of a ,k'ang ,hsi origin for the group4 #bjj ,eight ,precious ,things4 ,see p4 #bii4 #bja ,see vol4 i41 p4 #bai4 #bjb ,the fact that the enamellers' shops at ,ching-t ,chn to this day are known as hung tien 7red shops7 points to the predominance of this red family in the early history of enamelled decorations4 #bjc ,see p4 #fg4 #bjd ,see vol4 i41 p4 #bah4 #bje ,see p4 #bbd4 #bjf ,see p4 #ij4 #bjg ,h #ag1 exhibited by ,mr4 ,g4 ,eumorfopoulos4 #bjh ,see p4 #d4 #bji ,see p4 #id4 #baj ,other saucers of this kind have a decoration of radiating floral sprays1 and there are bowls of a familiar type with small sprays engraved and filled in with coloured glazes in a ground of green or aubergine purple4 ,some of these have a rough biscuit suggesting the late ,ming period2 others of finer finish apparently belong to the ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,they often have indistinct seal marks1 known as 8shop marks10 in blue4 #baa ,burlington ,magazine1 ,december1 #aiaj1 p4 #afi1 and ,march1 #aiac1 p4 #caa4 #bab ,figured in ,monkhouse1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #b4 ,the date of the mount is disputed1 some authorities placing it at the end of the sixteenth century4 #bac ,figured by ,perzynski1 ,burlington ,magazine1 ,march1 #aiac4 ,a vase of this style with tulip design in the palace at ,charlottenburg has a cyclical date in the decoration1 which represents #afci or #afii 7probably the former7 in our chronology4 #bad chch #c pai tun tz white blocks4 #bae ,a sixteenth-century work4 ,see p4 #b4 #baf ,many observers positively assert that the grooved foot rim does not occur on pre-,k'ang ,hsi porcelain4 ,if this is true1 it provides a very useful rule for dating2 but the rigid application of these rules of thumb is rarely possible1 and we can only regard them as useful but not infallible guides4 #bag ,quoted in ,t'ao lu1 bk4 viii41 fol4 #f4 #bah fu ti4 #bai ,man hsin4 #bbj ,see ,t'ao shuo1 bk4 iii41 fol4 #g verso4 8,among other things the porcelain with glaze lustrous and thick like massed lard1 and which has millet grains rising like chicken skin and displays palm eyes 7tsung yen7 like orange skin1 is prized40 ,the expression 8palm eyes0 occurring by itself in other contexts has given rise to conflicting opinions1 but its use here1 qualified by the comparison with orange peel and in contrast with the granular elevations1 points clearly to some sort of depressions or pittings which1 being characteristic of the classical porcelain1 came to be regarded as beauty spots4 #bba e4g4 ,the ,p'ing shih1 the ,p'ing hua p'u1 and the ,chang wu chih1 all late ,ming works4 ,an extract from the second 7quoted in the ,t'ao lu1 bk4 ix41 p4 #d verso7 tells us that 8,chang ,t-ch'ien says all who arrange flowers first must choose vases4 ,for summer and autumn you should use porcelain vases4 ,for the hall and large rooms large vases are fitting2 for the study1 small ones4 ,avoid circular arrangement and avoid pairs4 ,prize the porcelain and disdain gold and silver4 ,esteem pure elegance4 ,the mouth of the vase should be small and the foot thick4 ,choose these4 ,they stand firm1 and do not emit vapours40 ,tin linings1 we are also told1 should be used in winter to prevent the frost cracking the porcelain2 and ,chang wu chih 7quoted ibidem1 fol4 #f verso7 speaks of very large ,lung-ch'an and ,chn ware vases1 two or three feet high1 as very suitable for putting old prunus boughs in4 #bbb ,cobalt1 the source of the ceramic blues1 is obtained from cobaltiferous ore of manganese1 and its quality varies according to the purity of the ore and the care with which it is refined4 #bbc #j4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #bfc4 ,this very dark blue recalls one of the ,chia ,ching types noted on page #cf4 #bbd ,see p4 #aj4 #bbe ,but see p4 #agg4 #bbf ,biscuit is the usual term for a fired porcelain which has not been glazed4 #bbg ,see p4 #ag4 #bbh ,it has been suggested by ,mr4 ,joseph ,burton that the opacity of the colours described in the preceding paragraphs may have been due to the addition of porcelain earth to the glazing material4 #bbi ,see p4 #hb4 #bcj ,see1 however1 p4 #he4 #bca ,see p4 #b4 #bcb ,the ,t'ao lu 7bk4 ix41 fol4 #ag verso7 quotes an infallible method for fixing the gold on bowls so that it would never come off2 it seems to have consisted of mixing garlic juice with the gold before painting and firing it in the ordinary way4 #bcc ,loc4 cit41 and ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #bfh4 #bcd ,see p4 #ge4 #bce ,see ,t'ao shuo1 bk4 iii41 fol4 #aj verso4 #bcf ,see p4 #ee4 #bcg e4g4 ,the ,chieh tz yan ma chuan of the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 mentioned by ,perzynski1 ,burlington ,magazine1 ,march1 #aiac1 p4 #caj4 #bch ,bushell's translation1 op4 cit41 p4 #ga4 #bci ,ku chin t'u shu chi ch'ng1 section xxxii41 bk4 #bdh1 section entitled tz' ch'i pu hui k'ao1 fol4 #ac verso4 #bdj chch #b #bda ,the supplies of porcelain earth in the immediate district of ,jao ,chou ,fu were exhausted by this time4 #bdb ,the others were the ,ch'ing-yn factory at ,ss-tu1 and the ,lan-ch'i factory in the ,chien-ning district4 ,the latter district was mentioned in vol4 i41 p4 #acj1 in connection with the hare's fur bowls of the ,sung period4 #bdc ,see vol4 i41 p4 #ag4 #bdd ,t-hua was formerly included in the ,ch'an-chou ,fu1 but is now in the ,yung-ch'un ,chou4 #bde ,see vol4 i41 p4 #aca4 #bdf ,bk4 vii41 fol4 #ac verso4 #bdg ,loc4 cit4 #bdh ,according to de ,groot1 ,annales du ,muse ,guinet1 vol4 xi41 p4 #aie4 #bdi ,brinkley1 ,china and ,japan1 vol4 ix41 p4 #bgd4 #bej ,see ,w4 ,anderson1 ,catalogue of the ,japanese and ,chinese ,paintings in the ,british ,museum1 p4 #ge4 #bea ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #fbh4 #beb ,in the letter dated from ,jao ,chou1 ,september1 #agab1 loc4 cit4 #bec ,incised designs on ,fukien wares consist of the ordinary decoration etched in the body of the ware and of inscriptions which have evidently been cut through the glaze before it was fired4 ,the latter often occur on wine cups1 and are usually poetical sentiments or aphorisms1 e4g4 8,in business be pure as the wind02 8,amidst the green wine cups we rejoice40 #bed ,japan and ,china1 vol4 ix41 p4 #bgc4 #bee ,everyday ,life in ,china1 or ,scenes in ,fukien1 by ,e4 ,j4 ,dukes1 ,london1 #ahhe1 p4 #adj4 ,the reference is given by ,bushell in his ,oriental ,ceramic ,art4 #bef ,loc4 cit41 p4 #bgc4 #beg ,the ,li t'a k'an k'ao ku ou pien1 a copy of which1 published in #ahgg1 is in the ,british ,museum4 ,this book does not inspire confidence1 but ,i give the passage for what it is worth3 8,when the glaze 7of the ,chien yao7 is white like jade1 glossy and lustrous1 rich and thick1 with a reddish tinge1 and the biscuit heavy1 the ware is first quality 444 ,enamelled specimens 7wu ts'ai7 are second rate40 #beh ,in the ,pierpont ,morgan collection 7vol4 i41 p4 #gh71 a specimen with a blue mark is described as ,fukien porcelain2 but ,i should accept the description with the greatest reserve1 white ,ching-t ,chn ware being very often wrongly described in this way4 #bei ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #bid4 #bfj ,in the second volume of the ,pierpont ,morgan catalogue--which1 unfortunately1 had not the benefit of ,dr4 ,bushell's erudition--the late ,mr4 ,laffan extended the term lang yao so as to embrace the magnificent three-colour vases with black ground and their kindred masterpieces with green and yellow grounds4 ,it is impossible to justify this extension of the term unless we assume that the pieces in question were all made between the years #afed-affa and #affe-affh1 while ,lang ,t'ing-tso was viceroy of ,kiangsi4 #bfa ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #cjb4 #bfb ,quoted in the ,franks ,catalogue1 p4 #h4 #bfc ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #cjb footnote4 #bfd ,see also ,hippisley1 ,catalogue1 p4 #cdf1 where another version is given which makes this ,lang actually a ,jesuit missionary1 a version which ,mr4 ,hippisley afterwards abandoned when research in the ,jesuit records failed to discover any evidence for the statement4 #bfe ,see p4 #aa4 #bff ,see p4 #cd4 #bfg ,op4 cit41 ,section ix4 ,the paragraph in the first letter runs3 8,il y en a d'entirement rouges1 et parmi celles-l1 les unes sont d'un rouge l'huile1 yeou li hum2 les autres sont d'un rouge souffl1 tschoui hum 7ch'ui hung71 et sont semes de petits points peu prs comme nos mignatures4 ,quand ces deux sortes d'ouvrages rssissent dans leur perfection1 ce qui est assez difficile1 ils sont infiniment estimez et extrmement chers40 #bfh ,there is a very beautiful glaze effect known as 8ashes of roses10 which seems to be a partially fired-out sang de buf4 ,it is a crackled glaze1 translucent1 and lightly tinged with a copper red which verges on maroon4 #bfi ,the ,emperor ,k'ang ,hsi was specially concerned to encourage industry and art1 and in #afhj he established a number of factories at ,peking for the manufacture of enamels1 glass1 lacquer1 etc4 ,pre d',entrecolles mentions that he also attempted to set up the manufacture of porcelain in the capital1 but though he ordered workmen and materials to be brought from ,ching-t ,chn for the purpose1 the enterprise failed1 possibly1 as d',entrecolles hints1 owing to intrigues of the vested interests elsewhere4 #bgj ,bushell1 op4 cit41 p4 #c4 #bga ,bk4 v41 fol4 #aa4 #bgb chch lit4 watered4 ,this word has been rendered by some translators as 8pale02 but probably it has merely the sense of 8mixed with the 7glaze7 water10 i4e4 a monochrome glaze4 ,the recipe given in the ,t'ao lu 7see ,julien7 is incomplete1 only mentioning 8crystals of saltpetre and ferruginous earth 7fer ologiste terreux740 ,another chiao which signifies 8beautiful1 delicate10 is applied to the ,hung ,chih yellow in ,hsiang's ,album4 ,see vol4 ii41 p4 #bh4 #bgc ,lit4 8yellow distribute spots40 ,see1 however1 p4 #aij4 #bgd ,see ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #cag4 #bge ,the two letters were published in ,lettres difiantes et curieuses4 ,they are reprinted as an appendix to ,dr4 ,bushell's translation of the ,t'ao shuo4 ,they have been well translated by ,william ,burton1 in his ,porcelain1 ,chap4 ix42 ,bushell gave a prcis of them in his ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 ,chap1 xi41 and ,stanislas ,julien quoted them extensively in his ,porcelaine ,chinoise4 #bgf ,pre d',entrecolles 7second letter1 section xii47 points out that the glaze used for the blue and white was considerably softer than that of the ordinary ware1 and was fired in the more temperate parts of the kiln4 ,the softening ingredient 7which consisted chiefly of the ashes of a certain wood and lime burnt together7 was added to the glaze material 7pai yu7 in a proportion of #a to #g for the blue and white as against #a to #ac for the ordinary ware4 #bgg ,on some of the large saucer-shaped dishes of this period the foot rim is unusually broad and channelled with a deep groove4 #bgh ,see ,bushell1 ,t'ao shuo1 op4 cit41 p4 #aib4 ,it is tolerably clear that d',entrecolles in this passage is giving a verbatim rendering of a ,chinese description4 ,the 8flowers0 is1 no doubt1 hua1 and might be rendered 8decoration0 in the general sense1 and the 8water and the mountains0 is1 no doubt1 shan shui1 the current phrase for 8landscape40 #bgi ,for the shape of the ju-i head1 see vol4 i41 p4 #bbg4 #bhj 8,flaming silver candle lighting up rosy beauty10 a ,ch'ng ,hua design 7see p4 #be7 but often found in ,k'ang ,hsi porcelain1 which usually has1 by the way1 the ,ch'ng ,hua mark to keep up the associations4 #bha ,for further notes on design1 see chap4 xvii4 #bhb ,there is a small collection of these porcelains salved from the sea and presented to the ,british ,museum by ,h4 ,adams in #ahec2 but there is no evidence to show which1 if any1 were on board the ,haarlem4 #bhc ,this design was copied on early ,worcester blue and white porcelain4 #bhd ,in spite of ,bushell's translation of a ,ming passage which would lead one to think otherwise2 see p4 #dj4 #bhe ,see vol4 i41 p4 #bbf4 #bhf ,there are frequent allusions to the ,european trade in the letters of ,pre d',entrecolles4 ,in the first letter 7,bushell1 ,t'ao shuo1 p4 #aia7 a reference is made among moulded porcelains to 8celles qui sont d'une figure bisarre1 comme les animaux1 les grotesques1 les ,idoles1 les bustes que les ,europeans ordonnent40 ,on p4 #aic3 8,pour ce qui est des couleurs de la porcelaine1 il y en a de toutes les sortes4 ,on n'en voit gueres en ,europe que de celle qui est d'un bleu vif sur un fond blanc4 ,je crois pourtant que nos ,marchands y en ont apport d'autres40 ,on p4 #bjb1 to explain the high price of the ,chinese porcelain in ,europe1 we are told that for the porcelain for ,europe new models1 often very strange and difficult to manufacture1 are constantly demanded1 and as the porcelain was rejected for the smallest defect1 these pieces were left on the potter's hands1 and1 being un-,chinese in taste1 were quite unsaleable4 ,naturally the potter demanded a high price for the successful pieces to cover his loss on the rejected4 ,on the other hand1 we are told 7p4 #bjd7 that the mandarins1 recognising the inventive genius of the ,europeans1 sometimes asked him 7d',entrecolles7 to procure new and curious designs1 in order that they might have novelties to offer to the ,emperor4 ,but his converts entreated him not to get these designs1 which were often very difficult to execute and led to all manner of ill-treatment of the unfortunate workmen4 ,on the same page we are told that the ,european merchants ordered large plaques for inlaying in furniture1 but that the potters found it impossible to make any plaque larger than about a foot square4 ,in the second letter 7section x471 however1 we learn that 8this year 7#agbb7 they had accepted orders for designs which had hitherto been considered impossible1 viz4 for urns 7urnes7 #c feet and more high1 with a cover which rose in pyramidal form to an additional foot4 ,they were made in three pieces1 so skilfully joined that the seams were not visible1 and out of twenty-five made only eight had been successful4 ,these objects were ordered by the ,canton merchants1 who deal with the ,europeans2 for in ,china people are not interested in porcelain which entails such great cost40 #bhg ,this defect is noticed by ,pre d',entrecolles1 who mentions another remedy used by the ,chinese potters4 ,they applied1 he tells us in section ii4 of the second letter1 a preparation of bamboo ashes mixed with glazing material to the edges of the plate before the glazing proper4 ,this was supposed to have the desired effect without impairing the whiteness of the porcelain4 #bhh ,see p4 #gd4 #bhi ,second letter1 section iv4 #bij ,see ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #cbj4 #bia ,see p4 #bja4 #bib ,the use of crackle glaze over blue 7porcelaine toute azure7 is noted by ,pre d',entrecolles in his first letter4 ,see ,bushell1 op4 cit41 p4 #aie4 #bic ,see ,bushell1 ,t'ao shuo1 p4 #aig4 #bid ,a somewhat similar but clumsier decoration was the 8scratched blue0 of the ,staffordshire salt glaze made about #agej4 #bie ,on exceptional examples the red seems to have turned almost black1 and in some cases it seems to have penetrated the glaze and turned brown4 #bif ,a similar combination of coloured glazes was effectively used on the moulded porcelains of the ,japanese ,hirado factory4 #big ,see pp4 #dh and #ajj4 #bih ,loc4 cit41 second letter1 section xiv4 #bii ,apparently huang l huan1 yellow and green 787 circles4 ,but without the ,chinese characters it is impossible to say which huan is intended4 ,the description seems to apply to the 8tiger skin0 ware1 where yellow1 green and aubergine glazes have been applied in large patches4 ,bushell 7,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #cca7 makes this expression refer to the specimens with engraved designs in colour contrasting with the surrounding ground1 such as ,fig4 #a of ,plate #gi2 but this does not seem to suit the word huan4 #cjj ,loc4 cit41 section xiv4 #cja ,see footnote on p4 #hi4 #cjb ,the same technique is employed on some of the ,japanese ,kaga wares4 #cjc ,apparently derived from manganese4 #cjd ,see p4 #hj4 #cje ,another favourite form is the ovoid beaker 7see ,plate #aja71 which is sometimes called the yen yen vase1 apparently from yen1 beautiful4 ,but ,i only have this name on hearsay1 and it is perhaps merely a trader's term4 #cjf ,see p4 #aaj4 #cjg ,a lotus-shaped set in the ,salting collection numbers thirteen sections4 #cjh ,the underglaze blue almost invariably suffered in the subsequent firings which were necessary for the enamels1 and1 as we shall see1 a different kind of glaze was used on the pure enamelled ware and on the blue and white4 #cji ,apart from the cases in which the enamel colours were added to faulty specimens of blue and white to conceal defects4 #caj ,see p4 #he4 #caa ,op4 cit41 section vi4 8,il n'y a1 dit on1 que vingt ans ou environ qu'on a trouv le secret de peindre avec le tsoui ou en violet et de dorer la porcelaine40 ,as far as the gilding is concerned1 this statement is many centuries wrong4 ,the tsoui is no doubt the ts'ui1 which is very vaguely described in section xii4 7under the name tsiu7 of the same letter4 ,here it is stated to have been compounded of a kind of stone1 but the description of its treatment clearly shows that the material was really a coloured glass1 which is1 in fact1 the basis of the violet blue enamel4 #cab ,bushell1 op4 cit41 p4 #aic4 #cac ,loc4 cit41 p4 #aie4 #cad ,see d',entrecolles1 second letter1 section xii4 #cae ,burnt lime and wood ashes4 ,see p4 #ib4 #caf ,catalogue of the #aiaj exhibition1 ,no4 #hd4 #cag ,these seals are usually difficult to decipher1 and the one in question might be read shui shih ch 7water and rock dwelling74 ,this would be a matter of small importance did not the signature read by ,bushell as wan shih ch occur in the ,pierpont ,morgan ,collection4 ,other instances in the same collection are chu ch 7bamboo retreat71 shih ch 7rock retreat71 and chu shih ch 7red rock retreat74 ,the signature chu ch also occurs on a dish in the ,dresden collection4 #cah ,see p4 #bab4 #cai ,see p4 #fd4 #cbj ,cat41 vol4 i41 p4 #aef4 #cba ,similar bottles in the ,drucker ,collection have the 8,g0 mark4 #cbb ,fang tung yang1 8imitating the ,eastern ,sea0 7i4e4 ,japan74 #cbc ,the first specimens 7according to ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #cji7 to reach ,america came from the collection of the ,prince of ,yi1 whose line was founded by the thirteenth son of the ,emperor ,k'ang ,hsi4 #cbd ,the general reader will probably not be much concerned as to whether the peach bloom was produced by oxide of copper or by some other process4 ,having learnt the outward signs of the glaze1 he will take the inner meaning of it for granted4 ,others1 however1 will be interested to know that practically all the features of the peach bloom glaze1 the pink colour1 the green ground and the russet brown spots can be produced by chrome tin fired at a high temperature4 ,i have seen examples of these chrome tin pinks made by ,mr4 ,mott at ,doulton's1 which exhibit practically all the peculiarities of the ,chinese peach bloom4 ,it does not1 of course1 follow that the ,chinese used the same methods or even had any knowledge of chrome tin4 ,they may have arrived at the same results by entirely different methods1 and the peach bloom tints developed on some of the painted underglaze copper reds point to the one which is generally believed to have been used2 but the difference between these and the fully developed peach bloom is considerable1 and though we have no definite evidence one way or the other1 the possibilities of chrome tin cannot be overlooked4 #cbe ,the form of this water pot is known 7according to ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #cah7 as the ,t'ai-po tsun1 because it was designed after the traditional shape of the wine jar of ,li ,t'ai-po1 the celebrated ,t'ang poet4 ,in its complete state it has a short neck with slightly spreading mouth4 #cbf ,see p4 #adf4 #cbg ,see p4 #fd4 #cbh i4e4 lead glass4 #cbi ,chi1 lit4 sky-clearing1 and chi ch'ing might be rendered 8blue of the sky after rain40 #ccj ,there are some bowls and bottles in the ,dresden collection with glazes of a pale luminous blue which are hard to parallel elsewhere4 #cca ,loc4 cit41 section xvii4 ,in another place 7section iii47 we are told how the ,chinese surrounded the ware with paper during the blowing operation1 so as to catch and save all the precious material which fell wide of the porcelain4 #ccb ,i cannot recall any example of the powder blue crackle which is here described4 #ccc ,see ,julien1 p4 #ajg4 #ccd ,p4 #agj4 #cce ,second letter1 section xvii4 #ccf ,the word 8mazarine0 has become naturalised in the ,english language4 ,goldsmith spoke of 8gowns of mazarine blue edged with fur02 and 8,ingoldsby0 says the sky was 8bright mazarine40 ,see ,r4 ,l4 ,hobson1 ,worcester ,porcelain1 p4 #aja4 #ccg ,see p4 #ii4 #cch ,see p4 #ajb4 #cci ,these glazes generally have the appearance of being in two coats1 and in some cases there actually seem to be two layers of crackle4 #cdj ,see p4 #abe4 #cda i4e4 the strong heavy types4 ,chinese literature speaks of thinner and more refined celadons of the ,sung period1 but few of these have come down to our day4 #cdb ,pre d',entrecolles fully describes these spurious celadons4 ,see vol4 i41 p4 #hc4 #cdc ,second letter1 section vii4 #cdd ,the ,t'ao lu 7see ,julien1 p4 #bac7 gives this recipe for the kind of celadon known as ,tung ch'ing1 and a similar prescription with a small percentage of blue added for the variety known as ,lung-ch'an4 #cde ,see ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #caf4 #cdf ,see p4 #adg4 #cdg ,there are some fine examples of orange yellow monochrome in the ,peters ,collection in ,new ,york4 ,the colour was also used with success in the ,ch'ien ,lung period1 the mark of which reign occurs on a good example in the ,peters ,collection4 #cdh ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 ,plates xxv4 and lxxxiii4 #cdi ,see ,monkhouse1 op4 cit41 fig4 #bb4 ,the crackle on the mustard yellow glaze is usually small1 but there is a fine specimen in the ,peters ,collection with large even crackle4 ,sometimes this yellow has a greenish tinge1 and in a few instances it is combined with crackled green glaze4 #cej ,second letter1 section vi4 #cea ,see ,pre d',entrecolles1 second letter1 section xiii43 8,l'argent sur le vernis tse kin 7tz chin7 a beaucoup d'clat40 #ceb ,see p4 #ade4 #cec ,the blue of the cobalt is sometimes clearly visible in the fracture of the glaze2 and in other cases the black has a decided tinge of brown4 #ced d',entrecolles1 loc4 cit41 section viii43 8,le noir clatant ou le noir de miroir appell ou kim0 7wu chin74 #cee d',entrecolles declares that it was the result of many experiments1 apparently in his own time4 ,see p4 #aid4 #cef ,second letter1 section xi4 #ceg ,see ,m4 ,seymour de ,ricci in the introduction to the ,catalogue of a ,collection of ,mounted ,porcelain belonging to ,e4 ,m4 ,hodgkins1 ,paris1 #aiaa1 where much interesting information has been collected on the subject of ,french mounts and their designers4 ,he quotes also from the ,livre-journal de ,lazare ,duvaux marchand-bijoutier ordinaire du ,roy 7#agdh-ageh71 which includes a list of objects mounted for ,madame de ,pompadour and others1 giving the nature of the wares and the cost of the work4 #ceh ,persian1 ,indian1 and occasionally even ,chinese metal mounts are found on porcelain2 and ,mr4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy has a fine enamelled vase of the ,k'ang ,hsi period with spirited dragon handles of old ,chinese bronze4 #cei ,white was also used in the worship of the ,year ,star 7,jupiter74 ,other colours which have a ritual significance are yellow1 used in the ,ancestral ,temple by the ,emperor1 and on the altars of the god of ,agriculture and of the goddess of ,silk2 blue1 in the ,temple of ,heaven and in the ,temple of ,land and ,grain2 and red1 in the worship of the ,sun4 #cfj ,brinkley has aptly described it as 8snow-white oil40 #cfa ,cf4 ,pre d',entrecolles1 second letter1 section xviii43 87,the designs7 are first outlined with a graving-tool on the body of the vase1 and afterwards lightly channelled around to give them relief4 ,after this they are glazed40 #cfb ,see d',entrecolles1 loc4 cit41 sections iv4 and v4 ,after describing the preparation of the steatite 7hua shih7 by mixing it with water1 he continues3 8,then they dip a brush in the mixture and trace various designs on the porcelain1 and when they are dry the glaze is applied4 ,when the ware is fired1 these designs emerge in a white which differs from that of the body4 ,it is as though a faint mist had spread over the surface4 ,the white from hoa che 7hua shih or steatite7 is called ivory white1 siam ya pe 7hsiang ya pai740 ,in the next section he describes another material used for white painting under the glaze4 ,this is shih kao1 which has been identified with fibrous gypsum4 #cfc ,see p4 #gd4 #cfd ,first letter1 ,bushell1 op4 cit41 p4 #aie4 #cfe ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #ecc4 #cff ,ku chin t'u shu1 section xxxii41 vol4 #bdh1 fol4 #ae4 ,in this way1 we are told1 were produced 7#a7 the thousandfold millet crackle and 7#b7 the drab-brown 7ho7 cups4 ,the colour of the latter was obtained by rubbing on a decoction of old tea leaves4 ,the former is a name given to a glaze broken into 8numerous small points40 #cfg ,see ,bushell1 ,t'ao shuo1 loc4 cit41 p4 #aie4 #cfh ,the ,tao lu 7see ,julien1 p4 #bad7 informs us that the sui ch'i yu 7crackle ware glaze7 was made from briquettes formed of the natural rock of ,san-pao-p'ng4 ,if highly refined this material produced small crackle2 if less carefully refined1 coarse crackle4 ,in reference to sui ch'i in an earlier part of the same work1 we are told that the ,sung potters mixed hua shih with the glaze to produce crackle4 ,hua shih is a material of the nature of steatite1 and ,bushell 7,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #ddg7 states that the ,chinese potters mix powdered steatite with the glaze to make it crackle4 ,it is1 then1 highly probable that the 8white pebbles0 of ,pre d',entrecolles and the rock of ,san-pao-p'ng are the same material and of a steatitic nature4 #cfi chch #c4 ,another name of this official1 ,yen kung1 is mentioned in the ,t'ao lu1 bk4 v41 fol4 #aa verso4 #cgj ,situated at the junction of the ,grand ,canal and the ,yangtze4 #cga ,loc4 cit4 #cgb ,silvering the entire surface 7mo yin71 as opposed to merely decorating with painted designs in silver 7miao yin71 appears to have been a novelty introduced by ,t'ang ,ying4 #cgc i4e4 porcelain services painted with ,european coats of arms4 #cgd ,see p4 #bae4 #cge ,see p4 #bbe1 ,nos4 #da and #db4 #cgf ,cf4 p4 #be1 where 8high-flaming silver candle lighting up rosy beauty0 is explained in this sense among the ,ch'ng ,hua designs4 #cgg ,see p4 #ac4 #cgh ,see p4 #bbe1 ,no4 #de4 #cgi ,see p4 #bbd1 ,nos4 #ai and #bj4 #chj ,a beautiful example of a 8stem-cup0 in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection1 with three fishes on the exterior in underglaze red of brilliant quality and the ,hsan ,t mark inside the bowl1 probably belongs to this class4 #cha ,see p4 #adh4 #chb ,see p4 #bbe1 ,no4 #cj4 #chc ,see p4 #bbd1 ,no4 #bf4 #chd ,see ,catalogue #cjj-cjc4 8,on each is a miniature group of the ,seven ,worthies of the ,bamboo ,grove with an attendant bringing a jar of wine and flowers4 ,the porcelain is so thin that the design1 with all the details of colour1 can be distinctly perceived from the inside40 ,it is only right to say that their learned possessor has catalogued them as genuine examples of the ,ch'ng ,hua period4 #che ,see p4 #bbd1 ,no4 #be4 #chf ,see p4 #bja4 #chg ,see p4 #bbd1 ,no4 #bg4 #chh ,see p4 #bbe1 ,no4 #cf4 #chi ,t'ao shuo1 bk4 i41 fol4 #ae verso4 #cij ,see p4 #bbe1 ,no4 #di4 ,fo-lang1 fa-lang1 fu-lang1 and fa-lan are used indiscriminately by the ,chinese in the sense of enamels on metal4 #cia ,in the ,t'ao lu1 under the heading ,yang tz'4 ,it is a curious paradox that the ,chinese called famille rose porcelain yang ts'ai 7foreign colours7 and the ,canton enamels yang tz' 7foreign porcelain74 ,see ,burlington ,magazine1 ,december1 #aiab1 8,note on ,canton ,enamels40 #cib ,see pp4 #bbd-bbf1 ,nos4 #bi1 #cg1 #ch1 #di1 #ea1 #ec1 and #ed4 #cic ,apart from the rose pinks which are derived from purple of cassius1 i4e4 precipitate of gold1 and the opaque white derived from arsenic1 the colouring agents of the famille rose enamels are essentially the same as those of the famille verte4 ,the colours themselves were brought to ,ching-t ,chn in the form of lumps of coloured glass prepared at the ,shantung glass works4 ,these lumps were ground to a fine powder and mixed with a little white lead1 and in some cases with sand 7apparently potash was also used in some cases to modify the tones71 and the powder was worked up for the painter's use with turpentine1 weak glue1 or even with water4 ,cobaltiferous ore of manganese1 oxide of copper1 iron peroxide1 and antimony were still the main colouring agents4 ,the first produced the various shades of blue1 violet1 purple1 and black2 the second1 the various greens2 the third1 coral or brick red2 and the fourth1 yellow of various shades4 ,a little iron in the yellow gave the colour an orange tone4 ,the modifications of the green are more numerous4 ,the pure binoxide of copper produced the shade used for distant mountains 7shan l71 which could be converted into turquoise by the admixture of white4 ,the ordinary leaf green was darkened by strengthening the lead element in the flux and made bluer by the introduction of potash in the mixture4 ,combined with yellow it gave an opaque yellowish green colour known as ku l 7ancient green72 and a very pale greenish white1 the 8moon white0 of the enameller1 was made by a tinge of green added to the arsenious white4 ,the carmine and crimson rose tints derived from the glass tinted with precipitate of gold1 which was known as yen chih hung 7rouge red71 were modified with white to produce the fn hung or pale pink2 and the same carmine was combined with white and deep blue to make the amaranth or blue lotus 7ch'ing lien7 colour4 ,the ordinary brick red 7the ta hung or mo hung7 was derived from peroxide of iron mixed with a little glue to make it adhere1 but depending on the glaze for any vitrification it could obtain4 ,the addition of a plumbo-alcaline flux produced the more brilliant and glossy red of coral tint known as tsao'rh hung 7jujube red74 ,the dry1 dull black derived from cobaltiferous manganese was converted into a glossy enamel by mixing with green4 ,this is the famille rose black as distinct from the black of the famille verte1 which was formed by a layer of green washed over a layer of dull black on the porcelain itself4 ,there are1 besides1 numerous other shades1 such as lavender1 ,french grey1 etc41 obtained by cunning mixtures1 and all these enamels were capable of use as monochromes in place of coloured glazes as well as for brushwork4 #cid ,bushell1 ,chinese ,art1 vol4 ii41 fig4 #fa4 #cie ,histoire de la porcelaine1 pt4 viii41 fig4 #c4 #cif ,these marks were discussed by ,bushell in the ,burlington ,magazine1 ,august and ,september1 #aijf4 ,they are figured on vol4 i41 pp4 #bai and #bbc4 #cig ,quoted from a letter written to ,sir ,wollaston ,franks by ,mr4 ,arthur ,b4 ,french1 who visited ,ching-t ,chn in #ahhb4 #cih ,officially the reign of ,k'ang ,hsi dates from #affb-agbb1 but he actually succeeded to the throne on the death of ,shun ,chih in #affa1 so that his reign completed the cycle of sixty years in #agba4 #cii ,as ,bushell has done in ,chinese ,art1 vol4 ii41 p4 #db4 #djj ,see 8,note on ,canton ,enamels10 ,burlington ,magazine1 ,december1 #aiab4 #dja ,see p4 #bbe1 ,no4 #dj4 #djb ,op4 cit41 second letter1 section xx4 #djc ,nos4 #ci and #ee-eg4 #djd ,miao is used in the sense of to 8draw0 a picture or design4 #dje ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #djj1 explains how the studio name was formed by the common device of splitting up ,hu chch into its component parts ku chch and yeh chch4 #djf ,from the ,hippisley collection1 ,catalogue1 p4 #djh4 #djg ,catalogue of ,hippisley ,collection1 p4 #cdg4 #djh ,chinese ,art1 vol4 ii41 fig4 #gd4 #dji ,see p4 #bbd1 ,nos4 #ae-ag4 #daj ,a recipe given in the ,t'ao lu 7bk4 iii41 fol4 #ab verso7 for the lu chn glaze speaks of 8crystals of nitre1 rock crystal1 and 787 cobaltiferous manganese 7liao7 mixed with ordinary glaze40 ,but apart from the uncertain rendering of liao 7which ,bushell takes as ch'ing liao1 i4e4 the material used for blue painting71 it is difficult to see how this composition1 including the ordinary porcelain glaze1 can have been fired in the muffle kiln4 #daa ,in the jujube red the iron oxide is mixed with the plumbo-alcaline flux of the enameller1 whereas in the mo hung it is simply made to adhere to the porcelain by means of glue1 and depends for the silicates1 which give it a vitreous appearance1 on the glaze beneath it4 #dab ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #cfj4 #dac ,see p4 #bbd1 ,no4 #ah4 #dad ,see p4 #bbe1 ,no4 #dd4 #dae ,op4 cit41 p4 #fg4 #daf ,catalogue1 ,k4 #ah4 #dag ,catalogue1 vol4 i41 p4 #ch4 ,the colour has already been discussed in a note on p4 #fh of vol4 i4 of this book4 #dah ,see vol4 i41 p4 #fh4 #dai ,see ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #cfh #dbj ,the ,chinese is kua yu chch #b1 lit4 hanging1 suspended or applied glaze4 ,the ,yi-hsing stoneware was not usually glazed2 hence the force of the epithet kua applied4 #dba ,the gold-flecked turquoise has yet to be identified4 #dbb ,bushell says this is the sapphire blue 7pao shih lan7 of the period4 #dbc chch mo1 lit4 8rubbed40 ,bushell 7,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #chc7 explains the term mo hung as 8applied to the process of painting the coral red monochrome derived from iron over the glaze with an ordinary brush40 #dbd ,bushell takes this to be the lemon yellow enamel which was first used at this time4 #dbe ,see p4 #cg4 #dbf chch #ad yu t'ung yung hung yu hui hua ch1 yu ch'ing yeh hung hua ch4 ,bushell 7,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #chf7 gives a slightly different application of this passage1 but the meaning seems to be obviously that given above4 #dbg ,this note is given by ,bushell1 apparently from the ,chinese edition which he used2 but it does not appear in the ,british ,museum copy4 ,it is1 however1 attached to the list as quoted in the ,t'ao lu4 #dbh ,as already explained1 miao chin refers to gilt designs painted with a brush1 and mo chin to gilding covering the entire surface4 #dbi ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #ej4 #dcj chch #b #dca ,translated by ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #cih4 #dcb ,bk4 v41 fol4 #ab4 #dcc chch #c1 yu hsin shih1 lit4 8also he newly made40 ,this is undoubtedly the sense given by the ,chinese original1 and ,julien renders it 8il avait nouvellement mis en uvre40 ,bushell1 on the other hand1 translates3 8,he also made porcelain decorated with the various coloured glazes newly invented10 a reading which makes the word chih do duty twice over1 and leaves it doubtful whether ,t'ang was the inventor of these types of decoration or merely the user of them4 ,both the grammar and the balance of the sentences in the original are against this colourless rendering4 #dcd ,see p4 #aib4 #dce ,la ,porcelaine ,chinoise1 p4 #baf4 #dcf ,see p4 #bbe4 8,in the new copies of the ,western style of painting in enamels 7hsi yang fa lang hua fa71 the landscapes and figure scenes1 the flowering plants and birds are without exception of supernatural beauty40 #dcg ,see p4 #bji4 #dch ,p4 #cig4 #dci ,an interesting series of these bird's egg glazes appearing1 as they often do1 on tiny vases was exhibited by his ,excellency the ,chinese ,minister at the ,whitechapel ,art ,gallery in ,november1 #aiac4 #ddj ,there is a very old superstition in ,china that cracked or broken pottery is the abode of evil spirits4 ,the modern collector abhors the cracked or damaged specimen for other reasons1 and it is certain that such things would not be admitted to the ,imperial collections4 ,many rare and interesting pieces which have come to ,europe in the past will be found on examination to be more or less defective1 and it is probable that we owe their presence chiefly to this circumstance4 #dda ,see ,bushell's translation1 op4 cit41 p4 #f4 #ddb ,the ,t'ao shuo was published in #aggd4 #ddc ,see vol4 i41 p4 #aai4 #ddd ,see ,julien1 op4 cit41 p4 #aja1 under the heading lung kang yao 7kilns for the dragon jars74 #dde ,the ,chinese foot as at present standardised is about two inches longer than the ,english foot1 and the ,chinese inch is one-tenth of it4 #ddf ,see p4 #eh4 #ddg ,there are four examples of the large size of fish bowl in the ,pierpont ,morgan ,collection1 but they are of late ,ming date4 #ddh ,possibly the tint named in the ,t'ao shuo 7,bushell1 op4 cit41 p4 #e74 8,they are coloured wax yellow1 tea green1 gold brown1 or the tint of old ,lama books10 in reference to incense burners of this period4 #ddi ,nos4 #h1 #i and #aa4 ,see ,bushell1 ,t'ao shuo1 op4 cit41 pp4 #af-ai4 #dej ,see p4 #adj4 #dea ,a plaque in the ,bushell ,collection with famille verte painting has also a remarkably lustrous appearance1 which ,i can only ascribe to excessive iridescence4 #deb ,see ,bushell's translation1 op4 cit4 p4 #bj4 #dec ,figured by ,l4 ,binyon1 ,painting in the ,far ,east1 first edition1 ,plate ,,xix4 ,there is a fine vase of late ,ming blue and white porcelain with this design in the ,dresden collection4 #ded ,this green enamel is sometimes netted over with lines suggesting crackle studded with prunus blossoms4 ,possibly this is intended to recall both in colour and pattern the 8plum blossom0 crackle of the ,sung ,kuan yao2 see vol4 i41 p4 #fa4 #dee ,shn t t'ang and ch'ing wei t'ang4 ,see vol4 i41 p4 #bbj4 #def ,see ,burton and ,hobson1 ,marks on ,pottery and ,porcelain1 p4 #aea4 #deg ,op4 cit41 pp4 #aaf-age4 #deh ,t'ao shuo1 op4 cit41 pp4 #g-cj and ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 ch4 xv4 #dei ,the ,lowestoft factory started about #ageb1 but its earlier productions were almost entirely blue and white1 often copied1 like most of the contemporary blue and white from ,chinese export wares4 #dfj ,a curious instance of imitation of ,european ornament is a small bowl which ,i recently saw with openwork sides and medallions1 apparently moulded from a glass cameo made by ,tassie at the end of the eighteenth century2 and there is a puzzle jug with openwork neck1 copied from the well known ,delft-ware model1 in the ,metropolitan ,museum1 ,new ,york4 #dfa ,rotterdam was captured by the ,spaniards in #aegb2 but those who are interested in the anachronism of ,chinese marks will observe that these plates have the date mark of the ,ch'ng ,hua period 7#adfe-adhg74 #dfb ,see vol4 i41 p4 #bbf4 #dfc ,op4 cit41 p4 #bjg4 #dfd ,an interesting example of an early eighteenth century service with ,european designs is the 8trumpeter service10 of which several specimens may be seen in the ,salting ,collection4 ,it has a design of trumpeters1 or perhaps heralds1 reserved in a black enamelled ground4 #dfe ,one of these pieces1 for instance1 is a plate with arms of ,sir ,john ,lambert1 who was created a baronet in #agaa and died in #agbb4 ,it has enamels of the transition kind4 #dff ,p4 #bji4 #dfg ,the willow pattern is merely an ,english adaptation of the conventional ,chinese landscape and river scene which occurs frequently on the export blue and white porcelain of the eighteenth century4 ,that it represents any particular story is extremely improbable4 #dfh ,frank ,falkner1 ,the ,wood ,family of ,burslem1 p4 #fg4 #dfi ,another chambrelan who flourished about the same time and who worked in the same style was ,c4 ,f4 de ,wolfsbourg4 #dgj ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #dfd4 #dga 8,the mountains are high1 the rivers long40 #dgb ,see vol4 i41 p4 #bbj4 #dgc ,catalogue1 ,no4 #cfg4 #dgd ,vol4 i41 p4 #bbj4 #dge ,hippisley ,collection1 ,catalogue1 ,no4 #afi4 #dgf ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #dfi4 #dgg ,this extravagant idea has been long ago exploded1 and need not be rediscussed4 ,see1 however1 ,julien ,porcelaine ,chinoise1 p4 xix41 and ,medhurst1 ,transactions of the ,china ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,hong ,kong1 #ahec4 #dgh ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #dgj4 #dgi ,bk4 #ic1 fols4 #ac-ae4 #dhj ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 pp4 #dgd-hc4 #dha ,bushell applies the phrase pan tz to the bowls and renders it 8of ring-like outline40 #dhb ,bushell renders ju-i in the general sense1 8with words of happy augury02 it is1 however1 applied to ornaments of ju-i staffs and to borders of ju-i heads4 #dhc ,see vol4 i41 p4 #bbe4 #dhd ,bk4 i41 fols4 #a and #b2 see ,bushell1 op4 cit41 pp4 #c-f4 #dhe ,this is a variety of the key pattern or ,greek fret1 which is of world-wide distribution4 #dhf ,a less usual variety has the ovoid body actually surmounted by a beaker #dhg ,see ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #gig4 #dhh ,see ,bushell's translation1 op4 cit41 p4 #d4 #dhi ,see ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #dhi4 #dij ,among others is the 8tantalus cup10 with a small tube in the bottom concealed by a figure of a man or smiling boy4 ,when the water in the cup reaches the top of the tube it runs away from the base4 #dia ,loc4 cit41 p4 #bjd4 #dib ,the cup with handle was made in the tea services for the ,european market1 but the handle is not1 as has been sometimes asserted1 a ,european addition to the cup4 ,cups with handles were made in ,china as early as the ,t'ang dynasty 7see ,plate #aa1 ,fig4 #b72 but for both wine and tea drinking the ,chinese seem to have preferred the handleless variety4 #dic ,when the names are known the incidents can usually be found in such works of reference as ,mayers' ,chinese ,reader's ,manual1 ,giles's ,chinese ,biographical ,dictionary1 and ,anderson's ,catalogue of ,chinese and ,japanese ,pictures4 #did ,told in the ,shui ,hu ,chuan2 see ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #egj1 a note in ,bushell's excellent chapter on ,chinese decorative motives1 of which free use has been made here4 #die ,a not uncommon subject is the meeting of a young horseman with a beautiful lady in a chariot1 and it has been suggested that this may be the meeting of ,ming ,huang and ,yang ,kuei-fei2 but the identification is quite conjectural4 #dif ,another game1 hsiang ch'i 7elephant checkers71 is far nearer to our chess4 #dig ,a group of five old men similarly employed represents the wu lao 7the five old ones71 the spirits of the five planets4 #dih ,chang ,kuo ,lao1 the ,taoist ,immortal1 is also regarded as one of the gods of ,literature2 see p4 #bhg4 #dii ,vajrapani is one of the gods of the ,four ,quarters of the ,heaven1 who are guardians of ,buddha4 ,they are represented as ferocious looking warriors1 sometimes stamping on prostrate demon-figures4 ,as such they occur among the ,t'ang tomb statuettes1 but they are not often represented on the later porcelains4 #ejj ,the ,kanzan and ,jitoku of ,japanese lore4 #eja ,see ,catalogue of the ,pierpont ,morgan ,collection1 vol4 i41 p4 #aef4 #ejb ,indeed it is likely that the modern ju-i head derives from the fungus4 ,the ju-i chch #b means 8as you wish0 or 8according 7ju7 to your idea 7i710 and the sceptre1 which is made in all manner of materials such as wood1 porcelain1 lacquer1 cloisonn enamel1 etc41 is a suitable gift for wedding or birthday4 ,its form is a slightly curved staff about #ab to #ae inches long1 with a fungus-shaped head bent over like a hook4 ,on the origin of the ju-i1 see ,laufer1 ,jade1 p4 #cce4 #ejc ,the ,japanese ,mt4 ,horai4 #ejd ,see ,hippisley1 ,catalogue1 op4 cit41 p4 #cib4 #eje ,the ,buddhist pearl or jewel1 which grants every wish4 #ejf ,see a rare silver cup depicting this legend1 figured in the ,burlington ,magazine1 ,december1 #aiab4 #ejg ,see ,w4 ,perceval ,yetts1 ,symbolism in ,chinese ,art1 read before the ,china ,society1 ,january #hth1 #aiab1 p4 #c4 #ejh ,hippisley 7op4 cit41 p4 #cfh71 speaking of the various dragons1 says that 8the distinction is not at present rigidly maintained1 and the five-clawed dragon is met with embroidered on officers' uniforms40 #eji ,a dual creature1 the fng being the male and the huang the female4 #eaj ,see ,laufer1 ,jade1 pl4 #dc4 #eaa ,see ,laufer1 ,jade1 p4 #bff4 #eab ,see ,bushell1 ,chinese ,art1 vol4 i41 p4 #aaa4 #eac ,see p4 #cjj4 #ead ,they also symbolise the three friends1 ,confucius1 ,buddha1 and ,lao-tz4 #eae ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #ajf4 #eaf ,it is also used as a synonym for 8embroidered10 and when it occurs as a mark on porcelain1 it suggests the idea 8richly decorated40 #eag ,also a symbol of conjugal felicity2 and a rebus for y1 fertility or abundance4 #eah ,having the same sound as ch'ang 7long74 #eai ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #aai4 #ebj ,a pair of open lozenges interlaced are read as a rebus t'ung hsin fang shng 7union gives success72 see ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #abj4 #eba ,bushell1 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #eba4 #ebb ,see ,hippisley1 ,catalogue ,no4 #cha4 #ebc ,ibid4 #ebd ,ibid41 ,no4 #chh4 #ebe ,ibid4 #ebf ,see p4 #bii4 #ebg ,see p4 #beh4 #ebh ,see ,anderson1 op4 cit41 ,no4 #gdg4 #ebi ,bk4 viii41 fol4 #d1 quoting the ,shih ch'ing jihcha4 #ecj ,see chap4 xvii4 of vol4 i41 which deals with marks4 #eca ,see p4 #bfa4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 #a4 ,obvious printers'1 punctuation and spelling errors have been corrected silently4 #b4 ,superscripts are represented using the caret character1 e4g4 ,dr4 or ,xxx4 #c4 ,some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have been retained as in the original4